New Directions in Cypriot Archaeology 9781501732706

Table of contents :
Contents
Contributors
Introduction: New Directions in Method and Theory
Keynote: Exploring Diversity in Bronze Age Cyprus
PART I. The Context and Matter of Prehistory
1. The Middle Chalcolithic to Middle Bronze Age Chronology of Cyprus: Refinements and Reconstructions
2. The Fabric Next Door: A Comparative Study of Pottery Technology and Composition at the Early and Middle Bronze Age Settlements of Marki Alonia and Alambra Mouttes
3. Environment and Sociopolitical Complexity on Prehistoric Cyprus: Observations, Trajectories, and Sketch
PART II. Bronze Age Complexities
4. Negotiating a New Landscape: Middle Bronze Age Fortresses as a Component of the Cypriot Political Assemblage
5. Gray Economics in Late Bronze Age Cyprus
6. Tracing the Foundation Horizon of Palaepaphos: New Research on the Early History of the Paphos Region
PART III. Diachronic Landscapes
7. Alambra: From “A Middle Bronze Age Settlement in Cyprus” to a Royal District
8. The Archaeology of the North Coast of Cyprus: The Evidence from Lapithos
9. Discerning “Favorable” Environments: Science, Survey Archaeology, and the Cypriot Iron Age
Index

Citation preview

NEW DIRECTIONS IN CYPRIOT ARCHAEOLOGY

NEW DIRECTIONS IN CYPRIOT ARCHAEOLOGY

E D I T E D BY

Catherine Kearns and Sturt W. Manning

CORNELL UNIVERSITY PRESS Ithaca and London

Publication of this book has been aided by a grant from the von Bothmer Publication Fund of the Archaeological Institute of America.

Copyright © 2019 by Cornell University All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in a review, this book, or parts thereof, must not be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher. For information, address Cornell University Press, Sage House, 512 East State Street, Ithaca, New York 14850. Visit our website at cornellpress.cornell.edu. First published 2019 by Cornell University Press Printed in the United States of America Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Kearns, Catherine, editor. | Manning, Sturt W., editor. Title: New directions in Cypriot archaeology / edited by Catherine Kearns and Sturt W. Manning. Description: Ithaca [New York] : Cornell University Press, 2019. | Edited versions of some of the papers presented at a conference that took place at Cornell University, April 10–12, 2014. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2018035594 (print) | LCCN 2018036462 (ebook) | ISBN 9781501732706 (pdf) | ISBN 9781501732713 (epub/mobi) | ISBN 9781501732690 | ISBN 9781501732690 (cloth: alk. paper) Subjects: LCSH: Antiquities, Prehistoric—Cyprus. | Cyprus—Antiquities. | Bronze age—Cyprus. | Excavations (Archaeology)—Cyprus. | Archaeology and history—Cyprus. Classification: LCC GN855.C93 (ebook) | LCC GN855.C93 N48 2019 (print) | DDC 939/.37—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018035594 Cover photos: Left: Jug of Proto–White Slip ware. From Kedhares Skales. PM. 3290.2. Right: Jug of Red Slip IV ware. From Anarita Retzepis/Kousoulatos. PM. 3271.4. Both used by permission of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus.

Contents

List of Contributors  vii

Introduction: New Directions in Method and Theory  1 Catherine Kearns and Sturt W. Manning Keynote: Exploring Diversity in Bronze Age Cyprus  16 David Frankel

Part I  The Context and Matter of Prehistory  43 1. The Middle Chalcolithic to Middle Bronze Age Chronology of Cyprus: Refinements and Reconstructions  45 Charalambos Paraskeva 2. The Fabric Next Door: A Comparative Study of Pottery Technology and Composition at the Early and Middle Bronze Age Settlements of Marki Alonia and Alambra Mouttes 75 Maria Dikomitou-Eliadou 3. Environment and Sociopolitical Complexity on Prehistoric Cyprus: Observations, Trajectories, and Sketch  99 Sturt W. Manning

Part II  Bronze Age Complexities  131 4. Negotiating a New Landscape: Middle Bronze Age Fortresses as a Component of the Cypriot Political Assemblage  133 Eilis Monahan and Matthew Spigelman 5. Gray Economics in Late Bronze Age Cyprus  160 Georgia Marina Andreou 6. Tracing the Foundation Horizon of Palaepaphos: New Research on the Early History of the Paphos Region  190 Artemis Georgiou v

vi Contents

Part III  Diachronic Landscapes  219 7. Alambra: From “A Middle Bronze Age Settlement in Cyprus” to a Royal District  221 Anna Satraki 8. The Archaeology of the North Coast of Cyprus: The Evidence from Lapithos  241 Stella Diakou 9. Discerning “Favorable” Environments: Science, Survey Archaeology, and the Cypriot Iron Age  266 Catherine Kearns Index 295

Contributors

Georgia Marina Andreou, Postdoctoral Fellow, Joukowsky Institute for Archaeology, Brown University Stella Diakou, Postdoctoral Fellow, Department of History and Archaeology, University of Cyprus Maria Dikomitou-Eliadou, Postdoctoral Fellow, Department of History and Archaeology, University of Cyprus David Frankel, Professor Emeritus of Archaeology and History, La Trobe University Artemis Georgiou, Marie Curie Research Fellow, Department of History and Archaeology, University of Cyprus Catherine Kearns, Assistant Professor of Classics, University of Chicago Sturt W. Manning, Goldwin Smith Professor of Classical Archaeology, Cornell University Eilis Monahan, PhD Candidate, Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University Charalambos Paraskeva, Postdoctoral Fellow, Department of History and Archaeology, University of Cyprus Anna Satraki, Archaeological Field Officer, Department of Antiquities of Cyprus Matthew Spigelman, ACME Heritage Consultants, Partner

vii

NEW DIRECTIONS IN CYPRIOT ARCHAEOLOGY

Introduction New Directions in Method and Theory CATHERINE KEARNS AND STURT W. MANNING

The title of this volume offers an echo of one published in 1975 stemming from a conference at Brock University in October 1971: The Archaeology of Cyprus: Recent Developments (Robertson 1975). That volume appeared barely a year after the Turkish invasion of Cyprus and the division of the island that remains over four decades later as we write. Its publication also occurred right as the “new” (processual) archaeology and related intellectual trends were sweeping the wider field of archaeology (e.g., Binford 1977; see also Trigger 2006: 386–443). Yet in keeping with the dominant modes of classical Mediterranean archaeology (cf. Renfrew 1980; Snodgrass 1985), such intellectual concerns, with a few honorable exceptions, took a considerable time to penetrate into Cypriot archaeology, where work largely continued to operate within the traditions of culture history (Knapp 2013: 21–24). The papers in the Robertson volume offer a view into a relatively conservative field, and although some presented then-recent fieldwork, the contributors focused largely on issues of evidentiary categories, boundaries of material culture (some from a distinctly art historical orientation), and normative historical questions and thus tended to avoid contemporary approaches to theory and method. A brief review in the Journal of Near Eastern Studies summarized the contents and concluded: The picture of the Island drawn from this collection of essays, though somewhat sketchy, gives some idea as to the current level of knowledge and opens avenues for further research. (Adelman 1978) Much has changed in the decades since. Force majeure ended fieldwork in the north, including both active projects at many of the main archaeological sites on the island (e.g., Athienou Bamboulari tis Koukounninas, Ayia Irini, Ayios Epiktitos Vrysi, Enkomi, Lapithos, Morphou Toumba tou Skourou, Phlamoudhi, Salamis, and Soloi; see Figure I.1) as well as future work at any of the other northern loci identified through previous studies (e.g., Catling 1962). 1

2 Introduction

Figure I.1:  List of sites and regions mentioned in text. Created by C. Kearns; basemap provided by the Geological Survey Department of Cyprus.

Subsequently, scholars began to focus on the understudied southern portions of the island, with a number of modern “scientific” or “processually informed” projects joining the long culture-historical tradition and bringing forth discoveries of a rich and long human presence on Cyprus over the last twelve thousand years. Several scholars have published accounts that summarize or review existing work for various periods or offer syntheses and agendas (see Karageorghis 1982; 1985; 1998; Stanley Price 1979; Knapp et al. 1994; Steel 2004; Pilides 2008; Knapp 2008; 2013: 23–25; Webb 2018—with Knapp 2008 and 2013 being the most recent and comprehensive syntheses of the prehistoric and protohistoric periods). More than four decades later, where does the field of Cypriot archaeology stand? How different does it seem compared to the state of affairs five, four, even two decades ago? How does it connect to broader currents of methodological and theoretical change in the discipline of archaeology and its cognate fields? There have been a number of books collecting highlights of Cypriot archaeology and its materials (e.g., Karageorghis 1982; 2002; Hadjisavvas 2010) and numerous volumes from conferences on Cypriot archaeology that address various topics or themes (apart from the enormous number of edited conference volumes—and many other publications—by Vassos Karageorghis and colleagues, for which see https://www.ucy.ac.cy/aru/docu ments/Projects/Karagiorgis_CV_en.pdf); we cite just five such examples: Peltenburg

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1982; 1989; Swiny et al. 1997; Iacovou 2004; Cadogan et al. 2012). These include also the several iterations of the Postgraduate Cypriot Archaeology Conference (e.g., Matthäus et al. 2015). We lack, however, a synthetic perspective on our current milieu and its salient methodological and theoretical trends. The field of the twenty-first century is now bolstered by digital techniques, for example, ranging from remote sensing and geographic information systems (GIS; e.g., Fall et al. 2012; Given et al. 2013; Lysandrou and Agapiou 2016; Andreou et al. 2017) to three-dimensional modeling and recording instrumentation (e.g., Demesticha et al. 2014). We also see the widespread use of scientific methods for analyzing bones, plant materials, ceramics, metals, lithics, and a variety of environmental data (e.g., Knapp and Cherry 1994; Webb et al. 2009; Frankel and Webb 2012; Kaniewski et al. 2013; Leon 2016), which are increasingly employed as the basis of reconstructing timeframes (e.g., Manning 2013; Peltenburg et al. 2013). Improved survey approaches and the integration of geophysical methods are both elucidating settlement areas and structures and guiding targeted excavations (e.g., Urban et al. 2014; Manning et al. 2014; Sneddon 2015). Scholars now pursue the spatial analysis of the human environment (Fisher 2009a; 2009b) with an awareness of how environments and landscapes are perceived and shaped by humans in a long, entangled, recursive relationship (e.g., Given et al. 2013; Kearns 2017). They are also starting actively and widely to engage with archaeological theory in order to move beyond material categories and to explore issues such as identity and embodiment (Mina et al. 2016) or materiality (Given 2013; Knapp 2018). In shifting away from the model of the “great dig,” we continue to see the construction of evidentiary foundations comprising numerous detailed and interdisciplinary archaeological excavations and surveys often set within regional contexts (e.g. Kassianidou 2004). Previously marginal or liminal subjects and zones, from the countryside and its inhabitants to the maritime sphere, have increasingly become foci and directed objects of investigation and theory (e.g., Rautman 2000; Given 2004; Toumazou et al. 2011; Andreou 2016; Andreou et al. 2017; Knapp and Demesticha 2017). Consequently, our field progressively recognizes the profound yet complicated patterns of diachronic, internal trajectories at local, regional, or island-wide scales within Cyprus (e.g., Merrillees 1971; Manning and DeMita 1997; Hein 2009; Peltenburg and Iacovou 2012; Webb and Frankel 2013). These approaches have engendered a recent turn to “Cyprocentric” studies (e.g., Iacovou 2007) as well as work on extra-island networks of trade, diplomacy, and cultural exchange (e.g., Knapp 2008; Leidwanger 2013; Knapp and Demesticha 2017). What ties all of these and other trends together, and how are they made manifest through current research on the island? Perhaps more importantly, where are these new directions taking us? Three registers of twenty-first century archaeology on Cyprus seem particularly prominent and form the core of the recent research and perspectives presented within this volume. The first entails the reworking of established chronologies, regional patterns, typologies, and histories, as David Frankel explores in this volume. The urge to go back to traditional narratives and refine them as new data are produced and new techniques become available has always characterized Cypriot research, and current developments are no exception. Yet with an increasingly diverse array of methods provided by the digital explosion in archaeology, we are seeing long-held

4 Introduction

chronologies wobble on the basis of never-before-seen occupational horizons (particularly in early prehistory; see Manning 2014) and quantitative methods of analysis (e.g., Manning 2013; Peltenburg et al. 2013). Regions and topics that have typically sat outside normative boundaries appear and engage our attention through the integration of satellite imagery, geomorphological reconnaissance, and field survey (e.g., Given and Knapp 2003; Fall et al. 2012; Iacovou 2012; Zomeni 2012; Given et al. 2013; Caraher et al. 2014; Kearns 2016; Papantoniou and Vionis 2017). One uniting feature of these studies is spatial analysis, which has become a ubiquitous presence in twenty-first-century fieldwork, from topographical surveys with global positioning systems, to GIS-based statistical analyses of sites, to the mapping of intra-site artifact concentrations. In addition, the relatively low-cost availability of techniques such as composition and isotopic analysis has expanded research questions that were much more constrained to traditional artifact studies decades ago, such as those related to materials characterization, paleoenvironmental change, mobility, and diet. Given the accessibility of scientific methods and frameworks, we are also seeing a new generation of archaeologists specializing in archaeometric techniques in addition to mastering the cultural histories of periods and categories of evidence. Across Cyprus, local and international field projects now include students trained in spatial analysis, petrography and composition analysis, geophysics and remote sensing, zooarchaeology and palaeobotany, and artifact studies, such as the Palaepaphos Urban Landscapes Project (Iacovou 2008b), echoing trends seen across the wider discipline (Chapman and Wylie 2015). Increasingly, it is recognized that archaeology is an exciting and challenging inter- and cross-disciplinary enterprise involving the coordination of diverse research teams (e.g., Pollard and Bray 2007). Questions, data, interpretations, and answers merge into a dynamic, intertwined, and recursive process. Integration of method and theoretical debate is indeed a current focus (e.g., Hodder 2012b), and rather than rely on external specialists only, archaeological projects on Cyprus have started to celebrate the inclusion of students and young scholars who know how to navigate digital databases and mobile technology, lab rooms, and archives as well as how to combine debates from across the humanities and social sciences. These interdisciplinary movements become clear in many of the papers represented in this volume. While the contributions illustrate the wide array of expertise encouraged (and indeed demanded) by the digital era, they simultaneously bring younger scholars together through a shared fluency in innovative techniques, international networks, and collaborative projects. If some current work is challenging established constructs of archaeological knowledge and historical narratives through new methodological developments and research designs, a third register pertains to the application of the most recent archaeological interest in landscape, social practice, and agency in order to investigate perennially important topics related to complexity and sociopolitical change (e.g., Meskell 2005; Hodder 2012a; Ingold 2013). Rather than privilege top-down models of power and authority and impose them on archaeological remains, contemporary projects seek to push groupings of materials like ceramics, architecture, and landscapes to the fore, interrogating their interactions and relationships with

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economic, social, and political practices (e.g., Given 2004; Fisher 2009a; Mina et al. 2016). While arguably not a paradigmatic shift in the field, these insights on asymmetrically situated objects and places are undoubtedly reconfiguring how many archaeologists are starting to think about and critically examine the fragmentary material record without preconceived assumptions of power, authority, economy, or culture. These diverse theoretical frameworks are poised to ask how materials and landscapes conditioned the formation of social complexities, the growth of inequalities, or the making of regional and interregional connections. We contend that these are exciting times for Cypriot archaeology, which point to future tracks that weave together diverse methods and frameworks in order both to ask new questions and to reformulate older, enduring ones. The combination of archaeometry and new finds in the identification of Alashiya as Cyprus during the protohistoric Bronze Age has, for example, brought text and material culture together after decades of debate (Knapp 2008: 306–316, 335–341; Peltenburg 2012; Knapp 2013: 432–447). The breakdown of the Bronze to Iron Age transition in diachronic studies that take on both periods is another prime example of how important this up-and-coming work is (Iacovou 2008a; Satraki 2012). There are, of course, many persistent traits of Cypriot archaeology: our fascination with its insularity and what that means for the development from villages to polities, our curiosity with its paradoxical placement between east and west, and our acknowledgment that in the wider field, Cyprus often occupies an enigmatic, elusive position. If anything, current work shows the possibilities of innovation in applying advancing techniques to these enduring interests. The papers included here rally around these directions by taking up registers of twenty-first-century trends for some of the most important questions in Cypriot archaeology: the transition to the complexity of the Late Bronze Age, the nature of political economies of copper and trade, and the growth of Iron Age settlements following the breakdown of protohistoric systems. Outline of the Volume

It was with these concerns, questions, and interests in mind that we organized a conference at Cornell University in the spring of 2014 in order to explore self-reflexively “new directions in Cypriot archaeology.” In our effort to sample a wide range of current research, yet also to acknowledge pioneering work still at initial stages, we invited early career scholars, both graduate students and postdoctoral fellows, from Cyprus, Israel, and the United States to showcase the concerns that they are examining through their training in the twenty-first century. This international underpinning further emphasized the inclusive and collaborative nature of the island’s archaeology. Given the leading position of prehistoric studies at the vanguard of Cypriot research, the overwhelming focus of the contributions was the Bronze Age and its internal complexities, with papers on the Neolithic and Iron Age periods acting as bookends. We certainly do not deny the important advances happening in the studies of later historical periods (e.g., Rautman et al. 2003; Caraher et al. 2014; Leidwanger 2014; Demesticha et al. 2014; Papantoniou and Vionis 2017), but we found that anchoring the contributions around the Bronze Age and its preceding and

6 Introduction

succeeding transitions provided a cohesive foundation with which to question the contours of Cypriot archaeology. Our keynote speaker, David Frankel, whose chapter opens this volume, afforded a long-term intimacy with the state of the field and the scholarly authority to point our discussions toward the future, keeping in mind the rich complexities of making, producing, and publishing archaeological materials and interpretations in a Cypriot, and wider Mediterranean, context. From the start, our goal included the publication of the contributions, in order to disseminate this new research to a broader audience interested in Cyprus, the eastern Mediterranean, and the state of Mediterranean archaeological research more widely. Of the original thirteen papers delivered, ten are included in this edited volume. Each chapter serves to highlight some of the varied approaches that a new(er) generation of scholars is taking to the island’s pasts and the methodologies it is refining. The chapters also raise questions about the broader connections between Cypriot studies and the diffuse field of archaeology in the face of advancing techniques, trending theoretical tools and concepts, and shifting epistemological concerns. As an entryway to the following chapters on specific articulations of materials and power in prehistoric practices, David Frankel steps back to consider diversity and variability in Early and Middle Bronze Age Cyprus through the methodology of ceramic analysis in his opening essay (Keynote). Frankel highlights the transformations of society on both temporal and spatial scales through differences and variations within and between a wide variety of assemblages, while at the same time calling on us to acknowledge the complexities of our scholarly apparatus and the epistemological stakes rooted in explanations of varied patterns through the established constructs of Cypriot archaeology. From the site to the region, and from small bowl to large cemetery, Frankel adeptly traces these variations and illuminates the problems that occur when correlating major formal or structural patterns without also addressing internal, contingent ones at varying scales. In doing so, he calls for a hermeneutics of Bronze Age archaeology that pays as much attention to the diversity of the ancient materials as to our constructs of period and site, our categories of evidence, and our choices of interpretive or explanatory scale. Our first part, “The Context and Matter of Prehistory,” takes its cue from expanding interest over the last two decades in the island’s prehistories. Undoubtedly, research on prehistoric to protohistoric periods has dominated the field (e.g., Stanley Price 1979; Steel 2004; Knapp 2013). Increasingly, work has filled in gaps in chronology, material culture, and lived spaces, which has helped elucidate the ebbs and flows of social change that preceded the explosion of highly complex structures during the later phases of the Middle Bronze Age (see e.g., Knapp 1990; 2013; Manning 1993; Peltenburg 1996; Swiny 2001; Bolger 2003; Iacovou 2008a). Recent studies at Neolithic, Chalcolithic, and Bronze Age sites have helped to clarify mobile and increasingly sedentary agropastoral communities in terms of their production and consumption strategies, their technologies, and their social and ritual practices. Various examples of exciting and provocative work in recent years have focused on establishing and contextualizing the early occupations of the island (e.g., Peltenburg 2003; Knapp 2013: 43–119; Simmons and DiBenedetto 2014; Ammerman and Davis 2013–2014) and integrating environmental histories (e.g., Butzer and

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Harris 2007; Harris 2012; Kearns 2013). Others have considered animal and plant resources as well as human bioarchaeology (e.g., Croft 1991; Hansen 1991; Yerkes 2000; Harper and Fox 2008), changing relationships with mainland cultures, and modes of influence and connectivity (e.g., Knapp 2008; Bachhuber 2014). Some of the most persistent questions for prehistory concern its chronology, as Charalambos Paraskeva shows in his work on absolute dating models (Chapter 1). As more data from prehistoric sites become available, scholars have been eager to understand their temporal positioning vis-à-vis major shifts in material culture and relationships with Mediterranean neighbors. Appropriate analysis requires detailed and robust methodological work on radiocarbon data and their statistical modeling as well as attention to data quality. Paraskeva’s research simultaneously opens up this often hidden statistical machinery and highlights the utility of methodological precision and rigorous data management for interpreting chronological timeframes of fragmentary archaeological evidence. Through his discussion of both the technical language of radiometric analysis and the prehistoric evidence from Cyprus, Paraskeva deliberates on important questions about the challenges of recognizing dissimilarities between eras and the mechanisms driving social change. Maria Dikomitou-Eliadou takes up the pragmatic importance of filling gaps with new methodological techniques in the register of ceramic composition analysis through her work in petrography (Chapter 2). While petrography has been a facet of composition analysis in archaeology for decades (Braekmans and Degryse 2017: 233–234), few scholars have explored its potential on Cypriot material, and Dikomitou-Eliadou’s analysis of ceramics from the Early and Middle Bronze Age contexts of Marki and Alambra exemplifies the power of this technique for understanding prehistoric production technologies. Building on her earlier work (e.g., Dikomitou-Eliadou 2013) by including evidence from the site of Alambra, she reveals different strategies related to modes of production between local styles and imported ones and their continuity throughout the period, attesting to enduring yet socially constructed technological choices. Dikomitou-Eliadou also addresses the benefits and challenges of petrographic analysis on ceramics, especially as they relate to sampling and analytic strategies. In providing an archaeometric lens on the traditional study of ceramic fabrics, this work emphasizes the importance of reflexive methodologies for explanations that rely on this ubiquitous class of archaeological evidence. In the last chapter of this part, Sturt Manning pauses to revisit earlier paradigms and to assess prevailing theories on the rise of prehistoric complexity during the third to earlier second millennia BCE through a careful dissection of concepts like ecological and climatic marginality and the secondary products revolution. The matters at stake here consist of the prosaic categories of economic growth: climate conditions, barley and wheat yields, and population. The full suite of twenty-firstcentury advancements in interdisciplinary archaeology is at work in this synthesis: paleoclimatic analyses and spatial visualization, demographic and agricultural economic modeling, social theory on power and emergent sociopolitical inequalities, and insights from political ecology. Manning argues for a “stealth” revolution in agropastoral production associated with technological control of dryland farming

8 Introduction

that took root quickly, offering a critique on existing narratives of environmental history and social change as well as advocating for an integrated methodological approach to Bronze Age transitions. In the next part, “Bronze Age Complexities,” three papers hone in on the state of the field of later Bronze Age studies on Cyprus, marked by dynamic investigations of identity and entanglement (e.g., Knapp 2008), complexity and authority (e.g., Keswani 1996; Peltenburg 1996; Fisher 2009a; 2009b), and urbanism (e.g., Brown 2013; Manning et al. 2014), among others. These analyses also take their cue from central questions in the discipline: the nature of authority and political economy in the transition to the Late Bronze Age, for example, or the position of Cyprus (Alashiya) in major interregional networks of gift exchange and trade (e.g., Muhly 1996; Goren et al. 2003; Monroe 2009; Broodbank 2013: 407–409). Moving from Early to Late Bronze Age assemblages, the authors interrogate commonly held assumptions about the mechanisms driving economic growth, settlement patterns, and social power. At stake in the papers presented here, which each take multidisciplinary approaches to Bronze Age complexity, is the repositioning of our common categories of material culture—built environments, resources and materials, and crafted objects—as elements of dynamic, diverse systems emerging out of new landscape practices, new architectural forms, and new historical relationships. Eilis Monahan and Matthew Spigelman, in their study of Middle Bronze Age fortresses, challenge several assumptions that these architectonics emerged as a direct response to the state control of copper supply across Cyprus, principally directed at Enkomi (Chapter 4). Rather, Monahan and Spigelman situate these fortresses within a wider field of changes in material culture, landscape, and trade and ask altogether different questions of the social lives of built environments vis-à-vis the chaîne opératoire (e.g., Lemonnier 1986) of copper production. Given their appearance during a formative period before the height of the Late Bronze Age, how might these fortresses have conditioned the rise of new authorities? In conceptualizing the materiality of fortresses and not just their economic rationale through the theoretical work of writers like Bruno Latour and Manuel DeLanda, Monahan and Spigelman bring the study of these less understood built spaces in Cypriot prehistory within the fold of contemporary philosophical and archaeological interest in the efficacy of objects and places in social worlds. Our current understandings of Bronze Age political economies tend to impose too much of a separation between elite and non-elite involvement in the production, distribution, and consumption of commodities, as Georgia Marina Andreou argues in her examination of Late Bronze Age market practices (Chapter 5). Utilizing concepts of “gray economics” drawn from modern studies of globalization and the socioeconomic structure of world markets, Andreou challenges the straightforward conception that Cypriot elites manipulated, controlled, and used mechanisms like the metals industry for their own aggrandizement, while the non-elite masses, often those living in smaller settlements and tied to practices like land and animal management, had little agency of their own. How might we enrich this picture to explore archaeological evidence for the informal production and consumption practices that do not conform to state or hierarchical models of economic growth and settlement

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structure? Through her original spatial analysis of Late Bronze Age evidence from across the south of the island combined with sustained engagement with modern economic theory, Andreou highlights the possibilities of interstitial, small-scale economic agency during a period where macroeconomic processes and patterns have too often taken center stage. Taking a different angle to the transition to increased socioeconomic complexity during the Late Bronze Age, Artemis Georgiou throws the spotlight on the Paphos region, which has traditionally sat somewhat enigmatically to the side of better-known narratives of protohistoric polity formation, like Enkomi (Chapter 6). Georgiou provides evidence for the early development of the site of Palaepaphos and its surrounding settlements through her skilled analysis of material remains and their spatial distribution in the local geomorphological setting. She argues for a dynamic shift in the regional importance of the site as it oriented itself toward emerging maritime networks. As a result, she raises methodological and conceptual questions about our foundation narratives for Late Bronze Age urban centers, especially those whose impressive monumental remains, such as the Sanctuary of Aphrodite, often overshadow their earliest instantiations. Attending to these questions entails both the rigorous study of ceramic styles and chronologies as well as a novel multiscalar approach to land use and settlement patterns. As archaeology has embraced and engaged the study of ancient and historical landscapes over the last few decades, approaches to the spatiality of life on Cyprus have become more theoretically and methodologically diverse. They feature prominently in our final part, “Diachronic Landscapes.” The GIS and digital revolution, integrated with a suite of remote sensing, geophysics, and mapping techniques, has brought new interpretive challenges to the use of archaeological data in investigations of artifact distributions and settlement patterns, social structures, and human-environment relationships more broadly (e.g., Given et al. 2013; Caraher et al. 2014; Andreou 2016). The long history of survey work, aerial photography, and geology on the island has intermittently fostered the examination of regional histories, and much of the exciting work happening now attends to the diachronic makeup of Cypriot terrains and seascapes, especially between the Bronze and Iron Ages (e.g., Iacovou 2004; Zomeni 2012). Following on from Georgiou’s chapter, the last three essays center on the difficult patterning of Iron Age landscapes in tension with Bronze Age precedents, each foregrounding varied methodological approaches. Anna Satraki’s paper on the survey and excavation evidence from the Tremithos Valley in southeastern Cyprus (Chapter 7) highlights the possibilities of longitudinal landscape analysis by integrating topographical GIS maps with the historical survey data of Catling (1962) from the 1950s. Satraki frames her study of interrelationships between settlements in the Tremithos Valley around the important Middle Bronze Age site of Alambra and questions the instrumentality of that settlement for the valley’s histories. How central was Alambra to the development of local politics and social structure through time, and how does the later site of Idalion, one of the prominent polities of the Iron Age, relate to this regional Bronze Age past? Through her background in the political iconography and objects of the Iron Age basileus institution (Satraki 2012), she is able to zoom out from the material relationships of

10 Introduction

the center to explore the interconnections between surrounding settlements and the formation of authorities, economies, and cultural identity. In doing so, she reconstructs the landscapes of the Tremithos area as dynamic and active in the development of major settlements like Alambra and Idalion using a culture-historical perspective. Stella Diakou exposes some of the limitations of the modern study of ancient landscapes by tackling the complex problems of reconstructing archaeological places and histories from archived maps, field reports, personal journals, and collected remains (Chapter 8). For the Lapithos region near the Kyrenia coast of Cyprus, the locations of early twentieth-century archaeological investigations of Cypro-Geometric and Cypro-Archaic cemeteries have become unknown. While materials from Lapithos have long sat in storage in the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, high rates of urban development in the region and the inaccessibility of sites for archaeological fieldwork have obscured information on the whereabouts of the original excavations. Through her work in piecing together maps and journal entries on the whereabouts of excavated tombs and materials, Diakou reconstructs the Iron Age mortuary landscapes of Lapithos. In exemplifying the power of combining detailed archival study with digital spatial analysis, Diakou is able to examine the development of these cemeteries and their interrelationship with settlements and previous activity in this important coastal region. In doing so, she builds up a narrative of diachronic landscape change and problematizes the regional categorization of first-millennium BCE political and social orders. Scholars exploring these Iron Age developments have traditionally focused on polities known from epigraphic, historical, or archaeological evidence from urban centers. Catherine Kearns approaches the topic of landscape development from the opposite direction: can we understand the formation of Iron Age polities and their constituent economic and social changes from the perspective of land use and place-making practices far outside urban polities (Chapter 9)? In her paper, Kearns highlights the importance of investigating the ancient environments of Cyprus through the application of integrated scientific and archaeological methods, such as stable isotope analysis and surface survey, in order to examine how communities were relating to shifting environmental conditions. By analyzing archaeological ­survey data from the Vasilikos and Maroni valleys outside of the polity of Amathus in tandem with these scientific data, Kearns is able to theorize heterogeneous landscape practices that help complement biases towards urban histories. Attending to the dynamic recursivity of environmental and social change of this region also invites further inquiry into what exactly constitutes presumed “favorable” climates of historic progress. New Directions

The papers of this volume suggest a road map for critical analysis of twenty-firstcentury directions in the domain of Cypriot archaeology (and further afield) and engage with frameworks ranging from culture-historical to post-processual and “new materialist” modes of theoretical engagement. They tack between persistent

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historiographical questions and novel, integrated analyses that combine techniques from an expanding array of scientific investigations in order to measure and model diverse bodies of evidence. It is our contention that these new directions do not cleave current methodological or theoretical interests from those of the last century but rather retool them to serve existing and original data in new ways. They also underscore a community of discourses happening on the island rather than a single unified front (sensu Hodder 2012b: 3). We thus encourage in this volume not one new direction, a single trajectory of scholarship that underlies an insular or unilinear plan of discovery, but new directions, instrumentalized via engagement with interdisciplinary research, and with historically situated local and international modes of training and a growing yet varying awareness of trends across the humanities and social sciences. Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Jeffrey Leon for his help in organizing the 2014 conference and editing various stages of papers as well as all of the contributors, who made the original conference so exciting and who had to negotiate a long publication schedule. Bethany Wasik of Cornell University Press graciously offered diligent help with the editing and review process for the publication, and we thank the two anonymous reviewers for their important and invaluable critiques and suggestions. Support for the conference came from the Department of Classics at Cornell University, and we are grateful to the Archaeological Institute of America for supporting this publication with a subvention grant. References Adelman, C.M. 1978. Book review of The Archaeology of Cyprus: Recent Developments, Noel Robertson (ed.). Journal of Near Eastern Studies 37: 76. Ammerman, A.J. and T. Davis. (eds.) 2013–2014. Island Archaeology and the Origins of Seafaring in the Eastern Mediterranean. Proceedings of the Wenner Gren Workshop held at Reggio Calabria on October 19–21, 2012. Eurasian Prehistory Vols. 10–11. Oxford: Oxbow. Andreou, G.M. 2016. Understanding the rural landscape of Late Bronze Age Cyprus: A diachronic perspective from the Vasilikos Valley. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 29.2: 143–172. Andreou, G.M., R. Opitz, S.W. Manning, K.D. Fisher, D.A. Sewell, A. Georgiou, and T. Urban. 2017. Integrated methods for understanding and monitoring the loss of coastal archaeological sites: The case of Tochni-Lakkia, south-central Cyprus. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 12: 197–208. Bachhuber, C. 2014. The Anatolian context of Philia material culture in Cyprus. In A.B. Knapp and P. van Dommelen (eds.), The Cambridge Prehistory of the Bronze and Iron Age Mediterranean, 139–156. New York: Cambridge University Press. Binford, L.R. (ed.) 1977. For Theory Building in Archaeology. New York: Academic Press. Bolger, D. 2003. Gender in Ancient Cyprus: Narratives of Social Change on a Mediterranean Island. Walnut Creek: Altamira Press. Braekmans, D. and P. Degryse. 2017. Petrography: Optical microscopy. In A.M.W. Hunt (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Archaeological Ceramic Analysis, 233–265. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Broodbank, C. 2013. The Making of the Middle Sea: A History of the Mediterranean from the Beginning to the Emergence of the Classical World. London: Thames and Hudson Ltd. Brown, M. 2013. Waterways and the political geography of southeast Cyprus in the second millennium BCE. Annual of the British School at Athens 108: 121–136.

12 Introduction Butzer, K.W. and S.E. Harris. 2007. Geoarchaeological approaches to the environmental history of Cyprus: Explication and critical evaluation. Journal of Archaeological Science 34: 1932–52. Cadogan, G., M. Iacovou, K. Kopaka and J. Whitley. (eds.) 2012. Parallel Lives: Ancient Island Societies in Crete and Cyprus. Proceedings of the Conference in Nicosia Organized by the British School at Athens, the University of Crete and the University of Cyprus in November-December 2006. London: The British School at Athens. Caraher, W.R., R.S. Moore and D.K. Pettegrew. 2014. Pyla Koutsopetria I: Archaeological Survey of an Ancient Coastal Town. American Schools of Oriental Research Archaeological Reports 21. Boston: American Schools of Oriental Research. Catling, H. 1962. Patterns of settlement in Bronze Age Cyprus. Opuscula Atheniensia 4: 129–169. Chapman, R. and A. Wylie. (eds.) 2015. Material Evidence: Learning from Archaeological Practice. New York: Routledge. Croft, P. 1991. Man and beast in Chalcolithic Cyprus. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 282–283: 63–79. Demesticha, S., D. Skarlatos and A. Neophytou. 2014. The 4th-century BCE shipwreck at Mazotos, Cyprus: New techniques and methodologies in the 3D mapping of shipwreck excavations. Journal of Field Archaeology 39.2: 134–150. Dikomitou-Eliadou, M. 2013. Interactive communities at the dawn of the Cypriot Bronze Age: An interdisciplinary approach to Philia phase ceramic variability. In A.B. Knapp, J.M. Webb and A. McCarthy (eds.), J.R.B. Stewart—An Archaeological Legacy, 22–32. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 139. Uppsala, Sweden: Åströms Förlag. Fall, P.L., S.E. Falconer, C.S. Galletti, T. Shirmang, E. Ridder and J. Klinge. 2012. Long-term agrarian landscapes in the Troodos foothills, Cyprus. Journal of Archaeological Science 39: 2335–2347. Fisher, K.D. 2009a. Placing social interaction: An integrative approach to analyzing past built environments. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 28: 439–457. Fisher, K.D. 2009b. Elite place-making and social interaction in the Late Cypriot Bronze Age. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 22.2: 183–209. Frankel, D. and J. Webb. 2012. Pottery production and distribution in prehistoric Bronze Age Cyprus: An application of pXRF analysis. Journal of Archaeological Science 39: 1380–1387. Given, M. 2004. The Archaeology of the Colonized. London: Routledge. Given, M. and A.B. Knapp. (eds.) 2003. The Sydney Cyprus Survey Project: Social Approaches to Regional Archaeological Survey. Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute, University of California, Los Angeles. Given, M., A.B. Knapp, J. Noller, L. Sollars & V. Kassianidou. (eds.) 2013. Landscape and Interaction: The Troodos Archaeological and Environmental Survey Project, Cyprus. Volume I: Methodology, Analysis and Interpretation. Levant Supplementary Series 14. London: Council for British Research in the Levant. Goren, Y., S. Bunimovitz, I. Finkelstein and N. Na’aman. 2003. The location of Alashiya: New evidence from petrographic investigation of Alashiyan tablets from El-Amarna and Ugarit. American Journal of Archaeology 107: 233–255. Hadjisavvas, S. (ed.) 2010. Cyprus: Crossroads of Civilizations. Nicosia: Republic of Cyprus. Hansen, J. 1991. Palaeoethnobotany in Cyprus: Recent research. In J.M. Renfrew (ed.), New Light on Early Farming: Recent Developments in Palaeoethnobotany, 225–236. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Harper, N. and S.C. Fox. 2008. Recent research in Cypriot bioarchaeology. Bioarchaeology of the Near East 2: 1–38. Harris, S.E. 2012. Cyprus as a degraded landscape or resilient environment in the wake of colonial intrusion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 109: 3670–3675. Hein, I. (ed.) 2009. The Formation of Cyprus in the 2nd Millennium B.C. Studies in Regionalism During the Middle and Late Bronze Ages. Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Hodder, I. 2012a. Entangled: An Archaeology of the Relationships Between Humans and Things. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. Hodder, I. 2012b. Introduction: Contemporary theoretical debate in archaeology. In I. Hodder (ed.), Archaeological Theory Today, 1–14. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Polity Press.

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Iacovou, M. (ed.) 2004. Archaeological Field Survey in Cyprus: Past History, Future Potentials. Proceedings of a Conference Held by the Archaeological Research Unit of the University of Cyprus, 1–2 December 2000. London: The British School at Athens. Iacovou, M. 2007. Advocating Cyprocentricism: An indigenous model for the emergence of state formation on Cyprus. In S.W. Crawford, A. Ben-Tor, J.P. Dessel, A. Mazar and J. Aviram (eds.), “Up to the Gates of Ekron”: Essays on the Archaeology and History of the Eastern Mediterranean in Honor of Seymour Gitin, 461–475. Jerusalem: The W.F. Albright Institute of Archaeological Research. Iacovou, M. 2008a. Cultural and political configurations in Iron Age Cyprus: The sequel to a protohistoric episode. American Journal of Archaeology 112: 625–657. Iacovou, M. 2008b. The Palaepaphos Urban Landscape Project: Theoretical background and preliminary report 2006–2007. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus: 263–289. Iacovou, M. 2012. From regional gateway to Cypriot kingdom: Copper deposits and copper routes in the chora of Paphos. In V. Kassianidou and G. Papasavvas (eds.), Eastern Mediterranean Metallurgy and Metalwork in the Second Millennium BC: A Conference in Honour of James D. Muhly, Nicosia, 10th–11th October 2009, 56–67. Oxford: Oxbow Books. Ingold, T. 2013. Making: Anthropology, Archaeology, Art, and Architecture. Abingdon: Routledge. Kaniewski, D., E. Van Campo, J. Guiot, S. Le Burel, T. Otto, and C. Bateman. 2013. Environmental roots of the Late Bronze Age crisis. PLoS ONE 8(8): e71004. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0071004 1–10. Karageorghis, V. 1982. Cyprus: From the Stone Age to the Romans. London: Thames and Hudson. Karageorghis, V. (ed.) 1985. Archaeology in Cyprus 1960–1985. Nicosia: Leventis Foundation. Karageorghis, V. 1998. Cypriote Archaeology Today: Achievements and Perspectives. Glasgow: Department of Archaeology, University of Glasgow. Karageorghis, V. 2002. Early Cyprus: Crossroads of the Mediterranean. Los Angeles: Getty Museum. Kassianidou, V. 2004. Recording Cyprus’ mining history through archaeological survey. In M. Iacovou (ed.), Archaeological Field Survey in Cyprus: Past History, Future Potentials. Proceedings of a Conference Held by the Archaeological Research Unit of the University of Cyprus, 1–2 December 2000, 95–104. London: British School at Athens. Kearns, C. 2013. “On a clear day the Taurus Mountains hang like a cloud”: On environmental thought in the archaeology of Cyprus. In A.B. Knapp, J.M. Webb and A. McCarthy (eds.), J.R.B. Stewart—An Archaeological Legacy, 121–132. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 139. Uppsala, Sweden: Åströms Förlag. Kearns, C. 2016. Re-survey and spatial analysis of landscape developments during the first millennium BCE on Cyprus. Antiquity 353: DOI: https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2016.164 Kearns, C. 2017. Mediterranean archaeology and environmental histories in the spotlight of the Anthropocene. History Compass 15:e12371. https://doi.org/10.1111/hic3.12371 Keswani, P. 1996. Hierarchies, heterarchies, and urbanization processes: The view from Bronze Age Cyprus. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 9.2: 211–250. Knapp, A.B. 1986. Copper Production and Divine Protection: Archaeology, Ideology and Social Complexity on Bronze Age Cyprus. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology PB 42. Göteborg, Sweden: Paul Åströms Förlag. Knapp, A.B. 1990. Production, location and integration in Bronze Age Cyprus. Current Anthropology 31: 147–176. Knapp, A.B. 2008. Prehistoric and Protohistoric Cyprus: Identity, Insularity, and Connectivity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Knapp, A.B. 2013. The Archaeology of Cyprus: From Earliest Prehistory Through the Bronze Age. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Knapp, A.B. 2018. The way things are . . . In A.R. Knodell and T.P. Leppard (eds.), Regional Approaches to Society and Complexity, 288–308. Monographs in Mediterranean Archaeology 15. Sheffield: Equinox Publishing. Knapp, A.B. and J.F. Cherry. 1994. Provenience Studies and Bronze Age Cyprus: Production, Exchange, and Politico-Economic Change. Monographs in World Archaeology 21. Madison: Prehistory Press. Knapp, A.B. and S. Demesticha. 2017. Mediterranean Connections: Maritime Transport Containers and Seaborne Trade in the Bronze and Early Iron Ages. London: Routledge. Knapp, A.B. with S.O. Held and S.W. Manning. 1994. The prehistory of Cyprus: Problems and prospects. Journal of World Prehistory 8: 377–453.

14 Introduction Leidwanger, J. 2014. Integrating an empire: Maritime trade and agricultural supply in Roman Cyprus. Skyllis 13.1: 59–66. Lemonnier, P. 1986. The study of material culture today: Toward an anthropology of technical systems. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 5: 147–186. Leon, J.F. 2016. More than “Counting Sheep”: Isotopic Approaches to Minoan and Late Cypriot Wool Production Economies. Unpublished PhD dissertation, Cornell University. Lysandrou, V. and A. Agapiou. 2016. Cities of the dead: Approaching the lost landscape of Hellenistic and Roman necropoleis of Cyprus. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences 8.4: 867–877. Manning, S.W. 1993. Prestige, distinction, and competition: The anatomy of socio-economic complexity in 4th–2nd millennium B.C.E. Cyprus. Bulletin of the American School of Oriental Research 292: 35–58. Manning, S.W. 2013. Appendix: A new radiocarbon chronology for prehistoric and protohistoric Cyprus, ca. 11,000–1050 Cal BC. In A.B. Knapp, The Archaeology of Cyprus: From Earliest Prehistory Through the Bronze Age, 485–533. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Manning, S.W. 2014. Temporal placement and context of Cypro-PPNA activity on Cyprus. Eurasian Prehistory 11.1–2: 9–28. Manning, S.W., G.M. Andreou, K.D. Fisher, P. Gerard-Little, C. Kearns, J.F. Leon, D.A. Sewell and T.M. Urban. 2014. Becoming urban: Investigating the anatomy of the Late Bronze Age complex, Maroni, Cyprus. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 27.1: 3–32. Manning, S.W. and F. DeMita. 1997. Cyprus, the Aegean and Maroni-Tsaroukkas. In D. Christou (ed.), Cyprus and the Aegean in Antiquity, 103–142. Nicosia: Department of Antiquities, Cyprus. Matthäus, H., B. Morstadt and C. Vonhoff. (eds.) 2015. PoCA (Postgraduate Cypriot Archaeology) 2012. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Merrillees, R.S. 1971. The early history of Late Cypriote I. Levant 3: 56–79. Meskell, L. (ed.) 2005. Archaeologies of Materiality. Malden, MA: Blackwell. Mina, M., Triantaphyllou, S. and Y. Papadatos. (eds.) 2016. An Archaeology of Prehistoric Bodies and Embodied Identities in the Eastern Mediterranean. Oxford: Oxbow Books. Monroe, C.M. 2009. Scales of Fate. Trade, Tradition, and Transformation in the Eastern Mediterranean ca. 1350–1175 BCE. Münster: Ugarit-Verlag. Muhly, J.D. 1996. The significance of metals in the Late Bronze Age economy of Cyprus. In V. Karageorghis and D. Michaelides (eds.), The Development of the Cypriot Economy: From the Prehistoric Period to the Present Day, 45–59. Nicosia: Bank of Cyprus. Papantoniou, G. and A.K. Vionis. 2017. Landscape archaeology and sacred space in the eastern Mediterranean: A glimpse from Cyprus. Land 6.2: 1–18. Peltenburg, E. 1982. Recent Developments in the Later Prehistory of Cyprus. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology PB 16. Göteborg, Sweden: Paul Åströms Förlag. Peltenburg, E. 1996. From isolation to state formation in Cyprus, c. 3500–1500 BC. In V. Karageorghis and D. Michaelides (eds), The Development of the Cypriot Economy from the Prehistoric Period to the Present Day, 17–44. Nicosia: Bank of Cyprus. Peltenburg, E. 2012. Text meets material in Late Bronze Age Cyprus. In A. Georgiou (ed.), Cyprus: An Island Culture. Society and Social Relations from the Bronze Age to the Venetian Period, 1–23. Oxford: Oxbow Books. Peltenburg, E. (ed.) 1989. Early Society in Cyprus. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Peltenburg, E. (ed.) 2003. The Colonisation and Settlement of Cyprus: Investigations at Kissonerga Mylouthkia, 1976–1996. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 70.4. Sävedalen: Paul Åströms Förlag. Peltenburg, E., D. Frankel and C. Paraskeva. 2013. Radiocarbon. In E. Peltenburg (ed.), ARCANE. Associated Regional Chronologies for the Ancient Near East and the Mediterranean. Vol. II. Cyprus, 313–338. Turnhout: Brepols. Peltenburg, E. and M. Iacovou. 2012. Crete and Cyprus: Contrasting political configurations. In G. Cadogan, M. Iacovou, K. Kopaka and J. Whitley (eds.), Parallel Lives: Ancient Island Societies in Crete and Cyprus. Proceedings of the Conference in Nicosia Organized by the British School at Athens, the University of Crete and the University of Cyprus in November–December 2006, 345–363. London: The British School at Athens. Pilides, D. 2008. An outline of the history of archaeological research in Cyprus. In J. Smith (ed.), Views from Phlamoudhi, Cyprus, 15–24. Boston: American Schools of Oriental Research.

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Pollard, A.M. and P. Bray. 2007. A bicycle made for two? The integration of scientific techniques into archaeological interpretation. Annual Review of Anthropology 36: 245–259. Rautman, M. 2000. The busy countryside of Late Roman Cyprus. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus: 317–331. Rautman, M., M.C. McClellan, L.V. Benson, S.C. Fox, M.D. Glascock, B. Gomez, H. Neff, W. O’Brien, and D.S. Reese. 2003. A Cypriot Village of Late Antiquity: Kalavasos Kopetra in the Vasilikos Valley. Supplementary Series 52. Portsmouth, R.I.: Journal of Roman Archaeology. Renfrew, C. 1980. The great tradition versus the great divide: Archaeology as anthropology? American Journal of Archaeology 84: 287–298. Robertson, N. (ed.) 1975. The Archaeology of Cyprus: Recent Developments. Park Ridge: Noyes Press. Simmons, A.H. and K. DiBenedetto. 2014. Stone Age Sailors: Paleolithic Seafaring in the Mediterranean. Walnut Creek: Left Coast Press. Sneddon, A. 2015. Revisiting Alambra Mouttes: Defining the spatial configuration and social relations of a prehistoric Bronze Age settlement in Cyprus. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 28.2: 141–170. Snodgrass, A.M. 1985. The new archaeology and the classical archaeologist. American Journal of Archaeology 89: 31–37. Stanley Price, N.P. 1979. Early Prehistoric Settlement in Cyprus: A Review and Gazetteer of Sites, c. 6500–3000 B.C. British Archaeological Reports International Series 65. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports. Steel, L. 2004. Cyprus before History: From the Earliest Settlers to the End of the Bronze Age. London: Duckworth. Swiny, S (ed.). 2001. The Earliest Prehistory of Cyprus: From Colonization to Exploitation. Boston: American Schools of Oriental Research. Swiny, S., R.L. Hohlfelder and H. Wylde Swiny. (eds.) 1997. Res Maritimae: Cyprus and the Eastern Mediterranean from Prehistory to Late Antiquity. Proceedings of the Second International Symposium “Cities on the Sea,” Nicosia, Cyprus, October 18–22, 1994. Atlanta: Scholars Press. Toumazou, M.K., P.N. Kardulias, and D.B. Counts. (eds.) 2011. Crossroads and Boundaries: The Archaeology of Past and Present in the Malloura Valley, Cyprus. Boston: American Schools of Oriental Research. Trigger, B.G. 2006. A History of Archaeological Thought. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Urban, T.M., J.F. Leon, S.W. Manning and K.D. Fisher. 2014. High resolution GPR mapping of Late Bronze Age architecture at Kalavasos-Ayios Dhimitrios, Cyprus. Journal of Applied Geophysics 107: 129–136. Webb, J.M. and D. Frankel. 2013. Cultural regionalism and divergent social trajectories in Early Bronze Age Cyprus. American Journal of Archaeology 117: 59–81. Webb, J.M., D. Frankel, P. Croft and C. McCartney. 2009. Excavations at Politiko Kokkinorotsos: A Chalcolithic hunting station in Cyprus. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 75: 189–237. Yerkes, R.W. 2000. Ethnoarchaeology in central Cyprus: Interdisciplinary studies of ancient population and agriculture by the Athienou Archaeological Project. Near Eastern Archaeology 63: 20–34. Zomeni, Z. 2012. Quaternary Marine Terraces on Cyprus: Constraints on Uplift and Pedogenesis, and the Geoarchaeology of Palaipafos. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Oregon State University, Eugene, OR.

Keynote Exploring Diversity in Bronze Age Cyprus DAVID FRANKEL

Introduction

On the outskirts of New Cuyama, a small Californian town some 60 kilometers north of Santa Barbara, a road sign summarizes geographical and historical information (Figure 0.1). Each of the three dimensions (size, altitude, date) may be correlated with the others; they may even be causally related. But the simple sum of these values makes no sense. Obvious in this example, such integration of diverse measures and variables is often implicit and hidden within our approaches to describing and structuring the archaeological record. As pattern-seeking animals we group and connect evidence, simplifying inherent complexity in order to make sense of it. In doing so we not only select and emphasize but also link together various elements and in the process often lose sight of how different dimensions of material may follow dissonant trajectories, each with its own timing, tempo, rhythm, and amplitude. In considering a theme of new directions for research, one critical challenge is the development of a more nuanced understanding of the constant tension between approaches that identify common trends and those that highlight diversity. Naturally, the constant acquisition (ideally publication) of new material, which is one of the characteristics of our discipline, can lead to significant adjustments to simpler models and the recognition of variability where none could be seen before. However, established structures can be so embedded in practice and understanding that incremental additions of evidence may be unconsciously squeezed or stretched to fit Procrustean systems of identification, classification, and explanation. It is always appropriate to bear in mind that archaeological sites of all kinds—indeed, the entire archaeological record—is at least as much a creation of the last century and a half of archaeological research as of the ancient people whose relics we investigate (Carver 2009; cf. Frankel 1993; 1998; 2012). Which areas are studied and which sites are recorded and excavated: the approach to documentation and the nature of the even16

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Figure 0.1:  Road sign, New Cuyama, California. Photo: David Frankel, 2000.

tual publication (if any) structure the evidence we have to work with and how it can be used. One task is to disentangle the complexities inherent in the archaeological record and our processes of analysis and to consider how different factors influence patterning, and hence explanation, on one hand, and how we should match types of explanation to scales of observation, on the other. A conscious consideration of how our approaches to data and analysis may affect, if not preempt, explanation will therefore always be essential. With this in mind I will revisit some issues and reconsider how variability and variation at different scales—between objects, within sites, of site histories, through time, between sites, and across regions—can be affected by intrinsic cultural, technical, and depositional factors as well as by the analytical units we set up and use to group material. Establishing Frameworks

An understanding of analytical units is an essential prerequisite for characterization and comparison of datasets. Although often combined or confused in practice, there are essentially two main ways in which units are constructed: those that depend largely on intrinsic characteristics of the material and those that are constructed on the basis of extrinsic evidence. The former can lead to self-fulfilling observations of internal homogeneity and external differentiation, creating false images of sharp divisions within and between sets of data (compare, for example, Frankel 1988a:

18 Keynote

41–42). The scope or scale of analytical units also affects observations of the degree of variability within them. It is very likely that as the size of units increases, so does the degree of internal variability such that, for example, larger chronological units (periods) may display greater diversity than apparently more uniform material from shorter periods (Frankel 1991). Ideally, therefore, comparisons are best when analytical units are of the same size, duration, and nature. Framing Time We can blame Myres and Gjerstad for introducing and developing the chronological structures that frame so much of our discourse on the Cypriot Bronze Age (Frankel 1974: 2; Knapp 2013: 25). The tripartite model (and associated nomenclature) of Early/Middle/Late Bronze Age periods with finer—again tripartite—subdivisions that we have inherited fulfils a dual purpose, serving as often as not to date as well as to characterize material. Attempts to develop an alternative scheme, notably that argued for by Knapp (most recently, 2013: 26–29), provide, in essence, the same form of periodization where intrinsic attributes of individual artifacts or of assemblages both characterize temporal units and provide a relative date. However ideal, it is simply not possible at present to separate absolute dates from the sets of material to which they refer. Even when we have radiocarbon dates in stratigraphic context that have been subjected to sophisticated techniques of analysis (e.g., Manning 2013a; 2013b; 2014; Peltenburg et al. 2013a; Paraskeva in this volume), their meaning ultimately still relies on these intrinsically defined building blocks with their inherent assumptions and cultural/chronological assignments. One important issue here is how precise these assignments are. Myres, importing the basic divisions of the Bronze Age to Cyprus, could only define three major periods. Gjerstad, making use of stratigraphic evidence alongside typological seriation, subdivided these to construct our familiar ninefold periodization (Gjerstad 1926; compare Myres 1926). In his magisterial Corpus of Cypriot Antiquities, Stewart (J.R. Stewart 1962; E. Stewart and Åström 1988; 1992; E. Stewart 1999; Webb and Frankel 2012) took chronological precision further, at least so far as available (mainly north coast cemetery) assemblages were concerned, with finer-scale divisions and sequences. Recently, it has become increasingly clear that such a fine scale of definition cannot be applied more generally to other assemblages, especially those from other regions. In order to look at contemporary developments across the island, it is necessary to drop back to a coarser scale of analysis, grouping finer units into more reliably contemporary larger ones—for example using a sequence such as Philia, Early Cypriot (EC) I–II, EC III–Middle Cypriot (MC) I. The one advantage of Knapp’s most recent alternative scheme of Prehistoric Bronze Age 1 and 2 is to simplify this somewhat clumsy terminology: its disadvantage is that, while now (Knapp 2013: Table 2) more closely mapped onto “traditional” periodization than in previous iterations (e.g., Knapp 2008: Table 1), it nevertheless still conflates sets of data that it is important to separate, such as Philia from EC I–II. Despite recognizing that the conventional Bronze Age subdivi-

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sions can lead to a unilinear approach to explanation, the renaming of periods does not avoid this problem—for example where the “Philia phase” is seen as entirely following, rather than significantly overlapping, the Late Chalcolithic (Knapp 2013: Table 2). In contrast to the construction of temporal units based on intrinsic factors (such as pottery ware and style) are situations where extrinsic factors, independent of the constituent material, are used. The most obvious of these is stratigraphy. Of course the definition of layers, phases, or periods within sequences can still be based on a particular view of site formation (see further discussion below) and at times makes use of the artifacts in determining to which unit a particular deposit belongs. This categorization can lead to self-fulfilling models involving the forced linkage of variations in artifact assemblages with other aspects of site history, perhaps exaggerating the significance of some points of change. While there may be little option when confronted with the complexities and inadequacies inherent in all site formations, the imperative to construct or impose a site-wide sequence of necessity conflates events from different areas into simpler groups. It also dictates a coarser scale of analysis, so that disparate events are regarded as contemporaneous even where they may have occurred at different times. Site phases or layers that are seemingly short-lived are generally of far greater duration than any individual’s life span. Underpinning any system are the criteria used to define and differentiate periods of time and the implications for explanation as these become reified and inappropriately structure later analysis. As noted above, the coarser the scale of observation and analysis, the more the past will be seen as a form of punctuated equilibrium where internal variation is suppressed and external differences emphasized, imposing a strophic model of relatively rapid and significant points of change rather than one of slower, more gradual, incremental development. Working with Space Just as the precision and nature of temporal units affect our perceptions and explanations of change, approaches to spatial analysis affect our view of inter-site or interregional patterns and the nature of the boundaries between them (Kantner 2008). Different approaches are in evidence (Frankel 2009). Once again these analytical units can be defined in different ways, each with consequences for explanation, although here extrinsic definitions are more clear-cut and can be more readily expanded or contracted. The most common approach is to define regions on general administrative or topographical grounds (Catling 1962; Stanley Price 1979; Georgiou 2006; see also Satraki in this volume). Applied in its simplest form, this framework presupposes a meaningful relationship within and between these predefined, fixed geographical units and past behavior. The degree of variability within and variation between regions defined in this way will be, in part, a product of how closely these boundaries match social ones. Alternatively, plotting the distribution of types or of attributes (e.g., Frankel 1974) is more likely to reveal patterns of similarity and relationship and perhaps cultural boundary that may not correlate with physical features of the landscape.

20 Keynote

Assemblage Definition Just as equivalence of scale is essential if variability is being compared between analytical units defined in space or time, so too it must be sought in the many other dimensions of variation that affect the structure of the archaeological record. An obvious comparison can be made between material from single events, such as a single burial, and assemblages incorporating artifacts from less controlled contexts (ranging from multiple burials within a tomb to site or regional groups). These can differ considerably in date, duration, and type, with inherent implications for the degree of internal variability likely to be present. This variation affects the scale of observation and hence the explanation. While cemetery material has the advantage of deliberate selection and deposition of sets of material, settlement assemblages as a rule do not. The most significant factors involved here can be broadly considered under the general rubric of “site formation processes” developing the approach outlined several decades ago by Schiffer (1976). Difficult though it may be, identifying the nature of deposits is crucial. Rarely, despite our best efforts to identify them, do any settlement assemblages represent specific activities or specific points of time. Most include material from a variety of sources and activities: they are inherently complex mixtures of older and newer material so that even the finest scale of stratigraphy does not imply fine chronological precision or primary behavioral relationships.

Figure 0.2:  Map showing the location of sites mentioned in text. Created by C. Kearns; basemap provided by Geological Survey Department of Cyprus.

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Digging and clearance during episodes of ancient refurbishing and construction may bring up old, long-buried items adding to the stock of everpresent residual material evident in all long-lasting sites, confusing simple associations and chronological attributions so familiar from textbook examples of stratigraphy and seriation, as seen, for example, at Marki (Frankel and Webb 2006a: 32, Text Figures 3.2, 4.57; see also Peltenburg et al. 2013b: Figure 1.2; Frankel et al. 2013: Figure 2.3) (Figures 0.2 and 0.3).

Figure 0.3:  Monitoring and assessing residuality at Marki: (a) the occurrence of Philia sherds in post-Philia accumulations; (b) Interpretation of a seriation of small bowl attributes suggesting residuality and intrusion of sherdage (after Frankel and Webb 2006a: Text Figures 3.2 and 4.57).

22 Keynote

In addition, it is important to recognize the functional or behavioral context of deposition (Webb 2006). Seldom, and generally only in circumstances of catastrophic destruction and abandonment, do we have inventories of items left in their context of use. A comparison of the proportional occurrence of artifact types between assemblages of different depositional type or integrity is valuable in its own right (Frankel and Webb 2006a: 153, Text Table 4.3) (Figure 0.4, Table 0.1). Where comparisons of degrees of variability are the focus of attention, then equivalence of context, type of deposit, and temporal resolution are clearly even more necessary.

Figure 0.4:  Variation in aspects of artifact occurrence in different depositional contexts at Marki Alonia (after Frankel and Webb 2012: Figures 3 and 6).

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Table 0.1:  Incidence of complete and near-complete vessels in three functional classes in various accumulation deposits in different spaces (data from Frankel and Webb 2006a: Text Table 4)

Interior

Courtyard

Open space

Small bowl

47

7

11

Juglet

12

Cutaway-spouted jug  Serving

Access

Informal structure

Passage

Total

1

51 12

7 66

7 7

11

70

Jar

7

Amphora

2

Round-mouthed jug

4

1

5

 Storage

13

1

14

1

Cooking pot

12

Spouted bowl

6

Pan

2

 Preparation

20

1

1

8 2

1

14 6 2

1

1

22

Classification Typology is inherently a normalizing process. Although necessary at one level, it can hide or suppress significant variability between sets of artifacts. By identifying—or inventing—types and by grouping artifacts into sets meaningful to us, we again set up boundaries that imply items within a field are all of a kind and distinct from those without. The choice of attributes selected, the weighting given to each, and the degree of difference regarded as significant are all involved to some extent in decision-making, and all therefore affect the scope and structure of types. While the core may be cohesive and uniform, there are always varieties and outliers whose differences are lost once assigned to and subsumed within a broader group. If we are concerned to identify the degree of variability within and between assemblages, the homogenizing effects of predefined types become problematic. Classification needs to walk the fine line between broader groupings that ignore variations and over-precise systems where the wood cannot be seen for the trees. Our task is to find appropriate scales or alternative approaches to analysis that address each particular circumstance or question (cf. Adams and Adams 1991; Read 2007). A related question is the extent to which our types map onto those that were significant in the past. Of course general functional types must have been clearly recognized by their makers and users. So, too, might finer or more minor elements, although not all aspects or attributes need have been of emic significance, despite some natural degree of variation in the characterization of semantic domains

24 Keynote

reflecting the ways in which people classify artifact types (Kempton 1981). This is in part a question of how much variation was recognized by, accepted by, or sought after and the extent to which individuals or groups asserted difference or conformed to common patterns in order to mark relationships and identity. This may sometimes have been deliberate but could also have been an entirely unconscious aspect of social reproduction. Explaining Ceramic Variability

The variation within and between artifact types or assemblages reflects numerous, often intertwined factors and systems. I will briefly discuss two of these with reference to pottery: scale/context of production and individual creativity/community expectations or demands. Production The degree of artifact standardization is often regarded as a key to assessing the mode of production and hence the broader social context. An underlying assumption here is that the more specialized the producers and context of production, the greater the degree of standardization and perhaps simplicity of products (see, for example, Arnold 1991; Costin 1991; Frankel 1991; London 1991; Longacre 1999; Frankel and Kewibu 2000). There are other considerations as well, however, including the frequency and scale of production events (Deal 1998: 165), the effects of skill, routine, and repetition as well as of community expectations (Rice 1991: 268–273; Longacre 1999: 44–45). The lack of ethnographic data on variability within individual or community production, combined with the difficulties of defining appropriate and comparable archaeological datasets, create difficulties for this approach. While much Early and Middle Bronze Age pottery in Cyprus appears to conform to common types, there was clearly also a contemporary tendency toward individuality and the assertion of difference within the general tradition. One example of this is the variation within the small bowl assemblage from the cemeteries at Deneia (Frankel and Webb 2007: 101–103, 154; Webb and Frankel 2009). The fragmentary nature of the assemblage militates against reliable analysis of size and proportions, but comparative measurements can be made of attributes such as the thickness of the vessel walls. Figure 0.5 summarizes the measurements on a range of wares. It is clear that the Middle Bronze Age wares (Black Polished, Red Polished Black Top, Red Polished III, and Red Polished IV) have a greater degree of internal variability with regard to this particular attribute than Late Bronze Age Base Ring and White Slip wares. This pattern fits well with the general understanding of an increase in mass production associated with the more formally structured communities that developed on Cyprus during the Late Bronze Age. While matching expectations in this case, such measures are harder to apply in others, even where the context of deposition, and hence assemblage integrity, is

Exploring Diversity in Bronze Age Cyprus

25

Figure 0.5:  Box-and-whisker plots of wall thickness of small bowls from Deneia (after Frankel and Webb 2007: Text Figure 4.136). (BP=Black Polished, RPBT=Red Polished Black Top, RP III=Red Polished III, RP IV= Red Polished IV, BR=Base Ring, WS=White Slip).

relatively well controlled. Here we may compare the variation in proportions of Red Polished jugs from the EC I–II cemetery at Psematismenos Trelloukkas (Figure 0.6) and those from a MC potter’s workshop at Ambelikou Aletri (Figure 0.7) (Georgiou et al. 2011; Webb and Frankel 2013a). The latter probably represent a single kiln-load destroyed in a catastrophic event and are therefore not only exactly contemporaneous but also were probably made by the same artisan. The assemblage with lower integrity from Psematismenos Trelloukas is likely to have an inherently greater degree of heterogeneity than the single production episode at Ambelikou Aletri even if they were made in a similar mode of production and with a similar approach to standardization (Webb and Frankel 2013a: 217–218; Frankel and Webb 2014; Webb 2014; see also Frankel 1988b: 44–45).

26 Keynote

Figure 0.6:  A selection of Red Polished Mottled I–II jugs from Psematismenos Trelloukkas.

The coefficients of variation comparing the two assemblages do not, however, neatly conform to this expectation (Table 0.2). Some of the proportions of the Psematismenos jugs were more uniform than those from Ambelikou—despite deriving from numerous tombs and therefore suggestive of a more mixed origin. Another complicating factor may well be at play, as it may be easier to control shape when forming flat-based vessels, such as those from Psematismenos, than round-based ones, as at Ambelikou, just as there appears to be a technical requirement for tighter control over the body shape of closed vessels than there is for open ones (Frankel 1988b). If so, then the variability in these two sets of jugs (one round-based, the other flat-based) cannot be directly compared in this way: diversity is a tricky beast to handle!

Figure 0.7:  A selection of Red Polished III jugs from a single production episode at Ambelikou Aletri.

Table 0.2:  Coefficients of variation in different attributes of Red Polished ware jugs at Ambelikou Aletri and Psematismenos Trelloukkas

Total height

Body height

Height of maximum diameter

Diameter of body

325.83

a. Dimensions Psematismenos Trelloukkas Mean

380.84

351.00

186.67

StdD

64.48

52.89

33.09

57.16

CV

16.93

15.07

17.73

17.54 (Continued)

28 Keynote Table 0.2—cont.

Total height

Body height

Height of maximum diameter

Diameter of body

150.91

Ambelikou Aletri Mean

318.32

149.51

76.55

StdD

54.80

27.10

15.29

27.97

CV

17.21

18.13

19.98

18.54

b. Proportions BodyHt/Ht

HtMaxD/BodyHt

HtMaxD/BodyD

BodyHt/BodyD

Psematismenos Trelloukkas Mean

68.84

56.95

57.04

100.18

StDev

4.34

3.82

4.51

6.75

CV

6.30

6.71

7.91

6.74

Mean

47.50

50.95

50.73

99.54

StDev

3.26

4.71

3.81

5.14

CV

6.86

9.24

7.51

5.17

Ambelikou Aletri

Creativity and Community The overall uniformity of the Psematismenos Trelloukas assemblage, in fabric, color, clays, and shape, argues for local production, perhaps by a small number of potters. It also suggests that there was a very strong, perhaps an inter-generational, desire for conformity within a tightly maintained tradition. Community expectations at other sites may not have been so strict. The Ambelikou jugs, for example, not only display minor variation in size and proportions but also in added features such as knobs or relief modeling on the body and neck. This raises another issue, that of individual creativity and of assertive rather than general emblemic styles (Weissner 1983). Unlike the unpredictable (even if sought-after) mottling often found on the Red Polished Mottled ware at Psematismenos, the Ambelikou potter deliberately played with his or her products, adding the extra elements that meant that no two vessels were identical, even if they were of the same overall appearance. Community expectations and personal preferences may therefore have allowed greater freedom to the artisan at Ambelikou than they did to what appears to have been the more conformist community at Psematismenos. The differences between the Ambelikou jugs are understated and subtle. A more obvious assertion of both individual variation and community identity is seen at Deneia. Thick, deep incision typifies the work of Deneia potters; it is one characteristic of a local aesthetic and technique that set their products apart from those of other places (Frankel and Webb 2007: 154; Webb 2009; 2010). But within this local tradition there is great variation. Although only a relatively small repertoire of incised geometric motifs was used, their selection and arrangement differ considerably from one vessel to another—so much so that no two bowls had the same specific appearance (Figure 0.8). This strongly suggests, again, that there was a deliberate attempt to make these vessels different from one another: an assertion of individuality, here played out

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Figure 0.8:  A selection of incised Red Polished Black Top bowls from Deneia.

across assemblages of longer duration. At Deneia, therefore, we can see two counterpoised forces. One, identified as diversity at a regional level, promoted conformity to a strong local style, perhaps reflecting a broad social need to identify with and demonstrate a sense of belonging to a rapidly expanding community (Frankel and Webb 2007: 154–156; Webb 2010; Webb and Frankel 2009). The other, finer scale of diversity suggests that a more personal individuality was demonstrated at a different level, with potters apparently reluctant to repeat regular patterns and their customers pleased to have unique items. A similar interplay between highly individualizing behavior and local site or regional scale techniques and style can be seen at EC I–II Bellapais Vounous. Here, as at Deneia, a specific local craft tradition developed within which both more complex forms and simpler, basic utilitarian shapes were produced. The former, especially, allowed opportunities for artisans to be inventive in creating complex, unusual vessels that can be thought of as having a special, probably ritual function and significance (Webb and Frankel 2010; Webb 2016). Some simpler shapes, most notably “tulip bowls” or drinking vessels, probably also had a particular role in social activities. These, too, demonstrate great variation in both incised and modeled decoration, signaling the individuality or social identity of those who used them (Figure 0.9). We have, therefore, different degrees of variability possible with, or promoted by, social structures and negotiated relationships. These factors differed from one community or region to another and through time. Perhaps these aspects and the functions of vessels within social performances had at least as great effect on assemblage variability as the context, mode, and scale of production.

30 Keynote

Figure 0.9:  Examples of Early Cypriot I–II tulip bowls from Vounous and Karmi (after Webb and Frankel 2013b: Figure 4).

Time and Variability at a Regional Scale

Regional pottery styles at Psematismenos, Deneia, and Bellapais Vounous have already been alluded to. Each can be understood to represent a local variation of the broad general Red Polished ware tradition characteristic of the Early and Middle Bronze Age (Webb 2014; Dikomitou-Eliadou in this volume). But they should not be thought of as developing as the result of the same processes and stimuli. Nor need cultural or stylistic boundaries be the same in all periods. The degree of diversity within areas, or across the island as a whole, also varies. This may be due to a number of factors. Although elsewhere in the world attempts have been made to correlate the relative degree of diversity within regions with the size of population and related social patterning, with consequences for social cohesion and resilience (e.g., Nelson et al. 2011), no equivalent general processes can be identified within prehistoric Bronze Age Cyprus. Instead, we can argue for historically contingent and specific responses to different circumstances. With the development of the Philia facies of the Early Bronze Age, a very widespread and homogeneous material culture can be identified (Webb and Frankel 1999). For at least some time this archaeological (and, we may argue, social) “culture” would have coexisted with the latest of the Late Chalcolithic communities. It is possible that some of the Philia material commonality served to mark cultural identity and to differentiate members of this group from other peoples: in other words, variability within the island was at least partly instrumental as well as an intrinsic characteristic. From a materialist perspective the artifacts themselves helped construct social patterns. Within one or two centuries the Late Chalcolithic became at least archaeologically invisible and only “Bronze Age” material appears in all parts of the island. Although the legacy of the older systems may be traceable in specific aspects

Exploring Diversity in Bronze Age Cyprus

31

of later material in particular regions (Bolger and Peltenburg 2014), in general an earlier broad dichotomy in overall lifeways gives way to a unified system: how we should understand this process of assimilation, integration, acculturation, or hybridization is a matter of considerable interest and debate (Knapp 2013: 264–277). The widespread uniformity of Philia communities must have been maintained by regular interactions. The spread of Philia villages into new territory meant that the small size of new foundations would have required regular interaction with others to ensure the supply of necessities, including marriage partners. As settlements grew in size, these imperatives may have become less intense. Other factors, however, continued. It is most likely that longer-distance relationships were always underpinned by exchange systems that facilitated the flow of copper from source areas and the reciprocal distribution of goods such as finer pottery wares (Dikomitou 2010; 2013; 2014). The demand for copper beyond immediate quotidian uses can be attributed to opportunities to supply overseas markets within a broader eastern Mediterranean interaction sphere (Webb et al. 2006; Webb 2013; see also Knapp 2013). In this way, external factors contributed to internal patterns of interregional uniformity on the island. About 2200 BCE, significant changes can be observed widely across the Near East, including the collapse of established exchange systems (for recent discussions, see Finné et al. 2011; Meller et al. 2015). The external demand for Cypriot copper dried up, removing one major incentive for the maintenance of a cohesive, integrated society. Archaeologically this is seen in a greater diversity of pottery types, styles, and technologies, which characterize the post-Philia, EC I–II period. Although generically similar in continuing the established tradition of Red Polished pottery, two major zones can at present be observed in that ware: one covering the center and central south coast and the other in the north. As typified by the assemblage from Psematismenos Trelloukkas (Georgiou et al. 2011), central and southern pottery is hard-fired, fairly coarse, and generally plain. North coast pottery, especially that from Bellapais Vounous, is, by contrast, finer, softer-fired, and marked by a related use of complex incised decoration and the introduction of complex shapes, as noted above. Although there was certainly contact between different areas, as evidenced by the distribution of particular vessels, this new division of the island into several identifiable ceramic zones signals different responses to changing circumstances. As suggested above, the Psematismenos potters emphasized conformity to social norms, suppressing variation. At Bellapais Vounous, different forces came into play. On the north coast the complexity of pottery and other activities can be connected to the assertion of authority, expressed through control of esoteric knowledge and ritual in the place of earlier economic power (Webb et al. 2009: 249–250; Webb and Frankel 2010; 2013b; Webb 2013; 2014). Although Red Polished pottery displays less clear regional variation during the Middle Bronze Age, local variations are still evident (see Dikomitou-Eliadou in this volume), while other wares have particular distributions. North coast sites such as Lapithos Vrysi tou Barba and Bellapais Vounous now appear to have more in common with sites in the center, such as Nicosia Ayia Paraskevi, than they did during EC I–II. This may be attributed to a renewed demand for Cypriot copper, leading to an expansion of production and associated networks linking the northern foothills of the Troodos to coastal sites such as Lapithos. The distribution of White Painted wares provides

32 Keynote

Figure 0.10:  Schematic, notional distribution of major prehistoric Bronze Age wares (after Frankel 2009: Figure 2).

one signal of these connections: the way in which stylistic variation in this pottery has been assessed provides one example of how different approaches to measurement and analysis structure explanation—either favoring a simpler dichotomous model (Åström 1972) or a more complex series of interconnections (Frankel 1974). These are not necessarily exclusive alternatives. They might equally well be seen as observations at different scales, each exposing a different pattern and reflecting different processes. At the same time, the proportions of other major wares show alternate patterns of relationship and connections (Figure 0.10). In each case the challenge before us is to determine what our observations (all too often still dependent on very patchy and limited available evidence) mean. Within the broad distribution of major wares there are—or are likely to be—more subtle variations from one locality to another, reflecting various modes of technology and stylistic transfer and adoption or patterns of artifact exchange. Or, as can be argued at least in the case of the emergence of very distinctive types and styles at Deneia, a particular signaling of community identity and belonging developed during a period of rapid expansion and inward migration followed by greater homogeneity later (Webb 2010; 2014). We are still at a very early stage of research. Settlement Structure and Function

Settlements are not all equivalent. It is only in the last decade that we are in a position to see some settlement variability as more sites begin to be excavated. These

Exploring Diversity in Bronze Age Cyprus

33

show differences in site location, access to resources, function, size, longevity, and history. Indeed, each individual site needs to be considered as an evolving series of settlements, avoiding the temptation to regard each as being the same throughout its history. As an example of change over time we may briefly look at Marki Alonia— if only because it is the one place where the particular area excavated allows for a relatively long history of development during the prehistoric Bronze Age to be traced in some detail, although even here creative assumptions must round out our story of significant architectural developments (Frankel and Webb 2006a; 2006b; 2012) (Figure 0.11). Marki began as a part of the Philia expansion about 2400 BCE. Initially very small, it is likely to have been an outpost or outlier from a larger center such as Nicosia Ayia Paraskevi with the few families who lived there dependent on nearby villages to ensure survival. Most pottery and other manufactured goods would have had to be brought in from elsewhere and its inhabitants would have had a concept of their place in the world that was framed by these necessary links and connections. Our analysis of subsequent developments during some five hundred years of occupation is based on the recognition of a series of compounds that often included open courtyards as well as enclosed rooms. While some aspects of these compounds remained more or less the same over time, it is possible to trace a process of gradual replacement of an initially more open system, appropriate for a pioneer community, by new, non-communicating compounds of roughly equal size with almost fully enclosed courtyards and opposing orientations. As the village grew in size, these individual residential units became secure enough to meet their needs as economic entities, one result of the overall increase in population and the development of efficient and reliable production systems and inter-site relationships. It is, furthermore, possible to suggest an increasing desire by individual households to establish and maintain private ownership of buildings, land, and other resources. Interpersonal relationships within the village must have changed considerably as the population expanded and access between compounds became more restricted. In the early phases, with a handful of small households, people would have had regular face-toface interaction with their neighbors. Later, Middle Bronze Age generations living in a larger, more densely inhabited space would have had fewer occasions for casual daily communication with fellow villagers beyond their immediate neighborhood. There was, therefore, an increase in interpersonal distance coincident with the development of more enclosed household and access systems, which may have led to new mechanisms of social cohesion and control. Finally, the last inhabitants lived in a different sector of the site, with the ruined houses of their ancestors nearby, providing a different environment imbued with memory. Essentially, however, Marki was always a small agropastoral community with some engagement with copper production. While nearby Alambra may well have had a similar history and role, other villages were different. Although our view is skewed by the accident of excavation of two industrial areas with no architectural evidence of domestic housing, Ambelikou Aletri appears to have been a much more specialized village, producing both copper and pottery alongside a subsistence economy based on mixed farming. Set where it was to take advantage of a particular

Figure 0.11:  The changing nature of the built environment in the excavated area at Marki: (a) growth and decline in households and occupation; (b) the proportion of the area taken up by different types of space in successive phases (after Frankel and Webb 2012: Figure 10).

Exploring Diversity in Bronze Age Cyprus

35

copper source, it was occupied for a far shorter time than Marki, reflecting the often unpredictable and episodic nature of mining settlements. More recently excavated sites increasingly reveal internal variations, if not broader specialization, in a range of industrial activities (Bombardieri 2013; 2014; 2017). This is well illustrated at MC Erimi Laonin tou Porakou with evidence of purpose-built workshop complexes adjacent to domestic housing. These were dedicated to particular tasks and are perhaps indicative not only of spatial variation in architecture and functions but also of a degree of specialization in the organization of labor (Bombardieri 2013). Other Middle Cypriot sites also provide evidence of an increase during the first half of the second millennium BCE in task-specific areas and installations, seen in the industrial complex at Pyrgos Mavrorachi (Belgiorno 2004), the possible brewing facilities at Kissonerga Skalia (Crewe and Hill 2012), and the traces of copper working activities adjacent to domestic areas at Politiko Troullia (Fall et al. 2008). We have no direct evidence from the villages associated with the Middle Bronze Age cemeteries at sites such as Nicosia Ayia Paraskevi, Deneia, and Lapithos Vrysi tou Barba. These developed into far larger places than Marki, Alambra, Ambelikou, and Politiko. The cemeteries at Deneia reveal a massive and rapid expansion during MC I–II (Frankel and Webb 2007; Webb and Frankel 2009)—perhaps a process not unrelated to the decline and final abandonment of sites like Alambra and Marki. The distinctive pottery styles developed at Deneia and discussed above may be seen as one response to this expansion and the associated integration of newcomers into the community. Deneia and Nicosia Ayia Paraskevi may always have been key points in the networks of connections linking the north coast to the copper-rich areas. Situated as they were near the agricultural resources of the Pediaos and Ovgos river systems, they were strategically placed to control the movement of goods, especially copper destined for dominant places such as Lapithos (Webb 2017a; Webb 2017b). If this model is correct, then these settlements would have been of a very different order of magnitude from specialized production or generalized agricultural villages, with attendant differences in many aspects of internal relationships and control. The social landscape of MC II–III Cyprus should be viewed as a complex of varied types of sites that are dynamically and continually evolving. Aspects of Burial

The differences between settlements through time and in size and function are also evident in the nature of cemeteries and approaches to funeral ritual. One significant development is the trend from small to large chamber tombs. EC I–II tombs at both Psematismenos Trelloukkas and Bellapais Vounous are typically small, with a limited number of grave goods and often only a single body. At some sites such as Bellapais Vounous and Karmi there is some evidence that the remains—both of the dead and the associated goods—were removed to make way for new burials, although this does not seem to have occurred at Psematismenos. Relatively small tombs are also seen at some later cemeteries, but at Deneia, Nicosia Ayia Paraskevi, and Lapithos Vrysi tou Barba, far larger chambers were excavated. Older burials were left in

36 Keynote

them and new goods added to the stock of old. This different approach can be read as an indication of a different attitude, where tombs were constructed with an eye to the future, as repositories for successive burials linking one generation with the next and at the same time asserting individual or family rights to place and position in society. Such an explanation chimes with those suggested above regarding the assertion of identity through pottery. Much of my discussion thus far has focused on pottery. Other manufactures have different stories to tell, different degrees and patterns of variation. In the case of metalwork this may appear in the context and nature of funerary deposition rather than through typology. Unlike pottery, there is little fine-scale variability in metal artifacts: certainly the techniques of manufacture of copper-base tools and utensils remained uniform across the island throughout the Early and Middle Bronze Age (Philip 1991). This in itself suggests a very conservative craft tradition, with no consumer demands for innovation. Significant differences can, however, be identified in the use—more particularly the final use of items. The quantities and perhaps also the size of metal items placed in tombs varies considerably. Metal had different value or significance in different places, with the largest and most numerous finds at Lapithos Vrysi tou Barba (Webb 2017a; Webb 2017b). Some particular aspects also vary. For example, about one-fifth

Figure 0.12:  Incidence of intact and disabled spearheads at Lapithos, Vounous, and other sites (after Webb and Frankel 2015: Figure 4).

Exploring Diversity in Bronze Age Cyprus

37

of spearheads and knives were deliberately disabled before being placed in tombs (Webb and Frankel 2015). While this custom was observed elsewhere, it was most common at Bellapais Vounous and notably less so at nearby Lapithos (Figure 0.12). Could this be related to a move away from a focus on personal ownership toward accumulation and conspicuous consumption at Lapithos in the Middle Cypriot period? If disabled items signal an earlier intimate connection with individual adult males, then this may represent a shift, at this one site at least, toward a more communal or lineage-based notion of accumulation where metal items were retained in tombs but separated from skeletal remains and curated in groups and sets. New Directions?

This brief review of issues, approaches, and explanations has, I hope, exposed some of the underlying concerns in considering variation and variability during the eight centuries or so of the Early and Middle Bronze Age. We are increasingly in a position to identify both of these, not only through the excavation of additional sites but also through a clearer understanding of the nature of the archaeological record and the appropriate types of questions we can ask or models we can build. These must take account of in-built or imposed limitations of scale, precision, and integrity. The artificial archaeological entities or units of analysis through which the past is perceived may also differ both in their constituent elements and in their degree of uniformity or homogeneity, while the material evidence has many different facets that reflect functional, historical, economic, and social patterns. Each needs to be considered separately to allow later integration, rather than assuming correlations between them. Scale is of critical importance to explanation, determining whether we see gradual or sudden change, diffuse or sharp boundaries, close or distant relationships, or uniform or disparate systems. No single scale is, however, superior. Each brings a different aspect of material into focus. It is a major challenge to find the right types of explanation for both smaller and larger patterns and to connect these into a cohesive overall understanding. It used to be more common to make reference to a peculiar Cypriot character: perhaps the modern equivalent is to talk in terms of identity. This may be seen as a question of the extent to which the island should be considered as a single system. This may be appropriate at one broad scale, but it does not necessarily apply at finer levels, or in the same way at different times. While there is a degree of commonality in the long-lasting traditions that we refer to as the prehistoric Bronze Age, we can, increasingly, also see diversity in both time and space. It was a varied and complex place—so that not all people lived in the same Bronze Age. As we begin more clearly to identify which elements regions and times have in common and which differentiate between them, we can begin to recognize processes or contingent circumstances that mediate the tensions between countervailing forces that encourage variety and innovation on the one hand and adherence to tradition or provide incentives for uniformity on the other. Much new research is often tightly focused and specific, as diverse as prehistoric Bronze Age Cyprus itself. Broader understanding of the period and new directions for research will need not only a self-conscious regard for the nature of the

38 Keynote

a­ rchaeological record and its constructs but also clear frameworks for integrating often disparate analyses to address questions of social process and historical contingency as we explore the inherent diversity of the period.

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Frankel, D. 1974. Middle Cypriot White Painted Pottery: An Analytical Study of the Decoration. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 42. Göteborg, Sweden: Paul Åströms Förlag. Frankel, D. 1988a. Characterising change in prehistoric sequences: A view from Australia. Archaeology in Oceania 23: 41–48. Frankel, D. 1988b. Pottery production in prehistoric Bronze Age Cyprus: Assessing the problem. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 1.2: 27–55. Frankel, D. 1991. Ceramic variability: Measurement and meaning. In J. Barlow, D. Bolger, and B. Kling (eds.), Cypriot Ceramics: Reading the Prehistoric Record, 241–252. University Museum Monograph 74. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania. Frankel, D. 1993. The excavator: Creator or destroyer? Antiquity 67: 875–877. Frankel, D. 1998. Constructing Marki Alonia: Reflections on method and authority in archaeological reporting. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 11.2: 242–256. Frankel, D. 2009. What do we mean by “regionalism”? In I. Hein (ed.), The Formation of Cyprus in the 2nd Millennium B.C. Studies in Regionalism during the Middle and Late Bronze Age, 15–25. Denkschriften der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Contributions to the Chronology of the Eastern Mediterranean XX. Vienna: Österreichische Akadamie der Wissenschaften. Frankel, D. 2012. “Strange places crammed with observation”: Reporting the site. In J.M. Webb and D. Frankel (eds.), SIMA After Fifty Years: Contributions to Mediterranean Archaeology, 25–31. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 137. Lund, Sweden: Åströms Förlag. Frankel, D., P. Keswani, D. Papaconstantinou, E. Peltenburg, and J.M. Webb. 2013. Stratigraphy in a non-tell archaeological environment. In E. Peltenburg (ed.), ARCANE Associated Chronologies for the Ancient Near East and the Eastern Mediterranean, Vol II Cyprus, 15–38. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols. Frankel, D., and V. Kewibu. 2000. Early Ceramic Period pottery from Murua (Site ODR), Gulf Province, Papua New Guinea. In A. Anderson and T. Murray (eds.), Australian Archaeologist. Collected Papers in Honour of Jim Allen, 279–290. Canberra: Coombs Academic. Frankel, D., and J.M. Webb. 2006a. Marki Alonia: An Early and Middle Bronze Age Settlement in Cyprus. Excavations 1995–2000. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 123.2. Sävedalen, Sweden: Åströms Förlag. Frankel, D., and J.M. Webb. 2006b. Neighbours: Negotiating space in a prehistoric village. Antiquity 80: 287–302. Frankel, D., and J.M. Webb. 2007. The Bronze Age Cemeteries at Deneia in Cyprus. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 135. Sävedalen, Sweden: Åströms Förlag. Frankel, D., and J.M. Webb. 2012. Household continuity and transformation in a prehistoric Cypriot village. In B.J. Parker and C.P. Foster (eds.), New Perspectives on Household Archaeology, 473–500. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns. Frankel, D., and J.M. Webb. 2014. A potter’s workshop from Middle Bronze Age Cyprus: New light on production context, scale and variability. Antiquity 88: 425–440. Georgiou, G. 2006. H Τοπογραφία της Ανθρώπινης Εγκατάστασης στην Κύπρο κατά την Πρώιμη και Μέση Χαλκοκρατία. Unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Cyprus. Georgiou, G., J.M. Webb, and D. Frankel. 2011. Psematismenos Trelloukkas: An Early Bronze Age Cemetery in Cyprus. Nicosia: Department of Antiquities, Cyprus. Gjerstad, E. 1926. Studies on Prehistoric Cyprus. Stockholm: Uppsala University. Kantner, J. 2008. The archaeology of regions: From discrete analytical toolkit to ubiquitous spatial perspective. Journal of Archaeological Research 16: 37–81. Kempton, W. 1981. The Folk Classification of Ceramics: A Study of Cognitive Prototypes. New York: Academic Press. Knapp, A.B. 2008. Prehistoric and Protohistoric Cyprus: Identity, Insularity, and Connectivity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Knapp, A.B. 2013. The Archaeology of Cyprus: From Earliest Prehistory through the Bronze Age. New York: Cambridge University Press. London, G.A. 1991. Standardization and variation in the work of craft specialists. In W.A. Longacre (ed.), Ceramic Ethnoarchaeology, 182–204. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. Longacre, W.A. 1999. Standardization and specialization: What’s the link? In J.A. Skibo and G.M. Feinman (eds.), Pottery and People: A Dynamic Link, 44–58. Salt Lake City: University of Utah.

40 Keynote Manning, S.W. 2013a. Appendix: A new radiocarbon chronology for prehistoric and protohistoric Cyprus, ca. 11,000–1050 CalBC. In A.B. Knapp, The Archaeology of Cyprus: From Earliest Prehistory through the Bronze Age, 485–533. New York: Cambridge University Press. Manning, S.W. 2013b. Cyprus at 2200: Rethinking the chronology of the Early Cypriot Bronze Age. In A.B. Knapp, J.M. Webb, and A. McCarthy (eds.), J.R.B. Stewart: An Archaeological Legacy, 1–21. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 139. Uppsala, Sweden: Åströms Förlag. Manning, S.W. 2014. Timings and gaps in the early history of Cyprus and its copper trade: What these might tell us. In J.M. Webb (ed.), Structure, Measurement, and Meaning: Studies on Prehistoric Cyprus in Honour of David Frankel, 23–41. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 143. Uppsala, Sweden: Åströms Förlag. Meller, H., H.W. Arz, R. Jung, and R. Risch. (eds.) 2015. 2200 BC: A Climatic Breakdown as a Cause for the Collapse of the Old World? 7th Archaeological Conference of Central Germany October 23–26, 2014 in Halle (Saale). Tagungen des Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte Halle 12. Halle, Germany: Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte. Myres, J.L. 1926. Review of E. Gjerstad, Studies on Prehistoric Cyprus. Journal of Hellenic Studies 46: 289–291. Nelson, M.C., M. Hegmon, S.R. Kulow, M.A. Peeples, K.W. Kintigh, and A.P. Kinzig. 2011. Resisting diversity: A long-term archaeological study. Ecology and Society 16.1: 25 [online] URL: http:// www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol16/iss1/art25/. Peltenburg, E., D. Frankel, and C. Paraskeva. 2013a. Radiocarbon. In E. Peltenburg (ed.), ARCANE Associated Chronologies for the Ancient Near East and the Eastern Mediterranean II: Cyprus, 313–338. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols. Peltenburg, E., D. Frankel, and J.M. Webb. 2013b. Introduction. In E. Peltenburg (ed.), ARCANE Associated Chronologies for the Ancient Near East and the Eastern Mediterranean II: Cyprus, 1–13. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols. Philip, G. 1991. Cypriot bronzework in the Levantine world: Conservatism, innovation, and social change. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 4.1: 59–107. Read, D.W. 2007. Artifact Classification: A Conceptual and Methodological Approach. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast. Rice, P.M. 1991. Specialisation, standardisation, and diversity: A retrospective. In R.L. Bishop and F.W. Lange (eds.), The Ceramic Legacy of Anna O. Shepard, 257–279. Niwot: University Press of Colorado. Schiffer, M.B. 1976. Behavioral Archaeology. New York: Academic Press. Stanley Price, N.P. 1979. Early Prehistoric Settlement in Cyprus: A Review and Gazetteer of Sites, c.6500–3000 B.C. British Archaeological Reports International Series 65. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports. Stewart, E. 1999. Corpus of Cypriot Artefacts of the Early Bronze Age. Part 3.1 by James R. Stewart. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 3.3. Jonsered, Sweden: Paul Åströms Förlag. Stewart, E., and P. Åström. 1988. Corpus of Cypriot Artefacts of the Early Bronze Age. Part 1 by James R. Stewart. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 3.1. Göteborg, Sweden: Paul Åströms Förlag. Stewart, E., and P. Åström. 1992. Corpus of Cypriot Artefacts of the Early Bronze Age. Part 2 by James R. Stewart. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 3.2. Jonsered, Sweden: Paul Åströms Förlag. Stewart, J.R. 1962. The Early Cypriote Bronze Age. In P. Dikaios and J.R. Stewart, The Stone Age and the Early Bronze Age in Cyprus. Swedish Cyprus Expedition IV 1A, 205–401. Lund, Sweden: The Swedish Cyprus Expedition. Webb, J.M. 2006. Material culture and the value of context: A case study from Marki, Cyprus. In D. Papaconstantinou (ed.), Deconstructing Context: A Critical Approach to Archaeological Practice, 98–119. Oxford: Oxbow Books. Webb, J.M. 2009. Deneia: A Middle Cypriot site in its regional and historical context. In I. Hein (ed.), The Formation of Cyprus in the 2nd Millennium B.C. Studies in Regionalism during the Middle and Late Bronze Age, 27–37. Denkschriften der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Contributions to the Chronology of the Eastern Mediterranean XX: 15–25. Vienna: Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Webb, J.M. 2010. The ceramic industry of Deneia: Crafting community and place in Middle Bronze Age Cyprus. In D. Bolger and L.C. Maguire (eds.), The Development of Pre-State Communities in the Ancient Near East: Studies in Honour of Edgar Peltenburg, 174–182. Oxford: Oxbow Books.

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Webb, J.M. 2013. “The mantle of Vasilia”: Have Stewart’s views on the centrality of the copper trade in prehistoric Cyprus stood the test of time? In A.B. Knapp, J.M. Webb, and A. McCarthy (eds.), J.R.B. Stewart—An Archaeological Legacy, 59–71. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 139. Uppsala, Sweden: Åströms Förlag. Webb, J.M. 2014. Pottery production and distribution in prehistoric Bronze Age Cyprus: The long road from measurement to meaning. In J.M. Webb (ed.), Structure, Measurement, and Meaning: Studies on Prehistoric Cyprus in Honour of David Frankel, 213–227. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 143. Uppsala, Sweden: Åströms Förlag. Webb, J.M. 2016. Pots and people: An investigation of individual and collective identities in Early Bronze Age Cyprus. In M. Mina, S. Triantaphyllou, and Y. Papadatos (eds.), Embodied Identities in the Prehistoric Eastern Mediterranean: Convergence of Theory and Practice, Proceedings of a Conference on Cyprus, 10–12 April 2012, 55–62. Oxford: Oxbow Books. Webb, J.M. 2017a. Lapithos revisited: a fresh look at a key Middle Bronze Age site in Cyprus. In G. Bourogiannis and C. Mühlenbock (eds), Ancient Cyprus Today: Museum Collections and New Research. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology PB 184, 57–67. Uppsala, Sweden: Astrom Editions. Webb, J.M. 2017b. Vounoi (Vounous) and Lapithos in the Early and Middle Bronze Age: a reappraisal of the central north coast of Cyprus in the light of fieldwork and research undertaken since 1974. In D. Pilides and M. Mina (eds), Four Decades of Hiatus in Archaeological Research in Cyprus: Towards Restoring the Balance, Kypriaka – Forschungen zum Antiken Zypern: Studies on Ancient Cyprus 2, 128–139. Wien. Webb, J.M., and D. Frankel. 1999. Characterising the Philia facies. Material culture, chronology, and the origin of the Bronze Age in Cyprus. American Journal of Archaeology 103: 3–43. Webb, J.M., and D. Frankel. 2009. Exploiting a damaged and diminishing resource: Survey, sampling, and society at Bronze Age Deneia in Cyprus. Antiquity 83: 54–68. Webb, J.M., and D. Frankel. 2010. Social strategies, ritual, and cosmology in Early Bronze Age Cyprus: An investigation of burial data from the north coast. Levant 42: 185–209. Webb, J.M., and D. Frankel. 2012. Corpus of Cypriot Artefacts of the Early Bronze Age Part 4, by James R. Stewart. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 3.4. Uppsala, Sweden: Åströms Förlag. Webb, J.M., and D. Frankel. 2013a. Ambelikou Aletri: Metallurgy and Pottery Production in Middle Bronze Age Cyprus. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 138. Uppsala, Sweden: Åströms Förlag. Webb, J.M., and D. Frankel. 2013b. Cultural regionalism and divergent social trajectories in Early Bronze Age Cyprus. American Journal of Archaeology 117: 59–81. Webb, J.M., and D. Frankel. 2015. Coincident biographies: Bent and broken blades in Bronze Age Cyprus. In K. Harrell and J. Driessen (eds.), Thravsma: Contextualising the Intentional Destruction of Objects in the Bronze Age Aegean and Cyprus, 117–142. Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium: Presses universitaires de Louvain. Webb, J.M., D. Frankel, K.O. Eriksson, and J.B. Hennessy. 2009. The Bronze Age Cemeteries at Karmi Palealona and Lapatsa in Cyprus. Excavations by J.R.B. Stewart. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 136. Sävedalen, Sweden: Åströms Förlag. Webb, J.M., D. Frankel, S. Stos, and N. Gale. 2006. Early Bronze Age metal trade in the Eastern Mediterranean. New compositional and lead isotope evidence from Cyprus. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 25: 261–288. Weissner, P. 1983. Style and social information in Kalahari San projectile points. American Antiquity 48: 253–276.

PART I

The Context and Matter of Prehistory

1 The Middle Chalcolithic to Middle Bronze Age Chronology of Cyprus Refinements and Reconstructions CHARALAMBOS PARASKEVA

Introduction

Taking a step back and looking at the stories we weave about the past, one realizes that their most consistent element is that enigmatic essence holding together the fabric of reality, namely time. Inevitably this realization elevates time to one of the fundamental building blocks of archaeological argumentation and pari passu the starting point of any inquiry into the past (Piggott 1959: 51). Following this line of reasoning, the present study endeavors first to examine critically recent efforts at elucidating the chronology of the Middle Chalcolithic to Middle Bronze Age in Cyprus. Second, it aims to reconstruct and to refine the chronology of the island for the abovementioned periods based on absolute dating evidence, Bayesian analysis, and new directions in post-analytical comparison of chronological models. The Absolute Chronology of Prehistoric Cyprus: A Review of Recent Studies

Arguably, the onset of and ensuing enthusiasm over the third radiocarbon revolution (Bayliss 2009: 126–127) has brought about a new level of self-awareness for archaeology as a discipline and in parallel has led to a profusion of studies attempting to tackle difficult chronological issues (e.g., Manning et al. 2006; Bronk Ramsey et al. 2010; Manning 2014a). Indeed, it is now a commonplace observation that prior to the introduction of Bayesian analysis of radiocarbon dates, the majority of attempts at constructing chronological systems for prehistoric Cyprus had been utilizing relative data derived from comparative stratigraphy and ceramic seriation, whereas absolute dates were limited to the role of setting termini for periods or functioned as contributing arguments for the adoption or rejection of chronological schemata (Manning 2013a: 486; Peltenburg et al. 2013a: 7–9). The practice of using non-quantifiable relative dates for constructing chronologies in conjunction 45

Figure 1.1:  Selection of chronological systems for Middle Chalcolithic to Middle Bronze Age Cyprus.

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with competing theoretical positions of researchers resulted, on the one hand, in the development of incongruent chronological systems and conflicting periodization terminologies (Figure 1.1). On the other hand, it led to scholars avoiding the issue of temporal duration of social phenomena occurring on the island, particularly during transitional periods. Nonetheless, as the rightmost part of Figure 1.1 illustrates, recent work is addressing these concerns, and that work has been propelled by the proliferation of absolute dates, the utilization of Bayesian analysis for data calibration, and the modeling of absolute chronometric data by several recent chronology studies (Manning 2013a; 2013b; 2014b; Peltenburg et al. 2013b; earlier studies include Held 1989: 211–284; Manning and Swiny 1994; Clarke 2007: 9–29). The use of similar sets of absolute dates and the application of comparable statistical treatment methods within a common Bayesian analytical framework has led to less speculation on the order and relationships of cultural eras and more convergence of the period boundary values across the proposed chronological systems. In addition, the process of constructing chronologies is now more transparent and testable. Despite these positive steps, caution must be raised, as the resulting chronological models from recent contributions should not be considered as finite and perfected but rather as exploratory in nature. In this light, a critical review of the studies cited above, and several issues related to modeling is timely and appropriate, albeit not with the aim of annulling results but rather of detecting areas for improvement and new directions for research. If we start with issues that concern the radiocarbon data selected for incorporation in temporal models (note that OxCal terms, like Phase, Sequence, and so forth are used from here on with capitalization; for terminological clarification, see Bronk Ramsey 2009a; 2014), we observe that the studies under review typically assign samples in model Phases according to their original designation in equivalent cultural eras by the excavator of the site they derive from (Clarke 2007; Manning 2013a: 487, Sub Appendix I; 2013b: 15, Figure 10; 2014b: 221). Only in rare cases of problematic samples do the authors thoroughly examine the contextual information of the samples (Manning 2013a: 488; 2013b: 5–6; 2014b: 208–209). Further issues regarding data incorporation include the enforcement of excessively strict and inflexible criteria in the selection process (Peltenburg et al. 2013b: 313, 319; Manning 2013a: 487–488), the use of data from a single site for dating entire cultural periods (Peltenburg et al. 2013b: 334, Figure 9.14, 336–337), the use of original determination values that were later corrected for laboratory errors (Manning 2013a: 497, 499, 528; 2014b: 238), and the conflation of distinct cultural eras into single model Phases (Manning 2013a: 509–511, Figure A9). These practices can potentially alter the boundaries of modeled Phases by misattributing samples to the wrong phase. They can also lead to data exclusion when Outlier Analysis is performed or can cause erroneous calculations of the model Agreement Indices. Therefore, attention should shift to a closer examination of the contextual information of the data used for the construction of chronological systems. Turning to model design, the principal issue observed specifically for the timeframe of this study concerns the deployment of models employing a single set of assumptions, which leads to avoidance of model quality index cross-comparisons.

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For example, the team working in the ARCANE project employed a Sequential model, which produced very low Agreement Indices (Peltenburg et al. 2013b: 319, 333, Figure 9.13) and then reverted to a mixed Sequential-Overlapping model (Peltenburg et al. 2013b: 319, 332–338, Figures 9.14 and 9.15, Table 1) that due to software limitations does not produce Agreement Indices for comparisons. In another set of studies, Manning (2013a: 497–501; 2014b: 210–211) employed a Sequential model that was iterated eight and four times respectively, each time manually removing data that were in poor agreement with the model’s last iteration. Even though some data are indeed reconsidered between the studies, the overall approach, despite producing Agreement Indices, does not compare models employing different sets of assumptions but rather the same model with different datasets. In turn, this practice is not considered to produce directly comparable results (Thulman et al. 2013), especially since Outlier Analysis was not employed due to software and hardware limitations (Manning 2013a: 496; 2014b: 209–210). Generally, the above approaches did not produce models of different underlying logical assumptions in order to determine by comparison the most robust model to adopt, which means that their results are awaiting validation. Furthermore, these studies represent the first exploratory attempts at employing Bayesian analysis in the study of chronology on the island; and to a certain extent it is understood that a degree of vagueness is inherent within the datasets. One last issue with the modeling procedure has to do with model structure. More specifically, on several occasions scholars have attempted to incorporate site stratigraphy, namely nested models, within overarching models in order to elucidate the chronology of a region (Manning 2013a: 493, 510, Figure A9, 512, Figure A10, 514, Figure A11; 2013b: 15, Figure 10; 2014b: 221, Figure 2). Although it would be ideal to incorporate the stratigraphy of sites within models, at present this is problematic for two reasons: a. When the stratigraphy of a long-lived site spans two or more Phases/ Sequences in the overarching model, where the latter represent distinct cultural eras, then that stratigraphy essentially becomes truncated, and the relationship between site phases becomes dependent on the boundaries of the overarching model rather than the boundaries of the individual site phases. Moreover, at present there is no mathematical calculation method nor programming instruction that allows the preservation of the stratigraphy of a site that breaks across two or more cultural phases. It is therefore considered difficult to create models that incorporate the stratigraphy of long-lived sites, when trying to elucidate the chronology of multiple cultural periods on a regional scale. Beyond improvements of the technical implementation of Bayesian analysis in the study of chronology, one possible avenue moving forward is the construction of site-specific models incorporating stratigraphy and their cross-comparison with overarching models to exhibit the relevance of long-lived sites to proposed chronological schemata (see for example the discussion in Manning 2014b: 212–215).

Figure 1.2:  Explanation of the stepwise calculation procedure for models that include nested models. Gray boxes indicate data ignored during calculation; white boxes indicate data used during calculation.

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b. When there is a nested model within an overarching one, the MCMC (Markov Chain Monte Carlo) algorithm employed in OxCal first processes the nested models and then the overarching model. Furthermore, due to the limitations of the Chronological Query Language, the samples included in the nested model are not reprocessed for the purposes of the overarching one, and only their Boundaries are considered (Bronk Ramsey 2001: 359), as the latter supersede the sample functions in the programming code (Figure 1.2). This limitation can often be a complication, as Boundaries are not probability distributions based on actual raw data but calculated probability distributions based on the relationship of prior probabilities and sets of parameters initially assigned by the user (Bronk Ramsey 1995: 427; 2014). In order to observe the effect of nested model Boundaries to overarching model Boundaries, a small-scale experiment with simulated data was performed in OxCal 4.2.3, where an identical set of data was applied in two Sequential models, one of which used a nested model to represent the hypothetical stratigraphy of a site. Both models were iterated three times, each time lowering by one hundred years the dates of the samples included in the second overarching model Phase. The expected outcome for both models was that the lower Boundary of the first Phase of the overarching model would be lowered with each iteration but would remain approximately the same for both models. Contrary to expectations, the first Phase of the overarching model Boundary in the model using a nested model was consistently lower than the equivalent Boundary in the model using data without modifications (Figure 1.3).

Figure 1.3:  Illustration of the effect of model nesting on Phase boundaries based on simulated data.

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This experiment suggests that when using nested models, there is a genuine risk of inserting nonexistent data into the overarching model, which can affect the calculation of its Boundaries and eventually alter the boundaries of the cultural eras that the latter model is attempting to trace. Therefore, nesting models within complex overarching models with a view of reconstructing the chronology of a region should be used with the utmost caution, and their results should be tested via simulations to measure and if possible to quantify the effects of model nesting. To conclude this critical assessment of the latest contributions to prehistoric chronology, it is important to stress that despite their deficiencies, they indeed constitute an important departure from older practices and should therefore be considered as harbingers of a new era in chronology studies on Cyprus. Data and Methodology

Prior to presenting the methodology of the study, I consider it useful to clarify that this paper is building on past work within the ARCANE project (Associated Regional Chronologies for the Ancient Near East; Peltenburg et al. 2013b), while essentially updating the data pool employed within my doctoral work. I therefore do not repeat here a lengthy discussion on the samples, their contexts and attribution to cultural periods, and the pre-modeling data quality analysis. Instead, this section focuses on the new data that have been found in relevant literature as well as on the methodology of the modeling phase. Starting with the newly discovered radiocarbon data, a set of thirty-five samples from five sites is now integrated into the body of data used in the study, which raises the total number of samples for the Middle Chalcolithic to Middle Bronze Age timeframe to 149. More precisely, nine dates come from Politiko Troullia (Falconer and Fall 2013: 106, Table 1; Falconer et al. 2014: 7, Table 1), ten from Pyrgos Mavrorachi (Calderoni 2009: 190), seven from Erimi Laonin tou Porakou Cemetery (Sciré Calabrisotto et al. 2013: 476, Table 1), six from Lophou Kolaouzou (Sciré Calabrisotto et al. 2013: 477, Table 2), and three from Episkopi Phaneromeni (Fishman et al. 1977: 189; see map in Figure 1.4). It is useful to bear in mind that the above information is found mostly in preliminary publications, which do not offer a thorough presentation of site stratigraphy and therefore cannot be assessed in depth. Nevertheless, the new data have been examined in terms of content, sample material, and context, when information is available. Looking at the new data in toto, we can observe at first that they temporally range from the Philia Culture Phase to the end of the Middle Bronze Age. It is particularly significant that there is at least one new Philia Culture Phase determination from the site of Pyrgos (Calderoni 2009: 190, no. 1538, 193), while the rest of the data mostly regard the ending of the Early Bronze Age and provide further data for the elucidation of the Middle Bronze Age on Cyprus. Contextually, the data from Politiko, Pyrgos, and Episkopi are associated with relatively mixed domestic and industrial contexts that are prone to disturbances due to formation processes, while the remainder of the data from Lophou and Erimi come from closed or disturbed mortuary contexts, namely sealed or looted tombs. In terms of dating techniques, the Politiko, Erimi, and Lophou samples are AMS-dated (Accelerator Mass Spectrometer; Sciré

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Figure 1.4:  Map of the sites mentioned in text. Created by C. Kearns, basemap provided by the Geological Survey Department of Cyprus.

Calabrisotto et al. 2013: 474; Falconer et al. 2014: 4), while the samples from Pyrgos and Episkopi have been dated using LSC (Liquid Scintillation Counting; Fishman et al. 1977: 188; Calderoni 2009: 189). In terms of material, the samples can be divided into three groups, viz. long-lived charcoal samples, mid-lived human bone collagen samples, and short-lived seed samples. Using the above classification there are three charcoal and six seed samples from Politiko (Falconer et al. 2014: 7, Table 1), seven and six bone collagen samples from Erimi and Lophou, respectively (Sciré Calabrisotto et al. 2013: 476, Table 1, 477, Table 2) three charcoal samples from Episkopi (Fishman et al. 1977: 189), and finally one short-lived organic matter and nine charcoal/ash/burnt earth samples from Pyrgos (Calderoni 2009: 189–190). Moving to a more detailed examination of the data, it is observed that the Politiko samples, even though they derive from two spatially distant locales (East and West) of the same Early to Middle Bronze Age settlement site, cluster well together and cover a relatively short span of time between ca. 2140–1875 BCE at the one-sigma confidence interval with sub-range likelihood probabilities above 10 percent. Furthermore, the statement that Politiko East Phase E1 and Politiko West Phase W2 and W1 are roughly contemporaneous (Falconer et al. 2014: 4) should be reconsidered. On the one hand, differences in the ceramic assemblages have already been noted

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(Falconer et al. 2014: 4), while on the other hand, the radiocarbon data accentuate the latter differences by splitting into two distinct groups, when modeled in OxCal. One group is formed by the Politiko West Phases W1 to W3 and represents the Early Bronze Age–Middle Bronze Age I component of the site and another is formed by the Politiko East Phase E1 and embodies the Middle Bronze Age II–III. Beyond the subtle differences upon modeling, another factor that should be considered is the fact that all Politiko West samples are short-lived seeds, while all the Politiko East samples are carbonized pine wood; that is, they potentially carry an in-built age element. Based on this observation, it is highly probable that the Politiko East samples are elevating the calendric ranges of the associated E1 site phase, which in effect does not correspond to the archaeological reality. As a corollary to this, it is maintained that the E1 phase radiocarbon dates provide a good TPQ (terminus post quem) for the Middle Bronze Age on the site, partially contradict the argument for its contemporaneity with W1 to W2, and possibly provide evidence for settlement drift at the Early to Middle Bronze Age transition. Another set of wood charcoal dates that are possibly affected by in-built age derive from Episkopi. These dates span between ca. 2200–1750 BCE, Early Bronze I to Middle Bronze III, which is considered a rather long and problematic span of time for a settlement site that is thought to be of Middle Bronze III and Late Bronze IA periods based on ceramic typology (Weinberg 1956; Swiny 1989: 14). In addition to this disparity, all the samples have been located inside deteriorating or collapsed domestic units (Fishman et al. 1977: 189), which inevitably signifies disturbance of the stratigraphy. Observing the depth of discovery and radiocarbon age of the samples in more detail, an inverse relationship is evident, where the samples from the deeper layers provide younger radiocarbon ages and vice versa. This stratigraphic inversion has been noticed in the past at the site of Kissonerga Mosphilia (Peltenburg 1998: 37, Figure 3.5; Peltenburg et al. 2013b: 324) and could possibly indicate collapse of a roof constructed from timbers predating the beginning of the domestic unit’s lifetime. Unfortunately, the stratigraphy for Episkopi has not yet appeared in the literature (Peltenburg 1988: 261), so these hypotheses cannot be tested. Nonetheless, based on the material, limited contextual information, and calibrated ranges of the dates, samples P-2387 and P-2388 are considered to form a rather uncertain TPQ for the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age II. The early P-2386 date is designated as a probable outlier and can be conceived as either wood dating to the initial construction phase of the domestic unit before the beginning of Middle Bronze Age I or old wood reused for the construction or repair of the roof whose time of felling/ collection dates to the Early Bronze Age. The next pair of sites under examination are Erimi and Lophou, which have produced the first sets of radiocarbon samples from bone collagen for the specific timeframe of the present study. Data from Erimi derive from undisturbed tombs 228, 230, and 248 (Bombardieri 2009: 286–287; Sciré Calabrisotto et al. 2013: 476), while the data from Lophou derive from tombs 8, 15, 20, and 21, which are probably looted, as most tombs at this cemetery are reportedly “interfered with by clandestine digging or by recent bulldozing operations” (Sciré Calabrisotto et al. 2013: 477). In terms of relative dating, the Erimi cemetery is generally dated to the

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Middle Bronze Age III to Late Bronze Age I (Bombardieri 2009: 287–288), with some tombs dating even earlier to Early Bronze Age III–Middle Bronze Age I–II (Sciré Calabrisotto et al. 2013: 476). The Lophou cemetery is dated between Early Bronze Age I and Middle Bronze Age III (Sciré Calabrisotto et al. 2013: 477). As the finds from each tomb are not yet published, the excavator’s attribution of tombs to cultural periods is accepted, and the relevant radiocarbon data are allocated in the models based on these designations. Beyond the inherent difficulties regarding the use of bone collagen for radiocarbon dating (Hedges and van Klinken 1992; Fiedel et al. 2013; Zazzo et al. 2013), samples T228_3 and LT8_2 are ab initio rejected as extreme outliers, since they produced radiocarbon ages 1000–1500 years lower than the bottom margin of the timeframe explored in this study, while LT 8_2 is designated as a probable outlier for the same reason. The last site providing radiocarbon data for this study is the Early to Middle Bronze Age site of Pyrgos. Ten dates spanning from the Philia Culture Phase to the end of Middle Bronze Age I upon calibration have been reported with limited contextual information (Calderoni 2009: 190) and loosely assigned to cultural phases by the excavator (Belgiorno et al. 2010). The validity of their attribution to cultural periods, however, is difficult to assess due to the scarcity of information on the stratigraphy and pottery typology of the site. Despite the above limitations, at least one sample described as charcoal, found in the central perforation of a Philia Culture Phase spindle whorl (Calderoni 2009: 193, sample 1538), can with some reservation be assigned to the Philia Culture Phase. Hesitation stems from the fact that the date carries a wide uncertainty value, which elongates its calibrated calendrical range from ca. 2855–2340 BCE and indicates laboratory issues with sample size or contaminants. Its importance, however, cannot be ignored, as it is the first site aside from Marki Alonia with absolute dating data contextually associated and temporally correlating well with the Philia Culture Phase, as the single date (GU-2167) from Kissonerga Mosphilia previously attributed to the Philia Culture Phase (Peltenburg 1998: 14, 20) has been reassigned to the Late Chalcolithic after assessment of the stratigraphy and associated material culture of the sample’s context (Peltenburg et al. 2013b: 324). In addition to the above, the calibrated ranges for samples 1501, 1502, and 1504 may potentially represent the transition between Early Bronze Age III/Middle Bronze Age I to Middle Bronze Age II–III, as their calibrated ranges fall well within the boundaries of this transition, and at least sample 1502 lies contextually only 10 centimeters below the soil surface of the site (Calderoni 2009: 192), thus dating the uppermost (later) phases of the site. Finally, sample 1539 has been discarded as an extreme outlier, since it produced a radiocarbon age about a millennium earlier than any other sample and is also accompanied by a very wide two-hundred-year band of statistical uncertainty. Although this may indicate habitation on the site at a much earlier time, viz. the Early or Middle Chalcolithic, there is at present no material evidence to support this hypothesis. Having presented the body of new data incorporated into the study, I now shift attention to the methodology employed in this study. The principal aim is not to trace the boundaries of individual site phases but to elucidate the boundaries of the overarching cultural periods by approximation and to the degree possible based on the available data. This decision implicitly involves a series of actions on the part of

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the researcher, which include the following and are addressed in the remainder of this section: a. Conceptual division of the timeframe into logical management units, which correspond to cultural periods in the archaeological literature, mapping of the former units onto the latter periods, and attribution of the data to the relevant units. b. Programming and execution of multiple models, which utilize identical initial datasets but employ different assumptions and parameters. c. Parallel to the above, planning for a method to statistically assess data that present low agreement with the chronological models. Beginning with the conceptual division of the timeframe into management units, I decided to employ a descriptive cultural-historical-inspired schema, although without adhering to the limitations of the Three Age System, such as the constraint of periods within strict, non-overlapping boundaries and their subdivision to evolutionary triplets. In other words, the terms employed are not meant to connote specific cultural periods or subdivisions of periods but rather serve as a bridge between the virtual grouping function of popular terminology of the past and their actual postterminological function as conceptual vessels for inputting data. Table 1.1 below lists the names of the cultural phases utilized during modeling and explains their

Table 1.1:  Concordance of terminology between the current study and prominent chronological systems in the archaeological literature of Cyprus

Current study

Steel 2004: 13, Table 1.1

Keswani 2004: 186, Table 1.1

Peltenburg et al. 2013b: 2, Table 1.1

Knapp 2013: 27, Table 2

Middle Chalcolithic Equivalent to Middle Chalcolithic

Partly equivalent with Chalcolithic

Equivalent to ECY 1

Equivalent to Middle Chalcolithic

Late Chalcolithic

Equivalent to Late Chalcolithic

Partly equivalent with Chalcolithic

Equivalent to ECY 2

Equivalent to Late Chalcolithic

Philia Culture Phase

Equivalent to Philia/ Pre-BA I

Equivalent to Philia

Equivalent to ECY 3

Equivalent to Pre-BA 1/Philia

Early Bronze Age I–III/Middle Bronze Age I (=EBA I–III/ MBA I)

Partly equivalent to Pre-BA II

Equivalent to EC I, EC II, EC IIIA, EC IIIB, MC I

Equivalent to ECY 4, ECY 5

Equivalent to Pre-BA 1/EC I–II and partly equivalent to Pre-BA 2/EC III–MC I–II

Middle Bronze Age II–III (=MBA II–III)

Partly equivalent to Pre-BA II

Equivalent to MC II, MC III

N/A

Partly equivalent to Pre-BA 2/EC III–MC I–II and partly equivalent to Pro BA 1/MC III–LC I

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relation as cultural concepts to terms already employed in other chronological systems, even if the temporal boundaries of the periods are not in agreement (see e.g., Frankel in this volume). Concurrent with the construction of the conceptual template of the study, the totality of the data available was assigned into the abovementioned cultural periods. Table 1.2 below lists 149 samples representing the sum of available samples, relevant

Table 1.2:  Data incorporated in the models of the present study divided by model Phases

representing cultural eras. Data listed include site and site phase abbreviations, sample laboratory code, radiocarbon date in 14C years BP and uncertainty. Samples excluded as extreme outliers, site abbreviations, and citations to the sources of information for all data are listed in the lower part of the table. Middle Chalcolithic - 26 Samples KVP - P-2980, 4330, 80 KM 3B - BM-2526, 4690, 70 KM 3B - BM-2528, 4600, 60 KM 3B - OxA-2963, 4520, 80 KM 3B - BM-2568, 4490, 50 KM 3B - OxA-2962, 4370, 70 KM 3B - OxA-2961, 4310, 75 KM 3B - OxA-2162, 4300, 80 KM 3B - OxA-2161, 4290, 80 KM 3B - GU-2968, 4240, 100 KM 3B - GU-2168, 4210, 105 KM 3B - GU-2426, 3880, 100 LL 2 - BM-2278R, 4090, 120

KA 1 - BM-1833R, 5000, 170 KA 1 - BM-1836R, 4700, 310 KMyl 3 - OxA-7463, 4710, 50 KMyl 3 - OxA-7462, 4650, 50 KM 3A - AA-10497, 4605, 55 LL 1 - BM-1543, 5000, 260 EP 2 - St-202, 4630, 80 EP 2 - St-203, 4540, 80 EP 2 - St-338, 4540, 80 KAD - Lu-1695, 4410, 60 SA - OxA-20926, 4127, 31 SL 1 - SUERC-18273, 4525, 35 SL 1 - SUERC-18272, 4465, 35 Late Chalcolithic - 33 Samples

SL 2 - SUERC-15048, 4195, 35 SL 2 - SUERC-15049, 4165, 35 SL 2 - SUERC-15044, 4130, 35 KM 4 - AA-10496, 4285, 60 KM 4 - GU-2537, 4020, 110 KM 4 - GU-2536, 4170, 80 KM 4 - GU-2155, 4250, 170 KM 4 - GU-2158, 4220, 75 KM 4 - OxA-2960, 4220, 70 KM 4 - BM-2279R, 4180, 130 KM 4 - BM-2529, 4160, 50 KM 4 - BM-2527, 4130, 50 KM 4 - GU-2535, 4070, 130 KM 4 - BM-2530, 3960, 80 KM 4 - GU-2157, 3900, 50 KM 4 - GU-2167, 3990, 50

PK - OZK-147, 4260, 60 PK - OZK-140, 4220, 60 PK - OZK-137, 4210, 60 PK - OZK-142, 4210, 60 PK - OZK-145, 4200, 60 PK - OZK-139, 4190, 70 PK - OZK-141, 4180, 70 PK - OZK-144, 4180, 70 PK - OZK-148, 4170, 60 PK - Wk-18983, 4151, 38 PK - OZK-138, 4090, 60 PK - OZK-143, 4090, 60 LL 3 - BM-1542, 3890, 50 LL 3 - BM-1541A, 3970, 45 LL 3 - BM-1541, 4000, 45 LL 3 - BM-1354, 4050, 50 LL 3 - BM-1353, 4090, 90 Philia Culture Phase - 7 Samples MA A-B - Beta-138630, 3780, 30 MA A-B - Beta-138629, 3780, 30 MA A-B - Beta-100553, 3810, 50 MA A-B - OZB-162, 3892, 39

MA A-B - OZB-161, 3886, 42 MA A-B - OZB-163, 3834, 42 PM - No. 1538, 4005, 130

Early Bronze Age I–III - Middle Bronze Age I - 45 Samples PM - No. 1489, 3705, 55 PM - No. 1490, 3640, 55 PM - No. 1500, 3680, 50 PM - No. 1501, 3620, 50 PM - No. 1502, 3570, 50 PM - No. 1503, 3765, 55 PM - No. 1504, 3600, 70 PM - No. 1537, 3720, 55 MA E-F - OZA-334, 3550, 50 MA E-F - OZA-340, 3740, 40 MA E-F - OZB-160, 3675, 118 MA E-F - OZA-279U, 3645, 95 PT W - AA-94183, 3665, 38 PT W - AA-101943, 3622, 44 PT W - AA-94184, 3630, 38 PT W - AA-101942, 3632, 45 PT W - AA-94185, 3688, 38 PT W - AA-101941, 3650, 44 AA - Lu-1694, 3660, 55 AA - Lu-1726, 3630, 55 ELPC - T248_1, 3620, 40 ELPC - T248_2, 3570, 55

SK 1-2 - OxA-3308, 3890, 90 SK 1-2 - OxA-3311, 3890, 100 SK 1-2 - OxA-3545, 3860, 75 SK 1-2 - OxA-3547, 3860, 80 SK 1-2 - OxA-3544, 3840, 75 SK 1-2 - OxA-3548, 3800, 75 SK 1-2 - OxA-3309, 3780, 90 SK 1-2 - OxA-3310, 3780, 90 SK 1-2 - OxA-3546, 3760, 75 SK 1-2 - OxA-3312, 3690, 100 MA C-D - OZA-338, 3770, 50 MA C-D - Wk-166434, 3597, 39 MA C-D - OZA-344, 3770, 50 MA C-D - OZA-339, 3720, 50 MA C-D - OZA-337, 3670, 50 MA C-D - OZA-336, 3650, 50 MA C-D - OZA-342, 3700, 40 ELP - Ch_us391, 3750, 30 ELP - Ch_us392, 3795, 35 LK - LT15_1, 3685, 40 LK - LT15_2, 3685, 40 LK - LT20_2, 3710, 45 PTr - OxA-14952, 3709, 35

Middle Bronze Age II–III - 17 Samples EPh - P-2387, 3620, 60 EPh - P-2388, 3520, 70 LK - LT21, 3445, 45 LK - LT8_2, 3015, 75 ELPC - T228_1, 3145, 30 ELPC - T230_1_fa, 3500, 65 ELPC - T230_1_o, 3450, 55 ELPC - T230_2, 3240, 40

AM - Beta-82994, 3610, 60 AM - ETH-210, 3500, 120 AM - ETH-206, 3440, 140 PT E - AA-101939, 3562, 44 PT E - AA-94182, 3600, 37 PT E - AA-101940, 3661, 44 MA I-H - Beta-50757, 3460, 90 MA I-H - Beta-50756, 3480, 80 EPh - P-2386, 3720, 70 Extreme outliers - 21 Samples

MA - OZA-345, 3730, 50 MA - OZB-159, 3764, 50 MA - OZA-281U, 1038, 44 MA - OZA-341, 2830, 40 MA - OZA-343, 2750, 40 ELP - Ch_us394, 1000, 35 AM - Beta-82995, 3970, 90 PM - No. 1539, 5170, 200 ELPC - T228_3, 2140, 50 LK - LT8_1, 2580, 60

KM - GU-2967, 5540, 110 KM - GU-2966, 5620, 60 LL - BM-2280R, 5890, 120 LL - HAR-6173, 4280, 100 SK - ETH-6659, 3445, 70 SK - ETH-6660, 2715, 65 SK - ETH-6661, 3100, 80 SK - ETH-6662, 3225, 75 SK - ETH-6663, 3460, 60 MA - OZA-280U, 4394, 58 MA - OZA-335, 330, 35 Site abbreviations and references KA: Kalavasos-Ayious

Burleigh et al. 1982b: 274; Bowman et al. 1990: 72, Table 2A; Todd 2004a: 218–219, Table 44

KMyl: Kissonerga-Mylouthkia

Peltenburg 2003: 259, Table 24.2 (Continued)

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Table 1.2:—cont.

Site abbreviations and references LL: Lemba-Lakkous

Burleigh 1981: 21; Burleigh et al. 1982a: 238; Peltenburg 1982: 112, Table 1; Peltenburg 1985: 16, Table 2; Ambers et al. 1987: 68; Bowman et al. 1990: 72; Peltenburg 1991a: 10.

EP: Erimi-Pamboula

Östlund 1957: 496; Östlund 1959: 43; Dikaios 1962: 198

KAD: Kythrea-Ayios Dhimitrianos

Håkansson 1981: 402

SA: Stroumpi-Ayios Andronikos

Ammerman et al. 2009: 27

SL: Souskiou-Laona

Peltenburg et al. 2013b: 317, Table 9.1

KVP: Kalavasos-Village/Panagia Church

Hurst and Lawn 1984: 214; Todd 1986: 28, 183; Todd 2004b: 108

KM: Kissonerga-Mosphilia

Ambers et al. 1987: 68; Bowman et al. 1990: 72; Ambers et al. 1991: 60; Peltenburg 1991a: 10; Hedges et al. 1992: 351; Peltenburg 1998: 12–14, Table 2.3

PK: Politiko-Kokkinorotsos

Webb et al. 2009: 192, Table 1

MA: Marki-Alonia

Frankel and Webb 1996: 270, Table 4.5; Frankel and Webb 2006a: 37, Table 3.3

PM: Pyrgos-Mavrorachi

Calderoni 2009: 190

SK: Sotira-Kaminoudhia

Swiny 1986: 41; Hedges et al. 1993: 321; Manning and Swiny 1994: 157, Table 1, 158, Table 2

PTr: PsematismenosTrelloukkas

Manning and Sewell 2006: 67-68

ELP: Erimi-Laonin tou Porakou

Sciré Calabrisotto et al. 2012: 479, Table 1

PT: Politiko-Troullia

Falconer et al. 2014: 7, Table 1

LK: Lophou-Kolaouzou

Sciré Calabrisotto et al. 2013: 477, Table 2

AA: Ambelikou-Aletri

Håkansson 1981: 402

ELPC: Erimi-Laonin tou Porakou Cemetery

Sciré Calabrisotto et al. 2013: 476, Table 1

AM: Alambra-Mouttes

Coleman 1992a: 286; Coleman 1992b: 225; Coleman et al. 1996: 339, Table 29

EPh: Episkopi-Phaneromeni

Fishman et al. 1977: 189

* Alphanumeric characters following the site abbreviation represent site phases or other subdivisions of the site data pool into discrete temporal entities.

and known to the author, of which 128 are further allocated to cultural periods for modeling, while 21 (14.1%) are rejected as extreme outliers based on the outlier determination process advanced in the study and explained later in this section. It is noted that the main reason for designation of extreme outliers are the errors associated with laboratory procedures. Following data allocation is the modeling stage, which demands the selection of a software package for the analysis and then construction of chronological models based on sets of prior assumptions incorporated to the latter as core structure and added parameters. OxCal 4.2.3 was the software package selected for its analytical abilities in computing complex Bayesian probabilistic models

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(Bronk Ramsey 2009a; 2014), the utilization of the most recent calibration curve (IntCal13; Reimer et al. 2013), and the depth of model parameterization it allows. In terms of core structure and common parameterization, I decided to run two models based on different underlying logical assumptions, to integrate the 128 samples selected as suitable for modeling into the overarching model Phases by assuming that they are free-floating data without constraints or grouping functions and to avoid nesting models that represent site stratigraphy for the reasons explained in the previous section. Also, Outlier Analysis was performed for eliminating suspect data according to the outlier determination process proposed later in this section, while the basic models were iterated at least once for removal of the abovementioned outlying data. Finally, an After function and a 0.25 outlier probability value was assigned to the entire dataset of Sotira Kaminoudhia to counteract the effects of in-built age and wide uncertainty affecting these samples (see Peltenburg et al. 2013b: 328). Regarding the latter choice, it is noted that, while it is a posteriori recognized that the Charcoal Plus outlier model would potentially be a more suitable instrument for examining these dates (Dee and Bronk Ramsey 2014), at the time the research for this paper was being conducted, it had not yet become ­available. Based on the above parameters and limitations the following models were programmed and executed: Model 1: Contiguous Uniform Phases model bounded by simple Boundaries (Bronk Ramsey 2009a: 349, Figure 6), viz. it expects that there are probably short transitional periods between the cultural phases, but no gaps or significant overlaps. It also employs a General Outlier Analysis model for 28 samples (Bronk Ramsey 2009b: 1028). Model 1+: Identical to the above, but with 18 samples removed as the previous Outlier Analysis indicated they are likely Outliers. The Outlier command is still attached to 5 samples to allow their inclusion by model averaging (Bronk Ramsey 2009b: 1042, Figure 9c). Model 2: Overlapping Uniform Phases model bounded by simple Boundaries (Bronk Ramsey 2009a: 349, Figure 6), viz. it expects that there are probably significant overlaps between cultural phases, but no gaps. It also employs a General Outlier Analysis model for 28 samples (Bronk Ramsey 2009b: 1028). Model 2+: Identical to the above, but with 18 samples removed as the previous. Outlier Analysis indicated they are definite Outliers. The Outlier command is still attached to 6 samples to allow their inclusion by model averaging (Bronk Ramsey 2009b: 1042, Figure 9c). Execution of the above models was successful, as all models ran at least twice and converged to their results after 6–8 million MCMC iterations, without reporting any issues or presenting irregular results. At this point, one may wonder why Outlier Analysis was not performed on all data, which is recommended for models for which there are samples that may or may not relate to the timing of the phase being dated (Bronk Ramsey 2009b: 1024).

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The answer to the above is that Outlier Analysis may indeed be a very useful tool for assessing whether the samples fit the models but is also a highly demanding tool in terms of computational power (see the identical situation in Manning 2013a: 496). Given that OxCal currently is a 32-bit software performing calculations on a single core, it becomes impossible for a large and complex model to finish running. An experimental version of Model 1 with Outlier Analysis enabled for all samples was attempted but was stopped after nearly six days and 60 million MCMC iterations, as the model was converging and progressing very slowly. In that order, an outlier determination method needed to be developed, with the aim of bridging the gap between arbitrary manual rejection and statistical rejection via Outlier Analysis in OxCal. Similar subjective methods for data evaluation have already been proposed by Manning (2013a: 490, Figure A2, 497–500; 2014b: 209–210) but are considered unsuitable for the purposes of this study for two reasons: a. Setting arbitrary and extensive limits to discover extreme outliers (Manning 2013a: 490, Figure A2) does not consider the temporal length of cultural periods; in other words it does not scale appropriately. A 1000-calendar-year-wide band around a moving average of calibrated data may be a suitable instrument for detecting extreme outliers for long periods, such as the Neolithic or the Middle Chalcolithic, but fails to detect such outliers for shorter periods, such as the Philia Culture Phase, the Early Bronze Age, and even the Late Chalcolithic. b. Excluding dates based solely on their Agreement Index to the model (Manning 2013a: 497–500; 2014b: 209–210) is not advised, as the index is directly influenced by the core structure and underlying assumptions of the model and not the factual relationship between the samples grouped within a Phase. Effectively, if the model structure changes or if constraints and functions are used, the Agreement Index also shifts. Furthermore, this tends to affect mostly data lying at the edge of phases, which can potentially result in the rejection of data that are useful for detecting the duration of transitions or overlaps between cultural periods. In order to more effectively contend with the above issues, I employed a novel approach to outlying data. The basic assumption of the method is that relative dating chronological periods may be wrong but are not importantly wrong, so that the boundaries for the cultural periods need refinement and not total revision. Correspondingly, the boundaries proposed by the most prominent chronological systems were merged to produce the minimum and maximum duration of each period (Peltenburg 1998: 258, Table 14.8; Steel 2004: 13, Table 1.1; Knapp 2008: 71, Table 1; 2013: 27, Table 2; Manning 2013a: 521, Table A2; Peltenburg et al. 2013a: 2, Table 1.1). Following this, a variable distance or extension zone was established by halving the maximum duration of each archaeological period, which was then attached at both ends of the cultural period under examination. The only exception is the Middle Bronze Age II–III Phase, which was given an extension period at its lower boundary equal to the maximum duration of the concomitant cultural period due to the less well-defined character of the Middle Bronze Age to Late Bronze Age

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transition. In the next step, the calibrated date ranges were plotted against these cultural period boundaries with their extension zones to assess the data for fitness. The evaluation system set forth generated the following ranges: • Ranges with 50 percent or more of their cumulative probabilities lying within the already established period durations were considered safe and were not subjected to Outlier Analysis during modeling. • Ranges with 50 percent or more of their cumulative probabilities lying within the 50 percent of the extension zone close to a cultural period’s upper or lower boundary were considered as probable outliers and assigned a 0.25 probability value in the Outlier Analysis during modeling. If the Outlier Analysis exhibited a high agreement to the prior probability assigned, the date was discarded prior to model re-run. • Ranges with 50 percent or more of their cumulative probabilities lying above the 50 percent of the extension zone close to a cultural period’s upper or lower boundary but within the extension zone boundaries were considered as highly probable outliers and assigned a 0.5 probability value in the Outlier Analysis during modeling. If the Outlier Analysis exhibited a high agreement to the prior probability assigned, the date was discarded prior to model re-run. • Ranges with 50 percent or more of their cumulative probabilities lying beyond the extension zones of the cultural periods were considered as extreme outliers and were manually removed prior to any modeling (Bronk Ramsey 1995: 425; 2009b: 1024–1025). The practical application of the proposed outlier detection process resulted to the designation of three samples as extreme outliers and twenty-eight samples as probable or highly probable outliers (Figure 1.5). One final query that needs to be addressed before presenting the results of models regards the conscious choice of not using the prevalent type of Sequential Uniform Phases model (see applications by Manning 2013a; 2013b; 2014b; Peltenburg et al. 2013b: 319, 333, Figure 9.13) as a third alternative model type for comparative purposes. To tackle this issue, it is necessary to state that a wide and in-depth experiment employing twenty-eight models of various structure (Contiguous, Overlapping, Sequential; Bronk Ramsey 2014) and boundary (Simple and Trapezoidal) types has already been performed within my doctoral thesis; as the results of that study are not the topic of the present paper, they are not repeated here. However, based on the experience gained and the similarity of the present approach to the above, it is safe to exclude Sequential Uniform Phases models, as the latter are unsuitable for modeling the relative cultural periods of this timeframe. The principal issue with these types of models is that they presuppose the existence of gaps between the periods being modeled, while the cultural periods in question and the archaeological reality of Cyprus portray either direct succession or in certain cases overlap of the cultural periods. This reality is also reflected in the post-analysis of the doctoral thesis, where I visually demonstrated that Sequential models underperform

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Figure 1.5:  Cross-plotting of calibrated date ranges and cultural period ranges with respective upper and lower extension zones. Outlying date ranges are named and coded as follows: black dots = Middle Chalcolithic; light grey dots = Late Chalcolithic; dark gray and black checkered dots = Philia Culture Phase; dotted white dots = EBA I–III/MBA I; striped white dots = MBA II–III. Extreme outliers omitted, as they extend beyond the x-axis margins.

in relation to Contiguous and Overlapping models when the exact same initial data set is employed, while they only become equally or more successful when data can be rejected based on low Agreement Indices. However, in the latter case the Sequential models tend to function in a procrustean manner by rejecting nearly four times more data than Contiguous and Overlapping models in order to produce equal or slightly better Model and Overall Agreement Indices. Ultimately, these tests prove that Sequential models are more inflexible and less robust and thus less suitable for answering the questions posed in this study. Consequent to this, Sequential models have not been employed.

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Results and Discussion

As noted above, the execution of the initial and re-run models was successful and did not produce errors or aberrant results in the repeat runs of each model. Additionally, the initial run of models provided the necessary statistical evidence for the rejection of eighteen dates as certain outliers, which resulted in greater clarity regarding the boundaries of cultural periods in the re-run models. Table 1.3 summarizes the results for the ranges and boundaries of each cultural period by model at one-sigma distance, while Figure 1.6 illustrates the four models and the non-modeled calibrated ranges (Model 0) for comparative purposes. Before discussing the results of the models, it becomes critical to assess model fitness and robustness in terms of Model and Overall Agreement Indices and in conjunction with the Rejection Rate after the application of Outlier Analysis. The initial models, viz. Models 1 and 2, have produced expectedly low and borderline unacceptable values (Bronk Ramsey 1995: 428; 2009a: 357) in the range of 55.4–73.2 for Amodel and 52.2–57.3 for Aoverall. Contrary to the above, the re-run models, viz.

Table 1.3:  Maximum/starting and minimum/ending one-sigma values of the Upper Boundary,

Ranges and Lower Boundary for each cultural period in the four Models processed in the study. Values in plain font indicate good concentration of cumulative probabilities from more than two samples, while values in bold indicate poor concentration of cumulative probabilities (1m) enclosure walls, often with evidence for bastions, towers, gates, or other defensive elaborations. The significant investment in labor and materials implicated by such architectural remains suggests long-term usage, while sites utilized as temporary refuges would not require such expenditures. Therefore, the sites we have classified as “Empty Enclosures,” which consist of large enclosure walls but without internal architecture or significant elaboration of the outer defensive constructions, may be understood as potential protection for livestock but also could have served as potential short-term refuge sites for human populations. Empty enclosures are also understood to have had potential economic affordances, in addition to their defensive capabilities, by facilitating the management of larger herds or providing shelter for mobile trade missions or caravans (Baurain 1984: 87). “Outposts,” on the other hand, are individual structures with thick walls that are too small to have contained large numbers of people or amounts of resources, but their isolation and high walls might offer opportunities for secure surveillance, i.e. a concern with possessing knowledge about or exerting control over the actions or movement of others from a defensible location. Additionally, it must be remembered that the use of such a classificatory typology smooths over variation within categories as well as obscures structures that may transcend such categories by possessing attributes of more than one, or that changed in use as people took advantage of the material affordances provided by the structures. For example, empty enclosures are capable of containing and protecting both humans and animals, but regardless of the original intent, they could have been used opportunistically as refuge or livestock enclosures, dependent on the current conditions and concerns of the local population. Similarly, surveillance should not be understood as a function limited to outposts. The thick, high walls of enclosures and fortified settlements combined with locations in the landscape that provide extensive viewsheds would generate the capabilities of surveillance just as effectively, even if initially the walls were built and the locations selected in order to protect against unwanted physical access. These factors support our argument that we should not interpret the fortifications of MC III–LC I Cyprus as a uniform phenomenon and that understanding these sites, as with all archaeological research, requires contextual analysis. By recognizing that particular capabilities and limitations are generated by and emerge from the interactions of the components of assemblages, we replace discussion of intent with discussion of affordances. We can then ask how these affordances might have shaped human action. A brief review of the major fortification clusters, based primarily on the records in Fortin’s 1981 dissertation, will demonstrate the variation in landscapes and architecture that characterize these sites as well as some of the resulting diverse affordances produced by these sites and will then be followed by a detailed case study of the fortifications on the Karpas Peninsula (Figure 4.3 and Table 4.1).

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Part II. Bronze Age Complexities

Kormakiti Plateau Sites

Two fortified sites have been identified atop the Kormakiti Plateau, separated from one another by a little over half a kilometer. Karpasha Styllomenos is an empty enclosure while Asomatos Potemata is a large fortified settlement with a tower. Both sites look out to the south and west over a fertile plain, which is suitable for agriculture and pasture for animal herds. These sites are also adjacent to the timber and wild animal resources of the forested slopes of the Kyrenia Mountains. Contemporaneous unfortified settlements are visible from the fortified sites, as are, at a significant distance of over 10 km, the navigable Aloupos and Ovgos rivers and the sheltered harbor of Morphou Bay. At such a distance, the sites on the plateau are unlikely to have been able to exert control over trade on the rivers or at the coast, but their proximity to nearby unfortified settlements would allow them to serve as potential refuges. Their topographical situation produces a viewshed that enables the monitoring of movement on the plain below, a capability enhanced by the tower at Asomatos Potemata. The structures might also have served as economic infrastructure, as their location and form also creates affordances for the exploitation of forest resources and the protection and management of herds. Kyrenia Pass Sites

The four fortified sites in the area of the Kyrenia Pass are particularly difficult to access, situated high above the plains and the pass, perched on the edges of steep cliffs. Fortin (1981: 130) observed that these elevations are not conducive to habitation (although Iron Age refuge settlements on Crete might argue otherwise; see Wallace 2003: 257). Åström (1972: 764) suggested that this particular system of fortifications was intended to guard the transport of copper to ports in the north, although no major center from this period is known on the central coast (Catling 1962), a necessary component of such a mercantile assemblage. This cluster of fortified sites, however, does generate the capability of utilizing the pass as a communication route across the Kyrenia Mountains, as the placement of the four fortified sites forms a network or chain of intervisibility that extends from expansive views of the Mesaoria Plain in the south from Krini Merra, along the full length of the pass, to a wide swath of the northern coastline. All four sites in this chain are large enclosures, although Dhikomo Pamboulos and Bellapais Kapa Kaya also contain internal architecture and therefore we classify them as fortified settlements. Krini Merra, located 5 km west of the southern entrance of the pass, has a particularly elaborate fortification system including a heavy stone-built double wall and a series of bastions. The apparent emphasis on sightlines and defensive capabilities in these sites, evidenced both through construction techniques and topographical inaccessibility, suggest an overriding concern with defense and long-distance surveillance, potentially concerned with protecting and facilitating trade between the Mesaoria and the north coast. Their inaccessibility, however, makes their utility as long-term settlements associated with agriculture questionable. If the internal architecture proves to be domestic, the association between this assemblage and violent conflict would be strengthened.

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Mesaoria Sites: Elenja Hills, and the Yeri and Ayios Sozomenos Plateaus

Each of these three locales in the central Mesaoria has a cluster of fortified sites, often seated on the tops of steep-sided plateaus so as to command views of the plain below. The Elenja Hills (modern Aglantzia) and Yeri Plateau fortifications are significantly smaller than many other recorded fortified sites, thus affording different economic functions or roles in social organization. The sites within each cluster are also of different types and forms, located in close proximity. This arrangement enables a greater diversity of roles and economic functions to be distributed among the sites, while being shared by the assemblage as a whole.

Figure 4.5:  Topographic map of the Ayios Sozomenos plateau with fortresses marked.

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The fortified sites of the Ayios Sozomenos Plateau are the focus of ongoing research by the authors, in collaboration with Despina Pilides of the Cyprus Department of Antiquities. Here a collection of three sites—Dhali Kafkallia (fortified settlement), Ayios Sozomenos Barsak (fortified enclosure), and Ayios Sozomenos Nikolidhes (fortified enclosure with evidence for limited internal architecture around the ­perimeter)—is perched atop steep 40–50 m high cliffs on the southern side of a large plateau. A fourth structure, the fortified outpost at Glykia Vrysi, was at the base of the cliffs adjacent to a freshwater source and a small settlement. The precipitous cliffs are incorporated into the fortification systems, which also vary significantly between sites. Nikolidhes and Kafkallia have evidence for towers, while Kafkallia consists of two conjoined enclosures, one of which contains extensive domestic architecture (Overbeck and Swiny 1972), and Barsak may have had an impressive double wall-and-ditch system. The sites overlook well-watered fertile farmland, with water and pasturage suitable for cattle, and access to uplands suitable for more extensive grazing of sheep and goats. They also overlook a collection of Middle Bronze Age villages, which coalesced into a major Late Bronze Age urban center (Catling 1982: 231; Devillers et al. 2004). The central site at Nikolidhes is in visual communication with Barsak to the north and Kafkallia to the west. The individual enclosures have limited viewsheds, but the combined capacities of the components of the assemblage produce a shared viewshed that extends nearly 360 degrees, encompassing much of the Mesaoria. These sites and their relationship with the landscape generate a range of affordances, including housing, monitoring, or managing the movement of people, raw materials, and processed goods across a broad expanse of the island.

Case Study: Karpas Peninsula

While a large number of fortified sites have been identified through extensive survey (Catling 1962; Fortin 1981), only a small number have been intensively mapped or excavated. Two excavated sites, Phlamoudhi Vounari and Korovia Nitovikla, are located on the Karpas Peninsula, providing an opportunity to study how fortifications developed over time within a distinct region of Cyprus and to investigate whether they formed a common assemblage of people, things, and landscapes within that region. Other fortified sites on the Karpas Peninsula are Dhavlos Pyrgos, Lythrangomi Troullia, Ayios Thyrsos Vikla, and Rizokarpaso Sylla. All of these sites, save for Lythrangomi Troullia, are situated similarly within the landscape, on low rises overlooking the coast, though these sites are not located in such close proximity as to appear clustered in the manner known in other regions. Korovia Nitovikla is located two-thirds of the way up the Karpas Peninsula, along the southeastern coast, atop a low cliff overlooking a small bay suitable for use as an anchorage or harbor. The northern Levantine coast is just 140 km away, with the large site of Ras Shamra (ancient Ugarit) and the many smaller sites of the Jebleh Plain located due east of Nitovikla. The fortification at Nitovikla was investigated by the Swedish Cyprus Expedition (Gjerstad et al. 1934: 371–407), and the excavated material has subsequently been restudied by Hult (1992), although we adopt the relative chronology for the phasing proposed by Merrillees (1994; also utilized by Crewe 2007).

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The Swedish excavations identified a Pre-Period I (late MC III) fill, which underlay a Period I (LC IA) floor, followed by the construction of a fortified building in Period II (LC IA) and its reconstruction in Period III (LC IB). The Period I floor and the fill below it were only exposed in a small area of the site; however, no walls were associated with the Pre-Period I fill, and it was described by the excavators as a “humble settlement” (Gjerstad et al. 1934: 394). The Period II fortress, in contrast, was an elaborate construction, with a 20m × 24m interior courtyard and exterior dimensions of 36m × 40m. Entrance to the building was provided by a fortified gateway, its walls formed by ashlar blocks and flanked by towers (Figure 4.6).

Figure 4.6:  Plan of Korovia Nitovikla (after Gjerstad et al. 1934, 374, Figure 145).

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The Period II fortress was destroyed by fire and rebuilt as the Period III fortress along the same lines. Within the courtyard of this final structure there was a stone-built feature with an associated ash deposit. The site was abandoned in the LC IIA period. Phlamoudhi Vounari is located at the base of the Karpas Peninsula, along the northwestern coast, at the mouth of a pass through the Kyrenia Mountains. The site sits atop an anthropogenic hill overlooking the sea (Noller 2008) toward the Anatolian coast, 90 km due north, and the Smooth Cilician Plain, containing Tarsus and other Bronze Age sites, is a further 90 km to the north. A Columbia University expedition excavated Vounari (Symeonoglou 1975; Al-Radi 1983), and Horowitz (2007; 2008), whose architectural phasing we adopt, subsequently restudied the excavated material. Apparently anthropogenic, the clay mound of Vounari, Phase 1 at the site, is some 8 m high and likely dates to the same period as the first architectural construction. Horowitz (2007: 342–344) calculates that it would have taken 30 builders 1½ to 3 years, working part-time, to construct the mound. Phase 2 (MC III–LC IA) consisted of a small square structure with 1–2 m thick walls, roughly 5 m to a side, with a sinuous wall extending to the north creating a courtyard area as well as a built stone feature located on the west slope of the hill, which contained an ash deposit (Horowitz 2008: 73–74, Figure 46). This construction was replaced, in Phase 3 (LC IB; Figure 4.7), by a 16 m × 16 m platform, surrounded by a corridor and an exterior wall, with total exterior dimensions of roughly 24 m × 28 m (Horowitz 2008: 74–77, Figures 47–49). The nature of any architecture atop the platform is unknown. This Phase 3 structure underwent several renovations and minor expansions before being abandoned in the LC IIA (Phase 5). The original excavators dispute the identification of the site as a fortress, but the 1–2 m thick walls of the initial MC III–LC I construction suggest a possible defensible tower structure (Horowitz 2008: 74). We also highlight the monumental nature of the platform in the later phases. By investigating Nitovikla and Vounari as part of a new assemblage of people, things, and landscapes that emerged during the LC I period, we avoid the teleology of previous attempts to identify the fortified settlements typologically as pieces of a secular and/or religious administrative apparatus: i.e. military outposts (e.g., Gjerstad et al. 1934; Peltenburg 1996), sanctuaries (e.g., Symeonoglou 1975; Al-Radi 1983), or distribution centers (Horowitz 2008). Instead we argue that the assemblage of people, things, and landscapes emerged first and that the construction of fortifications followed in an attempt to negotiate and stabilize this new assemblage, through processes of territorialization. Here we use the evidence of architectural development at both Nitovikla and Vounari to substantiate this claim. Both sites are located in direct relation to the sea, presenting a new landscape that was absent from the assemblage of the EC–MC villages. Nitovikla looked to the east, Vounari to the north. We argue, following Baurain (1984), that the mainland connections that developed at this time were neither wholly peaceful nor strictly violent and that they would have drawn upon both local products and longer distance connections with the Troodos metal deposits. Evidence for direct economic or political ties with a dominant center, however, like that proposed at Enkomi to the south, is lacking.

Figure 4.7:  Plan of Phlamoudhi Vounari (after Horowitz 2008, Figure 48).

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At both Nitovikla and Vounari the initial site choice and construction placed a premium on gaining both vantage over the sea and access to interior regions. In the case of Nitovikla, this choice meant locating the site on a natural hill, in the base of a river valley that drained the large and fertile plain upon which the contemporary settlements of Paleoskoutella and Galinoporni were located (Catling 1962: 140). In the case of Vounari it meant artificial construction of a hill, situated on one of the key passes through the Kyrenia Mountains, providing access from the coast to the eastern Mesaoria and the Troodos Mountains. In the case of Nitovikla, Galinoporni, and possibly Paleoskoutella, the movement of foreign goods is demonstrated by the presence of Canaanite jars (Crewe 2012). It is notable, then, that although both Nitovikla and Vounari were located at the potentially dangerous interface of land and sea, neither site was initially fortified. The lack of fortifications can be fully appreciated at Vounari, where large amounts of labor were expended to construct the hill, yet only a relatively modest structure was initially placed atop it. We thus see that the assemblage of people, things, and landscapes (and seascapes) in the Karpas Peninsula at the beginning of the MC III–LC I contained new means of labor organization and technology to produce surplus goods for export, new routes of movement across both land and sea, and new locations of settlement and types of structures, but fortifications were not yet part of the assemblage. The second phase of use at both Nitovikla and Vounari saw the construction of fortified enclosures. In both cases we view this architectural development as an attempt to stabilize an uneven relationship associated with overseas trade. That there was a violent aspect to this instability seems evident from the massive architecture employed and the destruction by fire at Nitovikla of the Period II fortress. The walls therefore were a display of group cooperation and membership that had the material effect of protecting and hiding inhabitants and their activities while facilitating the surveillance of the landscape and people outside the walls. In this way, these fortifications, through their material properties and processes of territorialization, attempted to stabilize the social and political assemblage. We see that these constructions actively negotiated the instability of the assemblage in their continued maintenance and renewal, with walls repaired and reinforced and buttresses constructed over several phases. Therefore, while we cannot categorize the nature of authority during the early years of the Late Cypriot Period, we argue that it was a time in which a new assemblage of people, things, and landscapes emerged, violence or its threat was regularly employed, and fortifications were constructed as a means of mitigating and/or moderating this violence but also served as a unifying force and a potential tool of control. Stabilization and Deterritorialization: Fortress Abandonment

Such is the lack of study of the LC I period fortifications that we know more about the reasons for their abandonment then we do about the reasons for their construction. All of the known fortifications were abandoned early in the LC II period,

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sometime after 1500 BCE. This second phase of the Late Bronze Age saw a new stable assemblage of people, things, and landscapes develop across the island as a new political order took hold. This new assemblage was by all accounts peaceful, as there is no evidence for violent destruction of settlements and little or no osteological evidence for warfare; furthermore, fortifications do not reappear on the island until the LC IIC (ca. 1350 BCE: see Fortin 1983: 218). The changes in the LC II period can be appreciated from several converging lines of evidence, all of which point to a newly legitimated political authority that obviated the need for violent interactions. Throughout the island, new coastal towns were founded and older ones rebuilt. Ashlar buildings became common, often with large-scale storage facilities. Manning (1998) has shown that the construction of the ashlar building at Maroni Vournes was designed to block access to a number of chamber tombs, thereby removing them from the assemblage and cutting off lineage-based power structures in favor of a newly centralized political authority. Catling (1962: 144–145), Keswani (1993), and Knapp (1997: 53–63; see also Keswani and Knapp 2003) have modeled the development in LC II of functional site specialization, which is particularly well attested for agricultural surplus (e.g., Aredhiou Vouppes: Steel and Thomas 2008; Analiondas Palioklishia: Webb and Frankel 1994) and copper production (e.g., Apliki Karamallos: Kling and Muhly 2007; Politiko Phorades: Knapp and Kassianidou 2008). Cyprus in the Late Bronze Age therefore sees the development of an interconnected economy, in which property rights and physical security were assured without the use of fortifications. For the purpose of this paper it is unimportant if this was due to the presence of a singular ruler who presided over the island as a whole or to regional powers that interacted with one another peaceably. What matters is that the new LC II assemblages generated social and political conditions that no longer required stabilization and therefore removed the efficacy of fortified enclosures. Their material and communicative affect in territorializing processes in the landscape was no longer needed, and they fell out of use within the assemblage of people, things, and landscapes that produced and reproduced the new social order. Conclusion

Variation in building technique, form, and location and the resulting variability in potential actions and affects of these fortifications, emphasized by their rapid construction in a short period, argues strongly against their being the product of an organized and hierarchical political system, a proposition for which there is little other evidence. Instead, these sites frequently occur in tight, discrete clusters and in a variety of topographical locations, taking different forms, interacting with each other and the landscape to allow, encourage, or prevent a variety of economic and social activities. In other words, rather than being an island-wide network of fortresses, an assemblage unified by material form, relationship to the landscape, and role in Cypriot Bronze Age society, these fortresses were innovative material

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components produced as localized responses to the affordances and risks posed by the other material and social components of their particular environment. That the fortifications served to “make places” and control people’s movement is certain; that this was the motivation of elites who directed their construction, less so. On the contrary, place-making and the establishment of authority were more likely to have been the byproducts of the far more mundane concerns of daily life, i.e. the security provided through knowledge of surrounding conditions, strong walls against aggression, and a competitive advantage in accessing the best resources. These motivations also would have provided the impetus to mobilize the necessary workforce to build these structures on such an unprecedented and monumental scale in response to a changing and unstable new assemblage of materials and people. We also recognize that fortifications are capable of monumentalizing, controlling movement, curtailing access, and expressing possession and membership, among other actions. Nevertheless, these affordances and limitations to human agency emerge from the interaction between the fortifications and other human and non-human components of the social assemblage and need not be understood as dependent upon initial human intent. The diverse forms that human responses took to the destabilization of their social assemblages and the varied Cypriot landscape in this period may have led to further destabilization. Social groups competed, split apart, and reformed in new configurations to cooperate in the production of new defensive and economic technologies, processes for which fortifications were both response and stimulus. But this fracturing and militarization of the landscape was temporary. Fortified sites were material components of the social assemblage, built as responses to the challenges of the new social and material assemblages of the time but also capable of new, sometimes unintended, actions and affects that reached far beyond the immediate economic and defensive concerns that likely inspired their initial construction. Individual fortified sites became clusters of fortified sites, each utilizing and producing different affordances within their local assemblages. But most significantly for the development of political complexity on Cyprus, the larger assemblage of the MC III–LC I produced new properties that had not existed on the island previously. From the fortified sites that initially served defensive or economic purposes, protecting and observing the movement and interaction of people and materials, would emerge capabilities for the production of knowledge and the use of force over those people, materials, and the landscape. Walls that were built to protect or outposts built to observe and communicate could also serve to control and constrain. They created and materialized divisions between those with access and knowledge versus those without. These very affordances allowed an elite group to develop who could manipulate them to produce the first political regime on Cyprus, even if the production of such a system was not the intent of the original construction. The affordances of individual fortresses would have been insufficient to establish such control, but as fortifications spread across the landscape, so too did the affordances of their interactions. It is through the production of this new material assemblage that political authority developed and was reified and reproduced in the built environment of Cyprus. The very properties of the built environment that had initially contributed to the process

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of destabilization and fracturing of the political landscape would be re-purposed to define a new political assemblage in the hegemony of the LC period. Acknowledgments

Because this paper contains the seeds of several ideas that the first author has subsequently developed extensively and that feature in her forthcoming dissertation and other publications, the authors have intentionally not updated some aspects of this submission. That said, the authors are most grateful to our two anonymous reviewers for their comments, which we have attempted to address satisfactorily within these confines. Additional thanks are due for the excellent editorial work by Catherine Kearns and the support of Sturt Manning. Any errors are entirely our own. Endnote

Many of the cemeteries from this period were looted or “excavated” in the nineteenth century with minimal publication. The larger problem, however, is the state of our knowledge concerning human habitation. Excluding evidence from the fortified sites discussed in this paper, settlement evidence for the MC III is limited to Episkopi Phaneromeni, Politiko Troullia, and Erimi Laonin tou Porakou, all awaiting final publication, as well as at Kissonerga Skalia and minimal exposures at Kalopsidha (Gjerstad 1926), while, “only Enkomi offers a detailed archaeological record for the earliest phase of the ProBA [i.e. the LC I]” (Knapp 2013b: 33). References Al-Radi, S. 1983. Phlamoudhi Vounari: A Sanctuary Site in Cyprus. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 65. Göteborg, Sweden: Paul Åströms Förlag. Appadurai, A. 1986. The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Åström, P. 1972. The Swedish Cyprus Expedition. Vol. 4, part 1B, The Middle Cypriote Bronze Age. Lund, Sweden: Swedish Cyprus Expedition. Baurain, C. 1984. Chypre et la Méditerranée orientale au Bronze Récent: Synthèse historique. Paris: École française d’Athènes Belgiorno, M.-R. 2004. Pyrgos-Mavroraki: Advanced Technology in Bronze Age Cyprus. Nicosia: Theopress Ltd. Bombardieri, L. 2012. Erimi-Laonin tou Porakou: 2009 Preliminary Report. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus: 139–168. Carpenter, J.R. 1981. Excavations at Phaneromeni, 1975–1978. In J.C. Biers and D. Soren (eds.), Studies in Cypriote Archaeology, 59–78. Los Angeles: UCLA Institute of Archaeology. Catling, H.W. 1962. Patterns of settlement in Bronze Age Cyprus. Opuscula Atheniensia 4: 129–169. Catling, H.W. 1982. The ancient topography of the Yalias Valley. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus: 227–236. Crewe, L. 2007. Early Enkomi: Regionalism, Trade, and Society at the Beginning of the Late Bronze Age on Cyprus. Oxford: Archaeopress. Crewe, L. 2012. Beyond copper: Commodities and values in Middle Bronze Age Cypro-Levantine exchanges. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 31.3: 225–243. Crewe, L. 2013. Regional connections during the Middle-Late Cypriot transition: New evidence from Kissonerga-Skalia. Pasiphae 7: 47–56.

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Merrillees, R.S. 2007. The ethnic implications of Tell el-Yahudiyeh ware for the history of the Middle to Late Bronze Age in Cyprus. Cahiers du Centre d’Etudes Chypriotes 37.1: 87–96. Mukerji, C. 2015. The material turn. In R.A. Scott and S.M. Kosslyn (eds.), Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences. Wiley Online Library. DOI: 10.1002/9781118900772. Accessed: Dec. 31, 2015. Noller, J. 2008. Physical foundations of Phlamoudhi. In J. Smith (ed.), Views from Phlamoudhi, Cyprus, 25–29. Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research 63. Boston: American Schools of Oriental Research. Overbeck, J.C., and S. Swiny. 1972. Two Cypriot Bronze Age Sites at Kafkallia (Dhali). Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 33. Göteborg, Sweden: P. Åström. Peltenburg, E. 1994. Constructing authority: The Vounous enclosure model. Opuscula Atheniensia 20.10: 157–162. Peltenburg, E. 1996. From isolation to state formation in Cyprus, c. 3500–1500 B.C. In V. Karageorghis and D. Michaelides (eds.), The Development of the Cypriot Economy from the Prehistoric Period to the Present Day, 17–44. Nicosia: University of Cyprus and Bank of Cyprus. Peltenburg, E. 2008. Nitovikla and Tell el-Burak: Cypriot mid-second millennium B.C. forts in a Levantine context. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus: 145–157. Sasson, J. 1996. Akkadian documents from Mari and Babylonia (Old Babylonian Period). In A.B. Knapp (ed.), Near Eastern and Aegean Texts from the Third to the First Millennia BC, 17–19. Altamont, NY: Greece and Cyprus Research Center, Inc. Shanks, M., and C. Tilley. 1987. Re-Constructing Archaeology: Theory and Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sjöqvist, E. 1940. Problems of the Late Cypriot Bronze Age. Stockholm, Sweden: Swedish Cyprus Expedition. Smith, A.T. 2015. The Political Machine: Assembling Sovereignty in the Bronze Age Caucasus. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Sneddon, A. 2014. Making love not war? An archaeology of violence and some lessons for the study of prehistoric Bronze Age Cyprus. In J.M. Webb (ed.), Structure, Measurement, and Meaning: Studies on Prehistoric Cyprus in Honour of David Frankel, 57–67. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 143. Uppsala, Sweden: Åströms Förlag. Steel, L., and S. Thomas. 2008. Excavations at Aredhiou Vouppes (Lithouros): An interim report on excavations 2005–2006. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus: 227–249. Symeonoglou, S. 1975. Excavations at Phlamoudhi and the form of the sanctuary in Bronze Age Cyprus. In N. Robertson (ed.), The Archaeology of Cyprus: Recent Developments, 61–75. Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes Press. Swiny, S., G.R. Rapp, and E. Herscher. (eds.) 2003. Sotira Kaminoudhia: An Early Bronze Age Site in Cyprus. American Schools of Oriental Research Archaeological Reports 8. Boston: American Schools of Oriental Research. Todd, I. 1993. Kalavasos-Laroumena: Test excavation of a Middle Bronze Age settlement. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus: 81–96. Wallace, S. 2003. The perpetuated past: Re-use or continuity in material culture and the structuring of identity in early Iron Age Crete. Annual of the British School at Athens 98: 251–277. Webb, J.M., and Frankel, D. 1994. Making an impression: Storage and surplus finance in Late Bronze Age Cyprus. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 7: 5–26. Webb, J.M., and D. Frankel. 1999. Characterizing the Philia facies: Material culture, chronology, and the origin of the Bronze Age in Cyprus. American Journal of Archaeology 103.1: 3–43. Webb, J.M., and D. Frankel. 2013a. Cultural regionalism and divergent social trajectories in Early Bronze Age Cyprus. American Journal of Archaeology 117: 59–81. Webb, J.M., and D. Frankel. 2013b. Ambelikou Aletri: Metallurgical and Pottery Production in Middle Bronze Age Cyprus. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology, Vol. 138. Uppsala, Sweden: Åströms Förlag. Webb, J.M., D. Frankel, Z.A. Stos, and N. Gale. 2006. Early Bronze Age metal trade in the eastern Mediterranean: New compositional and lead isotope evidence from Cyprus. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 25.3: 261–288.

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5 Gray Economics in Late Bronze Age Cyprus GEORGIA MARINA ANDREOU

Introduction

Researchers working on the eastern Mediterranean Bronze Age, which is characterized by unparalleled mobility, networking, and interaction, have often relied on or been inspired by socioeconomic concepts in order to frame theoretically the politico-economic characteristics of this period. From this perspective, scholars have investigated Cyprus through textual and material evidence of its copper exploitation and have developed models of settlement distribution with the aim to reconstruct the politico-economic organization of the island (e.g., Keswani 1993; 1996; Peltenburg 1996, 2012; Knapp 2013: 349–359). Paramount in these discussions is the unprecedented connectivity observed in the eastern Mediterranean during the later second millennium BCE (e.g., Sauvage 2012; Steel 2013; Knapp and Demesticha 2017), with considerable debate over textual evidence for international diplomacy, such as seen in the Amarna letters (Mynářová 2007) as well as shipwrecks bearing interregional cargo (e.g., Uluburun; see also Pulak 1998; 2008) and the widespread, shared iconographic vocabulary associated with elite groups (Feldman 2006). Nevertheless, the vestiges of this connectivity are often obscure, especially those related to the structures and processes that facilitated various participants in international trade; in the case of Late Bronze Age (LBA) Cyprus, they are particularly perplexing. Beyond copper, which probably spurred the involvement of the island in broader markets, the processes, agents, and periodization of this involvement are largely enigmatic. I have discussed this topic more extensively in earlier research, in which I proposed that different regions of the island engaged with the eastern Mediterranean economy through a variety of socioeconomic and political mechanisms at different times, as illustrated in the case studies of the Bronze Age Kouris, Vasilikos, and Maroni valleys (Andreou 2014). What arose from this comparative research was a concern for distinguishing modes of what I call economic formality and informality and for understanding how different scales of interaction (local, 160

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regional, interregional) articulated and/or co-constructed one another during the Late Cypriot (LC) period. Building on these previous arguments, this paper aims to identify material evidence suggestive of variations in economic formality and informality, as discussed below. This research, then, requires a theoretical framework and a methodological approach that consider the abilities of individuals to operate across different scales as well as the possibility of heterarchical socioeconomic collaboration within exchange networks. To do so, this paper critically engages with new theoretical and methodological directions. To be more precise, I explore the concept of gray economics, which has been employed in the fields of anthropology and economics as well as policy-making since the 1970s but to date has not appeared in discussions of protohistoric economic complexity and is a novel theoretical direction for studies of the LC. To integrate this framework with archaeological evidence, this work finds alignment with Sherratt and Sherratt’s (1991) influential model of the Bronze Age Mediterranean, which envisioned different spatial perspectives of the economy and several types of exchange, expanding from the individual to the state. Their later work (Sherratt and Sherratt 1993), in which they discuss commercial autonomy and entrepreneurial agents operating without the structure of a palace-based centralized economy during the LBA, has also proven insightful. In addition, Monroe’s (2009) study on different trade scales in the eastern Mediterranean as well as proposals for a decentralized political configuration during the LC period (Manning and de Mita 1997; Peltenburg and Iacovou 2012; Peltenburg 2012) equally frame and support the conclusions of this research. Methodologically, this paper builds on a comparative study of published material from both survey and excavation projects in the Vasilikos, Maroni, and Kouris river valleys in Cyprus. In order to identify material evidence for a spectrum of economic relations and networks, I integrate four interrelated types of analysis. First, I compare settlement patterns that appear through spatial analysis in the surveyed material. Based on this comparative analysis, I argue that a lack of homogeneity in these patterns likely indicates regionally specific and possibly significant socioeconomic traditions that seem to have continued from the pre-LC to the LC, despite evidence for change in the settlement patterns. Second, I highlight areas of economic activity located outside of the extensively investigated monumental, administrative structures of the LBA built environments of the three valleys to provide an avenue to discuss the interface between types of formal and informal economic activities. Third, I analyze the abundance and ubiquity of non-local artifacts from intact burial contexts. Using mortuary evidence, I suggest that differences in the quantities of these artifacts as well as in their depositional patterns may signify distinctions in the formality of exchange networks. Finally, I consider interpretations of textual evidence from the Late Bronze Age Mediterranean to ascertain evidence for potential informal economics. This methodology ultimately tests the hypothesis that variable and seemingly random relationships between settlements and their surrounding environmental contexts, between economic activities and structured built environments, and in the frequencies of imports in mortuary deposits reveal the presence of smaller-scale, probably informal, and more socially embedded economic relations.

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The paper begins by introducing the theoretical background and limitations of the concept of gray economics and its relationship to the wider subject of the ancient economy. The next sections examine and conceptualize evidence for economic variability along the four registers outlined above: landscapes, spaces of economic activity, tomb contexts, and textual production. In analyzing the evidence from three river valleys, I argue for the utility of concepts like gray economics for opening up and nuancing our rigid categorizations of Bronze Age economies and settlement hierarchies. Theoretical Background

Economic anthropology has at times influenced archaeological interpretation of the Bronze Age in Cyprus and in the eastern Mediterranean more broadly. Discussions on reciprocity (Malinowski 1922; Sahlins 1972), redistribution, dualistic spheres of exchange (Bohannan 1959), formalist versus substantivist economics (Polanyi 1944), gifts and commodities (Appadurai 1986), and culturalist approaches have become entwined, especially over the last few decades, with the ways in which ancient historians and archaeologists attempt to understand past communities and the ancient economy (e.g., Scheidel and Von Reden 2002; Manning and Morris 2005; Hirth and Pillsbury 2013). In particular, during the twentieth century, the formalist versus substantivist debate—in which the former advocates for rational and independent economic action against the latter’s arguments for economic practices embedded within social and political structures—has figured conspicuously and has been summarized and discussed repeatedly by various scholars of the ancient Near East (e.g., Sherratt and Sherratt 1991; Parkins 1998; Schloen 2001; Morris and Manning 2005; Liverani 2005: 52–53; McGeough 2007; Padgham 2014). The details of the substantivist versus formalist debate are beyond the scope of this paper, yet because this study uses the modern term of gray economics to discuss the Cypriot Bronze Age, it is necessary to outline the application’s relevance to conceptions of embedded as opposed to formal economies. The general distinction between socially embedded and socially disembedded economies derives from the work of Mauss (1925) and Weber (1947) and was principally introduced to studies of the ancient economy through Polanyi’s 1944 book The Great Transformation. The debate itself considers two conflicting central concepts: on the one hand, formalists such as Hicks (1969) argued that ancient economies operated according to a modern economic rationale, while substantivists such as Polanyi (1944; 1957) and later Finley (1973) claimed that economic decisions were made using socially oriented motives related to and embedded within ancient social structures. For those in the former camp, ancient evidence of market forces, demand, profit, and entrepreneurship can appear in textual and archaeological records when economic actors seem to have made pragmatic and rational decisions independent of social relations. For substantivists, however, these indices of more formalized and modern economic practice are beholden to capitalist understandings of the economy and are thus anachronistic when applied to pre-capitalist and pre-industrialized periods.

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Arguments from both camps have their pitfalls. For instance, Polanyi relied on data from the Old Assyrian and Old Babylonian period to argue for a substantive perspective that viewed economic activities in Assur as solely administered by the temple/ palace complex and undertaken by trade-agents. This view has since been challenged as incompatible with both textual and material evidence supporting private entrepreneurship in Old Assyrian trade networks, a record that is considered among the best substantiated in ancient history (Liverani 2005: 53). More recently, Monroe (2009: 7) has employed and advocated for a more measured approach that balances the theoretical poles of formalism and substantivism with the aim to address the complex issue of the international Bronze Age economy of the eastern Mediterranean. Monroe examined textual evidence for the relationships between traders and rulers from the polities of Ugarit, Egypt, and Hattuša along with familial and ethnic relationships in the same textual collections. From this approach, he argues convincingly for the contextual and situational nature of these relationships and identifies multiple scales and degrees of formality characterizing economic interactions. Importantly, Monroe discerns both profit-oriented economic activities undertaken by traders and merchants, as well as socially embedded economic behaviors, such as elite gift exchange. Given this complexity, it appears that it is more useful to consider alternative interpretations for the ancient economy that include elements from both embedded practices and the modern market found within the concept of gray economics. Informality and Gray Economics As I mentioned above, I engage with the concept of gray economics with the aim to identify material evidence for informal economic interactions and to propose the incorporation of these interactions in broader-scale interpretations of the Cypriot Late Bronze Age. In the spirit of this volume’s framework on new methods and analytic schemes, let us define and explore gray economics. Here, the term economics combines the rationale, attitudes, activities and particular sociopolitical backgrounds that influenced modes and practices of production, provisioning, distribution, exchange, and consumption of products. Gray or informal connotes unofficial modes of economic attitudes and activities, lacking dependency on or subjugation to centralized control and monitoring by political and economic administrations or bodies. For the purposes of this paper, I use the terms gray economics or informal economics to describe and to begin to categorize archaeologically visible activities that resulted from interactions bearing little material evidence for outside or top-down regulation or control. Such activities may be associated, for example, with household provisioning, and typically emerge in specific contexts of material reciprocation and independent, household-driven economic strategies. Such informality does not appear to be part of the centralized economy or regulated, controlled, or authorized by a formal administration. As such, and following studies discussed in the introduction (particularly Sherratt and Sherratt 1993; Monroe 2009), I do not consider informal economy and state-controlled economy as mutually exclusive but rather as complementary and co-constitutive.

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There exist, of course, methodological and terminological limitations to informality and gray economics as concepts when applied to archaeological evidence and frameworks. Although informality is conceived as a widespread phenomenon within the overarching rubric of gray economics, economists often argue that the characteristics and consequences of informality are largely underexplored (Schneider and Enste 2000; Elgin and Oyvat 2013: 36–47; La Porta and Shleifer 2014: 109–110). This concern is exacerbated by a lack of consensus regarding the determinants of economic informality. Furthermore, this confusion is related to difficulties of observing, defining, and measuring informal activities, as they often leave no written or visible records (Sindzingre 2006: 59). Hart (2006: 21), the British anthropologist who first used the term gray economics, proposed a set of inherent characteristics for economic “formality” (in order to distinguish it from “informality”) that include order, regularity, and predictability in the production and distribution of goods. These characteristics result from control and standardization by some form of administrative body. In more modern contexts, the International Labour Organisation (ILO) (1972) suggested that the traits for informal economic activities include: ease of entry, family ownership/ enterprises, reliance on indigenous resources, small operational scale, unregulated markets, labor-intensive production, and labor skill acquired outside of the formal, state-operated (in modern terms) economy. Problematically, this definition has been used to assume that informal economic activities are or involve illegal products or services (black market), although in reality they range from nonprofit household-related chores to small enterprises—practices only recently acknowledged as an important component of political economies (Schneider and Enste 2002: 6). For that reason, many have criticized the idea of a juxtaposed formal versus informal economy as a “misplaced dualism” (Lipton 1984: 196; Macharia 1997: 49; Hart 2006: 22) tied to the western concept of the twentieth-century state that has largely ignored the local histories, traditions, and social structures of developing countries. Macharia’s (1997) sociological studies from east Africa provide useful examples and critiques of this misplaced dualism. Through several case studies, he posited that the informal sector had infiltrated larger-scale economic activities to varying degrees, for example in the trade of labor services and the employment of workers or apprentices, especially in the context of developing countries (Macharia 1997: 49, 54). He additionally posited that evidence for formality (for instance market standards and bureaucracy) should not be used to presume the accessibility and participation of communities, particularly in traditional societies (Macharia 1997: 13). Moreover, he discussed how agents from those communities and their practices become legitimate “in the eyes of the society” that often sustains them, despite their deviation from the formal line of economics (Macharia 1997: 55). Given such complex inclusion of both formality and informality within specific social structures and in dialogue with state-level administrations, it becomes more apparent why activities that border or elide into the formal-informal interface, but which are legitimized and socially embedded, are often conceived as gray economics. In the modern world, these activities include small, often family-run enterprises that operate within delineated social circles and outside the formal, documented,

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tax-paying, and state-monitored economy. Such practices become legible or visible in the obtainment of goods beyond formal or official trade routes and markets as well as in the moral aspects, obligations, and sentiments surrounding some small-scale economic transactions (Gintis et al. 2005; Carballo 2013). Economist and public policy specialist Colin Williams (2004) concluded that a considerable portion of informal economic practices and activities often consist of family, friends, and neighbors paying favors to each other. As such, one can argue that gray economics are deeply entrenched in everyday life. In fact, Hart (2006: 27) argued that gray economics have generally become more frequent and expansive as a result of faster, easier, and improved communication infrastructure starting in the later twentieth century. Moreover, a 2009 study by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) concluded that in many parts of the world, practices of informal economy are the norm rather than the exception, involving some two billion people worldwide and including countries with strict economic control measures, such as China (Schneider and Williams 2013: 83). Such is the gray economy’s perseverance and recent pervasiveness that its attendant positive consequences, which include a strong sense of community support, increased entrepreneurship, supply of goods and services via both formal and informal avenues, and economic mobilization, have attracted political attention (Williams 2006: 44). In social terms, the freedom provided by informal economic activities and possible interactions has recently been viewed as strengthening networks and communities and contributing to social peace, which eventually sustains politico-economic systems (Schneider and Enste 2002: 192). In other words, cohesion is a significant stabilizing element in diverse social configurations, and gray economics have cross-culturally played a key role in the maintenance of such networks. At this point, it should be stressed that evidence for gray economics in ancient societies, drawn from fragmentary records, cannot necessarily support the identification of relative economic status, attitudes, and relations, as opposed to its theoretical application in modern contexts. Instead, the concept can heuristically highlight the integral roles that informal economics play in broader spatial and temporal contexts than just modernity, and interpretations from a case like the Bronze Age Mediterranean may shed new light on our understanding of both past and present societies. In the prehistoric context, arguably comparable to examples from modern traditional societies, informal economic transactions are undoubtedly less discernible than formal, centralized, standardized, and controlled economic networks, which have long held the attention of canonical approaches to the institutions and mechanisms of ancient economies (Schneider and Williams 2013: 12). Despite limitations in visibility, however, one cannot deny that small-scale, agent-driven entrepreneurial trade is an important element that can make more rigorous the models that reconstruct the economic and sociopolitical composition of Late Cypriot society. Archaeological Background

Longstanding debates and current research on the organization of the Late Cypriot political economy focus on the ways in which the formal economy operated and on

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how a class of elites was controlling it. As a result, a substantial corpus of research often omits other groups of people, who were part of a socioeconomically heterogeneous population, who also practiced informal economics, and whose contributions were also probably critical to the economic character of the island. Since the 1960s, one archetypal settlement model has framed our understanding of this period, and despite its gradual elaboration, it has yet to embrace substantively the multiple levels of economic interaction. Based on his extensive survey of especially Bronze Age sites, Catling (1962) initially proposed what has become an exceptionally influential tripartite model of ancient settlement hierarchy, which comprised rich coastal trading centers, inland rural settlements, and small inland production sites mainly associated with copper mining. As multiple excavations since the mid-twentieth century have revealed a variety of additional Late Bronze Age settlements, Keswani (1993) adjusted Catling’s model for this specific period to incorporate newly discovered “secondary coastal centers,” which were non-coastal settlements associated with ceremonial or religious activities. Problematically, however, she did not explain their relationship to commodity collection and the details of its redistribution in her application of the concepts of staple and wealth finance. The staple finance model involves the collection and redistribution of subsistence resources as tribute, while the wealth finance model is characterized by remuneration of prestigious wealth objects to administrative personnel. Keswani proposed that staple finance was the predominant system at sites with evidence for large-scale storage of agricultural products, such as Kalavasos Ayios Dhimitrios, Maroni Vournes, and Alassa Paliotaverna, and that wealth finance was characteristic of primary settlements, which contained large amounts of prestige artifacts but lacked large and extensive storage facilities. Keswani’s (1996) theoretical framing of this settlement model has influenced recent understandings of Late Bronze Age political networks between elites in coastal and inland centers and has engendered a widely accepted argument for regional organization of the island. Knapp (2013: 437–438) was one of the first scholars to incorporate the relationship between site topography and hierarchy and the flows of goods and agricultural, metallurgical, and social processes into his analysis of settlement patterns, and his remains the most substantive approach to the economic relationships between different levels of settlement (Figure 5.1). He expanded Catling’s (1962) and Keswani’s (1993) models, and although they were founded on the same evidentiary lines of settlement distribution, has argued instead for an island-wide sociopolitical configuration, following contemporary written sources that arguably refer to a singular kingdom of Alashiya and its international economic activities (Knapp 2013: 47–438). Alashiya has proven to be a controversial place in these textual sources, although consensus holds that it represented Cyprus. The most detailed information comes from the fourteenth century BCE onwards in the Amarna letters, through a series of exchanges between Egypt and Alashiya (Malbran-Labat 1999), while a discussion on the documentary evidence of Alashiya may be found in Knapp (2013: 438–451; see below). Despite the plurality of evidence incorporated in the most recent interpretations and models of the Late Bronze Age settlement economy, including excavated

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Figure 5.1:  Knapp’s settlement pattern model for the Cypriot Late Bronze Age (reproduction based on Knapp 2013: 354, Figure 94).

agricultural villages such as Arediou Vouppes (Steel 2016), mining villages such as Politiko Phorades (Knapp and Kassianidou 2008), and pottery production sites such as Sanidha Moutti tou Ayiou Serkou (Todd and Pilides 2004), most scholarship has attended to the category of largest sites, which are interpreted as administering vaguely defined control over sites of lower tiers. The nature of this vertical control between sites of the established tiers, or more horizontally across tiers, is rarely

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discussed. The reconstruction of economic and sociopolitical ties between various settlement tiers thus remains an open question, with scholars proposing generically that the primary sites formally controlled smaller sites in their periphery. The modes of political organization that were able to manage such control include, for instance, theories of small contact units (Merrillees 1992: 310; Sherratt 1998: 298), heterarchy (Keswani 1996), and states (Knapp 1997; Peltenburg 1996; Webb 1999: 307). The most prominent sites that feature in these investigations are those that bear strong evidence of social and economic differentiation, such as ashlar masonry, seals, script use, and a larger variety of imported artifacts—in other words, materials whose use and distribution suggests elite control (e.g., Webb 2005; Fisher 2009). It is probable, however, that contextual information may provide evidence of the degrees of formality and potential gray economics in their initial or extended uses and histories. Material Evidence for Informality in the Bronze Age Kouris, Vasilikos, and Maroni Valleys

To explore these contexts, I discuss archaeological evidence from the LC Kouris, Vasilikos, and Maroni valleys of the south-central coast of Cyprus (Figure 5.2). This choice is based on the extensive diachronic investigations of the valleys through previous surveys (Swiny 1981; 2004; Manning and Conwell 1992; Todd 2004) and settlement or cemetery excavations (Benson 1972; Johnson 1980; South and Todd 1985; Todd and Pearlman 1986; MacClellan et al. 1988; South and Russell 1989; South 1989; 2000; 2001; Manning et al. 1998). From this rich material record, three excavated and impressive monumental complexes with ashlar buildings dating to the LC period in each of these valleys—Kalavasos Ayios Dhimitrios in the Vasilikos Valley (Todd 1989; Fisher et al. 2011–2012), Maroni Vournes in the Maroni (Cadogan 1989), and Alassa Paliotaverna in the Kouris (Hadjisavvas 2017)—have undoubtedly dominated scholarship, often to the analytical subjugation of other aspects of the local economies. These buildings are often viewed as emblematic of urbanization (Fisher 2014b) and signify a sharp contrast to the pre-LC built environment, the available excavations of which have revealed primarily domestic structures. Overall, although the rise of urbanization in Cyprus has received considerable scholarly attention (see summary in Fisher 2014b), the integration of pre-urban, socially embedded economic relations in the new status quo requires a more systematic investigation. Landscape Archaeology In this section, I compare the location of LC sites with areas that were intensively occupied during the immediately preceding periods, the Early and the Middle Bronze Age. Scholars have frequently characterized this period as “transitional” (see discussion in Knapp 2013: 348–359), especially in terms of discrete settlement pattern shifts and the establishment of sites closer to the coast at the beginning of the LC period. This shift in the settlement pattern is generally associated with a shift from the pre-LC household-based economy to a LC more formally organized and internationally inte-

Figure 5.2:  Map showing Late Cypriot sites and marking the study area. Produced by the author using basemaps from the Department of Geology, Republic of Cyprus.

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grated one. In the context of this paper, I argue that the pre-LC economy appears to be based on informal and more socially embedded practices, whereas the LC economy is subjected to varying levels of control via, for example, the construction of large-scale storage facilities and the use of seals and script. In other words, although for centuries the resources of the island were exploited mainly at a local and regional level via informal, household-based, socially embedded strategies, arguably, much of the available literature on the LC focuses on the textual and material evidence for island-wide formal economics. It is unclear, then, how pre-LC informal economic activities transformed or were ultimately incorporated in the newly founded LC urban landscape. In the context of archaeological survey, patterns of continuity and discontinuity in habitation may be suggestive of changes of traditional land use patterns and the scale at which certain resources (e.g., copper, timber) and locations (e.g., coast, plateaus) are involved in local economic networks. In this context, juxtaposing significant clusters of EC/MC and LC material on topographical and soil maps in a geographical information systems (GIS) spatial database can highlight regionally distinct links and connections with surrounding and more distant resources (e.g., soil types, sea and coastline, mineral resources). In this comparative framework, while LC II sites in the Vasilikos and Maroni valleys appear to be established closer to the coast than their EC/MC counterparts, their distance from areas with extensive and dense clusters of EC and MC pottery and known cemeteries is hardly greater than 3 km (Figure 5.3).

Figure 5.3:  Map showing settlement pattern change in the Vasilikos and Maroni Valley from the EC/ MC to the LC. Each ring represents a 1 km radius. Produced by the author using Quickbird 2009 satellite imagery from the Geological Survey Department, Republic of Cyprus; and data from Todd 2013; Manning et al. 2014.

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Moreover, in the Kouris valley, new sites (Alassa Paliotaverna, Alassa Pano Mandilaris and Episkopi Bamboula) are established in much closer proximity to their EC III–LC IA counterparts (Alassa Palialona, Episkopi Phaneromeni), and throughout the Late Bronze Age they increase in number (Figure 5.4). This indicates a degree of continuity in landscape manipulation strategies and possibly also a continuation in the use of pre-LC economic networks. The small distances discussed above are significant, as Georgiou (2006: 445–446), in his survey of evidence for prehistoric settlement patterns, has estimated that 4 km at the elevation of 100 m can be walked within 30–50 minutes, depending on, among other factors, terrain and direction and means of transportation. As such, settlement pattern changes or transitions from the EC/MC to the LC in the areas under study do not seem to influence drastically the spatial relation of sites with their surrounding resources, although altering proximity to certain resources and soil types may reflect changes in intensity and scale of their exploitation. The nature of these changes may imply different strategies for managing time and productivity, as well as expansion as opposed to disruption or change of existing economic networks (Andreou 2016: 157–158). In addition, it seems useful to consider that minor differences in the spatial associations of communities and their surrounding landscape between the EC/MC and the LC in the three valleys is likely related to local traditions stemming from the valleys’ continuous habitation and maintenance of potential informal networks that existed prior to the formalization evidenced in the MC III/LC IA urban establishments (e.g., Andreou 2016: 158). In order to identify informal networks, however, it is necessary to understand the characteristics of the formal economic networks. Contexts for Economic Activity Having explored local landscape patterns that suggest a possible continuation of pre-LC networks, I turn now to consider the involvements of these communities in exchange networks of both short- and long-distance trade. Given that agents in the Vasilikos, Maroni, or Kouris valley regions likely had multiple opportunities to interact or engage with existing local and regional economic networks (e.g., circulation of certain pottery types), it appears more useful to see how they participated in larger-scale, more formal, island-wide networks. In this context, copper seems to be the most suitable resource to explore, as there is extensive material and textual evidence for its large scale and presumably also centrally controlled (formal) economic exploitation. Trying to reconstruct various networks of island-wide exchange can be difficult, as evidence for production or distribution of various goods can be limited, although recent investigations of copper production and metallurgy are bringing significant new evidence to light (Figure 5.5). The Troodos Mountains provide numerous locales suited for copper extraction (Constantinou 1992; Muhly and Kassianidou 2012: 127, Figure 8.5), and archaeological contexts of mining, secondary refinement points, intra-island transportation, and storage of metal, while sometimes difficult to distinguish or date to precise

Figure 5.4:  Map showing settlement pattern change in the Kouris Valley from the EC/MC to the LC. Produced by the author using Quickbird 2009 satellite imagery from the Geological Survey Department, Republic of Cyprus; and data from Swiny 1981; Bombardieri 2010; Karageorghis and Violaris 2012.

Figure 5.5:  Map showing Late Bronze Age sites and their association with Troodos copper resources. Produced by the author using basemaps and data from the Geological Survey Department, Republic of Cyprus.

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periods (see also Berranger and Fluzin 2007: 7), have become increasingly more evident through surveys and excavations in the Troodos foothills. The LC copper smelting workshop excavated at Politiko Phorades (Knapp and Kassianidou 2008) and the exposure of a deposit of ingot fragments at Mathiatis (Catling 1964: 283; Kassianidou 2009) are just two examples that have markedly elaborated current understandings of copper production and craftsmanship for prehistoric periods. The Phorades workshop was estimated to have produced copper for local consumption with the possibility of some surplus entering extra-community exchange networks (Knapp 2003: 564). As the settlement pattern of the surrounding area was reconstructed from surveyed material, however, it is unclear how this site was integrated into a system developed for the large-scale exportation of copper (e.g., associated storage facilities for copper, measures for controlling production and circulation such as standardized weighting and sealing practices). Similar conceptions can frame interpretations for Apliki Karamallos, another LC production site in the Troodos foothills (Kling and Muhly 2007). The site comprises a smelting workshop in association with domestic spaces and agricultural product storage facilities. Although the site is located inland and close to copper sources, the frequency of imported pottery, such as Mycenaean and Minoan ware (Kling 2007: 149–168), points to consumption patterns that do not conform to the traditional settlement pattern models that usually favor exotica consumption in the primary or secondary sites rather than the supporting villages. This disparity once again appears to require smaller-scale investigation, focusing on less formal and less centrally administered economic interactions, such as the more socially embedded economic activities taking place outside specialized open and structured spaces. Built Environment In order to augment the patterns identified in the survey material with stratified archaeological evidence, I return to the Vasilikos, Maroni, and Kouris river valleys to explore architectural evidence for non–centrally administered economic practices. Studies of the significance and instrumentality of LBA architecture in the formation of LC polities and social structures, as explored cogently by Fisher (2007; 2009; 2014a; 2014b; 2014c), provide a rich background for exploring regional differences in built environments that associate with the aforementioned local traditions of spatial associations between surrounding environments and new LC settlements. Here, I focus on the identification of activities that may reveal types of economic agents, with the aim of understanding the degree of their dependence on or independence from LC administrative buildings and monumental complexes. To begin with, the excavated remains of the major urban sites of Kalavasos Ayios Dhimitrios, Maroni Vournes, and Alassa Paliotaverna in the area under investigation, with their ashlar monumental buildings with large storage capacities (Fisher 2014c; Keswani 2015), also include evidence for domestic units, which have only recently been explored systematically (Fisher 2014a). These probable domestic units often contain storage of goods in pithoi (South 1980: 43; Keswani 2009: 114–115; Fisher 2014a), evidence of crafts like metalworking (South 1982: 65; Van Brempt and

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Kassianidou 2016) and of material processing (South 1980: 39), access to imported artifacts, script use (in the form of signs; Smith 2002), and non-standardized marking and sealing practices (Smith 2012: 46). Notable are the “semi-official” buildings at Kalavasos Ayios Dhimitrios, which are larger than typical domestic units, partially constructed with ashlar masonry, and associated by South (1991: 134) with larger-scale metalworking and agricultural processing. Considering the variability in the architectural remains, the scales of the various economic activities involved in them, and the role these households played in social interaction and transformation (Fisher 2014a), we can argue that a series of professional identities, ones closely related to the main economic activities of certain individuals and groups, formed an integral part of the LC politico-economic organization. In this vein, one should note that while Episkopi Bamboula in the Kouris Valley bears evidence for urbanization and access to imported artifacts, as well as evidence of different socioeconomic identities (Smith 2012: 46), it is not yet associated with excavated monumental structures (Weinberg 1983). This anomaly perhaps points to an even closer incorporation of informal or gray economic activities into a formalized organization, a more traditional trajectory that may further be supported by the relatively long use of family tombs in this area, as discussed in the following section. Burying Individuals This section aims to understand the mechanisms of product acquisition at small scales. As the standardization of local and regional pottery can be associated with formalized production and distribution of both pottery and organic materials, I focus here on artifacts whose manufacture was not controlled on the island of Cyprus. The study of the distribution of non-local artifacts aims also to highlight a possible variability in acquisition strategies. It is based on the hypothesis that ubiquitous artifacts were likely acquired via a more centralized and formal economic avenues (market), whereas artifacts that are more scarce in the available burial record may indicate significant patterns of informal acquisition and consumption. The methodology used involves analyzing the available published LBA burial evidence from the three valleys to quantify different artifact types and to examine the degree to which their abundance and ubiquity may be suggestive of informal economic practices. The examples derive from a selection of intact or minimally disturbed tombs, and in the majority of examples, it is not possible to provide a clear association between finds and specific skeletal remains. For that reason, quantitative comparisons in this paper refer to tombs with multiple interments and not to individuals. Finally, quantitative information has been compiled into a spatial database, analyzed using ArcGIS statistical tools and illustrated using Excel. By comparing assemblages between tombs of particular cemeteries, it is possible to demonstrate that at Kalavasos Ayios Dhimitrios and the nearby LC cemetery of Kalavasos Mangia in the Vasilikos Valley, from a sample of twenty-two tombs with multiple internments dating between LC IIA and IIC, the majority of tombs contained Mycenaean pottery and other imports. Six unique artifacts include a Hittite

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figure (tomb 12; see South 2000: 355), glass, faience, and ivory pyxides, a set of ivory weights (Mangia; see McClellan et al. 1988: 205), and faience vessels (Figure 5.6). The tomb at Kalavasos Mangia containing the weights included a set of boat-shaped earrings made of gold (McClellan et al. 1988: 203). Although it is unclear if the ubiquitous Mycenaean pottery and the remarkable number of artifacts were acquired through the same large-scale economic networks, one cannot exclude the possibility of intra-site distribution of these goods at varying scales of exchange. In the Maroni valley, in a sample of forty-seven tombs from Maroni Tsaroukkas and Maroni Vournes dating between LC IA and IIC, most tombs also contained Mycenaean pottery, while sixteen unique (at Maroni) artifacts were recorded—primarily jewelry (Figure 5.7). Objects of personal adornment often appear to be unique and personalized, including bull head pendants from T1 (Johnson 1980: 8), silver and gold diadems from T4, T5, T9, and T10 (Johnson 1980: 17–20), a rosette-decorated mouthpiece from T26 (Johnson 1980: 31), gold and silver rings, various shapes of gold beads and silver rings with bezels from T1 and T7 (Johnson 1980: 15, 18–19), and faience scarabs from T4 and T10 (Johnson 1980: 17, 20) and pit 18 from later excavations (Manning et al. 1998: 340). Some material assemblages, probably indicating identities relevant in part to economic occupations of either the deceased or those responsible for their burial (likely family), include two terracotta boat models from T1 and T5 (Johnson 1980: 15, 18–19), cylinder seals from pit 18 (Manning et al. 1998: 341), bronze weights from T3 (Johnson 1980: 17), and bronze scale pans from T1 and T10 (Johnson 1980: 15, 20). The boat models may be suggestive of links to or expressions of merchant or trader identities. The bronze weights and scales are, on the one hand, suggestive of standardized and likely formal economic interactions, and their low ubiquity across the forty-seven tombs is related to certain individuals or groups (such as families or professional corporations). On the other hand, the wide accessibility of imports like Mycenaean vessels and the abundance of non-ubiquitous artifacts suggest that their circulation was not strictly controlled. This patterning may indicate that a combination of formal and less formal economic relations were influencing or framing the circulation of goods. Finally, in a sample of thirty-nine multiply interred tombs from Episkopi Bamboula dating between LC IA and IIC, Mycenaean pottery was recovered in more than half the corpus (Kiely 2010: 60), and several examples of rare artifacts as well as faience were recorded (e.g., an ostrich egg in T5 and a glass pomegranate in T24; see Benson 1972: 13, 25) (Figure 5.8). Imported pottery from other locations is less common than the Mycenaean wares and is possibly of Syrian provenance, such as a bichrome jug from T12 (Benson 1972: 16). The burial assemblages that contained the finds discussed above are not distinguished by wealth (large number of finds) or uniqueness (distinct size, shape, or internal arrangement). In other words, it is not possible, based on the available burial record, to pinpoint an individual or a family with more extensive or direct access to imported artifacts and hence participation in larger economic networks. Finally, although the material evidence discussed indicates a wide accessibility to imports that can suggest a less centralized and controlled distribution of these

Figure 5.6:  Graph showing the LC IIA–IIC artifacts from the Kalavasos Ayios Dhimitrios and Kalavasos Mangia tombs. Produced by the author using data from South and Todd 1985; Todd and Pearlman 1986; McClellan et al. 1988; South 1989; South and Russell 1989; South 2000; South and Steel 2001; South 2002.

178 Figure 5.7:  Graph showing the LC IIA–IIC artifacts from Maroni Vournes and Maroni Tsaroukkas. Produced by the author using data from Johnson 1980; Manning et al. 1998.

179 Figure 5.8:  Graph showing the LC IA–IIC artifacts from Episkopi Bamboula. Produced by the author using data from Benson 1972.

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artifacts, we cannot ignore the inherent biases of the burial contexts under study. When contrasting the chronological span (often up to one hundred years) and the number of burial interments, it becomes obvious that the available data reflect a small fraction of the mortuary evidence, possibly, as suggested by Manning and Hulin (2005: 17), reflecting those practices limited to elite groups. A greater number of such artifacts and a larger variety of object types probably formed part of the domestic assemblages, and the above example is not representative of any site’s total or holistic material culture. In addition, the details of these objects’ direct or indirect import are perplexing. Why and how did almost all investigated burials contain imports? Were different scales of imported vessels or goods associated with different levels of formal politico-economic relations? The aim in this comparison, of course, is not to begin to associate elite versus non-elite artifacts with formal versus informal, public versus private, state versus non-state, or market versus non-market. In contrast, this paper proposes that the variety of materials observed in the scale of imported artifacts is an indication of multiple types of exchange and that their occurrence in tombs can comment on the economic potential and networking of the deceased and/or living who buried them through what were likely important social events reflecting meaningful aspects of identity. To conclude, variability in the abundance and ubiquity of nonlocal artifacts may suggest also a non-standardized exchange system—rather than a tightly controlled or strictly centralized one—in which informal interactions take place, potentially ranging from personal to group levels. The Textual Evidence The information derived from spatial and contextual analyses of archaeological material can, on the one hand, point to a possibility of gray economics in the LC period. On the other hand, as noted above, these interpretations raise questions regarding the ways and processes in which imported artifacts were acquired by communities and individuals. To complement those data and to cross-examine the findings, I return to the contemporary textual evidence and its implications for understanding informality. Indeed, available textual evidence has largely fostered debates and competing explanations of the political economy of the LC period, with considerable attention focusing on the identification of “Alashiya” and its potential categorization as a polity (organization, place, network, and entity). While there is little space here to address those concerns, several aspects that emerge from these documents are important for a discussion of formal economics. For these reasons, I focus specifically on textual examples that originate from the fourteenth-century BCE Ugarit and Amarna archives as an entryway to examine representations of informal economic activities. In these texts, Alashiya is, in general, mentioned as an important diplomatic power, participating in “elite” gift exchange (Peltenburg 2012: 11; Peltenburg and Iacovou 2012: 350), which involved copper exported from Cyprus at seemingly grand scales. In addition, formalized politico-economic relations, for example office holding, are apparent in key words used in the Amarna letters that mention Alashiya,

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such as the Alashiyan representative in letter EA 35 who addresses the king of Egypt as “brother,” intimating a sense of status equality among powerful elites (Knapp 2008: 326). Despite a lack of material evidence substantiating the type of ruler who shaped those written records, one cannot deny that elite groups of Late Bronze Age Cyprus participated in the interregional trade networks and emulated aspects of the Near Eastern ideological sphere, seen in the acquisition of luxury artifacts and symbolic imagery (Webb 2005: 180). The wide distribution of these materials across the island may suggest that multiple sites and multiple agents participated in those formal interaction networks. Moreover, although Knapp (2008, 2013: 438–447) has elaborated at great length on the correspondence between textual and material evidence, there is no indisputable evidence for island-wide politico-economic integration, such as a distinct administrative building, a distinct (royal) tomb, evidence for veneration of an individual or a group of people (figurative representation), nor is there an established and standardized island-wide sealing practice with irrefutable sphragistic evidence or an archive (Manning and de Mita 1997: 108–109). Indeed, there exists scholarly debate on whether the island had one political power or several competing powers represented in diplomatic exchange, resulting from Alashiya’s material and textual diversity. Following Schloen’s (2001) study on Ugarit, Peltenburg (2012) has proposed a large (elite) household-based, decentralized Alashiyan political configuration, an approach he considered more consistent with the available material evidence and one that incorporates the agency of diverse elite groups and regional communities. On the other hand, Knapp (2013: 444) takes a maximalist view and argues for a more absolute kind of island-wide authority. My paper shares Knapp’s (2013: 446) skepticism toward interpretations that do not sufficiently incorporate the textual evidence. It also shares his view that the interpretation of the available textual and material evidence relies on the perspective of each researcher. Based on the extensive ethnographic and anthropological data on which the theory of gray economics relies, however, as well as the archaeological data I have presented so far, I am more inclined to follow Peltenburg’s (2012) minimalist view that LC local particularities were part of a decentralized political organization that, I believe, may stem from informal socioeconomic interactions. I am less inclined to argue for a more absolute type of island-wide authority, as such an approach does not incorporate and would make even more obscure informal economic interactions, which are already overshadowed by the more widely studied indications for socioeconomic formalization (e.g., the urban components of excavated sites). Moreover, although more informal and less centrally controlled activities are not included in the available textual evidence of Cyprus, merchants and traders are documented in contemporaneous Near Eastern texts as possessing a multitude of characteristics: sometimes being private entrepreneurs, other times associated with, but not always attached to, a formal politico-economic configuration (Monroe 2009). Monroe investigated written sources that indirectly point to the existence of multiple scales of economic interaction and variable degrees of formality, particularly for the case of the Late Bronze Age kingdom of Ugarit. He also discussed

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how even the contemporary LBA Egyptian economy, which has been perceived as diachronically monolithic and pharaoh-oriented, permitted entrepreneurial elements (Monroe 2009: 6 with references). He additionally proposed that formal institutions and entrepreneurs were likely linked by various degrees of interdependence (2009: 15). Since the majority of preserved texts from ca. 1350–1175 BCE in the eastern Mediterranean do not demonstrate a depth of information regarding shipping technologies, one might think, as Monroe (2009: 100) has argued, that formal administrators were not concerned with the logistics of moving goods. Could this hypothesis support a more independent character for individuals who owned or could access boats or shipping routes? Although textual and archaeological information regarding merchant activities in LBA Cyprus is limited compared to its Near Eastern counterparts (Manning and Hulin 2005; Knapp 2014: 86–87), the examples mentioned above provide useful paradigms for considering the more informal interactions facilitated by seaborne trade. For the LC case, which lacks deciphered textual records and instead offers conflicting information deriving from extra-island impressions of Alashiya, things appear more complicated. For instance, letter RS 18.042 of Ugarit mentions a number of jars for a shipment recorded at Ugarit as “. . . 600 jars of oil to Abiramu the Cypriot. . . .” In this text, Abiramu has been interpreted as an agent originally from Alashiya operating in Ugarit and expecting this specific delivery of jars (Monroe 2009: 87–88). Who this person was and how he was related to the Alashiyan economy—a more formal configuration that corresponds with the upper bodies of Near Eastern political structure—remains unclear. We can only speculate on the behavior of Cypriot/Alashiyan merchants reportedly residing in Ugarit (KTU 4.102; UT 119; Monroe 2009: 220; Steel 2013: 30) and their association with what Alashiya may represent. Moreover, seals, pottery, and Cypro-Minoan tablets add further complexity to the peculiar case of Alashiyan migrants (Caubet and Matoïan 1995) and their politico-economic role in Ugarit and Cyprus. On one hand, in Amarna letter EA39 the king of Alashiya mentions: “these men are my merchants . . . let them go safely and promptly. No one making a claim in your name is to approach my merchants or my ships.” This statement, in association with the large amounts of copper reported to be exported from Cyprus, suggests a well-organized, possibly island-wide control of this resource and the agents responsible for its circulation (Knapp 2013: 444). On the other hand, in Amarna letter EA 45 the king of Alashiya mentions: “the people of my land speak to me about the lumber that the king of Egypt receives from me. So, my brother, make the payment to me.” This correspondence may indicate that certain individuals or groups of merchants/traders held sufficient influence over the economic dealings of the “land” and “king” of Alashiya; a state of interdependence communicated in the latter’s demands for payment by the people. Brown (2013: 11) has noted this ambiguous division between private and state spheres of economic exchange and has associated the textual reference of Alashiyan persons and the overly mercantile attitude of the Alashiyan representative in the available correspondence with the probable existence of formal and informal exchange networks. Prior to that, Liverani (2001: 148–149) discussed the arguably commercial focus of the correspondence

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between Alashiya and Assyria, and Broodbank (2013: 398–399) has more recently mentioned Alashiya’s use of merchants, rather than royal couriers, as messengers. Overall, I would argue that the juxtaposition of evidence for island-wide control of resources and evidence for regionally and locally independent economic strategies indicates the coexistence of informal or gray economics in such a way that permitted or even encouraged the incorporation of informal economic activities into formalized international economic networks. Conclusions

The conclusions of this paper are preliminary, as this is an ongoing study at present limited to the south-central coast of the island. Extending research island-wide can provide a more nuanced understanding of different economic scales and degrees of regional informality, as it will involve a wider sample and a larger number of artifacts from secured contexts. Additional useful evidence can derive from recent studies that compiled evidence for seaborne trade that facilitated in varying degrees the transportation of products across the island (Knapp 2014; Knapp and Demesticha 2017). Given the low archaeological and textual visibility of such gray economics, scholars have naturally attended more closely to monumental remains of state-level production and distribution regimes and interregional exchange networks preserved at the highest levels of socioeconomic class. Despite inevitable theoretical and methodological limitations, this paper has demonstrated the probability that our poor understanding of the details of formal Late Bronze Age economics, particularly regarding the networks linking copper mines and the coast, are largely due to a more decentralized economy than traditionally assumed, including to a large degree socially embedded economic practices. To conclude, in this paper I have argued that during the LC period, it is plausible that a series of gray economic practices were taking place alongside more materially prominent, formal activities viewed in monumental buildings, large-scale production centers, and storage facilities for agricultural products and the large-scale exploitation of copper. This conclusion is hardly surprising, as such arrangements probably existed and sustained human societies prior to their politico-economic formalization. Gray economics during the LC period arguably coexisted with the formal economy in a non-exclusionary and non-dualistic dynamic. If this type of informal economy benefited elites who organized and profited from state-directed interregional economics, it is likely that they implemented laissez-faire trade or even a policy of close cooperation. Therefore, small-scale units based on informal principles of organization should be viewed as significant, integral parts of the Late Cypriot economy and its general description could be adjusted. Acknowledgments

This study results from the PhD research I conducted at the University of Edinburgh, under the supervision of Edgar Peltenburg and Gordon Thomas. I would like to

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thank the Department of Classics at Cornell University and Catherine Kearns, Jeff Leon, and Sturt Manning for organizing this conference. I am very grateful for all inspiring discussions I had with Sturt and A. Bernard Knapp. Finally, I would like to thank Luke Aspland for helping me improve the form and presentation of this paper. References Andreou, G.M. 2014. Traversing space: Landscape and identity in Bronze Age Cyprus. Unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Edinburgh. Andreou, G.M. 2016. Understanding the urban landscape of Late Bronze Age Cyprus: A diachronic perspective from the Vasilikos Valley. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 29.2: 143–172. Appadurai, A. 1986. The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Berranger, M., and P. Fluzin. 2007. Organisation de la chaîne opératoire en métallurgie du fer aux IIe-Ier siècle av.J.-C., sur l’oppidum d’Entremont (Aix-en-Provence, Bouches-du-Rhône): La circulation du metal. ArchéoSciences 31: 7–22. Benson, J.L. 1972. Bamboula at Kourion: The Necropolis and the Finds Excavated by J.F. Daniel. University of Pennsylvania Museum Monographs. Haney Foundations series 12. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Bohannan, P. 1959. The impact of money on an African subsistence economy. Journal of Economic History 19: 491–503. Bombardieri, L. 2010. Surveying the Kourion Land: Kouris Valley survey and preliminary excavations at Erimi-Laonin tou Porakou (2007–2008). In A.M. Jasink and L. Bombardieri (eds.), Researches in Cypriote History and Archaeology: Proceedings of the Meeting Held in Florence April 29–30th 2009, 33–52. Florence: Firenze University Press. Broodbank, C. 2013. The Making of the Middle Sea: A History of the Mediterranean from the Beginning to the Emergence of the Classical World. London: Thames and Hudson. Brown, M. 2013. Waterways and the political geography of south-east Cyprus in the second millennium BC. The Annual of the British School of Athens 108: 121–136. Cadogan, G. 1989. Maroni and the monuments. In E. Peltenburg (ed.), Early Society in Cyprus, 43–51. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Carballo, D.M. 2013. Cultural and evolutionary dynamics of cooperation in archaeological perspective. In D.M. Carballo (ed.), Cooperation and Collective Action: Archaeological Perspectives, 1–33. Boulder: University Press of Colorado. Catling, H.W. 1962. Patterns of settlement in Bronze Age Cyprus. Opuscula Atheniensia 4: 129–169. Catling, H.W. 1964. Cypriot Bronze Work in the Mycenean World. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Caubet, A., and V. Matoïan. 1995. Ougarti et l’Égée. In M. Yon, M. Sznycer, and P. Bordneuil (eds.), Les pays d’Ougarit autour de 1200 av.J.-C., 99–112. Paris: Édition Recherche sur les civilisations. Constantinou, G. 1992. Ancient copper mining in Cyprus. In A. Marangou and K. Psillides (eds.), Cyprus, Copper, and the Sea, 43–74. Nicosia: Republic of Cyprus. D’Altroy, T.N., and T.K. Earle. 1985. Staple finance, wealth finance, and storage in the Inka political economy. Current Anthropology 26: 187–206. Elgin, C., and C. Oyvat. 2013. Lurking in the cities: Urbanization and the informal economy. Structural Change and Economic Dynamics 27: 36–47. Feldman, M.H. 2006. Diplomacy by Design: Luxury Arts and an “International Style” in the Ancient Near East, 1400–1200 BCE. London and Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Finley, M.I. 1973. The Ancient Economy. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Fisher, K.D. 2007. Building Power: Monumental architecture, place, and social interaction in Late Bronze Age Cyprus. Unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Toronto. Fisher, K.D. 2009. Elite place-making and social interaction in the Late Cypriot Bronze age. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 22: 183–209. Fisher, K.D. 2014a. Rethinking the Late Cypriot built environment: Households and communities as places of social transformation. In A.B. Knapp and P. van Dommelen (eds.), The Cambridge Prehistory of the Bronze and Iron Age Mediterranean, 399–416. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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Knapp, A.B. 1997. The Archaeology of Late Bronze Age Cypriot Society: The Study of Settlement, Survey, and Landscape. Glasgow: University of Glasgow. Knapp, A.B. 2003. The archaeology of community on Bronze Age Cyprus: Politiko “Phorades” in context. American Journal of Archaeology 107: 559–580. Knapp, A.B. 2008. Prehistoric and Protohistoric Cyprus: Identity, Insularity, and Connectivity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Knapp, A.B. 2013. The Archaeology of Cyprus: From Earliest Prehistory through the Bronze Age. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Knapp, A.B. 2014. Seafaring and seafarers: The case of Late Bronze Age Cyprus. In J.M. Webb (ed.), Structure, Measurement, and Meaning: Studies on Prehistoric Cyprus in Honour of David Frankel, 79–93. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 143. Uppsala, Sweden: Åströms Förlag. Knapp, A.B., and S. Demesticha. 2017. Mediterranean Connections: Maritime Transport Containers and Seaborne Trade in the Bronze and Early Iron Ages. New York and London: Routledge. Knapp, A.B., and V. Kassianidou. 2008. The archaeology of Late Bronze Age copper production: Politiko Phorades on Cyprus. In Ü. Yalçin (ed.), Anatolian Metal IV: Frühe Rohstoffgewinnung in Anatolien un seinen Nachbarländern, 135–147. Die Anschnitt, Beiheft 21. Bochum, Germany: Deutsches Bergbau-Museum. La Porta, R., and A. Shleifer. 2014. Informality and development. Journal of Economic Perspectives 28: 109–126. Lipton, M. 1984. Family, fungibility, and formality: Rural advantages of informal non-farm enterprise versus the urban-formal state. In S. Amin (ed.), Human Resources, Employment, and Development, Vol. 5, 189–242. London: MacMillan. Liverani, M. 2001. International Relations in the Ancient Near East, 1600–1100 BC. Basingstoke, U.K.: Palgrave. Liverani, M. 2005. The Near East: The Bronze Age. In J.G. Manning and I. Morris (eds.), The Ancient Economy: Evidence and Models, 47–57. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Macharia, K. 1997. Social and Political Dynamics of the Informal Economy in African Cities. Oxford: University Press of America. Malbran-Labat, F. 1999. Nouvelles données épigraphiques sur Chypre et Ougarit. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus: 122–124. Malinowski, B. 1922. Argonauts of the Western Pacific: An Account of Native Enterprise and Adventure in the Archipelagoes of Melanesian New Guinea. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Manning, J.G., and I. Morris. (eds.) 2005. The Ancient Economy: Evidence and Models. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Manning, S.W., G.M. Andreou, K.D. Fisher, P. Gerard-Little, C. Kearns, J.F. Leon, D.A. Sewell, and T.M. Urban. 2014. Becoming urban: Investigating the anatomy of the Late Bronze Age complex, Maroni, Cyprus. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 27.1: 3–32. Manning, S.W., and D.H. Conwell. 1992. Maroni Valley Archaeological Survey Project: Preliminary report on the 1990–1991 field seasons. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus: 271–283. Manning, S.W., and F. De Mita. 1997. Cyprus, the Aegean, and Maroni-Tsaroukkas. In D. Christou (ed.), Proceedings of the International Archaeological Conference “Cyprus and the Aegean in Antiquity” from the Prehistoric Period to the 7th Century AD, Nicosia 8–10 December 1995, 103–141. Nicosia: Department of Antiquities. Manning, S.W., and L. Hulin. 2005. Maritime commerce and geographies of mobility in the Late Bronze Age of the eastern Mediterranean: Problematizations. In E. Blake and A.B. Knapp (eds.), The Archaeology of Mediterranean Prehistory, 270–302. Oxford: Blackwell. Manning, S.W., S.J. Monks, S. Louise, E. Ribeiro, and J.M. Weinstein. 1998. Late Cypriot tombs at Maroni Tsaroukkas, Cyprus. Annual of the British School in Athens 93: 297–351. Manning, S.W., D.A. Sewell, and E. Herscher. 2002. Late Cypriot IA maritime trade in action: Underwater survey at Maroni Tsaroukkas and the contemporary east Mediterranean trading system. Annual of the British School in Athens 97: 97–162. Mauss, M. 1990. The Gift: The Form and Reason for Exchange in Archaic Societies [1925]. Trans. W.D. Halls. London and New York: Routledge. McClellan, M.C., P.J. Russell, and I.A. Todd. 1988. Kalavasos-Mangia: Rescue excavations at a Late Bronze Age cemetery. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus: 201–222. McGeough, K. 2007. Exchange Relationships at Ugarit. Leuven, Belgium: Peeters.

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Sherratt, S., and A. Sherratt. 1993. The growth of the Mediterranean economy in the early first millennium BC. World Archaeology 24: 361–378. Sindzingre, A. 2006. The relevance of the concepts of formality and informality: A theoretical appraisal. In B. Guha-Khasnobis, R. Kanbur, and E. Ostrom (eds.), Linking the Formal and Informal Economy: Concepts and Policies, 58–74. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Smith, J.S. (ed.) 2002. Seal and Script Use on Cyprus in the Bronze and Iron Ages. Boston: Archaeological Institute of America. Smith, J.S. 2012. Seals, scripts, and politics at Late Bronze Age Kourion. American Journal of Archaeology 116: 39–103. Södebaum, F. 2006. Blocking human potential: How formal policies block the informal economy in the Maputo corridor. In B. Guha-Khasnobis, R. Kanbur, and E. Ostrom (eds.), Linking the Formal and Informal Economy: Concepts and Policies, 163–178. Oxford: Oxford University Press. South, A.K. 1980. Kalavasos-Ayios Dhimitrios 1979: A summary report. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus: 22–53. South, A.K. 1982. Kalavasos-Ayios Dhimitrios 1980–1981. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus: 60–68. South, A.K. 1989. From copper to kingship: Aspects of Bronze Age society viewed from the Vasilikos Valley. In E. Peltenburg (ed.), Early Society in Cyprus, 315–324. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. South, A.K. 1991. Kalavasos-Ayios Dhimitrios 1990. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus: 133–145. South, A.K. 2000. Late Bronze Age burials at Kalavasos-Ayios Dhimitrios. In G.K Ioannides and S. Hadgistilles (eds.), Πρακτικά του Γ΄ Διεθνούς Κυπρολογικού Συνεδρίου (Λευκωσία, 16–20 Απριλίου 1996) Α΄: Αρχαίο Μέρος, 345–364. Nicosia: Society of Cypriot Studies—The A.G. Leventis Foundation. South, A.K. 2002. Late Bronze Age settlement patterns in Southern Cyprus: The first kingdoms. Cahier du Centre d’Études Cypriotes 32: 59–72 South, A.K., and P. Russell. 1989. Tombs 1–7 and 10. In I.A. Todd (ed.), Vasilikos Valley Project 3 Kalavasos-Ayios Dhimitrios II. Ceramics, Objects, Tombs, Specialist Studies, 41–57. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 71.3. Göteborg, Sweden: Paul Åströms Förlag. South, A.K., and L. Steel. 2001. The White Slip sequence at Kalavasos. In V. Karageorghis (ed.), The White Slip Ware of Late Bronze Age Cyprus, Proceedings of an International Conference Organized by the Anastasios G. Leventis Foundation, Nicosia in Honour of Malcolm Wiener, Nicosia, 29th–30th October 1998, 65–74. Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. South, A.K., and I.A. Todd. 1985. In quest of Cypriot copper traders: Excavations at Ayios Dhimitrios. Archaeology 38.5: 40–47. Steel, L. 2013. Materiality and Consumption in the Bronze Age Mediterranean. New York and Abingdon: Routledge. Steel, L. 2016. Exploring Aredhiou: New light on the rural communities of the Cypriot hinterland during the Late Bronze Age. American Journal of Archaeology 120: 511–536. Swiny, S. 1981. Bronze Age settlement patterns in southwest Cyprus. Levant 13: 51–87. Swiny, S. 2004. The role of intuitive and small scale surveys in landscape archaeology. In M. Iacovou (ed.), Archaeological Field Survey in Cyprus: Past History, Future Potentials. Proceedings of a Conference Held by the Archaeological Research Unit of the University of Cyprus, 1–2 December 2000, 55–61. London: British School at Athens. Todd, I.A. 1989. Vasilikos Valley Project 3: Kalavasos-Ayios Dhimitrios II, Ceramics, Objects, Tombs, Specialist Studies. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 71.3. Göteborg, Sweden: Paul Åströms Förlag. Todd, I.A. 2004. Vasilikos Valley Project 9: The Field Survey of the Vasilikos Valley Vol. I. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 71.9. Sävedalen, Sweden: Paul Åströms Förlag. Todd, I.A. 2013. Vasilikos Valley Project 12: The Field Survey of the Vasilikos Valley Vol. III, Human Settlement in the Vasilikos Valley. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 71.12. Uppsala, Sweden: Åströms Förlag. Todd, I.A., and D. Pearlman. 1986. Appendix: List of Kalavasos Village Tombs. In I.A. Todd (ed.), Vasilikos Valley Project 1, The Bronze Age Cemetery in Kalavasos Village, 188–218. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 71.1. Göteborg, Sweden: Paul Åströms Förlag.

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Todd, I.A., and D. Pilides. 2004. The site of Sanidha-Moutti tou Ayiou Serkou. In I.A. Todd (ed.), Vasilikos Valley Project 9: The Field Survey of the Vasilikos Valley Vol. I, 161–171. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 71.9. Sävedalen, Sweden: Paul Åströms Förlag. Van Brempt, L., and V. Kassianidou. 2016. Facing the complexity of copper-sulphide ore smelting and assessing the role of copper in south-central Cyprus: A comparative study of the slag assemblage from Late Bronze Age Kalavasos-Ayios Dhimitrios. Journal of Archaeological Science Reports 7: 539–553. Van de Mieroop, M. 1997. The Mesopotamian City. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Webb, J.M. 1999. Ritual Architecture, Iconography, and Practice in Late Bronze Age Cyprus. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 77. Jonsered, Sweden: Paul Åströms Förlag. Webb, J.M. 2005. Ideology, iconography, and identity: The role of foreign goods and images in the establishment of social hierarchy in Late Bronze Age Cyprus. In J. Clarke (ed.), Archaeological Perspectives on the Transmission and Transformation of Culture in the Eastern Mediterranean, 177–182. Oxford: Oxbow Books. Weber, M. 1947. The Theory of Social and Economic Organization. Ed. T. Parsons, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft I. Trans. A.R. Henderson. London: Free Press. Weinberg, S. 1983. Bamboula at Kourion: The Architecture. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania. Williams, C.C. 2004. Cash-in-Hand Work: The Underground Sector and the Hidden Economy of Favours. Basingstoke: Palsgrave Macmillan. Williams, C.C. 2006. The Hidden Enterprise Culture: Entrepreneurship in the Underground Economy. Northampton: Edward Elgar.

6 Tracing the Foundation Horizon of Palaepaphos New Research on the Early History of the Paphos Region ARTEMIS GEORGIOU

Middle Cypriot III–Late Cypriot I: The Dawn of a New Era

The period that spans the latter part of the Middle and the beginning of the Late Bronze Age (LBA) in Cyprus constitutes a time of major transformation in the socioeconomic environment, settlement patterns, and material culture of the island (Figure 6.1). While the agropastoral scheme that had sustained Cypriot communities for almost a millennium during the long and largely uneventful Early and Middle Bronze Age was retained as the basis of the LBA economy (but see Manning in this volume; see also Webb and Frankel 2013 for the emergence of divergent social trajectories early in the EBA), the inception of the Late Cypriot (LC) period marked the end of simple subsistence villages (Knapp 1997: 29–30). By the mid-second millennium BCE onwards, the Cypriot economy centered on the heavy industry of copper and the extra-insular export of the processed metal (Peltenburg 1996: 29–31; Knapp 2013: 28–29). Pyrotechnological implements used for the processing of the ores and the production of copper, such as tuyères, crucibles, and bellows, provide ample documentation of the progress achieved in the technology of copper smelting during the dawn of the LC period (Kassianidou 2008: 258–265; 2011: 45–46; Knapp 2012). Such implements, as well as copper slag, the residue of smelting, were excavated at special function sites situated inland, such as Politiko Phorades (Knapp and Kassianidou 2008: 140–144), as well as at coastal centers, for example at Enkomi (Dikaios 1969–71: 500) and Morphou Toumba tou Skourou (Vermeule and Wolsky 1990: 43–45; see also Muhly 1989: 299; Kassianidou 2013a: 133–134). No oxhide ingots of the LC I period are preserved on the island, but the introduction of schematically depicted oxhide ingots on cylinder seals begins in this period (Papasavvas 2009: 90), indicating that this standardized shape emerged at around this time. Lead isotope analyses on copper oxhide ingots found in Late Minoan IB contexts at Zakros, Mochlos, Syme, and Gournia on Crete suggest a Cypriot origin (Stos-Gale 2011: 223–226; Kassianidou 2014) and confirm the intensification of the island’s external 190

Figure 6.1:  Map of Cyprus with sites mentioned in the text, showing the Pillow Lavas and the distribution of ancient slag heaps. Digital data courtesy of the Geological Survey Department, Cyprus; map drafter by the author.

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connections. Contemporary textual evidence from outside Cyprus is also enlightening. A number of texts from Mari, Babylonia, and Alalakh dating to the first half of the eighteenth century BCE mention Alashiya, which is commonly equated with Cyprus (Goren et al. 2003), as a supplier of copper (Knapp 1996: 17–30). The earliest use of a syllabic script, conventionally referred to as “Cypro-Minoan” (Ferrara 2012: 267–269), indicates the establishment of sociopolitical structures on the island that necessitated a scribal system. The exponential increase of Cypriot pottery deposited in settlement and mortuary contexts in the Levant and Egypt manifests Cyprus’s participation in the eastern Mediterranean trading networks at the close of the Middle Cypriot (MC) period. Cypriot wares were mostly concentrated on the Hyksos-controlled Nile Delta, predominantly at Tell el-Dab’a (Maguire 1995; 2009) and sites along the Levantine coast (see Oren 2001; Bergoffen 2001; 2005; Crewe 2007a: 14–15; Eriksson 2007: 71–74; Yener 2012: 162–163; Knapp 2013: 34–35). In its majority, this corpus consisted of ceramic wares associated with production in the east of the island (Crewe 2010: 63). The marked upsurge of exotica deposited in LC I tombs (Keswani 2004: 136–139) further demonstrates the island’s participation in trading networks (see Andreou in this volume). Imported ceramics include Tell el Yahudiyeh juglets from Egypt, Canaanite jars from the Levant, and Late Minoan and Late Helladic finewares from the Aegean (Pecorella 1973; Kaplan 1980: 77–80; Crewe 2007a: 15–16; 2012: 227–229; A. Georgiou 2016: 192). Cylinder seals, socketed axes, faience, and ivory artifacts, all imported from the Levant and Egypt, were also deposited in mortuary contexts (Courtois 1986: 76–79; Philip 1991: 80–82; Knapp 2013: 34–35). The transition from the MC III to the LC IA in Cyprus also incorporated substantial transformations within the island’s ceramics production (see Crewe 2007a: 32–40). While the traditional White Painted, Red Polished, and Black/Red Slip wares—characteristic of MC pottery production—persisted, the archaic versions of the Base Ring and White Slip wares, known by the terms Proto–Base Ring and Proto–White Slip, were developed during the LC IA period in the northwestern and central parts of the island (Merrillees 1971: 62; Åström 2001a; Herscher 2001: 13–16; Manning 2001: 80–81). The dawn of the LBA signals the earliest use of the potter’s wheel for the manufacture of pottery on the island, which Crewe considers to form part of the Levantine innovations introduced during this time (2007b: 213). The shift from an agropastoral economy to an industrial and commercial one, combined with increasing contact with the outside world, intensified the level of complexity within Cypriot societies (Manning in this volume). Mortuary data reflect the endeavors of rising elite groups to establish status and authority through the adoption of prestige and symbolic paraphernalia associated with elite practices in the rest of the eastern Mediterranean (Knapp 1993: 97–98; 2013: 28–35; Keswani 1996: 238; 2005: 392–393; Webb 2005: 180–181). These seminal forces of societal transformation were exponentially augmented during the nucleation processes that characterized this period, when populations originating from heterogeneous backgrounds accumulated at newly founded coastal centers (Keswani 1996: 220; 2004: 87–88; G. Georgiou 2006: 457).

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The Settlement Pattern of Cyprus at the Opening of the Late Bronze Age

The demise of the agropastoral economic system brought about the abandonment of the majority of the centuries-old villages, which were—as a rule—located inland, close to stretches of arable land and perennial water sources. Marki Alonia and Alambra Mouttes, two extensive settlements that thrived during the early part of the second millennium BCE, were abandoned before the end of the MC period (Frankel and Webb 2006; Coleman et al. 1996; Dikomitou-Eliadou in this volume). Settlements such as Nicosia Ayia Paraskevi and Deneia, however, established from as early as the third millennium BCE, continued to be successively inhabited during the LBA owing to their strategic geographical location along the routes that linked the metalliferous zones to the coast (G. Georgiou 2006: 281–285) (Figure 6.1). The dramatic transformations of the settlement pattern at the dawn of the LBA are epitomized by the foundation of new settlements by or near the coast (G. Georgiou 2006: 457; Crewe 2007a: 41–47; Knapp 1997). The main impetus for the foundation of the coastal settlements is associated with the consolidation of the heavy industry of copper as the focal point of the Cypriot economy, considering that the metal’s maritime export necessitated the establishment of coastal emporia (Peltenburg 1996: 30–35; Keswani 2005: 293–294; Iacovou 2012: 58–60). The newly founded settlement at Enkomi, exposed in roughly contemporaneous expeditions by the French Mission (see Schaeffer 1952; 1971; Courtois 1981; 1984) and the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus led by Dikaios during the 1940s and 1950s (Dikaios 1969–71), has presented the most critical evidence for these processes. The foundation of Enkomi has been considered as a means of facilitating the movement of goods from Kalopsidha, and possibly other areas as well, by population groups seeking to join in the ideological and economic connectivity of the eastern Mediterranean (Crewe 2007a: 152, 158; 2010: 69; cf. Webb 2012: 54–56). Kalopsidha was an early participant in the eastern Mediterranean market economy judging by the plethora of imported Levantine goods and the indication for metalworking activities (Crewe 2010: 69–70). Its significance was undermined following Enkomi’s establishment, but the settlement was not altogether abandoned (Webb 2012: 55). The large structure of Area III at Enkomi, known as the “Fortress,” was established during Level IA ([of LC IA2 date according to Crewe 2007a: 73] Dikaios 1969–71: 16–34). Its substantial built and independent character prompted Pickles and Peltenburg to suggest that the “Fortress” constituted the administrative center of early Enkomi (1988: 87). The excavation of tuyères, crucibles, and furnaces from the “Fortress” attests to some degree of metallurgical activities taking place within this structure (Muhly 1989: 299–300; Kassianidou 2012: 104; 2013a: 134). The construction of a number of roughly contemporary fortified sites at key locations on the north and central parts of the island and the Karpas Peninsula (see Fortin 1989: 247–248; Crewe 2007a: 49–61; G. Georgiou 2006: 472–475) were considered as indications of Enkomi’s regional control over the resources (but see Monahan and Spigelman in this volume). Peltenburg suggested that the strategic location of a number of these “forts” indicates that these functioned as a means of

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securing the movement of copper from the mining regions to Enkomi and exerting regional control (1996: 30–31, 35–36; see also Webb 1999: 305–308). Based on the distribution pattern of the “forts” and the regional variability of the period’s ceramic repertoire, Crewe has suggested that the fortified settlements underscore the regionalism of the LC I period rather than promoting the domination of a single center (Crewe 2007a: 66, 158–159). Regardless of their raison d’être, the “forts” entail a series of diversified and not necessarily matching phenomena and function as a prime indicator of the transformative forces in the island’s social, economic, and political spheres at the inception of the LBA (Monahan and Spigelman in this volume). It is further noteworthy that all the establishments collectively referred to as “forts” ceased to exist by the end of LC IIA period. Unlike the also newly founded coastal settlements, which developed into sophisticated urban centers during the latter part of the Late Bronze Age, the “forts” had no long-lasting impact on the Cypriot landscape. With the exception of Enkomi, the LC coastal settlements present minimal evidence of their foundation horizons. On the northwestern coast, the settlement of Morphou Toumba tou Skourou was established near the Morphou Bay on top of a mound that was severely damaged by modern bulldozing activities (Vermeule and Wolsky 1990: 7). Morphou Toumba tou Skourou was occupied from at least the LC IA period, with mortuary evidence attesting to an even earlier MC III phase (Vermeule and Wolsky 1990: 287–307). The site revealed evidence for industrial facilities pertaining to the manufacture of pottery (i.e., the “Basin Building” used for purifying clay) in addition to possible metalworking activities. The mortuary evidence from Morphou Toumba tou Skourou attests to the site’s connections with other areas of the Mediterranean, especially Minoan Crete (Vermeule and Wolsky 1990: 381; Keswani 2004: 121). A wealthy LC I cemetery excavated at the site of Ayia Irini Palaeokastro within the Morphou Bay to the north of Toumba tou Skourou (Pecorella 1977; Quilici 1990) contained numerous exotica, including imported finewares from the Aegean (Pecorella 1973). The site of Phlamoudhi Melissa on the north coast appears to have been continually occupied from the MC III to LC IIC periods. In the early phase of occupation there is evidence for a pottery kiln (Smith 2008: 49). At the neighboring hilltop site of Phlamoudhi Vounari a small monumental structure was built at around the time of Melissa’s foundation but was abandoned before the end of LC IIA (Horowitz 2008: 70). Hala Sultan Tekke on the southeastern coast of the island was also founded during the MC–LC transition, although the site is much better known by its final phase in the twelfth century BCE, when it functioned as a cosmopolitan harbor town (Åström 1996: 10; Fischer 2016). Material dating to the town’s early phases is largely residual and relatively sparse, found mostly in trial trenches and mortuary contexts (e.g., Åström et al. 1983: 66, 74, 147, 150, 153; Åström 2001b: 57–61; Fischer and Bürge 2015: 33–34; 2016: 41, 44; Fischer and Bürge 2017: 174–184). The earliest architectural features at the site of Vournes, close to the village of Maroni on the south-central coast, date to the LC IA period but are much disturbed by later activity (Cadogan 1992: 51–53; 1996: 15; Manning 1998). During the LC

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IIA–B period a free-standing structure with a sunken basin known as the “Basin Building” was established at Maroni Vournes. It was designed to be impermeable to liquids, but its use remains unclear (Cadogan 1984: 6–7). Excavations at the coastal site of Maroni Tsaroukkas revealed evidence for occupation early in the LC period (Manning and De Mita 1997: 136; Manning et al. 2014). Finally, the area of Episkopi, at the terminal point of the Kouris valley on the south coast, presents limited evidence for the MC III–LC IA period. A short period of occupation was assigned to the LC IA period at the site of Episkopi Phaneromeni (Herscher 2001: 15). At Episkopi Bamboula, excavations by Daniel revealed scanty residential contexts, the earliest of which date to the LC IA period and a few contemporary mortuary remains (Benson 1972: 4–5; see also Kiely 2011). Palaepaphos: The Foundation Horizon

Palaia (Old) Paphos is situated on the southwestern coast of Cyprus, within the modern-day village of Kouklia (Figure 6.2). The site is renowned for its monumental Sanctuary, originally constructed at the opening of the twelfth century BCE, which continued to function as a place of adoration for a female deity, later known as Aphrodite, down to late antiquity. An abundance of epigraphic testimonies from as early as the seventh century BCE designate the site as the administrative center for the polity of Paphos (Satraki 2012: 218–236). It became known by the name Palaepaphos only after the end of the fourth century BCE, when the kingdom’s capital shifted to Nea (New) Paphos some 15 km to the northwest (Iacovou 2013: 287–288). The Evidence from the Palaepaphos Nucleus The site possesses an impressively long and continuous history, from the time of its earliest establishment to the present day. As a result of its uninterrupted occupation, no stratified data corresponding to the site’s foundation horizon has been brought to light so far. The town’s foundation horizon is exclusively known by means of residual ceramic fragments and disturbed mortuary remains. Despite the limited and fragmentary nature of Palaepaphos’s earliest strata, the evidence for an early occupation spanning the MC III–LC I phase in the area is unequivocal. Excavations by the earliest archaeological expedition in the area of Kouklia, the Cyprus Exploration Fund, in 1888 (see Hogarth et al. 1888) revealed five vessels dating to the MC III phase, now at the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, which were said to originate from the locality of Kouklia Evreti. They entail an almost complete White Painted (WP) V–VI jar, a zoomorphic vessel of WP III ware, a juglet of Black Slip incised ware and two WP III Pendent Line style bottles (Frankel 1983: 86–87, 108). The latter two are of questionable origin, since the accession registry of the Ashmolean Museum lists both Kouklia and Aglatzia Leondari Vouno as their find-spots. A body fragment of a WP V jar, now also at the Ashmolean, was collected from Kouklia Evreti, following Catling’s very brief surface survey in western Cyprus in 1953 (1962: 165; Frankel 1983: 107).

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Figure 6.2:  Orthophoto map of the Kouklia village with localities. Courtesy of the “Palaepaphos Urban Landscape Project,” used by permission of the director.

The investigations by the British Mission under Mitford and Iliffe during the first half of the 1950s revealed a number of tombs at Kouklia, which regrettably remain largely unpublished. In a very brief and preliminary report, Catling assigned a date early in the LC sequence for the finds contained within Tombs VIII and X at Evreti and Tombs II and IX at Asproyi (1979: 274–275). Catling’s more detailed publication of the exceptionally wealthy Tomb VIII of Evreti includes burial gifts assigned to the LC I period (Catling 1968: 165–166). The majority of the mortuary equipment from this tomb dates to the LC IIC–IIIA periods, but a few White Slip I and Base Ring I vessels corroborate an earlier phase.

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The archaeological remains unearthed by the British Mission were distributed to the Museums of Liverpool, St. Andrew’s, the regional Kouklia Museum, and the Cyprus Museum in Nicosia. The St. Andrew’s part of the share was transferred to the National Museums of Scotland, following the closure of the institution’s gallery. A very limited number of finds from the Palaepaphos mortuary contexts were displayed as part of a temporary exhibition and are thus known by means of the exhibition’s catalogue (Goring 1988: 65). This publication includes two White Slip I bowls, two Base Ring I jugs, and a White Lustrous bottle dating to LC IB from Kouklia Asproyi Tomb IX, out of the twenty objects that Catling has registered in his preliminary report for this context (Goring 1988: 65–66, 69). The catalogue further incorporates a faience necklace with a carnelian bead in the form of a stylized udjat eye, which was possibly imported from Egypt (Goring 1988: 77, No. 93), and a dark blue cast glass pendant in a Hathor-like form, both found deposited in Asproyi Tomb II (Goring 1988: 77, No. 94). The glass pendant belongs to a well-known type of the sixteenth and fifteenth centuries BCE that was imported from northern Mesopotamia (Goring 1988: 77). The material transferred by the Kouklia British Mission to the Liverpool Museum remains largely unknown. An interim list cataloguing the Cypriot antiquities stored at Liverpool includes, among others, three Red Slip sherds dating to the MC III period from Kouklia Evreti Tomb X and a so-called White-on-Black sherd from Evreti Tomb IIIA (Tsielepi and Bienkowski 1988: 7). Investigations in the wider area of Evreti and Asproyi by the same mission revealed material dated to the end of the MC period inside pits, including fragments of WP IV–V, Red Polished III–IV, and Black Slip ware vessels (Maier and von Wartburg 1985a: 104–105). The long-term fieldwork operations in the area of Kouklia by the Swiss-German team under the direction of the late Franz-Georg Maier also brought to light material assigned to the polity’s earliest strata. Investigations during 1967–68 in the area of Evreti revealed two wells (TE III and TE VIII) filled with a mixture of pottery, stones, animal bones, and small faience, ivory, and bronze objects, which correspond to the living and working contexts of the area (Maier and von Wartburg 1985a: 110–113; 1985b: 147–148). The entire corpus from these very significant contexts was recently published in a comprehensive publication (von Rüden et al. 2016). The vast majority of the finds dates to the LC IIC–IIIA span, but the earliest phases are also represented by a few residual remains. Keswani’s ceramic analyses of the pithos assemblage from the Evreti wells suggest that a significant number of the storage vessels correspond to the so-called Drab Polished ware and are indicative of an early LC date (Keswani 2016: 218–222). A point of reference is a rim fragment of an imported Late Minoan IA cup (Maier and von Wartburg 1985a: 110, Plate XIV:1; A. Georgiou 2016: 191, Figures 1a, 1b), which illustrates the site’s maritime connections with other Mediterranean polities early in the LBA. Further excavations in the wider area of Evreti-Asproyi by the Swiss-German Mission produced a number of stray finds dating to the MC–LC transition, such as fragments of Red Polished III–IV, Coarse Monochrome, White Painted, and Bichrome Wheelmade ware (Maier and von Wartburg 1985a: 119, Plate XVI:11). In the area of Kouklia Marcello the Swiss-German Mission uncovered unstratified ceramic remains dated to the MC III–LC IA periods. This material consists of small sherds, mostly of Red Polished III–IV, Black Slip (Reserved Line), Proto–Base Ring, and Proto–White Slip wares (Maier and von Wartburg 1986: 60; Maier 2008: 185–186).

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There were also numerous White Slip I and Base Ring I fragments dating to the LC IB–IIB periods (Maier 2008: 188–189). Preliminary reports of the Swiss-German Mission’s excavations make reference to early imports from the Greek mainland, assigned to the Late Helladic IIB–IIIA1 phase. This corpus includes fragments of stirrup jars, kylikes, and a cup with a stipple filling (Maier 1983: 230–231, Plates 22f, 23a–c). Fieldwork expeditions at the site of Kouklia Teratsoudhia by the Department of Antiquities revealed wealthy tomb groups that span the entire LC sequence. The earliest material is dated to the LC IA period and was found within Tomb 104 (Area F: sherds of Black Slip [Reserved Band] jugs [Karageorghis 1990: 28, 57, Plate V], Chamber K, nos. 14 and 27: Black Slip III ware jugs [Karageorghis 1990: 29–30, Plates XVIII, XLVII]) and Chamber B of Tomb 105, with plentiful of examples of Proto–Base Ring and Black Slip III ware (nos. 42, 43, 45 [Karageorghis 1990: 44, Plates XXXIII, LXVIII]). The following LC IB–IIB phase is very well represented in the material from almost all contexts. Numerous complete and fragmentary jugs, juglets, bowls, and more rarely tankards of Base Ring I ware were deposited in the Teratsoudhia tombs. White Slip I ware is also represented by several examples, almost exclusively “milk-bowls” (see commentary in Karageorghis 1990: 54–73). There were also three White Lustrous Wheelmade vessels and the much rarer version of White Lustrous Handmade (from Well No. 67 [Karageorghis 1990: 53, Plates XLI, LXXV]). A large krater found inside a well at Teratsoudhia is a rare example of Bichrome Wheelmade pictorial ware, with the depiction of a man and a bull (Karageorghis 1990: 52, Plates XLI, LXXV). The mortuary corpus at Teratsoudhia included a number of imported artifacts dating to LC I, including three fragmentary Late Minoan I cups (from Tomb 104, Chamber O and Tomb 105, Pit C [Karageorghis 1990: 37, 71–72, Plate IV]), similar to the examples found at Ayia Irini (Pecorella 1973). Tomb 104 contained a stone vessel fragment imported from Egypt, with the cartouche of a pharaoh, tentatively identified as Ahmose I, the founder of the New Kingdom during the sixteenth century BCE (Clerc 1990). The fieldwork expeditions of the “Palaepaphos Urban Landscape Project,” a long-term program initiated in 2006 by Iacovou (2008a) under the auspices of the University of Cyprus, have exposed critical evidence elucidating Palaepaphos’s earliest establishment. Aiming to investigate the polity’s urban landscape in a diachronic framework, the Palaepaphos Urban Landscape Project has been undertaking fieldwork at targeted areas of the village at Kouklia (see Iacovou 2008a; 2012: 60; 2013: 282–285 for preliminary reports). The investigation of the extension of the rampart on the hill of Kouklia Marcello produced residual sherds spanning the MC III–LC I period. These included WP, Black/Red Slip, Red Polished III–IV ware, and Proto– White Slip fragments. Marcello has also revealed two Red-on-Black sherds, which were evidently imported from the eastern part of the island. There were also numerous White Slip I and Base Ring I sherds (Sherratt in press). The program’s investigations on the plateau of Hadjiabdullah also produced evidence for the town’s early occupation. The wares represented include Bichrome Wheelmade, Black Slip Incised, Proto–White Slip and numerous examples of White Slip I and Base Ring I ware. The material from Hadjiabdullah suggests that this locality was probably established during LC IA–IB period, slightly later than Marcello. The ongoing excavations at the man-made tumulus of Kouklia Laona, constructed with overlapping strata of red

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soil brought in from surrounding areas, as well as marl (Iacovou 2017), also shed light on Palaepaphos’s early phases. The ceramic contents of this feature consist of a mixture of sherds dating from as early as the MC III period. The early material found at Laona includes Black/Red Slip and Red Polished III–IV sherds, a fragment of a Black Slip Handmade (Reserved Band) jug (Figure 6.3), three Proto–White Slip fragments (e.g., Figure 6.4), and plentiful White Slip I and Base Ring I examples.

Figure 6.3:  Body fragment of a Black Slip (Reserved Band Ware) jug. From Palaepaphos Laona. Courtesy of the “Palaepaphos Urban Landscape Project,” used by permission of the director.

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Figure 6.4:  Rim fragment of a Proto–White Slip bowl. From Palaepaphos Laona. Courtesy of the “Palaepaphos Urban Landscape Project,” used by permission of the director.

The date of the material we can attribute to the foundation of the settlement at Palaepaphos suggests that the first populations were established during the MC III–LC IA period. The limited quantities of the evidence corresponding to Palaepaphos’s earliest occupation and the lack of contextual data pose substantial constraints to our understanding of the transformative forces that resulted in the site’s establishment and its character at the time of its foundation. In order to trace the processes that instigated the foundation of Palaepaphos, it is essential to move beyond the limits of the polity’s nucleus and expand into the wider Paphos region.

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The Evidence from the Paphos Region The area of research is defined as the hydrological zone of Paphos, the drainage basin in southwest Cyprus that forms a geographical unity (Christodoulou 1959: 18). This extended landscape is dominated by the foothills and the mountainous range of Troodos on the north/northeast and the wide coastal plains on the south/southwest. It is further defined by smaller watersheds created by four large rivers: the Chapotami, Dhiarizos, Xeros (or Xeropotamos), and Ezousa that spring from the Troodos foothills and flow in an almost parallel northeast/southwest axis toward the coast.

Datasets Used The evidence presented in this section is based on the results of three interrelated categories of analysis: surface surveys, systematic and rescue excavations, and doctoral and master dissertations. For pedestrian survey, distinct segments of the wider region have been examined through several projects. The Canadian Palaipaphos Survey Project (CPSP) of Brock University conducted extensive, semi-intensive, and systematic survey campaigns from 1979 to 1991 in the area around Kouklia village using zones along the Ezousa, Xeros, and Dhiarizos rivers (Sørensen and Rupp 1993; Diacopoulos 2004; Rupp 2004 with further references). The Lemba Archaeological Project, in addition to the excavations conducted at the sites of Lemba and Kissonerga, has surveyed large parcels in the villages of Lemba, Kissonerga, Peyia, and Stavros tis Psokas in search of prehistoric sites (Baird 1985; Bolger et al. 2004). Smaller-scale surface surveys were conducted by the Department of Antiquities at Kouklia, Kissonerga, and the Akamas Peninsula (Hadjisavvas 1977). The area around Polis, situated to the north of the Paphos catchment area, was surveyed by the Polis-Pyrgos Archaeological Project (Maliszewski 2007; 2013). Surface surveys have proven invaluable in identifying sites of archaeological interest within an extended landscape, such as that of the Paphos catchment area. It should, nonetheless, be maintained that the identification of the size, character, and extent of a site based exclusively on pottery scatters should be treated cautiously (Diacopoulos 2004: 72; Given 2004; Bintliff 2013; see discussions by Satraki and Kearns in this volume), in particular considering that a large amount of the evidence collected in the Paphos region remains unpublished. Archaeological excavations of prehistoric sites within the Paphos catchment area are particularly limited beyond the Kouklia nucleus. These include the long-term excavation programs of the University of Edinburgh at Lemba (Peltenburg et al. 1985), Kissonerga (Peltenburg et al. 1998), and Souskiou (Peltenburg 2006); the ongoing excavation project of the University of Manchester at Kissonerga Skalia (Crewe et al. 2008; 2013); and the Prasteio Mesorotsos Archaeological Project (PMAP) (McCarthy et al. 2010). In addition, the Department of Antiquities has been conducting rescue excavations within the wider Paphos area (i.e. Raptou and Villain 2018).

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Finally, the present research makes use of specialized master and doctoral theses dealing with the extended Paphos region. The site registry and commentary compiled by G. Georgiou (2006) offers an invaluable insight into the settlement patterns of the entire island from the Late Chalcolithic to the opening of the LBA. Agapiou’s (2010) master’s thesis, which analyzes the use of space within the Paphos catchment area using Geographical Information Systems (GIS), is of additional value, as is Christodoulidou’s (2014) master’s thesis that focuses on the available pottery evidence. Finally, the doctoral dissertation of Zomeni (2012) examines the geological character of the Paphos region, with significant information on the natural resources and changes to the ancient coastline. Examining the Settlement Pattern in the Wider Paphos Region Maier and Karageorghis (1984: 46) have noted the practical absence of an Early Bronze Age horizon at Palaepaphos and the overall paucity of EC evidence within the wider Paphos area. The same picture is also conveyed by survey expeditions (Sørensen and Rupp 1993: 4; Diacopoulos 2004: 76). It is as yet unclear whether this truly corresponds to limited occupation during the EC period, or whether the presumed “vacuum” is projected by the demonstrably regional character of ceramic production of the Paphos area, which is difficult to synchronize with that of the rest of the island (see discussion in Herscher 1980; G. Georgiou 2006: 460; Crewe 2014: 137). Kissonerga Mosphilia is so far the only site in the Paphos catchment area that presents a continuous occupation from the Late Neolithic period to the Philia phase (Peltenburg et al. 1998: 240–259). Recent investigations at Kissonerga Skalia, a possible segment of the Mosphilia settlement, suggest continuous occupation at the site from the Philia phase to the MC III/LC IA period, although the early phases at Skalia are mostly evidenced by residual pottery (Crewe 2013: 49; 2014: 146). Excavations by the Department of Antiquities at the area of Kissonerga Ammoudhia revealed an extensive cemetery site that spans the entire EC–MC period (Graham 2012; 2013: 136–137). An EC III horizon has also been recognized at sites near the village of Prasteio, within the Dhiarizos valley, some 15 km inland. Rescue excavations at the cemetery site of Prasteio Agkathera revealed limited material that possibly spans the EC III–LC IA period (Christodoulou 1971: 80), similar to the date proposed for the site of Prasteio Lakridhes by the CPSP (Sørensen and Rupp 1993: 4). Preliminary reports by PMAP suggest that the site’s life span coincides with the entire EC–MC period and that Mesorotsos was abandoned early in the LC I period (McCarthy et al. 2010: 65). Based on the results of surface survey projects, a small rise in the number of sites within the Paphos catchment area can be traced during the MC I–II periods. The sites of Ayia Marinoudha Akoni, Kedhares Pouspoutis/Soumatzera, and Kissonerga Choiromandres were established early during the MC period (G. Georgiou 2006: 382, 386, 389). A number of other sites such as Ayios Dhimitrianos Vouni, Koloni Anatoliko, Kritou Marottou Piknopitia/Arkoklima, Mamonia Kalamos,

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and Trachypedoula Kapsales have also been dated to the MC period (G. Georgiou 2006: 382–383, 389, 393–394). These sites are known only via limited surface data, and as such their chronological designation is tentative (Sørensen and Rupp 1993: 6). The region of Paphos witnessed an unprecedented upsurge in the number of identified sites during the subsequent MC III and LC IA periods (Figure 6.5). This picture is mostly illustrated by surface surveys but is further corroborated by small-scale excavations. The majority of the MC III–LC IA sites were situated along the watersheds of the Ezousa and Dhiarizos rivers and to some extent within the Yeroskipou watershed to the west (Agapiou 2010: 104). Occupation along the Xeros watershed appears to have been particularly sparse; it is unclear whether this represents an actual scarcity of settlements, or whether this impression is due to the fact that the Xeros watershed was not surveyed as intensively as the Ezousa and Dhiarizos. During the MC III–LC IA phase, the focus of occupation along the Ezousa watershed was the inland area of the Paphos forest on the one hand and the coastal area where the river flows on the other. A cluster of sites can be observed near the village of Kritou Marottou (Figure 6.5), ca. 25 km inland at a height of around 600 m above sea level (Sørensen and Rupp 1993: 6; G. Georgiou 2006: 392–393). The terminal

Figure 6.5:  Map of the Paphos hydrological zone, showing the distribution of MC III–LC IA sites, the Upper and Lower Pillow Lavas, and the distribution of ancient slag heaps in the Paphos forest. Digital data courtesy of the Geological Survey Department, Cyprus.

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point of the Ezousa River was marked by a cluster of sites, namely Ayia Marinoudha Kotsiatis/Akoni, Ayia Varvara Teratsin, Timi Sentouzin tou Rafti, and Anarita Retzepis (Figure 6.6) (G. Georgiou 2006: 424–428). Rescue excavations at the latter two sites revealed tomb groups with significant finds spanning the MC III–LC IA sequence. At Timi, rescue excavations by the St. Andrews and Liverpool Museums Expedition in 1951 exposed two chamber tombs (Catling 1979: 274). The mortuary gifts accompanying these burials remain unpublished, except for two ceramic spindle-whorls (Goring 1988: 74, Figures 83–84) and a Black Slip incised jug (Iliffe 1952: 32). Close to the village of Anarita, the Department of Antiquities conducted rescue excavations in 1995 within a tomb situated between the localities Retzepis and Kousoulatos. Its burial gifts also remain unpublished, except for a brief report, which illustrates a Black Slip III jug with punctured decoration on the neck and body, evidently imitating Tell el-Yahudiyeh ware jugs (Figure 6.7) (cf. Negbi 1978 for comparable examples from Toumba tou Skourou), a Red Slip IV jug (Figure 6.8), and a bronze dagger (Christou 1996: 1061–1062, Figures 24–26). The route of the Dhiarizos River is marked by denser occupation during this period, particularly at the area from which the river springs in the mountainous northern limits of the Paphos zone. Surface surveys at sites close to the villages of Arminou, Kedhares, and Trachypedoula revealed significant amounts of material that dates to the MC III–LC IA period (Sørensen and Rupp 1993: 6–7; G. Georgiou

Figure 6.6:  Map of the southwestern coast of Cyprus with sites mentioned in the text. Digital data courtesy of the Geological Survey Department, Cyprus.

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Figure 6.7:  Jug of Black Slip III ware with punctured decoration. From Anarita Retzepis/Kousoulatos. PM. 3271.11. Used by permission of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus.

2006: 384, 386–387, 398). At the site of Kedhares Skales (Figure 6.5), the Department of Antiquities conducted rescue excavations inside a tomb, the results of which still remain unpublished. A brief report illustrates two bronze daggers, a bronze chisel, and a Proto–White Slip jug with a long cylindrical neck and a spherical body. This form is particularly rare. The vessel is decorated with vertical panels filled with

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Figure 6.8:  Jug of Red Slip IV ware. From Anarita Retzepis/Kousoulatos. PM. 3271.4. Used by permission of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus.

elaborate zigzag bands alternating with a row of cross-hatched lozenges (Figure 6.9) (Christou 1996: 1062–1063, Figures 27–30; Åström 2001a: 49). A distinct cluster of sites dated to the MC III–LC I period can be observed to the west of the Ezousa River (Figure 6.6). Kissonerga Skalia and possibly also Ammoudhia continue to be occupied during this period (Crewe 2013: 49). At Mesoyi Katarraktis a tomb dated to the MC III–LC IA period contained the remains of two individuals and their burial gifts, which included Drab Polished and Red Polished IV vessels (Herscher and Fox 1993).

Figure 6.9:  Jug of Proto–White Slip ware. From Kedhares Skales. PM. 3290.2. Used by permission of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus.

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Figure 6.10:  Map of the Paphos hydrological zone showing the distribution of LC IB–LC IIB sites, the Upper and Lower Pillow Lavas, and the distribution of ancient slag heaps in the Paphos forest. Digital data courtesy of the Geological Survey Department, Cyprus.

The subsequent LC IB period in the wider Paphos catchment area presents a dramatic change in settlement patterns, with a remarkable decrease in the number of the sites (Figure 6.10) (Diacopoulos 2004: 77; Agapiou 2010, 105). The most evident alteration is the practical desertion of occupation at the Troodos foothills (Figure 6.5) (Sørensen and Rupp 1993: 6–7, Figure 3). The focus of occupation was transferred to the coast, as is evidenced by the plethora of sites identified near the terminal points of the Ezousa (e.g., Ayia Varvara Hadjiyiannokoudhis and Pladhia Petra, Ayia Marinoudha Argakin and Akonin, Anarita Eliouthkia, Koloni Plevra [Figure 6.6]) and the Dhiarizos River, near the villages of Kouklia and Souskiou (e.g., Gritzellatzi) (see analyses in Sørensen and Rupp 1993: 6–7, Figure 3). In this period, occupation within the area of Kouklia becomes much more substantial. The settlement was henceforth on track to develop into the prime center of the Paphos region. Elucidating the Foundation Horizon of Palaepaphos

The transformation of the settlement pattern in the Paphos region during the MC III–LC IA period, illustrated by the sharp rise in the number of sites, is unequivocally conveyed not only by means of ceramic surface scatters but also by limited

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excavations. The proliferation in the number of identified sites at the close of the MC period in the Paphos catchment area may reflect a population increase, which in turn would indicate a potential movement of people from other centers. The candidates for this postulated population shift are the neighboring areas of Episkopi to the southeast and Morphou Toumba tou Skourou to the northwest. The links in the material culture are particularly strong between the Paphian sites and the settlements at Episkopi and Toumba tou Skourou. This is evident mostly in terms of the popularity of Black Slip III (Punctured Style) ware imitating Tell el-Yahudiyeh wares, stylistic associations in the production of storage vessels (Crewe 2013: 52), and the popularity in the Proto–White Slip and Proto–Base Ring wares. During the MC III–LC IA period, the Paphos and the Polis catchment areas were both dotted by a plethora of sites, especially close to the cupriferous zones of the Troodos foothills (G. Georgiou 2006, Periphery 11; Maliszewski 1997; 2007). We can speculate on a possible population movement departing from Morphou Toumba tou Skourou toward the Polis Bay and subsequently toward the Troodos foothills within the Paphos hydrological zone. The shift of the Cypriot economy and society toward the procurement of copper and the prospects of attaining wealth and status through the new economic order are not unrelated to possible population shifts in search of exploitable copper sources (G. Georgiou 2006: 429). This speculation remains to be corroborated by further investigation in the northwestern part of the island in relation to the Paphos hydrological zone. The routes of the Ezousa and the Dhiarizos rivers were also marked by dense occupation during the MC III–LC IA period. A substantial number of sites were clustered at the terminal point of Ezousa, extending toward the mouth of Xeros. Among these stand out the MC III–LC IA tombs excavated at Timi Sentouztin tou Rafti and Anarita Retzepis that were equipped by wealthy ceramic and metallic finds, illustrating the prosperity attained by these communities at the opening of the LBA. The tombs at Timi and Anarita further illustrate the emergence of stratified societies and the rise of a new class of social elites, who gained power in relation to the control of production and trade. Mortuary display was evidently one arena of social competition (Keswani 2005: 392–393). The MC III–LC IA period also marks the earliest establishment in the area of Kouklia. From the available data pertaining to the foundation horizon of Palaepaphos it is possible to infer elements that characterize urban societies, such as some level of social stratification and intra- and extra-insular contacts (Keswani 2004: 140–142); however, the evidence corresponding to the site’s earliest occupation is insufficient to suggest a fully developed urban-oriented community. Rather, at the time of its establishment, the community at Kouklia is best described as a “gateway” center. Gateway communities develop and flourish at passage points, near natural corridors of communication, located at the edge of their hinterland (Hirth 1978: 36–37). The prerequisites for the establishment of such communities are the inland areas of productivity, in this case metallurgical, and the external demand for such products. According to Hirth (1978: 37), “[i]ndividual communities throughout the hinterland are linked to the gateway community via a linear or dendritic market network.” The initial settlement at Palaepaphos thus acted as the regional gateway

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center of the Dhiarizos valley, linking a chain of settlements that extended from the metalliferous zones of the Troodos foothills to the coast and by extension to long-distance trade (Iacovou 2012: 61–62; see Andreou in this volume). In the LC IB period, the settlement pattern in the wider Paphos catchment zone was substantially altered. The majority of the sites that appear to have been established at the close of the MC period in the mountainous range of Paphos present no evidence for continuity after the end of LC IA. At the same time, and throughout the LC IB–IIA, the activity at the coastal areas, and especially at Kouklia, becomes much more prominent. There is an apparent nucleation, both in terms of population and economic focus, toward Palaepaphos, whose coastal location granted strategic and commercial importance. During the LC IB–IIA periods, the settlement of Kouklia must have comprised an agglomeration of diversified communities previously dispersed over an extended area that accumulated at the coast (Iacovou 2012: 57–58). The continuing nucleation at Kouklia shifted the focus of interest from the hinterland to the coast and concurrently instigated the processes that enabled the coastal center to control and manage the movement of goods within the extended Dhiarizos watershed. The LC IB–IIA periods mark the emergence of the political and economic mechanisms that replaced early exchange networks dealing with the flow of goods within the Dhiarizos valley. In that respect, the prerequisite for direct occupation near the cupriferous zones and along the routes was minimized to only a limited number of secondary centers. The LC IB–IIA periods also saw an upsurge in the contacts of Palaepaphos with other areas of Cyprus and other regions of the Eastern Mediterranean, such as Minoan Crete, Egypt, and the northern Levant. Trade and the import of exotica were important factors in the processes that stimulated and maintained power differentials in the community, at a time when status and wealth were negotiated within a relatively new establishment (Knapp 1993: 97–98; 2013: 39–40; Keswani 1996: 220; 2004: 136–139). The deposition of imported artifacts and other prestige goods in the LC I tombs at Palaepaphos illuminate these processes, whereby rising elites chose to exhibit their wealth and consolidate power. The area of Yeroskipou at the terminal point of the Ezousa River remained inhabited throughout the LBA, but there is no evidence for the concurrent development of a major urban center in the area, similar to Palaepaphos. Excavations at Platzeri close to Yeroskipou suggest that the area was used as a cemetery from as early as the LC IB to the end of the LC IIC period (Nicolaou 1983; Maier and Karageorghis 1984: 102–104). Yeroskipou appears to have been continuously occupied during the LBA, but its significance appears to have been minimized following the rise of Palaepaphos as the prime center in the region. The reasons why Palaepaphos was selected for the establishment of a nucleated community at the opening of the LC period remain unclear. Situated near the flow of the Dhiarizos River, Palaepaphos was established on top of a series of high-rising plateaus, which afforded a commanding and uninterrupted view toward the sea and the land. More importantly, Palaepaphos must have been equipped with a natural anchorage, which facilitated the docking of ships and enabled extra-insular contacts and long-distance trade. Nowadays, this anchorage is invisible. The memory of a

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lagoon that had silted up in antiquity, however, is portrayed in the work of Archimandrite Kyprianos dating to the eighteenth century CE. The area of Loures, a narrow strip of land situated to the east of the sacred plateau, has been put forward by Iacovou as a possible candidate (Iacovou 2012: 60–62; 2014: 39). Zomeni (2012: 257–264, Figure 4.28) has alternatively argued for four possible locations for the establishment of a port during the LBA. All four are located within the flat plain immediately below the Alonia plateau, which accommodated the megalithic Sanctuary of the Kypris from 1200 BCE onwards. The foundation of Palaepaphos and its development into an urban center are relevant to the island-wide transformations happening at the beginning of the LBA, in relation to the establishment of a new economic order converging on the procurement of copper and the extra-insular exportation of final metal products and other commodities (Keswani 1996: 219–220; G. Georgiou 2006: 457; Iacovou 2012: 61). The ancient exploitation of the Upper and Lower Pillow Lavas and other cupriferous formations found on the northern limits of the Paphos catchment area is confirmed by the distribution of slag heaps dispersed throughout the Paphos forest (Iacovou 2014: 44–45). These are located near the villages of Peravasa, Pano Panaghia, Vrecchia, Ayios Nicolaos, Mamountali, and Asproyia and range in size from small patches to massive mounds (Fox et al. 1987; Stos-Gale et al. 1998: 239, Nos. 63–76; Zomeni 2012: 198–204; Kassianidou 2013b: 58–59). A number of the slag heaps situated within the Paphos Forest were quarried for road foundation material (Zomeni 2012: 205–209, Table 4.1), and the overall topography of the Paphos forest was substantially transformed in the course of the modern era (see Iacovou 2014: 44–45). Absolute dates by means of radiocarbon (14C) analysis were provided for a very limited number of samples from Peravasa and Sideropunji (close to Peravasa), which indicated a chronology within the Roman era, specifically the fourth century CE (Stos-Gale et al. 1998: 246; Zomeni 2012: 207–208; Iacovou 2014: 44). Despite the lack of a corroborative chronology, the exploitation of the ore bodies in the Paphos Forest from as early as the mid-second millennium BCE is not unlikely. It is in fact conspicuous how, during the emergence of a new economic system based on copper exploitation during the MC III–LC IA period, the focus of human occupation was centered on the mountainous regions of the Paphos Forest, in close proximity to the cupriferous Pillow Lavas. The excavation of a substantial fragment of copper slag from the Late Bronze Age strata of the Palaepaphos sanctuary (Megaw 1951: 258) and the Late Bronze Age contexts of Kouklia Evreti (Maier and von Wartburg 1985a: 120) elucidate the connection between the flourishing of this LBA polity and the exploitation of the area’s mineral resources. Conclusions

Despite the limited visibility of the earliest occupation levels at Palaepaphos, the study of the overall settlement pattern within the general catchment area renders the foundation horizon of this polity a prominent case study for the investigation of societal, economic, and political transformations in Cyprus at the dawn of the LBA. The evidence presented here is neither exclusive nor conclusive, since it is largely

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based on data deriving from surface pottery scatters or evidence that remains largely unpublished. Further investigation at Kouklia and the wider Paphos area will shed light on the processes that instigated the establishment of the site that was destined to become the prime center of southwestern Cyprus until the fourth century BCE, when the capital center shifted to Nea Paphos. Palaepaphos developed gradually from a coastal port of export into an internationally connected, socially complex LC urban community (Iacovou 2008a: 2; 2012: 64; Von Rüden et al. 2016; A. Georgiou 2017). This process culminated in the LC IIIA period, the twelfth century BCE, when the polity managed to nucleate resources and man power (Iacovou 2008b: 626–627), expressed by the construction of the monumental Sanctuary at around 1200 BCE (Maier and Karageorghis 1984: 81–102; A. Georgiou 2017: 212–213). Together with the contemporary Temple 1 at Kition, this Sanctuary constitutes the earliest truly monumental structure built on the island. Acknowledgments

I would like to extend my thanks to Sturt Manning, Katie Kearns, and Jeffrey Leon for the invitation to be part of the “New Directions in Cypriot Archaeology” workshop and for their warm hospitality. I am also grateful to Maria Iacovou for permission to include unpublished material from the Palaepaphos Urban Landscape Project (Figures 6.3, 6.4) and to the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus for the permission to illustrate Figures 6.7, 6.8, and 6.9. The article was prepared while the author was a Marie Curie Fellow (Career Integration Grants) at the Archaeological Research Unit of the University of Cyprus, for the Project “ARIEL” (Archaeological Investigations of the Extra-Urban and Urban Landscape in Eastern Mediterranean centers: a case study at Palaepaphos, Cyprus). The project was funded from the People Programme (Marie Curie Actions) of the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme FP7/2007–2013/under REA grant agreement no. 334271. References Åström, P. 1996. Hala Sultan Tekke: A Late Cypriot harbour town. In P. Åström and E. Herscher (eds.), Late Bronze Age Settlement in Cyprus: Function and Relationship, 9–14. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology PB 126. Jonsered, Sweden: Paul Åströms Förlag. Åström, P. 2001a. The relative and absolute chronology of Proto White Slip ware. In V. Karageorghis (ed.), The White Slip Ware of Late Bronze Age Cyprus. Proceedings of an International Conference Organized by the A.G. Leventis Foundation, Nicosia, in Honour of Malcolm Wiener, 49–50. Vienna: Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Åström, P. 2001b. Hala Sultan Tekke 11: Trial Trenches at Dromolaxia-Vyzakia Adjacent to Areas 6 and 8. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 45.11. Jonsered, Sweden: Paul Åströms Förlag. Åström, P., E. Åström, A. Hatziantoniou, K. Niklasson, and U. Öbrink. 1983. Hala Sultan Tekke 8, Excavations 1971–79. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 45.8. Göteborg, Sweden: Paul Åströms Förlag. Agapiou, A. 2010. Τοπογραφία θέσεων της ευρύτερης περιοχής Πάφου κατά την 3η και 2η χιλιετία π.Χ. και μελέτη της πορείας αστικοποίησης με την υποστήριξη Συστημάτων Γεωγραφικών Πληροφοριών. Unpublished M.A. thesis, University of Cyprus, Nicosia.

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Maliszewski, D. 2013. Chalcolithic and Bronze Age Pottery from the Field Survey in Northwestern Cyprus 1992–1999. BAR International Series 2547. Oxford: Archaeopress. Manning, S.W. 1998. Changing pasts and socio-political cognition in Late Bronze Age Cyprus. World Archaeology 30: 39–58. Manning, S.W. 2001. The chronology and foreign connections of the Late Cypriot I period: Times they are a-changin. In P. Åström (ed.), The Chronology of Base-ring Ware and Bichrome Wheel-made Ware, 69–94. Stockholm: Kungl. Vitterhets Historie och Antikvitets Akademien. Manning, S.W. 2013. Appendix: A new radiocarbon chronology for prehistoric and protohistoric Cyprus, ca. 11000–1050 Cal BC. In A.B. Knapp, The Archaeology of Cyprus: From Earliest Prehistory through the Bronze Age, 485–533. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Manning, S.W., and F. De Mita. 1997. Cyprus, the Aegean, and Maroni-Tsaroukkas. In D. Christou (ed.), Proceedings of the International Archaeological Conference: Cyprus and the Aegean in Antiquity, from the Prehistoric Period to the 7th Century A.D., 103–141. Nicosia: Department of Antiquities. Manning, S.W., G.M. Andreou, K.D. Fisher, P. Gerard-Little, C. Kearns, J.F. Leon, D.A. Sewell, and T.M. Urban. 2014. Becoming urban: Investigating the anatomy of the Maroni Late Bronze Age complex, Cyprus. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 27.1: 3–32. McCarthy, A., B. Blakeman, D. Collard, P. Croft, L. Graham, C. McCartney, and L. Stork. 2010. The Prasteio-Mesorotsos archaeological expedition: Second preliminary report of the 2009 excavations. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus: 53–76. Megaw, A.H.S. 1951. Archaeology in Cyprus 1949–1950. Journal of Hellenic Studies 71: 258–260. Merrillees, R.S. 1971. The early history of Late Cypriote I. Levant 3: 56–79. Muhly, J.D. 1989. The organisation of the copper industry in Late Bronze Age Cyprus. In E.J. Peltenburg (ed.), Early Society in Cyprus, 298–314. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Nicolaou, K. 1983. A Late Cypriote necropolis at Yeroskipou. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus: 142–152. Oren, E.D. 2001. Early White Slip Pottery in Canaan: Spatial and chronological perspectives. In V. Karageorghis (ed.), The White Slip ware of Late Bronze Age Cyprus: Proceedings of an International Conference Organized by the A.G. Leventis Foundation, Nicosia, in Honour of Malcolm Wiener, 127–144. Vienna: Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Papasavvas, G. 2009. The iconography of the oxhide ingots. In F. Lo Schiavo, J.D. Muhly, R. Maddin, and A. Giumlia-Mair (eds.), Oxhide Ingots in the Central Mediterranean, 83–132. Rome: A.G. Leventis Foundation. Pecorella, P.E. 1973. Mycenaean pottery from Ayia Irini. In V. Karageorghis (ed.), The Mycenaeans in the Eastern Mediterranean, 19–24. Nicosia: Department of Antiquities, Cyprus. Pecorella, P.E. 1977. Le Tombe dell’età del Bronzo Tardo della necropoli a mare di Ayia Irini “Paleokastro.” Rome: Instituto per gli Studi Micenei ed Egeo-Anatolici. Peltenburg, E. 1996. From isolation to state formation in Cyprus, c. 3500–1500 BC. In V. Karageorghis and D. Michaelides (eds.), The Development of the Cypriot Economy, from the Prehistoric Period to the Present Day, 17–44. Nicosia: University of Cyprus and Bank of Cyprus. Peltenburg, E. 2006. The Chalcolithic Cemetery of Souskiou-Vathyrkakas, Cyprus: Investigations of Four Missions from 1950–1997. Nicosia: Department of Antiquities. Peltenburg, E. (ed.) 1985. Lemba Archaeological Project (Cyprus) I. Excavations at Lemba-Lakkous, 1976–1983. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 70.1. Göteborg, Sweden: Åströms Verlag. Peltenburg, E. (ed.) 1998. Lemba Archaeological Project (Cyprus) II.1A. Excavations at Kissonerga-Mosphilia, 1979–1992. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 70.2. Jonsered, Sweden: Åströms Verlag. Philip, G. 1991. Cypriot bronzework in the Levantine world: Conservatism, innovation, and social change. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 4.1: 59–101. Pickles, S., and E. Peltenburg. 1998. Metallurgy, society, and the Bronze/Iron transition in the east Mediterranean and the Near East. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus: 67–100. Quilici, L. 1990. La Tomba dell’età del Bronzo Tardo dall’abitato di Paleokastro presso Ayia Irini. Rome: Instituto per gli Studi Micenei ed Egeo-Anatolici. Raptou, E. and S. Villain. 2018. Nouvelles tombes du bronze récent dans la region de Paphos. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus: 277–326.

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Rupp, D.W. 2004. Evolving strategies for investigating an extensive terra incognita in the Paphos District by the Canadian Palaipaphos Survey Project and the Western Cyprus Project. In Iacovou, M. (ed.), Archaeological Field Survey in Cyprus. Past History, Future Potentials, Proceedings of a Conference Held by the Archaeological Research Unit of the University of Cyprus, 1–2 December 2000, 63–76. London: The British School at Athens. Satraki, A. 2012. Κύπριοι βασιλείς. Από τον Κόσμασο μέχρι τον Νικοκρέοντα. Archaeognosia 9. Athens: University of Athens. Schaeffer, C.F.-A. 1952. Enkomi-Alasia I. Nouvelles Missions en Chypre 1946–1950. Paris: Klincksieck. Schaeffer, C.F.-A. 1971. Alasia I (première série). Mission Archélogique d’Alasia. Paris: Klincksieck. Sherratt, E.S. n.d. The Palaepaphos Urban Landscape Project 2006–2008: The Bronze Age pottery from Marcello. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus. Smith, J.S. 2008. Settlement to sanctuary at Phlamoudhi-Melissa. In J.S. Smith (ed.), Views from Phlamoudhi, Cyprus, 45–68. Boston: American Schools of Oriental Research. Sørensen, L.W., and D.W. Rupp. (eds.) 1993. The Land of the Paphian Aphrodite, Volume 2. The Canadian Palaipaphos Survey Project. Artifact and Ecofactual studies. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 104.2. Göteborg, Sweden: Paul Åströms Förlag. Stos-Gale, Z.A., S.G. Maliotis, and N. Gale. 1998. A preliminary survey of the Cypriot slag heaps and their contribution to the reconstruction of copper production on Cyprus. In T. Rehren, A. Hauptmann, and J.D. Muhly (eds.), Metallurgica Antiqua in Honour of Hans-Gert Bachmann and Robert Maddin, 235–262. Der Anschnitt, Beiheft 8. Bochum, Germany: Deutsches Bergbau-Museum. Stos-Gale, Z.A. 2011. “Biscuits with ears”: A search for the origin of the earliest oxhide ingots. In P.P. Betancourt and S.C. Ferrence (eds.), Metallurgy: Understanding How, Learning Why. Studies in Honor of James D. Muhly, 221–229. Philadelphia: INSTAP Academic Press. Tsielepi, S.C., and P. Bienkowski. 1988. Cypriot Pottery in the Liverpool Museum. An Interim list. Liverpool: National Museums and Galleries on Merseyside Occasional Papers. Vermeule, E., and F.Z. Wolsky. 1990. Toumba tou Skourou, A Bronze Age Potters’ Quarter on Morphou Bay in Cyprus. Boston: Harvard University Press. Von Rüden, C., A. Georgiou, A. Jacobs, and P. Halstead. (eds.) 2016. Feasting, Craft, and Depositional Practice in Late Bronze Age Palaepaphos: The Well Fillings of Evreti. Rahden: Leidorf. Webb, J.M. 1999. Ritual Architecture, Iconography, and Practice in the Late Cypriot Bronze Age. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 75. Jonsered, Sweden: Paul Åströms Förlag. Webb, J.M. 2005. Ideology, iconography, and identity: The role of foreign goods and images in the establishment of social hierarchy in Late Bronze Age Cyprus. In J. Clarke (ed.), Archaeological Perspectives in the Transmission and Transformation of Culture in the Eastern Mediterranean, 176–182. Oxford: Oxbow Books. Webb, J.M. 2012. Kalopsidha: Forty-six years after SIMA Volume 2. In J.M. Webb and D. Frankel (eds.), SIMA Fifty Years On, 49–58. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 137. Uppsala, Sweden: Åströms Förlag. Webb, J.M. and D. Frankel. 2013. Cultural regionalism and divergent social trajectories in Early Bronze Age Cyprus. American Journal of Archaeology 117.1: 59–81. Yener, K.A. 2012. Late Bronze Age Alalakh and Cyprus: A relationship of metals? In V. Kassianidou and G. Papasavvas (eds.), Eastern Mediterranean Metallurgy and Metalwork in the Second Millennium BC, 163–168. Oxford: Oxbow Books. Zomeni, Z. 2012. Quaternary marine terraces on Cyprus: Constraints on uplift and pedogenesis, and the geoarchaeology of Palaipafos. Unpublished PhD dissertation, Oregon State University.

PART III

Diachronic Landscapes

7 Alambra From “A Middle Bronze Age Settlement in Cyprus” to a Royal District ANNA SATRAKI

Introduction: Regionalism as a Diachronic Phenomenon in Cypriot History

From the beginning of the Late Bronze Age (ca. 1700 BCE), early forms of complex political organization appeared on Cyprus, arguably as a result of increasing demand for Cypriot copper from surrounding Mediterranean states. Newly founded coastal settlements emerged that gradually (and certainly by the thirteenth century BCE) developed from gateway emporia to urban centers (Satraki 2012: 103–110 with references; see also Manning et al. 2014). The last half-century of archaeological research has indeed come to this consensus on Cypriot state formation. Yet this proposed notion of copper driving state formation is valid as long as it is considered to describe the idiosyncratic response of the island as a whole toward social transformation, as opposed to other areas of the ancient world to which Cyprus can be held as comparable, for instance Crete, where different paths to complexity were followed and different (temporal and spatial) scales were involved (Peltenburg and Iacovou 2012). Once we begin to explore the individual histories of the island’s micro-regions, however, major discrepancies from this overarching axiom begin to appear. For example, a recent study by Webb and Frankel (2013) demonstrated that already from the Early Cypriot (EC) I–II period, a rise of hierarchical social relations within sites on the northern coast was evidenced through pottery production and funerary practices, suggesting an earlier trajectory toward complexity. These sites seem to have sustained long-distance trading activities and to have exerted control over inland resources. Moreover, although the prevalent copper trade model has rarely been contested, never do two administrative sites provide identical evidence as to how an economy primarily invested in copper (a process that would imply control over the mineral, its inland transportation, and its overseas trade) functioned within each Late Cypriot polity (see Andreou in this volume). Finally, it is true that coastal 221

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emporia, from Enkomi to (clockwise) Kition, Hala Sultan Tekke, Maroni Vournes, Kalavasos Ayios Dhimitrios, and Kouklia Palaepaphos, which lie a maximum distance of 5 km from the sea were the leading settlements within their respective territories (for a recent synthesis and bibliography, see Knapp 2013). Similarly, there is consensus that control over trading (export and import) activities was pivotal in social transformation and the formation of power structures. Yet the excavation of a site further inland, namely Alassa Paliotaverna (Hadjisavvas 1996), challenged this model and provided insights to alternative modes of geopolitical relationships within the Late Bronze Age (Figure 7.1). Evidently, the Cypriot physical landscape, characterized by mountains, hilly zones, river valleys, and plains, is structured into regionally distinct territories. These geographic regions provided the economic background on which political territories were shaped. This reality shaped a phenomenon, commonly referred to as “regionalism,” that defined the Bronze and Iron Ages (for a review of the use of the term in relation to the Bronze Age, see G. Georgiou 2006: 37–44; in relation to the Iron Age, see Satraki 2012: 378–383; see also Knapp 1997: 46–47). The most profound argument for Cypriot regionalism is the interpretation that pre-Ptolemaic Cyprus was never a unitary state but rather was fragmented into autonomous polities (for a different view on the Late Bronze Age, see Knapp 2008). In the course of the Late Bronze and Iron Age periods, the number of separate Cypriot polities fluctuated in time, thus resulting in constant negotiation of their political territories. For example, during the Late Bronze Age, on the south-central coast, there were two major centers, Kalavasos Ayios Dhimitrios and Maroni Vournes. Large architectural complexes recovered there (South 1996; Cadogan 1996; Manning et al. 2014), which were massively constructed with ashlar masonry and comprised tomb assemblages (suggesting that the tomb owners had access to luxuries and imported goods), indicate that the two important towns dominated large areas—presumably the Vasilikos and Maroni river watersheds, respectively—where contemporary settlements have been located by surface survey (South 2002: 64–65; Andreou in this volume). South (2002: 68) has described perceptively how the organization of these areas transformed during the transition to the Iron Age in the early first millennium BCE: “in the case of Kalavasos and Maroni, these two prosperous Late Bronze Age polities . . . were completely abandoned by about 1200 BC . . . Indeed, in this region the political pattern changed out of all recognition, with Amathus taking over as the centre of a kingdom, and the Maroni and Vasilikos valleys found themselves in the borderlands at the outer edge of the hypothesized extent of the kingdom.” In the context of the Cypriot Iron Age, epigraphic and archaeological evidence suggests that territories changed political affiliation through coercion (e.g., Idalion was besieged and conquered by Kition at some point in the fifth century BCE) or as a result of an economic transaction (a chorion, most probably Tamassos, was sold by its king Pasikypros to Pummayaton, king of Kition, for fifty talanta; see Athenaeus 4.167 c–d) or by means that we still need to understand (Fourrier 2002: 138–139). Alambra is situated in the heart of the central part of the island, although “Central Cyprus” is not a formal geographic division. Rather, it is a geographically diverse region that has been the topic of at least two other studies (G. Georgiou

Figure 7.1:  Map of Cyprus indicating sites mentioned in the text. Digital geological data from the Cyprus Geological Survey Department.

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2011; Pilides 2017). In the context presented here, the Alambra region is considered to comprise part of the south-central Mesaoria Plain and the eastern hilly zone of the Troodos complex (and thus the easternmost metalliferous pillow lavas of the Troodos ophiolites), namely the lands through which the Alykos and Gialias rivers pass to the north and the Tremithos river to the south (for the geographical and geological characteristics of the area, see Karouzis 2000: 70–71, 97–103). The aim of the present paper is to identify the processes that led to the incorporation of the prehistoric landscape at Alambra—and consequently the wider central part of the island—within the political and economic regions of the Late Bronze Age, and subsequently its emergence as a royal territory within the Iron Age polity of Idalion. More broadly, it attempts to illuminate and to interpret the establishment, the territorial and political development, and finally the abolition of the Idalion polis. The Making of a Bronze Age Landscape

The survey conducted by the Cornell team in the 1970s and 1980s revealed a small cluster of Early and Middle Bronze Age sites (mostly cemeteries) in the area of modern Alambra. The Middle Cypriot (MC) settlement at Alambra Mouttes was excavated and soon after published in a monograph by the same team (Coleman et al. 1996; see Dikomitou-Eliadou in this volume).1 The Alambra cluster of Middle Bronze Age sites belongs to a densely occupied region, with major groups located around Nicosia, Politiko, Marki, and Ayios Sozomenos (G. Georgiou 2006: 83). These settlements and necropoleis are located either close to springs or on the flow of the two major rivers, the Pediaios and Gialias. Similarly, the sites near Alambra are located close to a spring of Tremithos that flows downstream to the south and meets another cluster of Early-Middle Bronze Age sites at the vicinity of Dromolaxia (Markou 2013) (Figure 7.2). None of these protohistoric Bronze Age sites at Alambra—certainly not the settlement at Mouttes—continued into the Late Bronze Age. “Not even a single Late Bronze Age sherd was found in any of our investigations at Alambra,” Coleman reports (1996: 5). He goes on to describe what appears to be a peaceful abandonment of the settlement already by MC I or II. In the context of the island’s central region, and also of island-wide trends, the abandonment of the sites at Alambra is not an isolated phenomenon. As Webb and Frankel (2013) describe, significant changes in settlement pattern took place during the Middle Cypriote period: in MC II some villages were abandoned, while a more or less contemporary increase at other sites suggests a process of nucleation into larger villages and towns (Iacovou et al. 2008: 286). So, where were the people of Alambra headed when they left their homes during the Middle Bronze Age? Did they move to Deneia, as suggested by Frankel in this volume? Or did they move toward another center, such as Nicosia Ayia Paraskevi?

1.  The site of Alambra Mouttes is currently the focus of a new project; see Sneddon 2015.

Figure 7.2:  Map of Cyprus indicating sites Bronze and Iron Age sites of central and southeastern Cyprus. Digital geological data from the Cyprus Geological Survey Department.

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Whatever their destination, the important point is that MC III regional centers soon began to decline when new settlements were established on the coast at the start of the Late Bronze Age (ca. 1700 BCE) in response to increasing interregional demand for Cypriot copper.2 Markou (2013: 111) has recently recorded an expansion of sites into the igneous pillow lavas of the eastern Troodos Mountains during the Late Bronze Age at the localities of Mathiatis, Sia, and (further south) Pyrga, occurring around the same time as the coastal MC III development, in the context of the island-wide phenomenon of the development of extractive metallurgy. This late MC settlement pattern provided the platform for a new order of relationships that transformed the economic and political landscape during the initial phase of the Late Cypriot period. The construction of a number of fortified sites toward the end of the Middle Bronze Age, however, suggests that this new order underwent a period of increasing instability (Monahan and Spigelman in this volume). Interestingly, among twenty such buildings, two are located on the northern coast, five in the southern foothills of the northern range, four in the Karpass peninsula, one in the Mesaoria Plain, and nine (almost half of the total number) in central Cyprus (Crewe 2007: 49–61). So: what was this major reorganization of the landscape in central Cyprus aiming at? Or, stated another way, what was the guiding and managing force behind this restructuring? Was it part of a polity-formation process structured around a local dominating center, or was it caught in a tug-of-war between emerging powers based outside this region? Before we attempt to untangle this complex issue, let us first take a comparative glance at the rest of the island. The Formation of Territories

The complexity of the issue of the political organization in central Cyprus during the early part of the Late Bronze Age is characteristic of comparable questions that challenge our knowledge of territorial organization across the island. The major evidentiary basis that persists through time is that of the geographical characteristics of each region. For example, watersheds and mountains often generate the borders of different, constructed geographical regions. Most importantly, in the ancient Greek language the word oros means both “mountain” and “landmark,” a testimony to the importance of mountains as landmarks, as defining features of the landscape (Della Dora and Terkenli 2012: 141). For the western and southern part of the island, the Cypriot landscape breaks into micro-regions, typically around river valleys and major watersheds. These micro-regions, which emerge as categories based on select geomorphological components of the landscape, more or less corresponded to the hinterland, the chora, of the emerging political centers based around the coasts. For example, the Dhiarizos River

2.  For the clusters of sites around Deneia and Ayia Paraskevi, with bibliography see Georgiou 2006: 154–55 and 145, respectively. On their abandonment upon the inception of the LC period, see Georgiou 2006: 302–305 and 281–82.

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constitutes the backbone of the Palaepaphos region (see A. Georgiou in this volume). Along with the watersheds of Chapotami, Xeros, and Ezousa, these rivers produce a self-contained catchment area (Agapiou 2010), with the theorized constituents of a Cypriot polity, namely a port, agricultural land, and mining areas (Iacovou 2007: 18). We may justifiably deduce that this zone created the hinterland of Palaepaphos (Iacovou 2014; Satraki 2012: 338, 341–343, 352–353, 358). Similarly, the Kouris River constitutes the backbone of another self-contained region, one in which the Late Bronze Age center at Alassa and the Iron Age center at Kourion dominated their contemporary settlements (Satraki 2012: 151, 343–344, 351). On the Chrysochous River drainage framed by the northern foothills of the Troodos massif, the site of Marion appeared as the sole dominating power during the Iron Age (Satraki 2012: 338). The northwestern foot of the Troodos Mountains and the western Mesoria plain, penetrated by a number of rivers that flow downstream toward Morphou Bay, formed the hinterland of a Late Bronze Age administrative center (to which Morphou Toumba tou Skourou must have been attached) and Iron Age Soloi (Satraki 2012: 144–146, 340). Likewise to the south, the Late Bronze Age administrative centers at Kalavasos Ayios Dhimitrios and Maroni Vournes seem to have controlled the Vasilikos and Maroni river valleys, respectively (South 2002). This relatively “straight-forward” territorial organization of river valleys with political cohesion, however, does not apply to the central and eastern part of the island. Power Centers in Central Cyprus

So let us return to the Alambra area and consider: was this geographically diverse central region part of one single polity during the Late Bronze Age, or was it fragmented into multiple entities? The identification of any administrative centers that may have appeared inside this area is crucial. Since the surveys conducted by Catling during the 1950s and 1960s, Cypriot archaeologists have theorized that an early regional center appeared at Ayios Sozomenos, which was succeeded by a settlement at Idalion Ambelleri before the end of the Bronze Age (Catling 1982: 231). Let us then briefly examine the archaeological evidence pertaining to the two sites. Ayios Sozomenos: Primary Center or a Cluster of Secondary Sites? The plateau of Ayios Sozomenos is located on the flow of the Alykos River, a tributary of the Gialias River. Surface survey projects from the 1950s located high concentrations of Middle and Late Bronze Age sites on the upper and lower areas of the plateau and also in the lowland zones of the valley (Overbeck and Swiny 1972; Devillers et al. 2004; Brown 2013: 122). Three sites located on the plateau and one just below, to the south, have been interpreted as MC III–LC IA forts (Monahan and Spigelman in this volume). From one of the lowland sites, known as Ampelia, Catling collected surface sherds that include Canaanite jars, Levantine ceramics, Late Helladic IIIA-B vases, and fragments of faience, ivory, and bronze objects (Catling 1982: 231). A recent project of the Department of Antiquities directed by Despina Pilides (The Ayios Sozomenos Survey and Excavation Project—ASESP) aims at resurveying

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the area with targeted excavation at important sites (Pilides 2017). Two of the forts located on the plateau have been investigated with impressive results. At Barsak a double circuit wall with a deep ditch on the exterior was revealed. In the course of the LCII period Barsak was abandoned and a new fort was built at Nikolides, which was strengthened during its lifespan by the addition of an ashlar tower. The ASESP also located a large settlement site at the foot of Barsak (at a site called Tzirpoulos, at a distance of approximately 350m across from Ampelia), with evidence for a variety of workshop activities in one of the buildings excavated there. Despite their prominent location at the confluence of the Alykos and Yialias rivers, on the communication route to the east, supervising a fertile valley with agricultural produce, it seems that the Ayios Sozomenos cluster of sites was abandoned before the end of the LCII (Pilides 2017). Earlier survey projects suggested a function oriented toward agricultural activities for the sites at Ayios Sozomenos. The excavations of the ASESP attest to the accumulation of wealth and provide evidence for supra-regional political organization. According to Catling (1982: 231), “this [Ampelia] was the major Middle and Late Bronze Age settlement in the valley, a position it subsequently yielded to Idalion.” He also wrote that “it may be held that in the Late Bronze Age the area was in fairly close contact with the rich port towns in the region of Larnaka, and may even have been an entrepôt for trade between those towns and more remote settlements to the north and north-west” (Catling 1982: 232). It certainly seems possible that the Ayios Sozomenos cluster of Late Bronze Age sites was functioning in close contact with (or under the authority of) a major coastal urban center, but it is not wholly convincing that that major site was located on the coast of Larnaka. It seems equally plausible that Ayios Sozomenos’s location on the flow of the Gialias River was of critical importance to Enkomi, since it would have secured the procurement of agricultural goods to that eastern port town (Satraki 2012: 147–148). Peltenburg (1996) cogently suggested that the MC III–LC I fortified sites across the central areas of the island were part of Enkomi’s system of secondary sites, which linked its primary coastal settlement with its mining and agricultural hinterland. Indeed, the site cluster at Ayios Sozomenos claims three such forts in the area of the plateau, while two more are located a short distance to the south. I would even go further to suggest that this route from Enkomi into the Troodos began at Analiondas, where the spring of the Alykos River is located. At the site of Analiondas Palioklishia, archaeologists located an agricultural production and storage center of the thirteenth century BCE through surface evidence. It seemed to have operated as a support village within a regionally based system of exchange (Webb and Frankel 1994). Therefore, it seems that the cluster of sites at Ayios Sozomenos managed to consolidate supra-regional control (of the wider area) at the very beginning of the Late Bronze Age but failed to maintain its territorial organization, as its system collapsed just before the LCIIC, the phase that witnessed the climax of urban development in Bronze Age Cyprus (Negbi 1986). Unless the new and very important excavation project directed by Pilides changes this state of affairs, what we can make of the

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cluster of sites at Ayios Sozomenos is a group of dynamic inland centers engaged in the processing of agricultural commodities and possibly connected with Enkomi. Idalion: A “Polis” of the Late Bronze Age? The twelfth century BCE witnesses for the first time the documentation of as many as eight Cypriot place names on an Egyptian royal text, dated to the reign of Ramesses III on the Great Temple at Medinet Habu (see Edgerton and Wilson 1936; Snodgrass 1994: 169). It has been argued that the list dates back to the thirteenth century BCE. The sites mentioned on this royal monument have been interpreted as Salamis, Kition, Marion, Soloi, Idalion, Akamas, Kourion, and Kyrenia. Although some of the names on the list are dubiously identified with actual place names in Cyprus, it remains strongly plausible that at least some of these identifications are valid and represent political entities on the island. Thus, if we accept the suggestion that the name of Idalion was mentioned on this Ramesside inscription, then it becomes evident that Idalion was entering a phase of supra-regional consolidation by the LC IIC period. In terms of the archaeological record, mortuary evidence and pottery scatters confirm occupation at the site of Idalion at least by the thirteenth century BCE (Schulte-Campbell 1989; Hadjicosti 1999: 36). A complex of rooms with workshop and storage installations (in close proximity to the palace of the Cypro-Archaic and Cypro-Classical period) was uncovered and has been dated to the twelfth to eighth centuries BCE (Hadjicosti 1999: 37–38). It is anticipated that the publication of the rescue excavations conducted by the Department of Antiquities over the past few decades will add substantial data for the LC II period settlement at Idalion. As it stands, the published LC IIIA occupation strata are well documented. The hill of Idalion Ambelleri (the Iron Age acropolis that accommodated first the palace of the Greek-speaking “basileus of Idalion” and then the administrative center of the Phoenician “mlk of Kition and Idalion”) was fortified in order to protect several structures and a “cult-house” complex (Gjerstad et al. 1935: 624). This sanctuary site, as identified by Gjerstad and verified by Webb (1999: 84–91), is one among only sixteen securely identified sacred spaces of the Late Bronze Age in Cyprus. This earliest temenos atop the Idalion acropolis produced evidence pertaining to ritual food consumption and drinking activities, while other finds include eight terracotta bull figurines and one made of ivory; gold jewelry and gold leaves; maceheads; seals and cylinder seals; copper and iron slag; a fragment of an ingot; and an iron knife. The evidence is unequivocal for the operation of an institutionalized, formal cult on the summit of the hill that soon after became the region’s administrative acropolis. The highly symbolic significance of the temenos’s paraphernalia points toward an organized society that was in charge of administering the copper procured in the catchment area and the management of the territory that contained the metalliferous zones. Interestingly, the emergence of Idalion as a potentially powerful player in the context of the LC IIC/LC IIIA coincides with a recession of settlement in the Gialias valley. The Ayios Sozomenos cluster and also Analiondas Palioklishia are abandoned

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around or soon after 1200 BCE (Webb and Frankel 1994: 20). Could this state of affairs substantiate the hypotheses that the Gialias network of secondary centers was linked to Enkomi and that the rise of Idalion triggered instability within the established yet fragile system of Enkomi’s contacts? We need to keep in mind that the rearrangement of the area’s geopolitical organization may have been initiated by the same people who sustained Enkomi’s inland economics for a couple of centuries. It was perhaps the populations of the Gialias rural settlements who triggered the phenomenon of synoikismos (the “gathering together,” the concentration of the population in a single polis) and initiated the establishment of a primary center within their area. Contrary to the Ayios Sozomenos cluster, the newly founded settlement at Idalion managed to consolidate—well before the end of the Late Bronze Age—a state-formation process within the limits of the central part of the island. Archaeological documentation is still pending, but it is highly possible that this process was based on the need to control and to manage the local extraction of copper of the Mathiatis-Sia-Pyrga ores and consequently its trade in Cypriot and foreign markets. Located at a strategic point so as to control as much as possible of the rich agricultural land of the eastern Mesaoria Plain (generously irrigated by the Alykos and Gialias river in the winter months) and surrounded to the south by the rich copper deposits of the eastern Troodos’s pillow lavas and with easy access to Larnaka bay, the polis of Idalion claimed a vital economic and political territory. The choice of place for the new establishment was a successful one, as Idalion proved to be a resilient seat of local administration. This endurance is amply reflected in the late narrative of King Chalkenor who, according to Stephanus of Byzantium (Ethnica “’Ιδάλιον, πόλις Κύπρου”), wandered for days before the sun itself (as was the oracle’s dictate) pointed out the right place to found his new polis.3 Chalkenor (translated as “the man of copper”) must have preserved, through the realm of myth, the historical conditions that determined the foundation of the Idalion polis. Southeastern Partnerships: Idalion and the Coastal Centers of the Larnaka Bay

At this point we have to consider one central issue that defines the diachronic history of Idalion during the Iron Age and most probably the Bronze Age as well. It concerns the constant need of Idalion to orientate toward the coast, where the copper resources that were procured within its territory would be exported from a harbor. One strong hypothesis suggests that Idalion established a seaport on the coast between Kiti and Mazotos, at the mouths of the rivers Tremithos and Pouzis, whose watersheds both cross the cupriferous pillow lavas and the fertile coastal plain (Leonard 2000: 135–137). Given that no port that would date to the Late Bronze and Iron Ages has been located there, however, and more importantly that

3.  For a classical synthesis of the foundation myths of the Iron Age poleis of Cyprus, see Gjerstad 1944; for a recent approach on the Nostoi and their historical implications, see Iacovou 2008a.

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the area is considered inhospitable to the functions of a port or harbor, we are obliged to dismiss this (Markou 2013: 111). For this reason, the Iron Age history of Idalion was defined by the changing relations of control and primacy with the urban center of Kition. Even before the fifth century BCE when Idalion was conquered and subsequently annexed by Kition (Satraki 2012: 289–290 with references), textual sources imply that Idalion was heavily dependent on the port city of Kition in order to ensure a gateway to coastal trade networks (Iacovou 2013: 148). Unlike during the Iron Age, however, in the Late Bronze Age period there were not one but two major port towns on the southeast coast of Cyprus: Kition and Hala Sultan Tekke. Are we to assume that Idalion had already developed a link with Kition, defying the existence of Hala Sultan Tekke? I think not, because Kition must have been in direct control of the copper resources at Troulloi, a minor outcrop of the Troodos complex, to the north of Larnaka (on copper mining in the area of Troulloi, see Kassianidou 2012: 233). Rather, Hala Sultan Tekke needed to have control over mineral resources that lay at some distance from the port, namely the pillow lavas of the easternmost part of the Troodos (around Sia, Mathiatis, Lythrodontas, Pyrga, and Stavrovouni) (see Satraki 2012: 149–150). Idalion and Hala Sultan Tekke may have developed as allied political and economic centers in an effort to manage the geological assets of their territory. The communication between the two centers must have been focused around the Tremithos drainage system (Markou 2013: 105). This “partnership” did not last for long. Before the end of the Late Bronze Age, the coastal urban center at Hala Sultan Tekke was peacefully abandoned due to the silting of its harbor, the raison d’être of the coastal urban center (Åström 1986: 8; Devillers et al. 2015). The same seems to have been the case with the mining sites at Mathiatis, Lythrodontas, and Sia (Hadjicosti 1991) as well as the inland sites at Dromolaxia Trypes, Arpera Mosphilios, and Klavdia Tremithos. Before the consolidation of its geopolitical region, therefore, Idalion was being challenged by the island-wide transformations that were generated in the context of the close of the Late Bronze Age (Iacovou 2008a; A. Georgiou 2011). At the onset of the Early Iron Age, the excavated eleventh-century BCE strata at Idalion and Kition (see Satraki 2012: 180–182 with bibliography) remain the sole archaeologically visible evidence of settlement in the southeastern part of the island. The Idalion Tablet: The Consolidation of the Landscape

The Early Iron Age is the chronological horizon that encapsulates the formation of the Cypriot city-states (Satraki 2012: 175–210). The culmination of these processes belongs to a new cycle of Cypriot political organization, one that can rightfully be described as the era of the kingdoms (Satraki 2012: 211–374). The Neo-Assyrian royal texts that officially claim a number of Cypriot leaders as kings constitute the termini ante quos for the crystallization of the royal institution and the ascendance of the hereditary basileis (Iacovou 2002: 81–83; Satraki 2013: 125–126). The royal prism of Esarhaddon from 673 BCE officially affirms the primacy of Idalion in the central part of Cyprus. Among the listed Cypriot cities and their rulers, Akestor of Idalion appears first in the catalogue (Luckenbill 1968: 265–266; Satraki 2012: 215).

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Figure 7.3:  Replica of the “Bronze Tablet of Idalion” exhibited at the Local Museum of Ancient Idalion. Courtesy of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus.

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The Cypro-Archaic period (ca. 750–500 BCE) is a time of consolidation with regard to the territorial extent of each of these kingdoms and their political institutions. Already from the end of the seventh century BCE, royal iconography manifests in statuary in the context of Idalion’s urban and peri-urban sanctuaries (Satraki 2008). Before the end of the sixth century BCE, coins bearing royal symbols and names of the ruling dynasty appear (Satraki 2012: 286). Moreover, recent work has documented a “full” Archaic landscape in the upper Tremithos drainage, comprising a more extensive settlement system than what has been recorded for earlier periods (Markou 2013: 112), which indicates territorial consolidation and a fully developed economic and political organizational scheme with respect to the Idalion chora. One of the last official documents that belong to the era of the autonomous kingdom of Idalion is the famous bronze tablet that was found on the administrative acropolis (Masson 1983: No. 217) (Figure 7.3). This lengthy inscription records invaluable information on the Idalion polity, such as the existence of state officials and their names (basileus Stasikypros and a dignitary named Filokypros Onasagoras) and of public and royal land. It also provides historical data regarding the last years or perhaps months of the kingdom of Idalion itself. It is on this precious document that we find for the first time the name of Alambria, denoting an οιρωνι, translated by Masson as “district” (1983: 244). Interestingly, this term is probably connected to the Mycenaean Greek word orojo that is found on Linear B tablets to describe administrative regions (Fourrier 2002: 142). Indeed, Coleman’s survey at Alambra located sites that date to the Cypro-Archaic period (Coleman et al. 1996: 519–520), archaeological evidence that supports the claim that the Alambra area may have been abandoned before the end of the Middle Bronze Age, but it was later settled again and developed into a secondary site within the Idalion chora. This tablet also records that during the reign of this king Stasikypros, Idalion witnessed a stressful siege on behalf of “the Medes and the Kitians.” Evidently the partnership that presumably linked the inland polis with the coastal one must have undergone a severe break. This siege was successfully resisted, as the document seems to suggest, but soon after, probably through coercion, the two fifth-century BCE powers of central and southeastern Cyprus—Idalion and Kition—joined together. Joining Powers: The Kingdom of Kition and Idalion

Sometime during the fifth century BCE, the kings of Kition eventually absorbed and incorporated the kingdom of Idalion. This event is revealed in two royal inscriptions written in the Phoenician alphabet (Figures 7.4 and 7.5). In these inscriptions (one

Figure 7.4:  Marble architectural feature with Phoenician inscription. Local Museum of Ancient Idalion (No. CCM 6500). Courtesy of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus.

Figure 7.5:  Marble stele with Phoenician inscription. Local Museum of Ancient Idalion (no. PH1). Courtesy of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus.

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of unknown provenance and the other allegedly found at Idalion but with no exact provenance), King Baalmilk II is designated as king of “Kition and Idalion.” While his father, King Ozibaal, is also designated as king of “Kition and Idalion,” his grandfather, Baalmilk I, is simply called the king of Kition (Yon 2004: Nos. 45 and 46). The annexation of Idalion is, therefore, an achievement attributed to Ozibaal. In spite of its absorption by the kingdom of Kition, however, Idalion was never deprived of its prominent economic role in copper extraction and production (Sznycer 2004). This retention is made evident by the fact that the archaic administrative center of the Greek kingdom continued to be used by Phoenician rulers. Most importantly, the recent excavations of the administrative complex have revealed an archive in the Phoenician alphabet comprised of more than seven hundred inscriptions that record economic activities down to the end of the fourth century BCE (Hadjicosti 1997). Sometime during the fourth century BCE, “Kition and Idalion” also managed to take possession of the inland site of Tamassos. What is not often acknowledged in modern scholarship is that only one king of Kition, Pummayaton, ever bore the title “King of Kition, Idalion, and Tamassos.” The epigraphic evidence states that he did not bear this triple title to the end of his kingship. In fact, Pummayaton is named “king of Kition, Idalion, and Tamassos” in a single non-royal inscription on a marble altar of unknown provenance, securely dated to 341 BCE (the twenty-first year of his reign) (Yon 2004: No. 1002). A number of inscriptions from Kition that date from the thirty-fourth year of his reign, however, describe Pummayaton as king of only “Kition and Idalion” (Yon 2004: No. 1029). This nomenclature allows us to reach the conclusion that Tamassos was lost to the kingdom of Kition before the abolition of all the Cypriot kingdoms by Ptolemy Soter. From Analiondas to Pyla: The Territory of the Kingdom of “Kition and Idalion”

The conquest of Tamassos (close to the site of modern Politiko) was evidently a short affair. As was the case during the Late Bronze Age, the network of sites along the Pediaios River was out of the reach of the Idalion polity and the later “Kition and Idalion” combined kingdom. On the contrary, the Gialias waterway, from its spring close to Analiondas to at least as far as the Ayios Sozomenos plateau, was by the Classical period fully incorporated within the kingdom of “Kition and Idalion.” This territorial shift, I think, is established by a series of extra-urban sanctuaries, located on the northern bank of the river Gialias (within the rural land of modern Dali), which seem to demarcate the northern frontier area of the kingdom (Figure 7.6). Influenced by de Polignac’s (1984) model, the proliferation of extra-urban sanctuaries during the Archaic period is believed to have demonstrated intentions of territorial domination and sovereignty on behalf of the Cypriot ruling classes (Fourrier 2002; 2007; Papantoniou 2012). Arguably, the presence of a number of sanctuaries on the banks of the Gialias could have provided the authorities of “Kition and Idalion” with the means to organize and to control the northern extremity of their periphery. Two digraphic and bilingual inscriptions (in Phoenician and Greek; see Yon 2004: Nos. 70 and 71) found at Analiondas, at a sanctuary site known as Frangissa, may point to the western frontier zone of “Kition and Idalion” (Figure 7.7).

Figure 7.6:  Map indicating sites identified by Ulbrich (2008: Plate 34) as urban and peri-urban sanctuaries of Idalion (Nos. ID 1–ID 22). Digital geological data from the Cyprus Geological Survey Department.

Figure 7.7:  Map indicating the site of Frangissa between Tamassos and Idalion. Digital geological data from the Cyprus Geological Survey Department.

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These two inscriptions record the act of dedication of two statuettes in the seventeenth and thirtieth years of Milkyaton, king of “Kition and Idalion,” testifying to the potential inclusion of this area within the kingdom (Satraki 2012: 329). Just a few decades before the abolition of the Cypriot city-kingdoms by Ptolemy Soter (finalized by the year 310 BCE), the central part of Cyprus merged with the coastal region of Kition, extending perhaps from the Pentaskhinos River to the area of Pyla. Every single royal inscription that mentions kings Baalmilk I, Ozibaal, Baalmilk II, Milkyaton, and Pummayaton, however, invariably reproduces that same royal title: king of “Kition and Idalion,” bearing testimony to the fact that the royal dynasty of Kition had wisely acknowledged the deeply rooted necessity of the existence of Idalion as a regional center. It is no coincidence that five royal inscriptions were dedicated to the sanctuary of Apollo at Idalion (Yon 2004: Nos. 45, 68, 69, 180, 181), while only one was found at Kition (Yon 2004: No. 1144). The regional center at Idalion remained to the end of the fourth century BCE a robust focal point of territorial organization within central Cyprus. Epilogue

As stated at the beginning of the paper, the aim was to identify the processes that led to the emergence and the geopolitical development of the Iron Age polity of Idalion. Considering that only a small part of the excavated archaeological record from Idalion itself has been published, this can be considered a preliminary interpretation of the issues pertaining to the formation of this inland city-kingdom. It is hoped, however, that the paper has opened up a new reading of the available (that is, published) archaeological record and has also added a new dimension to the study of the material culture of the ancient city, through the spectrum of historicity. Acknowledgments

I am most grateful for the opportunity I was given in the context of this conference to focus on the territory of Alambra and Idalion, using it as a case study for approaching a region and its idiosyncrasies in order to investigate the geopolitical organization of Cyprus during the Late Bronze Age and Iron Age periods. The choice of case study was guided by my strong wish to pay homage to the Cornell archaeological mission, which, several decades ago, lovingly and respectfully explored Alambra—both ancient and new. This paper is dedicated to Professor John E. Coleman and his Cornell team of students, who revealed, documented, and preserved the high antiquity of my topos that continues to bare its ancient name today. I wish to express my deepest gratitude to Sturt Manning and his team of students and also to the organizers of this conference, Katie Kearns and Jeff Leon, for their kind invitation to participate in this inspiring gathering. I would also like to thank Vassilis Trigkas, who prepared the maps for this paper, and Artemis Georgiou for reading early drafts of the text and for providing constructive criticism.

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8 The Archaeology of the North Coast of Cyprus The Evidence from Lapithos STELLA DIAKOU

Introduction

The Early Iron Age in Cyprus is known almost exclusively through cemeteries and tombs. Lapithos, on the north coast of the island (Figure 8.1), is no exception to this general rule; archaeological fieldwork during the end of the nineteenth and the first half of the twentieth centuries revealed extensive cemeteries and groups of tombs dating to the Early and Middle Bronze Age (ca. 2250–1750/1700 BCE) and the Cypro-Geometric (CG) period (ca. 1050–750 BCE). Only one settlement has been identified and excavated in Lapithos: the Swedish Cyprus Expedition (SCE) uncovered a Neolithic settlement at the end of the 1920s at the locality Plakes (also called Alonia ton Plakon; Gjerstad et al. 1934: 13–33). Catling’s surface survey in the 1950s (Catling 1962; 1971; 1973; 1975) identified a number of possible settlement sites, as well as a significant number of burial sites, ranging in date from the Neolithic to the Hellenistic periods. Nonetheless, because the collected material—in particular anything post–Bronze Age—was not published or otherwise analyzed (cf. Georgiou 2006), these identifications remain tentative. This almost complete absence of excavated settlements is only one of the problems embedded in the archaeology of the north coast in general and of Lapithos in particular. The Turkish invasion of 1974 and the resulting occupation of approximately the northern half of Cyprus put an end to all legal archaeological projects in that region. Under UNESCO conventions, no legal archaeological work can be carried out in the occupied area (UNESCO 1957: 44; Davis 2014: 41).1 This “politically 1.  “VI.32. In the event of armed conflict, any Member State occupying the territory of another State should refrain from carrying out archaeological excavations in the occupied territory. In the event of chance finds being made, particularly during military works, the occupying Power should take all possible measures to protect these finds, which should be handed over, on the termination of hostilities, to the competent authorities of the territory previously occupied, together with all documentation relating thereto” (UNESCO 1957: 44). 241

Figure 8.1:  Major sites and localities mentioned in text. Created by C. Kearns; basemap provided by the Geological Survey Department of Cyprus.

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imposed situation” (Knapp 2013: 31) has created an imbalance and a disparity not only in active fieldwork but also in synthetic and interpretive studies of the ancient society of Cyprus. Even though the north coast was once considered “one of the richest areas on the island since the earliest human occupation” (Herscher 1978: 1), its archaeology, particularly post-1974, has remained underexplored or unknown (if we consider illegal and/or unpublished excavations). The last ten years have seen a renewed interest in the archaeology of the north coast due to the efforts of archaeologists to “revisit” old excavations and to look at material under new light (see for example Smith 2008a; 2008b; Webb 2016; 2017; Webb and Frankel 2010; 2013a; 2013b; Webb et al. 2009). An additional concern hampers our understanding of the archaeology of Lapithos and in particular that of the later, post-prehistoric periods: there is a puzzling absence of maps showing the exact locations of excavated cemeteries. The archaeological expeditions at Lapithos took place in the early part of the twentieth century, yet they failed to illustrate and to discuss the relationships between the excavated cemeteries themselves, both spatially and temporally. In addition to the unpublished state of the majority of the excavated material, the finds, dispersed in museums worldwide, have not been associated with their locational context and have never been discussed as complete burial assemblages (cf. Diakou 2013). In an effort to remedy this archaeological disparity, this paper explores the archaeology of the north coast of Cyprus during the Bronze and Early Iron Ages. Using Lapithos as a case study, this analysis reconstructs the socio-political and economic landscape of the region. This is achieved with use of new sets of spatial data and the creation of comprehensive maps showing the excavated cemeteries of Lapithos. The study area corresponds to the municipality of Lapithos as it was defined until 1974. The name Lapithos denotes an Iron Age “kingdom” or polity (cf. Iacovou 2013b: 16n2) known through coins from the end of the sixth century BCE (Satraki 2012: 307–309) and mentioned in literary texts describing the events of the abolition of the Cypriot kingdoms by Ptolemy I Soter at the end of the fourth century BCE (Diod. Sic. 19.79.4). The Iron Age polity of Lapithos, however, remains archaeologically and historically elusive (Iacovou 2013b: 16, 27, 30, 31). With the help of maps, photographs, and other archival documents, it is possible to reconstruct the ancient topography of a region now lost and inaccessible, both because of the passage of time and the political conditions. Taking a landscape approach, this paper uses new sets of spatial data and attempts to provide a diachronic account of the history of the site of Lapithos. For the purposes of this analysis, I define landscape not only “as the backdrop against which archaeological remains are plotted” but also as the space that takes on a multitude of meanings and importance “by virtue of its being perceived, experienced, and contextualized by people” (Knapp and Ashmore 1999: 1). Within this context, a landscape approach is considered particularly useful in that it allows us to explore people’s dynamic relationships “with the physical, social, and cultural dimensions of their environments across space and over time” (Anschuetz et al. 2001: 159; see also Van Dyke and Alcock 2003).

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The goals of this discussion are threefold: to present the available sources for the study of the archaeology of Lapithos despite its current inaccessibility, to reconstruct the topography of Lapithos with an emphasis on the CG period, and finally, to explore diachronic changes in the landscape and their implications. It is argued that the development of such methodologies and the creation of new data can contribute much-needed resolution to the study of the archaeology of the north coast. The Landscape of Lapithos

Lapithos sits on the northwest slopes of the Pentadaktylos, the Kyrenia mountain range that defines the north coast of Cyprus (Figure 8.1). The Pentadaktylos varies in altitude from 700 to 1024 m above sea level and extends from Panagra in the west to Eftakomi in the east. The northern slopes of the mountain range are steep and are characterized by ravines and gorges created by rivers flowing toward the sea. Between the mountain range and the sea to the north there is a narrow and fertile alluvial plain that reaches a maximum width of 5 km. Three passages through the range provide access to the rest of the island: at Panagra, ca. 9 km west of Lapithos, at Agirdha, ca. 12 km east of Lapithos, and at Akanthou, farther to the east ­(Figure 8.2). The village of Lapithos is situated on the foothills below Kyparissovouno, the highest peak of the Pentadaktylos, and extends all the way to the coast (Figure 8.3). Lapithos is bordered by Vasilia to the west and by Karavas to the east (Figure 8.4). The villages of Larnakas Lapithou, Agridaki, and Sysklipos border Lapithos to the south and are located on the southern slopes of the Pentadaktylos. One of the two most important springs of the Pentadaktylos is in Lapithos; the second one is at Kythrea, on the southern slopes of the mountain range. The Hilarion Limestone, which is located below the two villages, acts as the largest reservoir of water in the island. Both Lapithos and Kythrea owe their water abundance and fertility of soils to this formation (Myres 1940/45: 73; Christodou-

Figure 8.2:  Map of northwest Cyprus showing location of Lapithos.

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Figure 8.3:  View of Lapithos on the north slopes of the Pentadaktylos Mountain. Photograph by the author.

Figure 8.4:  Map of the region of Lapithos showing neighboring villages.

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lou 1959: 40, 118). Until 1974, when the demography and layout of the village were significantly altered, Lapithos consisted of six parishes, each developed around a church: Ayia Anastasia and Ayia Paraskevi in the upper village, Timios Prodromos and Ayios Loukas in the center, Ayios Theodoros to the west, and Ayios Minas (Sphinarin) to the east (Figure 8.5). Each parish not only had its own mayor, community council, and church board but also a distinct cemetery. A seventh parish, the Turkish one, was located between the parishes of Ayios Theororos and Ayios Loukas and had its own mosque, school, and cemetery. The layout and growth of the village of Lapithos mirrors its particular landscape. The upper village is made up of rocky limestone plateaus and is characterized by dramatic changes in altitude and visibility. The most prominent plateau is the one in the center of Lapithos with the church of Ayia Anastasia, reaching a height of ca. 140 m above sea level.

Figure 8.5:  Map of Lapithos showing parishes within the village.

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Archaeological Fieldwork at Lapithos

Lapithos attracted the interest of archaeologists before the end of the nineteenth century (Ohnefalsch-Richter 1893; Myres and Ohnefalsch-Richter 1899; Dalton 1900; 1906; Tatton-Brown 2001: 174; Merrillees 2009). The first organized excavations were carried out in 1913 by Myres and Markides on behalf of the Cyprus Museum Committee. Myres and Markides excavated Classical remains at Lampousa (Myres 1940/45: 74–78) as well as seventy-five tombs of the Early and Middle Bronze Age at Vrysin tou Barba (Myres 1940/45: 78–85, Plates 24–29) (Figure 8.6). These excavations were only preliminarily published. Shortly afterwards, Markides excavated three tombs at the plateau of Ayia Anastasia, which contained both Late Cypriot (LC) and Early Iron Age layers (Markides 1916; Gjerstad 1926: 8). These excavations also lack proper recording, although the tombs were later reinvestigated by the Swedish Cyprus Expedition (SCE; Gjerstad et al. 1934: 162–163), and two of them were published by Pieridou (1966; 1972).

Figure 8.6:  Map of Lapithos with excavated sites mentioned in the text.

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The SCE worked at Lapithos in 1927–1928 and excavated tombs of the Bronze and Early Iron Ages. In particular, the Swedish team excavated twenty-three tombs of the Early and Middle Bronze Age at Vrysin tou Barba (Gjerstad et al. 1934: 33–162), two tombs of the Middle and Late Bronze Age at Kylistra (Gjerstad et al. 1934: 164–172), twenty-eight CG tombs at Kastros (Gjerstad et al. 1934: 172–264), and three CG tombs at Plakes (Gjerstad et al. 1934: 265–276). The excavations and finds were published shortly thereafter. In fact, Gjerstad extensively used the finds from Lapithos to create the typology of CG pottery (Gjerstad 1948; Adelman 1976: 48). The year 1931 marked the beginning of the third and last systematic expedition at Lapithos. The Pennsylvania Cyprus Expedition (PCE) was directed by Hill, a former director of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, and funded by the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology (Herscher 2007; Diakou 2016: 24). The expedition arrived in Lapithos in September 1931, only three years after the SCE, and within four months it had excavated sixty-five tombs of the Bronze and Iron Ages. In particular, the PCE excavated Early and Middle Bronze Age tombs at Vrysin tou Barba (Grace 1940; Herscher 1978), the same locality at which the SCE had previously excavated an extensive Bronze Age cemetery. In addition, they excavated two contemporary CG cemeteries, the so-called Lower Geometric cemetery, on the coast, at the locality Airkotissa (Donohoe 1992) and one in the center of the village, the so-called Upper Geometric or Kato Kastros cemetery (Diakou 2013). Despite the large number of tombs excavated at three separate cemeteries, the results of the PCE at Lapithos remained for the most part unpublished and unknown to the archaeological community. The only exception is Pieridou’s publication of Tomb 474 from the Upper Geometric cemetery, the so-called Prostemenos tomb (1965). Tomb 474 was the richest CG tomb excavated by the American team and, in accordance with the Antiquities Law of 1905 (Tsolakis 1997: 22–24), the only tomb awarded to the Cyprus Museum. In her publication, Pieridou (1965: 75n2) erroneously assigned the tomb to a site called Prostemenos: “According to Miss Grace’s diary the site where this tomb was discovered is called ‘prostemenos.’ ” Both the names Upper Geometric and Prostemenos appear on the title page of the field notebook, prompting the incorrect identification of the location of the tomb. The name Prostemenos (εμπρός + τέμενος), however, refers to a location southeast of the village of Lapithos, where the PCE excavated the scant remains of a sanctuary of the Classical period (Grace 1931/32: 157–184). Despite Pieridou’s thorough ceramic analysis, Tomb 474 was taken out of its context and was not studied as part of the Upper Geometric cemetery. The publication by Pieridou, however important, did not succeed in acknowledging the existence of two additional extensive Geometric cemeteries but treated Tomb 474 as an isolated burial assemblage (Donohoe 1992: 11n14). Sources for the Study of the Archaeology of Lapithos

Despite these excavations as well as additional rescue work by the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus (Table 8.1), the tomb assemblages from Lapithos have not

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been associated with their locational context and as such cannot be discussed in a meaningful way. Nonetheless, there are a number of sources available for the study of the archaeology of Lapithos, and their employment allows for the creation of new spatial data, the construction of maps, and the identification of the excavated cemeteries in order to explore the sociopolitical and economic environment of this region. Table 8.1:  Archaeological

Location

fieldwork at Lapithos with relevant publications

Excavators

Year of excavation

Type of site

Chronology

Publication

1914; 1915; Necropolis: 3 Late Bronze Age and Cypro1917 tombs Geometric T. 501–503

Markides 1916

SCE

1927–1928

Late Bronze Age and CyproGeometric

Gjerstad et al. 1934: 162–164 Pieridou 1966 (T. 502) Pieridou 1972 (T. 503)

Kastros

SCE

1927–1928

Necropolis: 28 tombs T. 401–429

CyproGeometric

Gjerstad et al. 1934: 172–264

Kylistra

SCE

1927–1928

Necropolis: 2 Middle and Late Gjerstad et al. Bronze Age 1934: 164–172 tombs T. 701–702

Lampousa

J. L. Myres and M. Markides

1913

Acropolis?

Lower Geometric

PCE

1931

Necropolis: 20 tombs T. 451–470

CyproGeometric

Unpublished See Donohoe 1992

Plakes/ Alonia ton Plakon

SCE

1927–1928

Settlement

Neolithic/ Chalcolithic?

Gjerstad et al. 1934: 13–33

SCE

1927–1928

Necropolis: 3 CyproGeometric tombs T. 601–603

Gjerstad et al. 1934: 265–276

Prostemenos

PCE

1931–1932

Sanctuary

Archaic/ Classical?

Unpublished See Grace 1931/32, 157–184

Upper Geometric

PCE

1931

Necropolis: 16 tombs T. 471–486

CyproGeometric

Unpublished See Diakou 2013 Pieridou 1965 (T. 474)

Vathyrkakas

Department of Antiquities

1950s

Necropolis: 4 Cyprotombs Geometric

Vrysin tou Barba

J. L. Myres and M. Markides

1913; 1917 Necropolis: 75 tombs

Early and Middle Myres 1940/45: Bronze Age 78–85

SCE

1927–1928

Early and Middle Gjerstad et al. Bronze Age 1934: 33–162

Ayia Anastasia M. Markides

Necropolis: 23 tombs

Myres 1940/45: 72–78

Pieridou 1964

(Continued)

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Table 8.1:—cont.

Location

Excavators

Year of excavation

Type of site

Chronology

Publication

PCE

1931

Necropolis: 38 tombs T. 801–838

Early and Middle Unpublished Bronze Age See Herscher 1978 Grace 1940 (T. 806A)

Unknown

M. OhnefalschRichter

—

Tomb

Early GraceoPhoenician tomb with “late Mykenaean vases”

Ohnefalsch-Richter 1893: plate XCVIII: 1, 6, 9 Myres and OhnefalschRichter 1899: 7–8

Unknown

Department of Antiquities

1973

Tombs

CyproGeometric

Unpublished See Nicolaou 1975/76: 45

The first source, the excavation records of the American expedition to Lapithos, is located in the archives of the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology (Ruwell 1984). In addition to excavation journals, there are detailed tomb plans, tomb photographs taken during the excavation, cemetery plans, and the excavation permits that Hill received. The second source is the excavation records of the SCE at the Museum of Mediterranean Antiquities (Medelhavsmuseet) in Stockholm. The Swedish team published two relevant maps: a contour map with the position of the excavated cemeteries (Gjerstad et al. 1934: Plan III.1) and a cemetery plan (Gjerstad et al. 1934: Plan V.2). The members of the SCE also took photographs, including both general views of the village and close-ups of the cemetery and the tombs. The third source consists of maps and photographs from the Department of Lands and Surveys of Cyprus, including (1) cadastral maps of 1918, (2) aerial photographs of the region of 1957 and 1963, (3) satellite images of 2003, and (4) a road map of Lapithos of 2004 created in collaboration with the Lapithos municipality. All these sources were integrated into ArcGIS software in order to create a basemap and to georeference in real space the cemeteries, surveyed sites, and specific plots of land. The decision to use ArcGIS stemmed first and foremost from the nature of the area under study. As an occupied region, where legal archaeological work is prohibited, it was considered imperative to use software that would permit the location of sites in real space regardless of issues of accessibility.2

2.  While access in the occupied part of Cyprus is allowed since 2003, any archaeological work is prohibited under UNESCO conventions. For this reason, the author did not take new geospatial references on the identified cemeteries and used only archival sources for their identification.

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The Bronze Age Evidence from Lapithos

The identification of the Bronze Age cemeteries of Lapithos is quite straightforward. The largest excavated cemetery is located on the coast of Lapithos at the locality Vrysin tou Barba (Figure 8.6), less than 2 km north of Ayia Anastasia. Nonetheless, out of the 136 excavated tombs (Keswani 2004: 188, Table 3.1), only half have been studied and only one-fifth of them have been properly published. The SCE also excavated two tombs of the Middle and Late Bronze Age at the locality of Kylistra, ca. 300 m southwest of Ayia Anastasia. The tombs are located by the side of the road leading from Ayia Paraskevi to Kefalovryso and were partially destroyed during its construction. The Early and Middle Bronze Age is well represented at Lapithos with wealthy tombs at Vrysin tou Barba that cover the span from Early Cypriot (EC) II to the end of the Middle Cypriot (MC) period. In its earliest phase (EC II–IIIA) only 40 percent of the chambers contained metal artifacts, most commonly knives, hook-tang weapons, and pins (Keswani 2004: Table 4.11a; Webb and Frankel 2010: 204). At the transitional phase, EC IIIB/MC I, 74 percent of the chambers contained metal artifacts (Keswani 2004: Table 4.11b; Webb and Frankel 2010: 205), which increased to 96 percent during MC I–III (Keswani 2004: Table 4.11c), indicating an intensification of the metal consumption at a community-wide level (Keswani 2004: 67–69). During the final phase of use (MC I–III), imported objects, such as gold, silver, and faience ornaments also increase and are distributed more broadly throughout the cemetery. The distribution and types of metal artifacts suggest that the mortuary ritual was used as an arena for displaying, negotiating, affirming, and enhancing status and prestige (Keswani 2004: 71). The material culture associated with the tombs at Vrysin tou Barba (e.g., pottery, ceremonial vessels, metal artifacts, and imported objects) speaks for a wealthy society with (1) access to copper sources or to the networks of circulation of either raw materials and/or finished objects and (2) participation in the external trade networks (Webb et al. 2009: 251–252; Webb and Frankel 2013a: 76; 2013b: 220). Following a dynamic Early and Middle Bronze Age, during which Lapithos became preeminent over other centers on the north coast (see below), the Late Bronze Age on the north coast is characterized by a significant decrease in the number of identifiable sites. The burial record at Lapithos diminishes dramatically, and the extensive cemetery at Vrysin tou Barba receives its last burials at the end of the Middle Bronze Age. A few Late Bronze Age burials were excavated at Kylistra and at Ayia Anastasia in the center of the village. This pattern of contraction is also evident in the survey evidence, not only in Lapithos but also on the north coast in general (Georgiou 2006: 415, Figure 11.5, 425–426, Table 11.2, 448–449; Webb et al. 2009: 254, Figure 4.46). The reduction of sites is observed already at the transition from the Middle to the Late Bronze Age and may be attributed either to decreased archaeological visibility or, more likely, to a decrease in population numbers and sites or even to a movement to another center. Identifying the Cypro-Geometric Cemeteries

At the transition from the Late Bronze Age to the Geometric period, the mortuary record in Cyprus undergoes a dramatic change. During the eleventh century BCE cemeteries are established on new locations on the island (Iacovou 1994: 158; 1999: 148).

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This significant topographical transformation provides the context in which we should evaluate the CG cemeteries of Lapithos. Contrary to the Bronze Age cemeteries, the majority of which are shown on the maps of the SCE, the locations of the CG cemeteries of Lapithos had not been securely identified. Nonetheless, this period constitutes the only chronological horizon with concrete evidence after the Early and Middle Bronze Age and before the Cypro-Archaic (CA) period, when the excavation record again becomes mute. The location of the Kastros cemetery is discussed first because its positioning on the basemap was instrumental in the identification of the Upper Geometric cemetery. The toponym Kastros corresponds to the plateau on which the boys’ school is built in the center of the village. Overlaying the map produced by the SCE on the basemap shows that the Kastros cemetery is located on top of the plateau, to the east of the school (Figure 8.7). A street running east to west borders the cemetery to the south, whereas to the north is the edge of the Kastros plateau. Further to the south the Kastros plateau continues and reaches the base of the plateau of Ayia Anastasia, which looms 25 m above the present level of Kastros (Gjerstad et al. 1934: 173). The tombs are located almost directly north of the hotel built on the plateau of Ayia Anastasia. The so-called Upper Geometric or Kato Kastros cemetery, excavated by the PCE, is also located in the center of the village. Neither of these names is mentioned in the gazetteer of toponyms for Cyprus (Christodoulou and Konstantinidis 1987), nor

Figure 8.7:  Plan of the center of Lapithos showing the Kastros and Upper Geometric cemeteries.

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were they recognized as toponyms during interviews with the displaced inhabitants of Lapithos. Moreover, in the archival records of the American expedition there is, surprisingly, no direct reference to the Swedish excavations, which had taken place only three years earlier. It seems likely that these names were assigned by the excavators: in the case of Kato Kastros, the excavators wished to highlight that the tombs are located at the lower part of the Kastros plateau and, in the case of Upper Geometric, to distinguish it from the Geometric tombs excavated on the coast of Lapithos at a much lower elevation (see below). According to the excavation permits, Hill was allowed to excavate in the plots east of the boys’ school. The first trenches were opened in plot 40 (Grace 1931/32: 9). Additional spatial references that helped in anchoring the tomb plan on the basemap were identified in the excavation journals. In particular, these notes made repeated references to the “outhouse”—the school’s restrooms—when speaking about the orientation of the tombs (Grace 1931/32: 9, 12, 14). In addition, on the bottom right corner of the cemetery plan there is a rectangular building, the point of reference from which tombs were measured (Figure 8.8). On the plan this structure is designated as “closets,” another word for toilets, which was identified as the same “outhouse” of the school mentioned in the field notebooks. No such building was located in the cadastral maps. However, a promising building was discernible on the aerial photograph of 1963, which allowed the anchoring of the tomb plan northeast of the boys’ school (Figure 8.7). The “outhouse” of the current school stands at the exact same location today. The evidence for the placement of the tombs at this location is strengthened by the fact that the tombs follow the cliffs and slopes of the plateau. Finally, the majority of the Upper Geometric tombs are indeed at a lower elevation (approximately 10m) than the Kastros tombs. The next question to ponder is the spatial relationship of the two cemeteries. The only “primary source” regarding the relationship of the two cemeteries comes from Grace’s unpublished report: “the latter group [Upper Geometric] formed part of a very extensive Iron Age cemetery, tombs of which have been discovered at various points from 1 km W of the village to 2 km E of it” (Grace 1937). It is likely that Grace refers to the Kastros tombs and possibly to the tombs excavated at Ayia Anastasia. Grace seems to consider the two cemeteries connected. It is not clear, however, whether her observation is based on the specific geographic location of the cemeteries or on the fact that the two cemeteries are largely contemporaneous. On the other hand, Donohoe (1992: 403–404), in her study of the Lower Geometric cemetery, takes a different approach, emphasizing the existence of “at least three and probably four distinct cemeteries” that were in use during the Early Iron Age, each associated with a separate community. It seems likely that Donohoe’s conclusion is based on the available brief descriptions of the excavated cemeteries. Plotting the two cemeteries on the map of Lapithos shows that they could in fact be part of the same extensive cemetery (Figure 8.7). The Upper Geometric tombs are located less than 30 m northwest of the Kastros tombs. Both cemeteries are located on the Kastros plateau, with the Upper Geometric tombs extending over its slopes. A group of tombs from the Upper Geometric cemetery is located on top

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Figure 8.8:  Plan of the Upper Geometric cemetery. Based on the original plan by Dorothy Hannah Cox, courtesy of the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology.

of the Kastros plateau, at the same elevation as the Kastros tombs, which are now covered by the enlargement of the school building. The rest of the tombs are located directly to the north and below the first cliff bordering the plateau. Access to the Kastros plateau was from the west, possibly through the same path that leads to the plateau today. A river also runs to the west of the plateau, in the gorge created by

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the foothills of the Pentadaktylos. Following the river from that site, one reaches the sea. It is unclear how comprehensive the investigation in the area between the two cemeteries was. It should be emphasized here that the school building, which goes back to the early twentieth century, and in particular the outhouse and the courtyard, are occupying the area to this date, meaning that no excavation could take place there. Nonetheless, taking into account references about other tombs in the field notebooks (Grace 1931/32: 9), it is most likely that there are additional tombs in the area between the two cemeteries. These topographical observations indicate that the Upper Geometric and Kastros cemeteries, the two most extensive and richest CG cemeteries in Lapithos, are part of the same cemetery and, as such, they should be studied together. Adding up to a total of forty-eight chamber tombs with multiple burials spanning the entire CG period, their analysis provides a window into the Early Iron Age society of Lapithos, the different communities that comprise it, differential access to wealth, and status variations. The distribution of the tombs and the changes in elevation reveal different clusters within the cemetery that may reflect chronological patterns as well as social aspects. The dispersal of the tombs and their relative dating (Diakou 2013: 69–70) show that the earliest tombs are at the top of the plateau. After CG II the cemetery expanded from the top of the plateau to the slopes. In addition, the spatial ordering of the tombs is not random. The analysis of the tombs and finds (Diakou 2013) suggests that the primary and most prominent part of the cemetery is the one on top of the plateau, with the richest and earliest tombs. The other excavated CG burial sites (Figure 8.6) consist of spatially distinct groups of tombs, and thus their identification is more straightforward. Three tombs with Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age layers were excavated on the plateau of Ayia Anastasia. Tomb 502 preserves the only known instance of a tomb opened in LC IIC/IIIA and reused in CG IA (Pieridou 1966; Georgiadou 2012: 87). Tomb 503 preserves the very unusual phenomenon of a LC IIIB tomb reused from CG IA onward (Pieridou 1972; Iacovou 1994: 152). Despite the lack of a plan, the plateau of Ayia Anastasia is marked by the presence of the church with the same name and is visible from nearly all vantage points within the village. During the reinvestigation of the plateau by the SCE, the tombs were located at the southern part of the plateau, among the houses, and close to the road leading up to it (Gjerstad et al. 1934: 164–165). The Lower Geometric cemetery is located close to the sea, about 1 km east of the prehistoric tombs excavated at Vrysin tou Barba and ca. 1.6 km north of Ayia Anastasia at the locality Airkotissa. This cemetery consists of much poorer tomb assemblages and seems to represent a distinct community of CG Lapithos. Three tombs were excavated by the Swedish team at the locality Plakes in the western part of the village, ca. 1.4 km west of Ayia Anastasia. The tombs disturb the remains of a Neolithic settlement, also excavated by the SCE. In the 1950s the Department of Antiquities excavated four Early Iron Age tombs at the locality Karavas Vathyrkakas (Megaw 1954: 173). The tombs, which were later published by Pieridou (1964), located between the villages of Karavas and Lapithos to the east of the Vathyrkakas River, form yet another distinct cemetery. Geometric society on Cyprus is characterized by striking similarities in the mortuary record across the island (Iacovou 1999: 148; 2005: 131; Janes

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2013: 325): the use of extramural cemeteries with chamber tombs, the preference for inhumation, the presence of secondary burials in large vessels, and the types of grave goods are all features observed in contemporary cemeteries, both at Lapithos and elsewhere on the island. The homogeneous character of the CG culture is also visible in pottery production and specifically in the development of the White Painted ware, as shapes and decorative motifs are repeated and found throughout the island (Iacovou 1994: 159; 1999: 148–149), albeit in regional production centers (Georgiadou 2013). Within this context, the analysis of the tombs and finds from the Lapithos cemeteries, and in particular of the Upper Geometric cemetery (Diakou 2013), highlights a society with differential access to wealth and/or resources. Despite the complex and imperfect nature of the dataset and the fact that wealth variations in a mortuary context are not a direct reflection of the society of the living, such variations in mortuary ritual may well be attributed to wealth and status distinctions and may therefore reflect social asymmetries. In fact, two sets of artifacts were distinguished among the Kastros tombs as belonging to individuals holding or assigned a special status. Set A consisted of gold headdresses, jewelry, and pins made of precious materials, and Set B consisted of iron obeloi (spits used for roasting meat) (Karageorghis 1974; Åström et al. 1986; Strøm 1992; Iacovou 2013a: 138–140; 2013b: 17), tools, and bronze artifacts. The same sets of artifacts were found at the richest tombs at Palaepaphos Skales (Karageorghis 1983), highlighting the existence of a shared system of prestige symbolism and ideology. The analysis of artifacts indicates social differentiation that is expressed in the deposition of prestige items in tombs. At the same time, there is a wide range in the distribution of wealth in the tombs, varying from tombs that may represent the “aristocracy” of the society, such as some of the Kastros tombs (Coldstream 1989; Steel 1993: 205), and tombs that may have belonged to “humble fishermen,” such as those found in the Lower Geometric cemetery (Donohoe 1992: 403–406). The Topography of CG Lapithos

Once we move beyond the mortuary landscape, the exploration of the topography of CG Lapithos remains incomplete without a discussion of possible habitation sites. First, it should be emphasized that with the exception of the Lower Geometric cemetery, which is contemporary to the other CG cemeteries of Lapithos (Donohoe 1992: 90–92), the excavated cemeteries are located in the southern part of the village, on the lower foothills of the Pentadaktylos. The cemeteries occupy the highest part of the village, overlooking the coastal plain, without encroaching on flat agricultural land. The landscape of Lapithos with its abundant water sources would allow for the development of multiple communities, something evident in the layout and recent history of the village. In the absence of any excavated contemporary settlements, we may postulate that each cemetery corresponded to a different community, as is suggested by the location of the Lower Geometric cemetery, at a significant distance from the other cemeteries. Alternatively, the cemeteries in the southern part of the village are close enough to one another that they may correspond to a single large

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community. The physical separation of the cemeteries in this case may be attributed to a variety of issues such as social position or landholding. The character of the prominent plateau of Ayia Anastasia in the central part of the village remains undefined and problematic (Figure 8.7). The size of the plateau is estimated to be around 2.5 ha. It is naturally defended, and its north and northwest sides are characterized by vertical rock formations, whereas its south and east sides, a continuation of the Pentadaktylos foothills, are smoother. A river runs to the west of the plateau, providing access from the southwest. The Cyprus Survey identified the plateau as a Bronze Age and Early Iron Age cemetery (Catling 1962). The question is whether it is possible to propose the existence of a settlement on the plateau or whether we should hypothesize the presence of another extensive cemetery. There are a number of issues with both propositions. On the one hand, taking into account the clear separation of habitation and burial sites that emerged during the Early Iron Age period, the presence of CG tombs on the plateau of Ayia Anastasia make any hypothesis of CG settlement at the same location unlikely. If we reconstruct the plateau of Ayia Anastasia as another CG cemetery, then this fits well with the other CG cemeteries of Lapithos along the southern border of the village. In this case, the contemporary settlement of Lapithos should be sought elsewhere. On the other hand, CG burial grounds are established as a rule on new locations (Iacovou 1999: 148). This transformation is attested across all CG sites on the island and is considered a primary feature of the CG period (Janes 2008: 326). This shift in practice would potentially make the identification of Ayia Anastasia as both a Bronze Age and an Early Iron Age cemetery problematic. One may suggest that the excavated CG tombs on the plateau are not part of a cemetery but are isolated and peculiar instances. Is it possible that the existence of these tombs points to the special nature of the plateau? Might we reconstruct a Late Bronze Age settlement on Ayia Anastasia with intramural burials, one whose tombs were reused, in order to establish and emphasize continuity between the Late Bronze Age and the CG periods? Another candidate for the location of a CG settlement, and possibly the site of the later Iron Age polity, is Lampousa (Figure 8.6). The location of Lampousa on the coast and its diachronic importance evidenced by remains and finds dating from the Bronze Age to the Byzantine period (Nicolaou 1976) make it a suitable candidate. Myres (1940/45: 73) identified the location of the Iron Age kingdom of Lapithos with Lampousa and suggested that the excavated cemeteries in the village of Lapithos are to be associated with it. Nonetheless, the investigation of the so-called acropolis in 1913 (Myres 1940/45) and of the Troulli hill to the east of the acropolis in 1915 (Markides 1916) produced very little in the way of stratified remains because of earlier extensive quarrying and looting of the site (Merrillees 2009: 390, Figure 1). In his account Myres mentions fragments of Bronze and Iron Age pottery and concludes that Lampousa was a small coastal town in the Late Bronze Age and the Classical times (Myres 1940/45: 78). The continuous occupation of the site would account for the obliteration of the earlier evidence. The identification of Lampousa as the Early Iron Age polity of Lapithos brings the focus of habitation areas back to the coast with the Early Iron Age cemeteries to the south at a higher elevation on the Pentadaktylos foothills.

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Lapithos in Context

New research on the archaeology of the north coast in the Early and Middle Bronze Ages and, more specifically, the publication of sites long ago excavated, demonstrates the rise and demise of centers close to the passes that controlled access to and connected the north coast with inland sites and especially with the central part of the island and the cupriferous foothills of the Troodos Mountains (Webb et al. 2009; Webb and Frankel 2010; 2013a; 2013b). This ebb and flow is observed already from the Philia Early Cypriot period (ca. 2450/200–2300/2250 BCE) with the settlement of Vasilia at the northwest end of the Pentadaktylos maintaining control of the Panagra pass (Webb et al. 2009: 248, Figure 4.43). Analysis of objects from the tombs at Vasilia (Webb et al. 2006) shows that this community was a part of networks that accumulated and circulated copper and tin around Anatolia, Cyprus, and the Cyclades in the third millennium BCE. For the efficient functioning of these external networks and for Vasilia to maintain a role as a “gateway community,” that is a community located on trade routes at a key point for regulating the movement of goods (Hirth 1978), we may postulate internal networks of sites that connected the north coast to the copper ores on the foothills of the Troodos Mountains (Webb et al. 2009: 247–248). Following the collapse of the Philia Culture and the abandonment of the settlement at Vasilia, the north coast underwent a reconfiguration of the settlement pattern and witnessed the rise of Bellapais Vounous on the north side of the Pentadaktylos, close to the Agirdha pass (Webb et al. 2009: 249, Figure 4.43). At the same time, Lapithos and Karmi, to the northwest of Agirdha, were also established. The mortuary evidence from Vounous shows that during EC I–II (ca. 2300/2250–2150/2100 BCE), Vounous replaced Vasilia, and access to and from the north coast moved to the Agirdha pass (Webb et al. 2009: 249; Webb and Frankel 2013a: 72–73). The expansion of Lapithos and Karmi during EC III (ca. 2150/2100–2000/1950 BCE), as part of a general increase in population and settlement density in the northwest part of the island (Georgiou 2006: 414, Figure 11.4), and the subsequent rise of Lapithos as the preeminent center on the north coast signify another major shift in settlement focus (Webb et al. 2009: 251, Figure 4.44). In addition to the excavated tombs at Vrysin tou Barba, which display a significant increase of metal consumption (Keswani 2004: Table 11b), survey evidence shows a general increase in burial and habitation sites within Lapithos (Georgiou 2006: 112–114). Lapithos during EC III/MC I has been described as either a “centralized state” controlling copper routes running through the Agirdha pass (Stewart 1962: 299) or as a center for the manufacture of metal objects with copper from the Skouriotissa mines (Catling 1962: 139; cf. Ben-Yosef et al. 2011; Muhly and Kassianidou 2012: 126–128; Kassianidou 2013). Despite the uncertain nature of such assumptions, the renewed external demand of Cypriot copper at this time is evident in the foundation of mining villages at Ambelikou (Webb and Frankel 2013b), Katydata (Boutin et al. 2003), and elsewhere, possibly under the control of Lapithos. In fact, the analysis of the material from the Middle Cypriot I site of Ambelikou Aletri suggests that the export of copper, and possibly the exploitation of the ores themselves, was controlled by the north coast and likely by Lapithos (Webb and Frankel 2013b: 205).

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MC Lapithos is characterized by an increase of identified sites and a widespread consumption of metal artifacts. The abundance of metal objects from the Lapithos tombs and the fact that almost all known imports of this period to Cyprus were found on the north coast “leaves little doubt that both foreign relations and the metal trade were once again in the hands of north coast entrepreneurs” (Webb and Frankel 2013a: 76). For Lapithos to maintain this dominant role in the movement and export of copper, we need to postulate close connections with different site networks extending along the south slopes of the Pentadaktylos and reaching the foothills of the Troodos Mountains (Webb and Frankel 2013b: 220). For the case of Ambelikou, Webb and Frankel suggested that the region was accessible by boat around Cape Kormakiti or overland via Morphou Bay, if indeed it was inhabited at this time, as well as through the Panagra pass (Webb and Frankel 2013b: 205, 221, 223). The transitional MC III/LC IA period witnessed yet another major restructuring of settlement patterns on the north coast and the south slopes of the Pentadaktylos. Sites at Lapithos and Karavas were abandoned (Georgiou 2006: 415, Figure 11.5; Webb et al. 2009: 254, Figure 4.46). The establishment of new sites in the eastern part of the Pentadaktylos (e.g., Akanthou, Dhavlos, and Phlamoudhi; see Georgiou 2006: 448–449) and the occupation of the area around Morphou Bay (e.g., Ayia Irini Palaeokastro, Morphou Toumba tou Skourou, and Pendayia; see Webb et al. 2009: 253) indicate a reorientation of communication routes. Despite previous interpretations that postulated the continuous importance of Lapithos in the Late Bronze Age and assigned the lack of sites to issues of archaeological visibility (Catling 1962: 142), this drastic transformation of settlement patterns can likely be attributed to a combination of factors (see Manning in this volume). The establishment of coastal centers, especially Toumba tou Skourou and Enkomi with better harbors, extensive cultivable land, and more direct access to copper sources possibly drew populations from sites that were not able to sustain larger communities. As Peltenburg (1996: 31) has observed, “no other Cypriot center was as successful as Enkomi in securing a steady supply of copper, and the desertion of important cemeteries like Lapithos Vrysin tou Barba and Vounous whose earlier prosperity was so closely linked with copper exploitation, mirrors the rise of Enkomi.” The establishment of the coastal centers and their growth, in turn, may have been triggered by a reorientation of copper trade routes toward Egypt and the Levant (Webb et al. 2009: 253). The construction of the so-called forts at this time (Fortin 1981; 1983) and specifically the group of six forts on the south and north slopes of the Pentadaktylos, close to the passes of Panagra and Agirdha, may explain the establishment of Toumba tou Skourou and Enkomi and the control of transportation routes (Peltenburg 1996: 30–31; Georgiou 2006: 472–475, Figure 13.4; Crewe 2007: 65–66; cf. Monahan and Spigelman in this volume). Finally, the occupation of the Morphou Bay area, which may have become possible after a drying out of the land from a lowering of the sea level, “provided a more efficient outlet for copper from the Skouriotissa region” (Webb et al. 2009: 253–254, with reference to Frankel 1974: 10). The end of the Late Bronze Age is associated with the collapse of the international trading system that was responsible for the efficient circulation of raw materials

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and products in the Aegean, the Mediterranean, and beyond. For reasons that are still unclear, the archaeological record of Lapithos picks up again in the eleventh century BCE and continues throughout the Geometric period (Satraki 2012: 305–307). While the lack of identified settlements is puzzling, this absence should most probably be attributed to issues of archaeological visibility and gaps in fieldwork and research. Even though the CG record is more consistent than that of the Late Bronze Age, the distribution pattern of excavated sites continues to be nucleated with a focus of occupation along the foothills of the Pentadaktylos. The CG cemeteries of Lapithos occupy the natural plateaus of the region, forming a semicircle around the southernmost edge of the village, overlooking the sea, and seemingly leaving the coastal plain devoid of any occupation. The political form and significance of Lapithos from the Early Iron Age onwards, as well as its relationship with neighboring polities, remain enigmatic. The excavated CG cemeteries of Lapithos exhibit the same general characteristics observed elsewhere on the island. The analysis of the finds from the cemeteries shows variation in the deposition of wealth. Nonetheless, unlike the preceding periods, there is nothing in the CG cemeteries of Lapithos that would suggest regular or intense contacts with the outside world. While the Iron Age witnesses the establishment and development of a number of important polities on the island (Iacovou 2013b; see Satraki and Kearns in this volume), which flourish until their abolition by Ptolemy I Soter in the fourth century BCE (Papantoniou 2012: 7–15; 2013), the status of Lapithos in this period is elusive. The paucity of archaeological data from Lapithos beyond the CG cemeteries and the current inaccessibility to the area hamper our efforts to elucidate the processes that resulted in the “kingdom” of Lapithos. The name features in the Greek historian Diodorus Siculus’ account (Diod. Sic. 19.79.4) from the first century BCE in his discussion of the abolition of the Cypriot polities, and it is also known from coins found in the Lapithos area dating from the mid-sixth century BCE onward (Satraki 2012: 307–309). While it may be unnecessary to try to pinpoint when Lapithos became established as a kingdom (Iacovou 2013b: 17), the presence or absence of Lapithos in the limited textual sources highlights the complexity and the dynamic nature of the political landscape of Cyprus during the Iron Age. For example, three centuries before Diodorus, in 673 BCE, the Neo-Assyrian king Esarhaddon inscribed on his prism the names of ten Cypriot rulers and their respective city-states (Luckenbill 1968; Lipinski 1991). While Lapithos is not mentioned on the prism, we learn about Chytroi—the village of modern Kythrea on the southern slopes of the Pentadaktylos Mountain. With the exception of four CG tombs (Nicolaou 1965), however, there are no archaeological correlates for the existence of Kythrea as a long-lived Iron Age polity. In fact, in Diodorus’ account, at the time of the abolition of the kingdoms, there is no mention of any inland polity, suggesting that between the seventh and the fourth centuries BCE, a number of complex processes took place that altered the political landscape of the island (Iacovou 2013b: 27–28). The relationship of Lapithos with the neighboring polities of Kythrea, of Soloi in the Morphou Bay on the west, and of Ledra and Idalion, all of which are mentioned on the prism of Esarhaddon, remains puzzling.

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Conclusions

Geometric Lapithos “sits” in isolation as long as the evidence of the Late Bronze Age and the CA period is missing. The preceding discussion illustrates the importance of a landscape approach to sites and regions whose archaeologies are complex and lack consistent data. The particular landscape of the north coast, its physical and resulting cultural isolation, and its dependence on copper sources are all factors that must have affected the life and development of its settlements. When the conditions were favorable, the north coast, whether through Vasilia, Vounous, or Lapithos, was a key player in the circulation of raw material and metal objects, both internally and externally (see Manning and Kearns in this volume). A change in the external demand for copper and the reorientation of site communication networks away from Lapithos and toward other coastal centers, such as the one observed in the Late Bronze Age, led to the isolation of the north coast. Such an understanding places the exploitation of copper sources in the center of the economic development and prosperity of these settlements. Indeed, copper continued to be the major export commodity of Cyprus during the Iron Age (Iacovou 2013b: 21–22), as it has been recently confirmed by Kassianidou’s (2013) archaeometallurgical analyses. The maps presented here, while restricted within the boundaries of modern Lapithos, demonstrate the potential both of this methodology and of this material. A thorough analysis of site patterns and communication networks on the north coast, however, as a well-defined region on the basis of geography and landscape from the CG period onward, will become necessary in order to move forward with these research questions. For example, only with more research can we hope to elucidate the relationship of the polity of Lapithos with the polity of Kythrea or with Kyrenia, which in the final episode in the history of the Iron Age polities (Papantoniou 2013: 178–179n21) was governed by the same ruler as Lapithos (Diod. Sic. 19.79.4) This study has positioned the north coast of Cyprus back on the map and has drawn attention to the complicated archaeology of the region. Even though the north coast is currently inaccessible to fieldwork, our understanding of the archaeology of this region should not be perceived as stagnant. New research and approaches such as the ones presented in this paper add to our knowledge of the archaeology of the north coast and serve as a step toward achieving a comprehensive assessment of the archaeology of Cyprus in its entirety, despite current political divisions.

Acknowledgments

This chapter derives from my doctoral dissertation, carried out at Bryn Mawr College. A first version of this chapter was produced in the framework of a project entitled “Cultural and Political Landscapes: The View from the North Coast of Cyprus,” funded by the Irish Research Council, Government of Ireland, and hosted at the Department of Classics of the University of Dublin, Trinity College (2014–2015). The chapter was reworked during a postdoctoral fellowship at the Department of

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History and Archaeology of the University of Cyprus (2015–2017). The following editions on Lapithos tombs were published too late to incorporate into this paper and are therefore not referenced: S. Diakou, The Upper Geometric at Lapithos. University of Pennsylvania Museum excavations 1931–1932. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 146 (2018), Uppsala, Sweden: Paul Åströms Förlag; J.M. Webb, Lapithos Vrysi tou Barba, Cyprus, Early and Middle Bronze Age tombs excavated by Menelaos Markides, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 148 (2018), Nicosia: Paul Åströms Förlag. I would like to thank the organizers (C. Kearns, J. Leon, and S. Manning) for the invitation to participate in the conference. I also thank the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology and the Museum of Mediterranean Antiquities (Medelhavsmuseet) in Stockholm for allowing me to study their collections, both material and archival. I am grateful to J. Tabolli for helping greatly in the production of the maps. Finally, I want to thank J. Best, G. Papantoniou, and A. Georgiou for reading and commenting on earlier drafts of this article. I remain responsible however for any information and arguments put forward. References Ancient Authors:

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Pieridou, A. 1965. An early Cypro-Geometric tomb at Lapethos. Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus: 74–111. Pieridou, A. 1966. A tomb-group from Lapithos “Agia Anastasia.” Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus: 1–12. Pieridou, A. 1972. Τάφος υπ’ αρ. 503 εκ Λαπήθου, “Αγία Αναστασία.” Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus: 237–250. Ruwell, M.E. 1984. A Guide to the University Museum Archives of the University of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia: The Museum. Satraki, A. 2012. Κύπριοι Βασιλείς από τον Κοσμασό Mέχρι τον Νικοκρέοντα. Αρχαιογνωσία 9. Athens: University of Athens. Smith, J.S. 2008a. Bringing old excavations to life. Near Eastern Archaeology 71.1/2: 30–40. Smith, J.S. 2008b. From expedition to exhibition. In J.S. Smith (ed.), Views from Phlamoudhi, Cyprus, 1–13. Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research 63. Boston: American Schools of Oriental Research. Steel, L. 1993. Burial customs in Cyprus at the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age. Unpublished PhD dissertation, University College London. Stewart, J.R. 1962. The Early Cypriote Bronze Age. In P. Dikaios and J.R. Stewart (eds.), The Swedish Cyprus Expedition IV.1A. The Stone and the Early Bronze Age in Cyprus, 203–401. Lund, Sweden: The Swedish Cyprus Expedition. Strøm, I. 1992. Obeloi of pre- or proto-monetary value in the Greek sanctuaries. In T. Linders and B. Arloth (eds.), Economics of Cult in the Ancient Greek World. Proceedings of the Uppsala Symposium 1990, 41–51. Boreas 21. Uppsala, Sweden: S. Academiae Ubsaliensis. Tatton-Brown, V. 2001. Excavations in ancient Cyprus: Original manuscripts and correspondence in the British Museum. In V. Tatton-Brown (ed.), Cyprus in the 19th Century AD. Fact, Fancy, and Fiction, 168–183. Oxford: Oxbow Books. Tsolakis, K.A. 1997. Valuation and Administration of Lands Containing Antiquities in Cyprus. Unpublished thesis, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, Canada. UNESCO. 1957. Records of the General Conference: Ninth Session New Delhi 1956: Resolutions. Paris: UNESCO. Van Dyke, R.M., and S.E. Alcock. 2003. Archaeologies of memory: An introduction. In R.M. Van Dyke and S.E. Alcock (eds.), Archaeologies of Memory, 1–13. Malden, MA: Blackwell. Webb, J.M. 2016. Lapithos revisited: A fresh look at a key Middle Bronze Age site in Cyprus. In G. Bourogiannis and C. Mühlenbock (eds.), Ancient Cyprus Today: Museum Collections and New Research, 57–67. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology PB 184. Uppsala, Sweden: Åströms Förlag. Webb, J.M. 2017. Lapithos Tomb 322: Voice, context and the archaeological record. In E. Minchin and H. Jackson (eds.), Text and the Material World: Essays in Honour of Graeme Clarke, 1–12. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology PB 185. Uppsala, Sweden: Åströms Förlag. Webb, J.M., and D. Frankel. 2010. Social strategies, ritual, and cosmology in Early Bronze Age Cyprus: An investigation of burial data from the north coast. Levant 42: 185–209. Webb, J.M., and D. Frankel. 2013a. Cultural regionalism and divergent social trajectories in Early Bronze Age Cyprus. American Journal of Archaeology 117: 59–81. Webb, J.M., and D. Frankel. 2013b. Ambelikou Aletri: Metallurgy and Pottery Production in Middle Bronze Age Cyprus. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 138. Uppsala, Sweden: Åströms Förlag. Webb, J.M., D. Frankel, Z.A. Stos, and N. Gale. 2006. Early Bronze Age metal trade in the eastern Mediterranean: New compositional and lead isotope evidence from Cyprus. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 25: 261–288. Webb, J.M., D. Frankel, K.O. Eriksson, and J.B. Hennessy. 2009. The Bronze Age Cemeteries at Karmi Palealona and Lapatsa in Cyprus: Excavations by J.R.B. Stewart. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 136. Sävedalen, Sweden: Åströms Förlag.

9 Discerning “Favorable” Environments Science, Survey Archaeology, and the Cypriot Iron Age CATHERINE KEARNS

Introduction

In 1879, the colonial surveyor Lord H. H. Kitchener observed that “Cyprus is an island of sudden changes. Both climate and landscape are subject to rapid variations” (quoted in Shirley 2001: 57). As put forward in recent work by Webb and Frankel (2013) and others (e.g., Iacovou 2014b; Manning in this volume), the island’s richly diverse topography and ecology are among the critical components that anchor archaeological interpretations of local settlement dynamics, economies of land and sea, and geopolitical interactions, both within Cypriot society and with the surrounding east Mediterranean. When considering the import of Kitchener’s observations, two concerns emerge for examining the island’s more ancient environments. The first constitutes a traditional focus on environmental constraints and the asymmetrical vocabulary that we have used to describe Cypriot human-environment relationships as constricting past populations with the forces of “immutable” geography (e.g., Iacovou 2013: 19; Satraki in this volume; see also Braudel 1980: 31). Some recent work has rightly challenged the island’s historical epithet makarios, meaning “blessed,” in reference to its productivity, by drawing attention to the shifty marginality and erratic nature of Cypriot environments (Christodoulou 1959: 41–42; Iacovou 2013: 19; Manning in this volume). Yet a recurring theme in Cypriot archaeology foregrounds how ancient populations and their activities were ostensibly shaped by topography, climate, and the location of valuable resources, most notably copper (e.g., Iacovou 2012). A second concern stems from our lack of information on abrupt or “sudden” changes in past landscape and climates on Cyprus, as opposed to increasingly detailed records in other places of the Mediterranean ecumene, such as Anatolia (e.g., Haldon et al. 2014; see also Kearns 2013). In many ways, longstanding archaeological interest in Cyprus’s topography and surface features has obscured historical changes in rainfall, vegetation cover, river courses, and maritime routes in and around which 266

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past societies organized their practices (Held n.d.; Stanley Price 1979; Butzer and Harris 2007; Devillers et al. 2015). Given new directions in several branches of archaeology toward examining environmental histories and human-nature entanglements (e.g., Kintigh et al. 2014: 15–19), it seems timely to question how these sudden or persistent climates on Cyprus feature in archaeological epistemologies. In this paper, I present new data from diachronic paleoclimate records related to precipitation and water availability as an entryway for thinking substantively about social and environmental changes during the Iron Age. The shifts recorded in these scientific data raise opportunities for exploring how, and why, scholars aim to associate and to synchronize historical and climatic episodes, such as the rise of polities or the collapse of interconnected economic systems. As a complement to existing narratives, I assert that landscapes—defined here as the interactions between people and their real and imagined surroundings, which are socially constructed and dynamic (following scholars such as Alcock 1993; Wilkinson 2003; Smith 2003)—are further generated by the practices of both humans and materials, like water, soils, and trees, which make up the surrounding environment: the rich world of biota as well as inanimate matter that shape and are shaped by their own forces, physical climatic changes and long-term anthropogenic modifications (see e.g., Crumley 1994; Morrison 2014; Bauer and Kosiba 2016). In discerning landscape change, I focus on its nonlinear complexity and its often dramatic intersections with human practice and social order, and question the moral underbelly inherent to vocabulary such as “favorable” as opposed to “deleterious” climates that characterize recent literature on past human-environment relationships (see e.g., Diamond 2005; cf. Kouki 2013; Hulme 2016). My aim is not to identify nor to privilege either climatic or anthropogenic agents but to advocate an integrated approach that combines scientific and archaeological data—balancing the archaeo- with the -metry (Pollard and Bray 2014)—to avoid overgeneralizations of cultural and social florescence, on the one hand, or the restrictive nature of climate and environment on passive human subjects, on the other (Middleton 2012). Without denying that environmental or ecological systems do indeed exert considerable influence in human decision-making (on environmental determinism, see e.g., Hulme 2011: 246), this approach underscores the ways in which human groups and environmental constituents such as water courses, fields and soils, and ores of copper recursively produced new forms of society during the Iron Age. Moreover, studying past environmental changes requires critical inquiry into ideological and cultural ideas and experiences of climate through “weathered” experiences (Hulme 2016). This paper begins with a brief review of the existing paleoenvironmental record for Cyprus in order to sketch out recent directions in human-environment studies. A second section then turns to our archaeological constructions of past climate and social change, using one case study from the ninth to eighth centuries BCE as a platform from which to interrogate “favorable” climatic conditions and sociopolitical development in the transition to the first millennium BCE. As a method for interpreting past precipitation change in this period, the third section discusses recent carbon stable isotope analysis of archaeological charcoal from selected sites on the island. To complement the scientific data, I discuss both legacy and recent archaeological

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survey evidence from one region in south-central Cyprus, the Vasilikos and Maroni valleys, which reveals complicated settlement and place-making practices and the investment in landscapes that characterized emerging communities on the edge of a rising coastal power, Amathus (see Petit 2001). These analyses provide space to consider the intervention of environmental materials and their mediations in human social change as well as the give and take between new social inequalities and “sudden” climates that fostered what we call the Cypriot Iron Age. Paleoenvironments of Cyprus

There is a long history of mapping the ancient surfaces and topography of Cyprus, even before the major trigonometric survey of Kitchener in 1878–1883 (Kearns 2013: 122–123). From antiquarian observations about the geographical positions of sites during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries to the archaeological distribution maps of Gjerstad (1926) and Catling (1962) in the twentieth century, this topographic tradition has greatly enhanced our understanding of site position and regional variation, a central concern of prehistoric archaeology (e.g., Bolger 1989; Webb and Frankel 2013). Indeed, the early focus on topography brought sophisticated survey methods to the island before they reached many other regions of the Mediterranean (see Iacovou 2004). According to these studies, ancient interactions between humans and their surroundings were often governed by marked characteristics of the local geology, such as the presence of cupriferous igneous rocks or the imposing peaks of the Kyrenia mountain range along the northern coast. Given this attention to the active role of conspicuous topography in the bounding and shaping of ancient societies, we have remained largely in the dark about the composition and changes of the island’s ancient environments (Noller 2010); the ways in which human communities engineered, negotiated, or challenged their shifting surroundings; and how those surroundings mediated human practices. For instance, archaeobotanical investigations are still not widely implemented on the island, despite the very early interest in preserving seeds and wood charcoal during the pioneering excavations of du Plat Taylor (1952) and Stewart (Stewart and Stewart 1950) in the early twentieth century. Due to the scarcity of paleoenvironmental records, we know little about past vegetation cover, the composition of forests that may have extended further into the lowlands, or paleosols, and archaeologists have needed to rely on other regional Mediterranean archives (Noller 2010; see also Wasse 2007; Kearns 2013: 126–127). There is an apparent presumption that the environments of Cyprus have remained relatively the same throughout its long human occupation—hot dry summers and cold wet winters, with some significant coastline change (e.g., Gifford 1985; Morhange 2000)—which has also contributed to the absence of rigorous paleoclimatic research (Held n.d.). Recent work is, however, restoring this imbalance (e.g., Kaniewski et al. 2013; Griggs et al. 2014; Devillers et al. 2015; Knapp and Manning 2016). An additional problem in constructing an ancient environmental record is the arbitrary cutoff between prehistory and history that still pervades Cypriot archaeology (Iacovou 2008: 625). Those scholars working in the prehistoric periods,

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generally up until the Late Bronze Age in the second half of the second millennium BCE, tend to study human-environment relationships more than those working in the historical periods. The intense focus on mortuary, sanctuary, and urban contexts in studies of the late second and first millennia BCE often render landscapes as backgrounds to political and social history, rather than as dynamic contexts with their own agency (cf. Iacovou 2014a: 796–797). Indeed, as others have noted, the rural practices, utilitarian objects, economic strategies, and domestic spaces of the Iron Age need intensive research in order to fill in the gaps created by years of study skewed to monumental buildings and tomb offerings (see Rupp 1997; Given and Smith 2003; Toumazou et al. 2011). Perhaps most critical to this divergence of history from prehistory and protohistory, however, is the general absence of absolutely dated remains for the Iron Age (although on Iron Age slag-related dating, see Kassianidou 2013: Appendix I; 2014), as opposed to the revolutionary radiometric analysis currently underway for illuminating the island’s prehistoric periods (see e.g., Paraskeva in this volume). Dynamic Human-Environment Relationships: What Is a “Favorable” Climate?

Past climatic and landscape changes on Cyprus thus require more attention, since they had varied effects on the shape and consistency of local ecosystems as well as diverse resonances and material relationships within societies (Manning in this volume). In line with a growing movement to study environments and climate across the humanities and the social sciences, this paper argues that Cypriot landscapes were (and are) constantly in flux, forming and re-forming the island in concert with developing human activity (see e.g., Given and Knapp 2003; Given et al. 2013; see also Horden and Purcell 2000). This approach seeks to investigate the complex ways in which human groups experienced shifts such as decreasing or increasing water availability, interannual harvest variability, and eustatic sea level rise. Using an informed selection of interdisciplinary methods, we can question how these fluctuations became entangled with human technological developments, such as the construction of new roads and harbors, or manipulations of existing irrigation or pastoral strategies (Frankel et al. 2013; Morrison 2014). The recent study of terraces at Politiko Troullia in the northeast foothills of the Troodos massif provides one example of how, between the second and first millennia BCE, people altered their wall construction and maintenance practices to accommodate different environmental and socioeconomic needs (Fall et al. 2012). This work suggests that potential changes in rainfall and erosion, which might have required better soil management strategies on the part of those working the land, interacted with the altered organization of landscape control within this region. Following the work of archaeologists interested in the social and political dimensions of human-environment interfaces (e.g., Rosen 2007; Fisher et al. 2009; Frankel et al. 2013; Morrison 2014; Crumley et al. 2015; Bauer and Kosiba 2016), we note that humans are not grouped into monolithic entities that act or react to external shifts in uniform ways. Nor are rigidly defined environments passive in the

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reproduction of social structures or institutions. The capacity of authorities to manage and to take control of environmental concerns such as water shortage, for example, may build on and reinforce existing social boundaries, while the materiality of copper ores, involving a nexus of soils, waters, igneous lithologies, and forest vegetation, may mediate asymmetrical economic relationships involving the production, distribution, or consumption of copper objects (see Appadurai 2015). Moreover, changes in vegetation patterns or precipitations levels do not exist as a separate external explanans driving societal transformation but instead must be analyzed in tandem with the ordering of daily practice within a society (Smith 2003: 278–279; Hulme 2016; Kearns 2017). The case study on Iron Age settled landscapes that follows in this chapter offers one example of what might be called this environmental habitus and reveals the spectrality of human agency and regional environmental fluctuations that mediate and co-create change. Across the humanities and social sciences, we are seeing increasing interest—associated, in many ways, with global anxieties—in environmentally constrained collapse and the diversity of human involvement in or responsibilities for ecological degradation (e.g., Butzer 2012; Middleton 2012). As others have noted (Harris 2013: 5), the debilitating crises in human society that often follow or coincide with regional or global climatic changes seem relatively easier to study in the historical and textual record than episodes of “prosperous” human-environment entanglements and indeed have often stood in as markers for periodization schemes in archaeological chronologies. Such axioms, often correlating macro-scalar phenomena such as depopulation with poorly resolved proxy information on global warming or cooling episodes and natural disasters, have found considerable purchase in explanations for major social and political transitions, like the collapse of the Akkadian empire during an abrupt aridification event around 2200 BCE (e.g., Weiss and Bradley 2001). For the end of the Bronze Age in the late second millennium BCE, scholars have argued from recent pollen analysis that a prolonged drought episode caused the breakdown of the network of complex polities engaged in interregional trade and gift exchange, forcing communities to move continuously in search of basic resources during the overly arid Early Iron Age (Kaniewski et al. 2013; cf. Knapp and Manning 2016: 102–112). In the early modern period, the deterioration of Cyprus’s forests witnessed by travelers during the Ottoman Empire has provided a more recent example of caustic foreign imperial policy and weakened stability linked to environmental spoiling (Butzer and Harris 2007). In these reconstructions, which focus predominantly on discerning causality or environmental impacts on human life and which often skew unevenly either toward scientific or toward archaeological or textual evidence (see Pollard and Bray 2014), societies either fail to adapt or lose their resilience in the face of physical forces beyond their control (e.g., Diamond 2005). Many rely on what Coombes and Barber (2005: 304–305) call “black box” determinism, which employs only approximate, imprecise, or overly macro-scale data and creates reductive relationships between climate and society (see Hulme 2011), projected back onto fragmentary archaeological or textual archives. If the climate gets worse, in many scenarios, conditions are created in which agropastoral economies suffer due to unsustainable reliance on

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diminishing harvests, dependent state powers fall apart, and chaos reigns. Yet taking this dualism to its opposite polarity, particularly in the Mediterranean constructs of wet/warm optima and of dry/cold minima, if the climate gets “better,” do new communities or states form and prosper? Do populations necessarily start growing? Does farming become less risky, with reduced interannual variability of harvests, better soil quality, and more chances to control erosion, all combining to allow new or altered political economies reliant on agricultural commodities to develop? How does “favorable” climate affect different social groups and political modalities? This equation has certainly received less attention, although recent work has provided provocative examples (e.g., Manning 2013a; Pederson et al. 2014) that nevertheless create a moral economy of environmental conditions, marked by value-laden terms such as prosperous, destructive, or favorable. These terms do little to explain how climates stimulate development or inequalities or how communities or social groups imagined, experienced, or conceived of shifting ecologies. If paleoclimatic research is increasingly becoming a rich exercise of self-reflexive engagement with reconstructing physical climates, it behooves archaeologists and environmental historians interested in past records to analyze and examine the imaginations and experiences of climate discursively made and mediated through culture (Hulme 2016). In the same way that the reductive links between “bad” climate and collapse can mask the intricacies of complex human-environment relationships, “favorable” conditions require careful analysis to explore their equally varied interactions within human populations (Kouki 2013: 211). In other words, we might ask, favorable to or for whom or which groups? Given the accumulating anthropological work on variegated perceptions and politics of knowledge of climate and environment (e.g., Hulme 2015; Barnes and Dove 2015), in what ways do we understand a regional setting or climatic phase as “favorable” and project that onto non-linear complex landscapes? In light of the recent study of a period of unprecedented warm and moist climate coinciding with the rise of the Mongol Empire of Genghis Khan during the thirteenth century CE (Pederson et al. 2014), for example, we can question how one emerging authority took control of rain-induced steppe productivity and concentrated labor and agricultural resources, while scores of other people were subjugated or displaced by new imperialist land use mechanisms and labor practices. How do more reliable growing seasons intersect with contingent practices that act to constrain or generate the mechanisms that produce social order? How is any human ordering of climatic conditions, whether prolonged drought or an onset of cooler temperatures, linked to political authority and social practice? This perspective calls for examining not just whether societies expanded and developed new technologies during periods of seemingly “better” climate but also how new conditions interacted with the apparatus of land management, political economies, and the emergence of cultural and social values of landscape and environments within and between societies. From the standpoint of these dynamic human-environment relationships, I argue for studying “landscapes in the making,” to reorient a phrase from Hoskins (1955), and place emphasis on the recurring and accumulating processes, experiences, and perceptions that shape human interactions with their real and imagined surroundings.

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The revolutionary social, political, and economic changes occurring around the Mediterranean during the early first millennium BCE, at the onset of a new Iron Age world, provide a case study for exploring this perspective (for the complex periodization, see Kotsonas 2016). Recent work in paleoenvironmental studies is elucidating a “sudden” climatic change around the mid-ninth century BCE marked by a shift from cooler and more arid conditions to wetter, warmer ones by the seventh century BCE (van Geel et al. 2004; Manning 2010: 43–44). This apparent turn to climates “favorable” to Cypriot topography and terrain—with more rainfall and likely more reliable growing seasons and fewer extended droughts—happens a few centuries after the end of the Late Bronze Age (e.g., Manning 2013b). It therefore offers an example with which to study the interrelationships between shifting environments and the regeneration of sociopolitical complexity, forms of mercantile trade, and new cultural practices occurring around the eastern Mediterranean (Sherratt and Sherratt 1993; Morris 2009; Broodbank 2013: 445–505). Rather than assume that this climatic change immediately led to growth in population, innovation, and prosperity from the Near East to the Aegean Sea and on to the Atlantic, the following analysis breaks down the scientific and archaeological evidence from two proximal watersheds on Cyprus to investigate these altered human-environment relationships. Climatic and Environmental Change

While recent paleoclimatic research has sought to illuminate the dry episode in the Mediterranean that coincides with the end of the Bronze Age and its unique political economies (e.g., Rohling et al. 2009; Langgut et al. 2013; Drake 2012; Kaniewski et al. 2013; Knapp and Manning 2016: 102–112), less attention has gone to the probable wetter episode that follows, around the ninth and eighth centuries BCE. The lack of precise, high-resolution data for this period, especially for places like Cyprus, exacerbates this problem. Nevertheless, studies are increasingly showing that a potentially global shift from drier to wetter physical climates occurred, with different regional effects across the Mediterranean (Roberts et al. 2012; see Bar-Matthews et al. 1998; Manning 2010; 2013a: 112–114; Mayewski et al. 2004; cf. Drake 2012). These indirect records of a wetter climate come from contexts such as peat bogs in northern Europe as well as the southern hemisphere (van Geel et al. 2000; van Geel et al. 2004; Chambers et al. 2007; Swindles et al. 2007), sediment profiles in Turkey and northern Africa (Hassan 1997), pollen cores from lakes in the Mediterranean (Roberts et al. 2011; Langgut et al. 2013; Kaniewski et al. 2013), and proxies for sea surface temperatures and salinity in the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean (Emeis et al. 2000). Indirect records for water availability in northeastern Iberia drawn from charcoal show a cool and dry period, on the other hand, likely reflecting differences in eastern and western Mediterranean climates during this Iron Age episode (Ferrio et al. 2006; see Roberts et al. 2012). Scholars have suggested that this type of synchronous cooling was triggered by a reduction in solar activity, also known as a “solar minimum,” which increased the amount of cosmic rays in the atmosphere leading to cloud and precipitation formation (e.g., van Geel et al.

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2000; Bond et al. 2001; Manning 2013: 114). The radiocarbon curve documents this dramatic drop in solar activity, marking a decrease in sunspots and therefore a generally less warm period starting around 800 BCE and followed by warming (Manning 2010: 43). Carbon Stable Isotope Analysis We still lack precise information for this climatic change on Cyprus (cf. Kaniewski et al. 2013). In order to create a local record for potential climatic shifts, I performed stable isotope analysis on archaeological charcoal recovered from several sites on the island (for the premise of this technique, see McCarroll and Loader 2004). A growing number of international studies have explored the correlations between carbon stable isotope composition (δ13C) in plants and climatic variation, particularly factors related to water availability, humidity, and moisture conditions (e.g., Ferrio et al. 2006; Riehl et al. 2008; Wallace et al. 2013). The changes in a plant’s isotopic values are complicated by various forms of water input and loss, temperature, light intensity, and even soil nutrients. For semi-arid areas such as Cyprus, rainfall is the most prominent force of environmental change and is almost always unreliable and often inadequate in lowland areas that are susceptible to high evaporation rates. During periods of water shortage, a plant’s carbon isotope ratios will exhibit this discrimination in water availability as an increase in the heavier isotope 13C (compared to the lighter 12C). Since charcoal is a ubiquitous feature of archaeological deposits, it is a relatively available source with which to study broad trends in water availability during the late Holocene, although problems in the representation of original wood material in preserved charcoal require additional analysis, as discussed below. For the archaeological charcoal, I obtained approximately 170 individual samples from Cyprus to measure carbon stable isotopic composition, summarized in Table 9.1. These samples, which come from both excavated sites and geomorphological sampling at sites, represent varied stratified contexts: tombs, building material, kilns, and floor deposits. The sites also cover different bioclimatic parts of the island as well as both urban and non-urban contexts (Figure 9.1). Several samples originate in immediate coastal environments, such as Zygi Petrini, Amathus, and Kition, with an average annual precipitation range between 300–400 mm, while others represent inland foothills landscapes, such as Apliki Karamallos, where average annual precipitation can reach 800 mm. The samples extend from the mid-third millennium BCE to the mid-first millennium CE and cluster in three major periods: the Late Bronze Age, the Archaic and Classical periods, and the Roman to Late Roman periods. Thus, the earliest part of the first millennium BCE (e.g., eleventh to ninth centuries) is not well represented, except for a few samples from an early Cypro-Geometric (CG) deposit at the site of Idalion. In addition, four samples were sent for radiocarbon dating, while the remaining samples are dated from stratigraphic records. For this reason, some of the chronological resolution for samples remains poor, covering multiple centuries. Despite the limitations of this initial study and the problems with diluting climatic change to only “wet” or

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Table 9.1:  Charcoal data derived from archaeological sites on Cyprus, catalogued by site, species,

number of samples, chronological period and corresponding date range, and archaeological context

Site name

Species

No. of samples

Chronological period

Date range (approx.)

Context

Alambra Mouttes

Olea eur.

 2

MC III

1750–1650 BCE Room debris

Maroni Tsaroukkas

Olea eur.

 2

LC IIA/LC IIB

1500–1350 BCE Tomb

Kalavasos Ayios Pinus sp. Dhimitrios

76

LC IIB/LC IIC

1400–1300 BCE Roof debris; Pithos hall

Alassa Paliotaverna

Olea eur.

 1

LC IIIA

1200–1050 BCE Room and pit deposits

Pinus sp.

 3

LC IIC

1340–1200 BCE Room and pit deposits

Pinus sp.

 3

LC IIIA

1200–1050 BCE Room and pit deposits

Apliki Karamallos

Pinus sp.

11

LC IIC/LC IIIA

1350–1250 BCE Room debris

Pistacia ter.  1

LC IIC/LC IIIA

1350–1250 BCE Room debris

Idalion

Quercus sp.  1

Cypro-Geometric 1050–800 BCE

Quercus sp. 16

Cypro-Classical

500–300 BCE

Pit deposit

Pistacia ter.  5

Cypro-Classical

500–300 BCE

Pit deposit

Quercus sp.  4

Cypro-Archaic

800–500 BCE

Pit deposit, floor debris

Pinus sp.

12

Cypro-Archaic

800–500 BCE

Pit deposit, floor debris

Olea eur.

 1

Cypro-Archaic

800–500 BCE

Pit deposit, floor debris

Amathus

Pit deposit

Pistacia ter.  2

Hellenistic

300–30 BCE

Destruction layer

Quercus sp.  6

Hellenistic

300–30 BCE

Destruction layer

Olea eur.

 5

Hellenistic

300–30 BCE

Destruction layer

Pinus sp.

11

Roman

30 BCE–200 CE Room debris

Quercus sp.  5

Roman

30 BCE–200 CE Room debris

Kition Pervolia

Olea eur.

 7

Classical

500–400 BCE

Tomb

Zygi Petrini

Pinus sp.

68

Late Roman

200–400 CE

Kiln feature

“dry” (Rosen and Rosen 2001), the data provide a reasonable diachronic range of relative changes in water availability, and ongoing research for this project is working toward collecting more samples with more precise dating. The samples fall into a standard range of mostly low-elevation endemic taxa on Cyprus: pine (Pinus brutia Ten., Pinus nigra), oak (Quercus sp. evergreen), olive (Olea europaea), and terebinth (Pistacia terebinthus). To differentiate between the high-elevation and low-elevation species of pine endemic to Cyprus (P. nigra and P. brutia, respectively) as a possible source of isotopic variation, select samples were identified with a scanning electron microscope (SEM). The samples were

Figure 9.1:  Map of sites providing charcoal for this study. Created by C. Kearns; basemap provided by the Geological Survey Department.

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then prepared by sectioning along ring boundaries with an average of 5.9 ± 3.2 rings and were run on an elemental analyzer coupled with an isotope ratio mass spectrometer, following common procedure (e.g., Ferrio et al. 2006). The results were then calibrated against Antarctic ice core values to account for changes in atmospheric CO2 in the past, in order to calculate carbon isotope discrimination, Δ13C (Farquhar et al. 1989; Ferrio et al. 2006; the δ13C values used for the Cypriot charcoal ranged from –6.37 to –6.52 ppm). To assess the variability in isotopic composition of charcoal due to the charring process, experimental carbonization tests were performed on modern P. brutia from Limassol Forest (see Czimczik et al. 2002; Turney et al. 2006; Resco et al. 2011). Additionally, some basic outlier analysis was used to eliminate likely anomalous values caused by non-climatic trends, such as lower δ13C values that often occur in the first few decades of a tree’s growth (Gagen et al. 2008; see also Kearns 2015: 131–166). It is important to state that these data form an impartial paleoclimatic record for Cyprus but highlight the necessity of continuing to build up paleoenvironmental information, especially for later periods. Results The preliminary data from the carbon stable isotope analysis suggest certain trends in past water availability on Cyprus and support other proxy records for a shift to wetter conditions by the eighth to seventh centuries BCE. Figure 9.2 shows the average Δ13C values for periods from all sites, coded according to each of the species analyzed, and their standard deviations. The material from the earlier second millennium BCE at the inland Middle Cypriot (MC) site of Alambra Mouttes reflects an apparent drier period, with a potential turn to wetter conditions in Late Cypriot (LC) IIB, around the beginning of the fourteenth century BCE, at Kalavasos Ayios Dhimitrios. In comparison to the drier values of the Late Bronze Age, also represented by charcoal from the site of Alassa Paliotaverna in the Kouris Valley and room debris from the inland site of Apliki Karamallos, the material from the eighth to fifth centuries BCE from the Cypro-Archaic (CA) period at Amathus on the southern coast has considerably higher Δ13C values, reflecting an increase in the amount of water available during the growth of the trees sampled. The relatively similar values for the Cypro-Classical, Hellenistic, Roman, and Late Roman periods also correspond well with other records showing a generally stable end of the first millennium BCE and early first millennium CE, including the radiocarbon curve (Manning 2010: 43; 2013a). While the samples from the LC IIIA inland copper production settlement of Apliki Karamallos are likely the higher-elevation P. nigra species and therefore may reveal a difference in isotopic discrimination compared to lowland taxa from sites at Kalavasos Ayios Dhimitrios and Amathus, the pine, oak, and olive samples from CA levels at Amathus all show high Δ13C values, affirming the shift from drier to wetter conditions by the eighth to seventh centuries BCE. The overall pattern of a drier period in the twelfth to eighth centuries, moreover, aligns with the recent pollen record drawn from the Larnaka Salt Lake (Kaniewski et al. 2013; on the problems

1500 BCE

1000 BCE

0

CE 500

WETTER

20

19.5

∆13C values in %

19

18.5

18

17.5

17

Olive

Oak

Pine

Terebinth

16.5

16

DRIER MC/LC

LC IIC

ARCHAIC

CLASSICAL

ROMAN

LATE ROMAN

Figure 9.2:  Graph of results from carbon stable isotope analysis, coded according to species (Pinus sp., Quercus sp., Olea eur., Pistacia ter.) and grouped by period. Average values shown with approximate error 0.05 ppm.

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with this study’s chronological resolution, see Knapp and Manning 2016), and this aridity is supported by the lower value for the sample of Quercus sp. recovered from Idalion dating to the tenth to ninth centuries BCE. Social and Political Change

Having introduced a scientific framework to begin building a paleoclimatic record for Cyprus and its shifting physical climates and acknowledging that this local record needs more data and other paleoenvironmental studies in order to refine its accuracy, archaeological evidence can help elucidate how these transformations became entangled with new land use, settlement, and industrial practices. To do so, I draw on archaeological survey material collected in the Vasilikos and Maroni valleys of south-central Cyprus (Kearns 2016; 2017), integrated with geophysical survey and geographic information systems (GIS) analysis that models rural landscape dynamics (see Bevan 2002). These river valleys, which radiate out from the Troodos Mountains to the coast, cutting through igneous and sedimentary zones before reaching the coastal plain, have supported agriculture as well as copper mining and production for several millennia (Wagstaff 1978; Gomez 1987; Figure 9.3). Scholars have traditionally looked to this region for its prominent early prehistoric sites, such as Kalavasos Tenta and Khirokitia Vounoi, and for two LC urban polities, Kalavasos Ayios Dhimitrios and Maroni Vournes, which sat on an important east-west coastal route (South 2002; Todd 2013: 92–97; Andreou in this volume). Less examined are its post–Bronze Age occupations, particularly the CG III–CA II period, ca. 900–500 BCE, when numerous settlements appear on the grounds of earlier sites as well as in newly occupied areas throughout the two valleys (see South 2002; Todd 2013: 97–102). Although the borders of the island’s first-millennium BCE polities are debated (see e.g., Fourrier 2002; Satraki and Diakou in this volume), scholars conjecture that this region was involved in the economic, cultural, and likely political apparatus of the coastal polity of Amathus, 20 km to the west (Hermary 1992; Aupert 1996: Figure 2; Todd 2013: 99–103). Two earlier interdisciplinary projects, the Vasilikos Valley Project (VVP; see Todd 2004; 2013; 2016) and the Maroni Valley Archaeological Survey Project (MVASP; see Manning et al. 1994), with quite divergent methods and survey areas (VVP = 151 sq. km, MVASP = 14.5 sq. km), conducted extensive and intensive survey in these valleys. They recorded diachronic surface material ranging from earliest prehistory to the modern period and interpreted several fluctuations in occupation. While both projects catalogued diagnostic Iron Age material, the settlement patterns in this region after the end of the Bronze Age remain unclear, in part due to problems in recognizing (and lack of attention to) local, coarse Iron Age wares through surface survey (Given and Smith 2003: 271; Janes and Winther-Jacobsen 2013). Moreover, the incompatibility of the two survey datasets and their incommensurate sampling strategies, ranging from intuitive topographical walking to total collection intensity, make a substantive regional comparison exceedingly difficult (on this issue, see Alcock and Cherry 2004; Kearns 2015: 171–186). “Chasing” the Iron Age via survey results therefore requires spatial and material synthesis (sensu Pettegrew 2001).

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Figure 9.3:  Physiographical map of the Vasilikos and Maroni valleys, showing igneous, sedimentary, and coastal zones, with survey areas in gray box. Created by C. Kearns; data provided by the Geological Survey Department of Cyprus.

For this case study, I employed “front to back” re-survey as a way to examine these changes (see Thompson 2004). This method entails the return to a region previously surveyed, often decades earlier, to distinguish modifications in assemblage as well as visibility and surface composition (see Diacopoulos 2004). Despite methodological constraints in both the Vasilikos and Maroni valleys, the survey evidence, illustrated below as discrete assemblages of material (and not densities), shows significant drops in settlement numbers in the early CG period (twelfth to ninth centuries BCE), with only three sites with CG III material (ca. 900–800/750 BCE) recorded in the first publications of the Vasilikos Valley, as opposed to roughly seventy-five settlements and tombs for the Late Bronze Age period (Todd 2013: 92–96). A more recent intensive study of the VVP material has found several more indications of scattered CG III material, suggesting increased activity around 800 BCE, but in low frequencies that also correspond to areas with material from the late second millennium BCE (Georgiadou 2016: 104). Very little recovered CG material was found in the southern Maroni valley following the abandonment of Maroni Vournes and Maroni Tsaroukkas (Manning et al. 1994: 353–356) (Figure 9.4).

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Figure 9.4:  Map of settlements in the Vasilikos and Maroni valleys recorded through archaeological survey, separated into Late Bronze Age, Cypro-Geometric (III), and Cypro-Archaic periods. Created by C. Kearns; basemap provided by the Geological Survey Department of Cyprus.

Ongoing research at the site of Tochni Lakkia on the coast near the mouth of the Vasilikos river indicates some continued presence and activity at this probable anchorage site during the CG period (on Tochni Lakkia, see Andreou et al. 2017). This tenuous continuity suggests the clustering, or contraction, of communities in selected settlements after the apparent breakdown of the local center of Kalavasos Ayios Dhimitrios. Thus the broad picture that emerges in this region and across the island (e.g., Rupp 1987; Petit 2001) during the eleventh to ninth centuries BCE is one of limited permanent occupation with some preserved maintenance of important coastal trading sites and access to major transregional routes that connected the east and west of the island. Vessel sizes seem to have decreased, or we lack significant evidence for large storage jars known from Late Bronze Age centers (requiring technological investment), implying also a shift in daily practice and strategies for maintaining and distributing goods (Pilides 1996: 110, 119–120; Hadjisavvas 1996: 133; see Halstead and O’Shea 1989: 123–124). By the late ninth to eighth centuries BCE, however, this apparent contraction of the local population is countered by the expansion of numerous re-settlements as well as original establishments, particularly tomb sites, throughout the two survey areas, indicating a complex shift to more sedentary practices. From the site of Tochni Lakkia on the coast, up the valleys into the foothills of the Troodos, clusters of sites appear with CA I ceramic material (750–600 BCE), with several large concentrations surrounded by smaller installations likely involved in agricultural, pastoral, and industrial activities (Georgiadou 2016: 104–106). The distribution of these sites indicates the potential bounding of emergent communities, providing access up the river valleys to goods brought in from the coast or from the important east-west coastal road that endured into the Roman period (Bekker-Nielsen 2004: 194–196). In addition,

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evidence of olive oil production at survey sites in the Vasilikos Valley may point to the increasing permanence of collective agropastoral practice (Todd 2013: 101). The prominent spacing of cemeteries on previously unoccupied ground in the lower part of the Vasilikos Valley, shown in Figure 9.5, suggests intentional demarcations of mortuary places linked to new social organization and arguably to the revitalization of the fertile coastal plain (for a similar case in nearby Amathus, see Janes 2013). For the Vasilikos and Maroni watersheds, the coastal plain is where marine terraces conspicuously stick up, marking prominent places that became the grounds for these new Archaic collective burials, intervisible due to the relatively flat sloping terrain. In these clusters of tombs, excavated materials point to the contemporary underscoring of social inequality, potentially linked to access to emerging productive landscapes and interregional markets like Tochni Lakkia. An increase in the number of fragments of decorated drinking and dining wares points to feasting-like practices, perhaps as settings for the display of social power (Hamilakis and Sherratt 2012). We can discern these changes in a handful of salvage operations on CGIII/CAI tombs at Mari (Hadjicosti 1997), Maroni (Karageorghis 1972: 1017–1019; Christodoulou 1972), and Khirokitia (Karageorghis 1984: 922; Flourentzos 1985). These singular examples consist of mostly small-scale burials of a few individuals, with some evidence of re-burial at later phases during the early fifth century BCE (a general trend; see Hamilakis and Sherratt 2012: 200). The presence of bronze jewelry, uncommon ceramic forms, and iron swords, adzes, and knives far outside the urban polity at Amathus may hint at a local elite adopting the mortuary warrior aesthetic appearing elsewhere on the island during the early first millennium BCE in iconography and “epic” funerary objects (Hamilakis and Sherratt 2012: 195; on contemporary mortuary practices, see e.g., Rupp 1987; Blackwell 2010). While presumably these emerging elites linked themselves to the nearby coastal center to the west in order to access the growing interregional trade in luxury goods as well as agropastoral commodities (Greene et al. 2013), the place-making practices in the Maroni and Vasilikos valleys do suggest alternate forms of social bounding (Georgiadou 2016: 106). Survey data from the region of Amathus (Petit 1996), for example, in the hills surrounding the site where elites built distinct necropoleis showcasing monumental performativity (Janes 2013) indicate much less continuity with second-millennium inhabitation and landscape practices than the Vasilikos and Maroni region, where Middle Bronze Age and Late Bronze Age settlements provided apparent salience during the transition to the Iron Age. Spatial analysis of the VVP and MVASP data indicate that these settlements were intensifying local land by managing small watersheds (e.g., 6 ha) and re-occupying terraces higher up the slopes of the valley than in the Late Bronze Age where the soil was potentially more fertile. Data from previous surveys in the region as well as my own recent re-survey of these sites illustrate the wide-ranging use of slopes and terraces along the valley sides and perennial streams that seem to have been unoccupied and unworked in the preceding CG I–II period (see Kearns 2016; 2017). The mapping of terrace walls (notoriously difficult to date) in several of these drainages suggests renewed attention to curating soil and rainwater in this period, based on the presence of CA ceramics nearby (see Wagstaff 1992). These findings correspond

Figure 9.5:  Map of Cypro-Geometric and Cypro-Archaic artifact scatters (dots), showing sites mentioned in text, and tombs and cemeteries (stars), indicating new mortuary landscape in southern valleys. Created by C. Kearns; data provided by the Geological Survey Department of Cyprus.

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well with evidence recorded to the west in the nearby Amathus hinterland, where the French survey also found a network of rock-cut installations that likely date to the early first millennium BCE, when new communities began reworking the landscape and increasing agricultural production (see Petit 1996: 178–179, 182, Figure 171). While survey data lack chronological precision, it becomes clear that by roughly the eighth century BCE, this region had developed landscape practices that brought people together to manage their surroundings and to invest in permanent infrastructure, such as soil management and industrial installations, with which they could sustain themselves and potentially produce for wider markets. The strengthening of access routes to the east and the west, as well as to anchorages such as Tochni Lakkia along the coast, brought people and goods to new settlements or gathering places such as ritual centers. For example, groups reused the visible monumental Bronze Age ruins at Maroni Vournes to construct a conspicuous shrine with potential pilgrimage attraction, whose votive offerings (ca. eighth to third centuries BCE) were oriented toward fertility and herding and were situated near features related to olive oil production (Cadogan 1983: 156–157; Ulbrich 2012; 2013: 36). Additional survey work has revealed probable small shrines and sanctuaries of the Archaic and Classical periods at sites like Vavla Kapsalaes (Morden and Todd 1994; Papantoniou et al. 2015), Vavla Metaxa (Flourentzos 2008: 82), and Maroni Yialos (Karageorghis 1978: 881–882; Johnson 1980: 6). Such pockets of evidence hint at a series of differentiated ritual landscapes that may have accommodated diverse social groups and countryside pilgrimage practices across the Vasilikos and Maroni valleys (see Given and Smith 2003: 275–276). To give one example of such local growth of social boundaries, the settlements that arise in this arguable period of increasing sedentism near the important Kalavasos copper mines in the Vasilikos Valley, roughly 11 km from the coast, point to a potential reclaimed organization of mineral as well as charcoal resources. These eighth to fifth century BCE production activities built up dependent economic practices tied to forests, soil, and mineral sources and seem to have belonged to a settlement zone integrating mining with cultivation and possibly pastoralism. A few radiocarbon dates from prominent slag heaps in this mining area, at Kalavasos Petra and Kalavasos Platies, indicate the exploitation of these mines by the CA period (Kassianidou 2013: 75; Table 9.2).

Table 9.2:  Published radiocarbon dates from charcoal in slag heaps in the Kalavasos area

(Kassianidou 2013: 75, Appendix I)

Site Name

Context

Published date 14 (Zwicker C date Calibrated Calibrated 1986) before present date (68.2%) date (95.4%)

Period

Kalavasos “biggest” slag 430 ± 85 BCE 2376 ± 83 BP 552–382 BCE 770–354 BCE Cypro-Archaic heap Kalavasos Slag heap? Platies

410 ± 70 BCE 2357 ± 68 BP 541–375 BCE 670–352 BCE Cypro-Archaic

Kalavaos Slag heap? Platies

450 ± 40 BCE 2399 ± 30 BP 510–434 BCE 544–396 BCE Cypro-Classical

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Slag around the first-millennium BCE survey sites of Asgata Neron tou Phani and Kalavasos Spilios suggests that emerging communities were taking advantage of the igneous pillow lavas in conjunction with an area of relatively stable slopes and access to streams with extant check dam features. Later, toward the middle of the first millennium BCE, this charged geologic zone of mining and copper production had become the location of religious practice, seen in the remains of a small structure with multiple Cypro-Classical (fifth century BCE) ceramic figurines in the slag heap at Kalavasos Skourka (Flourentzos 2008: 102; Todd 2013: 135–140). Over the course of centuries of close investment in these copper resources, local communities had come to link the landscape of mining and igneous geology with a repertory of cultural practice involving deposited sacred objects. Perhaps these ritual practices were also aimed at the health of nearby forests of pine that fueled their local and transregional mining economy. Recent fieldwork at the site of Kalavasos Vounaritashi, situated in a small side valley of the Vasilikos River roughly 4 km from the coast, provides an opportunity for more substantive analysis of the relationships between people and changing landscapes (Figure 9.6). Pedestrian and geophysical survey as well as targeted soil tests around a large multi-period site first identified by the VVP (Todd 2004:

Figure 9.6:  Position of Kalavasos Vounaritashi in mid-valley amid Archaic settlements (A) and satellite image showing extensive survey results surrounding the site (B). 5 m contours. Created by C. Kearns; data provided from Geological Survey Department and Department of Lands and Surveys of Cyprus.

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58–60) and undertaken through the Kalavasos and Maroni Built Environments Project (KAMBE) indicate a prominent assemblage of CA materials amid limestone and gypsum outcrops (Kearns 2016). Extensive survey (10 m transect spacing) has further suggested some type of settlement on the plateau with fewer ceramic fragments in the nearby alluvial drainages, which retain relic cross-channel walls, perhaps even dating to the Bronze Age (Wagstaff 1992). The dense surface scatters, discretely bounded by the rich soils of the limestone and gypsiferous ridge, include significant fragments of large storage vessels (pithoi), basket-handled amphorae, grinding (mortaria) and cooking vessels, and arrangements of stone blocks, suggesting activities related to storage, production, consumption, and probable habitation (Figure 9.7). The proximity to deep alluvial soils points to agropastoral tasks and the maintenance of valued land and water management features. Intended future excavations at the site and its associated walls and possible enclosures, as well as the remains of plant and animal economies, will provide a closer look at the area’s environmental practices as they became a part of or potentially challenged interregional developments associated with nearby Amathus or other coastal centers.

Figure 9.7:  Satellite image with intensive survey results (2 m transect spacing) and concentrations of large storage vessels (pithoi) (A) and cross-channel wall (B). 5 m contours. Created by C. Kearns; data provided from Geological Survey Department and Department of Lands and Surveys of Cyprus.

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Discussion and Conclusion

At the macro-scale, the apparent synchronous correlation between a sudden growth in communities and renewed exploitation of mines in this south-central area of Cyprus around the eighth century BCE and a turn to wetter, “favorable” conditions as shown in new paleoenvironmental records seems apt for a causal relationship between climatic and social change. The climate got “better,” potentially marked by more winter rainfall, warmer temperatures, and more reliable and consistent growing seasons. These conditioned the growth and expansion of communities, fostering hierarchical organization and the command of local resources through emerging institutions such as property that helped formulate novel Iron Age political systems. And yet, while the local signature of a healthy growing sequence may point to the regeneration of nearby forests and more water to harvest for cultivation, we need more archaeological and paleoenvironmental research to discern how ancient communities might have manipulated these resources in an emerging set of economic and social practices and how environmental shifts mediated the responses of various groups within Archaic society. As this paper has shown, climatic and social temporalities are difficult to weave together and require a balancing of scientifically and archaeologically informed work. Excavation of non-urban, first-millennium BCE sites and terraces in valleys like these thus becomes critical, especially for Cyprus (see e.g., Rautman 2000; Sørensen and Winther-Jacobsen 2006; Toumazou et al. 2011; Given et al. 2013), as does more archaeobotanical, zooarchaeological, and geomorphological research on soil quality, crop production, and practices such as shepherding and animal husbandry (see Leon 2016). Such a preliminary project can conclude not with definite claims about the first-millennium BCE countryside and its processes of development but with suggestions for further points of discussion on social formation and human-environment recursivity. Within the apparatus of Iron Age political authority, how might a shift to more stable growing seasons have aligned with mechanisms of rule, economy, and culture that were just taking shape? Our knowledge of the political institutions of the major urban centers and their potential capacities for controlling agropastoral production remains limited but offers avenues for fruitful research. For the watersheds east of Amathus, the survey work presented here suggests several interpretations of the growth of power relations and control. With future investigations, these may substantiate top-down impositions of land use and labor and the deliberate oversight of valued resources in the Vasilikos and Maroni valleys within its growing political economy. Future work may also reveal more complex, rural formations of hierarchies that developed agropastoral wealth and then sought access to, allegiance with, or competitive status within the margins of the Amathusian polity. Arguably, available evidence suggests that a spectrum of these different political associations was developing, given the indications of “high-status” individuals with access to imports and the orientation of local objects toward Amathusian workshops (e.g., Georgiadou 2016: 104–105) but also regional patterns of land use, maintenance of landscape modifications, separate mortuary and sacred places, and use of nearby harbors.

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How then did a potential increase in precipitation affect land use practices and create avenues for agropastoral wealth for some, like those buried in wealthy tombs around the two valleys? Does the manipulation of terrace systems indicate a shift in technological choice toward new forms of cultivation, requiring community labor or authoritative supervision? Alternatively, do they reflect a more organic system of reuse and reinvestment on the parts of smaller, competing groups? An integrated methodological approach to these questions can begin to elucidate how ancient environments on Cyprus were (and are) not always restrictive and immutable. Their sudden shifts mediated human practice and ingenuity, from habits of settlement and metal production to the creation of governing authorities of trade or symbolic inclusion in elite circles, not only during the Iron Age but also throughout the island’s long and rich history. More concretely, discerning social and environmental change during the transformations of the Iron Age on Cyprus can reveal the problems with our field’s traditional focus on the king, his city, and his iconography that dominates most scholarship on the transition to historical polities (e.g., Satraki 2012). Looking outside the excavated cities such as Kition and Paphos reveals a messy countryside (sensu Hritz 2013), where local groups around the ninth to eighth centuries BCE began intensifying certain parts of the landscape to enter or gain control of new economic networks and to establish settlement zones and their interrelationships that could connect growing communities with places considered sacred and culturally salient. An integrated methodology offers a counternarrative to the hypothesized centripetal power projected from the would-be city-kingdoms over dependent hinterlands and instead underscores the heterogeneity and accumulation of local practices in relation to preceding landscape modifications or to novel attempts at place-making. I would suggest that an approach that privileges neither environmental nor archaeological data and avoids reductive causal and temporal relationships by taking seriously the social lives of environments offers a more nuanced and robust examination of historical change and landscapes in the making. Acknowledgments

I would like to thank Sturt Manning and Jeff Leon for their help in organizing this conference and A. Bernard Knapp and the two anonymous reviewers for providing insightful comments. Brita Lorentzen aided the charcoal identification and dendroclimatological analysis, Akio Enders and Johannes Lehmann helped with the carbonization study, and Kim Sparks and the Cornell Isotope Lab helped run the isotopic analysis. Funding for this research was provided by a Fulbright grant from the U.S. State Department and the Cyprus Fulbright Commission as well as by a Mellon fellowship at Stanford, the Society of Humanities at Cornell, and the Loeb Foundation. I especially thank Ian Todd and Alison South, Anna Georgiadou, Zomenia Zomeni and the Geological Survey Department, and the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus for providing data and support. Sabine Fourrier, Sophocles Hadjisavvas, Andrew Sneddon, Aurelie Carbillet, and Pamela Gaber kindly provided charcoal samples. All errors or omissions are my own.

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Index

Page references in italics refer to maps, graphs and figures. Accelerator Mass Spectrometer (AMS), 51 Actor-Network-Theory, 135 – 36 Agapiou, Athos, 202 Aglatzia Leondari Vouno, 195 Agriculture harvest and marginal land, 110 – 12 plow model, 113 – 17, 119 resources, 35, 137 storage sites, 166, 228 suitable sites, 146, 153 traditional, 106 – 7 villages, 120 – 21, 167 See also Secondary products revolution Akamas Peninsula, 201, 229 Alambra administrative center, 222, 227 ceramics of, 7, 91 – 93, 95 region of, 224, 227, 233 settlement pattern, 224 settlements of, 9 – 10, 33, 35, 75 Alambra Mouttes, 142 abandonment, 193 burning episodes, 139 climate conditions, 276 pottery of, 75, 77 – 82, 89 settlements of, 224 Alashiya, 5, 166, 180 – 83, 192 Alassa Paliotaverna, 166, 168, 174, 222, 276 Aloupos River, 146 Alykos-Gialias-Pedieos river system, 111, 120, 224, 227 Alykos River, 91, 227 – 28 Amarna letters, 160, 166, 180, 182 Amathus, 10, 222, 268, 273, 276, 278, 281, 283, 285 – 86 Ambelikou, 258 – 59 Ambelikou Aletri, 25 – 28, 33, 35, 94, 139 – 40, 258 copper and pottery production, 33, 35

Analiondas Frangissa, 228, 235 – 36 Analiondas Palioklishia, 229 Anarita Kousoulatos, 204 Anarita Retzepis, 204, 209 Anatolia, 68 – 69, 138, 258 fortresses, 134 trade network, 118, 122 Apliki Karamallos, 174, 273, 276 ARCANE project, 48, 51, 69 ArcGIS, 96, 175, 250 Archaeobotanical investigations, 268, 286 Archaeological survey, 10, 170, 278 Archaeometry, 5, 95 Architecture, 4 economic practices and, 174 See also Storage facilities Arediou Vouppes, 167 Arpera Mosphilios, 231 Asgata Neron tou Phani, 284 Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, 195 Asomatos Potemata, 146 Asproyia, 211 Assemblage theory, 136 Ayia Irini Palaeokastro, 194 Ayia Marinoudha Akoni, 202 Ayia Marinoudha Kotsiatis/Akoni, 204 Ayia Varvara Almyras, 142 Ayia Varvara Teratsin, 204 Ayios Dhimitrianos Vouni, 202 Ayios Nicolaos, 211 Ayios Sozomenos agriculture at, 228 – 29 regional center, 227 – 28 Ayios Sozomenos Barsak, 144, 148, 228 Ayios Sozomenos Glykia Vrysi, 134, 140, 144, 148 Ayios Sozomenos Nikolides, 228 Ayios Sozomenos Nikolidhes, 148 Ayios Sozomenos Plateau, 134, 142, 147 – 48

295

296 Index Ayios Sozomenos Survey and Excavation Project (ASESP), 227 – 28 Ayios Thyrsos Vikla, 148 Barlow, Jane A., 77 – 78, 80 – 83, 91 – 92 Baurain, Claude, 150 Bayesian analysis, 71 Bellapais Kapa Kaya, 146 Bellapais Vounous, 78, 258 – 59 cemeteries, 35 tulip bowls, 29 – 31 Blanton, Richard E., 100 Bolger, Diane, 99 British to Paphos, 196 – 97 Bronze Age, 6 distribution of wares, 32 tripartite model, 18 Bronze Age, Early, 6, 51 – 54, 57, 68, 75 absence of coastal villages, 139 lack of fortifications, 139, 141 measurements of wares, 24 Philia facies, 30 Bronze Age, Late, 161, 235 base ring and white slip wares, 24 cemeteries and tombs, 54, 248, 251, 255, 257 destruction and violence, 140 fortified settlements, 194 geopolitical relationships, 222 – 24 gray economy of, 163, 183 international trade, 162 – 63 political economy of, 8 – 9 sacred sites, 229 settlements, 148, 166, 171, 226 – 28, 230 – 31, 257 social and political landscapes, 137, 153 socioeconomic complexity, 9 trade in, 160, 181 transitions, 5, 8, 60, 190, 221 tripartite model, 18 Bronze Age, Middle, 51 – 54 cemeteries, 35 – 37 ceramic fabrics, 75, 77, 82 ceramics, 6 – 8, 24 chronological systems, 46, 60, 64, 68 – 69 farming, 111 foreign objects, 140 measurements of wares, 24 Red Polished ware, 30 – 31, 93 – 95 settlements, 33, 148, 168, 226, 233 social and political landscapes, 139, 141, 190, 224 Broodbank, Cyprian, 120, 183 Brown, Michael, 182 Canadian Palaipaphos Survey Project (CPSP), 201 – 2 Carneiro, Robert L., 107 Catling, Hector W., 9, 153, 166, 195 – 97, 227 – 28, 241, 268

Cemeteries and tombs, 20, 243, 256 – 57, 281 artifacts from tombs, 177 – 80, 192 excavations of, 247 – 48 imported artifacts, 192 Mycenaean pottery, 175 – 76 Ceramic fabrics, 79, 82 – 93, 95 definition and categorization, 78, 83 – 88, 90 raw materials, 78 recrystallized calcite and foraminiferous limestone, 89 techniques and successive stages, 78 technological change, 81, 88 Ceramics, 4, 6 Base Ring vessels, 196 Black Polished Ware pottery, 78 – 79 Black Slip ware, 192, 195, 205, 209 Cooking pots, 80, 92 Drab Polished, 206 Proto–Base Ring wares, 192, 207, 209 Red Polished Black Top pottery, 28, 80, 91 Red Polished Coarse pottery, 75, 77, 80 – 81, 83 Red polished jugs, 25 – 31 Red Polished pottery, 75, 77, 83 – 87, 91 – 94 Red Polished ware, 29 – 30, 78 – 81, 89 – 91, 93, 95, 192, 206 Red Slip ware, 192, 206 White Painted pottery, 31, 69, 78 – 80, 192, 195, 256 White slip ware, 196 Ceramic seriation, 45 Chapotami River, 227 Cherry, John F., 119 Christodoulidou, E., 202 Christodoulou, Demetrios, 101, 106 – 7, 116 Chronology studies, 7, 47 cultural periods, 47 – 48, 54 – 56, 58 – 65, 69 – 71 nested models, 48 – 51, 59 ninefold periodization, 18 sequential model, 48, 50 sequential-overlapping model, 48 Chrysochous River, 227 Climate changes. See Paleoclimatic research Coleman, John E., 224, 233 Columbia University to Vounari, 150 Composition, 4, 7, 75, 78 – 81, 90 – 95, 273, 276 Contextual analysis, 180 – 81 Copper, 31 exports, 141 industry, 112 – 15, 134, 138 – 39, 190, 192, 211, 221, 270 Mathiatis-Sia-Pyrga ores, 230 mine locations, 142 oxhide ingots on cylinder seals, 190 seaports for, 231 Cornell University, 5, 75, 77, 224 Corpus of Cypriot Antiquities (Stewart), 18 Craft production, 139 material processing, 175

Index metalworking, 36, 174 – 75 non-standardized marking and sealing practices, 175 Crewe, Lindy, 192, 194 Cypro-Archaic period, 229, 233, 252 cemeteries, 10 Cypro-Geometric (CG) period, 241, 244, 247 – 48, 255 – 57 cemeteries, 10 Lapithos cemeteries, 260 Cyprus Exploration Fund, 195 Cyprus Museum Committee, 247 Cyprus Survey, 257 DeLanda, Manuel, 8, 135 – 36 Deneia, 32, 193 cemeteries, 24, 35 Department of Antiquities of Cyprus, 148, 193, 198, 201 – 2 , 204 – 5, 227, 248, 255 Department of Lands and Surveys of Cyprus, 250 De Polignac, François, 235 Dhali Kafkallia, 134, 143 – 4 4, 148 Red Polished ware, 134 Dhavlos Pyrgos, 148 Dhiarizos River, 203 – 4, 208 – 10, 226 Dhiarizos valley, 202 Dhikomo Onisia, 144 Dhikomo Pamboulos, 146 Diet, 4 Dikaios, Porphyrios, 94, 139, 193 Dromolaxia, 224 Dromolaxia Trypes, 231 Du Plat Taylor, Joan, 268 Early Cypriot (EC) ceramic fabrics, 77, 85, 90 – 93, 95, 134 ceramics, 25, 29 – 31, 78, 83, 202 funerary practices, 113 – 15 Marki excavation, 75 settlement patterns, 150, 170 – 72, 258 social and political change, 117 – 18, 120, 122 – 24, 138, 221 storage facilities, 111 tombs, 35, 251 Economic anthropology socially embedded and disembedded ­economies, 162, 168, 170 See also Formalist versus substantivist debate Economy agropastoral to industrial, 7 – 8, 190, 192 – 94 Craft production, 141 industrial sites, 194, 211, 226 See also Ceramics Electron microscopy, 78, 81 Elemental analyzer, 276 Elementary specialization, 94 Elenja Hills, 147 Elenja Kafezin, 144 Elenja Leondari Vouno, 144

297

Elenja Nifkia, 144 Enkomi, 134, 140 – 41, 190, 193 – 94, 222, 230, 259 administrative center, 193 Episkopi, 51 – 53, 209 Episkopi Bamboula, 175 – 76 Episkopi Phaneromeni, 51, 94, 140, 195 Erimi, 52 cemetery material, 53 Erimi Laonin tou Porakou cemetery, 51 purpose-built workshops, 35 Extreme outliers, 57 Ezousa River, 203 – 4, 208 – 9, 227 Field survey, 4 Finley, Moses I., 162 Fisher, Kevin D., 174 Formal and informal economic practices, 8, 160 – 66, 170 – 71, 174 – 76, 180 – 83 Formalist versus substantivist debate, 162 – 63 Fortin, Michel, 145 – 46 Fortresses and fortifications, 229, 259 abandonment, 152 – 53 dating of, 133 – 34, 148 – 50 enclosures, 142, 145, 152 fortified settlements, 142 – 43, 145 locations of, 141, 148, 150, 152, 193 – 94, 227 – 28 outposts, 142, 145 political instability and, 226 purposes of, 8, 153 – 54 Frankel, David, 17, 81, 92 – 94, 221, 224, 259, 266 French to Enkomi, 193, 283 Cypro-Geometric and Cypro-Archaic artifact scatters, 282 Gateway communities, 209 – 10, 258 Geographical Information Systems (GIS), 3, 9, 170, 202, 278 Geomorphology, 4, 9, 226, 273, 286 Geophysical survey, 278, 284 – 85 Geophysics, 4 Georgiou, Artemis, 120, 171, 201 Georgiou, Giorgos, 202 Gialias River, 235 Gialias valley secondary centers, 230 synoikismos, 230 Gjerstad, Einar J., 18, 229, 248, 268 Gosden, Chris, 137 Grace, Virginia R., 248, 253 Gray economics definition of, 163 imported artifacts, 180 Late Cypriot (LC), 161 – 62 limitations, 164 See also Formal and informal economic practices

298 Index Hala Sultan Tekke, 194, 222 seaport, 230 Hierarchical social relations, 141, 221 Hilarion Limestone, 244 Hill, George, 104, 248, 250, 253 Horowitz, Mara T., 150 Human bone collagen samples, 52 – 54 human-environment relationships, 9, 266 – 67, 286 local geology, 268 regional or global climatic changes, 269 – 72 Hydrochloric acid test, 78, 80 Iacovou, Maria, 101, 104 – 5, 107, 109, 198, 211 Idalion, 9 acropolis temenos, 229 Bronze Tablet of Idalion, 232 – 33 control of Mathiatis-Sia-Pyrga ores, 230 polis of, 224, 230, 233, 237 rescue excavations, 229 seaport needed for copper, 230 Idalion Ambelleri, 227, 229 Informal economics. See Gray economics Ingold, Tim, 137 International Labour Organisation (ILO), 164 See also Vasilia Intra-site artifact concentrations, 4 Iron Age Bronze and Iron Age sites, 225 cemeteries and tombs, 253 climate changes, 260 – 61, 267 – 69 formation of the Cypriot city-states, 237 mortuary landscape of, 10 political system, 286 – 87 regionalism of, 222 settlement patterns, 278 settlements, 142, 227 transition from Bronze, 5, 9, 281 Iron Age, Early, 260 cemeteries and tombs, 241, 247 – 48, 253, 255, 257 climate changes, 270, 272 formation of the Cypriot city-states, 230 – 31 Lapithos, study of, 243 Isotope analysis, carbon stable, 4, 10, 267, 273, 276 – 7 7 Isotope analysis, lead, 190 Isotope ratio mass spectrometer, 276 Kalavasos and Maroni Built Environments Project (KAMBE), 285 satellite imagery, 86 Kalavasos Ayios Dhimitrios, 166, 168, 174 – 75, 222, 227, 276, 278, 280 administrative center, 235

Kalavasos Cinema Area, 94 Kalavasos copper mines, 283 – 84 Kalavasos Laroumena, 140 Kalavasos Mangia, 177 Kalavasos Panayia Church, 94 Kalavasos Petra, 283 Kalavasos Platies, 283 Kalavasos Skourka, 284 Kalavasos Spilios, 284 Kalavasos Tenta, 278 Kalavasos Vounaritashi, 284 Kalopsidha, 193 Karageorghis, Vassos, 202 Karavas Vathyrkakas, 255 Karmi, 258 cemeteries, 35 Karpasha Styllomenos, 144 Karpas Peninsula, 133, 137, 141 Katydata, 258 Kedhares Pouspoutis/Soumatzera, 202 Kedhares Skales, 205 Keswani, Priscilla S., 114, 153, 166, 197 Khirokitia, tomb salvage operations, 281 Khirokitia Vounoi, 278 Kissonerga, 201 Kissonerga Ammoudhia, 202, 206 Kissonerga Choiromandres, 202 Kissonerga Mosphilia, 53 – 54, 66, 202 Kissonerga Skalia, 35, 201 – 2 , 206 Kitchener, Horatio H., 266, 268 Kition, 222, 229, 273, 287 copper economy, 235 Idalion incorporated, 233 – 37 Phoenician inscriptions, 233 – 34 seaport, 231 Klavdia Tremithos, 231 Knapp, A. Bernard, 18, 111 – 15, 119 – 20, 134, 153, 166 – 6 7, 181 Koloni Anatoliko, 202 Kormakiti Plateau, 137, 146 Korovia Nitovikla, 140, 143 – 4 4, 148 – 50, 152 Kouklia, 195 – 96, 201, 208 – 10 Kouklia Asproyi, 196 – 97 Kouklia Evreti, 195 – 97, 211 Kouklia Hadjiabdullah, 198 Kouklia Laona, 198 – 99 Kouklia Marcello, 197 – 98 Kouklia Palaepaphos, 222 Kouklia Teratsoudhia, 198 Kourion, 229 Kouris River, 227 Kouris River valley, 161, 168, 171 Krini Merra, 146 Kritou Marottou Piknopitia/Arkoklima, 202 Ktima Lowland sites, 66 Kylistra, 247 Kyprianos, Archimandrite, 211 Kyrenia, 229, 261

Index Kyrenia Mountains, 133, 137, 141, 146, 150, 152, 268 Kythrea, 260 Landscape and landscape archeology, 10, 283 climate changes, 10, 266 – 67, 269 definition of, 137, 243, 267 site location, 168, 171 wetter climate, 272 – 73, 276 Lapithos, 10, 31, 35 – 37, 118, 123, 139, 241 – 49, 258, 261 Bronze Age cemeteries, 251 – 52, 255 excavated cemeteries of, 243 kingdom, 260 metal artifacts found, 259 photo, 245 settlements, 256, 258 Lapithos Airkotissa, 248, 255 Lapithos Ayia Anastasia, 246 – 47, 251 – 53, 255 Bronze Age and Early Iron Age cemetery, 257 Lapithos Kastros, 247 cemeteries, 252 – 55 Lapithos Lampousa, 247, 257 Lapithos Plakes, 241, 247, 255 Lapithos Vrysi(n) tou Barba, 31, 247 – 48, 251, 255, 258 – 59 cemeteries, 35 metalwork, 36 spearheads, 36 – 37 Larnaka, 228 Larnaka Salt Lake, 276 Late Cypriot (LC), 247 climate changes, 276 copper industry, 221 economic and sociopolitical composition, 161, 165, 183, 190, 226 excavations of, 247 transitions, 112 violence of, 152 Latour, Bruno, 8, 135 – 36 La Trobe University, 75 Lemba, 66, 201 Lemba Archaeological Project, 201 Liquid Scintillation Counting (LSC), 52 Lophou, 51 – 53 Lophou Kolaouzou, 51 Lythrangomi Troullia, 148 Lythrodontas, 231 Maier, Franz-Georg, 197, 202 Mamonia Kalamos, 202 Mamountali, 211 Manning, Sturt W., 48, 60, 68 – 69, 99, 153, 180 Mapping, 268 Maps, 285 archaeological sites, 2, 52, 76 Ayios Sozomenos plateau, 147 Bronze and Iron Age sites, 224

299

charcoal samples, 275 Cyprus fortresses, 142 Cyprus text sites, 223 distribution of wares, 32 Frangissa between Tamassos and Idalion, 236 Kalavasos Vounaritashi in mid-valley amid Archaic settlements, 284 Kouklia village, 196 Lapithos, 244 – 47 Lapithos with Kastros and Upper Geometric cemeteries, 252 major sites in text, 242 Middle Cypriot sites with destructions, 140 Paphos hydrological zone, 203, 208 Physiographical map of the Vasilikos and Maroni valleys, 279 Pillow Lavas and slag heaps, 191 sanctuaries of Idalion, 236 settlements in the Vasilikos and Maroni valleys, 280 southwestern coast of Cyprus, 204 study area, Late Cypriot sites, 169 Troodos copper resources, 173 Upper Geometric cemetery, Lapithos, 253 Vasilikos and Maroni Valley settlement patterns, 170 Mari, tomb salvage operations, 281 Marion, 227, 229 Marki, ceramics of, 224 Marki Alonia, 33 – 34, 68, 79, 111 burning episodes, 139 – 40 pottery samples, 75, 77, 81 – 83, 91, 94 – 95 settlement pattern, 193 stratigraphy and seriation, 21 variations of artifact occurrence, 22 Maroni, tomb salvage operations, 281 Maroni River Valley, 10, 161, 168, 170 – 71, 286 settlement pattern, 278 – 79 Maroni Tsaroukkas, 176, 195, 279 Maroni Valley Archaeological Survey Project (MVASP), 278, 281 Maroni Vournes, 153, 166, 168, 174, 176, 194 – 95, 222, 278 – 79, 283 administrative center, 235 Maroni Yialos, 283 Masson, Olivier, 233 Materials characterization, 4, 135 Mathiatis, 174, 226, 231, 281 Mauss, Marcel, 162 Merrillees, R.S., 134, 148 Mesaoria Plain, 133, 137 – 38, 141, 147 Mesoyi Katarraktis, 206 Metalwork, 36 Middle Cypriot (MC) ceramic fabrics, 25, 69, 81, 83, 90, 95 – 96, 197 – 200 climate changes, 276 conspicuous consumption, 37

300 Index Middle Cypriot (MC) (continued) copper export, 258 – 59 fortresses, 136, 141 – 42, 145 industrial sites, 35 Marki excavation, 75, 77 – 78 pottery deposits, 192 – 93, 202 – 3 settlement, 149 – 50 settlement patterns, 170 – 72, 194 – 95, 206, 209 – 11, 224 – 28 social organization and structure, 111 – 20, 122 – 24, 152, 154 tombs, 204, 251 Middle Cypriot Bronze Age destabilization, 139 transitional period, 133 – 34 Mining copper production and craftsmanship, 171, 174 villages, 167 Mobility, 4 Modeling stages, 58 – 59, 65 boundaries, 47 – 48, 50 – 51, 54 – 56, 59 – 61, 63 – 66, 68 – 70 contiguous and overlapping, 62, 64 rejection rates, 63 Sequential Uniform Phases, 61 Monahan, Eilis, 114 Monroe, Christopher M., 161, 163, 181 – 82 Morphou Bay, 146 Morphou Toumba tou Skourou, 134, 190, 194, 209, 259 Myres, John L., 18, 247, 257 Neolithic period, 5 – 6 , 202, 241 settlements, 255 Nicosia, 224 Nicosia Ayia Paraskevi, 31, 33, 94, 193, 224 cemeteries, 35 Non-local artifacts distribution, 175 North coast, 241, 243 – 4 4, 258 – 61 ceramics, 93 settlements, 122, 146 See also Bellapais Vounous; Lapithos; Phlamoudhi Melissa; Vasilia Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 165 Outlier analysis, 47 – 48, 58 – 61, 68 Outliers, extreme, 53 – 54 Outlier samples, 95 Ovgos River, 35, 146 OxCal, 47, 50, 53, 58, 60, 65 Palaeobotany, 4 Palaepaphos, 202, 209 – 10, 227 Palaepaphos, 4, 9, 195, 197 – 200, 202, 211 – 12 Palaepaphos Skales, 256

Palaepaphos Urban Landscape Project, 4, 198 – 200 Paleoclimatic research, 7, 178, 268, 276, 278 bad or favorable climate, 270 – 72 “black box” determinism, 270 climate changes, 271 – 72 rainfall and climate, 101, 103 – 10 Paleoenvironment, 4, 267 – 68, 272, 278, 286 bad or favorable climate, 286 – 87 charcoal samples, 276 management, 270 Paphos, 287 Paphos catchment area, administrative center, 195 Paphos Region, 201 – 2 , 211 Pediaos River, 35 Peltenburg, Edgar, 114, 134, 181, 193, 228, 259 Pennsylvania Cyprus Expedition (PCE), 248, 250, 253 Pentadaktylos Foothills, 244, 255 – 56 Petrographic analysis, 4, 7, 77, 82, 90 – 92, 94 Peyia, 201 Philia communities, uniformity of, 31 Philia culture, 258 Philia Culture Phase, 18 – 19, 46, 51, 56, 66 – 69, 83 ceramic fabrics, 81 sherds, 21 spindle whorl, 54 Philia facies, 30, 137 Phlamoudhi Melissa, 194 Phlamoudhi Vounari, 140, 143 – 4 4, 148, 150 – 52, 194 Pieridou, Angeliki, 247 – 48, 255 Pilides, Despina, 148, 227 – 28 Polanyi, Karl, 162 – 63 Polis, 201 Polis-Pyrgos Archaeological Project, 201 Political economy, 8, 165, 168, 181 Political iconography, 9 Politiko, 51 – 53, 224 Politiko Kokkinorotsos, 66 Politiko Phorades, 141 – 42, 167, 174, 190 Politiko Troullia, 35, 51, 269 Postgraduate Cypriot Archaeology Conference, 3 Pottery potter’s wheel, 192 villages, 167 Prasteio, 202 Prasteio Lakridhes, 202 Prasteio Mesorotsos Archaeological Project (PMAP), 201 – 2 Prehistoric Bronze Age, 6, 18, 30, 32 – 33, 37 Prehistoric period agriculture in, 106

Index chronology studies, 45, 51, 69 historic sites, 101, 111, 201, 268 – 69, 278 political and economic regions, 224 production technologies of, 7 settlements of, 171 social evolution of, 112 Prehistory, 6 – 7 Protohistoric Bronze Age, 5 – 6 economic complexity, 161 Psematismenos Trelloukkas, 25 – 26, 28, 31 cemeteries, 35 Pyrgos Mavrorachi, 35, 51 – 52, 54, 68 – 69 Queensland Alambra Archaeological Mission, 75, 77 Radiocarbon data, 7, 18, 51, 53 – 54, 68, 70, 140, 211, 273 Bayesian analysis, 45, 47 – 48 charcoal in slag heaps in the Kalavasos area, 283 Radiometric dating, 7, 269, 276 Recording instrumentation, 3 Regionalism, 122, 194, 222 Remote sensing, 3 – 4, 9 Rescue excavations, 201 – 2 , 204 – 5, 229, 248 Rizokarpaso Sylla, 148 Robertson, Noel, 1 Sacred sites and artifacts, 211, 229, 284, 286 – 87 Salamis, 229 Sanctuary of Aphrodite (Kypris), 195, 211 – 12 Sanidha Moutti tou Ayiou Serkou, 167 Satellite imagery, 4, 170, 172 Schiffer, Michael B., 20 Schloen, J. David, 181 Secondary products revolution, 7, 99 – 100, 112, 115, 118 – 20, 122 Seed samples, 52, 268 Settlement assemblages, 20 Settlement patterns, 168, 193 – 94, 278, 287 coastal settlements, 134, 166, 193 – 95, 221 – 22, 226 geography and, 222, 224, 226 Knapp’s model, 167 Paphos catchment area, 208 – 11 staple finance model, 166 transitions, 168, 171 tripartite model, 18, 166 wealth finance model, 166 See also Fortresses and fortifications Settlement variability, 32 – 33 Sherratt, Andrew, 161 Sherratt, Susan, 161 Sia, 226, 231 Sia-Mathiati copper ores, 142

301

Siculus, Diodorus, 260 Skouriotissa copper ore body, 139 Small-scale excavations, 203 Socioeconomic complexity, 4, 9, 99 – 100, 111, 272 Soloi, 229 Sotira Kaminoudhia, 59, 69, 94 Souskiou, 201, 208 Souskiou Laona, 66 South, Alison K., 175, 222 Spatial analysis, 3 – 4, 9 – 10, 19, 161, 281 topographical grounds, 19 Spigelman, Matthew, 114 St. Andrews and Liverpool Museums Expedition, 204 Stavros tis Psokas, 201 Stewart, James R., 18, 78, 268 Stewart’s classification system, 78 Storage facilities, 111, 153, 166, 170 – 71, 174 Stratigraphy, 18 – 20, 45, 48, 50, 273 disturbance, 53 Surface surveys, 9 – 10, 195, 201 – 4, 222, 227, 241, 278 Swedish Cyprus Expedition (SCE), 148 – 49, 241, 247 – 48, 250 – 53, 255 Swiss-German Mission to Paphos, 197 – 98 Tamassos, 235 Three-dimensional modeling, 3 Timeframe, cultural-historical-inspired, 55 – 56 Timi Sentouztin tou Rafti, 204, 209 Tochni Lakkia, 283 settlement pattern, 280 – 81 Topographical survey, 4 TPQ (terminus post quem), 53, 69 Trachypedoula Kapsales, 202 Trade Networks Alashiya, 182 Anatolia, 118, 122 coastal settlements, 222, 258 – 59 Cyprus, 181 Nile Delta, 192 Transitional periods, 47, 59, 95, 133 – 34, 168, 190 Tremithos River, 224, 230 – 31, 233 Tremithos Valley, 9 – 10 Troodos Mountains, 31, 75, 85, 88, 94, 137 – 39, 141 – 42 copper production and craftsmanship, 171, 174 cupriferous foothills, 257 Kouris Valley settlement patterns, 172 Troodos Ophiolite complex, 91 Typological seriation, 18 Ugarit, 163, 180 – 82 UNESCO conventions on occupied territories, 241, 243 University of Edinburgh, 201

302 Index University of Manchester, 201 University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, 10, 248, 250 Urbanization, 168, 175

Weisman, R.M., 80, 89, 92 Wilkinson, Tony J., 105 – 8, 112 Wood charcoal, 52 – 54, 69, 267 – 68, 272 – 76, 283

Vasilia, 257 – 58 Vasilikos River valley, 10, 161, 168, 170 – 71, 222, 227, 268, 278 cemeteries, 281 olive oil production, 281 settlement pattern, 278 – 79, 285 – 86 Vasilikos Valley Project (VVP), 278 – 79, 281, 284 Vaughan, Sarah J., 94 Vavla Kapsalaes, 283 Vavla Metaxa, 283

Xeros River, 227 X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, 82, 85, 88 – 89 Yeri Phthelia, 144 Yeri Plateau, 147 Yeri Vrysi ti Panelous, 144 Yeroskipou, 210 Yeroskipou Platzeri, 210 Yeroskipou watershed, 203 Yoffee, Norman, 133 – 34

Webb, Jennifer M., 81, 92 – 94, 221, 224, 229, 259, 266 Weber, Max, 162

Zomeni, Zomenia, 202, 211 Zooarchaeology, 4, 286 Zygi Petrini, 273