Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children 9781622770328, 9781622770335

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Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children Edwin E. Gordon Research Professor Edwin E. Gordon Archive Thomas Cooper Library University of South Carolina

G-3487

GIA Publications, Inc. Chicago

Also by Edwin E. Gordon

Available from GIA Publications, Inc. Advanced Measures of Music Audiation • G-3372M Am I Musical: Discover Your Music Potential • G-6092K Audie • G-3303M The Aural/Visual Experience of Music Literacy • G-6384 Awakening Unborn, Newborn, and Young Children to Music and the World of Audiation • G-7067 Clarity by Comparison and Relationship • G-7312 Designing Objective Research in Music Education • G-2976 Discovering Music from the Inside Out: An Autobiography • G-6762 Guiding Your Child’s Music Development • G-3603K Harmonic Improvisation for Adult Musicians • G-6650 Improvisation in the Music Classroom • G-6180 Intermediate Measures of Music Audiation • G-2593M Learning Sequences in Music: A Contemporary Music Learning Theory • G-2345 Introduction to Research and the Psychology of Music • G-4855 Iowa Tests of Music Literacy • G-3636M Music Education Research: Taking a Panoptic Measure of Reality • G-6530 Music Learning Theory: Resolutions and Beyond • G-6866 Musical Aptitude Profile • G-4304M The Nature, Description, Measurement, and Evaluation of Music Aptitudes • G-2996 Preparatory Audiation, Audiation, and Music Learning Theory • G-5726 Primary Measures of Music Audiation • G-2242M Rating Scales and Their Uses for Measuring and Evaluating Achievement in Music Performance • G-5856 Rhythm: Contrasting the Implications of Audiation and Notation • G-5511 Study Guide for Learning Sequences in Music: A Contemporary Learning Theory • G-2345SG Corybantic Convrsations: Imagined Encounters between Dalcroze, Kodály, Laban, Mason, Orff, Seashore, and Suzuki • G-7394 Whittled Wordscapes: Essays on Music and Life • G-731 Apollonian Apostles: Conversations about the Nature, Measurement and Implications of Music Aptitudes • G-6578 Society and Musical Development: Another Pandora Paradox • G-7848 Essential Preparation for Beginning Instrumental Music Instruction • G-7849 Music Education Doctoral Study for the 21st Century • G-7972 Possible Impossibilities in Undergraduate Music Education • G-7917 Roots of Music Learning Theory and Audiation • G-8120 Untying Gordian Knots • G-8141

Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children

Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children - Edwin E. Gordon G-3487 ISBN: 978-1-57999-966-7 Copyright © 2013 GIA Publications, Inc. 7404 S. Mason Ave Chicago IL 60638

www.giamusic.com All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America

Table of Contents Foreword.........................................................................................................vii Part 1

Introduction........................................................................................1

Part 2

Music Aptitudes................................................................................11

Part 3

Audiation..........................................................................................21

Part 4

Preparatory Audiation......................................................................29

Part 5

Acculturation....................................................................................39

Part 6

Imitation.........................................................................................101

Part 7

Assimilation....................................................................................119

Part 8

Readiness for School Music...........................................................131

Part 9

Instrumental Music........................................................................147

Part 10 Initiating and Organizing an Early Childhood

Music Program.........................................................................157

Afterword.......................................................................................................163 Glossary.........................................................................................................165 Bibliography..................................................................................................175 Index..............................................................................................................179

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FOREWORD

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t may be surprising a foreword to a music book begins with a passage about language. Though music is not a grammatical language, processes for learning music and language are remarkably similar. Historically, it is estimated there have been 30,000 languages spoken in the world. Nearly 3,000 were native to peoples of North American and South American continents. Presently, more or less than 6,000 remain. Why did so many languages disappear? Most phylogenic linguists agree a language is no further from extinction than only one skipped generation of adults not acculturating newborn and preschool children to that language. It is possible music of the past few centuries is no further from extinction than only one skipped generation of adults not acculturating newborn and preschool children to traditional popular songs and Baroque, Classical, and Romantic masterpieces. Notable jazz of the first half of the 20th century already is almost forgotten. It is not a recent phenomenon music education has found itself in difficult straits in society. There always have been problems of insuring adequate time to teach music in schools; classes being too large; administrators and parents not believing music education is as important as what they refer to as basics; lack of comprehensive local, state, and national curriculums; and inadequate education and preparation of music teachers in colleges, universities, and conservatories.

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Society has added to the problem as major orchestras disband and entrepreneurs and devotees of popular music focus on strident lyrics of social commentaries, smoke, shimmering lights, videos, high volume, and agitated body movements rather than uninspired music content of what they are supposedly presenting. Over the years much effort has been made in a variety of ways by professionals and specialized organizations to create understanding of and respect for music, as well as arts in general, yet familiar debilitating impasses persist. A foremost problem underlying the distressing state of music education has been almost totally ignored by educators and the public. It is deficient readiness of school age children to be taught music when they enter kindergarten and move on to higher grades. Children are ill-equipped to learn what most music teachers are attempting to teach. Without the same kind of acculturation in music young children receive in language by parents and caregivers during five years or so before they enter school (the first eighteen months being most important), there is little hope for debilitating circumstances in music education to be alleviated. In the not too distant past, parents and families indirectly but willingly assumed responsibility for music education of newborn and preschool children. There was regular church attendance incorporating substantial music. Also, family gatherings around a piano and participation in group singing was not unusual. Newborn and young children could not help but somewhat be acculturated to music, Unfortunately, nowadays that it rarely the case. It is widely assumed a child’s music vocabulary is developed automatically because so much music is heard through media. That is an erroneous assumption. Would reasonable adults believe a language listening vocabulary could sufficiently be acquired by having babies and older children listen to dialogues on radio, television, and recordings? Of course not. Expecting infants to relate to concertos and symphonies makes no more sense than expecting them to interact with serious drama. Newborns need to hear words and short phrases systematically

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spoken to them with oral and visual expression on a one-to-one basis for a year or so. Furthermore, familiar and unfamiliar words are simple and well chosen to serve language development. Consider music. Although media play functional roles in establishing music context (for example, senses of tonality and meter), informed adults nonetheless prudently perform expressively a multitude of familiar and unfamiliar brief tonal patterns and rhythm patterns on a one-to-one basis for newborns for a functional music listening vocabulary to be actualized. Tonal patterns and rhythm patterns are words of music. Just as preschool children develop foundations for listening and speaking vocabularies before entering school, ideally they develop foundations for music listening, singing, and rhythm chanting vocabularies before entering school. Without a preliminary language vocabulary, children are limited in ability to learn to understand, speak, read, write, and think. Without a preliminary music vocabulary, they are disadvantaged in learning to audiate, perform, read, write, and improvise. Audiation is to music what thought is to language. Be it linguistic grammar or audiation, improvisation is fundamental for and essential to satisfying human needs for communicating with one another. With proper informal and formal guidance in homes and educational milieu, children learn by themselves to think. The same happens through improvisation. Unless firm foundations for learning music are established at home and preschool before children are introduced to typical schooling at five or six years old, problems in music education will continue to plague society no matter what is attempted to dislodge them. Because remedial music education is impossible, a majority of teachers continue to engage in alternatives of ineffectually compensating for children’s inadequate music backgrounds by taking on roles of attendants and entertainers rather than educators. Music is unique to humans and, like other arts, is basic for human growth and existence. Through music, children gain insight into

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themselves, others, and life itself. Most important, they are better able to develop and engage in imagination and unabashed creativity. Because a day does not pass without children hearing or obliquely participating in music one way or another, it is to their advantage to begin learning to audiate without delay. Ultimately they learn to listen to, enjoy, and partake of music they believe to be worthwhile, and it is though such awareness adult lives take on enhanced meaning. Facts gleaned from years of teaching experience along with results of observational, empirical, and experimental research structured in music learning theory are vital for contributing to easing the stalemate in music education. Without information being consolidated and organized into music learning theory, it tends to be ineffective. On the other hand, to be valid, music learning theory must be a working model, flexible enough to embrace obvious necessities of change and sensitive to reactions and responses of children it is intended to benefit. Initial concepts of general learning theory put forward in early 20th century literature have gone far beyond behaviorism. The purpose of this book is to assist parents, preschool teachers, and music teachers in recognizing importance of early childhood music, discovering how newborns and young children involve themselves in preparatory audiation, providing opportunities for guiding newborn and young children in learning music, and preparing children for formal music instruction before they enter elementary school. Essentially, it is to explain how young children are informally guided to understand music similar to the way they are guided to understand language. The intent is not to prepare youngsters to be professional musicians or for parents and teachers to identify or foster music geniuses. It is not extreme to believe all children of today may desirably learn to embrace comfort, culture, and resultant enjoyment of music through audiation as they become adults. After all, a majority of persons living 250 years ago could not read or write the language they spoke.

Part 1

INTRODUCTION

T

hose who teach children and understand child development jest they would like to pass away young as late as possible. They know potential to learn is never greater than the moment of birth and then gradually decreases. The most important time for learning is from birth (if not before) until eighteen months, the critical period during which a child learns through exploration and unstructured guidance by parents and other caretakers. Following is the sensitive period from eighteen months to three years, during which a child continues to receive such guidance. Between ages three and five, a continuation of the sensitive period, a child begins to receive structured as well as unstructured guidance at home and preschool. What children learn during the first five years of life forms foundations for subsequent educational development, which traditionally begins when they enter kindergarten or first grade and receive formal instruction. The younger children are when parents and teachers begin unstructured and structured informal guidance to develop foundations for learning, the more children will benefit from future instruction.

Significance of Early Childhood Children’s loss of opportunity when foundations for learning are being established cannot be amended. Only compensatory, not remedial, instruction may be offered when they are older. Remedial

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Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children

instruction is not possible because what children did not develop early in life cannot be developed in later life to the extent it could have been attained earlier. What is lost cannot be recaptured. For example, older persons do not learn a second language as quickly or flawlessly as a first language. A first language is learned more easily because it is acquired intuitively whereas a second is learned deliberately. Although compensatory instruction is possible, a teacher can only assist children in progressing to the extent their early foundations will allow. Given two children born with similar capabilities and motivation, the one guided in accomplishing foundations for learning when older will not learn as much as the other given similar guidance at an early age. Neurologists, pediatricians, biologists, and psychologists associated with universities and research institutes believe an abundance of neurological connections (synapses) take place prenatally and during the first eighteen months of childhood. The cortex consists of cells (neurons) interconnected by axons and dendrites stimulated by syntactic activity. Nature provides a child with excess of cells to make these connections, both before and after birth. Although a brain keeps growing and reaches approximately 90 percent of adult size by age five, unless cells form complex neural networks and negative blocking is avoided, unused cells are pruned and not recaptured. Peak times for learning are diminished. There are approximately 100 million neurons and 1,000 billion synapses in the human brain. Before age three, given a normal environment, a child’s brain makes 700 synapses every second. Synaptic connections among neurons are vital and significant. Unless a multitude of links are made within and between neurons, potential for learning becomes limited for newborn and preschool children, and appallingly, exponentially as they grow older. Dormant brain cells dedicated to one sense of perception cease to exist or are directed to making associations with alternative senses. For example, when music guidance is not forthcoming, especially during the critical age, children are diverted

Part 1: Introduction

3

from developing intelligent music listening and performance skills, setting a template for life.

Guidance and Instruction There is a difference between guidance and instruction in music. Guidance is informal whereas instruction is formal. Informal guidance may be structured or unstructured. When guidance is unstructured, a parent or teacher naturally exposes a child to culture without specific planning. When guidance is structured, a parent or teacher plans specific lessons. A distinguishing characteristic of both structured and unstructured informal guidance is neither imposes information or skills. Rather, children are exposed to their culture and encouraged to absorb it. Structured and unstructured informal guidance are based on and operate in consequence to natural sequential activities and responses of a child. As children are born out of the world, not brought into it, their instincts and intuitions need nurturing. Formal instruction, however, requires in addition to parent or teacher specifically planning what will be taught, teaching be organized into allotted time periods. Children are expected to offer cooperation and give specific types of responses. Home is the most important school young children will ever know and children’s parents are the most important teachers they will ever have. Most parents are more capable of guiding and instructing their children in developing language and arithmetic skills than music skills. That is not necessarily because parents are incapable musically, but because many, themselves, were not properly guided and instructed in audiation when they were children. Thus, they become unwitting, if not unwilling, participants in an unavoidable and unfortunate cycle. Parents need not be amateur or professional musicians to guide and instruct children in understanding music. Likewise, they need not be professional writers, speakers, or mathematicians to teach children to communicate and use numbers effectively. Music is not an aptitude

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Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children

bestowed on a select few. Every human has at least some potential to understand music. Parents who sing with relatively good intonation and move their body with spatial flowing, continuous free movement and enjoy doing so, even though they do not play a music instrument, meet basic requirements for guiding and instructing children in music. Unless parents rise to responsibility, either by themselves or with assistance of teachers and friends, their children will develop only limited understanding and enjoyment of music. They will grow up to assume life and art are poles apart, because they never will have been given opportunity to discover art is life and life is art. Preschool children are not approached as if they are young adults or kindergarten children, nor is assessment of development of their music capabilities based on comparisons with what adults can or cannot do. Young children learn as much, and possibly more, by themselves and from one another than from adults. Nonetheless, if adults devote necessary time to music development of young children and do not underestimate children’s comprehension, young children will become comfortable with a multitude of varying types of music at an early age and, thus, strengthen positive attitudes toward music that persist throughout life. As adults, they will constitute more appreciative audiences, and, preposterous as it may seem, even read a music score as easily as a newspaper, magazine, or book. If music should become a profession rather than an avocation, it is best an unforeseen outcome.

Music and Language Consider how young children learn language. As newborns, they hear language being spoken around them long before they fully understand what is being said. They absorb what they hear. Soon they vocalize sounds in imitation of speech, those typically found in various languages. By nine months, children acquire readiness to articulate sounds with their tongue necessary to speak the language of their culture. When adults and siblings speak to children on a one-to-one basis, they offer

Part 1: Introduction

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informal guidance in forming words. Soon young children naturally “break the code” of language and begin to imitate real words. By using words to communicate with others, they rapidly improvise their own phrases and sentences. Later they learn to read and write words and sentences heard and spoken. The process of sequential development of the five vocabularies— listening, speaking, thinking, reading, and writing, in that order—begins at birth and continues after children enter kindergarten or first grade. Unless such a process, which develops through both structured and unstructured informal guidance, occurs early in life, children will not have necessary readiness to benefit from formal language instruction. To be successful in school, children enter kindergarten or first grade with at least basic listening and speaking vocabularies. In addition to acquiring productive listening and speaking vocabularies, it is to their advantage to be informally guided in developing effortless reading and writing vocabularies at home before they receive formal instruction in those skills in school. Although music is a literature, not a linguistic language because it has no grammar, children learn music much the same way they learn language. Structured or unstructured guidance at home is necessary if children are to develop music understanding, similar to processes they are exposed to as they continue the sequential progression of learning language.

Music Babble There are at least two stages to music babble. One is tonal and the other rhythm. Though there are probably more, they have not yet objectively been identified. A child may emerge from tonal babble and rhythm babble at the same time or from one before the other. If a child emerges from one or both music babble stages rapidly, her or his music aptitude is probably considerably above average.

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Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children

During the tonal babble stage, children attempt to sing with speaking voice quality. Relationships among sounds they make have little or nothing in common with context established by culture. They have not yet learned to distinguish between a speaking voice quality and singing voice quality. The two voices are nested together at birth. Children hear the speaking voice much more than the singing voice, and, thus, are not guilelessly encouraged or motivated to experiment with their singing voice to learn what it feels like, not necessarily what it sounds like, compared to their more familiar speaking voice. Even when encouraged to sing, they may believe there is no difference between a speaking voice and singing voice. In the rhythm babble stage, children make different sounds and erratic movements. These sounds and movements are not in consistent tempo, they are close together, and contextually unnatural to adult culture. Though an adult typically cannot make sense of children’s tonal or rhythm babble, children usually understand their own babble and that of other children. Not only are typical newborns sung to less than spoken to, they hear music performed less than language. When they do hear music, it usually happens more as chance than intent. As a result, most children do not have opportunity to absorb necessary varied sounds of music in the same way they do those of language, and so ability to move through music babble is hindered. These young children are then unable to leave tonal and rhythm babble stages and develop formally tonal and rhythm listening vocabularies. Without such listening vocabularies to serve as readiness for further music development, ability to acquire “speaking” vocabularies in music becomes limited. Singing and rhythm chanting, the speaking vocabularies in music, relate to ability to relax and breathe freely, move the body in space with free flowing, continuous movement, sing tonal patterns, and chant rhythm patterns. Unless children experience an abundant and varied exposure to music before they are eighteen months old, they become preoccupied with language acquisition, and music takes a place of little or no importance.

Part 1: Introduction

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Even with extensive exposure to music, rhythm of children’s spoken language significantly influences and affects how their tongues move to artistically and stylistically express music. Moreover, children who have been deprived of appropriate early music development usually learn only about music when they begin to receive formal instruction. They find it difficult to fully participate in making music.

Listening, Singing, and Rhythm Chanting Although children usually hear music through media, and live music on occasion, adults sing as a means of guiding them to use their singing and rhythm chanting voices in the same way speaking to them provides a model to use their speaking voice. Just as all children learn to use their speaking voice, all children learn to use their singing and rhythm chanting voices. Whether they learn to perform musically (and to speak intelligently) depends partially on quality and quantity of structured and unstructured informal guidance and formal instruction. Unfortunately, adults rarely sing tonal patterns and chant rhythm patterns to or for young children, and when they do, children are expected neither to participate nor learn to sing tonal patterns or chant rhythm patterns with accuracy similar to the way they learn to speak words in language. Therefore, typically, children do not acquire a music listening vocabulary needed for developing singing and rhythm chanting vocabularies. And for children who use their own strategies, not enough time is spent assisting them to advance those vocabularies. An overzealous adult, however, inadvertently encourages or even demands children perform songs before they are ready. To expect children to learn to sing songs, with or without words, without first being able to sing tonal patterns and chant rhythm patterns is like expecting them to recite poems before they can speak individual words, phrases, and sentences. Optimally, children’s singing and rhythm chanting vocabularies are developed in interaction with development of tonal and rhythm

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Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children

listening vocabularies, and tonal and rhythm listening vocabularies are developed in interaction with singing and rhythm chanting vocabularies. It is a continuous cycle. Tonal and rhythm listening vocabularies and singing and rhythm chanting vocabularies become interdependent as children learn music. Development of one set of vocabularies without the others is an unacceptable option. For example, if young children are not encouraged to move in space flexibly and continuously in a free, flowing manner, they probably will not learn to chant rhythm patterns with flexibility and phrasing, and they may not develop a rhythm chanting vocabulary. Babies naturally begin to respond to rhythm with flexible and free flowing, continuous movement at a very early age. Unfortunately, it does not persist, not because of their own wishes but because parents are anxious to have them unnecessarily walk before their time, engendering rigidity. Without proper informal guidance in music, children develop limited ability to move spatially in a flexible free, flowing manner by the time they begin formal music instruction in school. An analogy may help. Think of the body as a computer, the brain being the hard drive and remainder of the body software. The brain receives and retains information as a result of movement sensed primarily through arms and legs. Without the entire body providing input, the brain for all intents and purpose is deprived and remains dormant. That is, the body must feel before the brain can comprehend. It is axiomatic rhythm cannot be taught cognitively and directly through the brain as is traditionally and futilely attempted by many music theorists.

Formal Music Instruction If children do not receive structured and unstructured informal guidance in music before they enter school, difficulties are exacerbated. The reason is related to how classroom music is taught in many schools. For example, for teachers to teach language skills in school

Part 1: Introduction

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successfully, children need to have acquired ability and skill to engage in speaking individually before they enter school, yet most children have never had a chance to perform music individually before they begin formal music instruction, and once they do begin formal instruction, they are seldom offered or allowed opportunity to perform solo in class. Most formal instruction involves teaching groups of children to sing by asking them to repeat in ensemble sounds a teacher or others make. Yet imagine outcomes in language learning if children were asked to speak only in groups, repeating what a teacher said. They would learn to imitate only what others around them are saying and so would not give meaning to what they themselves said. They might not ever create a sentence of their own to express personal thoughts. It is no wonder when classroom music is taught the way it usually is, many children are dispossessed of a chance to develop understanding of music. They are dismissed as being “untalented” by teachers and parents. When children enter kindergarten or first grade, they receive instruction in language for a substantial portion of a school day. Thus, a teacher may be held accountable for each child’s language development in accordance with an established curriculum. Following standard practice, records are kept and measurement procedures precede evaluation. In contrast, children routinely receive instruction in music once, and in rare cases twice, a week for a period of 20 to 45 minutes. Because inadequate time is devoted to formal music instruction or, more correctly, necessary compensatory informal music guidance even though children are no longer of preschool age, and because there is no generally accepted sequential curriculum in music, music skills children might be expected to acquire in higher grades are not realized due to impoverished instruction. Entertaining children and at best offering perfunctory music appreciation pursuits and explanations of music notation seem to be mainstays of most formal school music programs. If children are having fun, it is assumed by many administrators and parents a music program is successful. Children

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Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children

can experience even more pleasure and ultimate satisfaction, however, when they engage in activities promoting music understanding. Fun is temporary. Understanding of music sustains one throughout life. Society instills in young children supposedly what is considered to be of importance. Adults who have not developed music understanding rarely place deserving value on music. Parents tend to teach their children the way they were taught and, thus, share with successors what they as adults like and allegedly understand. If it is true society is reflected in its heroes, high culture music in the United States is not esteemed, even by thoughtful persons. Such circumstances are not easily changed. It will take time and education to put the same value on arts as, for example, sports. A course in so called aesthetic appreciation, remedial or otherwise, cannot serve even as a quick fix.

Part 2

MUSIC APTITUDES

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o understand how young children gain knowledge of music and teachers and parents offer preeminent music guidance and instruction, it is necessary to grasp important roles of music aptitudes in learning and teaching music. Music aptitude is different from music achievement. Music aptitude is a measure of potential to learn. It represents inner possibilities. Music achievement is what has been learned. It represents outer actuality. Just as no child is void of at least some intelligence, no child is void of at least some music aptitude. No one is incapable of learning to listen to and perform music with some degree of success. More than two thirds of children are average. That is, they have average music aptitude. The remainder have above or below average music aptitude, and very few have exceptionally high or low music aptitude. Results of valid music aptitude tests suggest approximately one or two in a hundred have exceptionally high music aptitude and only one in thousands has potential to achieve as a genius. A child is born with a particular level of music aptitude. That level changes in accordance with informal and formal environmental qualities until about age nine. Thus, neither nature nor nurture is solely responsible for level of music aptitude. Music aptitude is a product of both innate potential and environmental influences. Regardless of music environment after age nine, it no longer has much if any effect

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Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children

on level of music aptitude. Throughout life, potential to achieve in music remains ostensibly what it was at approximately nine years old. Although genetic makeup is a determining factor in level of music aptitude, it is important not to confuse innateness with heredity. There is sufficient evidence to suggest innate factors and interaction of unique combinations and connections of neurons and genes in meiosis and mitosis act on a child’s level of music aptitude. There is no evidence, however, to suggest heredity plays a systematic role in determining those factors. Although physical characteristics may be hereditary, ancestry will not reliably or accurately predict level of music aptitude after birth. Any precise prediction is chance occurrence. Regardless of parents’, grandparents’, or great grandparents’ music aptitude, a child may be born with high, average, or low music aptitude. That a child’s level of music aptitude cannot be predicted accurately on bases of ancestry encourages realistic thinking. Time and time again parents say, “Well, we can’t expect our children to become accomplished in music because neither of us is musical and no one in the family is musical.” Unfortunately, some teachers reinforce that belief. The fact is children, regardless of what anyone else in their immediate or extended family has accomplished in music, may surpass expectations. Parents who have distinguished themselves in music may or may not have children with high music aptitude, and parents who have never shown any inclination of exceptional music potential or achievement may or may not have children with high music aptitude. All indications are a child will never have a higher level of music aptitude than at instant of birth. Moments after a child is born, levels of music aptitude supposedly decrease because sounds, including voices, in the immediate environment are not automatically conducive to reinforcing senses of pitch and duration. Nature supplies children with an abundance of neurons and synapses during gestation and after birth. If the environment does not cause a child to make use of genetic indicators during early development, they are soon lost, not to be

Part 2: Music Aptitudes

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regained. It is believed some or most of unused neurons and synapses not used for developing sensitivity to music move to support another sense or medium, such as visual or linguistic, perhaps compensating for lack of music development. Before music aptitude stabilizes at about age nine, it is ever changing, moving up and down, developing in association with the environmental. Some neurologists believe there is a relation between myelination of great cerebral commissures (more complex activation of frontal lobes of the brain) and stabilization of music aptitude. Frontal lobes are associated largely with ability to anticipate and predict coming events. Music aptitude as well as general intelligence is based on how well a person draws generalizations from specific information and experience. To generalize enables one to make inferences and judgments foretelling and possibly controlling future events. An exceptional purpose of investigating children’s music aptitudes is to enable teachers and parents to adapt music guidance and instruction in groups or privately to each child’s individual musical needs. Whereas music aptitudes of children may be measured objectively by three years of age through use of a valid test, music aptitude of babies and very young children is estimated through systematic observation. A child’s potential to sing, chant, and move may be judged through physical responses and spontaneous performances at home and preschool. After objective measurements of a child’s aptitudes and achievement in music are consummated, parents and teachers may make informed subjective evaluations based on those measurements.

Characteristics of Overall Music Aptitude Like most other human capacities, music aptitude is normally distributed among children at birth. Approximately 68 percent have average, 16 percent above average or high, and 16 percent below average or low potential. Just as there are not children with no intelligence,

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Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children

there are not children without at least some music aptitude. It has been speculated level of music aptitude children are born with, their innate potential, may be a result of prenatal responsiveness to music as well as quality of music environment mothers experience during pregnancy. No wonder in some cultures a child is considered to be one year old at birth. A child’s initial music aptitude is innate but soon is affected by surroundings. Because music environments are not ample for a majority of newborns, level of music aptitude most children are born with can be expected to decrease shortly, probably immediately, after birth and continue to atrophy until their music environment is improved. At the moment a music environment becomes sufficient, music aptitude changes course and begins to move upward toward its inchoate rank. Regardless of music environment, however, it seems a child’s music aptitude cannot surpass its birth level. Unfortunately, music aptitude of most, if not all, children will never reach, though it may approach, individual birth levels. The sooner children begin to enjoy a plentiful music environment, the sooner music aptitude will begin to move upward toward its birth level, and the closer it will come to reaching and remaining there throughout life. Consider two children born with the same level of music aptitude. A child who experiences an adequate music environment at six months will ultimately demonstrate a higher level of music aptitude than a child who experiences a similar music environment at eighteen months of age. Effect of a fertile music environment on music aptitude decreases at an increasing rate as a child grows older, making importance of early and appropriate music environment inestimable. When a child reaches approximately age nine, his or her level of music aptitude is no longer affected by music environment, even music environment of extremely high quality. Because music aptitude of children younger than nine years of age is a product of both innate potential and early environment, music

Part 2: Music Aptitudes

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aptitude measured during the first few years of life is called developmental, and because environment no longer has any effect on children’s music aptitudes after they reach approximately age nine, music aptitude measured after that time is called stabilized. Some neurologists believe there is a possible relationship between myelination of great cerebral commissures and more complex activation of frontal lobes of the brain with stabilization of music aptitude. Frontal lobes of the brain are associated with ability to make judgments, draw conclusions, and anticipate coming events. The basis of music aptitude, and perhaps intelligence, is how well one can make generalizations from observations and experiences in anticipation and response to future events. Differences between developmental and stabilized music aptitudes are more significant than similarities. Stabilized music aptitude includes more dimensions than developmental music aptitude. Whereas more than two dozen stabilized music aptitudes have been objectively identified, there are only two experimentally known developmental music aptitudes. Melody, harmony, tempo, meter, phrasing (expression), balance (creativity), and style (interpretation and improvisation) are most important stabilized music aptitudes. Tonal and rhythm are two developmental music aptitudes. Children in the developmental music aptitude stage do not attend to tonal dimensions or rhythm dimensions when they hear both at the same time. Children in the stabilized music aptitude stage prefer to hear both dimensions together, attending specifically to only one or the other. Unlike children in the stabilized music aptitude stage, children in the developmental music aptitude stage do not show consistent preference for phrasings. Those younger than age nine are more interested in how music is constructed than expressive and interpretive qualities. Children in the developmental music aptitude stage do not perceive differences reliably in dynamics, timbres, and tonal ranges unless they are extreme. A pattern must be extremely loud or exceptionally soft and have copious or stark timbres before children respond to differences. Children’s discriminations in

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Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children

the stabilized music aptitude stage may be accurate even when differences in dynamics and timbre are relatively small. It is rare for a child to have high tonal aptitude and high rhythm aptitude or low tonal aptitude and low rhythm aptitude. It is not unusual to have average tonal aptitude and average rhythm aptitude. Nonetheless, in a given group, even in restricted chronological age range, difference between each child’s tonal aptitude score and rhythm aptitude score is usually much greater than difference between average tonal aptitude scores and average rhythm aptitude scores in a peer group. More compelling is difference between highest and lowest scoring students in second grade on a valid music aptitude test is greater than difference between average scoring students in second and sixth grades. To guide and teach children music in an artistic and a professional manner, it is constructive for parents and teachers to be aware of all levels of each child’s various music aptitudes. Measurement of music aptitude is preferably objective. Some music teachers and professional performers do not know or believe there is a difference between music aptitude and music achievement. In some languages, such as German, there is no word for aptitude. Other teachers and performers are unable or fail to recognize differences between music aptitude and music achievement when evaluating what they refer to as “musical talent, musical ability, or musical giftedness.”

Music Babble It is possible for children with high developmental music aptitude to remain in the tonal and rhythm babble stages after another child of the same age with low developmental music aptitude has left those stages. Children with high developmental music aptitude given structured and unstructured informal guidance in music, however, typically emerge from music babble stages sooner than children with low developmental music aptitudes given the same attention and consideration.

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The purpose of structured and unstructured informal guidance is not to force children to emerge from music babble before they are psychologically and physically ready because if they surface prematurely, their overall music achievement, and perhaps emotional stability, will be impaired. That is especially true for children with high developmental music aptitude. Many children begin to play a music instrument without having had such guidance, and in those cases, attainment of long range music development is sacrificed for realization of misguided short range goals.

Music Aptitude Tests A music aptitude test is used to reveal music potential. Without use of a valid test, a child’s music aptitude may forever be concealed. Every child, regardless of his or her level of music aptitude, can benefit from structured and unstructured informal guidance and formal instruction in music, but only when such guidance and instruction are undertaken with thorough knowledge of music aptitudes. Otherwise, a child with low music aptitude usually becomes frustrated and one with high music aptitude bored. There are two types of music aptitude tests: developmental and stabilized. Musical Aptitude Profile is a test of stabilized music aptitude, designed for students in grades 4 through 12. Advanced Measures of Music Audiation is also a stabilized music aptitude test, designed for students in grades 7 through 12 as well as college and university students, both music and non-music majors. Intermediate Measures of Music Audiation is a test of developmental music aptitude designed for children in grades 1 through 4 but may be used with moderate success in grades 5 and 6. Primary Measures of Music Audiation is also a test of developmental music aptitude designed for children in kindergarten through grade 3. Audie, another test of developmental music aptitude, is designed for preschool children three and four years old. All except Audie are group tests. They are recorded and include practice exercises

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Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children

and original music excerpts to be compared. Directions for taking tests are recorded but may be read by a teacher for younger children. Audie is administered individually by a parent or a teacher. There are various reasons teachers use a music aptitude test. Most important is to improve instruction. A valid music aptitude battery, one that includes subtests, can be used to profile and diagnose a child’s musical strengths and weaknesses. That is called idiographic evaluation. A music aptitude test can be used also to identify and describe individual musical differences among children by comparing one child’s scores with those of other children of the same age or in the same grade. That is called normative evaluation. With those types of information, a teacher adeptly adapts instruction to individual musical needs of all children. An idiographic analysis reveals whether a child has high tonal aptitude and low rhythm aptitude, or vice versa, and provision is made in guidance and instruction to compensate for low aptitude and at the same time enhance high aptitude. To treat a child as if she or he had average overall music aptitude would do harm to music development. When a child is in the developmental music aptitude stage, immediate attention is given to raising the lower of two developmental music aptitude scores, because the sooner deficiency is addressed, the more rapidly and higher a child’s developmental music aptitude score may rise. A normative assessment shows how a child’s tonal and rhythm scores compare to scores of other children. Perhaps greatest value of a music aptitude test is not when scores confirm a parent or teacher’s judgment about a child’s music potential but when scores disagree with established beliefs. It is not unusual for a parent or teacher to be surprised by a high score a child earns on a music aptitude test when they are convinced the child lacks “musical talent.” Similarly, a parent or teacher takes notice of a child who is believed to have high music achievement but nevertheless scores low on a music aptitude test. Discovering discrepancies can have enormous

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educational value in helping parents and teachers better understand the nature of a child’s music aptitude and, thus, establish reasonable goals based on individual musical needs. All become beneficiaries when contradictions are resolved. Success is easily shared. When it is assumed a child is highly musical but nevertheless scores low on a valid music aptitude test, often the reason is the child’s music achievement is compared to those with high music aptitude but who, for whatever reasons, have not been motivated to achieve. By recognizing and accepting a child’s lower music aptitude, parents and teachers understand and may prevent possible frustration. Although objective music aptitude scores are more valid than parents’ and teachers’ subjective observations, neither is free of error. In most cases, parents and teachers may expect unique knowledge of test scores will help them stay informed of children’s and students’ educational progress with substantial objectivity, intelligence, and sensitivity.

Music Aptitude and Other Factors All humans excel in some way. They tend to use strengths to compensate for weaknesses. Thus, children with high overall music aptitude are typically found to be deficient in other aptitudes, and children with low overall music aptitude are typically found to be above average in others. That is particularly the case with music aptitude and IQ. Although many parents and teachers think otherwise, there is no systematic relation between music aptitude and academic intelligence. Some children with high music aptitude have high and others average or low academic intelligence. Similarly, some children with high academic intelligence have high and others average or low music aptitude. Although relation between music aptitude and academic achievement is somewhat higher than between music aptitude and academic intelligence, neither academic achievement nor academic intelligence tests, or any other type of test, may be used confidently as a substitute for a music aptitude test.

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Over the years there have been music educators and psychologists who have attempted to prove if children are taught music, their achievement in other subjects, such as language and math, and scores on special types of intelligence tests, will improve. Similarly, ethics and morals will be strengthened. Yet most studies in which these positive effects of music instruction are reported are flawed in design and analytical techniques. Worse yet, interpretation of results are gnarled and contorted, often predetermined. Relation between music education and achievement in other disciplines has been interpreted to imply causation, that is, an understanding of music enables one, for example, to better understand numbers or increase one’s spatial intelligence. It is also possible, of course, successful students in traditional academic work have ample time to add music to their studies. Until empirical evidence proves otherwise, it is prudent to take the position music education, itself, is of value when it allows students to develop audiation skills. Thus, they will have foundations for learning to understand and communicate through music. There seems to be no discipline other than music that can teach persons to use audiation potential. Music for music’s sake should be the rule.

Part 3

AUDIATION

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n addition to music aptitudes, knowledge of preparatory audiation is basic for understanding music guidance and instruction of newborn and young children. Preparatory audiation is entwined with audiation. Thus, a brief review of types and stages of audiation will provide a comprehensive understanding of preparatory audiation. Types and stages of preparatory audiation are central to music learning theory for newborn and young children.

Audiation Audiation takes place when a piece of music is heard and comprehended silently, no longer or never physically present. In contrast, aural perception occurs when sound of music is physically present. For example, pretend you are hearing a group of children singing Happy Birthday. If you can do that and understand some characteristics of the song, such as its tonality, meter, resting tone, macrobeats and microbeats, and implied chord changes, you are audiating at least to some extent. Audiation is to music what thought is to language. Audiating while performing music is similar to thinking while speaking, and audiating while listening to music is similar to thinking about what persons have said and are saying as you are engaging in conversation. Audiation is the basis of music aptitude. It is fundamental to both developmental and stabilized music aptitudes as well as music

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achievement. The degree to which children audiate two tonal patterns as same or different and two rhythm patterns as same or different are measures of tonal and rhythm aptitudes. Just as it may be assumed the more words children use to think and express ideas the higher their intellectual aptitude, so, too, the more tonal patterns and rhythm patterns children audiate the higher their music aptitudes. If children are consistent in identifying pairs of tonal patterns and pairs of rhythm patterns as sounding same or different, they may be considered to have high tonal and high rhythm developmental music aptitudes. Children with low developmental music aptitude find it easier to audiate correctly a pair of tonal patterns or a pair of rhythm patterns that sound same than a pair that sound different. Regardless of children’s levels of developmental music aptitude, it is more difficult to repeat a tonal pattern or rhythm pattern just performed by someone else than to perform a different one.

Types and Stages of Audiation There are various types of audiation. Persons may audiate while they listen to music, recall music, perform music (through singing, rhythm chanting, moving, or playing an instrument), and create and improvise music. Also, they may audiate when they read and write music notation. They can listen to and audiate music at the same time, but although they perceive sound of music the instant it is heard, it is not until a moment or so later they audiate (silently give meaning to) what they heard. There are eight non-sequential types of audiation and six sequential stages of audiation. The eight types of audiation occur when 1) listening to familiar or unfamiliar music, 2) reading silently or performing vocally or instrumentally notation of familiar or unfamiliar music, 3) notating familiar or unfamiliar music from dictation, 4) recalling familiar music silently or performing vocally or instrumentally, 5) notating familiar music from recall, 6) creating or improvising unfamiliar music silently or performing vocally or instrumentally, 7)

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reading while creating unfamiliar music, and 8) notating created and improvised unfamiliar music. The six stages of audiation are cyclic as well as sequential. They continually double back on one another as each higher stage is attained. When listening to music, 1) sound is heard and retained, 2) organized in audiation into series of tonal patterns and rhythm patterns as tonal centers and macrobeats are established, 3) music syntax, tonality and meter which form foundations for those tonal patterns and rhythm patterns, are audiated, 4) tonal patterns and rhythm patterns already organized are held in audiation, 5) tonal patterns and rhythm patterns audiated in other music, similar to or different from those held in audiation are recalled and comparisons and relationships are made, and 6) tonal patterns and rhythm patterns anticipated in familiar music and predictions in unfamiliar music are audiated.

Abilities Often Mistaken to be Audiation Audiation is often confused with aural imagery and aural perception. Aural perception is requisite for audiation. Unless children are capable of aurally perceiving sound of music physically present, they will be incapable of audiation. The word imagery is more properly associated with the visual than aural sense. Thus, the term aural imagery is a contradiction that leads to confusion, unless perhaps it is meant to signify audiation of music in notation. In that case, the term notational audiation is more appropriate, and, further, it makes clear distinctions between audiation and notational audiation. Audiation is possible without having any knowledge of notation, music theory, or music history. As a matter of fact, of the remaining approximate 6,000 of 30,000 languages once spoken, about only 200 are written. When language is written, it takes on grammar and stifles creativity. Likewise, music theory suppresses music creativity and improvisation. Observers of children engaged in music activities often confuse audiation with inner hearing, imitation, recognition, and memorization.

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Inner hearing and imitation contribute to similar types of responses to music. Children may imitate or hear music sounds without audiating. Just as it is possible for children to learn to utter nonsense syllables, such as ah ga bah, or to repeat a passage in a foreign language without understanding its meaning, they can learn a rote song without attributing music meaning through comprehension to its organization and structure. Children easily learn to imitate without audiating. It is even possible to repeat so quickly what an adult or another child has sung it is not apparent a child is not audiating. That children’s skill in imitating is highly developed, and developed to a much greater extent than audiation, becomes obvious when a child is asked to sing alone and unaccompanied. It has been discovered though a group of children can perform a song in ensemble with some success, only one or two are able to sing the entire song solo with good intonation and rhythm. Those few children are audiating and probably capable of correcting their own mistakes whereas the majority of children are imitating the few or teacher. They rely on words to remind them of the melody. Although audiation and imitation are different, they are not mutually exclusive. Children may imitate without ability to audiate, but they will not audiate unless they are able to imitate. Ability to imitate music may be more related to academic skills than music aptitude. Nonetheless, importance of imitation is not diminished by its distinction from audiation because ability to imitate is necessary readiness for learning to audiate. Unlike imitation, audiation is a process that engenders music understanding. Imitation, by itself, does not. Imitation, which is linear, deals with parts of the whole whereas audiation, which is circular, deals with the whole. Many children in the developmental music aptitude stage, in or out of music babble, depend on imitation, not audiation, as they experience music. Children in the stabilized music aptitude stage appropriately guided out of music babble embrace audiation. Imitation is accomplished through someone else’s ears whereas audiation is accomplished through one’s own ears. Imitating while

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singing is analogous to using tracing paper to copy a picture. Audiating while singing is analogous to visualizing and drawing a picture. Children imitate when they repeat what they heard just a fraction of or few seconds before. What is imitated is soon forgotten. They audiate when they retain and understand what they heard seconds, minutes, hours, days, weeks, months, or even years before. Children rarely forget what they audiate. They recall it later by associating characteristics with specific and essential music meaning. There is also a difference between recognizing music and audiating. Whereas imitation provides readiness for learning to audiate, recognition provides readiness for learning to imitate. Because ability to recognize music requires less understanding than to audiate, children may be able to recognize music when they hear it but not perform it vocally or instrumentally. It is one thing to recognize difference between good and bad intonation in music but another to perform vocally or instrumentally with good intonation. Musicians rarely perform with better intonation and rhythm than they are capable of audiating. Music memory and memorization of music are different. Through music memory children remember in audiation what they have just heard performed, anticipate and predict in audiation what they will hear performed, and coordinate information from those dimensions of audiation (recall and anticipation or prediction) with what they are hearing performed in the moment. Music memory and audiation are linked, because music memory allows audiation to take place and to flourish, and, in turn, audiation stimulates music memory. Emphasis in memorization is on what is to be performed next, regardless of whether it makes music sense. In contrast to music memory, which results when audiating tonal patterns and rhythm patterns as they interact with tonality and meter, memorization is a mechanical linear process focusing on individual notes, fingerings, and bowings as they relate to an instrument. Just as it is possible to memorize and recite a poem without comprehending its meaning, it is possible to memorize

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and perform music without audiating it. Without audiation, performance does not project music meaning.

Instrumental Music While performing music instrumentally, children often make mistakes. A child who audiates corrects mistakes by making appropriate adjustments (as in intonation) or moving ahead to the next phrase without stopping or being confused, being secure enough in audiation not to be distracted by mistakes. A child who memorizes and is not audiating finds it difficult to cope with mistakes or perhaps is unaware of them. Thus, reaction is to stop, visualize notation or practice fingerings or muscular movements, and then begin performing again from the beginning. For a child who has memorized, there are wrong notes. For a child who is audiating, there are appropriate solutions. It is interesting to note without a breath during which instrumentalists audiate what is to be performed before it is performed, tension is built into performance and in turn muscular disabilities are developed and often ameliorated only in physical therapy. It is through audiation instrumentalists take in adequate breath, neither too little nor too much, to produce one or more phrases they intend to perform. Most technical errors in instrumental performance arise when performers are not audiating.

Objective and Subjective Tonality and Meter When there is general agreement music is in a given tonality, music has objective tonality. When agreement is not possible, music has subjective tonality. The same is true of meter. Children who are still in music babble give subjective tonality and subjective meter to music whereas children who have left music babble give objective tonality and objective meter to music, making it possible for them to communicate with musicians of all ages. As a result, they are able to give appropriate subjective tonality and subjective meter to contemporary music.

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With structured and unstructured informal guidance in music while still in music babble, children in the developmental music aptitude stage learn to imitate and audiate with both subjective tonality and subjective meter. Out of music babble, whether in the developmental or stabilized music aptitude stage, children who received structured and unstructured informal guidance when in music babble learn to audiate with objective tonality and objective meter.

Part 4

PREPARATORY AUDIATION

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reparatory audiation pertains to young children receiving structured and unstructured informal guidance in music. It is readily understood when separated into two parts. The first, music learning theory, represents a learning model. The second, learning sequence activities, represents a teaching model. The learning model has theoretical foundation whereas the teaching model has practical foundation based on the learning model. Combined, the learning and teaching models comprise music learning theory for newborn and young children. Both the learning model and teaching model deal with a process, not a product. How young children naturally use their music potential, regardless of progressing rapidly or slowly from one type or stage of preparatory audiation to another, is the core of the learning model. How young children are given paced structured and unstructured informal guidance in music to develop music achievement is the core of the teaching model. The ways a majority of children phase themselves through the sequence of types and stages of preparatory audiation seldom match an ideal. Inclination and readiness to engage in a given type or stage of preparatory audiation do not always coincide. For teachers and parents to use learning and teaching models effectively, they have an understanding of both. Emphasis now is on the learning model. Next it is on the teaching model.

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Preparatory audiation includes three types: acculturation, imitation, and assimilation. Acculturation has three stages, imitation two, and assimilation two. There are two significant differences between audiation, which develops as children receive formal music instruction, and preparatory audiation, which is nurtured as children receive structured and unstructured informal guidance. The first difference is types and stages of preparatory audiation, which form the basis of both learning and teaching models, serve as preparation for types and stages of audiation. The second difference is types and stages of preparatory audiation are distinctly different from levels of music learning theory for older children. Types and stages of preparatory audiation are themselves levels of music learning theory for younger children. Children’s ability to engage in a type or stage of preparatory audiation is more indicative of music age than chronological age. Music age and chronological age are not necessarily related. Moreover, children are capable of engaging in either audiation or preparatory audiation activities regardless of whether they are of developmental music aptitude or stabilized music aptitude age. When young children in music babble listen to music, they usually do not comprehend in a systematic way what they hear. Often they listen for only one or two seconds and are content to attempt to imitate what they hear without understanding. That response to music is typically associated with preparatory audiation. Depending on levels of music aptitude, degree to which children phase through various types and stages of preparatory audiation in structured and unstructured informal guidance determines how well they are prepared to engage in types and stages of audiation in formal instruction. Children may be capable of engaging in activities associated with a higher type and stage of tonal preparatory audiation than rhythm preparatory audiation. The reverse is also true. How long or short a time a child might remain in a type and stage of preparatory audiation

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varies and is directly affected by musical, emotional, and physical development. A young child’s levels of tonal and rhythm developmental music aptitudes in combination with degree of music exposure and stimulation at home and preschool play a dominant role in determining rapidity of progress. Children are not forced to learn, either formally or informally, but rather allowed and encouraged to explore and absorb all their potential allows. Music understanding associated with preparatory audiation develops most efficiently and effectively in young children when songs and chants in many tonalities and meters are performed for them using the human voice. Although a fertile variety of sounds may at first puzzle children, progress in music development is a result of their attention to diversity of music a parent or teacher sings and chants. Recorded music need not be avoided but is not any more supportive for learning than recorded speech. Children with high levels of developmental music aptitudes are not encouraged to move more quickly through types and stages of preparatory audiation than those with lower levels of developmental music aptitudes. Regardless of developmental aptitudes, all children stay long enough in each type and stage of preparatory audiation to derive as much benefit from a parent or teacher’s structured and unstructured informal guidance as their developmental music aptitudes will permit. It is more valuable for all children to learn abundantly by engaging in one type or stage than little in each type and stage of preparatory audiation. Responsibility for deciding if and when to encourage a child to move from one type or stage of preparatory audiation to another is undertaken with sensitivity by an knowledgeable adult. That notwithstanding, children’s individual musical differences are attended to within group structured and unstructured guidance. It is not unusual for a young child to have music readiness but not emotional readiness, or vice versa, to progress from one type or stage of preparatory audiation to another. Sometimes young children

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are reluctant to allow themselves to advance in preparatory audiation because it is more comfortable to engage in familiar activities than unfamiliar ones. Importance of an understanding adult overseeing growth of a child through types and stages of preparatory audiation is critical. Of particular concern to parents and teachers are those children who demonstrate an extreme in tonal developmental aptitude or rhythm developmental aptitude. Typically, they choose to develop music strength at the expense of music weakness, and so it is important to be sure the lower of developmental music aptitudes is given as much, if not more, attention than the higher.

Types and Stages of Preparatory Audiation Following is a summary outline of types and stages of preparatory audiation. Types

Stages

1. ACCULTURATION: Birth to age 2–4: participates with little consciousness of environment.

1. ABSORPTION: hears and aurally collects sounds of music in the environment. 2. RANDOM RESPONSE: moves and babbles in response to, but without relation to, sounds of music in the environment. 3. PURPOSEFUL RESPONSE: tries to relate movement and babble to sounds of music in the environment.

2. IMITATION: Ages 2–4 to 3–5: participates with conscious thought focused primarily on environment.

3. ASSIMILATION: Ages 3–5 to 4–6: participates with conscious thought focused on self.

1. SHEDDING EGOCENTRICITY: recognizes movement and babble do not match sounds of music in the environment. 2. BREAKING THE CODE: imitates with some precision sounds of music in the environment, specifically tonal patterns and rhythm patterns. 1. INTROSPECTION: recognizes lack of coordination between singing, chanting, breathing, and movement. 2. COORDINATION: coordinates singing and chanting with breathing and movement.

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Acculturation Young children become acculturated to music in much the same way they do language, by listening to sounds, unconsciously formulating theories about ways sounds are put together, and organizing them into patterns to create thoughtful communication. In language, for example, children first learn to hear and discriminate between sudden shifts in ba and da, and only then begin to speculate about different ways sounds are used. The more varied language children hear, the better they will learn to communicate when older, because it is an acquired listening vocabulary that serves as basis for development of a babbling vocabulary and later a speaking vocabulary. A speaking vocabulary, in turn, serves as basis for development of reading and writing vocabularies. So it is with music. The sooner young children engage in music acculturation, particularly before language development becomes so compelling that music may seem to be of secondary importance, the better. It is late for children to begin to engage in music acculturation when they are three years old and almost too late for children with exceptionally low developmental music aptitude to begin when they are as old as five. Quality of acculturation, however, is as important as chronological age. In acculturation, young children are exposed to music of their culture and so base music babble sounds and movements on what they hear in the environment. The more varied music children hear, that is, the more plentiful their environment in tonalities, harmonies, and meters, and the more they are encouraged to interact with what they hear through structured and unstructured informal guidance, the more advantageous. Young children benefit most in every type of preparatory audiation from an adult singing and chanting to and for them, not with them. Young children’s attention is not always continuous or obvious, so at times it may seem they are not attending to music when receiving structured or unstructured informal guidance. That, however, usually is not the case. They are aware of most of what they

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hear without showing direct evidence. In any case, adults expect only a response, not the response, from young children engaging in acculturation. Intention rather than attention is fostered. It is the activity, not the act, that is important. It is through structured and unstructured informal guidance young children are adequately prepared to deal in time with imitation and assimilation in preparatory audiation and later to develop readiness to audiate with maturity. During the first of three stages of acculturation, young children respond to their environment by listening. During the second, they make babble sounds and movements not particularly related to the environment. During the third, children make music babble sounds and movements in response to the environment. Theoretically, the first stage of acculturation takes place from birth to about twelve months. Parents and teachers are patient and expect nothing immediate of young children phasing through music acculturation. Just as young children require time to absorb language spoken in their surroundings before learning to speak, they require time to absorb music in their environment before learning to sing, chant, and move.

Imitation Transition from acculturation to imitation in preparatory audiation is noteworthy in music development of young children. The younger they are when they make that transition, the better they will learn to imitate, yet if they do so too early without benefit of first having sufficient exposure to music through activities associated with acculturation, ability to engage in music imitation will be limited. On the other hand, regardless of when children make transition into imitation, their continued development in music acculturation will begin to slow. That is unfortunate because no one ever outgrows need for music acculturation. Development of preparatory audiation and audiation skill ultimately depends on continual development of music acculturation. Professionals are always engaging in some type of music acculturation

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and, thus, become more comfortable, for example, with contemporary compositional devices initially seeming strange or unfamiliar. The process of acculturation does not require conscious thought or purposeful activity on the part of children but they do imitate with some purpose. Whether they imitate correctly or incorrectly, or with logical consistency, imitation is of enormous benefit because unless children engage in music imitation, they will lack readiness to engage in assimilation. The first stage of the imitation type of preparatory audiation is the first of two transition stages within the seven stages of preparatory audiation. In this stage, children make initial transition from preparatory audiation and music babble to audiation. They become aware of sameness and difference between what they are singing or chanting and what another child or adult is performing. They grow out of music egocentricity by comparing their singing or chanting with what another person is or is not performing, and that is crucial to further development in preparatory audiation. Thus, children in their own way become aware they have been communicating with themselves (subjective preparatory audiation) but now are communicating with others (objective preparatory audiation). Without that breakthrough, children lack full understanding necessary to proceed to the fifth stage of preparatory audiation, which is the second stage of the imitation type of audiation. In the second stage of the imitation type of preparatory audiation, children begin to imitate with some precision tonal patterns and rhythm patterns another child or adult is singing or chanting. Imitation allows children to begin “breaking the code” so when they move into assimilation, they recognize and discriminate among tonal patterns and among rhythm patterns as they imitate. Parents and teachers may be hesitant to introduce a wide variety of tonal and rhythm substance at this early stage. Nevertheless, it is important children be exposed to a large number of tonal patterns and rhythm patterns.

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Young children at this stage may be hearing only a pitch center, tonic of the keyality, or resting tone of tonality of tonal patterns they are learning to imitate. Likewise, as they are learning to imitate rhythm patterns, they may be hearing only macrobeats and microbeats of meter of rhythm patterns. When children appear to be engaging concurrently in some combination of effortless audiation and preparatory audiation, they are searching for context to assist them in attempting to imitate a tonal pattern or rhythm pattern. Though children hear and perform songs and tonal patterns in a diversity of keyalities and tonalities in the imitation stage, they initially hear and perform the same song and tonal patterns in the same keyality and tonality. And, although children hear and perform rhythm chants and rhythm patterns in various tempos and meters, they initially hear and perform the same chant and rhythm patterns at the same tempo and in the same meter. It is not until they are able to recognize and identify a resting tone and location of macrobeats of a song or rhythm chant is it prudent to introduce the same song in a different keyality (with tonality remaining the same) and the same song or chant in a different tempo (with meter remaining the same). Without such reinforcement, young children might experience difficulty in recognizing the same song when performed in a different keyality or tonality and recognizing the same rhythm chant when performed at a different tempo or different meter. To ensure children hear performances in consistent keyalities, tonalities, tempos, and meters, adults might make a recording of their performances for children to listen to.

Assimilation The first stage of the assimilation type of preparatory audiation is the second of two transition stages within preparatory audiation. During the first transition stage in the imitation type of preparatory audiation, children outgrow their egocentricity as they become aware of their own performance in relation to another person. During the second transition

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stage in the assimilation type of preparatory audiation, children become aware of how they are coordinating breathing and moving with singing tonal patterns and chanting rhythm patterns. Without this realization, they may not effectively proceed to the second stage of assimilation, the seventh and final stage of preparatory audiation. The second of two stages of assimilation is critical because it is then children actually learn how, on a conscious level, to coordinate with some precision their singing and chanting of tonal patterns and rhythm patterns with breathing and weight and flow of body movements. Thus, they become acutely aware of anacrusis, metacrusis, and crusis as they perform tonal patterns and rhythm patterns in familiar tonalities, keyalities, meters, and tempos, which is what assists them in moving out of preparatory audiation into audiation. Children now are able to learn to perform more accurately in ensembles as well as solo, and to learn to adjust pitch and rhythm to make accommodations in ensemble performances by giving objective music meaning through audiation to what others are audiating and performing. They are prepared to learn to understand and take pleasure from music as musicians, though not necessarily as professional musicians, throughout life. When they are older, they will be part of audiences demanding worthy music be performed under best of conditions.

Part 5

ACCULTURATION

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aralleling language, there are five sequential music vocabularies: listening, singing and rhythm chanting, audiation and improvisation, reading, and writing. The first three relate to preparatory audiation and music learning theory for newborn and young children. The final two pertain to audiation and music learning for students and adults. Very young children live in the present. They are more capable of recognition than recall, and immediately respond without forethought to what is readily apparent. Thus, of the three types of preparatory audiation--acculturation, imitation, and assimilation--acculturation is fundamental. Children engage in acculturation before they move successfully into imitation. Then they link to imitation before they participate successfully in assimilation. Awareness children receive and skills they develop during the three types of preparatory audiation are progressively cumulative. Each lower type forms a keystone for and is reinforced by the next higher type. Standing alone, each type of preparatory audiation is distinct from the other two, but progressive success children have with each higher type is dependent on accomplishment with one or two types below. The same is true about stages of preparatory audiation, because they, too, are sequential and cumulative within each type and from type to type.

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Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children

In the first two stages of the acculturation type of preparatory audiation, children are given only unstructured informal guidance. To rush children into structured guidance, formal instruction notwithstanding, creates a stalemate in music development. How strange it is parents insist their children learn to walk and talk as soon as possible and then spend an inordinate amount of time disciplining them to sit and be quiet. Unfortunately, related controlling factors abound in music. It is advantageous for young children to receive an abundance of acculturation. Without necessary essentials acculturation provides, to some extent children will be constrained in developing, among other skills, a singing voice and ability to move rhythmically. Informed parents and teachers continually keep in mind immediate results in terms of music achievement are not to be expected of children who are receiving structured and unstructured informal guidance in acculturation. Children’s progress is not rushed. It may take eighteen months or more before benefit of guidance in acculturation may be observed. Shortly after birth children begin to become acculturated in various ways. Most important they hear parents, and perhaps siblings or other children, sing and chant; music performed at home; and music in live performances in concert or on television. In acculturation, children learn to distinguish sounds in their environment from vocal sounds they themselves produce. Next, they learn to discriminate similarities and differences among sounds. As processes unfold, they begin to change from being only hearers of sounds to participants in making music sounds. Music acculturation, which happens ideally during the first eighteen months of life, is a gradual process. As it occurs, children move progressively from the first to third stage of preparatory audiation. The more and sooner young children engage in acculturation, the more rapidly they give up music babble. Kindergarten children who have not had much experience with music, either as listeners or participants, may, with qualified compensatory instruction, learn to imitate as quickly as

Part 5: Acculturation

41

three year old children who have engaged or are engaging in the acculturation type of preparatory audiation. Younger children, however, who appropriately and gradually phased through music acculturation will respond with more accomplishment from formal music instruction than older children who have not had a plentiful and varied experience with music in early childhood. Those young children will move from imitation to assimilation with ease whereas progress of older children will most likely be attenuated. In stage one of acculturation, children simply listen to music. In stage two, they use music babble to vocalize, repeat a short mantra, and move randomly in response to music they are hearing or have heard. In stage three, they continue to use music babble to attempt to sing, chant, move, and imitate. In all three stages of acculturation types of preparatory audiation, children learn as a result of listening. In the imitation type, they learn as a result of reciprocal imitation occurring as adults imitate them and they imitate adults. In the assimilation type, children learn by coordinating their own singing and chanting with movement and breathing.

Stage One

Recorded Music Use of recordings in association with children’s acculturation has some value though not nearly as much as a parent or teacher singing and chanting one-to-one to them. Recordings designed specifically for children, however, are limited, if not deleterious, for developing music acculturation, particularly those including a story telling text. As with songs with words, text diverts a child’s attention from music. When children listen to music with words, they rarely focus on music, and so because the goal of music acculturation is to provide children with informal guidance so they may become familiar with prevailing

42

Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children

tonalities and meters and not necessarily to reinforce familiarity with language, words are undesirable. Early incorporation of words with music is at the expense of development of music acculturation. Tone quality of recorded music children listen to is selected to be pleasing and relaxing. It is favorable for children to hear an assortment of instruments performed in a variety of music styles by different types of ensembles to ensure they are introduced to diversity of pitch ranges and timbres. Because young children and parents tend to have similar preferences, mothers and fathers best choose recorded music for children they themselves find agreeable. Importance of dynamics, timbre, tempo, and rhythm are secondary to tone quality. Whereas preference for tone quality is subjective, timbre specifically refers to unique sounds produced on any one or group of instruments. It is recommended recorded, as well as live, music have frequent changing dynamics and timbres. Abrupt, not gradual, changes in tempo in the same piece of music are also desirable. The more contrast music has in dynamics, timbres, and tempo, the greater impression it makes on children and the more readily they feel comfortable with tonalities and meters. Rhythm children are exposed to is preferable when well articulated and not overemphasized or exaggerated. Tempo rubato and ritardandos within phrases are integral to worthwhile music. They do not interfere with children’s basic responses to rhythm, but long and exaggerated accelerandos and rallentandos disrupt rhythmic stability and offer little benefit for acculturation of consistency of tempo. So called good and bad music can be found in any style and may be written by the same composer. Contrary to what many authorities suggest, that is true of high culture music of past and present as well as popular music, and so it is worthwhile to give thoughtful consideration to music in all styles. It is not possible to harm children by allowing them to listen too much. Recorded music played at low to moderate volume may be made available to children during all waking hours. Moreover, when

Part 5: Acculturation

43

music is played continuously and is barely audible as children sleep, they become acculturated more quickly than if they sleep in silence. Attention span of young children is very short, perhaps no longer than a few seconds. For this reason it is best to play only short sections of music, or music with frequent shifts in dynamics, timbre, and tempo, as a way to encourage them to continually redirect their attention to music. Music performed by large ensembles, such as orchestras and bands, is preferable to music performed by small ensembles or soloist, because it tends to be more varied and dramatic. Music with repetitious tonal patterns and rhythm patterns is least preferable. There is a set of recordings that includes excerpts from 30 seconds to three minutes taken from many styles and eras of music for very young listeners. Listed in the Bibliography is Jump Right In To Listening: Music For Young Children. Effort is made not to force a child to listen, nor should music be discontinued if a child does not appear to be attending. Young children derive as much from listening to music when they appear not to be attentive as when captivated. In fact, benefits of listening experiences can be just as great or greater when children are moving around a room (active listening) as when sitting quietly (passive listening). Of greatest value to young children is when they have opportunity to consciously or unconsciously absorb sounds of music around them. Parents and teachers do not compel children to move nor do they move children’s arms, legs, or other parts of their bodies for them, not even when children appear to enjoy it. Parents and teachers may move with children, however, rhythmically tap them, or hold them in their arms as they themselves are moving. When children are exposed to live instrumental music at home, care is taken to be sure instruments being played are well tuned, otherwise children might interpret flawed intonation as characteristic. It is best to remove a permanently out of tune piano because the more inappropriate intonation becomes ingrained in children, the more

44

Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children

confused they become when trying to understand music they hear in the future. In particular, if piano is used by children or adults even to explore sound, it should be tuned periodically by a professional tuner or not played at all.

Singing and Rhythm Chanting Young children are made aware as soon as possible of sound quality of a singing voice (in contrast to a speaking voice) and sight of rhythm body movements by parents, teachers, other adults, and children singing, chanting, and moving, continuously portraying confident facial expressions exuding warmth and approval. Short songs and chants with repetition and sequence are best, performed without words. It is critical to keep focus on music, not language. One, two, or three syllables (such as bum, bah, ma, ta, and da) performed with music inflections are ideal. Those labial syllables emanate from front of the mouth. That is good because it is where babies initiate sucking and their own vocalizations and, thus, quickly identify with another’s articulation. Syllables need not be used over and over again with the same song or chant and, of course, different syllables are used with different songs and chants. It may be necessary to use words for giving older children directions to participate in activities and regain interest. Parents and teachers take care in preventing children from attempting to associate specific words with songs and chants. After students perform a song or chant musically, words might be added as accompaniment for enjoyment without compromise. Examples of 100 songs and 100 rhythm chants without words used with newborn and young children in the acculturation type of preparatory audiation are presented on following pages. They are the same as those published in Music Listening Experiences for Newborn and Young Children: Notation and Recording of Brief Tunes and Rhythm Chants in Many Tonalities and Meters. The benefit of presenting the same songs and rhythm chants herein is they are recorded on CDs in the other

Part 5: Acculturation

45

book. A professional oboist performs songs and I perform rhythm chants. Additional songs and rhythm chants may be found in The Early Childhood Music Curriculum: Songs and Chants Without Words and More Songs and Chants Without Words. All are listed in the Bibliography. Performing songs and rhythm chants with shifting qualities of the singing voice increases attention as does different adults performing different sections of the same song or rhythm chant. When personally composed songs and rhythm chants are used, it is recommended they be brief with sufficient repetition and sequence. Simple implied harmony is best. To emphasize difference, a song may have a rhythm chant as middle section, and vice versa. Also, sectional changes of tonality, keyality, and meter are constructive. Experience suggests songs and rhythm chants written by a teacher or parent are taught with more expression and flexibility than those composed by others. Better yet, improvised songs and rhythm chants that meet immediate environmental conditions capture children’s apparent needs and attention more readily. An added dimension of flexibility when improvising is tonality, keyality, meter, and tempo need not be memorized for future performances. No attempt is made to teach children songs and chants as typically undertaken in formal instruction with older children, nor are children expected to respond formally to singing, rhythm chanting, or moving of an adult or older children. Inaccuracies are not corrected if a child attempts to imitate a performance. The goal of the first type of preparatory audiation is exposure, not performance. Whether children respond in any way is irrelevant, because the purpose is to acculturate children to songs and rhythm chants so they may absorb tonality and meter. Just as young children do extensive listening to become familiar with language, they listen broadly to become familiar with music. To insist or encourage them to respond to music according to adult expectations before they enter the fourth stage of preparatory audiation, the first stage of the imitation type of audiation, delays or prevents their

46

Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children

becoming musically acculturated. It might be better for a child not to hear music at all than be expected to respond as an adult might prefer. Specific tonalities, keyalities, harmonies, meters, and tempos associated with music children hear sung and chanted are not important. To become fully acculturated, however, children hear a diversity of tonalities, keyalities, harmonies, meters, and tempos, including at least major, harmonic minor, Mixolydian, and Dorian tonalities, and at least usual duple, usual triple, unusual paired, and unusual unpaired meters. When children hear an abundance of music in the same tonality and meter, they grow excessively accustomed to a few familiar sounds. That inhibits learning other less familiar tonalities and meters when they engage in higher types and stages of preparatory audiation and audiation itself. Emphasis is on children informally becoming familiar and comfortable with an abundance of tonalities and meters rather than bonding with an adult. Before moving to stage two, it is prudent to discuss a concept that applies to all facets of preparatory audiation. It is sameness and difference. No two things are the same. Young children quickly become aware of that fact. It may be they spend time determining how little similarity there is between two things or events before adults consider them same. Nonetheless, we never truly know what something is. It is through making comparisons we know what something is not. When children continually hear sameness, learning all but ceases. With difference, comparisons are made and relationships established. Learning abounds. Thus, need to go beyond major tonality and usual duple meter in music acculturation of young children is manifest.

Part 5: Acculturation

47

SONGS

1.

#2 & 4 œj œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ . # & œ œ œ œ

2.

# & # 78 œ # & # œ

# 1. & # 78 œ

œ œ œ œ

j œ œ œ œ œ œ

j œ ˙

24 œ œ . J

œ œ œ œ j œ ˙

j œ œ.

j 2 œ œ œ œ œ 4 œ.

3.

& b 24 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙ & b #œ œ œ

œ

œœœœœ œ œ œ

j œ œ.

&

#

œ.

j œj œ

‰

j œ œ œ œ œ

œ œ œ

˙ ˙

œœœ œœœ œœœ œœœœœ œ œ œ

4.

# j & 68 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙ .

j œ

œ.

œ

j œ ˙.

j œ œ j j œ œ œ œ œ œj œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

78

48

Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children

5.

2 j & b 4 œ œ œ œ œ œ.

œ œ œ œ ˙

j & b œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

œ œ œ œ œ œ #œ ˙

6.

& 86 j œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ . œ œ œ & œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

7.

& 42 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ &œ œœœœœœ œ œœœ

9.

œ œ œ œ.

œ.

œ. œ œ œ

œ ˙. œ œ œ œ œ

j œ

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

& 86 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ .

& œ œ œ œ.

œ.

j œ œ œ œ œ

œ œœœœœœ œœœœœ

& 86 œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙ . œ œ œ œ.

œ œ œ œ.

œ œœœœœ œ œœœ œ

8.

& œ œ œ œ.

œ #œ œ

œ ˙. œ œ œ œ œ

œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙.

Part 5: Acculturation

49

10.

2 œ &4 œ œœœ œœ œ œ

&œ œ œ ˙

œ œ œ œ ˙

11.

2 &b4œ œ œ œ œ œ œ &b œ œ œ

&b œ œ œ ˙

œ œ œ ˙

œ œ œ œ ˙

œ œ œ œ ˙

œ œ œ œ ˙ œ

œ œ œ œ ˙

œ

œ

œ œ

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

œ œ

œ œ œ œ ˙

12.

# & # 85 œ # œ œ œ œ 78 œ œ œ . 85 œ # œ œ œ œ 78 œ œ œ . 68

# & # 68 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ .

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ . 85

# 7 5 7 & # 85 œ # œ œ œ œ 8 œ œ œ . 8 œ # œ œ œ n œ 8 œ œ œ .

50

13.

& b 24 œ

Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children

œœœœœ

œ

&b œ œ œ œ œ

œ œ œ œ œj œ .

j 2 &b œ œ œ œ œ 4 œ œ

14.

2 &4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ &˙ &˙

15.

# & # 24 œJ

œ œ œ œ œj œ .

œœœœœ

œ

œ

œ

œ

œ œ œ œ ˙

œ œ œ œ

16.

# & # 68 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ .

# & # œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

œ

œ

œ J

œ œ

œ œ œ œ

œ

œ œ œ œ

œ

œ œ œ œ œ.

# & # œ œ œ œ

œ

œ

j 5 8œ œ œ œ œ

œ œ œ œ ˙

œ œ œ ˙

œ

˙

œ œ œ œ ˙

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ.

œ.

œ. œ œ œ œ .

œ œ œ œ.

Part 5: Acculturation

51

17.

& 42 # œ œ œ œ & #œ œ œ œ

œ œ œ œ œ œ

18.

#6 & 8 œ œ œ œ. # & œ œ œ œ.

œ œ. œ œ

. œ œ œ œ

19.

& 86 œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙ . &œ œ œ œ œ œ

20.

& 42 œ œ œ œ &œ œ œ œ

˙. ˙

œ œ œ

21.

& 42 œ œ œ œ

&œ œ œ œ

˙ ˙

˙

œ #œ œ œ œ #œ œ œ

˙

œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙.

œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙. œ œ œ œ œ.

œ

œ ˙. J

j œ ˙.

œ œ œ œ

˙

œ œ œ œ

˙

œ œ œ œ

˙

œ œ œ œ

˙

52

Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children

22.

# 6 j j j œ j & # 8 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œj ‰ ‰ œ œ œ # j j j & # œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œj œ œ œ œ .

23.

b2 œ ˙ &b 4 œ œ œ b & b #œ

œ

œ œ œ œ #˙

œ #œ

24.

# & 24 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

# & œ œ œ

œ

œ

œ œ œ #œ

˙

œ œ œ œ ˙

œ œ œ œ ˙ œ œ œ

œ œ œ œ ˙

˙

25.

& b 85 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

œ œ œ œ

œ œ œ œ

& b œ œ œ œ œ œ œ #œ œ

26.

b & b b 68 ˙ .

œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙.

b & b b œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙.

œœœœœœ œœœœœœ

œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙.

œ. Œ.

Part 5: Acculturation

27.

b 6 & b b 8 ˙.

53

œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙.

b & b b œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙.

œ œœœœœœ œœœ œœ

œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙.

œ. Œ.

28.

b 6 œ œ œ œ œ œ nœ œ j œ œ œ œ œ œ œ nœ ˙ . œ œ &b b 8 œ b & b b œ œ œ œ.

29.

œ œ nœ œ .

b 2 & b b 4 œ œ œ #œ b & b b œ œ œ #œ

œ œ œ œ œ œ

30.

b j & b 68 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ . &b

b œ œ œ œ.

œ œ œ œ.

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ nœ #œ œ œ œ

œ œ œ œ.

œ œ œ œ nœ œ

œ œ œ ˙. œ œ œ

œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙.

31.

b & b b 68 œ œ œ œ .

œ

œ œ œ œ.

œ œ œ œJ .

54

Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children

32.

2 &b 4 œ œ œ

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

œ œ œ

œ œ œ

5 & b œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ 8 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

& b œ œ œ. 33.

& b 68 œ

&b œ

j œ œ

j œ œ.

34.

& 42 œ œ œ œ

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

j œ ˙.

œ

j œ œ

œ

œ

j œ œ

j œ œ.

œ œœœ

& œ œœœ

œ œ œ œ ˙

& #œ œ œ

œ œœœ

œ œ œ œ ˙ œ #œ œ

œ œœœ

j œ ˙. j œ ˙. œ œœœ

#œ œ œ

œ œ œ

Nœ œ œ Nœ ˙

35.

# & # 78 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ # & # œ œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

## 7 œœœœ & P 5: A8 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ55 art

cculturation

# & # œ œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ # & # œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

36.

6 & b 8 œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙.

œ

j œ œ

& b œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

œ

j œ œ

œ ˙. J

j œ ˙.

37.

& 86 œj œ œj œ œj œ œ œ œ œj œ œj œ œj œ œ œ œ . & œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

38.

b & b b 24 œ œ œ # œ œ n œ œ b &b b œ œ œ

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ ˙

œ

œ œ œ

œ œ œ ˙

39.

& 86 œ œ œ œ œ œ .

. & œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ

œ.

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

œ.

j œ

œ.

56

Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children

40.

2 & 4 bœ œ œ

& bœ

œ

œ œ œ œ œ œ

œ

41.

#6 j & 8 œ œ œ œ œ ˙.

# j & œ œ œ.

# & œ œ œ œ ˙

b &b b œ œ œ œ ˙ ˙

b &b b œ œ œ œ ˙

œ

˙

j œ œ œ œ œ ˙.

j œ œ œ œ œ

24 œ œ œ œ ˙

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ ˙

b j & b b 24 œ œ œ œ œ œ . b &b b œ œ

bœ

œ œ œ œ œj ˙.

42.

#˙

bœ œ œ œ

œ œ œ œ ˙ œ œ

˙

œ œ œ œ ˙

œ œ œ œ œj œ .

œ œ œ œ ˙

œ œ œ œ œj œ .

œœœœ œœœœ œœœ ˙ œ

Part 5: Acculturation

57

43.

# 2 & #4œ œ œœœ œœœ œ œ œœœ œœœ œ œœ # & # ˙

œœœœ ˙

œœœœ œœ œ œ œ ˙

44.

& 86 œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙ . . & œ œ œ œ.

œ. œ œ œ.

œ ˙. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙.

45.

& 42 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ 68 œ œJ œ œJ œ œ œ œ .

2 j œ 6 & œ œ œ œj œ œ œ œ . 4 œ œ œ œ œ 8 œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙ . 46.

# # & # 85 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ . # # & # œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

47.

b & b b 68 œ œ n œ œ .

œ. œ œ œ œ.

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

œ œ œ œ œ

œ. œ œ œ œ.

œ œ. œ. œ œ œ

b & b b œ . œ . œ œ n œ œ . œ . œ œ œ œ . œ . œ œ œ œ . œ . œ œ œ œ . œj .

58

Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children

48.

6 œ. œ. &b 8

j & b œ œ œ. &b œ

j œ œ

j j œ œ œ œ ˙.

œ œ œ œ.

œ. œ.

œ œ #œ œ ˙ . J J œ.

j œ ˙.

j j œ œ œ œ

œ.

œ.

œ œ œ œ.

œ.

œ.

& b œ. œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ. œ. 49.

2 & 4 œ œœœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙ &˙

j œ. œ œ œ œœ

œ œ œ œ œ . œJ œ œ œ œ ˙

# . & # 68 œ œ # œ œ œ œ œ . œ œ . œ . ˙ . # ˙. & #

Œ.

œ œœœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

50.

# . & # œ. œ

œ.

œ.

œ œ #œ œ œ œ

œ.

œ. œ.

œ œ #œ œ œ œ œ . œ .

œ. œ.

œ. œ.

˙.

œ. œ.

˙.

œ.

Part 5: Acculturation

51.

& b 68 œ . & b œ.

œ. œ.

59

œ œ œ œ.

œ

œ œ œ œ.

œ

52.

œ œ J

œ œ J

j œ œ.

j œ œ # œj ˙ .

b2 &b 4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ b & b œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

53.

b & b b 68 œ œ œ œ . œ œ œ œ . œ œ œ œ . œ œ œ œ n œ œ œ œj b j & b b œ . œ n Jœ œ œ œ œ œj œ œj œ . œ . œ œ œ œ n œJ œ œ œ .

54.

b & b b b 68 œ œ œ œ . œ œ œ œ . œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ .

55.

b & b b b 24 œ œ œ œ œ œ n œ œ b & b bb œ œ œ œ œ œ œ b & b bb œ œ

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

œ œ œ ˙ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

œ

60

Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children

56.

2 &4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙

&œœœœ ˙

œœœœ ˙

&œœœ œœœ œœœœ ˙

œœ

œœœœ ˙ œœ

57.

œ œœœ œœœœ ˙ ˙ œœœœ

œ œœœ œœœœ ˙

b 5 & b b 8 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

b & b b 85 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ .

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

6 8

b œ œ & b b 68 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ . œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ . 85

58.

# & # 24 œ œ œ

œœœœœ

# & # œ œ œ œ œ œ œ 59.

œ œ œ œœœœœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

j & b 24 œj œ œ œ œ œ œ Jœ œ œ œ œ ˙

œœœœœœœ œ œ œ œ œ j œ œ œ œ œ œ.

j & b œ œ œ œ œ . œj œ œ œ œ œ œ Jœ œ œ œ œ œ .

Part 5: Acculturation

61

60.

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

b5 & b 8 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

b œ œ œ œ &b œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

61.

b3œ œ œ. &b 4 J œ b & b œ.

j œ œ œ

62.

& 42 œ œ œ ˙

& œ œœœ 63.

œ

œ

œ œ œ œ

j œ ˙.

œ

64.

˙

œœœ œœœ œœœ œ

œ

œ

œ.

œ œ œ ˙ œ œœœ œ ˙

œ œ œ œ

& b œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

# & # ˙

˙

˙ œœ œ

œ œœœ

# & # 24 ≈⋲ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

œ œ œ œ J

œ

œ œœ ˙

œ œœœ

& b 68 œ œ œ œ

œ œ œ œ. J

j œ ˙.

j œ œ œ œ ˙. œ ≈⋲ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

≈⋲ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœœ

62

Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children

65.

2 & b 4 œ œ œ œ œj œ .

j œ œ œ œ œ œ.

œ œ œ œ ˙

œœœ œœœ œœ œ œ ˙

&b œ œ œ œ ˙

œœœ

j œ œ #œ œ Œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ œ

& b œ œ œ œ œ œ #œ ˙ 66.

b 7 4 &b b 8 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ 8 b & b b 48 ˙ b &b b ˙

67.

b & b 43 œ b &b ˙

78 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

œ œ œ ˙ ˙

œ

œ

˙.

b &b œ œ œ

˙.

4 œ œ œ 8˙

˙

œ

˙.

œ

œ

œ

œ

˙. ˙

˙

œ

˙

œ

˙.

˙

˙. ˙

œ

Part 5: Acculturation

68.

& b 68

œ œ œ œ

63

j œ œ

&b œ œ œ œ

j œ œ

j œ œ.

œ œ n˙ . œ œ œ J

j œ œ.

œ œ œ œ ˙. œ œ

69.

b2 œ œ œ œ œ &b 4 œ œ œ œ œ b &b œ œ

œ œ

˙ œœ œœ œ

œ œ #œ œ œ

70.

œ œ œ œ œ œ #œ œ

b & b b 24 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ b &b b œ œ œ

œ œ œ

œ œ œ

71.

& b 24 œj ‰ ‰ œ œ œj œ . bœ œ œ œ . & b œJ ‰ ‰ J

72.

& 42 œ œ œ

œ bœ œ

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

œœœœœœœœ ˙ œ ‰ ‰ œ œ œj œ . J

œ ‰ ‰ œ œ œj œ . J bœ œ œ bœ

œ

œ Nœ

64

Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children

73.

# & 24 œ œ œ

œ œ œ œ œœœœœ

œ œ œ

#œ œ œ œ œ

# & œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ #œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ 74.

# j & # 68 œ œ œ œ œJ œ œ œ .

j œ œ œ Jœ ˙ .

# & # œ œ œ œ.

# j & # œ œ œ œ œ ˙.

75.

# & 43 œ # & œ

œ

œ œ

# & œ œ œ

œ

œ œ œ œ œj ˙ .

œ

œ œ œ œ œ œ œj œ. J

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ ˙.

œ

œ

œ

œ

œ

˙.

œ œ œ

˙.

& b 85 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ .

œ œ œ œ

œ

˙.

76.

&b œ œ œ œ

œ œ œ œ.

œ

œ

˙.

œ

˙.

œ

˙.

˙.

œ

œ ˙.

œ œ œ œ œœ œ .

œ

œ œ œ œ œ #œ œ .

œ

Part 5: Acculturation

65

77.

& b 68 œ œj œ œ œ ˙ .

j & b œ œ œ.

j ˙. œ œ œ œ œ

j œ œ #œ œ œ ˙ .

œ. œ.

j j œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

j œ. œ. œ œ œ œ. œ j j œ œ œ ˙. & b œ œJ œ œJ œ œ œ .

78.

& 42 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

&œ œ œ œ œ œ œ 79.

# & # 24 œr œ œ œ œ œ œ œ # & # œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

œœœœœ

œ œ œ

œ œ œ

œ œ œ œ œ. œ

œœœœœœœœ œœœ j œœ.

80.

# . & 68 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ b œ ˙ . # & bœ nœ œ œ .

bœ nœ œ œ .

œ bœ œ œ Nœ œ œ œ aœ œ

66

Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children

81.

& b 43 œ

œ

&b œ

œ

&b œ

œ

œ

œ œ ˙

œ œ

82.

b 2 &b b 4 œ œ œ

b &b b œ œ œ b j & b b œ œ. b & b b 85 œ b &b b œ

b &b b œ

œ œ ˙

œ œ œ

œ.

œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙. œ

œ

œ œ œ œ ˙

j œ œ œ. œ œ œ

œ œ œ

83.

œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙.

œ œ ˙

œ œ œ

œ œ œ œ œ œ

j œ œ.

œ

˙.

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

œ œ œ œ ˙ œ.

œ œ œ œ

œ.

œ œ œ œ œ œ

œ.

œ œ œ œ

œ.

œ œ œ œ œ œ

œ.

œ œ œ œ

Part 5: Acculturation

67

84.

# #6 j j j j j j j & # 8 œ œ œ œ œ œ œj œ œ œ œ œ œ œ . œ œ # # & # œ

85.

& b 68

j œ œ

j œ

œ

j œ œ.

œ

j œ œ

j œ œ.

œ

œ œ œj œ j œ œ #œ œ œ œ . #œ œ œ œ . œ œ œ œ œ œ J

& b œ œ œ œ.

œ œ œ œ. œ œ. œ. œ œ œ . œ . œ œ œ œ # Jœ J

86.

j & 42 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ .

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙

j & œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

œ œ ˙ œ œ œ œ œ

87.

& 42 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ & œ.

œ œ œ.

œ œ œ.

88.

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

& b 68 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ . & b œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

68

Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children

89.

& 86 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ .

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

& œ œ œ œ.

œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙.

œ œ œ œ.

90.

# 6 œ & # 8 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ J œ.

# & # œ.

œ.

œ.

j œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

œ.

91.

# 2 œ & #4œœœ œœœ œœœ

&

##

œœœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

92.

& 85 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ .

& 68 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ . 93.

b & b 24 œ œ œ œ ˙ b &b œ œ œ œ ˙

œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙. œ.

œœœ œœœ œœœ œ

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ 3

3

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

85 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ .

œ œ œ œ ˙

œ œ œ œ ˙

68

Part 5: Acculturation

94.

69

2 &4 œ œ œ œ œ œ

&

œ œ œ œ ˙

œ œ œ œ ˙

95.

& 86 œ . œ œ œ . œ œ œ . œ œ œ .

& œ œ œ œ.

œ œ œ œ.

œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ

œ œ. œ œ œ œ ˙.

œ. œ œ œ. œ œ ˙.

96.

5 &8 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ &œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

97.

& 86 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ .

& œ œ œ œ. 98.

œ œ œ œ.

& 42 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙

œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙. œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙.

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ ˙ œ

70

Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children

99.

6 & b 8 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

100.

2 &4 œ œ œ

œ œ œ œ.

œœœ œœœ œœ œ œ

œ œœœ

œ œ œ œ. œœœ œ

RHYTHM CHANTS

1.

24 œ œ œ

œ œ œ

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

68 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ . œ œ œ .

24 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

2.

68

98 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ 24 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

3.

œ œ œ 98 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

68 œ œ œ ‰ œ œ œ

j œ œ.

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

4.

œ œ œ ‰ œ œ ˙.

œ œ œ ‰ œ œ ˙.

24 œr œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ . œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œj .

Part 5: Acculturation

71

5.

6 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ 8 œ œ œ œ œ œ Œ. œ.

∑

6.

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ.

3 3 3 2 œ œ œ œj œ œj œj œ œj œ œ œ œ œ œ œ . 4 3 3 j j œ œ. ‰ œ œ œ œ.

7.

24 œj ‰ ‰ œj œ œ œ œœœœœ œ ˙

j œ œ œ œ ‰ œ œ

j j œœœ œ œ œ 3

j j œ ‰ ‰ œ œ œ œ

8.

85 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œœœ œ œ œ

œ.

œ.

9.

88 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ 68 œ . œ œ œ . œ . œ œ œ . j œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ Œ.

10.

24 œ œ . œ œ . œ œ . œ œ œ. œ

˙

œœœ œ œœ œœ œœ

œ œœœ

œ œ. œ œ.

72

Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children

6 œ œ œ œj œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙ . 8 j j œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙.

11.

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

12.

2 œ œœœœœ œ œ œ œ œœœœœ ˙ 4 j œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

œ œ œ œ œœœ œ

13.

88 œ œj œ œj œ œ œ œj œ œj œ 44 œ œ œ œ œ . ‰ Ó 88 88 œ œj œ œj œ œ œ œj œ œj œ 44 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ Œ

14.

24 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ . œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

œ œ œ

œ œ œ

15.

85 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ Œ . œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ Œ.

16.

24 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ 3

œœœœœ œ ˙

3

3

3

Part 5: Acculturation

73

17.

6 œ œœ œ œœ œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ. œ œœ œ œ œ 8 œ. œ.

œ œ œ œ.

œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙.

˙.

œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ. œ. ˙.

18.

24 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

œ œ œœœ ˙

œœœœœ œ œ

œ œ œœœ

œœœœ œœœ œ œ ˙

19.

68 ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ . ‰ œ œ œ œ œ ˙ . j œ œ œ œ. ˙. œ ‰ ‰ Œ.

‰ œœœœœ

78 œr œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œr

20.

21.

24 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œœ œ ˙

22.

68 œ œ œ . œ .

œ œ œ œ ˙

œ. œ œ œ œ. œ.

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

œ.

œ.

œ

œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ

˙.

œ. œ œ œ. œ œ

74

Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children

23.

8 œ. œœ œ. œœ œ œ œ. œœ œ. œœ œ 9 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ 8 8 8 8 8œ œ œ œ œ œ œ 8

24.

24 œ œ œ œ . œ œ œ œ . œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ . œ œ œ œ . œ œ œ 3

3

3

3

3

3

œ. œœœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

7 œ œ œ œ œj œ œ œ œ œ œ œj œ œ œ œ œ œj œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œj 8

25.

26.

24 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ j œœœœœœœœ ‰ œ œ

27.

68 œ . œ œ œ œ . œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ . ˙.

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

œœœ œ œœœ œ

œ. œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

œ. œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ

Part 5: Acculturation

2 œj œ . 4

28.

œ œ œ œ

75

œœœœœ

œœ œœ œ ˙

œœœœœ œ ˙ j œ œ.

œœœœœ

œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

œ

œ œ œ œ

œ

œœœœœ œ œ

Œ

j 6 ˙. œ ‰ ‰ Œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. Œ. ˙. 8 j j j j œ ‰ ‰ Œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. Œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

29.

j j œ œ œ œ œ. Œ.

30.

˙.

j œ ‰ ‰ Œ.

78 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœœœœ œ œ œ

31.

68 œ œ

œœœœœ œ œ œœœœ

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙.

œ. œ œ œ.

32.

œ. œœ œ œ œ œ. Œ.

œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

j œ

68 œj œ œj œ œj œ œ œ œ œj œ œ œ œ œ œ œ . œ œj j j j j œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ Œ œ œ

76

Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children

2 œr œ œ œ œ 4

j ‰ œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ

33.

j j œ œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰ œ œ .

34.

68 œ œ œ œ . œ . 3

œ œ œ œ.

œ œ œ œ.

œ. œ.

35.

2 œœ œœ œ œ œ 4

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. ‰

36.

24 œ œ œ œ œ œ Œ œœœœœ

Œ

œ. œ.

j œ œ

œ

œœœœœ

78 œ œj œ œ

38.

68 œ

j œ œ

œœœœœ

œ. Œ œ œ œ. œ.

œ œ œ œ œ œ. ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

œ œœœœœ Œ œœœœœ

œ œœœœœ Œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œœ 37.

‰ œœœ

j œ œ ˙ j œ œ. œ œ œ.

œ œ œ œ

œ œœœœœ Œ œ œœœœœœœ ˙

j œ œ œ œ

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ.

œ

œœœ œ ˙

œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙. œ

j œ œ

j œ ˙.

Part 5: Acculturation

77

39.

43 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙ .

œ œ œ œ œœœœ

œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙.

40.

6 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. 8

œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

j œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ œ

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙.

41.

24 ˙

˙

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙.

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˙

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42.

24 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœœœœ ˙

43.

98 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œj œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœœ œ œ œ œœœ

44.

24 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ Œ 3

3

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3

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3

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3

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78

Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children

45.

5 8 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

5 8 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

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2 œj œ œj œ œ œ œ 4

46.

œ œ ˙ œ œ œ

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

j j œ œ œ ˙

œœœœœœœœ œ œ œ

j j j ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œœœœœ œ ˙

œ œ

˙

47.

2 œœœœœ 4

œœœœœœœœ

68 œ œj œ œj œ œ œ œ . œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙ .

j j œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

24 œ œ ‰ œj œ . œ œ

j j ‰ œ ‰ œ ≈⋲ œ œ œ

œ œ ‰ ‰ œ œ ‰ ‰ ˙.

48.

œœœœœ œ ˙

j œ œ ‰ œ ˙

68 œj œ œ œ œ œ œ œ .

49.

œ œ œ œ.

50.

œ œ œ œ

85 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ .

j œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙.

j œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

œ

œœœ œœœ œ œ œ œ œ

Part 5: Acculturation

79

51.

24 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

œœœœœ œ œ

52.

œ œ œœœ ˙

3 4 œ œ œ Œ œ œ Œ œ œ ˙. ˙.

Œ œ œ ˙.

œœœœ œœœ œ œ ˙ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙.

53.

68 œ . œ . œ œ œ œ . œ . œ œ œ œ œ ˙ . œ. œ.

œ œ œœœ

˙.

œœœœœœ

œ. œ. œ œ œ œ.

54.

88 œ . œ œ œ . œ œ œ œ œ œ . œ œ œ . œ œ œ œ . œ œ œ . œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

55.

24 ˙

56.

j œ‰Œ ˙

68 œ . œ .

œ. œ.

œœœ œœœ

˙.

3 j œ ‰ Œ œœœœœœœ œ œ œ ˙

œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙.

œ. œ.

j œ‰Œ œ. œ.

80

Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children

24 œj œ

j œ œœœ œ

˙

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

57.

œ œ œ

œ œ

58.

6 œ. œ. 8

‰ œ œ œ.

˙

œœœœœ œ ˙

˙.

j œ œ ‰ œ ˙

œ

‰ œ œ œ.

œ

˙

‰ œ œ ‰ œ œ

j j ‰ œ ‰ œ ≈⋲ œ œ œ

j j j j ≈⋲ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

j ≈⋲ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

61.

85 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ .

62.

24 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

œœœœœœœœ

j j j œ œ œ œ œœœœœ œ

‰ œ

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. Œ.

24 œ œ ‰ œj œ . œ œ 68 œj ˙ .

j œ ˙

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ.

59.

60.

j œ œ

œœœœœ œ œ

œœœ œœœ œ œ œ œ œ

œ œ œœœ ˙

œ œ œœœ

œœœœ œœœ œ œ ˙

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81

63.

3 4 œ œ œ Œ œ œ Œ œ œ ˙. œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙.

Œ œ œ ˙.

œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙.

64.

6 œ. œœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙. œ. œœ œ œ œ 8 j j j j j œ œ œ œ. œ. œœ œ œ œ ˙. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ ˙.

œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

œ. œ œ œ œ œ ˙.

65.

24 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ . œ œ œ œ œ œ . œ . œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ j j j œœ. œ œœœœœœ. ˙ ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œœ œ ˙ j j j ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ.

66.

68 œ . œ œ œ œ œ œ œ . œ œ œ œ œ . œ . œ œ œ œ œ œ œ . œ œ œ œ œ œ œ . œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

67.

24 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœœœœ

œ œ

˙

œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ.

œœ œœ œ ˙

œ œ œ œ

82

Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children

68.

5 8 œ. œ œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ

69.

2 œœœœœœœ œœœœœ 4 œœœœœ

œ œ

œ. .

j œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

œ.

œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œœ œ ˙

j j œ ‰ œ œ

œœœœœ

j ‰ œ œ Œ

œœœœœœœ œ

œ œ œ œ ˙

j j 68 œ œj œ œj œ œj œ . œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙ . œ œ œ œ j j j œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ ˙. œ. Œ. Œ. œ œ œ œ. Œ.

70.

∑ 71.

24 œ œ ‰ Œ

j j j œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. ∑

œœœœœ œ ˙

œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙.

œœ ‰ Œ

∑

œ œ ˙

72.

85 œ œ . œ œ . œ . œ œ . œ œ œ œ . œ œ . œ œ . œ . œ œ . œ œ œ œ.

73.

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

68 œ œ œ œ œ œ œj œ .

œœœœœ œ œ œ œ œ œ

œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙.

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙.

j œ

œ œ œ œ œ œ

Part 5: Acculturation

83

74.

5 8œœ œ œœ œ œœ œ œœ

75.

2 œœ œ œœœ œœ ˙ 4 ˙

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

œ œ œ œ œœ œ œœ 3

3

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

76.

2 œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œœ 4 j œœœœœ œ œ œ œ ‰ œ œ

77.

24 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œj

78.

68 œj œ œ œ œ œ œ œ . œ œj œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙ . j œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ. œ

œ. œœ œ.

79.

85 œ . œ œ œ œ œ . œ œ œ œ . œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ 68 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ . 85 œ . œ œ œ œ œ . œ œ œ œ . œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

80.

24 œj ˙

≈⋲ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ .

≈⋲ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ .

j œ ˙

84

Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children

81.

6 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ . œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ . œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œj 8 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ

82.

6 œ . œ œ œ ≈⋲ œ œ œ œ œ ≈⋲ œ œ œ œ œ œ . œ . œ œ œ ≈⋲ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ . 8 j j j œ œ œ œ œ œ œ . œ . œ œ œ ≈⋲ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ .

83.

85 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ . œ œ . œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

84.

24 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

œ œœœœœ œ œ œ

68 œr œ œj œ œ œ œj œ

85.

œ œ œ œ.

86.

68 œ œ ‰ ‰ Œ . œ œ ‰ ‰ Œ.

œœœ œ œœ œ œ œ

œ

œ

œ

œ œ œ

œœ œœ

j j œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙.

j œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ≈⋲ œ œ ‰ ‰ Œ.

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙.

j j œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

œ œ ‰ ‰ Œ.

Part 5: Acculturation

87.

2 œœœ ˙ 4 Œ

œ

œ

85

œ œœœœ œ œœœœœ œ œœœœ ˙ r œ

88.

68 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ . œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

89.

24 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

˙

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ.

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ.

œœœ œ œœ Œ œ

j œœœœ‰ œ

90.

68 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ . œ . œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙ . j œ œ œ œ. œœœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ .

91.

œ œœœœ

24 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰ œj œ œ œ ˙ j œ œ ‰ œ ˙

œ œ œ œ

œ. œ.

œœœœœœœ œœœœœ

86

92.

6 ˙. 8 ˙.

Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children

˙.

œ. œœ œ œ œ ˙.

˙.

˙.

œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙.

œ. œœ œ œ œ ˙.

œ. œœ œ œ œ ˙.

˙.

93.

2 œj œ œ œ . œj œ œ œ œ œ œ œ . œj œ œ œ . œj œ œ œ œ œ œ . 4

94.

6 œj œ œ œ œ œj œ œ œ œ œj œ œj œ œj œ . œ œj œ œ œ œ œj 8 œ œ œ œ. Œ. œ. œ. œ

95.

24 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

j r œœœ œœœ ‰ œ œ

96.

68 œ . œ œ œ œ œ œ œ . œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙ . œ œ œ œ.

97.

68 œ œ ‰ ‰ Œ . œ œ ‰ ‰ Œ.

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙. œœ‰ ‰ Œ.

˙.

œ. Œ.

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. Œ.

œ. œ œœ

œœ‰ ‰ Œ.

Part 5: Acculturation

87

98.

5 8 œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

99.

2 œ œ. œ 4

˙

œœœœœ œ ˙

œ. œ œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ

œœœœœ œ ˙

œœ œœœ œ œœ œœ

œ œ. œ

˙

j j œ œ œ ˙

œ œ. œ

˙

œœœœœ œ ˙

100.

78 œ . œ œ œ œ œ œ 68 œ œ œ 78 œ . œ œ œ œ œ œ 68 œ ˙

Stage Two In stage two children make random responses without sound of music necessarily being heard. Conceivably the first and second stages of preparatory audiation occur almost simultaneously. At least adjacent stages of preparatory audiation tend to overlap. Stage one of preparatory audiation is most beneficial to children when initiated at birth, and it normally lasts for eighteen months. Stage two of preparatory audiation ideally takes place between ages one and three. This overlap means even after children begin to engage

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Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children

in activities associated with stage two of preparatory audiation, they continue to listen to music and sing and chant in the manner described for stage one. As soon as children have had ample exposure to music in stage one, emphasis is placed on stage two. As listening continues, attention is placed on participation. In stage two, children begin to make babble sounds and movements, but sounds are not necessarily coordinated with each other or with the environment. Sounds and movements are not interpreted as attempts by children to imitate what they are listening to or seeing, or as conscious responses to what they have listened to or seen. Adults guiding children at this stage understand at this age children simply have need to babble and move, and they do randomly or with subjective intent. To the extent children develop their own meaning, babblings in sound and movement are characteristic of personal (subjective) context, not (objective) context of their culture. If there is meaning to what children are doing, probably they alone, and perhaps their peers, understand it. In unstructured informal guidance, activities associated with stage two of preparatory audiation happen in preschool as well as at home. Regardless of what a parent does, children’s preschool experiences have special merit in stage two, however, because it is through group interaction children learn by listening to and observing other children of similar age as they attempt to sing, chant, and move. One purpose of stage two of preparatory audiation is to continue children’s exposure to music so they will better be acculturated to sound of more complex music than in stage one. Preferably, this occurs as children make babble sounds and engage in random movements primarily in association with subjective tonality and subjective meter. Although parents and teachers encourage children to make babble sounds and movements through continued unstructured informal guidance, adults are careful not to attempt to teach specific responses to children and children are not expected to imitate, either subjectively or objectively, sounds and movements parents or teachers make. Only

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natural sounds and random movements children voluntarily engage in are encouraged and reinforced. Although there is listening to recorded music in stage two of preparatory audiation, it is more valuable for children when parents and teachers sing and chant to them, making full use of the body, because the more children have this voice quality and movement modeled for them, the more they begin to experiment vocally and with movement themselves as they participate actively in the music environment. In stage two of preparatory audiation, when adults sing or chant, it is to and for, not with, children, because children need to see and hear performances of music before they attempt imitation. As in stage one, only short songs and rhythm chants in many tonalities and meters are sung and chanted. They are performed without words or instrumental accompaniment. When guitar or piano, for example, is played as accompaniment as a parent or teacher is singing, children rarely give full attention to quality of the singing voice, movement, and to music itself. Singing tonal patterns and chanting rhythm patterns are not introduced until stage three of preparatory audiation. Adults perform songs and rhythm chants for children in a relaxed manner with expression and phrasing. Before singing, adults softly might locate for themselves, using a well tuned guitar, keyboard, tone block, tuning fork, or electronic instrument, beginning pitch, resting tone, or a few pitches to establish keyality and tonality of a song. Children need to be acculturated to precise intonation. If a song initially performed is accidentally or purposefully sung in another tonality, particularly before children have emerged from music babble, preparatory audiation could be compromised. Effort is made to sing the same song in the same keyality, for example C, D, or G, each time it is sung. To do otherwise confuses children. Young children hardly ever understand transposition. There are children even with preschool music background who do not recognize a song when it is sung in one keyality on one occasion and a

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Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children

different keyality on another, and the more often a child is confronted with such a situation and the higher the child’s developmental tonal aptitude, the more confusing it becomes. Thus, unless children hear the same song sung consistently in the same keyality until they have left preparatory audiation and moved into audiation, their tonal developmental aptitude could be adversely affected. Songs may be performed in unfamiliar keyalities just as soon as children recognize its resting tone, and that generally occurs in the imitation type of preparatory audiation. In addition to singing the same song in the same keyality and tonality each time, parents and teachers sing the same song in the same meter and at approximately the same tempo. They take care not to change meter or alter tempo during. To perform a song or rhythm chant at the same tempo every time it is presented admittedly is not easy. It may be necessary to use a metronome, wristwatch, stop watch, electronic instrument, or clock to establish at least the approximate tempo at which the song or rhythm chant is to be performed. And as further preparation, an adult might audiate or perhaps move in tempo and meter before beginning to perform. Rhythm chants may be performed in unfamiliar meters just as soon as children recognize its macrobeats, which generally occurs in the imitation type of preparatory audiation. The range in which a song is sung is also important, particularly when a child is in early stages of preparatory audiation. The lowest pitch of a song is not below D, a major second above middle C, and rarely is it higher than A, a major sixth above middle C. That is the range a child begins to learn to audiate. The tessitura of a song, the range within which most pitches occur, is also worth consideration. Should range be greater, it is recommended at least the tessitura be contained within the audiation range. Most young children develop a personal pitch and personal tempo as they engage in music babble, possibly before. Children’s personal

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pitch usually falls within the range of their vocal sounds and sometimes is identical with the pitch of their cry. Adults discover each child’s personal pitch and sing it back to the child in imitation while looking at the child. Adults may perform songs using the child’s personal pitch as the tonic or dominant of the keyality. If a child’s personal pitch is G, for example, tonic of a song would be G and dominant D. Although benefits to the child are invaluable, a specific response, or any response at all, is not expected from the child. Parents and teachers locate each child’s personal tempo, whether in usual meter or unusual meter. The younger children are and regardless of whether music they are listening to is in usual meter or unusual meter, the more likely they will develop their personal tempo in association with microbeats rather than macrobeats. At first, children typically pay greater attention to songs and rhythm chants that emphasize their personal pitch and personal tempo. They need to feel security that comes with having their personal pitch and personal tempo reinforced. Adults determine when that security has been achieved and go on to introduce children to a wider variety of songs and rhythm chants that include various pitches and tempos. At this stage, attention is given not only to children’s tonal aptitude but also rhythm aptitude. As with songs, when adults perform rhythm chants using inaccurate meter or tempo, children’s developmental rhythm aptitude, particularly if high, is adversely affected. In addition to concerning themselves with appropriate tempo and meter of a chant, adults performing for children give special notice to expression and phrasing, because a lasting impression is made on a child’s music sensitivity through performance of rhythm chants. Music style is more easily conveyed to children through rhythm chant than song. In general, young children prefer listening to rhythm chants performed at a somewhat faster tempo than tempos adults typically bring into play. This could be a result of children audiating microbeats as macrobeats.

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Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children

Parents and teachers performing for children model movement by accompanying songs or rhythm chants, or sustained syllable sounds, with movement that is relaxed, free flowing and continuous. Marching, clapping, or tapping is not recommended. Young children pay greatest attention when adults remain in place while gently moving their torsos, particularly circling hips, rather than limbs. It is preferable to use arms and hands rather than legs and feet. As in stage one of preparatory audiation, unstructured informal guidance is the rule in stage two of preparatory audiation.

Stage Three Children typically enter stage three of preparatory audiation between eighteen months to three years, as soon as they begin to make purposeful responses in relation to the environment. Although capable of more complex music activities in stage three than the first two stages of preparatory audiation, they nevertheless continue to listen to songs and rhythm chants without words, because listening to songs and rhythm chants without words is no less important, perhaps more important, in stage three than stages one and two. Children, especially those with high tonal or rhythm developmental aptitudes, are encouraged to create songs and rhythm chants on their own initiative. Although those songs and rhythm chants may not make meaning to an adult, they do make sense to a child and will prove to be significant in music development. At approximately eighteen months, most children begin to speak in phrases and sentences. Because language acquisition is central to their development at this age and they still are focused on drawing and eliciting meaning from words they hear or are creating, they often become confused when familiarly spoken words (sometimes called speech rhythms) are included in a song or chant and performed with different rhythms, meters, and tempos from those they are accustomed to hearing when words are used in language communication. For that

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reason, mnemonics (the names of persons, places, and things) are not used to teach rhythm patterns. By the time children are engaged in stage three of preparatory audiation, and preferably sooner, they are listening to songs in at least major, harmonic minor, Mixolydian, and Dorian tonalities and rhythm chants in at least usual duple, usual triple, unusual paired, and unusual unpaired meters. The more varied tonalities and meters children listen to, the better they eventually will learn to audiate any one tonality and meter, because when children listen to tonalities, such as Mixolydian and Dorian, and to meters, such as unusual paired and unusual unpaired, it increases potential for audiating other tonalities and meters familiar to them. Contrary to what might be expected, if children listen to songs in only major and harmonic minor tonalities and usual duple and usual triple meters, preparatory audiation and audiation skills develop to a lesser extent, even in those tonalities and meters, than if they had listened to songs in a variety of tonalities and meters. The more opportunities children have to discern relationships and make comparisons between tonalities and meters, the more and better they learn. In stages one and two of preparatory audiation, children receive unstructured informal guidance, but when they embark on stage three of preparatory audiation, they are ready to benefit from structured informal guidance. Although they continue to receive unstructured guidance by listening to songs and chants, tonal patterns and rhythm patterns are emphasized. The intent is to teach children not to imitate tonal patterns and rhythm patterns but participate in singing tonal patterns and chanting rhythm patterns in stage three. These patterns need not be the same patterns a parent or teacher sings or chants on a daily basis or patterns they have sung or chanted previously. No attempt is made to extract melodic patterns, those which simultaneously combine tonal patterns and rhythm patterns, from songs children have heard in stages one and two of preparatory audiation. Children may be expected to participate in many ways but are not expected or

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Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children

directed to imitate tonal patterns and rhythm patterns. Because of children’s experience with speech babble, speech, and movement, their rhythm development is typically more rapid than tonal development. A child’s larynx is not set in place until about one year of age. Although children are able to eat, drink, and breathe at the same time, very young children cannot speak, sing, or chant with clear enunciation as adults do. Young children are capable of making noises and vocal sounds with glissandos (the blending of one pitch into another without breaks between them). Such sounds are like those dolphins and whales make. After the larynx sets in place naturally, children may be expected to make separations between sounds, but only familiar sounds. To encourage further experimentation and development, children are encouraged to explore many sound possibilities with their singing and chanting voices as they listen to parents and teachers sing and chant. Such exposure and activities form basics they need to learn to sing tonal patterns and chant rhythm patterns with separated sounds later.

Singing and Tonal Patterns An imperative process is followed when singing tonal patterns, and although they may not immediately respond in kind, it is modeled for young children. Before a tonal pattern is sung, a deep breath is taken. It is during the deep breath that audiation of the tonal pattern happens. Without drawing adequate breath beforehand, audiation will be evaded. Imitation involves a linear, step by step, procedure whereas audiation requires broad, circular generalized conception. Thus, when adults make their breathing obvious to children before they sing a tonal pattern, children will in time be encouraged to do the same by automatically and naturally modeling the adult. Only tonal patterns in major and harmonic minor tonalities that move diatonically (by scale step) are sung to children in stage three of preparatory audiation. They are characteristic of a child’s connected vocalizations and speech sounds. Each tonal pattern includes three

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pitches, and span of tonal patterns is within most children’s initial singing and audiation range, which includes D above middle C to A, a perfect fifth above. Whenever two or more tonal patterns are sung in succession, an obvious pause (silent separation) is made and a deep breath is taken between tonal patterns. That provides time for audiating the next pattern and offers children opportunity to model the adult. Moreover, pitches within each tonal pattern are the same length (tonal and rhythm are not combined) and sung legato (without silent separations between pitches), not staccato (with silent separations between pitches), until a child reaches at least stage four of preparatory audiation, at which time pitches within tonal patterns are sung staccato. At stage three, children discover approximate pitches in diatonic tonal patterns in their vocal folds as they are singing. At stage four, however, as a result of natural silence that occurs between pitches in arpeggiated tonal patterns allowing for audiation time, greater accuracy is possible. Children now begin to audiate pitches before they activate their vocal folds to sing. Examples of stepwise tonal patterns in major tonality and harmonic minor tonality appropriate for use with children in stage three of preparatory audiation are notated below. Notice in the examples stepwise tonal patterns may be multidirectional (move up and down) as well as unidirectional (move only up or down).

TONAL PATTERNS Major Tonality

2 3 4 5 6 7 # 1 & # œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ 9 10 11 12 13 14 # 8 & # œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

Harmonic Minor Tonality

&b œ œ œ 1

&b œ œ œ 8

2

9

œ œ œ

œ œ œ

3

œ œ œ

10

œ œ œ

4

œ œ œ

11

œ œ œ

5

œ œ œ

12

œ œ œ

6

œ œ œ

œ œ œ

13

7

œ œ œ

œ œ œ

14

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Several matters determine a parent or teacher’s choice of neutral syllables to use with tonal patterns. They are comfortable, easy to articulate, insure a relaxed jaw and tongue, and allow maximum time for intoning a pitch. There are reasons for emphasizing bum when singing tonal patterns. The initial voiced consonant b requires a sung pitch for its articulation, which insures healthy use of breath energy with onset of the pitch that continues naturally into the following vowel. Slight movement of the jaw for b relaxes tension otherwise interfering with intonation. While the neutral vowel requires no special tongue adjustment, the m becomes a hum, which carries sound into the next syllable without break. A hum requires most gentle use of vocal folds, and if not forced (produced too loudly), it naturally encourages a smooth (legato) transition between pitches. Because inner surfaces of lips are loosely and gently bounced together for both b and m, lips need not be pressed together, which tightens muscles of the throat. When children begin to sing tonal patterns in stage three of preparatory audiation, they typically sing at the same time a parent or teacher is singing. Soon they begin to sing tonal patterns alone, usually in an attempt to copy or mimic what they are hearing. Adults do not expect children to be capable or even interested in imitating tonal patterns with accuracy in stage three of preparatory audiation. They will attempt to do so in stage four and successfully in stage five. When, however, children in stage three spontaneously sing tonic or dominant in the keyality and tonality of a tonal pattern an adult is singing, it is a signal a child is ready to make transition into stage four, the first stage of the imitation type of preparatory audiation. The average child will sing the dominant before tonic, but a child who immediately sings tonic will most likely be found to have a high tonal developmental music aptitude when objectively tested at a later time. Children in stage three need opportunity to establish context, probably subjective, in order to give meaning to tonal patterns they are hearing, and they do this as they gain familiarity with a variety

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of tonalities. Familiarity develops naturally when parents and teachers sing one or more songs in major tonality immediately before singing tonal patterns in major tonality and one or more songs in harmonic minor tonality immediately before singing tonal patterns in harmonic minor tonality. Though children are not yet actually engaging in imitation or audiation at this stage, parents and teachers take care to sing a song or tonal pattern in the same keyality and, of course, the same tonality. Young children are not expected to be aware of transposition, so when they listen to the same song or tonal pattern in different keyalities, they may imagine they have heard different songs or tonal patterns. The same is true of rhythm chants in different meters and rhythm patterns at different tempos. To be secure, adults might make recordings of songs, chants, tonal patterns, and rhythm patterns performed for a child in the first three stages of preparatory audiation. Recordings may be used in the home for children to listen to when they choose to do so. Use of recordings assures songs and tonal patterns are performed in the same keyality as well as tonality, and rhythm chants and rhythm patterns at the same tempo and in the same meter. Children respond more comfortably to and derive more benefit from a recording made using a voice familiar to them as they phase through all three stages of acculturation.

Chanting and Rhythm Patterns The process for chanting rhythm patterns is similar to singing tonal patterns. Before a rhythm pattern is chanted, a deep breath is taken. When adults make breathing obvious to children before they chant, in time they are encouraged to do the same by automatically and naturally modeling an adult. Only rhythm patterns in usual duple meter and usual triple meter that include two underlying macrobeats are chanted in stage three of

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preparatory audiation. Examples of rhythm patterns the length of only one underlying macrobeat in usual duple meter and usual triple meter appropriate for use with children are presented below. Thus, when performing these rhythm patterns, an adult creatively adds in tempo one macrobeat to each pattern to make it two macrobeats in overall length. All durations are chanted on the same pitch with expressive inflections, both staccato and legato. The syllable bah is recommended. Words are not used. Notated patterns always precede the added macrobeat.

RHYTHM PATTERNS Usual Duple Meter

241 œ .

œ œ 2

œ

Usual Triple Meter

68 œ . 1

œ œ œ

6

œ œ

2

œ

œ œ œ

œ œ œ

3

œ œ. 7

œ

œ

4

3

œ

œ œ œ

œ œ. 8

œ

œ œ 4

œ

œ

5

œ.

œ œ.

6

œ œ

œ

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ 5

œ œ œ œ 9

œ

œ

When presenting rhythm patterns in usual duple meter, a teacher performs one or more rhythm chants in usual duple meter first, and when presenting rhythm patterns in usual triple meter, one or more rhythm chants in usual triple meter. In that way, children have opportunity to establish context for rhythm patterns. Though children are not yet actually engaging in imitation, they benefit by hearing each rhythm chant performed at the same tempo and, of course, in the same meter. Children begin to chant rhythm patterns in stage three of preparatory audiation. They will typically chant at the same time a parent

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or teacher is chanting. Soon they begin to chant rhythm patterns alone, usually when attempting to mimic, though actually not imitating successfully. Accurate imitation is not the goal in stage three of preparatory audiation. In stage four children will attempt serious imitation, and by stage five they will do so successfully. When children in stage three spontaneously chant underlying microbeats of a rhythm pattern at a tempo an adult is chanting, it signals they are ready to enter stage four, which is the first stage of the imitation type of preparatory audiation. If children in stage three of preparatory audiation are not well coordinated or able to make precise movements, it is usually because movement at home and at school has been restricted rather than encouraged. Such children need compensatory guidance to move freely, continuously, and with flexibility, and so should be given structured informal guidance in exploring spatial movement. It is constructive when parents and teachers explore ample space with different parts of the body to model a wide variety of movements. Parents and teachers, however, do not expect children to imitate their movements with precision. The fact a child is attempting to imitate, which may be more appropriately described as attempting to mimic, is important. Children find it easier to move than sing tonal patterns or chant rhythm patterns. The more children participate in free flowing, continuous spatial movement, the sooner and better they will chant rhythm patterns. Movement activities and chanting of rhythm patterns also improves ability to sing tonal patterns, because movement helps bring subjective unconsciousness into objective consciousness. An effective type of compensatory movement for children is moving arms and legs, as if swimming, and the entire body as when rolling and crawling. Rocking from one foot to the other while standing is simple and useful. Natural large movements are beneficial as are those incorporating and emphasizing use of body weight. Encouragement of small muscle movements, as with fingers and hands, is best avoided. When children are guided in responding to same and different movements in a

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variety of tempos, they develop necessary readiness to attempt to chant simple rhythm patterns at stage three of preparatory audiation and more complex rhythm patterns at higher stages of preparatory audiation. Parents and teachers call on their own creativity as they encourage continuous free, flowing spatial movement during periods of structured guidance. They might improvise a story about a balloon, for example, where a balloon is blown up, rises in the air, and blown around by wind. Eventually, when it begins to lose air, it falls gently to the ground. Children pretend they are balloons and gradually engage in free, flowing and continuous movement as they are “blown around” in space. Most advantageous movement occurs when children create and act out new parts to the story or a new story, perhaps using scarves. At home, parents perform chants and rhythm patterns at a child’s personal tempo. Through careful observation, a child’s personal tempo is discovered. For example, if a child moves slowly when chasing a rolling ball, it is likely the child has a slow personal tempo, and if a child moves quickly, it is likely the child has a fast personal tempo.

Part 6

IMITATION

T

he imitation type of preparatory audiation includes the fourth and fifth stages of preparatory audiation. The fourth stage, shedding egocentricity, serves as readiness for and is transition to the fifth stage, breaking the code. In the fourth stage, which takes place “outside” the child, children begin to compare their own performance with other persons. The sixth stage of preparatory audiation, the other transition stage, the first stage of the assimilation type of preparatory audiation, takes place “inside” the child. A child becomes aware of his or her own performance. Beginning with stage three of preparatory audiation and, thus, in remaining stages of preparatory audiation, structured, no longer unstructured, informal guidance is essential. Parents and teachers do not encourage or force children to enter either of the two stages of the imitation type of preparatory audiation until they have passed through the three stages of acculturation preparatory audiation. Children will not find imitation troublesome if they phase into it with necessary preparation acculturation provides, nor will they develop anxiety preventing them from making progress in understanding music. Regardless of how old children are when they begin to receive informal guidance in music, they best experience acculturation. They are not taught songs or given lessons on a music instrument until they have had satisfactory experiences in acculturation and at least are currently engaged in the imitation type of preparatory audiation.

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Ideally, most children move through the three stages of the acculturation type of preparatory audiation between birth and three years old. The imitation type of preparatory audiation ends at four years old. Some children enter the first stage of imitation when they are two and others the second stage of imitation when they are three years old. Level of children’s current developmental music aptitudes and quality of early music environment are factors that determine when they will leave one preparatory stage and enter another. It is not unusual for a child to be in an early stage tonally and a later stage of preparatory audiation rhythmically. The reverse is also likely.

Stage Four With structured guidance, children learn to discern what they are hearing and have heard. Although it is awareness of others that makes learning in stage four possible, without guidance, children experience confusion when proceeding to the second stage of imitation and attempting to imitate with accuracy. Parents and teachers guiding children in this stage are patient, waiting perhaps as little as five minutes or as long as weeks or months to allow individual children to make discoveries about their own singing and chanting and its relation to tonal patterns and rhythm patterns sung and chanted by adults and other children. The same is true with movement. Without realization their own singing, rhythm chanting, and movements are not accurate imitations of others, children may not learn to distinguish between accurate and inaccurate imitation, and the sooner personal pitches and personal tempos are reinforced by a parent or teacher, the better prepared the child will be to enter the imitation type of preparatory audiation. Adults structure guidance for children in the first stage of the imitation type of preparatory audiation by first performing for them a tonal pattern or rhythm pattern. By this time children may be expected

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to be aware of resting tone of a tonality in which a tonal pattern is performed and macrobeats and microbeats of meter in which a rhythm pattern is performed, but they probably will not be able to imitate. Rather, they might perform their own pattern in response. Parents and teachers listen to a pattern a child sings or chants, imitates it, and then encourages the child to sing or chant his or her own pattern once again so they can sing it together. In stage four of preparatory audiation, a parent or teacher imitates what a child sings and chants before the child is encouraged to attempt to imitate again what a parent or teacher sings or chants. There are reasons for this. Children are more apt to respond to an adult’s performance if their own performance is given recognition and acceptance. That provides parents and teachers with opportunity to model technique of imitation for children. It allows them to become attentive to and actually aware of what they themselves are singing or chanting. What children are singing or chanting becomes apparent (real) to them as a result of hearing adults perform what they have performed or are performing, and they begin to recognize merit of their own individuality. As in the third, in the fourth and fifth stages of preparatory audiation there are specific tonal patterns and rhythm patterns. The patterns taught in the fourth and fifth stages are different from those taught in the third stage of preparatory audiation. As before, tonal patterns are sung with bum and rhythm patterns chanted with bah.

Tonal Patterns To assist children in establishing context, parents and teachers sing one or more songs in major tonality and one or more songs in harmonic minor tonality before they perform either major or harmonic minor tonal patterns. The same songs sung to children in acculturation may continue to be used in the imitation stage. Children are not expected to learn to imitate songs and, again, words are not used with songs and

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tempos are neither too slow nor too fast. It is not necessary to perform songs that include tonal patterns to be sung afterwards, or to otherwise identify tonal patterns in a song. Diatonic patterns are primarily useful in acculturation for teaching recognition among pitches whereas arpeggiated patterns are better for teaching discrimination and imitation. Thus, tonal patterns used in the imitation type of preparatory audiation are arpeggiated. Because there are slight separations between pitches in an arpeggiated tonal pattern, unlike diatonic tonal patterns in which pitches are connected, children are more inclined to silently hear and rehearse arpeggiated pitches before they sing them. Individual pitches in tonal patterns are sung staccato (separated, not short), not legato as was done in the acculturation type of preparatory audiation. Audiation is encouraged when pitches are separated by momentary silence. By singing arpeggiated patterns, children introduce themselves to audiation as they engage in imitation. When singing diatonic patterns they might still be engaging in imitation but without inclination or awareness of what audiation might be. All pitches in an arpeggiated tonal pattern, except so to fa and fa to so in major tonality and mi to re and re to mi in harmonic minor tonality, move by skip, not step. Arpeggiated tonal patterns include at least two pitches, not more than four, and typically three. Children are first exposed and respond to tonic function tonal patterns that include only two pitches, which are ascending and descending perfect fourths and fifths associated with do and so in major tonality and mi and la in harmonic minor tonality. Children typically respond first to the ascending perfect fifth and descending perfect fifth and then ascending perfect fourth and descending perfect fourth. In a child responds by singing a pitch other than tonic or dominant, it is possible it is the child’s personal pitch. The adult imitates the pitch and audiates it as tonic or dominant of a new keyality. If audiated as dominant, it is resolved to tonic, and if audiated as tonic, it moves

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to dominant and then back to tonic. The process takes place while the adult maintains direct eye-to-eye contact with the child, and it continues until the child loses interest or looks away. Then the adult reestablishes original keyality by singing the initial tonal pattern. If a child persists in performing a personal pitch, the described sequence is repeated once or twice more and then abandoned until it proves necessary on another occasion. In major tonality, any arrangement of do mi so, two or three pitches, is used as a tonal pattern to represent tonic, and any arrangement of so ti re fa, two, three, or four pitches, is used as a tonal pattern to represent dominant. In harmonic minor tonality, any arrangement of la do mi, two or three pitches, is used as a tonal pattern to represent tonic, and any arrangement of mi si ti re, two, three, or four pitches, is used as a tonal pattern to represent dominant. Although tonal patterns are arpeggiated, children nevertheless become aware of the half step relationship of the leading tone to the resting tone by continually audiating the resting tone as they are singing a tonal pattern. Children are not exposed or expected to respond to tonic patterns that include three pitches before they have been exposed to and have responded to tonic patterns that include two pitches, dominant patterns before they have been exposed to and have responded to tonic patterns, dominant function that include three pitches before they have been exposed to and have responded to dominant patterns that include two pitches, and tonal patterns that include four pitches before they have been exposed to and have responded to tonal patterns that include three pitches. Examples of tonal patterns in major tonality and harmonic minor tonality appropriate for use in stages four and five of preparatory audiation follow.

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TONAL PATTERNS Major Tonality

# 1 & # œ # 7 & # œ

œ

2

œ

œ

# 1 & # œ œ

œ

œ

œ œ

2

3

œ

#3 8

œ

4

œ

œ

œ

œ 9

œ

4

œ œ œ œ

œ

5

œ

œ

## 5

œ

œ

œ

œ œ œ œ œ œ 6

œ

10

œ

œ

6

œ

7

œ œ

œ

œ

œ œ œ œ œ œ 8

2 3 4 5 6 # 1 & # œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

Harmonic Minor Tonality

&b

1

œ

&b œ 7

œ

2

œ

œ

œ

œ

bb 8

œ

3

œ

4

œ œ

œ 9

œ

œ

œ

b

5

œ

œ

œ

œ

10

œ

œ

6

œ

œ œ

œ

œ

& b œ #œ #œ œ œ #œ œ œ #œ œ #œ œ œ œ œ #œ #œ œ œ œ œ #œ 1

&b œ 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ #œ œ œ œ œ #œ #œ œ œ #œ œ #œ #œ œ 2

3

4

5

6

Singing Voice There is a difference between a speaking voice and singing voice, regardless of chronological age. Although range relates to that difference, more important is quality of voice. Because vocal folds are thicker for speaking than singing, a speaking voice sounds somewhat heavier than a singing voice. In speech, vocal folds are stretched very little, and the

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larger mass vibrates more slowly. If a pitch rises beyond customary speaking range without quality change, the voice will sound forced and strained. In singing voice quality, sound is lighter, because vocal folds are thinner, more flexible, and vibrate more quickly for higher pitches. Lower pitches are softer when sung in singing voice quality. The best way to help young children discover a singing voice is to sing for them. Just as children model adults and children using a speaking voice, they model adults and children using a singing voice. Children need the same amount of time to learn to use their singing voice as it takes to learn to use their speaking voice. Should modeling not be adequate, a child may be told to yell the word hung, and then, while still yelling, but more softly, quickly change hung to bum. That way a child might experience the physical difference in feel of two voices. Pitches children sing are irrelevant for developing a singing voice and, thus, single pitch matching is not recommended. Nevertheless, adults imitate pitches children sing before guiding them in imitating pitches others sing. By learning to imitate tonal patterns, children learn to sing appropriate pitches, but good intonation is established after children find their singing voice. Singing and singing in tune are different matters. Ranges of the speaking voice and underdeveloped singing voice overlap. In time, children’s singing voice develop a range of approximately A below middle C to A above middle C whereas the initial singing voice extends from D above middle C to A above middle C. Thus, some children may think they are singing when in fact speaking at top range of their speaking voice. Whether a child is actually singing or speaking can be determined by voice quality, regardless of how high the voice may be pitched. Until children learn to use their singing voice, they will not develop necessary skill to benefit from higher stages of preparatory audiation. Tonal patterns in the imitation type of preparatory audiation are sung in children’s initial singing range, which is identical to the initial audiation range. Some dominant patterns in both major tonality and

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harmonic minor tonality in the recommended keyality of D might need to exceed that range, but usually not by more than a half or whole step. Keyalities, and, of course, tonalities in which each pattern is sung remain constant from day to day as well as during the same day.

Rhythm Patterns Rhythm patterns in stage four of preparatory audiation contain four underlying macrobeats rather than two as in stage three. Stage three provides children with readiness and desire to respond to longer rhythm patterns. In every rhythm pattern, one macrobeat or two microbeats are superimposed on the first, second, and fourth underlying macrobeats whereas divisions or elongations of a microbeat are superimposed on the third underlying macrobeat. Examples of appropriate rhythm patterns in usual duple meter and usual triple meter are presented below. The third macrobeat is always a rest, indicating a division or elongation rhythm pattern is superimposed on that underlying macrobeat. Children are most comfortable with rhythm patterns not too slow nor fast and have only one superimposed macrobeat over the underlying fourth macrobeat. Rhythm patterns fashioned for the third underlying macrobeat may be the same as those used in acculturation.

RHYTHM PATTERNS Usual Duple Meter 1

24 œ œ

Œ

Usual Triple Meter 1

2

œ

68 œ . œ . Œ . œ .

œ œ œ œ Œ

2

œ

œ œ œ œ œ œ Œ. œ.

3

œ œ œ Œ

3

œ

œ. œ œ œ Œ. œ.

4

œ œ œ

Œ

œ

4

œ œ œ œ. Œ. œ.

In the event a child responds by performing a rhythm pattern with underlying macrobeats at a tempo different from the adult’s, it is possible it is the child’s personal tempo. An adult imitates that tempo and chants

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the rhythm pattern again while maintaining direct eye-to-eye contact with the child, and the process continues until the child loses interest or looks away. Then the adult reestablishes the original tempo by chanting the rhythm pattern again. If the child persists in performing a personal tempo, the described sequence is repeated once or twice more and then abandoned until it proves necessary on another occasion. Songs and rhythm chants in usual duple meter or usual triple meter are sung or chanted immediately before rhythm patterns are chanted, using syllables, not words, so children may have opportunity to establish context for rhythm patterns. Regardless of tempo of a song or chant, best tempo for rhythm patterns is moderate. It is essential, as in acculturation, an adult and child take a deep breath before a rhythm pattern is chanted. Children are not expected to learn chants, and as with tonal patterns, it is not necessary to perform songs and chants that include rhythm patterns or to point out identical rhythm patterns in songs and rhythm chants. The same rhythm chants used in acculturation may be used in the imitation type of preparatory audiation. Rhythm instruments for beating out rhythms, such as rhythm sticks, drums, or xylophones, are not used to teach or accompany chants, because as with words, they distract young children’s attention from music. As children observe adults moving in a free, relaxed, and graceful manner, they are encouraged to move the same way. No attempt is made to move children’s limbs for them, because that makes them resistant and muscularly rigid. An adult may move while holding a child, or child and adult may hold hands as they move independently. Neither adult nor child clap hands, because accuracy in clapping requires coordination and understanding of proper use of weight a child usually has not yet acquired. The best types of movement in rhythmic readiness are made when knees are bent and straightened continuously while standing, and hips are moved continuously from side to side while kneeling with arms and hands placed on thighs or

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moving freely in space. Use of recorded music for movement activities is not recommended because children tend to react to macrobeats or microbeats rather than move with continuous free, flowing spatial movement. An adult might make a continuously sounding noise while moving by using the voice or shaking a tambourine. Children are not encouraged to chant or imitate the adult’s sound. Some children move themselves from stage four to stage five of preparatory audiation. It cannot be stated with certainty when a parent or teacher might make a conscious attempt to encourage children who have not done so for themselves to move from stage four to five. When an adult intuits a child has become aware what he or she and adult are performing are not the same, it is time for him or her to move on. An audiation stare (to be explained henceforth) is often given by a child as an indication transition should or will take place. Nevertheless, cautious judgment by an adult is necessary in making the decision. Change from the fourth to fifth stage of preparatory audiation may be made with rhythm patterns before tonal patterns, or vice versa. When to make a change depends on other factors in addition to a child’s awareness of sameness and difference. Most important is level of rhythm developmental aptitude if change is to be initiated with rhythm patterns and rhythm chanting, or level of a child’s tonal developmental aptitude if change is to be initiated with tonal patterns and singing. A child’s maturity and self confidence are also relevant. It might take one child more time than another to begin to attempt to imitate patterns in the presence of an adult. Once children begin to attempt to imitate what a parent or teacher has performed, they will also want to create rhythm patterns and tonal patterns, particularly when several other children are present and they think no adult is watching or listening. That activity will be found to be of great positive consequence in a child’s later music development. There are signs children give when they are ready to leave the fourth and move into the fifth stage of preparatory audiation. Primary

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among them is the audiation stare. Children will stare for a few seconds at a parent, teacher, or ceiling as they become aware there is a difference between their own singing or chanting and someone else’s. That is the first glimpse of discrimination, the realization sounds of music can be same or different. Opening the mouth and tilting the head is a common indication of this awareness. In a sense, children are attempting to enter the world of audiation. At this point they do not know how to correct their singing, chanting, or movement and, thus, are unable to cope with audiation. They know something is not quite right. That may be the most important moment in a young child’s music education. Parents and teachers seize the moment and offer appropriate structured informal guidance to assist children in solving the problem by and for themselves. The time it takes for a child to move from the moment of audiation stare to the threshold of the second stage of the imitation type of preparatory audiation is usually much longer than from the time the child enters the first stage of the imitation type of preparatory audiation to the time the child gives evidence of the audiation stare. How the parent and teacher may best take advantage of a child’s discovery there is more than a self, and to assist in strengthening and sustaining that discovery, that is, how to appropriately shepherd the child from the point of self centeredness to the beginning of the second stage of the imitation type of audiation, is described below.

Stage Five In previous stages of preparatory audiation, children used egocentric listening and performing to develop a relationship with music. Stage five of preparatory audiation is characterized by children’s initial attempts to move beyond their personal world of music and into the music world at large. As it occurs and develops, they gain experience in recognizing patterns performed for them and attempting accurate

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imitations in response. Children meet challenges because of readiness provided by the first four stages of preparatory audiation. Importance of the first three stages of preparatory audiation in particular cannot be overestimated because it is not possible for children to recapture what they have lost in their potential to audiate. Thus, unless they phase through the first three stages of preparatory audiation, they will be unprepared to learn to imitate with accuracy what another is performing or has performed. Though not carried to an extreme, children are encouraged to remain in each of the first three stages of preparatory audiation for as long as possible. That is more important for children with high than low overall developmental music aptitude, because children with high overall developmental music aptitude require an enormous amount of guidance and instruction. For children to use their music aptitude fully and wisely make culturally acceptable inferences, that is, to teach themselves, guidance and instruction in the first three stages of preparatory audiation is abundant and varied. In stage four of preparatory audiation, children indicate through facial expressions and movements they are aware a tonal pattern they are singing or rhythm pattern they are chanting is not the same as a pattern an adult is singing or chanting. Although they are able to approximate a dominant or tonic pitch or move to microbeats or macrobeats, children discover they are not imitating a pattern performed by an adult. At that point, children are guided into stage five of preparatory audiation in the following manner. The adult sings a tonal pattern. The child attempts to imitate it. Then the adult immediately imitates the tonal pattern the child has performed, sings the dominant moving to the resting tone, and then repeats the tonal pattern and again encourages the child to imitate it. If the child is using a speaking voice rather than a singing voice, the adult offers careful guidance to help the child hear and feel the difference between the two voices and learn to experience feel of the singing voice. In the case of a rhythm pattern, the adult chants a rhythm pattern. The child attempts to imitate it.

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Then the adult immediately imitates the rhythm pattern the child performed, chants two sets of microbeats in the established meter (two microbeats in usual duple meter or three microbeats in usual triple meter), and then repeats the rhythm pattern and again encourages the child to imitate it. The adult expresses no concern about whether a child’s initial attempt was right or wrong, but simply imitates the child’s pattern as closely as possible, regardless of keyality, tonality, melodic contour, tempo, meter, or melodic rhythm, regardless of simplicity or complexity of construction. The adult continues the process of imitating the child’s pattern, reestablishing context if necessary, and repeating the pattern for as long as the child shows interest. Continuous eye-to-eye contact between child and adult during the entire process is important because the child is more likely to concentrate on listening. Confusion children experience as they engage in stage five of preparatory audiation is part of the learning process. When children are initially unable to imitate an adult’s pattern correctly, there is no cause for apprehension. Their attempt to perform the pattern is a clear indication they are learning, and a correct response is more likely than not to follow. Parents and teachers use good, considered judgment along with sensitive observation and evaluation as they guide children. They identify an individual who responds atypically and then make necessary adjustments in the process. Errors children make offer valuable insights into characteristics of their current state of preparatory audiation. For example, teachers might notice some children are still attempting to imitate a tonal pattern in their own subjective keyality and tonality or a rhythm pattern in their own subjective tempo and meter. Or they may notice a child with exceptionally high developmental music aptitude may be beginning to audiate objective keyality and tonality or objective tempo and meter but nevertheless is unable to imitate accurately. It is also possible although children may be audiating a resting tone,

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they are able to sing only the dominant associated with a tonality, or although audiating macrobeats, they are able to chant only microbeats. It is easier for children in this stage of preparatory audiation to recognize and identify two tonal patterns or two rhythm patterns that sound the same than to distinguish differences between patterns. Only after children are able to imitate patterns successfully (performing sameness) does an adult begin to emphasize difference rather than sameness by exchanging patterns with the child in improvisation. That is because it is difference rather than sameness that promotes continuous learning. Positive learning all but ceases with endless repetition. Nonetheless, children still find it challenging to perform the same pattern as an adult’s until they feel comfortable in imitation. Especially when children’s ability to imitate is developed, it is definitely time to encourage them to improvise patterns, because the sooner they are able to do so and are aware they are not imitating an adult’s pattern, the better prepared they will be to engage in the assimilation type of preparatory audiation, and audiation itself, at a later time. Adult are not concerned if a child’s tonal pattern response is in a different keyality or tonality, or both, or if a child’s rhythm pattern response is in a different tempo or meter. The more children become aware of difference between their pattern and an adult’s, the more productive the activity will be. Children find it easy to distinguish difference between two pitches when they constitute a large interval but difficult to distinguish difference when they constitute a small interval. Also, with exceptions of do and so in major tonality and la and mi in harmonic minor tonality, it easier to for them to sing two consecutive pitches that constitute a small interval than two consecutive pitches that constitute a large interval. In general, children find tonal patterns in harmonic minor tonality as easy to comprehend and perform, sometimes easier, than tonal patterns in major tonality. Also, they naturally tend to perform tonal patterns of only two pitches that include tonic function do so, either

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as a perfect fourth or fifth, in major tonality, and tonic function la mi, either as a perfect fourth or fifth, in harmonic minor tonality before tonic and dominant function tonal patterns that include three or four pitches. Tonic patterns come before dominant patterns, and dominant patterns with only two pitches come before dominant patterns with three or four pitches. In regard to rhythm, patterns in usual duple meter are easier to comprehend and perform than rhythm patterns in usual triple meter, because the longer the span of time between recurring macrobeats (the slower the tempo), the more control children must sustain when imitating. Rhythm patterns that include a division of a macrobeat over the third underlying macrobeat and only a macrobeat over the fourth underlying macrobeat are most useful for helping children develop ability to imitate. Patterns compared to songs and chants are designed to serve different purposes in development of preparatory audiation. Just as children develop syntax in language by listening to stories without being expected to imitate them, they are given opportunity to listen to songs and chants to develop music context without being expected to imitate them. However, because words provide a natural basis for later learning, children first learn to imitate words and, for similar reasons, first learn to imitate tonal patterns and rhythm patterns. Thus, a child is not encouraged or expected to imitate part of or an entire song or chant, even one used to establish contextual keyality and tonality of tonal patterns or tempo and meter of rhythm patterns. A child is guided in imitating only tonal patterns and rhythm patterns. Issues closely related to stages four and five of preparatory audiation might be reconsidered. They are listed below. • Content and context play a crucial role in preparatory audiation. Content relates to tonal patterns and rhythm patterns whereas context relates to tonalities and meters. Unless children are provided with context within which to perform patterns, they will not have ample readiness to learn to audiate to the extent

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their potential will allow. Just as uttering words in an incoherent manner leaves much to be desired, so it is with tonal patterns and rhythm patterns. The human brain is designed to organize and categorize. Without context to serve as basis for structurally synthesizing, patterns are bereft of meaning beyond themselves. Imitation presupposes participation between a child and an adult. It is not a one way activity where burden of responsibility is on a child. For maximum results, transaction is a matter of turntaking and mediation. And perhaps more important, adults are aware children may be engaging in positive learning even though imitation is delayed. When performing songs, rhythm chants, and patterns for children, there are three useful words to keep in mind: repetition, sequence, and silence. With regard to silence, children are given time to process what they are presently hearing others perform as well as what they are performing or have performed. It is during silence children make comparisons and, thus, learn and begin to grasp audiation. Because of modeling they have been exposed to, children do not require lessons to learn to speak. With appropriate modeling, children do not need lessons to learn to sing. Amount of exposure to sound of a singing voice quality can never be too excessive. Children enjoy making conversation just as soon as they become minimally competent in language. The same is true with music, where conversation is improvisation. The more and sooner children are encouraged to improvise, the better. In addition to chanting rhythm patterns at stage five of preparatory audiation, children continue to engage in movement activities similar to those in earlier stages of preparatory audiation. Children move their bodies freely, using unbroken motion. Games might be created that assist and guide children in achieving sustained spatial movement. Words may be used to give

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direction to movements, particularly those taken from children’s life experiences, as well as to describe a game. It is valuable for an adult to chant softly a sustained legato sound as children engage in free flowing, continuous spatial movement. Children are not told to imitate an adult’s sound or make other sounds as they are moving. If children naturally choose to make sounds as they are moving, however, they are not prevented from doing so. It is instructive for children to see an adult model effort motions that emphasize time, space, weight, and flow. Time may be continuous or jagged, or fast or slow; space covers a small, medium, or large area, or it may be direct or indirect; weight is light or strong; and flow is free, not constrained. As adults are modeling movement for children, they naturally combine at least one of two effort motions with time and space. It is all but impossible to engage in motion that involves weight and flow without at the same time engaging in motion within time or space. For children to move with sustained motion and remain relaxed, weight, flow, or both, are combined and interact with time or space. Adults need not concern themselves with breathing as children are participating in movement activities, because appropriate breathing is a natural outcome of relaxed movement. Music Aptitudes and Individual Musical Differences When adapting group instruction to individual musical differences, it is not unusual for adults to discover some children are responding to patterns at a lower stage while other children are at a higher stage of preparatory audiation. For example, some children might still be learning to differentiate among diatonic patterns while others are engaging in stage four or five of preparatory audiation and learning to recognize and imitate arpeggiated patterns. Adapting instruction to individual musical differences among children in preparatory audiation is a matter of number and type of patterns to which each child is

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introduced. In audiation, on the other hand, adapting instruction to individual musical differences is a matter of number and difficulty level of patterns. For this reason, Audie, a developmental music aptitude test, might be administered to children three and four years old when engaging in at least stage four, preferably stage five, of preparatory audiation. If children are older, either Primary Measures of Music Audiation or Intermediate Measures of Music Audiation, both developmental music aptitude tests appropriate for children engaging in either preparatory audiation or audiation, may be used. Results of a valid music aptitude test serve well as an objective aid to an adult’s subjective opinion about a child’s music potential and progress, particularly when both normative and idiographic (tonal versus rhythm) evaluations are considered. During individual guidance, the lower of a child’s two developmental music aptitudes, tonal or rhythm, is given initial attention. If a child has lower tonal developmental aptitude than rhythm developmental aptitude, emphasis is placed on imitation of tonal patterns. That is not to say rhythm patterns are not used, but it is simply a matter of which type of pattern, tonal or rhythm, receives special attention. As soon as the lower of a child’s two developmental music aptitudes begins to rise, the other developmental music aptitude again is given attention, so that it too can increase. When adapting guidance to individual musical differences, intent is not to deny a child opportunity to engage in any type or stage of preparatory audiation. Rather, it is a question of how much and when.

Part 7

ASSIMILATION Stage Six

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ssimilation includes the sixth and seventh final stages of preparatory audiation. The sixth stage serves as transition to the seventh, and balances the first transition stage within the imitation type of preparatory audiation. Without underpinnings provided by the first transition stage, children will not appropriately approach and pass through the second transition stage of preparatory audiation. Structured informal guidance is emphasized in both transition stages. The preparatory audiation stage children have advanced to is more relevant than chronological age in determining how to guide music development. Nevertheless, children ideally pass through the acculturation type no later than four years old, the imitation type no later than five, and the assimilation type no later than six. Unfortunately, there are many children who are not exposed to music or guided in unstructured and structured learning until they enter school. Compensatory guidance, of course, is possible for children with impoverished music backgrounds. Those more fortunate may enter the first stage of the assimilation type of preparatory audiation when they are as young as three and the second when they are as young as four. Obviously, quality of children’s early music experiences and levels of developmental music aptitudes are important factors determining current ability to engage

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in a stage of preparatory audiation. That is true more for rhythm than tonal development, because to the extent rhythm aptitude will allow, children are foremost what they feel. To the extent tonal aptitude will allow, they are what they hear. Unless children learn to make comparisons between what they are performing and how they are breathing and moving in the sixth stage of preparatory audiation, and then learn to assimilate breathing and movement into their performance in the seventh stage, it will be difficult for them to learn to audiate. It cannot be said with certainty how long a child will remain in stage six of preparatory audiation. Individual differences are great. A child with high developmental music aptitude may pass through the second transition stage within minutes whereas it may take a child with low developmental music aptitude weeks or months. Moreover, a child may advance to stage seven of preparatory audiation rhythmically while still remaining in stage six, or lower stages, of tonal preparatory audiation. The reverse is also possible.

Breathing, Movement, and Performance A characteristic that distinguishes imitation from assimilation in preparatory audiation is, in imitation, children are mimicking what they hear in patterns or what they see in breathing and movement without necessarily giving meaning to what they are doing, very much like children imitating individual words when they are first learning to speak. Even if they know what individual words mean, they are not discerning syntactical organization in the collection of words they are hearing, or attempting syntactical organization in groups of words they are speaking. The same is true for series of tonal patterns and rhythm patterns in music. Children who are imitating speak and sing as they think whereas children who are beyond imitation think before they speak or sing, just as adults do. To perform patterns and participate in breathing and movement without assimilating them with one another

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in preparatory audiation is like speaking without making generalizations in summarized thought and assimilating what is being said. Children cannot be taught to assimilate pitch, rhythm, breathing, and movement contextually to create music understanding. They accomplish this by themselves as result of being guided to absorb music sounds, as in the first five stages of preparatory audiation, rather than being taught performance skills alone, as in formal instruction. When taught in the typical manner of acquiring performance skills at the same time they are being guided through stages of preparatory audiation, it is more detrimental to children’s music development than if no concerted attention were paid to music development during that time. As in stage four, in stage six of preparatory audiation, children are able to teach themselves because of appropriate informal transitional guidance a parent or teacher is providing. Without continued informal guidance, children probably would not proceed to the seventh stage of preparatory audiation and be limited in developing audiation skills. Before guiding children through the assimilation type of preparatory audiation, it is worthwhile to recall different responses children make to their music environment, particularly in relation to tonal patterns and rhythm patterns as they move through the three types of preparatory audiation. In acculturation, children absorb patterns but do not imitate them, although they may attempt to do so. During imitation, children learn to imitate patterns with some precision. In assimilation, children learn to perform patterns with further precision as they coordinate and assimilate imitation of those patterns with their breathing and movement. In stage six of preparatory audiation, informal structured guidance, not formal instruction, is the necessity. Children are not told patterns they are singing or chanting incorrectly or performance of a pattern is not coordinated with how they are breathing and moving. No attempt is made to teach children to coordinate performance with breathing and movement. They discover lack of coordination for themselves.

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Without self discovery, it may not be expected children will teach themselves to coordinate their own performance of patterns while breathing and moving with someone else’s at stage seven of preparatory audiation. Tonal patterns and rhythm patterns children perform at stage six of assimilation may be the same as those performed in stages four and five of the imitation type of preparatory audiation. Children’s ability to coordinate their own performance of patterns with breathing and movement naturally precedes ability to coordinate their own performance with someone else’s, and those final two stages of preparatory audiation are basic to audiation. That distinction is constantly kept in mind by teachers and parents guiding children through both stages of assimilation. Particularly when children are moving through stages of preparatory audiation, it is almost impossible to learn more than one new activity at the same time. Thus, to coordinate their own performances with performances of others, children are first capable of noticing in stage six their own performances are not coordinated. The procedure for modeling breathing and movement when performing tonal patterns and rhythm patterns is vital. Before a tonal pattern is sung, rapid muscle movement is made and then a microsecond later, a deep breath is taken. The order is of pivotal importance. The procedure for chanting rhythm patterns is different from modeling tonal patterns. The difference is one of order. Before the rhythm pattern is chanted, a deep breath is taken and then a rapid muscle movement is made a microsecond later. It is during the deep breath and rapid muscle movement that precede singing tonal patterns and chanting rhythm patterns, audiation takes place. Time is required for children to imitate the model successfully. It is possible some children may not be aware there is a relation of performance of patterns with breathing and movement. If an attempt has been made to guide children in assimilation and during the process it is clear they have not progressed through the imitation type of

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preparatory audiation, no great harm will have been done. Should an adult decide a child is not ready to engage in stage six, guidance is adapted to suit stages four or five of preparatory audiation. The decision to move a child back to an earlier stage of preparatory audiation is not made in haste because problems are likely to arise if a child is returned to an earlier stage of preparatory audiation when unwarranted.

Omnipotence of Physical Motion Sustained and spatial continuous movement are best understood through consistent placement of microbeats and macrobeats. Time and space are best understood as they relate to sustained and spatial continuous movement. An outcome of such movement is children naturally accommodate breathing to movement. They assimilate concepts of time and space as they relate to rhythm, because unless breathing and movement are supported by body weight and flow, children feel themselves rushing and slowing and improperly estimating space in their performance of microbeats in stage six and macrobeats in stage seven. Children who have not learned to coordinate breathing and movement displace energy, which usually results in rushing speed of microbeats and macrobeats. Weight and flow are child centered in terms of sustained movement whereas time and space are adult centered in terms of separated movements. As soon as children demonstrate they are capable of engaging in sustained and spatial continuous movement while singing tonal patterns and chanting rhythm patterns, they no longer need to combine the two activities. Now they pulsate microbeats, in proper tempo while a parent or teacher chants macrobeats. Specifically, in conjunction with sustained and spatial continuous movement and without performing patterns, children pulsate two microbeats for every macrobeat a parent or teacher chants. Children are not encouraged to chant microbeats or macrobeats (or patterns) as they are pulsating macrobeats, but rather, pulsate microbeats using one or more parts of the body, continuously

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using the same body part over and over again. On various occasions they may use different body parts to pulsate different microbeats. Children are steadfastly encouraged to keep overall movement sustained. If not, movement will cease between pulsating microbeats. When children are able to pulsate microbeats while continuously moving, an adult no longer needs to chant a sustained accompaniment. Instead, a parent or teacher begins chanting rhythm patterns, and children are directed to chant rhythm patterns in response while continuously moving and pulsating microbeats. Rhythm patterns may be the same ones used in the imitation type of preparatory audiation that include four underlying macrobeats. Children are not discouraged from pulsating microbeats in conjunction with continuous movement as they are singing tonal patterns. Children learn to combine continuous sustained spatial movement and pulsated microbeats while chanting rhythm patterns when a parent or teacher performs chants without words or performs continuous macrobeats with a neutral syllable, such as bah. Use of words distracts from a sense of movement, and so children tend to stop moving instead of listening and feeling as they move. Children phasing through preparatory audiation stages are more concerned with tempo (in terms of microbeats) and repetitive patterns than meter. Although a parent or teacher guiding children at this stage is chanting macrobeats, children pulsate microbeats. The tempo is usually faster than a tempo typically preferred by an adult, because children have shorter arms and legs than adults and, thus, prefer moving at faster tempos. When children are moving their arms, tempo is faster than moving legs. Though a parent or teacher may include rests in performance of a chant or macrobeats, children are guided in maintaining continuous movement. The use of recordings is not recommended in either stage six or seven of the assimilation type of preparatory audiation. Children who are experiencing difficulty in coordinating rhythm pattern chanting with microbeat movement may be offered help first

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in movement alone and then in chanting only rhythm patterns. An effective way of helping children to pulsate microbeats while engaging in movement is through use of the tongue. As children are engaging in continuous movement, they might say ta as they pulsate microbeats. Ta is articulated at the same time every microbeat is pulsated, that is, articulation of every ta is coordinated with pulsation of every microbeat. Because children typically find it easier to move the tongue with precision than any other part of the body, they articulate ta with the tongue to direct movement of the body. As soon as children become aware tonal patterns and rhythm patterns they are performing are not coordinated with breathing and movement, they are encouraged to enter the seventh and final stage of preparatory audiation. Such awareness typically becomes obvious to an adult, if in no other way, through a child’s facial expression.

Stage Seven Although appropriate guidance is central in all types and stages of preparatory audiation, techniques become particularly important for guiding children through the second stage of the assimilation type of preparatory audiation. As explained, ability to coordinate breathing and movement with music performance is vital to audiation.

Moving and Rhythm Patterns Wherewithal to move is necessary for learning to be rhythmical, and to learn rhythm, movement is continuous and sustained in space. For this reason, children are guided in use of weight and flow in movement before they consider time and space. Whereas an adult emphasizes time and space for fine motor movements in daily life and are seldom conscious of weight and flow, young children intuitively and initially address themselves to weight and flow, because focus is on locomotion and learning to roll over, crawl, walk, skip and hop. When children

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are guided to follow early natural inclinations and not forced to engage deliberately in moving involving time and space, they develop necessary rhythm skills to acquire musicianship in its broadest sense. Without a sense of weight in continuous and spatial sustained movement, children probably will not learn to jump. Unless they learn to jump with proper preparation, which grounding a single hop using one or both feet cannot provide, they find it difficult to perform a song or chant at the appropriate time, particularly if it begins with an upbeat. Neither will they be facile in maintaining consistent tempo or sustaining meter with confidence. Thus, weight and flow in movement are not only fundamental for developing rhythm skills, they are indispensable for developing singing skills. Facility in using free and natural light weight in continuous and spatial sustained movement, and perhaps the tongue as a guide to using larger muscle movements, helps children learn to pulsate microbeats in consistent tempo. For children who do not yet have that ability, one or more of the following compensatory techniques may help. Encourage them again to coordinate chanting of ta while pulsating microbeats in consistent tempo as they are engaging in continuous sustained movement, pulsating microbeats with upper parts of the body before pulsating microbeats with lower parts of the body. They might engage in continuous sustained movement while pulsating and chanting microbeats, standing in place before beginning to move around the room. Because weight of the first of each successive set of three microbeats necessitates a shift from one side of the body to the other, performance of microbeats in usual duple meter before usual triple meter is instructive. When employing compensatory techniques, children are not encouraged to pulsate microbeats with any part or parts of the body at the same time they are engaging in continuous movement, nor are they encouraged to use the tongue to chant ta to microbeats, because engaging in more than one of these activities at the same time typically proves to be too complex.

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Unless children take advantage of natural weight of the body, they usually do not achieve relaxed freedom in flow of movement, which is fundamental for maintaining consistent tempo. Natural weight is emphasized with use of various parts of the body, particularly hips, legs, and arms. The more parts of the body children move with natural weight, the sooner they learn to pulsate microbeats in consistent tempo. Children’s ability to use natural weight with one part of the body does not necessarily mean they will be able to use natural weight with another part, but in time they will learn to do so. After children have demonstrated they can move continuously while pulsating microbeats without using the tongue to chant, they chant rhythm patterns at the same time they are moving continuously and pulsating microbeats. It may be suggested they feel they are letting rhythm out of their body rather than “pushing” it in. When parents or teachers chant macrobeats using bah as children are chanting microbeats using ta, children may become confused, not by different beats but by different syllables being performed. The situation might be remedied by chanting ta rather than bah, or chanting microbeats rather than macrobeats. Because in time children do not find what a parent or teacher is doing is an interference, they acquire necessary readiness to engage in complexity of stage seven of preparatory audiation. When children are capable of purposefully performing something different from that of another person, they are ready to move their body, first to microbeats and then to macrobeats, without pulsating either microbeats or macrobeats in prescribed manner as they chant rhythm patterns. They will have internalized feeling movement of microbeats and macrobeats. In this way, children ultimately learn to engage in continuous sustained and spatial movement, pulsating microbeats and chanting rhythm patterns at the same time.

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Singing and Tonal Patterns How children breathe is just as important to success in the assimilation type of preparatory audiation, both tonally and rhythmically, as how they move. Although it may seem contradictory, in the final stage of preparatory audiation emphasis is on (covert) vocal fold movement in conjunction with breathing whereas rhythmically, emphasis is on (overt) torso, arm, hand, foot, and leg movement. When children encounter difficulty performing tonal patterns and engaging in continuous sustained movement at the same time at stage seven of preparatory audiation, they are not asked to perform tonal patterns without continuous sustained and spatial movement. That may postpone music development and even retard it. They best coordinate singing of tonal patterns with movement not always continuous or sustained. Specifically, a child might hop or jump and then take a deep breath before singing a tonal pattern. Then immediately switch to continuous sustained movement while repeating a tonal pattern. The same procedure may be followed for singing each pattern in a series of tonal patterns, allowing a short interval of time between tonal patterns. In time, children will use natural weight and flow of the body for sustained movement as they are singing each tonal pattern. Also, children may be asked to sing tonal patterns, first singing only a resting tone in response to an adult’s singing of dominant (for example, so in major tonality or mi in harmonic minor tonality) as they are engaging in continuous sustained and spatial movement. A parent or teacher sings the resting tone for, not with, the child, before the child is asked to sing it. After children are successful in that activity, they may be asked to sing complete tonal patterns, first those containing two pitches, then three and four, while engaging in continuous sustained and spatial movement. Finally, they begin to sing tonal patterns at the same time they are moving continuously but without pulsating microbeats. When teaching children in a group at stage seven of preparatory audiation, parents and teachers give particular attention to idiographic

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music characteristics of every child. The lower of a child’s two developmental music aptitudes is attended to first in attempt to bring it as much as possible back to its birth level. Then attention is given to the higher one. With regard to normative differences, some children have higher developmental tonal aptitude than others will have higher rhythm developmental music aptitudes than others. Although recommended order and sequence is followed when presenting patterns to all children, regardless of levels of developmental music aptitudes, an adult prudently allows time for a child with low developmental music aptitude to perform a pattern. A like amount of time is spent with children who have high developmental music aptitude, but it is expected they will learn more patterns of other types associated with different stages of preparatory audiation. It is not unusual for group instruction to be adapted to children’s individual musical differences by working with one child who has low developmental music aptitude in an elementary stage of preparatory audiation and then immediately after with another child who has high developmental music aptitude in an advanced stage of preparatory audiation. No attempt is made to adapt instruction in movement to children’s individual musical differences regardless of levels of developmental rhythm aptitude.

Part 8

READINESS FOR SCHOOL MUSIC Preparation for Formal Music Instruction

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reparatory audiation is taught with unstructured and structured informal guidance whereas audiation is taught with formal instruction. In school, teachers are expected to teach students using formal instruction. Most children enter school at age five or six and unfortunately have not had sufficient early exposure to music to enable them to engage successfully in formal instruction. They have not received appropriate unstructured and structured informal guidance in music providing them with readiness to fulfill normal expectations associated with most school music programs. Without those abilities children acquire as a result of passing through the three types and seven stages of preparatory audiation, they find it challenging to sing in tune, with a sense of tonality, consistent tempo, and sense of meter. They probably have not developed a singing voice or learned to control basic movements of the body and, thus, being musically impoverished, they at best learn only to recognize and imitate music. Regardless of chronological age, unless they have had appropriate experiences in preparatory audiation as they phase through music babble, chances are they will not learn to audiate well. Though they will be able to think in language, they will be able less to think in

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sound, and so because audiation is to music performance what thought is to intelligent speaking, they will be deprived of learning the art of creating and improvising music. Their music experiences in childhood and beyond most likely will be limited to simply following thoughts, wishes, and directions of others. Consequences of not receiving necessary readiness to engage successfully in formal instruction in music are clear. Nonetheless, beginning in kindergarten or first grade, many teachers compel children without music readiness to participate in school music activities, and many parents are resolute their children take lessons on instruments when they are in elementary or middle school. Those teachers and parents are either unaware of existence and importance of preparatory audiation experiences or believe formal instruction in music can be compensatory. Unfortunately, that is seldom, if ever, the case. The many disadvantages that accrue tend to be so serious, children make little progress in music, though they may develop some mechanical instrumental technique and learn to decode, but not audiate, music notation. Children cannot be expected to benefit from formal instruction in music unless they have been guided through music babble. Music babble is associated with the first three stages of preparatory audiation, and transition from music babble to cultural musicianship begins with the first of the final four stages of preparatory audiation and permeates all six stages of audiation. Before formal music instruction is given to children, their unstructured and structured informal guidance in music is diagnostically determined. If a valid music aptitude test, such as PMMA, is not used routinely with groups of children soon after they enter school, it is recommended Audie or Music Audiation Games (MAGS) be administered by parents to their children. Some children will have had some guidance, and perhaps sufficient exposure to the first, second, and perhaps third stage of the acculturation type of preparatory audiation. However, many will not have had any guidance related to the first or second stages of imitation or the

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first and second stages of the assimilation type of preparatory audiation. Thus, before they are ever offered formal instruction, unstructured and structured informal music guidance in school, and ideally at home as well, is undertaken. Even when acculturation is sufficient to allow children to engage immediately in the imitation and assimilation types of preparatory audiation, they, like professional musicians, will continually require additional acculturation to maintain and sustain growth. Thus, acculturation is always present in music education of children regardless of level of achievement, because they never outgrow need to hear music in ways associated with the first three stages of the acculturation type of preparatory audiation. Consider the following typical levels of achievement found in a class of children entering kindergarten or first grade. Most will not yet have found their singing voice, some may have found their singing voice but cannot imitate tonal patterns, most will not be able to move with sustained motion, some may be able to move with sustained motion but not at the same time pulsate microbeats, and although some will be able to move simultaneously with sustained motion and pulsate microbeats, they will not be able to imitate rhythm patterns. In every case these children best be given unstructured and structured informal guidance in appropriate types and stages of preparatory audiation to compensate for deficiencies before formal instruction in music is begun, and depending on number of children who have deficiencies, part or an entire class period may need to be devoted to counteractive work for a few weeks, perhaps an entire semester or year. Although many school administrators believe all children should be given formal instruction in classroom music as soon as they enter school, it would be reasonable to schedule class time to allow some children, if not all, initially to receive unstructured and structured informal guidance. Just as children of all ages enjoy having a teacher read to them, they also enjoy listening to a teacher sing and chant,

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and, of course, that is foundation for developing acculturation skills. Value of opportunity of hearing a teacher perform vocally for a class for five minutes or so at the beginning of an instructional period is inestimable. It may take a year of exposure to preparatory audiation for children to acquire at least basic readiness for participating in formal instruction in classroom music and instrumental music.

Formal Music Instruction If children have had benefit of unstructured and structured informal guidance in music before entering school, formal instruction using Jump Right In: The Music Curriculum is an appropriate next step. That curriculum includes both learning sequence activities and classroom activities. The learning sequence activities represent natural and sequential transition from unstructured and structured informal guidance, which involves preparatory audiation, to formal instruction centering on audiation. Discrimination becomes readiness for recognition, recognition for imitation, and imitation for audiation. While passing through types and stages of preparatory audiation, children’s potential for learning to audiate is enhanced, and while passing through types and stages of audiation, children learn what to audiate as they continue to learn to audiate. Formal instruction in music is initiated with Tonal Unit 1, Section A, Criterion 1 and Rhythm Unit 1, Section A, Criterion 1 of Jump Right In: The Music Curriculum. Children who have emerged from informal guidance and stage seven of preparatory audiation and been introduced to formal instruction and audiation before they enter school, and may even have been taught some portions of Jump Right In: The Music Curriculum in preschool, may begin with more advanced criteria, sections, or units. Jump Right In; The Music Curriculum is designed so criteria 1 and 2 of sections A and B of Tonal Unit 1 and criteria 1 and 2 of Sections A and B of Rhythm Unit 1 serve as transitions from preparatory audiation

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to audiation, reinforcing skills taught to children in imitation and assimilation types of preparatory audiation. In Criterion 1 of Section A of Tonal Unit 1, children sing only the first pitch of a tonal pattern in major tonality sung by the teacher, and in Criterion 2 of Section A of Tonal Unit 1, they sing only the resting tone of a tonal pattern in major tonality sung by the teacher. Beginning with Criterion 3, Section A, of Tonal Unit 1, children are introduced to and asked to sing, using a neutral syllable, tonic and dominant arpeggiated tonal patterns in major tonality. In later units they are introduced to arpeggiated tonal patterns of other functions, such as subdominant, in major tonality. The same skills are developed in criteria 1, 2, and 3 of Section B of Tonal Unit 1, using tonal patterns in harmonic minor tonality. Following the same procedure used in Unit 1, in Criterion 1, Section A of Unit 2, children sing the same tonal patterns using tonal syllables as they audiate objective tonality. As in informal guidance, tonal patterns are sung without rhythm. However, unlike informal guidance, children sing tonal patterns solo as well as in ensemble, because without ability to sing solo, children will not appropriately develop audiation skills. With exception of some levels of skill learning sequence, though never the aural/oral or verbal association levels, tonality and keyality in which tonal patterns are performed in learning sequence activities are established by the teacher for children immediately before they begin to sing. Easy tonal patterns are taught to children before more difficult ones. Nonetheless, although some subdominant function patterns are easier for children to audiate than some tonic or dominant patterns, the latter two functions are taught before the former in major and harmonic minor tonalities. Unless that sequence is followed, children’s sense of major tonality and harmonic minor tonality may not develop properly. Perhaps the reason lies in absence of a leading tone in subdominant patterns. That hypothesis is plausible because a majority of children engaging in preparatory audiation find the single dominant

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pitch easier than the single tonic pitch to audiate and perform in both major and harmonic minor tonalities. When learning arpeggiated tonal patterns, it is not advisable to suggest to children they attempt to listen for or first perform the diatonic (stepwise) pitches between the arpeggiated pitches, because they may be led to believe all tonal patterns are variations of one essential tonal pattern, or perhaps a scale, not realizing each tonal pattern is audiated in a unique manner. Consider the consequences, after all, if children were taught to sound out the word “cat” first by sounding out b between the first two letters of the word. In Criterion 1 of Section A of Rhythm Unit 1 of Jump Right In: The Music Curriculum, children move informally with continuous sustained and spatial movement, and, if a teacher thinks it appropriate, pulsate macrobeats as the teacher chants macrobeats or microbeats in usual duple meter. In Criterion 2 of Section A of Rhythm Unit 1, children move their legs and heels in prescribed manner to macrobeats as a teacher chants macrobeats or rhythm patterns. When children are engaging in the assimilation type of preparatory audiation, they move to microbeats without moving to macrobeats, and they move to macrobeats without moving to microbeats. In Criterion 3 of Section A of Rhythm Unit 1, however, children move arms and hands to microbeats at the same time moving legs and heels to macrobeats as the teacher chants macro/ microbeat patterns in usual duple meter. Children develop the same skills in Criteria 1, 2, and 3 of Section B of Rhythm Unit 1 by moving to macrobeats, microbeats, and rhythm patterns in usual triple meter. In the two remaining sections of rhythm Units 1 and 2, children chant macro/microbeat rhythm patterns using a neutral syllable while moving in coordinated manner to macrobeats and microbeats. Beginning with Criterion 1, Section A of Rhythm Unit 2, children chant rhythm patterns using rhythm syllables and their body as they audiate macrobeats and microbeats in usual duple and usual triple meters. As in informal guidance, all durations in a rhythm pattern are

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chanted on the same pitch though performed with expressive inflections. Unlike in informal guidance, however, children chant rhythm patterns solo as well as in ensemble. The tempo and meter in which rhythm patterns are performed are established by the teacher for children immediately before they begin to chant at the aural/oral and verbal association levels of learning. Differences in how children respond to music when engaging in preparatory audiation and audiation become increasingly evident as they continue to participate in music activities. In preparatory audiation activities they perform microbeats alone before they perform macrobeats alone and never perform macrobeats and microbeats at the same time. In audiation activities, children perform macrobeats alone before they perform microbeats alone and perform macrobeats and microbeats at the same time before they perform microbeats alone. To alter the sequence might be to prevent children from receiving suitable sequential instruction in developing coordination, sense of consistency of tempo, and overall good rhythm. Four music learning sequences are presented in Learning Sequences in Music: A Contemporary Music Learning Theory. They are skill learning sequence, tonal learning sequence, rhythm learning sequence, and pattern learning sequence. All combine development of audiation skill with formal instruction. Skill learning sequence is combined with either tonal or rhythm learning sequence, so tonal patterns and tonalities or rhythm patterns and meters used to develop discrimination and inference skills are emphasized in learning sequence activities whereas performance of songs and other literature is emphasized in classroom music activities. Learning sequence activities and classroom activities are designed to be combined in an educational setting to reinforce one another. In formal instruction, tonalities and meters (context) are introduced in classroom activities, and tonal patterns and rhythm patterns (content) in conjunction with the levels of discrimination learning and inference learning (skills) are introduced in learning

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sequence activities. When no provision is made for learning sequence activities in formal instruction, only short term goals of maintaining classroom discipline, promoting a “good” attitude toward music, and preparing children for school music performances by reinforcing imitation and notational “decoding” skills are usually met. Audiation and consequential long range goals are sacrificed. In preparatory audiation, children are acculturated to music through subjective perception of tonalities and meters. In audiation, a teacher and parent are, and in time children will be, concerned with objective tonalities and meters. Major and harmonic minor tonalities and usual duple and usual triple meters are performed by a teacher for children engaging in preparatory audiation activities to assist them in making transition from understanding subjective tonality and meter to objective tonality and meter. In addition, other tonalities, such as Mixolydian and Dorian, are performed by a teacher for children engaging in audiation activities to assist them in developing an understanding of objective tonalities. Other meters, such as unusual paired and unusual unpaired, are performed by a teacher for children to assist in developing an understanding of objective meters. When music teachers have little or no understanding of how children learn music and as a result concentrate on teaching at the expense of learning, they often teach what they consider to be audiation through imitation, and they teach reading of notation and music theory academically. If children are taught correctly, however, they intuitively learn to recall patterns through contextual audiation, rather than simply to memorize names of individual pitches and notes. In formal instruction in music, children best acquire large listening and performing vocabularies of tonal patterns and rhythm patterns. As a result of exposure to various tonalities and meters, they learn to audiate patterns in context. After they have developed tonal pattern and rhythm pattern vocabularies in more than one tonality and one meter at the aural/oral and verbal association levels of skill learning

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sequence, children have readiness to develop additional skills, such as reading, writing, creating, and improvising as they engage in discrimination and inference at more advanced levels of skill learning sequence activities. As children learn more and more patterns, they are able to develop better contextual understanding in terms of tonalities and meters, and as they develop contextual understanding of tonalities and meters, they are able to learn more and more patterns. This sequence and combination of learning expands in a circular manner, each skill reinforcing and providing greater readiness for another. In formal instruction in music, children are correctly taught to read before writing notation at the symbolic association, composite synthesis, and relevant inference levels of skill learning sequence. Children learn to listen and speak and then read and write when learning language. They are not taught reading skills before they can listen and speak meaningfully. Children also learn to listen and perform music with comprehension before they are taught music reading and writing skills. When teachers attempt to teach reading of music notation first, children memorize names of lines and spaces of the staff and time-value names of notes. That would be like seeing and memorizing the alphabet without understanding words communicate meaning. Learning to read with comprehension is more a matter of what than how. Once children learn to identify individual words on a printed page, they learn to read entire sentences and paragraphs with comprehension, and that applies equally to reading of individual patterns and sections of compositions in music notation. Audiation of patterns is just as important for learning to create and improvise music as for learning to read and write music notation. A teacher cannot teach a child creativity and improvisation. Children can be provided with readiness to teach themselves to create and improvise music. Patterns represent readiness. In a sense, learning becomes residual of teaching. Unlike procedure parents and teachers follow when children are engaging in preparatory audiation, sequence followed in audiation

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for formal teaching of tonal patterns and rhythm patterns is based on experimentally established difficulty levels of patterns. Easy patterns are taught before moderately difficult patterns, and moderately difficult patterns before difficult patterns. While children with low music aptitude are still learning an easy pattern, children with average music aptitude who have already learned the easy pattern are learning the moderately difficult pattern, and while children with low music aptitude are still learning the easy pattern and children with average music aptitude are still learning the moderately difficult pattern, children with high music aptitude who have already learned the easy and moderately difficult patterns are learning the difficult pattern. This approach to teaching, which is designed to meet children’s individual musical needs, takes place in the same classroom and during the same period. When patterns are taught sequentially according to difficulty levels, every pattern becomes easy because it is directed toward each individual child at the proper time. Only when patterns are taught according to frequency with which they are found in literature, or because they correspond to children’s “speech rhythms,” may they become difficult. Some teachers find it easy to make things difficult but difficult to make things easy. In formal instruction, children continue practice followed in preparatory audiation of using neutral syllables to perform tonal patterns and rhythm patterns at the aural/oral level of skill learning sequence. They are taught to use tonal syllables and rhythm syllables at the verbal association level of skill learning sequence. They use tonal syllables rather than numbers or letter names of lines and spaces of the staff because otherwise they become confused when, as is often the case, tonal patterns require specific numbers or letters be skipped and used in backward order. Children use rhythm syllables to signify durations rather than numbers to “count out” time values. Additional problems occur when children are taught to use numbers to learn instrumental fingerings. Rhythm syllables are based on beat functions, not time values of notes, and so bear a direct relation to audiation. Thus, they

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are more useful, even for teaching instrumental music. Fingerings and overall comprehension are inseparable.

Singing and Chanting Singing and chanting are significant components of classroom music activities in formal music instruction. The activities introduce children to specific tonalities and meters as preparation for teaching them to audiate tonal patterns and rhythm patterns in those tonalities and meters in learning sequence activities. For children to enjoy singing and chanting and at the same time develop senses of tonality and meter, a teacher teaches songs and chants, encouraging children as a group to imitate, not simply rote memorize. Although children learn to audiate tonal patterns and rhythm patterns by performing solo, a child is not asked to perform a song or chant solo, because as children learn to audiate, they begin to learn songs and chants, as they should, through recall. Although it is best to teach children songs and rhythm chants initially without text, words may be incorporated after children are able to perform songs in tune with a sense of tonality and meter and rhythm chants with a sense of meter in consistent tempo and acceptable rhythm. Words are as distracting for children in vocal music as letter names of keys on a keyboard in piano instruction. When children entering formal instruction have not yet found their singing voice, they are given informal guidance until they discover singing voice quality. A singing voice is more a matter of quality than range and is characteristically lighter and more flexible than a speaking voice. There is absence of tension, strain, and tightness in the sound, because when the throat feels open, tone flows with breath. Correct singing quality may be shaped even when pitches sung are in speaking voice range. Pitches may be produced well above the speaking voice range but still in speaking voice quality, however, and often teachers mistakenly consider that sound to be representative of singing quality. To guard against this is to focus first on quality of sound and later on breadth of range.

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The simplest way for children to find their singing voice is by listening to a good singing model. Just as they learned naturally to use their speaking voice by listening to others speak and imitating a model, they naturally learn to use their singing voice by listening to others sing and imitating a model. Children typically produce a pitch near or between Fs and A above middle C, their initial singing range, which is the same as their natural audiation range, from D above middle C to A, a perfect fifth above. The natural audiation range is one into which the musician transposes what is audiated outside that range in order to give sound music meaning. As soon as children produce a pitch in the upper part of the initial singing range, an adult imitates their pitch, modeling for them so in time, when the singing voice quality is stabilized, they are ready to engage in learning sequence activities. At this time they begin to imitate a teacher’s pitches as they occur in tonal patterns found in register books of Jump Right In: The Music Curriculum. Following this procedure, children learn to sing with singing voice quality and good intonation. In the preparatory audiation stage, a teacher sings for a child, not with a child whereas in the audiation stage, a teacher may sing for and with a child. To learn to audiate, a child engages in ensemble singing before solo singing in formal instruction. When children initially sing solo, the voice sounds louder to them than when singing with an adult or another child, and they may think something is wrong. Teachers guide children in understanding although their voice may sound different under different conditions when singing, that is to be expected. The better a young male child is able to sing solo with good intonation, the easier it will be to learn to use his changing and changed voice when older. If he does not learn to sing with good intonation before his voice begins to change, chances are it will take longer to learn to sing with good intonation after his voice has changed, and perhaps he may never learn to sing well in tune.

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Songs and Chants For children to continue singing with good quality and intonation in learning sequence activities, techniques for teaching songs and chants in classroom activities are developed. The goal may best be accomplished by establishing tonality, keyality, beginning pitch, tempo, and meter of a song and establishing meter and tempo of a rhythm chant before children perform. Teachers do this using their voice, not a music instrument or mechanical device, because children relate best to the human voice. Good intonation, which requires awareness of a combination of pitch, duration, and tone quality, develops as a result of ability to audiate an appropriate resting tone as each pitch and tonal pattern are performed. Likewise, good rhythm develops as a result of ability to audiate macrobeats and microbeats as each duration and rhythm pattern are performed. In addition to tonal and rhythm features, dynamics and style of a song or chant are introduced to children before they perform it. When care is not taken in teaching songs and chants, problems arise because some children fail to develop a sense of tonality and intonation or sense of meter and consistency of tempo. To promote development of good tonal audiation when teaching tonal patterns in learning sequence activities or songs in classroom music, a male teacher sings in a head voice, not falsetto, one octave below what children are singing. To promote development of good rhythm audiation, songs and chants are first taught without words, not only because pronunciation of a spoken word is often different from pronunciation of the same word when sung or chanted, but because there is often temptation to use words as mnemonic devices to teach rhythm. If words must be used and if taught separately, they are chanted in rhythm in which they are found in a song or chant. Tempo of a song or chant need not be slowed to teach words. If children make a mistake, they do not start a song or chant again at the beginning, because that procedure fosters rote

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memorization rather than audiation. In language, if one is thinking, there is no need to go back to the beginning of a narration or sentence if a word is not spoken correctly. Similarly, in music, if one is audiating, it is not necessary to go back to the beginning of a song, chant, or phrase if a pitch, duration, or pattern is not performed correctly. As with preparatory audiation, when children are developing audiation skills in learning sequence activities, it is advisable not to perform tonal patterns in pentatonic, because pentatonic has no leading tone, and unless children have already established a sense of tonality for major and harmonic minor tonalities, which have leading tones, they will be challenged to establish a sense of tonality for pentatonic. Pentatonic is given a sense of tonality indirectly through inference, because major pentatonic, minor pentatonic, Dorian pentatonic, Mixolydian pentatonic, and so on, exist in notation, not audiation. In learning sequence activities in formal instruction, children perform tonal patterns in distinct tonalities, and although first asked to sing arpeggiated tonal patterns and no diatonic (stepwise) tonal patterns in major and harmonic minor tonalities, they sing fourth and seventh steps of scales, which are theoretical bases of unfamiliar tonalities. Dominant function tonal patterns include the seventh step, and subdominant function tonal patterns the fourth step. However, because pauses are made between singing of tonal patterns in learning sequence activities, pitches separated by less than an interval of a third are initially not sung successively. Only when children have developed a sense of tonality and sing with good intonation are patterns that include stepwise pitches introduced in learning sequence activities. There is no reason, however, to avoid at a later time singing pentatonic songs in classroom music because they give children opportunity to make comparisons, which are crucial for development of audiation. Thus, it is advantageous to introduce pentatonic songs as well as songs and rhythm chants in many tonalities and meters in classroom music as soon as audiation has been established.

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It is recommended during the first few weeks of school, learning sequence activities not be taught. Classroom music activities during those weeks are used to acquaint children with as many tonalities and meters as possible through a teacher’s performance of songs and rhythm chants. Children are guided in engaging in continuous flowing movement in space as modeled by the teacher, and each child is assisted in finding a singing voice. Because teaching to children’s individual musical needs is important in formal instruction in music, initial class periods may be used to administer a developmental or stabilized music aptitude test. Singing, rhythm chanting, and moving may be alternated with testing. With test results, formal instruction in music using learning sequence activities may appropriately be begun. When teachers know children’s music aptitude scores, they are objectively able to adapt teaching to children’s individual musical differences. That is achieved in learning sequence activities whereas enrichment and compensatory activities are achieved in classroom music activities. Objective results of a music aptitude test are more reliable and usually more valid than teachers’ subjective judgments about music aptitudes of children. Still, tests are by no means perfect. Therefore, even though a test score may indicate a child’s music aptitude is low or average, the child is given opportunity to learn to perform moderately difficult or difficult patterns. Should it be discovered a child is capable of performing at a level higher than a music aptitude test score suggests, the score is surely in error, and instruction for the child is adapted accordingly. Unless testing conditions were unfavorable, however, a child will almost never receive a higher score than deserved. It should be expected when children are in the developmental music aptitude stage and receiving appropriate instruction, particularly in learning sequence activities, their developmental music aptitudes will increase within the course of a semester or less. Unfortunately, with inappropriate or no guidance, developmental music aptitude test scores typically decrease as children move from grade to grade. The least

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expected when children are receiving appropriate informal guidance is levels of developmental music aptitudes will remain constant. In any case, frequent testing and reevaluation is recommended. In formal instruction in learning sequence activities and classroom music activities, children’s normative growth in terms of music achievement is monitored. Provision is made in Jump Right In: The Music Curriculum for idiographically measuring and evaluating extent to which every child is achieving at each level of skill learning sequence, tonal learning sequence, rhythm learning sequence, and pattern learning sequence. Continual comparisons are made between potential to achieve in music (music aptitudes) and actual music achievement.

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any parents want children to take lessons on a music instrument at an early age. Some decide youngsters have so much “talent” they are ready to begin taking lessons, believing the sooner they begin, the easier it will be to learn and the more proficient they will become. Other parents are convinced regardless of talent, the best way for children to be acculturated is by taking instrumental lessons. Serious thought might be given to whether, why, and when a child might begin instruction on a music instrument. Most students are capable of learning only one concept or one skill at a time. If effective learning is expected to occur, a single concept or single skill is solidified before another to be combined with it is introduced. Consider what typical third or fourth grade students are confronted with at once when learning to play a music instrument. Though some may possess minimal knowledge of music notation, a majority do not. Nevertheless, teaching advanced music reading amid other skills cannot be hurried. When it is, optimistic results will not be forthcoming. There are two fundamental elements of music notation students need to learn. Music notation consists of a staff with five lines and four spaces, each assigned a pitch letter-name. Along with tonal counterparts of music notation, there is rhythm. There are note values and time-value names to be understood. Other components of music notation are key signatures and measure signatures. Understanding

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various signatures and relation to pitch letter-names and time-value names is requisite for learning to read music notation. All this is in addition to becoming familiar with words associated with music notation for expressively interpreting what is being performed. As knowledge of the written page is being acquired, students are concurrently taught instrumental fingerings. They learn where to place fingers on keys or which valves to push on an instrument as they read music notation. Each pitch letter-name is associated with one or more fingers. There are no fingerings for time value-names but, nevertheless, pitches are performed with accurate rhythm. That is no simple endeavor even for students who demonstrate advanced theoretical knowledge. The complete task is extreme for most students. Instrument technique, not musicianship, is shortsightedly the dubious central goal in typical instrumental music teaching. Playing with appropriate intonation and rhythm requires more than learning to read music notation, its complexity exacerbated by simultaneous development of instrumental technique notwithstanding. Ability to audiate is essential. It has to do with performing pitches with suitable intonation and note values with a sense of meter and tempo. Just as one thinks about what will be said before saying it, good intonation and rhythm are a result of audiating what will be played before performing it. Not having readiness for learning to play a music instrument contributes to an alarming rate of discontinuance of instruction. Student discouragement, however, is unnecessary. With proper readiness, including and with emphasis on audiation, all students can become successful instrumentalists who achieve to the extent their potential allows. Students enter recommended readiness guidance and instruction for at least a year or two before they begin to be taught to play a music instrument. How readiness is developed sequentially and contextually while addressing students’ individual musical differences and needs has heretofore been explained.

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There is no correct chronological age for a child to begin take instrumental lessons. Far more important than chronological age is music age. Children best emerge from tonal babble and rhythm babble and pass through most, preferably all, types and stages of preparatory audiation before they begin to take instrumental lessons. Unless they sing in tune and move with good rhythm, they will not reach their potential in learning to play an instrument in tune or with good rhythm. Music instruments are extensions of persons who use them. Unless children audiate with senses of tonality and meter, good intonation, consistent tempo, and good rhythm, they will be limited in making instruments reveal those attributes. Though there may be keys, valves, or frets on an instrument, it remains a performer’s responsibility to make necessary adjustments to play with good intonation. With regard to rhythm, no ordinary music instrument has even the mechanical provision, such as keys and valves, to assist in producing proper durations. Instrumental music lessons may be beneficial for children, whether in the developmental or stabilized music aptitude stage, if they have developed objective senses of tonality and meter. Children of three or four years of age could be fully ready whereas other children in middle school, although in the stabilized music aptitude stage, may not be ready to study an instrument because they have only subjective senses of tonality and meter. Many children choose an instrument to play but some parents impose a decision for irrelevant reasons. There is common belief children’s physical characteristics should be given first consideration. Physical characteristics cannot be totally discounted, but it is more important for children’s overall achievement, as well as attitude, they be allowed to make decisions based on preference for tone quality and range of a music instrument. Too often little regard is given to whether children have preference or aversion to tone quality and range of a particular instrument, yet there is little doubt their achievement will be hampered if they learn to play an instrument with tone quality and

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range they dislike. Allowing children to see or hear actual music instruments often raises issues and concerns that override comparative tone qualities and ranges. A teacher might use an objective test of synthesized sounds for selecting a suitable instrument for each child. The Instrument Timbre Preference Test may be used for identifying an appropriate brass, woodwind, or string instrument when a child is beginning to take lessons or later if a child should become dissatisfied with sound and range of a particular instrument. Selecting a teacher for a child is undertaken cautiously. Thoughtful and competent teachers understand instrumental music readiness and, if children lack such readiness, provide it as part of an instructional process. It may be necessary to shepherd children through unstructured or structured informal guidance in preparatory audiation before they begin to take lessons, or teach them to audiate and sing tonal patterns and chant rhythm patterns at the aural/oral and verbal association levels of skill learning sequence during lessons. If compensatory instruction is obligatory, whether preparatory audiation or audiation, a teacher may divide a lesson into listening, singing, rhythm chanting, and movement experiences on the one hand and instrumental experiences on the other, although both will necessarily include learning sequence activities as well as instrumental activities. In group lessons, both types of experiences may be taught alternately during the same period. Children meet at least once a week but do not play instruments at that time, but instead sing, chant, and move in various tonalities and meters as they acquire listening and performing vocabularies of tonal patterns and rhythm patterns. As in formal instruction in learning sequence activities and classroom music activities, it is not necessary for teachers to coordinate music content and context, that is, tonal patterns, rhythm patterns, tonalities, and meters, with music literature children are performing. Children are taught sound before sign, that is, audiation before notation. First they develop vocabularies of tonal patterns and rhythm

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patterns through singing, rhythm chanting, and moving. Then they are taught to play combined tonal and rhythm patterns (melodic patterns) on a music instrument. Next they begin to play familiar and unfamiliar songs and other types of literature. Finally they are taught to read what they can audiate and already play. Music theory, which in common practice is actually theory of music notation, is taught last, if at all. It is of great importance children engage in continuous processes of learning to sing and chant unfamiliar tonal, rhythm, and melodic patterns as they are learning to play familiar patterns. There are two instruments. One is the actual instrument a child is learning to play, such as piano or saxophone. It is visible. The other is a child’s audiation instrument. It is invisible, inside the head. Children develop instrumental technique to play the actual instrument, of course, but unless they also develop audiation skills, regardless of how well they have developed instrumental technique, they will not learn to play in instrument in an expressive manner. Ideally, children begin taking lessons on an actual instrument after they have developed their audiation instrument, because achievement with the audiation instrument provides readiness to learn to play successfully an actual instrument. Before children are given lessons on a music instrument, an appropriate developmental or stabilized music aptitude test might be administered. In that way, a teacher is able to adapt instruction objectively to individual musical needs. That is true for both group and private lessons, but a teacher can best adapt instruction to a child’s individual musical needs when enrolled in group lessons. When children are being taught instrumental music as a group with various levels of music aptitude represented, each child can sing, chant, and perform on a music instrument easy, moderately difficult, or difficult tonal patterns and rhythm patterns depending on individual tonal and rhythm aptitudes. When special group classes are held for children who study privately, teaching to individual musical differences through learning sequence activities is also possible.

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Children taking lessons on music instruments are grouped heterogeneously in terms of overall music aptitude. It is best if children play instruments from different families, such as woodwinds and brasses, than to have all play instruments of one family. When children listen to timbres of various types of instruments with various pitches and at the same time adjust intonation and rhythm to sounds of the group as a whole, audiation skills develop rapidly. Regimen associated with learning to play a music instrument is typically based on measuring amount of time a child practices. That is unfortunate because when children are audiating what they intend to play, they can benefit more from short rather than long practice periods without audiating. The shorter practice time and the more those times occur throughout the day, the more a child will learn. Much can be learned away from a music instrument if children audiate what they have practiced or intend to practice. One responsibility of a teacher is to teach children how to practice and teach themselves, not to praise or scold by keeping a record of how long and how many times they have practiced during a week. Children who can audiate, however, will soon become self directed in what, when, and how long to practice. When children are taking lessons, practicing, and performing solo and in ensemble in public, many develop unnecessary tension. Though some tension is always present when one is performing, unnecessary tension can become debilitating. The primary reason for tension is not nervousness, it is children are unsure of sounds they are supposed to be producing. That occurs either because they were taught to imitate or memorize what they heard their teachers play or because they memorized their presentation from notation. Anxiety can be expected in situations where a child is unable to audiate and must rely on imitation and memorization. When children are capable of engaging in audiation, they easily recall sounds of music to be performed and, thus, remain free of tension.

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Tension often is associated with technical difficulties in playing a music instrument. There is reason to believe problems a child encounters in instrumental technique, problems of fingering and embouchure, for example, are not really technical problems but rather audiation problems. That is, tension develops when children are unable contextually to sing, chant, and move to what they are attempting to play. When a child is audiating, embouchure on a wind instrument and fingers on a string instrument become pitch selectors, and body movements become duration selectors. To be sure, technical problems on an instrument often have their source in audiation problems, but audiation problems do not have their source in technical problems. For that reason, good audiation skills tend to prevent as well as correct problems associated with instrumental technique. Breathing is uniformly necessary for performers to play a music instrument properly as when singing, rhythm chanting, and moving. When children audiate what they are going to play on an instrument before they play it, they take in correct amount of breath, just as they naturally take in correct amount of breath when thinking about what they are going to say. Thus, they are not breathless before the end of a phrase and have residue of breath after a phrase has been performed When playing a music instrument, the way children breathe directs types of movements they make. Breathing is continuous, without unnecessary pauses in flow. Improper movement has a tendency to interfere with continuous breathing in workaday activities as well as when performing on a music instrument or singing. When children are not audiating, chances are their breathing will not be continuous and they will experience unnecessary tension as they are playing or singing. A teacher considers both inhaling and exhaling when teaching children how to sing, chant, and play a music instrument. Audiation of what is about to be performed occurs when a child is inhaling whereas performance is produced during exhaling. The consequences of not audiating when inhaling seem to be as great even if a child plays a

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string or keyboard instrument and becomes worse if an attempt is made to audiate while exhaling. The tongue plays an important role in correct articulation on a music instrument, because it coordinates appropriate parts of the body in performance. Children are taught to use their tongue, not only for proper articulation of tonal patterns and rhythm patterns on a wind instrument, but on string, keyboard, mallet, and percussion instruments as well. Having learned to sing tonal patterns using tonal syllables and chant rhythm patterns using rhythm syllables at the verbal association level of skill learning sequence, children play those patterns and melodic patterns (combined tonal and rhythm patterns) on their instruments. They need not initially be taught pitch-letter names of lines and spaces of the staff or time-value names of notes, although they learn technical information later to communicate with others who rely on and are dependent on notational names. Children are told, for example, C (the name of a pitch heard in audiation, not the name of a line or space seen on the staff) is do, and is fingered in a specific way. Next they learn in association with C do how re is fingered, ti is fingered, and so on. It is not necessary to learn pitch names associated with syllables other than do. In time they learn a number of finger patterns used when C is do. Then they are taught names of fingerings around another do, for example, G, and learn finger patterns used when G is do, and so on. Children experience less confusion when learning do can be found in several places on an instrument (a movable system) than in learning C, for example, is always referred to and called by the letter name C (a fixed system), regardless that it may be audiated as do in one keyality and so in another. Children learn fingerings rapidly, particularly when specific fingerings are successively repeated as a result of being used to perform different rhythm patterns. Beginners are expected to learn to audiate and perform in different tonalities, such as major and harmonic minor, as soon as possible. They are taught fingerings for one or more pitch names associated

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with the resting tone la before they are taught an abundance of pitch names associated with only the resting tone do. Also, children learn to perform through audiation fewer rhythm patterns in a variety of meters rather than to read many rhythm patterns in the same meter but notated with different measure signatures. As soon as possible, children are taught to improvise on their instruments before they are taught to read music notation. An advisable pedagogical practice in teaching children who are beginning to play a music instrument is to give them ample opportunity to hear a professional musician perform on the instrument they are learning to play. Many children have no idea what a music instrument is supposed to sound like until long after they have been playing it. Once children hear proper tone quality, they are able to audiate and strive for it in performance. They also benefit from hearing good music phrasing. It would be advantageous for children to have a recording on which the music instrument they are learning is played solo by a professional artist.

Part 10

INITIATING AND ORGANIZING AN EARLY CHILDHOOD MUSIC PROGRAM

P

arents and caregivers may offer music development to young children privately at home but it has been shown children acquire skills in preparatory audiation best in groups. With competent adult informal and formal guidance, children learn from one another. The following is intended for persons who wish to establish an early childhood music school. Give sufficient time and thought to how you will initially attract attention of parents to inform them of existence of the school, age range of children you will be guiding, and times and how many different sections you will be offering. Advertisements, newspaper and magazine interviews, and radio and TV talk shows are excellent ways to broadcast the message. Explain in simple and concise terms your intent is not necessarily to create professional musicians but rather to offer comprehensive guidance to children in learning to understand

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music through audiation. Explain necessary preparation children need to participate in music classes when they enter kindergarten or first grade by offering comparative processes of learning music and language, emphasizing the five parallel vocabularies. Next to consider is size of the room you will need, including how it will be furnished and where it will be located. Be sure it is clean, well lighted and ventilated, and large enough to accommodate children and adults placed as a group in the middle with space to spare so children can move around as they desire; the floor is carpeted or covered with gymnasium-type mats; there is no furniture in the room except, perhaps, a desk or table for a teacher; there are no objects, such as folding chairs leaning against a wall that can be easily pushed over; all windows are closed and locked; and unused electrical outlets are covered. If windows are needed for ventilation, they are opened from the top and secured. With unstructured and structured informal guidance for young children, plan no less than six and no more than twelve children be in a group with a teacher and one or more assistants present. Although one meeting a week produces desirable results, a group best meets twice a week with class periods a half hour. It is not unusual to have children ranging in age from birth to four or five years old in the same class. It is an advantage because children often learn more from one another than an adult. In addition to cabinets and other types of storage space, a necessary piece of equipment is perhaps a trampoline placed in the center of the room. Though rarely used for teaching, it serves mainly as a focal point for attracting children. Little else is necessary other than balls, bean bags, scarves, different sized parachutes, and simple objects used as unobtrusive teaching aids. All are kept out of view and reach of children until they are ready to be used. Rhythm sticks and similar types of toys are unnecessary, as is electronic equipment used to play CDs, records, and tapes, nor is a monitor needed to view videos. All serve as distractions, cause confusion, and limit quality and quantity of guidance. It

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is ideal to have one or more video cameras situated high in the room to have at least a brief record of each child’s participation during class. Videos also prove to be valuable in improving guidance by making adults aware of children’s responses and actions missed while teaching. The room may be large or small in a private or commercial building. Schools and churches are ideal locations, but in some cases it may be prudent to cooperate with an all purpose preschool and offer music as part of a curriculum. There is possibility a preschool managed by a corporation for children of its employees may include music activities during the day. Be sure separate rest rooms and a diaper-changing area are nearby, a sitting area and coat rack are available, there is space for storing strollers and carriages, and ample parking space for private cars in the immediate area is available. Even with convenient parking space, it is recommended a school be close to public transportation. Seek professional advice about types of insurance, if any, you may need to protect against liability claims. In contrast, in formal instruction for older children, it is best to have no less than eight and no more than 24 children in a class, a period being no longer than 40 minutes and no shorter than 30. The best that may be expected after thirty minutes is entertainment activities to maintain semblance of control. A class meets two or three times a week, and learning sequence activities are taught during the first ten minutes. If a group meets four or five times a week, learning sequence activities are taught only three times a week, preferably on alternate days, with classroom music activities taught every class period. Children of similar chronological ages but of different music ages may be taught in the same class, because instruction can easily be adapted to individual musical differences by performing patterns of different difficulty levels. An hour of orientation for parents and caregivers is scheduled before instruction begins. Children may attend. During the meeting an explanation is offered about purposes of classes, how you intend to

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conduct classes, days classes will meet (including vacations) during the semester, length of classes, parent and caregiver responsibilities, and cost of tuition and how it is to be paid. Explain why it is prudent for adults not to bring food or toys into the classroom. This may be the best time to present parents with your health record, to inform them you are not a music therapist nor certified to deal with children’s emotional or physical problems, and to have parents sign consent forms allowing you to make videos of your teaching and of children’s responses. Be explicit about required attendance of an adult with children who are three years of age or younger. It is best for adults not to be present in the classroom when children four years of age and older are receiving instruction. Assure everyone when parents and caregivers are not present in the classroom there will be more than one adult teaching. Invite older, and especially younger, siblings occasionally to visit and participate in a class. Be firm but diplomatic in making it known you expect adults to be responsible, such as when a child cries or gets into a spat with another child, and you will not necessarily count on their help in teaching music, although they are welcome to participate if they feel able to assist. Perhaps they can sing only beginning or ending pitches of songs, resting tones, or chant macrobeats, microbeats, or rhythm ostinatos. Where they can be of definite assistance is modeling continuous free flowing, continuous, spatial movement as you are moving and presenting songs and rhythm chants to children. Decide how you will make reports about children’s progress. Do not compare children to one another. Instead, focus on each child’s progress. Write personal subjective evaluations, avoiding grading. When objective music aptitude and music achievement tests are used for improvement of instruction, do not share results with parents unless you are convinced they are able to interpret scores correctly and use information in a mature manner. Remember three words: repetition, variety, and silence. Repetition and variety are vital for young children whereas silence (time to audiate)

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is necessary for children of all ages. Concerning faculty, it is advisable to have at least two teachers present to alternate activities with each other and sing in harmony. A woman and man is best. Organization of instructional groups is a preferential matter. Working with a group of children constituting a wide range of ages is acceptable. You may find it valuable to produce periodic newsletters, explaining to parents what and why you are doing it. Parents need to be told several times why, for example, young children may be engaging in repetitive activities. Remind them of the many months they devoted to developing their child’s language listening vocabulary and it takes at least that long to develop their child’s tonal pattern and rhythm pattern listening vocabularies. You may also want to explain differences between groups and how children are moved from acculturation activities, to imitation activities, and finally to assimilation activities. Be patient and sensitive to feelings of parents. Request each parent or caregiver to bring, if possible, a recorder. That way children can stay in touch at home with appropriate and familiar music activities and voices from class to class. Children are not forced to listen to recordings but are encouraged to play them whenever they wish. It may be necessary to provide parents with blank cassettes or CDs, and if so, you may want to include that as part of tuition charge. Requiring purchase of materials is not recommended. Take time to make alliances with instrumental teachers who are interested in your work and approach to teaching music. Many parents will be asking for advice about who might best teach their child piano, violin, recorder, or another instrument. It is important an instrumental teacher follow through with your ideas and understand preparatory audiation and instrumental readiness as well as sequence of teaching audiation before notation. If you do not intend to be responsible for or do your own instrumental teaching, be selective in those whom you recommend. It would be better to make no recommendation than an improper one.

AFTERWORD

I

t has been almost 25 years since the first edition of the book was published in 1990. This is the fourth edition, following those in 1997 and 2003. Readers familiar with earlier books are aware fundamental research results have remained steadfast. Current supportive concepts and findings in linguistics and neurology, however, relevant to music guidance of newborn and young children, are threaded throughout the writing. Growing numbers of persons with serious interest in early childhood music ironed out wrinkles in practical guidance and instructional applications. Their and my pedagogical innovations, derived from experimental groups in “popular world laboratories,” add substantial promise to importance and future recognition of early childhood music. I am grateful to all. It will be noticed my writing style has undergone obvious changes. Sentences are tighter. “The,” “that,” and “a and an,” for example, are not used unless necessary for clarification. Thus, because I decided I should be my own editor, I reread the manuscript many times before delivering it to the publisher. Nevertheless, errors of omission and commission no doubt still exist. I apologize for mishaps.

GLOSSARY Acculturation

First type of preparatory audiation. It includes three stages. Typically children are in the first stage from birth to eighteen months, second stage one to three years, and third stage eighteen months to three years of age.

Arpeggiated Pattern

Tonal pattern in which almost all pitches move by skip, not step.

Assimilation

Third type of preparatory audiation. It includes two stages. Typically children engage in the assimilation type of preparatory audiation from four to five years of age. Some children may enter the first stage as early as three years and second stage as early as four years of age.

Audiation

Hearing and comprehending in one’s mind the sound of music that is no longer or may never have been physically present. It is different from discrimination, recognition, imitation, and memorization. There are eight types and six stages of audiation. Ideally, children begin to audiate when they are five years old after they have phased through preparatory audiation.

Classroom Music Activities

Part of informal guidance or formal instruction during which traditional activities, not learning sequence activities, take place.

Content

Tonal patterns and rhythm patterns of music. Tonality and meter of music.

Context

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Content Learning Sequence Creativity

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Either tonal content or rhythm content used in conjunction with skill learning sequence in learning sequence activities. Spontaneous audiation and performance of tonal patterns and rhythm patterns without restrictions.

Critical Age

Birth or prenatally to eighteen months old.

Developmental Music Aptitude

Music potential affected by quality of environmental factors. A child is in the developmental music aptitude stage from birth to approximately nine years old.

Diatonic Pattern

Tonal pattern in which pitches move by half step and whole step but does not include chromatic pitches.

Difference/ Sameness

Effective learning takes place when children are exposed to differences rather repetition. Difference provides opportunity to make comparisons and discover relationships.

Division

Division of a microbeat or of a macrobeat, not a microbeat.

Do Signature

Traditionally called a key signature. It does not indicate any one tonality or keyality. It indicates where do is found on the staff.

Dominant Pattern

One function of tonal patterns. A dominant (dominant seventh) pattern in major tonality includes an arrangement of tonal syllables so ti re fa. In harmonic minor tonality, mi si ti re.

Dominant Pitch

Pitch of the fifth degree of the scale.

Dorian Tonality

Tonality of re to re with re as resting tone. When compared to harmonic minor tonality, it has raised sixth and lowered seventh steps.

Duple Meter

See usual duple meter.

Duration

Part of a rhythm pattern. For example, each eighth note in a rhythm pattern of two eighth notes is a

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duration. A duration is to a rhythm pattern what a letter is to a word. Elongation

Lengthening of a microbeat (but not a macrobeat) or a macrobeat.

Enharmonic

Tonal patterns that sound the same but notated differently. Also, different key signatures used to notate the same sounding keyality.

Enrhythmic

Rhythm patterns that sound the same but are notated differently. Also, different measure signatures used to notate the same sounding meter. Enrhythmic is to rhythm notation and audiation what enharmonic is to tonal notation and audiation.

Formal Instruction

Learning imposed on children and promotes development of objective tonality and objective meter. It usually takes place with children older than five, in terms of audiation, in school. Emphasis is on learning how to audiate.

Guidance

May be unstructured or structured. It occurs in preparatory audiation. In contrast, instruction occurs in audiation.

Harmonic Minor Tonality

Tonality of la to la with la as resting tone. When compared to Aeolian tonality, it has a raised seventh step.

Idiographic Evaluation

Evaluating by comparing a student’s music achievement to his or her music aptitude or current music achievement to past music achievement.

Imitation

Second type of preparatory audiation. It includes two stages. Typically children engage in the imitation type of preparatory audiation from three to four years of age. Some children enter the first stage as early as two and the second as early as three years of age.

Improvisation

Spontaneous audiation and performance of tonal patterns and rhythm patterns with restrictions.

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Informal Guidance

Sequenced curriculum of acculturation, imitation, and assimilation designed to encourage children in preparatory audiation to respond naturally and spontaneously to music. In informal guidance, children are not forced to respond to music. Children are simply exposed to music in the home or in preschool. Emphasis is on intuition and learning how, not what, to audiate.

Interval

Distance between two pitches.

Key Signature

Do signature.

Keyality

Pitch name of a tonic. Keyality is audiated whereas a key signature is seen in notation.

Leading Tone

Pitch of the seventh step of the scale in major and harmonic minor tonalities.

Learning

What children teach themselves.

Learning Sequence Activities

Part of informal guidance or formal instruction during practical applications of music learning theory.

Letter Names

Names of lines and spaces of the staff.

Macrobeats

Fundamental beats in a rhythm pattern.

Major Tonality

Tonality of do to do with do as resting tone. When compared to harmonic minor tonality, it has raised third and sixth steps.

Measure Signature

Traditionally called time signature or meter signature. A measure signature indicates neither meter nor time. It indicates fractional value of a whole note found in a measure. Because measure signatures are enrhythmic, a measure signature cannot indicate any one meter. Tempo markings and metronome markings indicate tempo, measure signatures do not.

Melodic Pattern

Combination of a tonal pattern and rhythm pattern.

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Melodic Rhythm

Rhythm of text or melody of music. It is superimposed on macrobeats and microbeats.

Memorization

Repeating without use of notation music read or heard but not necessarily audiated.

Meter

Determined by length of macrobeats, how macrobeats are divided, or how macrobeats are grouped.

Microbeats

Equal divisions of a macrobeat.

Minor Tonality

See harmonic minor tonality.

Mixolydian Tonality

Tonality of so to so with so as resting tone. When compared to major tonality, it has a lowered seventh step.

Music Achievement

Accomplishment in music.

Music Achievement Test

Test to measure music accomplishment.

Music Aptitude

Potential to achieve in music.

Music Aptitude Test

Test to measure potential for music.

Movable do Syllables

Tonal system in which placement and position of do are dependent on keyality. For example, C is do in C keyality; D is do in D keyality; and so on. Ascending chromatic syllables are do di re ri mi fa fi so si la li ti do. Descending chromatic syllables are do ti te la le so se fa mi me re ra do. In the immovable or fixed do system, regardless of keyality, C is always do. Tonal syllable system used in learning sequence activities is movable do with a la based minor.

Music Babble

Sounds a young child makes before developing objective tonality and meter. Music babble is to music what speech babble is to language. It typically occurs from stage 1 to stage 4 of preparatory audiation.

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Music Learning Theory

Analysis and synthesis of sequence of how we learn when we learn music.

Neutral Syllable

Nonsense syllable rather than tonal syllables or rhythm syllables used to perform a pattern.

Normative Evaluation

Comparison of a child’s music aptitude or music achievement with music aptitude or music achievement of other children.

Notational Audiation

Audiation of what is seen in music notation without aid of physical sound.

Note

Symbol read or written in music notation representing what is being audiated.

Objective Keyality

Keyality for which there is consensus.

Objective Meter

Meter for which there is consensus.

Objective Tempo

Tempo for which there is consensus.

Objective Tonality

Tonality for which there is consensus.

Pentatonic

Music consisting of only five pitches. Because traditionally it does not include a leading tone, it can only suggest a tonality. Most common pentatonic scale is do re mi so la.

Pitch

Part of a tonal pattern. A pitch is to a tonal pattern what a letter is to a word.

Pitch Names

Letter names associated with sounds of pitches, not letter names associated with a line or space on the staff.

Preparatory Audiation

Hearing and comprehending music while in the music babble stage, typically from birth to five years of age, as readiness for engaging in audiation.

Range

Distance between lowest and highest pitches in a song or on a music instrument.

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Resting Tone

Sometimes referred to as scale tone or home tone. A tonal center or centers to which a piece of music gravitates. Tonality has a resting tone whereas keyality has a tonic.

Rhythm

Consists of three fundamental parts: macrobeats, microbeats, and rhythm patterns. In audiation, microbeats are superimposed on macrobeats, and rhythm patterns are superimposed on microbeats and macrobeats.

Rhythm Pattern

Two or more durations audiated sequentially forming a whole.

Rhythm Syllables

Different names chanted for different durations in a rhythm pattern. Rhythm syllables used in learning sequence activities are based on beat functions rather than time-value names of notes.

Sensitive Age

Eighteen months to five years old.

Stabilized Music Aptitude

Music potential no longer affected by environment. A child enters the stabilized music aptitude stage at approximately nine years old and remains there throughout life.

Structured Informal Guidance

Guidance based on a child’s natural responses and lesson plans. It occurs in acculturation, imitation, and assimilation, specifically stages 3 through 7 of preparatory audiation.

Subdominant Pattern

One function of tonal patterns. In major tonality it includes an arrangement of tonal syllables fa la do. In harmonic minor tonality, re fa la.

Subjective Keyality

Keyality for which there is no consensus.

Subjective Meter

Meter for which there is no consensus.

Subjective Tempo

Tempo for which there is no consensus.

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Subjective Tonality

Tonality for which there is no consensus.

Syntax

Orderly arrangement of pitches and durations that establishes tonality and meter of music. Music has context but not grammar.

Tempo

Speed at which rhythm patterns are performed and relative lengths of macrobeats within rhythm patterns.

Tessitura

Range within which almost all pitches of a song are found.

Time-Value Names

Fraction names given to durations relative to a whole note seen in music notation.

Tonal Pattern

Two, three, four, or five pitches in a tonality audiated sequentially forming a whole.

Tonal Syllables

Names sung for different pitches in a tonal pattern. Tonal syllables used in learning sequence activities are based on movable do with a la based minor.

Tonality

Determined by a resting tone. If do is resting tone, tonality is major, if la is resting tone, tonality is harmonic minor, and so on. A tonality is always in a keyality but a keyality may not be in a tonality.

Tonic

Pitch name of a keyality. For example, C, D, or Ef. A keyality has a tonic whereas a tonality has a resting tone.

Tonic Pattern

One function of tonal patterns. In major tonality it includes an arrangement of do mi so. In harmonic minor tonality, la do mi.

Triple Meter

See usual triple meter.

Transition Stages

Stages 4 and 6 of preparatory audiation. Also introductory times of change from informal guidance to formal instruction.

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Unstructured Informal Guidance

Guidance based on children’s natural responses, not lesson plans. It occurs in acculturation, specifically in stages 1 and 2 of preparatory audiation.

Unusual Meter

Four types of meter in which macrobeats are of unequal length, regardless of whether audiated in pairs or more than a pair, some are intact or divided into two or three microbeats of equal length.

Unusual Paired Meter

Meter that results when macrobeats of unequal length are audiated in pairs. Some macrobeats are divided into two and others three microbeats of equal length.

Unusual Unpaired Meter

Meter that results when macrobeats of unequal length are audiated in more than a pair. Some macrobeats are divided into two and others three microbeats of equal length.

Upbeat

Anacrusis, preparation for performing a macrobeat.

Usual Combined Meter

Meter that results when macrobeats of equal length are audiated in pairs. Some macrobeats are divided into two and others into three microbeats of unequal length.

Usual Duple Meter

Meter that results when macrobeats of equal length are audiated in pairs. Each macrobeat is divided into two microbeats of equal length.

Usual Meter

Three types of meter in which macrobeats of equal length are audiated in pairs. Macrobeats are divided into two or three microbeats of equal length or two and three microbeats of unequal length, depending on meter.

Usual Triple Meter

Meter that results when macrobeats of equal length are audiated in pairs. Each macrobeat is divided into three microbeats of equal length.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ainsworth, Mary D. S., M. C. Blehar, Everett Waters, and S. Wall. Patterns of Attachment. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1978. Bamberger, Jeanne. The Mind Behind the Musical Ear. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991. Bandura, Albert. Social Learning Theory. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1977. Crofts, 1971. Bernstein, Leonard. The Infinite Variety of Music. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1966. Bowlby, John. Attachment and Loss. New York: Basic Book, 1980. Deliege, Irene and John Sloboda, ed. Musical Beginnings. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. Erikson, Erik H. Childhood and Society. New York: W. W. Norton, 1963. Freud, Sigmund. Beyond the Pleasure Principle. New York: W. W. Norton, 1961. Freud, Sigmund. The Ego and the Id. New York: W. W. Norton, 1962. Gordon, Edwin. Musical Aptitude Profile. Chicago: GIA, 1965, 1988, 1995. Gordon, Edwin E. Primary Measures of Music Audiation. Chicago: GIA, 1979.

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Gordon, Edwin E. The Manifestation of Developmental Music Aptitude in the Audiation of “Same” and “Different” as Sound in Music. Chicago: GIA, 1981. Gordon, Edwin E. Intermediate Measures of Music Audiation. Chicago: GIA, 1982. Gordon, Edwin E. Instrument Timbre Preference Test. Chicago: GIA, 1984. Gordon, Edwin E. “The Importance of Being Able to Audiate ‘Same’ and ‘Different’ for Learning Music.” Music Education for the Handicapped, 2 (1986), 3–27. Gordon, Edwin E. Advanced Measures of Music Audiation. Chicago: GIA, 1989. Gordon, Edwin E. Audie. Chicago: GIA, 1989. Gordon, Edwin E. Guiding Your Child’s Musical Development. Chicago: GIA, 1991. Gordon, Edwin E. Jump Right In to Listening: Music for Young Children. Chicago: GIA, 1991. Gordon, Edwin E. et al. The Early Childhood Curriculum. Experimental Songs and Chants Without Words. Chicago: GIA, 1993. Gordon, Edwin E. Learning Sequences in Music: A Contemporary Music Learning Theory. Chicago: GIA, 2012. Gordon, Edwin E. Harmonic Improvisation Readiness Record. Chicago: GIA, 1998. Gordon, Edwin E. Introduction to Research and the Psychology of Music. Chicago: GIA, 1998. Gordon, Edwin E. Rhythm: Contrasting the Implications of Audiation and Notation. Chicago: GIA, 2000. Gordon, Edwin E. More Songs and Chants Without Words. Chicago: GIA, 2000.

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Gordon, Edwin E. Preparatory Audiation, Audiation, and Music Learning Theory. Chicago: GIA, 2001. Gordon, Edwin E. Improvisation in the Music Classroom. Chicago: GIA, 2003. Gordon, Edwin E. Music Audiation Games. Chicago: GIA, 2003. Gordon, Edwin E. The Aural/Visual Experience of Music Literacy: Reading and Writing Music Notation. Chicago: GIA, 2004. Gordon, Edwin E. Harmonic Improvisation for Adult Musicians. Chicago: GIA, 2005. Gordon, Gordon, Edwin E. Awakening Newborns, Children, and Adults to the World of Audiation. Chicago: GIA, 2007. Gordon, Edwin E. Corybantic Conversations. Imagined Encounters Between Dalcroze, Kodály, Laban, Mason, Orff, Seashore, and Suzuki. Chicago: GIA, 2008. Gordon, Edwin E. Apollonian Apostles. Conversations About the Nature, Measurement, and Implications of Music Aptitudes. Chicago: GIA, 2009. Gordon, Edwin E. Taking a Reasonable and Honest Look at Tonal Solfege and Rhythm Solfege. Chicago: GIA, 2009. Gordon, Edwin E. Essential Preparation for Beginning Instrumental Music Instruction. Chicago: GIA, 2010. Gordon, Edwin E. Possible Impossibilities in Undergraduate Music Education. Chicago: GIA, 2010. Gordon, Edwin E. Society and Musical Development. Another Pandora Box. Chicago: GIA, 2010. Gordon, Edwin E. Music Listening Experiences for Newborn and Preschool Children: Notation and Recording of Brief Tunes and Rhythm Chants in Many Tonalities and Meters. Chicago: GIA, 2011. Harnoncourt, Nikolaus. Baroque Music Today: trans. Mary O’Neill. Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press, 1988. Hirsch, E. D. Cultural Literacy. New York: Vintage Books, 1988.

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Inhelder, Barbel, and Jean Piaget. The Early Growth of Logic in the Child. New York: W. W. Norton, 1969. Jaques-Dalcroze, Emile. Rhythm, Music and Education. trans. Harold F. Rubenstein. London: Riverside Press, 1967. Kessen, William. The Child. New York: Wiley, 1965. Koestler, Arthur. The Act of Creation. London: Pan Books, 1964. Laban, Rudolf. Mastery of Movement. London: MacDonald and Evans, 1971. Miller, Neal E. and John Dollard. Social Learning and Imitation. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1941. Moorhead, Gladys Evelyn and Donald Pond. Music of Young Children. Santa Barbara, California: Pilsbury Foundation for Advancement of Music Education, 1977. Piaget, Jean. Origins of Intelligence in Children. trans. Margaret Cook. New York: W. W. Norton, 1963. Rainbow, Bernarr. The Land Without Music. London: Novello, 1967. Rainbow, Bernarr. Music in Educational Thought and Practice. Aberystwyth, Dyfed, Wales: Boethius Press, 1990. Siegler, Robert S. Emerging Minds: The Process of Change in Children’s Thinking. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. Vygotsky, L. S. Thought and Language. ed and trans. Eugenia Haufmann and Gertrude Vakar. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1967. Zuckerkandl, Victor. Sound and Symbol. trans. Willard R. Trask. New York: Pantheon Books, 1956.

INDEX Accompaniments 89 Acculturation 30, 33, 34, 39–100 Achievement 40, 133 Active/passive 43 Age 131, 149 Advanced Measures of Music Audiation 17 Appreciation 10 Arpeggiated 95 Assimilation 30, 36, 37, 119–129 Audiation 21–29, 95 Audiation instrument 151 Audiation stare 111 Audie 118 Audiences 37 Aural perception 23 Babble 5, 6, 16, 17, 30, 88 Brain 2, 12, 13 Breaking the code 5 Breathing 26, 37, 95, 120, 121, 128, 153 Chanting 7, 44, 45, 141, 142 Chants 31, 44, 70–87, 143–146 Compensatory instruction 1, 40, 41 Content/context 96, 97, 98, 103, 115 Coordination 37, 99, 121 Creativity 100 Curriculum 145

Developmental/stabilized 15 Dynamics 41 Ensemble 37 Entertainment 9 Equipment 158 Environment 11, 14 Errors 45, 113 Fingerings 148, 154 Flow 117, 125 Formal instruction 131–146 Groups 151, 152 Guidance 1, 3 Heredity 12 Holding 43 Idiographic evaluation 18 Imagery 23 Imitation 24, 25, 30, 34–36, 101–118 Improvisation 139 Innate 14 Individual musical differences 117, 118, 129 Inner hearing 24 Instruction 1, 3, 8, 9 Instrument Timbre Preference Test 150

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Instrumental music 26, 147–155 Instruments 41, 43, 44, 101, 149, 150 Intermediate Measures of Music Audiation 118 Intelligence 11, 19, 20 Jump Right In: The Music Curriculum 134–137, 146 Jump 126, 128 Keyality 36, 89, 90 Language 4, 5, 23 Larynx 94 Learning sequence activities 29 Legato 104 Lessons 147, 149, 150, 152 Listening 7, 41, 88 Macrobeats 108, 123–125 Melodic patterns 93 Memorization 25 Memory 25 Meter 26, 27, 36, 90, 93 Microbeats 108, 123–125 Mistakes 24 Modeling 116 Movement 8, 37, 88, 89, 92, 100, 109, 110, 123–127 Music achievement 11 Music aptitude 11–20, 91, 117, 118, 128, 129, 145, 146 Music aptitude tests 18, 19, 132 Music learning theory 29 Musical Aptitude Profile 17 Normative evaluation 18 Notation 147, 148

Parents 3, 4, 159 Pauses 95, 120, 121, 128 Pentatonic 144 Personal pitch/tempo 90, 91, 104, 105 Physical characteristics 149 Pitch center 36 Practicing 152 Preference 149 Preparatory audiation 29–37 Preschool 157–161 Primary Measures of Music Audiation 118 Pulsating beats 123, 124 Range 90, 95, 107, 108, 150 Readiness 132–146, 148 Recognition 25 Recordings 36, 43–43, 97 Remedial instruction 1 Repetition 116, 160 Responses 88 Resting tone 103 Rhythm 8, 41 Rhythm patterns 97–99, 108–111, 125–127 Rhythm syllables 97–100 Same/different 46, 114 Scheduling 9, 133, 140, 158 School music 132, 146 Sequence 116, 160 Silence 116 Singing 7, 44, 45, 89, 94, 95, 128, 129, 141 Singing voice 6, 44, 106, 107, 141, 142 Solo singing 37 Songs 31, 48–70, 143–146 Sound/sign 150 Space 117, 124, 125, 125

Index

Speaking voice 6, 106, 107, 141 Staccato 104 Syllables 44, 96, 104, 105, 127 Teachers 150, 161 Technique 148, 15 Tempo 36, 41, 91 Tension 153 Tessitura 90 Timbre 41 Time 117, 125 Tonal patterns 94, 95, 105, 128, 129 Tonality 26, 27, 36, 46, 93 Tone quality 41, 149, 155 Transition stages 35, 36, 110, 119 Transposition 97 Types and stages 22, 23, 30, 32 Variety 160 Vocabularies 5, 7, 8, 33, 39 Weight 117, 125–127 Words 44

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