Musicology: The Key Concepts (Routledge Key Guides) [2 ed.] 0415679680, 9780415679688

Table of contents :
Musicology- Front Cover
Musicology
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
List of key concepts
Acknowledgements
Note on the text
Preface to the second edition
Introduction
Music/Musicology
Musicology: The Key Concepts
ABSOLUTE
AESTHETICS
ALTERITY
ANALYSIS
AUTHENTICITY
AUTOBIOGRAPHY
AUTONOMY
AVANT-GARDE
BIOGRAPHY (LIFE AND WORK)
BODY
CANON
CLASS
COLD WAR
CONFLICT (MUSIC AND CONFLICT)
CONSCIOUSNESS
COVER VERSION
CREATIVITY
CRITICAL MUSICOLOGY
CRITICAL THEORY
CRITICISM
CULTURAL STUDIES
CULTURE
CULTURE INDUSTRY
DECADENCE
DECONSTRUCTION
DIEGETIC/NONDIEGETIC
DISABILITY
DISCOURSE
ECOMUSICOLOGY
EMOTION
ENLIGHTENMENT, THE
ETHICS (MUSIC AND ETHICS)
ETHNICITY
FEMINISM
FILM MUSIC
FORM
FORMALISM
GAY MUSICOLOGY
GENDER
GENIUS
GENRE
GESTURE
GLOBALIZATION
HERMENEUTICS
HISTORICAL MUSICOLOGY
HISTORICISM
HISTORIOGRAPHY
HYBRIDITY
IDENTITY
IDEOLOGY
INFLUENCE
INTERPRETATION
INTERTEXTUALITY
JAZZ
LANDSCAPE
LANGUAGE
LATENESS (LATE WORKS/LATE STYLE)
LISTENING
MARXISM
MEANING
METAPHOR
MODERNISM
NARRATIVE
NATIONALISM
NEW MUSICOLOGY
9/11
ORGANICISM
ORIENTALISM
PERIODIZATION
PLACE
POLITICS (MUSIC AND POLITICS)
POPULAR MUSIC
POPULAR MUSICOLOGY
POSITIVISM
POSTCOLONIAL/POSTCOLONIALISM
POSTMODERNISM
POST-STRUCTURALISM
PSYCHOLOGY
RACE
RECEPTION
RECORDING
RENAISSANCE
ROMANTICISM
SEMIOTICS
SKETCH
SOUND/SOUNDSCAPE/SOUND STUDIES
STANCE
STRUCTURALISM
STYLE
SUBJECT POSITION
SUBJECTIVITY
SUBLIME
THEORY
TRADITION
VALUE
WORK
Bibliography
Name index
Subject index

Citation preview

Musicology

Now in an updated second edition, Musicology: The Key Concepts is a concise A–Z reference guide to the terms and concepts associated with contemporary musicology. This edition contains significant revision to the original edition and includes twenty new entries: •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• ••

Autobiography Cold War Conflict (music and conflict) Consciousness Creativity Decadence Disability Ecomusicology Emotion Ethics (music and ethics) Film music Form Gesture Lateness (late works/late style) Listening 9/11 Politics (music and politics) Popular musicology Sound/soundscape/sound studies Stance

With all entries updated, and suggestions for further reading throughout, this text is an essential resource for all students of music, musicology, and wider performancerelated humanities disciplines. David Beard is Senior Lecturer in Music at Cardiff University, UK. He has published widely in peer-reviewed journals, including Cambridge Opera Journal, Music Analysis, and Twentieth-Century Music, and is the author of Harrison Birtwistle’s Operas and Music Theatre (2012). He co-edited Harrison Birtwistle Studies (2015) and has contributed chapters to Ancient Drama in Music for the Modern Stage (2010) and Peter Maxwell Davies Studies (2009). He sits on the editorial board of the journal Music & Letters. Kenneth Gloag is Professor of Music at Cardiff University, UK. His publications include books on Tippett’s A Child of Our Time (1999) and Nicolas Maw’s Odyssey (2008). He is the author of Postmodernism in Music (2012), and has co-edited and contributed chapters to Peter Maxwell Davies Studies (2009), The Cambridge Companion to Michael Tippett (2013), and Harrison Birtwistle Studies (2015). He was inaugural reviews editor of the journal Twentieth-Century Music (2004–12).

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Musicology The Key Concepts Second Edition

David Beard and Kenneth Gloag

Second edition published 2016 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2016 Taylor & Francis The right of David Beard and Kenneth Gloag to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. First edition published 2005 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Beard, David, 1971- author. Musicology : the key concepts / David Beard and Kenneth Gloag. — 2nd edition. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Musicology. I. Gloag, Kenneth, author. II. Title. ML3797.B35 2016 780.72—dc23 2015027777 ISBN: 978-0-415-67967-1 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-415-67968-8 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-64746-3 (ebk) Typeset in Bembo by Swales & Willis Ltd, Exeter, Devon, UK

Contents

List of key concepts vi viii Acknowledgements ix Note on the text x Preface to the second edition xi Introduction KEY CONCEPTS Bibliography Name index Subject index

1 262 337 348

List of key concepts

absolute aesthetics alterity analysis authenticity autobiography autonomy avant-garde biography (life and work) body canon class Cold War conflict (music and conflict) consciousness cover version creativity critical musicology critical theory criticism cultural studies culture culture industry decadence deconstruction diegetic/nondiegetic disability discourse

ecomusicology emotion Enlightenment ethics (music and ethics) ethnicity feminism film music form formalism gay musicology gender genius genre gesture globalization hermeneutics historical musicology historicism historiography hybridity identity ideology influence interpretation intertextuality jazz

List of key concepts vii

landscape language lateness (late works/late style) listening Marxism meaning metaphor modernism narrative nationalism new musicology 9/11 organicism Orientalism periodization place politics (music and politics) popular music popular musicology positivism postcolonial/postcolonialism postmodernism

post-structuralism psychology race reception recording Renaissance Romanticism semiotics sketch sound/soundscape/sound studies stance structuralism style subject position subjectivity sublime theory tradition value work

Acknowledgements

The idea for the original version of this book emerged through our experience of teaching undergraduate and postgraduate students in music at Cardiff University, and we would like to thank all who helped produce the positive atmosphere within which both the original and this revised version were developed. Several colleagues at Cardiff University provided valuable support and advice for the undertaking and completion of this new, revised edition. In particular we would like to thank Sarah Hill, Keith Chapin, Peter Sedgwick and Charles Wilson for their input. We would also like to thank the School of Music at Cardiff University for providing financial support, and Alicia Stark for her assistance with the bibliography and index. Finally, this book would not have been possible without the support and patience of family and friends, in particular Danijela Špiric´-Beard, the editorial staff at Routledge, especially Constance Ditzel, Genevieve Aoki, Aurora Montgomery, Sophie Thomson and Iram Satti, and our copyeditor Judith Forshaw.

Note on the text

The aim of this book is to make available a range of ideas for further consideration and discussion. We have therefore attempted as far as possible to use modern editions of texts that the reader is most likely to have access to. In some cases this takes the form of anthologies and translations. For example, when we refer to Kant’s Critique of Judgement, we base our references on the extracts translated and published by le Huray and Day in their superb collection entitled Music and Aesthetics in the Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries (le Huray and Day 1981), which is more likely to be available in a music library than is Kant’s complete text. We hope that this will form a first point of contact with specific concepts and contexts, providing a pathway towards complete texts and related concepts. Using this book as a point of entry means that it does not constitute a primary text as such; rather, its purpose is to direct, and we expect that students will follow these directions – to ideas, texts, music – and in doing so they will engage with the relevant sources and not become dependent on our work or on the examples and interpretations that we provide. Bibliographical references are given throughout using the author–date system. However, where we make passing reference to a year of publication without the author’s name in parentheses, this is intended to give only a historical location and not to form part of the reference system. Dates of historical figures, such as composers and philosophers, are given in the name index, and cross-references are indicated in bold.

Preface to the second edition

Since the original edition of this book was published in 2005, we have been encouraged by the response we have received from many colleagues in many universities, colleges and conservatoires who have highlighted their use of the book in the teaching of music and musicology. It has become a regular presence on student reading lists and it has had a wider reach than perhaps we originally anticipated. The decision to undertake the preparation of a new, significantly revised edition was not based on any perceived need to respond to a seismic shift in musicology as a discipline or to a new wave of stylistic changes in music. Indeed, since the impact of the new musicology in the 1980s and 1990s, musicology seems to have been moving through periods of ongoing evolution within which new ideas, concepts and contexts have emerged and have added to the understanding of musicology as a diverse discipline and of music as a plural subject, but it has not been marked by rupture – nor, indeed, by new ideological conflicts and tensions. However, there has been a significant increase in the quantity of published work – a reflection in part of the increasing demands of academic life – and the range of music and related issues that are being explored in print. This new version of Musicology: The Key Concepts has been formulated to reflect these subtle changes through the addition of new concepts, our engagement with literature published since 2005, and the revisiting of work from before that point in time. New concepts include, among others, Cold War, conflict, consciousness, disability, ecomusicology, emotion, listening, 9/11, sound and stance. In addition, the inclusion of form and film music, for example, emerge from our own critical reflections on the first edition. All concepts that were explored in the original version have been revisited and revised, in some cases extensively, in others less so, and we have added new recommended reading throughout.

Introduction

Music/Musicology Music and musicology are both separate and related constructs. Music as a practical activity has its own history, but musicology, as a process of study, inquiry and reflection, while it forms its own context and employs distinct concepts, is clearly dependent upon and reflective of music as its subject. Clearly there are problems in distinguishing between concept and context. We can conceptualize style, for example, as a set of issues that surround the use of this term in musical discourse, and we can discuss the use of style as a subject and parameter of musicological inquiry. But this may ultimately be a different exercise from the writing of a detailed history of a specific style or stylistic period (see periodization), such as the Classical or Baroque style, an exercise that would involve a specific context. However, the process of inquiry may require the application of various different concepts. From this perspective, our selection of concepts is a reflection of a certain practice; in effect, it provides keywords in musicology. These concepts can now be conceived of as forming part of the contemporary musicologist’s toolbox. Music has a long history, while musicology has, by comparison, enjoyed a relatively short lifespan. Yet one could argue that musicology, which can broadly be defined as thinking about music, as reflected through reading about it, listening to it and writing about it, is already present within the acts of composing and performing music. Music is an art form and context that has always invited theoretical speculation and critical reflection, and we can presume that composers, for example, have always thought about their own creative processes and that these processes are somehow informed by the study and experience of other, already existing music. However, such reflection and interaction may be seen as stopping short of a properly conceived musicology that could be understood to stand outside the creative process in order to provide a clearer perspective upon

xii Introduction

that process, its end product in the form of a musical work, and, just as significantly, the social and cultural contexts within which the process and product could be situated and interpreted. This broad conception of musicology contrasts with the narrower focus of specific aspects of musicological activity. Although earlier figures such as Forkel and Fétis outlined programmes of what could be considered an early musicology, it was Austrian musicologist Guido Adler who provided the first description of, and effectively a prescription for, musicology. In an article entitled ‘Umfang, Methode und Ziel der Musikwissenschaft’ (‘The Scope, Method and Aim of Musicology’), published in 1885 in the first issue of Vierteljahrsschrift für Musikwissenschaft (Adler 1885; see also Bujic´ 1988, 348–55), Adler outlined a separation between the historical and systematic dimensions of music, with the rigour of the exercise reflected in the term Musikwissenschaft (science of music). He repeated this model in his Methode der Musikgesichte, published in 1919. For Adler, the historical field consisted of the organization of music history into epochs, periods and nations. In contrast, the systematic field was to consist of the internal properties and characteristics of music such as harmony and tonality. Clearly, a great deal of musicological activity after Adler could be seen to reflect this division, with the study of music history often reflecting large-scale categorization (see historiography) and the construction of a canon of the Western tradition of classical music, while the systematic field could be viewed as anticipating the development of music analysis and the emergence of specific theories of harmony, tonality and form (see theory). However, what is most revealing about Adler’s project in general is its quasi-scientific nature, with the claim of the systematic reflecting the rationalizing and positivistic (see positivism) impulses and the search for objectivity common to a number of musicological contexts. However one responds to Adler’s division, the study of music remains a set of distinct areas, many of which might be significantly different from any other while also potentially informing each other. This difference is further extended in this book through the inclusion of areas such as ethnomusicology (see ethnicity), jazz and popular music studies, with musicology now understood as an all-embracing term for the study of music that respects the ‘whole musical field’ (Middleton 1990, 7), a project that is different from more traditional models of musicology, which previously sought to exclude such music and ideas from its domain. In this book we have taken the broad perspective, reflecting the diversity of our own musical experiences and interests, which we think also reflects the contemporary situation of both music and musicology. Therefore, references to jazz, or to different aspects of popular music, for example,

Introduction xiii

sit easily alongside our interests in aspects of the Western art music tradition. We see no contradiction, or tension, between an interest in and an ability to write about a wide range of different music from different contexts. However, although we see musicology as potentially embracing all music, this does not lead to uniformity and the negation of difference. If embracing musical difference is important, so too is the recognition of an intellectual diversity; just as we listen to and reflect on a wide range of different music, our interpretations are informed by an interest in the work of many different scholars, some from within musicology – including, for example, Abbate, Dahlhaus, Kerman, Kramer, McClary, Solie, Taruskin and Whittall – and others, such as Barthes, Derrida and Foucault, who come from other intellectual disciplines and whose work has added new perspectives for musicology. Our understanding of musicology as a diverse, plural discipline leads inevitably to the conclusion that there is no defining, overarching narrative, no all-encompassing story within which the details can be enclosed. Rather, there are parts, as perhaps reflected in the series of concepts outlined in this book; they may intersect, they may at times collide, but they are not necessarily all small parts of the same large story. And yet there is also, we hope, an underlying consistency as defined by the actual concepts identified as relevant. Many concepts, such as post-structuralism and postmodernism, for example, both of which arrived relatively late in musicology in comparison with other disciplines, have a relevance and explanatory force for many different musical and musicological contexts. A possible historical narrative for musicology could suggest that a point of origin could be situated within the reflections upon the nature, content and function of music that existed in the distant past of ancient Greece and the theories of Plato and the poetics of Aristotle (see Barker 1989). Later, but still distant, writings on music took the form of medieval and Renaissance treatises and polemics. The Enlightenment of the eighteenth century witnessed the rationalization of knowledge and consequently further enhanced the position and status of music within an intellectual discourse. The Enlightenment also gave birth to the emergence of a new historical consciousness that would further develop during the nineteenth century. The eighteenth century also brought into focus the philosophical inquiry into the nature of music in the shape of the aesthetics of music. Historicism and aestheticism (see aesthetics) became central characteristics of the nineteenth century and the defining Romanticism of that time. Romanticism reflected the literary, linguistic dimensions of musical experience (see language), which were simultaneously heightened and subverted by the impact of modernism in the early twentieth century, with the rationalization of

xiv Introduction

modernity providing a context for the systematic study of music in the form of musicology. The above, intentionally simplistic, synopsis is persuasive and accurate in terms of a chronology and the main developments, yet it also has its problems. Most obviously it is lacking in detail, but equally problematic is the suggestion of a linear, goal-orientated narrative, an onward progression and development through time, with one phase connecting to the next with a remarkable degree of continuity and inevitability, leading towards Adler’s musicology and then the contexts and concept of modernism, suggesting a historical narrative that is ripe for deconstruction. In other words, it tells a certain history that is informative but that also simplifies, effectively ignoring the detours and disruptions, without specificity, misinterpreting the ruptures and ripples, and replacing difference with similarity. Paradoxically, it now demands a more complex perspective, one that can explode the reductive simplicity and explore the hitherto hidden fragments. Musicology has undergone dramatic changes since the 1980s. When we were writing the first edition of this book we became highly aware of a ‘before and after’ effect, in which a certain shift in musicological discourse became a recurrent feature. Then we tried, as we still do, to avoid this as a model and perhaps also to avoid the temptation to overinterpret or overdramatize this situation. Nevertheless, the essential fact is that what constitutes musicology now is very different from how it might have looked in the 1960s or 1970s. It is also important to reflect upon the fact that these shifts occur in parallel with the broadening of those musical repertories that are seen as being available for musicology. But what came before and what came after? What is the dividing line, and is it real or imaginary? In 1980, American musicologist Joseph Kerman published an article entitled ‘How We Got into Analysis, and How to Get Out’ (Kerman 1994). Without doing a systematic musicological search, we guess that this is probably one of the most commonly cited texts in this book: it appears in relation to concepts such as analysis, new musicology and post-structuralism, among others, and it is clearly a polemical statement that has enjoyed a wide range of responses and reactions. In 1985, Kerman published a book with the title Contemplating Music in America and Musicology in Britain (Kerman 1985); in this, he outlines the divisions of musicology and presents a critique of what he perceives as the formalism and positivism that had come to define musicology. In the article, Kerman charted the problems of analysis, its ideological nature (see ideology) and consequently the relationship between analysis and organicism as a ‘ruling ideology’ (Kerman 1994, 15). Kerman’s critique

Introduction xv

is a persuasive one, highlighting the a priori assumptions that music analysis can easily make about the unity of a musical work. However, for some, it may just as easily raise other problems. Kerman’s plea for a more ‘humane’ form of criticism may be rather vague, and his discussion of Schumann’s ‘Aus meinen Tränen spriessen’ from the song cycle Dichterliebe (1840) might just be the type of programmatic description that many musicologists will remain suspicious of. However, this article and the book that followed did make an impact, and much of the writing that comes after Kerman, some of which has been described as forming a new musicology, often acknowledges the power of Kerman’s arguments. So, do Kerman’s polemics provide the dividing line between an old and a new musicology? With reference to Kerman’s Musicology, Nicholas Cook and Mark Everist, in the preface to a collection of essays called Rethinking Music, suggest that a ‘before Kerman/after Kerman paradigm’ may be a myth, yet, ‘as myths go, this is quite a helpful one’ (Cook and Everist 1999, viii). We would agree with this view. For some, musicology after Kerman may be marked by a sense of loss, a nostalgia for musicology past, while, for others, the current state of the discipline is better for the critical reflection inspired by Kerman. It also provides a reference point, a moment against which departures can be measured. But, if musicology looks different to how it was in, say, the 1960s and 1970s, the pattern since the impact of the new musicology is one of developments and transformations rather than ruptures and rejections, with many of the concerns of the new musicology now well established as part of an intellectual mainstream, a fact that is recognized by Lawrence Kramer in his reference to the first edition of this book (see Kramer 2011, 63–4). Over several decades now (‘after Kerman’), musicology has become more critical and less positivistic, more concerned with interpretations and less with facts (see interpretation). It has also become more interdisciplinary as the boundaries between different types of music are partially erased and the search for new critical models pushes way beyond the limits of a traditional musicology. For some, this is something to be resisted (see Williams 2004), but, from our own vantage point, whenever and wherever this book is being read ‘now’ is a good time to try to be a musicologist, with a seemingly endless range of music to study and the challenge of developing and extending our vision and vocabulary providing a great stimulus and motivation for current and future research. We think this book will help. Further reading: Bowman 1998; Christensen 2002; Dell’Antonio 2004; Downes 2014a; Fulcher 2011; Korsyn 2003; Shuker 1998; Stevens 1980; Taruskin 2005a; Williams 2001

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MUSICOLOGY The Key Concepts

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Absolute 3

ABSOLUTE The conceptualization of an absolute music emerged during the Romanticism of the nineteenth century and was first articulated in the writings of philosophers such as Herder and critics such as E.T.A. Hoffmann (see criticism). Paradoxically, however, it was given musical and philosophical representation in the writings of Richard Wagner, who coined the term in the context of a programme note for his own performance of Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony in 1846. In this text, absolute music is defined as that which Beethoven leaves behind through the introduction of voice and word in the final movement of the symphony: With the beginning of this finale Beethoven’s music takes on a more distinctly speaking character: it leaves behind the character of pure instrumental music such as had been maintained throughout the first three movements, the realm of infinite and indistinct expression. The further progress of this musical poem strives toward a resolution, a resolution that can only be articulated by human speech. We must admire how the master has prepared the entrance of language and the human voice as something both anticipated and necessary by means of the shattering recitative of the double basses when, nearly transgressing the boundaries of absolute music, this recitative engages the other instruments with its powerfully emotional discourse, pressing for some resolution, and finally issuing in a lyrical theme. (Grey 2009, 486; see also Dahlhaus 1989a, 18) Wagner’s interpretation of Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony focuses on those moments and issues, the introduction of voice and text, that project a profound distance from the expectations of the symphony as a genre, and the description of the ‘musical poem’ repositions Beethoven as an anticipation of Wagner’s own synthesis of music and drama. For Wagner, absolute music became an object of criticism, with his own ideas and music, which sought to embrace the widest possible musical and extra-musical world, looking in a diametrically opposed direction. However, while Wagner’s account of absolute music results in a negative definition, the term becomes more routinely attached to purely instrumental music that can be claimed to exist without reference to anything beyond itself and was often seen as the opposite of programme music, or music with a descriptive content, such as the symphonic poems of Liszt which were heavily influenced by Wagner (see influence). It therefore featured in the polemics of the Viennese critic Eduard Hanslick (see aesthetics, criticism, meaning), who attacked the extra-musical

4 Absolute

dimensions of Wagner’s work and, through the understanding of a pure, absolute music, led to the claim of an aesthetic autonomy and a formalist account of music (see formalism). However, Hanslick himself does not directly invoke absolute music as a term or concept, which leads Sanna Pederson, writing from a current historical perspective, to claim that it is a ‘myth that Hanslick championed the term’ (Pederson 2009, 262). Pederson also seeks to draw a distinction between a history of the term absolute music as opposed to a concept of it, and describes Dahlhaus’s highly influential account of absolute music as a twentiethcentury construction (see Dahlhaus 1989a). However, in response to Pederson’s interpretation, it is clear that there is often a distance between the construction of terminology, the naming of a concept, and the practices to which it relates, and Dahlhaus’s account is one reflection of that recursive pattern (see Kynt 2012). A discourse of absolute music was an active force in the nineteenth century even if it was not yet named as such. For example, E.T.A. Hoffmann’s writings on Beethoven had raised the importance of instrumental music and located it within the context of Romanticism. In his famous review of Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony (1807–8), Hoffmann declares: When music is spoken of as an independent art the term can properly apply only to instrumental music, which scorns all aid, all admixture of other arts, and gives pure expression to its own peculiar artistic nature. It is the most romantic of all arts – one might almost say the only one that is purely romantic. (Charlton 1989, 236) This suggestion of an ‘independent art’, by implication an absolute music, elevates instrumental music and ascribes a high aesthetic value through the formation of a canon of great works, processes that were most clearly defined through the context of the symphony (see genre). As well as the romantic critical discourse of Hoffmann, several philosophers also articulated ideas that came very close to what would become known as an idea of absolute music. For example, Hegel, the highly influential German Idealist philosopher and contemporary of Beethoven, described a ‘self-sufficient music’ that became ‘purely musical’ through eschewing and eradicating the ‘alien element’ of language as defined by poetry (in le Huray and Day 1981, 351). If Hegel’s version of an absolute music is essentially defined by an absence, in this case language, for supporters of an absolute music these absences became a source of strength. As Dahlhaus states:

Aesthetics 5

The idea of ‘absolute music’ – as we may henceforth call independent instrumental music, even though the term did not arise for another half-century – consists of the conviction that instrumental music purely and clearly expresses the true nature of music by its very lack of concept, object, and purpose. Not its existence, but what it stands for, is decisive. Instrumental music, as ‘pure structure,’ represents itself. (Dahlhaus 1989a, 7) In other words, music was seen to achieve a certain purity around its lack of a fixed concept or function, a claim that echoes the ‘art for art’s sake’ ethos of the period. For Dahlhaus, this absolute music now became paradigmatic: ‘the idea of absolute music – gradually and against resistance – became the [a]esthetic paradigm of German musical culture in the nineteenth century’ (ibid., 9). The establishment of this paradigm posed problems for the reception of other genres, such as the lied, which depended upon a text for its nature and identity. The debates generated around the claim towards an absolute music also cast a shadow over modernism during the twentieth century through its own utopian aspirations towards an aesthetic purity and autonomy and it has been subject to different critical interpretations (see McClary 1993b). Further reading: Bonds 2006; Chua 1999; Dahlhaus 1983a, 1989b; Gooley 2011; Grey 1995, 2014; Grimes, Donovan and Marx 2013; Hefling 2004; Hoeckner 2002

AESTHETICS Aesthetics is a general term that was coined to describe philosophical reflection on the arts, including music. The aesthetics of music, therefore, asks some fundamental questions about the subject, such as: what is its nature? What does music mean? Individual positions and beliefs can be described as aesthetic. It is also associated with ideology in that specific sets of beliefs situate specific aesthetic responses and interpretations (see, for example, Marxism) and can also dictate the nature of the questions asked of music. While the philosophical scrutiny of music has a long history, beginning with Plato and Aristotle (see Barker 1989), the origin of the term is generally associated with Baumgarten, who used it in his Meditationes philosophicae de nonnullis ad poema pertinentibus of 1735 (le Huray and Day 1981, 214; Baumgarten 1954). Baumgarten was concerned with the distinction between knowledge and perception and their respective

6 Aesthetics

faculties, superior and lower: ‘Things known, then, are those known by the superior faculty; they come within the ambit of logic. Things perceived come within the ambit of the science of perception and are the object of the lower faculty. These may be termed aesthetic’ (le Huray and Day 1981, 214). On this account, aesthetics is concerned with perception, how we see art, read literature and listen to music. All these acts require us to interpret what we see, read and hear; therefore it is possible to understand aesthetics in relation to interpretation (see hermeneutics). Baumgarten’s distinction between things known and things perceived also relates to the opposition between rationalism and empiricism (between what we know and what we experience) that was a recurring feature of the period (see Enlightenment). One of the foundational texts of aesthetics is the Critique of Judgement (Kritik der Urteilskraft, 1790; see Kant 1987) by Immanuel Kant, the leading German philosopher of the period. It is therefore logical that his ideas have been given a certain prominence. Much of Kant’s thought emerges through the tension between empiricism and rationalism, with his distinctive contribution being the forging of a synthesis between these two large-scale poles. In the critique, Kant is concerned with how an aesthetic quality such as beauty may be both perceived and rationalized. Musicologist Wayne Bowman, in his book Philosophical Perspectives on Music (Bowman 1998), provides a neat summary: Kant explores the distinctive characteristics and grounds for judgments of beauty from four perspectives, or four ‘moments’: their quality, their quantity, their relation, and their modality. The quality of aesthetic judgments is, he says, disinterested. Their quantity is, though conceptless, universal. Their relation is purposive (while strictly speaking, purposeless). And their modality is exemplary. (ibid., 77) What does it mean to describe a judgement as disinterested? For Kant, we need a certain sense of detachment, an aesthetic purity, which leads us to avoid the temptation of seeking to prove or establish a predetermined outcome. If, for example, we approach a painting with the expectation that it is beautiful, then it is likely that the expectation will be fulfilled. But this is not an aesthetic judgement. Rather, if we are disinterested then we are more likely to allow ourselves to achieve a truer perception of whether the art work is beautiful or not. However, in order for it to be a judgement, it has to be grounded in something more than mere personal preference. For some, this disinterestedness, by implication a detachment, leads not only to a certain aesthetic purity but also to

Aesthetics 7

disengagement with the real world and the reality of art works (see absolute music, autonomy, formalism). It could also ignore the contexts, circumstances and beliefs that may conspire to influence our perception. Kant’s reference to the universal provides a step from individual perception to a more general, collective understanding. In other words, if we perceive the art work to be beautiful, others should be able to experience the same qualities. This universality shifts the act of judgement away from a pure subjectivity, and this distinguishes Kant’s view from Baumgarten’s ‘lower faculty’. Kant also raises the question of the purpose of the art work, the third of the four perspectives summarized by Bowman, and it is this perspective that looks towards formalism. For Kant, aesthetic judgements are grounded in the work itself, its patterns, structures and what he defines as its ‘formal finality’. In other words, how the work is recognized as a complete entity, a unified object, reflects a process of judgement. Finally, Bowman refers to a modality that is exemplary. The aesthetic judgement defines a condition that is set as an example; it becomes a model for others, a view that looks towards the establishment of a condition of value (see canon). This summary of Kant’s thought outlines a series of issues that recur throughout the history of aesthetics. Kant was also concerned with the comparison of different art forms, including music, and considered their relative aesthetic merits: As far as charm and stimulation go, I should place after poetry that art which comes closer to it than any of the other arts of eloquence and which can thus very naturally be combined with it: music. For although it communicates by means of mere sensations without concepts, and therefore does not, like poetry, leave anything to reflect on, it nevertheless moves us in more ways and with greater intensity than poetry does, even if its effect is more transient. (le Huray and Day 1981, 221) For Kant, music, in comparison with poetry, moves us with great intensity, but it is essentially transient in nature; therefore, as music passes through time, its mode of communication is such that it can only suggest (‘mere sensations’) without articulating recognizable concepts. This can be conceived as music’s weakness, its inability to articulate precise meaning. However, it is equally possible to counter this interpretation with an alternative perspective that grasps music’s suggestiveness and ambiguity as virtues, not flaws, and that opens music up to a rich and expansive range of interpretative possibilities. G.W.F. Hegel, a later, highly influential German philosopher, also reflected upon the nature of music and used comparison with other arts

8 Aesthetics

as a discursive strategy. For Hegel, in contrast to Kant, music’s transience is, in the words of Bowman, ‘not the impediment Kant believed . . . but an invaluable instrument of self-realization’ (Bowman 1998, 104). Hegel saw the process of aesthetic judgement differently from Kant. For Hegel, art works could also portray beauty as an intrinsic, objective quality. Music, and the arts in general, also assumed wider significance within Hegel’s philosophy, serving ‘the deepest interests of humanity, and the most comprehensive truths of the mind. It is in works of art that nations have deposited the profoundest intuitions and ideas of their hearts’ (ibid., 97). Throughout the nineteenth century, the philosophical reflection on music intensified, as did the aestheticization of music. Nietzsche and Schopenhauer, both post-Hegelian German philosophers of the period, captured, in different ways, the heightened subjectivity and intensification of meaning evident in the music of their time. For example, in his Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung (The World as Will and Idea) of 1819 (Schopenhauer 1995), Schopenhauer saw music as an art of great significance, that which comes nearest to representing his philosophical concept of the Will: It [music] stands quite apart from all the others. In it, we do not perceive an imitation or a copy of some idea of the things that exist in the world. Even so, it is such a great and eminently splendid art, it creates such a powerful reaction in man’s inmost depths, it is so thoroughly and profoundly understood by him as a uniquely universal language, even exceeding in clarity that of the phenomenal world itself. (le Huray and Day 1981, 324) The debates about the nature and significance of music continued throughout the twentieth century and, under the impact of modernism, intensified. The emergence of a critical theory also had implications for the aesthetic understanding of music. In the 1990s, the new musicology, through its critique of a formalist understanding of music, further extended the discussions around issues and perspectives that can be defined as aesthetic. For example, the work of Lawrence Kramer has revisited the recurring aesthetic question of the meaning of music, or what music means. His book Musical Meaning: Toward a Critical History (Kramer 2002) revisits this debate but gives it a contemporary dimension. The range of music covered in this book is also of significance: it includes the Marx Brothers, John Coltrane and Shostakovich as well as the expected starting point of nineteenth-century

Alterity 9

Romanticism. This diversity of musical repertoire provides a challenge for any contemporary aesthetics of music. Is it possible to construct strategies of interpretation that can find common ground across a wide range of musical contexts? Or do different types of music pose different questions that demand different aesthetic responses? See also: genius, language, postmodernism, sublime Further reading: Adorno 1997; Bowie 1993, 2002; Cook 2001; Dahlhaus 1982; Downes 2014a; Hamilton 2007; Hegel 1993; Kivy 2002; Kramer 2011; Lippman 1992; Scruton 1999

AGENCY see narrative, subjectivity ALTERITY Alterity refers to difference or otherness and is often used interchangeably with these terms. However, its origins lie in a shift of focus in cultural studies away from the philosophical sense of self established by the seventeenth-century French philosopher René Descartes – who based his understanding of the other always in relation to the self – towards a cultural and historical approach that focuses more specific attention on understanding the Other in its own right. As this sentence shows, a shift in emphasis is often illustrated by the use of the capitalized form of the term: for example, this form is used by the psychoanalytical theorist Jacques Lacan following his interest in desire and the work of G.W.F. Hegel (see identity). In cultural studies, alterity is related to greater concern for differences of race, ethnicity, gender and class. In postcolonial studies (see postcolonial/postcolonialism), for example, the concept of the subaltern was adopted from Italian Marxist cultural critic Antonio Gramsci (see Gramsci 1971). The subaltern group is one that is defined by its difference from a ruling elite; in the context of postcolonial theory, subalterns are non-ruling indigenous societies and their cultures. In cultural terms, alterity concerns those sections of post-Renaissance European society that are forbidden but desired: women, exotics, bohemians, primitives and peasants, for example. In this context, the use of minuets followed by waltzes in Classical period concert music may be understood as ‘enabling the rational bourgeois to deal with the disturbing fascination of the degenerate aristocracy on the one hand, the earthy peasantry on the other’ (Middleton 2000a, 63). By extension, sonata

10 Alterity

form (see analysis) was conducive to depicting difference, the second theme routinely being described as ‘feminine’ in contrast to the ‘masculine’ first theme (see gender). Key schemes could also reflect difference: famously, Mozart carefully considered his choice of key when depicting the rage of the Turkish character Osmin in Die Entführung aus dem Serail (1785–6) (Kivy 1988). The discipline that perhaps most obviously pertains to alterity, at least from a Western perspective, is ethnomusicology (see ethnicity). However, Philip Bohlman has outlined how, through the 1950s, ethnomusicology began to shift away from considering non-Western music as Other towards a new perspective that: insisted that the hermeneutic [see hermeneutics] potential of a music must lie in that music’s uniqueness, in its bearing no relation whatsoever to any other music, least of all to Western music. . . . A canonic reversal therefore occurred, in which the true music of the Other was Western art music. . . . This was less a matter of rebelling against the canon of Western art music than of turning to the rather more numerous and more enticing canons of non-Western music. (Bohlman 1992, 121) This quotation points to the fact that recognition of difference and the exclusion of others is central to the construction of musical canons. At the time, Bohlman observed that the discipline of musicology ‘covers up the racism, colonialism, and sexism that underlie many of the singular canons of the West. . . . Canons formed from “Great Men” and “Great Music” forged virtually unassailable categories of self and Other, one to discipline and reduce to singularity, the other to belittle and impugn’ (ibid., 198). Since these comments were made, musicology has gone some way to redress these oversights, although there is more work to be done, in particular on the questions of colonialism and imperialism (although see Zon 2007; Irving 2010; Beckles Willson 2013; Ghuman 2014; Bloechl 2015; Pasler 2015; Sykes, J. 2015). Popular music has also been associated with difference within both Western art music and musicology. The British musicologist Richard Middleton has highlighted this point by developing Paul Gilroy’s concept of the ‘Black Atlantic’– that is, the concept of a diasporic black Other and its dialectical role in the development of modernism. Middleton extends this idea to one of the ‘Low Atlantic’, which juxtaposes popular against elite and considers how, within that, ‘low’ and black relate to each other. Middleton proposes two approaches to alterity in music.

Alterity 11

One, illustrated by Wagner’s setting of Nordic myths, is assimilation, bringing difference into a stylistically integrated musical language (see style). The other is resistance and projection, where the Other ‘is externalized in a sphere of apparent social difference’: It is this strategy which explains the attractions of the many thousands of ‘peasant dances’, ‘Volkslieder’, ‘bohemian rhapsodies’, ‘Scottish’ or ‘Slavic’ character pieces, ‘plantation melodies’, and so forth which throng the nineteenth-century repertory . . . the aim of both assimilation and projection strategies is to manage the threat posed by potentially infinite difference to the authority of the bourgeois self, by reducing such difference to a stable hierarchy. (Middleton 2000a, 62) Middleton goes on to note how in Mozart’s opera Die Zauberflöte (1791), the high characters are balanced by a range of low others: ‘women; blacks, in the persons of the “moorish” Monostatos and the slaves; and plebeians, in the form of the comic birdcatcher, Papageno’ (ibid., 64). Throughout the opera, a hierarchy of social groups and individuals is established, although the work also illustrates the humanizing desire of the Enlightenment, its aspirations and its limits. Middleton also explores Duke Ellington’s cultivation of a ‘jungle style’ in jazz, which ‘coupled an exotic appeal to captivated whites . . . [with] an urban-jungle subculturalism, rooted in black popular tastes but routed toward the hip, hybrid modernistic art of bebop’ (ibid., 73). Bernard Gendron has further explored ways in which discourses (see discourse) concerning alterity have helped to construct avant-garde expressions in jazz and popular music (Gendron 2002), while ethnomusicologist Richard Jankowsky has highlighted the association of diaspora and difference in the practice of stambeli, a healing trance music created by descendants of subSaharan slaves brought to Tunisia (Jankowsky 2010). Consideration of the significance of categories of difference in Western music initially arose in the work of new musicologists (see new musicology). Some of these scholars examined ways in which nineteenth-century composers marked areas of their music as structurally different through tonal, expressive or thematic means. American feminist musicologist Ruth Solie suggests that the important question for musicologists is: ‘How do social life and culture construct the differences that all of us understand and enact in daily life?’ (Solie 1993, 10). One example of this line of thought is Susan McClary’s consideration of narrative agendas in Brahms’s Third Symphony (1883). McClary refers to ‘Other’

12 Alterity

keys that register dissonances, that ‘stand in the way of unitary identity’ and must ‘finally be subdued for the sake of narrative closure’ (McClary 1993b, 330). McClary associates the increased use of dissonant keys during the nineteenth century with ‘the prevalent anti-authoritarianism of Romanticism’ (ibid., 334), and she summarizes the piece as a whole as ‘a document that speaks of heroism, adventure, conflict, conquest, the constitution of the self, the threat of the Other, and late nineteenthcentury pessimism’ (ibid., 343). Other scholars have isolated moments in works that suggest alterity through the sound of a single pitch, such as the strangled double bass harmonics that accompany Jochanaan’s offstage beheading in Richard Strauss’s opera Salome (Abbate 1993), or the discomfiting non-tempered ‘D’ played by the natural horn in the Prelude of Britten’s Serenade (Gopinath 2013a). In some instances, alterity is implied through differences in style or musical language, or an artist’s reception. This has led to various scholars asking if composers such as Handel and Schubert were gay (see Thomas 2006; McClary 2006a; see also gay musicology). To some extent, it is de rigueur for composers to feel removed from society or to claim autonomy from other artists, styles and trends (see Wilson 2004). Yet an internal sense of difference may be motivated by more specific factors, such as sexuality and other markers of identity. Philip Brett, for example, has produced much invaluable work that follows from Benjamin Britten’s lifelong sense of alienation (Brett 1993); émigré composers, too, will inevitably experience a sense of difference (see Gál 2014). Peter Franklin has explored the exceptional dynamics of Los Angeles around 1940, when the city was home to émigré composers as diverse as Stravinsky, Schoenberg, Rachmaninov and Korngold (Franklin 2000). This study reveals a fascinating mix of pre-war European musical values (see value) as they were enacted and related to a foreign setting, and the sense of difference felt by Korngold as a composer of film music (see also place). All composers and musicians who have felt themselves to be at the periphery of musical practice may seek to destabilize the barriers surrounding them – a point that applies as much to women composers in the twentieth century as it does to Hispanic musicians in New York. This sense of alterity may even extend to composers now perceived to be at the centre, who, at times in their own lives, considered themselves to lie outside it, such as Wagner, Elgar and Mahler. Importantly, ideas about what is central or peripheral will change throughout history. Further reading: Bauer 2008; Bloechl, Lowe and Kallberg 2015; Born and Hesmondhalgh 2000; Garnham 2011; McClary 1992; Schwarz 2006; Street 2000

Analysis 13

ANALYSIS Analysis is a subdiscipline within musicology that is concerned with a search for internal coherence within a musical work. It therefore takes the musical text – usually a score, although also potentially a sketch or other form of manuscript with musical notation – as the primary, autonomous object of study (see autonomy), focusing on an examination of a work’s internal structure (see structuralism). Analytical practice frequently involves the application of aesthetic or ideological decisions and choices (see aesthetics and ideology), which are applied in order to divide a musical structure into smaller constituent elements (see Kerman 1994). These elements are then considered in isolation, in relation to one another, in relation to the work as a whole, or in relation to a number of other works. It can be seen that evaluation and selection are crucial to analysis. In these terms, the concept of analysis has become synonymous with a search for unity in musical structure. However, this tendency has come under significant criticism from both analysts and non-analysts (see Street 1989; Cohn and Dempster 1992; Maus 1999). An important stimulus to the development of music analysis can be found in certain eighteenth-century philosophical thought, for example Lord Shaftesbury’s notion of ‘disinterested attention’ – in which the act of contemplation is valued in and for itself – and the concept of aesthetics developed by Alexander Baumgarten (see Bent and Drabkin 1987, 12). There are now many different forms of music analysis. At the simplest level, analysis provides a set of vocabularies or symbols for discussing and describing the basic elements of music, its harmonies, scales, metric schemes, and so on. Examples of this include figured-bass notation, which has been in use since the eighteenth century, and the use of roman numerals to designate chord types, introduced in a four-volume theoretical work by Gottfried Weber published between 1817 and 1821. Analysis has also developed in relation to musical form, style and genre, all of which examine musical content according to technical and formal considerations that have been associated with particular historical periods (see periodization). Johann Forkel’s biography of Bach, published in 1802, contained the seeds of stylistic classification and sketch study (see biography), while J.A.P. Spitta’s Johann Sebastian Bach presented formal analyses of individual works (Spitta 1884). Spitta’s work also contains attempts at symbolic interpretations of Bach’s music, an approach that was paralleled in the pictorial language of the analyses of E.T.A. Hoffmann (see criticism, hermeneutics). Following the influence of linguistic theory, analytical methods that attempt to interpret music in terms of meaning subsequently developed in the more theoretical context of semiotic analysis (see semiotics; see also

14 Analysis

Nattiez 1990b; Samuels 1995; Tarasti 1994) as well as methods influenced by narrative theory (see Almén 2008; Hatten 1994; Karl 1997). As this discussion has indicated, analysis engages in the interpretation of abstract, conceptual levels in music, describing features that are not obvious in a score but that arise from consideration of theoretical ideas developed in specific historical and cultural contexts. Highlighting the creative dimension of analysis (see creativity), the American music analyst Kofi Agawu has argued that ‘analysis is most productively understood as a mode of performance and as a mode of composition’, by which he is referring to the requirement for performers to analyse (that is, comprehend) the details in a score, and the composed (that is, made and constructed) nature of analysis (Agawu 2004, 273). Similarly, Roger Parker and Carolyn Abbate have stated: The analysis that merely describes musical events is like the translation that passes over all meaning, that passes over the ‘truly poetic’. To go beyond mechanical conversions of musical notation into written words, analysis must uncover something beyond or behind the mere sonic surface. (Parker and Abbate 1989, 1–2) Although the authors of this quotation have subsequently become associated with a desire to move beyond analysis, their observation draws attention to the idea that analysis is an interaction between the music itself, music theory, aesthetics and history. Analysis is always preceded by some form of music theory that has been developed in isolation from specific pieces or has arisen from a direct response to patterns, such as harmonic progressions, identified in existing works. An example of this is the composition teaching of German music theorist Johann Christian Lobe, which was influenced by Lobe’s admiration for, and analyses of, the music of Beethoven (see Bent 1984). Other important German music theorists whose analyses of music influenced their theoretical work include Heinrich Christoph Koch and Hugo Riemann, who evolved theories of harmony, rhythm and phrase structure. More recently, Riemann’s ideas have been developed into so-called transformational or neo-Riemannian and post-neo-Riemannian theories (see theory; see also Gollin and Rehding 2011; Smith 2014a), initially led by the American music theorists David Lewin and Richard Cohn (see Lewin 2007; Cohn 2012). Throughout history, analytical methods and questions have shifted according to the prevailing cultural and aesthetic preoccupations of the time. In the early nineteenth century, analysts were concerned with demonstrating what made a work ‘great’ (see genius). Seventeenthand eighteenth-century analytical approaches reflect the study of modal

Analysis 15

systems and an interest in rhetoric (see language), while later nineteenthand twentieth-century analysis is heavily influenced by the concept of organicism – this is demonstrated by the prevalence of metaphors of growth in analytical accounts (see metaphor), such as those of Austrian music theorist Heinrich Schenker, as well as the analytical publications of Rudolph Réti and Arnold Schoenberg. Joseph Kerman, for one, has noted how organicism and the search for unity in musical composition became synonymous with music analysis (Kerman 1994, 15). In the case of Schenker, it was the product of the last ten years of his life, the late 1920s and early 1930s, that subsequently captured the imaginations of mostly American theorists in the 1970s and 1980s. Consequently, it is Schenker’s concept of a fundamental structure (Ursatz) as the basis of all tonal music, his exposition of the laws of organic coherence and his move towards a reductive, purely graphic form of analysis that subsequently formed the impetus for what is now called Schenkerian analysis, rather than his imaginative hermeneutic interpretations (see hermeneutics) and insistence on the relevance of autograph studies to analysis (Schenker 1921–4, 1979; Dunsby and Whittall 1988). More recently, however, broader cultural, biographical and conceptual studies of Schenker’s work have deepened our understanding of his analytical perspective (Drabkin 2005; Cook 2007; Schenker 2014; Morgan 2014; Watkins 2011a; Schenker Documents Online: http://www.schenkerdoc umentsonline.org/index.html). The principal objection lodged against analysis is that it measures existing works against normalized structures observed and codified in music theory. One result of this is that a work may be valued more highly if it closely matches a theoretical model, whereas a work that does not relate closely to a preconceived theoretical model may be valued less highly (see value). This quasi-scientific measuring of music against factual, theoretical knowledge in order to validate a musical work represents a positivistic view of the world (see positivism) that has come under considerable criticism in recent years, notably by Joseph Kerman (Kerman 1985, 12), leading to a shift in musicological practice since the mid-1980s (see critical musicology, new musicology). According to Nicholas Cook: Schenkerian analysis . . . didn’t . . . ask whether the music of Bach, Beethoven, and Brahms was of value. It assumed the music was of value, and tried to demonstrate this by showing how the music really was coherent, provided you dug down deep enough. It was, in short, an apologetic discipline, in the sense of being designed to defend a valued repertory, to underwrite its canonic [see canon] status. (Cook 1998a, 95)

16 Analysis

Following Schenker, another important step towards systematizing music analysis was marked by Allen Forte’s development and application of mathematical set theory to musical notation. The Structure of Atonal Music (Forte 1973) presents a method of accounting for pitch organization in atonal music. This approach not only provides a highly useful means of labelling collections of pitches, it also establishes a means of revealing and relating pitch collections as they are inverted or transposed – what Schoenberg described as Grundgestalt (‘basic shape’). This analytical method was prompted by apparently irrational procedures in the freely atonal music of Schoenberg, Webern and others, especially works dating from the first two decades of the twentieth century. In 1978, Forte applied his analytical method to a comprehensive analysis of Stravinsky’s The Rite of Spring (1913), examining the possibility that the pitch material for the whole work was generated from a small number of pitch sets (Forte 1978). Subsequent criticism of Forte’s method has focused on the apparently subjective criteria adopted for dividing a work (segmentation) – an apparently arbitrary selection process that does not always reflect the phrasing of the music – and the neglect of features such as rhythm, texture and timbre (see Taruskin 1986). New musicological criticism of analysis prompted a number of defensive responses. Pieter van den Toorn, for example, asked: why should we trust a facility with words, poetic expression, or sociopolitical comment rather than the methods of music theory and analysis, methods presumably more germane to the matter at hand? . . . why should we judge the former to be warmly human or ‘humanistic’, the latter coldly ‘technical’, specialist, or formalistic in its appeal? (van den Toorn 1995, 1) Similarly, Agawu warned new musicologists (see new musicology) to beware of reproducing the kind of ‘bad’ analysis they had been critical of, a problem that potentially arises whenever musicologists engage with a musical text. Agawu also notes that ‘academic discourse is surely not racing toward a single finishing line’ (Agawu 1997, 307). In other words, there should be space, in a pluralistic discipline such as musicology, for the development of new analytical and theoretical discourses. Even Kerman stated that ‘I do not actually think we need to get out of analysis . . . only out from under’ (Kerman 1994, 30). What has come under scrutiny following the influence of postmodern thought on musicology (see postmodernism) is the analytical model of a series of dialectics, between motif and elaboration, part and whole, coherence and

Analysis 17

incoherence. The traditional supremacy of an authorial voice, which analysis tends to uphold, is increasingly being located in a discursive network (see Kramer 1993b, 2001), and analytical discourse is searching for ways of being more self-reflective (see Guck 1994). As Adam Krims notes, criticisms of theory and analysis are: disturbing not because they are unfair, but precisely because they frequently are true: the characterizations must be taken seriously, as they raise the question of the very possibility of attempting music theory in the late twentieth century; and the response needs to be informed by postmodern theory and ground itself within the contemporary environments of the humanities. (Krims 1998a, 2) Recent years have seen a marked growth in new analytical approaches, and analyses drawing on transformational neo-Riemannian theory and pitch-set theory have acquired a distinctly mathematical profile that, in America at least, has strengthened a division between music theory and analysis, on the one hand, and musicology, on the other, as demonstrated by the work of the American Society for Music Theory (founded 1978). The rise of highly individualistic compositional practices and new ways of rationalizing pitch space in post-tonal music has led to original analytical responses, including ones that integrate theory, analysis and hermeneutics (see Clarke, D. 2011; Capuzzo 2012). Attempts have also been made to revise and adapt Schenkerian theory in order to apply it to medieval and Renaissance music (Judd 1998; Leach 2003), late Romantic composers such as Bruckner, Tchaikovsky, Sibelius, Scriabin and Elgar (Beach 1983; Baker 1986; Jackson and Hawkshaw 1997; Jackson 1995, 2001; Harper-Scott 2009), modernists such as Stravinsky and Britten (Straus 1990; Rupprecht 2012), and even the discipline of ethnomusicology (Stock 1993). Reassessment of music analysis has also extended to a reconsideration of music theory and theorists (Bent 1996a; Clark and Rehding 2001; Dale 2003; Rehding 2003; Moreno 2004), music analysis combined with psychoanalytic theory (Fink 1998; Smith 2013), and the practice-based concepts of analysis through composition (Cook 1996) and performance (Rink 2002). Another very important development has been the assimilation of popular music analysis into the discipline. The origins of such attempts can be traced back to the work of Philip Tagg (Tagg 2000) and a set of pioneering articles that appeared in the 1970s and 1980s by Walter Everett that consider a number of Beatles songs in Schenkerian terms (Everett 1985). This work, together with a range of other approaches to analysing

18 Authenticity

popular music, was subsequently assessed in Richard Middleton’s seminal overview Studying Popular Music (Middleton 1990). This was followed by Allan Moore’s monograph on The Beatles’ Sergeant Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band album (1967), which also adapts Schenkerian methodology, and Rock: The Primary Text (Moore 1997, 2001a). The watershed of popular music analysis assimilation is marked by Walter Everett’s encyclopaedic The Foundations of Rock (Everett 2009), and Moore’s hermeneutic study Song Means: Analysing and Interpreting Recorded Popular Song (Moore 2012). Owing to their relative complexity, progressive and other forms of rock music have attracted a range of motivic and harmonic analyses (see Covach 1997, 2000; Moore 2001a; Heetderks 2013; Smith 2014b). It is interesting to note that a number of music theorists have ‘crossed over’ into popular music, bringing rigorous theoretical methodologies to their considerations of the genre. An example of this is Matthew Brown’s Schenkerian analysis of Jimi Hendrix’s ‘Little Wing’ (1967), in which the music is valued as ‘a successful search through a tonal problem space’ (Brown 1997, 165; see also Forte 1996; Bernard 2000; Spicer and Covach 2010). This work implies a familial relationship between concert and popular music. By extension, Philip Tagg has adapted semiotic analysis (see semiotics) to popular music following his identification of a number of characteristics that are common to melodies throughout all styles and genres (see Tagg 2009, 2012). Some musicologists have argued that analysis of popular music, as well as analysis of music in film, television and other audiovisual media (see film music), requires new approaches rather than methods developed for analysing concert music. However, it is here, at the intersection between traditional models of analysis and forms of musical expression, which have previously been considered the property of cultural and social studies, that analysis holds some of the most significant and exciting potential. Further reading: Adorno 1994; Bent and Drabkin 1987; Brackett 2008; Cohn 2012b; Dahlhaus 1983b; de Clercq and Temperley 2011; Everett 2009; Fink 2011; Gloag 1998; Griffiths 1999, 2012; Hanninen 2012; Middleton 2000c; Moore 2003; Smith 2011

AUDIOVISUAL see film music AUTHENTICITY Authenticity is invoked in different musical and musicological contexts, but generally it indicates some notion of truth and sincerity. It most

Authenticity 19

commonly appears in relation to performance, but it also operates within critical theory and in relation to popular music. The trend towards a ‘historically informed’ or period performance has often mistakenly been described as ‘authentic’. Such a performance may be one that seeks to use some or all of the following factors: the instruments of the composer’s time; an awareness of playing techniques of the period through reference to documentary evidence such as treatises and descriptive accounts; and the composer’s intentions as evident from the original manuscript and related material such as amendments and corrections (see historical musicology). The search for a historically aware, perhaps ‘authentic’, performance originates in the nineteenth century and reflects the general historical consciousness of that period. However, the attention given to documentary evidence is a reflection of the positivistic nature of musicology as it developed through the twentieth century (see positivism). The aspiration towards authenticity can also be seen as a consequence of the twentieth century’s preoccupation with the past and as such it can be viewed in relationship to modernism and, more specifically, to the neoclassicism that emerged in the 1920s. This point is made with great clarity and conviction by American musicologist Richard Taruskin (Taruskin 1995a, 90–154). Taruskin also claims that the relationship between ‘historical’ as ‘authentic’ performance and ‘modern’ performance is confused: I hold that discussions of authentistic performance typically proceed from false premises. The split that is usually drawn between ‘modern performance’ on the one hand and ‘historical performance’ on the other is quite topsy-turvy. It is the latter that is truly modern performance – or rather, if you like, the avant-garde wing or cutting edge of modern performance – while the former represents the progressively weakening survival of an earlier style, inherited from the nineteenth century, one that is fast becoming historical. (ibid., 140) In other words, what has been thought of as ‘modern’ performance has a long history, reflecting the romantic subjectivity of the nineteenth century (see Romanticism), while ‘authentic’ performance, rather than recreating the past, states its own sense of the contemporary through its current perspective on the past. Taruskin revisits this paradox through comparison of recordings of Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony by Wilhelm Furtwängler, a conductor who reflected the influence and legacy of Wagner, and Roger Norrington, a more recent specialist in period

20 Authenticity

performance practice. Taruskin concludes by describing Norrington as a ‘truly authentic voice of the late twentieth century’ (ibid., 260). Clearly the desire to recreate the sounds and gestures of the period within which a musical work was composed is highly laudable, and the rise of specialist performance ensembles has resulted in many fine performances and recordings (see recording). However, given that such musical activity takes place within a modern, perhaps postmodern (see postmodernism) context, it is difficult to describe accurately any such performance as authentic, particularly given the increased commodity status of classical music and the profoundly inauthentic process of recording and marketing music (see culture industry). According to Richard Taruskin: Do we really want to talk about ‘authenticity’ any more? I had hoped a consensus was forming that to use the word in connection with the performance of music – and especially to define a particular style, manner, or philosophy of performance – is neither description nor critique, but commercial propaganda, the stock-in-trade of press agents and promoters. (ibid., 90) Since Taruskin made this statement in 1988 (in Kenyon 1988), the term ‘authentic performance’ seems to have fallen increasingly into disuse in this context. Authenticity is also invoked in the critical theory of influential German theorist Theodor Adorno. Adorno’s use of the term is, not surprisingly, complex. For Adorno, following the demise of the legitimizing framework of a common musical language and practice, the authenticity of the art work is located in its consistency of material and internal logic. While recognizing that material is always marked by past conventions, these conventions are now stripped of their original functions and meanings (see meaning). The resulting sense of loss conspires with a truth to itself. This truth is also a recognition of reality, a reality that for Adorno was defined by the horror of Auschwitz: ‘The authentic artists of the present are those in whose works there shudders the aftershock of the most extreme terror’ (Paddison 1993, 56). In other words, truth and reality are reflected in the work’s forms and materials, but this does not suggest that the music should attempt a programmatic description of such factors, or that reconciliation between work and world is possible. Given the references to historical performance practice and the critical theory of Adorno, the introduction of authenticity in relation to popular music may seem paradoxical, but popular music and its study resonate

Authenticity 21

with issues of truth, integrity and sincerity and therefore directly raise issues of authenticity. Clearly, the relationship between popular musician and fan can form an identity around a certain truth, and the intensity and expression of the popular music experience is often one of sincerity. This is most clearly evident in the role of singer-songwriter, within which we hear and feel a direct line of communication from songwriter through performance or recording to listener. This is clearly defined in the music of Bob Dylan, for example. The raw intensity of the voice indicates a personal experience and a depth of meaning that conveys an aura of authenticity. However, the fact that Dylan’s music is contained within a culture industry and is marketed as a consumer commodity simultaneously questions this aura. Several popular music scholars have touched upon the complexity of this situation. American cultural theorist and commentator on popular music Lawrence Grossberg identifies three specific formations of authenticity (Grossberg 1993). These are neatly summarized by Johan Fornäs, whose background is quite explicitly in cultural studies, in his book Cultural Theory and Late Modernity (Fornäs 1995b): Grossberg distinguishes three forms of authenticity in rock discourses [see discourse]. The most common is associated with hard rock and folk rock, and builds on the romantic ideology of rock as a construction by and expression of a magically dense community. In more dance-oriented and black genres authenticity is instead localized in the construction of a rhythmical and sexual body. A third form appears in postmodernist self-conscious pop and avant-garde rock [see postmodernism], which plays with styles, well understanding that they are always artificially constructed, but through this very cynical self-knowledge shows a kind of realistic honesty. (ibid., 276) Grossberg’s categories, and Fornäs’s summary and development, are useful and insightful. So-called hard rock portrays its own sense of intensity and sincerity and usually involves the performance of original material, but it also conveys a recognizable, audible trace of its own origins. For example, we can hear the rock music of Led Zeppelin, one of the definitive instances of rock music, in relation to its precursors, rhythm ’n’ blues and rock ’n’ roll. However, the example of Led Zeppelin is interesting because, although it articulates a sense of truth and integrity, it has been shown that their dependence on these precedents bordered on plagiarism (see Headlam 1995). The example of Led Zeppelin can therefore also be seen to look towards Grossberg’s suggestion of the authentic celebration

22 Autobiography

of the inauthentic, a condition that captures the problematics of thinking authenticity within the postmodern celebration of the inauthentic. Further reading: Jones 2005; Lawson and Stowell 1999; Mazullo 1999; Moore 2001a, 2002

AUTOBIOGRAPHY Many composers have also written about music as well as actually compose it. The production of theoretical and pedagogical treatises, for example, often overlaps with the actual practice of music. In some cases, an individual, such as A.B. Marx, for example, is now best known for his various theoretical and historical works, but in his own time he was known as a composer. Also, in the eighteenth century various journals and related publications solicited biographical profiles from leading composers, including J.S. Bach (see Chapin 2013). However, the rise of the composer autobiography is a particular phenomenon through which we glean insights into how the composer recalls, or constructs, the salient factors in his or her life experience. Some of the most substantial autobiographical works by composers include Berlioz’s Memoirs, completed in 1865 (see Berlioz 1903), and Richard Wagner’s Mein Leben (My Life (Wagner 1992)). Wagner began dictating his thoughts and words to Cosima, his wife, in 1865, but the concluding stages of the book were not completed until 1880. In this text, Wagner recalls the early stages of his life and career and gives his own personal interpretation of events and circumstances and highlights his influences (see influence). One such influence was Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony, which ‘became the mystical lodestar of all my fantastic musical thoughts and aspirations’; the opening sounds (see sound) of the first movement of the symphony are described as having ‘played such a spectral role in my earliest impressions of music, [they] came to me as the ghostly fundamental of my own life’ (ibid., 35–6). Clearly, Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony had an enormous impact on Wagner and influenced his own conception of the interrelationships between music and drama (see absolute), but interestingly this is not presented as a factual statement nor can Wagner’s view of this symphony be viewed as an objective account. Rather, Wagner’s autobiographical recollections of his early encounters with this work are shaped by his later aesthetic ideologies (see aesthetics, ideology) and compositional practices. Many later composers have made autobiographical statements. In some cases these have taken the form of a complete book that seeks to recount all of the composer’s life up to the time of writing or a discrete part of it. Examples of such books include those by Stravinsky

Autonomy 23

(Stravinsky 1936), Hans Werner Henze (Henze 1999), Michael Tippett (Tippett 1991) and George Rochberg (Rochberg 2009). There have also been publishing projects based on documents such as composers’ letters and diaries that have autobiographical and biographical implications (see biography). For example, the publication of Benjamin Britten’s diaries and letters provides a series of documents that can be read as autobiographical statements and interpreted for their biographical significance (see, for example, Reed, Cooke and Mitchell 2008). It is also the case that some composers provide autobiographical insights in shorter essays. For example, in an essay entitled ‘How One Becomes Lonely’, written in 1937, Schoenberg reflects upon his own status as a composer, the reception of his music and also his relationship with other composers – Berg, Mahler, Webern (see Schoenberg 1975, 30–53). However, the image of the ‘lonely’ that the title projects does not merely tell us about the sad reality that very few people understood Schoenberg’s music at this time; it goes beyond that reality to suggest an image, perhaps a heroic one, of the isolated genius, with the ‘lonely’ now translated into the suggestion of the unique individual (see genius) that looks towards a construction of the composer and the music as autonomous (see autonomy), a construction that, through processes of distancing and separation (see alterity), seeks to enhance the value of both the composer and the music. This interpretation of Schoenberg’s essay, in dialogue with the description of Wagner’s My Life, suggests that, from a musicological perspective, there needs to be a degree of caution applied in terms of how we interpret such texts. Perhaps there is a requirement of critical suspicion in relation to how composers use the written word to construct an identity and influence the reception and interpretation of their music (see Wilson 2004). However, in counterpoint with that suspicion, there is also recognition that such texts belong to the constellation of thought and action around the composer and therefore deserve critical attention. Further reading: Clarke 1993; Deathridge 2008; Grey 1995

AUTONOMY Music’s alleged autonomy is often constructed as the antithesis of its meaning. The belief that music functions as an autonomous entity is reflected through formalism and is given a practical representation through the act of analysis. To understand music as autonomous is to conceive of it as a separate, self-contained construction. The work of German philosopher Immanuel Kant, particularly his Critique of Judgement

24 Autonomy

of 1790 (le Huray and Day 1981, 214–29; Kant 1987), provided a defining reference point for consideration of autonomy within aesthetics. In the Critique of Judgement, Kant put forward the idea of the disinterested, which means that aesthetic responses are ‘free’ and distinct from other, more common responses and desires. Kant also raised the view that the purpose of art works is to be without purpose. In other words, art works exist on their own terms and as an end in themselves. The most direct use of a concept of autonomy in relation to music was to describe music’s separation (its autonomy) from language, following the emergence of a purely instrumental music from the eighteenth century onwards that effectively liberated music from the constraints of both the written word and social function, such as liturgical and ceremonial contexts. The separation of music from word and language would lead German philosopher G.W.F. Hegel, in his lectures on aesthetics given during the early nineteenth century, to describe a ‘self-sufficient music’, a statement that highlights the overlaps and intersections with other concepts, primarily that of an absolute music: Accompanimental music exists to express something outside itself. Its expression relates to something that does not belong to music as such but to an alien art: poetry. Now if music is intended to be purely musical, it must eschew and eradicate this alien element. Only then can it fully liberate itself from the constraints of verbal precision. (le Huray and Day 1981, 351) Kant’s absence of purpose (function) was to be echoed in the nineteenthcentury notion of ‘art for art’s sake’ and reflected Romanticism’s preoccupation with its own forms of expression (see Romanticism). However, it ignores the importance of the relationship between music and word in the nineteenth century, as symbolized by the song cycles of Schubert and Schumann, among others, and the music dramas of Wagner. A model of musical autonomy was most clearly articulated by the Viennese music critic Eduard Hanslick in his Vom Musikalisch-Schönen (On the Musically Beautiful), first published in 1854. According to Hanslick: If now we ask what it is that should be expressed by means of this tone-material, the answer is musical ideas. But a musical idea brought into complete manifestation in appearance is already self-subsistent beauty; it is an end in itself, and it is in no way primarily a medium or material for the representation of feelings or conceptions. The content of music is tonally moving forms. (Hanslick 1986, 28–9)

Autonomy 25

On this account music is about itself, its beauty an internal phenomenon, and it does not exist to express or represent anything beyond itself. The actual content of music is the details, themes and forms, which move through time and result in a work that is an end in itself. For Hanslick, the high point of what was then contemporary music came in the instrumental music, both orchestral and chamber, of Brahms. This music was presented by Hanslick as the autonomous alternative to Wagner’s preoccupation with meaning through an ‘extra-musical’ dimension. This view of an autonomous music reflects a certain formalism, one that was subject to critical scrutiny both in Hanslick’s own time and since. However, there is a long legacy that flows from Hanslick. Much of the aesthetic identity of modernism reflects a belief in music’s autonomous character. This reflection is given musical substance in the work of both Schoenberg and Stravinsky and in its reception in the critical theory of Theodor Adorno, within which the problems and issues of the autonomy of music within modernism are pursued rigorously. For Adorno, the relationship between the musical work and its context cannot be reduced to a direct parallel between the two domains; rather, the musical content, its material, bears the immanent trace of the antagonisms and problematics of the world (see authenticity). This model of autonomy is given musical representation through the music of Beethoven: The kinship with that bourgeois libertarianism which rings all through Beethoven’s music is a kinship of the dynamically unfolding totality. It is in fitting together under their own law, as becoming, negating, confirming themselves and the whole without looking outward that his themes come to resemble the world whose forces move them; they do not do it by imitating that world. (Adorno 1976, 209; see also Paddison 1993, 233) According to this version, music achieves a certain aesthetic autonomy, the musical materials look to themselves (‘without looking outward’), but it is through this process that a resemblance to the real world reveals itself and not through any process of ‘imitating the world’. It could be argued that this account of musical autonomy, a highly complex and sophisticated one, can be traced through the history of musical modernism, which, for Adorno, has its origins in the late works of Beethoven. It is a version of autonomy that allows the musical work to establish its own identity, but it also accounts for resemblances between that identity and its context. The view of music as somehow autonomous has been subjected to intense critical scrutiny in recent years, with much of the new

26 Avant-garde

musicology seeking to reposition music in relation to context and meaning and the determination of any position in relation to the question of autonomy reflecting its own ideological orientation (see ideology). See also: analysis, post-structuralism, structuralism Further reading: Chapin 2011; Chua 1999; Dahlhaus 1989a; Gooley 2011; Paddison 2002; Subotnik 1991

AVANT-GARDE A French term originally used in military circles to describe an advanced guard of soldiers, avant-garde is a concept that gained currency in the nineteenth century as a term to describe progressive, pioneering tendencies in all the arts that were hostile to mass culture and designed to shock. The concept, which may apply to artists, composers, producers, directors or critics, although it is sometimes used as a term of abuse, more commonly values (see value) such notions as autonomy, experimentalism and innovation over, and in opposition to, tradition. In common usage, it locates these tendencies within so-called high art forms, such as poetry, painting, concert music and the novel, in which it has been associated with a ‘concentration on the mental processes of the artist’ (Butler 1980, 5) as represented in works such as James Joyce’s Finnegans Wake (1939) and Jean-Paul Sartre’s La Nausée (1938). The concept has existed at least since the early nineteenth century, and in music it found early expression in the polemical writing of Schumann, Wagner and the New German School, although embryonic forms of avantgarde expression may be found much earlier, for example in the innovative musical notation of the fourteenth-century French composer Phillipe de Vitry, Bach’s controversially experimental organ music, and the late style of Beethoven. The concept accrued more specific meaning in the twentieth century, when it became attached to such artistic movements as Futurism, Dadaism and Surrealism in the 1920s and, in the 1940s and 1950s, integral serialism in music and American abstract expressionist painting. One of the most important contributions to the theorization of the avant-garde was published by German critical theorist (see critical theory) Peter Bürger (Bürger 1984). Bürger’s approach is historical: in his view, as artists gained more autonomy from patrons they became more frustrated by the social ineffectiveness of their art, which led to more radical confrontations between artists and society. Jochen Schulte-Sasse, in his foreword to Bürger’s book, states:

Avant-garde 27

The development from the autonomy of art in the eighteenth century to the Aestheticism of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries is in Bürger’s perspective an intensification of art’s separation from bourgeois society. . . . He insists that the tendency inherent in art’s autonomous status drove both the individual work and the institution ‘art’ to increasingly extreme declarations of their autonomy [as reflected in] an increasing consciousness on the part of the artist of writing techniques, how material is applied, and its potential for effect. . . . Bürger sees this development as logical and necessary, yet as negative, since it led toward a state in which art works are characterised by semantic atrophy. (Schulte-Sasse 1984, xiii) In other words, avant-garde art rejects the autonomous role allotted to it by society while recognizing an awareness of the futility of its greater freedom of expression. This realization leads to attacks on the institution of art itself, on its role in creating a function for art, on the mechanisms that produce art, and on the reception of art. The concept of eliminating art as an institution is neatly captured in Pierre Boulez’s call for the opera houses of Europe to be burned down (Boulez 1968; see also creativity). Questioning artistic institutions also necessitates greater reflection on the concept of the work of art, since this is the mechanism by which society consumes and institutionalizes music. Again, Boulez offers a useful example, as his tendency to keep works in progress resists the notion of music as fixed and autonomous; similarly, chance techniques, as used by Boulez and John Cage, also belong to this concept (see Boulez 1993). However, in other ways, composers such as Boulez and Stockhausen re-institutionalized the avant-garde, establishing new musical orthodoxies supported by broadcasters, music festivals and universities. Bürger notes that avant-garde movements transcend period styles, observing that ‘there is no such thing as a Dadaist style or a Surrealist style’ (Bürger 1984, 18) and that in certain senses avant-garde art might be interpreted as anti-organicist (see organicism), although this would be debatable within the context of serial music. He also notes that ‘the revival of art as an institution and the revival of the category “work” suggest that today, the avant-garde is already historical’ (ibid., 57), a view that would be supported by late twentieth-century artists more interested in a pluralism of styles (see postmodernism). A number of musicologists, including Ulrich Dibelius (Dibelius 1966, 1988), Reginald Smith Brindle (Brindle 1975), Gianmario Borio (Borio 1993) and Paul Griffiths (Griffiths 1995), have provided important accounts of avant-garde practice in music since 1945. However, although

28 Avant-garde

Smith Brindle opens his book by drawing attention to world historical events, such as the invention of the atomic bomb and the first manned landing on the moon, by way of associating musical developments with science, experimentation and extremity, his study – and others like it – consists primarily of an account of the musical techniques of avant-garde composers. In this sense, it can be seen to reinforce a discourse of objectivity, progress, abstraction and liberation from bourgeois constraints that was established by composers such as Arnold Schoenberg and Milton Babbitt. One scholar who has called on this approach to be revised is American musicologist Susan McClary. In an article published in 1989, she outlined an apparent ‘siege mentality’ on the part of certain composers, who seemed to regard their audience as irrelevant and commercial success as positively undesirable (see McClary 1989; Babbitt 1984). While composers such as Babbitt advocate the continued support of universities for composers of ‘serious’ music and the denial of any kind of extra-musical meaning in their work, McClary argues that much would be gained from considering the ‘human (i.e. expressive, social, political etc.) dimension of [avant-garde] music’ and that this ‘need not qualify as retreating into anti-intellectualism as Babbitt repeatedly suggests’ (McClary 1989, 65). Such efforts, she hopes, would help to ‘lose the mystique of difficulty, which might well be replaced with an acknowledgement of human vulnerability’ (ibid., 66). She rejects the opposition of avant-garde and mass culture advocated by critical theorists such as Theodor Adorno and emphasizes that avant-garde music should not be studied exclusively in accordance with ‘the autonomous terms it has tried to enforce’ (ibid., 76). She suggests a number of forms of inquiry, including consideration of misogyny and homophobia in avant-garde music, the formation of the communities and institutions that support such music, and the economy of prestige to which it subscribes. Since McClary’s article was published, a growing body of studies has examined the institutional, social and political contexts of avant-garde music, including: British socio-musicologist Georgina Born’s study of IRCAM in Paris (Born 1995); cultural, social and political histories of the avant-garde during the Cold War (Carroll 2003; Beal 2006; Beckles Willson 2007); histories of avant-garde music and political protest (Adlington 2009, 2013a; Kutschke and Norton 2013); accounts of the aesthetics of avant-garde music (Brody 1993; Grant 2001; Gloag 2014); and a focus on the relationship between modernism and a Jewish avantgarde diaspora (Cohen 2012). Studies have also explored the concept of the avant-garde in relation to commercial music. Bernard Gendron, in his seminal book on popular music, jazz and the avant-garde, states:

Biography (life and work) 29

I use the term ‘avant-garde’ roughly to denote any high-cultural production of a modernist [see modernism] or postmodernist kind, in opposition to traditional high culture. . . . In France I situate the birth of the modernist avant-garde sometime in the middle of the nineteenth century, best codified by Baudelaire’s ‘Painter of Modern Life’, though one could with plausibility go back to the secondgeneration romantics [see Romanticism] (Gautier, Nerval) in the 1830s and their invention of ‘art for art’s sake’. Not by chance the rise of the avant-garde coincides with the rise of mass culture – mass newspapers, poster advertisements, the professionalization of popular song – and begins in subtle ways immediately to interact with it. This was not by chance, because the restricted market of the avantgarde, driven by fashion and constant turnover in symbolic value, mirrored the mass market better than any other restricted cultural market (e.g., the traditionlists [sic] market). (Gendron 2002, 16) A number of important points emerge from this definition. First, the association of the avant-garde with the idea of ‘art for art’s sake’, a Romantic aesthetic that was raised to an even higher status by Wagner, especially in his opera Tristan und Isolde (1859) and his colossal operatic cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen (1851–9). Second, it raises the more radical idea that the avant-garde is related to fashion and mass marketing, in contrast to McClary, who views the avant-garde as a retreat from the commercial world. Gendron explores, for example, the link between a fashionable Parisian interest in African art and the rise of artists such as Picasso and Cocteau, who adapted methods used in mass marketing to promote their own work. Third, citing critical and journalistic discourse on The Beatles, bebop (see jazz) and new wave, Gendron investigates how a sense of hierarchy operates in jazz and popular music and how a language develops that is closely linked to avant-garde conceptions dating from the nineteenth century (see also Gendron 2009; Solis 2006; Gloag 2014). Further reading: Attinello 2007; Atton 2012; Drott 2009; Gallope 2014; Iddon 2013a; Martin 2002; Mount 2015; Nyman 1999; Piekut 2011, 2014a; Weightman 1973

BIOGRAPHY (LIFE AND WORK) The writing of the biography of composers and musicians has been a standard practice of musicology since its inception, with ‘Biographistik’ highlighted by Adler in his original schematic prescription for musicology

30  Biography (life and work)

(see Introduction). Musical biography forms a literary genre based around the ordering of facts that relate to the life of the composer and his or her relationship to context in terms of other people and specific places (see place). For Stephen Hinton, in a study of Kurt Weill’s musical theatre, the method of biography: is really two distinct, yet related, things. It signifies approaches to reading a life, something that in German would be called Biographik, a term that tends to be used in a collective sense referring to the whole business of biography but also to trends and tendencies of its various genres, either with respect to a particular figure or to biographies in general. (Hinton 2012, 10) In the case of Kurt Weill, ‘“Weill-Biographik” would be the sum of knowledge to be gleaned from available studies’ (ibid.). However, many biographies extend beyond the consideration of biographical information to embrace the assumed relationships between life and work. Within this exercise, the biography now provides a context through which the work can be both situated and interpreted (see interpretation). Hinton relates this, the second of his ‘two distinct, yet related things’, to a specifically musicological understanding of biography: But in the field of musicology, biographical method means something else as well, referring to a particular way of reading musical works in terms of a life (or vice versa). In German this would not be Biographik, but rather die biographische Methode, a type of music analysis, a way of reading meaning in musical works, hermeneutics. There is some kind of narrative to present, which may entail gleaning information from the works themselves. (ibid.) Reflections of Hinton’s description of biographical method can already be found in early accounts of the life of specific composers and their assumed relationship to their work. Biographical studies of composers have a long history, but the writing of composer biography as a distinct literary genre was defined during the early nineteenth century in works such as Forkel’s study of J.S. Bach and further extended through the emergence of biographical writing on Beethoven. The biographical writings of both Ferdinand Ries and Anton Schindler around the midpoint of the century helped to focus attention on the suggested importance of life for an understanding of the musical work.

Biography (life and work) 31

The later nineteenth century witnessed a general rise in historical consciousness (see historicism, historiography), which was reflected in the construction of monumental studies of recognizably great composers, a process that was complicit in the consolidation of the canon. This trend was evident in works such as Jahn’s extensive biography of Mozart (Jahn 1891) in conjunction with the representation of the composer as genius. The attempt to construct a comprehensive account of the life and work of a great composer found a parallel in the collating, dating and editing of musical works that was to become the central concern of a historical musicology. Hinton’s description of biography as an exercise in hermeneutics is already fully realized in A.B. Marx’s study of the life and works of Beethoven (see Marx 1997, 157–88). First published in 1859, this book contains an account of Beethoven’s Third Symphony (Eroica) as an essentially programmatic narrative that has no real basis in the factual details of Beethoven’s life but rather reflects the ideological, interpretive positions of Marx in terms of the debates of the time (see absolute music, ideology). The music of J.S. Bach enjoyed a revival of interest during the nineteenth century; this was reflected in the biography written by Philip Spitta (Spitta 1884). Spitta’s work is subtitled ‘His Work and Influence on the Music of Germany, 1685–1750’ and it consists of three extensive volumes. The first volume begins with family history and background, an obvious starting point in most biographical narratives, then considers the young composer’s education and early influences (see influence) and discusses his early works under the subtitle ‘The first ten years of Bach’s “Mastership”’. The narrative constructed by Spitta is one of the emergence of mastery, a narrative that is central to most biographical writings. However, Spitta also considers the music that was constructed by this life, often in detail, and this ‘life and work’ approach as defined by Spitta has been sustained since then and often presented in a more compressed manner. This was standardized in publications such as Dent’s Master Musicians series, which has its origins in the late nineteenth century. The general title of this series constructs an overtly canonical and gendered perspective (see gender). However, such publications did provide a great deal of information and interpretation in a recognizable format and accessible manner, thereby offering a connection between a professional musicology and a wider listening and reading public. Representative of this approach is Malcolm Boyd’s study of J.S. Bach (Boyd 1983). This book is written within the generic history of the series, a history of which Boyd is fully aware, and it reflects the image of the composer at that time and the then current state of research. The book is sectionalized on the

32  Biography (life and work)

basis of location, a recurrent and logical model in the case of J.S. Bach, with the composer’s residence in specific places – Weimar, Cöthen, Leipzig – providing a framework within which works in specific musical genres (see genre) are discussed. Writing in the context of a biography of Mahler, a composer whose life and work have numerous interesting but problematic intersections, and from the perspective of the late 1990s, Peter Franklin indicates a ‘decline in support for artistic biography. It has become a suspect means of engagement with works of art, precisely because it comes “between” us and them’ (Franklin 1997a, 2). On the basis of this formulation, it can be argued that biographical knowledge does not enhance the aesthetic experience; rather, by focusing attention on the ‘creator’ of the art work, the importance of the reader, viewer and/or listener is negated. This was already a situation that had been radically questioned by literary theorist Roland Barthes in a famous essay titled ‘The Death of the Author’, first published in 1969, which challenged the assumption that knowledge of who the author of a text was constituted a pathway to a viable understanding of that text, with text readily transferable into the context of music (see Barthes 1977). Under the impact of structuralism, music analysis reflected the claim of a musical autonomy, within which the musical work was seen to be a self-sufficient object, free of the constraints of contextual factors such as biography (see also formalism). However, this merely resulted in a new set of constraints that demanded critical scrutiny. The new musicology, although rarely engaging directly with biography, sought to regain both the subjectivity and contextualization that apparently had disappeared from musicological discourse. One way in which both subjectivity and context can be brought back into focus is through the restatement of biography and the re-examination of life and work through a more contemporary lens, a process that, after Barthes’ ‘The Death of the Author’, can be equated with the ‘return’ of the author (see Burke 1993). The primary site for such reconsideration within musicology comes through the interrelated concepts of gender and sexuality. The consideration of any composer’s life demands reference to his or her sexuality, yet most standard biographies resist, perhaps suppress, this demand. However, a number of important studies have raised such issues and provoked much debate, the most notable being Maynard Solomon’s discussion of Schubert’s sexuality in an article entitled ‘Franz Schubert and the Peacocks of Benvenuto Cellini’ (Solomon 1989). This article considers aspects of Schubert’s biography and certain documentation, such as letters and diaries, all of which can be interpreted as suggesting a homosexual identity (see gay musicology). Such a process of inquiry reflects a certain absence in standard biographical narratives:

Body 33

Schubert’s nature has for too long remained hazy, shadowy, and unfocused. Thus far, biographers have not been able to provide even a provisionally convincing portrait of his personality, to delineate his obsessions, to understand his familial and intimate relationships, and ultimately to glimpse some of the driving forces of his creativity. (ibid., 206) For Solomon, exploring the sexuality of Schubert opens up the prospect of a new understanding of the composer’s life and work. However, the ways in which such exploration can lead to even a glimpse of the creative process and outcome remain open to debate (see Agawu 1993b). See also: autobiography Further reading: Deathridge 2008; McClary 1993a; Solomon 1982; Steblin 1993; Straus 2006

BODY The body may be considered from various critical perspectives. There is the body’s influence upon thought, which was a concern of Scottish philosopher David Hume and of later German philosopher Martin Heidegger, who in response to Descartes’s central dictum, ‘I think, therefore I am’ (see Enlightenment), emphasized the body’s crucial influence on human understanding of the world. There is also the body as represented in discourse and visual images – the way the body is (culturally) perceived and represented or written about. Bound up with these two forms is the body as a source and producer of lived experience, for example through singing, speaking, dancing or musical performance. Metaphor theorists argue that the body operates at an even deeper level to structure the language that we use: that is, we conceptualize and codify our experiences through metaphors of bodily action (see Johnson 1987, 2007; see also consciousness). French literary theorist Roland Barthes made some notable attempts to write about this aspect of the body. His essay ‘The Grain of the Voice’ (Barthes 1977) is directed specifically at song, in which the voice ‘has us hear a body which has no civil identity, no “personality”, but which is nevertheless a separate body’ (ibid., 182). ‘The “grain” is the body in the voice as it sings’ (ibid., 188). Following the work of Julia Kristeva, Barthes distinguishes between the materiality of the voice (the geno-song – sounds produced through interaction with the body) and the grammar

34 Body

of the music and language being sung (the pheno-song). He thereby attaches importance to the disruptive role of the ‘grain’ of the voice in its necessary dialectic with the rule-bound elements of music, those structured and sanctioned by society. To demonstrate this, he developed a critique of German tenor Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, in whose voice is to be heard only ‘the lungs, never the tongue, the glottis, the teeth, the mucous membranes, the nose’ (ibid., 183). Barthes further comments: ‘His art – expressive, dramatic, sentimentally clear, borne by a voice lacking in any “grain”, in signifying weight, fits well with the demands of an average culture’ (ibid., 185). These final remarks point to public unease when it comes to matters of the body, and a popular association between high art and the mind, ideas that Barthes seeks to revise. Barthes has also written about his conception of the composer’s body as it is present in music. In his essay ‘Rasch’ (Barthes 1985), he examines Schumann’s Kreisleriana (1838), locating within its musical phrases, gestures and tempo changes signs of the composer’s own body beating, indicating movement or the intention to speak (quasi parlando). Barthes summarizes this restless patchwork of ebb and flow as ‘the body in a state of music’ (ibid., 312). Barthes’ ideas have been applied to a wide range of vocal music. One such example is the study by Raymond Leppert and George Lipsitz of the country singer Hank Williams, who gained wide success despite his haggard and gaunt appearance (Leppert and Lipsitz 2000). It is argued that Williams’ body stood as a metaphor for his songs and the time in which they were written, features matched by the subdued doubtfulness of his vocal delivery. And in the field of opera study, Carolyn Abbate has adapted Barthes’ work, developing the idea of the disembodied voice (Abbate 1993; see also Hibberd 2011; Fleeger 2014). A related concept is that of musical gesture, the idea that physical movement is embodied in musical sound (Smart 2004). This concept, the so-called ‘mimetic hypothesis’ (Cox 2011), has been applied in analytical terms (see analysis), for example through the idea that ‘any energetic shaping through time . . . may be interpreted as significant’ (Hatten 2006, 1; Lidov 2005; Gritten and King 2006), but also more generally in terms of understanding how performers and listeners conceptualize and find meaning in music by equating musical gestures to bodily movements when listening (Damasio 2003; Huron 2006; see also consciousness, emotion) or performing (Pierce 2007). It has also enabled a form of performance-informed historical musicology (Le Guin 2006). In terms of musical aesthetics, the body is an important consideration to many modernist composers, as illustrated by the composer Harry Partch’s notion of ‘corporeal music’ in which music making becomes a

Body 35

form of music theatre. Moreover, the cultural historian Tim Armstrong has observed that modernism as a whole is characterized by ‘the desire to intervene in the body; to render it part of modernity by techniques which may be biological, mechanical, or behavioural’ (Armstrong 1998; see also Segel 1998). By contrast, postmodern (see postmodernism) concern for pluralities, multiple perspectives and more relational approaches have given rise to an awareness of the potential importance of identity, ethnicity, race, gender and disability when considering the body in music – and with disability (as with race and gender), there is an important distinction between the physical condition and its socially mediated meaning; that is, between impairment (an underlying biomedical condition) and disability (the socially conditioned discourse of impairment) (Straus 2011). Another important cultural issue that the concept of the body raises is that of the male gaze. Nineteenth-century painting often reveals the institutionalized privilege of men to scrutinize women’s bodies (Williams 2001, 66–7). This idea is further developed in cinema studies, most notably by Laura Mulvey, reflecting the dominance of male film directors and cameramen whose work translates women in film into objects and men into subjects (see Mulvey 1975; see also subjectivity). Lawrence Kramer is one musicologist who has developed this idea, particularly in relation to nineteenth-century music, including Liszt’s Faust Symphony (1861) and Richard Strauss’s operas Salome (1905) and Elektra (1909) (see Kramer 1993b, 1990, 1993c, respectively). He notes that: ‘For nineteenth-century men, the sexual pleasure of looking, scopophilia, can plausibly be said to rival physical penetration as the chief means of satisfying sexual desire’ (Kramer 1990, 273). Kramer and others (see Gilman 1988) have indicated how in Salome and Elektra the orchestra is at times used to represent the patriarchal gaze. They also reveal how the music may illustrate the central female characters subverting that gaze, while at other times they are punished by brutal characterization: as a dance the music is grotesque, its movement heavy-footed lurching, its orchestral texture a suffocating mass. The music on which Elektra stakes her identity is a projection of her mysteriously heavy body: the repellent, engulfing, degenerative body prescribed by the culture of fin-de-siècle misogyny. (Kramer 1993c, 147) However, in both this opera and other works (for example, Schubert’s ‘Trout’ Quintet (1819); see Kramer 1998), a range of subject positions

36 Body

(see subject position) are explored, and interpretations (see interpretation) like those of Kramer and Gilman are especially effective at revealing the complexities of composers’ relationships to their audience and the bodies, or subjects, represented in the music. The idea of the male gaze also has relevance to popular music; for example, Nicola Dibben has explored voyeurism in the music of Pulp (Dibben 2001). However, the concept of the male gaze may be criticized on the grounds of its emphasis on biological difference (see alterity). Postmodernism has done much to interrogate discourses that appear to make simplistic links between culture and the body. While a person’s physical characteristics (race, gender, age) will inevitably inform his or her actions, feelings and expressions, this can lead to stereotyping and other extreme forms of essentialist discourse. For example, although some writers have developed effective studies based on characterizations of black music (see Brackett 2000 on James Brown; Maultsby 1990 on Africanisms), Philip Tagg has questioned the ease with which music is labelled ‘white’ or ‘black’, in particular the dichotomy commonly drawn between ‘black’ or ‘AfroAmerican music’ and ‘European music’ (Tagg 1989). He questions the kind of assumptions that lead some to expect not only stereotyped behaviour from black artists, ‘like constant arse wiggling, pelvic grinding and jive talk’ (ibid., 295), but also a stereotyped musical language. Tagg’s concern is not necessarily to deny the common existence of certain features in the music of black artists but to question the naive assumption that these are the original and exclusive property of black musicians, pointing out, for example, that blues notes ‘also occurred on a regular basis in folk music from Scandinavia . . . [and from] Britain at the time of the main colonisation of the New World’ (ibid., 288). Musicology has been slow to develop an interest in the body, although it is increasingly a concern of scholars working on popular music, opera, song and nineteenth-century instrumental music. Some of the earliest examples can be found in the work of sociologists studying body language, gender and feminism in popular music. Dick Hebdige has investigated the body as a site of cultural resistance or protest, as a means of expressing identity or belonging, and as a vehicle for style expression in popular culture (Hebdige 1979). Simon Frith and Angela McRobbie pioneered inquiry into sexuality in rock (Frith and McRobbie 1990), developing the term ‘cock rock’ to describe certain lead guitar performance styles. Investigations of the impact of the body in dance music include Barbara Bradby’s study of the cyborg, a technological amalgam of one female singer’s voice with another’s body (Bradby 1993; Novak 2010), and Stephen Amico’s consideration of masculine signification in house music (Amico 2001) and his authoritative study of corporeality

Canon 37

and male homosexuality in post-Soviet Russian popular music (Amico 2014). Recent studies of popular music and dance have included historical, ethnographic and theoretical perspectives (Dodds and Cook 2013), and other developments include the consideration of the body in experimental music theatre (Cesare 2006; Salzman and Dési 2008), the challenge to conventional conceptions of the body in light of digital and audiovisual media forms, which raise the possibility of reviving stage presences from the dead (Stanyek and Piekut 2010), and the generation of virtual bodies on stage and screen (Richardson 2012), in galleries (Rogers 2010) and online. Further reading: Butler 1993; Draughon 2003; Dyson 2009; Frith 1996; Howe 2009; Lackoff and Johnson 1999; Leman 2008; McRobbie 1994; Pelosi 2010; Peters, Eckel and Dorschel 2012; Richards 2013; Scott 2000; Walser 1993; Whiteley 2000

CANON Canon is a term that is used to describe a body of musical works (see work) and composers accredited with a high level of value and greatness. The origins of the term can be found in ecclesiastical and theological contexts, referring to those sources considered most worthy of preservation and propagation. Most cultures and cultural contexts (see culture) reflect the presence of a canon and canonical values, but it is most clearly defined and active within the Western art music tradition. There is a common belief that a canon first emerged through the Romanticism of the nineteenth century and its fascination with great composers of the past (principally the music of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, but also the ‘revival’ of J.S. Bach). But, as American musicologist William Weber points out, there are many other canonical formations prior to Romanticism (Weber 1999). Weber suggests that there are three basic types of musical canon: scholarly, pedagogical and performance. The scholarly reflects directly the activity of musicology and music historiography, while the pedagogical involves the teaching of music and as such has a long history and tradition. But it is the suggestion of performance that is most interesting. The formation of repertoires and, on the most basic level, the thinking that shapes concert programmes and recordings (see recording) can reflect the presence, perhaps pressure, of the canon. For Weber, ‘performance is ultimately the most significant and critical aspect of musical canon’ (ibid., 340). Performance assumes this significance because, in

38 Canon

contrast to musicological scholarship, it forms part of the public face of music. The concept of a canon is inextricably linked with aesthetic value (see aesthetics). The works that are considered to belong to the canon do so because they embody what for some constitute eternal qualities and transcendent dimensions. This is often most clearly situated in writing on literature. Harold Bloom, for example, in his survey of The Western Canon (Bloom 1995), identifies twenty-six ‘great’ authors, with Shakespeare at the centre. Similar canonical values are also implicitly active in shaping writing on music. For example, Charles Rosen’s The Classical Style (Rosen 1971) is one of the most perceptive studies of the music of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, and his exclusive focus on this triumvirate of composers clearly centres them within the canon. However, it could also be seen as a text that marginalizes the many other, less well-known composers who also contributed to the formation of a ‘Classical style’ (see style). This process of exclusion highlights the reality that the canon acts as a source of cultural power and as such it becomes a mechanism through which non-canonical music is excluded from both musicological scrutiny and public response (see reception). It is significant that Bloom begins his survey of his nominated literary canon with a distinctly nostalgic tone for the certainties of the past, but he also focuses on authority: ‘This book studies twenty-six writers, necessarily with a certain nostalgia, since I seek to isolate the qualities that made these authors canonical, that is, authoritative in our culture’ (Bloom 1995, 1). Works included in the canon then assume an authority; they are seen to exemplify certain qualities and values. An increasingly significant literature has emphasized the negative consequences of canon formation and has posited alternatives, often focusing on ‘marginalized’ types of music and counter-canonical strategies (see Bergeron and Bohlman 1992). However, within specific musical areas that are outside the range of the canon of Western art music, there are still canonical pressures and tendencies. For example, in the context of popular music (itself clearly excluded from the collection of ‘great works’ that is the canon of Western ‘classical’ music), the emphasis in its history on ‘classic’ popular music such as The Beach Boys (Brian Wilson), The Beatles and Bob Dylan reflects this situation (see Jones 2008). See also: alterity, discourse, gender Further reading: Appen and Doehring 2006; Bannister 2006a; Citron 1993; Goehr 1992; Kärjä 2006; Kelly 2014; Weber 1992

Class 39

CLASS The concept of class refers to specific groupings of people defined through economic status and reflected in certain attitudes and identities (see identity). The classical economic understanding of class comes from Marxism (also see ideology), which defines classes in relation to the ownership of production and views history through the conflicts that result from the competing interests of distinct classes. However, for some, the Marxist understanding of class may be unnecessarily rigid and economically determined, factors that are undermined by contemporary contexts and processes such as social mobility and educational opportunity. But the idea of a core value and identity as defined by economic position and power remains compelling. The presence of class in music and musicology is evident through the relationships between musicology and higher education, with related issues of access to knowledge and its association with power susceptible to a class-based perspective. Access is also an issue in relation to the arts and culture in general, in which economic position may act as a barrier while, for some, culture erroneously becomes an image of class status. In a polemical and somewhat humorous article, Dai Griffiths relates music and class through educational experience, that of the selective process of the British grammar school system of the post-war era, suggesting that there is a sense of musical value, perhaps a genre, that reflects this class-based educational context: ‘Grammar schoolboy music is tough and gritty. The classic exponents of grammar schoolboy music were the New Manchester School and its acolytes’ (Griffiths 2000, 143). The musical reference here is to the modernism of Harrison Birtwistle, Peter Maxwell Davies and Alexander Goehr (referred to as the New Manchester School on the basis of a shared educational experience), and Griffiths goes on to suggest that this genre exists in opposition to the egalitarian spirit of popular music: ‘Grammar schoolboy music loathed one thing in particular: pop music. Not jazz: pop music’ (ibid., 144). The most significant direct references to class generally occur in relation to popular music, in which class forms a background that is often articulated through an essentially sociological perspective. This is evident in the writing of sociologist Dick Hebdige in his classic account of subculture (see culture). He makes reference to class, specifically workingclass youth, in relation to David Bowie and the glam rock of the early 1970s, which is defined as part of a retreat, or escape, from class: ‘Bowie’s meta-message was escape – from class, from sex, from personality, from obvious commitment – into a fantasy past or a science fiction future’ (Hebdige 1979, 61). In other words, popular music formed an escape

40 Class

from class as reality into music as fantasy. However, in contrast to glam rock, punk rock was often constructed as a reflection of the reality of working-class youth, a construction that was not always an accurate reflection and one that did not always recognize the active presence of the culture industry (see Savage 1991). The British popular music scholar Richard Middleton provides an outline of music history for the last two hundred years that uses class as a reference point and identifies ‘three “moments” of radical situational change’ (Middleton 1990, 12), the third and final of which ‘begins sometime after the Second World War – most strikingly with the advent of rock ’n’ roll – and can be termed the moment of “pop culture”’ (ibid., 14). The first of these three situational changes: is the moment of the “bourgeois revolution”, marked by complex and overt class struggle within cultural fields, by the spread of the market system through almost all musical activities, and by the development and eventual predominance of new musical types associated with the new ruling class. (ibid., 13) This statement draws attention to the political relationships of class and culture and the presence of the market as well as the rise of a specific class, the bourgeoisie, over a period from the eighteenth century to the mid-nineteenth century. Middleton relates this political context to ‘conflicts between different musical techniques’, and, perhaps more significantly, he refers to ‘immense struggles over what form music should take and what role it should play’. These conflicts and struggles relate to different musical spheres and contexts: ‘this is evident in pub, school and street as, on another level, in orchestral concert music, opera, the fashion for virtuoso piano music and the work of the avant-garde composers of the Romantic movement [see Romanticism]’ (ibid.). Middleton continues: ‘By the 1890s, the start of a second major situational fracture can be seen. This is the moment of “mass culture”, characterized by the development of monopoly-capitalist structures’ (ibid.). The production of a mass culture reflected the process of industrialization and the increasingly homogeneous nature of class relations, as is evident from the economically and culturally consistent nature of an industrial proletariat and the further polarization of class relationships. Middleton refers to the emergence of a specifically American hegemony and relates this to specific popular styles such as ragtime, jazz and Tin Pan Alley that involve a ‘drive towards “one-way communication” in homogeneous markets’ (ibid., 13–14).

Cold War 41

For German critical theorist Theodor Adorno (see critical theory), the rise of a mass culture and ‘one-way communication’ would involve the ideological force that constructs the pacification of the proletariat, blinding members of the class to their true needs and interests (see culture industry). However, the suggested hegemony of class relations is most effectively theorized by Italian Marxist Antonio Gramsci, for whom the dominant class exerts power through persuasion and the normalization of the political process, with culture being one of the main contexts for this. These issues of class resonate beyond Middleton’s second situational fracture and continue through the ‘moment of pop culture’ to the present. The certainties of a class-based political response to culture, including music, may have been somewhat displaced through the new subjectivities of contemporary critical contexts (see subjectivity), but the active presence of the market and the related notion of an industry in all spheres of cultural activity point to the continuing relevance of underlying economic conditions for understanding music and society. Further reading: Bottomore 1991; Day 2001; Draughon 2003; Griffiths 2004; Scott 1989, 2002

COLD WAR The Cold War is a term used to define the prolonged period of tension between, on the one hand, America and its European allies and, on the other, the Soviet Union and its satellite states. It is seen as extending from the end of the Second World War in 1945 to the collapse of Soviet power in various East European states in 1989, culminating in the formal dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. Within this broad chronological spectrum there are many stages and moments of difference, from the immediate post-war situation through to the heightening of nuclear tensions from the 1950s onwards to the construction of the Berlin Wall (1961) and the Cuban missile crisis (1962). Within this spectrum there are a number of relevant cultural and musical factors, including the return to musical activity in Europe following the cessation of hostilities in 1945. The position of music at this time, and its ideological (see ideology) appropriations, is particularly pertinent in the German context (see Thacker 2007), but the debates about music, particularly in terms of programming, were also significant in the return to cultural activity in Paris (see Sprout 2009).

42  Cold War

Many composers worked through the tensions of the Cold War and were subject to its ideological pressures. This was most notable in the Soviet Union, with leading composers such as Shostakovich subject to critical scrutiny (see Taruskin 1995b), but, in different, more covert ways, the arts, including music, were often subject to propagandist and ideological appropriations in the American sphere as well (see Caute 2003; Stonor Saunders 1999). In the context of popular music, the general anti-war sentiment of some music in the mid- to later 1960s can be seen to be both shaped by and responding to the tensions of the Cold War. The most powerful reflection of this is Bob Dylan’s ‘A Hard Rain’s A-Gonna Fall’ (1962), which makes an oblique yet powerful statement about the reality of the nuclear threat. Such imagery is repeated during later stages of the Cold War, with the Young Marble Giants’ track ‘The Final Day’ (1980) being a notable example. The intentionally post-punk simplicity of the music allows for the meaning of the lyrics to be clear and unambiguous, speaking of the ‘final day’, the moment of nuclear annihilation, and inflected by a class-based political perspective as defined by the evocative claim that it is the rich who die last (see class). This capturing of a Cold War apocalyptic vision was enhanced in the 1980s by screenings of the film The War Game by the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND), a realist documentary-style television drama made by the BBC in 1965 depicting a nuclear attack on Britain but not shown at the time for fear of provoking public alarm. One of the first, and most insightful, examples of musicology engaging with issues around the Cold War is Martin Brody’s article titled ‘“Music for the Masses”: Milton Babbitt’s Cold War Music Theory’ (Brody 1993). In this article, Brody considers the American composer Milton Babbitt’s music theory and its insistence on ‘“scientific” language and “scientific” method’ (ibid., 163), not as formally autonomous (see autonomy) but as part of a wider, critically defined context and discourse. This context is shaped by consideration of biographical factors (see biography) around Babbitt’s identification with the ‘New York leftist intellectual scene of the 1930s and 1940s’ (see place), a scene that was defined by the polemics between different ideological currents, and Babbitt’s personal association with individuals within this scene (‘Some of my best friends were Trotskyites’ (ibid., 169)). This approach not only contextualizes Babbitt’s theory but also highlights the political significance of language and discourse. Since the publication of Brody’s article there has been the significant development of a musicological literature that engages with the ideological, political contexts of the Cold War. Important interventions in this debate include, among others, Amy

Conflict (music and conflict) 43

Beal’s engaging account of American experimental music in post-1945 Germany (Beal 2006), Beckles Willson’s work on Hungarian music during the Cold War (Beckles Willson 2007), and Anne Schreffler’s detailed account of the serialism of Stravinsky’s late work Threni in the context of the Congress for Cultural Freedom, which is described as ‘an Americanbacked, CIA-funded organization set up as part of the ambitious program to rebuild European cultural life after the war’ (Shreffler 2005, 225) and which sought to counteract Soviet influence and propaganda. See also: modernism, nationalism, postmodernism Further reading: Adlington 2013b; Carroll 2003; Fosler-Lussier 2007; GienowHecht 2010; Kutschke and Norton 2013; Schmelz 2009; Walsh 2004, 2008

CONFLICT (MUSIC AND CONFLICT) An increasing number of studies have sought to chart the role of music ‘in both inciting and resolving a spectrum of social and political conflicts in the contemporary world’ (O’Connell and Castelo-Branco 2010, back cover). As Arild Bergh has pointed out, there exists a commonly held yet entirely unscientific conviction that music has some kind of magical power over people that might be used to resolve conflict situations (Bergh 2011). Set alongside this somewhat romantic view (see Romanticism), however, is the more sobering reality that music has been used widely as a tool to instigate, continue or reignite conflict and otherwise mediate violence (see Johnson and Cloonan 2009). The presence of music on the battlefield has a long history, from at least as far back as Ancient Greek and Roman conflicts through to the Iraq and Afghanistan wars in the 1990s and early twentyfirst century. In the latter, heavy metal (especially Metallica), hardcore and rap music were used to motivate and induce states of euphoria among American combatants (see Gittoes 2005; Goodman 2009), and even to torture prisoners (Cusick 2006, 2008a, 2008b; Johnson and Cloonan 2009), a use that exploits music’s susceptibility to being appropriated for purposes far beyond its origins. The role of the media is also important here, both through its ability to circulate music that incites hatred and as a potential form of resistance, as with the B92 radio station in Belgrade (see Collin 2004). In purely musical terms (see formalism), the role of conflict in tonal music should also be noted, primarily between competing tonal key centres, and the consequent desire for resolution. Following Beethoven, such conflict is often dramatized musically, an idea that culminates in the at times highly turbulent symphonies of Bruckner, Mahler and Nielsen.

44  Conflict (music and conflict)

It may seem surprising, therefore, that interest in music and conflict has developed in response to the rise of university peace study degree schemes, courses in ‘intercommunal coexistence’, and the online TRANSCEND Peace University. Some academics have argued that the effectiveness of music therapy is scientifically proven and that therefore we should think about ways in which music might be used to foster cultures of peace rather than war (Urbain 2008a, 3). Attention is therefore given to ways in which music can generate ‘intercultural understanding’ and ‘promote intracultural healing through music education and music therapy’ (O’Connell and Castelo-Branco 2010, vii). Scholars have examined ways in which music has generated empathy among participants (see Laurence 2008), solidarity (Laurence and Urbain 2011), and shared identity in multi-ethnic countries (see consciousness, ethnicity). Patterns of shared music making across ethnic divides in the Middle East, for example, are relatively common, in fact, despite complex political challenges (see Brinner 2009). Composers such as Nigel Osborne, working in Bosnia, and musicians, notably in the 1984 Live Aid event, have also used music as a means to heal social division or raise funds to intervene in crises associated with war. Ethnomusicologists, too, have developed forms of ‘applied’ study whereby their own research is combined with musical projects designed to restore social well-being (for a balanced critical perspective on this subject, see Pettan 2010). However, music psychologists have pointed out that emotions such as empathy, when triggered by music, do not last long beyond the initial triggering event (see Sloboda 2005, 218; see also emotion, psychology). Musicians have also disagreed over whether their activities are more effective when practised outside the country concerned, as with the jazz saxophonist and clarinettist Gilad Atzmon (see Abi-Ezzi 2008), or from within, as with the self-proclaimed ‘Arab Israeli Jew’ Yair Dalal, a term that indicates Yair Dalal’s affinity and solidarity with Palestinians and Arabs (see Urbain 2008b; Brinner 2009). Arguments in favour of music’s power to heal tend to invoke the myth that music is a universal language rather than admit that musical meaning depends to a great extent on cultural knowledge: one scholar cites the powerful example of a UNHCR representative dancing enthusiastically to traditional Hutu music only to be informed that the lyrics are about the need to eliminate all Tutsis (Urbain 2008a, 3). Nor is every­one equally interested in or moved by music, and music alone cannot do the work of conflict resolution: only people can work to resolve their differences. In this context, however, music can act as a useful diversion, perhaps taking the participant to a liminal space beyond an immediate social reality or state of mental tension, and in this way it can ‘make

Conflict (music and conflict) 45

possible’ and ‘provide the potential’ for interruptions that might be used to ease personal trauma or cool political debate (Bergh 2011, 373). Yet many conflicts are simply too complex and historically embedded to be resolved overnight. Music may contribute to personal healing or community conflict resolution but only partially and only as part of a process that could take years and that ultimately relies on rational negotiation or counselling. Bergh also points out that one should pay close attention to the power structures and motivations behind those involved in projects that seek peace through music: for example, events organized from the ‘top down’ may exclude the desires and interests of the target group (see also class, ideology). On the related question of whether music can be deployed in opposition to violence, Rachel Beckles Willson has undertaken extensive ethnographic research into the aims and practices behind the highly popular West–Eastern Divan Orchestra, the product of a collaboration between the Israeli conductor Daniel Barenboim and the Palestinian cultural theorist Edward Said (Beckles Willson 2009a, 2009b, 2013). A key motivation behind this project was Said’s belief that music offers ‘an alternative model for the conflict of identities’ (see identity). However, peeling back the veneer that promotes an image of ‘peace’ and ‘harmony’ between the orchestra’s young, primarily Arab, Jewish and Spanish players, Beckles Willson reveals a more complex set of dynamics in which the different social circumstances of the musicians inevitably shape and sometimes impede on their attitudes and experiences. Moreover, Barenboim’s self-appointed role as spokesman, often with an explicitly anti-Israeli message, appears at odds with the orchestra’s aspiration to create a musical utopia in which Jewish and Arab musicians listen to and understand one another without prejudice. As Beckles Willson asks: whose utopia is this? Are the musical solutions that primarily European audiences enjoy when listening to the orchestra ones that many in the Middle East seek, or are they the result of an essentially Euro-American vision of that region (see Orientalism)? The exclusion of Arab music from programmes in favour of Western classical music is telling. First, there is a hierarchy inherent in this form of music which privileges those afforded the most opportunity to learn its language. Second, the orchestra’s choice of Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony for a concert in Madrid in 2006 arguably played to a European dream of coexistence rather than a Palestinian desire for Israeli withdrawal, while Schiller’s text, which dates from the emergence of the European nation state and the violence of the French Revolution, evoked the ‘exclusionary nationalist utopias’ of an already realized Zionist vision and its occupied Palestinian counterpart (see nationalism). While some degree

46 Consciousness

of understanding is achieved in workshops for the players, political and social realities at home often reassert divisions, while the utopian desire for musicians to ‘lose themselves’ and their differences in autonomous (see autonomy) musical expression, while in thrall to the charismatic conductor, arguably only temporarily suspends rather than resolves conflict (although for a more positive interpretation of this situation in which musicians assume an alternative (see alterity) identity in performance, see Currie 2012b). See also: Cold War, 9/11 Further reading: Baade 2012; Baker, C. 2010; Bergh and Sloboda 2010; Cizmic 2012; Cooper 2009; Fauser 2013; Forrest 2000; Hambridge 2015; Liebman 1996; Robertson 2010; Scherzinger and Smith 2007

CONSCIOUSNESS There is no clear consensus on what consciousness is or how it works. According to one definition, however, consciousness is a ‘special kind of awareness’; more precisely, it is ‘the awareness of being aware’ (Zbikowski 2011, 183). For some theorists this definition refers to a higher order or extended form of consciousness in contrast to more primary or core forms (see Edelman 2005; Damasio 2003). Whereas primary forms, it is argued, are instinctive and biologically determined, extended forms involve a practical consciousness of temporality, memory, a distinction between self and other, following Descartes’s mind/body dualism (see also alterity), and the ability ‘to construct and consider a narrative of events’, particularly autobiographical events (Clarke, E. 2011, 195; see autobiography). The specific details of consciousness differ according to the event being experienced, and an important question for musicologists is ‘whether there is such a thing as “musical consciousness” [or consciousnesses]’ (Clarke and Clarke 2011, xx). Approaches to this question vary according to the methodology used: for example, neuroscientific, philosophical, cultural, psychological, or a combination of these. In musical terms, extended consciousness may take many forms; these include a listener’s awareness that they are present in a live musical event, and a listener’s choice of particular kinds of music to listen to at certain times in order to achieve a desired state (relaxation, stimulation, physical activity, therapy, etc.; see DeNora 2000, 2011; see listening). Extending this idea, musicologist David Clarke, following the philosopher Martin Heidegger, has argued that ‘Music models, moulds, and makes audible the

Consciousness 47

flow of our inner, subjective life – the sense of our being-in-the-world’ (Clarke, D. 2011, 1; see also subjectivity). It seems likely, however, that any such experience is formed by the relationship between instinctive, biological impulses and our responses to the world beyond us. A possible example of primary consciousness has been described by the music psychologist Alf Gabrielsson, who has argued that listeners may have a strong experience with music (SEM) in which ‘music occupies the whole of awareness’ and ‘nothing else matters’. However, from this a higher form of consciousness may arise when an experience or emotion is revived by ‘listening to the same music or just thinking of how it felt’. Ultimately, an SEM: may have far-reaching consequences for the individual, not only in his or her views on music but also on questions regarding identity, relationships with other people, changed views on life and existence, and other matters of great individual importance. (Gabrielsson 2011b, 107) The concept of consciousness entered into musicological discourse following conference discussions from 2006 onwards and a collection of essays by David Clarke and Eric Clarke (Clarke and Clarke 2011). This collection emerged in response to developments in neuroscience (through advances in brain scanning and imaging), critical enquiries about consciousness in the sciences (as reflected in the work of the University of Arizona’s Center for Consciousness Studies, the Association for the Scientific Study of Consciousness, and the Journal of Consciousness Studies), and music psychology. As the editors of Music and Consciousness state in their preface, the question for musicologists is whether ‘our experience and understandings of music might offer some timely contribution’ to existing debates on consciousness, and might lead to ‘new ways of thinking about music’ (ibid., xvii). Music’s role in shaping subjectivity and its reliance on the temporal domain, for example, suggest that it may offer relevant insights into consciousness. In his study On the Phenomenology of the Consciousness of Internal Time (1893–1917) (Husserl 1991), the philosopher Edmund Husserl identified music as an important key to understanding consciousness, since central to both music and consciousness is the flow of events through time. Moreover, David Clarke has drawn attention to ‘areas of enquiry left underplayed, unaddressed, or unresolved’ by Husserl (Clarke, D. 2011, 8). One such area is the question: what constitutes ‘now’ in our perception of music? Husserl addressed this question by thinking about the way in which a melody unfolds in a listener’s consciousness. According

48 Consciousness

to Husserl, our consciousness of a melody comprises a series of events, or notes, in each of which something of the previous events is retained (retention) and something of the events to come is anticipated (protention). Through this flexible, networked process the melody is conceived as a whole. The retention of events, however, becomes progressively weaker so that each event effectively begins to slip away the moment it occurs. There are certain similarities here with ideas developed by music theorists, including Heinrich Schenker’s concept of prolongation (see theory) and Leonard B. Meyer’s implication/expectation model (see emotion). However, Husserl is not specific about the kind of melody or musical style he has in mind, and here Clarke suggests a way of developing Husserl’s ideas. Clarke suggests that Husserl’s model, in which events slip away, is illustrated by the intertwining of voices and lack of repetition in a motet by the Renaissance composer Orlande de Lassus. However, a sonata form movement by Mozart, with its repeats and recapitulation sections, forces the listener to recall musical events – or ‘themes’ – that are themselves structured by internal equivalences. The Mozart example complicates Husserl’s theory because it continually folds time back on itself. Clarke also draws attention to another problem with Husserl’s theory, which the philosopher Jacques Derrida has pursued elsewhere, namely the question of whether originary consciousness – consciousness of events the moment they occur – is actually possible. For example, Clarke argues that we are aware that a note is played tenuto or staccato only after it has been completed. In other words, what we perceive to be present has already past. This leads Clarke to suggest that ‘the essence of consciousness itself . . . is an undertow of non- or un-consciousness’ (ibid., 9), because to recognize a note as tenuto or staccato represents a ‘conscious judgement on what just a moment ago we were experiencing unconsciously’. Or, to put it more provocatively, ‘our allegedly conscious experiences of musical objects are, at root, structured by an irreducible complexity of technical mediations’ (Gallope 2011, 53). Such mediating factors include time delay, different types of memory, our perspectives on the object, and our access to it via language systems and types of writing, not to mention the ‘cultural and historical specificity of listening’ (Biddle 2011b, 66; see also listening). As musicologist Ian Biddle notes, paraphrasing the psychoanalytic theorist Jacques Lacan, ‘sounds do not present themselves as autonomous phenomena, but as something in which we are always already implicated’ (ibid., 72; see sound). What this all draws attention to is a problem that exists at the root of consciousness studies in general: namely the ‘difficulty in harmonizing

Consciousness 49

the demands of objectivity with the recognition of subjective experience’ (Montague 2011, 30) – in other words, from the moment we hear sounds, we attempt to make sense of them in some way. Central to this problem is the question: what kinds of listening do our own historical locations and scholarly traditions make audible and, by implication, what kinds of listening do they silence? Here, Biddle draws attention to what he calls ‘musicology’s fixation on disciplined listening’ (Biddle 2011b, 71), within which he includes the German music theorist Felix Salzer’s term ‘structural hearing’, a disciplined mode of formalist (see formalism) listening centred on comprehending musical grammar (see Salzer 1962), and Pierre Schaeffer’s ‘reduced listening’, a more informal yet still disciplined mode of hearing (see Schaeffer 1966). Yet there are many other ways of hearing: if one asks someone to say what they hear in a recording, it may result in a description of the performer, date and venue, a list of particular emotions, or the statement ‘posh music’ (Clarke, E. 2011, 199; see also Clarke 2005). Other issues considered in relation to music and consciousness include the role of gesture and physical performance in shaping a performer’s consciousness; the extent to which so-called ‘free improvisation’ is actually freighted with prior cultural knowledge leading to a form of ‘sonic intertextuality’; music and meditation; the central role of the body; drug-induced altered states (see alterity); and music in everyday life and the social environment (see Clarke and Clarke 2011; see ecomusicology). DeNora, for example, draws attention to ‘the mutual determination of action and context’ and the utilization of music to ‘“work through” or alter’ someone’s outlooks (DeNora 2011, 311, 323). It is also possible to revisit earlier texts on music where the concept of consciousness is evident. For example, the seminal work of the midnineteenth-century music theorist A.B. Marx reflects traces of Hegelian philosophy that include a description of the creative process (see creativity) as ‘a coming to consciousness’ (Marx 1997, 18–19). Marx is at pains to lay to rest ‘that old misunderstanding’ of composition as ‘dreamlike’ and ‘unconscious’. Rather, he states, composition ‘is the deepest inwardness, the highest strength of the psychic being, the highest consciousness’, and he cites Mozart’s letters as evidence of a ‘remarkably clear consciousness’ of intention and execution (ibid., 19). Marx also suggests that form is ‘the expression of the rational spirit coming to consciousness and elevating itself to reason’ (ibid., 62). Marx’s ideas should be seen in contrast to those of earlier music theorists, notably Heinrich Koch, who in 1787 argued that consciousness should come into play after inspiration. As Ian Bent has explained, Koch believed that the ‘supercharged feelings’ and ‘heightened experience’ of inspiration should be ‘consciously

50  Cover version

switched off’ at a certain point; ‘taste (Geschmack) and artistic sensibility (Kunstgefühl)’ would then ‘determine whether the right emotion has been struck’. Here, consciousness is defined as the exercise of reason, followed by taste and judgement (Bent 1984, 36; see also value). Further reading: Becker 2004; Chalmers 1996; Consciousness, Literature and the Arts [journal]; Güzeldere 1997; James 1912; Nunn 2009

COVER VERSION Cover version is a term used in both everyday language and, increasingly, in popular music studies to describe the popular music practice of a recording by performers other than those responsible for the original version (see work). It is a practice that, by keeping the past in focus, helps generate a sense of popular music as history (see Weinstein 1998). Clearly, popular music has always depended upon songwriters to produce songs for others to perform, a good example being Neil Diamond’s ‘I’m a Believer’ (1966), which was specifically written for The Monkees, a band with no initial claim towards originality (see authenticity). But cover versions tend to relate to songs already familiar and therefore available for either revisiting and/or reworking. The music of Bob Dylan has provided a substantial source of cover versions. During the early 1960s, there were many covers of Dylan songs, most notably by Peter, Paul and Mary, whose versions of Dylan were contained within a highly commercialized folk style. Of more musical interest are the various versions of Dylan songs by The Byrds. Their version of ‘Mr Tambourine Man’ was a hit single in 1965. Here, Dylan’s acoustic, folk-based sound is transformed into a rock sound that is directly influenced by The Beatles (see influence). For James Grier, in his detailed comparison, there are two specific features that show that ‘beyond creating a rock arrangement of the Dylan original, they [The Byrds] were imposing a personal style on the song’ (Grier 2010, 43). The first, and most memorable, detail is the sound of the introduction, which is also used as the fade-out. The unique sound of this introduction is derived from the timbre of Roger McGuinn’s twelve-string electric guitar, a very different sound to that of Dylan, and is based, as Grier documents, on several factors, including the actual guitar used (Rickenbacker), the doubling of the strings, and the dividing of the melody across strings (ibid.). The second detail that Grier discusses, again with admirable accuracy, is that of harmonic rhythm; The Byrds’ version contains what is in effect a recomposition that gives greater weight to the subdominant harmony (ibid., 44).

Creativity 51

Issues of identity as well as musical transformation can be evident in cover versions. For example, in 2001 Atomic Kitten had a hit with ‘The Tide is High’, which had been recorded by Blondie in 1980 after its original manifestation as a ska/reggae sound produced by The Paragons on the Trojan label during the 1960s. This example produces a network of meanings and implications (see meaning). The song effectively changes gender, from the male identity of The Paragons to the female voices of both Debbie Harry and Atomic Kitten. It also involves a shift in ethnic identity (see ethnicity, race) from the black sound and context of Jamaica to the white Anglo-American context of both Blondie and Atomic Kitten. It also suggests a process through which popular music passes through time to become a historicized subject. The shift of ethnicity has a long history in popular music, the appropriation of black rhythm ’n’ blues sounds into a white economic and cultural mainstream (see culture industry) being a key process in the formation of 1950s rock ’n’ roll (see Gillett 1983; Palmer 1996). The critical engagement with issues surrounding cover versions is evident in a number of different contexts, but is brought most directly into focus in the work of Dai Griffiths. In a chapter titled ‘Cover Versions and the Sound of Identity in Motion’ (Griffiths 2002), Griffiths highlights issues of gender, sexuality, race and place through discussion of a wide range of recordings from different periods and styles. He concludes that ‘cover versions can supply case studies for the textual illustration and mounting of discussion around questions of identity and political power’ (ibid., 61). This suggests a new-found importance in the practice of cover versions and their interpretation. While, for some, the recycling nature of this process may look towards the superficiality of popular music, in effect it becomes one of the ways in which meaning can be both constructed and articulated through music. The discourse that has now begun to evolve from this musical process and context suggests that it has much potential for further consideration in the study of popular music. Further reading: Coyle 2002; Cusic 2005; Mosser 2008; Plasketes 2010

CREATIVITY From prehistoric cave paintings and centuries of devotional art, through the post-Enlightenment promotion of creative genius, to economies of local and global business (see globalization), creativity has exerted considerable influence in society. Yet what is it? Can it be taught? How does it begin? What is the process through which it evolves? Is it the

52 Creativity

product of hard work (a Protestant work ethic?), individual or divine inspiration, collaborative effort, leisure, serendipity, or a combination of these? Who are the arbiters that decide what is creative? And why? Cognitive scientist Margaret Boden argues that creativity is ‘the ability to come up with ideas or artefacts that are new, surprising and valuable’, either to the person concerned or to human history in general. Creativity is available to everyone, she argues, since it is ‘grounded in everyday abilities such as conceptual thinking, perception, memory, and reflective self-criticism’ (Boden 2004, 1). Boden’s definition places emphasis on value, authorship, originality and authenticity. From a different perspective, the psychologist Kenneth Gilhooly describes creativity as a form of problem solving (Gilhooly 1996), a ‘proliferation of goals, sub-goals, incorrect pathways and false starts’ (Collins 2005, 195). Both definitions imply that the creative process is autonomous (see autonomy), a view earlier promoted by the German philosopher Immanuel Kant in his Critique of Judgement, originally published in 1790 (although eighteenthcentury music theorists stressed the need to plan, shape and form ideas; see Bent 1984). By contrast, the Marxist theorist (see Marxism) Theodor Adorno argued that creativity is the semi-autonomous product of ‘a complex interrelation of aesthetic, technical, and socio-economic factors’ (Rampley 1998, 269). This raises the question: does individual creativity exist at all? Would Beethoven have composed or performed in the manner that he did without the example of others before him? Is creativity, however innovative, not facilitated by learned skills and shared practice (see Cope 2012), even if, in some instances, this is coupled with the drive, selfish ambition and single-mindedness of an ‘exemplary personality’ (Gardner 1993)? Or does creativity emerge in a state of uncertainty in which creative acts are compared and valued by individual and commercial agents whose responses are hard to predict (see Menger 2014)? Social science suggests that creativity is contingent upon historical, cultural, ethnic (see ethnicity), social and political factors such that the environment can act as either an incubator (Leopold Mozart’s early instruction of his son, Wolfgang Amadeus) or a roadblock (Gustav Mahler’s imperative to his wife, Alma, to cease composition), and broad fields of creativity in the arts and literature have prompted a number of important, sociologically driven theoretical studies (see Wolff 1993; Becker 2008; Bourdieu 2014). Accordingly, the anthropologist Tim Ingold suggests that creativity is located in and produced by the ‘meshwork’ of an ecological system that comprises ‘bundles of interwoven lines of growth and movement’ (Ingold 2008, 1796; see also Ingold 2013), while philosopher Andy Clark argues that creativity takes place

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in ‘a complex cognitive economy, spanning brain, body, and world’ (Clark 2008, 217). It therefore follows that creativity in music can be approached from numerous perspectives (see Hargreaves, Miell and MacDonald 2012), and that interest in the concept extends well beyond the arts and humanities to numerous other fields including the sciences, medicine, education, economics and business. An often-cited model for creativity is social psychologist Graham Wallas’s ‘stage theory’, which has four stages: preparation, incubation, illumination and verification (Wallas 1926; see also Rothenberg and Hausman 1976). As David Collins explains, in relation to musical composition: ‘Preparation’ describes the period when the initial problem is assessed and the person becomes familiar with the musical materials they are working with. ‘Incubation’ represents time away from the problem when conscious work is set to one side. This period may include passive forgetting of superficial details or previous attempts of the problem, and/or associative play between problem elements (Lubart, 1994). ‘Illumination’ is the so-called ‘flash of insight’ within problem-solving behaviour which is often preceded by some form of intimation that a solution to the problem is imminent. The production of new ideas requires a process of refinement, development and evaluation which Wallas terms ‘verification’ and this itself may lead back to the preparation or incubation stages. (Collins 2005, 194) Despite its apparent logic and attraction, this model is somewhat rigid. Are there not other ways in which artists and musicians create? New models have been proposed, for example the idea of ‘flow’ (complete absorption in the task at hand; see Csikszentmihalyi 2013) and the notion of ‘distributed creativity’, a shared act in which subjectivity is distributed between a number of collaborators, including composer, performers and audiences (see Clarke, Doffman and Lim 2013; Barrett 2014), as well as institutions, promoters, recording companies, and so on. This last point is a reminder that all acts of musical creativity are necessarily collective; in this context, recent studies have profited from the use of actor network theory (Law and Hassard 1999; Latour 2005; Piekut 2014b) and other sociological, collaborative models when examining creative scenes and trends (Piekut 2011; Quillen 2014). Wallas’s model has also been modified and superseded by advances in science that include brain imaging (Sawyer 2012) and computer programming (Wiggins 2012). The traditional emphasis on genetic criticism (see sketch) has

54  Critical musicology

also been challenged; the musicologist Nicolas Donin, for example, has experimented with a hybrid approach that combines genetic criticism with cognitive anthropological approaches (Donin 2009). Essentially, a composer is asked to recreate his or her creative process, to reproduce sketches and assemble all the materials that were to hand at the moment of creation. This method is not without its problems, however, not least because of its reliance on the ability of the composer to recall his or her original creative steps. Finally, it is important to understand that approaches to creativity have changed through time. Historical musicologist Rebecca Herissone, for example, has drawn attention to the fact that ‘so many of the basic tenets we take for granted in considering creativity today – such as the primacy of the author, and concepts of originality, inspiration and genius – were only fully developed during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries’. Indeed, her work on seventeenth-century England has highlighted the value placed at that time on imitation and collaboration, on ‘copying, studying, imitating and emulating’ previous artists (Herissone 2013, 15; see also Herissone and Howard 2013), practices that date back to the Renaissance and medieval periods. Herissone’s vital work suggests that there is much to be gained from further historical studies of this kind, which may help to revise current conceptions of creativity and ideas about how it might be nurtured. See also: sketch Further reading: Amabile 1996; Andreatta et al. 2013; Auner 2005; Bayley 2010; Burkus 2013; Collins 2012; Colton and Haworth 2015; Deliège and Wiggins 2006; Doffman 2011; Kaufman and Sternberg 2010; Knust 2015; Sawyer 2012; Sloboda 1988; Sternberg 1998; Thomas 1998

CRITICAL MUSICOLOGY Following the rise of the new musicology in the mid-1980s, a more self-critical, reflexive relationship has developed within musicology, as reflected in the burgeoning of topics now taught in music departments, such as audiovisual media (see film music), popular music, ethnomusicology (see ethnicity), cultural theory (see cultural studies), music psychology, music therapy, and performance analysis. Yet among a broad range of scholars, mostly based in the UK, there arose in the early 1990s a concern that subdisciplines within musicology (such as ethnomusicology, popular musicology, theory and analysis, and historical

Critical musicology 55

musicology) were hardening into orthodoxies that did not communicate with one another, that there was too much focus on central figures of the Western classical canon, and that the traditional distinction between the musical work (see work) and its context was being upheld. Such scholars developed their ideas both independently and under the banner of a so-called critical musicology, both at the same time as the new musicology and for some time afterwards. Like the new musicology, critical musicology is effectively a historical moment that has been superseded by a number of related developments in which its legacy is strong. Embedded in critical musicology was the idea of continually rethinking music to avoid establishing new orthodoxies or grand narratives (see narrative; see also Cook and Everist 1999), although, in general, it sought some kind of synthesis between practical, historical, social and analytical meaning. Indeed, a forum for such discussion appeared in Britain and involved annual study days from 1993 to 2004 under the ‘Critical Musicology’ moniker. According to its short-lived online presence (Critical Musicology: A Transdisciplinary Online Journal), critical musicology was: ‘1. A form of musicology which applies aspects of Critical Theory as practiced within other humanities disciplines to music; 2. A form of musicology which involves the theoretical critique of previous musicological traditions’ (http://www.leeds.ac.uk/music/Info/ critmus/; reassessments of this forum have been posted here: http:// www.radical-musicology.org.uk/2010.htm). In 2006, the publisher Ashgate launched a series entitled ‘Contemporary Thinkers on Critical Musicology’, although this includes authors more obviously associated with the new musicology. The purpose of the Critical Musicology forum was to encourage an ever-greater number of approaches to the study of music and respond to work that had not yet been fully aligned with the emergent new musicology. These approaches included a more critical and philosophical understanding of the musical work (see Goehr 1992); a rejection of the fetishizing of music as text and an associated scepticism towards sketch and other source-based study (Griffiths 1997); less emphasis on the division of music into parent genres (see genre), such as classical, folk and pop (Moore 2001b; Griffiths 1999); consideration of the role of the body in the performance and experience of music (see Leppert 1988; Bohlman 1993); a shift to performer- and listener-centred inquiry and an associated interest in subject position (Clarke 1999; Dibben 2001); inquiry into the social conditions that affect how musicians learn to play (Green 2001); and a concern with music education, how music is taught, and how that may best relate to the different musical experiences that young people bring to the subject (McCann 1996; Green 1997).

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Critical musicology was very concerned with the production and consumption of music, for example the economics of popular music (see Wicke 1990). Of particular interest for critical musicologists in this regard was Jacques Attali’s Noise: The Political Economy of Music (Attali 1985), in which attention is drawn to the power held by those who produce and market music so that ‘Listening becomes an essential means of surveillance and social control’ (ibid., 122; see listening). Another model for critical musicology was provided by American ethnomusicologist Philip Bohlman’s concern to draw attention to musicology itself as a political act while simultaneously warning against limiting revisionary methodologies to canonical works (see canon) and composers: The arguments for resistance, post-colonial discourse, and subaltern voices [see postcolonial] are already in the musics that surround us, and we ignore them only by not listening to them. . . . Musicology’s crisis, therefore, confronts it also with a new responsibility to come face-to-face with the political [see politics] nature of all acts of interpretation and with the political consequences of excluding for too long the musics of women [see feminism], people of color [see race], the disenfranchised, or Others [see alterity] we simply do not see and hear. (Bohlman 1993, 435–6) Recognition of the political aspect of musicological interpretation and consideration of neglected voices can be found in Georgina Born and David Hesmondhalgh’s multiple-author book Western Music and its Others (Born and Hesmondhalgh 2000), while issues of music and class are of concern to Richard Middleton and Derek B. Scott (Middleton 1990; Scott 1989). Much critical musicology questions and examines the ways in which music is used, socially and individually; this focus on human interaction with music is an important extension of the more subjective (see subjectivity) approaches introduced by the new musicology. A number of related strategies have subsequently emerged, to the extent that we might now speak of critical musicologies, in the plural. An early indication of this was signposted by the book Empirical Musicology: Aims, Methods, Prospects (Clarke and Cook 2004), which examines ways in which musicology can better use and be more critically reflective of its processes of data gathering and analysis – these were aspects of the discipline that had come under attack from new musicologists. Observations, or ‘facts’, arise from the interpretation of data, which is determined by the intellectual discourse and associated values (see value) in play at a particular time. In turn, these will have determined the methods used and questions asked in the first place. As such, Cook and Clarke state:

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there is no useful distinction to be drawn between empirical and non-empirical musicology, because there can be no such thing as a truly non-empirical musicology; what is at issue is the extent to which musicological discourse is grounded on empirical observation, and conversely the extent to which observation is regulated by discourse. (Cook and Clarke 2004, 3) In short, empirical musicology stresses the need to test observations, and to treat the analysis of data-rich fields as a strategy for discovery (a tool-oriented approach) rather than a support for grand narratives (see narrative) that promote unitary, definitive explanations of the way the world is. Empirical musicology includes the analysis of scores but also extends to quantitative and qualitative analyses of the use of music in society, by groups and individuals (Davidson 2004), and empirical studies of performance. Another related development is the rise of a so-called radical musicology, and an associated online journal (http://www.radical-musicology.org.uk/), based at the International Centre for Music Studies at Newcastle University in the UK. The journal’s stated aim is ‘to encourage work which explicitly or implicitly interrogates existing paradigms, and which acknowledges that musicological work will always have a political dimension. The politics we favour might be summarised as a desire to democratise the field of the permissible’ (Radical Musicology online journal). Clearly, there is a sympathy here with Bohlman’s notion of musicology as a political act, quoted above. Notable in the Radical Musicology online journal is an issue dedicated to a reassessment of the aims and objectives of the critical musicology movement; also, American musicologist Suzanne Cusick’s pioneering work on music and torture (see conflict). The journal also includes an article by British musicologist David Clarke on BBC Radio 3’s Late Junction, a radio programme that broadcasts a ‘laid-back, eclectic mix of music from across the globe’, which seems to advocate a harmless, harmonious postmodern cultural plurality (see postmodernism). In his concluding remarks, Clarke observes: What’s perplexing about Late Junction is that on the one hand – and to its credit – it actually encourages us to make connections between the apparently disparate, yet on the other hand it stops short of realising any disparity between the harmoniousness of its own global imaginary and the momentously conflicted world of geopolitics. (Clarke 2007a)

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Such concerns, regarding the ideology of cultural pluralism, relativism and globalization, have given rise to further emerging forms of musicological enquiry, most notably relational and comparative musicology. Relational musicology is an approach advocated by the sociomusicologist Georgina Born (see Born 2010a), who seeks to incorporate developments in anthropology, social theory and history. Born proposes that two boundaries need to be challenged: 1) the music/social dualism; and 2) the notion of what counts as music to be studied, and how it should be studied. Her proposal is to relocate musicology within an encompassing ethnomusicology, in part by advocating the work of ethnomusicologist Steven Feld, who ‘proposed a critical anthropology of music intended to overcome the music/social dualism by analysing “sound structure as socially structured”, that is, musical cultures as immanently social’ (Feld 1984). A relational musicology focuses on ‘historical relations between art, popular and vernacular musics – in the guise of allusion, mimesis, parody, negation or absolute difference’ (Born 2010a, 224). Born lays much stress on the term ‘mediation’, by which she means ‘music’s social, discursive and technological constructions, their autonomy and their articulation’ (ibid.) – in other words, ways in which music exists within, and is communicated to, the world. Born’s proposal is to work against ‘the limiting conceptual boundaries of the various music subdisciplines’ in order to yield ‘an expanded empirical (and therefore conceptual) imagination’ (ibid., 230). Ultimately, she seeks ‘an ontological transformation in both our optics and our objects, towards a fully relational and reflexive, social and material conception of all musics’ (ibid., 242). Comparative musicology is an approach that dates back to the 1920s and 1930s, when it emerged as a kind of precursor of ethnomusicology, which has been revived recently by ethnomusicologists Patrick Savage and Steven Brown. Theirs is an interdisciplinary approach that compares song forms across cultures, drawing on population studies, statistical analysis, bio-evolutionary theory and comparative linguistics (Savage and Brown 2013; see also http://www.compmus.org/ researchers.php). The emphasis in this methodology is on empirical data gathering and statistical modelling, a search for universal principles, and a desire to map relations on a global scale. Yet this focus on data, coupled with a relatively neutral concept of comparison, has drawn criticism. David Clarke, for example, has argued that comparative musicology should go beyond empiricism and metrics and should imply dialectics:

Critical theory 59

not a measuring of similarity based on a subtraction of difference; not a fetishizing of difference so as to become blind to commonality; but a recognition that difference and similarity entirely suppose one another, with now one and now the other in the ascendant, in a tension – a turbulence even – that allows neither term to become assimilated to the other, and that motivates an inquiry that is dynamic and open ended. (Clarke 2014) Elsewhere, Clarke has theorized strong and weak relations between different musical genres and traditions (Clarke 2007b), and has explored comparative music analysis (its prospects and limits) of Indian and Western art music (Clarke 2013). The work of Born, Clarke, Savage and Brown is indicative of a desire to make the divisions between subdisciplines in musicology more porous. It also highlights critical reflection within ethnomusicology (manifested in a rhetorical ‘new ethnomusicology’ (see Stobart 2008; Wood 2009)) and a general turn towards empiricism and the social sciences, as illustrated by British musicologist Nicholas Cook’s assertion that ‘we are all ethnomusicologists now’ (Cook 2008; see also Cook 2015). See also: ecomusicology, gay musicology, listening, sound Further reading: Hawkins 2012; Hooper 2006; Koen, Lloyd, Barz and BrummelSmith 2008; Levitz 2012; Radano and Bohlman 2000; Scott 2000, 2003

CRITICAL THEORY Critical theory is readily invoked but difficult to define. Interestingly, the entry on critical theory in the Encyclopaedia of Aesthetics (Kelly 1998) simply tells us to look elsewhere, to ‘Adorno; Barthes; Benjamin; Criticism; Derrida; Feminism; Foucault; Habermas; Marcuse; Postcolonialism and Post-structuralism’ (ibid., 462). This gesture, in what is an important source of general information on aesthetics, reveals critical theory to be a broad, umbrella-like term that to varying extents can form a relationship to many key thinkers, concepts and contexts but remains resistant to definition as a concept itself. However, critical theory does have its own history and intellectual identity. The first and most direct usage is linked to the work of the ‘Frankfurt School’, a term that relates to the work of philosophers and

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sociologists associated with the Frankfurt Institute of Social Research, which was formed in 1924 but developed rapidly during the 1930s under the leadership of Max Horkheimer. On models provided by the Frankfurt School, critical theory was formed as a rigorous critical engagement with philosophical and sociological issues through an interpretation of these respective disciplines within a framework derived from, and orientated towards, Marxism (see Marxism). David Held, in his impressive overview of critical theory, states: Critical theory, it should be emphasized, does not form a unity; it does not mean the same thing to all its adherents. The tradition of thinking which can be loosely referred to by this label is divided into at least two branches – the first centred around the Institute of Social Research, established in Frankfurt in 1923, and the second around the more recent work of Jürgen Habermas. (Held 1980, 14) The first of Held’s two branches has become synonymous with the work of Theodor Adorno (defined by Held as philosopher, sociologist and musicologist) and Max Horkheimer, although many other thinkers were also active around the Institute of Social Research, including the philosopher Herbert Marcuse, the psychologist Erich Fromm and, from a rather different angle and in a less clearly defined way, the literary theorist and critic Walter Benjamin. The fundamentally political nature of critical theory is captured in an important essay by Horkheimer entitled ‘Traditional and Critical Theory’, originally published in 1937, which articulates the importance of human agency as a shaping force of history, in a reflection of the Marxist orientation of critical theory. In a postscript to that essay, Horkheimer outlines this political engagement through reference to the production of history and human activity as part of a critical orientation towards society: The critical theory of society . . . has for its object men as producers of their own historical way of life in its totality . . . Objects, the kind of perception, the questions asked, and the meaning of the answers all bear witness to human activity and the degree of man’s power. (Horkheimer 1972, 244) Max Paddison, the foremost English-language commentator on Adorno and critical theory in relation to music, provides a neat synopsis of the critical nature of this particular project:

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In brief, Critical Theory has to do with how a theory relates to its object, and how it deals with the contradictions of its object. At the same time it has to do with the contextualization of the object of inquiry – a process which embraces not only the ‘objective’ social and historical context, but also the interaction between individual and society (the ‘Subject–Object relationship’) which is embedded in that context. (Paddison 1996, 14–15) On the basis of this description, we can understand critical theory as involving a critical relationship with the object under consideration, a process that can also be situated within another, broader context (‘contextualization of the object of inquiry’) and that has implications for our understanding of music. Adorno’s writings on music, which include surveys of Beethoven, Berg, Mahler and Wagner (Adorno 1998, 1991a, 1992a, 1991b, respectively) and a comparative study of Schoenberg and Stravinsky (Adorno 1973), present a critical understanding of the subject and provide models for further inquiry and critical reaction. In addition to Paddison’s accounts and critiques of Adorno, some other aspects of musicology have reflected an interest in his work. The most notable attempt to build new critical interpretations upon an essentially Adornian framework come in American theorist Rose Subotnik’s book Developing Variations: Style and Ideology in Western Music (Subotnik 1991). In this book, Subotnik presents a series of essays that engage with specific issues that emerge from Adorno, including ‘Adorno’s Diagnosis of Beethoven’s Late Style’ (see periodization). In this essay, Subotnik confirms the importance for Adorno of Beethoven, specifically his late style (see lateness), within which the self-contained, self-reflexive nature of the musical language formed a critical relationship to the real world and anticipated modernism (see autonomy): According to Adorno . . . Beethoven’s third-period style marked the beginning of the modern world, that is, a reversal in the prospects for a fully human species, a reversal that made eloquent and effective social protest imperative in art; and yet, it was with this very style that the social impotence of the artist was established irrevocably. (ibid., 33) This statement brilliantly reflects what for Adorno was the paradoxical position of music, and of the arts in general, in the modern world: the requirement for a critical art that simultaneously acknowledges the isolation of the artist.

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As outlined at the outset of this discussion, it is possible to interpret a wider critical theory beyond the already broad boundaries of the Frankfurt School and its related theorists. Many recent and current trends involve a critical relationship to past theory. Much writing defined as post-structuralism, another broad term, can be read as a critique of structuralism; likewise postmodernism involves a critical relationship to modernism. The critical reflex towards already existing theory is most sharply defined in deconstruction, in which much of Derrida’s writing exists through a critical reaction to already existing texts (by Rousseau, Hegel and Husserl, among others) and concepts. See also: critical musicology, new musicology Further reading: Adorno 2002; Currie 2012a; Jay 1973; Norris 1992; Paddison 1993; Spitzer 2006; Williams 1997

CRITICISM Criticism can be understood as the regular activity of reviewing concerts and recordings (see recording). The collections of criticisms by, for example, Andrew Porter (Porter 1988) and Edward Said (Said 2008) provide good examples of this type of response to music. This version of criticism is located within professional journalism and might not always form part of a general musicology, but it is also possible to conceive a wider criticism in which evaluative and comparative judgements are made. From this perspective, some aspects of musicology can also be understood in terms of criticism. If it is possible now to perceive a certain distinction between music criticism and musicology, this was not always the case. Critical writing about music forms a significant part of an evolving tradition. The rise of publishing during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries created a context in which a marked increase in commentary about music occurred. The emergence of journals devoted specifically to the study of music was clearly an important development. The Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung, first published in Leipzig in 1798, is often considered to be the first music journal. It included reviews of new works and performances and became a model for the music journals that were soon to emerge throughout Europe. The late eighteenth century also saw the emergence of music criticism in daily newspapers. The concern with a critical response to and evaluation of new and recent music became a recurrent preoccupation throughout the Romanticism

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of the nineteenth century, with the music of Beethoven being the most clearly defined object of attention. The most interesting and stimulating critic of the period was E.T.A. Hoffmann, a German writer of fantasy novels who also wrote about music. His review of Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony, which appeared in the Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung in 1810, was the starting point for a tradition of German Beethoven criticism and a central reference point in the reception of this music. Hoffmann begins his review with a statement of the importance of both the composer and the work, but he clearly outlines the personal nature of his own response (see subjectivity): The reviewer has before him one of the most important works by the master whose pre-eminence as an instrumental composer it is doubtful that anybody would now dispute; he is utterly permeated by the subject of the present review, and may nobody take it amiss if he exceeds the limits of conventional appraisals and strives to put into words all the profound sensations that this composition has given rise to within him. (Charlton 1989, 236) This gives an indication of the subjective nature of Hoffmann’s response and also betrays its own time, but it is clear that the review of this work is also an invitation for Hoffmann to reflect on some larger issues, in this instance the description of instrumental music as a truly romantic art form and its elevation towards an absolute music, allowing Hoffmann’s interpretation to be situated in relation to the large-scale aesthetic issues surrounding music and meaning (see aesthetics). This review, like others conceived for the Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung, is notable for the degree of musical detail it contains, a factor that distinguishes it from what we have since come to expect from reviews. The descriptive but detailed account of the work allows us to view it in relation to later musicological developments such as analysis. This overlap with analysis was to be repeated later in the writing of English composer, conductor and critic Donald Francis Tovey, whose descriptive accounts of music, often in the form of the programme note, managed to contain a remarkable degree of musical detail (Tovey 2001). The nineteenth century also witnessed the emergence of the composer as critic, the most notable being Robert Schumann. In 1834 Schumann founded the Neue Zeitschrift für Musik, a journal that was originally conceived as a radical alternative to what was now perceived as the conservatism of the Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung. The progressive Romanticism championed by Schumann, in both theory and practice, was soon to be contrasted by the conservatism of the Viennese critic

64 Criticism

Eduard Hanslick, who, on the basis of his writings on music aesthetics, is routinely seen as an advocate of an absolute music. For a long period of time, from the mid to later nineteenth century, Hanslick would routinely review musical performances in the daily Viennese press. Following a period of admiration for Wagner, Hanslick reacted critically to his influence, favouring the instrumental music of Brahms, which could be interpreted as self-sufficient, in contrast to the extra-musical connotations and significance of the Wagnerian music drama and its translation into the instrumental context of the symphonic poem as defined by Liszt. In an essay on Liszt’s symphonic poems, published in 1857, Hanslick states: It is hardly necessary here to raise the issue of whether programme music can be justified or not. Nobody is now so narrow-minded as to deny the composer the poetical stimulation offered by reference to an external theme. Music certainly will never be able to express a definite object, or to represent its essential characteristics in a manner recognizable without the title; but it may take the basic mood from it and, with the title given, present an allusion, if not a graphic representation. The main prerequisite is that music be based on its own laws and remain specifically musical, thus making, even without programme, a clear, independent impression. The main objection to be raised against Liszt is that he imposes a much bigger – and abusive – mission on the subjects of his symphonies [symphonic poems]: namely, either to fill the gap left by the absence of musical content or to justify the atrociousness of such content as there is. (Hanslick 1963, 54–5) In this statement we get a clear indication of the intensity of Hanslick’s critical response, argued for clearly without any subtlety or ambiguity with regards to his negative valuation of Liszt as a composer. Yet this passage is also notable in that it gives an insight into Hanslick’s wider aesthetic beliefs. He recognizes the potential of what he describes as ‘poetical stimulation’, which he might think of in terms of inspiration, but, as is consistent with his formal agenda, he reminds us that music must be itself, based on ‘its own laws’, and remains ‘specifically musical’. In this instance we have a vivid demonstration of the interconnectedness of several concepts, critical judgements made within an aesthetic framework that asserts an absolute music through a formalist perspective (see formalism), which has consequences for the debate about meaning in music. If Hanslick was negative about Liszt, he was, as anticipated, highly positive about Brahms. The following extract comes from a review of the first performance of Brahms’s Fourth Symphony in Vienna in 1886:

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The Symphony demands complete mastery; it is the composer’s severest test – and his highest calling. Brahms is unique in his resources of genuine symphonic invention; in his sovereign mastery of all the secrets of counterpoint, harmony, and instrumentation; in the logic of development combined with the most beautiful freedom of fantasy. All these virtues are abundantly present in his Fourth Symphony . . . The E minor symphony begins with a simple, somewhat thoughtful idyllic theme . . . The movement ends strong and stormy . . . Deeper and more direct is the effect of the Adagio, the most exquisite movement of the whole work and one of the most beautiful elegies Brahms ever wrote. There is a peculiar sweet and warm atmosphere in it, an enraptured charm which miraculously blossoms into ever-new tone colours, until, at last, it fades away into soft twilight. (ibid., 243–4) Not only does Hanslick assert his own critical judgement of the Brahms symphony, he adds descriptions of the sound of the music, which interestingly assign visual associations with nature – strong, stormy, soft twilight – that have wider implications for Hanslick’s account of the selfsufficient formal character of music (see ecomusicology). If we need to use descriptive language (see metaphor) to describe the affects and characteristics of music, then can music really be understood only as an art that must be based ‘on its own laws’ and remain ‘specifically musical’? In the Austro-German context outlined above, music criticism had now become a focal point for ideological reflections on the nature of music. The connections between criticism and ideology were even more clearly marked in nineteenth-century Russia, for example, where the search for a national musical identity was reflected in music criticism (see nationalism). Music criticism during the twentieth century featured an intensification of factors already active during the previous century. If composers no longer cared to review new music in the way that Schumann did, composers still sought justification through the written word, with Schoenberg, for example, producing an abundance of written commentary on music (see modernism). However, in some contexts music criticism and the role of the critic were subjected to even greater ideological pressures, as music became a source of a more overt political representation (see politics). The further development of a professionalized, academic musicology has intensified the division between musicology and criticism. Criticism has become more widespread due to the increase in media such as

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newspapers, magazines, radio, television and the internet, all of which can feature reviews of performances, new music and new recordings. However, developments in musicology suggest a new-found critical orientation. This does not involve activities of criticism, but it does suggest an evaluative approach to music. American musicologist Joseph Kerman, whose work is mentioned in relation to numerous concepts in this book, suggests a more ‘comprehensive “humane” practical criticism of music’ (Kerman 1994, 30) as an alternative to the alleged objectivity of music analysis. This proposal opens up the prospect of a study of music that is based on critical and evaluative premises but is carried through with a certain rigour and close scrutiny. It is also possible to look towards a critical response to music that projects a critical relationship to itself as well as to the music under consideration (see critical theory). Popular music and jazz have their own critical discourses (see discourse), but they also provide a certain parallel with the classical music tradition. The development of specific journals in both jazz (Downbeat) and popular music (Rolling Stone) helped to shape tastes and provide a framework within which critical responses could be made. Critical discussions in terms of reviews also reflect a certain power, with new groups and recordings subjected to criticism and comparison. In popular music, the division between journalistic criticism and academic study can often be neatly obscured, with important voices such as Simon Frith and Greil Marcus able to move across both contexts. See also: critical musicology, new musicology Further reading: Gann 2006; Grimes, Donovan and Marx 2013; Karnes 2008; McColl 1996

CULTURAL STUDIES The term ‘cultural studies’ can be understood as a generalization that embraces all aspects of the study of culture, including music. However, although it is clearly surrounded by multiple meanings and contexts, it has a distinct lineage and is often related to quite specific practices and theories. The point of origin is generally given as the work of Raymond Williams, one of the most important and imaginative writers on culture, and Richard Hoggart. The formation of the Birmingham Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies in 1964, directed by Richard Hoggart and then Stuart Hall, represents the beginnings of cultural studies as an academic discipline and the increasingly rigorous theorization of culture.

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The theoretical work that emerged from Birmingham embraced a multidisciplinary (or interdisciplinary) force and engaged with a diverse range of cultural practices, factors that are now central to most versions of cultural studies. Cultural studies have often been concerned with popular culture (see popular music), the distinction between different formations or levels of culture being a recurrent issue. This focus on the popular has often taken a political dimension through engagement with issues such as class. These tendencies are well articulated in Dick Hebdige’s Subculture: The Meaning of Style (Hebdige 1979), a work that is firmly in the Birmingham cultural studies tradition. Hebdige is concerned with the aspiration of young people for emancipation from the realities of everyday life. This leads to consideration of the identity of youth subcultures and the opposition between this aspiration and the commodity status and pressures of wider cultural and economic contexts. Essentially, Hebdige constructs a dialectical resolution of this opposition, bringing these tensions together through the focus on style, which becomes a site of interplay between different conflicting, competing pressures. These issues are situated in the popular music of the period, with references made to styles such as glam, reggae and punk. Some of the most insightful work on popular music/culture to emerge from an explicitly cultural studies background comes from American cultural theorist Lawrence Grossberg, who views popular music within broad cultural contexts and often through political and ideological perspectives (see ideology and politics). In the introduction to a collection of essays titled Dancing in Spite of Myself (Grossberg 1997a), Grossberg situates his ‘project’ ‘between an interest in the social effects and logics of popular culture, especially rock music and youth culture, and a commitment to the possibilities of cultural studies as a form of progressive intellectual work’ (ibid., 1). This situation leads Grossberg to summarize his work through ‘four trajectories’: a concern with the specific practice of cultural studies; a philosophical interest in cultural and communication theory; an exploration of the popularity and effectivity of rock music; and an investigation into the apparent success of the new conservative hegemony. (ibid., 1) These ‘trajectories’ outline some important areas and, in many ways, can still be interpreted as an agenda for the formation of interrelationships between cultural studies and popular music. The final trajectory, the ‘new conservative hegemony’, reminds us that music as a cultural

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practice exists in political contexts and locations, which are formed by what Grossberg perceived as the dominant political and cultural climate of America at the time of writing. Although cultural studies as a distinct academic context and practice may relate most directly to popular music, many trends in musicology, by embracing interdisciplinary perspectives, provide some telling parallels (see new musicology). Texts such as Gary Tomlinson’s Music in Renaissance Magic (Tomlinson 1993b), Susan McClary’s Feminine Endings (McClary 1991) and John Shepherd’s Music as Social Text (Shepherd 1991), while not always engaged with specific traditions and agendas of cultural studies, remind us, in many different ways, that music is a cultural practice and exists in and through cultural contexts. It is also possible to read some texts that come from a more conventional musicological perspective, as distinct from a tradition and context of cultural studies, as forming a cultural study in that they involve the study of a specific set of musical practices within a specific context as defined by, for example, place. A highly effective example of such a contextual study of a specific cultural context is Reinhard Strohm’s Music in Late Medieval Bruges (Strohm 1990). Also of interest in terms of the intersections of culture and place is Michael Broyles’ work on the reception of Beethoven in the USA. In his book Beethoven in America (Broyles 2011), Broyles not only documents the performance of Beethoven’s music in the USA as a historical narrative, he also outlines ways in which it has been translated, both as image and sound, into different aspects of popular culture, processes that could be read as subverting the canon and redefining the boundaries between ‘high’ and ‘low’ cultures. Further reading: Currie 2011; During 1993; Fulcher 2011; Grossberg 1993, 1997b; Inglis 1993; Mulhern 2000

CULTURAL THEORY see critical theory, cultural studies, culture CULTURE According to the influential cultural and literary theorist Raymond Williams, culture ‘is one of the two or three most complicated words in the English language’ (Williams 1988, 87). Williams made this statement in a book entitled Keywords, itself an important cultural text. The complications suggested by Williams emerge from the different

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contexts in which the word is used and the different meanings that attach to it. While ‘culture’ has generally been used as an all-embracing term for creative, educational and artistic activities (see creativity), Terry Eagleton stresses the physicality of the term and its relationship with nature: ‘though it is fashionable these days to see nature as a derivative of culture, culture, etymologically speaking, is a concept derived from nature’. Following further consideration of earlier usages, he concludes: ‘We derive our word for the finest of human activities from labour and agriculture, crops and cultivation’ (Eagleton 2000, 1). This ‘cultivation’ conveys an image of development and growth, terms descriptive of nature but which relate to human activity, specifically education. This understanding of culture has a clear applicability to both music and musicology, both of which are inextricably linked to educational processes and contexts. Culture is often thought of as both a context and a set of practices that define that context. The suggestion of context indicates that culture exists as a collective practice. This view was projected by T.S. Eliot in a text titled ‘Notes Towards the Definition of Culture’, in which he explored the interrelationships of three levels of culture: the individual, groups or classes (see class), and the whole of society. Each of these levels depends on the next and results in an understanding of culture as ‘the whole way of life’ (Eliot 1975, 297). Eliot’s perspective, which was driven by his own religious beliefs, raises certain fundamental issues. Any individual asserts identity through his or her cultural associations, and social and/or economically defined groupings may also form identities through shared interests and issues; however, the way in which all this can be subsumed within a cultural totality that is the ‘whole of society’ remains problematic. It is notable that Eliot uses the singular rather than the plural (the rather than a definition of culture). From our contemporary multicultural perspective (see ethnicity), Eliot’s definitions of culture seem somewhat outdated, but even in the context of Eliot’s own time there were issues of diversity and difference (see alterity) that would form a resistance to his interpretation of culture. Raymond Williams continually produced insightful discussions on the subject of culture and its study (see cultural studies), and he also engaged with Eliot’s ‘whole way of life’, coming to quite different conclusions (Williams 1958). Williams talks of culture as a fluid process and the need to ‘recognize not only “stages” and “variations” but the internal dynamic relations of any actual process’ (Williams 1977, 121). This relationship between change (‘stages’ and ‘variations’) and the internal dynamic leads Williams to state that:

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We have certainly still to speak of the ‘dominant’ and the ‘effective’, and in these senses of the hegemonic. But we find that we have also to speak, and indeed with further differentiation of each, of the ‘residual’ and the ‘emergent’, which in any real process, and at any moment in the process, are significant both in themselves and in what they reveal of the characteristics of the ‘dominant’. (ibid., 121–2) These terms (dominant, residual, emergent) are important for Williams, and they purposefully reflect the dynamic nature of culture as process. ‘Residual’ relates to past cultures: ‘By “residual” I mean something very different from the “archaic”. . . . Any culture includes available elements of its past, but their place in the contemporary cultural process is profoundly variable’ (ibid., 122). Clearly, any culture or cultural context has a past, an inheritance, but how that is reconstructed in the present is open to change (it is ‘variable’). This residual culture coexists with what Williams terms ‘emergent’ cultural practices: ‘By “emergent” I mean, first, that new meanings and values, new practices, new relationships and kinds of relationship are continually being created’ (ibid., 123). In other words, against a recognizable background culture (the ‘dominant’) we can project reflections of past cultures (‘residual’) and trace the development of new (‘emergent’) cultural formations. This theoretical outline is a good reflection of how music operates as culture. Music is an evolving art that always carries some reflection of its past (see tradition). However, how we might locate Williams’ cultural ‘dominant’ in a contemporary context is more problematic. Music exists in many different cultural contexts – national, regional, ethnic, among others – and different types of music reflect different cultures. This cultural difference is also reflected in musicology, in which different scholars will focus on different cultural contexts and types of music. This sense of difference is extended through ethnomusicology, in which different ethnomusicologists specialize in different cultures and their respective musical repertoires. This focus on difference questions the possibility of Williams’ ‘dominant’ culture and negates the singular, unifying perspective of Eliot (see postmodernism). Musicology is often retrospective and can be external in terms of time and location to the culture, and cultural practices, under consideration, with the outcome being a set of documentations and commentaries upon that culture. It may therefore more consistently engage with and reflect Williams’ ‘residual’ rather than ‘emergent’ culture. However, musicology is often preoccupied with the emergent – how styles change, how the new evolves, the formative stages of a composer’s development – and

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such concerns can be interpreted as an engagement with ‘emergent’ cultures, but, through the passage of time, and in part as a consequence of historical study (see historiography), the ‘emergent’ becomes ‘residual’. See also: cultural studies, nationalism, place Further reading: Currie 2009, 2011; Denning 2004; Fink 2005a; Fulcher 2011; Hill 2007; Kramer 1993b; Mulhern 2000; Slobin 1993; Tomlinson 1984

CULTURE INDUSTRY The culture industry is a concept constructed by German critical theorist Theodor Adorno (see critical theory) to describe and critique the industrial and commercial nexus that forms around the production, dissemination and reception of culture (Adorno 1991c). It results in a deliberate paradox, setting culture, with its connotations of both nature and art, against the reality of industrialization, a reality that, in other formulations, would be the antithesis of culture. One of Adorno’s main texts on the culture industry is an extended chapter of the book Dialectic of Enlightenment, which he wrote with Max Horkheimer and was originally published in 1944 (Adorno and Horkheimer 1979). In this chapter, ‘The Culture Industry: Enlightenment as Mass Deception’, Adorno and Horkheimer characterize the production of mass culture through processes of industrial standardization, suggesting that the production of film is identical to that of the motor car (ibid., 123). For Adorno and Horkheimer, this standardization is also the defining nature of the popular music of the period: Not only are the hit songs, stars, and soap operas cyclically recurrent and rigidly invariable types, but the specific content of the entertainment itself is derived from them and only appears to change. The details are interchangeable. (ibid., 125) This suggests a highly pessimistic view of the production and reception of popular culture, but there is a degree of accuracy. Much popular music reverts to a certain typology and a genre classification that is targeted by the industry towards certain markets as defined by age group, gender and social background (see class). However, Adorno’s view is also a problematic understanding of the human response to culture, which, for Adorno, is blinded by the ideological effects of capitalism (see ideology).

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It is notable that Adorno’s writings on popular culture and the culture industry date from around the 1940s, and that his rather fixed view of these issues were not reconsidered in the light of the transformations that popular culture underwent in the period up to his death in 1969. Some writers have sought to focus on exceptions to Adorno’s model that can be used as a critical response. For example, Max Paddison proposes a genre of ‘radical popular music’ that resists Adorno’s standardization. This music has a radical potential to assume a critical orientation to which an Adornian perspective might be sympathetic. Paddison mentions the eclectic experimentation of Frank Zappa, and British groups such as Henry Cow and Art Bears (Paddison 1996, 101), as examples of music that is generally defined as popular but that can be heard as articulating a critical relationship to the culture industry. However, we still buy reissued CDs of Henry Cow recordings through economic structures (CD stores, the internet) that form part of, or reflect, the commodity fetishism and consumerism of other more neatly defined commercial contexts, and therefore they could be argued to reflect the presence and operations of a culture industry. Adorno might have dismissed the exceptional nature of such music through his terminology of ‘pseudo-individualism’ (Adorno 1994), which sees exceptions as merely the appearance of difference (see alterity), further reflecting the deceptive nature of mass culture. The marketing of classical music has come to reflect the operations of a culture industry; marketing impacts on the reception of the music and, for some cultural and critical theorists (see Strinati 1995, 225–6), has led to the blurring of the boundaries between art and popular culture within the contemporary context of postmodernism. See also: cultural studies Further reading: Bowie 2013; Fink 2005a; Gendron 1986; Mulhern 2000; Negus 1999; Paddison 1993

DECADENCE Clearly, decadence does not function as a mode of enquiry, but it is a topic that plays an important role in late Romanticism and early modernism and its musical relevance within this context has become subject to detailed examination by Stephen Downes (see Downes 2010). It has also featured in discussions of specific composers and works, including the operas of Puccini (Wilson 2007), the music of Ravel (Puri 2011) and Elgar’s later oratorios (Adams, B. 2004). As the word implies, we assume decadence to signify ‘themes of despair, deviance, decay, degeneration and death’

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(Downes 2010, 1), with these themes clearly evident in the arts, including music, during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Within the context of late Romanticism, the music of Wagner, and Nietzsche’s critical response to it, gives a telling insight into ideas about decadence and decay. For Nietzsche, writing in the 1880s, ‘Wagner’s art is sick’ (Nietzsche 2000, 622). However, it is also loaded with images of seduction. Wagner’s final work Parsifal is described as ‘the stroke of genius in seduction’ and is defined by the ‘cunning in his [Wagner’s] alliance of beauty and sickness’ (ibid., 640), with the tension between beauty and sickness producing a powerful metaphorical tension (see metaphor) that indicates a decline from health and well-being through illness to death, and which resonates more generally with a concept of lateness. The association between Wagner’s later music and a concept of decadence is evident in a number of different contexts, and as a source of influence on other composers. For example, Byron Adams, writing in relation to Elgar’s oratorio The Dream of Gerontius, poses the question of why, ‘aside from the obvious musical debt that Elgar owed to Wagner, do commentators so often cite Parsifal as the most potent influence upon Gerontius?’ (Adams, B. 2004, 87). The answer to this question is, for Adams, located in the realization that ‘there appears to be a shared perception among critics and scholars, quite apart from concerns of technique, that certain sections of Wagner’s music drama and Elgar’s oratorio share an unsettling aura of decadence’, with the ‘whiffs of decadence’ leading one contemporary critic to comment on the need for ‘healthy restraint’, a response that reinforces observations concerning the associations with illness and excess (ibid.). The role of instability, and the fluctuating tensions, within music of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century has been discussed in several different ways in the musicological literature, including a primarily analytical focus on extended chromatic harmonies and implied instability (see, for example, Lewis 1989; Smith 1988). For Taruskin, it is through specific harmonic motions, defined in this instance as ‘semitonal adjacencies’, that a musical representation, or realization, of a concept of decadence becomes meaningful (Taruskin 2005a, Vol. 4, 29). Taruskin gives a musical illustration of his claim that such harmonic motions become in effect normative through the discussion of a short piano piece by Richard Strauss (Réverie, Op. 9, No. 4). Here, a chord that is described as an ‘arpeggiated tonic triad’ oscillates with a ‘chord consisting entirely of semitonal adjacencies – “chromatic neighbors” – over a tonic pedal’ (ibid., 31). For Taruskin, this provides a way of understanding the ‘harmonic texture of Strauss’s early operas’ as well as providing a pathway into thinking about musical decadence more generally (ibid., 33). Further reading: Dahlhaus 1989c; Draughon 2003

74 Deconstruction

DECONSTRUCTION Deconstruction is a trend in philosophy and literary theory that has had an interesting but limited influence on musicology. The concept is most clearly identified with French theorist Jacques Derrida through his classic texts of the 1960s, such as Of Grammatology (Derrida 1976) and Writing and Difference (Derrida 1978). While it remains remarkably resistant to definition, it generally suggests a critical reading of texts and a questioning of the status of language. Derrida insists that deconstruction is not a methodology or a system; rather, it can be understood as a way of reading and interpreting texts that is subversive. Deconstruction involves a process ‘always already’ present in a text, and the deconstructive reading is one that encompasses the identification and explication of this presence as a counter-logic to what may initially appear to be the most logical and natural interpretation. Deconstruction emerges through the preoccupation with language present in both structuralism and post-structuralism, and it takes issue with de Saussure’s construction of language as a series of binary oppositions. For example, apparently simple binary distinctions such as nature/culture and speech/writing can, on closer inspection, be unstable and undecidable in terms of priority and hierarchy. Nature may appear to precede culture, but how we think about and interpret nature is also a reflection of culture and cultural experiences. From this perspective, culture would seem to displace nature in the original hierarchy of the binary opposition. While this subversion – or perhaps ‘deconstruction’ – of a binary opposition does not constitute a method, Derrida, in an interview published as Positions (Derrida 1981), refers to ‘a kind of general strategy of deconstruction’ that is intended to ‘avoid both simply neutralizing the binary oppositions . . . and simply residing within the closed field of these oppositions, thereby confirming it’. Rather, we need to recognize that ‘we are not dealing with the peaceful coexistence of a vis-à-vis, but rather with a violent hierarchy. One of the two terms governs the other . . . or has the upper hand’ (ibid., 41). This suggests that language, and its use, is imbued with images of power as defined in this instance through the hierarchy situated within the binary opposition. This aspect of Derrida’s thought has a certain parallel with music. We often speak of conflicting keys, or themes, and their state of opposition to each other (tonic–dominant key relationships, for example), but, in the context of common-practice tonality and the constraints of style and genre, they always achieve a resolution that reflects the realization that ‘one of the two terms governs the other’. However, in music that is less clearly defined in terms of the consonance/dissonance relationship – for example, that of Romanticism and early modernism – this situation and its interpretation become

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more open as the relationship between the two terms shifts and, perhaps, begins to deconstruct itself. It is also significant that such music often seems enclosed in its own reflection and thus invites the prizing open of its processes and meanings through a deconstructive interpretation. Subotnik intriguingly suggests that ‘romantic music provides an explicit basis for its own deconstruction’ (Subotnik 1996, 45). Derrida introduces other terms and concepts that, even if they do not help to constitute a method, enjoy a certain use and reference in the literature consistent with a ‘general strategy of deconstruction’. Two in particular invite consideration in this immediate context. The first is ‘différance’, which is neither a word nor a concept (Derrida 1981, 39–40), but is generally understood as a conflation of difference and deferral. In the words of Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, ‘“difference” and “deferment” – both senses present in the French verb “différer,” and both “properties” of the sign under erasure – Derrida calls “différance”’ (Spivak 1976, xliii). This conflation of difference and deferral could reflect certain issues in music and musicology. How, for example, do we locate and interpret the meaning of music? Each piece is different, but often there is also a feeling that what the music may actually mean is always deferred. However, Derrida’s ‘différance’ has a broader resonance. It can suggest the construction of a past, a sense of history through distance. We know that the past is different from the present, but the point of separation is endlessly deferred, a suggestion that also maps onto the problematics of defining the distinctions between various musical styles and genres as well as between stylistic and historical periods (see periodization). Derrida also makes reference to the ‘supplement’ as part of a telling binary opposition between essence and supplement. The supplement ‘means both the missing piece and the extra piece’ (Subotnik 1996, 65). A typical strategy of deconstruction could involve consideration of something that may appear incidental or marginal in a text, something that is quickly passed over in pursuit of a main narrative or argument. However, this moment can be the supplement: that which both completes (‘the missing piece’) and supplements (‘the extra piece’) the text. In other words, the supplement is no longer supplementary: it is essential. This can be translated into musical terms. We may initially interpret a certain harmony or thematic idea, for example, as incidental, as a supplement to the structural flow of the music, but it could conceivably be the moment that constructs the duality of the ‘missing piece’ and the ‘extra piece’. It is through this notion of the supplement that Derrida makes one of his few direct references to music. The later sections of Of Grammatology contain his encounter with the thought of Rousseau (see Enlightenment) and his specific ideas about music. Rousseau’s philosophy is driven by the construction of binary oppositions, privileging speech over writing and

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nature over culture. In this sequence, Rousseau also posits the primacy of melody over harmony. For Derrida, however, the logic of supplementarity suggests that, rather than remaining fixed on one side of a binary opposition, harmony inhabits the actual essence of melody, becoming both the ‘missing piece’ and the ‘extra piece’ of musical language. The various strategies of deconstruction outlined above and their suggested parallels with music are located in the specifics of the text, its language and structure. Derrida’s much quoted claim that ‘there is nothing outside the text, there is no extra-text’ can be interpreted as a preoccupation with the text that is bound by its own formalism and autonomy. However, rather than limiting textuality, Derrida opens up the text to a new-found intertextuality that reaches out to the realization that there is no ‘extra-text’ because everything is text. This vision of textuality coincides with the differing/deferral of différance to explode the narrow confines of text and language. While deconstruction may appear more relevant to how we write and speak about music, since clearly the texts of musicology can be deconstructed just as readily as any other body of texts, there have been some striking attempts to engage directly with music itself through deconstruction. Subotnik continues Derrida’s avoidance of ‘method’ when she makes ‘no claim to lay out a doctrinally pure deconstruction’ (Subotnik 1996, 45). However, in a chapter titled ‘How Could Chopin’s A-Major Prelude Be Deconstructed?’, she sets out to present a ‘concrete demonstration of how a musical deconstruction might work’ (ibid., 41) through the contrast and comparison of two different analyses of the Chopin prelude (A major, Op. 28, No. 7). However, it is notable that some of the most interesting writing on deconstruction and music takes the form of critical responses to other writing, most notably Craig Ayrey’s virtuoso critique of Subotnik (Ayrey 1998) and also the overviews of music and deconstruction by Adam Krims (Krims 1998b) and Christopher Norris (Norris 1999). The emergence of a deconstructive approach to music is aligned with wider notions of postmodernism and post-structuralism and forms part of a larger challenge to traditional musicology (see new musicology). However, while it may be too soon to talk of a ‘deconstructive musicology’ (ibid.), and there is some uncertainty as to what the attempted mapping of deconstruction onto music and musicology might yet produce, the critical close readings of deconstruction do have the potential to unlock alleged certainties and casual assumptions. Alan Street’s deconstruction of the notion of musical unity (see analysis), which takes its theoretical starting point from the work of Paul de Man rather than Derrida (Street 1989), and Craig Ayrey’s response to Subotnik suggest that there is still much that could be gained by a project of deconstruction in musicology and music theory. However, the absence of more recent encounters between

Diegetic/Nondiegetic 77

musicology and an explicit and precise deconstruction indicates that this potential is not as yet in the process of being realized. Further reading: Ayrey 2002; Culler 1983; Norris 1982; Sweeney-Turner 1995; Thomas 1995

DIEGETIC/NONDIEGETIC Diegetic (diegesis) is a concept used in studies of film music to refer to music that is produced and received within the constructed world of the film and therefore forms part of its narrative. It could take the form of music heard as a recording by characters in a film, as, for example, in The Big Chill (1983) or High Fidelity (2000), both of which foreground popular music and its discourse in their narrative and structure. If diegetic signifies the presence of music in the narrative of a film, then nondiegetic represents the presence of music that is external to that structure or context. Nondiegetic music is thus music composed as an accompaniment or commentary on the visual dimension of the film through the form of a soundtrack. As the characters on screen cannot hear this music, it exists as external to the fictional world represented within the film (see Kalinak 1992). However, there are films in which music does not fit easily into either of these two categories. For example, American Graffiti (1973) is a remarkable film that, like The Big Chill and High Fidelity, bases much of its content around popular music. The film is set in a small Californian town in the early 1960s and involves a series of young characters who are enjoying their last night before departing for college. This context immediately suggests popular music as both a background and foreground dimension. However, although we hear a great deal of popular music, from Bill Haley and His Comets’ ‘Rock Around the Clock’ (1954) to The Beach Boys’ ‘All Summer Long’ (1965), this does not always fit readily into a diegetic/nondiegetic model. David Shumway, in his study of this film, explains: Given the ubiquity of the music and the fact that its volume changes without clear narrative explanation (e.g., the music is always loud when we get an establishing shot of Mel’s Burger World, but the volume then decreases to allow conversation to be foregrounded), we cannot classify the music in American Graffiti as straightforwardly diegetic even though the movie wants the viewer to assume its quasidiegetic origin. Rather, the line between diegetic and nondiegetic is impossible to establish. (Shumway 1999, 41)

78 Disability

If American Graffiti blurs the distinction between diegetic and nondiegetic, it is also possible to achieve a slippage from one category to the other, as occurs, for example, in the classic western (see genre) High Noon (1952). Diegetic and nondiegetic are terms that could also relate to opera and other dramatic contexts, which might reflect distinctions between the internal and external role of music (see Joe and Theresa 2002). See also: identity Further reading: Davison 2004; Flinn 1992; Kassabian 2001; Smith 2009; Wojcik and Knight 2001

DISABILITY Through the work of Joseph Straus, and others, an interesting debate has emerged around the question of the relationship between music and disability. This debate presents a new way of thinking, or rethinking, about the relationship between music and the body and engages with concepts of form and organicism within an essentially music-theoretic framework (see theory). However, it also connects with social and political issues of exclusion that position the discussion within the broad context of disability studies and which therefore remove the possibility that the musically formal issues that are explored can be understood through a basic formalism (see also autonomy). Straus, in his pioneering article ‘Normalizing the Abnormal: Disability in Music and Music Theory’ (Straus 2006), defines disability as ‘any culturally stigmatized bodily difference’ (ibid., 119) and positions it as a ‘pervasive and permanent aspect of the human condition’ (ibid., 113). Straus’s project is an attempt to explore ‘the interconnected histories of disability and music as they are manifested in three theoretical approaches to late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century Western art music’ (ibid., 114); these three approaches are defined as musical Formenlehre (see form) and the tonal theories of Schoenberg and Schenker (see analysis, formalism, organicism). Schenker’s theories of tonality are loaded with body metaphors (see metaphor). The following quotation is based on a notion of musical coherence, but it depends upon an association between the ‘musical organism and the human body’, with the implication that the music becomes its own life form:

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Musical coherence can be achieved only through the fundamental structure in the background and its transformations in the middleground and foreground. It should have been evident long ago that the same principle applies both to a musical organism and to the human body: it grows outward from within. Therefore it would be fruitless as well as incorrect to attempt to draw conclusions about the organism from its epidermis. The hands, legs, and ears of the human body do not begin to grow after birth; they are present at the time of birth. Similarly, in a composition, a limb which was not somehow born with the middle and background cannot grow to be a diminution. (Schenker 1979, 6; Straus 2006, 141–2) However, this statement does not merely equate music and the body; it is predicated on a sense of perfection, with the imperfect, in terms of both body and musical form, positioned as an inferior other (see alterity) that can be read as a negative association formed between a musical structure that fails to produce musical coherence, according to Schenker’s criteria, and the disabled body. The negative connotations of this interpretation are reflected in other terminologies. For example, Hepokoski and Darcy use ‘deformation’ to define ‘a strikingly unusual or strained procedure relying on our knowledge of the typical limits of the norm’ (Hepokoski and Darcy 1997, 131), with ‘deformation’ now inscribed as part of the subtitle to Hepokoski and Darcy’s extensive account of sonata form (see Hepokoski and Darcy 2006). Of course, here the term ‘deformation’ has no connotation of disability; it is being used only to signify striking formal moments of difference in music. However, for Straus, ‘the term “deformation”, like any theoretical concept, has a history and a resonance that are impossible to escape entirely’ (Straus 2006, 130). A discourse of disability also intersects with composer biography, within which issues of disability and/or illness may play a significant role in shaping the perception of a composer. Schubert’s struggle with physical illness is relevant, as are Schumann’s mental health issues. One of the best known and most widely discussed examples is that of Beethoven, whose deafness, and the overcoming of it, plays an important part in the composer’s biography and reception through the contribution it makes to the construction of the heroic image (see genius). For Lerner and Straus, Beethoven is a ‘paradigmatic example’: [His] deafness, which has played such an important part in the reception of his music, has given rise to what disability scholars call the overcoming narrative: The central part of the mythology around Beethoven involves his decision to grab fate by the throat

80 Discourse

and – instead of killing himself over the loss of his hearing – to continue to compose. The person with a disability, in this case the increasingly deaf composer, overcomes the impairment, as perceived by people without disabilities, to relieve them of their own anxieties about experiencing similar fates. (Lerner and Straus 2006, 1–2) Also of interest is the significance of disability in relation to an individual performer: a notable example is the pianist Paul Wittgenstein, whose ‘one-handedness has typically been framed as a physical limitation at odds with an able-bodied ideology driving musical performance’ (Howe 2010, 179). Wittgenstein, following a bullet wound inflicted during the First World War that necessitated the amputation of his right arm, commissioned a number of leading twentieth-century composers – including Britten and Ravel, among others – to produce piano works for only the left hand. Other relevant case studies involve popular music. For example, Johnnie Ray (Herr 2009) and Ian Dury (McKay 2009) have been situated within a discourse of disability. In the case of Ray, it is hearing impairment that is of significance, while his often highly emotionally charged performances could also be described in terms of both an emotional and physical ‘imbalance’. Dury’s struggles with polio, and his incorporation of that struggle into both his music and his image, present another version of the narrative of overcoming. Further reading: Attinello 2006; Howe, Jensen-Moulton, Lerner and Straus 2015; Kielian-Gilbert 2006; Straus 2008, 2011

DISCOURSE The term discourse has been used since the sixteenth century to describe different forms of speech, but more recently it has been adapted by postmodern (see postmodernism) cultural theorists and social scientists to expose rigid cultural belief systems and to argue for and identify new fluidities of identity, meaning, expression and knowledge in society (see Fairclough 2003, 2006). For French anthropologist and cultural theorist Michel Foucault, discourse is the system of statements through which the world, society and the self are known, understood and brought into being in a relational context (Foucault 1972). In this sense, discourse may be understood as the commentaries and aesthetic beliefs (see aesthetics) that surround musical practices, shaping and influencing the views of performers, composers, scholars and listeners (see listening) alike. The nature of the relationship between discourse and musical activity

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is reflexive and subject to a process of evolution. In the case of composer biographies (see biography) or conversation books, however, the discourse may be more confused as the voices of composer and author become irretrievably mixed, as in the Stravinsky conversation books written by Robert Craft (see Stravinsky 2002). Such books may, in turn, have an effect on a composer’s own perception of him- or herself. More importantly, through such commentaries, composers are also able to influence discourses about their music. This is especially important in influencing discourse concerning a composer’s views on nationalism (see Vaughan Williams 1996; Manning 2008) or aesthetic positions such as modernism (see Schoenberg 1975) and postmodernism. Although discourse about music is problematized by the fact that discussion of music takes place in a different language to music, linguistics has influenced musicological thought. The Russian linguist and literary theorist Mikhail Bakhtin’s ideas about an author’s discursive distance from his or her characters, which leads to a multi-voiced (sometimes referred to as double-voiced) utterance in novels, are reflected in American musicologist Edward Cone’s suggestion that a ‘composer’s voice’ exists in a piece of music but gives way to other narrating voices in the orchestra (Cone 1974). This idea has since been developed by Jean-Jacques Nattiez (Nattiez 1990a) and other musicologists such as Carolyn Abbate, who restyled Cone’s idea as ‘the unsung voice’ (Abbate 1991; see also Taruskin 1992 and narrative). Another development of linguistics is the idea of discursive coding, when, for example, a speaker switches from speaking in a formal situation to an informal one. In the same way that the register of everyday speech will vary depending on context, so we can expect a different form of discourse in different sections of a piece, for example in a scherzo and a finale. This kind of analogy is more commonly made in relation to tonal works (see Spitzer 1996). Certain analytical approaches to music have reflected the influence of linguistics (see analysis). One example is semiotic analysis (see semiotics), which reflects the influence of structural linguistics (see poststructuralism) and narrative theory. This is illustrated by the interest that semiotic analysts have in the way in which music treats certain topics, such as love, war and desire; how these ideas are ‘coded’ into musical language; and how music may ‘switch’ between such codes (Samuels 1995; Hatten 2004; Monelle 2006; Mirka 2014). In considerations of black popular music, a number of writers have realized the potential of linking Bakhtin’s ideas about double-voiced discourse to the theories of Henry Louis Gates Jr’s book The Signifying Monkey (Gates 1988), which explores double play in black fiction between African speechbased traditions and the Western literary canon. David Brackett has explored this idea in relation to the foregrounding of shouts and other

82 Discourse

vocal noises in the music of James Brown (Brackett 2000), while Gary Tomlinson has used this approach to explore Miles Davis’s evolving relationship with the jazz canon (Tomlinson 1992). Discourses on music have constructed musical practice to ensure the continuation of particular genres and styles (see genre, style), the division of music history into distinct periods (see periodization) and the formation of musical canons. The discourse of canon, which promotes the idea of value according to standards set by genius composers working within a central (Western) practice, inevitably excludes what is perceived as different (see alterity) and gives rise to the idea of a periphery of works of a ‘lower’ standard. In some instances, this judgement has been applied to popular music and jazz (see Adorno 1994), although these forms exist and are sustained by a separate set of discourses with their own very different sets of values, traditions (see tradition) and critical language. As the popular music scholar Simon Frith has noted, ‘Part of the pleasure of popular music is talking about it’ (Frith 1996, 4). However, he goes on to point out that in order for meaningful dialogue to take place, there must be a degree of common ground, a framework for ‘shared critical discourse’ (ibid., 10). Arguably, popular music and jazz are related more by a set of commonly shared discourses than by musical languages or styles, although with increasing stylistic pluralization in popular music there may be occasions when no shared critical discourse is available. Musical discourses – the way we talk about music – are very likely to influence the way music is experienced (see consciousness) and interpreted (see interpretation). This applies both in the general sense of the language that we use to describe music and the way we conceptualize sounds (see sound) through metaphor (see Zbikowski 2002) on the one hand, and the influence of historical, contextual and ideological agendas (see ideology) on the other. For example, the 1970s and 1980s witnessed the rise of highly formalist (see formalism) interpretations and an emphasis on the inner details of a musical work (see analysis). The roots of formalist thinking can be traced back at least as far as the publications of the nineteenthcentury Viennese music critic Eduard Hanslick, who attacked the idea of programme music. This view arose in the context of a contrasting tradition of hermeneutic (see hermeneutics) readings, which included the search for meaning in absolute music. Hanslick’s views about the value of absolute music over programme music, in particular his support for Brahms over Wagner, created a discourse that influenced musical thought well into the twentieth century, as reflected, for example, in the music and writing of Arnold Schoenberg (see modernism). Through his claim for the continued supremacy of German music (see Haimo 1990, 1), Schoenberg articulated a nationalist discourse (see

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nationalism). This example illustrates the ideological function of language, a topic that has been widely considered in sociology and political science, for example by Giddens and Althusser. Ideological discourses that equate nations, races and ethnicities (see race, ethnicity) with ideas about cultural value, such as those propagated in Nazi Germany in the 1930s, point to a set of cultural myths that do not maintain historical and geographical realities but pre-construct visions of those realities. Increasingly, and especially since the rise of a new musicology, discourses on music have introduced a much wider range of intersecting concerns, embracing aesthetics, race, gender, class, disability and politics. For example, recent considerations of nineteenth-century music have increasingly drawn on Orientalist discourse, which is the subject of the cultural theorist Edward Said’s book Orientalism (Said 1978) (see Orientalism). Said considered a range of texts, including travel correspondence, fiction and autobiography, written by Western authors during the European colonization of other parts of the world. However, as Robert Young observes: Said’s Orientalism describes a system of apparent knowledge about the Orient but one in which ‘the Other’ [see alterity] from that Orient is never allowed, or invited to speak: the Oriental Other is rather an object of fantasy and construction. (Young 2001, 398) A significant number of operas composed since the eighteenth century have been based on oriental subjects, and although the Others in those works are allowed to speak, their words inevitably reflect the views and values of composers and librettists and their historical contexts. This fact arguably extends to recent operas that attempt to give a more authentic voice to the Other, such as John Adams’ The Death of Klinghoffer (1991). Yet Adams’ opera actually brings contrasting discourses into conflict: those of Palestinian hijackers, Jewish American hostages, and the sound bites of American news media, while perhaps highlighting the voice of the ‘ordinary and unassuming’ man (see Fink 2005b, 176). The plurality of subject positions (see subject position) in this work has tested the willingness of opera companies to promote free discourse: in November 2014 the Metropolitan Opera in New York cancelled its planned Live in HD transmission amid concern that the work might encourage anti-Semitic views. See also: 9/11 Further reading: Agawu 2009; Aleshinskaya 2013; Blacking 1982; Brodbeck 2014; Garratt 2010; Gendron 2002; Kurkul 2007; Moore 2001b; Parker 1997; Solie 2004

84 Ecomusicology

ECOMUSICOLOGY Ecomusicology is the study of the relationship between sound, nature and people or culture, in the context of a natural or built environment. Humanities subjects have long drawn on concepts of nature and environment, particularly from the 1970s onwards, but from around the millennium a critical mass began to emerge, perhaps fostered by rising public concern about global warming, environmental change and pollution issues, a sense that time on this planet is finite, and a feeling that ecological concerns should be taken seriously. In the 1990s, social geographers published studies on the relationship between music and landscape (see Matless 1998), and since 2007 the Ecocriticism Study Group (ESG) of the American Musicological Society (AMS) has existed as ‘a forum for exploring the intellectual and practical connections between the studies of music, culture and nature’ (http://www.ams-esg.org/). As the title of the ESG reveals, it is a direct response to a strand of literature studies known as ecocriticism (see Garrard 2004), which focuses on cultural products that ‘imagine and portray human–environment relationships’ (Allen 2011, 393). In 2011, the Journal of the American Musicological Society published a themed issue on ecomusicology (Allen et al. 2011), and the Society for Ethnomusicology (SEM) founded the Ecomusicology Special Interest Group (ESIG). In 2014, Ethnomusicology Review introduced ecomusicology as a regular topic on its Sounding Board (http://ethno musicologyreview.ucla.edu/content/introducing-ecomusicology). The concept has stimulated a number of conferences (see http://www. ecomusicologies.org/) and peer-reviewed online publications, for example in the Ecomusicology Newsletter (http://www.ecomusicology.info/ resources/ecomusicology-newsletter/). Key points of concern for this nascent discipline include (but are by no means restricted to): how specific places, landscapes and environments shape music and what this reveals about individual and collective world views, and how they change through time (Feld 1990; Von Glahn 2003; Grimley 2005, 2006; Toliver 2004; Morris 2012); music as virtual environment (Toop 1995; Grimley 2011; Moore and Dockwray 2008); music and cultural environments (Bourdieu 1984); the natural environment itself, including the idea of nature as an ideological construct (Mitchell 2002); built environments (Gerhard 1998; Krims 2007); human perception of sounds (Clarke 2005, which takes an ‘ecological approach’ to the subject of listening; see also consciousness, sound); the sustainability of materials used in instrument production (Allen 2012); ethical concern for the planet expressed through concert and popular

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music (Ingram 2010; Pedelty 2012; Von Glahn 2013; the latter also considers landscape and gender); interest in the natural world more generally, from mimicking the sound of birdsong in Machaut songs (Leach 2007) and Messiaen piano music (Hill and Simeone 2007), to Harrison Birtwistle’s Some Petals from My Twickenham Herbarium (1969) and Moth Requiem (2012), the latter a lament for species now extinct; soundscape studies, as illustrated by R. Murray Schafer’s World Forum for Acoustic Ecology (Schafer 1994; see sound); and work on noise (Hegarty 2002; Edwards 2012). Historically, various intellectual and cultural traditions have debated whether music originates from nature, for example from animal noises or the overtone series (Head 1997; Clark and Rehding 2001; see also Cross 2001 for a music psychology perspective on this topic). Ecological discourse also exists in music aesthetics, including the notion of the sublime. Historians, too, have begun to explore the sonic environment, including social soundscapes such as hospitals and law courts, examining the importance of various forms of hearing and listening to the development of science, politics and society (Sykes, I. 2015). Further reading: Allen and Dawe 2015; Born 2013a; Clarke, E.F. 2013; Frogley 2014; Garrard 2004; Moore, Schmidt and Dockwray 2009; Morris 2012; Thompson and Biddle 2013; Watkins 2007

EMOTION It is widely accepted that music leads listeners to imagine virtual emotions or to experience them for real, as far as that corresponds with a listener’s own lived experience, or ‘emotional intelligence’, and their responsiveness to music. Here it is important to note the philosophical distinction between music as an expression of emotion (music’s resemblance to human behaviour or to a persona, seen or imagined), and music as an arousal of emotion (when music alters our feelings). The former situation is referred to by philosophers as ‘resemblance theory’ (see Kivy 1989; Robinson 2005), in which music evokes human utterance or mimics movement and bodily gesture (Hatten 2006; Cox 2011; Larson 2012); the latter is termed ‘arousal theory’, whereby music creates an environment with which the listener interacts (Huron 2006; Nussbaum 2007). Arousal may be prompted by musical rhythms that alter the listener’s heart rate (see listening). Resemblance extends from a sense of self to a more complex set of ‘fleeting’ emotions associated with a number of different personae: composer, performer, conductor, self, or another (Cochrane 2010, 266–7).

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Research into music and emotion is an important topic that continues to develop within the sciences, social sciences and humanities. A fundamental question, however, is ‘What is emotion?’ Various physiological responses, such as heartbeat, body temperature and facial expression, can be measured and some argue that emotion is a relatively short-term experience that occurs when these components become synchronized. In 1872, Darwin classified human emotions as evolutionary adaptations, with a strong link between environmental situations, such as threat or danger, and particular physiological responses (see Darwin 2009). An important question, therefore, is the extent to which music resembles evolutionary behaviour or the environmental sounds and conditions that arouse emotions by triggering a brain stem reflex (see Scherer 2004). However, this is complicated by the fact that responses to music vary according to how music is used and individual taste (see value): ‘Different listeners react differently to the same piece of music. And even the same listener reacts differently to the same music in different contexts’ (Juslin 2011a, 118). A listener’s response will be conditioned by the mood they are in and by their ‘activity, location and social condition’ (ibid., 119): for example, music as background to work or exercise; concentrated listening alone or in a group; music heard while travelling. Memory of music in association with events in a person’s life may also trigger emotion, which the psychologist Patrik N. Juslin refers to as ‘evaluative conditioning’. For example, not every listener will instinctively dance or feel happy when listening to reggae. If they do, is that a proactive response to the music or a reactive response to an older association a person has made between reggae, dance and happiness? Moreover, emotional responses require cognition (see Sloboda 2005, 333–44). As such, responses to particular genres will differ (see genre) and be deepened by a listener’s or a performer’s knowledge of particular musical styles (see style). Stylistic competency alerts listeners and performers to moments when composers induce emotion by playing with formal or generic conventions; Mozart’s syntactical disruptions are particularly sophisticated in this respect (see Hatten 2010). Similarly, music analysts (see analysis) can lead us to a deeper appreciation of emotions in music. The association of music and emotion dates back at least as far as the Ancient Greek Stoic philosophers, from c. 301 BC. However, the historian Thomas Dixon has pointed out that the term ‘emotion’ was not understood before the nineteenth century (see Dixon 2003); before then a much older vocabulary of feelings, affections, passions and sentiments existed that was categorized in the Baroque age of Affektenlehre and the high Classical style. Yet when the term ‘emotion’ emerged in the

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nineteenth century, there was opposition to its use in relation to music. A notable opponent was the Viennese music critic Eduard Hanslick. In his book Vom Musikalisch-Schönen (On the Musically Beautiful), published in 1854, Hanslick argued that we should resist attributing human emotions to music since musical affect is too vague, and expression is a purely musical matter defined entirely by tonal, melodic forms (see formalism and autonomy). In short, Hanslick argued that music ‘cannot present or express emotions themselves, but only the dynamic aspects of emotion’ (Robinson 2005, 297). The philosopher Susanne Langer held similar views although she turned Hanslick’s ideas around by saying that music suggests emotions that we cannot name. Stravinsky famously adopted a more extreme position, claiming that: music is, by its very nature, essentially powerless to express anything at all, whether a feeling, an attitude of mind, or psychological mood, a phenomenon of nature, etc. . . . Expression has never been an inherent property of music. That is by no means the purpose of its existence. (Stravinsky 1975, 53) Such discourse, which has motivated philosophical debate on emotion in music, illustrates that in some minds emotion is ideologically opposed to the more rational, intellectual aspects of music (see ideology): Hanslick and Stravinsky were clearly troubled by what they perceived to be an apparently wilful attribution of emotions to music, which places interpretation beyond the composer’s control. One of the first music theorists (see theory) to confront this apparent opposition was Leonard B. Meyer in his book Emotion and Meaning in Music (Meyer 1956). Building on psychological gestalt theory, in particular the observation that emotion arises when desires are inhibited (that emotion is frustrated expectation), Meyer developed an analytical method that identifies patterns of implication/expectation, inhibition and realization in tonal music (ibid., 31). While this perspective illustrates a lack of discrimination between different types of emotion (see Spitzer 2009), the important point Meyer makes is that we need not divorce emotion from structure. As the music theorist Robert Hatten notes, expressive power may result from a passage’s relation to some ‘higher [structural] drama’ rather than an isolated capacity to provoke emotion (Hatten 2010, 92; see also Gabrielsson and Lindström 2001). This example highlights the existence of an underlying mechanics of emotion; this is a subject that is being investigated by psychologists (see psychology) and music analysts alike, although somewhat differently

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in each case. Whereas music analysts explore this question in the details of particular works, music psychologists focus on general causal mechanisms (see Juslin and Västfjäll 2008; Juslin 2011a, 120–4, which lists seven mechanisms). Psychologists utilize relatively simple music examples in order to examine the particular musical parameters required to evoke emotions, especially the five main emotions that are believed to arise instinctively in response to changes in someone’s environment: happiness, sadness, anger, fear and tenderness (see Juslin and Lindström 2010). Such work has highlighted the importance of performance style in communicating these emotions: In a series of experiments conducted since the 1990s, Juslin demonstrated that listeners can identify basic emotions in a melody when a performer adjusts parameters such as tempo, dynamics, articulation, timbre and microtiming. . . . Tempo is especially important for Happiness, mode for Sadness, timbre for Anger and articulation for Tenderness. Some emotions (such as Tenderness and Fear) seem to depend more on performance features, whilst others (such as Happiness) are more compositional. (Spitzer 2010a, 4) Such results indicate that music analysts could take their lead from a work’s expressive character. Yet despite such apparent success, important questions remain. If listeners in tests are encouraged to focus on a relatively small number of emotions, does this not favour those emotions over others? Should participants in tests be given choices at all? Where does cultural conditioning end and Darwinian biological response begin? Even an untrained listener will become musically acculturated through exposure to music in the media and learn from song titles and lyrics which emotions match particular musical effects. While listeners may struggle to identify subtle gradations between the five main emotions (for example, jealousy, joy, serenity, boredom and erotic love), the challenge for psychologists is to distinguish the effects of different performance styles from the effects of notated musical material, and to account for how one may enhance or modify the other. Moreover, psychological tests produce complex data that must be analysed, which is a subjective process that will conceivably vary from study to study. Music analysts, following Meyer, adopt close reading in order to examine ways in which emotion and musical structure are intertwined. As musicologist Michael Spitzer claims in an analysis of fear in Schubert’s Unfinished Symphony and the lied Der Erlkönig:

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there are distinct differences in musical processes – akin to distinctions in emotional behaviour in people – which cut across standard divisions of historical style, genre and idiom, and . . . these differences map onto basic emotional categories. (Spitzer 2010b, 149) Such analyses may focus exclusively on musical gestures associated with a single emotion, such as desire (see Smith 2010), or treat emotions as complex systems rather than semantic labels, which are comparable to Kant’s definition from 1790 of the sublime as a constellation of emotions, such as delight and horror (see Kant 1987). In these systems, modulations related by common tones are arguably comparable to movements between contiguous emotions in a circular ‘affect space’ (Spitzer 2010b, 151). However, such readings often depend on the identification of musical topics (see semiotics) and our agreement with an analyst’s interpretation of, for example, low trills as ‘threatening’; a low, slow musical theme as an object of fear; and trembling tremolos, pounding heartbeat rhythms, and an implied 6/8 against 3/4 metre as a fearing subject (for more prescriptive lexical approaches to emotion in music, see Cooke 1959; Tagg 1982). An interesting feature of Spitzer’s study is the inclusion of a GSR (galvanic skin response) analysis to chart fluctuations in the release of sweat, which increases when the body is tense; this is used to measure the physical responses of people listening to the same piece. What is significant here is that music theory and analysis are combined with scientific, philosophical, aesthetic and hermeneutic (see philosophy, aesthetics, hermeneutics) interpretation in a holistic, multivalent and inclusive approach, in contrast to the narrow, exclusionary perspectives of Hanslick and Meyer. Finally, consideration should be given to the influence of text, for example when music sets a poem or when a work title indicates a particular emotion. For instance, ‘Celos’ by Astor Piazzolla and Žárlivost by Leoš Janácˇek translate as ‘jealousy’ from the Spanish and Czech respectively. Jealousy is a complex emotion that involves a mix of responses (anger, desire, anxiety, rage) that will be different for each person and in each instance and is perhaps best explored musically as a kind of narrative through time (Cochrane 2010). This invites a degree of abstraction from a composer that may be explicable by music analysis or other interpretive effort but is not necessarily ‘felt’ by a listener. Some works convey emotions symbolically, while others communicate emotion through time, trajectory and motion, for example the sense of an emotional journey through tension and anxiety to release, joy and affirmation. Yet these

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processes are inflected by the cultural values and traditions of the time in which the music is conceived, and therefore cognition and historical consciousness blend in ways that complicate attempts to explain music and emotion. Further reading: Cochrane, Fantini and Scherer 2013; Cook and Dibben 2001; Gabrielsson 2011a; Goldie 2010; Huron 2006; Juslin 2011b, 2011c; Juslin and Sloboda 2001; Sloboda 1991; Zbikowski 2010

EMPIRICAL MUSICOLOGY see critical musicology ENLIGHTENMENT, THE The Enlightenment is usually interpreted as a general intellectual movement that occurred in the latter part of the eighteenth century. Although often associated initially with France (d’Alembert, Diderot, Voltaire), it also featured significant contributions from Germany (Kant), England (Burke) and Scotland (the ‘Scottish Enlightenment’ of Hume). The principal concerns and ideas of the Enlightenment were based on the supremacy of reason and the rejection of superstition and thus focused on general education and the cultivation of the arts. The preoccupation with reason had its origins in Descartes’ famous dictum, ‘I think, therefore I am’, a statement that situated the power of rational thought at the centre of human existence and privileged mind over body. Enlightenment thought developed this rationalism in a number of ways, one of the most significant being the codification, organization and dissemination of knowledge. This resulted in an increase in publications, including the significant development of dictionaries and encyclopedias. This attempt to construct a systematic account of knowledge had implications for music and writing about music. Enlightenment thought is often marked by a remarkable sense of scale and ambition. For example, Sulzer’s Allgemeine Theorie der schönen Künste (General Theory of the Fine Arts) consists of two large volumes published in 1771 and 1774 and has been described as ‘the culmination of German aesthetic thought’ (Baker and Christensen 1995, 14). This extensive work consists of essentially a dictionary of key concepts of the time, such as sentiment, inspiration, originality and taste, among many others, but it is presented as a generalized statement about the condition of knowledge at a specific moment. One of the most widely available texts of the later eighteenth century was Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s Dictionnaire de musique, published in

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Geneva in 1767 and in Paris in 1768 (le Huray and Day 1981, 108–17). This dictionary consists of short definitions of concepts, topics and issues such as genius and taste. The attempt to make sense of, to rationalize, such topics is clearly a reflection of the Enlightenment project and shares a common concern with Sulzer’s work. However, Rousseau can also be read as an anticipation of Romanticism, producing a double perspective that is evident from his discussion of musical genius. But while Rousseau anticipates the subjectivity of Romanticism, he also, through the privileging of experience, reflects the presence of empiricism in the origins of the Enlightenment (see aesthetics). This sense of departure, or escape, through experience is reflected in the Enlightenment concern with the sublime, the moment of transcendence that escapes the grasp of normative, conceptual models. The contrast between the sublime and the beautiful was articulated by Kant in his Critique of Judgement of 1790 (Kant 1987; see le Huray and Day 1981, 214–29), but it was Edmund Burke who, in his A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful (Burke 1998; see le Huray and Day 1981, 69–74), produced the sharpest focus on this comparison. It is the vast greatness of the sublime that forms a bridge between the Enlightenment and Romanticism. The diffusion of culture and the dissemination of music (see reception) were reflected in numerous ways, most notably in the rise of the public concert. For example, the very public nature of Handel’s musical activities in London (opera and oratorio) reflects the enlightening role of culture and the arts during the eighteenth century. However, it is the Viennese Classicism of Haydn and Mozart that is usually seen as the most apposite musical reflection of the Enlightenment. The rise of a historiography of music can also be seen to emerge during the Enlightenment. English writer and musician Charles Burney was very much a product of the Enlightenment. A musician with professional experience, he was also an admirer of Rousseau and a friend of Burke. Originally published in 1776, Burney’s A General History of Music from the Earliest Ages to the Present Period (Burney 1957) gives a systematic account of what were then perceived as the elements of music within a historical survey, an exercise that again reflects the rationalism of the Enlightenment. Concerns with the technical and formal details of music were also evident at this time, concerns that can be understood as part of the rationalizing instincts of Enlightenment thought. Koch’s Introductory Essay on Composition, the influential second volume of which was published in 1787, sought to provide ‘comprehensive instruction in composition’ (Baker and Christensen 1995, 111). This text reflects Sulzer’s general aesthetics but also involves a move from a survey of

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music and feeling to a quite specific discussion of what Koch understands as the ‘mechanical elements’ of music. The Enlightenment has cast a long shadow over later developments, extending through modernism to the present. For some, such as German critical theorist (see critical theory) Jürgen Habermas, modernism and the Enlightenment are closely related. Habermas claims that ‘The project of modernity [was] formulated in the 18th century by the philosophers of the Enlightenment’ (Habermas 1985, 9) and goes on to pose the question: ‘should we try to hold on to the intentions of the Enlightenment, feeble as they may be, or should we declare the entire project of modernity a lost cause?’ (ibid., 9–10). For Habermas, the values and intentions of the Enlightenment continue to hold some relevance through their relationships with modernism, which he sees as an ‘incomplete project’. This is in contrast to the rejection of Enlightenment ideals in certain theories of postmodernism, as reflected in Lyotard’s ‘incredulity toward metanarratives’ (Lyotard 1992, xxiv), with the rational spirit of the Enlightenment acting as a potential metanarrative and therefore no longer sustainable within the critical parameters of postmodernism. Numerous examples of musicological accounts of music in the age of Enlightenment exist (Heartz 1995; Rosen 1971; Currie 2012a). There have also been new engagements with the ideas and consequences of the Enlightenment, most notably Subotnik’s Deconstructive Variations (Subotnik 1996), which carries the subtitle Music and Reason in Western Society. Subotnik addresses Mozart’s Die Zauberflöte (The Magic Flute), a work often seen as an ideal musical representation of the Enlightenment. This work is explored from the perspectives of both the Enlightenment and Romanticism, with the oppositions between the two perspectives and the alternatives they enclose resulting in a contemporary critical relationship to the ideals, values and concerns of the Enlightenment (ibid., 1–38). Further reading: Brillenburg Wurth 2009; Bronner 2004; Kramer 2008; Kramnick 1995; Riley 2004

ETHICS (MUSIC AND ETHICS) The association of ethics and music dates back at least as far as the Ancient Greeks, notably to Plato’s Republic (c. 380 BC), in which it is argued that music has the power both to uphold and to corrupt social morals. Plato’s position is that the ethical quality of music is somehow intrinsic to the music itself. This argument is repeated in the perception that canonical art (see canon), including absolute music by genius composers such

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as Bach, Mozart and Beethoven, is morally good (see Kivy 2009), that Mozart’s music has healing and educative properties (Campbell 1997; see also consciousness), or that music in general can be used in music therapy (see Hallam, Cross and Thaut 2009; see also psychology). Popular music and jazz, by contrast, have even been described as regressive (Adorno 1976) and associated with violence and moral panic (Johnson and Cloonan 2009). However, more recent philosophical thought, for example that of the French philosopher Emmanuel Levinas, promotes the idea that ethics emerge from human interaction and are therefore a process rather than properties intrinsic to an object. Music is arguably well suited to investigations of ethics, therefore, since it is a practice that brings people together through creative collaboration (see creativity), shared music making, and social reception (see Wolff 1993; Finnegan 2007; Turino 2008; Shelemay 2011). Musical performance, for example, demands responsive listening practices and an awareness of the actions and reactions of other musicians. As Jeff Warren remarks: ‘musical experience involves encounters with others, and ethical responsibilities arise from these encounters’ (Warren 2014, 1). Central to discussions of music and ethics, it has been argued, is the role of listening. In their study Music and Ethics (Cobussen and Nielsen 2012), Marcel Cobussen and Nanette Nielsen do not seek to build a theory of musical ethics but instead suggest that ‘aural ethics’ emerge in the space and encounter between music and listener. This strategy requires the exercise of an ‘attentive listening’ that is alert to music’s inner details, its contexts and multiple meanings, leading to forms of ‘ethical criticism’. In other words, the listener has an ethical responsibility to listen carefully. For example, music may suggest to the listener a particular stance, a range of subject positions (see subject position), or a kind of narrative, any or all of which may generate ethical questions. Through attentive ethical listening, Cobussen and Nielsen argue, the listener is able to reflect upon moments of musical disturbance, harmony and resolution. Such reflection, they believe, has the capacity to influence moral attitudes and behaviour. Yet it has also been noted that listener identifications are individual, arbitrary and sometimes paradoxical, motivated by matters of taste, value and preference that may dispose listeners to or against particular sounds regardless of ethical questions (see Johnson and Cloonan 2009, 13–26). By extension, although shared musical experience may foster empathy and tolerance, music is also enjoyed by those (such as Joseph Stalin and Adolf Hitler) who do not exercise strong morals. The argument that music can shape moral behaviour is based on the idea that music is affective, inducing physical and emotional responses

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from listeners (see emotion; see also Thompson and Biddle 2013). Opera and film music, for example, often deploy musical affect to induce empathy for others (see alterity; see also Higgins 2011), inviting listeners to identify with individuals and social groups – for example, with oppressed figures in Alban Berg’s Wozzeck (Cobussen and Nielsen 2012), or with a range of conflicting voices in John Adams’ The Death of Klinghoffer (Fink 2005b; see also 9/11). Similarly, Maria Cizmic has explored ethical questions that arise from Danish film director Lars von Trier’s use of 1970s rock music to generate empathy for the central character in Breaking the Waves (1996) and an awareness of the listener’s own response to the music heard (Cizmic 2015). However, although music may set ideas in motion, the moral stance is ultimately decided by the listener (Gritten 2013). Further ethical questions arise from the social function of music: the ways in which music is used and what it does. Music, for example, can be put to destructive use, either through an association with ideas of intolerance and violence (see Johnson and Cloonan 2009), or more directly as a tool of war and torture (see Cusick 2008a, 2008b; Goodman 2009; see also conflict). Music associated with a particular political ideology, overt nationalism, genocide or criminality, such as turbofolk in the Balkans (recognized as a tool of Slobodan Miloševic´’s Serbian nationalist regime in the 1990s), may or may not shed such associations, however, depending on the listener’s ethical standpoint and type of listening experience (see Volcˇicˇ and Erjavec 2011; Baker 2010). Cultural and contextual information generated through discourse on music may also give rise to ethical questions. For example, an awareness of the discourse surrounding Wagner’s anti-Semitism and his association of the half-Jewish music critic Eduard Hanslick with the character Beckmesser in his opera Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg (see Zaenker 1999) might lead a listener to question the ethics of laughing with the music and chorus as they set about beating up Beckmesser at the end of Act II. Music is also associated with the ethics of memory, memorialization and monumentalization (see Huyssen 2003) through its use in ritual and ceremony (such as Remembrance Day services), and also through the associations individuals may develop between music and historical events, or that musicians and composers may explicitly make with moments of historical suffering or national loss, such as Britten’s War Requiem (see Wiebe 2012; also Cizmic 2012 for the associated notion of ‘performing pain’ in post-1945 Eastern European concert music; see also 9/11). Similarly, the American minimalist composer Steve Reich composed Different Trains (1988) as a testimony to the Holocaust, drawing on recordings of Holocaust survivors who speak alongside the acoustic

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and pre-recorded sounds of a string quartet. Questions arise, however, over the manner in which the original interviews were conducted, and Reich’s own selection and aesthetic use (see aesthetics) of the interview material, which arguably alters the meaning of the original statements (see Wlodarski 2010). The anthropological work of ethnomusicologists, which includes the transcription and interpretation of ethnographic data, also raises ethical questions, particularly if the cultures, customs and folk practices they study involve violence, oppression, social exclusion, discrimination or some other form of behaviour that places individuals and groups in endangered, marginalized or otherwise disadvantaged situations. The musicologist Paul Harper-Scott, however, has noted the apparent ‘refusal’ of many ethnomusicologists ‘to speak from a universal moral position’ (see Harper-Scott 2012a, 189). Another ethical dimension of music concerns the responsibility performers may or may not feel towards a composer’s intentions (where these are known, should they be followed?), or towards opera composers and librettists when preparing a new production (how much licence should be taken when reinterpreting opera?). Ethical questions relating to cultural meaning, race, gender, ethnicity, identity, ideology and politics also arise when composers, DJs and musicians use or appropriate other people’s music, through borrowing, sampling and quotation (see Metzer 2003; Williams 2013), improvisation (Warren 2014), or the production of a cover version (see Griffiths 2002). See also: ecomusicology Further reading: Hagber 2008; Williams 2007

ETHNICITY The term ethnicity applies to social groups that share a sense of cultural heritage and identity, as opposed to biological descent, although part of this sense of shared identity may well reflect discourses of class and race (see discourse). As such, it is a concept that allows for a degree of choice, whereas race more often implies a lack of choice and opportunity. As an indication of the more flexible nature of ethnic identity and its role in constructing national identities (see nationalism), Benedict Anderson has likened ethnic and national identities to ‘imagined communities’ (Anderson 1983). The earliest attempts to theorize populations in terms of societal and cultural similarity date from the nineteenth century, especially in the

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work of German sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies and French sociologist and philosopher Emile Durkheim. The concept of ethnicity grew in importance in the social sciences in the 1960s with the culmination of decolonization in Africa and Asia and in response to the associated migration of postcolonial societies into Northern Europe (see postcolonial/postcolonialism). As a result of the emerging anti-racist and anti-colonial views of the time, ethnicity was coined by sociologists in order to represent the positive feelings of belonging to a cultural group. More recently, since the collapse of the Soviet Union and its satellite states, the concept has attracted more negative connotations, arising from the notion of ‘ethnic cleansing’ in the former Yugoslavia and the devastating conflict in Rwanda (both in the 1990s). This points to more recent opposing notions of ethnicity as, on the one hand, a positive sense of shared culture, identity and belonging and, on the other, a target of political hostility. However, there is a boundary problem: where does one ethnicity (or one race) begin and another end? Musicologists have been involved in rewriting ethnic boundaries. Nazi Germany, during the 1930s and 1940s, saw what Potter describes as the cultural annexing of the rest of Europe’s music (Potter 1998), resulting in claims that composers such as Chopin and even Berlioz were in fact German. Particular effort went into reclaiming Handel as a German composer in response to his apparent adoption by the English. This led to claims that Handel felt alienated in England, and the Jewish texts of some of his oratorios – such as Jephtha (1751) – were rewritten. Handel’s predilection for choral music, which developed through his experience of English choral traditions, was claimed as an anticipation of Germany’s National Socialist need for utilitarian music, which spoke simply and directly to the people. However, all attempts at defining what German music was – a concern of such important musicologists as Hugo Riemann and Friedrich Blume – proved illusive, not least because Germany had been one of the most cosmopolitan musical centres of Europe. The anthropologist T.H. Eriksen has argued that: ethnicity is essentially an aspect of a relationship, not a property of a group . . . ethnicity is an aspect of social relationships between agents who consider themselves as culturally distinctive from members of other groups with whom they have a minimum of regular interaction. (Eriksen 1993, 12) This definition points to the idea that ethnicity operates in a relational context, where a cultural distinction is felt to exist; examples would

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include cities with minority groups (such as Hispanics in New York), countries with culturally heterogeneous populations (such as India and China), or where groups live in diaspora (Celts, Romas). In each case, ethnic identity is most likely to be defined against a (perceived or real) hegemonic norm. However, music associated with certain ethnicities, such as gypsy music and Jewish klezmer, is not restricted to one geographical location, and its reception and use throughout history may vary significantly (see Radano and Bohlman 2000, 41–4; Silverman 2012). Such music will not always be performed by members of the associated ethnic group, and in some cases it will be transformed by composers and musicians into a style, as in Mozart’s Orientalist use of the alla Turca style (see Orientalism) and Schubert’s use of gypsy style, especially in his later works, for example at the opening of the last movement of the String Quintet in C major, D. 956 (1828) (see Bellman 1998a). Ethnic identity may evolve or change during the lives of certain individuals, sometimes as a means of accessing opportunities or exercising influence. As fin-de-siècle Vienna excluded Jews from many institutions, Mahler converted to Catholicism in order to conduct the Vienna State Opera. Liszt, although now considered Hungarian, spoke German and was considered one of the New German School, along with Wagner (see Cormac 2013). Bartók, on the other hand, stressed the importance of speaking Hungarian (even to his own German-speaking family) and was especially concerned with the formation of a modern music that was linked to the idea of an authentic (see authenticity) Hungarian ethnicity – one that he felt resided in Hungarian peasant music, whereas Liszt had believed that the true national compositions of Hungary were those performed by the gypsies (see Brown 2000; Trumpener 2000; Loya 2011; Hooker 2013b). As a result of his studies of peasant music in places such as Romania, Croatia and North Africa, Bartók was one of the earliest ethnomusicologists. The term ethnomusicology is attributed to Dutch scholar Jaap Kunst, who used it in the subtitle of a book published in 1950. The practice is interdisciplinary, involving linguistic and anthropological skills, and broadly speaking it applies to music that resides outside the Western concert music tradition. It has been variously described as ‘the study of music in culture’ (Merriam 1959) and the study of society in music (Seeger 1987). The British ethnomusicologist Martin Stokes states that: Music ‘is’ whatever any social group considers it to be, contrary to the essentialist definitions and quests for musical ‘universals’ of 1960s ethnomusicology, or text-orientated techniques of musicological analysis. (Stokes 1994, 5)

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As Stokes indicates, ethnomusicologists, and anthropologists, have moved away from the structuralist view that performance simply reflects social and cultural structures (see structuralism). Ethnomusicology, like European-centred musicology, originally focused on musical form and musicians, expressing a belief in the possibility of an objective, scientific approach. Ultimately, however, ethnomusicological studies reflect the ideologies (see ideology) of their exponents; as Radano and Bohlman have pointed out, ‘particularly problematic is ethnomusicology’s investment in rather fixed concepts of ethnicity, culture, and subjectivity’ (Radano and Bohlman 2000, 4). However, as musicology begins to question its exclusive focus on Western concert music, so the boundaries between the two disciplines begin to blur and the number of shared concerns increases (see Stobart 2008; Wood 2009; see also critical musicology). Issues of ethnicity are increasingly bound up with globalization. The global spread of hip-hop, for example, can be seen as bringing racial discourse – ideas of oppression and struggle originally codified by African Americans in New York – into the hands of ethnic minorities living in parts of Europe, such as France and the Netherlands. In this way, musical styles are shared and adapted by different ethnic groups to convey similar ideas. The question of Jewish ethnicity and music is also being explored, from a fifteenth-century motet with Hebrew text (Harrán 2011), to representations of Jews in Haydn’s operas (Clark 2009), Jewish musical modernism (Bohlman 2008a, 2008b; Móricz 2008; Brown 2014), Jewish diaspora (Levi and Scheding 2010), Jewish avant-garde diaspora (Cohen 2012), and Holocaust studies (Gilbert 2005; Wlodarski 2010; see also http://holocaustmusic.ort.org/resources-references/). Further reading: Botstein 2011; Brinner 2009; Frühauf and Hirsch 2014; Knittel 2010; Koen, Lloyd, Barz and Brummel-Smith 2008; Krims 2000, 2002; Lebrun 2012; Marissen 2007; Monson 2007; Móricz and Seter 2012; O’Flynn 2009; Shelemay 2011; Sposato 2006; Stokes and Bohlman 2003; Walden 2014, 2015; Wlodarski 2012

ETHNOMUSICOLOGY see ethnicity

FEMINISM The original stimulus to a movement broadly defined as feminism was a concern to reverse situations in which women are marginalized by,

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or subordinated to, men, particularly in political, economic, social and cultural (see culture) forms of discourse, in order to construct a more equal and inclusive society. As a theory, feminism can be dated from Mary Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, published in 1792. Following on from concerns for women’s economic and political position in society from the immediate post-Second World War period, feminist theory turned its attention more towards women’s cultural experiences. In more recent times, a number of different types of feminism have emerged, including Marxist (see Marxism) and liberal feminism. Feminism became a principal concern of musicology in the 1980s alongside other interdisciplinary approaches broadly categorized under the new musicology. Prior to this, in the 1970s musicologists were already beginning to rediscover forgotten women composers and performers, and in this light had begun to review existing concepts, such as genius, canon, genre and periodization. However, during the 1980s and 1990s, musicologists such as Susan McClary, Marcia Citron and Ruth Solie began to consider the cultural reasons for the marginalization of women composers from the received canon. Other writers have questioned essentialist views that women were somehow less biologically suited to composing than men, a claim that could never be substantiated (see Halstead 1997). Instead, explanations for the lack of female composers must rest with social and political conditions (see politics). Marcia Citron has explored issues of gender and the musical canon, the concept of music as gendered discourse, the idea of professionalism, and the reception of women’s music (see Citron 1993). Her work also re-examines sites of musical production. She has drawn attention to the fact that in the early nineteenth century, sonatas and other chamber works by composers such as Beethoven, Schubert and Chopin were received in private salons, often established by women, and that these locations were also home to a large number of Jewish women composers. These women were able to pursue music making because of favourable social conditions; they came from liberal-minded families with substantial wealth and learning. Another area that has received the attention of feminist musicology is popular music. In her seminal study of the music of Madonna, McClary examines the accusation that Madonna could not have meant what we see and hear because she ‘isn’t smart enough’, that she is ‘a mindless doll fulfilling male fantasies’ (McClary 1991, 149). McClary develops a powerful argument to refute this claim, instead demonstrating the complete control that Madonna exercises over her art, its production and, in particular, her identity. McClary also explains that the framework in which Madonna operates is somewhat different to that of the

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Western art tradition, in which feminine subjects associated with desire (Carmen, Isolde, Salome, Lulu) must be destroyed. Instead, Madonna is associated with the physicality of African-American vocalists such as Aretha Franklin and Bessie Smith, for whom, it is argued, there are no male counterparts, women who ‘sing powerfully of both the spiritual and the erotic without the punitive, misogynist frame of European culture’ (ibid., 153). Similar points are made by Lucy Green in her notion of ‘affirming femininity’ (Green 1997, 21–51). Feminist studies have also engaged directly with music, leading to McClary’s description of ‘horrifying’ patriarchal violence in Beethoven (McClary 1991, 128). This kind of approach clearly positions sound itself in relation to gender; this stems from a much older tradition of describing particular themes, for example in sonata form, in terms of masculine and feminine (see Burnham 1996). While such a practice was previously used as an extension of patriarchal ideas of strong masculine and weak feminine – for example, the so-called feminine ending – more contemporary writers have turned their attention to the nature of subject positions in music (see subject position). For example, in relation to the beheading of Jochanaan (John the Baptist) in Strauss’s opera Salome (1905), Carolyn Abbate remarks that the composer ‘coaxes the listening ear into occupying a female position, by erasing any sense of a male authorial voice and replacing it with a deluding chorus of disembodied singers’ (Abbate 1993, 247). Such a statement interprets Barthes’ idea of the ‘death of the author’ in the light of feminist thought (see post-structuralism). Through the 1990s, feminist musicology became more closely bound up with notions of gender and difference (see alterity), ideas that in turn relate to other increasingly important topics, such as narrative, body and ethnicity (for ethnomusicological perspectives on feminism, see Koskoff 1987, 2014; for proposals on the direction of feminist musicology in the twenty-first century, see Macarthur 2010). Further reading: Abbate 2001; Clément 1988; Cusick 1999a, 1999b; Dibben 1999; Fuller 1994; Head 2006, 2013; Heller 2003; Hellier 2013; McManus 2014; Poriss 2009; Reddington 2012; Solie 1993; Stras 2010; Stratton 2014; Williams 2001

FILM MUSIC Musical accompaniment to moving cinematic images dates back to the very origins of film in the so-called silent films of the 1890s to the 1920s, when supporting sounds were provided by live musicians. Such practices varied widely and were not necessarily natural ancestors to the Classical

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Hollywood scores of the 1930s, 1940s and 1950s, which arose following the introduction of synchronized sound in 1927. Academic study of film music grew initially in response to Classical Hollywood cinema but also in relation to the use of film as a propaganda tool prior to, and during, the Second World War, in particular by the Nazi Party. The appeal of mass communication and the potential to spread political ideology did not escape leading critical theorists of the day, notably Theodor Adorno. Inevitably, the application of Marxist theory (see Marxism) in this context resulted in scepticism towards the genre and its uses, as outlined in Adorno and the composer Hans Eisler’s classic text Composing for the Films, published in 1947 (Adorno and Eisler 1994). In essence, these authors argue that music, at the point of production, should resist the visual bias of film, which they feel hardens perception onto a series of commodified objects and (aided by music) lures audiences into a fictional reality. Film music is now widely accepted as an important field within musicology and the range of studies has grown exponentially. This is in no small part a consequence of film’s multiple media that demand interdisciplinary approaches, theoretical questions that arise from the relationship between sound and image, the range of musical genres and styles (see genre, style) to which film is attracted, and the opportunity to discuss film music in relation to concepts such as modernism, postmodernism, structuralism, value, agency, identity, subjectivity, gender and narrative. A central issue that continues to underpin work on film music and sound in other audiovisual media is the theoretical question of the relationship between sound, music and the moving image, which is to say: how does music operate in relation to the unfolding drama (see Buhler et al. 2010)? Is the relationship direct or more complex? Where is the music located: inside the narrative posited by the film and therefore audible to its characters (diegetic) or external to that world and therefore audible only to the audience (nondiegetic)? Or is it somehow beyond or between this permeable distinction: see, for example, the concepts ‘metadiegetic’ (Gorbman 1987, 22–3) and ‘source scoring’ (Kassabian 2001, 45–9; see also Stilwell 2007; Smith 2009)? What exactly is the filmic world, or ‘filmworld’ (Frampton 2006), and how does music contribute to its construction? Is not all music heard in a film part of that world and therefore a narrative agent (Winters 2010, 2014; Davis 2012)? If so, how does this fit with the notion of different ‘levels’ of narration in a film (Heldt 2013)? And is there a danger of overlooking music’s relationship with other features that constitute the film world, such as cinematography, dialogue, editing and action (Cecchi 2010)? Key academics who have contributed to this debate include Claudia Gorbman, Michel Chion, Kathryn Kalinak, Nicholas Cook and Anahid

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Kassabian – although these writers owe a debt to earlier pioneering film theorists (Metz 1974, 1986; Doane 1980) and the field continues to advance. All agree that music and sound exist in a symbiotic relationship with image through ‘mutual implication’ (Gorbman 1987, 15), ‘conformance’, ‘contemplation’, or ‘contest’ (Cook 1998b, 98–106), or ‘interdependency’: the film score is positioned ‘as an interdependent component in a filmic system’ whereby ‘music and image share power in shaping perception’ (Kalinak 1992, xvi, 30; see also Milano 1941). Rather than being simply an ‘underscore’ that informs us of characters’ emotions and ensures continuity and the allusion of reality: music and narrative in film may at all times be participating in constructing each other in ways that suggest a shifting balance of power. As an extension and clarification of narrative processes across a range of media and forms, film may be as much about revealing the meaning of music as music being used to explain and provide continuity for cinematic narrative, as if in denial of its true nature. (Franklin 2014b, 132) Moreover, music ‘works as part of the process that transmits narrative information to the spectator’ and, as such, ‘functions as a narrative agent’ (Kalinak 1992, 30). Indeed, music is arguably ‘among the most reliable’ of film’s ‘arsenal of weapons for controlling narrative connotation’ (Kalinak 2010, 4). Thus ‘when tremolo strings are heard, the music is not reinforcing the suspense of the scene; it is a part of the process that creates it’ (Kalinak 1992, 31). These arguments are developed by Kassabian’s notion of ‘assimilating’ and ‘affiliating’ identifications: in the former, music leads the perceiver to identify directly with a particular subject position; the latter, however, is more open-ended, permitting a number of possible identifications – for example, popular songs in George Lucas’s American Graffiti (1973) and Martin Scorsese’s Goodfellas (1990) will signify differently depending on a listener’s knowledge of and associations with the music used in these films (see diegetic/nondiegetic). Chion, too, is interested in audience perception, although he (valuably) raises more questions than answers. His concept of the ‘point of audition’ is an aural equivalent to ‘point of view’. Yet while the image can convey a sense of space precisely, via camera angle and/or location in the drama’s physical space, sound is more imprecise (see listening). Likewise, subjectivity (through whose eyes or ears are we seeing or hearing?) is less easily mapped through music, although music and image can work together to convey these perspectives (Chion 1994, 89–92). Chion also provides excellent suggestions for modes of audiovisual analysis, including the technique of

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‘masking’ in which either sound or image is removed during the analysis of a particular scene (ibid., 187–8). From around 2000, the study of film music burgeoned, especially from within the field of musicology, embracing numerous points of focus that include: the association between Viennese late-Romanticism and classic Hollywood film scores (Kalinak 1992; Franklin 2014a); historical survey (Cooke 2008) and source texts (Cooke 2010); music for silent films that predate the introduction of synchronized sound (Altman 2004; Brown and Davison 2012; Tieber and Windisch 2014); constructing gender and agency through sound and image (Franklin 2011; Brown 2011; Haworth 2012); film music composition (Karlin and Wright 2004); the role of institutions, such as musicians’ unions and performing rights societies, in the recording and production of film music (Davison 2012); film theory and aesthetics (Davison 2004; Winters 2010; Barham 2014); narrative theory (Levinson 1996; Reyland 2012a; Heldt 2013); Soviet film music (Bartig 2013); opera and film (Tambling 1987; Citron 2000, 2010; Joe and Theresa 2002; Grover-Friedlander 2005) and other pre-existing music in film (Hillman 2005; Powrie and Stilwell 2006; Barham 2011; Cenciarelli 2012, 2013); documentary film (Rogers 2015); close readings of individual films (Halfyard 2004; Mera 2007; Reyland 2012b). There remains much scope, however, to examine music in non-Hollywood, non-Western cinema, where national and cultural traditions may signify differently – for example, brass sounds in Hollywood are conventionally associated with heroism, but in Hindi films they often signify villainy (Kalinak 2010, 14). Definitions have also broadened with the establishment of a sub-field within musicology focused on screen music or audiovisual media, as discussed in the journals Music, Sound and the Moving Image and Music and the Moving Image (see also Gorbman, Richardson and Vernallis 2013; Vernallis, Herzog and Richardson 2013), a field that embraces multimedia genres such as virtual bands (Richardson 2012), audiovisual art installations (Rogers 2013), cartoons (Goldmark 2005), television (Deaville 2011; Davison 2013), auteur filmmakers who choose the music for their films (Gorbman 2006; Ashby 2013), popular music (Wojcik and Knight 2001; Lannin and Caley 2005), the influence of popular music videos on art cinema (Ashby 2013), ‘post-cinematic’ music (Shaviro 2010), and music for video games (Cheng 2014; Lerner 2014), which has spawned the field of game music research, or ludomusicology. Further reading: Altman 1992, 1999; Barham 2008; Bordwell 2006; Bordwell and Thompson 2013; Buhler, Flinn and Neumeyer 2000; Code 2014; Dickinson 2008; Donnelly 2001; Flinn 1992; Goldmark, Kramer and Leppert 2007; Hubbert 2011; Laing 2007; Lerner 2010; Neumeyer 2014; Slowik 2014; Weis and Belton 1985; Wierzbicki, Platte and Roust 2011; Winters 2014

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FORM Form is generally understood as a description of how music of the common practice of tonality becomes coherent and unified. It reflects an organizing force that shapes the music into a meaningful whole. According to Schoenberg, ‘form means that a piece is organized; i.e. that it consists of elements functioning like those of a living organism’ (Schoenberg 1970, 1). Form as a concept has a distinct historical identity that has been constructed through the evolution of specific forms, including basic formal shapes such as binary and ternary and more complex formal procedures, such as fugue and sonata form. The study of musical form has a long history and is ingrained in pedagogical practice. It has also been discussed and documented in treatises and textbooks across a long historical span. However, a concept and tradition of Formenlehre (theory of form) was established in the eighteenth century and has been engaged with as a means to understand and interpret the music of the Classical period, with specific reference to Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven (see Caplin 1998). The concern with proportion, balance and planning in both the actual musical practice and the related concepts of form reflects the wider context of the age of Enlightenment and its preoccupation with the rational understanding and organization of knowledge. The study of musical form has been informed, perhaps at times in a negative way, by the classification of ‘textbook’ schematic outlines of specific musical patterns and procedures. Representative examples of this approach in English come in the work of, among others, Ebenezer Prout. In various books published in the late nineteenth century, Prout provided clear definitions of specific musical forms but also offered appropriate examples of music to illustrate the discussion; this engagement with the musical repertoire was seen as essential for Prout. In the preface to the book Applied Forms (Prout 1895), a sequel to a previous book on form and a source that is also discussed by Straus (Straus 2006, 134), Prout (using the third person) outlined his methodology: Though he has consulted numerous theoretical treatises, he has in no case taken either his statements or his illustrations at second hand; in every single instance he has gone direct to the works of the great masters, both for his rules and for his examples. (Prout 1895, iii) Prout goes on to illustrate the rigorous and detailed nature of his approach in relation to the minuet and claims that he studied ‘every minuet in

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the complete works of Handel, Bach, Couperin, Corelli, Mozart, Beethoven, and Schubert’ as well as the Haydn string quartets and symphonies, with the outcome of this exhaustive process being a three-page summary of the form (ibid.). While Prout in his preface seeks to illustrate his approach through reference to the minuet, his ‘preliminary investigations’ for sonata form ‘were more laborious’, involving the study of some ‘1,200 movements’ (ibid.). He later describes the sonata form as ‘the most important’ and ‘the most artistic of the larger forms’ (ibid., 127). Even where we might encounter a ‘textbook’ understanding of a particular form, that understanding is based on, and derived from, specific compositional practices. In contrast to, for example, the somewhat dated work of Prout, the more recent account of sonata form from Hepokoski and Darcy is more extensive, exhaustive and ambitious, with this specific comparison also being highlighted by Straus (Straus 2006, 135). However, the focus on actual compositional practices, and the experience of them in individual movements and works, remains central: From one perspective the Elements is a research report, the product of our analyses of hundreds of individual movements by Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, and many surrounding composers of the time (as well as later composers). (Hepokoski and Darcy 2006, v) This focus on an engagement with the music indicates that the process of identifying a form, and locating points of formal division within a work or movement, may be understood as an analytical act (see analysis) that involves both interpretation and, potentially, the application of theory. Our understanding of a form therefore may be an accumulation of detailed knowledge of specific musical works. However, form can also be understood as part of the compositional logic of musical works as defined through the imagination of the composer, with the process of realizing the form also open to musicological enquiry (see Kinderman 2012). One of the most historically and theoretically significant contributions to a discourse on form is found in the work of A.B. Marx, who, as well as being a composer, also wrote extensively about music, with particular reference to form, in mid-nineteenth century Germany. In an extended essay entitled ‘Form in Music’, originally published in 1856 (see Marx 1997, 55–90), Marx describes form as ‘one of the most stimulating and initially enigmatic aspects of the nature of music’ and claims that form is ‘the summation of all the manifold configurations in which the content of music appears before our spirit’ (ibid., 56). In this statement, Marx

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is projecting an understanding of form as an almost philosophical ideal, a generalization (a whole) that contains the contents (the parts) of the music. This philosophical perspective is further extended through the reference to appearance before spirit, a formulation that reflects the wider influence of the idealist philosophy of Hegel. However, the immediate relevance of this statement lies in the notion of a musical content that is somehow contained within a conceptual model of form; the metaphorical image (see metaphor) of form and container is one that is repeatedly returned to in accounts of musical form (see Straus 2006, 126–36). It also has a strong presence in jazz and popular music. In both these musical contexts, the recurring, cyclical forms of 12-bar blues and the 32-bar AABA ‘chorus’, the ‘eternal cycle’, act as a formal model (see Monson 2002, 119–21), the mould into which musical content is poured (see Elsdon 2013, 55). A.B. Marx is best known for his codification of sonata form and the division of that form into contrasting themes and the large-scale sections of what is now commonly understood as exposition–development– recapitulation (see Marx 1997, 92–154). This terminology effectively is restated in all accounts of sonata form, including very different publications such as that of Prout and the more recent extensive account of Hepokoski and Darcy. For Marx, the second stage of sonata form ‘manifests itself primarily as the locus of variety and motion’ (ibid., 97). This new ‘variety’ and ‘motion’ act as the ‘antithesis’ (another Hegelian reference) to the exposition of the thematic material and form part of what Marx defines as the ‘fundamental law of all musical formation’: a basic shape of ‘rest–motion–rest’ (ibid.) within which music moves through time from its initial stability (‘rest’), becomes intensified by the activities that are signified as ‘motion’, and returns finally to ‘rest’. According to Marx, this ‘fundamental law’ of all ‘musical formation’ is best ‘revealed in the three parts of the sonata form’ (ibid.). Here, form is not understood as just a model, mould or container but as a dynamic process through which the details, the ‘content’, of the music unfold and that underpins the moments of formal division. The view of musical form as both dynamic and temporal is evident in other, very different theories, including the formalism of Hanslick’s understanding of music as ‘tonally moving forms’ (Hanslick 1986, 28–9) and Schenker’s Urzatz. For Schenker, the fundamental line (Urzatz) that moves from beginning to end is the formal ‘background’ of tonal music (see Schenker 1979). Schenker’s formulation of this background as the essential form creates a metaphor of depth, with the layers of foreground (the surface), middleground and background all suggesting an understanding of the form of the music as moving upwards from a deep

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background that is revealed only through an analytical process that begins with the foreground details and works backwards to uncover the background (see Fink 1999; Watkins 2011a). This account of musical form can be read as a critical rejection of the idea of predetermined forms and formal divisions. As well as exploring large ideas about musical form, A.B. Marx also provided an insightful account of specific details, including phrase structures. However, as part of his dynamic ‘archetype’ of ‘rest–motion–rest’, Marx also considered the motive, the thematic idea from which some music, particularly that of Beethoven, could be heard to spring: The motive is the primal configuration [Urgestalt] of everything musical, just as the germinal vesicle, that membranous sac filled with some fluid element (or perhaps with solid bodies), is the primal configuration of everything organic – the true primal plant or primal animal. The motive, this conjunction of two tones or some other unities, simply is. (Marx 1997, 66) The motive, heard as an initiating thematic idea, is the seed (see organicism) from which the music grows dynamically and is fundamental to our understanding of music: it ‘simply is’. This aspect of Marx’s thought is based directly on his interpretations (see interpretation) of the music of Beethoven and its sense of beginning and transformation. It can also be read retrospectively as an anticipation of Schoenberg’s concept of the Grundgestalt (basic shape) and processes of ‘developing variation’ (see Frisch 1984), and of the further development of motivic/thematic analysis (see Réti 1961). Marx’s references to processes of human sexuality and reproduction (see body), evident through his use of terms relating to the human body (‘germinal vesicle’, ‘membranous sac’), reinforce the proposed metaphor of organicism, while the dynamic interactions of the sexual act suggest another metaphorical image in relation to the model of ‘rest–motion–rest’. This suggestion of the body is also present in Marx’s characterization of the contrast between first and second themes, with the second theme ‘one of pliancy rather than pith’ and acting as ‘a feminine counterpart, as it were, to its masculine precedent’ (ibid., 133; see also Burnham 1996; McClary 1991, 9). The ideas of A.B. Marx, and later theorists such as Schenker, relate to tonality. How music of the twentieth century and beyond can in some sense be seen as still conditioned by an understanding of form generates new issues and questions. Clearly, certain compositional practices of the early twentieth century, such as those of Stravinsky, ran counter to the

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assumptions of organic unity and coherence (see Cone 1968). The development of Schoenbergian atonality also challenged preconceived notions of musical form, shifting the focus away from an already known formal model towards the ongoing transformation of thematic material that resulted in form being a consequence of the content rather than its container, as argued in other contexts. Music in the post-1945 period posed further questions for interpretations of the relationship between form and content. The most intellectually substantial engagement with such questions comes in an extended essay by Adorno (see critical theory), ‘Vers une musique informelle’, originally published in 1961 (see Adorno 1992b, 269–322). Here, Adorno seems to be looking back to the earlier atonality of Schoenberg after the impact of serialism. He reflects the positive experience of hearing then recent works by Boulez, Stockhausen and Cage, but also the realization that his ‘productive imagination does not reconstruct them all with equal success’ (ibid., 271). This problem of not being able to reconstruct the experience of such music may be due to the absence of existing formal structures and models in this music, which is now freed from the sense of reference and familiarity that would enable the reconstruction of the listening experience of tonality. While the proposed term of musique informelle ‘resists definition’, Adorno goes on ‘to stake out the parameters of the concept’: What is meant is a type of music which has discarded all forms which are external or abstract or which confront it in an inflexible way. At the same time, although such music should be completely free of anything irreducibly alien to itself or superimposed on it, it should nevertheless constitute itself in an objectively compelling way, in the musical substance itself, and not in terms of external laws. (Adorno 1992b, 272) This formulation suggests a music that eschews any recognizable formal archetypes, ‘external’ or ‘abstract’, and rejects any notion of form that restricts the musical material (‘in an inflexible way’). Adorno seems to be reinventing the notion of musical form as arising freely and flexibly from the consequences of the chosen material and effectively restates the points made above in relation to Schoenberg and atonality, producing new musical forms for new musical content, a possibility that also has certain parallels with the rethinking of form in jazz (see Elsdon 2013, 55–63). However, while this may be an appropriate way of hearing the presence and operation of form in the music that Adorno highlights in his essay, the development of music after this point suggests that the basic

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forms of tonal music continue to have a powerful legacy and relevance. While Adorno would no doubt dismiss this tendency as ‘restorative’ and ‘regressive’, it does suggest the powerful attraction of the sense of departure and return that is enclosed within, for example, sonata form as an archetype. This is evident in studies of sonata form in a contemporary context, the later music of Peter Maxwell Davies being one source of interest among others (see, for example, Jones 2005; Gloag 2009; Lister 2009), and suggests a meaningful interaction between concepts of form and genre as reflected in contemporary works with the titles ‘symphony’ and ‘string quartet’ (see absolute music). Further reading: Bonds 2010; Burnham 2002; Byros 2012; Gollin and Rehding 2011; McClary 2000; Ratner 1980; Rehding 2003; Schmalfeldt 2011; SchmidtBeste 2011; Street 1989; Tovey 2001

FORMALISM The concept of formalism signifies an aesthetic perspective (see aesthetics) that prioritizes formal detail above other factors (such as identity, meaning, expression and interpretation). It is most commonly associated with the study of musical form through the discipline of music analysis. The philosophical background of formalism is located in the aesthetics of Immanuel Kant. His critical considerations of judgement and taste as articulated in the Critique of Judgement, originally published in 1790 (Kant 1987; le Huray and Day 1981, 214–29), elevates what is being observed (the work) above any related or contextual factors. The most clearly defined aspect of Kant’s thinking in relation to the work is that of the ‘disinterested’, in which the outcome of the critical process is separated from predetermined expectations and aspirations (see ideology). This results in a critical distance that claims to inject a degree of objectivity into the process and thus shifts the priorities of interpretation towards the internal properties of the work, leading to the claim that the basis of the work’s value resides in the finality of its form. Formalism can appear as a somewhat interchangeable term with others, such as absolute music and autonomy, in that they all indicate an understanding of the musical work as a self-contained, separate entity. Given this interchangeability, it is not surprising that Eduard Hanslick and his Vom Musikalisch-Schönen (On the Musically Beautiful), first published in 1854 (see Hanslick 1986), feature in discussions of formalism just as they do in relation to both absolute music and autonomy. For Hanslick, what music expresses is its own, purely musical idea, while the

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content of music is ‘tonally moving forms’ (ibid., 28–9), with the focus on form leading to a direct equation with a concept of formalism. For Joseph Kerman, ‘if music is only “sounding form,” the only meaningful study of music is formalistic’ (Kerman 1994, 15), and Bowman concludes that, despite ‘Hanslick’s modest intentions in writing it, Vom MusikalischSchönen, or On the Musically Beautiful, has come to be regarded as one of the most important (or to some, infamous) treatises on the nature and value of music ever written’ and defines it as the ‘classic “manifesto” for musical formalism’ (Bowman 1998, 140). In the arts in general and specifically in Western art music, formalism, as both an aesthetic ideology and a cultural practice, emerges with the rise of modernism during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. In this historical and stylistic (see style) context, a preoccupation with the formal elements and requirements of music finds a new, sharper focus. Both Schoenberg’s development of serialism and Stravinsky’s construction of neoclassicism involved a realization of music as a self-reflexive practice. The concern with form that this involved in modernist musical contexts also finds its way into the study of music. The rise of analysis as a musicological practice reflects the background of formalism and translates the primary status of formal details from a compositional practice into a mode of inquiry that has its own internal logic. The analytical methodology identified with Austrian music theorist Heinrich Schenker, for example, accentuates the privileging of internal detail as distinct from external factors and exemplifies the Kantian desire for the work’s ‘formal finality’ through the search for a specific structural paradigm (see structuralism) and the requirement for the teleological closure of that structure (see Schenker 1979). Further reading: Grimes, Donovan and Marx 2013; Puffett 1994

GAY MUSICOLOGY Gay musicology is a response to, and part of, what is more broadly labelled ‘queer theory’ or ‘queer studies’: that is, studies in humanities subjects that interpret topics from a gay and lesbian perspective, although lesbian musicology is arguably gaining currency in its own right. Moreover, gay musicology intersects with studies of masculinity in music (Jarman-Ivens 2007; Biddle and Gibson 2009; see also gender). Gay studies arose in response to homophobic attitudes, coupled with patriarchal resistance to alternative gender positions. They consist of personal responses by gay or lesbian scholars but may equally be the work of heterosexual scholars,

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and while they frequently focus on gay or lesbian subjects, this is not exclusively the case. Gay studies have arisen in a number of academic fields, including literary criticism (see Sedgwick 1994, 1997), philosophy (see Butler 1990), and cultural studies (see Doty 1993). One of the key motivations behind gay musicology is a belief in ‘diversifying our discipline and rescuing it from the rigid ideology and hidden agendas to which only a few years ago it seemed unduly attached’ (Brett, Wood and Thomas 2006, vii (originally published in 1994)). As such, it forms part of the broader initiative referred to as the new musicology. An important early example is Philip Brett’s article ‘Britten and Grimes’ (Brett 1977), which examined ways in which the central character of Benjamin Britten’s opera Peter Grimes (1945) had been interpreted, variously, as flawed, as a maladjusted aggressive psychopath, as a man who could not fit in, and as ‘an ordinary weak person . . . classed by society as a criminal and destroyed as such’ (Keller and Mitchell 1952, 111). Brett explains Grimes’ plight in the opera in terms of the character’s reflection of Britten’s own homosexuality, claiming that: It was Peter Grimes, representing the ultimate fantasy of persecution and suicide, that played a crucial role in his [Britten’s] coming to terms with himself and the society which he both distrusted and yet wished to serve as a musician. (Brett 1977, 1000) Brett’s work is a paradigm for a historically situated approach, drawing parallels between its musical subject and similar themes in contemporary literature and politics. In this way, Brett draws attention to what he calls ‘the dynamics of the closet’ (Brett 1994, 21). While Britten’s homosexuality was generally common knowledge, he did not speak of it in public and devised various strategies in his music and personal life to avoid direct expression of the fact (see stance). This may explain a sense of difference (see alterity) that informs Britten’s music, and arguably that of other gay composers, reflecting Brett’s observation that: To gay children, who often experience a shutdown of all feeling as the result of sensing their parents’ and society’s disapproval of a basic part of their sentient life, music appears as a veritable lifeline. (ibid., 17) It might be argued that Brett’s 1977 article, published the year after Britten’s death, represented a form of ‘outing’ of the composer. Such a practice has formed part of the more radical politics of queer theory,

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following the belief that raising public awareness of the role that gay people have in society will help tackle prejudice. This drive has informed a certain focus on composers deemed to be different in terms of their musical language, style or reception. Examples of this include Gary C. Thomas on Handel (Thomas 2006) and Susan McClary on Schubert (McClary 2006a; see also Adams 2002 on Elgar; McGeary 2011 on Handel again). Gay musicology embraces a range of perspectives and may inform almost any kind of analytical (see analysis) or critical approach to music, from the way in which we listen to an opera with a lesbian subject, such as Alban Berg’s Lulu (1929–35) (see Lochhead 1999), to a consideration of the notion of a lesbian compositional process (see Wood 1993; Rycenga 1994). In popular music, gay musicology has often examined the identity and performance styles of artists, but some scholars have also considered ways in which gay or queer identity may be encoded in musical language. For example, Fred E. Maus has interpreted harmonic evasion and ambivalence in the Pet Shop Boys as an expression of an alternative kind of masculinity (Maus 2001). However, these examples raise concerns about positivism and essentialism – that is to say, to what extent is it plausible, or desirable, to attribute specific musical characteristics to sexual preference? And why is it that such studies focus on some musicians (such as Britten) but not others (Adés, Benjamin, Boulez)? Future areas that require further reconsideration in the light of queer theory include the historiography of music (see also historical musicology), music analysis and ethnomusicology (see ethnicity). Further reading: Amico 2014; Brett 1993; Bullock 2008; Fuller and Whitesell 2002; Gill 1995; Hubbs 2004, 2007, 2014; Jarman-Ivens 2011; Kielian-Gilbert 1999; Leibetseder 2012; Peraino 2006; Taylor 2012; Whiteley and Rycenga 2006

GENDER In the context of cultural studies, gender may be understood as the social construction of what maleness and femaleness mean in a given culture. In other words, it is an ideological (see ideology) concept that is contingent on socio-historical context, rather than the actual biological sense of sex and sexuality. Traditionally, music has itself been gendered female and has been represented as such in paintings, for example as a female muse, as in The Musical Hall of Fame (Solie 1993, 32), or referred to in this way in texts

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and debates. In her consideration of Artusi’s attack on Monteverdi and contemporary music in the late Renaissance, Suzanne Cusick has drawn attention to the role of gendered metaphors in rhetoric (see metaphor, language), in particular Artusi’s attempts to discredit contemporary music of the time as ‘unnatural, feminine, and feminising of both its practitioners and its listeners’ (Cusick 1993, 3). This association between music and gender, which Cusick dates back to Plato’s Republic, has led to exaggerated attempts by some musicians to negate that image. Notable examples include McClary’s claim that Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony (1822–4) is ‘probably our most compelling articulation in music of the contradictory impulses that have organised patriarchal culture since the Enlightenment’ (McClary 1991, 129), Charles Ives’ feeling that music ‘has been, to too large an extent, an emasculated art’ (Kirkpatrick 1973, 134), and the gestures (see gesture), ideologies and posturings of much guitar-based rock music (see Walser 1993). However, scholars have begun to develop a more fine-grained appreciation of the history of this masculinist discourse (Biddle and Gibson 2009; Biddle 2011a). Musicologist and biographer Maynard Solomon (see biography) was one of the first to introduce gender and feminist issues into musicology (Solomon 1977, 1989); this is indicated by Susan McClary, who, in 1994, admired the ‘seriousness, grace, and courage with which Solomon has introduced questions concerning misogyny in Beethoven, homophobia in Ives, or homoeroticism in Schubert into a discipline that has steadfastly refused to address such issues’ (McClary 2006a, 208). In addition to considering the gender of rhetoric and of composers, also of interest is the gender of performers, composers, listeners (see listening), and even scholars. Particularly insightful in this regard is Cusick’s exploration of performance-centred music criticism, following the ideas of gender theorist Judith Butler (Cusick 1999a). The essence of Butler’s idea is that gender is something that is performed, that neither the social nor the biological conceptions of gender are stable. This, it is argued, results from a choice that we have between the way we perform social roles and the way we perform, or use, our bodies (see body; see also Butler 1990; Amico 2014). Cusick develops this idea through an examination of the seventeenth-century singer, composer and teacher Francesca Caccini, and Eddie Vedder, lead singer of rock band Pearl Jam. Cusick considers what kind of body audiences would hear in these performers’ voices: the latter uses a high tessitura but without falsetto, ‘cracking as it strains into the androgynous space eschewed by most males in puberty’ (Cusick 1999a, 35). She also considers Indigo Girls, a paradigmatic girl group on the mid-Atlantic college scene, who ‘With their voices . . . perform their gender, their sex, and a sexuality (a way bodies

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might relate intimately to each other) that is culturally intelligible in our time as lesbian’ (ibid., 37). This form of inquiry, Cusick argues, may offer an effective means of considering the ways in which artists and performers remake both their world and ours. Similar ideas to those discussed by Cusick are explored by Mitchell Morris in the context of the gendered rhetoric of The Weather Girls and their 1980s disco hit ‘It’s Raining Men’ (Morris 1999). Increasingly, gender is being considered in relation to other factors, such as religion, class, ethnicity and national identity, and the way in which it is approached is influenced by the context of study: ethnomusicology (see Koskoff 2014), popular music and film music, for example, will each require slightly differing approaches. Studies of gender have also led to the emergence of distinct methodologies, such as queer and lesbian studies (see gay musicology), and studies of masculinity in opera and other music (Jarman-Ivens 2007; Biddle and Gibson 2009; Purvis 2013). See also: alterity, biography, ethnicity, feminism Further reading: Bannister 2006a, 2006b; Barkin and Hamessley 1999; Beard 2009b; Borgerding 2002; Bradby 1993; Citron 1993; Colton and Haworth 2015; Cook 1998a; Dame 1994; Dibben 2002a; Draughon 2003; Franklin 2011; Fuller 2013; Head 2013; Jeffries 2011; Laing 2007; Leonard 2007; Malawey 2014; McClary 1993a; Peraino and Cusick 2013; Senici 2005; Stras 2010

GENIUS Genius is a term that invokes certain musical qualities, with the implication of greatness and a heightened sense of value that relates to the formation of a canon. Genius was first conceptualized during the Enlightenment of the eighteenth century and appears in the dictionaries that were a central feature of that period and project, including that of the Swiss writer on aesthetics Johann Georg Sulzer, who, in his Allgemeine Theorie der schönen Künste, originally completed in 1771, produced the first wide-ranging survey of the arts in German. He describes geniuses as ‘those who have greater skill and spiritual insight than others in the tasks and occupations for which they are gifted’ (le Huray and Day 1981, 127). The view of the genius as the exception, ‘those who have greater skill’, would be a standard interpretation, but the suggestion of ‘spiritual insight’ also connects with the Enlightenment concern with the sublime and its suggestion of the journey beyond the grasp of normal concepts and understanding.

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Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s Dictionnaire de musique, one of the most widely known works of its type during the later eighteenth century, contains a fascinating description of genius: Seek not, young artist, the meaning of genius. If you possess it you will sense it within you. If not, you will never know it. The musician of genius encompasses the entire universe within his art. He paints his pictures in sound; he makes the very silence speak; he expresses ideas by feelings and feelings by accents, and the passions that he voices move us to the very depths of our hearts. (ibid., 108–9) Rousseau immediately asserts that genius is something natural, perhaps God-given – a commonly held view – but his passionate description is also notable in that it suggests an anticipation of the Romanticism of the nineteenth century and provides a contrast to the rationalism of the Enlightenment. Rousseau continues: Would you like to know then whether any spark of this devouring flame inspires you? Run, fly to Naples! Listen to the masterpieces of Leo, Durante, Jomelli and Pergolesi. If your eyes brim with tears, if your heart pounds, if you are seized with trembling, if in the middle of your rapture oppressive feelings weigh you down, then take Metastasio and set to work. His genius will warm yours. (ibid., 109) Rousseau mentions the genius of Metastasio, the librettist whose work was set by many composers of the period, but his list of composers is interesting, with Leo, Durante and Jomelli now likely to be described as minor figures of the period. This suggests that any description of genius is likely to be highly subjective (see subjectivity) and is dependent upon the preferences of the person making the claim. It is also likely to reflect the historical and cultural circumstances of the period in question. The nineteenth century witnessed a fascination with the concept of genius, usually portrayed through a Romantic image of the composer as hero. This is reflected in the reception of Beethoven (see Burnham 1995), in which his biographical circumstances were seen to form a framework for the understanding of the music (see biography). During the later nineteenth century, the cult of the heroic composer was extended by Wagner, who was portrayed as the pathway to the future, an image that Wagner himself conspired to shape (see autobiography).

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During the twentieth century, the concept of genius may also be found in the specific notion of an avant-garde, which further extended the preoccupation with the future. The isolation of the composer, dramatized by Schoenberg in his music and writings, most notably in an essay with the loaded title of ‘How One Becomes Lonely’, Schoenberg 1975), was a recurring feature of the century. However, from our contemporary perspective the concept of genius may be less readily acceptable and achievable through our understanding of the social, political and commercial contexts that surround all music (see culture industry). In contrast to the Enlightenment view of genius as a consequence of nature, sociologist Tia DeNora, writing from a contemporary critical perspective on Beethoven, suggests that ‘Genius and its recognition require social and cultural resources if they are to be cultivated, and these resources are often micropolitically charged’ (DeNora 1997, xiii). From this perspective, genius is shaped and conditioned by context, which is often politically and economically determined and Beethoven provides a case study that enlarges ‘the potential for thinking about talent and genius as fundamentally social achievements’ (ibid.) (however, see also Menger 2014, 239–72). Further reading: Bürger 1992; Burnham 2013

GENRE Genre is a term that reflects a desire, dating back to Greek philosopher Aristotle, to classify and categorize works of art. As a result of this, generic terms often appear in the titles of works (for example, symphony or concerto). Genre necessarily constructs a set of codes and expectations and therefore may be understood as something that is imposed upon music by musical cultures (see culture), influencing the way in which music is written. For example, composers and popular musicians will often play with genre conventions, and this is potentially useful to musicologists interested in interpreting meaning in music. Understanding genre also suggests ways of listening. According to ethnomusicologist William Hanks, when viewed as an interaction between social constructs and musical content, genre may be seen to offer: 1) a framework that a listener may use by which to orient themselves; 2) procedures to interpret the music; and 3) a set of expectations (Hanks 1987; see also ethnicity). One confusion that may at times arise is the overlap between the terms ‘style’ and ‘genre’ as encountered in musicological writing. Allan Moore has noted that, in general, popular music studies employ the term genre,

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whereas writing on classical music tended, at least until the mid-1980s, to mix genre and style freely (Moore 2001b). Since the mid-1980s, however, musicologists have tended to use genre to describe the external, socially conditioned aspects of a work, and style is reserved for consideration of the formal, internal features (see analysis). However, style is often a subset of genre, a marker – one of many – that may indicate a particular genre to a listener. By extension, the popular musicologist Philip Tagg has coined the term ‘genre synecdoche’ to refer to moments when style alludes to, implies, or somehow indicates a particular genre: A genre synecdoche is . . . an indexical sign type which, by citing elements of a style of ‘other’ music, allows a particular audience to associate to another time, place or set of people than their own. By citing a small part of the ‘other’ musical style, a genre synecdoche alludes not only to that other style in its entirety but also to the complete genre of which that other musical style is a subset. (Tagg 2004, 4) Prior to the seventeenth century, generic titles in music were defined by a work’s function, its text, if there was one, and its textures (see Dahlhaus 1987). In the eighteenth century, scoring and form determined genre, although these and other internal features were increasingly influenced by external social factors. The term gained particular importance in music during the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. For example, the Romantic (see Romanticism) lied encompasses a range of works by composers such as Franz Schubert and Robert Schumann. These works are related through language (German), scoring (piano and voice) and function (composed for an attentive audience, usually performed in intimate surroundings). The word ‘lied’ also carries with it a suggestion of the kinds of subject matter to be conveyed through song (nature, love, tragedy) and dictates certain formal and stylistic approaches (a clear link between words and musical devices). The same applies to popular song. For example, musicologist Robert Walser has noted that the genre of heavy metal imparts a particular ideology, noting that ‘the generic cohesion of heavy metal until the mid-1980s depended upon the desire of young white male performers and fans to hear and believe in certain stories about the nature of masculinity’ (Walser 1993, 109; see also discourse). This observation points to the importance of genre in the formation of fan cultures. It also indicates that certain genres will be associated with a sense of truth, or authenticity. Alternatively, they may, as in the case of glam rock, be concerned with the artificial and the inauthentic.

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One view of genre is hierarchical, implying a parent genre, such as the symphony, within which other genres – Ländler or scherzo, for example – may be found. In all these cases, genre defines a context for musical gestures (see gesture). In general, the concept of genre attempts a limited, finalized account of musical works (see work), but this is contrary to the natural diversity of styles and their tendency to evolve. Genre attempts to fix musical practice, pointing to what is consistent and repeated, but this does not take account of the fact that certain features used to determine genre, such as style, technique and form, will change through time. German critical theorist Theodor Adorno (Adorno 1997; see also critical theory) and German musicologist Carl Dahlhaus (Dahlhaus 1987) both believed in the social and historical contingency of genre. In particular, Dahlhaus remarked that the idea of the masterpiece arose directly from the conventions of genre, and both he and Adorno noted that, throughout the nineteenth century, society concentrated more on composers and individual works and that musical genres began to lose their importance. This shift, which stressed the autonomous status of musical works (see autonomy), is reflected in the rise of musical analysis during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, a discipline that places form and gesture over genre. It is also reflected in a change of listening strategy, away from hearing works as variations of a type (prior to the late nineteenth century) towards a consideration of pieces on their own terms. These ideas have been developed in relation to a range of musical genres, notably by ethnomusicologist Franco Fabbri (Fabbri 1982), musicologist Jeffrey Kallberg in relation to Chopin (Kallberg 1987, 1987–8), and Adam Krims concerning rap (Krims 2000). Krims’ work, in particular, indicates that in popular music the idea of genre may be central to listening and performing. In the case of club music, for example, DJs are noted less for the specific tracks they play and more for the dance genre they embrace. A number of disciplines have seen developments in conceptions of genre, most notably Vladimir Propp’s work on fairy-tale classification (first published in 1928; see Propp 1968), Bakhtin’s work on linguistics (Bakhtin 2000), Jameson on literature (Jameson 1981), and film and television studies (see Neale 1980; Altman 1999). The latter field has been particularly influential on genre studies in recent musicology, especially through its emphasis on the idea of genre as social convention. One of the central definitions of genre in relation to film concerns its role in alerting viewers to an established practice and thereby arousing in them a set of expectations based on their memory of similar films. In relation to music, Kallberg argues that genre guides the listener through a ‘“kind of generic contract” . . . the composer agrees to use some of the conventions, patterns,

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and gestures of a genre, and the listener consents to interpret some aspects of the piece in a way conditioned by this genre’ (Kallberg 1987–8, 243). This points to the importance of the interaction between a work’s title and its content in forming meaning. For example, Moore has remarked that ‘understanding a song like Bowie’s “Fashion” means understanding it as ironic, which is dependent upon understanding the genre conventions of uptempo dance music’ (Moore 2001b, 441). Furthermore, what makes music interesting are those moments when the social codes or conventions of a genre are challenged or subverted, when the generic contract is broken. Fabbri notes that new genres may be formed from such transgressions. This may be achieved by mixing genres, for example in Vaughan Williams’ Tallis Fantasia (1910; see Pople 1996). Alternatively, musical genres may cease to operate as controlling factors and instead be used referentially. For example, this can be seen in the way that Mahler’s symphonies critique certain genres, such as the waltz and the march, in ways that may reflect social concerns of the time (see Samuels 1995). Although a shift has taken place in terms of contemporary classical listening and practice, and despite the apparent desire of modernism and the avant-garde to subvert, overthrow and invent new generic conventions (such as the concerto for orchestra), postmodernism has revived interest in older genres. This can be seen, for example, in Heiner Goebbels’ Eislermaterial (2001), which explores cabaret in the context of post-tonal languages. And genre is still relevant to certain post-war modernists, for example in the symphonies of Maxwell Davies and Lutosławski, and the operas of Tippett and Birtwistle. Indeed, musicologist Eric Drott argues that ‘the groupings enacted by genre classifications, far from disappearing or lapsing into irrelevance, continue to shape our understanding of modernist music, up to and including its most recent expressions’ (Drott 2013, 3). Genre is also central to the marketing of popular music. This is expressed through the myriad categories that have arisen, including what Roy Shuker calls meta-genres – loose collections of related genres, such as dance, or world music, within which any number of sub-genres can be found (such as house and techno), which themselves may be further subdivided (hard house, classic house) (Shuker 1998). Even within these distinctions, there will be references to other genres, leading to hybrids (see hybridity). The development of genre in this way can be seen as constructing ever more sophisticated modes of reception, consumption and marketing. Further reading: Bauman 1992; Beard 2009b; Deeming 2013; Duff 2000; Everist 2014; Fornäs 1995a; Harrison and Wood 2003; Hepokoski and Darcy 2006; Hinton 2012; Jones 2006; Middleton 2006; Pascall 1989; Samson 1989; Stefani 1987

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GESTURE Specific musical shapes and lines have often been described as gestures or as being gestural. Short motivic units and long expansive melodic lines in particular seem open to this form of description. However, there is a body of literature that has sought to give a more precise meaning to the association between music and gesture and the work of Robert Hatten has been central to the developing study of gesture in music. Gesture can be understood as a physical action of the human body; the movement of a limb, for example, creates a shape, involves energy and can often reinforce human communication. The movement the hand might make in order to underline what is being said by the voice may be an obvious way in which the body makes gestures as part of the regular pattern of human communication and interaction. The movements made by the body in musical performance can be gestural and often enhance the expressivity of the music being performed. However, it is also possible to focus on specific musical details that can be seen to be gestural. For Hatten, it is possible to create a ‘principal focus’ on ‘interpreting gestures as implied by the notation of scores, interpreted both stylistically and in terms of their strategic deployment in a work’ (Hatten 2004, 131). One such notational detail that Hatten explores is the slur, a small expressive gesture that is ‘a common gestural type in the Classical style, one that is cued by a notated symbol of articulation’ (ibid., 140); Hatten relates this detail back to various treatises of the Classical period (ibid.). The slur, and the music in which it is featured, is familiar to all musicians. It is an expressive gesture, but do we know what it actually expresses? Such details, with specific reference to instrumental music (see absolute music), do not communicate with the precision of language and therefore their meaning remains open to interpretation. Hatten highlights the correlation between gesture and motive (see analysis): ‘Perhaps the most important function of gesture . . . comes from its thematization as motivic idea’ (ibid., 135). For Hatten, the relationships between gesture, thematicism and motive are subject to two conditions: A gesture becomes thematic when it is (a) foregrounded as significant, thereby gaining identity as a potential thematic entity, and then when it is (b) used consistently, typically as the subject of a musical discourse. (ibid.) This significant foregrounding brings the now thematic gesture to the surface of the music, suggesting a distinction between the musical foreground and background, a distinction that resonates with that already made by Hatten between ‘marked’ and ‘unmarked’ (ibid., 11). The

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foregrounded gesture then becomes, potentially, an idea that is subject to development. We generally think of the musical motive as a concise shape, consisting of relatively few elements, but in some musical contexts that motive will be subject to a process of transformation. From the perspective of gesture, the motivic shape again appears to be like a part of the human body, one that is subject to a process of growth and expansion (see organicism). This understanding of musical gesture works well for some music, particularly that of Beethoven, in which a sense of gesture can be heard to intersect with the motivic/thematic processes of the music. It also suggests a parallel to the prevalence and development of idea in Schoenberg’s theories and compositional practices. More generally, Hatten’s theories also find a natural association with the small details of the common practice of tonality, such as the slur, and also often connect with the distinction between foreground (melody) and background (accompaniment) that can be heard in the music of the Classical period. However, it is less clear how gesture can be theorized in music that may be susceptible to being described as gestural but that does not directly relate to the tonal tradition, such as that of Harrison Birtwistle (see Gloag 2015). See also: emotion, metaphor, semiotics Further reading: Cumming 2000; Gritten and King 2006; Lidov 2005

GLOBALIZATION The possibility of a global economy is reflected in the concept of globalization, one of the most sharply contested and deeply politicized terms of recent times (see politics). It is suggested that globalization weakens the nation state, representing the current situation of capitalism as a global economy, and brings with it the implication of a hegemony of cultural practices. A fundamental consequence of globalization is the interdependency of cultural (see culture), economic and other structures of life. American literary theorist Michael Hardt and Italian political philosopher Antonio Negri, in their epic work Empire, state: In the postmodernization [see postmodernism] of the global economy, the creation of wealth tends ever more toward what we will call biopolitical production, the production of social life itself, in which the economic, the political, and the cultural increasingly overlap and invest one another. (Hardt and Negri 2000, xiii)

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In other words, under the impact of globalization it has become impossible to separate the personal from the political or the cultural from the economic. Many cultural theorists argue that the world is now organized and defined by increasing economic globalization, which reduces the importance of small-scale production and imposes standardized economic practices worldwide. The social and critical theorist Douglas Kellner provides an effective summary of globalization and its surrounding discourse through the construction of a ‘dialectical framework that distinguishes between progressive and emancipatory features and oppressive and negative attributes’ (Kellner 2002, 285). When viewed from this perspective, globalization becomes a more complex balancing act, rather than being positioned as simply something purely negative that must be opposed. One of the most direct manifestations of globalization is through information and communication technologies. According to American cultural and critical theorist Fredric Jameson, ‘globalization is a communicational concept, which alternately masks and transmits cultural or economic meanings’ (Jameson 1998, 55). We can relate this view to the way in which certain products and producers (McDonald’s and Disney, for example) not only sell a product on a global basis but in doing so transmit certain cultural values (see value), which are often simultaneously concealed, a situation that connects globalization with notions of ideology and identity. The interpenetration and interdependence of national and economic markets have consequences for music and its reception; this is clearly evident in the global spread of MTV and ‘mainstream’ Anglo-American pop. However, one of the most interesting cultural reflections of globalization can be seen in the emergence of ‘world music’, a term that was concocted by a collection of independent record companies involved in the dissemination of non-Western music. In a penetrating article on the subject, the British popular music scholar Simon Frith (Frith 2000) outlines the origins of the term and highlights its economic and marketing functions. The desire for ‘other’ music (see alterity), which may include music from all regions of the world, reflects issues of authenticity and the recurrent search for the exotic in music by Western audiences (see Orientalism). The persistence of ‘world music’ as an exceptionally broad marketing genre could reflect the ‘oppressive and negative’ features of globalization. The wide dissemination of such music involves the flattening of the cultural landscape, and the marketing of music from economically disadvantaged regions and locations may be perceived as exploiting indigenous cultures. However, it is also possible to interpret ‘progressive and

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emancipatory’ features of the spread of localized music on a wider scale. Such music could be heard as a voice of resistance, reflecting Kellner’s suggestion that globalization can be ‘contested and reconfigured from below’ (Kellner 2002, 286). The consequence of this musical contestation is that the diversity of much of the localized music now available can be perceived as a mechanism through which the cultural hegemony of globalization is questioned and challenged. The prevalence of small-scale musical activities – what Slobin describes as ‘micromusics . . . the small units within big music cultures’ (Slobin 1993, 11) – is indicative of this, as is the presence of popular music that speaks through languages outside the Anglo-American dominant (see, for example, Hill 2007). A number of publications have sought to grapple with the issue of music and globalization. One of the most immediate and accessible attempts has been Timothy Taylor’s Global Pop: World Music, World Markets (Taylor 1997). Taylor considers a worldwide range of popular music practices against the background of globalization but also engages with the adoption of world music by Western musicians (including Peter Gabriel and the Kronos Quartet). Other writers look at more specific contexts and cultures through issues of globalization. For example, Koichi Iwabuchi scrutinizes the relationship between popular culture and Japanese transnationalism (Iwabuchi 2002), with the context of Japan providing a highly relevant situation in which the global economy is dramatically visible. See also: ethnicity, hybridity, nationalism, place Further reading: Denning 2004; Harvey 2003; Krims 2007; Nercessian 2002; Peddie 2011; Tomlinson 1999

HERMENEUTICS The conceptual essence of hermeneutics is the proposal of a theory, or theories, of interpretation. While the origins of the term can be found in biblical and legal usages, the philosophical starting point is usually defined by the work of German philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher. Writing during the early nineteenth century, Schleiermacher defined hermeneutics as ‘the art of understanding . . . the . . . discourse of another person correctly’ (Schleiermacher 1998, xx). It is significant that Schleiermacher chose to designate hermeneutics as an ‘art’, a designation that allows for a subjectivity that cannot always be bound or determined by rules. Clearly, the construction of a correct understanding is the inevitable aim of a hermeneutic process, but what constitutes the correct understanding can itself

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be a question of interpretation. If this points to a certain circularity, this becomes dramatized through the so-called hermeneutic circle: ‘the attempt to understand the part via the whole and the whole via the parts’ (Bowie 1993, 157). In other words, the various parts of a text depend on the whole for their meaning to become clear, and that whole is clearly a consequence of its parts. For Schleiermacher, the desire for a correct interpretation and the recognition that meaning arises from the relationship between part and whole were still located in the intentionality of the author, a view that has been questioned by later philosophers and theorists. Schleiermacher’s hermeneutics are best known thanks to their transmission via Hans-Georg Gadamer, whose monumental Truth and Method (Gadamer 2003), first published in 1960, sought to construct a hermeneutic theory grounded in interpretation as an activity. In contrast to Schleiermacher’s focus on authorial intent, for Gadamer meaning and its interpretation are more accurately constructed by the context and traditions (see tradition) in which specific texts can be located. However, the mobility of hermeneutic interpretation is reflected in Andrew Bowie’s claim that ‘the account of Schleiermacher given by Gadamer in Truth and Method needs radical revision’ (Bowie 1993, 146). If both Schleiermacher and Gadamer outlined hermeneutics as an art of interpretation, how we might theorize the act (or art) of interpretation has a deep resonance for music and musicology. Our musicological responses to musical works can reflect a hermeneutic process and experience, as can our reading of musicological and other texts. In both contexts, theory can be a prerequisite for understanding, but interpretation is also required in order to legitimize theory. As Lawrence Kramer states: ‘though interpretive practices benefit enormously from hermeneutic theorizing, a hermeneutic theory is only as good as the interpretations that it underwrites’ (Kramer 1993b, 2). Much writing on music during the nineteenth century reflected a hermeneutic perspective (see Bent 1994, 1996b), and both music and the writing about it during this period reflect Kramer’s retrospective hypothesis of the relationships between theory and practice. Kramer’s work (see new musicology) has again raised questions surrounding hermeneutic models and processes, most notably via the construction of a ‘hermeneutic window’ through which we see the potential interpretation of the work: Hermeneutic windows tend to be located where the object of interpretation appears – or can be made to appear – explicitly problematical. Interpretation takes flight from breaking points, which usually means from points of under- or overdetermination: on the one hand, a gap, a lack, a missing connection; on the other, a surplus of pattern, an extra repetition, an excessive connection. In some cases, our effort. (Kramer 1993b, 12)

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According to this proposal, the musical work allows its interpretation to be seen through the cracks in its structure and identity; this proposal shifts a hermeneutic response towards deconstruction, an intellectual context that is formed around interpretations of texts and language. Kramer’s ‘hermeneutic windows’ are part of a trend in musicology towards interpretation and, by implication, away from ‘facts’ (see positivism). See also: aesthetics, authenticity, biography Further reading: Bent 1996a; Dahlhaus 1983a; Hoeckner 2002; Kramer 2011; Tomlinson 1993b; Whittall 1991

HISTORICAL MUSICOLOGY The practice of historical musicology can be dated from the publication of German musicologist Guido Adler’s ‘Umfang, Methode und Ziel der Musikwissenschaft’ (‘The Scope, Method and Aim of Musicology’) in 1885 (Adler 1885; Bujic´ 1988, 348–55). This text, which was much influenced by positivist (see positivism) scientific thought, divided the ‘science of music’ into two disciplines: historical musicology and systematic musicology. The study of historical musicology was intended by Adler to deal exclusively with the history of Western concert music and included musical palaeography (the study of notation), performance practice and the history of instruments. Systematic musicology included ethnomusicology (see ethnicity), aesthetics and ‘elementary’ music theory (harmony and counterpoint). A form of this division was present at the time of Joseph Kerman’s seminal study Musicology (Contemplating Music in America), published in 1985 (Kerman 1985), since Kerman clearly separates historical musicology from systematic forms such as analysis (although Adler had included ‘classification of musical forms’ (see form) in his definition of historical musicology). Kerman’s book represented a desire to reinvigorate historical musicology, which, he suggested, had focused too much attention on text-based projects such as the preparation of manuscripts, dating, cataloguing, editing, biography, transcription and historical performance studies (see Stevens 1980, 1987). Kerman argued that historical musicology had neglected the critical, interpretative side of the subject, a situation that he hoped might be remedied if it were to explore developments in music analysis and literary theory (see post-structuralism). The certainties and assumptions of an historical musicology have been subjected to increasing critical scrutiny due to the contemporary impact of new interdisciplinary critical perspectives (see critical musicology,

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new musicology), and this has opened up historical musicology to new perspectives, such as performance (Leech-Wilkinson 2002; Walls 2003; Haynes 2007). Yet Richard Taruskin’s monumental, six-volume The Oxford History of Western Music (Taruskin 2005a) demonstrates that there is still a place for single-authored histories, albeit that they will invite intense critical attention (McClary 2006b; Tomlinson 2007a; Everist 2009), as, indeed, have multiple-authored histories (see Taruskin 2005b on Samson 2002, and on Cook and Pople 2004). See also: historicism, historiography Further reading: Berger 2014; Cook 2006; Fulcher 2011; Le Guin 2006

HISTORICISM Historicism arose in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries as an alternative to the Enlightenment sense of history as human self-development. This idea may be traced back to Immanuel Kant and later to G.W.F. Hegel. According to Kant, ‘The history of the human race as a whole can be regarded as the realisation of a hidden plan of nature to bring about . . . [a] perfect political constitution’ (see McCarney 2000, 16). Hegel believed in the ability of ‘world-historical individuals’ to determine world history, and he proposed a dialectical model to illustrate how history is linked to the development of human rationality. Accordingly, history is seen as a continuous and connected process in which ‘products of the past which are active in the present . . . will shape the future in knowable ways’ (Williams 1988, 146). In music history, this viewpoint is captured in Hubert Parry’s The Evolution of the Art of Music (first published as The Art of Music in 1893), which characterized medieval chant as primitive (Parry 1909). In contrast, historicism rejects the notion of universal historical principles of development, promoting instead the idea of cultural (see culture) relativism and interpreting historical subjects as products of social, political and cultural circumstances in a given historical moment. It therefore values (see value) the past as much as, if not more than, the present. This has had ramifications for theories that promote the idea that identity is influenced by historical conditions (see also ethnicity, gender). The origins of historicism reside in eighteenth-century views that promoted a reverence for the past (see nationalism). These gave rise, in the nineteenth century, to historiography, which resulted in the publication of major composer biographies (see biography), the promotion of early

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composers such as Palestrina (see Garratt 2002), and the development of the research methods for what Guido Adler, in 1885, termed historical musicology. In the 1970s and 1980s, a fresh desire arose to locate and interpret cultural objects in their social and historical contexts while resisting traditional narrative-based historical methodologies. The origins of this so-called ‘new historicism’ are present in the work of French theorist and cultural anthropologist Michel Foucault and cultural theorist Raymond Williams (see cultural studies), but it emerges more fully formed in the work of literary historian Stephen Greenblatt (see Greenblatt 1980, 1982). An example of the influence of this thinking on musicology can be seen in Gary Tomlinson’s study of magic and Renaissance music (Tomlinson 1993b). Tomlinson aims: to suggest a hermeneutics more observant of difference [see alterity] and less dependent on shared perceptions and understanding than most historical hermeneutic approaches have been . . . [an emphasis on dialogue in interpretation] helps us to underscore the situatedness of anthropological and historical knowledge, to keep in full view the negotiation of divergent viewpoints – the intersection of differing interpreters, texts, and contexts – from which such knowledge emerges. (ibid., 6) Tomlinson’s intention to set up a truly reciprocal dialogue with the ‘interpreters, texts, and contexts’ of Renaissance music clearly reflects the relativist views of post-structuralism and the shift of methodological emphasis encouraged by the new musicology, an approach that is reflected in a number of other important studies (see Born and Hesmondhalgh 2000; Abbate 2001). Further reading: Burkholder 1983; Dillon 2012; Frigyesi 1998; Garratt 2010; Hamilton 1996; Straus 1990; Treitler 1989; Veeser 1994

HISTORIOGRAPHY Historiography is the discipline of writing history, so the historiography of music (music historiography) is the writing of music history. Changing historical and cultural conditions have influenced the development of a music historiography, like other forms of history, and it therefore has its own history, which reflects different attitudes and approaches to music during different historical moments (see reception).

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Although the act of writing music history can be identified through the importance of a mythologized past in the medieval and Renaissance periods, evident in documents such as theoretical treatises, a historiography of music has its origins in the eighteenth century and reflected the wider context of the Enlightenment. The Enlightenment concern with progress provided a model for the writing of music’s history, with several histories published in the late eighteenth century, including Burney’s A General History of Music (Burney 1957), which reflected recurrent issues of historiography such as continuity between past and present, periodization and the classification of style. National identity, and the role of music in its formation, also became a significant factor in music historiography, particularly during the nineteenth century (see nationalism). The periodization of history – the division and subdivision of the past into manageable categories such as Baroque, Classical and Romantic (see Romanticism), or distinct periods usually formed through the use of centuries as models – was intensified throughout the twentieth century, which witnessed the expansion of attempts to construct comprehensive and systematic histories of music. Many generations of past students, as well as the current generation, will have had contact with such historical accounts of music. Many of the issues, and problems, of music historiography are evident in the New Oxford History of Music. First published in 1957 and reprinted in 1960 and 1966, this project, which replaced an earlier Oxford History of Music published between 1901 and 1905, is now a historical document that reflects its own time. Consisting of several volumes and contributions from a wide range of writers, it was presented ‘as an entirely new survey of music from the earliest times down to comparatively recent years’ (Westrup et al. 1957, vi). This survey approach was by then a well-established historiographical genre. Shorter, but still comprehensive, surveys also became prevalent. One of the best known and widely used has been Grout’s A History of Western Music (Grout and Palisca 2001). Since it first appeared in 1960, this book has been a central reference for generations of students and was clearly intended as a pedagogical work. It constructs a history from Ancient Greece and Rome to contemporary music of the post-Second World War period within a linear chronology, which implies connection and progression. But there are problems with this approach. To continue to privilege historical continuity removes the possibility of rupture, elevating similarity over difference (see alterity). From our contemporary perspective, the exclusive focus on the Western tradition seems unnecessarily restrictive, and inevitably the compact yet comprehensive structure implies a history of great composers and great works, but one that excludes music that may suggest other, perhaps alternative, historical perspectives (see canon). The survey of a complete period, or century, is a deep-rooted strategy and has remained a popular and useful part of the historiography of

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music. For example, German musicologist Carl Dahlhaus’s Nineteenth Century Music (Dahlhaus 1989c) gives an overview of the century, providing a commentary on many different types of music and related issues. However, any such history is selective, and the process of selection may reflect wider issues of ideology. Although Dahlhaus makes reference to Italian opera and Russian music, there is a feeling that this is primarily a history of German music and that these other musical examples are exceptions to what, from a German perspective, may be perceived as the mainstream of music history. American musicologist and theorist James Hepokoski writes of ‘the vexing reality of his [Dahlhaus’s] apparent unwillingness to consider non-Germanic music on its own terms’ (Hepokoski 1991, 221). The presentation of music history through century-long surveys continues with the series of Cambridge histories based on specific centuries (see Keefe 2009). However, they reflect a late twentieth-century perspective on their respective periods. This is evident in the volume relating to the twentieth century (Cook and Pople 2004), which reflects the problems of writing the history of more recent times. Its inclusion of popular music alongside the art music contexts of the century suggests a contemporary, and perhaps comparative, understanding of that more recent history. The use of distinct centuries as an appropriate way of constructing a history of music is also evident in Taruskin’s The Oxford History of Western Music (Taruskin 2005a), which also extends to thinking of the recent past (the 1960s onwards) in historical terms. The late twentieth-century concern with diversity and inclusion is reflected in the current edition of The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians (Sadie 2001), which, through the structure and genre of the dictionary, the history of which stretches back to the Enlightenment, constitutes the most ambitious attempt to construct a comprehensive body of knowledge about music and its history. Each version of this dictionary has reflected its own time, and the current edition is no exception, with its inclusion of jazz, popular and non-Western music reflecting the concerns and ideologies of the present. See also: historicism Further reading: Dahlhaus 1983a; Fulcher 2011; Tomlinson 2007a

HYBRIDITY A concept that has been much developed by cultural criticism and postcolonial studies, hybridity is concerned with degrees of cultural exchange

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between race, ethnicity, gender and class. Although often considered to have contemporary origins, the term was first used in seventeenthcentury botany and zoology, where it referred to the crossing of two separate species of animal or plant; it was expanded to include humans during the eighteenth century. Imperialism and Western colonialism in the nineteenth century saw both segregation and assimilation policies; the latter were seen as a way of ridding a race of the characteristics that marked it as degenerate. Theories of hybridity can also be developed to account for new cultural forms that have arisen as a result of borrowings, intersections and exchanges across ethnic boundaries, some of which are controversial or contradictory. An example of this is the appropriation of Aboriginal art by white Australians as a means of promoting Australian culture in a manner that glosses over the poor state of Aboriginal civil rights and the country’s history of persecution (see Brah and Coombes 2000). However, colonial subjects seeking emancipation have themselves sought to appropriate the colonizer’s language in order to develop an effective anti-colonial critique (see postcolonial/postcolonialism). This has led to the creative hybridization of languages. In Africa, English is reappropriated as a common language, while in Britain, musicians and writers have developed localized ethnic variations of English, as expressed in the poetry of Linton Kwesi Johnson (commonly cited as the first major dub poet) or the rap of Roots Manuva. Hybridity, as the cultural theorist Homi Bhabha has pointed out, is contained in the act of mimicry that occurs when a colonized subject copies the occupying culture, since ‘each replication . . . necessarily involves a slippage or gap wherein the colonial subject produces a hybridized version of the “original”’ (ibid., 11). The result, in Bhabha’s terms, is a third space that contains ‘something different, something new and unrecognisable, a new area of negotiation of meaning and representation’ (Rutherford 1990, 211; see also Bhabha 1994). However, a contrasting view was presented by the Russian theorist Mikhail Bakhtin. In his work on literature, he noted a form of intentional hybridity. Intentional hybrids, in Bakhtin’s formulation, consist of an ironic double-voicedness, a collision between differing points of view on the world that ‘push to the limit the mutual non-understanding represented by people who speak in different languages’ (Bakhtin 2000, 356). A number of types of cross-cultural exchange have been noted since Bakhtin, leading to mutual, subversive or transgressive hybrids. Another commonly discussed form is strategic essentialism, which may sometimes be seen to benefit a certain ethnic group (see Spivak 1993). American cultural theorist George Lipsitz has considered various musical examples of

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this in his book Dangerous Crossroads (Lipsitz 1997). One example concerns a group of gay Hispanic dancers in New Orleans who parade on Mardi Gras dressed as Native Americans. This strategy reflects the fact that for several years black people were banned from wearing masks in the carnival, so using warpaint was a way around that prohibition. According to Lipsitz: These forms of ‘play’ are deadly serious; they enable members of aggrieved communities to express indirectly aspects of their identity that might be dangerous to present by more direct means. (ibid., 71) A more controversial example concerns Paul Simon’s album Graceland (1986). In this project, Simon performed with South African musicians, including Ladysmith Black Mambazo. Although the African musicians received fair pay and recognition for their work, they nonetheless appear as support acts to Simon’s conception. Consequently, Lipsitz argues, Simon appears to have used the other musicians as a means of strategically redefining the ethnicity of his album in order to present his own music in a new, alternative – and commercially attractive – light. This argument appears to be supported by the subsequent wave of white performers who produced collaborative albums with non-white musicians under the commercial banner of world music (see globalization). Cultural theorist John Hutnyk has presented further critical arguments against so-called world music, in particular regarding festivals such as WOMAD (World of Music, Arts and Dance). Hutnyk argues that such festivals sanitize difference ‘into so many varied examples of a World Music culture that is everywhere the same’ (Hutnyk 1997, 133). Hutnyk is concerned with: The appropriations, and questions of appropriate behaviour, in . . . a scene where authenticity operates through incomprehension and fracture of context . . . CNN’s reports on Womad 1994 stressed little of the grass-roots politics and made much of the most ‘exotic’ of the musicians. (ibid., 110–12) While the comments about detaching music from its context – the society in which it was created – and the role that technology has in this are important, the problem with Hutnyk’s concern is his conflation of non-Western and ethnic minority music, as well as his belief that both are always an expression of politics and resistance. He also notes that multiculturalism is often promoted in the West but in such

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a way that blurs, or overlooks, the differences contained within ethnic groups. Hybridization, therefore, runs the risk of hiding internal difference (see alterity). Essentially, Hutnyk does not feel that hybridity is radical enough, and his preferred hybrid bands are the ones that emphasize politics and difference the most, such as the British-based Asian Dub Foundation. However, absent from Hutnyk’s discussion is a consideration of different types of hybrid experience, for example those offered by Cornershop or Nitin Sawhney. Cornershop’s music expresses the kind of double-voiced, intentional hybridity that Bakhtin described, whereas Nitin Sawhney presents political ideas in an ambient, ‘easy listening’ context. As this discussion demonstrates, there is a growing consensus that the hybridity paradigm is highly problematic. An alternative approach is to focus on the discourse of hybridity – what the artists and musicians have to say themselves – through which fine-grained differences and specificities emerge to undermine any sense of a stable, homogeneous ‘third space’. Within this more relational, discursive field of ‘cultural mixing’, in which local realities are held in tension with neoliberal globalizing trends (see globalization), the various markers of identity – such as class, race, ethnicity and gender – are distinct yet exist in an interdependent dialogue or network (Moehn 2012; see also critical musicology). This idea is strikingly similar to the philosophers Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari’s concept of a rhizomatic assemblage in which everything is in a constant state of development and flux, and in which any one point can be connected to any other (Deleuze and Guattari 2004). Brah and Coombes stress ‘the necessity of historicizing the concept of hybridity and of acknowledging the geopolitical contexts in which the terms of debate circulate’ (Brah and Coombes 2000, 2). Indeed, a historical perspective on musical hybridity should consider that crosscultural exchange was the life-blood of Renaissance, Baroque and Classical music as a result of musicians and composers crossing national boundaries. In the Baroque period, for example, although dance forms were associated with particular countries, such as the allemande, gigue, gavotte and courante, their treatment by composers from other nations (such as Bach’s French Suite and Italian Concerto) represented a crucial focus for the hybridization and proliferation of Baroque and Classical styles (see style). The twentieth century has seen further boundary crossing between genres and styles, within art music – as in cross-cultural, post-war American interest in Japan (Sheppard 2008) – and across the art music/popular music divide. Paris in the 1920s and 1930s saw several attempts at hybridizing African music, jazz and the avant-garde, as in Milhaud’s La Création du Monde (1923; see Gendron 2002); around the

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late 1960s, various attempts were made to hybridize jazz and rock, most notably by British band Soft Machine and by Miles Davis on Bitches Brew (1970), which includes performers from classical, rock and jazz backgrounds. Further reading: Brown 2000; Hernandez 2010; Hutnyk 2000; Moehn 2008; Sharma, Hutnyk and Sharma 1996; Werbner and Modood 1997; Young 1995

IDENTITY A concept closely linked to subjectivity, identity has its origins in philosophy, psychology and cultural studies, all of which have defined identity as a response to something beyond an individual, something Other (see alterity). The early nineteenth-century German philosopher G.W.F. Hegel was possibly the first to reverse ideas dating back to Descartes when he suggested that a fully developed self required recognition of its status by others (see Alcoff and Mendieta 2003, 11–16). French sociologist Émile Durkheim developed this idea by proposing that the individual was the product of society, with society determining an individual’s attitudes and values (see value). Following Karl Marx, Durkheim noted that in industrial societies there is greater likelihood of a variety of attitudes and values, therefore individual identity is not primary but is a product of economic organization. Subsequently, social psychologist George Herbert Mead explored the idea that an individual is constructed through his or her interaction with others. He distinguished between consciousness and self-consciousness, the latter consisting of the internalization of another’s point of view. Other social psychologists who have explored the concept of identity include Erik Erikson (see Erikson 1968) and Jacques Lacan. Erikson realized that if an individual breaks with the community, it can lead to an ‘identity crisis’. The cultural anthropologist Michel Foucault also developed important theories concerning the way in which an individual is constructed through his or her positioning in relation to a set of social discourses (see discourse) or narratives (see narrative). One example of this, revealed through postcolonial studies, is Orientalist discourse (see Orientalism), in which the identities of colonial subjects are determined by Western powers. From the 1960s onwards, awareness of the range of established identity structures increased, leading to the construction of identities associated with class, culture, nationality (see nationalism), ethnicity, gender (see also feminism, gay musicology), religion, age and disability – and to attempts to dismantle, negotiate and defend such identities. Such

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processes represent forms of identity politics. In the words of Linda Martín Alcoff: ‘For some, the emphasis on identity is a threat to democracy and an incitement of ceaseless conflict; for others, it is a struggle long overdue’ (Alcoff and Mendieta 2003, 1; see also Harper-Scott 2013). These comments point not only to differing views about specific identities but also to the fact that identities can be agents of oppression as well as of liberation. For example, there are good reasons to move beyond caste and class divisions, but it might be argued that the variation of humanity in terms of gender, ethnicity and nationality is valuable, ensuring, at least, a rich array of cultural traditions (see tradition). However, identities are not stable concepts. For example, race identities such as ‘black’ signify differently in Britain, America and Jamaica (see Lipsitz 1997; Gilroy 1999), and new conceptions of cyborgs (human– techno hybrids; see hybridity) have emerged in postmodern theory (see postmodernism), breaking down the binary of self/Other, challenging notions of authenticity and redefining identities as plural and fluid (see Auner 2003; Haraway 2003). Identity, therefore, is expressed through a set of attitudes that relate to, or are shared with, a group; identity inheres in the relationship between personal experience and public meaning. Cultural ‘texts’, such as music, enable identities to be expressed, formed and sustained, for example through what psychologists call priming, whereby ‘a network of associations that are linked by shared mood connections is activated by music’ (Crozier 1998, 79), a fact that leads to narratives of subjectivity, or accounts of how these experiences, or readings, came about for individuals in a certain place at a particular time (see also psychology). Implicit in the question ‘How is music used to regulate and constitute the self?’ is a recognition that music may represent an Other to the self and thereby set up the reflexive relationship described in earlier accounts by philosophers and psychologists (see Kramer 2001). Identity theories also examine the way in which the subjective activities of listening and performing are influenced by objective social, economic and political conditions. Music was first considered in relation to identities in cultural studies, for example through the work of the Birmingham Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies, established in 1964 (see Hebdige 1979). However, this work tended to focus on the sociological aspects of identity formation as resistance rather than passive consumption, and on the role of the media in fixing meaning and value; it also prioritized the identities of fans and critics over those of performers (see Thornton 1995; for further work on identities of resistance in music, see Sakolsky and Ho 1995). One important issue that remained unexamined was identification (see Hall and du Gay 1996) – that is, in musical terms, the mechanism by

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which a listener finds or locates himself or herself in music. Sociological work on these questions has been carried out by Tia DeNora in her book Music in Everyday Life (DeNora 2000), and the audiovisual and communication theorist Anahid Kassabian has explored identification in relation to contemporary Hollywood film music. One topic that Kassabian considers is the ways in which ‘music facilitates perceivers in assimilating into one of the available subject positions of [a] film’ (Kassabian 2001, 113). Subject position, a term developed in film studies, describes the concerns or viewpoints that a film tries to convey. By constructing music that is closely linked to a particular character in a film, a perceiver is more likely to engage with the subject position associated with that character, whereas a score that is less narrowly committed to a single position will encourage more mobile processes of identification (ibid., 114). Kassabian also considers strategies for appealing to a range of different identities, including those of gay, heterosexual, black, male and female perceivers. Attempts have been made to develop this concept in relation to popular music by examining the music’s construction (see analysis), or by analysing performance details such as vocal or instrumental styles, production techniques, music videos, promotional materials and other visual aspects, for example in the music of Madonna (see Hawkins 2002; Whiteley 2000; Clarke 1999). Whereas individual performers, such as Bob Dylan or Madonna, may invent or take on new identities, there are whole styles, or genres (see style, genre), that may be said to represent single identities, such as the aggressively male perspective associated with heavy metal (see Walser 1993; Bayer 2009). In the case of hip-hop, as a result of the processes of globalization, the idea of ethnic struggle conceived in the Bronx in the 1970s is recast in a wide variety of very localized identities (see Krims 2000, 2002), some of which are hostile towards gay, lesbian and female identities, while recent African immigrants to America may construct a sense of their own ‘blackness’ – a form of identity that was not necessary in Africa – through exposure to American hip-hop (see Forman 2002). Further reading: Barkin and Hamessley 1999; Biddle 2012; Biddle and Knights 2007; Brodbeck 2014; Cormac 2013; Green 2011; Kallimopoúlou 2009; MacDonald, Hargreaves and Miell 2002; Monson 2007; Morra 2013; Salhi 2014; Vallely 2008; Vila 2014; Whiteley, Bennett and Hawkins 2004; Williams 2001

IDEOLOGY Ideology is often taken to refer to any set or system of beliefs through which we view and interpret the world, or an engagement with any set

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of specific issues and circumstances. Our responses to culture, including music, also reflect these beliefs, as does alignment with specific approaches and attitudes in musicology. For example, the pursuit of a formalist (see formalism) understanding of music through strategies of analysis could be viewed as reflecting a specific ideology. In musicology, Joseph Kerman’s critique of analysis provides a useful reference to the operations of ideology through the conflation of ideology with organicism, analysis and value: ‘From the standpoint of the ruling ideology, analysis exists for the purpose of demonstrating organicism, and organicism exists for the purpose of validating a certain body of works of art’ (Kerman 1994, 15). In this construction, the perceived orthodoxy projected by analysis becomes, in Kerman’s terms, a ruling ideology, a normative framework through which musical works (see work) are interpreted and evaluated (see interpretation). Other possible ideological processes in musicology would include those that lead to the formation of a Marxist (see Marxism) understanding of music in its social and political contexts. However, this somewhat casual understanding of ideology is in sharp contrast to the more specific Marxist conception of the term. In this construction, ideology is understood as ‘false consciousness’, a condition that occurs when a class is blind to the forces that shape its existence and unaware of the actions that would be in its best interests. In other words, ideology as false consciousness is the obscuring of truth for political purposes and is bound up with notions of power. The musical implications of this version of ideology are most clearly defined in German critical theorist Theodor Adorno’s highly negative view of popular music. Adorno (see critical theory) views popular music as reflecting the constraints of the industrialized standards of capitalism (see culture industry), with the musical characteristics of ‘standardization’ and ‘pseudo-individualism’ satisfying the false needs of the masses: Standardization of song hits keeps the customers in line by doing their listening for them, as it were. Pseudo-individualization, for its part, keeps them in line by making them forget that what they listen to is already listened to for them, or ‘pre-digested’. (Adorno 1994, 208) Louis Althusser, a French structuralist Marxist (see structuralism), coined the term ‘ideological state apparatus’ (Althusser 1994). For Althusser, this was a set of processes through which the ruling class not only projected a dominant ideology but also reproduced the conditions of production necessary for its own continuing survival and domination. This model could be used to understand the use of culture in totalitarian

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societies, with music and other art forms used to sustain the ruling ideology. As well as promoting certain composers and works, these ideological apparatuses also work to suppress music, and ideas about music, that do not correspond to the ruling ideology (see Sitsky 1994), with some individual composers, Shostakovich being one much discussed example, subject to ideological pressures (see Taruskin 1995b). Musicology could also form part of this process through the selection of ‘great’ composers and ‘great’ works that are appropriated by the state as part of the construction of a ‘national’ (see nationalism) cultural identity (see Potter 1998; Levi 1994). A consideration of ideology could also be extended into explorations of the dissemination of music and related ideas in so-called democratic societies, in which there may be apparatuses such as broadcasting and other media that project a political orthodoxy that is fundamentally ideological, as reflected in censorship and self-censorship in popular music (see Cloonan and Garofalo 2003; Korpe 2004). See also: canon, cultural studies Further reading: Dibben 1999; Eagleton 1991; Kelly 2014; Krims 1998a, 2001; Middleton 1990; Paddison 1993; Peddie 2011; Žižek 1994

INFLUENCE The term influence might not be readily identified as a concept in musicology, but it is a recurrent theme in many different musicological contexts. In the writing of music history (see historiography), for example, influence is often claimed to be present in the relationships between different composers, works or periods. It also appears frequently in biographical studies of composers (see biography and autobiography), often through reference to readily identifiable influences on the young composer. But what does it mean to describe or identify influence? In many contexts, influence becomes evident through points of resemblance to other music, but this may not always relate to what might sometimes be an almost subliminal process of influence. During the early 1990s, there were several notable attempts to provide a more theoretically focused understanding of influence. The starting point for this was the work of American literary theorist Harold Bloom, who developed his theories of influence through a series of important books, most notably The Anxiety of Influence: A Theory of Poetry (Bloom 1973). In this book, Bloom outlines a series of ‘revisionary ratios’ that seek to account for the identification of influence through certain

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strategies in relation to the precursor, such as ‘misreading or misprision’ and ‘completion and antithesis’ (ibid., 14–16). Two large-scale efforts by American music theorists to utilize Bloom appeared almost simultaneously: Kevin Korsyn’s ‘Towards a New Poetics of Musical Influence’ (Korsyn 1991) and Joseph Straus’s Remaking the Past: Musical Modernism and the Influence of the Tonal Tradition (Straus 1990). Korsyn begins by outlining his project: ‘These pages unfold a theory of intertextuality in music, proposing a model for mapping influence, which, by usurping conceptual space from the literary criticism of Harold Bloom, also swerves towards a new rhetorical poetics of music’ (Korsyn 1991, 3). The introduction of intertextuality into the debate is significant as it immediately reminds us that to talk about influence is to talk about the relationships between musical works (see work). Korsyn gives a musical representation of these issues through the initial consideration of scherzos by Brahms (Op. 4) and Chopin (Op. 31). Korsyn’s starting point is the discussion by American musicologist and pianist Charles Rosen of the relationship between these two works: ‘having steeped himself in Chopin’s style in order to absorb a now canonic [see canon] conception of the virtuoso piano scherzo, Brahms displays the thematic reference at the opening in order to signal the presence of imitation’ (Rosen 1980, 94). But does imitation signify influence? Rosen demonstrates some striking similarities between the two works, but, according to Korsyn, ‘it is not enough merely to accumulate data by observing similarities among pieces; we need models to explain which similarities are significant, while also accounting for differences among works’ (Korsyn 1991, 5). It is this search for models of explanation and interpretation that leads Korsyn to the work of Bloom. Straus’s engagement with Bloom is distinct from that of Korsyn. While Korsyn focuses in great detail on specific relationships, Straus considers a wider musical perspective and context, that of modernism. Straus’s concern is with the central composers of modernism – Bartók, Berg, Schoenberg, Stravinsky, Webern – and the relationship of their music to the tonal traditions of the past (see tradition). This is clearly an ambitious engagement, but Straus also focuses his attention on specific details and the tracing of precise relationships. This is evident from his discussion of Alban Berg’s Violin Concerto, a work that constitutes a significant representation of modernism and its relationship to the past. This work, like much of Berg’s music of the period, uses serialism but also articulates strong echoes of the tonal past. Following detailed analytical discussion of triadic shapes, Straus concludes: ‘Their presence simultaneously establishes a link to the past and proclaims the subsumption and domination of that past’ (Straus 1990, 81–2). This conclusion, through

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its reference to the domination of the past, echoes Bloom’s suggestions of strong misreadings of poetic precursors. However, it is possible to suggest that Berg’s conscious use of triadic references in his serial music is a deliberate, functional compositional strategy that need not automatically be defined as reflecting the influence of the past. In other words, why assume that using the past is the same as being influenced by the past? While Straus produces some fascinating insights into these relationships, the way in which he has transferred Bloom’s theories into a musical context requires greater theoretical reflection. What is the revisionary relationship between the two contexts? Does Straus ‘misread’ Bloom, and, if so, in what way? It is notable that since this period of engagement with Bloom’s theories, little further work has been produced in this area; this suggests that musicology may have to begin to look elsewhere for models of understanding and interpretation that can illuminate the difficult question of what we mean when we say that one composer is influenced by another. Problematic questions of influence can also be located more generally in terms of the legacy of an individual composer, with Mahler being a significant example of how the music of one composer can be traced as a presence in the work of contemporaries and successors (see Downes 2007, 2013). Further reading: Gloag 1999b; Street 1994; Taruskin 1993; Whitesell 1994; Whittall 2003b

INTERPRETATION Interpretation suggests a level of understanding and the communication of that understanding. All music making and musicological activity constitute a form of interpretation. Playing a musical composition, or improvising, on any musical instrument can be understood as an experience that involves a degree of interpretation. One of the most obvious ways in which music involves interpretation is through the act of performance, and the musicological study of performance through contexts such as period performance practice. The study of performance practice involves the interpretation of performance instructions, of notational and editorial problems, and of treatises and other historical documents (see historical musicology) that relate to the performance of music. The absorption and interpretation of such information can lead to a historically informed realization of a musical work (see authenticity). However, the communication of such a realization reflects the context in which the music

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is heard, not the context in which it was composed. According to the pioneering English musicologist Thurston Dart: First of all we need to know the exact symbols [musical notation] the composer used; then we must find out what these signified at the time they were written; and lastly we must express our conclusions in terms of our own age, for we live in the twentieth century and not in the eighteenth or fifteenth. (Dart 1967, 14) However, deciding what the ‘symbols . . . signified’ in the original context remains an act of interpretation. Popular music also involves acts of interpretation through concepts such as the cover version, while the reinvention of past material is an interpretative dimension of jazz. The nature and status of interpretation are different in these musical contexts compared with classical music due to the absence of a musical score, an absence that focuses attention on the processive, spontaneous act of interpretation. Many aspects of musicology involve processes of interpretation. Biographical documents (see biography), historical evidence and source material (see sketch) are all musicological contexts that present information that requires interpretation. The activity of analysis is another area that is closely bound up with acts of interpretation. The determination of a work’s form or thematic content, for example, could be conceived as an interpretation. Arnold Whittall extends this proposed relationship between analysis and interpretation to suggest that analysis is a performative act, so when we analyse music we execute a certain performance of it: ‘We need, as analysts, to “perform” the music in different ways in order to achieve an interpretation alive to all nuances of the “text”’ (Whittall 1991, 657). This proposal of an intellectual performance suggests that interpretation is a process, not a fixed entity or outcome, and as such it enjoys a certain fluidity. However, this poses problems around the degree of correctness that can be attached to any interpretation. Different performers will interpret the same music in different ways while also providing valid interpretations. This is also the case in musicology. Different interpretations of a musical work’s structure, for example, can result from different strategies and theoretical starting points (see theory). However, while different interpretations may be equally valid, there remains the problem of how we respond to that which we sense to be inaccurate, misleading or misinformed. For example, Stravinsky’s The Rite of Spring is a work that has provoked very different responses, with these differences dramatized by the polemical exchanges between Allen Forte

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(Forte 1986) and Richard Taruskin (Taruskin 1986). It remains a work that is difficult to situate in terms of even basic categories such as tonal or atonal (see Whittall 1982). The intellectual context of post-structuralism has tended to privilege interpretation and, according to the literary theorist Roland Barthes, has elevated the reader (the interpreter) over the author (the interpreted) (see Barthes 1977, 142–8). However, the free play of interpretation unleashed by some aspects of post-structuralist thought remains problematic. If the meaning of texts and, by implication, musical works is always in a state of flux, do they lose value and identity, and do we have to accept as valid readings that may be wilfully inaccurate? The literary theorist and novelist Umberto Eco has reflected upon the problems of interpretation and what he defines as ‘overinterpretation’ (Eco 1992, 1994). Following his earlier study of the ‘open work’ (Eco 1989), Eco now wants to raise issues of the limits, or perhaps boundaries, of interpretation, suggesting that authorial intent can still have some relevance in terms of how we interpret texts, and that the content of any text goes some way towards influencing potential interpretations. However, in comparison with intellectual concepts and contexts such as post-structuralism, much musicological writing has remained fixed within recognizable boundaries of interpretation, with these boundaries being expanded through the emergence of a new musicology and critical musicology that have refocused attention on issues of meaning and interpretation (see Kramer 2002, 2011). See also: autonomy, criticism, discourse, hermeneutics, subject position Further reading: Ayrey 1996; Burke 1993; Grey 1995; Krausz 1993; Lawson and Stowell 1999; Rink 1995; Schmalfeldt 1985

INTERTEXTUALITY Intertextuality is a concept that has developed through poststructuralism to signify the sense in which a text is defined by its relationships with other texts. The term was coined by Julia Kristeva in her seminal essay ‘Word, Dialogue and Novel’, originally published in 1967 (Kristeva 1986), and implies that the focus of interpretation shifts from creator to receiver, a process that is also active in Barthes’ claim of the ‘death of the author’ (Barthes 1977, 142–8). The act of reading – or, in the context of music, listening – involves tracing echoes and reflections of other texts. Therefore, all music can in some sense be seen and heard as intertextual. We are always inclined to make comparisons, highlight

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similarities and recognize familiar traces of past music. Borrowing, and more recently sampling, is a recurrent feature of music, but intertextuality as a concept goes beyond the musically familiar to suggest that there is no such thing as a unified original musical work, that all music exists in relation to other music (see alterity); it thus interrogates and displaces the assumptions of organicism, a central notion of much traditional musical thought (see form). In the context of twentieth-century music, the inherent intertextuality has been enlarged upon as a compositional practice and has its origins in the ‘collage’ works of the 1960s by composers such as B.A. Zimmermann and George Rochberg. Rochberg’s Music for the Magic Theater, for example, explores juxtapositions between Rochberg’s own music and that of both Mahler and Mozart (see Gloag 2012, 84–91; Losada 2008, 2009). Luciano Berio’s Sinfonia presents a timely celebration of the intertextual and is seen as a landmark in music of the period. Its central third movement is based upon the scherzo of Mahler’s Second Symphony, while a collage-like surface envelops the Mahlerian material. Other more recent composers, such as Michael Daugherty, also exploit an intentional intertextuality, which often involves a level of irony (see postmodernism). The concept of intertextuality, and its identification in and between works, is now a well-established presence in musicology and contributes to an understanding of the fluidity of the musical work. Tippett’s oratorio A Child of Our Time, for example, has been interpreted through its relation to Handel’s Messiah, while Tippett’s text for the work is defined via the influence of and references to T.S. Eliot and Jung (see Gloag 1999a). Other writing seeks to uncover less obvious relationships and shared meanings, a process that is evident in Korsyn’s studies of the relationships between the music of Brahms and Chopin (Korsyn 1991, 1996). Further reading: Barthes 1990b; Gloag 1999b; Klein 2005; Metzer 2003; Worton and Still 1991

JAZZ Jazz may be best understood as a context rather than a concept, but it is a context that reflects the operations of a number of related concepts, some of which are specific to jazz, others absorbed from elsewhere. There is a distinct literature relating to the study of jazz music and a recognizable formation of a discipline of jazz studies, as reflected in the establishment

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of the journal Jazz Perspectives in 2007 (see Porter and Howland 2007) and the ongoing expansion of an already broad literature on the music and musicians. Like popular music, jazz is a conceptually loose, and somewhat inaccurate, term that envelops a wide range of musical practices. However, it is a musical context that is most commonly associated with musical styles (see style) that emerged from New Orleans (see place) in the early twentieth century (see periodization) and that were defined through a certain rhythmic vitality, often referred to as ‘swing’, in collaboration with a degree of spontaneous improvisation; the practice and study of improvisation form a central part of jazz studies (see, for example, Berliner 1994). Jazz historian Alyn Shipton, in a wide-ranging overview of the historical development of jazz (see historiography), identifies the first use of the term in print as occurring in San Francisco in 1913, when it was used to ‘describe a dance music full of vigor and “pep”’ (Shipton 2001, 1). This association with dance (see body) was to remain with jazz for some time, suggesting that the music formed part of a social and recreational culture. It was also a music that emerged from distinct ethnic origins (see ethnicity): Because the music had African-American origins, the question of race also was bound up in it from the start, and to a white public it symbolized something ‘Other’ [see alterity], something daring and exotic, while, simultaneously, to a black public it was a unifying force, an aspiration. (ibid.) That jazz provided a form of cultural expression for an African-American community and an object of exotic curiosity for a white public is clear, but at many points in jazz history the music became a highly self-reflexive project, one that often further problematized the process of defining the term. According to Krin Gabbard, ‘Jazz is a construct. Nothing can be called jazz simply because of its “nature”’ (Gabbard 2002, 1). In other words, there is no natural essence that is jazz. Rather, it becomes a set of discourses (see discourse) that mutate around a series of often very different musical practices. Gabbard continues, stating that ‘the term jazz is routinely applied to musics that have as little in common as an improvisation by Marilyn Crispell and a 1923 recording by King Oliver and his Creole Jazz Band’ (ibid.). Crispell and Oliver are situated in very different worlds and musical contexts. Cornetist Oliver emerged in New Orleans during the early years of the twentieth century and,

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like a number of musicians, migrated north to Chicago. There, during the 1920s, he led his own band and employed a number of developing talents, including a young Louis Armstrong, who had followed him from New Orleans. The music that Oliver made was unquestionably an essential jazz – fast, rhythmic and, to a certain extent, spontaneous. In contrast, Marilyn Crispell is a contemporary pianist who was educated in a classical music environment and whose music reflects a diverse and broad perspective. It is also an often-improvised music, but it is far removed from the rhythmic regularity or harmonic vocabulary of early jazz (see also Gloag 2012, 149–51). Much writing on jazz has focused on individual performers, accentuating the image of the instrumental soloist as genius. The work of American theorist, historian and composer Gunther Schuller often reflects this while also providing what, in its own time, was some of the most informed literature on the music: When on June 28, 1928, Louis Armstrong unleashed the spectacular cascading phrases of the introduction to West End Blues, he established the general stylistic direction of jazz for several decades to come. Beyond that, this performance also made quite clear that jazz could never again revert to being solely an entertainment or folk music. The clarion call of West End Blues served notice that jazz had the potential capacity to compete with the highest order of previously known musical expression. (Schuller 1968, 89) There are several notable aspects to this statement by Schuller. The first is that it positions Armstrong in a pivotal moment in jazz history; this is a position that he certainly deserved, but we can also read it as a reflection of the construction of a jazz canon in which a series of individual performers and recordings are elevated above their surrounding context. This strategy runs in parallel with the claim that this recording marks the emergence of jazz as an art form, as distinct from entertainment. While jazz demands to be understood as an art form, it is unclear why it must be seen to compete with other art forms – and presumably with the classical tradition, on the basis of ‘previously known musical expression’. It is also significant that what Schuller is referring to is a recording: Armstrong’s ‘West End Blues’. It is one of the defining paradoxes of jazz and its study that our understanding and interpretation of the music is largely based on the recording process (see recording) and its dissemination (see reception); this creates a perspective that sometimes may be distinct from that of a live performance, with the potential repeated

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hearings further distancing the spontaneity of the musical experience. The importance of recordings for jazz studies is reflected in the development of the Oxford Studies in Recorded Jazz, a series of books in which each individual text is devoted to a specific landmark recording or group of related recordings, including Armstrong’s Hot Five and Hot Seven recordings (see Harker 2011). The tensions between conceptions of jazz as art or entertainment were further accentuated with the emergence of bebop in the 1940s. This period was dominated by the ‘swing’ style of the big bands, and bebop (see DeVeaux 1997) is often interpreted as a reaction to this. This was the moment when jazz became modern (see modernism). The innovations implemented by musicians such as Charlie Parker, Dizzy Gillespie, Thelonious Monk and others reflected a search for artistic status. According to Bernard Gendron: Though the idea that jazz is a modernist art form appeared in full force in the revivalist–swing debate, it is bebop that gets credit in the jazz canon for being the first modernist jazz, the first jazz avantgarde, the first jazz form in which art transcends entertainment. (Gendron 2002, 143) While jazz reached for artistic status – or, in terms of critical strategy, had this status conferred upon it – the music remained enclosed within issues of race and ethnicity. The trumpeter Miles Davis, who played a pivotal role in jazz after the high point of bebop, stated, with reference to Dizzy Gillespie: ‘I love Dizzy, but I hated that clowning shit he did for them white folks . . . I decided . . . when people come to hear me, they were going to be coming to hear my music only’ (Kahn 2000, 29). This statement reflects the desire of musicians for control, power and status. The political (see politics) and ideological (see ideology) situation of jazz is explored in a number of important studies, including Ingrid Monson’s work on the relationships between jazz and the civil rights movement (see Monson 2007) and studies of the attempts made by musicians to achieve a degree of self-organization and representation in the 1960s and beyond (see Gendron 2009; Lewis 2008). The current position of jazz encompasses an increasingly diverse range of musical practices and interpretative strategies. This diversity presents formidable challenges for any musicological study of, and response to, the music. A significant number of important contributions to jazz studies involve interdisciplinary perspectives and multidisciplinary strategies, reflecting the essentially hybrid nature of the music (see hybridity). Several musicologists, including Gary Tomlinson (Tomlinson 1992) and

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Robert Walser (Walser 1997), have embraced ideas derived from the black literary theory of Henry Louis Gates Jr, and specifically from his seminal text The Signifying Monkey (Gates 1988). In this book, Gates states: Free of the white person’s gaze, black people created their own unique vernacular structures and relished in the double play that these forms bore to white forms. Repetition and revision are fundamental to black artistic forms, from painting and sculpture to music and language use. I decided to analyze the nature and function of Signifyin(g) precisely because it is repetition and revision, or repetition with a signal difference. (ibid., xxiv) This has a clear relevance for jazz. Gates’s suggestion of ‘Signifyin(g)’, a specifically black form of signification (see semiotics), reflects the African-American origins of the music, but it also captures the performative nature of the musical experience, articulating it as a dynamic process. As part of this construction, Gates draws attention to the relationships between repetition and revision in black cultural practices. Jazz is evidently a musical discourse that is bound up with patterns of repetition and difference. For example, many different musicians in different contexts repeat standard song material, but each individual will infuse this repetition with a degree of difference. This is evident, for example, in the music of John Coltrane, and specifically in his various reconstructions of Rodgers and Hammerstein’s ‘My Favorite Things’, which featured in the Broadway musical, and later film, The Sound of Music. Gates has commented directly on this specific example: Repeating a form and then inverting it through a process of variation is central to jazz – a stellar example is John Coltrane’s rendition of ‘My Favorite Things,’ compared to Julie Andrews’s vapid version. Resemblance thus can be evoked cleverly by dissemblance. (Gates 1984, 291) Ingrid Monson provides a detailed discussion of Coltrane’s 1960 recording of this song in which she details the ‘transformations and reversals’ of the original, a process that she defines as an ‘ironic reversal, or transformation of a “corny” tune into a vehicle for serious jazz improvisation’ (Monson 1996, 107). Monson concludes her discussion of ‘My Favorite Things’ with reference to Gates: ‘In the case of “My Favorite Things,” the transformation of the tune simultaneously communicates

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the resemblance between the two versions and the vast differences between them – Gates’s signifying “repetition with a signal difference”’ (ibid., 127). This statement forms part of an overview of what Monson defines as ‘intermusicality’, a musical form of intertextuality: that is, a context that invokes the Russian literary theorist Bakhtin’s concept of ‘dialogism’ and ideas of ironic parody derived from the postmodern literary theory of Linda Hutcheon (see postmodernism) and that refers to the black cultural history of W.E.B. Du Bois. Intertextual processes in jazz can also be heard in the interface between jazz and rock in the late 1960s and early 1970s (Tomlinson 1992) and in the more recent interaction between jazz and hip-hop (Gloag 2012, 149–58). There has also been a trend in the jazz literature towards an examination of jazz music in European contexts, including the development of jazz in Britain from its origins (Parsonage 2005) through to the emergence of new styles and forms from the early 1960s to the late 1970s (Heining 2012; McKay 2005). Further reading: Ake 2002; Elsdon 2013; Gebhardt 2001; Gloag 2014; Heble 2000; Kernfeld 1995; Monson 1994; Waters 2011; Wilmer 1992

LANDSCAPE Through the work of social geographers (see Matless 1998), landscape has been developed in conjunction with ideas about preservation, identity and nation (see nationalism) to indicate the extent to which a particular place or location may shape or be shaped by cultural as well as economic considerations. From this perspective, the reflexive link between music and landscape may be understood in terms of the role landscape has played, at various points in history, in the construction of a nation’s identity. This aspect of Vaughan Williams’ music, for example, has been explored by Alain Frogley, who has argued that the early reception of Vaughan Williams was founded on an association of his music with the pastoral (images of a rural idyll, of a past that was irretrievably lost, and of a need to preserve a disappearing folk music), and that this stemmed from specific historical and political conditions in Britain in the 1920s and 1930s (Frogley 1996). Similar lenses have been trained on Sibelius and Grieg, extending questions of reception and identity construction to more perceptual issues, such as the potential for music to simulate and analyse the experience of being in a landscape (Grimley 2004, 2006), which is in some ways analogous to the concept of subject position (see also ecomusicology, consciousness); similar approaches might easily

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be applied to other composers, such as Copland. Moreover, a focus on music and landscape may rehabilitate music that is otherwise perceived as peripheral to the canon (Grimley 2006, 3–4). The lure of landscape is evident even in more formalist (see formalism), post-war music, in which, for example, the threat of imposed urban intrusion into a natural, organic landscape (see organicism) may influence musical structure. In Harrison Birtwistle’s Silbury Air (1976), this idea is given a deeper modernist (see modernism) significance as the prehistoric site of Silbury Hill, near Avebury in the south of England, is evoked by the composer as an example of an ‘organic intruder’ into the landscape. There is also an implied sense here of landscape as a metaphor for musical technique. In the same way, Peter Maxwell Davies has likened the effects of storms on the Orkney Isles to the tonal ambiguity and reconfigurations of symphonic form in his music (see analysis). Musicologist Annette Richards has explored how eighteenth-century aesthetic ideas (see aesthetics) of the picturesque and landscape had a metaphorical counterpart in certain genres (see genre), such as the keyboard fantasias of C.P.E. Bach (Richards 2001; see also Barrell 1980). Central to Romantic (see Romanticism) conceptions of landscape is travel. Schubert’s Winterreise (1828) portrays aspects of landscape to convey this, just as American rock has drawn on the topic of travelling on highways through open and wild expanses. Urban landscapes also inform and are informed by music. Citing street names and describing other geographical features of urban landscapes, such as street corners, parks and bridges, is a component in claiming identity and authenticity in music, including by The Beatles (‘Penny Lane’, 1967) and Otis Redding (‘(Sittin’ on) the Dock of the Bay’, 1968). This is, in part, because references to specific landmarks reinforce claims to location and authorship. The conception that music can in some way reflect the landscape in which it is conceived appears to be strong in the minds of artists and composers, and the work of social geographers points to the need for musicologists to investigate further how and why such associations are constructed; indeed, future directions have been clearly signposted by the research group Hearing Landscape Critically (http://hearingland scapecritically.net/). See also: consciousness, ecomusicology, psychology, subjectivity Further reading: Adams 2004; Brace 2002; Burnham 2005; Grimley 2011; Jones 2015; Leyshon, Matless and Revill 1998; Mitchell 2002; Morris 2012; Senici 2005; Skelton and Valentine 1998; Sykes, I. 2015; Toliver 2004

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LANGUAGE Music is often referred to in terms of language, and musicology is presented through the written word. Descriptive references are often made to factors such as a composer’s stylistic (see style) or harmonic language, but it is difficult to specify in what sense music may be a language, or what is the nature of the relationship, or resemblance, between music and language. The suggested parallel between music and language has a long history. Music, for a great deal of its history, has been inextricably linked to the voice and word, with the articulation of text in dramatic and liturgical contexts creating a framework for the development of music. The relationship between music and language was given some theoretical basis through the art of rhetoric, formed upon the Ancient Greek and Roman literature on oratory, particularly Quintilian’s Institutio Oratoria, which was rediscovered in the early fifteenth century and had a significant impact on musical thought. Rhetoric essentially outlined a verbal discourse through five distinct stages, from the invention of an argument (inventio) through to its articulation (elocutio). The transfer of rhetorical theory to music forms an early musicology, with many treatises based on this relationship or making reference to it. During the Baroque period the parallels between music and language through the framework of rhetoric were most clearly defined. This suggested relationship was given a theoretical basis in Mattheson’s Der Vollkommene Capellmeister, published in 1739, which is one of the most important treatises of the period. It presents a rational basis and structural plan for composition (see Harriss 1981; see also creativity). Mattheson refers to the ‘oratorical’ terms disposition, elaboration and ornamentation as the basis of the structuring of melody (ibid., 469). The Baroque era also saw attempts to categorize musical figures into something approaching a musical vocabulary, with numerous treatises taking an often extensive, taxonomic approach. The rhetorical function of language has also been used more generally as a way of understanding musical form, as is evident in aspects of eighteenth-century music theory and in relation to the music of that period (Bonds 1991). In contrast, the Romanticism of the nineteenth century saw quite different appropriations of language. The setting of text remained prominent, as evident in the lieder of Schubert and Schumann, among others. Opera, too, through the use of leitmotifs by Wagner, again recognized the linguistic potential of music. The rise of music criticism and the ongoing development of aesthetics also emphasized the problems involved in trying to describe and articulate music through language.

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However, describing similarities between music and language or defining music in terms of language does not necessarily result in an understanding of music as language. The most extended attempt to create this understanding comes in Deryck Cooke’s The Language of Music (Cooke 1959), which attempts to outline a common vocabulary through recurring musical characteristics of tonality, but the assumption that music is in some sense a language has also been questioned. According to German critical theorist (see critical theory) Theodor Adorno: Music resembles a language. Expressions such as musical idiom, musical intonation, are not simply metaphors. But music is not identical with language. The resemblance points to something essential, but vague. Anyone who takes it literally will be seriously misled. (Adorno 1992b, 1) Perhaps the similarities between music and language have led to the misinterpretation of resemblance as relationship: music resembles language without actually becoming language. See also: metaphor, post-structuralism, semiotics, structuralism Further reading: Bowie 1993; Chapin and Clark 2013; Clarke 1996; Curry 2011; Kramer 2011; Mirka and Agawu 2008; Paddison 1991; Ratner 1980; Spitzer 2004; Street 1987; Thomas 1995; Watkins 2011a

LATENESS (LATE WORKS/LATE STYLE) The study of the late works of composers presents interesting issues for musicology, most notably in the area of biography through the consideration of the intersections between life and work. Lateness is a relative term: some composers, such as Mozart and Schubert, for example, died tragically young, while others, Elliott Carter being a notable example, enjoyed an incredibly long and productive life. Considerations of lateness can also be relevant in the context of popular music, with the later recordings of The Beatles, for example, being enveloped in the fragmentation that surrounded the break-up of the band. The tragedy of early death is also relevant in both rock music (Jimi Hendrix, Janis Joplin) and jazz (John Coltrane, Charlie Parker, among others). The discussion of lateness as a concept is most directly related to the music of Beethoven. The identification of a late period in Beethoven’s career has been a standard aspect of most discussions of his life and music,

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even if the point at which a shift from middle to late period becomes evident is open to debate (see Solomon 2003). The convergence between the music of Beethoven and a concept of lateness is accentuated in the writings of Theodor Adorno (see critical theory), who, according to the great American novelist and essayist John Updike, ‘wrote extensively, with an agitated profundity, on Beethoven’s late works’ (Updike 2007, 50). Updike’s reflections on late works are marked by his own ageing and intimations of death. Adorno’s essay ‘Late Style in Beethoven’ was written in 1937 (see Adorno 2002, 564–8; see style). In this short, fragmentary essay, Adorno highlights the general difficulty of late works, claiming that the ‘maturity’ of such works is, in comparison to fruit, devoid of ‘sweetness, bitter and spiny, they do not surrender themselves to mere delectation’ (ibid., 564). Adorno emphasizes the detached quality of late works: they ‘are relegated to the outer reaches of art’ and, in the case of ‘very late Beethoven we have extremely “expressionless,” distanced works’ (ibid.); this may suggest a condition of objectivity but the music is always loaded with subjectivity. This subjectivity ‘acts not so much by breaking through form, as rather, more fundamentally, by creating it’ (ibid., 565). According to this account, form in Beethoven’s music is increasingly a process that is individualized and spontaneous, and in part reflects the individuality of specific examples of Beethoven’s late works. Adorno concludes this short but highly influential essay with further thoughts on objectivity and subjectivity: ‘Objective is the fractured landscape, subjective the light in which – alone – it glows into life’ (ibid., 567). In this statement, Adorno vividly captures the individual subjectivity that infuses the material of music, ‘it glows into life’. However, if this suggests a positive conclusion, the final thought of the essay reminds us of the darkness of lateness: ‘In the history of art late works are the catastrophes’ (ibid.). Other writers have made more direct engagements between music and lateness. Such writers include Edward Said, who engages with both Adorno and Beethoven and, in his book On Late Style, also discusses Richard Strauss, Schoenberg and Glenn Gould from this perspective (see Said 2006). Using a more specific focus and a method that seeks to explicate quite specific qualities of lateness, Joseph Straus identifies ‘six metaphorical clusters of late-style characteristics’ (Straus 2008, 12); these are defined as ‘introspective, austere, difficult, compressed, fragmentary, retrospective’ (ibid.). For Straus, not only do these clusters present characteristics of a late style, they also, rather than defining lateness through ageing and death, reflect descriptions of physical disability, as evident, for example, in Schoenberg’s late String Trio. This work has the intimacy obviously associated with chamber music and is deeply marked by

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an introspective quality. It can also be described as retrospective in that at times it looks back to tonality and yet it can also be described as fragmentary. It has strong associations with Schoenberg’s ill health and has been described in programmatic terms as an account of the illness based on ‘certain loud chords’ that ‘represent injections’. More significantly, it is claimed that ‘the fragmentary nature of the musical discourse reflects the agitated state of Schoenberg’s mind’ at this late stage of his life and career (ibid., 23–4). See also: consciousness, periodization Further reading: Micznik 1996; Notley 2007; Spitzer 2006; Tunbridge 2009

LISTENING For obvious reasons, listening has long been a concern of musicologists, music theorists, analysts, historians and others concerned with music (see theory, analysis). Notable pioneering studies include Hugo Riemann’s Ueber das musikalische Hören (On Musical Listening) (Leipzig, 1874) and Wie hören wir Musik? Drei Vorträge (How Do We Hear Music?) (Leipzig, 1888), and Heinrich Besseler’s Grundfragen des musikalischen Hörens (Fundamental Issues of Musical Listening) (Leipzig, 1926) and Das musikalische Hören der Neuzeit (Musical Listening in the Modern Age) (Berlin, 1959). Riemann took a prescriptive approach to listening in which he was less concerned with how music is heard than with how it ought to be heard (Rehding 2003, 9). Moreover, Riemann had a distinct cultural perspective that is revealed by his comparison of listening to Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony with the experience of standing in front of Cologne cathedral. While the viewer has time to consider the ‘correct relationship’ of the smallest detail to the largest symmetry, the listener has no such advantage, for musical detail passes by in an instant. What Riemann demands of the listener, however, is a more strenuous attention to musical detail, a form of structural listening (discussed further below) that will grasp the architectural structure and organic unity of tonal works up to Beethoven (see organicism and form). By contrast, Besseler introduced a concern for social listening that led to his concept of Gebrauchsmusik (‘music for use’) in opposition to what he perceived to be a passive, more individual kind of listening in the concert hall – although this vision soon became embroiled in Besseler’s support for Hitler’s Nazi ideology (Pritchard 2011; see also Wegman 1998; Borgerding 1998, on Besseler’s work on listening in Renaissance music).

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What has changed since the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, however – and more rapidly so since the turn of the twenty-first century – are the situations and circumstances in which we listen to and hear music. Such changes have arisen largely as a consequence of recording and digital technology, which have led to the spread of acousmatic listening (listening to music whose source is unseen or that emanates from a loudspeaker or headphones). It can consequently be argued that versions of Besseler’s idea of a shared listening practice, or listening as a social activity, are acted out regularly in today’s society through online platforms, DJ culture and other interactive media. In addition to deep-rooted theoretical perspectives on listening, scientific approaches to sound perception also have a long history. Notable among such studies are those by the German physician and physicist Hermann von Helmholtz, who, following his study of the human ear, turned his attention to acoustics and, inter alia, natural temperament and the role of harmonics in the perception of timbre, as discussed in his seminal book On the Sensations of Tone as a Physiological Basis for the Theory of Music (Die Lehre von den Tonempfindungen als physiologische Grundlage für die Theorie der Musik) (Braunschweig, 1863). Helmholtz’s ideas highlighted the capriciousness of aural perception, which does not offer empirical support for equal temperament or the rationalizing tendencies of the tonal system. It is perhaps unsurprising, therefore, that Helmholtz’s work found a sympathetic ear among modernist composers, including Arnold Schoenberg, who wished to capture the irrational ‘world of sensations’ in his expressionist musical language (Steege 2012; see also modernism). Broader, more ecological approaches to listening have also proved highly revealing and influential to musicology (see ecomusicology). A seminal text in this regard is the musicologist and music psychologist Eric Clarke’s Ways of Listening: An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning (Clarke 2005), which draws on the perceptual theory of James Gibson and on Albert Bregman’s auditory scene analysis (see Gibson 1966, 1979; Bregman 1990; see also psychology). One important point Clarke draws attention to is the fact that musical sounds exist in the same place, or sound world, as other sounds (see sound). This highlights the active nature of hearing and listening: we filter and seek out specific sounds and, in the process, attempt to identify those sounds, where they come from, and what they mean or signify. As Clarke notes: Perception is a self-tuning process, in which the pick-up of environmental information is intrinsically reinforcing, so that the system self-adjusts so as to optimize its resonance with the

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environment . . . When humans and other animals perceive the world, they do so actively. Perception is essentially exploratory, seeking out sources of stimulation in order to discover more about the environment . . . Resonance is not passive: it is a perceiving organism’s active, exploratory engagement with its environment. (Clarke 2005, 19) This description is interesting because it blurs the conventional distinction between hearing as the physiological response to sound and listening as a psychological decision to attend to and interpret sound (see Barthes 1985). Similarly, the performer and musicologist John Butt has observed that: we constantly have to assimilate whatever we hear into particular shapes, patterns, movements, resonances and emotions, and we surely do this prior to any specific intentions on the part of composers or performers . . . if this creative listening capacity is thus prior to any musical act, there would clearly be a constant circulation between the roles of composing, performing and listening, and each activity – to the degree that it is separated – could be illuminated by renewed consideration of the others. [As such,] [s]urviving repertories might give us some sense of what it was like to be sensorily aware at the time of their creation, an idea of the ‘carnal formulas’ by which people of the past, or in different parallel cultures, heard their way through life. (Butt 2010, 7 [italics added]; see also emotion, creativity) These ecological perspectives can be extended to the situatedness of sound and listening in numerous other ways. For example, listening is conditioned by the historical period in which music is produced and received (see periodization), as well as by culture, class, ethnicity, gender, and many other related factors (see Johnson 1996; Riley 2004; Bonds 2006; Kaltenecker 2011; Gregor 2015). While anthropological and sociological perspectives can be brought to bear on the situated nature of listening (see Born 2010b), philosophical and psychoanalytical questions can also be asked in order to consider how and why listeners react in the way they do to particular sounds (see consciousness, emotion). The American musicologist David Schwarz, for example, has examined listening through the lens of Jacques Lacan’s psychoanalytical theory. In one case study, Schwarz likens the experience of listening to John Adams’ opera Nixon in China to the fantasy of enveloping oneself in a sonic second skin, an effect that arises from the ambient interests of American minimalist composers (Schwarz 1997; see also Pyevich 2001;

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for more on the philosophy and history of listening, see http://historyof-listening.com/team/106-2/). By extension, it can be asked: is music written with an implied listener in mind? Butt has argued that certain longer works, such as Monteverdi’s operas or Bach’s Passions, indicate the conscious cultivation of a specific kind of listener who ‘will develop the sense of a secure and unitary self over time’ (Butt 2010, 18). Butt contrasts this kind of implied listener with two other types of music: first, works that require engaged hearing, such as music written for formal rituals or meditative purposes where listeners will only half attend to the sounds; and second, a more common category of ‘listener-orientated’ pieces that ‘purposely play on listeners’ expectations and which are clearly designed with an audience in mind’ (ibid., 8). The use of fugal textures in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, for example, was clearly intended for listeners (both audience members and performers) familiar with such learned styles (see style; see also Chapin 2014b). The crucial point that Butt highlights here is the existence of certain modes of listening. From around 1800, Western art music became increasingly dominated by a fully attentive, disciplined, formalist mode of listening (see formalism); the American musicologist Rose Rosengard Subotnik has called this ‘structural listening’ (see Subotnik 1996, 148–76). Subotnik’s use of this term follows the German critical theorist Theodor Adorno’s discussion of strukturelles Hören in his 1969 essay ‘On the Problem of Music Analysis’ (Adorno 2002, 164), which had been discussed more extensively in his Introduction to the Sociology of Music (1962). Here, structural listening is associated with an ‘expert listener’ and presented as the pinnacle in a typology of listeners and listening behaviours (Adorno 1976). Subotnik’s definition of structural listening is further developed, however, by reference to essays by the Austrian composer Arnold Schoenberg (see Schoenberg 1975), and traced back to the final phase of the Enlightenment and the philosopher Immanuel Kant’s Critique of Judgement of 1790 (Kant 1987). Structural listening, which became the dominant paradigm in the German and Anglo-American academic world in the second half of the twentieth century, takes musical sound to be autonomous (see autonomy) and is motivated by a sense of thematic development from a basic ‘idea’, or gestalt, and a Riemannian search for a central organizing principle, a source of unity whereby each constituent element is relatable to the whole. Moreover, this mode of listening is essentially restricted to Western canonical tonal styles, genres and techniques (see canon, style, genre). Of course, much of the music subjected to structural listening was not composed with this kind of listener in mind (J.S. Bach, for

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example); arguably, the practice of composing with a structural listener in mind coincides with the emergence of a fee-paying audience and the associated rise of music criticism, from around Beethoven onwards. Nevertheless, throughout history, composers have played with their listeners’ memory of musical events through repetition and surprise at a level that is perceptible to less attentive forms of listening; similarly, opera, theatre and ceremonial music all evoke varied modes of attention. Resistance to the notion of structural listening is evident in the 1930s in the work of the critical theorist Walter Benjamin. Benjamin argued that recorded sound, in what he termed ‘the age of mechanical reproduction’, frees the listener from the constraints of structural listening: ‘When the age of mechanical reproduction separated art from its basis in cult, the semblance of its autonomy disappeared forever’ (Benjamin 1992, 220). In other words, recorded sound breaks with the traditional association between sound and performer in a concert setting and therefore enables listeners to attend to sounds on their own terms. Listeners are free to ‘use’ music for their own purposes. Following the rise of the new musicology in the 1980s and 1990s, numerous other types of listening have been suggested under what might broadly be termed postmodern modes of hearing (see postmodernism; see also Dell’Antonio 2004) – for example, ‘everyday’ listening (DeNora 2000; Clarke 2005), ‘plastic listening’ (Szendy 2008), or what the popular musicologist Anahid Kassabian labels ‘ubiquitous listening’ (Kassabian 2013). These listening modes arise from the new possibilities afforded by the spread of digital, acousmatic sound mentioned above. In such situations – whether private (for example, background music at home) or in public (shops, cafés, bars, gyms and so on) – listening occurs as a ‘simultaneous or secondary activity’ (ibid., 18). A contrasting viewpoint, however, is that virtual, acousmatic environments have the potential to draw the listener in to a more attentive mode of listening in which the bodily (see body), the material and the sense of a ‘living presence’ are foregrounded. In other words, virtual sound environments, such as ambient, electronica, IDM (intelligent dance music) and EDM (electronic dance music), draw attention to the materiality of sound – the textures, rhythms, shapes, contours, layers, dynamic shadings and micro details of music and sound art (see also Becker 2004 for an ethnographic perspective on deep listening in ritualistic trance cultures). A further suggestion for modes of listening comes from the French acousmatic composer and theorist Pierre Schaeffer, who has suggested four modes: écouter, comprendre, ouïr and entendre. Clarke summarizes these types as follows:

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For Schaeffer, ‘écouter’ is characterized as an indexical mode of listening concerned with identifying the objects and events that are responsible for the sound – the kind of listening that corresponds most closely to . . . ‘everyday’ listening. ‘Comprendre’, on the other hand, is the activity of listening to sounds as signs, in which sounds act as the signifiers for signifieds that lie outside the domain of sound – as when a beeper at a crossing signals that it is safe to cross the road. ‘Ouir’ is defined as simply registering that a sound has taken place, that there has been a sonorous event. And finally ‘entendre’ is the kind of listening that pays attention to the qualities of sounds themselves – their timbre, texture, loudness, and so on. (Clarke 2005, 143) In film music theory (although this is applicable to all audiovisual media, including opera and ballet), the French film theorist Michel Chion has drawn attention to three listening modes (causal, semantic and reduced) that reflect different ways in which listening adds to or alters our perception of moving images (Chion 1994, 25–34). Chion has also raised valuable questions about the ways in which sound in film may (or may not) suggest who is listening; in this regard, he proposes the term ‘point of audition’ as a very approximate equivalent to point of view (see also Cizmic 2015). Disability studies have also suggested a number of alternative modes of listening and hearing, which highlight the importance of the body. In his study Extraordinary Measures: Disability in Music, Joseph Straus discusses examples of what he labels ‘prodigious’ (exceptional), ‘normal’, ‘disablist’, ‘blind’, ‘deaf’ and ‘mobility-impaired’ hearing (Straus 2011). Besides the effects of ageing (Stravinsky, Carter) and the onset of deafness (Beethoven, Smyth), disability studies draw attention to the experience of performers, such as the deaf percussionist Evelyn Glennie, and blind musicians, such as Ray Charles and Stevie Wonder, and raise important questions about the experiences of these artists. Listening has also been the subject of philosophical scrutiny. The French philosopher and cultural theorist Jean-Luc Nancy, for example, has argued that listening is essential to the ontological conditions of subjectivity and subject position (see also Chua 2011; for historical perspectives on the emergence of a listening subject, see Moreno 2004; Erlmann 2010). Through listening as a state of being, Nancy argues, the subject participates in ‘the sharing of an inside/outside, division and participation, de-connection and contagion’ (Nancy 2007, 14). For Nancy, listening is sound as sense rather than meaning; as such, according to Nancy, the essence of listening is timbre, because it is ‘the echo of the subject’ (ibid., 39). Arguably, however, this view highlights the cultural

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contingency of listening, in this instance a French perspective in which composers from at least Berlioz through Debussy, Messiaen, Boulez, Grisey and beyond have afforded a high value to timbre. Listeners arguably hear what they wish to hear or judge what they hear in relation to sounds to which they are culturally predisposed. Lawrence Kramer, speaking from a more Austro-German-centred perspective, counters that: yes, there is no pitch or intensity without timbre, but there is no timbre without pitch or intensity, not to mention rhythm, attack, tempo, texture, contour, and so on. It makes no sense to single timbre out for idealization, even in the name of sheer materiality or ‘sonorous sense’. (Kramer 2014, 401) From a different perspective, the French philosopher and musicologist Peter Szendy has raised the question: can we listen to someone listening (Szendy 2008)? His answer is that we do so when we listen to musical arrangements, for example Berlioz’s arrangement of Weber’s opera Der Freischütz. In this instance, Szendy argues, we listen to Berlioz listening to Weber. The same argument could, of course, be extended to all kinds of arrangements, including cover versions of popular songs (see cover version). For the associated idea of music listening to itself (and further reflections on Nancy), see Zbikowski 2013. Finally, listening has been an important – if not always openly declared – component of music theory and analysis, and a number of important music-theoretical studies have extrapolated points from psychological studies of human cognition and perception (see psychology; see also Lewin 1986; Lerdahl and Krumhansl 2007; Temperley 2001, 2007). Further reading: Ashby 2004; Atton 2012; Bacht 2010a, 2010b; Bonds 2006; Born 2013a, 2013b; Brittan 2011; Butt 2010; Daughtry 2013, 2015; Demers 2010; Goddard, Halligan and Spelman 2013; Priest 2013; Smith 2001; Stanyek and Gopinath 2014; Sterne 2012a, 2012b; Sykes, I. 2015; Thompson 2002; van Maas 2015; Journal of the Royal Musical Association 135/1 (2010) [a special issue devoted to listening arising from a conference held at King’s College Cambridge in November 2006]

LITERARY THEORY see autobiography, biography, deconstruction, discourse, influence, intertextuality, post-structuralism, structuralism

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MARXISM Marxism refers initially to the writings of Karl Marx and his associate Friedrich Engels and to later attempts to interpret and build on these writings. The main areas of concern and influence are economic and political, but there are also social and philosophical dimensions to Marxism. Marx attempted to highlight the economic basis of society through reference to capitalism and the conflicting, competing interests of distinct socially and economically defined classes (see class). For Marx, an economic base defined society. This determined social and political relationships, which were predicated upon the suppression and exploitation of a subordinate class, the proletariat (see politics). However, Marx viewed this class as having a latent power, which could be unleashed in a revolutionary political context. The revolutionary upheavals throughout Europe in 1848 provide a dramatic context for Marx’s writings of the period. His The Communist Manifesto of that year presents a view of history as a series of striking polarities: The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles. Freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guildmaster and journeyman, in a word, oppressor and oppressed, stood in constant opposition to one another, carried on an uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended, either in revolutionary reconstitution of society at large, or in the common ruin of the contending classes. (Marx and Engels 1998, 34–5) This view of history determined Marx’s interpretation of the present. It also reflects an awareness of the philosophy of Hegel and the presence of dialectical thought. Marx saw these conflicts and oppositions as moments of thesis and antithesis, opposite poles brought into collision, and out of this a new, revolutionary moment would emerge. However, much debate has surrounded the question of the inevitability of such actions and events. Although Marx’s writings have great relevance for an understanding of culture in relation to society, he did not provide any fully developed theory or even much specific commentary on the position of the arts. For Marx, however, cultural activities clearly belong to the superstructure of society and are therefore dependent on the economic base. This dependency indicates the material nature of culture and its role as a reflection of

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society. This therefore subverts the art work’s claim of autonomy. It is also possible to see cultural contexts as ideological operations, helping to produce the ‘false consciousness’ that blinds a class to its true historical and political destiny (see ideology). While the attempted realization of Marxism through the Russian Revolution of 1917 led to unprecedented experimentation in the arts, the onset of Stalinism in the USSR reduced Marxism to a crude, rigid dogma. The attempt to translate Marxism into a realizable view of culture led to a policy of socialist realism as the ideological norm, with the accusation of formalism directed at artists, composers and writers who did not conform and whose work was seen as not engaging positively with the representation of a social reality and the real-life concerns of the proletariat. This situation had real consequences for composers, most famously Shostakovich, but musicology was also implicated in this, with music criticism and education distorted to serve the interests of the Stalinist state (see Schwarz 1972). In contrast to the official rigidity of Marxism in the USSR, a number of influential thinkers have engaged positively with Marxism throughout the twentieth century and have addressed relationships between culture and society in a more productive manner. The term ‘Western Marxism’ evolved to define currents of Marxist thought that were independent of official Soviet policy and ideology. The first and most noted thinker from this perspective was György Lukács, a Hungarian Marxist who had real political experience, including of the impact of Stalinism. Lukács developed a literary theory of socialist realism through his study of the nineteenth-century novel and its representations of reality. However, while it is difficult to trace a musical parallel to this literary trend, it can be viewed as a powerful precursor of modernism. Lukács’s most important theoretical work is History and Class Consciousness, first published in 1923 (Lukács 1971). This book presents a humanized Marxism, one that situates issues such as alienation within a materialist conception of history. While Lukács’s work has implications for an understanding of culture, the work of the Frankfurt School in general and Theodor Adorno in particular brings the relationships between culture and society into clear focus (see critical theory). It is rather simplistic to describe Adorno as a Marxist, but Marxism does form a significant part of the intellectual context from which he emerges. However, Adorno would not accept a view of culture as merely part of a superstructure dependent upon an economic base. Rather, for Adorno, there is a process of mediation between the real world and the art work, a mediation that, in the context of music, occurs within the musical materials. Significantly, Adorno did not subscribe to the Hegelian view of a dialectic process

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that aspires to some ultimate truth or transcendent moment, a view that had been influential for Marx. Instead, Adorno resisted the totalizing impulse of such claims and saw dialectic thought as suspended in a negative relationship: thesis and antithesis may be brought into collision but need not be seen to result in a new synthesis. This negative dialectic rejects simplistic views of historical progress and artistic renewal. It also captures the tension and intensity of certain artistic issues and contexts of the twentieth century, particularly the atonal music of Schoenberg and its relationship to early modernism. Theories of postmodernism that were developed during the 1970s and 1980s (see Gloag 2012) have signalled a significant shift from the concerns of Marxism, with its central tenets refashioned as the ‘metanarratives’ of modernism that we could no longer believe in. However, some writing on music and Marxism suggests new possibilities both for Marxism and for an understanding of music (see Krims 2001; Klumpenhouwer 2001). The increased commodification of music demands greater scrutiny, while the hegemonic nature of global capitalism (see globalization) raises issues that continue to be susceptible to a Marxist critique. The consideration of the political commitment to Marxism made by some individuals, such as, for example, the British composers Alan Bush and, for a brief time, Michael Tippett, also helps provide a sense of context to the period as well as offering insights into the development of these particular composers (see Bullivant 2009, 2013). Further reading: Bottomore 1991; Eagleton and Milne 1996; Kelly 2014; McClellan 2000; McKay 2005; Nelson and Grossberg 1988; Paddison 1993

MEANING Music has often been described in terms of its expressive potential and character, which leads to the issue of its meaning, or to the posing of the question: what, if anything, does music mean? This question has been restated throughout the history of both music and musicology and is one of the defining questions of musical aesthetics. Although this question has a long history, it comes fully into focus in the nineteenth century, during which the increased subjectivity and expressive potential of music as defined through Romanticism found a parallel in writing about music. Debates about the nature of music and its meaning developed from the publication of the Viennese music critic Eduard Hanslick’s Vom Musikalisch-Schönen (On the Musically Beautiful) in 1854 (Hanslick 1986;

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Bujic´ 1988, 11–39). This book called into question many of the assumptions that had surrounded the issues of music and meaning and put in place the groundwork for the claim of music’s autonomy and a formalist (see formalism) understanding of the musical work (see also absolute). For Hanslick, music consisted of ‘Tonally moving forms’ (Hanslick 1986, 29; see form). In other words, the internal mechanisms of music were the key to understanding its nature and identity. Hanslick’s criticism was directed against the music of Wagner and its influence on other composers and related issues. Wagner’s response was to represent Hanslick as the pedantic figure of Beckmesser in his opera Die Meistersinger. It is through the context of the Wagnerian music drama that the music of the nineteenth century looks outwards to encapsulate so much that could be defined as ‘non-’ or ‘extra’-musical. However, although Wagner may have dominated both the musical landscape of the period and its legacy, there is still a powerful lineage that flows from Hanslick’s original conception of music as a formal, autonomous force. In an important study of musical meaning, the British musicologist Nicholas Cook considers the legacy of Hanslick and suggests that discussions of meaning are still grounded in formalism: This problematic Hanslickian inheritance is most evident in the work of those philosophers and, more recently, music theorists who have readmitted issues of meaning within academic debate, but on terms which maintain the underlying values of formalism . . . .The basic premise . . . is that, in Hatten’s words, ‘musical meaning is inherently musical,’ so that in speaking of the expressive qualities of music, of its qualities of acquiescence, resignation, or abnegation, we are as much talking about the music as when we speak of themes, harmonic progressions, or formal prototypes. (Cook 2001, 174) The version presented here suggests that, rather than an opposition between formalism and meaning, there is a perceived relationship between the two, but the foundation of that relationship is constructed through and around the musical materials. American musicologist Edward Cone provides a neat summary: ‘formal and expressive concepts are not separable but represent two ways of understanding the same problem’ (Cone 1974, 112). Much of the work that was loosely defined as a new musicology has again confronted the problem of defining the meaning of music, or at least considering music’s representational qualities. The

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most wide-ranging attempt has been that made by Lawrence Kramer in his book Musical Meaning: Toward a Critical History (Kramer 2002). In his introduction, Kramer considers the relationship between musical meaning and modern experience and sees meaning as a central factor in music: ‘The book celebrates meaning as a basic force in music history and an indispensable factor in how, where, and when music is heard’ (ibid., 1; see listening). For Kramer, the illusiveness of the issue is not a barrier to understanding but its key: ‘The underlying point of this book is that the apparent dilemma of musical meaning is actually its own solution.’ He claims that asking the question of music’s meaning is part of the meaning of music: ‘the question of whether music has meaning becomes, precisely, the meaning of music’ (ibid., 2). In other words, we surround music with various discourses (see discourse), which begin to attach meaning to music or reflect what music may be perceived to mean. However, the pursuit of musical meaning remains a fundamentally subjective process, and it is one that will continue to invite differing responses and interpretations (see interpretation), all of which can add to the diversity of what music might mean. See also: hermeneutics, language, post-structuralism Further reading: Berger 2009; Chapin and Clark 2013; Grimes, Donovan and Marx 2013; Hatten 1994; Head 2002; Karnes 2008; Kramer 2011; Robinson 1997

METAPHOR Metaphor defines our relationship to music and, indeed, to life in general: as metaphor theorists have argued, the language we use invariably reflects our physical, bodily (see body) experience of the world (hence the notion of ‘rising’ and ‘falling’ intervals) (Johnson 1987). In other words, musical description is metaphorical. For example, music cannot be said to be sad; rather, sadness is a quality that we may ascribe to it (Neubauer 1986, 151). Metaphor arises in all forms of discourse about music, even when, as in theory and analysis, it attempts to treat music as an autonomous object (see autonomy). Naomi Cumming has summarized metaphors about music as ‘a projection onto sound of aspects of our own mentality’ (Cumming 1994, 28). In a critical appraisal of Roger Scruton’s discussion of ways in which metaphor has informed musical descriptions, Cumming comments:

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If explanations of music commonly make it an ‘intentional object’ by treating it as the object of understanding, not as a thing which can be described ‘in itself’ . . . then references to qualities which derive from our own cognitive mechanisms rather than from any acoustic property of the music are bound to appear. (ibid., 28) Such metaphors, therefore, often reflect a cognitive link between music and the body. Austrian music theorist Heinrich Schenker, for example, spoke of der Tonwille (‘the will of the tones’) and of sensing a ‘life-impulse’ in the motion of musical voice-leading (the horizontal unfolding of pitches as opposed to their vertical presentation in chords), as charted in his analytical reductions. Roland Barthes also sensed the presence of the composer’s body in his description of the musical motion of Schumann’s Kreisleriana, Op. 16, No. 2 (1838) (Barthes 1985, 299). These examples point to the habitual tendency of musical metaphors to reflect forms of agency (see narrative) and motion. The latter has been examined extensively by Robert Adlington, who explores metaphor theory (see Lackoff 1993) and proposes that the ‘spatialization of change – and particularly the conceptualization of change as motion – is a necessary and unavoidable aspect of human cognition’ (Adlington 2003, 300). However, Adlington discusses a range of post-tonal works that suggest that nonmotional metaphors, such as those describing states of weightlessness or accumulation, are often more appropriate. He argues that music: has the potential to provide a counterbalance to . . . prevailing ideas about the form of existence . . . a fact sometimes obscured by the words we use to describe music, which may seem to align it with favoured concepts of time, rather than highlight its points of difference [see alterity]. (ibid., 297) An indication of a way in which this may be applied in analysis is provided by a semiotic (see semiotics) analysis by Craig Ayrey of Debussy’s Syrinx (1913). Ayrey adopts French psychologist Jacques Lacan’s definition of metaphor as paradigmatic (‘one word for another’) and metonymy as syntagmatic (a ‘word-to-word connection’) (Ayrey 1994, 136). He therefore likens musical units that reveal a sense of process and transformation to metonymy, and units that are more static and repetitive to metaphor. He then compares this with the rhetorical structure in Marcel Proust’s novel A la recherche du temps perdu (1913–27), in which ‘the trigger of memory is metaphor, but the expansion and exploration of a

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particular memory is metonymic’ (ibid., 151). In other words, the musical discourse of Debussy’s piece consists of a creative tension between ideas that merge, metonymically, and metaphorical attempts to reassert paradigmatic structures. The role that metaphor has played in musicology has also been the subject of more historically informed musicological approaches (see Zon 2000; Spitzer 2004). Throughout history, cultural values (see value) have informed and constructed metaphors used to describe music; these values have changed over time, reflecting shifting discourses and metaphors in other areas, such as religion, politics and science. See also: language, narrative Further reading: Almén and Pearsall 2006; Chapin and Clark 2013; Johnson 2007; Kielian-Gilbert 2006; Kramer 2011; Lackoff and Johnson 1980; Larson 2012; Straus 2006; Watkins 2011a; Zbikowski 2009

MODERNISM Modernism means different things in different contexts. It implies a historical epoch while simultaneously referring to specific composers and works, but it is generally used as a comprehensive term that embraces major developments in the arts during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The emergence of musicology as a distinct discipline can also be seen as being aligned with certain aspects of modernism. Modernism has had a long history, and there is continuing debate around when it ended, or indeed if it has ended (see postmodernism). Clearly, any historical epoch thinks of itself as ‘modern’, as the new in contrast to the old (see historicism, periodization), but modernism reveals a higher self-conscious preoccupation with the new, projecting a desire for progress that borders on the utopian. The origins of modernism are intertwined with the Enlightenment, the eighteenth-century project that defined itself through a new spirit of rationalism and enlightened progress. Modernism is no longer that which is most current but becomes that which is most progressive. This association of modernism with progress is given explicit meaning in the political dimension, with modernism, as we now understand it, being seen to emerge in the aftermath of the revolutionary upheavals of 1848. This moment and its sense of modernity are given theoretical reflections in the writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, most specifically in The Communist Manifesto of 1848 (Marx and Engels 1998). The project of

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Marxism can be viewed as providing an apt reflection of modernism. Its preoccupation with the future, the inevitability of history and the power of the dialectic all find echoes in more aesthetic formations of modernism (see aesthetics). The attempted political realization of Marxism in the form of the Bolshevik Revolution also has a certain parallel with modernism through the actions of a political avant-garde (see politics). The year 1848 is also a moment of significance in the history of music, and it is possible to see these political and philosophical statements of modernism as precursors to the emergence of a full-blown aesthetic modernism in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The mid-nineteenth century witnessed distinct changes in Romanticism, the prevailing aesthetic and stylistic context of the period. For Carl Dahlhaus, one of the most significant and persuasive writers on the music of this period, this moment marks a symbolic division in Romanticism and the period in general: Early nineteenth-century music could be said to be romantic in an age of Romanticism . . . whereas the neo-Romanticism of the later part of the century was romantic in an unromantic age, dominated by positivism and realism. Music, the romantic art, had become ‘untimely’ in general terms, though by no means unimportant; on the contrary, its very dissociation from the prevailing spirit of the age enabled it to fulfil a spiritual, cultural, and ideological function [see ideology] of a magnitude which can hardly be exaggerated: it stood for an alternative world. (Dahlhaus 1989b, 5) For Dahlhaus, then, the later nineteenth century had become dominated by positivism and realism. Positivism, which constitutes a view of knowledge as validated through observation and evidence, has a clear relationship to the emergence of musicology. The classification of knowledge and the identification of material became essential features of musicology, as evident from Adler’s division and classification of the discipline (see Introduction). Dahlhaus’s proposal of a dominant realism is best reflected in the art and literature of the period and provides anticipatory traces of the heightened expressiveness of modernism as manifested in the expressionism of Munch’s paintings and Schoenberg’s early atonal music (see subjectivity). However, of greater significance is Dahlhaus’s claim that music had become ‘untimely’. In other words, it no longer fitted easily into its surrounding context, yet it is through this separation from the real world, its positioning of itself as an ‘alternative world’, that music becomes modernist. Wagner, whose music dramas constitute an

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alternative reality, but one that is pregnant with commentaries on and reflections of the real world, initiated this process. This other-worldly quality (see alterity) is often extended in modernist music of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Often alienated from mainstream audiences, composers such as Schoenberg faced hostility and rejection. This, along with a growing radicalism of form and content, helped to shape an increasingly alienated, self-reflexive aura around the music. However, this disengagement, or alienation, need not imply that the music is completely decontextualized. For German critical theorist Theodor Adorno, it is precisely this drive towards autonomy that allows the art work to become critical, constructing a distance that allows for reflection (see critical theory). Of course, this process is never complete or fully formed and, according to Adorno, there is a process of mediation between work and world through which ‘art not only reflects society but also opposes it, not only converges with society but also diverges from it’ (Paddison 1993, 128). In contrast to Schoenberg, Stravinsky, after the scandal of the first performance of The Rite of Spring, found a wider audience for his music. Stravinsky, through the reinvention of a Russian mythology, could also be seen to be involved in the construction of an ‘alternative world’. But, for Adorno, this lacked the critical force of Schoenberg’s early music and was fundamentally regressive (see Adorno 1973). By the early 1920s, modernism had shifted from its early radical spirit to a new-found sense of order, a so-called return to order. This was manifested through the rationalization of musical materials that became Schoenberg’s serialism (the systematic ordering of all twelve notes of the chromatic scale) and neoclassicism. In some ways, serialism could be considered a continuation of the rationalization that modernism had inherited from the Enlightenment, but also, for Schoenberg, it could be seen as an approach that would again extend musical language into a new future condition, a belief that was evident in his nationalistic claim (see nationalism) that serialism would guarantee the supremacy of German music for the next hundred years (Haimo 1990, 1). Serialism also had an impact on thinking about music and, by extension, musicology. Schoenberg had always written about music and was an influential teacher of composition (Berg and Webern were his two best-known students), and his theoretical writings on harmony (Schoenberg 1978; see theory) and composition (Schoenberg 1970) look towards a systematic understanding of the subject. But Schoenberg was also interested in larger aesthetic ideas, and his attempts to formulate an understanding of the musical ‘idea’ reflect an awareness of the philosophy of Hegel (Schoenberg 1995). Schoenberg was also self-consciously

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concerned with his own status and position as a composer, as is evident in essays such as ‘How One Becomes Lonely’ (1937), ‘New Music, Outmoded Music, Style and Idea’ (1946) and ‘Brahms the Progressive’ (1947) (in Schoenberg 1975), and this self-consciousness reflected that of modernism as it sought to situate itself as both the cultural dominant and a historical condition. However, this process now involved a search for precedent, the reinvention of the past in order to legitimize the present. This is clear from ‘Brahms the Progressive’, in which Schoenberg resituates Brahms, often thought of as conservative in relation to Wagner, as a progressive composer and therefore anticipating Schoenberg’s own modernism. This search for precedent and the reconstruction of the past constitute a shift within modernism, a shift that now connects past and present with the future (see Straus 1990). Serialism continued to have an impact on thinking about music. The complexity of the compositional process, but also how that process could be revealed, influenced composers and theorists, and much writing on contemporary music from the 1950s onwards reflects this influence (see structuralism). Neoclassicism also had a wider impact on thinking about music, but it was to manifest itself in different ways to serialism. While serialism influenced contemporary composition and writing about it, neoclassicism helped to shape attitudes towards the performance of early music (see authenticity). Neoclassicism can be understood as a phase and a set of stylistic issues within modernism (see style), but it is one in which the originating nature and spirit of modernism are sometimes reduced to a residual trace. In 1920, Stravinsky took what was perceived at the time as a surprising turn towards the past. The ballet Pulcinella heralded the beginning of a sequence of works, all of which had a new-found relationship to past musical styles. This sense of a new historicism also came with suggestions of new levels of objectivity. In the German context, this became the Neue Sachlichkeit (New Objectivity) identified with Hindemith. For Stravinsky, this ‘objectivity’ involved a denial of the subjective role of performer and interpretation and the implied suppression of the expressive nature of music, issues that were reflected in Stravinsky’s much quoted claim that ‘music is, by its very nature, essentially powerless to express anything at all’ (Stravinsky 1936, 53). The emergence of this attitude points towards the rise of a more clearly defined historical consciousness and objectivity in the performance of music, as reflected in the work of conductors such as Toscanini and Szell, for example. American musicologist Richard Taruskin has explored this proposed relationship between modernism and performance through his critique of period performance practices and the claim of authenticity (Taruskin 1995a).

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Modernism continues to exert a powerful influence on music and musicology. Many contemporary composers continue to produce music that can still be defined as modernist (Harrison Birtwistle, Pierre Boulez and Helmut Lachenmann, for example), while musicology continues to reflect aspects of modernism and attempts to interpret it. In an important article entitled ‘Modernity: An Incomplete Project’, the influential German cultural and critical theorist Jürgen Habermas claims that ‘the project of modernity has not yet been fulfilled’, with the implication that, before we can think of postmodernism, the project of modernism must be completed and its tensions resolved (Habermas 1985, 13). However, while modernism continues through its legacy (Heile 2009) or in a late state (Metzer 2009), its alleged certainties have been subject to wide-ranging critical responses. The assumption of the inevitability of historical progress and the art work’s aspiration towards autonomy have been extensively undermined by various theories and strategies of postmodernism (see Gloag 2012). The reflections of this critical situation in musicology involve new formations and alignments around issues such as the shift from consideration of the work in isolation towards context, from positivism towards interpretation, and from an aura of objectivity towards subjectivity (see new musicology). Further reading: Ashby 2004; Bowie 2007; Bradbury and McFarlane 1976; Butler 1994; Cook and Pople 2004; Downes 2010; Habermas 1990; Nicholls 1995; Ross 2012; Rupprecht 2015; Samson 1991; Straus 2009; Whittall 1999

NARRATIVE Narrative describes events that have unfolded in time; narrativizing is the attempt to give meaning to such events by accounting for them in terms of a plot, containing such devices as dialogue, action, character, reversal or climax; and narratology is a discipline that has appeared in literary criticism since the early 1980s, specifically concerned with issues of narrative in literature and culture (see Mitchell 1981). According to Hayden White, narrative concerns the problem of ‘how to translate knowing into telling’ (White 1980, 1), or, in the words of French philosopher Paul Ricoeur, how to ‘draw a configuration out of a simple succession’ (Ricoeur 1984, 65). Narrating, which is necessary if a story is to be told, requires an act: a plot must be enacted. In this sense, narrative is not only a plot or a story but also an act. Definitions of narrative are therefore highly varied, as are the many attempts to discuss narrative in music. According to Jean-Jacques Nattiez, ‘a narrative emerges . . . only when a temporal series of objects and events is taken over by a metalinguistic

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discourse’ (Nattiez 1990a, 243). As this quotation indicates, narrative is related to discourse, and discourse has a number of meanings. In this instance, Nattiez is using discourse as a metonym for talking about music: he is arguing that music only ever has a narrative when we provide one (or someone else provides one), either through our description of events, or as suggested by a title, programme note, or some other verbal cue. However, discourse may refer to the mode in which a narrative is conveyed: the quality of speech, or the musical style, for example. It may refer to the distinction in a narrative between the story and a narrating voice, what the literary theorist Gérard Genette refers to as a division between scene and summary (Genette 1983, 217). The scene/summary distinction has resulted in two hypothetical models for narrative in music: the mimetic and the diegetic (see diegetic/nondiegetic). Whereas the former relates to music’s hypothetical capacity ‘to represent agents and their activities in the manner of a play or other narrative text that unfolds as a real-time imitation of events’, the latter corresponds to music’s hypothetical capacity ‘to project a narrator to recount a plot involving agents and their activities in the manner of a novel or epic poem’ (Reyland 2014, 205). These models are relatively easy to apply when considering music with a programme, a descriptive title, or a text (lied, cantata, opera, pop song, etc.) and which tells a story, but harder to map on to purely instrumental music (see absolute). The question then arises: is it possible to distinguish between scene and summary in purely instrumental music? Does this comparison reveal something that other forms of commentary, such as analysis, do not? Or does it force an analogy that is too close to literary narrative? It has been argued that, while music may share properties with spoken or literary narration, it is better to think of music as related to literary narrative rather than descended from it (Almén 2008). But is narrative even the right analogy? Is drama not more appropriate, when defined as a temporal sequence or succession of ‘dramatic actions’ that ‘forms a plot that holds the actions together’ (Maus 1988, 65 and 71), and plot defined as a ‘teleological sequence of events linked by some principle of causation; that is, the events are bound together in a trajectory that typically leads to some form of resolution or convergence’ (Richardson 2006, 167)? This still leaves the issue of finding musical equivalents for dramatic actions, plot, and so on. As discussed below, much work has been directed at these questions, as demonstrated by explorations of character and plot (Karl 1997), topic (Ratner 1980; Hatten 2004; Monelle 2006; Mirka 2014), voice (Abbate 1991) and agency (Cumming 2000; Rupprecht 2013) in music. Moreover, objections to applying narrative analogies to

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music have been rebutted on the grounds that the same objections can be applied to literary works as well, not least since a reader must infer connections between events (Almén 2003). Most scholars accept that music cannot relate dramatic events with linguistic precision or convey the subtle grammatical distinctions available to language (for example, music lacks precise equivalents to predicates or cases). Musicologist Jean-Jacques Nattiez, for example, has argued that there is no exact musical equivalent for the linguistic association of ‘the duchess’ and ‘left at five o’clock’. Similarly, musicologist Carolyn Abbate (Abbate 1991, 52–4) has argued that music has no past tense, nor is there any way to differentiate between first and third person accounts: in other words, ‘we cannot usually determine to what music refers’ (Almén 2003, 4). While Nattiez concedes that music can suggest temporal distinctions – for example, it ‘can evoke the past by means of quotations or various stylistic borrowings’ – he counterargues that music ‘cannot relate what action took place in time’ (Nattiez 1990a, 244). However, such imprecision might be taken as a strength: not tied to specifics, listeners (see listening) are free to imagine their own scenarios (Reyland 2013, 45–6). Indeed, music’s temporal flow – the fact that objects follow one another in succession through time, as in film and theatre – arguably invites comparison between music and narrative (or drama), feeding what Nattiez describes as the listener’s ‘narrative impulse’. This view is supported by American musicologist Edward Cone, who has noted the presence of narrative terms in analytical language about music. He cites the use of the terms subject, answer, exposition, discussion and summary to describe the constituents of a fugue, terms that associate the fugue with the model of a conversation (see Cone 1974). However, German critical theorist (see critical theory) Theodor Adorno, in his consideration of what he saw as the novel-like quality of Mahler’s music, suggested that ‘music recites itself, is its own context, narrates without narrative’ (Adorno 1992a, 76). Similarly, American musicologist Carolyn Abbate has suggested that ‘certain gestures experienced in music constitute a narrating voice’ (Abbate 1991, 18; see gesture), but we do not know exactly what the voice is striving to articulate. However, others have argued that narrative is a semiotic enterprise (see semiotics) that can enrich music analysis by providing a metaphorical (see metaphor), hermeneutic (see hermeneutics) layer of meaning (see Hatten 1994; Samuels 1995). Despite existing reservations, there persists in accounts of music a commonly shared sense that, in the words of French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss:

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The musical work . . . is a myth coded in sounds [see sound] instead of words [which] offers an interpretive grid, a matrix of relationships which filters and organises lived experience, acts as a substitute for it and provides the comforting illusion that contradictions can be overcome and difficulties resolved. (Lévi-Strauss 1981, 659–60) The paradigm of conflict and resolution that this quotation outlines represents a narrative archetype that is central to most discussions of music, particularly tonal music. The musicologist Byron Almén, for example, has argued that the literary theorist Northrop Frye’s notion of four narrative archetypes (comedy, romance, irony/satire and tragedy – the first two narratives of victory, the latter two of defeat) may be mapped on to music (Almén 2003, 28). In this way, musical figures are imbued with both anthropomorphic status and functional identity. More specifically, Anthony Newcomb has discussed the presence of plot archetypes in Beethoven’s Fifth and Ninth Symphonies (1807–8 and 1822–4), suggesting that they might be seen to correspond to two affective states: ‘suffering, followed by healing or redemption’ (see emotion). In his consideration of Schumann’s instrumental music, Newcomb remarks that: ‘Listening to a work, we recognise the evocation of actions, tensions and dynamisms analogous to those for which the literary work is a vehicle’ (Newcomb 1983–4, 248). However, Nattiez contends that: the narrative, strictly speaking, is not in the music, but in the plot imagined and constructed by the listeners from functional objects . . . for the listener, any ‘narrative’ instrumental work is not in itself a narrative, but the structural analysis in music of an absent narrative. (Nattiez 1990a, 249; italics in original) Yet, one might reasonably ask, is this not also true of a literary narrative, which will have as many narrative versions as it has readers? Is meaning fixed and unambiguous in a novel, a medium that frequently employs ambiguity, omission and multiple narrative perspectives, including denarration (moments when narratives negate or contradict themselves; Richardson 2006)? The key point here is a distinction between a plot ‘imagined and constructed’ by the reader or listener, and the content of a novel or piece of music, in formal, structuralist terms (see structuralism): a gap exists between the two and a novelist cannot rely on a reader to detect or agree with their intentions. According to Nattiez, any description of music’s formal structures in terms of narrativity is ‘nothing

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but superfluous metaphor’ (Nattiez 1990a, 257). But does a reader not also employ metaphor when they interpret or describe a novel? Nattiez has also argued that music cannot present different discursive ‘points of view’, as would be common in a work of literary fiction. However, by limiting music’s ability to narrate to rare ‘moments that can be identified by their bizarre and disruptive effect’, Abbate has revealed numerous examples in music, especially in opera, of musical devices that function as narrative voices (Abbate 1991, 29). This view of narrative appearing in disruptive rather than normative moments in music is also shared by Lawrence Kramer, who is particularly concerned with nineteenth-century instrumental music that has a rhetorical character (Kramer 1993b). Philip Rupprecht has also applied these ideas, as well as those of theorists such as Genette, C.S. Peirce, Mikhail Bakhtin, J.L. Austin and Eve Sedgwick, to the operas and songs of Benjamin Britten (Rupprecht 2001). He notes the importance, when exploring narrative meaning in Britten’s operas, of considering the manner in which vocal utterance is presented, both vocally and in terms of orchestral support, as well as the wordless utterances of the orchestra, in terms of leitmotifs, timbre and its relationship to the vocalist. Rupprecht is also very much concerned with various kinds of gesture in Britten’s operas as indicators of levels of discourse, as well as the different narrative meanings that Britten’s music presents in contrast to the meanings of the fictional narratives that his operas are based upon, which include novels by Henry James, Herman Melville and Thomas Mann. Taking both sides of the debate into account, Almén has offered the following definition of narrative in music: Musical narrative is the process through which the listener perceives and tracks a culturally significant transvaluation of hierarchical relationships within a temporal span . . . Narrative requires both a shift of hierarchical relationships and a recognition of that shift. (Almén 2003, 12; italics in the original) The concept of ‘transvaluation’ is taken from the philosopher semiotician James Jakob Liszka, who argues that, in order for a narrative to exist, the relative importance of a character must change or be transgressed. The hierarchical properties of the tonal system permit such analogies to be made, but what about post-tonal music? Here, different criteria apply, although the model is still potentially applicable: for example, it may apply to a shift in the hierarchy of textures, such as the shift to a chorale at the end of Stravinsky’s Symphonies of Wind Instruments, which inverts the work’s earlier emphasis on stratified, fragmented textures.

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On a more general level, there exists the question of the ideological (see ideology) context for narrative readings. Italian Marxist Antonio Gramsci and French cultural theorist Michel Foucault have identified the presence of grand narratives in cultural discourse – ideologically determined ways of perceiving and structuring societies and cultures. For example, a modernist (see modernism) master narrative, which dates from the time of the Enlightenment, can be seen to have determined a Western European belief in the need for progress in knowledge, in the arts, in technology and in human freedom. By the second half of the twentieth century, this had begun to give way to a condition that French cultural theorist and philosopher François Lyotard has described as an ‘incredulity towards metanarratives’ (Lyotard 1992). Consequently, an alternative set of postmodern (see postmodernism) narratives, what Lyotard calls ‘little narratives’, arises. In the words of Wayne D. Bowman: Since to postmodern sentiments, [modernist] discourses about truth, knowledge, justice, and beauty are really about political power and control, the conviction that reason provides the neutral, objective machinery enabling human access to foundational or absolute truths is no longer tenable . . . [Postmodernism] often assumes a strenuously defiant . . . skepticism toward modernist narratives . . . sensitivity to the ways such stories covertly served the interests of power, control, and oppression. (Bowman 1998, 395–6) In other words, narrative interpretations might themselves be subjected to critique in terms of the time and place in which they are made. Conversely, composers may attach a particular narrative meaning to their music in order to avoid, critique, transcend or suggest alternatives to those narratives that dominate the political or social situation in which they exist: for example, Arvo Pärt’s ‘little narrative’ of spiritual stasis resists the Soviet ‘grand narrative’ of cultural progress (Cizmic 2008; see also Reyland 2015). Studies of music’s narrative properties continue to be produced as different interpretations of narrative are applied to music in a search for meaning in wider, cultural contexts, especially in the fields of semiotics and opera studies. Instrumental music with heterogeneous musical materials, music with known biographical (see biography) or programmatic associations, such as works by Schumann, Berg and Shostakovich, is especially attractive to inquiries of this kind, although all music can be discussed in these terms. While the central issues have yet to be resolved, and such studies may risk falling into literal exercises in

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anthropomorphism, there is still much potential in the subject of narrative and music to offer further insight in analytical and critical debate. Further reading: Karl 1997; Klein and Reyland 2013; McClary 2004; Micznik 2001; Paley 2000; Reyland 2008; Straus 2006

NATIONALISM Nationalism can be defined as an attitude – not just of artists but, and often more crucially, of historians, critics and audiences – while nationality is a condition, with the emergence of nation states pre-dating the concept of nationalism (see Armstrong 1982; Taruskin 2001). A nation is not necessarily defined according to boundaries but results from a mediation of political status and a community’s terms of self-definition, according to religion, ethnicity (see Smith 1986), race, language or culture, in which any act of inclusion is, necessarily, an act of exclusion. However, nationalism will depend primarily on a sense of a common, shared history, a concept that tends to cut across local and individual differences (see alterity). Of importance in the spread of nationalism, it has been argued, was the development of printed media in the sixteenth century and their role in shaping what historian Benedict Anderson has called ‘imagined communities’ (Anderson 1983). A precedent for the concept of nationalism in music stems from an awareness of different musical styles (see style). These sometimes arose as a consequence of institutional support, as in the case of Gregorian chant under the auspices of the Carolingian Empire in the eighth to ninth centuries. Although such distinctions at times led to a sense of rivalry, for instance between Italian and French opera in the eighteenth century, there have also been examples of fruitful exchange, such as the export of a contenance Anglaise to France in the fourteenth century (see Caldwell 1991). However, the idea of musical styles representing the cultural and political values of a nation state has a relatively recent history and follows from historical moments such as the beheading of the English monarch in 1649, an event that signalled a new kind of direct political link between music and national identity. One of the primary concerns of musicologists working on nationalism has been to find ways of deciding what constitutes a national style and to develop ‘models of individual national traditions’ (Beckerman 1986, 62; Dahlhaus 1989b; see also tradition). What is interesting about such attempts is that they mirror similar studies by German theorists in the 1920s and 1930s, which, for political reasons, attempted to define

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German-ness in music. Michael Beckerman, in his study ‘In Search of Czechness in Music’ (Beckerman 1986), concludes that Czechness is a ‘subtextual program’ that exists in the minds of composers and audiences and that ‘animates the musical style, allowing us to make connections between the narrow confines of a given piece and a larger, dynamic context’ (ibid., 73). As such, he argues, Czechness, and any other nationness, must be considered an ‘aesthetic fact’ (see aesthetics), as real as a national landmark. In other words, nationalism in music depends on a network of cultural ideas that must exist outside a work, and the work must engage with these ideas if it is to be interpreted as nationalistic. Dahlhaus also stressed the importance of reassessing claims that nationalism represented a form of artistic authenticity, and the need to consider the different ways in which nationalism appeared – for example, through unification, deposing a monarchy, or a struggle for independence – as well as the historical overlaps that occurred between the establishment of various nation states. The rise of nationalism in art and music, in its modern political sense, has generally been associated with the French Revolution, after which ‘nationalism came to dominate Europe as a mode of thought and a structure of feeling’ (Dahlhaus 1989b, 85). It towered over the nineteenth century, largely as a result of the Napoleonic Wars and the subsequent nationalist causes that arose as a consequence of the rise of military and political empire building, notably the French, Prussian, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires. Early expressions of nationalism in this form were Italian risorgimento operas, from 1820 to 1850, especially the works of Rossini and Verdi (see Gossett 1990; Parker 1997), and English romantic opera in the 1830s. However, German composers and critics were among the first to question what nationalism might mean in music and, alongside Russia, Germany presented a model that others used to define their own sense of difference (Applegate 1992; Rehding 2009). By the same token, German self-identification developed through – and can be read from – its reception of non-German music (Kreuzer 2010). Central to German and subsequently Russian and other European nations’ ideas of musical nationality has been the concept of der Volksgeist: ‘the belief in the spirit of a people as an active creative force’ (Dahlhaus 1989b, 85). Collections of songs (Volkslieder) and poems gathered in small towns and villages, such as J.G. Herder’s Stimmen der Völker (‘Voices of the Peoples’, 1778–9) and Des Knaben Wunderhorn (‘The Youth’s Magic Horn’, 1805–8), point to the emergence of German nationalism out of early German Romantic conceptions, such as the superiority of unspoilt nature (see landscape) and truth over corrupted, decadent culture (see Romanticism). They also provided a repository of material

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for a composer such as Schubert. German writers, including E.T.A. Hoffmann and A.B. Marx, in particular through their discourses (see discourse) on Beethoven, universalized German musical values, leading to the eventual identification of all instrumental music with German music (see absolute), a process that, in the main, arose covertly (Applegate 1992). By association, scholarship has considered the influence of nationalism on music theory (see McClatchie 1998) and historicism. For example, the New German School – a term coined by German music historian Franz Brendel in 1859 – included Wagner, Liszt and Berlioz, all of whom were linked, it was argued, by the notion of a German spirit. The revolutions throughout Europe in 1848–9 were clearly of great significance in encouraging nationalist sentiments, but they also gave rise to a contradiction between the Romantic demands of artistic subjectivity and a desire to represent the real world (Dahlhaus 1989b). On the one hand, music contributed to the construction of citizenship, helping to build a sense of national identity (Pasler 2009). On the other, composers’ awareness of the more positivist (see positivism), scientifically and technologically advanced late nineteenth-century context, upon which German nationalism was contingent, marked a break from the Romanticism of the early nineteenth century and was integral in what has subsequently been interpreted as the birth of modernism (see Banks 1991; Butler 1994). Likewise, the neonationalism of Stravinsky’s socalled Russian ballets was a springboard to international modernism. A darker side of the changes after 1848–9 was the emergence of less tolerant forms of nationalism. In music, this amounted to expressions of antiSemitic views, which rapidly gained currency in late nineteenth-century Germany (see Weiner 1995; Hallman 2002), and the brash militarism, anti-Semitism and decadence of Richard Strauss’s tone poems and early operas (Gilman 1988). One aspect of nationalism in music is emulation – the attempt to outdo a dominant nation. For example, French composers after 1871, following France’s defeat by the Prussian army, wrote absolute music to rival that of Germany. In the case of Russia, emulation was an important step in establishing musical prestige, although in this instance European tradition clashed with an interest in indigenous techniques (see Taruskin 1996, 1997). In other cases, nationalism manifested itself in a conscious rejection of another nation’s music. This can be seen in the discourse in fin-de-siècle France, which stressed the need for clarity and economy in opposition to German excess. The reception of works and their retrospective interpretations by subsequent generations of musicologists must also be considered. John Deathridge has noted that, although Wagner’s ‘Plan for the Organization

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of a German National Theatre for the Kingdom of Saxony’ was initially received with derision when it was written in 1848, it was highly topical when published in 1871, the year of the founding of the German Reich (Deathridge 1991, 53). Nazi Germany’s appropriation of non-German composers is well documented (see Potter 1998), and Alain Frogley has presented fascinating accounts of the appropriation of Vaughan Williams’ music as a result of Britain’s desire to construct a nationalist identity between the two World Wars to rival that of Germany, examining the importance of critical and composer reception of his music and its influence on audiences (Frogley 1996, 1997). Frogley also considers the extent to which Vaughan Williams modified his views about nationalism and music, a change that can also be seen in the writings of Bartók (see Frigyesi 1998; Brown 2000). Studies have also highlighted the selective construction of nationalism. Some examples contain deliberate forms of cultural amnesia, as illustrated by the Nazis’ exclusion of Mendelssohn and Schoenberg from historical accounts, despite their prominent roles in constructing German nationalism and their own capacity for cultural chauvinism (Potter 1998). Hybrid processes (see hybridity) of assimilation and co-option are also based on selection. For example, notions of Hungarian national musical styles have hinged on shifting interpretations of gypsy music (Bellman 1998a), and Parisian neoclassicism was a product of the assimilation of Stravinsky’s music in French nationalism (Messing 1996); subsequently, it became a prescription for attempts to form a national musical language in America (Tischler 1986). Jazz, too, was variously co-opted by French and American composers to nationalist ends (Fry 2003). Scholars have also considered nationalism in the music of Sibelius (Franklin 1997b), Elgar’s links to British imperialism (Grimley and Rushton 2005), the interpretation of nationalism in terms of musical techniques and traditions (Bellman 1998a), the role of language in nationalist music (Beckerman 1986), and the nationalist contribution of musicians living abroad, such as Chopin (Milewski 1999), Bartók and Schoenberg. Since the Cold War, during which a broad polarity can be sketched between the non-nationalist institutionalization of high modernism in the West (see Born 1995; Carroll 2003) and folk-influenced socialist realism in Soviet bloc countries in the East, the rise of globalization has led to a focus on local resistance and diversity, which sidesteps or otherwise erodes the concept of nationality (see postmodernism) – a move that can be traced back to cosmopolitanism in the nineteenth century (Gooley 2013). Often this is achieved by shifting the emphasis on to ethnicity rather than nation, as in the music of Ligeti, although Birtwistle can be seen to draw on symbols of national association, for example in his opera Gawain (1991,

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revised 1994). However, the concept of nationalism arises directly in some contemporary contexts. For example, black civil rights activism led to the idea of a black nation state, promoted by jazz musicians such as John Coltrane and Charlie Mingus (Kofsky 1970), while funk and hip-hop have similarly been associated with black nationalism, as illustrated by James Brown’s Revolution of the Mind (1971) and Public Enemy’s It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back (1988) (although, on the outcomes of such protests, see Hanson 2008). From a non-black perspective, attempts have been made to co-opt certain American musicians in support of the values and spirit of the American nation, for example Hank Williams and Bruce Springsteen. However, Springsteen’s ‘Born in the USA’ (1984) belongs to a songwriting tradition that is critical of the concept of nationalism; other notable examples include Jimi Hendrix’s deconstructive interpretation of ‘The Star Spangled Banner’ at Woodstock in 1969 and Madonna’s ‘American Life’ (2003) (see Scherzinger and Smith 2007). The Eurovision Song Contest resists the hegemony of American popular music, although voting often reflects the politics of national and regional affiliations, as well as age-old grudges, while in France regulations are in place to protect French-language popular music. In Britain, resistance to American dominance dates from the success of The Beatles and The Rolling Stones in the 1960s and can also be detected in progressive, folk and punk rock in England in the 1970s, all of which can be seen as examining, in different ways, notions of English nationalism (see Macan 1997; Savage 1991). And Eric Zolov, in an example that illustrates the presence of emulation of national styles in popular music, has explored the co-option of Elvis Presley in the development of a counter-cultural movement in Mexico in the 1960s and the manipulation of the consumption of his music by state agencies (Zolov 1999). Further reading: Applegate and Potter 2002; Biddle and Knights 2007; Bohlman 2004; Brodbeck 2007; Burns 2008; Cohen 2014; Cormac 2013; Dennis 1996; Eichner 2012; Frolova-Walker 2007, 2011; Garrett 2008; Gelbart 2012; Hess 2013; Hobsbawm 1992; Hooker 2013b; Huebner 1999; Mäkelä 1997; Manabe 2013; Mayes 2014; Minor 2012; Morra 2013; Pasler 2015; Ridenour 1981; Schneider 2006; Seiter 2014; St. Pierre 2013; Steinberg 2006a; Taruskin 2009, 2011; Thacker 2007; Walsh 2013; White and Murphy 2001

NATURE see ecomusicology NEOCLASSICISM see authenticity, modernism

180  New musicology

NEW MUSICOLOGY There can be no sense in which the new musicology ever existed as an integrated movement. It would be more accurate to describe it as a loose amalgam of individuals and ideas, dating from the mid-1980s, nearly exclusively based in America, whose work has now largely been absorbed into the common practice. Reference to the new musicology is therefore largely retrospective. However, these individuals bring to their own particular fields of expertise a number of shared concerns and a focus on recurring issues and problems that reflect a wider postmodern (see postmodernism) move to displace positivism and the concept of the autonomous (see autonomy) musical work (see modernism). This is manifested in a will to engage with disciplines outside musicology, in particular those in the humanities and social sciences, and a desire to alter the framework of musicological discussion. Their work reflects the fundamental questioning of accepted forms of knowledge that has affected a range of subjects, including anthropology, sociology and history, and that is influenced by cultural anthropologist Michel Foucault’s structural account of the history of knowledge (Foucault 1972). However, these common concerns should not obscure a number of differences of emphasis between new musicologists. One noted debate is that between Lawrence Kramer and Gary Tomlinson, which stems from Kramer’s article ‘The Musicology of the Future’ (Kramer 1992), itself a response to an earlier article by Joseph Kerman (Kerman 1994). Kramer’s interest centres on nineteenth-century music and literature and reflects developments in post-structuralism, in particular the idea that meaning is to be found in individual, subjective (see subjectivity) interpretations of the context of an art work, and that equally valid, multiple interpretations may result (see interpretation). The related perspectives of deconstruction and narratology (see narrative) are also present in Kramer’s work. He investigates various literary themes, or tropes, from which he generates a network of discourses in order to construct a literary and historical context for his discussion (see discourse). He then attempts to read this context in the content of the music by locating similar discursive practices in the language and syntax of music, for example in a composer’s use and manipulation of style, form and genre. To Tomlinson, however, Kramer’s work seems suspiciously reactionary in some respects, for example his falling back on the conventional methods of analysis and the careful selection of detail to support his argument.

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Instead of postmodern doubt, play, and a problematizing of the communicative relation, Kramer offers a too-familiar modernist mastery . . . a postmodern musicology will be characterized most distinctively by its insistent questioning of its own methods and practices. (Tomlinson 1993a, 21) In particular, Tomlinson does not find Kramer’s approach historical enough. This is demonstrated by Kramer’s concern to relate his cultural and linguistically based discussion to conventional analyses of the musical score, leading Tomlinson to note that ‘it is the act of close reading itself that carries with it the ideological charge of modernism’ (ibid., 22; see ideology). Tomlinson has advocated locating meaning almost exclusively in what he terms a ‘web of culture’, a series of interrelated historical narratives that surround the musical subject (Tomlinson 1984). New developments in musicology can, in part, be linked to the rise of feminism and gender studies within the discipline. These were first integrated into musicology by Susan McClary, Marcia Citron and Philip Brett (McClary 1991; Citron 1993; Brett 1994; see also gay musicology). McClary in particular has been successful in addressing subjects in popular music, notably constructions of identity in the music of Madonna, as well as reconsidering figures from the Western classical tradition. For example, she has used gender discourse to interpret the historical reception of Schubert, particularly the sense of difference (see alterity) between the music of Beethoven and Schubert (McClary 2006a). Other ways in which the new musicology has attempted to explore contemporary methodologies include Rose Rosengard Subotnik’s use of philosophical and linguistic criticism, developing, for example, an insightful interpretation of Beethoven’s late style (see lateness), a postEnlightenment reading of Mozart’s Die Zauberflöte (1791) and a musical deconstruction of Chopin’s Prelude in A major, Op. 98, No. 7 (1828– 9; Subotnik 1991, 1996). Nineteenth-century opera and instrumental music has been a particular focus of revisionary interest, particularly in the work of Carolyn Abbate, for example in her book Unsung Voices (Abbate 1991), which considers the music of Wagner and Mahler, among others. Abbate’s work is significant for its interdisciplinarity and imaginative rereadings of standard repertoire (see narrative). The new musicology has also initiated debate concerning the nature of authenticity in music (see Taruskin 1995a), relating this issue to the dichotomy between modern and postmodern perspectives. The first significant call for a change in musicology was Joseph Kerman’s article ‘How We Got into Analysis, and How to Get Out’, originally

182 9/11

published in 1980, in which he pleaded for a ‘new breadth and flexibility in academic music criticism [musicology]’ (Kerman 1994, 30). This article was followed by Kerman’s book Musicology (Contemplating Music in America; Kerman 1985), which presents a more detailed account of the context for the developments that were to lead to the new musicology. Interpretations of Kerman’s work, and of developments in musicology since the mid-1980s, have largely been presented by academics whose own interests originated in music theory, analysis or aesthetics (see Agawu 1997; Cook 1998a; van den Toorn 1995; Williams 2001). Van den Toorn is especially resistant to the new musicology’s call to abandon close readings of musical works. Agawu, while presenting grounds on which to question the new musicology’s claims, stresses the place of music theory within the broader notion of music criticism and therefore seeks not only a justification of close reading but also a more self-critical theoretical approach. Further responses to the new musicology are to be found in the attempted formation of a critical musicology, and critical assessments of the work of new musicologists (Cook and Everist 1999; Head 2002; Hooper 2006; Krims 1998b). Further reading: Abbate 2001; Chapin and Kramer 2009; Fulcher 2011; Kramer 1993b, 1995, 2006, 2011; Leppert 2007; McClary 2000, 2007; Tomlinson 2007c

9/11 9/11 is the now commonly used symbolic abbreviation for the horrendous terrorist attack on the USA that occurred on 11 September 2001, in which the twin towers of the World Trade Center, New York, were destroyed, along with other related events. This is not the place to attempt to explore the political contexts (see politics) and subsequent military responses; rather, the purpose of this brief discussion is to highlight some of the cultural implications of, and reactions to, the tragic events. There have been several attempts made to capture the experience of 9/11 in film, both as factual documentary and as a dramatic realization and representation. Several significant New York-based novelists have also reflected on the experience of 9/11 in fiction, including Don DeLillo (Falling Man) and Jay McInerney, whose The Good Life is centred around the post-9/11 experiences of a group of characters who had been featured in an earlier, pre-9/11 novel, Brightness Falls. The later book traces the impact of 9/11 on the fictional individuals and their relationships. Further reflections include the complex network of issues around

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memorial commemoration as articulated in Amy Waldman’s novel The Submission. Published some ten years after the events of 9/11, this book captures the tensions around questions of American identity in the post9/11 world. Musical responses have been fewer and potentially of less importance. One of the most discussed was the initial interpretation by composer Karlheinz Stockhausen, who controversially explained the tragedy as ‘the greatest work of art that is possible in the whole cosmos’ (in Ritter and Daughtry 2007, xxii). While Stockhausen’s translation of 9/11 into an aesthetic experience is deeply problematic, and highly offensive, his references to it in terms of an art work and as a ‘pure performance’ (ibid., xvi) suggest that the media coverage of the ‘event’ became part of a dramatic, performed narrative (see also aesthetics). The initial musical response took the form of benefit concerts as well as specific songs of lament and protest (see Garofalo 2007), but the most substantial has been John Adams’ On the Transmigration of Souls. This largescale choral work was commissioned by the New York Philharmonic to honour the victims and received its first performance in 2002. For Adams, the work is a ‘memory space’ (Schiff 2004), a metaphorical description that combines the role of memory through commemoration with the specificity of place and space. The work superimposes ‘prerecorded street sounds [see sound] and the reading of victims’ names by friends and family members’ with a chorus of children and adults and a large orchestra (ibid.). If Adams’ musical memorial is relevant, then the reception of his earl­ier opera The Death of Klinghoffer (1991) also raises a number of pertinent issues about the role and condition of culture in the aftermath of 9/11. In this opera, Adams situates an earlier act of terror – the hijacking of the cruise ship Achille Lauro by members of the Palestine Liberation Front in 1985, an event that involved the death of Leon Klinghoffer, a disabled Jewish-American man in his late sixties. This is clearly a sensitive subject matter for an opera, one that resonates with images of real violence against a long-standing conflict, and one that is intensified by the strongly divided opinions on each side – Israel and Palestine – in American society. At its first performance in the USA in 1991, in Brooklyn, the opera had already met with a hostile reception and accusations of anti-Semitism (see Fink 2005b; Taruskin 2009 [2001]). These sensitivities were intensified through the presence of the opera in a post-9/11 context and the perceived conflict of cultures that was being projected at that time. In November 2001, the Boston Symphony Orchestra cancelled scheduled performances of the choruses from the opera. This decision reflected the sensitive nature of the subject matter of

184 Organicism

the opera but also the assumption that there was a connection between different acts of terror as a continuum of hostility and violence. A collection of essays edited by Jonathan Ritter and J. Martin Daughtry titled Music in the Post-9/11 World (Ritter and Daughtry 2007) is the first scholarly study of the position of music, and thinking about music, in the post-9/11 context. Reflecting the diversity of musical responses, the essays in this collection provide a series of unique insights and interpretations that begin to offer indications of the way future musicological and critical enquiry around issues of conflict and commemoration may be formed. See also: discourse Further reading: Cobussen and Nielsen 2012

ORGANICISM Organicism reflects the idea that the musical work is an organism in which parts combine together as a functioning whole, appropriating the body as a metaphor for the musical work. It therefore restates the concept of musical unity as defined through music analysis, but it does so through the specific notions of growth, expansion and transformation, all of which play with organicist images of both nature (see Solie 1980) and body. The ideas that support and sustain a concept of musical organicism were common currency in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and were most clearly articulated in the philosophy of Hegel. According to Hegel, ‘if the work is a genuine work of art, the more exact the detail the greater the unity of the whole’ (le Huray and Day 1981, 341). This is a statement about the unity of the art work, and it is significant that Hegel relates the condition of unity to value (‘a genuine work of art’), a move that will be restated throughout the history of musicology (see theory and analysis). This condition of unity is founded upon the assumptions of organicism through the claimed relationships between part and whole, a process that Hegel relates directly to music: ‘Now of course inner organisation and overall coherence are equally essential in music, because each part depends on the existence of the others’ (ibid.). This dependency leads to the musical elements coalescing into a functioning, organic whole. For Hegel, a unified organicism was a representation of the ‘absolute idea’. This complex philosophical construct is well summarized by musicologist Wayne D. Bowman:

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Absolute idea is neither abstract nor subjective. Rather, it is that ultimate concrete reality toward which understanding and experience constantly strain. All of human history – indeed, the evolution of the entire universe – consists in absolute idea coming increasingly to fruition by infusing the ‘material’ with Spirit. Eventually, through a succession of stages of ever-increasing self-awareness, mind is destined to achieve full comprehension of the absolute unity of all that is. In absolute idea, conception and reality (thought and its objects) coalesce into a state of complete unity. (Bowman 1998, 95) In other words, an evolutionary process, that of growth, leads to the recognition of a prevailing unity formed around concept and reality. Such organicist ideas find a ready reflection in music and musicological activity. Composers have often described their music in terms of metaphors of growth and relationships between part and whole. Music analysis provides the most immediate context in which such ideas are enacted. The writings of music theorist Heinrich Schenker are enclosed within and defined by organicist assumptions. In the introduction to his major work, translated as Free Composition, Schenker states: ‘I here present a new concept, one inherent in the works of the great masters; indeed, it is the very secret and source of their being: the concept of organic coherence’ (Schenker 1979, xxi). For Schenker, the musical materials become a life force that rises to the ideal form of a predesignated musical structure, with concept and its realization coalescing into a unity. Through this process, the musical materials act in a manner that is parallel to the human organism: ‘Even the octave, fifth, and third of the harmonic series are a product of the organic activity of the tone as subject, just as the urges of the human being are organic’ (ibid., 9). Other music theorists and analysts have invoked organicism as both a guiding principle and desired outcome for their project. Rudolph Réti, although very different in many respects to Schenker, confronted the same music, that of the tonal tradition from Bach to Brahms, and again raised the issue of an organic unity. While Schenker was preoccupied with the unity of harmony and counterpoint, Réti focused more exclusively on the thematic dimension of music, one of his major books being titled The Thematic Process in Music (Réti 1961). His study of Beethoven’s piano sonatas (Réti 1992) begins with an extended analysis of the Piano Sonata in C minor, Op. 13 (the Pathétique). This analysis begins with the two so-called ‘prime cells’ of the work, the first of which consists merely of a rising minor third from C to E flat, while the second falls from A flat to D and then rises to E flat. For Réti, these two cells form the essence of the work:

186 Orientalism

The basic thematic idea of the Pathétique, the core of its structural life, will be found to be a combination of these two cells. It will be seen that all the shapes throughout the whole sonata – the themes, groups and sections – are formed from, and are variants of, these two elements. (ibid., 17) Réti’s analysis is based upon an interpretation that effectively grows outwards from these two cells; using an organicist metaphor, they become the seeds from which the work grows. It is also significant that Réti refers to a ‘structural life’, suggesting that the work takes on the characteristics of its own life form but that this is still grounded in a notion of structure. Such ideas and their representation were already evident in the theoretical writings of composer Arnold Schoenberg (see modernism), who wrote of a musical Grundgestalt (basic shape) that shaped and influenced the musical materials and their structure. Schoenberg again enacted a metaphor of organic growth and development through the interplay of similarity and difference, as reflected in his terminology of ‘developing variation’ (Schoenberg 1975; see also Frisch 1984). Questions have been raised as to whether the concept of the musical work as an organic unity, a living organism, lives only in the musicological imagination. In a statement that has been revisited at various points in this book, American musicologist Joseph Kerman states: ‘From the standpoint of the ruling ideology, analysis exists for the purpose of demonstrating organicism, and organicism exists for the purpose of validating a certain body of works of art’ (Kerman 1994, 15). This statement highlights again the presence and function of organicist thought in analysis and draws attention to the essentially ideological nature of an organicist view of music (see ideology). It also highlights the evaluative pressures of the concept. Following Kerman, there have been concerted attempts to displace organicism, but, in the immediate context of analysis, the preoccupations of unity and the desire to realize the organicist metaphor have proved remarkably resilient. Further reading: Bonds 2006; Cohn and Dempster 1992; Maus 1999; Samson 1999; Street 1989; Watkins 2011a

ORIENTALISM Orientalism is a concept developed by Edward Said in his book Orientalism: Western Conceptions of the Orient (Said 1978). Said identifies an antithesis between the Orient (the Middle East, the Far East,

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Africa and the Indian subcontinent) and the Occident (Western Europe). According to Said, Orientalism constitutes: distribution of geopolitical awareness into aesthetic, scholarly, economic, sociological, historical, and philological texts; . . . an elaboration not only of basic geographical distinction . . . but also a whole series of ‘interests’ which, by such means as scholarly discovery, philological analysis, landscape and sociological description, it not only creates but also maintains; it is, rather than expresses, a certain will or intention to understand, in some cases to control, manipulate, even to incorporate, what is a manifestly different (or alternative and novel) world. (ibid., 12) This definition points to the possibility that Orientalism may result from a genuine desire to understand a foreign culture, but it appears to conclude that the result is effectively to control and maintain a sense of difference and political imbalance. Said makes a direct link between Orientalism and the imperial projects of nineteenth- and early twentiethcentury Europe, stating that it has ‘less to do with the Orient than it does with “our” world’ (ibid.). In the early nineteenth century, the two most important colonizers, and therefore the two main exponents of Orientalism, were Britain and France, particularly following their battles for control of the Indian subcontinent, which took place in the mid-eighteenth century, and France’s subsequent interest in Egypt and the Middle East. Musicologist Mark Everist points out that Orientalism in France changed almost by the decade and that ‘Individual operatic works therefore need to be set alongside precise and well-defined phases of Orientalism, and not alongside some essentialised view . . . that takes no account of the diversities of text and culture’ (Everist 1996, 225). This remark reflects a danger, which Said himself notes, of positing ‘a unified, historically transcendent Western discourse on the Orient’ (ibid., 223). Said suggests that future studies could explore Italian, Dutch, German and Swiss Orientalism (Said 1978, 24), and, in his discussion of Meyerbeer’s Il crociato in Egitto (1824), Everist considers two types of Orientalism: French, c. 1813, and Venetian, c. 1824. Said has claimed that Verdi’s Aida (1871) presents ‘an Orientalised Egypt’ (Said 1994, 92). However, this view has been challenged by Paul Robinson, who has remarked that: Aida is an orientalist opera only if the drama Verdi actually constructed . . . embodies the ideological project Said ascribes to it. Above all, it is an orientalist opera only if its ideological agenda is

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significantly embodied in its music . . . Things that exist in the text [libretto] and that do not find expression in the music for all practical purposes cease to exist . . . If Aida is an orientalist opera . . . it will have to be because of its music. (Robinson 1993, 135) The suggestion that an opera is Orientalist only in terms of evidence in the music overlooks the role of the librettist, not to mention the visual aspects of production. However, Robinson points to the fact that the opera depicts a militaristic Egypt that is tyrannizing Ethiopia, and as such it would appear to represent an anti-imperialist work – a view supported by Verdi’s own lack of sympathy for the Egyptian empire. He further remarks that Egypt is represented by ‘European’-sounding music (‘regular, diatonic and brassy’; ibid., 136), whereas the Ethiopians are represented by Aida and Amonasro, who draw on more ‘exotic’ styles (see style) when singing of their native land. He also notes that all the opera’s exotic music is associated with women, so that ‘the antithesis between exotic and non-exotic music in Aida comes to seem a code as much for gender difference as for ethnic difference’ (see ethnicity, alterity). He therefore concludes that it is Egypt’s imperial victims (the Moors, Ethiopians and Egyptian women) who are orientalized by Verdi’s music, and that it is best viewed as a political Italian opera – a metaphorical expression of Austria’s suppression of Italy – relating back to the Risorgimento operas of the 1840s. Robinson’s observations have been expanded by further evidence of exoticism in Aida (Locke 2005), and the search for the exotic has been extended back to the Renaissance (Locke 2015). However, there is some slippage between the terms ‘oriental’ and ‘exotic’, and the question arises: how do they differ? One could say that Orientalism always includes the exotic, but is the exotic always Orientalist? Orientalism has been applied to a wide range of styles and musical periods (see periodization), including the alla Turca style adopted by composers such as Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven (Hunter 1998), and the style Hongrois used by Liszt (see Bellman 1998b; Locke 2009). In this sense, Orientalism can be seen to overlap with ethnicity, gender and race issues. Crucial to the discussion of Orientalism is an awareness of the historical context of a given example. In his consideration of Mozart’s Die Entführung aus dem Serail (1781), Matthew Head points out that ‘the historical-cultural distance that separates modern listeners from later eighteenth-century Vienna ensures that Orientalism says different things today than it may have been intended, perceived or even permitted to say “back then”’ (Head 2000, 11). He also suggests that Orientalism can

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be understood as having been a mask through which composers were able to critique the customs of their own time. An example of this is the contrast between the sense of danger that erupts as, in one instance, oriental material in Mozart’s opera ‘exceeds in length and intensity the formal, stylistic and generic boundaries signalled by the courtly-minuet refrain’ (ibid., 12; see genre). Compared with the oriental music, the courtly minuet that seeks to contain it sounds ‘dainty’, echoing JeanJacques Rousseau’s Enlightenment critique of a ‘feeble bodied, ornately attired aristocracy’. Head’s study is responsible for extending the application of Said’s ideas back in time, embracing a period that predates significant empire building by Britain and France, and it therefore calls for slightly different interpretative strategies. Similarly, applications of Orientalism to twentieth-century music, including popular music and jazz, would necessarily stretch the original intentions of the theory. However, Western music that draws on exoticism will always contain a trace of Orientalist ideology, whether it is the japonisme of Debussy’s piano music or the use of the sitar in recordings by The Beatles. Any reference to Orientalism needs to demonstrate a consciousness that Said’s views are open to debate (see Yegenoglu 1998; Macfie 2000, 2002; Irwin 2006) and that this has been acknowledged within musicology (Henson 1999; Head 2003). Studies from the opposite perspective – that of Occidentalism (Eastern representations of the West) – are also gaining ground both in general (Venn 2000; Buruma and Margalit 2004) and in relation to music (Scott 2015). Further reading: Beckles Willson 2013; Christiansen 2008; Clayton and Zon 2007; Clifford 1988; Everett and Lau 2004; Locke 2007; MacKenzie 1995; Pasler 2015; Pennanen 2015; Scott 1998, 2003; Seiter 2014; Sheppard 2009, 2014, 2015; Taruskin 1998; Taylor 2007; Turner 1994; Zon 2007

PERFORMANCE see authenticity, body, canon, consciousness, critical musicology, historical musicology, interpretation, recording PERIODIZATION Musicology has consistently periodized music history, musical style and composers’ careers (see biography). Distinct historical periods have been seen as providing a manageable framework through which specific musical stylistic groupings or periods – Baroque, Classical, Romantic – can

190 Periodization

be interpreted (see interpretation). Representative of this approach is Grout’s widely read history of music (Grout and Palisca 2001), which, through many editions over a period of time, has provided one of the standard narratives (see narrative) of music history (see historiography). Richard Taruskin, in his monumental history of Western music, uses the recognizable historical model of specific centuries to organize his historical narrative and the details within it (see Taruskin 2005a). Within certain chronological parameters, specific styles or style periods are widely represented in the musicological literature. Charles Rosen, in his influential study of the Classical style, which he situates in relation to the late eighteenth century, produces a study that is concerned with detailed aspects of musical language and style (Rosen 1971, 19). In contrast, American musicologist James Webster has produced a focused and detailed study of Viennese ‘Classicism’ that expands upon the processes and problems of periodization from a contemporary perspective: ‘At the beginning of the twenty-first century, the traditional periodization of European music between 1700 and 1975 – late Baroque; Classical; Romantic; modern – seems increasingly problematic’ (Webster 2001–2, 108). The process becomes problematic because much contemporary critical thought (see postmodernism) has cast doubt on the validity of the narratives (see narrative) and strategies that underpin the notion of a historical period, a construct that carries an image of a totality. Webster subverts this possibility through his suggestion of a ‘first Viennese Modernism’ (see modernism) and the ‘delayed nineteenth century’. The proposal of a first Viennese modernism implies new continuities but also departs from the standard linear succession as outlined above (ibid., 115). Webster’s ‘delayed nineteenth century’ has a certain parallel with interpretations that seek to displace or disrupt historical models based upon century-long periods, such as the common reference to a ‘long eighteenth century’. Giovanni Arrighi has described the twentieth century as ‘the long twentieth century’ (Arrighi 1994), a description that is based on the relationships between the historical development of capitalism and the twentieth century as the moment at which that development intensified. In contrast, Marxist historian (see Marxism) Eric Hobsbawm proposes a ‘short twentieth century’, bounded by the First World War and the collapse of communism (Hobsbawm 1995). The construction of a historical period on the basis of seminal events is a highly logical strategy, particularly as those selected by Hobsbawm had such a profound effect on culture, reflecting the shift from modernism to postmodernism (see Gloag 2001). The life and work of individual composers are also subject to periodization, often using issues such as place as a reference point. The positioning of a composer’s ‘early’ or ‘late’ (see lateness) period often

Place 191

produces interesting debates. Beethoven is a powerful example of a composer who has been subjected to this process, with a wide discourse formed around his late period and style (see Solomon 2003). The life and work of Michael Tippett are more resistant to periodization than those of some composers, including Beethoven, but he does provide an interesting scenario, with a shift into a late period occurring, according to British musicologist David Clarke, at a specific point in a specific work from the later 1970s – the beginning of the slow movement of the Triple Concerto for Violin, Viola, Cello and Orchestra – a claim that is remarkable for its degree of specificity (Clarke 2001, 211). Because of its compressed nature, the history of popular music is often constructed in relation to decades rather than centuries. A distinct moment, such as ‘the Sixties’ (see Marwick 1998; Gloag 2001; Hill 2013), is often described in historical terms, but it also presents a number of problems. Much of what is both remembered and written as history did not come into focus until 1963 and the emergence of The Beatles, while many definitive issues of the popular culture of the 1960s continued to resonate into the early 1970s. In other words, what is now historically conceptualized as ‘the Sixties’ did not begin in 1960 or end in 1969 or 1970. This example, like Hobsbawm’s ‘short twentieth century’ or Webster’s ‘delayed nineteenth century’, suggests that the fluidity of the past is not easily contained within large-scale constructs, but it also indicates that the concept of periodization continues to provide useful reference points for our understanding of history. See also: historicism, Renaissance, Romanticism, tradition Further reading: Chapin 2014a; Dahlhaus 1983a, 1989b, 1989c; Tomlinson 2007a; Webster 2004

PHILOSOPHY (MUSIC AND PHILOSOPHY) see absolute, aesthetics, autonomy, consciousness, critical theory, deconstruction, Enlightenment, ethics, formalism, modernism, organicism, postmodernism

PLACE A topic of discourse through the centuries, the concept of place has received increasing critical and theoretical attention in the humanities and

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social sciences since the mid-1980s, including consideration of Aristotle’s concept of place (Morison 2002) and its role in Christian theology (Inge 2003). Spatial concepts such as place, space and landscape have gained in importance as a result of the relativism of postmodern theories (see postmodernism; see also Soja 1989; Harvey 1990; Jameson 1991) and globalization, a concept that draws attention to the role of the local in relation to the global (Verstraete and Cresswell 2002). Place is also highly relevant to considerations of identity, gender, ethnicity, race and subjectivity, all of which have a discursive, reflexive relationship with place. One should also consider the significance of dis-placement, migration and ethnic diaspora (see ethnicity; see also Brinkmann and Wolff 1999; Levi and Scheding 2010), and the possibility of describing a place through an account of its soundscape (see sound; see also Born 2013a, 2013b; Fauser 2005, 2013; see also ecomusicology). Consideration of place has informed historical and cultural studies of music implicitly in earlier texts, such as Charles Burney’s A General History of Music from the Earliest Ages to the Present Period, originally published in 1776 (Burney 1957), and explicitly in later studies, such as Carl E. Schorske’s book on fin-de-siècle Vienna (Schorske 1981), Tia DeNora’s study of the construction of the idea of Beethoven’s genius in Vienna (DeNora 1997), and work on Renaissance music that draws on urban historical methodology (see Kisby 2001). These examples illustrate the importance that places may have in fostering specific genres (see genre) and styles (see style), and they indicate the potential that a consideration of place has for reappraising historical periods (see periodization) and our understanding of musical reception. The role of sound recording has also been discussed in relation to place; for example, Adam Krims has explored how recording may be used to construct living and consumer spaces (Krims 2001, 2007). And in recorded sound, place is a useful conceptual tool for thinking about the placement of sounds in the virtual spaces produced by studio and live recordings (Moore and Dockwray 2008; Moore, Schmidt and Dockwray 2009; see also listening). Place (in the geographical sense) has always been a central concern of ethnomusicology (see ethnicity), and more recently this can be seen to have influenced work on popular music, a feature that can be traced back to Charles Keil’s study of blues music in Chicago (Keil 1966). Other important contributions in this area include Sara Cohen’s study of rock culture in Liverpool (Cohen 1991) and Barry Shank’s book on the popular music scene in Austin, Texas (Shank 1994). Cohen was concerned with exploring what she called the ‘ethnographic and microsociological detail’ of the Liverpool music scene, ‘the grass roots of the industry – the countless, as yet unknown bands struggling for success at

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a local level’ (Cohen 1991, 6). In contrast, Shank, drawing on the psychoanalytical theories of Jacques Lacan, is concerned with the divergence and dissonance between different musical identities. At the centre of his study is the idea that the cultural function of musical ‘scenes’ is to enable people to perform ‘new, sometimes temporary but nevertheless significant, identities’ (Shank 1994, x). Similar ideas are discussed with great skill by George Lipsitz in his wide-ranging consideration of immigrant and diasporic music, including Puerto Rican music in New York and black reggae in London (Lipsitz 1997). Hip-hop has also received much attention in terms of analyses of its relationship with space and place. As studies such as those by Murray Forman (Forman 2002) and Adam Krims (Krims 2000) illustrate, central to hip-hop are narrative themes, expressed in the music’s textures and lyrics, concerning real and imagined ideas about contested space. As a result of globalization, these themes ‘can be heard in other languages around the world, expressed with a shared emphasis on spatial location and identity formation but informed by radically varied contexts and environments’ (Forman 2002, 18). Further reading: Bashford 2007; Bennett 2000; Biddle and Knights 2007; Cohen, S. 2012; Dockwray and Moore 2010; Fisher 2014; Hill 2007; Johansson and Bell 2009; Jones 2006; Krims 2002; Leyshon, Matless and Revill 1998; Moore 2010; Parham 2011; Sallis, Elliott and Delong 2011; Watkins 2008, 2011b; Whiteley, Bennett and Hawkins 2004

POLITICS (MUSIC AND POLITICS) Music can be perceived to interact with, and be influenced by, political contexts and ideological forces (see ideology). Issues of class, culture and gender, among others, can all be read as forming part of politicized discourses (see discourse). More direct ways in which musicology engages with politics can be seen through studies that reflect or articulate broad contexts, such as, for example, the Nazi appropriation of music for ideological purposes (Potter 1998), the aftermath of the Second World War (Thacker 2007), the Cold War, the events of 1968 (Drott 2011), and, from within the same historical frame, the relationship between jazz music and the campaign for civil rights in the USA (Monson 2007). There are also numerous composers, and specific works and recordings, whose relationships to political contexts and circumstances have been subject to forms of musicological enquiry. Shostakovich is one obvious composer whose life and work (see biography) have been discussed extensively from this perspective (see Taruskin 1995b), while Michael

194  Popular music

Tippett is another composer whose own political commitment during the 1930s has been subject to detailed discussion (see Bullivant 2013). The increasing attention given to the study of the relationships between music and politics is reflected in the founding of an online journal in 2007 entitled Music & Politics, which considers issues such as ‘the impact of politics on the lives of musicians, music as a form of political discourse, and the influences of ideology on music historiography’ (http://quod. lib.umich.edu/m/mp). See also: body, conflict, critical theory, culture industry, ethnicity, feminism, gender, identity, Marxism, race Further reading: Adlington 2009, 2013a, 2013b; Cloonan and Garofalo 2003; Currie 2009, 2011, 2012a; Peddie 2011

POPULAR MUSIC Popular music has effectively acquired its own musicology in the form of popular music studies (see Shuker 1998), including the historiography of popular music and its contextualization via models of interpretation derived from critical theory and cultural studies and the application of theory. There is also a significant long-standing network of professional research on popular music (International Association for the Study of Popular Music: http://www.iaspm.net) and important publishing activity around specialized journals such as Popular Music and Popular Music and Society. Popular music has evolved as a generalization that encompasses multifarious musical styles (see style) and practices, much of which can be situated within a commercially driven entertainment-based industry (see culture industry). Each specific culture (nation, region) can be seen to generate its own popular music in some shape or form, but the term has become synonymous with American and Anglo-American music (see globalization). Given the diversity of what popular music has come to incorporate, the term is inevitably resistant to definition and classification. Types of popular music have existed in many different historical epochs and contexts; these include the continuing existence of folk music traditions and the self-conscious search for popularity by some musicians and composers, but a specific sense of a popular music tradition and context is most clearly active in the twentieth century. With the rise of modernism, and an ongoing process of technological innovation – film, sound recording, television, video – generating the contexts in which popular

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music is both constructed and disseminated, the music found its place in a wider notion of a popular culture (see recording). Clearly, the preSecond World War era was less marked by this process, and the musical categories that existed, all of which could in some sense be defined as ‘popular’ – blues, jazz, swing, among others – although disseminated via recordings, were essentially defined through the spontaneity of live performance. In the case of the blues, the transformation from an oral folk tradition to an electric urban sound (for example through Chess Records in Chicago) would become a formative influence on later popular music styles (see place). The pre-war period also witnessed, in conjunction with cinema, the emergence of the personality cult of the performer as star, with Frank Sinatra providing a powerful example of this phenomenon. Most historical narratives of popular music (see historiography, narrative) focus on its development from the 1950s (see Gillett 1983) to the present, with a succession of styles contained within a historical chronology (see periodization). In this history, the 1950s and the emergence of rock ‘n’ roll assume a seminal status, with the early recordings of Elvis Presley, for example, positioned as an almost mythical point of origin. Great attention is also given to the music of the 1960s, as defined by The Beatles, and rock-based narratives of the 1970s (see canon), but it is clear that this period also witnessed a separation of the popular music audience, often along generational lines, and a new diversification of styles. The processes of fragmentation and diversification that emerged from the later 1960s continued and indeed intensified in the subsequent development of popular music (see postmodernism). This is evident through the multiplicity of styles and terms that coexist within a similar historical frame (indie, r&b, rap, hip-hop, trip-hop and many others). Each of these styles appears to have the potential to attract its own, often exclusive, audience, a fact that further undermines any notion of a singular culture. The pluralization of popular music can now be seen as a reflection of a wider social and historical process. It suggests that popular music, rather than being just a reflection of this process, is an active agent in its construction and a definitive statement of a contemporary postmodern condition. Popular music in itself may not be a concept as such, but it is a musical context that is replete with concepts, and its interpretation requires the application of conceptual thought. One common interpretation of popular music has viewed it as inherently inferior to the ‘high’ culture of classical music. This alleged inferiority of popular music is most clearly marked in the writings of German critical theorist Theodor Adorno. In an article first published in 1941, Adorno saw popular music as ‘characterized by its difference from serious music’. In this characterization, the

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music is defined through a common ‘standardization’, and any sense of individuality or difference is explained as ‘pseudo-individualization’ that is manipulated by the culture industry, clearly a highly negative interpretation that focuses exclusively on recurrent features (standardization) and negates the exceptional nature and individual identity of much popular music (Adorno 1994, 2002, 437–69). Other recurrent definitions of popular music focus on social or sociological frameworks, seeing it as the product of certain social groupings (see class). However, while it is certainly relevant to view some aspects of popular music as the expression of or response to specific socio-economic circumstances at a specific historical moment, this does not take account of generational change or social mobility: changing social and/ or economic circumstances may come to have as great an impact on an individual’s subjective response to the music as did the contexts from which the music originally emerged (see subjectivity). Nevertheless, the sociology of popular music remains important, and the social, collective dimension plays a significant part in both its production and consumption. In contrast to a sociological understanding of popular music and the broad contexts of history, a specifically music-oriented approach has evolved that provides an analytical focus on the music as the ‘primary text’ (Moore 2001a), as well as wider discussions of what actually constitutes the text in a popular music context (Middleton 2000c). Walter Everett’s highly detailed work on The Beatles provides a good example of the analytical response to popular music through the application of Schenkerian voice-leading techniques and levels of analytical reduction (Everett 1999). See also: analysis, authenticity, conflict, cover version, criticism, ethnicity, feminism, gender, subject position Further reading: Everett 2009; Frith 1996; Griffiths 2004, 2012; Hill 2013; Longhurst 1995; Middleton 1990; Moore 2012; Palmer 1996; Scott 2009; Stilwell 2004; Strinati 1995

POPULAR MUSICOLOGY Popular musicology is a term proposed by Derek Scott and Stan Hawkins and defined by their work editing an online journal with the title Popular Musicology (http://www.popular-musicology-online.com). The founding of the journal reflected what the editors felt to be dissatisfaction with the ‘lack of musicological engagement with popular music in the early

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1990s’ (Scott 2009, 1). The term suggests a more specifically music-based enquiry in contrast to the at times sociological focus of some aspects of popular music study. However, the work that was anthologized as a research companion by Scott (ibid.) is organized around recurring themes and issues – film (see film music), technology, gender, sexuality, identity, ethnicity, performance, gesture, reception, music industry (see culture industry), globalization – that are now highly evident in other disciplinary contexts and perspectives. Further reading: Everett 2009; Moore 2003

POSITIVISM Positivism reflects a view of the world and a conception of knowledge that believe that knowledge and, by implication, interpretation, can be validated only through an evident proof. It therefore reflects a scientific determination by which evidence is tested, and a hypothesis is either rejected or accepted on the basis of a proven truth. While positivism has a long history in philosophy and has regularly been subject to critique, the rise of positivist thought coincided with the emergence of industrialization in the nineteenth century, with its processes of rationalization reflecting science while also placing new demands on it. There are several writers and texts from the nineteenth century that reflect the scientific aura of positivism. Hermann von Helmholtz, who was a physicist and psychologist and was interested in the philosophical and aesthetic issues of the period, considered ‘the sensations of tone’ and commented upon Hanslick’s Vom Musikalisch-Schönen (On the Musically Beautiful) (see aesthetics, autonomy, meaning), embracing what Bojan Bujic´ describes as ‘Hanslick’s anti-emotionalist stance’ (Bujic´ 1988, 276; see also Helmholtz 1954). Hanslick’s own view of music as ‘tonally moving forms’ (Hanslick 1986, 29) again reflects the positivistic ideology of the period. Other theorists and writers who reflected this scientific engagement with music include Edmund Gurney, whose The Power of Sound was published in 1880, and who considered the distinction that could be made between ‘the two ways of hearing music’ based on the ‘definite or indefinite character’ of that music. These ‘two modes of effect’ connect with ‘perception and non-perception of form’ and therefore lead to the ‘definite character of music involving the perception of individual melodic and harmonic combinations, the indefinite character involving merely the perception of successions of agreeably-toned and harmonious sound’ (Bujic´

198 Postcolonial/Postcolonialism

1988, 292–3). This view, with its concern with the act of listening and related issues of perception and sound, reflects a positivist perspective that seeks to establish a degree of scientific certainty enclosed within a quasi-scientific language. These issues of listening and perception will be revisited in later musicology (see psychology). Many musicological activities can readily be seen to reflect positivism. For example, the study of historical documents through issues such as the attribution of a manuscript (see historical musicology) can involve a positivistic perspective. While the determination of what constitutes a formal structure for an individual work (see analysis) is very different to the attribution of a manuscript, it can also be seen to involve positivistic thought that, in the case of analysis, can often assume a scientific aura (see Forte 1973). Joseph Kerman questions this reflection in his overview of musicology published in 1985. According to Kerman, ‘Musicology is perceived as dealing essentially with the factual, the documentary, the verifiable, the analysable, the positivistic. Musicologists are respected for the facts they know about music. They are not admired for their insight into music as aesthetic experience’ (Kerman 1985, 12). For Kerman, musicology needed to move towards a broader, more humane condition: ‘What I uphold and try to practice is a kind of musicology oriented towards criticism, a kind of criticism oriented towards history’ (ibid., 19). This opening up of musicology, and the proposed shift from a fact-based perspective, is one of the paths that, in retrospect, could be seen to lead to the emergence of new and critical musicologies in the 1990s (see critical musicology, new musicology) that seek to replace the ideology of positivism, along with concepts such as formalism and autonomy, with a wider sense of interpretation (see hermeneutics). Further reading: Karnes 2008; Steege 2012

POSTCOLONIAL/POSTCOLONIALISM The term postcolonial entered political theory in the 1970s to describe the predicament of nations that, following the Second World War, ceased to be part of European empires. By the 1980s, the term was also being used in literary criticism, the history of law, anthropology, political economy, philosophy, historiography, art history, and psychoanalysis (see Ashcroft, Griffiths and Tiffin 2002). In the 1990s, the unhyphenated form of the word appeared following the establishment of the term in

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general and the rise of postcolonial discourse theory, which was heavily influenced by post-structuralism. Key contributors to postcolonial discourse theory include cultural theorists Gayatri Spivak, Edward Said and Homi Bhabha, all of whom were born and brought up in regions of the world that had experienced colonialism (Said from Palestine, Spivak and Bhabha from India) but became established at American universities. Edward Said was one of the first to draw attention to the need to investigate the system of discourse by which the world is ordered, administered and divided into the self (the ‘human’ colonizers) and the Other (the ‘inhuman’ colonized peoples) (Said 1978, 1994). This gave rise to a consideration of material previously overlooked, such as travel writing, letters and autobiographies, as well as literature, art and music. Said’s work on Orientalism has been directly absorbed into musicology, in particular in relation to nineteenth-century opera (see Robinson 1993; Everist 1996). Where Said apparently views the relationship between colonizer and colonized as fixed and homogeneous, Bhabha describes it as a nervous condition of fantasy and desire, emphasizing instead the ambivalence and heterogeneity of colonial discourse. Bhabha has argued that one result of colonialism is hybridity, as the distinction between the colonizer and the colonized is apparently broken down. In reality, the condition is often one in which the colonized mimic or parody the colonizers, either to fit in or to subvert the ruling power (Bhabha 1994). Spivak’s work has centred on subaltern groups, those who do not belong to the ruling classes and whose indigenous position often means that they have had no voice in the construction of history. More specifically, she points out that, while postcolonial discourse theory may speak for subaltern groups, there is no such thing as a single subaltern identity. She has illustrated this by stressing the need to situate discussion of the colonial or postcolonial individual in his or her specific gendered, social, geographical and historical context in order to better understand varying colonial and postcolonial experiences (Spivak 1994). The musicologists most closely associated with the issues raised by these theorists are ethnomusicologists (see ethnicity). American ethnomusicologist Philip V. Bohlman has noted the moral imperative of ethnologists working on indigenous music to reflect as closely as possible the particulars of the music and its forms of practice, to insist on its difference (see alterity) from Western practice (Bohlman 1992, 132). Although detailed transcriptions and associated commentaries of non-Western music may reveal the inadequacies of Western notation, they may also narrow, rather than enforce, the gap imposed by colonialism.

200 Postcolonial/Postcolonialism

According to Vijay Mishra and Bob Hodge, the term postcolonial: foregrounds a politics of opposition and struggle, and problematizes the key relationship between centre and periphery. It has helped to destabilize the barriers around ‘English literature’ that protected the primacy of the canon and the self-evidence of its standards. (Mishra and Hodge 1994, 276) This description points to the degree of overlap that exists between considerations of postcolonialism and other inquiries for which the notions of periphery and centre are crucial, such as canon, gender (see also gay musicology) and alterity. From the specific viewpoint of resisting empire and colonialism, a good example in music is that of Bartók and other Eastern European composers of the early twentieth century, who attempted to resist and critique the prevailing Austro-Hungarian Empire. In Bartók’s case, this was expressed through his assertion of the Hungarian language and the revitalization of indigenous folk material in a modernist context (see modernism; see also Brown 2000). Further links between music and empire can be traced back to the sixteenth century, with Spanish colonialism in South America (Tomlinson 2007b; Baker 2008) and Southeast Asia (Irving 2010), and to the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, when attempts were made by the French, German and British to account for music from outside Europe – mainly that of China, Africa and America. These accounts reflect a growing desire for non-Western difference (see Young 1995), and they usually focused on musical accomplishments. Although this approach reflects the eighteenth-century Enlightenment belief in the equality of men, the eventual growth of colonies and empires contradicted this view (Pasler 2015). Such ambiguities are reflected in some of Mozart’s music, for example his varied treatment of the Turkish character Osmin in Die Entführung aus dem Serail (1781). Given the history of Turkish rule in Eastern Europe under the Ottoman Empire, it is interesting to hear Mozart’s musical characterization of Osmin ranging from admiration to revulsion (Head 2000). Mozart’s views were in sympathy with those of French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau, a key contributor to the French Enlightenment, who, despite reservations about certain aspects of non-Western civilizations, believed that indigenous peoples had an instinctive ‘natural ability’, especially for activities such as music. In fact, Rousseau believed that the origins of Western music and language could be found in the primitive ‘speechsongs’ of ‘native peoples’. As colonial interests shifted towards Africa in the nineteenth century, so did the work of ethnomusicologists, although, according to Radano and

Postcolonial/Postcolonialism 201

Bohlman, ‘these later studies commonly positioned foreign musics in a decidedly inferior status in ways consistent with the growing orthodoxy of racialist opinion, laden as it was with the pernicious claims of Social Darwinism’ (Radano and Bohlman 2000, 17). In the early twentieth century, the practice of ethnomusicology was encouraged by some institutions, such as the Schola Cantorum in Paris. At this time, such work was closely linked to modernist compositional aesthetics; this topic has been explored in some detail by musicologist Jann Pasler in an essay on French composers/ethnomusicologists Albert Roussel and Maurice Delage (Pasler 2000). Interest in non-Western music and the cultures of Africa and Asia was a central concern in the establishment of modernist aesthetics, a fact demonstrated by the collections of African masks assembled by Picasso around 1907 and reflected in his painting Les Demoiselles d’Avignon from the same year. The French had been responsive to African art for some time before this, as illustrated by the Universal Expositions of 1878, 1889 and 1900, and during the 1920s and 1930s this interest prevailed in the music of Milhaud, Antheil and Ravel. Milhaud’s ballet La Création du Monde (1923) constitutes a very typical early modernist attempt to fuse contemporary experience (Milhaud’s experience of listening to black jazz musicians in Harlem) with an ideological belief in a primitive Other (his belief in the ‘negro soul’), together with an Orientalist conception of African music (see Gendron 2002). Later twentieth-century examples of modernism’s continued fascination with Orientalist conceptions can be found in the experimental works of composers such as John Cage (his Sonatas and Interludes, 1948, for prepared piano evokes the bell and gong sounds of Balinese gamelan), Harry Partch and Lou Harrison. John Corbett has considered these composers, as well as the responses of the American experimental jazz musician and composer John Zorn to the music of Japan (Corbett 2000). Corbett even notes that, in the case of the Chinese composer Tan Dun, the usual paradigm of Orientalist appropriation is turned on its head, as Cage-like nature sounds are sent ‘back’ to China, where they are greeted as exotic items. The music of later twentieth-century Americans, in particular, embraces globalization through its tendency to mix a range of non-Western sounds from unspecified origins, in some cases in order to develop a form of ‘world music’. However, working from the opposite end of the spectrum, minority ethnic groups in Western countries may appropriate popular genres in order to convey culture-specific knowledge that, inevitably and deliberately, privileges the position of certain listeners. An example of this is the music of Cornershop, especially their songs using Hindi or hybrid English/Punjabi lyrics, as well as drones and

202 Postmodernism

sitars. In this way, Cornershop’s music can be compared with postcolonial texts such as Salman Rushdie’s The Satanic Verses (1988), which ‘can draw on an indigenous precursor tradition that has some of the features of postmodernism’ (Mishra and Hodge 1994, 283). Further reading: Agawu 2003; Bushnell 2013; Ghuman 2014; Hoene 2015; Hyder 2004; Kramer 1995; Moore-Gilbert 1997; Moriarty 1991; Rosenberg 2012; Spivak 1999; Subotnik 1996; Toynbee 2007; Weidman 2006; Young 2001, 2003

POSTMODERNISM The concept of postmodernism, and the ideas that it both envelops and reflects, has enjoyed wide acceptance in most cultural contexts and has increasingly been used in relation to musicological thought and contemporary musical practices. However, it remains a term that is highly resistant to definition. According to Hans Bertens, ‘Postmodernism is an exasperating term, and so are postmodern, postmodernist, post-modernity, and whatever else one might come across in the way of derivation’ (Bertens 1995, 3). This exasperation echoes Linda Hutcheon’s claim that: ‘Few words are more used and abused in discussions of contemporary culture than the word “postmodernism”’ and, as a result, ‘any attempt to define the word will necessarily and simultaneously have both positive and negative dimensions’ (Hutcheon 1989, 1). These positive and negative dimensions, saying both what it is and what it is not, look towards the problematic relationship between postmodernism and modernism. Does it imply a rejection of modernism (‘what postmodernism is not’)? Alternatively, might the implication that modernism is left intact after the prefix ‘post’ open up a more positive dimension that can suggest some degree of continuity between the two concepts? The understanding of postmodernism as a rejection of modernism is most clearly articulated in the philosophy of Jean-François Lyotard. His The Postmodern Condition (Lyotard 1992), originally published in French in 1979 and first translated into English in 1984, had a great impact on contemporary thought and continues to have a remarkable legacy. Lyotard begins with a seemingly straightforward definition of modernism: ‘I will use the term modern to designate any science that legitimates itself with reference to a metadiscourse [see discourse] . . . making an explicit appeal to some grand narrative’ (ibid., xxiii). This statement is usually interpreted as defining modernism through all-embracing, totalizing narratives (see narrative). In contrast, Lyotard describes postmodernism as ‘incredulity toward metanarratives’ (ibid., xxiv), and later

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he states that ‘the little narrative remains the quintessential form of imaginative invention’ (ibid., 60). In other words, we can no longer believe in the grand metanarratives of modernism and therefore the focus shifts to the micro-narratives (‘the little narratives’) of postmodernism: from the large to the small, from the singular to the plural. There is a great deal of evidence to support this claim. Many would accept that we live in a more plural, fragmented cultural context than in the past. This is certainly the case with music. Many different musical styles coexist without there being any culturally dominant set of values (see value) or definitive style. This is most clearly evident in popular music, which, in its contemporary manifestations, articulates a myriad of changing styles and genres (see genre). However, it is equally possible to challenge the claims made for postmodernism. Musical modernism, for example, although driven by utopian and progressive aesthetic imperatives (see aesthetics), contained its own plurality, as reflected by the very different musical practices of Schoenberg and Stravinsky, and was often also a culture of fragmentation, even if that dimension was ultimately resisted in much modernist thought. Although our contemporary culture may be increasingly fragmented into plural micro-narratives, the apparent homogeneity of the political and economic contexts, as reflected in current debates on globalization, suggests a more complex picture than some aspects of postmodern thought might allow. The problematics of defining the relationship between modernism and postmodernism – and, by implication, the relationship between past and present – introduce the possibility of thinking of postmodernism as history in conjunction with the adjacent issue of periodization. The evocation of history is most clearly made in the writings of Fredric Jameson, who, through his use of a late Marxist agenda (see Marxism), creates a unique perspective on the concept. Jameson seeks to situate postmodernism within a recognizable historical framework while being alive to the paradoxes involved in this exercise: ‘It is safest to grasp the concept of the postmodern as an attempt to think the present historically in an age that has forgotten how to think historically in the first place’ (Jameson 1991, ix). This process of thinking the history of the present manifests itself in specific musical practices. The increased self-conscious quotation of the past, as reflected in the music of B.A. Zimmermann and George Rochberg, for example, produces an intertextual postmodern music (see intertextuality). These musical representations provide a reflection of Umberto Eco’s ‘postmodern attitude’, which involves accepting ‘the challenge of the past, of the already said, which cannot be eliminated’ (Eco 1985, 67).

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Jameson also seeks to project postmodernism into a specific historical location. He draws attention to the juncture after the late 1950s or the early 1960s, suggesting that any notion of a postmodernism ‘depends on the hypothesis of some radical break . . . generally traced back to the end of the 1950s or the early 1960s’ (Jameson 1991, 1). This proposal has clear musical resonance, with the radical changes of musical styles and languages (see language) throughout the 1960s now seen as a reflection of postmodernism (see also Harvey 1990; Jameson 1988; Gloag 2001). Although Jameson seeks to configure postmodernism as history, he, like Lyotard, embraces fragmentation and difference as the cultural norm, but this now becomes part of a distinction between style and history: The conception of postmodernism . . . is a historical rather than a merely stylistic one. I cannot stress too greatly the radical distinction between a view for which the postmodern is one (optional) style among many others available and one which seeks to grasp it as the cultural dominant of the logic of late capitalism. (Jameson 1991, 45–6) This statement is an accurate reflection of the contemporary situation of music. The already mentioned pluralism of the present creates a range of possible stylistic options, none of which dominates. But this becomes postmodernism as a cultural dominant rather than any specific style being defined as postmodern. Clearly, one of the endless stylistic options in postmodernism is a continuing, ongoing modernism. This possibility allows us to understand the different modernist music of Harrison Birtwistle and Pierre Boulez, for example, as stylistic options within the cultural dominant of postmodernism; however, from this perspective, they cannot in themselves achieve the status of the metanarrative, which would allow them to be seen as the stylistic norm that is required for the formation of a cultural dominant. Jameson’s reference to late capitalism introduces an interesting political dimension into the concept, one that is explicitly critical of capitalism. Many aspects of postmodern theory, including the work of Lyotard and Baudrillard, have been criticized for being non-political and, by implication, divorced from reality (Norris 1990, 1992). Some music that has become associated with postmodernism (Górecki, Tavener, for example) can also be seen, through its easy accommodation of past traditions, to be stripped of any critical force. From this angle, the plural coexistences of postmodernism lead to a cultural relativism in which anything goes and culture consequently loses its critical value and voice. This alleged flattening of the cultural field leads to the blurring of the distinctions

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between ‘high’ art and popular culture, a move that, for some, is seen as a significant manifestation of postmodernism. In the words of Dominic Strinati: ‘There are no longer any agreed and inviolable criteria which can serve to differentiate art from popular culture’ (Strinati 1995, 225). There is a great deal of truth in this claim. The marketing of classical music, for example, reflects the manipulations of the culture industry and its translation of popular media into the world of ‘high’ art. There are also notable crossovers and collaborations, which add to the blurring of the distinction between the two contexts; the minimalism of Philip Glass, for example, produces a music that is situated within its own postmodern relationship to both. However, this interpretation is also open to criticism. As Andrew Goodwin points out, the resemblance of Glass’s music to popular music is largely superficial, with the structures of performance and reception still distinct from those of popular music (Goodwin 1994). Many aspects of contemporary musicology have become associated with postmodernism, with the range of topics and issues enclosed by musicology ever widening and fragmenting and therefore reflecting the wider cultural context. The impact of other concepts and contexts, such as feminism, gender studies, critical theory and cultural studies, and the resulting interdisciplinarity, can also be interpreted as a further reflection of postmodernism and thus indicative of the possibility of a postmodern musicology. The new musicology that emerged in the 1980s and 1990s is often portrayed as a reflection of a wider postmodernism, with this interaction most vividly present in the work of Lawrence Kramer. According to Kramer: ‘The emergence of postmodernist musicologies will depend on our willingness and ability to read as inscribed within the immediacyeffects of music itself the kind of mediating structures usually positioned outside music under the rubric of context’ (Kramer 1995, 18). In other words, the construction of a postmodernist musicology will deconstruct the boundaries between the internal and external natures of music (see deconstruction), a move that displaces the claims of a formalist musicology (see formalism) and the related concept of the autonomous (see autonomy) musical work while retaining a focus on the music itself. Gary Tomlinson, writing in response to an earlier article by Kramer, goes further, suggesting that: We need to move away from the whole constraining notion that close reading of works of music, of whatever sort, is the sine qua non of musicological practice. This notion has repeatedly pulled us back toward the aestheticism and transcendentalism of earlier ideologies.

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(I have felt the pull in much of the nascent postmodern musicology I have read and written.) It is not enough to cast our close readings in the light of new methods – narratological, feminist, phenomenological, anthropological, whatever. For it is the act of close reading itself that carries with it the ideological charge of modernism. These new methods, instead, need to be linked to new approaches to music that have distanced themselves from such analytically oriented reading. They need, indeed, to be allowed to engender such new approaches. (Tomlinson 1993a, 21–2) For Tomlinson, then, it is not enough to read context in the content of music; we need to escape the ideological grasp (see ideology) exerted by a modernist fetishization of the work and its related ‘close readings’ (see analysis). There are significant differences between the views of Kramer and Tomlinson (see Kramer 1993a), and, as patterns of contemporary musicology have developed, there are further reflections of both positions, but these differences also provide an apt reflection of a musicology that is increasingly shaped by the pluralities and differences of the wider cultural and intellectual landscape of postmodernism. Further reading: Cahoone 1996; Currie 2012a; Gloag 2012; Lochhead 2009; Lochhead and Auner 2002; McClary 2009; Miller 1993; Taruskin 2005a, Volume 5; Vattimo 1988; Williams 2000

POST-STRUCTURALISM This is a general movement of thought and ideas in various fields that grew out of structuralism but also reacted against the dominance of its precursor. This movement was most clearly defined in the work of a number of French theorists and writers during the 1960s. Poststructuralism shares structuralism’s focus on language and its network of meanings (see meaning), but it ultimately rejects the possibility that its study can be that of an objective science. From this perspective, post-structuralism can be seen to embrace new levels of subjectivity and difference (see alterity). It becomes in effect a conceptual space in which possible theoretical paths occur rather than a theoretical paradigm. The reconsideration of language is most clearly defined in the seminal work of French philosopher Jacques Derrida, in which the seemingly stable binaries of de Saussure’s model of language are deconstructed and new multiplicities of meaning are explored (see deconstruction).

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The shift from a structuralist to a post-structuralist mode of thought was most clearly outlined in the work of French literary theorist Roland Barthes. His Mythologies, originally published in 1957 (Barthes 1973), analysed a wide range of social and cultural phenomena in terms of their underlying structures, and this book played a significant part in the wider dissemination of structuralism. However, Barthes also looked to new possibilities and was alive to intellectual change. His essay ‘The Death of the Author’, for example, argued for interpretation (‘the birth of the reader’) as the site of meaning in the literary context, a move that shifted the focus from the construction of language as structure towards the plural possibilities of interpretation (Barthes 1977, 142–8). Barthes’ later work of the 1970s, such as S/Z (Barthes 1990b) and The Pleasure of the Text (Barthes 1990a), still often concerns itself with language, but by this stage any theoretical precision and analytical rigour is replaced by what may be understood as an idiosyncratic subjectivity that refers to and draws from any number of sources and objects. Roland Barthes also wrote about music. The essays collected in The Responsibility of Forms (Barthes 1985) contain some fleeting but fascinating insights into music. The essay ‘The Romantic Song’ begins with a reference to Schubert: Once again, tonight, I am listening to the opening phrase of the andante of Schubert’s first trio – a perfect phrase, at once unitary and divided, an amorous phrase, if ever there was one – and once again I realize how difficult it is to talk about what one loves. What is there to say about what one loves except: I love it, and to keep on saying it? (ibid., 286) Of course, there is more to say, and Barthes will say it, but it is significant that he is writing about music in what may be described as a romantic manner (see Romanticism), with the reference to ‘love’ reflecting the eroticism that he explored in The Pleasure of the Text (Barthes 1990a) and A Lover’s Discourse: Fragments (Barthes 1990c). The subjectivity of his response reflects what he perceives in the music, but it clearly says more about Barthes (as ‘reader’/‘listener’) than about Schubert (as ‘author’/‘composer’). From this perspective, it reflects a wider poststructuralism. It is still in some sense concerned with language (that of both Barthes and Schubert), but it does not concern itself with issues of ‘deep’ structure in terms of the music; nor does it engage directly with how language is used to describe and interpret the music. And, most significantly, there is clearly no possible claim to objectivity.

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Barthes, like other thinkers associated with post-structuralism, does not provide a direct model for music, but clearly musicology has experienced its own shift, which parallels that of structuralism and poststructuralism. Also, the issues of subjectivity and interpretation raised in Barthes’ work will reappear in certain musicological contexts. Music analysis functions as the disciplinary context that most clearly reflects a structuralist perspective in that it has generally been concerned with the structures of music and the methods used to identify and explicate structure. However, other forms of musicology have also clearly echoed structuralism’s claim of objectivity and its scientific aura, enacting a certain positivism: the proving of something, the establishment of fact. This can be seen through the standard accounts of the life and work of composers (see biography), which seek to establish an accurate version of the composer’s life, often with some connection to the music. This does not in itself constitute a structuralism, but, in Barthes’ terms, such writing privileges the composer (‘author’) over the interpreter (‘reader’). Other forms of musicology also have an aura of objectivity and a positivistic drive, as is evident in musicological activities such as the dating of manuscripts, the identification of a composer’s sketch material and the compilation of editions of musical works (see historical musicology). That musicology in general, and analysis in particular, projects certain parallels with structuralism suggests that they are susceptible to poststructuralist critique. The first meaningful attempt to do this came from within the discipline, with American musicologist Joseph Kerman providing an account of musicology that was not really post-structuralist in itself, nor did it directly invoke the term, but it did reflect some of the issues outlined above. His book Musicology (Contemplating Music in the USA; Kerman 1985) provides a wide-ranging summary of the discipline, one that contemplates the interaction between musicology and positivism. More significant in this context is Kerman’s essay ‘How We Got into Analysis, and How to Get Out’ (Kerman 1994). Originally published in 1980, this has had a wide impact, and its issues reflect many concepts discussed in this book (see analysis, criticism, formalism). In this context, we can read Kerman’s plea for a ‘new breadth and flexibility in academic music criticism’ (ibid., 30) as reflecting a post-structuralist suspicion of the certainties of structuralism. In other disciplinary contexts, such as literary theory, post-structuralism is now effectively a historical term that reflects a body of work that is no longer current. While there is little direct use of the term as such in current or recent musicology, it is clear that new formations of musicology from the 1980s and 1990s onwards (see critical musicology, new musicology, postmodernism) have reflected Kerman’s

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challenge to musicology but have also mirrored the wider contexts of post-structuralism. Post-structuralism, often intertwined with postmodernism, is present in the wide range of issues and subjects now considered by musicology, but, more significantly, it is also active in the perspectives from which they are viewed. Effective examples include the work of Susan McClary, whose feminist perspective (see feminism, gender) on music is charged with a critical suspicion of concepts related to structuralism, primarily that of the autonomous (see autonomy) musical work (McClary 1991), and Lawrence Kramer (Kramer 2002), who projects a wide interdisciplinary perspective and critical engagement that admirably reflect his ‘new breadth and flexibility’. Further reading: Burke 1993; Currie 2012a; Engh 1993; Klumpenhouwer 1998; Kramer 1995, 2011; Moriarty 1991; Subotnik 1996; Szendy 2008

PSYCHOLOGY Investigations into musical behaviour, perception and experience are wide-ranging and impinge on studies of all aspects of music, including performance, listening, theory, analysis and composition. Metho­ dologies also range widely, from ‘hard’ neurological studies of the brain and its responses to sound, through blended scientific and socio-cultural approaches to music therapy and learning, to more sociologically inclined studies of music in everyday life (Clarke, Dibben and Pitts 2010). In its strictest sense, the psychology of music amounts to scientifically based empirical studies of perception and cognition in listening. Much of this work has centred on psycho-acoustics – studies of the sensory mechanisms responsible for our perception of pitch, loudness and timbre (Seashore 1967; Deutsch 1982; Stainsby and Cross 2009). The main conclusion from this work is that the physical and perceptual properties of sound do not map on to one another directly. For example, the perception of rhythm is accurate only over short time spans (Dibben 2002b). However, at the other end of the spectrum is the growing field of social psychology, which investigates the reciprocal relationship between listeners and their context (see Hargreaves and North 1998) and the ecological idea of perception as the relationship between perceivers and their environment (Clarke 2005; see also ecomusicology). Social psychology also includes music therapy (see Pavlicevic 2000), ethnicity and gender studies, composition, improvisation, and education. Social psychologists have demonstrated that taste (see value) is influenced to some degree by social context and demographics, as well as having a

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reciprocal relationship with a person’s identity formation. Psychologists have also considered how music may affect consumer behaviour. The link between emotional response and music, for example in relation to specific events or memories, has also been an important consideration for psychologists (see Sloboda 1991), and external features, such as programme notes and music videos, may influence these responses (Cook and Dibben 2001; see also emotion). Another established area of psychological study is performance and musical expression, including research into the role of the body (Davidson 1993; Clarke 1995; see also recording), and some studies have argued that biological factors are more important than cultural ones, especially in infant learning (Hill 1997). The subject of music perception is one that has figured prominently in various analytical studies. An early example of this is the analytical language of Arnold Schoenberg, in which traces of the ideas of Austrian psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud can be detected, in particular in Schoenberg’s concept of the Grundgestalt, or ‘basic shape’, from which an entire piece may be shown to evolve (see modernism, organicism). Attempts have been made to synthesize this concept with the ideas of Austrian music theorist Heinrich Schenker (Epstein 1979). Similarly, Leonard Meyer’s consideration of melodic, harmonic and rhythmic implications in tonal music led to Eugene Narmour’s implication–realization model, which relates music perception to stylistic expectations (Narmour 1992; see style). Also of significance is the work of composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff (Lerdahl and Jackendoff 1983). Influenced by linguist Noam Chomsky, their study is an attempt to form a grammar that consists of a set of rules governing the relationship between the physical sounds of tonal music and the way in which these are organized in a listener’s mind – what they have called a generative theory of tonal music. This grammar comprises a hierarchical grouping of events, although it does not consider how such groups are constructed through repeated listening (see Sloboda 1992). In an attempt to deal with what he saw as deficiencies in traditional music analysis discourse, American music theorist David Lewin produced an important investigation into the division between sound events and our interpretation of them in their tonal context by drawing on Edmund Husserl’s phenomenological theories of perception (Lewin 1986; for an account of Husserlian phenomenology – a study of our conscious experience, including accounts of perceiving single tones and melodies – see Miller 1984). Lewin illustrates how the perception of music is dependent upon having a ‘well-formed context’ for sounds. For example, a proper context is necessary for listeners to distinguish

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between the first and second bars of Beethoven’s Eroica Symphony (1806) (both E-flat triads), a distinction that would not be perceived if they were played in isolation (Lewin 1986, 337). He also problematizes the distinction that Husserl makes between acoustic and mental objects. In its emphasis on multiple layers of perception, Lewin’s model can be seen to reflect ideas inherent in post-structuralism (see also Lerdahl 1989; Morris 1993). Accounts of particular composers and works have also taken psychoanalytical factors into consideration. In some cases, this may reflect interests that composers themselves have declared, such as Michael Tippett’s interest in the work of Carl Jung, in particular the idea of ‘image’, and the possible implications of this for Tippett’s conception of musical form (Clarke 2001). Wagner is the composer who has most frequently attracted psychoanalytical interpretation (Donington 1984; Wintle 1992; Žižek and Dolar 2002; Kramer 2004), although pioneering ideas on music and psychology are present in the work of music critic Hans Keller, as reflected in his development of so-called functional analysis, but especially in his interpretations of Peter Grimes (1945) and other operas by Benjamin Britten (Keller 2003). Interest in the theory of the French psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan, particularly as it pertains to the subject of desire, has motivated a number of scholars to combine Lacan’s and other cultural and philosophical perspectives with music-analytical techniques, effectively equating tonal tensions, releases and resolutions with the dynamics of Lacan’s theory (Smith 2011, 2013; Harper-Scott 2010, 2012b), although such ideas are arguably applicable to non-tonal music as well (Beard 2012a). See also: consciousness Further reading: Booth Davies 1980; Clarke and Clarke 2011; Deliège and Davidson 2011; Hallam, Cross and Thaut 2009; Huron 2006; Meyer 1973; Steege 2012; Storr 1992; Szendy 2008; Thompson 2009

RACE Race refers to perceived social differences based on biological essences, such as skin, hair and eye colour. The eighteenth-century Enlightenment developed theories about race to present a hierarchical view of the world, with white Europeans at its pinnacle. This view was based on the belief that phenotypical (or somatic) differences determined temperament, culture, and human capacities of various kinds. The eighteenth century saw

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the beginnings of a racist ideology in modernist discourses (see discourse). The kernel of this ideology is present in the work of the German philosophers Immanuel Kant and G.W.F. Hegel (see Kant 1996; Hegel 1991; Gilroy 2000) and the French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau. It amounted to the classification of ‘natural races’ into categories and the formation of a ‘Classical episteme’ (Foucault 1972) that incorporated a progressive teleology and naturalist conceptions of difference (see alterity). These ideas grew throughout the nineteenth century, when they were especially noticeable in the anti-Semitism of Wagner, but they found their fullest expression in the race laws of Hitler’s Germany in the 1930s. According to twentieth-century developments in the biological sciences, however, physical differences have been demonstrated to have no correlation with genetic variation among humans. Despite this, the term persists both in everyday discourse and in the social and even biological sciences, informing collective senses of identity that are often highly politically charged (Bliss 2012). Most often, race is associated with populations descended from Africa and is linked to slavery, colonial domination, and political and economic oppression. Although the term grew through its association with resistance, political movements, such as the 1960s Black Power movement in America, have helped to legitimize a concept that was originally conceived by Europeans to label and subvert the non-European Other (Monson 2007). As Steve Fenton has pointed out, there is a high degree of inconsistency in the use of the term. South Asian communities in Britain and America at times may be included in the idea of a black race, whereas in India groups are described as communal rather than racial, and in Northern Ireland the troubles are sectarian (Fenton 1999). In academic discourse, the terms race and ethnicity overlap, as, for example, someone of black race may claim British ethnicity. Where ethnicity can be seen to evolve and change, as in the case of black communities in Britain, the idea of race remains fixed. In view of the scientific discrediting of the term ‘race’, and the opportunity it affords for racism, Robert Miles has instead suggested the term ‘racialization’, which refers ‘to the historical emergence of the idea of “race” and its subsequent reproduction and application’ (Miles 1989, 78). Racial discourse has also been demonstrated as having a defining effect on certain ethnic categories (Sollors 1986; Miles and Brown 2003, 99). Indeed, the common usage of the term ‘race’ in association with black and Jewish identities in particular reveals deep historical discourses associated with slavery, diaspora and the Holocaust. These attributions gloss more fine-grained ethnic differences and suggest that race is a rigid, blunt instrument. However, the term’s

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potential to unite and empower the disenfranchised and oppressed has kept it in common circulation. Central to views on race in European concert music, especially in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century opera, is Orientalism. This concept amounts to the projection of Western ideas and values on to colonial subjects as a means of conceptualizing and controlling them (Said 1978). In relation to this idea, cultural theorist Homi Bhabha has described racism as the embodiment of desire (Bhabha 1990). Although primarily related to the French Revolution, Orientalism can be traced in earlier music. Matthew Head has suggested that the taste that late eighteenth-century Viennese audiences had for Turkish styles (see style) reflects their admiration (and fear) of the neighbouring Ottoman Empire (Head 2000). In Die Entführung aus dem Serail (1781), Mozart presents a stereotypical version of a brutal, barbaric Turk (the character Osmin). However, he also shows Osmin more sympathetically, as a character with a propensity for lyrical song, and as someone with a rational side, which indicates the Enlightenment image of humanity. This example not only illustrates Orientalism in action on the stage but also suggests that composers (and societies) do not necessarily adopt narrow or singular interpretations of racialized subjects. A link has also been noted between race and sexuality. This association can be seen at work in Bizet’s opera Carmen (1873–4), which deliberately casts a female gypsy as its central character, representing a racial and sexual world that existed beyond the boundaries of acceptable bourgeois culture. In this example, as in the context of nineteenth-century opera as a whole, the concept of race was closely linked to a sense of alterity, in terms of gender, ethnicity and class. According to Susan McClary, however, Bizet deployed these themes as a means of critiquing nineteenth-century French society (McClary 1992). Similar arguments are also proposed by Head in relation to Mozart’s use of Turkish music (Head 2000). Narrow conceptions of race have also influenced attitudes towards musicians and repertoires. For example, the reception of Jimi Hendrix includes his being labelled a ‘white nigger’ for appearing in his stage performances to deliberately conform to his white audience’s ideas about virile black men (Gilroy 1999, 93–5). Conversely, Elvis Presley, from the opposite side of the race line, adopted some of the performing gestures and sounds of black music (see gesture and sound). The Presley example points to an appropriation of ideas and music that are considered by some to be the racial property of black musicians. This idea is extended by David Brackett in his argument that James Brown reappropriated and revitalized 12-bar blues forms following the success of rock bands such as The Beatles and Cream, bands that were indebted to black blues

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musicians (Brackett 2000). However, without denying the importance of these interactions, the question of ownership arguably dissolves when one considers that the blues originally grew from an interaction between slaves and Europeans in North America (Tagg 1989). Also linked to race and ethnicity is the idea of hybridity, whereby different racial and ethnic groups may share, appropriate and dominate one another’s music and other cultural forms (Werbner and Modood 1997). Further reading: André, Bryan and Saylor 2012; Austerlitz 2005; Barg and van de Leur 2013; Bertrand 2000; Brinner 2009; Brooks 2004; Brown 2007, 2014; Burke 2010; Cook 2007; Fanon 1967; Floyd 1995; Gopinath 2009, 2011; Hanson 2008; Hooker 2013b; Jeffries 2011; Loya 2011; Malik 1996; Radano 2003; Ramsey 2003; Sharpley-Whiting 2007; Stratton 2009; Zon 2007

RECEPTION Reception refers to critical responses to art, literature and music in terms of public reviews that appear in written or printed sources such as books, journals, newspapers, letters and diaries. This applies not only to reception that is contemporary with an art work’s entrance into the public domain but also to subsequent generations, since interpretations (see interpretation) may change and take on new meanings according to different contexts. The origins of attempts to theorize reception history reside in German literary criticism dating from the 1960s (see Jauss 1982), and such attempts form part of a more widespread move to replace the idea of a single authored text (see post-structuralism). These ideas began to enter German musicology in the late 1960s and Anglo-American musicology in the 1980s (see Everist 1999). The study of the reception history of specific composers, genres (see genre) or works (see work) has generated a theory that offers the potential to develop more fine-grained appreciations of the social construction of musical meaning, musical aesthetics, ideologies (see ideology) and philosophies, and that provides an insight into the processes of cultural evaluation of particular periods (see value, periodization). It also makes it necessary to reconsider the work concept. According to Mark Everist: Theories of reception move historical enquiry away from questions of production and composition and towards issues related to response, audience, and what Carl Dahlhaus, following Walter Benjamin, called the ‘after-life’ of musical works. (Everist 1999, 379; see also Dahlhaus 1983a)

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Studies of reception are therefore closely bound to related areas such as cultural studies, reader response theory (see post-structuralism) and hermeneutics. These theories have informed musicological studies of canon formation, such as Katherine Ellis’s revealing analysis of canon in nineteenth-century France, which considers the effect of nationalism on music reception (Ellis 1995). Arguably, although such work helps to develop an understanding of past cultures, a sense of the strangeness and otherness of the past (see alterity) should remain in order to bring such accounts to life. Central to many of the sources that reception history explores is the role of narrative, especially in nineteenth-century accounts of musical works. One writer who explores this idea is Scott Burnham in his seminal book Beethoven Hero (Burnham 1995). Burnham considers the role that a set of commonly recurring narrative topics have in influencing forms of music analysis (see also Krummacher 1994); these topics include the unity of life and work (see autobiography, biography), and the necessity of artistic striving and suffering. However, one could object that this approach simply reinstates a fixed set of evaluative criteria and ignores the qualities of the aesthetic work that emerge later in history (Spitzer 1997). A similar objection could be lodged against the notion of a moderate modernism (Adorno 1997; Whittall 2004), or a middlebrow modernism (Chowrimootoo 2014); the latter arises from the reception of Benjamin Britten’s music, which, in its own time, was often viewed as a safe form of modernism, neither wholly conventional nor avant-garde (Chowrimootoo 2011). While the examination of Britten reception opens up interesting perspectives on modernism, which we now understand as a form of discourse in which a range of stances have been taken (see stance), reception history itself should be understood as a discourse that will continue to evolve as music signifies differently to each new generation. Other issues explored in reception studies include performance, for example the reception of Chopin’s piano music (see Methuen-Campbell 1992), and conducting styles (see Knittel 1995). Reception theory has also been used to highlight the role of ‘expert listeners’ in reception history (see listening); an example of this is Sandra McColl’s study Music Criticism in Vienna 1896–1897, in which music critics emerge as highly cultured ‘guardians of . . . artistic tradition’ (McColl 1996, 223). McColl draws on reception theory to contextualize the music criticism of Eduard Hanslick (see also Brodbeck 2014), the politics of the Brahms–Wagner debates (see absolute), and the early theories of Heinrich Schenker (see also Cook 2007; Morgan 2014). Reception studies have also examined the evolution of musical forms (see form; see also Wingfield 2008), and have been produced in relation to popular music, for example

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in studies of fan-based cultures (see Lewis 1992). Bernard Gendron has skilfully explored shifting responses to the concept of the avant-garde in popular music and jazz in France and America (Gendron 2002, 2009). To explore how reception theory is ‘performed’ and to consider its problems and potential further, it is worth considering in some detail Nicholas Cook’s study of the performance history of Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony (1822–4; Cook 1993). Anticipation of the Ninth Symphony saw a number of reviews that heralded the piece as a standard-bearer for fast-disappearing classical values, those associated with Haydn and Mozart. As Cook notes: Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony was from the very first associated with what in the 1830s and 40s would become a full-blown revivalist movement, the result of which was the establishment of the classical repertory as we know it today – a more or less fixed and unchanging repertory of ‘great and immortal works’. (ibid., 20) In other words, anticipation of the Ninth Symphony already set out the terms for what is now known as the musical canon. However, the reception of the first performance in Vienna, on 7 May 1824, points to a creative problem with reception theory. Those who were unsympathetic to modern music, or who championed Italian Risorgimento opera over domestic symphonies, portrayed the performance as a failure, whereas those who supported Beethoven painted a more sympathetic picture. On the one hand, these differences indicate differing discourses current at the time (see discourse), principally those of an older, reactionary conservatism centred on classical values, such as clarity and precision, and a younger, more liberal attitude associated with Romanticism. On the other hand, these differences make it hard to decide which versions were more accurate. Some cultural theorists have argued that there is no need to choose between competing versions of an event, arguing instead for a relativistic approach that presents a synchronic, or vertical, view of history that complements a diachronic or evolutionary one (see Smith 1988; see also postmodernism). German musicologist Friedhelm Krummacher, on the other hand, has argued that differing versions can be measured against the music itself (Krummacher 1994). Even if the relativistic option is taken, however, the overall impression is of a form of concert performance that differs markedly from those of the later twentieth century, contradicting, in particular, the kind of reverence more recently afforded to Beethoven. There was applause during movements, violinists set their bows down

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when they reached a passage that they could not play, singers left notes out, the double basses, according to one critic, had ‘not the faintest idea what they were supposed to do with the recitatives [and produced] nothing but a gruff rumbling’, and Beethoven ‘threw himself back and forth like a madman’ while the choir and orchestra paid no attention to him but followed the direction of possibly two other conductors (Cook 1993, 22–3). Separating fact from fiction in accounts like these is clearly problematic, but later accounts, including those written by people not present at such events, often betray an even greater tendency towards myth making. However, the reviews do highlight aesthetic tensions that are illuminating (see aesthetics). For example, Beethoven’s inclusion of Turkish music in the finale was a problem for some, and attempts were made to justify its use by stressing an organic manner of presentation (see organicism, Orientalism). It took almost thirty years, modifications in orchestral performance and rehearsal standards, the direction of Berlioz and, perhaps more significantly, a Romantic frame of reference among the critics following the efforts of writers such as A.B. Marx (see Romanticism) to finally realize the work in a more satisfactory manner. Subsequently, and still more importantly, came Wagner’s interpretations of the work. Increased rehearsals, additions and alterations to parts and a conducting style that introduced rubato and contrasting tempi established a new performance history for the work. These factors enable a consideration of questions of authenticity and of traditions of interpretation. However, they do so not in order to argue for a single, original mode of performance but to argue against any attempt to settle the work into a fixed interpretative tradition by drawing attention to its complex performance history. Where conductors such as Arturo Toscanini and, more recently, Roger Norrington and Christopher Hogwood have claimed that their performances restore works to their original contexts, Cook asks which context should be recreated? The first, muddled performance in Vienna, the disastrous English premiere, Berlioz’s interpretation, or Wagner’s (see also Taruskin 1995a, 235–61)? Cook goes on to trace the work’s reception in Wagner’s writings – in particular during the 1848–9 revolutions and his attempt to claim the work as the main precedent for his conception of music drama – and through the twentieth century, including communist China and late twentieth-century Japan. He also notes the success of the work and the way in which it has been adapted by different cultures to suit very different political or social contexts and so be ‘consumed by ideology’ (Cook 1993, 105). Cook concludes that while this appears to effectively interpret the piece out of existence, there remain aspects of the

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work – its incongruities and ironies – that resist totalizing accounts (see narrative). However, it is possible to sense in this conclusion a need to rescue the Ninth Symphony from the vagaries of reception history and to preserve the value of analysis. If reception theory contains the possibility of transcending canonical boundaries (Everist 1999, 378) – in other words, of contributing to the postmodern-influenced approaches of the new musicology and beyond – this potential remains to be explored in full. Further reading: Botstein 2006; Brodbeck 2007; Broyles 2011; Bryan 2011; Celenza 2010; Deutsch 2013; Ellis 2005; Fauser 2005; Garratt 2002; Gregor 2015; Holub 1984; Kelly, B. 2012; Kelly, E. 2014; Kreuzer 2010; Levi 2010; Mathew and Walton 2013; McManus 2014; Platoff 2005; Rowden 2015; Samson 1994; Weber 2008; Willson 2014

RECORDING Recording is a concept that has particular relevance to music from the late nineteenth century onwards. The rise of electronic means of recording and reproducing sound has had a significant impact on the study and analysis of all non-notated music, including popular music, jazz (see Eisenberg 1988; Cook 1998b), folk and non-Western music. The existence of recording technology even had an important role in the establishment of ethnomusicology (see ethnicity). Recording of all music has political, social and cultural ramifications that have more recently given rise to issues of ownership and copyright (see Attali 1985; Keil and Feld 1994; Hesmondhalgh 2000). The existence of recordings has created the possibility of studying the history of performance (Philip 1998), enabling scholars to reassess the concept of authenticity (see Taruskin 1995a, 235–61), as well as giving rise to histories of recording (see Chanan 1995). Since the 1940s and 1950s, the studio has been used as a compositional tool, leading to new musical forms, genres (see genre) and techniques, such as sampling (see Hebdige 1987; Metzer 2003). Certain types of music, such as serialism, have been supported and sustained by broadcast media dependent on recorded sound, a feature that has been effective in influencing audience tastes (Doctor 1999). Recording has led to various types of hybridity in music, which can be traced back to the infiltration of avant-garde techniques into popular music and jazz in the late 1960s. Some musicians, such as The Beatles, abandoned live performance in preference for the recorded format. However, recording has raised a number of problematic theoretical issues, some of which will be outlined below.

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The late 1930s gave rise to a debate between German critical theorists Walter Benjamin and Theodor Adorno (see critical theory) on the subject of the technology used to reproduce images and sound. Benjamin, in his article ‘The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction’ (Benjamin 1992), outlined a difference he perceived between film and painting, and subsequent writers have applied these distinctions to music. Where painting was approached with reverence and awe, resulting from the value placed on the authenticity of the original art work, in film and photography, Benjamin argued, mechanical reproduction removes the object from contemplative modes of reception shaped by traditional aesthetics. Benjamin was concerned with what he saw as ‘outmoded concepts, such as creativity and genius, eternal value and mystery’ (ibid., 212). The fact that mechanical reproduction results in a depreciation, or loss, of authenticity and originality (what he termed ‘aura’) was offset by the possibility it offered for ‘a tremendous shattering of tradition’ (ibid., 215). The fact that film could reach a wide audience also appealed to Benjamin. However, he noted that, in film, contemplation is replaced by distraction, by which he meant a form of reception that was open to political manipulation, as occurred in the case of Nazi propaganda (see politics and ideology). Adorno, on the other hand, was more concerned with the ramifications of such questions for recorded music, and his work with the Princeton University Radio Project in the late 1930s led to an interest in the influence of sound recording on the formation of different types of listening and listener (see Leppert 2002, 228–9). In his article ‘The Fetish-Character of Music and the Regression of Listening’ (Adorno 2002), he outlined his concern that records would become commodity items and that capitalist modes of production (what he terms ‘standardization’) would have a regressive effect on listening habits, not least by making classical music appear easy to listen to (see culture industry). As John Mowitt comments, ‘Adorno preferred the peculiarly classical isolation of the avant-garde to Benjamin’s proletarianized public’ (Mowitt 1987, 188). Adorno also suggested that recording preserves music as a universal, but petrified, form of text (see narrative), and that in some cases performances, through a ‘barbarism of perfection’, may anticipate their recorded status (here he had Italian conductor Arturo Toscanini in mind). An indication that these issues still have relevance in more recent scholarship is provided by the work of musicologist Adam Krims, who has drawn attention to new modes of musical listening that result from production techniques and repackaging of classical and popular music by recording companies to provide music for different private and public

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spaces – for example, recordings that add nature sounds to Beethoven for use in ‘lifestyle stores’ or collections such as ‘Mozart for Dinner’ and ‘Bach for Relaxation’: ‘What is new and worth noting is the successful cross-marketing of these recordings with interior décor and “lifestyle” accessories, and especially the targeting of classical recordings as an aspect of interior living spaces’ (Krims 2001, 352). In other words, classical recordings may be used to design interior spaces. These recordings do not attempt to resemble live concert experience but are ‘made for private, indoor listening and [take] that situation as [their] exemplary location’ (ibid., 353). The result of this is music that is used as decoration and also to sell particular places (see place), such as shopping centres, bars and dance clubs. The other side of Krims’ argument here, that recorded music can change urban spaces and affect consumption of goods and services, is that listener responses are equally susceptible to change: the ubiquity of a pop song may be detrimental to its reception, and it will shape, and be shaped by, a listening subject’s sense of identity (DeNora 2000; Kassabian 2013). Since Krims’ work, studies of recording have burgeoned, partly as a consequence of the efforts of the AHRC Research Centre for the History and Analysis of Recorded Music (CHARM), which, from 2004 to 2009, was sponsored by the British government (see http://www.charm.rhul.ac.uk/index. html; see also Cook et al. 2009). Further reading: Aguilar 2014; Ashby 2010; Born 2009; Brooks 2004; Chua 2011; Downes 2013; Doyle 2005; Engh 1999; Gilbert and Pearson 1999; Greene and Porcello 2005; Gronow and Saunio 1998; Kahn and Whitehead 1992; Katz 2010; Moore 2012; Moore, Schmidt and Dockwray 2009; Osborne 2012; Rehding 2006; Sterne 2012a; Zargorski-Thomas 2014

RENAISSANCE The concept of Renaissance, or ‘rebirth’, is most commonly associated with art, religion, politics and science between the late fourteenth and early seventeenth centuries, although the term reappeared in Britain in the late nineteenth century, following the apparent rebirth of English music in the works of Hubert Parry, Charles Villiers Stanford and Edward Elgar (see Howes 1966; Hughes and Stradling 2001). The original concept began to evolve in fourteenth-century Italian writing, notably in the poetry of Petrarch and Boccaccio. The Italian term rinascita was subsequently supplanted by the French term Renaissance in 1855, and a key work in historicizing (see historicism) the concept was

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Swiss art historian Jacob Burckhardt’s The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, published in 1860 (Burckhardt 1990). The concept is linked to a revival of interest in antiquity, the philosophy, art and politics of Ancient Greece and Rome. These pre-Christian texts were especially appealing to societies that were increasingly developing a sense of the secular, as indicated by the emergence of merchant wealth, lay patronage, and the concepts of citizenry and civic rights. Interest in classical texts moved from monasteries to universities and other collections, including ones in Mantua, Florence and Venice. As a result of the invention of printing techniques, translations of these texts were widely disseminated. In the case of music, there was increased interest in the theory and aesthetics of Ancient Greek and Roman writers such as Boethius and Ptolemy, as well as the discovery of previously unknown works by Aristotle, Plato and Aristoxenus, whose Harmonics was first translated in 1562. Although knowledge of the sound of ancient music remained elusive, studies of these authors led to the development of Renaissance music theories, such as those of Johannes Tinctoris, Heinrich Glarean, Gioseffo Zarlino (especially his Le istitutioni harmoniche of 1558) and Joachim Burmeister, writers who were influenced by developing humanist concerns. These concerns were reflected in a Renaissance belief in the superiority of its own art and artists to those of the preceding medieval period (see periodization). This can be seen in the historiographical (see historiography) tendency to celebrate individual artists, for example Vasari’s Lives of the Painters of 1550 (Vasari 1963), which extolled the virtues of Raphael and Michelangelo, and Tinctoris’s preface to his counterpoint treatise of 1477, which identified a ‘new art’ in the music of Dunstable, Dufay and Binchois. The influence of humanism can also be detected in an interest in classical theories of rhetoric (see language) – Burmeister, in particular, emphasized music’s human, rhetorical character following Quintilian’s theories on rhetoric in his Institutio oratoria. A stress on the importance of words and text setting emerged in the late sixteenth century, when it sparked a controversy that centred on a search for more expressive styles, as characterized by the seconda pratica music of Monteverdi, monody, and the rise of instrumental and vocal virtuosity (see work). This debate was contemporary with the development of opera, one of the defining genres (see genre) of the Renaissance, alongside the madrigal, the mass and the motet. Musically, the rise of a Renaissance musical style is commonly traced from the emergence of choral polyphony, which German musicologist Manfred F. Bukofzer dates from around 1430 (Bukofzer 1951, 188); a defining moment was the performance of Dufay’s motet Nuper rosarum flores at the consecration of Florence Cathedral, complete with

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Brunelleschi’s dome, in 1436. As this example indicates, theories concerning the origins of Renaissance music are complicated by the fact that the majority of the important composers first associated with the concept travelled to Italy from Northern Europe. Further complications arise with the consideration of how best to periodize the subject. Howard M. Brown suggests an early period (1420–90), two high periods (1490–1520 and 1520–60) and a late period (1560–1600) (Brown 1976), whereas Reinhardt Strohm separates the Renaissance concept from what he perceives to be a separately emerging stylistic phenomenon in music that he traces from 1380 to 1500 (Strohm 1993). While it is argued that Renaissance values encouraged artists to develop and tailor consciousness of their own identities (see subjectivity; see also Greenblatt 1980), similar ideas can be detected in the music of Machaut and others who predate 1380 (see Leach 2003, 2011; Dillon 2002). Although early studies were necessarily more concerned with source materials, dating, and the editing and preparation of complete editions, Renaissance music studies have always shown an awareness of contextual issues, such as humanism (Palisca 1985), place (Lowinsky 1941; Wright 1975; Kisby 2001), sound (Strohm 1990; Rodin 2012), listening (Borgerding 1998; Wegman 1998), and social, political and cultural concerns (Fenlon 1989; Schiltz 2015). Despite the importance of music theory to considerations of Renaissance music (see Berger 1987; Judd 2000; Mengozzi 2015), until recently Renaissance music studies had largely resisted analysis. Consideration of concepts such as imitation, emulation and parody (see Lockwood 1966; Brown 1982) continue to be important, but attention is also paid to compositional process (Owens 1997) and music analysis (Judd 1998). The rise of digitization has aided research into the Renaissance and medieval periods considerably, disseminating otherwise difficult-toaccess documentation more widely, as with the Digital Image Archive of Medieval Music (http://www.diamm.ac.uk/; see also Deeming and Leach 2015). Modern editions are also available online, for example through the Josquin Research Project based at Stanford University (see http://josquin.stanford.edu/), whose collection enables the user to make comparative searches for rhythmic and melodic patterns across a range of composers and genres from Josquin’s time. Although Renaissance scholars were slower to respond to the changes introduced through the new musicology, there are notable exceptions. One important example is Gary Tomlinson’s study Music in Renaissance Magic (Tomlinson 1993b). Influenced by the new historicism, Tomlinson seeks to explore Renaissance music not in terms of musical style or a composer’s intentions but through an examination of

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the cultural discourses (see discourse) surrounding music at the time, what he calls ‘the forces beyond individual agency that have conspired in shaping music histories’ (ibid., 246). The intention is to develop an understanding of music as perceived by writers at the time, but also in terms of its intersection with overlapping cultural concerns, such as the belief in magic and the supernatural. This method, which is influenced by French cultural anthropologist and theorist Michel Foucault, Tomlinson calls ‘musical archeology’. It emphasizes the gap between our experience of Renaissance music and the subjective experiences of it in its own time. This results in a perception of the difference (see alterity) of the music, rather than its familiarity, in terms of what fits neatly into established accounts of musical evolution. Although Tomlinson’s book is short on concrete observations, it provides a valuable alternative to existing accounts and is an attempt to move beyond the highly prescriptive methodologies that have arisen in relation to Renaissance music. Further reading: Blume 1967; Carter and Goldthwaite 2013; Clark and Leach 2005; DeFord 2015; Fitch and Kiel 2011; Gerbino 2007, 2009; Harley 1997, 2010; Kmetz 2006; Locke 2015; McClary 1991; McGowan 2008; Ongaro 2003

RHETORIC see language ROMANTICISM Romanticism is a concept that is generally applied to music from the nineteenth century, although exact dates for its inception and culmination vary. While there is a tendency to relate the concept to music composed during the so-called Romantic period (see periodization), the term can be seen to embrace a number of philosophical and aesthetic concerns that are not necessarily confined to music or other arts from the nineteenth century. The beginnings of a Romantic artistic sensibility can be linked to the French Revolution and the rise of the Enlightenment, and especially to the work of German Romantic poet Novalis and German writer and critic K.W.F. von Schlegel. These writers emphasized the importance of re-imagining the familiar and the ordinary as alternative worlds, and the concepts of the sublime and the infinite – how the magnitude of nature points to the limitations of human understanding – ideas that are related to the work of German philosophers Immanuel Kant, J.G. Fichte and G.W.F. Hegel. Of particular significance are Kant’s ideas about disinterested pleasure – enjoyment in the act of

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contemplation – which is developed through Romanticism’s cult of ‘serious listening’ and the idea of an ‘art for art’s sake’ (see aesthetics). Hegel’s claim that music, like any individual art form, is engaged in a dynamic struggle to master its materials is cultivated through Romanticism’s belief in progress and evolution through artistic striving, resulting in more complex compositional techniques (see sketch) and the image of the heroic individual artist (see genius, subjectivity, creativity), which would culminate in the reception of Beethoven (see Burnham 1995; Mathew and Walton 2013). The association between a concept of Romanticism and music was first articulated by German music critic E.T.A. Hoffmann (see criticism), although his statements are actually somewhat ambiguous (Chapin 2006). In a review of Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony in 1810 he argued that music in general could be considered ‘the most romantic of all the arts’ (Charlton 1989, 236). However, the association of the Romantic ideal with Beethoven clearly points to a discursive relationship between the so-called Classical period and what followed: Romanticism may in essence be a matter of giving increasing emphasis to elements already present in Classicism. But those emphases . . . are as much a critique of Classicism as a tribute to it. The Romantic period, age or era grew out of, and vigorously away from, Classicism. (Whittall 1987, 12; see also Chapin 2014a) Romanticism is further problematized by the diversity of musical styles (see style) and composers that it encompasses, including Verdi, Schumann, Berlioz, Wagner, Brahms, Wolf and Rimsky-Korsakov, although it can be linked to the rise of new genres (see genre) such as the symphonic poem, the song cycle and the music drama, and an increasing concern for organicism, episodic structure, a desire to make music ‘speak’ programmatically (see language and narrative), and such technical devices as thematic transformation. It also led directly to a number of other concepts, such as nationalism, realism (see Dahlhaus 1985; Schwartz 2008), impressionism and expressionism (see subjectivity; see also Samson 1991), some of whose features coexisted with Romantic elements, while others attempted to break away from them. As British musicologist Arnold Whittall points out, ‘the challenge for the historian is to determine to what extent that which is non-Romantic is actually anti-Romantic’ (Whittall 1987, 13). He goes on to stress that, while operas such as Bizet’s Carmen and Mussorgsky’s Boris Godunov may have been inspired by non-Romantic concerns, such as a desire to portray the realities of (low) life or the true history of a people, the musical styles and

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techniques deployed are not necessarily non-Romantic but may instead be seen to belong to a set of expressive practices that originated in the early part of the nineteenth century. In other words, there was an overlap between progressive developments in art and literature and older, romantic practices and values (see value) in music. By the end of the nineteenth century, music was Romantic in an un-Romantic age (see modernism). German musicologist Carl Dahlhaus, a seminal figure in the historical and critical interpretation of Romanticism, claimed that ‘the heart of the “aesthetic religion” of the nineteenth century was the cult of genius’ (Dahlhaus 1989b, 2; see also Hepokoski 1991). The most obvious examples of this are the mythology that developed around Beethoven and Mendelssohn’s ‘rediscovery’ of Bach and his appropriation of the eighteenth-century composer into the cultural and critical value systems of the nineteenth century, as well as the cultivation of the performer genius, most obviously in the forms of Liszt and Paganini, and the idea of virtuosity (Samson 2003; Gooley 2004; Larkin 2015). Dahlhaus also noted that Romantic compositions were often fragments of idealized autobiography (Dahlhaus 1989b, 3), an idea supported by such works as Berlioz’s Symphonie Fantastique and the trend for composer biographies, notably those on Bach (see biography), as well as Berlioz’s own Life of Berlioz, first published just after his death in 1870 (Berlioz 1903; see also Brittan 2006). According to Dahlhaus, absolute music – purely instrumental music that appears to exist without reference to anything beyond itself – became the principal aesthetic paradigm in nineteenth-century German musical culture (see also Bonds 2014). However, he argues that it is hard to present the case for a unified Zeitgeist (spirit of the age) during the nineteenth century, especially in light of the monumental contribution of Wagner in the second part of the century and Wagner’s association with a critique of the idea of absolute music, which was chiefly represented by the instrumental music of Brahms (see Chua 1999; Hoeckner 2002). For this reason, the second half of the nineteenth century was labelled the age of Wagner, but Dahlhaus also refers to the term ‘neo-Romanticism’ (Dahlhaus 1989b), a concept that originated in early nineteenth-century literary theory to distinguish each successive kind of Romanticism from the previous one. Among the various types Dahlhaus mentions, French Romanticism, from 1830 onwards, and a revived Romanticism from around 1900 are of importance. However, of obvious significance to any division of the nineteenth century were the European social and political revolutions of 1848–9, in which Romantic artists took an active role. These events, it has been argued, while signalling a shift from private,

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privileged music making to more public concerts for the emerging middle classes, led to new creative directions and a general ‘withdrawal, on the part of composers and of artists, from politics to art, from engagement to detachment, from idealism to realism’ (Samson 1991, 12). Musicological engagements with the concept of Romanticism include reassessments of music theorists (see theory) and the cultural ideas of the nineteenth century; these include Ian Biddle’s consideration of F.W.J. Schelling’s organicist musical aesthetic and the importance that it attached to corporeal sense (see body; Biddle 1996), and Ian Bent’s examination of Friedrich Schleiermacher’s theory of hermeneutics (Bent 1996b). Considerations of Romanticism have increasingly located nineteenthcentury music in its cultural and aesthetic context, in some cases leading to the practice of what Scott Burnham has described as poetic criticism (Burnham 1999), analogous in certain ways to the hermeneutic criticism of the nineteenth century, while others have informed their analyses of the music with recourse to more recent literary criticism (see deconstruction) of Romantic poets and authors (see Kramer 1993b). Further reading: Agawu 2009; Biddle 2011a; Bonds 2006; Bowie 1993, 2002, 2010; Bowman 1998; Brillenburg Wurth 2009; Bujic´ 1988; Dahlhaus 1989c; Daverio 1993; Franklin 2014a; Garratt 2002; Grey 2009; Hefling 2004; Pederson 2014; Rosen 1999; Rumph 2004; Samson 2002; Webster 2001–2

SCREEN STUDIES see film music SEMIOTICS Semiotics is a concept that holds that all human communication is effected by means of systems of signs articulated in contexts, such as literature, television, film (see film music), music and art, that may be considered forms of language and text (see narrative). However, the concept is linked to analysis and structuralism in the sense that it ‘tends to concentrate on pattern rather than content, to seek out structure rather than to interpret meanings’ (Monelle 1992, 5). Two important theories of semiotics were developed by Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (de Saussure 1983) and American philosopher Charles S. Peirce. The former introduced the term ‘semiology’ (the study of signs) and distinguished between the signifier, such as a word, and the signified, the idea associated with that word. However, many theorists, such as Peirce, have argued that semiotics is more complex than de Saussure’s binary

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model would suggest. There are many different kinds of semiotic theory, but they all illustrate how meaning is socially constructed and how the relationship between signifier and signified is essentially arbitrary. Important musicological studies that draw upon semiotic theory include Kofi Agawu’s book concerning the play of musical signs in music from the Classical period (Agawu 1991) and Robert Hatten’s account of semantic content in Beethoven and other tonal music (Hatten 1994, 2004, 2006; see also Curry 2010 and Mirka 2014). Agawu’s work draws on eighteenth-century theories about rhetoric (see language) as well as Leonard Ratner’s study of Classical expression, form and style (Ratner 1980), which identifies twenty-seven musical ‘topics’, such as Turkish music (see Orientalism), pastoral (see landscape) and hunt style. Agawu is concerned with ways in which the rhetorical structure of the music (the harmonic and melodic gestures (see gesture) that suggest beginnings, middles and endings, for example) contrasts with the surface pattern of stylistic topics, a feature that is particularly characteristic of Beethoven’s late style (see Monelle 1992, 226–32). Hatten’s work is indebted to an approach developed by linguist Michael Shapiro and considers ways in which musical events are marked in some way. These narrative tropes, as Hatten calls them, are marked by their context in the music and the extent to which they contradict stylistic expectations. Other influential work has been published by Finnish musicologist Eero Tarasti, who has used semiotic theory to explore the relationship between myth and music, for example in the music dramas of Wagner (Tarasti 1994). Semiotics has also been applied to popular music, most notably by Philip Tagg in his work on ABBA’s ‘Fernando’ (1976) and the theme tune to the American television series Kojak (Tagg 2000). Tagg’s concerns include an awareness that particular chords and melodic ideas may have different semantic functions according to the music’s genre or style, and the possibility that music may carry a meaning that is at variance with the words it accompanies. See also: lateness, post-structuralism Further reading: Curry 2011, 2012a, 2012b; Eco 1977; Monelle 1998, 2000; Nattiez 1982; Samuels 1995; Sheinberg 2012; Tagg 2009, 2012; Tarasti 2002, 2012

SERIALISM see modernism SEXUALITY see body, feminism, gender

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SKETCH In musicology, the concept of a sketch implies a visual record of a composer’s private and primary thoughts, something that documents a stage of composition that predates a final score. It may contain verbal, musical or purely graphic information (such as a pre-compositional plan), and it may indicate a first step (a melodic fragment or harmonic skeleton). Information added to a composer’s ‘finished’ manuscript, or a draft that is not definitive in the manner of a fair copy, may also be considered under this concept. Sketch study became an important discipline in musicology following interest in Beethoven manuscripts, in particular through the work of Gustav Nottebohm in the second half of the nineteenth century. Consequently, the earliest sketch studies centred on nineteenth- and twentieth-century music, although subsequently their scope broadened to include material for music composed before the seventeenth century, as discussed by Owens (Owens 1997; Bradley 2014). Initially, sketch studies concentrated on developing chronologies of works and an understanding of composers’ working practices, with discoveries largely confined to the field of musical biography. In the late 1960s and 1970s, however, sketch study developed alongside music analysis, and sketches were used both to challenge and to authenticate analytical claims. The latter practice drew criticism, notably from Douglas Johnson (Johnson 1978–9) and Joseph Kerman (Kerman 1982), for appearing to discuss only those aspects of the sketches that supported an applied analytical system (for more on this debate, but in relation to the music of Arnold Schoenberg, see Haimo 1996). In the twentieth century, particularly through the development of serialism, sketches gained significance as composers’ highly individual styles developed in relation to their new techniques. As tonality was abandoned, the form and pitch structures of works became harder to trace from the score alone. This problem reached its apex in such works as Boulez’s Le Marteau sans Maître (1953–5) and Stockhausen’s Klavierstücke (1952–7). It therefore became desirable to probe sketch material for clues to the structure of a work (see structuralism). At the same time, composers’ own conceptions of the act of composition became closely linked to their innovative sketching practices, as in Stockhausen’s Momente (1965), in which the sketch is effectively the score. As with any form of philological research, sketch study requires an awareness of technical issues and questions whose precise nature will vary depending on the historical period and the type of document in question (sketch, draft, revised manuscript, corrected proof, and so on; see Kinderman 2012; Sallis 2014a). Another issue that arises is the difficulty

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of accounting for what Marshall calls ‘creative processes’ (Marshall 1972; see Bent 1984 for a revealing discussion of compositional process in eighteenth-century music; see also creativity). These are the decisions and thoughts that may lie behind a particular sketch but that are not documented, information that must be deduced from the evidence that is available. This is further complicated by the fact that sketches are often incomplete, both in their relation to the finished score and in terms of lost or missing pages. Furthermore, as Kerman points out, sketches may reveal only a series of compositional stages, and ‘tentative stages at that’ (Kerman 1982, 176). Although there exists a degree of consensus on the value of sketch study, it is nonetheless important to note that the discipline has been attacked on various grounds. One argument is that sketch study amounts to an authorized perspective that emphasizes the composer’s viewpoint and therefore potentially forecloses interpretation. The musicologist Dai Griffiths has even suggested that sketches are of marginal interest because they are purely conceptual ideas that ‘don’t exist’ in the final work and are therefore, in a literal sense, inaudible (Griffiths 1997). He has further warned that sketch study may lead to a fetishizing of genius. Studies of the genesis of a work are also open to criticism if they appear to interpret a composer’s alterations as a series of ‘failed experiments’ in the construction of an organic (see organicism) and teleological whole. However, much depends on the way in which sketch study is used. Besides providing insights into a composer’s workshop (Beard 2001), sketches offer potential as a deconstructive (see deconstruction) tool for undermining the idea of a fixed and unitary work, especially in opera (see Hall 1996, 2011), and they contribute to debates on authorial control and subjectivity (see Beard 2015). They may be combined with other approaches, such as cognitive anthropology (Donin 2009), or form an instructive layer in a series of critical intersections, for example between music, drama, text and theories from other disciplines (Beard 2009a, 2012b). Sketches may inform historiographical accounts (see historiography), such as Morton Latham’s identification of Stravinsky’s use of folk material in The Rite of Spring (Latham 1979), subsequently elaborated by Richard Taruskin and central to his concept of Stravinsky’s neo-nationalism (Taruskin 1980), or they may expose hidden influences (Abbate 1981; Scherzinger 2007) or the programmatic origins of an ostensibly autonomous (see autonomy) symphony (Frogley 2002). Further reading: Beard 2008; Brandenburg 1978–9; Brown 2003; Cooper 2013; Guerrero 2009; Haimo 1990; Hall and Sallis 2004; Horlacher 2001, 2011; Kinderman 2013; Kinderman and Jones 2009; Kramer 2008; Marston 1995, 2001

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SOUND/SOUNDSCAPE/SOUND STUDIES Despite the fact that music is experienced through the medium of sound, musicologists, even those associated with the new musicology, have historically emphasized the notated aspects of sound, its pitch structures (see formalism), harmonies, rhythms and so on (see analysis and theory), over its purely sonorous, aural dimension. Likewise, until relatively recently, musicologists generally avoided discussion of nonmusical sounds, such as noises, everyday sounds, and urban and rural sounds. Since the development of phonographic recording in the 1870s, however, technological developments have steadily shifted creative (see creativity) and scholarly attention to sound in general and, more specifically, to three possibilities: sonic transformation; the separation of sounds from their source; and the movement or mobility of sound (see Bull 2007; Katz 2010; Gopinath and Stanyek 2014). How sound is consumed, perceived and used has still to be theorized in more detail, but a sufficient body of key texts now exists to speak of an interdisciplinary field of ‘sound studies’ across the sciences and humanities (see Sterne 2012b; Pinch and Bijsterveld 2012; Vernallis, Herzog and Richardson 2013), and an associated field of ‘sensory studies’ which explores human cognition and perception processes (Smith 2007; Grimshaw and Garner 2015; the latter introduce a theory of sound as a virtual phenomenon). Musicologists have increasingly turned to these fields of inquiry in light of the rise of more radical, relational and comparative approaches to music, which largely postdate the new musicology (see critical musicology). The concept ‘sound studies’ and the term ‘soundscape’ were most famously used by the Canadian composer, environmentalist and writer R. Murray Schafer, who founded the World Soundscape Project in 1973. This project essentially grew from Schafer’s concern with environmental issues and the rise of noise pollution in Vancouver and elsewhere in Canada, which he initially set out to record and monitor (see ecomusicology). This stance indicates a certain value judgement in favour of natural sounds over urban ones. His project soon broadened, however, into a documentary enterprise focused on recording the sounds of urban and rural locations across Canada and Europe, culminating in the publication of Schafer’s The Turning of the World (1977; republished as The Soundscape: Our Sonic Environment and the Tuning of the World, Schafer 1994) and the interdisciplinary practice of ‘acoustic ecology’, detailed in Barry Truax’s Handbook for Acoustic Ecology (Truax 1999; see also Erlmann 2004). Schafer’s project is significant because it maps specific spaces, places and landscapes in sound (see place, landscape; for an example of the

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European recordings go to http://britishlibrary.typepad.co.uk/soundand-vision/2013/07/five-european-villages.html). It also draws attention to the fact that all sounds exist in the same space or sound world occupied by the listener, yet, although we may hear everyday sounds (mechanical noises, distant voices, nature sounds), we do not necessarily listen to them (see listening). When we do pay closer listening attention to such sounds, they take on a remarkable life of varied density, timbre, pulse and rhythm, even melody and harmony. At this point, Schafer would argue, the listener comes to realize that he or she inhabits an alternative universe of sound (see alterity), that there is a perennial soundtrack to life that, for the most part, we simply filter out from our mind’s consciousness; this is known as the ‘asyndeton effect’ (for a fuller definition of this and many other terms associated with sound perception, see Augoyard and Torgue 2005). In this respect, sound studies intersect with psychological work on human cognition and perception (see psychology) and with the associated field of sensory studies. Ecological perspectives on hearing and listening suggest that perceivers seek out particular sounds and interpret them differently (see Clarke 2005). As such, people will not only hear differently from one another but their responses to particular sounds will effect varied emotions (see emotion) and shape subjectivity and subject position differently. Sounds also exist in a reflexive relationship with, and therefore contribute to, the social construction of class, ethnicity, gender, identity, nationality (see nationalism), race and sexuality. For example, the adha¯n (the Islamic call to worship recited by a muezzin) punctuates many people’s lives but will signify differently depending on the hearer’s beliefs and practices. Moreover, while we may simply appreciate these sounds for their unique qualities, Schafer’s work encourages a more relational, ecological style of listening, in which individual sounds take on a more richly contextual meaning when heard as a three-dimensional sound image. A by-product of Schafer’s use of sound recording is that sounds are separated from their sources, a process that he refers to as ‘schizophonia’; the resulting sounds are commonly referred to as ‘acousmatic’ (see Kane 2014). Of course, in everyday life, the overwhelming majority of sounds we hear are acousmatic: cars drive past out of sight; birds sing from distant gardens; the wind whistles invisibly in the eaves; a live concert broadcast fills the room from a loudspeaker. The term ‘acousmatic music’ is often associated with the French composer Pierre Schaeffer who made a vital contribution to sound studies, as exemplified by his seminal Traité des objets musicaux (Paris, 1966; for a translated extract, see Schaeffer 2004). A pioneer of musique concrète, Schaeffer’s work combined the interests of earlier composers, such as the

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Italian Futurists and the sound projections of Edgard Varèse, with the possibilities afforded by magnetic tape in the 1950s. His work centres on two principal ideas – acousmatic listening and a theory of the autonomous sound object (objet sonore; see autonomy) – although Schaeffer does not contextualize these ideas critically or historically. Schaeffer’s interest in the spatial aspects of sound have been explored in other contexts, including the virtual sound spaces produced by studio recording (Krims 2000; Doyle 2005; Moore and Dockwray 2008; Dockwray and Moore 2010), sound spatialization in avant-garde music (Santini 2012), and the role of sound in personal and social spaces (Born 2013a). Schaeffer’s work with found sounds also opened the door to further experiments with noise and the notion of the self-styled sound artist; in this respect, Schaeffer was followed by numerous experimental DJs and studio artists, including Brian Eno, Richard D. James (aka Aphex Twin), Paul D. Miller (aka DJ Spooky), and Amon Tobin (for example, Bricolage, 1997), all of whose work alludes to many genres (such as intelligent dance music, ambient, electronica) yet belongs clearly to none (see genre). The global reach of reproduced sound also raises important questions about the politics and economics of consumption (see Gopinath 2013b, which examines the rise and fall of ringtones). One of the most notable ways in which musicologists have contributed to sound studies is through the attempt to rediscover the soundscapes of specific historical regions and cities, including medieval Bruges (Strohm 1990), medieval French cities (Peters 2012), fin-de-siècle Paris (Fauser 2005), nineteenth-century Europe (Scott 2008), Counter-Reformation Bavaria (Fisher 2014), and America during the Second World War (Fauser 2013). Sound historians ask a number of vital questions, such as: how do we recapture the aural sounds of the past, especially those not recorded in sound or musical notation? How has sound shaped lives and carried meaning for people and institutions? How were sounds controlled and manipulated through time, and how have they acted or been used as tools of political power? (See Bijsterveld 2013; Biddle and Gibson 2015.) Evidence for the sounds of the past exists in varied sources, including art, theatre and literary works (see Smith 1999; Halliday 2013) and documents of other kinds (Corbin 1998; Picker 2003). From this evidence, sound historians strive to piece together the aurality of a particular place in time: the nexus of sounds, agents and practices of sound consumption. Often, such work highlights the underappreciated role that sounds play in individual subjectivity and in the cultural constructions of nations (see nationalism), cultures (see culture) and ethnic groups (see ethnicity), and the interplay between the local and the regional (see globalization). Listening practices and social attitudes towards sound have also

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been approached through the details of notated music. For example, in her study of medieval devotional music, Emma Dillon (Dillon 2012) has introduced the concept of the ‘supermusical’, a kind of excess sound that results from the complex interplay of musical voices in medieval polyphony in which polytextuality (the simultaneous use of different texts, even different languages) leads to a breakdown of verbal sense, giving way to a more general sonic effect. Moreover, this effect is placed in the context of other sonorities from the time, such as city hubbub, clamorous folk customs, and the chatter of prayer. Scholars have also considered the ethics of sound. For example, ethnographic sound studies, based on participant observation and interviews with individuals and groups, have revealed important information about sound as an enabling tool (Bull 2006). Yet sound can also act as a marker of violence and power, from the symbolic role of ceremonial canon fire to the use of music in torture (see Cusick 2006, 2008a, 2008b; Goodman 2009; Johnson and Cloonan 2009; see also conflict). The increased attention given to the role of sound in society has led some scholars to recall certain older aesthetic debates (see aesthetics) concerning the presumed power of music to evoke particular emotions, most obviously expressed in Baroque-period Affektenlehre. The concepts of musical affect and affect theory relate to the ways in which music and sound act upon a listener’s capacity to act. An affective sound is associated with a listener’s active response, perhaps a physical or emotional reaction (see body, consciousness, emotion), but is distinct from that response. As the musicologists Marie Thompson and Ian Biddle have observed: sound has an integral role in shaping the affective contours of our day-to-day lives. There are, for example, those sounds of our domestic spaces that put us at ease, the reassuring and familiar voices of the television and radio in the background. There are also those ominous, out-of-place sounds that call us to alert and make our heart race, filling us with a sense of unease. We also use music affectively to encourage or emphasize a particular mood or create a general ambience: we have our pre-party soundtrack, our romantic-night-in mix tapes, or our chill-out compilations. (Thompson and Biddle 2013, 11) These authors draw attention to affective processes, such as ‘attaching, feeling at home, feeling invested’ (ibid., 17), in order to focus on the ontological question ‘What does music do?’ rather than ‘What does music mean?’ (ibid., 19). Or, to put it another way: what is the affective

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labour of sound? The answer, clearly, will be different depending on the sound and the context. Further reading: Attali 1985; Born 2013a, 2013b; Bull and Back 2003; Cox and Warner 2004; Curtin 2014; Demers 2010; Garrioch 2003; Gorbman, Richardson and Vernallis 2013; Greene and Porcello 2005; Gurney 2011; Kahn 1999; Labelle 2011; Rath 2003; Santini 2012; Schwartz 2014; Smith 2001; Sterne 2003; Taylor, Katz and Grajeda 2012; Thompson 2002; van Maas 2015

SPACE see ecomusicology, landscape, place STANCE The conceptualization of stance by Harris Berger (Berger 2009) in relation to ideas about emotion, meaning and style in music suggests that it has potential for further development as a way of negotiating and interpreting music (see interpretation) as a human, lived experience within an expressive culture. Berger defines stance as the ‘affective, stylistic, or valual quality with which a person engages with an element of her experience’ (ibid., xiv). This can be interpreted as the position adopted, or a relationship that is defined, as a mode of practice or engagement. According to Berger: ‘Stance is the manner in which the person grapples with a text, performance, practice, or item of expressive culture to bring it into experience’ (ibid., 21). According to this account, stance, through the image that is invoked of the process of ‘grappling’, is the negotiation between the individual and the cultural work, object or process, and the stance that is adopted in this negotiation shapes how the object, or process, is experienced. The focus on experience in Berger’s construction of stance indicates a strong influence of Husserl’s phenomenology, a network of ideas in philosophy and sociology that is concerned with the description of the basic human response to and experience of phenomena; this is relevant here in that such responses involve taking a stance. However, the construction of this stance is not accidental; rather, it forms an intentional engagement: ‘Because intentionality is a necessary feature of all lived experience, stance is as well. Indeed, it is the very universality of intentionality that guarantees its relevance to all forms of expressive culture’ (ibid.). See also: ideology, subject position, subjectivity Further reading: Berger and Del Negro 2004

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STRUCTURALISM The musicological use of this term implies a preoccupation with structure, often at a deep level, in musical works (see work) and the techniques that are applied to uncover that structure. From this perspective, it has a close familial relationship with analysis and, through the often casual interchange between form and structure in musicological discourse, it has a certain resemblance to formalism. However, the origins of structuralism as a concept are located in linguistics, and its dependence on language provides a statement of its nature and application. Structuralism first emerged through the writings of Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, primarily in his Course in General Linguistics, originally published in 1916 (de Saussure 1983). He attempted to construct an understanding of language that could be seen as the study of the structure of relationships in language, conducted with a rigour that assumes the appearance of a scientific objectivity. For de Saussure, language consisted of two elements: langue and parole. The former refers to language as a recognizable system; the latter concerns the individual utterances within that system. This distinction, along with other relationships, points to de Saussure’s understanding of language as a series of binary oppositions and/or relationships. This is reflected in his most widely cited claim that the linguistic sign consists of two elements, the signifier (the actual phonetic sound) and the object to which it refers, which he called the signified. These signs also function through relationships of difference (saying what something is also involves saying what it is not). This reference to signs and their actions and positions in networks of relationships projects a model of language and its meanings. It also leads towards the concept of semiotics, the study of signs, a concept that is coterminous with structuralism. In addition, de Saussure claimed that language could be studied synchronically, in effect as a slice of time, rather than diachronically – how it exists in a temporal continuum. This move helps to add the appearance of scientific scrutiny in that it involves the isolation of the object under consideration. It also has the effect of de-historicizing both the progression of language and its study. The development of de Saussure’s account of language into what became generally known as structuralism occurred in the 1950s and extended into the 1970s, with the term being applied to a wide range of contexts and concepts. As Eagleton effectively states: Structuralism in general is an attempt to apply this linguistic theory to objects and activities other than language itself. You can view a myth, wrestling match, system of tribal kinship, restaurant menu or

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oil painting as a system of signs, and a structuralist analysis will try to isolate the underlying set of laws by which these signs are combined into meanings. It will largely ignore what the signs actually ‘say’, and concentrate instead on their internal relations to one another. (Eagleton 1996, 84) The reference to ‘tribal kinship’ relates to the work of cultural anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss, who studied extensively the underlying structures of myth (Lévi-Strauss 1969). The other activities listed by Eagleton suggest the work of French literary theorist Roland Barthes, specifically his book Mythologies, originally published in 1957 (Barthes 1973), in which he analysed a wide range of social and cultural activities. The extension of structuralism into a diverse range of fields is also reflected in the structural repositioning of Marxism by Althusser (Althusser 1996) and Michel Foucault’s structural account of the history of knowledge (Foucault 1972). It is clearly possible to position music as an object of structuralist inquiry, and some aspects of musicology parallel and intersect with structuralism. Music is often referred to in terms of its structure, usually represented by certain recognizable formal shapes and outlines (see ana­ lysis). The act of composition also implies a conscious structuring process, and it is notable that the prominence of structuralist thought coincided with the establishment of a post-Second World War avant-garde of composers (Boulez, Stockhausen, Nono) who were preoccupied with new levels of compositional process and structure. However, it is in the activity of analysis that a musicological reflection of structuralism is most readily apparent. The act of analysis is usually constructed as the attempt to reveal deep, perhaps hidden, levels of structure. This activity implies that a structure is present in the music, and the actual processes through which this structure is revealed often assume the appearance of pseudoscientific rigour and, potentially, a claim of objectivity. The analytical methods associated with Austrian music theorist Heinrich Schenker have emerged as one recognizable manner of analysing tonal music (Schenker’s preoccupation was with what he considered the great Austro-Germanic tradition from Bach to Brahms; see canon). Schenker’s original writings (Schenker 1979) have been codified into a coherent system for analysis. This organization of Schenker is most clearly made in Forte and Gilbert’s Introduction to Schenkerian Analysis (Forte and Gilbert 1982), which has become the standard textbook in the field. In this construction we are presented with a series of moves that reduce the music through a series of levels, from foreground to background, at which point a predetermined structural archetype is identified. This

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process has a clear relationship to wider aspects of structuralist thought through the reduction to an essential (perhaps essentialist) structure. This would also seem to be a process that could be described as synchronic in that it treats the individual musical work and its structure as autonomous (see autonomy). In other words, the work’s content is divorced from any real sense of context. However, in any analysis there is still a sense of the music passing through time, with what has become known as the fundamental line, the structural shape that gravitates towards a conclusion, having its own diachronic identity. Other forms of analysis also sustain their own structuralism. The study of post-tonal music, for example, has often been bound up with the explication of structure. This relationship emerged via the already mentioned post-war compositional avant-garde and its wider influence. Allen Forte, in his book The Structure of Atonal Music (Forte 1973), attempted to provide a systematic vocabulary for the understanding of post-tonal (atonal) music that involved the identification of underlying consistencies behind the often distinct, differentiated surfaces of much post-tonal/ atonal music. The resulting method, known as pitch-class set theory, has the appearance of rigour and system, which had become a consistent feature of structuralism. These and other manifestations of structuralism in musicology have become increasingly susceptible to criticism, with musicology again providing certain parallels with wider shifts from structuralism to poststructuralism. A structuralist musicology would seem to privilege structure or form over other, equally significant, musical parameters. The claimed distinction between content and context is difficult to sustain, since analysis usually involves the application of a theory such as Schenkerian or set theory, and theory always brings its own issues of context and perspective. Ultimately, the identification of a given structural model for any musical work is an act of interpretation, and as such it is always loaded with its own issues of subjectivity and ideology. Further reading: Clarke 1996; Curry 2011; Dosse 1997; Hawkes 1977; Williams 2001

STYLE The concept of style refers to a manner or mode of expression, or the way in which musical gestures (see gesture) are articulated. In this sense, it can be seen as relating to the concept of identity. In music, style requires a consideration of technical features, such as melody, texture, rhythm and

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harmony, and it concerns ways in which these features operate independently or in conjunction, or as categories, such as counterpoint. In its broadest sense, style may refer to music as a style of art, while in its narrowest sense it can apply to a single note, which may have stylistic characteristics determined by tone, dynamic, timbre and so on. Style may determine historical periodization, and it exercises a reflexive relationship with the form, function and genre of a work. The term emerged from the categorizing impulses of the Enlightenment, which are reflected in the work of German music theorists such as Athanasius Kircher and Johann Mattheson. Kircher, in his Musurgia universalis of 1650, and Mattheson, in Der Vollkommene Capellmeister of 1739 (see Harriss 1981), both spoke of national styles (see Ratner 1980; see also nationalism). As a greater interest in theorizing music arose (see theory), so too did a desire to determine theories based on common practice. Studies of music of the eighteenth century and earlier tend to define style in terms of a common practice, for example Charles Rosen’s The Classical Style (Rosen 1971), which explores the music of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven in terms of a shared language. At an even broader level, it is still possible to speak of a Classical style, in the sense of concert music, as opposed to folk or popular styles. Although, at first sight, there may appear to be significant problems with such generalizations, as Lucy Green points out, ‘we must have some knowledge of the style of a piece of music in order to experience inherent meanings as distinct from non-musically meaningful sound’ (Green 1988, 34; italics in original). In other words, listeners require some conception of musical style, however broad, in order to orient themselves and begin to find meaning in the sounds they hear. Style can be applied to the work of individual composers, to define a synthesis of styles, such as Verdi’s operatic style, or to indicate those aspects of a composer’s entire output that are consistent from one work to another. This suggests that there may be an element of personality to style, and a sense of an evolving personality may be expressed through the detection of stages in a composer’s career, as with the idea of early, middle and late Beethoven styles (see Said 2006; Spitzer 2006; see also lateness). Aspects of one composer’s style may be detected in the work of another, which suggests a form of stylistic intertextuality. Alternatively, as in the case of the neoclassical works of Stravinsky (see modernism), older styles may be adapted and integrated into a more contemporary musical language (see Messing 1996; Chapin 2014a). The fact that composers, from Mozart to Stravinsky, have used many styles points once again to the idea that a style is something that a composer may adopt, as an actor may put on a mask; it exists independently of anything a composer may bring to it. This view is expressed by art

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historians Alois Riegl and Arnold Hauser (see Hauser 1982), whose work directly influenced one of the earliest musicologists, Guido Adler (see historical musicology). In his Der Stil in der Musik (1911), Adler described the history of music as the history of style, an approach that found its culmination in Donald J. Grout’s A History of Western Music (Grout and Palisca 2001). However, the view that style exists as an entirely autonomous entity excludes the fact that a composer can bring something to an existing style. American music theorist Leonard Meyer has argued that style results from a set of choices that composers make, within the constraints of social, cultural and technical knowledge that has been learned or assimilated (Meyer 1989). Such knowledge will be specific to geographical location and historical period. Accordingly, it is style that generates evolution in music, as composers make choices that challenge and possibly overturn existing genres, or a composer’s own earlier music. In her essay ‘Adorno’s Diagnosis of Beethoven’s Late Style’, American musicologist Rose Rosengard Subotnik explores these issues of choice and artistic development through the writings of German critical theorist Theodor Adorno (Subotnik 1991; see critical theory). Adorno’s views on these matters reflect his interpretation of the dialectics of G.W.F. Hegel, Marxism and Arnold Schoenberg’s writings on composition, for example his essay ‘New Music, Outmoded Music, Style and Idea’, first published in 1946 (Schoenberg 1975). Adorno believed that a crystallization of reason and self-consciousness had taken place in music at the time of Monteverdi, when the term style first entered musical vocabulary. This led to what Immanuel Kant later defined as the individual’s right to freedom, through the exercise of moral choice. Adorno felt that Beethoven’s middle period came close to achieving a Hegelian synthesis of the individual and the social. It did so by developing, in musical terms, a dialectic between the apparent opposites of objective form and subjective freedom (see subjectivity). However, Adorno argues that this synthesis proved impossible, and that Beethoven’s third, or late-period, style recognized this reality and achieved a more authentic expression, a truer reflection of both the condition of society and the artist as autonomous subject (see autonomy). In this sense, Adorno sees the late-period style as a critique of the second: if this change had not taken place, Adorno argues, Beethoven’s music would have become ideology, its surface hiding a more negative reality. The result is a negative dialectic, a music that articulates form and freedom as irreconcilable opposites, suggesting the impossibility of art itself. This leads to an exaggeration of conventional stylistic features, such as trills and ornaments, and a removal of more subjective elements, such as sharply defined sonata or fugal subjects. An example of this would be

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the Missa Solemnis (1824), in which Beethoven adopts a range of older stylistic practices that create an archaic surface behind which his more subjective humanistic ideas reside. While such observations are potentially illuminating, it could be argued that both Adorno and Subotnik are primarily concerned with a history of German thought rather than with the specific social or practical realities of Beethoven’s time. In recent musicology, the term style is less frequently encountered, perhaps because it has been extensively and consistently researched by German and Anglo-American musicologists – although frequently the concept is present by association, for example in studies of music and decadence (Downes 2010; Puri 2011), or it is implied by the term ‘musical language’ (Rupprecht 2001; Downes 2007). In respect of musical languages, ethnomusicologists such as Philip Bohlman have developed our understanding that the social, shared dimension of style is crucial to its construction and recognition (Bohlman 1988). Popular music and social and cultural studies also point to the important role of nonmusical styles, such as clothing, cover art, image, music video and other aspects of commercial promotion (see Hebdige 1979). Further reading: Brackett 2008; Chapin 2014b; Christiansen 2008; Cook 1996; Hepokoski and Darcy 2006; Huebner 1999; Hunter 1998; Kmetz 2006; Lerner 2014; Lippman 1977; Manabe 2013; Mirka 2014; Moore 2001b; Notley 2007; Saavedra 2015; Straus 2008; Tunbridge 2009; Waeber 2009

SUBJECT POSITION Subject position is a concept that arose in film studies and media theory but has been applied to popular music, Romantic lieder and opera (see also film music). The term conveys an inherent problem, since it need not refer to an individual subject. Instead, it implies a notion that is roughly equivalent to ‘viewpoint’: more specifically, the viewpoint that a film encourages a viewer to adopt towards its content. Determining a subject position ideally combines a structuralist approach (see structuralism) – a search for meaning in the form (see analysis) of a text (see narrative) – with a consideration of how a film relates to social codes and generic expectations (see genre) that reside outside itself. Sheila Johnston, who introduced the concept in relation to film theory, refers to a subject position ‘soliciting’ and ‘demanding’ a ‘certain closely circumscribed response from the reader by means of its own formal operations’ (Johnston 1985, 245). She also suggests that ‘it promises a method which avoids the infinite pluralism which posits as many readings as there

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are readers, and an essentialism which asserts a single “true” meaning’ (ibid., 245). In other words, subject position attempts to steer a middle course between determinism – the insistence on a single meaning – and the pluralism of reader response theory (see post-structuralism). A key distinction that it is necessary to make when determining the subject position of a film is that between subject matter (the content of the film) and subject position (the attitude that the film takes towards that content). Musicologist Eric Clarke makes the point that in cinema it is possible to distinguish clearly between the narrative content of a film and the way in which the ‘formal devices of film-making solicit or demand a certain kind of attitude to the events of the film . . . the manner in which we as viewers are allowed or invited to know about [the] narrative’ (Clarke 1999, 352). The question is this: can the same idea be applied to music? Clarke suggests that, in music, the distinction to be made is between musical content (its subject matter) – in terms of style, form and technique – and the attitude the music, or musicians, adopts towards that content (its subject position), again traceable in terms of style, genre and parody techniques. The most likely place to find a subject position in music is in works that combine music and words, especially examples that contain more than one narrative voice, since this will potentially include multiple identities (see identity) and viewpoints. Lawrence Kramer, who believes that ‘the basic work of culture is to construct subject positions’ (Kramer 2001, 156), has suggested that ‘a song will typically seek to manage the interplay of text, voice and musical technique in order to privilege one of the available positions’ (Kramer 1995, 147). Some more detailed examples are provided by Clarke in his discussion of songs by Frank Zappa and P.J. Harvey (Clarke 1999). In his analysis of Zappa’s ‘Magdalena’ (1972), whose narrative voice is that of a father who has abused his daughter, Clarke illustrates the separation of subject matter and subject position at a moment when the father appeals to his daughter to trust him and feel sympathy for him, while the music, which shifts to a Broadway show style, indicates that what the father is singing is fake: ‘It is Zappa’s use of ironised, exaggerated and ridiculed musical styles, and the cultural values that each style specifies, together with a number of aspects of the vocal delivery, that articulates the music’s subject-position’ (ibid., 357). However, at the end of his investigation, Clarke concludes: We are not allowed the easy comfort of a clear ideological perspective [see ideology]: the song is neither a crushing and seriousminded indictment of abuse, nor a simple indulgence in the smutty humour that is a part of the violence and abuse that are described. (ibid., 362)

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In other words, the subject position overall is not clear, since the critique entails an element of complicity – pointing to the listener’s own involvement in the problem – and the range of responses from listeners will vary widely as a result (see listening). In this instance, the examination of subject position has avoided presenting a single meaning. In the case of P.J. Harvey’s song ‘Taut’ (1996), however, which deals with the theme of sexual abuse as narrated by the victim, Clarke argues that the subject position is far less ambivalent. In contrast to the constant shifts of style in ‘Magdalena’, ‘Taut’ is remarkably consistent and confrontational, drawing the listener into a direct identification with the singer and protagonist. This manufacturing of an authentic (see authenticity) expression can be traced back to early Romanticism (Bloomfield 1993, 27). A further point to emerge from Clarke’s study is its emphasis on the sound-based elements of a song, rather than the aspects that can be notated. The study also draws attention, in the Zappa song, to techniques that undermine a sense of authorial authenticity. Thus, it can be seen as part of a wider project to reassess the work concept. By extension, a consideration of subject position may extend to production techniques, promotional materials, artist interviews, music videos, the role of the media, performance details and other non-score-based factors (see Dibben 2001). Clarke further suggests that subject position may, potentially, be revealed in instrumental music in the way in which a conventional form, genre or style is treated by a composer. He suggests that ‘the separation between matter and position comes about often by an awareness of surplus, excess or disjunction of one sort or another’ (Clarke 1999, 371). This idea is similar to Kramer’s notion of a ‘hermeneutic window’ (see hermeneutics). Such questions have also informed studies of opera. Philip Rupprecht has considered how subject position may be encoded instrumentally through what he terms ‘voice placement’ – the textural disposition of orchestra and singers at specific moments (Rupprecht 2001). This may amount to differing timbres in the instrumental support for certain characters, instrumental enactments of attitudes, and echoes of certain utterances. For example, the following description of a passage in Britten’s opera Billy Budd (1950–1) refers to the viewpoints of three different characters: ‘[against Billy’s stammer trill] Vere’s order to “answer!” is advanced with bright trumpet support, while string octaves draw out rising-fifth intervals as echoes of the direct accusation Claggart has just made’ (ibid., 116). However, the question that this example raises is what is the subject position of the opera at this point? How is the music inviting us to interpret the scene? In some cases, it is difficult to tell where enactments

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of situations end and orchestral commentaries begin, and Rupprecht acknowledges that hearing unambiguous signs of narrative distance in opera is ‘tricky’. Even though the degree of insistence of a subject position may vary from demanding to inviting a particular interpretation, and despite the claim made by Clarke that it ‘does not imply a kind of authorial determinism’ (Clarke 1999, 354), it is difficult to see how describing subject position can avoid the charge of determinism that is often levelled against other forms of analysis. However, a way around this problem is suggested by certain arguments concerning Strauss’s operas Salome (1905) and Elektra (1909). In these works, it has been argued, the orchestra’s viewpoint has been constructed in such a way that it may be said to parody and satirize contemporary patriarchal views (Gilman 1988; Kramer 1990, 1993c). In other words, the next step in describing a work’s subject position may be to subject that position to further interpretation. Further reading: Brown 1996; Dibben 1999; Johnson 2009; Kramer 2012; Taruskin 1995b

SUBJECTIVITY Subjectivity emerged as an important concept during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, especially in the work of British Romantic poets such as Keats, Coleridge, Wordsworth, Byron and Burns, and German writers and philosophers such as Kant, Hegel, Fichte, Schiller, Goethe, Novalis, Schleiermacher, Schelling and Hölderlin (see Romanticism). Literary works by some of these authors focused on such topics as the subjective feelings of the isolated artist, introspection and Weltschmerz (an anguished feeling) (see Bowie 1993; see also consciousness, emotion). In his Critique of Judgement of 1790, Immanuel Kant developed a notion of beauty in art and nature that recognized the function of both objectivity and subjectivity (see aesthetics). According to Wayne D. Bowman: There must be, Kant concludes, a ‘subjective principle’ of beauty: one we see exemplified in beauty’s purposive and seemingly rational designs; one whose manifestations we rightly presume all others can similarly see . . . one whose appeal is to the distinctive feeling which is aesthetic experience. (Bowman 1998, 80)

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Kant believed that judgements of beauty are not wholly objective but that they ‘may provide “knowledge” of a sort inaccessible to the rational or practical mind’ (ibid., 80; see also Burnham 2013). Lawrence Kramer has suggested that music, in conjunction with what he calls the project of Romantic individualism, was an appropriate medium for exploring ‘aesthetic, psychical, and sexual’ subjectivities, arguing that they were cultivated and constrained in a process that reflected contemporary social values (Kramer 1998, 2; see also value). Musicologist Scott Burnham has also argued that nineteenth-century German ideas about subjectivity have been crucial in constructing interpretations (see interpretation) of Beethoven. In particular, he refers to the so-called Goethezeit – the age of Goethe, Kant and Hegel – as ‘an age characterized by the centrality of the Self’ (Burnham 1995, 113), in which narratives (see narrative) concerning the evolution of the self, ‘such as birth and death, personal freedom and destiny, self-consciousness [see identity], and self-overcoming’ (ibid., 112), shaped the meaning and interpretation of aesthetic texts (see work): The hero of German classical literature . . . both enacts and sees himself enacting, and thus bears the weighted wrap of self-consciousness, the human condition which was to become fundamental to German Idealism’s concept of reality and its history. (ibid., 116–17) In his study of sexuality, subjectivity and song in Schubert, however, Lawrence Kramer argues that the early nineteenth-century Viennese composer challenged such normative expectations and explored alternative models of subjectivity (see alterity): Schubert tends to reconstruct subjectivity in song . . . On the one hand, he writes songs that ally themselves with the norm by projecting an image of virile strength and confidence . . . In most such songs, however, Schubert qualifies the virile ideal by relaxing its rigour at a crucial point, putting the text in dialogue with musical intimations of self-doubt, dependency, and passive, even masochistic, desires . . . On the other hand, Schubert writes songs that openly explore alternative subjectivities, a process Susan McClary has also found at work in certain instrumental pieces, notably the ‘Unfinished’ Symphony [1822]. (Kramer 1998, 3; see also McClary 2006a) The contrast between these two accounts of subjectivity in nineteenthcentury music could be summarized as a shift from a public network of social relations to a private interiority (see Watkins 2004).

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Kramer has also explored the problem of where to locate the musical subject, pointing out that many people, including French Enlightenment theorist Jean-Jacques Rousseau and German philosopher G.W.F. Hegel, have associated it with melody (see Waeber 2009). One person who has considered this issue in some detail is German critical theorist (see critical theory) Theodor Adorno, who was especially concerned with subjectivity and its relationship to social practices as mediated in musical form. In the highly developmental thematic processes in Beethoven’s late period (see periodization, lateness), for example, Adorno sensed an expression of (an individual) subjectivity that is withdrawn from the material world and in conflict with the (social) confines of musical form (see also style). According to Adorno, this situation was advanced by Brahms, in whose music the idea of continual thematic development ‘took possession of the sonata as a whole. Subjectification and objectification are intertwined. Brahms’s technique unites both tendencies’ (Adorno 1973, 56–7). Through a dialectical process, Schoenberg then develops the tendencies of Beethoven and Brahms. At first this is embodied in expressionism – a movement in painting, literature and music from around 1900–18 that was concerned with the direct expression of an artist’s subjective will, alienation and psychological anguish. In musical expressionism, traditional forms are apparently abandoned: With the liberation of musical material, there arose the possibility of mastering it technically. It is as if music had thrown off that alleged force of nature [tonality] which its subject-matter exercises upon it, and would now be able to assume command over this subjectmatter freely, consciously, and openly. The composer has emancipated himself along with his sounds. (ibid., 52) Adorno’s view of expressionism, with its emphasis on the composer assuming command over subject matter, clearly contrasts with other interpretations, some of which hold that ‘the progress of music towards total freedom of the subject would appear to be completely irrational insofar as . . . it by-and-large dissolves the easily comprehensible logic of superficial organisation’ (ibid., 136; see also Crawford and Crawford 1993). Adorno argues that two incompatible approaches emerged as a consequence of this problem. One was represented by Schoenberg’s serial technique, in which the alienated modern subject immersed itself in form and technique. The other was the objectified music of Stravinsky, which presented an impoverished version of subjectivity that was mechanistic and dehumanized:

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The convincing force which [Stravinsky’s music] exerts is due, on the one hand, to the self-suppression of the subject, and on the other to the musical language, which has been especially contrived for authoritarian effects. This is most obvious in the emphatic, strikingly dictatorial instrumentation, which unites brevity and vehemence. (Adorno 1973, 202) While this account has provided musicologists with a model for historicizing (see historicism) musical modernism, it nonetheless exposes a clear prejudice for a German musical tradition and a dislike of the music of Stravinsky. Other composers whose work has been examined in terms of subjectivity include Chopin (Kramer 2012), Mahler (Johnson 1994), Webern (Griffiths 1996) and Britten (Rupprecht 2001). Johnson observes a Romantic subjectivity straining for closure in Mahler’s Ninth Symphony (1908–9) set alongside alternative, plural strategies that are ‘essentially modern’ (Johnson 1994, 120) – a theory later developed into his book-length study of irony and expression in the songs and symphonies, Mahler’s Voices (Johnson 2009) – and Britten’s opera Death in Venice (1971–4) provides an example of a musical portrayal of obsessive mental breakdown, one that is inextricably linked to a sense of place. Subjectivity is often used to refer to an artist’s, listener’s or performer’s sense of self. In this sense, the concept has particular relevance for popular music, whose artists can provide insight into subjective experience. For example, Sheila Whiteley has explored a range of female performers, examining ways in which their music ‘is about love or rape, sexual desire or sexual assault, childbirth, miscarriage or abortion . . . or simply having fun’ (Whiteley 2000, 1). Subjectivity and music also arise at the level of audience reception; for example, Maria Pini has explored club cultures in terms of female experiences of clubbing in an attempt to rescue consideration of this music from exclusively male perspectives (Pini 2001; see gender, feminism). Consideration of subjectivity inevitably leads musicologists to an acknowledgement that musical experience is profoundly individual – an idea reflected in studies of music and race, ethnicity, gender, disability and a range of other perspectives. As with identity, however, the relationship is reciprocal, and music will inform and construct a sense of the self in the process. Subjectivity and the ontological practice of subject formation are intimately bound up with the act of listening, whether the experience is immersive and intense (Chua 2011) or a more indirect response to the sounds around us in shops and cafés, on television, and in the background. Anahid Kassabian has argued that the latter experience – so-called ‘ubiquitous listening’, in which sounds are attended to only

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intermittently – leads to a form of ‘distributed subjectivity’ in which the listener’s subjectivity is shaped differently by each experience, depending on the context (Kassabian 2013). More immersive forms of listening, however, will involve a sense of being in the perhaps timeless presence and place of a piece, as a result of which the music may be ‘both thoroughly other and fully [the listener’s]’ (Kramer 2001, 153; see alterity). However, Kramer locates a ‘limit of listening’, when music makes too many technical and stylistic demands and assumes too much knowledge. By extension, he notes that analysis ‘in the narrow sense depersonalises or desubjectivises the musical work in the sense of bracketing or at least temporarily voiding its subject positions’ (ibid., 170). However, he concludes that this tendency of analysis to desubjectivize may be used to consider alternative subject positions (see subject position) in a work, moving away from the one provided by the composer. Further reading: Citron 2005; Cumming 2000; Curry 2012a; Dibben 2006; Johnson 2009; Kielian-Gilbert 2006; Kramer 2002; Moreno 2004; Puri 2011; Schwarz 1997, 2006; Steinberg 2006b; Taylor 2014

SUBLIME While the concept of the sublime came into clearest focus through the aesthetics of the eighteenth century, and it has been reconfigured through the contemporary context of postmodernism, it has a long history stretching back to antiquity. However, it is through Immanuel Kant and his Critique of Judgement, published in 1790 (Kant 1987), that the sublime is fully conceptualized. Kant defines the sublime as ‘that which makes everything else seem small in comparison with it’ (le Huray and Day 1981, 224). In this account, the definition of something as sublime adds a heightened sense of value; the sublime object becomes that which overshadows all that surrounds it. Kant offers a subdivision of the sublime into the mathematically and the dynamically sublime. The mathematical sublime conveys the impression of largeness, or magnitude, the scale of which we are unable to understand through the construction of any concept. In other words, it goes beyond our normative conceptual framework. In contrast, the dynamically sublime represents force, as represented by the phenomena of nature, for example, that cannot be contained or restricted by any existing concept. Music can often be written about in ways that reflect these two models of the sublime, with the overwhelming impression made by some music seeming to meet with incomprehension (see reception).

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Kant uses beauty as a point of comparison with the sublime. However, this comparison had already been made by Edmund Burke in his A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful, published in 1757 (Burke 1998). According to Burke: Sublime objects are vast in their dimensions, beautiful ones comparatively small: beauty should be smooth and polished; the great, rugged and negligent; beauty should shun the right line yet deviate from it insensibly; the great in many cases loves the right line; and when it deviates, it often makes a strong deviation: beauty should not be obscure; the great ought to be dark and gloomy: beauty should be light and delicate; the great ought to be solid and even massive. They are indeed ideas of a very different nature, one being founded on pain, the other on pleasure. (ibid., 113; see also le Huray and Day 1981, 70–1) This comparison, and the equating of sublime with great, emphasizes again the vastness of the concept. This comparison can also be given a musical resonance, with the heroic image of Beethoven constructed through the reception of Romanticism, for example, and reflecting Burke’s description of the sublime (see Taruskin 1995a, 248). The music of Haydn, a composer whose work was contemporary with the aesthetics of the Enlightenment, is often referred to in terms of the sublime. Gustav Schilling, writing in the nineteenth century, connects Haydn’s oratorio The Creation to the sublime: The concept of the sublime transcends all physical reality and if religious faith in miracles ultimately stems from the same source as aesthetic feelings for the sublime, then in music too the sublime achieves its most perfect expression and greatest power when it links the finite and phenomenal, so to speak, with the infinite and divine, thereby clothing the sublime with a miraculous radiance. Thus there is still no music of greater sublimity than the passage, ‘and there was Light’ which follows ‘and God said’ in Haydn’s Creation. (le Huray and Day 1981, 474) The description of specific musical moments as sublime can also relate to instrumental music (see absolute). James Webster retrospectively refers to the introductions to Haydn’s late symphonies, commenting on ‘an avoidance of symmetrical melodies and regular periods (except perhaps at the beginning), in favour of short, contrasting, irregularly-phrased motives, juxtaposed in unexpected or apparently incommensurable

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ways’ (Webster 1991, 163; see Symphonies Nos. 97 and 102). Webster concludes: The aesthetic result was nothing less than an invocation of the sublime – a transfer, towards the end of the eighteenth century, of this concept from the domains of poetry and aesthetics, as represented by writers such as Burke and Kant, to that of instrumental music. (ibid.) The sublime has resurfaced in the context of postmodernism, with theorists as diverse as Jameson, Lyotard and Žižek all making reference to it (see Hartley 2003). Further reading: Brillenburg Wurth 2009; Brown 1996; Downes 2014b

TELEVISION see film music THEORY The concept of theory in music concerns the measurement and description of sound properties and the abstract and syntactical components of musical language, for example its tones, intervals, scales, rhythms, timbres and key signatures. Such investigation has led to pedagogical guides designed to teach harmony, counterpoint, orchestration and composition. However, music theory may also refer to the quasi-scientific consideration of the components of music in relation to the mathematical and physical sciences; this can be dated back to Aristotle and, later, the quadrivium, which saw music taught alongside arithmetic, geometry and astronomy during the Middle Ages. Theoretical insights may also be related to music analysis and broader aesthetic concerns (see aesthetics), such as the desire, active since the Renaissance, to understand how music is related to nature (see Clark and Rehding 2001; see also ecomusicology). As this account indicates, considerations of music’s physical and abstract properties have changed through history, notably with the move towards tonality around 1600 and then away from tonality around 1900. Initially, the idea that music was divine – a gift from God – was foremost, leading to the belief that the laws of nature should also be the laws of music (such thinking was prevalent even in the twentieth century, for example in arguments that serial music is degenerate or unnatural;

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see Potter 1998). But with the encroachment of acoustic science in the seventeenth century, music was gradually reduced to quantifiable sound and a viewpoint best summed up by the nineteenth-century German physicist and physiologist Hermann von Helmholtz (see positivism): ‘The construction of scales and harmonic tissues is a product of artistic invention and by no means furnished by the natural formation or natural function of our ear, as has been hitherto most generally asserted’ (Helmholtz 1954, 365; see also Steege 2012; listening, consciousness). An example of such ‘invented’ practice was the correction of the ‘laws in nature’ by the Florentine Camerata, which championed the use of tempered tuning around 1600 (see Chua 2001). These changes led, ultimately, to the widespread use of equal temperament and the cycle of fifths – the foundations of modern tonality. The eighteenth century saw the rise of formal analysis, which was directly linked to a greater understanding of the structural potential inherent in the tonal system. Recent critical work has investigated theories from this period in terms of gender, especially in the context of thematic processes and key signatures in sonata form (Burnham 1996), hermeneutics (Bent 1994), and the link between theory, sketch study and compositional process (ibid.; see also creativity). In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, a number of music theorists, including Hugo Riemann and Heinrich Schenker, further refined techniques of tonal analysis and the associated ideas of musical unity and coherence (see analysis, organicism). Linked to the concept of musical unity was the development of a surface/depth metaphor – a hierarchical division between surface detail and a reduced, deeper structural level, with high value being placed on the presence of connection and direction at the deeper structural level. (For a critical and cultural evaluation of the surface/depth metaphor, see Fink 1999; see also Watkins 2011a.) Both as a result of advances in mathematics and linguistics and their influence on recent music theory, and following the rise of a plurality of musical styles (see style) and techniques in the twentieth century, music theory currently forms a discipline on its own terms. In this more developed theoretical context, a number of contrasting approaches exist. One of the central debates associated with music theory is what American musicologist Scott Burnham calls ‘the continued tension between musical practice and intellectual model’ (Burnham 1993, 77). In some instances, this has led to a desire to relate music theory to aural perception (Cook 1987). Other trends include approaches influenced by developments in psychology (Lerdahl and Jackendoff 1983), theories based on melodic and rhythmic contour (Morris 1993), pitchclass set theory (Forte 1973), and theories based on the study of systems of tonal functions and relationships (Lewin 1982, 1995, 2007, 2010).

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Lewin’s theory of generalized music intervals and transformations has been particularly influential; the work of Lewin and of others, including Richard Cohn and Brian Hyer, has been dubbed neo-Riemannian, following its adaptation of Riemann’s Funktionstheorie (see Hyer 1995). According to Cohn, neo-Riemannian theory has arisen as part of an evolving poststructuralist critical practice (see post-structuralism). In particular, it is a response to analytical problems formed by chromatic music ‘that is triadic but not altogether tonally unified’ (Cohn 1998, 167; see also Lewin 1982). In essence, these theorists are interested in chords associated by common tones (chords that share pitches or pitch classes) and voice-leading parsimony: that is, the movement in degree steps (semitones, tones, and so on) between associated tonal triads. Those chords between which there is the smallest movement are judged to be ‘maximally smooth’. One of the principal contributions of neo-Riemannian theory is the Tonnetz (tone network), a lattice diagram in which pitches are arranged diagonally in regular intervallic cycles of adjacent perfect fifths, minor and major thirds (see Cohn 2011). Chords can be mapped on to this diagram and particular relations charted, in particular three main transformations: Parallel (a change of mode, e.g. from C major to C minor, which highlights Riemann’s so-called ‘dualist’ approach, in which minor triads are considered to be inverted major triads (see Klumpenhouwer 2006, 2011); Relative (a movement to the ‘relative’, e.g. from G major to E minor); and Leading-Tone exchange (e.g. from C major to the triad below its leading-note, E minor). Cohn has also pioneered a clock-face diagram, a so-called ‘voice-leading zone’, which similarly maps triadic chords and their chromatic transformations (Cohn 2012a). Although neo-Riemannian approaches grew initially from a desire to account for the complexities of late-Romantic harmony (Liszt and Wagner, in particular), the techniques have also been applied to other genres (see genre), including rock and popular music (see Capuzzo 2004). Moreover, the spatial drive to chart harmonic transformations evident in neo-Riemannian theory has been extended, in some cases, to animated, three-dimensional virtual graphs (Roeder 2009; Tymoczko 2011). A particularly high level of geometrical abstraction is evident in Dimitri Tymoczko’s A Geometry of Music: Harmony and Counterpoint in the Extended Common Practice (Tymoczko 2011). This monumental study encompasses an extremely broad scope of musical genres and styles, from medieval organum through Western tonal and atonal art music, minimalism, popular music and jazz, with the intention of describing procedures that contemporary composers might find useful. This study is significant because it identifies underlying principles beneath a vast breadth of Western music.

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Yet some scholars wonder whether the ‘flows of tonal energy’ are not lost in these theoretical models since they imply a neutral space of tonal movement rather than the multiplicity of spaces occupied by performers, composers, analysts and listeners. As Kenneth Smith asks: ‘Who or what is transforming – the listener, the composer, the analyst or the chords themselves?’ (Smith 2014a, 231). In Smith’s view, ‘Brahms runs rings around transformational theory. So too does Wagner’ (ibid., 235). Schubert has also attracted much theoretical attention owing to a longstanding view of him as a composer who disrupts or inflects classical form and harmonic syntax (see Clark 2011). One scholar who has brought a combination of musical and multidisciplinary theory to bear on a reconsideration of Schubert’s music is Lawrence Kramer (Kramer 1998). However, Kramer has been criticized by Suzannah Clark for failing to examine the Schenkerian theory he applies to the same extent as the literary theories he draws on. The result, according to Clark, is that ‘[Schubert’s] harmonic predilection and formal inclinations – identified as symbols of deviance – [are] subordinated to the norm’ (Clark 2002, 237; see alterity). Similar charges have been levelled at Susan McClary and Carolyn Abbate for their work on harmonic disjunctions in Mozart and Mahler respectively (Agawu 1993a, 94–7) – although Clark herself is not without her critics (Spitzer 2013). Other theoretical trends have included the application of apparently anachronistic analytical and theoretical models to musical works (see work) in order to challenge embedded notions about how music from certain periods functions (see periodization). For example, Mozart has been examined using pitch-class set theory, and Webern’s serial music has been explored in terms of tertian (triadic) harmonies (Phipps 1993). By extension, Burnham makes the point that the studies of music theorists should not essentialize their work by measuring it in terms of whether it ultimately proved right or wrong. Instead, he argues: our present theoretical prejudices can start a dialogue with the earlier theory, in the manner of a hermeneutic [see hermeneutics] exchange. Such an exchange would take the shape of a questioning, starting . . . with those aspects of earlier theory which seem to stand in greatest contradiction to our own views . . . Every test of an earlier theorist’s assumptions is thus at the same time a test of our own assumptions. The result would be a more integrated view of ourselves as historical beings. (Burnham 1993, 79) Burnham then pursues an illuminating examination of aspects of the harmonic theory of French music theorist and composer Jean-Philippe

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Rameau. Burnham illustrates not only how aspects of Rameau’s theories were the product of the Enlightenment thought of his time, but also how subsequent interpretations of Rameau, notably by Riemann and Schenker, were heavily conditioned by historical and cultural ideas following the First World War, linked to philosophical notions of German intellectual supremacy dating back to the poetry and philosophy of Friedrich Schiller and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. Such observations may be summarized as considerations of ‘the inherently cultural dimension of music-theoretical claims’ (Clark and Rehding 2001, 8; see also Bent 1996a; Judd 2000; Rehding 2003). Theoretical work has come under close scrutiny, the most obvious example being the search for unity and organicism and the association of these features with coherence, value and genius. American musicologist Fred Everett Maus has identified three principal ways in which the concept of unity has been questioned: calls for a more explicit or accurate account (Cohn and Dempster 1992); a consideration of other valuable qualities in music and an account of these other qualities in relation to unity (Kerman 1994); and a more radical questioning of whether the search for unity is ‘ever appropriate as a critical or scholarly aim’ (Maus 1999, 173). Although he dismisses the third question as inappropriate, on the grounds that it does not concur with his personal experience of music, Maus pursues an investigation into the existence of different types of unity. While considerations of music theory developed in the past are increasingly entering into a reflexive relationship with the present, and the tension between model and practice continues to feature in current studies, the gap that has always existed between the work of music theorists and of composers contemporary with them arguably continues, although the activities of one will continue to inform the other. See also: critical theory, cultural studies, deconstruction, ideology, structuralism Further reading: Bent and Drabkin 1987; Brown, Dempster and Headlam 1997; Christensen 2006; Hepokoski and Darcy 2006; Klumpenhouwer 1998, 2006; Lerdahl and Krumhansl 2007; Littlefield and Neumeyer 1998; Moreno 2004; Rings 2011; Spicer and Covach 2010; Stone 2008; Wörner, Scheideler and Rupprecht 2012

TRADITION Music is closely bound by a concept of tradition, which may be commonly understood as sets of beliefs and practices that are transmitted

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across generations to form a context that then becomes a framework for subsequent cultural activity (see culture) and interpretation. Musicology reflects upon specific traditions of music and is defined and shaped by its own contexts and agendas, which could be conceived as forming part of a tradition. Specific cultural traditions are often represented through the discourses (see discourse) of ethnomusicology (see ethnicity). Tradition, or traditions, can be presented as a context in which to understand the work of a specific composer (Taruskin 1996) or as part of a wide-ranging historical perspective (Abraham 1974). Musical style and genre are often closely intertwined with a concept of tradition, as both generate continuities and form models and points of reference. In many different intellectual contexts, the way in which tradition is defined is open to debate. Poet and critic T.S. Eliot, in a highly influential and widely cited essay titled ‘Tradition and the Individual Talent’ (originally published in 1919), suggested that tradition ‘involves, in the first place, the historical sense, which we may call nearly indispensable to anyone who would continue to be a poet beyond his twenty-fifth year; and the historical sense involves a perception, not only of the pastness of the past, but of its presence’ (Eliot 1975, 38). For Eliot, then, tradition involves an awareness of the past, a sense of historical precedent, which becomes an active force in the present. This view could be readily relatable to music, with the creative act of composition and the role of the interpreter reflecting the awareness of precedents and precursors. Eliot goes on: the historical sense compels a man to write not merely with his own generation in his bones, but with a feeling that the whole of the literature of Europe from Homer and within it the whole of the literature of his own country has a simultaneous existence and composes a simultaneous order. (ibid.) Eliot now suggests an essentially conservative view of the past through a construction of ‘order’. It is also notable that he makes reference only to a European tradition, by implication excluding non-European traditions, and, through the proposition of the ‘whole’, indicates that this tradition is now available only as a totality. This perspective is further enhanced by the positioning of Homer as the starting point, a strategy that links tradition to the construction of a canon of great figures and works. The past defined as tradition suggests a conservative impulse; however, the past can also positively shape the present and future in notably radical ways. This possibility is developed in some detail by American music theorist Joseph Straus in his book Remaking the Past: Musical Modernism and the Influence of the Tonal Tradition (Straus 1990). Straus characterizes

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the musical modernism of composers such as Berg, Bartók, Schoenberg, Stravinsky and Webern through their problematic relationships to the tonal tradition, but he also considers how this tradition is represented in the presence of modernism. He develops his argument through reference to the literary theory of Harold Bloom, which sought to articulate the ‘anxiety of influence’ (Bloom 1973; see also influence). If tradition is read as a representation of the past, it also suggests a certain context, a point of location or reference, but this need not be a fixed conception. According to philosopher Hans-Georg Gadamer: ‘Tradition is not simply a permanent precondition; rather, we produce it ourselves inasmuch as we understand, participate in the evolution of tradition, and hence further determine it ourselves’ (Gadamer 2003, 293). This version of tradition embraces fluidity, the past as process, to which we contribute and which we determine. Gadamer’s conception of tradition is invoked by jazz scholar David Ake in his discussion of jazz cultures (Ake 2002; see also Gloag 2012, 2014) through reference to recordings by Wynton Marsalis (Marsalis Standard Time Volume 2: Intimacy Calling, 1991) and Bill Frisell (Have a Little Faith, 1993). The Marsalis recording revisits standard material from the past played in a style that seeks to respect and represent a jazz tradition. The Frisell recording also uses past material, but from an eclectic range of sources (including Madonna, Bob Dylan, Copland and Ives). Both, then, revisit past music, but different traditions are viewed in different ways. Marsalis attempts to position himself within a tradition that reflects a neoclassical orientation (see modernism) but also betrays a certain postmodern nostalgia (see postmodernism). In contrast, Frisell stands outside various traditions and does not seek to perpetuate any single tradition but instead articulates a postmodern hybridity. For Ake, this comparison suggests a multiplicity of traditions: ‘each of these albums . . . present only one way of understanding and presenting jazz, not the way. In a sense, multiple jazz traditions are – and always have been – “the tradition”’ (Ake 2002, 175). This proposal of multiple jazz traditions can be readily transferred to other musical contexts, with a plural rather than singular concept of tradition reflecting the diversity of contemporary musical and musicological experiences. Further reading: Pickering 1999; Taruskin 2005a; Whittall 2003a

VALUE Musicology operates its own systems of values. The decisions taken concerning which composers, periods, works and contexts are studied might reflect personal preferences or ideological positions (see ideology). They

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may also reflect mechanisms of value as defined by the status and legacy of the canon. Questions of value also resonate through the context of aesthetics, in which the judgements associated with value form a core issue. The central text in debates surrounding the question of value is Immanuel Kant’s Critique of Judgement, originally published in 1790 (Kant 1987). In this work Kant sought to consider the essence of judgement and the aesthetic issues of value. For Kant, a distinction was made between the pleasure that could be derived from art, through the designation of value in the form of beauty, and a more functional sense of enjoyment from what were conceived of as more mundane social pleasures. This distinction, through the claim of an aesthetic purity, leads to a view of aesthetic value as essentially autonomous (see autonomy), a view that has been subject to much critical scrutiny. It is evident that much musicological work has assumed a sense of aesthetic value through a preoccupation with the internal functions of musical works (see analysis, formalism), the focus on the composer as genius, and the historical development of individual styles (see style) and genres (see genre). All these factors could be seen to suggest the operation of autonomous value systems that are bound by their own selflegitimization and freed from context. The claimed distinction between an aesthetic realm and that which, by implication, fails to reach this condition has reflections in the study of classical music, but it raises even more accentuated problems for the interpretation of popular music. Popular music is a context loaded with issues of value. It is a music disseminated through a commercial market, which confers its own sense of value upon the music (see culture industry). This is evident in economic measurements such as charts and the tracking of record sales. It is also reflected in the popular media and its historicization of popular music through the consideration of ‘great’, ‘classic’ albums (see canon). Popular music scholar Simon Frith has written extensively on the questions of value judgements in relation to popular music, seeking to go beyond commercial value to consider the possibility of an aesthetic value in relation to the social discourses (see discourse) that coalesce around the music: ‘Part of the pleasure of popular culture is talking about it; part of its meaning is this talk, talk which is run through with value judgments. To be engaged with popular culture is to be discriminating’ (Frith 1996, 4). But how do we move from a scenario based around a discourse of like/dislike into a more constructive and meaningful framework? According to Frith, ‘aesthetic arguments are possible only when they take place within a shared critical discourse’ (ibid., 10). In other words, for a meaningful dialogue to take place concerning different values and judgements, it is essential for some

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common ground to be established. From this, we may deduce that classical and popular music inhabit different territories and speak different critical languages. It is also possible to suggest that, with the increasing pluralization of popular music and its attendant styles and subcultures (see culture), there may be such a vast distance between some popular music styles that no shared critical discourse is readily available. However, the actual process of formulating value judgements may betray some underlying similarities. With reference to the critical distance between classical (‘high’) and popular (‘low’) culture, Frith claims that: in responding to high and low art forms, in assessing them, finding them beautiful or moving or repulsive, people are employing the same evaluative principles. The differences lie in the objects at issue (what is culturally interesting to us is socially structured), in the discourses in which judgments are cast, and in the circumstances in which they are made. (ibid., 19) However, any shift from consideration of individual responses and the values that they indicate to a larger theoretical understanding of the issues remains problematic and available for further research within the broad context of music aesthetics. Julian Johnson has challenged the loss of value that once seemed integral to a tradition of classical music, but which has now been displaced through the impact of a cultural relativism that has emerged as a consequence of the postmodern blurring of boundaries between ‘high’ and ‘low’ cultures (see postmodernism). For Johnson, ‘classical music is distinguished by a self-conscious attention to its own musical language. Its claim to function as art derives from its peculiar concern with its own materials and their formal patterning, aside from any considerations about its audience or its social use’ (Johnson 2002, 3). This view, which runs against many of the assumptions about music in context, continues to position music as an autonomous art form, with its own set of integral meanings (see meaning) and values. Lawrence Kramer has also engaged with questions around the value of classical music and the perceived threat to it. Eschewing ‘musical appreciation’ and the requirements of ‘technical information’, Kramer presents a ‘record of lived and living experience that might strike a chord with the experience of others’ (Kramer 2007, 6). This aspiration effectively captures the individual, subjective nature of musical experience, but how we go beyond that highly personal sense of value remains problematic; Kramer is sensitive to this issue, and much of his subsequent discussion is addressed to it.

258 Work See also: subjectivity, work Further reading: Burnham 2013; Dahlhaus 1983b; Garratt 2014; Gracyk 2011; Kieran 2001; Kramer 2011

WORK The concept of a musical work can arguably be dated back at least as far as the fifteenth century, when composers such as Dunstable and Dufay were increasingly identified on musical sources; there is also evidence of the concept in writings by Renaissance humanists (see Strohm 1993). However, from the late eighteenth century onwards, musical works became the basic unit of artistic production and consumption, largely as a result of increased links between music and state institutions and wider access of the public to ‘art’ music. Subsequently, through German Romanticism, a new concept of an autonomous (see autonomy), often purely instrumental work (see absolute) arose, along with determining criteria such as structure, unity (see organicism, analysis), wholeness, coherence and genius. However, the work concept developed in dialogue with other tendencies, such as programme music, which promoted the idea that music’s meaning lay beyond itself, in a set of musico-poetic images, and the rise of the virtuoso performer-composer, which often led to a sense that the ‘performance exceeded the work’ (Samson 2003, 4). Certain technical practices have also existed in a critical relationship to the concept of the musical work, including borrowing, quotation (see intertextuality), re-composition, arrangement and transcription (see Hamilton 2014). The concept of the musical work has come under some scrutiny, most notably by philosopher Lydia Goehr, who has been concerned with the philosophical problem of the ontological status of a work (Goehr 1992). Goehr’s central claim is that the work concept has directly shaped modern musical attitudes since its emergence around 1800, in particular by helping to construct a canon of works that are deemed more important than others (see value), a system that is still in place today (see Strohm 2000; Goehr 2000). Central to Western conceptions of the musical work is the existence of a published score. The purpose of a score is primarily to preserve music, but it also facilitates its reproduction, and this is clearly central to the continued existence of a work, ensuring that it has an afterlife. However, it has been contested that the musical score is a very imprecise medium (Boorman 1999, 413), and, in many cases, such as nineteenth-century

Work 259

keyboard improvisations, the score has merely provided a starting point for performance. In some musical periods (see periodization), performers have been required to embellish a score, a fact that composers such as Machaut, Josquin and Handel would have appreciated. Conversely, more verbal instruction, as in the scores of Debussy, and precise notation, in the case of Ferneyhough, have (sometimes deliberately) opened the space between the score and its realization in performance even more, either because directions in words leave too much to the imagination, or because an overload of graphic information is impossible to reproduce exactly (see Pace 2009). A score is therefore only one possible version of a work. Even an urtext, which is intended to represent a composer’s original intentions, excludes revisions and is based on an interpretation of manuscripts. Implicit in the idea of the musical work has been the assumption that what is composed, performed and received by an audience is the same fixed, unchanging object (Talbot 2000). However, this assumption can easily be disproved, especially in relation to changing performance and conducting traditions (see authenticity, reception). As works enter different social and historical contexts, so their meanings (see meaning) will change, while some composers have a habit of revising their works during their own lifetimes. Throughout history, different ways of listening have also been developed. Nineteenth-century music critics, such as A.B. Marx, encouraged far more ‘informed’ listening habits in audiences and emphasized the importance of an awareness of structural matters. However, set against this mode of listening would have been a wellestablished cultural consciousness of the multiple aspects of a work, the contrasting styles, genres (see style, genre) and references to traditional folk and popular musical forms. Another question that arises from the work concept is one of authorship. To whom is the work attributable? Is there a single author, or, as in opera, is the work a collaboration (see Petrobelli 1994)? Questions of authorship intersect with the associated concept of text; this can be applied in the sense of a written or published object, but it can also apply to any form of cultural material from which social, historical and aesthetic meaning can be read. A musical score would be one representation of text. Another would be the existence of manuscript or sketch material that predates the final published work. Much critical work has tended to stress the role of the author (composer) over the interpreter (reader, critic). However, in the 1950s, a number of American literary scholars, so-called ‘new critics’, separated authors from texts in order to clear the way for their structuralist readings (see structuralism; see also Wimsatt and Beardsley 1954; Pease

260 Work

1990). The separation of author and text was subsequently developed in a different way by various post-structuralists (see deconstruction, post-structuralism), notably French philosopher Jacques Derrida and French literary theorist Roland Barthes. Through their insistence on the multiplicity of meanings inherent in any text, the sense of a literary work as fixed and immutable was seriously undermined. Barthes argued for interpretation (‘the birth of the reader’) as the site of meaning in a literary text rather than any form of authorized control (Barthes 1977, 142–8). The resulting reader response theory has been adapted to music, for example in the work of Gary Tomlinson (Tomlinson 1984) and Carolyn Abbate (Abbate 1991, 1993). These musicologists consider the musical work in its wider, intertextual context, as the site of intersecting cultural texts. In this move, the concept of text is applied in its broadest sense, embracing cultural topics as expressed in a range of forms, including painting, cultural studies, poetry and literature. Following these developments, Stanley Boorman has concluded: The notated text is no longer the definer of a musical composition as we understand it . . . it is no more than a definer of a specific moment in the evolving history of the composition: it presents only those elements that a copyist, printer, or performer felt were important. (Boorman 1999, 420) More recently, the musical avant-garde, active since the 1950s, has further undermined the status of the score, either by overloading it with notation too complex to perform naturally or by introducing chance techniques and offering choice to performers, thereby distancing the composer from the musical work, composing ‘in ignorance’ of the final result (see Iddon 2013b; Beard 2015). These experiments deepen a nineteenth-century belief that the musical score is an imperfect realization of a composer’s idea and the performance an even less perfect stage in the act of interpretation. The centrality of the work concept found in recent classical traditions is not precisely replicated in popular music or jazz, which generally eschew the idea of work. However, Richard Middleton has pointed out that these forms are not entirely free of work-centred thinking (Middleton 2000b). Frequently, a recording will take on the status of text. Although ethnomusicologists and popular music scholars have contributed much to undermining the idea of a fixed, stable, unitary work, they have had to study closely the impact of recording technology, a principal means by which the idea of a musical work has been sustained and disseminated

Work 261

(see Moore 2012). A remnant of the work concept is also contained in, but simultaneously problematized by, the prevalence of the cover version. Further evidence of the persistence of work-centred thinking in popular music is provided by the ‘greatest hits’ compilations and ‘100 greatest’ lists of albums, songs and artists in magazines, online and in television documentaries, as well as the continued use of the term ‘classic’ when referring to songs or artists of seminal status in pop or jazz history (see canon; see also Jones 2008). Middleton has also noted the existence of networks of printed and performed songs in popular music that vary but are demonstrably related to one another. He describes these groups as tune families, a feature that is illustrated by African and Afro-diasporic practices such as dubbing and remixing in reggae (Middleton 2000b; see also Hebdige 1987). Following the literary theory of Henry Louis Gates Jr, Middleton argues that these practices define culture ‘as the continual paradigmatic transformation, inter- or intra-textual, of given material, the repetition and varying of stock elements, the aesthetic of a “changing same”’ (Middleton 2000b, 73). Further reading: Butt 2005; Davies 1988; Herissone 2013; Ingarden 1986; Kramer 2008; Sallis 2014b; Tagg 2000

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Name index

ABBA 227 Abbate, Carolyn xiii; alterity 12; analysis 14; body 34; discourse 81; feminism 100; historicism 127; narrative 170–1, 173; new musicology 181–2; sketch 229; theory 252; work 260 Adams, Byron 73 Adams, John (1947–) 83, 94, 154, 183 Adler, Guido (1855–1941) xii, xiv, 29, 125, 127, 166, 239 Adlington, Robert 28, 43, 164 Adorno, Theodor W. (1903–69): aesthetics 9; authenticity 20; autonomy 25; avant-garde 25; class 41; creativity 52; critical theory 59–62; culture industry 71–2; discourse 82; ethics 93; film music 101; form 108–9; genre 118; ideology 136; language 150; lateness 151; listening 155; Marxism 160–1; modernism 167; narrative 171; popular music 195–6; reception 215; recording 219; style 239–40; subjectivity 245–6 Agawu, Kofi: analysis 14, 16; biography 33; discourse 83; language 150; new musicology 182; postcolonial/ postcolonialism 202; Romanticism 226; semiotics 227; theory 252 Ake, David 147, 255 Alcoff, Linda Martín 133–4 Almén, Byron 172–3 Althusser, Louis (1918–90) 83, 136, 236

Amico, Stephen 36–7, 112, 113 Anderson, Benedict 95, 175 Antheil, George (1900–59) 201 Aristotle (384–322 BC) xiii, 5, 116, 192, 221, 249 Aristoxenus (c.375–360 BC) 221 Armstrong, Louis (1901–71) 144–5 Arrighi, Giovanni 190 Art Bears, The 72 Artusi, Giovanni Maria (c.1540–1613) 113 Asian Dub Foundation 132 Atomic Kitten 51 Attali, Jacques 56, 218, 234 Atzmon, Gilad (1963–) 44 Austin, J.L. 173 Ayrey, Craig 76–7, 141, 164 Babbitt, Milton (1916–2011) 26, 42 Bach, Carl Philipp Emanuel (1714–1788) 148 Bach, Johann Sebastian (1685–1750): analysis 13, 15; autobiography 22; avant-garde 26; biography 30–2; canon 37; ethics 93; form 105; hybridity 132; listening 155; organicism 185; Renaissance 220; Romanticism 225; structuralism 236 Bakhtin, Mikhail (1895–1975) 81, 118, 130–2, 147, 173 Barenboim, Daniel (1942–) 45 Barthes, Roland (1915–80): xiii; biography 32; body 33–4; critical

338  Name index theory 59; film music 100; interpretation 141; intertextuality 142; listening 154; metaphor 164; post-structuralism 207–8; structuralism 236; work 260 Bartók, Béla (1881–1945) 97, 138, 178, 200, 255 Baudrillard, Jean 204 Baumgarten, Alexander G. (1714–62) 5–7, 13 Beal, Amy 42–3 Beatles, The: analysis 17–8; biography 29; canon 38; cover version 50; landscape 148; lateness 150; nationalism 179; Orientalism 189; periodization 191; popular music 195–6; race 213; recording 218 Beckerman, Michael 175–6, 178 Beckles Willson, Rachel 43, 45 Beethoven, Ludwig van (1770– 1827): absolute 3–4; analysis 14–15; authenticity 19; autobiography 22; autonomy 25; avant-garde 26; biography 30–1, 29; canon 37–8; conflict 43, 45; creativity 52; critical theory 61; criticism 63; cultural studies 68; disability 79; ethics 93; feminism 99–100; form 104–5, 107; gender 113; genius 115–16; gesture 121; lateness 150–1; listening 152, 156–7; narrative 172; nationalism 177; new musicology 181; organicism 185; Orientalism 188; periodization 191; place 192; psychology 211; reception 215–17; recording 220; Romanticism 224–5; semiotics 227; sketch 228; style 238–40; subjectivity 244–5; sublime 248 Benjamin, Walter (1892–1940) 156, 214, 219 Bent, Ian: analysis 13–14, 17–18; consciousness 49–50; creativity 52; hermeneutics 124–5; Romanticism 226; sketch 229; theory 250, 253 Berg, Alban (1885–1935): critical theory 61; ethics 94; gay musicology

112; influence 138–9; modernism 167; narrative 174; value 255 Berger, Harris 234 Bergh, Arild 43 Berio, Luciano (1925–2003) 142 Berlioz, Hector (1803–69) 22, 96, 158, 177, 217, 224–5 Bertens, Hans 202 Besseler, Heinrich 152–3 Bhabha, Homi 130, 199, 213 Biddle, Ian: consciousness 48–9; ethics 94; gay musicology 110; gender 113–14; Romanticism 226; sound/ soundscape/sound studies 232–3 Birtwistle, Harrison (1934–): class 39; ecomusicology 85; genre 119; gesture 121; landscape 148; modernism 169; nationalism 178; postmodernism 204 Bizet, Georges (1838–75) 213, 224 Blondie 51 Bloom, Harold 38, 137–9, 255 Blume, Friedrich (1893–1975) 96, 223 Boccaccio, Giovanni (1313–75) 220 Boden, Margaret 52 Boethius (c.480–c.524) 221 Bohlman, Philip V.: alterity 10; canon 38; critical musicology 55–7, 59; ethnicity 97–8; nationalism 179; postcolonial/postcolonialism 199, 201; style 240 Boorman, Stanley 258, 260 Borio, Gianmario 27, 105 Born, Georgina: alterity 12; avant-garde 28; critical musicology 56, 58–9; historicism 127; listening 154, 158; nationalism 178; place 192; recording 220; sound/soundscape/sound studies 232, 234 Boulez, Pierre (1925–2016) 27, 108, 112, 158, 169, 204, 228 Bowie, Andrew: aesthetics 9; culture industry 72; hermeneutics 124; language 150; modernism 169; Romanticism 226; subjectivity 243 Bowie, David (1947–) 39, 119

Name index 339 Bowman, Wayne D. xv, 6–8, 110, 174, 184–5, 243 Boyd, Malcolm 31 Brackett, David 18, 36, 81–2, 213–14 Bradby, Barbara 36, 114 Brah, Avtar 130, 132 Brahms, Johannes (1833–97): alterity 11; analysis 15; autonomy 25; criticism 64–5; discourse 82; influence 138; intertextuality 142; modernism 168; organicism 185; reception 215; Romanticism 224–5; structuralism 236; subjectivity 245; theory 252 Brendel, Franz (1811–68) 177 Brett, Philip 12, 111–12, 181 Brindle, Reginald Smith 27–8 Britten, Benjamin (1913–76): alterity 12; analysis 17; autobiography 23; disability 80; ethics 94; gay musicology 111–12; narrative 173; psychology 211; reception 215; subject position 242; subjectivity 246 Brody, Martin 42 Brown, A.P. 243, 249 Brown, Howard M. 160, 222 Brown, James 36, 82, 179, 213 Brown, Julie 97–8, 103, 133, 178, 200, 214 Brown, Matthew 18, 212, 229, 253 Brown, Steven 58–9 Bujic´, Bojan xii, 125, 162, 197 Bukofzer, Manfred F. (1910–55) 221 Burckhardt, Jacob (1818–97) 221 Bürger, Peter 26–7, 77, 116 Burke, Edmund (1729–97) 90–1, 248–9 Burmeister, Joachim (1564–1629) 221 Burney, Charles (1726–1814) 91, 128, 192 Burnham, Scott: film music 100; form 107, 109; genius 115–16; landscape 148; reception 215; Romanticism 224, 226; subjectivity 244; theory 250, 252–3; value 258 Burns, Robert (1759–96) 243

Butler, Judith 37, 111, 113 Butt, John 155 Byron, George Gordon, Lord (1788–1824) 243 Caccini, Francesca (1587–after 1637) 113 Cage, John (1912–92) 27, 108, 201 Carter, Elliott (1908–2012) 150, 157 Charles, Ray (1930–2004) 157 Chion, Michel 101–2, 157 Chomsky, Noam 210 Chopin, Frédéric (1810–49): deconstruction 76; ethnicity 96; feminism 99; genre 118; influence 138; intertextuality 142; nationalism 178; new musicology 181; reception 215; subjectivity 246 Citron, Marcia 38, 99, 103, 114, 181, 247 Cizmic, Maria 94 Clark, Andy 52–3, 150, 163, 165 Clark, Caryl 98 Clark, Suzannah 17, 85, 223, 249, 252–3 Clarke, David 17, 46–9, 57–9, 191, 211 Clarke, Eric: consciousness 46–7, 49; creativity 53; critical musicology 55–7; ecomusicology 84; identity 135; listening 153–4, 156–7; psychology 209–10; sound/ soundscape/sound studies 231; subject position 241–3 Cobussen, Marcel 93 Cocteau, Jean (1889–1963) 29 Cohen, Sarah 28, 98, 179, 192–3 Cohn, Richard 13–14, 18, 186, 251, 253 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor (1772–1834) 243 Coltrane, John (1926–67) 8, 146, 150, 179 Cone, Edward 81, 108, 162, 171 Cooke, Deryck 89, 150 Cooke, Mervyn 23, 103 Cook, Nicholas xv; aesthetics 9; analysis 15, 17; body 37; critical musicology

340  Name index 55–7, 59; emotion 90; film music 101; gender 114; historical musicology 126; hybridity 129; meaning 162; modernism 169; new musicology 182; psychology 210; race 214; reception 215–17; recording 218, 220; style 240; theory 250 Coombes, Annie E. 130, 132 Copland, Aaron (1900–90) 148, 255 Corbett, John 201 Cornershop 132, 201–2 Craft, Robert 81 Cream 213 Crispell, Marilyn (1947–) 143–4 Cumming, Naomi 121, 163, 170, 247 Cusick, Suzanne 43, 57, 94, 100, 113–14, 233

feminism 100; gender 114; ideology 137; psychology 209–10; subject position 242–3; subjectivity 247 Dibelius, Ulrich 27 Dillon, Emma 233 Dixon, Thomas 86 Donin, Nicolas 54 Downes, Stephen 72 Du Bois, W.E.B. (1868–1963) 147 Dufay, Guillaume (c.1397–1474) 221, 258 Dunstable, John (c.1390–1453) 221, 258 Durante, Francesco (1684–1755) 115 Durkheim, Émile (1858–1917) 96, 133 Dury, Ian (1942–2000) 80 Dylan, Bob (1941–) 21, 38, 42, 50, 135, 255

Dahlhaus, Carl (1928–89) xii; absolute 3–5; aesthetics 9; analysis 18; autonomy 26; decadence 73; genre 117–18; hermeneutics 125; hybridity 129; modernism 166; nationalism 175–7; periodization 191; reception 214; Romanticism 224–5; value 258 Dalal, Yair 44 Darcy, Warren 79, 105–6 Dart, Thurston (1921–71) 140 Darwin, Charles (1809–82) 86 Daughtry, J. Martin 184 Davies, Peter Maxwell (1934–) 39, 109, 119, 148 Davis, Miles (1926–91) 82, 133 Deathridge, John 23, 33, 177–8 Debussy, Claude (1862–1918) 158, 164–5, 189, 259 Delage, Maurice (1879–1961) 201 DeNora, Tia 46–9, 116, 135, 156, 192, 220 Derrida, Jacques (1930–2004) xiii, 48, 59, 62, 74–6, 206, 260 Descartes, René (1596–1650) 9, 46, 133 Diamond, Neil (1941–) 50 Dibben, Nicola: body 36; critical musicology 55; emotion 90;

Eagleton, Terry 69, 137, 161, 235–6 Eco, Umberto 141, 203, 227 Eisler, Hanns (1898–1962) 101 Elgar, Edward (1857–1934) 12, 17, 72–3, 112, 178, 220 Eliot, T.S. (1888–1965) 69–70, 142, 254 Ellington, Duke (1899–1974) 11 Ellis, Katherine 215, 218 Engels, Friedrich (1820–95) 159, 165 Eno, Brian (1948–) 232 Eriksen, Thomas Hylland 96 Erikson, Erik (1902–94) 133 Everett, Walter 17–18, 196 Everist, Mark xv; critical musicology 55; historical musicology 126; new musicology 182; Orientalism 187; postcolonial/postcolonialism 199; reception 214, 218 Fabbri, Franco 118–19 Fenton, Steve 212 Ferneyhough, Brian (1943–) 259 Fétis–François, Joseph (1784–1871) xii Fichte, Johann Gottlieb (1762–1814) 223, 243 Fischer–Dieskau, Dietrich (1925–2012) 34

Name index 341 Forkel, Johann (1749–1818): xii, 13, 30 Forman, Murray 135, 193 Fornäs, Johan 21, 119 Forte, Allen 16, 18, 140, 198, 236–7, 250 Foucault, Michel (1926–84) xiii; critical theory 59; discourse 80; historiography 127; identity 133; narrative 174; new musicology 180; race 212; Renaissance 223; structuralism 236 Franklin, Aretha (1942–) 100 Franklin, Peter 12, 32, 102–3, 114, 178, 226 Freud, Sigmund (1856–1939) 210 Frisell, Bill (1951–) 255 Frith, Simon 36–7, 66, 82, 122, 196, 256–7 Frogley, Alain 147, 178, 229 Fromm, Erich (1900–80) 60 Furtwängler, Wilhelm (1886–1954) 19 Gabbard, Krin 143 Gabrielsson, Alf 47 Gadamer, Hans-Georg (1900–2002) 124, 255 Gates, Henry Louis, Jr 81, 146–7, 261 Gendron, Bernard: alterity 11; avantgarde 28–9; culture industry 72; discourse 83; hybridity 132; jazz 145; postcolonial/postcolonialism 201; reception 216 Genette, Gérard 170, 173 Giddens, Anthony 83 Gilbert, Steven E. 98, 236 Gilhooly, Kenneth 52 Gillespie, Dizzy (1917–93) 145 Gilman, Sander L. 35–6, 177, 243 Gilroy, Paul 10, 134, 212–13 Glarean, Heinrich (1488–1563) 221 Glass, Philip (1937–) 205 Goebbels, Heiner (1952–) 119 Goehr, Alexander (1932–) 39 Goehr, Lydia 38, 55, 258 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von (1749–1832) 243–4, 253

Goodwin, Andrew 205 Gorbman, Claudia 101–2 Górecki, Henryk (1933–2010) 204 Gould, Glenn (1932–82) 151 Gramsci, Antonio (1891–1937) 9, 41, 174 Green, Lucy 55, 100, 135, 238 Greenblatt, Stephen 127, 222 Griffiths, Dai: analysis 18; class 39, 41; cover version 51; critical musicology 55; popular music 196; postcolonial/ postcolonialism 198; sketch 229; subjectivity 246 Griffiths, Paul 27 Grisey, Gérard (1946–98) 158 Grossberg, Lawrence 21, 67–8, 161 Grout, Donald J. 128, 190, 239 Gurney, Edmund (1847–88) 197 Habermas, Jürgen 59–60, 92, 169 Hall, Stuart 66, 134 Handel, George Frideric (1685–1759) 12, 91, 96, 105, 112, 142, 259 Hanks, William 116 Hanslick, Eduard (1825–1904): absolute 3–4; autonomy 24–5; criticism 64–5; discourse 82; emotion 87, 89; ethics 94; form 106; formalism 109–10; meaning 161–2; positivism 197; reception 215 Hardt, Michael 121 Harper–Scott, Paul 95 Harrison, Lou (1917–2003) 201 Harvey, P.J. (1970–) 241–2 Hatten, Robert: analysis 14; body 34; discourse 81; emotion 85–7; gesture 120–1; meaning 162–3; narrative 170–1; semiotics 227 Hauser, Arnold 239 Hawkins, Stan 196 Haydn, Franz Joseph (1732–1809): canon 37–8; The Enlightenment 91; ethnicity 98; form 104–5; Orientalism 188; reception 216; style 238; sublime 248 Head, Matthew 85, 114, 163, 182, 188–9, 200, 213

342  Name index Hebdige, Dick 36, 39, 67, 134, 218, 240, 261 Hegel, G.W.F. (1770–1831): absolute 4; aesthetics 7–9; autonomy 24; critical theory 62; form 106; historicism 126; identity 133; Marxism 159; modernism 167; organicism 184; race 212; Romanticism 223–4; style 239; subjectivity 243–5 Heidegger, Martin (1889–1976) 33, 46 Held, David 60 Helmholtz, Hermann von (1821–94) 153, 197, 250 Hendrix, Jimi (1942–70) 18, 150, 179, 213 Henry Cow 72 Hepokoski, James 79, 105–6, 119, 129, 225, 240, 253 Herder, Johann Gottfried (1744–1803) 3, 176 Herissone, Rebecca 54 Hesmondhalgh, David 56, 127, 218 Henze, Hans Werner (1926–2012) 23 Hindemith, Paul (1895–1963) 168 Hobsbawm, Eric 179, 190–1 Hodge, Bob 200, 202 Hoffmann, E.T.A. (1776–1822) 3–4, 13, 63, 177, 224 Hoggart, Richard 66 Hogwood, Christopher 217 Hölderlin, Johann Christian Friedrich (1770–1843) 243 Horkheimer, Max (1895–1973) 60, 71 Hume, David (1711–76) 33, 90 Husserl, Edmund (1859–1938) 47–8, 62, 210–11, 234 Hutcheon, Linda 147, 202 Hutnyk, John 131–3 Hyer, Brian 251 Indigo Girls 113 Ingold, Tim 52 Ives, Charles (1874–1954) 113, 255 Iwabuchi, Koichi 123

Jackendoff, Ray 210 Jahn, Otto (1813–69) 31 James, Richard D. (1971–) 232 Jameson, Fredric 118, 122, 192, 203–4 Janácˇek, Leoš (1854–1928) 89 Johnson, Douglas 228 Johnson, Julian 257 Johnson, Linton Kwesi 130 Johnston, Sheila 240 Jomelli, Niccolò (1714–74) 115 Josquin des Prez (c.1450–1521) 222, 259 Jung, Carl Gustav (1875–1961) 142, 211 Juslin, Patrik N. 86 Kalinak, Kathryn 101–2 Kallberg, Jeffrey 12, 118–19 Kant, Immanuel (1724–1804) ix; aesthetics 6–8; autonomy 23–4; creativity 52; emotion 89; The Enlightment 90–1; formalism 109; historicism 126; listening 155; race 212; Romanticism 223; style 239; subjectivity 243–4; sublime 247–9; value 256 Kassabian, Anahid 78, 101–2, 135, 156, 246–7 Keats, John (1795–1821) 243 Keil, Charles 192, 218 Keller, Hans (1919–85) 111, 211 Kellner, Douglas 122–3 Kerman, Joseph xiii–xv; analysis 13, 15–16; criticism 66; formalism 110; historical musicology 125; ideology 136; new musicology 180–2; Orientalism 186; positivism 198; post-structuralism 208; sketch 228–9; theory 253 Kircher, Athanasius (1601–80) 238 Koch, Heinrich Christoph (1749–1816) 14, 49, 91–2 Korngold, Erich Wolfgang (1897–1957) 12 Korsyn, Kevin xv, 138, 142 Kramer, Lawrence xiii, xv; aesthetics 8–9; analysis 17; body 35–6; culture

Name index 343 71; The Enlightment 92; film music 103; hermeneutics 124–5; identity 134; interpretation 141; language 150; listening 158; meaning 163; metaphor 164; narrative 173; new musicology 180–2; postcolonial/ postcolonialism 202; postmodernism 205–6; post-structuralism 209; psychology 211; Romanticism 226; sketch 229; subject position 241–3; subjectivity 244–7; theory 252; value 257–8; work 261 Krims, Adam: analysis 17; deconstruction 76; ecomusicology 84; ethnicity 98; genre 118; globalization 123; identity 135; ideology 137; Marxism 161; new musicology 182; place 192–3; recording 219–20; sound/ soundscape/sound studies 232 Kristeva, Julia 33, 141 Krummacher, Friedhelm 215–6 Kunst, Jaap (1891–1960) 97 Lacan, Jacques (1901–81) 9, 48, 133, 154, 164, 193, 211 Lachenmann, Helmut 169 Ladysmith Black Mambazo 131 Langer, Susanne 87 Led Zeppelin 21 Leo, Leonardo (1694–1744) 115 Leppert, Raymond 34, 55, 103, 182, 219 Lerdahl, Fred 158, 210–1, 250, 253, 307 Lerner, Neil 79 Lévi–Strauss, Claude (1908–2009) 171–2, 236 Levinas, Emmanuel 93 Lewin, David (1933–2003) 14, 158, 210–11, 250–1 Ligeti, Györgi Sándor (1923–2006) 178 Lipsitz, George 34, 130–1, 134, 193 Liszt, Franz (1811–86): absolute 3; body 35; criticism 64; ethnicity 97; nationalism 177; Orientalism 188; Romanticism 225; theory 251

Lobe, Johann Christian (1797–1881) 14 Lukács, György (1885–1971) 160 Lutosławski, Witold (1913–94) 119 Lyotard, Jean–François (1924–98) 92, 174, 202, 204, 249 McClary, Susan xiii; alterity 11–12; avant-garde 28–9; biography 33; cultural studies 68; feminism 99–100; form 107, 109; gay musicology 112; gender 113–14; historical musicology 126; narrative 175; new musicology 181–2; postmodernism 206; post-structuralism 209; race 213; Renaissance 223; subjectivity 244; theory 252 McColl, Sandra 66, 215 Machaut, Guillaume de (c.1300–77) 85, 222, 259 McRobbie, Angela 36–7 Madonna (1958–) 99–100, 135, 179, 181, 255 Mahler, Gustav (1860–1911): alterity 12; autobiography 23; biography 32; conflict 43; creativity 52; critical theory 61; ethnicity 97; genre 119; influence 139; intertextuality 142; narrative 171; new musicology 181; subjectivity 246; theory 252 Man, Paul de 76 Marcus, Greil 66 Marcuse, Herbert (1898–1979) 59–60 Marsalis, Wynton (1961–) 255 Marshall, Robert L. 229 Marx, A.B. (1795–1866) 22, 31, 49, 105–7, 177, 217, 259 Marx, Karl (1818–83) 133, 159, 161, 165 Mattheson, Johann (1681–1764) 149, 238 Maus, Fred Everett 13, 112, 170, 186, 253 Mead, George Herbert (1863–1931) 133 Mendelssohn, Felix (1809–47) 178, 225 Messiaen, Olivier (1908–92) 85

344  Name index Metastasio, Pietro (1698–1782) 115 Meyer, Leonard 48, 87–9, 210–11, 239 Meyerbeer, Giacomo (1791–1864) 187 Middleton, Richard xii; alterity 9–11; analysis 18; class 40–1; critical musicology 56; genre 119; ideology 137; popular music 196; work 260–1 Miles, Robert 212 Milhaud, Darius (1892–1974) 132, 201 Miller, Paul D. (1970–) 232 Mingus, Charlie (1922–79) 179 Mishra, Vijay 200, 202 Monk, Thelonious (1917–82) 145 Monkees, The 50 Monson, Ingrid 98, 106, 135, 145–7, 193, 212 Monteverdi, Claudio (1567–1643) 113, 155, 221 Moore, Allan F.: authenticity 18, 22; critical musicology 55; discourse 83; ecomusicology 84–5; genre 116–17, 119; place 192–3; popular music 196; popular musicology 197; recording 220; sound/soundscape/sound studies 232; work 261 Morris, Mitchell 114 Mowitt, John 219 Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus (1756–91): alterity 10–11; biography 31; canon 37–8; consciousness 48–9; creativity 52; emotion 86; The Enlightenment 91; ethics 93; ethnicity 97; form 104–5; intertextuality 142; lateness 150; new musicology 181; Orientalism 188–9; postcolonial/ postcolonialism 200; race 213; reception 216; recording 220; style 238; theory 252 Mulvey, Laura 35 Munch, Edvard (1863–1944) 166 Mussorgsky, Modest Petrovich (1839–81) 224 Nancy, Jean–Luc 157 Narmour, Eugene 210 Nattiez, Jean–Jacques 14, 81, 169–73

Negri, Antonio 121 Newcomb, Anthony 172 Nielsen, Nanette 93 Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm (1844–1900) 8, 73 Norrington, Roger 19–20, 217 Norris, Christopher 62, 76–7, 204 Nottebohm, Gustav (1817–82) 228 Novalis (1772–1801) 223, 243 Oliver, King (1885–1938) 143–4 Owens, Jessie Ann 222, 228 Paddison, Max: authenticity 20; autonomy 25; critical theory 60–2; culture industry 72; ideology 137; language 150; Marxism 161; modernism 167 Paganini, Niccolo (1782–1840) 225 Palisca, Claude 128, 190, 222, 239 Paragons, The 51 Parker, Charlie (1920–55) 145, 150, Parker, Roger 14, 83, 176 Parry, Hubert (1848–1918) 126, 220 Partch, Harry (1901–74) 34, 201 Pasler, Jann 10, 177, 179, 189, 200–1 Pearl Jam 113 Peirce, C.S. (1839–1914) 173, 226 Petrarch (1304–74) 220 Pet Shop Boys 112 Piazzolla, Astor (1921–92) 89 Picasso, Pablo (1881–1973) 29, 201 Pini, Maria 246 Plato (427–347 BC) xiii, 5, 92, 113, 221 Potter, Pamela M. 96, 137, 178–9, 193, 250 Presley, Elvis (1935–77) 179, 195, 213 Propp, Vladimir (1895–1970) 118 Proust, Marcel (1871–1922) 164 Prout, Ebenezer 104–5 Ptolemy (AD 100–AD 170) 221 Public Enemy 179 Pulp 36 Quintilian (AD 35–AD 95) 149, 221

Name index 345 Radano, Ronald 59, 97–8; 200–1, 214 Rameau, Jean–Philippe (1683–1764) 253 Ratner, Leonard 109, 150, 170, 227, 238 Ravel, Maurice (1875–1937) 72, 80, 201 Ray, Johnnie (1927–90) 80 Redding, Otis (1941–67) 148 Reich, Steve (1936–) 94 Ries, Ferdinand (1784–1838) 30 Réti, Rudolph (1885–1957) 15, 185 Richards, Annette 37, 148 Ricoeur, Paul 169 Riegl, Alois (1858–1905) 239 Riemann, Hugo (1849–1919) 14, 96, 152, 250–1, 253 Rimsky-Korsakov, Nikolai Andreievich (1844–1908) 224 Ritter, Jonathan 184 Robinson, Paul 187–8, 199 Rochberg, George (1918–2005) 23, 142, 203 Roots Manuva 130 Rosen, Charles 38, 92, 138, 190, 238 Rossini, Gioachino Antonio (1792– 1868) 176 Rousseau, Jean–Jacques (1712–78): critical theory 62; deconstruction 75–6; The Enlightenment 90–1; genius 115; Orientalism 189; postcolonial/postcolonialism 200; race 212; subjectivity 245 Roussel, Albert (1869–1936) 201 Rupprecht, Philip 173, 240, 242–3, 246 Rushdie, Salman 202 Said, Edward (1935–2003) conflict 45; criticism 62; discourse 83; lateness 151; Orientalism 186–7, 189; postcolonial/postcolonialism 199; race 213; style 238 Salzer, Felix (1904–86) 49 Sartre, Jean–Paul (1905–80) 26 Saussure, Ferdinand de (1857–1913) 74, 206, 226, 235

Savage, Patrick 58–9 Sawhney, Nitin (1964–) 132 Schaeffer, Pierre (1910–95) 49, 156, 231–2 Schafer, R. Murray (1933–) 85, 230–1 Schelling, F.W.J. (1775–1854) 226, 243 Schenker, Heinrich (1868–1935): analysis 15–18; consciousness 48; disability 78–9; form 106–7; formalism 110; metaphor 164; organicism 185; psychology 210; reception 215; structuralism 236; theory 250, 253 Schiller, Friedrich von (1759–1805) 45, 243, 253 Schilling, Gustav (1805–80) 248 Schindler, Anton (1795–1864) 30 Schlegel, K.W.F. von (1772–1829) 223 Schleiermacher, Friedrich (1768– 1834) 123–4, 226, 243 Schoenberg, Arnold (1874–1951): alterity 12; analysis 15–16; autonomy 23, 25; avant-garde 28; critical theory 61; criticism 65; disability 78; discourse 81–2; form 104–8; formalism 110; genius 116; gesture 121; influence 138; lateness 151–2; listening 155; Marxism 161; modernism 166–8; nationalism 178; organicism 186; postmodernism 203; psychology 210; sketch 228; style 239; subjectivity 245; tradition 255 Schopenhauer, Artur (1788–1860) 8 Schorske, Carl E. 192 Schreffler, Anne 43 Schubert, Franz (1797–1828) xv; autonomy 24; avant-garde 26; body 34; criticism 63, 65; disability 79; genre 117; language 149; metaphor 164; narrative 172, 174; Romanticism 224 Schuller, Gunther (1925–2015) 144 Schulte–Sasse, Jochen 26–7 Schumann, Robert (1810–56) xiii; autonomy 21; avant-garde 23; body 30; criticism 43–4; genre

346  Name index 73; language 102; metaphor 108; narrative 116, 117; Romanticism 162 Schwarz, David 154 Scott, Derek B. 56, 196–7, 232 Scruton, Roger 9, 163 Sedgwick, Eve 111, 173 Shaftesbury, Lord (1671–1713) 13 Shank, Barry 192–3 Shapiro, Michael 227 Shepherd, John 68 Shipton, Alyn 143 Shostakovich, Dmitri (1906–75) 8, 42, 137, 160, 174, 193 Shuker, Roy xv, 119, 194 Shumway, David 77 Sibelius, Jean (1865–1957) 17, 147, 178 Simon, Paul (1941–) 131 Sinatra, Frank (1915–98) 195 Smith, Bessie (1894–1937) 100 Soft Machine, The 133 Solie, Ruth xiii, 11, 99–100, 112, 184 Solomon, Maynard 32–3, 113, 151, 191 Spitta, J.A.P. (1841–94) 13, 31 Spitzer, Michael 88–9 Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty (1942–) 75, 130, 199 Springsteen, Bruce (1949–) 179 Stanford, Charles Villiers (1852– 1924) 220, 222 Stockhausen, Karlheinz (1928–2007) 27, 108, 183, 228 Stokes, Martin 97–8 Straus, Joseph: analysis 17; body 35; decadence 73; disability 78–80; form 104–6; influence 138–9; lateness 151; listening 157; modernism 168–9; tradition 254–5 Strauss, Richard (1864–1949) 12, 35, 73, 100, 151, 177, 243 Stravinsky, Igor (1882–1971): alterity 12; analysis 16–7; autobiography 22–3; autonomy 25; Cold War 43; critical theory 61; discourse 81; emotion 87; form 107; formalism 110; influence 138; interpretation 140; listening 157; modernism

167–8; narrative 173; nationalism 177–8; postmodernism 203; sketch 229; style 238; subjectivity 245–6; tradition 255 Street, Alan 76 Strinati, Dominic 196, 205 Strohm, Reinhardt 68, 222, 232, 258 Subotnik, Rose Rosengard: autonomy 26; critical theory 61; deconstruction 75–6; The Enlightenment 92; listening 155; new musicology 181; postcolonial/postcolonialism 202; post-structuralism 209; style 239–40 Sulzer, Johann Georg (1720–79) 90–1, 114 Szell, George (1897–1970) 168 Szendy, Peter 158 Tagg, Philip 17–18, 36, 89, 117, 214, 227, 261 Tan Dun (1957–) 201 Tarasti, Eero 14, 227 Taruskin, Richard xiii, xv; analysis 16; authenticity 19–20; Cold War 42; decadence 73; discourse 81; historical musicology 126; historiography 129; ideology 137; influence 139; interpretation 141; modernism 168; nationalism 175, 177, 179; new musicology 181; 9/11 183; Orientalism 189; periodization 190; politics 193; postmodernism 206; reception 217; recording 218; sketch 229; subject position 243; sublime 248; tradition 254–5 Tavener, John (1944–2013) 204 Taylor, Timothy 123 Thomas, Gary C. 12, 111–12 Thompson, Marie 233 Tinctoris, Joannes (c.1435–1511) 221 Tippett, Michael (1905–98) 23, 119, 142, 161, 191, 194, 211 Tobin, Amon (1972–) 232 Tomlinson, Gary: cultural studies 68; culture 71; discourse 82; globalization 123; hermeneutics 125; historical

Name index 347 musicology 126; historicism 127; historiography 129; jazz 145, 147; new musicology 180–2; periodization 191; postcolonial/postcolonialism 200; postmodernism 205–6; Renaissance 222–3; work 260 Tonnetz 251 Tönnies, Ferdinand (1855–1936) 96 Toorn, Pieter van den 16, 182 Toscanini, Arturo (1867–1957) 168, 217, 219 Tovey, Donald Francis (1875–1940) 63, 109 Trier, Lars von (1956–) 94 Varèse, Edgard (1883–1965) 232 Vasari, Giorgio (1511–74) 221 Vaughan Williams, Ralph (1872–1958) 81, 119, 147, 178 Vedder, Eddie (1964–) 113 Verdi, Giuseppe (1813–1901) 176, 187–8, 224, 238 Vitry, Phillipe de (1291–1361) 26 Wagner, Richard (1813–83): absolute 3–4; alterity 11–12; authenticity 19; autobiography 22–3; autonomy 24–5; avant-garde 26, 29; critical theory 61; criticism 64; decadence 73; discourse 82; ethics 94; ethnicity 97; genius 115; language 149; meaning 162; modernism 166, 168; nationalism 177; new musicology 181; psychology 211; race 212; reception 215, 217; Romanticism 224–5; semiotics 227; theory 251–2

Wallas, Graham 53 Walser, Robert 37, 113, 117, 135, 146 Warren, Jeff 93 Weather Girls, The 114 Weber, Gottfried (1779–1839) 13, 158 Weber, William 37–8, 218 Webern, Anton von (1883–1945) 16, 23, 138, 167, 246, 252, 255 Webster, James 190–1, 248–9 White, Hayden 169, 179 Whiteley, Sheila 37, 112, 135, 246 Whittall, Arnold xiii; analysis 15; hermeneutics 125; interpretation 140–1; modernism 169; reception 215; Romanticism 224; tradition 255 Williams, Hank (1923–53) 34, 179 Williams, Raymond (1921–88) 66, 68–70, 126–7 Wittgenstein, Paul (1887–1961) 80 Wolf, Hugo (1860–1903) 224 Wollstonecraft, Mary (1759–97) 99 Wonder, Stevie (1950–) 157 Wordsworth, William (1770–1850) 243 Young, Robert 83, 133, 200, 202 Young Marble Giants 42 Zappa, Frank (1940–93) 72, 241–2 Zarlino, Gioseffe (1517–90) 221 Zimmermann, Bernd Alois (1918–70) 203 Žižek, Slavoj 137, 211, 249 Zolov, Eric 179 Zorn, John (1953–) 201

Subject index

NOTE: Page numbers in bold indicate the entry for a subject. absolute: 3–5; autobiography 22; autonomy 24; biography 31; discourse 82; ethics 92; form 109; gesture 120; meaning 162; narrative 170; nationalism 177; sublime 248; work 258 ‘Absolute Idea’ 184–5 acousmatic 231 Affektenlehre 86, 233 aesthetics xiii; 5–9; absolute 3; analysis 13–14; autobiography 22; autonomy 24; avant-garde 28; body 34; canon 38; critical theory 59; criticism 63–4; discourse 83; emotion 85, 89; The Enlightenment 91; ethics 95; film music 103; formalism 109; genius 114; landscape 148; language 149; modernism 166; nationalism 176; new musicology 182; 9/11 183; positivism 197; postcolonial/ postcolonialism 201; postmodernism 203; reception 214, 217; recording 219; Renaissance 221; sound/ soundscape/sound studies 233; subjectivity 243; sublime 249; value 256–7 African art and music 29, 132, 201 Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung 62–3, 90, 114 alterity: 9–12; autobiography 23; body 36; consciousness 46, 49; critical

musicology 56; culture 69; culture industry 72; disability 79; discourse 82–3; ethics 94; feminism 100, gay musicology 111; globalization 122; historicism 127; historiography 128; hybridity 132; identity 133; intertextuality 142; metaphor 164; modernism 167; nationalism 175; Orientalism 188; postcolonial/ postcolonialism 199–200; poststructuralism 206; race 212–13; reception 215; Renaissance 223; sound/soundscape/sound studies 231; subjectivity 244, 247; theory 252 analysis xii, xiv–xv; 13–18; alterity 10; autonomy 23; biography 30, 32; body 34; critical musicology 54, 56–9; criticism 63, 66; deconstruction 76; disability 78; discourse 81–2; emotion 86, 88–9; ethnicity 97; film music 102–3; form 107; formalism 109–10; gay musicology 112; genre 117; gesture 120; historical musicology 125; identity 135; ideology 136; interpretation 140; landscape 148; listening 152–3, 158; metaphor 163–4; narrative 170–2; new musicology 180–2; organicism 184–6; Orientalism 187; positivism 198; postmodernism 206; post-structuralism 208; psychology

Subject index 349 209–10; race 211; reception 215, 218; recording 218; Renaissance 222; semiotics 226; sketch 228; sound/soundscape/sound studies 230; structuralism 235–7; subject position 240–1, 243; subjectivity 247; theory 249–50; value 256; work 258 ancient Greece xiii, 128, 221 ‘art for art’s sake’ 5, 24, 29, 224 assimilation 11, 17–18, 130, 178 ‘asyndeton effect’ 231 atonal music 16, 161, 166, 237, 251 authenticity: 18–22; autonomy 25; cover version 50; creativity 52; genre 117; hybridity 131; identity 134; interpretation 139; modernism 168; nationalism 176; new musicology 181; recording 218–19; subject position 242; work 259 authorship 52, 148, 259 autobiography 22–3, 33, 46, 83, 115, 137, 158, 215 autonomy: 23–6; absolute 4–5; aesthetics 7; alterity 12; analysis 13; avant-garde 27; biography 32; Cold War 42; conflict 46; creativity 52; critical musicology 58; critical theory 61; deconstruction 76; disability 78; emotion 87; formalism 109; genre 118; listening 155–6; Marxism 160; meaning 162; metaphor 163; modernism 167, 169; new musicology 180; positivism 197–8; postmodernism 205; poststructuralism 209; sketch 229; sound/ soundscape/sound studies 232; structuralism 237; style 239; value 256; work 258 avant-garde: 26–9; alterity 11; authenticity 19, 21; class 40; ethnicity 98; genius 116; genre 119; hybridity 132; jazz 145; modernism 166; reception 216; recording 218–19; sound/soundscape/sound studies 232; structuralism 236–7; work 260

Baroque period/style xi, 132, 149 bebop 145 biography (life and work): 29–33; analysis 13; autobiography 23; Cold War 42; disability 79; discourse 81; gender 113; historical musicology 125; historicism 126; influence 137; interpretation 140; lateness 150; narrative 174; periodization 189; politics 193; post-structuralism 208; reception 215; Romanticism 225; sketch 228 Birmingham Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies 66, 134 ‘Black Atlantic’ 10 ‘black music’ 36, 213 blues 21, 36, 51, 106, 192, 195, 213–14 body: 33–7, consciousness 46; creativity 53; critical musicology 55; disability 78–9; feminism 100; form 107; The Enlightenment 90; gender 113; gesture 120–1; jazz 143; listening 156–7; metaphor 163–4; organicism 184; psychology 210; Romanticism 226 canon: 37–8; xii, 32–4; absolute 4; aesthetics 7; alterity 10; analysis 15; biography 31; critical musicology 55–6; cultural studies 68; discourse 81–2; ethics 92; feminism 99; genius 114; historiography 128; influence 138; jazz 144–5; landscape 148; listening 155; popular music 195; postcolonial/postcolonialism 200; reception 215; reception 216; structuralism 236; tradition 254; value 256; work 258, 261 capitalism 204 chance techniques 27, 260 cinema see film class 39–41; alterity 9; Cold War 42; conflict 45; critical musicology 56; cultural studies 67; culture 69; culture industry 71; discourse 83; ethnicity 95; gender 114; hybridity

350  Subject index 130; identity 133–4; ideology 136; listening 154; Marxism 159–60; politics 193; popular music 196; race 213; sound/soundscape/sound studies 231 Classical period/style: alterity 9–10; canon 38; emotion 86; form 104; gesture 120–1; periodization 190; Romanticism 224; semiotics 227; style 238; see also absolute; neoclassicism; Romanticism colonialism 9, 130, 84–5; see also Orientalism, postcolonialism composers: as critics 43–4; female composers 99–100; periodization of 190–1 cover version 50–1, 140 critical musicology 54–9, 98, 125, 182, 198, 230 Cold War 41–3, 28, 178, 193 comparative musicology 58 conflict (music and conflict): 43–6; alterity 12; critical musicology 57; discourse 83; ethics 94; narrative 172; 9/11 183–4; sound/soundscape/ sound studies 233 consciousness: 46–50; xiii; authenticity 19; avant-garde 27; biography 31; body 33–4; conflict 44; ecomusicology 84; emotion 90; ethics 93; identity 133; ideology 136; landscape 147; listening 154; Marxism 160; Renaissance 222; sound/soundscape/sound studies 231; theory 250; work 259 creativity: 51–4; analysis 14; avant-garde 27; biography 32–3; consciousness 49; culture 69; ethics 93; language 149; listening 154; recording 219; Romanticism 224; sketch 229; sound/soundscape/sound studies 230; theory 250 critical musicology 132, 141 Critical Musicology (journal) 55 critical theory: 59–62; aesthetics 8; authenticity 19–20; autonomy 25;

class 41; critical musicology 55; criticism 66; culture industry 71; The Enlightenment 92; form 108; genre 118; ideology 136; language 150; lateness 151; Marxism 160; modernism 167; narrative 171; postmodernism 205; recording 219; style 239; subjectivity 245 criticism: 62–6; xv; absolute 3; analysis 16–17; critical theory 59; gender 113; language 149; listening 156; Marxism 160; meaning 162; new musicology 182; positivism 198; post-structuralism 208; reception 215 cultural studies: 66–8; alterity 9; authenticity 21; critical musicology 54; culture 69; gay musicology 111; gender 112; historicism 127; identity 133–4; place 192; popular music 194; postmodernism 205; reception 215; style 240; work 260 culture: 68–71; alterity 11; avant-garde 26, 28–9; body 34, 36; canon 37–8; class 39–41; cultural studies 66–8; culture industry 71–2; deconstruction 74, 76; ecomusicology 84; The Enlightenment 91; ethnicity 96–8; feminism 99–100; gender 112–13; genre 116; globalization 121; historicism 126; hybridity 130–1; identity 133; ideology 136; listening 154; Marxism 159–60; narrative 169; nationalism 175–6; new musicology 181; 9/11 183; periodization 190; politics 193; popular music 195; postmodernism 202–5; Romanticism 225; sound/soundscape/sound studies 232; stance 234; subject position 241; tradition 254; value 257; work 261 culture industry: 71–2; authenticity 20–1; class 40; cover version 51; genius 116; ideology 136; popular music 196; popular musicology 197; postmodernism 205; recording 219; value 256 Czech music 89

Subject index 351 decadence 72–3, 177, 240 deconstruction: 74–7; critical theory 62; hermeneutics 125; new musicology 180–1; postmodernism 205; poststructuralism 206; sketch 229; work 260 ‘delayed nineteenth century’ 190–1 diegetic/nondiegetic 77–8, 101–2, 170 différance 75–6 difference see alterity disability: 78–80; body 35; discourse 83; identity 133; lateness (late works/late style) 151; listening 157; subjectivity 246 discourse: 80–3; xi–xii, xiii; absolute 3–4; alterity 11; analysis 16–17; authenticity 21; avant-garde 28; biography 32; body 33, 35–6; Cold War 42; consciousness 47; cover version 51; critical musicology 57; criticism 66; diegetic/nondiegetic 77; disability 79–80; ecomusucology 85; emotion 87; ethics 94; ethnicity 95; feminism 99; form 105; genre 117; gesture 120; globalization 122; hermeneutics 123; hybridity 132; identity 133; jazz 143, 146; language 149; lateness 152; meaning 163; metaphor 165; narrative 170, 173–4; nationalism 177; new musicology 180–1; periodization 191; place 191; politics 193–4; postcolonial/postcolonialism 199; postmodernism 202; psychology 210; race 212; reception 215–16; Renaissance 223; structuralism 235; tradition 254; value 256–7 ‘disinterested attention’ 13 dissonance 12, 74, 193 ecomusicology 84–5, 49, 65, 147, 153, 192, 209, 249 education 44, 53, 55, 90, 160, 209 emulation 177, 179, 222 Enlightenment, the: 90–2; xiii; aesthetics 6; alterity 11; body 33; creativity 51; deconstruction 75; form 104; gender

113; genius 114–16; historicism 126; historiography 128–9; listening 155; modernism 165, 167; narrative 174; new musicology 181; Orientalism 189; postcolonial/postcolonialism 200; race 211, 213; Romanticism 223; style 238; subjectivity 245; sublime 248; theory 253 emotion: 85–90; body 34; conflict 44; consciousness 47–50; ethics 94; listening 154; narrative 172; psychology 210; sound/soundscape/ sound studies 231, 233; stance 234; subjectivity 243 ethics (music and ethics) 92–5, 233 ethnicity: 95–8; xii; alterity 9–10; body 35; conflict 44; cover version 51; creativity 52; critical musicology 54; culture 69; discourse 83; feminism 100; gay musicology 112; genre 116; historical musicology 125; historicism 126; hybridity 130–1; identity 133–4; jazz 143; listening 154; nationalism 175, 178; Orientalism 188; place 192; popular musicology 197; postcolonial/postcolonialism 199; psychology 209; race 212–14; recording 218; sound/soundscape/ sound studies 231–2; subjectivity 246; tradition 254 ethnomusicology: xii; alterity 10; analysis 17; critical musicology 58–9; culture 70; ethnicity 97–8; gender 112, 114; historical musicology 125; place 192; postcolonial/ postcolonialism 201; recording 218; tradition 254 ‘evaluative conditioning’ 86 exoticism see Orientalism expressionism 166, 224, 245 feminism: 98–100; body 36; critical musicology 56; critical theory 59; identity 133; new musicology 181; postmodernism 205; poststructuralism 209; subjectivity 246

352  Subject index film: body 35; culture industry 71; diegetic/nondiegetic 77; genre 118; identity 135; narrative 171; 9/11 182; popular music 194; popular musicology 197; recording 219; subject position 240–1 film music: 100–3; alterity 12; analysis 18; critical musicology 54; diegetic/ nondiegetic 77; ethics 94; gender 114; identity 135; listening 157; popular musicology 197; screen studies 226; subject position 240 ‘filmworld’ 101 ‘first Viennese Modernism’ 190 Florentine Camerata 250 form: 104–9; xii; alterity 10; analysis 13; consciousness 48–9; disability 78–9; ethnicity 98; feminism 100; formalism 109–10; genre 117–18; historical musicology 125; interpretation 140; intertextuality 142; jazz 143, 145–6; landscape 148; language 149; lateness 151; listening 152; meaning 162; modernism 167; new musicology 180; organicism 185; positivism 197; postmodernism 203; psychology 211; reception 215; semiotics 227; sketch 228; structuralism 235, 237; style 238–9; subject position 240–2; subjectivity 245; theory 250, 252 Formenlehre see form formalism: 109–10; xiv; absolute 4; aesthetics 7; autonomy 23–4; biography 32; conflict 59; criticism 80; deconstruction 76; disability 78; discourse 82; emotion 87; form 106; ideology 136; listening 155; Marxism 160; meaning 162; positivism 198; postmodernism 205; post-structuralism 224; sound/soundscape/sound studies 230; structuralism 235; value 256 Frankfurt school 59–60, 62, 160 gay musicology 110–12, 12, 32, 114, 133, 200 gaze 35–6, 146

Gebrauchsmusik 152 gender: 112–14; alterity 9–10; biography 31–2; body 35–6; creativity 51; culture industry 71; discourse 83; ecomusicology 85; ethics 95; feminism 99–100; film music 101, 103; gay musicology 110; historicism 126; hybridity 130–1; identity 133–4; listening 154; new musicology 181; Orientalism 188; place 192; politics 193; popular musicology 197; postcolonial/ postcolonialism 200; postmodernism 205; psychology 209; race 213; sound/soundscape/sound studies 231; subjectivity 246; theory 250 generative theory of tonal music 210 genius: 114–16; analysis 14; autobiography 23; biography 31; creativity 51, 54; disability 79; discourse 82; The Enlightenment 91; ethics 92; feminism 99; jazz 144; place 192; recording 219; Romanticism 224–5; sketch 229; theory 253; value 256; work 258 genre: 116–19; absolute 3–5; analysis 13, 18; biography 30, 32; class 39; critical musicology 55, 59; culture industry 71–2; deconstruction 74; diegetic/nondiegetic 78; discourse 82; emotion 86, 89; feminism 99; film music 101; form 109; globalization 122; historiography 128; hybridity 132; identity 135; landscape 148; listening 155; new musicology 180; Orientalism 189; place 192; postcolonial/postcolonialism 201; postmodernism 203; reception 214; recording 218; Renaissance 221; Romanticism 224; semiotics 227; sound/soundscape/sound studies 232; style 238–9; subject position 240–2; theory 251; tradition 254; value 256; work 259 German music 82, 96, 129, 167, 176–7; see also Nazi Germany

Subject index 353 gesture: 120–1; authenticity 20; body 34; consciousness 49; critical theory 59; emotion 85, 89; gender 113; genre 118; narrative 171, 173; popular musicology 197; race 213; semiotics 227; style 237 globalization: 121–3; creativity 51; critical musicology 58; ethnicity 98; hybridity 131–2; identity 135; Marxism 161; nationalism 178; place 192–3; popular music 194; popular musicology 197; postcolonial/ postcolonialism 201; postmodernism 203 ‘grammar school boy music’ 39 Grundgestalt 16, 107, 186, 210 gypsy music 97, 178 hermeneutics: 123–5; aesthetics 6; alterity 10; analysis 13, 15; biography 31; discourse 82; emotion 89; historicism 127; positivism 198; reception 215; Romanticism 226; subject position 242; theory 250, 252 ‘hermeneutic windows’ 124–5 hip–hop music 98, 135, 147, 279, 193, 195 historical musicology: 125–6; authenticity 19; biography 31; body 34; historicism 127; interpretation 139; positivism 198; poststructuralism 208; style 239 ‘historical’ performance 19–20, 125 historicism: 126–7; xiii; biography 31; modernism 165; modernism 168; nationalism 177; Renaissance 220; subjectivity 246 historiography: 127–9; xii; 82–4; biography 31; canon 37; culture 71; The Enlightenment 91; influence 137; jazz 143; politics 194; popular musicology 194–5; postcolonial/ postcolonialism 198; Renaissance 221; sketch 229 History of Western Music, A (Grout) 128, 239

homosexuality see gay musicology; lesbian musicology; sexuality humanism 221–2 Hungarian music 43, 97, 178 hybridity 129–33; genre 119; identity 134; jazz 145; nationalism 178; postcolonial/postcolonialism 199; race 214; recording 218; tradition 255 identification 134–5 identity: 133–5; alterity 9–12; authenticity 21; autobiography 23; biography 32; body 35; class 39; conflict 45–6; consciousness 47; cover version 51; criticism 65; cultural studies 67; discourse 80; ethics 95; ethnicity 95–7; feminism 99; film music 101; formalism 109; gay musicology 112; gender 114; globalization 122; historicism 126; historiography 128; hybridity 132; interpretation 141; landscape 147–8; nationalism 175, 177–8; new musicology 181; 9/11 183; place 192–3; postcolonial/postcolonialism 199; psychology 210; race 212; recording 220; sound/soundscape/ sound studies 231; style 237; subject position 241; subjectivity 244, 246 ‘ideological state apparatus’ 136 ideology: 135–7; xiv, 90–1; aesthetics 5; analysis 13; authenticity 21; autobiography 22; autonomy 26; biography 31; class 39; Cold War 41; conflict 45; critical musicology 58; criticism 65; cultural studies 67; culture industry 71; ethics 95; ethnicity 98; film music 101; gay musicology 111; gender 112; genre 117; globalization 122; historiography 129; jazz 145; listening 152; Marxism 160; modernism 166; narrative 174; new musicology 181; organicism 186; politics 193–4; positivism

354  Subject index 197–8; postmodernism 206; race 212; reception 214; recording 219; structuralism 237; style 239; subject position 241; value 255 implication–realization model 210 influence: 137–9; absolute 3; autobiography 22–3; biography 31; decadence 73; intertextuality 142; popular music 195; stance 234; tradition 255 intentional hybridity 130, 132 intermusicality 147 interpretation: 139–41; xv; absolute 3; aesthetics 6, 9; autobiography 22–3; body 36; criticism 63; deconstruction 74–5; discourse 82; emotion 87; form 105, 107; formalism 109; gesture 120; hermeneutics 123–5; ideology 136; influence 138; intertextuality 141; jazz 144; Marxism 159; meaning 163; modernism 168; new musicology 180; organicism 186; periodization 190; positivism 197–8; postmodernism 205; poststructuralism 207–8; psychology 210; reception 214; sketch 229; stance 234; structuralism 237; style 239; subject position 243; subjectivity 244; tradition 254; work 260 intertextuality 141–2; consciousness 49; deconstruction 76; influence 138; jazz 147; postmodernism 203; style 238; work 258 jazz: 142–7; xii; alterity 11; avantgarde 28–9; class 39–40; conflict 44; criticism 66; discourse 82; ethics 93; form 106, 108; historiography 129; hybridity 132–3; interpretation 140; lateness 150; nationalism 178–9; Orientalism 189; politics 193; popular music 195; postcolonial/ postcolonialism 201; reception 216;

recording 218; theory 251; tradition 255; work 260–1 judgement: aesthetics 7–8; consciousness 48, 50; criticism 62, 64–5; discourse 82; sound/ soundscape/sound studies 230; subjectivity 244; see also value landscape: 147–8; ecomusicology 84–5; globalization 122; lateness 151; nationalism 176; place 192; semiotics 227; sound/soundscape/sound studies 230 language: 149–50; xiii; absolute 3–4; alterity 12; analysis 13, 15; authenticity 20; autonomy 24; avant-garde 29; body 34, 36; Cold War 42; conflict 44–5; critical theory 61; deconstruction 74, 76; discourse 81–2; gay musicology 112; gender 113; genre 119; gesture 120; hermeneutics 125; hybridity 130; listening 153; modernism 167; narrative 171; nationalism 175, 178; new musicology 180; periodization 190; postmodernism 204; poststructuralism 206–7; Renaissance 221; Romanticism 224; semiotics 226–7; structuralism 235; style 238; style 240; subjectivity 246; value 257 lateness (late works; late style) 150–2, 61, 73, 181, 190, 238, 245 lesbian musicology 110 lieder 149, 240 linguistics 81, 118, 235, 250 listening: 152–8; biography 31; conflict 45; consciousness 46, 48–9; critical musicology 56; discourse 80; ecomusicology 84; ethics 93; feminism 100; film music 102; form 108; gender 113; genre 116, 118–19; identity 134; ideology 136; intertextuality 141; meaning 163; narrative 171–2; place 192; positivism 198; postcolonial/ postcolonialism 201; post-structuralism

Subject index 355 207; psychology 209; reception 215; recording 219–20; Romanticism 224; sound/soundscape/sound studies 231– 2; subject position 242; subjectivity 246–7; theory 250; work 259 literature: aesthetics 6; creativity 52; gay musicology 111; hybridity 130; modernism 166; narrative 169; new musicology 180; reception 214; Romanticism 225; semiotics 226; subjectivity 245; work 260 ‘Low Atlantic’ 10 ludomusicology 103 male gaze 35–6 marketing see culture industry Marxism: 159–61; alterity 8–9; class 39; creativity 52; critical theory 60; feminism 99; film music 101; ideology 136; modernism 166; periodization 190; postmodernism 203; structuralism 236; style 239 mass culture 28–9, 40–1, 71–2; see also culture industry; popular music Master Musicians series 31 masterpiece 118; see also genius meaning: 161–3; absolute 3; aesthetics 7–8; analysis 13–14; authenticity 20–1; autonomy 23, 25–6; avantgarde 28; biography 30; body 34–5; Cold War 42; conflict 44; cover version 51; critical musicology 55; criticism 63–4; deconstruction 75; discourse 80, 82; ethics 95; formalism 109; genre 116, 119; gesture 120; hermeneutics 124; identity 134; interpretation 141; listening 157; narrative 171–4; new musicology 180–1; positivism 197; poststructuralism 206–7; reception 214; semiotics 227; sound/soundscape/ sound studies 231–2; stance 234–5; style 238; subject position 240–2; subjectivity 244; value 257; work 258–60

meta-genres 119 metanarratives 91, 161, 174, 202–3 metaphor: 163–5; analysis 15; body 33; criticism 65; decadence 73; disability 78; discourse 82; form 106–7; gender 113; landscape 148; narrative 171; organicism 184–6; theory 250 metonymy 164 micro-narratives 203 mimetic 170 modernism: 165–9; xiii–xiv; absolute 5; aesthetics 7–8; alterity 10; authenticity 19; autonomy 25; avant-garde 28–9; body 35; class 39; critical theory 61–2; criticism 65; decadence 72; deconstruction 74; discourse 82; The Enlightenment 92; film music 101; formalism 110; genre 119; influence 138; jazz 145; landscape 148; listening 153; Marxism 160–1; narrative 174; nationalism 177–8; new musicology 180–1; organicism 186; periodization 190; postcolonial/ postcolonialism 200; postmodernism 202–4, 206; psychology 210; reception 215; Romanticism 225; style 238; subjectivity 246; value 255 ‘modern’ performance 19 ‘musical archeology’ 223 musicology xi–xv; see also new musicology music education 55 music therapy 44, 54, 209 Musikwissenschaft xii, 125 musique concrète 231 narrative: 169–75; xiii–xiv; alterity 11–12; analysis 14; biography 30–2; consciousness 46; critical musicology 55, 57; cultural studies 68; deconstruction 75; diegetic/ nondiegetic 77; discourse 81; emotion 89; ethics 93; feminism 100; film music 101–3; historicism

356  Subject index 127; identity 133; metaphor 164; new musicology 181; 9/11 183; periodization 190; place 193; popular music 195; postmodernism 202–3; reception 215; reception 218; recording 219; Romanticism 224; semiotics 226–7; subject position 241; subjectivity 244 narratology 169, 180 nationalism: 175–9; conflict 45; criticism 65; discourse 81, 83; ethics 94; ethnicity 95; historicism 126; historiography 128; identity 133; ideology 137; landscape 147; modernism 167; reception 215; Romanticism 224; sketch 229; sound/soundscape/sound studies 232; style 238 neo-Riemannian theory 14, 17, 251 neo-Romanticism 166, 225 Neue Sachlichkeit 168 Neue Zeitschrift für Musik 63 ‘new conservative hegemony’ 67 New Critics 259 New German School 26, 97, 177 New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians 129 ‘new historicism’ 127, 168 New Manchester School 39 new musicology: 180–2; xiv–xv; aesthetics 8; alterity 11; analysis 15–16; critical musicology 54–6; cultural studies 68; deconstruction 76; discourse 83; feminism 99; gay musicology 111; hermeneutics 124; historical musicology 126; historicism 127; interpretation 141; listening 156; modernism 169; positivism 198; post-structuralism 208; reception 218; Renaissance 222; sound/soundscape/sound studies 230 new objectivity 168 New Oxford History of Music 128 9/11 182–4, 94

objectivity: xii; consciousness 49; criticism 66; formalism 109; lateness 151; modernism 168–9; poststructuralism 207–8; structuralism 236; subjectivity 243 Occidentalism 189 organicism: 184–6; xiv; analysis 15; avant-garde 27; disability 78; form 107; gesture 121; ideology 136; intertextuality 142; landscape 148; listening 152; psychology 210; reception 217; Romanticism 224; sketch 229; theory 250, 253; work 258 originary consciousness 48 Orientalism 186–9; conflict 45; discourse 83; ethnicity 97; globalization 122; identity 133; postcolonial/postcolonialism 199; race 213; reception 217; semiotics 227 Other see alterity; Orientalism; postcolonialism Oxford History of Music 128 perception 197–8, 209–11, 230–1 performance: authenticity 19–21; canon 37; emotion 88; ethnicity 98; historical musicology 125–6; interpretation 139–40; popular musicology 197; postmodernism 205; psychology 209–10; reception 215–17; recording 218; subject position 242 performance analysis 54 periodization: 189–91; 130–1; analysis 13; critical theory 61; deconstruction 75; discourse 82; feminism 99; historiography 128; jazz 143; listening 154; modernism 165; Orientalism 188; place 192; popular music 195; postmodernism 203; reception 214; Renaissance 221; Romanticism 223; style 238; subjectivity 245; theory 252; work 259

Subject index 357 phenomenology 210, 234 pitch-class set theory 237, 252 place 191–3; alterity 12; biography 30; Cold War 42; cover version 51; cultural studies 68; jazz 143; landscape 147; listening 153; narrative 174; 9/11 183; periodization 190; popular music 195; recording 220; Renaissance 222; sound/soundscape/ sound studies 230, 232; subjectivity 246–7 poetic criticism 226 politics (music and politics): 193–4; critical musicology 56; criticism 65; cultural studies 67; ethics 95; feminism 99; gay musicology 111; globalization 121; hybridity 131–2; identity 134; jazz 145; Marxism 159; modernism 166; 9/11 182; Romanticism 226 popular music: 194–7; xii; 133–5; alterity 10–11; analysis 18; authenticity 19–21; avant-garde 28–9; body 36–7; canon 38; class 39–40; Cold War 42; cover version 50–1; critical musicology 54; criticism 66; cultural studies 67–8; culture industry 71–2; diegetic/ nondiegetic 77; disability 80; discourse 81–2; ethics 93; feminism 99; film music 103; form 106; gay musicology 112; gender 114; genre 116, 118–19; globalization 122–3; historiography 129; hybridity 132; ideology 136–7; interpretation 140; jazz 143; lateness 150; nationalism 179; new musicology 181; Orientalism 189; periodization 191; place 192; postmodernism 203, 205; reception 215–16; recording 218–19; semiotics 227; style 240; theory 251; value 256–7; work 260–1 popular musicology 196–7, 54 positivism 197–8; xii, xiv; analysis 15; authenticity 19; gay musicology

112; hermeneutics 125; modernism 166, 169; nationalism 177; new musicology 180; post-structuralism 208; theory 250 postcolonial/postcolonialism: 198–202, 9, 56, 59, 96, 130, 133; see also Orientalism postmodernism: 202–6; xiii, 140–5; analysis 16; authenticity 20–1; avant-garde 27; body 36; critical musicology 57; critical theory 62; culture 70; culture industry 72; deconstruction 76; discourse 80–1; The Enlightenment 92; film music 101; genre 119; globalization 121; identity 134; intertextuality 142; jazz 147; listening 156; Marxism 161; modernism 165, 169; narrative 174; nationalism 178; new musicology 180; periodization 190; place 192; popular music 195; post-structuralism 208; sublime 247, 249; tradition 255; value 257 post-structuralism: 206–9; xiii–xiv; critical theory 59, 62; deconstruction 74, 76; decadence 81; historical musicology 125; historicism 127; interpretation 141; new musicology 180; postcolonial/postcolonialism 199; psychology 211; reception 214–15; structuralism 237; subject position 241; theory 251; work 260 post-tonal music 17, 173, 237 programme music 3, 64, 82, 258 projection 11, 213 ‘pseudo-individualization’ 136, 196 psycho-acoustics 209 psychology: 209–11; consciousness 47; critical musicology 54; ecomusicology 85; emotion 87; ethics 93; identity 133–4; listening 153; listening 158; positivism 198; sound/soundscape/sound studies 231; theory 250 public concerts 226

358  Subject index queer theory 110–12 race: 211–14; alterity 9; body 35–6; cover version 51; critical musicology 56; discourse 83; ethics 95; hybridity 130; identity 134; jazz 143, 145; nationalism 175; Orientalism 188; place 192; subjectivity 246 racism 10, 212–13 radical musicology 57 reader response theory 215, 241, 260 reception: 214–18; absolute 5; alterity 12; autonomy 23; avant-garde 27; canon 38; criticism 63; cultural studies 68; culture industry 71–2; disability 79; ethics 93; feminism 99; gay musicology 112; genius 115; genre 119; globalization 122; historiography 127; jazz 144; landscape 147; nationalism 177; new musicology 181; 9/11 183; place 192; popular musicology 197; postmodernism 205; race 213; recording 219–20; Romanticism 224; subjectivity 246; sublime 247–8; work 259 recording: 218–20; authenticity 20–1; canon 37; consciousness 49; cover version 50; criticism 62; film music 103; jazz 144–5; listening 153; place 192; popular music 194–5; psychology 210; sound/soundscape/ sound studies 230–2; work 260 relational musicology 58 Renaissance: 220–3; xiii; analysis 17; consciousness 48; creativity 54; gender 113; historicism 127; historiography 128; hybridity 132; listening 152; Orientalism 188; place 192; theory 249; work 258 rhetoric 15, 113–14, 149, 221, 223, 227 Risorgimento 188 Romanticism: 223–6; xiii; absolute 3–4; aesthetics 9; alterity 12; authenticity 19; autonomy 24; avant-garde 29; canon 37; class 40; criticism 62–3; decadence 72–3; deconstruction 74;

The Enlightenment 91–2; genius 115; genre 117; historiography 128; landscape 148; language 149; meaning 161; modernism 166; nationalism 176–7; post-structuralism 207; reception 216–17; subject position 242; subjectivity 243; sublime 248; work 258 scene 193 Schenkerian theory 15–17, 106–7, 164, 185, 236, 250, 252 segmentation 16 self see identity; subjectivity SEM (a strong experience with music) 47 semiotics: 226–7; analysis 13, 18; discourse 81; emotion 89; jazz 146; metaphor 164; narrative 171; structuralism 235 serialism 26, 108, 110, 138, 167–8, 228 sexuality 12, 32–3, 51, 107, 197, 213; see also body; feminism; gay musicology; gender signification see semiotics singer-songwriters 21 sketch: 228–9; analysis 13; creativity 53–4; critical musicology 55; interpretation 140; post-structuralism 208; Romanticism 224; theory 250; work 259 social class see class socialist realism 160, 178 social psychology 209 sonata form 79, 100, 104–6, 109, 250 song 36, 58, 88, 117, 207, 224, 241–2 sound/soundscape/sound studies: 230–4; autobiography 22; body 34; consciousness 48; cover version 50; criticism 65; discourse 82; ecomusicology 84–5; feminism 100; film music 101; genius 115; listening 153; narrative 172; 9/11 183; place 192; positivism 198; psychology 209–10; race 213; recording 218; Renaissance 222; structuralism 235; subject position 242, theory 249

Subject index 359 ‘stage theory’ 53 Stalinism 160 stance 234, 93–4, 111, 215, 230 ‘standardization’ 71–2, 136, 196 ‘strategic essentialism’ 130 structuralism: 235–7; analysis 13; biography 32; critical theory 62; deconstruction 74; ethnicity 98; film 101; formalism 110; ideology 136; modernism 168; post-structuralism 207–8; semiotics 226; sketch 228; work 259 style: 237–40; xi, 170–3; alterity 11–12; analysis 13; avant-garde 26–7; body 36; canon 38; consciousness 48; critical theory 61; cultural studies 67; deconstruction 74; discourse 82; emotion 86; ethnicity 97–8; film music 101; formalism 110; gay musicology 112; genre 116–18; historiography 128; hybridity 132; identity 135; jazz 143; language 149; lateness 150–1; listening 155; narrative 170; nationalism 175–6, 178–9; new musicology 180–1; Orientalism 188; periodization 189; place 192; popular music 194–5; postmodernism 203–4; psychology 210; race 213; Renaissance 221–2; Romanticism 224; semiotics 227; stance 234; subject position 241–2; subjectivity 245; theory 250–1; tradition 254–5; value 256–7; work 259 stylistic classification 13 subaltern groups 9, 56; see also postcolonialism subculture 39, 67, 257 subjectivity: 243–7; aesthetics 7–8; authenticity 19; biography 32; body 35; class 41; consciousness 47; creativity 53; critical musicology 56; criticism 63; The Enlightenment 91; ethnicity 98; film music 101; genius 115; hermeneutics 123; identity 133; lateness 151; listening 157; meaning 161; modernism 166; place 192;

popular music 196; Renaissance 222; Romanticism 224; sketch 229; sound/soundscape/sound studies 231–2; structuralism 237; style 239 subject position: 240–3; body 36; critical musicology 55; discourse 83; ethics 93; film music 100, 102; identity 135; landscape 147; listening 157; sound/soundscape/sound studies 231; subjectivity 247 sublime 247–9, 85, 89, 91, 114, 223 ‘supermusical’ 233 ‘supplement’ 75–6 systematic musicology 125 theory: 249–53; xii; analysis 15–17; Cold War 42; consciousness 48; critical musicology 54; deconstruction 76; disability 78; emotion 87, 89; form 105; hermeneutics 124; historical musicology 125; interpretation 140; language 149; listening 152–3, 158; metaphor 163–4; modernism 167; nationalism 177; new musicology 182; organicism 184; Orientalism 189; popular music 194; psychology 209–10; reception 214; Renaissance 221–2; Romanticism 226; sound/ soundscape/sound studies 230, 232–3; structuralism 237; style 238; subjectivity 246 tradition: 253–5; xii; avant-garde 26; canon 37; critical theory 60; criticism 62–3, 66; cultural studies 67–8; discourse 82; ethnicity 97; feminism 100; form 104; gesture 121; hermeneutics 124; historiography 128; identity 134; influence 138; jazz 144; nationalism 175, 177, 179; new musicology 181; organicism 185; popular music 194–5; postcolonial/ postcolonialism 202; reception 215, 217; recording 219; structuralism 236; subjectivity 246 transcendentalism 205 tune families 261

360  Subject index unity see organicism Urtext 259 Urzatz 106 USSR 160 value: 255–8; absolute 4; aesthetics 7; alterity 12; analysis 15; autonomy 23; avant-garde 26, 29; canon 37–8; class 39; consciousness 50; creativity 52, 54; critical musicology 56; culture 70; discourse 82–3; emotion 86, 90; The Enlightenment 92; ethics 93; film music 101; formalism 109–10; genius 114; globalization 122; historicism 126; identity 133; ideology 136; interpretation 141; listening 158; meaning 162; metaphor 165; nationalism 175, 177, 179; organicism 184; postmodernism 203–4; psychology 209; race 213; reception 214; reception 216, 218; recording 219; Renaissance 222; Romanticism 225; sketch 229; sound/soundscape/sound studies 230; subject position 241; subjectivity 244; sublime 247; theory 250, 253 virtuosity 221 voice: absolute 3; analysis 17; authenticity 20–1; body 33–4, 36; critical musicology 56; discourse 81, 83; ethics 94; feminism 100; gender 113; gesture 120; globalization 123; language 149; narrative 170–1, 173; postmodernism 204; sound/ soundscape/sound studies 233; subject position 241 ‘voice placement’ 242 Volksgeist 176 ‘Western Marxism’ 160 WOMAD festival 131 work: 258–61; x, xii–xiii, xv; absolute 4; aesthetics 6–8; alterity 9–12; analysis 13–18; authenticity 20;

autobiography 22; autonomy 23–5; avant-garde 27–9; biography 30–3; body 34–6; canon 37–8; Cold War 43; conflict 44; consciousness 49; cover version 50–1; creativity 54; critical musicology 55–9; critical theory 60–1; criticism 62–3, 65–6; cultural studies 66–8; decadence 72–3; deconstruction 76; disability 78, 80; discourse 81–3; ecomusicology 85; emotion 88–9; The Enlightenment 90–2; ethics 95; ethnicity 96–7; feminism 99; form 104–5, 108–9; formalism 109; gay musicology 110–11; genius 115; genre 116–19; gesture 120; hermeneutics 123–5; historicism 127; historiography 128; hybridity 130–1; identity 134–5; ideology 136–7; influence 138–9; interpretation 139–41; intertextuality 142; jazz 144–5; landscape 148; lateness 150–1; listening 152–3, 155–6; Marxism 160; meaning 162; metaphor 164; modernism 165, 167–9; narrative 170, 172–4; nationalism 176–7; new musicology 180–2; 9/11 183; organicism 184–6; Orientalism 187–8; periodization 190–1; place 192; politics 193; popular music 196; popular musicology 196–7; positivism 198; postcolonial/postcolonialism 199–201; postmodernism 204–6; post-structuralism 206–9; psychology 209, 211; race 212–13; reception 214–18; recording 219–20; Renaissance 220–1; Romanticism 223, 225; semiotics 227; sketch 228– 9; sound/soundscape/sound studies 231–2; stance 234; structuralism 235–7; style 238–9; subject position 241–3; subjectivity 243–4, 246–7; sublime 248; theory 250–3; tradition 254; value 255–6 ‘world music’ 119, 122–3, 131, 201