Mosby's Handbook of Anatomy & Physiology [2 ed.] 9780323226059

Table of contents :
Front cover
Inside front cover
Mosby's Handbook of Anatomy & Physiology
Copyright page
Preface
Who Needs a Handbook of the Anatomy and Physiology of the Human Body?
How Do I Use This Handbook?
Color Key
For Select Anatomical Structures and Biochemical Compounds
BIOCHEMISTRY
OTHER STRUCTURES
Cellular Structures
Table of Contents
1 Organization of the Body
Anatomy
Physiology
Orientation to The Body
Anatomical Position and Bilateral Symmetry
Body Cavities
Body Regions
Directions and Planes of the Body
Homeostasis
Metric Measurements and Their Equivalents
2 Body Chemistry
Elements and Compounds
Organic Molecules
3 Cells
Anatomy of Cells
Physiology of Cells
Cell Growth and Reproduction
4 Tissues
Types of Tissue
Epithelial Tissue
Connective Tissues
Body Membranes
5 Skin
Structure and Function of the Skin
Appendages of the Skin
6 Skeletal System
Skeletal Tissue
Skeletal System
Divisions of the Skeleton
Skull
Hyoid Bone
Vertebral Column
Thoracic Cage
Upper Extremity
Lower Extremity
Skeletal Differences Between Men and Women
Articulations
Fibrous and Cartilaginous Joints
Synovial Joints
7 Muscular System
Skeletal Muscle Structure
Muscle Contraction
Muscle Tissues
Attachment of Muscles
Important Muscle Groupings
Important Skeletal Muscles
8 Nervous System
Nervous System Cells
Nerves and Nerve Impulses
Action Potential
Synaptic Transmission
Neurotransmitters
Central Nervous System
Coverings of the Brain and Spinal Cord
Cerebrospinal Fluid
Spinal Cord
Brain
Peripheral Nervous System
Spinal Nerves
Cranial Nerves
Autonomic Nervous System
Structure of the Autonomic Nervous System
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
Sense Organs
Sensory Receptors
Sense of Smell
Sense of Taste
Senses of Hearing and Balance: The Ear
Vision: The Eye
9 Endocrine System
Endocrine Regulation
Organization of the Endocrine System
Hormones
Endocrine Glands
Pituitary Gland
Thyroid Gland
Adrenal Glands
Pancreatic Islets
Hormones Produced by Gonads
10 Cardiovascular System
Blood
Anatomy of the Cardiovascular System
The Heart
Blood Vessels
Physiology of the Cardiovascular System
The Heart as a Pump
Arterial Blood Pressure
Venous Return to the Heart
Minute Volume of Blood
Pulse
11 Lymphatic and Immune Systems
Lymphatic System
Immune System
12 Respiratory System
Anatomy of the Respiratory System
Upper Respiratory Tract.
Lower Respiratory Tract.
Structures of the Respiratory Tract
Physiology of the Respiratory System
Pulmonary Ventilation.
How Blood Transports Gases.
13 Digestive System
Anatomy of the Digestive System
Organization of the Digestive System
Mouth
Salivary Glands
Teeth
Stomach
Small and Large Intestines
Peritoneum
Liver and Gallbladder
Physiology of the Digestive System
Overview of Digestive Function
Secretion
Absorption
14 Nutrition and Metabolism
Metabolism
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Regulating Food Intake
Metabolic Rate
Vitamins and Minerals
15 Urinary System
Anatomy of the Urinary System
Physiology of the Urinary System
16 Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance
Fluid and Electrolyte Balance
Acid-Base Balance
17 Reproductive Systems
Male Reproductive System
Female Reproductive System
18 Growth, Development, and Genetics
Growth and Development
A New Human Life
Prenatal Period
Postnatal Period
Genetics
Chromosomes and Genes
Medical Genetics
Credits
Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
IBC_Table1, 2
IBC_Table 3

Citation preview

ANATOMICAL DIRECTIONS Directional Term

Definition

Example of Usage

To the left of body (not your left, the subject’s) To the right of the body or structure being studied Toward the side; away from the midsagittal plane Toward the midsagittal plane; away from the side Toward the front of the body Toward the back (rear) of the body Toward the top of the body Toward the bottom of the body Along (or toward) the vertebral surface of the body Along (toward) the belly surface of the body Toward the tail (used for four-legged animals)

The stomach is to the left of the liver. The right kidney is damaged. The eyes are lateral to the nose. The eyes are medial to the ears. The breastbone (sternum) is anterior to the heart. The heart is posterior to the breastbone (sternum). The shoulders are superior to the hips. The stomach is inferior to the heart. Her scar is along the dorsal surface. The navel is on the ventral surface. The neck is caudad to the skull. The neck is cephalad to the tail. The joint is proximal to the toenail.

Parietal

Toward the head (used for four-legged animals) Toward the trunk (describes relative position in a limb or other appendage) Away from the trunk or point of attachment Toward an internal organ; away from the outer wall (describes positions inside a body cavity) Toward the wall; away from the internal structures

Deep Superficial Medullary Cortical Ipsilateral Contralateral

Toward the inside of a part; away from the surface Toward the surface of a part; away from the inside Refers to an inner region, or medulla Refers to an outer region, or cortex On the same side of the body as On the opposite side of the body

Left Right Lateral Medial Anterior Posterior Superior Inferior Dorsal Ventral Caudad (caudal) Cephalad Proximal Distal Visceral

The hand is distal to the elbow. This organ is covered with the visceral layer of the membrane. The abdominal cavity is lined with the parietal peritoneal membrane. The thigh muscles are deep to the skin. The skin is a superficial organ. The medullary portion contains nerve tissue. The cortical area produces hormones. The left knee is ipsilateral to the left ankle. The left knee is contralateral to the right knee.

Superior

Posterior

To make the reading of anatomical figures a little easier, an anatomical compass is used throughout this book. On many figures, you will notice a small compass rosette similar to those used on geographical maps. Rather than being labeled N, S, E, and W, the anatomical rosette is labeled with abbreviated anatomical directions.

Anterior

Proximal Transverse plane

Distal

S

l

era

Lat l

era

Lat

R

Proximal

Distal

Sagittal plane

l nta Fro ne pla

ial

ed

Inferior

Me

d

M ial

L I

A = Anterior D = Distal I = Inferior L (opposite M) = Lateral L (opposite R) = Left

P (opposite A) = Posterior P (opposite D) = Proximal S = Superior M = Medial R = Right

SECOND EDITION

Mosby’s

Handbook of Anatomy& Physiology KEVIN T. PATTON, PhD Professor Emeritus in Life Science St. Charles Community College Cottleville, Missouri

Professor of Human Anatomy & Physiology Instruction New York Chiropractic College Seneca Falls, New York

GARY A. THIBODEAU, PhD Chancellor Emeritus and Professor Emeritus of Biology University of Wisconsin—River Falls River Falls, Wisconsin

3251 Riverport Lane St. Louis, Missouri 63043 MOSBY’S HANDBOOK OF ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY, SECOND EDITION

ISBN: 978-0-323-22605-9

Copyright © 2014, 2000 by Mosby, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions. This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein). Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary. Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility. With respect to any drug or pharmaceutical products identified, readers are advised to check the most current information provided (i) on procedures featured or (ii) by the manufacturer of each product to be administered, to verify the recommended dose or formula, the method and duration of administration, and contraindications. It is the responsibility of practitioners, relying on their own experience and knowledge of their patients, to make diagnoses, to determine dosages and the best treatment for each individual patient, and to take all appropriate safety precautions. To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Patton, Kevin T., author.   Mosby’s handbook of anatomy & physiology / Kevin T. Patton, Gary A. Thibodeau. – Second edition.    p. ; cm.   Mosby’s handbook of anatomy and physiology   Handbook of anatomy & physiology   Includes index.   ISBN 978-0-323-22605-9 (pbk. : alk. paper)   I.  Thibodeau, Gary A., 1938- author.  II.  Title.  III.  Title: Mosby’s handbook of anatomy and physiology.  IV.  Title: Handbook of anatomy & physiology.   [DNLM:  1.  Anatomy–Handbooks.  2.  Physiology–Handbooks.  QS 39]   QP35   612–dc23 2013033692 Vice President and Content Strategy Director: Linda Duncan Executive Content Strategist: Kellie White Content Development Specialist: Joe Gramlich Content Coordinator: Nathan Wurm-Cutter Publishing Services Manager: Catherine Jackson Senior Project Manager: Carol O’Connell Design Direction: Jessica Williams Printed in the United States of America Last digit is the print number: 9  8  7  6  5  4  3  2  1

Preface WHO NEEDS A HANDBOOK OF THE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HUMAN BODY? Anatomy and physiology of the human body is a study that forms the basis of understanding the everyday workings of our own bodies. It also forms the basis of all of the clinical and applied human sciences. But because of its complexity, we don’t always remember all the little details. This is true especially if we haven’t reviewed them recently— or never learned them well in the first place. Well, here they are! All those little bits of handy information presented in an easy-to-interpret collection of diagrams, labeled photographs, and concise tables. For those in direct patient care, this handbook will be a useful mini-reference you can carry with you as you work. It contains all of those little details that you know you know but can’t seem to remember at the moment. Perhaps even more importantly, you’ll have an incredibly effective tool for patient teaching always at your fingertips! For those of you in related fields such as medical transcription, medical or liability insurance, health information technology, law, physical education and sports, recreation, law enforcement, teaching, human services, fiction and nonfiction writing and journalism, and so on, you will find this handbook to be an invaluable tool. It allows you to find and understand all the basic concepts of human body structure and function so you can do your job more easily and effectively. Even those of you who have no professional need for such a tool as this handbook will find it to be an important part of your household or office reference library. We’re all humans and we all have occasion to wonder about how our body is built and how it works—especially when we are sick or think we may be. Using this handbook, you will more clearly understand what your physician is saying to you. In fact, you might want to bring this handbook along next time you visit a clinic, hospital, or professional office—so that your providers can show you what they are trying to tell you. And what better tool is there to help you explain the structure and function of the body to an inquisitive child?

HOW DO I USE THIS HANDBOOK? Because this is a handbook, you should keep it “at hand.” When you have need for quickly finding information about human structure or function, simply grab it and thumb through its pages. iii

iv

Preface

The first four chapters of the handbook lay out the “basic sciences” of the human body. These include the overall “Organization of the Body” (Ch. 1), “Body Chemistry” (Ch. 2), “Cells” (Ch. 3) and “Tissues” (Ch. 4). The remainder of the handbook is organized by body system: skin, skeletal, muscular, and so on. Either a quick glance at the Contents (p. vii) or simply flipping through the pages of the handbook should get you to where you want to be in a moment. Once you’ve located the information you are looking for, use all the little features we have provided to make things clearer: • The anatomical rosette in all figures of body parts. This rosette, like the directional compass rosette found on maps, orients you quickly to which way is “up” and which way is “down” in the body part(s) shown. We have included a handy summary of our “anatomical rosette” inside the front cover for easy reference. • Brief narrative explaining the content of nearly every figure, diagram, and photograph. Thus, we “walk through” each image with you. • The careful use of color to show realistic structures, to highlight different areas of important diagrams, and to contrast different concepts within tables will help you find what you are looking for quickly and easily. This new edition features an extensively revised art program, a new and more easily usable design, content updates and clarifications in most of the tables and illustrations, and some additional illustrations and tables. This handbook is the product of many years of teaching and writing and we can’t possibly mention all of the literally hundreds who have contributed to this effort in one way or another. However, we would especially like to mention the following: Kellie White, Joe Gramlich, Nathan Wurm-Cutter, Jessica Williams, Catherine Jackson, and Carol O’Connell. Every writing team should be so fortunate as to have a support network as talented, good-humored, hard-working, professional, and fun as we have! Kevin T. Patton Gary A. Thibodeau

Color Key For Select Anatomical Structures and Biochemical Compounds OTHER STRUCTURES

BIOCHEMISTRY C

Carbon

Cl

Chloride

Energy

Energy

Afferent (Sensory) Pathway Artery Bone

ATP

ATP

H

Hydrogen

N

Nitrogen

O

Oxygen

K

Potassium

Na S

Efferent (Motor) Pathway Hormone Muscle

Nerve

Sodium Sulfur

Schwann Cell Vein

CELLULAR STRUCTURES Cytosol Golgi Apparatus Mitochondrion Na+ Transporter Nucleus Plasma Membrane v

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Contents 1

ORGANIZATION OF THE BODY, 1 Anatomy, 1 Physiology, 2 Orientation to the Body, 2 Anatomical Position and Bilateral Symmetry, 3 Body Cavities, 4 Organs in the Ventral Body Cavities, 5 Body Regions, 6 Latin-Based Descriptive Terms for Body Regions, 8 Directions and Planes of the Body, 12 Homeostasis, 14 Metric Measurements and Their Equivalents, 17 Prefixes, 17 Common Conversions, 18 Body Temperatures in Degrees Celsius and Degrees Fahrenheit, 19

2

BODY CHEMISTRY, 20 Elements and Compounds, 21 Elements in the Human Body, 22 Inorganic Salts Important for Body Functions, 23 Organic Molecules, 24 Examples of Important Biomolecules, 24 Major Functions of Human Protein Compounds, 27 Major Functions of Human Lipid Compounds, 30 Comparison of DNA And RNA Structure, 34

3

CELLS, 37 Anatomy of Cells, 38 Some Major Cell Structures and Their Functions, 39 Functional Anatomy of Cell Membranes, 43 Physiology of Cells, 48 Passive Transport Processes, 48 Active Transport Processes, 54 Cell Growth and Reproduction, 64 Major Types of RNA, 65 Summary of Protein Synthesis, 67 Summary of DNA Replication, 72 The Major Events of Mitosis, 73 Summary of the Cell Life Cycle, 74 vii

viii

Contents

4

TISSUES, 77 Types of Tissue, 78 Components of the Extracellular Matrix, 80 Major Tissues of the Body, 81 Epithelial Tissue, 83 Classification Scheme for Membranous Epithelial Tissues, 83 Epithelial Tissues, 84 Structural Classification of Multicellular Exocrine Glands, 88 Connective Tissues, 89 Muscle and Nervous Tissues, 93 Body Membranes, 94 Membranes of the Body, 96

5

SKIN, 97 Structure and Function of the Skin, 98 Functions of the Skin, 99 Structure of the Skin, 100 Appendages of the Skin, 103

6

SKELETAL SYSTEM, 105 Skeletal Tissue, 106 Skeletal System, 109 Bones of the Skeleton (206 Total), 111 Terms Used to Describe Bone Markings, 113 Cranial Bones and Their Markings, 119 Facial Bones and Their Markings, 122 Special Features of the Skull, 124 Hyoid, Vertebrae, and Thoracic Bones and Their Markings, 127 Upper Extermity Bones and Their Markings, 135 Lower Extremity Bones and Their Markings, 144 Comparison of Male and Female Skeletons, 152 Articulations, 154 Classification of Fibrous and Cartilaginous Joints, 154 Classification of Synovial Joints, 157 Major Synovial (Diarthrotic) & Cartilaginous (Amphiarthrotic) Joints, 163 Major Types of Joint Movements, 165

7

MUSCULAR SYSTEM, 170 Skeletal Muscle Structure, 171 Muscle Contraction, 177 Muscle Tissues, 182

Contents

Characteristics of Muscle Tissues, 182 Attachment of Muscles, 186 Important Muscle Groupings, 187 Selected Muscles Grouped by Location, 187 Selected Muscles Grouped by Function, 188 Important Skeletal Muscles, 189 Muscles of Facial Expression and Mastication, 189 Muscles that Move the Head, 191 Muscles of the Thorax, 193 Muscles of the Abdominal Wall, 194 Muscles of the Back, 196 Muscles of the Pelvic Floor, 199 Muscles Acting on the Shoulder Girdle, 202 Muscles that Move the Arm, 205 Muscles that Move the Forearm, 207 Muscles that Move the Wrist, Hand, and Fingers, 213 Muscles that Move the Thigh, 215 Muscles that Move the Leg, 219 Muscles that Move the Foot, 222 8

NERVOUS SYSTEM, 224 Nervous System Cells, 225 Types of Membrane Potentials, 232 Steps of the Mechanism that Produces an Action Potential, 233 Examples of Neurotransmitters, 238 Central Nervous System, 242 Major Ascending Tracts of the Spinal Cord, 249 Major Descending Tracts of the Spinal Cord, 250 Peripheral Nervous System, 268 Spinal Nerves and Peripheral Branches, 270 Structure and Function of the Cranial Nerves, 278 Autonomic Nervous System, 288 Comparison of Somatic and Autonomic Pathways, 289 Comparison of Structural Features of the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Pathways, 292 Autonomic Functions, 296 Summary of the Sympathetic “Fight-or-Flight” Reaction, 298 Sense Organs, 299 Classification of Somatic Sensory Receptors, 301 Coats of the Eyeball, 314 Cavities of the Eye, 315

ix

x

9

Contents

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM, 319 Endocrine Regulation, 320 Comparison of the Endocrine System and the Nervous System, 320 Some of the Major Endocrine Glands, 322 Comparison of Steroid and Nonsteroid Hormones, 328 Prostaglandins and Related Hormones, 336 Endocrine Glands, 337 Hormones of the Hypothalamus, 339 Hormones of the Pituitary Gland, 341 Hormones of the Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands, 344 Hormones of the Adrenal Glands, 346 Hormones of the Pancreatic Islets, 348 Examples of Additional Hormones of the Body, 349

10 CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM, 351 Blood, 352 Classes of Blood Cells, 354 Differential Count of White Blood Cells, 355 Coagulation Factors: Standard Nomenclature and Synonyms, 357 Blood, Plasma, and Serum Values, 359 Conversion Factors (SI Units), 363 Anatomy of the Cardiovascular System, 367 Structure of Blood Vessels, 374 Major Systemic Arteries, 377 Major Systemic Veins, 381 Physiology of the Cardiovascular System, 387 11 LYMPHATIC AND IMMUNE SYSTEMS, 401 Lymphatic System, 402 Major Lymphatic Organs, 408 Immune System, 409 Innate and Adaptive Immunity, 409 Mechanisms of Innate Defense, 411 Examples of Phagocyte Locations, 413 Types of Adaptive Immunity, 413 12 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM, 418 Anatomy of the Respiratory System, 419 Summary of Respiratory Tract Structures, 427 Physiology of the Respiratory System, 431 Pulmonary Volumes and Capacities, 437

Contents

13 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM, 446 Anatomy of the Digestive System, 447 Modifications of Layers of the Digestive Tract Wall, 449 Dentition, 452 Physiology of the Digestive System, 462 Primary Mechanisms of the Digestive System, 462 Processes of Mechanical Digestion, 465 Chemical Digestion, 467 Digestive Secretions, 469 Actions of Some Digestive Hormones Summarized, 472 Food Absorption, 476 14 NUTRITION AND METABOLISM, 479 Metabolism, 480 Carbohydrates, 481 Proteins, 488 Amino Acids, 488 Metabolism, 489 Regulating Food Intake, 491 Examples of Appetite-Regulating Factors, 491 Metabolic Rate, 492 Vitamins and Minerals, 493 Major Vitamins, 493 Major Minerals, 494 15 URINARY SYSTEM, 495 Anatomy of the Urinary System, 497 Physiology of the Urinary System, 504 Summary of Nephron Function, 510 Characteristics of Urine, 511 Urine Components, 513 16 FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID-BASE BALANCE, 515 Fluid and Electrolyte Balance, 516 Commonly Used Acronyms for Body Fluids and Fluid Pressures, 516 Volumes of Body Fluid Compartments, 517 Typical Normal Values (24 Hours) for Each Portal of Water Entry and Exit (with Wide Variations), 519 Acid-Base Balance, 527 pH Control Systems, 528

xi

xii

Contents

17 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS, 538 Male Reproductive System, 539 Male Reproductive Hormones, 544 Female Reproductive System, 546 Some Female Reproductive Hormones, 553 Hormones that Support Milk Production, 555 18 GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT, AND GENETICS, 556 Growth and Development, 557 Genetics, 566 Index, 577

Organization of the Body

Organization of the Body

1

1 

ANATOMY Anatomy is often defined as the study of the structure of an organism and the relationships of its parts. The word anatomy is derived from two Greek words: ana, meaning “apart,” and temos or tomos, meaning “cutting.” Students of anatomy still learn about the structure of the human body by literally cutting it apart through a process called dissection, which remains the principal technique used to isolate and study the structural components or parts of the human body. Biology is the study of life. Both anatomy and physiology are subdivisions of this very broad area of inquiry. Just as biology can be subdivided into specific areas of study, so can anatomy and physiology. For example, the term gross anatomy refers to the study of body parts that are visible to the naked eye. Before the discovery of the microscope, anatomists had to study human structure using only their eyes during dissection. These early anatomists could make only a gross or whole examination. With the use of modern microscopes, many anatomists now specialize in microscopic anatomy; this includes the study of cells, called cytology (sye-TOL-o-jee), and the study of tissues, called histology (his-TOL-o-jee). Other branches of anatomy include the study of human growth and development (developmental anatomy) and the study of diseased body structures (pathological anatomy). In this handbook, the systems of the body are presented through a process called systemic anatomy. Systems are groups of organs that have a common function, such as the bones of the skeletal system and the muscles of the muscular system. 1

2

CHAPTER 1 

PHYSIOLOGY Physiology is the science of the functions of the living organism and its parts. The term is a combination of two Greek words: physis, meaning “nature,” and logos, meaning “science or study.” Simply stated, it is the study of physiology that helps us to understand how the body works. Physiologists attempt to discover and understand, through active experimentation, the intricate control systems and regulatory mechanisms that permit the body to operate and survive in an often hostile environment. As a scientific discipline, physiology can be subdivided according to the following: (1) the type of organism involved, such as human physiology or plant physiology; (2) the organizational level studied, such as molecular physiology or cellular physiology; or (3) a specific or systemic function being studied, such as neurophysiology, respiratory physiology, or cardiovascular physiology.

ORIENTATION TO THE BODY This first section of the handbook provides the foundation needed to understand the rest of the handbook. First, one must understand the basic layout of the body and become familiar with the terminology used to describe the regions of the body, the organs of the body, and directions within the body. You cannot locate something in the superior abdominal cavity if you do not know what “superior” means and do not know where the “abdominal cavity” is. At the end of this chapter, we provide a commonly used model for understanding the “balance of functions” that keep the body alive—a concept called homeostasis.

Organization of the Body

3

ANATOMICAL POSITION AND BILATERAL SYMMETRY

S R

L I

Anatomical Position and Bilateral Symmetry. In the anatomical position, the body is in an erect, or standing, posture with the arms at the sides and palms forward. The head and feet are also pointing forward. The dotted line shows the axis of the body’s bilateral symmetry. As a result of this organizational feature, the right and left sides of the body are mirror images of each other.

4

CHAPTER 1 

BODY CAVITIES S L

R

Cranial cavity

I

Spinal cavity Thoracic cavity Pleural cavities Mediastinum Diaphragm Abdominal cavity Abdominopelvic cavity Pelvic cavity

Dorsal body cavities Ventral body cavities

S P

A I

Major Body Cavities. The dorsal body cavities are in the dorsal (back) part of the body and include a cranial cavity above and a spinal cavity below. The ventral body cavities are on the ventral (front) side of the trunk and include the thoracic cavity above the diaphragm and the abdominopelvic cavity below the diaphragm. The thoracic cavity is subdivided into the mediastinum in the center and pleural cavities (surrounding the lungs) to the sides. The abdominopelvic cavity is subdivided into the abdominal cavity above the pelvis and the pelvic cavity within the pelvis.

Organization of the Body

ORGANS IN THE VENTRAL BODY CAVITIES AREAS

ORGANS

THORACIC CAVITY Right pleural cavity

Right lung

Mediastinum

Heart Trachea Right and left bronchi Esophagus Thymus gland Aortic arch and thoracic aorta Venae cavae Various lymph nodes and nerves Thoracic duct

Left pleural cavity

Left lung

ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY Abdominal cavity

Liver Gallbladder Stomach Pancreas Intestines Spleen Kidneys Ureters

Pelvic cavity

Urinary bladder Female reproductive organs Uterus Uterine tubes Ovaries Male reproductive organs Prostate gland Seminal vesicles Part of vas deferens Part of large intestine (sigmoid colon and rectum)

5

6

CHAPTER 1 

BODY REGIONS Frontal (forehead) Cephalic (head)

Cranial (upper skull)

Orbital (eye socket)

Facial (face)

Zygomatic (upper cheek)

Nasal (nose) Buccal (lower cheek)

Supraclavicular (area above clavicle)

Oral (mouth)

Axillary (armpit) Mammary (breast)

Thoracic (chest)

Brachial (arm) Cubital (elbow)

Abdominal Trunk (abdomen)

Antecubital (front of elbow) Umbilical (navel) Antebrachial (forearm)

Pelvic (pelvis)

Carpal (wrist) Digital or phalangeal (fingers)

Palmar or volar (anterior surface of hand)

Femoral (thigh) Inguinal (groin)

S

Crural (leg)

L

R I

Tarsal (ankle) Digital (toe)

Pedal (foot)

Specific Body Regions. Note that the body as a whole can be subdivided into two major portions: axial (along the middle, or axis, of the body) and appendicular (the arms and legs, or appendages). Names of specific body regions follow the Latin form, with the English equivalent in parentheses.

7

Organization of the Body

Temporal (side of skull)

Cephalic (head)

Cervical (neck)

Dorsal (back) Olecranal (back of elbow) Flank (lateral region)

Upper extremity

Lumbar (lower back) Gluteal (buttock)

Popliteal (back of knee)

Lower extremity

S Axial skeleton Appendicular skeleton

R

L I

Plantar (sole of foot)

8

CHAPTER 1 

LATIN-BASED DESCRIPTIVE TERMS FOR BODY REGIONS* BODY REGION

AREA OR EXAMPLE

BODY REGION

AREA OR EXAMPLE

Abdominal (ab-DOMin-al)

Anterior torso below diaphragm

Digital (DIJ-i-tal)

Fingers or toes

Dorsal (DOR-sal)

Back or top

Acromial (ah-KROmee-al)

Shoulder

Facial (FAY-shal)

Face

Femoral (FEM-or-al)

Thigh

Antebrachial (an-teeBRAY-kee-al)

Forearm

Frontal (FRONtal)

Forehead Buttock

Antecubital (an-teeKYOO-bi-tal)

Depressed area just in front of elbow (cubital fossa)

Gluteal (GLOOtee-al) Hallux (HALluks)

Great toe

Inguinal (ING-gwi-nal)

Groin

Lumbar (LUM-bar)

Lower part of back between ribs and pelvis

Mammary (MAM-er-ee)

Breast

Manual (MAN-yoo-al)

Hand

Axillary (AK-si-lair-ee)

Armpit (axilla)

Brachial (BRAYkee-al)

Arm

Buccal (BUK-al)

Cheek (inside)

Calcaneal (cal-CANEee-al)

Heel of foot

Mental (MEN-tal)

Chin

Carpal (KAR-pal)

Wrist

Nasal (NAY-zal)

Nose

Cephalic (se-FAL-ik)

Head

Navel (NAY-vel)

Cervical (SER-vi-kal)

Neck

Area around navel or umbilicus

Coxal (COX-al)

Hip

Occipital (ok-SIP-i-tal)

Back of lower part of skull

Cranial (KRAYnee-al)

Skull

Back of elbow

Crural (KROOR-al)

Leg

Olecranal (o-LECK-ranal)

Cubital (KYOObi-tal)

Elbow

Cutaneous (kyoo-TANEee-us)

Skin (or body surface)

Oral (OR-al)

Mouth

Orbital or ophthalmic (OR-bi-tal or op-THALmik)

Eyes

Organization of the Body

9

LATIN-BASED DESCRIPTIVE TERMS FOR BODY REGIONS*—cont’d BODY REGION

AREA OR EXAMPLE

BODY REGION

AREA OR EXAMPLE

Otic (O-tick)

Ear

Palmar (PAHLmar)

Palm of hand

Popliteal (pop-liTEE-al)

Area behind knee

Patellar (pa-TELL-er)

Front of knee

Pubic (PYOObik)

Pubis

Pedal (PED-al)

Foot

Pelvic (PEL-vik)

Lower portion of torso

Supraclavicular (soo-pra-claVIK-yoo-lar)

Area above clavicle

Perineal (pair-iNEE-al)

Area (perineum) between anus and genitals

Sural (SUR-al)

Calf

Tarsal (TAR-sal)

Ankle

Temporal (TEM-por-al)

Side of skull

Plantar (PLANtar)

Sole of foot

Thoracic (tho-RAS-ik)

Chest

Pollex (POL-ex)

Thumb

Zygomatic (zye-goMAT-ik)

Cheek (outside)

*The left column lists English adjectives that are based on Latin terms that describe the body parts listed in English in the right column.

10

CHAPTER 1 

Right hypochondriac region

Epigastric region

Left hypochondriac region

Right lumbar region

Umbilical region

Left lumbar region

Right iliac (inguinal) region

Hypogastric (pubic) region

Left iliac (inguinal) region S L

R I

Nine Regions of the Abdominopelvic Cavity. Only the most superficial structures of the internal organs are shown here.

11

Organization of the Body

Right upper

Left upper

Right lower

Left lower

S R

L I

Division of the Abdomen into Four Quadrants. This diagram shows the relationship of the internal organs to the four abdominal quadrants.

12

CHAPTER 1 

DIRECTIONS AND PLANES OF THE BODY Superior

Posterior

Anterior

Proximal Transverse plane

Distal l

era

Lat l

era

Lat

Proximal

Distal

Sagittal plane

l nta Fro ne pla

ial

ed

Inferior

M ial

d

Me

Directions and Planes of the Body. Terms related to anatomical direction are shown here using arrows and are listed on the inside front cover of this handbook. Planes divide the body along different orientations and must be understood to interpret anatomical diagrams and medical images. Sagittal: A lengthwise plane that runs from front to back is called a sagittal plane. Such a plane divides the body or any of its parts into right and left sides. If a sagittal section is made in the exact midline to result in equal and symmetrical right and left halves, that plane is called a midsagittal plane. Coronal: A lengthwise plane that runs from side to side and that divides the body or any of its parts into anterior and posterior portions; also called a frontal plane. Transverse: A crosswise plane; divides the body or any of its parts into upper and lower parts; also called a horizontal plane. Other Planes: Any individual structure within the body can be divided across the structure’s long axis, producing a cross section. A flat division parallel to a structure’s long axis is called a longitudinal section.

Organization of the Body

13

To make the reading of anatomical figures a little easier, an anatomical compass is used throughout this book. On many figures, you will notice a small compass rosette similar to those on geographical maps. Rather than being labeled N, S, E, and W, the anatomical rosette is labeled with abbreviated anatomical directions. Refer to the inside front cover of this handbook for definitions of the listed anatomical directions.

S R

L I

A = Anterior

P (opposite A) = Posterior

D = Distal

P (opposite D) = Proximal

I = Inferior

S = Superior

L (opposite M) = Lateral

M = Medial

L (opposite R) = Left

R = Right

14

CHAPTER 1 

HOMEOSTASIS

External environment

Nutrients Salts Water

O2

CO2 Skin

Internal environment Respiratory system Digestive system

Cell Heart

Cardiovascular system

Blood (cells and plasma)

Interstitial fluid

Urinary system

Unabsorbed Salts matter Water Organic waste Nitrogenous waste

Diagram of the Body’s Internal Environment. The human body is like a bag of fluid separated from the external environment. Tubes, such as the digestive tract and respiratory tract, bring the external environment to deeper parts of the bag, where substances may be absorbed into the internal fluid environment or excreted into the external environment. All of the “accessories” help to maintain a constant environment inside the bag that allows the cells that live there to survive.

Organization of the Body

15

Temperature decrease

Feedback Loop

Temperature increase

Variable

Detected by

Generates heat

Effector

Correction signal via electrical wires

Sensor

60 70 80 50 90

Set point value

90 70 50

Feeds information via wires back to

Actual value

Integrator

Basic Components of Homeostatic Control Mechanisms. Heat regulation by a furnace controlled by a thermostat. This illustration of heat from a furnace that is being controlled by a thermostat is a good analogy of the kind of feedback control mechanism that is also found in the human body.

16

CHAPTER 1 

Temperature decrease

Feedback Loop

Detected by

Temperature increase Shivering

Muscles

Effector

Motor nerve fibers

Correction signal via nerve fibers

Temperature receptors

Variable

Skin

Artery Vein Set point value

37˚C

Actual value

36˚C

Sensor

Sensory nerve fibers

Feeds information via nerve fibers back to

Hypothalamus Integrator

Basic Components of Homeostatic Control Mechanisms. Homeostasis of body temperature. This illustrates the body’s mechanism for maintaining homeostasis of body temperature. Note that in both this illustration and the one before it, a stimulus (drop in temperature) activates a sensor mechanism (thermostat or body temperature receptor) that sends input to an integrating, or control, center (on/off switch or hypothalamus), which then sends input to an effector mechanism (furnace or contracting muscle). The resulting heat that is produced maintains the temperature in a “normal range.” Feedback of effector activity to the sensor mechanism completes the control loop.

Organization of the Body

17

METRIC MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR EQUIVALENTS Units of Measurement BASIC UNIT

METRIC

ENGLISH

ENGLISH/ METRIC

Time

second (sec)

second (sec)

Same

Length

meter (m)

yard (yd)

1.09 yards/1 meter

Volume

liter (l or L)

quart (qt)

1.06 quarts/1 liter

Mass

gram (g)

ounce (oz)

0.035 ounce/ 1 gram

Temperature

degree Celsius (° C)

degree Fahrenheit (° F)

1.8° F/1° C

PREFIXES LESS THAN ONE BASIC UNIT nano-

one billionth

0.000000001

micro-

one millionth

0.000001

milli-

one thousandth

0.001

centi-

one hundredth

0.01

deci-

one tenth

0.1

MORE THAN ONE BASIC UNIT deka-

ten

10

hecto-

one hundred

100

kilo-

one thousand

1000

mega-

one million

1,000,000

18

CHAPTER 1 

COMMON CONVERSIONS MULTIPLY

BY

TO GET

TIME Seconds Seconds Minutes Milliseconds

1000 0.00167 60 0.001

Milliseconds Minutes Seconds Seconds

LENGTH Meters Meters Meters Meters Centimeters Centimeters Centimeters Millimeters Millimeters

1.09 3.28 100 1000 0.01 10 100000 0.001 0.1

Yards Feet Centimeters Millimeters Meters Millimeters Micrometers Meters Centimeters

VOLUME Liters Liters Liters Liters Liters Centiliters Centiliters Centiliters Deciliters Deciliters

1.06 0.26 1000 100 10 0.01 10 0.1 0.1 10

Quarts Gallons Milliliters Centiliters Deciliters Liters Milliliters Deciliters Liters Centiliters

MASS Grams Grams Grams Milligrams Kilograms Kilograms

0.35 0.001 1000 0.001 1000 2.21

Ounces Kilograms Milligrams Grams Grams Pounds

As you can see from the Units of Measurement table, one “degree” in Celsius is a larger unit than one degree in Fahrenheit. In fact, a Celsius degree is 9 5 (1.8) times the size of a Fahrenheit degree. When you convert temperature readings from one form to another, this discrepancy in size must be taken into account. The 32° is added during the conversion to Fahrenheit to account for the fact that, in the Fahrenheit scale, the freezing point of water is 32°, not 0°, as it is in Celsius.

Organization of the Body TEMPERATURE CONVERSIONS To Convert ° C to ° F Multiply ° C by 9 5 and add 32: _____° C × 9 5 + 32 = _____° F For example, to convert 35° C to ° F: 35° C × 9 5 + 32 = 95° F To Convert ° F to ° C Subtract 32 from ° F and multiply by 5 9 : (_____° F − 32) × 5 9 = ° C For example, to convert 101° F to ° C: (101° F − 32) × 5 9 = 38.3° C

BODY TEMPERATURES IN DEGREES CELSIUS AND DEGREES FAHRENHEIT ° C

° F

° C

° F

35.0

95.0

37.8

100.0

35.1

95.2

37.9

100.2

35.2

95.4

38.0

100.4

35.3

95.6

38.1

100.6

35.4

95.8

38.2

100.8

35.5

96.0

38.3

101.0

35.7

96.2

38.4

101.2

35.8

96.4

38.6

101.4

35.9

96.6

38.7

101.6

36.0

96.8

38.8

101.8

36.1

97.0

38.9

102.0

36.2

97.2

39.0

102.2

36.3

97.4

39.1

102.4

36.4

97.6

39.2

102.6

36.6

97.8

39.3

102.8

36.7

98.0

39.4

103.0

36.8

98.2

39.6

103.2

36.9

98.4

39.7

103.4

37.0

98.6

39.8

103.6

37.1

98.8

39.9

103.8

37.2

99.0

40.0

104.0

37.3

99.2

40.1

104.2

37.4

99.4

40.2

104.4

37.6

99.6

40.3

104.6

37.7

99.8

40.4

104.8

19

20

2 

CHAPTER 2 

Body Chemistry

Anatomy and physiology are subdivisions of biology—the study of life. To best understand the characteristics of life, what living matter is, how it is organized, and what it can do, we must appreciate and understand certain basic principles of chemistry that apply to the life process. Life itself depends on proper levels and proportions of chemical substances in the cytoplasm of cells. The various structural levels of organization described in Chapter 1 are ultimately based on the existence and interrelationships of atoms and molecules. Chemistry, like biology, is a very broad scientific discipline. It deals with the structure, arrangement, and composition of substances and the reactions they undergo. Just as biology may be subdivided into many sub-disciplines or branches, like anatomy and physiology, chemistry may also be divided into focused areas. Biochemistry is the field of chemistry that deals with living organisms and the life processes we collectively called metabolism. It deals directly with the chemical composition of living matter and the metabolic processes that underlie life activities such as growth, muscle contraction, and transmission of nervous impulses.

20

20

40.078

38

39.098

37

88

87

La

57

88.906

Y

39

44.956

21

Sc

60

91

90

Nd

Rf

104

U

Np

93

(145)

61

Pm

Ta

W

74

95.94

Mo

42

51.996

24

Cr

Re

75

(98)

Tc

43

54.931

25

Mn Rh

45

58.933

27

Co Pd

46

58.963

28

Ni Ag

47

63.546

29

Cu Cd

48

65.39

30

Zn

105

Db

Sg

106

Bh

107

Os

Ir

Hs

108

Mt

109

63

Eu

64

Gd

65

Tb

66

Dy

(244)

Pu

94

(243)

Am

95

(247)

Cm

96 (247)

Bk

97 (251)

Cf

98

150.36 151.965 157.25 158.925 162.50

62

Sm

B

In

49

69.723

31

Ga

26.982

Al

13

[10.80; 10.83]

5

C

Sn

50

72.61

32

Ge

[28.08; 28.09]

Si

[12.00; 12.02] 14

6

N

O

34

Se

[32.05; 32.08]

S

[15.99; 16.00] 16

8

35

Br

[35.44; 35.46]

Cl

18.998 17

F

9

Sb

51

Te

52

I

53

74.922 78.96(3) 79.904

As

33

30.974

P

15

[14.00; 14.01]

7

Ar

54

Xe

83.80

36

Kr

39.948

18

20.180

10

Ne

4.002

Pt

Au

Hg

Ds

110

Rg

111

68

Er

(252)

Es

99

(257)

Fm

100

164.930 167.26

67

Ho

70

Yb

(284)

113

Uut

Pb

71

Lu

(289)

Fl

114

207.2

(258)

101

Md

(259)

No

102

Lr

(260)

103

168.939 173.04 174.967

69

Tm

(285)

Cn

112

[204.3; 204.4]

Tl

(288)

115

Uup

208.980

Bi

(293)

Lv

116

(209)

Po

(292)

117

Uus

(210)

At

(294)

118

Uuo

(222)

Rn

101.07 102.906 106.42 107.868 112.411 114.818 118.710 121.760 127.60 126.904 131.29 81 76 77 78 79 80 82 83 84 85 86

Ru

44

55.845

26

Fe

Atomic mass (number of protons plus average number of neutrons)

Atomic number (number of protons) Chemical symbol

2

He

Periodic Table of Elements. The major elements found in the body are highlighted in pink. The trace elements, found in very tiny quantities in the body, are highlighted in orange. (Atomic mass numbers in brackets show the natural range of isotopes; those in parentheses are uncertain or theoretical.)

232.038 231.036 238.029 237.048

Pa

92

140.115 140.907 144.24

Pr

Th

Hf

73

92.906

Nb

41

50.942

V

23

12.011

C

6

178.49 180.948 183.84 186.207 190.23 192.217 195.08 196.967 200.59

72

91.224

Zr

40

47.867

Ti

22

Major elements Trace elements

226.025 227.028 (263.113) (262.114) (266.122) (264.125) (269.134) (268.139) (272.146) (272.154)

59

89

Ac

Ra

Ce

58

(223)

Fr

132.905 137.327 138.905

Ba

56

Cs

87.62

55

Sr

85.468

Rb

Ca

19

K

24.305

22.990

Mg

12

Na

9.012

11

Be

4

[6.938; 6.997]

Li

3

[1.007; 1.009]

H

1

ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS

Body Chemistry 21

22

CHAPTER 2 

Oxygen Carbon Hydrogen Nitrogen Calcium Phosphorus Potassium Sulfur Sodium Chlorine Magnesium 0

20 40 60 Human body weight (%)

80

Major Elements of the Body. These elements are found in great quantity in the body. The graph shows the relative abundance of each in the body. Notice that oxygen (O), carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and nitrogen (N) predominate.

ELEMENTS IN THE HUMAN BODY

ELEMENT

SYMBOL

HUMAN BODY WEIGHT (%)

IMPORTANCE OR FUNCTION

MAJOR ELEMENTS Oxygen O

65.0

Necessary for cellular respiration; component of water

Carbon

C

18.5

Backbone of organic molecules

Hydrogen

H

9.5

Component of water and most organic molecules; necessary for energy transfer and respiration

Nitrogen

N

3.3

Component of all proteins and nucleic acids

Calcium

Ca

1.5

Component of bones and teeth; triggers muscle contraction

Phosphorus

P

1.0

Principal component in the backbone of nucleic acids; important in energy transfer

Potassium

K

0.4

Principal positive ion within cells; important in nerve function

Sulfur

S

0.3

Component of many energytransferring enzymes

Sodium

Na

0.2

Important positive ion surrounding cells

ELEMENTS IN THE HUMAN BODY—cont’d

ELEMENT

SYMBOL

HUMAN BODY WEIGHT (%)

Chlorine

Cl

0.2

Important negative ion surrounding cells

Magnesium

Mg

0.1

Component of many energytransferring enzymes

IMPORTANCE OR FUNCTION

TRACE ELEMENTS Silicone

Si