Near Eastern Helmets of the Iron Age 9781841711935, 9781407353456

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Title Page
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword
Acknowledgements
INTRODUCTION
ASSYRIAN HELMETS
NORTH SYRIAN HELMETS
NORTHWEST IRANIAN HELMETS
HASANLU HELMETS
URARTIAN HELMETS
CAUCASIAN HELMETS
IRANIAN HELMETS
PERSIAN HELMETS
LIST OF HELMET REPRESENTATIONS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Maps
Charts
Plates

Citation preview

Near Eastern Helmets of the Iron Age

Tamas DezsO

BAR International Series 992 2001

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 992

Near Eastern Helmets of the Iron Age © Tamás Dezsö and the Publisher 2001 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781841711935 paperback ISBN 9781407353456 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841711935 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by John and Erica Hedges in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 2001. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

F oreword A cknow ledgemen t s I n troduc t ion 3r d m i l lenn ium B .C . Me sopo tam ian h e lme t s 2n d m i l lenn ium B .C . N ea rE a s te rn h e lme t s A s syr ian h e lme t s G roup A .1 : A s sy r ian c on ica lb ronze h e lme t s( Ca t . n o s . 1 8 ) G roup A .1 .1 : U ndeco ra ted A s sy r ian c on ica lb ronze h e lme t s ( Ca t . n o s . 1 2 ) G roup A .1 .2 : D eco ra ted A s sy r ian c on ica lb ronze h e lme t s ( Ca t . n o s . 3 7 ) G roup A .1 .3 : " A s sy ro -Baby lon ian" c on ica lb ronze h e lme t( Ca t . n o . 8 ) G roup A .1 .4 : A s sy r ian c on ica lc ompo s i te b ronze a nd i r on h e lme t( Ca t . n o . 9 ) G roup A .2 : A s sy r ian c on ica li r on h e lme t s ( Ca t . n o s . 1 0 -11) G roup A .3 : A ssy r ian c on ica lc r e s ted b ronze h e lme t s ( Ca t . n o s . 1 2 -15 ) G roup A .4 : A ssy r ian c on ica lc r e s ted i r on h e lme t s ( Ca t . n o s . 1 6 -31 ) N or th S yr ian h e lme t s G roup NS .1 : No r th S y r ian c on ica lb ronze h e lme t s ( Ca t . n o s . 3 2 -37 ) G roup NS .2 : N o r th S y r ian c on ica li r on h e lme t( Ca t . n o . 3 8 ) N or thwe s tI ran ian h e lme t s G roup NW I .1 : N o r thw e s tI r an ian c on ica lb ronze h e lme t s( Ca t . n o s . 3 9 -47 ) G roup NW I .2 : N o r thwe s tI r an ian c on ica l i r on h e lme t( Ca t . n o . 4 8 ) Ha san lu h e lme t s G roup H .1 : H a san lu c on ica lb ronze h e lme t s( Ca t . n o s . 4 9 -51 ) G roup H .2 : H a san lu h em i sphe r ica lc r e s ted h e lme t s( Ca t . n o s . 5 2 -56 ) G roup H .2 .1 : H em isphe r ica lc r e s ted h e lme t w i th b ronze s ku l l -p iece ,h o r seha i ro rf e a the rc r e s ta nd b ronze e a r f lap s ( Ca t . n o . 5 2 ) G roup H .2 .2 : H em isphe r ica lc r e s ted h e lme t s w i th b ronze s ku l l -p iece ,b ronze c r e s ta nd b ronze o ri r on e a r f lap s ( Ca t . n o s . 5 3 -54 ) G roup H .2 .3 : H em isphe r ica lc r e s ted h e lme t s w i th l e a the rs ku l l -p iece a nd h o r seha i ro rf e a the rc r e s t( Ca t . n o s . 5 5 -56 ) U rar t ian h e lme t s G roup U .1 : U ra r t ian c on ica lb ron ze h e lme t s( Ca t . n o s . 5 7 -103 ) G roup U .1 .1 : P la in c on ica lb ronze h e lme t s( Ca t . n o s . 5 7 -58 ) G roup U .1 .2 : C on ica lb ronze h e lme tw i th v e r t ica l f i na nd f i gu ra ld eco ra t ion ( Ca t . n o . 5 9 ) G roup U .1 .3 C on ica lb ron ze h e lme t sw i th v e r t ica l f i na nd s ymbo lo fT e i sheba ( Ca t . n o s . 6 0 -61 ) G roup U .1 .4 : C on ica lb ronze h e lme t s w i th s ymbo lo fT e i sheba ( Ca t . n o s . 6 2 -90 ) G roup U .1 .5 : C on ica lb ronze h e lme t sw i th f i gu ra ld eco ra t ion ( Ca t . n o s . 9 1-103 ) G roup U .2 :U ra r t ian c on ica l i r on h e lme t s( Ca t . n o s . 1 04 -108 ) G roup U .3 :U ra r t ian c on ica lc r e s ted b ronze h e lme t s ( Ca t . n o s . 1 09 -110 ) G roup U .4 :U ra r t ian b ronze n eck -gua rd ( Ca t . n o . 11 ) G roup U .5 : U ra r t ian b ronze e a rf lap s /cheek -p iece s( Ca t . n o s . 12 -114 ) C auca s ian h e lme t s I ran ian h e lme t s G roup I . 1 : I r an ian h em i sphe r ica lb ronze h e lme t s ( Ca t . n o s . 1 22 -127 ) G roup 1 . 2 .1 : I r an ian h em i sphe r ica lc r e s ted b ronze h e lme t( A shmo lean v a r ian t ) ( Ca t . n o . 1 28 ) G roup 1 . 2 .2 : I r an ian h em i sphe r ica lc r e s ted b ronze h e lme t s ( Ma inz v a r ian t ) ( Ca t . n o s . 1 29 -132 ) G roup 1 . 3 : I r an ian h em i sphe r ica lc r e s ted b ronze h e lme t s ( Me s lek i S hah rv a r ian t ) ( Ca t .n o s . 1 33 -134 ) G roup 1 . 4 : Ma r l ik " con ica l" b ron ze h e lme t s( Ca t . n o s . 1 35 -137 ) G roup 1 . 5 : I r ano -Scy th ian h em i sphe r ica li r on h e lme t( Ca t . n o . 1 38 ) P er s ian h e lme t s G roup P . 1 :P e r s ian c on ica lb ronze h e lme t s ( Ca t . n o s . 1 39 -141 ) G roup P .2 :C ompo s i te i r on a nd b ronze h e lme t s( Ca t . n o s . 1 42 -143 ) L i s to fh e lme tr epre sen ta t ion s B ib l iography Map Char t s1 -4 P la te s 1 130

I I I 1 1 7 1 8 1 8 2 5 2 6 3 0 3 2 3 3 3 7 4 7 5 6 5 6 6 9 7 0 7 0 7 2 7 3 7 3 7 4 7 7 7 8 7 8 7 9 7 9 7 9 8 0 8 2 8 2 8 6 9 3 9 4 9 5 9 5 9 7 9 9 9 9 1 01 1 03 1 03 1 05 1 05 1 07 1 08 1 09 12 1 32 1 58

F oreword

F o r ty y ea r s a f te r p ub l ica t ion Y igae l Y ad in 's T he A r t o f Warf ar e i nB ib l ica l L and s ( J e ru sa lem 1 963 r ema in s a n i s o la ted i n t roduc t ion t ot h e s ub jec t . I t s a u tho r , w ho c omb ined t h e f i e ld e xpe r ience o f a n a r chaeo log i s t a nd a s o ld ie r w i th t h e e xpe r t i se a nd l e a rn ing o f ap rof e s s iona l s c ho la r , w a s u n ique ly q ua l if ied t ow r i te s uch ap ano ram ic s u rvey . T he f o rm idab le t a sk o fa s semb l ing , c r i t ica l ly a s se s s ing a nd i n te rp re t ing t h eb a s ic e v idence , w h ich i sn eeded t oc a r ry t h e s ub jec td ec i s ive ly f o rwa rd , h a s e ven n ow b a re ly b een s t a r ted . T h i s a pp l ie s p a r t icu la r ly t ot h e m a te r ia l r ema in s . R e levan ta r t -h i s to r ica l a nd t e x tua l s ou rce s a r e r a the r b e t te r p ub l i shed a nd c on sequen t ly m o re w ide ly k nown . Among s t a rm s a nd a mou r t h e f o rme r h ave a t t rac ted mo re a t ten t ion f r om a r chaeo log is t s t h an t h e l a t te r , a s s hee t m e ta l i sm o re v u lne rab le t ot h e r avage s o fp a s s ing t ime . D r . D er sö 's c on t r ibu t ion t ot h i s f amou s s e r ie s o fv o lume s m a rk s a n i mpo r tan t s t ep t owa rd s r ed re s s ing t h e b a lance . T he h e lme t s , t h e m o s t a cce s s ib le e l em en t a mong s t s u rv iv ing b ody a rmou r , a r e v a r iou s e nough t op rov ide ab a s i s f o r t h e s t udy o fI r on A ge s h ee t m e ta la rmou ri nt h eN ea rE a s t . R e sea rch o f t h i s k ind r e qu i re s a n u nu sua l c omb ina t ion o f s k i l l s . T hey i n c lude t h e a b i l i ty t o h and le a nc ien t w r i t ten s ou rce s , t o p re sen t s y s tema t ic t ypo log ie s b a sed o n t h e v i sua l a r t s , b o th m onumen ta l ( r e l ief s a nd s t a tua ry ) a nd m ino r ( c y l inde r s e a l s ) , a nd f i na l ly , b u t b y n o m ean s l e a s t , a n a b i l i ty t o d ea l w i th s u rv iv ing o b jec t s . H e re t h e s k i l l s o f ad raugh t sman a r e ap a r t icu la r a s se t t o a s cho la r ,n o to n ly f o rt h eo bv iou sr e a son s . T hey d eve lop a na t ten t ion t od e ta i l g r ea te rt h an i sc ommon i n t h o se w ho o n ly l o ok a nd w r i te w hen d e sc r ib ing c o r roded a nd d amaged o b jec t s , b u t d o n o t t h em se lve s d raw . D r .D er sö d i sp lay se ach o ft h e se s k i l l sh e re . T he s t uden to fa nc ien tN ea rE a s te rn m e ta lwo rk i sw e l l a cqua in ted w i th p rob lem s p rov ided b y aw ide ly s c a t te red d a taba se o fo b jec t s o f t en n o t w e l l p re se rved o rw e l l p ub l i shed . N ow t h e re i s an ew h aza rd w h ich i sr ep re sen ted i nt h i s c a ta logue . T he p re sen t b ody o fe v idence f o r a nc ien t N ea r E a s te rn I r on A ge h e lme t s i sc on tam ina ted a tt ime s n o t b y t o ta l f o rge r ie s , b u t b y w ha t m ay b e i n gen iou s p as t iche s , p o ten t ia l ly i nvo lv ing b o th t h e f o rm s a nd d eco ra t ion s o f t h e h e lme t s . I n t h e a b sence o f p rof e s s iona l s c ien t if ic r epo r t s ( a nd s ome t ime s e ven w i th t h em ) t h i s n ew p rob lem r e qu i re s t h e e xe r c i se o fb a lanced j udgemen t , i ft h eb ad i sn o t t od r ive o u t t h e g ood g r a tu i tou s ly . T he l im i ta t ion s o fm oder n k now ledge o fa nc ien t c r af t s k i l l s a nd o fi c onog raphy h ave a lway s t ob e b o rne i nm ind w hen r e ach ing a n o p in ion o n a u then t ic i ty . A b sence o f e v idence i sn o t n ece s sa r i ly e v idence o f a b sence w hen t h e k nown r a nge o f A ssy r ian o r U ra r t ian i mage ry , p a r t icu la r ly i n as pec ia l c on tex t l i ke t h i s o ne , i ss t i l l r e s t r ic ted . T he c on tex t s o fr e t r ieva l a nd s ome a spec t s o ft h e t e chno logy o ft h e h e lme t s c a ta logued h e re a r e d i s t inc t ive e nough t om e r i t i n i t ia l c ommen t . I ti ss t r ik ing h ow m any o ft h e I r on A ge h e lme t s f r om t h e N ea r E a s t a tp re sen t c ome f r om t h e h i gh land z one . S u rv iv ing m a te r ia l e v idence f o r B ron ze A ge h e lme t s i sa tp r e sen t v e ry r a r e b u t , a s D r . D er sö d emon s t ra t e s a tt h e b eg inn ing o fh i s monog raph , p i c tu re sa nd t e x t s may b ec omb ined t oo u t l ine t h e i rh i s to ry . Mudb r ick a r ch i tec tu re a nd t h ep roce s se so f t e l l f o rma t ion h ave r a re ly f a vou red t h e s u rv iva l o f s hee t m e ta l o b jec t s i ng ood c ond i t ion . Mo reove r , w hen f ound ,t h ey d emand s k i l led e xcava t ion a nd c on se rva t ion o ns i t e . T he t wo h e lme t s w h ich o pen t h e c a ta logue a r ei n deed f r om t h el ow land s ,b u ts i gn if i can t ly f r om aw e l l a nd ah a rbou rr e spec t ive ly . I nt h e h i gh land s r u ined s t one -bu i l t s t ruc tu re s a nd r ockcu t o r s t one l ined g r ave s i n c rea se t h e p o ten t ia l f o r t h e s u rv iva l o f s hee t m e ta l o b jec t s . R eg re t tab ly , f o r m uch o ft h e l a s t c en tu ry , s uch s i t e s w e re e spec ia l ly a cce ss ib le a nd v u lne rab le t o i l ic i t e xcava t ion s , a nd t h e o b jec t s f ound t o d i smembe rmen t b y t h e i r p lunde re r s t os a t i sfy mu l t ip le c l a im s o n t h em . C on sequen t ly , r e sea r ch o ft h e k i nd u nde r taken h e re i st oo o f ten r e scue a r chaeo logy i n t h e mo s t e xp l ic i t s en se . I n r e t ro spe c t , i ti s p a in fu l ly c l ea r t h a t p ionee r e xcava to r s o f A s sy r ian p a lace s a nd t emp le s i n n o r the rn I r aq i n t h e n i ne teen th c en tu ry f ound a r sena l s a nd a rmou r ie s , b u t w e re u nab le t or e t r ieve much o f t h e c on ten t s . O ppo r tun i ty a nd i mp roved t e chn ique so fe x cava t ion h ave mo re r e cen t ly a l lowed U ra r t ian t emp le s t o re r oom sa nd p a lace a r sena l st oc on t r ibu te mo re t h an h a lf t h et o ta ln umbe ro fh e lme t sc a ta logued h e re . A s a nc ien t N ea r E a s te rn s hee t m e ta l h a s r a re ly b een t h e s ub jec t o f t e chno log ica l s t udy t h e c on t r ibu t ion m ade b y s ome o ft h e c a ta logued h e lme t s i su nu sua l ly i n s t ruc t ive . T he s i gn if ican t r o le o f m i l i ta ry w o rk shop s a nd t h e d emand s o f w a r f a re i n t e chno log ica l i n nova t ion i s ac ommonp lace t h roughou t h i s to ry ; b u t i tm ay r a re ly b e o b se rved s o r e ad i ly i nt h e a nc ien t w o r ld a s i n s ome o ft h e A s sy r ian a nd U ra r t ian h e lme t s p ub l i shed h e re . T he e a r l ie s t i r on h e lme t s w e re c on s t ruc ted f r om p i ece s r i ve t ted t o ge the r . W i th in ac en tu ry t h ey w e re h amme red o u to f as i ng le i r on s hee t . I ti sa l so c l ea r f r om t h e b ime ta l l ic e xamp le s ( c oppe r a loy / i ron ) t h a t t h e h e lme t m ake r s w e re e xp lo i t ing c o lou r c on t ra s t s , l o ng s i nce l o s t t oc o r ro s ion a nd d ecay , i nd ica t ing t h a t a ppea rance a sw e l l a sd e f en s ive q ua l i t ie s w e re a pp rec ia ted i n t h i s a rmou r , a s t h ey h ave b een t h rough t h e a ge s . P a r t icu la r i n te re s t a t tache s t o t h e i n c i sed a nd r epous sé d eco ra t ion . T h i s a ppea r s t o h ave b een u sed , b o th i n A s sy r ia a nd U ra r tu , i n

I

m ean ingfu l w ay s t o d i s t ingu i sh v o t ive h e lme t s f r om t h o se w o rn b y v a r iou s c on t ingen t s w i th in t h e a rmy . C a ta logue s a nd t y po log ie s a r et h em ean s t oa ne nd a nd t h a te nd i sb e s t s e rved , a si nt h i s c a se , w hen t h e c ommen ta r ie s a r e r i ch i nd e ta i l , o f f e r ing as umma ry o ft h e p r e sen t s t a te o fk now ledge . I ti s r ema rkab le w ha tD r . D er sö h a sm anaged t oc on t r ibu t et og ene ra lu nd e r s tand ing o ft h ew a r mach ine s o f A s sy r ia a nd U ra r tu ,p a r t icu la r ly , b yc oncen t ra t ing h i s f o cu so n as i ng le a spec to ft h e i ra rmou ry .

A shmo lean Mu seum , O x f o rd

P .R .S . Moo rey

A cknow ledgemen t s

T h i s w o rk i st h eu pda ted E ng l ish v e r s ion o f my P hD d i s se r ta t ion ( Lo ränd E ö tvö s U n ive r s i ty , B udape s t , 1 992 ) . Is t a r ted t h e w o rk i nO xfo rd ,L inac re C o l lege ( 1 989 1990 ) , a s aH unga r ian S o ro s F e l low . S o I a mv e ry m uch i n deb ted t ot h eC o l lege , a nd t h eH unga r ian S o ro sF ounda t ion . Ia m g r ea t ly i nt h e d eb t o fD r . P .R .S . Moo rey , m y f o rme r s upe rv i so r , w ho se g u idance a nd a dv ice Ih ave s ough t . H e c a re fu l ly r e ad t h e d r a f t s o f t h i s t e x t a nd m ade i mpo r tan t c ommen t s . Ia m e spec ia l ly g r a te fu lt oD r . J . E . C u r t i sf o rh i s h e lp a nd i n sp i ra t ion . A s Id i dn o ta lway s t a ke t h e i ra dv ice , I a l one a mr e spon s ib le f o rw ha ts u rv ived . Im u s t a l so t h ank t ot h e I n s t i tu t ion s a nd F ounda t ion s , w ho h e lped my w o rk , e spec ia l ly m y d epa r tmen t , t h e D epa r tmen t o f A s sy r io logy a nd H eb rew , E ö tvö s L o ränd U n ive r s i ty , B udape s t , i t s p rof e s so r , D r . G 6za K omo röczy ; t h e W .F . A lb r igh t I n s t i tu te o f A r chaeo log ica l R e sea rch , i t s d i rec to r D r . S .G i t in , a nd t h eA nd rew Me l lon F ounda t ion . Ia m v e ry much i n deb ted f o rt h ef i nanc ia l h e lp o f my p ro jec tt ot h eH unga r ian M in i s t ry o fE duca t ion ( FKFP -2000 P ro jec t ) , a nd t h e B o lya i F e l low sh ip o ft h e H unga r ian A cademy o fS c ience s .

B udape s t ,2 001 . 1 0 . 0 1 .

l ama sD er sö

I I

I NTRODUCT ION

3r d m i l lenn ium B .C . Me sopo tam ian h e lme t s I nt h e 1 927 1928 e xcava t ion s e a son a tU r , i nt h e d romo s o fT omb 7 89 , S i r L eona rd Woo l ley f ound s i x c oppe r h e lme t s b e long ing t os i x s ke le ton s o fs o ld ie r s . T he s o ld ie r s m igh t b e m embe r s o f a" r oya l" b odygua rd , b ecau se t h e i r s p ea rhead s w e re d eco ra ted w i th t h e s ame s ymbo l , a n i n c i sed b u l l 's l e g l.A l l o f t h e h e lme t s w e re b ad ly c r u shed b y t h e w e igh t o f t h e e a r th , s o t h e i r s hape c an h a rd ly b e r e con s t ruc ted . Ow ing t ot h e i n con s i s tenc ie s o ft h e p ub l ica t ion 2 i ti si mpo s s ib le t oi d en t ify t h e h e lme t s w i th t h e e xcava t ion n umbe r s ( U .10809 , U .10825 , U .10826 , U .10827 , U .10828 ) , i n ven to ry n umbe r s 3, p ho tog raph s4o rd raw ing s 5.A s im i la rc oppe rh e lme t o fp re sumab ly t h e s ame a ge w a s f ound b yG a s ton C ro sa tT e l loh 6.T he se s even h e lme t sr e p re sen tt h ef o l low ing h e lme tt y pe s : 1 .H em isphe r ica l h e lme tw i thou te a rf lap s ( U r ) : h e lme tn o . 1 2 .H em isphe r ica l h e lme tw i th r ounded e a r f lap s( U r ) : h e lme tn o .2 3 .P o in ted h e lme tw i th r ounded e a r f lap s( U r ) : h e lme tn o .3 4 .P o in ted h e lme t w i th r ounded e a rf lap sa nd n eckgua rd ( U r , Ma r i ) : h e lme tn o s . 3 -6 , C har t1 ,n o s . 3 -6 5 .P o in ted h e lme t w i th p o in ted e a rf lap s a nd n eckgua rd ( Te l loh [ Laga sh ] ) : h e lme t n o . 7 ,C har t 1 ,n o s . 1 2 C ompa r ing t h e se t y pe s w i th t h e E a r ly D yna s t ic I I r ep re sen ta t iona l e v idence t h e f i r s t t h ree t y pe s a r e u nknown f r om a r t . T he f ou r th t y pe a ppea r s o n t h e f amou s " S tanda rd o f U r" f ound i n PG /779 a tt h e R oya l C eme te ry o fU r ( Char t 1 ,n o . 3 ) . T he s he l l i n lay d eco ra t ion o fo ne o ft h e s i de s o ft h e s t anda rd ( p robab ly t h e s ound -box o f al y re ) s how s S ume r ian s o ld ie r s o n t h e ma rch a nd i nb a t t le w ea r ing t h i s t y pe o fp o in ted h e lme t w i th r ounded e a r f lap s , n eckgua rd a nd c h in s t rap 7.T he s ame t y pe o fh e lme t i s k nown f r om s he l l i n lay r e p re sen ta t ion s o f s o ld ie r s f r om Ma r i 8.T he se r ep re sen ta t ion s s how t h a t t h i s S ume r ian t y pe o fc oppe rh e lme t ( p re sumab ly w i th t h e h op l i te t a c t ic c onnec ted t ot h e S ume r ian t y pe o f w eapon ry ) w a s u sed w ide ly i n o t he r p a r t s o f Me sopo tam ia . T he f i f th t y pe — c on ica l h e lme t w i th p o in ted e a r f lap s a nd n eckgua rd —m igh tb e al o ca l v a r ian to ft y pe n o . 4 .T h i s t y pe i sk nown e xc lu s ive ly f r om T e l loh [ Laga sh ] ( he lme t n o . 7 ) . T h i s t y pe o f h e lme t c an b e s e en o n t h e " S te le o f Vu l tu re s" o f E anna tum , k i ng o f L aga sh f ound a tT e l loh ( Char t 1 ,n o . 2 ) . O n t h e s t e le t h e k i ng w ea r s as t range v a r ian to fh e lme tt y pe 5 : ac e remon ia l h e lme tw i th r epou s sd e a r so nt h ee a r f laps a nd p robab ly ak no t o f h i s o wn h a i ra tt h eb ack , o u t s ide o ft h e h e lme t( Char t 1 ,n o . 1 ) .T h i s k no to fh a i r w a sp robab ly as a c ra l m anne r o fw ea r ing t h e LUGAL 's ( k ing 's ) h a i r . T h is s a c ra l m anne r o f w ea r ing t h e h a i r i sk nown f r om t h ef amou s e l ec t rum h e lme to f Me ska lamdug ( he lme t n o . 8 ) , a nd f r om t h e s he l l i n lay f i gu re o f ak i ng f r om t h eT emp le o fI s h ta ra t Ma r i 9. T he h e lme t t r ad i t ion o f t h e f i r s t k nown S em i t ic d yna s ty o f Me sopo tam ia , t h e Dyna s ty o f A gade , i sd i f f e ren tf r om t h ee a r l ie rS ume r ian h e lme tt r ad i t ion . U n f o r tuna te ly t h e re a r en o a c tua lh e lme t f i nd s f r om t h i s p e r iod b u t t h e " S te le o f N a ram -S in" 1 ° r e cove red f r om S u sa s how s h ighe r , c on ica l h e lme t s w i th n eckgua rd ( Char t1 ,n o s . 7 8 , 1 0 ) . T he s hape o ft h e se h igh c on ica l h e lme t s f u rn ished w i th 'Woo l ley 1 934 ,6 4 ,p l . 1 89 ,U .10825 10828 ,t y pe s 3 ,6 . Woo l ley 1 934 , 6 6 -67 , 3 49 , 5 62 , p l s . 2 9 , 1 48 , 1 49 , 2 18 , s ke le ton n o s . 4 5 -50 . O n ly as i ng le h e lme t ( p . 6 6 , c a t . n o . 1 8 ) c an b e c onnec ted w i th ad r aw ing ( p l . 2 18 , P G /789b ) b u t t h e e xcava t ion n umbe r o ft h i s h e lme t i su nknown . Iam m uch i ndeb t ed t oD r . P .R .S . Moo rey , w ho a t my r eque s tc hecked Woo l l ey 's o r ig ina le xcava t ion c a rd si nt h e B r i t i sh Mu seum . H e w ro t e : " The r ea ppea r t ob e s even i na l ( he lm e t s ) : t h e o ne w i th b u r ia l n o . 1 8 , f o r w h ich o n ly t h e t w i s ted s i lve r c h in s t rap i sr e co rded o n t h e c a rd f o r U .10809 ; a nd s i x w i th b u r ia l s 4 5 -50 . T h r ee o ft h e se , " i np oo rc ond i t ion" , s ha re t h e s ame f i e ld n umbe r : U .10828 . O n ly o ne BM n umbe r , BM 1 2 14 14 = U .10825 ( w i th b u r ia l n o . 4 6 ) t u rned o u t t o b e ah e lme t ." T he f i e ld c a rd s g i ve t h e f o l low ing d e ta i l s : U .10809 . T omb G roup ( UE I ,p l . 2 18 : P G /789b ) : B .F ragmen to ft w i s ted s i lve r -w i r ec h in s t rap f r om ac oppe rh e lm e t ( t h i s m u s t 2

b e t h e s ou rce o ft h e mo re d e ta i led p ubl i shed d e sc r ip t ion ) . PG /789 , b u r ia l n o . 1 8 . U .10825 . T omb G roup : A . C oppe r h e lme t o n h ead = BM 1 2 14 14 ( no ti lu s t ra t ed ) , P G 7 89 , b u r ia l n o . 3 3 ( o r ig ina l i np enc i l , c hanged t o4 6 i ni nk ) . U . 10826 . T omb G roup : A . C oppe rh e lm e to ns ku l l( UE I ,p l s . 1 48a , 2 18 : P G /789a ) ,P G /789 ,b u r ia ln o . 3 4 ( i np enc i l , c hanged t o5 0i ni n k ) . U .10827 . T omb G roup : A . C oppe r h e lme t ( UE I ,p l . 2 18 : PG /789c ) , P G /789 , b u r ia l n o . 3 5 ( i n p enc i l , c hanged t o4 8 i ni nk ) . U .10828 . T omb G roup : A . C oppe rh e lme t s ; t h re e ; i np oo rc ond i t ion ; P G /789 " f rom t h e s o ld ie r s o ft h e d romo s" , 4 9 ( added i ni nk ) . ( P re sumab ly a l so 4 5 a nd 4 7 ) . 3 W oo l ley 1 934 ,5 62 . 4Wo o l ley 1 934 ,p l s . 1 48 , 1 49 . 5 W oo l ley 1 934 , f i g . 5 ,p l . 2 18 : P G /789a -c . 6 P a r ro t 1 948 , 1 06 ,f i g . 2 6d . 7 W oo l ley 1 934 ,6 1 , 2 38 -239 ,2 43 ,2 55 ,2 58 ,2 66 ,p l s .9 1-92 . " L 't tanda rd d e Mar i " , Mar i , T emp l e o f I s h ta r . P a r i s , L ouv r e , AO 1 82 15 , AO 1 9820 : P a r ro t 1 956 , p l s . L V , LV I ; 2 . Mar i , P r e sa rgon ic P a lace . D ama scu s , A r chaeo log ica l Mu seum : P a r ro t 1 983 ,p l . 1 69 . 9 " L 't tanda rd d e Mar i " : P a r ro t 1 956 ,p l .7 7 ( Char t1 ,n o . 4 ) . 1 ° P a r i s ,L ouv r e , S b4 .S t rom rneng e r 1 962 ,p l s . 1 22 -123 ; B ö rke r -K lähn 1 982 , 1 34 136 ,n o . 2 6 ; P a r ro t 1 983 ,p l . 1 92 . 8

1

e a r f lap s a nd n eckgua rd i sd i f f e ren t f r om t h e e a r l ie r , s qua t p o in ted o r h em isphe r ica l s hape o f t h e S ume r ian h e lme t s o ft h e ED P e r iod . S im i la rh e lme t s a r e s hown o n as t e le f r om t h e s ame p e r iod f ound i nT e l loh lI.T h i s c hange m igh t b e c onnec ted t on ew p eop le b u t i tc ou ld s imp ly r ep re sen t ac hange i n t h er e p re sen ta t iona l t r ad i t ion . T he h e lme to fN a ram -S in ( Char tI ,n o . 7 )i su n ique . T he s hape i sc on ica l , t h e re a r et h e embo s sed r i b s r unn ing a r ound t h e r im o ft h e h e lme t a nd t h e re i s al o ng n eckgua rd ( me ta l o rl e a the r ) a t tached t ot h eb ack o ft h eh e lme t . Two p a i r s o fh o rn s a r et h e mo s t a noma lou s f e a tu r eo ft h e h e lme t . I n Me sopo tam ian i c onog raphy t h e p a i r s o f h o rn s b e long e xc lu s ive ly t o t h e w e l l -known h eadd re s se s o r c rown s o f d e i t ie s . S uch ar e p re sen ta t ion o fN a ram -S in ( 2254 -2218 B .C . ) s ugge s t s a c e r ta in l e ve l o fd iv in i ty a t tached t ot h ep e r son o rt h es t a tu so ft h ek i ng . Wr i t ten s ou rce s o f t h e 3r d m i l lenn ium B .C . m en t ion h e lme t s m ade o f d i f f e ren t m a te r ia l s . C oppe r1 2 h e lme t s ( s aggu i 3 u rudu ) a r e k nown f r om F a ra P e r iod ( Ea r ly D yna s t ic I I I Ia )I 4 ,f r om t h e p e r iod o ft h e Dyna s ty o fA gade l s a nd f r om t h et ime o ft h eI I rd D yna s ty o fU r1 6: 2s ag - u4 u rudu k üg a r ra ( " 2c oppe rh e lme t sd e co ra ted o rp l a ted w i th s i lve r" ) O n t h e r ep re sen ta t ion s i ti si mpo s s ib le t od i s t ingu i sh t h e s hape o fc oppe r h e lme t s f r om t h e s h ape o f b ronze h e lme t s . I ti si n te re s t ing t h a t " coppe r h e lme t s" a r e k nown a s l a te a s t h e t ime o f t h e I I rd D yna s ty o fU ra nd " b ronze h e lme t s" a ppea ra se a r ly a st h e f i r s t " coppe r h e lme t s" . T he f i r s td ocumen t s w h ich m en t ion " b ronze h e lme t s" a r e t wo p a ra l le l i n sc r ip t ion s o f U ru -KA -g i -na , k ing o f L aga sh ( Te l loh ) ( s ag -h 44 z abdr )1 7. T he m o s ti n te re s t ing d ocumen t s a r et h o se f r om t h ep e r iod o ft h eD yna s ty o f A gade m en t ion ing b ronze a nd l e a the r h e lme t s a nd " eag le -headd re s se s" ( p robab ly h e lme t s t o w h ich e ag le f i gu re s w e re a t tached ) d eco ra ted w i th s i lve r . O ne o ft h e t a b le t s i s aw eapon l i s tI 8: b ronze h e lme t s a nd c oppe r s pea r s w e re a s s igned t od i f f e ren t p e r son s p re sumab ly f r om t h e c en t ra l a r sena l . A n o t he r t a b le t f r om t h e s ame c orpu s i s , h oweve r , ad i f f e ren t k i nd o f i n ven to ry l i s t : r aw ma te r ia l s f o r t h e m anu f ac tu re o fw eapon s w e re l i s ted I 9: v s . I :

1 . 1 2 . 1 3 . ( " 3

3s ag gu z aba r z aba r -gu -nu 5m an a i n 121 3. e c tm a -na ta b ronze h e lme t s , ( we igh to ft h e ) b ronze o fw h ich i s 5m ana , 121 3m ana e ach" )

v s . I I :

1 8 . 1 9 . 2 0 . ( " 8

8s ag gu z r aba r i z aba r .u -nu [ 1 3 1/ 3m an a ] i n[ 1 21 32 f am a -na ta ] b ronze h e lme t s , ( we igh to ft h e )b ronze o fw h ich i s[ 1 3 1/ 3m ana , 121 3m ana e ach" )

r s . I :

1 2 . 1 3 . 1 4 . ( " 7

7s ag gu z aba r z aba r .u -nu 1 2/3 m an a i n 121 3. s ' am a -na ta b ronze h e lme t s , ( we igh to ft h e ) b ronze o fw h ich i s 1 2/ 3m ana ,1 21 3m ana e ach" )

I ti sv e ry i mpo r tan tt op o in to u tt h a tt h e w e igh to ft h e se b ronze h e lme t so rr a the rt h e q uan t i ty o fb ronze a s s igned t o t h e m anu f ac tu re o f ah e lme t i st h e s ame ( l e t u s s a y s t anda rd ized ) : a l l o f t h e h e lme t s w e ighed p robab ly 12/ 3m ana = 8 33 g2 °. I th a s a l ready b een m en t ioned t h a t t h e s hape o ft h e h e lme t s i n e ach c i ty w a s p robab ly s t anda rd ized ( s ee t h e " S tanda rd o f U r" o r t h e " S te le o f Vu l tu re s" ) . B u t i ti s c l ea rt h a t n o t o n ly t h e s hape , b u t t h e w e igh t o ft h e h e lme t s o ft h e p rof e s s iona l s o ld ie r s e qu ipped f r om t h e a r sena l b y t h e s t a te w a s s t anda rd ized a sw e l l . T he b ad c ond i t ion o ft h e U r h e lme t s ( he lme tn o s . 1 6 )m ake s i ti mpo s s ib le t ow e igh t t h em , b u tt h e w e igh t o fl a te r h e lme t s m ade o ft h e s ame m a te r ia l w i th t h e s ame t e chn ique s how s c on s ide rab le s im i la r i ty . T he w e igh t o ft h e 1 5 1'c en tu ry B .C . b ronze h e lme t

P a r i s ,L ouv re , AO 2 678 , 2 679 . S t ro rn rnenge r 1 962 ,p l . 17 ; B ö rk e r -K lähn 1 982 , 1 30 ,n o . 2 1 . S ume r ian w o rd u rudu mean s p robab ly c oppe r o rc ompa r ing w i th t h e w o rd z aba r ( " b ronze " ) a n i n f e r io r q ual i ty b ronze a l loy ( t in b ronze v er sus a r sen ic b ronze ) . 1 3 S um e r ian SAG k J =A kkad ian k ub , §u . L and sbe rge r 1 955 ,2 51 ( Sy l laba ry B ) : s ag gu U+SAG = k u -ub -fu . 1 4 U npub l i shed e conom ic d ocum en t sf r om I s in . S ee W i lcke 1 975 ,3 12 . 1 5 T hu reau -Dang in 1 9 10 ,7 ,n o . 125 ;d eG enou i l la c 1 9 11 ,n o . 5 723 . 1 6 L ime t 1 960 , 2 88 ,n o . 1 7 ,r s . 1 . 1 7 S o l lbe rge r 1 956 , U kg . 4V 1 =5V 8 . 1 8 S che i l 1 9 13 ,n o . 8 5 . 1 9 S che i l 1 9 13 ,n o . 8 6 . 2 ° 1g i n( 3 1q /um ) =8 . 33 g . 1m ana =6 0g i n( f iq lum ) =0 . 5k g . 12/3 m ana = 1 00 g i n ( f iq Ium ) 8 33 g .W i lcke 1 975 , 3 12 :6 73 g . 1 1 2

2

f ound a tK no sso s2 I i s6 95 g ,w h i le t h e w e igh t o f a86 1 c en tu ry B .C . U ra r t ian b ronze h e lme t ( Ca t . n o . 8 6 )2 i s7 67 g .T he w e igh t o f t h e h e lme t i n c rea se s c on s ide rab ly o n ly i n t h e s e cond h a lf o f t h e 2n d m i l lenn ium B .C . w i th t h e a ppea rance o f h e lme t s m ade o f s c a le a rmou r p l a te s . T he se s ca le a rmou r h e lme t s w e re h oweve r w o rn b y c ha r io t w a r r io r s ( mar yannu ) w ho — f i gh t ing o n t h e p l a t fo rm o f t h e c ha r io t —w e re n o th i nde red b yt h e g r ea te r w e igh t o ft h e h e lme t . W i th t h e h e lp o ff i nd s o fa c tua l s c a le a rmou rp l a te f i nd s a nd t e x t s m en t ion ing h e lme t s m ade o fs ca le a rmou rp l a te s T . K enda l l r e con s t ru c ted t h e w e igh t s o fh e lme t s m ade o f 1 40 u sque 2 00 a rmou r p l a te s . T he r e su l t w a s 2 008 gu sque 3 560 g2 3. T h is w e igh ti sc ompa rab le w i th t h e 3 049 gw e igh to ft h e c o r roded N i tn rud A s sy r ian i r on h e lme t ( Ca t . n o . 1 0 ) o ft h e l a te 8 `h —e a r ly 71'c en tu ry B .C . T he s c a le a rmou r h e lme t s w e re f u rn i shed w i th e a r f lap s , n eck -gua rd s a nd p robab ly ap ro tec t ive a p ron c ove r ing t h e s hou lde r s a s w e l l . B u t i nt h e a n t iqu i ty t h e w e igh t o fb ron ze h e lme t s h amme red o u t f r om a s hee t o f b ronze r ema ined a lway s b e tween 7 00 a nd 1 300 g2 4. T he s ame c une if o rm t e x t q uo ted a bove g i ve s u s d e ta i l s r ega rd ing n o t o n ly t h e c oppe r o r b ronze h e lme t s ,b u th e lme t sm ade o fd i f f e ren tm a te r ia ls , f o re xamp le l e a the r a sw e l l . T he i d en t if i ca t ion o fl e a the r h e lme t s o n t h e 31 T m i l lenn ium B .C . r e p re sen ta t ion s i sd i f f icu l t . T he d i s t inc t ion b e tween t h e n on -me ta l o r l e a the r h eadd re s se s a nd n on -me ta l o r l e a the r h e lme t s i ss im i la r ly d i f f icu l t . S ome s t e le f r agmen t s2 5 f ound " nea rN a s i r iya " a nd d a ted t ot h et ime o ft h e D yna s ty o fA gade s how l e a the r h e lme t s f u rn i shed w i th n o se -gua rd ,e a r f lap sa nd n eck -gua rd a nd m ade o fh o r izon ta l l e a the rb and s s ewn t o ge the r ( Char t 1 ,n o . 9 ) . T he s ame h e lme t t y pe i ss hown o n as t e le -f ragmen t o ft h e s ame a ge f ound a tS u sa 2 6. T he s t ruc tu re o f t h e h e lm e t i sc u r iou s . I tw a s p r e sumab ly m ade o f d i f f e ren t t y pe s o f n on -me ta l l ic m a te r ia l s : l a ye r s a nd b and s o f d i f f e ren t t y pe s o f l e a the r . A s t h e s ame w r i t ten s ou r ce q uo ted a bove s how s ,t h i st y pe o fh e lme tl a cked a ny i n ne rm e ta l s t ruc tu re : v s . I :

1 7 . 4s ag gu k u g -gu4 1 8 . k u g -gur s ' z i -nu 4k u g [mä g4u ] 1 9 . nu 2 0 . i n1 ta 2 1 . s i k i .u -nu 11/ 3J a [ mana ] 2 2 . i n 1/ 3J a [ ma -na ta ] ( " 4 o xh ide h e lme t s . 4( p iece s ) o fo xh ide , 4( p iece s ) o fg oa t -sk in , 1p i ece ( o fl e a the r ) t oe ach h e lme t .T he i rw oo li na l i s 193 m ana , 1/ 3m ana e ach ." )

r s . I :

4 .1 6s ag [ gu k u g -gu4] 5 .k u g -gu4h i -nu 1 [ 6k u g -má g ] 6 .. u -nu 1 6 7 .i n1 [ ta ] 8 .s i l c i -gu -nu 5 [93 m an a ] 9 .i n 93 J a [ ma -na ta ] ( " 16 o xh ide h e lme t s . 1 6 ( p iece s ) o fo xh ide , 1 6 ( p iece s ) o f g oa t sk in , 1p i ece ( o f l e a the r ) t o e ach h e lme t .T he i rw oo li na l l i s 51/ 3m ana , 93 m ana e ach ." )

r s . I :

1 5 .4 1 s ag gu k u g -gu4 1 6 . k u g -gu4. u -nu 4 1 k u g -má g -gu -nu 4 1 1 7 . i n1 ta 1 8 . s i k i -iu -nu 1 3 2/ 3J am ana 1 9 . i n / 3J a [ ma -na ] ta " 41 o xh ide h e lme t s . 4 1 ( p iece s ) o fo xh ide ,4 1 ( p iece s ) o fg oa t sk in , 1p i ece ( o fl e a the r ) t oe a ch h e lme t . T he i rw oo l i na l i s1 3 21 3m ana , 1/ 3m ana e ach ."

K no s so s , H o sp i ta l S i te , T omb V ( A r chaeo log ica l Mu seum , I r akl ion ) . H . : 1 7 c m ; d i am . : 2 1 c m . E a r f lap s : H . : 1 6 .5 c m ; W . : 9 c m . Hood d eJ ong 1 952 , 2 56f f . ,p l s . 5 0 -52 ; H encken 1 97 1 , 2 0 , f i g . 3 e -g ( LM I , 1 450 1400 B .C . ) ; B o rchha rd t 1 972 , 5-60 ,p l . 3 7 :1 ,4 ,K a t . 1 I . B o s ton , Mu seum o fF ine A r t s , I n v . n o . 1 981 .25 ; K enda l l 1 98 1 , 2 13 ,n o te 4 5 . K enda l l 1 981 , 2 12 . F o r e xamp le s ee f ou r a nc ien t G r eek h e lme t s i nt h e Mu seum o fF ine A r t s , B ud ape s t : 1 .G eome t r ic h e lm e t m ade o ff i ve p i ece s o fb ronze s he e t , I nv . n o . 8 442 : 1 020 g ;2 .C o r in th ian h e lm e t( t he "My ro s h e lm e t " ) , I nv . n o . 8 444 : 1 303 g ;3 .I ly r ian h e lme t , I nv . n o . 8 440 : 1 04 1 g ;4 .C ha lk id ian h e lm e t , I n v . n o . 8 44 1 : 167 g . 2 5 B aghdad , I r aq Mu seum , I M 5 5639 , I M 5 9205 ; B o s ton , Mu seum o fF ine A r t s , I n v . 6 6893 ; S tomm eng e r 1 962 ,p l . 19 ; B ö rke r K lähn 1 982 , 1 3 1133 ,n o . 2 2 ; P a r ro t 1 983 ,p l . 1 97 . P a r i s ,L ouv re , S b . 6 64 1 ,6 64 1b i s ; B ö rk e r -K lähn 1 982 , 1 33 ,n o s . 2 3 , 2 4 .

2 '

2 2 2 3

2 4

2 6

3

I ti sc l ea r t h a t i nt h is c en t ra l d i s t r ibu t ion s y s tem , s im i la r t ot h a t f o r c oppe r h e lme t s , t h e w e igh t o ft h e r aw m a te r ia l s upp l ied b y t h e s t a te , t h e w e igh t o fl e a the r a nd w oo l o fw h ich t h e h e lme t w a s m ade w a s s t anda rd ized . T he m anuf ac tu re o f al e a the r h e lme t ( o rde red b y t h e s t a te ) n eeded 1p i ece o fo xh ide , 1 p i ece o fg oa t sk in a nd 1/ 3m ana 2 7 w oo l .T he l e a the rb and s w e re s ewn t o ge the rh or izon ta l ly a nd t h el i n ing w a sm ade o fw oo l . T he r a t io o fc heape rl e a the rh e lme t s ( 6 1 p i ece s a r em en t ioned i nt h ed ocumen t ) a nd m o re e xpen s ive b ronze h e lme t s ( 18 p i e ce s ) i sp robab ly c ommen su ra te w i th t h er a t io o fa ux i l ia ry t r oop s c on sc r ip ted f r om t h e r ank s o f d if e ren t n omad ic p eop le s a nd c i t izen s o f t r ibu ta ry c i t ie s ( l ev ie s ) a nd p rof e s s iona l s o ld ie r so ft h e Akkad ian /Sume r ian e l i t et r oop s . A n i n te re s t ing t h i rd g roup o f 31 t 1 m i l lenn ium B .C . h e lme t s a r e t h o se d eco ra ted w i th p r ec iou s m e ta l s . T he re w e re p robab ly s eve ra l t ype s o fh e lme t s m ade o fo rd eco ra ted w i th p rec iou s m e ta l s . T he c e remon ia l g o lden h e lme t o f Me ska lamdug ( he lme t n o . 8 ) h a s a l ready b een d i scu ssed . A s h a s b een m en t ioned e a r l ie r t h e h e lme to fE anna tum d ep ic ted o n t h e " S te le o fV u l tu re s" ( Char t 1 ,n o . I ) , w h ich f e a tu red t h es ame " roya l" h a i r s ty le a st h e h e lme to f Me ska lamdug , w a s p re sumab ly made o f ap r ec iou s m e ta l , o r g i lded b ronze . T he re a r e c une ifo rm s ou r ce s r e f e r r ing t o h e lme t s o r h eadd re sse s d e co ra ted w i th p r ec iou s m e ta ls . T he re i s ac une ifo rm t e x t2 8 d a ted t ot h e p e r iod o ft h e Dyna s ty o f A gade w h ich m en t ion st h ree h e lme t sg i lded o ri n la id w i th g o ld : 3s ag gu k ü -s ig u g a r ra " 3 g i lded h e lme t s( t ot h ek i ng )" T he s ame g r amma t ica lf o rm w a su sed i na no the rt e x t2 9 t od e sc r ibe c oppe rh e lme t sp l a ted w i th s i lve r : 2s ag -gu u rudu k üg a r ra " 2c oppe rh e lme t sp l a ted w i th s i lve r" T he se t wo l o c io n ly p rove t h a tm e ta l h e lme t s w e re d eco ra ted ( g i lded a nd p l a ted? ) w i th g o ld a nd s i lve r . T he m anne r o fd eco ra t ion h oweve r r ema in s o b scu re . B u t i no ne o ft h e c une ifo rm t e x t s3 ° ( a n a rmou ry l i s t ) m en t ioned e a r l ie r a ppea r s t h e n ame o f am y s te r iou s t y pe o f h e lme t , t h e " b i rd" , p robab ly " eag le ( t ig mugen ,Am u g ' )h eadd re s s" : v s . I :

1 4 . 3s ag gu [ t is] m u g e n 1 5 . [ k ü ] -babba r -gu -nu 1/ 2[ mana ] 1 6 . i n1 0g i n [ ta ] " 3 ' e ag le ' h e lme t s , ( we igh to f ) t h e i rs i lve ri s 1/ 2m ana , 1 0g i ne ach"

r s . I :

2 . 1s ag gu [ t is't e n ] 3 .k ü -babba r .0 1 0g [ In ] " 1 ' e ag le 'h e lme t , ( we igh to f ) i t ss i lve ri s1 0g i n"

I ti so bv iou s t h a tt h e a moun to fs i lve r u sed t od eco ra te t h i s t y pe o fh e lme to rh eadd re s s i ss t anda rd : 1 0 g i n ( e ig ium )3 1 .S o t h e se h eadd re s se s w e re p robab ly m ade n o t t o i n d iv idua l o rde r , b u t w e re " ma s s p roduced" a st h ec oppe r /b ronze h e lme t s . T he re a r en ok nown r ep re sen ta t ion s o fh e lme t s o rh eadd re s se s d eco ra ted w i th b i rds i n Me sopo tam ian a r t . T he re a r e h oweve r af ew h e lme t s d eco ra ted w i th b i rd s ( e ag le s )k nown f r om N o r the rn I r an f r om t h ee nd o ft h e rd m i l lenn ium B .C . ( Ca t . n o s . 1 22 -124 ) .T he se h e lme t s w e re d eco ra ted w i th r e l ief s cu lp tu re s : f i gu re s o f d e i t ie s a nd a r ap to r ia l b i rd w i th w ing s o u t s t re tched a nd h ead r ende red i nt h er ound a bove t h eh uman f i gu re s . E ach o ft h e f i gu re s w a s s cu lp ted f r om b i tumen , o ve r la id w i th s i lve r a nd g o ld f o i l , a nd t h en f a s tened t o ab ronze p l a te r i ve ted t o t h e h e lme t ( An a l te rna t ive t e chn ique m igh tb e : t h e f i gu re s w e re h amme red u p i nr epous sd i ns hee t g o ld o r s i lve r t h en r e info rced w i th b i tumen [ pou red i nh o t ] b e fo re b e ing a t tached t o t h e h e lme t ) . T he s ame t e chn ique w a s u sed i n Me sopo tam ia a sw e l l , b u tm o s to ft h eo b jec t s d eco ra ted w i th t h is t e chn ique ( f o r e xamp le d i sk s o rr ounde l s3 2 )c ame f r om E lam ( Su sa ) a nd t h e S af id R ive r R eg ion . T he i c onog raphy o f t h ed e i t ie s i s Me sopo tam ian . T he " eag le h e lme to rh eadd re s s" ( s ae s u t i8m id en ) m igh t f a l l i nt h e s ame c a tego ry a st h e I r an ian h e lme t s m en t ioned a bove , g i lded a nd p l a ted f i gu ra t ive d eco ra t ion w h ich m igh t h ave o r ig ina ted i na nu nfo r tuna te ly u nknown c u l t ic o ra po t ropa ic t r ad i t ion ,p o s s ib ly E lam i te . 1 66 g( s ee n o t e2 0 ) ; W i lcke 1 975 , 3 13 : 1 34 .5 g . T hu reau -Dang in 1 903 ,n o . 2 22 , 1 :3 ; L ime t 1 960 , 1 54 . 2 9 P a r i s ,L ouv re , AO 3 606 , L ime t 1 960 , 2 88 ,n o . 1 7 ,r s . 1 . 3 0 S che i l 1 9 13 ,n o . 8 6 . 3 1 10 g i n( l iq Ium ) =8 3g . 3 2 N ew Y o rk , Me t ropol i tan Mu seum o fA r t , M MA 6 2 .115 ( W i lk in son 1 965 , f i g . 1 0 ; Mu sca re l la 1 988 , f i g . 1 6 ) ; M MA 6 6 .31 . 1 , M MA 6 4 .63 ( Mu sca re l la 1 988 ,f i g s . 1 7 , 1 9 ) ; N o rbe r tS ch imme lC o l lec t ion ( W i lk in son 1 965 ,f i g . 1 ; Mu sca re l la 1 988 ,f i g . 1 8 ) . 2 7 2 8

4

I nt h e m id -3 1' dm i l lenn ium B .C . E b la a lmo s tt h e s ame t y pe s o fh e lme t w e re i nu se . I nt h eE b la t e x t s t h e w o rd f o r t h e h e lme t i sn i -sagdu 3 .A s i ti sk nown f r om t h e P a lace a r ch ive , t h e E b la h e lme t s w e re m a s s -p roduced , a nd t h e a rmy o f E b la u sed a lmo s t t h e s ame e qu ipmen t a s t h e c on tempo ra ry S ume r ian a nd /o r Akkad ian a rm ie s . O ne o ft h et e x t s m en t ion s a l toge the r 1 56 b ronze h e lme t s3 4. S ome o f t h eE b la h e lme t s w e re f u rn i shed w i th w ha tw a s p robab ly af a ce g ua rd ( IGLDUB ) , t h e w e igh t o fw h ich w a s4 0d i q lum ( Eb la : 3 16 g )3 5. T he E b la t e x t sm en t ion h e lme t s m ade o fg o ld a nd s i lve r , t h e w e igh to fw h ich w a s b e tween 7 3 a nd 2 40 d i q lum ( Eb la : 5 76 .7 1896 g ) . v s . V :

4 . 1n i g -sag gu 5 . 1m ana TAR k ü s ig i 7 ( " 1 h e lme t , g o ld o fw h ich i s1 92m ana" )3 6

A s Wae tzo ld h a s s hown 3 7, t h e se c e remon ia l h e lme t s w e re p robab ly w o rn b y o f f ice r s o rt h em embe r s o f t h e E b la i te e l i te . I ti su nf o r tuna te ly u nknown , w he the r t h e se h e lme t s w e re e n t i re ly m ade o f g o ld a nd s i lve r ,o rw e re s imp ly g i lded o rs i lve ip la ted 3 8. T he p r ice o ft h e m o s te xpen s ive , p robab ly g o lden h e lme t w a s a round 2 66 d i q lum s i lve r : v s . I : v s . I :

3 .1 3m ana « GUR 8 ), 1 .n i g sa i o 3n i g sag gu ( " 3 h e lme t s , p r ice o fw h ich i s1 3m ana 2 0g i n" )3 9

T ak ing t h e c l o se c onnec t ion s o f t h e E b la i te a nd Me sopo tam ian c i v i l iza t ion s i n to a ccoun t , i ti sn o t s u rp r is ing ,t h a tt h e re w e re " eag le h e lme t s" o rh eadd re s se sa tE b la a sw e l l . v s . I : v s . I :

v s . V I :

1 .1 5g i nD i lmun k ü s ig u 2 .g i r -za [ a ]n -dü l [ 1 . 1Än i g ' ( „ 1 e ag le : 1 5g i nD i lmun i te g o ld" )4 ° 2 .g i r -za 3 . in m i g e n 1n i g sag gu 4 .I r 'damu 5 .l üi r i ik -gá -nu 6 . 5g i nD i lmun k ü s ig o ( „ eag le : 1h e lme tf o rI r -Damu , t h em an o fI r ik -Gunu , 5g i nD i lmun i te g o id , , ) 4 1

T he E b la t e x t s m en t ion m o re t h an 5 00 p i ece s o f s u ch " eag le h e lme t s" ( n i -sagdu t i8mud en )4 2 .T he w e igh t o f t h e se h e lme t s o r t h e " eag le a pp l ique s" d i f f e r s c on s ide rab ly 4 3 ,s o t h e se p i ece s w e re m ade p robab ly f o rp r iva te o rde r .H oweve r ,t h e re a r ee ag le h e lme t sm ade o f3 0 -34 . s " i g ium b ronze o r4 0d i q lum s i lve r , w h ich m ean s , t h a tt h e se h e lme t s o rh eadd re s se s w e re p robab ly t h e h e lme t s o fo f f ice r s , o f f ic ia l s ( e ven p r ie s t s ) a nd t h e c e remon ia l h e lme t s o f as pec ia l s e rv ice ( bodygua rd? ) . T h i s i d ea s e em s t o b e c o r robo ra ted b y t h e f a c t , t h a t o t he r o b jec t s w e re a l so d eco ra ted i nt h e s ame m anne r w i th t h i s e ag le b adge (? ) 4 .T he se e ag le h e lme t s w e re o f f e red t od e i t ie s a se xv o to sa sw e l 14 5.

Wae tzo ld 1 990 , 2 9 -30 . P e t t ina to 1 979 , 1 080 r s . 1 :6 ; Wae tzo ld 1 990 ,2 9 . E dza rd 1 98 1 , 1 1 : 1 -1 :2 , 1 :3 -r s . I I :4 ; Wae tzo ld 1 990 ,2 9 ,n o t e 1 58 . E dza rd 1 98 1 , 4V :4 -5 ; Wa e tzo ld 1 990 , 2 9 , n o t e 1 59 . A tE b la 1g i n ( g iq ium ) =7 . 9 g . 1m ana = 6 0 g i n ( g iq /um ) ; 11/ 2m ana ( 90 E q /um ) =7 11 g . Wae tzo ld 1 990 ,2 9 . F o rt h ep r ice so ft h ed if e r en th e lm e t ss ee Wae tzo ld 1 990 ,2 9 . E dza rd 1 98 1 ,4 1 I : 3 1 1 :1 ; 1 3m ana 2 0g i n( g iq Ium )= 8 00 g i n( g iq /um ) . S ot h ep r ice o f ah e lme ti s2 66 g i q ium ( 2 10 1 g )s i lve r . 4 ° A rch i —B iga 1 982 ,4 31 I : l . 1 5g i n( g iq /um ) = 18 .5 gg o ld . P e t t ina to 1 980 , 1 2r s . V I :1-6 . 5g i n( g iq /um ) =3 9 .5 gg o ld . Wae tzo ld 1 990 ,2 9 . Wae tzo ld 1 990 ,2 9 : o ne e ag le h e lm e tw a s m ade o f2 30 : s i q lum ( 18 17 g )g o ld . " Wae tzo ld 1 990 ,3 0 ,n o te 1 63 . Wae tzo ld 1 990 ,3 0 ,n o t e 1 64 . 3 3

3 6

3 8

4 1

4 2 4 3

4 5

5

3 rd m i l lenn ium B .C . c une i f o rm s ou r ce s m en t ion " he lme t s " o rh eadd re s se s m ade o fd i f f e ren t m a te r ia l st h a tc an b ee xc luded f r om t h ec a tego ry o fh e lme t s . S uch h e lme t s a r et h eh eadd re s se s m ade o f w oo l ( s ik i , s f k[ Npä tum ] )4 6 a nd t h ev e ry i n t e re s t ing r e ed m a t t ing ( dn i nn is [ a f ium } )4 7. 1 . U r , R oya l C em e tery , PG /789 ( ? U .10826 , b u r ia l n o . 5 0 ) —H em i sphe r ica l c oppe r h e lm e t w i thou t e a r f lap s . T h e r e i s a h o r izon ta lr i br unn ing a round t h er im o ft h eh e lm e t . C ru shed . —ED P e r iod ( 26 `125 t hc en tu ry B .C . ) —L ondon , B r i t i sh Mu seum — Woo l l ey 1 934 ,p l s . 1 48a , 2 18 : PG /789a , 2 .U r , R oya l C em e tery , PG /789 ( ?U .10825 , b u r ia ln o . 4 6 ) —H em isphe r ica l c oppe r h e lme t w i th r ounded e a r f lap s . T h eb a ck o f t h e h e lme t i sd amaged . C ru shed . T he r e w a s p robab ly as i lve r -w i re c h in s t r ap a t ta ched t ot h e h e lm e t . — ED P e r iod ( 2 6 ` u25 t h c en tu ry B .C . ) —L ondon , B r i t i sh Mu seum —Woo l ley 1 934 ,p l . 2 18 : PG /789b . 3 .U r , R oya l C em e tery , PG /789 ( ?U .10827 ,b u r ia ln o . 4 8 ) —S l igh t ly c on ica l c oppe rh e lm e t w i th r ounded e a r f lap s . C ru sh ed . — ED P e r iod ( 26 a 125 'h c en tu ry B .C . ) —L ondon , B r i t i sh Mu seum —Woo l ley 1 934 ,p l . 2 18 : P G /789c . 4 .U r , R oya l C em e tery , PG /789 ( U .10828 , b u r ia ln o . 4 9? ) —H . w i thou tp o in t : 2 1 .5 c m ; H . o ft h ep o in tb en tb ack : 9c m ; D iam . ( c ru shed ) : 3 4 .4 c m ; W . o ft h es hee t 2mm . —C on ica lc oppe rh e lm e tw i th r ounded e a rf l ap sa nd n eckgua rd .T he p o in to ft h eh e lme t i sb en tb ack a nd c r u shed . —ED P e r iod ( 26f i25 1 uc en tu ry B .C . ) —L ondon ,B r i t i sh Mu seum , WA 1 214 14 —Wooley 1 934 ,6 6 -67 . 5 .U r , R oya l C em e tery , PG /789 ( U .10828 , b u r ia ln o .4 5 ) —C oppe rh e lm e to fu n iden t if ied s hape ( p robab ly s im i la rt oh e lm e t 4 ) . " I np oor c ond i t ion" ,b ad ly d amaged . —ED P e r iod ( 26 `u25 `h c en tu ry B .C . ) —L ondon ,B r i t i sh Mu seum —Woo l ley 1 934 ,6 6 -67 . 6 .U r , R oya l C em e tery , PG /789 ( U .10828 , b u r ia ln o . 4 7 ) —C oppe rh e lme to fu n id en t if ied s hape ( p robab ly s im i la rt oh e lm e t 4 ) . " I np oor c ond i t ion" ,b ad ly d amaged . —ED P e r iod ( 26 t h25 `u c en tu ry B .C . ) —L ondon , B r i t i sh Mu seum —Woo l ley 1 934 ,6 -67 . 7 .T eloh —H em i sphe r ica lc oppe rh e lme tw i th as ma l lp o in t . T he h e lm e ti sd amaged a tt h ef r on t , a bove t h ef a ce c u tou ta nd a tt h e b ack . T he h e lm e t h a s c omb ined e a r f lap s a nd n eck -gua rd . T he r e a r e as e r ie s o f h o le s a r ound t h e r im o f t h e h e lm e t f o r t h e f a s ten ing o f al i n ing . O nt h ep o in ted e a rf l ap st h e r ei s af u r the rh o le f o rt h ef a s ten ing o f ac h in s t rap . —ED P e r iod ( 20h25 'h c e n tu ry B .C . —P a r i s , L ouv re , AO 4 119 —P a r ro t 1 948 , 1 06 ,f i g . 2 6d . 8 .U r , R oya l C em e tery , PG /755 ( U .10000 ) —H . : 2 3 c m , D iam . : 2 6 cm . C e r emon ia l e l ec t rum h e lm e t o f Me ska lamdug . T he o ve ra l l s hape o ft h e h e lme t f o rm s ap robab ly s a c ra l m anne r o fw ea r ing t h e v e ry l o ng h a i r b ra ided i n ap l a i t t w i s t ed a r ound t h e h ead a nd f a s tened i n ak no t o f h a i r a tt h e b a ck o f t h e h ead . T he h e lme t c ove red t h e e a r s a nd t h e b ack o f t h e h ead a s w e l l . " Hamm e r ed u pf r om as i ng le s hee to fm e ta l , w i th f e a tu re si nr e l ief a nd d e ta i l s e ng raved . I n to t h e i n te r io rw a s f i t ted aq u i l t ed c ap , f r agmen t s o fw ho se c l o th a nd w oo l s t uf ing w e re f ound ; t h e d i sco lo ra t ion o ft h e m e ta l s howed t h a tt h e c l o th w a s b rough tu p o n t ot h e o u t s ide o ft h e h e lme t , s o a s t op ro t ec t t h e w ea re r ' s s k in f r om t h e s ha rp e dg e s o ft h e m e ta l , a nd s e cu red b y l a ce s p a s sed t h rough t h e s m a l l h o l e s r ound t h e r im . T he e a r s a r e p i e rced t oa low o fh ea r ing . When f ound t h e h e lme t w a s i n t a c t e x cep t t h e r i gh t c heek -p iece h ad b een c ru shed i na nd t h e r i gh t s i de o ft h e b and a bove t h e f o r eh ead w a s b en t i nwa rd s ; T h i s m ino rd amage h a s b een m ade g ood ." —ED P e r iod ( 26h25 t hc en tu ry B .C . ) —B aghdad , I r aq Mu seum , 1 V 1 .8269 — Woo l ley 1 934 , 2 44 , 2 92 , 2 94 , 5 52 ,c o lou rp l a te o nf r on t i sp iece ,p l . 1 50 .

I nW i lcke 's r e con s t ruc t ion ( W i lcke 1 975 ,3 12 )t h eh e lme t s l i s ted i no ne o fo u rc une ifo rm t a b le t( Sche i l 1 913 ,n o . 8 6 , v s . c o l . I , 2 1-22 ; r s . c o l . I ,8 -9 ; r s . c o l . I , 1 8 -19 )d i scu s sed a bove w e re m ade o fw oo l . I no u rr e con s t ruc t ion t h ew oo lw a s u sed o n ly f o rt h e l i n ing ,a nd t h eh e lm e t s w e re m ade o fl e a the r . F o r w oo len " h e lme t s " s ee : W i lcke 1 969 , 1 06 , L uga lbanda I , 1 50 : L üg s agh l ( "woo len ' h e lm e t ' , t h e l i on o f t h e b a t t le" ) ; L eg ra in 1 937 , n o . 1 588 , 6 : u lg s aggu . Wae tzo ld (Wae tzo ld 1 990 , 2 9 a nd n o t e 1 56 ) m en t ioned E b la i t ew oo len c ap s w h ich w e re p robab ly t h el i n ing o fl e a the ro rm e ta lh e lme t s . C raw fo rd 1 954 , n o . 1 97 , 1 2 : 6k u § -gu 4 A .GAR l c ° s ag gu - un i nn i s ge ( " 6 p i ece s o f o xh id e f o r h e lme t s /headd re s se s m ade o f m a t t ing " ) ;T hu r eau -Dang in 1 910 ,7 ,n o . 125 .

4 6

4 7

6

rd m i l lenn ium B .C . N ear E a s tern h e lme t s T he 21 ' dm i l lenn ium B .C . c on t inua t ion o f 3r d m i l lenn ium B .C . h e lme t t r ad i t ion i su nknown . T he mo s t i mpo r tan ts e c t ion o ft h e 3m m i l lenn ium B .C . S ume r ian a rm ie s w a st h eh eavy i n f an t ry u s ing t h ep ha lanx t a c t ic . T he h eavy , f ou r -whee led a nd e qu id -d rawn c ha r io t s w e re p robab ly m anned b y t h e s ame i n f an t rymen , w ho u sed i n f an t ry w eapon s ( s pea r s , a xe s ) a nd w o re t h es ame h e lme t s ( a nd h eavy w oo l len c l oak s ) a st h e f oo t s o ld ie r s ( s ee f o r e xamp le t h e " S te le o fV u l tu re s" o rt h e " S tanda rd o fU r" , C har t 1 , n o s . 1 -3 ) . T he se s l ow ly m ov ing h eavy c ha r io t s p robab ly u sed s im i la r t a c t ics t ot h e i n f an t ry . T he e a r ly 2n d m i l lenn ium B .C . Me sopo tam ian a rm ie s p robab ly c on s i s ted o f t h e s ame s k i l led o r s em i -sk i l led m a sse s o fi n f an t rymen . I ti sk nown t h a t t h e a rmy o fH ammu rap i , k i ng o fB aby lon ( 1 792 1750 B .C . ) c on s i s ted m a in ly o ff oo ts o ld ie r so fv a r iou st y pe s" . U n fo r tuna te ly o n ly af ew h e lme tr ep re sen ta t ion s o f t h e O ld B aby lon ian p e r iod a r e k nown . T he l i nen h eadd re s se s s hown o n aMa r i w a l l p a in t ing ° a nd a h ead m ade o fa l aba s te r5 ° c an b ee xc luded f r om t h ec a tego ry o fh e lme t s . T he re i s ah e lme t , h oweve r , o n a n O ld B aby lon ian s he l l in lay p l aque f ound a t Ma r i . T he s he l l in lay s c ene s how s ac r e s ted h e lme t o n t h e t op o f as t anda rd ( t ropa ion ) ( Char t 1 ,n o . 1 )5 1 .T he h e lme t i sc on ica l w i th r ounded t op a nd a n ompha lo s o n t h e s i de . T he c r e s t w a s f a s tened t ot h e h e lme t p robab ly d i agona l ly , s t a r t ing a tt h e f r on t a nd e nd ing a tt h e b ack . T he re i sn o t as i ng le s im i la r h e lme t k nown f r om t h i s p e r iod . O n ly a 6 00 h und red y ea r s y ounge r S ubmycenaean ( 1 1t h c en tu ry B .C . ) b ronze h e lme t f ound a t T i ryn s s how s a s im i la r f o rm 5 2 .I tc on s i s t s o ft wo s ymme t r ica l s i de p l a te s , al o ng b ronze b and f a s ten ing t h e t wo s i de s t o ge the r , a nd t wo e a r f lap s . T he l o ng j o in ing b and w a s p robab ly t h e b a se o f ad i agona l c r e s t p l aced s im i la r ly a st h e c r e s t o ft h e Ma r i h e lme t . I ns p i te o ft h e o penwo rk t r i ang le s f o rm ing az i gzag mo t ive a nd t h ep unched d eco ra t ion ,t h e re i sa no mpha los o nt h e s i de p l a te so ft h eh e lme t . H oweve r , t h e h e lme to ft h e Ma r i s t anda rd i st h e o n ly k nown a r che type o f al a te r w e l l -known h e lme t t y pe : t h e h e lme t d eco ra ted w i th l e ng thw i se , d i agona l ly f a s tened c r e s t . T h i s t y pe o f c r e s ted h e lme tw a s w ide sp read f r om t h e 1 4t h c en tu ry B .C . o nt h en o r the rn p e r iphe r ie s o f Me sopo tam ia : E a s te rn A na to l ia ( Char tI ,n o . 3 8 ) ,T ran scauca s ia ( L t sha shen : C har t I ,n os . 4 6 -49 ;L o r i -Be rd : C har t1 ,n o s . 5 0 5 1 ; A s th i -B lu r : C har t1 ,n o . 5 4 ) a nd N o r the rn I r an ( Khu rv in : C har t1 ,n o . 5 3 ) . T h i s t y pe o fh e lme t w a s w o rn b yU ra r t ian s o ld ie r s ( Char t3 ,n o s . 1 07 -110 ) o n t h eB a lawa t G a te s o fS ha lmane se r I I ( 8 58 -824 B .C . ) a nd o n al a te 9t h c en tu ry B .C . i v o ry p l aque ( Char t3 ,n o . 1 06 ) . T h i s t y pe o fh e lme t i ss hown o n a s e r ie s o fb ronze s t a tue t te s f ound i nU ra r t ian s i te s ( Top rak K a le : C har t3 ,n o . 13 ; Ma r a: C har t3 ,n o . 14 ) a nd o n ah o r se 's b ron ze p ec to ra l r e po r ted a sf r om " No r the rn I r an" ( Char t 3 ,n o s . 11 -112 ) . T he l a te s t a nd o n ly k nown e xamp le s o ft h is t y pe o fh e lme t a r e t h e H a san lu h em i sphe r ica l c r e s ted h e lme t s ( Ca t . n o s .5 2 -56 ) f r om a bou t8 00 B .C . ( Ha san lu I V ,I r on I P e r iod )5 3. T he c r uc ia l c hange i nt h e w a r f a re o f t h e a nc ien t N ea r E a s t w a s t h e a ppea rance o f t h e t wo w hee led , l i gh t , h o r se d rawn c ha r io t i nt h e 1 8t h17 t h c en tu r ie s B .C . T he se c ha r io t s d ep loyed i nl a rge n umbe r s5 4 w i th t h e i r s peed a nd m anoeuv reb i l i ty e a s i ly p u t t h e " cen t re o fg r av i ty" o f ab a t t le f r om o ne f l ank t ot h eo t he r . T he i n f an t ry o ft h ee nemy w a su sua l ly u nab le t of o l low t h is q u ick move o rt or e ac tt o i t .T he n ew t y pe o f c ha r io t w a r r io r ( t he b e s t k nown n ame i st h e H u r r ian m ar yannu , t h e M i tann ian c ha r io t w a r r io r 5 )w a s e qu ipped w i th t h e w eapon s o f c l o se r ange f i gh t ing , b u t h i s mo s t i mpo r tan t w eapon w a s t h e b ow . T he p r ima ry r o le o ft h e c ha r io t i nt h e b a t t le w a s p robab ly t os e rve a s amov ing f i r ing p l a t fo rm 5 6 .C on sequen t ly t h e c ha r io t w a r r io r b ecame t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t t a rge t o f e nemy f i r e . T he c ha r io t , w h ich l o s t i t s w a r r io r , b ecame i n ef f ec t ive . T he c ha r io t c r ew i n t h e 2 'd m i l lenn ium B .C . c on s i s ted o ft wo , l a te r t h ree m en ( wa r r io r a nd d r ive r , l a te r t h e s h ie ld b ea re r ) . N o t o n ly t h e d r ive r b u t a l so t h e w a r r io r ( bowman ) n eeded b o th h and s i nt h e b a t t le , s o t h ey c ou ld n o t h o ld as h ie ld t od e f end t h em se lve s . C on sequen t ly t h ea rmou rb ecame e s sen t ia l . T he b e s tt y pe o fa rmou r , s c a le a rmou re n su red t h e h ighe s t l e ve l o fp e r sona l d e f en se . I t s m a in a dvan tage w a s i t s f l ex ib i l i ty , w h ich e nab led t h e c ha r io t w a r r io rt os hoo t w i th h i sb ow ,t om ove h i sa rm s a nd e l bow s f r ee ly . T he A kkad ian w o rd f o rt h e s c a le o f t h e s ca le a rmou r ( k ur s im tu ) e xp re ssed t h i s f l ex ib i l i ty a nd h i gh l e ve l o f d ef en se : i td e r ive s p robab ly "V o th 1 981 ,p a s s im . 4 9 P a r ro t 1 958 ,p l . XX :2 ; B o r chha rd t 1 972 ,9 6 ,p l . 2 1 :2 , K a t . 2 1 I3 ;P a r ro t 1 983 ,p l . 2 54 . 5 0 A leppo , A r chaeo log ica l Mu seum , I n v . n o . 1 648 ; P a r ro t 1 959 , p l s . V I I -V I I I ; B o r chha rd t 1 972 , 9 6 , p l . 2 1 :3 , K a t . 2 1 I2 ;P a r ro t 1 983 ,p l s . 2 50 -251 . "D ama scu s , A r chaeo log ica l Mu seum , I n v . n o . 1 9 15 ; B o rchha rd t 1 972 , 9 6 , f i g . 8 ,K a t . 2 1 I4 ; C a lmeye r 1 975 , 3 14 q ue st ion s B o rchha rd t 's d a t ing . 5 2 T i ryn s ,T omb XXV I I I . H . : 1 7c m , D iam . : 2 2 .5 c m , L .o ft h ec en t ra lb ronz eb and : c .7 5 c m , H . o ft h ee a r f lap s : 1 6c m ,W . o ft h e e a r f lap s : 9cm . D aux 1 958 , 7 07 , f i g . 2 6 ; V e rde l i s 1 963 , 1 0 -24 ,f i g s . 2 ,4 -7 ,9 ,p l s . 6 -7 ; S nodg ra s s 1 964 , 4 ;H encken 1 97 1 , 2 3 , 2 6 , f i g . 8 ;B o r chha rd t 1 972 ,4 3 -44 ,p l . 8 : 4 -5 ;G u ida 1 973 ,p l . 3 0 :3 ;B o r chh a rd t 1 977 ,E 68 ,f i g .9 E ,p l . E lVa . 5 3 T he re i so n ly as i ng le l a te rr e p re sen ta t ion o ft h i s t y pe f r om aZ ing i r l i r el ie fs how ing ac ha r io tw a r r io r : Maxwe l l -Hy s lop 1 959 , p l . H oweve rt h e 8t hc en tu ry B .C .d a t ing o ft h er e l ie fi sq ue s t ionnab le . 5 4 F o re xamp le i nt h eb a t t le o fQ ade sh t h eH i t t i te a rmy p u t3 500 c ha r io t s i na c t ion . 5 A lb r igh t 1 930 1931 ,2 17 -22 1 . 5 6 I nc ha r io tb a t t le sa nd a ga in s tt h ee nemy i n f an t ry f i gh t ing i nc l o se o rde r .

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f r om t h e A kkad ian w o rd k um indu ( " snake" , " s ca le o f as nake " ) . I n t h e s e cond h a lf o f t h e 2 '1 m i l lenn ium B .C . t h i s t ype o f a rmou r b ecame w ide sp read f r om A na to l ia t oE gyp t , f r om P hoen ic ia t o I r an t o ge the r w i th t h e l i gh t c ha r io t a nd t h e n ew c ha r io t t a c t ic . T he o r ig ina l H u r r ian w o rd f o r s c a le a rmou r( s ar iam )c an b ef ound i na l l t h ea nc ien tN ea rE a s te rn l a nguage s a s al o anwo rd 5 7. A c tua lf i nd so f a rmou r s c a le s a r e k nown f r om Me sopo tam ia 5 8 ,I r an 5 9 ,U ra r tu6 ° ,A na to l ia 6 1 ,S y r ia 6 2 ,P hoen ic ia 6 3, P a le s t ine, E gyp t6 5a nd C yp ru s 6 .U n f o r tuna te ly t h e re i sn o t as i ng le c omp le te s c a le a rmou rk nown . B u t t h e 1 84 s c a le s a nd 1 57 f r agmen t s f ound d u r ing t h e e xcava t ion s o fK äm id e l -Löz6 7 m ade r e con s t ruc t ion o ft h e s t ruc tu re o f as u i t o fs ca le a rmou r p o s s ib le . T he s e cond g r oup o fe v idence , t h e r ep re sen ta t iona l e v idence i s k nown f r om t h e w a l l p a in t ing s o f E gyp t ian t omb s o f t h e N ew K ingdom . T he mos t i mpo r tan tr ep re sen ta t ion s how ing t wo , l o ng , m u l t ico lou red 6 8 s u i t s o fs c a le a rmou r w i th h i gh n eckgua rd m ade o fb ronze p l a te 6 9 i so nt h e w a l l so ft h eT heban t omb o fK en -Amun 7 °. T he se s u i t s o fs ca le a rmou r w e re p robab ly i mpo r t s o r g if t s f r om S y r ia . T hey s how t h e m o s t d eve loped t y pe o f t h e p e r iod : t h e a rmou r c ove red a lmo s t t h e w ho le b ody o ft h e w a r r io r d own t oh i s a nk le s . T h i s a rmou r w a s m ade o f a bou t4 50 s c a le s . Al a te r a nd mo re d e ta i led r e p re sen ta t ion , o n aw a l l -pa in t ing o ft h e t omb o fR ame sse s I I ( 1 194 1163 B .C . ) , s how s al ong s u i t o f s c a le a rmou r m ade o f p robab ly 4 70 -500 s ca le s ( on t h e p a in t ing t h e re a r e 2 37 s c a le s o n t h e f r on to ft h e a rmou r ) . T h i s s c a le a rmou r w a s m ade o ft wo d if e ren t m e ta l sr e p re sen ted i na l te rna t ing b and s w i th t wo c o lou r s . T h i s a rmou rc ove red t h e u ppe r a rm , t h e n eck a nd t h e b ody d own t ot h e a nk le s . T he t h i rd g r oup o fe v idence c on s i s t s o f w r i t ten s ou rce s . T he m os t i mpo r tan t w r i t ten s ou rce s a r e t h e c une ifo rm t a b le t s o ft h e f amou s N uz i l i b ra ry d a ted t ot h e l a te 1 5t h e a r ly 1 4t hc en tu ry B .C . A l toge the r 1 6t y pe so fa rmou rc an b er e con s t ruc ted f r om t h e Nuz it a b le t s : 1 .s ar iam me s k i( l ea the ra rmou r : L acheman 1 950 ,2 36 :9 ) 2 .s ar iam ma k i( a rmou rm ade o fl e a the rs c a le s : L achemam 1 955 ,7 : 6 ) 3 . xk ur s imü-t u. 3 . " as i pa r r i xk ur s im&u mak i ( a rmou r m ade o fb ronze s ca le s a nd b ig l e a the r s c a le s : L acheman 1 955 , 1 :1 -7 ) 4 .s a r iam m agk ij ar amän a wö l i a b i . funu as i parr i( l ea the rb ody a rmou r w i th b ronze s l eeve s : C h ie ra 1 934 ,5 27 :7 ) 5 .s a r iam . § ar amän ij a m a gk ij a a h igunu s i par r i ( body a rmou r m ade o fl e a the r s ca le s w i th b ronze s c a le so nt h es l eeve s : P f e if f e r -L acheman 1 942 , 1 95 :17 -18 ) "A kkad ian " sar iam" , " s ir iam" ( Re ine r , e ta l . 1 984 , 3 13 -315 ; O ppenhe im 1 950 , 1 9 1-192 . ) ; E gyp t ian " t r yn" ( t i - Kra ) -ya -na : A lb r igh t 1 934 , 3 6 , n o . 1 5 ; K enda l l 1 979 , 2 63 ) ; H i t t i t e " sa iyann i " , " s i tyann i " ( Oppenhe im 1 950 , 1 92 ) ; U ga r i t ic " t lyn" ( Go rdon 1 965 , 5 06 , n o . 123 :5 ,6 ; K enda l l 1 979 , 2 64 ) ; H eb rew " J i työn" , " S i tyän" , ( t ur i t p ) " s i työn" ( i lmo ) ( Spe ise r 1 950 , 4 7 ) . T he A kkad ian w o rd f o r h e lme t : " hu l iam" i sa l so aH u man l o anwo rd . F o r f u r the r d e ta i l s o n t h e w o rd s f o r p a r t s o f t h e a rmou r s ee S a lonen 1 966 , 1 00 -108 . 5 8 N uz i ( Yo rgan T epe , 1 5 'h14 `1 c en tu ry B .C . , S t a r r 1 939 ,4 75 -477 , p l s . 1 26 : A1A 3,B , D , E ,F ,G , H , J ,K , L ,0 ) ; T e l la l -Fakha r ( le c en tu ry B .C . , Ma lunoud 1 970 , 1 22 , p l . 2 4 ) ; K a r T uku l t i -N inu r ta ( 13 t h c en tu ry B .C . , B i t t e ! 1 958 , 3 5 ) ; K a lhu ( N im rud , c en tu ry B .C . , Ma l Iowan 1 966 , 4 04 , 4 09 -4 11 , f i g s . 3 36a -e ; Mu sca re l la 1 988 , 3 17 -318 , n o s . 4 51a -c , 4 52 , 4 53 , 4 54a -b , 4 55 , 4 56 , 4 57a -f ,4 58a -b ,4 59 ,f i g s .4 51-459 ; S t rona ch 1 958 , 1 72 173 ,p l s . VO C IV: 1 10 ) . 5 9 D u r -Un ta sh ( Choga Z anb i l , 1 3 'h c en tu ry B .C . , G h i r s tunan 1 966 , 7 1 , 1 0 1 , p l s . XLV I I I :3 , LV :4a -c , LXXV I , XC I I I ) ; H a san lu ( Mu sca re l la 1 988 ,5 4 ,n o s . 6 2 -63 ) . 6 0 K a rm i rB lu r( A rg i sh t i I ,c a . 7 89 -766 B .C . ,P io t rov sky 1 955 ,3 1f . ,f i g . 2 1 ,p l . 1 4 ; B a rne t t 1 959 , 1 5 ,f i g . 1 4 ) . 6 1 H a t tu sha sh ( Bogazköy , 1 8t h ( ? ) c en tu ry B .C . , B i t te le ta l . 1 958 , 3 5 ; B oe tun e r 1 972 , 1 02 -104 , p l . XXV , n o s . 8 03 -808 .A ) ; T roy ( 1 5t hlec en tu ry B .C . , B legen 1 953 , 2 97 -298 ,p l . 2 97 ) . 6 2 U ga r i t( RA s S ham ra , lelec en tu ry B .C . , Ma rgue ron 1 977 , 1 72 , f i g . 1 :2 -8 ; S chaef f e r 1 937 , 1 44 , f i g . 9 ;S chaef f e r 1 951 , 1 3 , f i g . 6 ;S chae f f e r 1 962 , 7 4 , f i g . 6 1 :C , I ) ; A la la ld i ( Te l l A t ch ana , 1 4t h13 t h c en tu ry B .C . , Wooley 1 955 , 2 78 , p l . LXX I ) ; H ama ( 1 1 `h9 2'c en tu ry B .C . , R i i s 1 948 , 1 24 ,f i g . 1 43 ) . 6 3 K äm id e l -Löz ( le c en tu ry B .C . , V en tzke 1 983 , 9 4 100 , C a t . n o . 7 7 , f i g s . 4 5 -50 ,5 4 , c o lou rp l . o n P . 17 ; M i ron 1 990 , 6 5 -86 , C a t .n o s . 1 44 -345 ,f i g s . 1 2 15 ,p l s . 1 5 -18 ,c o lou rp l . =f i g .4 6 ) . 6 4 Meg iddo ( T e l l e l - Mu te se l l im , 1 5t h7 `h c en tu ry B .C . , L amon - S h ip ton 1 939 , p l s . 8 5 :110 ; L oud 1 948 , p l s . 1 77 :6 -8 ) ; B e th S hean ( A rn enho tep I I , 1 39 1 1353 B .C . , R owe 1 940 , 7 4 , p l s . XXX I :18 , 2 0 ) ; T e l l e l -F a r 'ah ( No r th , T i rzah? , lt hle c en tu ry B .C . ,d e V aux 1 951 ,p l s . X IX .3 :1-3 ; C hambon 1 984 , 8 9 ,p l s . 6 9 :2 -5 , 8 3 ) ; D e i rA l la ( 1 3t h12 t hc en tu ry B .C . , F ranken 1 96 1 , 3 65f f . , p l . 1 2 ) ; L ach i sh ( 10 `h8 `h c en tu ry B .C . ,T ufne l l 1 953 , 2 15 ,2 53 , 3 86 -387 , p l s . 3 9 :7 -9 ,5 6 :1112 , 5 7 :16 17 , 5 8 :4 14 ; A h a ron i 1 975 , 7 6 , p l s . 3 7 :3 -5 , U s s i shk in 1 982 , 5 5 , f i g . 4 8 ; S hank s 1 984 , f i g . o n P . 5 3 ) ; G aza ( T e l le l -A j ju l , le13 `h c en tu ry B .C . , P e t r ie 1 933 , 9 ,p l s . XX I I :81-83 ; P e t r ie 1 934 , 1 ,p l . , O CXV :551-553 ) . 6 5 B e th -Pe le t( Te l l F ä ra , 1 2 `h11 '1 c en tu ry B .C . ,P e t r ie 1 930 ,p l . 3 2 ,n o . 1 06 ) ; T hebe s( 1 5 `114 t h c en tu ry B .C . , P e t r ie 1 9 17 , 3 8 , p l s . XL I I :105 108 ; W in lo ck 1 947 , 1 62 163 , p l . 2 9 ) ; w i thou t p rovenance ( New Y o rk , M MA 0 9 .183 .2 , M MA 1 .151 . 183 -5 , 1 92 ; M MA 2 2 .3 .46 ; M MA 3 4 .1 .72 -73 ; W in lo ck 1 947 , 1 63 , p l . 2 9 ; N ew Y o rk , B rook lyn Mu seum , S he shonk I ,9 45 -924 B .C . , P e t r ie 1 9 17 , 3 8 , p l s . XL I I I :129 -130 ; Y ad in 1 963 , f i g . o n p .3 54 ) ; P e t r ie 1 917 , 3 8 , p l s . XL I I :103 -104 ; B r i t i sh Mu seum , BM 6 7522 6 7528 ( Amama? , c a . 7 50 B .C . ) ; O x fo rd , A shmo lean Mu seum , I nv . n o . 1 969 .753 ; L ondon , B r i t i sh Mu seum , WA 1 35236 ( 82 p i ece s ) . 6 6 C a t l ing 1 970 ,4 4 1-449 ; K a rageo rgh i s -Ma s son 1 975 ,2 09 -222 ; C a tl ing 1 977 ,7 4 118 . 6 7 K äm id e l -Löz , " Scha tzhau s" , R aum T -0 , V en tzke 1 983 , 9 4 100 , f i g s . 4 5 -50 , 5 4 , C a t . n o . 7 7 , c o lou r p l . o n p . 17 ; V en tzke 1 986 , 1 62 166 ,p l s . 2 1-22 ; M i ron 1 990 ,6 5 -86 ,C a t .n o s . 1 44 -345 ,f i g s . 1 2 15 ,p l s . 1 5 -18 ,c o lou rp l .= f i g . 4 6 . 6 8 P robab ly m ade o fd if e ren tm e ta l s . 6 9 S im i la rt ot h en e ck -gua rd o ft h e f amou s D end ra c o r se l e t . S nodg ra s s 1 971 , 3 3 -50 ;C al ing 1 977 , 7 4 -118 ; A s t rom 1 977 ,p a s s im ; Ä s t röm 1 983 ,p as s im . 7 ° T hebe s ,T T9 3 , Amenho tep I ( 1427 140 1 B .C . ) ,d eG . D av ie s 1 930 , 2 7 ,p l s . XV I , XX IV ; Y ad in 1 963 ,f i g . o np .1 97 .

8

6 .s a r iam m a gk i g a r amän a wJ l i 4k a lku u g a a b idunu a s i par r i ( l ea the r b ody a rmou r w i th b ronze s l eeve s a nd 4 k a lku s m ade o f b ronze ( k a lku m ean s p robab ly a rmou r p l a te s h ang ing o n t h e w a i s t )7 1 7 .s a r iam m a gk i gar amän a wN i[ x ] k ca l 'k il i w i s sunuma u a b idunu as i par r i ( l ea the rb ody a rmou r w i th [ x ] k a lku sl i k eb e l t sa nd w i th b ronze s l eeve s : C h ie ra 1 934 ,5 27 :1 -2 , 3 -4 ) 8 .s a r iam r amän i i r t i 1m ana as i pa r r i( body a rmou rw i th ab ronze p l a te o nt h ef r on tw e igh t ing 1 m ana : P f e if f e r —L acheman 1 942 , 1 95 :15 -16 ) 9 .[ s ar iam k ur s i ]mä tu gar amän a wë l ia ga r i r t i gu gas i pa r r i ( body a rmou r m ade o fs c a le s w i th b ronze o nt h ef r on t : L acheman 1 955 , 8 : 2 -3 , 1 3 -14 ) 1 0 . s ar iam & a r amän i gu m a gk i a ga r j e-r i gu s i pa r r i ( l ea the r b ody a rmou r w i th b ronze o n i t s b ack : L a cheman 1 955 , 1 54 : 15 ) 1 . s a r iam g ar amändu g at u t iwa gunu ug u rp i s i g "unu s i pa r r i( body a rmou r w i th i t sk ard io p hy lake sa nd i t sh e lme tm ade o fb ronze : L acheman 1 950 ,6 16 :12 -14 )7 2 1 2 . t u t iwa aa w e lr äk ib n a rkab t i ma w a rk i gu n ad i( [ a rmou r w i th ] t u t iwa h ang ing o n t h e b ack o ft h e c ha r io td r ive r :L a cheman 1 955 , 1 5 1 2 :6 -7 ) 1 3 . t i kk igu a na w ark idu n ad i( [ a rmou r w i th ] c o l la rh ang ing o n t h eb ack : L acheman 1 955 , 1 2 :16 , 1 9 ,2 7 2 8 ,2 9 , 3 0 ) 1 4 .s ar iam s i par r i( b ronze a rmou r : L acheman 1 955 , 1 54 :44 ,5 0 ) 1 5 . s ar iam as i par r i q ad ug u rp i s i gunuma r amändu ga a wj l i ( b ronze a rmou r w i th h e lme t s f o r t h e b ody o ft h em an :L acheman 1 950 , 6 16 :9 -10 ) 1 6 . s ar iam s i pa r r ig a a we-1 i 7k a lku gal i w i s sunu ( b ronze a rmou r w i th 7k a lku l i ke ab e l t : C h ie ra 1 934 , 5 33 :6 ) S eve ra lt y pe so fa rmou rf o rh o r se sa nd c ha r io t sc an b er e con s t ruc ted f r om t h es ame t a b le t s : 1 .2t apä lu s a r iam g a s i s i i d t e-n nf i tu p a ra g gannu g a a b igu ( 2 s e t s o f h o r se a rmou r a nd 1 s e t o f p arad dannu a rmou rf o rt h es i de : L acheman 1 955 , 1 5 1 6 :20 ) 2 .s a r iam g aa wë l i un a rkab t i( a rmou rf o rt h em an a nd c ha r io t : L acheman 1 955 , 1 5 :19 -20 ) 3 .p arag dannu an ar kab t idu ( parad dannu a rmou rf o rt h ec ha r io t : L acheman 1 955 , 1 5 :45 )7 3 F u r the rmo re s eve ra l t y pe s o f b ronze s c a le a rmou r c an b e r e con s t ru c ted f r om t h e n umbe r s o f b ronze s c a le s a l loca ted f o r t h e b ody , t h e s l eeve s a nd f o r t h e h e lme t ( D iagram 1 ) . T he w e igh t o ft h e d i f f e ren t b ronze s c a le s d i f f e r sc on s ide rab ly . C on sequen t ly i ti sh a rd t od e te rm ine t h e w e igh to f ac omp le te b ody a rmou r . T .K enda l lu sed t h ew e igh t so ft h ea rmou rs c a le sf ound a tN uz i ( f o re xamp le : H SM 1 012 : 9 . 4g , H SM 1 282 : 1 2 g ,H SM 1 006 : 1 4 g ) t oc a lcu la te t h e a ve rage w e igh t o f t h e d i f f e ren t t y pe s o f s c a le a rmou r s7 4. H i s r e su l t s r a nged f r om 3 7 .3 l b( 16 .92 k g ) t o5 4 .8 l b( 24 .86 k g ) . C . Z accagn in i u s ing t h e s ame v a lue s g o t s im i la r r e su l t s7 5 .I th a s t ob e m en t ioned h oweve r t h a t t h e re w e re a l so much h eav ie r s c a le s f ound i n Nuz i7 6. I tm ean s t h a t t h e s c a le a rmou r s m en t ioned i nt h e N uz i t a b le t s m igh t h ave b een m uch h eav ie ra sw e l 17 . C a lcu la t ion o f t h e w e igh t o f h e lme t s m ade o f a rmou r s c a le s ( D iagram 2 ) w i l l p robab ly b e m o re r e l iab le , t h an t h e w e igh t s o f o t he r p a r t s o f t h e a rmou r , s i nce t h e h e lme t s w e re o n ly m ade o f " sma l l" a rmou rs ca le s . TEXT

B ody

-NU MBER OF ARMOUR S CALES IS l eeve s

IH e lme t

WE IGHT

H SS 1 5 5 : 1-3

5 00 ( b ig )

5 00 ( sma l l )

2 00 ( sma l l )

1 200

H SS 1 5 5 : 5 -8

5 00 ( b ig )

5 00 ( sma l l ) 1 60 ( sma l l )

2 00 ( sma l l )

1 200

1 40 ( sma l l )

[ 1 ]30 ( sma l l )

[ 1 ]70 ( sma l l )

8 60 7 20

H SS 1 5 5 : 10 13 H SS 1 5 5 : 15 18 H SS 1 5 3 : 2 -6

5 60 ( b ig ) '[ 420 ] ( b ig )

TYPE

IT o ta l 2 2 .5 k g 2 2 .5 k g

H an iga lba t H an iga lba t

: _

1 8 .88 k g

A r rapha

-

1 5 .06 k g

A r rapha

- 4 00 ( b ig )

2 80 ( sma l l )

1 90

( 870 )

1 6 .56 k g

N uz im i l i t ia

H SS 1 5 3 : 10 13

5 98 ( b ig )

4 40 ( sm a l l )

-

( 1038 )

2 1 .6 k g

N uz i m il i t ia

H SS 1 5 3 : 17 -2 1 H SS 1 5 3 : 27 -31

5 00 ( b ig )

3 60 ( sm a l l ) 3 12 ( sma l l )

1 90

( 1050 )

'2 0 .25 k g

N uz i m il i t ia

1 90

( 937 )

1 7 .89 k g

N uz i m il i t ia

4 35 ( b ig. )

K enda l l 1 98 1 , 2 09 ,n o te 3 3 . F o rt u t iwa =k a rd io p hy laxs e e K enda l l 1 979 , 1 83 ; K enda l l 1 98 1 ,2 02 ,n o t e9 . F o rf u r the rt y pe ss ee : L acheman 1 955 , 1 5 :12 ,2 6 ,4 3 ,4 8 ,5 2 ,5 4 . K enda l l 1 979 ,2 77 ; K enda l l 1 98 1 , 2 12 -2 13 . Z accagn in i 1 979 , 2 6 -27 . H SM 1 20 1 , 1 2 13 , 1 229 : 2 5 g ,H SM 1 202 : 2 7 .3 g ,H SM 1 02 1 : 3 1 g ,H SM 1 08 1 : 5 2g ,K enda l l 1 98 1 ,2 13 ,n o t e4 4 . F o rt h ef o l low ing c a lcu la t ion w eu sed m ean v a lue sa sf o l low s : " b ig" s ca le : H SM 1 202 =2 7 .3 g ;" sma l l " s c a le : H SM 1 282 = 1 2 g .T he w e igh tc a lcu la t ion so fD iagram Ir e f e ro n ly t ot h ew e igh t so ft h eb ody a rmou r s w i thou tt h eh e lme t s . 7 1

7 2 7 3

7 4 7 5 7 6 7 7

9

H SS 1 59 H SS 1 59 b H SS 1 5 1

4 00 ( b ig )

2 79 ( sma l l )

-

-

-

3x1 93 o r 2x1 90 , 1x2 00

[ x ]00

2 46 ( l ea the r )

,[ x 179

( 679 ) -

1 4 ,26 k g

Nuz i m il i t ia

-

N uz im il i t ia

-

-

Nuz i m il i t ia

D iagram 1 :R econ s t ruc t ion o ft h ed if e ren tt y pe so fs c a le a rmou ru sed b yt h ed i f f e ren tN uz ic ha r io tu n i t s .

O ne o f t h e e a r l ie s t k nown r ep re sen ta t ion s o f as u i t o f s c a le a rmou r a nd i t s h e lme t i s ag r a ff i to o n a p o t she rd f ound a tB ogazköy ( Char t I ,n o . 1 6 ) . T h i s 1 5t h c en tu ry B .C . g r af f i to d ep ic t s aw a r r io r w i th a s wo rd . H e w ea r s s c a le a rmou rr e ach ing t oh i s e l bow o nh i s a rm . O nh i sb ody ( p robab ly o ve r t h et o p o f h i s s u i to fs c a le a rmou r ) t h e re i s aw a is tcoa t s t reng thened w i th m e ta l d i sk s . H i s d i s t inc t ive h e lme t i sa t y pe o fh e lme t s o f a r k nown o n ly i nt h e A egean 7 8: t h e s ku l l -p iece , t h e e a r f lap s a nd t h e n eck -gua rd o f h i s h e lme t w e re m ade o fs ma l l s ca le s f i xed b e tween h o r izon ta l m e ta l b and s ( hoop s ) . T he re a r e 4s uch b and so nt h e s ku l l -p iece , 4o nt h ee a r f lap s a nd 3o nt h en eck -gua rd . T he re a r et wo h o rn s o nt h eh e lme t : as ma l l h o rn p ro jec t s f r om t h e f r on t , a nd ab i g h o rn p ro jec t s f r om t h et o p o ft h e h e lme t . T he re i s al o ng p lume m ade o fh o r seha i r h ang ing o n t h e b ack o f t h e h e lme t . I n t h e A egean t h i s t ype o f h e lme t w a s m ade f r om s c a le s m ade o fb oa r 's t u sk s7 9. H oweve rt h e re a r en o s u ch b oa r 's t u sk p l a te s k nown f r om t h e N ea rE a s t . S ince t h ep l a te s f i xed b e tween b and s o n t h e h e lme t a r ed ep ic ted o n t h e g raf f i to i nt h e s ame w ay ( z igzag ) a s t h e s ca le s o f t h e s c a le a rmou r , i tc an b e a s sumed t h a t t h e h e lme t w a s m ade n o t o f b oa r 's t u sk p l a te s , b u t o fb ronze p l a te s o r s c a le s . T h i s a s sump t ion m igh t b e c o r rec t a s t h e re a r e s c a le a rmou rp l a te se a r l ie rt h en t h e 1 5t h c en tu ry B .C . k nown f r om B ogazköy 8 °, a nd t h e re a r e s eve ra l l a te 1 5t h c en tu ry B .C . r e p re sen ta t ion s o fs c a le a rmou r h e lme t s k nown f r om E gyp t , f r om ab ronze r e l ie fo ft h e c ha r io to fT hu tmo se I V ( 1401 1391 B .C . ) ( Char t 1 ,n o s . 2 7 -32 ) .P robab ly t h e s ame t ype o fh e lme t i s s hown o n ah o r seman d ep ic ted o n a1 8 117 t h c en tu ry B .C . A na to l ian c y l inde r s ea l . On t h i s s e a l t h e re a r e t wo w a r r io r s o ne o fw h ich w ea r s ah em i sphe r ica l h e lme t ( Char t I ,n o . 1 2 ) w h i le t h e o t he r w ea r s a h e lme tw i th ah i gh h o rn p ro jec t ing f r om t h et o p ( Char t1 ,n o . 1 3 ) s im i la rt ot h eh e lme to ft h e B ogazköy p o t she rd ( Char t 1 ,n o . 1 6 ) . T h i s c y l inde r s e a l i sc on tempo ra ry w i th t h e e a r l ie s t k nown r ep re sen ta t ion s o ft h e A egean b oa r 's t u sk h e lme t , s o t h e q ue s t ion , w he the r t h i s t y pe o fh e lme t o r ig ina ted i n We s te rn A na to l ia o r i nt h e A egean ( f o r e xamp le i nC re te ) , r ema in s u n se t t led . I ts e em s l i ke ly t h a t t h i s t y pe o f h e lme t s p read q u ick ly . T h roughou t t h e M idd le a nd L a te H e l lad ic a nd M inoan p e r iod s t h e b oa r 's t u sk h e lme t ( Eber zahnhe lm ) r ema ined t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t h e lme t t y pe o f t h e A egean 8 1 -t h e re a r e a c tua l p i ece s o f t h i s t y pe k nown f r om D end ra ( t he h e lme t o f t h e D end ra p anop ly )8 2 ,a nd f r om Z aphe r P apou ra8 3 a nd e ven H ome rm en t ion s i tm - i nA na to l ia i tw a s r e p la ced b yb ronze s c a le a rmou r h e lme t s ( Char tI ,n o s . 2 7 -32 ) a nd b ronze h e lme t s( Char tI ,n o s . 3 7 -39 ) .I no t he rp a r t s o ft h eN ea rE a s tt h i s t y pe w a s u nknown . I nN o r th S y r ia t h e d eve lopmen t o fb ronze s c a le a rmou r h e lme t s ( Char t 1 ,n o s . 2 7 -32 ) a nd h amme red b ronze h e lme t s ( Char t1 ,n o s . 1 8 -26 , 4 0 , 4 1 ) w a sc on t inuou s . F rom t h em idd le o ft h e2 '1m i l lenn ium B .C . t h e re w e re t h re et y pe so fh e lme t s u sed i nt h eN ea r E a s t : 1 .H e lme t sm ade o fb ronze s c a le a rmou rp l a te s ( Char tI ,n o s . 2 7 -32 ) 2 .H e lme t sm ade o fl e a the ra nd s t reng thened w i th m e ta lp l a te sa nd d i sk s( Char t1 ,n os . 3 3 -36 ) 3 .H e lme t sh amme red o u tf r om b ronze p l a te I .C on ica l h e lme t s ( w i th r ounded p o in t ) a .H e lme t s w i thou tc r e s t( Char t1 ,n o s . 1 8 , 2 3 -26 ) b .C re s ted h e lme t s( Char t1 ,n o . 2 2 ) c .P lumed h e lme t s( Char tI ,n o . 1 9 ) d .C re s ted a nd p lumed h e lme t s( Char tI ,n o s . 2 0 -21 , 3 7 ) B o r chha rd t 1 972 ,2 7a nd m ap ; B o rchha rd t 1 977 ,E 64 ,f i g . 1 2 . X enak i -Sake l la r iou 1 953 ,p a s s im ; D eonna 1 954 , 2 53 -257 ; H encken 1 971 , 1 8 -20 ,f i g . 4 ;B o rchha rd t 1 972 , G reek Ma in land : 1 6 3 7 , K a t . 2I1 ,p l . 4 : 1 ; K a t . 5 I1 ,p l . 4 : 3 ; K a t . 5I3 ,p l . 4 : 8 ; K a t . 5I V , p l . 4 :2 , ( MH I I ) LH ( c a . 1 500 1400 B .C . ) ; C re t e : 4 7 -52 , K a t . 9I ,p l .4 :9 ; K a t .9 I ,p l . 4 : 10 ; K a t . 9I I 1 ,p l .4 : 5 -6 ; K a t . 9I I 2 ,p l . 4 : 7 ; K a t . 9I V , p l . 4 :4 , ( MM I I ) LM LH I I I( 16 `b15 t hc en tu ry B .C . ) ; B o rchha rd t 1 977 ,E 62 -E65 ,f i g s . 1 -12 . B oehme r 1 972 , 1 02 104 ,p l . XXV ,n o s . 8 03 -808 .A . 1 8t hc en tu ry B .C . (? ) . T he re i so n ly as i ng le b ronze h e lme tk nown f r om t h em idd le o ft h e rd m i l lenn ium B .C . A egean ( LM I Lc a . 1 450 1400 B .C . ) : K no s so s , H o sp i ta lS i t e ,T omb V ( A rchaeo log ica l Mu seum , I r ak l ion ) . H . : 1 7 c m ; d i am . : 2 1 c m ; h .o fe a r f lap s : 1 6 .5 c m ; w . : 9cm ; h .o ft h ek nob : 3 . 9c m ; w . : 5cm ; w e igh t : 6 95 g .H ood -d eJ ong 1 952 , 2 56 -260 ,p l s . 5 0 -52 ; S nodg ra s s 1 964 , 3 -4 ; H en cken 1 97 1 , 2 0 , f i g . 3 e -g ( Hencken a s sumed t h a tt h i sh e lm e ti s ab ronze i m i ta t ion o ft h eb oa r 's t u sk h e lm e t , b ecau se t h eb oa rw a s ar e la t ive ly r a r e a n ima l o n C re t e , a nd c on sequen t ly ab ronze h e lm e t w a s c heape r t h an ab oa r 's t u sk h e lm e t ) ; B o r chha rd t 1 972 , 5-60 , p l . 3 7 :1 ,4 ,K a t . 1 I ;G u ida 1 973 ,p l . 3 0 ; B o rchha rd t 1 977 ,E 65 -E66 ,p l . E I I Id . D end ra ,T omb X I I : b oa r 's t u sk p l a te s a nd ap a i ro fb ronze e a r f l ap s . V e rdel i s 1 967 ,4 2 -44 ,p l s . 2 0 -2 1 ; D aux 1 961 , 6 71 -675 , f i g . 1 ;V e rdel i s 1 977 ,2 8 -65 ,p l . XV :2 ; B o rchha rd t 1 972 , 3 0 -32 ,p l . 6 ,K a t . 4I V 3 , LH ( 1450 1400 B .C . ) . A rchaeo log ica l Mu seum , I r ak l ion . D aux 1 968 ,9 94 ,9 96 ,f i g . 5 . I l iad ,X :260 . F o rt h em ap o ft h e" j ou rney " o ft h i sh e lm e ts ee B o r chha rd t 1 972 , 8 1 ,f i g .7 . 7 8

8 0 8 1

8 2

8 3

8 4

1 0

I .P o in ted h e lme t s ( f o re runne r so fA s sy r ian p o in ted h e lme t s ) , ( Char t1 ,n o s . 3 8 , 4 0 -41 ) I I . H em i sphe r ica lc r e s ted h e lme t s ( Char t1 ,n o s . 3 9 , 4 6 -54 ) 1 .T he mo s t i mpo r tan tp i c to r ia l e v iden ce f o r h e lme t s m ade o fb ron ze s c a le s a r e t h e s c ene s o n t h e s i de s o ft h ec ha r io to fT hu tmo se I V( 1401 1391 B .C . )8 5 m ade o fb ronze , w he re ab a t t le i sd ep ic ted b e tween t h e p ha raoh a nd b ea rded , c l o se c r opped N o r th S y r ian ( M i tann ian? ) c ha r io tee r s . S eve ra l o ft h e t y pe s o f a rmou r m en t ioned a bove a r e s hown : s c a le a rmou r ( s ar iam k ur s imä tu ) , ( l ea the r ) b ody a rmou r w i th a b ronze p l a te o n t h e f r on t w e igh t ing 1m ana ( 0 .5 k g ) ( s a r iam J a r amän i J a i r t i Imana J a s i pa r r i )8 6, l e a the rb ody a rmou r w i th b ronze o ni t sb ack ( s a r iam J a r amän i ju J am a jk i a ja rs ä r i ju s i pa r r i )8 7, b ody a rmou r w i th i t s k ard io p hy lake s a nd i t s h e lme t m ade o fb ronze ( s a r iam J a r amändu J a t u t iwajunu u g urp i s ijunu s i par r i ) 8 ,l e a the r b ody a rmou r w i th b ronze s l eeve s a nd 4 k a lku s ( s a r iam m a jk iJ ar amän a v vä l i 4k a lku uJ a a b idunu J a s i par r i )8 9, h o r se a rmou r ( s a r iam J a s i s i ,p a ra j jannu J a s i s i ) a nd e ven c ha r io t a rmou r ( s ar iam J a n arkab t i ,p ara jjannu J a n arkab t i ) . T he t e n h e lme t s d ep ic ted o n t h e b ronze p a rape t f a l l i n to t wo g r oup s : s c a le a rmou r h e lme t s ( Char t I , n os . 2 7 -32 ) a nd l e a the r h e lme t s s t reng thened w i th m e ta l p l a te s a nd d i sk s ( Char t 1 ,n o s . 3 3 -36 ) . T he re a r e t wo t y pe s o f s c a le a rmou r h e lme t s s hown o n t h e b ronze r e l ief : 1 .H e lme t s m ade o fo ne r ow o fl ong b ronze s c a le p l a te s ( Char t 1 , n os . 2 7 -30 ) ; 2 .H e lme t s m ade o ft wo r ow s o fs ho r te r b ronze s c a le p l a te s ( Char t 1 ,n o s . 3 1 -32 ) . A l l o f t h e se s ca le a rmou r h e lme t s a r e f u rn i shed w i th al o ng p l ume m ade o f l e a the r o r h o r seha i r . O ne o ft h e h e lme t sh a s ab ronze o rl e a the rn eck -gua rd c ove r ing t h e w a r r io r 's e a r s a nd t h roa t( Char t1 ,n o . 2 7 ) . T he re a r ec a . 8 0 t a b le t s ( o ft h e t o ta l f ou rt h ou sand ) f ound i nt h e N uz i a r ch ive w h ich d ea l w i th t h e q ue s t ion o f i s su ing t h e m embe r s o f t h e l o ca l m i l i t ia w i th a rmou r a nd w eapon s f r om t h e c en t ra l a r sena l o ft h e t own . T he se t a b le t s d e sc r ibe a l t h e w eapon s , a rmou r ( a t l e a s t 1 6 t y pe s ) , h o r se -ha rne s s a nd c ha r io t e qu ipmen t , b u t d o n o t m en t ion as i ng le k nown w o rd - n e i the r t h e H u r r ian b u l iam n o r t h e Akkad ian d e l' - f o r " he lme t" . I tw ou ld b e s u rp r i s ing a nd i n comp rehen s ib le i fo ne o f t h e m o s t i mpo r tan tp i ece so ft h ea rmou rt h e " he lme t" w a s n o tm en t ioned a ta l . S cho la r s f o r l o ng t ime h ave b een i n te re s ted i n d ef in ing t h e e xac t m ean ing o f aw o rd , t h e g urp i su , w h ich i sp a r t o f t h e a rmou r r e la t ing t o b o th t h e h ead 9 1 a nd t h e b ody 9 2 .L acheman , w ho p ub l i shed m o s t o f t h e N uz i t a b le t s , c on s ide red i ta s ap i ece o f a rmou r p ro tec t ing t h e h ead ( bu t n o t d ef in i te ly ah e lme t )9 3 .V on B randen s te in b a s ing h i s t h eo ry o n t h e N uz i m a te r ia l a s sumed t h a t i ti sa k i nd o fb r ea s tp la te ( Ha l sberge )9 4. S pe i se r s uppo sed t h a t t h eg urp i su m ade o fs c a le p l a te s i s ap i ece o f a rmou r a t ta ched t ot h e b ody a rmou r9 5 ,b u t f o r t h e " gurp i su o f t h e h ead" h e t h ough t p o s s ib le t h a t i t m igh t e ven b e ah e lme t9 6 .O ppenhe im a r gued t h a t i tw a s ak i nd o f n eck -gua rd m ade o f l e a the r a nd c ove red w i th b ronze s c a le s , w h ich w a s a t tached t ot h e r im o ft h e h e lme t a nd p ro tec ted t h e n eck , t h e e a r s , t h ec h in a nd t h e t h roa t , a nd l e f to n ly t h e n o se a nd e ye s f r ee 9 7. A . S a lonen r e f e r red t ot h e S an sk r i t a nd I r an ian e t ymo logy o ft h ew o rd ( " neck a nd b ody p ro tec t ion " )9 8, a nd a ccep ted t h e h e lme t , c o l la r , a nd p ec to ra l i n te rp re ta t ion s a sw e l 1 9 .E . S a lonen e xam in ing t h e c une ifo rm s ou rce s c on s ide red i tak i nd o f b ody a rmou r o rh e lme t a nd t r an s la ted i ta sa rmou r m .V o lume " G" o f T he A s syr ian D ic t iona ry o ft h e U n iver s i ty o fC h icago ( CAD ) t r an s la te s i ts c a le a rmou r h aube rk l ° 1 ,b u t t h e l a te r v o lume s t r an s la te i t " he lme t" 1 ° 2 . V on S oden l ° 3 r e ga rded i ta s ak i nd o fa rmou rf u rn i shed w i th ap ro tec t ive a p ron f o rs o ld ie r s

8 5

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8 8 9

C a r t e r- Newbe r ry 1 904 ,p a s s im ; Y ad in 1 963 , 1 92 193 ; K enda l l 1 98 1 ,f i g . 8 . P f e if f e r -L acheman 1 942 , 1 95 :15 16 , L acheman 1 955 ,4 : 15 . L acheman 1 950 ,6 16 :12 14 . C h ie ra 1 934 , 5 33 :6 ; K enda l l 1 98 1 , 2 09 ,n o te 3 3 .

T homp son 1 904 , 1 9( K .9983 ) ,R s . 7 :[ e l lu -a =h u l i -[ am ] ; v on S oden 1 965198 1 ,s . v . " hu l i ( j )am" , 3 53 -354 ; O ppenh e im e ta l . 1 956b , s . v . " hu l iam" , 2 28 -229 . 9 1 L acheman 1 955 ,9 b :2 : g ur p i su l aq aqqad i( " gurp i su o ft h eh ead" ) . 9 2 C h ie ra 1 934 ,5 27 :15 : g u rp i su s i pa r r il ar amän a wg i( " b ronze g urp i su f o rt h eb ady o ft h em an " ) . 9 3 L acheman 1 939 ,5 4 1 : " Ia mt h u si n c l ined t ot h ink t h a tk u rp i su w a st h eh ead p a r to ft h ep ro tec t ive a rmou r " . 9 4 v on B randen s te in 1 940 , 1 04 105 . 9 5 S pe i se r 1 950 ,4 7 -49 . 9 6 S pe i se r 1 950 ,4 8 : " a v i so r , ab eave r , o rp e rhap se ven t h eh e lm e ti t se l f ." 9 7 O ppenhe im 1 950 , 1 92 193 ,n o t e 1 7 . 9 8 S a lonen 1 951 , 1 30 , n o te 2 :" s an sk r i t k ürpä sa ( s pä te r a uch k urpä sa , p rak r t . k uppä sa ) , " J acke a l s S chu t zwaf f e " ; p e r s . g zy vp ' n : g r ivßan " Ha l s schu t z " . S a lonen 1 955 , 1 4 1-142 : " e in e A r t ' He lm ' f ü r P f e rde u nd S o lda ten" ; " e inen m i t Me ta l lp lä t tchen ü be rzogenen l e de rnen B ru s t schu t z " . S a lonen 1 966 , 1 0 1102 : " e ine A r tP anz e r " . 1 0 O ppenhe im e ta l . 1 956a , 1 39 ,s .v ." gurp i su" : " l ea the rh aube rk c ove red w i th m e ta ls ca le s ( a s p a r to ft h ea rmou ro fs o ld ie r s a nd h o r se s )" . 1 02 R e ine re ta l . 1 984 , 3 13 -315 ,s . v . " s i r iam" . 9 °

1 ° 3

v on S oden 1 965198 1 ,9 29 , s .v ." qurp i ( s )su (m )" : " e ine P anze rübe rwu r fm i te i nem N ack en schu tz f ü r Men schen u nd P f e rd e" .

1

a nd h o r se s . K enda l l h a s r e cen t ly s hown t h a tg urp i su mo s tp robab ly m ean s " he lme t" 1 ° 4 . T h i sr e su l tm ay s o lve t h ep rob lem o ft h ea lmo s tt o ta ll a ck o fw o rd s m ean ing " he lme t" i n Akkad ian l ° 5 . T he e a r l ie s t k nown o ccu r rence o f t h e w o rd g urp i su i sa n O ld B aby lon ian c une ifo rm t e x tl ° 6 f ound a tE shnunna : 1 . 4d u -d ig ur -p i -su aSAR -k i im 2 . 7d u -d i3 8g ur -p i -su s aa s 1 iim T h i s l o cu sh a sb een ah apax l e gomenon f o r al o ng t ime l ° 7 . N obody c ou ld r e a l ly e xp la in i t .I nh i s a r t ic le K enda l lp ropo sed t h ea d lum = " ma tg ra s s" , " r eed" m ean ing l ° 8 a nd f ound ar ep re sen ta t ion o ft h i st y pe o f " co rded h e lme t" 1 ° 9 , b u t h e n eg lec ted t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o fw o rd s arkum . T he g urp i su aa l im =c o rded h e lme t i n te rp re ta t ion m igh t h ave b een v e r if ied b y t h e t e rm s ag gu ün inn i s (a lum ) =" r eed m a t t ing h eadd re s s" m en t ioned a bove '1 0 , a nd i nl i ne 2o fa nO ld B aby lon ian c une ifo rm t e x tf ound a t Ma r i" : 2 . 2g i g ur -s i -pu U S B u t t h e l a ck o f t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o f w o rd s arkum make s f u r the r e xam ina t ion n ece s sa ry . A no the r r e ad ing o f s ar -k i im i sd ar -k i im , w h ich m ake s a no the r i n te rp re ta t ion p o s s ib le . N ame ly t h a t d arkum m ean s " g roup o fs o ld ie r s" 1 2 . A nd t h e w o rd a lum h ad as im i la r m ean ing i n s tead o f" r eed m a t t ing" i n t h e O ld B aby lon ian p e r iod : " g roup o f 8 12 m en" I 1 3 .I tc an b e c onc luded t h a t t h i s l o cu s m en t ions p robab ly h e lme t s f o rt wo ( un iden t if iab le ) g roup so fs o ld ie r s ( d ar kum a nd a lum m en ) . T he re i s af u r the r c une ifo rm t e x t o ft h e O ld B aby lon ian p e r iod f r om Ma r i1 4 m en t ion ing t he g urp isu , b u t mo s to fi t s o ccu r rence s a r e k nown f r om t h e m idd le o ft h e 21' dm i l lenn ium B .C . C une ifo rm t e x t s i nt h eN uz i a r ch ive o ft h es ame p e r iod h ave a l ready b een d i scu s sed , b u tt h e re i sa no the rM i tann ian d ocumen t , t h e l e t te r o f T u sh ra t ta , k i ng o f M i tann i m en t ion ing a rmou r p iece s f r om t h e s am e p e r iod . T h i s l e t te r1 5 ,w r i t ten b y T u sh ra t ta t o Amenho tep I I , k ing o fE gyp t ( 1 391 1353 B .C . ) , f ound a te l Ama rna , i s al i s to fd ow ry r e semb l ing t h eN uz i i n ven to ry l i s t s1 6 : v s . I I : 3 7 . 3 8 . 3 9 . 4 0 . 4 1 .

1 du ( i l tändu ) s a -r i -am UD .KA .BAR (s ipar r i )

1g ur -s i -Up UD .KA .BAR (s ipar r i ) d a ]

LÜ (awö l i ) 1 du ( i d t Mdu )s a -r i -am d a KUS (madk i ) 1g ur -s i -Up UD .K 1A .BAR (s iparr i ) d al üs ä -ar -GU t i 1 nu tu 4 ( i df f i nnü tu ) s a -r i -am aKUS ' (mad k i ) ANSE .KUR .RA .M e s i s i )k u la -a -na s a UD .KA .BAR (s ipar r i )m uu h -hu -zu 2g ur s i ip aUD .KA .BAR (s ipar r i ) aA I NSE .KUR .RA . MEA (s i s t )

T he m ean ing o f g urp i su m en t ioned i n t h e t e x t t o ge the r w i th t h e w o rd s ar iam ( a rmou r ) i sa lmos t c e r ta in ly " he lme t " . F rom t h e c on tempo ra ry E gyp t ian r ep re sen ta t ion s1 7 i ti sc l ea r t h a t t h e re w a s n o a dd i t iona lp i ece o fa rmou r , c u i ra s s a nd c o l la r —i d en t if ied b y s om any s cho la r s w i th t h eg urp i su —w o rn b yt h ec ha r io tw a r r io r s . T he f r equen tr e f e ren ce t og urp i su w ou ld h ave b een u nnece s sa ry i fi tw a sp a r to f

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K enda l l 1 981 ,p a s s im . T he b e s t k nown w o rd f o r h e lme t " hu l iam " o ccu r s a l toge the r t h ree t im e s i nA kk ad ian ( A ssy r ian a nd B aby lon ian d i a lec t s ) .

O ppenhe im 1 956b , 2 28 ,s . v . " bu l iam " ; v on S oden 1 965198 1 ,3 53 -354 ,s . v . " hu l i ( j )am " . 1 ° 6 B aghdad , 1 M 3 1309 , 1 2 ; S a lonen 1 966 , 1 0 1 ; O ppenhe im e ta l . 1 956a , 1 39 ,s .v ." gur p i su" ; K enda l l 1 981 , 2 05 ,n o t e2 4 . 1 07 O ppenhe im e ta l . 1 956a , 1 39 ,s . v . " gur p i su " : " 240 h aube rk sw i th . ,4 58 h aube rk sw i th . " . 1 08 K enda l l 1 981 ,2 05 ,n o t e2 4 : " 240 h e lme t so f. ,4 58 c o rded h e lm e t s" ;g urp i su l aa l im ( l i t . " he lme to fr ope" ) . 1 09 O na nO ld B aby lon ian t e r raco t ta . K enda l l 1 98 1 , 2 05 ,n o t e2 4 . 10 S ee p .5 ,n o te 3 3 . 1 B o t t6 ro 1 956 , 2 55 :2 ; O ppenhe im e ta l . 1 956a , 1 39 , s . v . " gur p i su" : " two h aube rk s ( r each ing t o ) t h e g en i ta l s" ; K enda l l 1 981 , 2 05 ,n o te 2 4 : " two h e lme t so f( woven )r e ed , o rd ina ry q ua l i ty " ,o rp e rhap s " two c odp iece so fw oven r e ed " . "2 v on S od en 1 965 198 1 , 1 029 , s . v . " Sa rku" (

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b ea re r s l e d b y t h e c r own -p r ince T he k ing i sa rmed w i th as wo rd a nd h o ld s ab ow . T he f i r s ta t tendand t b eh ind t h e k i ng h o ld s a b a ldach in , t h es e cond i sa rm ed w i th as pea r , t h et h i rd a nd f ou r th a r ea rmed w i th m ace , s wo rd ,b ow a nd q u ive r . T h ec r own -p r ince a nd t h ree o fh i sa t t endan t sw ea rt h es ame e l abo ra te d r e s s w i th l o ng r i bbon sa nd a r e a rmed w i th s wo rd . T he f ou r th of i c ia lb eh ind t h e c rown -p r ince l e ad s t h e p roce s s ion o f w e s t e rn t r ibu te -bea re r s . T he f i r s t o ft h em i st h e i r l e ade r , w h i le t h e o t he r s c a r ry m e ta l r hy to r i /ca l ix , b ucke t , b ow l , ab ag ( o fp rec iou s m e ta l? ) , as i tu la , t wo t r ay s o fu n ique o b jec t s , a nd ab unch o fs pea r s . ( P l s . 2 0 -23 ) . L a te 9f i -e a r ly 8f i c en tu ry B .C . -K a r l sruhe , B ad i sche s L ande smu seum , I n v . n o . : 8 9 / 12 - K e l lne r 1 980 , 2 11 -2 12 , p l s . 1 3 14 ; G rö sche l 1 986 , 7 4 , n o te s 2 29 -233 ; Maa s s 1 987 , 6 5 -7 1 , p l s . 1 : 2 , 2 ,3 ; Maa s s 1 988 , 1 70 , n o . 9 7 , f i g . 9 7 ; P f lug 1 988 , 2 4 , n o te 7 5 ; Maa s s 1 989 , 1 95 ;D er sö -C u r t i s 1 991 , 14 12 1 ,p l . 1 8 . 1 5 . P rovenance u nknown , G roup n o . A .3 .4 - H . : 2 4 .6 cm , D iam . : 1 9 .6 c m . C on ica l h e lm e t w i th ac r e scen t shape c r e s t . T he r e a r ef ou rr i b sa r ound t h eb a se o ft h eh e lme t . T he re a r e 1 h o le s ( t he d i s tance b e tween t h em i s3 . 8 -4 .5 cm )a l ong t h eb a se p robab ly f o r al i n ing . T he r e a r e t h ree h o l e s o n e i the r s i de s o f t h e h e lm e t f o r t h e c h in s t r ap ( o r e a r f lap s ) . T he h e igh t o f t h e s ku l l o f t h e h e lme ti s1 6 .5 c m . T he c r e s t suppo r t w a s m ade f r om as epa ra te p i ece o fb ronz e s hee ta nd c u rved i nt h e s hape o f ac on ica l t u be . T he b a se o ft h ec r e s t suppo r tw a sr i ve ted t ot h et o p o ft h es kul o ft h eh e lm e tb y 7r i ve t s . T he r ea r e 7o the rh o le s ( f rom a n e a r l ie r r i ve t ing ) v i s ib le i n s ide t h e t o p o ft h e h e lm e t . T he c r e scen t shape c r e s t i sb roken . I th a s aU shape c ro s s sec t ion . T he c r e s t w a s r i ve ted t ot h ec r e s t suppo r tb yt wo r i ve t s ( one o n e i th e rs i de s ) a nd t ot h es ku l l -p iece ( b e tween t h e rd a nd 3 rd r i b s )b yt h r ee r i ve t s . T he re i s as e r ie s o fe mbo ssed k nob s a l ong t h e e dg e s o ft h e c r e s t . T he r e a r e 1 6 h o le s ( e igh tp a i r s ) o n t h e f r on t o ft h e h e lm e t f o r f i x ing t h e c r e s t ( now b roken ) t ot h e h e lme t . O n ly t wo r i ve t s s u rv ived i np o s i t ion , e i th e r w i th as ma l l f r agmen t o ft h e c r e s t ( P l . 2 4 ) . 8 'h c en tu ry B .C . -L ondon , B r i t i sh Mu seum , I nv . n o . : 2 84 1 ( R icha rd P ayne K n igh tB eque s t , 1 824 ) -Wa l t e r s 1 899 , 3 49 , c a t . n o . 2 84 1 ; B r i t i sh Mu seum 1 929 ,7 7 ,7 9 ,f i g . 6 9 ,n o . 2 29 ; P f lug 1 988a , 1 9 -20 ,f i g . 9 ,n o t e4 3 .

G roup A .4 : A s syr ian c on ica lc re s ted i r on h e lme t s( Ca t . n o s . 1 6 -31 ) I n t h e a u tumn o f 1 846 , S i r A u s t in H en ry L aya rd e xcava t ing C hambe r Io f t h e N o r thwe s t P a lace a t N im rud , f ound s e ve ra l c r e s ted i r on h e lme t s3 8 5 .1 6 i r on f r agmen t s d eco ra ted w i th b ronze i n lay f r om t h a t f i nd a r e n ow i nt h e B r i t ish Mu seum , u nde r t h e n umbe r s 4 8 -1 1 4 , 113 11 5 .The f i gu re o fI s h ta r o n t h e f r agmen ti sa ne xac tp a ra l le l t ot h er ep re sen ta t ion o fI s h ta ro fA rba ' i lo n as t e le f r om T i l -Ba r s ip 3 8 6 ( F ig . 4 ) , d ed ica t ed t ot h e g odde s s b y A shu r -du r -pan iya , g ove rno r ( ? ) o fK a r -Shu lmanu -a sha redu 3 8 7 . I s h ta r i s s hown i nt h es ame b a t t le d r e s s : t h e re a r et wo q u ive r s o n h e r b ack ( one o n e ach s hou lde r , c r o s s ing e a ch o t he ro nh e r b ack ) . T he re i s as h ie ld o rm e lammu h ang ing o n h e r b ack 3 8 a nd as wo rd a th e r w a i s t . S he w ea r s ah o rned p o lo sc ap w i th as t a r o ni t .H e rr i gh t h and i sr a i sed , h e r l e f t h and h o ld s t h er e in s o ft h e l i on o n w ho se b ack s he s t and s3 8 9 . T he s t y le o ft h is s t e le i sd eba tab le . I ti ss a id t ob e i nt h e N o r th S y r ian t r ad i t ion 3 9 ° b u t , a si t d r aw s u pon v e ry a nc ien t Me sopo tam ian i c onog raph ic t r ad i t ion f o r I s h ta r , t h e re i s n o r e a son t o d i s t ingu ish i tf r om t h e g ene ra l A s sy ro -Baby lon ian i mage ry f o rt h is g odde s s . I no ne o fh i sd r eam s , A shu rban ipa l s aw I s h ta ro fA rba ' i l w i th t h es ame a t t r ibu te sa so nt h eT i l B a r s ip s t e le a nd o no u rh e lme t3 9 1 : aq u ive r h ang ing o n e ach o fh e r s hou lde r s , as wo rd a th e r w a i s t ; b u t i nh e rr i gh th and s he c a r r ied ab ow i n s tead o ft h er e in so ft h el i on . L aya rd 1 850 ,3 4 1-342 . P a r i s , L ouv re , AO 1503 ; ' T hu r eau -Dang in - D unand 1 936 , 1 56 -157 , p l . 1 4 :1 ; B ö rke r -K lähn 1 982 , 2 26 , n o . 2 52 , p l . 2 52 ; H rouda 1 965 ,p l . 5 8 ,n o . 5( h ed a t ed t h es t e le t ot h er e ign o fT ig la th -P i l e se rI I , 7 45 -727 B .C . ) . T hu reau -Dang in -D unand 1 936 , 1 57 ,p l . 1 4 :1 : 1 )a na dI S tar (XV )a -f i -ba tu n' A rba i l 2 )b e 'l t i (G AN ) -fü A f fur -d [ür (BÄD ) ] -pän i( IG I ) -a 3 )[ . . ] w i l K ar (KAR ) -I dg u / -ma 4 )n u -a . s 'a rOd u (M A a na b a la t (T IL )n apfä t e (Z I . ME ) -fá 5 )i qq i (B AL )? -e T he i den t if i ca t ion i sd eba t ab l e . T he A nna l s o fA shu rban ipa l ( Cy l . A , C o l . I X , 1 .7 9 -80 ) m en t ion s I s h ta ro fA rba ' i la sd r e s sed i nf i r e a nd w ea r ing m e lammu ( " au ra " , " r ad iance " ) : R aw l in son 1 909 , p l . 9 ,C o l . I X , 1 .7 9 -80 : 7 9 ) di g lar (XV ) a f i -ba t 8 0 ) dG f ra (G IA .BAR ) l i t -bu -fa t m e lam -me n a -fá -a ta . S e id l 1 976 1980 , 8 8 w r i t e s : " h in t er i h r i s t e i ne a r t N imbu s w ied ergegeb en" . B u t t h is k i nd o fm e lammu i sc l ea r ly i d en t if iab le o n s eve ra l r ep re sen ta t ion s o fg od s a s af l am ing c i rc le a r ound t h e f i gu re o ft h e d e i ty . F o r e xamp le s ee t h e r e p r e sen ta t ion o fI s h ta r o n h e lm e t C a t . n o . 1 ( P l s . 1 2 -16 ) o ro n a n i n c i sed m e ta l p l aque t te ( von L u sch an e ta l . 1 893 , 4 3 , f i g . 1 2 ) s how ing t h e g odde s s o n t h e b a ck o fh e r l i on , i no ne h and h o ld ing t h er e in s a nd w i th o the rh and r a i sed . A round t h eg odde s s t h e re i st h em e lammu r e sembl ing af l am ing c i r c le . B u tt h e re c ou ld b ea no th e rt y pe o r c oncep t ion o fm e lammu rep r e sen ta t ion k nown f r om a n E xp lana to ry L i s to fG od s ( K ing 1 909 , p l . 1 0 , c o l . I ,1 .2 6 ; p l . 1 5 , o bv . c o l . I ,1 .5 -6 ) : 5 )f äm e lam -me t u l s la tu ,6 )k i i s su -ra -a t( " (a g odde s s )g i r tw i th h ang ing m e lammu s" .T he g odd e s si su nknown . We k now o n ly t h a t s he i s" far -ra ta p s i i" . S he c ou ld b e D a rnk ina o rB E l i t i län i o r maybe I s h ta r . F o rf ar ra ta p s ia nd I f tar -ap s i s e e : T a l lqv i s t 1 938 , v o l . I ,2 38 , v o l . I , 3 39 ) . S e id l 1 976 1980 , 8 w r i t e s : " Gö t t er s ta l t en - i s t o f t v on e i nem S t rah lenk ran z u mgeben ( be i d er s t e l e a us T i l -Bar s ib i s t e i n T e i l d avon a uf d em R ück en d arge s t e l l t ) , d er v i e l le ich t d a s m e lammu d er I . w ied erg ib t " . H ow eve r , t h i s i sn o t s imp ly a t e chn ica l q ue s t ion o f d ep ic t ing t h e m e lammu ( " e in T e i l d avon a uf d em R ü cken d arge s te l l t " ) ,b u t aq ue s t ion o ft h ec anon ica lr e p r e sen ta t ion o fo ne o ft h eg odde s s 's c u l ts t a tue s : t h ey w an ted t or e p r e sen t as h ie ld o r as h ie ld shaped ( h ang ing )m e lammu o n ly o nt h eb ack o ft h ef i gu re ( Ca t . n o . 1 6 ) .S ee f o re xamp le F ig .5 :10 . I nt h is c a se , w hen w e h av e n o tj u s t as im i la rb u t e xac t ly t h e s am e r ep re sen ta t ion o f ad e i ty o n t wo d if e r en t o b jec t s ( one o f t h em i sd ed ica t ed t ot h e g odd e s s )f r om d if e ren ts i te s , t h e re c an b en od oub tt h a tt h ey d e r ive f r om t h e s am e s ou r ce , p o s s ib ly f r om aw e l l k nown s t a tue - ac u l t s ta tue - o ft h e d e i ty ( I sh ta r o fA rba ' i l ) . P r e sumab ly t h i s i s ac anon ica l r ep r e sen ta t ion o fL s h ta r o f A rba ' i ld e r ived f r om o ne o fh e rc u l ts t a tue s . B ö rke r -K lähn 1 982 ,2 25 -226 . A shu rban ipa l , C y lB ,c o l . V ,4 9 -53 ; R awl in son 1 870 ,p l . 3 2 ,4 9 -53 . 3 85

3 86

3 87

3 88

3 89

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T he i c onog raphy a nd a t t r ibu te so ft h e3 "1m i l lenn ium B .C . I s h ta ra rmed 3 9 2 c hanged a tt h el a te s t i nt h e O ld -Baby lon ian p e r iod . T he t wo b unche s o fm ace s a nd a xe s c r o ss ing e ach o t he r o n t h e b ack o f t h e g odde s s3 9 3 w e re r ep la ced b y ap a i r o fq u ive r s s im i la r ly c ro s s ing e ach o the r o n t h e b ack o fI s h ta r . T he r e a son f o r t h i s c hange m igh t b e t h e i n c rea s ing r o le o f t h e b ow i n t h e w a r f a re o f t h e e a r ly 2 '1 m i l lenn ium B .C . ( F ig . 5 ) . T he re i s as e r ie s o ft e r ra co t ta p l aque s f r om K i sh ( and f r om L a r sa ) , f r om t h e O ld -Baby lon ian p e r iod s how ing I s h ta ra rmed 3 9 4 O nt h e se p l aque s( f o re xamp le : L ouv re , AO 1 0479 3 9 5 ; F ig . 5 :4 ) I s h ta ri s s hown i ns t epp ing p o s i t ion s t and ing o nt h e b a ck o fh e r l i on . S he w ea r s t h e s ame d r e s s a nd t wo q u ive r s o n h e r s hou lde r s a s o n t h e T i l -Ba r s ip s t e le a nd o n t h e h e lme t f r agmen t . H e r h and s h o ld a m ace ( s cep t re )3 9 6 o rb ow 3 9 7 , o r as c inü ta r3 9 8 . T he se t e r raco t ta p l aque s s how t h e v e ry e a r ly d eve lopmen to ft h e i c onog raphy a nd a t t r ibu te so ft h i st y pe o fr e p re sen ta t ion o fI s h ta r( F ig . 5 ) . I s h ta r , w he the r o f A rba ' i l o r a no the r c i ty o r r eg ion i sn o t c e r ta in w i thou t a n i n sc r ip t ion , a ppea r s o n m any N eo -A s sy r ian s e a l s , w h ich h ave n eve rb een s y s tema t ica l ly s t ud ied i no rde r t oi s o la te t r a i t s w h ich m igh t i d en t if y r eg iona l v a r ia t ion s ( e .g . s t amp s e a l , O xfo rd , A shmo lean Mu seum 1 891 .331 3 9 ( F ig . 5 :8 ) ; s t amp s e a l , B e r l in , V o rde ra s ia t i sche s Mu seum VA 5 887 , A ss . 1194 0 0 ( F ig . 5 :9 ) ;c y l inde r s ea l ,L ondon , B r i t i sh Mu seum , BM 8 97694 ° 1 ( F ig . 5 : 10 ) ) . B u t , a sB a r re le t h a s a r gued 4 2 : " L' I sh tar a s syr ienne a rm & e ta p t& e e s tb i en l af l ue d e l ' I sh tar g uer r i& e h ammurab ienne" , w h ich i s r e p re sen ted o nt h ea bove m en t ioned t e r raco t ta p l aque s . T he i c onog raphy a nd a t t r ibu te s o f I s h ta r a rmed o n t h e N eo -A s sy r ian s e a l s d i f f e r i n s ma l l d e ta i l s f r om t h e K ish t e r ra co t ta p l aque s4 3 . I s h ta r s t and s o n t h eb ack o f ar e cumben t l i on ( F ig . 5 : 10 ) o r o f al i on p a s san t ( F ig . 5 :8 -9 ) . T he q u ive r s o n h e r s hou lde r s a r e s t anda rd . I n h e r h and s s he h o ld s t h e r e in t ot h el i on 's n o se ( F ig . 5 :8 ) ,o r ab ow a nd a na r row ( F ig . 5 : 10 ) ,o r as t ick ( F ig . 5 :8 -9 ) . O nt h ef r on t o fh e lme tC a t . n o . 6s he w ea r s al o ng d re s s , ah o rned p o los w i th as t a ro n i t ,a nd t h e re a r e t wo q u ive r s o n h e rb ack c ro s s ing e ach o t he r a nd t e rm ina t ing i ns t a r s . T he se d i f f e rence s , w i th t h e v a r ia t ion s o n t h e O ld -Baby lon ian p l aque s , m igh t o r ig ina te f r om d i f f e ren t w r i t ten t r ad i t ion s , c e r ta in e p i sode s f r om my tho log ica lt e x t s , s cu lp tu re s ,o rc u l ts t a tue so ft h eg odde s s . A t t h e l a te s t i nt h e N eo -A s sy r ian p e r iod t h e p a i r o f q u ive r s c ro s s ing e ach o the r a ppea r o n r e p re sen ta t ion s o f o the r d e i t ie s , s how ing t h e i r w a r l ike c ha rac te r ( f o r e xamp le a s t e le o f A dad f r om A r s lan -Ta sh 4 ° 4 ,t wo o t he r s f r om A shu r4 5 ,a nd a s t e le o f g od A shu r f r om A shu r4 ° 6 n o t o n ly i n t h e A s sy r ian Emp i re ( Me sopo tam ia ,N o r th S y r ia ) ,b u te ven i nU ra r tu 4 ° 7 . I s h ta r o f A rba ' i l h e ld a n i mpo r tan t p o s i t ion i nt h e A s sy r ian p an theon . H e r w a r l ike c ha rac te r w ou ld e xp la in h e r a ppea rance o n t h e f r on t o f t h e h e lme t . I n a dd i t ion t o i t s a po t ropa ic f unc t ion , i n c ommon w i th o the r a nc ien t N ea r E a s te rn h e lme t s d eco ra ted w i th r ep re sen ta t ions o f u n ce r ta in , u n iden t if iab le f i gu re s a nd s ymbo l s o f g od s4 ° 8 ,t h e a ppea rance o f as pec if ic g odde ss ( o r g od ) o n t h e f r on to fa nA ssy r ian h e lme tr a ise so t he rq ue s t ion s . A s Menze 14 ° 9 ,D a l ley a nd P o s tga te 4 1 ° h ave p o in ted o u t , p a r t icu la r u n i t s o ft h e A s sy r ian a rmy m a rched u nde r t h e a eg i s o fp a r t icu la r d e i t ie s4 1 .T hey s ugge s ted t h a t I s h ta r w a s p a t ron o f t h e k i ng 's 4 9 ) dI r tar (XV )a -r i -ba t e ru -ba -am -ma 5 0 )i m i t tu (XV )r umä lu (2 ,30 )t u -u 1 [ la -a ta ] i g -pa -a t i 5 1) [ t am -ha -a t ] q ad t i ( g aPAN ) i na i d i -rä 5 2 ) [ g a l -pa tn am sal -ru z aq tu [ r ä ] e peg t a / ja -z i 5 3 ) [ ma l iar -gä t a ] -z i i z 3 92 F o r ad e ta i led s t udy o ft h e3 "1-21' dm i l lenn ium B .C .i c onog raphy o fI s h ta ra rmed s e eC o lbow 1 99 1 . 3 93 B a r re le t 1 955 , 2 22f f . 3 94 O p if ic iu s 1 961 , 8 6f f . ,n o s . 1 89f f . ; B a r r e le t 1 968 , 32 ,n o s . 5 75 ( La r sa ) ,6 23f f . ( K i sh ) ; Moo r ey 1 975 ,8 4 -86 ,p l s . XX c , XX Ia . 3 95 L ouv re , AO 1 0479 , f r om K i sh ; B a r r e le t 1 968 ,3 32 ,n o . 6 23 . 3% Moo r ey 1 975 ,p l . XX Ia . 3 97 B a r r e le t 1 968 ,n o . 6 23 . 3 98 B a r r e le t 1 968 ,n o . 6 23 . 3 99 O xfo rd ,A shmo lean Mu seum , 1 89 1 .331 ,B uchanan —Moo r ey 1 988 , 3 64 ,p l .X I I ,n o . 3 64 . 4 ° B e r l in , VA 5 887 ,A s s . 119 , A s su r ,T omb 8 11 , v on H a l le r 1 954 , f i g . 8 8 . 4 ° 1 L ondon , BM 8 9769 ,C olon 1 988 , 1 66 167 ,n o .7 73 . 4 °2 B a r re le t 1 955 , 2 58 -259 . 4 °3 Moo rey 1 975 , 8 5 . 4 ° 4 P a r i s ,L ouv re , AO 1 3092 ,T hu r eau -Dang in e ta l . 1 931 ,6 0 ,6 5f . ,p l . 2 : 1 ; B ö rke r -K lähn 1 982 ,2 23 ,n o . 2 50 , p l . 2 50 . 4 °5 1 .B achmann 1 927 , 3 6 , f i g . 2 3 ; 2 .L ondon , B r i t i sh Mu seum , BM 15694 ( A s s . 8 262 ) : A nd rae 1 938 , 5 0 , p l . 2 1 ; B ö rke r -K lähn 1 982 ,2 23 ,n o . 2 42 ,p l . 2 42 . 4 ° 6 B e rl in , V o rde ra s ia t i sche s Mu seum , VA 8 750 ( A s s . 9 0 15 ) ; B ö rke r -K lähn 1 982 ,2 23 ,n o . 2 43 ,p l . 2 43 . 4 ° 7 T a sy t i r ek 1 975 , 1 54 -155 ,p l s . XXXV Ia -b ;T a sy t i r ek 1 987 , v o l . I ,9 40 -955 , f i g s . 7 ,1 0 13 . 4 ° 8 F o re xamp le : t h ew inged s un -d i sk ,t h e" l igh tn ing f o rk o fg od T e i sheba " ,a nd t h eg od sa nd g en i io nU ra r t ian h e lme t s . 4 ° 9 M enze l 1 981 , v o l . I ,T .8 5 . 4 1 ° D a l ley —P o s tga te 1 984 ,4 0 -4 1 . 4 11 We d o n o t h ave d e ta i led i n fo rma t ion o n t h e m a r ch ing a nd b a t t le o rde r o fa nc ien t N ea r E a s te rn a rm ie s , e xcep t f o r a n e x t rac t f r om t h eE p ic o fZ im r i l im ( Du rand e ta l . 1 988 , 3 93 )s ay ing t h a tA dad g oe s o n t h el e f tw ing o ft h eb a t t le o rde ra nd E r r a( Ne rga l ) g oe so n t h er i gh t ; t h e" l e f ta nd r i gh tw ing s" o ft h ea rmy o rm i l i t ia o fN uz i ; t h ef ou rd i v i s ion so ft h eE gyp t ian a rmy a tt h eb a t t le o f

4 8

i mmed ia te e n tou rage , m aybe p a t ron o ft h e b ody -gua rd , o rp a t ron o ft h e r oya l t r oop s t a k ing ap l a ce i n t h e m idd le o f t h e b a t t le o rde r . O ne p a s sage f r om t h e i n sc r ip t ion o f E sa rhaddon m en t ion s h e r a s " Godde s so fC on f l ic ta nd B a t t le w ho m a rche sa tt h eS ide o ft h eK ing" 4 1 2 . T he a ppea rance o ft h ef i gu re o fI s h ta r( e ven i fn o to fA rba ' i l ) o nt h ef r on to fa no t he rA s sy r ian i r on h e lme t ( Ca t . n o . 1) c ou ld e ven mo re e mpha s ize t h i s s t a temen t a nd t h e r o le o f t h e d e i ty i nt h e A s sy r ian a rmy . T he a ppea rance o fI s h ta ro fA rba ' i l o nt h i s h e lme t w ou ld i mp ly t h a ti tw a s m ade f o rt h e r oya l b ody -gua rd o rt h e t r oop s u nde r t h e k ing 's c ommand4 1 3 .S ince t h i s i s ac r e s ted h e lme t ( P l s . 4 1 -42 ) , i t w a s t h e h e lme t o f af oo t s o ld ie r ( body -gua rd ) , b ecau se t h e c ava l ry a nd c ha r io t ry a lway s w ea r c on ica l h e lme t sa nd n eve r c r e s ted h e lme t s , w h i le t h e i n f an t ry -e spec ia l ly t h e s pea rmen w i th r ound s h ie ld sa nd b rea s t -a nd b ack -p la te s ( k ard io p hy lake s ) -o f ten w ea rc r e s ted h e lme t s . H oweve r , i ti sa l so k nown t h a t t r oop s i n t h e A s sy r ian a rmy w e re o rgan ized i n t e r r i to r ia l u n i t s 4 1 4 . O ne o ft h e se " c i ty u n i t s" i st h e " A rba ' i l u n i t" ( u' arba i l -a -a )4 1 5 . F o re xamp le f r om t h eN im rud H o r se L i s t s w e k now t h a t t h e p e r sona l n ame s i n t h i s u n i t a r e c ha rac te r ized b y ah igh p ropo r t ion c ompounded w i th t h e n ame o fI s h ta r , t h e c i ty 's p a t ron g odde s s4 1 6 . P re sumab ly I s h ta r w a s t h e p a t ron d e i ty o ft h i s u n i t a sw e l l a so ft h e i n d iv idua l s o ld ie r s . S o t h e re a r e a tl e a s t t wo p o s s ib i l i t ie s t oe xp la in t h ea ppea rance o fI s h ta ro fA rba ' i l o n t h e f r on to ft h e h e lme t : t h e s t a tu s WI q urbü te , r oya l b ody -gua rd ) o ro r ig in o ft h eu n i t( A rba ' i lu n i to ft h ek i j i rg a rd i t i )f r om w h ich i t sw ea re rc ame . T he N im rud c r e s ted i r on h e lme t s a r e o ft h e s ame t ype a st h e A s sy r ian c r e s ted b ronze h e lme t s ( Ca t . n o s . 1 3 , 1 4 ) a nd t h e U ra r t ian c r e s ted b ronze h e lme t s w i th t h e i n sc r ip t ion o f k ing I s hpu in i ( c a . 8 30 -810 B .C . ) ( Ca t . n o s . 1 09 , 10 ) . A l toge the r w e a r e d ea l ing w i th a t l e a s t f ou r h e lme t s . Two h e lme t s ( he lme t s 1 -2 ) a r e i n d ica t ed b y t h e t wo f r on t p i ece s ( Ca t . n o s . 1 6 , 1 7 ) a nd t h e p re sence o f a t l e a s t t h ree h e lme t s ( h e lme t s 1 ,3 ,4 ) c an b e r e con s t ruc ted f r om t h e f ou r c r e s t f r agmen t s ( Ca t . n os . 2 0 2 3 ) . O u rs ugge s ted r e con s t ruc t ion i s : h e lme t 1= C a t . h e lme t 2= C a t . h e lme t 3= C a t . h e lme t 4= C a t .

n o s . 1 6 ,1 9 ,2 0 ,2 1 ,2 4 -25 -26 ,2 7 ,3 1 n o . 1 7 n o .2 2 n o s .2 3 ,2 8

T he s hape o ft h ec r e s tw ou ld b es im i la rt ot h ec r e s to ft h eK a r l s ruhe h e lme t( Ca t . n o . 1 4 ) .T he w id th o ft h ei n la id b and s a nd t h ed i ame te ro ft h ed o t sa r et h es ame o nt h ec r e s t -p iece s C a t . n o s .2 0 ,2 1 , 2 2 a nd o nt h ec r e s t -ba se f r agmen tC a t . n o . 1 94 1 7 . T he se p i ece s a r ef r om t h e s ame s e r ie s o fh e lme t s a nd f r agmen tC a t . n o . 1 9 i sp o s s ib ly f r om t h es ame h e lme ta sf r agmen t s C a t . n os . 2 0 , 2 1 ( he lme tI ) . P l . 4 2 s how st h a tt h ef r agmen tC a t . n o . 1 9i sl o ca ted i nt h e s ame p o s i t ion o nt h eb a se o ft h ec r e s to nt h eb ack o ft h eh e lme ta st h er i b sc u rv ing a tr i gh ta ng le so nt h eb a ck o ft h ec r e s t -ba se o ft h eb ronze h e lme t s C a t . n o s . 1 3 , 1 4 , 1 09 , 1 10 , P l s . 1 8 -23 , 1 09 -110 ) . T he re a r e t wo h o le s a tt h e l owe r e dge o ft h e f r agmen t , t h e h o le s o f t h e r i ve t s f i x ing t h e b a se o f t h e c r e s t t ot h e b ody o f t h e h e lme t ( P l s . 4 1 -43 ) . T he Mun ich h e lme t( Ca t .n o . 1 3 ) i ss im i la ri nt h i sf e a tu re , b u to no u rh e lme tt h e l owe rp a r to ft h ec r e s to ve r lap st h e t o po ft h eb ody o ft h eh e lme t( P l . 4 3 ) . T he r i b s o n t h e c r e s ted b ronze h e lme t s ( Ca t . n os . 1 3 , 1 4 , 1 09 , 10 , P l s . 1 8 -23 , 1 09 -110 ) b o th o n t h e b a se a nd o n t h ec r e s to ft h e h e lme t -a r e t os t reng then t h e s hee t b ronze . I nt h e c a se o ft h e i r on h e lme t t h e r i b s w ou ld b e r e dundan t b e cau se o ft h e g r ea te r s t reng th o ft h e i r on . T he re fo re t h e r i b s w e re r ep laced o n t h e i r on h e lme tb y i n la id b ronze b and s -a sd eco ra t ion r ep lac ing s t ruc tu ra l n ece s s i ty . T h is r ep lacemen tr ep re sen t st h es t r ic tr u le s a nd a r cha iz ing t r ad i t ion o fA s sy r ian h e lme t -p roduc t ion . T he f i r s t i r on c r e s ted h e lme t s w e re m ade f o l low ing t h e mode l a nd d eco ra t ion o f c r e s ted b ronze h e lme t s , n ame ly t h ey w e re m ade w i th t h et e chn ique o fm anuf ac tu r ing b ronze h e lme t s . I nt h a te a r ly p e r iod t h e re w e re n o i n dependen t " i ron shape s" . T he se i n dependen t s hape s b e t te r s u i ted t o t h e c ha rac te r o f s hee t i r on a ppea r o n ly o n t h e p a lace r e l ie f s o f S enna che r ib ( 704 -681 B .C . ) : c ha rac te r i s t ic c on ica l s hape s ( F ig . I ;C har t2 ,n o s . 1 93 -213 ) . T he v e r t ica l r ow s o fp seudo r ive t s o n t h e f r on to ft h e c r e s t o ft h e K a r l s ruhe h e lme t ( Ca t . n o . 1 4 ) e voke t h ee a r l ie rc on s t ruc t ion o ft h i st y pe o fc r e s ted h e lme t : t h ep a r t s w e re r i ve ted t oge the r . O nt h e Q ade sh , a nd t h et u r tänu so ft h e l e f ta nd r i gh t : 1 )I üt u r ta -nu i m i t t i (XV ) , 2 ) h' t a r tan -nu . § u r ni l i (2 ,30 ) ; ( C iv i l 1 969 , 2 38 , c o l . I ,1 2 ; v on S oden 1 965 1981 , 1 332 ,s .v .t a /u r tänu ) . B o rge r 1 956 ,9 6 , Monumen tA ,V s . 9 : dI S tar (XV )b e l e tg ab / i (MURUB 4)üt a bä z i ( Mü )a l [ i ] 1 ca ti d i ia . Sa q urbü t e ( l ef ta nd r i gh t ) , S ' ag ipJ u n i t s . T he se t r oop s c on s i s ted o fc ava l ry a nd c ha r io t ry ( Da i ley - P o s tga t e 1 984 , 3 9 ) a nd s uppo sed ly i n f an t ry a sw e l l . D a i ley -P o s tga t e 1 984 , 3 6 -37 . P re sumab ly t h ey c on s i s ted n o to n ly o fc ava l ry b u to fi n f an t ry a sw e l l . D a i ley - P o s tga te 1 984 ,n o . 1 02 .i . 1 7 ' 18 ' ;n o . 1 08 . i .2 0 ,2 2 ,2 3 ; n o . 10 . i . 1 0 ' , 1 2 ' . T h i s f a c ti nd ica t e s t h a tt h e se h e lme t sw e r em a s s -p roduced .

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