Mosque Architecture: A Transdisciplinary Debate 3031247507, 9783031247507

Table of contents :
Conference Organization
Conference Chair
Steering Committee
Conference and Exhibition Manager
Scientific Committee
Organizing Committee
International Scientific Committee
Preface
Contents
1 Contextualizing the Discussion on Mosque Architecture in Today’s World
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 The Structure of the Book
3 By Means of Conclusions: Restating the Present and Looking Ahead
Trends and Developments in Contemporary Mosque Architecture
2 Modern Trends in Mosques Architecture
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
2.1 Building Mass
2.2 Unobstructed and Attractive Interior
2.3 Daylighting
3 Conclusion
References
3 Financing Mosque Maintenance in Muslim-Minority Communities
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Definitions of Minority
2.1 The Islamic Cultural Centre, Ireland (ICCI)
3 A Review of Funding Sources in Islam
4 Fundraising for Mosque Maintenance Programs
4.1 Internal Sources
4.2 External Fundraising
4.3 Income from Adjoining Uses
5 Mosque Maintenance in Muslim-Minority Communities
6 Mosque Process Optimization
7 Conclusion
References
4 Meaning Behind the Inspiration from Nature in Mosque Design: The Old and The New
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Islamic Decoration Modes
3 Structural and Decorative Techniques in Islamic Architecture
3.1 Girih
3.2 Naqsh
4 Inspiration from Nature in Islamic Art and Architecture
4.1 Light
4.2 Water
4.3 Tree
5 Analysis and Discussion of a Selected Old Mosque
6 Analysis of Selected New Mosques
6.1 Mosque 99 Cahaya, Indonesia
6.2 Basuna Mosque, Suhag, Egypt
7 Discussion and Comparison
8 Conclusion and Recommendation
References
The Mosques and the Society
5 A Cross-Sectoral Analysis of the Identity Conflict in the Arab Primate Cities: The Case of the Jeddah Mosques
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Research Aims
2.1 Urban System Imbalances
2.2 Cultural Identity Change
3 The Crises of the Cultural-Landscape Identity of Jeddah
3.1 Cultural Identity Change
3.2 Jeddah’s Architectural Configuration Discrepancy
4 Conclusion
References
6 Encouraging Social Inclusivity Across Faiths: The Case of Mosques and Churches in Kuala Lumpur
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Literature Study
3 Objectives and Methodology
4 Justification for Evaluation Criteria
5 Brief Background on Two Mosques and Two Churches in KL
6 Finding of Research
7 Conclusion
References
Advances in Mosques’ Design and Architecture
8 Changes in Mosques’ Architecture Design Between Functionalism and Symbolism
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Historical Background of Mosques Architecture
3 Using the Relation Between the Essence of Islam and Architecture of the Mosque (Essence of Islamic Architecture)
4 Mosques Architecture Between Functional and Symbolic
5 Conclusion
References
9 Indoor Thermal Comfort: The Case of Masjid Tuanku Mizan Zainal Abidin (Putrajaya, Malaysia)
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Research Methodology
3 Research Background
3.1 Thermal Comfort in the Malay Vernacular Masjid and Its Relationship to Climate
3.2 Elements and Techniques of Passive Design Strategies for Indoor Thermal Comfort
4 Results and Discussion
4.1 Case Study
4.2 Findings
5 Conclusion
References
10 The Impact of Revival of Traditional Lighting Techniques in Modern and Contemporary Mosque Design
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Research Problem
2.1 Research Goal
3 Defining the Mosque
4 Day Lighting Devices in Old Historic Mosques
5 Conclusion
References
11 Mitigating the Contradiction of the Climatically Best Orientation and the Qibla Direction of Mosques
Abstract
1 Introduction and Research Background
2 Research Problem and Hypothesis
3 Research Methodology
4 Climate Analysis
5 Simulation Experiments
6 Research Problem and Hypothesis
7 Conclusion
References
12 Lighting the Mosques: The Needs and the Applications
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Research Aim and Objectives
3 Previous Work
3.1 Pendentive Dome
3.1.1 Case Study (Orhan Gazi Mosque)
3.2 The Lantern “Shukhshikha”
3.2.1 Case Study (Abu El Abbas Mosque)
3.3 Al Mashrabiya
3.3.1 Case Study (Baeshen House)
3.4 Artificial Light (Requirements and Lighting Techniques)
3.4.1 Mosque Sample
3.4.2 Types of Artificial Lighting Design Options
4 Conclusion
References
13 Beauty and Order in Contemporary Work of Abdel Wahed El Wakil. The Case of Jeddah Mosques
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Literature Review
4 The Approach of Analysis for the Mosque Architecture
4.1 Beauty and Scale
4.2 Beauty and Wholeness
4.3 Beauty and Individuality
4.4 Beauty as Being Objective and Subjective
5 Case Studies: Analysis of Abdel Wahed Al Wakil’s Mosques in Jeddah
5.1 King Saud Mosque
5.2 Island Mosque
5.3 Al-Ruwais Mosque
6 Results and Conclusion
References
The Influence of Mosques on the Urban Fabric
14 A Novel Approach to the Optimization of the Spatial Distribution of Mosques
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Literature Review
3 Methodology
3.1 Map Conversion
3.2 Optimization Model
4 Proof of Concept
5 Results and Conclusions
References
15 The Role of Placemaking in Elevating the Spiritual Experience: The Case of Masjid Al-Haram in Makkah
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Placemaking Model: An Attempt to Develop a Model for Placemaking Spiritual Sites
3 Adapted Placemaking Model for Spiritual Sites
3.1 Model Attributes
3.2 Model Structure
3.3 Model Hierarchy
4 Model Application (The Case of Masjid Al-Haram, Makkah)
4.1 Case-Study Exploration
4.2 Placemaking Analysis
4.3 Selected Site
4.4 Placemaking Matrix Application
4.5 Spatial Analysis
5 Concluding Remarks
References
16 Urbanism of the Neighborhood Mosque
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Social Aspects of the Mosque
2.1 Reflecting Society Moral Beliefs
2.2 An Administrative Institution
2.3 An Educational Institution
2.4 A Community Space
2.5 A Place of Trade
3 Urbanism of Mosques
3.1 The Mosque in Relation to the City
3.2 The City in Relation to the Mosque
4 Conclusion
References
17 Pattern and Form Language as Constituents of the Mosque Architecture
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Literature Review
3 The Tangible and Intangible Elements of Mosque Architecture
4 Patterns in Mosque Architecture
4.1 Mosque Main Entrance
4.2 Arcades
4.3 Connection to the Earth
4.4 Livable Courtyards
4.5 Connection to Sky
4.6 Ornamentation
4.7 Light Penetration
4.8 Warm Colors
4.9 Openness
4.10 Social Aspect
5 Method
6 Case Study Analysis
6.1 King Saud Mosque
6.2 King Fahad Mosque
6.3 KAPSARC Riyadh
7 Discussion and Findings
8 Conclusion
References

Citation preview

Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation IEREK Interdisciplinary Series for Sustainable Development

Mohammed Fekry · Mady A. A. Mohamed · Anna Visvizi · Asmaa Ibrahim · Lamiaa F. Ghamri Editors

Mosque Architecture: A Transdisciplinary Debate

Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation IEREK Interdisciplinary Series for Sustainable Development Editorial Board Anna Laura Pisello, Department of Engineering, University of Perugia, Italy Dean Hawkes, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Hocine Bougdah, University for the Creative Arts, Farnham, UK Federica Rosso, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy Hassan Abdalla, University of East London, London, UK Sofia-Natalia Boemi, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece Nabil Mohareb, Faculty of Architecture—Design and Built Environment, Beirut Arab University, Beirut, Lebanon Saleh Mesbah Elkaffas, Arab Academy for Science, Technology and Maritime Transport, Cairo, Egypt Emmanuel Bozonnet, University of La Rochelle, La Rochelle, France Gloria Pignatta, University of Perugia, Italy Yasser Mahgoub, Qatar University, Qatar Luciano De Bonis, University of Molise, Italy Stella Kostopoulou, Regional and Tourism Development, University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece Biswajeet Pradhan, Faculty of Engineering and IT, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, Australia Md. Abdul Mannan, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Malaysia Chaham Alalouch, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman Iman O. Gawad, Helwan University, Egypt Anand Nayyar

, Graduate School, Duy Tan University, Da Nang, Vietnam

Series Editor Mourad Amer, International Experts for Research Enrichment and Knowledge Exchange (IEREK), Cairo, Egypt

Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation (ASTI) is a series of peer-reviewed books based on important emerging research that redefines the current disciplinary boundaries in science, technology and innovation (STI) in order to develop integrated concepts for sustainable development. It not only discusses the progress made towards securing more resources, allocating smarter solutions, and rebalancing the relationship between nature and people, but also provides in-depth insights from comprehensive research that addresses the 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs) as set out by the UN for 2030. The series draws on the best research papers from various IEREK and other international conferences to promote the creation and development of viable solutions for a sustainable future and a positive societal transformation with the help of integrated and innovative science-based approaches. Including interdisciplinary contributions, it presents innovative approaches and highlights how they can best support both economic and sustainable development, through better use of data, more effective institutions, and global, local and individual action, for the welfare of all societies. The series particularly features conceptual and empirical contributions from various interrelated fields of science, technology and innovation, with an emphasis on digital transformation, that focus on providing practical solutions to ensure food, water and energy security to achieve the SDGs. It also presents new case studies offering concrete examples of how to resolve sustainable urbanization and environmental issues in different regions of the world. The series is intended for professionals in research and teaching, consultancies and industry, and government and international organizations. Published in collaboration with IEREK, the Springer ASTI series will acquaint readers with essential new studies in STI for sustainable development. ASTI series has now been accepted for Scopus (September 2020). All content published in this series will start appearing on the Scopus site in early 2021.

Mohammed Fekry • Mady A. A. Mohamed Anna Visvizi • Asmaa Ibrahim • Lamiaa F. Ghamri

•

Editors

Mosque Architecture: A Transdisciplinary Debate

123

Editors Mohammed Fekry Department of Architecture Effat University Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Anna Visvizi Effat University Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

Mady A. A. Mohamed Effat University Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Asmaa Ibrahim Effat University Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

Lamiaa F. Ghamri Effat University Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

ISSN 2522-8714 ISSN 2522-8722 (electronic) Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation IEREK Interdisciplinary Series for Sustainable Development ISBN 978-3-031-24750-7 ISBN 978-3-031-24751-4 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24751-4 © Effat University 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Conference Organization

Conference Series: The 5th Annual Memaryat International Conference. MIC 2021 Title of the Conference: Masjid Architecture: Form and Meaning

Conference Chair Prof. Mohammed Fekry, Architecture Department, Effat University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

Steering Committee Chair of the Steering Committee Dr. Haifa Jamal Al-Lail, President, Effat University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Members of the Steering Committee Dr. Malak Alnory, Provost of the Effat University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Dr. Mervat Chuman, Dean of Graduate Studies and Scientific Research, Effat University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Dr. Asmaa Ibrahim, Dean of Effat College of Architecture and Design, Effat University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

Conference and Exhibition Manager Dr. Asmaa Ibrahim, Dean of Effat College of Architecture and Design, Effat University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

Scientific Committee Chair Prof. Mohammed Fekry, Architecture Department, Effat University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Members Prof. Mady A. A. Mohammed, Architecture Department, Effat University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

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Prof. Mohamed Kashef, Architecture Department, Effat University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Prof. Abeer Sami, Architecture Department, Effat University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Dr. Haitham Hussein, Architecture Department, Effat University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

Organizing Committee Chair Arch. Maya Kamareddine, Architecture Department, Effat University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Members Dr. Haitham Hussein, Architecture Department, Effat University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Dr. Ahmad Refaat, Architecture Department, Effat University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

International Scientific Committee Dr. Ahmed Refaat, Associate Professor, Effat University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Dr. Ahmed Shehata, Professor, Umm Al-Qura University, Mecca, Saudi Arabia Dr. Ali A. Alraouf, Professor, Qatar Foundation, Qatar Dr. Ali Gabr, Professor, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt Dr. Asmaa Ibrahim, Professor, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt Dr. Emad El-Sherbiny, Professor, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt Dr. Haitham Hussein, Associate Professor, Effat University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Dr. Hisham Aref, Professor, MSA University, Cairo, Egypt Dr. Hisham Elkadi, Professor, University of Salford, Salford, UK Dr. Husam Alwaer, Associate Professor, Dundee University, Dundee, UK D. Jemma Chidiac, Associate Professor, Jemma Chidiac Architects, Beirut, Lebanon Dr. Mady A. A. Mohamed, Professor, Effat University, Effat University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Dr. Majd Alhomoud, Professor, Effat University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Dr. Mohamad Kashef, Professor, Effat University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Dr. Mohamed Fekry, Professor, Effat University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Dr. Raghad Mofeed, Professor, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt Dr. Saleh AlHathlool, Professor, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia Dr. Shaaban Taha, Professor, Benha University, Benha, Egypt Dr. Sherif Elattar, Professor, Fayoum University, Fayoum, Egypt Dr. Tarek S. Ragab, Professor, Effat University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Dr. Wael Yousef, Professor, Al Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt Dr. Yasser Mujahed, Associate Professor, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK

Conference Organization

Preface

The Annual Memaryat International Conference (MIC) is an academic event organized annually by the Effat College of Architecture and Design, Effat University. The objective of the MIC conference series is to encourage inter- and multi-disciplinary reflection on topics relating to architecture and design in the modern world. Considering the cultural, environmental, and societal specificity of the region, the MIC conference series aims at placing this uniqueness of experiences and needs in a broader international perspective to foster constructive dialogue. Against this backdrop the objective of the 5th Annual Memaryat International Conference (MIC 2021), titled Masjid Architecture: Form and Meaning, held online on February 23–24, 2021, was to encourage research and reflection on the past, the present, and the future of the Mosque architecture. The Mosque (Masjid) is the center of spiritual, moral, and cultural life in Muslim societies. Though maintaining its overarching spatial, visual, and physical characteristics over the centuries, the mosque design has undergone various transformations that underline its centrality and adaptability to the evolution of the Muslim society. In this view, the Mosque, and so the Mosque architecture, serves as the evidence of resilience and sustainability inherent in Muslim culture and heritage. The Mosque has been and continues to represent the defining and unifying pillar of the Muslim communities locally and around the globe. The 5th Annual Memaryat International Conference (MIC 2021) organized in collaboration with the Abdullatif Al Fozan Award for Mosque Architecture, served as a venue to present and discuss research as well as to exchange experiences and visions relating to the Mosque architecture and development. In this way, MIC 2021 fostered constructive dialogues on Mosque design philosophy, spatial characteristics, visual dimensions, communal locational choices, and building technologies. MIC 2021 served as a place of dialogue and critical reflection for architects, designers, engineers, academics, scholars, and theorists from all around the world. What brought them together was the need to discuss and potentially develop contemporary design solutions and future visions for the Mosque, the most deeply rooted, and an enduring, institution of Islam. The 5th Annual Memaryat International Conference (MIC 2021) sought to encourage research and debate related, but not limited, to the following topics: • • • • • •

Experience and Research on Masjid Architecture Experience and Research on Planning and Urban Design for Masjid Technology in Designing and Constructing the Masjid Environmental Design of the Masjid Operation and Maintenance for the Masjid Practical insights and lessons to be shared.

The quality of the academic discussion during MIC 2021 was supervised by the MIC 2021 Steering and Academic Committees, whereas the delivery of the conference was supervised by the Organizing Committee. A great number of papers were submitted to the initial call for papers. Of these, based on the submissions’ quality, only a fraction was selected to be vii

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Preface

presented at the conference. Of these papers, following an arduous review process, 16 have been included in this book. These papers, i.e., the chapters included in this book, serve as a proof that there is a great need to reflect on the Mosque architecture as it offers invaluable insights into, on the one hand, the Muslim society and its evolution, and on the other hand, on cutting-edge solutions pertaining to architecture and design. As the Mosque architecture mirrors the specificity of the region, of the culture, and of the society, it offers invaluable lessons on how issues and challenges were addressed in the past, and how these experiences can be utilized today and in the future. The Organizers of the Conference, including the Chair, the Steering Committee, the Program Committee, and the Academic Committee, remain grateful to the broader community of academics and practitioners who responded to the initial call for papers, who joined the conference, and who published in this book. A special “thank you” is extended to Dr. Haifa Jamal Al-Lail, the President of the Effat University for her continuous encouragement and support throughout the organization of MIC 2021, as well as for the inspiration she shares. The organizers would also like to thank the entire ASTI team for their guidance and assistance throughout the process. Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

Mohammed Fekry Mady A. A. Mohamed Anna Visvizi Asmaa Ibrahim Lamiaa F. Ghamri

Contents

Contextualizing the Discussion on Mosque Architecture in Today’s World . . . . . . Mohammed Fekry, Mady A. A. Mohamed, Asmaa Ibrahim, Anna Visvizi, and Lamiaa F. Ghamri

1

Trends and Developments in Contemporary Mosque Architecture Modern Trends in Mosques Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sherif Mahmoud and Abobakr Al-Sakkaf

9

Financing Mosque Maintenance in Muslim-Minority Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . Hafis Bello

15

Meaning Behind the Inspiration from Nature in Mosque Design: The Old and The New . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nhal Abdelwahab Amer

23

The Mosques and the Society A Cross-Sectoral Analysis of the Identity Conflict in the Arab Primate Cities: The Case of the Jeddah Mosques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tarek S. Ragab and Mohammed Fekry

39

Encouraging Social Inclusivity Across Faiths: The Case of Mosques and Churches in Kuala Lumpur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mohd Tajuddin Mohd Rasdi, Teoh Chee Keong, and Intan Liana

51

Advances in Mosques’ Design and Architecture Changes in Mosques’ Architecture Design Between Functionalism and Symbolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Engy M. Farrag

63

Indoor Thermal Comfort: The Case of Masjid Tuanku Mizan Zainal Abidin (Putrajaya, Malaysia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Siti Salwana Bt Mohd Nawayai and Zuraini Bt Denan

73

The Impact of Revival of Traditional Lighting Techniques in Modern and Contemporary Mosque Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dalia Hossam Eldin Ismail Labib Mohamed

85

Mitigating the Contradiction of the Climatically Best Orientation and the Qibla Direction of Mosques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mady A. A. Mohamed and Nourhan Ahmed

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Lighting the Mosques: The Needs and the Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Mady A. A. Mohamed, Mayar Madani, and Nermin Nabil

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Beauty and Order in Contemporary Work of Abdel Wahed El Wakil. The Case of Jeddah Mosques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Haitham Samir, Sondos Khouja, Aliya Khan, and Ruba Tulimat The Influence of Mosques on the Urban Fabric A Novel Approach to the Optimization of the Spatial Distribution of Mosques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Samer El-Zahab and Abobakr Al-Sakkaf The Role of Placemaking in Elevating the Spiritual Experience: The Case of Masjid Al-Haram in Makkah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Majd Alnafie and Mohammed Fekry Urbanism of the Neighborhood Mosque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Dena E. Gholam and Mohammed Fekry Pattern and Form Language as Constituents of the Mosque Architecture . . . . . . . 167 Haitham Samir, Ghaidaa Amir, Jouanah Hamza, and Lian Alshoaibi

Contents

Contextualizing the Discussion on Mosque Architecture in Today’s World Mohammed Fekry, Mady A. A. Mohamed, Asmaa Ibrahim, Anna Visvizi , and Lamiaa F. Ghamri

Abstract

The Mosque (Masjid) is the center of the spiritual, moral, and cultural life in Muslim societies. Having retained its key spatial, visual, and physical characteristics over the centuries, the Mosque has also been a subject of a sublime transformation. While the key features, and most profoundly, the symbolism of the Mosque remain intact, the Mosque design and architecture follow and adapt to the evolution of the Muslim society and its context. The Mosque, and so the Mosque architecture, serve as evidence of resilience and sustainability inherent in Muslim culture and heritage. This chapter offers an insight into the book’s content and objectives, and hence should serve as a useful guide for anyone interested in exploring the Mosque architecture as a carrier of culture, heritage, and sustainability of Muslim communities; and seeking a bias-free introduction to the intricacies of the Muslim culture.

1

Introduction

The Mosque (Masjid) is the center of the spiritual, moral, and cultural life in Muslim societies. Although it has retained its key spatial, visual, and physical characteristics M. Fekry (&)
M. A. A. Mohamed
A. Ibrahim
A. Visvizi
L. F. Ghamri Effat University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia e-mail: [email protected] M. A. A. Mohamed e-mail: [email protected] A. Ibrahim e-mail: [email protected] A. Visvizi e-mail: [email protected] L. F. Ghamri e-mail: [email protected]

over the centuries, the Mosque design today also attests to the spirit of the time and relating changes taking place in Muslim society and beyond. In other words, changes taking place in the broader socio-economic and environmental context, drive and define a unique, one might want to say, sublime transformation of the Mosque design and architecture. While the key features, and most profoundly, the symbolism of the Mosque remain intact, the Mosque design and architecture follow and adapt to the evolution of the Muslim society and its context. In this view, the Mosque, and so the Mosque architecture, serve as evidence of resilience and sustainability inherent in Muslim culture and heritage. Considering the fact that popular understanding of the Muslim culture and archetypes is at best minimal in Western societies, the objective of this volume is twofold, i.e., to explore the Mosque architecture as a carrier of culture, heritage, and sustainability of Muslim communities; and to offer a bias-free introduction to the intricacies of the Muslim culture, a topic in great demand among the book's audience, i.e., researchers, students, and policymakers. The chapters included in this book, presented at the 5th Annual Memaryat International Conference (MIC 2021) titled “Masjid Architecture: Form and Meaning,” and held in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, on February 23–24, 2021, contribute to that. The MIC conference series dates back to 2017, when the inaugural conference was held, as well as to earlier discussions on the need to open and to enrich the field of architecture and design, held at the Effat College of Architecture and Design (ECoAD), Effat University. The objective underpinning the resulting MIC conference series is to build bridges between academics and practitioners dealing with issues of architecture and design, and to encourage well-founded but also visionary research and debate. The 2021 MIC focused on the Mosque architecture, and the chapters constitutive of this book attest to that. The thrust of the discussion in this book, in these conference proceedings, is formed by three concepts, i.e., culture, heritage, and

© Effat University 2023 M. Fekry et al. (eds.), Mosque Architecture: A Transdisciplinary Debate, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24751-4_1

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sustainability. The chapters included in this book offer an overview of the role that the Mosque played in the shaping of Muslim cities. Alas, the notions of form and architecture are highlighted. However, the chapters included in this book elaborate also on contemporary and prospective design solutions for the Mosque architecture. In other words, this volume offers a visionary insight into the Mosque architecture especially with regard to its design philosophy, including the form and the meaning behind it, with regard to the notion of beauty, as well as to its role in contemporary society. The content of this book reflects the multidisciplinary research background and richness of professional experience of respective authors, who originate in several countries and bring to the discussion unique expertise related to practices and ideologies specific to Mosque architecture and development worldwide. For this reason, this book stimulates constructive dialogue regarding the Mosque design philosophy, spatial characteristics, visual dimensions, and building technologies.

2

The Structure of the Book

A great number of submissions were received in response to the initial call for papers. Of these, based on academic merit and topicality, 40 papers were selected to be presented at MIC 2021. Following an arduous review process, 16 conference papers have been included in these MIC 2021 proceedings. These papers have been divided into four parts. Part I (Chaps. 2–4) elaborates on key trends and developments in contemporary Mosque architecture. In this way, it offers an overview of the context, in which the Mosque architecture unfolds. By means of narrowing down the analysis, Part II (Chaps. 5 and 6) examines the correlation between the Mosques and the society. Here the notions of identity formation, social inclusion, gender issues, and community building are upheld. Part III of the book (Chaps. 7–13) offers a detailed insight into advances in Mosques’ design and architecture today. Here the focus of the discussion is directed at such issues as considerations relating to the spatial distribution of Mosques in a given urban space, the question of how to reconcile symbolism and functionality in modern Mosque design, questions of energy efficiency and cooling in Mosque design, etc. Finally, Part IV (Chaps. 14–17) of the book offers an insight into the ways the Mosques influence the urban fabric. Case-studies embellish the analysis. The following paragraphs offer an overview of the chapters’ content. Chapter 2, by Sherif Mahmoud and Abobakr Al-Sakkaf, reviews trends that prevail in Mosque architecture today. As

the authors argue, the Mosque is not only a building where occupants perform a specialized and specific activity, but also it is the place where prayers can bring relief. Hence, Mosques symbolize the connection between prayers and God. This is reflected in the exterior and the interior design of the Mosque. The exterior mass of the mosque should be gigantic to depict the need of the prayer to Mighty god. The interior space should be spanned widely and unobstructed to accommodate the enormous numbers of prayers. Large areas of glass and daylighting are crucial to symbolize the direct connection between the prayers and Mighty God, as well as to allow lighting to penetrate deep into the prayer hall. This research will spot the light on the new mosque architecture trends in both building exterior mass and interior design. A comparative analysis was used to demonstrate the architectural treatments in both the ancient eras and the contemporary designs to express (1) the scale of the building mass; (2) the unobstructed and attractive interior; and (3) daylighting. The analysis shows the effect of technological development on form, new structural innovations, materials, glazing and daylighting, and interior ornaments and decoration. Chapter 3, by Hafis Bello, elaborates on the issue of financing the maintenance of Mosques in communities where Muslims represent the minority of the population. Building maintenance extends the functional life of a building. While maintenance funds are usually deducted from the rental income in the case of income-generating buildings, this is not the case for non-income buildings such as the mosques. Thus, mosque maintenance relies on funds sourced through donations or grants, to ensure continued functionality and aesthetics. Since such donations are neither statutory, regular nor mandatory, the maintenance of mosques can only be as effective as the level of donation received. Consequently, this paper conducts a review of different financing approaches and practices that could ensure the sustainable maintenance of Mosques, especially in Muslim-minority communities, where there are little or no government funding. Using the Islamic Cultural Centre Ireland (ICCI) model, the study recommends that mosques in Muslim-minority areas could be maintained through income generated from the development of nearby spaces around the mosques to render halal services such as book fair and bookshop, multi-purpose hall and seminar rooms, shops, restaurant, and translation services. The study also indicates that more funds could be generated for mosque maintenance services through administrative processes such as the integration of online payment systems, budgeting, proper accounting and record keeping, regular audit and internal controls, as well as improved communication with the volunteers and donors.

Contextualizing the Discussion on Mosque Architecture in Today’s World

Chapter 4, by Nihal Abdelwahab Amer, focuses on the question of whether nature continues to serve as the source of inspiration vis-à-vis the Mosque design. It is argued that architects have long been inspired by nature in designing mosques. Evidence of nature’s influence can be seen throughout the ages from the utilization of stalactites structurally and aesthetically in mosques to the incorporation of floral and leaves decoration in interior and exterior design of mosques. The problem is that nowadays some contemporary architects still use the same old means and techniques without adding new ideas in implementing the inspiration from nature in mosque design. The paper aims at showing the importance of developing contemporary design solutions while using new technologies that help architects to widen their scope of ‘Inspiration from Nature’ by using modern construction methods and materials. The research methodology is divided into three parts; the first is through literature review to show how far the design in old mosques reflects the inspiration from nature. The second part is an analysis of selected contemporary mosques inspired from nature. The third part is a comparative analysis between two existing mosques representing old and new mosques. The paper suggests some ideas to enhance the inspiration process from nature in mosque design. Against the backdrop of the case of the Jeddah Mosques, Chap. 5, authored by Tarek S. Ragab and Mohammed F. M. Mohammed, delves into questions of identity and identity conflict in Arab primate cities. The authors seek to invigorate the debate over challenges to the regional cultural identities of the Arab cities: the continual transformation of the community stakeholders’ mind-set, specifically, decision-takers, in relation to their interpretation and perception of the National built-up cultural landscape and identity. A desktop analysis provides evidence of cultural identity confusion and conflict exemplifying mosques’ architectural and urban configurations (external forms and relation to the urban setting) of Metropolitan Jeddah. Some critical questions are raised to answer during the debate: Does local built-up cultural landscape represent an important factor contributing to the formulation of the architectural and urban configurations of the new expansions of the Primate cities? And how? Is there an actual cultural identity conflict within the settings of the regional primate cities? The research argues that the endangerment to the preservation of intact National cultural-landscape identity, induced by both the ongoing excretion of the locally inspired design approach and the adoption of imported design and planning models, has not been yet realized by the community sects including local officials and decision-takers and is winning new grounds every day. The research documents some attempts to adopt regionally inspired design approaches that reflect local social values and environmental sustainability as examples of developing a model that empowers local cultural-landscape

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identity and, at the same time, being accepted and adopted by most of the community stakeholders. In Chap. 6, Mohd Tajuddin Mohd Rasdi, Teoh Chee Keong, and Intan Liana explore the question of social Inclusivity across faiths. The cases of Mosques and churches in Kuala Lumpur serve as the background of the analysis. As the authors explain, race and religious relationship in Malaysia has suffered many setbacks and one of the stumbling blocks has always been a gap in Malaysians looking at the idea of being part of a larger community and nation building family with respect to faiths. Houses of Worship has always been an isolated entity, and this adds to the problem of race relation and nation building. The main objective of the research is to present an evaluation of architectural elements that would create a friendlier and inclusive image of the religious building that would invite inclusive interactions. The research has selected Kuala Lumpur as a city representing the most educated and diverse multi-faith context with 100% sampling of two mosques and two Churches. This research would help policymakers and designers as well as committee leaders of all religions in Malaysia to relook at the activities and planning of their houses of worship to be more in line with inclusive aspects of social interaction, understanding, and acceptance between different religious adherents toward a more harmonious form of community and nation building. Chapter 7, by Salma Dwidar, Hala Sirror Amal Abdelsattar, Amal Abdelsattar, and Amani Derbali, explores the role of the internal courtyard in the design of historical and contemporary mosques. As the authors argue, Islamic architecture has spread in different regions with variant climates and natural conditions, and on a vast patch of land that stretched from Andalusia in the west to India in the east, and from Yemen in the south to southern Italy in the north. Despite this vast spread and difference in climate, nature, and region, Muslims were able to have a unique characteristic print upon these regions. Their buildings had special characteristics shared between one another. In Chap. 8, by Engy Farrag, the evolution of the Mosque architecture, especially as seen through the prism of functionalism and symbolism, is explored. The key line of the argument in this chapter is that the unique form of the Mosque is derived from the essence of Islam itself, i.e., purity, simplicity, and humbleness. The language of Mosque architecture is developed empirically through time. This architecture does not adhere to any specific guideline, as there are no particular architectural mosque ideas stated in either the holy Quran or the Hadith. As a result, the minaret, dome, gateway, and Mihrab are later additions and developed elements. Recently, there have been many attempts to change the traditional framework of the mosques' architectural design. Many Forms and styles have appeared, and Mosque architecture has witnessed a gradual development in

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its design, from multifunctional, more complex, and detailed design to simplicity and Abstraction in each element of the mosque. This development is accompanied by the emergence of new features in the internal and external architectural elements as well as transformation from functional design to symbolic characteristics by introducing new elements and vocabulary for mosque architecture instead of the stereotypical image of the Mosque. This chapter explores these issues in detail. In Chap. 9, by Siti Salwana Bt Mohd Nawayai and Zuraini Bt Denan, the indoor thermal comfort of the Mosque is examined. Here, the case study of the Masjid Tuanku Mizan Zainal Abidin, located in Putrajaya, Malaysia. The authors stress that the quest for a sustainable contemporary architectural approach requires the need to revive vernacular Malay architecture and accessing institutions such as masjids to be evaluated. Researchers posed questions as to whether a building with good thermal performance can be built by readapting the Malay vernacular masjid architecture and passive design strategies into modern masjid designs. This chapter investigates the outcome of this approach according to case study findings. The Masjid Tuanku Mizan Zainal Abidin in Putrajaya, Malaysia is selected as a case study. Qualitative investigation was conducted to explore the phenomenon through research, direct observation, and field survey. The findings offer an understanding on the effectiveness of Malay vernacular concept and application of passive design approach in modern masjid designs. The findings indicate that optimum thermal comfort in the interior space of case study has mostly been achieved through the application of Malay vernacular concept and passive design strategies. Chapter 10, by Dalia Hossam Eldin Ismail Labib Mohamed, discusses the varieties and trends in lighting techniques in Mosque design. It is argued that daylight in Islamic architecture is used to represent God’s presence in a space, which enriches it with symbolic and spiritual value and that was clear in the old Mosque architecture which is unique and magnificent. The importance of this research is to study the effect of traditional lighting techniques that used in old Islamic architecture on the daylight performance of modern and contemporary mosques that follow the principles of lighting used in old Islamic architecture but in modern form, this will be applied through the analytical methodology by analyzing different examples of modern and contemporary mosques showing the ways in which they let the light inside as well as the spiritual meaning has been created. In Chap. 11, by Mady A. A. Mohamed and Nourhan Ahmed, the challenge of climatically best orientation and the

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Qibla Direction of Mosques is explored. The authors stress that investigating building performance in terms of thermal, visual, and acoustic comfort for occupants is very important to judge the quality of the design for any buildings. Mosque buildings are no exception since the mosque could be used for most of the day for the entire year. The orientation of buildings plays an important role in controlling energy consumption. The best orientation could be determined based on three important aspects. These are the view, the prevailing wind direction, and the sun position. The problem that lies at the core of this research is that the Mosques should be oriented to the “Qibla” direction regardless of the climatic studies. Traditional builders and particularly in the Islamic era adopted numerous design passive strategies and techniques, such as the Courtyard, the Mashrabia, Lantern “Shukhshikha,” and Wind Catcher, to overcome this problem. Also, they used to adapt different forms that allow them to compromise between the two required orientations. This research investigates the effect of the Qibla direction on the environmental performance of Mosques. It then suggests ways of mitigating the challenge through the analytical literature review for vernacular Mosques. Chapter 12, by Mady A. A. Mohamed and Mayar Madani, returns to the notion of lighting in Mosques. Mosques have always been inviolable places with unmistakable economic conditions. Windows within the prayer zone, whether clergy gates, screened windows, arched lighting, and other highlight lights have been overseen to form critical, otherworldly human comforting regions. This view focuses on the windowing of divine mosques and relates it to the progressive daylight output. This look is also a step toward more serviceable lighting plans in prayer areas that help add added value to human comfort and minimize the use of vitality. This considers the research into daylight implementation through the use of climate-based daylight measurements, which is Daylight Autonomy (DA), to be sensible. The aim of this study is to present the meaning and practice of light in mosques. The aim of the current research is fulfilled through a multi-methodological approach that includes the analytical literature review and the case study analysis. Results of the research confirmed the importance of designing the adequate lighting for prayer halls in Mosques, to eventually get comfortable space for worship and reading. Chapter 13, written by Haitham Samir, Sondos Khouja, Aliya Khan, and Ruba Tulimat, focuses on beauty and order in relation to mosques. The work of Abdel Wahed El Wakeel and the case of the Jeddah Mosques offer the background of the analysis. The authors underline that beauty is a term that is used to describe something appealing and attractive. Architecture, in addition, holds great

Contextualizing the Discussion on Mosque Architecture in Today’s World

importance to this term as it is of great value to the designers to know what individuals think of their design. Despite what designers offer in their work, every individual will have mixed feelings about what they perceive because of the objective and subjective nature of beauty. It is objective because many principles have been identified to explain what is considered beautiful in architecture. Moreover, it is subjective because every person will have a different perception of what they see based on their experience and their personal preferences. It is evident that architecture has witnessed cycles of birth and decline of different styles throughout history. Each style conceptualized its rules of beauty which were influenced by time, technological advancement, and other factors. Therefore, it is essential to study the meaning of beauty in architecture and to draw the relationship they have with each other. Religion, throughout human history, has been the inspiration for creative and luminous works of architecture in which beauty played a significant role in forming buildings of worship and veneration. This research tends to investigate the various principles that define the concept of beauty in architecture by different scholars and to find a common relation between them which will then be used to analyze the Mosques of Abdel Wahed El Wakeel. Chapter 14, by Samer El-Zahab and Abobakr Al-Sakkaf, offers a novel approach for the optimization of the spatial distribution of mosques. In modern times, it is quintessential for municipalities and governments to allocate their funds in the most optimal and effective way. Optimality, this implies the highest return on the investment. Nowadays, on the level of mosques, it is common to have more than one mosque serving the same area. Although the intentions are pure and sincere, the benefit of the charitable work is lost and distributed on two fronts that serve the same goal. This research article presents a new model for the optimization of mosque placements in a given area based on the need and demographic data. Once the need is satisfied, the construction of new mosques should be halted until a new need arises or there is an increase in the demographic data. As a result, this would allow the use of the money in other charitable goods, thus optimizing the use of the funds based on the required good. In Chap. 15, the authors, Majd Alnafie and Mohammed Fekry, dwell on the role of placemaking in elevating the spiritual experience in the Mosque. The case of Masjid Al-Haram in Makkah serves as the background of the analysis. Placemaking is an approach that provokes individuals to commonly rethink and reexamine places as the center of each community. It reinforces the connection among individuals and places they use. Religious placemaking is considered an action that intends to shape the sacred image of a place and enrich the spiritual experience. This study confirms the relationship between spiritual place,

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place attachment, and spiritual identity through analyzing the tool of placemaking in the case of “Masjid AlHaram in Makkah.” To achieve this purpose, A framework is presented relying on an analytical approach to define urban spiritual sites, suggesting that the surrounding urban environment affects people’s sense of spirituality in religious spaces. It also endorses a placemaking model to analyze human experience and response. It concludes the results with a model to improve the level of spirituality in Masjid AlHaram urban space. Chapter 16, by Mohammed Fekry and Dena E. Gholam, explores urbanism of the neighborhood Mosque. Mosque architecture has been developing since the beginning of the Islamic era to this day, as it may seem as a place only for worship to some, the fact is that the Muslim society has shown a stronger social, political, and economic relationship to the mosque, with the passage of time, the mosque’s roles and functions have changed. And yet it has kept its social role regardless of the means of achievement which varied based on different geographic locations, cultures, and costumes. This research aims to study the interrelation between the mosque and its surrounding urban context, on a micro-scale, and the whole city, on a macro-scale reflects an important side of this role. It starts by introducing some of the significant components of the mosque and reviewing the different roles the mosque played in the Muslim society. It then moves to identify the different forms of the relation between the city and the mosque through a historical review of several case-studies across the Muslim world. Chapter 17, authored by Haitham Samir, Ghaidaa Amir, Joanna Hamza, and Lian Alshoaiby, elaborates on pattern and form language seen as constituents of Mosque architecture. As the authors stress, mosques play an important role in Islam and Muslims life. The design of new mosques poses considerable challenges to contemporary architects, who are driven to honor the past while leaving room for continuing evolution and creativity. Understanding the mosque as a container and facilitator of multiple religious and civic activities entails the attentive design of every detail, every sequence of space, every material, and every governing geometric form and spatial organization that are adaptive to the variety of secular and social functions they support. Building on Christopher Alexander and Nikos Salingaros scientific knowledge and practical insights into architectural theory on “form language” and “pattern language” and their contribution to the notion of adaptive design. This research aims to adapt their theory to Mosque architecture in an attempt to discern elements that dominate and guide Mosque design. Furthermore, it highlights the reasons behind non-adaptive design many of contemporary mosque designs are ignoring which resulted in a disconnection between the building and the transcendental purpose it serves for the society. Accordingly, this paper will

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formulate an adaptive design method that links the physical human use (the form language) to the human sensibilities (the pattern language) to re-impose the spiritual experiences of the mosque as a place for prayer and the multi-dimensional roles they play including educational, civic, ceremonial, celebratory, and social functions. The methodology used throughout the paper relies on analyzing the notion of pattern and form language in an attempt to identify a set of evolved elements in mosque architecture that have been noticed as essential to the primary secular function of the mosque as well as to the other complementary purposes. The paper employs a case study analysis of contemporary mosques including King Fahad and King Saud Mosques in Jeddah along with KAPSARC Mosque in Riyadh to examine the elements of form and the patterns they create. The expected result is to define specific principles in mosque architecture that formulate a true combination between expressive geometric forms and human sensibilities and to generate guidelines for adaptive design in contemporary mosques.

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By Means of Conclusions: Restating the Present and Looking Ahead

The Editors hope that the chapters included in this book will foster a better understanding of the role that the Mosque has played in the process of shaping Muslim cities, architecture, and the society over the centuries. Viewed in this way, this volume is intended to promote research in the domains of architecture, urban design, and urban planning, as well as to nourish dialogue and mutual understanding across cultures and societies. Accordingly, this book prompts an opportunity to engage architects, designers, engineers, academics, scholars, and theorists from around the world to critically reflect on the existing contemporary design solutions and the possibilities yet to come. Moreover, against the backdrop of environmental and societal concerns, best captured by the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), this book brings together the leading expert voices on Mosque (Masjid) architecture to make a case for its role as a carrier of culture, heritage, and sustainability in the modern world.

Trends and Developments in Contemporary Mosque Architecture

Modern Trends in Mosques Architecture Sherif Mahmoud and Abobakr Al-Sakkaf

Abstract

Keywords

Mosque is not only a building where occupants perform a specialized and specific activity, but also it is the place where prayers can have relief by praying to the mighty God. Hence, mosques symbolize the connection between prayers and Mighty God which is reflected in both: the exterior mass and the interior design. The exterior mass of the mosque should be gigantic to depict the need of the prayer to Mighty god. The interior space should be spanned widely and unobstructed to accommodate the enormous numbers of prayers. Large areas of glass and daylighting are crucial to symbolize the direct connection between the prayers and Mighty God, as well as to allow lighting to penetrate deep into the prayer hall. This research will spot the light on the new mosque architecture trends in both building exterior mass and interior design. A comparative analysis was used to demonstrate the architectural treatments in both the ancient eras and the contemporary designs to express (1) the scale of the building mass; (2) the unobstructed and attractive interior; and (3) daylighting. The analysis shows the effect of the technological development on form, new structural innovations, materials, glazing and daylighting, and interior ornaments and decoration.

Mosque architecture Modern building materials Contemporary architecture Structural innovations

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A. Al-Sakkaf Department of Building, Civil, and Environmental Engineering, Concordia University, Montreal, QC, Canada e-mail: [email protected] Department of Architecture & Environmental Planning, College of Engineering & Petroleum, Hadhramout University, Al Mukalla, Yemen




Introduction

Architecture represents the human's culture values and ideas. Mosque architecture, in turn, depicts the morals of Islam such as modesty, sustainability, and humane design (Toorabally et al., 2016). Although the Islamic architecture especially mosques have its own features that are sustained along different eras that reflect their function and spiritual importance to Islamic communities. However, modern technologies and innovative construction trends and materials affect the architectural design of the contemporary mosques and that can be seen in the building mass, internal unobstructed space, and daylighting, in which these three features are the main scope of this research. This research starts with an introduction, followed by the methodology that was adopted in this research which is divided into three paths: (1) building mass; (2) unobstructed and attractive interior; and (3) daylighting and ends with discussion and conclusion.

2 S. Mahmoud (&) Architecture Engineering Department, Military Technical College, Cairo, Egypt e-mail: [email protected]





Methodology

2.1 Building Mass The first two examples that depict the modern mosque architecture are the two proposals of the Dubai Creek harbor competition. The first proposal is the one designed by Luca Poian such that the building mass is composed of a series of symmetrically double-curved vaults of varying scale ranging from the monumental proportions of the grand prayer hall to the slender profile of the minarets drawing a rich, cohesive,

© Effat University 2023 M. Fekry et al. (eds.), Mosque Architecture: A Transdisciplinary Debate, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24751-4_2

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S. Mahmoud and A. Al-Sakkaf

Fig. 1 Building mass of various mosques

a) Dubai Mosque, Dubai

b) White Mosque, Dubai

c) Maramara Mosque, Istanbul

d) Sakirin Mosque, Istanbul

e) Pristina Mosque, Kosovo

f) Kosovo Mosque

g) Putra Mosque, Malaysia

h) Basuna Mosque, Egypt

i) Tabouk Mosque, KSA

and balanced architecture expressing the sacred mosque architecture as shown in Fig. 1a (Barandy, 2018). The second proposal for the Creek harbor mosque is the one designed by Hamed Ben Hamri Architects known as the white Iconic Mosque. The architect uses simple lines and a regular rectangular plan as shown in Fig. 1b (Hamri, 2020). The central Axis defines the entrance pathway, with the entrance stairway and recessed form further defining the mosque entrance as well as creating a platform for gathering worshippers. The form evolved from abstract movements of prayers in the daily Islamic prayer. Another two examples of modern Islamic architecture in Istanbul, Turkey are the Marmara Faculty of Theology Mosque and the Şakirin Mosque. The Marmara Faculty of Theology Mosque was designed as an interpretation of classical Ottoman architecture tradition by using today’s language by using new materials and construction techniques. The mosque, dodecagon plan, was built as steel construction above a reinforced concrete base in which it accommodates various functional spaces in one complex building as shown in Fig. 1c (González, 2020). Şakirin Mosque is located at one of the entrances to Karacaahmet Cemetery in Üsküdar, Istanbul. The mosque’s architect was

Hüsrev Tayla. Its construction took 4 years and it was opened on May 7, 2009, in which the construction took four years. According to newspaper reports, it is the most modern mosque in Turkey. It is 10,000 square meters in area. It has two minarets, each 35 m high, and a dome of aluminum composite as shown in Fig. 1d (Sakirin Mosque Istanbul— Turkey, 2020; Sakirin Mosque, 2020). The mosque is built over a parking garage and also includes an exhibition area. Furthermore, another two examples are selected to demonstrate the development of modern architecture for mosque which are two proposals for the competition of designing a central Islamic complex in the city of Prishtina in Kosovo; (1) the mosque designed by the Inverted Studio in 2013 with the surface area of 8103m2; and (2) and the other designed by the X-Plan Studio. The idea behind the Inverted studio proposal was to design a building that is coherent with the surrounding urban and neighborhood context, as well as, represent an iconic building for the muslim’s community in the city. The architects are Victoria Stotskaia, Raof Abdelnabi, and Kamel Loqman who merged the dome and the minarets, the two main elements of the mosque architecture, into a single unique building in its shape as shown in Fig. 1e (Stotskaia et al., 2013). The building is facing Mecca

Modern Trends in Mosques Architecture

(Quibla) which makes the building inclined with respect to the main roads surrounding the project site, which gives the people passing by the site in different directions various experiences of perceiving the design from different angles. They will always see the two different outstanding skins, the solid facing North, and the soft transparent skin facing South. The other example is the one created by X-Plan studio that aims to: (1) create a fluid space that serves the person; (2) create a unique ensemble into the symbol of the city; and (3) make an iconic mosque for the Muslim community in Kosovo. The idea was a result of the current perception, traditional mosque and its elements, adapting the contemporary architecture as demonstrated in Fig. 1f (Studio, 2013). The site area is 8103 m2, it is divided into three zones: commercial, open space, and mosque area. Further, the seventh example is the Putra mosque, the principal mosque of Putrajaya Wilaya, Malaysia. Construction of the mosque began in 1997 and was completed two years later. It is located next to the Perdana Putra, which houses the Malaysian Prime Minister's office and man-made Putrajaya Lake. In front of the mosque is a large square with flagpoles flying Malaysian states' flags. The architect of this mosque is Kumpulan Senireka. The mosque comprises 9 domes and one minaret of height 116 m. The mosque takes the traditional shape of mosque architecture, which consists of three main functional areas: the prayer hall, the Sahn, or courtyard, and various learning facilities and function rooms as illustrated in Fig. 1g (Wikipedia, 2020). The eighth example is the Basuna Mosque that was constructed in 2018, which is located in the hot and arid village of Basuna, Sohag, Egypt, over a site amidst a noisy and densely constructed area. There are four entrances to the building, two of which could be made accessible for worshippers with special needs. There is a multi-use hall is designed to accommodate seasonal increases in the number of worshippers, of both genders, during Fridays and the Holy month of Ramadan, as well as serving an array of purposes all year round; temporary medical clinics, after-school and literacy tuition classes, etc. This brings back to mind the original all-inclusive function of the mosque, not only as a place for worship but as a service center for both Muslims and non-Muslims alike. Although the mosque is compact, it adopts some innovative ideas. The first idea is that the minaret and the holy space intended specifically for women are firsts in Basuna as shown in Fig. 1h (Arafa & NMurri, 2020). The second idea is the sound insulation of the wall of the mosque that the building offer, which depends on a cavity-wall with only one window. The third one is the hybrid roof system; consisting of a concrete beam gridiron, cast in situ, forming a central square (6.0  6.0 m) covered with a main dome, and 108 smaller square openings (0.82  0.82 m) partially covered using pendentive-domes. The fourth innovative idea is the fixed horizontal and

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operable vertical glass panels allowing the fresh high-altitude northern breeze to filter into the mosque, indirect glare-less sunlight to naturally illuminate the interior, and rainwater to be collected and used for cleaning and watering plants (Domus, 2020). The final selected example is the “University of Tabuk” mosque is one of the famous landmarks in the region, and to be a prominent center for Islamic religious sciences. It was built in 2006 with an area of 4807 m2. The architect of the mosque is Farhat Tashkandi. The mosque adopts several architectural features such as the total area of the mosque is 8000 m2; its capacity is 3500 worshipers; it contains two minarets each minaret with a height of 50 m; and its roof is in the form of a dome covered with mosaics with an area of 5887 m as shown in Fig. 1h. The facades of the mosque are made of double glazing with a high degree of transmittance of light. The walls and floors are covered with granite and marble, and aluminum works were used for the two minarets and decorative walls, while the area of the mosque’s external squares and parking spaces is 30,300 m2, and car parks accommodate 380 cars. Also, the mosque is characterized by a central air conditioning system for the mosque, and a BMS management and control system, as well as an alarm system in the event of a fire, and an advanced system of acoustics, as the entrances are covered with granite squares, and the floor of the mosque courtyard has marble tiles and glass walls, and the mosque roof is formed of aluminum suspended above the mosque courtyard, aluminum claddings, glass of the circular beam, the wall decor and the lighthouse (Riyadh-Arabic.net., 2020).

2.2 Unobstructed and Attractive Interior This section will demonstrate various architectural treatments in the mosques architecture to achieve an unobstructed large interior space for prayers. Following the arrangement of example as the previous section, this section will start with: the two proposals of Dubai mosque; the two others in Istanbul Turkey; the two examples of Prishtina, Kosovo; the Putra mosque in Malaysia; Basuna mosque in Sowhag, Egypt; and Tabuk mosque, Saudi Arabia. As a concept design for Dubai Creek Harbor Mosque, the architect Luca Poian used a type of minimal surface known as the “scherk” surface, generating a self-supported structural system that locally minimizes its area through a network of bridging arches arranged in a modular checkerboard pattern as shown in Fig. 2a (Barandy, 2018). Hamed Ben Hamri Architects proposes another example for the Dubai Creek Harbor Mosque its known as the white Iconic Mosque. The design of the Mosque has simple lines and balance in its form that reflects its concept as shown in Fig. 2b. The interior space of the Mosque can accommodate up to 10,000

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S. Mahmoud and A. Al-Sakkaf

Fig. 2 Interior spatial of various mosques

a) Dubai Mosque, Dubai

b) White Mosque, Dubai

c) Maramara Mosque, Istanbul

d) Sakirin Mosque, Istanbul

e) Pristina Mosque, Kosovo

f) Kosovo Mosque

g) Putra Mosque, Malaysia

h) Basuna Mosque, Egypt

i) Tabouk Mosque, KSA

worshippers, with engrave Islamic patterns as well as the light use of materials and color create an atmosphere of humility and humbleness of worship (Hamri, 2020). Marmara mosque is the project based on the fractal rotational movement which is seen in the universe from micro-scale to macro-scale and reveals the seeking of a new perspective in terms of abstraction, stylization, and interpretation of tradition in mosque architecture, by combining concepts of “the part in the whole” and “the whole in the part” with the fractal form of nautilus and millenary traditional “kırlangıç” ceiling technique. The Project has a 30.000 sqm built area consisting of an urban square, a mosque, which can accommodate 4500 worshippers, and a cultural center under the mosque and square. The culture center including classrooms, conference hall, exhibition spaces, book cafe, and cinevision rooms, was considered as an attraction center of social life. The central dome, 35 m in diameter and 35 m high, forms by joining 12 steel columns, ascending step-by-step. The Load-bearing columns are linked to an internal wall of the dome with steel beams in the form of traditional Turkish triangles. Over the ridge rib, there is a multiple-stage spiral structure. Here, unlike the outside, the person is surrounded by the structure which they

perceive from outside. In order to strengthen the center of projection in interior space, glass spirals and glass muqarnas cover on the top, 6 waw letters on the center of the circle, and the fountain and pool emphasize the center reaching to the heavens as illustrated in Fig. 2c (González, 2020). Furthermore, as shown in Fig. 2d the interior of Şakirin Mosque was designed by Zeynep Fadıllıoğlu who is the first female interior designer of a mosque. The women’s section is designed especially to allow female worshipers to have a clear view of the chandelier as shown in Fig. 2d (Sakirin Mosque Istanbul—Turkey, 2020; Sakirin Mosque, 2020). Moreover, for the proposal of the Inverted Studio or the central Prishtina Mosque in Kosovo, the unobstructed interior space is created by using a shell construction covering the rectangular prayer space as shown in Fig. 2e. This shell construction consists of two triangular. Shells intersected in the symmetry line of the rectangular plan getting the idea of the two sloping shell shapes from the (Derwesh) baggy (Gilbab) cloth (Stotskaia et al., 2013). In the other proposal for the central Prishtina mosque in Kosovo, the whole interior space is supported by 12 huge columns that carry the six twisted levels and the dome created a huge clear space on the ground floor (Studio, 2013).

Modern Trends in Mosques Architecture

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The pink-domed Putra Mosque in Malaysia is constructed with rose-tinted granite and consists of three main functional areas—the prayer hall, the (Sahn), or courtyard, and various learning facilities and function rooms. The mosque can accommodate 15,000 worshippers at any one time. This mosque uses traditional construction methods which are columns supporting the main huge dome and arches that support the slabs for the women’s prayer level as illustrated in Fig. 2g (Wikipedia, 2020). Further, Basuna Mosque in Egypt uses four columns to support the main dome and utilizes paneled beams covered with pendentive-domes used as wind catchers as demonstrated in Fig. 2h (Arafa, 2020; Domus, 2020). Finally, Tabuk mosque adopts the shell construction by using a large dome covering an area over 4000 m2 with no columns or pillars obstructing the prayer surface area resulting in a clear free space to accommodate 3500 worshippers.

2.3 Daylighting This section will discuss the various techniques and methods applied for daylighting in the nine selected examples with the same sequence followed in the previous sections. Starting with the first proposal of creek harbor mosque by Luca Poian, the daylighting is introduced to the prayer hall through the perforated ceiling over the Qibla, as well as, the small circular holes throughout the entire ceiling giving the prayer the feeling of breakthrough from the small lighting point to the large lit area near Qibla as illustrated in Fig. 3a. The second proposal, which is the iconic white mosque of creek harbor used the same methodology of daylighting through the semi-covered ornamented roof along the prayer hall as shown in Fig. 3b. In Marmara Mosque, at the top point, there is a skylight inspiring from muqarnas, and the crescent of the main dome

Fig. 3 Daylighting of various mosques

a) Dubai Mosque, Dubai

b) White Mosque, Dubai

c) Maramara Mosque, Istanbul

d) Sakirin Mosque, Istanbul

e) Pristina Mosque, Kosovo

f) Kosovo Mosque

g) Putra Mosque, Malaysia

h) Basuna Mosque, Egypt

i) Tabouk Mosque, KSA

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S. Mahmoud and A. Al-Sakkaf

mounts over it. As for the interior space, to comprehend the image of the structure from the inside, movement of spiral glass structure and it is joining with the glass muqarnas cover at the top are also seen from the interior of the mosque, in addition to the side ornamented large windows all around the prayer hall as shown in Fig. 3c. In the Sakirin mosque, the daylight penetrates through the large windows on the three sides of the prayer hall that were designed by Orhan Koçan, also, a large, asymmetrical chandelier has waterdrop-shaped glass globes made by Nahide Büyükkaymakçı reflecting a prayer that Allah’s light should fall on worshipers like rain as shown in Fig. 3d. Moreover, the proposal for the Inverted studio for Prishtina mosque in Kosovo showed an innovative idea for daylighting that exists in the direction of the main road that facing the south taking people to different activities happing on top of the prayer hall, in which the designers call it “glass tower” as in Fig. 3e. This glass wall has double skin, the external is ETEF cushions, and the inner one is glassing that achieve the idea of the greenhouse, where the heat of the Sun and captured between the two skins, which will radiate into the spaces during the day. In the proposal of the X-plan studio for the Prishtina mosque in Kosovo, the daylighting is penetrated through the ornamented voids in the dome and also through the side perforated ornamented curtain walls as shown in Fig. 3f. In Putra mosque Malaysia, a daylight is introduced by applying the traditional way used in the ancient mosques, which is the small windows around the domes, as well as, the high windows near the ceiling around the prayer hall as shown in Fig. 3g. Moreover, in Basuna mosque, Egypt, the pendentive-domes are reimagined as an independent unit, with innovated functions; structurally as a roof system, environmentally as a wind-catcher and skylight, and aesthetically as an independent geometrical object, appreciated both from the interior and the exterior. Finally, Tabuk mosque is characterized by a natural lighting system of the dome of the mosque and glass walls that provide the entire prayer hall with ample amount of daylighting as demonstrated in Fig. 3i.

3

Conclusion

Based on the previous discussion, modern technology and new trends in construction and material have a crucial effect on the architectural design process, which can be seen obviously in modern buildings. In the case of mosque architecture, these technologies and modernity shifted this type of sacred architecture from traditional methods of construction and conventional material to new and

innovative ideas that affected totally the form, mass, and ornaments. After the previous sections, modern architectural trends are reflected in the entire masses of the introduced example, giving the architects new opportunities in expressing their ideas and transferring the inspiration they need to the worshippers in these mosques. These technologies allow the achievement of unobstructed prayer halls to accommodate large capacities and high interior heights rather than using an excess of relatively closely spaced columns. Moreover, these new technologies and modern trends provides giving the opportunity to draw a portrait with daylighting and aspire to the feelings of the worshippers, allowing the mosque to be a comfortable and aspiring place for meditation.

References Arafa, E., & NMurri, T. (2020). Basuna Mosque. [September 22, 2020]; Available from: https://www.arch2o.com/basuna-mosquedar-arafa-architecture/ Barandy, K. (2018). Dubai Creek Harbor Mosque. Designboom 2018; Available from: https://www.designboom.com/architecture/lucapoian-forms-mosque-10-15-18/ Domus. (2020). Designing a contemporary mosque: an Egyptian case study. [September 22, 2020]; Available from: https://www. domusweb.it/en/architecture/gallery/2019/03/07/designing-acontemporary-mosque-an-egyptian-case-study.html González, M. F. (2020). Marmara University Faculty of Theology Mosque. [ArchDaily September 18, 2020]; Available from: https:// www.archdaily.com/887479/marmara-university-faculty-oftheology-mosque-hassa-architecture-engineering-co Hamri, H. B. (2020). Iconic Mosque. [Behance September 13, 2020]; Available from: https://www.behance.net/gallery/73618587/ICONICMOSQUE Riyadh-Arabic.net. (2020). Saudi Arabia, A mosque with a large dome with no pillars in between 2020 October 3, 2020]; Available from: https://www.eg24.news/2020/06/saudi-arabia-a-mosque-with-alarge-dome-with-no-pillars-in-between.html Sakirin Mosque Istanbul—Turkey. (2020). [Beautiful Mosques Gallery September 17, 2020]; Available from: https://www.beautiful mosque.com/Sakirin-Mosque-Istanbul-Turkey Sakirin Mosque. (2020). [September 17, 2020]; Available from: https:// mosqpedia.org/en/mosque/148 Stotskaia, V., Abdelnabi, A., & Loqman, L. (2013). Central Mosque of Prishtina Competition Entry. [Arch20 2013 September 18, 2020]; Available from: https://www.arch2o.com/central-mosque-of-prishtinacompetition-entry-victoria-stotskaia-raof-abdelnabi-kamel-loqman/ Studio, X.-P. (2013). Competition-Central Mosque of PrishtinA “KOSOVO”—X-Plan Studio [September 18, 2020]; Available from: http://xplanstudio.blogspot.com/2013/04/competition-centralmosque-of-prishtina.html Toorabally, M. F., et al. (2016). Impact of modern technologies on islamic architecture in Malaysia and Middle East. Nova Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, 5(1), 1–22. Wikipedia. Putra Mosque. (2020). [September 21, 2020]; Available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Putra_Mosque

Financing Mosque Maintenance in Muslim-Minority Communities Hafis Bello

Abstract

1

Building maintenance extends the functional life of a building. While maintenance funds are usually deducted from the rental income in the case of income-generating buildings, this is not the case for non-income buildings such as mosques. Thus, mosque maintenance mostly relies on funds sourced through donations or grants, to ensure continued functionality and aesthetics. Since such donations are neither statutory, regular nor mandatory, the maintenance of mosques can only be as effective as the level of donation received. Consequently, this paper conducts a review of different financing approaches and practices that could ensure the sustainable maintenance of Mosques, especially in Muslim-minority communities where there is little or no government funding. Using the Islamic Cultural Centre Ireland (ICCI) model, the study recommends that mosques in Muslim-minority areas could be maintained through income generated from the development of nearby spaces around the mosques to render halal services such as book fairs and bookshops, multi-purpose halls and seminar rooms, shops, restaurant, and translation services. The study also indicates that more funds could be generated for mosque maintenance services through administrative processes such as the integration of online payment systems, budgeting, proper accounting and record-keeping, regular audit and internal controls, as well as improved communication with the volunteers and donors. Keywords

Mosque areas




Financing




Maintenance




Muslim-Minority

H. Bello (&) Kulliyyah of Architecture and Environmental Design, International Islamic University Malaysia, 50728 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia e-mail: bello.hafi[email protected]; hafi[email protected]

Introduction

Building maintenance extends the functional life of a building. Building maintenance applies to all activities performed to maintain, repair, or upgrade some portion of a structure, facility, or equipment, its services, and surroundings, to an appropriate standard currently in place. These tasks include preserving the building’s accessibility and contributing to customer satisfaction. Noor and Eves (2011) defined building maintenance as a series of activities undertaken to take care of the building structure and services to ensure the intended functions and optimal performance of a building life cycle are achieved. Pukite and Geipele (2017) added that the central goal of maintenance is to protect a building at its preliminary stage and to retain the value of investments in the property. Adequate maintenance increases the lifespan of a building thus enabling it to serve it, users, for a long period. Conversely, a poorly maintained property leads to low building performance and fast deterioration of the building and its components (Williams 1995 & Wordsworth, 2001). Aside from the loss of investment, poor building maintenance poses significant health risks to building users, especially in the case of public buildings, including mosques, where different users visit at regular intervals. Mosques particularly require effective maintenance as it is the place of worship visited by Muslim adherents at least five times each day. It is a place of solidarity established to guide Muslims toward human perfection and practical steps toward attaining nearness to God. Since the inception of Islam, mosques have continued to play key roles in the spiritual, moral, and social growth of the Muslims (Arasteh, 2014) and the hosting communities at large. Despite this significance, studies such as Mahazan and Abdullah (2013), Sapri et al. (2016), Awuzie and Isa (2017), Bakri et al. (2018) documented the low maintenance level of mosques particularly as it relates to poor infrastructure use, hygiene, inadequate sanitary facilities as well as the poor

© Effat University 2023 M. Fekry et al. (eds.), Mosque Architecture: A Transdisciplinary Debate, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24751-4_3

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H. Bello

monitoring tools. Mosques are particularly affected by defects and deteriorations as a result of wear and tear (Abdullah et al., 2017), thereby creating wide maintenance gaps. These gaps are even more widespread in developing countries as well as some of the Muslim-minority communities due to limited resources. In the case of the latter, the relatively low number of Muslims in the community coupled with low government support would naturally lead to inadequate funds for the maintenance of mosques. This has contributed to the deterioration observed in the different mosques across these communities. The question is thus: what financing approach could be adopted in achieving the sustainable maintenance of mosques, particularly in Muslim communities? To answer this question, this paper reviews different financing models that could be adapted toward sustaining the maintenance of mosques, especially in Muslim-minority communities. The paper is structured as follows: this current section presents a brief background to the study. Section 2 reviews definitions of minorities; Sect. 3 presents Islamic financing models while Sect. 4 reviews general existing financing models for mosque maintenance. Section 5 discusses mosque maintenance in Muslim-minority communities while Sect. 6 presents mosque process optimization. The paper's conclusion is provided in Sect. 7.

2

Definitions of Minority

There is no generally-acceptable definition of the term ‘minority’ despite the different attempts in to do so even at the international level (Angelo & Tolino, 2017). The minority is a number, part, or amount forming less than half of the whole, a number, part, or amount forming less than half of the whole; often used as shorthand for marginalized communities (Magid and Khan, 2011). Minority refers to those small communities of individuals who do not share certain features of their identity with other members of the population to which they belong. Capotorti (1977) gave a more elaborate definition of the term noting that minority is. ...a small group of people who, on the level of culture, ethnicity, religion, language, etc., share the awareness of differentiating themselves from the majority of the population of the state in which they live, and who express, implicitly or explicitly, the desire to preserve their distinctive traits…To acquire minority status this community must hold a non-dominant position.

Capotorti’s definition indicates key aspects of the minority debate on the global scene. The key components from these definitions are 1. ‘a small group of people’—this implies that the population of the minority group is significantly smaller when compared to that of the larger population in the area. 2. ‘Differentiating factor'—this smaller

group differentiates itself from the larger community through traits acceptable to its community members including culture, ethnicity, religion, or language. 3. ‘Desire to preserve these traits’—such a group expresses its strong desire to preserve its traits even in the face of increasing opposition and social pressure from the larger group. 4. ‘Non-dominant position’—to be referred to as a minority group in a community or country, there has to be a certainty that the small group or large section of its members does not hold a dominant position in the community or country. Al-Qadarawi also noted that the small number of members of the minority community is the reason why, in most cases, it is weak and consequently fails to oppose the majority that imposes choices on it that take into account only its peculiarities. Muslim-minority thus refers to communities whereby Muslims have a non-dominant position and a relatively low population when compared to the population of non-Muslims in the same community. The implication of such is that the Muslims in these Muslim-minority areas have limited access to the required resources for mosque maintenance. Oftentimes, external funds are required to establish and maintain Mosques such as in the case of the Islamic Cultural Centre, Ireland. Using the two factors: non-dominant position and relatively low number, Muslims in Ireland are considered a minority group. Ireland has an estimated population of 4.904 million (as of 2019) 1. Of this population, the Irish census indicates the number of Muslims residents in the Republic was 63,443 (Central Statistics Office, 2017) thus representing 1.3% of the entire population. The first Islamic Society in Ireland was formed in 1959 by students studying in Ireland and was called the Dublin Islamic Society (and later, the Islamic Foundation of Ireland) (DCU Islamic Society, 2006). During the period, the students used their homes and later rented halls for Jum'ah (Friday) and Eid (Muslim holiday) prayers.

2.1 The Islamic Cultural Centre, Ireland (ICCI) The ICCI is an Islamic complex, including a mosque, in Clonskeagh, next to the University College Dublin, Ireland. The center was established in 1996 by Sheikh Hamdan bin Rashid al-Maktoum, the Deputy Governor of Dubai and Minister of Finance and Industry in the United. Arab Emirates (Ali, 2005; Warraich & Feroze, 2007). The ICCI is designed as a steel frame structure in a square layout pattern divided into nine smaller squares. The mosque is placed in the center of this pattern layout (Archnet, 2006). Other components in the ICCI layout include a restaurant, a library, meeting and seminar rooms, mortuary facilities,

Financing Mosque Maintenance in Muslim-Minority Communities

Nurul Huda Qur'anic school, youth club room, a multi-purpose hall for sporting activities/conferences, administrative offices, and a shop as well as a creche3. ICCI finances its operations majorly through the income generated from these supporting uses. The mosque offers scholarships to indigent students and also organizes community engagement programs such as the youth leader training sessions, youth club, parent annual general meeting, parent workshop sessions, discussions on improving community relationships, and understanding of Islam, Arabic learning classes, among others. To facilitate the collection of donations from interested donors from across the world, the ICCI developed a donation portal. Based on the ICCI report4, the use of the portal has witnessed an increasing number of donors such that the ICCI had to develop another portal with robust capabilities to cater to the increasing number of donors. The portal availability particularly enhances reporting on different processes on the portal.

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3

A Review of Funding Sources in Islam

Authors such as Kahf (2003), Mar-Iman and Muhammad (2014), Obaidullah (2014), Mohsin and Mohammad (2015), Abas and Raji (2018) and Mohsin (2019) have described models of Islamic financing that could be explored for different projects. As indicated in the table below, many of these models such as Istisna (manufacturing/construction/ major repairs), Ijarah (lease) and Musharakah (partnership), Build-Operate and Transfer (BOT), and other funding models are suitable for income-generating properties that could repay the investors through rental income. Based on the operational procedures, the models are categorized into four levels: credit-based, joint venture, securitization, and others. Further analysis of the different funding models is presented in Table 1. Sample Heading (Fourth Level)—The contribution should contain no more than four levels of headings. The following Table 1 gives a summary of all heading levels.

Table 1 An overview of different Islamic financing models 1. Category

2. Potential financing Models for Mosque 3. Maintenance

4. Overview

5. Credit-based

6. Istisna

7. A contract whereby a construction company or a construction financing company (seller) agrees with the waqf management (buyer) to develop a Waqf property with a clear specification for an agreed price and deliver after an agreed period. The buyer then repays the agreed price in installments or in full at the end of the agreed period (Obaidullah, 2014)

8. Murabaha or Bai’

9. This is a mark-up sale whereby the Waqf institution

10. Thaman al-ajil

11. Approaches a lender to finance the development of a waqf land. Upon completion, the property is sold to the Waqf institution at a mark-up price (Mar-Iman and Muhammad, 2014)

12. Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT)

13. This model allows the waqf institution to sign an agreement with a private company toward the development of, usually, a large project on Waqf land. The private company then operates the asset for an agreed period after which it is fully transferred to the Waqf institution

14. Ijarah

15. Is a situation whereby the waqf institution issues a permit to a lender to erect a building on Waqf land. The lender then leases the building to the waqf institution for the length of the permit period to enable the lender to recover its construction cost and profit through the lease payment made by the waqf institution to the lender. Thereafter, the lender transfers the building title to the Waqf institution (Kahf 1998, Mar-Iman and Abdul-Aziz, 2014)

16. Hukr

17. A long-term or indefinite lease of the waqf asset against payment of a large rental upfront that is almost equal to the market value of the asset, and periodic (annual) rentals that are quite insignificant. The mode gives the lease the exclusive right to use the property. The right may be sold and transferred to a third party and may even be bequeathed to one’s heirs (Obaidullah, 2014)

18. Mursad

19. A substantial loan advanced by a lender toward the development of waqf property. Upon appropriate approvals, the property is given on a lease to the lender for a period long enough to recover the cost of construction and other expenses. A mursad is transferable to a third party and can be bequeathed (Mar-Iman and Muhammad, 2014; Obaidullah, 2014)

20. Ijaratain

21. A contract of two leases whereby the lessee nominal annual rentals as well as a large upfront payment that is sufficient to carry out major repair works on a dilapidated waqf property or develop an another (Obaidullah, 2004) (continued)

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H. Bello

Table 1 (continued) 1. Category

2. Potential financing Models for Mosque 3. Maintenance

4. Overview

22. Joint venture

23. Mudarabah

24. A partnership whereby the Waqf institution releases waqf land to a developer for an agreed period. Upon completion, the building is let to a third party and the rental income generated is shared between the Waqf institution and the developer. The Waqf institution divides its portion of revenue from the rental payment into 2-one part goes to increase its share in the asset ownership and the other is used to pay the beneficiaries

26. Musharakah

27. A partnership between the waqf institution and the lender whereby the developed Waqf asset is given on a lease and the lease rentals constitute a steady and predictable income for the partners

28. Musharakah Mutanaqisoh/ Diminishing 29. Musharakah

30. It is a form of Musharakah whereby the lender’s share would be bought back by the waqf institution over a specified agreed upon period, thus extinguishing the ownership of the lender in the waqf asset

32. Equity shares

33. A process whereby waqf institution, through its subsidiary, develops an investment prospectus that divides ownership in a Waqf property into sub-units to raise funds to develop the waqf property through equity share. Upon the listing of the shares, the shareholders can trade their shares easily (Mar-Iman and Muhammad, 2014)

34. Islamic Bond/Sukuk

35. Involves the pooling of income-generating assets of a company and then issuing of securities against these assets. The Sukuk holders/investors are then entitled to a share of the rental income

36. Waqf coin

37. Involves the use of blockchain, a distributed ledger managed by a peer-to-peer network, to track, and exchange while monitoring agreements, performance levels, and payment. It is believed its application, though still in the early stages, will improve the development of Waqf properties (Muneeza et al., 2018; Mohsin, 2019)

38. Waqf crowd

39. A type of fundraising activity that involves collecting small amounts of money from the public through an online platform. This model can be used for both for-profit and non-profit waqf projects (Mohsin, 2019)

40. Cash donations (Sadaqah)

41. Charity fund donated toward developing waqf property. However, the donor does not receive a certificate unlike the case of a cash waqf

42. Cash Waqf deposits and certificates

43. A non-refundable deposit with the bank under a clear understanding that the returns on the deposits will be channeled to the benefit of identified beneficiaries (Obaidullah, 2014; Mohsin 2019)

45. Ibdal and Istibdal

46. This term refers to the exchange of a less performing Waqf property to acquire/build or maintain another property that generates greater benefit (Nazih, 1993; Kahf, 1998)

47. Qard Hasan

48. Benevolent loan. It involves raising new waqf resources/assets that may be added to the existing asset to make it more beneficial. The loan could be repaid from the additional earnings generated through from the Waqf Property

49. Baitulmal/Internal funding

50. This is a mode of funding where the Waqf institution uses funds from its savings and account to, fully or partly, finance the construction of a waqf property (YWM, 2016). Such funding can be merged with other modes of financing such as Musharakah whereby the partners contribute toward the development of a Waqf property

25. Zarqa (1994), Mar-Iman and Muhammad (2014)

31. Securitization

44. Other

Source Collated by Author (2020)

As indicated in the table, many of the Islamic financing models perform better in the case where there is a means to repay the fund. Thus, this is not applicable in the case of a

Mosque where the Mosque itself is a form of charity and does not generate regular income as observed in the case of other investments.

Financing Mosque Maintenance in Muslim-Minority Communities

4

Fundraising for Mosque Maintenance Programs

Mosques that do not have additional income-generating centers as obtainable in the case of the ICCI can also fund maintenance programers through fundraising activities. Fundraising is a major channel through which non-profit organizations such as mosques raise funds for their operations and carry out regular maintenance programs. While there are different ways to raise funds, the management must have a plan of action that would answer the critical questions —the why, what, when, who, who/where, and how. That is, the plan will indicate the purpose of the required fund (why), the amount needed (what), the period it will be needed (when), the fundraising handlers (who), the target audience or targeted donors (whom) and strategy to be adopted in reaching this target audience (how). For mosque maintenance, some of the fundraising activities include membership fees/regular contributions, donations and appeals, fundraising events, sponsorships, trusts, government schemes and grants, charities, and loans (Warraich and Feroze, 2007). Each of the fundraising activities requires a different approach. For instance, membership fees/regular contributions are raised mainly through informal approaches such as regular reminders through SMS or the notice boards around the mosque. Such contributions are mostly used to cover the day-to-day operational expenses of the mosques. Funds generated through membership fees may not be sufficient to cover major maintenance or repairs, especially in Muslim-minority communities. This means that other fundraising models will thus provide more funds to meet maintenance goals. Donations and appeals require a semi-formal approach which requires proper planning and announcements on the projects to be executed. Fundraising events, sponsorships, trusts, and other fundraising models require formal approaches and should be well planned before contacting the target audience so as to increase the chances of positive responses. In essence, a successful fundraising program starts with selecting the appropriate fundraising activity, indicating the appropriate amount required, putting up an appropriate proposal, contacting the target respondents well enough before the planned maintenance, sending a note of appreciation to all respondents, and sharing progress reports on the maintenance programs so the donors kept abreast of the fund use. Such communication and feedback also encourage the donors to support the mosque project in subsequent times. Specifically, funding models for mosques can be broadly categorized into three- donations from internal sources, external fundraising, and income from adjoining uses.

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4.1 Internal Sources Sources of internal funding for mosque maintenance include membership fees, donations and appeals, sponsorships, and Wasiyyat. a. Membership fees relate to voluntary but regular donations made by Muslim worshippers around the mosque toward the development and maintenance of the mosque. Each person indicates the amount he/she can afford on those regular intervals based on their disposable income and capacities. b. Donations and appeals are often used to raise funds from local members for specific projects especially toward meeting a maintenance need and ensuring quality health and safety of the mosque for worship purposes. c. Sponsorships refer to cases where well-to-do local members are specifically approached to sponsor particular projects either as an individual or in collaboration with other interested members. d. Wasiyyat: some mosques have also put in place a Wasiyyat payment system that operates like the membership fees. However, members of the Wasiyyat payment plan are required to contribute a certain percentage of their monthly income toward the development and maintenance of the mosque as well as to carry out welfare support for needy members of the local community.

4.2 External Fundraising Warraich and Feroze (2007) indicated sources of external funding to include trusts, government schemes, charities, and non-interest loans. a. Trusts: Trusts are usually established by wealthy individuals or groups to provide regular maintenance and development of a Mosque. In some cases, the trusts also cover the construction costs of the mosque as well as the payment of overhead expenses. b. Government schemes: Government in some communities provide regular maintenance fund for the upkeep of religious buildings. In many Muslim-majority countries, the government provides funds for the maintenance of mosques and payment of the Imam and other mosque staff. c. Charities: Charities are established for different purposes based on the intentions of the promoters. Some charities provide funds to cover the construction, maintenance,

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H. Bello

and overhead expenses of mosques to expand Islamic education, especially in Muslim-minority communities. d. Non-interest loans: In a few cases, mosque management may need to get loan facilities to finance mosque maintenance especially where such maintenance is urgent, an emergency or to meet regulatory compliance. To repay the no-interest loan, the mosque management could use other funding options indicated in this section.

5

Mosque Maintenance in Muslim-Minority Communities

As indicated in Sect. 2, key features of Muslim-minority communities are low population and non-dominant position in the community. Due to these peculiarities of Muslim-minority communities, not all aspects of the funding sources discussed in Sect. 4 could be effective in such areas. The effectiveness of these funding sources is further presented in Table 2.

4.3 Income from Adjoining Uses

6 Riding on the concept of Waqf, some mosques also generate funds through adjoining land uses to ensure they meet the daily expenses and maintenance budget needs of the mosque. Such mosques generate funds through purpose-built adjoining uses around the mosques such as shops, multi-purpose halls, schools and Madrasa, bookshops, and halal restaurants. The adjoining uses are to be managed professionally so the funds generated through rents and services can be kept in the mosque purse for maintenance requirements and overheads. A similar model is what is currently obtainable at the Islamic Cultural Center, Ireland as well as many other case studies across the world.

Mosque Process Optimization

Whether funds are generated through investment models, grants, or donations, the success of the mosque maintenance process is determined by the effective use of the generated funds in the most transparent and accountable manner. This starts with establishing effective management processes and policies. This involves having a clear vision for the mosque as well as developing the organizational structure that would facilitate effective decision-making. Having a clear aim and objective is a crucial starting point for any organization, community, or faith group as it serves as a reminder of where they are going, why they exist, and for what purpose.

Table 2 Level of the effectiveness of the funding sources as a means of Mosque maintenance in Muslim-minority communities 1. Funding sources

2. Level

3. Remark

5.a. Membership fees

6. Low

7. The low and non-dominant feature of the population means the fund to be generated from this source is usually not enough to cater to the maintenance needs of the mosque

8.b. Donation and appeals

9. Low

10. The mosque may not be able to raise internal donations at regular intervals due to the economic situation of local members

11.c. Sponsorships

12. Low

13. The relatively low population of Muslims in these communities reduces the potential of funding mosque maintenance through internal sponsorships

14.d. Wasiyyat

15.15.15. Low

16. With a relatively low economic performance, income may not be stable enough to ensure consistent payment of a Wasiyat

4. Internal sources

17. External sources 18.a. Trust

19. High

20.b. Government scheme

21. Medium

23.c. Charities

24. High

25.d. Non-interest loans

26. Low

27. It is generally not advisable for mosques in Muslim- minority areas to get loans for mosque services as it will increase the debt profile of the mosque. However, this option may be kept as a last resort

28. Income from adjoining uses

29. Very high

30. Mosques in Muslim-minority areas should be better maintained where the management of such mosques can get funding to build adjoining land uses. just as the case of the ICCI, this offers a more sustainable means

22. In communities where the government has schemes to support religious organizations, mosques in such areas may also benefit from such disbursements. However, such funds are typically not regular and may be tied to political affiliations or other conditions

Financing Mosque Maintenance in Muslim-Minority Communities

In addition, Warraich and Feroze (2007) observed that a well-run mosque needs to keep a range of records which would aid accountability on the part of the mosque management team. Essentially, the mosque is required to have a budget, financial records, accounting, internal controls, audit mechanisms, fundraising procedures as well as robust reporting on all processes. A budget is a management tool universally recognized for its ability to support planning and efficient management of resources and activities in different entities (Lidia, 2014). The mosque budget facilitates the implementation of mosque programs, guides the use of available funds, enables members to develop creative ways to raise funds, and also enhances decision-making processes. Financial records and accounting enable the mosque management to see how much profit has been made and the funding gaps in reaching stated goals. Accounts and records aid in proper reporting on different aspects of the mosque processes. Aspects included in a typical account of a mosque include assets and liabilities, income and expenses, donations and grants, etc. Putting in place effective internal control procedures helps the mosque to meet its stated objectives and also helps to avoid fund misuse. Some of the control measures include having at least two persons process payments and record offerings and donations. In addition to process transparency and accountability, Bakri et al. (2018) presented four elements to serve as critical success factors for mosque maintenance. These are people, process, place, and technology. On people, the authors indicated the significance of a structured organizational chart to the success of mosque maintenance. In place, Bakri et al. indicated the need for mosques to be functional and their environment should be pleasant and welcoming for worshippers especially as the mosque architecture, decoration, and aesthetics could influence people’s relations in those surroundings and their attachment to the setting. The process entails having a clear maintenance plan to correct defect and deteriorations that emanates from wear and tear while technology relates to the adoption of automated tools for temperature control, lighting, and other mechanical components.

7

Conclusion

This paper indicated the two core features of Muslim-minority communities- relative-low population of Muslims and non-dominant positions in the communities. The paper discussed how these features affect the sustainable maintenance of mosques in those communities. The paper

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further reviews the activities of the Islamic Cultural Centre, Ireland (ICCI) and the model it adopts to raise funds for its operations and maintenance despite being in a Muslimminority community. In addition, the paper reviewed different funding models and their effectiveness in achieving sustainable funding for mosque maintenance programs in the target communities.

References Abas, N. F., & Raji, F. (2018). Factors contributing to inefficient management and maintenance of Waqf properties: A literature review. International Journal of Islamic and Civilizational Studies. UMRAN; Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. Abdullah, M. A., Nor Rima, M. A., Norsalisma, I., & Kaliwon, J., et al. (2017). Façade maintainability for mosques: A review for maintenance consideration. International Journal of Real Estate Studies, 11(2). Ali. (2005). The Muslim Community in Ireland Archived 2007–11–19 at the Wayback Machine Ali Selim (ICCI). The Journal of the National Consultative Committee on Racism and Interculturalism, (9). Angelo D. C., & Tolino, S. (2017). Introduction minorities as subjects and minorities as producers of islamic law: Past and present. Journal of Arabic and Islamic Studies, 17, 143–155. Arasteh. (2014). Masjid and its management: Issues and challenges. In Proceeding of the International Conference on Masjid, Zakat and Waqf (IMAF 2014). (e-ISBN 978–967-13087–1–4). Archnet. (2006). Information about ICCI construction: Ireland. Awuzie, B., & Isa, R. (2017). Stakeholders’ perception of critical success factors for sustainable facilities management practice in universities in sub- Saharan Africa. Acta Structilia, 24(2). https:// doi.org/10.18820/24150487/as24i2.4 Bakri, A., Zakaria, H. I., Kassim, R., Ahmad, N. A. (2018). Adoption of the systematic facilities management approach to the sustainable performance of mosques. International Journal of Technology, 8, 1542–1550. ISSN 2086–9614 © IJTech Central Statistics Office. Retrieved April 20, 2017. Capotorti, F. (1977). Study on the rights of persons belonging to ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities, Geneva: UN sub-commission on the prevention of discrimination and protection of minorities. UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/384/Add.1–7 Central Statistics Office. (2017). Central statistics office skehard road, Cork T12 X00E, Ireland. DCU Islamic Society. (2006). DCU Islamic Society Report, Ireland. Hamad, N. (1993). Asālib al-Istithmār al-AwqāfwaIdārahtuh, Dalam'AbhāthNadwahNahwaDawrTamwīl li al-Waqf, al-Kuwait: Wizārah al- AwqāfwaSuʼūn al-Islāmīyah.Newman. Kahf, M. (1998). Financing development of Awqāf properties. Paper presented at the seminar on development of Awqaf organized by IRTI, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, March 2–4. Kahf, M. (2003). The role of Waqf in improving ummah welfare. In Paper presented at the international seminar on Waqf as a private legal body. Islamic University of North Sumatra. Lidia, G. T. (2014). Difficulties of the budgeting process and factors leading to the decision to implement this management tool. Procedia Economics and Finance, 15(2014), 466–473. Magid, M. I., & Khan, H. (2011). The roles of muslim-majority and muslim-minority communities in a global context. The Saban Center for Middle East Policy.

22 Mahazan, & Abdullah. (2013). A model of Imam’s leadership and mosque performance in Malaysia. GJAT, 3(2), 53. ISSN: 2232-0474, E-ISSN: 2232-0482. www.gjat.my Mar Iman, A. H., & Sabit Muhammad, M. T. (2014). Waqf property-concept, management, development and financing. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. ISBN: 978-983-52-0865-2. Mohsin, M. M. A. (2019). Waqfintech and sustainable socio-economic development. International Journal of Management and Applied Research, 6(3), 130–141. https://doi.org/10.18646/2056.63.19-009 Mohsin, A., & Mohammad, M. T. S. (2015). The effectiveness of saham waqf on adequacy of funds for development projects in Malaysia. International Journal of Real Estate Studies, 9(2). Muneeza, A., Arshad, N. A., & Arifin, A. T. (2018). The application of blockchain technology in crowdfunding: Towards financial inclusion via technology. International Journal of Management and Applied Research, 5(2) Noor, N. A., & Eves, C. (2011). Malaysia high-rise residential property management: 2004-2010 trends and scenario. In 7th pacific rim real estate society conference. [Residential markets/Real Estate market analysis].

H. Bello Obaidullah, M. (2014). Awqaf development and management. Islamic Research and Training Institute, IRTI. Puķīte, I & Geipele, I. (2017). Different approaches to building management and maintenance meaning explanation. Procedia Engineering, 172, 905–912. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2017. 02.099 Sapri, M., Hariati, A. H., Sheau Ting, L., & Sipan, I. (2016). Public private partnership benefits in delivering public facilities in Malaysia. MATEC Web of Conferences 66, 00014. https://doi.org/ 10.1051/matecconf/20166600014 Warraich, & Feroze. (2007). A management guide for mosques & islamic centres. Faith Associates. OAK Community Development, Greater Manchester. Change in religion (PDF). William, P. (1992). Identification, evaluation and classification of building failures. Ph.D. Thesis, Victoria University of Wellington. Wordsworth, P. (2001). Lee’s building maintenance management (4th ed.). Blackwell Science Limited. Zarqa, M. (1994). Financing and investment in AWQAF projects: A non-technical introduction. Islamic Economic Studies, 1(2).

Meaning Behind the Inspiration from Nature in Mosque Design: The Old and The New Nhal Abdelwahab Amer

Abstract

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Architects have long been inspired by nature in designing mosques. Evidence of nature’s influence can be seen throughout the ages from the utilization of stalactites structurally and aesthetically in mosques to the incorporation of floral and leaves decoration in interior and exterior design of mosques. The problem is that nowadays some contemporary architects still use the same old means and techniques without adding new ideas in implementing the inspiration from nature in mosque design. The paper aims at showing the importance of developing contemporary design solutions while using new technologies that help architects to widen their scope of “Inspiration from Nature” by using modern construction methods and materials. The research methodology is divided into three parts; the first is through literature review to show how far the design in old mosques reflects the inspiration from nature. The second part is an analysis of selected contemporary mosques inspired by nature. The third part is a comparative analysis between two existing mosques representing old and new mosques. The paper suggests some ideas to enhance the inspiration process from nature in mosque design. Keywords




Mosques design Nature-inspired architecture Innovative methods




Islamic art and architecture are well demonstrated in mosque design. It has been evolved radically along history and according to geographic location. The feelings and interactions between human and nature are greatly influenced through the ages. The development of mosque design took place in different parts of the world considering different architectural features along different periods and styles. Early Muslims went for visually perceptible symbols and the meaning of geometrical forms. Early, the Islamic religion spread outside the Arabian Peninsula. Cultures and traditions of many regions such as Northern Africa, Central Asia, Turkey, Persia, Indonesia, and others added strong finger prints on Islamic art and architecture. The research methodology comprises three main parts. The first part is a literature review showing how far old mosques’ design was inspired by nature. There are four types of symbols for mosque analysis namely: symbols referring to paradise, “the heavenly theater,” interpreting mosques as “urban sculptures” guiding visitors through cities, and the “cosmic spiral” which relates to the old interpretation of time and space (Jale Nejdet, 2011). Only the first symbol, paradise, is elaborated in the present work for the mosques analysis. The second part is an analysis of selected contemporary mosques inspired by nature. The third part is a comparative analysis between two existing mosques representing old and new mosques.

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N. A. Amer (&) Architectural Engineering Department, MSA University Cairo, Giza, Egypt e-mail: [email protected]

Introduction

Islamic Decoration Modes

Three major modes, in general, created the Islamic decoration, namely, calligraphy, geometric and floral designs. These modes reflect the unity arising from diversity that is identified as a basic umbrella of Islam. Proverbs from the Holy Qur’an are the most important documents to be transmitted orally. Muslim calligraphy is a

© Effat University 2023 M. Fekry et al. (eds.), Mosque Architecture: A Transdisciplinary Debate, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24751-4_4

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N. A. Amer

Fig. 1 Calligraphy and floral decoration on Iwan Qibla Wall (Amer, 2019)

visible expression of the art of the spoken word. “Nun, By the Pen and what they write down” (Al Qur’an, surat Al Qalam). The art of calligraphy reflects on the earthly plane containing the writing of God’s words. Calligraphy is the response of the soul of the Muslim to the Divine Message. There is an indispensable relation between Sufism and Islamic art. Ali Ibn Abitaleb says, “The beauty of writing is the tongue of the hand and the elegance of thought” (SeyyedHossein, 1987). For example, on the wall of the Qibla Iwan in Sultan Hassan Mosque, the monumental Kufic letters are integrated with a lotus blossom background emphasizing the inspiration from nature and its integration with calligraphy (Fig. 1). Geometric patterns could be considered as a mixture of art and science (Fig. 2). The repeating geometric element has special symbolism attributed to itself. For example, the four equilateral sides of a square are symbolic of the equally important elements of nature: earth, water, air, and fire. If the physical world is represented by a circle inscribing the square, then missing any one of the four will cause the system to collapse. This principle shows how objects are

structurally sound and, consequently, beautiful. Geometric patterns also include the idea of negative and positive spaces and for every negative there is a positive seems to inspire a sense of cosmic harmony. The floral designs are based on the flowing nature of plant forms. The geometric basis in floral designs had implied and infinite bases extending in two directions, vertical and horizontal. It is usual to read the patterns vertically; horizontal movement of the eye being naturally constrained by the tendrils or stalks. Usually, the floral designs in the wall are raised and engraved a technique that encourages the sense of touch and enjoyment of the spaces and surrounding surfaces. Vegetal forms may be set against a contrasting background in which the plantlike patterns interface, weaving over and under in a way that emphasizes the foreground decoration (Fig. 3). The circle is the basis for Islamic pattern, as some sort of refinement mode to the compass. It is an important element in vegetal designs, calligraphy, and all the complex Islamic designs. The arabesque is the form of decoration of surface based on rhythmic patterns of scrolling and interlacing vegetation, branches, or plain lines. The arabesque design based on geometrical vegetal shapes shows the dynamic that can exist in floral pattern. The arabesque art is a symbolic feature of the united faith and the way, by which the traditional Islamic

Fig. 2 Geometric design (Behnam et al., 2013)

Fig. 3 Floral design (Hillenbrand, 2003)

Meaning Behind the Inspiration from Nature in Mosque Design: The Old and The New

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Fig. 4 Mosaic design-arabesque (Hillenbrand, 2003)

cultures view the world. Figure 4 illustrates an outstanding example of mosaic design-arabesque. The use of patterns is part of the way that Islamic art represents nature and objects by their spiritual qualities, not their physical and material qualities. The repeated geometric patterns often make use of plant motifs (arabesques). Symbols referring to paradise are found in mosques throughout history. According to Islam, humanity has destroyed the perfect beautiful world initially created by God. In mosques an attempt is made to recreate the perfection or make people remember it primarily through symbols and expressions such as calligraphy, decoration, and the structure of mosques (Jale Nejdet, 2011). Decoration on the mihrab and on the exterior wall of the portico are features related to paradise.

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Fig. 5 Structural decoration of domes and squinches in Sultan Hassan Mosque using stalactites or muqarnas (Amer, 2019)

decoration. Figure 5 illustrated the muqarnas that serves as structural decoration for the undersides of domes and squinches in Sultan Hassan Mosque. The muqarnas in the iwan forms a downward-facing, honeycomb-shaped structure connecting the top of the half-dome and the rectangle basis supporting the dome (Omer, 2008). Figure 6 shows the muqarnas over the main entrance. The main inspiration was

Structural and Decorative Techniques in Islamic Architecture

3.1 Girih Girih is an Islamic decorative art form consisting of geometric lines of an interlaced strip work that forms six, eight, or twelve-pointed stars separated by polygons and straps. The patterns consist of repeating “unit cell” with two, three, or six-fold rotational symmetry that takes tiles to the plane with no gaps. Girih is defined as geometric designs composed upon or generated from arrays of points from which construction lines radiate and at which they intersect (Allen, 2004). The three-dimensional equivalent of Girih is called muqarnas. The muqarnas is a geometric vaulting structure, which is applied for deconstructing zones of transition in architectural

Fig. 6 Main entrance of Sultan Hassan Mosque (Amer, 2019)

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Fig. 7 Type of natural formation that hangs from the ceiling of the caves (https://www.google.com,urlsa=trct=jq=esrc=ssource=webcd=cad=rjauact=8ved=2ahUKEwjMyMP2wdnsAhUFSxUIHbvJCwUQFjAOegQIDhACurl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.slideshare.net%2Fsharmiarchitect%2Fmuqarnas-mathematics-in-islamicusg=AOvVaw1BhdjVD 69d7A71aH-IRN8S)

N. A. Amer

Fig. 8 Decorative Muqarnas in the Iwan Entrance of Shah Mosque (Department of Islamic Art, 2020)

3.2 Naqsh from the natural formation hanging from the ceiling of the caves (Fig. 7) (https://www.google.com,urlsa=trct=jq=esrc=ssource=webcd=cad=rjauact=8ved=2ahUKEwjMyMP2 wdnsAhUFSxUIHbvJCwUQFjAOegQIDhACurl=https%3A %2F%2Fwww.slideshare.net%2Fsharmiarchitect%2Fmuqar nas-mathematics-in-islamicusg=AOvVaw1BhdjVD69d7A 71aH-IRN8S). The features of the muqarnas system are influenced by Muslim philosophers and theologians who devoted extensive thought to the nature and the universe and their relationship with God. The muqarnas was designed to deconstruct the space between the walls and the half-dome of the iwan entrance to the Shah Mosque, Isfahan (Fig. 8). The architect developed a system of muqarnas to enable a well- developed transition from the square base of walls to the half-circular dome and adding decorative floral patterns to the muqarnas (Department of Islamic Art, 2020).

Fig. 9 Naqsh around a doorway in Isfahan (Shehbaz n.d.)

Naqsh could be considered as a combination of calligraphy and floral art. It is simply carved plasterwork around any fenestration. Figure 9 presents Naqsh around a doorway in Isfahan. It shows comprising calligraphic elements in their integrated design. In architecture and in the writing of Qur’an, Muslims invariably used a combination of both Kufic and cursive scripts (Shehbaz n.d.).

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Inspiration from Nature in Islamic Art and Architecture

Islamic art is the result of the manifestation of unity upon the plane of multiplicity. Al-Tawhid is the real meaning of Islam and this metaphysical belief of unity has the spiritual significance of the universe which is the only aspiration and soul of Islamic Art (SeyyedHossein, 1987).

Meaning Behind the Inspiration from Nature in Mosque Design: The Old and The New

God in Islam is understood as an abstract force, therefore, it is not logical to portray him in a form taken from his creatures. The Muslim artists utilized a spiritual perspective to be sure that their work did not appear real. Islamic art treats the concept of the One and the many: the one as the generous source of the many and the appropriate return of the many to the one. The art directs attention to God’s nearness through aesthetic experiences mediated from the senses, experiences that evoke the wonder of creation. Art in Islam cultures exists to act as a constant reminder of the beauty of God’s presence. Both nature as God’s creation and the arts as human creations are understood as imitations of divine mercy (Shabout, 2007). Islamic architecture usually addresses firstly the subject of Qur’an and hadith as its conceptual base and then followed by mastering the building technology and engineering of the era and by duly answering the requirements of the general circumstances of a given age and a geographic zone (Omer, 2010). The uses of natural elements in architecture are discussed: sunlight for both interior and exterior while water and trees for landscape. Floral patterns are used to represent nature. Architects and craftsmen used flower and tree motifs to decorate mosques.

4.1 Light The physical and spiritual reference to heaven is through the utilization of light through the space. Light has always and in all cultures referred to God (Jale Nejdet, 2011). Light in Islamic architecture is used for decoration by modifying other elements or by originated patterns. The pierced facades are revealed by proper light which look like lacy disembodied screens. Strong contrasts of planes are created by the combination of light and shade that gives texture to sculpted stones and brick surfaces.

4.2 Water Water pumped from courtyard pools and fountains in hot Islamic climates, cools, and decorates the environment. Water can not only reflect architecture and multiply decorative themes, but it can also serve as a means of emphasizing the visual axis. Like the images they mirror, pools of water are immutable, yet constantly changing; fluid and dynamic, yet static (Jones, 1978).

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4.3 Tree Palms were valuable trees of the Arab home and gave them: cool shade, response, and beauty of the natural world. Arabs took the palm where ever they went. They were fond of attractive smelling plants and all manner of roses. Geographer Jakubi (889) said that the founder of Samaria garden was Muhtasim (a son of Califate Haroun-Ur-Rashid); whose first care was to conduct water from the Tigris by canals so that everything can prosperous on the cultivated area. He entrusted the cultivation of trees such as date palms, also vines, and many other edges, which were imported from Basra and Bagdad. These palms bore large dates, and ripe fruit was always there in the beds where melons and other fruits (Marie-Luise, 1928).

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Analysis and Discussion of a Selected Old Mosque

The interior environment of most old mosques provides visitors with peace, calmness, and spirituality. This is attributed to a great extent to the use of Islamic symbols in designs and decorations. These symbols are the result of inspiration from nature and have been evolved with time and place. The designs and decorations varied in nature from geometrical shapes, floral patterns, abstract shapes, minute inscriptions, and calligraphy. The old mosque selected for analysis is Selimiye Mosque in Istanbul, Turkey. It was constructed in 1574 and decorated generously and luxuriously. The high-spirited interior decoration of the mosque is the outcome of differing aesthetic goals: defined gravity versus graceful magnificence (Figs. 10 and 11). The inner walls near the mihrab are covered with fascinating tiles (Fig. 12). The eight piers supporting the Selimiye dome depart from the customary square structure layout of former sultanic mosques in Istanbul. The dome is raised on “Islamic” muqarnased corbelled squinches instead of “ByzantinoRoman” spherical pendentives (Fig. 13). The smoother transition from octagon to circle not only creates a structurally more stable support system but also enhances the monumental effect of the dome covering a perfectly unified space. The spatial unity inside the Selimiye is achieved by the architect Sinan’s skillful subordination of all architectural features to the grandiose dome (Amer, 2011).

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Fig. 10 Selimiye interior (Amer, 2011)

N. A. Amer

The old-fashioned muqarnas corbelled squinches reinforced the illusion of a weightlessly supported dome hanging above the light-filled central space (Fig. 14). The mihrab recess creates an illusion of transparency in the mosque with its white Iznik tile panels defining pointed arches. It is the belt of windows above the springing of the dome that there is the most forceful concentration of light. The brilliance is reflected in the inscription of God as light, the usual Qur’anic quotation of places in the crown of the dome. The symbol referring to paradise is implemented through the floral decoration and geometric patterns on ceramic (Fig. 15), wood (Fig. 16), and gypsum (Figs. 17 and 18). As Northern Anatolia is rich in timber, wood was mostly used for floors, windows, mimbar, and decca. Figure 16 shows the painted wood with floral decoration. Gypsum was preferred for precise and highly finished stucco-work (Figs. 17 and 18). The diversity within unity is presented in the harmony of different designs of the geometrical patterns. The outer walls are covered by decorated tiles and Qur’anic script (Figs. 19 and 20).

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Analysis of Selected New Mosques

Two new mosques are selected in the present analysis, namely, Mosque 99 Cahaya, Indonesia and Basuna Mosque, Suhag, Egypt. The tremendous development of technology over centuries caused considerable changes in the design of mosques. Nowadays many architectures of mosques tend to be similar to office buildings, museums, and even rockets. Generally, the majority of the modern mosques were designed without putting into consideration the inspiration from nature (e.g., Mosque 99 Cahaya, Indonesia) (Salura & Clarissa, 2018). However, other contemporary mosques’ design softly integrated the idea (e.g., Basuna Mosque, Sugah, Egypt).

6.1 Mosque 99 Cahaya, Indonesia Fig. 11 Selimiye mihrab (Amer, 2011)

Mosque 99 Cahaya has a unique shape that is really different from other mosques. Its shape consists of two parts, the

Meaning Behind the Inspiration from Nature in Mosque Design: The Old and The New

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Fig. 12 Graceful magnificence of mihrab area

The tower shape mostly expresses a monument of abstract sculpture. Exposed concrete materials and the geometrical shapes are usually associated with modern building styles. The shape of the exposed concrete towers is an abstract conventional sculpture that is an expression of modernity (Salura & Clarissa, 2018). The classical Islamic symbols and decoration patterns and signs are not found. Being far away from nature the mosque tends to be a sculpture rather than religious building. However, symbols of calligraphy and light holes are rigidly and clearly visible (Figs. 23 and 24). Inspiration from nature has no traces in this decoration form. In the tower roof, there are 99 light holes as a representation of the 99 names of Allah (Asmaa Allah Alhousna). The selection of the position of this symbol disturbs the Kibla wall direction. Briefly, the prayer room in this mosque is just a shelter covered by exposed concrete similar to industrial practice, not religious building.

Fig. 13 Selimiye interior (Amer, 2011)

6.2 Basuna Mosque, Suhag, Egypt

tower, and the podium. The shape of the mosque is dominated by gray which is the exposed concrete material. The vertical scale of the tower dominated the podium role for praying (Figs. 21 and 22) (Department of Islamic Art, 2020).

Basuna Mosque was built in 2019. The main intention of its design is to create a connection between the physical and metaphysical aspects through architectural expression (Suhag Basuna Mosque n.d.). Figures 25 and 26 show the exterior of the mosque.

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N. A. Amer

Fig. 14 Muqarnased corbelled squinches (Amer, 2011)

Fig. 15 Floral decorated tiles in mihrab, Selimiye Mosque (Amer, 2011)

Fig. 16 Floral decoration on painted wood (Amer, 2011)

The main dome was constructed using an Egyptian-made light block made of sand, lime, and air. The block’s dimensions (100  200  600 mm) facilitated utilizing a distinctive cutting list and staggered tessellation forming an innovative aesthetic dome (Fig. 27). Figure 28 shows the inner view of the dome and its resemblance to the sunflower (Fig. 29).

As the stalactite pendentives or squinches use to create the transition from square to octagonal plans to the circular plan of the dome, in the Basuna Mosque, this element was reimagined innovatively as an independent unit. New creative functions were introduced. It combined various aspects; the structure system of part of the roof, the environmental aspect as a wind-catcher and skylight, and the

Meaning Behind the Inspiration from Nature in Mosque Design: The Old and The New

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Fig. 20 Floral decorated tiles (Amer, 2011)

Fig.17 Geometric patterns in Gypsum, Selimiye Mosque (Amer, 2011)

Fig. 21 External view of Mosque 99 Cahaya, Indonesia (Salura & Clarissa, 2018)

Fig.18 Geometric patterns in Gypsum, Selimiye Mosque (Amer, 2011)

Fig. 22 Section in Mosque 99 Cahaya, Indonesia

Fig. 19 Qur’anic script with floral decorated tiles (Amer, 2011)

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N. A. Amer

Fig. 23 Calligraphy in the ceiling, Mosque 99 Cahaya (Salura & Clarissa, 2018)

Fig. 26 Side Entrance of Basuna Mosque (Suhag Basuna Mosque, n.d.)

Fig. 24 Ninety-nine light holes in the tower roof, Mosque 99 Cahaya (Salura & Clarissa, 2018)

Fig. 27 Main Dome (Suhag Basuna Mosque, n.d.)

Fig. 25 Main Entrance of Basuna Mosque (Suhag Basuna Mosque, n. d.) Fig. 28 The interior of the main dome, Basuna Mosque (Suhag Basuna Mosque, n.d.)

Meaning Behind the Inspiration from Nature in Mosque Design: The Old and The New

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Fig. 29 Sun flower

Fig. 31 The prayer hall, Basuna Mosque (Suhag Basuna Mosque, n.d.)

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Discussion and Comparison

Inspiration from nature in mosque design is clearly observed throughout the ages. The feelings and interactions between the early architects and nature were considerably obvious. Mosque design evolution in different parts of the world took different architectural features and styles in different parts of the world. Diverse cultures and traditions added strong fingerprints on Islamic art and architecture. Some contemporary architects used the same old means and techniques without adding new ideas in implementing the inspiration from nature in mosque design. Table 1 demonstrates a general comparison between old and new mosques in this respect. Fig. 30 The transition from square to circle, Basuna Mosque (Suhag Basuna Mosque, n.d.)

8 aesthetical aspect as an independent geometrical object inspired by nature with construction innovations (Figs. 30 and 31). This project aims to introduce innovative, energy efficient, economic, sustainable, and aesthetically creative solutions. It is an attempt toward a new resilient and meaningful architectural paradigm, which seeks to learn from the past in order to create relevant innovations for the future (Suhag Basuna Mosque, n.d.).

Conclusion and Recommendation

The development of technology over the centuries is tremendous. This results in architecture and designs deviated away from nature, or sometimes, adopting the old means and techniques. Consequently, the spiritual touch in the design of contemporary mosques is not felt. However, design of old historical mosques reflects the inspiration from nature. It is recommended that the topic of inspiration from nature to be included in the curricula of mosque design in

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N. A. Amer

Table 1 Comparison between designs of old and new mosques regarding natural inspirational elements Natural inspiration elements

Comparison between designs of old and new mosques regarding natural inspirational elements Old Mosque (Selimiye Mosque)

New Mosque (Basuna Mosque)

Floral patterns on the central dome

Floral articulation of dome formed through bricks staggered tessellation

Plants

Floral tiles on Mihrab wall

Plain tiles on Mihrab wall without floral decoration

Painted plasterwork abstract vegetal scrolls on the outer façade Plain outer façade

Calligraphy integrated with floral designs Plain Calligraphy without floral designs Type of Natural formation that hangs from the ceiling of the caves

Muquarnas or stalactities inspired by the natural formation hanging from caves’ ceiling

Islamic architecture education. Moreover, by utilizing and applying innovative softwares as Rhino and Grasshopper in the designs inspired by nature, outstanding creative designs will be produced.

References Allen, T. (2004). Islamic Art and the Argument from Academic Geometry. Solipsist Press, Occidental. Amer, N. (2011). Influences of Islamic Ottoman Mosque Architecture: The Case of Turkey and Egypt, Ph.D. Thesis, Architecture Engineering, Cairo University.

No inspiration from nature in the transition from square to dome

Amer, N. (2019). Author’s visit to Sultan Hassan Mosque. Behnam, G., Atefeh, F., & Ali, T. (2013). Symbols and signs in islamic architecture. European Review of Artistic Studies, 4(3), 62–78. ISSN 1647-3558. Department of Islamic Art. (2020). Geometric patterns in islamic art. In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/geom/hd_geom.htm Hillenbrand, R. (2003). Studying Islamic Architecture; Challenges and Perspectives. Architectural History. L. B. Tauris. https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd =&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwjMyMP2wdnsAhUFSxUIHbv JCwUQFjAOegQIDhAC&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.slideshare. net%2Fsharmiarchitect%2Fmuqarnas-mathematics-in-islamic&usg =AOvVaw1BhdjVD69d7A71aH-IRN8S

Meaning Behind the Inspiration from Nature in Mosque Design: The Old and The New Jale Nejdet, E. (2011). Reading mosques: Meaning and architecture in islam. The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Critisim. Wiley Online Library. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6245.2010.01453 Jones, D. (1978). Surface, pattern and light in architecture of the islamic world, chapter: Its history and social meaning (pp. 144– 175). Thames and Hudson. Marie-Luise, G. (1928) A History of Garden Art, Islamic garden design, 2nd. Omer, S. (2008). Towards understanding islamic architecture. Islamic Studies, 47, 483–510. www.jstor.org/stable/20839141 Omer, S. (2010). Lessons from Prophet Muhammad mosque. Intellectual Discourse, 18(1). Salura, P., & Clarissa, S. (2018) Interpretation of the meaning of mosques architecture: A case study mosque 99 Cahaya in Lampung,

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Sumatera Island, Indonesia. International Journal of Engineering and Technology, 7(2.2), 48–52. SeyyedHossein, N. (1987). Islamic art and spritiuality. State University of New York Press. Shabout, N. (2007). Modern Arab art: Formation of Arab Aesthetics. University of Florida Press. Shehbaz, H. (n.d.). Safrani Understanding Islamic Art of the 16 and 17th Centuries. The Art History Archive–Arabic Art, the Collection of Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan. Suhag Basuna Mosque: https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q= &esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwiEx b7XqtnsAhUBJhoKHQlxB4YQFjAKegQIBhAC&url=https%3A% 2F%2Fmosqpedia.org%2Fen%2Fmosque%2F189&usg=AOvVaw 3I8VHKK_qf-Fkvs747jre1

The Mosques and the Society

A Cross-Sectoral Analysis of the Identity Conflict in the Arab Primate Cities: The Case of the Jeddah Mosques Tarek S. Ragab and Mohammed Fekry

Abstract

Keywords

This paper aims to invigorate the debate over challenges to the regional cultural identities of the Arab cities: the continual transformation of the community stakeholders’ mindset, specifically, decision-takers, in relation to their interpretation and perception of the National built-up cultural-landscape and identity. A desktop analysis provides evidence of cultural identity confusion and conflict exemplifying mosques’ architectural and urban configurations (external forms and relation to the urban setting) of Metropolitan Jeddah. Some critical questions are raised to answer during the debate: Does the local built-up cultural-landscape represent an important factor contributing to the formulation of the architectural and urban configurations of the new expansions of the Primate cities? and how? Is there an actual cultural identity conflict within the settings of the regional primate cities? The research argues that the endangerment to the preservation of intact National cultural-landscape identity, induced by both the ongoing excretion of the locally inspired design approach and the adoption of imported design and planning models, has not been yet realized by the community sects including local officials and decision and is winning new grounds every day. The research documents some attempts to adopt regionally inspired design approaches that reflect local social values and environmental sustainability as examples of developing a model that empowers local cultural-landscape identity and, at the same time, is accepted and adopted by most of the community stakeholders.

Cultural landscape Cultural identity Mosques Architectural configuration Jeddah KSA

T. S. Ragab (&)
M. Fekry Department of Architecture, Effat University, Jeddah, KSA, Saudi Arabia e-mail: [email protected] M. Fekry e-mail: [email protected]

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Introduction

This paper is meant to invigorate the debate over additional challenges to the regional built-up cultural-landscape identity of the Arab cities: The open-ended shift of the community stakeholders’ mindset, especially decision-takers, in relation to its interpretation and understanding for the local cultural-landscape identity, concept, and importance. This shift could be concluded by investigating both architectural and urban built-up configurations in the newly expanded zones of the primate cities and comparing them chronically to earlier built-up cultural landscapes of the old city (Mahmoud et al., 2015). Another method is to analyze the newly built-up configurations in relation to each other and according to a previously defined set of physical and non-physical standards: function, architectural features, spaces, proportions, and materials on one level, and to a predefined set of local principles of design models, previously concluded by other studies, on the other level. The mosque, as a referential frame for comparison, was found a viable architectural model to perform this analysis for two reasons. First, the mosque represents an important architectural element in the urban context and in the rural agglomerations of all Arab Muslim-majority countries except for Lebanon. Second, the chronically constant nature of the mosque composition, such as major elements and symbolic features, makes comparison objectively reliable when investigating constructions built in different eras. The research investigates three mosques located at the seashore of the Metropolitan Jeddah as a case study for Arab primate cities' new constructions in their urban expansions. It employs the results of this analysis as evidence of National

© Effat University 2023 M. Fekry et al. (eds.), Mosque Architecture: A Transdisciplinary Debate, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24751-4_5

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T. S. Ragab and M. Fekry

built-up cultural-landscape identity fading and endangerment. The research argues that the ongoing identity discrepancy and conflict, manifested in the favoritism of imported architecture and urban models and the reluctant employment of regionally inspired architectural and urban models, proceeding in the Arab primate cities’ new expansions, has been neither realized nor comprehended yet by local officials and decision-takers. It also argues that the influence of Globalization and Cosmopolitan cultural supremacy coupled with deficiency in collective awareness is a major threat to the National built-up cultural-landscape identity. The research documents some attempts to focus on expanding the communities’ capacities to structure built-up urban and buildings configurations that reflect some regional local values and express the environmentally sustainable local culture and, at the same time, being accepted and favored by all community stakeholders.

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Research Aims

2.1 Urban System Imbalances Regional disparity and deficiency of the urban systems in all Arab countries resulted, and still, in acute urban polarization, high rates of urbanization, and excessive growth of their Primate and Secondary cities. Cairo, for example, tripled in size in only 30 years (1966–1996). While all Arab countries failed to rectify imbalances in their urban systems for many and different reasons, National and local governments devoted all their resources to timely provide urban land for cities’ growth as a viable solution for cities’ over-urbanization problem. In all Saudi major cities, the urban growth rate escalated rapidly upon the discovery of oil which initiated a drastic change in the Saudi economic profile at both micro and macro levels. Huge oil revenues, especially during the oil boom induced by the 1973 war enabled the governments of Gulf countries to allocate more financial resources to infrastructure and housing projects. Decision-takers, with the nonexistence of a national development plan, were tempted to concentrate investments and wealth in the primate cities like Jeddah, Al-Riyadh, and Al-Dammam (the capital of oil industry in KSA), which empowered the dynamics and powers of urban polarization, adding more thrust to the disparities of the total urban system. Other cities in countries with different economic conditions, such as Egypt, experienced a scarcity of development funding despite the availability of abundant human and technical resources. This contributed to the obstruction of development plans or, at the best, slowing them. Additionally, the political instability of the whole region contributed to the distortions of the urban system. Drastic events accompanied the Arab–Israeli conflict

hampered the development plans. For example, Urban Land Provision plans stopped completely after the setback of the 1967 Arab–Israeli war, when all national resources were directed to the army restructuring efforts. This, consequently, has led to an overall decline in the physical built-up environment in all Primate and Secondary cities. Urbanization and encroachments continued on vacant lands, adjacent deserts, and herbal peri-urban outskirts of major cities in the same high-rate manner turning these urban agglomerations into informal slums and engines of poverty, misery, and social problems. The spreading of informal squads and shantytowns on the skirts of many primate cities, or within their urban fabrics, changed the traditional urban configurations and the cultural-landscape identity of those cities.

2.2 Cultural Identity Change Historically, interdependent cultures and awareness of local’s consciousness of the Arab communities have had been shaped under the Ottoman’s colonization supremacy. Ottomans exercised an unjustness-ruling system, but they were able to unevenly affect the cultures of the occupied societies. Integrations of languages, norms, traditions, architectural and urban elements, and models of designs are some evidence of such influence. However, being a Muslim invader, cultural conflict was at its minimum level. The Western colonialization era started with the invasion of the imperial armies of Western countries (Ragab & John, 2003). Developed types of weaponry, modern marshal tactics, efficient armies’ structures, and privates’ hygiene conduct codes have created an unconscious association in the mindset of the Arab locals between Western cultures and modernity, innovation, advanced sciences, and development. The economic development, in addition to the scientific achievements that followed the First and Second World War coupled with unfortunate setbacks of Arab countries in all life aspects, made the products of the Western culture appealing and desired to the Middle Eastern. This was furtherly articulated in the Arabs’ collective mindset by the lack of appreciation for local values in the new generations as the community values never developed to match the speedy change of international developments and trends and the transition of most of the world into urban agglomerations. Globalization and Modernity One Globalization common understanding is as “The globalization of capitalism, achieved in its cultural aspect via a complicities western dominated media system” (Giddens, n. d.). This complex, multidimensional conceptualization, which views globalization as operating simultaneously and interrelated in the economic, technological-

A Cross-Sectoral Analysis of the Identity Conflict in the Arab Primate Cities: The Case of the Jeddah Mosques

communicational, political, and cultural spheres of human life, is in fact relatively consistent with academic discourses. The cultural implication of Globalization, rather less easily accepted by some, is that globalization involves not the simple enforced distribution of a particular Western lifestyle, but more complicated dissemination of the entire range of institutional features of cultural modernity. However, considering this perspective of Globalization understanding on the Arab region, the influence of Globalization has manifested unevenly in physical constituents of the urban context in all Arab nations in two major symptoms: the change of urban context and morphology, and the emergence of the diverse architecture orders, resulting in the appearance of “disordered” identity of the cities. Modernity is a more sophisticated and much debatable concept, but within the context of the cultural question, it means the concept of social and cultural practices from contexts of local peculiarity, and their institutionalization and regulation across time and space (Turner, 2005). The examples of such institutionalization that most readily come to mind are the organization and policing of social territory (the nation-state, urbanism concept), or of production and consumption practices. Modernity also institutionalizes and regulates cultural practices, including the process of inviting other forms of cultural consumerism patterns (Wikipedia). Within the context of Saudi Arabia, the effect of social and cultural behavioral change associated with modernity is minimal and exclusive to some marginal lifestyle patterns but has no real impacts on social norms. The Escalation of the Conflict over Local Cultural Identity Cultural conflict occurs when different cultural values and beliefs clash. It is defined on the macro level as a conflict caused by “differences in cultural values and beliefs that place people at odds with one another” (Grewe, 2005). On a micro-level (Grewe, 2005) discusses a cultural conflict between guests of different cultures and nationalities as seen in a British 1970 sitcom, Fawlty Towers. He defines such conflict as one that occurs when people’s expectations of a certain behavior coming from their cultural backgrounds are not met, as others have different cultural backgrounds and different expectations (Gregory, 2001). It is difficult to resolve cultural conflicts as parties to the conflict have different beliefs. These conflicts intensify when those differences become reflected in politics, particularly on a macro level. The debate over abortion in the USA could be considered as an example of cultural conflict. Wars can also be a result of a cultural conflict; for example, the differing views on slavery were one of the reasons for the American civil war (Hofstede et al., 2002).

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Forms of cultural conflict, as a state of a mindset, social, and physical behavior, are endured and institutionalized in old Arab cities for other reasons in addition to the effect of globalization by the influence of media and communications. Port cities, where foreign sailors and merchants brought their values and cultural habits like Jeddah, Alexandria, and Beirut, expressed social and physical changes in their cultural structures. Changes were also evident in cities on the caravans’ trade routes, where foreign merchants occasionally settled, interacted with locals, and contributed to the transformation of the locals’ cultural profile. However, “cultural conflict” was not a noticeable phenomenon until recently as communities digested those changes, and attempts were made to develop new cultural identity forms derived from local principles and values. These humble attempts contributed to adding new elements to the built-up landscape of the city and enhancing its discrepancy and confusion status. Other cities, Beirut for example, experienced cultural conflicts during war times, especially civil wars where the need to restore or conserve an intact and acceptable cultural identity that can represent the beliefs and ideology of all— previously fought—community groups and sects surfaced.

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The Crises of the Cultural-Landscape Identity of Jeddah

Contrary to some cultures that favor individualism, and contrary to the powers of Globalization, Saudi Arabia’s culture favors collectivism induced by a system of kinship and tribal relations (Grewe, 2005). The Individualism Index Values (IDV) out of 50 countries and 3 regions, the United States came on the top of the chart, while Saudi Arabia fell into the 26/27 rank (Greogory 2011) Saudi Arabian culture has a high-power distance, which means that there is a hierarchy of power, and people of different levels of authority are viewed as unequal (https://www.jeddah.gov.sa/ english/index.php). Analysis of the Architectural and Urban configuration of different regions of KSA reveals that there are cultural-landscape similarities on the national and regional levels and differences on the local level. For example, Mecca and Western Province share general architectural and urban features but are slightly different from those of the Al-Hejaz part. South area, also, has specific characteristics, which are different from those of the other parts of the Kingdom but share general characteristics. However, the new expansions of each primate city, taking Jeddah as an example, express a cultural-landscape state of uncertainty, confusion, and a certain degree of cultural conflict on the city level. The following part of the research shall illustrate this state and analyze its contributing factors.

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3.1 Cultural Identity Change Jeddah is in the Western region of Saudi Arabia, situated on the coaster plain, called Tihama, along the Red Sea. It is the second city in the country. For many centuries, Jeddah society remained conservative and closed. This changed with the start of Saudi rule, when Jeddah joined the Kingdom in 1927, Social order in the city was homeostatic, adhering to the rules of the Islamic religion and Arab custom. Similarly, the culture, which drew upon Islamic values, was well integrated. For a long time, Jeddah served as a diplomatic, commercial, distribution, and service center. After the discovery and export of oil in 1938, the general wealth of the country increased dramatically. Jeddah grew at an amazing rate, both in population and in the extent of the urbanized area. The estimated population of the city in 1947 was about 24,000 inhabitants within the city walls. After that, a series of events coincided with that figure to 3,976 million by 2016. Average density is 2,500/km2 (Davidson, n.d.). Due to the immense investments in Jeddah, which started with the oil discovery and escalated sky high with the economic oil boom, Jeddah increased more than 30 times in only 35 years due to the polarization powers (https://en. wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrian_Smith_(architect)), Fig. 1. The population increased almost 17 times in a period of 69 years. The current urban area of the city is almost 1,600 km2. Such as all cities of KSA, Jeddah’s development plots suffer the scarcity of local technical and human resources needed for immense developments and accompanying public works, architectural, and planning tasks. This has always been threatening the continuity of those massive development initiatives. The Saudi officials’ action to manage this situation was to employ an international workforce from the design and construction domains to keep pace with rapid development plots. International architects, like Andrew Bromberg of Aedas, Foster, and Partner, Ricardo Boffil, and Mossessian (Fig. 2). Architecture, Adrian D. Smith was invited to carry out development projects in Jeddah, and encouraged to introduce avant-garde, cosmopolitan-style designs overlooking Fig. 1 Jeddah Growth Map 1948–1983 (https://www.jeddah. gov.sa/english/index.php)

T. S. Ragab and M. Fekry

environmental and local social values and considerations. This occidental trend of architecture and urban design approaches met acceptance and encouragement by most of the Saudi decision-takers and by multiple sects of the Saudi stakeholders (http://www.matteonunziati.com,architecture,residential, jeddah-housing-complex-jeddah-kingdom-of-saudi-arabia; Grewe, 2005). Immense development needs have attracted more foreign immigrants from all over the Globe with their specific cultures and economic profiles. These newcomers tended to reside in certain neighborhoods in Jeddah forming what is similar to “ghettos” such as Alhendawai for Indians, Albalad for Sudanese, and Filipinos, and Althagher for Yemenis. Immigrants’ interactions with the Saudi community have resulted in a minor alteration in the city’s cultural identity “Configuration” except for marginal changes in dressing habits and work environments. What was really remarkable was the expansion of the city Local Government to employ international architects and consultancy firms with different origins: Americans, Europeans, Arabs, Japanese, and many other nationalities to contribute to the urban expansion of the city. These international architects and consultants have brought each interpretation of the ideal urban fabric, architectural styles, and adequate materials in their designs and urban projects. The result was a mix of different architectural and urban models. Such architectural and urban forms inconsistency was also characterized by inappropriateness to climatic local conditions, some cultural and social norms and traditions. Glass boxes office buildings, metal cladding cosmopolitan-style buildings, and pitched-roof red-clay villas have mushroomed in the city’s new districts as Western-style public and semi-public open spaces and the urban fabric did. However, this overwhelming occidental wave would never be of such intensity unless it is favored and encouraged by the majority of the Saudis themselves. Multiple casual discussions with architecture and urban design students, highly educated professionals, and Saudi urban planning officials indicate their fascination with these imported styles. More investigation for the reasons for this preference indicated the correlation of Western architecture

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Fig. 2 Abdullatif Jamil corporate Headquarters in Jeddah Harbor district by Andrew Bromberg of Aedas, Author

and urban symbols and the novelty, modernity, and development in the collective consciousness of the current Saudi culture. On the contrary, local, regional architectural, and urban styles represent the opposite meanings and a declined social status, as they referred to it as “popular.”

Al-Sham was built by Bakr Basha, who was the governor of Jeddah in 1735 A.D. minaret gave the city an archaeological and architectural landmark, and remained unchanged until 1978 A.D. when the mosque was demolished, and another built in its place. The Oil Boom era

3.2 Jeddah’s Architectural Configuration Discrepancy Jeddah’s built-up configuration can be categorized chronically according to two periods: Before Oil Boom and after Oil Boom. For a very long time, Jeddah had five historical mosques. Mosques’ designs in the very early period had simple designs with perpendicular angles and simple straight lines, and almost no ornaments. Walls were moderates averaged three to six meters high. Materials used were also from important wood and locally-made bricks mud and corals extracted from the shallow water of the seashores of Jeddah. These mosques declined and some were left to dilapidate due to aging and poor maintenance. Al-Shafei mosque—which is considered as the oldest mosque in the city—is situated in Harrat Al-Mazloum in Souk Al-Jameah, and was built of teak brought from Sudan, has a large minaret and was built in the 9th and 10th Hegira centuries. Very close to it comes the mosque that was mentioned in the works of Ibn Batuta and Ibn Jubair; the “Othman Bin Affan” Mosque which is known “as Al-Abanous Mosque”; because of its two ebony pillars. Other old mosques include Akkash Mosque, Alhanafi Mosque, Almaghrabi Mosque, and Albasha Mosque. Al-Basha Mosque, located in Harat

At this period, different styles of Mosques represented a real discrepancy between each other’s dominance and among regional-environmentally inspired architectural styles and forms as a counterattack against the alienation of the architecture in Jeddah. Egyptian Mamluk and Fatimid styles, Othman style, Persian style, and eclectic style formed from different styles’ elements were raised in Jeddah’s newly developed districts to the north of Old Jeddah (Al- Balad). Attempts to refer to regionally and environmentally inspired architectural style were noticed by some architects such as “Abdelwahed El-wakeel” the famous Egyptian Architects who designed the “Red Mosque” and Al-Rahmah Mosque on the Corniche of Jeddah, a little over a decade old and built in a blend of traditional and modern Arab styles (Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9). All seashore mosques are built upon the initiation of Oil Boom era on newly established expansions of Jeddah to the North of the old city. Hasan Anani Mosque: Located along central Jeddah Corniche at the intersection of Hamra Street and Corniche Road. The mosque used to be known as “Fatimah Mosque,” but its name was changed so visitors wouldn’t mistakenly believe it had a historical association with Mrs. Fatimah (may Allah be pleased with her), daughter

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Fig. 3 Al-Shafei Masjid at Harrah Al-Mazloum, (Grewe, 2005) Al-Mimmar Mosque-Al-Balad, (Al-Ghamday, 2015) Its Akkash Mosque: Located on Qabel Street to the west, was built before 1379 Hegira and was renovated by Akkash Abaza, and its ground level was raised higher than the level of the street so that it is accessed with a few steps. It has remained in good condition and is still open for prayers. Al-Rahmah (mercy) Mosque is built over a body of water along Jeddah Corniche. King Saud Mosque Situated in the Al-Balad area was built during the reign of King Saud. Investigating the forms and architectural elements and styles of Mosques in the metropolitan Jeddah displays

two major phenomena: first, the evident architectural and urban model influence of multiple cultures from the neighboring Arab countries and other foreign cultures designed by non-Saudi Architects and Consultant firms, second, the inexistence of what we can be defined as “Saudi style” except for few elements of Hegazi style, which, in turn, was the result of multiple architectural styles influence brought by foreigners who came for pilgrim and decided to settle in Jeddah. Egyptians, Sudanese, Persians, Moroccans, and South, and Far East Asians are some of many who brought elements and architectural styles to Jeddah that constituted the configurations of the Hegazi style (Fig. 3)

of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). The mosque is lapped by the waves and the gentle breeze blowing from the Red Sea creates an atmosphere of aesthetic beauty merging with the spiritual feelings.

mosques in the five prays of every day, and all use their own cars to go there as pedestrians cannot cross the streets to the mosque on foot. Mosques with few parking spaces suffered a lesser number of prayers for the same reason (Figs. 10 and 11).

The Urban Configuration Attribution of cultural-landscape meaning Old mosques’ urban context was a representation of the message of the Mosque as a center of both religion and life activities. Therefore, it is situated in the heart of residential agglomerations within a walking distance from everywhere to achieve accessibility and easiness for Muslims everywhere. The change of the urban configuration started by relocating the Mosque outside the built-up area toward a remotely distant location and using it as a “visual feature” for the space. An example of these mosques is Al-Corniche Mosque located on the seashore of Jeddah. All examples of these mosques’ urban morphology indicate a lack of accessibility by pedestrians to commute to these mosques as speed streets circulated mosques from the opposite direction to the sea, Fig. 11. Accordingly, fewer worshipers use these

Casual interviews with Saudi intellectuals, mostly faculty members at Saudi universities and local officials at Jeddah Amana (Municipality) have indicated that the issue of local built-up cultural Landscape takes lesser importance in their priority problems list in comparison to other urban problems such as urban sprawl, “white” (vacant) urban infiltrated land, and urban congestion. Discussions show that many of them, even architects and urban planners, have favored Western models of urban planning and imported cosmopolitan type of Architecture Styles for the very same reasons that made ordinary citizens do. The same discussion has circulated between the author and his Architecture students at Effat University (girls-only).

A Cross-Sectoral Analysis of the Identity Conflict in the Arab Primate Cities: The Case of the Jeddah Mosques

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Fig. 4 King Fahd Mosque: Egyptian Malouk style, Al Madina Road, the Author

Fig. 5 Al-Cornish Mosque used as a sculptu element at the seashore of Jeddah, the Author

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Conclusion

In dealing with Cultural Landscape of Primate cities, cultural competence, conflict, and cultural convergence dimensions should be understood. Architectural and urban configurations discrepancy of Jeddah’s old city and the city’s new expansions refer to a substantial state of continual transformation of cultural-landscape and city identity phenomena of

which local values and impressions are blurred and detached between the old and the new are evident. Investigating examples of Jeddah mosques, in terms of form and integration with urban morphology, in addition to analyzing data from casual interviews with Saudi members of the Jeddah community, reveal that the community’s interdependent (collectivistic) culture is consenting foreign and Western models. However, the community’s independent (individualistic) culture, at the level of decision-takers,

46 Fig. 6 The Green Mosque– Jeddah Seashore Eclectic-AvantGarde style, the Author

Fig. 7 Indian implications in the new form of Alcornishe Mosques

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A Cross-Sectoral Analysis of the Identity Conflict in the Arab Primate Cities: The Case of the Jeddah Mosques

Fig. 8 King Saud Mosque by the Egyptian Architect Abdelwahed El-Wakeel, the Author

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Fig. 9 The Red Mosque at Jeddah Seashore by the Egyptian Architect Abdelwahed El-Wakeel, the Author

may tend to consent to design models, which support local values and traditional culture in some rare occasions, or deny it by providing, or consenting, mixed alienated models in other occasions. Accordingly, local cultural identity does not contribute to the formulation of the architectural and urban configurations of the city’s new expansions. This also means that there is no actual identity conflict within the settings of the city. The endangerment to the preservation of intact National cultural identity, induced by both the ongoing excretion of the locally inspired design approach and the adoption of imported design and planning models has not

been yet realized by the community sects including local officials and decision-takers. There are many examples, which exhibit the use of the windcatcher such as the Incorporating of knowledge of the local norms, context levels, and perceptions of time across cultures can help in formulating a locally induced cultural identity, which could be consented to by all community sects. Being aware of the community’s own biases can help while minimizing the risk of more escalation of traditional cultural identity decline and loss.

A Cross-Sectoral Analysis of the Identity Conflict in the Arab Primate Cities: The Case of the Jeddah Mosques Fig. 10 Mosque’s urban configuration in the new expansion: total detachment with the urban built-up fabric, Google Earth

Fig. 11 Mosques integration within the urban fabric; Old Jeddah, Google Earth

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References Al-Ghamday, S. (2015). Architecture Form and Urban Renewal of Jeddah. Retrieved from: http://technorati.com/social-media/article/ the-zuckerberg-galaxy-greets-mcluhans centennial/ “CIOS/McLuhan Site: M”. Cios.org. Retrieved July 26, 2016. Davidson, J. (2017). Phobic geographies: The phenomenology and spatiality of identity. p. 42, Routledge Press, London. Giddens. (1990).Giddens, Anthony. The Consequences of Modernity. Stanford University Press, 1990, p. 188, http://www.sup.org/books/ title/?id=2664, Accessed 3 May 2023. Gregory, D. (2011). The Colonial Present: Afghanistan, Palestine, and Iraq. Blackwell Pub. Malden, MA. p. 32, https://www.worldcat.org/ title/470999235 Grewe, A. (2016). I’m sick to death with you... or External Character Conflicts in Fawlty Towers (p. 10). GRIN Verlag. ISBN 978-3-638-42885-9. Retrieved August 14, 2016.

T. S. Ragab and M. Fekry Hofstede, G. (2002). I, we and they. In J. N. Martin, T. K. Nakayama, & L. A. Flores (Eds.), Readings in Intercultural Communication: Experience and Contexts, (2nd ed., pp. 289–300). McGraw-Hill. https://www.matteonunziati.com/architecture/residential/jeddahhousing-complex- jeddah-kingdom-of-saudi-arabia/ https://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrian_Smith_(architect) https://www.jeddah.gov.sa/english/index.php Mahmoud, M. F., Elbelkasy, M. I., & AlSalafi, J. M. (2015). Re-use of historical buildings in the holy city of Makkah: Case study selection guidelines. WIT Transactions on The Built Environment, 159, 65. WIT Press Ragab, T., & John. (2003). Globalization and culture (p. 239). The University of Chicago Press. Turner, J. H. (2013). Sociology (p. 87). Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-113496-6. Retrieved January 14, 2013.

Encouraging Social Inclusivity Across Faiths: The Case of Mosques and Churches in Kuala Lumpur Mohd Tajuddin Mohd Rasdi, Teoh Chee Keong, and Intan Liana

Abstract

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The objective of this chapter is to contribute toward a construct of religious houses of worship as nation-building elements in forging social inclusion among different faiths by engaging with religious buildings of different faiths. Race and religious relationships in Malaysia have suffered many setbacks and one of the stumbling blocks has always been a gap in Malaysians looking at the idea of being part of a larger community and nation-building a family with respect to each other’s faiths. Houses of worship have always been an isolated entity, and this adds to the problem of race relations and nation-building. The main objective of the research is to present an evaluation of architectural elements that would create a friendlier and more inclusive image of the religious building that would invite inclusive interactions. The research has selected Kuala Lumpur as a city representing the most educated and diverse multi-faith context with a 100% sampling of two mosques and two churches. This research would help policymakers and designers as well as committee leaders of all religions in Malaysia to relook at the activities and planning of their houses of worship to be more in line with inclusive aspects of social interaction, understanding, and acceptance between different religious adherents toward a more harmonious form of community and nation-building. Keywords




Spaces Architectural elements Kuala Lumpur




Social inclusivity

M. T. M. Rasdi (&)
T. C. Keong
I. Liana Faculty of Engineering, Technology and Built Environment, UCSI University, Cheras, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] T. C. Keong e-mail: [email protected]




Introduction

Race and religious relationships in Malaysia are at an all-time low after 60 years of independence. Although the issues of race relations and conflicts between different faiths were present in the early days, in the past 10 years, new political and extremist forces have taken up the mantle to be the spark of racial and religious unrest. There have been many incidents of attempted bible burning, the desecration of a cow head, the Low Yat beatings, the Taman Austin Friday Prayers incident, the calls by politicians to war against enemies of religion, and officials calling Malaysians kafir Harbi. These are just a few incidents that become a clear marker that religious mistrust is in dire need of attention. While many have pointed out that the culprits are education and irresponsible political opportunism, none have come out to say that mosques, temples, and churches can play a role in destroying or restoring harmony in Malaysia. We believe that Malaysians have been brought up by an unintentionally divisive education policy that has isolated the people of different faiths into their own communities. We believe that one key element of forging a better relationship is when Malaysians no longer fear to attend activities and use certain spaces in a house of worship, not of their own faiths. We advocate that Malaysia must have a policy of space sharing in all houses of worship to bring the different communities together. Thus, the present research seeks to identify activities and spaces of social inclusivity in mosques and churches so that they can be models for new churches as well as provide an indicator as to the extent of the problem of faith interaction in this country. The research will also point out issues of architectural design that may hinder or forge religious inclusivity that would become a model of what to design and what not to include in the design of a religious building. The research provides information for nation-building strategies for planning and social policies toward building better interaction and inclusiveness among the people of Malaysia. The research also provides a

© Effat University 2023 M. Fekry et al. (eds.), Mosque Architecture: A Transdisciplinary Debate, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24751-4_6

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valuable databank for architects in designing mosques and churches that would encourage more social participation across all faiths.

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Literature Study

Most mosque and church architecture research focus on the building type in relation to issues of aesthetic design, sustainable energy uses, access to handicaps, economies of construction, and conservation and preservation of heritage buildings (Asif et al., 2016a, b; Jahn Kassim, 2016; Othman et al., 2015). Those that concentrate on social inclusion had focused primarily on the two buildings being seen as a community center for their own users of the same religion. Tajuddin (2017) had written about the principle of mosque design that should consider urban contextual elements of design as well as spaces for community interaction between different faiths. Kevin et al. (2018) had written about how the Abu Bakar Mosque in Bangsar had shown post-design decisions to add spaces for others to use such as an outside toilet in the compound of the mosque, parking spaces at certain times of the day, shops and stalls for buying food and knick-knacks and a building extension to house the common activities of religious celebration. There was also a study done on the urban mosques in Kuala Lumpur where the outside paved space of the mosque was used by the public for many recreational activities apart from prayer overflow space (Nash, 2007; Nizarudin, 2016). A study of Petaling Mosque by Alice Sabrina et al. shows only how the mosque was a social center for Muslims who are from the Tabligh group (Ismail et al., 2015). There is therefore a serious gap of knowledge in determining whether mosques and churches are used by other faiths in terms of joining social activities or in daily informal contexts.

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Objectives and Methodology

There is one main objective of the research which is to evaluate architectural elements designed to create a less isolationist image of the mosque and church within a multi-faith community urban context The main methods used by the research are structured interviews and observation: Sample of Mosques and Churches: A sampling of 2 mosques and 2 churches in Kuala Lumpur.

1. The demography favors no particular race and religious adherents. 2. The inhabitants are generally educated at the middle and high levels. 3. The income is moderate to high and shows an ability to focus on other than survival. The houses of worship chosen must be of the following criteria: 1. At least 10 years in operation. 2. Have a good community track record in society. 3. Have been designed as a purposeful building for a religious function. 4. Being sited in a mixed urban area. Observation of architectural elements that encourage social inclusivity was conducted and recorded by drawings and photographs.

4

Justification for Evaluation Criteria

The justifications for each of the criteria of evaluation are as follows: • Perception: Similarity of building material presents the idea that the more similar the material of a building, the less alien it is to the surroundings and thus creates a sense of partisanship or “being a part of.” • Perception: Scale and Massing of the building should be that the more the building mass is broken up into smaller pieces the more it relates to the surrounding two- or three-storey domestic architecture and thus presents a friendlier image. • Visual Permeability: The more one can see from the front gate the activities of the inner sanctum the more open the building is in terms of public access. This creates the message of “sharing” with outsiders. • Visibility: Gates and Fences need to be evaluated in the sense that the less imposing the gates in terms of height and material, as well as the more visual access, would add to the building not being seen as a private entity but a public one. • Territoriality: Furniture such as seating, planter boxes that can be seated in front of the building suggests a more public space than mere paving with no landscape element. Users can claim spaces and furniture for their use and defend the space. But if space and furniture need to be asked for permission to be used, then it lacks territorial worth.

Encouraging Social Inclusivity Across Faiths: The Case of Mosques and Churches in Kuala Lumpur

• Perception: Iconic imagery provides a reminder of conflicts between historical religions. The less the building defends its historical identity the more unfriendly it becomes. • Evaluation of each attribute is by the impressionistic ranking of not friendly, friendly, or very friendly.

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Brief Background on Two Mosques and Two Churches in KL

Jamek Alam Shah Mosque Masjid Jamek Alam Shah is located in Cheras, Kuala Lumpur. Masjid Jamek Alam Shah is located on the edge of the main road at the junction of Jalan Tun Razak and Jalan Pasar. It is frequently visited by Muslims in the region as well as in the Cheras area. In recognizing the high demand to provide a mosque for the benefit of the increased number of congregations during 1985, the renovated plan of the mosque was then conducted, which approved by Majlis Agama Islam Wilayah Persekutuan. The new current mosque (Asif & Utaberta, 2016a) was designed by FAA architect which begin constructed in early 2013 and was completed on May 20, 2016. The noticeable features of the mosque are the huge dome and tall minaret. The overall mosque floor plan is square with a concrete structure. The usage of the glass, earth-tone color wall, and patterned aluminum steel highlights the overall design of the Masjid Jamek Alam Shah. The new current mosque (Asif et al., 2018a) is estimated to accommodate up to 3,000 worshippers with various facilities added into the building such as the underground parking, shop lots, library, archive gallery, and multi-purpose hall. Al-Mujahideen Mosque Masjid Al-Mujahideen is more than just a place of worship, which is attached to a school, therefore, Masjid Al-Mujahideen is known as a small community. It has a capacity of 1200 people at a time. The mosque is located in the Kuala lumpur Damansara district. In the 1980s the residents of Damansara Utama gathered and reached an agreement to build a mosque. Now the mosque is known as Al-Mujahideen Mosque. The Al-Mujahideen Mosque was built using money from the residents themselves and they did not ask for a single penny from the government. In fact, the government at that time wanted to help in the form of funds but was rejected by the people in Damansara Utama because they did not want to use money or funds from the government.

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Calvary Church The Calvary Convention Center of the Calvary Church, a distinctive landmark that is strategically located at Bukit Jalil, is a multi-functional complex that accommodates religious and social space for the followers of the Calvary Church and its visitors from all across Klang Valley. The center consists of various spaces and facilities ranging from the auditorium, management office, classrooms to café, and restaurant. Other than providing spaces for educational and vocational training and spiritual development, the center is also an ideal venue for religious gatherings and other non-religion functions with its state-of-the-art auditorium and flexible function spaces that are able to accommodate from a small group of 50 up to a large crowd of 5,000. The center has hosted many notable international, national, and regional conventions, banquets, seminars, musical and creative arts performances, such as the Air Supply World Tour, Yamaha Electone Festival National Finals, TED x KL, Return Legacy Grand Recognition Night, and many more. Wisma Methodist Church The Kuala Lumpur Methodist Church stands in the center of the Malaysian capital. It is the intersection of politics, economy, and culture, and has the most strategic spiritual advantage. Seeing that the original temple building has been more than 50 years old, it is not enough to accommodate more congregations. The deacons unanimously passed the proposal to expand the church and build a church that can accommodate more than 1,000 people. On March 24, 2003, it formally applied to the Kuala Lumpur City Council for an expansion development permit, which was approved in October and June of the same year. On January 9th, 2004, the plan for the expansion was submitted, and the plan for the expansion was approved on September 22. On March 5, 2005, the representatives of the committee and the construction project, led by the pastor He Rongsheng, officially began to pray to God for the expansion of the temple.

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Finding of Research

The following tables summarize the findings of the research. From the analysis in Table 1, it is found that only two sections Perception: Similarity of Building Material and Perception: Scale and Massing are friendly to the public. The mass and material of the building are very well designed to

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Table 1 Damansara mosque Architectural elements

Description

Evaluation comment

Perception: Similarity of building finish material with context

Photograph

The material used is brick with plastering and painted with white color

This is the common material used by the surrounding terrace house Friendly

Perception: Scale and massing that are broken up

The scale of the mosque is small because it has 2 stories only

Its scale does not overwhelm the surrounding, therefore it portraits a friendly image

Territoriality: Furniture and landscape with modern or traditional language

There is no usable seating and planter box outside of the mosque

Because of lack of seating, it does not promote public usage Not Friendly

Visibility: Gates and fences that are not too opaque

The fencing does allow the public to view inside the building and the fencing is over 2 m in height with sharp edges at the top

Because of the design of the fencing, it gives the perception that it is a private guarded building Not Friendly

Visual permeability: Level of visual access

It has long distance from the main gate to the entrance of the mosque and the casted dark shadow of the veranda

The public is unable to view the activity inside the mosque Not Friendly

Perception: Iconic historical imagery

The mosque has 3 iconic imagery, the gold dome, the geometric pattern façade, and the Islamic symbol arch entrance

It gives a very strong sense of iconic historical imagery to the public Not friendly

Encouraging Social Inclusivity Across Faiths: The Case of Mosques and Churches in Kuala Lumpur

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Table 2 Masjid Alam Shah, Cheras Architectural elements

Description

Evaluation comment

Perception: Similarity of building finish material with context

Photograph

Material: Brick Finishing: Plaster Color: Yellow and brown

Similar finishing and color with the surrounding context Very Friendly

Perception: Scale and massing that are broken up

Uses a very big space Height is around 12 m

Scale of building bigger than most buildings around it Not Friendly

Territoriality: Furniture and landscape with modern or traditional language

Lack of furniture outside compound

No furniture for the public to use Not Friendly

Visibility: Gates and fences that are not too opaque

Gates and fences are tall

Fences are high, causing low visibility Not Friendly

Visual permeability: Level of visual access

Pedestrian walk in front of building

Very connected to the outside street, easy accessibility Friendly

Perception: Iconic historical imagery

Opened in 1951 Well known in the history of KL

Very historical building with iconic historical imagery Not Friendly

suit the location. But the strong historical imagery, lack of public usable space, and visual limitation because of the fencing and gate are causing the mosque to be unfriendly overall. In conclusion Masjid Jamek Alam Shah (Table 2) is generally an unfriendly building to the public. Although the color and material used do not clash with the ones used by neighboring buildings, when it comes to the massing and scale of Masjid Jamek Alam Shah, it can be obviously seen that it does not blend well with the surrounding buildings. Furniture is important as it tells the public that the facility is welcoming the public to use it, conveying a message that says “open for the public.” Masjid Jamek Alam Shah utilizes a dome to establish itself as an Islamic figure. The architect of the mosque uses not only the dome, but the Islamic

pattern on the façade and the entrance to present to the public that this mosque is the result of traditional Islamic architecture. The high walls that fence up the compound of the mosque represent itself as somewhat of an unfriendly and secretive facility, and it may portray itself as unwelcoming. Compounds of religious buildings should not have high fences that cover up the activities of the religious building, instead they should have see-through or lower fences to show transparency in the facility and organization. Lastly, a religious building’s permeability should be taken into consideration as well as it makes or breaks a religious facility The finding from research concludes that the Calvary Convention Center of the Calvary Church can do more in achieving the inclusivity and friendliness in the aspect of perception, permeability, and territoriality of the building in

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Table 3 Cavalry church Architectural elements

Description

Evaluation Comment

Perception: Iconic historical imagery

Photograph

Distinctive imagery with modern, dynamic, and futuristic architecture language that is easy to recognize

No need for traditional churches architecture language as it is a whole new and young church that does not hold any significant historical background in the area Friendly

Perception: Scale and massing that are broken up

Strikingly enormous as it is inspired by Noah’s Ark from the Holy Bible

Does not respond competently well with its immediate surrounding context Not Friendly

Perception: Similarity of building finish material with context

Made up of very refined and polished white wall cladding and glass panels

Does not complement well with its immediate surrounding context Not Friendly

Visibility: Gates and fences that are not too opaque

Adequate because of the partial visual permeability

Prominent, obvious, and unpleasant due to the white color scheme and the packed horizontal pattern Friendly

Visual: Level of visual access

Sufficient visual permeability because of the spacious semi-enclosed public plaza

Allowing users to easily observe and have substantial options of permeability to different spaces simultaneously Very Friendly

Territoriality: Furniture and landscape with modern or traditional language

Lush perimeter planting and a lot of portable pots of plants and seating furniture that integrates with plantings

With extra courage and upgrades, the center has the potential to achieve the concept of territoriality Friendly

relation to its context and complementation, in order to further promote the manifestation of social inclusiveness and national unity among religious buildings for the whole Malaysian population (see Table 3). The building shows a completely unfriendly language of architecture. From its near iconic imagery to its low permeability and visibility, the building is closed up to the public in its image and language. The non-presence of outside furniture and landscape elements friendly to the users does not help its image of friendliness. It may take a social or political solution to bring communities together and then

perhaps architecture can play a more community-friendly way (see Table 4). Summary and Implications From the above analysis, the comparisons and description of the building spaces and elements point to most houses of worship being alienated from each other’s faith. Iconic imagery seems to be the order of the day for mosques more than churches. Although permeability and visibility seem to be good, the presence of the fence and gateway impedes

Encouraging Social Inclusivity Across Faiths: The Case of Mosques and Churches in Kuala Lumpur

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Table 4 Wisma Methodist Chinese Church Architectural elements

Photograph

Description

Evaluation comment

Perception: Iconic Historical Imagery

The facades of the Chinese Hokkien Methodist Church in KL are strongly influenced by the Modernism Architecture Lancet window, a clerestory window that is a typical element of the Gothic church of the earliest period is found on the church facade design. It is located above eye level to admit fresh light Stained glass is heavily used in the facade design. It is used in all elevations of the chapel

From the facades, not many ornaments are used. The language of the building is similar to the site surrounding Conservation of architecture for this church during the era 1980s which responding to the site is well preserved The extension of church does not change the iconic imagery of the church but preserved the facades and the elements such as the lancet clerestory window and the stained glass used. The importance of the conservation of the modern-built heritage is to create a harmonious society The architectural expression in the church shall portray and design it in such a manner that it projects the idea of a public facility, invite public, and chance for them to satisfy their curiosity about what the Christian way of life is all about Friendly

Perception: Scale and massing that are broken up

The left side of the church is the administrative office. The chapel is located in the middle of the site The right side of the chapel is the Wisma Methodist which is used for the Sunday Prayer and allows to accommodate more peoples for worship The building behind the chapel is served as Sunday School, gathering spaces, meeting room, consultation room, etc

The scale and massing of the church are broken up and separated into smaller pieces which make them look more friendly and respond to the surrounding buildings Friendly

Visibility: Gates and fences that is not too opaque

The church is surrounded by 1.7-meter height vertical steel fences The steel fence is white in color, which makes the fences look like it blends into the chapel behind There are three entrances to the church, two at the front, and one at the side

The public can look into the church compound through the gap between the fence and gate The public can see what is happening inside the compound spaces, such as the foyer of the chapel, the small garden and the basketball area, and the parking area. However, the interior of the chapel cannot be seen from outside Friendly

(continued)

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Table 4 (continued) Architectural elements

Photograph

Description

Evaluation comment

Visual permeability: Level of visual access

The church has a big front gate in the middle of its front elevation The front gate used the same material and pattern as the surrounding fences, which is a white vertical steel gate with big gaps At the ground level, all the doors are full timber doors which keep the interiors of the chapel totally non-viewable from outside

The level of visual access from outside to the interior of the chapel is very low There are many windows at the chapel but very few are openable. Most of the windows are fixed stained glass windows and the others are black-tinted and with a curtain covering. context already Not Friendly

Territoriality: Furniture and landscape with modern or traditional language

There is no furniture such as a seating or planter box that can be seated in front of the chapel Although there is a little garden nearby the main entrance of the chapel, there is no furniture for the people to sit there and interact Public amenities are hard to access and unfriendly, it is located at the corner of the building. As an example, the toilet is located in a hidden corner. Hence, the toilet is served for the people in the building only because the outsider is hard to access the toilet

While walking around the church, we could not find any place for public to sit and rest. The church does not provide any furniture or seating to the public neither at outside of the church, nor around the chapel The landscape of the church is not providing good natural shading to the surrounding Not Friendly

Encouraging Social Inclusivity Across Faiths: The Case of Mosques and Churches in Kuala Lumpur

many from walking in and this message seems more of a threat than a welcoming gesture. Mosque congregants are still conservative in thinking that the mosque is sanctified to the point of defilement from others is clearly unacceptable. Although landscape furniture and elements begin to appear to soften the unfriendly languages of these buildings, their presence in the compound bounded by security fences makes the community connection more difficult if not impossible.

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Conclusion

Mosques and churches in Malaysia are designed mainly as exclusive entities not to intrude in each other’s lives. But this method of design and attitude will further erode harmonious relationships because the element of isolation, alienation, and unfriendly views will never help Malaysians accept each other. This research shows how far Malaysia needs to go to rethink its formula for nation-building through the design of houses of worship.

References Asif, N., & Utaberta, N. (2016a). Compatibility of mosque as emergency shelter in disaster prone regions. In N. Utaberta & L. Daud (Eds.), “BAH KUNING” Cultural Investigation of Flood Disaster in Kelantan (pp. 17–35). WARIS Research Group. Asif, N., & Utaberta, N. (2016b). Masjid-The Spiritual and Physical Hub for Community Development (1st Edn). Retrieved from https:// www.academia.edu/30093777/Masjid_ Asif, N., Utaberta, N., & Sarram, A. (2018a). Towards a paradigm shift in mosque architecture: Coping up with the challenges ofcontemporary urban context. In M. A. Ibrahim (Ed.), Proceeding of

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INSIGHT 2018 1st International Conference on Religion,Social Sciences and Technological Education (pp. 306–312). Universiti Sains Ismal Malaysia (USIM). Asif, N., Utaberta, N., Sarram, A., & Ismail, S. (2018b). Design framework for urban mosque in the city of Kuala Lumpur : A qualitative approach. International Journal of Architectural Research: ArchNet-IJAR, 12(3), 170. https://doi.org/10.26687/ archnet-ijar.v12i3.1586 Ismail, S., Utaberta, N., Yazid, M., Yunos, M., & Ismail, A. (2015). The analysis of socio culture and economic influence towards malay community of the architecture of masjid Jamek. Advances in Environmental Biology, 9(95), 326–329. Retrieved from http:// www.aensiweb.com/AEB/ Jahn Kassim, P. S., Mohd Nawawi, N., & Hamat, S. (2016). The masjid in modernity: Form, space and syntax. In Dimensions of masjid architecture-perspectives and writings in theory and design (pp. 23–36). MPH Group Printing (M) Sdn Bhd. Kevin Kanesh, M., Rasdi, T. M., Jean, L. M., Al-Darah, H. (2018). Contextualism of mosque architecture in the city: Case study of the abu bakar mosque in Bangsar. Journal of Technology and Social Science. University Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia. Rasdi, M. T. In Malaysia, is religion truly for God? https://www. freemalaysiatoday.com/category/opinion/2019/01/12/in-malaysiais-religion-truly-for-god/ Rasdi, M. T. Ramadan in New Malaysia https://www.freemalaysiatoday. com/category/opinion/2019/04/01/ramadan-in-new-malaysia/ Nash, M. (2007). Public space, muslims and the urban mosque in Newark, NJ: Engaging the American public square. Community College Humanities Review, 27, 128–148. Nizarudin, N. D. (2016). Spatial and sociocultural aspects of urban mosque open spaces in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: A mixed-method approach. Environment-Behaviour Proceedings Journal, 1(2), 43. https://doi.org/10.21834/e-bpj.v1i2.254 Othman, H., Yazid, M., Yunos, M., & Ismail, N. A. (2015). Issues and problems of modern mosques design in Malaysia : A critical analysis. Advances in Environmental Biology, 9(April), 330–337. Tajuddin, M. (2017). Contextualism in mosque architecture: Bridging the social and political divide. Journal of Islamic Architecture, 4(4), Universitas Islam Nagari, Malang, Indonesia

Advances in Mosques’ Design and Architecture

Changes in Mosques’ Architecture Design Between Functionalism and Symbolism Engy M. Farrag

Abstract

1

The unique form of the mosque is derived from the essence of Islam itself purity, simplicity, and humbleness. The language of Mosque architecture is developed empirically through time. This architecture does not adhere to any specific guideline, as there are no particular architectural mosque ideas stated in either the holy Quran or the Hadith. As a result, the minaret, dome, gateway, and Mihrab are later additions and developed elements. Recently, there are many attempts in changing the traditional framework of the mosques’ architectural design. Many Forms and styles have appeared, mosque architecture has witnessed a gradual development in its design, from multifunctional, more complex, and details design to simplicity and Abstraction in each element of the mosque. This development is accompanied by the emergence of new features in the internal and external architectural elements as well as transformation from functional design to symbolic characteristics by introducing new elements and vocabulary for mosque architecture instead of the stereotypical image of the Mosque. Consequently, the research study aims to figure out the development of mosques’ architectural elements, form, and meaning between the functionalism and symbolic through analysis and comparison. Also, it will address the relation of generative architectural characters of the mosque and its reflection on the Islamic identity of several communities and context. Keywords




Mosques architecture Symbolic elements Contemporary trend of mosques




Function




Introduction

Throughout history, the mosques were the center of society and reflect its locality and identity of societies across the world. Recently, there are many attempts in changing the traditional framework of the mosques’ architectural design. Many Forms and styles have appeared. Mosque architecture has witnessed a gradual development in its design, from multifunctional, more complex, and details design to simplicity and abstraction in each element of the mosque. This development is accompanied by the emergence of new features in the internal and external architectural elements as well as transformation from functional design to symbolic characteristics by introducing new elements and vocabulary for mosque architecture instead of the stereotypical image of the Mosque. The contemporary architecture of mosques cannot be ignored. But the mosque should integrate with its surroundings and context with the spirit of Islamic art and cultural considerations. The study will be based on a descriptive and some critical observations of mosques architectural elements between its function and symbolism roles and how these elements have changed recently. As well as the research study aims to figure out the development of mosques’ architectural elements, form, and meaning between the functionalism and symbolic through analysis and comparison. Also, it will address the relation of generative architectural characters of the mosque and its reflection on the Islamic identity of several communities and context.

E. M. Farrag (&) Architecture Department, Faculty of Engineering, Delta University for Science and Technology, International Coastal Road, Gamasa City, Mansoura, Dakhliya, Egypt e-mail: [email protected] © Effat University 2023 M. Fekry et al. (eds.), Mosque Architecture: A Transdisciplinary Debate, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24751-4_8

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Historical Background of Mosques Architecture

Islam spread as new religion throughout the Arabian Peninsula and beyond, into North Africa and southern Spain. Later, Islam expanded further throughout the Persian Sassanid Empire and extended as far as India (Asfour, 2016). When the Arab armies of Muslims conquered new lands, they began to establish mosques, palaces, and other artworks as an expression of their faith and culture. Many aspects of religious practice in Islam also emerged which means “to submit to God” or” Surrender”, is based on fundamental beliefs that embody the five pillars of Islam. The simple means for a mosque (masjid): is a place of prostration ‖ parallel to the wall (or single straight line) that indicates the Qibla or direction of Mecca. Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), said, “The entire earth was made a masjid for me” [1]. Masjid is the Arabic word for mosque. The Arabic word comes from the root (sa-ja-da) meaning to prostrate. The Mosque as the Centre of Religious Life Muslims are less dependent on buildings because of in Islam, prayers can be offered anywhere on God’s earth towards Mecca. The Holy Prophet (PBUH) said:—The world, the whole of it is a mosque.” “Wherever you turn, there is the face of God” (Quran Chap. 2: verse 115) (Holy Quran and Hadith, n.d.). The first mosque was built by Prophet Muhammad in his own house in Medina in 622 AD (Asfour, 2016). The Prophet’s mosque Fig. 1 was originally a simple of orthogonal walled, with an open courtyard with two or three doors and a shaded prayer enclosure or musalla to one end facing Makah. The musalla was supported by columns, which were spaced at regular intervals to hold up the roof structure (Kahera et al., 2009). Mosque of the prophet Muhammad in Al-Madina, whose design characteristics (plans, its components, materials of building and its construction system, and decorative, and ornamental treatments), represents the basis that the rest of the mosques models in the Islamic world (Ahmad, 2009). The language of mosque architecture is developed empirically through time. This architecture does not adhere to any specific guideline, as there are no specific architectural mosque ideas stated in either the holy Quran or the Hadith. As a result, the minaret, dome, gateway, and mihrab are later additions and developments from the prophet’s mosque in Medina.

3

Using the Relation Between the Essence of Islam and Architecture of the Mosque (Essence of Islamic Architecture)

The most important building in the Islamic world is the mosque. Mosques as the center of worship were among the first buildings erected in the Islamic world. They have different variations of plans, sections, and elevations. However, they still follow the seven principles of Islamic Architecture (Table 1).

4

Mosques Architecture Between Functional and SymbolicGood design is making something intelligible and memorable. Great design is making something memorable and Meaningful. Dieter Rams

Throughout history, the mosque is considered the symbolic building of the Islamic community. Islamic Architecture is among the greatest unique forms of art that have been used across the history. It is an art with the high degree of complexity that can uses as a decorative technique. The most common decorative styles in mosques architecture are geometric patterns and calligraphy. In fact, Islamic architecture has been widely spread. The Islamic features are not only used in mosques, but it includes palaces, castles, school buildings (madrasas), and gardens. Recently, mosques architecture has been changed and faced several dramatic changes to meet the difference between cultures and civilizations. The development in architecture and technology generated many of contemporary architectural trends that have introduced new shapes and forms that affect the stereotypes and spiritual of mosques that have been recognized across time progressively. Besides, Some spaces have added to the contemporary mosque beside prayer function such as: female prayer hall, library, imam rooms, and space for kids. Some argue about the additional elements such as minaret, dome, mihrab of mosques have not been found in the first model of the Prophet’s Mosque and there is no particular text in Quran or Hadith in this regard. Accordingly, it considered as optional elements of mosque design. However, there is a need for a balance between preserving Islamic architectures identity, spiritual and symbolic values of mosques design and the need of using technology in design according to locality and context.

Changes in Mosques’ Architecture Design Between Functionalism and Symbolism

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Table 1 The relation between the essence of Islam and seven principles in Islamic Architecture Essence

Meaning

Characteristics in architecture

1

Tawhid

Unity and uniquely: to describe “Oneness” of God

• Towards one direction “Allah” and facing Kabah during five times prayers

2

Respect— Clearly

Ihtiram: “Geometry enlightens the intellect and sets One’s mind

•There are no pictures and painting in the mosques, they always opted to use motifs of nature (plants) or geometry for decoration. Mosques are usually pure geometrical shapes: 1. Pure Cube Geometry 2. Spherical shape 3. Octagonal or hexagonal shape

3

Sincerity

Ikhlas

The expression of sincerity to Allah through: • Reflecting some characteristics of heaven such as Enclosed gardens-flowing waters • Geometry from Nature • Balance through geometric proportion • Pools/Pavilions in its intersection • High garden view to the low garden

4

Moderation & Humility

Iqtisad: The balance between building and Nature

The balance through the shape and form of the mosque • Environmental solution/vernacular architecture to protect from the extreme heat • Balance in design through (rule ofthe Golden Ratio)

5

Modesty

Haya

Having closed interiors and keeping materiality to oneself • Using screening devices such as (Mashrabiya)

6

Pursuit of Knowledge

Ilm: Pursuing new knowledge

Using Islamic calligraphy from Quran that decorates internal, external, and the entrance of Mosque • Arabic Calligraphy mostly found at the entrance • Light as expression-illuminating effects of sunrays/moonlight inside Islamic buildings • Architecture as a pursuit of knowledge

7

Remembrance

Dikr: Eternal and infinite

The repetitive columns as part of architecture mosque (hypostyle) • The architecture of monotony • The rhythmic chanting and Repetitive use of ornaments, pillars, and arches

Source Author, 2020 adopting from Hilmi (2014), Izzat (2012)

Example

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There are several trends exist in architecture mosque design worldwide. However, the contemporary mosques trend mostly appeared in the West, where design of new mosques faces more challenges (Asfour, 2016). The contemporary mosques referred to all mosques that have been built in recent time which can be embraced in expression, form, function, material, and structure as well. Further, this contemporary trend is generously simpler and more abstracted than the traditional form Table 2 show the new designs vocab compared with the traditional style. As mentioned in Table 2, the recent mosque components are losing the main function and practical purpose of several elements. However, these elements are still constructed in modern mosques for the new symbolic purpose (Mustafa Rafea & Murat, 2017). For instance, the domes function was to cover a large span of the prayer hall (Alsabban et al., 2020) but now it just uses to emphasize the place of prayer in different shapes and forms. It became a symbolic element rather than its function. In addition, minarets have a

completely new and different design understanding. Unlike the traditional minarets that varied in shape, form, and size. They were made circular, square, cylindrical, and polygonal shapes. The previous function of the minaret was a place for calling to the prayers’’ adhan’’ by the muezzin. While as seen in most of the contemporary mosques the minaret has changed to a symbolic element in abstracted shapes and it became a separate element from the main form of the mosque. It converted its function to be a self-standing landmark for the mosque “a symbol of Islam” and to emphasize the verticality Fig. 2. A humble contemporary mosque with a sense of spirituality through the interplay of light and shadow. The minimalist mosque was made from Terracotta bricks and integrated with its surrounding landscape (Jason, n.d.). Unlike the traditional architectural mosques style, the mosque without a dome, minaret, minbar, or even mihrab. The Mihrab is just a symbolic element through a vertical light slit in the qibla wall of the prayer hall Fig. 3.

Table 2 The main elements of mosque and the changes between function and symbolic

Exterior elements

Elements

Function

Symbolic

Minaret

A place where the call to prayer or adhan is sent out

A visual symbol/land mark of Islam presence and the lordliness of the mosque

Domes (Qubba)

Repeating the echo and providing air and light inside the mosque as well as covering a large span of the prayer hall

A symbolic representation of the vault of heaven

Courtyard “sahn”

A multi-function outdoor space that can be used for prayer, social, environmental factors

A heart pulsed of Islamic architecture

Traditional form

Contemporary form

(continued)

Changes in Mosques’ Architecture Design Between Functionalism and Symbolism

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Table 2 (continued)

Interior elements

Elements

Function

Symbolic

Prayer Hall “Musalla”

A place where worship prayers are held

“spiritual sanctuary” for all prayers

Ablution “Wudu” and toilets

A place physical cleanliness before prayer

A symbol of the desired purity of soul

Minbar

To deliver the Friday speech (khutbah)

A symbol of authority

Mihrab (niche)

A “qibla” wall that indicates the direction of Mecca for all Muslims

A symbol of the divine in the mosque context

Geometric patterns and calligraphy

A beautiful and intricate decoration element

Represent the universe order as a visual representation of the truth

Traditional form

Contemporary form

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Fig. 1 The Prophet’s original house and his mosque. Source https://rabbaniway.wordpress. com/2014/10/20/holy-lands-andreturn-of-the-pharaohs/

Fig. 2 The photo shows the minaret of Derinkuyu Mosque (Creditienal to Özgür Ürey)

The other design of Valiasr mosque in Tehran, Iran, Fig. 4, the mosque does not look like a stereotypical mosque. It has no minaret or dome, and it is too daring. Some of the Iranian hardliners have criticized the mosque as a place of worship because it is a dwarf compared with the theatre. Some critics that “A mosque sacrificed for the city theatre”

and “It is a degrading design for postmodern and empty of any meaning” That leads to intend to turn it into an Islamic cultural center (Jason, n.d.). Figure 5 presents an example of a contemporary mosque design attempt in Basuna Mosque at Sohag, Egypt, where modern techniques and design with Islamic features and

Changes in Mosques’ Architecture Design Between Functionalism and Symbolism

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Fig. 3 Bait Ur Rouf Mosque, Dhaka, Bangladesh. Source www.dezeen.com

aesthetics were maintained into one innovative modern design. These contemporary composed modern design with innovative features in several elements and at the same time it attained its functions and meanings as well. The mosque was rebuilt and completed in 2019 with area 497 m2. This design expresses the relation between the created and the Creator. Mihrab contains 99 cubes which represent the 99 names of God. There are two domes, the main dome is made of sand, lime, and air and formed by 64 circumambulating light blocks that represent worshippers trying to escape from the earth from one orbit to the higher orbit until the blocks vanish. Moreover, the form of minaret confirms its motivation and orientation. All the materials from natural sources to provide light, ventilation, and thermal comfort as well as to attain the environmental approach. Therefore, the building design maintained the integration between function, symbolism, environmental, and aesthetically aspects in mosque design (Al Fozan. n.d.). In general, Mosque design is constant in its functional and main parts worldwide. The mosque design should be appropriate for users’ characteristics as well as its surrounding. Besides, respecting the inherited features and spiritual of Islamic architecture of mosques as sacred places. The design ought to attain functionality, symbolism,

aesthetic characteristics of architectural mosque design such as the minaret, mihrab, or dome in an innovative way without losing the spiritual image of the mosque as well as respecting these factors: human factors, urban and cultural context, and the history of the place.

5

Conclusion

Mosques architecture reflected many aspects such as the economy, traditions and culture of society and nation as well as expresses the spiritual and cultural identity of each society. The mosque role has changed other than ritual roles over time, the contemporary design of mosques reflected the development in technology and its application on mosques building. The new generic shapes and design of mosques transformed many functional elements of mosques to symbolic items such as Minarets, Domes, Mihrab, and Minbar these elements developed through time and their function has changed to symbolic meaning. Therefore, the mosques became not just a place for worship, but the contemporary trend changed the idea and function of the mosque from just a place for prayers to iconic buildings of each society without any specific rules and features.

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Fig. 4 Valiasr mosque in Tehran, Iran. Source https://worldarchitecture.org/

E. M. Farrag

Changes in Mosques’ Architecture Design Between Functionalism and Symbolism

Fig. 5 Basuna Mosque in Sohag, Egypt. Source https://mosqpedia.org/en/mosque/189

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References Ahmad, T. (2009). (PDF) Mechanisms of Generating Mosques Types. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328543339_Mechanisms_ of_Generating_Mosques_Types Alsabban, R. F., Al-Bukhari, I. N., & Shehata, A. M. (2020). Characterization framework of contemporary mosques in islamic cities Asfour, P. (2016). Bridging the gap between the past and the present: A reconsideration of mosque architectural elements. Journal of Islamic Architecture. P-Issn: 2086–2636 E-Issn: 2356–4644. Dehghan, S. (2017). A modern mosque without minarets stirs controversy in Tehran|Af South Asia. https://architexturez.net/pst/ az-cf-185051-1508811566 Al Fozan. (n.d.). Basuna mosque. Retrieved September 18, 2020, from https://mosqpedia.org/en/mosque/189 Hilmi, W. H. (2014). Islamic Architecture. http://wanhaziqhilmiislamicarchitecture.blogspot.com/2014/07/lecture-3-3.html Holy Quran and Hadith.

E. M. Farrag Izzat, S. (2012). Kaslan Blog: Understanding Islamic Architecture: The Seven Principles. http://al-blog-al-kaslan.blogspot.com/2012/12/ understanding-islamic-architecture.html Jason, D. (n.d.). Baitur Rauf Jame Mosque—Danish Architecture Center—DAC. Retrieved September 18, 2020, from: https://dac.dk/ en/knowledgebase/architecture/baitur-rauf-jame-mosque Kahera, A. I., Abdulmalik, L., & Anz, C. (2009). Design criteria for mosques and islamic centers: Art, architecture and worship. Mustafa Rafea, T., & Murat, D. A Comparative analytical study of the conversion form of minaret in contemporary mosque architecture. Intercultural Understanding, 7(January), 23–30. Stegers, R., & Dorothea, B. (2010). Sacred buildings: A design manual. Birkh User. Urey, O. (2013). Transformation of minarets in contemporary mosque architecture in Turkey. International Journal of Science Culture and Sport, 1(4), 95–95. https://doi.org/10.14486/ijscs36

Indoor Thermal Comfort: The Case of Masjid Tuanku Mizan Zainal Abidin (Putrajaya, Malaysia) Siti Salwana Bt Mohd Nawayai and Zuraini Bt Denan

Abstract

1

The quest for a sustainable contemporary architectural approach requires the need to revive vernacular Malay architecture and access institutions such as masjids to be evaluated. Researchers posed questions as to whether a building with good thermal performance can be built by readapting the Malay vernacular masjid architecture and passive design strategies into modern masjid designs. This paper aims to investigate the outcome of this approach according to case study findings. The Masjid Tuanku Mizan Zainal Abidin in Putrajaya, Malaysia is selected as a case study. An investigation was conducted to explore the phenomenon through research, direct observation, and field survey. Empirical findings from evidence provide an understanding of the effectiveness of the Malay vernacular concept and the application of the passive design approach in modern masjid designs. The findings indicate that optimum thermal comfort in the interior space of the case study has mostly been achieved through the application of the Malay vernacular concept and passive design strategies. Keywords

Thermal comfort Vernacular




Façade design




Ventilation




S. S. B. M. Nawayai (&)
Z. B. Denan Department of Architecture, Kulliyyah of Architecture & Environmental Design, International Islamic University Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected]

Introduction

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of readapting the Malay vernacular approach for thermal comfort in modern masjids in Malaysia. The chosen case study was Masjid Tuanku Mizan Zainal Abidin, Putrajaya, Malaysia. Elements such as architectural quality, construction systems, structural components, and non-structural components are discussed in this paper. This paper also compares these elements with that of passive design strategies. Determining the significance of this research is crucial to assess the effectiveness of this combination in terms of building thermal comfort when re-adapted into the case study. According to Lim (1987), three factors should be controlled to achieve thermal comfort namely temperature, humidity, and solar radiation. Thermal comfort can be achieved by reducing solar radiation to its minimum level and decreasing the heat gain from direct sunlight. Furthermore, direct solar radiation is the main source of heat. Thus, the designer should pay more attention to the design of shading on the facade and the building materials to achieve thermal comfort. Lim (1987) concluded that designing buildings with good natural ventilation based on either stack effect or air flow helps to provide better living conditions in regions with hot and humid climates. La Roche (2001) pointed out that climate-responsive building design is important as it provides thermal comfort and energy savings for occupants and thus, sustains precious resources. Unfortunately, most building designs in recent years do not consider local climatic conditions and the need for energy conservation. In contrast, building designs are mostly developed to fulfill user requirements. As the masjids’ designs are modernized, the use of modern construction materials often compromises the passive climate responsive measures. The design shows that it lacks sustainability to facilitate the development of the surrounding community.

Z. B. Denan e-mail: [email protected] © Effat University 2023 M. Fekry et al. (eds.), Mosque Architecture: A Transdisciplinary Debate, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24751-4_9

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S. S. B. M. Nawayai and Z. B. Denan

Eventually, modern masjids are now perceived as iconic buildings, which emphasis more on aesthetic value rather than functionality.

2

Research Methodology

The qualitative investigation was carried out through research, site observation, and field survey. Library research of journal papers, conference papers, and other documents related to Malay vernacular elements and thermal comfort was conducted. This method helps the researcher in building a literature review and compares the aspects of Malay vernacular concepts with that of passive design strategies used in tropical climates. Among the different types of buildings, masjids are exceptional because they can cater constant influx of occupants. It is a place where a large congregation of Muslims gather for worship, with the numbers, continued to increase since the earliest masjid developed in this country. From the literature studies, several masjids have been identified based on their vernacular designs. This research focused on one building as a case study which is Masjid Tuanku Mizan Zainal Abidin, Putrajaya, Malaysia. In this case study, design elements re-adapted from traditional Malay houses for thermal comfort in modern masjid were observed. Site observation was conducted based on the researcher’s perception. Exploration and photograph analysis were conducted to evaluate building orientation, space division, and spatial layout plan. A field survey was conducted by recording air temperature, relative humidity, and air flow velocity at building facades and openings. For this purpose, air temperature and relative humidity were measured using a MIC-98583 sensor with ±0.6 °C accuracies in temperature and ±3% accuracy in relative humidity. Wind speed was measured using an AVM-305 sensor with ±0.2 m/s accuracy. Empirical findings from the evidence provide a new understanding of the effectiveness of the Malay vernacular concept and passive design strategies for indoor thermal comfort in the modern masjid.

3

Research Background

3.1 Thermal Comfort in the Malay Vernacular Masjid and Its Relationship to Climate Before the development of air conditioning systems, societies used cooling methods such as shading, thermal mass, and natural ventilation to achieve thermal comfort. The openings such as windows, panels, and grills are an important feature of ventilation, which give relief to thermal discomfort. Void versus mass with the ground and verticality

of Malay vernacular architecture provides adequate cross ventilation (Yuan, 1987). The overhang reduces the sun's glare and direct sunlight coming into the building. The slope of a gable roof pitch allows for quick water runoff and air ventilation through its attic space. In general, the thermal comfort of Malay vernacular masjids is assessed by comparing four major factors namely architectural quality, construction systems, and structural and non-structural building components. These factors are further elaborated into elements such as building orientation, building form, architectural layout, building height, openings for lighting and ventilation, shadings, and building materials. Building Orientation Several studies have proven that the key to thermal comfort and energy-efficient building design is choosing the best orientation for the building (Al-Najem, 2002; Çakir, 2006; Manioğlu & Yılmaz, 2006; Syed Fadzil & Sia, 2004). Thomas and Garnham (2007) suggested that building orientation should be specified in terms of solar angle and dominant wind direction. The main entrance of Malay vernacular buildings is oriented to face the East (Lim, 1987). This orientation can minimize the number of areas exposed to direct solar radiation during the day and thus, reduce the heat gain in the building. This orientation is also based on a cultural practice whereby, minimal light in the morning signifies the concern regarding the occupant’s dignity, whereas more light in the evening reduces the usage of artificial light at that particular time. This guideline has been practiced in the construction of traditional Malay houses all over the country for a long time ago. Building Form and Architectural Layout According to Azari et al. (2016), various architectural features of vernacular masjid can influence its indoor thermal comfort, daylight, and energy consumption such as building shape, orientation, wall form, wall-to-wall ratio, window size, glazing material, wall structure, and shading. Designers may use building form as a self-shading approach to shade the outside surface materials, windows, and glazed areas. The shape of a building is an essential feature of external surface area, which determines the energy balance and thus, the cooling load. The elongated open plans of Malay vernacular masjids allow for the passage of air and enable good cross ventilation. There are minimal interior partitions that restrict air movement in the masjid. According to previous studies, rectangular building plans with lengths facing North and South are good for avoiding solar radiation and heat gain from the East and West (Halwatura & Jayasinghe, 2007; Konya, 1980; Tombazis & Preuss, 2001).

Indoor Thermal Comfort: The Case of Masjid Tuanku Mizan Zainal Abidin (Putrajaya, Malaysia)

Building Height Wind velocity increases with altitude. The unique feature of Malay vernacular masjids inspired by traditional Malay house design is that they are built on stilts. This approach provides advantages in many ways from thermal and functional to safety aspects of a building. The raised floor which is built higher than the ground can catch winds of a higher velocity as illustrated in Fig. 1 by Yuan (1987). It also provides an excellent under-floor ventilation system. This is particularly vital in areas with plant cover on the ground which restricts air movements. The use of timber planks for the floor with gaps in-between directs the air into the inner space. Openings Openings such as windows, doors, panels, and grills are important features of ventilation, which give relief to thermal discomfort. The energy performance of a building depends on the building envelope, especially the window (Hee et al., 2015). Al-Tamimi et al. (2011) found that window position, glass size, and application of natural ventilation should be appropriately specified to mitigate solar radiation and heat gain indoors. The fenestration with hollow wood carving allows for natural ventilation within the interior spaces. Natural lighting illuminates the house in every angle of interior space due to plenty of windows and openings available. In the afternoon, the roof and designed shades

Fig. 1 Research area is limited to main prayer hall of Masjid Tuanku Mizan Zainal Abidin, Putrajaya, Malaysia

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reduce the glare from sunlight. Void versus mass with the ground and verticality of Malay vernacular architecture provides adequate cross ventilation (Yuan, 1987). An open interior space with fully open windows allows for natural ventilation at the body level (Che Amat et al., 2009). Figure 2 shows an opening in the roof on both sides to allow air movement into the house (Hanafi, 1994). As one of the indigenous materials, at top roof used in Malay houses has a low thermal capacity. This material does not retain heat and cools down immediately. Shading Designing masjids with a passive approach requires the integration of many factors in the process, such as orientation, ventilation, shading devices, and building form. A proper shading design is important to provide interior spaces with thermal comfort by controlling solar heat gain, reducing glare, and ensuring sufficient daylighting. The roof is one of the main building enclosures that give form to a building and directly influences its thermal comfort. According to Vijaykumar et al. (2007), the roofing system influences 70% of the total heat gain in a building. Large overhangs and low-exposed vertical (windows and walls) provide good protection against rain and good shading, as well as allow for openings to be left open most of the time for ventilation. In addition, the overhang controls the amount of light entering the building.

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S. S. B. M. Nawayai and Z. B. Denan

Fig.2 Climatic design of the Malay house. Source Yuan (1987)

Ventilation Carvings and Decorations Similar to traditional Malay houses, the vernacular masjids portray a high level of craftsmanship. This can be seen in the non-structural components such as louvered windows, fanlights, carving wall panels, and fascia boards that allow for natural cross-air ventilation. Window components can be divided into three operable sections: the top, middle, and Fig.3 Ventilation openings in the roof of traditional Malay house. Source Kalam (1986)

bottom. The top section, called ornamentation, is the fixed ventilation panel that is usually well-decorated and -carved. Ventilation in a Malay vernacular masjid is granted by a number of full-length windows and doors at body level. Hassan and Ramli (2010) concluded that windows and openings aided by ornamentation along the perimeter walls contribute to the cross ventilation in the building (Fig. 3).

Indoor Thermal Comfort: The Case of Masjid Tuanku Mizan Zainal Abidin (Putrajaya, Malaysia)

77

Fig.4 The non-structural components of traditional Malay house. Source Hassan and Ramli (2010)

Serambi This element is one of the basic features of the Malay vernacular masjid as result of cultural diversity. Serambi is always introduced as an outdoor shaded space to cool off before entering the building. The design of Malay vernacular masjid includes serambi as one of its important components. It acts as the transitional space between the entrance and the remaining parts of the masjid. Serambi can be utilized as an extended praying area and when the need arises, it functions similarly to the courtyards.

3.2 Elements and Techniques of Passive Design Strategies for Indoor Thermal Comfort Integration of passive systems in architectural design requires many considerations at all levels of design processes. The performance of a passive system depends mostly on natural and environmental elements such as the sun, wind, earth, and water. There are three key major components of thermal comfort discussed in this paper namely passive cooling, passive ventilation, and passive lighting system. Passive cooling systems are the main design driver in low-energy architecture, especially in regions with hot and humid climates. Buildings are designed and built to adapt to local environmental conditions and use natural elements to provide occupants with the required thermal comfort year-round. Passive cooling approaches play a major role in bringing architecture closer to the environment without involving mechanical or electrical devices. The performance

of this system in providing energy balance for the occupants depends totally on the interaction of the building’s features and devices with the surrounding environmental factors, such as sun rays, ambient air temperature, wind, and humidity. Passive ventilation strategies use naturally occurring air flow patterns to introduce outdoor air into the space. Wind and buoyancy caused by differences in air temperature create different levels of air pressure throughout occupied spaces. Buildings can be designed to enhance natural air flow by taking advantage of this natural factor rather than working against it. Passive lighting systems maximize the use of daylighting and distribute naturally diffused daylight throughout a building’s interior to reduce the need for artificial electric lighting.

4

Results and Discussion

4.1 Case Study Masjid Tuanku Mizan Zainal Abidin is one of the prominent architectural landmarks in Malaysia. Built right next to the Millennium Monument at Putra Lake, the building is known colloquially as the Iron Masjid, which proclaims the presence and strength of Islam. It owes its name to its structure, which is 70% made of steel. The masjid was built and characterized by three design principles: simplicity, airiness, and transparency. The interior of the main prayer hall does not use a fan or air conditioner but uses “Gas District Cooling” air conditioning technology. Adjacent to the main prayer room is a pool which provides guests with a cool and airy atmosphere. The main prayer hall is surrounded by

78

Mashrabiya screens which are made of lattice and architectural metal screens that can be penetrated by light and wind. In addition, the masjid uses ultrasonic technology to prevent birds from entering the masjid. Kumpulan Senireka designed the masjid as a modern interpretation of Islamic architecture, it is 24 m high facade characterizes a purist steel structure with typical geometric ornamentation.

4.2 Findings Previous studies have repetitively highlighted the importance of heat avoidance techniques and adaptation of Malay vernacular design in the tropical climate of Malaysia. Each architectural feature in the vernacular Malay house can have a significant impact on energy reduction. At the same time, the passive design provides a solid guideline that can be adapted to mitigate energy consumption related to the cooling method while meeting the occupant’s thermal comfort. This paper presents findings on the Malay vernacular concept and some passive design strategies applied in the design of the building in the case study, Masjid Tuanku Mizan Zainal Abidin. The results suggest that both approaches can be applied together to achieve significant cooling load reduction. Table 1 presents the application of both approaches in the design of Masjid Tuanku Mizan Zainal Abidin. Measurements were recorded from 7 to 11th October 2019. The lowest temperature recorded inside the prayer hall was on Wednesday, 9th October 2019 at 25.4 °C, during Subuh prayer time; the highest temperature was taken on Friday, 11th October 2019 at 32.1 °C, during Friday prayer time. The interior of the main prayer hall is not installed with a fan or air conditioner. Instead, a cooling system called “Gas District Cooling” air conditioning technology is used to improve thermal performance during peak times for the users’ comfort. According to Fig. 5, the mean temperature in prayer hall areas ranged from 25.76 to 29.34 °C except during Zuhur prayer time (29.76–31.36 °C). This could be due to the application of shading devices that provide a semi-open space, which reduces solar penetration. The external shading devices include Mashrabiya and roof overhangs, whereas the roof eaves along the corridors act as the internal shading devices. Studies also found that Mashrabiya and screens are effective in fulfilling thermal comfort for masjid users. Natural air flow through the stainless steel mesh plays a key role in controlling the natural elements to the main prayer hall. The egg crate ventilated façade not only offer protection

S. S. B. M. Nawayai and Z. B. Denan

from drafts but also allows the right amount of cool air to enter the interior space. Figure 6 demonstrated that the air velocity in the interior space of the masjid ranged from 0.5 to 1.32 m/s. Natural ventilation was integrated by emphasizing the full-height Mashrabiya, which allows for natural wind flow. The surrounding pool provides airy and coolness to the atmosphere. In addition, the recorded range of relative humidity as presented in Fig. 7 are from 53.18 to 69.56%. The results obtained from this study were in line with Sapian et al. (2001). According to the study, in a naturally ventilated building in a hot and humid climate, thermal comfort is achieved when the indoor air temperature is between 26 and 29.9 °C, and the indoor air velocity is between 0.5 and 1.0 m/s. In such conditions, the relative humidity must not exceed 90% to sustain the comfort level. Moreover, according to the recommendation by ASHRAE, comfort can be attained when a minimum air velocity of 0.15 m/s blows in a room, where the indoor air temperature is between 23 and 26 °C, and the relative humidity is less than 70%. Based on the results obtained from this field survey, the optimum thermal comfort in the interior space of the Masjid Tuanku Mizan Zainal Abidin has mostly been achieved through the application of the Malay vernacular concept and passive design strategies.

5

Conclusion

Designing a worship building with the application of vernacular architecture and with a notion to represent the design as a national identity is a challenging task. Masjids represent a place of great spiritual significance and effective social function for Muslim communities, particularly. Therefore, all masjids must be designed with maximum thermal comfort and a relaxing ambiance for the users. Malay vernacular architectural style offers original solutions to the challenges in designing a masjid as a community and cultural center. Incorporating similar aspects of passive design and contemporary style together in Malay vernacular masjids is a unique combination that is filled with its own inspiration and local spirit. As a result, Malay history and architecture can remain in continuity, with careful reanalysis and reinterpretation of its deeper meaning. This paper proved that modern masjid designs can adapt and embrace both the interpretation of vernacular architecture and contemporary style and technology. The Masjid Tuanku Mizan Zainal Abidin is an iconic example of a modern masjid that combines both traditional values and a contemporary sense of identity.

Elements

Building Orientation

Building Height

Building Form and

No

01

02

03

Open plans with minimal interior partitions restrict air movement in the masjid

Space planning that responds to existing on-site climatic features

Building facade that adapts to environmental conditions such as wind direction, sun rays, ambient air temperature, and humidity

The floor which is built higher than the ground can catch winds of a relatively high velocity

Passive design strategies Minimal light in the morning and more light in the evening to reduce the usage of artificial light

The main entrance is oriented to face the East

Malay vernacular concept

Table 1 Application of malay vernacular concept and passive design strategies in Masjid Tuanku Mizan Zainal Abidin Building feature of Tuanku Mizan Zainal Abidin Masjid

Elongated open plans •The façade cladding connects the building's rectangular openings (continued)

Each steel spiral mesh allows the façade cladding to appear visually seamless and brings the impressive height of the building façade and its windows to the fore. The woven façade shell is attached using hook bolts that remain invisible, thereby supporting the architectural concept of simplicity and transparency

The path towards the masjid crosses a skyway known as the Qiblat Walk and is surrounded by a pool that provides guests with a cool and airy atmosphere

Indoor Thermal Comfort: The Case of Masjid Tuanku Mizan Zainal Abidin (Putrajaya, Malaysia) 79

Lighting

Ventilation Openings

05

Architectural Layout

Elements

04

No

Table 1 (continued)

Skylights and light tubes

• Operable windows • Buffer spaces and double facades • High ceilings paired with tall windows

• The roof opens on both sides to allow air movement into the interior space • Many full-length windows and doors at body level • Carvings & decorations: hollow wood carving will let more natural ventilation flow into the interior spaces

Passive design strategies

Natural lighting illuminates the interior at every angle due to the plentiful windows and openings

Malay vernacular concept

• Carvings & decorations: Purist structural steel with ornamentation typical of this country characterizes the 24 m high façade as a modern interpretation of Islamic architecture, which also performs other important functions: climate control, and solar and weather protection (continued)

• The air flow through the stainless steel mesh play a key role in providing the main prayer hall with natural climate control. The woven façade shell does not only offer protection against drafts but also allows for the right amount of cool air to pass through

The main prayer hall is surrounded by a mashrabiya screen consisting of lattice and architectural metal screen where light and wind can pass through

Building feature of Tuanku Mizan Zainal Abidin Masjid

80 S. S. B. M. Nawayai and Z. B. Denan

Elements

Shading

Material

No

06

07

Table 1 (continued)

Traditional building materials such as timber, bamboo, bricks, stone, and clay tiles are widely used as they are easily available locally. Materials used are easily available for cost-saving

Façade with high sun reflection and lightweight party walls for optimum thermal mass of building structure

Passive design strategies Openings to corridors and between otherwise separated spaces to increase daylighting and ventilation

Malay vernacular concept

• Large overhangs and low exposed vertical (windows and walls) provide good protection against the driving rain, and good shading, and allow the windows to be left open most of the time for ventilation • Serambi/veranda: outdoor shaded space to cool off before entering the building

Building feature of Tuanku Mizan Zainal Abidin Masjid

The architectural mesh used is resistant to corrosion and heat, low maintenance, non-combustible, resistant to mechanical influences, and extremely durable

• The edges of the masjid's roof can shelter the people praying outside of the main prayer hall from rain • The semi-transparent spiral mesh offers visitors reliable solar protection and protects them from driving rain

Indoor Thermal Comfort: The Case of Masjid Tuanku Mizan Zainal Abidin (Putrajaya, Malaysia) 81

82 Fig. 5 Average temperature recorded in prayer hall areas from 7 to 11th October 2019. Masjid Tuanku Mizan Zainal Abidin. Putrajaya, Malaysia

Fig. 6 Average wind speed in prayer hall areas from 7 to 11th October 2019. Masjid Tuanku Mizan Zainal Abidin. Putrajaya, Malaysia

Fig. 7 Average relative humidity in prayer hall areas from 7 to 11th October 2019. Masjid Tuanku Mizan Zainal Abidin. Putrajaya, Malaysia

S. S. B. M. Nawayai and Z. B. Denan

Indoor Thermal Comfort: The Case of Masjid Tuanku Mizan Zainal Abidin (Putrajaya, Malaysia)

References Aflaki, A., Mahyuddin, N., Mahmoud Awad, Z. A.-C., & Baharum, M. R. (2015). A review on natural ventilation applications through building façade components and ventilation openings in tropical climates. Energy and Buildings. Ali, A. (2012). Passive cooling and vernacularism in mughal buildings in North India: A source of inspiration for sustainable development. Al-Najem, A. (2002). The Architectural Category and its importance to measure the electrical energy demand and to identify effective conservation measures. In Paper presented at the first symposium on energy conservation and management in buildings conference. Al-Tamimi, N. A. M., Syed Fadzil, S. F., & Wan Harun, W. M. (2011). The effects of orientation, ventilation, and varied WWR on the thermal performance of residential rooms in the tropics. Journal of Sustainable Development, 4(2), 142. Ashrae, & Ansi. (2004). Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy (Vol. 55). American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers. Azari, R., et al. (2016). Multi-objective optimization of building envelope design for life cycle environmental performance. Energy and Buildings, 126, 524–534. Çakir, Ç. (2006). Assessing thermal comfort conditions: A case study on the METU Faculty of Architecture building. Middle East Technical University. Cena, K., & Clark, J. A. (1978). Thermal resistance units. Journal of Thermal Biology, 3(3), 173–174. Che Amat, S., & Rashid, M. S. A. (2009). An analysis of the traditional malay architecture as indicators for sustainability: An introduction to its genius loci. In Proceedings of Arte-Polis 3rd International Conference on Creative Collaboration and the Making of Place. Bandung. Givoni, B. (1976). Man, climate and architecture. Applied Science Publishers limited. Halwatura, R. U., & Jayasinghe, M. T. R. (2007). Strategies for improved micro-climates in high-density residential developments in tropical climates. Energy for Sustainable Development, 11(4), 54–65. Hanafi, Z. (1994). Housing design in relation to environmental comfort —a comparison of the traditional Malay house and modern housing. Building Research and Information, 22. Hassan, A. S., & Ramli, M. (2010). Natural ventilation of indoor air temperature: A case study of the traditional malay house in Penang. Science Publications, American Journal of Engineering and Applied Science, 3. Hee, W. J., Alghoul, M. A., Bakhtyar, B., Elayeb, O., Shameri, M. A., Alrubaih, M. S., et al. (2015). The role of window glazing on

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daylighting and energy saving in buildings. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 42, 323–343. Jones, P. J., Alexander, D. K., Rahman, A. M. (1993). Evaluation of the thermal performance of low-cost tropical housing. In: Proceedings of the International Building Performance Simulation Association (pp. 137–143). Konya, A. (1980). Design primer for hot climates. Design Primer for Hot Climates. Lim, J. Y. (1987). The malay house: Rediscovering Malaysia’s Indigenous Shelter System. Institut Masyarakat. Manioğlu, G., & Yılmaz, Z. (2006). Economic evaluation of the building envelope and operation period of heating system in terms of thermal comfort. Energy and Buildings, 38(3), 266–272. Mohd, A. K. (1983). A vanishing heritage: The old traditional malay house. Universiti Teknologi, Malaysia Press. Mohd Zaki, W. R., Nawawi, A. H., & Ahmad, H. (2007). Case study in passive architecture: energy savings benefit in a detached house in Malaysia. In Paper Presented at the Proceedings in the 24th Conference on Passive and Low Energy Architecture. University of Singapore. Mohd Zaki, W. R., Nawawi, A. H., & Sh. Ahmad, S. (2012). Environmental prospective of passive architecture design strategies in terrace houses. Procedia-Social and Behavioural Sciences, 42, 300–310 La Roche, P. (2001). Keeping cool: Principles to avoid overheating in buildings. PLEA, Passive and Low Energy Architecture International. Sapian, A. R., Madros, N. H., & Ahmad, M. H. (2001). Evaluation of thermal comfort performance in low cost flats: Case study of Sri Perak flats, Kuala Lumpur. Development of Passive Solar Design and Technology in Tropical Climates, 5, 23–33. Syed Fadzil, S. F., & Sia, S.-J. (2004). Sunlight control and daylight distribution analysis: The KOMTAR case study. Building and Environment, 39(6), 713–717 Thomas, R., & Garnham, T. (2007). The environments of architecture: Environmental design in context. Taylor & Francis. Tombazis, A. N., & Preuss, S. A. (2001). Design of passive solar buildings in urban areas. Solar Energy, 70(3), 311–318. Vijaykumar, K. C. K., Srnivasan, P. S. S., & Dhandapani, S. (2007). A performance of Hollow Tiles Clay (HTC) laid Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) roof for tropical summer climates. Energy and Buildings, 39, 886–892. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2006. 05.009 Yuan, L. J. (1987). The Malay house: Rediscovering Malaysia’s indigenous shelter system. Pulau Pinang. Institut Masyarakat.

The Impact of Revival of Traditional Lighting Techniques in Modern and Contemporary Mosque Design Dalia Hossam Eldin Ismail Labib Mohamed

Abstract

Daylight in Islamic architecture is used to symbolically represent God’s presence in a space that enriches it with symbolic and spiritual value and that was clear in the old Islamic Mosque architecture which is unique and magnificent. The importance of this research is to study the effect of traditional lighting techniques used in old Islamic architecture on the daylight performance of modern and contemporary mosques that follow the principles of lighting used in old Islamic architecture but modern form, this will be applied through the analytical methodology by analyzing different examples of modern and contemporary mosques showing how they let the light inside as well as the spiritual meaning has been created. Keywords




Mosque design Daylight environmental techniques

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darkness to light, but this light is never distracting because it is the reason for life. Thus manifestation of spiritual aspects of light on the physical aspects of the building is the main feature that enriches the Islamic architecture aesthetically (Arjmandi et al., 2011), and by using a combination of light and shadows, the architects create contrast and infuse the place with spirituality. An architectural space of a mosque with a combination of light and shadow indicates the move from darkness to light (Goudarzi & Saremi, 2015).

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Research Problem

The research problem is the loss of the identity of the Islamic Mosque due to the modern style of architecture for mosques and the dependence on artificial lighting in most the mosques and the absence of natural lighting techniques.

Revival of traditional

Introduction

For many Muslims there is no more perfect symbol of Tawhid than light (Al Rifai, 2015), light is the God s face, that appeared in the mosques (Arjmandi et al., 2011) “Allah is the Light of the heavens and the earth. The example of His light is like a niche within which is a lamp, the lamp is within the glass, the glass as if it were a pearly [white] star lit” In Koran Sura 34 (Al Noor—which means light). Accordingly, light is the symbol of existence in Islamic architectural spaces (Goudarzi & Saremi, 2015). The way the light is seen in mosques is the path which is from D. H. E. I. L. Mohamed (&) Architecture Department, Misr University for Science and Technology, Cairo, Egypt e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

2.1 Research Goal The goal of the research is to explain the significance of traditional natural lighting techniques in mosques and show howto revival of those in new forms that match the modern design of contemporary mosques and inspire from them new concepts for mosques this will be achieved through the analytical methodology of modern and contemporary mosques that were able to put the old traditional techniques in new form with a specific focus on lighting techniques.

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Defining the Mosque

The mosque is the heart of the Islamic community, where Muslims perform their prayers five times a day (Hoteit, 2015). The architecture and design of mosques have undergone significant changes over the centuries due to cultural, economic, and climatic factors, but there are main

© Effat University 2023 M. Fekry et al. (eds.), Mosque Architecture: A Transdisciplinary Debate, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24751-4_10

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features that most mosques have; mihrab, minbar, qibla wall, Sahn (courtyard), prayer hall, and minarets. All Mosques are oriented towards Mecca and this is called “Al Qibla” (Casares et al., 2020), mihrab is marking the direction to face towards Mecca (Pile, 2005), since mihrab is a niche built into the wall is placed within the inner surface of the southern wall on the longitudinal axis with the entrance and this wall is called the Qibla wall Such prayers are directed to this wall towards the Qibla during pray. On the right-hand side of Mihrab there is the Minbar where the imam gives a speech. Thus lighting is used to draw the attention of the prayers to the Qibla wall (Casares et al., 2020). For that reason, there is often an open court in front of the mosque with a pool or fountain for the washing before praying and it is adjacent to the prayer hall (Pile, 2005). But such lighting must be used with care to avoid glaring for the prayers which will reduce its usefulness (Casares et al., 2020). Thus daylight is not preferred to enter from the Qibla wall which faces the prayers, to avoid intensive glare (El-Darwish et al., 2016).

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Day Lighting Devices in Old Historic Mosques

That’s why the Open court is adjacent to the prayer hall in most the mosques (Dalia & Eldardiry, 2019), and it could be adjacent to the prayer hall on two to four sides (Azeddine Belakehal & Abdallah, 2015). It may or may not have galleries to be spatially connected to the prayer hall through entrance porches (Makani, 2015). The gallery location could vary from one to four sides (Belakehal & Abdallah, 2015). The shape of a courtyard was constructed in the form of a rectangle as in Fig. 2 or almost square, stretching in the direction or perpendicular to Qibla as in Fig. 1 even if the mosque land adopted an irregular geometry; the inner open court wasn’t changed (Makani, 2015) as in Figs. 3 and 4. The environmental conditions were one of the most important factors contributing to the formation of the open court in mosques as it is the source of light and air to the prayer hall (Hoteit, 2015). The availability of shade during hot days prevented temperature rises due to sunlight while cooling down the pond water and the garden plants, from which the evaporation worked as an air conditioner. Similarly in winter, the courtyard prevented the cold winds, by means of the surrounding verandas and chambers, from blowing inside the mosque, thus keeping warm against chilling weather (Makani, 2015). (1) Camlica Mosque, Istanbul

The impact of daylight on users is recognized in the fields of architecture, and it enriches their spiritual experience in the mosques (Ashadi, 2019). Although the light is seen in mosques to be the path which is from darkness to light (Arjmandi et al., 2011). Thus the relationship between light and darkness creates dramatic visual and spiritual experiences in sacred places (Benedikt, 2015) and the handling of daylight in a mosque is very dependent on the climatic conditions of its location (Stegers, 2008). This is achieved by the establishment of various daylighting devices within the prayer hall including windows, Mashrabiyas, the open court, and domes (Al-karablieh, 2019). Even after the discovery of electricity and invention of electric lamps, which provided the possibility to artificially illuminate interior spaces, the use of natural lighting in mosques is important (Goudarzi & Saremi, 2015) to achieve sustainability by reducing the consumption of energy and also creating spiritual experiences in sacred places. Thus this study investigated the availability of daylighting devices in the modern contemporary mosques which developed from the daylighting devices in the old historic mosques.

Istanbul Camlica Mosque has been located in the heart of nature and in the Garden of Eden on top of the most visual hill of Istanbul. The Qibla wall of the mosque is solid and the walls beside the open court are transparent as shown in Figs. 6 and 7. Garden of Eden transformed into the open court of the mosque and the transparent courtyard walls

A. Open court It is called “sahn” (Dalia & Eldardiry, 2019) and it is a central, wide, open, and unroofed area in the inner space of the mosque and is usually used for prayer in summer, or when the prayer hall is filled with prayers (Hoteit, 2015).

Fig. 1 Plan of Al-Zahir Baybars Mosque (Viktoria Meinecke Berg, n.d.)

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Fig. 2 Plan of Al Azhar Mosque (Viktoria Meinecke Berg, n.d.) Fig. 4 3D of the form of Mosque and Madrasa of al-Sultan Hassan (www.pinterest.com/pin/757941812264465079/)

Fig. 3 Plan of Mosque and Madrasa of al-Sultan Hassan (Viktoria Meinecke Berg, n.d.)

decorated with roses, jasmines and other flowers with many different colors on the inner and outer surfaces provide the ambiance and sensation of a Garden of Eden (www. architizer.com/projects/camlica-mosque-1/). In this mosque, there was a development for the form of open courts to be circular open courts as shown in Fig. 5. (2) Sancaklar Mosque The mosque is a simple cave-like, becoming an inspiring place to pray and be alone with God. The building is located below the canopy and can be accessed from a path from the upper courtyard (www.archdaily.com/516205/sancaklarmosque-emre-arolat-architects) as shown in Fig. 8. The mihrab is defined by a beam of natural light floods down on it (Berin, 2017) from silts along the Qibla wall allowing natural light to trickle into the prayer hall to direct the

Fig. 5 Circular Open Court of Camlica Mosque (www.archiscene.net/ location/turkey/istanbul-camlica-mosque-tuncer-cakmakli-architects/)

prayers to the Qibla (Birliği, n.d.) as shown in Figs. 9 and 10. In this mosque, the court becomes on the upper level than the level the prayer hall is not adjacent to it as in old traditional mosques and light comes from silts in the roof not from side windows looking at the adjacent court

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Fig. 9 The Interior of Sancaklar Mosque (Birliği, n.d.)

Fig. 6 The Entrance of Camlica Mosque (www.archiscene.net/ location/turkey/istanbul-camlica-mosque-tuncer-cakmakli-architects/)

A. Domes (1) Wall Dome Mosque by Paolo Venturella Architects

Fig. 7 The Interior of Camlica Mosque (www.architizer.com/projects/ camlica-mosque-1/)

The mosque from a geometric point of view can be seen as a sphere that extrudes out from the wall; this form is achieved by merging two primary elements of traditional mosque architecture, which are the Qibla Wall and the Dome (www. architizer.com/blog/inspiration/collections/8-modernmosques/) creating the “Kiblah wall dome” as shown in Fig. 11. The envelope is double-skin made with a series of louvers, the facade is covered with a thin photovoltaic film that harvests energy for the mosque and the other services. Take advantage of the spherical shape that is perfectly oriented to the sun at any time of day. The tilted shades avoid the direct passage of sunlight creating indirect illumination to avoid the glaring of the prayers while it allows the view of the outside (www.evolo.us/the-wall-dome-prishtina-centralmosque-kosovo/) as shown in Figs. 12 and 13. (2) Rijeka Islamic Centre and Mosque, Croatia The mosque consists of six domes and semi-domes in reinforced concrete (www.archnet.org/sites/15806/media_ contents/114780) separate but visually seen as a single object as shown in Fig. 14, and it is a revival of the traditional dome (www.islamicartsmagazine.com/magazine/ view/the_mosque_in_rijeka_a_masterpiece_of_ contemporary_architecture/). (3) Central Mosque, Germany

Fig. 8 The Court of Sancaklar Mosque (www.archdaily.com/516205/ sancaklar-mosque-emre-arolat-architects)

Its series of concrete walls look like shells linked by recessed vertical bands of glazing as shown in Figs. 15 and 17. In the center of these walls build a light-flooded dome above the praying hall to make it dominate. The prayer hall treatment of light and shadow through the skylight dome (www.asfaar.

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Fig. 10 Section of Sancaklar Mosque (Unwin, 2016)

Fig. 11 Wall Dome Mosque (www.architizer.com/blog/inspiration/ collections/8-modern-mosques/) Fig. 13 The envelope with a series of louvers at Wall Dome Mosque (www.architizer.com/blog/inspiration/collections/8-modern-mosques/)

Fig. 12 The Interior of Wall Dome Mosque (www.architizer.com/ blog/inspiration/collections/8-modern-mosques/)

org/ar/file/128) makes over 70% of the energy needed for heating and cooling the building is derived from the site's geothermal resources due to the use of glazing in this cold weather (www.archnet.org/sites/6927) as shown in Fig. 16.

Fig. 14 Rijeka Islamic Centre and Mosque (Cooper et al., 2020)

A. Mashrabiya The Mashrabiya is a wooden lattice window with conspicuous geometric patterns as shown in Fig. 18. It was designed

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Fig. 15 Central Mosque, Germany (Staub, 2018)

Fig. 16 The Interior of Central Mosque, Germany (www.dw.com/en/ erdogan-in-germany-what-you-need-to-know-about-ditib-mosqueassociation/a-45676937)

Fig. 17 Concrete walls that look like shells in Central Mosque, Germany (www.boehmarchitektur.de/82-2)

to perform many environmental functions like adjustment of lighting, humidity, and airflow control, reducing the heat, and playing an essential role in securing privacy (Park, 2018). It allows ambient light to pass through spaces without glare. The common traditional places of Mashrabiya were the façades of traditional houses, or in mosques, and caravansaries (Özsavaş Akçay & Alotman, 2017) (Fig. 19). (1) Pristina central mosque proposal by OODA Dome is usually a symbolic expression of the heavens, to act in this mosque as a protective envelope of the prayer space and expressed by a fibrous double skin thus the walls of the prayer hall are comprised of an interior mesh that fractures light into the open-plan place (www.designboom.com/ architecture/ooda-pristina-central-mosque-proposal-kosovo/). This considered revival of the dome and the Mashrabiya that expressed by a fibrous double skin of the dome to play the

Fig. 18 Traditional Mashrabiya (Özsavaş Akçay & Alotman, 2017)

same role of the Mashrabiya by letting indirect light in without glaring to the prayers which looks like the dome of the louver of Abu Dhabi as shown in Fig. 20.

The Impact of Revival of Traditional Lighting Techniques in Modern and Contemporary Mosque Design

Fig. 19 Pristina central mosque proposal by OODA (www. designboom.com/architecture/ooda-pristina-central-mosque-proposalkosovo/)

Fig. 20 The Interior of Pristina central mosque proposal by OODA (www.designboom.com/architecture/ooda-pristina-central-mosqueproposal-kosovo/)

(2) Pristina central mosque proposal by Maden GROUP

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Fig. 21 Pristina central mosque proposal by Maden GROUP (www. archdaily.com/364979/central-mosque-of-pristina-competition-entrymaden-group)

light (Tarabieh et al., 2019). The mosque does not have a dome or a minaret and in place of the mihrab, there is a slit in the Qibla wall that lets in natural light. Instead of making the Qibla wall full of decoration, it was the arrangement of the bricks used for constructing the structure creates textures that show rich visual patterns when natural light falls on it and a simple vertical gap in the brick denotes that this is the direction of the Qibla (Bloom & Blair, 2019) as shown in Fig. 24, random circular roof openings which is inspired from the Mashrabiya allow daylight into the prayer hall creating an ornate pattern on the floor enhancing spirituality through light (www.mosqpedia.org/en/mosque/181) as shown in Fig. 23 and instead of one open court adjacent to the prayer hall there are four small light courts at the corners of the prayer hall with porous brick walls shown in Fig. 25, it keeps the prayer hall ventilated, cool and brought Natural light in www.archdaily.com/787108/the-aga-khan-awardfor-architecture-announces-2016-shortlist as shown in Fig. 23.

Using Mashrabiya in the concept was one of the aims to keep the traditional elements of the Mosque part of the design as shown in Fig. 21. Also, the flower patterns complement the symmetry which is common in Islamic design, Islamic art often integrates the use of symmetrical and geometric designs for decorative purposes. This technique to design Mosque`s façade enhances the sustainability of the design where the placement of openings in that way maximize the usage of natural reassures like sunlight and natural ventilation (www.archdaily.com/364979/central-mosque-ofpristina-competition-entry-maden-group) as shown in Fig. 22. (3) Bait ur rouf mosque in Dahka, Bangladesh It is an example of a building that achieves a spiritual feeling through its architecture due to the impact of ventilation and

Fig. 22 The Interior of Pristina central mosque proposal by Maden GROUP (www.archdaily.com/364979/central-mosque-ofpristina-competition-entry-maden-group)

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Fig. 23 The Interior of Bait ur rouf mosque (www.archnet.org/sites/ 15120/media_contents/112762)

Fig. 24 Rijeka Islamic Centre and Mosque (Cary, 2017)

never change also it is important to achieve the spiritual feelings to the prayer and this achieved by many factors one them is the daylighting. Thus the daylighting is important to achieve a spiritual feeling and to achieve sustainable design that reduces the energy consumption. Also, modern contemporary mosques have new features, components, and styles that can fulfill the local communities and reflects their culture, and technologies that may lead to the loss of the mosque identity and the spiritual experience of prayer in it. Thus the challenge for mosques architects is to revive the old traditional techniques or elements and redesigned it in a modern way, representing a new way of thinking and expression to be suitable to the modern contemporary mosques and it can be a source of inspiration for the whole concept of the design as it was shown in many examples in this paper to preserve the identity of the mosques in a modern way of design. There are no limits in the mosque architecture with modern developments in the field of architecture and technology as if it does not affect the spiritual experience of the prayer. The modern contemporary mosque’s architecture has to be matched with surrounding modern architecture but with inspiration from the old traditional Islamic architecture to preserve its Islamic identity.

References

Fig. 25 Light courts in Bait ur rouf mosque (www.archnet.org/ sites/15120/media_contents/ 112762)

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Conclusion

Mosque has always played roles in Islamic community, and it’s architecture has developed and changed over time, where some elements is added and some elements disappeared but the main function of the mosque is to pray and this will

Abdelkader, R., & Park, J.-H. (2018). Spatial principles of traditional cairene courtyard houses in Cairo. Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, 249–250. Al-karablieh, M. A., AL-Qudah, M. M., ALameri, J. H., AL-Khatib, I. A., Bani Ismail, H. A., & Malatjalian, D. J. (2019). The technical and design characteristics of traditional natural lighting methods in islamic architecture. Journal of Tourism, Hospitality and Sports, 41, 55. Al Rifai, S. R. (2015). Art and islamic architecture: Photography book on islamic architecture (p. 49). Sunnah Muakada. Arjmandi, H., Tahir, M. M., Shabankareh, H., Shabani, M. M., & Mazaheri, F. (2011). Psychological and spiritual effects of light and color from iranian traditional houses on dwellers. Journal of Social Science and Humanities, 6(2011), 295–298. Ashadi, A. (2019). Sacred signs and forms of the modern mosques. In The international conference of Heritage and Culture in Integrated Rural-Urban Context (HUNIAN) (p. 8). Belakehal, A., Tabet Aoul, K., & Abdallah, F. (2015). Daylight as a design strategy in the ottoman mosques of Tunisia and Algeria. International Journal of Architectural Heritage, 8–13. Benedikt, M. (2015). Architecture, culture, and spirituality (p. 117). Bloom, J. M., & Blair, S. S. (2019). Islamic art: past, present, future (p. 233). Yale University Press. Cary, J. (2017). Design for good: A new era of architecture for everyone (p. 213). Island Press. Casares, J., & Dominguez Amarillo, S. (2020). Islamic heritage architecture and art III (p. 125). WIT Press. Cooper, R. (2020). Michael spilling & debbie nevins (p. 89). “Croatia” Cavendish Square. El-Darwish, I.I., & El- Gendy, R. A. (2016). The role of fenestration in promoting daylight performance: The mosques of Alexandria since the 19th century. Alexandria Engineering Journal, 2

The Impact of Revival of Traditional Lighting Techniques in Modern and Contemporary Mosque Design Elghonaimy, I., Eldardiry, D. H. (2019). The revival of courtyard consolidation in mosque architecture. In International Conference on Mosque Architecture (p. 5) Goussous, J., & Al-Azhari, W. (2011). Domes formation in mediterranean islamic countries. In Domes in the world-international congress (p. 4–5). Goudarzi, A. R., & Saremi, H. R. (2015). Spiritual effect of light and shadow reflected in architectural spaces on the mitigation of man’s mental pressures. International Journal of Architecture, Engineering, and Construction, 4(2), 118–124. Gür, B. F. (2017). Sancaklar mosque: displacing the familiar. International Journal of Islamic Architecture, 6, 183. Hoteit, A. (2015). Contemporary architectural trends and their impact on the symbolic and spiritual function of the mosque. International Journal of Current Research -, 7, 13548–13551. http://www.pinterest.com/pin/757941812264465079/. Retrieved October 30, 2020. http://www.architizer.com/projects/camlica-mosque-1/. Retrieved October 27, 2020. http://www.archiscene.net/location/turkey/istanbul-camlica-mosquetuncer-cakmakli-architects/. Retrieved October 27, 2020. http://www.archdaily.com/516205/sancaklar-mosque-emre-arolatarchitects. Retrieved October 28, 2020. http://www.architizer.com/blog/inspiration/collections/8-modernmosques/. Retrieved October 27, 2020. http://www.evolo.us/the-wall-dome-prishtina-central-mosque-kosovo/. Retrieved October 29, 2020. http://www.archnet.org/sites/15806/media_contents/114780. Retrieved October 29, 2020. http://www.islamicartsmagazine.com/magazine/view/the_mosque_in_ rijeka_a_masterpiece_of_contemporary_architecture/. Retrieved October 29, 2020 . http://www.asfaar.org/ar/file/128. Retrieved October 29, 2020. http://www.archnet.org/sites/6927. Retrieved October 29, 2020. http://www.boehmarchitektur.de/82-2. Retrieved October 29, 2020.

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Mitigating the Contradiction of the Climatically Best Orientation and the Qibla Direction of Mosques Mady A. A. Mohamed and Nourhan Ahmed

Abstract

Keywords

Investigating building performance in terms of thermal, visual, and acoustic comfort for occupants is very important to judge the quality of the design for any building. Mosque buildings are no exception since the mosque could be used for most of the day for the entire year. The orientation of buildings plays an important role in controlling energy consumption. The best orientation could be determined based on three important aspects. These are the view, the prevailing wind direction, and the sun position. The problem that lies at the core of this research is that the Mosques should be oriented in the “Qibla” direction regardless of the climatic studies. Traditional builders and particularly in the Islamic era adopted numerous design passive strategies and techniques, such as the Courtyard, the Mashrabia, Lantern “Shukhshikha”, Wind Catcher …etc. to overcome this problem. Also, they used to adapt different forms that allow them to compromise between the two required orientations. This research investigates the effect of the Qibla direction on the environmental performance of Mosques and sets different solutions to mitigate this problem through the analytical literature review for vernacular Mosques.

Component Qibla direction Climatically best orientation Sun position Vernacular mosques Prevailing wind Visual Comfort

M. A. A. Mohamed (&) Architectural Department, College of Architecture and Design, Effat University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia e-mail: [email protected] Architectural Department, College of Engineering, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt N. Ahmed Department of Architecture, College of Fine Arts, Design and Architecture, Cyprus International University (CIU), Nicosia, Cyprus

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Introduction and Research Background

In Islam, the mosque represents a special place for worship. There are various Islamic architectural designs used to build mosques worldwide, which is due to the different periods and areas architects built these mosques. When it comes to the mosques located in Jeddah, their associated annual high operational and maintenance costs vary for several reasons, which correlates with their modest facade designs. The low thermal efficiency of the building materials or the techniques adopted in the structure could explain why. Moreover, such structures do not conform to the city's temperature or, on the other hand, they disregard the mosque's exterior windows. Much research has been conducted on the effect of the building orientation on the energy performance and the thermal comfort of occupants. Rani and Kannamma (2021) investigated the thermal comfort of classrooms placed in an institutional building based on the function of wind velocity, air temperature, and relative humidity. Utilizing field experiments helped in the understanding of the effect of east–west orientation on the thermal comfort inside the classrooms that were located on various floor levels. The air temperature within the classrooms rose in direct proportion to the floor level. In the classrooms, air temperature and relative humidity showed an inverse connection with east– west direction and floor level. Computational fluid dynamics simulations were used to validate the results. It was confirmed that as time passed, classrooms on the east side of the building had higher air temperatures than classrooms on the west side.

© Effat University 2023 M. Fekry et al. (eds.), Mosque Architecture: A Transdisciplinary Debate, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24751-4_11

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Another study examined the significance of the orientation on the overall building’s thermal performance. Albatayneh, A., et al. deduced that designing energy-efficient buildings that saved energy and emitted fewer greenhouse gases (GHG) was crucial in controlling and lowering GHG emissions. Albatayneh, A., et al. also stated that by orienting a building to face the summer wind stream, a building may be oriented to receive the winter sun it needs and to be ventilated in the summer. Therefore, an inexpensive way to increase thermal comfort for occupants and reduce cooling and heating energy costs is to properly orient the building. An Australian building module was evaluated to determine the influence of the building’s orientation and wind speed and direction on its total thermal performance in this paper. In the end, the optimum direction was to enable the winds on the north side of the southern hemisphere to enter the module and escape the main wind. Appropriate orientation reduced heat losses by at least three times in winter months compared to the south-facing window module, which improved total thermal efficiency substantially. (Albatayneh et al., 2018). In a study done by Azmi and Ibrahim (2020) on thermal performance and envelope thermal design of mosque buildings, it was stated that building envelopes must be designed to provide optimal thermal performance to protect the interior from harsh weather conditions and improve thermal comfort for users. Mosques are skin-load-dominated buildings and thus, the majority of heating or cooling load is due to external climatic factors. Heat gain through the walls, roof, and windows are the biggest contributors to cooling loads of mosques in hot climates. The biggest percentage of energy can be saved by applying suitable insulation to the walls and roof along with providing shading for the windows. Haase and Amato (2009) analyzed the climatic conditions regarding the thermal comfort in buildings as well as climate and orientation of a building's location and how it influences thermal comfort. The climate had a direct impact on the quantity of energy consumed for heating and cooling, as well as lighting. Orientation is becoming increasingly important as glass usage increases and glazing systems that allow for high solar heat gains are developed. The possibility of increasing thermal comfort was evaluated through a comprehensive investigation. The building envelope that allows NV and air-conditioning in a hybrid model must thus find design solutions. A double-skin façade may be one conceivable design feature. With the correct design, it not just could support the passive heating strategy over the cold months of the year but would also enhance NV in the building (Ding et al.,) which could be combined with ventilated windows so that solar heat can be saved in the building and thus the peak cooling charge is reduced.

M. A. A. Mohamed and N. Ahmed

In the research “Study and Effect of Orientation Two Room of Buildings Located in Ghardaia, Algeria” (Hamdani et al., 2012). studied how the internal temperatures are affected by thermal isolation, building direction, and thermal inertia of the building envelope. A technical procedure of elaboration of a computing program written in MATLAB code to simulate the proposed mathematical model was utilized. To calculate varied delivered temperatures under real climatic and environmental circumstances, a mathematical model was provided. Simulated and experimental findings were in perfect agreement. Experimental validation of the theoretical model was thus achieved. Thermal insulation is the most effective way to improve outcomes. A thermally insulated building’s orientation does not have a significant effect on the inside temperature. Thus, the thermal inertia of buildings may be used to create a comfortable indoor environment. Using stone thermal inertia to its full potential is crucial for a better building thermal comfort as the study concluded. Kim, et al. (2016) studied the reciprocal influence of windows’ size, position, and orientation on the energy load. Window size, location, and orientation were used to generate 65 distinct design situations. Revit BIMs were produced for each scenario and utilized by Autodesk Green Building Studio to calculate the overall energy load for each scenario. A window-to-wall ratio (WWR) and window position were evaluated in the initial analytical step to determine their impact on the energy load. Initial results suggested that the overall energy load increases as the WWR increases and that the windows' location has the greatest influence on the load at WWR levels of 20 and above. These data were used in the following stage, which examined how the energy load varied as a function of window direction. It turns out that the building’s energy load is lowest when the windows are positioned at middle height in all orientations, and the east windows’ placement has the greatest impact on overall energy consumption. Numerous studies have been conducted on the energy and comfort implications of window size and façade orientation (Mangkuto et al., 2016). A variety of daylight measures have been developed to indicate daylight availability in interior areas, however, these metrics are not always completely taken into consideration in the optimization process. It should be noted that most research was done at high latitudes when the sun is usually positioned either southward or northward in the sky hemisphere, which is not the situation in tropical latitudes. An investigation of window-to-wall ratio (WWR), wall reflectance, and window orientation on daylight metrics and lighting energy consumption in basic structures located in tropical climates is presented by Mangkuto, R. A., et al. as simulation research. The findings were classified into six

Mitigating the Contradiction of the Climatically Best Orientation and the Qibla Direction of Mosques

pairs of two distinct performance indicators as part of a basic multi-objective optimization technique. If at least four of the six Pareto frontiers included solutions, they were admitted into the optimal solution space and were ranked either by their mean distance from utopia or by the number of times they belong to a certain Pareto frontier. This led to the discovery of three optimal solutions, which all fall inside four Pareto boundaries. The combination of a WWR of 30 percent, a wall reflectance of 0.8, and a south orientation provides the shortest mean distance to the utopia spots. Since the indoor environment has a direct impact on human health, natural ventilation may be used as a method of ventilation that is efficient. Nie et al. (2015). compared and analyzed Five window-opening behaviors of a common residential building in Changsha by using Airpak. DesignBuilder estimated the energy consumption of buildings with different orientations using Changsha's normal weather data. The performance of natural ventilation and the building's energy usage were taken into account in the development of a new assessment index. The index was used to determine the best scheme combination of building orientation and opening position. Finally, a compilation and study of the usual climatic characteristics of the wind direction in Changsha determined that when just the views of natural ventilation are analyzed, the optimum construction orientation is the West. However, the optimum construction orientation was the South when DesignBuilder was used to assess the energy consumption of the building in different buildings. Utilizing complicated research, the optimal construction orientation is in the South or North, under the impact of building energy consumption and natural ventilation. In the north wall, Air Inlet should be situated. Valladares-Rendón et al. (2017) identified and suggested the most efficient and balanced alternatives to reduce isolation and enhance energy savings, while maintaining daylight visibility. The Window-to-wall ratio, façade self-shading, and building orientation were examined. Energy savings were ranging from 4.64 to 76.57% for the cases that used passive methods. Subtropical and temperate zones were well-suited to the techniques used for six situations. The most commonly proposed solutions were sophisticated façade self-shading and shading devices. The previous studies concluded that appropriate orientation reduced heat loss in buildings by a significant amount. The primary living spaces and most used spaces in a building—in the hot arid zone of the northern hemisphere of the earth—should be facing north to take advantage of the sun for warmth and natural light. Also facing north should be the major glazing in the building, such as windows and glass doors. Therefore, everywhere from 20°W to 30°E from the north is optimal. Moreover, other researchers suggested that orienting the building is not enough, rather providing shading devices for windows, applying suitable insulation,

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and positioning windows at middle height are essential factors in reducing energy consumption and enhancing thermal comfort. Very few research was conducted on the orientation of mosques related to the Qibla (Ghouchani et al., 2019; Ghouchania et al., 2019; Hojjat & Maleki, 2013; Kahera et al., 2009; Mirahmadi & Mahdavipour, 2017; Noghrehkar et al., 2014; Yilmaz, 2012). Basunbol (2017).. in his paper “Reduce Energy Consumption in Mosques Through Jeddah” stated that Mosques in Jeddah have significant yearly operating and maintenance costs for a variety of reasons, including the modest design of the mosque's exterior features. A lack of thermal performance in building materials or construction designs, which are not compatible with Jeddah's climate, or a lack of consideration for the mosque's exterior windows. All-day long, it has an impact on the direct exposure to solar radiation and the thermal energy consumption for cooling. That's because Jeddah's hot and humid weather throughout the year had led to a rise in energy use for prayer comfort. The simulation program in phase one determined whether or not construction materials replacements utilized in the mosque’s outside walls would provide better thermal performance, as well as the influence glass windows would have on the mosque's overall thermal performance. In the second phase, the difference in energy consumption and the amount to which the mosque's exterior parts were exposed to solar radiation throughout the year was evaluated based on the Qibla direction difference. Subsequently, the study found that the Qibla orientation in north-central Jeddah influenced the mosque's thermal efficiency due to its exterior design. During ancient civilizations, the orientation of structures was based on the motions of various celestial bodies above the horizon on certain dates (two solstices and equinoxes). The Kaaba, which is located in the courtyard of the Sacred Mosque in Mecca, has been a sacred direction (qibla) for Muslims since the early days of Islam. A niche on the qibla wall pointed in the qibla direction, thus mosques had to face that direction wherever they were built. Before the seventeenth century, Turkish mosques were oriented according to astronomical knowledge gained from Arabic sources before Islam, mathematical theory and spherical calculation gained from Greek sources, and early Islamic tradition. Muslims connect mosque orientations to those employed in holy geography, calculated by folk astronomers and mathematical astronomers using geometric or trigonometric equations as stated by Yilmaz (2012). Other research related to the energy performance of mosques was conducted. in a study by Al-Homoud et al. (2009). stated that buildings in severe climate zones require air conditioning to maintain a comfortable temperature. Heating and air conditioning systems operate for longer than necessary in many buildings. As a result of incorrect

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operating methods, poor maintenance, or even a complete absence of maintenance, inefficient air-conditioning systems prevent thermal comfort from being attained in some cases. According to the local solar time, prayer hours define the working schedule for mosques. Based on the results of the measurements of the mosque indoor environments, the relatively high energy usage in some mosques is not necessarily converted into improved conditions for thermal comfort. Thermal conditions acceptable to your skin, particularly for lengthy periods of non-occupied use and its intermittent operation, may be considerably increased by the use of Mosque envelope thermal insulation. Both thermal comfort and energy savings may be improved more on Friday, and big mosques have partial daily occupancy than small and medium-sized mosques, as a result of mosque operating zoning. it was concluded that the air supply outlets should be situated at a height of as low as feasible (i.e. around 2.0 m above floor level) and near to the inhabited zone to guarantee thermal comfort at a lower energy level. There are many different types of mosques, each of which is used regularly. At varied times and intervals, mosques are open for prayer. So they require a different approach to thermal comfort than residential and business structures. The results showed that the region at the entrance to the mosque is the least comfortable. Creating space areas (to achieve a homogeneous indoor thermal comfort by creating an intermediate area between the main playground and the outdoor environment, such as a narthex), minimizes the negative effects of the heat differences in the prayer area between outdoor conditions and inner conditions. That is why it is important to plan air conditioning systems, unlike the other days, so that they can automatically adjust according to the temperature conditions on Friday at midday during prayer time. Also, The M. Theology Mosque with A/C systems is better able to demonstrate and maintain the level of thermal indoor comfort compared to Hz. The transparency ratio and U-value of Ali Mosque are small, intermittent, and incorrect heating–cooling system location caused high energy consumption, and low thermal comfort (Atmaca & Gedik, 2019). Proper operating zone delineation and appropriate HVAC operation methods can minimize the amount of energy required to maintain interior thermal comfort in hot conditions. Mosque energy efficiency is examined by Budaiwi and Abdou (2013) through the use of operational zoning and HVAC system intermittent operation techniques. To evaluate various zoning and HVAC operating techniques, energy simulation modeling is employed. While maintaining thermal comfort, the purpose of this research is to examine the influence of operational zoning and HVAC system intermittent operating techniques on mosque energy performance. Alternative zoning and HVAC operating techniques are evaluated using energy simulation modeling. According

M. A. A. Mohamed and N. Ahmed

to the results, a proper HVAC operating plan and system oversizing can result in a 23% decrease in yearly cooling energy, while zoning can result in a 30% reduction. If the uninsulated mosque's summer HVAC operation is compared to that of an insulated mosque's prayer-time HVAC operation, up to 46% less cooling energy can be saved. Additional energy savings are projected to result from the correct use of operational zones and HVAC operating methods. Based on the preceding study number, The usage of mosque Envelope Temperature Isolation can significantly enhance thermal conditions acceptable to the skin, particularly during long periods of unoccupied use and their intermittent working. Approximately 2,0 m above ground level) and close to the occupied area to ensure low energy thermal comfort. The findings reveal that the location is the least comfortable near the entrance of the mosque. The results show that a correct HVAC operation plan and system overlay may lead to a 23% decline in annual cooling energy while zoning may lead to a 30% drop. Research is done by Mahya Ghouchania, Mohammad Tajib & Fatemeh Kordafsharia on The effect of qibla direction on the hierarchy of movement in mosques was based on qualitative and rational reasoning method and the data analysis method of shape analysis (Ghouchania et al., 2019). The mosques were selected efficiently so that they could be considered as a successful and credible case in examining the mosque‫׳‬s spaces in terms of the emphasis on the qibla axis. The sampling criteria for this study include: (a) A mosque, which is one of the main mosques, focusing on its physical and conceptual structure; (b) The mosques that architects of religious and Islamic monuments have been paying special attention to in terms of architecture and certain physical characteristics, Therefore, among the mosques in Yazd, twelve mosques were selected among the mosques in Yazd due to the concern of Yazd. Residents of this city discuss religion and their attempts to follow religious themes; among them are Mulla Esmer, Amir Chamak, Kabir Central Mosque, Sarpak, Zayn Ardin Agha, and Peel Hussein Danjani, Imam Hussein, Bakkhodar, Kuchak Khatib, Saham, Nomarmir and Thar (Rahman). The structure of internal form and function in these mosques, from the moment of arrival to placement on the Qibla axis, has studied the hierarchical structure of the human movement. In this study, the structure of the material flow strengthens the descriptive analysis method and the victimization, so there is a table of activity relationships, a diagram of a person's trajectory from the entrance to the altar, and the proximity of each area to the altar. The opposite room. It is checked in this movement path. Select 6 templates from the 8 MFP templates as the route templates from the entrance to the mosque, and delineate the movement level and regional location from the entrance.

Mitigating the Contradiction of the Climatically Best Orientation and the Qibla Direction of Mosques

Use ARC to worship. From the moment a person enters this place in the direction of Qibla, a unique area layout is designed, as well as the facade, entrance, hall, courtyard, balcony, and hall. Pray and altar with them. After analyzing the victimization of the Qibla axis, the research on the structure, geometry, form arrangement, and internal functions of the twelve standard mosques in Yazd, the hierarchical structure of human movement has been tested since the human era. Arriving at the scene along the Qibla axis, the following results were obtained: The architects of the traditional mosques showed their ideas in geometric shapes and the layout of the instruction area, trying to maintain a sense of privacy, and the sanctity, immortality, and spirituality of the mosque’s territory, he tried together Transforming a restless (fearful) person into a relaxed (perfect) person, from the moment they arrive at the mosque, he directs and perceptually guides the hierarchical system of the movement. According to the architect of a typical mosque, the unwashed person (Uzu) is similar to human tissue. He walks through the front room, balcony, and entrance fountain to reach the bathroom, which allows him to enter the bathroom through an intermediary to obtain a fence. The options needed to create a religious space in a church include introspection, calmness, intimacy, familiarity with God, and self-contemplation. These factors are achieved by considering the following two components: Note the qibla axis as the axis. This is a symptom of the unity and invasion of previous events, so the movement hierarchy in the mosque area cannot be found in the design of the refurbished mosque. Pure structural mathematics makes it possible to classify people in qibla. The direction of the fixed form. The hierarchy principle in the pure mathematics of the building makes it possible to consciously pass people through the room into the room to worship before God (Budaiwi & Abdou, 2013). Some worthwhile studies on mosque entrances and the form affected by turning towards the Qibla have been undertaken, and they are as follows: Abdul Hamid Noghrekar et al. analyzed the typology of mosque entrances based on semantic distinctions and epistemic notions offered in mysticism; they ask whether the differences in the entrances have meaningful underpinnings and follow a specific pattern (Noghrehkar et al., 2014). The writers of the essay titled “The analytical-comparative study of the entry of mosques in the two periods of Samanids and Safavids” state that the door and entrance of mosques have a religious position and a special significance In Islamic beliefs, the term “the divine mercy door” can be regarded as a metaphor for the holy status of the doors of mosques that are located in the entrances; the entrance must inevitably be crossed to locate the mosques. Mirahmadi and Mahdavipour identified ways to strengthen the qiblah direction and explained its evolu-

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tionary process in the Iranian mosques in their article while considering the central role of qiblah in the establishment of various mosques in Iran; their study aimed to point out that orientation towards a specific direction in the mosques makes it possible to create a sense of unity in the congregation (Mirahmadi & Mahdavipour, 2017). In the study titled “Convergence of the three fundamental geometric types and the emergence of Iranian mosque geometry,” the authors concluded that the role of the altar was geometrically decisive in the interior space of the dome and that recognizing the direction of the qibla would be difficult without it. As a result, the dome and the altar were linked together, and the dome on the altar construction became one of the mosque's most often utilized architectural forms (Hojjat & Maleki, 2013). In an article that contrasted the customary and current mosques and regarded the various necessities and states of present-day people, Fahimeh Yari and Hassan Fereidoon Zadeh examined the passage space of mosques and reasoned that the passageway space has consistently had an uncommon spot in the smart plan of Iranian engineering, since notwithstanding its unique capacity as an outwardly and perceptually connective space, it is an interface between the structure and the assortment of the city, and it is normally considered as a measure for perceiving the worth and the design and social character of each building. In previous studies done by Binsabe (2017), electricity consumption was compared in Al-Sharbatly Mosque in the city of Jeddah in three different places in the north, center, and south. It was found that the more the mosque oriented towards the Qibla with neglecting the orientation to the prevailing wind and the sun position, the more energy consumption increased.

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Research Problem and Hypothesis

There was a noticeable observed increase in Jeddah's mosques’ maintenance and operating costs, which is due to its hot and high humid weather throughout the year. This is why, to achieve the best comfort for prayers, an increase in energy consumption occurred. Also, the Qibla direction difference across Jeddah from the south to the north is usually not considered. It affects the direct exposure to solar radiation during the day with its effect on cooling thermal energy consumption. Then the mosque's best orientation based on the prevailing wind direction and the sun position couldn’t be followed all the time because of reorienting the mosque to the Qibla direction. The hypothesis of the current research assumes that in such a climate, the sun is the major source of heat and hence the position of the sun for any site is very important. The main criterion for choosing the appropriate orientation is to

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M. A. A. Mohamed and N. Ahmed

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Research Methodology

The research methodology depends on a multi-methods approach. Firstly, the Weather Tool was utilized to determine the best orientation based on the sun position and the prevailing wind direction after synthesizing the hourly climatic data file of Jeddah city based on the data generated from Effat MicroStation. Secondly, in using simulation software (Autodesk Ecotect), we measured the energy consumption according to the difference in Qibla direction for the three scenarios. Thirdly, an analytical literature review and case study analysis were used to find out the best solution to solve the orientation dilemma.

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Fig. 1 The optimal orientation concerning the sun and the prevailing winds (Fathy, 1986)

minimize the penetration of solar radiation in the summer and maximize it in the winter. However, it cannot be denied the prevailing winds, especially in the hot season but it could come as a second criterion (Givoni, 1998). The best orientation concerning the sun factor is North/South (Givoni, 1998; Mohamed, 2009, 2010, 2014), while, it is the northwest to southeast concerning the prevailing winds in Jeddah (Mohamed, et al., 2019; Shawesh & Mohamed, 2021). Fathy (1986) solved this problem by bisecting the angle between the two optimal orientations (Fig. 1). Research aim and objectives. • The research aims at investigating the energy efficiency of the mosques in Jeddah based on their orientation toward Al Qibla. The main aim of the research could be achieved through the following objectives: • Analyzing the hourly climate data file of Jeddah city to determine the best orientation in Jeddah based on the sun position and the prevailing wind direction, • Quantifying the effectiveness of three scenarios of the orientation of a mosque towards Al Qibla in Jeddah (North, the middle, and South Jeddah), • Reviewing the traditional solutions for mosques to overcome this problem and recommending guidelines to better the situation.

Climate Analysis

Weather Tool analysis shows that the best orientation in Jeddah City based on blocking the solar radiation for the entire year is the South East (152.5°)/North West (−27.5°) as shown in (Fig. 2). Weather Tool analysis shows that the best orientation in Jeddah City based on receiving the prevailing wind for the entire year is the (North West) as shown in Fig. 3 This confirms the results of the best orientation based on the sun position and indicates the best orientation should be NW/SE.

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Simulation Experiments

Autodesk Ecotect is used to simulate the three possible locations in Jeddah (South of Jeddah, Middle of Jeddah, and North of Jeddah) Using the model setting and attributions shown in Figs. 4 and 5. Where the template of the mosque was built of a simple rectangular of 16 * 10 m with a height of 6 m. The mosque is assumed to be operated during the day and to reach the maximum operation schedule during the five prayers of the day. The design condition for thermal comfort and lighting has been adjusted to the following conditions: Clothing rate (1:0 clo), Relative Humidity of 60%, Airspeed of 0.5 m/s, and lighting level of 300 lx. The building system was considered a full air Conditioning system, with a comfort band of 21–30 C based on the calculation of the adaptive model for thermal comfort in Jeddah using Weather Tool (Shawesh & Mohamed, 2021). The number of people was determined as 160 occupants during the five prayer times. Material of walls was assigned as

Mitigating the Contradiction of the Climatically Best Orientation and the Qibla Direction of Mosques Fig. 2 Best orientation in Jeddah City based on the sun position to minimize the heat gain and maximize the heat loss, by the authors using Weather Tool

Optimum Orientation Location: Jidda, [NoWhere] Orientation based on average daily incident radiation on a vertical surface. Underheated Stress: 0.0 Overheated Stress: 2110.2 Compromise: 152.5° © A.J.Marsh '00 315°

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N 345°

15° kWh/ m²

330°

Best 30°

3.60

Worst

3.20 45° 2.80 2.40

300°

60°

2.00 1.60 1.20

75°

285° 0.80 0.40 270°

90°

255°

105°

242.5° 240°

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Avg. Daily Radiation at 152.0° Entire Year: 1.66 kWh/m² Underheated: 2.28 kWh/m² Overheated: 1.59 kWh/m²

“Brick Cavity Conc. Block with plaster—11 cm brick plus, 5 cm cavity, 11 cm concrete block with 1 cm plaster inside.” with a thickness of 28 cm. and U-Value of 1.72 W/m2 K. and Thermal Lag. of 7.8 h. The three scenarios of the different locations in Jeddah in addition to a fourth scenario, where we can orient the building mass to the best orientation regardless of Al Qibla direction, have been simulated and the Monthly cooling loads have been calculated for the model. The four scenarios are: • • • •

Best Orientation_NW/SE −27 N Scenario-1_North Jeddah (SE/NW) 160 N Scenario-2_Middle of Jeddah (E/W) 100 N Scenario-3_South Jeddah (NE/SW) 60 N.

The three scenarios of the different locations in Jeddah are illustrated in Fig. 5 The cooling loads on monthly basis have been illustrated using Autodesk Ecotect as shown in Fig. 6 (Fig. 7). Table 1 presents the monthly cooling loads of the studies mosque template for the four different scenarios. The previous table confirms that the lowest energy consumption for cooling loads was in the mosque template

135°

Compromise: 152.5° 150°

210° 195°

165° 180°

Annual Average Underheated Period Overheated Period

placed based on the optimum orientation NW/SE with angle (−27° N). The second-best scenario when placed based on scenario-1-North Jeddah (SE/NW) 160 N where the mass is oriented very close to the optimum case scenario (NW/SE) with a slightly different angle (−30° N). While the other two scenarios when the mass is rotated against the best orientation, we found that the monthly cooling loads have increased significantly. This proves the research hypothesis and confirms that following the Qibla Direction by the entire mass of the mosque negatively affects the thermal performance and significantly increases the energy consumption of Mosques.

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Research Problem and Hypothesis

In this section, the research analysis some case studies in order to reach design solutions to overcome the orientation problem. This floor plan is of the Süleymaniye mosque (Fig. 8). It is a regular layout in which the court and mosque are oriented in the same way. Most mosques follow this layout. Displayed in the Mosku mosque in Iceland, the outer mosque or the court and the inner mosque or the prayer hall

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M. A. A. Mohamed and N. Ahmed

Prevailing Winds

N OR T H

Wind Frequency (Hrs) Location: Jidda, [NoWhere] (21.5°, 9.2°) Date: 1st January - 31st December Time: 00:00 - 24:00 © A.J.Marsh '00

345°

50 km/ h

hrs

15°

786+ 330°

30°

707 628

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550

45°

471 393

30 km/ h

314 60°

300°

235 157

20 km/ h