Multidisciplinary Perspectives on Education [1 ed.] 9781443861724, 9781443860093

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Multidisciplinary Perspectives on Education

Multidisciplinary Perspectives on Education

Edited by

Hasan Arslan, Georgeta RaĠă, Ercan Kocayörük and Mehmet Ali øçbay

Multidisciplinary Perspectives on Education, Edited by Hasan Arslan, Georgeta RaĠă, Ercan Kocayörük and Mehmet Ali øçbay This book first published 2014 Cambridge Scholars Publishing 12 Back Chapman Street, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2XX, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2014 by Hasan Arslan, Georgeta RaĠă, Ercan Kocayörük, Mehmet Ali øçbay and contributors All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-4438-6009-3, ISBN (13): 978-1-4438-6009-3

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Tables .............................................................................................. xi List of Illustrations .................................................................................. xvii Foreword .................................................................................................. xix

Chapter One: Teaching and Teacher Education Empowering Learner Autonomy: A Case for Collaborative Learning Z. Zuhal Güven and Teresa Hecht-Valais ................................................... 3 Research Use Levels and Lifelong Learning Competencies of Elementary School Teachers Bariú Uslu .................................................................................................. 15 Problem-Solving Strategies Used by Pre-Service Science Teachers while Solving Physics Problems Ümmü-Gülsüm Iyibil, Funda Aydin Güç and Müge AkpÕnar ................... 23 Content Characteristics of Science and Nature Books for Children Nihat Bayat and Hakan Ülper .................................................................... 31 Perception of Giftedness in Primary School Teachers Esra Altintaú and Ahmet ù. Özdemir ......................................................... 39 Investigation of Job Satisfaction amongst Teachers Erkan Tabancali and Esra Çakmak ............................................................ 47 High School Students’ Metaphoric Perceptions of Teacher Image Soner Polat and Ender Kazak .................................................................... 55

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Table of Contents

Effects of Keeping Portfolios on Trainee Teachers’ Perceptions of the Writing Process Hülya Yumru ............................................................................................. 65 Effects of Metacognitive Strategies and Cooperative Learning on Mathematical Problem Solving Fatma Erdo÷an and Sare ùengül ................................................................ 71 Foreign Language Assistants in Elementary School: In-class Performance in Terms of Field of Study at College Amador Jiménez-Garrido and Eufrasio Pérez-Navío ................................ 79 The Conversion-Integration Methodology for Developing Numeracy Skills Kevin Norley ............................................................................................. 87 Examination of Pre-service Physics Teachers’ Science Process Skills in an Inquiry-Based Laboratory Environment Arzu Arslan, Feral Ogan-Bekiro÷lu and Erol Suzuk ................................. 95 Attitudes of Pre-school Teacher Candidates towards Cheating Saide Özbey, Aycan Büyüktanir, O÷uz-Serdar Kesicio÷lu and Didem Türko÷lu................................................................................ 105 Description of the Knowledge, Attitude and Behaviours of Candidate Teachers Regarding Genetically Modified Products Sevil Özcan and Gülúen Altintaú ............................................................. 119 Significance of Religious Values in Environmental Education Mustafa-Naci Kula .................................................................................. 127 Study Skills of Different Achievement Groups: The Case of Tunisian University Students Zeineb Amri ............................................................................................ 137 Mathematics Teachers’ Attitudes towards the Integration of Technology into Mathematics Classes Riza Memiú, Serkan Özel and Mehmet Özcan ........................................ 145 Medical Students’ Note-taking Strategies in Clinical Encounters Mehmet-Ali øçbay and Linda Morrison ................................................... 153

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Chapter Two: Psychosocial Development of Children in Education Parents’ Perception regarding School Attendance Mehmet Özbaú and Müjdat Avci ............................................................. 163 Analysis of Adolescents’ Communication Skills According to School Type and Gender Zühal Gümüú-Gers and Aynur Bütün-Ayhan .......................................... 179 Reasons for and Impacts of School Dropout: A Case Study in Sanliurfa, Turkey Hüseyin ùimúek and Sevda Katitaú ......................................................... 187 Parents’ Attitudes towards Children’s Rights according to Child’s Age and Gender Müge Yurtsever-Kiliçgün and Ayla Oktay .............................................. 195 Examining Elementary School Students’ Opinions on Violence Yücel Geliúli, Adelet Kandir, Fatma Tezel-ùahin and Elçin Yazici ........ 205 Exploration of Trainee Teachers’ Experiences of Being Cyber Bullies or Victims Nilgün Tosun ........................................................................................... 215 Problems Parents and Children Face in Families with Different Incomes and Their Expectations from Each Other Selma Ertürk and Nedime ùanli .............................................................. 227 Education and Family Seval Güven and Zeynep Açik ................................................................ 235 School Adjustment of 5-6 Year-Old Children of Divorced and Undivorced Families Hülya Gülay Ogelman, Zarife Seçer, Alev Önder and Devletyar Mamiyev .......................................................................... 243 Youth and Postmodern Identity Patterns: A Sociological Profile of University Youth (The Case of ønonu University, Turkey) Vehbi Bayhan .......................................................................................... 251

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Table of Contents

Psychological Effects of Natural Disasters on Students and Emergency Response Plans Özgür Batur ............................................................................................. 259 Behaviour of Pre-schoolers and Adaptation to School Hacer Elif Da÷lio÷lu, Hatice Da÷li and Nazmiye Merve Dalkiliç .......... 267 University Students’ Perception of the Family Hatice Bekir and Remzi Aydin ................................................................ 277 Quality in Early Childhood: Acknowledging the Child’s Right to Love, Care and Education in the Early Years Diana Didilică.......................................................................................... 287

Chapter Three: Educational Policy Teaching Democracy and Citizenship: A Case Study in Turkey Mehtap Yildirim ...................................................................................... 297 Why Teacher Autonomy? Tugay Tutkun and Salih-Zeki Genç ........................................................ 307 Are Gypsies Without Education or Is Education Without Gypsies? Gypsy Women and Education Dilek Ero÷lu, Irem O÷uz and Ali Babahan.............................................. 315 University as a Taylorist Institution and the Perception of the Motto: The Case of Gazi University, Turkey Ahmet-Yekta Kayman and Baúak Uysal ................................................. 329 Transformational Leadership in Higher Education Osman-Ferda Beytekin ............................................................................ 339 What Is Happening to Economics Departments in Turkish Higher Education? Sirri-Emrah Üçer and Feride Do÷aner-Gönel .......................................... 349 Counterproductive Work Behaviour in Relation to Personality Type and Cognitive Distortion Level in Academics Metin Piúkin, Müge Ersoy-Kart, Ilkay SavcÕ and Özgür Güldü .............. 357

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Potential Educational Emigration of Georgian Students for Study Purposes Ana Tukhashvili ...................................................................................... 367 Impacts of the Turkish Education System on Migration Ulaú Sunata .............................................................................................. 375 Monitoring Teacher’s Competences Handan Kocabatmaz ................................................................................ 385 The Importance of Service Learning Çavuú ùahin and Serdar Arcagök ............................................................ 393 Logistics Vocational Education in Germany and Turkey Didem Çavuúo÷lu and Hakan Keskin ...................................................... 401 Constructivist Program Leadership and Guidance Levels amongst School Principals Ahmet Kaya and Ahmet Göçen ............................................................... 409 Students’ Opinion on the Safety of High Schools: The Case of Çanakkale, Turkey Alper Çaliko÷lu and Halil Iúik................................................................. 417

Chapter Four: Language in Teaching Learning Strategies in Language Course Books Hakan Bayezit and Fatma-Feryal Çubukçu ............................................. 427 Convergence and Divergence in Online English Language Teaching Materials H.-Sezgi Saraç and Nehir Sert ................................................................. 435 Comparative Study of Turkish BA, MA and PhD ELT Students’ Attitudes towards the Teaching Profession Gamze Almacio÷lu .................................................................................. 443 Role of Mentoring in ELT Teacher Candidates’ Professional Development Fatma-ùeyma Do÷an ............................................................................... 451

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Table of Contents

Learning Success through Composition of Didactics and Technology Margarita Elkina ...................................................................................... 459 Writing vs. the Red Pen: Omani College Students’ Perspectives on Teacher-Student Writing Conferences Badriya AlGhafri ..................................................................................... 465 Views on the Use of Connectives in Students’ Written Discourse Gökhan Çetinkaya, Hakan Ülper and Ergün Hamzadayi ........................ 471 English for Specific Purposes in Turkish Higher Education Nehir Sert and H. Sezgi Saraç ................................................................. 477 Teaching Idioms in English as a Foreign Language Suzana Ejupi ............................................................................................ 485 Quality of English Language Teaching in Turkish Secondary Education Serkan Uygun .......................................................................................... 493 Contributors ............................................................................................. 501

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1-1. Distribution of teachers according to specific features............. 16 Table 1-2. Descriptive statistics about LLLCS and sub-dimensions ......... 17 Table 1-3. Correlations coefficients between variables and LLLC ........... 18 Table 1-4. First step regression model’s coefficients on LLLC ................ 19 Table 1-5. Last step regression model’s coefficients on LLLC ................. 20 Table 1-6. Frequency of the use of problem-solving strategies by pre-service teachers for each problem .................................................... 27 Table 1-7. Answers to questions according to themes and categories ....... 42 Table 1-8. Demographics of participants................................................... 48 Table 1-9. Evaluating questionnaire .......................................................... 49 Table 1-10. Job satisfaction levels of teachers .......................................... 50 Table 1-11. Job satisfaction level according to gender .............................. 50 Table 1-12. Extrinsic satisfaction level of teachers according to branches51 Table 1-13. Positive metaphors used by students about their perceptions of teacher image and their distribution according to themes ................... 61 Table 1-14. Negative metaphors developed by students about their perceptions of teacher image and their distribution according to themes .............................................................................................. 62 Table 1-15. ANOVA results for the MPSAS pre-test.................................. 75 Table 1-16. ANOVA results for the MPSAS post-test scores...................... 75 Table 1-17. Scheffe test results for the MPSAS post-test scores .................. 76 Table 1-18. Pre-service teachers’ pre-post test scores differentiation Wilcoxon Two Sample Test results ..................................................... 99 Table 1-19. According to factors pre-post scores differentiation Wilcoxon two sample test results....................................................... 100 Table 1-20. T-test results of teacher candidates’ scores on scale of attitude towards cheating according to sex .................................... 107 Table 1-21. T-test result of teacher candidates’ scores on scale of attitude towards cheating according to education type .................. 108 Table 1-22. T-test result of teacher candidates’ scores on scale of attitude towards cheating according to choosing department willingly .......... 108 Table 1-23. One-way analysis of variance related teacher candidates’ scores on scale of attitude towards cheating according to high school they have graduated ........................................................................... 108

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List of Tables

Table 1-24. One-way analysis of variance related teacher candidates’ scores on scale of attitude towards cheating according to mother’s educational status ............................................................................... 109 Table 1-25. One-way analysis of variance related teacher candidates’ scores on scale of attitude towards cheating according to father’s educational status ............................................................................... 109 Table 1-26. One-way analysis of variance related teacher candidates’ scores on scale of attitude towards cheating according to mother’s profession ........................................................................................... 110 Table 1-27. One-way analysis of variance related teacher candidates’ scores on scale of attitude towards cheating according to father’s profession ........................................................................................... 110 Table 1-28. One-way analysis of variance related teacher candidates’ scores on scale of attitude towards cheating according to academic success perception.............................................................................. 111 Table 1-29. Percentage and N table related to teacher candidates’ views about which kind of exams cheated ................................................... 111 Table 1-30. Teacher candidates’ views about which kind of exams is cheated ........................................................................................... 112 Table 1-31. Teacher candidates’ views about cheating types .................. 112 Table 1-32. Teacher candidates’ views about the reasons of cheating .... 112 Table 1-33. Teacher candidates’ views on their own cheating situations ............................................................................................ 113 Table 1-34. Teacher candidates’ views on their friend’s cheating situations ............................................................................................ 113 Table 1-35. Distribution of candidate teachers according to school and branches ...................................................................................... 120 Table 1-36. Krustal-Wallis test of high-, mid- and low-achievers on the LASSI ..................................................................................... 140 Table 1-37. Means of high-achievers’ scores on the LASSI ................... 140 Table 1-38. The sample characteristics in the study .................................. 155 Table 1-39. Note-taking strategies ............................................................ 157 Table 2-1. Factor variances and alpha values of the BCPFAPEA Scale ...................................................................................................... 167 Table 2-2. Perceptions of parents related to the socio-economic properties of poor families ................................................................. 168 Table 2-3. Perceptions of low-income parents in relation to the experience of their children within public education ........................................... 169 Table 2-4. Variables of parents’ educational status in poor families ....... 170 Table 2-5. Professional status of father in poor families ......................... 171 Table 2-6. Profession of mother in poor families .................................... 172

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Table 2-7. Number of children in poor families ...................................... 172 Table 2-8. Level of income in poor families ........................................... 173 Table 2-9. Kruskal Wallis test results and standard deviation one-way analysis of variance of adolescents’ communication skills average scores according to type of school ..................................................... 182 Table 2-10. Mann Whitney U Test results and standard deviation t-test of adolescents’ communication skills average scores according to gender ............................................................................ 184 Table 2-11. Findings related to participants’ academic achievement at the year of dropping out of school ................................................. 189 Table 2-12. Findings related to tendency to violence and participants’ status of getting involved in crime ..................................................... 190 Table 2-13. Findings related to harmful substance use habits of individuals who dropped out of school .......................................... 190 Table 2-14. Findings related to family characteristics of individuals who dropped out of school ................................................................. 191 Table 2-15. Findings related to participants’ views intended for school satisfaction, interest of administrators and teachers at school and violence in school environment in the year they dropped out of school............................................................................................. 192 Table 2-16. T-test results of attitudes of parents for children’s rights depending on gender of children ........................................................ 199 Table 2-17. ANOVA results of attitudes of parents for children’s rights on age of children .............................................................................. 199 Table 2-18. Distribution of students according to gender........................ 207 Table 2-19. What does violence towards another person make you think of? ............................................................................................. 208 Table 2-20. Have you ever seen anyone using violence? ........................ 208 Table 2-21. Where did you see somebody using violence? ..................... 209 Table 2-22. What was the person being violent doing? ........................... 209 Table 2-23. Has anyone been violent towards you? ................................ 210 Table 2-24. Who used violence against you? .......................................... 210 Table 2-25. Why was violence used towards you? .................................. 211 Table 2-26. Have you ever used violence against any other one? ........... 211 Table 2-27. Who did you use violence on? ............................................. 211 Table 2-28. Why did you use violence? .................................................. 212 Table 2-29. Frequency distribution of students by gender ...................... 216 Table 2-30. Cyber bully and victim scale reliability coefficients ............ 217 Table 2-31. The average overall scores of cyber-victim/cyber-bully of participating students ..................................................................... 217

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List of Tables

Table 2-32. Frequency distribution of the answers of participating students to questions in personal information form ......................................... 218 Table 2-33. Mann-Whitney U-test results; relationship between whether students were educated in boarding schools and whether they were cyber-bullies/victims ......................................................... 219 Table 2-34. Kruskal-Wallis H-test results; relationship between students’ mothers’ level of education and whether students were cyber-bullies/victims ................................................................. 219 Table 2-35. Kruskal-Wallis H-test results; relationship between students’ fathers’ level of education and whether students were cyber-bullies/victims ................................................................. 220 Table 2-36. Mann-Whitney U-test results; relationship between whether students’ parents were separated and whether students were cyber-bullies/victims ................................................................. 220 Table 2-37. Kruskal-Wallis H-test results; relationship between students’ family domicile and whether they were cyber-bullies/ victims................................................................................................ 222 Table 2-38. Mann-Whitney U-test results; relationship between whether students’ parents acted violently towards each other and whether students were cyber-bullies/victims............................... 222 Table 2-39. Mann-Whitney U-test results; relationship between violence witnessed in students’ neighbourhoods and whether they were cyber-bullies/victims ................................................................. 223 Table 2-40. To what degree the expectations of children are met by their parents? .............................................................................................. 229 Table 2-41. To what degree are the expectations of parents met by their children? ............................................................................................ 231 Table 2-42. Distribution of the type of reactions parents display when their expectations are not met by the children (according to children’s and parents’ reports).......................................................... 232 Table 2-43. Distribution of the type of reactions children display when their expectations are not met by the parents according to children reports and parent reports................................................. 232 Table 2-44. T-Test results for school liking scores of children based on whether or not their parents are divorced ...................................... 246 Table 2-45. T-Test results for classroom participation scores of children based on whether or not their parents are divorced ......... 246 Table 2-46. T-Test results for school avoidance scores of children based on whether or not their parents are divorced ............................ 247 Table 2-47. T-Test results for self-directiveness scores of children based on whether or not their parents are divorced ............................ 247

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Table 2-48. T-Test results for total school adjustment scores of children based on whether or not their parents are divorced ......... 247 Table 2-49. The relationships between children’s behaviour and the subcategories of school adjustment ....................................... 270 Table 2-50. The differences between the behaviours of children and their adjustment to school with regard to the socio-economic levels of schools ................................................................................. 271 Table 2-51. The differences between the behaviours of children and their adjustment to school with regard to teachers’ educational backgrounds ....................................................................................... 272 Table 3-1. Gender, teaching experience (years) and educational level distributions ....................................................................................... 299 Table 3-2. Special training activities by four Turkish civil associations for gypsy women ..................................................................................... 326 Table 3-3. Success of undergraduate students of YTU Economics ......... 350 Table 3-4. The Model of Counterproductive Work Behaviours (Robinson & Bennett, 1995)................................................................................ 358 Table 3-5. Distribution of the sample by sex, age, educational level, and term of employment ........................................................................... 360 Table 3-6. Correlation Coefficients among Personality-CD and CWBTypes.................................................................................................. 363 Table 3-7. Distribution of the respondents according to their answers given to the question ‘Why have you chosen to follow that particular profession?’........................................................................................ 369 Table 3-8. Distribution of the respondents according to their command of a foreign language ......................................................................... 369 Table 3-9. Distribution of the respondents who wish to study abroad according to the countries of emigration they intend to go ................ 371 Table 3-10. Distribution of the respondents according to their answers given to the question “Why do you wish to go to that particular country?”............................................................................................ 371 Table 3-11. Education policy in sociological dimensions .......................... 377 Table 3-12. Numbers of student enrolment and graduates in secondary and tertiary education of Turkey .......................................................... 378 Table 3-13. Female participation rates in secondary and tertiary education (1923-2012) ........................................................................................ 381 Table 3-14. Distribution of students according to certain features related to teaching practice course ................................................................. 387 Table 3-15. Averages related to competencies of supervising teachers expected by prospective teachers and to competencies of supervising teachers, and t-test ...................................................... 388

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List of Tables

Table 3-16. Averages related to competencies of supervising teachers according to the departments of prospective teachers, including ANOVA results.................................................................................. 389 Table 3-17. Averages related to supervising teachers’ having competencies according to gender of prospective teachers, including t-test ............ 390 Table 3-18. Comparison of the logistics vocational education in Turkey and Germany with the sectors characteristics.................... 406 Table 3-19. Constructivist program leadership and guidance levels of school principals ............................................................................ 411 Table 3-20. Constructivist programme leadership and guidance levels of school principals according to the qualitative interviews .............. 412 Table 3-21. Target population and numerical data of the sample ............ 419 Table 3-22. Cronbach Alpha Reliability for the school safety survey ..... 419 Table 3-23. Numeric values for verbal corresponding ............................ 420 Table 3-24. Descriptive findings related to the answerers ....................... 421 Table 3-25. Findings related to the dimensions of school safety ............. 421 Table 4-1. Frequency (n) and proportion of strategies ............................ 429 Table 4-2. Metacognitive strategies ......................................................... 430 Table 4-3. Cognitive Strategies ............................................................... 431 Table 4-4. Social and affective strategies ................................................ 431 Table 4-5. Strategy Combinations ........................................................... 432 Table 4-6. New Headway Upper-Intermediate, online materials ............... 437 Table 4-7. Solutions, online materials ....................................................... 438 Table 4-8. New English File, online materials........................................... 439 Table 4-9. ELT students’ general attitude scores..................................... 445 Table 4-10. ANOVA results for the correlation between ELT students’ attitude scores and their education levels ........................................... 446 Table 4-11. Results of t-test and ANOVA for correlation between ELT students’ attitude scores and occupation, gender and age variables... 446 Table 4-12. Results of the regular evaluation ........................................... 464 Table 4-13. Benefits of writing conferences as identified by students .... 467 Table 4-14. The acquisition order of connectives in child language ....... 472 Table 4-15. Frequency and distribution of connectives in terms of type . 474 Table 4-16. Most frequently used connectives in texts............................ 475 Table 4-17. Frequency and distribution of accurately and appropriately used connectives ................................................... 475

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure 1-1. Examples of problems addressed to pre-service teachers ....... 25 Figure 1-2. Solution of a problem being addressed to pre-service teachers with different strategies ......................................................................... 26 Figure 1-3. Example of solutions for problem No. 1 given by pre-service teachers ................................................................................................ 28 Figure 1-4. Example of solutions of pre-service teachers for the fourth problem ................................................................................................ 28 Figure 1-5. Percentage per field of study................................................... 83 Figure 1-6. Lead teacher evaluation .......................................................... 84 Figure 1-7. Inquiry process in this study ................................................... 98 Figure 1-8. Distribution of candidate teachers’ total attitude scores ....... 123 Figure 1-9. Means of scores of high-, mid- and low-achievers on the cognitive scales of the LASSI ............................................................ 142 Figure 1-10. Means of scores of high-, mid- and low-achievers on the affective scales of the LASSI ............................................................. 143 Figure 1-11. The scatter plot between experience and attitude score ...... 149 Figure 1-12. Characteristics of a good note ............................................. 156 Figure 1-13. Sample note......................................................................... 158 Figure 2-1. Level of income in poor families .......................................... 173 Figure 3-1. The distribution of positive and negative perceptions by grades ............................................................................................ 333 Figure 3-2. Distribution of most important causes of positive and negative perceptions of the motto .............................................. 334 Figure 3-3. Causes of positive and negative perceptions of the motto on Twitter........................................................................................... 336 Figure 3-4. Rank of the last accepted undergraduate student .................. 351 Figure 3-5. Educational background of father (%) .................................. 352 Figure 3-6. Educational background of mother (%) ................................ 352 Figure 3-7. Income group of father (%)................................................... 353 Figure 3-8. Income group of mother (%)................................................. 353 Figure 3-9. High school academic background of students (%) .............. 354 Figure 3-10. Information sources that determined preference ................. 355 Figure 3-11. Simultaneous preferences of students of economics ........... 356 Figure 3-12. Proposed model................................................................... 359

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List of Illustrations

Figure 3-13. Distribution of the respondents according to their command of a foreign language ......................................................... 369 Figure 3-19. General structure of the Turkish education system ............. 407 Figure 4-1. Number of interactions by students with resources over the period ................................................................................... 461 Figure 4-2. Number of interactions by students with resources ... 462 Figure 4-3. Number of interactions by students to resources ...... 463

FOREWORD

The book Multidisciplinary Perspectives on Education is a collection of essays on educational issues written by educators and researchers from three continents—Africa, Asia, and Europe. The first chapter, Teaching and Teacher Education, starts with a study on collaborative learning by Güven and Hecht-Valais. In their attempt to demonstrate how learner-centred teaching methods can be implemented in foreign or second language classrooms, the authors investigate the views of the teachers of EFL about collaborative learning, more specifically about the implementation of project-based learning as a pathway towards learner autonomy. The findings indicate that the topics in the classrooms need to be varied to complement diverse student learning styles and interests, thus offering students more choices. The study by Uslu, that uses the predictive research in the survey model, examines the relationship between educational research use levels and lifelong-learning competencies of elementary school teachers. Questioning 206 teachers from 19 elementary schools of Çanakkale, Turkey, the author shows that lifelong-learning competencies of teachers are high, indicating that the relationships of teachers’ lifelong-learning competencies with their frequency of following educational research, performing educational research, following periodical publications and educational status are significant. In their study, Iyibil, Güç and Akpinar examine 24 pre-service teachers’ answers in detail. They show that 24 pre-service teachers from the Faculty of Education in the Eastern Black Sea region of Turkey generally use the strategies of linear solution, drawing, finding a pattern, intelligent guessing and testing, adopting a different point of view, considering extreme cases, organizing the data and accounting for all possibilities less, but never use the strategies of solving a simpler analogous problem and working backwards. Altintaú and Özdemir investigate how 200 primary school teachers view gifted children in their classrooms. They ask two open-ended questions: “What are gifted children for you?” and “What are the characteristics of gifted children?” The findings suggest that gifted children are mostly perceived by their teachers as students who have high interest in the topics and who get easily bored during the lessons when the topics are below their level and when they are not allowed to use their potential. Tabancali and Çakmak report a study on the teacher’s job satisfaction. Employing

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Foreword

239 teachers working in 42 primary schools in Istanbul, Turkey, they use Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire to find out the teacher’s job satisfaction levels. The analyses indicate that both male and female teachers’ intrinsic satisfaction levels are high. However, female teachers’ intrinsic satisfaction levels are statistically higher than male teachers’ are. There is no significant difference in teachers’ both extrinsic and intrinsic satisfaction levels according to age. Art, music and gym teachers’ extrinsic satisfaction levels are higher than primary school teachers’ extrinsic satisfaction levels. Examining the use of metaphors in class, Polat and Kazak demonstrate how high school students perceive their teachers. Two hundred and twenty 12th grade high school students produced positive personal images of their teachers: the Counsellor Teacher, the Educative Teacher, the Teacher as a Source of Knowledge, the Fellow Sufferer Teacher, the Caretaker Teacher, the Confident Teacher, the Helpful Teacher, the Leader Teacher, the Relaxing Teacher, and the Big-Hearted Teacher. In her study, Yumru reports her solution to the theory-practice problem of ELT students by reconstructing the first year Reading & Writing course in the Department of English Language Teaching at Cag University, Turkey. More specifically, she investigates whether the involvement in keeping portfolios has an effect on student teachers’ understanding of the process approach to teaching writing prior to their pedagogical courses. The results indicate that students’ active involvement in a process approach to teaching writing, together with the summative and formative functions of the portfolio assessment prior to pedagogical courses, helps them conceptualize the writing strategies to be taught to the students in their future practices. In their study, Jiménez-Garrido and Pérez-Navío explore the nature of the change that new teachers undergo when they switch from regular education to full immersion education. Monitoring 24 new teachers in a full immersion school in the USA, they suggest that districts and schools need to prepare educators before they start their teaching duties. For them, preparing teachers for immersion education does not mean limiting their performance in class but to give them a wide range of strategies and techniques to choose from. In his paper, Norley highlights the state of numeracy amongst the general British population; he outlines and advocates a methodology for rectifying some of the issues raised, describes the context in which it is used, briefly examines the role of technology in the learning of numeracy, draws conclusions and makes recommendations. In their study, Arslan, OganBekiro÷lu and Suzuk examine the change in the pre-service physics teachers’ science process skills in an inquiry-based laboratory environment. During a 12-week study, 25 pre-service teachers participated in inquiry-

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based activities for 2 hours per week. Two activities are given to the preservice teachers: the first activity is about an inclined plane and the second is about free falling. Results show that inquiry-based activities improve pre-service teachers’ science process skills. Özbey, Büyüktanir, Kesicio÷lu and Türko÷lu explore how teacher candidates view cheating. They examine whether cheating differs according to gender, academic success, grade level, family attitude, family’s education level and professions. In their study, Özcan and Altintaú investigate how candidate teachers regard genetically modified products: 5854 year-candidate teachers in Biology, Science and Elementary Education from eleven different Turkish universities (the Marmara, the Aegean and the Black Sea) complete a survey consisting of 23 questions developed by the researchers. Results show that candidate teachers believe they have not been informed enough about GMOs. Investigating study skills of different achievement groups totalling 156 students, Amri shows that the use of study skills affects academic achievement: cognitive skills, such as self-testing strategies and the selection of main ideas, are positively related to academic success whereas affective skills, such as motivation and anxiety, hinder academic achievement. In their study, Memiú, Özel and Özcan critically investigate mathematics teachers’ attitudes toward the use of technology in mathematics classes. Employing mathematics teachers working in Istanbul, Gaziantep, and Balikesir, Turkey, they show that both female and male students have positive attitudes toward technology while there is a significant difference between high school and primary school mathematics teachers. In addition, mathematics teachers who work in private schools have a more positive attitude than mathematics teachers who work in public schools. Finally, by analyzing how note-taking is accomplished in a set of standardized clinical encounters, øçbay and Morrison seek to determine what medical students and residents do while watching clinical encounters in an experimental setting that contributes to the quality of their resulting clinical chart notes. The second chapter is dedicated to the psychosocial development of children in education. Özbaú and Avci investigate the relationship between the socio-economic status of the family and the benefits of education. The paper by Gümüú-Gers and Bütün-Ayhan presents the issue of adolescents’ communication styles. Adolescents acquire many skills in school, and the school settings have an impact on their communication skills. The authors examine the effect of school type and gender on adolescents’ communication skills. A qualitative study written by ùimúek and Katitaú focuses on school-dropout: Reasons for and Impacts of School Dropout: A Case Study in Sanliurfa, Turkey presents the reasons of school dropout in

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Foreword

the rural area of Turkey with a case study in Sanliurfa. Another paper gives a valuable perspective on parental attitudes towards the child rights. Yurtsever-Kiliçgün and Oktay discuss this topic considering the child’s age and gender. Geliúli, Kandir, Tezel-ùahin and Yazici’s paper focuses on students’ thoughts and opinions about violence. The study examines the views of primary school students about violence. The research is a descriptive study and the sample consisted of 87 students attending primary school in Yenimahalle, the city of Ankara, Turkey. The authors argue that students use violence as a way to solve problems. Three subsequent studies focus on the association between family type and children development. Ertürk and ùanli consider the income level of the families in the Eskiúehir province, Turkey. Güven and Açik attempt to explore the relationship between family and education and the effects it has on the children. A further study by Ogelman, Seçer, Önder and Mamiyev investigate the effect of divorced and un-divorced families on children. The research paper written by Bayhan examines the postmodern identity of college students. In addition, the paper argues that determining the problems of university students will provide a more analytical understanding of the “social segment” made up by both future managers and elites. Determining the issues through “explaining” and “understanding”, and producing the solutions is the most important function of the scientific knowledge from a sociological point of view. Batur pays attention to the Psychological Effects of Natural Disasters on Students and Emergency Response Plans. The author states that natural events cannot be controlled, but their effects can be reduced by conscious city planning, by developing physical and environmental protection methods and through mass education. The study written by Da÷lio÷lu, Da÷li and Dalkiliç examines the relationship between the behaviours of preschoolers and their adaptation to school with regard to several variables. Bekir and Aydin clarify the perception of college students on their families. The authors claim that given that university students will be the intellectual and dynamic segment of the society in the future, their understanding of family is more important than ever. Didilică underlines the very crucial issue of child’s rights in early childhood. The paper provides further knowledge about the children’s rights-based approach in the context of early childhood education and care (ECEC). The third chapter is dedicated to educational policy. Yildirim focuses on the teaching of democracy and citizenship. The author underlines the issue of the learning process in the teaching of the rights of children from survival and protection to development and participation. Tutkun and Salih-Genç focus on the importance of social, economic and cultural

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changes in teacher’s activities and roles. Their paper aims at stressing the need for teacher autonomy in terms of increasing the teacher’s role in education. Another interesting paper belonging to Ero÷lu, O÷uz and Babahan wonders if the Gypsies are without education or education is without the Gypsies. This study is based on the findings of a group of researchers that aim to make the women in the Roma communities visible. Kayman and UysaI examine the university as a Taylorist institution and the reception of the motto in the case of the Gazi University, Turkey. The data obtained in the study are useful to corporate identity planners and give hints to institutions on the evaluation of the mottos that showcase corporate identity. The paper Transformational Leadership in Higher Education written by Beytekin contains an exploration of the nature of transformational behaviours of faculty deans so that a clearer understanding of what it means can cause effective management in higher education. Üçer and Gönel focus on the issue of higher education of economics in Turkey. The authors complain about economics in higher education and are concerned about the transformation of the student profile. The paper by Piúkin, Ersoy-Kart, SavcÕ and Güldü argue that behaviours are influenced by individuals’ personality traits because individuals make conscious choices when adopting certain behaviours. Tukhashvili’s study points to the importance of the potential emigration of Georgian students for study purposes. The author argues that many graduates continue to stay in foreign countries for work, and that educational migration turns into permanent migration, causing the country to lose intellectual potential. Another research paper was written by Sunata on the impacts of the Turkish education system on migration. This paper analyses the impact of the education system on migration. Kocabatmaz underlines the importance of supervising teachers’ competences and shows how to develop their professional competence during the period of teaching practice. The paper written by ùahin and Arcagök presents the issue of service learning. They approach the issue from four perspectives: the basics of service learning, the foundations of service learning in higher education, the foundations of service learning in Turkey, and the benefits of service learning. Çavuúo÷lu and Keskin examine the Logistics Vocational Education in Germany and Turkey. The main objective of their study is to present the contribution of education to the success of the logistics sector in Germany, the world’s logistics leader, and to compare the current situation of logistics vocational education in Germany and Turkey. Kaya and Göçen focus on the importance of the constructivist program leadership and guidance levels of school principals. The authors argue that these programs have changed not only the roles of teachers and students, but also those of the principals.

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Çaliko÷lu and Iúik’s paper shows how to increase safety of high schools based on the opinions of high school students related to the safety of the schools. The fourth chapter contains papers on language in teaching. The paper by Bayezit and Çubukçu compares Turkish and English language course books in terms of learning strategies based on the classification of O’Malley and Chamot (1990). Saraç and Sert debate the issue of Convergence and Divergence in Online English Language Teaching Materials. The authors tackle self-regulated learning via the integration of computer-based and elearning materials to the curricular activities. Another paper written by Almacio÷lu on Turkish BA, MA and PhD ELT students’ attitudes towards the teaching profession argues that the role of attitudes is crucial because there is a strong relationship among teacher attitudes, society and school. A further study of Do÷an examines the Role of Mentoring in ELT Teacher Candidates’ Professional Development because English is the leading foreign language due to its prestigious position in the world, which has led to the rising of importance of learning and teaching English. The author argues that the possession of good pronunciation and intonation are two crucial professional prerequisites for non-native English language teachers. The paper on Learning Success through Composition of Didactics and Technology by Elkina reports on the monitoring of the teaching course “Programming” offered to the students of the specialization “Informatics in Public Administration”. AlGhafri’s study focuses on Writing vs. the Red Pen: Omani College Students’ Perspectives on Teacher-Student Writing Conferences. The author claims that writing conferences between the teacher and the students is one of the most popular techniques that will never grow old over time. The paper Views on the Use of Connectives in Students’ Written Discourse written by Çetinkaya, Ülper and HAmzadayi argues that connectives have a significant role in the linkage of propositions in the text and the organization of information flow. Inaccurate use of connective elements may lead to disconnections between the message that the writer wants to convey and the message formed in the text. The paper English for Specific Purposes in Turkish Higher Education written by Sert and Saraç underlines that the origins of Languages for Specific Purposes (LSP) date back to the 16th century with the publication of the first phrase book for foreign tourists. Ejupi’s paper Teaching Idioms in English as a Foreign Language reflects the complexity of language comprehension for those who lack a native speaking environment. Finally, in his article Quality of English Language Teaching in Turkish Secondary Education, Uygun broadens his research on the improvement and maintenance of the

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quality of foreign language learning and teaching in Turkish secondary education institutions. Hasan Arslan

CHAPTER ONE TEACHING AND TEACHER EDUCATION

EMPOWERING LEARNER AUTONOMY: A CASE FOR COLLABORATIVE LEARNING Z. ZUHAL GÜVEN AND TERESA HECHT-VALAIS

Introduction Rapid social, economic, cultural and technological changes in the last century have brought about new insights for education. Those wishing to be competitive in business or academia must ensure they are up-to-date with twenty-first century skills and knowledge. In our global marketplace, lifelong learning is a reality, and the need to develop learner autonomy is an undeniable necessity. Another prerequisite for success in today’s world is communicative competence: the ability to use language appropriately in real contexts. In the past several decades, educational specialists have been conducting various studies on how to foster learner autonomy in the foreign or second language classroom as English has taken prominence as an international language. However, teachers’ perspectives toward implementing learner-centred teaching methods have not been studied comprehensively. This paper aims to contribute to closing this gap by investigating the views of the teachers who teach English as a foreign language, exploring collaborative learning as a whole, and describing specifically the implementation of project-based learning as a pathway towards learner autonomy.

Literature Review and Background of the Study Learner Autonomy Learner autonomy has been discussed with a great deal of interest in the last thirty years and much has been written about the definition, implementation and implications of autonomous learning (Holec, 1981; Little, 1991; Dickinson, 1995; Nunan, 1997; Oxford, 2003; Holec, 2008). According to Holec (1981), who first coined the term “learner autonomy”,

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autonomous learners are those who take the responsibility for the totality of their learning situation by determining their own objectives, defining the contents and the progression of their course; selecting the methods and techniques; monitoring this procedure, and evaluating what they have learned. As for the instructional applications of learner autonomy, educationalists have proposed several models, some of which are based on Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development. Vygotsky (1978: 68) emphasized “the distance between the actual level, as determined by independent problemsolving, and the level of potential development, as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers.” In the Gradual Release of Responsibility Model of Pearson and Gallagher (1983), which has inspired researchers to conceptualize the notion in various diagrams (Spires and Stone, 1989; Fisher and Freys, 2008; Murphy, 2009), the teacher and learner work together through a carefully guided process where the responsibility for learning is transferred from teacher to learner. This model combines Piaget’s work on cognitive structures and schema, Vygotsky’s work on proximal zone of development, Bandura’s work on attention, retention, reproduction and motivation, and Word, Bruner and Ross’s work on scaffolded instruction. Learner autonomy has taken a significant role in the field of foreign language teaching; however it is said that teachers’ roles have not been studied as extensively as the other aspects of learner autonomy (Borg and Al-Busaidi, 2012). The limited number of studies into teachers’ views on learner autonomy reveal that teachers display positive attitudes towards learner autonomy, though some have unanswered questions on the subject (Camilleri, 1997; Ustunluoglu, 2009; BalcÕkanlÕ, 2010; KÕlÕnc, 2010; Bullock, 2011; Reinders and Lazaro, 2011; Yoshiyuku, 2011). Collaborative Learning Literature on learner autonomy often suggests that the development of learner autonomy in the English language classroom should aim for competency in the following three areas: communicative competence, learning competence, and strategic competence. Project work encompasses these three learning goals as learners engage in a guided, expanded process of inquiry through which they investigate a complex question, problem or challenge, as an extension of what has already been learned in class. Project Based Learning (PBL) is an instructional approach that can be utilized to direct English language learners towards independence through well planned stages of learning which emphasize peer interaction, critical

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thinking, problem-solving, and collaboration. PBL complements the constructivist view of “learning by doing”. According to Haines project work is “not as a replacement for other teaching methods” but is “an approach to learning which complements mainstream methods and which can be used with almost all levels, ages and abilities of students” (1989: 1). Furthermore, effective instructional practices implemented through PBL can connect English language teachers to English language learners in productive “learning partnerships”, where English language classrooms become vibrant authentic learning communities that not only help learners attain communicative competence but also foster a culture of “learning to learn”. In PBL, students’ projects are developed through attaining carefully planned and managed benchmarks set up by the classroom teacher. Regular formative assessments of those benchmarks help to guide students along the sequence of the project (assessing if students are on track or need redirection) while encouraging them to dig deeper into the concepts already presented and learned in class. Thus, teachers and small groups engage in productive interaction as partners working together towards collective aims. Larner and Mergendoller (2010) identify the key components of PBL as being: significant content, a need to know, a driving question, students’ voice and choice, inquiry and innovation, feedback and revision, publicly presented product and twenty-first century skills (critical thinking and doing, creativity, collaboration, cross-cultural understanding, communication, ICT literacy, and career and learning self-reliance). As Moss and Van Duzer state (1999), what makes project work exciting, challenging and meaningful to adult learners is that it is organic and unique to each class since not all problems can be anticipated and sometimes a project may move forward in a different direction than originally planned. Most importantly in language learning contexts is that there are often multiple ways to express meaning and to interpret what has been expressed: there are no static “right answers” or rules but a number of possible outcomes, as is typical of authentic communicative encounters. Working collaboratively in small group projects, learners develop higher-order thinking skills for complex problem-solving and decisionmaking. In addition, cognitive skills development that strengthens learners’ abilities to think critically are not just classroom skills; they are necessary job skills needed in many professions around the world, where English is the international language in many areas. Learner participation in all stages of preparing a project makes learners feel more confident using English as they construct knowledge, as well as developing social

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and communication skills through face-to-face communication and through the use of technology (Railsback, 2002). The Teacher Training Program held at Selçuk University The researchers of this study met through the U.S. Department of State, Education and Cultural Affairs, Office of English Language Programs online E-Teacher Scholarship Program, implemented by the University of Maryland, Baltimore County. The participant Güven and course designer Valais, along with the other English language teaching professionals from around the globe, worked together in the study and discussion of the current methodologies for TESOL. The course, Methods I: Survey of Best Practices in TESOL, precipitated this sustained research collaboration and joint teacher training program held at the School of Foreign Languages, Selçuk University, Turkey, from 26 October to 4 November 2011. The learning environment at the School of Foreign Languages involved 120 teachers and nearly 2500 preparatory (foundation) class students. Despite the various education programs and comprehensive studies, English Language Teaching is not at a satisfactory level in Turkey (EC, 2006; Zok, 2010; Education First, 2011; Koru and Akesson, 2011). The results of the needs analysis for our study revealed that instruction largely focused on learning grammar and focused on the sentence level rather than learning English as a communication tool for discourse and as a means for achieving communicative competence. The urgent need to initiate a learner-centred approach leading students toward autonomy was investigated by the researchers. Through the collaboration between Selçuk University and U.S. Department of State, Education and Cultural Affairs, English Specialist Program a comprehensive two-week teacher training program was held at the School of Foreign Languages. Project Based Learning was one of the topics, which was introduced as an element of “Learning to Learn” through collaborative learning. Following the teacher training program, Project Based Learning was piloted in English classes. The goal for the pilot was to emphasize deeper and broader applications of knowledge through contextualized language learning that challenges learners to use English in novel contexts in and outside the class; incorporates collaborative team work; integrates all four language skills (speaking, listening, reading, and writing); engages learners in independent work by utilizing learning strategies for self-monitoring; and helps them develop skills for researching, investigating and acquiring new information. Following the pilot, the researchers conducted this study to investigate if the teachers could transfer what was learned in training to

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their classroom practice, and if not, what the major challenge areas were for further study.

Method A descriptive qualitative method of interview technique was used to obtain the opinions of the teachers about the implementation of the PBL in their classes. The participants were 19 English language teachers who were selected randomly among the teaching staff. During the individual interviews, participants were also asked to write their opinions on the five open-ended questions in the semi-structured questionnaire form. The questions in the form were as follows: -

What are the benefits of implementing PBL in our school for the first time? What are the shortcomings/difficulties/problems of implementing PBL in our school for the first time? How can the PBL we piloted be improved? What are your perspectives (critiques or suggestions) toward implementing PBL in our school? Would you like to attend additional workshops on the practice of PBL? If yes, what are your training expectations?

Results The research findings show that trainees found Project Based Learning useful. Some participants observed that students developed information gathering skills, communication skills, team work skills, and technology skills to make their projects better than others’. One of the participants said that project work proved very useful for some students who had a chance to speak in public for the first time. Another participant pointed out that PBL contributed to students’ discovering their hidden talents like dancing or singing. Participants also expressed the need to attend additional workshops to reinforce their knowledge and application of Communicative Approaches for English language teaching. They said that they felt their own teaching weaknesses in guiding students to develop their communicative competence. As for the drawbacks of the PBL implementation at school, teachers mostly drew attention to the way the students were assessed. Some of the participants said that assessing the group as a whole rather than individual students didn’t seem fair to the students Another criticism was of the

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project topic, on grounds that it was not varied and thus somewhat limited students’ imagination and creativity. The participants also stated that the timing of the PBL implementation coincided with the first mid-term exam, which caused stress among some students. This finding is especially noteworthy in this study in terms of attempting to implement PBL into an exam-driven environment. A participant said that the students should have been given chance to choose their team mates. Another participant stated that the rubric should have been shorter and simpler. The participants’ opinions about how PBL could be implemented better were varied. Some teachers stated that students should be assessed individually not as a group. One participant said that the criteria should be prepared meticulously such that teachers can assess each student according to the amount of his/her contribution to the project. Flexibility over the deadline was a suggestion made by another teacher. Four teachers suggested that topics should be varied, interesting and related to real-life problems. One of the participants suggested that PBL teacher training activity should be compulsory for all teachers to ensure effective implementation. Some examples showing good PBL practices to help both teachers and students conceptualize the process was suggested by one participant. A competition to choose the best project in the school was also a suggestion. Another significant finding of the study was that nearly three quarters of the participants (14 out of 19) stated that they would like to participate in a workshop where they could get additional training from the theory to practical application of PBL. One of the participants said that she would like to be trained in how to use PBL for different learner groups at other ages, levels and learning environments. Clearly, the trainingtoclassroom application transfer for effectively implementing PBL was not completed for many reasons outlined here. The findings of this study indicate a need to investigate further how English language teachers can better collaborate among peers, engage in dialogue about instructional approaches and assessments, and be better supported to engage in more learner-centred practices that actively use communicative language teaching approaches.

Discussion According to constructivist theory, we try to make sense of the world around us in an ongoing process of inquiry and through our anticipation and interpretation of events (Kelly, 1963). The principle proposed by Vygotsky (1978), which is centred on narrowing the distance between the

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actual level of learning and the level of potential development through problem-solving with assistance can be said to have been influential upon the wider range of acceptance of independent language learning. In collaborative learning environments where Project Based Learning is effectively utilized as an instructional approach, students learn from peers and rely on the group as they work together to create their unique group project. Students receive guided instruction from the teacher (as a facilitator), but the focus of learning is on what the learners can do, not what the teacher already knows. In recent years, there have been numerous studies on implementing Project Based Learning in Turkey (Gulbahar and Tinmaz, 2006; Ustunluoglu, 2009; KÕlÕnc, 2010; Bas, 2011). The findings of this study are consistent with much of the recent PBL research in that positive attitude was exhibited by the participants towards PBL. This is significant, since teachers are key stakeholders for making drastic changes in education. The contemporary role of teaching is to raise students’ awareness of alternative ways to learn, thus leading them to become productive self-directed learners. To take on more autonomy, there needs to be less focus on the teacher and more focus on how teachers can help students “get there”, fostering a classroom culture that encourages autonomous learning. As part of project work, students are propelled toward using higher-order thinking skills to analyse, synthesize and evaluate information on their topic in connection to what was learned in class, and then present their innovative products to the class. Language teaching that is connected to specific content or themes and incorporates PBL is an effective means for activating critical thinking, as it requires students to analyse, interpret and evaluate authentic materials. Furthermore, Stoller states that “content-based instruction (as opposed to grammar-based instruction) allows for the natural integration of sound language teaching practices such as alternative means of assessment, apprenticeship learning, cooperative learning, integrated-skills instruction, project work, scaffolding, strategy training” (1997: 2). The findings in this study indicate some critical areas that need to be taken into consideration. It is clear that topics should be varied to complement diverse learning styles and interests; offering students more choice, from a list of possible topics that capture learners’ interests and are relevant to their lives and suitable for their age, is a favourable remedy. A significant finding is that there was unease and uncertainty regarding the assessment of collaborative learning. This was evident in the strong resistance displayed by students to being assessed as a group: students voiced dismay that some team members would get a grade for work they

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had not contributed to the group’s performance. The concerns over PBL assessment expressed by some teachers are also noteworthy. The research findings open questions about attempts to implement PBL instructional practices that aid in the development of learner autonomy in teachercentred and exam-driven environments, rather than learner-centred, performance-driven situations which evaluate demonstrations of the application and transfer of knowledge. The researchers note that it would also be worthwhile to investigate learners’ perspectives on performancebased assessment. The need some participants felt for teacher training on communicative approaches reveals that teachers are willing to adopt learner-centred education. This finding also indicates that teachers need explicit training in strategies for activating self-directed learning. To take on more autonomy, there must be less focus on the teacher and focus on how teachers can help students “get there” fostering a classroom culture that encourages autonomous learning. Direct instruction regarding learners’ learning styles and learning strategies is needed for teachers and learners, combined with increased focus on what the learner can do with the knowledge learned in class. Thus, as Zok notes, “the need for practical teaching experience is somewhat lacking in ELT training programs, and [pre-service student teachers] graduate with a thorough knowledge of the language but without much awareness of teaching methodology or how to tailor instruction to suit the needs of particular students. A solution to this might simply be to extend the length of the training program itself in order to include more hands-on training time” (2010: 10). On the other hand, the role of teacher in the classroom should be well-defined to avoid confusion. According to Little (2009), it is not possible for learners to be completely free, as humans are social beings and their independence is always balanced by dependence. He claims that in an autonomous classroom, individual learning goals are pursued partly via collaborative group work where dialogue mediates between the need to be autonomous and the need for relatedness. Also as Magaldi (2010) states, “students cannot accept responsibility for their own learning or take any initiatives in the process if they do not know how they learn or how to learn and that is why the role of the educator is vital. Teachers are the key mediators between what the students know and what they need to learn.” (2010: 79). Even with the knowledge of communicative approaches for teaching English and the onsite training in PBL, implementing project work into English language classrooms is challenging for English teachers who practice in teacher-centred classrooms. Our research shows that a notable absence from the novel collaborative learning experience was the teachers’

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understanding that students in learner-centred contexts are responsible for one another's learning as well as their own. Shared learning gives students an opportunity to engage in discussion, take responsibility for their own learning and thus become critical thinkers (Totten et al., 1991). Continued teacher training is needed regarding learners’ roles as the teacher steps out from centre-stage. Teacher training should include training learners in how (and why) project performance is assessed collaboratively. In Project Based Learning environments, learners are challenged to develop deeper levels of understanding related to the big ideas being taught in class. Subsequently, further teacher training is needed to make clear the dynamic nature of project work; specifically, that PBL is an extension of learning through shared demonstration and application of the knowledge gained in class; it is not acquisition of knowledge.

Conclusion We have described only a fragment of the benefits of Project Based Learning for the English language classroom from our research. Collaborative Learning enables students to make and see connections between classroom learning and the real English-speaking world, develop communicative competence, increase self-efficacy, promote active engagement and self-regulation, and enhance general learning competencies and digital literacy. More investigation is needed in the assessment of English language learners’ attitudes and motivation to learn in “unfixed” collaborative learning contexts. Additionally, in order for learners to thrive in novel learning environments in English language classrooms, teachers need explicit training in how to train learners in time management, prioritizing, self-evaluation and critical thinking: all metacognitive learning strategies necessary for students to develop autonomy and take on responsibility for their own learning. Finally, English language teachers need to step back from the centre of the learning stage and develop a foundation of skills and techniques in providing informative feedback that helps shape learning and empowers learners’ confidence to “do it together” (collaboratively) and ultimately “do it independently”.

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References BalçÕkanlÕ, C. (2010). Learner autonomy in language learning: Studentteachers’ beliefs. Australian Journal of Teacher Education 35 (1): 90103. Bas, G. (2011). Investigating the effects of project-based learning on students’ academic achievement and attitudes towards English lesson. The Online Journal of New Horizons in Education 1 (4): 1-15. Borg, S. & Al-Busaidi, S. (2012). Learner autonomy: English language teachers’ beliefs and practices. ELT Research Paper 12-07. London: British Council Bullock, D. (2011). Learner self-assessment: An investigation into teachers’ beliefs. ELT Journal 62 (2): 114-125. Camilleri, G., (1997). Report on workshop no: 8/97 Learner autonomy: The teachers’ views. Graz: European Centre for Modern Languages. Dickinson, L. (1995). Autonomy and motivation. System 23 (2): 165-174. European Commission. (2006). Europeans and their language. Online: http://ec.europa.eu/languages/documents/2006-special-eurobarometersurvey-64.3europeans-and-languages-report_en.pdf. Education First. (2011). English proficiency index. Online: http://www.ef.com/sitecore/__/~/media/efcom/epi/pdf/EF-EPI-2011.pdf Fisher, D. & Frey, N. (2008). Better learning through structured teaching: A framework for the gradual release of responsibility. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Gulbahar, Y. & Tinmaz, H. (2006). Implementing project-based learning and e-portfolio assessment in an undergraduate course. Journal of Research on Technology in Education 38 (3): 309-327. Haines, S. 1989. Projects for the EFL classroom: Resource material for teachers. Walton-on-Thames: Nelson. Holec, H. (1981). Autonomy and foreign language learning. Oxford: Pergamon. —. (2008). Foreword. In T. E. Lamb & H. Reinders (Eds.), Learner and teacher autonomy: Concepts, realities, and responses. 3-4. Kelly, G. (1963). A theory of personality: The psychology of personal conducts. New York: W.W. Norton KÕlÕnc, A. (2010). Can project-based learning close the gap? Turkish student teachers and pro-environmental behaviours. International Journal of Environmental & Science Education 5 (4): 495-509. Koru, S. & Akesson, J. (2011). Turkey’s English deficit. Economic policy research foundation of Turkey (TEPAV). Online:

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http://www.tepav.org.tr/upload/files/13244582121.Turkey_s_English_ Deficit.pdf. Larner, J. & Mergendoller, J. R. (2010). Essentials for project based learning. Educational Leadership 68 (1). Online: http://www.bie.org/images/uploads/useful_stuff/8_Essentials_EdLdr_2 012_version.pdf. Little, D. (1991). Learner autonomy 1: Definitions, issues, problems. Dublin: Authentik. —. (2009). Language learner autonomy and the European language portfolio: Two L2 English examples. Language Teaching 42 (2): 22-23. Magaldi, L. G. (2010). Metacognitive strategies based instruction to support learner autonomy in language learning. Revista Canaria de Estudios Ingleses 61: 73-86. Moss, D. & Van Duzer, C. (1999). Project-based learning for adult English language learners. Eric Digest. Eric Identifier: ED427556. Online: http://www.ericdigests.org/1999-4/project.htm. Murphy, D. (2009). You can’t just say it louder! Differentiated strategies for comprehending nonfiction. Huntington Beach, CA: Shell Education Publishing. Nunan, D. (1997). Designing and adapting materials to encourage learner autonomy. In P. Benson & P. Voller (Eds.), Autonomy and Independence in Language Learning. London: Longman. 192-203. Oxford, R. L. (2003). Toward a more systematic model of L2 learner autonomy. In D. Palfreyman & R. C. Smith (Eds.), Learner Autonomy across Cultures: Language Education Perspectives. Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan. 75-91. Pearson, P. D. & Gallagher, M. (1983). The instruction of reading comprehension. Contemporary Educational Psychology 8: 317-344. Reinders, H. & Lazaro, N. (2011). Beliefs, identity and motivation in implementing autonomy. The teachers’ perspective. In G. Murray, X. Gao & T. Lamb (Eds.), Identity, Motivation, and Autonomy in Language Learning. Harlow: Longman. 4-14. Railsback, J. (2002). Project-Based instruction: Creating excitement for learning. Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory. Online: http://educationnorthwest.org/webfm_send/460. Spires, H. & Stone, P. (1989). The directed note taking activity: A selfquestioning approach. Journal of Reading 33 (1): 36-39. Stoller, F. (1997) Project work: a means to promote language content. English Teaching Forum 35 (4). Totten, S., Sills, T., Digby, A. & Russ, P. (1991). Cooperative learning: A Guide to Research. New York: Garland.

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Ustunluoglu, E. (2009). Autonomy in language learning: Do students take responsibility for their learning? Journal of Theory and Practice in Education 5 (2): 148-169. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press. Yoshiyuku, N. (2011). Teachers’ readiness for promoting learner autonomy: A study of Japanese EFL high school teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education 27 (5): 900-910. Zok, D. (2010). Turkey’s language revolution and the status of English today. The English Languages: History, Diaspora, Culture (1). Online: http://jps.library.utoronto.ca/index.php/elhdc/article/view/14300/11349

RESEARCH USE LEVELS AND LIFELONG LEARNING COMPETENCIES OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHERS BARIù USLU

Introduction It is an established fact that rapid changes and developments have occurred in the twenty-first century in all areas, especially science and technology. Individuals’ knowledge levels can quickly become insufficient for living in the information age, thanks to the continuous increase of knowledge (Polat and Odabas, 2008). For this reason, people, no matter their occupational group, educational or income levels, must constantly improve their knowledge and qualifications, perpetuating their personal and vocational development (Torres, 2004). Accordingly, today’s people need a lifelong learning process, which lets them attain knowledge according to their need and use it in a productive way to maintain their development personally and professionally (AASL/AECT, 1998). Lifelong learning, as a term, refers to the supporting process which helps to increase and strengthen the knowledge, values, skills, and personal understanding gained throughout individuals’ whole lives, and allows them to implement it in real life (Candy, 2002). According to this definition, lifelong learning can be supposed as a basic guiding tenet for educational systems rather than simply a part of them (Bagci, 2011). Thus, learning experiences should be designed by teachers to improve students’ skills in attaining lifelong learning competencies, such as learning to learn, self-management and decision making in all educational levels but especially in elementary education (Dunlap and Grabinger, 2003). In order to create this situation in elementary schools, teachers should be role models for their students in continually developing through lifelong learning, and so should possess very high-level lifelong learning competencies themselves as part of their professional skills. Therefore, examining elementary school teachers’ lifelong learning competencies and these competencies’ relationship with variables such as teachers’ age,

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seniority, educational status and educational research usage, forms the subject of this research.

Methodology The aim of this study, which uses predictive research in its survey model, is to examine the relationship between educational research usage levels and lifelong learning competencies of elementary school teachers. In achieving this aim, we seek to answer the following questions: What is the level of lifelong learning competencies amongst elementary school teachers? Is there any significant relationship between lifelong learning competencies and certain features of individual teachers (such as age, seniority, educational status)? Can the features of individual teachers serve as a predictor of their lifelong learning competencies? Study Sample. The study’s sample consists of 206 teachers who served in 19 elementary schools from Canakkale, Turkey. The distribution of these teachers according to specific features is in Table 1-1. Table 1-1. Distribution of teachers according to specific features Features Age n % Seniority n % Education status n % Using computer and internet n % Following periodical publications Following educational research Performing educational research

1 23-33 50 24.27 1-10 52 25.24 Associate degree 42 20.39 1 hour /day

2 34-43 64 31.07 11-20 58 28.16 Bachelor degree 147 71.36 2 hours /day

3 44-53 71 34.47 21-30 66 32.04 Graduate degree 17 8.25 3 hours /day

79 38.35 Never

61 29.61 Rarely 27 13.11 Rarely 16 7.77 Rarely 35 16.99

37 17.96 Sometimes 84 40.78 Sometimes 116 56.31 Sometimes 113 54.85

n % Never n % n %

Never 9 4.37

4 54+ 21 10.19 31+ 30 14.56

5

Total 206 100 206 100 206 100

3+ hours /day 29 14.08 Mostly 58 28.16 Always 74 35.92 Always 49 23.79

206 100 Always 206 37 17.96 100 206 100 206 100

Bariú Uslu

17

Data Collection Tool. A questionnaire developed by Uzunboylu and Hursen (2011) was used as a data collection tool in the research. It consisted of a personal information form and a Lifelong Learning Competencies Scale (LLLCS). LLLCS is a five-point Likert-type scale and its evaluation ranges are 1.00-1.79 = very low, 1.80-2.59 = low, 2.603.39 = medium, 3.40-4.19 = high and 4.20-5.00 = very high. Uzunboylu and Hursen (2011) found that the reliability coefficient for LLLCS was Į = 0.95. The coefficient for each sub-dimension was as follows: Į = 0.93 in self-management, Į = 0.91 in learning how to learn, Į = 0.89 in initiative and entrepreneurship, Į = 0.83 in acquiring information, Į = 0.85 in digital competencies and Į = 0.75 in decision-taking. Table 1-2 contains LLLCS and its sub-dimensions’ reliability coefficients of this research. Table 1-2. Descriptive statistics about LLLCS and sub-dimensions Lifelong Learning Competencies Selfmanagement Learning how to learn Initiative and entrepreneurship Acquiring information Digital competencies Decision-taking LLLC Scale

Number of Items

Cronbach Alpha

N

X

S.d.

Kurtosis

Skewness

13

0.89

206

4.00

0.48

-0.26

-0.10

12

0.92

206

4.07

0.51

-0.24

-0.17

10

0.93

206

4.07

0.54

-0.12

-0.22

6

0.73

206

3.90

0.64

0.71

-0.50

6

0.86

206

3.98

0.75

1.61

-0.98

4 51

0.85 0.96

206 206

3.89 4.01

0.64 0.47

1.59 -0.03

-0.64 -0.23

Data Analysis At first, distributions of LLLCS and sub-dimensions were examined to see if they fit normal distributions using Kurtosis and Skewness Coefficients, which were between -2 and +2; in this way the researcher determined that they did have normal distributions. Next, Pearson Product Moment Correlation Analysis (to determine the relationship between variables and lifelong learning competencies) and Linear Stepwise Regression Analysis (to determine the predictive variables of lifelong learning competencies) were undertaken, alongside descriptive statistics such as frequencies, percentages, means and standard deviations.

Lifelong Learning Competencies

18

Findings When the data in Table 1-2 is analysed with regard to the study’s first question—“What is the level of lifelong learning competencies of elementary school teachers?”—it can be determined that elementary school teachers’ lifelong learning competencies ( X = 4.01; S.d. = 0.47) in all sub-dimensions are at high levels. Data relating to the second question of the study “Is there any significant relationship between lifelong learning competencies and certain features of individual elementary school teachers?” is given into Table 1-3. Table 1-3. Correlation coefficients between variables and LLLC

Seniority

Education status

Using computer

Following publications

Following research

Performing research

and

-0.05 0.00

-0.03 0.02

0.07 0.08

0.07 0.02

0.22** 0.26**

0.27** 0.34**

0.25** 0.28**

0.09

0.07

0.03

0.00

0.22**

0.33**

0.33**

-0.14*

-0.20**

0.23**

0.20**

0.17*

0.22**

0.25**

-0.27**

-0.31**

0.28**

0.22**

0.12

0.22**

0.21**

-0.08 -0.07

-0.09 -0.09

0.13 0.15*

0.05 0.10

0.09 0.23**

0.20** 0.33**

0.20** 0.31**

Age

Variables LLLC

Self-management Learning how to learn Initiative and entrepreneurship Acquiring information Digital competency Decision-taking Lifelong learning competency *p”.05; **p”.01

According to data in Table 1-3, there are significant relationships between teachers’ lifelong learning competencies and education status (r = 0.15; p ” 0.05), frequency of following periodical publications (r = 0.23; p ” 0.01), following educational research (r = 0.33; p ” 0.01), and performing educational research (r = 0.31; p ” 0.01). In addition, relationships between all sub-dimensions of LLLC and frequency of following educational research and performing educational research are significant and positive. On the other hand, acquiring information and digital competencies correlate negatively with age and seniority. Tables 1-4 and 1-5 include data related to the third question of study, “Can the features of individual teachers serve as a predictor of their lifelong learning competencies?”

Bariú Uslu

19

Table 1-4. First step regression model’s coefficients on LLLC

Lifelong learning competencies (Constant=2.88)[R=.40; R2=.16] F(7-198)=5.50; p=.00 Self-management (Constant=3.12) [R=0.33; R2=0.11] F(7-198)=3.34; p=0.00 Learning how to learn (Constant=2.78) [R=0.40; R2=0.16] F(7-198)=5.28; p=0.00 Initiative and entrepreneurship (Constant=2.71) [R=.41; R2=.17] F(7-198)=5.60; p=0.00 Acquiring information (Constant=2.73) [R=0.40; R2=0.16] F(7-198)=5.42; p=0.00 Digital competencies (Constant=2.92) [R=0.44; R2=0.20] F(7-198)=6.91; p=0.00 Decision-taking (Constant=2.92) [R=0.26; R2=0.07] F(7-198)=2.00; p=0.06 *p”0.05

Performing research

Following research

Following publications

Using computer

Education status

Seniority

Age

Variables and LLLC

0.01 0.14 0.89

-0.03 0.43 0.67

0.10 1.49 0.14

0.00 0.04 0.97

0.07 1.84 0.07

0.14 2.17 0.03*

0.10 1.95 0.05*

ȕ -0.07 t 0.74 p 0.46

0.04 0.46 0.65

0.04 0.57 0.57

0.00 0.10 0.92

0.08 1.92 0.06

0.12 1.65 0.10

0.08 1.43 0.16

ȕ -0.07 t 0.78 p 0.44

0.08 0.96 0.34

0.10 1.34 0.17

-0.04 1.20 0.23

0.08 2.06 0.04*

0.19 2.74 0.01*

0.07 1.36 0.18

ȕ t p

0.10 1.06 0.29

-0.03 0.36 0.72

0.07 0.93 0.35

-0.05 1.34 0.18

0.05 1.07 0.29

0.18 2.33 0.02*

0.15 2.61 0.01*

ȕ t p

0.14 1.25 0.21

-0.21 0.17 1.98 1.80 0.05* 0.07

0.07 1.75 0.08

0.08 1.61 0.11

0.07 0.71 0.48

0.13 1.83 0.07

ȕ t p

0.05 0.40 0.69

-0.23 1.91 0.06

0.19 1.76 0.08

0.10 0.08 2.19 1.37 0.03* 0.17

0.12 1.20 0.23

0.08 0.98 0.33

ȕ t p

0.02 0.21 0.84

-0.04 0.36 0.72

0.13 1.37 0.17

-0.01 0.17 0.87

0.13 1.41 0.16

0.09 1.30 0.20

ȕ t p

0.02 0.30 0.76

Due to the regression model’s first step, teachers’ seniority is a significant predictor for acquiring information. Likewise, computer use is for Digital competencies, following periodical publications is for learning how to learn, following educational research is for LLLC, Learning how to learn and Initiative and entrepreneurship, and performing research is for LLLC and Initiative and entrepreneurship. As shown in Table 1-5, according to the fifth and final step of the regression model, the frequency with which teachers follow educational research (ȕ = 0.17; t = 2.79; p ” 0.05), the frequency with which they perform educational research (ȕ = 0.11; t =

Lifelong Learning Competencies

20

2.15; p ” 0.05) and their educational status (ȕ = 0.12; t = 2.03; p ” 0.05) are significant predictive variables for their LL competencies. Table 1-5. Last step regression model’s coefficients on LLLC Variables and LLLC Lifelong learning competencies (Constant=2.90) [R=.38; R2=.15] F(3-202)=11.67; p=.00 Self-management (Constant=3.16) [R=0.30; R2=0.09] F(3-202)=6.48; p=0.00 Learning how to learn (Constant=2.98) [R=0.36; R2=0.13] F(3-202)=9.88; p=0.00 Initiative and entrepreneurship (Constant=3.01) [R=0.37; R2=0.14] F(3-202)=10.70; p=0.00 Acquiring information (Constant=2.56) [R=0.34; R2=0.12] F(3-202)=8.91; p=0.00 Digital competencies (Constant=2.33) [R=0.36; R2=0.13] F(3-202)=9.95; p=0.00 Decision-taking (Constant=2.87) [R=0.26; R2=0.07] F(3-202)=4.66; p=0.00 *p”0.05

Performing educational research 0.11

Education status

ȕ

Following educational research 0.17

t

2.79

2.15

2.03

p

0.01*

0.03*

0.04*

ȕ t p

0.15 2.21 0.03*

0.09 1.68 0.09

0.05 0.82 0.41

ȕ t p

0.22 3.19 0.00*

0.08 1.56 0.12

0.07 1.02 0.31

ȕ

0.19

0.15

0.01

t

2.57

2.57

0.13

p

0.01*

0.01*

0.90

ȕ t p

0.13 1.50 0.14

0.14 1.98 0.05*

0.27 3.25 0.00*

ȕ t p

0.19 1.90 0.06

0.10 1.22 0.23

0.39 4.05 0.00*

ȕ t p

0.14 1.55 0.12

0.10 1.35 0.18

0.15 1.78 0.08

0.12

As well as predictors of overall LLLCs, these measures indicate how adept teachers are likely to be at specific sub-dimensions. Frequency of following educational research is a significant predictor for selfmanagement, learning how to learn, and initiative and entrepreneurship. Performing educational research is a significant predictor for initiative and entrepreneurship, and of acquiring information. Finally, teachers’ educational status can be used as a variable to predict skills in acquiring information and digital competencies.

Bariú Uslu

21

Conclusion This research has showed that the lifelong learning competencies of elementary school teachers are at high levels. The LLLCS was applied to 300 middle school teachers in Turkish Republic of North Cyprus when the scale was developed by Uzunboylu and Hursen (2011) and obtained similar results. According to Selvi (2011), 81% of teachers view lifelong learning capacities as important for their profession, and this specifies that teachers’ lifelong learning competencies should be at a high level. Teachers in the twenty-first century can serve as effective role models for students in many areas by demonstrating high-level lifelong learning competencies (Dunlap and Grabinger, 2003), so developing such competencies is important not only for teachers’ professional development, but also for the improvement of their students’ learning environment. This study has also demonstrated a significant relationship between teachers’ lifelong learning competencies and their frequency of following educational research, performing educational research, following periodical publications and educational status. Information acquisition and digital competencies also have a significant and negative relationship with age and seniority. Many studies (Coolahan, 2002; Ozturk, 2011) on lifelong learning, teacher professional development and educational researches support these relations. Based on these findings, older teachers may need to improve some of their lifelong learning competencies, putting more effort than younger teachers into following publications related to educational research, and applying the resultant knowledge in learning activities. Additionally, according to the regression model, following educational research, performing educational research and educational status are significant predictors for teachers’ lifelong learning competencies. Studies made by Hemsley-Brown and Sharp (2003) and Lessing and de Witt (2007) present parallel results with this research regarding teachers’ usage of educational research. To this end, teachers may learn better how to conduct research and how to apply the results of educational research should they pursue graduate education after their bachelor degree. Teachers can benefit from educational research to a far greater extent after completing postgraduate degrees, improving their lifelong learning competencies. Furthermore, according to results, certain education activities (such as those involving digital competencies) could benefit from being designed with the continual professional development of experienced teachers in mind. In pre-service teacher education, more courses relating to scientific research could be added, providing basic knowledge relating to the use of research in educational settings. Teachers

22

Lifelong Learning Competencies

should also be encouraged to undertake postgraduate education, affording them opportunities to use and undertake educational research, thus increasing their professional efficiency.

References AASL/AECT (American Association of School Librarians/Association for Educational Communication and Technology). (1998). Information literacy standards for student learning. Chicago: ALA. Bagci, E. (2011). Lifelong education politics in Turkey at membership process to the European Union. Ondokuz MayÕs University Journal of Education 30 (2): 139-173. Candy, P. C. (2002). Lifelong learning and information literacy. National Forum on Information Literacy, Prague, Czech Republic, July 2002. Coolahan, J. (2002). Teacher education and the teaching career in an era of lifelong learning. OECD Education Working Papers, No. 2, OECD Publishing. Dunlap, J. C. & Grabinger, S. (2003). Preparing students for lifelong learning: A review of instructional features and teaching methodologies. Performance Improvement Quarterly 16 (2): 6-25. Hemsley-Brown, J. & Sharp, C. (2003). The use of research to improve professional practice: A systematic review of the literature. Oxford Review of Education 29 (4): 449-471. Lessing, A. & de Witt, M. (2007).The value of continuous professional development: Teachers’ perceptions. South African Journal of Education 27 (1): 53-67. Ozturk, M. A. (2011). Confirmatory factor analysis of the educators’ attitudes toward educational research scale. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice 11 (2): 737-747. Polat, C. & Odabas, H. (2008). The key of lifelong learning in information society: Information literacy. Proceeding of the International Symposium of Globalization, Democratization and Turkey, Antalya, Turkey, 27-30 March 2008. Selvi, K. (2011). Teachers’ lifelong learning competencies. International Journal of Curriculum and Instructional Studies 1 (1): 61-69. Torres, R. M. (2004). Lifelong learning in the south: Critical issues and opportunities for adult education. Helsinki: Edita Sverige. Uzunboylu, H. & Hursen, C. (2011). Lifelong learning competence scale (LLLCS): The study of validity and reliability. Hacettepe University Journal of Education 41: 449-460.

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES USED BY PRE-SERVICE SCIENCE TEACHERS WHILE SOLVING PHYSICS PROBLEMS ÜMMÜ GÜLSÜM IYIBIL, FUNDA AYDIN GÜÇ AND MÜGE AKPINAR

Introduction The desire to understand the universe has inclined scientists towards physics for many thousands of years. Feynman (2000: 1) defines physics as a rhythm and order among natural phenomenon that cannot be seen but can be distinguished with the help of analytical tools. As is evident from Feynman’s explanations, physics aims to establish laws by describing not only the routine conditions, but an order of events that occur even at extremes, taking advantage of this order to predict future behaviour. Thus, it could be asserted that physics starts by asking questions in order to understand the events and conditions that exist in the world, then aims to establish laws that explain those events (AkpÕnar, 2012). This aspect of physics could be described as being based on problem-solving. Demirel (2005) defines problem-solving as a process of choosing the most efficient instruments and behaviours among various options and using them in order to achieve the desired objective. Examining approaches to problem-solving, writings by Dewey (1933), Polya (1957) and Schoenfeld (1985) are worthy of note. Polya’s problem-solving approach consists of four phases: understanding the problem, preparing a plan, implementing the plan and evaluating the plan. Examining Polya’s approach, it can be observed that one of the most critical steps for the solution of a problem is the planning phase, which involves developing strategies. Other researchers agree that such strategies comprise an important element in the process of problem-solving (ÇalÕúkan and Sezgin Selçuk, 2010).

24

Problem-Solving Strategies

There are a number of classifications regarding problem-solving strategies (Dhillon, 1998; Altun, 2002). This study adopts the classifications of Charles, Lester and O’Daffer (1992), which are as follows: -

Linear solution: Reaching the result by making routine solutions through direct calculation or equation. Making a drawing: Reaching the result through visual representations. Finding a pattern: Reaching the result through determining the patterns between the specified variables, numbers and properties. Intelligent guessing and testing: Making an estimation of the result and testing the validity of the estimation. Adopting a different point of view: Approaching the solution by considering a different condition. Solving a simpler analogous problem: Reaching the solution with the help of a similar and simpler problem. Considering extreme cases: Reaching the solution through considering the possible extreme conditions. Organizing the data: Reaching the solution through organizing the data accordingly. Accounting for all possibilities: Reaching the solution through determining the conditions regarding what is actually required. Working backwards: Reaching the initial condition through starting from the result.

Education in these problem-solving strategies is an important research area, and many studies show that problem-solving strategies can be taught (for example, Altun, Memnun and Yazgan, 2007). At this point in time, the greatest responsibility belongs to teachers, who have to prepare students for an increasingly complicated world, dominated by rapid scientific and technological developments, presenting ever-more complicated problems to be solved. Primary school science lessons, amongst others, emphasize the importance of becoming skilful at problemsolving. The subject of physics, is taught as a part of science lessons in primary schools, involves various problem-solving activities. Science lessons involving physics centre upon problems that could be classified in various ways, such as routine/non-routine or verbal/real. It is important to enable students to acquire the skills they need to apply various strategies to solve these problems. Considering that it is the teachers who will guide students in learning problem-solving strategies and encourage them to use them, we must recognise the importance of teachers’ own abilities in applying these

Ümmü Gülsüm øyibil, Funda AydÕn Güç and Müge AkpÕnar

25

strategies themselves. As such, it is important to determine what kind of strategies that might be used by/useful to pre-service teachers (PTs)—the future teachers—when solving problems themselves, and to use these as a basis for pre-service teacher training. Examining the literature, there are various studies regarding the problem-solving strategies, but the majority of these studies relate to mathematics. While there are various studies regarding the use of problem-solving strategies in science and physics lessons, the number of studies conducted to determine the usage of problem-solving strategies by pre-service physics teachers is absent. Since the absence of a study regarding the pre-service science teachers (PSST) made it necessary to research this subject, this study aims to determine the problem-solving strategies used by PSSTs.

Methods In order to determine what problem-solving strategies are being used by pre-service science teachers in solving physics problems, this study examines responses from PTs in detail and aims to reveal the present conditions through these descriptions. The study group consists of 24 PTs receiving second grade science education in the teaching department of a faculty of education in the region of the Eastern Black Sea, Turkey. These PTs had been studying in the same class for two years. Having received the same lessons regarding physics, they had had similar experiences. Participation by PTs in this study was voluntary. Taking the problemsolving strategies into consideration, the researchers prepared eight different physics problems that could be solved with more than one strategy. The problems were controlled by two physics experts and the last book editions were performed. Two of the problems addressed to the PTs are given in Figure 1-1, as an example: Figure 1-1. Examples of problems addressed to pre-service teachers 1. Given the equivalent resistance between the KL ends in the branch circuit in the figure as 4R, what R is the Rx?

4. An 80 g ice block at -10oC is put in 80 g of water at 10oC in a bowl. After a while, it is determined that the temperature of the mixture settles at 0oC. What was the relative mass of ice and water when the temperature settled (cb=0.5 cal/oC , Le=80 cal g)

Problem-Solving Strategies

26

Some examples of solutions for problem No. 4 in Figure 1-1, are given in Figure 1-2, according to the different strategies used to solve them, according to the categorisations used in this study’s data analysis: Figure 1-2. Solution of a problem being addressed to pre-service teachers with different strategies Example solutions of different strategies

Considering extreme cases—Adopting a different point of view

Making a drawing – Linear solution

Strategy

As is seen in Figure 1-2, the problem set for the PTs could be solved through various strategies such as linear solutions, considering extreme cases, making a drawing and adopting a different point of view. All of the problems addressed to the PT could be similarly solved utilising a range of different strategies. Eight open-ended problems were set in a written exam and the PSSTs were required to solve them within 50 minutes. PTs’ exam answers were run through a content analysis process. The solutions generated by the PTs were evaluated by three experts (two physicists and one mathematician) and the strategies they had employed in each problem were determined, in line with a joint resolution. The frequency with which PTs used each strategy was also determined.

Ümmü Gülsüm øyibil, Funda AydÕn Güç and Müge AkpÕnar

27

Results As a result of the joint analysis by three experts, the problem-solving strategies being used by PSSTs in solving physics problems were determined, along with the frequency with which PTs used these strategies for each problem. These results are presented in Table 1-6.

Problem

Linear Solution

Making a Drawing

Finding a Pattern

Intelligent Guessing and Testing

Adopting a Different Point of View

Solving a Simpler Analogous Problem

Considering Extreme Cases

Organizing the Data

Accounting for All Possibilities

Working Backwards

Table 1-6. Frequency of the use of problem-solving strategies by preservice teachers for each problem

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

17 2 19 4 4 14 1

14 4 3 -

2 7 -

1 -

1 3 -

-

9 -

4

14 -

-

As seen in Table 1-6, the PTs generally preferred the linear solution for solving physics problems. Making a drawing and accounting for all possibilities were also among strategies frequently used by the PT. On the other hand, the strategies such as finding a pattern, intelligent guessing and testing, adopting a different point of view, considering extreme cases and organizing the data were preferred by fewer of PTs. The strategies of solving a simpler analogous problem and working backwards were apparently not used in this exam. Whilst solving the first problem, it was observed that the study group favoured the strategies of linear solution and making a drawing. The example solutions of the PT are given in Figure 1-3. As seen in Figure 1-3, the pre-service teacher coded Ö11 preferred to use the linear solution only, using the equations that were suitable for this type of electrical system (parallel-series) in answering this question. On the other hand, Ö16 drew the system by determining how the resistors

28

Problem-Solving Strategies

were connected according to one another, and then tried to reach the solution by using the appropriate equations. Figure 1-3. Examples of solutions for problem No. 1 given by preservice teachers

Linear solution (Ö11)

Making a drawing, Linear solution (Ö16)

It was seen that the PTs used various strategies such as linear solutions, making a drawing, adopting a different point of view and considering extreme cases in order to solve the fourth problem. The example solutions of PT are given in Figure 1-4. Figure 1-4. Example of solutions of pre-service teachers for the fourth problem

Linear solution (Ö14)

Making a drawing—Considering extreme cases (Ö7)

Considering extreme cases (Ö11)

Adopting a different point of view (Ö16)

As seen in Figure 1-4, Ö14 based his solution on the fact that received heat is equal to the given heat, serving as an example of PTs using a linear solution. On the other hand, Ö11 calculated the heat quantities that were required for the transformation of a -10oC ice cube into 10oC water, and

Ümmü Gülsüm øyibil, Funda AydÕn Güç and Müge AkpÕnar

29

tried to estimate the grams of the melting ice based upon the calculated heat quantities. Transferring the given conditions into a diagram at the outset, Ö7 considered the extreme conditions and calculated how much energy was required for the melting of the ice and for both the ice and water to be at 0oC. Finally, Ö16 calculated the heat quantities that were required for the mixture of ice and water to reach their final temperature by adopting a different viewpoint and made a conclusion through establishing the proportion of water mass and ice.

Conclusion Examining the study findings, it was determined that the PT most commonly used the strategies of linear solutions and making a drawing in solving physics problems. On the other hand, they used the strategies of finding a pattern, intelligent guessing and testing, adopting a different point of view, considering extreme cases, organizing the data and accounting for all possibilities less, and they never used the strategies of solving a simpler analogous problem and working backwards. The researchers propose two possible reasons for these observations. The first could be that the PTs lacked past experiences relating to the lessor never-used strategies. The second reason could relate to the fact that PTs have training in the kind of logic required to complete exam questions—which are set by national institutional selection and evaluation systems—and thus prefer patterns of strategies that solve problems briefly and are to the point. Taking these two reasons into consideration, a suggested solution is to prepare lesson content aimed at teaching PT problem-solving strategies and conduct studies that examine the pedagogical knowledge of PT across the full range of problem-solving strategies. Özmen, AydÕn and Güven (2011) explain this condition with the statement, “it is better to solve one problem through various solution methods than learning various problems through only one solution”, emphasising the importance of using and teaching various problem-solving strategies. If PTs are the kind of set problems which encourage the use of multiple strategies to solve them, it will enable these future teachers to gain experience in a broad range of approaches. Through this, the authors believe that students will be supported in developing their skills in this field through implementing arrangements in assessment and evaluation systems accordingly.

30

Problem-Solving Strategies

References AkpÕnar, M. (2012). Ba÷lam Temelli YaklaúÕmla YaklaúÕmla YapÕlan Fizik E÷itiminde Kavramsal De÷iúim Metinlerinin Ö÷renci Eriúisine Etkisi [The effect of the conceptual change texts on student achievement gain at physics education carried out with context based approach]. Thesis, Gazi University, Ankara. Altun, M. (2002). ølkö÷retim ikinci kademede matematik ö÷retimi [Teaching mathematics in secondary schools]. Bursa: Alfa YayÕncÕlÕk. Altun, M., Memnun, D. S. & Yazgan, Y. (2007). Primary School Teacher Trainees’ Skills and Opinions on Solving Non-Routine Mathematical Problems. Elementary Education Online 6 (1): 127-143. Charles, R., Lester, F. & O’Daffer, P. (1992). How to Evaluate Progress in Problem Solving. NCTM. VA: Reston. ÇalÕúkan, S. & Sezgin Selçuk, G. (2010). Self-Regulated Strategies Used by Undergraduate Students in Physics Problems: Effects of Gender and University. Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Buca E÷itim Fakültesi Dergisi 27: 50-62. Demirel, Ö. (2005). E÷itim Sözlü÷ü [Glossary of Education]. Ankara: PegemA YayÕncÕlÕk. Dewey, J. (1933). How We Think. Boston, MA: D.C. Heath. Dhillon, A. S. (1998). Individual differences within problem-solving strategies used in physics. Science Education 32 (3): 379-405. Feynman, R. (1995). Fizik YasalarÕ Üzerine [The Character of Physical Law]. Ankara: Türkiye Bilimsel ve Teknik AraútÕrma Kurumu. Özmen, Z. M., AydÕn, F. & Güven, B. (2011). The Relationship Between Pre-service Mathematics Teachers’ Problem Solving Strategies and Achievement. 1st International Curriculum and Instructional Studies Congress. Eúkiúehir, Türkiye. Polya, G. (1957). How to solve it: A new aspect of mathematical method. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Schoenfeld, A. (1985). Mathematical Problem Solving. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

CONTENT CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENCE AND NATURE BOOKS FOR CHILDREN NIHAT BAYAT AND HAKAN ÜLPER

Introduction It is possible for children to be brought up as mentally strong individuals through versatile education. Developing programs and materials appropriate to the interests and characteristics of children, starting from the period of pre-school education, is essential to enabling education to succeed. In this respect, it is of great importance to develop materials that will reinforce children’s physical, intellectual, emotional and social skills and accelerate their socialization process (Bilalo÷lu, Aslan and Aktaú, 2006): all important aims of pre-school education. One such set of materials is the informative book. Children’s books concerning science and nature are among the materials used in science education in pre-school education. Karaer and Kösterelio÷lu (2005) identify the aim of science education as improving problem-solving skills of children via scientific methods, helping them adopt scientific methods of thinking, enabling them to learn scientific concepts and take an interest in events and processes related to science. These aims have to be compatible with the findings and methods of the natural sciences. Learning how to think scientifically can help individuals achieve success in comprehending and managing the world. Sever (2008) specifies children’s literature as a general term for the products enriching children’s worlds of emotions and thoughts through linguistic and visual messages with an artistic quality, enhancing their levels of appreciation in accordance with their language development and level of understanding, in the phase of life starting from early childhood and including adolescence. With regards to books, the counterpart of “the world of emotions and thoughts” from this definition is books of literary and scientific quality. Books of scientific quality are those whose primary purpose is teaching. Books concerning science and nature have a scientific value. Those concerning animals, plants and nature meet children’s need

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for knowledge; however, it is also necessary to include books that explain how various tools and machines work. Such books make it easy for children to learn many of the principles, concepts and laws of physics and chemistry. Moreover, these books contribute to the development of children’s imaginary worlds and their skills of observation, environmental recognition and synthesizing information (KÕbrÕs, 2002; O÷uzkan, 2000; Demirel et al., 2011; Tanju, 2013). Certain qualities are required for all books prepared for children. These features include: direct explanation of the main idea, topics which are based on reality and relate to subjects children come across in their daily lives (Ciravo÷lu, 2000; YalçÕn and Aytaú, 2005), a simple and rational organization, simplified events, a suitable name and explanatory pictures (O÷uzkan, 2000; Canpolat and PÕnarbaúÕ, 2002; Tanju, 2013). Besides these features, the most important point - about which there should not be any kind of mistake in books for children—is linguistic quality. Gönen et al. (2011) assert that one of the most important functions of children’s books is helping pupils improve their language skills and gain awareness of language. Children gain the awareness of written language via books, and children’s books are extremely effective especially in developing vocabulary (Gönen, 1998). Therefore, the language used in these types of texts should be within the limits of colloquial, every-day language and convey concrete meaning (Genç, 2007). The books examined in this research aimed at children between the ages of three and six, who are at the preoperational stage. Children are just beginning to use symbols at this stage, and they make connections between various objects and events through these symbols. Children have difficulties in comprehending the others’ viewpoints at the preoperational stage. They tend to change the facts according to their own desires. Their reasoning is superficial; they usually think with a single perspective and make wrong generalizations. In this stage, children are easily mistaken, and their reasoning is based on their intuitions. They lay stress on just one dimension of a given phenomenon. Their thinking skills are realised through physical activity and the attractive appearance of objects. They cannot see beyond information obtained through sensation, since they have difficulty in reasoning (Genç, 2005). Based on the conditions described above, the aim of this study is to determine the level of quality amongst books describing the processes of science and nature, aimed at children between the ages of three and six. Quality is determined in terms of rationality, content simplification, and plainness, suitability of the book’s name, illustrations and linguistic features.

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Method This research is of a descriptive nature. In descriptive studies, the analytical process is a qualitative, rather than a quantitative one, describing the subjects of the research rather than measuring them (Büyüköztürk et al., 2009). This study attempts to determine the content levels of children’s books concerning the processes of science and nature. Population and Sample: Books about science and nature represent the population of this study. The sample constitutes 40 different books written for the children between the ages of three and six, and used in science activities of nine different kindergartens in KonyaaltÕ district of Antalya. Data Collection and Analysis: The data was collected by gathering books on science and nature, published by nine different publishing houses. The technique of “document analysis” was used to analyse the data. Document analysis involves the analysis of written materials containing information about the phenomenon or phenomena that is/are the subject of study (YÕldÕrÕm and ùimúek, 2008). In order to determine the content level of the science and nature books, they were analysed according to six criteria: rationality, simplicity, plainness, suitability of the name, illustration and linguistic features. The levels of quality assigned to these criteria were classified as high, medium and low. As this research deals with books written for children aged three to six, before evaluating the books, the characteristics of this age group had to be taken into account. The extent to which failings within these criteria cause problems for young children’s comprehension of a book’s main idea was taken into consideration when levels of quality were determined, via expert opinion. So if, according to the criteria, there were no errors or only an unimportant mistake, the book was specified as HIGH level. If there was a mistake that made the dimension concerned problematic, the book was determined to be of MEDIUM level. In cases where there were more mistakes, and the dimension concerned could not be realised in any way, the book was identified as LOW level. For instance, the reason the book named A Sunny Day was regarded as high level in terms of rationality was that it provided descriptions of the Sun through details that correspond to the lives of children, and that it described changes we observe in the Sun together with the reasons for these changes. The book starts with sunrise in the morning. Butterflies and bees’ flying among flowers, which can be seen on sunny days, are explained. The concept of shade and the fact that shades get longer when the sun goes down are mentioned. Lastly, the sky’s turning red during the sunset is described. Since these descriptions make children’s conceptualization of the Sun easier through the integrity of the

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Content Characteristics of Science and Nature Books

writing, the rationality level of the book was determined to be high. Identification of these points was undertaken through the consensus of three experts; in other words, the experts were in absolute agreement.

Findings The research problem of this study was to determine levels of quality amongst books concerning the processes of science and nature, according to their rationality, simplicity, plainness, suitability of the name, illustrations and linguistic quality. Results concerning the rationality levels of the books found that 17 of the books were of a low level, 15 were of medium level, and eight of them were of a high level. In terms of simplicity, 13 books were of a low level, seven were medium level, and 20 of them were of a high level. In terms of plainness, 11 of the books were low level, 9 were medium level, and 20 were high level. Results regarding the suitability of books’ names indicated that 12 were of a low level, 17 were medium level, and 11 were high level. Regarding illustration levels, 9 were low level, 8 were medium level, and 21 were high level. On linguistic quality, it was found that 19 of the books were of a low level, 13 were medium level, and 8 were high level.

Conclusion and Discussion The findings indicate that there are many problems with regards to the characteristics required of the content of science and nature books for preoperational children. The fact that only eight of the books were found to be of a high level in terms of rationality and linguistic quality, out of 40 books constituting the sample of the research, is a point to consider. The function of these two dimensions in the formation and establishment of scientific thought is of great importance, because science operates concurrently with logic, and this relationship is reflected through language (Bingöl, 2007). In this research, none of the books were determined to be of a high level in terms of all criteria. It is essential that all the dimensions should be of a sufficiently high level in books presenting scientific content to children (Biçici, 2006) because children between the ages of three and six cannot determine shortcomings in books for themselves or comment on them individually, due to the developmental characteristics of that age group. In this respect, Yörüko÷lu (1996) states that it is necessary for children’s books to utilise plain language, clear concepts and an enjoyable, instructive and thought-provoking quality, and that they should introduce the environment realistically and provide guidance towards research and

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free thought. These dimensions are compatible with the developing characteristics of the children. The fact that the content characteristics of the books released by the same publishing house are not at the same level is a point to emphasize. For instance, 13 books of Tübitak Publishing have been evaluated in total. 8 of these books are written by Anna Milbourne, and 5 of them are written by Nuria Roca. While it is seen that the books written by Anna Milbourne are extremely successful from almost all aspects, the books written by Nuria Roca are found quite insufficient. In this respect, it would not be wrong to say that the publishing house is not itself a determinant of the quality of science and nature books, but that the author has a greater influence upon the quality of the book. Half of the evaluated books were found to have faults in terms of plainness. Books concerning science and nature are intended as teaching materials. Children at the preoperational stage are unable to think in more than one dimension at a same time (Schunk, 2009). For this reason, it is necessary to provide only one topic for each book, giving the reader space to focus on this point only. In this research, the names of only 11 books were found to be appropriate to their scientific content; others used literary connotations in their names. Since literature explores language as a game, it serves a different purpose from expressing scientific thought. Therefore, titles presenting the content clearly are more appropriate in science books. It was found that illustrations in 23 of the reviewed books were compatible with the written information on the page concerned, and that the pictures used helped explain the content. Döl (1999) notes the importance of recognition of objects in picture books, and states that illustrations help children enjoy themselves and learn about life. Through picture books, children’s language development and critical consciousness can be reinforced. The fact that almost half of the books in the study were found to have failings with regards to illustrations is a point worth considering in term of child development. Gönen et al. (2011) ascertained, in their study in which they reviewed a hundred children’s books, that 93% of the books contained pictures. This reflects fact that the content is significantly transmitted through pictures in children’s books. According to Gündüz (2007), children’s books should support the written and visual communication of the child. Out of 40 books, only eight were deemed to represent a high level of linguistic quality. One type of problem related the use of language which was too far from reflecting the scientific content. Science and nature books are supposed to be informative texts. Günay (2007) asserts that informative

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Content Characteristics of Science and Nature Books

texts are written in order to explain a phenomenon, thought or situation, such that the reader can understand the topic better. In order to achieve this, the kind of language games used in the art of literature must be avoided. The content should be conveyed to the reader through clear concepts on which there is clear agreement. The research also ascertained that in some books the written content was sometimes inconsistent with pictures which appeared on the same page, that in others the style of the story dominated the informative content, and that some books contained mistakes in terms of punctuation and the form of writing (sentence structure). These kinds of linguistic problems are encountered in the other types of children’s books, too. In Gönen et al.’s aforementioned study (2011), 98 punctuation and spelling errors, 68 words above the age level, 11 cases of ambiguity and ten slang words were found. Cases such as these lead to the disruption of the children’s language development and prevent children from grasping the content of the book. As a result, children are brought up hampered in their ability to learn the processes of scientific thinking and convey scientific concepts through appropriate language.

References Biçici, N. (2006). Annelerin Çocuk KitabÕ Seçimi HakkÕndaki Görüúleri [Mothers’ Opinions on the Choice of Children’s Books]. YayÕnlanmamÕú Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Afyon. Bilalo÷lu, G. R., Aslan, D. & Aktaú, Y. (2006). Okul öncesi ö÷retmenlerinin günlük programda yer verdikleri fen etkinlikleri ve bu etkinlikleri uygulama biçimlerinin incelenmesi [Examination of the science activities included into the daily program by preschool teachers and their ways of applying these activities]. 15. Ulusal E÷itim Bilimleri Kongresi, Mu÷la. Bingöl, A. (2007). øletiúim ba÷lamÕnda anlam ve dil [Meaning and language within the scope of communication]. Felsefe DünyasÕ 46: 111. Büyüköztürk, ù., KÕlÕççakmak, E., Akgün, Ö. E., Karadeniz, ù. & Demirel, F. (2009). Bilimsel AraútÕrma Yöntemleri [Scientific Research Methods]. Ankara: Pegem Akademi Canpolat, N. & PÕnarbaúÕ, T. (2002). Fen e÷itiminde kavramsal de÷iúim yaklaúÕmÕ I: Teorik temelleri [Conceptual change approach in science education I: Theoretical principles]. Kastamonu E÷itim Dergisi 10 (1): 59-66.

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Ciravo÷lu, Ö. (2000). Çocuk EdebiyatÕ [Children’s Literature]. Istanbul: Esin YayÕnevi. Demirel, ù., Uluda÷, M. E., Tozlu, N., Seven, S. & Çeçen, M. A. (2011). Edebi metinlerle çocuk edebiyatÕnda türler [Genres in children’s literature via literary texts]. Edebi Metinlerle Çocuk EdebiyatÕ. Ankara: Pegem Akademi. Döl, A. (1999). 0-6 Yaú Çocuk KitaplarÕ Resimlemeleri [Illustrations of Children’s Books for the Ages of 0-6]. YayÕmlanmamÕú Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Onsekiz Mart Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Çanakkale. Genç, H. N. (2007). Betik Türleri ve Okuma [Text Types and Reading]. D. Ü. Ziya Gökalp E÷itim Fakültesi Dergisi 8: 45-51. Genç, ù. (2005). Özel Ö÷retim Yöntemleri [Special Methods of Teaching]. Eskiúehir: AçÕkö÷retim Fakültesi YayÕnÕ. Gönen, M., KatrancÕ, M. Uygun, M. & Uçuú, ù. (2011). ølkö÷retim birinci kademe ö÷rencilerine yönelik çocuk kitaplarÕnÕn, içerik, resimleme ve fiziksel özellikleri açÕsÕndan incelenmesi [An analysis of children’s books for primary school students in terms of content, illustration and physical features]. E÷itimve Bilim 36 (160): 250-265. Gönen, M. (1998). 99 soruda çocuk edebiyatÕ [Children’s literature in 99 questions]. In M. R. ùirin (Ed.), Çocuk EdebiyatÕ Kültürü. Istanbul: Çocuk VakfÕ YayÕnlarÕ. 43-46. Günay, V. D. (2007). Metin Bilgisi [Text Knowledge]. Istanbul: Multilingual. Gündüz, A. (2007). Anne-Baba ve Ö÷retmenlerin Okul Öncesi Çocuk KitaplarÕnÕ De÷erlendirmesi [Parents and Teachers’ Evaluation of the Books for Preschool Children]. YayÕmlanmamÕú Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Afyonkarahisar. Karaer, H. & Kösterelio÷lu, M. (2005). Amasya ve Sinop illerinde çalÕúan okul öncesi ö÷retmenlerin fen kavramlarÕnÕn ö÷retilmesinde kullandÕklarÕ yöntemlerin belirlenmesi [Identification of the methods used for teaching science concepts by preschool teachers working in Amasya and Sinop]. Kastamonu E÷itim Dergisi 13 (2): 447-454. KÕbrÕs, ø. (2002). UygulamalÕ Çocuk EdebiyatÕ [Applications of Children’s Literature]. Akara: Eylül YayÕnevi. O÷uzkan, A. F. (2000). Çocuk EdebiyatÕ [Children’s Literature]. Ankara: AnÕ YayÕncÕlÕk. Schunk, D. H. (2009). E÷itimsel Bir BakÕúla Ö÷renme Teorileri [Learning Theories: an Educational Perspective]. Çev: M. Y. Demirvedi÷erleri. Ankara: Nobel.

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Sever, S. (2008). Çocuk ve Edebiyat [Children and Literature]. øzmir: Tudem YayÕnevi. Tanju, E. H. (2013). Edebi türler açÕsÕndan çocuk edebiyatÕ [Children’s Literature in Terms of Literary Genres]. Çocuk EdebiyatÕ. 93-158. YalçÕn, A. & Aytaú, G. (2005). Çocuk EdebiyatÕ [Children’s Literature]. Ankara: Akça÷. YÕldÕrÕm, A. & ùimúek, H. (2008). Sosyal Bilimlerde Nitel AraútÕrma Yöntemleri [Qualitative Research Methods in Social Sciences]. Ankara: Seçkin YayÕncÕlÕk. Yörüko÷lu, A. (1996). Çocuk Ruh Sa÷lÕ÷Õ [Children’s Mental Health]. Istanbul: Özgür YayÕnlarÕ.

PERCEPTION OF GIFTEDNESS IN PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS ESRA ALTINTAù AND AHMET ù. ÖZDEMIR

Introduction Gifted children (GC) show the potential for performing at remarkably high levels of accomplishment when compared with others of their age, experience or environment. These children exhibit high performance capability in intellectual, creative, and/or artistic areas, have an unusual leadership capacity or excel in specific academic fields (Jarosewich, Pfeiffer and Morris 2002; Maitra and Gosain, 2009; http://www. corwin.com/). Identifying GC as early as possible is of paramount importance (Wellisch, 1997). These children need to be provided with extraordinary programmes and activities (Maitra and Gosain, 2009; Wellisch, 1997). Without proper programming GC may become underachievers and their talents may be wasted or misdirected (Wellisch, 1997). There are three criteria used to qualify a student for a gifted program: High performance on an intelligence test, high performance on a test of academic skills, close alignment to a series of characteristic behaviours of the gifted. Giftedness in children denotes their potential for becoming critically acclaimed performers or exemplary producers of ideas in spheres of activity that enhance the moral, physical, emotional, social, intellectual or aesthetic life of humanity (http://www.corwin.com). There is some existing research related to this area of study in the literature. The following offers a brief outline. Lee (1999)’s research aims to determine how teachers describe the term “giftedness”. Sixteen early childhood teachers participated in the study. The results showed that teachers understood giftedness as a series of conceptions: namely excellence, potential, rarity, behaviour, innate ability, motivation and asynchrony. In Moon and Brighton’s (2008) research, respondents described gifted children as possessing strong reasoning skills, a general storehouse of knowledge, and facility with language, including a strong

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vocabulary. In Moore’s (2009) study teachers described GC as having a strong desire to learn, high motivation, inquisitiveness, excitement and enormous energy. They thought that gifted children needed to be pushed and challenged as far as they can go. Some teachers noticed that GC do not always fit in or have many friends, prefer to talk with adults, are independent, and can be disorganized. Some teachers also observed that GC are loving, sensitive, passionate, sweet, care about others, have a sense of humour, and can be immature. Almost all the teachers in this study commented on the academic aspect of giftedness in children by noticing boredom, frustration, problem-solving skills, self-teaching, mastery of content, and thinking outside the box. In Akar and Akar’s (2012) research, findings indicated that primary school teachers’ perceptions’ regarding giftedness are inadequate for nominating gifted children and helping them to realise their potential. The categories obtained in the scope of the research were as in the following: to have exceptional abilities/skills/ talents, to have different characteristics, to be successful, to have high IQ. Primary school teachers’ perceptions regarding the concept of GC were investigated within the scope of this study. The concept of GC was defined according to these teachers’ perceptions, by drawing it from the answers they provided. As such, we can express the research question of this study as follows: What are the perceptions of primary school teachers regarding the concept of GC? The purpose of this study is to determine the components, or subdimensions, of the concept of GC, from the perspective of primary school teachers, by asking them to examine this concept. In order to answer this, a second research question was posed: What are the components that constitute the concept of GC, according to primary school teachers? As the concept of giftedness is quite new in Turkey, identifying GC and providing them an appropriate education is of upmost importance. In this regard, it is thought that teachers—especially primary school teachers, due to the importance of early detection—have great responsibilities. Additionally, this study is also important in terms of collecting data from the participants who are teaching different subjects in seven different regions of Turkey.

Method The research model: Qualitative research methods and content analysis were used in this study. The basic purpose of the content analysis was to identify relations and concepts that could explain the data collected during the research. For this purpose, the collected data was first conceptualized,

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then organized logically according to the concepts which arose from it, and finally some themes that explained the data were determined (YÕldÕrÕm and ùimúek, 2011). The participants: This study was carried out in the spring semester of the 2011-2012 academic year. 200 primary teachers participated in the study. Availability was taken as a criterion for determining the participants. Teachers from different branches working in primary schools in different cities from seven regions in Turkey participated in this study. Data Collection Instruments: The researchers prepared a questionnaire for use in this study. The perceptions and level of knowledge of primary teachers (AltÕntaú and Özdemir, 2012) regarding gifted students were determined through the questionnaire, gathered according to different themes, and then these findings were presented. The data was obtained through two open-ended questions and responses were analysed. The data was obtained through open-ended questions such as: “What is the meaning of GC for you? What are GC’s characteristics?” In categorizing and dividing the collected data into themes, the expert opinions of one lecturer, three teachers were taken into consideration. Data Analysis: After the teachers’ definitions regarding GC and their answers regarding the characteristics of GC had been categorized, they were grouped under various themes, such that the definition of ‘GC’ could be perceived from the perspective of teachers. The categories and themes were displayed by stating frequency (f) and percentages (%) in tables, and the necessary evaluations were made.

Results Primary and middle school teachers’ answers to the open-ended questions were grouped under categories and themes in Table 1-7. The responses fell into seven themes: being different from peers, strong academic achievement, and high capability in certain areas, creativity, personal traits, physical development properties and inheritability. Each theme consists of several sub-categories; for example, it is seen that under the “being different from peers” theme comes “to be different in every aspect” and “to give different reactions”. So in other words, teachers think that gifted students are different from their peers in every aspect and give different reactions to their peers to some situations and events.

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Table 1-7. Answers to questions according to themes and categories Themes

Categories

Being different from peers Strong academic achievement

To be different in every aspect To give different reactions High-level performance To use mind Receptivity/perception/thinking To produce solutions To interpret correctly To reason Strong memory Mathematical intelligence To use information in different areas To be able to create relations between concepts/subjects Background information Achievement Problem-solving skills Memorisation Skills To be able to use own potential to a high level To be skilful in certain areas Advanced interest/curiosity Creative Sense of humour Attention to detail Abstract thinking Imagination Sense of wonder Friendly Motivated Social Responsible Leadership Emotional Shy Self-sufficient Mature Expressive Able to take right decisions Brave Perfectionist Self-confident Careful Inquisitive Awareness Healthy Body development Easily distracted Dynamic Good handicraft skills Good hand-eye coordination Genetic (from mother and father) God’s gift

High capability in certain areas Creativity

Personal traits

Physical development properties

Inheritability

f

%

40 22 33 43 58 17 13 15 16 16 13 14 15 30 12 10 10 50 10 31 15 15 10 25 17 11 9 13 9 20 4 2 7 12 20 7 7 23 15 18 27 15 7 15 2 15 10 10 38 30

20 11 17 22 29 9 7 8 8 8 7 7 8 15 6 5 5 25 5 15.5 7.5 7.5 5 12.5 8.5 5.5 4.5 6.5 4.5 10 2 1 3.5 6 10 3.5 3.5 11.5 7.5 9 13.5 7.5 3.5 7.5 1 7.5 5 5 19 15

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It can be seen that teachers’ categories under the “academic achievement” theme were: performance, to use mind, receptivity/quick perception and thinking, to produce solutions, to interpret correctly, to reason, strong memory, mathematical intelligence, to use information in different areas, to create relations between different concepts and subjects, background information, achievement, problem solving skills, memorizations skills, to use own potential in high levels. In this theme, which was completely equipped with positive features, teachers thought that gifted students perform successfully in all areas, use their minds to a high level, have the ability to understand the subjects in their lessons quickly, think fast, can produce solutions to problems easily, can understand and interpret what they read correctly, have good reasoning skills, have strong memories, do not forget easily what they have learnt, are good at mathematics, can easily adapt information to different areas and to different subjects, can see the relations between concepts and subjects, have a good foundation of background information (since they are very curious and carry out research), are successful in all lessons, have advanced memorization skills which allow them to instantly memorize and store what they read or see (such as concepts, names and features) and have the skill to use their own potential to a high level. It was found that under academic achievement theme teachers especially focused on receptivity/perception/thinking, using the mind, performance and achievement. Under the “High capability in certain areas” theme, teachers’ subcategories were: to be skilful in certain areas, and advanced interest/curiosity. In this theme, teachers felt that gifted students tend to be very successful in certain areas, especially subjects in which they have an advanced interest in and/or are curious about. Under the “Creativity” theme, the emergent categories were: creativity, sense of humour, niggling, abstract thinking, imagination and sense of wonder’. Teachers perceived that gifted students can produce different solutions to questions, can think of events with from different point of view, can perceive abstract concepts well, and have a vivid imagination and sense of wonder about everything. Under the theme of “Personal traits” theme, teachers’ categories were: friendly, motivated, social, responsible, leadership, emotional, shy, selfsufficient, mature, expressive, able to make right decisions, brave, perfectionist, self-confident, careful, inquisitive, and aware. Teachers felt that gifted students are children who have good relations with each other and with other peers, are more motivated, are more sociable and social, know their responsibilities, love standing out, can express their opinions clearly and overtly, have advanced abilities for expressing themselves,

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Perception of Giftedness

love spending time on their own, are self-sufficient, can display more mature attitudes than their actual ages, can take necessary and timely decisions, are brave and dynamic, try to do their best in all subjects, take attention through their self-confidence, can catch details which others cannot see, undertake their own research for this purpose, and are aware of their own skills, talents and interests. In addition to all of these things, there were teachers who think that gifted children are shy. However, the number of these teachers was very low. However, since gifted children try to use their potential to the highest level, they can be quite shy during lessons or in a subject that does not attract them, or which they are not interested in. It was seen that under personal traits teachers’ comments focused especially on inquisitiveness, leadership, the ability to express and perfectionism. Under the “physical development properties” theme, the emergent subcategories were: healthy, body development, distractibility, dynamism, good at handicrafts and hand-eye coordination. Under this theme, teachers indicated that gifted children are less frequently sick, are more healthy generally, develop better than the other children, are very dynamic, mostly hyperactive, are better in things that require manual skills, and have better hand-eye coordination. In addition to this factor, some teachers express the opinion that gifted students experience problems with distraction and sometimes have difficulties focusing on certain points. Under development properties theme it is seen that teachers’ responses especially focused upon body development and dynamism. Under the “Congenital’” the emergent sub-categories were: genetics (from father and mother) and god’s gift. Teachers believed that GC is talented because of genes passed to them from their mother and fathers; that is, these students are intelligent because their parents are also intelligent. In addition to this, some of the teachers claim that giftedness is a gift of god. They think that these students are specially selected children. Some of the examples of the teachers’ answers regarding the concept of GC are presented below: “It means a person who is aware of his/her talents, who knows where to channel this talent and who is quick-witted.” “A GC is someone who is not ordinary, who adapts quickly to the subjects which require information and skill, and who accepts responsibilities and does whatever it takes.” “GC ask unusual questions, they behave unusually and they have a sense of humour beyond normal level.”

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“They are children, who have interesting and useful ideas, who rapidly understand things and produce solutions according to what they perceive.” “They are human beings born with genes which allow them to understand information in the best possible way.”

Conclusion GC are mostly perceived by their teachers as students who have high interest in lessons and who do not have any difficulties during the lessons. In fact, GC get bored easily during lessons that are below their level and where they are not allowed to use their potential. They lose their interest in such lessons immediately, and for this reason, they are sometimes treated as lazy students. In this aspect, this study contradicts that of Moore (2009), which found that teachers perceive all the features of GC as positive. However, considering the general themes and sub-categories established in this study, it shows parallels with Akar and Akar (2012) in terms of the themes of “high capability in certain areas” and “being different from peers”. In terms of the “academic achievement” theme, this study shows parallel findings with the studies of Akar and Akar (2012), Lee (1999), Moon and Brigton (208), and Moore (2009). Findings regarding the perceived congenital nature of GCs were parallel with the studies of Lee (1999) and Moore (2009). The following suggestions and recommendations can be offered within the scope of this study: -

-

-

It is suggested to conduct a similar study with the families of gifted students. Such a study would help understand how families perceive the concept of gifted children generally and their own children specifically. How teachers from different backgrounds perceive gifted children could be determined by grouping teachers according to their subjects, gender and work experience. Awareness of GCs could be created among pre-service teachers by conducting similar research with pre-service teachers through interviews in order to understand their opinions regarding gifted children. Interviews could be conducted with the teacher for a better analysis of the answers provided by teachers.

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References Akar, ø. & Akar, ù. ù. (2012). ølkö÷retim OkullarÕnda Görev Yapmakta Olan Ö÷retmenlerin Üstün Yetenek KavramÕ HakkÕndaki Görüúleri [Primary School In-Service Teachers’ Perceptions’ of Giftedness]. Kastamonu E÷itim Dergisi 20 (2): 423-436. AltÕntaú, E. & Özdemir, A. ù. (2012). The Determination of the Ideas of Teachers in Turkey about Gifted Students. 4th World Conference on Educational Sciences. Barcelona, Spain. Jarosewich, T., Pfeiffer, S. I. & Morris, J. (2002). Identifying Gifted Students Using Teacher Rating Scales: A Review of Existing Instruments. Journal of Psycho-educational Assessment 20 (4): 322336. Lee, L. (1999). Teachers’ Conceptions of Gifted and Talented Young Children. High Ability Studies 10 (2): 183-196. Maitra, K. & Gosain, Y. (2009). Revisiting the concept of giftedness and its status in the postmodern era. Gifted Education International 25: 318-325. Moon, T. R. & Brighton, C. M. (2008). Primary Teachers’ Conceptions of Giftedness. Journal for the Education of the Gifted 31 (4): 447-480. Moore, E. J. (2009). Teacher Perceptions of Academic Giftedness in Elementary Classrooms: A Study of Metaphors. Unpublished Doctoral Thesis. University of Cincinnati. The Gifted Child. Online: http://www.corwin.com/upm-data/38607 _Pages_from_DeLandtsheer_Making_All_Kids_Smarter__ch_1.pdf Wellisch, M. (1997). A pilot study: Teacher views of the concept of giftedness in the early childhood setting. Australian Journal of Early Childhood 22 (2): 22-28. YÕldÕrÕm, A. & ùimúek, H. (2011). Sosyal Bilimlerde Nitel AraútÕrma Yöntemleri [Qualitative Research Methods in Social Sciences]. Ankara: Seçkin.

INVESTIGATION OF JOB SATISFACTION AMONGST TEACHERS

ERKAN TABANCALI AND ESRA ÇAKMAK

Introduction Human resource management is gaining in importance, due to rises in fertility, the effects of globalization, costs and problems within the labour force (Sadullah, 2010). In particular, the cost of the labour force is one of the most significant reasons mentioned above, since effective human resource management can provide positive results in reducing costs. Good human resource management results in increased performance, higher quality of products, and a decrease in labour turnover and absenteeism (Sadullah, 2010). Literature reviews indicate that job satisfaction also plays an important role in performance (Petty, McGee and Cavender, 1984). Job satisfaction means simply “how people feel about their jobs and different aspects of their jobs and it is the extent to which people like (satisfaction) or dislike (dissatisfaction) their jobs” (Spector, 1997). The success of education is dependent upon how teachers feel about their work and how satisfied they are with this work. Therefore, researchers suggest that schools must pay attention to increasing teachers’ job satisfaction (Heller, Clay and Perkins, 1993). Most research on teachers’ job satisfaction is based upon Herzberg’s “two-factor theory” (Bogler, 2001). According to Herzberg (1987), there are two factors: “motivators” and “hygiene factors”. Motivators are related to job content and include achievement, recognition, and responsibility. Hygiene factors are related to the environmental factors and these are institutional politics, working conditions, supervision, personal relationships, and salary and job security (ibid.). The aim of this research is to investigate whether the job satisfaction levels of teachers differentiate according to their gender, age and branches.

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Methodology Population and Sample The population of this research was 944 teachers working in 42 public primary schools in the province of Arnavutköy, Istanbul, in the 2011-2012 academic year. Using random sampling, 290 teachers from the population were chosen and 239 surveys from this sample were considered valid. Since Arnavutköy had the lowest points in Istanbul for Placement Tests (which determine which secondary schools students can attend) for 8th grade students in the 2010-2011 academic year, this province was chosen for the study. According to existing research, job satisfaction leads to high performance amongst employees (Bruce and Blackburn, 1992; Spector, 1997). Therefore, it is thought that the reason the province of Arnavutköy had the lowest points in placement test could be related to job satisfaction level amongst its teachers. However, it is impossible to explain students’ success in placement tests through a single factor; many factors affect students’ success in placement tests, and these factors continuously interact with each other. In this study, teachers’ job satisfaction levels, which can be one of these factors, is investigated. Demographic information about gender, age and the branch of education participating teachers specialise in are presented in table 1-8. Table 1-8. Demographics of participants Categories Gender Age Branches

Variables Female Male Total 20-29 30-49 Total Primary school teaching Social sciences teaching Science teaching Language teaching Art, music and gym teaching Others Total

N 145 94 239 226 13 239 126 34 29 17 16 14 236

% 60.7 39.3 100 96.4 5.4 100 53.4 14.4 12.3 7.2 6.8 5.9 100

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Measuring Instruments Data were gathered using short form of “Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire” (MSQ). The questionnaire was developed by Weiss et al. (1967) and adapted into Turkish by Baycan (1985); its Cronbach Alpha value was found to be 0.77. The short form of MSQ uses a 5-point Likerttype scale (1. Very dissatisfied, 2. Dissatisfied, 3. Unsure, 4. Satisfied, 5. Very satisfied) in response to 20 items. The questionnaire had two subscales: the “intrinsic satisfaction scale” and the “extrinsic satisfaction scale”. The intrinsic satisfaction sub-scale consisted of 12 items reflecting whether people felt their full abilities were being used, their sense of achievement, the chance to do things for other people in the job, and so forth. The extrinsic sub-scale consisted of six items concerning the organizational administration policies, the quality of working conditions, salary and so forth. Analysis of Data Questionnaires were numbered and dimensioned according to the intrinsic and extrinsic satisfaction sub-scales. Frequency, mean, percentage, t-test and One Way ANOVA analyses were used to determine whether answers were differentiated according to demographic variables (using SPSS 16 program) or not. The criteria shown in Table 1-9 were used for evaluating questionnaire responses: Table 1-9. Evaluating questionnaire Choices Very dissatisfied Dissatisfied Unsure Satisfied Very satisfied

Points 1 2 3 4 5

Score Interval 1.00-1-80 1.81-2.60 2.61-3.40 3.41-4.20 4.21-5.00

Evaluating Questionnaire Very low Low Moderate High Very high

Findings The aim of this research was to investigate whether job satisfaction levels amongst teachers working in public primary schools in the province of Arnavutköy, Istanbul in the 2011-2012 academic year could be differentiated according to their gender, age and branch of teaching. An analysis of the results is presented in Tables 1-10 to 1-12.

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Table 1-10. Job satisfaction levels of teachers Sub-scales Intrinsic Satisfaction Extrinsic Satisfaction

X

3.89 3.40

SS 6.40 5.13

According to Table 1-10, teachers’ both intrinsic and extrinsic satisfaction levels were high. In other words, teachers were satisfied with their jobs. Analysis of teachers’ job satisfaction levels according to demographic variables are presented below.

Job satisfaction level of teachers according to demographic variables Job Satisfaction Level According to Gender Although there was no significant difference in extrinsic satisfaction levels of teachers according to gender (p < 0.05, p = 0.186), intrinsic satisfaction levels did vary significantly according to this variable. The results are presented in Table 1-11. Table 1-11. Job satisfaction level according to gender Gender Female Male

N 132 83

X 3.96 3.77

SS 6.07 6.69

sd 213

T 5.59

P 0.010*

According to Table 1-11, there was a significant difference in intrinsic satisfaction level of teachers according to gender: t (213) = 5.59, p 0.05). In other words, these variables were responsible for explaining 46% of the total variance]. Sabotage = 3.50 + 0.17 self-criticism [Multiple correlation between sabotage and self-criticism was 0.58, and this is a significant value (F [10.60] = 7.04, p > 0.05). In other words, this variable was responsible for explaining 34% of the total variance]. Theft = 7.19—0.17 neuroticism + 0.25 self-criticism [Multiple correlation between theft and these variables was 0.61, and this is a significant value (F [10.60] = 8.42, p > 0.05). In other words, neuroticism and self-criticism were responsible for explaining 38% of the total variance]. Withdrawal = 6.10 + 0.12 extroversion + 0.27 self-criticism [Multiple correlation between withdrawal and these variables was 0.49, and this is a significant value (F [10.60] = 4.38, p > 0.05). In other words, the variables of extroversion and self-criticism variables were responsible for explaining 38% of the total variance].

Results of Correlation Analysis The correlation coefficients among personality types, CD types, and CWB dimensions are shown in Table 3-6.

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Table 3-6. Correlation Coefficients among Personality-CD and CWBTypes

Neuroticism Extroversion Openness to experience Agreeableness Conscientiousness Helplessness Hopelessness Preoccupation with danger Self-criticism Self-blame Age

Abuse 0.00 -0.01 -0.11 -0.26* -0.19* 0.49* 0.49* 0.49*

Theft -0.06 -0.06 -0.10 -0.21* -0.15 0.43* 0.44* 0.42*

Withdrawal 0.05 0.05 -0.07 -0.17* -0.20* 0.33* 0.34* 0.33*

Sabotage 0.02 -0.02 -0.12 -0.25* -0.18* 0.36* 0.39* 0.40*

0.62* 0.49* 0.06

0.56* 0.93* 0.02

0.43* 0.75* -0.06

0.53* 0.87* 0.14

*p < 0.05

As can be seen from Table 3-6, agreeableness is correlated negatively with all CWB types. These results indicate that those who scored highly in the agreeableness dimension seldom engage in CWBs. Similarly, the more conscientiousness the academics were, the less CWBs (except theft) they were likely to exhibit. However, the results of correlation analysis signified that participants with higher CD scores were more likely to engage in CWB. By contrast, the age of respondents was not found to correlate significantly with their CWB scores.

Discussion CWB is a new area of research in Turkey. CWB can sometimes be seen as an innocent reaction to unfair treatment by employers. As is known, labour unions are becoming steadily weaker in every country, including Turkey. Therefore, workers have been left petrified and powerless in the labour market. The only weapon they can use to stand up for their rights is engaging in CWB, especially the passive type. As well as employers, organizational conditions can cause CWBs too. Instrumental deviance can be seen therefore as a means to overcome these two “hostiles”. Aggression can also be a result of these feelings. Actually, perceptions of fairness in work settings relate to retaliatory behaviours against the organization (Skarlicki and Folger, 1997), but sometimes individuals engage in CDs when they perceive and interpret real-life situations. Moreover, personality

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differences can play an important role in the display of deviant behaviours at work. Our findings show that two personality traits (openness to experience and neuroticism) and two dimensions of CD (hopelessness and helplessness) together reveal effects upon two types of CWBs (withdrawal and sabotage). In other words, the lower participants’ scores regarding openness to experience were the more helplessness and withdrawal they experienced. Where hopelessness and neuroticism scores were both high, sabotage behaviours (CWB) are also high. According to the results from regression analysis, self-criticism predicts all manifestations of CWB positively, while neuroticism predicts abuse and theft behaviours negatively. According to the results of correlation analysis, the most remarkable findings are that there are significant negative correlations between CWB and agreeableness, and between CWB and conscientiousness. Briefly, there are significant positive correlations between all dimensions of CD and CWB. These findings are important in explaining personal traits and perceptions as factors which influence the workplace environment negatively. In the research, the structural circumstances of the workplace were ignored as variables. This limitation should be kept in mind. However, it is clear that structural factors have important effects on the lives of individuals. Personality and cognitive distortions are influenced by individuals’ previous life experiences. Therefore, structural factors work as latent variables in our model. Moreover, it must be added that the CWB terminology was created after the 1980s. It should be kept in mind that new organizational management models have been developed such as HRM and TQM in which an individual is on his/her own when seeking his/her rights in opposition to management policies. Individualistic Human Resources approaches such as performance evaluation, determination of salaries individually, seeking appropriate career opportunities and a lack of collective negotiating tools (for example, unions) creates deviant workplace behaviours. In summary, while psychology is uncovering the realities of workplace behaviour, care must be taken to ensure that it is not used as an instrument to enable capitalist management applications. We can give an example from this research: according to our results, a manager might make the decision not to give job opportunities to people who do not have suitable personality traits and who exhibit cognitive distortions, in order to prevent CWBs in the workplace!

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References A÷Õr, M. (2007). Üniversite Ö÷rencilerin Biliúsel ÇarpÕtma Düzeyi ile Problem Çözme Becerileri ve Umutszuluk Düzeyleri ArasÕndaki øliúki [The Relationship of Students’ Cognitive Distortion Level with Problem Solving Skills, and Hopelessness Level]. Ankara: YayÕnlanmamÕú Doktora Tezi. Berry, C. M., Ones, D. S. & Sackett, P. R. (2007). Interpersonal deviance, organizational deviance, and their common correlates: A review and meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology 92: 410-424. Brown, C., Trangsrud, H. B., & Linnemeyer, R. M. (2009). Battered Women’s Process of Leaving. Journal of Career Assessment 17 (4): 439-456. Çetin, F. (2008). KiúilerarasÕ øliúkilerde Kendilik AlgÕsÕ, Kontrol Oda÷Õ ve Kiúilik YapÕsÕnÕn ÇatÕúma Çözme YaklaúÕmlarÕ Üzerine Etkileri: UygulamalÕ Bir AraútÕrma [The Impact of Self-Perception, Locus of Control, and Personality Structure on Problem Solving Approaches in Interpersonal Relationships: An Applied Research]. Ankara: YayÕnlanmamÕú Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Henle, C. (2005). Predicting workplace deviance from the interaction between organizational justice and personality. Journal of Managerial Issues 17: 247-264. Hogan, R. (2004). Personality psychology for organizational researchers. In B. Schneider & D. B. Smith (Eds.), Personality and Organizations. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. 3-21. Johnson, J. A. & Ostendorf, F. (1993). Clarification of the Five Factor Model with the Abridged Big Five-Dimensional Circumplex. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 65: 563-576. Mount, M., Ilies, R. & Johnson, E. (2006). Relationship of personality traits and counterproductive work behaviours: The mediating effects of job satisfaction. Personnel Psychology 59: 591-622. Murad, H. A. I. (2002). Cognitive Processes and Aggression in Middle School Children. Place: Publishing House. Öcel, H. (2010). Üretim KarúÕtÕ øú DavranÕúlarÕ Ölçe÷i: Geçerlilik ve Güvenirlik ÇalÕúmasÕ [Counterproductive Work Behaviours Scale: Validity and Reliability Studies]. Türk Psikoloji YazÕlarÕ 13 (26): 1826. Robinson, S. L. & Bennett, R. J. (1995). A Typology of Deviant Workplace Behaviours: A Multidimensional Scaling Study. Academy of Management Journal 38: 555-572.

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Skarlicki, D. P. & Folger, R. (1997). Retaliation in the workplace: The roles of distributive, procedural, and interactional justice. Journal of Applied Psychology 82: 434-443. Spector, P. E., Fox, S., Penney, L. M., Bruursema, K., Goh, A. & Kessler, S. (2006). The Dimensionality of Counter productivity: Are All Counterproductive Behaviours Created Equal? Journal of Vocational Behaviour 68: 446-460.

POTENTIAL EDUCATIONAL EMIGRATION OF GEORGIAN STUDENTS FOR STUDY PURPOSES ANA TUKHASHVILI

Introduction In the 1990s due to the all-embracing crisis in the post-Soviet period in Georgia, the standard of living dropped drastically and Gross Domestic Product shrank by 4.3 times. The disastrous deterioration in living conditions caused a significant part of the country’s population to seek a way out by emigrating or moving to a foreign country to get temporary employment. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, over one million people, i.e. one fifth of the total population, moved their permanent residence abroad. At the same time, approximately 350-500,000 people (810% of the country’s population) were in temporary labour emigration, while a considerable proportion of Georgian nationals were in educational emigration, combining work with study. The number of those wishing to study abroad has grown in Georgia over the course of time. This has been facilitated by the reforms of Bologna process (which brought the Georgian and European curricula into compliance, as well aligning them more closely with the US system); a shift to a two-stage study system; the high prestige of diplomas obtained in foreign countries; widening access to study; the liberalization of interstate movement; and the high competitiveness of the labour force (due to their education obtained in Western universities) in both international and local labour markets. On the other hand, it turns out that educational migration has its drawbacks. Many graduates stay on in foreign countries to work, turning educational migration into permanent migration, thus diminishing the intellectual potential of the country. At the same time, demographic losses in turn weaken the demographic security of Georgia. Students represent a highly professional potential labour force that determines any country’s future socio-economic and cultural development.

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Universities in developed countries are making great efforts to draw gifted students from various countries. The emigration of students from developing countries is creating a foundation for the so-called “brain drain” phenomenon. The loss of human capital inflicts great economic damage. It reduces economic activities. Even though the value of remittances sent home by highly qualified emigrants is rather large, the overall economic development of the country will nevertheless be halted over time. The return of qualified professionals to their homeland exerts a positive effect on the quality of the development of a society and promotes the enhancement of economic activity. Today, the largest number of students studying abroad worldwide comes from China and India. Their share is expected to increase over the next decade and will probably account for 7 million by 2020. Georgia is on the list of the 13 countries (along with Pakistan, Brazil, Vietnam, Russia, Romania, Colombia, Bolivia, Peru, Chile, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Saudi Arabia) which are regarded by universities as “developing markets” for international students (WES-2010). The emigration of students from Georgia is likely to be intensive in nature. Such assumptions are supported by evidence from this study. In particular, 240 undergraduates were surveyed at the Department of Economics and Business, Tbilisi State University in 2012. The questionnaire used in the process consisted of 35 questions with 180 possible answers.

Results The survey revealed that 88% of the students were from Tbilisi, that 58% were females and 94% were unmarried. Respondents’ monthly household income ranged from 600 to 2000 GEL. One third of the respondents assessed their own financial status as “unsatisfactory” (i.e. “bad”). It was found that the majority of the students surveyed chose the profession of economist in compliance with their own interests (i.e. they liked the idea of their future profession) and that their choice had not been influenced by their friends, school teachers or parents (see Table 3-7). An essential precondition for study abroad is fluency in a foreign language. It was found that all respondents had intermediate or advanced proficiency in at least one foreign language. Most of them (93%) had a good command of English. In addition, the majority of the respondents (63%) could speak one more language. German, French or Russian was the principal foreign languages of only 7.5% of the individuals surveyed. Over half of the students interviewed (53%) had a good command of both

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English and Russian (Figure 3-13). Table 3-7. Distribution of the respondents according to their answers given to the question ‘Why have you chosen to follow that particular profession?’ Answers I like my future speciality. It is consistent with my interests I believe I will easily be able to get a job relevant to my specialty Many problems in this particular field have emerged in Georgia, therefore I believe there will be more demand for this profession I believe I will have a higher salary if I work in this field I consider this profession prestigious My parents are in the same profession My friends were also going to study the same subject Other Total

% 62.3 16.2 11.5 4.6 1.5 0.7 0.0 3.0 100

Figure 3-13. Distribution of the respondents according to their command of a foreign language

Due to their high scores in unified national exams, 70% of the students surveyed were funded by the state. The academic performance of 80% of respondents in the last semester was either the highest (A) or very good (B+). These results clearly underline the fact that the body of students

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surveyed is one of the most talented and promising segments of the young generation of Georgia today. The study found that 73% of the surveyed students wished to go abroad to either study or work. Of these, 84% intended to continue with their studies. In addition, improving one’s proficiency in a foreign language was one of the major motives cited for going overseas (54%). A good command of a foreign language is one of the preconditions for gaining employment in Georgia’s primary labour market. In addition to the previously mentioned reasons for leaving their homeland, over one fifth of the students also referred to their desire to lead an independent life. This is not surprising, since half of the students were still living with their parents. It should be noted that along with the desire to obtain higher education, the absence of opportunities for the realization of one’s abilities was referred to by 18% of the Georgian students as a major reason for emigration. Presumably, this relates again to the country’s poor economic conditions. There is a pressing structural problem with unemployment in Georgia, which stands at 15% according to official data, but exceeds 30% according to independent experts’ evaluation (Tsartsidze, 2010). In the world generally, the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Australia, China, Japan and Canada are the destination for approximately 75% of migrant students (WES, 2010). The majority of students surveyed wished to go to European countries and the US. Among these, 30% wished to go to UK, 27% to Germany and 14% to the U.S. In addition to the opportunity to obtain quality education, there is no language barrier for this contingent of students since most of them are fluent in English. The students’ aspiration towards Germany can be explained, presumably, by both the high quality of education available there and its affordable tuition fees. The rest of the students interviewed (29%) expressed a preference for other European countries (Italy, France, Spain, the Baltic and Scandinavian countries) (see Table 3-9). 24% of the respondents referred to the better living conditions available in the above-mentioned countries, while more than one third referred to exchange programmes and inter-university relations as their main motive for leaving the country. In addition, 20% of students felt that the quality of teaching is higher in the these countries (Table 3-10).

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Table 3-9. Distribution of the respondents who wish to study abroad according to the countries of emigration they intend to go Country UK Germany US Italy Spain Estonia Other countries Total

% 30 27 14 4 3 3 19 100

Table 3-10. Distribution of the respondents according to their answers given to the question “Why do you wish to go to that particular country?” Answers There are better living conditions there That particular country exchanges educational programmes with Georgia The quality of education is higher Going to that particular country is affordable in financial terms My university (institution) has relations with the higher education institutions of that particular country I have been to that particular country previously; therefore, I am aware of the living conditions there My closest relatives live in that particular country Emigrating to that particular country is easier Total

% 24.0 21.0 20.0 11 13.0 6 3 2 100

When asked about what they had done in preparation for going abroad, 41% of respondents said that they had done nothing at all so far; 38% were studying a foreign language; and 25% said that they had already started obtaining the necessary documents. There exists high probability that a proportion of the students surveyed will fail to accomplish their goal. It should be noted that 26% of the students were not familiar with the terms and conditions for emigrating to their country of preference; however, 43% noted that they would willingly familiarise themselves with these terms.

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83% of the students intending to proceed with their studies abroad were interested in obtaining a Master’s degree, 13% wished to pursue a Bachelor’s degree, and only 4% were considering studying for a doctoral degree. Logically enough, 86% of the students wishing to study abroad were planning to continue studying in the same field in which they gained their previous degree. As mentioned above, the majority (70%) of the students referred to the possibility of obtaining high quality education as the reason for intending to continue their studies abroad. Moreover, 40% of the students believed they would face no problem gaining employment in their homeland after graduating in a foreign country. It should be noted also that despite the high unemployment rate in Georgia, there is still a demand for a highlyskilled labour force. According to the students surveyed, obtaining an education abroad would make them more competitive, because they consider a diploma from a foreign institution very prestigious and beyond any competition. As noted above, demographic loss is one of the negative aspects associated with emigration for study purposes that might, ultimately, result in students remaining permanently abroad after they complete their studies. 41% of respondents said they did not intend to stay and work abroad, whilst 45% found it difficult to provide an answer and 12% had already made a firm decision to do so. The students referred to better working conditions and the opportunity to gain experience as the basic reason for staying abroad to work. They believed the experience they would gain in doing so would help them to get well-paid jobs in their homeland after their return at a later point. However, it should also be noted that 70% of them stated that unless they succeed in staying legally abroad, they would not stay to work, i.e. they did not intend to work illegally. 62% of respondents said that after obtaining an education overseas, they would definitely return home, while 10% of the respondents referred to the availability of employment relevant to their specialty and another 10% to a high salary as the factor encouraging them to come back. In order to be able to return to their homeland, the respondents deemed the availability of appropriate employment to be an essential precondition. One portion of the surveyed students considered promotion as a necessary prerequisite for employment (59%); another segment considers a well-paid (17.5%) and creative (19%) job more important, while a third group of respondents attached more importance to stable employment (32%).

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It should be noted that 60% of the students surveyed had already gained some work experience through participating in various projects, mostly in business (38%) but also in social and political activities. It was found that after returning home, 74% of the students intended to live in Tbilisi. It is not surprising since Tbilisi is the economic and cultural hub of the country. In addition, they were born and belong here. 20% said they would go wherever where they could obtain a suitable job. A portion of respondents said they did not wish to go back to the regions they came from as they believed they would not be able to find appropriate employment there and, therefore, their living conditions would be unlikely to improve. This kind of attitude amongst the students has been fostered by the unequal regional development seen throughout the country. In comparison with the regions, the capital is far more advanced in social and cultural terms.

Conclusion This study has demonstrated that even though the potential emigration of Georgian students contains elements of the “brain drain” phenomenon, the situation as it exists is not disastrous. The majority of students intending to study abroad are planning to improve their own qualification levels and then apply their newly-gained knowledge and skills back in the homeland. At the same time, some of them already have a few aspirations that can only be addressed by the country’s social and economic advancement. The increase in the capacity of the labour market and the development of the infrastructure in Georgia, along with the improvement of labour legislation and working conditions and the growth in remuneration are all factors that will promote the “brain return” process. We can assume that during the period students are abroad for study purposes, there will not be a so-called “brain waste”. In addition, it must be noted that Georgia has been one of the countries participating in the Bologna Process. Georgian universities have student exchange programmes with higher education institutions in other countries. The contribution of the Erasmus Mundus Programme, allowing students to obtain education predominantly free of charge abroad, is very significant. This study has identified that the quality of the involvement within the international educational system is improving, while an increasing range of solutions for overcoming the main barrier to studying abroad—the lack of appropriate funding—is gradually emerging.

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By taking into account the students’ migratory disposition and a few other circumstances, we may be able to assume that students’ emigration will be optimized in both qualitative and structural terms that will contribute to the formation of a contemporary labour market in Georgia.

References Tsartsidze, M. (2010). Formation and functioning of Georgian labour market. Tbilisi, Georgia: Universali. World Education Services. (2010). International student migration fact sheet. Online: http://www.wes.org/ca/events/FactSheet.pdf. (WES-2010)

IMPACTS OF THE TURKISH EDUCATION SYSTEM ON MIGRATION ULAù SUNATA

Introduction This paper analyses the impacts of the education system upon the experience of migration, i.e. the role of education in generating migration. Although there is a broad literature examining the relationship between education and migration over the last five decades, much of the existing literature focuses on investments in education through remittances, and educational problems of people with a background of migration. These topics are related with the post-migration period (i.e. after people have migrated). However, this paper deals with the motivation to migrate. Agreeing with the argument that both education and migration are key channels for social mobility (Rao, 2010), the paper addresses education via migration, focussing on the pre-migration period. The author introduces a conceptual framework for explaining the effects of education on migration, schematised in Figure 3-14. There are two types of migration which relate to education: -

Migration for education (student migration); Migration by education (brain migration), particularly covering the employment process after education.

In both educational sciences and migration studies, the nation-state is the typical unit of analysis. The influence of a national education system on not only external but also internal migration can be investigated. In the context of internal migration, urban migration is the main issue to be debated in detail. The links between education and migration discussed above— migration for education and migration by education—are two growing areas of research (Long, 1973; Levy and Wadycki, 1974; Schwartz, 1976; Carrington and Detragiache, 1999; Rodriguez-Pose and Vilalta-Bufi,

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2005; Rao, 2010; Sarwar and Sial, 2011; Robertson, 2013). This paper tackles an empirical lack of understanding of these issues in the context of Turkey. Its major aim is to clarify the impacts of the Turkish education system on migration. For this purpose, the author has drawn upon recent literature and statistics on student migration into and from Turkey. This study attempts to elaborate the conceptual relationship between education and migration in terms of sociology. The sociology of education offers various points of view. For instance, Durkheim discusses education as a basis of organic solidarity, while Weber considers it an instrument of political control. However, sociology’s main debate is whether education promotes social equality through social mobility or not. In this debate, Bourdieu has an important place with his ground-breaking work on the French education system. In this, he takes a particularly negative view, showing significant effect of cultural capital on the educational outcomes of students from different social classes. In fact, recent studies also argue that the education system is mostly designed with the intention of causing the social reproduction of different forms of inequality. The major forms of social inequality in the context of education are: -

Racial inequality; Class inequality; Gender inequality.

These forms can be theoretically evaluated under three dimensions with respect to our concerns: -

Ethnicity; Social stratification; Gender.

While taking all the related social inequalities into account, this paper will focus on the last dimension in the context of Turkey. In the sociology of migration, one also encounters diverse approaches. The earliest of these, neoclassical economic theory, states that income differentials can be the cause of migration. Contemporary economic theory distinguishes household migration decisions from personal decisions. This is where a family, as a unit, decides to migrate in order not only to increase their overall capital but also to minimize the risk and the cost. The strategy of moving as a family usually involves the man (husband/father) going first and other family members migrating after he has established himself and prepared the way (Schwarzweller, 1964). Explaining

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migration in the context of the family was an important theoretical step. Even more important, however, was the next step: the development of the theory of “relative deprivation”. According to relative deprivation theory, household members migrate in order to better the household’s position regarding a reference group, not necessarily to increase its income (Stark, 1984; Stark and Taylor, 1989, 1991). Relative deprivation can play a role not only in international migration but also in migration within a country. In this paper, the author expands upon earlier studies on student migrations into and out of Turkey by addressing relative deprivation in terms of socio-economic status, ethnicity and gender.

Characteristics of the Turkish Education System and Their Relation to Migration The 1980 military coup was not a significant “push” factor but did provide a background of forced student and academic migration. As a milestone in the history of migration, it was also a watershed due to the enormous changes it brought to the education system. It brought about not only a rise in nationalism and militarism but also the emergence of Turkish-Islamic synthesis and neoliberalism. Consequently, the author attempts to present a changing picture of the Turkish education system according to the above-discussed dimensions in relation to the military coup (see Table 311) and its influence on migration, arguing that some characteristics of the Turkish education system are determining factors in the transformation from the potentiality of people to kinetics. Table 3-11. Education policy in sociological dimensions Lines of Thoughts Sociological Dimensions Before 1980 Socio-economic status Populism; Elitism; Statism

After 1980 Neoliberalism

Ethnicity

Secularization; Islamism in the Sunni Turkish-Islamic branch; Nationalism (Ottomanism, synthesis Turkism, Turkification, Atatürkism, Kemalism)

Gender

State feminism; Patriarchy

State feminism

Turkish governments have tried to construct a national, western-oriented, unique, scientific, secular and widespread formal education system. The education system had the effect of expanding the Turkish middle class,

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formulated as “state-oriented nationalist citizens”, up until 1980. Since the establishment of the Turkish Republic in 1923, the number of students and graduates of secondary and tertiary education has increased massively, as an effect of high population growth rate (Table 3-12). The fact that approximately 20% of students from the secondary education level, and only 13% of university students have a chance to actually graduate is truly thought-provoking. The Turkish education system is very centralized throughout, not only in terms of the principles of uniqueness and equality but also with regards to domination and control. The Ministry of National Education is responsible for auditing primary and secondary education. Instead of following the University Law of 1946 which enshrined academic autonomy, higher education institutions have been dependent on the Tertiary Education Council since the 1980 coup. Table 3-12. Numbers of student enrolment and graduates in secondary and tertiary education of Turkey High Schools2 School Year 1923-1932 1933-1942 1943-1952 1953-1962 1963-1972 1973-1982 1983-1992 1993-2002 2003-2012

Enrolment1 Graduates3 34,754 4,044 182,738 31,331 246,066 53,513 492,377 88,255 1,625,163 4,297,035 6,796,005 12,593,793 22,310,958

Vocational and Higher Educational Technical Schools Institutions Enrolment Graduates Enrolment4 Graduates5 69,786 7,009 34,195 4,596 125,203 21,594 92,665 12,165 504,731 100,688 218,929 26,869 826,945 177,805 425,538 42,071

313,421 1,939,100 435,150 1,188,529 997,691 4,206,707 900,218 2,702,112 1,487,032 7,161,404 1,516,185 5,106,418 3,043,857 9,058,407 2,231,019 12,641,823 3,792,595 14,377,788 2,339,454 26,274,086

143,892 432,678 649,118 1,771,169 3,494,800

Data source: Turkish State Institution of Statistics 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Only total enrolments are shown because the breakdown of enrolment by sex is not available for the 1923-1924 academic year. Includes external high school students. Only total graduates are shown because the breakdown by sex is not available until the 1927-1928 academic year. Only total enrolments are shown because breakdown by sex is not available in some schools. Excludes graduates of 2011-2012 academic year.

One of the main targets of the Turkish education system was determined to be the unification of education by proclaiming equal educational opportunities for all. However, despite great efforts having been made to ensure primary education is prevalent throughout the country, we can find

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traces of elitism further up the Turkish education system. Basic and standard education is encouraged by the state. However, policies on higher levels of education bear comparison to Bourdieu’s observations. For instance, some choices for secondary education in the system (for details, Sunata, 2010a: 153-160) such as Anatolian, science, and private high schools, not only give rise to diversification and specialization but also entrench social hierarchy. These distinguished schools can be seen as organs for the mechanisms of cultural reproduction or chances for upward mobility. Both upper-class and middle-class families in Turkey take a strong interest in enrolling their children in these elite schools. The distinction between the rich and the poor shows itself in the costs of education. In fact, economic capital spending on education supports cultural capital reproduction within the family unit. In the Turkish context, most expenditure on education—covering private school fees, private tutoring and cram schools—takes place in the secondary education period (Sunata, 2011). Privatization, which brings about unequal conditions in terms of educational opportunities and luxuries, strongly affects children’s’ educational career, and thus their future migration experiences. Istanbul, Ankara and Izmir are the main destination places in internal migration for education and internal brain migration. These metropolises have the biggest education and job market (Sunata, 2012: 184). Although there is at least one high school of good quality in every city in Turkey, the best high schools and universities are still located in them. Student migration can be seen as an opportunity of upward social mobility; particularly for rural-origin poor students by means of boarding public schools without payment. Migration is resulted from the fact that education system allows students to make social mobility alternatives, public and private educational offers clearly leading to cultural reproduction, driving students make destination choices by clearly the Sunata-determined career route to Istanbul (Sunata, 2012). Another characteristic of the education system in Turkey relates to encouraging the education of women. Attention to female education dates back to the Tanzimat period, starting with the implementation of coeducation in public schools. Within the discourse of Turkish statefeminism, encouraging female education has always been high on the agenda. This duty of the Turkish education system is to target not only upper-middle class women in urban areas but also girls in rural regions. For instance, “Haydi kÕzlar okula”—the girls’ education campaign, as it is known in Turkey—aims to close the gender gap in rural in education enrolment.

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There has been a significant increase in female education rates in secondary education: from 28% to 43% in the two decades from 19731992, and from 23% to 46% in three decades from 1983-2012. Nowadays, the student enrolment and graduation populations by sex are nearly equal. It is generally known that girls are more diligent in reaching graduation if they attend an educational institution. It can be seen from Table 3-13 that there has been a significant rise in the number of educated women in Turkey in the period starting in the 1970s and continuing through the 1980s. However, this trend is not observed in the numbers attending Vocational and Technical Schools, since there was a rapid increase in Islamic Divinity High Schools in the same period and their students were mostly male. In this context, whether the reason for this upswing in the number of female students relates to shifts in gender balance of the population in general should be checked. To investigate the role of female population density, we can examine gender ratios in all censuses to date (source: Population Census 1927-2000, Turkish Statistical Institute). The male-to-female population currently stands almost in balance, although there were many more women, proportionally, in the earlier years of the Republic (the gender ratio was 92.65 males to every 100 females in 1927) and there have more men in Turkey since 1945 (the average between 1945 and 2000 was more than 103 males to every 100 females). From this, we can state that despite the smaller female population size in comparison to the male one, the growth in women’s participation rates in education since 1980 in Turkey is striking. The author also evaluated urban migration statistics in Turkey by sex and age group in recent years (2007-2012), focusing particularly on migration to Istanbul, Ankara, and Izmir. According to these statistics, it could be seen that annually 2.3 million people migrate within Turkey; about 30% of them migrate to these three largest cities, with more than 15% going to Istanbul. Taking all age groups in Turkey into account, female internal migration in Turkey is higher not only for people above 65 years of age (given that there are more women than men over the age of age 65) but also in the 15-19 and 19-24 age groups. It can be assumed that migration at the ages of 15-24 is quite likely to be student migration. Interestingly, this shows that women are more active in migration amongst Turkish youth, which can be seen as an indicator of the feminization of migration.

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Table 3-13. Female participation rates in secondary and tertiary education (1923-2012)

Enrolment

Graduates

Enrolment

Graduates

1923-1932 1933-1942 1943-1952 1953-1962 1963-1972 1973-1982 1983-1992 1993-2002 2003-2012

Higher Educational Institutions

Graduates

School Year

Vocational and Technical Schools

Enrolment

High Schools

Female Rate 0.25 0.23 0.21 0.25 0.28 0.35 0.43 0.43 0.46

Female Rate 0.22 0.21 0.21 0.25 0.28 0.36 0.44 0.45 0.50

Female Rate 0.33 0.32 0.21 0.26 0.33 0.30 0.31 0.37 0.41

Female Rate 0.28 0.39 0.20 0.23 0.35 0.33 0.33 0.38 0.42

Female Rate 0.13 0.17 0.19 0.18 0.20 0.23 0.33 0.40 0.46

Female Rate 0.05 0.17 0.21 0.20 0.21 0.24 0.35 0.43 0.47

In the last decade, Turkish education programmes have also tried to adapt their system to the European Education Area, for example, through participation in the Bologna process, which is designed to ensure comparability in the standards and quality of higher education qualifications across the region. This adaptation will be prerequisite in the coming years for student and academic staff mobility programmes. It can again be said that migration related to education is a growing field, and is becoming inevitable in an increasingly mobile world. In recent years, much attention has been given to the increasing prevalence of international student and professional mobility. Like other countries, Turkey is demonstrating a particular interest in external migration for education. In fact, the number of Turkish Erasmus students studying abroad annually has increased by approximately tenfold over the last six years (European Commission: Erasmus Program Statistics). Erasmus student statistics also show that Turkish female students are more mobile than male ones. This re-emphasises the strength of women’s interest in migration for education.

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Impacts of Education on Migration

Conclusion It is important to evaluate the education system in Turkey in the context of internal and international migration. The expansion of the middle class in Turkey, as more of the population have been integrated into the educational system, has brought about increased urban-to-urban and, especially, rural-to-urban migration. In a similar manner to internal migration, the circumstances of relatively deprived social groups (due to socio-economic status, ethnicity and gender) are a driving factor of emigration from Turkey. Moreover, the skill mobility policy in the national-global continuum makes Turkey, with its increasing educated population, a source of qualified migrants. This paper has explained migration for education (student migration) and migration by education (brain migration) as coping strategies, by addressing the reproduction mechanisms of the relative deprivations embedded in the Turkish education system. That is, migration can be read as a resistance to deficits of cultural capital, a strategy to cope with cultural reproduction of deprived social groups in the Turkish education system, within the terminology of Bourdieuian sociology of education.

References —. (2011). Female Graduate Rates: Degrees of Equality. Online: http://www.economist.com/blogs/dailychart/2011/09/femalegraduation-rates. Bourdieu, P. (1990). Reproduction: In Education, Society and Culture. London: Sage. Carrington, W. J. & Detragiache, E. (1999). How extensive is the brain drain? Finance and Development 36: 46-49. Levy, M. B. & Wadycki, W. J. (1974). Education and the decision to migrate: An econometric analysis of migration in Venezuela. Econometrica: Journal of the Econometric Society: 377-388. Long, L. H. (1973). Migration differentials by education and occupation: Trends and variations. Demography 10 (2): 243-258. Rao, N. (2010). Migration, education and socioǦeconomic mobility. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education 40 (2): 137-145. Robertson, S. (2013). Transnational Student-Migrants and the State: The Education-Migration Nexus. Palgrave Macmillan.

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Rodríguez-Pose, A. & Vilalta-Bufí, M. (2005). Education, migration, and job satisfaction: the regional returns of human capital in the EU. Journal of Economic Geography 5 (5): 545-566. Sarwar, G. & Sial, M. H. (2011). Nexus between Education, Migration and Earnings of Migrants in Pakistan. Migration and Earnings of Migrants in Pakistan. Schwartz, A. (1976). Migration, age, and education. The Journal of Political Economy: 701-719. Schwarzweller, H. K. (1964). Education, migration, and economic life chances of male entrants to the labour force from a low-income rural area. Rural Sociological Society. Stark, O. & Taylor, J. E. (1989). Relative deprivation and international migration. Demography 26 (1): 1-I4. Stark, O. & Taylor, J. E. (1991) Migration Incentives, Migration Types: The Role of Relative Deprivation. The Economic Journal 101 (408): 1163-1178. Stark, O. (1984). Rural-to-urban migration in LDCs: a relative deprivation approach. Economic Development and Cultural Change 32 (3): 47586. Sunata, U. (2011a). Highly Skilled Labour Migration: The Case Study of ICT Specialists from Turkey in Germany. Münster: LIT Verlag. —. (2011b). Background of Highly Skilled Labour Migration from Turkey to Germany. In S. Ozil, M. Hofmann & Y. Dayioglu-Yücel (Eds.), Türkisch-deutscher Kulturkontakt und Kulturtransfer: Kontroversen und Lernprozesse. Göttingen: V & R Unipress. 147-156. —. (2012). Traces of Highly Skilled Labour Migrants: Education, Family and Mobility. Alternative Politics 4 (2): 180-201.

MONITORING TEACHER’S COMPETENCES HANDAN KOCABATMAZ

Introduction Prospective teachers, before they start practicing their profession, combine their conceptual knowledge and practice, and develop their professional competence during the period of teaching practice. In this process, candidates come together with students in real school environments and gain experience in various classroom situations under the guidance of a supervising teacher. The experiences that the prospective teachers will have had by the time they gain vocational maturity and the roles of the supervising teachers who guide the candidates with respect to these experiences are significant. It is essential that this role be understood correctly, and that its responsibilities are fulfilled in terms of producing good results in teacher training, because if supervising teachers do not understand their responsibilities, it may have a negative impact on achieving the objectives of pre-service teacher training programmes (KatrancÕ, 2008; Sa÷, 2007; Azar, 2003; Kiraz 2003). The findings of research conducted in this field (Hsu, 2005; Kiraz 2002; Coulon, 2000; Evertson and Smithey, 2002; Manafo, 2000; Kettle and Sellars, 1996) reveal that a great majority of supervising teachers do not fully assume their responsibilities, that they have difficulties in fulfilling them, and that even if they are aware of their responsibilities they cannot always contribute to the training of qualified candidates since they do not have the individual and academic competency. If the choosing of supervising teachers is left up to chance, candidates will end up interacting with teachers who cannot demonstrate the necessary supervisory skills, which will inevitably lead to professional problems later. When it is considered that prospective teachers are in continuous interaction with their supervising teachers who guide them in schools, it is important that these candidates should gain the maximum benefit from this interaction and that they work with supervising teachers who have the competency to contribute to their development. This study aims to contribute, with a broad perspective, to competence amongst supervising teachers.

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Methodology Aim: With this study, the aim has been to determine the expectations from supervising teachers, and the competency of these teachers to meet the expectations associated with their role. To achieve this aim, the following angles have been analysed: -

What expectations do prospective teachers have of supervising teachers? Do supervising teachers have the necessary competencies to meet these expectations? Do the views of teacher candidates change according to their gender, the supervising teacher’s gender, the department in which they are studying, and seniority of supervising teacher?

Research Group. This research was conducted with senior students at the Faculty of Education, Gazi University, which undertakes teaching practice similarly in its various departments of Primary Education, Turkish, Foreign Languages (FL), Fine Arts (FA), Secondary School Sciences and Mathematics (SSSM), Secondary School Social Sciences (SSSS) and Computer and Instructional Technologies (CIT). From each relevant department, 60% out of a total of 1353 senior students in the 2012-2013 academic year were contacted. In Table 3-14, the distribution of students who participated in the research according to certain features related to their teaching practice course is given. As seen in Table 3-14, among 841 prospective teachers 247 (29.4%) were studying primary school education; 170 (20.2%) studied FL; 124 (14.7%) studied SSSS; 108 (12.8%) studied SSSM; 103 (12.2%) studied FA; 54 (6.4%) studied Turkish Education and 35 (4.2%) were in the CIT department. Of the candidates, 524 (62.3%) were women and 317 (37.7%) were men; and 532 (63.3%) had worked with female supervisors while 309 had male supervisors. The great majority of supervising teachers were 10 or more years senior to the trainee teacher. Data Collection Method. Research data was collected using the “supervising teacher competencies” scale developed by Kiraz in 2003. The scale is comprised of 25 articles in three dimensions. Eleven articles comprise “Instructional Planning” (IP); seven articles constitute “Vocational Guidance” (VG) and the remaining seven articles form “Preparation for Practice” (PP) dimensions. The first dimension, IP, is composed of teaching, course planning, teaching models and teaching materials; the second dimension, VG, is comprises feedback on the activities conducted by

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prospective teachers during the practice period, vocational communication, positive approaches and criticism; and the third dimension, PP, is composed of articles aimed at supervising teachers’ provision of efficient guidance and support. The Cronbach Į-reliability co-efficient of Kiraz’s scale has been determined to be 0.95 for IP, 0.91 for VG and 0.86 for PP; the value is 0.96 for the whole scale. Using a 5-point Likert Scale comprised of 25 articles, prospective teachers evaluated their expectations from supervising teachers as 5 = I absolutely agree, 4 = I agree, 3 = I have no idea, 2 = I disagree, 1 = I absolutely disagree. The competency of supervising teachers to meet these expectations was evaluated as 5 = Completely competent, 4 = Adequate, 3 = Moderately adequate, 2 = Weak and 1 = Definitely incompetent. Table 3-14. Distribution of students according to certain features related to teaching practice course Variable

Feature

Student

Department

Primary School Turkish FL FA SSSM SSSS CIT

f 247 54 170 103 108 124 35

Gender of Prospective Teacher

Man Woman

317 524

37.7 62.3

Gender of Supervising Teacher

Man Woman

309 532

36.7 63.3

Seniority of Supervising Teacher

1-5 year(s) 6-9 years 10-14 years 15-20 years 21 years+

44 80 220 256 241 841

5.2 9.5 26.2 30.4 28.7 100

Total

% 29.4 6.4 20.2 12.2 12.8 14.7 4.2

Data Analysis. The personal opinions of prospective teachers were measured by frequency and percentage. The expectations of the candidates from their supervising teachers and the views of candidates about the competency of teachers to meet these expectations were used to calculate arithmetic mean values. In order to determine whether the gender of candidates made a statistically meaningful difference to their views regarding the competency of supervising teachers, a t-test was applied. In

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order to determine whether there was any difference of opinions according to the department in which the candidates studied or the seniority of their supervising teacher, a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was employed, and the relationship between the independent variables was tested at the level of Į = 0.05.

Findings and Comments First, opinions of participants regarding supervising teachers were evaluated, and the results are given in Table 3-15. Table 3-15. Averages related to expected and actual perceived competency of supervising teachers, including t-test Dimensions of teaching practice Instructional planning Vocational guidance Preparation for practice p