Monumental Polovtsian Statues in Eastern Europe: the Archaeology, Conservation and Protection 9788376560298, 9788376560281

Table of contents :
Contents
From the Author
Introduction
Chapter 1 Aneta Gołębiowska-Tobiasz History of Research and the Most Important Publications
Chapter 2 Aneta Gołębiowska-Tobiasz Outline of the Genesis of Anthropomorphic Stelae. Cult Places
Chapter 3 Aneta Gołębiowska-Tobiasz Territorial and Chronological Scope of Polovtsians Stelae
Chapter 4 Aneta Gołębiowska-Tobiasz Typological Systems
Chapter 5 Aneta Gołębiowska-Tobiasz, Michał Burzak Collection in the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum
Chapter 6 Michał Burzak, Aneta Gołębiowska-Tobiasz The issue of Preservation and Protection of Monum
Chapter 7 Aneta Gołębiowska-Tobiasz, Michał Burzak Remarks on the Status of Stelae in Countries of E
Bibliography
List
Index of the Geographical and Ethnic Names
Index of Historical Persons

Citation preview

Aneta Gołębiowska-Tobiasz

Monumental Polovtsian Statues in Eastern Europe: the Archaeology, Conservation and Protection

Versita Discipline: History, Archaeology Managing Editor: Katarzyna Ślusarska

Language Editor: Victoria Symmons

Published by Versita, Versita Ltd, 78 York Street, London W1H 1DP, Great Britain.

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercialNoDerivs 3.0 license, which means that the text may be used for non-commercial purposes, provided credit is given to the author. Copyright © 2013 Aneta Gołębiowska-Tobiasz, for Chapters 5, 6, 7 Aneta Gołębiowska-Tobiasz and Michał Burzak ISBN (paperback): 978-83-7656-027-4 ISBN (hardcover): 978-83-7656-028-1 ISBN (for electronic copy): 978-83-7656-029-8 Managing Editor: Katarzyna Ślusarska Language Editor: Victoria Symmons Cover illustration: © Aneta Gołębiowska-Tobiasz www.versita.com

Contents From the Author...................................................................................................9 Introduction....................................................................................................... 13 Chapter 1 Aneta Gołębiowska-Tobiasz History of Research and the Most Important Publications................ 17 Chapter 2 Aneta Gołębiowska-Tobiasz Outline of the Genesis of Anthropomorphic Stelae. Cult Places....... 27 1. Introduction..............................................................................................................................27 2. Notes on the Religion and Mythology of the Turks on a Background of Reception of Foreign Cultural Influences..................................................................30 3. Anthropomorphic Stelae....................................................................................................34 4. Cult-sacrifice Places.............................................................................................................42

Chapter 3 Aneta Gołębiowska-Tobiasz Territorial and Chronological Scope of Polovtsians Stelae............... 49 Chapter 4 Aneta Gołębiowska-Tobiasz Typological Systems......................................................................... 63 Chapter 5 Aneta Gołębiowska-Tobiasz, Michał Burzak Collection in the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum............................... 73 1. History of the Forest and the Museum....................................................................... 73

2. The Collection of Anthropomorphic Stelae..............................................................74 3. Feminine Stelae Intended for Full Technical and Preservative Conservation of Plasticity. An Archaeological and Conservatory Description.....................79 3.1 Baba 1 (304).....................................................................................................................80 3.2 Baba 2 (302).....................................................................................................................83 3.3 Baba 3 (290).....................................................................................................................86 3.4 Baba 7 (298).....................................................................................................................89 4. Masculine Stelae Intended for Full Technical and Preservative Conservation of Plasticity. An Archaeological and Conservatory Description.....................90 4.1 Baba 4 (293).....................................................................................................................90 4.2 Baba 5 (295).....................................................................................................................93 4.3 Baba 6 (297).....................................................................................................................96 4.4 Baba 8 (299).....................................................................................................................98 4.5 Baba 9 (292)..................................................................................................................100 4.6 Baba 10 (286)...............................................................................................................102 5. Feminine Stelae Intended for Temporary Protection. Conservatory and Archaeological Description...........................................................................................104 5.1 Baba 11 (296)...............................................................................................................104 5.2 Baba 14 (279)...............................................................................................................105 6. Masculine Stelae Intended for Temporary Protection. Conservatory and Archaeological Description...........................................................................................107 6.1 Baba 12 (301)...............................................................................................................107 6.2 Baba 13 (300)...............................................................................................................109 7. State of Preservation and Causes of Damages of Objects from the Conservatory Perspective..............................................................................................109

Chapter 6 Michał Burzak, Aneta Gołębiowska-Tobiasz The Issue of Preservation and Protection of the Monumental Anthropomorphic Stelae in Eastern Europe. Condition of Stelae After the Conservation............................................................................ 113 1. The Issue of Protection of the Monumental Sculpture in Eastern Europe...113 2. Problems Related to the Protection, Exhibition and Preservation of Anthropomorphic Stelae.................................................................................................117 3. Condition of Sculptures from the Collection of the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum After the Technical Preservation in 2008...........................................119 3.1 Feminine Stelae on the Exhibition Wall..........................................................126 3.1.1 Baba 1 (304).........................................................................................................126 3.1.2 Baba 2 (302).........................................................................................................128 3.1.3 Baba 3 (290).........................................................................................................130 3.1.4 Baba 7 (298).........................................................................................................132

3.2 Masculine Stelae on the Exhibition Wall........................................................134 3.2.1 Baba 4 (293).........................................................................................................134 3.2.2 Baba 5 (295).........................................................................................................138 3.2.3 Baba 6 (297).........................................................................................................140 3.2.4 Baba 8 (299).........................................................................................................143 3.2.5 Baba 9 (292).........................................................................................................146 3.2.6 Baba 10 (286)......................................................................................................148 3.3 Feminine Stelae in Front of the Museum.......................................................151 3.3.1 Baba 11 (296)......................................................................................................151 3.3.2 Stela 14 (279)......................................................................................................153 3.4 Masculine Stelae in Front of the Museum.....................................................154 3.4.1 Baba 12 (301)......................................................................................................154 3.4.2 Stela 13 (300)......................................................................................................156 4. Summary of Conservatory Treatments.......................................................................157

Chapter 7 Aneta Gołębiowska-Tobiasz, Michał Burzak Remarks on the Status of Stelae in Countries of Eastern Europe. Research and Popularisation Postulates......................................... 161 Bibliography.....................................................................................................171 List of Figures..................................................................................................187 Index of Geographical and Ethnic Names.................................................191 Index of Historical Persons...........................................................................195

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From the Author The first time I went to the Ukraine was in 2001 at the invitation of Alexander Kolesnik, the Ukrainian specialist dealing with the Stone Age. We had met in Cracow a year before. I held my first practice at two Palaeolithic sites. Alexander participated in an international grant in Cracow and was the head of our shift. Very quickly we became friends because, as the only person among the students, I understood the Russian language and I could get in touch with the expedition using this language. During these practices we spoke mostly about the specificity of research on Palaeolithic sites, while after hours, together with my future husband, we organised for Alexander and other members of the group of foreigners field trips around the Cracow as well as their free time. In return, I was invited to Donetsk. Eleven years ago the Ukraine was one of the countries that was not taken into account when planning sightseeing trips, and even more individually organised practices, due to concerns about the internal situation and social conditions prevailing there. It was a country that had gained its independence ten years earlier (in 1991) and the social and political changes had just begun. We knew that the economic situation was severe. However, I went there, guided by my curiosity and a desire to see this part of Europe. I was not disappointed; despite the apparent difference in the standard of living, many deficiencies arising from the slow pace of the economic reconstruction, poor infrastructure, lack of opportunities to contact with the country and the culture shock I experienced during first days in the steppe, I was charmed by people, nature and above all the opulence of archaeological sites. This was the first time I had contact with monumental anthropomorphic sculptures. I saw the collection of stelae in the Donetsk Regional Museum – the organiser of the expedition I participated in. I saw Neolithic stelae and Polovtsian statues in the “Khomutovsky Steppe” Nature Reserve. During the two-day train journey back to Poland, I was constantly thinking about things I had learnt and experienced in that exotic part of Europe. Visions of my research future crystallised at that moment. I had already known what I wanted to deal with. I also knew that the only direction in the world for my plans would be South-Eastern Europe.

From the Author

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Monumental Polovtsian Statues in Eastern Europe: the Archaeology, Conservation and Protection

During following practices and then research studies, I participated in excavations in various regions of the Donetsk District – from the forest steppe to the seaside steppe areas. We conducted work on single- and multicultural sites. I took part in the exploration of the Middle Palaeolithic workshop and a ramparts construction of a 10th-century stronghold. I became acquainted with the research methodology of the Russian school. In the following years, however, as a doctoral student and with a small financial contribution of the Institute of Archaeology of the Jagiellonian University, I conducted research on Mayaky (Sloviansk Raion, Donetsk District) and Druzhnoye (Volnovakha Raion, Donetsk District) with the support of colleagues from the Regional Museum in Donetsk. In 2006, two years before the expedition referred to in this book, I saw the collection of anthropomorphic stelae in the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum for the first time. We were hosted by the museum during the field prospection and museum query that I executed in conjunction with my doctoral dissertation, in the southern part of the Donetsk District. After photographic and descriptive documentation of stelae, I decided to organise the expedition, which, in addition to students of archaeology, would be attended by students of art preservation. I knew that in the Ukraine no one had ever conducted professional conservatory works on these objects. I already knew Michał Burzak, a young graduate of the Cracow Academy of Arts. We had met on the occasion of his diploma, which was the full technical and plastic conservation of a Polovtsian anthropomorphic stela located in the collection of the Archaeological Museum in Cracow. Thanks to a proposal of the Director of the Institute of Archaeology at that time, prof. dr hab. Jan Chochorowski, I started a scientific undertaking with Michał, which resulted in a publication including a study on nomadic monumental sculpture from the perspective of archaeologists and conservators. Efforts to gain financial resources for the logistical organisation of the expedition started. The Ukrainian party proposed to pay for accommodation and transport of people and equipment from Donetsk to Veliko-Anadol. Also a new truck was bought that, during a month of our stay, was supposed to serve us at excavations. At the site we were supposed to be assisted by researchers of the Forest Museum, a colleague from Donetsk who was a trainee conservator and our friends, archaeologists. The Director of the Institute of Archaeology and the Dean of Faculty of History of the Jagiellonian University approved the financial support for research, but by then we already knew that these funds would be sufficient only for half of the planned activities. Students of the Institute of Archaeology of the Jagiellonian University acquired reimbursements for travel expenses from the Jan Kochanowski Fund at the Jagiellonian University. Our resources were also funded by the Fund of Students and Alumni of the Jagiellonian University “Bratniak”. Funds for chemicals necessary for the conservation of relics, transport of equipment and the last group of students on their way back to Kiev, as well as for expenses partially covering the stay of 16 people in the Ukraine were

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From the Author

Aneta Gołębiowska-Tobiasz

assigned by my husband. The expedition was attended also by students of the Institute of Archaeology of the University of Rzeszów and a student from the Charles University in Prague, who individually covered their travel expenses. Our project was supported by prof. dr hab. Ireneusz Płuska, Head of the Department of Conservation and Restoration of Sculpture of the Cracow Academy of Arts, approving practices of four fifth-year students, who wanted to participate in this research expedition. In early July the entire team was in place. The aim of the expedition was to conduct archaeological research on the Polovtsian temple, and conservatory work on three selected stone statues. After investigating the archaeological site and the space where the stelae were exhibited, and after a stormy debate, we decided instead to take action to rescue as many stone stelae as possible. The expedition’s young people were impressed by the figural sculptures, each older than 800 years. After a deliberation, we decided that instead of the three planned statues, students guided by Michał would conduct the technical conservation of as many stelae as they managed to preserve during the stay (2 weeks) and with such amount of special chemicals the team had. We cancelled research of the selected archaeological complex. Thanks to the kindness of colleagues from the Donetsk Regional Museum, we commenced exploration at a site of a different character, associated with the originally established character of practices in both cultural and chronological terms. The decision to shift the research arose primarily from the need of saving the greatest possible amount of money necessary to preserve as many statues as we could. We took this decision also due to procedural issues related to obtaining the permission of the district administration to commence archaeological research at the kurgan. This example illustrates independent difficulties, unforeseen by the Ukrainian organisers of the expedition. A quick solution required a logistic adaptation to new conditions and flexibility in the actions of both teams. Finally, 14 exemplars of stelae were preserved and we conducted research on the winter encampment near which a kurgan cemetery with Polovtsian burials was located in the 1980s. The conservatory works conducted on anthropomorphic stelae in the 2008 research season by the international team of archaeologists and conservators are among the first such actions in Eastern Europe. The purpose of the project was to continue rescuing stone statues from devastation and destruction, and to prove that with the small, yet significant, logistical support of the local museum, modest financial contributions from scientific institutions, private resources, and thanks to the group of engaged scientists and friends, it is possible to make great steps towards saving these treasures of the Black Sea Steppes during a single research season. After we returned from the expedition we knew that information about conservatory and rescue measures taken in relation to anthropomorphic stelae should be made available to the wider public as soon as possible.

From the Author

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Monumental Polovtsian Statues in Eastern Europe: the Archaeology, Conservation and Protection

Results of works, in the form of illustrations, I posted on my web site. Unfortunately, for the next several years I was unable to interest any non-profit institution or Polish and Ukrainian foundations in at least partial support of the publication concerning our work, not to mention the continuation and development of the project dedicated to the rescue of stone stelae. Also my own University was not interested in this, because my actions were contradictory to the vision of development of the Department of Mediaeval Age. The opportunity to publish the results of the international cooperation of our archaeological expedition was given only in 2012 by the Versita Publishing which, looking for a niche topic, proposed that I write the following monograph. For this, on behalf of all those people involved in the project, we would like to thank the entire Editorial Team.

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From the Author

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Introduction In this book I have used both published materials, drawn from archaeological, ethnographic and historical research, and also my own, as yet unpublished research. This book has been designed to help the reader in the selection of particular sources (monographs, articles, collections of articles) concerning the topic of nomadic monumental sculpture. Based on my own experiences, I have tried to describe already classic publications in an objective, and above all helpful, manner for further research works conducted by professional archaeologists, historians, ethnographers, art historians and other interested people. I did not want to duplicate the information already known from older and newer works containing the timeless insights of their authors, nor to repeat previous discussions of issues associated with stelae. The main purpose of this work is to draw attention to the problem of the rapid disappearance of monumental anthropomorphic sculpture from the area of South-Eastern Europe and to indicate possibilities for rescuing these relics (this issue is also related to the art of stelae in Central Asia). In this book I have included a chapter concerning the history of research and the most important publications, both historical and recent, concerning the study of stelae. The next section is dedicated to the complex issue of the origins of anthropomorphic statues and the cult-sacrifice places associated with them. Since it is connected with the Asian cradle of the Turkic people and their distant and complicated history that is still discussed by archaeologists, turkologists and ethnographers, I have decided to present an outline of this broad issue allowing for an understanding of the function of sculptures in the Turkic environment, both in symbolic as well as social and political aspects. I have not described here the history of the Asian ancestors of the Polovtsians, because it is not the subject of my considerations. This issue could become a topic for a more comprehensive monograph. I have presented here only a brief record of “European” beginnings of the history of these people based on known sources. In the next chapters I discuss subjects associated with the spread of stelae in Europe, their chronology and classification systems based on older publications, together with my comments concerning their validity.

Introduction

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Monumental Polovtsian Statues in Eastern Europe: the Archaeology, Conservation and Protection

I have also outlined my own observations, correcting some theories rendered obsolete in the light of recent discoveries. In the chapter dedicated to the collection of anthropomorphic stelae from the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum, we, together with Michał, have focused on the descriptive section of relics, especially their technical condition recorded three decades earlier, a comparison with 2006, and their condition after the conservation. Michał has precisely described each activity related to the preservation of relics that he conducted on particular objects. Each sculpture required an individual treatment, what we have stressed many times. It is the most complex and important section of this monograph. In these chapters we have also tried to familiarise issues related to the protection and preservation of monumental anthropomorphic sculpture in Eastern Europe. We based our conclusions on own experiences and knowledge acquired from local archaeologists and people who, though not involved professionally with the art of stelae, are however aware of losses and interested in rescuing the cultural heritage of their homeland. We understand that our voices might seem to be unfair or critical, in that we have not described any positive mechanisms giving hope for rescuing monumental sculptures, both those already found and those still waiting to be discovered. We do believe, however, that the painful truth in the presentation of the actual status of relics in the Eastern Europe is better than describing an unrealistic state of affairs to adulate those local people responsible for heritage protection; particularly due to the fact that, as citizens of the European Union, we have an opportunity to look for the help and support of international organisations and institutions dealing with the protection of cultural heritage. As Poles, who survived serious political and economical changes in the 1990s, we do understand the causes of many problems occurring in the countries of Eastern Europe, related to widely understood mechanisms in the social and economic sphere. We are not the only ones to have described problems related to the condition of relics of monumental sculpture. Each scientist dealing with this subject has appealed for possibilities for their protection and preservation for future generations. Unfortunately, without success. In the concluding chapter we have laid out our proposals related to the protection of this category of relics and dissemination of this subject, based on possibilities brought by modern methods of communication. We have also decided to include short guidelines enumerating measures that could be conducted on objects by each employee of a museum or a curator of relics. We have stressed which works can be executed only by a conservator experienced in working with the monumental stone sculpture. We also remain available for all people interested in the development and implementation of projects to save anthropomorphic stalae in the area of Eastern Europe. For my part, I would like here to thank participants of the expedition for their outstanding commitment to the project. On the Polish side, the expedition in 2008 was attended by the following persons: MA Ewa Stanecka, Agata Migdalska,

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Bartosz Adamski, Bartłomiej Brożyna, Piotr Pawełczak, Maciej Sładkowski, Mateusz Szubiński (alumni and students of the Institute of Archaeology of the Jagiellonian University, Poland), Petra Sedlackova (student of the Charles University in Prague, Czech Republic), Katarzyna Korn, Grzegorz Lasota, Jakub Olszyński, Przemysław Podolski (students of the Cracow Academy of Arts, Poland), Iwona Koszałka, Przemysław Polakiewicz (students of the Institute of Archaeology of the University of Rzeszów, Poland). The Ukrainian side was represented by: the Director of the Donetsk Regional Museum, Evgeniy Denysenko and MA Viacheslav Podobied, MA Nikolay Skliarov, [MA Aleksander Grachov] (research employees of the Donetsk Regional Museum), MA Vladimir Grib (independent consultant), MA Galina Vorotintseva, Natalia and Vladimir Stacenko, Sergey Kashyniets (research employee and technical employees of the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum) and MA Natalia Skliarova (employee of the Culture Department of the City of Donetsk). The archaeological practices were attended by students and volunteers from the Donetsk National University guided by MA Vladimir Garbov. I thank prof. dr hab. Jan Chochorowski, prof. dr hab. Andrzej Banach, prof. dr hab. Ireneusz Płuska for the opportunity to accomplish this stage of the project. I thank PhD Lena Adamus and MA Bartosz Zima for their invaluable support in the translation of this book. I thank PhD Stsiapan Tsemushau for the map of the distribution of Polovtsian temples he prepared. I give special thanks to Viacheslav Gutyrya, an artist, for agreeing to place an image of his painting entitled “The Steppe” in the book. For the participation in my project, cooperation and writing this monograph together, I hereby thank MA of Arts, Michał Burzak. Finally, I would like to thank a special person, without whom I would have not become an archaeologists, would not have gone to the Ukraine and would not have commenced works with the nomadic monumental sculpture – my husband Mirosław. Aneta Gołębiowska-Tobiasz Cracow, 25.12.2012

Step. Viacheslav Gutyrya.

Introduction

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Chapter 1 Aneta Gołębiowska-Tobiasz

History of Research and the Most Important Publications The first references to anthropomorphic statues placed on kurgans date from the 13th century. Messengers of European sovereigns travelling to the east provide written descriptions highly valuable to contemporary researchers. In 1245, at the request of Pope Innocent IV, the Italian Franciscan Giovanni da Pian del Carpine (1182-1252) became a messenger to the court of the Great Khan Gujuk. His mission was to conclude a political alliance with the Mongols addressed against the Muslims. However, in fact, the group of monks was to recognise the military power of the new invaders, who four years earlier had devastated Central Europe. After he had returned from the mission, ca. 1247, Giovanni del Carpine in his work “Mongalorum quos nos Tartaros appellamu” provided a description concerning the everyday life of nomads, their culture, beliefs, structure of the state and military tactics. He described the people subordinated to the master of the Golden Horde. He also included important information concerning funeral and remembrance ceremonies of the Polovtsian-Kumans. His companion during this mission was a Polish Franciscan, Benedict, nicknamed the Pole (Benedictus Polonus, ca. 1200 – ca. 1280). He presented his impressions from the journey in a brief chronicle of the mission, being a summary of the work of del Carpine (“De Itinere Fratrum Minorum ad Tartaros”). Another European sent on a mission to the east of Europe, having contacts with nomads, was a Flemish Franciscan, Willem de Ruysbroec (ca. 1215 – ca. 1270). He commenced his journey in 1253 at the request of the king of France, Louis IX, as a Christianisation mission to the Mongols. He returned a year later with information about religious activities of the Nestorians among the Asian nomads. The monk described living conditions, economics and manifestations of the spiritual culture of the nomads (“Itinerarium fratris Willielmi de Rubruquis de ordine fratrum Minorum, Galli, Anno gratia 1253 ad partes Orientales”). Detailed geographical and natural descriptions of the steppes and Central and West Asia are particularly valuable. During his journey, Ruysbroec stayed also among the Polovtsian. He left a description of their funeral customs and ancestor worship, including relations about raising stone stelae and a description of a temple of Polovtsian (Pletneva, 1974a, 5; Bazylow, 1985, 40-41). Further information about anthropomorphic stelae appears in the mid16th century in the form of brief relations by researchers, officers and officials

Chapter 1

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travelling through the steppes. For example, in 1594, during travel to Khortytsia, a German messenger, E. Lassota von Steblau, noted in his diary observations concerning stone statues placed in groups on mounds (Lassota von Steblau, 1866). He counted 20 stelae and one of them he personally examined. In 1627 a geographical and ethnographical study of Russia was published including detailed descriptions of a road map including information about stelae (“stone people”) being landmarks (Книга Большому чертежу). Kurgans with temples on summits usually were located along watersheds of rivers on an elevated terrain. Cemeteries were erected in the vicinity of old roads or fords, so mounds with stelae functioned as signposts. The document also contained information about worshipping stelae by the local stanitsa people. There are 18th century reports from military men who were on the steppes due to the war. Important information can be found in the writings of a Swedish officer, Ph. J. von Strahlenberg, who was captured by the Russians and lived in Siberia from 1709 to 1722. His notes include, in addition to descriptions of anthropomorphic stelae, also their drawings (Daszkiewicz, Tryjarski, 1982, 13). A German doctor, J. J. Lerche, who served in the tsarist army, put in his travel diary information about more than 100 statues seen in the Priazov area. The diary was published in 1791. A relation by G. F. Miller, a Russian scientist, dating back to 1764 described anthropomorphic stelae found whilst digging a kurgan situated in an upper basin of the Inhul River (Daszkiewicz, Tryjarski, 1982, 13). From 1782 there are drawings of stelae placed on kurgans made by V. Ph. Zuev (Zuev, 1787). In addition to illustrations, the traveller left also detailed descriptions of sculptures and places, where he documented them. The first historical and archaeological expeditions involving pioneering exploration and excavation research in the southern Russian provinces were organised in the second half of the 19th century. At that time, Russian scientists focused on issues related to the nomadic people, which resulted in scientific publications containing notes on stelae (e.g. Spasskiy, 1818). Interest in “antiquity” resulted in the first articles dedicated to stone anthropomorphic stelae. In 1851 A. I. Piskariev gathered information about stelae placed on kurgans, developed a topography of the diffusion of “babas” and published it (Piskariev, 1851). Descriptions of anthropomorphic stelae, including the context where they were found, have been published in works of the 19th century Ukrainian researchers include A. Tereshchenko (Tereshchenko, 1853; Tereshchenko, 1866) and A. Gatsuk (Gatsuk, 1870). In 1871 a Russian scientist, Count A. S. Uvarov, developed the first classification of statues based on material concerning 1000 anthropomorphic stelae (Uvarov, 1871). In addition to existing research material, in the form of drawings made by V. Ph. Zuiev, as well as other available illustrations made in the 18th century, his analysis also included contemporary photographs of statues from Novocherkassk. As the first scientist he attempted to establish links between particular types of stelae as well as their chronology. He believed that, based on historical

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objects obtained from the exploration of kurgans with stelae on their summits, it is possible to date them and determine the ethnicity of their creators. He analysed statues from the European steppes and Asian stelae. At the end of the 19th century the issue of anthropomorphic statues again became a point of interest to Ukrainian researches. Works by D. Evarnitskiy (Evarnitskiy, 1890) and V. Yastrebov (Yastrebov, 1886; Yastrebov, 1887; Yastrebov, 1894) can be attributed to that interest. In 1888 a monograph by A. V. Ivanov concerning stone stelae found on Crimean kurgans was published (Ivanov, 1888). In 1897 N. E. Brandenburg, the author of the first fully documented and, for those days, professional archaeological excavations performed in the area of Ros River Basin, presented the results of research on the kurgan with a stelae, located by the Seversky Donets. He postulated that the only possible way to determine the ethnicity of creators of the “babas” is to study the mounds (Brandenburg, 1897). In the same year a book by V. V. Bartold was published, in which the author drew attention to the Asian stelae (Bartold, 1897). His interests in funeral customs of the Turks have been reflected in a monograph: К вопросу о погребальных обрядах тюрков и монголов, published in 1921(Bartold, 1921). The beginning of the 20th century, despite violent political changes in Russia, brought numerous new discoveries and publications associated with the stelae. V. A. Gorodcov explored eight mounds with stone sculptures on their summits. In two of them he discovered late nomadic burials. In 1907 on that basis he stated that the statues should not be connected with burials or with kurgans on which they were found in situ. He also tried to date stelae to the 2nd – 3rd centuries AD (Gorodcov, 1905a; Godocov, 1905b). He continued his studies in the area of the basin of the Seversky Donets and his findings became gems in museum collections of archaeological relics associated with the nomads (e.g. Gorodcov, 1910). The studies that were intended to link stone stelae with nomadic burials were performed, inter alia, by E. P. Trefiliev, who in 1905 excavated two kurgans with stelae, and described the burials as Torks (Trefiliev, 1905). In 1908, thanks to the initiative of Countess P. S. Uvarova, a census of stone stelae located in the southern Russian provinces was carried out. 1133 exemplars were recorded at that time (Uvarova, 1908). The scientist, developing guidelines for administrative officials, took into consideration the list of stelae prepared by Piskariev. However, at the end of the 19th century many statues were relocated from their original places of exposition. It must noted that “babas” did not occur in the areas of Kiev, Poltava and Kharkiv, while their concentration is visible in the area of the Azov Upland and the Don River Basin. At the turn of the century further monographs by Ukrainian authors were published cataloguing sites where anthropomorphic stelae were located. These include the works of I. Bagaley (Bagaley, 1901), A.I. Markevitsch (Markevitsch, 1904), A. Ruzhytskiy (Ruzhytskiy, 1906).

Chapter 1

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Researchers were seeking for analogues of statues from the area of the Black Sea steppe among statues related to the Western European cultural circle. Only in 1915 did N. I. Veselovskyi, based on the analysis of the masculine and feminine attire presented on sculptures and comparing it with relations of Willem de Ruysbroec, link the stelae with Kipchaks-Polovtsians (Veselovskyi, 1915). However, in summary, he mentioned the Turkic affiliation of sculptures and broadly dated the phenomena to the end of the 4th century up to the end of the 12th century. He published stone statues from the Odessa and Moscow collections in an album. In his work he presented detailed measurements of stelae, their drawings and photographs. This was the first substantial work dedicated to the study of anthropomorphic statues. In his work the author inserted also a list of current literature related to the subject. An interesting article concerning anthropomorphic stelae was written and published in Helsinki in 1929 by T. Passek and B. Lathynin (Passek, Lathynin, 1929). In the 1950s, ’60s and ’70s, on the occasion of the filed prospections and explorations of kurgan cemeteries, brief studies on new, individual findings or larger collections of stone statues were published. Attention has been drawn to the connection of the 11th – 13th centuries Polovtsian stelae with the Siberian and central Asian statues of the 6th – 8th centuries, and scientists focused on studying that phenomenon in Asia. At that time numerous monographs were developed, and they remain to this day a research basis for issues related to anthropomorphic stelae. Among the most important works, belonging to the classic literature concerning stelae written by L.A. Evtiukhova (Evtiukhova, 1941; Evtiukhova, 1952), by a pioneer of the turkology, runology and archaeology of the Turkic people, L.R. Kyzlasov (L.R. Kyzlasov, 1951 and written by him, inter alia: L.R. Kyzlasov, 1959, L.R. Kyzlasov, 1960, L.R. Kyzlasov, 1964a, L.R. Kyzlasov, 1964b). In 1955 A.D. Grach published an article: Каменные изваяния Западной Тувы, and in 1961 a monograph Древнетюрские изваяния Тувы (Grach, 1955, Grach, 1961). Another important work is a monograph of results of excavation researches at the Köl-Tegin mausoleum, published in 1960 by a Czech scientist L. Jisl (Jisl, 1958; Jisl, 1960a; Jisl, 1960b; Jisl, 1970). In 1966 another work written by Ya. A. Sher was published (Sher, 1966). Further publications concerning Asian stelae include: F.Kh. Arslanova, A.A. Charikov, (Arslanova, Charikov, 1974), A.A. Charikov (Charikov, 1976; Charikov, 1979). In 1966 another substantial work was published – a monograph written by G. A. Fedorov-Davidov (Fedorov-Davidov, 1966). The author relied on relics from the Black Sea Steppes and the Volga River Basin, as well as on European and Arabic sources. The work included descriptions of certain categories of elements relating to nomadic burial inventories and a brief chapter dedicated to anthropomorphic stelae. The researcher created his own classification of stelae and items depicted on them, dated them and determined the geographical scope.

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As a result, he established that stelae were erected by the Polovtsians in honour of their ancestor warriors and their wives. Currently, due to a simplified form and obsolete data, this system is not applied in research. It is worth noting that, despite the passage of almost 50 years since its publication, Fedorov-Davidov’s work is still an efficient tool for the study of newly discovered sites associated with later nomads due to its universal approach, particularly in relation to an understanding of the specificity of nomadism. The fundamental work dedicated to researchers working on the Polovtsian stelae art is a publication by S. A. Pletneva, entitled Пoлoвецкие каменные извaяния (Pletneva, 1974a). The author had been previously interested in stelae, and included in a brief chapter of her doctoral dissertation published in 1958 an attempt at interpreting their function in the culture of late nomads. She tried to execute a comparative analysis of depicted details on a small series of stone stelae (Pletneva, 1958). Arrangements for the development of the monograph took several years. Pletneva based her work on museum collections and exemplars found during field explorations. During several months of a journey through the Soviet Republic she gathered material, mainly relics included in museum collections, to the amount of 1323 preserved items, of which 644 exemplars have been analysed (Pletneva, 1974a, 7-8, 11). She developed her own typological system for them. The typology included not only the canon of statues and an outline of a figure, but also all elements of the attire, ornaments, arms, face and figure details. Based on inventory descriptions of stelae she developed a topography of the sites. Then, she determined the geographical scope and the chronology of occurrences of these relics on the European steppes. She briefly presented the technique of how the statues were made. The scientist regretted that most stelae she personally saw were in poor technical condition and that most museum employees did not appreciate their value. She suggested that large collections should be placed in covered exhibition halls in order to protect details that over the years were becoming more and more obliterated. The classification of stelae developed by the researcher is not only accurately constructed on solid scientific fundaments based on the analysis of rich archaeological and historical material, but also is the most current and functional classification for studies of new collections of stelae. At the same time, the first occasional catalogues of stone stelae from museum collections of larger peripheral facilities were published including, in addition to descriptions, also drawings or photographs of statues. For example, L. P. Krylova presents a summary of Neolithic, Scythian and Polovtsian stelae belonging to the Historical Museum of Dnieperopetrovsk (Krylova, 1976). In relation to activities of archaeologists acting in the Donetsk, Luhansk District in Ukraine and Rostov District in Russia, the next two decades of the 20th century saw the discovery of stelae and constructions related to places of ancestor worship, which resulted in new publications in following years. An

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article by M. L. Shvetsov commenced a research project related to the ethnology and typology of places of worship attributed to the Polovtsian (Shvetsov, 1979). In the 1980s S. V. Gurkin published the results of research conducted in the area of Rostov-on-Don (Gurkin, 1983; Gurkin, 1987; Gurkin, 1989; Gurkin, 1990 and others). In 1998, continuing the topic of stone cult constructions, he presented results of rescue excavations executed on the left bank of the lower Don and in the basin of the Manych River (Gurkin, 1998 and others). Remarkably valuable work documenting archaeological sites, including Polovtsian temples and in situ stelae, was developed due to the initiative of a married couple of archaeologists from Donetsk, O.Ya. Privalova and A.I. Privalov. For several years they performed field explorations and registered archaeological relics and sites across the Donetsk District. Based on the material collected and ordered in 1988 catalog was published (Privalova, Privalov, 1988). At the beginning of the 1990s a Russian archaeologist, A. G. Atavin, commenced work on a computer programme “Nomad” including data about sites associated with late nomads (Atavin, 2008, 17, 155-157). In addition to kurgan cemeteries and single mounds located in the interfluve of the Volga and Don rivers and on the Ciscaucasus, the programme covered also information about the location of Polovtsian temples. The project constitutes an excellent research tool that allows quick finding of information about archaeological sites, their administrative location, chronology, authors of excavations, places where documentation is kept and its availability, as well as published materials. The database was extended through ten further years. Unfortunately, the untimely death of the author interrupted this well-considered and much needed project. In the 1990s, two vast publications concerning stelae topics written by Ukrainian researches were published. L. S. Geraskova focused on the statistical and mathematical research methods of monumental sculptures and published her own typology of anthropomorphic stelae (Geraskova, 1991). The analysis included 735 exemplars of sculptures, coming primarily from museum collections. The result of this statistical research was an extended classification of Asian and European statues considered in terms of the outline of figures, the proportion of the sculptures, attributes and European exemplars analysed in terms of raw materials. On this basis, the researcher developed her own vision of the evolution, chronology and ethnic attribution of anthropomorphic statues and the geographical scope in Europe and particularly in Ukraine. Unfortunately, the classification system created by the researcher is so complicated and inaccurate that in practice it is not suitable for studying relics. In 1999, a monograph concerning stone stelae from the Luhansk District written by K. I. Krasilnikov was published. The monograph includes catalogued materials from collections of the Luhansk Museum, Pedagogical Institute in Luhansk and from the whole region; that is 110 exemplars (Krasilnikov, 1999; Krasilnikov, Telnova 2000). The monograph broadly describes the art of stelae

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from the Neolithic until the 13th century A.D. and typological systems developed by the author for both older and Polovtsian stelae. In a brief chapter attention was drawn to the history of collections of stelae in Luhansk in Ukraine and to the history of research. Items depicted on stelae as well as the symbolism of certain categories, the way of portraying faces, the classification of places of worship and the reconstruction of the technique and transportation methods were described. Furthermore, postulates concerning their legal status and protection both for the territory of Ukraine and the collection from Luhansk were included. A part of the monograph concerning Polovtsian stelae is clearly inspired by the work of S. A. Pletneva of 1974 (Pletneva, 1974a) and the book of J. R. Daszkiewicz and E. Tryjarski (information provided below), which has been indicated by the author himself in the introduction. The advantage of the publication is a careful catalogue of all anthropomorphic statues coming from the abovementioned region according to the state shortly before 1999, their accurate description and a section of the catalogue containing photographs and drawings. In addition, the author attached results of the petrographic analysis for all described exemplars of stelae. The collection of the completed material in the form of a monograph 25 years after publication of the crucial work of Pletneva is an unquestionable advantage of this work. In terms of the content and language the book can be seen rather as a work popularising the archaeological and historical knowledge among common readers than a professional publication dedicated to scientists. As a result of intense economic changes that began in Eastern Europe at the end of the 1990s and the first decade of the 21st century, large-scale rescue researches at sites of new investments are being carried out. As a consequence of these researches in Russian and Ukrainian scientific journals several publications of single findings of anthropomorphic stelae or sacrifice-cult complexes attributed to the Polovtsian were issued. Most often, the topic was presented briefly, more as an informational note than an exhaustive document. An example worth mentioning is, inter alia, an extensive article by Russian archaeologist Yu. K. Guguyev: Половецкое святилище необычной конструкции на Северском Донце in 2001, concerning the well-studied temple with the in situ preserved anthropomorphic stela. An interesting summary publication concerning cult places was also developed by E. I. Narozhnyi (Narozhnyi, 2003 and others). In eastern Ukraine results of research by N. E. Minenkova include studies of sites related to the Polovtsian anthropomorphic sculpture, published in the form of articles (Privalova, Minenkova, 1998, Minenkova, 2004 and others) and an article summarising research on sacrifice-cult places by M. L. Shvetsov (Shvetsov, 2000). Unfortunately, during the past ten years no large study nor monograph concerning findings of stelae, including those in situ associated with sacrificecult constructions has been published. The Polish contribution to the archaeological research related to the anthropomorphic sculpture developed in the first half of the 20th century were

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publications by W. Demetrykiewicz (Demetrykiewicz, 1910, together with the German-language translation), W. Kotwicz (Kotwicz, 1928; Kotwicz, 1937; Kotwicz, 1949; Kotwicz, SamoÏlowitch, 1928) and W. Antoniewicz (Antoniewicz, 1947). Also a turkologist, E. Tryjarski wrote about anthropomorphic stelae in the collection from Nieborów, wrongly attributing them to Pechenegs (Tryjarski, 1975; Tryjarski, 1979). In 1982 he wrote together with an Ukrainian historian Y. Daszkiewicz a vast publications titled: Kamienne baby stepów nadczarnomorskich. Kolekcja z Askanii Nowej (Daszkiewicz, Tryjarski, 1982). The edition includes descriptions of 17 stelae, covered for the first time with petroarchaeological studies. Authors collected a large number of written sources, which constitutes an undoubted advantage of that book and is a valuable work for future generations of research into issues relating to the art of stelae. The historical basis was a starting point for discussions and polemics on subjects considered in further chapters. The authors focused on the description of sources they had used, as well as on the European history of stelae, their possible number and collections. Based on the collected literature they precisely tracked the history of statues between the 14th and 19th centuries, outlining arguments concerning their protection and criticising the lack of action in that respect. They proposed their own typology of anthropomorphic stelae originating from the area of Western Europe, however, not including contemporary studies and publications (inter alia concerning Scythian and early Turkic stelae). They analysed the phenomena of anthropomorphic stelae in the broad chronological and cultural context. They also believed that Turkic stelae were generated by Protobulgars, Pechenegs, Torks and Polovtsians (Daszkiewicz, Tryjarski, 1982, 47, 115). However, the authors deliberately disregarded conections between the art of stelae in context of cult-sacrifice places in the Western Europe and Central and Western Asia. They argued with conclusions concerning functions of stelae and the cultural background of their creators, put forward by G. A. Fedorov-Davidov and S. A. Pletneva. More recent research by M. L. Shvetsov relating to functions of the Polovtsian anthropomorphic stelae in the context of cult-sacrifice places has also been criticised. However, an indisputable achievement of the researches was the record of the quantity, description of the history and the technical condition of 17 stelae and the reconstruction of 3 unpreserved objects from the collection belonging to the Askania-Nova Museum and Reserve (Chaplynka Raion, Kherson District, Ukraine). They also included vast results of analysis of samples of rocks subjected to petrographic studies, taken in order to determine the type of raw materials and the location of outcrops used in construction. Determination of the location of quarries for 3 stelae was a success. At the end of the 20th century Polish scientific literature mentions the anthropomorphic stelae in editions of catalogues of temporary exhibitions. The Silesian Museum presented at that time an exhibit loaned from the Archaeological Museum in Cracow (Koczownicy Ukrainy, 1996). Several years

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later the National Museum in Cracow acquired two Polovtsian stelae from the collection of 30 decaying exemplars belonging to the Archaeological Museum of Odessa (Pletneva, 1974a, 11). The Ukrainian party provided the exhibitor with rich museum collections in exchange for the conservation carried out by the Polish party. Unfortunately, in the case of stelae the conservation was carried out incompetently (Treasures from the Black Sea Coast, 2006). In Poland only two museum institutions possess in their collections the Polovtsian anthropomorphic statues. The Archaeological Museum in Cracow acquired a feminine stelae from a landlord, Ernest Rohoziński, the Leliwa coat of arms (1859 – 1928), owner of the estate in Stadnica, in the Tarashcha Poviat, Kiev Guberniya (nowadays a Tarashcha Raion, Kiev District, Ukraine). The statue was donated to the collection at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. In 2005 the decision was taken to submit the item to full technical and artistic conservation. Works were executed by M. Burzak (Burzak, 2010). The stela was also the subject of a full publication prepared by A. Gołębiowska-Tobiasz (Gołębiowska-Tobiasz, 2010). The Museum in Nieborów and Arkadia is located in the former magnate residence of the Radziwiłł princes. Among its rich collections it possesses a set of nomadic monumental sculptures. In the garden, four exemplars of anthropomorphic stelae have been exhibited continuously since 1893: three feminine and one masculine (Mikocki, Piwkowski 2001, 161-162). They were brought to the estate in 1815 by Princess Helen Radziwiłł née Przeździecka (1752 – 1821) from Podolia. The state of preservation of the stelae is excellent. Details of parts and decorations of military and everyday objects and attire are visible. Statues underwent conservation. In the autumn and winter they are also protected against atmospheric conditions destructive to the stone.

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Chapter 2 Aneta Gołębiowska-Tobiasz

Outline of the Genesis of Anthropomorphic Stelae. Cult Places 1. Introduction The Turkic people, whose vanguards appeared at the Volga Region probably at the turn of the 10th and 11th centuries and then quickly migrated to the west, crossing the Don and Seversky Donets rivers, are known under various names. They were specified in geographical descriptions, chronicles, historical accounts and reports from journeys related to the 10th – 14th centuries. Oriental sources (Arabic, Iranian, Armenian and Georgian) identified the new wave of nomads as “Kipchaks”. In the Ruthenian annals they are called “Kumans” and “Polovtsians”, while in Byzantine chronicles they are described as “Kumans” or “Komans”. In Hungarian reports they are named the “Kuns” (Gurkin, 2000, 6). The oriental sources include information concerning both the early history of the Kipchaks and the “European” episode of the Polovtsians. Reports by travellers and scholars are extremely valuable research tools in regards to the customs, daily living conditions and spiritual spheres of these nomads. Authors of these significant works were: Tamim Ibn Bahr (8th/9th century), Ibn Chordadbek (9th century), Ibn Fadlan, Al Masudi, Al-Istahri (10th century), Mahmud of Kashgar (Turk who written in Arabic language), Al Gardizi, Al Bekri (11th century), Al Idrisi (12th century), Ibn Said (13th century), Rashid ad Din, Abul Fida (13th/14th century), and Ibn Batutta (14th century). The most reliable European studies include the Byzantine sources. Due to contacts with nations living in the periphery of the Black Sea, Byzantium always possessed detailed information acquired through diplomatic, military, trade and cultural means. Topics related to the Turkic people have been addressed by former leaders, servicemen, clergy and also members of aristocratic families, including those belonging to the inner tsarist circle. Reliable reports concerning the Pechenegs and Polovtsians are contained in the Alexiad, written by Anna Komnena (1083-1155). The princess acquired her information from the officials and servicemen of her father, tsar Alexius I. Her comments are related to the European history of the Polovtsians. Sources from the Slavic circle include the “Primary Chronicle” covering the years 852-1113 and, starting from 1054, reporting the stormy relationship between Ruthenian princes and Polovtsians khans. It lists the names and nicknames of the Polovtsian khans, and

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briefly informs about the tactics of the Polovtsians in relation to the Ruthenian princes and people living in the area. It contains reports about alliances which were strengthened through arrangements and marriages between the heads of the Polovtsian families and Ruthenian noblemen. Sometimes the annals provide specified data concerning the abundance of the nomads’ troops. Unfortunately, the chronicle does not include any details related to Polovtsian everyday life or special ceremonies, nor descriptions of the appearance, attire or weaponry of the Polovtsians. Another Old Russian source is the epic “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” written ca. 1187-1188 and referring to events of 1185. The work describes a Ruthenian military expedition against the nomads; its authenticity is still debated by historians and linguists. Records detailing relations with the nomads were also included in later codes: the Laurentian Codex of the second half of the 14th century, the Hypatian Codex of the beginning of the 15th century and in the Radziwiłł Chronicle (Königsberg Chronicle) of the 12th century preserved in a 15th century copy. The last includes splendid, colourful images showing Polovtsian fighting tactics. These miniatures provide information about the nomads’ attire, ornaments, weaponry and means of transport. The Ustugski Chronicle, describing the history of the Rus from 852, dates from the first quarter of the 16th century. The narration maintains the form of laconic sentences describing the most important events of the following years. It contains information about battles between the Ruthenian princes and the Polovtsians, called here the “Totars”. Sources concerning the Polovtsians coming from Central Europe include the “Chronicle of Gallus Anonymus”. It contains short notes concerning several attacks of Polovtsian reconnaissance troops on the Sandomierz region that took place in first decades of the 12th century. Their subsequent presence in Polish lands was related to military interventions during the dynastic competitions. As mercenaries alongside the Ruthenian troops, they attended battles of Vladyslav II the Exile against his half-brothers in 1146 (Zientara, 1978, 96). There are also known records from Armenian and Georgian sources. The substantial information was included by Matthew of Edessa (Mettew of Urha) in his chronicle describing causes of the appearance of Kipchaks and Kimaks at the Transvolga. He additionally listed names of the tribes. Based on reports of Arabic travellers (Al Masudi, Abu Dulaf, Hudud Al Alem book) along with ethnic, toponymic and linguistic research, a hypothesis was put forward that at the turn of the 9th and 10th centuries the Kipchaks, being the eastern flank of the Kimaks, acquired independence. They created their own administration of sorts, extending over territories from the western basin of Irtysh River to the North Aral and the southern and eastern foothills of the Ural Mountains. The westernmost federate were Kumans who occupied steppes from the Aral Lake to the southern Ural. They were neighbours of Pechenegs from the west, of Oghuz from the east and Bulgarians from the north. Supposedly, they were related to the Kipchaks as the first crossed the Volga and occupied the area

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of the Black Sea Steppes (Kumiekov, 1987, 15-23). According to the information of Ibn Said and Abul Fida in the 11th century, the Volga River became the border dividing the Kipchaks into two distinct factions: western (the Polovtsians) and eastern Kipchaks. The turn of the first millennium was characterised by an unstable political situation in the area of south and east Europe. During the following four centuries the steppes have been crossed by several waves of people, which contributed to the reduction of settlement focused primarily at rivers and in a range at the Black Sea coast. The Polovtsians crossing the Volga were an efficient group consisting of Turkic and Mongol tribes already federated in the area of western Asia. The alliance was consolidated to such a degree that subduing people living in the area of south and east Europe, and taking over the political and economic control on these lands, was a smooth process not accompanied by the destruction and economic collapse seen during earlier waves of invasions by Iranian and Turkic nomads. The West Kipchaks (the Polovtsians), the descendants of Asian Turks, brought with them to Europe a rich material and spiritual culture. One of the most important elements of their beliefs was the cult of ancestors. The Manism was a significant part of the religion of the early Turks. It was cultivated by the Kimaks, Khakaz, Uighurs, Yenisei Kirghiz and Kipchaks. Archaeological material includes sites associated with the cult of ancestors, where periodically ceremonies for departed souls were carried out (the so called sacrifice-stone enclosures1) and, closely related to them, stone symbols in the form of rough stones including runic inscriptions2 (the so called balbals) and the anthropomorphic stelae. The Polovtsians did not erect balbals (e.g. Fedorov-Davidov, 1966, 192). However, they constructed cult-sacrifice sites within which they erected anthropomorphic statues and made sacrifices during periodical ceremonies

1 Literatim in the literature: поминальные оградки, жертвенно-культовые оградки etc. The word оградa (Russian) means: fence, hedge, hurdle. In the overall context of these establishments and, specifically, given the role of the „fenced”, inner space within the spiritual sphere of the Turkic people, it seems that using the Polish word “ogród” or “ogródek” (“garden”, in Polish etymologically connected with the word “fence”) comes closest to evoking the sense of such close construction than, for example, “cult-sacrifice hedge” which could be understood quite differently in spatial terms. The Turkologist E. Tryjarski also applies term “stone enclosures” to the Turkic cult constructions (Daszkiewicz, Tryjarski, 1982, 183). Russians translate this term into the English language as “cult enclosures”. 2 The stones had an inscription „blbl”. Turkologists are not certain how to pronounce this word. It is assumed that the most probable is the version “balbal”. In Russian literature the vocalisation is rendered балбал (von Gabain, 1953, 549). The word balbal was translated as: 1. stone, 2. enemy, 3. brought as a sacrifice (after W. Kotwicz, J-P Roux: Daszkiewicz, Tryjarski, 1982, 25). It symbolised a slain enemy (L.R. Kyzlasov, 1964a, 352).

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for departed souls. It is known that erecting balbals together with making sacrifices for the dead was practiced among the Oghuz. However, there is no source information, nor has it been confirmed through archaeological research, that anthropomorphic stelae were erected within cult-sacrifice establishments among other Turkic tribes inhabiting the European steppes in the Middle Ages3. Relics of the cult of ancestors survived in the environment of Turkic people to the present day. Wooden and stone statues have been made by Turkmens, Kazakhs, Bashkirs, Chuvash, Yakuts, etc. despite the fact that they were within the influence of the major monotheistic religions (ethnographic data of 1940s-1960s). In the 18th century the Kazakhs built stone constructions on a square plan, erected anthropomorphic stelae at the eastern wall and sacrificed cattle as seasonal sacrifices. The Tuvans honoured those dead who, when living, had been generally respected by society through erecting wooden or stone stelae even in the 19th century (L.R. Kyzlasov, 1964b, 39).

2. Notes on the Religion and Mythology of the Turks on a Background of Reception of Foreign Cultural Influences Places that assumed an aura of stability and clan unity were points of reference in the perception of both life and the afterlife among the nomads, whose particular lifestyle influenced their awareness and forms of beliefs. Houses could not play that role because, due to the mobility coerced by natural conditions and their model of economy, the nomads did not have fixed dwellings. The role of such centres had been assigned to burial grounds („resting places of the dead ancestors”), initially located in outstanding natural forms of terrain such as caverns, ravines, and many other kinds of mysterious and wondrous places. With the passing of time flat burial grounds were replaced with mounds that, in steppe environments, took the shape of monumental foundations. The visual effect was additionally strengthened by erecting these mounds on elevated terrain. Burial structures of all nomads were related to inhabitable structures or means of transport (often a carriage of animals), becoming the magical link between the world of the living and the afterlife. Burial grounds were always situated nearby rivers. Apart from the possibility of having a longer, safe rest

3 Pletneva in her doctoral thesis described the burial of a Tork-Oghuz in which two small, wooden anthropomorphic statues with schematic shapes were found. The finding comes from studies of V. A. Gorodcov of 1901. However, these statues are related to burial and funeral ceremonies, not to ceremonies for departed souls (Pletneva, 1958, 161-162).

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in favourable conditions during seasonal migrations, the choice of an area that favoured creating fixed objects which centres of clan unity and identification (in that case – clan burial grounds) was determined by their system of beliefs and the perception of the world. Natural conditions and the role that these places had to play in the awareness of the community contributed to the process of attributing sacred value to them, as they were the links of time and space, of the cycle of life and generations, of human and divine worlds, and of clan unity. Customs associated with ancestor worship evolved; they were expanded and enriched with forms of funeral architecture, such as kurgans and stone structures (mausoleums, sacrifice-cult enclosures and temple complexes). An effect of that evolution was the development of the art of anthropomorphic stelae. These places were visited on a regular basis and hosted burial or remembrance ceremonies attended also by the representations of the dead, which strengthened the bonds in a clan. The syncretic religion of the Turkic peoples was not only integrative but also ceremonial-aesthetic and politicalideological. During their stormy history, ancestors of the Polovtsians succumbed to stronger nations, within which they entered into not always peaceful contacts. Cultural impulses came from the Chinese, Iranian, Arabic and ManchuriaTunguska societies. Today it is hard to determine clearly what part of the nomads’ beliefs constituted their “primeval” religion and what, in actually, that religion had been. Most information on the original Turkic religion comes from Chinese sources and relates chiefly to the events of the 6th century. These chronicles contain descriptions of rituals, customs and rites governing people linked through dialectal similarity to the same language group. The chronicles mention, among others, rituals in honour of the ancestors, rituals related to the worship of heaven, astronomical bodies and forms of the landscape, etc. (L.R. Kyzlasov, 1964b, 29-31, 38; Sher, 1966, 14; Gumilov, 1972, 73; Gurkin, 2000, 11). An important role within the mythology of the Turkic people, as well as in many others, was played by an idea of the construction of the world. The holy mountain of the Turks, Ötüken, located in the mountain chain of Khangai, was believed to be the centre of the earthly world, and to arrange it vertically. On the micro-level, the same function was attributed to terrain elevations (drainage divides, fluvial terraces, steep river banks, crags), holy trees, hitching posts and boulders. The horizontal order was determined by the daily passage of the Sun. The east was the most important direction for the Turkic people. Their observations of the surrounding world and natural phenomena resulted in an association and connection of the sunrise (dawn) with the beginning of animal and human life cycles (birth) and the beginning of floral vegetation (spring). The west, by analogy, was associated to dusk, death and autumn. It was believed that the world of the ancestors was located somewhere to the west or north-west. This orientation was applied to graves in the burial ritual of most Turkic peoples. The

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east and the west determined also the horizontal sphere of the world of the living. Spring and autumn were when offerings were given to the spirits of nature. The Chinese chronicles noted that people who died in spring or summer were buried by the Turks in autumn and those who died in autumn or winter were buried in spring; a custom that had its roots deep in the past. Archaeological findings have confirmed that it was practiced also by the people of the Tashtyk culture (von Gabain, 1953, 541; Lvova et al., 1988, 46-49). The seasons of spring and autumn were connected with transition between wintertime encampments and summer pastures. Autumn and spring were also the time of military marches. The four-sided image of the horizontal world and three-part division of the vertical world were known in the Indo-Iranian culture (the scheme of the horizontal image of the world in the form of squares was known by Scythians), as well as the Ugric and Turkic. The square depiction of the human world surrounded by the circle of the natural world was present also in China. In the culture of the Turkic people who came to Europe, the horizontal order of the world has been described as squares, of which the most important one depicted the sacral middle of the world and was associated with squares, inscribed one into another, located along two crossing axes of symmetry (the so called: „вавилон” – Babylon or „мельница” – mill). These signs were present in the environment of the Proto-Bulgarians in the Old Great Bulgaria and the Kama Bulgaria (e.g. the iconographic of walls of Biliar) and, relatively numerously, in the Khazars Khaganate, mainly as graffiti on the white stone walls of castles of the Verkhniy Saltov, Sarkel, Mayak, on small objects and in the form of amulets (Pletneva, 1989, 96-97; Nakhapetian, 1994, 110-113). The vertical image of the world was presented in the graphic form as the more or less stylised tree with a crown and roots, strongly schematical ladder, or pole with a solar symbol upwards. Similar to symbols of the horizontal world, the vertical signs are present on relics related to the states of the Proto-Bulgarians and Khazars. There are graffiti on bricks and stones of strongholds (Biliar, Sarkel, Verkhniy Saltov, Mayak, Tsimlyansk gorodishche), symbols on small objects and ornaments (arrowheads, stone linings of pottery from the area of the basin of the Seversky Donets River, rings from the Dmitrievskoye cemetery) (Pletneva, 1989, 116; Nakhepatian, 1994, 108-109, 114). Within the Alano-Bulgarian section of the Saltov-Mayak culture there are other, intriguing approaches to the vertical image of the world. Among burial inventories of the Alan women three samovar-shaped box-pendants were found (Pletneva, 1989, 106). I.L.Kyzlasov noted that the early Turkic inscriptions in the Köl-Tegin mausoleum decribe two levels of the world: heaven and earth.4

4 The information has been provided to me by prof. I. L. Kyzlasov in May 2012, during my stay in Moscow. For these valuable comments I sincerely thank him.

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In the mythology of the central Asian people (Turks, Mongols, Iranians) there are descriptions of heaven and earth adjoining at their ends. Two bowls banded together at their bottoms could have been symbolising this image of the world. This opposition is also associated with the image of a tree, with roots and crown shown antithetically to represent heaven and earth. The image of the third sphere of the world, the underworld, was generated much later and probably under the influence of contact with the major monotheistic religions. The early origins of shamanism is attested by rock carvings, widely distributed in the basin of the Minusinsk Hollow associated with the Tashtyk culture of the early Turkic tribes of the Sayan-Altay Foothills. They depicted narrative scenes describing the fight against evil powers of nature and diseases, fights against bad spirits, fertility rituals, honouring all powers of nature, spells related to war and hunting trophies (L.R. Kyzlasov, 1990, 261). The earliest testimonies proving the presence of shamanism in the environment of Turks come from the middle of the 6th century (Gumilow, 1972, 82). The Sin-Tanshu Chronicle provides the Chinese transcription of the name of a Turkic shaman – kam (Chinese – gian’), who made sacrifices in open areas. A shaman was placed highly in the hierarchy of Altaic societies. A shaman’s pantheon of ancestors included, in addition to people, deities and spirits of nature. During the rite of passage, a shaman became a family’s representative in the world of nature, caring for their wellbeing (Sagalaev, Oktiabrskaya, 1990, 96-97). The shamanic gift was also revealed under the influence of expectations from the community, who needed their own representative in the world of spirits and deities in order to live safely in the natural world. During the trance, a shaman acquired messages that dictated the treatment of or contact with ancestors’ spirits. The most important function played by the shaman was to take care of multiplying the number of animal souls ensuring a successful hunting. Important equipment of a shaman included: a mask, drum, three-horn tiara, armour, bow and arrows. During burial ceremonies a shaman in a mask played the role of “deputy dead” (Motov, 2001a, 69). The attire of a shaman, decorations and a mask emphasised his equity with ancestors, deities, animals, birds and people of both sex. In the case of Turks, where the social structure was based on a tribe, the natural consequence of the understanding of laws associated with changes of the cycle of life and death was the vertical scheme: ancestors, descendants, and relations between them. It structured the position of a tribe’s members in time and space. According to primeval beliefs ancestors did not disappear but guarded and took care of their living relatives, becoming their representatives in the world of souls, spirits and deities. Their death did not mean breaking ties with the family. Therefore, the living tried to maintain the benevolence of their ancestors and keep the harmony of the world, by remaining in close proximity with the dead through establishing contact, passing their names and

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legends on to their descendants and fulfilling obligations related to extended ceremonies for departed souls. This cultural model, including the image of the world, shamanism and Manism, as well as mixed burial traditions dated back to the Bronze Age, contributed within the environment of the Turkic people to the creation of the specific form of ceremonies for departed souls that over time was transformed into the cult of ancestors. The art of stelae originated from the above-mentioned ancestor worship and from the perception of the mythical image of the world. Initially people would set vertical boulders to symbolise the centre of the earthly world, the axis mundi, and thus arrange the ceremonial space. Wooden stelae had a similar function. Anthropomorphic statues were an artistic and aesthetic fusion of the old beliefs: they symbolised the tree of life, they were shelter for a specific deceased soul, as well as centres around which rituals of passage to the divine dimension of the world were held and where one could contact one’s ancestors. A vessel or a horn held in the dead’s hand would very soon become part of the canon of earlyTurkic stelae representations. During sacrificial rituals, relatives included their ancestor, personified by the statue, in feasts and remembrance ceremonies. They provided him with food and drink by casting it into the fires burning in pits dug under the stelae. He was talked to and addressed with requests for help. Representations of such feasts and the participants are very rare in the Asian stelae record (L.R. Kyzlasov, 1964b, 34).

3. Anthropomorphic Stelae „The Kumans build a mound over the corpse and erect a stela for it with its face turned to the east and holding a vessel in a hand in front of a navel” (Travels into the East Countries of Willem de Ruysbroec of the Annum Domini 1253, chapter 10) (4)5. A “stone baba” is a term used to describe an anthropomorphic statue that was adopted both in everyday language and in professional publications. It covers Asian and European stelae coming from various cultural circles with a wide chronology. The concept “baba” had appeared for the first time before the year 1398 in the Novogorod Annals (Fedorov-Davidov, 1966, 166, reference 1). The term “stone baba” appears in journals by servicemen and travellers around the 18th century. Already in the 19th century there were attempts to connect the

5 „Команы насыпают больщой холм над усопшим и воздвигают ему статую, обращенную лицом к востоку, и держащую у себя в руке пред пупком чашу”. Translated from Russian by A. Gołębiowska-Tobiasz, translated from Polish by L. Adamus.

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etymology of the word with its closest phonetic parallel: “baba” (Turkic “baba”), “balbal”, “balvan” (Russian “болван”, Old Russian “бльвањ”). The word “baba” appears in many Turkic languages, and was also used in the Old Turkic language. It means “ancestor, grandfather” (Siemieniec-Gołaś, 2000, 21). Pletneva also indicates other possible sources of the term. Namely, she associates the name “baba” with the Turkic “balbal”. Another parallel may be the Persian word “pählavan” or Uzbek “palvan”. Both mean the hero-athlete, however researchers note that these two last terms never refer to a statue (Pletneva, 1974a, 6). The word “balvan” appears frequently in medieval historical sources in relation to the Polovtsian statues. It is probable that the Ruthenian people acquired this word from the Turkic word that was relatively easy to remember and articulate in the Slavic environment. According to Turkologists the word “balbal” was not known in the Kipchak language (Daszkiewicz, Tryjarski, 1982, 26). The language of the Kipchaks had a distinct expression for a statue, „sin-tash” (tur. sÏn-taš), meaning „a stone image of the dead” or „a stone image” (Arslanova, Charikov 1974, 232; Siemieniec-Gołaś, 2000, 86, 123). The tradition of constructing monumental stone sculptures originated in the environment of the Bronze Age cultures of Central and Middle Asia around the 4th millennium B.C. It spread relatively quickly to the region of the Black Sea Steppe. It appeared there among the peoples of the following cultures: Sredny Stog, Low-Mikhailovsk, Kemi Oba, Pit Grave and Catacomb cultures (Gedl, 1985, 190; Krasilnikov, 1999, 6, 12-13; Chochorowski, 1999, 266-269, 273-274, 286-287 et al.). The genesis of this phenomenon is not the topic of this book, although one needs to realise that the art of creating stelae was known earlier in many cultural circles before it emerged in the environment of the Turkic peoples. Due to obvious reasons, the canon of human characters depicted also varied. The Neolithic and Early Bronze Age stelae show schematic human figures carved on the surface of the stone. They have highlighted facial details, whiskers and hands with splayed palms. The stone was processed and polished in such a way that the silhouette carved into it presented an individual with broad shoulders, unseen neck and waist, and without lower limbs. Figures are men – warriors and shepherds – dressed in decorated coats, belted and armed with clubs, axes and pickaxes. Often their sexual attributes are indicated. Sometimes in the lower part of a sculpture images of animals were placed. Similar schematic details and angular shapes on stelae are characteristic of the art of the Kimmerians. On their sculptures there are no facial details depicted. Heads have been highlighted schematically, separated from a body by a drawing of a necklace. Statues had no sculptured limbs. Where legs should have been, the body is symbolically separated from the lower part by a belt. Warriors are armed with bows, knives and short swords. In the early Iron Age anthropomorphic stelae had appeared in the Scythian environment. They present a generalised image of a masculine ancestor–warrior, however without attempt to present individual traits.

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An outline of a silhouette, with face, limbs, body and weaponry, was carved in the stone. The Scythians at first started to process blocks of stone to create a spatial sculpture. Incisions highlighted details on the surface of a statue: moustached face, massive necklace, horn held in both hands, belt with acinaces, caftan. Often primary sexual characteristics were marked (Sher, 1966, 32-33; Olkhovsky, 2005, 53-56, 109-117). The art of stelae in the abovementioned cultural circles was associated with burial ceremonies (Olkhovsky, 2005, 78, 117). Most of the information on the original Turkic religion comes from Chinese sources and relates chiefly to the events of the 6th century, when an alliance of tribes and clans created the First Khaganate of the Turks. The chronicles mention, among others, rituals in honour of ancestors (Gumilov, 1972, 73; L.R. Kyzlasov, 1964b, 29-31, 38; Sher, 1966, 14; Gurkin, 2000, 11). A testimony of these ancient traditions includes, for example, a report of the ceremony that the Khagans of the Western and Eastern Turks attended annually with their notables and emissaries of vassal nations. They would come from remote places to sacrifice sheep and horses in the holy caverns of their ancestors. Another form of this worship involved constructing a wooden structure containing a stelaeshaped figure of a dead, with scenes of battles he fought painted on the walls. Prior to entombing the balbals had been erected symbolising a killed enemy (L.R. Kyzlasov, 1966, 206-208). It was not infrequent to have dozens of such stones arranged in rows at the east side of the cult place. Great Turkic warlords and khagans were honoured with cult-sacrifice mausoleums made of bricks or stones. These structures were raised to emphasise the significance of the deceased allies by builders sent by the Chinese emperor. The eastern part of the structure’s interior contained stone stelae of the deceased individual and his wife. Sacrifice pits were constructed before the statues. Apart from battle scenes, the walls were covered with inscriptions that glorified honoured heroic exploits and, in some cases, the names of the officers of the Chinese Empire in charge of the mausoleum’s construction (L.R. Kyzlasov, 1964b, 23-32). Warriors of the lower ranks were commemorated with wooden yurts or small stone enclosures with an anthropomorphic sculpture, post or rock set by the east wall. Rows of small stones, stretching towards the east, were placed in front of them. One should bear in mind that Turkic sacrifice-cult complexes were not raised above their burial grounds but in a different, specially selected place. This contrasts with Chinese customs, in which zoo- or anthropomorphic stelae were placed nearby graves. The custom of erecting sacrifice-cult complexes was present also in the environment of Uighur and Mongol tribes. In the 1950s, L. R. Kyzlasov demonstrated that within the Tashtyk culture the cult of the dead developed specific ceremonies. Post-mortem plaster masks were made and then deposited on an effigy made of fabric and wood. Fairly soon they started to make stone stelae depicting the dead (L.R. Kyzlasov, 1964a, 352). Russian researchers formulated a hypothesis that under the First Khaganate of

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the Turks the archaic funeral customs were still followed, and consisted of the ceremony being attended by a deceased person or a dummy. The dummy would be clothed and sat in an especially constructed chamber. Some forms of this custom were preserved among the Khazars, and elements were practiced by the Kazakhs (Arslanova, Charikov, 1974, 234) until the 1880s. The rituals were accompanied by a prolonged period of mourning and the custom of leaving the corpses unburied for some time. With time the deceased was replaced by a wooden or stone statue (Motov, 2001a, 81). The statues of the Turkic people from the Asian lands are characterised by uniqueness of individual representations within the assumed canon of sculpture. Both masculine and – very rarely – feminine statues represent people that contemporary relatives and donors knew and recognised, rendered familiar by means of portrait features, everyday objects, clothes and other details, sometimes overemphasised for the sake of individuality, reflected in stone and presumably also in wood (Charikov, 1976, 160). An object common to all types of Turkic statues is a vessel held in one or both hands; its symbolism is difficult to interpret it clearly. According to Turkologists and archaeologists specialising in Altaic research, this attribute could represent a sacrifice vessel containing a liquor of immortality. The vessel could also perhaps be filled with pabulum or liquor during periodical ceremonies for departed souls (extensive literature listed in: Daszkiewicz, Tryjarski, 1982, 30-31). The hypothesis explaining the vessel’s function as an urn containing symbolic dust of an ancestor seems to be unlikely, due to the shape of vessels (cups, flat bowls) which were not used as urns. According to the ethnographic data within the environment of Turkic tribes a vessel (saba) filled with a milky beverage was a talisman that provided wellbeing and fertility in the family. They believed that the full vessel symbolised the source of life. In magic rites it could be used to summon the soul of a child. It is possible that the vessels depicted on the Turkic stelae symbolised the continuous cycle of life and death; the ancestor held in both hands a vessel, filled with souls of his descendants (Lvova et al., 1988, 128-134). In 1960 Sher analysed the Turkic statues occurring in west Kazakhstan, Semirechye, southern Siberia, Tian-Shan Mountains and Mongolia. Most of the distinguished groups of statues represented silhouettes holding a vessel in one or both hands. Feminine statues occurred only at the Semirechye area, and their amount increased when moving to the west. The Volga River forms a border, behind which they occured massively. Masculine statues with weaponry and vessels were linked to the representatives of the military aristocratic families of the Turks. Sculptures without weaponry were intended to represent aristocrats who did not practice the art of war (Sher, 1966, 25-26, 57-58). They were characteristic of the Uighur people and of areas under the influence of the Uighur Khaganate. A similar division of the aristocracy has been drawn from

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the analysis of later, but genetically linked to Turkic stelae, Polovtsian statues (e.g. Krasilnikov, 1999, 44 c.f. Pletneva, 1974a, 74-75). The blooming period of Asian stone sculpture has been linked to the influences of Sogdian art at the time of the Western Turkic Khaganate stability (603-657). The precise consideration of body part proportions in masculine stelae with weaponry, the softness of the relief lines, the manner of styling facial expressions and above all the realistic representation of hands and fingers have their counterparts in the territories of Sogdiana, and reflect the influences of Buddhist schools. The statues on which a figure holds a vessel in both hands came from the period of the Uighur Khaganate or were associated with the Uighurs (Sher, 1966, 64). The Uighur statues holding a vessel in both hands were mentioned by another notable researcher of the early Turks, L. R. Kyzlasov. He has drawn attention to the lack of weaponry presentations on stelae, abundance of belt mount sets, head dress details and hats, based on which it was possible to date precisely and establish the cultural affiliation of the figures (e.g. L.R. Kyzlasov, 1964a, 351-352). The Uighur statues were not associated with burial places. They were erected in separate places and, in similarity to other Turkic tribes, they constituted an important element of ceremonies for departed souls. Statues representing schematic figures holding a vessel in both hands are characteristic of Kipchaks. However, such statues lack portrait features. They do not depict the abundance of details of head dress, ornaments and parts of attire (Charikov, 1979, 181-189; Charikov, 1986, 95-99). Researchers studying Asian stelae have hypothesised that this phenomenon might have been related to a custom of dressing stone statues in fabric robes and headgear that had been specially dedicated for this purpose. This could perhaps explain why, for example, the tip of a statue’s head had been modelled so that headgear with attached braids did not slip down. Pole-like or stelae-shaped bodies devoid of decorations and, sometimes, even limbs would be perfect as mannequins upon which to put ceremonial clothing. Some details of a sculpture could have also been decorated with other materials (for example covered with silver or gold foil). It is obvious that such fragile materials as fabrics or metal foils would not have survived to modern times (Ermolenko, 2007, 126-128). The ending of the time period linked to the art of making stelae in Asia is dated to the late 10th or early 11th century (Sher, 1966, 39-40, 65-69). Fedorov-Davidov supported an opinion that statues found in the Transvolga region are stylistically associated with stelae from the Semirechye and TianShan, from where the idea of cult sculpture were taken by the eastern KipchaksKimaks. According to Fedorov-Davidov’s work, they were disseminated in the 10th – 11th centuries in the territory of modern-day Kazakhstan and, together with the Western Kipchaks, appeared in the European steppe region. Although the author pointed out that the Asian statues represent a different canon of poses of figures, he did not attempt to explain changes of the presentation of a

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silhouette or the abundance of depicted details (Fedorov-Davidov, 1966, 189). Comparing the context of findings of anthropomorphic stelae in areas occupied by the Polovtsians with complexes known from Asian regions, the author noticed that the Polovtsians did not erected balbals. He believed that stelae were not associated with stone structures similar to the Turkic complexes. However, he indicated that at several sites, already published at the end of the 19th century, there was stone paving upon which stelae were erected. In formulating his conclusion, the stone complexes were not linked with Polovtsian kurgans containing cult-sacrifice places. Fedorov-Davidov demonstrated great scientific instinct and in analysing the context of a finding he stated that these constructions are related rather with statues than with burials and suggested that some ceremonies were probably celebrated around them (FedorovDavidov, 1966, 192). Another difference, the research mentioned, was the greater proportion of feminine stelae among findings of stone statues in the Black Sea Steppes in comparison to the Asian regions. The author believed that changes in ceremonies took place in the Semirechye region (Fedorov-Davidov, 1966, 191). He favoured the theory that the Polovtsian babas represented dead leaders and their wives, who were honoured not only by members of a tribe but also by travellers and proved the existence in that region of a cult of ancestors. Similar conclusions were drawn by Pletneva (Pletneva, 1974a, 75-76). Customs linked to ancestor worship, including the art of stelae, were brought to the steppes of Eastern Europe by the Kipchaks (as far as to Transvolga) and the Polovtsians. The skill of creating anthropomorphic stelae was characterised by proficiency in processing different kinds of stone and wood, artistic value of representations and the timeless aesthetics of the canon. The oldest sculptures attributed to the Polovtsians emerged in the lower basin of Seversky Donets and Priazov in the first half of the 11th century, almost coinciding with the period during which these territories were claimed by groups of nomads arriving from Transvolga. This is evidenced by the manufacturing techniques, iconographic canon including figures presented with a vessel held in both hands, analogous to the Kipchak stelae of the 10th – 11th centuries, and the fact that occupied areas were used as wintering sites from which the Polovtsians would depart to spring and summer pastures or on military marches (Pletneva, 1974a, 61; Krasilnikov, 1999, 24). Initially, there were flat statues in stelae-like or pole-like shapes, with faces, hands and vessels that could be associated with similar representations known from Semirechye. The blossoming of the Polovtsian sculptures took place in the 12th and the early 13th centuries. The stelae from that period feature whole silhouettes of standing, half-sitting or sitting characters that are always holding with both hands a vessel on the lap. These are spacial sculptures. They have portrait features. Due to attributes and poses depicted on masculine statues, Russian researchers divide them into two groups: stelae representing the ancestral aristocracy who exercised authority and conducted military

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operations (standing statues), and a class of prosperous people whose wealth had been acquired through trade, culture and fiscal policy (sitting statues). The first group are depicted possessing weaponry and riding clothes. The second group include presentations of men who are wealthily attired, yet poorly armed. Similar features can be distinguished on feminine stelae. Standing feminine figures are characterised by rich attire, ornaments and objects suspended at their belts. The stelae representing people as standing are much more carefully processed. These people belonged to the highest social class – free warriors (Turkic “er”) (Siemieniec-Gołaś, 2000, 22, I.L. Kyzlasov, 2004, 111). The existence of a division into two groups with different, complementary functions among the Polovtsian aristocracy dated back to the distant past of their Asian ancestors, which is supported, inter alia, by similar a division of the early Turkic stelae (Sher, 1966; Pletneva, 1974a, 75-76; 57–58, Krasilnikov, 1999, 44). As has already been mentioned, the stone stelae were erected only by wealthy members of society. They were located in prominent places, at the tops of older mounds. Each member of the family and wider community passing near the cult place was obliged to honour these ancestors. In addition to the religious aspect, stelae at kurgans played the role of points of orientation, which in these vast areas allowed for efficient communication, finding a wintering place or locating sources of drinking water. The analysis of concentration of stelae sites (found in situ) indicates that temples were erected in areas particularly attractive to the nomads, rich in water and pastures. In lower social classes images of ancestors were made from saddle-cloth or wood and were held in yurts6. The purpose of regular meetings dedicated to funeral meals was the transfer of past knowledge to future generations and the consolidation of moral standards. The cult of

6 „Тем не менее у них есть какие-то идолы из войлока, сделанные по образу человеческому, и они ставят их с обеих сторон двери ставки и вкладывают в них нечто из войлока, сделанное на подобие сосцов, и признают их за охранителей стад, дарующих им обилие молока и приплода, скота. Других же идолов они делают из шелковых тканей и очень чтут их. Некоторые ставят их на прекрасной закрытой повозке пред водом в cтаку и всякого, кто украдет что-нибудь с этой повозки они убивают без всякого сожалия (...). Вышеупомянутым идолам oни приносят прежде всего молоко всякого скота и обыкновенного и вьючного. И всякий раз, как они приступают к еде или питью они прежде всего приносят им часть от кушаний и питья” „However, they have some idols made of saddle-cloth, of a human form, and they erect them at both sides of yurts and put inside them something made of saddle-cloth, similar to cones/nodules, and believe it to protect herds, having sacrificed to them plenty of milk, crops and cattle. Other idols are made of silk and they honoured them a lot. Some are erected on beautiful covered carriages in front of yurts and anyone who would have stolen something from such carriage, they kill without regret (…). They bring to the abovementioned idols mainly milk from various farms and pack animals. And each time, when they prepare themselves to eat or drink, they bring them some food and drink.” (Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, History of Mongols, 1244, chapter 3, § I) (2). Translated from Russian by A. Gołębiowska-Tobiasz, translated from Polish by L. Adamus.

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ancestors – family guardians together with the sacralisation of the authority manifested, inter alia, in the cult of dead khans - turned into the deification of leaders. The need to immortalise prominent and wealthy people who were important for particular families and those subordinated to them turned during the heyday of the Polovtsians into a form of official and ritual art. Its purpose was to represent the monumental image of a mythic ancestor – a hero - as a cult object for the entire community. The image of the dead leader had been transferred into the image of a demi-god: an ancestor of families, their confidant and hero, a masculine guardian of the horde, who belonged to the other world (Fedorov-Davidov, 1976, 102). Qatun became a symbol of the mother-getter, giving immortality to future generations of the tribe (Pletneva, 1974a, 74-76; Pletneva, 1974b, 259-260, Fedorov-Davidov, 1976, 96). This procedure allowed for maintaining strong relations between particular Polovtsian associations and, at the same time, consolidated the social and political position of the aristocracy. Following the Mongol invasion, the custom of raising stelae was continued until the end of the 13th or first decades of the 14th century. The statue became a pole on which one may see a face, details of clothes and, less frequently, a vessel. The limbs of these characters were not marked. Stelae- and pole-shaped statues, classified as the oldest and the latest, are androgenic: on one stela both feminine and masculine features were presented. Pletneva explains this with regards to a declining matriarchy and the high position of women in Polovtsian society (Pletneva, 1974a, 74). In the recent century several discoveries of exemplars of metal figural art were found in the steppe areas. These were usually findings devoid of archaeological context; some were discovered in banks of kurgans. These statues were cast in bronze. They usually represent a man-woman hybrid figure with highlighted sexual characteristics (e.g. Spicyn, 1909, 144-147; Khalikov, 1971, 106-112). These objects were connected with the Oghuz-Pechenegs culture and dated back to the 8th – 10th centuries. There are many hypotheses concerning function and significance of these statues. Based on ethnographic studies it has been established that within the environment of the Turkic people the married couple was determined with an expression: eki baštu (Turkic “two-head”, Siemieniec-Gołaś, 2000, 32) understood as “husband and wife” (Lvova et al., 1989, 203). Figures probably represented a couple of gods, “first parents” (Umay and Tengri), symbolising the protection of the family and ensuring fertility. Statues were perhaps used by shamans, but it is also possible that they were located in sacred places in yurts. The statues have been associated with the cult of ancestors of the Turkic nations. There is a strong probability that this interpretation is the most accurate explanation of these androgenic features in Polovtsian anthropomorphic stelae as well. This is not only because of the close relations between Torks and Pechenegs. We know who the people sculptured on stelae were, thanks to information acquired through studies and analyses of runic inscriptions

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and complexes from Central and Western Asia.7 On the Black Sea Steppes at older kurgans, there were stone constructions erected within which a couple of sculptures symbolising a married couple from the highest social class had been placed. The masculine statue represented an ancestor of the warrior class (Turkic “er”). On his left hand there was an image of his wife (Turkic “qatun”). Statues had east-oriented faces. They symbolised a pair of rulers: ancestors but also coupled cosmogonic deities (Umay and Tengri). Unusual personality and leadership features in life, frequently paired with early death, contributed to the heroisation and deification of the deceased. The dead became the guardians of the tribe, for which the archetype of the horse-mounted archer symbolised the survival, strength and military efficiency of subsequent generations. Anthropomorphic statues placed in cult-sacrifice complexes are representations of the er and qatun, a husband and wife, who are “petrified” looking to the east towards the land of ancestors, waiting for souls to be released. It is likely that the Polovtsians set two statues within the temple establishment, which is supported by the in situ findings. Another detail is preserved in reports from the 16th – 18th centuries (e.g. E. Lassota von Steblau, Kniga Bolshomu Chertezhu8, Ph. J. von Strahlenberg, etc.) mentioning groups of few or several stelae placed on a mound. These observations shall be treated as historic documentary reports, because we cannot be certain whether the stelae observed then were actually in situ. At that time, the process of removing stelae from kurgans and relocating them to other places had already been ongoing for several centuries. The art of stelae disappeared with the fall of the Polovtsians and spread of Islam in the place.

4. Cult-sacrifice Places Turkic tribes led a nomadic or semi-nomadic life, depending on the territory that they inhabited: steppe, forest-steppe, forest or foothills. A significant role in their culture was attributed to places that defined stable centres of clan groups on the claimed territory with respect to neighbouring lands, and as points of reference to remote, unknown realms. In such carefully chosen places they would establish clan burial grounds and erect cult buildings, as well as winter encampments and seasonal settlements. The place chosen as a centre of the clan’s fatherland determined their notions of the visible and mythical worlds.

7 The information acquired from prof. Igor L. Kyzlasov in May 2012, for which I sincerely thank him. 8 Книга Бoльшому чертежу.

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Stone buildings encompassing anthropomorphic stelae, which have been connected with sacrifice-stone enclosures, were already being established in central Asia in the 2nd century B.C., and were linked to the Shurmak and Tashtyk cultures9. These were the sites for a ritual that consisted in placing sacrifices in pits, in front of which stone poles were built into the ground. The buildings were placed within clan burial grounds or on their verges. Ceremonies linked to ancestor worship among the Turkic peoples are described in Chinese chronicles. A testimony of these ancient traditions includes a report of the ceremony that the Turks would come in the holy caverns to sacrifice sheep and horses for their ancestors. Another form of this worship involved constructing a wooden structure containing a stelae-shaped figure of a dead. Rows of balbals were set in the front. Souls of slain enemies were conjured in them. It was not infrequent to have dozens of such stones arranged into rows in the East side of the cult place. Great Turkic khagans were honoured with cult-sacrifice mausoleums made of stones. The Eastern part of these interior contained two stone stelae: the khagan and his wife with before them constructed sacrifice pits. The walls of the mausoleum were covered with inscriptions (L.R. Kyzlasov, 1964b, 23-32). The Turkic people at some stage of their settlement in areas of Central and Western Asia were forced to involve themselves in diplomatic contacts with “ethnically” foreign neighbours both near and far. Knowing existing writing systems, the Turks created their own alphabet described as runic-shaped letters. Signs were carved in wood, leather, birch bark and stone. Preserved relics of writing include primarily rock carvings, burial stelae and rock paintings containing poetic texts, funeral poetry and descriptions of political events. Studies of inscriptions carved on funeral stones or rocks reveal that an important element of burial ceremonies was the writing of funeral poetry (Turkic “ir”). The oldest relics of funeral poetry carved as burial inscriptions are both Orkhon inscriptions. An object containing a text was identified with a personification of a dead person, who talked through the carved words (von Gabain, 1953, 543, 553). Sometimes, the social status of the dead was so high that despite adverse political changes arising, for example, from coups, no one dared to disturb burial ceremonies and ceremonies for departed souls nor mausoleums of funeral stones with inscriptions (e.g. for Bilge-Khan). According to the Turks’ beliefs, a man loses his immortality in the afterlife if his name, life and deeds have been silenced by the family, tribe or nation and if no burial stone with inscription is erected for him. The manifestation of this magical thinking was a sense of responsibility for surviving colleagues and relatives, as well as strong social relationships within the community (von Gabain, 1953, 555).

9 Shurmak and Tashtyk cultures are dated from 2nd century B.C. to the 5th century C.E.

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The location of enclosures was also significant. They were established in places that stood out from the landscape: in ravines, in mysterious and wondrous places, or on hills, always near to watercourses. The Turkishspeaking nations that inhabited Central-Western Asia worshipped forms of natural landscape such as caverns, alluvial ravines, mountains and rock formations (Gumilov, 1972, 75; Tryjarski 1991, 32-33). The holy mountain of the Turks, Ötüken, was believed to be the centre of the earthly world. On the micro-level the same function was attributed to terrain elevations, holy trees, hitching posts and boulders. Usually the hill nearby a river would become an object of worship within the territory seized by a clan. In mythological terms, these types of natural places, together with rivers for spirits, were travel routes between heaven and earth. Such places were also where both worlds transcended, and that enabled the shamans to contact deities, natural spirits and ancestors. The rivers constituted a road for guardian spirits or the souls of the dead heading towards the afterlife to follow. Such sacred places were where clan cemeteries and temples that „sealed” the burial grounds from the east and from the west were located (Motov, 2001a, 71; Motov, 2001b, 142-143). Sacrifice-cult constructions among the Turkic peoples reflected their cosmological myths. They were not only schematic representations of the world’s structure, but they also arranged time and space, and symbolised the cyclical nature of life and the order of its metamorphoses. The stone structures were built on a square or rectangular plan, arranged according to the four directions of the world. That was achieved by erecting low walls of flat, unconnected stones or by placing loose, separate, specially prepared stone plates. The inner space was filled by a layer of stone pavement. The statue or statues, made in wood or stone, were placed with their faces turned towards the east outside or, rarely, inside the enclosure, near its east wall. There are known stations without anthropomorphic stelae or boulders. The central part of the enclosure featured a sacrifice place, a kind of small altar or pit, in which is often found pieces of pottery, ash and burnt animal bones (Sher, 1966, 20; Kostiukov, 1998, 312; Motov, 2001b, 145-146). The enclosure was sometimes surrounded by an additional low wall, or encircled with a pit. Stone balbals were placed at the east side of the temple’s foundation. Cult-sacrifice structures were raised at kurgan burial grounds, sometimes three or four next to each other, arranged on an east-west axis. As has been mentioned above, the temples „arranged” space, when built at the centre, or „sealed” it, when erected on the verges of a clan burial ground (Kostiukov, 1998, 311; Motov, 2001b, 142-148). The stone or anthropomorphic stelae constituted the vertical axis, axis mundi, that connected spheres: Heaven (Turkic Kök Tengri) and Earth (Turkic Yer-Su). In some cases a boulder symbolising the clan’s tree was placed vertically in the central part. Sacrifice-cult enclosures in Central-Western Asia are dated from the 6th to the 8th century. In the south-east of the Ural Mountains stone temples were

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constructed until the 10th century. The custom of erecting cult foundations in that area, though, lasted until the 13th/14th century. Confirmation of such late dates is provided by the results of the burial inventory analysis carried out in burial grounds where enclosures have been discovered. The material used to construct them was wood, not stone. They were placed near to sepulchral pits, in the depression of the soil. The boards were placed in a manner in which their longer sides created a rectangular frame (and thus the name „frame enclosures” originated). Stakes on which horse hides were hanged were placed outside these walls. It is probable that after the ceremonies for departed souls, of which the remnants include cracked pottery and pieces of weaponry, these places were set on fire and then a mound was erected over the burial grounds and the ashes of the site. These ceremonies are attributed to the descendants of T’ie-le tribes, who were the forefathers of, for example, the Kipchaks (Kostiukov, 1998, 316-318; Gurkin, 2000, 7). Among the Kipchaks, quadrilateral temple foundations had walls made of stone plates or flat stones built without mortar. The interior was covered with many layers of pavement. Some enclosures were accompanied by a low mound to the west. It was covered with stones and contained no burials. Similarly to the early Turkic peoples, the Kipchaks erected temples in groups: 2 or 3 on the east-west axis. Statues with their faces turned towards the east were placed inside the foundations. The stelae were made from stone, but there is evidence that wooden statues were present as well (Beysenov, Kozhakov, 2001, 162-163). Animal bones have been discovered within the enclosures. Offering pits that contained pieces of pottery and remains of bones were located towards the east. Hitching posts with horse hides were probably placed on the eastern side. A hitching post had an important role in the Nomadic culture. It was used to tie horses. It marked the spot where guests were greeted and took their leave. A hitching post enriched that space with sacral value, as it was a connection (axis mundi) between the spheres of the worlds. It was used as a path by the spirits of nature and the soul of the shaman in his trance. It determined the luck of a household as well. It was a sign of the beginning or end of a journey, including the final one. The hitching post was never taken away. Once it had been placed, it remained unmoved until it decayed naturally. Possibly, it was a channel connecting the netherworld and heaven during the ceremonies of ancestor worship (Lvova et al., 1988, 33, 75-79). Turkic and Kipchak ceremonial complexes associated with ancestors were always located on elevated terrain, near to rivers, often in nearby burial grounds. Elevated terrain was connected to the image of the holy mountain, a symbol of the world’s vertical structures, while the rivers were paths allowing the souls of the ancestors to venture into the afterlife. Kipchak temples are dated from the 9th to the 13th centuries. Construction of cult-sacrifice complexes and the erection of statues for the dead served various purposes. The dead clan members were both honoured and

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simultaneously prevented from returning to the world of the living, which kept the living from the terror of death and the mystery of the afterlife. It is probable that temples were constructed immediately after someone died or during the remembrance ceremonies during which his relatives gathered to offer sacrifices, feast together with the stone representation, and talk to it through the shaman (L.R. Kyzlasov, 1964b, 36-38; Tryjarski, 1991, 236-237). Features of early-Turkic customs associated with ancestor worship were preserved in burial rituals and ceremonies for departed souls by the Polovtsians. The in situ findings have allowed the reconstruction of cult places. Due to a landscape that differed from that in Asia, and earlier burial constructions providing pre-existing sanctigied spaces, temples were erected at the bases of older kurgans. Only those mounds raised near to rivers were selected. In prehistoric times, kurgans were usually constructed on drainage divides or elevated terrain, above steep banks of steppe rivers or their smaller, sometimes even seasonal, tributaries. These places fulfilled the Turkic requirements of attributing sacral value to space and determined the boundaries of the three worlds: heaven, earth and netherworld (Pletneva, 1974a, 5; Shvetsov, 1979, 199; Lvova et al., 1988, 75-79). The enclosures of the Black Sea Steppe are dated from the 10th to the 13th /early 14th centuries. The sacrifice-cult places dated from the 10th to the first half of the 11th century are similar in their foundations to the early-Turkic enclosures. The top of the selected elevation was cut and then its surface was levelled. The temples were set on a quadrilateral plan built with flat stones without mortar. Stelae-shaped sculptures with their faces turned towards the east were placed inside the western wall (Privalova, Minenkova, 1998, 63). The enclosures dated from the 11th to the 13th centuries are characterised by other construction features. The top of the selected mound was levelled and the stelae were placed in the central part of the kurgan, always facing the east. These stelae were stone representations of a man and a woman. The space around the statues was „closed” by dry walls of stones placed on a circular, square or trapezoid plan. Their protective significance was similar to how they were perceived by the early-Turkic tribes. Such walls were believed to prevent the dead or evil spirits from „stalking” their living relatives. The bases of the statues dug into the soil were often surrounded by a small, oval wall, usually single-layered, and constructed without mortar. Within the walls, either in the corners or in front of the statues, were constructed oval pavements, offering pits or hearths surrounded with stones (Gurkin, 1987, 107; Krasilnikov, 1999, 42). Traces the of primaeval beliefs and remembrance customs of the Turkic people have been preserved in Russian legends. One of them tells about a Turkic hero turned into stone; a bloody human sacrifice was needed to enable him to return to the world of the living. Remains of children and adults have been found during archaeological investigation of the pits constructed in front of the anthropomorphic stelae (Shvetsov, 1979, 208; Pletneva, 1988, 264). Bones of

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horses, rams, cattle, canines, game animals and large quantities of hand-made Nomad pottery, Byzantine amphorae and clay cauldrons have been found there as well, which gives evidence of burial and remembrance feasts, during which the statues were ritually brought to life by sprinkling them with human or animal blood (Pletneva, 1974a, 73; Shvetsov 1979, 207; Gurkin, 1987, 103107; Minenkova, 2004, 156-164). Animal sacrifices are evidence that very old customs tracing the origins of particular clans back to their animal totems were still alive among the Polovtsians (Gurkin, 2000, 18). Remembrance ceremonies was rooted very deeply in the awareness of the Turkic peoples. Such ceremonies were organised on the 3rd, 7th, 9th, 12th, 20th, 40th, 49th and 52nd days after the death of a relative, and then after half a year, year, 3 years, 5 years and 7 years. In some cases meetings with the deceased, „talking, feeding and giving to drink”, lasted for three years (Tryjarski, 1991, 231, 235-237, 249). An exceptional Polovtsian sacrifice-cult site was a building found on a kurgan burial ground located on the right bank of the Seversky Donets River. A unique, interestingly constructed temple has been found on one of the mounds, with a rectangular, fallen object preserved in the eastern part of the elliptical late Bronze Age mound. The exploration revealed it to be a quadrilateral whose walls were oriented according to the directions of the world. A massive wall was constructed with flat stone plates that were carefully arranged in one row after another. The entrance was located towards the east. A sacrifice pit filled with remains of horse bones has been found in front of the entrance. A female anthropomorphic stelae placed in a specially made pit was found in situ, in the centre of the temple’s interior. The statue was facing the east. The interior was covered with stone pavement, and the temple was originally protected with a roof. The author of the excavation, considering the report of a 13th century traveller called Willem de Ruysbroec10, assumes that there could have been a hip roof (Guguyev, 2001, 72-82). Cult places were constructed in a slightly different manner on the left bank of the Don River. The top of the chosen mound was levelled and a ditch was dug

10 „Они строят также для богачей пирамиды, то есть остроконечные домики. (...) Я видел одного недавно умершего, около которого они повесили на высоких жердях 16 шкур лошадей, по 4 с каждей строны мира. (...) Я видел другие погребения в направлении к востоку, именно большие площади, вымощенные камнями, одни круглые, другие четырехугольные, и затем четыре длинных камня воздвигнутых с четырех сторон мира (…)”. „They build pyramids or cone houses for the rich people (…). I have seen (a place) of one recently deceased, around which they have hanged on high poles 16 horse leathers, four on each side of the world (…). I have seen another grave directed to the east, actually large surfaces padded with stones, one oval, other square and four long stones erected on four sides of the world (…). (“Travels into the Eastern Countries of Willema de Ruysbroeca Anno Domini 1253”, chapter 10) (8). Translated from Russian by A. Gołębiowska-Tobiasz, translated from Polish by L. Adamus.

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in the centre of the kurgan. One or two wooden or, less frequently, stone stelae were placed in the central ditch facing the east. The whole was surrounded with an oval, circular or square ditch. Opposite to the enclosures, they are referred to as “pit temples” and dated from the 12th to the 13th or first half of the 14th century (Gurkin, 1987, 100-108; Guguyev, 1998, 40-41; Minenkova, 2001, 105). V. A. Gorodcov believed that the constructions, nowadays known as “pit temples” were associated with kurgan burials. At one of the sites, located close to the Srednyaya Ayula (Salsky Raion, Rostov District) at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, a pit with four wooden statues was discovered. However, at that time, the statues were not linked with the Polovtsian temples, but based, inter alia, on the remains of a child, they were considered as burial stelae (FedorovDavidov, 1966, 190, reference 32). Some of the Polovtsian sacrifice-cult foundations carried traces of damage. The stone statues were overthrown and cracked, and wooden stelae were buried in the pits. The interpretation of this phenomenon is not unambiguous. Cracking a statue could have been intended to free one of the ancestor’s souls to help it in its final journey into the afterlife, which was linked to the final stage of the remembrance ceremony. Destruction of statues could also have been an expression of Islam’s struggle with anthropomorphic representations. The decline of ancestor worship is dated as late as the first decades of the 14th century. In that time sacrifice-cult structures were no longer erected, although funeral traditions cultivated into the 15th century prove that Polovtsian customs were conserved (Pletneva, 1962, 136-137; Pletneva, 1974a, 53-71; Gurkin, 1987, 108; Gurkin, 1998, 32-36). Initially, the tradition of creating anthropomorphic stelae and sacrifice-cult enclosures was probably followed by most or all of the Turkic tribes. With time only certain peoples retained it, while others abandoned it under foreign influences. As late as the 17th century an Arab historian, Abul Gazi reported: „If someone’s loved one, that is his son, daughter or brother, died, they made him a statue similar to that person and placed it in his house, saying: that it was one of our loved ones. They expressed love towards it, put the first part of their food before it and laid down before it, (…) they would also bow to it.”11 (L.R. Kyzlasov, 1964b, 33).

11 „Когда у кого умирал любимый кто-либо, то сын, или дочь, или брат делали похожую на него статую и, поcтавив ее в своeм доме говорили: это такой-то из наших ближних; оказывая к нему любов, первую часть от кушанья клали перед ней, (…) и кланялись ей.”Translated from Russian by A. Gołębiowska-Tobiasz, translated from Polish by B. Zima. Quotation after: The Genealogical Tree of the Turks. The Writings of Abul Gazi, the Khan of Kiva (Kyzlasov, 1964b, 33, footnote 47).

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Chapter 3 Aneta Gołębiowska-Tobiasz

Territorial and Chronological Scope of Polovtsians Stelae The first attempts to date and determine the boundaries of the diffusion of anthropomorphic stelae took place in the mid-19th century. Previously, nobody paid particular attention to combining those monumental sculptures found in situ. It has been generally determined that they were found in the range of steppes from the Ural Mountains to the Danube River. In the mid-19th century A.I. Piskariev was the first researcher to document the status of 645 registered anthropomorphic stelae. Although his study is considered to be a historical resource, it is an excellent documentary concerning the territorial scope of stone statues before 160 years ago. Half a century later the Countess P.S. Uvarova, based on collected data concerning 1133 discovered objects, developed a mapping of their locations. For the next half-century, no one was interested in the problem of defining the limits of spread of medieval stelae in Europe, nor in attempts to date them. G.A. Fedorov-Davidov, as the only scholar guided by the methods of documentation developed by these two pioneers, marked areas where statues occurred. He also placed on the map stelae found in contemporary museum collections, which had in their records the exact description of the site where they had been found. As a result he observed concentrations of sites with statues in a clearly defined territory. The northern border, beyond which he did not record any stelae, was the forest steppe zone and upper Don. The eastern border was the Volga River, and regions of the Northern Caucasus formed the border to the south. The final border of occurrence of stelae was the Dnieper River. However, occasionally they were also found at the mouth of the Danube River. The greatest concentration of anthropomorphic stelae, attributed to the Polovtsians, was registered by the author in the lower course of the Dnieper, Seversky Donets and Don Rivers, in the area of the Azov Steppes and the Black Sea Steppes up to western areas of the Ciscaucasus (Fedorov-Davidov, 1966, 188). The researcher based the chronology of stelae on the details depicted on them and their analogues, known from burial inventories. Another dating criterion was sites where nomadic burials and fragments of broken stelae had been discovered. In the latter case, he did not notice that burial hills, in which cracked sculptures were found, were not originally associated with Polovtsian burials. Fragments of stone stelae were used as a secondary raw material to strengthen the burial mound.

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Fedorov-Davidov dated all types of stelae back to the 12th – early 13th centuries (Fedorov-Davidov, 1966, 186). Based on source descriptions by Nizami and Willem de Ruysbroec, on his own specific chronology and geographical boundaries, as well as on earlier proposals by Veselovski, the researcher inclined to the opinion that the anthropomorphic statues should be linked with the Polovtsian-Kumans (western Kipchaks). He also stressed that stelae coming from the Transvolga Region, similar to such well-known monuments of the art of the Altay and Mongolia, should to be linked with the eastern tribes of Kipchaks (Fedorov-Davidov, 1966, 188-189). S.A. Pletneva managed to determine the more or less exact origins of 913 out of 1323 exemplars of statues catalogued in her publication. She transferred this topographical data on to a map and was able, as a result, to obtain a picture of the distribution of monumental sculpture in the territory of Eastern Europe, including centres of the highest density. The concentration of sites with stelae was recorded in the middle Dnieper basin and the basin of the Seversky Donets River in its middle course, covering mainly its right-bank tributaries. A larger number of these sites was recorded along the coast of the Taganrog Bay. Smaller concentrations of statues were located at the interface between the steppe and the forest steppe in the upper course of the Seversky Donets and in the Azov Upland and Ciscaucasus. In particular, many statues were recorded in the upper course of the Kuban River. The least stelae came from the Don and Volga interfluves, lower Dnieper and Crimea. According to Pletneva, the southern limits of the occurrence of anthropomorphic statues included the Crimea, Azov area and Ciscaucasia. From the east, the zone of occurrence reached the Volga Region. The researcher pointed out that these limits were very fluid, as the Polovtsian anthropomorphic stelae occurred in the Volga Region occasionally. The northern border, beyond which no sites with stelae were detected, ran along the zone of the steppe and forest steppe. To the west, on the right bank of the Dnieper, there were no sites with sculptures in situ. Single statues appeared up to the left bank of the Inhulets River, used by the Polovtsians as a frontier of their lands in relation to the Rus, along the south-west part of the steppe (Pletneva, 1974a, 13, 18). B.A. Rybakov, analysing a journey made by of Al-Idrisi in 1154, divided the Black Sea Steppes into two parts: the White and Black Kumania. This division was also adopted by Pletneva in her dissertation and cited in her monograph (Pletneva, 1958, 221-223; Pletneva, 1974a, 18-19). Analysing historical sources and her own typological and comparative study, she distinguished seven federations of clans, calling them “Polovtsian associations”, and assigning them to specific geographical areas. Most often, she linked their names with hydronyms or geographical names of the territories to which they were conventionally assigned. According to Pletneva, the Dnieper association included three groups of tribes: Orel, Samara and Zaporozhye, camping in the basins of the Orel River, Samara River and the left bank of the lower Dnieper

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River. With time, the Lukomorsk Polovtsians also joined that association, having their pastures between the mouth of the Inhulets and Dnieper Rivers and the basin of the Molochna and Tokmak Rivers. The Crimea Polovtsian association camped on the Crimea. Donetsk clan associations included tribes occupying areas of the upper Seversky Donets (Upper Donets association), central basin of this river (Don association), and its lower basin (Lower Donets- or Donets association). The steppe area between the Lukomorye association and the Mius River was occupied by the North Azow association (Поморское объединение – see: Pletneva, 1974a, 22-23), which was quickly subordinated to the Donets association. The interfluve of the central Don and Volga Rivers was occupied by the Volga Polovtsians. Territories to the south of the Sal and Manych Rivers up to the right bank of the Kuban and the left bank of lower Kuma Rivers belonged to the Ciscaucasus horde (Pletneva, 1974a, 19-23). According to Pletneva’s theory, together with the stabilisation and enrichment of hordes, different weaker associations of clans were absorbed by two expansive associations: the Donets, identified with the Black Kumania (under the leadership of the Sharukan family Шарукан) and the Dnieper River Basin association, corresponding to the White Kumania (under the leadership of the Burdzhogly family in Ruthenian historical sources also called Burchevitsch - Боурчевич).12 Pletneva has examined the composition of stelae in relation to the distribution of outcrops of various species of rocks in the territories of individual Polovtsian associations. On this basis she has concluded that stonemasons, in workshops located near quarries, were processing primarily local and easily accessible material (Pletneva, 1974a, 53). Based on a typological analysis of the classification she developed for anthropomorphic stelae, she identified the chronological framework of the emergence and disappearance of stelae, as an interval between the 10th/11th and 13th centuries. The oldest statues with archaic features were associated with steppe areas in the Volga Region, Don River Basin up to the Azov Steppes and the Seversky Donets River Basin, occupied by groups of nomads. The expansion of the nomads flourished at the end of the 10th and beginning of the 11th century. Stelae associated with the heyday of Polovtsian political power were dated back to the second half of the 12th and beginning of the 13th century. Their location includes the entire steppe region between the Volga and the Dnieper. These objects were characterised by an abundance of details, established canon of

12 Turkic böri – wolf (Siemieniec-Gołaś, 2000, 50). The nickname can be translated as: wolf-like. The Ruthenian annals provide names of kyshlyks (wintertime encampments) probably derived from names of khans regaining particular territories. One of them was named Sharukan-Tscheshuev: sharukan, in the old Hungarian language, indicates a dragon, and tscheshuev, in the Russian literary language, means scale (from the Russian чешуя) (Bubienok, 1997, 105).

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poses, and diversity of materials. The most recent stelae, dating back to the 13th century, occurred in the area of Volga steppes. Despite the continued artistry in the presentation of details, these exemplars display a reduction of details of the silhouette and symbolism of some of the presentations. After a detailed statistical analysis of all Asian and European medieval anthropomorphic stelae, L.A. Geraskova divided their occurrences into several chronological periods. Following the datings previously proposed by Ya. A. Sher and L.R. Kyzlasov for Asian stelae, Geraskova distinguished the first stage from the 6th – 8th centuries and the second stage from the 8th – 10th centuries. To the first stage she assigned four types of stelae, according to her own classification. These included anthropomorphic stelae with symmetrically arranged arms (i. e. holding a vessel in both hands) and asymmetric arms (holding a vessel in the right hand and putting the left hand on a belt). Characteristic of the second stage were statues with symmetrically arranged arms, classified by the researcher into three types of her own typology. She dated the European stelae, after Fedorov-Davidov and Pletneva, back to the 11th – 13th centuries (Geraskova, 1991, 52). She agreed with the conclusions of Pletneva concerning the borders and distribution of Polovtsian stelae in the East European Steppes. However, her greatest contribution to the study is the comparison of statues, in terms of their quantity and raw materials, with natural outcrops of various species of rock within bands of the steppe. Her detailed analysis showed that the concentration of stelae occured in two centres. One of them was the Donetsk Upland, rich in various types of sandstone, where a concentration of stelae made ​​of this rock was observed. The second region was a range of steppe covering the area from the northern Dnieper River Basin to the lower Priazov area, where numerous outcrops of granite and limestone were detected. Stelae found in situ in that area were most often made of ​​the most readily available type of the abovementioned rocks (Geraskova, 1991, 31-33). Summing up the geological data and the analysis of the author’s own typological system, Geraskova established the territorial scope of statues, separated into two “wings”. The east wing covered the Donetsk Upland (now Donetsk and Luhansk Districts in Ukraine) and the Ciscaucasia (Krasnodar Krai and Stavropol Krai Districts in Russia). According to Geraskova’s researches, most sculptures from that area belonged to the sitting or standing type with a pedestal. The west wing, which included the lowland areas of the Black Sea Plain from the mouth of the Danube River to the Azov Upland, the mouth Don River and the Crimea, was characterised by the predominance of standing stelae without pedestals (Geraskova, 1991, 88, 100). The east wing was identified by the author with the Black Kumania (Donets association according to the division and naming of Pletneva), and the western with the White Kumania (Dnieper association) (Geraskova, 1991, 99). In a monograph issued several years later, K. I. Krasilnikov focused on determining the scope of anthropomorphic stelae in the Luhansk District. Most of the objects catalogued by him had a record of the place where they were

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found and delivered to the nearest museum or park. The 1970s and’80s were a period of increased transport of stelae. At that time in the Ukraine, local cultural and educational institutions were established on a large scale and usually had district administrative status. A few exemplars were found in situ. For about 19​​ objects we have information preserved only in oral communications, but the author did not include them in the mapping (Krasilnikov, 1999, 86). Inclusion of the locations of 115 stelae on the map gave a possible image of their distribution in the past. According to the picture obtained in this way, the largest concentration of statues in the modern day Luhansk District was in its southern part. The conventional border of the concentration of stelae sites from the northeast was the Seversky Donets River, with all right-bank tributaries, and from the south-west the Mius River (Krasilnikov, 1999, 98). The resulting picture of the distribution of sites with stelae seems to be probable, when the data obtained by Krasilnikov in the scale of a micro-region compared with results of the cartographic analysis conducted for the entire area of the southern and eastern Europe developed by Pletneva and Geraskova. Determining the chronology of occurrence of stelae, the author took into account the development of the canon of silhouettes and depicted details. The analysis concerned both the collection in question and the territory of the Luhansk District. Dating of the medieval monumental sculpture was confined by Krasilnikov to the 11th – first half of 13th centuries (Krasilnikov, 1999, 26). J. Daszkiewicz and E. Tryjarski, based on an analysis of historical and contemporary materials and publications, proposed new a definition of the scope of occurrence of anthropomorphic stelae. The authors, not being archaeologists themselves, criticised the narrow limits of the distribution of anthropomorphic statues proposed by Fedorov-Daviodov and Pletneva. According to them the sites with Turkic stelae covered areas including, from the south-west, the left bank of the lower Danube, the basin of the Dniester River and the basin of the middle and lower Dnieper (Dniester-Dnieper interfluve). From the west, statues occupied the central area of the Podolia to the right bank of the Dnieper River. According to the authors, the scope of occurrence of sculptures should be marked up to the “north of Kiev”. Next, the border ran on the left bank of the middle Dnieper, including Poltava, Tschernikhov and Kharkiv. From the north-west the scope of occurrence of stelae ran far beyond the forest steppe zone, reaching the Oka River Basin and the western borders of the city of Moscow. The north-eastern zone of the sculptures included the Volga Basin River, Astrakhan and Orenburg Steppes. From the south, statues bordered with the North Caucasus and Crimea (Daszkiewicz, Tryjarski, 1982, 86-97). The authors based their argument on pre-revolutionary data and on information concerning stone stelae mentioned by scholars of the first half of the 20th century, ignoring the brevity of such information which was restricted to a descriptive determination of the amount of stone sculptures. These records are

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characterised by the lack of exact find sites, description of stelae and discovery context. There is no information whether, at the time of documenting, the stelae were located on mounds or were found during excavations in the shell of a mound, or moved from another location, etc. This context is extremely important in determining the cultural affiliation and dating of statues. The researchers did not distinguish Kipchak stelae occurring on the Transvolga Region (including the Orenburg Steppes), executed in a different manner and within the adjustable cult-sacrifice places of a different design than the statues erected within the other temple complexes in Black Sea Steppes. They accepted as credible the information coming from historical sources concerning the location of statues, taking uncritically for granted, for example, locations of objects standing near Moscow, in Chernihiv or Kiev as the in situ location (Daszkiewicz, Tryjarski, 1982, 91, 94). The extension of the area of occurrence of anthropomorphic statues to territories that were never in the range of Turkic camps (e. g. dense forest ranges, wetlands areas, poor river networks, etc.) resulted from the recognition of the methodology of archaeological research as an insufficient source, presenting the narrower scope of actual occurrence of stelae. However, the authors themselves did not notice the subjectivity of historical sources upon which they built their own concept of the territorial distribution of stone stelae. They made no effort to describe how they examined the sources, whether the cited travellers (or as frequently cited scientists, such as A. V. Tereshchenko) had reported information concerning the Scythian, Kimmerian, Neolithic and finally Turkic (in the broad sense) stelae seen. According to the researchers, who based their proposals concerning dating of the Turkic stone statues in Eastern Europe on original communications of Venetian merchants of the mid-15th century and works of researchers of the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries (D.I. Ilovayskiy, N.I. Veselovskiy, V.V. Bartold), the chronological framework associated with the phenomenon of stone stelae should be confined within the range of the 6th – 15th centuries (Daszkiewicz, Tryjarski, 1982, 111-115). The lower limit is indicated by the appearance of the Proto-Bulgars at the Black Sea Steppes, recognised by the authors as the first creators of anthropomorphic sculptures. In the following centuries, according to the theory developed by these researchers, all nomadic Turkic tribes (Pechenegs, Torks, Polovtsians, early Mongol-Tatars) erected stone statues in the honour of outstanding representatives of their tribes (Daszkiewicz, Tryjarski, 1982, 195). T. Nagrodzka-Majchrzyk did not agree with that point of view (Nagrodzka-Majchrzyk, 1985, 143). According to Daszkiewicz and Tryjarski, the upper limit was the end of shamanism, which was linked with the cult of stelae. The researchers believed that stone statues were made by all Turkic peoples. They rejected the theory that the inarguable creators of anthropomorphic monumental sculptures were the Polovtsians. This theory has been proven through many years of archaeological research on nomadic sites and analysis of stone stelae in the context of places of worship, including

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written sources from the middle of the 13th century (Nizami, del Carpine, de Ruysbroec). Instead, they proposed the analysis of the ethnographic data from the middle of the 19th century, which was supposed to provide evidence for the “multiethnic attribution of stone babas” and the analysis of the demographic data (Daszkiewicz, Tryjarski, 1982, 109-110). The researchers estimated, based on the analysis of written sources, that in the steppe area during the time in question (i. e. from the 6th to the 15th century) there could have been as many as 40000 exemplars of stone stelae (Daszkiewicz, Tryjarski, 1982, 79-80, 111). This original polemic, led by the Polish Turkologist and Ukrainian historian with Russian archaeologists, has lost its relevance due to archaeological discoveries made ​​in the last three decades. One valuable and still accurat observation made by the abovementioned authors is a comment about relocating stone stelae from their places of original exhibition, which occured in the distant past (Daszkiewicz, Tryjarski, 1982, 67, 81-82). The only evidence of this process, reaching its apogee in the second half of the 19th century, is the concise information contained in the preserved documentation or reports made by officials of the tsarist government and, to a lesser extent, by archaeologists. This accurate observation, supported by numerous quotations from written sources, is an objective guideline for archaeologists engaged in the exploration of sites containing stelae. When a statue is found in a kurgan, the area around the site should be carefully examined in order to search for preserved architectonic stone details and pits, indicating the existence of a cult-sacrifice place. The finding of a stela or its fragments excavated from the shell of a kurgan, or even on the top of it, does not necessarily indicate that this is the statue’s original setting. An object could have been relocated and re-dug in a kurgan quite recently. For example, in the “Khomutovsky Steppe” Nature Reserve (Telmanove Raion, Donetsk District, Ukraine) an anthropomorphic stela was buried vertically in the mound in the present day. During the past several decades, archaeological research conducted in Eastern Europe has revealed several sites related to monumental nomadic sculpture. Relationships between the art of stelae and sacrifice-cult places and their cultural affiliations do not currently raise any doubts. Despite the state of publication of these complexes, the mapping of referenced sites is an excellent resource that allows the tracing of migration routes of the Polovtsians, concentration of their winter- and summertime encampments, as well as the development and changes thein structures of their temples. In the last decade, an analysis of mapping and chronological divisions of selected relics from burial inventories of the late nomads was conducted (Evglevskyi, 1998, 148, 150; Evglevskyi, Potemkina, 2000a, 158; Evglevskyi, Potemkina, 2000b, 190, 194). The authors considered typological and semantic problems in the light of some archaeological sources, and the results of their work is also useful for tracking changes in the environment of the nomads (including social changes, the inflow of new categories of objects, the evolution of selected artefacts, the

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concentration of winter- and summertime encampments, etc.) and the defined borders of encampments together with indications of their centres. Comparison of the results of recent research and the abovementioned older studies indicates similarities with the boundaries developed by S. A. Pletneva. Categories of artefacts found in late nomad burials, such as straightened bars (распрямленные гривны), neck bars (шейные гривны), sabres and steels within the chronological framework ending in the 12th to the first half of the 13th century, come from sites located within the limits outlined by the researcher. Thus, while the presence of certain types of sabres or steels within a broader chronology may raise controversies as to tribal membership, the straightened bars (hryvnias) occur only in burials of the Polovtsian aristocracy. Dating of that relic is confined to the 12th – 14th centuries. To this day, there is an ongoing dispute concerning the function of such objects. They were made of metal, smooth or twisted wire, and usually put in the right hand of the dead. Silver and iron straightened bars (hryvnias) are present in both male and female burials. Individual exemplars are made from gilded bronze and gold and are characteristic of male graves. These objects are interpreted as a symbol of dignity, the attribute of power, symbol of high birth, sign of the military hierarchy, or as a sign of the tree of life, a model of the cosmic order (Otroshchenko– Rassamakin, 1986, 32–33; Shalabudov, 1990, 118). According to this hypothesis, the straightened bar (hryvnia) sacralised the burial place of the deceased and helped ease their entry into the afterlife, and so indirectly was associated with the cult of ancestors. An interesting coincidence is the occurrence of burials signified with the straighten bars (hryvnias), in which vicinity temples with stelae were erected. The Polovtsian aristocracy were buried within separately constructed stone-ground mounds above the niche grave, usually close to the older cemetery. Creation of separated clan cemeteries was rare, and in most cases was related to the period of the Golden Horde. As a rule, older kurgans were used by digging a secondary burial in the shell of the kurgan. As already mentioned, the sacrifice-cult constructions associated with the ceremonies for departed souls were always constructed on older mounds. They were never placed at the Polovtsian burials. As the result of comparison between the distribution of sites with straightened bars (hryvnias) (Evgelvskyi, 1998, 150) with the map of sites with cult enclosures, the Polovtsian temples with stone constructions and pit-temples, we acquire a picture of a stable scope of encampments occupied by the Polovtsians, with centres that were good for resting after the seasonal migration with herds. In the vicinity of such places, dead were buried and ceremonies for departed souls were performed. Burials with straightened bars (hryvnias) do not cross the Inhul River from the west, nor reach the steppe and forest steppe frontier from the north. The exception is the conglomeration of these burials at the confluence of the Ros and Dnieper Rivers. In the second half of the 12th century the area was occupied by the Black Klobuk federation, which included the rich Polovtsian clans (Pletneva, 1973, 22-23;

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Nagrodzka-Majchrzyk, 1985, 64-65, 74). From the east they reach the Jergeni Upland. Eastern most forward positions of straightened bars include kurgans above the upper Manych River (Stavropol Krai District, Russia and Republic of Kalmykia). The southern boundary of the occurrence of these artefacts is the right bank of the Kuban River. In the case of territories occupied by the nomads it is obvious that borders did not constitute an impassable barrier for the most active sections of the population. Therefore, there are only single sites and a few cemeteries, including the Polovtsian inventories, beyond the limits mentioned. For example, the site related to Polovtsians in the north-west direction of the conventionally defined border of encampments was a kurgan cemetery, discovered in the upper Southern Buh, explored in the pre-revolutionary period by N. E. Brandenburg (Pletneva, 1973, 23). Sites with Polovtsian straightened bars (hryvnias) furthest to the south-east reached the Stavropol Upland (Manych River Basin and Kuma River Basin), and did not cross the Kuban River to the south (Evgelvskyi, 1998, 150). When analysing limits of occurrence of sacrifice-cult places with both types of stelae (stone and wooden) the southern and south-eastern boundaries coincide with the sites with straightened bars. The practice never crossed the Kuban and upper Manych Rivers. Temple complexes are present in the Crimea. The Jergeni Uppland is a contractual eastern border beyond which no such constructions have been detected yet. The location of cult sites does not exceed the steppe and forest steppe frontier from the north. From the west cult enclosures reached the lower Dnieper River (at the confluence of the Inhulets and the Dnieper Rivers a site with the Polovtsian temple was observed). Most researchers, in order to establish the chronology of cult places, apply the typology of anthropomorphic stelae developed by Pletneva, because this is a framework (often the only one) allowing for the efficient establishment of a chronology. The period during which temples were erected covers the first half of 11th – the first half of the 14th centuries (e.g. Privalova, Minenkova, 1998, 63, 68; Gurkin, 1998, 35 and others). Based on the analysis of the construction several types of temples have been distinguished (Shvetsov, 1979, 208-209; Gurkin, 1987, 108; Guguyev, 2001, 79-80). The published results of studies performed on cult places from the last two decades have proved the remarkable intuition of S. A. Pletneva. The author, writing her monograph about stelae in 1974, could not predict that findings of cult-sacrifice enclosures of the turn of the century would confirm her observations concerning the typology and the dating of stelae. She based her analysis on unreliable information. This was caused not only by incomplete catalogue descriptions of objects from museum collections, often coming from the pre-revolutionary period, but also the lack of certainty as to the actual place where the statue had been found. Despite these difficulties, conclusions drawn by Pletneva and concerning the scope of statue occurrences are still valid and it is probable that the situation will not change significantly in the coming years.

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Fig. 3.1. . Cult enclosures with stone statues (red) and cave temples with wooden statues (blue).

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List of sites with Polovtsians cult enclosures with stone statues and pit temples with wooden stelae. Cult enclosures with stone statues outside the cemeteries or single Polovtsian burials (marked red on the map – Fig. 3.1): 1. Chokrak, Lenine Raion, Autonomous Republic of Crimea (Gurkin, 1998, 30). 2. Dolinnoye, Bakhchysarai Raion, Simferopol District, Autonomous Republic of Crimea (Cherepanova, Shchepinskyi, 1968, 199) 3. Susanino, Saky Raion, Simferopol District, Autonomous Republic of Crimea (Olkhovskyi, 1988, 319) 4. Kairka, Chaplynka Raion, Kherson District (Kubyshev, 1988, 301). 5. Lvovo, Beryslav Raion, Kherson District (Gurkin, 1998, 30). 6. Pervomaivka, Verkhniy Rohachyk Raion, Kherson District (Gurkin, 1998, 30). 7. Davydovka, Yaymivka Raion, Zaporozhye District (Kubyshev, 1988, 301). 8. Radivonovka, Yaymivka Raion, Zaporozhye District (Kupriy, 1990, 144). 9. Bolshemikhaylovka, Pokrovske Raion, Dniepropetrovsk District (Shalabudov, Yaremaka, 1986, 152). 10. Aleksandrovka, Kramatorsk Raion, Donetsk District (Sanzharov, 1987, 408). 11. Tekstilshchik-Donetsk, Donetsk Raion, Donetsk District (Shvetsov, 1979, 199). 12. Shevchenkovo, Volodarske Raion, Donetsk District (Minenkova, 2004, 156). 13. Samoylovo, Novoazovsk Raion, Donetsk District (Shvetsov, 2008, 251-252). 14. Novoselovka, Telmanove Raion, Donetsk District (Shvetsov, 1979, 203). 15. Petrovskoye, Starobesheve Raion, Donetsk District (Privalova, Minenkova, 1998, 209). 16. Kamenka, Starobesheve Raion, Donetsk District (Shvetsov, 1979, 205). 17. Zhytenko, Amvrosiivka Raion, Donetsk District (Privalova, Minenkova, 1998, 67). 18. Dibrovka, Shakhtarsk Raion, Donetsk District (Privalova, Minenkova, 1998, 67). 19. Utkino (Mechetne pole), Perevalsk Raion, Luhansk District (Sanzharov, Brovender, Britiuk, 2004, 191, 196). 20. Samarskyi cemetery II, Matveyevo-Kurgansky Raion, Rostov District (Larienok, 1997, 214). 21. Yekaterinovka, Matveyevo-Kurgansky Raion, Rostov District (Gurkin, 1998, 30). 22. Darievka, Neklinovsky Raion, Rostov District (Atavin, 2008, 156). 23. Tavria, Neklinovsky Raion, Rostov District (Larienok, 1998, 79). 24. Gaevka-Kaimak, Neklinovsky Raion, Rostov District (Atavin, 2008, 156). 25. Pokrovskoye, Neklinovsky Raion, Rostov District. (Larienok, 1998, 53). 26. Oktiabrskiy I, Krasnosulinsky Raion, Rostov District (Prokofiev, 2002, 119). 27. Astrakhovo, Sverdlovsk Raion, Luhansk District (Shvetsov, 1979, 206). 28. Blagovka, Sverdlovsk Raion, Luhansk District (Posrednikov, 1987, 103). 29. Kalinov, Krasnosulinsky Raion, Rostov District (Atavin, 2008, 156). 30. Repnyi, cemetery I, Kamensky Raion, Rostov District (Guguyev, 2001, 72-73). 31. Ozierki, Oktyabrsky Raion, Rostov District (Atavin, 2008, 156).

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32. Chaltyrskyi I, Myasnikovsky Raion, Rostov District (Larienok, 2002, 237). 33. Rostov on Don, Rostovsky Raion, Rostov District (Atavin, 2008, 156). 34. Livencovskyi, cemetery VII, Myasnikovsky Raion, Rostov District (Gurkin, 1998, 36). 35. Balabin, cemetery I, Semikarakorsky Raion, Rostov District (Gurkin, 1998, 30). 36. Semikarakorsk, Semikarakorsky Raion, Rostov District (Gurkin, 1998, 30). 37. Bogoiavlienskaya, Konstantinovsky Raion. Rostov District (Atavin, 2008, 156). 38. Holodnyi, cemetery I, Tsimlyansky Raion, Rostov District (Gurkin, 1998, 30). 39. Semionkin, Tsimlyansky Raion, Rostov District (Atavin, 2008, 157). 40. Potaynoy, cemetery II, Volgodonskoy Raion, Rostov District. (Gurkin, 1998, 30). 41. Semionkin, Volgodonskoy Raion, Rostov District (Atavin, 2008, 156). 42. Kremenskaya, Kletsky Raion. Volgograd District (Atavin, 2008, 155). 43. Volgograd, Volgograd Urban Raion, Volgograd District (Gurkin, 1998, 30). 44. Piervomayskyi, Zimovnikovsky Raion, Rostov Districtc (Parusimov, 1997, 47). 45. Novosadkovskiy, Martynovsky Raion, Rostov District (Atavin, 2008, 156). 46. Moskva (Naberezhnyi-Veselyi), cemetery II, Vesyolovsky Raion, Rostov District (Gurkin, 1998, 30). 47. Koldyri, Vesyolovsky Raion, Rostov District (Gurkin, 1998, 30). 48. Otradnyi, Bagayevsky Raion, Rostov District (Atavin, 2008, 155). 49. Manychskaya, Bagayevsky Raion, Rostov District (Gurkin, 1998, 30). 50. Samarskoye, Azovsky Raion, Rostov District (Gurkin, 1998, 30). 51. Krasnogorovka, Azovsky Raion, Rostov District (Atavin, 2008, 155). 52. Sredniy Egorlyk, Tselinsky Raion, Rostov District (Gurkin, 1998, 30). 53. Bolshoi Burunchun, Salsky Raion, Rostov District (Gurkin, 1998, 30). 54. Unknown location, Salsky Raion, Rostov Distict (Gurkin, 1998, 30). 55. Kamennobrodskaya, Peschanokopsky Raion, Rostov District (Gurkin, 1998, 30). 56. Dmitrievskaya, Kavkazsky Raion, Krasnodar Krai District (Atavin, 2008, 155). 57. Krasnogvardeyskoye, Novoalexandrovsky Raion, Stavropol Krai District (Gurkin, 1998, 30). 58. Salsk, Salsky Raion, Rostov District (Gurkin, 1998, 30). 59. Kurgan near Solenoye, Gorodovikovsky Raion, Republic of Kalmykia (Gurkin, 1998, 30). 60. Kurgan near Podgornoye, Remontnensky Raion, Rostov District (Gurkin, 1998, 30). 61. Chogray, Iki-Burulsky Raion, Republic of Kalmykia (Atavin, 2008, 155). 62. Chograyskiy, cemetery IX, Arzgirsky Raion, Stavropol Krai District (Atavin, 2008, 157). 63. Beshpagir, Stavropolsky Raion, Stavropol Krai District (Guguyev, Miroshyna, 2002, 53 - 66). 64. Grigoripolis, Novoalexandrovsky Raion, Stavropol Krai District (Atavin, 2008, 157). 65. Razdolnaya, Korenovsky Raion, Krasnodar Krai District (Atavin, 2008, 155). 66. Lebedi, Kalininsky Raion, Krasnodar Krai District (Atavin, 2008, 155).

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Pit temples with wooden statues outside the cemeteries (marked blue on the map – Fig. 3.1): I. N  ovoaleksandrovka, cemetery I, Azovsky Raion, Rostov District (Gurkin, 1998, 30). II. Tuzluki, cemetery I, Bagayevsky Raion, Rostov District (Gurkin, 1998, 30). III. Sagvanskiy, cemetery I, Semikarakorsky Raion, Rostov District (Gurkin, 1998, 30). IV. Novyi, Martynovsky Raion, Rostov District (Gurkin, 1998, 30). V. Koldyri, Vesyolovsky Raion, Rostov District (Gurkin, 1998, 30). VI. Moskva (Naberezhnyi-Veselyi), cemetery II, Vesyolovsky Raion, Rostov District (Gurkin, 1998, 30). VII. Srednaya Aiula, Salsky Raion, Rostov District (Gurkin, 1998, 30). VIII. Pervomayskyi, Peschanokopsky Raion, Rostov District (Gurkin, 1998, 30). IX. Holodnyi, cemetery I, Tsimlyansky Raion, Rostov District (Gurkin, 1998, 30). X. Zhukovskaya, Dubovsky Raion, Rostov District(Gurkin, 1998, 30). XI. Novoaksayskyi, Oktyabrsky Raion, Volgograd District (Gurkin, 1998, 30). XII. Dorofeevskyi, Oktyabrsky Raion, Volgograd District (Gurkin, 1998, 30).

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Chapter 4 Aneta Gołębiowska-Tobiasz

Typological Systems The variety of Turkic anthropomorphic statues, created in various periods of time and on broad areas required classification systems allowing for the study of their history, analysis of the evolution of the canon and their development. Statues have divided stelae by depicted gender (androgynous, feminine, masculine), posture (standing, sitting), manner of presenting figures (schematic, realistic), raw materials used for production, method of shaping the stone (shallow or deep relief), details of attire, hairstyle, outfit of figures (whole figure dressed or only its selected parts) and attribution of selected items (utensils, weapons). The first typological division of stelae was developed by P. A. Uvarov in 1871. He distinguished three types of statues: 1. stelae-shaped, 2. standing, 3. sitting and half-sitting. Then he divided them into masculine and feminine subtypes. He dated younger stelae to the 4th – 5th centuries A.D. Based on this classification, subsequent researchers developed their own typologies series. However, these fundamental division continue in use to this day. In 1966 G. A. Fedorov-Davidov, analysing 280 preserved exemplars of statues, created more extensive divisions. He based his classification on the posture of stelae (type) and the sex of the person depicted on a statue (subtype). He did not take into account the method of working the stone. When the sex or the posture was unclear, he rejected the exemplar from the analysis. FederovDavidov’s fundamental typology of was the following: standing stelae with a vessel in hands belongs to type I; sitting stelae with a vessel in hands belongs to type II; stelae- or column-shaped statues, without depicted limbs or vessels, he included intype III. Each of the types he divided into masculine and feminine subtypes (Fedorov-Davidov, 1966, 168). Next, he analysed categories of objects represented on the statues. On the feminine stelae he distinguished categories of: hats and their details, bands, pendants on temples, “horns” (horned ornaments of faces), cape-scarfs, earrings, bars (hryvnia), necklaces, collars of shirts, whips, mirrors. In the typological division of masculine stelae he took into account the following details: helmets, back protective plates and systems of straps, breastplates and straps, bows, quivers, swords and flints. Some further items he analysed on both feminine and masculine stelae, namely the following: coiffure, sleeves, bottom edge of attire on the front side of stelae, bottom edge of attire on the back side of stelae, belts, shoes, straps and buckles of garters, vessels, combs, knifes, collars of caftans, edge of caftans on an upper part of torso, purses, scissors, unspecified objects, anthropo- and zoomorphic objects

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and decorative motifs. The author placed in this part of the typology objects occurring only on feminine stelae, such as scissors, as well as objects typical for masculine stelae, such as details of coiffure (Fedorov-Davidov, 1966, 168-179). On feminine anthropomorphic stelae there is no hair on the relief. Hair is hidden under a cap and a scarf. However, it is possible that braids were painted on. The next stage of research was to analyse occurrences of certain categories of items in relation to types and subtypes of stelae. The result of the analysis was the observation that differences of details are associated with chronological diversity. The author believed that standing type stelae are older, due to the similarity of the posture to Asian stelae occurring in the area of Semirechye and Kazakhstan. He did not explain where the “sitting” style came from. Standing stelae were also ancestors of sitting stelae and stelae-shaped statues (FedorovDavidov, 1966, 184-185). It should be noted that Fedorov-Davidov did not analyse the technical condition of statues. S. A. Pletneva developed her own classification system, based on collected material, by selecting as a starting point the sexdepicted (feminine and masculine groups). The second aspect analysed was the canon of presentations. She classified standing, sitting and unspecified stelae-shaped statues. She then transferred the data collected into pole diagrams plotted on a map, and thereby obtained the distribution of certain types of stelae in relation to territories occupied by particular Polovtsian groups. As a result, she noticed that the number of feminine stelae in relation to masculine presentations is slightly different in the entire Polovtsian territory (Pletneva, 1974a, 60). The third substantial value of this classification was the indication of a type of the presentation of a figure (three subtypes), however here the researcher was inconsistent. For masculine stelae each of outlines corresponded to an applicable subtype (outline I corresponded to the subtype a, II – b, III – w). For feminine stelae, outline I corresponded to subtype a, outlines II and III – subtype b (Pletneva, 1974a, 61, 65). The next feature systematised by Pletneva was the type and depth of reliefs (four types for masculine and feminine stelae). Then, she generally divided the material into six types for certain sections. Type I she classified as feminine and masculine stelae-shaped statues with depicted details of a head, hands and a vessel. Most often they were forged from granite. Type II are feminine and masculine stelae presented as standing with the upper part of a body and its details depicted, and the stelae-shaped lower part with sculptured legs. Type III contains spatial figures of standing warriors, and was divided into three subtypes depending on the outline of a figure. For feminine stelae the type was divided into two subtypes. These stelae are characterised by slender silhouettes and preserved proportions of a body. It was common to sculpture an openwork space between the hands and body, which enhanced the impression of slenderness. Type IV presented sitting men. The upper part of stelae was characterised by a spatial silhouette, the lower part had legs sculptured in the flat relief technique.

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Pletneva, however, found only one feminine stela that could be classified within this type (Pletneva, 1974a, 65). The type V contains spatial figures of sitting men and women, divided into three subtypes in accordance with an outline of masculine silhouettes and two subtypes for feminine silhouettes. Figures of women dressed in galligaskins, sometimes with weapons at their waist, were characteristic for the subtype of feminine stelae. The b subtype represented semi-sitting figures, often with legs covered by the tails of a caftan. Type VI depicted stelae-shaped flat feminine and masculine silhouettes from the waist upwards. Type VII included pole-shaped spatial feminine and masculine figures with precisely presented details of heads and bodies, but without limbs. Feminine statues of this type contain more details and, in addition to a carefully sculptured head, sometimes have also a sculptured vessel at waist height. Pletneva then compared presented details, techniques and raw materials. As a result she obtained a probable picture of the evolution of statues that could be also stylistically linked with Asian statues allowing for a reliable dating. Stelae of types I and VI show similarities with sculptures of the Kimaks. The author, analysing the previously developed map, dated them to the 10th – 11th centuries and attributed them to an early stage of settlement in territories of the Seversky Donets River and the Priazov by the Polovtsians (Pletneva, 1974a, 61). Type III, in addition to feminine figures, presented well-armed men. Statues of type II date back to the end of the 12th century and the beginning of the 13th century. They occurre in the whole territory of the steppe occupied by the Polovtsians. Pletneva believed that among these stelae there are many presentations without facial features and considered this to be an impact of Islam (Pletneva, 1974a, 63). Type II was present in the area of the lower basin of the Seversky Donets River and the Priazov, and spread to the upper basin of the Seversky Donets River, to the Ciscaucasus and from the west reached the Dnieper River. According to the researcher it was younger than type I but appeared shortly before type III. Type IV stelae occurr together with stelae of type II in the same territory and in a similar period. Stelae of type V were generated at the same time as stelae of type III and were erected in the whole range of the steppe. They presented well dressed women and men without weapons, dressed in long, parade caftans. Stelae-shaped statues of type VI occurred mainly on the steppes of the Volga River Basin. Pletneva, following Fedorov-Davidov, dated them to the 13th century. They were the final link in the evolution of the anthropomorphic sculpture in the Middle Ages in this area (Pletneva, 1974a, 65). Types of presentation of masculine and feminine faces and a layout of fingers on a vessel were analysed individually. Furthermore, Pletneva created a typology of details depicted on masculine and feminine statues: elements of attire, ornaments, weapon, utility and magic items and vessels. Then she compiled selected categories of objects into tables and transferred them onto maps. She obtained schemes of the most frequently presented types of helmets,

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breastplates, masculine coiffures, trimmings on sleeves of masculine and feminine caftans, variants of feminine hats, scarves, “horns”, earrings, necklaces and bar-shaped pendants (hryvnia) in territories of particular Polovtsian groups (Pletneva, 1974a, 25-52). The analysis confirmed the cultural proximity of groups belonging to the Dnieper association and Donets and Lukomorye associations. Families forming the North Azov federation (Поморское объединение) maintained contact with the Lower Donets and Don River associations. The Crimean Polovtsians were culturally closer to their Lukomorye neighbours, and the Ciscaucasus hordes were culturally closer to the Dnieper and Donetsk groups. This picture shows, on the one hand, a well-structured image of the material culture of the Polovtsians brought from Asia to Europe. On the other hand, the process indicates the development of local variants of the culture, forming autonomy in the material sphere when they reached stabilisation within their territories, subordinated to particular families. The comparative analysis of details helped capture the socio-political relations emerging between groups of families, in the absence of written testimonies concerning this issue. Additionally, the influence of neighbours on the modification of the material culture of the Polovtsians, the penetration of new technological innovations (helmets of the Russian type, chain armour) and new fashions (ornamental motifs, ornaments, vessels, etc.) became apparent (Pletneva, 1974a, 52). The classification of details proved itself in the analysis of the material collected by S. A. Pletneva. Due to the expansion of the division it is possible to apply it in works dedicated to very abundant collections, subjected to statistical analysis, however, only when individual details not included by the researcher were not taken into account. For single exemplars or less abundant collections Pletneva’s system is problematic due to inaccuracies. Despite collecting a large number of relics, the author did not take into account the opulence and diversity of items sculptured on statues. She did not know stelae discovered and published many years after she created her classification, and whose presentation of details consequently remains outside the system due to the individual method of presentation. So, while the basic typology is still valid, the system of division of details presented on statues does not always work. When studying smaller collections and single items it is more useful, though less convenient, to apply the descriptive approach to items sculptured on the statues. L. S. Geraskova developed a typology for stelae from Asian and European areas. She divided 735 stelae into six types: standing (feminine and masculine exemplars, mainly from European areas), sitting (feminine and masculine, mainly European), presenting an upper part of a body, statues with hands (symmetrical and asymmetrical), statues without hands (symmetrical and asymmetrical), stelae with or without a pedestal. Then, each of the types was analysed in terms of relations with other units, therefore five indications differentiating statues were obtained. The following relationships were obtained: full presentation

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– upper part of stelae (partial image), with a pedestal – without a pedestal, with presented arms – without arms, location of hands: symmetrical (a vessel in both hands) – asymmetrical (a vessel in a slightly raised right hand, left hand lowered), standing – sitting. This resulted in developing 28 classes of statues, considered further territorially, that is separately for Asia and Europe (Geraskova, 1991, 45). For 14 classes there are no statues matching. According to the author, they indicate some possible tendencies of the evolution of presentation of statues, waiting for being discovered. “Empty” classes allow also for including new types of stelae, even if applicable only for single exemplars (Geraskova, 1991, 53). Next, each group was subjected to statistical analysis. The aim was to capture trends in the evolution of Asian and European stelae and, as a consequence, understanding the processes of the final forming of the canon late European nomadic stelae. The authors concluded that both Asian and European “sitting” and “standing” stelae are developmentally linked (Geraskova, 1991, 52). Certain types of statues, according to Geraskova’s divisions, occur in Asian and European areas at the same time. Classes were additionally divided into “ranges”. Asian ranges include ranges marked with letters A and D. The A range includes schematic Asian stelae. The author attributed them to early Turks, and dated them to the 6th – 9th centuries. At the same time she believed that separate subtypes of this range could have been manufactured by the Pechenegs in the 9th – 10th centuries (Geraskova, 1991, 78). The D range includes sculptures depicting a complete silhouette. According to Geraskova they are the earliest anthropomorphic statues. The B range includes all European stelae presenting the complete human figure. Analysing the details presented on these statues and dating them based on materials from burial inventories, the author concluded that their manufacturers were the Polovtsians. The B range is dated back to the 11th – 13th centuries (Geraskova, 1991, 82). Finally, the C range includes European statues with a schematic outline. According to the author, these statues were created by Torks tribes, which were quickly absorbed by the Polovtsians. She dated them back to the pre-Polovtsian period and believed that they functioned well into the 11th – 13th centuries, mainly in the area of Volga River Basin and the Ciscaucasus (Geraskova, 1991, 92, 97). In a summary, the author stated that all mediaeval types of European steppe stelae originated from Asian images. The type of “sitting” stelae from European areas was not, according to her, later than the “standing” one, but appeared at the same time and was created as a result of cultural impact from Byzantine and Ruthenian groups. The author believed that the mastery of the stone processing, concentration of specialised workshops around outcrops of appropriate kinds of rock, and use of sculpture tools unknown in Asian areas are all proof of the Byzantine and Rus impact on the stone craft of the Polovtsians. According to her, the Polovtsians’ stelae had no direct, genetic links with early Turkic stelae or statues of “post-early Turkic”

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nations and were a phenomena created in Europe (Geraskova, 1991, 100-101). Despite the fact that the Polovtsians were a federation of different Turkic nations, the canon of anthropomorphic images evolved in this environment was similar both to the early Turkic stelae and Turkic-speaking people of a later period. The researcher concluded that the resemblance of the Polovtsian stelae to the early Turkic stelae was represented in the presentation of attire, weapons and utility objects on statues. The impact of the “post-early Turkic” circle on the Polovtsian stelae includes: symmetrically laid hands with a vessel, removal of clothes from silhouettes and feminine figures. K. I. Krasilnikov, inspired by the insights of Pletneva, developed his own typological system, generally only slightly different than the system created by her. Based on the analysis of 96 objects he divided the Polovtsian stelae into six types (Krasilnikov, 1999, 22-23). The division of the outline of the upper part of a silhouette he adopted after Pletneva (types I and II). He attributed to type I flat stelae-shaped statues, on which hands with a vessel were depicted in a shallow relief and attention was paid to details on the head. Pole-shaped stelae, presenting a standing figure with a vessel in the hands, had carefully developed heads and details of attire; they belonged to type II. The author believed that they showed similarities to the Kimak and Kipczak statues dated back to the 10 th – 11th centuries. After Pletneva, he considered that stelae were characteristic of the Priazov area and the basin of the middle Seversky Donets River, and their appearance was related to the early phase of migrations undertaken by groups of Polovtsians from the Transvolga region to new pastures. Type I stelae he dated back to the 11th century, and type II to beginning of the 12th century up to the middle of the 12th century (Krasilnikov, 1999, 25). The type III was characterised by a spatial presentation of men and women in a standing position with a rich inventory of items and individualised physical features, including facial details. Type IV includes spatial statues of men and women sculptured as semi-sitting. The author even indicated an angle of bending thighs in relation to the torso: 130-150 degrees. These objects were characterised not only by the abundance of details and presentation of individual features, but also by extremely thorough sculpture work finished with a grinding on the whole surface. Type V depicted figures of men and women sitting on pedestals. The angle of bending limbs in relation to the torso is 90 – 100 degrees. Stelae were characterised by the abundance of details of attire, ornaments and weapons. The researcher believed that most feminine presentations wore veils on their faces. He explained it with the activity of Islam in that area, allegedly present in the middle of the 12th century. The conclusion was based on the lack of facial details. This incorrect observation proves that the inquery he carried out was superficial, or that he did not carry out it at all. Perhaps the author viewed items from a distance or only in photographs. The closer macroscopic observation of each stelae on which facial details are not visible, reveals traces of intentional,

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mechanical damage or visible signs of natural erosion. The claim about the Islamic impacts seems to be illogical, because the “no-face” feature is also present on stelae of warriors, who were not obliged to cover their faces. Furthermore, as artists-sculptors carefully presented each detail on a sculpture, veils on faces of the Polovtsian women would also have been modelled and would have covered the neck and ears. The lack of faces is an effect of natural processes of the stone erosion or a historic or contemporary vandalism. Stelae of type V belong to the monumental category: a height of 2.50 – 3.50 m. These stelae and pedestals are characterised by a careful sculpturing. Silhouettes at the final stage of processing were additionally smoothed. Statues of types III, IV and V were dated by the author back to the second half of the 12th century and the beginning of the 13th century (Krasilnikov, 1999, 25). Type VI includes pole-shaped statues without limbs. Details of faces, heads, neck ornaments and belts were carefully depicted. A vessel was indicated schematically. Based on Pletneva’s conclusions, the author dated them back to 1240-1250 and, in agreement with her, he believed that their specific canon of presentation was related to the dramatic heroisation of warriors, highlighting their immortality in the light of fights with Mongols-Tatars. The innovation of Geraskove’s classification was distinguishing the semi-sitting type. In a summary Krasilnikov noticed that his typology should be treated provisionally, because there are many statues with intermediate features, particularly in relation to the analysis of stelae of I and II types as well as of II and IV types (Krasilnikov, 1999, 24). Again after Pletneva, he repeated that stelae were related to cult-sacrifice constructions and the cult of ancestors, and that they depicted actual warriors and their wives who, after death, became the guardians of a family (Krasilnikov, 1999, 26). Following Pletneva, he stated that the statues could have been painted (Krasilnikov, 1999, 35). J. Daszkiewicz and E. Tryjarski focused in their work on developing a classification of anthropomorphic sculptures present in an area of broadly understood steppe and forest steppe within Eastern Europe. They took into account the territorial and chronological scope as well as typological features. According to the researchers, group I includes Neolithic stelae of “various types” genetically associated with “Scythian stelae”. Group II includes “Scythian stelae”. The authors broadly commented on both the cultural affiliation of creators of Scythian stelae and their dating. They believed that stelae are linked with the Balts, Slavic and early Turkic cultures. This misinterpretation resulted from a lack of knowledge of the literature concerning archaeological research in Central and Western Asia as well as works of numerous scientists working on Kimmerian stelae (mentioned by neither researcher) and Scythian stelae, which were published in 1980 (inter alia: V.P. Bielozor, V.V. Volkov, M.V Gorelik, G.L. Evdokimov, L.P. Krylova, V.D. Kubariev, D.G. Savinov, N.L. Chlienova, P.N Schultz). The relationship of Kimmerian and Scythian stelae and their analogues with Asian sculpture was comprehensively studied by V. S. Olkhovskiy. According to the

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classification of Daszkiewicz and Tryjarski, group III includes “antique sculptures” from the “Northern Black Sea colonies”. Group IV includes Slavic stelae of two subtypes (pole-shaped and spatial). Group V consists of Caucasus sculptures, however the authors were unable to determine what they meant by this concept. They clearly indicated that they did not mean Turkic or “the so called Scythian” statues. Group VI includes Turkic “typologically various” statues (Daszkiewicz, Tryjarski, 1982, 104). The authors believed that Turkic stelae could be divided into three types: pole-shaped with sculptured head, stelae with a head and marked hands but without a vessel, and “classic” stelae holding a vessel in hands. They believed that it is somehow a primitive form of presentation of the theme, however sufficient for research purposes. They considered Pletneva’s typology to be too extended and therefore “useless”. In their opinion the development of the classification system based on statues originating from museum collections was a mistake, because the material had been selected long before it was passed into the institution (Daszkiewicz, Tryjarski, 1982, 98 – 105). Many of Daszkiewicz and Tryjarski’s unreasonable objections to Pletneva’s conclusions arose from their rejection of research methods applied by archaeologists and their critique of the method of analysis of materials which, according to the authors, was subjective and selective (Daszkiewicz, Tryjarski, 1982, 85). They, themselves, relied primarily on historical sources that often contained brief information about anthropomorphic stelae. The information was frequently so poorly defined that it could not be subjected to any scientific criterion; an issue often raised by the authors themselves (Daszkiewicz, Tryjarski, 1982, 77). Therefore they denied their own method of research. In summary, it should be noted that the best developed and most reasonable classification system of the anthropomorphic stelae of mediaeval nomads from Eastern Europe is the typology developed by Pletneva. It is also the best analytical tool, despite the objections specified above. It is suitable for studies on larger numbers of stelae or museum collections. Due to the unstable situation of a number of museum collections, of which single exemplars have been analysed in published studies, the method can be applied to secondary studies of collections of statues. This is important, because many of them require typological verification and description of technical conditions documenting the progress of the stones’ degradation. During the past 40 years, in all collections the quantity of exhibited stelae has changed: some have increased due to the addition of new findings from administrative units (Raion, District) subordinated to a particular institution, while others have decreased as a result of losses, destruction or other causes (as for example in a case of the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum). In principle, there are no catalogue publications of stelae collections from the area of Eastern Europe. Those that were published in the second half of the previous century need to be updated. The classification system of Pletneva also aids the reconstruction process of recovering statues’ lost details due

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to the possibility of finding the closest analogies for the object being saved. In the case of single, newly discovered exemplars intended for museum exhibitions or storage in a museum lapidarium Pletneva’s method is an auxiliary tool in the quick determination of the type and chronology of a relic. However, we do advise in such cases the use of the full description of an object, particularly including the technical conditions of stelae and the preparation of photographic documentation and careful drawings of the finding in situ. Preparation of such extensive material requires care, time and attention. It is, however, an inestimable source of information for professionals dealing with issues related to anthropomorphic stelae (archaeologists, art historians, ethnographers, geologists, religion experts, historians and finally conservators) whose work is eased by well-prepared documentation.

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Chapter 5 Aneta Gołębiowska-Tobiasz, Michał Burzak

Collection in the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum 1. History of the Forest and the Museum The Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum is a branch of the Donetsk Regional Museum. It is located at the former building of the meteorological observatory, built in 1852 at the behest of Alexander, brother of tsar Nikolas I. Romanov. The facility is beautifully situated in the landscaped park “Veliko-Anadol Forest”. The history of the observatory, residential buildings and outhouses, as well as the forest, is interesting13. In the middle of the 19th century the steppe areas, subjected to large-scale, intensive agricultural operations under the influence of the local climate, were affected by erosion so catastrophic that it was decided to perform an experiment. An appropriate selection of species of trees and shrubs that were not only adapted to the steppe, but also planted in hedges along fields, would hinder the wind from blowing off a layer of fertile soil. The founder of the observatory and the research base, and at the time the person responsible for the planting of the experimental forest, was Victor von Graff, a nobleman and a tsarist officer from St. Petersburg. He was sent at the request of the Forest Department of Russia to select the most suitable area for the experiment. A slightly lowered area in the watershed of the Kashlagach and Sukhaya Volnovakha Rivers, at the meeting point of the Priazov area and Donetsk Uplands, was selected. An L-shaped area of 24 hectares was separated. Some sections of the Kashlagach River were dammed up to generate lakes, providing enough water for the rail. The plantings soon included the lower basin of the river on both sides. The forest was mixed, with a predominance of pines, oaks and ash. Archaeological research was carried out during planting. Within today’s reserve there are several archaeological sites located. On the left bank of the Kashlagach River there are two unexamined groups of kurgans. On one kurgan paving stones were discovered – probably a Polovtsian temple. The south-eastern

13 The information about the steppe forestry, a biography of Victor von Graff and the history of the museum I obtained from the research employee of the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum, MA Galina Vorotintseva, whom I thank very much.

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border of planting was about 2 km in a straight line from the Volnovakha city, located in the Yekaterinoslav Governorate (Yekaterinoslavskaya guberniya nowadays the Volnovakha Raion, Donetsk District, Ukraine). Successors of von Graff carried out experiments with new species of trees. The steppe floras, as well as the adaptation of species of flora not naturally occurring in that geographical zone, were studied. At the same time studies on soil, geology, hydrology, phytopathology, etc. were undertaken. The forest survived through the Revolution and the Great Patriotic War. It was covered with care in the 1940s-1960s. In 1974 the landscaped park was created, including the forest in its scope. Currently there are 618 species of plants at the area, of which 37 are indicated in the Ukrainian “Red Book”. The forest is inhibited by representatives of the fauna, typical for the formation of mixed forests of Central Europe. Unfortunately, the park did not include buffer zones for the protected area, and intense chemisation and agricultural operations have adversely affected the condition of the forest and surface waters. After a period of political changes some parcels within the park were sold into private hands, including places associated with Victor von Graff and his family. In the absence of state funds and interest in their fate, they were condemned to destruction and oblivion. To this day, there is still a manor of the von Graff family preserved, placed next to the observatory. The Museum did not manage to acquire the building for its statutory purposes and so the manor has been sold into private hands. The building has subsequently fallen into disrepair and will probably be demolished. The private area includes also two burials related to the founder of the forest; Von Graff’s daughter, who died in infancy, and her nanny rest there. In 1991 the branch of the Museum was opened at the meteorological observatory. Its permanent exhibition includes a presentation of souvenirs of Victor von Graff. The collection contains reports, photographs, development plans and land development plans as well as documents drawn by subsequent foresters. The natural history section presents fauna and flora specimens occurring originally or migrating into the area. In the vicinity of the main building of the Museum at the von Graff Avenue is a monument erected in 1910, dedicated to the founder of the forest complex as well as the collection of anthropomorphic statues. They were brought there from surrounding areas for more than 150 years. It is possible that the stelae from the museum exhibition include exemplars coming from the already mentioned temple complex, belonging to group I of kurgans located by the Kashlagach River.

2. The Collection of Anthropomorphic Stelae The steppe in the area covered by the administration of the Volnovakha Raion is characterised by a gentle, flat landscape. The fertile chernozem occurring there

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is overgrown with plants typical for the thistle and festuca arundinacea steppe. Uncultivated lands to the present day are characterised by a set of plant species belonging to this formation. The characteristic form are wilderness, the so called pods (поды), usually shaped in river ravines or in the vicinity of outcrops with shrubs and trees species. Water resources are provided by the Mokrye Yaly River and its right influxes the Kashlagach, Mokraya and Sukhaya Volnovakha Rivers, and in the past also periodical rivers, nowadays regulated. Areas nowadays subordinated to the Volnovakha Raion were already densely populated by the Bronze Age. Centres of seasonal settlement, flat cemeteries and kurgan cemeteries were located primarily in the vicinity of rivers. Both early and late nomads willingly camped in these areas. During field prospections and rescue excavations carried out in the 1980’s, mounds with burials belonging to the Pechenegs as well as Polovtsian kurgans were discovered (Privalova, Privalov, 1988, 55-62; Privalov, 2001, 253). The Polovtsians conquered the area of the Azov steppes relatively early. The rich pastures and abundance of water fostered fast stabilisation of population groups moving from continuous nomadism towards seasonal horse pastoralism with a closed cycle of encampments. In addition to favourable environmental conditions, the crucial role was played by the density of old kurgan cemeteries located in the watersheds of rivers. The Polovtsians previously used erected mounds as burial or cult places. They dug the grave niche in the covering of an older kurgan, or built on its summit a cult-sacrifice place with anthropomorphic statues. In this way, they used the already sacred space during both funeral ceremonies and ceremonies for departed souls. Nowadays, it is difficult to establish under what circumstances the anthropomorphic statues were found and where they were brought from. The preserved documents show that in 1859, at the initiative of Viktor von Graff, 16 anthropomorphic stelae were brought to the manor from the area of the city of Mariupol, located 60 km south of Volnovakha. The museum archives lack information about the origins of a further 11 stelae (own search query, 2006, 2008). We do know that before World War II in the area of the VelikoAnadol steppe forestry there was also a large collection of anthropomorphic statues and that after the War most of these objects were destroyed and abandoned in the forest surrounding the place of exhibition (Pletneva, 1974a, 10). In 200614 there was a field and material query, involving, inter alia, examination and documentation of the current state of anthropomorphic stelae. The technical condition of most sculptures exhibited at the von Graff Avenue was satisfying in relation to stone relics possessed by other museums

14 In 2006 the author obtained the internal grant of the Faculty of History of the Jagiellonian University and subsidies of the Foundation of Alumni and Students UJ “Bratniak”.

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in Ukraine and Russia. Statues were usually presented in the open air. The weathering of the natural environment, including highly damaging chemical activity which was increased over the past 80 years by industrial development, as well as mechanical injuries often caused by humans, are the main causes of the destruction of stelae. Statues were manufactured primarily from various types of sandstone, limestone and chalk, available locally. Its advantage was the ease of working such material. The disadvantage is a sensitivity to aggressive external factors. Due to the place of the exhibition, its history and the uniqueness of some exemplars, the author undertook efforts to subject certain objects to technical conservation and to draw attention to the issue of protection of monumental anthropomorphic sculpture being unique in Europe. Pletneva, who travelled across the museums and cities of Ukraine and Russia, had already in 1974 lamented the dereliction of the officials responsible for the protection and preservation of stelae and the disregard for their technical condition. This great scientist managed to register 1323 preserved exemplars of sculptures. Her appeal remained unanswered and, despite political changes and the passage of 40 years from the publication of her work, the situation of monumental stone statues remains outside the interests of local conservators, archaeologists, museum workers and authorities. In 1974 Pletneva registered and described 27 anthropomorphic stelae located in the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum (Pletneva, 1974a, 85-86). In 2006 the museum possessed 24 exemplars of statues. 20 of them are exhibited in a forest glade at the von Graff Avenue. Sculptures were emebbeded at their bases with concrete seals in two rows of the stone walls forming the exhibition. They surround from the north and south the centre of the glade on which the monument of von Graff is situated. 4 further stelae, in worse condition, were dug into a lawn in the front of the museum building. One broken exemplar of the three lost was found during the arrangement of the terrain around the von Graff Avenue in 2008 (the catalogue of Pletneva: number 303). It has been brought to the Donetsk Regional Museum. The fate of two feminine stelae remains unknown (Pletneva’s catalogue numbers: 280 and 294). In addition to the collection of Veliko-Anadol there are two more exemplars of anthropomorphic statues with archaic features present in the Volnovakha Raion. One of them is embedded into a pedestal in the city of Volnovakha, the second is in private hands and is dug into the ground at the summer house in Komsomolskyi Podsiolok, in the vicinity of the von Graff Avenue. The analysis below includes the state of 14 stelae as of 1974, registered by Svetlana A. Pletneva and her illustrator as well as their technical condition as of July 2006. The numbering system was applied by conservators in 2008 and has an ordering character for the photographic and descriptive documentation. Numbers attributed by S. A. Pletneva in the monograph of 1974 cited are indicated in the second position, in the brackets.

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Fig 5.1. The stele “baba 25” from the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum in 1974 (cf. Pletneva, 1974a, 151, No 303).

Fig 5.2. The cracked stele “baba 25” founded in the forest in 2008. The lower section – details of the caftan.

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Fig 5.3. The cracked stele “baba 25” founded in the forest in 2008 – the rest of the upper part of the statue. Table 5.1. Stelae subjected to the technical conservation in July 2008.

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Numberings of stelae in the Catalogue (Pletneva, 1974a, 148-152)

Conservatory numberings of 2008

304

1

302

2

290

3

293

4

295

5

297

6

298

7

299

8

292

9

286

10

296

11

301

12

300

13

279

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Table 5.2. Stelae with a documented technical condition, waiting for the conservation. Numberings of stelae in the Catalogue (Pletneva, 1974a, 148-152)

Conservatory numberings of 2008

281

15

283

16

282

17

287

18

288

19

289

20

291

21

284

22

285

23

278

24

Table 5.3. Lost and destroyed stelae Numberings of stelae in the Catalogue (Pletneva, 1974a, 148-152)

Conservatory numberings of 2008

303

25 (presently the Donetsk Regional Museum)

280

-

294

-

3. Feminine Stelae Intended for full Technical and Preservative Conservation of Plasticity. An Archaeological and Conservatory Description The basic purpose of the conservation programme was to stop the degradation of sculptures caused by environmental factors and destructive human activities, as well as the aesthetic restoration of the statues. All operations were preceded by careful visual inspections and evaluations, which allowed for the selection of the optimal techniques and conservatory measures. We decided to perform technical conservation and aesthetic reconstruction (preservative) to a limited extent for 10 statues embedded in the northern row. The selection was determined by the technical condition of the stelae, the type of raw material, their scientific and artistic value, form of permanent presentation and financial means available to the author. Four further exemplars, located in front of the museum, have also been protected from damage.

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Fig 5.4. The Polovtsians statues – before the conservation in 2008.

3.1 Baba 1 (304) A feminine stela (inventory number: none), “standing”, type III(a)15, and in the catalogue entered under the number 304. The monument of art were described by Pletneva as: “Grey sandstone. A surface strongly weathered. Hands were separated from the body with clearances and therefore nowadays they are broken off, as well as a vessel and partially also a hat. Feminine. Standing. Type IIIa. Dimensions: 1.92 x 0.67 x 0.36 m. Horns, earrings III, scarf II, two plain bars. On a lower edge there are traces of hems. On an occiput there were two rhombuses and a belt around a waist. The surface is weathered – no traces of treatment were noticed” (Pletneva, 1974a, 86, 150). According to the drawing made in 1974 the stela presents a tall feminine silhouette dressed in a long caftan, fastened at the waist with a wide belt emphasising a shapely figure. Proportions were not maintained. Legs in relation

15 Typological classification according to Pletneva, 1974a, 61-65.

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Fig 5.5. The stele “baba 1” from the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum (cf. Pletneva, 1974a, 150, No 304).

to the body were thin and short. At the front side, the lower part of the caftan was decorated with three bands of borders. An ornament at the border consisted of small boxes. At the back side on the middle border there was a motif of horizontal chevrons visible. The shape of an oval face was highlighted with highly placed “horns” surrounding the face. On a head there was a scarf visible, probably spanned on some construction. All these things slenderised the full face of the woman. Two narrow scarf horns fell symmetricallyon her back. At the back side, at the height of an occiput two rhombuses were sculptured. They were a reflection of fasteners or jewellery holding the material on the hair. Fasteners were possibly linked with a ribbon, which was indicated as a strand on the vertices of rhombuses. There are no facial details on the stela, except for ears decorated with earrings in the shape of massive rings ending with a callus. The sculptor stressed a slender neck, visible from the profile, with a high collar of the caftan. Below, two massive, plain bars (hryvnia) are visible. The shape of triangular breasts was also highlighted. On the legs, which lean on footrests, are preserved the decorative details of shoes. Edges of high uppers were decorated with diagonal lines, stressing their modelled shape. According to the 1974 condition report the stela had no right hand from the elbow to the wrist. The left hand has been broken off at the shoulder, however the forearm is persevered. The form of a hand and a vessel were destroyed. Also the top of the head was damaged.

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According to the state reported in 2006, the statue presents a slender, tall and slim feminine silhouette, legible in full form. It was embedded in a wall at the height of the footrest. The sculpture was covered with numerous caverns and pits of various dimensions resulting from washout. A major share of the destruction was caused by a thick layer of lichens covering the whole statue. Inside the holes there were insects nested. The stela was in direct contact with thick shrubs posing both mechanical and microbiological threats. The back side of the statue and legs were relatively well preserved. The once oval face and the head dress had lost their clarity due to damage caused by weathering and washout. Horns had been blurred off. The extent of damages increased at the top of the stela. Details of the attire were illegible. Only the outline of triangular breasts was preserved. The remains of hands, the destruction of which

Fig 5.6. The stele “baba 1” in 2006. Before the conservation.

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was already indicated in 1974, had been crushed off. Hands were broken off from shoulders to wrists. Originally, space was left between the hands and the body, giving lightness to the silhouette. The vessel and palms were destroyed, probably ground down in the past. Details of the back side are well preserved: the belt highlighting the slenderness of the silhouette, plain border in the lower part of the caftan and two-horned scarf falling on the back were visible. The left side of the statue at waist height and a back of the footrest were covered with deep contemporary carvings and inscriptions. Two inscriptions consisted of several signs and a picture showing the profile of a face, appearing as a profile of a warrior with prominent nose or disproportionate face without a neck. The portrait, in the way it was made and its aesthetics, relates to a drawing on the back of the stela. It is difficult to date. The second drawing was situated between the horns of the scarf. There was a schematic profile of a man’s beardless face with a ringed helmet on; below the waist was an embossed inscription reading “Geshenoms” or “restehoms”. Both drawings and the inscription are the results of vandalism. However, they are probably not contemporary. On the left side, in the lower part of the statue, there was a contemporary inscription in printed Cyrillic letters embossed. Legs dressed in high shoes, slightly bent and resting on a footrest, are well preserved. The stela had a high, square pedestal, which saved its lower section from being embedded.

3.2 Baba 2 (302) Feminine stela (inventory number: none), “standing”, type II, catalogued under the number 302. In 1974 the relic was described as follows: “Fine-grained grey sandstone. Broken at the waist but repaired. Feminine. Standing. Type II. Dimensions: 1.80 x 0.54 x 0.30 m. A hut I, a scarf I. Band on the head, earrings III, linked with a band with chains, “horns”. One woven bar (hryvnia). Vessel I. Eyebrows and a nose in the shape of the letter “T”. Legs without a footrest” (Pletneva, 1974a, 86, 152). According to a drawing, the stela presented a tall, well-built feminine silhouette holding a vessel in hands pinched to the side of her body. The sculpture did not maintain the proportions of a human body. Its legs were cylindrical, short and thin in relation to a massive body. There are details of a broad face preserved – arched eyebrows grown together over a short, straight nose. The whole chin was crushed off. Earrings, hung on crescent-like ears, were linked with a thin line, probably depicting a ribbon or a chain with a band, tightened around the head. The lower part of the band was decorated with short hanging strings. “Horns” were depicted as pinned behind ears, highlighting the oval of the full face. The scarf was visible only from the back side of the stela. Its horns fell on the back. Edges of the scarf were marked as plain bands.

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Fig 5.7. The stele “baba 2” from the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum (cf. Pletneva, 1974a, 152, No 302).

On the left side at ear height there is a hole drilled in the scarf. In the past it was used to fix the monument to the wall of the building with a metal rod. This kind of “protection” of monumental sculpture is unfortunately commonly used by museum workers in Ukraine. Damages caused by drilling often accelerate the process of destruction of large surfaces of statues. A hat with a brim hanging over the forehead and a high bottom was a crowning element of the attire. The right side of the hat, visible from the back side, was crushed off. The attire consisted of a caftan on which there were no decorative motifs. Cylindrical thickenings at the palms depict cuffs of the caftan or bracelets. The neck of the statue was decorated with a twisted bar (hryvnia). Women’s breasts were pouch shaped, and the left breast was chipped off. In the preserved hands the figure held a vessel almost rectangular in shape with a visible cylindrical spout. Although the sculpture was broken in the middle, the effects of the damage registered by the illustrator seemed to be minor. During the conservation works only a narrow crack on the back side of the statue was visible. Generally, according to the drawing of 1974, the technical condition was good. According to the state recorded in 2006, the stela was embedded in the exhibition below the line of the vessel held, therefore it is difficult to determine

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to what type it belongs. It presented a tall feminine silhouette with hands close to the body. A thick layer of mosses and lichens developed on the hat, face and the upper part of the statue, covering almost whole surface of the stone. Although they added some charm to the sculpture, they also had a destructive impact on the sandstone. The face of the figure was broad with clearly marked lines. The massive chin was crushed off. On the head was sculptured a hat with a broad brim and high bottom. Unfortunately, the front and back sides of the brim, as well as the bottom, were lost at the same time; they were either crushed off or washed out due to erosion. A scarf falling to the back of the statue was visible. Face and head cover details were illegible. “Horns” surrounding the face as well as ring decorations were preserved in excellent condition: a bar and probably a necklace. On the left side of the face, at ear height, there is a hole drilled, which promoted the washing

Fig 5.8. The stele “baba 2” in 2006. Before the conservation.

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out processes damaging the stone in which one of the “horns” was sculptured. The left breast was destroyed – it was forged. The right one was damaged due to the weathering process. The sculpture was broken into two parts, which is evident due to damage of the hands, abdomen and back. Hands at the height of the elbows were historically repaired with concrete seals. Over time these cracked, allowing the penetration of water and microorganisms, causing further destruction of the sandstone. The same happened to the part of the abdomen in which a large, lateral gap overgrown with mosses and lichens was visible. On the back of the sculpture, the crack has widened in comparison to the state presented in the drawing of 1974. The right arm was covered with deep carvings. In barely recognisable hands, the figure held a jar with visible foot and a wide spout. After removal of the wall, it appeared that there are legs and the lower part of a caftan with a visible plain border preserved. The condition of the stela, despite mechanical damages, was relatively good. The stela, on its entire surface was covered not only with mosses and lichens but also with a centuries-old film of erosion that blurred the image of its creator. The sculpture had direct contact with desiccated branches of trees and rampant shrubs, posing the threat of mechanical injuries and of the invasion of microorganisms.

3.3 Baba 3 (290) Feminine stela (inventory number: none), “standing”, type III(a), catalogued as number 290. In 1974 the relic was described as follows: “Grey, dense sandstone. At waist height, the stela was broken and repaired with cement. Dug into the ground up to the vessel. Feminine. Probably standing. Dimensions: 1.38 x 0.52 x 0.34 m. A hat IV, a cap under the hat, “horns”, a scarf I. Two plain bars. Vessel II. Nose and eyebrows in the shape of the letter “T” (Pletneva, 1974a, 85, 150). According to the drawing of 1974, the stela presented a massive feminine silhouette with hands tightly pinched to the body holding a rectangular vessel with a tapering spout. Already at that time the sculpture was probably dug into the ground, because only its upper part has been recorded. The woman had an oval face with marked details. Under narrow, thick and cylindrical eyebrows grown together over the straight, shapely nose, there were lower eyelids visible, making an impression of half-closed eyes. Lips were sculptured as a straight, slightly angled line. Ears were decorated with earrings presented as massive rings with thickenings. The head dress consisted of a cap, scarf and hat. The cap was visible below the scarf. It tightly adhered to the head and had a round cut at the base. The plain scarf fell to the back. The way it was modelled suggests that at one time there might have been “horns” at the sides of the head, or the artist wanted to highlight that the scarf represented a thick, expensive fabric, edged with a border. The hat had wide, profiled brim and cylindrical bottom. The top of

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Fig 5.9. The stele “baba 3” from the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum (cf. Pletneva, 1974a, 150, No 290).

the hat was damaged. On the neck two plain bars were marked and a necklace or a collar of the caftan. Cloths had no other preserved ornaments. Triangular breasts and a vessel were visible. The left hand at the height of the elbow was jagged. On the back side, below the waist down to the hips there were visible damage to the stone on the entire width of the sculpture. Judging from the drawing, the technical condition of the upper part of the stela was very good. In 2006 the statue described was embedded with a concrete seal into the wall, from the waist downwards. This prevented classification of the sculpture and verification of its actual state of preservation. During the macroscopic visual inspection it was observed that the statue had been cut from a grey granite or tonalite, not sandstone. The stela has well preserved details, despite relatively shallow relief, thanks to the durability of the raw material. On the oval face there were details visible – convex nose and eyebrows in the shape of the letter “T”, lips and eyes marked as shallow, almond-like hollows. The hat with a cylindrical, thick brim had a crushed part just over the forehead and a damaged bottom. The outline of the cap was blurred off; however the scarf was preserved together with the cylindrical thickening around the face of the oval. There were still visible two bars (hryvnia) on the neck and triangular, hanging breasts. There were no details of the attire. The vessel had a bulbous shape. Arms schematically

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presented and closely adhering to the body were damaged as a result of natural erosion in the distant past. It appeared that the stela was cracked over the entire width of the waist. It caused further destruction of the entire left forearm, along with the palm and elbow of the right hand. The upper part of the vessel was broken. The damage, which runs around the statue, was filled with concrete during a historical repair of the object. Along the right shoulder there was a crack in the stone structure. At the height of the shoulder there were also visible longitudinal grooves caused by mechanical damage and additionally exacerbated by natural destructive processes of the stone structure. On the entire surface of the object there was visible a colourful efflorescence resulting from the activity of microorganisms. Similarly as on the previous stelae, the stone was damaged by mosses and lichens. The statue originally was installed in such

Fig 5.10. The stele “baba 3” in 2006. Before the conservation.

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a way that it appeared to be easier to reveal its back side. Due to the dimensions of the sculpture, it was decided to the leave the front side obscured, because removing the wall could have destabilised the object. It was established then that the lower part of the statue was quite well preserved. It was not decorated but carefully finished. It could have been a pedestal, on which the figure of the woman sits. Damage to the rear part of the statue were not as extensive as was indicated on the drawing of 1974. Judging by the proportion of the preserved areas in comparison to other exemplars, the statue could have been 2.5 – 3.0 m in height. The preserved maximum height was 1.76 m. The technical condition, despite damages resulting from breaking the statue into two parts, was good. The stela had direct contact with branches of trees and shrubs posing both a microbiological and mechanical threat.

3.4 Baba 7 (298) The second most damaged stela, probably feminine (inventory number: none) has, according to Pletneva, the following features: “Gray sandstone. A head, elbow of the right hand were crushed off. Back was used as a grinder. Feminine. Sitting. Type V(a), Dimensions: 1.18 x 0.55 x 0.37 m. Details of the attire are not preserved, a vessel I”. The stela was registered under the catalogue number 298 (Pletneva, 1974a, 86). Unfortunately, there is no iconographic image from that time. According the inspection of 2006 this was the most devastated sculpture. The figure had its head and neck crushed off, there was a rod sticking out of the body, on which the head once had been embedded – probably as a result of secondary “reparation”. Under unknown circumstances almost the entire right arm to the wrist as well as the left arm and forearm were destroyed. On the front, there were deep vertical carvings visible, generated during “turning” works. The back side had a flat surface and it is unlikely that it was broken out of a deposit or originally developed in this way; the stone had perhaps been completely polished. The statue was covered with a thick layer of dirt, mosses, lichens and was also splashed with an oil paint. In addition, elements of the depictions on the sandstone were blurred through centuries of erosion. The entire stela was covered with pores, holes and cavities. After forging the wall, it appeared that details of the lower part of the statue were missing. There was neither a caftan nor legs. The only detail proving the mastery of the stela’s workmanship was the left hand and a fragment of the vessel, arising out from the concrete seal. There was also an outline of breasts. Originally, the sculpture was large. It could have had about 2.00 – 2.50 meters of height. Similarly as for the neighbouring stelae, mechanical and microbiological threats were posed by desiccated branches of trees and shrub plants overgrowing it.

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Fig 5.11. The stele “baba 7” from the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum in 2006. Before the conservation (cf. Pletneva, 1974a, 86, No 298).

4. Masculine Stelae Intended for Full Technical and Preservative Conservation Of Plasticity. An Archaeological and Conservatory Description 4.1 Baba 4 (293) Masculine stela (inventory number: none), “standing”, type II, was catalogued as number 293. The relic had been described as follows: “Grey, fine-grained sandstone. Masculine. Standing. Type II. Dimensions: 1.40 x 0.53 x 0.25 m. A

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Fig 5.12. The stele “baba 4” from the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum (cf. Pletneva, 1974a, 151, No 293).

helmet II. A pleat I. A vessel I. Eyebrows and nose in the shape of the letter “T” (Pletneva, 1974a, 86, 151). According to the drawing of 1974 the warrior had short, cylindrical legs highlighted. Feet were not preserved. The figure was presented as standing, holding a small, oval vessel in his hands with a visible spout. The upper part of the silhouette was disproportionally larger compared to the lower part. A large head, massive body and long hands pinched to the body were contrasted with a narrow caftan, much shorter in relation to the upper part. The disparity of the silhouette was enhanced with short, pole-like legs. Feet were crushed off; however their shape and length in relation to the rest of the body would not change the impression of disproportion. The outline of hands was not preserved. The silhouette was dressed in a long caftan without ornaments. A draftsman registered large damage to the back of the stela. Already by then the stone was delaminated. A well-preserved helmet or a cap with a rim decorated with diagonal lines was visible, as well as a head dressing in the form of three plaits of the same length loosely falling on the back. On the square-shaped face were narrow eyebrows grown together over the short nose; eyes and small ears were detected. The chin on the right side was slightly crushed off.

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Due to the less resistant type of sandstone and extreme conditions of the exhibition, the details of sculpture were blurred over the centuries, and the preservation state recorded in 2006 was bad. The stela presented a stocky, broad-shouldered warrior. At shoulder height the sculpture was embedded with concrete into the stone wall being a part of the exhibition foundations. An outline of a cone-shaped hat, eyebrows and the lower part of a caftan were preserved. Details on the rim, nose and eyes were blurred. Hands of the figure were depicted as pinched to the sides of the body. At the height of the waist there was the outline of a vessel visible, however its small details disappeared. The vessel as well as palms was probably polished. The entire surface of the stone bore signs of mechanical damage. Compared to the state recorded in 1974, the chin was further damaged. The stone was crushed off and these parts

Fig 5.13. The stele “baba 4” in 2006. Before the conservation.

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of the facial details were almost completely destroyed. On the front side of the sculpture, at the height of the right arm, there was a deep, rhomboid cavity in the stone stretching down to the body. The back side of the stela suffered the most. The stone, probably damaged in the past due to natural conditions, was delaminated on the entire width of the sculpture from the waist downwards. Details of the hair dressing were preserved on the upper part of the statue. The warrior had his hair drawn into three long plaits, loosely hanging from under the hat onto his back. On the right side of the stela, along the arm and body, there were longitudinal, deep grooves resulting from the leaching process affecting sedimentation layers, and new cracking emerging in the stone structure. On the entire surface of the sculpture there were numerous cavities and holes in which insects were nesting. The stone was covered with a layer of harmful patina as well as lichens and mosses and, in the lower part, also algae. After removing the mortar, it appeared that cylindrical legs with traces of shin guards were preserved. The figure had direct contact with branches of trees and shrubs, posing a mechanical and microbiological threat.

4.2 Baba 5 (295) Masculine stela (inventory number: none), “standing”, type III(a), registered in the catalogue as number 295. The author described the relic as follows: “Grey, finegrained sandstone. Back side strongly crushed, back faded. Masculine. Standing. Type IIIa. Dimensions: 1.53 x 0.52 x 0.32 m. Helmet I. Vessel I. On the lower side there is a wide belt with traces of ornaments in the form of rhomboids. There are a quiver, knife and a trapezoidal purse at the right side and a bow and a sword at the left side” (Pletneva, 1974a, 86, 152). In the drawing of 1974, the warrior with proportional silhouette stands holding in his hands a cup-like vessel. Just above the head there is a large, rectangular cavity in the stone structure. Details of hands at that time were already not visible. At the head there was a well-preserved helmet with the half-circular shape of a bell with a rim. On the oval face there were no traces of details, only small, crescent ears preserved. Near the neck the caftan had a visible collar, decorated with lines. Its lower part was trimmed with a double edge. On the wider of edge, ornaments were preserved in the form of a series of rhomboids adjoining at one of the vertices. At the caftan there is also the outline of a breastplate visible. On the left side is a sword in a scabbard and a bow. A quiver was hanging on a strap at the right side, decorated with plain pads at the perimeter and a large trapezoidal-shaped purse decorated with a wide edge. A draftsman registered also that the statue had cylindrical legs. Unfortunately, the feet were crushed off. Legs of the statue maintain proportions in relation to the remaining part of the figure.

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Fig 5.14. The stele “baba 5” from the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum (cf. Pletneva, 1974a, 152, No 295).

The state of the statue in 2006 was bad. The sculpture presented a stocky, standing warrior, holding a vessel in his hands. Mechanical damages caused over the centuries were as follows: a crushed chin and the back side of the head damaged. Due to the weakened structure of the stone the following defects had been generated: a “pocket” at the right elbow, a large hole at the border of the rim on the left side, a large fragment of a scaly stone – dissection visible from the bottom of the vessel up to the border of the caftan and further downwards to the non-existent foot. The structure at the left forearm was damaged. At the height of the head and the lower part of the body, both on the back as well as the front sides of the statue, smaller caverns, pits and cracks were visible. In the right lower part of the sculpture, just below the relief of the quiver there was a deep oval hole with a diameter of 5 cm. Details of the headdress were washed out; facial details were blurred. The back side of the head was destroyed. The face of the warrior and an outline of the breastplate were damaged recently with a sharp tool used to made deep, hard to remove incisions. The left lower side of the statue, presenting a wide border of the caftan, was stratified. From the bottom of the vessel held in the hands, up to the edge of caftan, there was visible a diagonal, deep crack weakening the stone structure and crushing fragments of the rock. Among the details only a cup-shaped vessel with a clear spout is visible. The shape of the hands was blurred. Only the following military items were preserved: an outline of a breastplate and, at the left side, a bow

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in a bow-quiver and a sword in a scabbard, strapped diagonally in relation to the bow. At the right side there was a triangular purse sculptured, and below a trapezoidal quiver strapped to the belt with three arrows and massive rhomboid bolts sticking out of it. The lower part of the caftan was decorated with a wide, plain border, clearer at the side of stela and almost invisible from the front. The rhomboid ornament on the border at the right side, registered in 1974 by a draftsman, was blurred and was hardly visible. The entire statue, except for a thick layer of dirt, was overgrown with mosses and lichens and the green colour testified to the expansion of algae. The insects nested in holes on the stone. Plants overgrowing the surrounding area were an additional source of mechanical and microbiological damages. After removing the wall, the preserved limbs were revealed. The left presented a leg booted in a high riding shoe. The right leg and foot and the end of the left foot were crushed off.

Fig 5.15. The stele “baba 5” in 2006. Before the conservation.

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4.3 Baba 6 (297) Masculine stela (inventory number: none), “sitting”, type IV, in the catalogue placed under the number 297. In 1974 the relic was described as follows: “Grey and pink coarse-grained granite. Masculine. Sitting. Type IV. Dimensions: 1.17 x 0.56 x 0.31 m. A helmet II, a plait II, nose and eyebrows in the shape of the letter “T”. Vessel I. Moustache and lips I” (Pletneva, 1974a, 86, 149). According to the drawing, the stela presented a stocky man in a sitting posture holding a bulbous vessel with a clear spout. Details of palms were not visible. According to the documentation, the figure retained human proportions. Massive shoulders and body remained in harmony with broad thighs and knees, visible in the upper part of the seat. The lower part of legs was not registered. There were details of the head preserved in the documentation, including a ringed helmet with a half-circle bell and plain rim, head dressing in the form of three plaits intertwined into one, and facial details. At the oval face with a massive chin and narrow eyebrows grown together over the straight nose. The width of the nose and eyebrows was similar. The draftsman documented an outline of an almond-shaped eye under the left eyebrow, oval lips surrounded with a beard and a curled moustache reaching to the cheekbones. At the side of the head there were crescent ears visible. Details of the attire were not marked. We can only hypothesise that the warrior was dressed in a short caftan or a shirt and

Fig 5.16. The stele “baba 6” from the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum (cf. Pletneva, 1974a, 149, No 297).

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galligaskins. The technical condition of the statue, according to the drawing, was good. In 2006 changes in the structure of the stone, caused by lack of protection of the statue, were perceptible. Although it was carved in a granite/tonalite, it was affected by natural and mechanical factors. In addition to the clearly outlined shape of the head, the stela was characterised by a small number of visible details. The stone started to delaminate at the height of the head. At the left side, from the middle of the forehead down to the left cheek and further at the left shoulder a deep crack was visible. In the upper side, at the back of the shoulder a cavity had formed, possibly due to mechanical damage. The right arm up to the elbow was damaged. Probably it arose due to natural erosion or was a line of breach in the stone from a deposit. Furthermore, this part was

Fig 5.17. The stele “baba 6” in 2006. Before the conservation.

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covered with shallow cavities in the natural stone structure, which arose as a consequence of the erosion operating on this kind of raw material. The sculpture was covered with a layer of dirt, overgrown with mosses and lichens, and in its lower part the effect of the activity of algae on the stone structure was visible. The statue was concreted into the wall so deeply that only the upper part of the body and shoulders were exposed. Therefore, only a small number of details were legible: a hat with a clear rim, an outline of eyebrows and symmetrically situated earlobes, an outline of hands pinched to the body and a plait were preserved. After removing the wall it appeared that in the lower part of the sculpture there are visible clearly sculptured palms holding a rectangular vessel. Massive thighs were probably destroyed during the fitting of the statue into the width of the wall. Only the triangular outline of the left limb was preserved. The stela could have been damaged mechanically by desiccated branches of trees directly touching it. Plants overgrowing it adversely affected the stone structure (microbiological factor).

4.4 Baba 8 (299) Masculine stela (inventory number: none), “standing”, type VII, placed in the catalogue under the number 299. In 1974 the relic was described as follows: “Grey sandstone. Masculine. Stelae-shaped. Type VII. Dimensions: 1.40 x 0.53 x 0.30 m. Helmet I, plait I. Below, on the delicately marked waist a wide, convex belt (the front side). Nose and eyebrows – type II, moustache and lips I. Developed very precisely, the surface polished” (Pletneva, 1974a, 86, 152).

Fig 5.18. The stele “baba 8” from the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum (cf. Pletneva, 1974a, 152, No 299).

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According to the illustrations, the statue presented a slender, male silhouette, with hands cut at the height of shoulders. The head of the figure was well preserved. There was a rimmed helmet with a conical bell, and a brim decorated with diagonal lines was visible. On the regular face there were arched eyebrows preserved, grown together over the straight, slim nose, almond-shaped eyes and lips surrounded by a beard and short, straight moustache. At the sides of the head there were crescent ears. The draftsman carefully market the headdress. The warrior had three interwoven upwards pointing plaits spanning his back. The weave was marked with diagonal lines. The longest and thickest, middle plait was fastened under the helmet, probably decorated with an ornamented fabric, net or ribbons. The caftan or shirt had a collar covered with an ornament of a form of lines. The belt visible at the front side of the figure was plain. According to the state recorded in 1974 the left part of the statue was destroyed below the waist. The stone structure was foliated. Damage in the form of a deep, narrow slot was visible also on the helmet when seen from the right side. In 2006, the statue was so damaged that it was difficult to assign a type to it. The technical condition was very poor, considering not only the soft type of rock, but also activities of vandals. The stone was overgrown with a thick layer of mosses, lichens and sealing patina. The entire surface of the statue was covered with slots, holes and pits caused by the water and microorganisms. From clear and legible elements only the head in the conical, rimmed helmet was preserved along with the upper part of the body. On the face was engraved glasses, eyebrows, eyes, nose and moustache with a sharp, modern tool, damaging deeply the sandstone structure. The right side of the chin was crushed off. Damage caused to weakened elements by the water erosion was as follows: from the left side, at the height of the breast there were oval cracks in the stone structure and a large cavity of the layer down to the belt of the statue. On the left side of the stela, from the helmet down to the shoulder a deep crack could be seen. At the height of the waist, on the same side of the body, there were two similar longitudinal cavities. Probably these were naturally generated. The crack at the top of the head was crushed and caused a significant loss of the material on the right side of the helmet. On the right side of the statue, at the height of the crushed shoulder, erosion had caused another narrow and shallow crack reaching the waist. The back side of the statue, presenting decoration of the helmet rim and the masterly headdress with three decorative plaits, was in a much better condition. After removing the statue, we have found that the clear outline of the belt was persevered. The stela, judging by the proportions of the lower part, belonged to the category of sculptures reaching 2 m of height. Similarly as in previous cases, the stela was endangered by branches of desiccated trees and an infection of microorganisms coming from the shrubs overgrowing it.

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Fig 5.19. The stele “baba 8” in 2006. Before the conservation.

4.5 Baba 9 (292) Masculine stela (inventory number: none), “Standing”, type III(a), entered in the catalogue under number 292. In 1974 its condition was described as follows: “Light-grey, finely-grained sandstone, soft. The surface eroded, hands from forearms crushed off (between hands and the body there was and open space). Masculine. Sitting. Type IIIa. Dimensions: 1.80 x 0.57 x 0.39 m. Helmet I. The lower part was surrounded by a wide embroidery. At the right waist – a knife and a whip (lash)” (Pletneva, 1974a, 85-86). Unfortunately, the illustrator did not document this statue. In 2006 the condition of the statue was as follows: it presented a slender and slim man in a long caftan. The soft sandstone of which it was forged was covered with small holes and grooves caused by erosion. The upper part of the sculpture

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suffered the most from natural destruction. It was covered with whole “lanes” of parallel, shallow grooves caused by the effects of water on the material. The entire statue was overgrown with a thick layer of lichens, efflorescence of algae, sealing patina and visible traces of fungi. The sculpture had its hands crushed off at shoulder height. The fragments preserved from the armpits indicate that originally between the hands and the body there was an open space giving to the already slender silhouette a lean and delicate impression. The strongly and clearly marked head was heavily eroded. Most of details were blurred. The shape of the head indicates that the warrior wore a conical helmet or a hat. His face was oval. Outlines of breastplates and the delicate outline of fingers holding a vessel were preserved. The figure had a modelled paunch. At the height of the caftan the figure was overset with a mortar in which an imitation of joints and the outline of stones were made, referring to the wall being the pedestal of the

Fig 5.20. The stele “baba 9” from the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum in 2006. Before the conservation (cf. Pletneva, 1974a, 85, No 292).

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stela. After removing the concrete, the well-preserved, massive cylindrical legs were revealed, unfortunately without feet. Individualised features, the form of the head and a rely seen openwork indicate the mastery and a specific sense of aesthetics of its creator. The stela was endangered by desiccated branches of trees and contact with plants.

4.6 Baba 10 (286) Masculine stela (inventory number: none), “standing”, type V(a), was entered into the catalogue under the number 286. In 1974 the relic was presented as follows: “Grey, fain-grained sandstone. Surface eroded and crushed off. Masculine. Sitting. Type Va. Dimensions: 1.93 x 0.58 x 0.31 m. Helmet II, plait I. Traces of breastplates and straps III. At the back side the straps were crossed and fixed with a plate. Legs were based on a footrest. The lower part of back I” (Pletneva, 1974a, 85). Unfortunately, the statue was not documented in a drawing. The technical condition of the sculpture in 2006 was poor. The stela, in addition to mechanical damages, had visible defects caused by natural processes. Under the long-term influence of water erosion on the weakened structure of the soft sandstone, it was covered on its entire surface with a specific texture and small holes. Details of the upper part of the stela were blurred. At the back side, there were visible traces of a white, contemporary paint build-up (lime?). The statue presented a once slender masculine silhouette with kept the proportions of the body. The harmonious figure was highlighted with broad shoulders. The warrior was seated on a narrow, rectangular pedestal being at the same time a background for its lower part. He had a broad, round face with a distinctive profile and a conical hat or a helmet on the head. The chin was crushed off on the right side. On the left side an ear was preserved. The brim of the hat was visible as well as hair interwoven into three plaits of the same length, flipped on his back. It is probable that originally he was depicted in a short caftan, tightened at the waist. The left, upper part of the body was covered with diagonal grooves caused by the weaker stone fraction. Two oval breastplates were clear. The sculpture had hands pinched to sides. The left hand from the middle of the shoulder up to the palm was crushed off. There was an open space between the right hand, pinched to the body and crushed off at the elbow, and the body. The opening seemed to be intentional. Below the paunch, there was the clear spout of a vessel. At waist height, in line with the hands holding the vessel, there was a large cavity due the break through of the sculpture into two parts. It was glued with a cement mortar. The damage was clearly visible on the back side of the statue. The shape of the vessel and hand details were irretrievably destroyed.

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In the lower part of the sculpture there are legs with massive thighs. The left was crushed off or grinded. At the right, there was a delamination visible in the form of a deep groove. The warrior wore high riding shoes reaching his knees. Legs were based on a footrest and, thanks to that, the shape of the feet was preserved. The lower part of the sculpture was covered with grooves caused by erosion. Despite damages, the entire silhouette was clearly visible, because the object was embedded into the exhibition wall below the line of feet. The entire surface of the stela, to a various degree, was overgrown with mosses, lichens and algae, for which the thick layer of patina was a nutrient. Plants surrounding the statue constituted a mechanical and microbiological threat.

Fig 5.21. The stele “baba 10” from the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum in 2006. Before the conservation (cf. Pletneva, 1974a, 85, No 286).

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5. Feminine Stelae Intended for Temporary Protection. Conservatory and Archaeological Description 5.1 Baba 11 (296) Feminine stela (inventory number: none), “standing”, type IV, entered in the catalogue under the number 296. In 1974 the relic was described as follows: “Fain-grained shell-stone (limestone). Surface strongly eroded. A hat, legs and hands partially crushed off. The stela was broken at the height of waist and then glued with a cement. Feminine. Standing. Type IV. Dimensions: 1.40 x 0.61 x 0.35 m. Earrings II. Plain bar (hryvnia). Necklace II” (Pletneva, 1974a, 86). Unfortunately, the stela was not documented in a drawing. The stela was sculptured in shell-limestone and seemed to the largely destroyed. In 2006 it was dug into the ground in front of the museum building. The figure was not isolated from the ground, allowing capillarily salts to penetrate its structure and cause significant damage. The vicinity of garden plants contributed to the development of the micro-fauna and micro-flora that had a destructive impact on the object. Due to the porous structure of the shellstone the entire surface was attacked by lichens and mosses, deeply grown into the stone. Plants caused crushing of the headwear. The specific structure of the stone facilitated the process of destruction caused by gathered and frozen water. On the back side of the statue, there were deep cavities. The sculpture depicted woman of a stocky silhouette based on a pedestal in a standing position. Originally, it did not keep the proportions of a body. Its upper part was more massive and larger than the lower part. Her face was round. Facial details and most of the head details were blurred. The chin was crushed off at the right side. In the upper side of the statue, the best preserved item was a necklace with clear, rhomboid pendants, and two triangular breasts. In hands pinched to the body the figure held a cup-shaped vessel. The woman was dressed in a long caftan. Due to the base preserved and a high pedestal, outlines of pole-shaped limbs, short in relation to the rest of the body, were visible. Feet were crushed off. The sculpture was broken, which is proved by damages around the figure at the height of the waist, crushed forearm and cavities over the left forearm. The stela was contemporary stabilised with a cement seal.

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Fig 5.22. The stele “baba 11” from the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum in 2006. Before the conservation (cf. Pletneva, 1974a, 86, No 296).

5.2 Baba 14 (279) Feminine stela (inventory number: none), “standing”, type III(a), entered in the catalogue under number 279. In 1974 the condition of relic was as follows: “Grey, coarse friable sandstone. The surface eroded, half of a head, left elbow crushed off, the stela was broken at waist. Currently it is restored with a cement. Feminine. Standing. Type IIIa. Dimensions: 1.27 x 0.52 x 0.26 m. Two plain bars (hryvnias), twisted bracelets, vessel I. Flaps of the caftan were decorated with a broad border and an embroidery. At the back, there were traces of a scarf III?” (Pletneva, 1974a, 85). Unfortunately, the illustrator did not record the contemporary state of the statue.

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Another very dirty and damaged stela, depicting a standing woman with a vessel. The sculpture was dug into ground in front of the museum building. The upper part of the stela was covered with a dark, thick layer of patina and the surface of the stone was additionally subjected to the devastating activities of lichens, processes of weathering and washout of the weakened stone structure. As a result, it was covered with small holes. The stone structure that sucked from the soil chemical substances underwent further destruction. In addition, the vicinity of plants caused the expansion of microorganisms onto the surface of the object, affecting its technical condition. Originally the figure maintained human proportions. The upper part of the stela once had an expressive face, stocky body and relatively long arms. However, they remained in harmony with the lower part of the statue, on which the long caftan, decorated with plain borders creating vertical folds or pleats, optically elongated the silhouette. The head, together with a hat was heavily damaged. Only an outline of the shape of the face and chin were preserved. The stela was broken in the past into two parts. Details of the back side registered in 1974 were incompetently strengthened with a cement seal covering the head, back and the lower part of pedestal. Probably between 1974 and 2006 the stela was destroyed once again. Fresh cement additions proves this. A large cavity at the waist extended

Fig 5.23. Statues “baba 13” and “baba 14” (after right) from the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum in 2006.

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to below the belly, above it the hands holding the vessel were glued with a sand and cement mortar. The left arm was destroyed at elbow height down to the wrist. Among preserved details, it is only possible to list the bottom the oval vessel and the outline of fingers on the left hand. Bracelets were blurred; only a coarse part on the left wrist could be seen. Legs were pole-shaped. Feet were destroyed. Only the vertical pedestal on which the figure was based was preserved.

6. Masculine Stelae Intended for Temporary Protection. Conservatory and Archaeological Description 6.1 Baba 12 (301) Masculine stela (inventory number: none), “standing”, type III(a), entered in the catalogue under number 301. In 1974 the relic was described as follows: “Finegrained, grey sandstone. The stela has been broken at the waist and restored with a cement. Palms and a vessel have been crushed off. Masculine. Standing. Type IIIa. Dimensions: 1.35 x 0.60 x 0.33 m. Helmet I. Plait II” (Pletneva, 1974a, 86). No drawing. In 2006 the preserved, upper part of the stela was dug into the ground in front of the museum. We do not know in what condition the statue was in 1974, because Pletneva’s description does not make clear whether the restoration “with a cement” included gluing two parts of the figure or strengthening its remaining part. Furthermore, we do not know when it was damaged, whether the statue was brought from an adjacent kurgan in two parts or had broken into two parts contemporarily. Estimating the time of the damage based on visual inspection was not possible due to the cement seal. It has been decided that it would not be removed because to some extent it protected the stone against sucking humidity and limited the activity of chemical substances from the ground. While sorting the area at Graff Avenue a fragment of the lower part of a Polovtsian stela was found. However the analysis of dimensions, raw materials and finally an attempt to match these two parts failed. As a result of further studies it has been established that the lower part of the sculpture came from a sculpture with the catalogue number 303, mentioned by Pletneva in 1974 and which, during the intervening 34 years, was completely destroyed (Pletneva, 1974a, 10). The entire preserved surface of the stela was covered with shallow openings and cracks caused by water erosion and weathering as

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well as cavities caused by mechanical damage. In addition to the layer of patina and dirt, particularly on the head, there was clearly visible a thick coating of lichen. The preserved part of the stela depicted a stocky man with a large, oval face and arms pinched to his body. Details of the face and the upper part of the figure were blurred. A clear rimmed helmet had a semi-circular bell. Outlines of breastplates and headdress details were preserved. The warrior had his hair interwoven into three plaits tied into one. The chin on the left side was crushed off. On the front of the head, at the edge of the hat, there were visible two horizontal cracks, probably contemporary. A horizontal crack at the height of the lips was possibly of the same origin. On the left side of the head, at the height of the rim, water erosion had generated a shallow and narrow crack. The crack extended along the face down to the neck and then into the shoulder and back. The stela, despite damages, was well-preserved. Contact with the ground, from which the stone sucked salts, had a destructive impact on its structure. The vicinity of garden plants contributed to the development of microorganisms with further destructive results.

Fig 5.24. The stele “baba 12” (after right) from the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum in 2006.

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6.2 Baba 13 (300) Masculine stela (inventory number: none), “sitting”, type V(a), entered in the catalogue under number 300. In 1974 the following information about the statue was recorded: “Grey sandstone. A chin and a right-hand elbow are slightly crushed off. Masculine. Sitting. Type Va. Dimensions: 1.70 x 0.60 x 0.35 m. Helmet I, plait I. Traces of straps and breastplates, straps of garters, vessel I. Eyebrow and nose of type I. In some locations there are visible traces of works made with a sharp chisel” (Pletneva, 1974a, 86). The stela was not documented in a drawing. In 2006 its technical condition was poor (see Fig. 5.23., statue after left site). The preserved fragment of the sculpture was covered with a thick, dark layer of harmful patina, dirt and lichens. On the surface, there were visible numerous small cavities, openings and cracks damaging the structure of the statue. Based on preserved proportions of the body it may be assumed that once it depicted a massive, tall man. The warrior had a long body with a distinct belly. Long hands, pinched to the body, were holding a cup-shaped vessel. Neither an outline of palms nor details of the caftan were preserved. However, large and round breastplates were visible. On the back there was a poorly legible outline of plaits. The head with the neck and a part of the statue from the waist downwards has been destroyed. The right hand from the shoulder up to the elbow was crushed off. In the upper part of the right shoulder there were two deep opening. Palms had been eroded. Once, the sculpture was characterised by large dimensions. It could have been of abut 3.00 – 3.50 m of height. It had been dug into the ground in front of the museum, which had a destructive impact on its structure, because the lack of isolation from the ground allowed the penetration of chemicals into it. Furthermore, contact with garden plants posed the threat of transferring destructive microorganisms onto the surface of the stela.

7. State of Preservation and Causes of Damages of Objects from the Conservatory Perspective The collection of the Polovtsian babas exhibited at the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum was characterised by the general poor state of preservation. The initial conservatory aim was to preserve 3 or 4 figures. Ultimately, conservatory treatment was performed on ten stelae embedded into the arranged walls that are parts of the exhibition. Four further stelae, beautifully displayed in the flower bed at the front entrance to the museum building have been subjected to a restricted conservatory treatment. The sculptures exhibited in the described way were constantly exposed to a full spectrum of harmful conditions, contributing to a great extent to their damage.

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Mechanical cavities on the surface of the figures can be divided into several groups. Damage to protruding elements, such as face and hands with a vessel, in some cases suggest an intentional mechanical destruction. It could have also been accidental damage, caused unintentionally, for example during transportation, organising the exhibition or during assembly. There were probably several such assemblies and transportations in the history of these centuries-old objects. The transportation or earlier storage of sculptures in a horizontal position, and in contact with various groundwork, could contribute to larger damages on the front and back sides modelled in accordance with the accepted canon. It also possible that damages were caused only by the adverse impact of atmospheric conditions affecting the stone structure. There are also legible damages and mechanical cavities caused by modern vandals – in the form of drawings and inscriptions scratched on the surface or deeper in the stone structure. Mechanical cavities have also been caused by washing out the weaker or weakened structure of the stone. In such cases it is possible to see the clear system of layers formed primarily along the height and on the sides of the sculpture. Such damages include also openings and “pockets” washed out in the stone block. The last group of mechanical damage was caused by washing out the weaker material on the entire stone surface which created specific textures on a sculpture. Lime putties, despite their historical value, weakened over time, and dirt, dust, soil and overgrowing mosses that could have been seen enlarged the threat of the destruction of objects. Cement putties scar stelae due to the different colour, structure and form than that of the natural raw material. This can be seen especially in the case of primitive concrete reinforcements of the back side. Factors adversely affecting the aesthetics of sculptures include black holes caused by the malicious activity of fungi and other microorganisms. The dark layer of dirt covering the entire surface of the figures additionally increased the negative impression of the poor state of preservation of these objects. The lower parts of the sculptures were the areas worst preserved. Objects once set without isolation on kurgans, and exhibited contemporarily in a similar way, were salined due to the stone sucking water into its capillaries. The impact of such salts on the stone leads primarily to its destruction, due to the crystallisation and increase of the volume of crystals in micro pores. Rainwater and snow accumulated on these objects, freezing in the winters. During other seasons, together with the adjacent steppe and, today, garden or park plants, stelae were exposed to the activities of microorganisms and bacteria, causing their further destruction. The micro-flora living on the stone objects constitutes an ecosystem of microorganisms capable of performing various metabolic processes resulting in destruction not only of the surface, but also sub-surface layers of stone. Water enables chemical, biological and physical devastation. Under the influence of water, stones were destroyed due to dissolving, swelling

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and washing out rock-forming elements. Alternating saturation and drying led to loosening of the stone structure. Water washed out carbon and other materials loosely connected to the rock without dissolving them, causing the surface to became uneven and rough. The consequences of water damage are extensive disintegration and cavities of the stone surface as well as the weakening of the stone structure. Surface cavities occurring on figures have also been caused due to physical and mechanical factors. These include changes of temperature together with the presence of water. The consequences of changing temperatures are particularly harmful, especially when such changes are frequent, sudden and occur in a short period of time with a high amplitude thereof. Fluctuations between warming the stone during the day and cooling it down at night, especially in the steppe climate zone, can be very large and may lead to coagulating tensions between surface layers and the lower ones with a different degree of heat. Then, damages were possibly caused by increasing the volume of the surface layer and changes of these tensions of the stone characterised by a low heat conductivity. When the abovementioned water filling the stone’s capillaries and microcracks freezes, it could also cause cracking of the stone. This phenomena is similar to the process of crystallisation of salts. Most often it occurs on stone with many layers, with cracks running along the layers. The harmful effects of ice also depend on the frequency of changes from water to ice to water. Hence, frequent thaws and frosts may be exceptionally harmful to an object. Water freezing at 0ºC increases its volume by about 9% and then exerts pressure of about 6 kg/cm2. Destructive effects at this temperature are not large, because the ice has plastic properties. Its pressure increases, however, as the temperature decreases, and reaches its maximum value at - 22ºC. The pressure corresponds to the largest increase of volume amounting to 13.2% in relation to the water. The penetration of water into the stone is facilitated by its capillary properties. Water penetrates faster than it evaporates, and dries slower than it is absorbed. In the autumnwinter and winter-spring periods the stone was saturated with water, which facilitated destruction during accompanying temperature fluctuations. The destructive effects of water depend also on the degree of it presence in stone’s pores, their dimensions, shape and the absorptive properties of the stone. Less resistant are stones with a high rate of absorption and a finely-pored structure, because capillaries with small diameters can be completely filled with water. Water, mainly from rainfall, through frequent and long-term effects has caused also swelling and washing out of some rock-forming elements. This applies primarily to components loosely connected inside the stone, such as, for example: lime adhesives. It results in forming openings and cavities on the entire surface of objects, as well as the loss of the original sharpness of certain edges.

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Both the water in the form of rain, snow, hail or frost and groundwater can enter stone through its capillaries and penetrate a considerable distances inside the rock, causing chemical and biological destruction in the process. In such cases, the water alone is not so significant a destructive factor as the salts dissolved in it, and the aggressive gases and dusts present in polluted atmosphere. These include: CO2, SO2, nitrogen oxides, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride, organic compounds and soot. The abovementioned gases generate solutions with water, usually acids, having a destructive impact on the rock-forming minerals causing their corrosion. This destruction usually develops much faster than natural weathering processes (e.g. water hydrolysis, oxidation, activity of weak carbonic acid). The number of new substances in the environment, classified as anthropogenic corrosion factors, contributed to the increase of adverse chemical processes affecting the stelae. Rocks that the objects were made from could also to a minor degree be decomposed under the influence of hydrogen chloride dissolved in water, creating a solution of hydrochloric acid formed like other oxides during combustion of various substances. In addition to layers related to the stone, there were also loose fractions of soil and the dust on the sculptures, especially in cavities on the surfaces. Given the fact that the stelae have been dug into ground for a long time, an important harmful factor was biological. Substantial areas of the stones have been attacked by algae, mosses and bacteria belonging to the group of autotrophic organisms. They occurred in smaller or larger colonies on the entire surface of the objects. The main source of infection was soil together with water. Destruction of sculptures by biological corrosion took place both physically and chemically. A symptom of an infestation by algae was the presence of black spots and streaks in most humid places, holding rain water together with other harmful substances. Fungi, lichens and mosses caused chemical destruction of the stone. This was accompanied by an increase in humidity and formation of spots due to production of organic pigments. The same effect was caused by garden plants, leaves and tree branches. An additional threat was posed by the risk of mechanical damage to stelae during uncontrolled growth of treetops and breaking of desiccated branches.

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Chapter 6 Michał Burzak, Aneta Gołębiowska-Tobiasz

The issue of Preservation and Protection of Monumental Anthropomorphic Stelae in Eastern Europe. Condition of Stelae After Conservation 1. The Issue of Protection of the Monumental Sculpture in Eastern Europe The issue related to the conservation and protection of monumental anthropomorphic sculptures in Eastern Europe is complicated due to the specific political and economic situation, having also consequences for subjects associated with culture and art. In this chapter I will discuss certain aspects related to the status of protection of the anthropomorphic stelae. The lack of any activities aimed at rescuing the anthropomorphic stelae arises from two causes. The first is the complex of issues resulting from a lack of social education, the state of national culture, level of interest and commitment of the scientific society and the condition of the public administration. The latter organization should establish and promote material and spiritual values important for the nation. Its responsibilities include activities related to the broadly understood executive. It possesses legally sanctioned possibilities of protecting and rescuing objects constituting the national heritage. It administers state funds and determines their intended destination. A great obstacle against the smooth operation of executive state authorities is the lack of legal provisions. In the case of the protection of monuments it is important to respect the existing law and its efficient enforcement, even if it is obsolete or imperfectly developed. An important problem for administrative bodies in the case of managing historic objects is the proper disposal of allocated funds. Further causes of the lack of visible protection of monumental sculptures are problems related to the objects themselves. These include material aspects, such as: the condition of an object, large dimensions, and immaterial aspects including consequences of the broken integrity of statues and the loss of public awareness of the function of statues. It arises from historical and ethnographical changes and lack of inheritors of the spiritual culture of the stelae’s creators.

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The effect is the indifferent treatment of relics by the institution and private owners responsible for them but also the way of their exhibition. The abovementioned processes are related to most of categories of relics and are a universal problem also in other areas of the world. The lack of historical and cultural continuity in the tradition of erecting stone stelae, a consequence of the unification of the spiritual and cultural spheres within the environment of the Polovtsian’s descendants around the 15th century, left cult-sacrifice complexes without care and proper attention by local societies. Historical sources record that in areas where Tatars camped, the places where stelae had been located aroused their respect (Daszkiewicz, Tryjarski, 1982, 66). They have not been destroyed, but also they have not been cared for. The influx of Slavic settlers to the steppe area caused by the territorial expansion of Poland in the 16th century and then a period of intense colonisation conducted by Russia in the 18th century caused massive destruction of places dedicated to the “foreign” worship and objects associated with it. The process continued for the following centuries. After the middle of the 20th century, the number of monuments was reduced to a drastic extent, which was caused also by the extremely fierce fighting of World War II in these areas. The establishment of research during the post-war period contributed to drawing the attention of the scientific community to the pressing issue of preservation of archaeological sites and relics. In Eastern Europe during the 1970s and 1980s, there was a tendency to create local museum institutions (usually regional), collecting monuments that resulted from archaeological research conducted a decade earlier during the intense reconstruction of the country in accordance with the socialistic spirit accompanied by large investments. At that time many stelae were brought from construction sites or from sites where they were still preserved. Unfortunately, most of objects acquired in collections at that time had no detailed data in museum notes, including any information about the place where they had been found and the context of their discovery. The lack of knowledge about stelae and their cultural significance, despite the efforts of charismatic scientists such as G. A. Fedorov-Davidov or S. A. Pletneva, caused anthropomorphic stelae to be treated until today in a secondary manner, as objects not belonging directly to the culture and heritage of contemporary states. Such relics remain outside the mainstream interest of both scientific and local communities. Relics of monumental art belong to the category of objects that become victims of contemporary vandals caused by a human carelessness and stupidity. This results from the carelessness of people responsible for the supervision of the monuments (museums, administration and private owners). Often their condition has been further degraded by incompetently performed “repair” actions or improper ideas concerning their “preservation”. For several years, a museum in a large Ukrainian city appealed through the media to the state authorities for financial funds for the construction of a glass dome over the

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largest collection of anthropomorphic stelae in the world. The idea was utopian not only due to the condition of the state budget and the amount requested, but also the senselessness of the concept itself. Apart from the technical and architectural issues, none of the organisers thought that isolating stelae by sheltering them would reduce the progressive degradation of the statues. Their many years of exposure to the open air, subjecting them to an atmosphere that had been highly poisoned by the industrial facilities that were numerous in that city and its neighbourhood, resulted in the clear weakening of the stone structure on most of the exhibits. No one thought that with much smaller amounts of money and effort, based on the international cooperation that was already possible at that time, it would be possible to commence the conservation of stelae instead of waiting when the entire collection would “break up” taking its status literally. No one thought that for each stela it would have been possible to make a wooden construction that would protect it from the autumn and winter weather. These actions could have been taken successively, through many years, and with funds at the disposal of the museum. This example demonstrates the helplessness and lack of creativity of people who, due to their profession, are obliged to preserve monuments and undertake actions associated with their protection. The situation took place in a large city of status. It does not require great imagination to understand what happens in provincial institutions. The political and economic changes in Eastern Europe caused the emergence of a new social class with access to large financial resources. Some of its representatives, looking for a noble hobby, engaged themselves in purchasing and collecting certain types of monuments of the so called “antiquity”. Private owners protect their collections without justification, afraid of revealing sources of origins. They are not willing to cooperate with archaeologists and do not allow for their relics to be documented. It is impossible to assess how many objects remain outside the “scientific circle” as a result. Paradoxically, the lack of access of the general public to these exemplars contributes to their safety, because they are not exposed to vandalism. Unfortunately the passion of collectors has also negative aspects. These include the lack of professional care and low awareness of collectors themselves of hazards affecting the condition of statues exhibited in badly selected places. It would be good if, in the near future, exemplars from private collections were made available to professionals in order to be documented, and the specific contribution of private owners were the patronage associated with the professional conservation and appropriate exhibition of statues, protecting them from further destruction. It would be possible then to acquire them for the scientific world and, above all, rescue them from destruction. Scientific publications, historical and contemporary, written by archaeologists and historians analysing the monumental sculptures of the Polovtsians, have

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been described in chapter II. New findings of stelae are usually published as short articles, notes in reports or laconic information in works dedicated to studies on cultural complexes, individual kurgans or temple establishments. Sometimes, the researchers attach a schematic drawing of a sculpture. Photographs of a finding are rarely included. Many individual statues is not documented nor published at all. Rarely they are intended for exhibition. Usually, they are deposited in an archive or museum lapidarium. They are often left close to walls of museums or local authority buildings, hoping that no one will steal them. Sometimes, statues are placed within museum premises, without care for their proper protection or display. Some collections, presented in the open air, also have never been published, although they are an excellent material for a monograph with an extensive photographic catalogue. Information about individual exemplars of stelae, as well as about entire collections, could have been included in scientific exchanges, if it were not a problem to obtain permission for publications. Persons responsible for managing the scientific facilities, authors of archaeological or ethnographic research, who are not interested in them, evade publishing such material. Further problems arise from obtaining permission for documenting from private owners, reluctant to disclose the sources of their relics. The above specified obstacles arise also from a lack of awareness of how precious this group of relics is for the cultural heritage of Europe. This problem is perceived by local representatives of the younger generation or foreigners who participate in research or field and museum queries. Their enthusiasm, however, is quickly overcome by a lack of willingness to cooperate and the passivity of authorities of local museums, landscape parks or local administrative structures, which are responsible for monumental sculptures (not only mediaeval), even when people interested in saving and documenting them posses funds for executing the abovementioned measures (e.g. full documentation, preservation, etc.). The authors, preparing themselves for the execution of conservatory operations at the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum, have personally experienced the strength of determination necessary to accomplish previously established plans, starting from the formal organisation of the expedition, through the purchase, transport or rental the simplest equipment and chemicals, to the on-site completion of conservatory activities. However, one should not be discouraged by the indifference, passivity, lack of understating or malicious acts initially experienced, but should patiently explain the purpose of the project and continue works despite obstacles arising first of all from the lack of awareness and education of others. To make such actions possible, the help of local people, whose motivation and interest can be targeted at involvement in the international cooperation, is necessary. You may also try to initiate a group of workers from the nearest museum, making them aware that the art of stelae is a phenomenon of importance on both a European and a global scale, and that the issue of preserving them opens possibilities for wide scientific contact with foreign institutions.

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2. Problems Related to the Protection, Exhibition and Preservation of Anthropomorphic Stelae Figures made of stone monoliths, boulders or stones crumbled from deposits, characterised by solid dimensions, in terms of both weight and volume. The specificity and awareness of the material and tool capacities forced adjustments in the technique of processing the raw material to create a dense and massive body. Depending on the level of competencies and technical capacities of creators, more or less synthetic or more subtle stelae with individualised anatomical features have been created. The technique of assembly – embedding in the ground – included in the body, in addition to the human representation, also a lower, unprocessed part of the stone. The notable robustness and resistance of the material, in addition to logistic problems, allowed some of the objects to resist centuries of erosion and survive to modern times. The ideal scenario involves leaving the sculptures in situ, in connection with a complex, multidisciplinary research programme and integrated physical, conservatory and engineering protection, as well as the monitoring of the entire kurgan establishment. In the absence of sufficient financial resources, a compromise solution would be the protection and monitoring of the kurgan establishment itself, and transport of the statues to the nearest museum followed by geodetic, archaeological and conservatory inventory, photographic and descriptive documentation. Transport is, in many cases, a cause of destructions to historic objects. During transportation of sculptures the exercise of great caution is required, taking into account their large dimensions and weight. A sculpture should be immobilised, placed in a horizontal position on its back side. It should be protected with soft pads. It can be also wrapped with a thick blanket, isolating it earlier from the ground with a thick sponge or polystyrene. Having more time for preparations, it is possible to create a negative sarcophagus or develop other, efficient solutions fixing the object in place. The stabilisation of stelae during transportation can be strengthened with some form of shuttering made of boards or wooden beams, using tapes or tension rubbers, etc. It is important that security measures are placed under the entire surface of the object! Protruding elements should be treated with particular caution (hats, shoulders, hem of caftan, all edges and protruding elements). The entire process of integrating an object into a museum collection should be overseen by a conscientious museum employee, archaeologist or conservator cooperating with a team of museum employees or having contacts with local administrative, cultural and educational authorities. This cooperation is important at each stage of the inventory, conservation and exhibition of a relic, starting with well-documented excavation from the ground, through thoughtful,

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professionally designed and constructed elements intended for loading and reloading an object, its preservation and stabilisation during transport, through conservation, up to the creation of an exhibition with extended didactic and educational functions. The method of exhibition can be a problematic stage. Stone babas as three-dimensional objects, from the very beginning intended for exhibition in the open air, and should be exhibited with additional space provided. Due to their age, they should be protected from extreme weather conditions. The ideal place of exhibition would be a courtyard covered with a glass roof, in which it would be possible to create a kurgan together with a reconstruction of a cult-sacrifice place. Then, an isolated figure would be set into such prepared background using the original embedding technique. In addition to historical and aesthetical values, this would solve an important issue regarding the redundancy of the technical lower element of the statue. We know cases in which the unadorned lower part, originally intended for stabilising an anthropomorphic stela in the ground, has been crushed or broken off. These sections are often seen to be problematic and irrelevant in museum displays. When there is no lower part, it is important to remember that a statue needs to be exhibited in a vertical position. Therefore, having in mind guidelines for conservation, it is necessary to design an appropriate, non-invasive frame or stabilising “foot” for an object, but not one connected to it permanently. It would serve to hold a body of sculpture as a holdfast and an ideal, negative fit. Such construction can be easily covered during the exhibition process, safe for both exhibited object and viewers. The design and implementation of the stabilising construction should be made in cooperation with a conservationist and an artist or designer with engineering competences. A preserved object should be isolated from the ground. At the final exhibition place, isolation should be made in order to prevent water being sucked into capillaries from the ground. In the case of exhibition on a metal frame, it is required to secure the ground from excessive humidity so as not to expose it to corrosion. When an object is already in a permanent collection, it should be regularly cared for. An object should be swept with soft-bristled brushes or dusted off, in order to remove loose layers (dust, leaves). In the case of deposited dir, a sculpture should be rinsed with water (possibly with an appropriate amount of biodegradable detergent), using “soft” brushes and brooms. Improper use of a water stream can lead to serious mechanical damage of a sculpture! Any cleaning should be made under stable temperature conditions allowing the sculpture to dry easily. Any permanent stains or spills should be removed only by a conservator of art. This is also important during implementation of other possible conservatory measures (e.g. re-hydrophobisation of a sculpture). A statue should be protected from growing plants. Greenery should not come into contact with the surface of an object, nor should the area around an exhibit become overgown.

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It is recommended to extend conservatory surveillance and to perform preventative research in order to check and assess the preservation status of sculptures. Any innervations and initiatives of people, either those professionally associated with museum activities or otherwise, and any issues of protection and conservation of relics associated with a method of exhibition or protection of an object should aim above all at the well-being and safety of a monument.

3. Condition of Sculptures from the Collection of the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum After the Technical Preservation in 2008 Originally, the preservation of stelae from the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum planned to undertake a full spectrum of measures on 3 sculptures. The aim was the technical and preservative conservation focused on cleaning statues, removing secondary layers and stopping destructive processes. The basic conservatory assumption was to stop processes of degradation of the sculptures, caused by environmental factors and destructive activities of people, and improving the aesthetics of the statues’ exhibition. The schedule of works was considered in detail for each object individually. The general outline included: 1. removal of loose layers with soft brushes, 2. cleaning the surface from dirt with: water, water and detergent, steam, water under controlled and regulated pressure, 3. removal of secondary harmful layers, 4. removal of sealing patina chemical or mechanical, 5. desalination, 6. disinfection, 7. injections of cracks, 8. filling cavities that threaten the sculpture’s structure, 9. possible color unification of putties, 10. possible reinforcing impregnation, 11. possible hydrofobing impregnation. In reality, the programme was extended to include: 1. control of the greenery overgrowing the nearest area, 2. execution of preventive draining channels in the vicinity of the exhibition, 3. change of the exhibition structure – partial dismantling of a wall, 4. wider preventive reconstruction, including aesthetic reconstruction. All measures undertaken on objects were preceded with careful visual inspections and debate, allowing for the selection of optimal conservatory methods and measures. We took a decision to perform the technical

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conservation and restricted reconstruction of ten embedded statues (“babas” 1 – 10), including extensive aesthetic restoration in one case where the head of a stela was missing (indicated as “baba 7”) and stopping destructive processes to four exemplars (“babas 11 – 14”) located in front of the museum. The work was divided into stages. Photographic and descriptive documentation was developed. This was followed by technical treatment in the nearest vicinity of statues. The first activity done by conservators and some archaeologists was cleaning the area, cutting branches that endangered the safety of statues and digging drainage grooves through which rain water was drained away from the base of the wall. In a pile of dead plants near the exhibited stelae, we found a broken sculpture (“baba 25”) that was given to the museum in Donetsk (see: Fig. 5.2, 5.3). It had been laying there probably for 30 years. The next stage was the conservation: 1. The first step after preparing photographic documentation of the condition of sculptures, before taking conservatory measures, was to clean loose layers from objects. Using brushes and brooms with various softness of bristles (natural or artificial), we delicately removed parts of the microflora, insects, dust, soil, cobwebs and all other redundant elements not integrally connected to an object. 2. Then, also with brushes and brooms, we removed layers by rinsing them with water or water and a little bit of detergent.

Fig. 6.1. Programme of conservatory measures in 2008: cleaning the surface from dirt with water and detergent.

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After detecting the great resiliance and good condition of the stone in most of cases, the objects were rinsed with water under pressure, controlling the pressure and the distance of the nozzle from an object, using the Kärcher pressure washer. 3. The adverse layers included: a. decomposed seals made of a cement mortar inconsistent in terms of form, structure and colour, in some places covering large areas – the visible effects of unprofessional repairs, b. splashes of oil paint other than inventory marks, c. traces of renovation from previous locations, or acts of vandalism. The secondary layers were removed, leaving those that could not beyond doubt be dated as contemporary. 4. Removing the sealing patina was restricted to activities performed during the standard cleaning procedure, therefore it was possible to remove it only to a limited extent. Unfortunately, full removal of the patina was impossible due to the inability to import chemical substances through the border of the Schengen Area and lack of possibility to purchase them on site. 5. The desalination planned through the method of migration of salt to the extended environment was restricted due to several reasons: a. The problem does not apply to stones with the crystal-like structure such as granites, tonalites, etc. due to their limited absorptivity, or applies to a negligible extent. Two stelae have been eliminated because of this (“baba 3” and “6”). b. Practical considerations – possessed supplies of chemical substances were treated as a sample. The amount was intended to show a trainee Ukrainian conservator and Polish students the conservation of relics. Additional purchases were not possible. Supplies ran out quickly. c. Logistical considerations – the purchase of lignin was impossible. In Ukraine this material is not intended for sale. The compresses applied did not show significant efflorescence. Salts contained within the stone, at least close to the surface, were washed out by rainwater. After initial attempts, the desalination was treated prophylactically. This was aimed at dissolving and rinsing salts tied to the subsurface stone structure. 6. Due to the harmful activity of microorganisms, we resumed the disinfection of the stone surface with a solution of Preventol ON in ethanol. To improve the efficiency of the treatment, after the application of the substance the sculptures were wrapped in a foil for 24 hours, in order to create a kind of disinfection chamber.

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Fig. 6.2. Programme of conservatory measures in 2008: after removal of wall, sealing patina and secondary harmful layers and after desalination.

Fig. 6.3. Programme of conservatory measures in 2008: disinfection.

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The importation of spirits or denatured alcohol for the preparation of the biocide formulation seemed to be pointless. However, it turned out that in Ukraine the availability of technical alcohol is very restricted. The solution was made by purchasing moonshine of a good quality brewed by local producers. 7. Cracks and pockets caused by leaching of less coherent sedimentation layers were injected with the formulation Winacet DP 50/00.

Fig. 6.4. Programme of conservatory measures in 2008: injections of cracks.

8. Secondary holes used to fasten statues with metal bolts to walls were isolated. Surfaces of deep, contemporary incisions caused by vandalism were aligned. To fill damages on some sculptures we applied Remmers Restauriermortel mineral putty which we had brought designed for historic objects. Also a sand and lime mortar was made on site with the addition of white cement. The colour of putties and mortar was modified with natural pigments. Filling masses were applied depending on the area subjected to works in layers with a thickness of 2-3 cm. In places of smaller additions, the mortar was prepared based on the seed formulation Aida Haftfest. After binding the additions were processed with carefully selected masonry tools. 9. The unification of colours, treated as a preventive measure, where we observed colour discrepancies in the stone context has not been applied fully.

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Fig. 6.5. Programme of conservatory measures in 2008: filling cavities that threaten the sculpture structure.

Fig. 6.6. Programme of conservatory measures in 2008: color unification of putties.

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This was part of the original, abandoned assumption that only three selected objects would be subjected to preservation. The desire to save as many stelae as possible, the lack of pigments and their restricted range forced conservators to treat putties in several cases in terms of value rather than colour. After the reconstruction of the head of the “baba 7” we abandoned unified colouring in order to purposely highlight the secondary character of the element. 10. One of the last technical measures executed on objects was impregnation of the stone with the formulation Remmers Steinfestiger 300. Its aim was to strengthen the stone structure. Due to the specificity of the formulation causing strengthening of the stone through precipitation of a silica binder inside pores, and thus reducing its absorptive properties, more porous kinds of stone were strengthened with it. Due to the restricted amount and technological requirements (Steinfestiger in good conditions binds within 3 weeks) impregnates were used interchangeably. Some sculptures were subjected to strengthening and some to hydrofobing impregnation.

Fig. 6.7. Reconstruction of the upper part of the stele “baba 7” – side view – after the conservation.

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11. The hydrofobing impregnation with the formulation Funcosil Sl was executed on some statues carved from less porous kinds of stone. Works were subjected to regular photographical documentation both during their execution and after completion.

3.1 Feminine Stelae on the Exhibition Wall 3.1.1 Baba 1 (304) After cleaning the statue it appeared that is had been carved in fine-grained, light grey and beige sandstone. The metrical data were as follows: maximum height from the footrest was 1.73 m, preserved maximum height at the front side of the stela is 1.88 m. The maximum width of the sculpture at the shoulder height is 0.61 m, at the height of the lower part of caftan – 0.60 m. The maximum side width at the waist height is 0.35 m, at the head height – 0.28 m and at the shoulders height – 0.32m. After the preliminary works conducted around the sculpture and developing the photographical documentation, we commenced cleaning. After removing

Fig. 6.8. The stele “baba 1” during the conservation.

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lichens and other microorganisms we removed secondary layers, revealing a clearer figure. During the execution of technical conservation, due to the general good condition of the sculpture, there was no need to close holes caused by natural effects of atmospheric factors. On the surface of the statue there were no cavities or cracks that could be a danger for the structure in the case of water crystallisation. Small cracks and holes visible in the sandstone highlighted the nature of the stone. We took a decision not to reconstruct hands due to a fear of excessive interpretation. The lack of possibility to date drawings and inscriptions carved on the stone led to the decision to leave them on the stela temporarily. The preserved high square pedestal, embedded into the wall structure, saved the lower part of the statue from being embeded. The sculpture was disinfected and hydrofobised. After the conservation, preserved details became clear. “Horns” surrounding the face became clear as well as the high collar and a bar (hryvnia) on a slender neck. The shape of the right, semi-circular breast was highlighted, and the outline of the left one became clearer. Cleaning of the statue meant that the figure exhibited in the open air became lighter, despite the fact that it was characterised by slenderness given to it by the hand of the sculptor. The technical conservation revealed details previously unclear. At the left side, under the forearm there are two straps visible on which oval and triangular objects were

Fig. 6.9. The stele “baba 1” in July 2008 after the conservation.

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suspended, possibly purses. On the edge of the caftan at sides it is possible to see a pattern of a border, carefully developed with a narrow edged chisel into a dense grid. Legs and feet on a footrest were perfectly preserved. The woman was depicted in high riding shoes with edges decorated with a triple piping: plain, divided with a broader and decorated with diagonal lines. Uppers were also decorated with figural cuts from both the outside and inside.

3.1.2 Baba 2 (302) During the first stage of conservation, after removal of the thick layer of mosses and lichens and cleaning off remaining secondary layers we determined the raw material from which the statue was carved. It is light grey sandstone with a finegrained structure. Dimensions of the stela are as follows: maximum height at the front side is 1.71 m. The maximum width at the shoulder height is 0.54 m and the waist height at 0.51 m. The maximum side width at the waist height is 0.26 m, at the breast height – 0.27 m. The sculpture had been broken into two parts at the waist. We took a decision to remove the decomposed cement and sand mortar. Damage to the hands were supplemented at the elbow height, on lower abdomen and back, filling them with lime and sand mass with the addition

Fig. 6.10. The stele “baba 2” during the conservation.

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of white cement. Next it was coloured with a pigment of a colour close to the natural colour of the rock. Also the hole at the left side of the head was closed and coloured. The colour tone should be improved at the earliest opportunity to make it more uniform with the existing stone. After removing the wall it appeared that the lower part of caftan had been preserved with a visible plain edge as well as lower limbs. Legs ended with crushed off feet. However, the footrest was not preserved. We decided that damages at the bottom of the hat, on the chin and crushed off feet do not interfere with the general aesthetics of the sculpture, thus they would not be subjected to reconstruction attempts. In addition, being a testimony of the fate of the statu, they enrich its historical value. The preservation condition of the stela, despite mechanical damages, was relatively good. The sculpture was disinfected and at the last stage of works it was also hydrofobised. After revealing its limbs, and despite its solidity, the feminine stela gives the impression of slenderness. Unfortunately, over the last 34 years facial details and chains connecting earrings with the band were irreversibly lost. Subtly processed crescent ears decorated with massive earrings were preserved. The band pulled down to the forehead became clear, but its decorative elements were blurred. The headgear, including the hat with a brim pulled down to the forehead and upturned at the occiput gained more clarity, as did “horns” arranged from diagonal bands reflecting metal plates and a scarf trimmed with a plain, wide border.

Fig. 6.11. The stele “baba 2” in July 2008 after the conservation.

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The neck of the figure was surrounded with a bar (hryvnia). The woman was dressed in a long caftan with lower edges decorated with a plain, narrow border. Under the neck the cut of the caftan is clearly visible. Through this small detail, the sculptor gave to the statue an optical lightness in addition to the massive upper part of the sculpture. Furthermore, the naturally striped stone structure in the upper part of the stela was coherent with sculptural details, strengthening the impression of slenderness of the silhouette. On the statue, there is also an outline of large, oval breasts over a large belly. Conservatory measures revealed beautifully preserved small palms decorated at the wrists with cylindrical bracelets. The figure held in its hands a pot with a wide foot, distended convex shape and massive, upturned spout. Under the left forearm the outline of an additional oval object, probably a mirror or a purse, became visible.

3.1.3 Baba 3 (290) After removing the micro-flora and loose layers, the structure and original colour of the raw material was revealed. The statue was sculpted from coarse, light grey granite. Pletneva erroneously described the stone as sandstone, but in the light of difficult conditions and rush in which the researcher collected information, some mistakes could have happened. The data after the conservation were as follows: the maximum height at the back side down to the level, where it was dug into the ground, revealed after excavating the wall, is 1.76 m. The maximum width at the shoulder height is 0.51 m, at the hips width – 0.50 m. The maximum side width at the waist height is 0.32 m, at the head height – 0.30 m. The statue was mounted into the wall from the waist downwards in such a way that it appeared easier to reveal its back side. The conservation measures included removal of the wall at the back side of the sculpture but, due to its dimensions, we decided not to excavate the wall at the front side, because it would have destabilised the statues. It appeared that the lower part of the back side is well preserved. It was not decorated, however was carefully developed. It could be a pedestal on which the silhouette of a woman was based or was seated. The damages to the back side of the statue were not as extensive as is marked on the drawing of 1974. Unfortunately, the issue of categorising the statue was not definitively solved. The stela can be classified as both standing and sitting. If in future some measures are taken to relocate the statues inside the building after its previous stabilisation, then it will be possible to definitely determine its typological affiliation. The stela had been broken. Someone tried to repair it by “gluing” with a sand and cement mortar at the entire width of the waist. The fracture caused the destruction of the entire left forearm together with the palm and elbow of the right hand. It was partially reconstructed in the sand and lime mortar. The damage around it was filled with a concrete during

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Fig. 6.12. The stele “baba 3” during the conservation.

Fig. 6.13. The stele “baba 3” in July 2008 after the conservation.

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the historic repair of the object. In places of decomposition, cavities were filled with a lime and stone mortar with some addition of white cement. After drying, these fillings were stained. The crack in the stone structure visible along the right shoulder was injected with filling. The technical condition of the stone, despite damages resulting from breaking the statue into two parts, was good. During further stages of conservation it was disinfected, and after completion of works it was hydrophobised. Details of the headdress, facial features, decoration of ears and neck, and attire registered in 1974 and 2006 were well preserved and have not been blurred. After the conservation measures, the necklace with pendants of a rhomboid shape and a couple of cylindrical “horns” highly pinned up above the temples became clear. The hat was not reconstructed, because the cavity did not impair the aesthetics of the statues. After cleaning and additions the stela acquired the impression of slenderness, despite its massiveness and dimensions. The impression was additionally highlighted with masterly sculptured details and the natural texture of the granite surface. The stone has delicate, shallow vertical grooves over the entire surface.

3.1.4 Baba 7 (298) After cleaning it appeared that the stela was curved of a fain-grained, light beige and grey sandstone. The maximum height recorded is 1.12 m from the pedestal at the front side and 1.33 m at the back side (without reconstruction of the head). The maximum width at the shoulders height is 0.48 m. The maximum side width at the height of vessel is 0.31 m. The removal of the wall did not bring anything new to the information in addition to the good technical condition of the lower, front side. A reconstruction was made of the head, neck and shoulders, restoring the clear shape to the figure. In addition to its aesthetic factors, the reconstruction was favoured by technical regards. In the upper part of the sculpture, during its historical repair, a metal bolt was embedded on which previously the head had been placed. The removal of this element would involve the destruction of the raw material of the sculpture, while leaving the bolt would expose the body to tensions resulting from changes of temperature. In the long term perspective it would lead to further tensions arising during corrosive processes of the metal and changes of colour resulting from absorption of corrosion products into the stone structure. The original conservation plans did not include the conservation of metal during works. Due to the lack of availability of corrosion inhibitors, after cleaning the metal, it was preserved with an acrylic resin Paraloid B-72 and then covered with a layer of oil paint. After drying of protective layers, the gradual addition of layers of sand and lime mortar,

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Fig. 6.14. The stele “baba 7” in July 2008 after the conservation.

including some addition of white cement, was commenced. For technological reasons, the reconstruction process together with regular moisturising of the mortar took several days. Due to preserved proportions and the type of the raw material we decided to reconstruct the outline of a silhouette of the subtype II. Its colour was adjusted to the stone structure to highlight the border between the original sculpture and the areas of reconstruction. Next, the cavities in the upper part of the body were filled. Cracks resulting from processing with sharp tools were made shallow. At the back side, at its lower part a white layer was revealed – probably blanching of secondary limes. During the 2008 season it was not possible to completely remove the harmful patina penetrating the structure and dark discolouration caused by harmful

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Fig. 6.15. The lower section of the stele “baba 7” – state after the conservation.

activities of microorganisms. The discolouration penetrated the stone structure deeply. Individual cracks and scratches were injected. Single cavities and cracks, where water would accumulate, were closed. The sculpture was disinfected and subjected to strengthening impregnations. Probably it is a feminine stela. Due to the degree of damage it is difficult to unambiguously classify it as sitting. It could belong both to the standing and half-sitting categories. Judging by preserved details of the lower part of the body, it is difficult nowadays to determine whether it was dressed in a long caftan or galligaskins. It depicted a slender, shapely, probably young figure. A weak outline of breasts was preserved. A cup-shaped vessel with an upturned spout and trapezoid bottom, held in hands originally pinned to sides of the body, is clearly visible. The best preserved details are hands. Slender, subtle, exquisitely processed fingers of the right hand as well as the entire left palm, pressing the gentle vessel to the body, were preserved.

3.2 Masculine Stelae on the Exhibition Wall 3.2.1 Baba 4 (293) After removing surface layers, comprising lichens, algae and loose dirt, the original colour the sculpture’s stone material has been revealed.

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Fig. 6.16. The stele “baba 4” during the conservation.

The statues were carved from a fain-grained, light grey and yellow sandstone. The maximum height at the front side of the statue is 1.43 m, at the back side – 1.42 m. The maximum width at the shoulder height is 0.51 m, at the waist height – 0.57 m. The maximum side width at the vessel height is 0.23 m, at the sternum height 0.25 m. After dismantling the wall, the lower part of the sculpture with preserved limbs and long caftan was revealed. Pole-like, short legs formed a disparity in relation to the shape of the body. Feet have not been preserved, however their shape and length in relation to the rest of the body would not have changed the impression of disparity. Despite this, the operation contributed to the optical slendering of the entire silhouette of the warrior.

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Fig. 6.17. Programme of conservatory measures in 2008: removal of the wall.

It was decided to close the largest cavities at the height of the right arm at the front side of the statue. Using the lime and sand mortar with some addition of a white cement, smaller holes and cracks on the external edge of shoulders and under forearms, on the body and in the lower part of the statue were also filled. Cracks on the right side along the shoulder and body were filled. At the back side of the stela, the stone damaged in the past due to natural conditions had delaminated on the entire width of the sculpture from the waist downwards. On the right side of the stela, along the shoulder and body there were longitudinal, deep grooves and emerging new cracks visible in the stone structure. Cavities in the back side of the sculpture were not refilled, however injections were made. Then, cracks and gaps were closed with lime and sand mortar so as to protect the stone from further fast crushing until it could be relocated to the interior of the museum. Due to the unusual colour of the sandstone and limited range of pigments at the disposal of conservators, fillings were not stained. The colour unification of putties should be completed as soon as possible. Cavities on the chin and feet were not reconstructed, because these activities would not affect the general aesthetics of the stela and the damages are associated with its history.

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The most important stages of works were disinfection of the sculpture and, in this case, particularly the injection of cracks and gaps complemented with the filling of grooves and delamination. These activities preserved the statue against increased destruction. After the mortar had bonded, the statue was impregnated and reinforced. After the conservation, aesthetic details of the stela became clearer. Eyebrows and nose in the shape of letter “T”, ears, rim of a helmet and above all the intricate headdress acquired clearness. As a result of conservation measures performed, a small vessel of an oval shape and cylindrical spout is more visible. Palms were not preserved, however judging by the proportions of arms and the vessel shape, they were small or were not highlighted at all.

Fig. 6.18. The stele “baba 4” in July 2008 after the conservation.

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3.2.2 Baba 5 (295) Restoration treatments made in 2008 revealed the raw material of which the statue had been made. It was fine-grained, light grey and beige sandstone. The preserved maximum height after the conservation is: at the back side of the statue – 1.78 m., at the front side of the statue from the revealed base – 1.62 m.; the maximum width at the height of flaps of the caftan – 0.50 m. The maximum preserved side width at the height of palms holding the vessel – 0.40 m. After partial dismantling of the wall it appeared that legs were preserved. Unfortunately their technical condition was poor. At the left leg there was a high riding shoe visible. This measure allowed, however, for the exhibition of the entire silhouette. Unveiling the lower part of the sculpture restored proportions and gave slenderness to the statue.

Fig. 6.19. The stele “baba 5” during the conservation.

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After cleaning, the decision was made during conservation to close large delaminations at the sculpture surface. Above all, the deep “pocket” at the right elbow, larger holes on the body, cracks and a large piece of scaling stone visible from the bottom of the vessel up to the edge of the caftan were protected from further damages. They posed a threat to the statue in cases of ice crystallisation. In linear cavities with sharp edges, such as delamination of flaps of the caftan, bands made of mortar were applied. Smaller cavities and cracks as well as gentle blurrings visible in the body structure, not contributing to the further rapid destruction of the stone, were left to underline the natural character of the raw material. It was decided to leave the back side of the head blurred, together with the headdress, due to the low visibility of the original form and fear of “over-interpretation” of the possible, even partial reconstruction. We also decided to leave smaller cracks and gaps as well as delicate blurrings

Fig. 6.20. The stele “baba 5” in July 2008 after the conservation.

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visible in the structure, to highlight the natural appearance of the stone. The preservation measures were performed with a view to reverse the process of preventive reconstruction in case of undertaking a decision concerning the future fate of the statue (e.g. about the full aesthetic renovation of the statue and placing it indoors, return to the actual status during further conservation activities, etc.). In 2008 we did not manage to remove the patina and dark stains penetrating the structure resulting from the adverse operations of microorganisms. Cracks and scratches were injected. Individual caverns and cracks, where water would have accumulated, were closed with mortar. The sculpture was disinfected and impregnated and reinforced. During the conservation, preserved details became clear. After cleaning the face, the blurred outline of a nose on an oval, stout and flat face were unveiled. The face had picturesque features. The nose originally had the shape of an elongated, slender trapezoid connected at the base with eyebrows in the form of the letter “T”. Nowadays a fragment of its lower part was preserved. Clearly visible were massive zygomatic bones. Pinnas were poorly visible, strongly blurred just like the other details of the head. The man had a hat on his head resembling a helmet or a cap. The back side of the head was crushed off and nowadays it is difficult to restore its original status. Due to atmospheric conditions the headdress was strongly eroded. The warrior was dressed in a ceremonial caftan of which a decoration in the form of a wide border at the lower edge was preserved. Unfortunately, decorative motifs of the attire captured by the draftsman in 1974 have since been irreversibly lost. The right forearm and palms were blurred. At the caftan an outline of round breastplates was preserved. The hands of the warrior were pinned to the sides, and in his hands the man held a cup-shaped vessel with a poorly preserved, upturned spout and bottom with a diameter greater than the edge. At the belt strap a weapon and utensils hung. These were: at the left side a bow in a bow-quiver and a saber inside a wide scabbard, and at the right side a purse of trapezoid shape trimmed with a wide, plain border rounded in the place where it was hung and a quiver decorated with pads at the edges. In the quiver there were three arrows with tips directed upwards. Arrows were equipped with rhomboid tips. The back side of the statue depicted neatly developed shoulders pinned to the sides and the lower part of a caftan and a pedestal on which the figure was based.

3.2.3 Baba 6 (297) The layer of dirt and lichens was removed, unveiling the silhouette of the figure and notably improving receptionist aesthetic appearance.

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Fig. 6.21. The stele “baba 6” during the conservation.

After cleaning, the texture of the raw material was revealed. The statue was made of a coarse-grained pink and beige granite or tonalite. The exact type of stone will be established by a petrologist. The maximum preserved height at the front side to the unveiled base is 1.23 m, at the back side to the base of the pedestal – 1.32 m. The maximum width measured at the height of back is 0.56 m, the measure at the waist height indicated the same value (0.56 m). The side width at the height of the yoke is 0.32 m, at the vessel height – 0.30 m. Although the warrior was carved in a resistant rock type, it had surrendered to influences of natural and mechanical factors. In addition to the clearly marked shape of the head in relation to drawings documenting the condition of 1974, the stela was characterised by a small number of clear details.

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After dismantling the wall it appeared that in the lower part of the sculpture blurred palms holding the vessel are visible. Legs were marked in a schematic form. Massive thighs registered by the illustrator in 1974 were broken. It is possible that this happened whilst adjusting the statue to the width of the wall, or that the legs were destroyed under other unknown circumstances. In the clear form only the outline of the left limb was preserved. We failed to discern the outline of feet. Scaling stone at the height of head at the left side from the middle of the forehead to the left cheek and then on the left arm was injected, sealing cracks against the accumulation of water. It was decided that the crack would not be closed with mortar, because it does not pose a threat to the structure

Fig. 6.22. The stele “baba 6” in July 2008 after the conservation.

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of the sculpture, nor does it impair the sculpture’s aesthetics. It will be possible to close the crack when taking decisions about the full aesthetic conservation of the statue in the future. The right arm to the elbow was damaged, probably caused by natural erosion or when breaking the stone out of the bed. In addition, this part was covered with shallow grooves in the natural stone structure caused by the slow, yet persistant erosion on this type of raw material. The right side of the statue at the head and shoulder height, as well as the back side of the statue up to the plaits, were covered with rusty stains. Despite the intense conservation actions aiming at neutralisation of the coloration, we did not manage to remove these stains. They were probably caused by the long-term activity of algae that deeply and permanently penetrated the granite structure. The last stages of work were disinfection and impregnation strengthening the sculpture. Cleaning of the statue and dismantling the wall caused large changes in the appearance of the statue. It acquired a slenderness despite its preserved massive upper part and destruction of the lower part. As the result of conservation actions, facial details became clear: the subtle outline of eyebrows and nose in the shape of the letter “T” and almond-shaped eyes. Symmetrically located ears and a long plait consisting of three pleats falling on the back were clearly visible. Also the outline of the body and massive shoulders became clear. The figure was dressed in a short caftan on which traces of decorations were preserved. In strongly shaped hands it held a rectangular, cup-shaped vessel. Conservation works unveiled the outline of schematically carved fingers.

3.2.4 Baba 8 (299) The figure was cleaned of the thick layer of mosses and lichens. The raw material, of which the statue had been made, was fine-grained, light grey sandstone. The maximum preserved height of the stela, measured at the front side after dismantling the wall, is 1.47 m, the maximum width at the scapula height is 0.50 m. The preserved side width of the head is 0.30 m, the maximum side width at the waist height is 0.26 m. The surface of the stone was covered with a grey patina which, due to the lack of sufficient measures, could not been removed. After cleaning it appeared that on the stela there are clearly visible details, invisible until the conservation. The removal of the exhibition wall provided new information. In the lower part of the statue, the outline of a plain belt was unveiled. The stela, judging by proportions of its lower part, belonged to the category of sculptures with a height of about 2 m.

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Small, narrow splits covering the surface and a few holes of natural origins visible on both right and left side of the head and along the right shoulder were very shallow. They have been left, because they did not impair the aesthetics of the sculpture and did not expose it to threats. Cavities visible on the back of the stela on the right shoulder have been left, because they did not endanger the stability of the stone structure. Due to the soft nature of the sandstone, larger grooves and splits have been closed with lime and sand mortar with some addition of white cement. Cavities filled in that way include: oval cracks in the stone structure on the left side at the breast height, a large cavity of a layer reaching the waist of the sculpture, and a deep split from the top of the helmet down to the arm on the left side of the stela. Two similar longitudinal cavities located at the waist height on the same side of body were also closed. During conservation treatments the most difficult process was the removal of deep incisions from the face of the warrior, made by contemporary vandals with some sharp tool. They were levelled with a thin layer of mortar. In order to increase efficiency, the mortar was prepared based on the starting preparation Aida Haftfest. The mortar was then stained with a pigment adjusted in terms of colour. A narrow and shallow crack on the right side of the statue, visible at the height of the arm crushed down to the waist, has been injected, as well as other such cavities. The last stages of works included disinfection and strengthening impregnation.

Fig. 6.23. The head of the stele “baba 8” before the conservation.

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Fig. 6.24. The head of the stele “baba 8” after the conservation.

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Revealing the lower part of the stela increased the silhouette’s slender appearance. The sculpture depicted a man with facial details characterised by picturesque features. The face was oval, slightly prominent at the height of the cheeks and with full chin. Arched eyebrows were preserved grown together over a long, straight nose in the form of the letter “T”. Below there are poorly visible lips which, together with a whisker, have a spindle form. On the sides of the head there are crescent ears preserved. On his head the warrior had a ringed decorated helmet with a rim decorated with diagonal lines, below which details of an intricate headdress can be seen. The hair was interwoven into three plaits, loosely falling on the back. The longest and thickest plait was pinned under the helmet in the form of a net. On the front side a belt and an outline of the

Fig. 6.25. The stele “baba 8” in July 2008 after the conservation.

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breastplates were preserved on the left side of the body. The statue has neither hands nor a vessel. The front and sides of the stela bear traces of an intense polishing. It is possible that details of the attire, vessel and limbs existed, however were removed at a secondary stage in the past. It is also possible that the stela was used as a grinding or sharpening tool.

3.2.5 Baba 9 (292) The entire surface of the stela was cleaned from a layer of lichens and algae efflorescence. This revealed the nature of the raw material. The statue was carved from fine-grained, light beige and yellow sandstone. Parameters after dismantling the wall are as follows: the maximum preserved height from the unveiled base on the front side of the statue is 1.92 m, the maximum height of the sculpture on the back side is 1.83 m, and the maximum width at the shoulder height is 0.58 m, at the hips height – 0.55 m. The maximum side width of the stela measured at the waist height is 0.38, at the head side – 0.30 m. After dismantling the exhibition wall and removing the cement mortar strengthening the base, the lower part of the caftan was unveiled as well as the well preserved, cylindrical massive lower limbs, unfortunately without feet. On cylindrical legs there are clearly visible uppers of riding shoes. Limbs were covered with white lime, probably secondary layers. On the back side, after cleaning the background, in its lower part an outline of small legs became visible. The continuation of the drawing above was destroyed. We failed to remove the entire sealing patina and visible traces of adverse activity of microorganisms. Cleaning the sandstone revealed its specific type. Within the grey structure, there were visible strands and lenses with an intense yellow colour highlighting its texture, especially in the upper part of the statue. Many years of exposure to the effects of atmospheric conditions resulted in elution of the stone and, as a consequence, the front side of the statue as well as its sides are covered with vertical strands of parallel, shallow grooves and small lens-like holes. However, due to the fact that they did not pose a threat to the sculpture’s technical condition, we allowed them to remain as the original structure of the historic material. On the back, upper side of the sculpture the surface had gained “roughness” due to the activities of water and wind. In the lower part, on the pedestal there were near-horizontal strands of grooves. Filling these shallow, natural cavities with mortar was pointless, because they highlighted the natural properties of the soft stone, and did not contribute to the destruction of its structure. Only delaminated fragments were strengthened and larger holes were plastered. Additions to the form arising from technical considerations included: filling in the delaminated caftan

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and closing of two grooves on the right side of the sculpture. The systemic mortar of the Remmers Company was used to repair cavities. It was decided not to reconstruct hands in this case, because it would have required “overinterpretation” of the relic. The last stages of works were disinfection of the figure and strengthening impregnation. After the preliminary phase of conservation, the stela regained its original light colour which, alongside its large dimensions, increased the impression of monumentality, particularly when exposed to the open air. The original sculptor achieved an interesting optical effect, modelling en face a slender, tall man, and the impression was strengthened by an openwork originally incorporated between the hands and the body. However, looking from its side,

Fig. 6.26. The stele “baba 9” in July 2008 after the conservation.

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the statue makes quite a weighty impression, because the proportions of the body are changed. The sculpture becomes massive and compact. Despite the great dilution of details of the upper part of the object, the following details are clearly visible: the oval shape of face with distinctive profile, helmet with a cone bell and round metal breastplates. The figure was based on a square pedestal. As a consequence of conservation treatments, long fingers holding a cup-shaped vessel with a broad spout became clear. A fragment of the strap attached to the belt was poorly visible, as well as the outline of a knife. They are located on the right side of the stela under the forearm pinned to the body. After conservation on the back of the stela, the oval plate and two straps are visible, being some kind of fasteners of the breastplates and a fragment of a single plait.

3.2.6 Baba 10 (286) The raw material of which the stela was made was fine-grained, light grey sandstone with beige stripes. After dismantling the wall the maximum height of the stela from the base measured on the back side is 2.10 m, the maximum height from the preserved footrest on the front side is 1.92 m. The maximum preserved width at the scapula height is 0.58 m, at the hips height – 0.54 m. The maximum side width measured at the waist height is 0.28 m, on the head, and the cheeks height – 0.30 m. Unveiling the wall exposed high riding shoes on shapely, long legs based on the well-preserved footrest. On the right leg the outlines of shinguards were preserved. During the conservation treatments, we failed to remove white stains on the feet. These are probably secondary layers of the lime whitening. Due to concerns about the possibility of destruction of well-preserved legs and the lack of conditions to perform an analysis of composition of stains on site, we cleaned the stone with available measures. After cleaning, it was decided to remove the weakened and delaminated sand and lime mortar from the edge that was visible in the middle of the sculpture. It was replaced with the new systemic mortar of the Remmers Company and coloured with a pigment similar to the natural colour of the stone. Small pores and grooves caused by erosion have been left, because they did not endanger the stability of the statue. Elements that had been damaged were not reconstructed, due to aims of the conservation programme including performance of preventative works. Larger cavities – of the left forearm and knee and four deeper grooves over the breastplates – have not been reconstructed. The decision to close them could be taken once the statue is relocated to the building and undergoing a full artistic conservation. The sandstone structure is dense enough that cavities do not contribute to the deterioration of the technical condition of the relic. The last stages of works

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were injections of cracks and grooves as well as the disinfection of sculpture. Finally, the statue was subjected to the strengthening impregnation. The most visible change after the conservation is the unified, brighter colour of the material from which the sculpture was made. Unveiling the feet together with the footrest means that the statue gives the impression of being optically larger than it was. Conservation treatments not only gave the appearance of slenderness to the statue, but also made many details clearer. The sculpture belongs to exemplars of more than 2 m of height, and depicts a slender man with massive shoulders and thighs, sitting on a rectangular pedestal. The impression was enhanced by the natural stone structure. The sandstone was covered with vertically running stripes of a brighter and warmer colour. The sculptor probably knew that processing such type of rock would trigger the effect of slenderness despite large dimensions of the statue. The figure was dressed in a caftan or a shirt and trousers put into shoes. Erosion has affected the upper, front side of the stela the most. The round face, with a distinctive profile and sharp chin shrouded with a cone-shaped helmet, was preserved. Cleaning of the face made the shape of the ears clearer.

Fig. 6.27. The lower part of the stele “baba 10” – side view – after the conservation.

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Also it was possible to see oval, symmetrical hollows – eyes and a faint outline of the shape of a nose. On the back side of the stela there was a clearly visible rim of a helmet and well-preserved headdress. The warrior had his hair interwoven into three plaits falling on his back. The hair was fastened with a net with rhomboid mesh just under the helmet, thus plaits closely adhered to each other. Round breastplates, despite deep erosion of the stone, preserved their shape and from the back side were supported by cross-fastened straps additionally strengthened with an oval plate-buckle. Straps had significantly thickened edges. The belt, vessel and hands were destroyed, because in the past the stela was broken into two parts. Only a spout of the vessel together with the right hand from the forearm down to the wrist was preserved.

Fig. 6.28. The stele “baba 10” in July 2008 after the conservation.

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3.3 Feminine Stelae in Front of the Museum 3.3.1 Baba 11 (296) The first treatment performed on the stela dug into the ground was the removal of the greenery from the flower bed arranged in front of the museum in contact with the stela. After initial conservatory treatments performed on loose layers and microorganisms were fully removed, the colour and structure of the stone have been fully unveiled. The statue was carved from white and grey shellstone with a highly porous, almost spongy structure. The metric data has the following parameters: the maximum height of the stela from the level where it was dug into ground is 1.51 m. The maximum width measured at the shoulder and backrest height is 0.66 m. The maximum side width at the waist height is 0.28 m and at the head height – 0.32 m. The only pits of patina were left in cavities inside hollows covering the sculpture. The figure was disinfected. During conservation works it was decided not to remove the scarring, historic sand and cement mortar. A bonding of the stela broken in the past at the waist height was left. The mortar fulfilled its function and the sculpture can exist in its current preserved state for several years. Future conservation will require an analysis of the bonding line. The optical analysis suggests a shift of the axis of symmetry. The upper part seems to be relocated to the right side of the sculpture in relation to the lower part. Cavities of the face, head and lower limbs do not impair the aesthetics of the statue and constitute a testimony of its fate. The reconstruction of cavities on hands and closing some holes will be possible during a full, artistic conservation of the statue, which requires time, precision, technical measures, storage capacity and, above all, financial resources. In 2008 this was impossible primarily due to the lack of ability to move the stela permanently to the inside of the building and stabilising the pedestal by recasting the missing base. The largest cavities of the heavily corroded surface were closed with the lime and sand mortar to prevent water from accumulating in them. Cracks and narrow grooves were injected with the preparation Winacet DP 50/00. The last stage of work was the strengthening impregnation. After conservation the aesthetics of the statue significantly improved as well as the ability to analyse the carvings. Intentionally depicted disproportions of the body, with the upper part more massive than the lower one, the eroded hat with visible outline of a scarf and horns, as well as the back part of the high brim of the hat became clearer. The statue was characterised by a highly artistic execution, which is characteristic for anthropomorphic sculptures made from shellstone. It is not an easy kind of sandstone to process due to its strong natural porosity and numerous organic inclusions. This stone has

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a specific charm and gives to details carved in it the impression of being three-dimensional and deep. These values characterise also the sculpture from Veliko-Anadol. The sculpture acquired clarity and the impression of three-dimensionality of the details: necklace, attire, vessel and palms with clear, slender fingers. In the profile there are not only ears, scarf and the outline of the hat visible, but also “horns” slendering the round face. On the back, there is a high brim of a hat preserved and a triangle scarf. Thanks to the preserved backrest and high pedestal, outlines of pole-shaped limbs, short in relation to the rest of the figure, were unveiled. Unfortunately, the feet were destroyed.

Fig. 6.29. The stele “baba 11” in July 2008 after the conservation.

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3.3.2 Baba 14 (279) After cleaning the statue it appeared that it was carved in fine-grained, light beige sandstone. The stela was dug into the ground. Its height measured from the level at which it was dug is 1.21 m. The maximum width measured at the shoulder height – 0.49 m. The maximum side width at the height of the lower edge of the caftan is 0.22 m and at the side of head – 0.24 m. The statue was cleaned of surface dirt. We managed to completely remove mosses, lichens and surface dirt, unfortunately pits of patina scarring the surface remained. The degree of penetration of the dark patina deep into the stone surface was so great that despite careful and repeated cleaning we were unable to remove stains from the upper part of the body and the head of the statue. The stela was broken in the past into two parts. Also its upper part was damaged. With the sand and cement mortar were repaired damage to the head and hat. In 2008 due to the limited time, lack of materials and technical capacities, we left in place repairs that were non-aesthetic but fulfilled their functions, limiting only to a small extent their scope. Although the bonding cement mortar was left, its scope was slightly reduced, as far as was possible, with non-invasive methods. The left hand that was damaged was left without repairs. We managed to clean surface dirt from the long caftan decorated with vertical pleats. The vertical pedestal on which the figure was based was preserved, as well as pole-shaped legs, unfortunately without feet. The back side of the stela was badly damaged and its surface eroded. The sculpture was disinfected. For the sake of microbiological protection, the surrounding greenery was limited. After the conservation not only the bright colour of the sandstone was unveiled, but also the details became more clear, such as the outline of arched eyebrows grown together over the straight nose, two plain bars (hryvnia) on the neck, outline of triangular breasts and slender fingers of the right palm. The stela requires professionally performed artistic conservation in conditions allowing not only for the precise work of a specialist, but above all providing microclimatic stability for the sculpture. The details preserved indicate the high artistic achievement of the object.

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Fig. 6.30. The stele “baba 14” in July 2008 after the conservation.

3.4 Masculine Stelae in Front of the Museum 3.4.1 Baba 12 (301) During the first stage of conservation, after cleaning the surface the type of stone from which the stela had been made was determined. It was coarsegrained sandstone with a striped structure and light beige colour. The statue was dug into the ground. The metrical data were measured to the level of immersion. The maximum height of the preserved statue from the ground level is 0.96 m. The maximum width measured at the shoulder height is 0.57 m, the maximum side width at the waist height is 0.24 m and ro the head – 0.29 m.

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We managed to remove completely the mosses, lichens and surface dirt from the stela. After cleaning the statue it appeared that scarring pits of patina remained. The stone structure was covered with shallow holes and cavities that resulted from elusion and erosion as well as with cavities arising from mechanical damage. They were left to remain without filling. In the past the sculpture had been broken at the waistline. The upper part of the body, without palms and vessel, was preserved. The historical repair including bonding it with the lower, non-existent part with the sand and lime mortar was left. It constituted some form of insulation from the ground. Its scope was limited in a manner non-invasive for the statue. Few shallow holes of natural origins as well as grooves did not pose a threat of further destruction to the surface.

Fig. 6.31. The stele “baba 12” in July 2008 after the conservation.

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The delamination that was visible at the back of the head was also natural, shallow and was not destructive. It was strengthened with a binder. The chin that had been crushed off was not reconstructed. At the front of the head, on the edge of the helmet there were two parallel, horizontal and deep incisions remaining as well as a horizontal groove of the same origin at the lips height. On the left side of the head, at the rim height a shallow and narrow groove running along the face oval through the neck and to the shoulder and back was injected. Despite injuries, the technical condition of the stela is good. The sculpture remained in front of the museum. For the microbiological protection the neighbourhood of greenery was limited. The figure was disinfected and hydrofobised. After cleaning, the stela acquired optical lightness and slenderness. The unveiled natural structure of the sandstone covered with vertically arranged, delicate shallow beige grooves, visible primarily on the body, increased the impression of the slenderness of the statue, despite its size. Preserved details became clearer: the straight nose visible en face and in profile, ears, and three plaits pinned with a net just under the helmet. The sculpture was made very carefully. It was well-preserved due to the dense structure of the stone. In future the stela, due to its condition and artistic value, should be completely stabilized and exhibited indoors.

3.4.2 Baba 13 (300) After removing the layer of dirt it appeared that the stela was carved in finegrained, dark beige and grey sandstone. The figure was dug into the ground. Its height measured from the base at ground level is 1.10 m. The maximum width measured at the waist height is 0.52 m. The maximum side width measured at the abdomen height is 0.34 m. From the entire sculpture characterised originally by large dimensions, only the decapitated torso was preserved and the fragment of the right shoulder and legs below the vessel level. A thick layer of dirt and lichens was removed from the surface of the stela. However, a layer of dark patina deeply penetrated the stone structure. Despite intense cleaning we did not manage to remove completely stains on the front side of the object, particularly in the upper part of the preserved torso. On the stela there were visible small holes and cavities which were left to remain. Grooves penetrating the structure of the statue were injected. For the microbiological protection the neighbourhood of the greenery was limited. The object was disinfected. Despite cavities on the head, in the entire lower part and damages to the right hand, the statue after conservation treatments made an impression with its enormous size. The best preserved detail was the large, cup-shaped vessel

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Fig. 6.32. The stele “baba 13” in July 2008 after the conservation.

pinned to the waist. Conservation treatments strengthened and secured the preserved part of the statue from atmospheric conditions. In the future the sculpture should be placed on a pedestal so as to protect it from humidity and chemical factors from the ground.

4. Summary of Conservatory Treatments The authors were prepared to work on three objects made of lime and sandstone rocks. In fact, after several hours of debate initiated by the great impression the stelae made on young members of the archaeological and conservatory

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expedition, the admiration for the art of nomads and regret, when we realised their condition, it was decided to extend the scope of preservative and conservatory measures performed in situ. The technical conservation included 14 out of 24 exemplars of statues. Therefore we required more materials. We did not foresee the need for binders and ores for crystalline rocks. The amount of possessed pigments did not allow for the adequate colouration of the mortar mass used for filling on all preserved objects. The conservation was carried out with a view to enabling the reconstruction to be reversed in case of future decisions about the fate of the figures, e.g.: about placing statues indoors or returning them to their fully original state during further conservatory measures. Fillings have different colours from the original stone, and the mortar itself is weaker than the stone structure. The most difficult part of the reconstruction to organise was removal of layers of the harmful patina. Most of the preparations used for that purpose were based on weak acids or were removed mechanically, e.g. with a compressor, appropriate abrasives and nozzles. The amount of equipment and the characteristics of substances required for professional removal of the patina preceded with trails were not included in originally planned logistic

Fig. 6.33. Our expedition in July 2008 in front of the building of the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum.

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assumptions and capacities of the project. In 2008 the expedition was equipped with limited amounts of materials and equipment. This was caused not only by the difficulties of importing chemical substances to Ukraine, but also by the capacity of transportation. Furthermore, it was highly limited by financial funds that were small in relation to the challenge. Despite difficulties the issue of conservation became a matter of priority. The major conservation issues included removal of the effects of unprofessional repairs, such as bonding cement mortars on weaker kinds of stone. Their removal without professional tools and material background would have contributed to the destruction of the surface of stelae, therefore such measures were limited to the safe minimum. In the original discussion of conservation options we considered also developing the vertical and horizontal insulation using one of the constructing methods and drainage in order to separate the objects from one of the most severe destructive factors: water, and the salts dissolved in it, sucked from the soil into the stones’ capillaries. These plans needed to be adapted due to logistic reasons, lack of required materials, tools, equipment available on site and limited time of the project.

Fig. 6.34 The Polovtsians statues after the conservation – state in Autumn 2009.

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The exhibition wall was rearranged to a minimum extent, because in addition to the stabilizing function it is also an element protecting from thefts and acts of vandalism. It also played the role of a meeting place and it is used as an element of staffage and a seat during local wedding photography sessions. We managed to performed much greater work than the initial plans, however it would have been possible to do more, if not for the abovementioned difficulties caused by the conditions in Ukraine. The necessity for quick adaptation to prevailing conditions forced the expedition to adapt the planned works, adjusting the conservation measures to existing conditions and flexibility in overcoming the obstacles as they occurred. Despite the all the difficulties we managed to preserve most of the exhibits from the collection of the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum. The Polish-Czech archaeological and conservation mission in 2008 was the first, and so far the only, expedition engaged in the maintenance of monumental sculptures in Eastern Europe. The authors hope that their project will be developed based on international cooperation between interested research institutions both from Western Europe and countries possessing collections of monumental sculptures, and that in upcoming years the number of preserved exemplars of stelae will increase.

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Remarks on the Status of Stelae in Countries of Eastern Europe. Research and Popularisation Postulates Stone and wooden anthropomorphic stelae have been damaged since distant times, primarily due to adverse atmospheric conditions. However, the mass destruction of statues in Eastern Europe began in the 16th century. A strip of steppe, until then controlled by the Crimean khans, started falling under the control of Polish political influences (Bessarabia, Wild Fields) and, in the following centuries, under Russian rule (areas of the Dnieper basin and then maritime areas to the mouth of Don, Volga Region and Ciscaucasia). With the weakening of the political role of Turkey and the elusion of the people subordinated to the Crimean khans, the steppe area was settled by people coming from Russia. This process started in the second half of the 17th century and was most intense in the 18th century. From that point, the fate of many stelae was determined. They have been destroyed during robbery excavations on kurgans conducted in the entire strip of steppe both by the peasantry and the gentry. Active actions of the Orthodox Church combating all preserved forms of older rituals over 300 years (from the 16th century until the pre-revolutionary period) focused on anthropomorphic stelae, as they were considered a personification of evil spirits (Daszkiewicz, Tryjarski, 1982, 65). The Ukrainian peasantry instigated by monks contributed to the mass destruction of statues. In areas where stelae enjoyed the respect of local people, an order to destroy them was issued by tsarist administration authorities. They have been crushed and the stone has been re-used as a building material. Often entire sculptures were embedded into the foundations of churches or outhouses. The thoughtlessness of authorities can be demonstrated by an instance of using stone stelae for the construction of a basement on the premises of the head of district police in the 1870s (Novomoskovsk uyezd, Yekaterinoslav Governorate). The basement had walls made of stone babas set with their faces oriented to the centre of the room. At the entrance there were another two stelae (Daszkiewicz, Tryjarski, 1982, 68-69). From the second half of the 18th century statues began to be used as mile stones (верстовые столбы) or road signs. In this way they got into regions where they had never been before, for example to the right bank of the Dnieper River, in the vicinity of Moscow, Ryazan, Stavropol. Throughout the entire next century statues from neighbouring worship places, still preserved, were brought

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and embedded along post roads. In the Volga Region they were erected near to water sources or water holes. Stelae that were brought to mansions at the request of the gentry managed to survive these unfavourable conditions. Set in orchards, gardens or meeting places, they have been used as decorations. Frequently they became the founding artefacts in collections settled in the vicinity of museums. Accounts of foreigners, tsarist officials, archaeologists, ethnographers, historians and lovers of antiquity travelling in the middle of the 19th century inform us about the transport of stone stelae to mansions and the use of them as a building material in newly established villages. All these recollections have one thing in common – a fear of losing historical heritage. Authors, describing the thoughtlessness of the local people and acts of vandalism resulting from ignorance, deplored the appallingly low number of statues (widely quoted sources: Daszkiewicz, Tryjarski, 1982, 67-68, 71-72). From that period there are remarks about painting the stone stelae. It is extremely important information for archaeologists and conservators. During the contemporary conservation of relics, there is the chance to take samples of pigments preserved on the surface of sculptures. It is possible to date these samples after subjecting them to chemical analysis, because there are pigments with restricted chronological frameworks (e.g. Prussian blue, aniline pigments introduced in the 18th and the 19th centuries). Therefore, it is possible to accept or exclude the fact of polychroming statues by their creators. The information about painting babas in modern times helps to avoid mistakes with results obtained from tests carried on pigments. In 1915 N. I. Veselovskyi lamented that immediately after including the steppe area into the Russian borders, the stone statues quickly began to be removed from kurgans. “Indulgence of local authorities in the work of destruction of stone babas caused a great and irreparable loss to Russian archaeology.” These words by an archaeologist summarise the increasing rarity of stelae located in situ on kurgans. During the entire 20th century, many mounds have been destroyed by deep ploughing. Sculptures found at such occasions have been broken to obtain building material, which was then traded. During the revolution, peasants frequently set stelae – as the former gentry – in their yards. Sometimes it happened that preserved fragments of statues were conveyed by a founder to museum institutions. During both World Wars, stelae located in gentry mansions were broken. Solders used statues as shooting targets, not even sparing collections deposited in museums. After the wars, this situation did not change. Stelae have still been treated as a building material. In villages they were used as benches, traditionally set in front of dwellings (Pletneva, 1974a, 8-9). While the lack of education of the rural population could have been explained by harsh conditions during the wars and the post war period, its lack among people employed in museums can not be so excused. Low awareness of the

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archaeological, historical and ethnographic value of stelae among museum workers meant that the stelae were frequently abandoned within the museum premises or dug into adjacent greenery. Rarely stelae were placed indoors. They have never been subjected to conservation performed by professionals due to the assumption that the quantity of further exemplars discovered is greater than damages and losses. Conservation, in the opinion of museum workers from Eastern Europe, meant bonding broken or crumbling stelae with cement “pillars” that frequently caused further damage to soft kinds of rock. S. A. Pletneva deplored this practice (1974a, 10). The lack of interest in the fate of stelae, lack of legal regulations protecting these relics as the cultural heritage of the Ukraine, and their progressive degradation has been described by K. I. Krasilnikov in his monograph (1999, 60-62). Many exemplars of stelae documented by S. A. Pletneva in 1974 have since gone missing. Some have been destroyed thoughtlessly. In such way the collection in the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum has become impoverished. Three well-preserved stelae documented in 1974 are now missing. They have probably been broken into small fragments. Only in was 2008 one of the exemplars located, however with the upper part of the body irreversibly destroyed. It is an open secret that stelae can be bought from private persons acquiring relics illegally – either from robbery of excavations, thefts or misappropriation. Due to the fact that many of the statues are not included in museum registers and still do not posses a record, the phenomena of disappearances remains difficult to detect (lack of records has been described, for example, by Pletneva, 1974a, in a descriptive part of the catalogue; Geraskova, 1991, 21-22). Today, professional actions taken to protect anthropomorphic stelae should include the professional knowledge of complementary disciplines. In addition to archaeological excavations documenting new objects discovered in situ or secondarily acquired from illegal collections, petrography studies verifying the types of stone and helping locate the original deposits from which the material was obtained are also of great importance. Works of chemists, biologists and microbiologists provide scientific support to conservators. Chemical analysis allows, inter alia, for determining the degree of salinity of stone, types of layers, chemical composition of old mortars, adhesives and pigments. Thanks to microbiological studies, it is possible to establish the optimal method of biocide protection for each object. Analysis of the biological material, e.g. residual soil or macro-remains of the characteristic flora, deposited in cracks in the stone enables localisation or verification of the original positioning of objects. The monumental anthropomorphic sculpture is an excellent research material for historians (verification of information contained in written sources, localisation of winter quarters, places of worship, tracking the migration of population, etc.), ethnographers (reconstruction of the attire, burial rituals, continuation of traditions into the modern era, etc.), art historians (iconographic studies, stylistic

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and individual features of sculptures in relation to existing classifications or an area of occurrence, search for individual features of stonemasons) and niche specialties such as landscape archaeology or the history of worship. Documentation of new findings should combine experiences of the abovementioned disciplines. In addition to archaeological documentation in the field, which should include photographic, illustrative, geodetic and descriptive documentation (context of findings, location, geographical relations, possibly aerial photographs of a site), and museum documentation (photographic, descriptive, drawing, entering a relic into a register, etc.), the objects should be provisionally prepared for conservation activities. In addition to documentation and description presenting exact technical conditions, it is recommended to make UV and IR photographs that allow the capture of possible paint layers. After taking conservation measures related to documentation, it is also necessary to perform a photographic session during works, prepare a descriptive register of all measures taken and show, in the form of descriptions and photographs, the condition of objects after completion of these works. Available modern methods often have the benefit of documenting and disclosing hard to capture details, such as the structure of a surface or plasticity of an object by using 3D scans or the development of a digital model of a statue. This facilitates comparative analyses, reconstructions, revisions of iconography or measures related to designing conservation and museum actions. Rescuing stelae at the initial stage requires large amounts of money, taking into account their technical condition and methods of exhibition. Certainly, in the case of exemplars requiring professionally performed conservation, the person undertaking such measures must not only posses the appropriate educational background, but should also have extensive experience in working with monumental stone sculpture exhibited in natural conditions. For some stelae that have been subjected to visual inspections by the authors, it would be sufficient only to sweep them from dust prophylactically and remove the more intensely bound dirt and overgrown plants with a soft brush and water (possibly with addition of surfactants). The release of the stone surface from secondary layers and microorganisms significantly slows the process of its degradation. In the case of exhibition inside buildings, a cleaned statue can wait for conservation measures for years. It is enough simply to sweep it regularly from dust and protect it from humidity and infestations of its surface by microorganisms. The process can be easily controlled by regular macroscopic observation. In the case of stelae presented in natural conditions, after cleaning the surface and in addition to preventive measures, it is necessary during autumn and winter to take measures protecting statues against rain, snow and wind. When the harmful activities of natural phenomena outlined above are detected, it is necessary to commence conservation measures as soon as possible. The full technical conservation including, inter alia, elimination of microorganisms with special chemical substances, strengthening weakened stone structures, vertical

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and horizontal insulation – separation of the lower parts of a statue from direct contact with the ground (soil, masonry, etc.) – and hydrofobisation allows a relic to be exhibited both inside and outside for many years. When decisions are taken about full technical conservation, it is necessary to develop a programme of conservation measures for each object individually. Below, we present a general outline of the technical conservation which should be included: 1. removal of loose layers with soft brushes, 2. cleaning the surface from dirt with: water, water and detergent, steam, water under controlled and regulated pressure, 3. removal of sealing patina, 4. removal of secondary harmful layers, 5. desalination, 6. disinfection, 7. possible reinforcing impregnation, 8. injections of cracks, 9. filling cavities that threaten the sculpture’s structure, 10. possible color unification of putties, 11. possible hydrofobing impregnation. After completing the conservation, it is necessary to develop the optimal methodology for the exhibition plan, its design and implementation. Regardless of the selection of an exhibition location, objects need to be prepared to be displayed vertically. Therefore, the sculptures should be stabilised with frames, reconstructed “footrests” or “feet”. If conditions allow for the exhibition of a statue in situ, the first undertaking should be preparation of the preservation programme for the object enabling ongoing control of its condition. These objects should be obligatorily included in the catalogue of the nearest museum and their status should be inspected periodically. Specifications of the exhibition require cooperation between a competent museum and local institutions performing cultural and educational activities (schools, community centres, libraries). Where there are no such institutions, it is possible to engage people with developed historical awareness (teachers, education workers, enlightened representatives of religious organisations, etc.). After ensuring the safety of statues, it is possible to start preparing them for exhibition. In addition to stabilisation, it is necessary to provide vertical insulation for the statue, put in place water drainage, and protect it against the harmful activities of micro- and macro-organisms including controlling the growth of plants. The exhibition requires also constant conservatory care and the execution of periodical works involving gluing, disinfection and impregnation of stelae. Graphics and background information in a setting consistent with the exhibition values plays a crucial role.

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When a decision to exhibit a sculpture inside a museum building or exhibition pavilion is taken, it is recommended to develop a proper arrangement for illustration of a cult place, background information and graphics, light effects necessary to display the three-dimensional object, selection of artificial lightning and, depending on available financial resources, preparation of multimedia visualisation. Do not forget about providing favourable atmospheric conditions (air-conditioned exhibition halls). It is important to take steps for preventive conservatory measures involving cleaning a statue from dust, gluing weakened stone fragments, etc. Outside exhibitions within museum premises requirethe seasonal protection of sculptures during autumn and winter by enclosing them within protective structures. It is also important to provide protection against thefts or vandalism, e.g. through monitoring. Regardless of the exhibition place, the most important and most frequently overlooked measure is the lack of safety precautions during the transportation of stelae. Most modern mechanical damages are caused by incorrect estimations of the dimensions and weight of stelae and carelessness during loading and unloading the objects as well as due to inappropriate insulation and stabilisation during transportation. The abovementioned activities are, more or less, subject to legal regulation, issued by state administrated authorities, developed research methods of scientific institutions, internal regulations of museums and educational units, etc. These norms are observed to varying degree, depending on many factors, such as the degree of knowledge, lack of tools to implement them, obsolescence of provisions, etc. An important task is to establish an awareness of the cultural value of this category of relics among museum workers, archaeologists, ethnographers and other researchers having contacts with the art of stelae (not only the Polovtsians), as well as among the ordinary people living in European steppe countries. Monumental anthropomorphic statues that make a huge impression on researchers and tourists from Western Europe, are not seen by eastern European communities as a part of their cultural heritage. In the opinion of many people met by the authors, the anthropomorphic stelae were not worthy of interest or investment of efforts and resources for their rescue and display, because they did not arise such excitement as, for example, golden inventories from Scythian graves. Lack of awareness is certainly a consequence of specific situations in the post-Soviet countries and the tragic history of their citizens. The passage of time, however, as well as cultural approximation of newly constituted states to western European standards should target the activities of government and non-government organisations from the EU and Western Europe on filling these educational gaps, including improving awareness of the history and events of the past that took place in areas of this part of Europe long before

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episodes of modern history. This is linked to the protection of material heritage and its value for the national identity of both ethnic minorities of this region and larger nations. Numerous EU foundations as well as private funds are targeted to educational activities related to the development of national awareness in countries that have recently joined the EU. It would be appropriate that vanguards of these organisations become interested in the European heritage of Eastern Europe, which is rapidly and irreversibly vanishing from the territory of the same continent and, after all, constitutes part of a common cognitive value. In addition to educational activities, targeted primarily at younger generations, it is also possible to take many measures that would essentially contribute to spreading knowledge about the monumental stone sculpture. Thanks to the development of modern communication systems it is possible to create Internet forums building awareness of the historical value of the art of stelae. Both interested people who are not professionals, and scientists working on issues related to stelae can develop mappings of objects, create a network of catalogues, where the location of objects can be registered, and publish their photographs or drawings. Then, it is possible to verify iconographic studies based on the available professional literature, press, Internet or any other available sources of information. These projects could be supervised by the archaeologists and conservatory authorities of a particular administrative unit. In addition to publications concerning individual exemplars and collections issued by scientific publishers, addressed to a narrow group of professionals, there is scope to publish photo-catalogues or folders with descriptions of stelae, locally performed research, courses of conservations with maps of objects, edited in a form accessible for ordinary consumers of mass culture. Alongside tradition publications, e-books developed in several languages (including the local language and selected European languages) could also be a means of dissemination, particularly given their availability for the public. Thank to such tools, it is possible to gather information about new findings, register their current location, inform about public or private bodies undertaking care for relics, and include them into stelae preservation projects. Virtual directories can and should be created in several different languages. Local educational, cultural and museum centres should see the phenomena of monumental anthropomorphic sculpture as a chance for reviving tourism. Promoting stelae outside the Internet can be done through the press – from local up to international levels. Objects can be promoted through the organisation of plein-airs, artistic contests and, at the museum level, through making them available for international exhibitions. An initiative to create a “Polovtsian temples trail”, “Polovtsian stelae trail” (but also the “trail of Neolithic monuments of the pastoralism era”, “Kimmerians sculpture trail”, and “Scythian trail”) would require cooperation between museum centres and authorities from the local and peripheral level. Each of the abovementioned exemplary

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tourist trails could connect the most distinctive and spectacular places related to particular archaeological cultures, historic objects or sites. In the case of the “Polovtsian trail”, it could be archaeological reserves, where groups of kurgans, reconstructed and preserved Polovtsian temples, stelae in situ, stelae with historical locations, etc. are located, as well as field and museum collections of statues. Recently, reconstruction groups are becoming more and more popular. In addition to the dissemination of information about nomadic cultures at the local level, these groups could be involved by museum units in ongoing cultural cooperation including the monitoring of the condition of sites with stelae. For local communities an important consequence of taking care of monuments is the inflow of funds. The already mentioned initiative to create tourist trails, highlighting sites and establishing archaeological reserves, is connected more broadly with the tourism industry. The development of tourist industries around local monuments in small villages works very well in states that recently joined the EU, such as: Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania or Bulgaria. Over the past seven years, dynamics related to the tourism have grown significantly, especially in places attractive in terms of nature, history, ethnography or archaeology. The consequence is not only engagement of local people in the cultural development bringing significant profits (tourist guides, people working in the infrastructure, souvenir makers, reconstruction groups, etc.), but also a strong motivation for the care and protection of local monuments. Certainly, such activities should be controlled by a historian, archaeologist, ethnographer or an artist who is an expert in ancient times, to avoid the creation of a false image of historical phenomena. Countries of Eastern Europe have a great tourist potential, but unfortunately a lack of faith in the attractiveness of their own country, city, or local areas slows down the processes of economic and cultural development. Thanks to modern means of global communication, it is possible to popularise issues related to monumental anthropomorphic sculptures as a unique phenomenon in both historical and global perspectives in broad social circles around Europe. Global communication is also related with the popularisation of nomadic cultures both early and late, whose impact on the progress of civilisation throughout Europe and changes to the material and spiritual culture of the entire continent is clear. In the opinion of the authors, the monumental art of the nomads constitutes a corpus of relics that must be included in the UNESCO World Heritage List, before its last exemplars are irreversibly damaged. The art of stelae is a typical example of a “heritage without a successor”. Preservation of relics belonging to that category in good condition should become an aim that will mobilise the scientific community and non-profit organisations throughout Europe to undertake actions rescuing them and stabilising their current situation. The exceptional testimony of the spiritual richness of Turkic nomads that evolved into the art of

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a great aesthetic value and high level of sculptural mastery must be preserved. For future generations of Europeans, this is a testimony of the rich history of the Black Sea Steppes and their impact on cultural changes in Central and Western European countries. For citizens of eastern European countries, it is a symbol of the identity and cultural heritage of their countries. For archaeologists, cultural anthropologists, ethnographers, historians with narrow specialties (history of cult, history of religion), art historians, geologists, and landscape archaeologists, this is a priceless source of knowledge. The presence of stelae on the prestigious UNESCO List would generate legal obligations primarily for the responsibilities of state administration structures in eastern European states, being owners of both large collections as well as individual exemplars (Russia, Ukraine, Lithuania, republics of the Northern Caucasus). Due to the political and economic situation in this region, these actions require the support of the whole of Europe. Inclusion on the List would be of immeasurable value, bringing with it the increased interest of researchers and the establishment of lasting contact and scientific cooperation between scientific institutions in Western and Eastern Europe. On a local scale it would give a chance for the development of the tourism industry, becoming a positive factor among societies in a part of Europe that requires various forms of support. The art of stelae, currently treated with indifference by the inhabitants of the steppe area, could become a chance for the economic and cultural revival of regions where, alongside their still pristine natural environments, it is the only historical source that could be compared with the grade A listed monuments from Central and Western Europe.

Fig. 7.1. The part of Polovtsians statues – waiting for the conservation in future.

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Bibliography Abbreviation AA AD SA DA RA

– Archeological Almanac (Археологический Альманах) – Archaeological Discoveries (Археологические Открытья) – Soviet Archaeology (Советская Археология) – Don Archaeology (Донская Археология) – Russian Archaeology (Российская Археология)

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List of Figures Fig. 3.1. The map: Cult enclosures with stone statues (red) and cave temples with wooden statues (blue). Fig. 5.1. The stele “baba 25” from the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum in 1974 (cf. Pletneva, 1974a, 151, No 303). Fig. 5.2. The cracked stele “baba 25” founded in the forest in 2008. The lower section – details of the caftan. Fig. 5.3. The cracked stele “baba 25” founded in the forest in 2008 – the rest of the upper part of the statue. Fig. 5.4. The Polovtsians statues – before the conservation in 2008. Fig. 5.5. The stele “baba 1” from the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum (cf. Pletneva, 1974a, 150, No 304). Fig. 5.6. The stele “baba 1” in 2006. Before the conservation. Fig. 5.7. The stele “baba 2” from the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum (cf. Pletneva, 1974a, 152, No 302). Fig. 5.8. The stele “baba 2” in 2006. Before the conservation. Fig. 5.9. The stele “baba 3” from the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum (cf. Pletneva, 1974a, 150, No 290). Fig. 5.10. The stele “baba 3” in 2006. Before the conservation. Fig. 5.11. The stele “baba 7” from the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum in 2006. Before the conservation (cf. Pletneva, 1974a, 86, No 298).

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Fig. 5.12. The stele “baba 4” from the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum (cf. Pletneva, 1974a, 151, No 293). Fig. 5.13. The stele “baba 4” in 2006. Before the conservation. Fig. 5.14. The stele “baba 5” from the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum (cf. Pletneva, 1974a, 152, No 295). Fig. 5.15. The stele “baba 5” in 2006. Before the conservation. Fig. 5.16. The stele “baba 6” from the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum (cf. Pletneva, 1974a, 149, No 297). Fig. 5.17. The stele “baba 6” in 2006. Before the conservation. Fig. 5.18. The stele “baba 8” from the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum (cf. Pletneva, 1974a, 152, No 299). Fig. 5.19. The stele “baba 8” in 2006. Before the conservation. Fig. 5.20. The stele “baba 9” from the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum in 2006. Before the conservation (cf. Pletneva, 1974a, 85, No 292). Fig. 5.21. The stele “baba 10” from the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum in 2006. Before the conservation (cf. Pletneva, 1974a, 85, No 286). Fig. 5.22. The stele “baba 11” from the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum in 2006. Before the conservation (cf. Pletneva, 1974a, 86, No 296). Fig. 5.23. Statues “baba 13” and “baba 14” from the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum in 2006. Before the conservation (cf. Pletneva, 1974a, 86, No 300; 85, No 279). Fig. 5.24. The stele “baba 12” from the Veliko-Anadol Forest Museum in 2006. Before the conservation (cf. Pletneva, 1974a, 86, No 301). Fig. 6.1. Programme of conservatory measures in 2008: cleaning the surface from dirt with water and detergent. Fig. 6.2. Programme of conservatory measures in 2008: after removal of wall, sealing patina and secondary harmful layers and after desalination.

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Fig. 6.3. Programme of conservatory measures in 2008: disinfection. Fig. 6.4. Programme of conservatory measures in 2008: injections of cracks. Fig. 6.5. Programme of conservatory measures in 2008: filling cavities that threaten the sculpture structure. Fig. 6.6. Programme of conservatory measures in 2008: color unification of putties. Fig. 6.7. Reconstruction of the upper part of the stele „baba 7” – side view – after the conservation. Fig. 6.8. The stele “baba 1” during the conservation. Fig. 6.9. The stele “baba 1” in July 2008 after the conservation. Fig. 6.10. The stele “baba 2” during the conservation. Fig. 6.11. The stele “baba 2” in July 2008 after the conservation. Fig. 6.12.The stele “baba 3” during the conservation. Fig. 6.13.The stele “baba 3” in July 2008 after the conservation. Fig. 6.14.The stele “baba 7” in July 2008 after the conservation. Fig. 6.15.The lower section of the stele “baba 7” – state after the conservation. Fig. 6.16.The stele “baba 4” during the conservation. Fig. 6.17.Programme of conservatory measures in 2008: removal of the wall. Fig. 6.18.The stele “baba 4” in July 2008 after the conservation. Fig. 6.19. The stele “baba 5” during the conservation. Fig. 6.20. The stele “baba 5” in July 2008 after the conservation. Fig. 6.21. The stele “baba 6” during the conservation. Fig. 6.22. The stele “baba 6” in July 2008 after the conservation.

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Fig. 6.23. The head of the stele “baba 8” before the conservation. Fig. 6.24. The head of the stele “baba 8” after the conservation. Fig. 6.25. The stele “baba 8” in July 2008 after the conservation. Fig. 6.26. The stele “baba 9” in July 2008 after the conservation. Fig. 6.27. The lower part of the stele “baba 10” – side view – after the conservation. Fig. 6.28. The stele “baba 10” in July 2008 after the conservation. Fig. 6.29. The stele “baba 11” in July 2008 after the conservation. Fig. 6.30. The stele “baba 14” in July 2008 after the conservation. Fig. 6.31. The stele “baba 12” in July 2008 after the conservation. Fig. 6.32. The stele “baba 13” in July 2008 after the conservation. Fig. 6.33. Our expedition in July 2008 in front of the building of the VelikoAnadol Forest Museum. Fig. 6.34. The Polovtsians statues after the conservation – state in Autumn 2009. Fig. 7.1. The part of Polovtsians statues – waiting for the conservation in future.

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Index of the Geographical and Ethnic Names A

Alan 32 Alano-Bulgarian 32 Altay, Altay Region 13, 25, 33, 43, 50 Aral Lake 28 Arkadia 25 Asia (Asia, Central Asia, Middle-West Asia, Central and West Asia, Central and Middle Asia) 13, 17, 19, 20, 22, 24, 29, 33-35, 37-40, 42-44, 46, 52, 64, 65-67, 69 Askania Nova, Chaplynka Raion, Kherson District 24 Astrakhan Steppes 53 Azov 50, 51, 66, 75 Azov Steppes 49, 51 Azov Upland (Priazov) 19, 50, 52

B

Baba, babas 19, 34, 35, 39, 55, 109, 118, 120, 121, 125, 161, 162, Balbal, blbl 29, 30, 35, 36, 39, 43, 44 Balts 69 Bashkir 30 Bessarabia 161 Biliar 32 Black Klobuk (Chorni Klobuky) 56 Black Sea 25, 27, 29, 70

Index of the Geographical and Ethnic Names

Black Sea Plain 52 Black Sea Steppes 11, 20, 29, 35, 39, 42, 46, 49, 50, 54, 169 Bulgarians 28 Bulgaria (Bulgaria, Kama Bulgaria, the Old Great Bulgaria) 32, 168 Byzantium 27, 67

C

Catacomb culture 35 Caucasus, Northern Caucasus 49, 53, 66, 70, 169 Ciscaucasus, Ciscaucasia 22, 49, 50-52, 65-67, 161 Cracow 9-11, 15, 24, 25 Crimea 19, 50-53, 57, 66, 161 China, Chinese 31-33, 36, 43 Chuvash 30 Czech Republik 15, 160, 168

D

Danube River 49, 52, 53 Dikie Pola (Wild Fields) 161 Dmitrievskoye cemetery 32 Dnieper River 49-51, 53, 56, 57, 65, 66, 161 Dnieper River Basin 50-52, 161 Dnieperopetrovsk 21 Dniester River 53 Don River 22, 27, 47, 49-52, 66, 161 Don River Basin (Podonyie) 19, 51

191

Monumental Polovtsian Statues in Eastern Europe: the Archaeology, Conservation and Protection

Donets Seversky River 19, 27, 32, 39, 47, 49-51, 53, 65, 66, 68 Donets Seversky River Basin 51 Donetsk 9-11, 15, 21, 22, 51, 52, 55, 66, 73, 74, 76, 79, 120 Donetsk Upland 52, 73 Druzhnoye, Volnovakha Raion, Donetsk District 10

E

Europe, Central Europe, European 9, 13, 14, 17, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 27-30, 32, 34, 38, 49, 52, 66, 67, 69, 74, 76, 116, 160, 166-169 Eastern Europe, South-Eastern Europe 9, 11, 13, 14, 17, 23, 29, 39, 50, 52-55, 69, 70, 113-115, 160, 161, 163, 167-169 Europe – Western Europe 20, 24, 160, 166, 169

F

First Khaganate of the Turks

G

German Golden Horde

H

Helsinki Hungary

36, 37

18, 24 17, 56

20 168

I

Inhul River 18, 56 Inhulets River 50, 51, 57 Irtysh River, Irtysh River Basin 28 Islam 42, 48, 65, 68, 69,

J

Jergeni Upland

K

Kama Bulgaria

192

57

32

Kalmykia, Republic of Kalmykia 57 Kashlagach River 73-75 Kazakh 30, 37 Kazakhstan, West Kazakhstan 37, 38, 64, Kemi Oba culture 35 Khakaz 29 Khangai Mountains 31 Kharkiv 19, 53, Khazar, Khaganate of the Khazars 32, 37 Khomutovsky Steppe 9, 55 Khortytsia 18 Kiev 10, 19, 25, 53, 54 Kimaks 28, 29, 38, 65, 68 Kimmerians 35, 54, 69, 167 Kipchak, Kipchaks 20, 27, 28, 29, 35, 38, 39, 45, 50, 54, 68 Kirghiz, Yenisey Kirghiz 29 Komans 27 Krasnodar, Krasnodar Krai District 52 Kuban River 50, 51, 57, Kuma River 51, 57 Kuman, Kumans 17, 27, 28, 34, 50 Kumania 50, 51, 52 Kuns 27

L

Low-Mikhailovsk culture 35 Luhansk, Luhansk District 21-23, 52, 53 Lukomorye 51, 66 Lithuanie 169

M

Manych River 22, 51, 57 Mariupol 75 Mayak 32 Mayaki, Slovyanskyi Raion, Donetsk District 10 Minusinsk Hollow 33 Mius River 51, 53 Mokraya Volnovakha River 75 Mokryie Yaly River 75 Molochna River 51

Index of the Geographical and Ethnic Names

Aneta Gołębiowska-Tobiasz

Mongol, Mongols 17, 29, 33, 36, 41, 54, 69 Mongolia 37, 40, 50 Moscow 20, 32, 53, 54, 161

Rostov-on-Don 22 Ruthenian 27, 28, 35, 51, 67 Rus 28, 50, 67 Russia, Russian 9, 10, 18, 19, 21-23, 28, 29, 34-36, 39, 40, 46-48, 51, 52, 55, 57, 66, 73, 76, 114, 161, 162, 169 Ryazan 161 Rzeszów 11, 15

N

Neolithic 9, 21, 23, 35, 54, 69, 167 Nieborów 24, 25 North Azov 66 Novocherkassk 18

O

Odessa Oghuz Oka River Old Great Bulgaria Orel River Orenburg Steppes Orkhon River

20, 25 28, 30, 41 53 32 50 53, 54 43

Ö

Ötüken 31, 44



P

Pechenegs 24, 27, 28, 41, 54, 67, 75 Pit-Grave culture 35 Podolia 25, 53 Poland 9, 15, 25, 114, 168 Polovtsian, Polovtsians 9-11, 13, 15, 17, 20-25, 27-29, 31, 35, 38-42, 46, 47-52, 54-57, 64-69, 73, 75, 107, 109, 114, 115, 166-168 Poltava 19, 53 Prague 11, 15 Priazov, Priazov area (Azov Steppes) 18, 39, 52, 65, 68, 73 Proto-Bulgars 24, 32, 54

R

Romania Ros River Ros River Basin

Index of the Geographical and Ethnic Names

S

167 56 19

Sal River 51 Saltov-Mayak culture 32 Samara River 50 Sandomierz 28 Sarkel 32 Sayan-Altay Foothills 33 Scythians 21, 24, 32, 35, 36, 54, 69, 70, 166, 167 Semirechye 37, 38, 39, 64, Shurmak culture 43 Siberia, Southern Siberia 18, 20, 37 Slavic 27, 35, 69, 70, 114, Slovakia 168 Sogdian 38 Southern Buh (Boh) 57 Sredniaya Ayula, Salsky Raion, Rostov District 48 Sredny Stog culture 35 Stadnica, Tarashcha Raion, Kiev District 25 Stavropol, Stavropol Krai District 52, 57, 161 Stavropol Upland 57 St. Petersburg 73 Sukhaya Volnovakha River 73, 75

T

Taganrog Bay 50 Tarashcha 25 Tashtyk culture 32, 33, 36, 43 Tatar, Tatars 54, 69, 114 Tian-Shan Mountains 37, 38 Tokmak River 51 Tork, Torks 19, 24, 30, 41, 54, 67

193

Monumental Polovtsian Statues in Eastern Europe: the Archaeology, Conservation and Protection

Transvolga (Zavolzhye) 28, 38, 39, 50, 54, 68 Tschernikhov 53, 54 Tsymlyansk gorodishche 32 Turk, Turks, Turkic peoples, Turkic tribes 13, 19, 20, 24, 27, 29-48, 51, 53, 54, 63, 67-69, 161, 168, Turkey 161 Turkmen 30 Tuvan 30

Donetsk District 10, 14, 15, 70, 73, 75, 76, 109, 116, 119, 152, 160, 163 Venetian 54 Volnovakha, Volnovakha Raion 10, 73-76 Volga River 22, 28, 29, 37, 49, 50-52 Volga River Basin (Povolzhye) 20, 53, 65, 67 Volga Region 27, 50, 51, 161, 162

U

W

Ugric 31 Ukraine 9, 10, 15, 21-25, 52, 53, 55, 74, 76, 84, 121, 123, 159, 160, 163, 169 Ural Mountains 28, 44, 49 Uighur, Uighurs, Khaganate of the Uighur 29, 36, 37, 38

V

West Khaganate of the Turks Wild Fields

Y

Yakut

Z

Zaporozhye

38 161

30

50

Verkhny Saltov 32 Veliko-Anadol, Volnovakha Raion,

194

Index of the Geographical and Ethnic Names

Aneta Gołębiowska-Tobiasz

Index of Historical Persons A

Abul Fida Abul Gazi Abu Dulaf Al Bekri Al Gardizi Al Idrisi Al-Istahri Al Masudi Alexius I Komnen Alexander Romanov Anna Komnena

B

Benedictus Polonus Bilge-Khan Burdhzogly, Burchevitsch

27, 29 48 28 27 27 27, 50 27 27, 28 27 73 27

17 43 51

D

del Carpine, Giovanni da Pian 17, 40, 55

G

Gallus Anonymus 28 von Graff, Viktor 73, 74, 75, 76, 107 Gujuk 17

I

Ibn Batutta Ibn Chordadbek Ibn Fadlan Ibn Said Innocent IV

Index of Historical Persons

27 27 27 27, 29 17

K

Köl-Tegin

L

Lassota von Steblau, E. Lerche, J. J. Louis IX

M

Mahmud of Kashgar Matthiew of Edessa

N

Nicholas I Romanov Nizami

20, 32

18, 42 18 17

27 28

73 50, 55

R

Radziwiłł 25, 28 Radziwiłł, Helen 25 Rashid ad Din 27 Rohoziński, Ernest 25 de Ruysbroec, Willem 17, 20, 34, 47, 50, 55

S

Sharukan von Strahlenberg, Ph. J.

T

Tamim Ibn Bahr

V

Vladislav IV the Exile

51 18, 42

27

28

195