Natural products of Silk Road plants [First edition.] 9780429061547, 0429061544, 9780429587993, 0429587996, 9780429589935, 042958993X, 9780429591877, 042959187X

Table of contents :
Cover
Half Title
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Preface
Editors
Contributors
Section I: Introduction
Section II: Eastern Asia
Mongolia
1. Medicinal Plants of Mongolia
Introduction
Edible Plants Documented In the Secret History of Mongols
Allium Microdictyon Prokh. [Amaryllidaceae]
Allium Senescens L. [Amaryllidaceae]
Lilium Pumilum Delile [Liliaceae]
Padus Asiatica L. (Rosaceae) Synonym Prunus Padus
Potentilla Anserina L. [Rosaceae]
Sanguisorba Officinalis L. (Rosaceae)
Vaccinium Vitis-Idaea L. [Ericaceae]
Plants Important For Liver Disorders
Achillea Asiatica Serg. [Asteraceae]
Dianthus Versicolor Fisch. Ex Link. [Caryophyllaceae]
Dianthus Superbus L. [Caryophyllaceae]
Iris Potaninii Maxim. [Iridaceae]
Leontopodium Leontopodioides (Willd.) Beauverd [Asteraceae]
Oxytropis Myriophylla DC. [Fabaceae]
Rhodiola Quadrifida Fisch. & Mey. [Crassulaceae]
Rhodiola Rosea L. [Crassulaceae]
Salsola Laricifolia Turcz. [Chenopodiaceae]
Saussurea Amara Less [Asteraceae]
Stellera Chamaejasme L. [Thymelaeaceae]
Endemic and Rarely Reported Plants
Adonis Mongolica Simanovich [Ranunculaceae]
Astragalus Mongholicus Bunge [Fabaceae]
Bidens Tripartita L. [Asteraceae]
Equisetum Arvense L. [Equisetaceae]
Gentiana Macrophylla Pall. [Gentianaceae]
Oxytropis Muricata DC [Fabaceae]
Oxytropis Pseudoglandulosa Gontsch. Ex Grubov [Fabaceae]
Thalictrum Foetidum L. [Ranunculaceae]
Toxic Plants Containing Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids
Cacalia Hastata L. [Asteraceae]
Lappula Myosotis Moench
Ligularia Sibirica (L.) Cass. [Compositae]
Senecio Vulgaris L. [Compositae]
Senecio Argunensis Turcz. [Compositae]
Senecio Nemorensis (L.) [Compositae]
References
China
2. Medicinal Plants of China Focusing on Tibet and Surrounding Regions
Introduction
Rheum Tanguticum Maximowiczex Regel-Polygonaceae
Arenaria Kansuensis Maxim. – Caryophyllaceae
Neopicrorhiza Scrophulariiflora (Pennell) D. Y. Hong-Scrophulariaceae
Fritillaria Cirrhosa D. Don
Przewalskia Tangutica Maximowicz– Solanaceae
Lamiophlomis Rotata (Bentham Ex J. D. Hooker) Kudô– Lamiaceae
Alcea Rosea Linnaeus – Malvaceae
Glycyrrhiza Uralensis Fischer Ex Candolle Prodr. – Fabaceae
Angelica Sinensis (Oliver) Diels – Apiaceae
Saussurea Involucrata (Kar. Et Kir.) Sch.-Bip. – Asteraceae
Rhodiola Crenulata (Hook. F. Et Thoms.) H. Ohba– Crassulaceae
Paris Polyphylla Var. Yunnanensis (Franchet) Handel-Mazzetti– Liliaceae
Arnebia Euchroma (Royle) I. M. Johnston – Boraginaceae
Ophiocordyceps Sinensis (Berk.) G.H. Sung, J.M. Sung, Hywel-Jones & Spatafora –Ophiocordycipitaceae
References
Section III: Central and Southern Asia
India
3. Medicinal Plants of the Trans-Himalaya
Geographical Location of Trans-Himalaya
Ancient Silk Roads in the Region
Terrain of the Trans-Himalaya
Flora of Trans-Himalaya
Flora of Ladakh and Lahaul-Spiti in Trans-Himalaya
Five Plant Species from Ladakh in Trans-Himalaya
Arnebia Benthamii
Classification
Distribution
Morphology
Traditional Uses
Phytochemistry
Bioactivity
Hippophae Rhamnoides
Classification
Distribution
Morphology
Traditional Uses
Phytochemistry
Bioactivity
Podophyllum Hexandrum
Classification
Distribution
Morphology
Traditional Uses
Phytochemistry
Bioactivity
Bioactivity of Podophyllotoxin Derivatives
Rheum Webbianum
Classification
Distribution
Morphology
Traditional Uses
Phytochemistry
Bioactivity
Rhodiola Imbricata
Classification
Distribution
Morphology
Traditional Uses
Phytochemistry
Bioactivity
Concluding Remarks
References
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan
4. Medicinal Plants of Central Asia
Introduction
Central Asian Medicinal Plants
Conclusions
References
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan
5. Melons of Central Asia
Historical Accounts of Wild Melon and the Development of Modern Cultivars
Melon Storage and Processing
Classification of the Melons of Central Asia
Traditionally Bred Cultivars of Central Asian Melons
Distribution of Melon Cultivars in Central Asia
Biology and Morphology of Melons
Chemical Composition of Melons
Chemical Composition of Melon Pulp
Chemical Composition of Melon Seeds
Root, Stem, and Leaf Phytochemistry
Medicinal Applications of Melons
Conclusions
References
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan
6. Resources along the Silk Road in Central Asia: Lagochilus inebrians Bunge (Turkestan Mint) and Medicago sativa L. (Alfalfa)
The Genus Lagochilus and L. Inebrians (Turkestan Mint) In Central Asia
Use of Lagochilus Species in Folk Medicine
Documented Biological Activity of Lagochilus Species
Phytochemistry of Lagochilus Species
Summary
Alfalfa (Medicago Sativa L.) In Central Asia And Beyond
Biogeography of Alfalfa
Botanical Description
Biology of Alfalfa
Alfalfa as Fodder Plant
Use of Alfalfa in Folk Medicine
Documented Biological Effects of Alfalfa
Alfalfa for Human Consumption
Phytochemistry of Alfalfa
Summary
References
Section IV: Western Asia and the Middle East
Iran
7. An Overview of Important Endemic Plants and Their Products in Iran
Introduction
Important Endemic Plants and Their Products
Spermatophytes – Angiosperms – Dicotyledons – Dialypetalae
Spermatophytes – Angiosperms – Dicotyledons – Sympetalae
Spermatophytes – Angiosperms – Dicotyledons – Monochlamideae
Spermatophytes – Angiosperms – Monocotyledons
Spermatophytes – Gymnosperms
Cryptogamaes – Pteridophytes
Cryptogamae: Non-Vascular Plants
The Poppy Plant (Papaver Somniferum) In Iran
References
Iran
8. Crocus sativus and the Prized Commodity, Saffron
The Saffron Crocus
Saffron: A Luxury Item Traded For Millennia
Natural Products Chemistry
Terpenes
Carotenoids; Carotenes And Xanthophylls
Carotene Carotenoids
β-Carotene
Lycopene
Xanthophyll Carotenoids
Lutein
Human Health; Vitamin A, Retinol, And Retinal
The Color of Carotenoids
Summary
References
Suggested Further Reading
Iran, Turkey, and Afghanistan
9. Natural Plant Dyes of Oriental Carpets
History of Carpet Production
Natural Dyes
Where Do Natural Dyes Come From?
Common Madder (Rubia Tinctorum) and Bright Red Alizarin
True Indigo (Indigofera Tinctoria) and Navy-Blue Indigo
Extraction Of Indigo
Indigo and Dyeing Textiles
Yellow Larkspur (Delphinium Semibarbatum) and Deep Yellow
Flavonoids and Flavonols
Summary
References
Iraq and Syria
10. Wheat and Rice – Ancient and Modern Cereals
Wheat
Possible Origins of Ancient Wheat
Principal Species of Wheat Cultivated In the Modern World
Lignans as Germination Inhibitors in Triticum and Aegilops
Health Benefits of Ancient and Modern Varieties of Wheat
Phenolic Compounds
Carotenoids
Rice
Ancient Trading Routes
Origins of Rice Domestication and Cultivation
Health Benefits Of Modern Varieties of Rice
References
Suggested Further Reading
Georgia
11. Ethnobotany of the Silk Road – Georgia, the Cradle of Wine
Introduction
Traditional Plant Use in Georgia
Food Plants in Georgian Culture
Viticulture
Cereals
Vegetables
Tobacco
Fruit
Pickles
Infusions
Herbs
Fungi
Potato Leaves
Nuts
Phytochemical Studies
Pharmacopoeia of Georgia
Threats to Diversity
Acknowledgments
References
Turkey
12. Plants Endemic to Turkey Including the Genus Arnebia
Introduction
Endemic Plants of Turkey
The Genus Arnebia
Selected Examples of the Arnebia Genus
Arnebia Decumbens (Vent.) Coss. & Kralik
Arnebia Densiflora (Nordm.) Lebed. (EğNik-Sivas)
Arnebia Pulchra (Roemer and Schultes) Edmondson
Arnebia Linearifolia A. DC
Arnebia Purpurea S. Erik & H. Sümbül
Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Section V: Maritime Routes
Sri Lanka
13. Maritime Routes through Sri Lanka: Medicinal Plants and Spices
The Importance of Sri Lanka along Land and Maritime Trade Routes
The Spices of Sri Lanka
Cinnamon (Cinnamomum Zeylanicum)
Cloves (Syzygium Aromaticum)
Cardamom (Elettaria Cardamomum)
Black Pepper (Piper Nigrum)
Nutmeg (Myristica Fragrans)
Gamboge (Garcinia Morella)
Spice Products of Modern Sri Lanka
Concluding Remarks
References
Bibliography
Index

Citation preview

Natural Products of Silk Road Plants

Natural Products Chemistry of Global Plants Series Editor: Raymond Cooper This unique book series focuses on the natural products chemistry of botanical medicines from different countries such as Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Brazil, China, Africa, Borneo, Thailand, and Silk Road Countries. These fascinating volumes are written by experts from their respective countries. The series will focus on the pharmacognosy, covering recognized areas rich in folklore as well as botanical medicinal uses as a platform to present the natural products and organic chemistry. Where possible, the authors will link these molecules to pharmacological modes of action. The series intends to trace a route through history from ancient civilizations to the modern day showing the importance to man of natural products in medicines, foods, and a variety of other ways.

RECENT TITLES IN THIS SERIES Traditional Herbal Remedies of Sri Lanka Viduranga Y. Waisundara

Medicinal Plants of Bangladesh and West Bengal Botany, Natural Products, and Ethnopharmacology Christophe Wiart

Brazilian Medicinal Plants Luzia Modolo and Mary Ann Foglio

Natural Products of Silk Road Plants Raymond Cooper and Jeffrey John Deakin

Natural Products of Silk Road Plants

Edited by

Raymond Cooper and Jeffrey John Deakin

First edition published 2021 by CRC Press 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 and by CRC Press 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN © 2021 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access www.copyright.com or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. For works that are not available on CCC please contact [email protected] Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Cooper, Raymond, editor. | Deakin, Jeffrey John, editor. Title: Natural products of Silk Road plants / edited by Raymond Cooper and Jeffrey John Deakin. Description: First edition. | Boca Raton : CRC Press, [2021] | Series: Natural products chemistry of global plants | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2020020115 (print) | LCCN 2020020116 (ebook) | ISBN 9780367184513 (hardback) | ISBN 9780367184339 (paperback) | ISBN 9780429061547 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Phytochemicals—History. | Botanical chemistry—History. | Ethnobotany—History. | Medicinal plants—History. | Silk Road—History. | Natural products—History. | Plants—Social aspects—History—To 1500. Classification: LCC QK861.N396 2021 (print) | LCC QK861 (ebook) | DDC 572/.2—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020020115 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020020116 ISBN: 978-0-367-18451-3 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-367-18433-9 (pbk) ISBN: 978-0-429-06154-7 (ebk) Typeset in Times by codeMantra

Contents Preface ..................................................................................................................................................... vii Editors ....................................................................................................................................................... ix Contributors .............................................................................................................................................. xi

Section I Section II

Introduction Eastern Asia

Mongolia 1. Medicinal Plants of Mongolia ......................................................................................................... 7 Narantuya Samdan and Odonchimeg Batsukh China 2. Medicinal Plants of China Focusing on Tibet and Surrounding Regions ................................ 49 Jiangqun Jin, Chunlin Long, and Edward J. Kennelly

Section III

Central and Southern Asia

India 3. Medicinal Plants of the Trans-Himalaya..................................................................................... 73 Ajay Sharma, Garima Bhardwaj, Pushpender Bhardwaj, and Damanjit Singh Cannoo Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan 4. Medicinal Plants of Central Asia ................................................................................................ 105 Farukh S. Sharopov and William N. Setzer Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan 5. Melons of Central Asia .................................................................................................................133 Ravza F. Mavlyanova, Sasha W. Eisenman, and David E. Zaurov Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan 6. Resources along the Silk Road in Central Asia: Lagochilus inebrians Bunge (Turkestan Mint) and Medicago sativa L. (Alfalfa) ...................................................................153 Oimahmad Rahmonov, David E. Zaurov, Buston S. Islamov, and Sasha W. Eisenman

Section IV

Western Asia and the Middle East

Iran 7. An Overview of Important Endemic Plants and Their Products in Iran ............................... 171 Reza E. Owfi v

Contents

vi Iran

8. Crocus sativus and the Prized Commodity, Saffron ................................................................. 201 Jeffrey John Deakin and Raymond Cooper Iran, Turkey, and Afghanistan 9. Natural Plant Dyes of Oriental Carpets ..................................................................................... 211 Jeffrey John Deakin Iraq and Syria 10. Wheat and Rice – Ancient and Modern Cereals........................................................................219 Raymond Cooper and Jeffrey John Deakin Georgia 11. Ethnobotany of the Silk Road – Georgia, the Cradle of Wine ................................................ 229 Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua Zambrana, Shalva Sikharulidze, Zaal Kikvidze, David Kikodze, David Tchelidze, and Ketevan Batsatsashvili Turkey 12. Plants Endemic to Turkey Including the Genus Arnebia ......................................................... 255 Ufuk Koca Çalışkan and Ceylan Dönmez

Section V

Maritime Routes

Sri Lanka 13. Maritime Routes through Sri Lanka: Medicinal Plants and Spices ....................................... 271 Viduranga Y. Waisundara Bibliography ......................................................................................................................................... 283 Index ...................................................................................................................................................... 285

Preface CRC Press is publishing a new series of books under the general title, The Natural Products Chemistry of Global Plants. The series of books focuses on pharmacognosy; covering recognized uses in folklore, presenting natural products, and, where possible, linking these to pharmacological modes of action. Books in the series relate to many different countries including Bangladesh, Borneo, Brazil, Cambodia, Cameroon, Ecuador, Iran, Madagascar, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Turkey, Uganda, Vietnam, and Yunnan Province (China). The series of books has been written by experts from each country with an intention to bring forward scientific literature not widely appreciated in the West. This volume in the series of books, Natural Products of Silk Road Plants, concerns plants and extracts from nations along the historic Silk Road. The books in the series are intended for chemistry students who are at university level and for scholars wishing to broaden their knowledge in pharmacognosy. Raymond Cooper PhD Editor-in-Chief, ‘The Natural Products Chemistry of Global Plants’ Department of Applied Biology & Chemical Technology The Hong Kong Polytechnic University

Aims and Purpose Natural Products of Silk Road Plants comprises an edited series of chapters, each presented by authors expert in their field. Contributors provide new and fresh insights upon significant plants, plant extracts, and chemical products from the flora of nations connected by the historic Silk Road. A route is also traced through history showing the important value to humankind of natural products in folk medicines, in foods, and in multiple other ways which, in the contemporary world, are associated with valuable and important commodities. The Silk Road – a complex network of trade routes over thousands of miles of vast regions that connected China with the rest of the Eurasian continent by land and sea – contributed to the transformation of the ethnic, cultural, and religious identities of diverse peoples. Just as civilizations in the East and West were shaped through trade, plants, plant extracts, and spices were exchanged and improved. Plants, which were of economic significance and indigenous to countries along the trading routes of the Silk Road, yielded medicines, cereals, spices, beverages, dyes, and euphoric and exotic compounds. This book describes many selected plants, key natural products, and chemical extracts. Consideration is given to the locale in which the plants grow and to the scientific application of extracts. Enquiry is made, where practicable, into the fascinating chemistry of building blocks which make up the large molecules of complex natural products. The pharmacological nature of natural products is described where possible. This book will appeal to university students of botany and chemistry and to scholars who wish to broaden their knowledge of pharmacognosy. Raymond Cooper and Jeffrey John Deakin Editors

vii

Editors

Raymond Cooper is a visiting professor at Hong Kong Polytechnic University. He earned his PhD in organic chemistry from the Weizmann Institute in Israel. His dissertation researched the ancient wild wheat of the Middle East, examining germination properties and chemical profiles. After completing a postdoctoral fellowship at Columbia University, New York, he spent 15 years in drug discovery research of plant and microbial natural products in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries. He then moved to the nutraceutical and dietary supplements industry to develop botanical products from traditional Chinese medicine including ginkgo, cordyceps, red yeast rice, green tea, and many other botanical medicines. He is a fellow of the Royal Society of Chemistry in the United Kingdom, an honorary visiting professor at the College of Pharmacy, University of London, and a member of the American Pharmacognosy Society. He has published over 120 research papers, edited 5 books, co-authored the book Natural Products Chemistry: Sources, Separations and Structures and received the American Society of Pharmacognosy 2014 Varro Tyler Award for Contributions to Botanical Research. Jeffrey John Deakin earned a first-class honors degree in chemistry from the University of London followed by a PhD degree in chemistry from the University of Cambridge. He has published a number of peer-reviewed research papers. After a long and successful career in the United Kingdom as a science educator, he now writes articles and books with the aim of broadening the appeal of science and deepening interest in chemistry in particular. He and Ray were the co-authors of the book entitled Botanical Miracles, Chemistry of Plants that Changed the World. He is a fellow of the Royal Society of Chemistry in the United Kingdom.

ix

Contributors Ketevan Batsatsashvili Institute of Ecology Ilia State University Tbilisi, Georgia Odonchimeg Batsukh Gurun Graduate Institute Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia Garima Bhardwaj Department of Chemistry Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology Longowal, India Pushpender Bhardwaj Department of Medicinal Plants Defence Institute of High-Altitude Research Delhi, India Rainer W. Bussmann Department of Ethnobotany Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden Ilia State University Tbilisi, Georgia Ufuk Koca-Çalışkan Faculty of Pharmacy Department of Pharmacognosy Gazi University Ankara, Turkey Damanjit Singh Cannoo Department of Chemistry Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology Longowal, India Raymond Cooper Department of Applied Biology and Chemical Technology The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Kowloon, Hong Kong

Jeffrey John Deakin Royal Society of Chemistry London, United Kingdom Ceylan Dönmez Faculty of Pharmacy Department of Pharmacognosy İzmir Katip Çelebi University İzmir, Turkey Sasha W. Eisenman Horticulture Program Department of Architecture and Environmental Design Tyler School of Art and Architecture Temple University Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Buston S. Islamov Department of Botany Samarqand State University Samarqand, Uzbekistan Jiangqun Q. Jin Department of Botanical Sciences Chongqing Institute of Medicinal Plant Cultivation Chongqing, China Edward J. Kennelly Department of Chemistry City University of New York New York, New York David Kikodze Department of Ethnobotany Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden Ilia State University Tbilisi, Georgia Zaal Kikvidze Department of Ecology 4-D Research Institute Ilia State University Tbilisi, Georgia xi

xii Chunlin L. Long Life and Environmental Sciences Minzu University of China Beijing, China Ravza F. Mavlyanova World Vegetable Center Tashkent, Uzbekistan Reza E. Owfi Faculty of Natural Resources Department of Rangeland Management University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources Gorgan, Iran Narel Y. Paniagua Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden Ilia State University Tbilisi, Georgia Oimahmad Rahmonov Faculty of Earth Sciences Department of Physical Geography University of Silesia in Katowice Sosnowiec, Poland Narantuya Samdan Mongolian Academy of Sciences Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia William N. Setzer Department of Chemistry University of Alabama Huntsville, Alabama

Contributors Ajay Sharma Department of Chemistry Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology Longowal, India Farukh S. Sharopov Chinese-Tajik Innovation Center for Natural Products Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tajikistan Dushanbe, Tajikistan Shalva Sikharulidze Department of Ethnobotany Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden Ilia State University Tbilisi, Georgia David Tchelidze Department of Ethnobotany Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden Ilia State University Tbilisi, Georgia Viduranga Y. Waisundara Australian College of Business and Technology Kandy, Sri Lanka David E. Zaurov Department of Plant Biology & Pathology School of Environmental and Biological Sciences Rutgers University New Brunswick, New Jersey

Section I

Introduction

The History and Geography of the Silk Road The term, Silk Road, denotes the complex network of trade routes connecting China with the rest of the Eurasian continent over land and sea. Its very existence promoted trade and cultural exchange among the peoples it connected. The Silk Road contributed to forming and transforming the cultural, ethnic, and religious identities of diverse peoples: Chinese, Greeks, Persians, Romans, Arabs, Turks and Mongolians. During the Western Han dynasty in the 2nd century BC, the Chinese imperial envoy, Zhang Qian, was sent to Central Asia. The mission gave the Chinese much knowledge about Central Asia and opened trade between China and Central Asia and beyond, extending to North Africa and the Mediterranean coast. There was no single road. These ancient trade routes collectively became known as the Silk Road. The term referred to a multiplicity of routes: camel trails, mountain passes, seaports, and desert passages, which connected the great economic centers of the classical world, Han China and the Roman Mediterranean. As the caravans rolled and trade flourished, cities and towns along the route grew, usually at strategic points such as crossroads or water wells. Traders and middlemen became rich. The Silk Road extended some 10,000 km from east to west and 3,000 km from north to south. Initially, goods moved along the Silk Road from east to west and in the return direction. It linked Constantinople to Xi’an in China. Eventually, trade developed in other directions: goods headed north into the Russian principalities and south to Persia, modern-day Iran. In Mongolia, there were two main arteries: in the north and in the south. The Hunnu, Xi'an, Juan-juan, Turkic and Uyghur peoples controlled the northern element of the Great Silk Road and made substantial profits. The route ran southwest of the Bulgan River in the Altai Range. There was also the “Yellow Road” in the south, a trade route in the Gobi region (Sukhbaatar, 1992). During the golden age of the Mongol Empire (1206–1371), territory under control extended well into Asia as far as Europe. It was at the time the largest contiguous empire in history (Figure 1). Mongols led a nomadic life, were dependent upon horses for mobility and for transport, and traded them for goods. The Mongols improved communications by establishing a courier system, along a line of stations called Örtöö, which connected the empire with other nations using the Great Silk Road. Through these measures, the Mongol Empire was able to provide military protection for convoys of caravans using the routes of the Silk Road from the capital, Karakorum, to Samarkand, to Bukhar, and on into Mongolian-occupied Chagatai Khanate (Cleaves, 1982). During the Mongol Empire, the Great Silk Roads became more secure and were radically extended. European visitors began to arrive via the

2

Natural Products of Silk Road Plants

FIGURE 1 Extent of the Mongol Empire at its zenith.

Great Silk Roads: emissaries of King Louis IX of France; envoys of Pope IV Innocent; and the merchant and adventurer, Marco Polo. Many hundreds of different finished products passed along the Silk Road: gunpowder from China, beautiful Venetian glass, and Levantine gold. Inevitably, as economic exchange grew, so did the influence of different religions notably Buddhism, Christianity and Islam. The Silk Road helped to transfer innovation in logical thought too – in mathematics, in algebra, and in chemistry. A considerable part of the commerce was handled by itinerant traders famed for their caravans and financial acumen. Many items were known to have been carried; among them were silk, linen, woolen cloth, saffron, pepper, camphor, and artifacts of gold and silver. Traders were the ‘glue that connected towns, oases, and regions. They played a major role in Chinese silk reaching the eastern Mediterranean while silver European ornaments have been found in the tombs of the Chinese elite (Frankopan, 2015). Trade in silk was an early catalyst for commerce. The prominence of trade in Chinese silk probably resulted in the trading routes themselves becoming known as the Silk Roads. However, the land routes of the Silk Road were not easy to traverse. Goods were carried from the Persian Gulf to the Caspian Sea and were taken to and from India by sea and land. Exchange with Sri Lanka, China, and the eastern Mediterranean rose sharply. As trade between India and the GrecoRoman world increased, spices came to rival silk and other commodities in importance. By the time of the medieval period, Muslim traders dominated maritime spice-trading routes throughout the Indian Ocean, shipping spices from trading centers in India westward to the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea from which overland or sea routes led to Europe. However, restriction of east-west trade in the eastern Mediterranean, Anatolia, and the Arabian Peninsula by the Ottoman Turks during medieval times motivated western European trading nations to seek maritime routes to the Far East as an alternative (Figure 2). Vasco da Gama was born in the 1460s and died in 1524. He was a Portuguese explorer and the first European to reach India by sea. His initial voyage to India (1497–1499) was the first to link Europe and Asia by an ocean route via the Atlantic and the Indian oceans thereby connecting the Occident to the Orient. Da Gama's discovery of the sea route was highly significant and opened the way for the Portuguese to establish a colonial empire in Asia. Traveling the ocean route allowed the Portuguese to avoid sailing across the highly disputed Mediterranean Sea and traversing dangerous land routes to the Orient over the Arabian Peninsula and beyond. In 1498, Vasco da Gama landed in Calicut (modern-day

Introduction

3

FIGURE 2 Routes of the Silk Road and the Maritime Silk Road (UNESCO, 1990).

Kozhikode), a city in the state of Kerala in southern India, and quickly established exclusive European access to Indian spice routes. At first, pepper and cinnamon were obtained but soon many other spices new to Europe were sourced. Sri Lanka is known as The Pearl of the Indian Ocean due to its geographical shape and natural beauty. The island has a strategic location in the southwest of the Bay of Bengal and to the southeast of the Arabian Sea. Deep-water harbors, such as that at Trincomalee, became key maritime locations from the time of the ancient Silk Road through to the modern era. Great commercial importance was placed upon spices as a commodity. Key spices were cinnamon, cardamom, and cloves. Not only were these spices used as flavoring agents, locally as well as overseas, but they also had therapeutic properties well known to traditional medicinal practitioners since ancient times. Portugal maintained commercial monopoly of these commodities for several decades before other European powers, notably Dutch, English, and French, were able to challenge her naval supremacy on the Cape Route and hence her trading position. Trade was transformed when new maritime routes such as these were established. An extended period of European domination of commerce in the East was the result as well as increased cultural exchange among diverse cultures. The predominance of trade along maritime routes led to inevitable, consequential decline in the importance of historic overland routes of the Silk Road. Russian investment in the infrastructure of the “Iron Silk Road” led, in 1880, to the construction of the Trans-Caspian Railway connecting Samarkand and Tashkent. Then the Trans-Siberian Railway and connections with associated branches, such as the Chinese Eastern Railway, were completed in 1916. Thus, the first rail connection was established between Europe and Asia, from Moscow to Vladivostok. The line, at 9,200 km (5,720 mi), is the longest in the world and led to a boom in trade (Frankopan, 2015). By 2018, a major rail terminal had been located in Germany near Duisburg (Figure 3). It is claimed that up to 80% of direct rail freight traffic between China and Western Europe passes through the city as an entrepôt (Posaner, November 2018). The economic factors of cost and speed determine that direct rail links between China and Europe are intermediate in importance to air and sea options. Rail freight tends to be used for bulky goods that are valuable and moderately urgent where the time advantage of rail over ship is notable, and the goods

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Natural Products of Silk Road Plants

FIGURE 3 How China put German rust-belt city on the map; courtesy Joshua Posaner.

are heavy enough to make the cost saving over air transport noticeable. It is anticipated that the volume of goods moving by rail will remain a small percentage of that carried by sea, but rail transfer may well affect significantly the volume of air cargo. Other rail routes for the “Iron Silk Road” between China and Europe may yet be developed via Turkey connecting with Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and Iran. One such is the Marmaray project which would involve a new tunnel under the Bosporus replacing a much slower rail ferry (Usal, November 2013). Despite huge actual and proposed investment in transport infrastructure, Central Asia remains in the 21st century lightly populated and largely underdeveloped. Through successful collaboration by China, Kyrgyzstan, and Kazakhstan in 2014, UNESCO has recognized “The Corridor of the Silk Road” (from Xi’an in China to Central Asia) as a World Heritage region. Recent efforts by the Chinese government to establish a “Silk Road Economic Belt” are also helping to bring greater economic prosperity stimulating resurgence in the rich legacy of the Silk Road.

REFERENCES F.W. Cleaves, 1982. The Secret History of the Mongols (translated into English with commentary) Volume 1, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 225. Jeffrey Deakin and Raymond Cooper with a contribution on Mongolia from Dr. J. Gerelbadrakh of the Mongolian National University of Education in Ulaanbaatar. P. Frankopan. 2015. The Silk Roads: A New History of the World. Bloomsbury, London. J. Posaner. 01 November 2018. How China put a German rust-belt city on the map. CET. G. Sukhbaatar, 1992. Mongolian Nirun khanate (330–555). Press Articles, Ulaanbaatar, 236–237. O. Uysal. 12 November 2013. Is Marmaray Key for Europe-Asia Rail Connection? Rail Turkey.

Section II

Eastern Asia

Mongolia

1 Medicinal Plants of Mongolia Narantuya Samdan Mongolian Academy of Sciences Odonchimeg Batsukh Gurun Graduate Institute CONTENTS Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 8 Edible Plants Documented in The Secret History of Mongols .............................................................. 8 Allium microdictyon Prokh. [Amaryllidaceae] ................................................................................ 9 Allium senescens L. [Amaryllidaceae]........................................................................................... 10 Lilium pumilum Delile [Liliaceae] ................................................................................................. 10 Padus asiatica L. (Rosaceae) synonym Prunus padus ...................................................................11 Potentilla anserina L. [Rosaceae] ...................................................................................................11 Sanguisorba officinalis L. (Rosaceae) ........................................................................................... 13 Vaccinium vitis-idaea L. [Ericaceae] ............................................................................................. 13 Plants Important for Liver Disorders ...................................................................................................14 Achillea asiatica Serg. [Asteraceae] .............................................................................................. 15 Dianthus versicolor Fisch. ex Link. [Caryophyllaceae] .................................................................16 Dianthus superbus L. [Caryophyllaceae] .......................................................................................17 Iris potaninii Maxim. [Iridaceae]....................................................................................................18 Leontopodium leontopodioides (Willd.) Beauverd [Asteraceae] ................................................... 19 Oxytropis myriophylla DC. [Fabaceae] ......................................................................................... 20 Rhodiola quadrifida Fisch. & Mey. [Crassulaceae] ....................................................................... 21 Rhodiola rosea L. [Crassulaceae] .................................................................................................. 22 Salsola laricifolia Turcz. [Chenopodiaceae] ................................................................................. 23 Saussurea amara Less [Asteraceae] .............................................................................................. 24 Stellera chamaejasme L. [Thymelaeaceae] ................................................................................... 25 Endemic and Rarely Reported Plants ................................................................................................. 27 Adonis mongolica Simanovich [Ranunculaceae]........................................................................... 27 Astragalus mongholicus Bunge [Fabaceae] ................................................................................... 27 Bidens tripartita L. [Asteraceae] ................................................................................................... 29 Equisetum arvense L. [Equisetaceae] ............................................................................................ 30 Gentiana macrophylla Pall. [Gentianaceae] ...................................................................................31 Oxytropis muricata DC [Fabaceae] ............................................................................................... 32 Oxytropis pseudoglandulosa Gontsch. ex Grubov [Fabaceae] ...................................................... 33 Thalictrum foetidum L. [Ranunculaceae] ...................................................................................... 34

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8

Toxic Plants Containing Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids ................................................................................ 35 Cacalia hastata L. [Asteraceae] .................................................................................................... 35 Lappula myosotis Moench ............................................................................................................. 36 Ligularia sibirica (L.) Cass. [Compositae].................................................................................... 37 Senecio vulgaris L. [Compositae] .................................................................................................. 38 Senecio argunensis Turcz. [Compositae] ....................................................................................... 39 Senecio nemorensis (L.) [Compositae] .......................................................................................... 40 References .................................................................................................................................................41

Introduction The topography of Mongolia may be divided into seven vegetation zones: montagne, alpine, taiga, steppe, forest-steppe, desert-steppe, and desert. Mongolia has extreme weather conditions; notably there is wide seasonal variation in temperature from +45°C to –45°C. In order to thrive under these extreme conditions, Mongolian plants needed to be adaptable which included the synthesis of many secondary metabolites that are principal sources for traditional medicine. It is estimated that about 3,160 species, 684 genera, and 108 families of vascular plants exist in Mongolia, and of these, about 1,100 species are medicinal plants. Traditional Mongolian medicine (TMM) has played an important role within the medical system until the present day, and its heritage is recognized officially. Preparations used in traditional medicine are usually complex mixtures of plants, plant extracts, minerals, and animal drugs of local and foreign origin. In this chapter, plants listed in Table 1.1 are presented in the following categories: • • • •

Edible plants documented in The Secret History of Mongols Plants important for liver disorders Endemic and rarely reported plants Toxic plants to be wary of containing pyrrolizidine alkaloids.

The material should help researchers, students, and scholars to improve knowledge of Mongolian plants, their applications, and the significance of many bioactive, secondary metabolites.

Edible Plants Documented in The Secret History of Mongols The Secret History of Mongols, written in the 13th century CE, has survived as a literary chronicle and is the oldest and the most important of medieval Mongolian texts. Only members of the imperial family and Mongols were permitted to read it. It is recorded in The Secret History of the Mongols, written between 1,228 and 1,323, that the mother of the Temuujin boy, who later became the Genghis Khan, the founder and Emperor of the Mongol Empire, raised her sons with much wisdom through times of hardship foraging for wild plants along the banks of the river Onon. And so the Tayichi’ut brethren set out and left behind in the camp the widowed Lady Hoe’eluen, her little ones, and the mothers and their children. Lady Hoe’eluen born a woman of wisdom, raised her liitle ones, her own children… She ran upstream along the Onon’s bunks, gathering oelirsuen and moyilsun. Wielding a pointed stick of juniper, she dug up sueduen and chichigina and nourished them. With wild onions and garlic, the sons of the noble mother were nourished, until they became rulers… With gogosun and wild garlic the beautiful lady raised her admirable sons. They became high officials and fine men… they became powerful and brave.

The plants she collected were indigenous and are known in the modern Mongolian language as Mangir, Haliar, Odoi Saraana, Monos, Gichgene, Sod, and Alirs. This section is devoted to brief descriptions of each of these edible plants.

Medicinal Plants of Mongolia

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TABLE 1.1 List of Plant Names No

Scientific Name

Mongolian Name

English Name

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33

Achillea asiatica Allium senescens Allium microdictyon Adonis mongolica Astragalus mongholicus Bidens tripartite Dianthus versicolor Dianthus superbus Equisetum arvense Filifolium sibiricum Gentiana macrophylla Iris potaninii Lilium pumilum Leontopodium leontopodioides Oxytropis myriophylla Oxytropis muricata Oxytropis pseudoglandulosa Rhodiola quadrifida Rhodiola rosea Thalictrum foetidum Cacalia hastate Lappula myosotis Ligularia sibirica Padus asiatica Potentilla anserina Salsola laricifolia Sanguisorba officinalis Saussurea amara Senecio vulgaris Senecio argunensis Senecio nemorensis Stellera chamaejasme Vaccinium vitis-idaea

Aziin tologch ovs Mangir Haliar Mongol khundaga Mongol khunchir Guramsan Ajig Alag basher Goyo Bashir, Javkhaalig Bashir Khodoonii Shivel Sibiri Zur ovs Tomnavchit Degd, Ukher Degd Potaninii Tsakhildag Odoi saraana Egel Tsagaanturuu, Uul ovs Tumen navchintsart Ortuuz Zoolon orgost ortuuz Khuurmag bulchirhait ortuuz Dorvolson mugez, Altangagnuur, Yagaan Mugez, Altangagnuur Omkhii Burjgar, Burjgar, Ogor Ilden igyyshin Durskhal tsetsgerkhuu notsorgono Sibiri zayaakhai Aziin monos Galuun Gichgene Shineserkhuu Budargana Emiin sod Gashuun Banzdoo, Gazriin khokh Egel zokhimon Urgunii zokhimon or Orgonii ˙zokhimon Oin ˙zokhimon, Naimaldai zokhimon, Odoi dalan turuu, Choniin cholbodos Alirs

Asiatic Yarrow Aging chive, German garlic Onion Mongolian Adonis Mongolian Milkvetch Bur beggarticks Versicolor Pink Lilac Pink Fox Tail Siberian Filifolium Largeleaf Gentian Potanin Iris Low Lily Common Edelweiss Dense leaf Crazyweed Crazyweed muricate Falseglandular Crazyweed Foursplit Rhodiola Rose root, Golden Root Glandularhairy Meadowrue Hastate Cacalia Stickseeds Siberian Goldenray Bird cherry, hackberry Silverweed Cinquefoil Larchleaf Russian Thistle Great burnet Meadow Saussurea Groundsel Argun groundsel Nemorensis ragwort Chinese Stellera Cowberry

Allium microdictyon Prokh. [Amaryllidaceae] Mongolian name: Haliar English name: Onion

Allium microdictyon (Figure 1.1), commonly known as mountain garlic, is a popular, economically important species in many Asian countries such as Korea, China, and Mongolia. The leaves are used as culinary side dishes and in traditional medicines. Allium is the onion genus. With 600–920 species, it is one of the largest plant genera in the world extending to ornamental and culinary onions and garlic. Its native range of the species is Asia (Seregin and Korniak, 2013) where it grows in the forest fringes of the Khangai, Khentei, and Altai mountains (Ligaa et al., 2005). In TMM, it is used for the following disorders: bacterial problems and treatment of tumors, swelling, and necrosis of muscle. Extracts from the inflorescence are beneficial in treating uterine disorders (Boldsaikhan, 2004).

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Natural Products of Silk Road Plants

FIGURE 1.1 Allium microdictyon.

FIGURE 1.2 Allium senescens.

Plants of the Allium genus produce chemical compounds, which are derived from cysteine sulfoxides, that produce the characteristic smell and taste of onion and garlic. The tasty leaves are edible. Up to the present day, the leaves of A. microdictyon remain popular in cooking, particularly in springtime.

Allium senescens L. [Amaryllidaceae] Mongolian name: Mangir English name: Aging chive, German garlic

Allium senescens (Figure 1.2) is a bulbous herbaceous perennial. It produces pink flowers in characteristic umbels in mid- to late summer and grows 20–102 cm in height. The foliage is thin and strap-like. The plant grows in the steppes of the Khangai, Khentei, and Altai mountains (Ligaa et al., 2005). It is used to treat flatulence, sleeplessness, ulcers, lymph disorders, and hemorrhoids (Boldsaikhan, 2004; Seregin and Korniak, 2013).

Lilium pumilum Delile [Liliaceae] Mongolian name: Odoi saraana English name: Low Lily

Lilium pumilum (Figure 1.3) is a perennial herb with bright red flowers. It has edible bulbs 3–4 cm long, which were used as a food by Temuujin’s mother for the future Genghis Khan and his siblings. Lily bulbs are white skinless ball-shaped corms, which contain starchy, scale-like sections. They have a slightly perfumed smell, crunchy texture, and a refreshingly sweet taste, and are eaten fresh or fried together with butter.

Medicinal Plants of Mongolia

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FIGURE 1.3 Lilium pumilum Delile.

The plant grows on the sloping grounds of Khovsgol, Khentei, Khangai, Mong-Dag., Khyangan, Dund. Khalkh, and Dornod Mongolia (Ligaa et al., 2005). In addition to being used as a food item, lily bulbs have many traditional medicinal uses – most commonly as an ingredient in the preparation of an expectorant and to treat asthma. It is also used as a diuretic and to reduce edema. The flowers are used for hemostasis, treating wounds, and menorrhagia (Ligaa et al., 2005; Boldsaikhan, 2004; Khurelchuluun and Batchimeg, 2007). The plant contains alkaloids (Antsupova, 1975; Antsupova, 1976); carotenoids (Partali et al., 1987); and flavonoids: rutoside, kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside, and isorhamnetin-3-O-rutinoside (Obmann, 2010). Bioactivities: The plant shows anti-inflammatory, spasmolytic, and liver-protective properties (TsendAyush, 2001). Plant extracts and pure substances of L. pumilum enhanced bile secretion in the isolated rat liver perfusion system tests (Glasl et al., 2007; Kletter et al., 2004).

Padus asiatica L. (Rosaceae) synonym Prunus padus Mongolian name: Aziin monos English name: Bird cherry, wild black cherry

There are several types of Padus growing in the world. Padus asiatica or Monos tree is widespread in Mongolia. It belongs to the family Rosaceae. It is a species of cherry, a deciduous small tree or large shrub up to 16 m tall. It is found on the edge of forests, on meadow slopes, and on river shorelines of Khovsgol, Khentei, Khangai, Mong-Dag., and Dornod Mongolia (Ligaa et al., 2005). P. asiatica (Figure 1.4) blossoms in early spring, grows well on moist soils, and also tolerates cold climatic conditions well. P. asiatica has rich white flowers with a pleasant aroma and small edible black fruits (Boldsaikhan, 2004). The fruit contains up to 15% of tannins, 8% of anthocyanin, 4%–6% of fructose, 5%–6% of glucose, 0.1%–0.6% of saccharide, and 1.1% of pectin. The leaves contain 200 mg/% ascorbic acid. Thus, from a nutritional point of view, P. asiatica is rich in citric acid and vitamin C. In medical applications, it is astringent and is used to treat inflammation of the colon and tuberculosis (Enkhjargal et al., 2018).

Potentilla anserina L. [Rosaceae] Mongolian name: Galuun Gichgene English name: Silverweed Cinquefoil

It is documented in The Secret History of the Mongols that its root has food value. Mongolians, who did not have access to vegetables, would dig out roots of Potentilla anserina, which could be easily dried and stored for later use.

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Natural Products of Silk Road Plants

FIGURE 1.4 Padus asiatica.

FIGURE 1.5 Potentilla anserina L.

P. anserina (Figure 1.5) is a perennial with thin creeping stems and grows in the provinces of Khovsgol, Khentei, Khangai, Mong-Dag., Dund. Khalkh, Dornod Mong., Khyangan, Khovd, Mong. Altai, Ikh nuur, Olon nuur, Gobi-Altai, and Zyyngar (Ligaa et al., 2005). It is used to treat hemorrhages, diarrhea, and hemiparesis (Ligaa et al., 2005; Boldsaikhan, 2004). The plant contains various sugars: glucose, fructose, and rhamnose; vitamins: carotene and coumarin; ellagic acid; tannins; flavonoids: quercetin, quercitrin, quercetin glycoside, kaempferol, and myricetin glycoside (Eisenreichová et al., 1974; Sokolov et al., 1987); and leucoanthocyanidin (Bednarska, 1971). Bioactivities: The plant shows antibacterial activity and is used as a purgative (Sokolov et al., 1987).

Medicinal Plants of Mongolia

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Sanguisorba officinalis L. (Rosaceae) Mongolian name: Emiin sod English name: Great burnet

This is a plant belonging to the Sanguisorba genus in the family Rosaceae. Sanguisorba officinalis is distributed in the northern temperate zone of Asia and throughout Europe and China. This plant grows at altitudes between 30 and 3,000 m. It is a perennial herb, 30–120 cm in height. Roots are fusiform and rarely cylindrical. The root surface is brown or purple-brown and yellowish-white in transection. The roots are used as food as well as medicine. S. officinalis (Figure 1.6) grows on steppe, meadowland, and in woodland areas of Khovsgol, Khentei, Khangai, Mong-Dag., Khovd, Mongol Altai, and Dornod Mongolia (Ligaa et al., 2005). It has a bitter taste, is used in TMM for diarrhea, and is hemostatic (Boldsaikhan, 2004). The roots contain pyrogallic compounds: ellagalic acid and saponins; flavonoids: kaempferol and quercetin (Enkhjargal et al., 2018). Root extracts are used as an astringent, to reduce intestinal motility, and as a pain killer (Enkhjargal et al., 2018).

Vaccinium vitis-idaea L. [Ericaceae] Mongolian name: Alirs English name: Cowberry

Vaccinium vitis-idaea (Figure 1.7) is an edible small shrub belonging to the family Ericaceae. It is 2.5–25 cm tall with whitish branches. It grows in larch, cedar, and mixed forests in the steppe and alpine belts of Khovsgol, Khentei, Mong-Dag., Khyangan, and Khovd (Ligaa et al., 2005). It is cold-resistant, withstanding temperatures down below –40°C. The leaves stay leather-like in winter, and the ovary is quadrilateral producing a berry which is orbicular. The fruit is in common usage as food while the leaves are infused to make tea. Medicinal applications are the following: enhance longevity and as an antitussive (Ligaa et al., 2005; Boldsaikhan, 2004). The leaves are helpful in treating influenza. Familiar nutrients like vitamin C and fiber play a very important role in Alirs’s health benefits. The leaves contain aldehydes; triterpenoids; ascorbic acid; phenol glycosides: arbutin (Figure 1.8), methylarbutin (Thieme and Winkler, 1971; Chukarina et al., 2007; Shnyakina and Cigankova, 1981), and phenolic carboxylic acids; their derivatives: chlorogenic, caffeic, isochlorogenic, neochlorogenic, and ferulic acids; catechins: (+)-catechin, (−)-epicatechin,

FIGURE 1.6 Sanguisorba officinalis.

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Natural Products of Silk Road Plants

FIGURE 1.7 Vaccinium vitis-idaea L.

FIGURE 1.8 Structure of arbutin.

(+)-gallocatechin (Haslam et al., 1964; Gubina et al., 1977; Thompson et al., 1972), and tannins; and flavonoids: kaempferol, quercitrin, isoquercitrin, rutin, quercetin 3-O-β-D-glucosyl-L-rhamnoside, kaempferol 3-O-L-rhamnoside, avicularin and hyperin (Sokolov, 1986; Kaminska, 1966), luteolin 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, and luteolin 3-O-β-D-galactopyranoside (Shnyakina and Cigankova, 1981). The fruit contains sugar; ascorbic acid; organic acids: citric, benzoic, and salicylic (Sokolov, 1986); terpenoids: α-pinene, β-pinene, 1,8-cineol, camphor, borneol, myrcene, and γ-terpinene; and aromatic compounds: benzene, toluene, phenol, anisaldehyde, benzaldehyde, and acetophenol (Anjou and Sydow, 1969; Tserendendev, 1984). Bioactivities: The plant exhibits sedative, antioxidant (Chukarina et al., 2007), and diuretic properties (Mashkovsi, 1994).

Plants Important for Liver Disorders Knowledge of Mongolian plants in the West has been limited since many publications have been written only in Mongolian or Russian and have been presented in obscure, inaccessible journals. Only a limited number of books about traditionally used Mongolian plants has been published in English to date (Ligaa, 1996; Boldsaikhan, 2004), essentially, compilations of plant names, which cite the traditional name and the corresponding systematic, scientific name. One important study of Mongolian plants presented the chemistry of several Achillea species, especially Achillea asiatica (Pitschmann et al., 2013). Further documented research has focused on plants used traditionally for the treatment of liver disorders. Liver impairments are prevalent according to the National Statistical Office of Mongolia. Due to more efficient monitoring, increasing incidences of liver cancer, viral hepatitis, and liver and gastrointestinal disturbances have been found among the Mongolian population.

Medicinal Plants of Mongolia

15

Achillea asiatica Serg. [Asteraceae] Mongolian name: Aziin tologch ovs English name: Asiatic Yarrow

A. asiatica (Figure 1.9) belongs to the family Asteraceae. It is a perennial herb with rhizomes. Stems are 20–50 cm tall, whitish in color, with long, slender, entangled hairs, erect, and branched only at the inflorescence. It grows on sandy terraces of the western and eastern slopes of the Khangai, Khentei and Altai mountains, and on forest fringes (Sanchir et al., 2003). In TMM, it is used for treating persistent fever (Ligaa et al., 2005). Chemical constituents: The plant contains sugars and organic acids (Kalinkina and Beresovskaya, 1974; Kalinkina et al., 1989). There are essential oils such as, hamazulene, α-pinene, β-pinene, sabinene, camphor, limonene, cineole, and n-cymol. Steam distillation of the extract provides a blue-tinged oil, which is predominately made up of hydrocarbons (58%) and chamazulene (17.5%). However, the content of essential oils varies depending on the harvest and growth season. The highest content of proazulene was measured at full bloom in the inflorescence, whereas in the stalks, the level was found to be low during the entire growth period. Therefore, the best yields are achieved at full flowering (Motl et al., 1990; Yusubov et al., 2000; Kalinkina and Beresovskaya, 1975). Several proazulenes have been isolated and their chemical structures elucidated (Gunbilig, 2003; Glasl et al., 2001a,b). Coumarins, such as umbelliferone and scopoletin, were detected (Kalinkina et al., 1989). The flavonoids comprise kaempferol (Kalinkina et al., 1989), vitexin, isovitexin, orientin, isoorientin (ValantVetschera, 1984; Narantuya, 1996), apigenin, diosmetin, centauredin, and apigenin-7-O-glucoside (Figure 1.10) (Narantuya et al., 1999). Several sesquiterpene lactones are present such as 8α-angeloyloxy-2α, 4α, 10β-trihydroxy-6βH, 7αH, 11βH-1(5)-guaien-12,6α-olide, 8α-angeloxy-1β, 2β, 4β, 5β-diepoxy-10β-hydroxy-6βH, 7αH,

FIGURE 1.9 Achillea asiatica.

OH

OH HO HO

O

O

O OH

FIGURE 1.10 Structure of apigenin-7-O-glucoside.

OH

O

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Natural Products of Silk Road Plants

11βH-guaien-2,6α-olide, 8α-angeloxy-4α, 10β-dihydroxy-2-oxo-6βH, 7αH, 11βH-1(5)-guaien-12,6αolide, 8-desacetyl-matricarin, 8α-tigloxy-artabsin, 8α-tigloxy-3-oxa-artabsin, 8α-angeloxy-artabsin, 3-oxa-achillicin, 8-acetoxy-artabsin, and 8-angeloxy-3-oxa-artabsin (Narantuya et al., 1999). Bioactivities: An aqueous extract exhibited anti-inflammatory and hemostatic activities (Myagmar, 1992). In another trial, a preparation known as “Achigran” isolated by extraction with ethanol–water from A. asiatica was investigated for its acute and chronic antiulcer activities after direct intragastric administration, via catheter, in both rat and mouse (Slipchenko et al., 1994). The systemic antiphlogistic effect of a lipophilic extract from A. asiatica, enriched with sesquiterpenes, was tested in mice and showed significant activity after 30–120 minutes, which decreased toward the end of the experimental period (Gunbilig, 2003). In vitro and in vivo experiments in rabbits exhibited an anthelmintic effect. Also, A. asiatica was active against the larvae of trychostongyle gastrointestinal nematodes (Nemeth and Bernath, 2008). A new proprietary patent-protected drug (Narantuya et al., 1992), named “Achillo”, with hepatoprotective activity has been developed.

Dianthus versicolor Fisch. ex Link. [Caryophyllaceae] Mongolian name: Alag bashir English name: Color-changing Pink, Versicolor Pink

Dianthus versicolor (Figure 1.11) belongs to the plant family Caryophyllaceae. Its thick roots produce many flowering stems but not vegetative shoots. It is found growing on the slopes of mountains and hills in forest-steppe and the steppe zone regions of Khovsgol, Khentii, Khangai, Khyangan, Mong. Altai, Khovd, Gobi-Altai, Dornod Mongolia, Dund Khalkh, Olon nuur, and Ikh nuur (Ligaa et al., 2005). In TMM, the plant is used in the treatment of pneumonia, typhoid, typhoid fever, and scurvy (Ligaa et al., 2005; Boldsaikhan, 2004). Chemical constituents: The herb contains saponins and ascorbic acid while the flowers contain saponins and flavonoids (Fedorov, 1985; Boguslavskaya et al., 1983). Also present are isovitexin-7-O-rutinoside, isovitexin-7-O-rhamnosyl-galactoside, isoscoparin-7-O-rutinoside, isoscoparin-7-O-rhamnosyl-galactoside, isoscoparin-7-O-galactoside, isoorientin-7-O-galactoside, and isovitexin-7-O-glucoside (Figure 1.12), (Obmann et al., 2007, 2010). Bioactivities: Its uses include antihypertensive, hemostatic, and uterine stimulant properties (Fedorov, 1985).

FIGURE 1.11 Dianthus versicolor.

Medicinal Plants of Mongolia

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FIGURE 1.12 Structure of isovitexin-7-O-glucoside.

An aqueous extract of the plant stimulated production of bile with slight dose dependency. The effect was compared to a control compound, cynarin, which is recognized for choleretic activity. An extract examined on organ preparations isolated from the uterus, aorta, heart, arteria pulmonalis, and the terminal ileum showed constringing activity (Obmann, 2010). According to a report concerning market research on Mongolian traditional medicinal drugs prepared in September 2007 for the WHO, D. versicolor ranks among the 45 most common domestic herbal drugs traded in Mongolia.

Dianthus superbus L. [Caryophyllaceae] Mongolian name: Goyo Bashir, Javkhaalig Bashir English name: Lilac Pink

Dianthus superbus (Figure 1.13) belongs to the plant family Caryophyllaceae. It is a perennial herb with long creeping rhizomes. The plant grows in larch and birch forests in the forest-steppe belt of Khovsogul, Khentei, Khangai, Mong-Dag., Khyangan, Khovd, and Dornod Mongolia (Gubanov, 1996). In TMM, the plant is used to aid in childbirth and to treat lymph disorders and uterine diseases. It has diuretic, hemostatic, and anti-inflammatory properties. However, high doses can cause bleeding (Ligaa et al., 2005; Boldsaikhan, 2004; Khurelchuluun and Batchimeg, 2007). Chemical constituents: The herb contains pectins (Gyrdagva, 2004); saponins: dianosides G, H, and I, azukisaponin (Oshima et al., 1984), dianthus-saponin A, B, C, and D (Shimizu and Takemoto, 1967);

FIGURE 1.13 Dianthus superbus.

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cyclopeptides: dianthins A–F (Hsieh et al., 2004; Wang et al., 1998), longicalycinin A (Hsieh et al., 2005), alkaloids, pyrocatechin tannins; flavonoids: orientin, homoorientin (Seraya et al., 1978), and 4-methoxydianthramide B (Hsieh et al., 2005). The flowers contain saponins and flavonoids (Fedorov, 1985). Bioactivities: Anti-DPPH free radical, 15-lipoxygenase (Gyrdagva, 2004), anticonvulsant (Fedorov, 1985).

Iris potaninii Maxim. [Iridaceae] Mongolian name: Potaninii Tsakhildag English name: Potanin Iris

Iris potaninii (Figure 1.14) belongs to the plant family Iridaceae. It is an acaulis perennial with needlelike roots. It grows on the slopes and forest fringes of mountain-steppe and forest-steppe regions in the provinces of Khovsgol, Khentei, Khangai, Mong-Dag., Khovd, Mong. Altai, Dund Khalkh, Dornod Mong., Ikh nuur, Olon nuur, Dor. Gobi (Delgerkhangai), and Gobi-Altai (Ligaa et al., 2005). It is applied medicinally in the following ways: wound healing, lymph disease, and inflammation of the stomach and large intestine (Ligaa et al., 2005; Boldsaikhan, 2004). Chemical constituents: Root contains 5′, 7,8-trihydroxy-3′, 4′, 6-trimethoxy-isoflavone, 6-O-β-Dglucopyranosy l-4′, 7-dimethoxy-3′, 5′, 8-trihydroxyisoflavone, 4′, 7-dimethoxy-3′, 3,5-trihydroxyflavanone, 6,7-methylenedioxy-3′, 4′, 5′, 5-tetramethoxy-isoflavone (Figure 1.15), 4′, 5-dihydroxy-3′-methoxy6,7-methylenedioxyisoflavone, 5′, 5-dihydroxy-3′, 4′-dimethoxy-6,7-methylendioxyisoflavone, 4′, 5-dimethoxy-3′-hydroxy-6,7-methylenedioxyisoflavone, 4′-hydroxy-5-methoxy-6,7-methylenedioxyisoflavone, and iriflophenone (Purevsuren, 2004; Purev et al., 2002; Purevsuren and Narantuya, 2002). Bioactivity: Flavonoids present in the plant exhibit kidney-protective activity (Purevsuren, 2004). Some benzoquinones isolated from Iris species have been used as anticancer agents in modern Chinese medicine (Seki et al., 1995).

FIGURE 1.14 Iris potaninii.

O H 2C

O OCH3

O OCH3 O

OCH3 OCH3

FIGURE 1.15 Structure of 6,7-Methylenedioxy-3΄,4΄,5΄,5-tetra-methoxyisoflavone.

Medicinal Plants of Mongolia

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Leontopodium leontopodioides (Willd.) Beauverd [Asteraceae] Mongolian name: Egel Tsagaanturuu, Uul ovs English name: Common Edelweiss

Edelweiss (Leontopodium alpinum) is the flower most commonly associated with the Swiss Alps where it grows in inaccessible regions and is a protected species. The unique beauty of the white flower is a symbol of purity in Bavaria. The edelweiss is still worn today and is featured on German beer steins as a decorative symbol of love, bravery, strength, and dedication. L. leontopodioides (Figure 1.16) is a relative of edelweiss, which grows in the Mongolian montagne region growing at an altitude of 1,700 m. The plant is well adapted to climatic extremes due to its deep

FIGURE 1.16 Leontopodium leontopodioides Willd. Beauverd.

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fibrous root and felt-like covering of its leaves which protect it from drought, strong winds, and potentially damaging sun. The petals of the flower, white in color and arranged in star shape, have medicinal value. The plant is found in the provinces of Khovsogol, Khentei, Khangai, Khyangan, Mong-Dag., and Dornod Mong (Gubanov, 1996; Ligaa et al., 2005). In TMM, the plant is used for the treatment of diarrhea, alleviation of pain, and healing glandular tuberculosis (Ligaa, 1996; Ligaa et al., 2005). Chemical constituents: Coumarins: obliqine, 5-methoxy-obliqine, 5-hydroxy-obliqine; sesquiterpene lactones: [(1S, 2Z, 3aS, 5aS, 6R, 8aR)-1,3a, 4,5,5a, 6,7,8-octahydro-1,3a, 6-trimethylcyclopenta[c]pentalen2-yl]methyl acetate and 1-[(2R*, 3S*)-3-(β-D-glucopyranosyloxy)-2,3-dihydro-2-[1-(hydroxymethyl) vinyl]-1-benzofuran-5-yl]ethanone (Dobner et al., 2003; Batsugkh, 2008; Narantuya, 2005). Bioactivities: It has antidiarrheal and anticonvulsant properties (Sokolov et al., 1993).

Oxytropis myriophylla DC. [Fabaceae] Mongolian name: Tumen navchintsart Ortuuz English name: Dense leaf Crazyweed

Oxytropis myriophylla (Figure 1.17) belongs to the family Fabaceae. It is an acaulis perennial forming a dense bush which grows on stony slopes and dry, sandy soil in Khovsgol, Khentei, Khangai, Dund. Khalkh, Dornod Mongolia, and Khyangan (Ligaa et al., 2005). In TMM, it is used to treat bone diseases, dermatitis, anthrax, and ulcers and also used for amenorrhea and suppurative wounds (Ligaa et al., 2005; Boldsaikhan, 2004; Khurelchuluun and Batchimeg, 2007). Chemical constituents: The aerial parts contain 0.1%−0.3% alkaloids: N-benzoyl-β-phenylethylamine (Figure 1.18), N-benzoyl-β-hydroxy-β-phenylethylamine, N-trans-cinnamoyl-β-phenylethylamine,

FIGURE 1.17 Oxytropis myriophylla DC. OH OH

O

O

HO

NH OH OH N-benzoyl-β-phenylethylamine

O Quercetin

FIGURE 1.18 Chemical structures of N-benzoyl-β-phenylethylamine and quercetin.

Medicinal Plants of Mongolia

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N-trans-cinnamoyl-β-hydroxy-β-phenylethylamine, N-cis-cinnamoyl-β-phenylethylamine (Kojima et  al., 2001; Purevsuren, 2002), 0.6%−2.3% flavonoids (Purevsuren, 2002; Sokolov et al., 1987): kaempferol, quercetin, (Figure 1.18) rhamnasin, astragalin, rhamnetin (3,5,3′, 4′-tetrahydroxy-7-methoxyflavone) (Lu et al., 2002), (2S)-7-hydroxyflavanone, pinocembrin, sacuranetin (Purevsuren, 2002), (6R, 9R)-roseoside, (6R, 9S)-roseoside, adenosine, myriophylloside B, myriophylloside C, myriophylloside D, myriophylloside E, myriophylloside F (Lu et al., 2002), isorhamnetin-3-O-α-D-galactopyranoside, isorhamnetin-3-O-α-Dglucopyranoside, isorhamnetin-3-O-α-D-rhamnopyranoside (Sokolov et al., 1987), oxymyrioside (quercetin3-O-(β-D-glucofuranosyl-2 1-β-glucofuranosyl)-7-O-α-L-rhamnofuranoside), acetyloxymyrioside (quercetin-3-O-(β-D-glucofuranosyl-2 1-β-D-glucofuranoside-10″-acetyl-7-O-α-L-rhamnofuranoside), coumaroyloxymyrioside (quercetin-3-O-(β-D-glucofuranosyl-2 1-β-D-glucofuranoside)-10″-IIcoumaroyl-7-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside) (Blinova and Tchuani, 1977a), oxytroside (kaempferol-3-O-(βD-glucopyranosyl-6-β-L-rhamnopyranoside)-7-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside) (Blinova and Tchuani, 1977b), steroid saponins, coumarin (Sokolov et al., 1987), phenolic glucosides: 2-methoxy-4-(3′-hydroxy-n-butyl)phenol-1-O-beta-D-glucopyranoside, syringin, 2-methoxy-4-(3′-hydroxy-propenyl)-phenol-1-O-beta-Dglucopyranoside (Lu et al., 2004) and pinitol, benzoic acid, triterpene glycosides (Okawa et al., 2002). Bioactivity: Antihistamine (Lu et al., 2002).

Rhodiola quadrifida Fisch. & Mey. [Crassulaceae] Mongolian name: Dorvolson mugez, Altangagnuur, Zerleg Mugez English name: Foursplit Rhodiola

Rhodiola quadrifida (Figure 1.19) is a dioecious perennial with a long slender root and a thick elongated rhizome, which grows on scree slopes in the mountainous areas of Khovsgol, Khentei, Khangai, Khovd, Mong. Altai, and Gobi-Altai (Ligaa et al., 2005). In TMM, it is used to treat lung infections, as a tonic and as an astringent mouthwash (Ligaa et al., 2005; Boldsaikhan, 2004). Chemical constituents: organic acids, 0.8% tannins, β-sitosterol, 0.5%–1.1% salidroside (rodioloside) (Dumaa, 2006), chlorogenic acid, rhodioline, rosiridine, rosavine, rhodiooctanoside, monghroside

FIGURE 1.19 Rhodiola quadrifida Fisch. & Mey.

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(Dumaa, 2006; Wiedenfeld et al., 2007), gallic acid, kaempferol, quercetin, umbelliferone, scopoletin (Ligaa et al., 2005). Cyanoglycosides: rhodiocianoside A (Figure 1.20) and hodiocianoside B, octyl α-L-arabinopyranosyl(1–6)-β-D-glucopyranoside, gossypetin, and 7-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl(1–3)-α-Lrhamnopyranoside (Yoshikawa et al., 1995). Bioactivity: Antibacterial (Dumaa, 2006).

Rhodiola rosea L. [Crassulaceae] Mongolian name: Yagaan Mugez (Altangagnuur) English name: Rose root, Golden Root

Rhodiola rosea L. (Figure 1.21) is a common member of the family Crassulaceae, known as one of the most important popular medicinal plants of northern Europe as well as in Mongolia. The plant is found

FIGURE 1.20 Structure of rhodiocianoside A.

FIGURE 1.21 Rhodiola rosea L.

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only in a severe alpine climate and grows very slowly. It is 20–40 cm tall, perennial, and a flowering herb. The rhizome is branched, golden yellow or gray-brown, with many emerging erect stems. The plant grows on scree and stony riverbanks in the mountainous areas of Khovsgol, Khentei, Khangai, Khovd, Mong. Altai, Dund. Khalkh, and Gobi-Altai (Ligaa et al., 2005). The rhizomes and roots are used as medicinal raw material. It can take up to a decade before the raw roots are suitable for medicinal use. Russian researchers in the early 1950s reported the ability of the plant to support adaptation of the body to a variety of chemical, biological, and physical stresses. In TMM, the Mongolian doctors prescribed it for tuberculosis and cancer. Siberians secretly transported the herb down ancient trails to the Caucasian mountains where it was traded for Georgian wines, fruits, garlic, and honey. Chinese emperors sent expeditions to Siberia to bring back Golden Root for medicinal preparations. Chemical constituents: The plant contains sugars: glucose, galactose, arabinose, and rhamnose (Davaasuren, 2006); organic acids; 15.9%–20.25% tannins, while the essential oil mainly consists of oxygenated monoterpenes (83.38%). The chief components of the oil are geraniol (25.93%), myrtenol (14.94%), octanol (13.71%), and (E)-pinocarveol (11.07%) (Irekhbayar et al., 2018); phenylpropanoid: rosavin (Dumaa, 2006), rosin, rosarin (Curkin et al., 1984; Zapesochnaya and Cursin, 1982; Òroshencî and Cuticova, 1967); phenylethanol derivatives: salidroside (rodioloside) (Figure 1.22) (Òroshencî and Cuticova, 1967; Dumaa, 2006), tyrosol (Sokolov et al., 1990; Ming et al., 2005); flavonoids: rodiolin (Dumaa, 2006), kaempferol, astragalin, rodionin, rodiosin, acetylrodalgin, trycin, kaempferol-7rahmnoside, trycin-7-glucoside, 8-methylgerbacetin, rhodioflavonoside (Sokolov et al., 1990; Curkin et al., 1984; Revina et al., 1976), and others; terpenoids: rosiridol (Sokolov et al., 1990), rosiridin (Dumaa, 2006), rhodiolosides A-E (Ma et al., 2006); steroids: β-sitosterol, daucosterol; phenol carboxylic acids: chlorogenic, 4-hydroxycinnamic, gallic, isochlorogenic, neochlorogenic acids (Dumaa, 2006), and lotaustralin (Akgul et al., 2004). Bioactivities: Clinical studies, undertaken since the early 1950s, have supported the reputation of the plant as a stimulant of the nervous system, enhancing work performance, improving sleep, eliminating fatigue, improving concentration, and also preventing stress-induced cardiac damage. The roots of R. rosea possess a wide range of pharmacological activities: antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, cardioprotective, and neuroprotective effects because of the presence of phenols and flavonoids (Irekhbayar et al., 2018). It is also reported to have cytotoxic (Ming et al., 2005) and antibacterial properties (Dumaa, 2006; Mashkovsi, 1994).

Salsola laricifolia Turcz. [Chenopodiaceae] Mongolian name: Shineserkhuu Budargana English name: Larchleaf Russian Thistle

Throughout the world, there are several plants that have been identified with the ability to boost the immune system and the Salsola laricifolia Turcz (Figure 1.23) is one of those (Narmandakh et al., 2013).

FIGURE 1.22 Structure of salidroside.

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FIGURE 1.23 Salsola laricifolia Litv. Ex. Drobow.

It is 50–60 cm tall and a small shrub with curved branches. It grows on the upper levels of the slopes of sandy mountains in Dorno Gobi, Gobi-Altai, and Alashani Gobi (Olziikhutag, 1983). In traditional medicine, it is used for the treatment of broken bones, healing wounds, alleviating itching, and swollen joints (Boldsaikhan, 2004). The nomads of the Gobi Desert prepare a tea from the overground parts of the plant as a winter tonic. Chemical constituents: The plant contains coumarins: fraxidin, isofraxidin, scopoletin, fraxetin, calicantoside, fraxidin-8-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, scopolin, fraxin, cleomiscosin B, cleomiscosin D, and lariside (Narantuya, 1996, 2005). Coumarin content is the highest at 0.3% in a 60% alcohol extract, while the flavonoid content is at 0.6% in a 60% alcohol extract (Narmandakh et al., 2013). Bioactivities: Herbal compounds derived from S. laricifolia have a significant effect on the human immune system (Tserendolgor et al., 2013; Narantuya, 2005). A new drug, named “Salimon”, which stimulates immune activity, has been developed. It is protected by patent and is one of the best-selling drugs in the Mongolian drug market (Narantuya et al., 2002).

Saussurea amara Less [Asteraceae] Mongolian name: Gashuun Banzdoo, Gazriin khokh English name: Meadow Saussurea

There are 42 different species of the genus, Saussurea, in Mongolia (Grubov, 2001). It is perennial herb with erect, strong, glabrous, or scabrous stems some 7–60 cm in height, branched in upper part. The flowers of Saussurea amara Less (Figure 1.24) are pink. It is grows in wet alkaline, rocky riverbanks in Khovsgol (Darkhad), Khangai, Mong-Dag., Khyangan, Mong. Altai, Dund. Khalkh, Dornod Mong., Ikh nuur, Olon nuur, and Zyyngar (Ligaa et al., 2005). In traditional medicine, the herbal parts of Saussurea are useful in treating hepatobiliary disorders and indigestion (Ligaa, 1996; Khaidav et al., 1985). It is also used for bile disorders and for its antibacterial properties (Ligaa et al., 2005; Boldsaikhan, 2004; Khurelchuluun and Batchimeg, 2007). Chemical constituents: Sesquiterpene lactones: cynaropicrin (Figure 1.25), desacylcynaropicrin, γ-linolenic acid (Daariimaa, 2006; Konovalova et al. 1979; Tsevegsuren et al. 1997), sugars, coumarins, cardenolides, anthraquinone glycosides, 0.1% alkaloids, 0.7% tannins (Sokolov et al., 1993); sterols: taraxasterol, 3-O-acetyltaraxasterol, β-sitosterol, lupeol; flavonoids: apigenin and apigenin-7-Oglycoside (Figure 1.25), genquanine (Daariimaa, 2006). Bioactivities: Hemostatic, antitumor, and antibacterial properties (Modonova et al., 1986). Cinaropicrin, apigenin, and apigenin-7-O-glycoside exhibit choleretic effects (Daariimaa, 2006; Glasl

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FIGURE 1.24 Saussurea amara Less. OH HO

HO

O

O

O

O

HO

OH

OH

OH

O

OH

Apigenin

OH

O

Apigenin-7-O-glucoside

H 2C H

HO

CH2 O

HO H 2C

H

O

CH2

O O

Cynaropicrin FIGURE 1.25 Chemical structures of apigenin, apigenin-7-O-glucoside, and cynaropicrin.

et al., 2007). Sesquiterpenes (Konovalova et al., 1979) were found to exhibit neoplasm-inhibiting and bactericidal activities (Modonova et al., 1986). Plant extracts and pure substances of S. amara enhanced bile secretion in the isolated rat liver perfusion system tests. The sesquiterpene, cynaropicrin, and the flavonoid, apigenin-7-O-glucoside, were shown to stimulate bile in extracts of S. amaras (Glasl et al., 2007; Kletter et al., 2004).

Stellera chamaejasme L. [Thymelaeaceae] Mongolian name: Odoi dalan turuu, Choniin cholbodos English name: Chinese Stellera

Stellera chamaejasme (Figure 1.26) grows on stony slopes and meadows in mountain steppe regions of Khentei, Khangai, Mong-Dag., Khyangan, and Dornod Mong (Ligaa et al., 2005). It is a small shrub, having long, thick, woody roots, and leafy stems, which reaches 20–30 cm in height.

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FIGURE 1.26 Stellera chamaejasme L.

FIGURE 1.27 Structure of daphnoretin.

Over a thousand years ago, people living on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and in Mongolia were using S. chamaejasme as a raw material in the production of handmade Tibetan paper. The raw material is still used today in the modern industry. Tibetan handmade paper has made important contributions to the social, economic, and cultural development in the region. Many scriptures of Buddhism, printed on Tibetan paper, have been well preserved for hundreds of years (Dege Sutra-Printing House, 2014). The paper has unique characteristics and contains a preservative. Books and scrolls printed or written on Tibetan paper can be stored for a long time free from damage caused by herbivorous insects. The paper also has good strength and strong ink absorbency (Li et al., 2009). In TMM, it is used as an antibacterial agent to treat inflammation (Ligaa et al., 2005; Boldsaikhan, 2004; Khurelchuluun and Batchimeg, 2007). Chemical constituents of S. chamaejasme roots are as follows: 73.5% holocellulose, 39.7% α-cellulose, and 17.6% lignin. It is noted that the holocellulose content is comparable to that of various non-woody plants indicating that S. chamaejasme root is a potential raw material for lignocellulosic paper production (Li et al., 2014). Roots contain sugars, organic acids, saponins, 1.2% tannins; 0.35% flavonoids: 5,7-dihydroxy-4′, 11-dimethoxy-3′, 14-dimethylbenzoflavanone (Liu et al., 1995), ruixianglangdusu A and B, 4′, 4′″, 5,5″, 7,7″-hexahydroxy-3,3″-biflavone (Xu et al., 2001a), 7-methoxyneochamaejasmin A (Feng et al., 2002); 0.3% coumarins: sfondine, isobergapten, pimpinellin, isopimpinellin, umbelliferone, daphnoretin, bicoumastechamin (Xu et al., 2001b), diterpenes (Jiang et al., 2002); lignans: (+)-kusunokinin, lirioresinol-B, magnolenin C, (−)-pinoresinol monomethyl ether, (−)-pinoresinol, (+)-matairesinol, isohinokinin, and (−)-eudesmin (Xu et al., 2001b); steroids: daucosterol, β-sitosterol (Liu et al., 1995). The herb contains coumarins: daphnorin, daphnetin, daphnoretin (Figure 1.27), and daphnetin 8-O-β-D-glycopyranoside, chamaejasmoside (Narantuya, 1996; Narantuya et al., 2000). Bioactivities: Anti-ulcerative, laxative, and wound-healing properties (Narantuya et al., 2000). Recently, it has been found to exhibit antitumor, antiviral, and anti-HIV activities (Feng et al., 2002).

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A new patented, bleaching reagent for wool and cashmere, named “Bicum”, has been developed, which contains bicoumarins from S. chamaejasme (Narantuya, 1995).

Endemic and Rarely Reported Plants One hundred and twenty species (including 12 subspecies) are endemic vascular plants, which are found predominantly in the Altai mountains (45), followed by the Khangai mountains (26) and the Gobi region (13). Two endemic plants are included here, Adonis mongolica and Astragalus mongholicus, and seven other plants have been rarely reported in the English scientific literature.

Adonis mongolica Simanovich [Ranunculaceae] Mongolian name: Mongol khundaga English name: Mongolian Adonis

Adonis mongolica is an endemic plant of Mongolia. It belongs to one of the endangered species. Global warming, aridity, livestock grazing, the drug industry and mining have each contributed to the reduction in the distribution of this endangered plant (Bat-tseren and Monkhjargal, 2014). It grows in the form of a bush, has flowering stems and many basal leaves and emerges from a rhizome. The plant grows in mountain meadows and riverbanks in the mountain forest-steppe belt of Khovd, Khangai, and Khentei (Ligaa et al., 2005; Sanchir et al., 2003). In TMM, it is used for treating Salmonella typhi poisoning, blood disorders, and wounds. Also, it is used to treat swelling caused by heart diseases, heart pain, and heart arrhythmias (Ligaa et al., 2005; Boldsaikhan, 2004; Khurelchuluun and Batchimeg, 2007). Chemical constituents: Leaves contain cardiac glycosides (0.51%–0.55%); flower and seed contain 0.2%, and stems contain 0.2%. The cardiac glycosides are cymarin, corchoroside A, adonitoxin, K-strophanthin-β, erysimoside, olitroside, k-strophanthoside, and gluco-olitroside. The main cardiac glycosides are K-strophantin-β (up to 0.4% of dried plant, up to 76% of total cardiac glycosides), cymarin (up to 13% of total cardiac glycosides) (Lamjav, 1975); flavonoids: luteolin, kaempferol, luteolin-7glucoside, orientin, and tannins (3%) (Ligaa et al., 2005) (Figure 1.28). Bioactivity: Cardiotonic (Khaidav, 1971).

Astragalus mongholicus Bunge [Fabaceae] Mongolian name: Mongol khunchir, Khunchir English name: Mongolian Milkvetch

There are more than 2,500 species of Astragalus in worldwide, and 69 species of those grow in Mongolia. It has flowering stems and many basal leaves, emerging from a rhizome to form a bush. Flowers are big, the calyx is green with violet shade, and the corolla is white. The fruit is nut-like. The plant grows in mountain meadows and riverbanks in the mountain forest-steppe belt of Khovd, Khangai, and Khentii (Ligaa et al., 2005). In TMM, it is used for treating light swelling, water swelling, and phlegm, and improving physical energy and strength. It is also used to soothe a purulent inflammation, for healing wounds, and to treat lung fever, oliguria, and hemorrhoids (Ligaa et al., 2005; Boldsaikhan, 2004). Nowadays, natural source of this plant has decreased; therefore, it is widely cultivated in Mongolia for its roots, which have been used for medicinal purposes in both humans and animals for thousands of years. Chemical constituents: Root contains flavonoids: formononetin, 3-hydroxy-formononetin, 2,3-dihydroxy-7,4-dimethoxyflavone, 7,3-dihydroxy-4-methoxyflavone 7-O-glucoside, 7,3-d ihydroxy-4 -dimethoxyflavone; saponins: astragaloside I–X (Figure 1.29), isoastragaloside I–IV, polysaccharides. Above-ground parts contain astragaloside, quercetin, isorhamnetin, rhamnocetin, isorhamnetin 3-β-D-glucopyranoside, propingoside, coumarin, tannins, and saponins (Oyun et al., 2003; Dungerdorj, 1978).

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O

O H O

H

OH O

CH3

H

OH

OH

O

O

HO

H

OH

H

O

O

O

O

CH3

HO

HO OH

OCH3

Adonitoxin

O

O

O

H H

O

CH3

Cymarin

OH

OH

O HOH2C

O

O O

OH HO OH

O

OCH3

k-strophanthin-β

O

H H

O

CH3

OH

OH

O HOH2C

CH2

O

O O

O

OH

OH

OCH3

HO

HO OH

OH

k-strophanthoside

FIGURE 1.28 Examples of chemical compounds in Adonis mongolica.

Bioactivities: Modern research supports how astragalus has been used in traditional herbal medicine. Studies show that many of the over 200 compounds found in Astragalus have useful properties, including antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects (Wang et al., 2012). Recently, it was shown that Astragalus appears to have anti-aging properties. For example, one compound in the roots of A. membranaceus increased the length of chromosome tips. Called telomeres, these segments of DNA help protect DNA, and telomere length is linked to lifespan (Wang et al., 2012; Bernardes et al. 2011; Blasco, 2005).

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FIGURE 1.29 Structure of astragaloside.

Bidens tripartita L. [Asteraceae] Mongolian name: Guramsan Ajig English name: Bur beggarticks

Bidens tripartita (Figure 1.30), belonging to the family Asteraceae, is an annual plant with stems 15–60 cm tall, glabrous, or with sparse hairs at the base. The plant grows on the banks of rivers and waterside meadows in various provinces; Khentei, Mong-Dag., Dund. Khalkh (north), and Zyyngar (Bulgan river) (Ligaa et al., 2005). In TMM, it is used for treating chest pains and fractured bones, healing wounds, soothing pain, and treating anthrax (Ligaa et al., 2005; Boldsaikhan, 2004; Gorodnyanskoi, 1991). Chemical constituents: The plant contains 4.5%–4.6% sugars (Isakova et al., 1986), 6.2% organic acids, 0.05%–1.3% essential oil, 1.0% steroids; vitamins: 0.1% tocopherol, β-carotene (Morozova, et al., 1981), 1.8%–12% tannins (Ivanic´ et al., 1976; Kazimina, 1961); aurons: sulfuretine, sulfurein, maritimetine, maritimein (Isakova et al., 1986; Serbin et al., 1972); coumarins: umbelliferone, scopoletin, esculetin (Serbin et al., 1975a); flavonoids: luteolin, cinaroside (Ivanic´ et al., 1976); chalcones: butein, isocorpemine, flavanomarein (Serbin et al., 1972, 1975a,b).

FIGURE 1.30 Bidens tripartita.

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Bioactivities: Diuretic, diaphoretic, sedative, antihypertensive, antibacterial, antifungal, anti-allergic (Sokolov et al., 1993).

Equisetum arvense L. [Equisetaceae] Mongolian name: Khodoonii Shivel English name: Fox Tail

Equisetum arvense (Figure 1.31), which belongs to the family Equisetaceae, is a big bushy plant with a tap root and a stem 30–60 cm tall with white and black hairs. The plant grows in sandy terraces on the western and eastern slopes of mountains and forest fringes of the provinces of Khovsgol, Khangai, Mong-Dag., Dornod Mong., Mong. Altai, Dund. Khalkh, Ikh Nuur, and Gobi-Altai (Ligaa et al., 2005). The plant is used in TMM for the treatment of anuria, nephrolithiasis, and cystolithiasis and is beneficial for nose-bleeding, heart disease, and lung disease; it is used as a remedy for coughs and also for tendon and bone disorders (Ligaa et al., 2005). Chemical constituents: The plant contains saponins: equisetonin; alkaloids: equisetin, palustrine, and nicotine; flavonoids: kaempferol, quercetin (Figure 1.32), luteolin, and gengwanin (Ligaa et al., 2005); quercetin glycosides (Milovanovic´ et al., 2007); steroids: β-sitosterol, campesterol, and isofucosterol (D’Agostino et al., 1984); essential oil: hexahydrofarnesyl acetone, cis-geranyl acetone, thymol, and trans-phytol (Radulovic´ et al., 2006). Bioactivity: The plant has diuretic properties (Mashkovsi, 1994) and shows antioxidant and antimicrobial activities (Milovanovic´ et al., 2007).

FIGURE 1.31 Equisetum arvense.

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FIGURE 1.32 Structure of quercetin.

Gentiana macrophylla Pall. [Gentianaceae] Mongolian name: Tomnavchit Degd, Ukher Degd English name: Largeleaf Gentian

Gentiana macrophylla (Figure 1.33) belongs to the family Gentianaceae and is a plant with large rhizomes and a stem base densely covered with fibrous leaf remnants. The plant is found growing in larch or mixed forests and their fringes, waterside and forest meadows, meadow slopes, dwarf birch thickets, and the banks of watercourses in the provinces of Khovs., Khent., Khang., Mong-Dag., Khyangan, Khovd, and Mong. Altai (Ligaa et al., 2005). In TMM, it is used for relief of pain, fever reduction, treatment of tumors, vaginal disease, bile disorder, wounds, and diseases of the blood vessels (Ligaa et al., 2005; Boldsaikhan, 2004; Khurelchuluun and Batchimeg, 2006). Chemical constituents: Acids: erythrocentauric, roburic, and oleanolic acids (Chen et al., 2005), loganic acid (Lin et al., 2004), 2-methoxyanofinic acid (Tan et al., 1996); flavonoids: homoorientin, saponaretin (Tikhonova et al., 1989); alkaloids: gentianine (Figure 1.34), genctianal (Zhong and Jin, 1988), gentianidine (Liang et al., 1964); secoridoids: gentiopicroside, swertiamarin, sweroside, 6′-O-βD-glucosylgentiopicroside (Chen et al., 2005), 6′-O-β-D-glucosylsweroside, trifloroside rindoside; and other compounds: kurarinone, kushenol I, β-sitosterol, stigmasterol, daucosterol, β-sitosterol-3O-gentiobioside, α-amyrin, oleanolic acid, isovitexin, gentiobiose, and methyl 2-hydroxy-3-(1β-Dglucopyranosyl)oxybenzoate (Tan et al., 1996).

FIGURE 1.33 Gentiana macrophylla.

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FIGURE 1.34 Molecular structure of gentianine.

FIGURE 1.35 Oxitropis muricata.

Bioactivities: Anti-inflammatory and hemostatic properties, and stimulates secretion of gastric acids (Sokolov et al., 1990).

Oxytropis muricata DC [Fabaceae] Mongolian name: Zoolon orgost ortuuz English name: Crazyweed muricata

Oxitropis muricata (Figure 1.35) is a plant of the family Fabaceae. It is a caespitose perennial (Olziikhutag, 1983). The plant grows on sandy and stony slopes of mountains and hills, and riverbanks in the steppe zone of Khovs., Khang., Mong-Dag., Dor. Mong, and Gobi-Altai (Gubanov, 1996). In TMM, it is used for treating wounds, amenorrhea and for blood poisoning, as an antibacterial and as a hemostatic (Boldsaikhan, 2004).

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FIGURE 1.36 Molecular structure of robinine.

Chemical constituents: The herb contains 2.7% sugar; 0.02% essential oil; tannins, 0.8%; alkaloids: muricatine, muricatinine, (+)-N-benzoyl-2-phenyl-2-oxyethylamine, (−)-N-nicotinyol-2-phenyl-2-oxyethylamine; flavonoids: kaempferol, robinine (Figure 1.36) (Tsetsegmaa, 1991), and muricatisine (Demeuov et al., 1998). Bioactivities: Sedative, bile-expelling, and anti-ulcerative properties (Sokolov et al., 1987).

Oxytropis pseudoglandulosa Gontsch. ex Grubov [Fabaceae] Mongolian name: Khuurmag bulchirhait ortuuz English name: Falseglandular Crazyweed

Oxytropis pseudoglandulosa (Figure 1.37) belongs to the family Fabaceae and is a perennial 10–25 cm tall. It grows in dense tufts in the sandy steppes of river valleys, in rocky areas, and in the forest fringes of the provinces of Khovsgol, Khentei, Khangai, Mong-Daguria, Khyangan, Dund. Khalkh, Dornod Mong., Dor. Gobi, and Gobi-Altai (Ligaa et al., 2005)

FIGURE 1.37 Oxytropis pseudoglandulosa.

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In TMM, it is used for the treatment of oral ulcers, tumors and wounds; reduces toothache and other pain; and dries out lymph. It is an ingredient of the following traditional prescriptions: Banzi-12, Diman12, and Menbo-9 (Ligaa et al., 2005; Boldsaikhan, 2004). Chemical constituents: The aerial part contains 0.5% alkaloids: (+)-(R)-O-benzoyl-2-phenyl2-hydroxyethylamine, (−)-(R)-N-benzoyl-2-phenyl-2-hydroxyethylamine, N-trans-cinnamoyl-βphenylethylamine, N-trans-cinnamoyl-β-hydroxy-β-phenylethylamine (Huneck et al., 1986; Purevsuren, 2002); 1.6%-polysaccharide; 4.2% flavonoids: chrysin, isoliquiritigenin, pinocembrin, 7-hydroxyflavanone, 7-methxyflavanone, 5-hydroxy-7-methoxyflavone, and robinin (Purevsuren, 2002). Bioactivity: Immuno-stimulating (Bolormaa, 1996). Extract of O. pseudoglandulosa inhibits vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation and migration (Lee et al., 2018).

Thalictrum foetidum L. [Ranunculaceae] Mongolian name: Omkhii Burjgar, Burjgar, Ogor English name: Glandularhairy Meadowrue

Thalictrum foetidum (Figure 1.38) belongs to the family Ranunculaceae. It is a perennial herb some 30–150 cm tall, glabrous or with simple sparse hairs near the tip. The plant grows in forests, and forest margins, among birches, willow and pine, and also in the belt of forest steppe in Khovsgol, Khentei, Khangai, Mong-Dag., Khovd, Ikh n., Mong. Altai, Dund. Khalkh, Dor. Mong, and Gobi-Altai (Ligaa et al., 2005). In TMM, it is used to treat bile diseases and tumors and is also used as an expectorant and a diuretic (Ligaa et al., 2005; Boldsaikhan, 2004). Chemical constituents: 3.0% organic acids, triterpene saponins (Fedorov, 1985); 0.3%−0.4% alkaloids (Javzan, 1999); berberine, phetidine, thaliphetidine (thalictrinine), isotetrandrine, berbamine (Fedorov, 1985), thalactamine, N-oxyargemonine, thalidesine, corunine, glaucine, protopine (Javzan, 1999); 1.6%−5.5% tannins (Fedorov, 1985); 1.1% flavonoids (Nuralieva et al., 1969). Thalfoetines A–D (Figure 1.39), unique hybrid aporphine alkaloids with a C-7 aromatic unit formed by a new C–C bond linking two building blocks, were isolated recently from T. foetidum (Cai-Feng Ding et al., 2019). Bioactivities: Antihypertensive and anti-inflammatory properties. Phetidine shows anti-inflammatory activity (Javzan, 1999). Experiments on the in vitro anticancer activity of extracts that were obtained from the root of T. foetidum were carried out while using the same cancer cell lines as applied in investigations of cytotoxic activity of alkaloid standards (Petruczynik et al., 2019). Thalfoetines A–D inhibited bacteria significantly, while thalfoetine A damaged the cell structure of Staphylococcus aureus and inhibited its DNA synthesis (Cai-Feng Ding et al., 2019).

FIGURE 1.38 Thalictrum foetidum.

Medicinal Plants of Mongolia

35 CH 3 N

OCH 3

H OCH 3

OH H3CO O H3CO

OCH 3

OCH 3

FIGURE 1.39 Molecular structure of thalfoetine A.

FIGURE 1.40 Example of the structure of a necine base.

Toxic Plants Containing Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) are a group of naturally occurring alkaloids produced by about 5% of flowering plants as secondary metabolites to offer protection from insect herbivores. PAs consist of two parts: a basic amino alcohol moiety, referred to as a necine (Figure 1.40); and one or more acids that esterify the alcohol groups of the necine base. Classification of PAs is based on the substitution pattern of the necine base, which is also known as the pyrrolizidine ring. More than 660 PAs and PA N-oxides have been identified in over 6,000 plants, and about half of these compounds exhibit hepato-toxicity (Radominska-Pandya, 2010). While certain PAs may themselves show little toxicity, the compounds can undergo change in the liver of humans and animals to become highly toxic, alkylating pyrroles, which have (i) a double-bond in position 1,2 of the necine, (ii) a nonsubstituted alpha – position next to the nitrogen atom, and (iii) di-esterification of the OH-groups of the necine (monoesters are less toxic) (Hartmann and Witte, 1995; Rizk, 1991). In Mongolia, several plants used in traditional medicine are reported to contain PAs with associated risks to health. Disease arising from consumption of PAs is known as pyrrolizidine alkaloidosis. A principal field of human activity in Mongolia is cattle-raising (3.2 million inhabitants and more than 80 million cattle). Accidental poisoning of cattle is a real threat. Investigation of toxic plants, which can harm cattle, is therefore a necessary and active field of research. The nomads of Mongolia, who are breeders and farmers, mow pastures during summer to prepare winter fodder for their animals. This could well be the main pathway of dispersion of plants containing PAs and their subsequent uptake by grazing animals. Furthermore, PAs exhibit carcinogenic, mutagenic, genotoxic, fetotoxic, and teratogenic properties (Culvenor et al., 1976; Huxtable, 1989; Fu et al., 2004; Xia et al., 2006). Therefore, the use of medicinal plants, which contain these compounds, is restricted in many countries. Mongolian plants containing PAs are described on the following pages and their toxicity is discussed.

Cacalia hastata L. [Asteraceae] Mongolian name: Ilden igyyshin English name: Hastate Cacalia

Cacalia hastata (Figure 1.41) belongs to the family Asteraceae. It is a perennial herb with a rhizome, producing large fibrous roots. The plant grows in larch and birch forests in the steppe belt of Khovsgol, Khentei, Khangai, Khyangan, and Dornod (Gubanov, 1996; Ligaa et al., 2005). In TMM, it is used against gastric and stomach ulcers, respiratory infections, inflammation of the stomach, and oral inflammation. The extract has anti-inflammatory activity and is antibacterial, spasmolytic, choleretic, antipyretic, and antihemorrhagic (Boldsaikhan, 2004).

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FIGURE 1.41 Cacalia hastata. CH3

OH CH3 O

H 3C O

O

O H N

Platyphylline

FIGURE 1.42 Structure of platyphylline.

Chemical constituents: The aerial parts contain tannins (Sokolov et al., 1993) and pyrrolizidine alkaloids: platyphylline (Figure 1.42) and hastacine (Altanchimeg, 2001; Altanchimeg et al., 2001). These compounds are non-toxic PAs and are therefore safe to use for the purposes above (Roeder and Wiedenfeld, 2009).

Lappula myosotis Moench Mongolian name: Durskhal tsetsgerkhuu notsorgono English name: Stickseeds

Lappula myosotis (Figure 1.43) is a genus of flowering plants in the Boraginaceae family known generally as stickseeds. They are native to the northern hemisphere.

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FIGURE 1.43 Lappula myosotis Moench.

FIGURE 1.44 Molecular structure of intermedine.

It is an annual herb and is widespread in the Mongolian provinces of Khovsgol, Khangai, Khentei, Mongol Dahurica, Altai, and Alasha Gobi. This plant is used in traditional medicine for healing broken bones and treating wounds and articular swelling (Ligaa, 1996; Kletter and Kriechbaum, 2001). Chemical constituents: The plant contains high levels of alkaloids, intermedine, acetylintermedine, lycopsamine, and acetyllycopsamine (Altanchimeg, 2001; Wiedenfeld et al., 2005). On account of similarity in molecular structure to two of its constituents, acetyllycopsamine would be expected to have toxic side effects as both intermedine (Figure 1.44) and lycopsamine exhibit moderate toxicity. The PAs of L. myosotis have a double-bond in position 1–2 of the five-member ring system of necine which has toxic potential which makes its use hazardous for human beings.

Ligularia sibirica (L.) Cass. [Compositae] Mongolian name: Sibiri zayaakhai English name: Siberian Goldenray

Ligularia sibirica (Figure 1.45) is a typical species of the genus Ligularia and belongs to the family Compositae. It is a perennial, herbaceous plant 0.3–1.3 m tall and has a short rhizome. The plant grows in abundance in the pastures and meadows of the provinces of Khovsgol, Khentei, Khangai, Noyon, and Khyangan (Gubanov, 1996).

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FIGURE 1.45 Ligularia sibirica (L.) Cass. [Asteraceae].

FIGURE 1.46 Molecular structure of tussilagine.

In TMM, it is used for healing wounds, treating a disturbed digestive system, enhancing vitality, and as an antibacterial (Boldsaikhan, 2004). Chemical constituents: The plant contains a sesquiterpene: germacrene D; a monoterpene: cisocimene (Bohlmann et al., 1977); pyrrolizidine alkaloids: tussilagine (Figure 1.46), isotussilagine, tussilaginine, and isotussilaginine (Wiedenfeld et al., 2003; Dumaa, 2006); flavonoids: hyperin and steroids; and saponins (Bohlmann et al., 1977). Tussilagine and its isomers are non-toxic alkaloids.

Senecio vulgaris L. [Compositae] Mongolian name: Egel zokhimon English name: Groundsel

Senecio vulgaris (Figure 1.47) is a frost-resistant, deciduous, annual plant that grows in overgrown sites, waste places, roadsides, gardens, nurseries, orchards, vineyards, landscaped areas, and agricultural land at altitudes up to 1600 ft (500 m) and is, additionally, self-pollinating, producing 1,700 seeds per plant with three generations per year. It is 10–35 cm tall and has branched stems, which are glabrous or with barely entangled hairs. S. vulgaris grows in riverbanks, ploughed fields, and irrigation ditches in the provinces of Khentei, Khangai, Mong. Altai, and Dund Khalkh (west north) (Gubanov, 1996; Ligaa et al., 2005), but there is no documented use of the plant in traditional medicine. Chemical constituents: The plant contains alkaloids: senecionine (Figure 1.48), seneciphylline, retrosine, spartiodine, intenerrimine, uzaramine, and riddelline (Ferry and Brazier, 1976; Ingolfsdottir and Hylands, 1990; Pieters and Vlietinck, 1987); flavonoids (Mansouor et al., 1981); quinone and its

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FIGURE 1.47 Senecio vulgaris.

FIGURE 1.48 Molecular structure of senecionine.

derivatives (Bohlmann et al., 1979); and essential oils: β-caryophylline, α-copaene, myrcene, nonene-1, α-pinene, terpinolene, damascenone, β-cadinene, nerolidol, and azarone (Van Dooren et al., 1981). Bioactivities: Cholinolytic, antibacterial, and antifungal (Loizzo et al., 2004).

Senecio argunensis Turcz. [Compositae] Mongolian name: Urgunii zokhimon or Orgonii ˙zokhimon English name: Argun groundsel

Senecio argunensis (Figure 1.49) is a perennial herb which is extensively distributed in north and northeast China, the Korea Peninsula, and eastern Russia. In Mongolia, it grows in the east of the country at altitudes of 500–3,300 m. In TMM, it is used to treat gastric tumors, ulcers, insect bites, conjunctivitis, dermatitis, laryngitis, and pharyngitis (Ligaa et al., 2005). Chemical constituents: There are sesquiterpenoids: isodauc-7(14)-en-6a, 10b-diol, 10b-hydroxyisodauc-6-en-14-al, (7S*)-opposit-4(15)-en-1b, 7-diol, artabotrol, (7R*)-opposit-4(15)-en-1b, 7-diol, opposit-4(15)-en-1b, 11-diol, loliolide, 5a, 6a-epoxy-3b-hydroxymegastigm-7-en-9-one, chromolaevane dione, pregn-4-en-3,20-dione, 12b-hydroxypregn-4-en-3,20-dione, ergost-6,22-dien-3b, 5a, 8a-triol, (23Z)-cycloart-23-en-3b, and 25-diol. Alkaloids present are integerrimine, eruciflorine, senecionine, erucifoline, seneciphylline, and otosenine (Figure 1.50) (Liu and Roeder, 1991; Cheng and Cao, 1992). Most PAs of the plant are toxic and should not be used therapeutically.

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FIGURE 1.49 Senecio argunensis.

FIGURE 1.50 Molecular structure of otosenine.

Senecio nemorensis (L.) [Compositae] Mongolian name: Oin ˙zokhimon, Naimaldai zokhimon English name: Nemorensis ragwort

There is substantial evidence that Senecio nemorensis (Figure 1.51) (Mongolia) is closely related to (or maybe even identical with) a European plant, Senecio nemorensis L., ssp. nernorensis (Rchb.) Celak. S. nemorensis is a perennial plant growing to 2 m. It flowers from July to August. It grows at altitudes of 700–3,000 m in Khentei, Khangai, and Altai (Ligaa et al., 2005). It is used in traditional medicine to relieve pain, improve heart rhythm, and is hypotensive (Ligaa et al., 2005). Chemical constituents: Since it belongs to the Senecio family, the plant contains many PAs such as 7- and 9-angeloylplatynecine, fuchsisenecionine, sarracine, 6-angeloylhastanecine, 7- and 9-angeloylretronecine, doriasenine, triangularine, 7-senecioylretronecine, 7-senecioyl-9-sarracinoylretronecine, platyphylline, senecionine, nemorensine, retroisosenine, bulgarsenine, doronenine, and the nitrogen oxides of these compounds in various concentrations (Altanchimeg, 2001). The main PAs present are the non-toxic platyphylline, sarracine, and fuchsisenecionine. Toxic ones like senecionine and triangularine were found as minor constituents (Klasek et al., 1973; Nguyen et al., 1976; Roeder and Wiedenfeld, 1977; Roeder and Wiedenfeld, 1979; Klasek et al., 1980; Christov et al., 2005). Extracts of S. nemorensis display both mutagenic and carcinogenic effects and should not be used for therapeutical purposes (Habs et al., 1982).

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FIGURE 1.51 Senecio nemorensis.

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China

2 Medicinal Plants of China Focusing on Tibet and Surrounding Regions Jiangqun Jin Chongqing Institute of Medicinal Plant Cultivation Chunlin Long Minzu University of China Edward J. Kennelly City University of New York CONTENTS Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 49 Rheum tanguticum Maximowiczex Regel-Polygonaceae ................................................................... 50 Arenaria kansuensis Maxim. – Caryophyllaceae ............................................................................... 50 Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora (Pennell) D. Y. Hong-Scrophulariaceae .......................................... 52 Fritillaria cirrhosa D. Don ................................................................................................................. 53 Przewalskia tangutica Maximowicz– Solanaceae .............................................................................. 53 Lamiophlomis rotata (Bentham ex J. D. Hooker) Kudô– Lamiaceae................................................. 54 Alcea rosea Linnaeus – Malvaceae ..................................................................................................... 56 Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fischer ex Candolle Prodr. – Fabaceae ........................................................... 56 Angelica sinensis (Oliver) Diels – Apiaceae ....................................................................................... 58 Saussurea involucrata (Kar. et Kir.) Sch.-Bip. – Asteraceae .............................................................. 58 Rhodiola crenulata (Hook. f. et Thoms.) H. Ohba– Crassulaceae ..................................................... 60 Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis (Franchet) Handel-Mazzetti– Liliaceae ........................................61 Arnebia euchroma (Royle) I. M. Johnston – Boraginaceae ................................................................ 62 Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Berk.) G.H. Sung, J.M. Sung, Hywel-Jones & Spatafora –Ophiocordycipitaceae ....................................................................................................... 63 References ................................................................................................................................................ 64

Introduction This chapter focuses upon selected medicinal plants found on the Qinghai-Tibet plateau, which relates to the provinces of Xizang, Qinghai, Gansu, Xinjiang, Sichuan, Yunnan, Ningxia, and Shaanxi. The plateau climate is arid. Its climate is characterized by intense radiation, abundant sunshine, low temperatures,

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dry air, frequent wind, strong evaporation, and low atmospheric pressure. Precipitation is minimal and is randomly and unevenly distributed in time and space. Hot summers follow cool winters and diurnal temperature varies greatly. Hui, Uighur and Mongolian traditional medicines are employed. Many medicinal plants in the QinghaiTibet plateau grow in ecologically vulnerable areas, such as meadows, mountain grasslands, and gravels. Conservation of these plants and of habitat is of prime importance. The plants described were selected using several criteria. First, we focused on plants that are traded, such as Rheum tanguticum Maximowicz ex Regel, Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fischer ex Candolle Prodr., Arnebia euchroma (Royle) I. M. Johnston, Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Berk.) G. H. Sung, J. M. Sung, Hywel-Jones and Spatafora, the important medicinal plants of local people, such as Arenaria kansuensis Maxim., Przewalskia tangutica Maximowicz, Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora (Pennell) D. Y. Hong, Lamiophlomis rotata (Bentham ex J. D. Hooker) Kudô.

Rheum tanguticum Maximowiczex Regel-Polygonaceae Synonym: Rheum palmatum L. subsp. Dissectum Stapf. Distribution: The producing areas are Qinghai, Sichuan, Shaanxi, and Gansu provinces of China, spreading to India, Russia, Europe, and North America (Xiao et al., 1984). Habitat: Valleys, 1,600–3,000 m. Part used: Root and rhizomes. Traditional use: The taste is bitter, and the potency is cold. In traditional medicine, it is said to exert heat-clearing, purging fire, cooling blood, removal of blood stasis, detoxification, and purgative (Wang and Ren, 2009; Cao et al. 2017; Sun et al., 2016). It acts mainly as a purgative and laxative. Modern biomedical studies suggest that it can be used for diabetic nephropathy, acute organophosphorus pesticide poisoning, chronic renal failure, acute pancreatitis, acute ischemic stroke, and gastrointestinal bleeding (Zheng et al., 2013). Chemical constituents: Root and rhizomes contain anthraquinones (e.g. aloe-emodin, chrysaron, chrysophanol, physcion, rhapontin, with emodin andrhein, and their glycosides) (Figure 2.1) (Cao et al., 2017; Okabe et al., 1973); anthrones (sennosides) and their glycosides; stilbenes, butyrophenones and chromones, tannins, saccharides (Fu et al., 2011). Bioactivities: Various activities have been ascribed to this species, including anticancer (Huang et al., 2007), anticoagulative (Kosuge and Ishida, 1985), antioxidative (Iizuka et al., 2004), antibacterial, antiinflammatory (Moon et al., 2006), analgesic, antimutagenic, hepatoprotective, and for the treatment of diabetic nephropathy (Zheng et al., 2013). Its antibacterial activity is related primarily to free anthraquinones such as rhein, emodin, and sennosides, which are the main compounds for cathartic property, and blood stasis-relieving properties have been attributed to (+)-catechin and gallic acid (Lim et al., 2004), which have antiplatelet activity.

Arenaria kansuensis Maxim. – Caryophyllaceae Synonym: Arenaria kansuensis var. acropetala Y. W. Tsui and L. H. Zhou. Distribution: The producing areas are in China: S. Gansu, Qinghai, W. Sichuan, E. Xizang, and N.W. Yunnan. Habitat: Alpine meadows and mountain grasslands, 3,500–5,300 m. Part used: Whole herb. Traditional use: The herb tastes bitter, and its potency in traditional medicine is considered cool. It is used to treat influenza, lung inflammation, jaundice, rheumatism (Li et al., 2007; Wu et al., 1990), neuropsychiatric diseases, and cardiopulmonary disorders (Liu et al., 2018). Chemical constituents: The major chemical constituents include alkaloids (β-carboline), phenols, steroids, saponins, sugars, aminoacids, coumarin, flavonoids, terpenoids (Figure 2.2) (Cui et al., 2017, 2018; Lei et al., 2007, 2008), phenylpropanoids, and vitamins (e.g. vitamin D, riboflavin, thiamine, and ascorbic acid) (Li et al., 2007).

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FIGURE 2.1 Chemical structures of rhein and emodin.

Bioactivities: Antivirus, immunomodulation (Liu et al., 2010), hepatoprotective, radical scavenging (Qi, 2013), anti-inflammation (Cui et al., 2017), hypoxia resistance (Cui et al., 2018), anticonvulsant (Liu et al., 2018). β-Carboline alkaloids are the major anti-inflammatory active compounds (Cui et al., 2017). Pyrocatechol and tricin 7-O-β-D-glucopyranoside may be therapeutic candidates for the treatment of altitude sickness (Cui et al., 2018), while 6-and/or 8-OMe flavones are related toanticonvulsant activity (Liu et al., 2018).

FIGURE 2.2 Chemical structures of pyrocatechol and β-carboline.

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Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora (Pennell) D. Y. Hong-Scrophulariaceae Synonym: Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora Pennell. Distribution: W. Sichuan, S. Xizang, N. W. Yunnan of China, Bhutan, Nepal, Afghanistan, and Pakistan (Olsen, 2005). Habitat: Alpine grassland and gravelly areas, forests, shrublands, meadows, cliffs, and screes between 3,600 and 4,400 m. Part used: Roots and rhizome. Traditional use: The taste is very bitter and is considered to be cold. It is used to treat damp-heat dysentery, jaundice, fever, and hemorrhoids (Sah et al., 2013; Kafle et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2013). Chemical constituents: iridoid glycosides (picroside, kutkoside, kutkin, veronicoside, verminoside, and picroliv and picroside I) (Figure 2.3) (Smit, 2000; Wang et al., 1993), triterpenoids, including cucurbitacin B (Figure 2.3), phenolic glycosides (Wang et al., 2013), phenylethanoid glycosides (Jian et al., 1998), cucurbitacin glycosides (Wang et al., 2004), phenylpropanoid glycosides (Kafle et al., 2018), phenyl and phenylethyl glycosides (Zou et al., 2007), cyclopentanoid monoterpenes, caffeoyl glycosides, and plantamajoside (Sah and Varshney, 2013).

FIGURE 2.3 Chemical structures of picroside I and cucurbitacin B.

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Bioactivities: Immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory (Smit et al., 2000), redox-sensitive inflammation (Guo et al., 2009), antidiabetic (Rahman and Venkatraman, 2011), cardioprotective, antioxidant, antiulcer, antiasthmatic, antiradical activities, anticancer activity, a selective enhancer of neuron growth (Sah and Varshney, 2013). Cucurbitacins have inhibitory activity against several carcinomas, sarcomas, and leukemias; kutkin has anti-inflammatory activity; aucubin can inhibit phorbol ester-induced edema; phenylethanoids are antibacterial and scavengers of reactive oxygen species (Smit, 2000).

Fritillaria cirrhosa D. Don Synonym: Fritillaria cirrhosa var. bonatii (H. Léveillé) S. C. Chen Fritillaria cirrhosa var. dingriensis Y. K. Yang & J. Z. Zhang Fritillaria cirrhosa var. viridiflava S. C. Chen Fritillaria duilongdeqingensis Y. K. Yang & Gesan Fritillaria lhiinzeensis Y. K. Yang, Y. Q. Ye et al. Fritillaria zhufenensis Y. K. Yang & J. Z. Zhang Lilium bonatii H. Léveillé Distribution: Gansu, Qinghai, Sichuan, Xizang, Yunnan provinces of China, Bhutan, India, Nepal. China exported bulbs to Taiwan and Korea. Habitat: Forests, alpine thickets, meadows, flood lands, moist places; 3,200–4,600 m. Part used: Bulbs. Traditional use: The taste is bitter and sweet, and the potency is slightly cold. It is used to treat cough, asthma (Wang et al., 2011), and breast, lung, nasopharyngeal cancers (Duke and Ayensu, 1985); it has astringent, demulcent, febrifuge, pectoral effects; it is all used as aliments (Kavandi et al., 2015). Chemical constituents: Alkaloids, such as sipeimine (Figure 2.4), chuanbeinone, peininine, and verticine (Hao et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2011), ebeiedine, ebeiedinone, hupehenine, isoverticine, verticine, verticinone (Figure 2.4) (Wu et al., 2018); adenosine; uridine; adenine; guanosine; thymidine (Wu et al., 2018); 2-deoxyadenosine and hypoxanthine (Duanet al., 2011). Bioactivities: Antitussive, expectorant, antiasthmatic (Wang et al., 2011), anticancer (Bokhari and Syed, 2015; Kavandiet al., 2015), and anti-inflammatory (Wang et al., 2016). Imperialine and chuanbeinone have been studied for anti-inflammatory activity; verticinone, imperialine, imperialine-3-βglucoside, 3β-acetylimperialine, and sinpeinine A have been studied in vitro for antiasthmatic activity.

Przewalskia tangutica Maximowicz– Solanaceae Synonym: Mandragora shebbearei C. Fischer Przewalskia roborowskii Batalin P. shebbearei (C. Fischer) Grubov Distribution: Gansu, Qinghai, Sichuan, Xizang. Habitat: Sandy lands of alpine or dry grasslands and flood lands; 3,200–5,000 m. Part used: Seeds and roots. Traditional use: The taste is bitter and pungent; the potency is cold. Treatments include gastrointestinal spasm pain, diphtheria, and anthrax (Zeng et al., 2015; Zhao et al., 2017). Chemical constituents: Tropane alkaloids: hyoscyamine and atropine (Figure 2.5), anisodamine, scopolamine, anisodine (Lan and Quan, 2010; Ren et al., 2008); (−)-6β-hydroxyhyoscyamine; cuscohygrine (Xiao and He, 1982); nicotine (Wan et al., 2007); chlorinated phenolic glycosides: przewatangosides A–C; phenolic acids; sesquiterpenes; triterpenoids; coumarins (Zhao et al., 2017); rutin; protocatechuate;

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FIGURE 2.4 Chemical structures of sipeimine and verticinone.

FIGURE 2.5 Chemical structures of atropine and hyoscyamine.

uracil; cytosine; adenine; uridine; adenosine; and quercetin-3-O-rutinoside-7-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (Zhao et al., 2017). Bioactivities: Analgesic, spasm modulation, pesticidal, and anti-inflammatory effects.

Lamiophlomis rotata (Bentham ex J. D. Hooker) Kudô– Lamiaceae Synonym: Phlomis rotata Bentham ex J. D. Hooker.

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Distribution: Gansu, Qinghai, Sichuan, Xizang, Yunnan provinces of China, Bhutan, India, and Nepal. Habitat: Weathered alpine alluvial fans, stony alpine meadows, floodplains; 2,700–4,900 m. Part used: Roots, rhizome, or whole herb. Traditional use: The taste is sweet and bitter; the potency is neutral. It could alleviate detumescence and hemostasis, promote blood circulation to remove blood stasis, and reinforce marrow (Li et al., 2010). Usually, it is used to treat osteoporosis (La et al., 2015), gingivitis, dysmenorrheal, postoperative or bone fracture pain, and hemostasis (Zhang et al., 2018). Chemical constituents: Iridoids: loganin, 8-O-acetylshanzhiside methylester, phloyoside I, phloyoside II, and phlomiol, 6-O-acetylshanzhiside methylester withshanzhisidemethylester (Figure 2.6), sesamoside, 8-deoxyshanzhiside, lamiophlomiside, penstemoside, 7,8-dehydropenstemoside, phlorigidoside C; flavanoids: luteolin, quercetin, luteolin-7-O-glucoside, quercetin-3-O-arabinoside, apigenin7-O-neohesperidoside, leuteolin-7-O-[β-D-apiose(6 1)]-β-D-glucoside; phenylethanoid glycosides; norisoprenoid; phenolic; and glucoside (La et al., 2015; Li et al., 2010; Luo et al., 2007). Bioactivities: Antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory, and hemostatic (Li et al., 2010). Iridoid glycosides are the main active ingredient with hemostatic, antinociceptive, and anti-inflammatory effects. c8-O-acetyl-shanzhiside methylester also has anti-fibrinolytic hemostatic effect; 8-O-acetyl-shanzhiside methylester and 6-O-acetyl-shanzhiside methylester can protect cardio and brain injury (Jiang et al., 2010; Kang et al., 2012; Zhang et al., 2018), breast, lung, and nasopharyngeal cancers (Duke and Ayensu,

FIGURE 2.6 Chemical structures of 8-O-acetylshanzhiside methylester and shanzhisidemethylester.

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1985); 6b-n-butoxy-7,8-dehydropenstemonoside, 8-epi-7-deoxyloganin, and 7,8-dehydropenstemonoside displayed an inhibitory effect on lipopolysaccharide-stimulated NF-jB activation (Zhang et al., 2012).

Alcea rosea Linnaeus – Malvaceae Synonym: Althaea rosea (Linnaeus) Cavanilles A. rosea var. sinensis (Cavanilles) S. Y. Hu A. sinensis Cavanilles Distribution: It is native to S.W. provinces of China and has been cultivated in Europe since at least the 15th century. It is used as both an ornamental and medicinal plant (Lim, 2014). Today, it is distributed and naturalized in the northern temperate regions. Habitat: It is not known from any truly wild environments. The plant grows best in medium-fertile, moist, but well-drained soil, and full sun. Part used: Seeds, flowers, roots, leaves, stem. Traditional use: The taste is sweet; the potency is cool. In traditional Uyghur medicine of northwest China, the hollyhock flowers are used to stop bleeding, reduce swelling, and detoxify (Zhang et  al., 2015). Alcea rosea is used for urolithiasis (Marzieh et al., 2012), expectorant, cooling, and diuretic properties; and in India, it is used to relieve cough (Mert et al., 2010), and in Iran, for treating bronchitis, diarrhea, constipation, inflammation, severe coughs, and angina (Marzieh et al., 2012). Its flowers have also widely varied applications in Turkish folk medicine (Mertet al., 2010). Chemical constituents: Alkaloids: glycine, betaine, trigonelline (Gerald et al., 2001); polysaccharides (D-galacturonic and D-glucuronic acids); monosaccharides: rhamnose, arabinose, glucose, galactose (Rakhimov et al., 2007); oligosaccharides; galacturonic; hemicelluloses; glucuronic acids; protein; aminoacid: valine, threonine, methionine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, phenylalanine, histidine, and arginine; microelements (Azizovet al., 2007); flavonoids (Al-Snafi, 2013). Bioactivities: Antibacterial (Ghasemi and Atakishiyeva, 2016; Seyyednejad et al., 2010), antiinflammatory, antiurolithic (Ahmadi et al., 2012), hepatoprotective (Hussain et al., 2014), inhibit mushroom tyrosinase (Namjoyan et al., 2015), immunomodulatory (Ghaoui et al., 2008), cardiovascular, antiestrogenic, and cytotoxic effects (Al-Snafi, 2013).

Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fischer ex Candolle Prodr. – Fabaceae Synonym: Glycyrrhiza asperrima Linnaeus f. var. desertorum Regel G. asperrima var. uralensis (Fischer ex Candolle) Regel G. shiheziensis X. Y. Li Distribution: Glycyrrhiza uralensisis native to southern Europe and parts of Asia. It is distributed in Gansu, Hebei, Heilongjiang, Liaoning, Nei Mongol, Ningxia, Qinghai, Shaanxi, Shandong, Shanxi, and Xinjiang provinces of China, and Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Pakistan, Russia, and Tajikistan. China's main export countries of licorice are Japan, Korea, Germany, Thailand, and the Netherlands. Habitat: Sandy lands, dry riverbanks, grasslands on hills; 400–2,700 m. Part used: Roots and rhizome. Traditional use: The taste is sweet; the potency is neutral. Licorice in traditional Chinese medicine is commonly used as a unique “guide drug” to enhance the effectiveness of other ingredients, to reduce toxicity, and to improve flavor in 60% of Chinese herbal formulas, and it is also used for the treatment of cough.

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Chemical constituents: Flavanones: liquiritigenin, liquiritin, liquiritinapioside; chalcones: isoliquiritigenin, isoliquiritigenin apioside (Figure 2.7), isoliquiritin, neoisoliquiritin; saponins: glycyrrhizic acid (Figure 2.7), licorice-saponin A3, licorice-saponin G2; isoflavans; isoflavenes; flavones; isoflavones; coumarins; and phenolics (Hosseinzadeh and Nassiri-Asl, 2015). Bioactivities: Hepatoprotective (Jung et al., 2016), detoxification (Gong et al., 2015), antiviral (Adianti et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2013), antioxidative stress, anti-inflammatory (Aipire et al., 2006; Wu et al., 2011), against acute amyloid-β toxicity (Link et al., 2015), antitumor (Aipire et al., 2017; Ayeka et al.,

FIGURE 2.7 Chemical structures of glycyrrhizic acid and isoliquiritigenin.

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2016), antidiabetic, antiasthma (Hosseinzadeh and Nassiri-Asl, 2015). Isoliquiritigenin stimulates detoxification system viaNrf2 activation (Gong et al., 2015), glycycoumarin, glycyrin, glycyrol, liquiritigenin, isoliquiritigenin, licochalcone A, and glabridin possess anti-HCV activity (Adianti et al., 2014), glycyrrhizic acid as the antiviral compounds against coxsackievirus A16 and enterovirus71of hand, foot, and mouth disease (Wang et al., 2013), flavonoids exhibited anti-inflammatory activity (Lei et al., 2018), isoliquiritigenin showed activity against acute amyloid-β toxicity (Link et al., 2015), melatonin for protection against oxidative damage caused as a response to UV irradiation (Aipire et al., 2006).

Angelica sinensis (Oliver) Diels – Apiaceae Synonym: Angelica polymorpha Maxim. var. sinensis Oliv. Distribution: Gansu, Hubei, Shaanxi, Sichuan, and Yunnan provinces of China. Habitat: Wild or cultivated in forests, shrubby thickets; 2,500–3,000 m. Part used: Roots. Traditional use: The taste is sweet and pungent; the potency is warm. The roots are frequently used in the traditional Chinese medicine as “dang gui”. It is a traditional medicinal and edible plant that has long been used for toning, replenishing, and invigorating blood as well as relieving pain, lubricating the intestines, and treating female irregular menstruation and amenorrhea. It has been used not only as a health food and drug in Asian countries but also as a dietary supplement in women’s care in Europe and America. Chemical constituents: Polysaccharides: fucose, galactose, glucose, arabinose, rhamnose, and xylose; organic acids and their esters: ferulic acid (Figure 2.8), coniferyl ferulate, succinicacid (Wang et al., 2016a), nicotinic acid, folic acid, valer-ophenone-O-carboxylic acid, vanillic acid, linoleic acid, palmitic acid, oleic acid; phthalides: ligustulide (E and Z), butylidenephthalide (E and Z), butylphthalide, senkyunolide A–I (Figure 2.8), senkyunolide P (Wei et al., 2016), senkyunolide K, levistolide A, riligustilide, tokinolide B, N-butylidenephthalide, and neocnidilid; flavonoids; amino acids; trace elements; vitamins; and volatile oils (Wang et al., 2016b; Chen et al., 2013). Bioactivities: Anticancer (Liao et al., 2018; Zhou et al., 2015), anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, hepatoprotective effect (Wang et al., 2016c), neuroprotective effect, immunoregulation, hematopoietic activity, radio-protection (Chen et al., 2013), anti-arrhythmic, anti-atherosclerotic, nephron-protective effects, anti-Alzheimer (Wei et al., 2016). The phthalides from Angelica sinensis have effective anticancer activities, N-butylidenephthalide has antitumor effects, Z-ligustilide exerts neuroprotective effects, ferulic acid exerts antioxidant, antiinflammatory and protective effects against nicotine toxicity, polysaccharide has anti-radiation, antineoplastic, and antitumor applications effects (Chen et al., 2013; Wei et al., 2016).

Saussurea involucrata (Kar. et Kir.) Sch.-Bip. – Asteraceae Synonym: Aplotaxis involucrata Kar. et Kir. Haplotaxis involucrata Kar. et Kir. Saussurea karelinii Stschegl.

FIGURE 2.8 Chemical structures of ferulic acid and senkyunolide A.

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S. involucrata (Kar. et Kir.) Maxim. S. lioui Ling Distribution: The species is mainly distributed in Xinjiang of China, but it also occurs in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Mongolia. Habitat: Mountain slopes, mountain valleys, meadows, and rock fissures at elevations of 2,400–4,100m. Part used: Aerial parts. Traditional use: The taste is slightly bitter; the potency is warm. As Tianshan Snow Lotus, it has been widely used in traditional Uyghur, Mongolian, and Kazakhstan medicine as well as in traditional Chinese medicine. It has been used for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, gynecological disorders, relieving respiratory symptoms, painkilling, and high-altitude diseases. Chemical constituents: More than 70 compounds have been isolated and identified, including chlorogenic acid (Figure 2.9), and other phenylpropanoids: syringin, 1,3-dicaffeoylquinicacid, 3-caffeoylquinicacid, 1,5-dicaffeoyl-4-succinoylquinicacid, 1,4-dicaffeoylquinicacid; flavonoids: rutin (Figure 2.9) hispidulin, jaceosidin, luteolin, nepetin, apigenin; coumarins: coumarin, osthol, isopimpinellin, bergapten, xanthotoxol, alloisoimperatorin, oroselol; lignans: arctigenin-4-O-(6″-O-acetyl-β-D-glucoside), arctigenin-4O-(2″-O-acetyl-β-D-glucoside), arctigenin-4-O-(3″-O-acetyl-β-D- glucoside), arctiin, and arctigenin (Chik et al., 2015); steroids: bufotalin, telocinobufagin, gamabufotalin (Zhang et al., 2011), daucosterol, β-sitosterol; sesquiterpenes: sausinlactoneA-(1S,3S,5S,6S,7S,11S)-3-hydroxyl-11; polysaccharides: glucose, galactose, xylose, rhamnose, arabinose, and galacturonic acid; and ceramides (Chik et al., 2015).

FIGURE 2.9 Chemical structures of rutin and chlorogenic acid.

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Bioactivities: Including anti-inflammatory and analgesic (Yi et al., 2010; Zhao et al., 2010), antioxidative, antifatigue (Lee et al., 2011), antihypoxia (Ma et al., 2011), anti-aging (Su et al., 2014), and hormonalrelated gynecological disorders, infertility as well as immunomodulation, anticancer (Byambaragchaa et al., 2013), radioprotective effect (Zou et al., 2014). Polysaccharides from them have antioxidant activity (Yao et al., 2012); hispidulin shows significant antitumor effects (Guo et al., 2007); rutinhas anti-fatigue effects (Su et al., 2014); β-carboline alkaloids, tricin, homoeriodictyol, luteolin, and glucodichotomine B have antioxidant effects.

Rhodiola crenulata (Hook. f. et Thoms.) H. Ohba– Crassulaceae Synonym: Rhodiola euryphylla (Fröderström) S. H. Fu R. megalophylla (Fröderström) S. H. Fu R. rotundata (Hemsley) S. H. Fu Sedum crenulatum J. D. S. bupleuroides Wallich ex J. D. Hooker & Thomson var. rotundatum (Hemsley) Fröderström S. euryphyllum Fröderström S. megalanthum Fröderström S. megalophyllum Fröderström S. rotundatum Hemsley S.rotundatum Hemsley var. oblongatum C. Marquand & Airy Shaw Distribution: Hengduan Mountains Region of China, Tibet, Sichuan and Yunnan, in the alpine regions of Northeast Asia, Central Asia, North America, and Northern Europe. Habitat: Hillside meadows, thickets, rock fissures at elevations of 2,800–5,600m. Part used: Roots and stems. Traditional use: The taste is sweet and bitter; the potency is neutral. It is wildly used for eliminating toxins from the body, clearing heat in the lungs, and treating various epidemic diseases, edema of limbs, traumatic injuries, and burns (Li and He, 2016). Chemical constituents: Around 48 chemical compounds were found that includes 12 flavonoids and their glycosides: salidroside (Figure 2.10), icariside D2, lotaustralin, rutin,

FIGURE 2.10 Chemical structures of salidroside and tyrosol.

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p-hydroxyphenacyl-b-D-glucopyranoside, rhodionin, daucosterol, 5 flavanols and gallic acid derivatives: luteolin, kaempferol-7-O-α-L rhamnoside, ternatumoside II, crenuloside, (+)-isolarisiresinol, (+)-dihydrodehydrodiconiferyl alcohol, methyl gallate, 26 alcohols and their glycosides: tyrosol (Figure 2.10), n-octanol, 2-methyl-3-buten-2-ol, citronellol, linalool, and 4 organic acids and 1 cyanogenic glycoside (Bhardwaj et al., 2018; Han et al., 2016; Nakamura et al., 2008; Zhou et al., 2015; Lei et al., 2003). The main components mediating these effects are salidroside and p-tyrosol. Bioactivities: Anticancer (Li et al., 2016), antibiofilm, anti-inflammatory (Chiang et al., 2015), liver toxicity protection activities (Lee et al., 2015; Lin et al., 2016); antioxidant, antihypoxia, radioprotective activities (Chang et al., 2018); immunomodulatory, anti-aging, anti-fatigue, neuroprotective, anxiolytic, nootropic, life-span increasing and central nervous system (CNS)-stimulating activities (Varela et al., 2016); antidiabetic, estrogenic activities (Bhardwaj et al., 2018). Salidroside could scavenge intracellular free radicals, and the phenolic compounds had antioxidants effects and could moderately stimulate IFN-γ expression (Bhardwaj et al., 2018).

Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis (Franchet) Handel-Mazzetti– Liliaceae Synonym: Daiswa birmanica Takhtajan D. yunnanensis (Franchet) Takhtajan Paris yunnanensis Franch. P. aprica H. Léveillé P. atrata H. Léveillé P. birmanica (Takhtajan) H. Li & Noltie P. cavaleriei H. Léveillé & Vaniot P. christii H. Léveillé P. franchetiana H. Léveillé P. gigas H. Léveillé & Vaniot P. mercieri H. Léveillé P. pinfaensis H. Léveillé P. polyphylla var. platypetala Franchet P.polyphylla var. yunnanensis f. velutina H. Li & Noltie Distribution: Guizhou, Sichuan, S. E. Xizang, Yunnan, India, and Myanmar. Habitat: Broad-leaved or coniferous forests, bamboo forests, thickets, grassy slopes; 1,400–3,100 m. Part used: Rhizome. Traditional use: The taste is bitter; the potency is slightly cold. It is wildly used for immunity adjustment, tumors, analgesia (Zhang et al., 2010), treating fractures, parotitis, hemostasis, snake bite, and abscess (Guo et al., 2008). It is a key ingredient for many well-known prepared Chinese medicines such as Yunnan Baiyao Powder, Gongxuening Capsules, and JideshengSheyao Tablet (Zhang et al., 2010). Chemical constituents: Saponins: diosgenin and pennogenin (Figure 2.11), trillin, polyphyllin C, dioscin, taccaoside, polyphyllin E, gracillin, reclinatoside, chonglouoside H, polyphylloside III, polyphylloside IV, parisyunanoside A, polyphyllin H, methylprotogracillin, methyldichotomin, parisaponin I, protogracillin (Guo et al., 2008; Man et al., 2013); sugars: arabinose, rhamnose, and glucose (Man et al., 2013). Bioactivities: Antitumor (Jing et al., 2017), anti-HCV (Qin et al., 2016), cytotoxic (Wen et al., 2015), antioxidation, anti-inflammation, anti-apoptosis, anti-metastasis, and immunostimulant (Man et al., 2013). The total spirostanol saponins exhibited contractile activity in myometrium; spirostanol glycosides are contractile agonist for the uterus (Guo et al., 2008); saponin has hemostasis, antibacterial,

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FIGURE 2.11 Chemical structures of diosgenin and pennogenin.

and inflammation activities (Man et al., 2013); methyl protoneogracillin has antitumor activity; polyphyllin D has antibacterial action; 3-O-aglycone chain has antitumor activity (Man et al., 2013).

Arnebia euchroma (Royle) I. M. Johnston – Boraginaceae Synonym: Lithospermum euchromon Royle Macrotomia euchroma (Royle) Paulsen Distribution: Xinjiang and W. Xizang of China, 3,000–4,200 min drier areas, Afghanistan, N. W. India, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Nepal, Pakistan, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and S. W. Asia. Habitat: Rocky slopes, gravelly marshes, meadows. Part used: Roots. Traditional use: The taste is sweet and salty; the potency is cold. It has been used as a natural dye for coloring silk, cosmetics, as food additive and for treating wounds, ulcers, measles, inflammation, small pox, sores, and skin eruptions in Chinese traditional medicine. It is also used for toothache and earache in Afghanistan and used for the treatment of burns and wounds in Asia (Sonia, 2016). Chemical constituents: Quinones (arnebinone, arnebifuranone, deoxyshikonin, β,βdimethylacryloylshikonin, acetyshikonin, shikonin (Figure 2.12), propionylshikonin, and acetoxyisovalerylalkannin) (Yao, 1991; Xu et al., 2010); naphthoquinone (arnebiabinone); octyl ferulate (Liu et al., 2010); sterols (β-sitosterol) (Xu et al. 2010); monoterpene phenol; phenolic acids and their salts; alkaloids; aliphatic and esters (Zhan et al., 2015). Bioactivities: Antigenotoxic, anti-photogenotoxic, antioxidant activities (Skrzypczak, 2015); antibacterial, antiamoebic, antifungal, antiviral (e.g. influenza virus and HIV) (Mert et al., 2010), antiinflammatory, antitumor, cardiotonic, and contraceptive actions (Sonia, 2016); hepatoprotective activity (Shokrzadeh, 2017). Shikonin and their derivatives have antibacterial, antifungal, anti-HIV, antiinflammatory, antitumor, cardiotonic, and contraceptive actions, and shikonin and acetylshikonin have antigenotoxic and antioxidant effectives (Zhan et al. 2015).

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FIGURE 2.12 Chemical structure of shikonin.

Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Berk.) G.H. Sung, J.M. Sung, Hywel-Jones & Spatafora –Ophiocordycipitaceae Synonym: Cordyceps sinensis (Berk.)Sacc. Distribution: Tibet, Gansu, Qinghai, Sichuan, and Yunnan provinces in China, in certain areas of the southern flank of the Himalayas, and in the countries of Bhutan, India, and Nepal. Habitat: Prairie soil at an altitude of 3,500–5,000m. Part used: Fruit body. Traditional use: The taste is sweet; the potency is neutral. In traditional Chinese and Tibetan medicines, it has been used as a tonic and health supplement for patients with sub health conditions, especially seniors, in both China and other Asian countries (Yue et al., 2013; Dong and Yao, 2008). Nowadays, it is widely used for the treatment of inflammation, cancer, chronic kidney disease, weakness after sickness, sexual dysfunction, asthma, diabetes, coughand cold, and so forth (Xu et al., 2016). Chemical constituents: Polysaccharides, mannitol, cordycepin (Figure 2.13), aminophenol ergosterol (Yue et al., 2013), adenosine, sterols, peptides (cordymin and myriocin), melanin, lovastatin, γ-aminobutyric acid, and cordysinins (Lo et al., 2013). Bioactivities: Immunomodulating (Wu et al., 2006), hypocholesterolemic, hypoglycemic, antitumor (Wu et al., 2005), nephroprotective, hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antiapoptotic

FIGURE 2.13 Chemical structures of cordycepic acid and cordycepin.

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(Yue et al., 2013), antiaging (Ji et al., 2009), induce apoptosis, antitumor, reproduction protection, prevention of osteoporosis.

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X. Zou, D. Liu, Y. Liu, Y. Fu, et al. 2014. Isolation and characterization of two new phenolic acids from cultured cells of Saussurea involucrata. Phytochemistry Letters, 7: 133–136. Y. Cui, N. Shen, J. Dang, et al. 2017. Anti-inflammatory bioactive equivalence of combinatorial components beta-carboline alkaloids identified in Arenaria kansuensis by two-dimensional chromatography and solid-phase extraction coupled with liquid-liquid extraction enrichment technology. Journal of Separation Science, 40(14): 2895–2905. Y. Cui, Y. Tao, L. Jiang, et al. 2018. Antihypoxic activities of constituents from Arenaria kansuensis. Phytomedicine, 38: 175–182. Y. Lei, E. S. Guan, Y. B. Zhang, et al. 2018. Chemical profile and anti-inflammatory activity of total flavonoids from Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch. Iranian Journal of Pharmaceutical Research, 17(2): 726–734. Y. Lei, P. Nan, T. Tsering, et al. 2003. Chemical composition of the essential oils of two Rhodiola species from Tibet. Zeitschrift fur Naturforschung c-a journal of Biosciences, 58: 161–164. Y. L. Wu, O. Ishurd, C. R. Sun, Y. J. Pan. 2005. Structure analysis and antitumor activity of (1→3)-beta-dglucans (cordyglucans) from the mycelia of Cordyceps sinensis. Planta Medica, 71(4): 381–384. Y. J. Cao, Z. J. Pu, Y. P. Tang, et al. 2017. Advances in bio-active constituents, pharmacology and clinical applications of rhubarb. Chinese Medicine 12, 36. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13020-017-0158-5 Y. S. Wen, W. Ni, X. J. Qin, et al. 2015. Steroidal saponins with cytotoxic activity from the rhizomes of Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis. Phytochemistry Letters, 12: 31–34. Y. Wu, H. Sun, F. Qin, et al. 2006. Effect of various extracts and a polysaccharide from the edible mycelia of Cordyceps sinensis on cellular and humoral immune response against ovalbumin in mice. Phytotherapy Research, 20(8): 646–652. Y. Zhang, L. Jin, Q. Chen, et al. 2015. Hypoglycemic activity evaluation and chemical study on hollyhock flowers. Fitoterapia, 102: 7–14. Z. C. Kang, W. L. Jiang, Y. Xu, et al. 2012. Cardioprotection with 8-O-acetyl shanzhiside methyl ester on experimental myocardial ischemia injury. European Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 47: 124–130. Z. J. Guo, F. F. Hou, S. X. Liu, et al. 2009. Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora improves accelerated atherosclerosis through inhibition of redox-sensitive inflammation. International Journal of Cardiology, 136(3): 315–324. Z. Liu, A. K. Lindemeyer, J. Liang, et al. 2018. Flavonoids isolated from Tibetan medicines, binding to GABAA receptor and the anticonvulsant activity. Phytomedicine, 50: 1–7. Z. L. Zhan, H. Jun, T. Liu, et al. 2015. Advances in studies on chemical compositions and pharmacological activities of Arnebiae Radix. China Journal of Chinese Materia Medica, 40(21): 4127–4135. Z. M. Da-Wa, M. Zhao, D. L. Guo, et al. 2016. Chemical Constituents from Przewalskia tangutica, Journal of Chinese Medicinal Materials, 39(9): 2013–2015.

Section III

Central and Southern Asia

India

3 Medicinal Plants of the Trans-Himalayas Ajay Sharma Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology Chandigarh University Garima Bhardwaj Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology Pushpender Bhardwaj Defence Institute of High-Altitude Research Damanjit Singh Cannoo Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology CONTENTS Geographical Location of Trans-Himalaya.............................................................................................. 74 Ancient Silk Roads in the Region ............................................................................................................ 74 Terrain of the Trans-Himalaya ................................................................................................................. 75 Flora of Trans-Himalaya .......................................................................................................................... 76 Flora of Ladakh and Lahaul-Spiti in Trans-Himalaya ............................................................................. 76 Five Plant Species from Ladakh in Trans-Himalaya ............................................................................... 77 Arnebia benthamii............................................................................................................................... 78 Classification.................................................................................................................................. 78 Distribution .................................................................................................................................... 81 Morphology ................................................................................................................................... 81 Traditional Uses ............................................................................................................................. 81 Phytochemistry .............................................................................................................................. 81 Bioactivity ...................................................................................................................................... 82 Hippophae rhamnoides ....................................................................................................................... 83 Classification.................................................................................................................................. 83 Distribution .................................................................................................................................... 84 Morphology ................................................................................................................................... 85 Traditional Uses ............................................................................................................................. 85 Phytochemistry .............................................................................................................................. 85 Bioactivity ...................................................................................................................................... 86 Podophyllum hexandrum..................................................................................................................... 87 Classification.................................................................................................................................. 87 Distribution .................................................................................................................................... 88 Morphology ................................................................................................................................... 88

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Traditional Uses ............................................................................................................................. 88 Phytochemistry .............................................................................................................................. 89 Bioactivity ...................................................................................................................................... 90 Bioactivity of Podophyllotoxin Derivatives ................................................................................... 91 Rheum webbianum .............................................................................................................................. 91 Classification.................................................................................................................................. 91 Distribution .................................................................................................................................... 92 Morphology ................................................................................................................................... 92 Traditional Uses ............................................................................................................................. 92 Phytochemistry .............................................................................................................................. 93 Bioactivity ...................................................................................................................................... 93 Rhodiola imbricata ............................................................................................................................. 94 Classification.................................................................................................................................. 94 Distribution .................................................................................................................................... 94 Morphology ................................................................................................................................... 94 Traditional Uses ............................................................................................................................. 95 Phytochemistry .............................................................................................................................. 95 Bioactivity ...................................................................................................................................... 96 Concluding Remarks................................................................................................................................ 96 References ................................................................................................................................................ 96

Geographical Location of Trans-Himalaya The Himalayan region occupies 594,427 km2 that is about 18% of the land area of India. The mountains are approximately 2,400 km long and 240–320 km wide (Pandey et al., 2006). Geographically, there are three main divisions: • Eastern, comprising Assam, Sikkim, and northern India • Central, comprising Nepal • Western, consisting of Kumaon-Garhwal, Kashmir, and Himachal Pradesh (Figure 3.1). Trans-Himalaya is found to the north of the main range of mountains of the Western Himalayas and extends to 329,032 km2; 67.5% of which lies in Kashmir, 17% in Himachal Pradesh, and the remaining 15.5% in the hilly districts of Uttaranchal state (Pandey et al., 2006).

Ancient Silk Roads in the Region The ancient Silk Roads comprised a network of routes that linked the Indian subcontinent, eastern and central Asia, the Middle East, and countries of the Mediterranean. India was linked with the ancient Silk Roads by four major corridors (Fonia, 2019): I) II) III) IV)

A route in the Tibet which went down to the Ganges and to Sravasti A route in western Nepal which led to the productive valleys of the river Ganges A route in the Western Himalaya via Srinagar, Leh, and the Sangju Pass A route down the Ganges valley in West Bengal.

Ladakh, “the land of high-rising passes”, has an area of 96,700 km2. At one time, Ladakh was an independent kingdom that occupied an important and strategic position. In ancient times, traders of the neighboring countries usually passed through Leh, the principal city of Ladakh. An important market

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FIGURE 3.1 Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh, and Himachal Pradesh in northwest India bordering Pakistan (Shutterstock: royalty-free vector ID: 329065256).

developed there in which goods from the Silk Roads were traded through barter and currency (Dolma, 2017).

Terrain of the Trans-Himalaya The cold desert landscape of Trans-Himalaya is administered by India and extends from north to south, from Ladakh, in Jammu and Kashmir, to Kinnaur, in Himachal Pradesh (Figure 3.2). Trans-Himalaya is exposed to harsh climatic conditions attributable to two factors arising from its location at high elevation (3,000–5,000 m) on the leeward side of the Himalayan massif: • Minimal precipitation and • Extreme cold. Also, the climate shows huge seasonal variation ranging from short and dry summers with harsh sunlight (maximum temperature reaching up to 36°C during the day) to long, windy, and freezing winters (minimum temperature touching −32°C at night). Water resources are minimal apart from glacier-fed streams (Singh and Gupta, 1990; Fox et al., 1994; Kala and Mathur, 2002; Chaurasia et al., 2007). The soil is not very fertile, and the climatic conditions permit only a very short growing season. Other physical characteristics of note in the cold desert are high flux density in the ultraviolet part of the electromagnetic spectrum, low air density, low atmospheric pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide and vigorous winds (40–60 km/h) generally in the afternoon hours (Kala and Mathur, 2002; Chaurasia et al., 2007; Bhardwaj et al., 2019). Precipitation occurs mostly as snow during winter and soil moisture

76

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FIGURE 3.2 Kaza, Himachal Pradesh, India, in 2018 (Royalty-free photograph ID: 1444804982).

remains. The flora and fauna have adapted to these extreme conditions. However, most species occur in sparse populations. Despite such inhospitable conditions, it is thought that the region has been inhabited by human beings since early times given the discovery of Lower Palaeolithic tools and prehistoric artwork. The region remains sparsely populated; human settlements are small and isolated and occur in river valleys.

Flora of Trans-Himalaya Trans-Himalaya is well known for its rich flora of medicinal and aromatic plants amounting to about 1,000 species many of which are still in use (Pandey et al., 2006). There are at least 5,942 genera and 17,381 taxa of plants in western Himalayan region (Dhar, 1996; Nautiyal et al., 2000). Most of Himalayan aromatic and medicinal plant species belong Asteraceae, Boraginaceae, Berberidaceae, Campanulaceae, Crassulaceae, Ephedraceae, Elaeagnaceae, Gentianaceae, Lauraceae, Lamiaceae, Liliaceae, Myrtacea, Papaveraceae, Polygonaceae, Ranunculaceae, Rutaceae, and Zingiberaceae families (Joshi et al., 2016).

Flora of Ladakh and Lahaul-Spiti in Trans-Himalaya The flora of Ladakh and Lahaul-Spiti in Trans-Himalaya are found mainly in the alpine and high alpine zones, and are dominated by annual and perennial herbs followed by a few small shrubs and bushes. Owing to inimical climatic conditions, the cold desert has vegetation that differs from other Himalayan regions. The growing season starts at the beginning of summer in June when the snow begins to melt; flowers bloom during July to August and die out by the onset of winter from September to October. During this period, usually barren alpine meadows and mountain slopes are lush green as many varieties of alpine and high alpine flowers burst into life (Chaurasia et al., 2007; Kumar et al., 2011a and references therein). The flora of Ladakh may be subdivided into three groups which are found in desert, alpine, and oasitic conditions. On the other hand, the flora of the Lahaul valley, which is situated further south, differs from Ladakh due to prevailing humidity. Here the flora is more extensive and may be further subdivided to

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include one more group: desert, alpine, oasitic, and temperate plants (Chaurasia et al., 2007; Kumar et al., 2011 and references therein). Desert vegetation: Low humidity, little rainfall, high-velocity winds, and extreme fluctuation in diurnal temperatures are the main characteristic features of this zone. This zone includes long stretches of the Lahaul-Spiti and Ladakh regions (e.g., Central Ladakh, Tangtse, Pin valley, Puga areas, and Kaza). The flora of this region are mainly characterized by thick woolly, cushion forming, bushy, spongy, hardy, undersized vegetation with succulent small leaves and long deep-rooted roots system (Chaurasia et al., 2007; Ballabh et al., 2007). Common plant species growing in apparently barren valleys are Tanacetum sp., Polygonum avicule, Peganum harmala, Echinops cornigerus, Caragana pygmea, Capparis spinosa, Corydalis flabellata, Berberis ulicina, and Atriplex crassifolia. Species found growing along the high passes of Penzila (4,204 m), Kunzum (4,500 m), Changla (5,286 m), Khardungla (5,520 m), and Tanglangla (5,255 m) are Arnebia euchroma, Acantholimon lycopodioides, Arenaria bryophylla, Corydalis crassima, Christolea crassifolia, Caragana pygmea, Dracocephallum heterophyllum, Draba setosa, Lindelofia stylosa, Euphorbia tibetica, Nepeta longibracteata, Meconopsis aculeata, Krascheninnikovia ceratoides, Primula rorea, Rhodiola imbricata, Rosularia alpestris, Saxifraga sp., Saussurea bracteata, Waldheimia sp., and Thylacospermum caespitosum (Chaurasia et al., 2007). Alpine mesophytes: This type of flora mainly is found in the Suru valley and some parts of Lahaul valley. This zone has high humidity due to more rainfall. Most of the plants of this zone are also found in temperate regions (Kumar et al., 2011a). The well-known plant species of this region are Podophyllum hexandrum, Lotus corniculatus, Astragalus rhizanthus, Capsella bursa, Verbascum thapsus, Lavetera kashmiriana, and Oxyria digyna. Only around 10% of alpine mesophytes (viz. Taraxacum sp., Potentilla sp., Leontopodium sp., Delphinium brunonianum, etc.) belong to the plant groups which are characteristic of the cold deserts of the areas of high altitude. Ferula jaescheana, Prangos pabularia, and Juniperus macropoda are dominant shrubs species growing on rocky areas and mountain slopes, while Tulipa stellata var chrysantha, Colchicum luteum, and Euphrasia officinalis are common herbs of this zone (Chaurasia et al., 2007; Kumar et al., 2011a). Oasitic vegetation: Most of the species belonging to this group are cosmopolitan in nature and usually found along a body of water (channels or streams) near to habitation in Kaza, Keylong, Udaipur, Trilokinath, Khoksar, Leh, and Kargil. This type of vegetation consists of a variety of indigenous as well as exotic species (Chaurasia et al., 2007; Kumar et al., 2011). The main species are Trifolium pratense, Rhodiola quadrifolia, Sedum ewersii, Stachys tibetica, Dianthus anatolicus, Epilobium roseum, Mentha longifolia, Galinsoga parviflora, Chenopodium foliosum, Lancea tibetica, Potentilla cuneata, Melilotus alba, and Melilotus officinalis. Only Lonicera sp. and Hippophae rhamnoides are native to the area. The key introduced species are varieties of Prunus, Pyrus, Populus, Morus, Juglans, and Salix (Chaurasia et al., 2007; Kumar et al., 2011a). Temperate vegetation: This type of vegetation is mainly found in Lahaul valley and is dominated by woody species. Key species are Pinus wallichiana (Blue pine), Prunus armeniaca (Apricot), Cedrus deodara (Devdiar), Picea smithiana (Spruce), Juniperus macropoda (Juniper), Betula utilis (Birch), Juglans regia (Walnut), Juniperus recurva (Juniper), Salix sp., Sorbus sp., Malus sp., and Populus sp. The main shrubs are Berberis pachyacantha, Fraxinus xanthoxyloides, Ephedra gerardiana, H.  rhamnoides, and Cotoneaster sp. Key herbaceous species are Senecio sp., Silene sp., Rumex sp., Rubus saxatilis, Pedicularis sp., Lepidium sp., P. hexandrum, Inula grandiflora, Galium aparine, Codonopsis clematidea, and Aquilegia fragrans (Chaurasia et al., 2007).

Five Plant Species from Ladakh in Trans-Himalaya The inhabitants of Ladakh and Lahaul-Spiti developed a particular approach to medicine known as the Amchi system, which is based on the application of products of animal and mineral origins as well as those of plants (Chaurasia et al., 2007). Cold desert conditions, prolonged frozen winters, and remoteness drove exploration of the value of edible wild plants (e.g., Lepidium sp., Rhodiola sp., Urtica sp., Taraxacum sp.), fodder plants (e.g., H. rhamnoides, P. pabularia, Cicer microphyllum, Aconogonum tortuosum). The plants with aesthetic

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value include Rosa sp., Primula sp., Meconopsis sp., Epilobium sp., and A. fragrans. Examples of plants for fuel are H. rhamnoides, Caragana sp., Berberis sp., Artemisia sp., and Acantholimon lycopodioides. Medicinal plants include Aconitum sp., Anaphalis sp., Arnebia sp., Artemisia sp., Berberis sp., Codonopsis sp., Colchicum sp., Corydalis sp., Ephedra sp., Gentiana sp., Hippophae sp., Inula sp., Nepeta sp., Podophyllum sp., Ranunculus sp., Rheum sp., Rhodiola sp., and Saussurea sp. (Chaurasia et al., 2007; Ballabh et al., 2007; Ballabh and Chaurasia, 2007; Dorjey, 2015; Dorjey et al., 2012). In this chapter, details of five important species of the cold desert of Trans-Himalaya are discussed: Arnebia benthamii/euchroma, H. rhamnoides, P. hexandrum, Rheum webbianum, and Rhodiola imbricata. Each species is a rich source of medicinal and nutritional constituents which also remain popular among local people for a variety of other reasons (Table 3.1).

Arnebia benthamii Classification Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species

: : : : : : :

Plantae Tracheophyta Mangoliopsida Boraginales Boraginaceae Arnebia Arnebia benthamii/euchroma

A. benthamii (Figure 3.3) is one of many traditional medicinal plants, which are extensively used to cure different common disorders. A. benthamii ranks second (Ahmad et al., 2018; Rather et al., 2016, 2018) among a list of significant medicinal plants of the Western Himalayas. A. benthamii is also included among a list of 59 medicinal plants selected for conservation owing to its classification as a threatened, non-endemic plant species of Kashmir (Manjkhola and Dhar, 2002). It is also listed in CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna), which banned the export of plant species collected from wild areas in India (Sastry and Chatterjee, 2000; Manjkhola and Dhar, 2002). A. benthamii is among the key ingredients of “Gaozaban,” a commercially available drug which is known for its antifungal, antibacterial, wound-healing, and anti-inflammatory properties (Manjkhola and Dhar, 2002; Rather et al., 2016). The roots are a rich source of the red pigment shikonin which is used as a dye and has various ethno-pharmacological properties. The roots of the plant are sold in

FIGURE 3.3 Arnebia benthamii.

Rheum mootcroftianum (vulnerable species)

Podophyllum hexandrum (endangered)

Hippophae tibetana

Hippophae salicifolia

Hippophae rhamnoides

Roots are used

Used in Amchi medicine system for blood diseases, blood purification, coughs, lung diseases. Roots are used as hair tonic Roots have same application as that of Arnebia euchroma Multiple applications and rich source of vitamins and antioxidants. In China, more than 200 medicinal products and drugs were prepared from different parts of this plant Used in traditional system of medicine and rich source of multi vitamins and antioxidants Rich source of multivitamins and antioxidants Whole plant is used to treat gynecological diseases. Roots are used for skin diseases in Amchi’s medicine

Arnebia euchroma (endangered)

Arnebia guttata

Roots are used as hair tonic

Medicine

Arnebia benthamii (critically endangered)

Species

Fruits are good source of antioxidants and vitamins Ripe and young fruits are edible

Have same uses as that of Hippophae rhamnoides

Fruits are good source of antioxidants and multi vitamins. Also used for making juice, squash, and herbal beverages

Roots are rich source of natural edible dye which is used for coloring ghee, cheese, and butter Roots are rich source of natural red edible dye which is used for coloring dishes. Also used for coloring prasada in monasteries Roots have same uses as that of Arnebia euchroma

Foodstuffs

Have same uses as that of Hippophae rhamnoides

Have same uses as that of Hippophae rhamnoides

Twigs and leaves are grazed by goats, sheep, and other animals. Good fodder for milk- producing animals

Fodder

Decoration

The whole plant is used as a fuel

Have same uses as that of Hippophae rhamnoides

Stems and branches are used as fuel. Also used for making charcoal

Fuel

(Continued )

High alpine forestry

It acts as forest shrub. Help to reduce soil erosion and increases soil fertility by fixing atmospheric nitrogen Have same uses as that of Hippophae rhamnoides

Forestry

Local Applications of Different Species of Arnebia, Hippophae, Podophyllum, Rheum, and Rhodiola in the Trans-Himalayan Cold Desert of the Western Himalayas

TABLE 3.1

Medicinal Plants of the Trans-Himalayas 79

(Continued)

Source:

Medicine

All parts are used to treat indigestion, wounds, abdominal diseases, and gastritis Roots are used to treat lung diseases Roots are used to treat various lung diseases, and fever and to bolster physical strength Roots are used to treat various lung problems and as a health tonic Roots are used to treat various lung problems and as health tonic

Roots (purple color) are used

Foodstuffs

Tender shoots are eaten as a vegetable

Young leaves are eaten as a vegetable

Tender shoots and young leaves are edible, used in the local dish, Tantur

Thick leaf stalks are used as salad or added in custard. Rich source of vitamin C Leaf stalks are cooked for eating as green vegetable and can also be eaten raw Thick leaf stalks are used as salad or added in custard. Rich source of vitamin C

Chaurasia et al. (2007), Ballabh et al. (2007) and Kumar et al. (2011a).

Rhodiola tibetica

Rhodiola imbricata

Rhodiola heterodonta

Rhodiola crenulate

Rheum webbianum (vulnerable species)

Rheum tibeticum

Rheum spiciforme (vulnerable species)

Species

Fodder

Ornamental potential

Ornamental potential

Decoration

Fuel

Forestry

Local Applications of Different Species of Arnebia, Hippophae, Podophyllum, Rheum, and Rhodiola in the Trans-Himalayan Cold Desert of the Western Himalayas

TABLE 3.1

80 Natural Products of Silk Road Plants

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markets all across India under the trade name “Ratanjot” (Kirtikar et al., 1984; Rather et al., 2018). Apart from their medicinal value, the roots of this plant are also used for imparting a pleasing red color to various food stuffs, fats, and oils (Ganie et al., 2014; Rather et al., 2018).

Distribution Arnebia is an economically important genus comprises 25 species (Mabberley, 2008; Kumar and Srivastava, 2014). The genus occurs widely in Trans-Caucasus, North Africa, Afghanistan, Iraq, Syria, Iran, Pakistan, Nepal, and India (Zhu et al., 1995; Kumar and Srivastava, 2014), spread due to natural growth outcomes. Out of 25 species, 7 species, viz. A. benthamii, A. euchroma, A. guttata, A. hispidissma, A. linearifolia, A. griffithii Boiss., and A. nandadeviensis, and one variety A. euchroma var. grandis are reported from Ladakh, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, and Jammu and Kashmir (Shukla et al., 2011; Kumar and Srivastava, 2012; Kumar and Srivastava, 2014). A. benthamii/A. euchroma is an alpine and subalpine herb growing widely on stony or rocky open slopes of the Himalayas at an elevation of 3,000–3,900 m. In Ladakh and Kashmir valley, this species is confined to particular regions with infrequent distribution such as Kishtwar, Gulmarg, Nubra, and Zanskar. It occurs occasionally in Lolab (Kaul, 1997).

Morphology A. benthamii is an erect, hairy perennial herb growing to a height of 40–80 cm. It can have a simple, fistular, hispid, densely covered stem and stout root stock. Flowers are unisexual with a cylindrical spike of pink to blue in color, and calyxes are lobed, linear-lanceolate and may be up to 4.5 cm long. The species has a tubular corolla with a tube up to 2.5 cm long which helps in identification. Flowering occurs in May to July (Chaurasia et al., 2007; Kumar and Srivastava, 2014).

Traditional Uses The powder of dry roots of A. benthamii generally is mixed with hair oil by local people and used as a hair tonic (Chaurasia et al., 2007). Traditionally, A. benthamii plant is used for the cure of a variety of diseases related to throat, tongue, and heart disorders. The plant is also valued for the treatment of wounds. All parts of the plant (roots, leaves, flowers, and aerial parts) are medicinally significant. “Sharbeth” is a decoction prepared by locals of Bandipora district of Jammu and Kashmir from a combination of flowers and leaves to treat fever, cough, cold, jaundice, chronic constipation, and as a blood purifier. It is also used by nursing mothers to counter dysgalactia (Lone and Bhardwaj, 2013). The roots of A. euchroma are used in the local Amchi system of medicine for the cure of blood diseases, cough, cold, pulmonary diseases, and also as blood purifier. The people of Ladakh also use the roots of this plant as hair tonic (Chaurasia et al., 2007). In Lahaul valley, the plant roots are used against various complications like headache, backache, blood pressure, and as an abortifacient (Singh et al., 2009). Further, in Ladakh, the plant is also used against different kinds of urinary and kidney disorders, and to control urine discharge, bleeding, and inflammation in the kidney. Extracts from the roots along with admixture of other local plants (viz. Artemisia absinthium, Centaurea depressa, Juniperus communis, Inula racemose, Picrorhiza kurrooa, Punica granatum, Rubia cardifolia, and Terminalia belerica), cast into tablet form, are used to treat various kidney problems (Ballabh et al., 2008).

Phytochemistry Arnebia species are the key source of various herbal drugs used in Ladakh’s indigenous systems of medicine. A. benthamii is a rich source of different classes of bioactive secondary metabolites such as alkaloids, anthraquinone, flavonoids, polyphenolics, triterpenoids, and steroids (Ahmad et al., 2018; Shameem et al., 2015; Rather et al., 2018). The major active constituents isolated from A. benthamii are

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82 O

OH O

O

OH

O

OH

O

O OH

OH

Artemidiol

OH

O

Shinkonin

Hoslundal

OH HO

OH HO

O

O

OH OH O

Aromadendrin

O

HO H

O OH OH

O

O

OH O

Kaempferol

N

Heliotrine

FIGURE 3.4 Molecular structures of major compounds derived from Arnebia benthamii.

artemidiol, shinkonin, ganoderiol, hoslundal, and 2-hexaprenyl-6-hydroxyphenol. These substances are found to be of great importance as they are used for the cure of various human disorders and ailments. Further, they are also recommended as antioxidants. The dry plant also yields an essential oil (Hamid et al., 2014; Nowsheen et al., 2015; Laxmi, 2016). Rather et al. (2018) isolated β-sitosterol-β-d-glucoside, β-sitosterol, aromadendrin, kaempferol, and kaempferol 7-O-methyl ether upon repeated column chromatography using silica gel from a chloroform extract obtained from air-dried aerial parts of A. benthamii. Further, the presence of four pyrrolizidine alkaloids (heliotrine, lycopsamine, europine, and echimidine) is reported in extracts obtained from the aerial parts of A. benthamii. Figure 3.4 presents the structures of key secondary metabolites derived from A. benthamii.

Bioactivity The Arnebia spp. were reported to have antitumor (Pal et al., 2017), antiviral (Kashiwada et al., 1995), antibacterial (Singh and Sharma, 2012; Shameem et al., 2015), antifungal (Shameem et al., 2015), antiinflammatory (Singh and Sharma, 2012), cytotoxic (Ganie et al., 2014), antioxidant (Ganie et al., 2014; Shameem et al., 2015; Parray et al., 2015), DNA-protective (Rather et al., 2016; Parray et al., 2015), and antidepressant properties (Kumar et al., 2017a). The roots of Arnebia spp. also showed antipyretic, anthelminthic, antimicrobial, and antiseptic properties (Kumar et al., 2017a). Arnebin-1, a naphthoquinone derivative present in Arnebia spp., showed wound-healing properties and inhibits the growth of various pathogenic organisms (Sidhu et al., 1999). Most of the biological properties of Arnebia spp. are attributed to the presence of anthraquinones like shikonin. These anthraquinones inhibit protein synthesis and have a great influence on biological membranes. Further, increasing the lipophilicity of the alkoxy group strengthens their activity (Ding et al., 2005). A. benthamii possesses antioxidant potential, which helps to protect the cell from oxidative stress, and thus, provides protection against various infections and diseases. Parray et al. (2015) evaluated DNA protection property and antioxidant potential of the ethyl acetate extract obtained from roots of A. benthamii. The results revealed that shikonin was effective in free radical scavenging and helps to shield the DNA from damage caused by hydroxyl radicals. However, it was noted that the ethyl acetate extract had strong DNA protection potential as compared to pure shikonin. The ethyl acetate extract gave better results of antioxidant potential in case of thiocyanide (IC50 35 μg/mL) and peroxide radical (IC50 40 μg/mL) scavenging. Ganaie et al. (2012, 2014) showed that the A. benthamii methanol extract exhibited 2,2-diphenyl-1picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging potential of 69.43%, reducing potential of 89%, hydroxyl radical scavenging potential of 71%, and FeSO4-induced lipid peroxidation potential of 66.76% at concentrations of

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700, 800, 800, and 250 μg/mL, respectively. Further, the methanol extract at 10–80 μg gave complete protection to calf thymus DNA from damage caused by hydroxyl radicals. Furthermore, the methanol extract was also examined for its antibacterial potential against four bacterial strains (Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonia, Staphylococcus aureus, and Shigella dysenteriae). The order of antibacterial potential based on zones of inhibition was S. dysenteriae < K. pneumonia < S. aureus < E. coli (Ganaie et al., 2012). Ganie et al. (2014) examined the in vitro antioxidant and anticancer potential of various extracts obtained from whole plant of A. benthamii. The DPPH radical scavenging potential was reported to be highest in an ethyl acetate extract (87.99%) and lowest in the aqueous extract (73%) at a concentration of 700 μg/mL, while the reducing power potential of various extracts increased with increase in concentration and the ethyl acetate extract showed the highest reducing power potential (IC50 165 μg/mL). Again, the ethyl acetate extract (IC50 60 μg/mL) showed better results among all extracts tested in vitro for lipid peroxidation (Fe2+/ascorbic acid-induced) in rat liver microsomes. Further, different extracts (ethyl acetate, methanol, ethanol, and water) also exhibited DNA protection potential from damage induced by hydroxyl radicals in calf thymus DNA. Further, the cytotoxic potential of different extracts (10–100 μg/ mL) was evaluated using the sulfur-rhodamine B assay against leukemia, lung, pancreatic, prostate, and colon human cancer cell lines (HOP-62, A549, PC-3, THP-1, HCT-116, and MIA-Pa-Ca). Among different lines of cancer cells tested, THP-1, HOP-62, MIA-Pa-Ca, and A549 were the most sensitive when treated with a menthol extract of A. benthamii at a concentration of 100 μg/mL and produced percentage inhibitions of 90%, 100%, 100%, and 100%, respectively. Shameem et al. (2015) analyzed antimicrobial activity against six bacterial and six fungal strains and antioxidant potential of a methanol extract obtained from aerial parts and roots of A. benthamii. The aerial parts showed the highest antibacterial potential against nearly all the tested strains. The highest diameter of zone inhibition (30 mm) was found in the cases of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and E. coli. Except for Candida parapsilosis, all other fungal strains were inhibited by both root and aerial part extracts. P. aeruginosa was inhibited by the minimum concentration of 75 μg/mL of methanol extract obtained from the aerial parts. The antioxidant potential of a methanol extract isolated from roots and aerial root parts was almost of identical strength. The root part extract showed slightly higher scavenging potential in the case of hydroxyl radicals and superoxide anion in a concentration-dependent manner. Rather et al. (2016) evaluated antimicrobial activity against four pathogenic fungi, two gram-negative bacteria, and five gram-positive bacteria, and hemolytic potential of various extracts obtained from different parts of A. benthamii. The hemolytic effect of various extracts (on human erythrocytes) was analyzed with the help of washed erythrocytes (RBCs). The result revealed that the leaf extracts showed higher antibacterial and antifungal activity compared to different root and flower extracts. The result revealed that the chloroform extract of the leaves is the most active extract against microbes, which was followed by ethyl acetate, acetone, and methanol extracts isolated from the leaves. In case of hemolytic activity on human erythrocytes, the ethyl acetate extract of the flowers had the maximum activity (41.27% ± 0.35%), while methanol extract of leaves had the least activity (21.37% ± 0.29%) at a concentration of 100 μg/mL. But at concentrations of 500 and 250 μg/mL, the methanol extract obtained from flowers had the maximum activity (91.67% ± 0.28%, 81.53% ± 0.34%), and the chloroform extract isolated from roots had the minimum activity (48.96% ± 0.11%, 35.74% ± 0.29%). Kumar et al. (2017) investigated the antidepressant potential of an aqueous extract obtained from the roots of A. benthamii using tail suspension and forced-swim tests in rats. The results revealed that the aqueous extract (75, 150, and 300 mg/kg) showed a substantial reduction in immobility time in tail suspension and the forced-swim test. Further, the aqueous extract increased the superoxide dismutase level and brain glutathione level in comparison to a control group, and decreased the brain nitrite level and lipid peroxidation in comparison with a control group.

Hippophae rhamnoides Classification Kingdom: Plantae Phylum: Magnoliophyta

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84 Class: Magnoliopsida Order: Rosales Family: Elaeagnaceae Genus: Hippophae Species: Hippophae rhamnoides

The genus Hippophae comprises seven species that are mainly found in Trans-Himalaya. H. rhamnoides is one of the significant plants in the region due to its multiple uses in the region as discussed in Table 3.1. It is considered as a “magic” plant as it contains high concentrations of both medicinal and nutritional constituents. As one of the wild plants of the Ladakh region, it is commonly known as Sea Buckthorn (Figure 3.5). Sea Buckthorn is well adapted to extremely harsh climatic condition of Ladakh. Locally, it is known by a variety of traditional names such as Tses-ta-lulu, Shishu-lulu, Starbu, Nak-tser, Tsermang, Tserkar, TserNak, and Charma (Tamchos and Kaul, 2019). Sea Buckthorn berries are among the most vitaminrich and nutritious fruits found in the plant kingdom. The berries are also known to be a rich source of more than 190 bioactive constituents (Kumar et al., 2011; Suryakumar and Gupta, 2011; Bhartee et al., 2014; Tamchos and Kaul, 2019). The berries are used in the preparation of a variety of cosmetics products, sunscreen lotions, jams, jellies, juices, and beverages (Stobdan et al., 2011; Tamchos and Kaul, 2019). Further, it has been stated that the Chinese developed around 200 medicinally important products and drugs from roots, seeds, bark, leaves, and fruits (Chaurasia et al., 2007).

Distribution H. rhamnoides is native to Europe and Asia. It is widely distributed on the riverbanks of Europe and the dunes of the Baltic coast of Finland, Germany, and Sweden (Biswas and Biswas, 1980; Li and Schroeder, 1996). In Russia, China, and Mongolia, around 810,000 hectares of natural area is occupied by the plant and 300,000–500,000 hectares of area is used for cultivation (Sun, 1995). In Asia, the plant is extensively distributed in the Himalayan regions of India, Nepal, Bhutan, Pakistan, and Afghanistan (Lu, 1992). In India, H. rhamnoides is grown in Himachal Pradesh (parts of Chamba, Lahaul-Spiti, Kullu, Kinnaur,

FIGURE 3.5 Hippophae rhamnoides (Sea Buckthorn) and berries.

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Kangra, and Shimla), Jammu and Kashmir (Leh and Ladhak), and parts of Uttarakhand and Sikkim at altitudes above 2,500–4,500 m (Ranjith et al., 2006; Bhartee et al., 2014).

Morphology Sea Buckthorn is a deciduous shrub which is dioecious and usually spinescent growing to 2–4 m in height. The bark is brown or black; the crown is gray–green; the leaves are narrow, alternate, and lanceolate (Synge, 1974). This species tolerates low temperatures as well as high pH (up to 8.0) in the soil and salt spray (Bond, 1983). The plant has a symbiotic relationship with nitrogen-fixing Ascomycetes and can be grown on the soil with low water content. The extensive root system is capable of binding friable soil (Akkermans et al., 1983; Dobritsa and Novik, 1992). The male inflorescence consists of four to six apetalous flowers. The plant releases a large amount of pollen at temperatures of 6°C–10°C. The female inflorescence usually consists of one single apetalous flower with one ovary and one ovule. The plant is totally wind-dependent for pollination as there are no nectaries in either the male or female flowers (Li and Schroeder, 1996).

Traditional Uses The medicinal value of Sea Buckthorn was first stated in the prehistoric Greek texts (of Dioscorides and Theophrastus) and in “rGyud bzhi,” a Tibetan medicinal classic of Tang Dynasty (8th century). In Ladakh, even today Amchies frequently prescribed a variety of preparations which contain Sea Buckthorn for the cure of different common problems such as throat infection, indigestion, ulcer, gastritis, gynecological problem, acidity, diarrhea, bronchitis, hypertension, blood disorder, cough, cold, fever, tumor, gallstone, and food poisoning. There are about 100 popular formulations in different pharmacopeias of Tibetan medicine (Sowa Rigpa) which contain Sea Buckthorn (Chaurasia et al., 2007; Stobdan and Phunchok, 2017; Tamchos and Kaul, 2019).

Phytochemistry Sea Buckthorn is a well-known plant in folk medicine applied to relieve stomach problems, diarrhea, and coughs and also to treat coronary heart disease and tracheitis (Zheng et al., 2009). Quercetin, kaempferol, isorhamnetin, myricetin, and gallic acid have been isolated from a methanol extract of the leaves (Cumbalov et al., 1976). Isorhamnetin and kaempferol 3-O-β-d-glucoside have also been recorded in the leaves (Rasputina et al., 1976). Quercetin 3-β-d-glucopyranoside, isorhamnetin 3-β-d-glucofuranoside6-β-d-glucopyranoside, and quercetin 3-galactoglucosides have been isolated from a methanol extract by using column chromatography and paper chromatography (Muxamedyarova and Cumbalov, 1977). Five carotenoids, viz. α-, β-carotenes, lycopene, poly-cis-lycopene, and zeaxanthin, were determined from a hexane extract of H. rhamnoides. Sitosterin was also isolated from unsaponified fractions of the hexane extract (Novruzov, 1981). Kim et al. (2010, 7) reported kaempferol-3-O-β-D-(6″-O-coumaroyl) glycoside, 1-feruloyl-β-D-glucopyranoside, isorhamnetin-3-O-glucoside, quercetin 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, quercetin 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-7-O-R-L-rhamnopyranoside, and isorhamnetin-3-O-rutinoside in leaf extracts. Hyperin, tiliroside, 1,2,6-tri-O-galloyl-β-D-glucase, pedunculagin, casuarictin, strictinin, tellimagrandin I, isostrictinin, and casuarinin were isolated from an ethyl acetate fraction, whereas stachyurin, castalagin, and vescalagin were isolated from the water-soluble portion of leaves of H. rhnmnoides (Yoshida et al., 1991). Hipporhamnin, strictinin, and isostrictinin were the reported tannins in the leaves (Sheichenko et al., 1987). Carotenoids, vitamins B, C, and E, riboflavin, and folic acid are present (Suleyman et al., 2001). Zu et al. (2006) have estimated through HPLC that the leaves contain five flavonoids, viz. catechin, rutin, quercetin, kaempferol, and isorhamnetin. Various organic acids (oleic, palmitic, palmitoleic, linoleic, myristic, stearic, linolenic, arachidonic, behenic) are reported to have been extracted from the fruit of the plant by GC-MS analysis (Pintea et al., 2001). Hippophae cerebroside, oleanolic acid, ursolic acid, 19-α-hydroxyursolic acid, dulcioic acid, 5-hydroxymethyl-2-furancarboxaldehyde, cirsiumaldehyde, octacosanoic acid, palmitic acid, and 1-O-hexadecanolenin were isolated from the fruit of H. rhamnoides. Isorhamnetin 3-O-β-d-glucoside,

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OH

OH HO

O

HO

O

OH

OH

OH

Quercetin

Myricetin

OH

O

O OH

OH O

O

Isorhamnetin OH

OH O

HO

OH

OH O

HO

OH

OH

HO

O

OH

O HO

OH OH

OH

OH

Catechin

Epicatechin

OH

HO OH

Gallic Acid OHO

H HO

H H

Oleanolic acid

OH

H

O HO

H

OH O

O

OH O

OH

O

OH

O

HO

OH OH

Ursolic Acid

Hyperin

FIGURE 3.6 Molecular structures of some key compounds of Sea Buckthorn.

quercetin 3-O-β-d-glucoside, and protocatechuic acid were reported in Sea Buckthorn juice concentrate (Gutzeit et al., 2007). Tiitinen et al. (2006, 11) reported the presence of D-fructose, D-glucose, ethyl-Dglucose, malic acid, quinic acid, and ascorbic acid as major sugars and acids in the juice and identified ethyl-β-D-glucopyranoside. A novel triglyceride, viz. 1,3-dicapryloyl-2-linoleoylglycerol, was reported in the fruit (Swaroop et al., 2005). The GC-MS analysis of the fruit shows the presence of ethyl dodecenoate, ethyl octanoate, decanol, ethyl decanoate, and ethyl dodecanoate (Cakir, 2004). (+)-Catechin, (+)-gallocatechin, and (−)-epigallocatechin and a triterpenoid, ursolic acid, were isolated from a 70% ethanol extract of branches of the plant (Yasukawa et al., 2009). Isorhamnetin 7-O-α-L-rhamnoside, isorhamnetin 3-O-β-D-glucoside-7-O-α-L-rhamnoside, isorhamnetin 3-O-α-Dsophoroside-7-O-β-L-rhamnoside, and kaempferol 3-O-α-D-sophoroside-7-O-β-L-rhamnoside were reported in the pomace of Sea Buckthorn (Rösch et al., 2004). Yang et al. (2007, 13) have reported the presence of 2-O-trans-p-coumaroyl maslinic acid, 2-O-caffeoyl maslinic acid, oleanolic acid, 3-O-trans-p-coumaroyl oleanolic acid, 3-O-caffeoyl oleanolic acid, 6-methoxy-2H-1-benzopyran, and β-sitosterol in the extract of branch bark. Figure 3.6 represents the molecular structure of some key compounds of Sea Buckthorn.

Bioactivity A methanolic extract from seeds has the highest level of antioxidant activity when compared to other extracts involving chloroform, ethyl acetate, and acetone. The study relates antioxidant activity to phenolic constituents (Negi et al., 2005). An aqueous extract from seeds was also reported to have good

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antioxidant and antibacterial activities by Chauhan et al. (2007). Geetha et al. (2003) reported that oxidative stress, produced through reduction of the ratio of organ-to-body weight by chromium, lowered the level of glutathione (GSH) but increased the levels of malondialdehyde (MDA), creatine phosphokinase (CPK), and glutamate oxaloacetate transferase (GOT). Glutamate pyruvate transferase (GPT) in the serum can be protected by a 70% ethanol extract from leaves at 100 and 250 mg/kg body weight. Both aqueous and hydro-ethanolic extracts from leaves give excellent 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS), and ferric reducing  antioxidant  power (FRAP) activity and provide good reducing potential. The extracts also reduce cell toxicity generated by H2O2 and antibacterial activity with regard to Bacillus cereus, P. aeruginosa, S. aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, and E. coli (Upadhyay et al., 2010). A phenolic extract from leaves has been shown to be a potent source of antioxidants by preventing oxidative damage to some major biomolecules and by offering protection against CCl4-induced oxidative damage in the liver (Maheshwari et al., 2011). Chawla et al. (2007) report the protection of membranes by a flavonoid-rich fraction of the extract from fruit which was attributed to quercetin, isorhamnetin, and kaempferol. Suleyman et al. (2001) conclude that a hexane extract provides good protection from ulcers. Koyama et al. (2009) report that extracts from fruit improve metabolic processes through reduction in hypertensive stress on the ventricular micro-vessels. There was also reduction in heart rate, arterial blood pressure, total plasma cholesterol, glycated hemoglobin, and triglycerides but increased capillary density. (1 4)-β-d-galactopyranosyluronic residues are reported to show antitumor activity against human hepatocellular carcinoma cells and Lewis lung carcinoma (Wang et al., 2015; Teng et al., 2006).

Podophyllum hexandrum Classification Kingdom : Plantae Phylum: Magnoliophyta Class: Magnoliopsida Order: Ranunculales Family: Berberidaceae Genus: Podophyllum Species: Podophyllum hexandrum P. hexandrum (Figure 3.7) is usually acknowledged as the Himalayan May Apple and belongs to family Berberidaceae. It is a rhizomatous perennial herb found in the alpine and subalpine zones of Himalayas. Four species, i.e., Podophyllum hexandrum, Podophyllum versipelli, Podophyllum aurantiocaule, and Podophyllum sikkimensis, are reported from Indian Himalayas (Sharma, 2013; Kumar et al., 2017b; Malik et al., 2018a). The genus, Podophyllum, is mainly represented by three species, viz. P. hexandrum, P. peltatum, and P. sikkimensis. Only P. hexandrum is found in the Himalayan region of India (Rather and Amin, 2016). The underground part of this species yields podophyllotoxin, the starting material used for the chemical synthesis of the well-known anticancer drugs, etoposide and teniposide. These drugs are mainly used for the treatment of leukemia and a variety of solid tumors (Sharma et al., 2000; Sharma, 2013; Rather and Amin, 2016; Sharma and Sharma, 2018). Podophyllotoxins may be isolated from various plant species but are present in higher concentration in certain Podophyllum species. P. hexandrum of Indian origin contains thrice the amount of podophyllotoxin as its American counterpart, P. peltatum (Sharma et al., 2000; Qazi et al., 2011; Rather and Amin, 2016; Sharma and Sharma, 2018). Owing to this, P. hexandrum is, economically and medicinally, the most valuable of all of the species of the genus Podophyllum. Large-scale collection of this species from the Himalayan region over recent decades has led to severe decrease in its population density. Due to this, the species is now listed as an endangered plant species of the Himalayas (IUCN, 2001; Kumar et al., 2017b).

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FIGURE 3.7 Podophyllum hexandrum.

Distribution The species of the genus Podophyllum are mainly found in the northern temperate zone of the Himalayas and are also distributed unevenly in northeast America and in both continental and insular East Asia. Four species of Podophyllum (P. hexandrum, P. versipelli, P. aurantiocaule, and P. sikkimensis) are reported from the Indian Himalayas (Airi et al., 1997) being found in Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh. In the Himalayas, it is found at an altitude of 2,500–4,500 m (Qazi et al., 2011; Rather and Amin, 2016; Sharma and Sharma, 2018; Shah, 2006).

Morphology P. hexandrum is an erect, succulent, glabrous cold-tolerant plant which grows to 15–60 cm. The leaves are umbrella shaped, are alternate, round, deeply divided into three to five lobes and often purple spotted. The stem is 15–30 cm tall and bears a pair of leaves. Flowers are white or rose colored, large, bisexual, cup shaped, 5 cm in diameter, petaloid, gamosepalous, and actinomorphic. The fruits are 2.5–5 cm in diameter, ovoid, scarlet when ripe and have numerous seeds. The roots are perennial having four to five vegetative shoots and one aerial reproductive shoot. The flowering season is from May to August, and the fruits ripen in August or September. The plant can be propagated either by dividing the perennial rhizome or from seed. The aerial parts are annual, emerging around the middle of April and have succulent reddish stem (Airi et al., 1997; Qazi et al., 2011; Rather and Amin, 2016; Sharma and Sharma, 2018).

Traditional Uses In the Amchi system of medicine, the roots of P. hexandrum are used against various skin diseases. The fruits are used against high altitude sickness. P. hexandrum is also used in the traditional system of medicine in Kashmir from time immemorial. Owing to its red color and size, the fruit resembles a small brinjal. It is known as Banwangun in Kashmir. Ripe fruit is also used to cure cough (Chatterjee, 1952; Chaurasia et al., 2007, 2012). Many preparations of root/rhizome of P. hexandrum are usually used by the tribal people of the Himalayan region of India to cure a variety of disorders such as gastric ulcer, hepatic disorders, ophthalmia, fever, syphilis, constipation, and gangrene (Bhattacharjee, 2001; Sharma et al., 2010). P. hexandrum is also used extensively in the ancient Ayurvedic system of medicine to treat various ailments such as tinea capitis, condyloma acuminata, Hodgkin’s disease, monocytoid leukemia,

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non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, brain cancer, and warts (Giri and Narasu, 2000; Qazi et al., 2011; Shaista et al., 2014). In Ladakh, the rhizome is known as Ol-mo-se for its therapeutic value in gynecological disorders (Chaurasia et al., 2007, 2012).

Phytochemistry Malik et al. (2018b) reported that glycosides, tannins, flavonoids, phenolics, terpenoids, and saponins are the key classes of secondary metabolites present in P. hexandrum. The plant is also a rich source of lignans that are commonly known as podophyllotoxin resin or podophyllum resin. These podophyllotoxins are used for the preparation of various semisynthetic derivatives which are clinically useful as cytostatics for the cure of various types of cancer, rheumatoid arthritis, dermatological disorders, and psoriasis (Rather and Amin, 2016). P. hexandrum contains up to 7%–16% of podophyllum resin compared to its American relative (P. peltatum) with 4%–5% podophyllum resin (Rather and Amin, 2016). The podophyllotoxins may be isolated from various plant species, but higher concentrations are only isolated from species of the genus Podophyllum. This genus extends to 22 species, but out of these species, only Indian Mayapple and American Mayapple have the highest content of podophyllotoxin which is three times as high in the former (Airi et al., 1997; Alam et al., 2009; Qazi et al., 2011). The lignans obtained from rhizomes and roots of P. hexandrum are podophyllotoxin, deoxypodophyllotoxin, 4′-demethylpodophyllotoxin, 4′-demethyldeoxypodophyllotoxin, α-peltatin, β-peltatin, isopicropodophyllone, 4′-demethylisopicropodophyllone, podophyllotoxone, and 4′-demethylpodophyllotoxone (Husain, 1993; Qazi et al., 2011; Rather and Amin, 2016; Sharma and Sharma, 2018). Apart from these lignans, other secondary metabolites such as kaempferol, quercetin, astragalin, waxes, mineral salts, and essential oils are also isolated from P. hexandrum (Husain, 1993; Sharma and Sharma, 2018). Figure 3.8 shows the molecular structures of some of the foremost secondary metabolites of P. hexandrum. Many synthetic derivatives of podophyllotoxin have been prepared thus far in order to overcome the toxicity and adverse effects of podophyllotoxin in medication. The major semisynthetic derivatives of podophyllotoxin are teniposide, etoposide, etoposide phosphate, tafluposide, GL331, NK611, and TOP53. These derivatives possess better biological potential and have less side effects than podophyllotoxin

H

OH O

O

O

O H O

H O

O

Podophyllotoxin

H

O

O H

H

O

O

OH

α-Peltatin

O

4'-demethylpodophyllotoxin

O O O

O H O

O

OH

O O

O

O

O H

O

Deoxypodophyllotoxin

OH

OH

O

O

O

O

O

O H

O

H

O

H

O

O

O

O H

O

O

O

Isopicropodophyllone

O

O O

Podophyllotoxone

FIGURE 3.8 Molecular structures of some key secondary metabolites of P. hexandrum.

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F F OF

F F

HO H

O

OH H O

F O

S

O O

O H O OH

Teniposide

O O

O F

O O H

O H

O

O

F

O

O

F O

O

O N+

O H

O O

O H O OH HO O P

H

F

O

O

Tafluposide

HN H

O-

O

O

O

O H O

O OH

GL331

FIGURE 3.9 Molecular structures of some key derivatives of Podophyllotoxin.

(Gordaliza et al., 2004; Nagar et al., 2011; Rather and Amin, 2016). Figure 3.9 represents the molecular structures of some major derivatives of podophyllotoxin.

Bioactivity P. hexandrum is well known for its biological potential. It is known to have anticancerous, radioprotective, anti-inflammatory, cytotoxic, antioxidant, antirheumatic, antiviral, antihelminthic, antimicrobial, and antifungal properties (Prakash et al., 2005; Ganie et al., 2011; Malik et al., 2018b). The biological potential of P. hexandrum is mainly attributed to the presence of podophyllotoxin, kaempherol, and quercetin in this plant (Ganie et al., 2011; Malik et al., 2018a; Qazi et al., 2011; Rather and Amin, 2016; Sharma and Sharma, 2018). Atta-ur-Rahman et al. (1995) reported that P. hexandrum displayed strong antifungal potential against Curvularia lunata, Epidermophyton floccosum, Microsporum canis, Nigrospora oryzae, Pleurotus ostreatus, and Allescheria boydii. The antifungal potential of rhizome extracts of P. hexandrum against pure cultures of Candida albicans ATCC 1023 and Aspergillus niger ATCC 1197 was reported with good results by Wani et al. (2013). The insecticidal potential of podophyllotoxin and acetylpodophyllotoxin, isolated from a dichloromethane extract of P. hexandrum, was evaluated by Miyazawa et al. (1999) against the larvae of Drosophila melanogaster. Podophyllotoxin showed the LC50 value of 0.24 μmol/mL against D. melanogaster larvae, while the LD50 value was reported to be 22 μg/adult against adults. Further, acetylpodophyllotoxin was found to have only slight insecticidal potential in both assays, which directed that the 4-hydroxyl group was a key functional group for the enhanced bioactivity of podophyllotoxin. The rhizome of P. hexandrum is known to possess radioprotective potential which was evaluated at molecular level in the spleen of Swiss albino male mice by immunoblotting by various researchers (Kumar et al., 2005; Arora et al., 2005; Gupta et al., 2008; Lata et al., 2009). The radioprotective and antioxidant potentials of high- and low-altitude P. hexandrum were compared by Arora et al. (2005). They concluded that extracts from the low-altitude variety of P. hexandrum are worthy of clinical trial due to ease of cultivation of the plant, its radioprotective properties, and low toxicity. Rhizomes and roots of P. hexandrum contain a variety of lignans (podophyllotoxin and their glycosides) which are known to have cytotoxic activities (Broomhead and Dewick, 1990; Qazi et al., 2011). Gordaliza et al. (2004) synthesized the derivatives of podophyllotoxin and noted that these derivatives

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have cytotoxic potential even at the micrometer level. In vitro cytotoxic potential of 4-demethylpicropodophyllotoxin 7′-O-D-glucopyranoside was evaluated by Qi et al. (2005). The results reveal that 4-demethyl-picropodophyllotoxin 7′-O-D-glucopyranoside effectively retarded the proliferation of cancer cells and arrest the cell cycle at mitotic phase. The anti-inflammatory potential of P. hexandrum aqueous extract was demonstrated by Prakash et al. (2005). Ganie et al. (2011) evaluated the antioxidant potential of P. hexandrum rhizome ethyl acetate extract under in vitro conditions using DPPH, H2O2 assay, superoxide assay, hydroxyl assay, and reducing power assay. The evaluation of antioxidant potential was also done under in vivo conditions by determining the glutathione levels and enzyme activities in the liver tissue of albino rats. All the methods resulted in better antioxidant potential of ethyl acetate extract as compared to standard antioxidants, α-tocopherol, and BHT. The methanolic extract isolated from P. hexandrum resulted in lower lipid peroxidation in a dosedependent manner in the H2O2-treated rats. Further, the aqueous extract protected the lung and kidney tissues against carbon tetrachloride-induced oxidative stress possibly by enhancing the antioxidant defense activities (Ganie et al., 2012a,b). Podophyllotoxin and its derivatives could retard or interfere with viral replication due to their ability to bind with tubulin and to disrupt the cellular cytoskeleton. Apart from this, the synthetic derivatives of podophyllotoxin inhibit the activity of reverse transcriptase enzyme which may be subjugated to produce anticancer drugs against a variety of retroviruses such as the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) (Camilo et al., 2001).

Bioactivity of Podophyllotoxin Derivatives Etoposide is used for the treatment of Hodgkin’s disease, acute myelogenous leukemia, lymphocytic leukemia, ovarian cancer, germ cell tumors, rhabdomoysarcoma, and glioblastoma multiforma (Montaldo et al., 1990; Viana et al., 1991; Cai et al., 1999; Rather and Amin, 2016). Etoposide has some side effects such as hair loss, anorexia, diarrhea, birth defects, nausea, and low platelet and leucocyte counts. Etoposide phosphate is a better version of etoposide which has low toxicity and higher solubility in water (Schacter, 1996; Rather and Amin, 2016). Teniposide is used against a variety of refractory leukemia, brain and bladder tumors, but it is less often used compared with etoposide owing to its hematological toxicity (Richter et al., 1987). NK 611 has shown better antitumor potential compared with both teniposide and etoposide. Further, GL331, another podophyllotoxin derivative, is known to have 40 times better cytotoxic potential than etoposide. Furthermore, tafluposide (F 11782) and TOP-53 are also podophyllotoxin derivatives which have better biological potential and are under clinical trials (Terada et al., 1993; Huang et al., 1999; Rassmann et al., 1999; Kruczynski et al., 2000; Rather and Amin, 2016).

Rheum webbianum Classification Kingdom: Plantae Phylum: Magnoliophyta Class: Mangoliopsida Order: Polygonales Family: Polygonaceae Genus: Rheum Species: Rheum webbianum R. webbianum (Figure 3.10) is an important medicinal plant from Ladakh. It is a perennial herbaceous species. Due to high demand in the traditional system of medicine, it acquired the status of an endangered species. Eight species of Rheum are included in the flora of India, i.e., R. webbianum, R. globulosum,

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FIGURE 3.10 Rheum webbianum.

R. nobile, R. moorcroftianum, R. spiciforme, R. tibeticum, R. acuminatum, and R. australe (Srivastava, 2014). R. webbianum, R. emodi, R. tibetana, R. orcroftianum, and R. speciformae are the frequently found species in cold desert zones of Ladakh. Anthraquinones, stilbene glycosides, tannins, phenolic acids, and flavonoids are the key classes of secondary metabolites which have been isolated (Tayade et al., 2012).

Distribution R. webbianum is mostly found in temperate to tropical Asia, while in India, it is a native plant of Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, and Uttar Pradesh. In the Ladakh area, it is known to be distributed or grown in on slopes and shrubberies in the Leh and Zanskar valley between 3,105 and 3,920 m above mean sea level (Chaurasia et al., 2007).

Morphology R. webbianum is an herb 0.5–1.5 m in height. Its stems are hollow, stout, finely sulcate, glabrous or papilliferous on the upper parts. Radical leaves have a petiole 30–45 cm long; leathery, orbicular to reniform, cordate, obtuse or subacute, entire, five to seven papillose or glabrous, 10–50 cm across; upper leaves smaller. Inflorescence diffusely branched, mostly axillary, less commonly terminal, panicle up to 1 m tall. Flowers are 2.0–2.5 mm across, ebracteate, with a pedicel 3–5 mm long, filiform, pale yellowish. Fruit is oblong or orbicular, 8–10 mm across, winged, notched on both sides. Seeds are narrow and ovoid. The flowering season is between June and September (Tayade et al., 2012; Tabin et al., 2016).

Traditional Uses The leaves and rhizomes of Rheum species are widely used for their laxative and purgative effect. The species is also known to be used as a treatment for colds, coughs, kidney stones, malaria, and several veterinary problems. Traditionally, R. webbianum is used for cough, fever, diarrhea, and liver and menstrual disorders. In Ladakh, leaves, stems, and roots of R. webbianum are used to treat abdominal disease, indigestion and wounds; to relieve flatulence, and also for laxative, astringent and febrifuge activities (Chaurasia et al., 2007).

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Phytochemistry Limonene, 1,8-cineole, undecanone, terpinen-4-ol, α-terpineol, bornyl acetate, ρ-vinyl-guaiacol, eugenol, 2E-undecenal, E-caryophyllene, β-patchoulene, maaliol, diethyl phthalate, viridiflorol, β-eudesmol, valerianol, phytone, isobutyl phthalate, elaol, eicosane, and n-henicosane are the phytochemicals reported in the essential oil isolated from R. webbianum through steam distillation and by GC-MS analysis (Kumar et al., 2018). The main secondary metabolites present in R. webbianum, to which it owes its medicinal importance, are anthraquinones: rhein, emodin, aloe-emodin, physcion, and chrysophanol (Rashid et al., 2014). Desoxyrhapontigenin (3′, 5′-dihydroxy-4-methoxystilbene), 1,6,8-trihydroxy-3-methyl-anthraquinone, 1,8-dihydroxy-3-methyl-anthraquinone, and 1,8-dihydroxy-3-hydroxymethyl-anthraquinone were the other major secondary metabolites isolated from the whole plant (Chaudhari et al., 1983; Khetwal and Pathak, 1988). Figure 3.11 shows the molecular structures of prime compounds derived from R. webbianum.

Bioactivity Extracts from the plant have been used for treating indigestion, abdominal disease, boils, and flatulence; for healing wounds; and as a purgative. The roots were used to treat indigestion, wounds, and gastritis (Chaurasia et al., 2007). It is used for the treatment of fever, cough, diarrhea, menstrual and liver disorders (Rehman et al., 2014) and to cure inflammatory diseases and oxidative stress related to injuries (Chai et al., 2012). A study shows that R. webbianum, in combination with Phyllanthus urinaria and Saussurea lappa, shows hepatoprotective effects (Sharma, 2019). Thakur (2019) reported the plant to show purgative and anti-carcinogenic properties. The actions of emodin, aloe-emodin, and rhein are reported as the anthraquinones which are responsible for regulating cancer by inhibiting the cell cycle of cancer. Anti-angiogenic property has been reported by many researchers (Srinivas et al., 2007; Huang et al., 2007; Wang et al., 2007; Cai et al., 2008; Cui et al., 2008 and Lin et al., 2003). Further, the plant is a good source of dietary fiber which lowers lipid levels and can affect the cholesterol by inhibiting squalene epoxidase (Abe et al., 2000). However, Rheum emodi was found to possess extensive concentration-dependent cytotoxicity when tested in relation to human breast carcinoma (MDAMB-435S) and liver carcinoma (Hep3B) (Rajkumar et al., 2011a,b). Seo E.J. et al. (2012) reported anthraquinone derivatives to inhibit platelet aggregation which was induced by collagen and thrombin. Further, it was also found to show antimicrobial effect against fungal and bacterial strains, namely Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans, Trichophyton mentagrophytes, Aspergillus fumigatus, Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus sphaericus, and S. aureus. An ethanolic extract was reported to reduce ulceration and increase the activity of aspartate, alanine  aminotransferase, and alkaline  phosphatase in serum (Kaur et al., 2012). The plant is also known for its anti-diabetic effects (Radhika et al., 2012). OH

O

OH

OH

O

OH O

O

OH

OH

O

Emodin OH

O

OH

O

Chrysophanol

OH

O

OH O

Rhein

O

Physcion O HO

OH

Desoxyrhapontigenin

FIGURE 3.11 Molecular structures of some prominent secondary metabolites found in Rheum webbianum.

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Rhodiola imbricata Classification Kingdom: Plantae Phylum: Magnoliophyta Class: Magnoliopsida Order: Rosales Family: Crassulaceae Genus: Rhodiola Species: Rhodiola imbricata Edgew Rhodiola imbricata (Figure 3.12) is an endangered, Trans-Himalayan medicinal herb of the family, Crassulaceae. It is a major food crop of Trans-Himalayan cold desert of India. In Ladakh, it is commonly known as Shrolo marpo and also called Golden Root or Himalayan stone crop. The plant is widely used in ancient system of medicine. It is a rich source of a variety of secondary metabolites (SMs), viz. alkaloids, phenylpropanoids, flavonoids, phenylethanol derivatives, phenolic acids, terpenoids, etc. and have promising health-promoting properties and pharmacological assets (Kumar et al., 2012; Tayade et al., 2013a, 2017; Choudhary et al., 2015; Bhardwaj et al., 2018).

Distribution Rhodiola species are mainly found in the cold areas of the northern hemisphere and mountainous regions of Europe and Asia. R. imbricata is mainly distributed in the Himalayan region of India, Nepal, Tibet, China, and Pakistan; and in India, it is largely found in Western Himalaya (Kanupriya et al., 2005; Choudhary et al., 2015; Bhardwaj et al., 2018). In Ladakh, the plant is mostly spread in Zanskar, Indus, and Changthang valleys (Chaurasia et al., 2007).

Morphology The plant is generally erect, succulent herb which can reach a height of 10–35 cm. The rhizome is thick, golden on the surface, and pink within. Leaves are usually 1.3–3 cm long and oblong to narrow elliptical, whereas the roots of this plant are rose scented. Flower clusters are with pale yellow, the season being

FIGURE 3.12 Rhodiola imbricata.

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July to September. Fruits are few in number but produce a large number of seeds (Singh et al., 1996; Chaurasia et al., 2007).

Traditional Uses R. imbricata is a significant part of Amchi system of medicine and Chinese phytotherapy because of its potential to boost physical fortitude, to treat impotence, fatigue, central nervous system, gastrointestinal, and cardiac ailments. In Ladakh, R. imbricata is used for culinary purpose by local people. An appetizing dish “Tantur” is prepared from the mixture of its young shoots and yogurt. The leaves of the plant are used as vegetables (Gupta et al., 2012). It is also the foremost constituent of herbal phyto-cocktail (having high nutritive value) and various beverages (Ballabh et al., 2007). It is also used to enhance work performance, to decrease depression, and to prevent high-altitude sickness (Tayade et al., 2013b).

Phytochemistry A profile by Tayade et al. (2013a) revealed the presence of 63 phytochemicals in the roots of R. imbricate. Salidroside and tyrosol (phenylethanoids) are the major bioactive compounds (Kapoor et al., 2018). Figure 3.13 shows the molecular structures of principal compounds of R. imbricate. 3-Hydroxy 5-methoxy benzenemethanol, 1-pentacosanol, hexadecanoic acid, 2-hydroxy-1hydroxymethyl ethyl ester, 9,12,15-octadecatrienoic acid, thujone, 9,12-octadecadienoic acid, 13-tetradecen-1-ol acetate, ethyl linoleate, camphor, 1,3-dimethoxybenzene, 1,3-benzenediol, 5-methyl, cholest-4-ene-3,6-dione, alpha-tocopherol, d-tocopherol, campesterol, Stigmast-4-en-3-one, Stigmast-3,5-dien-7-one, stigmastanol, ascaridole, oleic acid, hexadecanoic acid, eucalyptol, linalyl isovalerate, borneol, and b-fenchyl alcohol were the key volatile constituents present in R. imbricate. Additionally, Choudhary et al. (2015) isolated 15 compounds from ethyl acetate extract and 4 compounds from n-butanol extract obtained from roots of R. imbricate. Out of these, four compounds were reported first time. These are 3,5-dihydroxybenzyl alcohol, 3-methoxy-5-hydroxybenzyl alcohol, orcinol, O-methylorcinol, p-hydroxybenzaldehyde, p-hydroxyacetophenone, phydroxybenzyl alcohol, 4-methoxyphenethyl alcohol, 3-hydroxy-5-methylphenyl-β-D-glucopyranoside, methoxyphenyl-β-Dglucopyranoside, 2-hydroxymethyl-6-methoxy-β-D-glucopyranoside, phenyl-β-D-glucopyranoside, 3,5-dimethoxyphenyl-β-D-glucopyranoside, trimethoxyphenyl-β-D-glucopyranoside, 3-hydroxy-2-(3methyl-2-buten-1-yl)-benzoic acid, 2-(hydroxymethyl)-6-methoxyphenyl-β-D-glucopyranoside, and 2-hydroxy-4-methylphenyl-β-D-glucopyranoside. In addition, gallic acid, rosin, and rosavin are also reported in this plant (Mishra et al., 2008). OH HO

OH HO

HO O

OH O

HO

O

OH

OH O

OH

Salidroside

Tyrosol

Rosin

OH HO O

OH O

OH

O

OH O

OH

Rosavin FIGURE 3.13 Molecular structures of some foremost compounds of Rhodiola imbricata.

OH

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Bioactivity R. imbricata is reported to have a wide range of bioactivities (Kanupriya et al., 2005). The aqueous and alcoholic extracts from the rhizome inhibited the free radicals, restored antioxidant levels in control cells, and also reduced apoptosis that developed due to pre-treatment with tert-BHP at 250 μg/mL. These observations suggest that the extracts of Rhodiola have marked cytoprotective and antioxidant activities. Oral administration of the extract allowed rats to recover from hypothermia when administered 30 minutes prior to exposure to cold. There was also maintenance of glycogen and enzyme activities in muscle, liver, and blood tissue on attaining 23°C. By contrast, in control experiments, these levels were reversed (Gupta et al., 2009). Analysis of rats treated with rhizome extract showed an increase in the levels of superoxide dismutase, glutothione peroxidase, and catalase. There was also reduced levels of glutathione after liver toxicity induced with paracetamol. Furthermore, profiles of alkaline phosphatase, serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase (SGOT), serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase (SGPT), and lipids in serum also improved in comparison to the control group (Senthilkumar et al., 2014). The anti-proliferative effect of Rhodiola aqueous extract (RAE) was studied in human erythro-leukemic cells using MTT cell proliferation assay. RAE was reported to decrease proliferation of K-562 after 72 hours of incubation with an extract of 100–200 mg/mL, whereas no suppression was detected in normal human peripheral blood lymphocytes or mouse macrophage cell line RAW-264.7. The extract was also reported to promote the production of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) in K-562 cells at 200 mg/mL when incubated overnight. Increased ROS caused apoptosis (observed under AnnexinV-FITC and propidium iodide (PI) staining of cells). Further, the extract arrested the cell in G2/M phase in early and late periods of exposure. The anticancer activity of RAE was also confirmed by increased NK cell cytotoxicity (Mishra et al., 2008). Kumar et al. (2010b) have investigated the hydro-alcoholic extract of roots for antioxidant activity. These studies showed a correlation between inhibition of free radicals with increase in the concentration of the extract in DPPH assay, in nitric oxide assay, and in hydroxyl radical assay. Arora et al. (2005) reported the presence of high content of polyphenolics, which significantly lowered lipid oxidation. Further, the extract also showed metal chelation activity with a maximum percentage inhibition at 50 μg/mL. However, in vivo study of the extract revealed a survival rate of 83.3% in rats 30 minutes prior to lethal total-body γ-irradiation. It also decreases lipid peroxidation in a dose-dependent manner, which was induced by iron/ascorbate, radiation, and their combination. Mishra et al. (2010) reported that the aqueous extract of Rhodiola has adjuvant and immuno-potentiation activity in terms of humoral response as well as cell-mediated immune response in relation to a strong antigen such as tetanus toxoid and a weak antigen such as ovalbumin.

Concluding Remarks The cold desert of Trans-Himalaya supports rich biodiversity including many endemic plants, which have long played significant roles in basic health care and many other aspects of daily life of local tribal communities. The cold desert is well known for a range of economically important plants and their products, which provide food, fodder, fibers, and medicine. A variety of novel bioactive substances obtained from Trans-Himalayan medicinal plants show different pharmacological activities in relation to anticancer, anti-ageing, asthmatic, antipyretic, and diuretic properties. Most of the plant species discussed in the present chapter remain in use in the Amchi system of medicine employed by the native population in Ladakh, although many plants are yet to be phytochemically and pharmacologically examined by modern science. There is therefore a tremendous scope for investigation of secondary metabolites, which could eventually lead to the discovery of a range of novel drugs.

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Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan

4 Medicinal Plants of Central Asia Farukh S. Sharopov Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tajikistan William N. Setzer University of Alabama in Huntsville CONTENTS Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 105 Central Asian Medicinal Plants.............................................................................................................. 107 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................................ 128 References .............................................................................................................................................. 128

Introduction The Silk Road has served as the source of contact between China and the civilizations of Central Asia and the Middle East since the second century BCE, and it was an important conduit for the exchange of culture, religion, art, philosophy, science and technology, food, spices, and medicinal plants (Mark, 2018; Chen, 2008; Buell, 2007; Saliba, 2008). Historically, the territory of Central Asia extended from the Caspian Sea in the west to the Altay Mountains in the east, and from the borders of Persia and Afghanistan in the south to the Russian lands in the north (Duarte, 2014). Today, Central Asia involves five countries: Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan (Figure 4.1). The total area of Central Asia is around 4 million km2 with varied geography, including high passes and mountains (Pamir, Tian Shan), and vast deserts (Kara Kum and Kyzyl Kum) (Figure 4.2). In most of Central Asia, the climate is dry and continental. The biodiversity of Central Asia is determined by the specifics of soil, relief, and climatic conditions. The flora of Central Asia is rich in diversity with more than 8,100 plant species (Tayjanov et al., 2017). Today, many of the indigenous peoples of Central Asia use plants as the primary source of medicines. In this chapter, we present an overview of aromatic and medicinal plants of Central Asia. Comprehensive reviews on the medicinal plants have been published on Kazakhstan (Gemejiyeva and Grudzinskaya, 2018; Sarsenbayev, 2018), Kyrgyzstan (Zaurov et al., 2013), Uzbekistan (Zaurov et al., 2013; Egamberdieva et al., 2013, 2017; Mamadalieva et al., 2017; Egamberdieva and Jabborova, 2018), and Tajikistan (Sharopov and Setzer, 2018; Sharopov et al., 2015). Although there are overlaps, we try to complement, rather than reiterate, the content of these previous chapters.

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FIGURE 4.1 Political map of Central Asia.

A

B

FIGURE 4.2 Photographs of Tajikistan illustrating the topography of Central Asia. (a) Chormaghzak pass, Yovon Region, Tajikistan. (b) Siyoma pass, Varzob Region, Tajikistan (photographs by F.S. Sharopov).

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Central Asian Medicinal Plants Amygdalus bucharica Korsh. (Rosaceae) (Mindal bukharskiy (Russian), Bodom (Tajik)) grows wild in Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan (Missouri Botanical Garden, 2019). The fatty oil from its seeds is used to treat skin ailments (wounds, irritations, rashes, and dermatitis) (Mamedov et al., 2004). The seeds are taken orally to treat stomachache, gastritis, and gastric ulcers (Pawera et al., 2016). Little, if any, phytochemical work has been carried out on this plant. Amygdalus communis L. (Rosaceae) (Mindal obiknovenniy (Russian), Bodom (Tajik)) (synonym Prunus amygdalus Batsch) is used traditionally as above for A. bucharica. The kernels are rich in phenolic compounds shown in Figure 4.3 (gallic acid, catechin, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, epicatechin, and quercetin) as well as α-tocopherol and the cyanogenic glycoside amygdalin (Yildirim et al., 2010). The kernel oil of A. communis (P. amygdalus) is dominated by oleic acid (63%–78%) and linoleic acid (12%–27%) (Kodad and Socias i Company, 2008; Amanzadeh et al., 2016). Berberis L. species (Berberidaceae). The Kyrgyz people take a decoction of the dried fruits of Berberis heterobotrys E.L. Wolf for fever (Soelberg and Jäger, 2016). In Tajikistan, the roots of Berberis integerrima Bunge (synonym Berberis oblonga (Regel) C.K. Schneid.) are used to treat wounds, bone fractures, rheumatism, radiculitis, heart pain, and stomach aches; a leaf decoction is used to treat kidney stones; an infusion of the flowers is used to treat tuberculosis, chest pains, and headaches; an infusion of the fruits is used to treat constipation and wounds (Zaurov et al., 2013). In Kyrgyzstan, a decoction of the roots and bark of B. integerrima is used to treat bone fractures (Pawera et al., 2016). The bark of Berberis vulgaris L. is used to treat skin conditions (wounds, skin irritations, allergic rashes, and dermatitis) (Mamedov et al., 2004). Isoquinoline alkaloids (berberine, palmatine, jatrorrhizine, berbamine, oxyacanthine = hydroxyacanthine, isocorydine, Figure 4.4) are found in the fruits, roots, and bark of Berberis spp. (Bhardwaj and Kaushik, 2012; Sharopov and Setzer, 2018). Capparis spinosa L. (Capparaceae) (Kapersi kolyuchie (Russian), Kavar (Tajik)) ranges throughout the Mediterranean region, the Middle East, Arabian Peninsula, and Central Asia (Tlili et al., 2011). There are apparently two varieties of C. spinosa found in Central Asia, C. spinosa subsp. spinosa var. canescens and C. spinosa subsp. spinosa var. herbacea (Fici, 2014). The Turkmen people use C. spinosa to treat rheumatism, headache, hemorrhoids, and digestive disorders (Ghorbani, 2005). In Tajikistan, the roots and fruits of C. spinosa are used as an anthelmintic, for treating jaundice and paralysis (Sharopov and Setzer, 2018). The plant is used in Uzbekistan to treat wounds and gastrointestinal problems, and a root decoction is used to treat hepatitis (Egamberdieva and Jabborova, 2018; Zaurov et al., 2013). Roots and leaves are used to treat skin conditions (wounds, skin irritations, allergic rashes, and dermatitis) (Mamedov et al., 2004). The major components of the fruits of C. spinosa are flavonoids (chrysoeriol, apigenin, kaempferol, thevetiaflavone), indoles (capparines A, B, and C), furanoids (5 hydroxy-methylfurfural, bis-(5-formylfurfuryl) ether), phenolic acids (vanillic acid, cinnamic acid,

FIGURE 4.3 Phenolic compounds from Amygdalus communis.

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Natural Products of Silk Road Plants

FIGURE 4.4 Isoquinoline alkaloids from Berberis spp.

FIGURE 4.5 Alkaloids from Capparis spinosa.

p-hydroxybenzoic acid), and the alkaloid stachydrine (Yang et al., 2010; Zhou et al., 2010; Feng et al., 2011). The roots of C. spinosa have yielded spermidine alkaloids (isocodonocarpine, capparispine) (Tlili et al., 2011). The aerial parts contain alkaloids (stachydrin, capparines A and B, capparisines A, B, and C) and flavonoids (kaempferol glycosides, quercetin glycosides Figure 4.5) (Zhang and Ma, 2018). Corydalis ledebouriana Kar. & Kir. (Papaveraceae) (Khokhlata, (Russian) Havoboronak (Tajik)) is native to Central Asia, including Afghanistan, Kingjiang Uygur (China), Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan (Missouri Botanical Garden, 2019). In Tajik traditional medicine, it is recommended as a calming and sleep-inducing agent, for treating obesity and female disorders (Sharopov and Setzer, 2018).

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109

The plant is a good source of phthalide-isoquinoline alkaloids (corledine, ledeboridine, ledeborine, lededorine, lederine, raddeanine, sibiricine) and berberine alkaloids (dihydrochelerythrine, sanguinarine, Figure 4.6) (Dictionary of Natural Products, 2019). Cyperus longus L. (Cyperaceae) (Sit dlinnaya (Russian), Salom aleykumi daroz (Tajik)) ranges from western, central, and southern Europe, the Middle East, and Africa, in addition to Central Asia (Collins et al., 1988; Missouri Botanical Garden, 2019). In Tajikistan, the rhizomes of C. longus are used as a sudorific (Sharopov and Setzer, 2018). The aerial parts of C. longus contain flavonoids (tricin, luteolin) (Harborne, 1971), alkaloids (brevicolline, brevicarine) (Sharopov and Setzer, 2018), stilbene dimers (longusone A, longusols A, B, C) (Morikawa et al., 2010), sesquiterpenoids (cyperusols A1, A2, B1, B2, C, and D, Figure 4.7) (Xu et al., 2004), and an essential oil rich in sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (β-himachalene, α-humulene, γ-himachalene) (Ait-Ouazzou et al., 2012).

FIGURE 4.6 Alkaloids from Corydalis ledebouriana.

FIGURE 4.7 Phytochemicals from Cyperus longus.

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Datura stramonium L. (Solanaceae) (Durman vonyuchego (Russian), Bangi devona (Tajik)) probably originated in the Neotropics but has been introduced worldwide where it has become an aggressive invasive weed (Witt and Luke, 2017). A decoction of the seeds is used as a gargle to treat toothache and headache, as an analgesic, sedative, antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory (Sharopov and Setzer, 2018; Egamberdieva and Jabborova, 2018; Zaurov et al., 2013). The flowers are pounded and applied externally on the forehead to relieve headaches and on the eyes to treat pains in the eyes (Sezik et al., 2004). All parts of the plant contain tropane alkaloids, principally atropine, hyoscyamine, and scopolamine (Figure 4.8) (Das et al., 2012; Gaire and Subedi, 2013; Singh and Singh, 2013). Delphinium ternatum Huth (Ranunculaceae) (Jivokost troychataya (Russian), Isparak (Tajik)) is endemic to the Pamir-Alai. Decoctions of the aerial parts of the plant are used in Tajik traditional medicine to treat neoplasms and liver diseases, and as an anthelmintic (Sharopov and Setzer, 2018). Diterpenoid alkaloids (methyllycaconitine, dehydroeldelidine, delterine, delcorine, delpheline, ternatine, ternatidine, terdeline) have been isolated from this plant (Figure 4.9) (Matveev et al., 1983; Narzullaev et al., 1988, 1987, 1997).

FIGURE 4.8 Tropane alkaloids from Datura stramonium.

FIGURE 4.9 Diterpenoid alkaloids from Delphinium ternatum.

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111

Ephedra equisetina Bunge (Ephedraceae) (Khvoynik (Efedra) khvoshoviy (Russian)) is found in Central Asia (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzsan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan) as well as China and Siberia (Missouri Botanical Garden, 2019). Traditional uses of the plant include external applications of the plant to treat skin problems (wounds, irritations, rashes, dermatitis) (Mamedov et al., 2004; Pawera et al., 2016). The plant is also used to treat bronchial asthma (Mamedov and Craker, 2001). Ephedra intermedia Schrenk ex C.A. Mey. (Ephedraceae) (Khvoynik (Efedra) khvoshoviy (Russian)) overlaps in range with E. equisetina, and these two species readily hybridize (Hayashi et al., 2019). Decoction of the plant is used to bathe aching feet or legs and treat dislocated joints; a paste is applied to aching shoulders or the back (Soelberg and Jäger, 2016). Both E. equisetina and E. intermedia are good sources of the alkaloids ephedrine and pseudoephendrine (Hayashi et al., 2019). Eremurus olgae Regel (Asphodelaceae) (Shiryash (Russian)) grows in Central Asia (Turkmenistan, Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan). A powder from the rhizome is used to treat skin ailments (Mamedov et al., 2004). Little, if any, phytochemical work has been carried out on this plant. Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (Fabaceae) (Salodka (Russian), Shirin biya (Tajik)) is native to southern Europe, the Middle East, Central Asia, and India. Decoctions of the roots are used to treat coughs, pneumonia, bronchitis, chest pains, gastric and duodenal ulcers, and hemorrhoids (Egamberdieva and Jabborova, 2018; Zaurov et al., 2013). Extracts of G. glabra roots have yielded triterpenoid saponins (glycyrrhizin, glycyrrhizic acid) and flavonoids (rutin, isoquercitrin, pinocembrin, glabranin, Figure 4.10) (Mamedov and Egamberdieva, 2019; Pleskanovskaya et al., 2019; Hayashi et al., 2016; Al-Snafi, 2018). Hippophae rhamnoides L. (synonym Elaeagnus rhamnoides (L.) A. Nelson) (Elaeagnaceae) (Oblepicha krushinovidnaya (Russian), Angat (Tajik)) is native to Central Asia (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzsan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan) as well as China and Siberia (Missouri Botanical Garden, 2019). The fruits and oil are used in Central Asian traditional medicine to treat blindness, wounds, burn infections, dermatitis, intestinal and hepatic disorders, ulcers, and atherosclerosis (Mamedov et al., 2004; Sezik et al., 2004; Egamberdieva et al., 2013; Soelberg and Jäger, 2016; Zaurov et al., 2013). In Tajikistan, the flowers are used to soften the skin (Kumar et al., 2011). The seed and pulp oils of H. rhamnoides are rich in phytosterols (β-sitosterol), tocopherols (α-tocopherol and γ-tocopherol), and carotenoids (α-, β-, and γ-carotenes) (Kumar et al., 2011). The fruit pulp contains condensed tannins (oligomeric

FIGURE 4.10 Phytochemicals found in Glycyrrhiza glabra.

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proanthocyanidins) (Rösch et al., 2004), triterpenoids (oleanolic acid, ursolic acid) (Suryakumar and Gupta, 2011), and flavonoids (epicatechin, rutin, kaempferol, quercetin) (Chu et al., 2003). Peganum harmala L. (Nitrariaceae) (Garmala obyknovennaya) (Russian), Hazorispand (Tajik)) is native to the Mediterranean region, the Middle East, Central Asia (including Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, and Kyrgyzstan), and China (Missouri Botanical Garden, 2019). In Kyrgyzstan, a decoction of the root is used externally to treat scabies and other skin disorders; the aerial parts are burned, and the smoke inhaled to treat coughs and bronchitis (Pawera et al., 2016). In Tajikistan, the plant is used to treat liver problems, while the smoke from the burning seeds is used to treat symptoms of influenza (Williams, 2012). The plant (seeds, roots, aerial parts) contains the toxic alkaloids harmine, harmaline, harmalol, harmane, and vasicine (Figure 4.11) (Pulpati et al., 2008; Herraiz et al., 2010; Hemmateenejad et al., 2006). Pistacia vera L. (Anacardiaceae) (Fistashka nastoyashaya (Russian), Pista (Tajik)) is originally from the Middle East and Central Asia but is now cultivated in other desert regions such as Australia and southwestern United States. Traditionally, the leaf decoction of P. vera is used externally as an anesthetic and anti-itch treatment; the kernels are taken internally to treat coughs, nausea, and liver diseases (Karomatov and Salomova, 2017). Extracts of P. vera kernels have yielded long-chain phenols (cardanols) (Saitta et al., 2009) and benzoic acid derivatives (protocatechuic acid, gallic acid, and 4 hydroxybenzoic acid) (Saitta et al., 2014). The outer shells of the nuts contain several phenolic acids (anacardic acids, merulinic acids) (Yalpani and Tyman, 1983). The oleoresin of P. vera has yielded several triterpenoids (masticadienonate, masticadienolate, isomasticadienonate, 3-epi-masticadienolate acids, Figure 4.12) (Caputo et al., 1978). Punica granatum L. (Lythraceae) (Granat (Russian), Anor (Tajik)) is native to the Silk Road region, from Iran to northern India, but is now cultivated in desert-like habitats around the world. The peel of the fruit is used to treat skin conditions such as wounds, irritations, rashes, and dermatitis (Mamedov et al., 2004), while the fruit is eaten as a treatment for gastrointestinal diseases (Egamberdieva et al., 2013) and jaundice (Sezik et al., 2004). The juice of P. granatum contains anthocyanins and flavonoids,

FIGURE 4.11 Alkaloids found in Peganum harmala.

FIGURE 4.12 An anacardic acid and a merulinic acid from Pistacia vera.

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113

while the peel is rich in flavonoids and ellagitannins (punicalin, punicalagin, Figure 4.13) (Lansky and Newman, 2007). Salsola pestifer A. Nelson (synonym Salsola tragus L., Salsola kali L.) (Amaranthaceae) is native to Europe and Central Asia but is an exotic invasive plant in North America (Crompton and Bassett, 1985; Ryan et al., 2007; Beckie and Francis, 2009). The plant contains the isoquinoline alkaloids salsoline, and salsolidine (Ammon et al., 1987). Salsola richteri (Moq.) Karel ex Litv. (Amaranthaceae) (Cherkez Richtera (Russian)) is found in Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, and Kyrgyzstan. The aerial parts (fruits, flowers, leaves) are used to treat hypertension. The bioactive components in the plant are the alkaloids salsoline and salsolidine (Figure 4.14) (Pakanaev et al., 1980). In Tajikistan, a decoction and the juice are used to treat skin conditions (Sharopov and Setzer, 2018). Salvia sclarea L. (Lamiaceae) (Shalfey muskatniy (Russian), Marmarak (Tajik)) is native to the Mediterranean, North Africa, and Central Asia but is widely cultivated around the world. Infusions of the aerial parts are taken as a tonic to improve digestion and appetite, as well as a diuretic; S. sclarea fruits are used to treat dysentery and bloody diarrhea (Sharopov et al., 2015). The essential oil from the aerial parts contains linalyl acetate and linalool as major components (Sharopov et al., 2015). The aerial parts also contain oxygenated caryophyllane and salvialane sesquiterpenoids (Maurer and Hauser, 1983), abietane (tanshinone and umbelliferone) (Romanova et al., 1978), labdane (manool and sclareol) (Ulubelen et al., 1994), and amphilectane (salviatrienes A and B) (Laville et al., 2012) diterpenoids (Figure 4.15). Thalictrum isopyroides C.A. Mey (Ranunculaceae) (Vasilistnik izopiroidnyy (Russian), Khaladoru (Tajik)) ranges from the eastern Mediterranean through Central Asia (Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Lebanon-Syria, Tajikistan, Transcaucasus, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Xinjiang) (Kew Science, 2019). In Tajik traditional medicine, an infusion of the aerial parts is used as a

FIGURE 4.13 Ellagitannins from Punica granatum.

FIGURE 4.14 Isoquinoline alkaloids from Salsola spp.

114

FIGURE 4.15 Diterpenoids isolated from Salvia sclarea.

FIGURE 4.16 Isoquinoline alkaloids identified in Thalictrum isopyroides.

Natural Products of Silk Road Plants

Medicinal Plants of Central Asia

115

FIGURE 4.17 Pyrrolizidine alkaloids from Trichodesma incanum.

FIGURE 4.18 Alkaloid constituents of Ungernia tadschicorum.

spasmolytic to treat fever, colitis, and skin diseases (Sharopov and Setzer, 2018; Zaurov et al., 2013). The plant is known to be a source of isoquinoline alkaloids (cabudine, 6,7-dimethoxy-2-methylisocarbostyril, dehydroocoteine, thalisopynine, thalrugosaminine, thalisopine, thalisopidine) (Dictionary of Natural Products, 2019). Thermopsis dolichocarpa V.A. Nikitin (Fabaceae) (Termopsis dlinnoplodniy (Russian), Mastak (Tajik)) is found in the foothills (960–2,800 m) in Tajikistan and is used as an expectorant (Sharopov and Setzer, 2018). The plant is a source of flavonoids (luteolin, luteolin 7-glucoside, orobol, orogol 7-glucoside, genisein 7-glucoside) (Yuldashev et al., 1990) and alkaloids (cytisine, N-methylcytisine, thermopsine) (Sharopov and Setzer, 2018) (Figure 4.16) (Dictionary of Natural Products, 2019). Trichodesma incanum (Bunge) A. DC. (Boraginaceae) (Trichodesmi sedoy (Russian), Kampirchapon (Tajik)) is found naturally growing in Central Asia, including Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan, as well as Iran and Pakistan. A decoction of the aerial parts of the plant is used in Tajikistan to treat scabies, boils, and external tumors. The plant is a source of pyrrolizidine alkaloids (trichodesmine, incanine, Figure 4.17) (Sharopov and Setzer, 2018). Ungernia tadschicorum Vved. ex Artjush. (Amaryllidaceae) (Ungerniya tadjikskaya (Russian), Zevak (Tajik)) is endemic to Tajikistan where it is used to treat stomach ulcers, furuncles, and skin cancers. The alkaloids lycorine, galantamine, hippeastrine, pancratine, tanzettine, ungerine, and hordenine (Figure 4.18) have been identified in this plant (Sharopov and Setzer, 2018). A list of medicinal plants known to be found growing in the wild in Central Asia (Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan) is presented in Table 4.1. Most of these medicinal plants belong to three plant families: Asteraceae, Fabaceae, and Lamiaceae.

Simaroubaceae

Fabaceae

Caryophyllaceae

Malvaceae

Apiaceae

Asteraceae

Ailanthus altissimus (Mill.) Swingle

Alhagi persarum Boiss. & Buhse

Allochrusa gypsophiloides (Regel) Schischk.

Althaea officinalis L.

Ammi majus L.

Arctium tomentosum Mill. Artemisia absinthium L.

Asteraceae

Ranunculaceae

Adonis turkestanica Adolf

Family

Asteraceae

Achillea millefolium L.

Botanical Name

Aboveground parts, roots

Fruits, roots

Fruits

Roots, flowers, leaves

Roots and aboveground parts

Aboveground parts

Leaves, flowers, fruits

Aboveground parts

Part Used Aboveground parts

Russian and Local Names

Тысячалистник обыкновенный (Tysyachelistnik obiknobenniy) (RU); Бўймодарон (Buimodaron) (TJ); Tыcячeлиcтник aзиaтcкий (Tysyachelistnik aziatskiy) (KG) Адонис туркистанский (Adonis turkistanskiy) (RU); Андрасмон (Andrasmon) (TJ) Айланта высочайшего (Aylanta visochayshego) (RU); Айланта (Aylanta) (KG, TJ, TM, UZ) Верблюжья колючка (Verblyuzhya kolyuchka) (RU); Жaнтaк (Zhantak) (KG); Шутурхор (Shuturkhor) (TJ); Янток (Yontok) (UZ) Аллохруза качимовидная (Allokhruza kachimovidnaya) (RU); Нишоллобех (Nishollobech) (TJ); Кaчимдaй кoк тикeн (Kachimday kok tiken) (KG) Алтей лекарственный (Altey lekarstvenniy) (RU); Гули хайр (Guli khayri) (TJ); Dorivor gulhairi (UZ); Дapы гулкaн (Dary gulkan) (KG) Амми большая (Ammi bolshaya) (RU); Нонхо (Nonkhoh) (TJ) Лопух войлочный (Lopukh voylochniy) (RU); Мушхор (Mushkhor) (TJ); Полынь горькая (Polyn gorkaya) (RU); Эpмaн шыбaк (Erman shybak) (KG); Дармонаи талх (Darmonai talkh) (TJ); Erman, Achik erman (UZ)

List of Some Medicinal Plants Known to be Found Growing in the Wild in Central Asia

TABLE 4.1 Traditional Use

Inflammation, tuberculosis, hemorrhoids, hypertension, epilepsy

Rheumatism

Vitiligo, psoriasis, neurodermatitis

Eczema, psoriasis, dermatitis, gastritis, ulcers, enterocolitis

Diuretic, body stimulating, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory

Laxative, antipyretic, antiinflammatory, cough remedy

Antiviral and antimicrobial

Sciatica, gout, arthritis, gastrointestinal disturbances, congestion, cardiovascular diseases, and malaria, as well as a diuretic, Anthelmintic, and purgative Cardiovascular diseases, antiinflammation, mitigatory

Ref.

(Continued)

Hojimatov (1989); Zaurov et al. (2013)

Hojimatov (1989)

Hojimatov (1989)

Zaurov et al. (2013)

Hojimatov (1989); Zaurov et al. (2013)

Zaurov et al. (2013)

Zaurov et al. (2013)

Hojimatov (1989)

Hojimatov (1989); Zaurov et al. (2013)

116 Natural Products of Silk Road Plants

Asteraceae

Asteraceae

Asteraceae

Asteraceae

Asteraceae

Asparagaceae

Fabaceae

Saxifragaceae

Artemisia dracunculus L.

Artemisia persica Boiss.

Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kit.

Artemisia vulgaris L.

Asparagus persicus Baker

Astragalus sieversianus Pall

Bergenia stracheyi (Hook. f. & Thomson)

Family

Artemisia annua L.

Botanical Name

Полынь однолетняя (Polyn odnoletnyaya) (RU); Биp жылдык шыбaк (Bir zhyldyk shybak) (KG); Дарманаи яксола (Darmonai yaksola) (TJ); Burgan (UZ) Полынь эcтрагон (Polyn estragon) (RU); Шыpaaлжын шыбaк (Shyraalzhyn shybak) (KG); Тархун (Tarkhun) (TJ); Sherolgin (UZ) Полын персидская (Polyn estragon) (RU); Дарманаи форс (Darmanai forsi) (TJ) Пoлынь мeтёльчaтaя (Polyn metyolchataya) (RU); Шыпыpгы (KG); Сурх оруб (TJ); Kizilburgan (UZ) Пoлынь oбыкнoвeннaя (Polyn obyknovennaya) (RU); Кaдимки кууpaй (Kadimki kuuray) (KG); Дарманаи му аррар (Darmanai muqarari) (TJ); Oddiy erman (UZ) Cпapжa пepcидcкaя (Sparzha persidskaya) (RU); Пepcия cпapжacы (Persiya sparzhasy) (KG); Сарсабил (TJ); Tomirdori (UZ) Acтpaгaл Cивepca (Astragal Siversa) (RU); Tулку кууpaй (Tulku kuuray) (KG); Нахўтак (Nakhutak) (TJ); Pakhtak (UZ) Бадан стретча (Badan stretcha) (RU); Зардчой, му улчой (Zardchoy, mughulchoy) (TJ)

Russian and Local Names

Part Used

Leaves and roots

Fruits

Roots, fruits

Aboveground parts

Aboveground parts

Leaves

Aboveground parts

Aboveground parts, roots

TABLE 4.1 (Continued) List of Some Medicinal Plants Known to be Found Growing in the Wild in Central Asia

Antibacterial, blocking, bleeding and anti-inflammatory

Kidney and bladder stones, hernias, syphilis

Diarrhea, Inflammation, bloodcleansing, sedative

Kidney stones, uterine ulcers, sinus colds, epilepsy, neurasthenia, tuberculosis

Rheumatism, diuretic, radiculitis, epilepsy

Anti-helminthic, anti-inflammatory, diuretic

Edema, scurvy, dyspepsia, carminative and anti- helminthic

Malaria, cancer

Traditional Use

(Continued)

Hojimatov (1989)

Zaurov et al. (2013)

Zaurov et al. (2013)

Hojimatov (1989); Zaurov et al. (2013)

Hojimatov (1989); Zaurov et al. (2013)

Hojimatov (1989)

Hojimatov (1989); Zaurov et al. (2013)

Hojimatov (1989); Zaurov et al. (2013)

Ref.

Medicinal Plants of Central Asia 117

Asteraceae

Asteraceae

Onagraceae

Asteraceae

Asteraceae

Colchicaceae

Convolvulaceae

Brassicaceae

Centaurea depressa M. Bieb.

Chamerion angustifolium (L.) Holub Cichorium intybus L.

Cnicus benedictus L.

Colchicum luteum Baker

Convolvulus subhirsutus Regel and Schmalh.

Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb ex Prantl

Family

Bidens tripartita L.

Botanical Name

Bьюнoк шepcтиcтый (Vyunok sherstistyy) (RU); Tуктуу чыpмooк (Tuktuu chyrmook) (KG); Гулпечак (Gulpechak) (TJ); Mingbosh (UZ) Дecкуpeния Coфьи (Deskureniya Sofi) (RU); Coфия дecкуpeнияcы (Sofiya deskureniyasy) (KG); Саврак (Savrak) (TJ); Shuvaran (UZ)

Aboveground parts

Череда трехраздельная (Chereda trekhrazdelnaya) (RU); Уч бoлуктуу ит уйчaн (Uch boluktuu it uychan) (KG); Гармгиё (Garmgiyoh) (TJ); Eteetkanak (UZ) Bacилeк пpидaвлeнный (Vasilek pridavlennyy) (RU); Жaгaлaк кёп бaшы (Zhagalak kyop bashy) (KG); Осмонгулак (Osmongulak) (TJ); Butakuz (UZ) Хамерион узколистный – (Chamerion uzkolistniy) (RU); Баргчой, гулчой (Bargchoy, gulchoy) (TJ) Цикорий обыкновенный (Tsikoriy obyknovennyy) (RU); Кaдимки дapчын (Kadimki darchyn) (KG); Косн (Kosni) (TJ); Sachratki (UZ) Волчец кудрявый (Volchets kudryavyy) (RU); Tapмaл кникуc (Tarmal knikus) (KG); Сафигул (Safigul) (TJ); Saryq gul (UZ) Безвременик желтый (Bezvremenik jeltiy) (RU); Саврин он (Sarvinjon) (TJ)

Leaves, flowers, roots

Seeds, aboveground parts

Underground parts

Capitula and leaves

Roots

Flowers and leaves

Flowers

Part Used

Russian and Local Names

TABLE 4.1 (Continued) List of Some Medicinal Plants Known to be Found Growing in the Wild in Central Asia

Laryngeal diseases, measles, smallpox, wounds, diarrhea, dysentery, anthrax, ergotism

Hepatitis, cough, dyspepsia, heart failure, acute and chronic inflammation Wounds, asthma, tuberculosis and gastrointestinal diseases

Cancer, hypochondria, respiratory tract catarrh, intermittent fever, gout, ulcers, kidney diseases

Gastric ulcer, duodenal ulcer, headache, insomnia, anemia and acute respiratory diseases Digestion, kidney and gallstones

Hepatitis, melancholy, eurasthenia, eye diseases

Tuberculosis, arteriosclerosis, anthrax, respiratory diseases, scrofula, scurvy, scabies, bacterial and fungal skin diseases

Traditional Use

(Continued)

Hojimatov (1989); Zaurov et al. (2013)

Hojimatov (1989); Zaurov et al. (2013)

Hojimatov (1989)

Zaurov et al. (2013)

Hojimatov (1989); Zaurov et al. (2013)

Hojimatov (1989)

Zaurov et al. (2013)

Hojimatov (1989); Zaurov et al. (2013)

Ref.

118 Natural Products of Silk Road Plants

Ephedraceae

Equisetaceae

Brassicaceae

Apiaceae

Apiaceae

Papaveraceae

Rubiaceae

Ephedra equisetina Bunge

Equisetum arvense L.

Erysimum diffusum Ehrh.

Ferula assa-foetida L.

Ferula kuhistanica Korovin

Fumaria vaillantii Loisel.

Galium verum L.

Family

Caryophyllaceae

Dianthus superbus L.

Botanical Name

Aboveground parts

Aboveground parts

Underground parts

Underground parts

Aboveground parts

Aboveground parts

Young stems

Part Used Aboveground parts

Russian and Local Names

Гвoздикa Гeльцepa (Gvozdika Geltsera) (RU); Гeльцep чeгe гул (Geltser chege gul) (KG); Мухаллас (Mukhallas) (TJ) Эфедра хвощевая (Efedra khvoshevaya) (RU); Кыpк муундaй чeкeндe (Kyrk muunday chekende) (KG); Бандак (Bandak) (TJ); Zogoza (UZ) Хвощ полевой (Khvoshch polevoy) (RU); Taлaa кыpк мууну (Talaa kyrk muunu) (KG); Чилбу ум (Chilbughum) (TJ); Kirk bugim (UZ) Желтушник раскидистый (Zheltushnik raskidistyy) (RU); Чaчыpaк дapгын (Chachyrak dargyn) (KG); Хокшир (Khorshir) (TJ); Kulrang zhyoltushnik (UZ) Ферула вонючая (Ferula vonyuchaya) (RU); Жыттуу aлa гул (Zhyttuu ala gul) (KG); Камоли бадб й (Kamoli badbuy) (TJ); Sassyk kavrak (UZ) Фepулa куxиcтaнcкaя (Ferula kukhistanskaya) (RU); Рови кўњї, Камоли кў истон , (Rovi kuhi, Kamoli kuhistoni) (TJ); Chair (UZ) Дымянкa Baйянa (Dymyanka Vayyana) (RU); Baйлaнт фумapияcы (Vaylant fumariyasy) (KG); Шо тара (Shohtara) (TJ); Shotara (UZ) Пoдмapeнник цепкий (Podmarennik zhepkiy) (RU); Кaдимки гaлиум (Kadimki galium) (KG); Tilkisoomai (UZ)

TABLE 4.1 (Continued) List of Some Medicinal Plants Known to be Found Growing in the Wild in Central Asia Traditional Use

Hemostatic, analgesic, sedative, and diuretic

Blood-cleanser, diuretic, coughs, jaundice, headache, fever, gonorrhea, uterine bleeding

Hemorrhoids, syphilis, wounds, tumors

Anticonvulsant, vermifuge, nervous diseases

Rheumatism, anti-inflammatory, astringent, hemostatic, and disinfectant, skin wounds, kidney and bladder diseases, diuretic, edema Diuretic, sedative, anti-depressant, laxative, and hypertension

Rheumatism, scabies, malaria, ulcers, fever, and heart diseases

Uterine bleeding, heart and gastrointestinal diseases

Ref.

(Continued)

Zaurov et al. (2013)

Hojimatov (1989); Zaurov et al. (2013)

Zaurov et al. (2013)

Zaurov et al. (2013)

Zaurov et al. (2013)

Hojimatov (1989); Zaurov et al. (2013)

Hojimatov (1989); Zaurov et al. (2013)

Zaurov et al. (2013)

Medicinal Plants of Central Asia 119

Papaveraceae

Fabaceae

Asteraceae

Asteraceae

Apiaceae

Caryophyllaceae

Glaucium elegans Fisch. & C.A. Mey.

Glycyrrhiza glabra L.

Helianthus tuberosus L.

Helichrysum maracandicum N. Pop. ex Kirp.

Heracleum lehmannianum Bunge

Herniaria glabra L.

Family

Gentianaceae

Gentiana olivieri Griseb.

Botanical Name

Грижнык гладкий (Gryzhnik gladkiy) (RU); Tукcуз caмын чoп (Tuksuz samyn chop) (KG); Гун ишкгиё (Gunjishkgiyoh) (TJ); Tuksiz saminchop (UZ)

Бессмертник самаркандский (Bessmertnik samarkandskiy) (RU); Caмapкaнд oчпoc гулу (Samarkand ochpos gulu) (KG); Гули оз (Guli ghozi) (TJ); Samarkand buznoch (UZ) Борщевик леменна (Borshevik lemenna) (RU); Болдирѓон (Boldirghon) (TJ)

Горечавка оливье (Gorechavka Olivye) (RU); Oливьe кoк бaзини (Olivye kok bazini) (KG); Гули парп (TJ); Gazakut (UZ) Глауциум изящный (Glausium izyashniy) (RU); Кукнори ар (Kuknori jari) (TJ) Солодка голая, (Solodka golaya) (RU); Tукуз кызыл мыя (Tukuz kyzyl myya) (KG); Ширин бия (Shirin biya) (TJ); Kizilmiya (UZ) Топинамбур (Topinambur) (RU); Ноки замин ( Noki zamini) (TJ)

Russian and Local Names

Part Used

Aboveground parts

Aboveground parts

Flowers

Roots

Roots

Aboveground parts

Flowering herb

TABLE 4.1 (Continued) List of Some Medicinal Plants Known to be Found Growing in the Wild in Central Asia Traditional Use

Diarrhea, toothache, inflammation, neurological disorders, dermatitis, ulcer Diuretic, astringent, kidney inflammation, and jaundice

Normalize blood sugar and cholesterol levels Tuberculosis, jaundice, gall and kidney stones, edema, liver diseases

Diaphoretic, purgative, cough, chest pains, renal, lung and bladder diseases

Antidepressant, calming, analgesic

Malaria, toothaches, tumors, and gastric diseases

Ref.

(Continued)

Zaurov et al. (2013)

Sharopov and Setzer (2018)

Hojimatov (1989); Zaurov et al. (2013)

Zaurov et al. (2013)

Hojimatov (1989); Zaurov et al. (2013)

Hojimatov (1989)

Zaurov et al. (2013)

120 Natural Products of Silk Road Plants

Hypericaceae

Hypericaceae

Lamiaceae

Asteraceae

Cupressaceae

Cupressaceae

Hypericum scabrum L.

Hyssopus seravschanicus Pazij

Inula helenium L.

Juniperus semiglobosa Regel

Juniperus seravschanica Kom.

Family

Hypericum perforatum L.

Botanical Name Aboveground parts

Зверобой продырявленный (Zveroboy prodyryavlennyy) (RU); Кoзoнoкчoлуу capы чaй чoп (Kozonokcholuu sary chay chop) (KG); Чойка ак (Choykahak) (TJ); Kizil-poicha (UZ) Зверобой шероховатый (Zveroboy sherokhovatyy) (RU); Бoдуpлуу capы чaй чoп (Bodurluu sary chay chop) (KG); Чойка аки шахшул (Choykahaki shakhshul) (TJ); Dalachoi (UZ) Иссоп зеравшанский (Issop zeravshanskiy) (RU); Tянь-Шaнь иccoбу (Tyan-Shan issobu) (KG); Ушнондору (Ushnondoru) (TJ); Dorivor kukut (UZ)

Fruits

Можжевельник полушаровидный (Mozhzhevelnik polusharovidnyy) (RU); Caуp-apчa (Saur-archa) (KG); Сарварча (Sarv-archa) (TJ); Saur archa (UZ) Можжевельник зеравшанский (Mozhzhevelnik zeravshanskiy) (RU); Кызыл apчa, (Kyzyl archa) (KG); Арчаи зарафшон (Archai zarafshoni) (TJ); Qora archa (UZ)

Branches, fruits

Rhizomes

Девясил высокий (Devyasil vysokiy) (RU); Бийик кapындыз (Biyik karyndyz) (KG); Чо ла (Choqla) (TJ); Kora andiz (UZ)

Aboveground parts

Aboveground parts

Part Used

Russian and Local Names

TABLE 4.1 (Continued) List of Some Medicinal Plants Known to be Found Growing in the Wild in Central Asia

Rheumatism, headaches, wounds and skin diseases, stomach ulcers, bronchitis, lung tuberculosis, kidney stones

Wounds, bronchial asthma, gastrointestinal diseases, dyspepsia, rheumatism, anemia, stenocardia, neurosis, scrophula, meteorism and hyperhydrosis Diuretic, malaria, cystitis, bone rheumatism, radiculitis, diabetes, jaundice, edema, eczema, scabies, duodenal ulcers, tuberculosis, nervous diseases, heart diseases, hypertension Disinfectant, analgesic and expectorant, induce appetite, digestion

Astringent, anti-inflammation, antiseptic, tonic, and hemostatic, kidney diseases, diarrhea, hemoptysis, diabetic

Astringent, anti-inflammation, antiseptic, tonic, and hemostatic, kidney diseases, diarrhea, hemoptysis

Traditional Use

(Continued)

Hojimatov (1989); Zaurov et al. (2013)

Hojimatov (1989); Zaurov et al. (2013)

Hojimatov (1989); Zaurov et al. (2013)

Zaurov et al. (2013); Sharopov et al. (2015)

Hojimatov (1989); Zaurov et al. (2013)

Hojimatov (1989); Zaurov et al. (2013)

Ref.

Medicinal Plants of Central Asia 121

Lamiaceae

Berberidaceae

Lamiaceae

Lamium album L.

Leontice еwersmanni Bunge

Leonurus turkestanicus V.I. Krecz. & Kuprian.

Asteraceae

Fabaceae

Lamiaceae

Matricaria recutita L.

Melilotus officinalis (L.) Lam.

Melissa officinalis L.

Lithospermum officinale L. Boraginaceae

Cupressaceae

Family

Juniperus turkestanica Kom.

Botanical Name

Лeoнтицa Эвepcмaнa (Leontitsa Eversmana) (RU); Эвepcмaн лeoнтицacы (Eversman leontitsasy) (KG); Собуналаф (Sobunalaf) (TJ); Yersovun (UZ) Пуcтыpник туpкecтaнcкий (Pustyrnik turkestanskiy) (RU); Tуpкcтaн дулoй чaлкaны (Turkstan duloy chalkany) (KG); Газнаи cагак (Gaznai sagak) (TJ); Arslon kuirug (UZ) Bopoбeйник лeкapcтвeнный (Vorobeynik lekarstvennyy) (RU); Дapы тapaнчы чoп (Dary taranchy chop) (KG); увории бедона (Juvorii bedona) (TJ); Ilonchoop (UZ) Ромашка аптечная (Ramashka aptechnaya) (RU); Бобуна (Bobuna) (TJ) Дoнник лeкapcтвeнный ( Donnik lekarstvennyy) (RU); Дapы кaшкa бeдe (Dary kashka bede) (KG); Асалриш а (Asalrishqa) (TJ); Kashkar beda (UZ) Мелисса лекарственная (Melissa lekarstvennaya) (RU); Дapы мeлиccacы (Dary melissasy) (KG); Ниёзбу (Niyozbu) (TJ); Limonuit (UZ)

Можжевелник туркистанский (Mozhzhevelnik turkestanskiy) (RU); Opук apчa, (Oruk archa) (KG); Арча, бурс (Archa, burs) (TJ); Urik archa (UZ) Яснотка белая (Yasnotka belaya) (RU); Газнагиё (Gaznagiyoh) (TJ)

Russian and Local Names

Part Used

Aboveground parts

Aboveground parts

Aboveground parts

Ground parts

Aboveground parts

Tubers

Flowers

Fruits

TABLE 4.1 (Continued) List of Some Medicinal Plants Known to be Found Growing in the Wild in Central Asia

Migraine and insomnia, colds, toothache, and ulcers Bronchial tubes, migraines, hypertension, bladder and kidney pain, furuncles, carbuncles, purulent wounds migraines, insomnia, gynecological diseases, gout, dizziness, and anemia

Colds, headaches stomach pains, kidney stones, bruises, and cuts

Nervous disorders, hypertension, hysteria, epilepsy, tachycardia, gastrointestinal, and female diseases

Wounds, anemia, astrointestinal tract and respiratory diseases, bleeding, malaria Wounds, syphilis, menstruation, bladder stones

Gingivitis, diuretic, eczema, tuberculosis, skin diseases

Traditional Use

(Continued)

Hojimatov (1989); Zaurov et al. (2013); Sharopov et al. (2013)

Zaurov et al. (2013)

Hojimatov (1989)

Zaurov et al. (2013)

Hojimatov (1989); Zaurov et al. (2013)

Zaurov et al. (2013)

Hojimatov (1989)

Hojimatov (1989); Zaurov et al. (2013)

Ref.

122 Natural Products of Silk Road Plants

Asteraceae

Lamiaceae

Caprifoliaceae

Onopordum acanthium L.

Origanum tyttanthum Gontsch.

Patrinia intermedia (Hornem.) Roem. & Schult. Pelargonium roseum Willd.

Nitrariaceae

Plantaginaceae

Peganum harmala L.

Plantago major L.

Geraniaceae

Lamiaceae

Nepeta nuda L.

Family

Lamiaceae

Mentha asiatica Boriss.

Botanical Name

Гармала обыкновенная (Garmala obyknovennaya) (RU); Aдыpшaмaн (Adyrshaman) (KG); азориспанд (Hazorispand) (TJ); Isiriq (UZ) Подорожник большой (Podorozhnik bolshoy) (RU); Чoн бaкa жaлбыpaк (Chon baka zhalbyrak) (KG); Барги зуф (Bargi zuf) (TJ); Zupturoom (UZ)

Roots

Патриния средняя (Patriniya srednyaya) (RU); Opтo пaтpиния (Orto patriniya) (KG); Мушкак (Mushkak) (TJ) Герань розовая (Geran rozovaya) (RU); Ан ибари гулоб (Anjibari gulobi) (TJ)

Leaves

Aboveground parts

Aboveground parts, roots

Aboveground parts

Душица мелькоцветковая (Dushitsa melkotsvetnaya) (RU); Maйдa гулдуу кoк чaй чoп (Mayda gulduu kok chay chop) (KG); Субинак (Subinak) (TJ); Togh rayhon (UZ)

Roots, seeds, leaves

Aboveground parts

Part Used Aboveground parts

Russian and Local Names

Mятa лecнaя (Myata lesnaya) (RU); Жaлбыз (Zhalbyz) (KG); Пўдинаи дашт (Pudinai dashti) (TJ); Yalpeez (UZ) Котовник венгерский (Kotovnik vengerskiy) (RU); Beнгep нeпeтacы (Venger nepetasy) (KG); улбаи ма ор (Hulbai majori) (TJ); Zoofo (UZ) Taтapник колючий (Tatarnik kolyuchiy) (RU); Кaдимки кoкo тикeн (Kadimki koko tiken) (KG); Латахор (Latakhor) (TJ); Okkarrak (UZ)

TABLE 4.1 (Continued) List of Some Medicinal Plants Known to be Found Growing in the Wild in Central Asia Traditional Use

Wounds, tumors, skin ulcers, tuberculosis, acute gastritis, enterocolitis, malaria

Radiculitis, gastric ulcer, female diseases, malaria, rheumatism, eczema, epilepsy Sciatic nerve inflammation rheumatism, scabies, skin diseases

Bladder and urinary system, bronchial asthma, pertussis, scrofula, hypostasis, common colds, hemorrhoids, skin diseases, purulent wounds, ulcers, and furuncles Stimulate the appetite, improve digestion, inflammation of the upper respiratory tract, decrease nervous excitability, acute and chronic gastritis, bronchitis, cholecystitis, pneumonia, urolithiasis Nervous excitement, cardiac neurosis

Wounds, gastritis, dysentery, diarrhea, colitis, gastralgia, tuberculosis, respiratory infections, pertussis, and toothaches Asthenia and syphilis

Ref.

(Continued)

Zaurov et al. (2013)

Hojimatov (1989); Zaurov et al. (2013)

Sharopov et al. (2014)

Hojimatov (1989); Zaurov et al. (2013)

Zaurov et al. (2013)

Hojimatov (1989); Zaurov et al. (2013)

Zaurov et al. (2013); Mamadalieva et al. (2017)

Zaurov et al. (2013)

Medicinal Plants of Central Asia 123

Polygonaceae

Rosaceae

Apiaceae

Fabaceae

Polygonaceae

Crassulaceae

Rosaceae

Rubiaceae

Potentilla canescens Bess.

Prangos pabularia Lindl.

Psoralea drupacea Bunge

Rheum maximowiczii Losinsk.

Rhodiola gelida Schrenk ex Fisch. & C.A. Mey. Rosa canina L.

Rubia tinctorum L.

Family

Polygonum aviculare L.

Botanical Name Aboveground parts

Whole plant

Горец птичий (Gorets ptichiy) (RU); Toшoлгoн кымыздык (Tosholgon kymyzdyk) (KG); Ро давак (Rohdavak) (TJ); Kiziltasma (UZ)

Лaпчaткa ceдoвaтaя (Lapchatka sedovataya) (RU); Aгыш туктуу кaзтaмaн (Agysh tuktuu kaztaman) (KG); Пан агул (Panjagul) (TJ) Прангос кормовой (Prangos kormovoy) (RU); Toют aюу чaчы (Toyut ayuu chachy) (KG); Пан агул (Panjagul) (TJ); Tulky kuyruq (UZ) Псоралея костянковая (Psoraleya kostyankovaya) (RU); Cooкчёлуу aк кууpaй (Sookchyoluu ak kuuray) (KG); Мушкбўя (Mushkbuya) (TJ); Ok kuraiy (UZ) Ревень Mаксимовича (Reven Maksimovicha) (RU); Чукуpук (Chukuruk) (KG); Чукур (Chukri) (TJ); Rovach (UZ) Родиола холодная (Rodiola kholodnaya) (RU); Зарбех (Zarbekh) (TJ) Шипoвник coбaчий (Shipovnik sobachiy) (RU); Ит муpун (It murun) (KG); Настаран (Nastaran) (TJ); Itburun (UZ) Марена красильная (Marena krasilnaya) (RU); Бoeчу мapeнa (Boyechu marena) (KG); Рўян (Ruyan) (TJ); Ruyan (UZ) Underground parts

Fruits

Roots

Roots, stems, Leaves

Leaves

Roots and seeds

Part Used

Russian and Local Names

TABLE 4.1 (Continued) List of Some Medicinal Plants Known to be Found Growing in the Wild in Central Asia

Weariness, neurotic conditions, and decreased ability to work Fevers, scurvy, common colds, intestinal infections, diuretic, uterine bleeding Rickets, constipation, jaundice, joint ailments, rheumatic back aches, paralysis, kidney stones, gallstones, gout, diuretic, laxative

Diarrhea, anemia, gastritis, hepatitis, tuberculosis, hemorrhoids, polyarthritis, fevers

Furuncles, carbuncles, vitiligo, eczema, and hair loss

Scabies, wounds, toothaches, vitiligo

Menorrhagia, diarrhea, hematuria, laryngitis

Stomach spasms, intestinal infections, diarrhea, tumors, wounds, and skin ulcers

Traditional Use

(Continued)

Zaurov et al. (2013)

Hojimatov (1989); Zaurov et al. (2013)

Hojimatov (1989)

Zaurov et al. (2013)

Hojimatov (1989); Zaurov et al. (2013)

Hojimatov (1989); Zaurov et al. (2013)

Hojimatov (1989); Zaurov et al. (2013)

Zaurov et al. (2013)

Ref.

124 Natural Products of Silk Road Plants

Rosaceae

Asteraceae

Fabaceae

Asteraceae

Asteraceae

Sanguisorba officinalis L.

Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn.

Sphaerophysa salsula (Pall.) DC.

Tanacetum vulgare L.

Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg.

Family

Lamiaceae

Salvia sclarea L.

Botanical Name

Roots

Кpoвoxлёбкa aптeчнaя (Krovokhlyobka aptechnaya) (RU); Дapы кaнcopгуч (Dary kansorguch) (KG); Тутак (Tutak) (TJ); Sangvizorba (UZ) Растаропша пятнистая (Rastoropsha pyatnistaya) (RU); Бодовард (Bodovar) (TJ) Cферофиза солончаковая (Sferofiza solontsovaya) (RU); Шopчул cфepoфизa (Shorchul sferofiza) (KG); атраборон (Qatraboron) (TJ); Shildir bosh (UZ) Пижмa oбыкнoвeннaя (Pizhma obyknovennaya) (RU); Кaдимки тaнaцeтум (Kadimki tanatsetum) (KG); Тугмачагул (Tugmachagul) (TJ); Oddi dastarbosh (UZ) Одуванчик лекарственный (Oduvanchik lekarstvennyy) (RU); Дapы кaкымы (Dary kakymy) (KG); о у (Qoqu) (TJ); Koki (UZ) Leaves, roots

Aboveground parts, flowers

Aboveground parts

Seeds

Part Used Aboveground parts

Russian and Local Names

Шалфей мускатный (Shalfey muskatnyy) (RU); Mуcкaт шaлфeйи (Muskat shalfeyi) (KG); Мармарак (Marmarak) (TJ); Mavrak (UZ)

TABLE 4.1 (Continued) List of Some Medicinal Plants Known to be Found Growing in the Wild in Central Asia Traditional Use

Anemia, general weakness, skin conditions, jaundice, liver and gallbladder disorders, cancer

Lung tuberculosis, fevers, gastrointestinal diseases, wounds, skin cancer

Uterine atonia, hypertension

Jaundice, hepatitis, chronic coughing, hemoptysis, gall- stones, fevers, hemorrhoids

Fevers, stomach ulcers, headaches, epilepsy, digestion, antiseptic, bladder diseases, polyarthritis, osteomyelitis, deforming arthrosis, trophic ulcers Wounds, gastrointestinal diseases, tuberculosis, hemoptysis, uterine bleeding

Ref.

(Continued)

Hojimatov (1989); Zaurov et al. (2013)

Hojimatov (1989); Zaurov et al. (2013)

Hojimatov (1989); Zaurov et al. (2013)

Hojimatov (1989)

Hojimatov (1989); Zaurov et al. (2013)

Hojimatov (1989); Sharopov and Setzer (2012); Zaurov et al. (2013)

Medicinal Plants of Central Asia 125

Fabaceae

Lamiaceae

Zygophyllaceae

Asteraceae

Amaryllidaceae

Urticaceae

Thermopsis turkestanica Gand.

Thymus marschallianus Willd.

Tribulus terrestris L.

Tussilago farfara L.

Ungernia tadschicorum Vved. ex Artjush.

Urtica dioica L.

Family

Ranunculaceae

Thalictrum isopyroides С.A. Mey.

Botanical Name

Василистник изопироидный (Vasilistnik izopiroidnyy) (RU); Tepeн кecиктуу тapмaл чoп (Teren kesiktuu tarmal chop) (KG); Халадору (Khaladoru) (TJ); Sanchikut (UZ) Tepмoпcиc туpкecтaнcкий (Termopsis turkestanskiy) (RU); Tуpкecтaн capы мыяcы (Turkestan sary myyasy) (KG); Мастак (Mastak) (TJ) Tимьян Mapшaллoв (Timyan Marshallov) (RU); Кaдимки кийик oту (Kadimki kiyik otu) (KG); Сесанбар (Sesanbar) (TJ); Kaklikoot (UZ) Якорцы стелющиеся (Yakortsy stelyushchiyesya) (RU); Toшoлмo мык тикeн (Tosholmo myk tiken) (KG); Мар елон (Marghelon) (TJ); Temirtikan (UZ) Мать и мачеха обыкновенная (Mat-imachekha obyknovennaya) (RU); Кaдимки oгoй Энe (Kadimki ogoy ene) (KG); Дурўя (Duruya) (TJ); Okkaldirmok (UZ) Унгерня таджикская (Ungerniya tadjikskaya) (RU); Зевак (Zevak) (TJ); Omonqora (UZ) Крапива двудомная (Krapiva dvudomnaya) (RU); Чaлкaн (Chalkan) (KG); Алафи газнада (Alafi gazanda) (TJ); Gazanda (UZ) Leaves

Leaves (onion)

Leaves, flowers

Fruits, roots

Aboveground parts

Aboveground parts

Part Used Aboveground parts

Russian and Local Names

TABLE 4.1 (Continued) List of Some Medicinal Plants Known to be Found Growing in the Wild in Central Asia Traditional Use

Bleeding, hemorrhoids, rheumatism, stomach diseases, diabetes, chronic ulcers, brucellosis, swelling

Wound, coughing, bronchitis and lung disease, radiculitis

Bronchial asthma, edema, scrofula, tumors, abscesses, furuncles, tuberculosis, malaria

Tumor, ulcers, diuretic, kidney and bladder stones, malaria

Stomatitis, toothaches, acute respiratory infections and amenorrhea

Fever, blood pressure, expectorant

Fever, chest pain, anticonvulsive, epilepsy, jaundice, tachycardia, nose bleeds, lung tuberculosis, gastrointestinal, and feminine diseases

Ref.

(Continued)

Hojimatov (1989); Zaurov et al. (2013)

Hojimatov (1989); Zaurov et al. (2013)

Zaurov et al. (2013)

Zaurov et al. (2013)

Zaurov et al. (2013)

Zaurov et al. (2013)

Hojimatov (1989); Zaurov et al. (2013)

126 Natural Products of Silk Road Plants

Lamiaceae

Russian and Local Names

Валерьяна лекарственная (Valeriana lekarstvennaya) (RU); Дapы мышык тaмыp (Dary myshyk tamyr) (KG); Сунбула (Sunbula) (TJ); Asaroon (UZ) Коровяк джунгарский (Korovyak dzhungarskiy) (RU); Жунгap aюу кулaгы (Zhungar ayuu kulagy) (KG); Думи говак (Dumi govak) (TJ); Sigir kuyruq (UZ) Вексибия толстоплодная (Veksibiya tolstoplodnaya) (RU); Талхак (Talkhak) (TJ); Achykmiya (UZ) Друнишник обикновенный (Durnishnik obyknovennyy) (RU); Кaдимки мaнкoo (Kadimki mankoo) (KG); М рчахораки му аррар (Murchakhoraki muqarrari) (TJ); Guzatkon (UZ) Зизифopa пaxучкoвиднaя (Zizifora pakhuchkovidnaya) (RU); Кoкoмepeн (Kokomeren) (KG); амилак (Jamilak) (TJ); Kiyik ut (UZ)

KG – Kyrgyz; RU – Russian; TJ – Tajik; TM – Turkmen.

Ziziphora clinopodioides Lam.

Fabaceae

Vexibia pachycarpa (Schrenk ex C.A. Mey.) Yakovlev Xanthium strumarium L.

Asteraceae

Scophulariaceae

Verbascum songaricum Schrenk ex Fisch. & C.A. Mey.

Family

Caprifoliaceae

Valeriana officinalis L.

Botanical Name

Part Used

Aboveground parts

Seeds and roots

Aboveground plants

Flowers

Roots

TABLE 4.1 (Continued) List of Some Medicinal Plants Known to be Found Growing in the Wild in Central Asia Traditional Use

Hypertonia, cardiac and climacteric neurosis, rheumacarditis, gastric colic, nausea, diuretic, to stimulate the appetite, gastritisis, frequent vomiting, meteorism

Dysentery, scrofula, bladder diseases, goiters, rheumatism, common colds

Eczema, fungal, scabies, spasmolytic, analgesic, vermifuge

Hyperchondria, psychological traumas, hysteria, migraines, convulsive pains, heart pains, heart failure, epilepsy, insomnia, anxiety Wounds, tumor, toothaches, gall bladder and liver inflammation

Ref.

Hojimatov (1989); Sharopov and Setzer (2011); Zaurov et al. (2013)

Hojimatov (1989); Zaurov et al. (2013)

Hojimatov (1989); Zaurov et al. (2013)

Hojimatov (1989); Zaurov et al. (2013)

Hojimatov (1989); Zaurov et al. (2013)

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Conclusions There is still much to learn about the medicinal plants of Central Asia. For many species, the phytochemistry and pharmacology are poorly known, and the ranges and status of the plants are incomplete. There are abundant opportunities to examine the bioactivity of plant extracts and essential oils, and to undertake population and ecological studies with the aim of preserving the biodiversity of the region.

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Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan

5 Melons of Central Asia Ravza F. Mavlyanova World Vegetable Center Sasha W. Eisenman Temple University David E. Zaurov Rutgers University CONTENTS Historical Accounts of Wild Melon and the Development of Modern Cultivars ....................................133 Melon Storage and Processing ................................................................................................................135 Classification of the Melons of Central Asia ......................................................................................... 138 Traditionally Bred Cultivars of Central Asian Melons .......................................................................... 139 Distribution of Melon Cultivars in Central Asia .................................................................................... 144 Biology and Morphology of Melons.......................................................................................................145 Chemical Composition of Melons ......................................................................................................... 146 Chemical Composition of Melon Pulp ............................................................................................. 146 Chemical Composition of Melon Seeds ............................................................................................147 Root, Stem, and Leaf Phytochemistry ...............................................................................................147 Medicinal Applications of Melons ..........................................................................................................147 Conclusions .............................................................................................................................................149 References ...............................................................................................................................................149

Historical Accounts of Wild Melon and the Development of Modern Cultivars Melon cultivation in Central Asia (Figure 5.1) dates back more than 2000 years and the historic Silk Road passed through a number of melon-growing areas in this region. For travelers, merchants, and local populations, melon was an affordable, delicious, and nutritious food. Even early on in history, awareness of the unique qualities and the tremendous variety of Central Asian melons spread beyond the region, and they were, and still are, lauded as some of the sweetest and most fragrant in the world. According to Vavilov (1951), the wild melon taxon, Cucumis melo subsp. agrestis (Naudin) Pangalo [synonyms: Cucumis agrestis (Naudin) Greb., C. melo var. agrestis Naudin, Melo agrestis (Naudin) Pangalo] is associated with Central Asia as a secondary center of origin. This wild relative of cultivated melon has a bitter or sour taste and can still be found growing in the region. An extremely rich diversity

133

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FIGURE 5.1 Modern Countries of Central Asia (Map based on United Nations Map No. 3763 Rev. 7).

of local melon landraces and cultivars, differing in characteristics of ripening, shape, rind, and pulp color and taste, have been developed in Central Asia (Vavilov, 1926; Pangalo, 1930; Zhukovsky, 1971). Due to the movement of merchants and travelers along the Silk Road, the reputation of the Central Asian melon spread widely. Traders not only spread word of the amazing fruit but also carefully carried them thousands of kilometers to distant lands. Large numbers of melons were exported as early as the 2nd century BC to China, and in the 9th and 10th centuries, to Iraq, and later to India, Iran, and other countries (Dudko et al., 1962). As early as the 2nd century BC, Chinese travelers who visited the Fergana Valley in Uzbekistan noted the presence of high-quality melons. The famous traveler Bruns wrote that neither the melons of India and Persia nor those of Afghanistan could compare with those from Bukhara in Uzbekistan (Pyzhenkov and Malinina, 1994). In 1259, the Chinese envoy Ch’ang-Te mentioned melons of excellent quality in Central Asia (Bretschneider, 1888; Filov, 1959), and in the Renaissance period, numerous descriptions of melons appear in texts, some stating that the practice of melon cultivation migrated from Asia into Europe (Herrera, 1513; Fuchs, 1542; Bauhin et al., 1650; Filov, 1959). Preserved seeds of cultivated melon, dating from the 3rd century AD, were discovered during excavations of the palace at Toprakkala (alternatively spelled Topraq-qal‘ah, Toprak Kale), which is 80 kilometers from Beruni, Uzbekistan (Tolstov, 1948; Dudko et al., 1962). Additional early texts contain testimonials about Central Asian melons. Traveling through Maverannahr (an early Arabic name for Central Asia), the Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta (14th century) and the Central Asian ruler Zahiriddin Muhammad Babur (15th century) admired the taste of Central Asian melons and described and praised them in their writings (Dudko et al., 1962; Ibragimov, 1988; Babur, 1993). In those days, the folk method of drying melon pulp was commonly practiced and allowed the transport of both fresh and dried melon far beyond the region. In his book, Travels (1829), the author, Ibn Battuta, states the following:

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They have in Kavarezm a melon to which none, except that of Bukhara can be compared…It’s most remarkable property is that it may be cut in oblong pieces and dried, and then put in a case, like a fig, and carried to India or China. Among dried fruits there is none superior to this. It is occasionally used as a present to their kings.

In 19th-century translations, the melon was described as having red flesh, so some have speculated that he observed and tasted watermelon, Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. and Nakai. Hansen (2015) proposed that Ibn Battuta’s original description was much more nuanced with some aspects lost in translation. Hansen alternatively proposed that the melon may have been a winter-ripening fruit of the Zard group which had reddish-tinged flesh and can still be found in the markets of Khorezm Province, Uzbekistan. Regardless, the drying of melon for preservation also has a long history in Central Asia. This practice allowed for easier travel and ensured a long shelf life under natural storage conditions. Additional historical accounts of melon in Central Asia and the development of melon cultivation in other regions of the world are discussed by Paris et al. (2012). Using historical texts and manuscripts, they concluded that the practice of melon cultivation had moved from Central Asia to Europe by at least the second half of the 11th century, possibly because of expansion of Islamic trade and agricultural development. The development of local melon cultivars and landraces also has a long history. Regionally, Central Asia has a wide diversity of soil and climatic conditions, and this influenced where melon cultivation and breeding occurred. Melon culture was impacted by climatic factors; the timing of warm spring days necessary for seed germination, the length of the growing season, and the timing of the harvest period. When different types of melon were grown in the same area, cross-pollination produced different varieties. Farmers selected those plants which produced fruits with good color, flavor, and sweetness. As a result of repeatedly sowing seeds from a single lineage, desirable traits were gradually incorporated in new landraces. Locally bred landraces were redistributed from area to area through trade, family ties, and conquest. As a result of adaptation to new conditions and continued breeding in different regional areas, diversity was further developed. Plants with economically valuable traits such as early maturity, yield, sugar content, and fruit storage quality were selected and improved. In Central Asia, large-sized fruit are a characteristic feature having been the focus of many years of selection. Cultural traditions of Central Asia also contributed to the importance of melon farming. Every year, in different regions of Uzbekistan, holiday events are organized where people can appreciate a wide range of cultivated melons. Among the most popular is the “Kovun Saili”. In many areas throughout Central Asia, farmers still sell melons along roadsides from summer to late autumn, and the melon is lauded in folk songs and poems and has been celebrated in painting and pottery (Figure 5.2). Ceramic “old men” with a big melon in their hands are very popular in the markets illustrating local pride in the wealth of the diversity of melon production (Figure 5.3). The process of creating new varieties in different climatic zones continues as local melon landraces and cultivars are still widely grown.

Melon Storage and Processing Methods for storing melon fruit depended on the traits of local cultivars and particularly the precocity of fruit development. Early-ripening melons with soft pulp were difficult to preserve and, therefore, were consumed within a short time. The fruit were stored in dry sand, grain, and hay in order to preserve them. A later, improved method involved construction of specifically built storage spaces, called “qovunkhona” (melon room), where the melon fruits were hung in specially designed nets. Depending on the cultivar, this method made it possible to store melon fruit after harvesting in the fall until April or May of the following year (Filov, 1959). The method is still in use today (Figure 5.4). In Central Asia, early- and mid-season-ripening melons are transported locally, while later, autumnmaturing melons are carried over long distances (Figure 5.5). For storage, melons are harvested when slightly unripe. Fifteen days before harvesting, the stem is partially pruned to prevent over-ripening. After harvesting, the fruits are left in the field to cure for 2 weeks without shelter. Every 5–6 days, the fruits are turned over. The melons are subsequently transferred to storage and carefully placed in rows, but not

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FIGURE 5.2 Autumn melons for sale on the roadside from Tashkent to Samarqand. (Photograph by R. Mavlyanova.)

FIGURE 5.3 Autumn and winter melons at the Chorsu Bazaar, Tashkent, Uzbekistan, in November. (Photograph by Sasha Eisenman.)

stacked, or placed in bags 1 to 2 fruit at a time to avoid compression. Melon storage is conducted in a building with a high ceiling (6–7 m) in which there are holes with covers for good ventilation. The fruits are suspended apart from each other by hooks in the ceiling and using twine, which may have been braided from a special grass (kuga). The best conditions involve a temperature from 0°C to 2°C and air humidity of about 70% or lower. Higher humidity would lead to the melon fruit being attacked by fungal diseases. Drying is the most common way to process fruit pulp. Cultivars with high sugar content are the most suitable. Melons are peeled and cut lengthwise into slices 2–4 cm thick. Slices are strung on stainless wire or laid out on trays. Cultivars with brittle pulp are cut in half and pre-dried in the sun. Drying

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FIGURE 5.4 Winter storage of melons. (Photograph by David Zaurov.)

FIGURE 5.5 Variety of summer melons at Uz Expo Center, Tashkent, Uzbekistan. (Photograph by R. Mavlyanova.)

takes 8–12 days or more. The process is considered complete when the moisture content is below 20%. Dry melon products contain 70%–75% sugars. The yield of dried product depends on the concentration of sugar in the fruit and can be 7%–8% of the weight of the raw material. Dried slices are twisted into bundles or “pigtails” 5–8 cm thick and stored in cool rooms with a relative humidity of 75%–80% (Figure 5.6). In order to avoid damage by fruit worms, fumigation with sulfur dioxide is conducted for 1.5 hours at the rate of 20–30 g of sulfur per 1 m3 of storage. Before use, the product is de-sulfurized by a heating process.

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FIGURE 5.6 A dried braid of melon. (Photograph by Ravza Mavlyanova.)

Preservation of melon flesh in sugar is another method of processing fruit. Late-ripening cultivars and unripe fruits are primarily used for this purpose. The fruit is cut into pieces and then mixed with fine sugar and ground white ginger at the rate of 0.75 cups of sugar and 0.75 teaspoon of ginger per 1 kg of melon. This is then put into vinegar and left for 1 day. The vinegar is drained and is separately boiled with the addition of dry, crushed carnation flowers and/or buds. The pieces of melon are returned into the boiling vinegar. After cooling, the melon is placed in jars which are filled with cold vinegar. Other products are melon syrup (called melon honey in Russian and locally known as pekmez), melon jam, and pastila, which is a type of confectionary made with egg whites. Melon syrup is prepared by crushing and pressing pulp. The juice is then boiled. Melon syrup contains 60% sugars, and the final yield is 5%–8% by weight of the starting raw materials. Melon jam is prepared by cutting fruit into pieces, sieving, mixing with sugar or molasses and then boiling to the desired consistency. Citric acid (at a rate of 6–10 g/1 kg of product) is added to improve taste. The yield of jam is typically 25%–35% of the weight of the raw melon. Melon may also be stored by freezing. Pieces of melon are placed in jars immersed in 30% sugar or honey syrup, which is then frozen at a temperature of −16°C to −17°C.

Classification of the Melons of Central Asia The genus Cucumis L., which includes over 60 species, belongs to the Cucurbitaceae family (Sebastian et al., 2010). Of these, melon (C. melo L.) and cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) are the most widely cultivated. Linnaeus described the genus Cucumis in 1753. Since that time, numerous authors have proposed changes that redefined the genus and the intraspecific classification of C. melo (Naudin, 1859; Pangalo, 1930, 1959; Grebenshchikov, 1953; Munger and Robinson, 1991; Kirkbride, 1993; Stepansky et al., 1999; Pitrat et al., 2000; Garg et al., 2007). At the beginning of the 20th century, the diversity of Central Asian melon landraces was known to be very extensive, but this diversity was not well characterized or documented. In the 1920s–1930s, scientists from the Central Asian State University, the Uzbek Vegetable and Potato Experiment Station, the Central Asian Experiment Station of the All-Union Institute of Plant Industry, and the Khorezm Experimental Station conducted fieldwork to assess and describe the diversity of melon in the region. Based on the collected information, J.K. Pangalo (1930, 1959) developed a classification system for Central Asian melon taxa. Efforts to describe cultivated melon diversity systematically, using Latin epithets at various infraspecific ranks, have caused significant complexity in Cucumis taxonomy (Nee, 1994). Kirkbride (1993) compiled an extensive list of infraspecific epithets for C. melo and included notes on the validity of each

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TABLE 5.1 Subspecies of Cucumis melo Recognized by Filov (1959) Subspecies subsp. europaeus Fil. subsp. orientale Sageret ex Filov subsp. rigidus (Pangalo) Fil. subsp. chinensis (Sageret) Fil. subsp. flexuosus L. (Fil.) subsp. sulspanfoneus Fil. subsp. agrestis (Naud.) Pangalo

Regional Affiliation or Characteristic

Cultivation Status

European Asia Minor Central Asian East Asia Snake melon, snake cucumber, Armenian cucumber Aromatic or odorous

Cultivated Cultivated Cultivated Semi-cultivated Semi-cultivated Semi-cultivated Wild

name, in terms of the requirements of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature. In Central Asia, two classifications of melons are used. Some scientists follow the classification of Pangalo, who proposed that the domesticated and cultivated melons each be raised to the rank of species in the independent genus, Melo Adans. Other scientists follow the classification of Filov (1960), who proposed that melon belongs to one species C. melo L., with multiple subspecies, and within which Central Asian melons are represented by an independent subspecies, C. melo subsp. rigidus (Pangalo) Fil. (Table 5.1). Filov (1959) defined seven subspecies of C. melo L. based on ecological–geographical affinities (Table 5.1) and subdivided the Central Asian subspecies into groups based on characteristics including length of the growing season, fruit shape, fruit size, and characteristics of the pulp. These groups are as follows: (i) Khandalyak (Zamcha) [early ripening] (ii), summer-ripening soft fleshed, (iii) summer-ripening hard fleshed, (iv) autumn-ripening melons, and (v) winter-ripening melons (Table 5.2). Subsequently, he added two additional groups, Kassab and Gurvak, which he associated with C. melo subsp. orientale, which is found in the Khorezm region and the Zarafshan Valley (Table 5.3). Subsequently, scientists of the All-Union Institute of Plant Industry (Russia) studied a worldwide collection of 3500 accessions and cultivars of melons from 50 different countries. The study of such a large diversity of melons allowed scientists to propose a refined classification for Central Asian melons (Pyzhenkov and Malinina, 1994). According to morphological characteristics and maturity, the melons of Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Afghanistan, and Iran are divided into four horticultural groups: (i) very early ripening, (ii) early ripening, (iii) summer ripening, and (iv) autumn–winter ripening.

Traditionally Bred Cultivars of Central Asian Melons In the Uzbek language, melon is called “qovun”, in Turkmen “govun”, in Kazakh “qauin”, and in Kyrgyz “koon”. The Turkic word “kavyn” means dark yellow, and “kovun” or “kaun” means a round cap (hat). Etymologically, it is thought that the name for melon is likely derived from one of these meanings. The history of the naming conventions for local melon types is complicated. The names were given according to the most characteristic attributes of a melon, and local varieties could thereby be distinguished from one another. Sometimes a unique name was not given, but a cultivar might simply be named for its distinguishing feature: Chillaki qovun (early melon), Chul qovun (steppe melon), Ok qovun (white melon), and Qora qovun (black melon). Some names include an additional feature like rind or pulp color in front of the name of a specific melon type: Oq gurvak (white gurvak), Kok gurvak (green gurvak), Qizil gulobi (red-orange gulobi), or the color of the rind such as Qora gulobi (black gulobi). Some cultivars are known by the locality where they were developed such as Baytqurgon (Qibray District, Uzbekistan), Urgenchi (Urgench Region, Uzbekistan), and Qorakul (Bukhara Region, Uzbekistan); and, in some cases, cultivars might have a cultivar or group name added to the name of the area: Makhalliy Samarqand obinovvoti, Pakhtaobod Kokchasi, Toshkent Assatisi, and Samarqand sariq handalagi (Figure 5.7). Some cultivars have been named after breeders (ex. Davlatboy, Mullasapo, or Shirali). The ending “i” at the end of the cultivar name (ex. Kamoli, Doniyori) denotes the possessive (Khoji qovun = Khoj’s

Medium sized with moderately creeping stems. Low to moderate yields (6–25 t/ha)

Plants moderately sized with moderate creeping. Includes high-yielding Bukharica and Gurvak groups, which can produce 15–36 t/ha

Includes cultivars of var. ameri, which are medium sized and can be high yielding (12–60 t/ ha)

var. chandalak (Pangalo) Greb.

var. bucharica (Pangalo) Phil., Bukharica and Gurvak groups

var. aestivolis Fil., var. ameri Pangaloa

Very early ripening (Khandalyak); growing season of 55–70 days

Early-summer ripening with soft pulp; growing season of 75–90 days

Summer-ripening with hard pulp; growing season of 90–100 days The cultivars of var. ameri mostly mid-ripening with a growing season of 80–90 days (some earlier cultivars 70–75 days and some later cultivars 90–100 days)

Plant Characteristics and Yield

Associated Taxonomic Name(s)

Ripening Category

Horticultural Classification of Central Asian Melons

TABLE 5.2

Fruits of var. ameri are medium to large in size, ovoid to spindleshaped. Fruit surface smooth or wrinkled, slightly segmented. Netting full, partial, or missing. Pulp thick to average, crunchy; in a number of cultivars with the aroma of vanilla or pear. Seed cavity medium in size. Seeds medium sized, oval, or lanceolate, yellow or cream color. Var. ameri includes about half of the entire horticultural diversity of the Central Asian subspecies

Fruits small and medium-sized (0.8–3.0 kg), spherical or flattened, mostly segmented, with yellowish or gray-green stripes along the border of the segments. Netting on rind full, partial, or missing. Rind thin or medium thickness, soft. Flesh friable, fibrous, juicy, slightly sweet. Seed cavity small, densely filled with placentas. Seeds large, broadly oval or lanceolate, white, cream, or yellow colored Fruits medium sized, or large, ovoid shaped. Fruit surface smooth, slightly segmented or wrinkled. Pulp thick, fibrous, melting, and sweet. Seed cavity average. Seeds large, ovate to, lanceolate, cream or yellow colored

Fruit Morphology

(Continued )

Shipping quality and shelf life poor, unsuitable for storage. Fruits used for local consumption. The dry matter content is from 7.2%–9.6% to 15%, the amount of sugars is 7.0%–12%. Cultivars are distinguished by later maturation than the varieties of the Khandalyak and the better taste Transportability and storage quality of the fruits is average. In the summer, they can be used for local consumption and export to other areas. Var. ameri has dry matter content of 8.8%–12.5% (up to 18%), and sugars 7%–10.3%, (up to 14%). Each cultivar has its own flavor characteristics. Fruits can be stored from 2 weeks to 3 months. Most cultivars have transportable fruits

Shipping quality and shelf life poor, unsuitable for storage. Fruits used for local consumption. The dry matter content is from 6.1%–8.9% to 12%, the amount of sugars from 4.0 % to 8.6% and individual cultivars to 10.5%

Storage Characteristics and Fruit Chemistry

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(Continued)

b

Fruits of var. zard are medium or large, ovoid or ellipsoid. Fruit surface is smooth, wrinkled, nodular, or slightly segmented. The rind hardness is medium to hard. Netting is full, partial, or missing. Flesh thick, white or light green. Seed cavity medium or large, placenta dense, closed. Cultivars in var. zard have very low sugar content at the time of harvest, becoming juicier and sweeter during storage. Pulp of freshly harvested var. zard fruits is white or greenish, fibrous, very dense, not juicy, not sweet, and not very edible. Fruits become edible after storage

Fruit Morphology

The fruits are characterized by good preservation during storage for 2–8 months, good transportability and are intended for winter consumption and export outside Central Asia

The transportability and storage quality is good, and the fruit is intended for local consumption in the autumn and autumn–winter period, as well as for export over long distances. The dry matter content of var. zard is 8.7%–12.1% (up to 15%), the amount of sugars is 7.4%–9.8%

Storage Characteristics and Fruit Chemistry

var. ameri Pangalo. This variety combines 26 sortotypes, and many of them are represented by a large number of cultivars differing in the color of the rind and pulp, the nature of the netting, the consistency of the pulp, and the taste of the fruit. var. zard Pangalo. A variety included of autumn–winter cultivars and contains ~36 sortotypes, differing in fruit color and surface pattern. The vegetative period for medium-late cultivars is 90–100 days, and for late cultivars up to 130 days.

High-yielding cultivars of var. zard (see description above)

var. hibernus Fil., var. zard Pangalo.b

Winter ripening; growing season of 100–130 days

a

Plants of var. zard medium to large in size, medium to long trailing, with coarse thick stems, and relatively little branching, or sometimes with a stiff bushy structure. Cultivars of var. zard with a yield of 12–40 t/ha

var. autumnalis Fil., var. zard Pangalo.b

Autumn ripening; growing season of 100–120 days

Plant Characteristics and Yield

Associated Taxonomic Name(s)

Ripening Category

Horticultural Classification of Central Asian Melons

TABLE 5.2

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142 TABLE 5.3

Horticultural Groups Associated with the Taxon Cucumis melo L. ssp. orientale Sageret

Group

Associated Taxonomic Name

Morphology

var. zhukovsky Fruits spherical, medium (Pangalo) Fil. sized, without a wrinkled surface Autumn– var. hassanbey Large fruits with a wrinkled winter casaba (Pangalo) Fil. surface

Summer casaba

Gurvak

Ripening and Storage Ability

Notes

Early maturing; unsuitable for storage

Late maturing; often not ripening in the field, but only in storage; shelf life is 1–3 months var. gurvak Fil. Unlike cassaba, Gurvak have Mid-season maturing; Harvested Distributed in Turkmenistan and no outgrowths on the pedicel earlier than full maturity when and are distinguished by a taste is like cucumber; taste and the northern part of smooth surface. Fruits sweetness develops at Uzbekistan. Growing spherical or slightly oval. physiological ripeness. The dry season of 75–105 Fruit surface smooth or matter content of 10.2%– days. slightly segmented. Netting 18.0%, the amount of sugars is medium cellular or absent. 7.4%–10.4%. Transportability Flesh thick. Seed cavity and shelf life of fruits is small or medium. Seeds average. Used for local large, oval or lanceolate, consumption white or light yellow

These melon plants are generally of medium size with thin stems and soft pubescence; leaves are medium sized, slightly lobed, with short petioles. Fruits are globoid or ovoid with dense juicy flesh that has an herbal flavor that disappears during storage.

FIGURE 5.7 Melon cultivars Makhalliy Samarqand obinovvoti (center), Ameri (top) and Toshkent assatisi (bottom) at the bazaar in Tashkent. (Photograph by R. Mavlyanova.)

melon). Some groups of melons have names for distinctive morphological features. For example, an attribute of the fruit’s shape or of the rind may be noted in the name: Koybosh (ram's head), Hokiz calla (bull’s head); a wrinkled surface of the rind – Qari qiz (old maid or spinster); rind coloring – Qora pochoq (black rind), Sariq puchoq (yellow rind). The color of the pulp – Ich qizil (red pulp), the density of the pulp – Egoch qovun (wooden [hard-pulped] melon), the quality of the pulp – Non-gusht (pulp that

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FIGURE 5.8 Melon cultivar Oq urug in Samarqand. (Photograph by R. Mavlyanova.)

looks like bread); the color of the seeds – Qizil urug (red seeds), Oq urug (white seeds; Figure 5.8). Some cultivars and groups may be based on the ripening period – Chillaki (early ripening), or the shelf life of fruits – Umrboki (long shelf life), while others have names related to their overall appeal: Dehkon Sevdi (a favorite of the farmer), Lazzatli (very tasty), and Rohat (pleasure). The cultivars of the Central Asian melons derived from folk breeding are typically divided into three categories: 1. Cultivars with a high degree of uniformity of morphological characters 2. Cultivar groups consisting of forms completely different from the main cultivar in biological and morphological characteristics, but retaining the same name (Ameri, Bishak, Oq qosh, Gulobi, Buri kala, and others) 3. Cultivar groups with similar morphological characteristics and having their own names, often with one root naming convention (Gurvak, Oq gurvak, Ola qurvak, Bosvoldi, Qora bosvoldi, Oq bosvoldi, etc.) In some instances, the same name has been used for two different cultivars. For example, the name “Buri kala” has been used twice. In the Bukhara region, this cultivar belongs to the Khandalyak group and in the Fergana Valley to the Kassab group. Some cultivars may have multiple names, such as the cultivar Ich Qizil, which is also called Ananas, and Bukharka 944, which is called Chogare. The

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early-ripening cultivar Qora qosh is widespread in the Samarqand region, and its late-ripening form is found in Karakalpakstan and the Khorezm regions. The literature often contains distorted names of cultivars that differ from the original usage. For example, the cultivar Oq Zhambulcha is sometimes referred to as Oq zamcha. Furthermore, due to the variability of traits over time resulting from open pollination of local melons, some cultivars have distinct divergence from their original characteristics, but they retain the same name. Examples include Olahamma, Alleke, Ameri, Bekhzodi, Bishak, Bakiraman, Gulobi, Gurvak, Non-gusht, Madani-zaman, and others. Currently in Central Asia, both these local heirloom cultivars and new breeding cultivars are grown now. Unfortunately, some local cultivars have been lost, but the selection work on the creation of new cultivars continues.

Distribution of Melon Cultivars in Central Asia As a result of the many centuries of melon cultivation in Central Asian countries, isolated centers of melon production have developed in the locations with the most suitable conditions. In Tajikistan, melons are cultivated mainly in the southern regions of the Republic as well as in the northern Sughd Province, where the Hojikent and Jilikul groups are commonly cultivated. In Kyrgyzstan, melons are grown mainly in the northern Chui Valley and in the more southern regions of Osh, Jalal-Abad, and Batken. Melons are also cultivated in the Manas District of the Talas Province. In Kazakhstan, melons, including Citrullus lanatus, Cucumis pepo var. fastigiata, and other Cucurbitaceae species (gourds, squash, and cucumbers), are grown in over 80,000 ha of agricultural land (Artemyeva et al., 2018; Toyzhigitova et al., 2019). Melon is grown in all of the regions of Kazakhstan, but about 70% of production is concentrated in the south, primarily in Kyzylorda Province. In this area, three winter-ripening melon cultivars are mainly cultivated – “Kara-gulyabi”, “Kalaysan”, and “Tarlama”. Interestingly, when these cultivars are grown in other areas, they do not maintain their distinct traits. Melon culture in the southern Kazakhstan, in the Dzhambul, Guryev, and Almaty regions, is relatively widespread and supplies melons for local consumption. In these areas, the summer-ripening cultivars of “Bukharka” and “Ich-Kizil” are mainly cultivated. In Turkmenistan, the most famous groups of cultivars are “Chardzhou” and “Tashauz”, and currently, about 250 melon cultivars are grown in Turkmenistan (Esen, 2008). In the 20th century, scientists described more than 70 melon cultivars from Uzbekistan (Dudko, 1956; Dudko et al., 1962; Pangalo, 1959; Ermokhin, 1974; Krzhivets, 1977). Researchers have conducted numerous expeditions across the Uzbek Republic to document melon diversity and collect stock for breeding and germplasm collections. As a result, more than 230 melon cultivars have been described (Mavlyanova et al., 2005b). Germplasm collections containing an extremely wide diversity of melons (more than 1,330 accessions) have been developed and are maintained at the Uzbek Research Institute of Plant Industry (Mavlyanova et al., 2005a), at the Uzbek Research Institute of Vegetable, Melon Crops and Potato, and at the Karakalpak Research Institute of Crop Husbandry. Scientific expeditions are continuing in order to survey the territory of Central Asia with the goal of locating, documenting, and expanding the collection of novel varieties of germplasm. In Uzbekistan, melon cultivation is concentrated in six regional areas (each referred to as an “oasis” in Uzbek and Russian). The Khorezm area (Khorezm oasis) includes Karakalpakstan and the Khorezm Province of Uzbekistan. This region belongs to the extreme-arid zone, where 80–90 mm of precipitation falls annually, mainly in winter and spring. The climate is strongly continental, with hot and dry summers, and an average July air temperature of 28°C (average absolute maximum of 41°C, with temperatures sometimes reaching up to 46°C). The average positive degree day sum is 4,374°C. Uzbekistan has extensive areas of melon cultivation with more than 35,000–40,000 ha of land devoted to it and total yields of more than 450,000–500,000 tonnes (Mavlyanova et al., 2005b). Melon is mainly cultivated in desert regions on irrigated saline-leached and meadow-type soils. Each area has different cultivars that fall within groups based primarily on ripening period. The Khorezm area is one of the most ancient and famous melon-growing regions in the world. Here, both the ancient local cultivars and cultivars from other areas are common, including the Turkmen cultivars “Gyukcha”, “Ala-geke”, and “Marykaun”, among others.

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The Fergana area, in the Fergana Valley, is located in the eastern part of Uzbekistan and is surrounded by the Chatkal and Fergana mountain ranges. Its climate is characterized by an average summer temperature of 28°C (with a maximum of up to 42°C), as well as small amount of precipitation (180–315 mm), which falls mainly in the autumn to winter and early-spring seasons. The average positive degree day sum is 4,400°C. Melon is cultivated on a number of different soil types including sierozem, meadow, meadow-marsh, and on soils with varying degrees of salinity. Melon cultivation is also concentrated on the agricultural lands of the Central Fergana Steppe (Yazyavan and Pungan massifs, along the banks of the Syr Darya, Kara Darya, and Naryn Rivers). In the Fergana Valley, there are the Northern, Eastern, Central, and Western massifs, which differ in soil and climatic conditions that influence which cultivars of melons are grown. The Tashkent area is located in the northeastern part of Uzbekistan. In the north, it is bounded by the Turkestan Range, in the east by the spurs of the Chatkal Range, and in the northwest by the Kyzylkum Desert. The climate is strongly continental, the average July temperature being 28°C with a maximum of up to 44°C. Annual precipitation is 175–300 mm in the plain and 366–435 mm in the foothills, and the average positive degree day sum is 4,374°C. Melon in this region is cultivated on typical sierozem, light sierozem, and sierozem-meadow soils with varying amounts of salinity. The Bukhara area is located in the central lowland of the Uzbek Republic and is surrounded by the Kyzylkum Desert and Karshi Steppe. The climate is typical for the desert zone having an average July temperature of 29.6°C, with a small amount of precipitation (114–125 mm), strong winds, and very low humidity. The positive degree day sum is 4,680°C–4,794°C. Melons are cultivated in non-saline soils and sierozem of varying salinity, meadow alluvial, meadow-desert, and meadow-takyr saline soils. Melons are mainly cultivated in the areas adjacent to larger populated areas, industrial centers, and railway stations. The types of cultivated melons are diverse and vary considerably by area. The Samarqand area is surrounded by the Nurata Mountains in the northern portion, while the central part contains the Zarafshan valley and the south features spurs of the Zarafshan Range. These various topographical features influence the climate, which is continental, with sharp seasonal transitions and large temperature differences during the day. The average temperature in July is 28°C (a maximum of 45°C) and a positive degree day sum of 3,800°C–4,200°C. Melon is cultivated on irrigated sierozem, meadow-sierozem, meadow, and bog-meadow soils with varying degrees of salinity. The cultivars that are widespread in the Samarqand Province are also rich in diversity within the various ripening groups. In the south and southwest of the Uzbek Republic are the Sukandarya and Kashkadarya Provinces. The climate is strongly continental with long, hot summers (average temperature of 31.6°C and maximum temperatures up to 50°C). Increased wind activity (known as garmsel) leads to severely low humidity. During the growing season, 40–140 mm of precipitation falls and the positive degree day sum is 4,900°C–5,000°C. Melons are grown on sierozem, meadow soils, and on irrigated, as well as, nonirrigated lands. In this area, a substantial diversity of types of melon is cultivated, although there are few original cultivars.

Biology and Morphology of Melons Melon is an herbaceous annual. Its life cycle involves two periods: (i) from germination to initiation of female flowers and (ii) from fruit formation through fruit maturity. Melon plants have creeping, branching stems with the total length on irrigated lands sometimes reaching 20 m. Branches generally range from 1 to 4 m, but length and branching characteristics vary by cultivar. The depth of the roots in the soil largely depends on the cultivar. Melon is typically monoecious and entomophilous. Flowers develop in leaf axils typically beginning 25–30 days after germination. Some types have separate male and female flowers, while others have hermaphroditic (bisexual) flowers with normally developed or rudimentary stamens. The number of flowers and the floral sex ratio are greatly influenced by environmental conditions and cultural management practices. A single plant may have 80–300(500) male and 2–25(85) female flowers. Male flowers typically bloom 25–35 days after germination. Female flowers occur 5–12 days after the appearance of male flowers. Female flowers are formed on the side branches of the 1st and 2nd orders, but they can also form

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on the branches of the 2nd–4th orders. In early-ripening melons, the first female flowers develop in the axils of the 4th–11th leaves of the main stem, in mid-ripening varieties in the axils of 15th–18th leaves, and in late-ripening varieties – in the axils of 20th–25th leaves. Melon flowers typically open at 5–6 in the morning and close by the middle of the day. By the end of the day, the male flower corolla typically senesces, while the female flowers remain intact, usually for 2–3 days. Pollination usually occurs in the morning. On hot, windy days, flowering is negatively impacted. The formation of flowers continues until the end of the growing season. Early- or late-ripening traits are not only determined by the timing of flower initiation but also by the period of fruit formation through fruit maturation. In Central Asia, this period is 30–35 days in early-ripening cultivars and 65–80 days in late-ripening cultivars. The plant usually develops from one to five fruits depending on the cultivar. In early-ripening melon cultivars, growth and ripening of fruits occur simultaneously. In later cultivars, the ripening process begins after the end of growth. Depending on the cultivar, maturity of the fruits is reached 55–130 days after germination. The growth and development of melon plants are influenced by climatic conditions, soil fertility, soil moisture, area of plant nutrition, and agricultural practices. Melon plants have a significant heat requirement. Melon seeds begin to germinate at a soil temperature of 13°C–16°C, and the optimum temperature for plant growth is 25°C–30°C. When the temperature drops to 12°C–15°C, plant growth slows, and flowers may be aborted. Mature plants are damaged at temperatures of 3°C–5°C, and shoots die when the temperature drops to 0°C. At −1°C the plants will die. High temperatures (>40°C) also inhibit plant growth. Through the process of selection, some melon crops have adapted to growing in conditions of hot dry and semi-desert climates. A lack of sufficient heat, as well as excessive moisture in the initial period of plant growth and development, will greatly lengthen the period from germination to production of female flowers. The greatest demand for adequate temperatures is observed in the period of flowering and fruit development, although extreme temperature and humidity during the flowering period have detrimental effect on flowers, leaving them sterile. During the period of fruit growth and maturation, the most favorable temperature is 30°C–35°C. Melon plants have high drought and heat resistance, and melon cultivars of the Central Asian and Asia Minor regions have been observed to be more resistant to heat than European cultivars. Summer maturing cultivars tend to be more heat resistant than those of the later-ripening groups. Depending on cultivars of the variety, the required air temperature (above 10°C) for the growing season is 28°C–32°C. Melon plants need full sunlight and do not tolerate shading. A reduced day length of 9–10 hours, during the period of germination and the formation of the first true leaves, causes the flowering of female flowers 7–8 days earlier than in plants that grow with a longer day length. Central Asian melon cultivars range in their tolerance of varying soil conditions, some tolerating a wide variety of soil types such as moist meadow soils, sierozem soils with deep groundwater, and highly saline soils. However, not all melon cultivars retain their unique characteristics when grown on different soil types. Despite some cultivars’ relative resistance to limited air and soil moisture, melon does have specific moisture requirements, in general. The various demands of water by different cultivars influence the development of the plants’ root system. The greatest need for water is observed in the phase of fruit formation. Excess moisture in the soil and air can be detrimental to plant health. High humidity has been correlated with reduced sugar content in fruits and contributes to the development of fungal diseases.

Chemical Composition of Melons Chemical Composition of Melon Pulp Central Asian melons typically have higher sugar content than European cultivars. In cultivars of var. chandalak, dry matter content ranges from 7.9% to 9.3%, while var. bucharica is 11.1%–11.4% and var. ameri 10.4%–12.2%, respectively. The sugar content ranges from 5.2% to 6.7% for var. chandalak, 8.3% to 8.5% for var. bucharica, and 7.3% to 8.4% for var. ameri (Pyzhenkov and Malinina, 1994). The sugar content of Central Asia summer melons cultivars varies from 6.5% to 18% and 6.5% to 10.6% for Central Asian winter-ripening cultivars. Early-ripening melons are usually characterized by low sugar

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content, while the highest total sugar content, of up to 18%, has been measured in cultivars of the var. ameri (Arasimovich, 1938). Compounds, including sugars, occur in different concentrations through different parts of the fruit. For example, the blossom end of the fruit generally contains more sugars than the middle part and the stem end. Also, a greater percentage of sugars are found in the inner layer of pulp closest to the seed cavity. As the melon grows, the sugar content of the fruits gradually increases. The main sugars found in the fruit are glucose, fructose, and sucrose (Filov, 1959; Uspenskaya, 1959). Glucose accumulates first, then fructose and sucrose with some decrease in glucose and fructose. The  pulp also contains vitamin PP, a large amount of folic acid and minerals, particularly iron salts (Sokolov and Zamotaev, 1989). Fruits generally contain the following vitamins (in mg%): C – 20–40, beta-carotene – 0.4, E – 0.1, B6 – 20, B15 – 0.3, B1 – 20–40, B2 – 0.04; macro- and micronutrients (mg%): magnesium – 13, phosphorus – 12, sulfur – 10, chlorine – 35, manganese – 35, iron – 1,000, copper – 47, fluorine – 20, zinc – 90. The fiber content ranges from 0.2% to 0.9%, the hemi-cellulose content ~0.2%, and organic acids (citric, oxalic, and malic) range from 0.1% to 0.15% (Nuraliev, 1989).

Chemical Composition of Melon Seeds The melon seeds contain small amounts of sugar (up to 2.5%). These seeds are rich in protein and oil and contain around 25% fat. Seeds contain semi-drying oil, which is quite suitable for human consumption. The nitrogen-containing protein content in melon seeds is 4.75%–5.89% and primarily consists of glutelins and globulins (Rzhevskaya and Rakhimova, 1973). The seeds of Central Asian cultivars “Khandalyak” and “Ich qizil” were found to contain 51%–54% oil. The oil content of the seeds varied depending on their location in the fruit. The seeds located in the floral end of the fruit contain more (1.1%–1.3%) than the seed closer to the stem. Melon oil has been characterized as having a high (123–183 mg) iodine value and a low (1.77–3.77 mg) acid value. In the seeds, higher oil content has been correlated with high protein content (Pyzhenkov and Malinina, 1994). Oil extracted from C. melo var. agrestis seeds collected in Sudan was analyzed for fatty acid composition, as well as tocopherol, sterol, and phenolic contents. Linoleic acid was determined to be the predominant fatty acid, representing ~61.5% of oil composition, while palmitic, stearic, and oleic acids were more minor components at ~10%, ~10%, and ~16%, respectively. γ-Tocopherol was the predominant tocopherol representing ~80% of the total tocopherols, followed by α-tocopherol at ~20%. Total sterol content was ~3,800 mg/kg with the main sterol being β-sitosterol. The content of total phenolic compounds was 33.0–31.9 mg/g with the major components being catechin, vanillic acid, and sinapic acid (Mariod and Matthaus, 2008). Loukou et al. (2007) conducted a compositional analysis of seeds from C. melo var. agrestis L. cultivated in Cote d’Ivoire. Protein content was determined to be 29.55 ± 2.09, fat content 42.67% ± 3.43%, carbohydrate content 23.18% ± 4.80%, crude fiber content 2.94% ± 0.75%, and ash content 1.67% ± 0.82%.

Root, Stem, and Leaf Phytochemistry Roots of C. melo var. agrestis collected in the Tashkent region of Uzbekistan contained 1.16% tannins and up to 2% sugars. The stems contained 0.87% tannins, up to 4% sugars, 0.4% titratable organic acids and trace alkaloids. Leaves contained 1.74% tannins, 0.53% titratable organic acids and trace alkaloids. Fruits contained up to 2% sugars, 1.07% titratable organic acids, and trace alkaloids (Zaurov et al., 2013). In a phytochemical investigation of C. melo stems, Chen et al. (2009) isolated and identified 21 cucurbitane-type triterpenoids (cucurbitane-type triterpenoids, including cucurbitacin B, 28 23,24-dihydrocucurbitacin B, cucurbitacin A, cucurbitacin R, isocucurbitacin R, cucurbitacin G, cucurbitacin H, hexanorcucurbitacin D, arvenin I, arvenin III, and dihydroisocucurbitacin B, among others.

Medicinal Applications of Melons The healing properties of melons have been documented for millennia. Dioscorides, Paracelsus, and Pliny the Elder recommended melon for the treatment of various diseases and ailments. In folk medicine,

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recipes for melon baths, compresses, lotions, and rinses have been described and recommended. Avicenna (1982) wrote about the healing properties of melons in The Canon of Medical Science. Melon pulp was recommended for constipation, hemorrhoids, liver and bladder diseases, kidney diseases, urolithiasis, stomach diseases, various mental disorders (depression, in particular), tuberculosis, rheumatism, scurvy and gout and as an anti-inflammatory, an antitussive, and an anthelmintic. Melon is still used as an important restorative treatment in the recovery of medical patients due to the special combination of easily consumed pulp and healthy constituents extending to vitamins, sugars, and carbohydrates. Melon pulp has been associated with a positive effect on the treatment of anemia. Modern doctors believe that the presence of vitamin PP, also referred to as niacin or vitamin B3 (Figure 5.9) and vitamin C (Figure 5.10) in melon pulp contributes to the prevention of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular diseases (Nuraliev, 1989). Niacin is also used to treat people suffering from heart disease, high blood pressure, skin dryness, and high levels of cholesterol in the blood (Micronutrient Information Center, Oregon, 2018). Extracts of C. melo var. agrestis were effective against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli (Chavan et al., 2018), and a methanolic extract of the seeds has significant antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and analgesic properties (Arora et al., 2011). In a study of the antidyslipidemic and antihyperglycemic potential, and anti-adipogenic activity, C. melo var. agrestis fruit extract and fractions improved the serum lipid profile in high-fat diet fed dyslipidemic hamsters and significantly attenuated body weight gain and epididymal white adipose tissue (eWAT) hypertrophy. The hexane fraction decreased lipogenesis in both liver and

FIGURE 5.9 Molecular structure of Vitamin PP (also known as Vitamin B3 or niacin).

FIGURE 5.10 Molecular structure of Vitamin C.

FIGURE 5.11 Molecular structure of cucurbitacin A (a) and cucurbitacin B (b).

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adipose tissue and the fruit extract and hexane fraction both inhibited adipogenesis in 3T3-L1 adipocytes (Shankar et al., 2015). Vitamin C, also known as L-ascorbic acid, is an essential nutrient involved in the repair of human tissue and is important for the functioning of the immune system, as well as non-heme iron absorption. It is also used to prevent and treat scurvy and acts as an antioxidant (US National Institutes of Health, 2019). Cultivated melons are used as a food with medicinal value to treat asthenia, constipation, and hepatitis. They are also used as a diuretic and prophylaxis to prevent arteriosclerosis and anemia. A decoction of the fruit is used externally to treat eczema. A decoction of the root is used to treat edema and jaundice and is used as mouthwash (Zaurov et al., 2013). Chen et al. (2009) determined that cucurbitacin A and cucurbitacin B (Figure 5.11), isolated from the aboveground portion on C. melo, showed significant cytotoxic activity against the proliferation of human epithelial lung carcinoma (A549/ATCC) and hepatocellular carcinoma (BEL7402) cells in vitro.

Conclusions The practice of melon cultivation and breeding has a very long history in Central Asia. Melons play a special role in the culture of this region. The great popularity of melon continues to the present day, and melon remains an important food because of its nutritional value, its storage capability, and, most of all, its delicious taste. The people of Central Asia continue the traditions of their ancestors, enjoying the unique and varied diversity of melons found in the region, while looking to forward through programs of plant breeding. It is likely that the melon germplasm of Central Asia is the original source of much of the melon that is grown around the world. Nevertheless, there is still much more diversity in melon plants to explore in the region. With climate change impacting on the future of agriculture in many parts of the world, the huge diversity of melon landraces and cultivars existing in Central Asia will no doubt serve as an important reservoir of valuable characteristics relating to the size and flavor of the fruit, to important traits in the plant, such as drought and salt resistance, and to hitherto, unsuspected applications of chemical extracts.

REFERENCES Abu Ali Ibn Cina [Avicenna]. 1982. Canon of Medical Science. Fan, Tashkent [In Russian]. V.V. Arasimovich. 1938. Biokhimiya Dyni [biochemistry of melon]. pp. 295–328. In: Biokhimiya kulturnykh rastenii [Biochemistry of Cultivated Plants], Vol. 4. Ivanova M.N., editor. Gos. Izd-vo Kolkhoznoi i Sovkhoznoi Lit-ry, Selkhozgiz, Moscow [In Russian]. R. Arora, M. Kaur, N.S. Gill. 2011. Antioxidant activity and pharmocological evaluation of Cucumis melo var. agrestis. Research Journal of Phytochemistry 5(3):146–155. A.M. Artemyeva, T.M. Piskunova, I.V. Gashkova, T.V. Khmelinskaya, I.A. Khrapalova et al. 2018. Landraces of vegetables and cucurbits from Kazakhstan into VIR collection as initial material for breeding. Ovoshchi Rossii [Vegetable Crops of Russia] 3(41):60–66. doi:10.18619/2072-9146-2018-3-60-66 [In Russian]. Babur. 1993. Bobur-noma [Notes of Babur], 2nd ed. Translated by M. A. Salier. Edited and revised by Azimdzhanova, S.A. (1993). Institut Vostokovedeniya a Akademii Nauk Respubliki Uzbekistan, Tashkent [In Russian]. J. Bauhin, J.H. Cherler, D. Chabrée, F.L. Graffenried. 1650. Historia Plantarum Universalis. Vol. 2. Ebroduni, Yverdon.E. Bretschneider. 1888. Mediaeval Researches from Eastern Asiatic Sources: Fragments Towards the Knowledge of the Geography and History of Central and Western Asia from the 13th to the 17th Century. Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner, London. S. Chavan, P. Nair, A. Gupte. 2018. Phytochemical analysis and antimicrobial activity of Cucumis melo var. agrestis (Wild Musk Melon) and Aegle marmelos (Bael) rind extracts and it’s effect on seed germination. Research Journal of Life Sciences, Bioinformatics, Pharmaceutical and Chemical Sciences 4 Special Issue:197–209.

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C. Chen, S. Qiang, L. Lou, W. Zhao. 2009. Cucurbitane-type triterpenoids from the stems of Cucumis melo. Journal of Natural Products 72(5):824–829. P.N. Dudko. 1956. Sortovoye Bogatstvo Dyn’ Uzbekistana [Varietal Wealth of Melons in Uzbekistan]. UzGosIzdat, Tashkent [In Russian]. P.N. Dudko, A.K. Karimov, V.N. Ermokhin, E.V. Uspenskaya. 1962. Uzbekistan Kovunlari [Melons of Uzbekistan]. State Publishing House of the Uzbek SSR, Tashkent [In Uzbek and Russian]. V.N. Ermokhin. 1974. Melons of Uzbekistan. Fan, Tashkent [In Russian]. A. Esen. 2008. Türkmen Gawunlary Atlas [Atlas of Turkmen Melons], 3rd ed. Ylym, Ashgabat. A.I. Filov, (General editor.) 1959. Bakhchevodstvo [Melon Breeding]. Gosudarstvennoe Izdatelstvo Selskokhoziaistvennoi Literatury, Moscow [In Russian]. A.I. Filov. 1960. K voprosu o sistematike dyni [On the question of melon taxonomy]. Vestnik selskokhozyaystvennoy nauki [Bulletin of Agricultural Science] 1:126–132 [In Russian]. L. Fuchs. 1542. De Historia stirpium commentarii insignes, maximis impensis et vigiliis elaborati: Acc. its succincta admodum vocum difficilium et obscurarum passim in hoc opere occurentium explicatio. Isingrinianus, Basileae. N. Garg, A.S. Sidhu, D. Cheema. 2007. Systematics of the genus Cucumis: A review of literature. Haryana Journal of Horticulture Science 36(1&2):192–197. I. Grebenschikov. 1953. Die entwicklung der melonsystematik. Kulturpflanze 1:121–138 [In German]. E. Hansen. 2015. In Search of Ibn Battuta’s Melon. AramcoWorld November/December: 30–41. G.A. Herrera. 1513. Obra de Agricultura, Vol. 4. A.G. de Brocar, Alcala de Henares. M.I. Ibn-Bat.t.ut.a, S. Lee. 1829. The Travels of Ibn Battuta. Oriental Translations Fund, London. N. Ibragimov. 1988. Ibn Battuta i ego Puteshestviya a po Srednei Azii [Ibn Battuta and His Travels in Central Asia]. Nauka, Moscow [In Russian]. J.H. Kirkbride. 1993. Biosystematic Monograph of the Genus Cucumis (Cucurbitaceae). Parkway Publishers, Blowing Rock, NC. L.S. Krzhivets. 1977. Qaraqalpaqstan qawynlary [Dyni Karakalpakii, Melons of Karakalpakstan]. Edited by Zh. Khodzhimuradov and A. Salomanchuk. Qaraqalpaqstan Baspasy, Nukus.[In Uzbek and Russian]. A.L. Loukou, D. Gnakri, Y. Djè, A.V. Kippré, M. Malice, et al. 2007. Macronutrient composition of three cucurbit species cultivated for seed consumption in Côte d‘Ivoire, African Journal of Biotechnology 6:529–533. A.A. Mariod, B. Matthaus. 2008. Investigations on fatty acids, tocopherols, sterols, phenolic profiles and oxidative stability of Cucumis melo var. agrestis oil. Journal of Food Lipids 15(1):42–55. R. Mavlyanova, F.R. Abdullaev, P. Khojiev, D.E. Zaurov, T.J. Molnar et al. 2005a. Plant genetic resources and scientific activities of the Uzbek Research Institute of Plant Industry. HortScience 40(1):10–14. R. Mavlyanova, A. Rustamov, R. Khakimov, A. Khakimov, M. Turdieva et al. 2005b. Ozbekiston qovunlari. Melons of Uzbekistan. Dyni Uzbekistana. IPGRI Sub-Regional Office for Central Asia, Tashkent. Micronutrient Information Center, Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University. October 2018. ‘Niacin’. https://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/vitamins/niacin. Accessed online 21 December 2019. H.M. Munger, R.W. Robinson. 1991. Nomenclature of Cucumis melo L. Cucurbit Genetics Cooperative Report 14:43–44. C.V. Naudin. 1859. Essaie d’une monographie des espèces et des variétés du genre Cucumis. Annales des Sciences Naturelles Botanique sér 4, 11:5–87 [In French]. M. Nee. 1994. Biosystematic monograph of the Genus Cucumis (Cucurbitaceae)-botanical identification of cucumbers and melons. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 121(3):300–301. Y. Nuraliev. 1989. Lekarstvennuiye Rasteniya, 2-ye izd. [Medicinal Plants, 2nd ed.] MAORIF Publishing, Dushanbe [In Russian]. K.I. Pangalo. 1930. Kriticheskii obzor osnovnoi literatury po sistematike, geografii i proiskhozhdeniu kulturnykh i chastu dikikh dyn [Critical survey of the principal literature on the systematics, geography and origin of cultivated and partly wild growing melons]. Trudy po Prikladnoi Botanike, Genetike i Selektsii 23(3):397–442 [In Russian]. K.I. Pangalo. 1959. Dyni [Melons]. State Publishing House of the MSSR, Kishinev [In Russian]. H.S. Paris, Z. Amar, E. Lev. 2012. Medieval emergence of sweet melons, Cucumis melo (Cucurbitaceae). Annals of Botany 110(1):23–33. M. Pitrat, P. Hanelt, K. Hammer. 2000. Some comments on infraspecific classification of cultivars of melon. Acta Horticulturae 510:29–36.

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V.I. Pyzhenkov, M.I. Malinina. 1994. Kulturnaya Flora, T. XXI. Tykvennyye. [Cultivated Flora, Vol. 21. Cucurbitaceae.] Kolos, Moscow [In Russian]. F.Y. Rzhevskaya, R.S. Rakhimova. 1973. The dependence of the oil content of melon seeds on the timing of fruit ripening and place in the placenta. Nauchnye Trudy Tashkentskogo Selskokhozyaystvennogo Instituta 37:54–59 [In Russian]. P. Sebastian, H. Schaefer, I.R. Telford, S.S. Renner. 2010. Cucumber (Cucumis sativus) and melon (C. melo) have numerous wild relatives in Asia and Australia, and the sister species of melon is from Australia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 107(32):14269–14273. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1005338107. K. Shankar, S.K. Singh, D. Kumar, S. Varshney, A. Gupta, et al. 2015. Cucumis melo ssp. agrestis var. agrestis ameliorates high fat diet induced dyslipidemia in syrian golden hamsters and inhibits adipogenesis in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Pharmacognosy Magazine 11(Suppl 4), S501–S510. doi:10.4103/0973-1296.172945. S.Y. Sokolov, I.P. Zamotaev. 1989. Spravochnik po Lekarstvennuim Rasteniyam Fitoterapiya, izd. 2 [Guide to Medicinal Plants, Phytotherapy, 2nd ed.] Nedra Publishing, Moscow [In Russian]. A. Stepansky, I. Kovalski, R. Perl-Treves. 1999. Intraspecific classification of melons (Cucumis melo L.) in view of their phenotypic and molecular variation. Plant Systematics and Evolution 217:313–332. S.P. Tolstov. 1948. Po Sledam Drevne Khorezmskoi Tsivilizatii. [Following the Traces of the Ancient Khorezm Civilization]. Izdatelstvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, Moscow [In Russian]. B. Toyzhigitova, S. Yskak, B. Łozowicka, P. Kaczyn´ski, A. Dinasilov, et al. 2019. Biological and chemical protection of melon crops against Myiopardalis pardalina Bigot. Journal of Plant Diseases and Protection 126(4):359–366. US National Institutes of Health. 2019. Office of Dietary Supplements. ‘Fact Sheet for Health Professionals – Vitamin C’ Updated: July 9, 2019. https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminC-HealthProfessional/#en2. Accessed online 21 December 2019. V. Ye. Uspenskaya. 1959. Biokhimicheskaya kharakteristika dyn' Uzbekistana. [Biochemical characteristics of melons of Uzbekistan. pp. 54–62. In: Bakhchevodstvo Sredney Azii [Melon, Watermelon and Pumpkin Cultivation in Central Asia]. Ministervsto Selskogo Khozyaistva SSSR, Moscow-Leningrad [In Russian]. N.I. Vavilov. 1926. Centers of origin of cultivated plants. Trudy po Prikladnoi Botanike, Genetike i Selektsii 16(2):139–248 [In Russian]. N.I. Vavilov. 1951. The origin, variation, immunity and breeding of cultivated plants: Selected writings of N.I. Vavilov. In: Verdoon F. (ed) Chronica Botanica, an International Collection of Studies in Method History of Biology and Agriculture 13(1/6):1–366. D.E. Zaurov, I.V. Belolipov, A.G. Kurmukov, I.S. Sodombekov, A.A. Akimaliev, et al. 2013. Medicinal plants of Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan. pp. 5–273. In: Eisenman S.W., Zaurov D.E., Struwe L. editors. Medicinal Plants of Central Asia: Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan. Springer, New York-Heidelberg-Dordrecht-London. P.M. Zhukovsky. 1971. Kulturnye Rasteniya i Ikh Sorodichi. [Cultivated Plants and Their Relatives]. Kolos, Leningrad [In Russian].

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6 Resources along the Silk Road in Central Asia: Lagochilus inebrians Bunge (Turkestan Mint) and Medicago sativa L. (Alfalfa) Oimahmad Rahmonov University of Silesia in Katowice David E. Zaurov Rutgers University Buston S. Islamov Samarqand State University Sasha W. Eisenman Temple University CONTENTS The Genus Lagochilus and L. inebrians (Turkestan Mint) in Central Asia ........................................... 154 Use of Lagochilus Species in Folk Medicine..........................................................................................155 Documented Biological Activity of Lagochilus Species ....................................................................... 156 Phytochemistry of Lagochilus Species .................................................................................................. 157 Summary ................................................................................................................................................ 158 Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) in Central Asia and beyond ..................................................................... 158 Biogeography of Alfalfa......................................................................................................................... 158 Botanical Description............................................................................................................................. 159 Biology of Alfalfa ...................................................................................................................................161 Alfalfa as a Fodder Plant ......................................................................................................................... 161 Use of Alfalfa in Folk Medicine ........................................................................................................162 Documented Biological Effects of Alfalfa ..............................................................................................162 Alfalfa for Human Consumption .......................................................................................................162 Phytochemistry of Alfalfa ..................................................................................................................163 Summary ........................................................................................................................................... 164 References .............................................................................................................................................. 164

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The Genus Lagochilus and L. inebrians (Turkestan Mint) in Central Asia The Silk Road was a network of caravan routes connecting East Asia with the Mediterranean region in times of antiquity. One of the commodities moved along the road was silk exported from China, hence the name. As early as the 2nd century BCE, this route crossed Central Asia starting from the ancient city Xi’an (Shaanxi Province, central China) through Lanzhou to Dunhuang (Gansu Province, western China), where it bifurcated. The northern road passed through Turpan (Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region in western China), then crossed the Pamir and went to Ferghana and crossed the Kazakh steppes. The southern road passed the Lop Nor Lake, on the southern outskirts of the Taklamakan desert, through Yarkant and along the Pamir mountain ranges, eventually crossing the Central Asian region known as Bactria. From there, the road led to Parthia (part of modern Iran), the Middle East, and the Mediterranean Sea. During the long journey across this vast region, travelers would inevitably experience a variety of injuries. Local people used infusions and decoctions of the plant species, Lagochilus inebrians Bunge (Lamiaceae), as a hemostatic remedy. This species is still used in this way today in Central Asia. Each year, large amounts of plant material are collected, especially in the Samarqand and Jizzax Provinces of Uzbekistan. The plant also has a long history of traditional use as an inebriant and a sedative by local tribesmen, hence its species epithet, inebrians and the colloquial names inebriating mint, intoxicating mint, or Turkestan mint. Species of the genus, Lagochilus Bunge ex Benth., are found primarily on dry slopes, in valleys and deserts from Iran through northern Pakistan, Central Asia, south central Russia to Mongolia, and northwest China. The number of species recorded in the genus varies due to differences among regional texts on flora and a lack of recent monographic revision. According to Jamzad (1988), the genus contains ~60 species worldwide, while Tsukervanik (1985) recognized 44 species, which he arranged in two sections and six subsections. It is agreed upon that the greatest species diversity occurs in Central Asia. A total of 34 species can be found in the region with around 20 being endemic (Ikramov, 1976). The genus consists of shrubs and sub-shrubs, which have bilabiate flowers arranged in verticillasters. The most widely utilized species in the genus is L. inebrians (Figures 6.1 and 6.2). This species is 20–60(80) cm tall, with numerous simple or branched, erect stems that are woody at the base. The shrub is densely leafy and covered with long, one to three segmented horizontally spreading hairs interspersed with many glandular, capitate, sessile hairs. The leaves are broad-ovate, cuneate at the base, with three to five broad-ovate lobes, entire or dentate margins, and petioles on the lower leaves. The flowers, arranged in verticillasters, are sessile and clustered in groups of four to six in the axils of the upper leaves, forming spike-shaped inflorescences. The bracts are stiff, reclinate, triangular-awl-shaped, and covered with long, two to three segmented hairs and glandular sessile capitate hairs. The calyx is bell-shaped with a

FIGURE 6.1 Lagochilus inebrians Bunge growing wild in Uzbekistan. (Photograph by Buston Islamov.)

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FIGURE 6.2 Lagochilus inebrians flowers. (Photograph by Buston Islamov.)

funnel-shaped neck, pubescent and has five recurved teeth that are 5–6 mm long and spine tipped. There are four stamens, and the corolla is bilabiate, white or pale pink, and 1–1.5 times the length of the calyx. The fruit consists of four, 4–5 mm long glabrous, brownish nuts. This species generally flowers in May through September and produces fruits in July through September. The genus Lagochilus occupies a relatively wide ecological range, occurring from lowland plains to the upper zones of mountain ranges. The plants in Central Asia generally grow in the hot, dry foothills and the middle mountain zone. However, some species are also found at an altitude of 3,200 m above sea level. The range of Lagochilus extends through the Tien Shan and Pamir-Alai mountain systems where the plants grow on foothill plains and low foothills on clayey, rocky, or gravelly slopes, and along dried up waterways. Lagochilus species are quite drought tolerant and have a growing season from late April to November. The plants often maintain a green color through the intense summer season when surrounding vegetation has dried out and senesced. Lagochilus can also be found in the dry Artemisiagrassland ecosystems of foothill steppes in the Samarkand, Bukhoro, and Qashqadaryo Provinces of Uzbekistan, along dry channels in the Chardzhou region of Turkmenistan, as well as in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and adjacent areas (Khalmatov et al., 1984; Akopov, 1990). In Uzbekistan, the most common species is L. inebrians, which can be found in the Samarqand, Buxoro, Qashqadaryo, and Surxandaryo Provinces.

Use of Lagochilus Species in Folk Medicine Plants in the genus Lagochilus have a long history of use as both a therapeutic and an intoxicant. In particular, the peoples of Central Asia have used L. inebrians as hemostatic to stop bleeding. A decoction or tincture made from a dry mixture of flowers and leaves is widely used as a hemostatic agent after childbirth as well to treat nose bleeds and hemorrhoidal bleeding (Khalmatov et al., 1984; Grinkevich, 1991). Traditionally, the above-ground plant material is harvested during the flowering period and then air-dried in the shade. It has also been used as a treatment for allergies and skin disorders, as well as a hypotensive, an antispasmodic, and a sedative (Schultes, 1970; Schultes and Hoffman, 1979). Similarly,

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Lagochilus platyacanthus Rupr. has been used as a styptic folk medicine to treat hemorrhage and coronary heart disease in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region of China (Zhang et al., 2015). Additionally, L. inebrians has a long history of use as a psychotropic, inducing a mild state of euphoria. The dried leaves, and sometimes the stems and flowering tops, are used to prepare tea, which is mixed with honey or sugar to mask the very bitter taste (Bunge, 1847; Ratsch, 2005).

Documented Biological Activity of Lagochilus Species As early as 1955, the Ministry of Health in the USSR allowed the use of an infusion of the plant as a hemostatic agent and as a sedative. In clinical studies, preparations from the aerial parts of plants have been shown to have significant biological activity by increasing the blood coagulation process and reducing vascular permeability, as well as having a sedative effect and lowering blood pressure (Khalmatov et al., 1984; Akopov, 1990). Preparations of the plant have been used to treat various types of bleeding including traumatic, uterine, hemorrhoidal, pulmonary, nasal, etc. It has also been used in the treatment of hemophilia, immune thrombocytopenic purpura (formerly referred to as Werlhof’s disease), HenochSchonlein purpura, in cases of functional nervous disorders, allergic skin reactions, various forms of dermatitis (eczema, hives, neurodermatitis, etc.), as well as for stage 1–2 hypertension, glaucoma, and in surgeries to prevent severe bleeding (Khalmatov et al., 1984). Part of the hemostatic effect of the preparations is due to the presence of vitamin K and tannins (Grinkevich, 1991). When an infusion of an extract of the plant containing the drug, lagochilin, is administered to animals, the fibrinolytic activity of blood is found to be inhibited by the activation of plasma inhibitors and suppression of fibrinolysis pro-activators. Aqueous extracts of the plant have sedative, hypotensive, and hyposensitizing activities, and stimulate the contractile ability of the smooth muscles of the uterus, and the contractile and motor functions of the stomach and intestines. In experiments with animals given a single sub-lethal treatment of X-ray irradiation, daily subcutaneous administration of the plant infusion contributed to the rapid restoration of vital activity. The preparations also had a sedative effect and enhanced inhibitory processes in the cerebral cortex and helped to eliminate experimental neurosis and seizures caused by treatment with strychnine or caffeine in animal models. A noticeable decrease in the arteriole and capillary wall permeability was observed in experiments where animals were treated with plant preparations (Sokolov and Zamotaev, 1989). The known active compounds from L. inebrians are a diterpenoid, tetrahydric alcohol called lagochilin (Figure 6.3) and its acetyl derivatives, which are poorly soluble in water. Based on these compounds, a number of hemostatic drugs have been created for both intravenous and oral uses. Other forms of application have been employed including a hemostatic gel, a bandage, and a collagen film. In experiments with animals, an intravenous injection of a 10% infusion of the plant extract of the closely related species Lagochilus gypsaceus Vved., accelerated coagulation of the blood by 30% in 30 minutes, decreased the time of recalcification by 38%, increased plasma tolerance to hepatitis by 35%, and decreased blood pressure by 7% (Zaurov et al., 2013). Treatment with an alcoholic tincture of the plant increased blood coagulation and induced a significant increase in antihemophilic globulin in children with hemophilia A. Clinical observations showed that hemophilia patients treated with L. inebrians preparations had improvement in their general condition, remission periods increased, bleeding time was shortened, the resorption time of hematomas and hemarthroses was shortened, and organ soreness

FIGURE 6.3 Molecular structure of lagochilin.

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was reduced. When applied topically, the tincture also had a hemostatic effect. In instances where a side effect of an increased heart rate was observed, it was deemed necessary to reduce the dosage of the drug (Sokolov and Zamotaev, 1989). According to I.E. Akopov (1981), more than ten species of plants of the genus Lagochilus have a stimulating effect on blood coagulation, while five species do not stimulate, but slow down the coagulation process. Lagochilus preparations increased the coagulation ability of blood by activating plasma and cellular coagulation factors, depressing the anticoagulant system, and reducing plasma fibrinolytic activity. Aimenova et al. (2016) investigated the effects of treatment with a Lagochilus setulosus Vved. extract (called “Setulin”) on the process of blood hemostasis in rabbits with heparin-induced hypocoagulation. Oral introduction of the extract (50 mg/kg) increased the hemostatic effect associated with thromboplastin formation and transformation of prothrombin to thrombin. The extract completely negated the hypocoagulative effect of heparin in 60–90 minutes.

Phytochemistry of Lagochilus Species The above-ground plant parts of L. inebrians, collected during flowering time in the vicinity of Samarkand (Uzbekistan), contained 0.60%–1.978% lagochilin, 0.20% stachydrine, 9.66%–12.42% resins, 0.068%–0.217% essential oil, 2.58%–2.78% tannins, 3.94%–6.41% sugar, 6.0%–7.025% total titrated organic acids, 0.67% flavonoid glycosides, 5.08%–8.04 mg% of carotene, 44%–77 mg% of vitamins C and K, calcium and iron salts, and 20 different microelements including cobalt, strontium, titanium, gold, arsenic, etc. (Khalmatov, 1964; Akopov, 1990). Flavonoids including quercimeritrin, rutin, quercetrin, and acacetin have been isolated from the plant among others, and the roots contain 2% tannins (Khalmatov et al., 1984; Chikov, 1989; Zhang et al., 2014). In a study of wild and cultivated L. inebrians plants, Zainutdinov et al. (2011) found that plants cultivated in foothill areas of the Navoi Region in Uzbekistan had 18%–20% more lagochilin than wild-growing plants. A detailed, systematic phytochemical study of the genus Lagochilus was begun in 1971 by A.S. Sadykov (Uzbekistan Academy of Sciences). As a result of the study of about 10 Lagochilus species, more than 25 new diterpenoids of the labdane series (type) were isolated. On the basis of one of them, an effective hemostatic preparation, “Lagoden”, was created for intravenous administration. A second drug, “Inebrin”, was created on the basis of extractive substances of L. inebrians and was recommended in the form of tablets for the treatment of chronic uterine, nasal, gastrointestinal, and other bleeding conditions (Zainutdinov, 1993). Zainutdinov et al. (2002) studied 12 Central Asian Lagochilus species from which they isolated 25 diterpenoids with a 9,13-epoxylabdane skeleton, 20 of which were novel compounds. Previously identified hydrocarbons, and steroids were found, as well as flavonoids and iridoids, which were identified in nearly all the species investigated. Akramov et al. (2019) analyzed the chemical composition of L. gypsaceus, L. inebrians, and L. setulosus essential oils from Uzbekistan. The essential oil of L. gypsaceus contained linalool, β-ionone, trans-chrysanthenyl acetate, and α-terpineol as the primary components; L. inebrians contained transchrysanthenyl acetate, eugenol, trans-verbenol, bicyclo[3.1.1]hept-3-en-2-one, and pinocarvone in the greatest abundance, and L. setulosus contained 2,4-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)phenol, bicyclo[3.1.1]hept-2en-4-ol, hexadecanoic acid, limonene, and 2-hexenal as dominant components. The essential oil of L. inebrians exhibited the best antioxidant and tyrosinase inhibitory activities, while L. setulosus essential oil exhibited the strongest inhibitory effect against amylase. The chemical constituents from the ethanolic extract of L. platyacanthus were analyzed, and 21 compounds (including 15 flavonoids, 3 lignans, 2 iridoids, and 1 phenylethanoid glycoside) were isolated from the plant for the first time with many being new to the genus, as well. In a study on the chemical constituents of L. platyacanthus, Zhang et al. (2015) identified five new diterpenoids (lagoditerpenes A–E) and ten known compounds. The known compounds were identified as diterpenoids (13E)-labd-l3-ene-8α, 15-diol, leojaponins B, leoheteronin D, enantio-agathic acid, isocupressic acid, 7β, 13 S-dihydroxylabda-8(17), 14-dien-19-oic acid, 8α, 13(R), 14(S/R), 15-tetrahydroxylabdane, 15-nor-14-oxolabda-8(17), 12E-diene-18-oic acid, 12β, 19-dihydroxymanoyl oxide, and ent-12α, 19-dihydroxy-13-epi-manoyl oxide. Three of the compounds showed moderate hemostatic activity in vitro.

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Summary The unique medicinal properties of the Lagochilus species have been utilized over centuries in the folk medicine of Central Asia as a hemostatic, sedative, and recreational intoxicant. Significant pharmacological activities have been documented during the 20th and 21st centuries. The genus still requires detailed examination in order to improve definition of its taxonomy and delineation. New phytochemical discoveries are still being made – fully justifying further research on the biochemical and biological activities of the Lagochilus species.

Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) in Central Asia and beyond During the journey from east to west, commodities passed through many hands. Routes crossed mountains, deserts, and other areas with limited vegetation. Donkeys, horses, and camels were the primary modes of transportation for both goods and people. Pack animals need an efficient and sufficient supply of fodder – one of the main sources being alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.), which grows wild in these regions. The plant also appeared to influence the condition and vigor of animals. Alfalfa is a plant of great value for ruminants as it is a significant source of high-protein roughage while being highly digestible (Morris et al., 1992). It has been called the “queen of forage crops” because of its remarkable ability to produce high yields of palatable, nutritious forage under a wide range of soil and climatic conditions across much of the world (Lubenets, 1936, Sinskaya, 1950; Barnes et al., 1988). Alfalfa was one of the first domesticated fodder plants to be cultivated having been used for over three millennia. According to Vavilov (1951), M. sativa has a center of diversity in the Middle East (Asia Minor, Transcaucasia, Iran, and the Turkmen highlands). Some theorize that the domestication of alfalfa coincided with the domestication of the horse around 5000–6000 BC, although others have estimated that domestication occurred as early as 8000 BC (Small, 2011). The range of M. sativa has been expanded over the millennia. Historical records provide evidence for the distribution of alfalfa in Turkey and in Media (NW Iran) during the first millennium BC. The name “alfalfa” has been traced to an ancient Iranian word meaning “horse fodder”. Alfalfa was known as the “median herb” by Romans which is celebrated in the scientific name of the genus Medicago (Sinskaya, 1950, 1969; Bolton et al., 1972). The oldest historical reference to the occurrence of alfalfa comes from stone tablets found in Turkey. Hittite (Anatolian) brick tablets (1400–1200 BC) discovered in Turkey indicate that animals were fed alfalfa all through the winter season since alfalfa was regarded as a highly nutritious animal feed (Lubenets, 1956). It is widely accepted that travel by sea was well established in the eastern Mediterranean region as early as 4000 B.C. and significantly influenced the distribution of M. sativa. In addition, many regions (e.g., the Mesopotamian plain, Iraq) were a meeting place for many trade routes of the peoples of Asia, Africa, and Europe. Hence, the expansion of alfalfa’s distribution occurred early and followed in the path of historic civilizations from east to west (Sinskaya, 1950; Bolton et al., 1972). Alfalfa soon gained importance in Greek agriculture and was acquired by the Romans from Greek civilization in the 2nd century BCE. The practice of cultivating alfalfa migrated to what is now southern Spain in the 1st century. From Spain, it slowly spread to other regions such as modern France, Belgium, Holland, England, Germany, Austria, Sweden, and Russia during the 16th and 18th centuries. In the 18th century, the distribution of alfalfa was expanded across the world with the Spanish and Portuguese taking it from Europe to America and colonists introducing it to Australia and South Africa in the 19th century (Sinskaya, 1950; Bolton et al., 1972). It can currently be found growing wild, whether native or naturalized, from China to Spain and from Sweden to North Africa, and has been introduced in North America, Australia, and Africa.

Biogeography of Alfalfa M. sativa L. is found growing in the wild in Asia and Europe, and is cultivated on six continents. The area of wild alfalfa extends from western Turkey to the Dzungarian Ala-Tau, Tibet, and Western India.

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The occurrence of M. sativa to the west of this area (Germany, France, Italy, Spain, and Portugal) is not native most likely because it has escaped from cultivated areas. Populations in the Balkans region remain under some doubt. Various species of Medicago grow in the wild and are thought to be native in this area (Sinskaya, 1950; Zhukovsky, 1971; Bolton et al., 1972). Alfalfa is widely cultivated in temperate regions; the area under production gradually decreases toward the Arctic and the tropics. When grown in tropical climates, alfalfa becomes short-lived and usually thins out and dies after 1–2 years. The most ancient areas of alfalfa cultivation are concentrated in the Asia Minor, Central and Southwest Asia. From here, even in ancient times, alfalfa began to gradually spread to the west (Belov, 1931; Bolton et al., 1972). By at least the end of the 5th century BC, alfalfa was being grown in Greece, where it was brought from the original Asian-Iranian mountainous regions. The ancient East, in very distant times, had close ties with the ancient world of Eastern Europe (Gafurov, 1977, 1989). Aristophanes and Aristotle mentioned the cultivation of alfalfa in ancient Greece. From Greece, alfalfa passed to the Italian Peninsula around 200 BC and was introduced to the oases of North Africa as well as Spain (Zhukovsky, 1971). At the beginning of the 16th century, alfalfa was brought to Mexico by the Spanish, and subsequently to Peru and Chile, and then Uruguay and Argentina. Thus, in the Western Hemisphere, alfalfa was first established in South and Central America. The practice of alfalfa cultivation came to North America in two ways: from South America and directly from Europe. In the mid-19th century, alfalfa, under the name “Chilean clover”, was brought in to the country by gold miners traveling from Chile to California. It later spread to Colorado, possibly from Mexico (Bolton et al., 1972). Alfalfa came to India from Afghanistan, where it is generally confined to oases as in Arabia and North Africa. Alfalfa was imported into the European territory of the former USSR from Central Asia, mainly from the Khorezm (Khiva) Region (Medicago asiatica subsp. khivinica and its hybrid populations). Currently, alfalfa is widely produced in the United States, Canada, Argentina, Chile, Peru, southern France, northern Italy, Asia Minor, Central Asia, Iran, Australia, and New Zealand. Alfalfa cultivation spread to China from Central Asia, and the greatest area of production is concentrated in western Xinjiang Province.

Botanical Description The genus Medicago L. contains ~87 annual and perennial species (Small, 2011). M. sativa is a difficult species to define as it has been complicated by polyploidy and the influences of hybridization and domestication. This has led to complex circumscriptions with M. sativa being split into numerous species with many infraspecific taxa (Sinskaya, 1935a,b, 1948, 1950, 1960; Maisuryan, 1970; Lubenets, 1972, among others). Some authors, such as A.I. Belov (1929), described ecological and geographical groups of M. sativa. More recently, recognition of a single broadly circumscribed species has been adopted in lieu of highly segregated treatments (Quiros and Bauchan, 1988). In a recent monograph, Small (2011) recognized the following infraspecific taxa: Medicago sativa subsp. sativa, Medicago sativa subsp. caerulea (Less. ex Ledeb.) Schmalh., Medicago sativa subsp. falcata (L.) Arcang. var. falcata, Medicago sativa subsp. falcata (L.) Arcang. var. viscosa (Rchb.) Posp., Medicago sativa subsp. ×varia (T. Martyn) Arcang., and Medicago sativa subsp. glomerata (Balbis) Rouy. In Central Asia, the two most common taxa are recognized as independent species M. sativa L. (Figure 6.4) and Medicago falcata L. (Figure 6.5). The morphological differences of these species are described in Table 6.1. M. sativa is an herbaceous perennial plant with a taproot and strongly developed lateral roots. In the first year, the roots penetrate to a depth of 2–3 m, and in subsequent years can grow as deep as 10 m. The stem is herbaceous, up to 1 (1.5) m in height and strongly branched. A mature plant will branch from the base, sending up multiple stems that are ascending or erect and that occasionally branch. The stems are usually hairless, particularly as they become older. The alternate compound leaves are olive-green and trifoliate. Each leaflet is oblanceolate or obovate, wedge-shaped at the base, and nearly truncate at its outer edge. The margin is smooth, except for some dentate teeth toward the apex. A typical leaflet is about 2–2.5 cm long and 8 mm wide. At the base of each compound leaf are two small lanceolate stipules. Some stems have terminal inflorescences consisting of many-flowered racemes about 2–5 cm in length. Each flower is about up to 1 cm long, consisting of five petals that are lavender or purple, ten stamens, a single pistil, and a green calyx. The flowers have the typical papilionaceous flower structure,

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FIGURE 6.4 Medicago sativa L. (Photograph by Oimahmad Rahmonov.)

FIGURE 6.5 Medicago falcata L. (Photograph by Vladimir Yanov.)

TABLE 6.1 Morphological Differences between Medicago sativa and Medicago falcata Character Flower color Fruit shape Leaflet size Leaflet shape Leaflet pubescence

Medicago sativa L. Purple Spiral (twisted 1–5 times) Medium and large Elongate elliptic or obovate, rarely narrow Weakly and moderately pubescent with short, rarely long hairs

Medicago falcata L. Yellow Sickle-shaped or straight Small Narrow, almost lanceolate Strongly pubescent with long hairs

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with a large standard, a keel, and two small side petals. The standard and keel are somewhat spread apart, exposing the throat of the flower. The calyx has five long teeth, and it often has scattered white hairs. The blooming period usually occurs during the summer and lasts about 1–2 months. However, some plants may bloom during the late spring or early fall. The flowers are replaced by tightly coiled fruits (legumes) that are about 8–9 mm in length. They are flattened with a reticulate surface, sometimes with stiff hairs along the outer edges. Each fruit contains several yellowish-brown, reniform seeds.

Biology of Alfalfa One of the distinctive features of alfalfa among forage crops is its symbiotic relationship with nitrogenfixing bacteria. This form of symbiosis arose in the course of evolution independently several times, both within legumes and among other families. In the specialized root nodules, free atmospheric nitrogen is reduced to ammonium and is then assimilated into organic compounds including amino acids (protein monomers), nucleotides (DNA and RNA monomers), the energy storage molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP), vitamins, flavones, and phytohormones. Because of this unique ability to obtain nitrogen, alfalfa can colonize steep slopes with minimal soil fertility in many mountain regions of Central Asia. Alfalfa has evolved in a continental climate characterized by cold winters and hot, dry summers. In the natural environment, the soil (Calcisols, Gypsisols, Aridisols, Kasztanozems, Mollisols, Chernozems, Cambisols, Inceptisols) on which alfalfa grows is often near neutral with subsoils containing significant amounts of calcium carbonate. Optimal soil pH ranges from 6.5 to 7.8. Alfalfa has evolved deep-growing root systems in order to grow in dry and semi-dry climates such as that of non-irrigated areas (bogara) in Central Asia. Although alfalfa can grow in areas with reduced fertility and rainfall, in Central Asia and surrounding regions, alfalfa cultivation typically requires irrigation to increase productivity. With irrigation, 3-year-old alfalfa accumulates 300–400 kg/ha or more of nitrogen in the soil from atmospheric nitrogen fixation (Shatilov, 1986). Alfalfa thrives in full sun exposure, and the growing season lasts a very long time from early spring to late autumn. In some areas of Central Asia, with irrigation, alfalfa can produce up to seven harvests in a single season. Alfalfa is a cold-resistant species and can tolerate frosts up to −6°C. Spring re-growth begins between 7°C and 9°C.

Alfalfa as a Fodder Plant Alfalfa is grown on ~45 million ha worldwide (Mielmann, 2013). As fodder, it is valued as a good source of slow-release carbohydrates, proteins, minerals, and vitamins (Tharanathan and Mahadevamma, 2003; Hao et al., 2008). It contains between 15% and 22% crude protein on a dry matter basis, as well as macro and trace elements and all fat and water-soluble vitamins (Adapa et al., 2007). Alfalfa is a valuable source of vitamins A and E. It contains beta-carotene, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, biotin, folic acid, choline, inositol, pyridoxine, vitamin B12, and vitamin K (Aganga and Tshwenyane, 2003). Furthermore, alfalfa hay has a higher mineral content than grains like maize and wheat (Morrison, 1961). In Central Asia, alfalfa is irrigated and fertilized to increase the quality of forage or silage and in some areas may be harvested three or four times per season. The number of harvests can influence chemical composition and yield. In high-mountain areas without irrigation, plants are harvested only once per season. After that, the area is used as pastureland for livestock. Alfalfa may be harvested up to seven times per year in some prime growing areas of the world with optimal control of fertilization and irrigation. Alfalfa is mainly used to make hay and silage but can also be used for grazing purposes because of its high yield, quality, and wide adaptability to different climates and soil types. In the last few decades, alfalfa’s popularity and potential for human consumption for specific health conditions have increased (Mielmann, 2013). Because of its high nutritive value, it is cultivated widely for livestock production to promote weight gain and for wool production (Douglas et al., 1995).

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Use of Alfalfa in Folk Medicine In folk medicine, alfalfa has been used as an antidiabetic (hypoglycemic), a diuretic, and an antitumor agent. The seeds and leaves have been used as an abortifacient, as a sedative, and to reduce fatigue. In medieval medicine in Armenia, plant seeds were used to increase male potency (Druzhinina and Novikova, 2010). In Buryatia (Russia), the above-ground plant material of M. falcata is collected during the flowering period and a water decoction is used to treat nervous disorders. In Tibetan medicine, the decoction is also used in traditional medicine (Alekseeva et al., 1974). In Chinese and Indian traditional medical systems, doctors used young leaves of alfalfa to treat disorders related to the digestive tract, arthritis, and water retention. A cooling poultice prepared from seeds has been used to treat boils. In the Caucasus, powdered, dried alfalfa has been used as a wound-healing treatment, especially for cuts (Khalmatov, 1964). Extracts of alfalfa have been used as an ingredient in cosmetics. Due to the content of phytoestrogens (isoflavones and coumarins), alfalfa has been thought to regulate menstrual cycles and stimulate milk flow in breastfeeding women. In addition, traditional medicinal use of alfalfa sprouts or leaves includes treatment of arthritis, kidney problems, boils, cancer, and as an anti-rheumatic, cardiotonic, depurative, lactagogue, antipyretic, emmenagogue, and antiscorbutic (Foster and Duke, 1990; Barnes et al., 2002). Leaves of alfalfa are used traditionally as a tea to treat diabetes in South Africa.

Documented Biological Effects of Alfalfa The extracts from alfalfa sprouts, leaves, and roots have been indicated to be helpful in lowering cholesterol levels in animal and human studies (Story et al., 1984). Eating a diet containing alfalfa decreased blood-cholesterol levels and helped to protect monkeys from atherosclerosis that were on a highcholesterol diet (Mielmann, 2013). Consuming alfalfa seeds helped normalize serum cholesterol concentrations and decreased low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and apolipoprotein B concentrations in patients with type II hyperlipoproteinemia (Mölgaard et al., 1987). A diet containing alfalfa decreased hyperglycemia in streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice. The results demonstrated the presence of antihyperglycemic, insulin-releasing, and insulin-like activities in alfalfa (Gray and Flatt, 1997). Wang et al. (2012) investigated the effects of alfalfa saponins on cholesterol metabolism and the gene expression in the liver of hyperlipidemic rats. Alfalfa saponins prevented and treated hyperlipidemia by increasing the expression of CYP7Al and LDL-R in the liver and by promoting the excretion of liver cholesterol. Shi et al. (2014) assessed the cholesterol-lowering effects of alfalfa saponin extract and observed an increase in cholesterol excretion and a down-regulation of the Hmgcr and Acat2 genes, as well as up-regulation of Cyp7a1 and Ldlr in the liver of hyperlipidemic rats. In an in vitro analysis assessing antibacterial activity, alfalfa leaves extracts exhibited activity against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Chavan et al., 2015). In an experiment to assess the effects of a saponin-rich alfalfa extract on the pathogenic fungi Candida albicans, results revealed a significant reduction in germ tube formation, reduced hyphal growth, reduced yeast adherence and biofilm formation, and eradication of a mature biofilm (Sadowska et al., 2014). As the content of the phytoestrogen coumestrol increases in pasture feed, there is a correlated reduction in animal fecundity (Khalmatov, 1964). In an experiment with streptozotocin-diabetic mice, a diet containing alfalfa had antihyperglycemic, insulin-releasing, and insulin-like effects and reduced hyperglycemia (Gray and Flatt, 1997).

Alfalfa for Human Consumption Although alfalfa is generally known as a feed source for livestock, it is becoming more popular in many parts of the world for human consumption as it is a valuable source of protein which could contribute to sustainable food development in developed countries (Mielmann, 2013). Alfalfa sprouts are widely consumed by humans as a garnish. Concentrates of proteins from leaves and the dehydrated plant are components of many nutritional supplement products (Hatfield, 1990). Alfalfa has been used as food in parts of Russia, China, America, and South Africa. In the past, alfalfa meal was incorporated into a cereal mixture and used to nourish small children (Levy and Fox, 1935). Chinese farmers have also

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consumed it as a vegetable, and it has been utilized to increase the protein, dietary fiber, mineral, and vitamin content of wheat flour (Hao et al., 2008). Alfalfa is one of the most popular sprouts available and is often consumed raw or slightly cooked in salads and sandwiches or as decorative appetizers (Peñas et al., 2009). Alfalfa sometimes has a bitter taste due to its saponin content (Sen et al., 1998). Recent sensory tests conducted with human volunteers using saponins isolated from above-ground parts of alfalfa have shown that zahnic acid tredismoside is responsible for the taste (Oleszek, 2002). L-canavanine is a potentially toxic non-protein amino acid, antimetabolite of L-arginine that is stored by many leguminous plants. This compound has shown anticancer activity against a number of carcinomas and cancer cell lines. The occurrence of canavanine in alfalfa products has also stimulated considerable interest due to the correlation between high amounts of canavanine consumption and the onset of a systemic lupus erythematosus-like syndrome (Rosenthal and Nkomo, 2000). An investigation was conducted to determine the canavanine content in commercially available sprouts and in the seed of ten alfalfa cultivars. The sprouts contained canavanine ranging from 1.3% to 2.4% of the dry matter, depending on the source. Alfalfa seeds were also rich in canavanine with contents varying from 1.4% to 1.8% of the dry matter. On average, the tested seeds contained 1.5% ± 0.03% canavanine. Breeding cultivars of alfalfa with high protein and nutrient content and low canavanine will be important if human consumption of alfalfa is going to increase substantially.

Phytochemistry of Alfalfa Alfalfa contains many secondary metabolites including saponins, tannins, coumarins, carotenoids, tocols, flavonoids, steroids and alkaloids (Alekseeva et al., 1974; Knuckles et al., 1976; Livingston et al., 1980; Hernández et al., 1991; Bisby et al., 1994; Thring et al., 2009). The above-ground portions contain vitamin C (110%–304.4 mg%), vitamin D, carotene, phytoestrogenic compounds, including formononetin glycosides and coumestrol (Figure 6.6), saponins with a hemolytic index of 1:100 and 5%–7% ash, in which there are up to 40% calcium salts. As the content of coumestrol increases in pasture feed, there is a correlated reduction in animal fecundity (Khalmatov, 1964). Alkaloids contained in the plant include trigonelline, stachydrine, and homostachydrine (Duke, 1985; Mills, 1994; Dixon, 2004; Bora and Sharma, 2011). Stochmal et al (2001) identified nine flavones and adenosine in the aerial parts of alfalfa including apigenin 7-O-[β-D-glucuronopyranosyl(1 2)-O-β-D-glucuronopyranosyl]-4′-O-β-D-glucuronopyranoside, apigenin 7-O-[2-O-feruloyl-β-D-glucuronopyranosyl(1 2)-O-β-D-glucuronopyranosyl]-4β-O-β-Dglucuronopyranoside, apigenin 7-O-{2-O-feruloyl-[β-D-glucuronopyranosyl(1 3)]-O-β-D-glucuronopyranosyl(1 2)-O-β-D-glucuronopyranoside},apigenin7-O-{2-O-p-coumaroyl-[β-D-glucuronopyranosyl(1 3)]-O-β-D-glucuronopyranosyl(1 2)-O-β-D-glucuronopyranoside}, and luteolin 7-O-[2-O-feruloylβ-D-glucuronopyranosyl(1 2)-O-β-D-glucuronopyranosyl]-4′-O-β-D-glucuronopyranoside. The chemical composition of the forage crop was presented by Bickoff et al. (1972) and Mustafa et al. (2001). In the above-ground parts of alfalfa, measurements of crude protein, crude fat, nitrogen-containing compounds, proteins, non-protein nitrogen, amide and amino acid nitrogen, lipids, plant sterols, triterpenoid, carbohydrates, vitamins, water-soluble vitamins, micro-macro elements, and others were taken. The individual tested elements or organic compounds were found in varying concentrations in different parts of the plant (leaves, stem, seeds, and roots). Higher concentrations of protein, vitamin, and macroelements occurred in the leaves and young stems than in main stalk (Bickoff et al., 1972; Mustafa et al., 2001). Nitrogen-containing compounds and carbohydrates occur mainly in stems and seed. M.  sativa contained the highest amount of polyphenol compounds and exhibited the greatest antioxidant activity through the scavenging of free radicals (Rana et al., 2010).

FIGURE 6.6 Molecular structure of the phytoestrogenic compound coumestrol.

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Summary Alfalfa (M. sativa L.) is likely to have been the first plant species grown exclusively for forage. It has become one of the most important forage crops for animals and is now cultivated worldwide. Having high nutritional value, alfalfa served as the perfect fodder for the beasts of burden transporting goods along the silk route. The uniqueness of alfalfa for agriculture lies in its biological and ecological properties. Despite the lack of scientific knowledge, people from earlier millennia recognized these beneficial characteristics which led to the domestication and cultivation of alfalfa. The greatest diversity of genetic material is concentrated in centers of origin which are Central Asia, South Asia, and Siberia. While the Mediterranean and North American genetic centers are secondary, they have played an important role in the evolution, selection, and distribution of new alfalfa cultivars around the globe. The largest genetic collections of alfalfa plants are maintained by the South Australian Research and Development Institute (SARDI), the United States Department of Agriculture and Germplasm Resources Information Network (USDA-GRIN), the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) in Syria, and the French Institute National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA). While alfalfa is a valuable and essential forage plant, there is no doubt that a focused breeding program could provide a healthy and nutritious crop for human consumption.

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Section IV

Western Asia and the Middle East

Iran

7 An Overview of Important Endemic Plants and Their Products in Iran Reza E. Owfi Gorgan Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources University CONTENTS Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 171 Important Endemic Plants and Their Products .......................................................................................172 Spermatophytes – Angiosperms – Dicotyledons – Dialypetalae ............................................................172 Spermatophytes – Angiosperms – Dicotyledons – Sympetalae ............................................................. 184 Spermatophytes – Angiosperms – Dicotyledons – Monochlamideae.....................................................186 Spermatophytes – Angiosperms – Monocotyledons ...............................................................................189 Spermatophytes – Gymnosperms .......................................................................................................... 193 Cryptogamaes – Pteridophytes .............................................................................................................. 196 Cryptogamae: Non-Vascular Plants ....................................................................................................... 197 The Poppy Plant (Papaver somniferum) in Iran..................................................................................... 198 References .............................................................................................................................................. 198

Introduction The Silk Road linked east coast cities of China to western and southern Asia, to Northern Africa and to Eastern Europe. It was a network of roads used for commercial purposes and consisted of two mainland and sea routes. Until the 15th century AD, it was the largest commercial network in the world. Iran is located centrally for the land routes of the Silk Roads while the sea route passed through the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman to the south of modern Iran (Abdoli and Garkani, 2012). Iran (Figure 7.1) is located in the Middle East with an area of 1,648,195 km 2. Its climate is unique. The difference in daily air temperature in the winter, between the warmest and the coldest parts of the country, sometimes reaches more than 50°C. Annual precipitation in the north of the country is more than 2,000 mm but in the Lut desert, which is one of the hottest places in the world, annual precipitation reaches