Moche Burial Patterns: An investigation into prehispanic social structure 9781841714486, 9781407324562

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Table of Contents
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
LIST OF TABLES
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ABSTRACT
1. Introduction to the Research Problem
2. Background to the Study
3. The Anthropology and Archaeology of Funerary Rituals
4. Investigating Moche Burial Patterns
5. Moche Funerary Contexts
6. Mortuary Variability and Status Differentiation
7. Status Differentiation Among Moche Collectivities
8. Some Reflections on Moche Funerary Practice
References Cited
Annexe 1. Corpus of Burials Selected for Analysis
Annexe 2. Moche Burials Excavated at Huacas de Moche

Citation preview

BAR S1066 2002

Moche Burial Patterns An investigation into prehispanic social structure

MILLAIRE: MOCHE BURIAL PATTERNS

B A R

Jean-François Millaire

BAR International Series 1066 2002

Moche Burial Patterns An investigation into prehispanic social structure

Jean-Fran9ois Millaire

BAR International Series 1066 2002

Published in 2016 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 1066 Moche Burial Patterns

© J-F Millaire and the Publisher 2002 The author's moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher.

ISBN 9781841714486 paperback ISBN 9781407324562 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841714486 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by Archaeopress in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd/ Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 2002. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2016.

BAR

PUBLISHING BAR titles are available from:

EMAIL

PHONE FAX

BAR Publishing 122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK [email protected] +44 (0)1865 310431 +44 (0)1865 316916 www.barpublishing.com

Cover: Moche IV ceramic vessel from Huacas de Moche (G314). Frontispiece: Rectangular burial chamber at Huacas de Moche (G444).

Contents Contents

pagev

Illustrations Tables

ix xiii

Acknowledgements Abstract

xv xvii

1 • Introduction to the Research Problem

3

1.1

The Moche culture

3

1.2

Moche social structure

3

1.3

Investigating Moche social structure

7

1.4

Outline of chapters

2 • Background to the Study

10

13

2.1

North coast environment

13

2.2 2.3

Prehistory of the Peruvian north coast Archaeological research on the Moche culture

14 21

3 • The Anthropology and Archaeology of Funerary Rituals

25

3 .1

The anthropology of funerary rituals

25

3.2

The archaeological study of mortuary practices

27

3.3

Stimulating research avenues

32

4 • Investigating Moche Burial Patterns

33

4.1

The data gathering process

33

4.2

Data analysis and measures of association

34

5 • Moche Funerary Contexts

43

5 .1

The Piura Valley

43

5 .2

The Lambayeque Valley 5.2.1 Batan Grande 5.2.2 Pampa Grande 5.2.3 Santuario de Sipan 5.2.4 The Lambayeque Valley in perspective

43 43 44 44 51

5.3

The Jequetepeque Valley 5.3.1 Pacatnamu 5.3.2 San Jose de Moro 5.3.3 Huaca Dos Cabezas 5.3.4 Cerro la Mina 5.3.5 The Jequetepeque Valley in perspective

51 51 65

69 70 70

Moche Burial Patterns: An Investigation into Prehispanic Social Structure

5.4

5.5

5.6

5.7 5.8

The Chicama Valley 5.4.1 El Brujo Complex 5.4.2 Magdalena de Cao 5.4.3 Salamanca Playa 5.4.4 Mocollope 5.4.5 Cerro Sorcape 5.4.6 Pampa de Chicama 5.4.7 Other contexts in the Chicama Valley 5.4.8 The Chicama Valley in perspective The Moche Valley 5.5.1 Huanchaco 5.5.2 Caballo Muerto 5.5.3 Galindo 5.5.4 Huacas de Moche 5.5.5 Cerro Blanco site 5.5.6 The Moche Valley: A regional perspective The Viru Valley 5.6.1 Purpur cemetery 5.6.2 Gallinazo Group 5.6.3 Castillo de Tomaval 5.6.4 Huaca de la Cruz 5.6.5 Huancaco 5.6.6 The Viru Valley in perspective The Chao Valley The Santa Valley 5.8.1 Pampa Blanca 5.8.2 Pampa de Los Incas 5.8.3 Cenicero The N epefia Valley

5.9 5.10 The Casma Valley 5.11 The Huarmey Valley

6 • Mortuary Variability and Status Differentiation 6.1

6.2

6.3

Age and gender profiles 6.1.1 Age profile 6.1.2 Gender profile Funerary rituals, energy expenditure and inequality 6.2.1 Status differentiation 6.2.2 Energy expenditure 6.2.3 Multiple burials Burial contexts and grave elaboration 6.3.1 Residential context 6.3.2 Cemetery context 6.3.3 Non-residential architecture 6.3.4 Burial contexts, funerary structures and energy expenditure

Vl

70 71 74 74 74 74 75 75 75 75 76 80 80 82 96 96 96 96 97 97 98 99 99 99 100 101 102 102 102 103 103

105 105 105 106 106 106 106 106 107 107 109 112 114

Contents

6.4

Treatment of the corpse 6.4.1 Use of amulets 6.4.2 Body ornaments 6.4.3 Encasing procedures

6.5

Quantity and quality of grave goods 6.5.1 Food and animal offerings 6.5.2 Ceramic containers 6.5.3 Elite paraphernalia and burial retainers

6.6

Funerary variability, energy expenditure and status differentiation

7 • Social Structure Among Moche Collectivities 7.1

7.2

7.3

7.4

The Early Moche period 7.1.1 Early Moc he collectivities on the far north coast 7.1.2 The Jequetepeque Valley during the Early Moche period 7.1.3 Huacas de Moche during the Early Moche period 7.1.4 Status differentiation during the Early Moche period The Middle Moche period 7.2.1 Middle Moc he collectivities on the far north coast 7.2.2 Santuario de Sipan during the Middle Moche period 7.2.3 Pacatnamu during the Middle Moche period 7.2.4 San Jose de Moro during the Middle Moche period 7.2.5 Huaca Dos Cabezas during the Middle Moche period 7.2.6 The Chicama Valley during the Middle Moche period 7.2.7 Huacas de Moche during the Middle Moche period 7.2.8 Huanchaco during the Middle Moche period 7.2.9 Other collectivities in the Moche Valley 7.2.10 The Viru Valley during the Middle Moche period 7.2.11 The Santa Valley during the Middle Moche Period The Late Moche period 7.3.1 The Lambayeque Valley during the Late Moche period 7.3.2 The Jequetepeque Valley during the Late Moche period 7.3.4 The Moche Valley during the Late Moche period The Transitional period

8 • Some Reflections on Moche Funerary Practice 8.1 8.2 8.3

The nature of Moche funerary practice Mortuary variability and Prehispanic social structure Moche burials as dynamic contexts

116 116 117 123 127 127 130 133 137

139 139 139 140 140 141 142 142 142 144 148 149 149 151 156 157 157 159 160 160 160 161 162

165 165 167 172

References cited

175

Annexe 1 • Corpus of Burials Selected for Analysis

189

Annexe 2 • Moche Burials Excavated at Huacas de Moche

213

Vll

Illustrations Figure 1.1

Major Moche settlements along the Peruvian north coast. After Donnan (1997: Figure 1).

Figure 1.2

Chronological table for coastal Peru. After Moseley (1992: Figure 5).

Figure 1.3

Moche burial from Huacas de Moche. Drawing by Patrick Finerty. Reprinted from Donnan and Mackey (1978: 133).

Figure 1.4

Five-stage sequence of stirrup spout bottles. After Donnan and McClelland ( 1999: Figure 1.19), and de Bock (1988: 11).

Figure 1.5

Three-stage sequence of stirrup spout bottles. After de Bock (1988: 11).

Figure 1.6

Narrative scene painted on a Moche-IV vessel. Reprinted from Donnan and McClelland (Figure 4.48). Drawing by Donna McClelland.

Figure 2.1

General map of the Peruvian north coast prior to the Moche occupation. After Donnan (1997: Figure 1).

Figure 2.2

General map of the Peruvian north coast after the Moche occupation. After Donnan (1997: Figure 1).

Figure 3.1

Schematic diagram of Hertz's argument. After Richard Huntington and Peter Metcalf (1979: Figure 2).

Figure 4.1

One-dimensional display of gender by burial context produced by CA.

Figure 4.2

Two-dimensional display of gender by burial context produced by CA.

Figure 5.1

General map of the Piura Valley. After Kaulicke (1992: Figure 5).

Figure 5.2

General map of the Lambayeque Valley. After Shimada (1994: Figure 3.15).

Figure 5.3

Aerial photograph of Santuario de Sipan by Bill Ballenberg. Reprinted from Alva and Donnan (1993: Figure 38).

Figure 5.4

Exploded view of the Sipan platform. After Alva (1993: Figure 343).

Figure 5.5

Reconstruction of grave G 12 at Sipan. Painting by Percy Fiestas. Photograph by Guillermo Hare. Reprinted from Alva and Donnan (1993: Figure 134).

Figure 5.6

Reconstruction of grave G 12 at Sipan. Painting by Percy Fiestas. Photograph by Guillermo Hare. Reprinted from Alva and Donnan (1993: Figure 174).

Figure 5.7

General map of the Jequetepeque Valley. After Castillo and Donnan (1994b: Figure 3.2).

Figure 5.8

Plan drawing of Pacatnamu, Jequetepeque Valley. After Donnan (1997: Figure 4).

Figure 5.9

Plan drawing ofHuaca 31 in Pacatnamu. After Hecker and Hecker (1995: Figure 2).

Figure 5.10

Section through a boot-shape chamber (G85) at Pacatnamu. Reprinted from Ubbelohde-Doering (1967: Figure 2).

Figure 5.11

Plan drawing ofHuaca 45 Cemetery at Pacatnamu. After Donnan and McClelland 1997: Figure 1).

Figure 5.12

Plan drawing of San Jose de Moro, Jequetepeque Valley. After Castillo and Donnan (1994b: Figure 3.3) and Nelson (1998: Figure 2).

Figure 5.13

Plan drawing of grave G214 at San Jose de Moro. After Castillo (1997).

Moche Burial Patterns: An Investigation into Prehispanic Social Structure

Figure 5.14

Sacrifice Ceremony scene on a Moche-N vessel. Reprinted from Donnan and McClelland (1999: Figure 4.102). Drawing by Donna McClelland.

Figure 5.15

Photograph of grave G215 at San Jose de Moro. Reprinted from Donnan and Castillo (1994: Plate XVI).

Figure 5.16

General map of the Chicama Valley.

Figure 5.17

Plan drawing of El Brujo Complex, Chicama Valley. After Franco, Galvez and Vasquez (1994: Figure 4.1).

Figure 5.18a

Grave G258 in the Chicama Valley. Reprinted from Illustrated London News (December 4, 1909: Drawing 1).

Figure 5.18b

Grave G258 in the Chicama Valley. Reprinted from Illustrated London News (December 4, 1909: Drawing 5).

Figure 5.19

General map of the Moche Valley. After Donnan and Mackey (1978: Map 2).

Figure 5.20

General map of the Moche Valley during the Early Intermediate Period. Reprinted from Billman (1996: Map 9).

Figure 5.21

Plan drawing ofHuanchaco, Moche Valley. After Donnan and Mackey (1978: Map 3).

Figure 5.22

Moche stone architecture from Zone B at Huanchaco. Reprinted from Donnan and Mackey (1978: Map 8).

Figure 5.23

Plan drawing of Galindo, Moche Valley. After Bawden (1977: Figure 9).

Figure 5.24

Plan drawing ofHuacas de Moche, Moche Valley. After Chapdelaine (2001: Figure 1).

Figure 5.25

Enlarged area of the Huaca del Sol sector at Huacas de Moche. After Chapdelaine (2001: Figure 1).

Figure 5.26

Platform to the east ofHuaca del Sol (Pl. P.).

Figure 5.27

Enlarged area of the residential sector at Huacas de Moche. After Chapdelaine (2001: Figure 1).

Figure 5.28

Isometric reconstruction of Architectural Compound 9 (CA9) at Huacas de Moche. After Guillermo et al. (1998: Figure 5).

Figure 5.29

Enlarged area of the Huaca de la Luna sector at Huacas de Moche. After Chapdelaine (2001: Figure 1).

Figure 5.30

Huaca de la Luna complex. After Uceda et al. (1994: Figure 8.3).

Figure 5.31

General map of the Vim Valley. After Strong and Evans (1952: Figure 1).

Figure 5.32

Plan drawing of Huaca de la Cruz, Vim Valley. After Strong and Evans (1952: Figure 27).

Figure 5.33

General map of the Santa Valley. After Wilson (1988: Figures 97, 98, 99 and 102).

Figure 5.34

General map of the Nepefia Valley. After Proulx (1985: Map 6).

Figure 5.35

General map of the Casma Valley. After Pozorski and Pozorski (1996: Figure 1).

Figure 6.1

Perceptual map of grave elaboration by burial context produced by CA. Symmetrical normalisation.

Figure 6.2

Copper disc headdress element from grave G322. Reprinted from Donnan and Mackey (1978: Burial M-IV 9, A).

X

Illustrations

Figure 6.3

Character wearing a copper disc headdress element. Painted on a Moche-N vessel. Reprinted from Donnan and McClelland (1999: Figure 4.66g). Drawing by Donna McClelland.

Figure 6.4

Headdress ornament in the form of a fox. Robert and Lisa Sainsbury Collection, University of East Anglia, Norwich. Photograph by James Austin.

Figure 6.5

Character wearing a fox head effigy. Painted on a Moche-IV vessel. Reprinted from Donnan and McClelland (1999: Figure 4.66h). Drawing by Donna McClelland.

Figure 6.6

Character wearing feather headdress ornaments. Painted on a Moche-N vessel. Reprinted from Donnan (1978: Figure 112). Drawing by Donna McClelland.

Figure 6.7

Crescent-shape headdress ornament from grave G 12. Reprinted from Alva and Donnan (1993: Figure 125). Photograph by Christopher Donnan.

Figure 6.8

Characters wearing crescent-shape headdress ornaments. Painted on a Moche-IV vessel. Reprinted from Alva and Donnan (1993: Figure 137). Drawing by Donna McClelland.

Figure 6.9

Elaborate earspool from grave G 12. Reprinted from Alva and Donnan ( 1993: Figure 137). Photograph by Susan Einstein.

Figure 6.10

Nose ornament from grave G 12. Reprinted from Alva and Donnan (1993: Figure 76). Photograph by Christopher Donnan and Donna McClelland.

Figure 6.11

Pectoral made of trapezoidal beads from grave G4. Reprinted from Alva and Donnan (1993: Figure 76). Photograph by Christopher Donnan.

Figure 6.12

Beads from elaborate necklaces found in grave G 12 and G 13 respectively. Reprinted from Alva and Donnan (1993: Figures 96 and 163). Photographs by Christopher Donnan and Susan Einstein.

Figure 6.13

Beaded pectoral from grave G 12. Reprinted from Alva and Donnan (1993: Figure 69). Drawing by Alberto Gutierrez.

Figure 6.14

Silver backflap from grave G 12. Reprinted from Alva and Donnan (1993: Figure 123). Photograph by Christopher Donnan.

Figure 6.15

Scene painted on a Moche-IV vessel. Reprinted from Donnan and McClelland (1999: Figure 6.22). Drawing by Donna McClelland.

Figure 6.16

Perceptual map of body ornaments by grave elaboration produced by CA. Symmetrical normalisation.

Figure 6.17

Shroud wrap encasing. Reprinted from Donnan (1995: Figure 3). Drawing by Patrick Finnerty.

Figure 6.18

Splint reinforced encasing. Reprinted from Donnan (1995: Figure 4). Drawing by Patrick Finnerty.

Figure 6.19

Cane frame encasing. Reprinted from Donnan (1995: Figure 5). Drawing by Patrick Finnerty.

Figure 6.20

Woven mat encasing. After Donnan (1995: Figure 7). Original drawing by Patrick Finnerty.

Figure 6.21

Cane tube encasing. Reprinted from Donnan (1995: Figure 6). Drawing by Patrick Finnerty.

Figure 6.22

Cane coffin encasing. Reprinted from Donnan (1995: Figure 10). Drawing by Patrick Finnerty.

Xl

Moche Burial Patterns: An Investigation into Prehispanic Social Structure

Figure 6.23

Wooden plank coffin. After Donnan (1995: Figure 10). Original drawing by Patrick Finnerty.

Figure 6.24

Perceptual map of encasing procedure by burial context produced by CA. Symmetrical normalisation.

Figure 6.25

Perceptual map of encasing procedure by grave elaboration produced by CA. Symmetrical normalisation.

Figure 6.26

Perceptual map of ceramic vessels by grave elaboration produced by CA. Symmetrical normalisation.

Figure 6.27

Perceptual map of ceramic vessels by encasing procedure produced by CA. Symmetrical normalisation.

Figure 6.28

Copper staff from grave G 11. Reprinted from Alva (1994: Figure 21).

Figure 6.29

Wooden staff from grave G471. Reprinted from Strong and Evans (1952: Plate XXIII).

Figure 6.30

Gold and silver chisel bladed sceptre from grave G 12. Reprinted from Alva and Donnan (1993: Figure 102).

Figure 6.31

Banner from grave G 12. Reprinted from Alva and Donnan (1993: Figure 62).

Figure 6.32

Silver rattle from grave G4. Reprinted from Alva and Donnan (1993: Figure 229).

Figure 7.1

Key diagram of Early Moche burials.

Figure 7.2

Key diagram of Middle Moche burials at Santuario de Sipan.

Figure 7.3

Key diagram of Middle Moche burials in the Jequetepeque Valley.

Figure 7.4

Weaving scene painted on a Moche-N florero vessel. Reprinted from Donnan (1978: Figure 103). Drawing by Donna McClelland.

Figure 7.5

Key diagram of Middle Moche burials in the Chicama Valley.

Figure 7.6

Key diagram of Middle Moche burials at Huacas de Moche.

Figure 7.7

Extremity of a wooden mace from grave G4 71 at Huaca de la Cruz. Reprinted from Strong and Evans (1952: Plate XXN).

Figure 7.8

Wooden staff from grave G469 at Huaca de la Cruz. Reprinted from Strong and Evans (1952: Frontispiece and Plate XVIIc).

Figure 8.1

Key diagram of burial contexts, grave types, and social groups.

Annexe 2 • Moche burials excavated at Huacas de Moche Figure 1

Graves G443 and G444 in Cerro Blanco Cemetery.

Figure 2

Rectangular chamber made with adobe bricks (G444) in Cerro Blanco Cemetery.

Figure 3

Ceramic vessels from grave G444. Drawings by Magali Morlion.

Figure 4

Adult burial (G314) on low platform east ofHuaca del Sol. Drawing by Magali Morlion.

Figure 5

Ceramic vessels from grave G444. Drawings by Magali Morlion, otherwise stated.

Figure 6

Child burial (G315) on low platform east ofHuaca del Sol. Drawing by Magali Morlion.

Figure 7

Ceramic rattle, whistle, and ocarina from grave G 315.

Xll

Tables Table 4.1

Example of table containing nominal variables.

Table 4.2

Transformed data using dummy variables.

Table 4.3

Contingency table of hypothetical example.

Table 4.4

Observed and expected frequencies, difference, Chi-square value and similarity measure for each cell of Table 4.3.

Table 5.1

Graves from each construction phase at Santuario de Sipan.

Table 5.2

Age and gender profiles for the Huaca 31 cemetery at Pacatnamu.

Table 5.3

Age and gender profiles for the Huaca 45 cemetery at Pacatnamu.

Table 5.4

Grave types by burial context for thirty-five individuals at Huanchaco.

Table 5.5

Simple pit burials from Cemetery Site F dating to the Moche-II phase.

Table 5.6

Simple pit burials from Cemetery Site F dating to the Moche-III phase.

Table 5.7

Simple pit burials from Cemetery Site F dating to the Moche-IV phase.

Table 5.8

Grave types from Cemetery Site F for each phase.

Table 6.1

Frequencies of individuals by age categories.

Table 6.2

Frequencies of gender categories by age groups.

Table 6.3

Number of individuals buried in residential structure by settlement.

Table 6.4

Individuals buried in residential architecture by grave type.

Table 6.5

Number of individuals buried in cemeteries by valley.

Table 6.6

Individuals buried in cemetery context by grave structure.

Table 6.7

Composition of common simple pit burials in cemetery context.

Table 6.8

Composition of common boot-shape chambers.

Table 6.9

Individuals from non-residential burial context by settlement.

Table 6.10

Individuals buried in non-residential architecture by grave structure.

Table 6.11

Burial structures by funerary context for 537 individuals.

Table 6.12

Cross-tabulation of energy expenditure by burial context for 537 individuals.

Table 6.13

Body ornaments for 265 individuals.

Table 6.14

Cross-tabulation of body ornament by grave elaboration for 265 individuals.

Table 6.15

Encasing procedure used for 233 individuals.

Table 6.16

Cross-tabulation of body ornament by grave elaboration for 233 individuals.

Table 6.17

Cross-tabulation of encasing procedure by grave expenditure for 233 individuals.

Table 6.18

Gourd containers associated with 168 individuals at Pacatnamu.

Table 6.19

Ceramic containers associated with 439 individuals.

Table 6.20

Cross-tabulation of age by gender for seventy-six burial retainers.

Table 6.21

Percentage of individuals buried as retainers or principal individual by age category.

Table 6.22

Cross-tabulation of age by gender for sixteen principal individuals.

Moche Burial Patterns: An Investigation into Prehispanic Social Structure

Table 7.1

Cross-tabulation of age category by burial context for 117 individuals from Huacas de Moche.

Table 7.2

Quantity of ceramic vessels associated with forty-one individuals from the residential context burials at Huacas de Moche.

XIV

Acknowledgements First, I would like to thank Dr Steve Bourget, my supervisor and friend, who has guided me throughout this research project. His passion for Moche art and archaeology and his constructive comments on my work have been a constant motivation during the four years I have spent in England. From the Raleigh to the long discussions, I will remain indebted to him. I am also grateful to the other members of the Sainsbury Research Unitfor the Arts of Africa, Oceania & the Americas for having given me the opportunity to undertake this doctoral study. More specifically, I would like to thank Patricia Hewitt for finding all those obscure references, and Francine Hunt for keeping us all afloat. I would like to express my gratitude to Dr Steven Hooper whose love of material culture has influenced the present work. I am also grateful to Dr Joanne Pillsbury for her trust and help during the last two years of this study. My thanks also go to Dr Christopher Donnan for having supplied me with unpublished material. I would also like to thank Professor Warwick Bray, Dr Claude Chapdelaine, Dr Robin Skeates, Dr Cesare Poppi, Dr Judy Flores, Hazel Taylor and Colin Taylor for their constructive comments on previous versions of this thesis. In Peru, I would like to thank Dr Santiago U ceda and Ricardo Morales for inviting me to undertake archaeological excavations at the site of Huacas de Moche. I am also grateful to Estuardo La Torre, Victor Pimentel, Jorge Sachun, Florencia Bracamonte, and Jose Armas for facilitating my work in Trujillo. This project was fully supported by the Sir Robert Sainsbury Scholarship of the Sainsbury Research Unitfor the Arts of Africa, Oceania & the Americas. Fieldwork in Peru would not have been possible without the financial help of the Sainsbury Research Unit, the Sir Richard Stapley Educational Trust, The Gilchrist Educational Trust, and The Society of Antiquaries of London. A grant from the Canadian Centennial Scholarship Funds has also helped me during the last stages of this research. Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to Magali Morlion for her critical comments on my work, and for her patience and support throughout this process. Je tiens aussi

aremercier mes parents, Regine et Rheal Millaire, pour tout.

Abstract This work is an archaeological investigation of the Moche culture of northern Peru (ca. A.D. 100-800). It is a study of Moche burial patterns and social structure. One of the main objectives of this research was to bring together information available on Moche burials from different settlements and from contexts dating to the Early Moche, Middle Moche, Late Moche, and Transitional periods. Burials selected for analysis are described in detail with regard to grave context, contents, and internal organisation. Close examination of the burials revealed that members of the Moche culture buried their dead according to the status they held and function they fulfilled during their life. The treatment offered to individuals buried according to Moche funerary practice is compared using scales of energy expenditure developed using information on burial context, funerary structure, encasing procedure, body ornaments, quantity, and quality of associated ceramic vessels, elite insignia, and burial retainers. Data are studied using measures of association and the exploratory multivariate technique of Correspondence Analysis. Mortuary variability among Moche collectivities from specific periods and regions is studied in terms of status differentiation using the concepts of group membership, status diversity, and social inequality. General patterns regarding burial context and energy expenditure are identified, and correspondences between specific status positions and corporate groups are discussed using key-diagrams. The nature of social status among Moche society is explored and some general principles of social structure are identified. A huaca-focused burial pattern is proposed to account for a large part of mortuary variability - a set of rules regarding funerary practices based on the presence of a lineage group system combined with differential access to resources. Issues regarding funerary rites of passage, delayed burial, grave re-entry, and funerary specialists are also discussed with regard to Moche representation of death.

Moche Burial Patterns An Investigation into Prehispanic Social Structure

N

r

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1l 12 13 14

Pampa Grande Santuario de Sipan San Jose de Moro Pacatmamu Huaca Dos Cabezas Cerro La Mina El Brujo Complex Mocollope lluanchaco Galindo lluacas de Mocbe Huaca de la Cruz Pampa de Los Incas Pafiamarca

Pac1f1c

0

Figure 1.1

Ocean

100km

Major Moche settlements along the Peruvian north coast.

1 • Introduction to the Research Problem Introduction This work is an archaeological investigation of the Moche culture of the Prehispanic north coast of Peru (Figure 1.1). More precisely, it consists of a study of Moche social structure - the patterns of relationships and roles among Prehispanic collectivities. This study of Prehispanic social structure will be carried out through a multidimensional analysis of Moche burial patterns. This first chapter is an introduction to the study problem. It opens with a presentation of the Moche culture in general and Moche funerary practices in particular. Then, the social structure of Moche social formations will be explored with reference to some of the most stimulating research avenues. An outline of the chapters will follow. 1.1 The Moche culture The Moche culture developed along the arid river valleys of the Peruvian north coast between the first and eight century A.D., a time generally defined as the Early Intermediate Period (450 BC to A.D. 800) in Andean prehistory (Figure 1.2). Most Moche sites have been identified along the Pacific coast, in the low and middlevalley environments (see chapter 2). Members of the Moche culture lived in different types of settlements, ranging from farmsteads to large urban agglomerations. In recent times, our understanding of the Moche culture has been greatly enhanced, thanks to large-scale excavation projects and multidisciplinary research at a number of major sites (e.g., Pacatnamu, Pampa Grande, and Huacas de Moche, etc). At Pampa Grande and Huacas de Moche, a series of architectural complexes have been identified, each containing multiroom habitation units, workshops, plazas and storage spaces (Chapdelaine 1997, Shimada 1994). Recent excavations carried out at those sites have yielded important information on their modes of subsistence, and on the technological domain. For example, areas of metal, shell, chicha (maize beer), and ceramic production have been identified inside the residential area. In particular, the Moche produced a very distinctive ceramic decorated with painted patterns drawn from a large corpus of iconographic themes. Parallel to pottery making, the Moche expressed their art in metalwork, textile and wood, stone, and shell carving. Like other cultures that occupied this geographical area (Cupisnique, Salinar, Gallinazo ), members of the Moche culture relied on a combination of marine resources and irrigated agriculture for their subsistence. They built and maintained complex irrigation systems, and constructed impressive mud-brick platform mounds, many of which are still visible today. These impressive structures are usually referred to as huacas. Research carried out on

some of these structures suggests that they were not used as palaces (residences of high status individuals), but as public buildings where ritual and possibly political activities took place. In particular, excavations carried out at Huaca de la Luna show that this particular building had been used for the performance of religious ceremonies which involved human sacrifices and funerary rituals (Uceda et al. 1994; Bourget 1995, 1998a, 1998b, 1998c, 2001a; Verano 1998). Until recently, the Moche culture was mainly known because of its spectacular funerary tradition. Members of the Moche culture usually buried their dead in extended position, with their arms along their sides (Figure 1.3). The body was wrapped in one or more shrouds and sometimes encased in a cane coffin. The dead were often provided with textiles, ceramic vessels sometimes decorated with particular figurative iconography, gourd containers, and food offerings. Elaborate graves regularly contained artefacts of impressive artisanship, made with precious or exotic materials. Most graves, however, were relatively simple, containing only few vessels and simple textiles. Moche burials have been found in very different settings, ranging from habitation rooms to cemeteries and non-residential buildings. During the 1940s, Raphael Larco Hoyle studied Moche funerary vessels, and produced a five-stage (Moche- I to Moche-V) morpho-stylistic sequence (Larco 1948). This sequence is based on changes in the form of the stirrup spout bottles (Figure 1.4) and stylistic transformation of the scenes painted on the vessels. Excavations in stratified deposits at Huacas de Moche have generally confirmed this five-stage sequence. However, this seriation is less than satisfactory for archaeologists working with collections from the far north coast. North of the Jequetepeque Valley, archaeologists are generally using a broader three-stage sequence (Figure 1.5) developed by Luis Jaime Castillo and Christopher Donnan (1994a). Ceramic vessels from Moche-I and II phases are lumped together into an "Early Moche" period. The same rule applies to the Moche-III and Moche-IV, becoming the "Middle Moche" period. Finally, Moche-V and "Transitional" artefacts together form the "Late-Moche" stage. For the sake of clarity, unless otherwise stated, this three-stage chronological framework will be used for discussing all the graves selected for analysis. 1.2 Moche social structure Because of numerous excavations recently carried out, our understanding of the Moche culture is growing fast.

Moche Burial Patterns: An Investigation into Prehispanic Social Structure Time Scale

1500 1250

-

1 000

-

750

250

-

A.D.

-

500

-

l 000

-

2 000

-

4000 6000

-

8000

-

10000

-

500

North coast

Central coast

South coast

Inca

Inca

Inca

Chimu

Chancay ka

Lambayeque (Sican)

Horizons / Periods Late Horizon

--------

Late Intermediate

-------Middle Horizon Pacha'camac

Moche

Lima

Gallinazo Salinar Cupisnique

Early Intermediate Za:zca --------

Ancon

Paracas

Early Horizon

Garagay

lnitial Period

La Florida El Paraiso La Paloma

Preceramic Period

Caballo Muerto / Cerro Scchin Huaca Prieta

Huari

Paleo-Indian

Paijan Luz

Figure 1.2 Chronological table for coastal Peru.

Parallel to the traditional interest in architecture, iconographic analysis, and settlement or burial patterns, recent studies of the Moche subsistence system and technology have shed new light on this important culture. Faced with an ever-growing body of data on the Moche occupation of the north coast, archaeologists have been keen to study this society's social organisation and social structure (Bawden 1996: 10). Research carried out on Moche political organisation and social structure is outlined in the following sections.

social "ranking" and social "stratification" - the former referring to a continuous status gradient from low to high and the latter to the division of a society in discontinuous status groupings (Service 1971). As Moche specialist Garth Bawden noted, "a central premise of this model is that social evolution is progressive and, unless catastrophic events intrude, will move from simple to complex" (1996: 10). On the Peruvian north coast, Moche society is generally described as a stratified social formation, ruled by a small elite vested with administrative and religious powers (Bawden 2001; Chapdelaine 2001; Uceda 2001). The nature of Moche social structure and the extent to which it varied in time and space, however, is still a matter for discussion. Generally speaking, this debate opposes those who see the Moche as a multivalley chiefdom, and those who claim that the Moche had definitely "reached" a statelevel of organisation. The point of contention of this debate lies not only in the nature of the organisational system itself, but also (and mainly) on the range of inferences allowed.

Moche political organisation The terms "social organisation" and "social structure" have often been used interchangeably although they have slightly different meaning. Social "organisation" is usually understood as the sum of activities performed in a given social context whereas social "structure" can be defined as the formal relations that link individuals (social actors of different status) in a society (Barnard 1996). In the archaeological literature, social organisation has often been studied with regard to culture evolutionism. According to this approach, human societies are seen as systems composed of different sub-systems interacting in a specific manner - shaped by the environment, and by the economic structure in place. In this regard, archaeologists showed a particular interest in notions of

When studying Moche political organisation, archaeologists usually list the different components a state-organised society should theoretically possess, subsequently looking for the latter in the archaeological record. As Bawden noted, "Moche society is most commonly interpreted by reference to a progressive

4

1 • Introduction to the Research Problem in which a single person exercises economic power over many communities. Chiefs can be elected, but most often they receive their status through a lineage system. In claiming that the Moche were governed by a chief, scholars imply that only a few individuals were vested with actual powers, and that status positions were generally achieved rather than ascribed by right of birth. As Shimada noted, "as there seems to be little doubts that Mochica polity at its height attained at least chiefdomlevel complexity, the burden of proof lies on the state proponents" (1994: 111). Scholars such as Garth Bawden (1996) and David Wilson (1988, 1999) have argued that members of the Moche culture had definitely reached a state-level of political organisation. Definitions of states usually differ from one author to another. Nevertheless, they are usually described as modes of grouping and control over people, based on territorial sovereignty. State-level societies are usually characterised by a specialised and centralised administration with a monopoly of legitimate force, and a ruling group distinguished from the rest of the population by training, recruitment or status (Abeles 1996). States are also usually characterised by social classes and by a varying degree of social mobility. Most Moche specialists have simply avoided the debate because of the lack of evidence. As a matter of fact, Shimada was right when he noted that, in general, there has been little effort to develop independent models on the basis of Andean data (1994: 105). It is surprising to see that, up to now, there have been only a few attempts at reconstructing Moche political organisation using data from the archaeological record rather than applying and testing externally derived models.

Figure 1.3 Moche burial (G321) from Huacas de Moche.

sequence of social evolutionary stages derived from cross-cultural ethnographic study. By comparing its material remains with those believed to characterize such social stages as chiefdom and state, scholars strive to understand the society and its component systems" (Bawden 1996: 5-6). But as he then pointed out, "these approaches describe Moche society only in as far as it fits universal patterns of technology and social organization. This approach looks outside for understanding of society rather than deriving it from observation of the distinctive cultural creation of a unique people and history" (ibid. 6). This process usually ends with an evaluation of "rightness of fit" of the model, an argument that is rather circular.

Moche I

In this regard, archaeologists Richard Schaedel (1972, 1985) and Izumi Shimada (1994: 110-111) claimed that the Moche society represented a multivalley chiefdom, at least until the end of the Middle Moche period. Chiefdoms generally correspond to a level of organisation

Figure 1.4

5

Moche II

l\foche III

Moche IV

Moche V

Five-stage sequence of stirrupspout bottles.

Moche Burial Patterns: An Investigation into Prehispanic Social Structure sociologist Peter Blau (1975, 1977) is illuminating for the present study. Radcliffe-Brown understood social structure as a network of people, parts of a society or groups interacting with one another. According to Blau, social structure refers to the patterns discernible in social life, the regularities observed, and the configurations detected - in other words, to the structure of social relations. His defmition starts with a "simple and concrete" presentation of the component parts and their relationships. According to this scholar, the parts of any given social structure are "groups or classes of people, such as men and women, ethnic groups, or socioeconomic strata; more precisely, they are the positions of people in different groups and strata. The connections among as well as within the parts are the social relations of people that find expression in their social interaction and communication" (1975: 221). Rather than focussing on overarching models, this defmition directs all the attention on the component parts of any social system.