Mohawks on the Nile: Natives Among the Canadian Voyageurs in Egypt, 1884-1885 1550028677, 9781550028676

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MOHAWKS on the Nile

Natives Among the Canadian Voyageurs in Egypt 1884—1885

CARL BENN

MOHAWKS on the Nile

This page is intentionally left blank.

MOHAWKS on the Nile Natives Among the Canadian

Voyageurs in Egypt

1884—1885

CARL BENN Including the memoirs of two Mohawk veterans of the campaign, Louis Jackson and James Deer, published in 1885

NATURAL HERITAGE BOOKS A MEMBER OF THE DUNDURN GROUP TORONTO

Copyright © Carl Benn, 2009. All nights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise (except for brief passages for purposes of review) without the prior permission of Dundurn Press. Permission to photocopy should be requested from Access Copyright. Editor: Jane Gibson Copy Editor: Shannon Whibbs Designer: Courtney Horner Printed and bound in Canada by Friesens

Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication Benn, Carl, 1953-

Mohawks on the Nile : natives among the Canadian voyageurs in Egypt, 1884-1885 / by Carl Benn. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-55002-867-6 1. Khartoum (Sudan)--History--Siege, 1884-1885. 2. Mohawk Indians--Sudan--History--19th century. 3. Ganadians--Sudan--History-19th century. 4. Jackson, Louis. 5. Deer, James D. 6. Mohawk Indians--Canada--Biography. 7. Nile River--Navigation--History-19th century. I. Title. DT156.6.B45 2009 1

2

3

4

5

962.6°203 13.

Canada

12

&

#11 = 10

C2008-903970-X 09

Conseil des Arts du Canada

Canada Council for the Arts

ONTARIO ARTS COUNCIL CONSEIL DES ARTS DE L’'ONTARIO

We acknowledge the support of The Canada Council for the Arts and the Ontario Arts Council for our publishing program. We also acknowledge the financial support of the Government of Canada through the Book Publishing Industry Development Program and The Association for the Export of Canadian Books, and the Government of Ontario through the Ontario Book Publishers Tax Credit program, and the Ontario Media Development Corporation. Care has been taken to trace the ownership of copyright material used in this book. The author and the publisher welcome any information enabling them to rectify any references or credits in subsequent editions. J Rark Howard, President Printed and bound in Canada. www.dundurn.com Published by Natural Heritage Books A Member of The Dundurn Group

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Toronto, Ontario, Canada

High Town, Lancaster, England

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US.A, 14150

For my family

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Contents

Dedication Introduction

10

Chapter 1: A CGablegram from London

16

Chapter 2: The Voyageurs on the Nile

47

Chapter 3: Coming Home

76

Chapter 4: Mohawks as Workers

92

Chapter 5: Mohawks as Alles

112

Appendix I: Memoirs of Louis Jackson

131

Appendix II: Memoirs of James Deer

158

Appendix III: Additional Primary ‘Texts

178

Appendix IV: Annotated Roll of the Mohawk Voyageurs

198

Appendix V: Canadian Voyageur Contingent Strength

214

Appendix VI: Distances in Egypt and Sudan

216

Appendix VII: Chronology

220

Notes

229

Bibliography

259

Index

264

About the Author

279

THE RED RIVER EXPEDITION, 1870 —---— Expedition Route

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TROQUOIS COMMUNITIES OF THE LOWER GREAT LAKES, 1880s e

IROQUOIS COMMUNITIES Other Communities Not shown: Oneida Reservation near Green Bay, Wisconsin, and the Seneca-Cayuga Reservation in

northeastern Oklahoma.

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Introduction

An

extraordinary

event in the history of the Iroquois

occurred in 1884 and

Confederacy

1885 when about sixty men from the Mohawk

nation participated in a British military expedition in Sudan, which at the time was a province within Egypt rather than the independent country that it is today. These men, drawn from native communities on the Saint Lawrence and Ottawa rivers, served in a force sent up the Nile River to rescue

Major-General

Charles

Gordon

from

Muslim

nationalists

who besieged him in the Sudanese capital of Khartoum. To transport the troops, the government of the United Kingdom

deployed soldiers

from both the Egyptian and its own armies, sailors from the Royal Navy, civilian employees and contractors, and boatmen from West Africa and Canada. Almost four hundred individuals formed the Canadian Voyageur Contingent (or Nile Voyageurs) to pilot specially designed whaleboats upriver,

including

and Kanesatake.

Iroquois

Mohawks

from

Kahnawake,

Akwesasne,

‘The aboriginal men proved their excellence on the

treacherous waters of the Nile and won praise for their contributions from the army’s senior officers and a range of other observers. Today, the image of North American indigenous people taking part in a Victorian imperial adventure in Africa seems incongruous in comparison to how we normally perceive First Nations history. However, Mohawk

service

on the Nile fell within a number of important norms in Iroquois cultural practices,

work

patterns,

and

alliance

relationships,

which

we

will

examine in the pages below along with exploring the fascinating events that unfolded between the late summer of 1884 and the spring of 1885. This book presents several elements that I trust will capture the richness of the story of the Mohawks

in the Sudan War for modern

Introduction

| 11

readers. The first and longest section comprises my historical narrative and

analysis

of the Iroquois

adventure,

focused

on placing native

involvement in a larger perspective. The two components that follow are memoirs

written by Mohawk

veterans

of the campaign,

Louis

Jackson’s Our Caughnawagas in Egypt and James Deer’s Canadian Voyageurs in Egypt, both of which were published in 1885, and which present the immediate perspectives of people who lived through the events of the period and therefore complement

the modern

interpretation in this

book. Very few copies of either text survive, with the result that these documents, particularly James Deer’s, are not well known. (Deer’s work was self-published and may and

unlike Jackson’s

have enjoyed

booklet,

is not

only limited distribution,

mentioned

in the

two

main

studies of Canadian participation in the Sudan War, Roy MacLaren’s Canadians on the Nile or Charles P. Stacey’s Records of the Nile Voyageurs, nor is it cited in Harold Raugh’s extensive bibliography, Britash Military Operations in Egypt and Sudan.) Thus it is a pleasure to present these important documents

in an accessible form within a contextualized

study where they can be understood more fully than might be possible on their own. In addition, this book includes a selection of primary documents by Euro-American witnesses to Iroquois efforts or to closely related events, an annotated roll of the Mohawk boatmen, and other information,

along with maps

and a collection of period images to

enhance appreciation of the story. To help readers keep track of the people mentioned, pertinent information (such as whether someone was a Mohawk or what an individual’s military rank was) forms part of each person’s entry in the index.

There

are several

approaches

in employing

terminology

related to

both native peoples and the Arab world today, which suggests that an explanation of my approach in Mohawks on the Nile may be warranted. ‘To make the book accessible and clear to a wide audience, I normally used the common terms of standard Canadian English rather than those that other authors might employ, such as in other Euro-American situations

12

| Mohawks

on the Nile

or in parts of the Iroquois world. For instance, I employed “First Nation,” as is common in Canada, rather than “Native-American,” as we might expect to see in a US.-based publication;

and, for the most part, I

did not use aboriginal words, such as “Haudenosaunee”

in place of

“Iroquois,” in situations where those terms have yet to become common in mainstream

English, but I did so when

they have done so, such as

“Kahnawake” rather than the old spelling, “Caughnawaga.” Words like “white” and “native,” while awkward in addressing North American history, remain functional, so I used them, but without capitalization in

recognition of their limitations. In the case of Egyptian and Sudanese names, I followed the spelling recommended

by the Sudan Archives

at Durham University in the United Kingdom,

again for the sake of

accessibility for modern English-language readers (such as “Asyut” in place of the Victorian “Assout,” and “Khartoum” instead of the Arabic transliteration “al-Khartum”). In

preparing

publication,

Louis

Jackson’s

and in quoting

and James

other primary

Deer’s

sources,

memoirs

for

I presented

the

historical documents faithfully in recording the words in the order in which they were written. However, to make them easier to understand I usually wrote out abbreviations in full and regularized punctuation, numbering, capitalization, and spelling. While I refer to the Mohawk community

near Montreal as “Kahnawake”

the term “Caughnawaga”’

in my own prose, I left

unchanged in the historical texts by Deer,

Jackson, and other writers as it seemed more appropriate to do so. I also left grammatical errors in place where they could not be mended through punctuation,

but I adjusted sentence and paragraph

breaks

where such interventions strengthened the coherence of the texts. Deer’s memoir included a sports and a tour program from his time in Egypt, and these have been presented within his text where he placed them originally, but with minor adjustments to the formatting for the sake of clarity. Occasionally I inserted an extra word or two within Jackson’s and Deer’s narratives in square brackets to help make better sense of the documents or to correct an error. ‘The endnotes that accompany Deer’s and Jackson’s sections are mine, designed to clarify points and explore comments that might be obscure to modern readers. (Neither

Introduction

| 13

work had any citations originally.) The distances mentioned by Jackson, Deer, and their contemporaries tended to be estimates and some of the dates for events they recorded are inexact; therefore, readers might wish to refer to the “Distances in Egypt and Sudan” and the “Chronology” in the appendices for clarification. Louis Jackson’s memoir included several illustrations, and one of them, his portrait, 1s presented in Appendix I. However,

the other pictures have not been included because they

are copies of poor-quality images from a map published in a British newspaper, The Graphic, on October 25, 1884. (Those prints can be seen in an electronic version of Our Caughnawagas in Egypt through the online catalogue of the University of Toronto libraries.) The pictures I have presented in their place in Jackson’s section of Mohawks on the Nile cover the same themes, but have more documentary value.

This

book

began

as a paper Iroquois

at the

2005

Research

meeting

within

the

of the Annual

Conference

on

very

congenial,

mountaintop

surroundings of the Rensselaerville Institute in upstate

New York. I would like to express my appreciation to the people who attended that gathering for their insights and suggestions, which helped formulate

my

subsequent

research

and

interpretation.

In addition,

very special thanks go to Gerald F. Reid of Sacred Heart University in Fairfield, Connecticut, for sharing his research with a rare generosity of spirit, for which I am most grateful, and then for multiplying his thoughtfulness by peer-reviewing an earlier version of the text, thereby enabling me to strengthen it considerably. A second person who was most gracious in providing information and serving as a reviewer was Sue Ellen Herne at the Akwesasne Museum, whose contributions also

enhanced the end result significantly and who

lkewise deserves my

sincere gratitude. A third peer reviewer was Laurence Hauptman, the respected historian in Iroquois history from the State University of New York in New Paltz, whose contributions also generated a debt of gratitude on my part. As well, I would like to acknowledge my thanks to Salli and

Ernest

Benedict

at Akwesasne

for their interest

and

for

14

| Mohawks on the Nile

offering information about their ancestors who served on the expedition and for providing additional insights to improve my understanding of the Mohawk

voyageurs

in the Sudan

historians Donald and Dianne

War.

Ottawa-based

freelance

Graves deserve recognition for kindly

undertaking skilful research for this project on my behalf at Library and Archives Canada, and thus supplemented my own efforts. Philip Coppack, my colleague in the Faculty of Arts at Ryerson University, enthusiastically deployed his expertise as a geographer familiar with the latest map-making technologies to work out the distances between various points along the Nile River to correct the great mass of conflicting data that exists in the primary and secondary literature, and to him goes a special word of appreciation. Food historian Fiona Lucas of the City of Toronto Museums

and Heritage Services provided welcomed

insight into the diet of the voyageurs, and Kevin Hebib, of the same organization, charitably mended my photographs of illustrations from period newspapers. As well, my thanks go to the following people for their help: John Ann

Carter of the Ontario Ministry of Culture, and to

Crichton-Harris,

Robert

Malcomson,

Anthony

P. Michel,

and

Tred Shore. Jane Hogan of the Archives and Special Collections at Durham University Library never failed to help with her expertise and sensible advice on the Sudan, and I am indebted to Ms. Hogan for her guidance. Beyond the Durham University Library, the staff at other institutions also were generous, especially those at the Griffith Institute at the University of Oxford,

the McCord New

Museum,

Brunswick

Library and Archives

the National Army

Museum,

Ryerson

Museum

Canada,

in England, the

University Library,

the Toronto

Public Library, and the University of Toronto libraries. My thanks goes to the Ontario Arts Council for a grant that allowed me to undertake more research than would have been possible otherwise at a ttme when I worked in the museum field and had no other access to support for this study. Toward the end of this project, I made

a career change,

becoming chair of the Department of History at Ryerson University, and through the generosity of my new home institution, I was able to have maps drawn for this book through the good offices of the chair of the Department of Geography, Shuguang Wang, who arranged for the

Introduction

| 15

fine cartographical effort undertaken by Ryerson’s Paul Du, to whom I also am grateful. Before sending my manuscript off to the publisher, Ann Joan

Procyk reviewed

my

text and,

as usual,

caught

mistakes

that I was able to correct before final submission to Dundurn

Press.

Finally, I must acknowledge my appreciation for the commitment of my

publishers,

Barry

Penhale, Jane

Gibson,

and

Kirk

Howard,

in

having the faith to bring out Mohawks on the Nile, as well as to the rest of the people at Dundurn who worked on this project, particularly senior editor Shannon Whibbs and designer Courtney Horner. ‘Toronto

Illustrated London News, November 29, 1884

April 2009

“Hauling whaleboats through Bab el kebw, the great gate of the Second Cataract.”

Chapter 1

A Cablegram from London

In

1884,

Canada

was

a self-governing

dominion

within

the British

Empire, occupying most of its current land mass after having expanded enormously Brunswick, Quebec).

following the and

the United

1867

confederation

Province

of Nova

of Canada

(now

Scotia, New Ontario

and

In that modernizing Victorian country of four and a half

million people, telegraph lines provided rapid communication between its capital of Ottawa, its other major centres, and a good portion of the rest of the North American continent. Even much of the world beyond stood within a few hours’ reach because of the transatlantic cable, which had been laid across the ocean floor from Ireland to Newfoundland in 1866, and which allowed people to connect to other parts of the globe using lines emanating from Europe. On August 20, 1884, the Colonial Office at the imperial centre in London

sent a cablegram across the

Atlantic

Henry

to Canada’s

governor

general,

Charles

Keith

Petty-

Fitzmaurice, fifth marquess of Lansdowne. Because of the time of year, the message — in cipher — reached him at his summer residence within the Quebec

Citadel instead of his primary home

at Rideau

Hall in

Ottawa.' Decoded, the note said, in part, “it is proposed to endeavour to engage three hundred good voyageurs from Caughnawaga, Saint Regis, and Manitoba as steersmen in boats for Nile expedition — engagement for six months with passage to and from Egypt.” Eight days later, London sent another cablegram, increasing the request to five hundred men.” The “Caughnawaga” and “Saint Regis” mentioned in the cablegram were Iroquois (or Haudenosaunee) Kanienkehaka)

populations

territories with mostly Mohawk

on the Saint Lawrence

River.

(or

‘Today we

generally know them as Kahnawake and Akwesasne (and in the end, a

A Cablegram from London

third Mohawk

community,

Kanesatake,

or Oka,

on the Ottawa

| 17

River,

also contributed men for service in Africa). Imperial officials intended the reference to Manitoba to indicate native rather than white river pilots from that part of the country, although the aboriginal people who came from there were not Iroquois, being Saulteaux Ojibways instead. ‘The British government needed skilled voyageurs to guide whaleboats full of troops and supplies through the perilous cataracts of the Nile River in Egypt’s rebellious province of Sudan. The objective of the expedition was to rescue one of the heroes of the age, Major-General Charles Gordon, who had begun the sixth month of his defence of the provincial capital of Khartoum known

against thousands of Muslim nationalists led by a man

to his followers as “the Mahdi.”

Lansdowne

received London’s

request,

About two weeks

his military secretary,

Elhot, Viscount Melgund, travelled to Kahnawake militia officer in recruiting Mohawks.

after Lord

‘Then,

on

Gilbert

to jom a Canadian September

15,

1884,

three-and-a-half weeks after the Colonial Office had sent the first note,

the “Canadian Voyageur Contingent” sailed from Quebec City on what would be a remarkable journey for its members as they participated in the campaign to save General Gordon.' In the end, the expedition would fail: the whaleboats would not reach Khartoum, the city would fall, Gordon would be beheaded,

and Britain would abandon most of Sudan to the

nationalists until the latter 1890s. Despite the army’s lack of success, the story of the Mohawk journey to Sudan is a good one that can capture our imagination and reveal much about the Iroquois world. It also presents us with an opportunity to consider how native people in eastern North America faced the challenges and opportunities of modernization as well as their relations with the larger world within frameworks that both emerged from and protected indigenous cultural values. Additionally, the story of the Mohawk boatmen, placed within the contexts of Britain’s intervention in the Arab world and the shared experiences of the Canadian Voyageur Contingent, reminds us that aboriginal history, if it is to be comprehensive, often ought to be understood within broad settings beyond the narrower realms that tend to structure scholarly inquiry about the First Nations.

18

| Mohawks

on the Nile

The call for Mohawks

and Ojyibways to pilot boats up the Nile River

through the desert, in what contemporaries called the “Soudan War,” was inspired by the British army’s Colonel William Butler, who promoted the idea to the man who would lead the “Gordon Relief Expedition,” General Baron Wolseley.

Like many

others in the Victorian military,

Butler and Wolseley had served in different parts of the world, gaining experience that informed their thoughts as they pursued their careers and the interests of the empire. ‘These two soldiers (and some of their fellow officers who would participate in the Nile campaign) had spent time in Canada, where they had encountered expert river pilots —- many of whom were aboriginal — during the Red River Rebellion. Late in 1869, shortly after the dominion had assumed sovereignty over the vast western and northern interior regions of the continent, but fifteen years before Lansdowne received the cablegram from the Colonial Office and sixteen years before the Canadian Pacific Railway connected central Canada to British Columbia, rebellion had broken out in today’s Manitoba, led by the famous Métis visionary, Louis Riel. Once the snows cleared in the spring of 1870, Garnet Wolseley (then a colonel) led eleven hundred Canadian militia volunteers and British regular soldiers from Ontario to Manitoba to assert the government’s authority. Wolseley achieved his objective without the loss of a single man en route, and without bloodshed at his destination, as Riel and his followers had fled before the advanced elements of the expedition approached the rebel stronghold of Upper Fort Garry in today’s Winnipeg. Butler, then a lieutenant, had gone ahead of the rest of the force to gather intelligence (and even had interviewed Riel during the days of the rebel leader’s provisional government) and had seen what the best Canadian and First Nations boatmen could do on the lakes and rivers of the continent’s interior. After the rebellion, Butler reported on conditions in western Canada, and in response to his recommendations Ottawa formed the North-West Mounted Police in 1873 to bring law and order to the region. He also published a popular book in 1872

on the Canadian

west,

The Great Lone Land. Like several

other senior officers in Egypt who had served with Wolseley in Canada (and later in the Second Ashanti War of 1873-74 in West Africa), Butler became part of Wolseley’s “Ring.” This was a group of individuals who

A

Cablegram from

London

|

19

the general collected around himself because of his need for capable staff officers at a time when the British army did not produce enough men with the necessary qualifications for that kind of work. As a member of the Ring, Butler was in a good position to promote the idea of engaging Canadian boatmen on the Nile to Wolseley’s sympathetic ear. Moving Wolseley’s troops and supplies along the first half of the two-thousand-kilometre

Prince Arthur’s Landing

route,

from

Toronto

(now Thunder

on

Lake

Bay) on Lake

Ontario

to

Superior, was

comparatively easy because the army could use railways in the populous regions of southern Ontario and steamships on the upper Great Lakes. However, the long journey from Prince Arthur’s Landing to Fort Garry was

much

more

difficult because

it ran mainly

through

a forested

wilderness largely without roads 1n a region with few resources to support the expedition. (There was a better route to the seat of rebellion, via rail through American territory to Minnesota, from which the march to Manitoba would be easier, but President Ulysses Grant would not allow British and Canadian troops to travel through the United States, and his government belligerently delayed one of the expedition’s steamers at the American lock at Sault Sainte Marie between lakes Huron and Superior.) Wolseley solved the problem of getting from Prince Arthur’s Landing to Upper Fort Garry primarily by employing small boats along the region’s waterways, as would be the case along much of the Nile in the 1880s. That part of the journey in 1870 involved carrying supplies around forty-seven portages and running eighty kilometres of rapids, which

the force accomplished

boatmen

through utilizing the piloting skills of

or voyageurs. These individuals typically worked in the fur

trade, rafted timber, guided travellers, or most commonly laboured as forwarders who moved

goods along the country’s rivers and lakes in

small boats, especially where schooners and steamers could not go in the years before railways and roads came to dominate most of the country’s communications lines. Canoes of aboriginal design or inspiration had been employed for generations — including large freight canoes — but from the 1700s onwards people increasingly adopted wooden bateaux and other small craft. On the Red River Expedition, the army used a variety of keel boats, averaging somewhat

less than ten metres in

20

| Mohawks

on the Nile

length. Each vessel generally had two voyageurs to perform the tasks of bowman and steersman, along with eight or nine soldiers to pull the oars under their supervision. When

necessary, everyone got out and towed

the vessels through hazardous sections of the waterways or portaged them and their cargoes around impassable rapids and other barriers. At the time, it rained for the equivalent of almost eight of the thirteen weeks of the journey west from Prince Arthur’s Landing, which added to the discomfort caused by the hard, physical demands of the work to be done and all of the other annoyances of the Canadian forests, such as the great clouds of mosquitoes and blackflies that made life a misery for everyone. There were somewhere between sixty and one hundred Iroquois men along with over three hundred other aboriginal and white voyageurs on the expedition.’ The natives in general and the Mohawks in particular acquitted themselves so well that Wolseley described them as “the most

daring and

skilful of Canadian

voyageurs.”® A junior

British officer, Lieutenant H.S.H. Riddell, echoed the sentiment, calling

the Iroquois, who mainly came from Kahnawake

and who regularly

learned piloting on the rough Lachine Rapids near their home, “skilful” and the “finest boatmen in Canada.’ Another veteran of the campaign, Captain G.L. Huyshe, expressed his view that “a very small percentage” of the boatmen in 1870 “were really ‘voyageurs,’ excepting about one hundred Iroquois Indians drawn from the villages of Saint Regis and Caughnawaga in the neighbourhood of Montreal, who, with scarcely an exception, were splendid fellows, and without whom it is not too much to say that the troops never could have reached their destination.”® With their Red River experience in 1870, it was natural for Butler, Wolseley, and others who had been on the campaign to hope to recruit the same kind of people for the new mission in Egypt, and hence the cablegram asked specifically for recruits from Kahnawake, Akwesasne, and Manitoba (and which silently imphed a rejection of river pilots who were not native). In the end, however, the almost four hundred men who

would sail to the Middle East represented a broader section of Canadian society, both white and aboriginal, although about sixty of those who joined up were shantymen, voyageurs, and river pilots from Kahnawake, Akwesasne,

and

Kanesatake,

whose

ranks

included

as many

as ten

Cablegram from London

|

21

Library and Archives Canada, C-002775

A

The Red River Expedition at Rakabeka Falls, 1870, as envisioned in an oil painting by Frances Anne Hopkins n 1877 — an artist who was familiar with the world of the fur trade and the Canadian anterior.

veterans of the Red River Expedition along with at least one former

soldier from the American Civil War of 1861-65.°

The three Iroquois communities that sent men to Egypt shared similar origins in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, long before Britain conquered Canada from France in the Seven Years’ War of 1756-63. In the early 1600s, when Europeans began to penetrate the lower Great Lakes beyond the Saint Lawrence River, the majority of the people they encountered spoke one or more of the various Iroquoian languages of the region, such as the population of the several nations of the Huron (or Wendat) Confederacy near Georgian Bay in today’s Ontario, or the Eries who lived to the west of present-day Buffalo. Like the Hurons, the Iroquois formed a confederacy. At the time, it comprised five nations occupying the land between the Hudson and the Genesee rivers in modern New York: the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca. During the

great struggles among the First Nations of the period, the famous conflicts

22

| Mohawks

on the Nile

between natives and newcomers, and the colonial wars that pitted France against England, hundreds of Iroquois moved north to Roman Catholic missions and allied with France. The earliest group Gncluding Algonkian speakers as well as Iroquoians) formed a multi-ethnic settlement at La Prairie or Kentake

on the Saint Lawrence

River in the

1660s.

The

community soon came to be dominated by Mohawks, and subsequently established a permanent

home

in

1716

at Kahnawake

on the Saint

Lawrence, across from Montreal and Lachine. In the eighteenth century, three other Iroquois missions formed under similar conditions, two on the Saint Lawrence at Akwesasne and Oswegatchie (today’s Ogdensburg, New York) and a third on the Ottawa River at Kanesatake, which included a sizeable number of Algonkians until their descendants moved away in the 1860s. ‘The inhabitants of these predominantly [roquois settlements aligned with natives at other missions along the Saint Lawrence. By the mid-eighteenth

century, a number

of these [roquoian and Algonkian

villages became known collectively as the “Seven Nations of Canada,” and established their central council fire at Kahnawake. Beyond the shift to New France, there were other important changes to Iroquois settlement patterns. Hundreds of individuals from the Five Nations within the British colony of New York resettled in the Ohio country in the mid-1700s, forming a group called the Mingos, while others moved westward somewhat later to take up land on the south shore of Lake Erie, becoming known as the Sandusky Senecas. Other natives relocated within traditional Five Nations territory. The best known were the Iroquoian-speaking ‘Tuscaroras, who left colonial North Carolina in the early 1700s in the face of white hostility to settle near the Oneidas, and who joined the Iroquois Confederacy to form the sixth nation of the famous League of the Iroquois. Others, such as the Algonkian-speaking Delawares, moved away from the Atlantic seaboard to live under Six Nations suzerainty in New York and Pennsylvania. After the American Revolution established the independence of the United States from Great Britain and created the Ganadian-American border in 1783, about one-

third of the Iroquois in New York left the new republic to live within territory controlled by the British in modern

Ontario, at Tyendinaga

on the north shore of Lake Ontario and along the Grand River north

A Cablegram from

London

|

23

of Lake Erie. As the eighteenth century drew to a close, the Americans forced the people of the Six Nations who remained behind in the United States to alienate most of their lands and move onto reservations, and, in 1806 Americans closed down Oswegatchie. In Canada, several hundred people from Akwesasne, Kanesatake, and Kahnawake moved to the west,

largely to today’s Alberta and British Columbia, at the end of the 1700s and in the early 1800s, as a result of their long-standing engagement in the western fur trade. In the early nineteenth century, ongoing pressure from whites to force the Iroquois to vacate New York along with other tensions saw Six Nations people continuing to settle in Ontario (where a group of Oneidas re-established themselves on the Thames River) or moving

to Wisconsin,

Kansas,

and Oklahoma,

while the Mingos

and

Sandusky Senecas lost their territories in Ohio at the same time. Today, as in the 1880s when the Canadian Voyageur Contingent formed, there are Iroquois reservations in New York, Wisconsin, and Oklahoma (although one that existed in Pennsylvania in the 1880s was lost in the 1960s). North of the Canadian-American border, Six Nations reserves are to be found

in Ontario and Quebec. Beyond residing in these communities, many Oneidas,

Mohawks,

Onondagas,

Cayugas,

Senecas,

and

‘Tuscaroras

pursue their lives elsewhere, especially in Montreal, ‘Toronto, Hamilton, Buffalo, Rochester, and other places around the lower Great Lakes. The move to urban centres began long ago, with some Mohawks and other Iroquois taking up residency in various Great Lakes cities before the 1880s as part of a larger phenomenon in which people left rural areas and small towns to seek opportunities in North America’s urban centres. However, the number of such individuals from the Iroquois world was comparatively small in the latter nineteenth century, with most remaining on their reservations and reserves or finding work within the rural and forested parts of the continent, primarily on a seasonal basis.

The

August

20,

1884

cablegram

from

London

asking for voyageurs

reached the governor general at about one 1n the morning the next day. An hour later, Lord Lansdowne telegraphed Prime Minister Sir John A.

24

| Mohawks on the Nile

Macdonald

at his summer

home

near Riviére-du-Loup,

two hundred

kilometres east of Quebec City. Lansdowne enclosed a copy of the message and informed Macdonald that he would send Lord Melgund (who had fought in Egypt two years earlier) “to ask you first whether you see any objection to the scheme, and then for your advice as to the best means of carrying it out.”!° That pair of phrases respected Canada’s sovereignty within the empire because it left the decision to participate to Macdonald, yet 1t made Lansdowne’s wishes for support clear. (At that time, the governor general represented the British government on matters of foreign affairs in addition to fulfilling the viceregal office, unlike today where the position solely represents the monarch.) Macdonald agreed that recruiting could occur, but decided that the effort should be British rather than Can-

adian because the situation in Egypt failed to meet two important criteria that would encourage him to make an official dominion contribution. First, he did not believe the United Kingdom was threatened directly; and second, he thought the Sudanese crisis did not concern Canada. Politically, allowing men to be recruited as an imperial enterprise was a reasonable compromise among the diversities of Canadian opinion over the nation’s connections to Great Britain. At the same time, Macdonald did not want

to spend money on British ventures and felt constrained by the Militia Act because it restricted the country’s participation in foreign wars. As a result of the prime minister’s views, the governor general’s office did most of the work in organizing the voyageur contingent rather than the dominion’s Department of Militia and Defence, and the boatmen’s contracts and other relations were with London rather than with Ottawa. ‘The Macdonald government nevertheless assisted Lansdowne, such as recommending militia officers to lead the contingent and directing its officials to inspect the ship that the War Office in London had chartered to transport the

boatmen before it left Canada for Egypt." The

telegram

from

Lansdowne

to

Macdonald,

moreover,

said

Melgund should “not lose a moment in putting himself in communication with the agents for these Indian settlements” where Butler and Wolseley assumed the men they needed would be engaged for the expedition.”” However, there was a delay, and good voyageurs from Manitoba and northern Ontario, both native and white, who had been, or could have

A Cablegram from London

| 25

been recruited, were not organized in time for the departure from Canada. Of the ninety-two men who did come from that region, about half were inexperienced whites who would prove to be an embarrassment to the contingent, although there also were excellent Métis and native voyageurs

in their ranks who would provide sterling service on the Nile.’ At the same time, central Canada, where most Iroquois lived, had changed since the Red River Expedition of 1870, which meant that there would be some

challenges to overcome

in assembling the contingent.

Most

notably, there had been a steep decline in the small boat forwarding business in eastern Canada, from which London assumed most recruits would come, because the expansion of roads and railways as part of the nation’s modernization allowed people to bypass the rivers and lakes where the forwarders’ skills previously had been needed. Aware of that change, individuals in Ottawa advised Melgund

that there might not

be enough aboriginal or other pilots from the freighting trade available to sign up for the campaign. Instead, they assumed that the majority of recruits would need to be chosen from among

the shantymen

of

the amber industry, particularly from the Ottawa River. These people overwhelmingly

were

white,

but

natives within their ranks because

included men

respectable

from Kahnawake,

numbers

of

Akwesasne,

Kanesatake, and other aboriginal communities had been employed by Ottawa

Valley lumber

companies

River, Iroquois people worked

for decades.'* Beyond

in lumbering

elsewhere

the Ottawa in the Great

Lakes region, such as Oneidas in Wisconsin, Senecas in southwestern New York, and Mohawks from Wahta (or Gibson) in Ontario’s Muskoka region (this last reserve having been established in 1881 by individuals from

Kanesatake).'°

Shantymen,

especially

among

the

non-natives,

often were farmers or farmers’ sons who laboured in the forests or on timber drives along the country’s rivers and lakes on a seasonal basis, but included some men who found employment in the industry throughout the year. They cut trees during the winter, drove logs part way downriver at the time of the spring thaw, corralled them into booms for crossing large bodies of water, and assembled great log rafts to float the timber once they passed the barriers that prevented the use of these behemoths farther upstream.

Shantymen

also worked in mills and rowed various

26

| Mohawks

on the Nile

kinds of small boats full of provisions back to the timber camps. Mohawks in particular were valued for their ability to pilot umber rafts through the rapids on the Saint Lawrence River, with the Lachine Rapids near Kahnawake being the most famous of several difficult stretches of water that had to be overcome in moving the timber harvest to Quebec City where it could be loaded onto ships for export to British and foreign markets. Independently of the timber industry, Mohawks money

piloting steamships

and

other vessels through

also earned

the hazardous

rapids at Lachine. Many Mohawks favoured rafting over shanty work and thus were over-represented in comparative terms on the rafts. Beyond possessing the boating skills required for the Nile, shantymen knew how to camp, cook, and otherwise look after themselves in rough conditions

because they spent much of the year toiling in environments away from

their families and from established settlements.'® Along with the assumption by people in Ottawa that white men would be needed to fill the ranks of the contingent because of the changing nature of the economy and the scarcity of native river pilots, surviving records suggest that at least some Canadians who advised the governor general’s office wished not to hire First Nations voyageurs for racial rather than practical reasons. At one point, Lord Lansdowne noted that he had been “assured by the most competent authorities” that there was “every reason for preferring a force composed of white men or partly of white men and partly of Indians to one composed exclusively of Indians and half-breeds.”'’ Some of the people who offered such advice included officials from various lumber companies. Another person who shared the desire to choose non-natives (and who helped to organize the contingent) was E. Matthew Bell Irvine, who had been responsible for land rather than water transportation on the Red River Expedition. He thought the Mohawks, while good, were not quite as excellent for the task as the natives from Manitoba and northwestern Ontario, although they certainly had been superior to the white boatmen in 1870. Yet, Irvine argued that capable white Canadians could be found if sufficient care were taken in the recruiting process. ‘This view seems to have echoed a common opinion in the press that distinguished the First Nations from the rest of the population and that wanted people from the dominant

A Cablegram from

London

|

27

society to participate in the imperial adventure to show the world what the Canadians

could do and to enjoy the accolades that would flow

to them from their contributions to the expedition. However, finding places for these would-be heroes could be achieved only by shunting the natives aside. Despite this pressure in Canada, military authorities in far-off London reaffirmed the army’s desire that a significant portion of the contingent be made up of aboriginal boatmen. At the same time, one of Ottawa’s

advisors, the lumber broker J.T) Lambert,

believed

the required number of recruits only could be assembled if aboriginal steersmen

were

included

to fill out the ranks.

However,

through

a

combination of the changing economy and the attitudes of individuals who

informed

Lansdowne

and

Melgund,

the

Canadian

Voyageur

Contingent would sail for Egypt with far fewer First Nations pilots than

Wolseley and Butler had assumed would be sent.” Lambert

took on a major role in recruiting voyageurs,

focusing

on the Ottawa area, which provided the single largest portion of the contingent. A few Iroquois joined up in the capital as part of that effort, possibly because they were employed more or less full-time in the forest industry, unlike most of their fellow Mohawks. took place in central Canada

in towns where

shantymen

Recruiting could be

found, such as Peterborough, Sherbrooke, and ‘Trois-Riviéres, and the

governor general wrote to leading Roman Catholic clergymen to gain their assistance in engaging suitable francophones for the expedition. While

Lambert

made

contact with the Mohawks,

the primary links

to Kahnawake were through Lord Melgund and a militia officer who would serve on the expedition, Captain Alexander MacRae (a veteran of Red River and an experienced hand in river work). Melgund and MacRae

focused their efforts on Kahnawake;

thus the majority of

Iroquois in the contingent came from there rather than from Kanesatake and Akwesasne, presumably because time was short and because the

first village met the quota of Mohawks set by officials in Ottawa.'? In 1884, the Iroquois population in Canada and the United States totalled between fifteen and sixteen thousand souls, with somewhat more than

half of them residing north of the border, of whom over four thousand called Kahnawake, Akwesasne, and Kanesatake home. Therefore, had

| Mohawks

on the Nile

066600-FD ‘epeue’y soaryory pue Arerqry

28

Some of the voyageurs recruited in Ottawa in 1884 before recewing ther campaign clothing: a few Mohawks joined in the Ottawa area and did not form part of the Rahnawake contingent.

they visited the other two Mohawk territories, Melgund and MacRae probably could have increased the size of the Iroquois component of

the contingent in fulfilment of London’s original wishes.”° In

the

1880s,

Kahnawake

occupied

fifty square

kilometres

of

territory, consisting mainly of rural areas, a quarry that provided twoor three-dozen jobs, and a waterfront village with shops, houses, and other buildings. Some of these structures were described as “elegant and comfortable” in the Canadian Indian Department’s 1683 annual report. In 1885, the department recorded that there were “several good and beautiful farms” at Kahnawake and “the crops are very good,” while an annual agricultural exhibition on the reserve provided encouragement

for farmers to improve their efforts. At the time, about fifty individuals in the community were considered to be farmers, although many more had small garden plots. Approximately three hundred men — representing the majority of Kahnawake’s adult males — typically worked away from home in the lumber industry for part of the year, while others sought

A

lucrative employment

elsewhere,

Cablegram from

such as in American

London

|

29

circuses or on

the Canadian Pacific Railway. Most women supplemented their family incomes

by sewing beadwork

for both local and American

vendors,

receiving “fair pay” in supplies of food according to the 1883 edition of the Indian Department’s report, although by 1886 this activity seems to have fallen off to a noticeable degree. Kahnawake was too small for the size of the population, with almost half of its sixteen hundred people holding no land at all, a situation made

worse by encroachments

by

neighbouring whites, imbalances among the size of property holdings, and expropriations for railway and other purposes related to Canada’s Victorian-era industrial expansion. Given Kahnawake’s location across the Saint Lawrence River from Montreal, then the dominion’ largest city, with a population of 160,000, it was almost inevitable that the forces of modernization would be felt among the reserve’s inhabitants and would affect land use independently of Mohawk desires. The restricted size of the community meant that there were disputes about such issues as access to firewood and the right of some residents to occupy land because they had a white father or otherwise were not thought eligible to hold property. Despite these tensions, which could be severe at times, life in the village,

in the words of the Indian Department, was “very peaceful.”?! At the time Lansdowne

oversaw recruiting voyageurs, the Turtle,

Great Bear, Old Bear, Wolf, Snipe, Deer, and Rock clans each selected a chief to form a council to exercise leadership in Kahnawake, although not all of the chiefs participated in its political life and other communal affairs at the time.” It was these chiefs who needed to deliberate on the governor general’s appeal for steersmen, which he sent to them on August 26, 1884.

The Montreal Daily Star picked up the story the next

day, under the title, “Caughnawaga Warriors for Egypt.” It reported that “A sensation” had been caused “by the reception of a notification from the governor general by the chiefs that the British government wishes to secure the services of fifty of the most experienced river men in the tribe for the transportation service in the Egyptian expedition.” ‘The article said that news of the request “spread all over the village, and the younger Indians jumped at the offer with enthusiasm” while “several of the petty chiefs ... expressed their willingness to raise the party, but if it 1s raised it

20

| Mohawks on the Nile

will probably be under the direct management of the council of chiefs, who are to meet to consider the matter.” The Star concluded with the hopeful statement that “the old warlike spirit of the Iroquois appears to have been aroused and there is little doubt but that a full band of the ever

faithful allies of the British will answer the call to duty in the far East.” Despite the paper’s enthusiasm and the arrival of Captain MacRae two days later, only a small number of people expressed a willingness to join up until Lord Melgund joined MacRae and spoke with Louis Jackson, who

would

become

the lead foreman

from

Kahnawake.

Yet, when

Lansdowne’s military secretary first approached the Mohawks, he found that they “hung back very much,” even though their memories of the mission to Red River were positive and they learned how Wolseley had put his faith in them to meet his needs in the Sudan War. Melgund thought their reluctance arose from a desire for higher wages than London offered at the time.”* Yet, Jackson, who wrote one of the two Mohawk memoirs

of the expedition reproduced later in this book, recorded that when people heard that it was “the express desire of General Lord Wolseley to have Caughnawaga Indians form part of the Canadian contingent, the required number was soon obtained, in spite of discouraging talk and groundless fears.”*? He did not elaborate on the details of the talk or fears, but there were claims in the press that the boatmen would not survive in the desert. For example, one Ottawa newspaper, copying a story from the London press, quoted an army officer who had served in Canada and who announced that “Iroquois Indians taken from the frosty climate of Canada”

would not be able to withstand the heat,

which “would be fatal to the Lachine Indians,” and therefore Wolseley would need “stretchers and ambulances” for them “instead of boats.”?° Meanwhile, a Conservative opposition member of the British Parliament, Stavey Hill, criticized the enrolment of voyageurs, and even travelled to Canada to warn people not to go, claiming that any who went to Egypt faced certain death. (For his part, Colonel Wiliam Butler thought Hill’s behaviour dissuaded at least some natives from joining the contingent.)*’ As well, when the request from Ottawa first arrived at Kahnawake, some individuals wondered if the proposal to recruit Mohawks was genuine, while others who were willing to go were dissuaded from doing so by

A

Cablegram from London

| 31

the women of the community.”* Another concern centred on the nature of the engagement. Mohawk leaders were willing to have their people navigate boats, but they did not want to them to serve as combatants, and therefore needed a promise that their men would not be called upon to take up arms, which the authorities assured them would not occur and which the governor general reaffirmed in his farewell address at the time

the contingent left Ganada.” Notwithstanding these concerns, fifty-six recruits —— six more than had been requested —

signed up in addition to several Iroquois who

joined

in Ottawa.

“gangs”

formed

As was

common

in the lumber

industry, the foremen or “bosses” seem to have taken the direct lead in selecting recruits rather than the more senior officials, at a ratio of approximately one foreman to twenty or twenty-five labourers, with the foremen of the sixteen gangs of the Canadian contingent coming from the same towns and villages as their men, for the most part. Thus it was natural that two older and more experienced Kahnawake

individuals,

Louis Jackson and Frangois Delisle, became foremen.*” However, we do not know how much they had to defer to the council chiefs in choosing people. The chiefs may have been reluctant to let younger men go, given that newspaper reports indicated that enthusiasm was centred among the more youthful shantymen, because in the end the majority of Mohawks in the contingent were older. Yet, their greater years may have represented the chiefs’ response to Lansdowne’s particular desire to obtain the most qualified river pilots possible. Thus, while shantymen in Victorian Ganada in general tended to be younger, of those Mohawk voyageurs whose ages are known to us, only 39 per cent of the men were between eighteen and twenty-four years old. Another 39 per cent were between twenty-five and thirty-nine, and 22 per cent were over forty. (Most of the volunteers in this older group were between forty and fifty years old, but one was sixty-six and another, Ignace ‘Three-Rivers, seems to have been a majestic seventy-four, but somehow was regarded as capable of undertaking the hard work that lay ahead of him once he reached North Africa).*! Given the age range, it is no surprise that of those Mohawk voyageurs whose marital status is known for 1884, 63 per cent were married, or had been married before and were single, or were married or living in a

| Mohawks on the Nile

ILb] MOA JO [eop “umasnyAy ploy

32

The main village at hahnawake, circa 1885.

common-law relationship for the second or third time.** The majority of the Iroquois did not speak English, largely beng Mohawk and French speakers, understanding enough English for “boating purposes but no

more” according to Foreman Jackson.” (The growth of proficiency in English at Kahnawake tended to occur later, around the beginning of the twentieth century, when large numbers of men found employment

across North America in the construction industry.)** In contrast to the Oyibways from Manitoba, all of whom were literate, only six Mohawks had enough education to sign their names to their engagement forms.” Formal schooling run by the Roman Catholic Church had been part of the landscape at Kahnawake for a long time, but attendance levels were low in comparison to many other reserves in eastern Canada, apparently because of the poor quality of the instruction and language barriers

between the francophone teachers and their students.” Once

things were

settled at Kahnawake,

Captain

MacRae

and

Ottawa’s local Indian agent, Alexander de Lorimer, oversaw the Mohawk recruits before they joined their fellow river pilots from elsewhere in Canada to embark for Egypt.’’ Command

of the Canadian Voyageur

Contingent was placed in the hands of a member of Wolseley’s staff from the 1870 expedition (and a veteran of the Fenian Raids), the ‘Toronto lawyer, alderman, and militia officer, Major Frederick Charles Denison of

the Governor General’s Body Guard, who received a brevet to licutenant-

A Cablegram from

London

|

33

colonel for the expedition. The contingent’s Roman Catholic chaplain, the Reverend Arthur Bouchard, had served as a missionary in Sudan and spoke Arabic, while the medical officer, Surgeon-Major Hubert Neilson of the Regiment of Canadian Artillery, not only was a veteran of Red River, but had been a Red Cross observer in Serbia during the RussoTurkish War of 1877. All of the officers were Canadian and drawn from the nation’s militia, except for one, who, although Canadian, came from

a British regiment. As a group, they were more familiar with boat work and military campaigning than might have been expected, although they generally were not as proficient as regular army officers and later would

have some difficulty maintaining discipline among their men.** Most of the foremen and pilots in the contingent were adept at their jobs to a greater or lesser degree, aside from forty-five or so white individuals from Manitoba who possessed few qualifications for the demanding tasks that lay ahead. Naturally, even the experienced boatmen possessed varying levels of shill. One report said the most able among them comprised about one-quarter of the contingent, with most of these superior recruits coming from the ranks of the Mohawks and the Ojibways who provided about one-fifth of the total number of boatmen and foremen. (We need to take these figures as being impressionistic rather than precise because other observers presented somewhat different assessments, as we shall see below.)*? In addition to seven officers and a hospital sergeant, the contingent comprised, according to Denison,

seventy-seven “Indians”

(including natives from Manitoba), ninety-three French-Canadians,

158

other Canadians, thirty-six “English and Scotch” (by which he meant British immigrants), and sixteen men from elsewhere in the world, for a total of 388 individuals (although the number who would serve in Egypt was 385). Some of those the commanding officer classified as “Canadians”

were Métis and presumably included people with some

Iroquois blood beyond the sixty or so Mohawks directly associated with Kahnawake, Kanesatake, and Akwesasne. At the same time, some of the

voyageurs in the Kahnawake contingent undoubtedly had ancestries that included other aboriginal and European nations because of intermarriage and other such reasons, although one Montreal newspaper, Le Monde, affirmed that all of them were “sauvages’” — a word that does not have

34

| Mohawks on the Nile

quite the negative connotation as its English-language equivalent.” It also is possible that there were people within the contingent whose ancestry included African origins, but the historical record does not allow us to confirm that. The officers enjoyed military status, pay, and allowances, whereas the foremen

and boatmen

were civilian employees hired on

contract, although they were subject to military discipline. Beyond the voyageurs, a small number of other people from Canada would serve in the campaign as civilian steamboat pilots (mainly between Aswan and

Wadi Halfa) and in the British army and the Royal Navy.”

After tearful goodbyes from relatives at the wharf at Kahnawake and at the quayside in Montreal (with some people begging their men not to go), combined with enthusiastic farewells from public officials and some alcohol-infused celebrations among white and native boatmen alike, the bulk of the contingent set sail on September 14, 1884. Their ship was the Ocean hing, a 1,632-tonne,

107-metre

steamer built in Scotland in

1878, which had been fitted with five hundred berths for the Canadian

Voyageur Contingent and which received praise for the quality of its ventilation, sanitary arrangements, and other comforts.’ She made stops at Trois-Riviéres and Quebec to pick up more recruits Gncluding some Mohawks who missed the boarding in Montreal but who caught up with the ship by rail). At Quebec the contingent underwent a military-style inspection and an official send-off from Lord and Lady Lansdowne in the presence of various dignitaries, including the Canadian minister of Militia and Defence, Adolphe-Philippe Caron.’ The governor general delivered a bilingual speech to the assembled crowd, praising the English, French,

and First Nations

men

in an address that generated

cheers

from the voyageurs in return and which, according to Surgeon-Major Neilson, “inspired them with new courage and enthusiasm.” One illtempered observer at the departure was a Roman Catholic clergyman, Henri Tétu, who revealed both his class and racial prejudices when he described the voyageurs as an “assemblage estrange,” with the whites in the ranks consisting of swarthy, hardened,

and wild shantymen,

and

A

Cablegram from

London

| 35

with the “/roquois de Caughnawaga’ presenting their “sinastres visages” to the world. Such a rough group, in Tétu’s view, would not represent Canada well on the international stage, although the logic of his perspective would suggest that he was less concerned about the competence of the voyageurs to fulfil their tasks on the Nile than their appearance, which presumably

could

have

been

improved

if the contingent

had

been

formed entirely of respectable-looking white men. At least some of his discomfort was alleviated after the officers distributed uniforms on board the ship because he also objected to their “habits de toutes couleurs.” The

clothing purchased in Canada

and issued on the Ocean hing

included grey woollen undershirts and drawers; socks; blue flannel twill shirts; soft, felt grey hats with wide

belts; and Norfolk jackets —

brims;

a range

thick, grey tweed trousers;

of garments

that would

strike

British observers upon the contingent’s arrival in Egypt as unsuitable for the local climate. ‘The foremen received suits in a somewhat lighter shade

of grey than

the rest of the men,

and

the officers acquired

tropical uniforms, complete with swords and revolvers, by the time they reached the Nile. In addition, the voyageurs received boots and kneehigh moccasins, grey blankets, rubber groundsheets, towels, tumplines to help portage supplies, and canvas bags for carrying their possessions. On board the Ocean king they were supplied with straw mattresses, extra blankets, pillows, and towels to use while making their way to Africa. After they arrived in Egypt, British military officials provided them with additional items, including tropical helmets, standard army field dressings for wounds, and cholera belts, the latter being wide flannel wraps worn

around the stomach and which were thought to prevent cholera and dysentery. ‘hese belts were common in hot climates in the army until the early twentieth century, but in 1884 and 1885, they were of immediate importance to those who wore them because cholera was making one of its periodic drives across the planet at the time, and would strike in both Egypt and Canada.*’ Naturally, once on campaign, the men of the Canadian contingent received cooking and camping supplies as well as tents, which one voyageur said were “of the best kind.”* Beyond the official issue of gear, individuals brought along personal items of clothing and equipment, including knives and handguns. In addition, an optician

36

| Mohawks on the Nile

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Graymont, Barbara. The Iroquois in the American Revolution. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1972.

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Operations in Egypt and Sudan: A Selected Bibliography.

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Factionalism,

Traditionalism,

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in

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Index

Notes, Abbreviations, and Symbols Ranks/Titles

Ranks and titles are those held by people at the time of the Sudan War unless otherwise indicated; military affiliations are British unless specified differently.

Images

Pages containing particularly relevant images are indicated in dtalis.

CVB

Canadian Voyageur Boatman

CVF

Canadian Voyageur Foreman

CVNCO

Canadian Voyageur Non-Commissioned Officer

CVO

Canadian Voyageur Officer

RR

Veteran of the Red River Expedition of 1870

RR?

Possible Veteran of the Red River Expedition of 1870

*

Mohawk Voyageur in Sudan, 1884-85

‘Abdullahi ibn Muhammad (“Mahdi’s” successor), 89 Abu Fatmah,

Neighbouring Communities) Akwesasne/Saint Regis (see also Canadian Voyageur Contingent; Iroquoians;

192

Abu Hamed, 46, 73, 217, 226

Troquois; Indwidual Names), 16, 20, 22,

Abu Klea, Battle (1885), 66, 218, 224

23, 25, 27, 33, 72, 76, 91, 97, 99, 104,

Abu Kru, Battle (1885), 67, 224

106, 108, 111, 122, 123, 126, 130,

Abu Simbel, 142

199-200, 202-05, 242n40, 248n11

Aden, 55

Alcohol and ‘Temperance, 34, 37-38, 48,

Afghanistan, 71, 87-88, 226

80-82, 92, 110, 112, 113, 135, 161,

Africans within North America, 34, 115,

174, 176, 207, 243n3, 248n16, 250n16

116

Alexandria, 39, 45, 47, 76, 77, 84, 135,

Agriculture

136-37, 143, 157, 160, 161, 175,

North Africa, 48, 125, 134, 136-38, 139, 141-42, 164 North America, 25, 28, 98-99, 06,115 Akasha (see Nile River, Cataracts, and

176, 195, 216, 217, 218, 222, 225 Algonkians (see also Prince, Henry; Natonal

105—

Names of Algonkian Groups), 22 Alleyne, Brevet Lieutenant-Colonel James (Royal Artillery; RR), 51, 145-46,

Index

147, 149-50, 151, 152, 155, 163, 167, 188, 195

|

*Beaubien, Ignace/Angus (RR?; CVB), 201, 251n12

Ambikol (see Nile River, Cataracts, and

*Beauvais, Francois/Frank (CVB), 201

Neighbouring Communities)

*Beauvais, Frank, or Sakokennienkwas,

American Civil War (1861-65), 21, 115,

200, 205, 245n33, 252n30 American Revolution (1775-83), 22, 99,

117, 128, 185 Amherst, New Brunswick, 251 Anderson, James (Hudson’s Bay Company, 1830s—60s), 249n8

265

Frank (RR?; CVB), 201 *Beauvais, Joseph (CVB), 201 Berber, 43-46, 63, 68, 73, 87, 217, 218, 221, 226 Beresford, Captain Lord Charles (Royal Navy), 155, 195 Bible, 37, 111, 161, 246n5

*Angus, Solomon (CVB), 76, 173, 200

Bonaventure Station, 81-82, 177

Anishinabeg (see Ojibways/ Chippewas)

Bouchard, Arthur (Chaplain; CVO), 33,

Anley, Lieutenant F. Gore (Essex Regiment), 49 Ardagh, Lieutenant-Colonel J.C. (Royal Engineers), 176 Arthur, Lieutenant Sir George (2nd Life Guards), 155 Aswan, 34, 48, 61, 137, 141, 142, 161, 162, 174, 217, 223, 246n8

38, 84, 141, 155, 215 Bourlinguette, Raphael (CVB), 173 Brackenbury, Brigadier-General Henry, 73, 74, 93, 196, 229 Brantford, Ontario, 123 Brooklyn, New York, 102 Brown, ‘Thomas (wrote Louis Jackson’s foreword), 131-33 (text by), 245n1

Asyut, 12, 47, 136, 141, 161, 174, 217, 222

*Bruce, John (CVB), 72, 122, 152, 200

Aumond, Captain Telmont (Governor

Buffalo, New York, 21, 23, 102,

General’s Foot Guards, Canadian Militia; CVO), 63-64, 156, 215 Avonmore, Lieutenant Lord (Barry Yelverton, Hampshire Regiment), 145,

149, 152, 154, 155, 165, 166, 167 Ayotte, Alfred (CVB), 173

Buffalo Bill (Wiliam Frederick) Cody (showman), 103 Bulag Darcour Station, 136, 175

Buller, Major-General Sir Redvers (RR), 236n17 Burgess, Richard (also known as Henderson, Richard) (CVB)}, 160,

Bab el Kabir (see Nile River, Cataracts,

and Neighbouring Communities) Barges, 47, 53, 137, 139, 161, 174, 222, 225 Baring, Sir Evelyn (British Consul General to Egypt), 42-43, 70, 229 Batan el Hajar (see Nile River, Cataracts,

and Neighbouring Communities) Bateaux,

19, 117

“Ba’tiste, Young,” and his Uncle Michel (RR), 183-84, 249n11

247n3, 247n4 Burnaby, Colonel Frederick (Royal Horse Guards), 155 Butler, Colonel William (RR), 18-19, 20, 24, 27, 30, 51-52, 53, 61, 97, 116-17, 121, 153-54, 185-87 (text by), 195, 212, 229

Cairo, 45, 47, 53, 76, 77, 78, 84, 110, 136, 141, 157, 161, 174-76, 217,

266

| Mohawks

on the Nile

18, 20, 27, 44, 53, 97, 116, 128, 134,

222, 225, 227 Camels, 44, 45-46, 55, 62, 63, 67, 136, 137, 146, 159, 167

185-86 Casualties and Illness (see also

Canada, Government (often called

Drownings), 35, 37, 57, 64, 65, 79,

“Ottawa”) (see also Iroquois, External

80, 81, 84, 142-43, 146, 159-60,

Relationships with Other Polities),

162, 165-65, 167, 174, 177, 200,

16, 18, 24, 27, 28, 32, 34, 53, 65,

215, 227, 247-48n7

79, 85-86, 90, 97, 108, 118-22, 123,

Clothing and Equipment (see also

128-29, 181, 184, 221

Weapons; Whaleboats), 28, 35-36,

Canadian Expeditionary Force (1914-18),

50, 52, 54, 66, 68, 77-78, 81, 94, 110, 120, 134, 142-43, 146, 157, 161, 162,

123 Canadian Militia (see also Regiments and

166, 187, 224, 228, 237, 245-46n4

Other Military Formations, Ganada;

Competence, 25, 33, 35, 53, 58-59,

Names of Indwidual Canadian Officers),

65, 74, 92-98, 112, 116, 150, 186—

17, 18, 24, 33, 34, 86, 115, 122, 2/4,

89, 195-96, 224

222, 224

Discipline, 33, 34, 37-38, 48-49, 56,

Canadian Voyageur Contingent, Mohawk List, 198-213

64-65, 79, 80-82, 92, 94-95, 96, 108, 134-35, 153, 159-61, 167, 174,

Canadian Voyageur Contingent, Narrative

176-77, 197, 276-77, 207, 237n42,

Abstract and Chronology, 10, 16-17,

248n16

132, 214-15, 220-28

Drill and Ceremonial, 34, 79, 82-

Conceptual Origins in Red River

83, 84, 85, 122-23, 144, 159, 177,

Expedition, 18-21

184, 247n1

Recruitment,

16-18, 20-21, 23-25,

Entertainment, Sports, and Tourism,

26-28, 29-31, 32-34, 113-17, 134,

37-38, 48, 49, 76-77, 78, 82, 84, 85,

185-86

107-08, 110-11, 137, 139-42, 156,

Travel to Egypt, 34-38,

134-35,

157, 160-62, /63, 164, 167-76, 200,

159-61

207, 225, 227, 248n12

Service in Egypt and Sudan, 47-66,

Ethnicity and Demographics, 26-27,

68, 70-75, 135-55, 161-67, 186-89,

31-34, 65-66, 198-213

192-97

Food, Rations, and Cooking

Journey Home, 63-65, 76-85,

Arrangements, 36, 48, 52, 61, 62,

155-57, 167-77

64, 76, 78, 79, 110, 136, 137, 142,

Expectation of a Return to Africa,

151, 157, 161, 165, 167, 175, 176,

59, 75, 84, 88, 157 Canadian Voyageur Contingent,

177, 192, 246-47n16 Medals and Honours,

121-22,

198,

Operational Details

227, 252n26

As a British rather than a Canadian

Organization, 32-34, 65-66, 97,

Force, 24, 29

214-15

British Preference for Native Boatmen,

Pay, Benefits, and Pensions, 34,

Index

36-37, 56, 63-64, 65-66, 82, 85,

|

267

135, 143, 189, 192, 246n10

109-10, 113, 167, 176, 200, 202,

Cold War (1947-90), 90

209, 242n36, 246n15, 252n21

Colvile, Lieutenant-Colonel H.E. (Grenadier

Terminology, 230n2 Canadian Voyageurs in Egypt (see Deer, James, Canadian Voyageurs in Egypt) Canadians in the Sudan War outside of the Voyageur Contingent, 34 Canadien, Jean-Baptiste “Big John” (Khanawake personality), 213, 253n55 *Canoe, Peter, or Canot, Peter (CVB), 201-02, 251n15 Canoes, 19, 2/, 49, 54, 100, 103, 117, 152, 179-81, 212, 249n8 Cape Saint Vincent, 160 *Capitaine, Louis (CVB), 56-57, 96, 110,

Guards), 189-92 (text by), 229 Colonial Office (U.K.), 16, 17, 18 Conservative Party (ULK.), 30, 88, 250n15 Constantinople (Istanbul), ‘Turkey, 39 Construction and “High Steel,” 32,

99-103, 104, 108, 111, 213 Cook, J-M. (Thomas Cook and Son official), 80, 188-89 (text by) Cooper, James Fenimore (author), 116 Cork, Ireland, 176

Crimean War (1853-56), 40 Crocodiles, 48, 148, 155

Crofton, Major Morgan (South Staffordshire Regiment),

154, 155

145-46, 164, 188, 202, 206, 209,

Cromer, Earl of (see Baring, Sir Evelyn)

223, 236n17, 251-52n18, 252n21

Currency and Exchange, Explanations,

*Capitaine, Peter (GVB), 202

242n36, 248n10

Caron, Adolphe-Philippe (Canadian Minister of Militia and Defence), 34 Carvel- and Clinker-Built Boats, 179,

181, 248n1 Caughnawaga (see Kahnawake) Cayugas, 21, 23, 126

Champlain, Samuel de (1600s explorer), 103-04 Chapman, Henry (CVB), 173 Chatham, Earl of (William Pitt, UK. politician, d. 1806), 117, 185 Chicago, Illinois, 207

Dahabeeyahs,

139, /48

*Daillebout, Angus (CVB), 202 Dal (Dal Shellal) (see Nile River, Cataracts, and Neighbouring Communities) Dawson, Simon James

(boat service in

1870; RR), 181, 249n4 Dawson Road, Ontario, 249n4, 249n6,

249n7, 249n9 Deault, EE. (CVB), 80, 248n12 Deer, Esther (“Princess White Deer’), 104 *Deer, James; or Deerc, James (CVB), 11,

Chippewas (see Ojibways/ Chippewas)

12-13, 37, 38, 47, 48, 64, 76, 79, 81,

Chretien, Xavier (CVB), 248n12

82, 83-84, 95-96, 104, 107, 111,

Christianity, 22, 27, 32, 33, 34, 37, 38, 40, 62, 111, 120, 140, 161, 246n5 Christmas, 62

Cincinnati, Ohio, 211

124-27, 130, 152, 158-77 (text by), 162, 202-03, 216, 234n3, 236n17, 247n2, 248n16, 253n55 Deer, James, Canadian Voyageurs in Egypt, 11,

Clark, James (CVB), 173

37-38, 64, 84, 96, 107-08, 111, 124—

Climate, North Africa, 30, 35, 56, 64, 71,

27, 130, 216, 203, 234n3, 236n17,

268

| Mohawks

on the Nile

247—48nn 1-16, 252n20, 253n55 Editing, 12-13

Duncan, Colonel F. (Royal Artillery), 157, 168

Full Text, 158-77 Quoted, 37, 38, 47, 48, 76, 79, 81,

Earle, Major-General William, 72

82-83, 108

Egypt and Sudan, Polity, 10, 17, 38-44,

*Deer, John, or Deere, John (CVB), 160, 203

70, 71, 88-90, 121, 124, 220, 221,

*Deere, Mitchell (OVB), 203

227, 228, 229

*Deerhouse, Thom (CVB), 203

Egyptian Military Forces, 10, 39, 40, 41,

Delawares, 22

42, 43, 54, 55, 58, 60, 63, 66, 69, 71,

*Delisle, Francois (RR; CVF), 31, 55, 72,

73, 76, 88, 89, 90, 142, 150, 153, 163,

109, 114, 119, 167, 204, 205, 252n26

167, 169, 170, 171, 220, 221, 227, 228

Delisle, Francois (son of CVF), 119

El Obeid, Battle (1883), 41

*Denis, Joseph, or Denny, Joseph (CVB),

El Teb, Battles (1884), 42, 221

72, 212 Denison, Captain Egerton (South Staffordshire Regiment; CVO), 57,

215 Denison, Brevet Lieutenant-Colonel

*Elhiott, John (CVB), 204 Entertainment Industry, Iroquois Participation, 102-04, /05 Equatoria, 40 Eries, 21

Frederick C. (Governor General’s

Esna, 174

body guard, Canadian Militia,

Ethiopia, 89, 216

commanded the Canadian

Eyre, Lieutenant-Colonel Philip (South

Voyageurs; RR; CVO), 32, 33, 37,

Staffordshire Regiment), 192-93

38, 48-49, 54, 55, 64, 65-66, 72, 75,

(text by)

81, 84, 88, 92, 108, 126, 143, 144, 152, 159, 161, 193-94 (text by), 202,

Factory Work, 106

214, 215, 222, 227, 234n3, 246n10

“Famous Deer Brothers, Champion Indian

Denison, Julia (wife of Frederick), 84

‘Trick Riders of the World,” 104

Detroit, Michigan, 102, 121, 210

Fenian Raids (1866, 1870), 32, 121

Dominion Bridge Gompany, 101—02

First Nations (see Algonkians; Iroquoians;

Dongola, 79, 88, 150, 217, 219, 222

Iroquois, Confederacy; Community,

Dongola, Murdir of (Governor), 222

Induidual, and National Names)

Dongolese and Other Local Workers (see

First World War (1914-18), 90, 123-24

also Swimmers, Arab), 10, 75, 51, 54,

Fishing, 52, 98-99, 246-47n16

58, 71, 86, 125, 140, 145-46, 152-

Five Nations (see Iroquois)

53, 154, 155, 164-65, /66, 185, 188

Fletcher, George (CVB), 166, 247—48n7

Dorchester, New Brunswick, 248n16 Dow, Xavier (CVB), 248n1]2 Drownings, 56-57, 96, 110, 145-46, 148,

164-65, 183, 188, 200, 202, 205, 206, 208, 209, 223, 236n17, 247—48n7

Forwarders and River-Based Freighting, 19, 25, 100, 102, 104, 107, 108 France, 21, 22, 39, 117 Franklin, Sir John (Naval officer/arctic explorer, d. 1847), 249n8

Index

Free Press, The (Ottawa), 79, 80, 82, 85,

119, 146, 200, 211

Fur Trade/Traders, 19, 21, 23, 99-100,

102, 104, 107, 111

|

269

*Green, Alexis/ Alexander (CVB), 204 Grenfell, Local Brigadier-General FW, 93, 94 Grove, Brevet Lieutenant-Colonel C. (East Yorkshire Regiment), 58, 94,

Galliher, W.A. (CVB), 173

95, 155, 195-97 (text by)

Gathering, 98, 246-47n16

Gubat, 67, 68-69, 70, 75, 224, 225

Gazeite, The (Montreal), 80, 82 Gemai, 35, 37, 38, 39-60, 93, 145, 152, 162, 165, 195-96 *George, Angus/Ignace, or Kanento, Angus/Ignace (CVB), 204

Halifax, Nova Scotia, 79, 81, 176-77, 226 Hamilton, Ontario, 23 Hammill, Commander ‘L.’ (Royal Navy), 153, 168, 172

George V (King, 1910-36), 123

Hanoverian, 79, 85, 176-77, 226, 227

Georgian Bay, 21

*Harkett, George, or Hackett, George

Germany, 90, 123-24 Gibraltar, Island and Straits, 37, 160,

176, 222, 225

(CVB), 211 Harris, William (CVB), 173 Haudenosaunee (see Iroquois)

Gibson/Wahta, 25

Hebbeh, 226

Gigs, 183-84, 235n11

Henderson, Richard (see Burgess,

Gilbert, William (Librettist), 89

Richard)

Giza, 156, 157, 175

Henley Royal Regatta, 184, 249n12

Gizeh, 151

High Steel (see Construction and “High

Gladstone, William (U.K. Prime Minister), 41-44, 71, 86-89, 220, 227 Globe, The (Toronto), 112, 125, 248n16 Gordon, Major-General Charles

Steel”) Highgate Cemetery, 35 *Aill, Angus, or Jacob, Angus (CVB), 204, 206

(Governor General of Sudan), 10,

*Aiill, Joseph (CVB), 211

17, 40, 42-43, 44, 46, 61, 62, 63, 68,

*Mill, Matthias (CVB), 152, 204-05, 252n30

69-70, 73-74, 87, 89, 95, 174, 186,

Hill, Stavey (U.K. Conservative MP), 30,

220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225 Graham, George (CVF), 151 Grand River Tract, 22-23, 109, 123-24,

128, 210 Grant, Ulysses (U.S. president during the Red River Rebellion), 19

185, 250n15 Historiography,

10-11, 13-15,

17, 98,

104-06, 127, 129-30, 198, 213, 216, 229, 242n40, 243-44nn 14-15, 245n33, 245n2, 246-48n16, 250— Sinl, 253n55, 254n2

Graphic, The, 13, 41

Hopkins, Frances Anne (artist), 2/

Great Lakes, 19, 21-23, 25, 98, 99, 101,

*Hops, John (CVB), 57, 200

105, 114, 115, 117, 127, 178, 179,

Horses, 45, 46, 67, 155, 249n9

249n4

Hudson Bay/Hudson’s Bay Company,

Great Lone Land, The, 18

99, 178, 249n8

270

| Mohawks on the Nile

Hunting/ Hunters (see also Fur Trade/

Traders), 98, 106, 107, 245n2, 249n8 Hurons/Wendats, 21, 211 Huyshe, Captain G.L. (Rifle Brigade in

1870; RR), 20, 181-84 (text by), 249n8, 249n11

92-111, 179-83, 185-87 “Troquois Ignace” (RR), 210 Irvine, E. Matthew Bell (helped organize Canadian voyageurs; RR), 26 Islam and the Muslim World,

10, 17, 25,

40-42, 43, 71, 86, 88-89, 124, 157, 175, 220

Independent Order of Foresters, 109

Israel, 90

India/Indian Troops in Sudan, 71, 84,

87, 226 Indian Advancement Act (Canada), 128, 129 Indian Department (U.K. to 1860, then Canada), 28, 29, 115, 128-29 Ireland, 16, 78-79, 88, 176, 225, 226, 248n15 Troquoians (see also Confederacy, Indwidual,

*Jackson, Louis (CVF), 11, 12-13, 30, 31,

32, 37, 47, 48, 53, 55-58, 59-60, 64, 65, 78, 79-80, 81, 83, 84, 93, 95, 96, 107, 108, 111, 112, 114, 124-29, 130, 131-57 (text by), 135, 159, 160, 162, 166, 167, 174, 177, 188, 202, 204, 205, 216, 223, 224, 236n17, 240n8, 242n40, 245n1,

and National Names), 21-22, 98-99,

246n7, 246n11, 246-47n16, 248n9,

105-06, 107, 211

248n12, 252n20, 253n55

Iroquois

Jackson, Louis, Our Caughnawagas in Egypt,

Confederacy (Mohawks, Oneidas,

11, 30, 37, 84, 96, 107-08, 111,

Onondagas, Cayugas, Senecas,

124-28, 205, 216, 242n40, 245-

‘Tuscaroras), 8 (map), 10, 16, 21-23,

47nn 1-16, 253n55

106, 118-19, 123, 124, 126, 127-29,

Editing, 12-13, 248n12

130, 132

Full Text, 137-57

External Relationships with Other

Quoted, 30, 32, 37, 47, 53, 58, 60-61,

Polities, 27-32, 91, 98, 102-04,

78, 80, 108, 124, 125, 127, 236n17

108-09, 112-29, 134, 184

Jacob, Angus (see Hill, Angus)

History and Cultural Practices

*Jacob, John (CVB), 205, 206, 252n34

(outside of the Canadian voyageurs)

*Jacob, John, or Ononsawenrate, John

(see also Community and National Names), 10, 17, 21-23, 25, 27-32, 91-111, 113-20, 126-29, 132

(CVB), 205 *Jacob, Joseph/Joe (CVB), 204, 206, 252n35

Iroquois in Northern and Western

*Jacob, Louis (RR; CVB), 205, 206

Canada, 23, 99, 100, 126-27, 182,

*Jacob, Mitchel (CVB), 160, 206, 247n2,

249n8

252-53n38

Work (see also Canadian Voyageur

*Jacob, Thomas (RR?; CVB), 205, 206

Contingent; Modernization and

Jacob, Unidentified Mohawk Boatman,

Urbanization; Particular Endeavours, Jobs, and Industries), 20, 25-29, 56,

59, 236n23 *January, Peter (CVB), 145, 164, 206

Index

|

271

Jocks Family (Xahnawake), 109

Kinzua Dam, 91

*Jocks, Matthew (CVB), 207

Kirbekan, Battle (1885), 71-73, 122, 198,

Johnston, George (CVB), 173

225 Kitchener, Herbert (commanded

Kahnawake/Caughnawaga (see also

Egyptian Army, 1890s), 90

Canadian Voyageur Contingent;

Koran, 40

Iroquoians; Iroquois; Jndwidual

Korosko,

Names), 17, 20, 22-23, 25-33, 32, 34,

Korti, 46, 61, 62, 63, 65, 71, 74, 84, 88,

142, 217

65, 81-83, 91, 99, 101, 103, 104-05,

97, 186, 189, 212, 217, 218, 222,

106, 107-11, 117, 118-20, 123,

223, 225, 226

127-29, 132-34, 177, 199, 201-11,

Kroomen (see West African Kroomen)

249n8, 250-5 In1 Kajbar (see Nile River, Cataracts, and Neighbouring Communities)

La Prairie, Quebec, 22 Labat, Hospital Sergeant Gaston P.

Kakabeka Falls, 2/

(Regiment of Canadian Artillery;

Kanento, Angus/Ignace (see George, Angus)

CVNCO),

Kanesatake/Oka (see also Canadian Voyageur Contingent; Iroquoians;

77, 215, 253n55

*Lachaire, Peter, or Ononsanoron, Peter

(CVB), 212

Iroquois; Indwidual Names), 10, 17,

Lachine, Quebec, 22, 101, 132, 159

20, 22, 23, 25, 27, 33, 72, 97, 99,

Lachine Rapids, 20, 26, 30, 97, 106, 117,

104, 106, 108, 109, 110, 120, 126, 130, 199, 211-12 Kanienkehaka (Mohawks) (see Canadian

186 Lacrosse, 83, 103, 199

*Lahache, Charley/Charles (CVB), 207

Voyageur Contingent; Iroquoians;

Lake Winnipeg, 179, 249n4

Iroquois; Community and Indwidual

Lakes Nasser and Nubia, 91

Names)

Lambert, J.T. (helped organize Canadian

Katinontie, Peter (see Phillips, Peter) Keels, 19, 53, 150, 151, 152, 179, 187

voyageurs), 27 Lansdowne, Marquess of (Henry Charles

Kennedy, Alex (CVB), 173, 248n12

Keith Petty-Fitzmaurice, Governor

Kennedy, Lieutenant-Colonel William N.

General of Canada),

16-17,

18,

(90th Winnipeg Battalion of Rifles,

23-24, 26, 27, 29, 30, 31, 34, 37,

Canadian Militia, Paymaster for the

94, 108, 113, 116, 120-21, 134, 184

Canadian voyageurs; RR; CVO), 65,

(text by), 221, 222, 227

85, 146, 155, 215

Larivier, Xavier (CBV), 248n12

Kentake, 22

Last of the Mohicans, The, 116

Khartoum, 10, 17, 42-46, 51, 55, 61-62,

Laurence, B. (optician), 36

63, 68, 69-71, 73-74, 75, 76, 86-87, 89, 131, 216, 217, 218, 220, 221, 222, 225, 246-47n16 Khedive of Egypt, 39

*Lazarre, Joseph, or Lazor, Joseph (CVB), 207, 253n41 Le Monde (Montreal), 33 *Leblanc, Joseph (GVB), 207

272

| Mohawks on the Nile

*Leclaire, Peter (CVB), 92, 207

McDonald, Donald (CVB), 173

*Leo, Thomas (CVB), 72, 212

McNeiul’s Bay, Ontario,

Liberal Party (U.K.) (see also Gladstone,

Medals and Orders,

William), 41, 88

121-22,

198, 227,

252n26 Melgund, Viscount (Gilbert John Murray-

Liverpool, U.K., 85

London, U.K. (see also United Kingdom, Government),

182, 183, 249n7

16, 24, 27, 30, 36, 41,

Kynymound Elliot, Military Secretary to Lord Lansdowne),

17, 24-25,

43, 71, 85, 89, 93, 128, 185, 220,

27-28, 30, 36, 86, 93, 97, 113, 116,

221, 222, 225

128, 134, 210, 221, 222, 245-46n4

Lorette/Wendake, 211

Merowe,

Lorimer, Alexander de (Indian agent at

Metemma, 46, 62-63, 67, 217, 218, 223,

Kahnawake), 32 Lumbering/ Timber Industry, 19, 20, 23,

25-27, 28, 31, 34, 36, 49, 56, 58, 65,

192

224 Metemma, Battle (1885), 67 Métis (“Half-Breeds” in 1880s Texts),

80-81, 92, 94, 98, 100, 102, 104, 107,

18, 25, 26, 33, 85-86, 97, 117, 126,

108, 109, 110, 113, 151, 179, 186

185-86, 208, 226

Luxor, 84, 141 *Lyon, Martin (CVB), 72, 207

Middleton, Major-General Frederick (Canadian Militia), 86 Milk, Anthony (CVB), 173

Macdonald, Sir John A. (Canadian prime minister), 23-24, 83, 85, 221 MacRae, Captain Alexander (7th Battalion Fusiliers, Canadian Militia;

RR; CVO), 27-28, 30, 32, 113, 128, 156, 215, 222, 246n12 Mahdi (see Muhammad Ahmad ibn ‘Abdullahi) Mahdists, #7, 43, 45, 61, 63, 66-68, 69-70, 71-74, 86-88, 124, 220, 221, 222, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228 *Mailloux, Angus/Ignace (CVB), 76, 173,

207-08 *Mailloux, ‘Thomas (CVB), 208 Maloney, ‘Thomas (CVB), 173 Malta, 38, 78, 84, 157, 176, 225 Mann, Major, 155

Mingos, 22, 23 Modernization and Urbanization,

16, 17,

23-24, 25, 27, 29, 86, 91, 100-06, 115, 123, 129-30 Mohawks (see Canadian Voyageur Contingent; Iroquoians; Iroquois; Community and Indwidual Names) Monasir (see Nile River, Cataracts, and

Neighbouring Communities) Moncton, New Brunswick, 177, 248n16

Mongo, Joseph, or Mungo, Joseph

(see

Wengo, Joseph) *Monique, Francois (RR?; CVB), 208 *Monique, Joachim/John, or Swansan, Joachim (CVB), 208 *Montour, Baptiste/John, or Mentour,

Baptiste/John (CVB), 208-09

*Martin, John (CVB), 208

Montour, Ignace (RR), 210, 249n8

*Martin, Mitchel/ Michel (CVB), 208

*Montour, Jacques/James, or Mentout,

Martin, Peter/Oronhyatekha, 109

Jacques/James (RR?; CVB), 129,

Marx, Karl, 85

209, 253n45

Index

Montreal, Quebec,

12, 20, 22, 23, 29, 34,

|

273,

132, 150, 152-55, 166, 167, 185,

37, 57, 80, 81-83, 85, 99-100, 101,

187, 188, 189-92, 196, 279, 254n3

103, 109, 112, 118, 129, 131, 133,

Akasha, 124, 149, 150, 151, 191,

134, 158, 159, 177, 181, 222, 226

217,218

Montreal Daily Star, The, 29-30, 58, 65, 82, 83, 113, 114

Amara, 219

Ambikol, 56, 97, 146-47, /48, 131,

Moore, Captain, 145

153, 154, 165, 167, 186-87, 190,

*Morris, John (GVB), 57, 110, 165, 209,

191, 200, 209, 217, 218, 223

223, 247n2

Bab el Kabir, 75, 195

Morrison, Alexander (CVF), 53, 58, 246n10

Batan el Hajar, 191, 192

Moses (Biblical figure), 111, 140, 246n5

Dal (or Dal Shellal), 55, 56, 59-60,

Mosques,

64, 93, 149, 150, 151, 152, 154-55,

77, 140, 157, 175

Muhammad (Prophet), 40-41

165, 167, 174, 188, 191, 195, 217,

Muhammad Ahmad ibn ‘Abdullahi (“the

218, 219, 223, 246n13, 248n9

Mahdi,” leader of the Sudanese

Dar al Honir, 192

Rebels), 17, 36, 40-41, 42, 43, 46,

El Arut, 192

64, 66, 71, 73, 87, 88, 89, 90, 124,

First Cataract, 47, 141, 763, 217,

220, 221, 227

246n8 Fourth Cataract, 62, 68, 225

Naval Brigade (see Royal Navy, Naval Brigade, and Royal Marines) Neilson, Surgeon-Major John Louis

Kajbar, 191, 193, 210, 219 Monasir, 191-92 Okmeh,

191

Hubert (Regiment of Canadian

Saras, 55, 145, 152-53, 163-65,

Artillery; RR; CVO), 33, 34, 38, 49,

167, 188-89, 192, 223, 246n13

64, 135, 141, 155, 160, 215, 236n17

Second (Great) Cataract, 15, 45,

New France, 22, 99, 117

50-51, 54, 55, 56-57, 59, 143, 162,

New South Wales ‘Troops in Sudan, 67

187, 195, 217, 218, 221, 254n]1

New York, New York, 53, 104

Semna, 95, 146-47, 151-53, 165,

New York Thruway, 91

167, 188, 189-92, 202, 218, 223

New York Times, The, 53, 79-80, 81

Tanjur, 148-49, 150-51, 154, 167,

Newfoundland, 16

190-91, 218

Nile River

Third (Hannik) Cataract, 56, 59, 61,

Characteristics, 9 (map), 44-46,

191, 217, 218, 219

54-56, 58-62, 69, 73, 74, 91, 95,

North West Company, 99

136, 137-38, 141-42, 145, 147, 149,

North-West Mounted Police, 18

152, 155, 161, 163, 166, 189-94

North-West Rebellion (1885), 85-86, 226,

Distance Charts, 151, 216-19,

254nn2-3 Nile River, Cataracts, and Neighbouring Communities, 17, 45-46, 91, 112,

227 Nubians, 136, 138, 245n3 Nuggars, 136, 139, 151

274

| Mohawks on the Nile

Ocean Ring, 34-38, 47, 81, 110, 134-35,

159-61, 222

Peterborough, Ontario, 27, 108, 160,

166, 200, 222

Ohio Country, 22, 23, 117

Ojibways/ Chippewas (see also Prince,

*Phillips, Peter, or Katinontie, Peter (RR?; CVB), 119, 209

Henry), 17, 18, 32, 33, 37, 38, 53, 58,

Pilon, Leon (CVB), 80, 248n13

76, 82, 92, 95, 97, 125, 224, 249n10

Pinnaces, 58, 93, 141, 153, 240n8, 246n14

Oka (see Kanesatake/Oka)

Pirates of Penzance, The, 89

Okmeh (see Nile River, Cataracts, and

Pontiac War (1763-64), 117, 126

Neighbouring Communities) Omah, Captain, 162 Omdurman,

Poonah, 77, 78, 79, 176, 225

Population Statistics Canada, 16, 29

89-90

Oneidas, 21, 22, 23, 25, 126

Iroquois, 27, 29, 101, 199

Onondagas, 21, 23, 126

Sudan, 41-42

Ononsawenrate, John (see Jacob, John)

Port Hope, Ontario, 210

Onsanoron, Peter (see Lachaire, Peter)

Prejudice, Euro-American/First Nations,

Orde, Lieutenant C.R. (Rifle Brigade), 145, 153-54

112-13, 116-17, 176-77

Oronhyatekha, or Peter Martin (doctor/ forester), 109

Prince, Henry (Salteaux Ojibway; RR; CVF), 58, 61, 92, 125, 154, 224

O’Rourke, William (CVB) 80, 248n13 Oskondagee, Ontario, 183, 249n9

Oswegatchie (Ogdensburg), New York, 22, 23

Prince Arthur’s Landing (Thunder Bay), Ontario, 19-20, 178, 249n4, 249n9 Prince of Wales (later Edward VII), 103 Professions, Iroquois in, 109

Ottawa, Ontario (see also Canada, Government),

26-27, 34-35, 78, 79-82, 107, 109,

16, 18, 25-28, 31, 63,

Pyramids, 76, 84, 136, 156, 157, 174, 175, 176, 225, 227

79, 82, 85, 100, 106, 108, 116, 122, 128, 160, 173, 177, 211, 212, 222 Ottawa River, 10, 17, 22, 25, 58-59, 92, 100, 103, 107, 113, 121, 151-52 Our Caughnawagas in Egypt (see Jackson, Louis, Our Caughnawagas in Egypt) Owen Sound, Ontario, 204, 206

Quarrying (Kahnawake), 28, 101 Quebec, Quebec,

16, 17, 24, 26, 34, 38,

101, 103, 120, 134, 159, 195, 214, 222, 227 Quebec Bridge Disaster (1907), 101 Queenstown (Cobh), Ireland, 78, 176,

225, 248n15 Panjdeh Incident, Afghanistan (1885), 71, Racism (see Prejudice)

87-88, 226 Parliament (Canada), 28, 85, 100

Parliament (U.K.), 30, 44, 88-89, 117, 123, 186, 221, 227 Perry, Lord (D.V. Pirie, Lieutenant, Ist Life Guards),

145, 146, 164

Rae, John (Hudson’s Bay Company, 1830s—50s), 182, 249n8 Rafts, 25-26, 100-02, 103, 235n11 Railways North Africa, 39, 45, 47, 51, 54, 55,

Index

|

57, 81, 82, 84, 87, 90, 135-36, 141,

19th Hussars, 73, 76, 173

145, 161-62, 163, 167, 174-76, 180,

Black Watch (Royal Highland

217, 222, 223, 225, 226, 254n1

Regiment), 72-73, 78, 110, 141,

North America, 18, 19, 25, 29,

180, 246n6

34, 79-82, 86, 100, 101, 177, 212,

Essex Regiment, 165

248n16

Gordon Highlanders, 156, 173

Ramses the Great (ancient Pharaoh), 142, 246n9

Ordnance Store Corps, 76, 173

Royal Engineers, 151

Rat Portage (Kenora), Ontario, 230-3 1n13

South Staffordshire Regiment, 59,

Rebellion of 1837-38, 115-16, 117, 118,

72, 73, 78, 192, 215

245n1

275

Regiments and Other Military

Red Cross, 33

Formations, United States, 116, 200,

Red River Rebellion (1869-70), 8 (map),

205, 245n33, 252n30

18-21, 25, 26-27, 30, 33, 51, 56,

Regina, Saskatchewan, 216

57, 97, 107, 117, 121-22, 126, 130,

Remington, Simon J. (acting

178-84, 201, 204, 205, 206, 208,

Quartermaster, later commanded

209, 210, 213, 249n4, 249n9

second group of voyageurs; CVE

Regiments and Other Military Formations, Canada (see also

promoted CVO),

Riddell, Lieutenant H.S.H. (60th Rifles in

Canadian Militia; Zndwidual Officers’ Names)

167, 215

1870; RR), 20 Riel, Louis (Métis leader in Red River

6th Battalion Fusiliers, 83

and North-West Rebellions,

7th Battalion Fusiliers, 215

70, 1885), 18, 85-86, 226

90th Winnipeg Battalion of Rifles,

Riviére-du-Loup, Quebec, 24, 101

65, 215

Roads

1869—

114th Battalion (First World War), 123

North Africa, 135-36

Canadian Expeditionary Force (First

North America, 19, 25, 249n4,

World War), 123

249nn6—7, 249n9

Governor General’s Body Guard, 32, 214, 215 Governor General’s Foot Guards,

Rochester, New York, 23

Ross, John or Alex (CVB), 200 Royal Navy, Naval Brigade, and Royal

63, 215

Marines,

Regiment of Canadian Artillery, 33,

51-52, 54, 55, 58, 76, 78, 83, 96-97,

215

127, 141, 173, 220

Victoria Voltigeurs, 126 Regiments and Other Military

10, 34, 39, 43, 45, 50,

Royal Victoria Military Hospital, Netley, UK., 57, 200

Formations, United Kingdom (see

Royle, Charles (Victorian historian), 96, 229

also Canadian Voyageur Contingent;

Russo—Turkish War (1877), 33

Red River Rebellion; Sudan War; Indwidual British Officers’ Names)

Saint Lambert, Quebec, 82

276

| Mohawks on the Nile

Saint James Hotel, Montreal, 82 Saint Lawrence River, 10, 16, 20, 21, 22,

Sosan Kanatine (wife of CVB Peter Phillips), 119, 209

26, 29, 30, 37, 47, 81, 82, 97, 99,

South Africa, 104, 165, 247-48n7

100, 101, 703, 106, 107, 117, 121,

Spaight, Major W.E. (Royal Engineers), 155

126, 132, 136, 178, 186

Steamboats/Steamships

Saint Lawrence Seaway, 91

Atlantic and Mediterranean, 34-38,

Saint Regis (see Akwesasne/Saint Regis)

37, 38, 47, 79, 85, 134-35, 159-61,

Sakokennienkwas, Frank (see Beauvais,

176-77, 185, 222, 226, 227

Frank)

North Africa, 34, 45, 46, 47, 49, 53,

Salamat, 73, 225

54, 58, 61, 63, 68-69, 70, 84, 93,

*Sam, Peter (CVB), 209

137, 141-43, 151, 153-54, 161, 162,

Saras (see Nile River, Cataracts, and

174, 180, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226

Neighbouring Communities) Sarkamatto, 59-60, 150, 164-65, 167, 192, 195-96, 217, 219, 223 Sault Sainte Marie, Ontario/Michigan, 19 Saulteaux Ojibways (see Ojibways/ Chippewas) Second Ashanti War (1873-74), 18, 54, 185 Semna (see Nile River, Cataracts, and

Neighbouring Communities)

North America, 19, 26, 106, 115, 213 Stewart, Lieutenant-Colonel J.D.H. (11th Hussars), 42, 71, 73, 161, 220, 222,

225, 226 Sturgeon Lake, 210 Suakin, 43, 45, 72, 87, 88, 124, 218, 220, 221, 226, 227 Sudan, Polity (see Egypt and Sudan, Polity) Sudan War (1884-85), Narrative

Senecas, 21, 23, 25,91, 126, 245n33

Events Leading to British

Senecas, Sandusky, 22, 23

Intervention, 38-43

Serapis, 84

Red Sea/Suakin Front, 43, 44-45,

Seven Nations of Canada, 22

72, 86-67, 88, 124, 218, 220, 221,

Seven Years’ War (1756-63), 21, 117, 129

226, 227

Shantymen, 20, 25-27, 31, 34, 36, 49,

Siege of Khartoum, 10, 17, 42-46,

58, 80-81

61, 62-63, 68-70, 71, 73-74, 76, 86,

Sharia Law, 89

87, 89, 220, 221, 225

Shebandowan Lake/River, 178, 182, 210,

Gordon Relief Expedition (see also

249n7

Canadian Voyageur Contingent), 9

Shellal, 141, 162, 174, 217, 223

(map), 10, 17, 43-75, 94, 97, 184—

Sherbrooke, Quebec, 27

97, 220-28, 234n57

Simpson, Sir George (Hudson’s Bay

British Withdrawal, 87-88

Company, 1810s—50s), 182, 249n8

Sudanese-Egyptian Border, 42, 70,

Six Nations (see Iroquois)

73, 89, 228

Six Nations Women’s Patriotic League, 123

Reconquest (1896-98), 89-90

Slavery in Sudan, 40, 41, 42, 43, 69, 88, 90

Suez Canal, 38-39, 42, 84, 89, 90, 220

*Smith, Lawrence (RR?; CVB), 210

Suez Crisis (1956), 90

Sphinx, /56, 175

Sullivan, Sir Arthur (composer), 89

Index

Sultan of Turkey, 39

Tuscaroras, 22, 23, 91, 126

Swansan, Joachim (see Monique, Joachim)

‘Iwo Rivers, Ignace/Angus (see Three

Swimmers, Arab, 56, 125, 145, 146, 149,

150, 154, 193 Sydney, Nova Scotia, 37, 134-35,

|

277

Rivers, Ignace/Angus) Tyendinaga, 22, 202, 203

159-

60, 214, 222

Uganda, 40, 216 United Kingdom, Government (often

‘Taiping Rebellions (1850-64), 40

called “London”), 10, 16-17, 23-25,

*Talbot, Louis (CVB), 210

27-28, 29, 30, 36, 38, 41-43, 44, 70,

Tamai, Battles (1884 and 1885), 43, 226

71, 78, 85, 86-90, 93, 109-10, 114,

‘Tanjur (see Nile River, Cataracts, and

115, 116, 117, 121-22, 128, 157,

Neighbouring Communities)

174, 185, 186, 202, 209, 220-28 United Nations Peacekeeping Force

Tanjur Island, 148, 151

Tel el Kebir, Battle (1882), 39, 43

(1956), 90 Universal Exhibition, Paris (1867), 103

‘Terminology, Spelling, and Word Choices, 11-12

Upper Fort Garry, Manitoba,

18, 19, 178

Tewfik (Egyptian Khedive), 39 Verner, Captain Willoughby (Rifle

Thebes, 141 ‘Thomas Cook and Son, 45, 54, 76, 80,

84, 137, 176, 188, 248n14

Brigade), 60, 193 (text by) Victoria (Queen,

*Thompson, Joseph, or ‘Thomas, Joseph

1837-1901), 71, 83, 85,

86, 87, 89, 90, 103, 105, 119, 121, 122, 123, 184, 227, 247n1

(CVB), 200 *Three Rivers, Ignace/Angus, or ‘Two

Victoria Bridge, 101, /03

Rivers, Ignace/Angus (RR?; CVB), Wadi Halfa, 34, 45, 47, 48, 50, 53, 54,

31, 210, 253n51 ‘Timber Industry (see Lumbering/Timber Industry)

155-37, 162, 167-74, 192, 195, 207,

Tioirakaron, Joseph (see Zacharie [or

217, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227

Tiorakaron], Joseph)

Wady Halfa, 162 Wady Halfa United Services Athletic

Tofrik, Battle (1885), 226 Toronto, Ontario, 19, 23, 32, 84, 112, 115,

178, 206, 210, 214, 216, 222, 227 Tourism/Guiding, North America,

19, 99

‘Traders (see Fur ‘Trade/Traders) ‘Transatlantic Cable, 16, 129, 221 Trois-Riviéres/Three Rivers, Quebec, 27,

34, 82, 108, 160, 182, 222 Truro, Nova Scotia, 251 Tugboats,

142, 143

Turkey, 39, 90

55, 61, 76, 81, 88, 91, 129, 141, 143,

Sports Event (1885), 76, 156-57,

167-74, 200, 207, 225, 248n12 Wahta/Gibson, 25

Walbank, William (surveyor at Kahnawake), 250-51n1 War of 1812-15, 114-15, 117, 118, 121, 128 War Office (ULIK.), 24, 188 (text by), 189-92 (text by), 229 Ward’s Landing, Ontario, 182, 249n7

278

| Mohawks on the Nile

Weapons, 35, 39, 41, 44, 48-49, 66, 67,

70, 72, 74, 85, 89, 161, 165, 182, 193, 237n42

*Zacharie, Francois/Frank, or Zachary,

Francois/ Frank (CVB), 211 *Zacharie, Joseph, or Tiiorakaron, Joseph

Wellington Barracks, U.K., 85

(CVB), 211

Wendake/Lorette, 211

*Zacharie, Leon (CVB), 212

Wendais/Hurons, 21, 211

Zobeir (alternative to Charles Gordon), 43

*Wengo, Joseph, or Mungo/Mongo, Joseph (CVB),

165, 166, 211, 247n6

West African Kroomen, 54, 109-10, 125,

154, 185, 234n57, 242n36, 247—-48n7 Whaleboats or “Whalers” and Other Small Craft, North Africa

Design, 50, 51-53, 54, 59, 97, 144, 150-51, /66, 194, 235n11 Management,

/5, 51-53, 55, 56-58,

59-61, 74, 93-97, 94, 112-13, 125, 141, 143, 144, 145, 146-47, 149, 150-51, 152-53, 162-63, 164, 16566, 186-87, 188-97, 194 Opinions, 53, 61-62, 97-98, 135, 137, 141, 143, 146-48, 151-52, 157 Whaleboats or “Whalers” and Other Small Craft, North America, 19-20, 178-84 *Williams, Charley/Charles (CVB), 211 Wilson, Colonel Sir Charles (Royal Engineers), 68-70, 75 Windsor, U.K., 85, 103, 122 Winnipeg, Manitoba,

18, 97, 186, 221,

222, 224 Wolseley, General Lord Garnet (RR), 18-19, 20, 24, 27, 30, 32, 39, 43, 45—46, 50, 51, 54, 56, 61-63, 68-69, 70-71, 73, 75, 76, 84, 86, 88, 89, 90, 94, 107, 116, 134, 143, 145, 178-81 (text by), 780, 182, 184, 210, 221, 222, 223, 225, 227, 246-47n16 Wolseley Ring, 18-19, 54 Wood, Major-General Sir Evelyn (Egyptian Army), 55, 144-45, 155

About the Author

Dr. Carl Benn is the chair of the Department of History at Ryerson University. Before taking up that post in 2008, he worked in the museum field for thirty-four years, primarily in senior curatorial roles, and taught undergraduate history and graduate museum studies at the University of Toronto. He has restored historical buildings, curated numerous exhibits,

produced public history internet resources, and published extensively. His books include Historic Fort York, The Iroquois in the War of 1812, and The War of 1812.