Mind-Body Awareness for Singers: Unleashing Optimal Performance [Paperback ed.] 1597564443, 9781597564441

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Mind-Body Awareness for Singers Unleashing Optimal Performance

Mind-Body Awareness for Singers Unleashing Optimal Performance

Karen Leigh-Post, DMA

5521 Ruffin Road San Diego, CA 92123 e-mail: [email protected] Website: http://www.pluralpublishing.com

Copyright © by Plural Publishing, Inc. 2014 Typeset in 10½ × 13 Palatino by Flanagan’s Publishing Services, Inc. Printed in the United States of America by McNaughton & Gunn, Inc. All rights, including that of translation, reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, recording, or otherwise, including photocopying, recording, taping, Web distribution, or information storage and retrieval systems without the prior written consent of the publisher. For permission to use material from this text, contact us by Telephone:  (866) 758-7251 Fax:  (888) 758-7255 e-mail: [email protected]

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Leigh-Post, Karen, author. Mind-body awareness for singers : unleashing optimal performance / Karen Leigh-Post. p. ; cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-59756-444-1 (alk. paper) — ISBN 1-59756-444-3 (alk. paper) I. Title. [DNLM: 1. Singing — physiology. 2. Voice Quality — physiology. 3. Psychomotor Performance. 4. Psychophysiology — methods. WV 501] QP306 612.7'8 — dc23 2014013058



Contents List of Practical Application Exercises (PAEs) ix Foreword xi Introduction xiii Illustrated Guide to Neural Anatomy xxi Acknowledgments xliii Chapter 1.  The Role of Cognition in Sensorimotor Processing for Optimal Performance: “I Think, Therefore I Sing!” What Is Sensorimotor Processing? Sensorimotor Processing Loop Systems of Singing

1 2 2 2

Chapter 2. Sensory Information Processing:  Perception of Our Environment and Ourselves 5 Transmission of Sensory Information 6 Perception 8 Attentional Focus and Receptivity 8 Integration Mechanisms:  The Reticular Formation and Arousal (Awareness) 8 Heightened Awareness, or Mindfulness 10 Two-Way Transmission — “Top-Down” Processing From Upper-Level Controls 11 Selective and Executive Attention 13 Selective Attention and a “Happy Body” 13 Selective Attention and a “Smart Body” 14 Perception and Interpretation 16 Active Perception 16 Passive Perception 17 Active and Passive Memory and Association 18 Perception and Integration of Active and Passive Processes 19 Interpretation and Auditory Perception 20 Awareness, Novelty, and Constancy 20 “Brain Time” and Perceptual Awareness 20 Coping With Change:  Novelty Versus Constancy 21 Summary 23 Perception of One’s Own Voice While Singing 23 Auditory Perception 23 Multimodal Perception 29 Somatic (Body) Senses 32 The Vestibular System (Sensory) 35 Purposeful Perception in Review 43

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Chapter 3. Planning Voluntary Behavior 45 Introduction — Who Is In Charge? 45 Volition, Free Will, and Executive Ignorance 46   Research Trends in Voluntary Motor Behavior 46 Willed and Sensorimotor Intentions 48 What & When Planning — “What Are We Thinking?” 49 Summary 54 Learning and Memory 54 Anatomy of Learning and Memory 54 The Function of Memory and Higher-Level Perceptual Processing 59 The Working Memory 61 When Perception Turns to Planning — Images and Imagery 69 Defining Images and Imagery 70 Training the Singer’s Brain:  Practical Application of Imagery for Developing 73 Musical and Vocal-Motor Expertise Summary 90 Chapter 4. Motor Output Processing 95 Introduction 95 Musculoskeletal Structures — General Anatomy and Function 97 Skeletal (Striated) Muscle Function 97 Axial, Proximal, and Distal Controls 98 Levels of Control 103 Lower-Level Controls 105 Muscle contraction, adaptation, and variability of force are reviewed from the perspective of the motor unit and sensory-guided movement. The “stretch,” “knee jerk,” and “withdrawal” reflexes are reviewed with regard to voluntary adaptations for complex vocal-motor skills, such as the timing controls for reflex resonance associated with vocal vibrato. Upper-Level Controls 121 A review of direct and indirect controls provided by the modulating influences of the basal ganglia and cerebellum, the brainstem, and cortical projections. Developing Expertise 135 Postural and Respiratory Controls — “We’ve Got Your Back” 135 Reflexive Control Systems and Special Acts of Respiration 144 Postural and Respiratory Controls — Lower Torso, Neck, and Head 161 Summary 169 Chapter 5. Putting It All Together:  Planning, Executing, and Monitoring a 173 Rhythmically Entrained Performance Rhythm and Rhythmic Entrainment 174 Predictability and Variability 174 Self-Organization of Forced and Spontaneous Entrainment 177 Summary 179

Contents vii

Practical Application — Putting It All Together With Rhythmic Entrainment Simple Systems and Wide-Ranging Cohesion Promoting Rhythmic Entrainment of Ongoing Sequences of Behavior Rhythmic Entrainment and Training the Singer’s Brain Concluding Comments

179 179 180 185 188

Glossary 191 References 199 Index 205



List of Practical Application Exercises (PAEs) Chapter 2.  Sensory Information Processing: Perception of Our Environment and Ourselves PAE 2–1.  Neutral to Arousal PAE 2–2.  Attentive Listening PAE 2–3.  Overriding Receptor Fatigue PAE 2–4.  Attentive Listening and VestibuloMotor Reflexes (Adapted from Smith, Wilson, & Reisberg, 1995) PAE 2–5.  The Matching Game PAE 2–6.  Mental Manipulation PAE 2–7.  Footprints in the Sand PAE 2–8.  Buzzing Bones — Auditory PAE 2–9.  “Buzzing Bones” — Somatosensory Perception (Tactile)

PAE 3–9.  Imagery and Mental Manipulation PAE 3–10.  Visual-Auditory Imagery From Symbols (Ambiguity) (Tonal and Phonological Sight-Hearing, or Audiation) PAE 3–11.  Perceptual-Motor Imagery Is Based on Knowledge and Ability (Visuomotor, Tactile, and Auditory) PAE 3–12.  Attentive Listening Posture — Zoning Into an Ideal Performing State (Adapted from Smith et al., 1995). PAE 3–13.  Auditory Imagery and Inhaling for the Phrase PAE 3–14.  Listening Posture and Subvocalization (Adapted from Smith et al., 1995) PAE 3–15.  Alternative Strategies for Solving Phonological and Tonal Problems

PAE 2–10.  Vestibular Sense — Spatial Awareness and Equilibrium

PAE 3–16.  Imagery and Expertise — Simple to Complex

PAE 2–11.  “Buzzing Bones” — Metamonitoring Multimodal Confluence

PAE 3–17.  Simple Tonal Memory — Notation and Lexical Association

Chapter 3.  Planning Voluntary Behavior PAE 3–1.  Tossing a Ball (Exploring Anticipatory Control) PAE 3–2.  Footprints in the Sand, Part B (Exploring Anticipatory Control) PAE 3–3.  Pencil Drop (Exploring Anticipatory Control) PAE 3–4.  What If? (Executive Functions) PAE 3–5.  Working Memory and Episodic Unfolding of Events — Telling a Story

PAE 3–18.  Pitch Strings — Harmonic Context PAE 3–19.  Pitch Strings — Tonal Mnemonics and Patterns PAE 3–20.  Auditory-Tonal Imagery — Reevaluation Strategies PAE 3–21.  Auditory-Tonal Imagery — Ambiguity and Inference PAE 3–22.  Auditory Imagery and Loudness PAE 3–23.  Visuospatial Imagery — Rhythmic and Metrical Organization

PAE 3–6.  Auditory-Phonological Loop

PAE 3–24.  Alternative Strategies for Solving Visuospatial Problems

PAE 3–7.  Auditory-Tonal Imagery

PAE 3–25.  Visuospatial Imagery — “Fill the Hall”

PAE 3–8.  Footprints in the Sand, Part C (Visuospatial Computation)

PAE 3–26.  Visuospatial Imagery — “The Matching Game”

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PAE 3–27.  The Paralinguistic Expressive Gesture of the Voice

PAE 4–7.  Cooperative Action of Accessory Muscles of Respiration

PAE 3–28.  Five Questions Plus Three — Keeping It Conscious and Cognitive

PAE 4–8.  Tracheal Tug Reflex and Optimal Positioning of the Larynx

PAE 3–29.  What & When Improv — Tonal Mnemonics and Sound Bites

PAE 4–9.  Respiratory Action of the Scalene Muscles

Chapter 4.  Motor Output Processing

PAE 4–10A.  Activating the Respiratory Force Reflex — “T Pitch”

PAE 4–1.  Axial, Proximal, and Distal Controls: “Hold Tray Level”

PAE 4–10B.  Respiratory Force Reflex — ​ “Hammer Time!” and “I Ate Ice Cream!”

PAE 4–2A.  Flexor “Withdrawal” Reflex and Coactivation (Gamma Bias and Gain)

PAE 4–11.  Kegel Exercise

PAE 4–2B.  Gamma Gain — Hot Potato and Light Touch PAE 4–2C.  Gain, Timing Controls, and Phonation (Vibrato Frequency and Extent) PAE 4–3.  Postural and Respiratory Controls and Gravity PAE 4–4A.  Monitoring Cooperative Axial Postural Controls — Lumbro-Sacral and Cervical Spine PAE 4–4B.  Monitoring Cooperative Axial Postural and Respiratory Controls PAE 4–5.  Attentive Listening Posture and Tidal Respiration PAE 4–6.  Inhalation Termination, or Respiratory “Fill Level” Reflex

PAE 4–12.  Hip Flexor PAE 4–13.  Axial Stabilization of the Neck and Proximal Positioning of the Head PAE 4–14.  Axial, Proximal, and Distal Controls for Singing

Chapter 5.  Putting It All Together: Planning, Executing, and Monitoring a Rhythmically Entrained Performance PAE 5–1.  Measure for Meter — Catching and Riding the Wave PAE 5–2.  What & When Planning, and Metamonitoring — “Streaming Strings of Swinging Sound Bites”



Foreword The Role of the Teacher and Coach Like most other singers/voice teachers, Dr. LeighPost had long pursued competence at many of the respected methods of body-to-mind connections like the Alexander technique, Feldenkrais, yoga, bodymapping, performance psychology, Wesley Balk, and so on. Although she enjoyed much success, the questions persisted. Is there something we are missing? Why balance boards and balls? Is there a pivotal link between movement techniques and singing? Or if singing is the movement, how should this movement be perceived and executed? Her resolve to disentangle this puzzle led to several years of purposeful, wide-ranging reading and study of those scientists, philosophers, and psychologists whose research focused on performance skills. Dr. Leigh-Post’s cognitive kinesthetic awareness (CKA) and singing research study addressed the questions regarding the relationship between movement and singing and the correlation, if any, between a predilection for a markedly developed bodily-kinesthetic intelligence and the efficacy of cognitive awareness methods for the study of vocal technical skill. After determining a list of generally accepted premises, an extensive list of questions ultimately emerged to focus the study on the role of cognition and singing. This empirical approach to the research provided a format for considering a number of theories and practices from a variety of disciplines — anatomy, psychology, neurology, pedagogy, and so on. From these we hoped to gain a greater understanding of the complex interaction between the mind and body that is singing and the role of the teacher and vocal coach in this process. Implementation of a variety of cognitive bodilykinesthetic awareness methods revealed that the key to unleashing bodily-kinesthetic intelligence in singing involves activation of the vestibular and auditory systems and maintenance of an ideal per-

forming state characterized by vigilant attention and an absence of anxiety. Relating cognitive bodily-kinesthetic awareness to learning and memory, imagery and creative expression, and optimal performance provides critical means to understanding the complex interaction between the mind and body that is singing. For example, our monitoring and correcting processes consist, in part, of a continuous looping of an imaged goal, to initiation of action, to monitoring and correcting the image, followed once again by initiation of action and monitoring and correction. Cognitive bodily-kinesthetic awareness facilitates the efficacy of this process for not only conscious correction but also the self-correcting processes of the unconscious brain. There are two critical cognitive elements of the monitoring and correcting processes: a highly developed sense of bodily awareness that facilitates the flow of information between mind and body, and the planning processes that utilize sensory information to correct or refine the image for the task at hand. For example, if the singer perceives a need for clearer tuning of a pitch with the orchestra, the singer will clarify the image of the pitch desired, thereby selectively correcting the imaged goal and its motor response. It is important to note that getting the goal right is critical; cognition is critical. By imaging the goal in this way, we tap into our body’s intelligence that unconsciously self-corrects breathing and posture as well as the fine audiomotor skills of phonation and articulation. Furthermore, there is no dialogue such as “that was terrible,” or “I’m afraid I won’t get this next pitch.” Attentional focus on correcting and polishing, on planning what comes next, also calls on our body’s intelligence to keep us in optimum performance mode. This is necessarily absent of anxiety. Successful teachers of singing (getting good results) are doing a lot of things right. What understanding the neurophysiological systems will do for us is make our teaching even more efficient and

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effective. Because this is an understanding of the neurophysiological systems and singing, it may be applied effectively at any point in the training and performance of singing, be it in the early stages of learning or in the performance of well-learned repertory. For example, one of the lines that I enjoyed (from one of Karen’s early drafts) was about balance being a function of the vestibular ear. On the long way to the bus stop after an appointment, I used my “vestibular ear listening,” and lo and behold, I walked better. Can you believe that? Once the goal is set, it must be communicated to the body. But mind-body communication does not happen the way we thought. We must not direct our body on how to accomplish the task at hand. We are ill equipped to consciously issue the hundreds of thousands of instructions required to utter even the simplest of sounds. Have you ever heard singers report that they sing better in performance because they just forget about how they are singing and think of what they are singing about? This response

is frustrating, of course, because we cannot build a technique on not thinking about how we sing — or can we? Take a moment for mind-body communication. Take a moment for communication of the conscious goal (task) to the unconscious systems that control proprioception, respiration, audition, phonation, and articulation. If we apply the principle of “take a moment” used in the Alexander technique to singing, if we set our mind on the task at hand (the auditory-phonatory goal that is to sing a phrase) and take a moment until we feel the impulse to sing, we tap into our bodily-kinesthetic intelligence and allow the systems to respond to the thousands of signals from our unconscious brain. The skill of the coach and teacher lies in understanding where the interruption of the flow occurs and redefining the goal for that moment. The primary role of the teacher and coach is in guiding the student in planning, in setting the right goal for the moment — in getting the student thinking right.  — Shirlee Emmons



Introduction The instinct to express our thoughts and emotions with our voice begins as early as the isolation cry at birth and is one of the first voluntary behaviors in development (Perkins & Kent, 1986, p. 4). Is there a key to developing this early ability into expert and intuitive performance of the complex behavior that is singing? Can we learn to unleash our innate bodily-kinesthetic intelligence to sing like “a natural”? What links the mind and body to achieve and maintain optimal and even peak performance in an ideal performing state? Inspired by theories and concepts emerging from unique research on the role of cognition and bodily awareness in singing, this book presents a transformative science- and performance-based perspective that accurately represents how we integrate the conscious and imaginative mind with the unconscious sensory and motor processes of our nervous system to intuitively guide the audiomotor behavior that is singing. Recognition of the role of the vestibular system in spatial cognition and, more specifically, in monitoring and correcting postural and autonomic equilibrium provided the impetus for a shift in thinking from the anatomy of our body as a skeletal and muscular form to include the functional anatomy of the neural systems that stimulate and control those structures. By presenting mind-body awareness as sensory and motor processing (sensorimotor), singers and teachers of singing are introduced to functional anatomy and the cognitive neurosciences that will guide them in unlocking the mysteries of the mind-body link. Concepts rooted in both the wisdom of the masters and current scientific research are introduced from the refreshingly meaningful internal perspective of the performer. Practical-application exercises are provided to train the mind of the singer to work with, rather than at cross-purposes with, the systems of singing.

How to Use This Book It is recommended that Mind-Body Awareness for Singers be initially approached with a focus on the Key Points, figures, and practical-application exercises,

which are designed to provide an essential overview of sensorimotor processing and the means to apply this information from the earliest stages of development through advanced artistry. Topics that are likely to be most useful for immediate understanding and application of the concepts presented include Perception of One’s Own Voice While Singing, which is necessary to develop the knowledge with which we guide our behavior; The Working Memory, When Perception Turns to Planning—Images and Imagery, and What & When Improv, which address the planning processes that ultimately guide our behaviors; and finally, Direct and Indirect Cortical Controls, and Rhythm and Rhythmic Entrainment, which provide guidance to ensureoptimal performance of ongoing behavior. Thereafter, a return for a more thorough reading of in-depth discussions of sensory and motor systems (such as lower-level and upper-level controls, reflexive resonance, and passive and active respiratory functions) and of the implications of neural anatomy for singing in general will further illuminate how we effect optimal performance of the complex behavior of singing in an ideal performing state.

About the Research: The Role of Bodily Awareness and Cognition in Singing While extensive background research reveals common threads in existing theories and practices regarding the significance of bodily awareness and knowledge of our physical structure for mastery of vocal technique, these insightful sources also reveal that much remains to be learned about the role of cognition. Howard Gardner defines bodilykinesthetic intelligence as, “The ability to use one’s mental abilities to coordinate one’s own bodily movements” (Gardner, 1983, pp. 205–236). Barbara Conable proposes that musicians coordinate the cognitive, sensory, and motor functions in performing,

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but notes that scientists are only now figuring out how systems interact to produce a musician (Conable, 2000, p. 38). Shirlee Emmons and Alma Thomas suggest that while much of the motor activity employed in singing is essentially noncognitive in nature, the singer is asked to use judgment to coordinate a highly complex set of skills (Emmons & Thomas, 1998, pp. 5–10). Awareness is a state of consciousness involving perception of sensory events without necessarily understanding them. Self or bodily awareness is characterized by an ability to integrate sensations from the environment and ourselves with our immediate goals to guide behavior. Cognition is the mental process of knowing, judging, thinking, learning, and imagining (http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/ Cognition). Cognitive tasks include the perception and interpretation of sensory information, such as the comparison and association of new information with existing knowledge and experience. Cognitive processing occurs both consciously and unconsciously. Higher-level cognitive functions, or executive functions, include the ability to integrate motor responses into a meaningful sequence and the ability to project one’s self into the past and the possible future from an internal, or autobiographical, perspective (Long, 2002). This research in cognitive bodily-kinesthetic awareness (CKA) and singing began with an appreciation for the distinct relationship between the quality of a singer’s movements and the quality of a singer’s sound. The look of presence radiates 1

not only from the eyes but also from the physical self. This appreciation is supported by a historically, long-standing tradition of using movement methods and balance tools for the development of singing technique. Yet the ability to attain a natural flow in singing behavior, as a result of effective transference of knowledge gained from studying movement methods, is often inconsistent, time intensive, or even ineffective for those with underdeveloped bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. As the study began, there were insufficient research data to support the efficacy of employing these traditional methods (Valentine et al., 1995).1 If proof is “in the pudding,” so to speak, it is understandable that a singer or teacher of singing would not need research results to support their use. That is, if a technique works, the proof will be in the performance outcome. The more salient question is how does the technique work? If we can better understand how movement methods interface with behavior, then we may improve the efficacy of their practical application, even when we must stand relatively still. After all, we cannot always “stand on our heads.”2 Although language begins in earnest when we can walk upright and is learned instinctually by ear, the relationship between cognition, erect posture and locomotion, and audition and phonation has remained on the periphery of science. That is, research in spatial cognition and motor behavior has remained separate and distinct from the sciences of speech, language, and hearing. While it is generally understood that the role of cognition in guiding voluntary behavior is to integrate essential monitoring feedback, through a process of comparative judgment and correction according to our willed intentions, the scientist observer, without experiential knowledge of singing, was unable to tell us how we coordinate the complex sensory and motor behavior that is singing. Similarly, the singer, without a fun-

 Elizabeth R. Valentine, et al., The Effect of Lessons in the Alexander Technique on Music Performance in High and Low Stress Situations Psychology of Music 23 (1995), 120–141. This review cites several studies that showed bias or inconclusive results, and ultimately concluded that results of these studies were suggestive but in need of replication and further analysis. See also Gruzelier, Egner, Valentine, & Williamon (2002). Comparing learned EEG self-regulation and the Alexander Technique as a means of enhancing musical performance; and Gruzelier, J. H. (2009). A theory of alpha/theta neurofeedback, creative performance enhancement, long-distance functional connectivity and psychological integration. Cognitive Processing, 10(S1), pp. 101–109. ISSN 1612–4782. 2  Refers to a popular book by Eloise Ristad, A Soprano on Her Head: Right-Side-Up Reflections on Life and Other Performances, 1982.

Introduction xv

damental knowledge of cognitive neuroscience and neuroanatomy, was unable to make sense of or effectively apply the research data provided by scientists. A thorough review of the existing literature on movement in general as well as specific to singing revealed some significant limitations in scope. Scientific research of sensorimotor integration has focused primarily on vision, or visuomotor integration, almost to the exclusion of the audiomotor integration employed by musicians. With a few important exceptions, research on the brain and music has focused on how we perceive and process music from the external perspective of the listener, rather than from the internal perspective of the performer, thereby overlooking the effect of one’s own voice when singing on spatial cognition (i.e., proprioceptive knowledge of one’s place in space) and bodily-kinesthetic intelligence in general. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence, defined by Howard Gardner as “the ability to use one’s mental abilities to coordinate one’s own bodily movements” (Howard Gardner, 1983), is developed through a gathering of information from the whole of our sensory systems — including our sense of well-being, the somatic (bodily) senses (touch, pain, and temperature, and kinesthesis), vision, hearing, and especially our vestibular sense of space and motion commonly known as our sense of balance — and the experiential knowledge of “doing” (motor memory). The guiding tenet of this empirical research methodology was to look at the whole of the singer’s experience — from the various perspectives of the sciences of the thinking mind and the physical self, the external perspective of the observing scientist and educator, and the internal perspective of the artist performer — in order to identify the points where scientific and experiential knowledge intersect and define the value of a theory according to its practical application to the vocal performance art. That is, information gleaned from determining where scientific and experiential knowledge of singing behavior intersect would, in theory, identify critical guiding principles and ultimately lead to a reasonable expla-

nation for how we produce elite and intuitive singing behavior. In addition, this information would provide insight regarding both how the conscious mind and physical self interface to achieve and maintain optimal performance of a well-learned, highly automated, complex motor behavior such as singing, and how to do so with creative flexibility in an ideal performing state, which is characterized by heightened awareness, vigilant attention, and autonomic balance, or calm.

Cognitive Bodily-Kinesthetic Awareness and Singing:  The Role of Cognition in Vocal Technical Skill Development A comparison study of cognitive and noncognitive movement methods for the development of vocal technical skill (Leigh-Post & Burke, 2009) was conducted over a 4-week period with the following contrasting hypotheses in mind: 1. If bodily-kinesthetic intelligence by definition can be developed through cognitive learning processes, then cognitive methods will effect a greater positive result on the development of vocal technical skill than will noncognitive methods. 2. If noncognitive methods, such as those that promote general fitness, effect a natural vocal athleticism without fear of overthinking, then the employment of noncognitive movement methods will effect an equal or greater positive result on the development of vocal technical skill than will cognitive methods. Thirty undergraduate voice majors from five voice studios were randomly placed in three participant groups: a control group with no change in activity; a noncognitive group that engaged in nonspecific general athletics; and a cognitive group that attended workshops in Alexander, Feldenkrais, and yoga techniques and received practice guides, Body Mapping materials (Conable, 2000), and analysis logs. Data collection was blind and included pre- and poststudy questionnaires (self-reported), pre- and poststudy vocal skills assessments by professional adjudicators, and daily practice logs. (This

xvi Mind-Body Awareness for Singers:  Unleashing Optimal Performance

research was approved by the institutional review board at Lawrence University.) The overall rate of improvement in vocal skills for the cognitive group was assessed at 48%, representing a 21% increase over no change in activity and a 16% increase over noncognitive methods. Participants who reported ease in maintaining bodilykinesthetic awareness demonstrated observable ease and fluidity of movement and reflexive postural adjustments at least some of the time. Participants who reported difficulty in maintaining awareness demonstrated either rigid inflexible posture and effort or physical disengagement, lack of tonicity, and breathiness. Results indicate cognitive movement methods effected a greater positive result on the development of vocal technical skill than noncognitive methods. In addition, data support the notion of the correlation between maintenance of bodily-kinesthetic awareness and maintenance of an ideal performing state as demonstrated in motor flexibility and postural ease. The significance of postural balance to each of the movement methods employed in the study, together with the apparent significance of postural ease, suggests the vestibular system is instrumental for optimal performance and maintenance of an ideal performing state while singing and merits further study. The vestibular system is what we normally think of as our “inner ear” and our sense of balance. It is essential to spatial cognition. Its primary role is to monitor and correct postural and autonomic equilibrium during voluntary behaviors such as singing, and to contribute to the calculation of the spatial coordinates that position our effectors to make the right sounds at the right time (See Illustrated Guide to Neural Anatomy, p. xxxii).

Cognitive Bodily-Kinesthetic Awareness and the Systems of Singing (2010) Follow-up research to CKA and Singing focused on cognitive processing, maintaining awareness, and the role of the vestibular system in singing.

As anticipated, preliminary research trials designed to stimulate and heighten awareness of vestibular functions during singing (e.g., sense of balance and space) elicited increased ease and fluidity of movement during singing, both as reported by participants and as demonstrated in observable vestibular eye position (vestibulo-occular) and head turn (vestibulo-sternocleidomastoid) reflexes. Additionally, participants attending to their sense of balance and space experienced a dramatic increase in general perceptual awareness — awareness of not only feedback information, but also the perceptual imagery that guides or feeds forward information to our motor systems (see When Perception Turns to Planning — Images and Imagery, p. 69). However, it was not until the task of maintaining awareness of the vestibular sense of balance and space while singing was “put to the test,” with the addition of stressors provided by a public concert venue, that an unexpected finding emerged. It was then that participants consistently reported ease in maintaining not only optimal awareness, characterized by the amplification of necessary information and vivid imagery, and attentional focus on the task at hand, characterized by the inhibition of unnecessary information that would cause distraction, but also ease in maintaining an ideal state of homeostatic equilibrium, characterized not only by physical ease and fluidity of movement but also by a general sense of well-being — a sense of calm absent anxiety and well-regulated temperature, salivation, and heart and respiration rate. Thus, preliminary research findings suggest a link between vestibular stimulation and an ideal performing state characterized by optimal awareness, attentional focus, and homeostatic equilibrium.

Impact of Research on Continuing Study, Voice Science, and Pedagogy Therefore, what has since been hailed as “groundbreaking research” (Emmons) on the roles of cognition, bodily awareness, and the vestibular system when singing paved the way for an aggressive interdisciplinary study of the sciences of the mind and body for the particular purpose of understanding how our conscious perceptions and executive functions of the working memory interface with our

Introduction xvii

unconscious sensory and motor processes to guide voluntary skilled behaviors such as singing. Moreover, this research from the perspective of the performing vocal artist ultimately led to advancements in voice science and in our understanding of singing that are, above all, practical and applicable to singing from the earliest stages of learning to the most advanced stages of the art. For example, research on the role of the vestibular system when singing led to expansion of the

Perkins and Kent (1986) model for the Systems of Speech, Language, and Hearing, namely the respiratory, phonatory, articulatory, and auditory systems, to reflect the Systems of Singing and the inclusion of the vestibular and motor systems which are necessary to maintain our postural orientation to gravity during singing and to calculate the spatial coordinates that position our effectors (phonator and articulators) to make the right sounds at the right time (Figure I–1).

Figure I–1.  The Systems of Singing. The hierarchy of the interdependent systems remains the same, beginning with our brain (intentions), and continuing with the motor behavior output systems (postural, respiratory, phonatory, and articulatory) and finally the sensory systems, represented by the organs of the inner ear (cochlea and vestibules), that process feedback information from those behaviors. The sensory organs of the inner ear have been separated according to auditory (sound) and vestibular (motion) functions. It should be noted that the vestibular system as a whole serves both sensory and motor functions, detecting motion and stimulating postural adjustments in order to maintain equilibrium (i.e., our physical orientation to the forces of gravity) during motor behaviors such as singing and walking. Alex Johnson, Illustrator. Adapted from Perkins, W. H., & Kent, R. D. (1986). Functional Anatomy of Speech, Language, and Hearing. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

xviii Mind-Body Awareness for Singers:  Unleashing Optimal Performance

Furthermore, identifying the role of the vestibular system in monitoring and correcting postural and autonomic equilibrium, together with recurring stimulation of arousal mechanisms when singing, provides a reasonable neurophysiological explanation for how a singer-athlete maintains an ideal performing state under stress of varying degrees (Leigh-Post, 2010, 2012a).

Recurring Vestibular Stimulation Theory The theory of recurring vestibular stimulation (RVS) proposes that the vestibular system mediates an ideal performing state and that in recurring vestibular stimulation we have a means by which we may voluntarily interface with the involuntary systems that regulate autonomic balance and, at the same time, stimulate an alert and receptive mind. That is, by voluntarily and recurrently stimulating the ves-

Optimal performance is characterized by smooth coordination and expert execution of a complex sequence of events such as singing. It relies on an equalized state where our resources of the moment are equal to our purpose of the moment. We not only have all the information we need when we need it, but we also have all the energy we need when we need it, and the task at hand is performed optimally with ease. An ideal performing state is characterized by heightened awareness, vigilant attention, and autonomic balance or “calm,” absent of anxiety (Emmons & Thomas, 1998, p. 11). Homeostasis refers to the state of our internal environment. We might experience homeostatic equilibrium (internal balance) as a sense of well-being, calm, or having a “happy body.”

tibular system, we can promote sustained attention and continuous activation of reciprocal mind-body communication — between the executive (frontal) and sensory (posterior) cortical areas and between the conscious mind and unconscious brain — which are necessary for optimal performance of voluntary behaviors and creative self-expression. It is suggested that constant and recurring stimulation of the vestibular system unique to singing can be effected by means of direct forced bone-conducted vibrations transmitted from the vocal apparatus, via tissue and bone, to the sensory organ of the inner ear. Moreover, this stimulation may be similarly effected through auditory imagery (i.e., covert mental rehearsal, or inner singing), as per the working memory and indirect cortical controls. That is, research findings suggest the link between the vestibular system and our psychological, biochemical, and neurophysical selves promotes optimal performance in an ideal state of homeostatic equilibrium (Leigh-Post & Burke, 2009, Leigh-Post, 2010). Equilibrium is monitored and controlled by the vestibular system in two important ways. The vestibular system interfaces with the cerebellum to continuously monitor and control our motor systems for postural equilibrium, or our structural orientation to gravity, and it also interfaces with the autonomic system to monitor and control gravitydependent autonomic reflexes that regulate the tonicity of our internal muscles, such as the heart, lungs, diaphragm, swallowing muscles, and vocal folds. The practical significance is this: by purposefully stimulating vestibular receptivity and consciously monitoring our position in space — that is, by detecting information from which the spatial coordinates necessary to maintain equilibrium and optimal positioning of our effectors are calculated — we have a means by which we may consciously and cognitively interface with the unconscious systems that regulate homeostasis and our sense of well-being. Our findings in cognitive bodily-kinesthetic awareness both support the insightful theories of the past and present and provide direction for future collaborative research in the arts and sciences to better understand the complex interaction of mind and body that is singing.

Introduction xix

Thus, by framing mind-body awareness as sensorimotor processing, and therefore broadening the scope of voice science and pedagogy to include the perspective of cognitive neuroscience and the

functional anatomy of the systems of singing, we can better understand how our thoughts stimulate purposeful action — how a singer-athlete maintains optimal performance in an ideal performing state.



Illustrated Guide to Neural Anatomy The following overview of general neural anatomy is provided as a guide to the nervous system and the language used to describe its anatomy and function. An initial cursory review of this information is recommended, recognizing that the material will serve as an as-needed reference as topics are explored in greater depth throughout the book. In addition, “The Singer’s Brain at Work” includes discussion of research studies with particularly salient information regarding singing, along with illustrated anatomical guides to serve singers and teachers of singing in reading research studies more effectively.

Functionally, a sensorimotor integration system is comprised of the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions (commonly known as rest and digest, and fight or flight, respectively). Anatomically, it spans both the peripheral and central nervous systems, serving both the viscera and some skeletal muscles. As shown in Figure 0–3, the vagus nerve X (cranial parasympathetic outflow) supplies the muscles of the heart, lungs (including larynx, pharynx, and trachea), and more.

The Nervous System The integrated whole of our nervous system is often divided and categorized for various purposes of discussion and study. Anatomically, the nervous system is divided into the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system (Figures 0–1 and 0–2). The central nervous system (CNS) lies within the skeletal structures of the skull (cranium) and vertebral column (skeletal spine), which form the brain and the spinal cord, respectively. The peripheral nervous system lies outside these skeletal structures and includes cranial nerves, spinal nerves, and sensory receptor organs. Functionally, the CNS may be divided into three main components: the sensory system, the motor system, and homeostatic and higher brain functions (Dafny, n.d.).

Autonomic System and Homeostasis As the name suggests, many of the functions under the control of the autonomic system are autonomous, or capable of self-regulation without conscious attention, and serve an important role in maintaining our internal environment and effecting homeostasis, or a stable, equalized state.

Figure 0–1.  Central nervous system. A. Brain. B. Spinal cord. Courtesy of Dr. Joe Kiff.

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Figure 0–2. Spinal nerves of the peripheral nervous system. Source: Persian Poet Gal/ Wikimedia Commons/ public domain 2006.

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Figure 0–3.  Autonomic system. A. Parasympathetic division.  continues

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Figure 0–3.  continued  B. Sympathetic division. Source: BruceBlaus/Wikimedia Commons/Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported. xxiv



Autonomic balance (homeostatic equilibrium) is the normal coordinated functioning between the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system — an anabolic gathering up of energy and a catabolic expenditure of energy that is equal to the task at hand. We can monitor autonomic balance as the rhythmic synchronization of our heart and breathing rate, and perceive equilibrium as a sense of well-being, flow, or calm. The essential role of anticipatory control for maintaining autonomic balance and emotional stability is indicated in the anatomical structure of the autonomic network as summarized in the following statement: “The hierarchy in the autonomic network results in the loops from the brainstem to spinal cord being responsible for rapid short-term regulation of the autonomic nervous system, hypothalamic-brainstem-spinal cord pathways serving longer-term, metabolic and reproductive regulation, and finally

Illustrated Guide to Neural Anatomy

limbic system-hypothalamic-brainstem-spinal cord loops serving anticipatory autonomic regulation” (Dougherty, n.d. a).

Neurons The functional unit of the nervous system is a specialized cell called a neuron (neuronal cell). A neuron may be further categorized as a sensory neuron, a motor neuron (motoneuron), or even an interneuron that transmits information between neurons within the central nervous system (i.e., from a sensory neuron to a motor neuron), and so forth with increasing specification of function. Because of their various functions, neurons come in many different shapes and sizes, but all have a cell body and specialized extensions called dendrites and axons (Figure 0–4). Dendrites bring information to the cell body and

Figure 0–4.  Neuronal network. Source: US National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Aging/Wikimedia Commons/ public domain.

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axons take information away from the cell body. Neurons communicate with each other by transmitting information through an electrochemical process by which action potentials fired from one cell body travel along its axon and across the synapse (the junction of two cells) to another cell.

Nuclei, Tracts, and Nets As suggested in Hebb’s law, “neurons that fire together wire together,” neurons are great networkers. Neurons of like function and purpose group or “wire” themselves together into clustered nuclei, circuitry, linear pathways or tracts, and eventually wide-ranging hierarchical networks or systems that are, ultimately, part of the nervous system as a whole (see “Auditory and Vestibular Systems,” p. xxx).

Action Potential, or Impulse The action potential (Figure 0–5), also known as an impulse, provides us with a workable “cellular view” model of the gathering up and expenditure of energy that entrains with the rhythmic pulsations of our nervous system as a whole. Neuronal firing is an explosion of electrical activity that occurs when enough stimuli cause the resting potential to rise resulting in depolarization such that the threshold is reached (Knierim, n.d.b.). Like the rhythmic action of a conductor’s baton, the force of an action potential is defined by the amplitude and speed of its action. Although an individual action potential is not subject to variability — it either fires at a fixed amplitude and speed or it does not fire at all — action potentials may fire in rapid succession, in large volume (many neurons), and in a

Figure 0–5.  Action potential, or impulse. Source: Chris73/Wikimedia Commons/Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported.



Illustrated Guide to Neural Anatomy

seemingly infinite variety of combinations. This is how our nervous system generates and executes the prescribed energy, or force, for the task at hand with great specificity. Because the action potential, or impulse, is an explosion of electrical activity, we can “capture” its behavior and create an observable record of events in the brain (e.g., electrocardiogram [EKG], electroencephalogram [EEG]). Given sufficient activity, we may consciously perceive this behavior as a gathering up and expenditure of energy. Key Point:  Temporo-spatial coordinates specific to a neuron’s action potential define how far, how fast, and how long (duration). When transmitted via the axon to another neuronal cell, these coordinates form the common language of our dualcontrol nervous system (e.g., sensory and motor systems or the conscious mind and unconscious brain).

Depolarization is initiated by a stimulus. “The action potential is an explosion of electrical activity that is created by a depolarizing current. This means that some stimulus event causes the resting potential to move toward 0 mV. When the depolarization reaches about −55 mV a neuron will fire an action potential” (Byrne, 1997–present).

Cranial Nerves Cranial nerves are of particular interest to vocalists in that they serve the sensory and motor systems of the head and neck, and notably the auditory and vestibular systems, face, larynx, tongue, jaw, and palate (Figure 0–6). In addition, efferent signals carried by the vagus nerve include those that stimulate the muscles and mucous membrane glands of the pharynx and larynx, and signal parasympathetic slowing of the heart and breathing rate.

The Brain Like the whole of our nervous system, the brain can also be divided according to its anatomical structure or function. We will consider the cerebrum, cerebellum (“little brain”), and the brainstem (midbrain, pons, and medulla). Key Point:  Anatomical distinctions are helpful for study purposes. However, it is important to bear in mind that most information (stimulus) is simultaneously processed by multiple brain areas and modes, and can be shared at several subcortical “hubs” (nuclei) and across cortical areas. Even the brain’s many domain-specific representational areas appear to be organized in a quasi-hierarchical fashion with reciprocal connections that allow for the flow of information from the top-down, bottom-up, and laterally (Hill & Schneider, 2006).

Peripheral Nervous System In the peripheral nervous system, information is transmitted between the central nervous system and peripheral organs via nerves. A nerve is an enclosed, cable-like bundle of axons that form a common pathway for the transmission of electrochemical impulses. Thus, each nerve is a cordlike structure that contains many axons or fibers. A group of axons or fibers is bundled together into a fascicle or fasciculus (see “Arcuate Fasciculus,” p. xxxvi). Structures analogous to nerves within the central nervous system are called tracts.

Cerebrum The cerebrum is the principal part of the brain whose outer layer forms the cortex (Figure 0–7). It is responsible for the integration of complex sensory and neural functions and the initiation and coordination of voluntary activity in the body. The cerebral cortex is what we think of as our conscious mind. It is responsible for all forms of conscious experience, including perception, emotion, thought, and planning, as well as coordination of motor activity (Pines, 1995, Glossary).

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Figure 0–6.  Cranial nerves. Source: BruceBlaus/Wikimedia Commons/Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported.

Figure 0–7.  The brain—cortical areas. Courtesy of http://www.wpclipart.com. Source: Myslin/Grays 728/Wikimedia Commons/public domain. x xviii



Illustrated Guide to Neural Anatomy

Anatomically the cerebrum is commonly divided into five lobes: occipital, parietal, temporal, insular, and frontal. Four of which correspond to skull bones (see Figure 2–14). Generally speaking, the function of each lobe is as follows (Hill & Schneider, 2006): 1. The occipital lobe is involved in visual processing. 2. The parietal lobe participates in coding visuospatial information and is involved in attentional control and somatosensory processing (i.e., bodily sensations such as touch and vibration, pain, and kinesthesis). 3. The temporal lobe is involved in coding auditory and verbal information for memory storage, and also contributes to visual processing at the level of object formation and face processing. 4. The insular lobe (a small area concealed beneath portions of the frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes) is involved in emotional processing, taste, and learning. 5. The frontal lobe is involved in executive function, reasoning, effort, and emotional coding,

conceptual information and rules, motor control, speech, and smell (Hill & Schneider, 2006). Before we consider the singer’s brain and how researchers study changes in cortical activity, or the flow of information in areas accessible to consciousness, we will take a look “under the hood” at subcortical structures and the unconscious brain (Figure 0–8).

Subcortical Structures Thalamus. The thalamus is the uppermost hub of sensory information in the unconscious brain. It is the point from which sensory information may, finally, be projected to the cortex where it is available to the conscious mind. Hypothalamus. The hypothalamus, located just below the thalamus, is the key brain site for the integration or mediation of information between the multiple systems that maintain homeostasis. The three major systems that maintain homeostasis

Figure 0–8.  The brain — subcortical structures. Source: National Institute for Aging, Wikimedia Commons/public domain.

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are the autonomic nervous system, the neuroendocrine system, and the limbic system also described as our motivational states (http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system#cite_note-urle​ Medicine.2FStedman_Medical).

Hippocampus and Amygdala (Limbic Structures). A nonspecific group of structures surrounding the top of the brainstem, commonly known as “the limbic system,” serve to quickly evaluate sensory data, trigger motor responses, and assist in the formation of memory (http://willcov.com/bio-con​sciousness/review/ Limbic System.htm). The hippocampus supports the formation of memory networks in the association cortex, and the amygdala supports the evaluation of the affective and emotional significance of perceptions (e.g., fear or pleasure) necessary for consolidation of memories (Fuster, 1997, p. 452). It should be noted that there are no generally accepted areas of the brain that belong to the “limbic system,” and as such, neuroscientists often avoid using the term. Basal Ganglia and Cerebellum.  Located at the top of the brainstem, two subsystems in the motor hierarchy, the basal ganglia and the cerebellum, are thought to be influential in generating production programs for speech, as well as mediating reproducible movements such as walking, laughing, juggling, and sustained phonation (Perkins & Kent, 1986, p. 448). The cerebellum, meaning “little cerebrum,” contains about half of the brain’s neurons and is closely associated with nuclei of the brainstem.

is a nonspecific integration mechanism that interfaces with other structures and systems involved in the selective aspects of attention, including all sensory and motor systems, cerebellum (motor coordinator), limbic system (emotion and memory), hypothalamus (homeostasis), thalamus (sensory), autonomic system (visceral sensorimotor), the entire cortex (conscious mind) and notably the right parietal lobe.

Auditory and Vestibular Systems To complete our current journey through the unconscious brain, we will now follow the preconscious processing and transmission of information from the perspective of the auditory and vestibular systems that are essential to singing — from receptor organs of the inner ear and along neural pathways as signals cross various levels of the central nervous system.

Sense Organs of the Inner Ear Airborne stimuli travel to the outer ear (A) and on through the ear canal (B), middle ear (C), and finally to the inner ear (D) where the auditory and vestibular sense organs are lodged in the temporal bone of the skull (Figure 0–9).

Brainstem.  The brainstem, lying between the top of the spinal cord and the base of the brain, consists of the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata. Spanning the brainstem are many essential neuronal processing “hubs” or nuclei, such as those that serve cranial nerves. Thus, brainstem structures are responsible for vital life support functions such as breathing, heart rate, consciousness and sleep, and sensory and motor information processing. For example, information from the auditory and vestibular organs of the inner ear first enters the brain at the pons. Reticular Formation. The reticular formation spans the central core of the brainstem and provides smooth transition between ascending and descending sensory and motor systems. Its intricate network

Figure 0–9.  Peripheral sensory organs of the outer, middle, and inner ear.



Illustrated Guide to Neural Anatomy

Bone-conducted stimuli (e.g., vibrations originating with the larynx or an external source) are transmitted directly to the receptors of the inner ear. At this point, airborne (and bone-conducted) information is transduced into neural signals when hair cells (a type of mechanoreceptor) are moved by the fluid in the cochlea and are in turn transmitted via the vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII) to the brain where, after several junctions along the way, they are projected to the auditory cortex where they can be heard or perceived as sound. This same vibration information is also transduced into neural signals when hair cells are moved by fluid in the vestibular organs and is sent via the vestibulocochlear nerve to the brain where it is processed as motion. (See Chapter 2, “Bone-Conducted Transmission,” p. 24.)

The Auditory System The auditory system provides us with a fairly clear example of a “classic” transmission pathway across several levels of the nervous system. Figure 0–10 illustrates the many “hubs,” or nuclei, which are distributed along the brainstem for the purpose of processing or integrating shared information. In addition to “classic” projections to the auditory cortex, the ascending auditory pathways include projections to “the cerebellum, basal ganglia, and cortical motor structures such as the supplementary motor area and premotor cortex; and descending projections from the auditory association areas of the cortex project to the basal ganglia, reciprocally influencing sequencing, timing, and behavioral response selection” (Thaut & Abiru, 2010, p. 263).

Figure 0–10.  Auditory system. About 98% of the signals transmitted via the auditory nerve involve ascending (afferent) information projected from the sensory receptor to the brain (Perkins & Kent, 1986, p. 285). The remaining descending (efferent) signals are used to control the operation of the ear from various levels of the nervous system. The cochlear nuclei are located in the brainstem, spanning the junction of the pons and the medulla. The specialized anteroventral, posteroventral, and dorsal cochlear nuclei, together with the superior olive and nuclei in the midbrain and thalamus, process separate and distinct information, which enables us to perform discrete tasks, such as regulating hair-cell sensitivity in the cochlea (selectivity), or detecting the temporal pattern of sound (timbre). For example, the anteroventral nucleus processes frequency information relative to horizontal localization of sounds (intensity) (Martin, 2012). Illustration courtesy of Alexis Ames.

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The Vestibular Network The same signals (vibrations) that are transmitted to the inner ear and processed by the auditory system as sound are likewise processed by the vestibular system as motion (Figure 0–11). Axons that transmit information from the vestibular organs to the brain (CNS) share the eighth cranial nerve with axons from the auditory system (vestibulocochlear nerve). However, axons from the vestibular organ terminate in vestibular nuclei, from which there are several projection systems or tracts. Key Point: Stimulus events, such as a police siren, are processed simultaneously by multiple

systems or modes — as sound, vision, and even vibration (tactile) and motion (vestibular).

The Vestibular System Sometimes referred to as the great integrator, the vestibular system receives, processes, and projects both sensory and motor information that informs our knowledge of motion and space, effects head and eye movements that facilitate receptivity, and notably, signals corrective postural and autonomic reflexes in response to changes in our orientation to gravity for the primary purpose of maintaining equilibrium.

Figure 0–11.  Major pathways of the vestibular system. Sensory (afferent projections): A. Vestibulo-cerebellar (from all four vestibular nuclei and the sense organs). B. Vestibulo-thalamo-cortical (motion sense or equilibrium, and spatial awareness). C. Spino-vestibular (afferent). Motor (efferent projections): Efferent projections from the vestibular nuclei process and control ocular and postural reflexes via the spinal, reticular, and cerebellar tracts. A. Vestibulospinal (efferent). B. Vestibulo-reticular, -autonomic (NTS), -oculomotor nuclei. C. Vestibulo-cerebellar, -contralateral vestibular nuclei, -thalamus (Dickman, n.d.). Courtesy of Christopher Moore. Adapted from Sobotta, J. (1908). Human Anatomy/wikimedia commons/public domain.



Illustrated Guide to Neural Anatomy

The wide-ranging connectivity of the vestibular network precludes detailed illustration in a single diagram. Because of our specific interest in the role of the vestibular system for postural control, an illustration of the vestibulo-spinal system has been selected for this discussion. Additional pathways are presented in discussions of the sensory and motor functions of the vestibular system in Chapter 2, “Sensory Information Processing,” and Chapter 4, “Motor Output Processing,” respectively.

The Vestibulo-Spinal System. “The vestibular system influences muscle tone and produces reflexive postural adjustments of the head and body through two major descending pathways to the spinal cord, the lateral vestibulo-spinal tract, and the medial vestibulospinal tract” (Dickman, 2007. p. 27; Figure 0–12). The descending fibers of the medial vestibulospinal tract “connect to motoneurons that control muscles of the neck and trunk. In contrast, fibers to motoneurons that control limb muscles arise

from the lateral vestibular nucleus, and descend in the lateral tract” toward the outside of the spine (Shepherd, 1983, p. 278). Though not illustrated here, there is also an important distinction between the muscles of the neck and the body. “The main point is that the head, which contains the vestibular apparatus, is connected to the neck, the neck to the trunk, and the trunk to the limbs. Neck reflexes are thus the link between movements of the head and the body and limbs” (Shepherd, 1983, p. 278). In addition, Shepherd highlights the function of these reflexes as servosystems for stabilizing the head in space, noting that the response of neck muscles to head motion (i.e., sensory stimulus from the vestibules) tends to restore the head to its normal position and reduce the stimulation (Shepherd, 1983, p. 278). Key Point:  Neck reflexes, controlled by the vestibular system, “are the link between movements of the head and the body and limbs” (Shepherd, 1983, p. 278).

Figure 0–12.  Vestibulo-spinal system. Courtesy of Christopher Moore.

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The Cerebral Cortex and the Singer’s Brain “The extensive outer layer of gray matter of the cerebral cortex is associated with higher brain function such as sensation, voluntary muscle movement, thought, reasoning, and memory” (The American Heritage® Dictionary, 2009). It is commonly divided into the frontal and posterior cortices (Figure 0–13). Wide-ranging communication (connectivity) between the cortices is associated with focused and sustained attention, the working memory, and reduced anxiety (i.e., a state of equilibrium).

Frontal Cortex The cortical area of the frontal lobe, or frontal cortex, is commonly divided into the prefrontal and motor cortices.

Prefrontal Cortex The prefrontal cortex is the front-most cortical area of the frontal lobes. Also referred to as the frontal association cortex, it includes areas other than the motor and premotor areas. The prefrontal cortex is generally considered to be instrumental in executive functions (i.e., planning complex behavior, decision making in light of consequences, and self-expression in accordance with one’s willed intentions [goals] and social implications). The prefrontal cortex will be discussed in greater detail in the section, “The Singer’s Brain.”

Motor Cortices The motor areas, located in both hemispheres of the cortex, are very closely related to the control of voluntary movements, such as the fine fragmented movements performed by the articulators. The right half of the motor area controls the left side of the

Figure 0–13.  The cerebral cortex. A. Frontal cortex. i. Prefrontal cortex (PFC). ii. Dorsolateral (DLPFC). iii. Medial (MPFC, not shown). iv. Ventrolateral (VLPFC). B. Motor cortex. i. Primary motor cortex. ii. Pre-motor cortex (pre-SMA). iii. Supplementary motor area (SMA). C. Posterior cortices. a. Occipital lobe. i. Primary visual cortex. ii. Association cortex. b. Parietal lobe. i. Primary somatosensory cortex. ii. Association cortex/posterior parietal cortex. c. Temporal lobe. i. Primary auditory cortex. ii. Association cortex. Courtesy of Christopher Moore and Myslin/Grays 728/ Wikimedia Commons/public domain.



Illustrated Guide to Neural Anatomy

body, and vice versa (http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Cerebral_cortex#Sensory_areas). Cortical areas most commonly referred to as motor are the primary motor cortex, from which voluntary movements are executed, and the supplementary motor area (SMA) and premotor cortex (pre-SMA), which are primarily involved in the selection of voluntary movements. However, areas of the prefrontal and posterior cortices are also involved in motor functions. For example, the posterior parietal cortex is involved in guiding voluntary movements in space, the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) is involved in the selection and sequencing of voluntary movements according to willed intentions (http://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Cerebral_cortex#Sensory_areas), and the medial prefrontal cortex has been implicated with intuitive behaviors initiated according to “rule sets” rather than conscious reasoning (Limb & Braun, 2008). This is further explained in “Cortical Activity and the Creative Mind State,” p. xl; Chapter 2, “Expert Performing Musicians,” p. 48; and PAE 3–29 “What & When Improv.”

Posterior Cortex The sensory and association cortices of the parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes organize sensory information into a coherent perceptual model of our selves and our environment.

Occipital Lobe The cortices of the occipital lobe are associated with visual processing.

Parietal Lobe The cortices of the parietal lobe can be divided into two main regions: somatosensory cortex and posterior parietal cortex (Culham, 2006).

Somatosensory Cortex.  Spanning both sides of the forward section of the parietal lobe, the somatosensory cortex receives tactile and kinesthetic information from the opposite side of the body (Culham, 2006).

Posterior Parietal Cortex.  The posterior parietal cortex, located behind the somatosensory area, is also known as the parietal association cortex. The posterior parietal cortex is well situated to serve an integrative function — to take arising information from multiple sensory regions (including visual areas in the occipital lobe, auditory areas in the temporal lobe, and tactile information from the somatosensory cortex) and to provide output to premotor and motor regions within the frontal lobe. “The parietal cortex performs a range of functions in sensorimotor processing — spatial coding, attention, visuomotor control, coordinate transformation and tactile exploration” (Culham, 2006). More specifically, at the junction of the auditory, visual, and somatosensory cortices, the neurons in the inferior parietal lobule (also known as Geschwind’s Territory) are multimodal. This ability to process multimodal information simultaneously is essential to speech and language processing (Figure 0–14). Association Areas Association areas include most of the cerebral surface and are “defined by exclusion as those neocortical regions that are not involved in primary sensory or motor processing” (Purves et al., 2004, p. 613). They are largely responsible for “the complex processing that goes on between the arrival of input in the primary sensory cortices and the generation of behavior. The diverse functions of the association cortices are loosely referred to as ‘cognition,’ which literally means the process by which we come to know the world” (Purves et al., 2004, p. 613).

Temporal Lobe The cortices of the temporal lobe are involved in perception and recognition of auditory stimuli, memory, and tonal (musical, prosodic) and phonological (word sounds) language processing. Auditory information projected from the thalamus is represented in the primary auditory cortex (41, 42), as illustrated in “Brodmann’s Areas,” p. xxxvii. From there information may be projected to the adjacent posterior association area, and on to the prefrontal association cortex.

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Figure 0–14.  Language areas and arcuate fasciculus. The arcuate fasciculus has been found to be essential to vocal-motor control and tonal and phonological processing. “In nine out of ten people with tone deafness, the superior arcuate fasciculus in the right hemisphere could not be detected (Louis, Alsop, & Schlaug, 2009). Courtesy of Christopher Moore and Myslin/Grays 728/ Wikimedia Commons/public domain.

Language Processing Cortical areas known to be involved in language processing span the sensory, frontal, and motor areas. Two 19th-century scientists identified the areas that bear their names, Wernicke’s area (22) in the left temporal lobe is associated with the organization and comprehension of word sounds, and Broca’s area (44, 45) in the left frontal lobe is considered to be involved in the fluency or sequential unfolding of the motor expression of language. In addition, large bundles of axons in the inferior parietal lobule (a subdivision of the parietal lobe) have been found to connect to both Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area. This area is sometimes referred to as Geschwind’s territory. Subsequently, corresponding areas in the right hemisphere have been found to process tonal (musical) or prosodic information. The midtemporal area

in the auditory cortex of the right hemisphere that corresponds to Wernicke’s area is thought to be involved in the comprehension of tonal or timbral information (i.e., pitch inflection), and the area of the right prefrontal cortex corresponding to Broca’s area is involved in the expression of the emotional content of language. These areas are further connected by the arcuate fasciculus (AF) and the tapetum of the corpus callosum (Figures 0–14 and 0–15).

Arcuate Fasciculus and Fine Auditory-Vocal-Motor Control “In recent years, there has been increased interest in the use of musicians to examine brain adaptation in response to intense and long-term training of musical skills and notably in the auditory-vocal domain as compared with fine non-vocal-motor control auditory-instrumental. In contrast to instrumental



Illustrated Guide to Neural Anatomy

findings suggest that long-term vocal-motor training might lead to an increase in volume and microstructural complexity of specific white-matter tracts connecting regions that are fundamental to sound perception, production, and its feedforward and feedback control which can be differentiated from a more general musician effect” (Louis et al., 2009).

Cortical Divisions

Figure 0–15. Arcuate fasciculus—tractographic image. Source: Aaron G. Filler, MD, PhD/Wikimedia Commons/ Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported.

Before we continue our review of research studies focused on the activation of cortical areas relevant to singing, it will be useful to review additional divisions that are commonly used as a reference. For example, cortical areas are also divided in gyri, or cerebral folds (Figure 0–16), and cell architecture numbers (cytoarchitecture), such as Brodmann’s areas (Figure 0–17).

Brodmann’s Areas musicians, who exercise fine non-vocal-motor control while engaging their vocal system minimally during a performance, singers must always monitor their breathing as well as proprioception from their vocal apparatus. This added cognitive demand necessitates stronger connectivity between temporal, inferior frontal, as well as inferior motor/premotor, and inferior somatosensory regions; this may be reflected in differing white-matter architecture in the AF of singers, relative to instrumentalists” (Halwani, Loui, Rüber, & Schlaug, 2011). The corpus callosum is a wide, flat bundle of neural fibers beneath the cortex that facilitates communication between the left and right cerebral hemispheres. The tapetum is formed by the main body of fibers that extend laterally on either side into the temporal lobe. In a comparison study of singers, instrumentalists, and nonmusicians and the effects of practice and experience on the arcuate fasciculus, “Tract volume was largest in singers, especially in the left hemisphere” (Louis, Alsop, & Schlaug, 2009). “Our

In the early twentieth century, Korbinian Brodmann developed a map of the brain based on differences in the cellular architecture of the various parts of the cortex, assigning those areas with the same architecture numbers from 1 to 52 (http://MyBrainNotes​ .com). Although others have since developed altered nomenclatures for these cytoarchitectonic areas (e.g., Petrides and Pandya), Brodmann’s numbers are still used today to reference brain areas in research studies and discussions (see Figure 0–17). For example, Brodmann’s area 4 corresponds broadly to the primary motor cortex and the precentral gyrus/anterior central gyrus. Figure 0–18 provides a helpful guide to the various ways the prefrontal cortex may be divided and referenced in research studies, beginning with Brodmann’s areas. Note:  Descriptions of cortical, and notably prefrontal areas, are offered as a general guide according to “common understanding.” Emerging research together with advancements in brain imaging tools alter and refine our understanding of brain function on a daily basis. Moreover, neural plasticity (changes in brain structure due to learning and practice) assures that no two cortices will look or function in the same manner.

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Figure 0–16.  Cortical gyri. A gyrus is one of the prominent ridges on the surface of the brain. For example, the superior temporal gyrus is believed to be involved in memory function. However, not all gyri are as well defined; the superior, medial, and inferior gyri of the frontal lobe are more like areas. Source: was a bee/Wikimedia Commons/publicdomain.

The Singer’s Brain at Work With the advent of brain imaging techniques, and notably functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), scientists have been able to study cortical activity for various musical tasks, notably auditory imagery. Subsequently, musical tasks such as listening, notational audiation (sight-hearing), inner hearing, inner singing, and improvisatory performance have been studied and provide insight into how a musician processes tonal information. Researchers measure changes in brain activity, using the following methods: electroencephalogram (EEG) records electrical activity of neuronal impulses (voltage fluctuations) along the scalp, and an electrocardiogram (EKG) translates the heart’s electrical activity into a waveform (i.e., line tracings on paper); changes in cerebral blood flow (CBF) can be measured with fMRI or a positron emission tomography (PET) scan that uses a radioactive substance called a tracer.

Tracking the Flow of Information in the Cortex for Auditory Tasks Michael Petrides “proposes that each major sensory modality represented in the posterior association cortices (auditory, visual-spatial, visual-object, and somatosensory) projects, with some degree of topographical specificity, to each of several frontal lobe cortical regions critical for distinct executive functions (Marin & Perry, 1999). Moreover, based on a long series of studies, Petrides articulated a hierarchical theory of frontal contributions to mnemonic processing” (Perry, 2002, p. 259). For example, the posterior dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) is proposed to play a role in associating tonal memory (pitch information) with lexical memory (e.g., notation symbol or pitch name). This suggests the possibility that employing pitch information as memory “triggers” would also result in activation of the posterior dorsolateral frontal cortex. However, as we see in the tonal loop model, the ventrolateral (VL) frontal cortex is first in the proposed hierarchy and



Figure 0–17.  Brodmann’s areas. A. Side view, exterior cortex. B. Sagittal section, interior cortex. Source: Tkgd2007/Wikimedia Commons/publicdomain.

Figure 0–18.  Prefrontal cortex: subdivisions. Note: the term dorsolateral is used variously, and several terms are given to areas 47, 11, and 10. Source: Tkgd2007/Wikimedia Commons/publicdomain.

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is hypothesized to be critical for the repetition, selection, comparison, and judgment of stimuli in the working memory (Perry, 2002).

Tonal Loop Model The tonal loop model proposed for the auditory working memory, based on the phonological loop model of Alan Baddeley for auditory-verbal working memory, involves three stages of processing, each of which was demonstrated in multiple subsequent studies (Marin & Perry, 1999). The first stage of the tonal loop model calls for maintenance of tonal information over brief delays in a time-limited store (with anticipated projections between auditory cortex and mid-VL frontal cortex) (Marin & Perry, 1999). In a study by Perry, Zatorre, and Petrides designed to measure changes in cerebral blood flow (CBF) during the “simple operation of the tonal loop with no monitoring requirements . . . subjects listened to two-note sequences drawn from the major scale, followed by a silent interval twice as long as the stimulus. . . . In contrast to a silent baseline, this condition resulted in activation of the right ventrolateral cortex as well as bilateral auditory cortex, more extensively in the right posterior temporal plane . . . with clear-cut right hemisphere asymmetry” (Perry, 2002, p. 261). The second stage involves the ability to refresh and “hold on-line” tonal information based on vocal fundamental frequency control processes (i.e., inner singing, or tonal imagery). “Inner or imagined singing is proposed to depend on most of the areas active during actual singing” (Marin & Perry, 1999). Areas proposed to show increased activation are the supplementary motor area (SMA), which is particularly strongly associated with imagined singing, and the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), anterior insula, precentral gyrus/primary motor cortex, primary auditory cortex (right hemisphere), and putamen (part of basal ganglia) (Marin & Perry, 1999, cited in Perry, 2002). To measure cortical activation during the covert mental rehearsal component of the tonal loop (i.e., inner singing), after listening to two-note sequences drawn from the major scale, followed by a silent interval twice as long as the stimulus, subjects were asked to immediately repeat the two tones once

either was “in their head.” When contrasted to listening only, the imaged condition indicated activation of motor cortical areas (including the SMA and putamen) that are believed to support vocal fundamental frequency control (Marin & Perry, 1999). The third stage provides for the ability to consciously monitor the contents of the tonal loop so as to be aware of ongoing events — an executive function for which the mid-dorsolateral (MDL) frontal cortex is critical (Marin & Perry, 1999). For this final stage, Zatorre, Halpern, and Perry examined increases in CBF during a more complex task. Subjects were given two words from a familiar song, such as “Some” and “the” from Somewhere Over the Rainbow, and were asked to judge whether the pitch associated with the second was higher or lower than the first. In order to assure subjects were performing an imaged task, they were asked to “play out the song in their mind in real time” (Perry, 2002, p. 261). In keeping with the integration of lyrics and melody, cortical activations included bilateral activations in the temporal lobe, frontal regions, and the supplementary motor area. As predicted in Petride’s model, the ventrolateral frontal cortex was activated to judge pitch direction from stimuli held in working memory; during song imagery without any auditory stimulation, activation of the superior temporal gyrus was observed exclusively within the auditory association cortex; and activation unique to imagery was seen in brain areas consistent with the retrieval demands of the imagery task (frontopolar cortex bilaterally, in subcallosal cingulate cortex, and in the right thalamus) (Perry, 2002). The following study of improvisation offers an insightful and provocative argument for the neural underpinnings (substrate) of the creative mind state.

Cortical Activity and the Creative Mind State In an fMRI study of jazz improvisation (i.e., spontaneous musical performance) Limb and Braun (2008) propose that a unique pattern of activity indicating “widespread deactivation of lateral portions of the prefrontal cortex together with focal activation of medial prefrontal cortex” offers insight into cognitive dissociations that may be intrinsic to the creative process (Limb & Braun, 2008).



In the continuing discussion, Limb and Braun (2008) argue the focal activation of the medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC), associated with the production of an autobiographical narrative, is germane in that improvisation is a way of expressing one’s own musical voice or story. Furthermore, the portion of the MPFC that was selectively activated during improvisation, the frontal polar cortex (Brodmann area 10), appears to serve an integrative function, combining multiple cognitive operations in the pursuit of higher behavioral goals, such as utilizing rule sets to guide ongoing behaviors intuitively (i.e., without conscious reasoning) (Limb & Braun, 2008). In comparison, the deactivation of the lateral prefrontal regions (LOFC and DLPFC) during improvisation — areas involved in self-monitoring, conscious planning, and focused attention — may be associated with the defocused, free-floating attention that permits spontaneous unplanned associations, and the sudden insights or realizations associated with an altered creative state (Limb & Braun, 2008). It should be noted that while “decreased activity in the DLPFC may indicate a reduction in working mem-

Illustrated Guide to Neural Anatomy

ory demands, we feel that . . . attenuation of activity in the DLPFC in the present instance more likely reflects a reduction in the prefrontal mechanisms . . . for behaviors that conform to rules implemented by the MPFC outside of conscious awareness (Passingham & Sakai, 2004)” (Limb & Braun, 2008, p. 4).

Future Research in Cortical Activations in the Singer’s Brain Changes in cortical activation during various auditory imagery tasks by expert singers, such as “inner hearing” versus “inner singing,” “inner singing with no intention of singing overtly” versus “inner singing with the intention of singing overtly,” and “performance of over-learned vocalises” versus “improvised vocalises” falls under future research. However, we will explore these and other tasks for auditory-vocal-motor control through practicalapplication exercises in Chapter 3, “Training the Singer’s Brain” (p. 73).

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Acknowledgments After several years of writing, I am now intimately acquainted with the reasons authors express their gratitude for the support and patience of their families. To my husband Bryan and daughters Ashleigh and Kaleigh, who so often set aside their own needs, I thank you not only for making it possible for me to devote extended periods of time and attention to the project but also for cheering me on when my perseverance ebbed. I offer my thanks to my colleagues at Lawrence University for their role in facilitating the completion of the manuscript: to voice department faculty Kenneth Bozeman, Joanne Bozeman, Steven Spears, Teresa Seidl, and John Gates, who took on additional duties; to Kathy Privatt, Associate Professor Theatre Arts and ATI Certified Alexander Movement Technique Teacher, Beth Haines, Associate Professor of Psychology, and Terry Gottfried, Professor of Psychology, for offering their expert advice; to Asha Srinivasan for supplying an excerpt of her composition; to Arno Damerow and David Berk for their technical expertise; to research librarians and personnel, Antoinette Powell, Gretchen Reevie, Peter Gilbert, Angela Vanden Eizen, Erin Dix, and Cynthia Patterson, for their knowledgeable assistance and guidance; and to illustrators Christopher Moore, Alexis Ames, Alison Thompson, Christopher Bozeman, and Kelsey Stalker, and engravers Alex Johnson and Bethany Gee, who contributed their time and talents beyond any reasonable expectation. I am particularly grateful for expert consultants, Raymond Kent, Professor Emeritus and Co-Investigator of Vocal Tract Development Lab, Waisman Center, University of Madison, Wisconsin, and coauthor Functional Anatomy of Speech, Language, and Hearing (1991, Allyn & Bacon), J. Timothy Petersik, professor and chair of Psychology Department,

Ripon College, Wisconsin, and associate editor, Perceptual & Motor Skills (Ammons Scientific, Missoula, MT), Ingo Titze, University of Iowa Foundation Distinguished Professor in the Department of Speech Pathology and Audiology and the School of Music, and Peter Watson, specializing in respiratory function in the department of Speech-Language-Hearing Sciences at the University of Minnesota, who patiently guided my study and generously reviewed the text to ensure its veracity; and Gib Koula, who conducted clinical trials using biofeedback-assisted learning technologies. I offer my sincere thanks to musician, friend, and editor, Susan Lawrence McCardell, McCardell Editing, for her tireless encouragement and faith in the project as demonstrated in her cheerful if not enthusiastic review of multiple drafts and generous supply of expert editorial advice. To the mentors and teachers who have inspired me over these many years, I will be forever in your debt. I must offer a special note of thanks to Emma Small for introducing me to the wonders of what I called “balansinging” on Chango Paws©; and of course to my longtime mentor, Shirlee Emmons, without whose early concomitance I could not have mustered the courage to begin such a daunting task, and whose leadership by example inspired me to see the project through to completion even after her untimely passing. Finally, I offer my heartfelt thanks to my students: to Claire Burke who was an indispensable research associate, and Alex Johnson, who ably assisted in the preparation of our first paper presentation; and to all who courageously embraced new concepts with open minds and assiduously kept pace with the ever-advancing strides, leaps, and occasional sidesteps along our journey to uncover the mysteries of the mind-body link.

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1 The Role of Cognition in Sensorimotor Processing for Optimal Performance: “I Think, Therefore I Sing!” If awareness is a state of consciousness characterized by an ability to integrate sensations from our environment and ourselves with our immediate goals to guide behavior, and is therefore essential to optimal performance, what is the role of cognition, the conscious and unconscious executive functions of the thinking mind, in maintaining awareness during the various stages of sensorimotor processing? How do our thoughts influence the heightened awareness, or mindfulness, associated with optimal performance? The complexity of mind-body communication is evident as we recognize the extent to which sensory and motor processing, as well as the whole of behavior processing and a significant share of sensory and cognitive processing, occur unconsciously. So much so, in fact, that upon learning of this research on the role of cognition in singing, a behaviorist and amateur singer exclaimed, “But that would mean singing is cognitive!” Of course, absent the ability to execute behavior automatically and intuitively, we would be unable to articulate speech and singing at a rate “faster than we can think” (about 140,000 signals per second) (Perkins & Kent, 1986). Moreover, we would be unable to free the mind to use higher cognitive functions, such as the imagination, to expertly guide complex behaviors, such as the fluid expression of our thoughts and emotions through the art of singing. Yet maintaining awareness and cognitive attentional focus on the task at hand, or “piloting our automation,” is universally recognized as critical to achieving and maintaining optimal performance in an ideal performing state (absent of anxiety).

The ensuing discussion explores the role of cognition and body awareness within the framework of sensorimotor processing for singing, or, simply put, the planning processes that guide singing behavior and the perception of one’s own voice while singing. Key concepts from cognitive psychology and neuroscience relative to sensorimotor processing for singing are presented, including diagrams and practical-application exercises that provide an opportunity for us to associate the function of our neural anatomy and the language of cognitive neuroscience with the experience of singing. Framing mind-body awareness and singing as sensorimotor processing more accurately represents how the conscious, thinking mind interfaces with our unconscious sensory and motor-processing systems. Moreover, it provides a language that more accurately describes what we as singers experience from our internal perspective as performers, thus adding to the external perspective of the observing scientist and the useful but often misinterpreted metaphorical descriptions and demonstrations relied upon in our field. Empowered with this knowledge, we can train the mind to work with our nervous system — and thus our systems of singing — to unleash optimal performance at any skill level and enjoy an ideal performing state characterized by heightened awareness, vigilant attention, and equilibrium or calm. In so doing, we free our conscious mind to enjoy the highest of cognitive functions — the imagination ​ — and thereby create an endless stream of multimodal images to guide our bodies in an effortless

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2 Mind-Body Awareness for Singers:  Unleashing Optimal Performance

succession of fluid movements. For the artist, imagery, the phenomenal product of our imagination, is a conscious and cognitive function of the working memory that, it would seem, cannot be delegated to automated behavior (see Chapter 3, “When Perception Turns to Planning—Images and Imagery,” p. 69).

What Is Sensorimotor Processing? Sensorimotor processing is the processing of neural information involving sensory and motor systems, functions, and pathways for the purpose of executing the task at hand in accordance with behavior outcome goals. To better understand how sensorimotor processing works, it will be useful to track the various functions of the sensorimotor processing loop for a common goal in singing behavior, such as pitch matching (see Table 1–1, page 4; see Figure 0–10 for a diagram of auditory pathways). Key Point:  Sensorimotor processing takes time. It takes about a second, or a “beat,” from the impulse to act (mind to body) to a conscious perception (body to mind) that a task has been executed. In addition, the generation of a simple motor plan of action has been estimated to begin 1 to 10 seconds prior to the impulse to act.

Sensorimotor Processing Loop The various functions of sensorimotor processing may be categorized as sensory information processing (input), planning, and motor output (Figure 1–1). Sensory information, or “input” processing, involves the processes by which sensory information from a stimulus event in our environment or ourselves is received, transmitted, interpreted, and then perceived as a mental representation or image with the potential to be stored as knowledge. Planning of voluntary behavior is a cognitive process requiring accurate definition of our immediate goal

Figure 1–1. Sensorimotor processing loop. Courtesy of Alex Johnson.

for the task at hand, as well as the ability to recall knowledge and generate a mental representation, or image, to guide intuitive performance of that task. Moreover, artistic performance requires the ability to mentally manipulate that image for a phenomenal (one of a kind) experience. Behavior, or motor output processing, involves the largely unconscious response of passive and active motor controls to a stimulus, or plan of action. That behavior in turn stimulates our sensory information processing systems, which monitor and correct behavior according to the imaged plan of action and past experience or knowledge. Key Point:  The stimulus-response phenomenon is a basic attribute of the brain and nervous system without which normal life would be impossible (Dickman, 2007).

Systems of Singing Uppermost in the systems of singing is the brain, where cognitive functions operate both consciously



The Role of Cognition in Sensorimotor Processing for Optimal Performance:  “I Think, Therefore I Sing!”

and unconsciously. The hierarchy of the interdependent behavior, or motor output systems, begins with the postural systems and continues with the respiratory, phonatory, and articulatory systems (Figure 1–2). The sense organs of the inner ear, which process feedback information (stimuli) from these behavior systems, are separated according to their distinct and separate functions. When we sing, the auditory system receives and processes sensory information stimulated by phonation assound, whereas the vestibular system processes this information as motion. In addition, as a sensory and motor integration system, the vestibular system uses this information to both monitor and correct our physical balance (postural orientation to gravity and space) during the complex behavior of singing. Given the cyclical nature of sensorimotor processing and the reciprocal nature of our nervous

system in general, we could begin our discussion of the function, behavioral purpose, and voluntary application of these systems at any point. However, because the role of the conscious and cognitive mind is to process perceptual information as knowledge and to use this knowledge to plan and guide voluntary behavior, we begin with sensory information processing (Chapter 2), followed by the processes for planning voluntary behavior (Chapter 3) and executing motor output (Chapter 4). The role of the conscious and cognitive mind in influencing optimal performance of voluntary behavior for the whole of sensorimotor processing and maintenance of an ideal performing state is then summarized in Chapter 5, “Putting It All Together,” including practical-application exercises based on the principles of what & when planning, metamonitoring, and rhythmic entrainment.

Figure 1–2.  The systems of singing and sensorimotor processing loop. Courtesy of Alex Johnson.

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Table 1–1.  Sensorimotor Processing Goal: To Match a Demonstrated Pitch Task at hand

Sensory input

We prepare for a task.

General Arousal Reticular activating system (RAS) alerts brain to indiscriminate incoming information.

A pitch is sung or played.

Stimulus event

We choose to listen to the pitch model.

Attentional focus on select information (cognitive and conscious)

The auditory signal reaches our ears.

Auditory Reception (unconscious) Vibrations received by the sensory organs (cochlea) are transduced into neural signals and transmitted via the peripheral auditory nerves to the auditory nuclei in the brainstem. These signals continue along neural pathways, and after many stations along the way, to the thalamus where they are ultimately projected to the auditory cortices in the temporal lobes.

We hear the sound in our mind’s ear.

Auditory Perception (conscious)

We choose to remember this information.

Auditory image (mental representation) is associated with existing knowledge (e.g., name) and stored as a neural trace in immediate short-term auditory memory. Planning voluntary behavior

We decide to sing the same pitch.

Willed Intention (conscious)

We recall and inner sing the modeled pitch.

Recollection and auditory imagery—pitch is “held” in auditory working memory.

We feel readied and sense the impulse to act (set-go!).

Motor plan of action is prepared and projected to the cortex. Motor output

We sing the pitch.

Execution of Singing Behavior (unconscious) •  Includes self-correction. Sensory input

We listen to the sound of our own voice and notice adjustments until we intuitively know we have matched the pitch.

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Feedback Monitoring (conscious and unconscious) •  Attended information (conscious) •  Self-correction (unconscious) •  Perception (conscious and unconscious)



2 Sensory Information Processing:  Perception of Our Environment and Ourselves

Sensorimotor processing loop. Courtesy of Alex Johnson.

If awareness is a state of consciousness characterized by an ability to integrate sensations from our environment and ourselves with our immediate goals to guide behavior; and if our perception of that behavior may be stored as knowledge that may in turn be recalled as a mental representation or image to guide voluntary behavior, how does the conscious and cognitive mind influence the receptivity and perceptual accuracy of sensory information? Our sensory systems provide a rich confluence of information about our world in a wonderfully complex process that engages our nervous system at every level. Sensory information processing occurs consciously and unconsciously, actively and passively, and cognitively and noncognitively; it is

selective and limited, and requires interpretation and memory; it is influenced by context and perspective, experience, and emotion; it is the source of all knowledge and stimulates our imagination; and it is a neurophysiological and biopsychological process that exists in space and occurs over time.

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6 Mind-Body Awareness for Singers:  Unleashing Optimal Performance

Optimal functioning of the nervous system is dependent on the continuous influx of sensory information. After all, neural signals from our sensory receptors are generally the only source of information the brain has about what is actually going on in our internal and external environments (Culham, 2006). The surface of the human body is one large information-gathering entity. Aristotle, in his treatise “de Anima” (350 bc), linked the sense of touch (tactile) with the capacity for movement, and rightly maintained that the skin was more than an organ of touch but rather a mode much like vision and hearing, citing the skin’s ability to sense variations in temperature, dampness, pain, and pressure, perhaps even from deep within the body (Gillespie, 1999a, p. 231). Receptors in the layer of skin that covers our bones (periosteum) sense variations in intensity and frequency of pressure at our body’s structural core. Similarly, each of our sensory modalities (vision, audition, olfaction, gustation, touch, and motion) is composed of varied components. For example, the auditory sense organs detect variations in frequency rate (pitch and timbre) and amplitude (dynamics) to inform us of the source and location of a sound. Our vestibular sense organs of the inner ear detect the rate and amplitude of changes in our head position relative to gravity (i.e., linear and angular acceleration) to control head and eye movements, gravity-dependent autonomic reflexes, and postural controls, which maintain our physical orientation to gravity (including the larynx) and inform our sense of motion in space (Dickman, 2007). As such, the auditory and vestibular systems are particularly well equipped to sense events that occur through space and over time (duration). Key Point:  Perception is the process by which we take the information received from our senses and then organize and interpret it, which in turn allows us not only to see, taste, smell, hear, and feel events in our internal and external environments, but also to do so as meaningful and recognizable experiences with clear locations in space and time (Culham, 2006).

To gain a more complete understanding of the sensory information processes that shape our knowl-

edge of ourselves and our environment and, in turn, influence our actions, we will explore the function and behavioral purpose of the conscious and unconscious processing of a stimulus event — including reception, transmission, interpretation, and perception — with particular focus on aspects unique to singing, namely, the development of a multisensory representation or image of one’s own voice while singing and the nervous system’s ability to balance excitation and inhibition of a sensory stimulus to maintain an ideal performing state. Practicalapplication exercises will provide effective methods from the internal perspective of the singer for increasing the accuracy, vividness, and efficacy of sensory percepts.

Transmission of Sensory Information There is a long chain of processes between the stimulus events going on in our internal and external environments and our perceptual registrations of those events (Shepard, 1999, pp. 21–22). The physical sensory system is a complex network that could be likened to the New York transit system; sensory information is projected via two-way transmission pathways with various “relay stations” and “hubs” along the way, representing an integrative system that “keeps things running smoothly and on time.” Let us begin with sensory information processing in its simplest form. For the “classic” transmission of sensory input, the information flows in a linear, bottom-up (afferent) direction from the receptor to the cortex, where it may be perceived consciously (Figure 2–1). More complex processes of two-way transmission are reviewed later in this chapter. Processing begins when receptors (hair cells) located in a sensory organ (cochlea) for a sensory system (auditory), convert (transduce) information (stimulus) from the environment into a neural signal that is transmitted by way of the sensory nerve to the system’s nucleus in the brain for processing.



Sensory Information Processing:  Perception of Our Environment and Ourselves

Figure 2–1. Ascending auditory transmission pathway. The specialized anteroventral, posteroventral, and dorsal cochlear nuclei, together with the superior olive and nuclei in the midbrain and thalamus, process separate and distinct information, which enables us to perform discrete tasks, such as regulating hair-cell sensitivity in the cochlea (selectivity), or detecting the temporal pattern of sound (timbre). For example, the anteroventral nucleus processes frequency information relative to horizontal localization of sounds (intensity) (Martin, 2012). Courtesy of Alexis Ames.

A sensory nucleus (plural: nuclei) is a group of neurons (nerve cells) that bear a direct relationship to a particular nerve (transmission pathway) and share both proximity and broad function. Sensory nuclei are distributed throughout the brain from the brainstem (hind brain) to the uppermost hub, the thalamus (Stein, Wallace, & Meredith, 1995, p. 684). (See “Converging Sensory Inputs,” p. 29.) Key Point:  A nucleus is dedicated to processing information specific to a task. This is why we say that the auditory system processes a signal stimulated by a multisensory event, such as a police siren, as sound, whereas the visual system would process a signal from the same event as light.

This is the point where the world of neural processing of sensory information gets especially interesting. Once neural signals enter the brain, or central nervous system (CNS), there are several hubs and synaptic relay stations (nuclei) where information may be shared and processed, or even compared within modalities (i.e., left ear to right ear) and, in some cases, across modalities, before reaching the uppermost hub of sensory information in the unconscious brain, the thalamus. The thalamus is the point from which sensory information may finally be projected to the cortex. The cortex is where we can become consciously aware of sensory information and where we can make conscious and cognitive associations. At the end of the transmission pathway (cortex) we experience a perceptual image or mental representation of what is going on in our internal or external environment — coincidentally with the activation of its corresponding neural structure

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8 Mind-Body Awareness for Singers:  Unleashing Optimal Performance

(network or trace). According to prevailing theories of perception, stimulus events, or objects and their sensory qualities, are represented by the particular neurons or neuronal networks that they trigger in the brain (Culham, 2006). Therefore, the perceptual imagery that we experience when we mentally rehearse a melody involves many of the neural functions and networks that would be stimulated if we were to sing the melody overtly (aloud). Key Point:  In reality, there is no finite ending to sensory information processing. “Percepts evolve and are updated over time. The very act of perceiving itself leads to changes in the percept” (T. Petersik via e-mail August 28, 2011). That is, we never perceive or reconstruct an event the same way twice.

Perception As the source of all knowledge, sensory information is the stuff of which learning and mental imagery is made. If we perceive information often enough or associate it with enough meaning, any neural trace has the potential to be encoded into our long-term memory as knowledge. As such, it may be recalled as a mental representation or image of that experience (stimulus event). Take a moment to recall singing a great “money note” or a favorite phrase. The image is likely to be a confluence of rich and varied multisensory information that is associated with notated symbols, meaning, and emotional thought. This is no mere procedural memory. (See “Procedural Memory,” p. 60.)

Attentional Focus and Receptivity As the aforementioned “long chain of events” suggests, perception is not always achieved simply. Only a small fraction of sensory information is accepted at our receptors and still less will be processed to the extent that it will be projected to our cortex for conscious attention. The whole of sensory information processing, including receptivity, is subject to our temporal world; it is influenced by the purpose

of the moment, context, perspective, and existing knowledge or prejudice. Unlike the recording of a football play with many camera angles so that it can be replayed and viewed more closely at a later time, the sensory information that is the source of our perceptual knowledge will never be more accurate, detailed, or vivid than at the time of reception. While we can recall information and ponder its meaning at a later time, what we see, hear, or feel — the sensory information we receive in the space and time the stimulus event occurs — is what we get. This means that what occurs outside the frame of our attentional focus remains outside the frame of our perceptual knowledge. In addition, only information deemed worthy of our attention — information that is judged (unconsciously) to be novel and potentially pleasant, or motivationally necessary to our well-being and/or the task at hand — is likely to be received and processed, with the potential of being projected to the cortex where we can perceive it consciously, if we so choose. For example, although we may have seen someone several times and believe we could recognize them easily, if we did not take note of that person’s eye color, this information will not likely be available to us for recall. Similarly, if we do not attend to the cello line in the Mozart aria, Martern aller Arten, it is unlikely we will be able to sufficiently recall it to sing it, even if we believe we know the aria intimately. Sensory information processing is limited and selective by design (Figure 2–2). How is this impressive process of accepting or rejecting a stimulus achieved? We have systems for it.

Integration Mechanisms:  The Reticular Formation and Arousal (Awareness) In addition to the two-way transmission pathways that are specific to our various sensory systems, the reticular formation is a nonspecific integration mechanism. Spanning the length of the brainstem, it interfaces with multiple structures and systems (e.g., sensory and motor systems) involved in the selective aspects of attention and awareness. (See Chapter 3, “Getting Into the Zone,” p. 73, and Chapter 4, “Upper-Level Brainstem Controls,” p. 125.)



Sensory Information Processing:  Perception of Our Environment and Ourselves

Figure 2–2.  Attended stimulus. Courtesy of Alison Thompson.

The ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) provides general arousal of the brain and maintains its readiness to respond to select sensory input (afferent) signals. Were it not for this activation, the brain would literally sleep through even the heaviest bombardment of stimulation (Perkins & Kent, 1986, p. 404). When the ARAS projects information to the sensory thalamus and its gating mechanism (inhibitor), the thalamus becomes more sensitive to sensory information. In effect, the “gate is opened” and the now uninhibited thalamus projects sensitive information to the cortex (Figure 2–3). We recognize general arousal as the alert and temporarily disoriented state we experience when sunlight wakes us in the morning, or when we step into the shower and the continuous repetitive pressure of the cool water spray stimulates our skin. If, however, we fail to focus on select sensory input, the 1

cortex will become overstimulated and desynchronized in its response to sensory input, and we will likely feel out of control and anxious. Key Point:  Activation of ascending projections from the reticular formation corresponds to an awake, alert state. When the ARAS is quiet, the thalamus is insensitive to sensory information, the “gate is closed,” and the cortex can sleep (Perkins & Kent, 1986, p. 406). Stimuli devoid of novelty or motivational value are stimuli for which the reticular activating system will not arouse the brain. A change in any parameter of a stimulus is the basis for detecting novelty and arousing the brain from “sleep.”

“Perceptual systems respond predominantly to change; they do not record absolute levels — whether of loudness, pitch,1 brightness, or color — and this has

 In a positron emission tomography (PET) brain scan study of musicians with absolute pitch (1996), the association of verbal labels (note names) with musical pitches was hypothesized to depend in part on the left dorsolateral frontal cortex, as was the association of the names of musical intervals (e.g., major/minor third) with pairs of tones whose frequencies formed the same ratio. The posterior dorsolateral frontal cortex is thought to play a role in conditional associative learning, one of the higher-order frontal lobe memory functions (s.v. “III. MUSICAL MEMORY,” http://www.credoreference.com/entry/ esthumanbrain/iii_musical_memory (retrieved July 22, 2011).

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10 Mind-Body Awareness for Singers:  Unleashing Optimal Performance

Figure 2–3.  Thalamocortical projections ascending from the reticular formation (ARAS)—“arousal.” Courtesy of Christopher Moore and Sobotta, J. (1908). Human Anatomy/wikimedia commons/public domain. [Sobo_1909_624.png, Wikimedia Commons].

been demonstrated perceptually in every sensory domain (e.g., Kluender, Coady, & Kiefte, 2003). This sensitivity to change not only increases the effective dynamic range of biological systems, it also increases the amount of information conveyed between environment and the [perceiver] (Kluender & Alexander, 2008; Kluender & Kiefte, 2006)” (cited in Stilp, Alexander, Kiefte, & Kluender, 2010).

Heightened Awareness, or Mindfulness Therefore, sensory perception is also the stuff of which arousal and the heightened awareness associated with mindfulness, optimal performance, and an ideal performing state is made. Without arousal, perceptual awareness and learning, to say nothing of attentional focus and mindfulness, are not possible (Perkins & Kent, 1986, p. 406).

Mindfulness — “During the moments when the activity in a cortical area that specializes in a perception, idea, or plan of action is elevated sufficiently by the thalamocortical circuit [unconscious to conscious mind], that perception, idea, or plan appears to ‘fill the mind’ ” (LaBerge, 1995, pp. 221–222). Research exploring phenomena in auditory perception illustrates how the auditory system calibrates its receptivity to reliable properties of a listening context in ways that enhance its sensitivity to change. For example, Stilp et al. (2010) found listeners were more likely to report hearing a saxophone when stimulus that included a saxophone sound followed a context filtered to emphasize spectral characteristics of the French horn, and vice versa. This operates much like visual color constancy, for which reliable properties of the spectrum of illumination



Sensory Information Processing:  Perception of Our Environment and Ourselves

are factored out of (or subtracted2 from) perception of color (Stilp et al., 2010). That is, a reliable or familiar sensory stimulus is inhibited from processing; it is deemed “old news” and unworthy of our time and attention. If perceptual systems respond predominantly to change, we begin to understand the difficulty in maintaining awareness when performing well-learned repertory and during repetitive practicing. No wonder we sometimes feel the need to “stand on our head” to see things in a new light.3 In the New York transportation analogy, the reticular formation is the routing system that gathers, processes, and directs signals according to preprogrammed or automated switching and control mechanisms (self-regulated unconscious brain); when novel or motivational (need-to-know) information appears that cannot be managed by the automated processes, the ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) ultimately alerts the control tower (conscious mind) of incoming information that requires its attention. “Try it!” (Practical-Application Exercise [PAE] 2–1).

PAE 2–1: Neutral to Arousal.  If possible, remove your shoes and stand in a room that has windows or doors that may be opened to ambient sound. (Note: You may wish to stand with your hand on the back of a chair or piano to maintain steadiness. We want a happy body that is well equalized, where our sensory and motor systems are able to self-monitor our place in space and stimulate corrective postural responses without conscious effort.) 1. Stand at rest, breathing comfortably. We will call this neutral. 2. Notice the spaces surrounding you, inside the room and beyond. 3. Listen to the sounds surrounding you, inside the room and beyond. What happens when you recall a favorite melody (inner sing)? 2

4. Stand on your dominant leg, placing the toe of your other foot just ahead of you or in a tree pose, if you like. Now shift your weight ever so slightly from what is equalized pressure between the ball and heel of your foot so that about 75% of your weight is on the ball of your foot. Do this without lifting the heel of your foot from the floor and maintain easy balance. Try shifting your weight toward the heel of your foot. What changes? What information alerts your conscious mind? Repeat the exercise and notice the various ways that changes in sensory information (visuospatial, auditory, motion) stimulate arousal, alerting your conscious mind to events in your environment. Can you recognize even subtle arousal? Does your mind feel alert? Did your posture respond? This alert state is sometimes referred to as active repose.

Two-Way Transmission—“Top-Down” Processing From Upper-Level Controls In order for higher centers in the brain to synchronize all systems in accomplishing a task, a top-down (mind-to-body) sensory control mechanism adjusts receptivity, or gating, of incoming information according to its usefulness in accomplishing the task at hand (Perkins & Kent, 1986, p. 404). This descending (efferent) pathway parallels, in reverse direction, the classic ascending (afferent) transmission route with all of its synaptic relay stations (Figure 2–4). Just as the classic ascending pathways send sensory information into the reticular formation, or routing system, in the brainstem, so too do the descending sensory control pathways (Perkins & Kent, 1986, p. 406). In this way, the reticular formation facilitates voluntary amplification or inhibition of information

 Subtractive color mixing occurs when pigments create the perception of color by “subtracting” (i.e., absorbing) some of the light waves that would otherwise be reflected to the eye. For instance, if a blue pigment (which absorbs long wavelengths of light) is mixed with a yellow pigment (which absorbs short wavelengths of light), only the medium-length waves will be reflected, and the resultant mixture will be perceived as “green.” Elsevier’s Dictionary of Psychological Theories. Oxford: Elsevier Science & Technology, 2006. s.v. “COLOR MIXTURE, LAWS/THEORY OF,” http://www.credoreference.com/entry/ estpsyctheory/color_mixture_laws_theory_of (retrieved August 24, 2011). 3  This statement references Eloise Ristad’s popular book, A Soprano on Her Head (1982). Ristad, E. (1982). A Soprano on Her Head: Right-Side-up Reflections on Life and other Performances. Moab, UT: Real People Press.

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12 Mind-Body Awareness for Singers:  Unleashing Optimal Performance

Figure 2–4.  Two-way neural pathway of the auditory system. About 98% of the information transmitted via the auditory nerve is afferent information projected from the sensory receptor to the brain, and the remaining 2% is efferent information projected from the brain to the ear (Perkins & Kent, 1986, p. 285). Efferent signals that control the sensitivity of the receptor organs, and therefore the selectivity of information gathered, can be projected from various levels ranging from the cortex to the cochlear nucleus. Courtesy of Christopher Moore and Chittka L. Brockmann/Wikipedia/wikimedia commons/Attribution 2.5 Generic.

according to the consciously willed purpose of the moment. For the auditory system, some of this descending information goes to the middle ear muscles, which help protect against dangerously loud sounds and tune the small bones of the middle ear (ossicular chain) to respond to faint and distant sounds. However, much of this descending information goes to the cochlea, where the sensitivity of hair cell receptors is regulated, mainly by inhibiting their response (Perkins & Kent, 1986, p. 285). By means of this cochlear regulation, response to unimportant sounds can be inhibited to help screen out irrelevant background noise and improve attention to important sounds (Perkins & Kent, 1986, p. 285). Furthermore, the distinct and separate neural anatomy for each function of a sensory system enables us to perceive distinct

and separate information. For the auditory system, this means we can distinguish a fundamental pitch from overtones, the bass line from the melody, or even recognize the timbre of a single voice in a choir. “Try it!” (PAE 2–2).

PAE 2–2:  Attentive Listening.  Our auditory system is particularly well suited for detecting the source and location of a sound. While standing, and preferably in a room with windows and a door that are opened to ambient sound, listen intently to a faint and distant sound. Follow the sound for several minutes using timbre information to determine its source. If you hear footsteps or a voice, is it a man or a woman? How old? Use intensity information to determine if the sound is moving toward you or away from you. Perhaps you hear a car or a truck.



Sensory Information Processing:  Perception of Our Environment and Ourselves

If you are in a room with others, can you detect the sounds of those breathing around you? Can you detect the ticking of an analog clock? What sounds are amplified? Repeat the exercise several times, focusing on a variety of sound sources. And so it is with most of the various sensory modalities,4 which, together with integration mechanisms (e.g., reticular formation and cerebellum), provide considerable flexibility in the direction and control of sensory information between the cortex and the receptor. The innate ability of our sensory systems to gate information according to its motivational significance or usefulness in accomplishing the task at hand is known as selective attention. Key Point:  We can exercise our executive influence and voluntarily manipulate the gating of sensory information by focusing our executive attention on the task at hand. That is, we choose to be receptive to select information — to listen more intently or feel more carefully. We can even super-intend our will to the point of overriding receptor fatigue, or adaptation. “Try it!” (PAE 2–3).

PAE 2–3: Overriding Receptor Fatigue. When you are in the shower, choose to keep feeling the rapid repetition of the water spray on your skin even as it becomes increasingly familiar “tiresome old news.” You will need to maintain attentional focus. How frequently do you need to focus your attention on the information to maintain vivid perceptual awareness? Change it up. Feel the pressure on different areas of your back, neck, and shoulder. This exercise for overriding receptor fatigue, or adaptation, is also useful when attending to bone-conducted vibrations during singing. (See PAE 2–9, “Buzzing Bones.”) (We will continue to explore attending to select information from the auditory, vestibular, and somatic (bodily) sensory systems later in this chapter in “Perception of One’s Own Voice While Singing,” p. 23.)

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Selective and Executive Attention Selective Attention and a “Happy Body” Selective attention is an innate function of the nervous system that regulates the balance of excitation (amplification) and inhibition of sensory stimulus for the purpose of maintaining a state of equilibrium, or homeostasis. Moreover, our ability to weed out unnecessary information, and its related behavioral response, enables our entire nervous system to regulate anxiety by matching energy levels (noradrenaline) to the task at hand (Robertson & Garavan, 2004, p. 634). That is, we not only have all the information we need when we need it, we also have all the energy we need when we need it, and the task at hand is performed optimally with ease in an ideal state, absent of anxiety.

An Ideal Performing State Barbara Conable refers to this optimal state as inclusive awareness, which she characterizes as an awareness of kinesthetic, tactile, auditory, and visual information and the full experience of one’s emotions (Conable, 2000, p. 37). She goes on to describe what can only be the ideal state of homeostatic equilibrium. “Inclusive awareness contains all relevant information in the moment the information is needed and is characterized by a rich and pleasurable state of being” (Conable, 2000, p. 37). Shirlee Emmons and Alma Thomas theorize that the strength of the mind-body link exhibited in peak performance relies on an ideal performing state characterized by a sense of “inner calm and a high degree of concentration” and “an extraordinary awareness of body and surroundings” (Emmons & Thomas, 1998, p. 11). Furthermore, this ideal

 Olfaction (the sense of smell) transmits signals directly to the limbic system, as this information is essential to the survival of many species. This explains why we can inhibit an odor only by plugging our nose. Furthermore, while we can recognize a scent or be reminded of a scent, it is generally understood that we cannot recall a mental image of a scent — hence the value of flowers and perfume!

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14 Mind-Body Awareness for Singers:  Unleashing Optimal Performance

performing state is reported to elicit uninterrupted focus and concentration as well as an ability to regulate anxiety and arousal during performance (Emmons & Thomas, 1998, p. 11). The perceived coexistence of the seemingly contradictory states of vigilant attention and heightened awareness with a sense of inner calm is supported by recent studies that, with a better understanding of how our brain regulates arousal in response to task demands, provide neuroanatomical guidance on how the vigilant attention system might interface with subcortical (unconscious) arousal mechanisms (Robertson & Garavan, 2004, p. 634). That is, the notion that vigilant attention is linked to deactivation of inappropriate areas suggests inhibition may be regarded as one means by which vigilant attention is maintained (Robertson & Garavan, 2004, p. 634). For example, vestibulo-autonomic regulation is primarily inhibitive in its function and, while efferent (top-down) projections to the parasympathetic system effect a reduction in heart and breathing rate, afferent (bottom-up) vestibulo-thalamo-cortical projections of our sense of motion and space activate arousal. (For more on deactivation of inappropriate brain areas, see Chapter 4, “The Limbic Structures,” p. 124.)

Homeostasis (Calm) Homeostasis acts as a coping mechanism that seeks to maintain a condition of balance (equilibrium, stability, and constancy) within our internal environment when dealing with changes in stimuli under varying degrees of stress. For example, when singing signals a change in respiration rate, that in turn motivates (stimulates) a response from the autonomic and neuroendocrine systems that regulate respiration and keep us running smoothly. In this way, motivational states (needs, or wants) “drive” (stimulate) the mechanisms that monitor and control homeostasis — below our level of consciousness. Homeostasis is maintained by three major systems: the autonomic nervous system, the neuroendocrine system, and the limbic system, which is also described as our motivational state. (See “Illustrated Guide: Hypothalamus,” p. xxix.)

Singing and a “Happy Body” When singing, we may consciously experience homeostasis as an ideal performing state, commonly known as poise or calm. It is a state of well-being characterized by autonomic balance (optimal levels of energy, blood pressure, heart rate, respiration rate, salivation, and body temperature, etc.), which we experience as ease when performing the task at hand; optimal arousal, which we experience as an ability to maintain perceptual awareness and attentional focus absent anxiety; and an optimally regulated limbic system, characterized by an ability to modulate expression and our emotions, which we experience as a rich and pleasurable creative state absent self-judgment, or “self-consciousness” (Limb & Braun, 2008). As such, our sense of well-being is essential to optimal performance; it is a signal from the body to our conscious mind that we are optimally balanced and have a “happy body.” (See Chapter 3, “Getting Into the Zone,” p. 73.) Key Point:  Optimal arousal is a balance of excitation and inhibition associated with optimal performance of the task at hand. It is characterized by heightened awareness, attentional focus, and calm. The Yerkes-Dodson law proposes that any task will have an optimal level of arousal below and beyond which performance will decline (Robertson & Garavan, 2004, p. 635).

Selective Attention and a “Smart Body” Selective attention ability is innate to our bodily intelligence and, as such, can be developed (Gardner, 1982). When we consciously choose to be open, or receptive, to sensory information — to listen more intently or taste more discerningly — we can voluntarily influence the selective amplification and inhibition of information. Moreover, exerting executive influence in this way not only serves our system’s ability to regulate arousal for the purpose of maintaining homeostasis and a “happy body,” but also serves the purpose of developing perceptual acuity and attentional focus, or a “smart body.” Consider how instinct and volition interface to manipulate selective attention in the following sce-



Sensory Information Processing:  Perception of Our Environment and Ourselves

nario. The setting is a crowded restaurant where you are listening to a speaker (selective attention), when a friend calls your name (novel stimulus). Due to its positive association, this information is not only likely to be received but also to alert your conscious mind, at which point you may voluntarily redirect your attention to your friend, placing the speaker outside the frame of your attentional focus. When a fire alarm sounds, which you have learned to associate with a threat to your survival, your attentional focus will likely be redirected to locating the source of danger and escaping to safety (drive for self-preservation). In all cases, kitchen noises and neighboring conversations go unnoticed. Similarly, during a concert, audience noise or the sounds of technicians working backstage may be intentionally inhibited while, at the same time, a critical cue from the conductor alerts our conscious mind. How many of us have walked off the stage to learn that set pieces had fallen or a bat was swooping around above us — all quite unbeknownst to us — while we vigilantly attended to our task at hand. As innate bodily intelligence, selective attention ability may go underappreciated and underdeveloped. Key Point:  The ability to modulate arousal and anxiety associated with the stress response for periods of time may well be highly adaptive (Robertson & Garavan, 2004, p. 634–637).

Purposeful Amplification To illustrate just how effective intent, or purposeful definition of the task at hand, is in influencing the selectivity of auditory stimulus, try this exercise. Play a triad on the piano. If our immediate goal includes hearing the pitch in tonal context, we will be receptive to hearing the entire chord. However, we may also quickly shift our attention to the root followed by the fifth and third. The desired pitch information will be amplified while stimuli unnecessary to the task at hand or purpose of the moment are dampened or inhibited. Similarly, in our simple pitch-matching scenario, we apply selective attention when we choose to listen or attend to the pitch 5

we want to match. In so doing, the stimuli necessary to our pitch-matching task at hand are amplified, and unnecessary stimuli, along with their demand on brain time and energy, are inhibited from reception. As an innate ability, selective attention and its corollary planning process, attentional focus on the task at hand, may be developed as intuitive processes. Innate Ability + Learning = Intuition.

Unintentional Inhibition Unfortunately, it is also possible that we will unintentionally inhibit or be “closed to” necessary information as a result of a predetermined prejudice or unpleasant associations. It is not only a case of “I can’t,” or “I don’t want to know,” but also often, “I know better” — the effect of which permeates our entire nervous system from autonomic to voluntarily controlled processes. Thus, we likely prohibit optimal performance and equilibrium. As Charles Darwin observed, inhibition of sensory information and its related cognitive, emotional, and motor response is likely to adversely affect our bodily intelligence. “Postural muscles are the hiding place for the emotion. Inhibition of movement limits kinesthetic awareness and perception which are essential to psychological awareness” (Sillick, 1996, p. 87). For instance, in the case of pitch matching, if we have a predetermined prejudice that good posture is defined as fixed position “X,” or if we associate a “high C” with either cracking or our one and only perfect sound (OOPS),5 we are likely to undermine a sensorimotor system that relies on a constant influx of sensory information to stimulate responses. Remember, the stimulus response feature of sensorimotor processing is essential to keep all of our systems running smoothly. For example, the vestibular organs detect changes in head position. The vestibular system processes this information to stimulate corrective postural responses that maintain our physical orientation to gravity (including the supraand infrahyoid muscles of the larynx, which are further explained in Chapter 4). Moreover, vestibular reflexes that stimulate head and eye movements support the gathering of sensory information. If we

 OOPS (one and only perfect sound) and UBU (unusual but useful) are terms from the Wesley Balk Opera Music Theater Institute of Nautilus in Minneapolis, MN.

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16 Mind-Body Awareness for Singers:  Unleashing Optimal Performance

get in our own way and inhibit reflexive postural, eye, and head movements that assist auditory perception, we may likewise unintentionally inhibit our ability to hear (or sing) the pitch we want to match. “Try it!” (PAE 2–4). Key Point:  Expert guidance of a dual-control system relies on a well-developed ability to mediate the selection of “to be attended to” information, or gating of sensory information.

PAE 2–4: Attentive Listening and VestibuloMotor Reflexes (Adapted from Smith, Wilson, & Reisberg, 1995) 1. While standing, listen intently to a faint and distant sound. Follow the sound for several minutes using timbral information to determine its source. If you hear footsteps or a voice, is it a man or a woman? How old? Perhaps you hear a car or a truck. Use intensity information to determine the location of the sound. Is the sound moving away from you or toward you? How quickly is it moving? Rate the vividness of percept and sense of physical ease: Vividness

12345

Ease

12345

2. Did your head turn to help you better hear the sound? Did your eye focus adjust or go “soft”? Perhaps your weight shifted or your heart and breathing rates adjusted. What happens to the position of your larynx? As you listen intently, are your teeth parted or clenched? These and other motor reflexes are stimulated by the vestibular system to better position ourselves and our receptors — to both amplify sensory information from our environment and in response to that information in order to better orient ourselves to that environment. For example, a vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) “fixes” our gaze for the unconscious processing of visual information that informs our orientation to gravity. The vestibulo-sternocleidomastoid (VSCM) reflex turns our head to better position our inner ears and eyes to receive stimuli. Subsequently, postural and autonomic reflexes are

signaled in response to this sensory information to effect equilibrium. This is further discussed in Chapter 3, “Imagery and Vestibulo-Autonomic Control  —  Zoning Into an Ideal Performing State,” p. 74.)

Perception and Interpretation “The entire brain, sensory and motor transmission systems as well as the integrative system, is organized to accomplish one’s purpose of the moment. . . . It means that the sensory system is plastic rather than fixed in its response to a stimulus — that more is required for perception than the receipt of sensory data in the cortex” (Perkins & Kent, 1986, p. 399). When, where, how, and even if interpretation of sensory information occurs is a subject that has given rise to considerable discussion. Theories as to how perception and interpretation function that dominate the field today may be categorized as either active or passive. In reality, however, perception is a mixture of both, with active theories more accurately describing how some perceptual functions work, and passive theories describing the remaining functions (Wraga & Kosslyn, 2006). Key Point:  Perception involves both active and passive processes.

Active Perception Among the active theories, unconscious inference, which is most closely associated with Herman von Helmholtz, holds that percepts are constructed from incomplete evidence provided by our senses (Shepard, 1999, p. 23). From this sensory evidence our unconscious brain develops hypotheses about sensory events that are further tested for accuracy and probability, or likelihood. Consider a system that processes a small amount of information from the senses, makes an inference about the sensory event and its context, and then proceeds to fill in some of the missing information or generates hypotheses about what other sensory information might confirm or refute the current inference (multisensory perception) (Shepard, 1999, p. 24). For example, with



Sensory Information Processing:  Perception of Our Environment and Ourselves

speech, active theories propose that we do not know what speech sounds we have heard until we have understood the meaning of what was said (Perkins & Kent, 1986, p. 408). Experiments in support of unconscious inference show that what we feel depends partly on what we expect to feel or that we hear what we want to hear. Consider our surprise when we miscalculate the number of stairs we are traversing. Similarly, if we see a series of descending 16th notes beginning on sol, we may infer the intervening pitches are fa, mi, and re, and anticipate do will fall on the next beat. We would be surprised, even alarmed, to turn the page and see a rising leap to la without enough foresight to alert our processing systems to a variation in a well-learned pattern. Of course, this is just the kind of presupposition composers from J. S. Bach to PDQ Bach count on. It would be neither interesting nor funny without the element of surprise. With selective attention ability for the auditory system, sensory information (stimulus) may be accepted or rejected at the receptor before entering the central nervous system (Perkins & Kent, 1986, p. 403). As such, selective attention is an active and anticipatory mind-body (top-down) sensory control system that, in effect, provides perceptual processes with a purposeful plan or model against which incoming signals are tested for novelty or worthiness for analysis in the higher neural centers. This means that when we choose to stop attending to “what’s next,” be it seeing an upcoming stair step, reading a notated pitch, or recalling a memorized pitch pattern, we delegate the responsibility of selective information processing entirely to unconscious inference. We “sign off” conscious piloting of automated processes and “switch on” automatic pilot. Key Point:  Stated theoretically, if according to

unconscious inference or likelihood theories, perception requires recognition (i.e., matching incoming information with stored information or knowledge), successful perception 6

relies on the conscious receipt of enough sensory information to stimulate the correct tag or mnemonic for the most desirable neural representation (learned trace or network) to be managed unconsciously. The positive effect of knowledge and recognition on perceptual acuity can be observed in distinctly different brain activity when specialists with differing areas of expertise observe the same event. This is true in every sensory domain. Whether a dancer and a martial artist observe an ice skater, or a cellist and a vocalist hear the same performance of Die Zauberflöte, they will each have entirely different perceptual experiences. In other words, it takes one to know one. You can read about riding a bike, but you will not know what it is to ride a bike until you have ridden a bike. Moreover, once you have learned to ride a bike, you can recognize the sensation of riding a bike, whether that recognition is stimulated by seeing someone ride a bike or by remembering the feel of riding a bike.6

Passive Perception Passive theories, such as direct perception (Gibson, 1966), may agree more closely with our innate intelligence and intuitions; the things we “just know” without evidence of rational thought or inference, such as whether or not we have lost or regained our balance, the moment when we perceive two pitches that match, or when we know two objects will, inevitably, collide. Passive theories hold that our perception of the world around us is direct in the sense that there are no intermediate step inferences — and no drawing on learned knowledge or unconscious cognitive functions for us to perceive the world. The scheme for direct perception is strictly bottom-up processing in that the proximal stimulus triggers a chain of events from the sensory receptors toward the higher centers in the brain, which reliably leads to an accurate perception absent

 “The ventral premotor area (near Broca’s area identified for language) is linked with the mimetic system” (Martin 2008). These “mirror” neurons are of particular interest because they respond not only to our own action, but also to the sight (or sound) of another individual performing the same action (Knierim, n.d.a.). Imitation is an essential innate ability for motor learning and generating a motor plan of action, whether a behavior is modeled externally or internally via imagery; the behavior may be subsequently initiated by the simple command, “Do that!” (See Chapter 4, “Upper-Level Controls.”)

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18 Mind-Body Awareness for Singers:  Unleashing Optimal Performance

interpretation (Pomerantz, 2006). Passive theories might best explain the appreciation for direct perception of qualia or “raw” sensory information that originates from within us (interoception) without the reservation or judgment that is often encouraged by awareness methods. Additionally, passive theories would allow for direct perception of first experiences, such as our birthing cry or perhaps even singing our first “high C.” In our simple pitch-matching example, it could be argued that little to no interpretation or thought is required and the task is perhaps entirely innate, if not instinctual, imitation. We hear it, we imitate it, and we know we have matched it. “Try it!” (PAE 2–5).

PAE 2–5:  The Matching Game.  We have an innate learning ability to imitate behaviors and recognize when objects or behaviors match. We can use this ability in a “matching game” as a tool for stimulating heightened awareness — for stimulating the “Ta da!” moment that occurs when we recognize that two patterns match: 1. With your left hand in front of you at eye level, make an “OK” sign. Then, with your right hand, make a matching (mirrored) pattern. Notice the “Ta da!” moment when you recognize that the patterns match. There is a rhythm to it. Repeat the exercise with various patterns such as a “V” for victory or create a diamond with “”. 2. With your hands placed behind your back, repeat the above patterns or improvise your own. Try varying the orientation of your hands to the floor, positioning your hands parallel to the floor with your palms upward, or perpendicular to the floor with your palms toward the back wall. 3. With your eyes closed, place your hands in front of you at eye level. Once again, make a circle using the index finger and thumb (“OK” sign) of your left hand. Then make a circle with your right hand, this time lining it up with the left 7

hand so that you could look through the circles. Open your eyes. Were you right? (Note: Step 2 can be particularly effective for guiding elegant coordination of behaviors, i.e., rhythmic entrainment, when singing.)

Active and Passive Memory and Association Typically, perception requires memory. Without the immediate memory of what we just saw, heard, or felt, we would not be able to recognize a change in stimulus, sense our body in motion, or hear a melody rising and falling. Without the ability to hold information in our mind, even in the time-limited store of our working memory, the formulation and comprehension of language would be impossible. We would be unable to monitor our behavior, to determine if what we are doing correlates with what we intend. Our varied memory stores serve a variety of functions. For example, we have both passive (immediate) and active (working memory) short-term memory stores; and passive (procedural) and active (episodic) long-term memory stores that hold the varied and distinct information perceived from our sensory systems; and the iconic and lexical memory stores for the visual symbols (i.e., notation and written word) associated with those stimulus events (Perry, 2002). (See Chapter 3, “Learning and Memory,” p. 54.) Each modality represented in the cortices (auditory, visual, spatial, somatic) projects, with some degree of topographical specificity, to cortical areas in the frontal lobe that are responsible for distinct executive functions (Perry, 2002) (Figure 2–5). For example, an area in the frontal lobe known for executive cognitive processing (dorsolateral) has been identified for conditional associative learning and is active when testing “absolute” pitch, or the ability to associate tonal information with a name.7 (See also Figures 0–13 and 0–14.)

“ Deepak Pandya and associates hypothesized that retention of auditory information might involve specific temporal-frontal projections, just as Patricia Goldman and colleagues had proposed for visuospatial retention and parietal-frontal projections. Based on a long series of behavioral lesion analyses in nonhuman primates and further analyses of posterior association cortex-frontal projections, one of Pandya’s associates, Michael Petrides, has articulated a hierarchical theory of frontal contri-



Sensory Information Processing:  Perception of Our Environment and Ourselves

Figure 2–5.  Frontal projections for tonal working memory task—“sight-hear-singing.” Perry et al. (1999) and Zatorre et al. (1994, 1996) identified mid-dorsolateral (46) and mid-ventrolateral (45, 47, 44) frontal activation during active processing of musical information (i.e., tonal working memory) (Perry, 2002). Figure 2–5 illustrates cortical projections for seeing pitch information notated in a musical score (visual cortex) and associating that information with stored pitch/tonal information (auditory association cortex), and a lexical name (MDL and VL in frontal association cortex), followed by singing (motor cortex)—processes that parallel phonological language processing. Courtesy of Christopher Moore and Myslin/Grays 728/Wikimedia Commons/public domain.

Perception and Integration of Active and Passive Processes In practice, when we perform purposeful behaviors that are more complex, perception is likely the result of both active and passive processes. Percep-

tion relies on innate abilities and intelligences that integrate incoming stimuli with acquired experiential knowledge according to the purpose of the moment. That is, we see, hear, or feel in a series of stimuli what we want (limbic will) and expect (cortical thought) to see, hear, or feel.

butions to mnemonic processing. . . . First in the hierarchy of proposed frontal lobe contributions, ventrolateral frontal cortex is hypothesized to be critical for the repetition, selection, comparison, and judgment of stimuli held in working memory. Auditory cortex may be sufficient for the passive retention of tonal information, but ventrolateral frontal cortex may be required for any form of more active maintenance. Furthermore, as suggested by the patient study of Zatorre and Samson and the asymmetry in the aforementioned rehearsal intervals, there may be a complementary right hemispheric asymmetry in frontal as well as temporal cortical contributions to pitch processing” (III. MUSICAL MEMORY. (2002). In Encyclopedia of the Human Brain. Retrieved from http://www.credoreference.com.proxy.lawrence.edu:2048/entry/esthumanbrain/ iii_musical_memory).

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20 Mind-Body Awareness for Singers:  Unleashing Optimal Performance Key Point:  For voluntary tasks (including perceptual tasks), it is our cognitive and conscious anticipation of incoming information that provides the purposeful plan to which our bodily intelligence responds. Do not underestimate the power of your limbic system. If we want it badly enough, our systems are obliged to deliver. Sooner or later they will find a way.

Interpretation and Auditory Perception Consider the succession of perception tasks that are processed when we adjust our simple pitch-matching example to the context of receiving a cue from an orchestral interlude. Successful perception of anticipated information (recognition) from an orchestra requires advance knowledge (memory) of the sound source (instrument’s timbre), its location (intensity), pitch (frequency), scale degree (context of tonal language), and space in time (context of meter and rhythm). It is a, “This is what I’m listening for. There it is!” sequence. The recollection of musical knowledge is often cued from a notated score. It requires the ability to generate auditory images and hold information in our tonal working memory, as well as to cognitively anticipate patterns of pitches in relation to those recently heard. In essence, it requires the ability to process tonal language in a cognitive manner that parallels speech and language processing. (Auditory imagery, or inner hearing, used in this fashion was aptly coined audiation in 1975 by music education researcher Edwin E. Gordon.) Key Point:  “We have addressed one of the central questions of human cognition, the specificity of language processing . . . our results suggest that processing temporal (auditory) information in both language and music relies on general cognitive mechanisms” (Schön & Besson, 2002).

Therefore, it comes as no surprise that data strongly suggest auditory percepts reflect considerable interpretation and are not uninterpreted sensory experiences; rather, auditory images contain both depictive (“sounds like”) information and descriptive information (expression of thoughts and feeling) (Hubbard, 2010, p. 324). There is little doubt

that inner hearing or auditory imagery requires tonal memory and the ability to actively regenerate and even mentally manipulate those images as a function of higher perceptual processes and the highest of cognitive processes, the imagination. Moreover, the generation of auditory imagery is an active process that engages the whole of our nervous system (cognitive and sensorimotor processes), bridging the divide between conscious perception (mind) and unconscious production (body) processes that guide singing behavior. It exists in the moment and space where perception turns to action and stimulus becomes response. “Try it!” (PAE 2–6 Mental Manipulation). Key Point:  Mental manipulation of perceptual images, or imagery, is the cognitive ability to stimulate and transform perceptual images generated by sensorimotor processes.

PAE 2–6:  Mental Manipulation.  Imagine a square in your mind’s eye. Now transform the square into a cube; now into a basketball; now a globe. Spin the globe to see the opposite hemisphere; now spin again to see your home country and zoom into your street. This is mental manipulation of a visual image. For additional exercises in imagery, see Chapter 3, “When Perception Turns to Planning — Images and Imagery.”

Awareness, Novelty, and Constancy The overarching purpose of the nervous system is to maintain homeostasis so as to keep each of our systems running smoothly. To be effective, sensory systems must maintain perceptual stability (constancy) across substantial energy flux in our internal and external environments (Stilp et al., 2010, p. 470). Accordingly, our sensory system is not prepared to deal with a world of unlimited variety.

“Brain Time” and Perceptual Awareness Limitations on the amount and variability (complexity) of information that may be processed and poten-



Sensory Information Processing:  Perception of Our Environment and Ourselves

tially perceived are determined by the mechanisms that regulate homeostasis below our level of consciousness, the higher centers of the conscious and cognitive mind that guide and monitor voluntary behavior, and our temporal world. Temporal limits on perception are determined in part by the speed of our equipment, such as how rapidly our receptors can reset to receive incoming information, and the capacity of our resources (i.e., conscious and unconscious brain) that may be devoted to processing that information and still perform the task at hand optimally while maintaining homeostasis. The selectivity of attended information or economy of perception is largely a function of volume, while automation of information processing is largely a function of speed. Were it not for the ability to delegate sensory and motor information processing to the unconscious brain for intelligent automation, elite execution of complex behaviors would be impossible. Therefore, the complexity of sensory information processed while performing a task optimally in an ideal state varies significantly from early to endstage learning. That is, the speed with which we are able to fully form complex and detailed perceptual images within the temporal limitations of our working memory store for ongoing behaviors (i.e., about one second) is directly dependent on the degree to which processing for the task at hand is automated or learned. The more automated the processing, the richer is the experience. That is, if more early stage perceptual processes are automated for more information, then less information will require conscious attention; and if less information requires conscious attention, then the mind has time to engage in more end-stage, executive-level perceptual processes, which results in more richly integrated and vividly defined images. This selectivity of information processing or economy of perception must be viewed as an integral manifestation of purposeful functioning of the entire organism (Perkins & Kent, 1986, p. 401). Therefore, optimal performance at any stage of learning relies on adjusting the complexity (volume and variability) of information to be processed to the current level of expertise. Fortunately, as we will see in the following chapter, it is an equation that is easily managed by the unconscious brain when we con-

sciously attend to the planning processes that guide sensorimotor processing. Key Point:  Innate Ability + Learning = Intuition.

We generally hear about automation in terms of motor behavior and noncognitive procedural memory. However, learning, as in the development of our varied intelligences, relies on cognitive processes for comparing, associating, and categorizing information that may likewise be automated. We would not be able to interpret our own thoughts and emotions or the expressions of others in any medium (e.g., mathematical, musical, bodily-kinesthetic), with any degree of facility or speed if these processes could not be automated. There is little wonder why accomplished artists often do not know how they do what they do so well. Quite naturally, it is intuitive.

Coping With Change: Novelty Versus Constancy Within a system that is designed to maintain homeostasis and a sense of constancy, and therefore to seek out familiarity, novelty is determined by an unconscious process of comparison, judgment, and categorization of all incoming information against our memory store, to the extent that these stimuli are dissimilar (Perkins & Kent, 1986, p. 400). We deal with change or a novel stimulus in one of two ways: distort it to conform to our past experience and/ or expectations, or respond to it with arousal and awareness.

Distortion As perceivers, we are more often interested in the constant properties of an object or stimulus event than we are in the often accidental variations of the stimuli as they reach our receptors. This distortion may be an important factor in our ability to effectively monitor complex behaviors. That is, just as we generally care more about the “true” color of our friend’s car, than the variations in color it assumes as it moves from shadow to sunlight, when monitoring our own singing, we generally

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22 Mind-Body Awareness for Singers:  Unleashing Optimal Performance

care more about the constancy of vibration and the “true” pitch, than we do about the fluctuations in action and variations of pitch that occur with each rapid-fire articulation of the vocal folds or the various reflected echoes from the hall. Attending to each variation in detail when performing ongoing sequences of well-learned complex behaviors would result in a breakdown of our system. There simply is not enough time. Key Point:  In practice, we metamonitor our performance. That is, we consciously monitor the unconscious monitoring and correction of our behavior according to the purpose of the moment and past experience (knowledge).

However, relying solely on the efficiency of automated processing that conforms percepts to the familiar, to our existing knowledge — even our most recent one and only perfect sound — limits learning, inhibits the imagination, and prohibits phenomenal experience. With this approach, we are scarcely able to stay awake. We lull ourselves to sleep singing on autopilot, passively observing our beautiful singing until our mind wanders off course to attend to our “laundry list,” or worse, what the audience might be thinking, and some unexpected mishap sounds the alarm and we are jolted awake. Just as with the previous binarisms for interpretation and transmission, in practice, optimal processing of information necessary to the task at hand relies on the integrated employment of both unconscious conformity and the executive attention of an alert mind.

Novelty and Awareness The neuroanatomical fact that the reticular formation interfaces extensively with the limbic system signifies the vital nature of the relationship between our motivational state (emotionally driven wants and needs) and our ability to maintain awareness (Perkins & Kent, 1986, pp. 405–406). As our example just illustrated, “if a stimulus is judged as familiar, and therefore of little or no importance, the ascend8

ing reticular activating system (ARAS) is told to forget it; as far as this stimulus is concerned, the brain can sleep. If the limbic system determines that this novel situation holds threat of punishment, it notifies the ARAS to prepare all systems to fight or flee” (Perkins & Kent, 1986, pp. 405–406). But, if the novelty holds prospects of pleasure, the ARAS is notified to “prepare all systems to go forth and seek more of the same.” What is more, theories of optimal arousal propose that any stimulus that will move us toward an optimal state will be pleasurable. Accordingly, the thalamocortical gate is opened and desirable information that suits our wants and needs fills our mind. We, and our audience, feel compelled to maintain awareness and attentional focus. We want to actively anticipate what will happen next; we want to “stay awake.” Although awareness, even heightened awareness, is associated with mindfulness and peak performance, our motivational state will likely require executive guidance. As we have discussed, information that is novel and unanticipated information may be unintentionally associated with alarm. Consider how comforted we are by singing a constant legato versus our disturbed or surprised reaction to singing a trill for the first time, or our resistance to novel feedback information when we finally “get it right” coupled with the tendency to intentionally “miscorrect” this positive change to conform to familiar behavior. Key Point: Learning depends on our willingness to be open to change, to be receptive to unusual but (potentially) useful (UBU) sensory experiences.8

Therefore, this second method of coping with novelty — to respond to it with awareness — is the stuff of which learning is made. Apparently, learning occurs when the nervous system, confronted with a novel situation, is unable to force the unexpected stimuli to conform to past experiences and present purposes (Perkins & Kent, 1986, p. 406). Given that acceptance or rejection of unanticipated stimuli evi-

 One and only perfect sound (OOPS) and unusual but useful (UBU) are terms coined by the Wesley Balk Opera Music Theater Institute in Minneapolis, MN.



Sensory Information Processing:  Perception of Our Environment and Ourselves

dently occurs early during the process of perception ​ — and recognizing the powerful influence of core systems, such as the limbic system (emotional or motivational state), on our ability to receive and process information — if the purpose of the moment is to learn, we must, from time to time (or even moment to moment) exercise conscious and cognitive cortical influence over our subcortical brain and choose to expect the unexpected. Key Point:  Take the risk. Expect the unexpected, without prejudgment. Novelty = Learning and Progress. Familiarity = Nothing Ventured, Nothing Gained. Learning — as the development of our intelligences through perceptual awareness — depends on our ability to choose to take risks, expect the unexpected, and welcome novel information before the unconscious brain conforms it to existing knowledge and “corrects” it.

Summary The essential nature of perceptual awareness in developing the art and craft of singing requires that we develop our ability to not only acquire vivid and accurate perceptual images from both external and internal sources, but also to integrate this information with our purpose of the moment. That is, perception requires more than the mere receipt of information in the cortex. We must choose how we will spend our time and cognitive resources. If the purpose of the moment is to develop knowledge (to learn), we need to spend our executive time and resources on examining less complex information that is repeated frequently; we must take the time for perceptual images to fully form and make the cognitive associations that enhance meaning and facilitate the encoding of neural traces into our long-term memory. In effect, we must ask to learn. What is different? How does this alter my understanding?

Key Point:  The role of the conscious and cognitive mind is to selectively attend to relevant information and form associations that will strengthen our memory networks and that will develop and integrate the whole of our various intelligences. A smart body is a happy body. (See also “Anatomy of Learning and Memory,” p. 54.)

Perception of One’s Own Voice While Singing As we consider the perception of one’s own voice while singing, we will explore effective means for perceiving information essential to the formation of accurate and vivid mental representations (images) and the development of knowledge. Special attention will be given to the distinct and separate functions of auditory perception, and notably the auditory, vestibular, and somatic perception of the boneconducted signal, which originates with the action of our vocal folds.

Auditory Perception It is helpful to consider auditory feedback of one’s own voice as coming from two sources, one constant and the other variable, as presented by Earl Schubert (1983)9 and charted in Figure 2–6. Variable sources include not only sounds that originate from external sources, such as another singer or an orchestra, but also sounds that originate from one’s own voice that are reflected to us from the surfaces of a “live hall,” or what we do not hear in a “dead” space. Reflected sound is therefore both distorted and delayed (by 20 to 30 milliseconds) (Howell, 1985). The constant signal emanates directly from our vocal cords and follows us wherever we go. It comprises bone-conducted and airborne signals.

9

 Earl D. Schubert (1917–2000) psychoacoustician, was a longtime faculty member in the Medical Center’s Hearing and Speech Sciences program and at the Stanford Center for Computer Research in Music and Acoustics (CCRMA).

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24 Mind-Body Awareness for Singers:  Unleashing Optimal Performance

Figure 2–6.  Auditory transmission of one’s own voice while singing.

Airborne Transmission The airborne signal for sound is most familiar to us and travels from the mouth to the outer ear (Figure 2–7). This signal is affected by alterations in the vocal tract and is one means by which we detect phonemes or know that we said what we meant to say.

Bone-Conducted Transmission The bone-conducted auditory signal may be less familiar and is most unique as to its effects for the singer. It is credited with being largely responsible for the “perceptual disparity” between the live and the recorded sound of one’s own voice (von Békésy, 1949). When we sing, rhythmic pitch-frequency information generated by the action of the vocal folds is transferred by direct mechanical force through tissue and cartilages to skeletal structures 10

to produce wide-ranging bone-conducted vibrations, or resonance. It is likely that we intuitively attend to bone-conducted sound when humming. (See PAE 2–8, “Buzzing Bones.”) Peter Howell10 describes two potential contributions to this so-called “forced” bone-conducted vibration during singing: the first being the result of direct stimulation by the structures associated with phonation, and the second stimulated indirectly by the movement of the air in the cavities of the vocal tract (Howell, 1985, p. 273) (Figure 2–8).

Direct Stimulation. Bone-conducted vibrations that originate with the action of our vocal folds are passed directly by mechanical force (as opposed to neural transmission) to the laryngeal cartilages and then, via their suspensions, to bone (Howell, 1985, p. 272). It stands to reason that these vibrations, which travel a fairly direct path through tissue and bone to the fluid of the inner ear, transmit a fairly strong

 Peter Howell, Professor, Department of Cognitive, Perceptual, and Brain Sciences, University College, London.



Sensory Information Processing:  Perception of Our Environment and Ourselves

Figure 2–7.  Sense organs of the outer, middle, and inner ear. The airborne signal travels from the mouth to the outer ear, or pinna (A), and on through the ear canal (B), middle ear (C), and finally to the inner ear or cochlea (D), where the information is received and transduced into neural signals by hair cell receptors, and transmitted via the auditory nerve to the brain (E), where, after several junctions along the way it is projected to the auditory cortex where it is heard, or perceived as sound. From The Hearing Sciences, by T. A. Hamill and L. L. Price, 2013. San Diego, CA: Plural Publishing, Inc. Used with permission.

signal (Schubert, 1983, p. 162). von Békésy (1949) estimated it was equal to the airborne signal.11 “This vibration is the only one that occurs in the audiofrequency range that is directly associated with [phonatory] articulation. . . . This is determined mainly by the rate of vocal-fold vibration” (Howell, 1985, p. 272). Additionally, we hear directly the “actual vibration of the folds, early unaffected by the changes in the configuration of the vocal tract” (Schubert, 1983 p. 162). The absence of changes that produce 11 

different phonemes and timbres would account for our interpretation of bone-conducted sound as “colorless” and even metallic. Though most commonly described as a “buzz,” Luciano Pavarotti was known to describe his sense of the sound of his own voice while singing as “razor blades.” Key Point:  The rhythmic bone-conducted signal is a reliable source of the pitch frequency produced by the action of the vocal folds.

 ound transduction through bone conduction has been used for more than 50 years in subjects with certain types of hearing S impairment . . . the best place to “interface” with the bone is on the mastoid section of [the temporal bone], which is the bone behind and above our ear. Although the back of the head is also a good point, there is a loss of signal of about 50 db. Also, intervening tissue can account for a loss in the acoustical signal of as much as 10 to 20 dB (Belinky & Jeremijenko, 2001).

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Figure 2–8.  Bone conduction. The rhythmic vibrations originating with the action of the vocal folds are transmitted by direct mechanical force through the thyroid cartilage to resonate throughout skeletal structures, such as our vertebral spine, skull, and frontal and sphenoid sinuses. Courtesy of Alexis Ames. 26



Sensory Information Processing:  Perception of Our Environment and Ourselves

Indirect Stimulation.  The second component of the bone-conducted signal is created when air vibration is converted to tissue vibration of the walls of the vocal tract. Although it is generally accepted that only a small fraction of the energy is transferred and cannot cause “appreciable” bone vibration (Schubert, 1983, p. 163; Howell, 1985, p. 272), clinical trials with trained singers indicate the signal is sufficient to transmit frequencies relevant to vowel formants and overtones. Spontaneous Resonance.  Spontaneous resonance provides a third, unforced source of bone-conducted sound. Skeletal structures, such as our larynx, vertebral spine, skull, and frontal and sphenoid sinuses, have their own resonances that spontaneously respond to vibrations at or near their “natural frequency” and interact with the original vibration (Howell, 1985, pp. 273–275). Finally, what we hear as the composite constant signal during vocal performance is a rather elaborate mixture of bone-conducted signals and the airborne signal that is radiated from the mouth and travels directly to the external ear (Schubert, 1983, p. 163). Law of the First Wavefront12 and Selection Ability The auditory system, like all senses, responds to attentional focus (cortical guidance). According to the law of the first wavefront, when we as listeners locate the source of a sound, “we give much greater weight to the earliest arriving sound — that directly from the source — and are not much influenced by the direction of the many reflected signals that arrive later” (Schubert, 1983, p. 163). This suggests that the sound of one’s own voice reflected from the surfaces of a practice room or concert hall would normally be suppressed. However, in spite of the fact that the constant signal is the earliest and the strongest signal to reach the ears, our voice often sounds different 12

to us in differing acoustical environments. Schubert suggests, “this can be only because the auditory system learns to listen . . . to the reflected signal” and points to the overwhelming evidence in favor of singing in a reverberant shower stall (Schubert, 1983, pp. 163–164). The size of the average shower stall does provide a shorter feedback response time for the reflected sound. However, the fun of singing in the shower is also likely the result of the “general arousal” stimulated by the water spray and the “forgiving” partial masking of the airborne sound by the sound of the water. Masking the airborne signal would then serve to amplify the rhythmic boneconducted signal and would, subsequently, stimulate spontaneous rhythmic entrainment (synchronization) throughout the whole of our nervous system. After all, it is not nearly as much fun once we turn off the water. (See Chapter 5, “Rhythm and Rhythmic Entrainment,” p. 174.) While it may be true that many of us enjoy indulging in the reflected sound of an acoustically live space, the professional singer and teacher of singing are all too aware of the dangers lurking in the allure of reflected sound. It is rather like studying our footprints while running in wet sand. The information is unreliable (begins to distort as soon as it is made) and after the fact. “Try it!” (PAE 2–7).

PAE 2–7: Footprints in the Sand.  Attending to, or listening to, reflected sound while singing could be likened to watching our footprints in wet sand while running: 1. As you run from one corner of the room to the other, imagine you are running in wet sand, and carefully observe your footprints as you go. How quickly were you able to run? Can you recall what your footprints looked like?

 The Haas effect is a psychoacoustic effect, described in 1949 by Helmut Haas in his PhD thesis. It is often incorrectly equated with the underlying precedence effect (or law of the first wavefront) (Haas, H. “The Influence of a Single Echo on the Audibility of Speech”, JAES, Volume 20, Issue 2, pp. 146-159; March 1972). The “precedence effect” or “law of the first wave front” is a psychoacoustical effect. Similar sounds arriving from different locations are solely localized in the direction of the first sound arriving at our ears. Similar sounds need to arrive between 2 ms and about 50 ms after the first sound for the precedence effect to become effective. The effective time range varies from about 50 ms for speech to about 80 ms for music. Longer delays are perceived as echoes (Blauert, 1997, p. 203).

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28 Mind-Body Awareness for Singers:  Unleashing Optimal Performance

Rate the vividness of the image of your footprint and the ease with which you were able to run: Vividness

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2. Repeat the exercise and study the feel of the floor beneath your feet while running. Did your pace change? Were you able to develop a fully formed perceptual image? Rate the vividness of the image of your footprint and the ease with which you were able to run: Vividness

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Summary The effects of environmental factors on airborne feedback are so problematic that Howell argued “strongly against auditory feedback being used for vocal control” (Howell, 1985, p. 282). Nonetheless, Schubert warns us against thinking our “kinesthetic patterns are sufficiently well developed” to disregard listening altogether. “When subjects are asked to perform in the presence of enough masking noise to eliminate the auditory feedback channel, both voice quality and intonation suffer, even for highly trained performers” (Schubert, 1983, p. 164). It is important to note that the studies referenced by Schubert confused both the airborne and the boneconducted signal, whereas preliminary tests conducted during the CKA and singing research study found that masking only the airborne signal (with earplugs) resulted in improved intonation, consistent vibrancy, and physical ease when singing (LeighPost & Burke, 2009). These findings are consistent with Howell’s hypothesis that “while research findings suggest auditory feedback cannot be used directly to control all aspects of the voice . . . pitch is one aspect of the voice that may be controllable by listening to bone-conducted auditory feedback” (Howell, 1985, p. 282). Unlike the highly interpreted airborne signal that is subject to distortion from the “hall,” we may rest assured that vibrations transmitted via skeletal structures to

the receptors in the cochlea are consistent with the frequencies produced by the vocal folds and in the vocal tract. Finally, it stands to reason that if we learn to selectively attend to the direct and constant boneconducted signal, we will enhance our ability to monitor the complete constant signal (bone conducted and airborne), such as might be required when performing in a variety of acoustic environments, and that this “perceptual stability” would contribute to our sense of well-being, or calm. “Try it!” (PAE 2–8). Key Point:  The trained auditory system can sort out an amazing number of simultaneous events, and it pays to improve those listening skills (Schubert, 1983, p. 164).

PAE 2–8:  Buzzing Bones — Auditory.  The auditory system is especially well equipped to detect information from which we can determine the source and location of a sound. To develop knowledge of the sound of one’s own voice while singing, we will explore methods for selectively attending to the bone-conducted signal for reliable pitch (frequency), intensity (amplitude), and legato (duration) information transmitted directly from the action of the vocal folds and indirectly from the vocal tract; to the constant airborne signal for auditory information that is influenced by the vocal tract, such as timbre and phonemes (acoustic resonance); to any necessary variable sounds from the hall, including the orchestra, other singers, or a director; and finally, to the complete constant signal. In performance, the task of selectively “sorting out” information of motivational significance will be done for us by the unconscious processing of sensory information, according to the planned purpose of the moment and the task at hand. For the following exercises, refer to Figure 2–8: 1. Plug your ears and repeatedly sing “ma ma.” Selectively attend to the skeletal pathways that transmit vibrations from the larynx to the auditory sense organs (cochlea) lodged deep within the temporal bone. What information is amplified?



Sensory Information Processing:  Perception of Our Environment and Ourselves

Rate the vividness of percept and sense of physical ease: Vividness

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2. Pause for a moment. Can you recall the “buzz” of the bone-conducted signal? Rate the vividness of percept and sense of physical ease: Vividness

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3. Repeatedly sing “ma ma” and attend to the bone-conducted signal while plugging and unplugging your ears. When the sound seems the same whether your ears are plugged or unplugged, you are effectively attending to the bone-conducted signal. Rate the vividness of percept and sense of physical ease: Vividness

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4. Repeat the exercise with ears unplugged. a. Attend to the constant bone-conducted signal. b. Attend to the constant bone-conducted signal for “m” and the reflected airborne signal for “ah,” seeking out change. Rate the vividness of percept and sense of physical ease: Vividness

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5. Attend to the composite constant signal effected by bone-conducted vibrations transmitted directly from the larynx and those transmitted indirectly by the airborne signal of the vocal tract (throat and mouth), seeking constancy. Note: It may be helpful to focus attention on the skeletal transmission pathways and ultimately on the cochlea lodged deep within the temporal bone. 13

Rate the vividness of percept and sense of physical ease: Vividness

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Multimodal Perception Howard Gardner noted our intelligences seldom work in isolation. This is likewise true of the corresponding sensory systems that inform one’s knowledge of one’s own voice while singing. For example, Alfred Tomatis’13 interpretation of the vestibular and auditory organs of the inner ear is intriguing. He postulated they have the same role in that they both sense movement (cited in Madaule, 1994, p. 51; Sillick, 1996, p. 90). Strange as it may seem, we detect changes in our head position relative to the forces of gravity with the same type of equipment with which we detect sound. The sensory organs for hearing and motion sense are housed in the same bony exterior, are filled with the same type of fluid, and have the same type of receptors (Perkins & Kent, 1986, p. 8) (see Figure 2–7). The spaces are actually joined by a small connection from the vestibular nerve, which contains auditory efferent fibers (Purves et al., 2004, p. 316). In addition, the forced vibration that travels from the phonator via skeletal structures to the inner ear, which is simultaneously processed by the auditory system as sound and by the vestibular system as motion, is at the same time processed as tactile vibration and muscle (kinesthetic) sensation. Furthermore, bone-conducted vibration has long been an effective tool for studying vestibular reflexes (e.g., head-turn reflex), and bone-conducted sound is known to activate the vestibular apparatus more effectively than air-conducted sound (Welgampola et al., 2003).

Converging Sensory Inputs—The More the Merrier Simultaneous cues from two (or more) sensory modalities can enhance the salience of a stimulus and eliminate ambiguities about its identification

 Alfred Tomatis was an otolaryngologist (ENT) to opera singers and was himself a former singer and the son of an ENT.

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30 Mind-Body Awareness for Singers:  Unleashing Optimal Performance

that might occur when cues from only one modality are available (Stein et al., 1995, p. 684). That is, multimodal perception of an event increases the vividness and intensity of images, heightens our awareness, and seemingly fills our mind. Presumably, whenever different sensory inputs converge onto individual neurons in the central nervous system, there is the potential for cross-modal integration and perceptual calculations, such as the calculation of spatial coordinates. The many sites where such convergence could occur include the upper-level control areas of the brainstem integration systems (e.g., vestibular nuclei), the limbic structures (motivational drives), and the cortex, where conscious associations are made. For example, at the junction of the auditory, visual, and somatosensory

cortices, the neurons in the inferior parietal lobule are multimodal and can process multisensory information simultaneously (Culham, 2006), which is essential to spatial cognition (Andersen et al., 1997) and speech and language processing (Figure 2–9). Cross-modal sharing below the cortex is poorly understood, although there is some evidence that the pathways for such sharing exist. In some cases, we have solid evidence for subcortical sharing: for example, in some animals the areas for vision and hearing (which correspond to our superior colliculus and inferior colliculus, respectively) map onto one another and interact quite nicely so that an animal hearing something knows reflexively where to look (T. Petersik via e-mail August 4, 2011). While data are missing for most potential examples of subcorti-

Figure 2–9.  Cortex and multimodal neurons. Cells at the base of the inferior parietal lobule receive visual, somatosensory, auditory, and vestibular inputs14 and are believed to be involved in motion perception and spatial orientation; cells at the base of the central sulcus receive vestibular and somatosensory inputs and project to the motor cortex and are thought to serve an integration function for motor control of the head and body (Dickman, 2007). Courtesy of Christopher Moore and Myslin/Grays 728/Wikimedia Commons/public domain. 14

 “The recording experiments from areas 7a and LIP . . . have shown that vestibular signals are integrated with the various other signals (Snyder, Brotchie, & Andersen, in press). . . . Because these cells code both location of the eye in the head and location of the head in the world, they are coding the direction of gaze in the world (Andersen, 1995, p. 523).



Sensory Information Processing:  Perception of Our Environment and Ourselves

cal sharing across senses, it seems likely that some combined mechanisms, such as those we find with the auditory and vestibular sense organs of the inner ear, could provide information that would be unavailable from their individual operation. Is it sound or is it motion? While the sensation of bone-conducted sound is distinct and unambiguous, there is little wonder that it is rather difficult for us to separate the sound and/or feel of bone-conducted vibrations from the lively motion sense they effect, and hence, the aptness of the popular multimodal description, “buzz.” In a manner of speaking, we can feel sound, and we can hear motion.

Proprio-Kinesthesis For most of us going about our daily activities, information arising from below the body’s surface to consciousness forms a confluence, or gross proprio-kinesthetic sense, of our position and movement through space. However, vocalists and other specialists may become more finely attuned to distinct and separate sensations. The seminal work in neuroplasticity by Dr. Norman Doige (2007), The Brain That Changes Itself, brings to light brain modifications that accommodate training and or sensory needs, indicating that “all of the senses are trainable and modifiable. . . . Add to this mirror neurons15 . . . those curious cells that respond both when an animal engages in a behavior [and when an animal] observes a conspecific engage in that behavior, and you have the ingredients for a plastic, teachable sensory system. . . . All of the senses collaborate to serve the same organismic goals. We are literally more than a collection of independent systems” (T. Petersik via e-mail August 4, 2011). Key Point:  “All of the senses are trainable and modifiable” (T. Petersik via e-mail August 4, 2011).

There is much confusion surrounding the terminology for our conscious sense of our body’s position and movement through space and over time. No doubt the largely unconscious nature of sensorimotor processing, and notably the self-monitoring 15

and correcting postural controls add to this confusion. It may be helpful to point out that there are no specialized receptor cells or neuroanatomical systems for proprioception or kinesthesis. Rather, these categorizations describe variable uses for information arising from mechanoreceptors in our skin and joints, muscles and tendons, and inner ear. Mechanoreceptors detect the degree (amplitude) and speed of displacement of our body parts over time (frequency rate), which taken together calculate the force of changes in our position, or movement. Mechanoreceptors in skin, joints, muscles, and tendons are among those most often categorized as proprioceptors, or self (proprio) sensors, whose cortical projections may be interpreted as the immediate position of any or all of our body parts. The broadest categorizations include the vestibular organs of the inner ear, which detect and predict our position relative to the velocity of head movements and the forces of gravity, and inform our conscious sense of motion (labyrinths), and equilibrium (otoliths) (i.e., our sense of balance or placement). Thus, the term, proprioceptors has broadened such that it is nearly synonymous with mechanoreceptors. Similarly, usage of the term kinesthesis has varied considerably since it was coined in 1980 by British neurologist Henry Charlton Bastian for our conscious sense of movement. Most broadly, kinesthetic stimuli are defined as the mechanical forces produced when skin comes in contact with an object (discriminative touch), muscles stretch and contract, and body parts move and oppose the force of gravity. Thus, current usage may include mechanoreceptors in the skin and vestibules of the inner ear, as well as those in muscles, tendons, and joints. According to Shepherd (1986), sensations associated with the amplitude (intensity) and speed of those movements include force, effort, and weight. (See Chapter 4, “Muscle Sense,” p. 109; and “Motor Units and Force,” p. 106) The distinction between position sense and motion sense seems to blur when the deformation (i.e., displacement) of tactile pressure sensors defines the location of even the slightest movement of our smallest body parts (e.g., vibration of the ves-

 “Mirror-neurons” (mimetic system) respond not only to our own action, but also to the sight (or sound) of another individual performing the same action (Knierim, n.d.a).

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32 Mind-Body Awareness for Singers:  Unleashing Optimal Performance

tibules), or, conversely, when a confluence of rising multimodal signals informs our conscious sense of position relative to gravity and our internal and external environment over time, such that motion can be calculated or inferred. That is, the distinction between our conscious perception of position and motion could rest in the distinction between direct and inferred (interpreted) perception. That said, the term proprio-kinesthesis will be used here to refer to the gross sense of one’s own position in and movement through space over time.

Somatic (Body) Senses Anatomically, the somatic senses comprise three modalities and their respective pathways that project to the somatosensory cortex (see Figure 0–13). These are discriminative touch (tactile sense of pressure, texture, flutter, and vibration); pain and temperature (tissue-damaging forces); and kinesthetic sensation (our knowledge of movement of parts of our body as informed by receptors in our muscles and joints) (Knierim, n.d.b.). Neuroscientists researching auditory perception of speech and singing over the past century have consistently supported the significance of the somatic senses to perception of one’s own voice. Among them, Peter Howell, who, as previously noted, found airborne auditory feedback problematic for vocal control concluded, “it would be more profitable to examine alternative sources of information, such as kinesthetic or proprioceptive feedback” (Howell, 1986, p. 285). Consider what neuroscientist Barry Wyke16 has to say about vibrations. “What I would submit are important, particularly in the singing context, are the rapidly adapting mechanoreceptors that are widely distributed in the periosteum covering all the bones of the skeleton, including the skull . . . the vibration transmitted through the skeleton simultaneously drives the rapidly adapting mechanoreceptors in the periosteum and that contributes a perceptual input, because one is certainly aware of that. Those systems do project to the cortex” (Schubert, 1983, p. 196). 16

To illustrate the importance of the skeletal mechanoreceptors, Barry Wyke shared this anecdote: “George Bernard Shaw . . . began his career as a . . . very skilled music critic. He got very irate when he got wind of the fact that the Dean and Chapter of Westminster Abbey were proposing to remove the wooden chairs from the Abbey and replace them with carved stone pews . . . [Shaw] protested against this, since he said that his primary enjoyment of the lower tone diapason pipes of the great organ in Westminster Abbey was conveyed to him through his ischial tuberosities . . . They’re the bones you’re sitting on right now” (Schubert, 1983, p. 197).

Tactile Sense and Bone-Conducted Resonance Just as rapidly adapting pressure sensors on our outer skin can detect the rapid repetition of pressure from the water spray in a shower, the rapidly adapting pressure sensors (mechanoreceptors) in our internal skin (periosteum) that covers our bones can detect rapid-fire repetitions of pressure from the forced vibration of our skeletal structure. You might have experienced this sensation with considerable awareness and rapid reflexive responses when receiving an unexpected call on your vibrating cell phone. Of course, skeletal transmission of forced vibrations that originate with the phonator are not limited to the structures that carry the vibrations to the inner ear. Skeletal vibrations may be distributed and sensed at any and all points throughout the skeletal structure, including the sternum, ribs, clavicles, shoulder blades, and pelvis, and even the limbs for the adventurous; the popular “shelf” or skull base; and the sphenoid and frontal sinuses (Figure 2–10). After minimal processing, tactile (haptic) signals are transmitted to the thalamus and then projected somatotopically to the cortex, where they may be consciously perceived as originating from any point in our skeletal structure as per our body map. For example, the frontal nerve (Cranial V) transmits sensory information from the skin of the forehead and the medial part of the upper eyelid and mucous membrane of the frontal sinus.

 arry Wyke, Chief of Neurology Laboratory for the Royal College of Surgeons, London, was a panelist for The Voice Foundation’s Eleventh B Symposium: Care of the Professional Voice.



Sensory Information Processing:  Perception of Our Environment and Ourselves

Figure 2–10.  Skull bones. A. Exterior side view of skull. B. Interior side view of skull. C. Skull base. D. Sphenoid bone. The skull base emanates from the atlanto-occipital joint and occipital foramen magnum back to the occipital point, out along parietal bones to the temporal bones, and forward from the sphenoid to either and frontal bone and the nose (ethmoid), or along the cheekbones and the full length of the hard palate to just below the “mask” (cheekbones, nose, and forehead). Source: Grays Anatomy/Wikimedia Commons/public domain.

Key Point:  Subcortical processing of discriminative touch (haptic) information is minimal, which suggests the immediacy of direct perception. We “just know” the rate, intensity, and location of vibrations within our body. However, this also suggests that cognitive and conscious association of vibrations with the sound of one’s own voice must be made purposefully. That is, while somatosensory perception may directly inform our knowledge of our body map, the association of location with auditory information will require

interpretation. Unless we consciously associate somatosensory percepts with phonation and the auditory signal, efficacy will be marginalized and successful integration will be inconsistent.

When we associate somatosensory percepts of skeletal vibrations originating with the action of our vocal folds with the sound of our voice, there are some important distinctions to be made. Skeletal vibration information that is received by mechanoreceptors in the vestibules, muscles and tendons,

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34 Mind-Body Awareness for Singers:  Unleashing Optimal Performance

skin, and joints is processed as rapid-fire changes in body position (proprio-kinesthesis) and not as sound. However, skeletal vibrations that are the result of direct forced vibrations transmitted from the action of the vocal folds are consistent with the frequency rate and amplitude (tonicity) of the action of our vocal folds and may be cortically associated with the sound of our voice. Therefore, attending to bone-conducted vibrations via the various somatic senses while singing will amplify reliable feedback information of rate, amplitude, and duration of the action of the vocal folds. From this information, we can perceive (infer), with reasonable likelihood, accurate variations in the action of the vocal folds associated with the constancy of legato phonation, dynamic control (force and velocity), and rhythmic duration. However, attending to bone-conducted vibrations from locations at some distance from the sphenoid sinuses or the temporal bones where the auditory receptors are lodged will not likely yield optimal pitch information without purposeful intent or attentional “effort.” Therefore, pitch information must be included in the anticipatory multimodal perceptual image that provides a model against which our perceptual processes test incoming signals for motivational value if we are to control the action of our vocal folds or, more accurately, if our subcortical sensorimotor processing systems are to monitor and correct the frequency rate of our vocal folds. (Also see “Planning Voluntary Behavior” and “Motor Output.”) “Try it!” (PAE 2–9).

PAE 2–9: “Buzzing Bones”—Somatosensory Perception (Tactile).  Refer to Figures 2–7, 2–8, and 2–10 for the following bone-conduction exercises. Bone-conducted vibrations not only stimulate the auditory and vestibular receptors of the inner ear, but also the pressure sensors (mechanoreceptors) in the skin (periosteum) that covers our bones: 1. To prime your receptivity to bone-conducted vibrations, place a vibrating cell phone, toothbrush, or tuning fork on your mastoid process (protruding bone at base of skull behind your earlobe), or repeatedly sing “ma ma” or a welllearned vocalise. Notice vibrations traveling throughout your skeletal structure.

Rate the vividness of percept and sense of physical ease: Vividness

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Can you recall the sensation of your bones vibrating? You may notice the reflexive, self-correcting postural adjustments stimulated in response to your purpose of the moment — in support of your desire to perceive your bones vibrate. This is your bodily intelligence at work. 2. You may be less familiar with sensing bone-conducted vibrations from your internal skin or the periosteum that covers your bones. While singing a well-learned vocalise or sustaining a single pitch, alternate using your fingertips to sense vibrations that are transmitted to your external skin with attending to your internal proprioceptive sense of your vibrating bones at the various points listed below: a. trachea; b. skeletal spine and ribs, sternum, shoulder blades; c. skull — occipital point to nose (floor or “plate” of skull), including roof of mouth; d. temporal bone (location of auditory and vestibular receptors of the inner ear); and e. skeletal spine to pelvis, legs, and feet. Rate the vividness of percept and sense of physical ease: Vividness

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Singers are particularly adept at sensing vibrations. Can you recall the sensation of vibrations at the various points as per the exercises above? Can you vary the intensity of the vibrations? This is somatosensory imagery. Key Point:  All sensory percepts have the potential to become knowledge and may be recalled and imaged or manipulated in the imagination.



Sensory Information Processing:  Perception of Our Environment and Ourselves

3. When singing a well-learned vocalise or sustaining a single pitch, anticipate sensing vibrations in various skeletal structures. Although most sensorimotor information is processed subcortically, we can exercise our executive cortical influence, or purposeful intent, to optimize performance. For example, if the purpose of the moment is to sense vibrations, our system will stimulate reflexive postural responses to optimize the receipt of information relative to skeletal vibrations at any point desired. Remember, “the efficiency with which vibration is passed to and from the bone structures is determined by the state of contraction of the muscles around them” (Howell, 1985, p. 273). We may consciously experience this unconscious monitoring and correction of muscle tone as an easing of the “state of contraction” of our muscles. If we sense a “sticky spot” (less-than-vivid percept) at any location when attending to bone-conducted vibrations, we can influence the sensitivity of our receptors by focusing our attention on gathering and therefore amplifying the desired information. This amplification will in turn facilitate optimal performance, through reflexive postural adjustments, and an increased sense of well-being.

The Vestibular System (Sensory) Sometimes referred to as the great integrator, the vestibular system receives, processes, and projects both sensory and motor information that informs our knowledge of motion and space, effects head and eye movements that facilitate receptivity, and, notably, signals corrective postural and autonomic reflexes in response to changes in our orientation to gravity for the primary purpose of maintaining equilibrium.

Vestibular Sense Organs of the Inner Ear Like the auditory cochlea, the vestibules (vestibular organs) are composed of a fluid-filled membranous interior and hair cell receptors that are housed in a bony exterior (bony labyrinth) (Figure 2–11). This sensory organ is located peripherally in the inner ear and lodged in the temporal bone (see Figure 2–7).

Each bony labyrinth has five vestibules: three semicircular canals that detect angular accelerations and two otoliths that detect linear accelerations and orientation of the head (direction and velocity) relative to gravity (Dickman, 2007). The otolithic membrane is unique in that it is embedded with solid and weighty crystals or “ear stones.” Unlike the semicircular canals that adapt (i.e., sensation fades), the otoliths can remain sensitive to the direction and velocity of changes in the orientation of the head relative to the constant force of gravity. That is, otolith receptors respond to linear accelerations of the head caused by translational movements and tilt, or forward and back pitch and side-to-side roll. For example, when walking or running, the vestibular system can optimize receptivity by reflexively rotating (tilting) our head forward and down (by 30 degrees) and “fixing” our gaze a few yards ahead of our feet. “This orientation causes the plane of the lateral semicircular canal and the utricle to be parallel with the earth, and perpendicular to gravity” (Dickman, 2007) (Figure 2–12). We associate this subtle forward pitch of the head and fixing of the eyes with “the look” of intense concentration (i.e., vigilant attentional focus) observed in accomplished athletes, such as when an expert singer optimally negotiates a particularly complex or “athletic” passage. Conversely, if we inhibit these reflexive positional controls, we get in our own way and prevent essential information from being received.

Recurring Vestibular Stimulation.  Relative to perception of one’s own voice while singing, it should be pointed out that linear accelerations include the constant force of gravity and the variable acceleration forces that occur when swinging, riding in a car, and walking, as well as the up-and-down motion of the head when running, and even the slightest movement caused by bone-conducted vibrations when singing. That is, as per recurring vestibular stimulation theory (Leigh-Post, 2012), the continuous and rapidly repeating displacements in our head position caused by bone-conducted vibrations originating with constant legato phonation, effect up-tothe-millisecond recurring vestibular stimulation that optimizes vestibular system function, and results in

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36 Mind-Body Awareness for Singers:  Unleashing Optimal Performance

Figure 2–11.  Auditory and vestibular sense organs of the inner ear. Source: BruceBlaus/Wikimedia Commons/Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported.

all the benefits afforded by the vestibular system and a state of equilibrium — heightened awareness of our position in space, smoothly executed reflexive postural controls, and a sense of calm (autonomic equilibrium).

Key Point:  Optimal functioning of the nervous system is dependent on the continuous influx of sensory information. We are reminded of Darwin’s claim that inhibiting posture limits psychological awareness and of Aristotle linking



Sensory Information Processing:  Perception of Our Environment and Ourselves

Figure 2–12.  Orientation of the vestibular receptors. A. Frontal view. From The Hearing Sciences, by T. A. Hamill and L. L. Price, 2013. San Diego, CA: Plural Publishing, Inc. Used with permission. B. Side view. C. Superior view. From http://www.nigeriamedj.com/viewimage.asp?img=NigerMedJ_2012_53_2_94_103550_f1.jpg

The Vestibular Network

changes in that status. To that end, the vestibular nuclei receive a continuous stream of sensory information from the vestibular, somatosensory, visceromotor, and visual receptors and motor information from the cerebellum and cerebral cortex (voluntary intentions) (Dickman, 2007). Processed information is then projected from the vestibular nuclei to multiple areas (Figure 2–13). The vestibular nuclei, located in the brainstem, receive, integrate, and project information to multiple control areas via three primary neural pathways:

The processing of positional and movement information for the control of visual and postural reflexes largely takes place in the vestibular nuclei. To calculate these rapid-fire corrective responses, the vestibular system must be advised of the current state of our internal and external environment and anticipated

1. The vestibulo-thalamo-cortical network is responsible for the conscious perception of movement and spatial orientation. 2. The vestibulo-ocular network arises from the vestibular nuclei and is involved in the control of eye movements.

the capacity for movement with the capacity to gather sensory information. Our system’s ability to gather essential information relies on its ability to position sensory organs. Just as we position our hands to learn about an object, the sensorimotor vestibular system has the capacity to position the head and its sensory organs to gather information about our position in space. (See Chapter 4, “Upper-Level Brainstem Controls,” p. 125.)

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38 Mind-Body Awareness for Singers:  Unleashing Optimal Performance

Figure 2–13.  Vestibular network. Courtesy of Christopher Moore.

3. The vestibulospinal network coordinates head movements and postural reflexes (Dickman, 2007). Essential information is also projected from the vestibular nuclei to the cerebellum and other brainstem sites, including the reticular and solitary tract nuclei (see also Figure 0–12).

Vestibulo-Cerebellar Regulation.  The vestibular nuclei and cerebellum form reciprocal connections and constitute important regulatory mechanisms for the control of eye movements, head movements, and posture. Additionally, it is significant that the vestibules are the only sensory organs that send direct information to the cerebellum. This accounts for exceptionally rapid transmission of essential information necessary to mediate protective reflexes, such as when our head is kept from hitting the pavement when we fall. Vestibulo-Autonomic Regulation. The solitary tract and nuclei (NTS) “are structures in the brain-

stem that carry and receive visceral sensation” from the facial, glossopharyngeal, and vagus (e.g., larynx, heart, and lungs) cranial nerves (Dickman, 2007). Projections from the vestibular nuclei to the solitary tract nuclei effect compensatory vestibular visceromotor responses that serve to stabilize respiration and blood pressure during normal body position changes relative to gravity and during voluntary behaviors such as walking and singing (Yates & Miller, 1996, cited by Dickman, 2007). These and other essential motor controls mediated by the vestibular system are addressed in Chapter 4, “Motor Output Processing,” “Upper-Level Controls,” and “Developing Expertise.”

Vestibulo-Thalamo-Cortical Projections: Equilibrium and Motion Sense.  Spatial cognition, or our unconscious and conscious perception of motion and calculation of positional orientation in space, arises through the convergence of information from the vestibular, visual, and somatosensory systems at the thalamo-cortical level (Dickman, 2007) (see Figure 2–9).



Sensory Information Processing:  Perception of Our Environment and Ourselves

Most vestibular activity is processed at a subcortical level, with only a small amount of information projected to the cortex. Normally we are aware of only novel motion or being “out of balance,” such as when swinging, spinning, or riding rough waves. In fact, acute perception of motion — such as when our conscious mind is alerted to conditions for which the subcortical vestibular system cannot fully effect corrective actions to stabilize our posture and maintain equilibrium — may result in dizziness, vertigo, or nausea. For example, we can see evidence of the subcortical processing of essential visual information when our eyes adopt a “soft focus” and our gaze is reflexively “fixed” by our vestibular system when walking or singing. Key Point: Although only a small amount of information is projected by the vestibular system to the cortex (where we can perceive it consciously), it is all the information we need. That is, to maintain posture, we rarely need to reason out corrective actions consciously.

Nonetheless, we can purposefully (cortically) influence increased sensitivity of our vestibular receptors and optimize the efficacy of our vestibular system’s performance so that it will in turn heighten our awareness of our state of equilibrium. The vestibular network is organized such that the vestibular system effects head position, and therefore the position and sensitivity of the vestibules, in response to information not only from the vestibules themselves (reciprocity), but also multiple sources that include motor projections from the cortex. First, it begins with perceptual awareness. If we attend to cortical projections of motion and space and increase our knowledge of our state of equilibrium, we can develop our ability to recognize and ask for optimal equilibrium (e.g., postural alignment). Second, if we ask for more information on our position in space and project our behavioral intentions (anticipated changes in position), we can develop our vestibular system’s ability to perform optimally — to effect a state of equilibrium. That is, we can learn to “vestib” (i.e., sense head motion and calculate spatial coordinates) more intently and effect a state of equilibrium just as intuitively as we listen more intently to detect a faint and distant sound.

Key Point:  Since the vestibular system responds to changes in head position relative to the forces of gravity and acceleration, heightened awareness of an optimal state of equilibrium results in that curious sense that our head is suspended in space and our body and the world moves around it. That is, we could say the vestibular system is most successful when our awareness of opposing motion is minimized and we feel equal to, or “in tune” with, our ever-changing environment ​ — when the variable acceleration forces of our actions are readily equalized to the constant force of gravity. Additionally, because the vestibular system signals rapid-fire motor correction of postural displacement, postural “fixing” of our skeletal spine (axis) is an active process that feels like rapid repetitions of pressure (tactile) and micromovements (kinesthetic), sensations that themselves comprise rising somatosensory information, which contributes to heightened awareness of our position in space.

Is it any wonder dancers are so keen on placement? Now this does not mean we cannot enjoy sensing movement. On the contrary, the wonderful roller-coaster ride (sinusoidal wave) of motor behavior just seems smoother and more fluid — poised. When the variance between our internal and external environment is minimized, we feel as if we are floating on air. “Try it!” (PAE 2–10). Although most vestibular processing occurs at the level of the brainstem (unconsciously), we can voluntarily stimulate receptor sensitivity and develop our vestibular sense just as we would any of the special senses (hearing, vision, touch, taste, and smell). Our current study of the vestibular system is in response to research data that indicated a possible link between the maintenance of awareness and the maintenance of natural reflexive postural alignment, where methods for body awareness effected 21% improvement in vocal technical skill and physical ease over no change in activity (Leigh-Post & Burke, 2009; see discussion in “Introduction”). Propriokinesthetic information rising from vestibular and somatosensory receptors that monitor the position and motion of the body provide the spatiotemporal coordinates necessary to guide motor systems in signaling corrections in muscle tone for both the

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40 Mind-Body Awareness for Singers:  Unleashing Optimal Performance

voluntary purpose of the moment and maintaining homeostasis. (See Chapter 4, “Sensory-Guided Movement,” p. 107). Key Point:  Optimal performance relies on perceptual acuity, an ongoing up-to-the-millisecond account of the state of our internal and external environments.

PAE 2–10:  Vestibular Sense—Spatial Awareness and Equilibrium. Spatial awareness involves a three-dimensional sense of self in the “hall” — the spaces above, below, before, behind, and beside you. If possible, remove your shoes and stand in a room with windows or doors that are opened to ambient sound. Feel free to let your hand rest on the back of a chair or piano if you notice any unsteadiness. We want to have a happy body that is equalized and in tune with the constant gravitational force of our environment. Remember, our vestibular system is able to calculate and stimulate corrective motor controls of the autonomic and postural systems subcortically. Let your conscious controls rest for now: 1. Visual input for spatial awareness: a. Stand facing forward and, without looking around directly, notice the spaces before, behind, above, below, and beside you. b. Now close your eyes. Can you recall what is before you? How much space is between you and walls behind and beside you? The ceiling and the floor? Rate the vividness of percept and sense of physical ease: Vividness

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2. Auditory input for spatial awareness: a. With your eyes closed, listen attentively to the sounds surrounding you in each direction. Can you detect their source and location? What is making the sound? b. Use sound to define your space. How far away is the sound? Does the sound reflect off a wall or echo? Rate the vividness of percept and sense of physical ease:

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3. Auditory, visual, somatosensory, and vestibulomotor integration: Gather a confluence of sensory information including sounds, sights, temperatures, and spaces for a complete three-dimensional “gross” proprio-kinesthetic sense of your place in space. This is especially pleasant to do out-of-doors on a windy day. Notice shifts in the wind both as a tactile sensation and as a vehicle for airborne sounds, such as rustling leaves and wind chimes. Keep your eyes open even as your focus softens. Remember, the vestibular system uses visual information unconsciously to keep our body smart — to calculate spatial coordinates. Rate the vividness of percept and sense of physical ease: Vividness

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Variation:  Repeat any of the steps above both allowing and inhibiting corrective postural responses such as a reflexive head turn or “fixing” of the eyes.

Multimodal Confluence and Metamonitoring Optimal Performance As a function of early to end-stage learning, the ability to selectively monitor and compare feedback information with feedforward intentions and stored knowledge, as well as execute its related corrective motor response, becomes increasingly well learned and automated (unconsciously mediated). That is, during the conscious guidance, or online piloting of voluntary behaviors, we mediate an ever-increasing volume of complex information with ever-increasing speed and efficiency. Because we never perceive anything the same way twice, we experience this process as an increasingly rich confluence of information from the whole of our systems accompanied by a sense of ease and well-being. “Try it!” (PAE 2–11).

PAE 2–11:  “Buzzing Bones” — Metamonitoring Multimodal Confluence.  The vestibular system processes rising somatosensory (tactile and



Sensory Information Processing:  Perception of Our Environment and Ourselves

kinesthetic) and visual information, and detects head motion effected by the same bone-conducted vibrations that we perceive as sound. Moreover, multisensory cortical neurons give rise to a confluence or gross proprio-kinesthetic sense of our position and movement through space throughout our daily lives. We might say singing, an inherently multimodal activity, gives rise to an amplified confluence of sensory information. Take a moment to explore how metamonitoring this rising propriokinesthetic information can be developed for expert control. During singing, ask your vestibular system to position the vestibules “just right” — at the center of this rapidly changing confluence of stimuli. Shift your attentional focus to various stimuli, such as the internal sound and feel of your buzzing bones, or the external spaces that surround you. Zoom in to specific sights, sounds, or places and zoom out to take in the full confluence. What is the same? What is different? What information is amplified? How does your perception of position, motion, and space change? How does this experience alter, or refine, your definition of equilibrium? As per Gestalt psychology, perception is influenced by context, where the whole is different from the sum of its parts (Pomerantz, 2006). And so it is when singing optimally. During peak performance, a performer integrates and synthesizes all one knows “into one wonderful, complete whole. The experience is simply wonderful, say those who know. It’s a floating sensation, blissful yet calm, as if you were standing outside yourself” (Emmons & Thomas, 1998, pp. 11–12).

Summary In the case of feedback information from one’s own voice while singing, stimulus arising from the action of the vocal folds is largely a direct constant signal originating from within us. By virtue of the interior 17

location of the vocal folds and their proximity to internal receptors,17 coupled with the uninterrupted transmission of direct forced bone-conducted vibrations to auditory and vestibular receptors in the inner ear (absent acoustic influence of the pharynx or a hall), the action of our vocal folds could arguably be perceived directly as raw, uninterpreted, and rapidly recurring rhythmic information that reliably correlates with the action of the vocal cords. Or, if we subscribe to the theory of unconscious inference, the minimal subcortical processing of directly transmitted information, combined with the disambiguation of multisensory processing, supports the likelihood that the rich confluence of information that arises from the rapid-fire action of our vocal folds and resonates throughout our skeletal structure accurately represents the sound, feel, and motion of one’s own voice while singing. Moreover, we may rely on the innate functions and abilities of our sensory information processing systems to monitor and self-correct our behavior according to our past experience (knowledge) and the purpose of the moment. To return to our pitchmatching task, if we attend to a primary pitch model (auditory imagery) while intending to sing the same pitch, and we sense that we have matched that pitch, we can rest assured of the likelihood that the pitch we are singing is as clear and accurate as is our image of the modeled pitch. Ultimately, we can learn to anticipate and recognize these sensations as a reliable and reassuring constant with the same degree of certainty with which we intuitively anticipate the ground beneath our feet. Key Point: Sensory information is the source of all knowledge. All knowledge is developed from innate abilities, and knowledgeable, expert performance is intuitive. Intuitive performance is supported by two-way sensory transmission pathways, integration systems (reticular and vestibular), and a well-developed cognitive ability

 Interoception is the sense of internal functioning, the perception of events within the body. An interoceptor is any sense organ or receptor that is activated by stimuli arising within the body (e.g., mechanoreceptors in the periosteum, joints, muscles and tendons), including hunger, thirst, nausea, visceral sensations, and the like. The Penguin Dictionary of Psychology. London: Penguin, 2009. Credo Reference. June 30, 2010. (http://www.credoreference.com.proxy.lawrence.edu:2048/entry/penguinpsyc/interoception, retrieved June 21, 2011).

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42 Mind-Body Awareness for Singers:  Unleashing Optimal Performance to imaginatively guide the gating, or selectivity, of information to be attended. Selective attention provides all the information we need to maintain equilibrium and perform optimally. Optimal performance begins and ends with perceptual awareness.

When expert knowledge of one’s own voice while singing is developed, we, in effect, consciously monitor, or metamonitor, the unconscious monitoring and correction of our behavior according to the purpose of the moment and existing knowledge — a monitoring task that requires minimal cortical attention. That is, as we progress through the hierarchy of perceptual expertise, more feedback information requires less conscious attention — there are fewer problems that require reasoning out. And, if less feedback information requires conscious attention, then more cognitive resources (“brain time”) may be devoted to end-stage, executive-level perceptual processes; executive processes such as the mental manipulation and synthesis of novel and known (recollected) percepts with the purpose of the moment. Furthermore, in keeping with the reciprocal nature of our nervous system, defining our intentions in this way provides our sensorimotor processing systems with a purpose against which incoming signals are selected, or gated, according to their motivational value so as to promote a state of

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heightened awareness and equilibrium. And so we come to the most advanced of perceptual and cognitive functions, planning for the purpose of guiding optimal and artistic performance. Singers are accustomed to synthesizing a host of information from a wide variety of sources — from teachers, coaches, conductors, and directors, and even composers and librettists — breaking down a score and libretto to interpret the rich detail of a musical phrase or dialogue, only to piece it together again to create a character in a music drama whose whole is wonderfully different from the sum of its parts. Similarly, in the early stages of developing sensorimotor skills, we take the time to carefully perceive the rich detail of select sensory information — to examine, compare, and associate the distinct information that arises from the various perspectives of our separate modalities. Then, as per Gestalt principles,18 we can appreciate the unambiguous and distinctly meaningful confluence of percepts that is our image of our own voice while singing. Imagine seeing A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte by the pointillist painter, Georges Seurat (1884).19 When we move close to the canvas, we see the microstrokes of the brush and perceive the painting as a series of colored dots. It is not until we view the painting from a distance that our brain interprets the green and red dots as a brilliant yellow.20 Similarly, we can learn to appreciate the

 As per Gestalt psychology, perception is influenced by context. The whole is different from, and possibly greater than, the sum of its perceived parts (Pomerantz, 2006). 19 Motivated by study in optical and color theory (Eugène Chevreul, 1839, 1864), Seurat believed this pointillist technique would make the colors more brilliant and powerful than standard brush strokes with mixed colors. “Subtractive color mixing occurs when pigments create the perception of color by ‘subtracting’ (i.e., absorbing) some of the light that would otherwise be reflected to the eye” (Color mixture, laws/theory of. (2006). In Elsevier’s dictionary of psychological theories. Retrieved from http://proxy.lawrence.edu:2048/login?url=http:///login?qurl=http://search.credoreference.com.proxy.lawrence. edu:2048/content/entry/estpsyctheory/color_mixture_laws_theory_of/0). “Signac, who made Chevreul’s theory the foundation of his own style, summed it up admirably: ‘Divisionism is a method of securing the utmost luminosity, colour and harmony by (a) the use of all the colours of the spectrum and all degrees of these colours without any mixing; (b) the separation of local colours from the colour of light, reflections etc.; (c) the balance of these factors and the establishment of these relations in accordance with laws of contrast, tone and radiation; and (d) the use of a technique of dots of a size determined by the size of the picture’ ” (Chevreul, Eugène [1786–1889]). (1990). In The Thames & Hudson Encyclopaedia of Impressionism. Retrieved from http://www.credoreference.com.proxy.lawrence.edu:2048/entry/thei/chevreul_eug%C3%A8ne_1786_1889. 20  Chevreul, Eugène (1786–1889) was a French chemist who made significant discoveries about the nature of Colour and our perception of it. His theories about divisionism and the optical combination of colours had a great influence on many painters from Delacroix onwards . . . Seurat became deeply immersed in the theories of Chevreul and other scientists on the simultaneous contrasts of Colour, the effects of juxtaposed colours, and the fact that each colour can impose its own complementary on its neighbour (Chevreul, Eugène [1786–1889]). (1990). In The Thames & Hudson Encyclopaedia of Impressionism. Retrieved from http://www.credoreference.com.proxy.lawrence.edu:2048/entry/thei/chevreul_eug%C3%A8ne_1786_1889.



Sensory Information Processing:  Perception of Our Environment and Ourselves

micromovements of our vibrating bones and corrective postural reflexes as part of a more brilliant constant that is our perceptual image of the whole of our singing voice. When we metamonitor our performance, we let our unconscious sensory information processes do the “subtractive color mixing” and project only the most brilliant interpretations. Happily, the difficult task of monitoring and correcting our behavior — or sorting and selecting information worthy of conscious attention according to stored knowledge (memory) and the purpose of the moment — is managed for us by our intelligent and largely unconscious sensorimotor controls. We can let our brain do the mixing. All we have to do is know what we want. Our intellectual, physical, and emotional wants and needs are the driving force behind the purposeful guidance of optimal performance. They are the diva within.

Stimuli devoid of novelty or motivational value are stimuli for which the reticular activating system will not arouse the brain. A change in any parameter of a stimulus is the basis for detecting novelty. (Perkins & Kent, 1986, p. 406). 4. Our two-way transmission pathways and integrative systems (reticular and vestibular) are knit together by the reticular formation. This arrangement supports a well-developed cognitive ability to selectively process sensory information according to our purpose of the moment and past experience, and provides that we will have all the information we need when we need it to perform optimally in an ideal performing state.

Purposeful Perception in review

The act of learning allows us to explore the everchanging world of sensory information —  t o seek out novelty for learning’s sake and devise our own exercises and experiments that challenge our sensory systems, and, indeed, our cognitive imaginations, in new and stimulating ways. As the source of our knowledge, the vividness of the sensory information we receive and the accuracy of our percepts are paramount. Fortunately, we can use various cognitive and sensory tools to optimize perceptual acuity:

1. We choose to be receptive. Only events deemed worthy of our attention will “survive” long enough to reach our conscious brain. 2. Sensory information is the source of all knowledge. Sensory information provides the sensorimotor processing system with necessary data to monitor and self-correct our behavior according to the purpose of the moment. This is an innate feature of our body’s intelligence that mediates fluid and optimally performed behaviors in an ideal performing state. 3. Without arousal, neither perception nor learning is possible. Remember, sensory information is deemed worthy of conscious attention based on a need to know or likelihood of a pleasurable reward. “Do or die.” or “Try it, you’ll like it!”

1. Selection.  Selective attention at a conscious and cognitive level serves to optimize perceptual acuity by determining what information is necessary to the task at hand, and accurately defining the receptor and mode of that information. 2. Comparison.  Our sensory system responds to change. 3. Multisensory Association Within and Across Modalities. The more the merrier — associating one percept with corroborating information for the same stimulus event not only serves to disambiguate our interpretation of that information, but also increases awareness (thalamocortical projections) so as to “fill the mind.” An example of multisensory association within a single modality such as the auditory system might include associating bone-conducted

E qual regina dall’alto soglio col posso e voglio farsi ubbidir. Lorenzo da Ponte21

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 From Cosi fan tutte, Despina’s aria “una donna a quindici anni.” Music by W. A. Mozart, libretto by Lorenzo da Ponte. Translation: “Like a queen on her lofty throne, with her I can and I want, knows how to be obeyed.”

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44 Mind-Body Awareness for Singers:  Unleashing Optimal Performance

pitch information with airborne vowel information. Cross-modal multisensory association might include associating pitch information (auditory) with vibration information tracked from the phonator to the inner ear externally with our fingertips (touch), while visualizing our internal body map (vision). It is important to note that visual information has been found to be a valuable property for full development of the ability to locate sound in space, particularly when a sound is embedded in competing sounds in the environment.22 This is important not only in receiving a cue from an orchestra or tuning within an ensemble, but also when distinguishing signals from within our own singing instrument. As we have learned from Barbara Conable’s important work with musicians, visualization of our internal body map will support us in the task of receiving sensory information that is transmitted from our phonator to our inner ear and related systems. 4. Sensory Tools.  In some cases we have built-in tools that allow us to inhibit information; we close our eyes or retract our hand. In other cases, we may use balance boards or balancing tasks to heighten our spatial awareness and stimulate postural responses. Skeletons and anatomical diagrams help our mind’s eye to visualize the inner workings of our body. For auditory perception of one’s own voice, plugging our ears, covering our mouth, or closing our lips in a hum inhibits (suppresses) the airborne sound and serves to amplify bone-conducted sound and reduces confusion.

22

5. Take a Moment. Although it seems as if we perceive our behavior and events in the world in real time (i.e., at the very moment when they happen or appear), this is not the case. Instead, we perceive the world with a slight time lag, as it was a moment earlier. Consider the time it takes to develop a fully formed representation or perceptual image from the various modes that transmit the sound of your voice while singing. As with all perception tasks, getting to know the sound of your voice while singing from feedback information is facilitated by executing simple behaviors slowly to allow time for a perceptual image, and its accompanying neural trace, to develop fully. The speed with which we are able to fully form a percept increases exponentially as we become more adept at the various tasks. You may find, as Howell concluded, some modes for transmitting auditory feedback from one’s own voice while singing are inherently more reliable. 6. Recollection.  Any sensory percept has the potential to become knowledge and to be encoded into our long-term memory. As such, it may be recalled as a sensory image or mental representation to guide our behavior. The cognitive associations and comparisons we make, the perceptual mnemonics with which this neural information is “tagged,” will determine the usefulness of the information on recall, either as an isolated event or in a string of events, such as when performing an aria or art song.

 M.P. Swiers, A. J. and Opstal, and J. R. Cruysberg (A Spatial Hearing Deficit in Early-Blind Humans. The Journal of Neuroscience, 2001, 21, RC142).



3 Planning Voluntary Behavior

Sensorimotor processing loop—planning. Courtesy of Alex Johnson.

Awareness is a state of consciousness characterized by the ability to integrate sensations from the environment and ourselves with our immediate goals to guide behavior.

Introduction—Who Is in Charge? Planning for optimal performance of a voluntary behavior is a cognitive process requiring accurate definition of our immediate goal for the task at hand and entails the ability to imaginatively manipulate a mental representation, or image of that goal to guide intuitive performance of that task. As pur-

poseful behavior, it is not a mere reaction to stimuli that we may choose to allow or inhibit. The nature of voluntary behavior requires that it be generated from within for the purpose of self-expression and as such, may be performed independently of external stimuli, or influences (Jeannerod, 2009). As singerathletes skillfully performing complex behaviors, we neither react to our actions nor mindlessly execute a series of well-learned (overlearned, automated)

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behaviors with “robotic invariability.” Rather, we are alert and attentive, actively integrating information from the environment and ourselves with our immediate goals to guide fluid, flexible, and adaptive behavior. Like an athlete on the tennis court returning an opponent’s serve, we synthesize novel stimuli with existing knowledge, and mentally construct and rehearse possible outcomes at a rapid-fire pace. As artists we engage our imaginations in the manipulation of mental images generated by our thoughts, emotions, and sensorimotor systems for the phenomenal experience of creative expression. The behavior of singing is no more than taking pen to paper or brush to canvas. Technical skill implies a level of mastery of that behavior. Vocal artistry is the act of engaging the creative mind to which behavior responds.

Volition, Free Will, and Executive Ignorance “The Concise Oxford Dictionary defines a voluntary movement as one that is controlled by the will” (Pockett, 2009), meaning we decide what we want to do and when we will do it; we choose the intended outcome. The implication here is that willed intentions, and therefore voluntary behaviors, require at least some degree of consciousness, and awareness of one’s self as the agent of action. However, research findings illuminating the significance of executive ignorance have revitalized the popular “chicken or egg” debate regarding freely willed (conscious) and spontaneously driven (unconscious) behavior. That is, if our executive, conscious thinking mind is ignorant of the hundreds of thousands of signals that transpire in the inner mechanisms of our unconscious brain to cause (determine and execute) a motor plan of action, to what extent can and/or should we exert conscious control over those actions? As Harvard Psychologist Daniel Wegner points out, “Contrary to our everyday intuitions, what relatively little science has been done in this area tends to show that the neural events that not

only monitor and correct our behavior but also initiate bodily movements are inaccessible to consciousness. Experiments show that we are not very good even at knowing whether we caused any given occurrence ourselves, or whether somebody or something else did” (Pockett, 2009). Do we get up off the couch and go to the kitchen because our conscious executive mind has decided it is time to eat (i.e., freely willed intention), or because our unconscious spontaneous drives have informed the conscious mind that we are hungry? The implication here is that will is inferred by the unconscious brain and “read” by the conscious mind. To be aware of a behavioral goal is one way of being conscious of the action. Being aware of the goal, however, does not imply awareness of the underlying controls that determine how it is being reached (Jeannerod, 2009). Perhaps the better question is this: If our unconscious sensorimotor controls are not ignorant of our underlying drives and motivations, to what extent can we exert conscious and thoughtful (executive cortical) control over our wants and needs?

Research Trends in Voluntary Motor Behavior As consumers of research, it is important that we not only consider the methods and findings, but also especially bear in mind the research questions that form the basis for conclusions. For example, the vast majority of motor studies rely on simple visuomotor tasks performed by nonexperts leaving room for the possibility that experts performing complex and ongoing behaviors (e.g., juggling, figure skating, and singing) may have a more highly developed sense of awareness as demonstrated in skills associated with the ability to consciously influence behavior.

Simple and Complex Visuomotor Behavior If we look at influential motor studies, we learn that when subjects are instructed to make simple hand gestures (e.g., move one of two fingers) and indicate when they feel the urge to act, brain activity indicating motor planning can be detected (in the pre-SMA) up to 10 seconds before subjects become aware of the



Planning Voluntary Behavior

urge (impulse) to act.1 As a result of these findings, researchers have concluded that we are unaware of when a motor plan of action is initiated. However, the findings do not preclude the possibility that subjects think about moving one of two fingers before they feel the urge to act. Therefore, an alternative conclusion might be that while we may not have direct conscious access to the full complement of neural events that initiate and control our behavior, it would appear that conscious and unconscious planning processes for voluntary behavior are initiated not only before the execution of an action, but also prior to the conscious urge, or impulse to act. A possible explanation for different outcomes in studies of mental imagery and expertise could be based on the distinction between perceptual images from an internal (endogenous) perspective where the agent feels he or she is causing the action, and those generated from an external (exogenous) perspective where the agent takes the view of a spectator. “The common view seems to be that internal imagery is more effective as performance enhancement than is external imagery. For example . . . elite athletes tend to rely more on internal imagery than non-elite athletes (Mahoney, Gabriel, & Perkins, 1987)” (Olsson et al., 2008, p. 140). However, Olsson noted that while Hardy and Callow (1999) found internal imagery was more effective when expert athletes had reached a certain level of expertise, for the early stages of learning, that is, for the acquisition of a new motor skill by experts, external imagery was found to be superior to internal imagery (Olsson et al., 2008, p. 140). Key Point:  Nonetheless, in all cases of performing simple or complex skills, perceptual images from the external perspective would be aban1

doned in preference of the more effective internal perspective; where percepts would be inverted from images of feedback information to images of feedforward intentions.

High-Stakes Performance “Choking” and “thinking too much” are commonly heard phrases in discussions of high-stakes performance. “Choking isn’t just poor performance. It is worse performance than you are capable of precisely because there is alot on the line” (Beilock, cited by Tucker, 2012). Golfers are often the subject of performance-related research and popular movies (e.g., Baggar Vance). “Golfers often choke when they think too much, Beilock says. Skilled athletes use streamlined brain circuitry that largely bypasses the prefrontal cortex, the seat of awareness. . . .When outside stresses shift attention, the prefrontal cortex stops working the way it should. . . . We focus on aspects of what we are doing that should be out of consciousness” (Beilock, cited by Tucker, 2012). Therefore, in order to invert attentional focus from the external perspective to the internal perspective, golfers are often coached to distract their minds with meaningless details (e.g., the dimples on the ball) or to move more quickly so the brain does not have time to overthink.2 However, the challenges facing a musicianathlete, and more specifically a singer-actor-artistathlete differ from those of a golfer in two very important aspects: we must remain vigilantly attentive to the highly cognitive and imaginative task of communicating our thoughts and emotions in the languages of music and words, while concurrently performing ongoing and highly variable sequences of behavior that occur at a rate of about six times per second.

 “Benjamin Libet was the first to tackle this problem. He instructed subjects to perform simple hand movements and to report the instant (W) at which they became aware of wanting to move. In order to do so, subjects verbally reported the clock position of a spot revolving on a screen. An electromyogram (EMG) was recorded from arm muscles for measuring the precise onset of the movement: The ‘W’ judgment was found to precede EMG onset by 206 ms. In addition, electroencephalogram (EEG) potentials were recorded from the subjects’ skull. The ‘readiness potential,’ a DC potential that appears during preparation to voluntary action, was found to anticipate ‘W’ by about 345 ms. This striking result shows that the intention (in the sense of ‘wanting to move’ or ‘feeling the urge to move’) can be perceived as distinct from execution itself; it also shows that the subject’s declarative awareness of this phenomenon does not correspond to the actual onset of movement preparation, which starts much earlier” (Jeannerod, 2009). 2  Under lab testing at the University of Chicago, golfers who moved more quickly improved their performance by a third (Beilock, 2011).

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Expert Performing Musicians Research studies of expert performing musicians are slowly emerging to reveal the mechanisms that work to generate a constant and reciprocal flow of information between the conscious mind and the unconscious brain in a dynamic relationship that functions like clockwork. Significant to our understanding of the creative mind, unique research on the brain and musical improvisation in professional jazz pianists (Limb & Braun, 2008) found that improvised performance (internally motivated self-expression), compared to the performance of overlearned musical sequences (memorized and automated scales), was consistently characterized by a pattern of brain behavior that suggests heightened activation of areas associated with higher-level perceptual processes (executive functions) involved in planning (working memory), and a deactivation of areas associated with self-judgment and the inhibition of emotional response and selfexpression (“self-conscious” attention to feedback). “Changes in prefrontal activity during improvisation were accompanied by widespread activation of neocortical sensorimotor areas (that mediate the organization and execution of musical performance) as well as deactivation of limbic structures (that regulate motivation and emotional tone). This distributed neural pattern may provide a cognitive context that enables the emergence of spontaneous creative activity” (Limb & Braun, 2008, p. 1). These findings are consistent with accounts of peak performance, where performers experience “inclusive awareness . . . and the full experience of one’s emotions” (Conable, 2000, p. 37), vigilant attention on the purpose of the moment, and the out-of-body experience of an uninhibited performance, or “flow.” (For more on research on the musician’s brain, see “Illustrated Guide: The Singer’s Brain at Work,” p. xxxviii.) “At this point, the problem of the consciousness of our own actions and intentions clearly merges with that of self-consciousness. The ability to identify oneself as the agent of a behavior or a thought — the belief that our thoughts have a causal influence on our behavior. While we tend to perceive ourselves as causal, we actually ignore the cause from which our actions originate” (Jeannerod, 2009).

Finally, as Michael Gazzaniga concludes in a discussion of free will, there is no scientific evidence to suggest that we are not responsible for our own actions (Schwartz, 2011). Moreover, advancements in neuroscience have changed the meaning of “free” will per se, rendering the question of its existence moot. “The mind develops ideas and beliefs that then influence the brain, which in turn influences the mind. It’s a constant back and forth. It’s dynamic” (Schwartz, 2011). Perhaps a more useful discussion for understanding the role of consciousness and cognitive functions in guiding the ongoing performance of complex behaviors from the internal perspective of the expert performer involves management of our dual-control (e.g., conscious and unconscious) nervous system. (See also “The Working Memory,” p. 61; “Direct and Indirect Cortical Controls,” p. 131.)

Willed and Sensorimotor Intentions In her review of research on the Brain Basis of Voluntary Control (2009), Susan Pockett writes, “Neuroscientific evidence suggests that there are two different kinds of intention, subserved by two widely separated areas of the brain. Intentions of the first kind are called willed intentions. Willed intentions are abstract, early plans for movement. They specify the goal and type of movement, but not the detail of how the movement will be carried out” (Pockett, 2009, p. 125). Anatomically, willed intentions are generated in prefrontal areas of the brain believed to be involved in thinking. An important characteristic of willed intentions relative to voluntary control is that we may choose if and when we will respond to the urge or impulse to act. “The second level of intention is called sensorimotor intention. Sensorimotor intention specifies the detail of how an intended movement is to be carried out” (Pockett, 2009, p. 125). Note that while motor signals are projected away from the cortex (brain to body) and are not accessible to consciousness, as the name suggests, sensorimotor intentions also include sensory projections to the cortex (body to mind) that can be perceived and monitored consciously as covert goal-state imagery — before we perceive



Planning Voluntary Behavior

either the impulse to act, or overt expression of those actions.3 Given the spatial orientation required for motor behavior, it is not surprising that sensorimotor intentions have been detected toward the back of the parietal cortex (Pockett, 2009). The posterior parietal cortex is where multimodal information (visual, auditory, eye position, head position, eye velocity, vestibular, and proprioceptive) is combined in order to perform spatial operations (Miller & Cohen, 2001). Our holistic awareness of space, generated largely unconsciously by our integrative vestibular system and embodied in an abstract and widely distributed neuroanatomical representation of space in the posterior parietal cortex, may also be a correlate of our awareness of our willed and sensorimotor intentions (Miller & Cohen, 2001). Key Point: Intermediate representations of space between sensory input and motor output, generated in part by the vestibular system from multimodal information and represented in the posterior parietal cortex, are essential to performing spatial operations — motor action (Andersen, 1995, p. 519). The expert ability to generate these intermediate representations of space as demonstrated by accomplished athletes is the “missing link” in sensorimotor processing for optimal guidance of elite (complex) singing behaviors and maintenance of a state of equilibrium (Leigh-Post, 2010). (See “The Visuospatial Domain,” p. 66.)

If consciousness monitors or reads behavior rather than initiating or executing it, consciousness represents a background mechanism for the cognitive modifications to a plan of action that, from past experience, are known to be unsuccessful before an error is repeated, thereby explaining the value in maintaining awareness during ongoing and rapidly repeated behaviors. That is, “the role of consciousness should rather be to ensure the continuity of subjective experience across actions which are — by 3

necessity — executed automatically” (Jeannerod, 2009, p. 8). Key Point:  Thus, the ability to consciously monitor planning processes before they are executed forms the basis of not only voluntary control but also expert anticipatory control. It is how we vigilantly focus on the purpose of the moment, or keep our “ear” on the intended pitch. Voluntarily controlled actions are generated from within, independent of external influences and distinguishable from automatic stimulus response mechanisms. Voluntary behaviors are the intentional expression of our thoughts and feelings.

What & When Planning— “What Are We Thinking?” Philosophies and theories aside, for a cognitive psychologist, what is happening on the basilar membrane in the ear, for example, is of significance only insofar as it provides information from which the brain is able to construct a recognizable and meaningful representation of what is going on in the world (Shepard, 1999, pp. 21–22). As performers, our interest in sensory awareness lies not only in developing a meaningful image of what is going on in our internal and external environments, but also in the practical application of this perceptual knowledge as goal-state imagery (intermediate representations) that will guide optimal behavior in an ideal performing state. Key Point:  “A . . . major aspect of sensorimotor integration is the planning of movements. At some point in this integration process, sensory signals give way to signals related to what the animal intends to do” (Andersen, 1995, p. 519).

Critical to voluntary control is the way in which the motor program is prepared. “Voluntary movement programs are tailored to meet a specific goal

 “If sensorimotor intentions can be formed but not acted on, the initiation of an action [i.e., execution of overt action] must logically be taken as occurring after the formation of its sensorimotor intention. . . .At this stage, so little work has been done on the neuroscience of action initiation that almost nothing is known about its neural basis” (Pockett, 2009, p. 126).

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50 Mind-Body Awareness for Singers:  Unleashing Optimal Performance

at a specific moment. In effect, they are ad hoc programs contrived to meet a particular purpose. As with all motor learning, a motor schema [plan of action] is established by which movements are coordinated, corrected, and stabilized. Such a schema is a mental image of the goal to be achieved by the movements. In the case of speech, it can be an auditory image of the phrase to be used, the precision of articulation, the fluency of the utterance, or the tone of the voice” (Perkins & Kent, 1986, p. 459). In the brief paragraph above, William Perkins and Raymond Kent indicate several significant concepts for planning voluntary behavior. First, we plan what we will do (task at hand) and when we will do it. Second, our plan of action begins as a vague idea of what we would like to do and gains specificity. What begins as a nonspecific generalized program for reaching and grasping, or phonating and articulating, is tailored to meet a specific purpose of the moment, such as reaching and grasping a gallon of milk or a straight pin, or singing an ascending scale with a flourish or speaking to a child. Finally, we can consciously monitor and guide the unconscious generation of a motor plan of action through mental imagery before overt execution. This means a voluntary behavior is one that is anticipated — that we want and feel prepared to do.

Anticipatory Control—“Getting the Thing Set” To borrow an apt phrase from neuroscientist Barry Wyke, “The thing’s got to be set before the auditory system can possibly respond” (Schubert, 1983, pp. 192–193).4 That is, the function of planning processes is to prime our receptors in anticipation of action for rapidly calculated motor response, thereby fostering smooth and fluid expression of complex behaviors (expert control of elite behaviors), rather than simple “knee-jerk” reactions to unanticipated stimuli. 4

Key Point:  Our motor systems are controlled — ​ stimulated into action and silenced — by sensory signals. (See “Muscle Sense,” p. 109.)

The essence of optimal voluntary control lies in the anticipatory nature of a motor plan of action. Brent Gillespie, an MIT researcher of instrumental musicians and motor control, writes that a musician anticipates an instrument’s response to a given manipulation. This form of anticipatory control is closely related to ballistic control. In the case of a ball aimed at a target and thrown, we have no control over the ball’s trajectory after it leaves our hand (Gillespie, 1999b, p. 253). Manuel Garcia, the master voice teacher of the bel canto age, put it this way: “All control of the tone is lost once the vocal cords become vibratile” (Ried, 1975, p. 1). That is, we relinquish conscious control of a task once we allow an action to be executed. Of course as singers we are able to exploit the sensorimotor virtues of inhabiting our instrument. Unlike an athlete pitching a single ball at an external target, when we engage in ongoing, rapidly repeating singing behavior, we never lose contact with our instrument. “Try it!” (PAE 3–1).

PAE 3–1:  Tossing a Ball (Exploring Anticipatory Control) 1. Toss a tennis ball repeatedly from one hand to the other. After a moment, shift the “spotlight” of your attention to various points of action. a. Notice the rhythmic coordination of the movement (entrainment). b. Notice the sound, feel, or look of the action. Do your eyes “want” to settle on a visuospatial reference point? (This is a vestibulo-ocular reflex for calculating position.) What happens if you close your eyes?

 Barry Wyke speaking at a Voice Foundation Symposium “I get the impression . . . that Sundberg . . . is persuaded that there’s a good deal more of kinesthetic sensation that the singer counts on than necessarily the auditory, and he may very well be right. My impression is the opposite. It’s a matter of finding a way to study it . . . the study that was reported in the Journal of Singing Research some time ago by Ward and Burns indicated that it must be kinesthetic sensations. I’d suspect we’d agree that it is, that allows you to start on the pitch you intended to start on. The thing’s got to be set before the auditory system can possibly respond . . . I remember from the old Iowa studies in the psychology of music, which showed a lot of this transition from one note to another, that almost always, even accomplished singers start somewhat below the note, and move up to it. If it is kinesthetic sensation that’s doing it, apparently we underestimate where it ought to be, rather than overestimate it, which is fascinating” (Schubert, 1983, pp. 192–193).



Planning Voluntary Behavior

c. Notice when the ball hits the targeted hand. d. Notice when the ball leaves your pitching hand. e. Notice the interval between (time and space) the moment when the ball leaves one hand and arrives at the other. Notice the delay in conscious perception of the feedback signal that the task has been completed. f. Notice when you sense the impulse (urge) to toss the ball and when you sense execution of that action (follow-through). Is there a delay? What happens to the speed and accuracy of your actions when you put the “spotlight” of your attention on the feedback signal? On the feedforward signal? On the complete cycle (metamonitor)? What happens when your attention is focused from the internal perspective as the agent of action? From the external perspective as the spectator? Rest for a moment. g. Plan (image) tossing a ball from one hand to the other. Can you recollect the sound and feel of the rhythmic action of tossing the ball? When you are “set to go,” begin again, tossing the ball from one hand to the other. 2. Pitch a ball at an external target. a. Select a target (chair, wall, floor) and pitch the ball. b. Select a target and image pitching the ball (feedforward signal). When you feel set, follow-through with the pitch. c. Notice when the ball hits the target. How is this feedback different from when you toss the ball from one hand to the other? d. Pitch the ball several times in rapid succession. Notice how brain time spent attending to feedback information diminishes and attention to the feedforward signal increases. What happens to the speed and accuracy of your actions when you put the “spotlight” of your attention on the feedback signal? On the feedforward signal? On the complete cycle (metamonitor)? What happens when your attention is

focused from the internal perspective as the agent of action? From the external perspective as the spectator?

What happens when things do not go according to the plan? Remember that perception is intentional. It relies on expectancies. We see, hear, and feel what we are looking, listening, and feeling for. That is, we process the information our receptors have been primed to detect. Therefore, when something unexpected or unanticipated occurs, either in our behavior or the environment, the executive can be alerted to plan a new strategy that will accommodate the novel stimulus and get us back on track to our overall end goal. What happens when you do not hit your target? Learning. Of course planning a new strategy takes time. The more adept we are at predicting outcome, the less often we have to slow down or stop to devise a plan B. “The most important reason we use anticipatory control rather than feedback control is that adequate time is not available for feedback control” (Gillespie, 1999b, p. 255). There are significant delays in the arrival of sensory information and likewise in the execution of motor commands. “Try it!” (PAE 3–2; 3–3). Key Point:  Perceptual processes are flexible to the task. When our purpose of the moment is to plan a voluntary behavior, what we perceive from our internal perspective is the goal-state imagery that represents the feedforward intentions that define a motor plan of action.

PAE 3–2: Footprints in the Sand, Part B (Exploring Anticipatory Control).  You may recall when we attempted to study feedback information for an ongoing behavior in Footprints in the Sand, Part A, we had difficulty running. 1. Stand at one side of the room, and while running to the other side, imagine you are running in wet sand and study your footprints carefully before they wash away. Were you able to run smoothly and fluidly? Vividness

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52 Mind-Body Awareness for Singers:  Unleashing Optimal Performance

2. Take a moment to plan running across the room. View the space and select a target arrival point across the room. What will the floor feel like? Quickly guess (unconsciously calculate) how many strides it will take to reach your target. When you feel “set to go,” run to your target. Vividness

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3. Turn and select a target arrival point across the room. Image yourself running across the room on the balls of your feet only. How many strides will it take to reach your target? When you feel “set to go,” run across the room. Questions: Are you able to run with smooth and fluid action? Can you feel the floor beneath your feet? How much feedback do you need to be assured that you are achieving the outcome you intended?

PAE 3–3:  Pencil Drop (Exploring Anticipatory Control) 1. Drop a pencil from about 2 to 4 inches from the top of a table several times. 2. Anticipate singing sol when the pencil hits the table. Variously plan to coordinate the vowel or the consonant with the pencil drop (beat). What changes? In order to perform a string of behaviors in rapid succession, we must keep our “eye on the ball,” or the “spotlight” of our attention on the purpose of the moment. This exercise demonstrates coordination of willed and sensorimotor intentions.

Executive Functions and Higher-Level Perceptual Processing “When you give a peak performance your state of mind is actually altered; your perceptions are inverted . . .” (Emmons & Thomas, 1998, pp. 11–12). Higher-level perceptual processes involve both the recollection of perceptual images that enable us to predict outcome with increasing accuracy, and the continuing interpretation and reconfiguration of

those perceptual memories together with novel percepts to construct a variety of possible outcomes (i.e., mental imagery; Figure 3–1). “Try it!” (PAE 3–4).

PAE 3–4:  “What If?” (Executive Functions) 1. Toss a ball repeatedly from one hand to the other. What if you were to reconfigure your plan of action? What would happen if you tossed the ball higher? Added a bounce? Or caught the ball behind your back? 2. Image and follow-through with a variety of plans or constructs for running to a target across the room: skip; count in duplets, triplets, or octuplets; or double the length of your stride. 3. Image and follow-through with a variety of descending patterns (constructs) from sol to do, altering the sequence of pitches and rhythms as you choose: sol mi do; sol fa mi re do; sol mi fa re do. Key Point: Between sensory input and motor output, there exists an intermediate synthesis of perceptual images that in effect “inverts” perception from processing feedback information (input) to processing feedforward intentions that guide motor output. We experience this planning process consciously as goal-state sensorimotor imagery. We could say goal-state imagery is how we mindfully pilot our automation rather than mindlessly run on autopilot.

Higher-level cognitive functions, or executive functions, are responsible for how a motor program (plan of action) is prepared. “Executive functions coordinate goal-directed behavior and mediate conscious experience” (Rosenbaum, Augustyn, Cohen, & Jax, 2006). The executive, among other things, is responsible for directing attention to relevant information (and suppressing irrelevant information and inappropriate actions), for the purpose of tailoring our plan of action to the purpose of the moment and ultimately for mediating “organization and execution of musical performance” (Limb & Braun, 2008, p. 1). Anatomically, Endel Tulving and colleagues described three levels of executive functions associated with progressively forward (anterior) areas



Planning Voluntary Behavior

Figure 3–1.  Stages and levels of perceptual processing. Perceptual processing evolves in stages, where each level of development is directly dependent on the success of each preceding stage, and ultimately on the skill with which knowledge is acquired. Perception involves expectancies. We have to know what we want.

of the frontal lobe (the seat of the thinking mind; see Figure 0–13). The first level of executive functioning is charged with integrating diverse [motor] responses into a meaningful sequence; the second to mediating semantic memory and factual knowledge (language and symbols) and assisting in the regulation of behavior requiring novel solutions; and the third and “highest” level is charged with projecting one’s self into the past and the possible future from an internal (autobiographical) perspective, and is believed to be involved in regulating emotional tone (Long, 2002). Key Point: Executive functions are characterized by novelty, choice, and the ability to manage a dual-control system; to voluntarily influence

consciously and unconsciously mediated actions for the purpose of achieving an overall end goal.

Our Challenge Our challenge as vocal artists is to train our singer’s brain to imaginatively employ the highest of cognitive functions for the purpose of expert artistic expression of what is arguably the most complex task: the expression of our thoughts and feelings in the languages of words and music through the tone of our voice. We must train our brains to select the appropriate tasks to not only coordinate behaviors for the purpose of the moment, but to also do so for extended periods; for the duration of a song, aria, or an entire opera.

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54 Mind-Body Awareness for Singers:  Unleashing Optimal Performance Key Point:  “It has frequently been claimed that learning performance P improves with practice time t, according to the so-called ‘Power Law of Learning’” (Murre & Chessa, 2011, p. 592), where learning involves the ability to process an everincreasing volume of variable (complex) information in “evermore inclusive routines” (Newell & Rosenbloom, 1981).

Summary The planning processes for voluntary behaviors are an intimate “mind-body dance”— a continuous and reciprocal sharing of information that is consistent with the interdependent nature of our dual-control system. Planning processes culminate with the formation of a mutually conceived and agreed on plan of action that we experience consciously as goalstate imagery. Key Point:  Central to the executive planning processes are working memory and mental imagery. These are the primary mechanisms, or “tools,” by which we can predict performance outcomes with ever-increasing accuracy, tailor our plan of action to meet our performance goals with ever-increasing detail, and entrain the full complement of our systems to maintain an ideal performing state.

Before we delve into the practical application of imagery, it will be helpful to consider key concepts regarding the anatomy of learning and memory and, most importantly, the working memory model for singing.

Learning and Memory In the previous chapter we defined sensory information as the source of all knowledge and the stuff of which learning is made. If we perceive information often enough or associate it with enough meaning, sensory information has the potential to be encoded into our long-term memory as perceptual knowledge. As knowledge, a percept may be recalled as

a mental representation or image that enables us to guide our behavior consciously and voluntarily. Additionally, cognitive processes such as selective attention, perception, and planning involve expectancies — knowing what we want to see, hear, feel, and do. The intimate relationship between perception and memory, or the ability to acquire, consolidate, and after some delay retrieve and mentally manipulate information, has a neural foundation in that the same cortical areas serve both for storing perceptual memory and processing sensory information (Fuster, 1997, p. 454; see Figure 3–1).

Anatomy of Learning and Memory Joaquin M. Fuster’s (1997) description of our capacity to store information about ourselves and our environment throughout the nervous system as network memory provides us with a practical and workable model for the highly integrative and flexible nature of the kinds of information processing a singer-actor utilizes in performance. “Our memories are networks of interconnected cortical neurons, formed by association, that contain our experiences in their connectional structure” (Fuster, 1997, pp. 451–453). Just as we have seen in sensory information processing, our nervous system is capable of great singleness of purpose; of coordinating a network composed of an astonishing number of signals (some 140,000 per second for speech) into the smooth execution of a complex series of phenomenal (one of a kind) behaviors/events. Like an orchestra, the entire nervous system is dedicated to the purpose of the moment; each system, pathway, and neuron carries out its specialized (and often discrete) part to execute a rich and complex score, one event (“sound bite”) at a time and perfectly synchronized with the rhythmic action of the conductor’s pulse. Like the composer’s score, our willed intentions define both our overarching goal and the purpose of the moment — what we want to do and when to do it (i.e., the sequential unfolding of events). The conductor represents the integration function of the cerebellum that is concerned with the details of coordinating the action of the players



Planning Voluntary Behavior

(neurons) to produce the proposed event according to the “specs” detailed in the score — how to get it done. (See also Chapter 5, “Rhythm and Rhythmic Entrainment,” p. 174.)

“The Players”—The Neuron The functional unit of the nervous system is a specialized cell called a neuron (Figure 3–2). The neuron is equipped with an axon, which transmits information away from the cell body to other cells, and dendrites, which gather information from other cells. Like instrumentalists in an orchestra that are grouped together in sections (e.g., violins, violas, cellos, and basses comprise the strings), neurons are “specialized players” that network with like neurons to share both proximity and broad function (Figure 3–3; see also “Illustrated Guide: Neurons,” p. xxv).

Learning and Neural Plasticity We possess a trainable and intelligent sensorimotor system that is capable of adapting to seemingly infinite changes in our internal and external environments and imaginative thought. Our ability to learn, and the speed with which we are able to process, the high volume of information required to execute the complex (elite) behaviors of a musician, is possible because of the adaptability and plasticity of our nervous system. That is, the process of acquisition, consolidation, and retrieval of information involves observable changes in the neuroanatomical structures of the brain (i.e., neural plasticity). For example, “the speed at which a neuron can convey sensory information to the brain and motor information to the muscles is dependent on two critical features of its axon: its diameter and the presence of a myelin sheath (Colello & Fuss, 2004). The process of myelination enables an axon to transmit impulses (action potentials) quickly and in an efficient manner, much like an expressway bypasses local stops (Figure 3–4). Perhaps the most compelling evidence of neural plasticity is dendritic arborization (Figure 3–5). 5

Arborization involves an increase in the number of dendrites which in turn increases a neuron’s connectivity to a larger network of neurons and the information they transmit. Learning includes the association of an action or stimulus with another action or stimulus. It is like adding a harp or horn part to our orchestra or an ornamental variation to our score. In addition, learning at synapses can involve morphological changes in the shape of existing dendrites (T. Petersik via e-mail April 6, 2014). We, in effect, “grow” our knowledge. Additionally, when we perceive information often enough, or take the time to form cortical associations that enhance meaning (under the agency of limbic structures in the temporal lobe), we facilitate the encoding of neural traces into our long-term memory. This process, known as consolidation, involves the relocation or transferral of information from one brain area to another, such as from the neocortex to brainstem nuclei, or from the cerebellar cortex to cerebellar or vestibular nuclei (Nagao, 2010; see Figure 3–5).

Consolidation involves the relocation or transferral of information from one brain area to another, such as from the cerebral cortex to brainstem nuclei, or from the cerebellar cortex to cerebellar or vestibular nuclei (Nagao, 2010). Consolidation is dependent on the association of information with existing knowledge5 and an essential rest phase. For example, when the consolidation period for a “just” acquired motor skill is interrupted, the skill is forgotten. Research in motor skill retention finds a minimal period of between 2 and 5 hours before a new motor skill may be introduced, and up to 2 years for complete consolidation of motor memory — for the movement of motor information from the cerebellar cortex to the cerebellar and vestibular nuclei (Nagao, 2010).

 “Unless the information is transferred and allowed to make contact [via association] with already formed meaning-bearing representations, there is little chance it will be available later (Kroll & Potter, 1984)” (Rosenbaum et al., 2006, pp. 509– 510).

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Figure 3–2.  Neuron. Courtesy of http://www.clipart.com/medical

Figure 3–3.  Neuronal network. Neurons are anatomically designed to gather and transmit separate and distinct kinds of information. They “wire” themselves together with like neurons that serve the same broad function or task, forming clustered nuclei and associative networks, and eventually wide-ranging hierarchical systems that are, ultimately, part of the nervous system as a whole (Fuster, 1997. Courtesy of Crystal Graphics. 56



Figure 3–4. Neuron with myelinated axon. The process of myelination enables an axon to transmit impulses (action potentials) quickly and in an efficient manner. Welllearned sequentially associated neuronal nets fire in rapid succession — faster than we can “think,” or perceive their action consciously (e.g., some 140,000 signals per second for speech). Source: Quasar Jarosz/Wikipedia/Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported.

Figure 3–5.  Arborization and consolidation of motor memory. Cerebellar Purkinje cells send their axons into vestibular and cerebellar nuclei for consolidation (i.e., the transfer of information to long-term memory). Courtesy of Christopher Moore. Adapted from Sobotta, J. (1908). Human Anatomy/wikimedia commons/public domain; and Wikimedia commons/GNU General Public License as published by the Free Software Foundation.

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58 Mind-Body Awareness for Singers:  Unleashing Optimal Performance Key Point:  “Learning can be viewed as a process of adapting our individual abilities to various features in the environment that determine how a chosen goal can be met. Adaptation is a key concept because it emphasizes the interaction of many subsystems within the organism that change in relation to one another to achieve a total response. An individual’s response gradually becomes increasingly effective and efficient with practice, and this process is what we call learning” (Gardner, 1982, p. 9).

Principle of Synchronous Convergence As the popular maxim known as Hebb’s law goes, neurons that fire together, wire together. And, given the reciprocal nature of our nervous system, neurons that are wired together will fire together. Learning is a process in which neurons that fire together to produce a particular experience are altered, or rewired, so they have a tendency to fire together again. The subsequent combined firing (synchronous convergence) reconstructs the original experience, producing a recollection of an event that is meaningful and recognizable. Moreover, perceptual memories and their networks are most likely nested in each other, from the lowest to the highest — extending their hierarchy not only horizontally across widespread cortical networks but vertically as well — and any given cell or cell group can be part of many networks or memories (Fuster, 1997, p. 455). This anatomical design, or substrate, provides multiple associations by which a memory, including “gut intuitions,” may be stimulated or recollected. Key Point: “Hebb proposed that ‘two cells or systems that are repeatedly active at the same time will tend to become associated, so that activity in one facilitates activity in the other’ . . . such that they can substitute for one another in making other cells fire. . . .By these associative processes cells would become interconnected into functional units of memory, or hebbian ‘cell assemblies’” (Fuster, 1997, p. 451).

Anatomy of Memory—Innate to Intuitive Learned memories (knowledge stores) are derived from inborn memory or innate knowledge and

abilities and are hierarchically organized from the concrete to the abstract, and from the innate to the intuitive. At the level of the cortex, it is useful to think of the primary sensory and motor areas as the storage areas of largely inborn memory (Fuster, 1997, p. 452), from which an increasingly associative network develops with ever-increasing complexity. Motor memory (procedural memory), as the representation of how motor acts and behaviors are executed, is similarly organized. “The lowest levels of the motor hierarchy are in the spinal cord, brainstem (e.g., vestibular nucleus), and cerebellum” (Fuster, 1997, p. 455). These structures store a repertoire of innate reflex acts (e.g., postural reflexes, eye and head movements, heart rate, breathing rate, and phonation). Many of these memories may be conditioned as generalized motor plans of action and controlled from the frontal lobe, such as walking erect, turning our head in response to a sound, and of course speaking and singing. The frontal lobe supports the highest levels of the hierarchy of motor memories (Fuster, 1997, p. 455). Key Point:  “It is nearly impossible to find meaningful differences between the factors affecting the acquisition of perceptual-motor skills and those affecting the acquisition of intellectual skills (Rosenbaum, Carlson, & Gilmore, 2001; Schmidt & Bjork, 1992). That this is so is perhaps not surprising in view of the fact that the same neurophysiological principles support both kinds of learning” (Rosenbaum et al., 2006, p. 505).

Hierarchy of Memory “The cortical substrate of memory, and of knowledge in general, can be viewed as the upward expansion of a hierarchy of neural structures with its base in the spinal cord. Every stage of that hierarchy has two major components, each devoted primarily, if not exclusively, to one of the two basic functions, sensing and acting. . . . As memories develop from their base and fan upwards; their networks become broader and more diffuse” (Fuster, 1997, p. 451). We experience this hierarchy as perceptual memories that range from the sensorially concrete to the conceptually general. “At the bottom are memories of elementary sensations; at the top, the



Planning Voluntary Behavior

abstract concepts that, although originally acquired by sensory experience, have become independent from it in cognitive operations” (Fuster, 1997, pp. 452–453). This could explain the musically accurate singer who presents a disembodied, inexpressive tone. That is, if we do not recollect the full hierarchical network, we lose touch with the “reality” of a sensorimotor experience that expresses our thoughts and emotions — singing from the heart. Key Point: The underlying hierarchical structure (neural substrate) of memory correlates with our ability to recollect information at any level, whether it be a homeostatic balance point for a heart rate at an autonomic level, the sense of vibrating bones at the level of the sensory cortex, the association of pitch-frequencies with pitchnames at the level of the association cortex, or the ability to reconstruct elaborate motivic or plot information at a conceptual level (frontal cortex).

networks by internally or externally generated sensory stimuli, by the need or desire to act (drive), or by association. (We all recognize the truth in the children’s story, “If you give a mouse a cookie, he’s going to ask for a glass of milk” [Numeroff, 1985]). Therefore, the conscious and cognitive processes of selection, association, and mnemonic “tagging” that we apply during the early stages of acquisition and consolidation will determine the usefulness of the information on recall either as an isolated event or within an episodic sequence of associated events (see Figure 3–1). Mnemonic cues or memory “triggers” include lexical information such as solfège, notation, International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) symbols, and even tonal information (e.g., pitch frequencies, pitch sequences or “tunes,” and harmonic progressions).

Expanding Hierarchy and Age

Lexical-Semantic Memory

It is interesting that the association cortex is thought to reach full maturation in the high school and collegeaged mind, when most singers begin applied study. Therefore, a young adult may become frustrated when the event he or she experienced previously as “correct” continues to evolve in an ever-widening network where the cues or triggers keep changing. However, if we keep the cue the same in an attempt to keep the experience the same, we inhibit learning. Moreover, while we may be inclined to interpret the evolution of perceptual memories from concrete operations to abstract and intuitive manipulations (i.e., imagery) as unstable, they are in some respects more robust or unshakable.

Musical (auditory-tonal) information is represented with lexical-semantic information or linguistic labels such as pitch names and solfège, notated symbols, key relationships, formal and metrical relationships, and composers or genres. For example, “absolute” pitch is thought to be the ability to accurately associate tonal information with pitch names as evidenced by the increased size of the brain area (DLPFC) believed to be involved in associating auditory-tonal information with lexical information. In short, musical information as a tonal language is processed in a system that parallels speech and language processing (Marin & Perry, 1999) (see Figure 0–13). Memories are formed both within their systems network (e.g., visual, auditory, tactile) and as a broader associative network to form episodic memories.

Key Point:  The brain, including the cortex, retains its ability to change and develop throughout our lives.

The Function of Memory and Higher-Level Perceptual Processing Higher-level and later-stage perceptual processing tasks consist largely of the reactivation of memory

Episodic Memory As with all memory domains, auditory-tonal information may be voluntarily or spontaneously recollected along with its various associated networks, such as episodic information for a particular time and place, or emotional context. Episodic memories involve the reconstruction of past events includ-

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60 Mind-Body Awareness for Singers:  Unleashing Optimal Performance

ing the generation of sensorimotor and emotional memories, and depend on the activation of many of the same brain areas involved in the original experience. For example, hearing an old friend’s laughter on the phone will likely activate not only auditory areas representing the timbre of the voice, but also visual areas representing her smiling face together with a widespread network representing associated feelings, experiences, and knowledge about that person. Episodic memories often unfold sequentially, like “telling a story,” are experienced from an internal or autobiographical perspective, and are essential to our ability to communicate our thoughts and emotions expressively. This is further explained later in this chapter in the sections, “When Perception Turns to Planning — Images and Imagery” and “The Expressive Gesture of the Voice.”

Procedural Memory (Motor Memory) Procedural or motor memory is the representation of how motor acts and behaviors are executed. Lying beneath the cortex they are subject to executive ignorance. Procedural memories comprise innate abilities and reflex controls that may be developed and/or conditioned as learned actions that can be controlled voluntarily, such as swallowing, focusing our eyes, reaching and grasping, standing and walking, and speaking and singing. The most workable of current motor theories presents procedural memories as generalized motor plans of action that are infinitely variable to the task at hand. We will explore the voluntary adaptation of innate motor abilities and reflex controls in Chapter 4, “LowerLevel Controls.”

Explicit and Implicit Memory Up to this point we have primarily been describing memories formed with awareness. Memories can also be formed without awareness. For example, procedural memory is most often considered implicit or non-declarative. “That is, we aren’t very good at describing consciously how we ride a bicycle or move our fingers to play a piano piece — if we do try to describe these things declaratively it often interferes with the execution of the procedural memory” (T. Petersik via e-mail April 6, 2014). For this

reason, they may require prompting, or beginning at the beginning, such as when singing The Alphabet Song or dialing a phone number. As such, they are of little value for voluntarily guiding skilled behaviors. Therefore, to ensure the retrievability of procedural memories, it is essential that we remain attentive to forming meaningful associations, such as mnemonic tagging, or take the time to practice slowly and breakdown a sequence of movements so as to develop explicit or declarative memory.

Memory as a Skill As performers, the pivotal moment between the acquisition of knowledge and the application of knowledge (higher perceptual processes) is the moment when perceptual memories become expectancies — the goal-state imagery that guides behavior. Key Point:  When our perceptual memories become expectancies, they become our “tools of the trade.”

Anecdote:  After a few lessons focused on developing perceptual awareness, a student expressed reluctance to use his fingertips to detect boneconducted vibrations when singing, declaring it a “crutch.” I explained that our sense of discriminative touch is an information-gathering tool. We can use our fingertips (tactile receptor organs) when singing much like we use our ears when listening to music or our eyes when reading a score. Apparently satisfied with this perspective, the student returned the following week and described his experience of building a tactile memory “toolbox” in the following way. “I learned a new way to feel vibration! At my C7 [cervical spine] — it almost feels like it’s vibrating before I sing.” He had not only learned to sense bone-conducted vibrations during singing, but to recall the sensation in anticipation of singing, as an expectancy. (See “When Perception Turns to Planning — Images and Imagery,” p. 69.)

Summary The act of recollecting makes the neurons involved even more likely to fire again in the future, so repeatedly reconstructing an event makes it increasingly



Planning Voluntary Behavior

easy to recall and robust, and at the same time more complex and richly rewarding (Aldridge & Page, 2009). “The single most important variable in promoting long-term retention and transfer is practice at retrieval. This principle means that learners need to generate response, with minimal cues, repeatedly over time with varied applications so that recall becomes fluent and is more likely to occur across different contexts and content domains” (Halpern & Hakel, 2003). Key Point:  “Simply stated, information that is frequently retrieved becomes more retrievable” (Halpern & Hakel, 2003).

That is, by recollecting perceptual images, we promote robust memory networks that grow stronger with each regeneration. Moreover, elaboration methods improve memory by providing more and better retrieval routes. The more elaborate the encoding, the more widespread the associations, and the more robust are retention and retrievability. This is what we experience as intuitive or “natural” performance. When we practice, we practice retrieving and altering memories. Addressing the age-old question, “Is it talent or practice?” Howard Gardner (1983) and Daniel Levitin (2006) stress the necessity of developing innate abilities, or talents. That is, skill development requires a lot of practice — about 10,000 hours to mastery, or 3 hours per day for 10 years (Levitin, 2006). Alas, there are no shortcuts to expertise, be it for sensorimotor skills or intellectual skills. Bear in mind that “it is nearly impossible to find meaningful differences between the factors affecting the acquisition of perceptual-motor skills and those affecting the acquisition of intellectual skills (Rosenbaum, Carlson, & Gilmore, 2001; Schmidt & Bjork, 1992)” (Rosenbaum et al., 2006). Fun Fact: Learning is good for your brain’s health! Learning involves making new connections between clusters of neurons in different parts of the brain. This builds up the brain, making it fitter (e.g., resistant to dementia). The more connections you create, the better you can use what you learn and the longer it takes you to forget it (http://www.credoreference.com/entry/dkbrain/ the_principles_of_memory).

Forgetting, then, is the final stage of the memory process. Information that is left unused (not retrieved and altered by new associations) will be forgotten to make room for new information. Neural representations contain a history of relative frequency of occurrence — a history of internal and external stimuli that have acted together (Fuster, 1997, p. 452). For this reason, we do not have to “unlearn” a poorly learned passage. Rather, when planning the critical passage, we do need to attend to creating new associations that will stimulate the binding of novel information with the appropriate memory network.

The Working Memory The working memory involves the temporary, ad hoc activation of an extensive network of perceptual and motor memory (Fuster, 1997, p. 456) and the capacity to monitor, or “hold information in mind,” for as long as we use it. It enables us to project our selves into the past and into the future — to recall and reinterpret perceptual images from our long-term memory stores, to synthesize novel and existing information from multiple systems, and to construct possible outcomes. The working memory is essential to the sequencing of thoughts and behaviors for speech and singing. It is a mechanism that enables us to consciously monitor and willfully exert our executive (higher-level cognitive) influence in a dual-control system — to voluntarily stimulate, or cue the episodic unfolding of motor sequences (procedural memories) and effectively pilot well-learned and highly automated behaviors for the purpose of expressing our thoughts and emotions. In short, it is how we work out the telling of a story. Because the working memory is activated in anticipation of the execution of a behavior, we might think of the working memory as a workshop for the executive mind, a playground for the imagination, or a laboratory for “What if?” The working memory is arguably our primary tool for learning, acting, and creative thought in general. Cognitive functions supported by the working memory include everyday tasks such as retaining recipe information when preparing a meal or relating an event to a friend, to the more complex processes of reasoning and problem solving, such as

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the imaginative synthesis of intellectual, emotional, and sensorimotor information involved in singingacting. The “hallmark” of the working memory is a brief delay that accounts for the real-time processing of information — the maintenance and manipulation of a string of pitches, words, or dance steps — before we act (i.e., mental rehearsal).

Working Memory Models The most influential working memory model, proposed by Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch in 1974 (Figure 3–6), was intended to explicate our ability to temporarily “hold” and manipulate perceptual images, notably auditory-phonological (word sounds) and visuospatial information used in shortterm memory tasks involving language and speech processing (Baddeley, 1986, as cited in Thorn, 2006). The working memory model has three levels of control: central executive, domain-specific storage systems, and episodic buffer6 (Baddeley, 1986; Thorn, 2006). The central executive refers to the higher-level cognitive processes projected from the frontal lobe

of the cerebral cortex in the central nervous system — our willed intentions. Cognitive functions attributed to the central executive include selective attention, the episodic or sequential planning of goal-directed behaviors, and the implementation of problem-solving strategies (Baddeley, 1986). The domain-specific storage systems retrieve and “hold information in mind” to serve the central executive in its task. We experience this activation of perceptual memories consciously as imagery. The domain-specific nature of the information held in these systems (e.g., auditory-phonological, auditorytonal, and visuospatial) is consistent with our anatomically and functionally separate and distinct sensorimotor systems — a distinction that is further supported by recent advancements in neuroimaging methods (fMRI) (Smith & Jonides, 1997; Marin & Perry, 1999; cf., Thorn, 2006).7 (See “When Perception Turns to Planning — Images and Imagery,” p. 69.)­ The episodic buffer serves as a limited-capacity temporary storage system that binds multimodal information into a single episodic representational unit (Baddeley, 2000). The episodic buffer is thought to play an important role in the process of chunk-

Figure 3–6.  Baddeley’s working memory model (phonological). Source: Wikimedia/Creative Commons/CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication.

6 7

 The episodic buffer was added by Alan Baddeley in 2000.  The notion of specialized, modality-specific components is supported by neuroimaging studies, which indicate that anatomically and functionally distinct systems serve the temporary storage and manipulation of verbal and visuospatial material (Smith & Jonides, 1997)” and tonal and phonological material (Marin & Perry, 1999; Thorn, 2006).



Planning Voluntary Behavior

ing information into manageable units of information.8 For example, in singing we may think of the episodic representational unit as a sound bite composed of the concurrent sequence of pitches and phonemes that occur in the space of a beat.9 (See also “Mnemonic Cues and Chunking,” p. 88.) The episodic buffer functions as a kind of global workspace or “sketchpad” that can be quickly erased and replaced with new information. This concept is consistent with the continuous streaming of images we experience when relating a story, when the events are played out in our mind’s eye (visual imagery) and ear (auditory imagery) “as if” they were occurring in the present moment. An episode is an event or a group of events occurring as part of a larger sequence; a chunk, sound bite, or neuroanatomical episodic representational unit.

The Working Memory Model and a Dual-Control System The working memory model, which originally consisted of the central executive and the domainspecific storage systems for speech, developed from a dual-control model for planning motor behavior (Figure 3–7; see also Figure 0–14). The dual-pathway model for sensorimotor processing distinguishes between programmative and productive processes that employ episodic and procedural memory functions, respectively (Perry, 2002). The productive processes involve a largely unconscious lower-level pathway subserving the direct translation of sensory codes into motor action, such as, the cuing of procedural memories. The programmative processes involve, in part, a consciously accessible link subserving higher-level perceptual processes, such as the episodic (sequential) organization of goal-directed actions (Hommel, 2009).

Figure 3–7.  Dual-pathway models “assume that sensory codes are translated into motor activity along two processing pathways, one subserving direct online sensorimotor transformation and another allowing for perceptual elaboration and off-line action planning” (Hommel, 2009, p. 171). 8

 he concept of “chunking” as a means to overcome the limitations of short-term memory is associated with George Armitage T Miller. An important claim in Miller’s theory is that the number of chunks a person can repeat back is limited to seven, plus or minus two (7 ± 2). While this represents a limit on short-term information processing, there is evidence to suggest that the amount of information per chunk increases as knowledge increases (Biographical Dictionary of Psychology. London: Routledge, 2002. s.v. “Miller, George Armitage.” http://www.credoreference.com/entry/routbiopsy/miller_george_armitage [retrieved July 24, 2011]). 9  “The episodic buffer resembles Tulving’s concept of episodic memory, but it differs in that the episodic buffer is a temporary store” (Rosenbaum, 2006).

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64 Mind-Body Awareness for Singers:  Unleashing Optimal Performance

Previously, we framed this duality of our nervous system as willed intentions and sensorimotor intentions, and consciously and unconsciously mediated controls. (See also Chapter 4, “Direct and Indirect Cortical Controls,” p. 131.) Anatomically, the synchronous convergence of information from multiple systems networks into a single, episodic, representational unit with the agency of the central executive is consistent with conventional wisdom that proposes optimal performance relies on a nervous system that is 100% focused on the purpose of the moment. For example, the limited time and space capacity of the episodic buffer can be experienced practically. The system breaks down when we try to remember too much information at once, such as all strophes of a Schubert Lied. However, a sequential unfolding of a story, phrase by phrase,10 is managed easily, naturally, and intuitively. (See also Chapter 2, “‘Brain Time’ and Perceptual Awareness,” p. 20.) “Try it!” (PAE 3–5).

PAE 3–5: Working Memory and Episodic Unfolding of Events—Telling a Story 1. Think of something you saw earlier today and consider how the events unfolded. What happened first and second, and so on? As you remember what you saw (visual imagery) and prepare to tell a friend, you may also notice that just before you begin speaking, you hear the words begin to stream through your mind (auditory-phonological imagery) and perhaps how you felt about it (emotional imprint). When speaking in a well-learned language, conscious attention to the selection of words and how they will be articulated is seldom necessary. 2. Think of something you saw earlier today, and rehearse how you would describe the event to your neighbor in a Southern, Boston, or British accent. Notice that the spotlight of your attention quite easily shifts from what you saw (visual imagery) to remembering what a regional accent sounds like (auditory imagery) and perhaps the contextual influence of culture and mannerisms. 10

3. The episodic unfolding of an event can also be bound by an emotional story. While singing a well-learned vocalise or song, use storyboardtype flash cards or a list of affects, or recollect a favorite scene or event to stimulate emotional memories that will tell your story.

The Episodic Buffer Key Point:  “Recent neurophysiological experiments suggest there exist intermediate and abstract representations of space interposed between sensory input and motor output. These intermediate representations are formed by combining information from various modalities” (Andersen, 1995, p. 519).

The addition of the episodic buffer to the dualcontrol model represents the coming together of the programmative executive and the productive sensorimotor processes in the common language of the nervous system — the temporospatial coordinates transmitted in neuronal impulses (action potential) — to construct a proposed plan of action that is partially accessible to the conscious mind as a “live drafting” of predicted behavior outcomes in the form of goal-state imagery or expectancies. That is, the role of the conscious mind as a self-aware agent of action is to metamonitor the ongoing generation of the strategic plan of action by a dual-control system (executive and sensorimotor intentions) and provide overall continuity in quality control. For example, if we detect a problem with a vowel, pitch, or affect, the executive will shift the “spotlight” of our attention to adjusting the performance strategy for an improved outcome. This process is equally true for covert mental rehearsal and ongoing overt performance. Key Point: The common language of the nervous system is formed by the temporo-spatial coordinates inherent in neuronal impulses (action potentials) that are calculated cortically and subcortically to mediate positional control and entrainment of our systems as a whole.

 Phrase used in this context refers to a syntactical or grammatical unit; words spoken together like “at the end of the street” that can be substituted by another word or phrase.



Because the episodic representational unit includes not only the cortically conceived episode or sound bite, but also the means to cue the motor procedures that will execute the plan, once the “final draft” has been approved and execution has been allowed (i.e., follow-through), we relinquish any further cortical control of that episode (hence, anticipatory control). The anatomy of our dual-control sensory-guided movement system is addressed in Chapter 4, “Lower-Level Controls,” and “UpperLevel Controls.”

Domain-Specific Storage Systems Unlike ballistic behaviors projected onto an external object, ongoing processing of continuous motor action such as riding a bike, driving, juggling, and speaking and singing relies on the continuous rapid supply of information about the current state of affairs — both to successfully complete the performance of a task according to our outcome goals and to maintain personal safety and an ideal performing state (homeostasis). This continuous processing of feedforward and feedback information (made possible by automation) is represented in closedloop models such as the phonological loop, and the visuospatial loop of the working memory.

Auditory-Phonological Loop.  The phonological loop was an extraordinary development in that it provided a workable model for how we activate and repeatedly stimulate auditory information in order to “hold” word sounds (phonemes) in mind for various cognitive tasks. Such tasks would include the mental rehearsal inherent in thinking before we speak, or repeating a vowel over and over again in our mind to sustain a vowel when singing. “Try it!” (PAE 3–6).

11

Planning Voluntary Behavior

PAE 3–6:  Auditory-Phonological Loop 1. Silently speak do a single time. Notice the decay. This serves to make speech intelligible. Now silently speak euphonium, Gesamtkunstwerk, or “supercalifragilisticexpialidocious” (Travers, 1934). Notice how long the auditory information “stays in mind.” This is known as the real-time word-length effect.11 2. Silently speak do repeatedly in rapid succession (do do do do or do_o_o_o . . . ). We have the ability to “refresh” (recurrently stimulate) phonological information to “hold it in mind.” Comment: This continuous looping of phonological information is variously known as subvocalization and inner hearing, and more specifically as inner (covert) speaking, and auditory-phonological imagery.12 The domain-specific nature of our systems stores can be readily understood from practical experience. For example, performance suffers or breaks down all together when we attempt more than one task that utilizes a single domain. We may easily sing pitches (tonal store) and words (phonological store) at the same time, but we are unable to sing words (phonological store) and simultaneously count by subvocalizing “one, two, three” (also the phonological store). Thus, domain-specific stores involve both the programmatic intention of an event and a mechanism to cue motor production of that event (e.g., procedural memory for articulation). (See PAE 3–24, “Alternative Strategies for Solving Visuospatial Problems.”)

Auditory-Tonal Loop.  Marin and Perry (1999) proposed a tonal loop model of the working memory based on the phonological loop model of Baddeley

 The word-length effect was once thought to indicate a rate of decay of information from the phonological store, or about 1 to 2 seconds. The word-length effect is now understood to be the real-time word-length effect, or the time it takes to say a word and the limited time and space capacity of our short-term memory is represented by the episodic buffer, and the decay to be the effect of echoic auditory memory. 12  It is proposed that the phonological loop is composed of a phonological store generated by an active but covert articulatory rehearsal process often referred to as subvocalization or inner speaking (Baddeley & Logie, 1992). Information in the store is subject both to decay over time and to interference from competing demands on the same sensory or motor systems required to maintain the phonological store. “Loss of information from the store can be prevented by means of subvocal rehearsal, and with continuing rehearsal the contents of the store could in principle be retained indefinitely” (Sala & Logie, 2002).

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66 Mind-Body Awareness for Singers:  Unleashing Optimal Performance

and Hitch (1974) (see Figure 0–19). The contents of the auditory-tonal store can be refreshed and held in mind (consciously monitored) through mental rehearsal based on vocal fundamental frequency control processes (e.g., inner singing or auditorytonal imagery) rather than on articulatory control processes (e.g., inner speaking or auditory-phonological imagery) (Marin & Perry, 1999). “Try it!” (PAE 3–7). The interdependence of sensory and motor systems within a domain is such that the maintenance of tonal imagery for a “middle C” requires stored (long-term or short-term) knowledge of the sound of “middle C,” and the capacity to stimulate and produce a singing tone for a “middle C” (procedural memory for phonation). The looping of auditory-tonal information as necessary to vocal-motor control is evidenced in adaptations in neuroanatomical cortical structures (arcuate fasciculus) linking sensory and frontal-lobe areas of the cortex associated with sound perception, production, and its feedforward and feedback control in the trained singer’s brain as compared with that of instrumentalists and nonmusicians (Halwani et al., 2011).13 (See also “Illustrated Guide: The Cerebral Cortex and the Singer’s Brain,” p. xxxiv.)

position signals” (Andersen, 1995, p. 519). Moreover, accounts of fishermen trained to navigate in the open sea using mythical islands as landmarks attests to the powerful influence of imagery on not only our immediate behaviors, but also our ability to maintain spatial orientation over extended periods of time (McNaughton, Knierim, & Wilson, 1995, p. 585). (See also, “The Vestibular System (Motor),” p. 125.) As musicians, we might think of the notated symbols for rhythm and meter in our musical score as the “mythical islands” that provide the intermediate and abstract representations of space that not only navigate our body through space, but also position our effectors (e.g., postural, respiratory, phonatory, and articulatory structures) to be in the right place to produce the right sound at the right time. “Try it!” (PAE 3–8).

PAE 3–7:  Auditory-Tonal Imagery.  Silently sing do repeatedly in rapid succession (do-o-o-o . . . ) while focusing your attention on the intended pitch frequency. We have the ability to “refresh” (recurrently stimulate) pitch information and “hold it in mind” as an auditory-tonal image.

1. Take a moment to select a target point about six moderate steps away, and go ahead and walk. 2. Turn, and image walking the same distance in three strides, and go ahead. 3. Turn, and image walking the same distance in two strides or leaps, and go ahead. 4. Can you image yourself leaping the same distance in one bound from an internal perspective? Can you imagine a ballerina or figure skater leaping the distance?

The Visuospatial Domain.  The visuospatial domain is linked with the visuomotor integration properties of the vestibular system for spatial orientation that we experience as our position in space. Headcentered coordinates “can be achieved by combining vestibular signals with eye position and retinal 13

Key Point:  Intermediate representations of spatial coordinates (credited largely to the visuomotor integration processes of the vestibular system) are the oft “missing link” or skill in developing perceptual motor expertise (i.e., the cognitive mind-body link).

PAE 3–8: Footprints in the Sand, Part C (Visuospatial Computation)

Key Point: Visuospatial imagery is based on knowledge and ability.

 “Here we confirm general differences in macrostructure (tract volume) and microstructure (fractional anisotropy, FA) of the arcuate fasciculus (AF), a prominent white-matter tract connecting temporal and frontal brain regions, between singers, instrumentalists, and non-musicians. . . . Our findings suggest that long-term vocal–motor training might lead to an increase in volume and microstructural complexity of specific white-matter tracts connecting regions that are fundamental to sound perception, production, and its feedforward and feedback control which can be differentiated from a more general musician effect” (Gus F. Halwani, Psyche Loui, Theodor Rüber, & Gottfried Schlaug. (2011) Effects of practice and experience on the arcuate fasciculus: comparing singers, instrumentalists, and non-musicians. Frontiers in Psychology. doi: 10.3389).



Planning Voluntary Behavior

Working Memory Model for Singing To modify the working memory model for singing, the auditory modality is separated as per our separate and distinct auditory domains for phonological and tonal information (Figure 3–8). The image of the score streaming through our mind as a lexical symbol is an abstract representation of the confluence of multimodal information (auditory and visuospatial) that comes together as a “sound bite” (episodic representational unit) in the episodic buffer.14 Therefore, we might include notated information for text, pitch, and meter as contributing information to each of the domain-specific stores.

Summary The working memory model provides for flexible implementation of a range of acquired intellectual and sensorimotor skills from multiple modalities. The idea of the executive as “a distinct feature of the cognitive architecture” with the ability to incorporate the domain-specific memory stores and hold

information recently recollected and processed “on deck” as partial solutions, while also acting on other aspects of a problem, works well with our experience of frequent shifts in attentional focus during live performance (Sala & Logie, 2002, p. 825). That is, if it feels like we are “spinning plates,” we are using working memory (Figure 3–9; see also http://www​ .youtube.com/watch?v=cpjj5JIIfwU&). How much information (in volume and complexity) we can keep spinning on deck and manage on our plate at any given moment is determined in part by our level of expertise (automation), and in part by the purpose of the moment. Managing behaviors such as singing, which involves ongoing performance of highly variable (complex) action sequences under the time and space constraints of the printed score, the capabilities of our sensorimotor equipment, and an ensemble of external players, is not unlike an executive chef serving a multicourse feast under a time clock. The executive chef is responsible for planning the overall menu, seeing that various dishes are prepared and plated to his satisfaction and delivered to

Figure 3–8.  Working memory model for singing. 14

 In 2000, Baddeley extended the model by adding a fourth component, the episodic buffer, which holds representations that integrate phonological, visual, and spatial information, and possibly information not covered by the slave systems (e.g., semantic information, musical information) (Baddeley, A. D. (2000). “The episodic buffer: A new component of working memory?” Trends in Cognitive Science, 4, 417–423. doi:10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01538-2 (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Working_memory).

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68 Mind-Body Awareness for Singers:  Unleashing Optimal Performance

Figure 3–9.  Spinning plates.

the public by the servers, at which point the workspace is immediately cleared for the next plating. It is essential that only the servers leave the kitchen. Like the executive chef, we must trust our servosystems (unconscious sensorimotor controls) to handle the details of presentation to the public — we must stay out of their way (Figure 3–10). The better we are at predicting outcome and thinking “on our feet,” the less often we have to stop the action to reason out a plan B. It is more like thinking, “a little more salt would be nice” than, “Oh no! I used powdered sugar instead of flour in this gravy.” However, because an episodic representational unit is just one of many plates to leave our kitchen, we can consciously influence rapid changes in our plan of action and behavior output. For example, if you have knowledge of diction rules, you can apply them at a rapid-fire pace when you are singing. If you have knowledge of the meaning of the text or music, you can “toy” with that meaning — you can ponder alternative interpretations — when singing. If you have knowledge of the scored rhythms and meter, you can mentally manipulate the tempo alternatively for accelerando, rallentando, rubato, and so forth with great flexibility, even spontaneity, in performance. These are the choices we actively make during ongoing singing in the practice room and on the stage. The executive chef is very busy pulling together knowledge of his craft — how ingredients

interact to produce textures, colors, and flavor — to create art within the limitations of time and space. In the same way, we pull together our knowledge of the craft of singing and the language of music to bring together the ingredients of the score to create the music. Our struggle is often not with knowing the material but rather with using what we know creatively — to risk having a phenomenal experience. The pressure of the clock is often just what we need to kick us into high gear. The working memory model is intended as a helpful tool for understanding the conscious experience of the episodic unfolding of a chronology of events. The episodic buffer (intermediate representation) may be thought of as a multicomponent workspace for temporary storage and manipulation of information that has been activated from our memory stores. Essential to artistry and creative thought in general, the working memory model also provides for the flexibility of the executive mind to continuously interpret information that has been well learned or memorized. The role of the artistperformer is to interpret the poetry and music before we express it — to recollect, synthesize, and construct rich, varied, and phenomenal outcomes. Key Point:  The ability to generate and mentally manipulate images of separate and distinct units of information is believed to play a central role



Planning Voluntary Behavior

Figure 3–10.  The working memory as executive chef. How do we do it? We keep our pots stirred and ready to go, filling each plate to the best of our ability within the limitations of space and time. Then, we let the servers take it out of the kitchen and trust that all will go according to plan. No news is good news—if there is a problem, we will hear about it and then we can adjust our “recipe” for the next plating. Courtesy of Chris Bozeman.

in cognitive functions. “In fact, working memory has been described as the ‘hub of cognition’ (Haberlandt, 1997, p. 212),” reflecting the pivotal role that the maintenance and manipulation of information over brief delays plays in building associative networks (learning) and planning behavior (Sala & Logie, 2002).

When Perception Turns to Planning—Images and Imagery Perception is the cognitive process by which we organize and interpret information about our internal and external environment that has been collected by our sensory receptors. When percepts are associated with existing knowledge and stored as long-term

memory, the synchronous convergence of neural signals form “internal representations,” or neuroanatomical memory networks that are themselves built on existing knowledge and innate intelligences. When these internal representations (networks) are reactivated, we recollect perceptual images of events that are recognizable, meaningful, and clearly placed in space and time (context). Because they are associative memory networks, they can be activated by intellectual, emotional, or sensorimotor stimuli. Moreover, once activated, perceptual images (networks) may be mentally manipulated (reconfigured) to form varied and novel constructs. That is, the continuing processing of perceptual information involves the recollection and reinterpretation or reconfiguration of existing knowledge that can be synthesized with novel information to not only predict behavior outcome, but to construct what

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is possible — to construct phenomenal (one of a kind) experiences from the internal perspective of the performer. Therefore, end-stage perceptual processing, or what is known as mental imagery, involves the highest of cognitive functions, the imagination. “Try it!” (PAE 3–9).

PAE 3–9:  Imagery and Mental Manipulation 1. Visual Imagery — Imagine seeing (visualize) a tennis ball. When the image of a tennis ball is clearly in mind, imagine that it becomes a snowball, then a softball, and finally a basketball. This is mental manipulation of a visual image. 2. Auditory Imagery a. Inner sing (image) about four beats of a familiar tune, such as Frère Jacques. b. Repeat step one above, but place a fermata on the second Jac-ques and sustain about three times longer. c. Inner sing the tune and add a messa di voce at the fermata. d. Inner sing the tune and improvise altered pitches at the fermata. (Try a turn or alternating seconds followed by an arpeggiated figure.) This is mental manipulation of an auditorytonal image. 3. Changing Context  —  We can also mentally manipulate the context for a tonal image by cuing various associative networks. Inner sing (mentally rehearse) an ascending triad do mi sol; change sol to do and sing do re do ti do; change do to sol and sing a descending triad sol mi do. (Use a pitch label that is most familiar to you, e.g., pitch letter or scale degree number.)

Defining Images and Imagery In its most current usage in psychology, the definition of an image revolves around its etymologically related term, imagination. Thus, an image is not only associated with prototypically cognitive functions such as perception, memory, and conscious thought,

but also the highest of cognitive functions, the imagination. Most commonly, an image is defined as either “a mental representation of a stimulus event that has been experienced and perceived or a mental construct of what can be imagined as the result of a stimulus event that has been experienced and perceived” (Penguin Dictionary of Psychology, 2009). Key Point:  “Imagination is more important than knowledge” (Albert Einstein cited by Emmons & Thomas, 1998, p. 161).

Much of the confusion regarding past and common usage of the term image, is no doubt due to the abundance of research in visual imagery and the more limited usage of image as a video record or copy such as a photo or MRI. An image is perhaps best understood in the context of its feature and function, such as an auditory image or sensorimotor imagery. Alternative terminology currently in use for our conscious experience of a stimulus event, such as the sound of our mother’s voice or the color and feel of a favorite T-shirt, includes mental representation, mental image, perceptual memory, perceptual image, and percept. Terminology used in reference to auditory imagery includes inner hearing, inner singing, inner speaking, subvocalization, and audiation. Confusion might also arise from the multimodal nature of perceptual experiences and the increasingly abstract nature of memory and the subsequent lexical symbols and concepts we associate with stimulus events. For example, what begins as the cool, crisp crunch and juicy tartness of a bright green apple that fits neatly in the palm of our hand on a chilly fall day, may become as abstract as a concept for a large city (the Big Apple), good health, or a means to curry favor from a teacher. Similarly, auditory images are often closely associated with their written symbols (e.g., notation, text, or IPA). As musicians who readily “see” the score in our mind’s eye as we “hear” the score in our mind’s ear, we may fail to make the distinction between visual and auditory imagery in favor of a more abstract percept and lose touch with the sensory and motor nature of the original experience altogether. The prevalence of this confusion is evident in the common transposition of the terms note and pitch — a misunderstanding that



Planning Voluntary Behavior

can present in performance as “notey” rather than legato singing, with duration being confined to a dot on a page. Key Point: Symbols are by their very nature ambiguous. “Try it!” (PAE 3–10).

PAE 3–10:  Visual-Auditory Imagery From Symbols—Ambiguity (Tonal and Phonological Sight-Hearing, or Audiation) 1. Perhaps the texting generation will have less difficulty generating meaningful auditory images (word sounds) from this string of written symbols. N E 1 4 10 S? 2. Or the IPA example shown in Figure 3–11. 3. Generate an auditory image (audiate) of a tune from the following symbols: B A C H15 Confusion might also arise from the many and varied applications of imagery such as imaging a cottage in the woods as a relaxation technique, or “thinking big” by imagining ourselves with successful careers at Lincoln Center. Our current discussion is focused on the role of imagery as a cognitive skill grounded in optimizing our knowledge and abilities. Perceptual-motor expertise involves the internal generation of sensorimotor imagery — that is, the conscious experience that is coincident with the generation of a motor plan of action (e.g., expressing our thoughts and emo-

tions in the languages of words and music through the tone of our voice). As previously discussed with the working memory, the strategies we employ in goal-state imagery, together with the generation of a motor plan of action, are intimately tied with the domainspecific functions of our intellectual, emotional, and sensorimotor systems. Because perceptual images and their networks are formed in cortex during the later stages of sensory input processing, they may be voluntarily stimulated or internally generated without the aid of external stimuli rising from our receptors. We might think of internally generated images as recollected constructs of perceptual memories that may themselves be reinterpreted and reimagined. That is, imagery as a skill not only involves the activation of existing memory networks but also the ability to reconfigure or mentally manipulate that knowledge and notably to synthesize recollected and novel percepts with our intended actions. Much like we gather ingredients from our pantry to create new and interesting recipes, when we generate sensorimotor imagery we concurrently retrieve information from our separate and distinct memory stores (e.g., phonological, tonal, propriokinesthetic, and intellectual and emotional stores) to construct both simple and richly complex events. Like an executive chef, we expertly combine familiar ingredients at a rapid-fire pace, while seamlessly folding novel ingredients into our recipes with ease and even delight. Imagery is a cognitive function of the working memory by which we create an endless stream of phenomenal (one-of-a-kind) multimodal images that in turn guide our bodies in an effortless succession of fluid movements.

Figure 3–11.  Symbols for language sounds: International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). 15

 B-flat, A, C, B-natural.

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72 Mind-Body Awareness for Singers:  Unleashing Optimal Performance Key Point:  For the artist, imagery is not a mere recollection of a sensory event. Rather, it is a purposeful construction of what can be. It is a newly composed synthesis of richly varied information from our individual memory stores together with an ongoing “live feed” of novel stimulus generated by external and internal sources. As such, imagery is a phenomenal (one-of-a-kind) product of our unique memory stores and creative imaginations.

Imagery Is Based on Knowledge and Ability (Intellectual and Sensorimotor Skill) Imagery, as our conscious perception of the unconscious neural processing of intellectual and sensorimotor information, is based on knowledge. For this reason, we may trust that if we can image it vividly and accurately, we can perform it equally clearly and accurately. Moreover, as an innate ability, a singer at any level of development can learn to generate reliable imagery for the purpose of guiding singing behavior. Key Point:  Because imagery is our conscious perception of an internal representation (a synchronous convergence of snippets of data drawn from our memory banks and senses), if we can generate a sensorimotor image of ourselves performing an action — from an internal perspective — we can do it. How empowering! Bodily kinesthetic intelligence is the ability to use our mental abilities to coordinate our own bodily movements (Gardner, 1983).

The cognitive brain is active in both conscious and unconscious states concurrently. The fact that the lion’s share of our brain’s operations occurs unconsciously is a popular topic that serves to amaze and amuse us. For example, we may be surprised by our ability to do something that we did not know we knew how to do. We may find we are able to play a vocalise in every key on the piano after exercising our ability to think in a key. Because motor signals are generated from the frontal lobe (the seat of the thinking mind), our memory stores provide rich and varied information that enables us to tailor generalized motor plans (e.g., the ability to phonate

pitches or articulate word sounds) to the purpose of the moment with seemingly infinite flexibility. It may be helpful to think of imagery as expectancies. Because voluntary behaviors are based on past experience, we generate expectancies for common everyday tasks. For example, we would be surprised if we drank what appeared to be a glass of milk and found it to be orange juice instead. The influence of expectancies on sensorimotor sensitivity (i.e., priming) is such that we would taste neither milk nor orange juice. What would you expect to hear and feel if you were to play an ascending major scale on the piano? What would you expect to hear and feel if you were to sing the scale? “Try it!” (PAE 3–11).

PAE 3–11:  Perceptual-Motor Imagery Is Based on Knowledge and Ability (Visual, Tactile, and Auditory) 1. Visual Imagery Task Imagine a square. Turn that square into a cube, and then a box. Imagine the box opens and a globe floats out. Spin the globe to your home country, state, and street. Then spin the globe again and stop it at the opposite hemisphere and focus on a country you have never visited — perhaps Rwanda, and zoom into the streets of Kigali, its capital city. 2. Multimodal Imagery Task Imagine the globe turns into a basketball and toss it in the air and catch it a few times. What are its texture, size, temperature, and weight? Now begin dribbling the ball. When you sense (feel and hear) a comfortable rhythm, visualize the basket halfway down the court. Continue dribbling down the court, and when you feel ready, shoot for the basket. Is the shot clean or does it hit the rim? Can you hear the swish? Questions: At any point, did imagery become difficult? Did your perspective change from an internal to an external viewpoint? Did you imagine someone else shooting the basket, or walking the streets of Kigali?



These changes may reflect our experiential knowledge. That is, a shift from an internal to an external viewpoint may indicate we have no knowledge of the experience or our ability to perform the task. 3. Tactile Imagery Task Our discussion of imaging must also consider discriminative touch and our ability to sense bone-conducted vibrations throughout our skeletal structure. To recollect or image skeletal vibrations we may need to prime our perceptual memory first. Sing “ma ma ma” several times while attending to skeletal vibrations at various points throughout your skeletal structure. After a pause, recall an image of those same vibrations. Try mentally manipulating those imaged vibrations, shifting your attention to various points in your skull and up and down your spine. (See PAE 2–14, “Buzzing Bones.”) 4. Auditory-Phonological Imagery Task If you can image, or “inner speak” a tongue twister, you can speak it aloud. Remember, sensorimotor imagery is a real-time event. You will only speak it as clearly and as quickly as you can image yourself speaking it in real time. Mentally rehearse the phrase, “Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers” several times. When your image is vivid, try speaking the phrase. If you have difficulty, use a sound mnemonic to trigger articulation — focus on the words that begin with “p”. Each phrase forms chunks of six “Ps” (7 ± 2). Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers. A peck of pickled peppers Peter Piper picked, and so forth. 5. Auditory-Tonal Imagery Task If you can sing a pitch covertly, you can sing it overtly. Play a pitch on the piano that is in your speaking range. After a brief pause recall and image (inner sing) the pitch on a neutral ah, “holding it in your mind” until the image is vivid. When you feel “set to go,” sing the pitch aloud. Rate the vividness of your image and the ease with which you performed the task with 5 being the best.

Planning Voluntary Behavior

Vividness

12345

Ease

12345

Continue the exercise with higher and lower pitches until you exceed the range where you can image singing the pitch vividly. Remember, you are only to rate the vividness of the image and the ease with which you performed the task, not whether it was good or bad. Key Point:  “Turn off the judge!” Learn to trust that what you hear (covertly) is what you will get (overtly).

Training the Singer’s Brain:  Practical Application of Imagery for Developing Musical and Vocal-Motor Expertise The following exercises will guide us in experiencing a variety of applications of imagery associated with planning optimal singing behavior. These exercises have proven to be effective over the course of several years of application in the voice studio and in performance. I encourage you to develop your own exercises as well. You may also find your favorite vocalises and “tricks of the trade” will integrate smoothly with the principles of sensorimotor processing and the working memory. After all, they are an example of your singer’s intuition (intelligence) at work. To begin, it is essential to be “zoned in” to an ideal performing state characterized by heightened awareness, vigilant attention, and homeostatic equilibrium (calm).

Getting Into the Zone—Imagery and an Ideal Performing State Key Point:  Homeostatis means equal to the task.

In psychology, relax means an absence of tension, or anxiety. In physics, relax refers to a return to equilibrium, and in physiology it refers to the lengthening of an active muscle (American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 2007). From the perspective of neuroanatomical behavior, relax is only half of the story. That is, a state of homeostatic equilibrium

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and autonomic balance depends on the equalization of the constant alternation of a gathering up and expenditure of energy, much like an upbeat and a downbeat, or the wind-up and pitch of a ball. Subsequently, optimal performance of motor behaviors and an ideally equalized performing state depend on the gathering up and expenditure of just the right amount of energy for the task at hand, whereas tension and anxiety are the result of an imbalance, such as when energy gathered goes unspent, or insufficient energy is gathered for the task. There can be little wonder why performers and movement specialists variously refer to the “zone” as quiet focus and active repose, or relaxed and alert. “Always Stay Alert:  To image successfully you must relax but also concentrate. Concentration makes the images stronger; that is, the longer you can hold a vivid image, the more successful your imagery will be” (Emmons & Thomas, 1998, p. 165). “Alexander Technique is not about relaxation and/or relaxing muscles. It is about using muscles, and their component fibers, appropriately and actively while avoiding over-contraction and stiffness. . . . Slow deep, relaxed breathing is an indication of appropriate postural use of muscles” (Garlick, 1990, p. 37). Even our definition of an ideal performing state seems at odds with itself where inner calm happily coexists with attentional focus and heightened awareness. “A peak performance exhibits the strength of the mind-body link. For you as a peak performer what you think is echoed by what you do.” It is accompanied by a sense of inner calm and a high degree of concentration, a feeling of effortless control and, at the same time, an extraordinary sense of awareness (Emmons & Thomas, 1998, pp. 11–12.). Fortunately, our ability to maintain homoeostatic equilibrium is not a learned behavior. It is innate to our being. All we have to do is learn to recognize a “happy body” and work with the system, rather than against it. We might perceive homeostasis and equilibrium as poise, calm, or a sense of wellbeing; it is a Goldilocks effect that feels “just right” for each and every task. Consequently, an ideally equalized performing state is not dependent on a set amount of energy but rather a highly variable amount of energy that is equal to the task. This is true regardless of the ath-

letic nature of the event. When we feedforward our intentions, when we recall, synthesize, and construct a vivid image of our plan of action that culminates in the impulse to act, the energy gathered up and spent will be “just right.” Whether we are singing a middle C or a high C, a state of equilibrium, or poise, can be maintained. Noradrenaline, or “nervous energy,” is there because we have asked for it. We have asked our systems to prepare for a cognitively and physically demanding task that will require much energy. To suppress or ignore this energy, to “try” to relax, might well be at odds with the task at hand. Rather, we would be wise to provide our autonomic system with a plan of action. Is it time to see a good film, or is it time to prepare for our performance? Is it time to mentally rehearse our score as auditory imagery, or it is time to walk out on stage and image each episodic unit as our story unfolds one sound bite at a time? Whatever the task, it is time to apply the tools that get us into the zone.

Imagery and Vestibulo-Autonomic Control— Zoning Into an Ideal Performing State. Planning voluntary behavior is an active process that is, by its very nature, accompanied by an alert and attentive state of mind. As you will recall, general arousal occurs when the ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) opens the thalamo-cortical gate and sensitizes the thalamus to all incoming sensory information. When this occurs, the conscious mind is alerted to indiscriminate incoming signals that stimulate a desynchronized response. At this point, cortical intervention in the form of cognitively planned instructions to the sensorimotor systems (mind to body) serves to stimulate selective attention and a synchronized response (rhythmic entrainment and autonomic balance). The selective attention feature of our sensory systems provides for the inhibition or gating out of inappropriate sensory information. That is, our sensorimotor systems are readied (primed) according to the planned purpose of the moment. We sense (see, hear, feel) what we want or expect to sense, and motor response is anticipated. This is what is known as getting into the zone. (See Chapter 4, “Coactivation and Gamma Bias or Gain,” p. 114.) Getting into the zone is a topic of many sports movies. In For the Love of the Game, Kevin Costner,



Planning Voluntary Behavior

starring as an experienced player who suddenly realizes he is pitching a no-hitter, senses the adrenaline rising and myriad indiscriminate signals cloud his thinking. To regain his focus, he recalls his father saying, “Hit the glove. Just play catch.” The roar of the crowd disappears and the catcher’s glove comes clearly into view. Quiet Focus. It is not not thinking, it is getting the thinking right. “Try it!” (PAE 3–12).

PAE 3–12:  Attentive Listening Posture— Zoning Into an Ideal Performing State (Adapted from Smith et al., 1995) 1. While standing, listen intently to a faint distant sound. Follow the sound for several minutes, using timbral information to determine its source and location. Is the sound moving away from you or toward you? How quickly is it moving? Notice postural adjustments or reflexes signaled by the vestibular system. Did your weight shift? Perhaps your eye focus adjusted or your head turned16 to help you better hear the sound. Do you feel quieted or calmed? Did your heart and breathing rates settle? Rate the vividness of percept and sense of physical ease. Vividness

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2. While in this alert and attentive listening state, inner sing a familiar melodic phrase in real time (e.g., Somewhere Over the Rainbow). Listen intently as you take time to generate tonal images as vividly as you can — “loudly” in your mind. Rate the vividness of percept and sense of physical ease. Vividness

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Key Point: Although most vestibular activity is conducted at an unconscious level, we may stimulate the action of our vestibular system, and even challenge its ability to equalize postural and 16

autonomic forces with that of gravity, through various tasks relevant to singing, and learn to recognize a “happy body.”

Previously we learned novelty might be viewed with anxiety. However, we also learned there is a strategy for accepting novelty — to anticipate it. We can use our working memory to devise a model composed primarily of familiar information that is constructed in novel ways. As familiar information we are happy to accept it. Moreover, because imagery is coincident with the generation of a motor plan of action, we only do what we want to do, what we feel prepared or set to do. There are no surprises.

Imagery and Vestibulo-Autonomic Control— Respiratory and Heart Rate Variability. Respiratory and heart rate function adapt to support voluntary behaviors, including speech and singing. “When breathing quietly, for example, exhalation takes about as long as inhalation. This breathing pattern requires no thought. It is a reflexive response to the respiratory needs of the moment. But when speaking, the pattern shifts automatically” (Perkins & Kent, 1986, p. 8). When children breathe in the middle of words or at grammatically awkward places, they shed light on how we learn over time just how much air will be required to speak a phrase. As with all voluntary behaviors, we may use imagery and mental rehearsal for effective and efficient mind-body communication — to project our intentions and therefore expertly guide our respiratory system. As a result, our respiratory system will gather just the right amount of air needed, no more and no less. This is our bodily-kinesthetic intelligence at work. Conversely, if we consciously direct our body how to breathe, we may become lightheaded from hyperventilation or run out of breath from hypoventilation (Perkins & Kent, 1986, p. 8). That is, we “get in the way” of the innate ability of the respiratory system to prepare for the task at hand, and as a result, we experience an imbalance in our heart and breathing rate (e.g., anxiety). Remember, automation is a function of speed that is built

 Vestibulo-ocular (VOR) and sternocleidomastoid (VSCM) reflexes are among those signaled by the vestibular system to maintain our optimal orientation to the forces of gravity. This process belongs to the visual-spatial domain of our working memory and spatial cognition in general.

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over time with repetition. If we are patient and take the time to recollect perceptual images, we will build robust memory networks. Seemingly like magic, we will soon inhale for phrases in the allotted time dictated by the ongoing plan of action with minimal cuing. “Try it!” (PAE 3–13).

PAE 3–13:  Auditory Imagery and Inhaling for the Phrase.  Respiratory and heart rate variability are autonomically adjusted or matched to the task at hand. For example, our respiration rate adjusts from the point when imagery is dissociated from overt performance (i.e., covert mental rehearsal) to when it is associated with immediate and ongoing performance. 1. Attentive Listening Posture — Take a few moments to listen intently to a faint and distant sound and determine its source and location. Is the sound moving toward you or away from you? What is making the sound? Notice your breathing pattern. 2. Covert Mental Rehearsal With No Intent to Sing Overtly — Image (inner sing) a phrase from a song or aria in real time, but with no intention of singing aloud, as if you were on a plane or backstage. Notice changes in breathing pattern. 3. Covert Mental Rehearsal With the Intent to Sing Overtly — Mentally rehearse (image) the same phrase with the intention of singing it aloud, right up until you perceive the impulse to act. Notice changes in breathing pattern. Did you inhale for the phrase? Compare your results with the data recorded (EEG) by Leigh-Post and Koula (2012) for participants who engaged in the following tasks: 1. Listening Posture — An even, though perhaps relatively shallow and short, breathing phase indicated by a nearly perfect sine wave 17

2. Covert Mental Rehearsal With No Intent to Sing Overtly — Increased heart rate variability and a deeper and slower breathing rate 3. Covert Mental Rehearsal With the Intent to Sing Overtly — Increased heart rate variability synchronized with increased variability in the breathing rate; extended depth and length, as per the added demands of the task at hand Key Point:  Synchronicity of heart and breathing rates and increases in heart rate variability (HRV) and breathing rate variability (slower and deeper) are thought to indicate autonomic balance and well-being. Moreover, these conditions have been found to correlate with heightened theta wave activity, an indicator of a creative mind state (Gruzelier, 2009).

Generation of an Auditory Image— Inner Singing and Subvocalization Research data suggest auditory imagery and subvocalization are intimately connected (Smith et al., 1995). In much the same way if, according to the motor theory of speech perception, we perceive speech by recognizing the movements necessary to produce it, we would perceive tonal information or “inner hear” pitches by recognizing the movements necessary to sing it (Fadiga, Craighero, Buccino, & Rizzolatti, 2002). The ability to recall or recognize an auditory neural trace or image would require subvocalization (covert speaking or singing) (Baddeley & Logie, 1992). In the case of reading a score (audiation), we would “sing” the notation into our mind’s ear (Brodsky, Kessler, Rubenstein, Ginsborg, & Henik, 2008).17 It would then follow, “If you can sing it, you can inner hear it.” Alfred Tomatis18 observed the reciprocal process. He found when opera singers lost their ability to hear certain frequencies, they were unable to sing those frequencies. He postulated that the voice can only produce what the ear

 Brodsky et al. (2008) suggested that both phonatory and motor processing were involved in notational audiation and that phonatory resources in notational audiation are not influenced by instrument or by notational system (Hubbard, 2010). 18  Alfred Tomatis is said to have trained as a singer, but became an ear, nose, and throat physician. Early in his practice he was the house doctor at the Paris Opera where his work with opera singers led him to conclude that many of the voice problems were really hearing problems. For example, he found opera singers were suffering ear damage from the sound of their own voices. Whereas the ear can be damaged by sound at 80 decibels, a male opera singer often produces 150 decibels



Planning Voluntary Behavior

can hear (Tomatis, 2005, p. 141). This observation led to the development of a successful method for auditory priming, most notably with high-pitched frequencies, to enhance auditory perception. Similarly, auditory priming with the overtone series for a desired fundamental frequency enhances related acoustic (vowel) tuning. The possibility that subvocal muscle activity or covert speaking or singing may be activated to stimulate covert hearing (auditory imagery), and positively influence perceptual acuity, has been studied conclusively (Hubbard, 2010). Anecdotally, after 4 to 6 weeks of vocal paresis (partial paralysis of the recurrent nerve serving the larynx), a singer noticed decreased ability to generate auditory imagery as covert inner singing. After 3 months when the nerve had healed and paresis corrected itself, the quality of auditory imagery improved at a rate commensurate with improved vocal ability, gradually increasing in intensity and range over the next 6 weeks. In addition, when experiencing paresis, the singer gradually lost the ability to recollect somatosensory imagery for bone-conducted vibrations (internal stimulus) without priming from external stimulus (e.g., other singers effecting bone conduction). Although studies of the independence of auditory imagery and subvocalization and the possibility that subvocalization need not be activated for tonal auditory imagery are inconclusive, it remains that inhibition of sensorimotor information may undermine our ability to generate a reliable perceptual image (Smith et al., 1995). Key Point:  As per the nature of our domain-specific systems, there is evidence that the inhibition or unavailability of either the articulators or the phonator interferes with our ability to generate reliable images of the sounds they produce. You may not even be able to hear the pitch you are supposed to match if you cannot inner sing it. “Try it!” (PAE 3–14).

PAE 3–14: Listening Posture and Subvocalization (Adapted from Smith et al., 1995) 1. Begin with this review of the Attentive Listening exercise to “get into the zone.” Listen intently to a faint distant sound. Follow the sound for several minutes, using timbral information to determine its source and location. Is the sound moving away from you or toward you? How quickly is it moving? What is making the sound? Vividness

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2. While in this alert and attentive listening state, inner sing a familiar melodic phrase in real time (e.g., Somewhere Over the Rainbow). Take a moment to generate tonal images as vividly as you can. Rate the vividness of percept and sense of physical ease. Vividness

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3. With your teeth clenched and your tongue pressed on the entire roof of your mouth so as to inhibit use of the phonator and articulators, repeat the timbral listening exercise for the source and location of a distant sound. Rate the vividness of percept and sense of physical ease. Vividness

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4. With your teeth clenched and your tongue pressed on the entire roof of your mouth, inner sing a familiar melodic phrase in real time. Take a moment to generate each tonal image as vividly as you can. Rate the vividness of percept and sense of physical ease. Vividness

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(Bourmaud, 2010, p. 6). (He found singers were forcing their voices to produce sounds in registers they could no longer hear). These and other discoveries led him to be “the first to describe the bones of the inner ear as functioning to protect against loud noises,” to describe the feedback loop that links the ear with the voice, and theorize that the voice can only reproduce what the ear can hear (Tomatis, 2005, p. 141). Subsequently, he developed the Electronic Ear, which used earphones and sound filters to enhance the missing frequencies in order to train the singer’s auditory brain, so to speak, to be sensitive to the missing frequencies. He founded the International Society for Audio-Psycho-Phonology (Tomatis, 2005, p. 141).

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5. While holding your breath and rigid posture, inner sing a familiar melodic phrase in real time. Take a moment to generate each tonal image as vividly as you can. Rate the vividness of percept and sense of physical ease. Vividness

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6. Repeat the Attentive Listening exercise (steps 1 and 2) to enter into an alert and equalized state and inner sing a familiar melodic phrase. Now let your inner ear (auditory and vestibular systems) guide your behavior. Rate the vividness of percept and sense of physical ease. Vividness

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Key Point:  This experience supports the notion that sensorimotor imagery “reads” the generation of a motor plan of action and is therefore intimately linked with motor production processes.

Imagery and Alternative Strategies The concept of working memory as a flexible processor fits well with the notion that we are strategic in how we use our cognitive functions. For example, to recall a list of words we may rehearse the sound and feel of the words, use mnemonics (e.g., HOMES for the names of the Great Lakes), organize them into meaningful chunks, or image the objects or events they represent. This is also the case with auditorytonal information and the language of music. Using alternative strategies based on long-term knowledge may explain why young singers with advanced musical knowledge in another instrument, theory and composition, or relative pitch can have difficulty differentiating between abstract thought about pitch or inner hearing (auditory-tonal imagery) and inner singing, or between inner singing and inner playing. For example, instrumentalists with advanced cognitive skill for processing musical information that are new to singing can have difficulty sustaining a singing tone or controlling pitch until they develop the associative network connectivity for pitch frequency information with the action of the phonator and supporting respiratory and pos-

tural systems, such as auditory-vocal-motor control. (See also “Illustrated Guide: Arcuate Fasciculus and Fine Auditory-Vocal-Motor Control,” p. xxxvi.) “Try it!” (PAE 3–15; and PAE 3–24).

PAE 3–15:  Alternative Strategies for Solving Phonological and Tonal Problems 1. Phonological a. With your teeth clenched and your tongue firmly pressed to the roof of your mouth (or while chewing gum) so as to render the articulators unavailable for the auditory imagery task, silently repeat “life” in very rapid succession. Can you inner hear an alternate interpretation of the sounds for “life” as “fly?” Or would you have to use an alternative strategy, such as visual imagery to form an alternative interpretation? b. Now repeat the exercise in the listening posture without inhibiting use of the articulators, and once again silently repeat “life” in very rapid succession. Can you hear the alternate interpretation? c. Try the same with “dress.” Can you hear an alternative interpretation as “stress?” 2. Tonal a. While humming a constant pitch and chewing gum (or with your teeth clenched and your tongue firmly pressed to the roof of your mouth) so as to render the articulators and phonator unavailable for the auditory imagery task, mentally rehearse Frère Jacques and compare the pitches that fall on Jacques and dor-mez. Are they the same or different? Were you able to inner hear the pitches or did you have to use an alternative strategy, such as inference using theoretical knowledge of music (semantics) or piano fingerings to arrive at an answer? b. Now repeat the exercise in the attentive listening posture, without inhibiting use of the articulators and phonator for subvocalizing. If our purpose for processing tonal information is to guide optimal performance of singing behavior,



Planning Voluntary Behavior

generating auditory-tonal imagery as a sensorimotor experience is the strategy we want to use.

Auditory-Tonal Imagery As with all intelligences, we must continue to grow our auditory imagination. What begins as simple imitation of an externally modeled sound (e.g., pitch or phoneme) develops into our personal auditory memory: an “image bank” of sounds that may be retrieved and manipulated to form highly variable constructs. Just as our auditory intelligence develops, so does our skill in auditory imagery. We learn to generate auditory images of ever-increasing clarity and complexity with ever-increasing speed and minimal cuing. “Try it!” (PAE 3–16).

PAE 3–16:  Imagery and Expertise—Simple to Complex.  What begins as a simple image of a single pitch quickly becomes a complex image (e.g., string of pitches and word sounds of varied rhythmic constructs) that may be further influenced by emotional and intellectual meaning. After all, learning relies on association, and each association in turn stimulates an extensive memory network of ever-increasing complexity. As the term pitch matching suggests, we require a model or primary source of pitch frequency information to match. To avoid automatic “call and response” imitation (implicit memory), simply allow the sound to decay and take a moment to invert the percept — to recall and “hold in mind” an image of the modeled sound. 1. Simple Pitch Matching — Play a pitch on the piano and let it die away. (This is the primary model to be matched, or imitated.) Take a moment to recall and vividly image the modeled pitch — hold it in mind — and when you are ready, sing the pitch. Tips: a. When singing aloud (overtly) you may plug your ears to assist in selectively monitoring the more reliable bone-conducted feedback information for pitch and vibration sense. However, bear in mind that if you focus undue attention on the pitch you have just sung rather than on the pitch you intend to

sing, you will likely go out of tune. That is, you will lose “sight” of the intended pitch and happily match an ever-deteriorating feedback image. b. When singing aloud remain vigilant in your attention, continuously “refreshing” the image of the modeled pitch (feedforward imagery). Modeling the pitch on a piano is effective because the timbral information is distinctly different from vocal timbre. In addition, when first learning to attend to a modeled pitch, it can be helpful to sustain a chord on the piano while singing. c. Play the overtones for the desired fundamental frequency either for auditory priming or when singing to enhance acoustic tuning. (Playing a triad with an added fourth two octaves above the pitch works well.) At any point, change from internal perspective to external perspective and back again. Which perspective is preferable? 2. Growing Complexity — Play a modeled pitch on the piano and allow it to decay. After a brief pause, recall and maintain a vivid image of the modeled pitch (tonal information) for about a minute as you vary the context to add complexity to the image. a. Harmonic Context. Vividly image a modeled pitch while concurrently playing a harmonic progression on the piano. Take note of the changing function of the imaged pitch in the context of the changing harmonic context (Figure 3–12). b. Phonological Context (auditory-tonal and auditory-phonological imagery). Vividly image modeled pitch for about a minute while concurrently imaging various phonemes (e.g., i e a o u; mi me ma mo mu). Alternate amplifying the fundamental pitch frequency image with that of the vowel formant and overtones and then equalize image of the full spectrum of frequencies. Notice changes in the motor response. Repeat singing overtly. With the added task of monitoring feedback (bone-conducted sound), can you maintain the integrity of the modeled pitch frequency?

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80 Mind-Body Awareness for Singers:  Unleashing Optimal Performance

Figure 3–12.  Harmonic context. Courtesy of Bethany Gee Abrahamson.

Figure 3–13.  Target with rings and isolated dot. Courtesy of www.clipart.com

c. Multimodal Context. Vividly image modeled pitch for about a minute while concurrently focusing the spotlight of your attention on information from each of your sensory modes (i.e., tactile vibrations throughout your skeletal structure, propriokinesthetic [motoric] postural ease, changing phonemes [acoustic], and spatial awareness [both real and imagined]).

3. After a brief delay, recollect the pitch image, holding it in mind with the intention of singing aloud (feedforward plan of action). When you are ready, sing (allow follow-through execution of singing action).

Key Point: Disambiguation — Just as our conscious perception of an event is disambiguated by a multiplicity of rich and varied information, so too are the higher-level perceptual processes for planning disambiguated by taking the time to construct a complex goal-directed plan of action for each of our separate and distinct systems (e.g., pitch, phoneme, meaning, and rhythm). One of my students offered the following illustration where the center dot represents the pitch, and asked, “Which target is easier to hit?” (Figure 3–13).

The next series of exercises (PAEs 3–17, 3–18, and 3–19) builds auditory-tonal memory by association.

PAE 3–17:  Simple Tonal Memory— Notation and Lexical Association 1. Play and perceive a pitch modeled on the piano and allow the sound to fade away. 2. Associate the pitch with its notated symbol and lexical name.

Repeat the exercises with various pitches. Remember, association binds tonal information to memory networks.

PAE 3–18:  Pitch Strings—Harmonic Context 1. Play and listen to a tonic triad built on “middle C” (C3 for men; Figure 3–14). After a brief pause, recall and inner sing the arpeggiated triad, “do mi sol mi do.” Continue with this pattern, inner singing (imaging) rising and falling arpeggiated triads on each degree of the C major scale. Remember to take the necessary time to generate a vivid image “loudly” in your mind. Eventually, priming with a blocked chord on the piano will no longer be necessary. You may choose to follow inner singing with singing aloud. 2. Play the chord progression below and allow the sound to fade away. Recollect, image, and sing the chord progression as an arpeggiated pattern. For example, the progression: I — IV — V7 — I may be sung as scored in Figure 3–15. Image and sing increasingly difficult chord progressions. Begin by playing and imaging each chord one at a time to build meaningful associations. Prim-



Planning Voluntary Behavior

Figure 3–14.  Pitch-strings—harmonic context. Courtesy of Bethany Gee Abrahamson.

Figure 3–15.  Harmonic motion. Courtesy of Bethany Gee Abrahamson.

ing by external cuing will become unnecessary over time.

PAE 3–19:  Pitch Strings—Tonal Mnemonics and Patterns 1. Play and listen to a tonic triad built on “middle c” (C3 for male voices). Allow sound to fade away. As you generate a vivid auditory-tonal image for each pitch or pitch string (Figure 3–16), associate each sound bite with its tonal mnemonic (do or sol), notated pattern (e.g., rising third), and solfège label before singing aloud. Note:  Patterns are organized as either rising from do or

descending from sol, and occur within the space of a quarter-note pulse, or heartbeat. 2. Pitch-Strings — Pattern Transference.  Play and listen to a triad built on “D” or re fa la. Allow sound to fade away. Image and sing each patterned sound bite one at a time, built first on re and subsequently on each scale degree (Figure 3–17). Associate each sound bite with its tonal mnemonic (initial pitch), notated pattern, and solfège label.

Auditory-Tonal Imagery—Other Cognitive Skills. ​ Because music is processed as language, we can explore employing the same cognitive skills we use

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82 Mind-Body Awareness for Singers:  Unleashing Optimal Performance

Figure 3–16.  Pitch-string “sound bites.” Courtesy of Alex Johnson.

in processing phonological language to tonal information. “Try it!” (PAE 3–20, 3–21).

while attending to the context of key and arrive at the correct answer.

PAE 3–20:  Auditory-Tonal Imagery—Reevaluation Strategies.  We can form images and then “inspect” them to find answers. Imagery is based on knowledge. However, we may not always experience an event in the context of other intelligences at the time it is encoded. For example, when asked to determine the scale degree for the seventh word, down, in the familiar childhood tune, “Row, Row, Row Your Boat,” if this information was not considered explicitly before, it will not be readily accessible. However, if the event is available as auditory information, we can covertly rehearse the tune

1. Inner sing “Row, Row, Row Your Boat” using solfège. On what scale degree does “down” fall? Now that you have reinspected the tune, try your hand at transposition and play the tune in different keys on the piano. You may find it surprisingly easy. 2. Try re-evaluating various tunes for metrical and rhythmic information. For example, inner sing “Row, Row, Row Your Boat” while conducting in a simple duple or common meter and compare with a compound meter. It is much like a brainteaser.



Figure 3–17. Pitch-string “sound bites”—pattern transference. Courtesy of Bethany Gee Abrahamson.

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PAE 3–21:  Auditory-Tonal Imagery—Ambiguity and Inference.  Imagery can also be used to reason on a more abstract level. For example, language comprehension may be aided by creating comparison models. We can create a visual image (notation) of what we hear or an auditory image of what we see to disambiguate information. As we replay images (e.g., sounds) in our mind, we infer what we have heard or will hear — what is likely as per the rules of music theory, genre, and style. For example, we can use tonal mnemonics and inference to speed up perceptual processing when listening, memorizing, and performing musical tasks such as sight-reading and analysis. (See “Mnemonic Cues and Chunking,” p. 88.) 1. Use inference to translate the ambiguously notated score into sound (Figure 3–18). 2. Ambiguity can be a useful tool to ensure the employment of higher cognitive processes of the working memory such as inference and choice. For example, how many patterns can be interpreted from the following directives? The singer chooses pitch, octave, meter, and rhythm. a. sol do mi do sol mi do b. do la ti sol fa re do 3. Inference and Playing Well With Others. In performance, most certainly in ensemble and improvisatory performance, imagery involves “playing well with others.” That is, imaging our plan of action not only involves the rapid synthesis of recollected information from our memory stores, but also the artful inclusion of novel stimuli from external sources — our colleagues. Thus, as a function of higher-level perceptual processing, imagery involves inferring or predicting both our own behavior outcome and that of others. Of course, we typically develop this skill by attentively detecting cues from a conductor or ensemble members. However, we

can also exercise this skill by playing catch with another person while singing (or inner singing) with each toss of the ball.

Auditory Imagery and Loudness. An example of the inherent complications in researching auditory imagery may be seen in the study of auditory imagery and loudness. It has been suggested that, “loudness is not necessarily encoded in auditory images and, if loudness information is not encoded in an auditory image, then loudness information might be represented in other modalities” (Pitt & Crowder, 1992, cited by Hubbard, 2010). And so, Pitt and Crowder raise an interesting question, “Is it possible to experience loudness through auditory imagery alone, or is it necessarily a multimodal experience” (Hubbard, 2010)? What is your verdict? “Try it!” (PAE 3–22). PAE 3–22: Auditory Imagery and Loudness. ​ Recall the following auditory images and rate the vividness and ease with which you are able to determine the loudness of those images on a scale of 1 to 5, with 5 being the greatest. 1. Recall the sound of a plane flying overhead or that of a train passing through a subway station. Vividness

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2. Recall someone yelling in anger or a tenor singing a full-voiced “high C” in close proximity. Vividness

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3. Generate an auditory image: Inner sing a pitch “loudly in your mind” or imagine yourself yelling at someone to warn him or her of imminent danger, “Look out!” Vividness

Figure 3–18.  Ambiguous notation. Courtesy of Bethany Gee Abrahamson.

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In preliminary trials, reports from participants who were asked to rate the loudness of auditory images, while inconclusive, suggest our perception of loudness is supported by the perception of intensity in other modes. In the case of imaging a pitch “loudly in your mind,” descriptions of perceived loudness are reported in terms of a multimodal experience — as an increasingly narrow focus on an increasingly vivid auditory image of the pitch and a sense of increased intensity in bone-conducted vibrations (tactile sense), energy expenditure, or motor engagement of laryngeal musculature; a general sense of growing; or a sense that the ears “opened up” as when listening more intently. In the case of imaging a subway train, a plane, or yelling or loud singing, participants were observed to raise their hands to their ears or turn their heads to the left, and reported a desire to protect themselves from the pain of a too-loud sound. This final response raises an important point regarding the association of loudness with pain and an innate reflex to protect the ear from damage. The auditory system protects the inner ear from damage by reflexively dampening the eardrum (tympanic membrane in the middle ear) in anticipation of loud noises and notably the sound of our own voice just before we speak or sing. This suggests the possibility that the dampening reflex is activated when we employ auditory imagery in anticipation of phonation or during mental rehearsal “as if” we intend to speak or sing.

Visuospatial Imagery To begin we would be wise to remind ourselves that rhythm is not a behavior. Rather, rhythm describes the temporospatial organization of a sequence of behaviors. Among the parameters determined by the plan of action is the targeting of a time in space at which a given action or sequence of actions is to occur. We plan what we want to do and when we will do it. Rhythmic information may be cued externally by a conductor’s baton, a metronome, or internally. Internalizing the beat is inherent in planning voluntary behavior from the internal perspective where the executive agent of action, using the working memory function, plans the episodic sequenc-

Planning Voluntary Behavior

ing of behaviors. (See also Chapter 5, “Rhythm and Rhythmic Entrainment,” p. 174.) “Try it!” (PAEs 3–23 to 3–26).

PAE 3–23: Visuospatial Imagery—Rhythmic and Metrical Organization. When doing this exercise, remain relatively still — no head bobbing and such. 1. While counting silently (mental imagery), compare the organization of the following: a. Count to 12 (1 2 3 4 5 6, etc.). b. Count to 3 four times (123, 123, 123, 123). c. Count to 4 three times (1234, 1234, 1234). d. Now alternate the two patterns (123 1234 123 1234). e. Count to 6 two times (123456 123456 and compare 123 456 123 456). f. Count to 2 six times (12 12 12 12 12 12). g. Now alternate the two patterns (12 12 12 123456 12 12 12 123456). 2. Now improvise online. While counting one pattern, decide which episodic pattern you will count next. Continue for about 2 minutes or longer. 3. Vary how you count similar patterns. For example, when counting to 3 four times you may count 123 123 123 123, or 123 456 789 10 11 12, or 123 223 323 423. What is different? How does this change in cognitive organization cause change in your perception of metrical organization? 4. Try this rhythm game with a collaborator. “Can you guess what I’m thinking?” (Remember, no head bobbing and such.) Watch while a partner mentally rehearses (images) the rhythmic exercises above. Can you “read” what the rhythmic pulse is? Can you determine the meter? Can your collaborator tell what rhythm and meter you are thinking? Our entire system entrains itself to this willed organization, even when we are relatively still.

PAE 3–24: Alternative Strategies for Solving Visuospatial Problems.  Because we cannot articulate text and number sounds simultaneously, singers

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must use alternative strategies for counting in order to coordinate the positioning of our effectors (e.g., vocal folds, tongue, lips, jaw) in the right place to make the right sound at the right time. a. We can often exploit our knowledge of linguistic word stress to infer rhythm in a declamatory setting of text. For example, how would you notate the following text: “His, his history, and his story” and “joy, joyful, and joyfully” (Figure 3–19)? b. Conducting or finger counting are common alternative strategies for counting. Similarly, imaging conducting patterns, geometric shapes (triangle, square, hexagon), or other grouped objects (e.g., two friends, three friends) can be useful for organizing the pulse into metrical groups. c. The most useful alternative to counting is inherent in visualizing the notated score. Well-spaced, metered, and appropriately barred and phrased notation can serve as “mythical islands” — visuospatial representations (images) for calculating the temporospatial relationship between musical events. Fortunately, composers today recognize the correct interpretation of their intentions rests heavily in their notation skills. Key Point:  Intermediate representations of spatial coordinates (credited largely to the visuomotor integration processes of the vestibular system) are the oft “missing link” or skill in developing perceptual motor expertise (i.e., the cognitive mind-body link).

PAE 3–25: Visuospatial Imagery—“Fill the When singing, we commonly use visuospaHall.” ​ tial awareness to innately guide projection of the voice to fill the hall. When practicing in a cubicle or singing in a subbasement rehearsal room at Lincoln Center, we may use spatial imagery to guide our systems to project naturally or intuitively as if filling the house without fear of driving or forcing our instrument. 1. Sense the space above you and below you, beside you to the left and to the right, and before you and behind you. When the space is vividly imaged, prepare to sing making no other conscious adjustments to the sound for projection. 2. Recall an image of a space that is significantly larger than the room you are in. Once again, image the space above you and below you, beside you to the left and to the right, and before you and behind you. When the space is vividly imaged, prepare to sing making no other conscious adjustments to the sound for projection. 3. Repeat the above exercises and close your eyes. Notice the rapid reflexive eye movements. This is your vestibular system at work — an ocular reflex called saccades. Use auditory and tactile information to inform your sense of space. Is there a breeze? A distant sound or echo? Variations: (a) image a smaller space with hard surfaces such as a shower; (b) image a space without walled boundaries; (c) compare imaging only the

Figure 3–19.  Rhythmic patterning. Courtesy of Bethany Gee Abrahamson.



space in front and beside you, with imaging the three-dimensional space surrounding you. Remember, airborne auditory feedback is reflected to us from the boundaries of our space. However, bone-conducted feedback is a constant source that is with us wherever we go.

PAE 3–26:  Visuospatial Imagery—“The Matching Game.”  Try this surprising tool. It is almost like magic. Stimulate heightened awareness of spatial coordinates by playing “the matching game” behind your own back. When singing, and especially when singing a difficult passage, perhaps in your extended upper or lower range, play “the matching game” behind your head. Place your right hand behind your head and make a pattern (e.g., hold three fingers as an M or a W or E, or make an okay sign). Match the pattern with your left hand. At that moment, each imaged behavior on your “plate” (episodic buffer) will become more clearly produced. Imagery and Creative Solutions—“What If?” It could be argued that the primary function of imagery is creative problem solving — a mechanism for covert creation of desirable “What if?” models to predict outcomes prior to overt performance. Imagine walking through the woods and coming on a babbling brook, dotted with potential steppingstones. You assess the situation using visuospatial imagery and determine the safest route to the opposite bank. Similarly, we may use mental rehearsal to solve auditory-tonal “problems” covertly before we execute action. That is, the ability to covertly manipulate images affords us the luxury of playing with an idea, to turn it inside out and upside down, and even to reject it altogether and generate new images or “What if?” models. Remember, because imagery is coincident with the generation of a motor plan of action and therefore anticipatory, we only do what we want to do, what we feel prepared to do. Therefore, imaging “What if?” models is a mechanism or tool by which we can dare to have phenomenal experiences — by which we can risk using what we know creatively.

Planning Voluntary Behavior

The Expressive Gesture of the Voice.  The paralinguistic expressive gesture is a motor response to thoughts and feelings expressed in facial, postural, and phonatory behaviors. The expressive gesture of the voice involves unconscious production of rapidfire and often subtle variations in pitch (inflection) and tone (tonus). The expressive gesture of the voice is an innate behavior that we can use voluntarily. It is not long before a baby learns that what began as an instinctual isolation cry at birth can be used to solicit attention voluntarily. However, as this knowledge becomes more abstract and detached from core needs, it also becomes less believable. Parents have little trouble discerning the difference between a 2-year-old’s cry of pain and a tantrum. As expert actors, we learn to recollect and manipulate intellectual, emotional, and sensorimotor images from an internal perspective to stimulate real-time responses that are natural, honest, and believable. That is, the construction of “What if?” imagery stimulates immediate motor responses that are the “live” expression of our thoughts and emotions in the present moment. “Try it!” (PAE 3–27). Key Point:  “Vocalization is one of the first voluntary behaviors in development . . . Before infants can roll over, sit up, or crawl, they can utter sounds at will and solicit parental attention . . . Throughout our lives, our voices are a distinctive attribute, part of our personal identity. With [the sound of our voice] we interact socially, confess our emotions and attitudes, and make known most of our needs and desires” (Perkins & Kent, 1986, p. 5).

PAE 3–27:  The Paralinguistic Expressive Gesture of the Voice.  We can learn to stimulate realtime paralinguistic motor responses with a variety of cues or “triggers.” These cues may be in the form of visual images (picture flash cards, colors), tonal colors (harmonies), and tactile images (e.g., fuzzy bunnies or cold steel blades), or affect cards. At the junction of the auditory, visual, and somatosensory cortices, the neurons in the inferior parietal lobe are multimodal. This ability to process multisensory and motor information simultaneously is essential to speech and language processing. Moreover, it explicates why visual images of a

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waterfall or colors can enhance a singing tone. For example, Pavarotti was heard telling a soprano, “It is too red, it needs to be more blue.” One of the most expressive vocal gestures we have is the messa di voce. Use a three-part “story” to stimulate variations in vocal tone: 1. While sustaining a single pitch, image a variety of colors. Try manipulating intensity of the color image from a pastel pink to a bright fuschia and again to the pastel, from yellow to blue or red and back, or a more subtle shift from French blue to aquamarine and back. 2. While sustaining a single pitch, do, play on a piano a major, a minor, and then a diminished triad (I—i—iº) or go from minor to major and back to minor again (i—V7—i). Note responsive changes in vocal tone (i.e., tonicity of vocal folds) stimulated by the harmonic cues. This is the paralinguistic expressive gesture of the voice. 3. While sustaining a single pitch use three affect, storyboard, animal, or color cards to stimulate an expressive response. Try moving from a gentle affect to a more intense one (e.g., gracious — appalled — gracious, or amused — ​exhilarated — amused).

PAE 3–28: Five Questions Plus Three—Keeping It Conscious and Cognitive.  Creativity relies on continuously active interpretation of percepts and perceptual memories. To keep out of the rote rut (autopilot mode), apply intellectual, emotional, and sensorimotor skills with infinite flexibility to vary the action of each of our behavior systems. For example, varying the frequency, intensity, and duration of the action of the larynx would include portamento, messa di voce, and rubato; the action of the respiratory system might include staccato, accent, and legato; and so forth. • Sing the following question sequence: Who? What? When? Where? and Why? on a descending five-note scale pattern with a pause between each question and pitch. While sustaining each pitch and question, image three “answers.” • For example, for “Who?” think of three people, perhaps your mother, sister, and a

friend, and recall various memories about these people to evoke an expressive gesture response. • Allow time for vivid images to form, together with their memory networks, which will cue or “trigger” motor responses that effect expressive changes in vocal tone, as well as facial and postural gestures. • Can you maintain vivid pitch images as you enhance context with meaningful memories of people, events, times, places, and reasons? Key Point: The expressive singing gesture, or tone of our voice, together with our interpretation of the notated score, is a motor response to our thoughts and feelings. Stimuli or “triggers” may be projected as intellectual, emotional, or sensorimotor images from internal or external sources.

Planning Ongoing Musical Performance— Mnemonic Cues and Chunking Planning ongoing overt musical performance requires that we predetermine not only what we do, but also when we will do it. That is, our willed intentions must provide the necessary information (“mythical islands”) for our sensorimotor intentions to calculate the temporospatial coordinates that guide the positioning of our effectors in the right place to produce the right sound at the right time. We simplify the organizational plan for a rapid succession of behaviors by “chunking” information into manageable episodic “bites” as per our working memory. What began in the early stages of learning as the conscious association of patterns of sound, behavior, and the notated score, becomes in the later stages of learning the expert stimulation of intricate behaviors with minimal cuing. That is, a string of pitches and phonemes together with their associated emotion and meaning may be represented by a single cue or mnemonic. This is how we pilot our automation. “Try it!” (PAE 3–29).

PAE 3–29: “What & When Improv”—Tonal Mnemonics and Sound Bites.  Earlier, we experienced the episodic unfolding of events as telling a story (see PAE 3–5). As we remembered what we saw and prepared to tell a friend, we heard the



Planning Voluntary Behavior

words begin to stream through our mind. And so it is with relating a musical tale, when strings of pitches, word sounds, and a host of associated images stream through our mind immediately before we sing each sound bite (episodic unit). Remember, with welllearned behaviors such as speech and singing, our conscious mind is seldom concerned with how we will place our effectors (lips, tongue, jaw, larynx, and posture). Key Point:  Once we have mastered a tonal vocabulary (small or large), we can enjoy improvised creative play with minimal cuing.

What & When Improv is a fun and effective tool to get in the habit of planning ongoing tonal events — of keeping the spotlight of our attention focused on “What’s next?” (feedforward signal) rather than “What’s history?” (feedback signal). For this exercise, we will use the tonal vocabulary (sound bites) learned in PAE 3–19. Note: do and sol are our tonal mnemonics that, together with visual notation in Miller groupings, cue various behavior patterns (Figure 3–20): 1. While conducting a tempo of about one beat per second, inner sing an episodic sound bite (pitch

Figure 3–20.  What & When sound bites (two columns). Courtesy of Alex Johnson.

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or pitch-string) in anticipation of the beat. When you are set to go, sing with the next pulse. 2. Planning Strategies:  Begin by using the most familiar sound bites (first three lines), alternating between do and sol. Inner sing each sound bite in real time before singing overtly. This means you will have a beat of “rest” between each episodic unit. 3. After sufficient repetitions over time, you will be able to rapidly generate an auditory-tonal image of each episodic unit immediately preceding overt singing — streaming strings for an ongoing musical tale. Try pointing at each notated pattern on the upbeat, much like we guide our eye with our finger when reading a text aloud. Ongoing “What & When Planning” is like eating Thanksgiving dinner, we do one sound bite at a time. 4. Now, to make it improvisatory, mix up the patterns, first by pointing at alternating patterns from the left (do) and right (sol) columns. Remember, planning and attentional focus happen one pulse at a time, one sound bite at a time, and one heartbeat at a time. Variations: a. Create a flash card for each sound bite and place the cards in piles designated to a single tonal mnemonic (do or sol). Select a card immediately preceding execution of overt performance of that episodic unit. b. Write out the sound bites from the figure below across a whiteboard to encourage movement and increase the fun. c. Use the same patterns without transposition, beginning on each scale degree (re then mi and so forth.) d. Extend the range of your options. Add an ascending fifth from sol to re, and a descending fifth from re to sol; include more complex patterns (sextuplets, and nonets) (Figure 3–21). Key Point: To cue well-learned patterned sequences from our tonal vocabulary, we image do,

sol, or re as the tonal mnemonic together with a patterned sequence for a targeted space in time or pulse. Thus cued, well-learned sequences are processed largely by unconscious inference and automation. We can learn to rely on the interdependence of intellectual and sensorimotor skills to execute fluid behavior accurately and on time.

Summary Mastery affords us the opportunity to “play” — to mentally manipulate alternative outcomes and open the flow of emotional influences and express ourselves without reservation — to “turn off the judge.” When we are proficient in the languages of words and music, attention is focused on the meaning of what we are saying, not on how we position our effectors (e.g., tongue, lips) to form the sounds. “All speech, once learned, is built on [automated] skills . . . if thought is being given to the message . . . then extensive brain activity would be directing the automatic linguistic operations of the speech centers” (Perkins & Kent, 1986, p. 459). The results can be mystifying for the listener. “On Swinging Lovers, every note [Frank Sinatra] sings is perfectly placed in time and pitch. I don’t mean ‘perfectly’ in the strict, as-notated sense; his rhythms and timing are completely wrong in terms of how the music is written on paper, but they are perfect for expressing emotions that go beyond description [e.g., notation]. His phrasing contains impossibly detailed and subtle nuances — to be able to pay attention to that much detail, to be able to control it, is something I can’t imagine” (Levitin, 2006, p. 193). Can you?

Imagery in Review • While we may passively experience images as they rise from the unconscious to the conscious mind, when we voluntarily generate images for the purpose of planning, stimulating, and guiding our behavior, we are in an active state that is by its very nature alert and selectively attentive.

Figure 3–21.  What & When sound bites (four columns). Courtesy of Alex Johnson.



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• The purposeful generation of goalstate imagery precedes the execution of a behavior. It is associated with the feedforward signal that stimulates a motor response. That is, the conscious experience of imagery is coincident with the unconscious generation of a motor plan of action. • Internally generated imagery is autobiographical. It enables us to consciously monitor the real-time neural processing of information in the working memory from the internal perspective of the performer — the agent of action. • A delay is the hallmark of working memory. It marks the intermediate representation between sensory input and motor output and the inversion of feedback information to feedforward intentions. • Perceptual images can be voluntarily recollected and mentally manipulated either as covert mental rehearsal dissociated from overt performance, or directly associated with the generation of a motor plan of action as a “live” ongoing stream of images forming immediately in anticipation of overt expression (execution of action). • Perceptual-imagery is a cognitive skill that we use intuitively throughout our daily lives with ease. Mental manipulation of perceptual images is an innate and trainable ability. “Information that is frequently retrieved becomes more retrievable” and more robust (Halpern & Hakel, 2003, p. 38). “Exercise your imagination, just as you exercise your body when you work out” (Emmons & Thomas, 1998, p. 161). • Sensorimotor imagery is based on knowledge and ability. If you can image yourself doing a behavior from an internal perspective, you can do it. If the image is clear, the behavior will be clearly performed. • In all cases, the external view would be abandoned once a certain level of expertise

is achieved in preference of the more effective internal view associated with enhanced performance (Olsson et al., 2008, p. 140), where enhancement would include the optimal performance of complex and flexible behaviors and maintenance of an ideal performing state. • Imagery serves our purpose of the moment. It is infinitely flexible to the task at hand. • As per the so-called “power law of learning,” percepts and their associative neural networks grow in ever-increasing complexity. “The informationally richer­­ the resulting representation, the better” (Hommel, 2009, p. 177). • Mental rehearsal, or imagery, exercises and develops our auditory, somatic, and visual brains, as well as our musical, phonological, and emotional language processing ability. • The working memory is a mechanism by which we can mentally manipulate multimodal, multisensory perceptual images into phenomenal constructs for the purpose of guiding optimal performance and maintaining an ideal performing state.

Training the Singer’s Brain—Is It Talent or Is It Practice? In his popular book, This Is Your Brain on Music, Daniel Levitin addresses the acquisition of exceptional skill — of mastery. “In several studies, the very best conservatory students were found to have practiced the most, sometimes twice as much as those who weren’t judged as good. . . . The emerging picture from such studies is that ten thousand hours of practice is required to achieve a level of mastery associated with being a world-class expert — in anything . . . roughly three hours a day . . . over ten years . . . no one has yet found a case in which true worldclass expertise was accomplished in less time. It seems that it takes the brain this long to assimilate all that it needs to know to achieve true mastery” (Levitin, 2006, p. 197).



Planning Voluntary Behavior

Planning Your 10,000 Hours to Mastery Plan A: Most young singers practice an hour a day. 1 hour per day, 5 days per week = 260 hours per year or 38 years to mastery. Good. Plan B: 1 to 2 hours per day:  Practice room 1 to 2 hours per day:  Mental rehearsal —  Real-time sensorimotor imagery. Practice at retrieval and the construction of new outcomes. (May be done concurrently with weight-bearing workout to build visuospatial intelligence.) _____________ 3 hours per day = 1,000 hours per year, or 10 years to mastery. Better.

Plan C: 1 hour per day:  Mindful listening to music 1 hour per day:  Mental rehearsal — Real-time sensorimotor imagery. Practice at retrieval and the construction of new outcomes 1 hour per day:  Ensemble rehearsal — Mindful reinforcement of musical skills 2 hours per day:  Practice room (can be spaced out) 1 hour per day:  Weight-bearing workout — ​ Visuospatial intelligence; proprio-kinesthetic sense of balance and motion (can be done concurrently with mental rehearsal or mindful listening to music) _____________ 5 to 6 hours per day = about 1,500 to 2,000 hours per year, or 5 to 7 years to 10,000 hours. Best. It is your choice.

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4 Motor Output Processing

Systems of singing and sensorimotor processing loop. Courtesy of Alex Johnson.

Awareness is a state of consciousness characterized by the ability to integrate sensations from our environment and ourselves with our immediate goals to guide behavior.

Introduction Motor output processing involves the initiation, execution, and mediation of a plan of action; as singeractors, it is the overt expression of our thoughts and emotions in the languages of music, words, and body. As we consider the functional anatomy of our motor systems and structures, and the development

of sensorimotor expertise, we are reminded that our various intelligences (bodily-kinesthetic, musical, etc.) form extensive networks to calculate the necessary temporal and spatial coordinates that synthesize the whole of our complex systems to enable the smooth production of equally complex sequences of behavior. In addition, we recognize that cognitive processing functions at conscious and unconscious levels; our motivational states (drives and emotions)

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stimulate each nuance of our intentions, and our autonomic system provides a reliable and “safe” foundation on which we craft our art. Above all, 100% of our nervous system is focused on the task at hand and participates in integrating information and synchronizing rhythms from throughout this vast, flexible, and adaptable systems network to create a phenomenal experience with every heartbeat. When discussing effective practice methods, a student recently asked, “What is talent, then?” This is a useful question. Although talent is a much debated topic, most agree that the vast majority of us enter this world uniformly equipped with basic musculoskeletal servo structures that are stimulated and guided (monitored and controlled) by an electrochemical nervous system, which is in turn motivated, or stimulated, by an intellectual, emotional, and physiological drive system. That is, we are born with fundamentally universal innate abilities that are seemingly infinitely variable (i.e., flexible and adaptable) to a variety of tasks, as well as to seemingly infinite development. We are both inspired by the awesome potential of our organism and humbled by our responsibility to develop our innate abilities to their highest level of expertise, recognizing that there are no shortcuts to developing talent. In considering our component behavior systems of singing, this book is not intended to provide a complete anatomical representation of our musculoskeletal systems and their mechanical functions. This information is readily available in many excellent texts and on various websites. Rather, this text will be most useful to highlight how our systems function from the practical perspective of neural anatomy and how we, through the application of cognitive bodily awareness, may optimize our systems’ performance in an ideal performing state. With the understanding that there remains much to be learned about the nature of our neurobio-chemical-physiological selves, it can serve us well to recall the analogy of the six blind men and the elephant, wherein each man with his own knowledge (stored information), limited perspective (new information), and unique motivations (guiding purpose), came to a very different conclusion regarding the animal each was studying. Therefore, we must consider conclusions carefully, noting their limitations and liabilities.

Similarly, when we consider our systems of singing, we must realize that our “elephant” operates optimally and ideally only as a cohesive unit. Addressing an individual component system is a clumsy process until it is integrated with the whole for a common outcome goal. Our best strategy for influencing smooth integration is to apply at frequent intervals throughout a practice session, the principles presented as What & When Planning (the planning processes of the working memory and goal state imagery) and Metamonitoring (the conscious monitoring of the unconscious monitoring and self-correction of output processing). Regarding our discussion of Chapter 2, Sensory Information Processing, we learned that cognitive processing is not just for the conscious brain. Our unconscious brain is capable of self-monitoring and self-correcting our behavior according to the voluntarily willed plan of action. It is capable of integrating externally generated sensory information and internally generated feedback information with existing knowledge (memory) to determine whether that information is consistent with both the plan of action and maintenance of homeostatic equilibrium, or if corrective action is needed, whether that corrective action may be managed unconsciously or if conscious attention is required. Regarding Chapter 3, Planning Voluntary Behavior, we learned that the working memory enables us to apply executive attention for the purpose of recollecting information from various systems throughout our network and synthesizing this information with novel incoming information to construct a unique (phenomenal) event that we experience internally as perceptual imagery and express overtly as motor output. In considering the dual-control model, we learned that the conscious and creative processes of the working memory benefit from our taking the time to develop rich (multimodal) and vivid perceptual imagery, while the unconscious production processes for motor output benefit from rapid and specific up-to-the-millisecond transfer of information to guide behavior optimally. In Chapter 3, “Learning and Memory,” it was suggested that the most workable of current motor theories presents motor memory, or procedural memory, as generalized motor plans of action that are infinitely variable to the task at hand. We now explore



Motor Output Processing

how this variability or adaptability is facilitated. For example, what it means for motor memory to be stored at the lowest levels of the motor hierarchy so as to be plastic and flexible, as well as how innate reflex acts such as reaching and grasping, and rhythmically repetitive behaviors such as walking and phonation, may be expertly modulated and guided by cortical controls (consciously willed intentions). Key Point:  The spinal cord, brainstem (e.g., vestibular nucleus), and cerebellum store a repertoire of innate reflex acts that may be conditioned as generalized motor plans of action and controlled from the frontal lobe (Fuster, 1997).

Finally, we also explore the development of technical and artistic expertise. Expert singers are mindful of a confluence of sensorimotor memories so as to consciously alter and guide the synchronized activation of the postural, respiratory, phonatory, and articulatory systems at a rapid-fire pace to meet the demands of the immediate task at hand — voluntarily and artistically. Therefore, the anatomy and function of our motor output processing systems are presented with respect to our ability to voluntarily adapt our lowerlevel production processes, and notably innate reflex controls, by means of upper-level direct and indirect controls, for the purpose of developing optimal and intuitive performance expertise. (You may wish to consult the “Illustrated Guide to Neural Anatomy” for the following discussions of the sensorimotor integration processes expertly employed by musicians, and more specifically by singers.)

Musculoskeletal Structures— General Anatomy and Function Skeletal (striated) muscles are attached (with some exceptions, such as the muscles of the tongue and pharynx) to the skeleton (Figure 4–1) by means of tendons, usually in pairs that pull in opposite directions. Many muscles are named for their skeletal attachments, such as the sternocleidomastoid muscles that position the head and the sternohyoid muscles that position the larynx. (See “The Neck and Head,” p. 164.)

Figure 4–1.  Skeletal structures. Source: LadyofHats, Mariana Ruiz Villarreal/Wikimedia Commons/publicdomain.

Skeletal (Striated) Muscle Function The primary function of a muscle is to contract and effect movement. To effect movement throughout the body, skeletal muscles integrate their action, varying their contractions according to the task at hand. Principle functions include cooperative agonist and antagonist pairings. Some common agonist

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and antagonist pairings include the quadriceps and hamstring muscles (e.g., kicking, or extending our leg) and the biceps and triceps muscles (e.g., bending our arm) (Figure 4–2). Agonist and antagonist pairings for posture, respiration, and phonation include spinal extensors and muscles of the abdominal wall (which effect erect posture), pectorals and latissimus dorsi (which effect shoulder rotation and raise the rib cage), and cricothyroids and thyroarytenoids (which effect pitch frequency control). The agonist, also known as the effector, is the primary muscle whose (concentric) contraction effects movement. (Just for fun: An efferent signal signals an effector, and an effector effects an effect.) The antagonist acts in opposition to the primary or agonistic muscle. The antagonistic muscle can facilitate movement when, by virtue of reciprocal inhibition of its own contraction, it passively lengthens (eccentric contraction), thereby enabling the agonistic muscle to contract. However, the antagonist is also capable of counterbalancing or equalizing the action of the agonist, such as when pulling against an external force, or even preventing movement altogether by virtue of its own contraction (isometric contraction). Muscles may also serve stabilizing and synergistic functions that assist in optimizing agonistic and antagonistic forces. A stabilizer provides a steadying force that “fixes” or anchors the skeletal structures from which other muscles act. A syner-

A.

gist controls the position of intermediate joints to assist in the smooth, unrestricted action of the primary movement muscle spanning those joints. For example, larger chest and back muscles (pectoralis major and latissimus dorsi) call on smaller stabilizing forces of the shoulder girdle to make sure that the force generated works within the desired plane of motion. Athletes may be familiar with muscle contractions relative to external forces with free weights or resistance training. Although the same kinds of contractions (e.g., isometric, eccentric, concentric) can result from forces within our own system, the reflexive nature of our local motor controls generates a very different kind of experience. (PAE 4–1: Hold Tray Level.) Before we address upper- and lower-level motor controls, and notably local reflex circuitry (which is essential to understanding rapidly repeating or reflexively resonant behaviors, such as continuous phonation and vibrato), we first need a better understanding of the “big picture.”

Axial, Proximal, and Distal Controls The separation of musculoskeletal structures into axial, proximal, and distal divisions provides a useful guideline for understanding the function of

B.

Figure 4–2.  Agonist and antagonist pairings. A. Biceps and triceps muscles. Courtesy of http://www.wpclipart.com. B. Crico­thyroid and thyroarytenoid muscles. From Voice Science, R. Sataloff, San Diego, CA: Plural Publishing, Inc. 2005. Used with permission.



various forces that are equalized to optimize our behavior systems (Figure 4–3). The axial musculature arises on the axial skeleton of the trunk. It stabilizes (extends and fixes) the vertebral spine and rib cage, assisting in respiration. The proximal structures function as both gross motor

Motor Output Processing

positioning and stabilizing forces in support of distal (distant) action, and as intermediary forces, connecting and equalizing the forces of the axial trunk and distal limb. Distal structures, such as our hands, are capable of producing fine motor action. Together, the proximal and distal structures form the appendages.

Figure 4–3.  Axial and appendicular skeletal structures. Source: Bruce Blaus/Wikimedia Commons/Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported.  continues

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Figure 4–3.  continued

Key Point:  There is no “gap” between the axial and distal forces. The proximal forces, with their gross motor actions, provide an equalizing link between fine motor controls and the sturdy righting forces of axial musculature. “Try it!” (PAE 4–1).

PAE 4–1:  Axial, Proximal, and Distal Controls: “Hold Tray Level.”  The following exercise explores

axial, proximal, and distal controls for holding a tray level (Figure 4–4). 1. Place the back of one hand on your back just above waistline and reach the other hand out in front of you. Notice the musculoskeletal action at your axial spine that equalizes the various motor and gravitational forces to successfully maintain postural stability.



Motor Output Processing

Figure 4–4.  “Hold tray level.”

2. Reach one hand away from your trunk with palm facing upward as if holding a waiter’s tray level. With the end goal of maintaining the position of the tray, have a partner place his or her fist on the “tray.” Because the weight of the fist is an unknown variable, it will be difficult to anticipate its force. Notice the reflex motor responses that quickly return the tray to a level position. That is, reflexive motor responses signaled at the spinal level quickly reorient our trunk and limb to gravity and space. 3. Repeat the exercise. Notice the gain in control. Now that you have a sense of the weight and speed (force) of the fist, your higher-level controls (e.g., cortex, brainstem) innately signal action in anticipation of a more accurately predicted change. Note: This innate behavior has become so intuitive that we are scarcely aware (conscious) that we are making such wellcalculated predictions.

Proximal and Distal Functions Our shoulder girdle and fingers provide the most common example of proximal and distal functions; however, we may extend our understanding of these functions to our pelvic girdle and feet, as well as our systems of singing. For example, the intrinsic muscles and cartilages of the larynx (Figure 4–5)

are capable of such rapidly tuned fine motor (distal) controls that their action can be perceived as vibration and sound, but not as sight because seeing is too slow. The extrinsic “strap” muscles of the larynx and hyoid bone (Figure 4–6) are the proximal structures that provide the intermediary equalizing link between the fine motor action of the distal larynx and the axial strength of the skeletal spine and rib cage. Moreover, although the shoulder blade (scapula), as well as the shoulder girdle as a whole, plays a pivotal role in linking the axial trunk to the arm, it also links the trunk to the larynx by way of the omohyoid. Similarly, although the pelvic girdle positions our legs and feet, it may also be thought of as proximal to the most distal respiratory forces of the pelvic floor and what singers refer to as tutti bocci chiusi (all openings closed). (See “The Core Muscles of the Lower Torso,” p. 161.) Finally, our feet are often considered an extension of axial controls, assisting in maintaining balance, albeit skillfully in the case of athletes and dancers. However, when people develop fine motor control of their feet to a level of expertise that rivals skilled hands, we marvel at the plasticity of our brain (nervous system). We are humbly reminded that expertise is developed from innate abilities — from instinct to intuition — over a lifetime of awareness, attentional focus, and practice. (These

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Figure 4–5.  Intrinsic structures of the larynx (distal). From Voice Science, R. Sataloff, San Diego, CA: Plural Publishing, Inc. 2005. Used with permission.

and other postural, respiratory, phonatory, and articulatory controls are further addressed in “Developing Expertise,” p. 135.)

A Distal State of Mind.  Motor output processing is often characterized as competition for attention. Earlier in our review of sensory input processes we learned the significance of selective attention as an innate ability for perceptual awareness (e.g., focusing our hearing on a single speaker in a crowded restaurant). Similarly, the ability to select and direct perceptual-motor signals is an innate skill that may

be developed to a level of expertise. From a practitioner’s point of view, it would seem that “a distal state of mind” accurately describes the experience of attentional focus on the task at hand when we simultaneously engage in multiple distal functions that are, by virtue of the working memory, synthesized in the expression of a single common task. Anecdote:  A vocal coach made an astute observation regarding gross motor and distal motor action and a singer’s ability to articulate accurate rhythms when learning Britten’s Albert Herring. When the singer used gross sweeping arm movements, he sang



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Figure 4–6.  Proximal structures of the neck (hyoid). Courtesy of Gray’s Anatomy and Christopher Moore.

inappropriately sweeping and vague rhythms. However, when the singer used his distal thumb and fingers to mark time, the singer was able to articulate his part with appropriately specific and exacting rhythms.

Axial, Proximal, and Distal Pathways The axial, proximal, and distal functions of our musculoskeletal structures are borne out in the topographical location of neural pathways in the spinal cord (Figure 4–7). For example, motor neurons innervating axial musculature (i.e., postural controls of the trunk) are located medially (toward the center), and those innervating the distal musculature (e.g., fingers) are located more laterally (toward the outside) (Purves et al., 2004, p. 373). Although it is not necessary to have an intimate knowledge of these pathways, you may find it helpful to have a general knowledge of the topography of some of these routes relative to their respective functions (Figure 4–8). This spatial organization provides clues about the functions of the neural pathways (tracts) descending from “upper” motor neurons in

the motor cortex and brainstem that control our postural, respiratory, and phonatory systems of singing. Pathways terminating primarily in the medial region of the spinal cord are concerned with axial postural controls, whereas other pathways terminate more laterally, where they have access to the lower motor neurons that control movements of the distal parts of the limbs, such as the toes and the fingers (Purves et al., 2004, p. 373).

Levels of Control Various levels of control provide flexibility in coordinating and adapting our generalized motor functions or plans of action for specific purposes (Figure 4–9). We will explore how the activation, force, sensitivity, and timing of innate behaviors such as standing erect, grasping, and phonation, which rely on lowerlevel reflex circuitry can be voluntarily initiated and modulated (facilitated or inhibited) by controls descending from higher brain areas.

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Figure 4–7.  Spinal cord section—“the headless homunculus.” Motor neurons that signal (innervate) axial musculature are located medially, or toward the middle of the spinal cord, whereas those innervating the distal musculature are located more laterally, or toward the sides of the spinal cord (Purves et al., 2004, p. 375). Courtesy of Kelsey Stalker.

Figure 4–8.  Schematic spinal cord section. Source: Polarlys/Wikimedia Commons/Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported.

Two sets of upper-level motor pathways make distinct contributions to the control of lower-level local motor circuitry in the brainstem and spinal cord. “One set originates from [upper] motor neu-

rons in brainstem centers — primarily the reticular formation and the vestibular nuclei — and is responsible for postural regulation. . . .The other major upper motor neuron pathway originates from the



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Figure 4–9.  Levels of control. The motor system consists of lower-level and upper-level controls located in the spinal cord, brainstem, motor and premotor cortices; and two subsystems, the basal ganglia and the cerebellum, that effect essential controlling influence through the thalamus.

frontal lobe and includes projections from the primary motor cortex and the nearby premotor areas. The premotor cortices are responsible for planning and selecting movements, whereas the primary motor cortex is responsible for their execution” (Purves et al., 2004, p. 415; see Figure 0–13). Two additional subsystems, the basal ganglia and the cerebellum, effect essential modulating influence on the motor plan of action indirectly, by regulating the activity of the upper motor neurons through thalamo-cortical connections (Purves et al., 2004, p. 373). Many of the functions of the premotor cortices, basal ganglia, and cerebellum relevant to generating a motor plan of action (e.g., selecting and sequencing movements) are familiar to us from our discussion of planning processes and notably the working memory. Although it is not considered to be part of the motor system, the limbic structures (see Figure 0–8) are involved in memory and learn-

ing, and drive related behavior and emotional functions that influence our ability to perform optimally (Dafny, n.d.).

Lower-Level Controls The Motor Unit—Contraction, Adaptation, and Variability of Force Muscles are stimulated to contract by a succession of rapid stimuli, or impulses from a motor neuron. A motor neuron (motoneuron) is a specialized cell of the nervous system that effects motor action. The purpose of stimulating a motor neuron is to effect movement. Therefore, a motor unit (Figure 4–10), composed of a single motor neuron and the muscle fibers it innervates, constitutes the smallest unit of force that can be activated to produce movement

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Figure 4–10.  The motor unit. Courtesy of Kelsey Stalker.

(Purves et al., 2004, p. 375). However, multiple motor units may be recruited to innervate a single muscle, thereby enabling us to vary the intensity of a contraction and the force of a movement. Although Figure 4–10 illustrates a lower motor neuron in the spinal cord, analogous sets of motor neurons in the brainstem are distributed among the eight motor nuclei of the cranial nerves that control muscles in the head and neck (e.g., articulatory and phonatory systems) (Purves et al., 2004, pp. 374–375). We describe further categorization of motor neurons by function and location (e.g., upper and lower motor neurons) throughout this chapter. Key Point:  The purpose of stimulating a motor neuron is to effect movement.

Motor Units and Force.  Motor neurons and the fibers they innervate (i.e., motor units) vary in type. Nearly all skeletal muscles are composed of slow tonic and fast-twitch, phasic fibers. Motor units that contract slowly and are slow to fatigue are the most easily activated and generate relatively small force. These slow tonic fibers “do

not contract with a twitch like most muscle fibers, instead, their contractions are prolonged, stable, precisely controlled, and fatigue resistant” (Han, Wang, Fischman, Biller, & Sanders, 1999). Considered unique to humans, these rare fibers are especially important for activities that require sustained muscular contraction, such as the continuous background muscle tone (tonus) required to maintain upright posture and phonation over extended periods of time. Slow tonic fibers have been detected predominantly in the vocalis compartment of the human thyroarytenoid (the vibrating part of the vocal fold) and are consistent with the unique characteristics of speech and singing (i.e., “a stable sound with a wide frequency spectrum that can be precisely modulated” [Han et al., 1999]). Intermediate forces are generated by fast-twitch, fatigue-resistant motor units, which generate about twice the force of a slow motor unit and are substantially more resistant to fatigue than the larger, fastfatiguing motor units. Fast-fatiguing motor units, composed of generally larger fibers, fire at the greatest speed, generate the most force, and are easily fatigued. These motor units have high activation thresholds that are reached only for rapid movements requiring brief exertions of large forces, such as running, jumping, or leaping to a high C (Purves et al., 2004). These functional distinctions between the various motor units can be seen in the structural differences among muscle groups, such as the larger and smaller muscles of the calf (Figure 4–11).

Motor Units and Muscle Adaptation. Muscles are sometimes thought of as “dark meat” or “light meat” depending on their primary function. “Muscles requiring rapid movement largely contain pale, fast fibers . . . and muscles doing sustained heavier work are of the red slow fiber type” (Tolo, 1997, p. 10). However, we can alter the dominant state or structure of a muscle through specialized training regimens that recruit a type of motor neuron. For example, muscle adaptation is indicated in the long-term effects of specialized training in athletes. “Muscle biopsies show that sprinters have a larger proportion of powerful but rapidly fatiguing pale fibers in their leg muscles than do marathoners” (Purves et al., 2004, pp. 375–377). In addition, bio-



Figure 4–11.  Calf muscles. “A motor unit in the soleus (a muscle important for posture that comprises mostly small, slow units) has an average innervation ratio of 180 muscle fibers for each motor neuron. In contrast, the gastrocnemius, a muscle that comprises both small and larger units, has an innervation ratio of ~1000–2000 muscle fibers per motor neuron, and can generate forces needed for sudden changes in body position” (Purves et al., 2004, p. 376). Courtesy of http://www.wpclipart.com.

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maintaining the necessary background muscle tone required for standing erect involves the continuous recruitment of slow motor units much like the regular, persistent, and predictable rhythmic force of an ostinato or Alberti bass line. Sustaining repetitive locomotive behaviors, such as walking or singing, will require the recruitment of the additional fast-twitch forces provided by intermediate fatigueresistant motor units. Maintaining a comfortable pace or “cruising” speed is accompanied by a sense of ease, as if we could do this all day. However, getting up to cruising speed will likely require the temporary recruitment of the forces of fast-fatiguing motor neurons. (See “Coactivation and Gamma Bias or Gain,” p. 114.) Recruitment of the appropriate forces (motor units) requires continuous up-to-the-millisecond updates on the state of muscle contraction provided by sensory receptors that detect the speed and amplitude (force) of a deformation, or change, in status. Therefore, to understand how we (our intelligent sensorimotor systems) maintain the correct muscle tone or force for any given action — to reach far enough, grasp a cup firmly enough, and hold a tray level enough (and analogous singing behaviors) — we will need to understand how sensory and motor neurons interface for reflexive controls at the level of local reflex circuitry in the spinal cord and brainstem.

Sensory-Guided Movement chemical contributions, such as increasing the blood flow that delivers oxygen and other nutrients (fatty acids) to a muscle, in effect, turn pink muscle to red muscle. The hyperventilation or high-level oxygenation employed by trained singers who sing at high lung volumes may account for the added endurance and robustness trained singers enjoy from their laryngeal muscles.

The Recruitment of Variable Force.  Of course, the purpose of muscle contraction is to produce the appropriate movement and generate the necessary force to accomplish the targeted end-goal task. The sequential recruitment of varied motor forces provides us with the ability to voluntarily execute finely tuned motor controls (Figure 4–12). For example,

Like each of our intelligences, bodily-kinesthetic intelligence is developed from innate abilities and knowledge (Gardner, 1982). Innate motor or sensorimotor memories are believed to involve spatiotemporal coordinates for homeostatic balance points as well as the ability to automatically monitor and reflexively signal corrections in muscle tone for the purpose of maintaining those innate coordinates. This memory is particularly notable when we understand that to accomplish movement, we cause either a deformation or divergence from both long-term innate memory points (e.g., standing erect, respiration) and the short-term memory of the last point of departure (e.g., leg position before knee-jerk reflex). To accomplish these functions, our motor systems rely on up-to-the-millisecond sensory information for guidance.

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Figure 4–12.  Variable force. A comparison of the force and fatigability of the three different types of motor units. In each case, the response reflects stimulation of a single motor neuron: A. Change in muscle tension in response to a single motor neuron action potential. B. Response to repeated stimulation at a level that evokes maximum tension. Note the strikingly different fatigue rates (Purves et al., 2004, p. 376). Courtesy of Kelsey Stalker (after Burke, Levine, Tsairis, & Zajac, 1973).

The differing contractions that effect various kinds of movement are mediated by corresponding controls at the level of local reflex circuitry. Understanding reflex controls as sensory-guided movement is essential to understanding not only postural controls and movement in general, but also the reflexively resonant (spontaneously recurring) phonatory oscillations of muscles of the larynx, which we perceive as a rhythmic variation of pitch and intensity, or vibrato. 1

Somatic (body) sensory receptors, or more specifically mechanoreceptors in skin, joints, muscles, and tendons, detect degree of displacement (amplitude) and force (intensity) over time (i.e., changes in our physical position or movement). These haptic (skin and joint) and kinesthetic (muscle and tendon) receptors are often among those broadly categorized as proprioceptors,1 or self- (proprio) sensors. The broadest categorizations of proprioceptors include the vestibular organs of the inner ears that both

 There are no specialized receptor cells for proprioception. Rather, proprioceptors are a subcategory of mechanoreceptors. The term has broadened such that it is nearly synonymous with mechanoreceptors — receptors responsible for detection of



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detect and predict our position relative to the velocity of our action and the forces of gravity. (See also Chapter 2, “Proprio-kinesthesis,” p. 31.)

Muscle Sense.  Two types of muscle receptors, the muscle spindles and the Golgi tendon organs, contribute to the local control of muscle tone and force signaled by local reflex circuitry in the spinal cord and brainstem. Muscle Spindle.  Like all mechanoreceptors that detect the amplitude and frequency of a deformation, muscle spindles detect the degree and speed of a change in muscle length. However, their stimulation and response is uniquely complex and remains somewhat mystifying. Fortunately for sensorimotor systems, greater complexity equals greater control. In our continuing discussion of local reflex circuitry and sensory-guided movement, we explore a few key features of the anatomy and function of muscle spindles, which clarify much of the confusion surrounding various kinds of reflexive controls for planned and unplanned actions, and particularly expert control of fine motor skills such as ongoing sustained phonation (phonatory oscillations and vibrato). Golgi Tendon Organs.  Golgi tendon organs are found in tendons at their junction with skeletal (striated) muscles. The Golgi tendon organ is a slowly adapting mechanoreceptor that is sensitive to the degree and rate of changes in muscle tension, with particular sensitivity to changes caused by active contraction, and to a lesser extent passive stretch. When a muscle actively contracts, the Golgi sensory receptors are compressed and remain active, continuously signaling the degree and rate of force for as long as the muscle remains contracted and tension is maintained. Arising afferent signals from the Golgi tendon organ are strongest when the contracted muscle bears a load, such as when lifting a heavy object (Dougherty, n.d. c.). Key Point:  The Golgi tendon organ monitors and signals muscle contraction against a force (mus-

cle tension), whereas the muscle spindle monitors and signals muscle stretch (muscle length) (Knierim, n.d.b.).

Other Somatic Senses Haptic Sense and Joint Receptors.  Located deep in our skin, including the skin that covers our bones (periosteum) and near the Golgi tendon organs, haptic and joint receptors are responsible for detecting changes in pressure coincident with movement within the body. It has been suggested that haptic sense (discriminative touch), such as our ability to detect bone-conducted vibrations at any point in our skeletal structure or motor action when our skin stretches, is primarily responsible for our conscious sense of position and motion and therefore the formation of our cortical “body map” (i.e., the topography of our somatic cortex, or “homunculus”). Mechanoreceptors of various types are also found in the connective tissue, capsule (sac surrounding the joints), and ligaments of joints. These receptors signal changes in the angle, direction, and velocity of movement in a joint. For example, receptors of the haptic (tactile) system include slowly adapting pressure sensors that signal the resting (static) position of the joint and rapidly adapting pressure sensors that signal vibration (Knierim, n.d.b.). Pain Sense (Nociception).  Pain sensors (nociceptors) are abundant in our muscles, tendons, joints, and ligaments. Characterized by their free nerve endings, nociceptors signal pain when conditions (e.g., heat) approach damage and are not considered to be part of the proprioceptive system. That is, while pain may be associated with a contracting force, pain signals are separate and distinct from those generated by mechanoreceptors that inform our sense of position, movement, and force. Key Point:  The redundancy, or multiplicity, of our sensory systems enables us to detect the information we want or need one way or another. That is, it has been suggested that information from

movement and force (changes in speed and amplitude over time) that in turn may be interpreted as the immediate position of any or all body parts. The distinction between position sense and motion sense seems to blur when a confluence of rising multimodal signals informs our sense of position relative to gravity and our internal and external environment over time, such that motion can be calculated or inferred.

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110 Mind-Body Awareness for Singers:  Unleashing Optimal Performance muscles, tendons, skin, and joints is combined to provide estimates; a kind of meta-cognitive inference of joint position and movement. For example, when the hip joint is replaced—removing all joint receptors—the ability to detect the position of the thigh relative to the pelvis is not lost (Dougherty, n.d. c.).

The Motor Unit and Its Muscle Spindle. Previously we learned that a motor neuron is a specialized cell of the nervous system that effects motor action, and a motor unit is composed of a single motor neuron and the muscle fibers it innervates. Figure 4–13 illustrates the sensory muscle spindle embedded within the muscle. Extrafusal fibers are what we might think of as “normal” muscle fibers that are innervated to contract a muscle. Intrafusal fibers are imbedded in the muscle (encapsulated; fusal = capsule) and coiled by

Figure 4–13.  Motor unit and muscle spindle. Extrafusal and intrafusal fibers are innervated (stimulated) by signals from separate and distinct alpha and gamma motor neurons. An alpha motor neuron innervates the “normal” extrafusal fibers, and a gamma motor neuron transmits collateral information, or a copy of the motor signal, to the intrafusal fibers of the muscle spindle to prime, or sensitize, the muscle spindle for a planned or anticipated action. Courtesy of Kelsey Stalker.

the dendrite of its sensory neuron like a spindle. This uniquely intimate arrangement allows for rapid-fire direct and reflexive communication between the sensory and motor systems and ultimately up-tothe-millisecond control of fine motor actions. The muscle spindle might be viewed as a physiological union of our integrative sensory and motor systems, and the “stretch” reflex as one of the simplest and most direct examples of sensorimotor integration.

Local Reflex Circuitry and Voluntary Adaptation The Muscle Spindle and the “Stretch” Reflex. ​ When we hear the term reflex, we often think of the knee-jerk reflex that occurs when a tapping force on the tendon below the knee effects an instantaneous reflex response and the lower leg swings forward (Figure 4–14).

Figure 4–14.  Myotatic “stretch” reflex circuit. When the muscle spindle detects (is deformed by) a sudden unanticipated stretch of a muscle, it transmits excitatory signals directly to motor neurons, which in turn signal immediate contraction of the same muscle (reciprocal innervation). Courtesy of Kelsey Stalker.



The stretch reflex, or myotatic reflex, occurs when the sensory muscle spindle detects a sudden, unanticipated change in muscle length (stretch) and transmits excitatory signals directly to motor neurons, which in turn signal immediate reciprocal contraction of the same muscle. However, the stretch reflex is not an isolated event. In most cases, muscles work in cooperating agonist and antagonist pairings. For example, with the knee-jerk reflex, in order for the agonistic quadriceps muscle to contract, the antagonistic hamstring muscle must lengthen until the leg is returned to a resting position and tone (Figure 4–15). To mediate the coordinated action of opposing muscle groups, the sensory nerve arising from the muscle spindle in the primary agonistic muscle splits (bifurcates). One branch transmits signals for the same (homonymous) muscle to contract and the other transmits signals to an interneuron, which in turn inhibits the contraction of the opposing antagonistic muscle and it passively lengthens (reciprocal inhibition).

Figure 4–15.  Knee-jerk reflex (polysynaptic). Courtesy of Kelsey Stalker.

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Key Point: The involvement of an interneuron means increased complexity, and therefore increased control. An interneuron is perfectly situated within the central nervous system (CNS) to process and transmit information to a motor neuron. For example, an interneuron may receive signals from ascending and descending pathways and therefore be influenced by a confluence of proprio-kinesthetic information (from receptors in skin, joints, and muscles) and upper-level motor controls (i.e., willed intentions).

As one might imagine, we may adapt a series of similar reflex controls to optimize muscle tone for everyday voluntary activities, such as grasping a glass of water or holding a tray level, or even highly skilled repetitive actions such as running, juggling, and singing. A reflex is a local motor response to a local sensation; an unlearned automatic behavior that may be influenced by higher control centers. It is “a relatively stereotyped movement or response elicited by a stimulus applied to the periphery, transmitted to the central nervous system and then transmitted back out to the periphery . . . Most reflexes are ‘involuntary’ in the sense that they occur without the person willing them to do so, but all of them can be brought under ‘voluntary’ control” (Mann, 1997–2014, p. 15–1).

Local Reflex Circuitry and Everyday Tasks. Local reflex circuitry within the spinal cord (and analogous brainstem nuclei) mediates a number of sensorimotor reflex actions. To understand how reflex controls function for everyday tasks, we look to our example of holding a tray steady, away from our body and level with the floor. In response to a simple yet conscious executive plan of action, “Hold tray level,” our sensory systems provide continuous updates on the status of muscle tone (degree and rate of change in muscle contraction and length). In turn, these sensory information updates signal continuous reflexive motor responses that effect corrective actions — that is, unconscious controls, at the level of local reflex circuitry, mediate rapid corrections or adjustments

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that maintain optimal muscle tone. Because the signal for a muscle to contract originates with the sensory muscle spindle, we view sensory signals as guiding, or mediating, movement. These local controls can occur without conscious mediation; thus, these actions are reflexes. In addition, because reflexes can occur without external stimulus, these controls are spontaneous. Moreover, when these reciprocal reflexes are spontaneously repeated in rapid succession, they become reflexively resonant. Key Point:  Our sensorimotor systems are selfmonitoring and self-correcting according to the plan of action, such as, “Hold tray level.”

Normally, as the arm extends even slightly when holding an object, the stretching biceps muscle activates the muscle spindle (sensory neuron), which signals the motor neuron (alpha) to make small corrective contractions that maintain the arm position (Figure 4–16). In most cases, this action, occurring at the local level of the spinal reflex circuit, remains unnoticed by our conscious executive brain. As a reflex, this action can operate without conscious attention to each minute adjustment, and any

Figure 4–16.  “Holding tray level.”

attempt to consciously control, or “micromanage,” such adjustments will likely result in clumsy, lessthan-optimal performance. As per executive ignorance, reflex controls necessarily free our conscious mind so that we can “keep our eye on the ball” or “ear to the ground” and anticipate what is next. In an earlier exercise (PAE 4–1), when our partner dropped a fist of an unpredictable force and weight on our “tray,” the increased weight stretched our biceps muscle dramatically and stimulated an equally forceful reflexive response. That is, the muscle stretch activated the sensory muscle spindle, which synapsed directly with the alpha motor neuron which in turn signaled immediate contraction of the same biceps muscle — a response that was activated more rapidly than we could have responded with a consciously attended (perceived, planned, and initiated) reaction. However, when we repeated the exercise and we could anticipate the force of the fist with greater accuracy, the reflex response adapted, adjusting the reflex for a smoother, “smarter” action. A closer look at lower-level reflex circuitry and upper-level controls will illuminate why this is so.

Golgi Tendon Organ and Autogenic Inhibition Reflex—Maintaining Optimal Force. When a muscle passively lengthens, most of the change in length occurs in the muscle fibers and therefore primarily activates the muscle spindles. However, when a muscle contracts, the force acts directly on the tendon and therefore increases the activity in the Golgi tendon organs and the active lengthening of a muscle via the autogenic inhibition reflex (Purves et al., 2004, p. 382). Unlike the excitatory muscle spindle, which causes contraction of the same muscle, the Golgi tendon circuit inhibits contraction of the same muscle. It is a negative feedback system that regulates muscle tension by inhibiting the contraction of select motor units and thereby decreasing muscle force. Like the stretch reflex, the autogenic inhibition reflex must coordinate the activity of agonistic and antagonistic muscle pairings. Therefore, the afferent nerve (axon) likewise bifurcates, one branch signaling (innervating) the inhibitory interneuron for the same muscle, and the other signaling (innervating) the excitatory interneuron for the antagonistic muscle. “Thus, when the [same] homonymous muscle



Motor Output Processing

is inhibited from contracting, the antagonist muscle is caused to contract, allowing the opposing muscle groups to work in synchrony” (Knierim, n.d.c.) It was once thought that autogenic inhibition was a protective reflex, guarding musculoskeletal structures from damaging contracting force. However, the activity of the Golgi tendon organ at low levels of force suggests that, “if some muscle fibers are bearing more of the load than others, their Golgi tendon organs will be more active, which will tend to inhibit the contraction of those fibers. As a result, other muscle fibers that are less active will have to contract more to pick up the slack, thereby sharing the work load more efficiently” (Knierim, n.d.c.). In this way, the exquisitely sensitive Golgi tendon organ functions to maintain an optimal and steady level of force for the task at hand (e.g., to “reach far enough,” to “grasp firmly enough”). Moreover, Golgi tendon organs help to ensure smooth onset and termination of muscle contraction, which is particularly important in rapid and reflexively resonant behaviors such as singing (Purves et al., 2004, p. 383). Key Point:  Acting in concert, the muscle spindle and Golgi tendon organ reflex circuits mediate up-to-the-millisecond corrective reflex actions that maintain optimal muscle tone for the preset (innate) or prescribed (voluntary) task at hand.

Voluntary Adaptation of Complex Reflex Circuitry—Gain and Timing Controls. The complexity of sensorimotor integration in local reflex circuitry demonstrates the degree of sophistication that exists at the lowest level of motor control. Moreover, we begin to see how the interneuron facilitates upper-level controls and willed intentions by modulating reflex actions so as to perform a variety of specialized and even imaginatively phenomenal behaviors. At times the optimal pathway from sensation to action is direct. “In most cases, however, cognitive processing occurs to make actions adaptive and appropriate for the particular situation” (Knierim, n.d.b.). In the flexor (withdrawal) and crossed extensor (stepping) reflexes, we learn how additional circuitry enables us to voluntarily regulate light touch sensitivity (gain) and timing controls for phonation (e.g., vibrato rate). Flexor “Withdrawal” Reflex.  The flexor, or “withdrawal,” reflex, is initiated by pain receptors deep in our skin. When we touch something hot or step on a sharp object, the pain receptor (nociceptor) signals an excitatory interneuron, which in turn signals an alpha motor neuron to contract the flexor muscle, and we reflexively withdraw our limb even before we perceive the pain consciously (Tamarkin, 2011; Figure 4–17). By processing information at the level

Figure 4–17.  Flexor “withdrawal” reflex.

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of our local reflex circuitry, this protective reflex occurs more rapidly than if the pain signal had to reach our cortex for a conscious decision to initiate withdrawal. Our ability to use caution when handling potentially painful or otherwise unpleasant objects demonstrates that these automatic reflexes can be modulated (facilitated or inhibited) by higher levels of control. As per anticipatory controls, we can hypersensitize our flexor reflex. If we think a pan is hot, we may withdraw our hand repeatedly even before we touch it. Conversely, if we remove a hot dish from the oven and the heat starts to go through the oven mitt, we will suppress the flexor response so that we do not drop our dinner as we rush to put it down on a table (Knierim, n.d.c.) “Try it!” (PAE 4–2A).

PAE 4–2A: Flexor “Withdrawal” Reflex and Coactivation (Gamma Bias and Gain). With a partner, play “the slap game” (see single-person variation below). 1. Person 1: Hold your hands out in front of you, palms up. Person 2: Hold your hands just above your partner’s, with palms down. Person 1: Try to slap your partner’s hands before they are withdrawn. 2. Person 1: Tap your partner’s hands with your index finger and withdraw your hands rapidly. Person 2: As soon as you sense your partner tap your hands, signaling “go,” slap your partner’s hands. 3. Repeat Number 2 above while singing (e.g., do mi sol sol sol mi do). Do you sense a quicker reflex response or a lighter touch to your vocalism? Variation:  Play “hot potato.” Toss a ball from hand to hand when singing. Then, when tossing the ball from hand to hand and singing, imagine that the ball is a hot potato.

Coactivation and Gamma Bias or Gain. The previous exercises demonstrate the gain referenced in Ingo Titze et al.’s model of vocal vibrato as reflex resonance. “It is shown that singers appear to increase the gain in the reflex loop to cultivate the vibrato” (Titze, Story, Smith, & Long, 2002) and,

we could add, the whole of our systems of singing. Given the significance of heightened sensitivity, or gain control, to postural and fine motor controls such as phonation (vibrato rate), it will be useful to understand how local reflexive circuitry is modulated by upper-level controls. If we take a closer look at local circuitry (see Figure 4–13), we see that there are two types of motor neurons, alpha (a) and gamma (γ). An alpha motor neuron innervates what we might think of as “normal” extrafusal muscle fibers that effect movement and generate force. A gamma motor neuron innervates the encapsulated intrafusal fibers of the muscle spindle. We have seen that when a muscle is stretched unexpectedly, such as when testing the knee-jerk reflex or when we are jostled while standing on a bus or train, the muscle stretch deforms the spindle and its intrafusal muscle fibers, which in turn signals the alpha motor neuron to effect rapid and reflexive corrective action, restoring spindle activity to its previous state. Thus, the stretch reflex operates as a negative feedback loop that stimulates corrective action. However, the level of gamma motor neuron activity (i.e., gamma bias or gain), and therefore muscle spindle sensitivity, can be adjusted voluntarily by feedforward controls. For example, when we anticipate a movement, such as when we initiate the cortical directive to “Hold tray level” or “Stay standing” while balancing on a moving train, we voluntarily modulate the sensitivity of our reflex circuitry. If the gain of a reflex is high, as per heightened awareness, just a small amount of stretch will produce a large increase in both the firing rate (speed) and number (volume) of motor units recruited; this in turn effects a large increase in contracting force for less energy spent, or less effort. In other words, we get more bang for our buck and less is more. Conversely, if the gain is low, as per relaxed attention, greater stretch is required to produce the same contracting force (Purves et al., 2004, p. 379). In fact, the sensitivity or gain of the stretch reflex is adjusted continuously to compensate for changes in our internal and external environment in service to optimal performance of the current plan of action. “In general, the baseline activity level of γ motor neurons is high if a movement is relatively difficult and demands rapid and



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precise execution, [even under] . . . .unpredictable conditions" (Purves et al., 2004, pp. 381–382). Key Point:  Coactivation of the alpha and gamma motor neurons means gamma motor neurons can regulate the gain of muscle spindles so they can operate efficiently at any length of the muscle. Therefore, gamma bias and gain control correlate directly with attentional focus, heightened awareness, and ease. (See “Direct and Indirect Cortical Controls,” p. 131.)

Crossed Extensor “Stepping” Reflex—Timing Controls and Reflex Resonance. The crossed extensor “stepping” reflex is closely associated with the flexor “withdrawal” reflex. For example, when we step on a sharp object, in order to withdraw our leg from the painful stimulus, we simultaneously extend the opposite leg and transfer our weight in order to maintain our balance (see Figure 4–17). The inclusion of interneurons and additional circuitry (Figure 4–18) means the reflex is adaptable to the task and able to be modulated by upper-level

Figure 4–18.  Flexor “withdrawal” reflex circuitry. Courtesy of Kelsey Stalker.

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controls, such as the voluntary command to “Stay standing” under variable conditions. Moreover, specialized local circuits (interneurons), called central pattern generators, are believed to form “a neuronal network capable of generating a rhythmic pattern of motor activity,” such as the recurring oscillations, or reflex resonance, required for phonation and locomotion (Purves et al., 2004, p. 387). Studies of repetitive locomotor behaviors (e.g., walking) have demonstrated that central pattern generators are essential to much of the spatial coordination and timing of muscle activation required for complex rhythmic movements and are capable of adjusting these actions in response to altered circumstances (Purves et al., 2004, p. 387). For example, if babies are held erect and moved over a horizontal surface, rhythmic stepping movements of the stepping reflex take place. A central pattern generator is a neuronal circuit, or network, “capable of generating a rhythmic pattern of motor activity,” which is essential to much of the spatial coordination and timing of muscle activation required for complex rhythmic movements (i.e., oscillations, or reflex resonance) (Purves et al., 2004, p. 387). Because of the essential role of central pattern generators in our local circuitry, interruption such as nerve damage (e.g., damage to the peripheral axons of motor neurons) results in paralysis (loss of movement) or paresis (weakness) of the affected muscles, a loss of reflexes, and loss of muscle tone (Purves et al., 2004, p. 389). For example, damage to the recurrent nerve (as might occur temporarily due to acute acid reflux) results in partial paralysis or paresis of the larynx. However, basic rhythmic patterns of movement are not solely dependent on externally generated sensory inputs, nor are they solely dependent on input from descending projections from higher centers (Purves et al., 2004, p. 389). Key Point:  Research suggests recurring rhythmic patterns of movement involve a dependence on both local circuitry and upper motor neuron pathways. Human studies in the ability to mediate

rhythmically coordinated movements following damage to either local motor neurons or descending spinal pathways suggest walking upright (bipedal locomotion) requires more sophisticated postural controls than can be facilitated by local oscillatory circuitry and ongoing external stimulus, such as a treadmill, alone (Purves et al., 2004, p. 389). (See “Direct and Indirect Cortical Controls,” p. 131.)

Previously, parallels between locomotion and phonation were observed in the vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR), which is, intriguingly, activated when we sing. The VOR effects a subtle forward rotation of our head and a fixing of our eyes in order to gather information essential for stabilizing upright posture (axial balance) and equalizing our sense of position during ongoing reflexively repetitive activities such as walking and phonation. Young singers are likely to extend their head forward “as if preparing to walk” at the onset of a phrase. Additional parallels between locomotion and phonation may be drawn from the timing controls of our local reflex circuitry that regulate rhythmically repetitive or resonant behaviors, such as phonatory oscillations (vibrato rate). Key Point: Reflexively resonant patterns of motor activity are normally synchronized or rhythmically entrained with those of the whole of the nervous system as a means of effecting smoothly coordinated behaviors (i.e., optimal performance) and regulating homeostatic equilibrium. (See also Chapter 5, “Rhythm and Rhythmic Entrainment,” p. 174.)

Dual-Phase Cycle for Locomotion and Phonation. Locomotion may be described as a dual-phase cycle involving extension and flexion, or a stance phase that propels us forward and a swing phase that lifts the leg and swings it forward to begin the next cycle (Figure 4–19). Although increases in the speed of locomotion reduce the amount of time it takes to complete a cycle, “most of the change in cycle time is due to shortening the stance phase” (Purves et al., 2004, p. 387). We experience a similar dual-phase process in the phonatory cycle, where the compression phase is analogous to the stance phase for locomotion. Similarly, we might rightly conclude that



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Figure 4–19.  Dual-phase cycle. A. Locomotion. From The Hearing Sciences, Second Edition, Hamill & Price, San Diego, CA: Plural Publishing, Inc., 2008. Used with permission. B. Phonation. From Radionoff (2008). Used with permission.

a reduction in the compression phase of phonation would likewise reduce the time it takes to complete the phonatory cycle and increase vibrato rate. Previously with the withdrawal reflex exercise (PAE 4–2A), “Flexor 'Withdrawal' Reflex and Coactivation (Gamma Bias and Gain),” we experienced how gamma bias, or gain control, heightened the sensitivity of our muscle spindle and effected reduced reflex response times and a lighter touch. This timing variability is also evident for ongoing, reflexively resonant behaviors, such as when grasping a hot plate or singing lightly. “Try it!” (PAE 4–2B).

PAE 4–2B: Gamma Gain—Hot Potato and Light Touch.  Make an audio recording of your singing for the following exercises: 1. Hot Potato a. Sing a single vowel on a single pitch in your middle range for several seconds. b. Repeat the vocal exercise above while holding a ball or other object in each hand “as if” it were a hot potato or delicate object that you do not want to drop. Note the

heightened sensitivity (gain) in the light touch of your grasp. 2. Light Touch a. Sing a single vowel on a single pitch in your middle range for several seconds. b. Repeat the vocal exercise above while touching your middle finger to your thumb as lightly as possible. When reviewing your recording or observing another singer doing this exercise, you will likely hear that gain control effects a smoother vibrato, characterized by reduced pitch frequency variation, or excursion (amplitude) and a subtle increase in oscillation frequency rate (vibrato rate). Pressure sensors in your skin are able to detect changes in oscillation frequency during live performance. To heighten your awareness of tactile feedback, repeat the vocal exercise above while lightly touching your larynx (thyroid shield) and trachea with your fingertips. You will soon be able to sense this information from receptors in your internal skin (periosteum) as part of your global sense of your own voice while singing.

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Note:  For the previous exercise, it has been suggested that you study a recording of your own voice, rather than attend to “live” auditory feedback during singing. Preliminary clinical research indicates that when the singer attends to acoustic auditory feedback for control of vocal vibrato rate (LeighPost, 2012), performance is adversely affected by the same processing delays as those inherent in acoustic feedback for pitch frequency control (Howell, 1985; see also Chapter 2 “Perception of One’s Own Voice While Singing”).

Gain and Timing Controls in the Vocal Vibrato. The previous exercise raises two points worthy of closer attention: the firmly wired timing controls inherent in sensorimotor processing and the (albeit subtle) variability in vibrato rate. Researchers generally agree that vibrato extent is more controllable by a singer than vibrato rate. However, we must bear in mind that researchers generally record averages over extended phrases, a condition under which frequency rates do not change appreciably. Vibrato rate variability is evidenced in an historic shift in average vocal vibrato frequency rates by a full cycle per second, from 6.5 Hz (e.g., Enrico Caruso [Dejonckere et al., 1995]) to 5.5 Hz (e.g., Luciano Pavarotti [Keidar, Titze, & Timberlake, 1984]) (Titze et al., 2002). Moreover, our ability to vary vibrato frequency rate for expressive effect is supported by Prame’s (1994) study of 10 classically trained recording artists singing Schubert’s Ave Maria. Although he reported an average vibrato frequency rate of 6.0 Hz, Prame also noted that “all of the singers tended to raise their vibrato frequencies at the end of each note. In particular, the last four to five vibrato cycles typically rose from 6.0 to 7.0 Hz. In the more central portion of the phrase, however, the frequency was often below 6.0 Hz, typically about 5.5 to 5.8 Hz” (cited by Titze et al., 2002). This variation in vibrato frequency rate is consistent with the fluctuation in force that occurs with the rhythmic expression of metrical patterns, and our ability to modulate behavior in general. (See also “Postural and Respiratory Controls,” p. 135.) More specifically, our ability to vary the force, extent, and frequency of phonatory oscillations exemplifies vocal expertise as a skill built on the innate expressive abilities of the vocal gesture.

Generally, in order for neuronal firing to occur, two conditions must be met: a neuron’s action potential must have returned to its resting potential phase, and the stimuli must be great enough to breach the threshold (Figure 4–20). However, neuronal firing may be generated at an earlier point, during the relative refractory period, if the energy stimulus is great enough. Thus, the extent to which we can increase the speed of repetitive actions lies both in the firmly wired speed with which an action potential can reset and in the variable speed with which we can generate enough energy to stimulate firing. Similarly, the extent to which we may slow the rate of a rhythmically repetitive spontaneous action, such as phonatory oscillations and vibrato rate, would also be regulated both by lower-level controls that generate reflex resonance and upper-level controls that modulate behavior according to artistic taste (our musical ear). If activations are spaced too far apart or occur too slowly (3 Hz or less), we will hear either complete separation or an unappealing perturbation — a sagging pitch frequency, or wobble. Try it!” (PAE 4–2C). Key Point:  Phonatory oscillation, or vibrato rate variability, is limited at one end of the spectrum by the maximum speed of potentiation and at the other by the ability to maintain the illusion of continuity of pitch and sustained legato.

PAE 4–2C: Gain, Timing Controls, and Phonation (Vibrato Frequency and Extent).  Make an audio recording of the following exercise: Closely monitor a second hand or set a metronome to 60 seconds. Subdivide the beat variously from 4 to 8 while singing on /i/ and /a/ in your midrange. To heighten muscle sensitivity and your awareness of oscillation rate, place your fingertips on the laryngeal trifecta (base of thyroid shield, trachea at sternum, and skeletal spine at your seventh cervical vertebra). Review audio recording. An acoustic fading, or “sag,” in the auditory signal occurs over the course of each phonatory oscillation cycle. This means that although the initial articulation of a pitch may be in tune, auditory perception is such that a time lag results in hearing a pitch sag. Consequently, auditory feed-



Motor Output Processing

Figure 4–20.  Action potential. Source: Chris73/Wikimedia Commons/Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported.

back effects corrective action according to the feedforward intention, “Sing this pitch.” That is, consistent with upper-level mediation of reflex controls, it has been suggested that the phonatory oscillations associated with vocal vibrato and its characteristic variations in fundamental frequency may be stimulated and sustained by a negative feedback control loop within the auditory system. A pitch-shift reflex was found to be “triggered in response to discrepancies between intended and perceived pitch with a latency of approximately 100 ms . . . resulting in approximately 5-Hz modulation of [fundamental frequency] . . . [where peak] gains occurred in the modulation frequency region where the voice output and auditory feedback signals were in phase” (Leydon, Bauer, & Larson, 2003).

The vocal vibrato has been described as a sympathetic (if not synergistic) oscillation phenomenon among laryngeal muscles (Titze et al., 2002), where consecutive compensatory reflexive responses effect oscillations in pitch every approximately 170 to 200 ms, resulting in approximately 5- to 6-Hz modulation of fundamental frequency (Leydon et al., 2003; Titze et al., 2002).

Reflex Resonance and Phonatory Oscillations (Vibrato).  The basic hypothesis for a model of vocal vibrato as reflex resonance presented by Titze et al. (2002) is based on the premise that reflex gains and delays resonate (i.e., effect recurring patterns of spontaneous action). “A reflex mechanism [involv-

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ing] at least one pair of agonist-antagonist muscles that can change vocal-fold length can produce negative feedback instability in vocal-fold length with a long reflex latency, producing oscillations on the order of 5–7 Hz” (Titze et al., 2002). Muscle pairings that produce ongoing and reflexively resonant behaviors for singing include the cricothyroid, and possibly the thyroarytenoid, lateral cricoarytenoid, or sternothyroid. The looping of reflex controls for the pairing of the thyroarytenoid (TA) and cricothyroid (CT) muscles thought to effect phonatory oscillations and vocal vibrato (Figure 4–21) as presented by Titze et al. (2002), would unfold as follows2: 1. A twitch-like contraction in the CT muscle simultaneously signals proportional lengthening3 of the opposing TA muscles via reciprocal inhibition.

Figure 4–21. Sequence of reflex controls for resonant action of the cricothyroid and thyroarytenoid pairing (vocal vibrato). Contraction of the cricothyroid muscle pulls the thyroid cartilage downward and slightly forward which in turn increases the length of the vocal folds. From Voice Science, R. Sataloff, San Diego, CA: Plural Publishing, Inc., 2005. Used with permission. 2

2. The lengthening (stretch) of the TA muscle triggers muscle spindles that signal reciprocal contraction of the same TA muscles and reciprocal inhibition (lengthening) of the opposing CT muscle. 3. The lengthening (stretch) of the CT muscle activates the CT muscle spindles that signal the contraction of the same CT muscle, and the reflex loop repeats (i.e., resonates).

Summary Rhythmic and reflexively resonant patterns of motor activity are normally synchronized, or entrained, with those of the whole of the nervous system as a means of effecting smoothly coordinated behaviors (optimal performance) and regulating homeostatic equilibrium (ideal performing state). Therefore, it is not surprising that reflexively resonant and rhythmic oscillations have been observed throughout our behavior systems for singing. “Rhythmic oscillations have been observed in the activity of laryngeal (Hsaoi et al., 1994; Koda & Ludlow, 1992; Niimi et al., 1988), respiratory (Rothenberg et al., 1988), and articulatory (Inbar & Eden, 1983; Sapir & Larson, 1993) muscles during vocal vibrato” (Leydon et al., 2003) As previously noted, these oscillations may result from activity of a feedback control system associated with stretch receptors in muscles (Lippold, 1971) and central pattern generators (central oscillators), as well as autonomic cardiovascular controls (ballistocardiograph4), and resonant (repetitive) and nonresonant (asynchronous) discharge of large motor units (Leydon et al., 2003; Marsden, 1984). Key Point:  Research indicates basic oscillatory circuits (i.e., central pattern generators, or interneuronal networks) that control repetitive rhythmic patterns of behavior, such as the vibrato rate associated with phonatory oscillations, reflect an

 The complete cycle, together with extensive calculations for the gains and delays inherent in sensorimotor integration for resonant behaviors, is calculated in A Reflexive Resonance Model of Vocal Vibrato (Titze et al., 2002). 3  Titze et al. (2002) refer to changes in muscle length as changes in muscle strain, where an increase in muscle length signals increased strain, and muscle contraction signals reduced strain. 4  Ballistocardiograph is a device used to determine the volume of blood passing through the heart in a specific period of time and the force of cardiac contraction by measuring the body’s recoil as blood is ejected from the ventricles with each heartbeat (The American Heritage® Medical Dictionary Copyright © 2007, 2004 by Houghton Mifflin Company).



Motor Output Processing

increased dependency of local reflex circuitry on upper motor neuron pathways. As a result, regular and frequent initiation of direct and indirect cortical controls that correlate with the voluntary command, “Sing this pitch” are essential to the integration of our complex systems as a whole.

More generally, we have seen how skeletal (striated) muscle contraction is initiated by lower motor neurons (in the spinal cord and the brainstem via cranial nerves) that are controlled by specialized local circuits (central pattern generators), which are responsible for determining the spatial and temporal patterns of activation (timing and degree of force). In order to accomplish this feat — to calculate the complex coordinates that regulate muscle tone and synchronize rhythmically repetitive behaviors locally — lower-level reflex circuitry relies on direct sensory input. However, the separate and discrete nature of local reflex circuitry means lower-level controls alone will result in behaviors that are disjunct and uncoordinated. Therefore, expert performance of fluid and smoothly integrated complex behaviors relies increasingly on the modulating influences of both conscious and unconscious upper-level controls. We now explore the essential nature of direct and indirect cortical controls and their influence on the development of expert control of complex local circuitry and ultimately the whole of our systems of singing.

Upper-Level Controls Direct and indirect pathways stemming from upperlevel controls provide seemingly infinite flexibility in coordinating and adapting generalized motor plans of action to specialized tasks such as speech and singing. For example, sensory-guided reflexes at the level of local circuitry, such as postural and respiratory reflex controls, may be voluntarily initiated and modulated (facilitated or inhibited) by higher brain areas for optimal synchronous entrainment with the whole of our systems of singing. This explicates how, one way or another and for better or worse, voluntary behaviors, such as singing, are the result of willed intentions and are influenced by our thoughts and feelings, percepts, and emotions.

In the introductory discussion of sensorimotor processing (Chapter 1), it was suggested that our actions are best understood as goal-directed behavior. Accordingly, planning processes are described in terms of anticipatory control and goal-state imagery, and motor output as a sensory-guided self-monitoring and correcting servomechanism operating largely below the level of consciousness in response to our willed intentions. That is, as the previous exploration of lower-level controls demonstrated, our innate motor reflexes can be influenced, and even expertly modulated and adapted, by upperlevel controls. As such, when performing optimally, the whole of our nervous system, mind and body, is 100% focused on musical expression. As neuroanatomist Andrew Arthur Abbie speculated in 1934, “the pathways from the brainstem and cerebellum to the frontal lobes are capable of weaving all sensory experience and accurately coordinating muscular movements into a ‘homogeneous fabric’ and that when this occurs the result is ‘man’s highest powers as expressed . . . in art’” (cited by Levitin, 2006, p. 210). The following description of projections from upper-level motor control areas in the cortex and brainstem, and the modifying influences of the basal ganglia, cerebellum, and limbic structures will, at least to some extent, further our understanding as to how this is accomplished.

Modulating Influences—The Basal Ganglia and Cerebellum Two subsystems located at the top of the brainstem (Figure 4–22) — the basal ganglia and the cerebellum — are thought to effect essential modulating influences on motor programs, such as speech production, as well as the mediation of reproducible movements such as walking, laughing, juggling, and sustained phonation (Perkins & Kent, 1986, p. 448).

Basal Ganglia.  The basal ganglia consist of a group of structures embedded subcortically in the depths of the forebrain that receive and process motor information from the motor and premotor cortices and sensory information from the sensory and association cortices. The basal ganglia either facilitate or inhibit the thalamus from projecting information back to the cortex for behaviors requiring conscious

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Figure 4–22. Cortical and subcortical structures. Courtesy of Christopher Moore. Adapted from Myslin/Grays 728/Wikimedia Commons/public domain.

attention (cortical mediation) or “bypass” the cortex and project information to the cerebellum and brainstem control centers. As per selective attention, the amplification of necessary information and the inhibition of unnecessary information for the immediate task are essential to optimal performance. For example, too much cortical mediation results in disorganized random movements (hyperkinetic disorders). Too little cortical mediation results in difficulty in initiating and ceasing movement (hypokinetic disorders). “The basal ganglia suppress unwanted movements and prepare [i.e., prime] upper motor neuron circuits for the initiation of movements” (Purves et al., 2004, pp. 372–374). The difficulties associated with disorders of basal ganglia, such as Parkinson disease (difficulty initiating movement) and Huntington disease (difficulty ceasing movement), attest to the importance of our ability to voluntarily control the initiation and cessation of select movements.

The Cerebellum.  The cerebellum is located to the rear of the brainstem (dorsal surface of the Pons). Meaning “little cerebrum,” the cerebellum contains about half of the brain’s neurons divided into two main components: a cerebellar cortex and the deep cerebellar nuclei (Purves et al., 2004, p. 438). The cerebellum is perhaps best known for its role in learning and memory and the self-monitor-

ing and correcting process commonly known as trial and error. Cortical, brainstem, and spinal inputs provide an ongoing account of our plan of action and the state of our internal and external environments (Figure 4–23). The cerebellum processes this information to detect any discrepancies between our intended movement and the movement actually performed, and mediates both real-time and long-term corrections that effect smooth movements (Purves et al., 2004, pp. 372–374). Without normal cerebellar function, errors persist and our movements are disjunct and uncontrollable. A vast sensorimotor processing loop provides the necessary communication to accomplish these tasks. Significant inputs from the cortex (largely the motor, premotor, and sensory association cortices) inform the cerebellum of the current plan of action. Input from the brainstem (e.g., vestibular nuclei and reticular formation) and the spine provide the cerebellum with an ongoing account of current propriokinesthetic information (i.e., the vestibular organ, muscle spindles, and other mechanoreceptors that monitor the position and motion of the body). In addition, the cerebellum receives modulatory inputs from additional brainstem nuclei (the inferior olive and the locus ceruleus) that are believed to participate in learning and memory functions (Purves et al., 2004, p. 435).



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Figure 4–23.  Cerebellar pathways. The organization of the cerebellum provides for regulation of highly skilled distal movements, and especially the planning and execution of complex spatial and temporal sequences of movement such as speech (corticocerebellar tract); movements underlying posture and equilibrium (vestibulocerebellar tract); and the movement of the limbs (e.g., walking) and eye movements (spinocerebellar tract) (Purves et al., 2004, p. 437). Courtesy of Christopher Moore.

Like the basal ganglia, the cerebellum influences movements indirectly. Except for direct projections to the vestibular nuclei, the cerebellar cortex receives and directs information to the deep cerebellar nuclei, which project to virtually all upper motor neurons in the cortex (via a relay in the thalamus) and in the brainstem (Purves et al., 2004, pp. 372–374). The direct and reciprocal communication between the cerebellum and vestibular system allows for the involuntary mediation of protective reflexes such as postural righting.

Practically speaking, the self-monitoring and correcting function of the cerebellum explains the need to sustain a pitch long enough (for several vibrato oscillations, or repetitions, of the phonatory cycle) to allow online trial-and-error learning to occur, much like hitting a baseball over and over again to gain expertise. Moreover, because the cerebellum is active during both covert mental rehearsal and overt expression, we can effectively employ this trial-and-error process covertly, using imagery as an effective planning and rehearsal

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strategy. (See also “When Perception Turns to Planning — Images and Imagery,” p. 69 and “The Working Memory,” p. 61). Key Point:  “The primary function of the cerebellum is evidently to detect the difference, or ‘motor error,’ between an intended movement and the actual movement, and, through its projections to the upper motor neurons, to reduce the error. These corrections can be made both during the course of the movement and as a form of motor learning when the correction is stored” (Purves et al., 2004, p. 435).

The Limbic Structures.  Although the limbic structures are not considered to be part of the motor system, they are involved in memory and learning and drive related behavior and emotional functions that influence our ability to perform optimally (Dafny, n.d.) (see Figure 0–8). More or less encircling the basal ganglia, and with connections to the hypothalamus (the control center for the autonomic nervous system), limbic structures mediate information about internal states such as thirst, hunger, fear, and pleasure; receives information from cortical areas that can color perceptions emotionally; and is connected back to the prefrontal cortex via the thalamus (Perkins & Kent, 1986, p. 451). These nuclei serve several functions; however, most relate to self-preservation and regulation of autonomic functions, particularly in response to emotional stimuli. Thus, limbic structures set the level of arousal and are involved in motivation and reinforcing behaviors and particular types of memory (http://www.dartmouth.edu/~rswenson/NeuroSci/chapter_9.html). The limbic "system" is a convenient way of describing several functionally and anatomically interconnected nuclei and cortical structures. Areas that are typically referred to as limbic structures include the hypothalamus and amygdala, as well as the hippocampus and cingulated gyrus (Figure 0–8) (http://www.dartmouth.edu/ ~rswenson/NeuroSci/chapter_9.html).

Key Point:  The reciprocal connections between

the cortex and the limbic structures mean we can choose whether or not we will heed (attend to) or express our emotions as they arise. So much so, that for creative and notably improvisatory states, there is evidence that this mechanism for mediating or inhibiting memory and emotional tone is itself inhibited (deactivated), allowing for unedited, uninhibited self-expression (Limb & Braun, 2008). We essentially “turn off” the judge, the worrier, and the obedient child in favor of a carefree and uninterrupted flow of spontaneous creative activity. In so doing, cortical areas associated with the autobiographical telling of our musical story (i.e., the integrative executive and sensorimotor functions of the working memory), become, coincidentally, exceptionally focused in their activities — we become vigilantly attentive to our plan of action. Limb and Braun (2008) hypothesized that spontaneous creative processing, such as the novel combinations of ordinary mental processes seen in jazz improvisation, would be associated with cortically intended changes in “sensorimotor areas needed to organize the on-line execution of musical ideas and behaviors, as well as limbic structures needed to regulate memory and emotional tone” (Limb & Braun, 2008, p. 1). In fact, their fMRI study of jazz musicians indicated widespread deactivation of activity in limbic and paralimbic regions, accompanied by selectively focused activation of a portion of the executive mind (the medial prefrontal cortex, MPFC) associated with an autobiographical narrative (i.e., the working memory). “The idea that spontaneous composition relies to some degree on intuition, the ‘ability to arrive at a solution without reasoning,’ may be consistent with the dissociated pattern of prefrontal activity we observed” (Limb & Braun, 2008, p. 4). Whereas focused attention on goal-directed behaviors when combined with “conscious self-monitoring can inhibit spontaneity and impair performance . . . musical creativity vis-à-vis improvisation may be a result of the combination of intentional, internally generated self-expression (MPFC-mediated) with the suspension of self-monitoring and related processes . . . that typically regulate conscious control



Motor Output Processing

of goal-directed, predictable, or planned actions” (Limb & Braun, 2008, pp. 4–5).

the head and eyes in response to visual information (Purves et al., 2004, p. 394).

Upper Motor Neurons

The Vestibular System (Motor). Previously in “Sensory Information Processing” (Chapter 2), we learned that the vestibular sensory organs of the inner ear transmit information directly to the cerebellar and vestibular nuclei located in the brainstem (Figure 4–25). Much of this sensory information is projected to upper motor neurons that effect axial and proximal postural controls in response to changes in the position and angular acceleration (velocity) of the head. That is, direct projections from motor neurons in the vestibular nuclei to lower motor circuits in the spinal and cranial nerve nuclei signal rapid-fire postural adjustments in response to any change in head position detected by the inner ear. This includes even the slight bone-conducted vibrations effected by phonation. Two descending pathways (axons) from the vestibular nuclei project to the medial spinal cord effecting postural corrections in response to head motion (i.e., vestibular stimulation). The medial vestibulospinal tract effects reflex adjustments of the head, and the somewhat more lateral vestibulospinal tract projects to the full length of the spinal cord to activate muscles involved in controlling postural balance and our orientation to gravity and the world around us (Knierim, n.d.c.). Still other motor neurons in the vestibular nuclei project to lower motor neurons in the cranial nerve nuclei, which control actions such as vestibulo-ocular reflexes that maintain eye fixation when the head is moving. (See also Figures 0–11 and 0–12, and Chapter 2, “Vestibular System (Sensory),” p. 35.)

Pathways originating from upper motor neurons located in motor control areas of the cortex and brainstem project information to lower motor neurons or, more commonly, their local interneuronal circuits (Figure 4–24). Projections from upper motor neurons in the brainstem are especially important in ongoing postural controls and the gross motor movements associated with axial and proximal musculoskeletal structures, whereas direct projections from cortical neurons are essential for the control of fractionated (separate and distinct) distal movements required for fine motor skills. For example, descending axons from the motor cortex generally terminate in lateral parts of the spinal cord and are primarily concerned with precise movements involving more distal parts of the limbs (e.g., fine motor controls of the hands, feet, face, eyes, tongue, and larynx). In contrast, descending axons from brainstem control centers (e.g., the vestibular nuclei and the reticular formation) terminate in the medial areas controlling the muscles of the trunk, suggesting they are concerned primarily with axial and proximal postural and respiratory controls. A description of how these functions are coordinated will follow a closer look at upper-level brainstem and cortical motor controls. (See also “Direct and Indirect Cortical Controls,” p. 131.) Key Point:  Upper motor neuron pathways from the cortex and the brainstem conform to the medial-lateral rule: medial projections effect axial controls; and lateral projections effect more distal controls (Purves et al., 2004, p. 373).

Upper-Level Brainstem Controls Two motor control areas of the brainstem essential for the mediation of widespread postural control are the vestibular nuclei and the reticular formation. Additional brainstem areas of interest, the red nucleus and the superior colliculus, are involved in control of the arms and orienting movements of

Key Point:  The vestibular system maintains our orientation to gravity and our sense of balance by signaling rapid-fire corrections in response to changes in postural conditions caused by spinning (rotation), walking or riding in a car (locomotion), or simply breathing and singing. We could say the vestibular system most successfully effects equilibrium when we feel as if we are moving in slow motion or having an “out of body” experience — when the consciously perceived distinctions between our internal and external environments cease to exist. The wide-

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Figure 4–24.  Direct upper motor controls of cortex and brainstem. Courtesy of Christopher Moore. Adapted from Sobotta, J. (1908). Human Anatomy/wikimedia commons/public domain. 126



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Figure 4–25.  Vestibular network. Pertinent to our discussion of sensory-guided action, the vestibular network is a sensorimotor integration system that projects information via the vestibulo-thalamo-cortical, vestibulo-cerebellar, vestibulo-spinal, and vestibuloautonomic pathways, and within the brainstem via the vestibulo-rubrio and vestibulo-reticular pathways. The lateral and medial vestibulo-spinal tracts are illustrated in Figure 4–25. (See also Figures 0–11 and 0–12.) Courtesy of Christopher Moore. Adapted from Sobotta, J. (1908) Human Anatomy/wikimedia commons/public domain.

ranging vestibular network enables the vestibular system to detect head motion and actively effect equalization of our inner ears (and therefore our head) to the forces of gravity. That is, the vestibular organs detect head motion so that we do not sense head motion. We perceive this lack of motion at the centralized location of the vestibular organs as a state of constancy relative to the forces of gravity — equilibrium. Consequently, we sense our body parts moving in relation to this “center of our personal universe.”

The Reticular Formation.  The descending motor control pathways from the reticular formation, like those of the vestibular nuclei, terminate primarily

in the medial areas where they influence the coordinated action of axial and proximal muscles. This complex network spanning the length of the brainstem (reticular means “net-like”) may be described as serving primarily modulatory and premotor (anticipatory feedforward) functions, smoothing the transition between sensory and motor systems. (See also Chapter 2, “Integration Mechanisms: The Reticular Formation and Arousal (Awareness),” p. 8.) Reticular formation neurons integrate feedback sensory signals with feedforward executive commands from upper motor neurons and the cerebellum and, in turn, organize a broad range of visceral and postural movements, thereby modulating the excitability (gain) of distant neurons and the gover-

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nance of a myriad sensorimotor reflexes, and even coordinating the temporal and spatial firing patterns of clusters of motor neurons that generate cardio­ vascular and respiratory rhythms (Purves et al., 2004, p. 397). We experience this integration of voluntary intentions and sensorimotor behavior when our sensitivity to pain (noxious stimuli) and the excitability of the subsequent withdrawal reflex are modulated (amplified or inhibited) to serve our end goal — whether we are testing the temperature of an iron or carrying a hot dish to the table. (See PAE 4–2B: “Hot Potato.”) Of particular interest to singer-actors, this modulatory premotor function includes anticipatory changes in posture and facial gestures. Therefore, we “see” the intended sound-producing action before we hear it. “The way the upper motor neurons of the reticular formation maintain posture can be appreciated by analyzing their activity during voluntary movements. Even the simplest movements are accompanied by the activation of muscles that at first glance seem to have little to do with the primary purpose of the movement” (Purves et al., 2004, p. 399). For example, when our arm is extended to maintain the position of a tray, contraction of the calf muscle (gastrocnemius) begins well before contraction of the biceps (Purves et al., 2004, p. 400). This observation demonstrates that postural control entails an anticipatory or feedforward mechanism as part of the motor plan for moving the arm. (See PAE 4–1: “Holding a Tray Level.”) Key Point:  Both the vestibular system and reticular formation contribute to stabilizing postural controls. The reticular formation serves a premotor function of initiating adjustments that stabilize posture in anticipation of movement, whereas the vestibular system generates corrective action in response to changes in postural stability.

Other Brainstem Controls.  Two additional brainstem areas that contribute to sensorimotor integration between upper- and lower-level motor controls are the superior colliculus and the red nucleus. The superior colliculus controls eye movements in response to visual information, such as visually

guided movement control toward a targeted goal, and influences the neck musculature that orients the head and eyes (Purves et al., 2004, p. 462). The red nucleus may be of particular interest to instrumentalists. Rubrospinal regulation (rubro means red), which is unique in its more lateral projections, is thought to be involved in controlling the muscle tone for arm movements. However, the bulk of activity in the red nucleus lies in relaying information from the cortex to the cerebellum (Purves et al., 2004, p. 418). Therefore, pianists mentally rehearsing Bach preludes make excellent study subjects for research in cortical and cerebellar connectivity.

Summary.  Brainstem control areas provide the upto-the-millisecond looping of sensorimotor information (feedforward and feedback) that the production processes of our dual-control system rely on for smoothly integrated and optimally performed complex behaviors. Although brainstem controls primarily maintain our posture during cortically initiated voluntary movements, we may correctly conclude that brainstem controls also influence autonomic motor functions of our axial torso, namely cardiovascular and respiratory functions that maintain homeostatic equilibrium during ongoing performance of voluntary and distal end-goal behaviors (e.g., “Sing this pitch”). How these anticipatory and corrective brainstem controls are activated can be understood in terms of direct and indirect projections from upper motor neurons in the motor cortex. Key Point:  The coordinated functions of brainstem networks effect both anticipatory (feedforward) and corrective (feedback) controls for maintaining postural (axial) stability and homeostatic equilibrium during cortically guided voluntary behaviors.

Now we have come full circle to the cortical controls described earlier in Chapter 3, “Planning Voluntary Behavior” — cortical controls that determine what action we intend and when we will initiate that action.

The Motor Cortex Cortical controls are responsible for planning, initiating, and guiding ongoing voluntary movement



Motor Output Processing

(i.e., mindful intent). Principal components of the motor cortex are the primary motor cortex, the premotor cortex, and the supplementary motor area (Figure 4–26).

The Primary Motor Cortex.  The primary motor cortex is perhaps best known for its topographic representation, or mapping, of muscle areas of the body organized in a homunculus (miniature humanoid) pattern (Figure 4–27). Key Point:  Stimulation (even artificial electronic stimulation) of a specific cortical motor area on the primary motor cortex correlates to execution of a specific motor event.

Early studies using electronic stimulation of specific motor areas (Wilder Penfield et al., 19375) “clearly demonstrated a systematic map of the body’s musculature in the primary motor cortex” (Purves et al., 2004, p. 408). Although these initial experiments implied that the motor cortex is a topographical representation, or mapping, of individual muscles, much like a finger activates a single piano key and its like-tuned strings, more recent studies have shown stimulation of a site would control several muscle groups, or its muscle field, as part of a larger action. For example, “on average, the size of the muscle field in the wrist region is two to three muscles per upper motor neuron” (Purves et al., p. 407). Similarly, stimulation of small regions of the

Figure 4–26.  Motor cortex. Courtesy of Christopher Moore and Myslin/Grays 728/Wikimedia Commons/public domain. 5

 Penfield, W., and E. Boldrey (1937). Somatic motor and sensory representation in the cerebral cortex of man studied by electrical stimulation. Brain, 60, 389–443. Cited by Purves et al., 2004, p. 408.

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Figure 4–27. Topographical organization of the motor cortex, or “homunculus.” From Brain-Based Communication Disorders, L. L. LaPointe, B. E. Murdoch, & J. A. G. Stierwalt. San Diego, CA: Plural Publishing, Inc., 2010. Used with permission.

primary motor cortex elicits movements that require the activity of numerous muscles. Thus, the primary motor cortex homunculus apparently represents the movements of individual body parts, which often require the coordinated activity of large groups of muscles throughout the body (Knierim, n.d.a.). The topographic organization of the primary motor cortex provides yet another example of the medial-lateral rule. The most medial parts of the motor cortex are responsible for controlling muscles in the trunk and legs (e.g., calf muscles) to maintain axial support, and the most lateral portions are responsible for controlling the distal muscles in the face (Purves et al., p. 407). The degree of motor representation in the homunculus is proportional to the discrete and fractionated (separate and distinct) nature of the movement required of the respective part of the body. For example, areas that require the finest control, such as the tongue, lips, and fingers, have the largest supply of upper motor neurons, allowing for the direct control of precise movements (Perkins & Kent, 1986, p. 447). However, in keep-

ing with the plastic nature of our neural anatomy, our motor cortex has been shown to be adaptive. We would be correct to suspect that Mozart’s brain would look different from Twyla Tharp’s or Einstein’s brain. For example, “repeated tactile stimulus on fingers results in increased representation in a cortical area” (http://www.credoreference.com​ .proxy.lawrence.edu:2048/entry/esthumanbrain/ ii_biologically_based_neural_networks). That is, although research indicates we may grow our “body map” and our bodily-kinesthetic intelligence in general through the use of touch (tactile stimulus), plasticity is not limited to our motor cortex or to tactile sensory information. For example, research comparing the brains of trained singers and instrumentalists demonstrated that the singer’s brain has increased volume and microstructural complex of the arcuate fasciculus, presumably due to the added demands of feedforward and feedback vocal-motor control (Halwani et al., 2011; See “Illustrated Guide: Arcuate Fasciculus,” p. xxxvi.) Key Point: Associating motor behavior with its relevant sensations “grows our body map.” That is, developing connectivity between the somatic sensory and motor cortices develops the somatic motor cortex and our bodily-kinesthetic intelligence.

Furthermore, just as a single cortical motor neuron innervates several muscle groups, cortical microstimulation experiments have shown that contraction of a single muscle can be evoked by stimulation over a wide region of the motor cortex in a complex, mosaic fashion (Purves et al., 2004, p. 408). Therefore, it seems likely that horizontal connections within the motor cortex and local circuits in the spinal cord create neuronal networks that coordinate the sets of muscle fields that ultimately generate a given movement (Purves et al., 2004, p. 408). (See Chapter 3, “Anatomy of Learning and Memory,” p. 54.) Key Point:  Separate and distinct actions, such as those that produce individual speech sounds, may be produced as separate and discrete units (e.g., raising the tip of the tongue), but to generate the smoothly coordinated actions for language,



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speech sounds are produced as a “continuous sound signal” (Perkins & Kent, 1986, p. 439).

The Premotor Cortex.  Whereas the primary motor cortex is involved in the basic execution of purposeful movement (encoding the force of a movement regardless of individual muscles used), premotor neurons are sensitive to the inferred intentions of a movement, not just the movement itself as deduced from the behavioral context in which the movement occurred (Knierim, n.d.a.). For example, Graziano et al. (2002) found “stimulation of one site of the premotor cortex causes the monkey to bring its arm in front of its eyes, regardless of the starting location of the arm, as if the monkey were producing a defensive posture, and stimulation of a second site causes the monkey to bring its arm to its mouth and open the mouth, regardless of the starting location of the arm, as if it were bringing a piece of food to its mouth” (cited by Knierim, n.d.a.). Historically, it has been generally understood that premotor areas receive information from the sensory cortex (e.g., parietal and prefrontal areas) and in turn project information to the primary motor cortex. However, the premotor cortical areas are now known to regulate not only the primary motor cortex but also brainstem motor control functions, and, quite remarkably, premotor cortical areas give rise to direct corticospinal projections (Martin, 2008, p. 4). More specifically, distinct premotor responsibilities have been identified for the lateral and ventral areas of the premotor cortex. “The lateral premotor areas are involved in a diversity of movement control functions including stimulus-driven movements, such as making temporo-spatial computations for targeted actions” (Martin, 2008, p. 11). This would include not only visually guided behaviors but also the audio-guided behaviors of a musician (i.e., what and when). The ventral premotor area (near Broca’s area identified for language) is linked with the mimetic system (Martin, 2008, p. 11). These mirror neurons are of particular interest because they respond not only to our own action but to the sight (or sound) of another individual performing the same action (Knierim, n.d.a.). Key Point:  Imitation is an essential innate ability for motor learning and generating a motor plan of

action. Whether a behavior is modeled externally or internally via imagery, the behavior may be subsequently executed by the simple command, “Do that.”

The Supplementary Motor Area.  Whereas the premotor cortex appears to be involved in selecting motor programs based on sensory stimuli or abstract associations, the supplementary motor area appears to be involved in selecting movements based on remembered sequences of movements (Knierim, n.d.a.). As noted in Chapter 3, “Planning Voluntary Behavior,” researchers consider the supplementary motor area to be an indicator of the working memory. Somatosensory Cortex and Motor Control. Although the cortical pathways originate primarily from the frontal lobes, “a small amount of the corticospinal tract originates from the somatosensory cortex [located in the parietal lobe, directly posterior to the primary motor cortex] . . . and there are components of the indirect cortical paths that originate from areas of the cortex that are involved in vestibular functions” (Martin, 2008, p. 12; see Figure 0–13). Key Point:  The purpose of stimulating an upper motor neuron (i.e., enabling its action potential) is to effect movement. Stimulation of the upper motor neuron is the result of purposeful intent (i.e., will). Cortical controls are primarily excitatory, functioning to stimulate voluntary and purposeful action and mediate muscle tone for cortically guided skilled movements.

Direct and Indirect Cortical Controls The motor cortex has two pathways by which it can influence local motor circuitry (Figure 4–28). As previously described, upper motor neurons influence lower motor circuitry directly by innervating a lower motor neuron or, more typically, its local circuit interneuron. However — and this is essential to developing expertise in skilled behaviors — upper motor neurons in the cortex also control movement indirectly via pathways that project to the brainstem motor control centers, which in turn project to lowerlevel local motor circuitry.

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Figure 4–28.  Direct and indirect cortical pathways. Neurons in the motor cortex that project laterally to initiate movements of a distal limb also terminate on neurons in the reticular formation; this information is projected medially (via the reticulospinal tract) to regulate postural adjustments that support the distal movement (Purves et al., 2004, p. 395). Courtesy of Christopher Moore and Myslin/Grays 728/Wikimedia Commons/public domain. 132



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Key Point:  “A major function of these indirect pathways is to maintain the body’s posture during cortically initiated voluntary movements” (Purves et al., 2004, p. 393).

For example, Figure 4–28 illustrates both the direct cortico-spinal pathway, where the simple command “reach out arm” is projected directly to local motor circuitry for control of the distal limb, and the indirect cortico-reticulo-spinal pathway, where collateral information for the same command “reach out arm” is simultaneously sent to the medial spinal cord via the reticular formation. This indirect route allows for additional sensorimotor integration and rapid up-to-the-millisecond mediation of postural and autonomic (respiratory and cardiovascular) actions better suited to brainstem controls. Upper motor neurons located in the brainstem and cortex, which in turn are influenced by the cerebellum and the basal ganglia, provide voluntary and skillful control of a wide-ranging network of lower-level local circuitry — the final common pathway for transmitting neural information from a variety of sources to the skeletal muscles. Accordingly, our dual-control system provides for our executive mind to enjoy the creative processes that generate rich and vivid perceptual imagery while at the same time supplying the “design specs” to guide the unconscious motor production processes in generating, executing, and mediating up-to-the-millisecond control of our postural and autonomic systems, and thereby satisfying the overarching purpose of the nervous system, which is to maintain homeostatic equilibrium — a "happy mind" and a "happy body.”

Summary At this point we begin to see how the planning processes of the working memory integrate the cortical sensory and motor processes to modify our plan of action in anticipation of our execution of that action, and how the underlying controls of the brainstem monitor and correct (modulate) our behavior, with minimal cortical control (i.e., conscious reasoning out of corrective action) in response to a simple voluntary command such as “keep this tray level” “grasp that cup” or “sing this pitch.” In addition, “although the motor system is organized hierarchically, the

hierarchy is not a simple chain of command from higher to lower areas. Rather, many pathways enable the different levels of the hierarchy to influence each other” (Knierim, n.d. c.). Thus, the flow of information through the motor system involves overlapping cortical and subcortical processes, where a plan of action evolves in stages (Figure 4–29). “In this conception, cognitive and emotional components of an utterance are integrated from the beginning of the formulation of a statement. . . . Thus, what begins as a vague sense of what one wants to say gains specificity. . . . Various neural structures add their contributions to the evolving statement, so that it goes through a series of transformations as it is refined through the interrelated cortical and subcortical structures” (Perkins & Kent, 1986, p. 462). Moreover, because these processes that occur across all levels of control remain continuously active during ongoing sequences of behavior, we can retain executive control of voluntary perceptual-motor processes. Key Point:  There is no gap between sensory and motor processing. Rather, the linking, or integration, of cortical intentions and sensory and motor controls exists at each level of the nervous system: at the level of local circuitry to mediate reflex controls; at mid-level controls (brainstem, basal ganglia, and cerebelum), where up-to-the-millisecond information is continuously integrated and our behavior rapidly modulated (monitored and corrected) to optimize the plan of action; and at the cortical level, where we experience the continuous flow of cortico-cortical projections as goal-state imagery. (See also in Chapter 3, “The Working Memory,” p. 61, and “When Perception Turns to Planning — Images and Imagery,” p. 69).

Voluntary behaviors are willfully selected and executed. We choose whether or not to facilitate (say “go” to) or inhibit (say “no” to) selected actions. Our conscious experience of this process proceeds something like this. We “ready” ourselves for action by way of choosing a task, by deciding what we want to do (willed intention). For example, for pitchmatching, this process involves collecting and recollecting sensory information, such as hearing an external musical cue and recalling the inner sound and feel of our own voice while singing. At the same

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Figure 4–29.  Brain areas active in the planning and execution of motor behaviors. Involvement of the brain areas that are active during the planning and execution of motor behaviors can be described in this way: “In the planning stages, the action to be taken is accomplished by the networks involving cortical association areas, basal ganglia and cerebellum. At the next stage, cerebellar processing is incorporated through thalamic networks with [premotor] networks for the construction of motor speech programs. In the final stage, direct initiation and execution of voluntary action (motor output) is signaled from the upperlevels of control in the motor cortex and brainstem to the lower motor neurons for execution of behavior” (Perkins & Kent, 1986, p. 457). Courtesy of Christopher Moore and Myslin/Grays 728/Wikimedia Commons/public domain.

time, our motor production processes (sensorimotor intentions) prepare how the plan of action will be managed and ultimately signal the cortex when the plan is “set” to go.6 At this point, we can voluntarily decide when we will do it (i.e., the temporal target for execution of behavior), which involves choosing to follow through with our plan of action and facilitating its execution with the “go” signal from the cortex. At this stage, each level of control will continue to mediate (monitor and correct) the ongoing execution of our plan of action and the ongoing flow of sequential behaviors — both at the rapid6

fire, up-to-the-millisecond speed of (predominantly subcortical) production processes and at the more leisurely pace of (predominantly cortical) premotor planning processes (speed of conscious thought is based on an 8 to 12 Hz frequency) (Perkins & Kent, 1986, p. 463). Throughout this process, we can sense the innervation as the collective gathering up for, as well as expression of, a motor response. All we have to do is ride the wave (Figure 4–30). Key Point:  Direct and indirect anticipatory controls empower us to take meaningful action with

 Where is inherent in mind-body awareness and sensorimotor production. It involves knowledge of our “body map” (topographically organized somatic sensory and motor cortices), the site of motor production (e.g., larynx and/or articulators), and our ability to detect our place in space.



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concerning how the correction will be managed to the subcortical processes.

Figure 4–30.  Surfer dude. Once a cortical neuron has been fired, the final gathering up and spending of energy by production output processes is analogous to what we perceive as a collective action potential—a collective gathering up and expenditure of energy.

the assurance that our behavior systems are equal to the planned task at hand. All we have to do is know what we want, then “say go,” and “let go.”

In practice, unifying our systems for optimal performance of skilled behavior relies on coordinating complex timing patterns (speed and frequency of occurrence) at each level of control (e.g., central pattern generators and voluntary cortical initiation). The degree of conscious attention required for these critical decisions decreases with expertise. This means we can process increasingly creative and complex behaviors in ever-increasing rapid succession, while remaining ever mindful of our guiding feedforward commands in the form of phenomenal imagery. (See also Chapter 5, “Rhythm and Rhythmic Entrainment,” p. 174.) Key Point:  Ultimately, our challenge is not about thinking too much, rather it is about getting the thinking right. When the thinking is right, we get out of our own way — we delegate each task to the appropriate system and level of control. In accordance with the dual-control model of predominantly consciously mediated planning processes and predominantly unconsciously mediated production processes, use of rich and vivid imagery is how we can assure ourselves of activating all of the correct connections. If we are alerted to feedback that indicates we are “off target” (pitch, volume, or timing), we sharpen our goal-state feedforward image (i.e., the product of our working memory) and thereby delegate the details

Practical application involves training our minds — reframing how we think about our bodilykinesthetic intelligence. The development of expertise requires the ability to coordinate a dual-control system that has been described as both sensory and motor, creative and expressive, conscious and unconscious, cortical and subcortical, axial and distal, and direct and indirect. We will experience the dual controls of neural processing in action as we explore voluntary modification of local reflex circuitry for the purpose of developing mastery, or performance expertise. Now that our executive brain is a little less ignorant of how our sensory and motor systems function, we may better appreciate that our intelligent bodily-kinesthetic servo systems are not ignorant of relevant executive commands and rest assured that we have their support — that we need not “look over our shoulder at footprints in the sand” (see PAE 1–9).

Developing Expertise How do we develop and expertly control postural and respiratory systems designed to be mediated unconsciously and indirectly — via subcortical brainstem areas — in support of end-goal (distal) behavior? Thus far, we have discussed a skill set that includes selective attention and perceptual acuity, heightened awareness and gain (flow), and creative imagery and feedforward anticipatory control. The following discussion of the postural and respiratory controls that support the whole of our systems of singing focuses on developing specialized skills for voluntary modulation (adaptation) of unconsciously mediated reflex controls in support of end-goal singing behaviors.

Postural and Respiratory Controls— “We’ve Got Your Back” During singing, the functional purpose of respiration is twofold: life-sustaining ventilation (exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide blood gases); and upto-the-millisecond mediation of optimal air pres-

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sures (from mouth to lungs) for the execution of widely varied and variable singing tasks (e.g., rapid scales, extended leaps, and a well-modulated messa di voce) for the duration of a musical phrase. If “there is only one shape at each lung volume at which the respiratory apparatus can generate maximum inspiratory pressure and only one shape at each lung volume at which it can generate maximum expiratory pressure” (Hixon & Hoit, 2005), then it follows that there is only one shape at each lung volume between maximum inspiratory pressure and maximum expiratory pressure at which the respiratory apparatus can generate optimal “singing pressure” for the immediate task at hand. For example, for extended steady singing of a single vowel in an average pitch and dynamic (loudness) range, postural and respiratory action is characterized by an overall slow and constant decrease in rib cage wall, abdominal wall, and lung volume, whereas alveolar pressure (air pressure inside the lungs) remains constant for the duration of the phrase (Hixon, 2006, p. 78). Continuously well-balanced and optimally equalized air pressure is what singers refer to as “singing on the breath,” or breath support. To accomplish this complex and exquisitely adaptable behavior, we employ widespread axial musculature and as many as 20 accessory, or “extra,” muscles that can participate in the activation and modulation of respiratory force (Hixon, 2006, p. 23). This requires continuous mediation by cortical and, gratefully, intelligent and capable brainstem controls. A thorough discussion of the respiratory mechanism is beyond the scope of this book and is necessarily prohibited by a growing yet limited source of data for individual muscle action in expert singers. Moreover, the craft of singing is as individual as the artist who employs it and all of our moving parts. Rather, the following discussion is intended to promote an exploratory journey of thought and experience that will in itself serve as a source of discovery and explanation. Following a general overview of postural and respiratory function, we continue our exploration of reflex controls and the development of singing expertise from the innate to the intuitive, providing a perspective on the interaction of volitional and reflexive control systems that is asserted to be “the ‘new frontier’ in the study of central control of the laryngeal musculature” (Ludlow, 2005,

p. 1). That is, we consider the practical means by which we can voluntarily stimulate and modulate unconsciously mediated motor behaviors (such as stretch reflexes that effect diaphragmatic contraction, or “braking”), the actions of which may be synchronized with our vibrato rate (reflexively resonant phonatory oscillations) (Watson, Williams, & James, 2012), and entrained with our nervous system as a whole (e.g., heart rate).

Postural Function Overview Postural muscle tone has been characterized as muscle activity that is long-lasting and fatigue resistant; sensitive to changes in head position (vestibular reflexes); and by virtue of lengthening and shortening reactions, able to effect incremental changes in position without measurable changes in tonic muscle tension, which is useful in stabilizing the head, trunk, and pelvis (Gurfinkel et al., 2006). The strength of postural control lies in the widespread distribution of the spinal erectors, or “antigravity” muscles, designed for the heavy lifting task of maintaining erect posture for a body with built-in motion as exists in the architecture for a San Francisco skyscraper. The sensorimotor system that both monitors and corrects our postural orientation to gravity is the vestibular system. The axial musculature is architecturally complex, spanning long distances with multiple attachments to multiple bones (Gurfinkel et al., 2006). The interconnecting muscles of the skeletal spine include deep and superficial layers that are covered by still more superficial back muscles, such as the trapezius and latissimus dorsi (Gurfinkel et al., 2006) (Figure 4–31). The muscles of the skeletal spine include many extensors but few flexors. When contracting together, the spinal extensors extend the vertebral column, as when standing erect and inhaling deeply. In various combinations, the muscles of the skeletal spine produce slight extension, flexion, rotation, or lateral flexion of the skeletal spine (Figure 4–32). Key Point:  Postural tone in the body’s axis is regulated both tonically and dynamically during complex motor tasks as well as during quiet stance (Gurfinkel et al., 2006).



Motor Output Processing

A.

B.

Figure 4–31.  Axial musculature. A. Deep muscles of axial spine—extensors and flexors: The deepest layer of these core back muscles includes the multifidus and semispinalis and the somewhat less deep spinalis, and iliocostalis muscles. Spinal flexors of the vertebral column are the longus capitis and the longus colli in the neck, and the large quadratus lumborum in the lumbar region. B. Large superficial back muscles: The larger superficial muscles of the back (e.g., trapezius and latissimus dorsi) are opposed by the abdominals (not shown). Courtesy of Gray’s Anatomy and Christopher Moore.

The tonic regulation of posture is sometimes referred to as background muscle tone and is characterized as micromovements that, rather like an idling engine, ready us for action at a moment’s notice. This tonic action means our core postural muscles never relax, even during quiet stance, so that our extra (superficial) muscles are free to act dynamically. Similarly, “many musculoskeletal structures of the lower extremities act reflexively to maintain balance” (Tolo, 1997, p. 16) (Figure 4–33). For

example, activation of the hip flexors contributes to the stabilization of an erect torso (and notably the lumbar spine) on the thigh when postural deformations occur while we are walking, singing, or even breathing. When we are standing relatively still at a piano or on risers, the primary actors of the lower extremities are the calf muscles (see Figure 4–11). Happily, we can readily monitor calf muscle action when maintaining postural balance in yoga (e.g., tree pose) or when singing, especially when we rise to our toes.

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Figure 4–32.  Spinal extension (A), flexion (B), and lateral flexion (C).

Tonic and Dynamic Postural Processes.  We have experienced both the predominantly tonic postural processes in the exercise “Attentive Listening Posture” (PAE 2–2) and the more dynamic processes with “Hold Tray Level” (PAE 4–1), as well as gained understanding of the vestibular reflexes that position the eyes and ears, and therefore the head, to gather sensory information. A particularly dramatic example of the dynamic head turn reflex (vestibulo-sternocleidomastoid, [VSCM], reflex) may be observed in a popular YouTube posting when, following a cochlear implant in one ear, a baby’s first experience of sound and the subsequent head turn reflex are captured on video. Finally, and perhaps even more importantly, our state of being and the resultant tone and readiness (gain) of our postural systems can influence the effectiveness of each aspect of our systems of singing. As we have seen throughout our nervous system, reci-

procity or “turn about” is fair play. Just as “postural systems can influence the function of all subsystems of the apparatus — respiratory, laryngeal, and upper airway” (Callaghan, 2000, p. 24) — the action (even reflexive action) of all subsystems of the apparatus can influence postural controls. Tonic and dynamic processes may be seen in the cooperative action of postural and respiratory forces in classical singing. For example, expanding the rib cage wall, and therefore the muscles attached to the sternum, such as the sternohyoid, will effect stretch reflexes relevant to postural controls in general and more specifically to the larynx. Although unanticipated stimuli, such as a sudden noise or misstep, are processed minimally (as a direct signal from the vestibular organs to the cerebellum) and result in rapid and crude knee-jerk reflex responses, anticipated stimuli, such as a cortical directive to “sing that pitch,” are processed indirectly (via higher-level brainstem controls) and



Figure 4–33.  Musculoskeletal structures of the lower extremities. The iliopsoas (iliacus, and psoas major and minor) form a group of muscles commonly known as the hip flexors. Courtesy of Gray’s Anatomy and Christopher Moore.

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effect smoothly coordinated and even elegant corrective postural reflex responses. In the following exercises we consciously monitor these corrective postural reflexes. More specifically, we metamonitor optimal postural alignment by consciously monitoring our unconscious selfmonitoring and self-correcting postural controls. Although we cortically ask for select sensory information, using our hands to prime our receptors and heighten our awareness of information essential to postural alignment, much of this desired axial feedback information will be processed intuitively at the level of our brainstem controls. To maintain optimal postural orientation to gravity, we rarely need to reason out corrective actions consciously. “Try it!” (PAE 4–3 and 4–4).

PAE 4–3: Postural and Respiratory Controls and Gravity.  While singing, move from a horizontal to an erect posture as in Figure 4–34. Notice the influence of gravitational pull on postural and respiratory structures and the corrective actions and adjustments effected by predominantly unconscious axial controls. PAE 4–4A: Monitoring Cooperative Axial Postural Controls—Lumbro-Sacral and Cervi-

cal Spine.  For the following exercises, refer to Figure 4–35 for the location of the various areas of the skeletal (vertebral) spine. Place the palm and fingers of one hand across the back of your neck along the top seven cervical vertebrae and the back of your other hand on the lumbar region, preferably with some fingers placed such that the lower ribs and action of the latissimus dorsi can be sensed (see also Figure 4–31): a. Monitor cooperative action of the lumbro-sacral and cervical spine while standing and breathing “at rest.” Compare with action while singing. b. Continue to monitor cooperative action of the lumbro-sacral and cervical spine during a variety of singing tasks (e.g., rapid scales, extended leaps, a well-modulated messa di voce). c. Stand on a balance tool, or with the balls of your feet and toes on the edge of a step (heels protruding over the edge), and your arms outstretched to either side. When you are in balance, continue to monitor this state of equilibrium as you inhale with the intention of singing a descending scale. Repeat several times, with your hands alternately outstretched to either side and placed on your cervical and lumbar spine so as to monitor the various postural controls.

Figure 4–34.  Postural and respiratory controls and gravity.



Motor Output Processing

3. Monitoring the Cervical Spine, Rib Cage, and Larynx (“The Trifecta”):  To monitor the postural relationship of the skeletal spine, rib cage, and larynx, place the palm of one hand on your cervical spine (back of neck), and with your other hand, place your index finger on your thyroid shield or hyoid bone and another finger at the sternum (breastbone) where it meets the clavicle (collarbone) and trachea. (For illustrations of these structures, see “The Neck and Head,” pp. 164–166.)

Respiratory Function Overview

Figure 4–35.  Skeletal (vertebral) spine. From The Body Moveable, (4th ed., Section 1, p. 46, by D. Gorman, 2002, Ontario, Canada, Ampersand Press. Copyright 2002. Reprinted with permission.

PAE 4–4B:  Monitoring Cooperative Axial Postural and Respiratory Controls 1. Monitoring the Thoracic Spine and Rib Cage:  To monitor the action of musculoskeletal structures of the skeletal spine and rib cage while singing, place the palm of one hand on the upper ribs and sternum (breast bone) and the back of your other hand on the thoracic spine at the lower ribs. 2. Monitoring the Cervical Spine and Rib Cage:  To monitor the postural relationship of the cervical spine and rib cage while singing, place the palm of one hand on your cervical spine (back of neck) and the other on your upper ribs and sternum (breastbone).

The respiratory (breathing) apparatus includes structures and passages in the torso, neck, and head. Those in the torso and lower neck form two subdivisions: the pulmonary apparatus and the chest wall (Hixon, 2006, p. 15). The pulmonary apparatus (trachea, bronchi, and lungs) allows for the ventilation, or exchange, of oxygen and carbon dioxide, which maintains homeostasis (Hixon, 2006, pp. 15–17) (Figure 4–36). The chest wall is a broadly defined area consisting of all structures outside the lungs and pleura that move when breathing, including the intercostals, rib cage wall, diaphragm, and, somewhat confusingly, the abdominal wall and its contents. This pulmonary apparatus and chest wall are linked together by pleural membranes, which form a double-walled sack around the lungs. The pleural linkage provides a powerful force that Thomas Hixon likens to the suction that attracts a wet saucer to a teacup. Nonetheless, the “pulmonary-chest wall unit (Figure 4–37) is arranged such that the rib cage wall, diaphragm, and abdominal wall can take separate actions that cause their companion components to move passively” (Hixon, 2006, p. 44). It is important to remember that the primary role of the respiratory system is ventilation — to move air in and out of the lungs, bronchi, and trachea for the purpose of exchanging blood gasses (oxygen and carbon dioxide). To accomplish this, respiration requires a balance of pressures mediated by passive and active controls. During resting-level (tidal wave) breathing, as occurs throughout much of our day, the predominant active muscle of respiration is the diaphragm.

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Figure 4–36.  The respiratory system. Source: BruceBlaus/Wikimedia Commons/Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported.

As the diaphragm contracts, internal (alveolar) lung pressure is reduced and air is drawn into the lungs — we inhale. Conversely, exhalation during tidal breathing is predominantly passive: as the inhalatory muscles relax, the lungs and chest wall return to resting volume. Therefore, tidal respiration is characterized by a relatively regular inhalationexhalation (inspiration-expiration) pattern (Hixon, 2006, p. 66). “Try it!” (PAE 4–5). “The passive force of respiration comes from the natural recoil of structures, surface tension in alveoli [air sacs within lungs], and gravity. The

magnitude and direction (inspiratory or expiratory) of passive force depend on the amount of air in the respiratory apparatus. When there is more air than at rest, the apparatus expires (forces air out). . . . When the amount of air in the apparatus is less than at rest, the apparatus inspires (pulls air in). . . . [Thus] alveolar pressure can be thought of as the instantaneous drive of the respiratory apparatus” (Hixon, 2006, p. 23). Key Point:  The conditions noted above hold only when the chest wall muscles (with the exception



Motor Output Processing

2. Reach hand up as if retrieving an item from a shelf. Did your respiratory pattern change? Repeat.

Figure 4–37.  Pulmonary-chest wall unit. From The Vocal Instrument, S. L. Radionoff. San Diego, CA: Plural Publishing, Inc., 2008. Printed with permission.

of the diaphragm) are relaxed, either during tidal or purposeful breathing. “The pressure difference across the chest wall will have no relationship to its size if the respiratory muscles are being used either to move the chest or to keep it at a particular volume” (Johns Hopkins University Medical Institute, 1995).

PAE 4–5:  Attentive Listening Posture and Tidal Respiration.  While standing, listen attentively to a faint and distant sound. Can you determine what is making the sound and where it is located? 1. Place your hand on your chest at the sternum (breastbone). Notice the regular rising and falling pattern of resting (tidal) respiration.

“An anticipation of strenuous exercise can trigger an automatic increase in the respiratory rate, along with increased cardiac output, by sympathetic stimulation” (http://as.miami.edu/chemistry/2086/ chap23/the respiratory system part 2.htm). Assisting the diaphragm in respiration are the intercostal muscles that are situated between the ribs, or costals. Their action demonstrates the important role muscle sensors (muscle spindles and Golgi tendon organs) play in generating the reflexive controls that maintain optimal muscle tone (contraction) so as to effect optimal respiratory volume and rate (Figure 4–38). Anticipatory controls (i.e., those involving gamma motor neurons, or the gamma loop) appear to provide particular facilitation of discharges in motor neurons to the external intercostals and the intercartilaginous portion of the internal intercostals, the action of which raises the rib cage for inhalation (Mann, 1997–2014, p. 15–9; De Troyer, Kirkwood, & Wilson, 2005, p. 717). We experience this anticipatory excitation of postural and respiratory controls for both ventilation and special acts of respiration in the gathering up of respiratory volume (e.g., inhaling for the phrase) and the activation of respiratory force when singing, pitching a ball, or wielding a hammer. These respiratory alterations that support movement and singing could be characterized as excursions, or deformations, of the normal background shape of the chest wall during resting tidal respiration. The cooperative action of postural and respiratory controls can be seen in the concurrent activation of changes in our axial spine and rib cage wall while exercising and singing. The magnitude of the respiratory alteration or deformation of the chest wall and the subsequent exertion of force depend on the end-goal task, such as the style of singing and the affect to be expressed. For example, “classical singing can be accompanied by major deformation of the wall from its relaxed configuration” (Hixon, 2006, p. 98). Key Point:  Respiratory alterations during singing and exercise in general are assisted by some

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Figure 4–38.  Anterior and lateral views of changes in thoracic cavity volume during exhalation (A) and inhalation (B). Action of the diaphragm and external intercostals. The most important active forces (muscles) for resting-level ventilation are the diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles. “The contraction and flattening of the diaphragm increases the volume of the thoracic cavity, thereby reducing alveolar (internal lung) pressure and drawing air into the lungs. Diaphragmatic contraction is responsible for roughly 75 percent of the air movement in normal breathing at rest. The external intercostal muscles assist in inhalation by elevating the ribs. This action contributes roughly 25 percent to the volume of air in the lungs” (http://www.as.miami.edu/chemistry/2086/chap23/the respiratory system part 2.htm). From Behrman (2013). Used with permission.

20 “extra,” or accessory, muscles of respiration (Figure 4–39). The coincidental changes or deformations in our rib cage wall stimulate both anticipatory and corrective actions mediated by predominantly subcortical (e.g., vestibular, cerebellar) postural controls. The cooperative action of postural and respiratory controls is essential to developing expertise in singing.

Reflexive Control Systems and Special Acts of Respiration It is said that for specialized behaviors we override, “borrow,” and develop innate motor memory for pattern-elicited responses and reflexive control systems originally designed to sustain life (e.g., breathing, swallowing, sneezing, yawning, even vomiting



Motor Output Processing

Figure 4–39.  Accessory, or extra muscles of respiration—muscles of the rib cage. Active respiration for special acts, such as singing, may use as many as 20 different accessory muscles that can increase the speed and amplitude of rib movement (http://www.as.miami.edu/chemistry/2086/chap23/the respiratory system part 2.htm). Accessory muscles for inhalation include the sternocleidomastoid, serratus anterior, pectoralis minor, and scalene muscles, all of which can assist the external intercostal muscles in elevating the ribs. Exhalation may involve the internal intercostal, transversus thoracis, and latissimus dorsi muscles of the rib cage, as well as the abdominals, and the core muscles of the lower torso, such as the “hip-flexors” and “pelvic floor.” From Hixon (2006). Used with permission.

and defecation). And so it is for “special acts of respiration” such as speaking and singing, and even laughing and crying. For example, we alter the respiratory cycle using accessory muscles of inhalation

and exhalation to expertly mediate respiratory force when we generate small bursts of pressure for syllabic stress, inflection, and articulation of text (Seikel et al., 2010, p. 165), as well as when implementing

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a wide variety of both incremental and dynamic changes in pressure demanded by a musical phrase, such as metrical accentuations, pitch frequency, and loudness. Moreover, Ludlow (2005) asserts that understanding how volitional and reflexive control systems (e.g., swallowing, breathing) interact in humans is the “new frontier” in the study of the central control of the laryngeal musculature for voice. For example, “although the pharyngeal phase of swallowing is reflexive and can be elicited by sensory triggers in the oropharynx, it can also be modulated by volitional control. Both automatic reflexive saliva swallows and volitional swallowing activate cortical regions in awake humans (Martin, Goodyear, Gati, & Menon, 2001), suggesting that the reflexive and volitional control systems are integrated to adapt to ongoing changes in motor demands during swallowing in humans” (Ludlow, 2005, p. 210). This voluntary stimulation of reflexive controls is the crux of our discussion for developing expertise. A reflex is “a relatively stereotyped movement or response elicited by a stimulus applied to the periphery, transmitted to the central nervous system and then transmitted back out to the periphery . . . Most reflexes are ‘involuntary’ in the sense that they occur without the person willing them to do so, but all of them can be brought under ‘voluntary’ control” (Mann, 1997–2014, p. 15–1). Pattern-elicited responses involve reflex actions controlled by the brainstem that may also be stimulated by cortical controls. For example, swallowing actions may be voluntarily stimulated by the driving force of the tongue (McCaffrey, 1998–2014). “Try it!” Swallow and notice the preparatory rising action of first the forward tip and then the back of tongue, before the “plunging” action of the tongue forces saliva or food down the esophagus. We can approach the classification of reflex action in various ways. One approach is to classify reflexes according to the systems that receive the

stimulus and give the response (Mann, 1997–2014, p. 15–1). Previously we considered somatosomatic reflexes involving cooperative pairings of skeletal (striated) muscles, such as the knee-jerk reflex. There are also viscerovisceral reflexes involving smooth muscles of the autonomic system, such as the decrease in heart rate that follows distention of the carotid sinus; viscerosomatic reflexes, such as the respiratory fill level reflex that inhibits inhalation; and somatovisceral reflexes, such as the vasoconstriction that results from cooling the skin (Mann, 1997–2014, p. 15–1). As you might imagine, the ongoing mediation of postural and respiratory controls in support of homeostasis and singing relies on multiple crossings of these organizational “borders.” Another approach to understanding reflexes is to consider their function as control systems that regulate the various parameters of muscle contractions that provide protection (e.g., sneezing, coughing) and maintain homeostasis (e.g., postural tone, ventilation, respiratory force), which make breathing during various activities while standing erect possible. In the previous discussion of lower-level controls, we learned that an essential feature of a reflexive control system is the more or less continuous flow of sensory feedback information, which enables the reflex circuitry to continuously mediate the contraction of muscles that produce movement (Mann, 1997–2014, p. 15–11). When coupled with a more or less continuous flow of feedforward information from upper-level motor controls, we may adapt innate reflexive controls to a voluntary plan of action. For example, if we take our eyes off the road to compose a text message on a smart phone, we are likely to run off course before we can detect errors in our steering. However, when we voluntarily “fix” our eyes on our intended destination, the continuous feed of visual information stimulates small, incremental corrections in our steering before we run off course. Key Point: Muscle tone is maintained by the cooperative action of muscle sensors, which monitor changes in muscle length and speed and then transmit feedback signals to motor neurons that either stimulate or inhibit muscle contraction according to the parameters of a preset (autonomic) or voluntary plan of action.



Motor Output Processing

Many singers are also familiar with “less accessible” reflexes for posture and respiration, which may be stimulated and modulated indirectly. However, guiding postural behaviors that are best controlled indirectly by brainstem areas is a risky business. For example, for a successful and enjoyable bike ride or toboggan run, when we “push off” we must also “let go” of many direct cortical controls in favor of brainstem controls that are better suited to maintaining our orientation to gravity. Yet we must also remain alert, collecting visual and even auditory and proprio-kinesthetic information7 to stay on course and steer our toboggan clear of trees and other obstacles. Anticipatory cortical directives, such as to lean to the right or left, create deformations that elicit reflexive brainstem responses (e.g., vestibular) that are themselves anticipated and smoothly executed as per indirect cortical controls. This behavior is soon executed intuitively (without reasoning) — so much so that we scarcely know we are executing a cortical directive at all. In fact, too much attention to these directives “slows us down” and adversely affects performance. Key Point:  An essential feature of expertise is that there is an optimal level of awareness for each task, and although the amount of cortical attention required for a specific task decreases with the consolidation (learning) process, vigilant attention to planning processes remains an important feature of expert and, notably, creative behavior.

Similarly, when singing, choosing to delegate mediation of feedback information to unconscious reflexive controls may initially feel like we are out of control. Remember, only feedback information in need of conscious attention and reasoning out (executive intervention) is routinely projected to our cortex. When we are successful, when all is going according to our plan of action, little conscious attention is needed. Therefore, when posture is optimally maintained, the incremental changes may scarcely be detectable without purposefully heightening awareness. 7

Key Point:  The ability of expert singers to voluntarily influence and modulate stretch reflexes that mediate the tone of axial musculoskeletal structures of the neck and torso (skeletal spine, hyoid bone, rib cage wall, and shoulder and pelvic girdles) is developed over time and, as such, is often intuitive in nature and scarcely noticeable to the casual observer (see Figure 4–3).

If we bear in mind that axial and proximal musculoskeletal structures are stimulated in anticipation of distal action by way of indirect cortical controls, then we can trust that by feeding forward direct stimulation of our articulatory and phonatory structures, we necessarily elicit indirect and exquisitely flexible subcortical fixing of our axial spine and rib cage wall, if not the entire chest wall (including the diaphragm and abdominal wall), in support of a complex series of rapid and variable distal tasks. This allows us to effect expert control of air pressures over an extended pitch and dynamic range for the duration of a musical phrase. Key Point:  The smooth coordination associated with expert control requires the inclusive integration of widespread axial and proximal musculoskeletal forces, mediated by brainstem controls in response to indirect cortical guidance.

In addition, because we learn to control motor action through cortical sensorimotor associations that develop our topographical somatic sensory and motor cortices, or body map, larger and more accessible superficial muscles (e.g., latissimus dorsi, abdominals, and pectorals) provide us with a means to extend the “reach” of our motor cortex to less accessible muscles of not only the axial torso (e.g., diaphragm) but also the viscera of the autonomic system (heart rate). For example, we are most familiar with the action of outlying muscle groups for which there are many cortical projections from receptors in our skin, muscles, and joints. If we use the pull-down machine at the gym, we can sense the action of the chest muscles (pectoralis major) pulling the sternum and rib cage upward and the back

 roprioception or somatic (body) sense involves a composite of muscle sense (kinesthetic), motion sense (vestibular), and P skin sense (tactile).

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muscles (latissimus dorsi) compressing the lower ribs, as well as the positional changes of the upper arm (humerus) and shoulder blades (scapulae), and even relate the action of our cervical (neck) and lumbar spine (Figure 4–40). However, if we extend our perspective to include the stretch reflex, we note that the force (speed + amplitude = force) of stretch imposed on a muscle effects an equal and opposite contracting force of the same muscle. In addition, the contraction of one muscle group can, via the stretch reflex, effect contraction of a related (synergistic) muscle group that may otherwise be less accessible to consciousness and therefore direct control (e.g., the pectoralis major and the pectoralis minor). Key Point:  Before the force of large muscles is reached in full, the action of the smaller synergistic muscles is recruited. Whenever a muscle is stretched, excitation of the spindles causes reflexive contraction of the same muscle from which the signal originated and also the closely allied synergistic muscle. That is, we stretch to contract.

And so it is that expert singers are likely to describe many actions for singing as stretching, expanding, yawning, “making space for,” or even “inhaling a note,” while at the same time describing the behavior in terms of a contracting force or the expulsion power of vomiting or sneezing. Following are additional key points to bear in mind as we move forward with developing expert control of reflexive actions. Key Point:  Axial and proximal musculoskeletal structures are innervated in anticipation of distal action. Expert and smooth execution of a variety of postural and respiratory behaviors relevant to phonation, articulation, and stage movement relies on anticipatory indirect cortical controls mediated by brainstem areas in cooperation with direct cortical control of distal action. This is the case whether that behavior is executed incrementally over the course of a phrase (e.g., phonatory oscillations at 6× per second) or rapidly and extensively (e.g., rapid inhalation to full volume).

Figure 4–40.  Pull-down position. A. Begin. B. End. Source: Everkinetic/Wikimedia Commons/Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported.



Motor Output Processing

Key Point:  Less is more. More anticipatory planning means less energy is required to effect more force. Alpha motor neurons innervate the main extrafusal muscle fiber. Gamma motor neurons innervate the intrafusal muscle fiber, around which the muscle spindle is wrapped. Anticipatory control of voluntary action (feedforward planning, imagery) coactivates the main muscle fiber and the intrafusal fibers. Coactivation effects gamma bias, which results in heightened sensitivity and faster reflexes, or gain. The subsequent overlap in force means it takes less energy to get to maximum force (i.e., gamma gain). Do “let go,” but do not relax. Key Point:  For sustained, extended singing in an average range for loudness and pitch, the abdominal muscles normally remain in a state of incrementally graded tonic contraction. This background muscle tone allows for the following conditions: first, the abdominal muscles help to maintain positional (postural) orientation of the abdominal viscera (organs) during pulsed contractions of the thoracic musculature; and second, the abdominal muscles are primed for more rapid dynamic contraction to accommodate specialized needs for singing (Seikel et al., 2010, p. 157). Therefore, the implication is that the abdominal muscles, as antagonists to the axial spine, are responsible for the positional orientation of abdominal organs. As such, their action is monitored and corrected by brainstem controls, and more specifically the vestibular system, even as they are recruited for singing and other specialized behaviors.

We now turn to the stretch reflex as a means to voluntarily effect postural and respiratory controls in support of highly specialized singing tasks.

Variable Demands for Continuous Singing The function, or end goal, of respiration for singing is to mediate air pressures that effect the expressive 8

linguistic and paralinguistic gestures of the voice. Air pressures may be considered in two subcategories: air pressures of the pulmonary apparatus (alveoli, bronchi, and trachea) commonly known as “subglottal,”8 and air pressures of the pharyngeal, nasal, and oral cavities, commonly known as “supraglottal.” Our current discussion of postural and respiratory controls focuses primarily on reflexive controls for subglottal air pressure. Hixon (2006) proposes the strongest auditoryperceptual correlate of subglottal air pressure is loudness, where variation in alveolar pressure correlates with loudness variability. That is, where volume and speed equal force, variability in air pressure is manifested in changes of loudness both over the course of a phrase (e.g., messa di voce, crescendo) and in the rapid alterations for articulation of text and accents, metrical and expressive emphasis, and vibrato. For example, sustained singing at an average pitch and dynamic range correlates with maintaining average alveolar pressure, whereas dramatic effects requiring expressive emphasis are typically accompanied by high alveolar pressure (Hixon, 2006, p. 98). Much of this variability in pressure and loudness is innate in our ability to communicate and is applied intuitively when singing. However, a closer look at the function of reflexive controls that influence subglottal pressures will further inform our development of expertise. For example, you might consider the respiratory “fill level” reflex (Hering-Breuer reflex) the next time your body resists inhaling more fully for an extended phrase.

The Respiratory Termination or “Fill Level” Reflex The Hering-Breuer reflex terminates inhalation when stretch receptors activated by lung inflation signal inhibition of inhalatory forces once a prescribed level has been reached (Mann, 1997–2014, p. 15–8). We previously described the passive and active forces of resting tidal wave breathing in the introduction to respiratory function. However, interneurons allow this reflex circuitry to be influenced by

 Assuming one is in a vertical position, subglottal areas are those below the point where the vocal folds adduct and the glottis is closed (coup de la glotte). Although the common terminology is used here, it should be noted that the science community prefers the more anatomically correct terminology, such as tracheal pressure over subglottal pressure.

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higher-level controls. In order to engage in special acts of respiration, such as speaking or singing, we must also be able to voluntarily modulate reflexes of the autonomic system that regulate respiratory volume and the delivery of oxygen to muscles (respiratory and cardiovascular ventilation of blood gasses). Thus the discomfort or anxiety we experience, especially as young singers, when we direct inhalation beyond the set resting level indicates we have not adequately signaled our intentions as per anticipatory controls. For example, when we project our intentions for everyday tasks, such as when we raise our arm to retrieve an object from a shelf, our respiratory volume and rate are automatically altered and we sense no discomfort. Inhaling for a prescribed count may project intentions sufficiently to alleviate some discomfort. However, auditory imagery, and more specifically inner singing a phrase in real time with the intent of singing it aloud, is a most effective tool for adjusting or resetting the prescribed inhalation level for the task at hand without anxiety or discomfort (Leigh-Post & Burke, 2009). “Try it!” (PAE 4–6). Key Point:  The function or end goal of respiration for singing is to mediate air pressures that effect the expressive linguistic and paralinguistic gestures of the voice. Therefore, in order to develop respiratory control of air pressures for singing, breathing exercises must be integrated with singing behavior. Moreover, if we want to maintain an ideal performing state (homeostatic equilibrium), we must gather enough oxygen above resting level to support ventilation for special acts, such as the full duration of a sung phrase.

Similarly, respiratory termination reflexes adjust the parameters that regulate oxygen and carbon dioxide in arterial blood. For example, sensory information from the vascular system (from chemoreceptors in the carotid and aortic bodies) signaling a decrease in oxygen or an increase in carbon dioxide is transmitted to the brainstem (via the glossopharyngeal cranial nerve) and in turn stimulates an increase in respiratory volume and rate (Mann, 1997–2014, p. 15–9). “Unsurprisingly, ventilation is not the same during continuous singing as it is during resting

tidal respiration. Bouhuys, Proctor, and Mead (1966) found ventilation to be higher during continuous singing compared to average values for resting tidal respiration. How much higher depended on the nature of the singing, with ventilation being generally higher for loud singing than soft singing” (cited by Hixon, 2006, p. 101). The correlation between ventilation and force (loudness) for singing is consistent with the correlation between the delivery of oxygen to muscles through our blood supply and muscle force in general.

Lung Volume and the “Fill Level” Reflex. Given the role of the various stretch reflexes of the pulmonary-chest wall unit, large lung volumes and chest wall excursions afford us the greatest control of subglottal pulmonary air pressure. Singing is most often produced at lung volumes that are larger than the resting tidal end-inspiratory level (Watson & Hixon, 1985; Watson, Hixon, Stathopolous, & Sullivan, 1990; Hoit, Jenks, Watson, & Cleveland, 1996; Thorpe, Cala, Chapman, & Davis, 2001) and many forms of classical singing typically involve large starting lung volumes, well in excess of those typical of resting tidal respiration (Watson & Hixon, 1985; Watson et al., 1990; Thomasson & Sundberg, 1997) (cited by Hixon, 2006, p. 88). Singing from lung volumes significantly greater than resting levels has distinct advantages for optimal performance and a sense of well-being. Hixon notes that large lung volumes enable use of “positive relaxation pressure” (Hixon, 2006, p. 88), and LeighPost and Burke (2009) propose that singing at lung volumes above resting levels reduces anxiety and promotes a sense of well-being and homeostasis. Additionally, larger lung volume excursions have been linked with expertise in singing. In a study tracking respiratory controls in an expert singer learning new repertory, the singer was found to use “larger starting and ending lung volumes and larger lung volume excursions” during the latter stages of skill acquisition (Hixon, 2006, pp. 89–90). We might conclude that the later stages of skill acquisition provide for more intelligent or betterinformed anticipatory controls, where the predetermined phrase length and the demands of expressive musical and vocal gestures correlate with the predetermined parameters for lung volume excursion and



Motor Output Processing

expert control of variable air pressure (i.e., amplitude and speed). Key Point:  For special acts of respiration such as singing, we do not activate inhalatory and exhalatory forces for the purpose of “taking a breath” or “driving air out.” Rather, we activate various accessory forces (e.g., latissimus dorsi, abdominals) to modulate optimal “singing pressure” for the task at hand.

PAE 4–6:  Inhalation Termination, or Respiratory “Fill Level” Reflex 1. Begin exercise from resting (tidal) respiration. Take a moment and listen attentively to a distant sound until you sense a regular inhalatory and exhalatory pattern. (See also PAE 4–5, “Attentive Listening Posture.”) Note: Exercises (a) through (e) are intended for discovery only and not repetitive practice. a. From a resting level, inhale as if sipping air through a narrow straw9 until you sense either discomfort or a desire to exhale; continue inhaling until you reach another such threshold; continue inhaling yet again until no more air may be accommodated. Note any discomfort or anxiety on a scale of 1 to 10, and release. b. From a resting level, exhale as if blowing through a narrow straw until you sense either discomfort or a desire to inhale; continue exhaling until you reach another such threshold; continue exhaling yet again until no more air may be exhaled. Note any discomfort or anxiety on a scale of 1 to 10, and release. c. From a resting level, inhale slowly, as if sipping air in through a narrow straw, for a count of 5 seconds followed by a five-count exhalation. Note any discomfort or sense of anxiety on a scale of 1 to 10. d. From a resting level, inhale at the same slow rate for a count of 10 seconds followed by a 9

10-count exhalation. Note any discomfort on a scale of 1 to 10. e. From a resting level, exhale as if blowing through a narrow straw, for a count of 5 seconds followed by a reflex inhalation to resting level. Note any discomfort on a scale of 1 to 10. 2. Inhaling for the Phrase:  From a resting level, inhale while inner singing a musical phrase in real time, followed by singing the same phrase aloud. Did you return to resting level? Note any discomfort on a scale of 1 to 10. Repeat for a variety of singing tasks. (See also PAE 3–13, “Auditory Imagery and Inhaling for the Phrase.”) Note: Repeat “Inhaling for the Phrase” frequently to develop expert and intuitive control from early to end-stage learning. You will soon learn to rapidly inhale the correct volume of air for the phrase in the context of the larger work.

The Diaphragm and Abdominal Wall We are familiar with stretch reflexes occurring in striated skeletal muscles such as the knee-jerk reflex and our reflexively resonant phonatory oscillations that effect vibrato. Similarly, contraction of the abdominal wall during exhalation or singing effects the stretch and subsequent reflexive contraction of the diaphragm muscle. During exhalation, when “the abdominal wall is displaced inward, the diaphragm is displaced headward. This causes the muscle fibers of the diaphragm to elongate [stretch], which in turn, increases the potential speed and forcefulness of muscle contraction. In this way, the inward movement of the abdominal wall mechanically tunes [or primes] the diaphragm for producing rapid and powerful inspirations (Hixon et al, 1976; Hixon, 2006, p. 98). For example, singers sometimes rapidly and forcefully exhale, blowing out air in order to stimulate a diaphragmatic stretch reflex that serves to refresh oxygen levels, reset autonomic function, and optimize inhalatory speed and volume, much like

 The narrow straw, providing partial occlusion of the mouth opening, serves several purposes: it reduces drying of airways, reduces alveolar pressure, and slows inhalation rate such that we may take the time for cortical awareness of feedback information.

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a swimmer might do before diving underwater. An inhalatory reflex and rapid inhalation are likewise activated by forceful execution of plosives (e.g., “t”), notably at the ends of words or phrases. As with all behaviors, the stretch reflex in the diaphragm is exquisitely variable to the task. The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle that forms the floor of the thorax, or “the fence between” the thorax and the abdomen (Hixon, 2006, pp. 18–19). Contraction effects descent or flattening of the diaphragm muscle and expansion of the rib cage causing air to enter the lungs. The diaphragm is a striated skeletal muscle, attached at the lumbar vertebrae. As with other skeletal muscles, we can voluntarily influence its function, such as when we take a deep breath, hold our breath, or cough. However, it is also under autonomic control that regulates the ventilation of oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in our blood. For example, we temporarily suspend respiration when we inhale to speak but must wait to begin until there is a break in conversation. Notice, we seem to be able to wait indefinitely. That is, if our glottis is not closed when we temporarily suspend voluntary exhalatory force, autonomic inhalatory and exhalatory forces carry on “without us” (without voluntary/willed intent and the use of accessory muscles). The same is true when we time our singing onset with that of others for ensemble performance. (Note that posture matters. The diaphragm is supplied by the phrenic nerve from cervical segments 3, 4, and 5 of the neck.) Another technique employed by singers to effect diaphragmatic contraction, or braking action, involves partial occlusion of the vocal tract. That is, by modulating airflow via positioning of the articulators (tongue, palate, lips), a singer can partially occlude the vocal tract, thereby reducing supraglottal air pressure and the demand for subglottal pulmonary air pressure proportionately, and in turn activate diaphragmatic braking. Bouhuys et al. (1966)

found that when they lowered air pressure at the mouth and nose to −15 cmH2O) (and the prevailing relaxation pressure, thereby, functionally increased by 14 cmH2O), the diaphragm was activated as a braking device at large lung volumes; when they lowered this pressure further to −25 cmH2O, the diaphragm increased its braking activity at large lung volumes proportionately (Hixon, 2006, pp. 86–87). The activation and modulation of respiratory reflexes may explain why we as singers often describe actions that would at first seem to be at odds with what we are doing. For example, diaphragmatic braking, which involves reflexive contraction, or inhalatory action, of the diaphragm during ongoing sustained singing, is associated with an expanded rib cage, reduced alveolar pressure, and a slowing of the rate of exhalation. Therefore, singers might describe effecting reflexive diaphragmatic contractions while singing as “inhaling” the phrase, or inhalare la voce. No doubt this is further confused by reciprocity and the speed of reflexive resonance — after all, inhalatory action primes the abdominal and rib cage walls for exhalatory force, and exhalatory force primes the diaphragm for inhalatory force. Turn about is fair play! Key Point: The speed and amplitude of the muscle stretch “tunes,” or influences, the potential speed and amplitude (force) of muscle contraction. For example, stretch reflexes may effect rapid and extensive changes in force over a short period of time; rapid and subtle changes over a short period of time; or incremental changes over an extended period of time. Furthermore, a stretch reflex may occur as a single event, such as when a final plosive consonant effects rapid inhalatory action, much like the knee-jerk reflex effects a rapid kick, or it may be reflexively resonant, as with ongoing phonatory oscillations associated with vibrato. In all cases, with feedforward anticipatory controls, the action will always be posturally poised.

The Abdominal and Rib Cage Walls The inward movement of the abdominal wall primes not only the diaphragm for inhalatory action, as previously noted, but also the rib cage wall for exhala-



tory action. “When the abdominal wall is displaced inward, the rib cage wall is elevated passively. . . . This action elongates [stretches] the expiratory muscle fibers in the rib cage wall . . . so that they can contract more rapidly and forcefully (Watson & Hixon, 1985; Thorpe et al., 2001)” (Hixon, 2006, p. 99). Moreover, the rib cage wall is thought to be “especially well suited to generating quick pressure changes because it contracts a larger portion of the lungs than does the diaphragm-abdominal wall (Hixon & Hoit, 2005)” (Hixon, 2006, p. 99). Thus, to modulate optimal pulmonary air pressures during singing, singers contract the abdominal wall to stretch both the diaphragm, which effects reflexive contraction and “inhalatory” braking action and a reduction in pulmonary air pressure, and the rib cage wall, which in turn effects reflexive exhalatory action and an increase in pulmonary air pressure. How is this antagonistic yet cooperative action possible? If you are thinking dynamic reflexive resonance, you are right.

The Rib Cage Wall (Upper and Lower Thorax) We have seen examples of the dynamic relationship between muscle groups in the stretch reflex for postural control (PAE 4–1, “Hold Tray Level”) and the reflexively resonant action of the thyroarytenoid and cricothyroid muscles for phonation (i.e., phonatory oscillations associated with vibrato). Watson, Williams, and James (2012) show evidence of a similarly cooperative and resonant action of postural and respiratory controls for singing in the action of the exhalatory forces of the latissimus dorsi and inhalatory forces of the external intercostals and scalenes. Moreover, research findings indicate this reflexively resonant action can be rhythmically synchronized (i.e., entrained) with the phonatory oscillations of the larynx. Latissimus dorsi “was consistently active during projected singing and appeared to contribute to keeping the chest [or upper thorax] expanded during exhalations that only partially deflated the lungs. . . . In some but not all singers, peaks of activity in [latissimus dorsi] were phase locked with individual notes during coloratura singing and . . . Fluctuations in the activity of the muscle was also sometimes synchronized with vibrato” (Watson et al., 2012). When

Motor Output Processing

singing, monitor the reflexively resonant pulsatory action of inhalatory and exhalatory forces by pressing your fingertips on the epigastric region just below the sternum. Singers may also manipulate reflex mechanisms for the complex and widely integrated musculoskeletal structures of the rib cage wall via the larger and more superficial pectoralis major and minor, as well as the latissimus dorsi. We can experience the cooperative action of these respiratory forces when “pulling weeds” or using the “pull-down” machine at the gym. “Try it!” (PAE 4–7, p. 154).

The Pectoralis Major and Latissimus Dorsi The actions of the latissimus dorsi and pectoralis cited below are explained relative to the positioning of the humerus (upper arm) (Figures 4–41 and 4–42). There remains some uncertainty as to the cooperative action of the extra muscles of respiration, and notably the latissimus dorsi relative to elevation of the rib cage wall during singing. The following exercises will provide an opportunity to explore the interactive relationship of these and other axial and proximal musculoskeletal structures serving postural and respiratory functions. The correlative action of the positioning of the humerus and coincident elevation of the sternum and rib cage is what we experience in everyday activities, such as when our arms reach out, up, and behind our head for a yawn stretch or the initial inhaling stretch of a sun salutation. When singing, expressive arm gestures often position the arms favorably, elevating the rib cage and voluntarily (albeit intuitively) stimulating desirable stretch reflexes that promote optimal posture and respiration. Key Point:  Previously with the Pull-Down exercise (see Figure 4–40), we learned that whenever our larger pectoralis major is contracted, its allied synergistic muscle, the pectoralis minor, also contracts. This means that before the force of a large muscle is reached in full, the action of its synergistic muscle is recruited. Consider also that concurrent with the elevation of the rib cage, accessory respiratory muscles of the rib cage (e.g., the exhalatory internal intercostals) are also stretched, thereby stimulating reciprocal contraction. That

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Figure 4–41.  Accessory muscles of respiration. A. Pectoralis major. B. Pectoralis minor. “The pectoralis major muscle . . . originates from the humerus (bone of the upper arm) and its fibers cross the rib cage and insert into the upper costal cartilages, sternum, and inner half of the clavicle. When the humerus is fixed in position, contraction of the pectoralis major pulls the sternum and ribs upward. The pectoralis minor muscle lies underneath the pectoralis major. . . .When the scapula is fixed in a position, contraction of the pectoralis minor elevates the second through fifth ribs” (Hixon, 2006, p. 25). Courtesy of Gray’s Anatomy and Christopher Moore.

is, given the reciprocal nature of our nervous system as a whole, and more specifically the stretch reflex, just as elevation of the rib cage effected by contractions of the diaphragm and external intercostals may (given sufficient amplitude and force) effect reciprocal contractions of the accessory muscles of the rib cage (and the body as a whole), elevation of the rib cage effected by any means, such as the action of the larger, accessory muscles of the rib cage (pectoralis) that raise our arms, sets into motion a series of reflexive contractions of the most essential muscles of respiration.

PAE 4–7: Cooperative Action of Accessory Muscles of Respiration.  Notice the cooperative action of the latissimus dorsi and pectoralis major and minor with muscles of the abdominal and rib cage walls.

1. Daddy’s Yawn — Place your hands behind your neck with elbows out and inhale deeply. Exhale with arms outstretched. 2. Sun-Salutation Inhale and Exhale — Standing, begin with arms hanging at your sides. While inhaling deeply, sweep your arms up to the sky, reaching high above you. As you exhale bring your hands together (prayer hands) and place them at the base of the sternum where it meets the epigastrium and sense (tactile) the rhythms of your heart and breathing rates. Variation: Try a standing Downward Dog or “Superman Flight” pose, stretching hands away from your tailbone, and extending your spine as you exhale. 3. Axial (Core) Stabilization — When on one knee or in a lunge, reach your hands toward the floor. This action stabilizes the axis (skeletal spine, shoulder girdle and humerus, and hip girdle



Motor Output Processing

Figure 4–42.  Latissimus dorsi. “The latissimus dorsi . . . originates from the humerus and run downward across the back of the torso and insert into the lower six thoracic, lumbar, and sacral vertebrae, and the back of the lower three of four ribs. . . . Contraction of the muscle as a whole compresses the lower part of the rib cage wall” (Hixon, 2006, p. 29). Courtesy of Gray’s Anatomy and Christopher Moore.

and leg). Note the coordinated action of the latissimus dorsi and intercostals (lower and upper thorax) for breathing at resting level and during singing. Variation: Try a Warrior Pose.

4. Pulling Down Weeds — Stand erect and reach your arms out and up in front of you at about a 75-degree angle. Imagine you are pulling down weeds, pull your arms to your chest repeatedly

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with variable speed. Remember, no isometric tension please. Key Point: Postural muscles have wide-ranging connectivity and are widely integrated both within and between muscle groups. Moreover, as per direct and indirect controls, activation of muscles of the axial and proximal torso must be integrated with distal end-goal behaviors (e.g., “sing this phrase”) for optimal effectiveness.

Diaphragmatic Contraction and the Tracheal Tug Reflex The extreme descent or flattening of the diaphragm for deep inhalation, such as when yawning or during a surprised gasp, effects a tracheal tug or downward pull of the trachea, and with it, the larynx. This, and any downward force on the larynx, activates a stretch reflex that signals abduction (separation) of the vocal folds, presumably to facilitate rapid inhalation (Hixon, 2006, p. 79). Although the tracheal tug would explain why we experience breathy phonation (i.e., poor adduction) when yawning and running, this inhalatory reflex is particularly effective when executed rapidly and integrated with the exhalatory respiratory force reflex, such as the catch breath before pitching a ball or sneezing. “The working hypothesis is that downward pull on the larynx is greatest at large lung volumes and large abdominal wall volumes and that this pull influences the behavior of the larynx during singing” (Hixon, 2006, p. 107). Studies bearing on this working hypothesis found evidence of tracheal pull, lower vertical position of the larynx, and increased dilation [abduction] among untrained singers singing at large lung volumes, and a higher vertical position of the larynx and increased laryngeal compression in untrained singers singing at small lung volumes (Iwarsson et al., 1996, 1998; Iwarsson & Sundberg, 1998; Milstein, 1999; cited by Hixon, 2006, p. 107). However, when studied under the same conditions, expert singers made compensatory adjustments for changes in lung volume to maintain the same subglottal (tracheal) pressures and maintain the same vertical positions of the larynx at larger lung volumes as they do at smaller lung volumes (Hixon, 2006, p. 109). It has been proposed that the

increased cricothyroid muscle activity (Sundberg et al., 1989) and diaphragmatic braking action (Watson et al., 2012) observed in expert singers singing at large lung volumes could effect compensatory adjustments. We also understand that brainstem controls (reticular formation and vestibular system), informed by anticipatory cortical controls (inner singing), are capable of effecting rapid corrective postural responses, via extrinsic laryngeal musculature with attachments at the hyoid bone, to maintain optimal positioning of the larynx during inhalation for the speaking or singing task at hand. “Try it!” (PAE 4–8).

PAE 4–8:  Tracheal Tug Reflex and Optimal Positioning of the Larynx a. Place your fingertips on the larynx and trachea and rapidly and forcefully gasp and speak, “Oh my gosh!” Notice that when inhalatory force is great enough (speed + volume = force) the larynx is tugged downward. However, as inhalatory forces give way to exhalatory forces, the larynx rapidly resets and stabilizes at its optimal memory point in anticipation of speech (phonatory onset and adduction). b. Place your fingertips on the larynx and trachea and inhale deeply while inner singing an extended phrase in “real time.” Did your vestibular system effectively maintain optimal positioning of your larynx? c. Place your fingertips on the larynx and trachea and inhale deeply and rapidly while intending to sing an extended phrase. Did your vestibular system effectively maintain optimal positioning of your larynx? (See “The Respiratory Force Reflex.”)

The Respiratory Force Reflex As we approach consideration of the respiratory force reflex, it will be helpful to take a closer look at the scalenes and passive and active respiratory controls for subglottal pulmonary air pressure and the onset of phonation (Figure 4–43). The anterior, lateral, and posterior scalenes attach at the upper two sets of ribs and at the cervical vertebrae (C2-7). Although the scalenes assist



Motor Output Processing

in positioning the head (neck flexion, lateral flexion, and rotation), they are primarily muscles of active inhalatory force, extending the action of the external intercostals by raising the first two sets of ribs,

and passive exhalatory force by virtue of inhibition (relaxation) and gravitational force. When the axial spine is stabilized or fixed, activation of the scalene muscles lifts the first two sets of

Figure 4–43.  Scalene muscles. The scalenus anterior arises from the fourth to sixth cervical vertebrae and is inserted on the first rib; the scalenus medius arises from the second to seventh cervical vertebrae and is inserted into the first rib and the external intercostal membrane, thereby reaching the second rib; the scalenus posterior runs from the fifth to seventh cervical vertebrae and to the second rib (Platzer, 2009; see also Figure 4–40). Courtesy of Gray’s Anatomy and Christopher Moore.

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ribs and thus the superior part of the thorax, thereby extending the inhalatory action of the external intercostals. The scalene muscles are thought to be essential to both resting level inhalation and the extended inhalation required for special acts of respiration such as yawning, laughing, or singing at large lung volumes. For example, the contracting lifting action of the scalenes is increased when the head and neck are bent backward, such as when yawning (Platzer, 2009, p. 80). Moreover, variable inhibition of scalene contractions and their inhalatory force effects equally variable passive onset of exhalatory force resulting from gravitational pull. Although subtle and scarcely noticeable in the autonomic control of resting-level breathing, the active inhalatory and passive exhalatory action for special acts of respiration may be observed in the concurrent rapid and brief rising of the upper ribs and catch breath that precedes the onset of exhalatory force for a sneeze, vocal emphasis, or physical exertion in general. “Try it!” (PAE 4–9).

PAE 4–9: Respiratory Action of the Scalene Muscles.  To optimize axial controls, begin the exercise by listening attentively to a far off and distant sound, (see PAE 2–2, “Attentive Listening Posture”). 1. Place the palm of one hand on the back of the neck along the cervical vertebrae (C1-7), and the palm of the other hand on at the base of the neck at the front, along the top two ribs and sternum. Monitor the rising and falling action of the upper two ribs effected by the scalenes for the following respiratory behaviors: a. resting tidal wave breathing; b. heavy sigh from large lung volume; c. yawning; and d. imitation of sneezing with a series of deep inhalations followed by a rapid and brief lift or catch breath (contraction of scalenes) — Ah__ah__ah__ah-choo! The scalenes may be similarly activated with a rapid “happy surprise” inhale, or panting. 2. Repeat exercises (a) through (d), with the palm of one hand on the back of the neck as above and the back of the other hand on your skeletal spine below the waist, noting cooperative micro actions of the cervical and lumbro-sacral spine.

Note:  If you have difficulty isolating the action of the scalene muscles (which raise the upper ribs) from that of the trapezius muscles (which raise the shoulders), see PAE 4–13 (“Axial Stabilization of the Neck and Proximal Positioning of the Head”).

Respiratory Force and the Protective Sneeze Reflex Sneezing is a protective respiratory reflex involving a virtually imperceptible moment of suspended respiration, or apnea, following rapid inhalation. While the lungs are relatively full, the vocal folds then adduct to firmly close the glottis. At this point, exhalatory forces suddenly and reflexively contract creating the appropriate subglottal pulmonary air pressure to cause forceful expulsion of both air and any offending matter when the glottis reopens — at speeds reaching 99 mph (http://as.miami.edu/ chemistry/2086/chap23/the respiratory system part 2.htm). This innate ability to generate “just the right amount” of respiratory force is a skill developed with a myriad vocalises (e.g., staccato), but perhaps most notably with the coup de la glotte attributed to Manuel Garcia and the bel canto school of singing. (See also “Vocal Cord Adduction,” p. 160.) Consider also that this unconscious and rapid anticipatory calculation, generation, and execution of respiratory force is inherent to physical exertion in general. “Try it!” (PAE 4–10A–B).

PAE 4–10A: Activating the Respiratory Force Reflex—“T Pitch.”  With a ball in your dominant pitching hand and mouth closed, inhale through your nose and stand with arms outstretched in a “T.” Then, with your nondominant hand, point at a visual target as the “go” signal stimulates rapid follow-through of the pitch and release of the ball (Figure 4–44). Question: Did you notice (hear and feel) a brief and sharp exhalatory force as you released the ball? Could you hear the rapid and brief inhalatory and exhalatory action of the respiratory force reflex? (Remember to breathe through your nose.) How much time lapses between a cortical directive to execute action (“Go!”) and the moment you see and hear (feedback awareness) the ball hit the target? Notice the suspension of voluntary respiratory



Motor Output Processing

forces when you hold the “T.” Can you sense the rapid and brief contraction and relaxation (active lifting and passive falling) action of the scalenes and upper two rib pairings? Can you sense the rapid and brief glottal stop (apnea) that occurs at the onset of active exhalatory force? Although we can benefit from anticipating and inviting this sensory information, most feedback information is to be processed unconsciously during the flow of ongoing performance. What information do you find helpful, and what information “slows you down”? Variation:  When singing, repeatedly pitch the ball at various points in a phrase and with different expressive affects (e.g., cautious, excited, irritated) to effect variable control. Comments: Does your pitch lack force? In order to activate the subcortical respiratory force reflex that we experience when sneezing, we must “let go” of cortical controls. Be sure your arms remain in the “T” pattern until the pitching action is executed, until you think “go.” This is the point at which you “let go” of conscious control. For comparison, try “overthinking” — consciously controlling the action beyond “go.” Your pitch will likely be slower and lack sufficient force. If your attention is appropriately focused on the target, the real-time speed of the pitching action should be “faster than you can think,” or process it consciously. We must get out of our own way and let our intelligent subcortical motor output system take control of the execution of the action. Be mindful of the “ready, set, go” sequence of the conscious feedforward planning processes, and the subsequent rapid-fire mediation of motor output and sensory input (feedback) processes.

PAE 4–10B:  Respiratory Force Reflex—“Hammer Time!” and “I Ate Ice Cream!”  The respiratory force reflex involves the coordinated timing of the onset of inhalatory and exhalatory forces. During this exercise, take particular note of the coordinated action of the scalene muscles of the cervical spine and core muscles of the lumbro-sacral spine (hip flexors and pelvic floor), the pectorals and latissimus dorsi, and the abdominals and diaphragm.

Figure 4–44.  “T Pitch.”

Figure 4–45.  “I ate ice cream!” Courtesy of Alexander Johnson.

1. Standing erect with your hand near your epigastrium, form a soft fist with your dominant hand and rest it atop the open palm of your other hand. With your fist, target and tap your open palm, then, raising your fist high to ear height, give a “hammering blow” to your open palm while singing the exercise below (Figure 4–45). Key Point:  As a good carpenter knows, this “hammering action” will be most effective when the fist falls passively, yielding to the force of gravity.

The preparatory tap ensures feedforward planning, while the cortical directive “strike that target” will stimulate subcortical controls. When successfully executed, brainstem controls will simultaneously mediate a perfect vocal onset ​— ​ calculating the appropriate timing of adduction and respiratory force. Variations: a. With your dominant hand, drop your fist on an imagined target at about your waist (or on a foam ball placed on a waist high

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surface), and with your other hand, monitor action of the scalene muscles with palm resting on your upper ribs at the base of your throat. Notice the action of the scalene muscles and the brief and slight rise of the upper ribs that is coincident with the rapid gathering-up (anabolic) action of your fist and inhalation. b. With your dominant hand, hammer your fist as for (a) above, and with the back of your other hand resting on the lumbrosacral spine, monitor action of the hip flexors and pelvic floor. Can you sense the gathering-up and expenditure of respiratory force in the brief and slight pelvic and sacral motion effected by the hip flexors and other postural and respiratory muscles?

smoothly coordinated and expressively responsive ongoing performance (i.e., gain and flow).

Vocal Cord Adduction, or Coup de la glotte. ​ When singing, the rapid and repetitive adduction of the vocal cords (coup de la glotte), the force and duration of which is highly variable, provides another means to optimize air pressure for myriad singing tasks (Figure 4–46). Motor force is determined by the number and type of motor units recruited and the speed with which their action potentials are repeatedly stimulated (see “Coactivation and Gamma Bias or Gain,”

2. “Hammer Time!” with affect:  As with all motor action, air pressure is adjusted subcortically in response to cortical information. This adjustment contributes to the expressive gesture of the voice. a. Early Stage Learning — Inhale and suspend voluntary exhalatory force for a moment as you view the list of affects in Table 4–1. When you choose an affect, notice the rapidfire adjustment of pulmonary air pressure in response to this cortical information. When you are satisfied with your choice and feel “set,” begin the singing and hammering action as above (“go”). b. End-stage feedforward planning and ongoing performance — Repeat the singing and hammering action as above, reducing attention to feedback information and decreasing time required to select an affect for each hammer stroke until you achieve

Table 4–1. Affects Amused

Bewildered

Miserable

Delighted

Suspicious

Awed

Fearful

Mocking

Teasing

Inquisitive

Scheming

Caring

Wondering

Revolted

Sarcastic

Haughty

Figure 4–46.  Superior view of the larynx—Coup de la glotte.



Motor Output Processing

p. 114). For example, for sustained legato singing in a moderate pitch and dynamic range, the reflexive action of the diaphragm in response to the contraction force of the chest wall (including abdominals and latissimus dorsi) is likely to be graded tonic contraction — that is, an incremental pulsatory (reflexively resonant) action that has been shown to be synchronized or phase-locked with the vibrato rate (Watson et al., 2012) and in some cases, may be synchronized with the regular and repetitive patterns of coloratura passages (Watson et al., 2012). We might think of this regularly recurring (reflexively resonant) graded tonic action of legato singing as the background tone, or “canvas,” for expressive gestures — a background intended to be altered, a symmetry meant to be broken, much like our resting level breathing rate is altered (amplified) to serve a wide variety of specialized actions. That is, actions requiring dynamic rather than incremental changes in air pressure, such as extended changes in pitch frequency, text articulation, metrical emphasis, or loudness, would be reflected in similar changes in force and possibly even a disruption in the rhythmically repetitive pattern altogether (e.g., prolonged glottal stops for double consonants or dramatic emphasis). How we achieve synchrony and cohesion of both the dynamic as well as more passive reflexively resonant rhythms, such as occurs in expressive music performance, are explored further in Chapter 5, “Rhythm and Rhythmic Entrainment.”

Postural and Respiratory Controls— Lower Torso, Neck, and Head The Lumbro-Sacral and Cervical Spine The postural and respiratory controls effected by the musculoskeletal structures of the pelvic girdle and lumbro-sacral spine are closely integrated with that of the upper rib cage and cervical spine. Together they play an important role in executing tonic and dynamic force, and notably the brief bursts of force associated with the protective sneeze reflex, pitching a ball, or a rapid leap to a high C.

The Core Muscles of the Lower Torso Assisting the diaphragm in respiration are the most distal trunk muscles of the pelvic diaphragm and perineum (i.e., the pelvic floor, pubococcygeal and levator ani muscles) (Figure 4–47). The muscles of the pelvic floor provide a well-known force known to singers as tutti bocci chiusi (all openings closed), or core strength in Pilates, and Kegels to physical therapists. Curiously, the anal sphincter stretch reflex stimulates an increase in respiratory force and is occasionally used to stimulate respiration in an emergency (http://as.miami.edu/chemistry/2086/ chap23/the respiratory system part 2.htm). Specialized component exercises, such as Kegel exercises, develop muscle strength and control that

Figure 4–47.  Pelvic floor muscles, inferior view. A. Male. B. Female. Courtesy of Gray’s Anatomy and Christopher Moore.

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will be available when needed. “Try it!” (Venes, 2009. PAE 4–11).

PAE 4–11: Kegel Exercise. Kegel exercises strengthen the muscles of the pelvic floor (pubococcygeal and levator ani) that we use when holding in urine or feces (see Figure 4–47): 1. Repeatedly and rapidly alternate contracting and relaxing the muscles for 10 seconds (try with coincidental rapid inhalation and exhalation). 2. Relax for 20 seconds and then sustain the contraction for 10 to 20 seconds.

3. Then rest for 10 seconds and repeat the routine until fatigued. 4. Stretch the pelvic floor downward (“elevator down”) alternating with rapid contraction (“elevator up”).

The Iliopsoas (Hip Flexor) Muscles and Lumbro-Sacral Stabilization for Respiration The hip flexors (iliopsoas, composed of psoas major and minor, and iliacus) are among the muscles responsible for maintaining postural stabilization during respiration and singing (Figure 4–48). Under

Figure 4–48.  Core muscles of the lower torso for posture and respiration. The iliopsoas (psoas major, psoas minor, iliacus) form a group of muscles commonly known as the hip flexors. Activation of the hip flexor draws the upper leg toward the torso when the axis is fixed, pulls the torso toward the leg when the leg is fixed (e.g., “sit-ups”), or stabilizes an erect torso (and notably the lumbar spine) on the thigh when postural deformations are caused by movement such as walking or breathing. Courtesy of Kelsey Stalker.



normal conditions, such as for extended singing in an average pitch and loudness range, they assist in maintaining slow and incremental (tonic) adjustments that stabilize an erect torso (and notably the lumbar spine) on the thigh when walking, standing, sitting, and breathing. However, for dynamic actions ranging from subtle expressions of musical and linguistic emphasis to specialized dramatic affects requiring rapid or extended shifts in respiratory force (e.g., sforzando, staccato, or leaps in pitch), their role is more pronounced. Since the psoas major has attachments at nearly all lumbric vertebrae and extensions into the thorax and the femur (thigh), its contraction pulls the lumbar spine and diaphragm downward and forward and the pelvic floor and legs upward. This produces the characteristic knee bend associated with appoggio (the act of “leaning on” the breath), musical expressivity, and, notably, sudden and extensive shifts in loudness or pitch. Consider the anticipatory ebbing action, a rapid and brief gathering-up or inhalatory easing of subglottal air pressure, that precedes an equally rapid and brief expenditure of energy, or the exhalatory increase in subglottal air pressure that effects various singing tasks. This initial behavior then continues as ongoing reflexively resonant pulsatory action for sustained singing.

Figure 4–49.  Hip flexor activation.

Motor Output Processing

Optimal function of the hip flexors, relevant to respiration for singing, is enhanced by balancing and stretching exercises commonly incorporated in Pilates and Asian fitness techniques, including yoga exercises such as the Sun Salutation and notably those designed to isolate the action of the psoas. “Try it!” (PAE 4–12).

PAE 4–12: Hip Flexor.  To maximize development of postural and respiratory expertise for singing, incorporate a variety of singing tasks (scales, arpeggios, leaps, sustained pitches) while performing the exercises illustrated in Figure 4–49, which prime the hip flexors for action (i.e., effect the stretch reflex). Monitor postural poise and note the timing of changes of respiratory force and the natural entrainment of those changes in force with singing action and metrical pulse. 1. While singing, walk with high-stepping action (with variable speed and extended changes in amplitude), even up a flight of stairs. Alternate with light-stepping action (rapid and brief, or increased speed and decreased amplitude). 2. While singing, stand with one knee up on a stool or in a lunge position, with arms at your sides reaching your hands downward toward the floor.

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3. Sing in a plié or an ape-like crouched position. Variation:  Begin singing seated in a chair and then rise a few inches. 4. While singing, stand in a Tree Pose or modified Tree Pose (one foot extended in front of you and lifted from the floor with hands forming a triangle at epigastrium). Repeat the exercises above, monitoring integrated action of axial controls for lumbro-sacral and cervical vertebrae: place the palm of one hand on your neck vertebrae and the back of your other hand on the lumbar region toward the sacrum (tailbone). Notice the rapid micro action of the hip flexors and almost imperceptible rapid rotation of the pelvis.

The Neck and Head The axial stabilization, or fixing, of the skeletal spine and rib cage is critical to optimal positioning of the phonatory and articulatory structures of the neck and head. The axial musculoskeletal structures of the neck include the spinal extensors and the scalenes with axial attachments at the cervical vertebrae (C2-7) and the two uppermost sets of ribs (see also Figures 4–41 and 4–43). Although many muscles of the neck and head that have an attachment at one end to either the ribs or skeletal spine may be recruited for axial support, we focus on their primary (and preferred) proximal role — to position the head or larynx — as defined by their attachments to the skull or hyoid bone. For example, the sternocleidomastoid (SCM) muscles, with attachments at the mastoid processes (base of the skull behind the ear) and the sternum and clavicles, position the head relative to the axial rib cage (Figure 4–50). “Try it!” (PAE 4–13).

PAE 4–13:  Axial Stabilization of the Neck and Proximal Positioning of the Head.  In this exercise, we compare axial stabilization or fixing of the neck with proximal positioning (turning and rotation) of the head with regard to the action of the axial spinal extensors and scalenes as well as the proximal SCM (see Figures 4–31, 4–43, and 4–50): 1. To isolate the action of the scalenes, touch the points of attachment and shorten the distance

between them: Place the fingertips of one hand at the back of neck on the cervical vertebrae (and especially C7), and the thumb and index finger of the other hand at the middle of each of the second set of ribs lying just below the clavicle. Variation:  If you have difficulty isolating the action of scalene muscles that raise the upper ribs from contraction of the trapezius muscles that raise the shoulders and clavicles, place your fingers as above to “mark the spot” and then move your fingers slightly out and away from these positions (about 1/8") and ask those bony structures to “find,” or move in the direction of, your fingertips. This may be repeated for several incremental adjustments. 2. To isolate the action of the SCM, touch the points of attachment and shorten the distance between them: Place the fingertips of one hand at the back of your head on the mastoid process (bony protrusion at the back and base of the skull, behind ears) and the fingertips of the other hand at the sternum and clavicle on the same side, and shorten the distance between your two hands (unilateral contraction). Your head will rotate toward the same side and your chin will turn slightly upward. 3. Metamonitor three-point triangulated alignment of the forehead and the sternum with axial neck (C1-7) while singing various vocalises and repertory. Note when subcortical mediation (monitoring and self-correction) of posture and respiratory force requires additional information — perhaps tactile information gathered by touching key points, or more vivid imagery to end-goal singing task — to calculate respiratory force (subglottal pulmonary air pressure) for optimal performance. 4. Repeat Step 3 above, turning your head to look at various objects in the room, or perhaps to determine whose footsteps you hear or what kind of car is passing by. Continue to metamonitor the overall relationship between your head position (vestibules), and cervical spine and upper ribs, and your environment. Axial and proximal postural controls facilitate positioning the head and its sensory and motor structures for the distal purposes of both gathering informa-



Motor Output Processing

Figure 4–50.  Musculoskeletal structures of the uppermost ribs, neck, and head. A. Skeletal and cartilaginous structures. From The Larynx, Fried, M., & Ferlito, A. (Ed.s). San Diego, CA: Plural Publishing. 2009. Used with permission. B. Muscles that position the head. The seven cervical vertebrae, along with the uppermost ribs, clavicle, and sternum, provide support for the head and neck structures (e.g., larynx), the central nervous system, or spinal cord (e.g., the diaphragm is supplied by the phrenic nerve from cervical segments 3, 4, and 5), and passage of an important arterial supply to the brain and brainstem (vertebral artery). In addition, effective control of postural and respiratory structures of the neck and head depends on coordinated function with the pelvic and abdominal wall structures of the lumbro-sacral vertebrae. Courtesy of Gray’s Anatomy and Christopher Moore.

tion, and communicating our thoughts and feelings. For example, the same tongue, palate, and lips that are positioned to sense airflow (temperature) and vibration and pressure (haptic) are also positioned to articulate text and control supraglottal air pressures of the pharyngeal, laryngeal, nasal, and oral cavities that assist in the expression of paralinguistic sounds.

The Sternocleidomastoid.  The sternocleidomas­ toid (SCM) muscle pairing has attachments at the mastoid process located at the base of the skull behind the ear and at the top of the sternum and clavicle (see Figure 4–50). Its primary function is

to position the head and its distal actors, the eyes, nose, mouth, ears, and notably the vestibules of the inner ears. When the SCM is activated (contracted or shortened) on one side only, the head rotates to the opposite side and tilts upward. When both sides are activated, the head rotates forward and the chin is drawn toward the sternum. When the axial spine is fixed, the forward rotation of the head also draws the sternum upward toward the chin. This positioning of the head relative to the sternum is evident during inhalation. In a study of trained singers, although the SCM was found to be active during very deep inhalations (and notably when lung capacity is increased

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above 75% vital capacity) or when a short sharp inhalation was made, “levels of activity in SCM were generally much lower during projected singing, and it was not recruited increasingly as lung capacity fell (Watson et al., 2012). Therefore, although the SCM is active during deep inhalation, an appropriate representation of its function when singing would be that moderate SCM activity maintains the desired head position relative to the sternum. For example, when the rib cage and sternum are elevated for deep inhalation, the SCM shortens to maintain the desired head rotation relative to the sternum during a variety of singing and acting tasks as dictated by both cortical and subcortical (vestibular) controls, such as the vestibular “head turn” reflex (VSCM). Despite the absence of data correlating a variety of singing tasks with coincidental head turning tasks, this representation is consistent with SCM anatomical function. Moreover, experience and observation of expert singers in staged performance support the notion that our head position may be voluntarily controlled such that, with sufficient anticipatory signals, we can turn our head and smoothly integrate optimal muscle tone of the SCM with relevant axial controls during ongoing respiratory and singing behavior. “Try it!” Snap your fingers just behind your left or right ear. Can you allow the VSCM headturn reflex to activate? Listen to faint and distant sounds to heighten sensitivity. Have a friend snap his or her fingers behind your left or right ear and surprise you. We know from our listening posture exercise and previous discussions of the vestibular head-turn and ocular (eye) fixation reflexes that the proximal positioning of the head is not at all rigid. Moreover, even a slight and brief movement of the head (such as that caused by bone-conducted vibrations), which is mediated by our brainstem controls (i.e., vestibular system), stimulates rapid-fire and often incremental and smoothly executed corrective stabilizing action. All we need to do is monitor the position of our head (vestibules) relative to our sternum and our environment and let our vestibular system do the rest. (The sensory organs for the vestibular system, located in the inner ears, transmit motion information to the vestibular nuclei located in the brainstem, from which corrective motor action is signaled.)

Key Point:  Anticipated direct cortical commands to look, smell, taste, or sing are supported by indirect brainstem commands that position the eyes, ears, mouth, or larynx (and therefore the head). Moreover, any movement of the head stimulates the vestibular organs of the inner ear and corrective action by the vestibular system (brainstem controls) to maintain our postural orientation to gravity. These corrective postural controls are optimized when distal action is anticipated (gamma bias). We may consciously monitor the positional relationship of our inner ears (vestibules) to various effectors and our environment and leave the details as to how those effectors are positioned to the vestibular system and other brainstem controls.

The Neck and Larynx As singer-actors, our task requires a host of rapidly occurring phonatory and articulatory actions, and even eye movements and facial gestures, to express our thoughts and feelings. Axial fixing and stable approximation of our distal phonatory and articulatory structures that support these complex actions require continuous cortical guidance and brainstem mediation. For example, when the function of the axial, proximal, and distal structures is confused, isometric tension often results (i.e., muscles contract without effecting movement). Isometric tension—When an effector (muscle) effects an effect (movement), the effort is effective, or efficacious. When an effector fails to effect an effect (i.e., there is no movement), the effort is ineffective and isometric tension results. Isometric tremor is defined as involuntary oscillations of one or more body regions occurring in situations of isometric muscle contraction and rigid resistance (Zesiewicz, Encarnacion, & Hauser, 2002, p. 324). Key Point:  Stabilization of the larynx, or proximal positioning the larynx relative to a fixed spine, relies on continuous and unyielding anticipatory and corrective actions. These actions are



Motor Output Processing

signaled by brainstem controls in support of a host of highly variable singing tasks signaled by cortical controls (i.e., indirect cortical control, or what brainstem controls do when guided by feedforward planning).

The neck is a microcosm for axial, proximal, and distal structures. The proximal structures for the larynx are represented by attachments to the hyoid bone (Figure 4–51). The suprahyoid muscles, extending upward, or superior, to the hyoid bone, are involved in language articulation and raise the larynx when swallowing. The infrahyoid (strap) muscles, extending downward, or inferior, to the hyoid bone, lower the larynx during swallowing. With attachments at the sternum and, in the case of the omohyoid, the shoulder blade (scapula), the primary function of the infrahyoid structures for postural and respiratory support for singing is to position the larynx relevant to the action of the rib cage wall, the design of which enables flexible and adaptable action of the distal structures of the larynx. It is significant that directly and indirectly controlled movement of the upper ribs, clavicle, and sternum relative to our axial spine (and head position) effects the stretch reflex and subsequent contraction of the sternothyroid and thyrohyoid muscle pairing, which is otherwise less accessible to voluntary influence. What does it mean to fix the axial spine for a distal behavior that is rapidly recurring, with any combination of incremental changes over an extended musical phrase and interspersed with pronounced dynamic changes in pitch and volume that may occur within a single pulse? “Try it!” (PAE 4–14).

PAE 4–14:  Axial, Proximal, and Distal Controls for Singing.  While singing various tasks (scales, octave leaps, staccati), place fingertips along the top seven spines of the cervical vertebrae at the back of the neck. Notice the subtle incremental action of the small axial muscles (multifidus) that run close to and along the vertebrae. This incremental action demonstrates how separate and discrete local circuits enable the rapid and brief fixing of each vertebra for each rapid (and rapidly recurring) action of the larynx. Earlier, we experienced these incremental adjustments with “Buzzing Bones” (PAE 2–9). While

singing, alternate plugging your ears to heighten attentional focus on the sound of bone-conducted resonance (auditory sense) with placing your fingertips on the back of your neck to heighten awareness of bone-conducted vibrations and the responsive action of spinal extensors along the cervical vertebrae (somatic senses). Monitoring feedback information in this way allows us to “stay out of our own way,” to consciously metamonitor the unconscious self-monitoring and corrective action mediated by our brainstem controls.

The Tongue and Pharynx The articulators control supraglottal air pressures, first at the gateways between the pharynx and nasal and oral cavities via the back of tongue (glossus), soft palate (velum), and posterior and anterior pillars (fauces) and lastly by the tip of the tongue and lips (labia). The action of the tongue, and notably its interaction with the soft palate, can be easily confused and is worthy of a closer look. For example, patternelicited responses such as swallowing and yawning involve both voluntarily and reflexively stimulated behaviors that include both desirable and undesirable actions for singing. The tongue is a muscular organ. That is, it is the sensory organ for taste and a highly flexible muscle. Its motor function assists in chewing and swallowing and is developed for the articulation of language sounds. Like other motor structures, the tongue has both extrinsic and intrinsic muscles. The intrinsic muscles of the tongue allow it to alter its shape and size, such as when the tip of the tongue thins to roll an “r” ( Figure 4–52). The tongue’s extrinsic muscles are unique in that they have attachments at skeletal structures at only one end and insertions at the tongue at the other (Figure 4–53). The skeletal structures provide stability for the positioning action of the extrinsic actors. The genioglossus depresses the tongue and thrusts it out, the styloglossus raises and withdraws the tongue, the hyoglossus lowers the tongue’s sides, and the palatoglossus raises its back and narrows the anterior fauces (http://science.howstuffworks. com/life/human-biology/tongue1.htm).

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Figure 4–51. Proximal musculoskeletal structures of the neck (hyoid). A. Suprahyoid and infrahyoid muscles that position the larynx. Courtesy of Gray’s Anatomy and Christopher Moore. B. Schematic activity of the extrinsic muscles of the larynx. The hyoid bone acts as a structural balance point, or fulcrum for postural, respiratory, phonatory, and articulatory motor controls of the neck. From Speech and Voice Science, A. Behrman, San Diego, CA: Plural Publishing, Inc., 2013. Printed with permission.

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Motor Output Processing

narrow (palatoglossus) while the soft palate lowers (palatopharyngeous). However, for singing, although the tongue rises as it does for speech, the soft palate also rises (levator paliti), closing off the nasal cavity. Compare this action to that of the same actors for [pyr] and [ŋu].

Summary

Figure 4–52. Complex intrinsic muscles of the tongue. A. Lateral view. B. Anterior view, frontal section. From Speech and Voice Science, A. Behrman, San Diego, CA: Plural Publishing, Inc., 2013. Printed with permission.

The integrated action of the tongue and soft palate is of particular interest because it serves to control supraglottal air pressure (partial occlusion) for singing (Figure 4–54). For example, for spoken nasals in French, such as mon songe (my dream), the back of the tongue rises and the anterior fauces

The preceding account of postural and respiratory controls for the ongoing performance of voluntary singing behaviors relies on a complex network of cortical associations that signal the appropriate pools of lower motor neurons, which will effect the correct movements — the correct reflexive and pattern-elicited responses required for a variety of singing behaviors. We develop the appropriate “body mapping” networks between our sensory and motor cortices through a mindful trial-anderror process that relies on more or less continuous feedback information from predominantly propriokinesthetic sources (e.g., vestibular and somatic senses). Expertise results when, after frequent and repetitious practice at retrieval over time, cortical networks are developed such that we may recall the appropriate behavior intuitively (without need for reasoning) — a point at which the cognitive planning processes of creative imagery may guide the ongoing flow of output behavior without pause. This brings us to the question, how do we activate and mediate (monitor and correct) ongoing sequences of behaviors — behaviors that are at once continuously synchronized with the rhythms of our nervous system (flow) and disrupted (breaking symmetry), so as to stimulate attention and an emotional response — to effectively communicate our thoughts and feelings? This question is addressed in Chapter 5, “Putting It All Together.”

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A.

B. Figure 4–53. Extrinsic muscles of the tongue and pharynx. A. Lateral view. B. Stylized representation of the general movements of the tongue. From Speech and Voice Science, A. Behrman, San Diego, CA: Plural Publishing, Inc., 2013. Printed with permission. 170



A. Figure 4–54.  Musculoskeletal structures of the vocal tract. A. The velopharyngeal port, posterior view. Courtesy of Gray’s Anatomy and Christopher Moore.   continues

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B. Figure 4–54.  continued  B. Stylized representation of the movements of the velopharyngeal port. From Speech and Voice Science, A. Behrman, San Diego, CA: Plural Publishing, Inc., 2013. Printed with permission. 172



5 Putting It All Together: Planning, Executing, and Monitoring a Rhythmically Entrained Performance Our nervous system is capable of great singleness of purpose; of rhythmically coordinating a multilevel network composed of an astonishing number of signals (some 140,000 per second for speech) into the smooth performance of an endless series of complex and phenomenal (one of a kind) experiences. In Chapter 3 “Planning Voluntary Behavior,” we learned that anticipatory feedforward controls of the working memory empower us to voluntarily stimulate the selective processing of information necessary to synthesize a temporarily ordered sequence of events. Among the parameters to be determined by the plan of action is a targeted time in space at which a given action1  or sequence of actions2

is to occur. As the initiators of voluntary action, we plan not only what we want to do, but when we will do it. As performing artists, our ability to manipulate alternative interpretations of these parameters through creative imagery — to customize a plan of action — correlates with our ability to promote synchronized performance of those events by multiple behavior systems (i.e., our postural, respiratory, phonatory, and articulatory systems of singing). As

a result, the “timing, speed, and extent of muscular force [can] be controlled with a high degree of flexibility and precision” (Lawther, 1977, p. 67). Clearly some organizing principle must operate to coordinate the immensely complex neural activity for speech and singing (Perkins & Kent, 1986, p. 456). Researchers in cognitive neuroscience now look to the musician for understanding complex sequence learning and performance. “Music is an excellent example of a ‘perception-action cycle’ and may serve as a model system for understanding neural circuits and mechanisms engaged in sensorimotor coupling . . . across multiple levels” (Janata & Grafton, 2003, p. 682). In a review of research relevant to how our brain processes perception and production of patterned audio-motor sequences in music, Janata and Grafton indicate a trend toward understanding not only the unique coupling of perceptual-motor processes required of a musician, but also the dynamic nature of attention and temporal and spatial processing required for producing the correct sound movement at the correct time — processing that is further complicated when timing variability (e.g., rubato) is introduced, as would occur during any expressive performance (Janata & Grafton, 2003, p. 683). In addition, research emerging from the field of vocal performance and pedagogy has ventured into exploring the effects of cognitive planning processes

1

 Quarter-note pitch. Courtesy of Bethany Gee Abrahamson.  Pitch sequence. Courtesy of Bethany Gee Abrahamson.

2

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(e.g., auditory imagery) and production demands relative to timing variability (e.g., tempo, complex rhythmic sequencing, phrase lengths) on our autonomic time-keeping mechanisms, as indicated by rhythmic entrainment of respiratory and heart rates during live performance by trained singers (LeighPost & Koula, 2012).

Rhythm and Rhythmic Entrainment When planning performance output, rhythm is an organizational feature of the working memory, a cognitive process that organizes the temporal sequencing of actions in space. (Sensorimotor events occur over time and through space. As such they are calculated from speed and amplitude coordinates.) Moreover, the rhythms of melodic and harmonic motion are semantic elements of the language of music that are processed, by and large, unconsciously. That is, rhythm is not a behavior; it is descriptive information that is cognitively associated with a perceived sequence of events. “Music can be thought of as sequences of events that are patterned in time and ‘feature space.’ . . . Motor patterns determine how we position effectors in space . . . at the appropriate times to generate specific melodies, chords, and rhythms. Sensory patterns reflect the organization of auditory [events] in time. Rhythm describes the temporal and accentual patterns that are associated with the actual sensory or motor events” (Janata & Grafton, 2003, p. 682). This seemingly inextricable association of rhythmically perceived patterns with our actions emphasizes the close coupling of the audiomotor perception-action cycle in musical performance. Musical expertise and ensemble performance demand the ability to maintain an internal tempo and to synchronize our performance with other performers (i.e., external rhythmic information). However, our focus here is to understand the role of 3

rhythmic entrainment within our own nervous system, and how we may promote such entrainment of our multiple behavior systems (postural, respiratory, phonatory, and articulatory) across multiple processing levels, to optimize smoothly coordinated, flexible, and precise production of a complex sequence of musical (audiomotor) events whereby such entrainment promotes homeostatic equilibrium.

Predictability and Variability Some of the challenges we face in understanding entrainment concern the rhythmic variability of expressive musical performance. Is entrainment forced or does it occur spontaneously? Do our systems entrain dynamically to some intentional (cortical) or external rhythmic stimulus, or are they regulated by some internal time-keeping mechanism?3 Internal mechanisms of our unconscious brain (e.g., the basal ganglia and cerebellum, central pattern generators of local reflex circuitry) are thought to play an important role in coordinating the timing and sequencing properties of a motor plan of action. However, neural imaging supports what we as musicians experience as conscious and cognitive “intervention” with those unconscious systems for dynamic control of rhythmically organized behaviors or sensorimotor events. For example, rhythmic entrainment has been defined as “the formation of regular, predictable patterns in time and/or space” (Collier & Burch, 1998). We might associate rhythmic regularity and predictability with the ongoing flow (optimal performance) of simple, highly redundant behaviors such as running, phonatory oscillations (vibrato), or the autonomically regulated rhythms of our heart and breathing rates that maintain homeostasis. Moreover, it is generally accepted that “the rhythmic properties of a piece of music entrain neural oscillators that facilitate synchronization of both perception and action with the underlying beat in music” (Large, 2000, 2002; cited by Janata & Grafton, 2003,

 The question of whether perception and action are timed with reference to internal mechanisms that are dedicated to timing distinct intervals, or whether maintaining temporal precision in perception and action is an emergent property of a dynamical system, is still a matter of considerable debate (Janata & Grafton, 2003, p. 682).



Putting It All Together:  Planning, Executing, and Monitoring a Rhythmically Entrained Performance

p. 683). However, it is intriguing that “the structure of a piece of music . . . introduces predictable deviations into timing mechanisms underlying both perception and action, suggesting that timing processes are adjusted dynamically (Repp, 1999, 2002; cited by Janata & Grafton, 2003, p. 683). Neural oscillations represent the synchronous and rhythmically repetitive firing patterns of neuronal interplay. When the action of two or more neurons is synchronized, it mathematically represents a single neural oscillator. For example, a neural oscillator describes the synchronized action of motor neurons that generate the phonatory oscillations associated with vibrato rate. The concept of a dynamic system is defensible from our perspective as performing musicians. First, it is relatively easy for us to conceive of our nervous system as polyrhythmic in both time and space (temporal and spatial domains). That, like an orchestra, our nervous system is complex in both the number of players and the separate and distinct rhythmic sequences they produce — sequences that are synchronized at either frequent and regular or distant and irregular junctures by any number of influences (e.g., compositional design, creative interpretation and self-expression, or the unconscious influences of temperature or anxiety) (Figure 5–1).

Second, the concept of rhythmic synchronization of various behaviors to a common pulse (e.g., heartbeat) as a fundamental property of a cohesive system aligns well with our experience of realizing a rich and complex musical score — when the exactitude of the sequential unfolding of motor actions by a cohesive ensemble rhythmically entrained with the conductor’s pulse elicits smoothly coordinated, fluid, and flexible performance (flow). Last, as per the reciprocal nature of our nervous system as a whole, it is reasonable to suggest rhythmic entrainment of passive and active forces (behaviors) may be intentionally or spontaneously influenced by any combination of internally or externally generated stimuli. Key Point:  As with phonatory oscillations, the synchronized action of two or more motor neurons (locally coupled neural oscillators) can effect global synchrony or rhythmic entrainment (Wang, 1995). For example, we experience this global entrainment when forced bone-conducted resonance, originating with the oscillatory action of the phonator, in turn stimulates spontaneous postural corrective action by the vestibular system. Thus, global synchrony would seem to form the defining principle or measurement of optimal performance in an ideal performing state. Moreover, the unconsciously mediated rhythmic entrainment of complex behaviors across multiple processing levels is likely the property we consciously metamonitor to maintain metastability (i.e., an ideal performing state).

A. Figure 5–1.  Regular and irregular compositional design. A. Regular and frequent synchrony. Source: Piupianissimo/Wikimedia Commons/Creative Commons AttributionShareAlike 4.0 License.  continues

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Figure 5–1.  continued  B. Asynchrony. Courtesy of Asha Srinivasan.

B.





Putting It All Together:  Planning, Executing, and Monitoring a Rhythmically Entrained Performance

If You Want to Know More Measuring the Rhythms of Our Nervous System.  In a normal adult, brain waves (neuronal firing patterns recorded by electroencephalograph [EEG] equipment), “range from 3 to 40 [cycles] per second (cps), depending mainly on wakefulness and attention. . . . Over the temporoparietal region (the posterior speech area), the frequency is about 7 cps, a rate that appears closely related to speech . . . the rate at which we think, as well as the rate at which a finger can be tapped,” or our phonator can oscillate (Perkins & Kent, 1986, pp. 455–456). For example, over 100 muscles involved in speech production accommodate transitions for an average of two to four phonemes per syllabic beat, which works out to about 14 phonemes per second (Perkins & Kent, 1986, pp. 455–456).

ing a swing at just the appropriate moment (near nodes of oscillation) to make it move in larger and more energetic arcs (Figure 5–2), and spontaneous entrainment to the creation of new symmetries via the dissipation of energy and information (Collier & Burch, 1998). Finally, in a description that is

Self-Organization of Forced and Spontaneous Entrainment In a philosophical discussion spanning art and science, Collier and Burch (1998) offer a compelling perspective of rhythmic entrainment that resonates well with the experience of performing musicians. Causes of entrainment are characterized as either forced or spontaneous, where forced entrainment involves the transfer of pre-existing information, and spontaneous entrainment involves any neural impulse not directly initiated by a known stimulus.4 More specifically, high-power force is likened to rough waves rocking a boat at sea where the boat is at the mercy of the sea, low-power force to pump4

Figure 5–2.  Pendulum—“The Swing” by J.-H. Fragonard. Low-power force may be compared to either pushing or pumping a swing at “just the appropriate moment (near node of oscillation) to make it move in larger, more energetic arcs” (Collier & Burch, 1998, p. 3; see Chapter 4, “Coactivation and Gamma Bias or Gain,” p. 114). Courtesy of Wikimedia.

 “Spontaneous rhythms occur in brain states characterized by the absence of sensory inputs. Induced rhythms . . . are typically evoked by external sensory stimulation and correlated with certain behaviors.” Cells within the sinoatrial (SA) node are the primary pacemaker site within the heart. These cells are characterized as having no true resting potential, but instead generate regular, spontaneous action potentials. Unlike non-pacemaker action potentials in the heart, and most other cells that elicit action potentials (e.g., nerve cells, muscle cells), the depolarizing current is carried into the cell primarily by relatively slow Ca++ currents instead of by fast Na+ currents. There are, in fact, no fast Na+ channels and currents operating in SA nodal cells. This results in slower action potentials in terms of how rapidly they depolarize. Therefore, these pacemaker action potentials are sometimes referred to as slow-response action potentials (Neural Oscillations. (2005). In Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science. Retrieved from http://www.credoreference.com.proxy.lawrence.edu:2048/entry/wileycs/neural_oscillations).

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analogous to optimal and peak performance, they propose systems that tend toward minimal dissipation of energy and self-organize to increase efficiency, and when entrainment becomes strong enough to produce cohesion, a new level is formed (Collier & Burch, 1998). Thus, global entrainment and cohesion could be described in terms of Gestalt theory, where “The whole is different from the sum of its parts.” Key Point:  Rhythmic self-organization, like the self-monitoring and self-correcting feature of unconscious sensorimotor processing, is mediated according to the planned purpose of the moment. Without mindful, willed rhythmic stimulus (piloting), we will eventually entrain to our rhythmic set-point for rest.

Forced Entrainment Key Point:  “Forced entrainment always transfers pre-existing information, either through reorganization or an example” (Collier & Burch, 1998, p. 3).

As musicians we are familiar with forced entrainment by example as external cuing by a metronome, conductor, rhythmic bass line, or modeled pitch frequency. Active rhythmic reorganization involves the purposeful internalization of the beat and anticipatory control as when we coordinate our singing with the predictable action of a conductor’s baton. For example, if we continue with the analogy of a swing, a high-power force might be best understood as when we sit on a stationary swing and another person gets us going by pulling the swing up followed by a release to gravitational force. When high-power force is followed by self-motivated low-power force (synchronized pumping), the swinging motion continues effortlessly and, as per gain control, in larger and more energetic arcs. When high-power force is not followed by self-motivated low-power force, reorganization fails. We see this when untrained singers (the would-be initiators of action) passively “sit on their swings” and sing on autopilot. In this 5

scenario, repeated prodding by an external cue (e.g., rhythmic percussive action from the piano or a conductor’s baton) is required to propel the singer onward. Self-organization involves a balance of active and adaptive controls and passive and spontaneous controls that together yield cohesion. (The balance of active and passive controls was discussed previously in motor output, and notably regarding special acts of respiration and life support [p. 152]).

Auditory Stimulation of Rhythmic Entrainment Research from the perspective of neurologic music therapy supports the application of specifically auditory rhythmic information to stimulate entrainment and enhance smooth coordination of complex sequencing of motor behaviors (Thaut & Abiru, 2010). As singer-athletes the positive influence of auditory rhythmic stimulus on performance is not foreign to us. Moreover, we experienced selforganization in the spontaneous activation of wideranging postural controls when we selectively attended to auditory stimulus in the Attentive Listening Posture (PAE 2–2) and Buzzing Bones (PAE 2–9; PAE 2–11) exercises. Key Point:  Like the vestibular system, the auditory system is a fast and precise processor of temporal information that projects into motor structures. Therefore, amplifying rhythmic auditory stimulus effects immediate entrainment (Thaut & Abiru, 2010, p. 265). “Evidence shows that the auditory and motor systems have a rich connectivity across a variety of cortical, subcortical, and spinal levels,” influencing both conscious and unconscious responses (Thaut & Abiru, 2010, p. 263).

The wide-ranging influence of amplified rhythmic stimulus on our motor systems, at the levels of both willed intentions and underlying autonomic motivations, is remarkable.5 (See “Recurring Vestibular Stimulation Theory,” p. xviii.)

 “The study of the neurobiology of rhythm provides a rich physiological basis for the profound influence of auditory rhythmic stimulus on the motor system (Paltsev & Elner, 1967; Rossignol & Melvill, 1976; Ermolaeva & Borgest, 1980; cited by Thaut & Abiru, 2010, p. 263).



Putting It All Together:  Planning, Executing, and Monitoring a Rhythmically Entrained Performance

Summary Before we move on to practical application exercises that will guide us in understanding and promoting rhythmic entrainment when singing, let us take a moment to review the properties of rhythmic entrainment as highlighted by Collier and Burch (1998): • “Rhythmic entrainment involves the formation of regular, predictable patterns in time and/or space through interactions within or between systems that manifest potential symmetries” (Collier & Burch, 1998, p. 1). • Entrainment may involve passive or active and adaptive systems, where active (e.g., motor) systems “have more control over accepting or avoiding rhythmic entrainment”; and the completely spontaneous form is uncontrollable. “A balance between the two forms can produce a more robust system requiring less energy to maintain” (Collier & Burch, 1998, p. 1). • “Entrainment can be communicated, passing information from one system to another” much like a group of jazz musicians agreeing on a complex progression (Collier & Burch, 1998, p. 1). • Finally, “the process of rhythmic entrainment is complementary to that of symmetry breaking, which produces information” (Collier & Burch, 1998, p. 1). Key Point:  If we consider symmetry breaking as a means for producing novel information, we can recognize how disruptions in rhythmically entrained behaviors might stimulate attentional focus, even on an unconscious level, so as to enhance our capacity for learning and self-expression (i.e., our ability to communicate effectively).

Our understanding of control as a function of information processing — the active and mindful cognitive processing of willed intentions that guide voluntary, yet unconsciously mediated (selfmonitored, corrected, and organized) motor per-

formance — should become increasingly clear as we explore the practical application of rhythmic entrainment to vocal performance.

Practical Application— Putting It All Together With Rhythmic Entrainment We initially experienced voluntarily stimulated rhythmic entrainment of our auditory, postural, and autonomic systems with the “Attentive Listening Posture” exercise (PAE 2–2). When we vigilantly attended to select auditory information (e.g., either an external distant sound source or internal auditory imagery/inner singing), the vestibular system performed its function in support of the task by continuously monitoring our position in space and spontaneously signaling self-corrective actions that optimally oriented us to the predictable forces of gravity. We also experienced the spontaneous selforganization of our autonomically regulated systems and cohesion as evidenced by the rhythmic entrainment of our heart and breathing rates and a sense of calm or a “happy body” (Leigh-Post & Koula, 2012).

Simple Systems and Wide-Ranging Cohesion Bone-conducted resonance provides an excellent example of how forced and spontaneous entrainment interact to effect self-organized cohesion of a simple system when singing. Key Point:  Simple systems will show frequent redundancy over brief sequences and are highly predictable (Collier & Burch, 1998, p. 3).

When we sing, rhythmic pitch-frequency information that is generated by the action of the vocal folds is transferred by direct mechanical force through cartilages and ligaments to produce boneconducted resonance. This highly redundant, rapidly repeating rhythmic information is quickly augmented throughout our wide-ranging skeletal structure, effecting spontaneous reflexive responses

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by multiple behavior systems (i.e., self-organization). Moreover, it is generally accepted that structures such as our larynx, skeletal bones, and sinuses (e.g., sphenoid and frontal) have their own natural frequency at which they spontaneously resonate. As a result, “once the bones start vibrating, they set up [spontaneous] vibration that interacts with the original vibration” to reach a new level of entrainment, or cohesion (Howell, 1985, p. 270). “Try it!” (PAE 2–8 and 2–9, “Buzzing Bones”). As you review the “Buzzing Bones” exercise, notice the self-correction of intonation and posture. Take note of the degree of ease with which you are able to sing while attending to rhythmic pitch and vibration information.

Promoting Rhythmic Entrainment of Ongoing Sequences of Behavior This brings us to the question, “How do we stimulate ongoing sequences of rhythmically entrained behaviors?” That is, “How do we get our ‘swing’ moving and keep it moving when singing a song or aria?” When we add metrical rhythm to the pitch frequency information of our plan of action, we provide the predictable rhythmic information necessary to repeatedly anticipate when to pump our senso-

rimotor swing for optimal performance of ongoing sequences of behavior. Key Point:  Spatiotemporal coordinates for positional and muscular controls (i.e., to be positioned to make the right sound at the right time) are calculated unconsciously by our intelligent sensorimotor systems.

The Sine Wave Sine is the enchantingly fluid motion of a pendulum (swing) and natural behavior (http://www.better​ explained.com/articles/intuitive-understanding-ofsine-waves). It varies its speed. It starts fast, slows to a “stop,” and speeds up again. For example, the rising and falling of an object, such as the action of a swing or a conductor’s baton, is an excellent model of not only the gathering up of energy and the subsequent spending of that energy, but also the moment when the upbeat turns over (slows) to become the downbeat. The looping motion of a swing (or circle) plotted on a time line as a waveform is called a sine wave. The slowing speed in sine is represented as a curve (rounded node, or peak; Figure 5–3). Conversely, linear motion proceeds at a constant rate and is rendered as rigid peaks on a time line. It is the unnatural motion of a robot that changes direction without changing speed.

Figure 5–3. Sine. A. Loop. B. Sine wave. C. Linear wave. Source: Peter Halasz/Wikimedia Commons/Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported.



Putting It All Together:  Planning, Executing, and Monitoring a Rhythmically Entrained Performance

A waveform (e.g., sine wave) is a timeline representing the composite activity of many neurons firing simultaneously and in succession over time. The node of oscillation in a sine wave corresponds with the peak or overshoot phase in a single action potential — the moment when information is exchanged (Na+ channels close and voltage-gated K+ channels open) and the cell temporarily changes from negative to positive and ultimately fires (see Figure 0–5). Key Point:  “Energy in the wave can be extracted only a half wave length at a time” (Collier & Burch, 1998, p. 6). Failure to execute action at the appropriate moment in the peak phase results in autonomic imbalance, or instability. If we either inhibit or prematurely force the motor response, we disrupt or “get in the way of” this organic momentum. Consider what happens when we pump a swing too soon. Our uncoordinated behavior is ineffective and effortful, and we likely feel frustration and anxiety. However, when we do catch the wave at just the right moment, we are in a state of equilibrium (calm). We have all the energy we need when we need it, and we perform with ease.

Figure 5–4.  “Jump in!” Courtesy of http://www.clipart. com.

Image to Impulse—Oh My! Skills associated with sensing the impulse to act and timing the subsequent execution of action are learned early in development (Figure 5–4). For example, when we jump a rope twirled by others, we begin by sensing the rhythm of the rope using visual and auditory information. It is not long before we internalize the sound of the rope hitting the pavement at regular, predictable intervals and feel our body respond in anticipation of that sound (entrainment). At this point we are planning what we will do and when — to jump in at just the right moment in synchrony with the regularly recurring 6

rhythmic action of the rope.6 Soon after we decide we will jump (willed intention), we sense the impulse to jump, and voluntarily choose to act on that (or a subsequent) impulse and jump in. This “readyset-go” sequence correlates with the sensorimotor process that proceeds from image to impulse and, ultimately, to the execution and unconsciously mediated follow-through of patterned sequences of action. In order to continue jumping rope, or singing in an ongoing fashion, we must continuously repeat this cycle.

 Where is analogous to the spatial coordinate or, more specifically, our place in space (and the placement of our effectors), which is monitored and controlled by the great integrator of multimodal proprio-kinesthetic information, the vestibular system.

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Ongoing Online Performance As when telling a story, the ongoing online flow, or “live feed,” of this cyclical process results in an overlapping of the conscious planning processes (“get ready”) with the unconscious output processes. How we experience this overlap is a question of attentional focus. For example, we may begin performing a well-learned behavior, focusing our attention on the set-go phase (impulse to initiation of action phase) that effectively coordinates our behavior with that of a conductor. Then, when this rhythmically entrained behavior self-organizes and becomes strong enough to produce cohesion (a predominantly unconscious process), our conscious mind can attend to planning variations in our action, first jumping with two feet, then with alternating feet, or even turning ourselves around. Now, as our attention is increasingly focused on the “get ready” phase, it seems as though we are transported to a level of consciousness where time and space are suspended and conscious mediation of our behavior is deemed unnecessary, and hence, the “out-of-body” experience associated with peak performance.

tum of gain control for the duration of a phrase or extended work. 1. Before you sing the exercise in Figure 5–5, use various modes to transmit rhythmic, temporal, and spatial information (coordinates) during at least one “measure for meter.” You will have internalized the beat when you can accurately predict when the pulse will occur:

Key Point:  “Rhythmic entrainment can be more or less spontaneous, with the completely spontaneous form being uncontrollable. A balance between the two forms can produce a more robust system, requiring less energy to maintain” (Collier & Burch, 1998, p. 1). The nature of voluntary behavior involves choice, and often risk. Inherent in voluntary behaviors is the purposeful initiation of an action at a targeted moment in time. “Try it!” (PAE 5–1).

PAE 5–1: Measure for Meter—Catching and Riding the Wave.  In “Planning Voluntary Behavior” we learned that expert musical performance relies upon selectively attending to vivid (amplified) auditory imagery and taking the time to generate a motor plan of action before we act. Similarly, if, like a conductor on the podium, we take a moment to amplify the timing information, to intentionally target when a series of events will occur with metrical predictability, we can generate recurring stimulus with ease (low power) and even enjoy the momen-

Figure 5–5.  A. Pattern of four. Courtesy of http://www.clip​ art.com. B. Vocalise. Courtesy of Bethany Gee Abrahamson. C. Schematic of vocal vibrato waveform. D. Schematic of respiratory waveform (detected by electronic stretch sensor at epigastrium).



Putting It All Together:  Planning, Executing, and Monitoring a Rhythmically Entrained Performance

a. Feel your heartbeat — Proprio-kinesthesic (Place fingertips on your carotid sinus, in the artery located just behind your larynx.) b. Listen to a Metronome — Auditory c. Watch the action of the pendulum on your metronome or your hand when conducting a four-pattern — Visual (see Figure 5–5) Remember, inhalation occurs concurrently with intentional planning of a motor event (i.e., the phrase). 2. Sing the vocalise in Figure 5–5B on “ah.” Note, the complex of both rhythms in Figure 5–5C and 5–5D can be detected with your fingertips at your epigastrium as defined by variations in respiratory force, or amplitude. 3. Repeat the vocalise in Figure 5–5B using the various articulations below. Follow the sine wave in Figure 5–6 with your finger, placing consonants at various points: (a) ahead of the node, (b) just over the node but in anticipation of the beat (surfer dude), and at (c) the point at which the beat is to be perceived. i. ma ma ma ma ii. Sol, sol, sol, sol/do do do do iii. “Hah” (“hearty,” belly-laugh-like accents on first note in sound bite) Notice any change in ease for sustaining a legato singing tone relative to the placement of the consonant in anticiption of the targeted pulse. Consider the various effects of consonant placement of the rhythmic flow of the phona-

tory and respiratory cycles as illustrated in Figure 5–7. 4. Repeat the previous vocalise, singing both on “ah” and with various consonants. Using your fingertips to heighten awareness of select information, attend to rhythmic oscillatory action of various paired muscle groups, such as the action of the intrinsic muscles of the larynx (phonatory oscillations at the base of the thyroid shield), the extrinsic muscles of the larynx (corrective posturing of the phonator at the hyoid), and the latissimus dorsi and abdominals (respiratory activations at the epigastrium or thoracic region of back). This is how singers “walk” to the beat and “surf” the action potential sine wave. The measurable output rhythms of our behavior systems scored as sine waves read like an orchestral score (Figure 5–8). The metrical junctures organize the varied rhythmic subdivisions of our separate and distinct systems for a cohesive whole — our nervous system is 100% focused on performing the task at hand. In this way, the organization principles of chunking invert from learning a task to performing each task one beat at a time. Key Point: Maintaining an ideal performing state requires that we become comfortable with the “hands-off” style of metamonitoring not only the unconscious self-monitoring and correction of behavior processing but also its rhythmic selforganization into fleeting moments of global synchrony and metastability.

Figure 5–6.  Surfer dude—catching and riding the wave. “Active systems have more control over accepting or avoiding rhythmic entrainment” (Collier & Burch, 1998, p. 1).

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A.

B. Figure 5–7.  A. The relative positions of the vocal folds as they correspond to approximate points on the EGG waveform. From Behrman (2013). Printed with permission. B. Possible effects of consonant placement on the arc of the respiratory rate waveform (with electronic stretch sensor at epigastrium). Source: Clinical trials Leigh-Post & Koula, 2012.

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Putting It All Together:  Planning, Executing, and Monitoring a Rhythmically Entrained Performance

Figure 5–8.  A complex wave (top panel) having three sine wave components of 250, 500, and 750 Hz, each with unique amplitudes. From Behrman (2013). Printed with permission.

Rhythmic Entrainment and Training the Singer’s Brain The efficacy of rhythmic auditory information is not limited to stimulating functional changes in motor action, but extends to training and educating our brains for long-lasting enhancement of complex sequencing of motor action (Thaut & Abiru, 2010, p. 263). We have seen how simple systems show

frequent redundancy over brief sequences and are highly predictable (Collier & Burch, 1998). However, highly organized and complex systems (such as our systems of singing) producing complex sequences of variable frequencies (such as the various pitch durations, tempi, and phrase lengths that occur in musical performance) will require large sequences to show redundancy. That is, “the formation of such systems often involves a combination of symmetry breaking

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to produce complexity and entrainment to produce order” (Collier & Burch, 1998) (see Figure 5–1). Given the reciprocal nature of our nervous system, what is good for perceptual learning (input) is good for perceptual-motor production (output). We normally think of breaking down components and chunking information to promote learning and memorization. However, if we continue to apply the association properties of chunking for perceptual learning to perceptual-motor production, we can entrain increasingly complex sequences of action with ever-increasing speed (Figure 5–9). Highly organized and complex systems will require some energy to produce (Collier & Burch, 1998). For example, rapidly forced organization will be inefficient and will require considerable power,

whereas spontaneous self-organization of complexly organized systems is a slower process but can be much more efficient from an energetic point of view (Collier & Burch, 1998). For example, if we “jump in” and sing a pitch without much thought to tuning and then refine our image of the pitch, intonation will — in a moment or two — improve. Of course we may also take the time to refine our image and correct the plan of action before we sing by using covert mental rehearsal (Figure 5–10). For our final exercise (PAE 5–2) we again apply the principles of What & When Planning introduced in Chapter 3 (see PAEs 3–19 and 3–29), as well as those of metamonitoring rhythmic entrainment, for the purpose of developing expert skill in online processing of ongoing complex musical sequences

Figure 5–9.  Stages and levels of perceptual processing. If we continue to apply the association properties of chunking for perceptual learning (Stages 1 to 3) to perceptual-motor production (Stages 4 to 6), we can learn to entrain increasingly complex sequences of action with ever-increasing speed.



Putting It All Together:  Planning, Executing, and Monitoring a Rhythmically Entrained Performance

Figure 5–10.  Three-person jump rope. A. Ready. B. Set-go. C. Ready-set-go in an ongoing, overlapping dual-control process. Take the time to refine your image of the correct plan of action before you jump in. Highly organized and complex systems will require some energy to produce (Collier & Burch, 1998). However, we can learn to entrain increasingly complex sequences of actions with ever-increasing speed.

with the uninterrupted flow of an intuitive and artistic performance. Online planning for voluntary musical performance requires that we stimulate action at a predetermined space in time (regardless of whether the rhythmic plan originated with the composer, the conductor, or ourselves as the performing artist). We simplify planning for this rapid succession of behaviors by chunking information into manageable (7 ± 2) episodic sound bites (working memory). That is, singing behaviors that produce a string of pitches and phonemes, together with their associated emotion and meaning, can be represented by a single cue, or mnemonic. This is how we pilot our automation (rapid production of complex sequences).

to sing without hesitation or judgment. Moreover, using tonal mnemonics and patterned sequences enabled us to process increasingly varied and complex sequences with ease. In the following exercise, do, sol, and re are the tonal mnemonics that, together with scored sound bites, will cue the appropriate sequence of actions (PAE 5–2). Once again we rely on the interdependence of intellectual and sensorimotor skills (dual controls) to execute fluid behavior accurately and on time according to our willed intentions. We will consciously metamonitor the rhythmic entrainment of our various systems from the vantage point of the executive “control tower” and gross proprio-kinesthetic awareness of metastability.

Key Point: A well-learned behavior may not require conscious attention; however, expert performance relies on maintaining vigilant attention to the task at hand. We experience attentional focus as vivid imagery of what we want to do and when. Bear in mind that executive willed intentions are characterized by choice and novelty.

Key Point:  The self-organizing model tolerates great variety with minimal control, and allows for the greatest freedom and flexibility (Collier & Burch, 1998).

Earlier, we experienced online planning in the context of episodic memory and telling a musical tale one sound bite at a time. What & When Improv was a fun way to keep our attention focused on “what was next” rather than “what was history,” and to encourage our behavior to respond to the impulse

The better we are at selectively attending to our purpose of the moment, or “thinking on our feet,” the less often we will have to stop the action to reason out a Plan B. Most importantly, for voluntary behavior, the temporarily ordered sequence of events in our sound bite is necessarily the product of our own choosing. We choose how we “plate,” or temporarily arrange, the ingredients from our “pantry.” Just as the executive chef pulls together knowledge

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of his or her craft to produce textures, colors, and flavor under time pressure, our “diva within” crafts the art of singing under the rapid-fire pace of ongoing online performance. Risk-taking is a skill developed as a matter of artistic course at each level of expertise. The stressors inherent in high-stakes performance are often just what we need — the “just right” high-powered force that will swing us into peak performance. “Try it!” (PAE 5–2).

PAE 5–2: What & When Planning and Metamonitoring—“Streaming Strings of Swinging Sound Bites.” Reorder the sound bites in Figure 5–11 into patterned vocalises that may be transposed to begin on any scale degree (with or without transposing keys), or use as flash cards. Flash cards can be organized according to the tonal mnemonic and rising and falling patterns and, eventually, randomly. Bear in mind that the ability to generate an anticipatory image of “What’s next?” relies on each stage of perceptual processing, from learning and memory to recollection and construction of a motor plan of action. Most importantly, anticipatory control — the expert ability to generate an anticipatory image of “What’s next?” — is essential to optimal performance in an ideal performing state.

Concluding Comments Our understanding of the role of cognition, consciousness, and information processing in general is moving toward theories based on synchrony—more specifically, rhythmic synchronization. Sensory systems measure and calculate time (speed frequency) and space (amplitude) coordinates to guide (moni-

tor and correct) our systems into cohesion and an ideal performing state. This suggests that what we metamonitor, in the imaginative and communicative expression of well-learned singing behaviors, is the wide-ranging rhythmic synchrony of a metastable system. The rhythmic organization of our metastable system ranges from simple predictable behaviors, such as rapidly repeating pitch frequency information and metrical pulse, to the more complex pacing of a larger work, and perhaps even the organizational preparation that occurs during the days and weeks leading up to a performance, as well as those unpredictable events that break synchrony and stimulate attentional focus and phenomenal outcomes. Complex musical sequences are made manageable when they are cognitively organized into What & When sound bites that are tagged with tonal mnemonics and targeted for expression at predictable moments, so as to promote rhythmic synchrony. This is closely related to our working memory and the “plating” of temporarily sequenced events in our episodic buffer. The adaptable nature of general motor plans of action ensures the seemingly infinite variability and improvisatory nature of imaginative and creative performance. Our introduction to functional neural anatomy has demonstrated the correlating properties of peak performance and sensorimotor processing. These processes are optimized by cognitive bodily-kinesthetic awareness and recurring vestibular stimulation, where heightened awareness is a function of sensory information processing, attentional focus is a function of planning voluntary behavior, and an ideal performing state (equilibrium) is a function of motor output processing. When these systems are rhythmically synchronized, so as to form cohesion, we enjoy our highest powers as expressed in art.

Figure 5–11.  What & When sound bites. Cut out and reorder the sound bites as patterned vocalises or flash cards. Devise your own sound bite patterns to add to this list. Courtesy of Alex Johnson.



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Glossary

Researchers measure changes in brain activity using the following methods: CBF — cerebral blood flow EEG — electroencephalogram, records electrical activity of neuronal impulses (voltage fluctuations) along the scalp EKG — electrocardiogram, translates the heart’s electrical activity into a waveform (i.e., line tracings on paper) fMRI — functional magnetic resonance imaging PET — positron emission tomography scan, an imaging test that uses a radioactive substance called a tracer to show how the brain is working The action potential, also known as an impulse, provides us with a workable “cellular view” model of the gathering up and expenditure of energy that entrains with the rhythmic pulsations of our nervous system as a whole. Neuronal firing is an explosion of electrical activity that occurs when enough stimuli cause the resting potential to rise and results in depolarization such that the threshold is reached (Byrne, 1997–present). Although an individual action potential is not subject to variability (it either fires at a fixed amplitude and speed or it does not fire at all), action potentials may fire in rapid succession, in large volume (many neurons), and in a seemingly infinite variety of combinations (see Figure 0–5). Adaptation, or receptor fatigue, occurs when action potentials cease to fire. When pressure is first

applied to the mechanoreceptor it initiates a volley of impulses in its sensory neuron. However, with continuous pressure, the frequency of action potentials decreases quickly and soon stops. Receptors adapt at varying speeds. For example, rapidly adapting receptors that sense boneconducted vibrations reset to fire again in less than 0.1 second. Moderately adapting mechanoreceptors, such as the sensors located around hair follicles, adapt to changes on time periods of over 1 second. The adaptation time for slowly adapting mechanoreceptors can range from 10 to more than 100 seconds. These receptors are generally located near the surface of the skin, and are useful for maintaining grip on an object. Anticipatory control involves the ability to consciously monitor planning processes for voluntary behaviors before they are executed. Automation is a function of information processing where transmission speed is decreased as the result of myelination of an axon. Automated behaviors are well learned, or overlearned, and can be managed unconsciously (i.e., automatically), without conscious reasoning out or problem solving; automation is essential for technical mastery. Autonomic equilibrium is the balanced action of the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions, or the anabolic gathering up of energy and the responding catabolic expenditure of that energy. Awareness is a state of consciousness involving perception of sensory events without necessarily understanding them. Self- or bodily awareness is characterized by an ability to integrate sensations from the environment and ourselves with our immediate goals to guide behavior.

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Background muscle tone is the steady level of tension, or tonus, that normally exists in muscles. Because muscles are always under some degree of stretch, local reflex circuitry is normally responsible for maintaining muscle tone. Moreover, the reflex circuitry that effects widely resonating oscillations that are inherent in the maintenance of normal background muscle tone may be variously amplified for voluntary action (see gain control). Normal background oscillations, or tremors, that can be observed when holding our hand outstretched should not be confused with either abnormal and uncontrollable pathological tremors, or the isometric tremor that results when a voluntary muscle contraction is ineffective (i.e., when muscle contraction does not effect movement of a musculoskeletal structure). Behaviors are the actions or reactions of a person or animal in response to external or internal stimuli (The American Heritage Dictionary, 2007). Behavior involves an observable change, including at the neuronal level — a directly observable action performed with respect to some target, in some context, at some point in time (Fishbein, 2004). Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence “entails the potential of using one’s whole body or parts of the body . . . to solve problems or fashion products” (Gardner, 1983). A central pattern generator is a neuronal circuit, or network, “capable of generating a rhythmic pattern of motor activity,” which is essential to much of the spatial coordination and timing of muscle activation required for complex rhythmic movements (i.e., oscillations) or reflexive resonance (Purves et al., 2004, p. 387). Cognition is the mental process of knowing, judging, thinking, learning, and imagining (http:// www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Cognition). Cognitive tasks include the perception and interpretation of sensory information, such as the comparison and association of new information with existing knowledge and experience. Cognitive processing occurs both consciously and unconsciously. Higher-level cognitive functions, or executive functions, include the ability to inte1

grate motor responses into a meaningful sequence and the ability to project one’s self into the past and the possible future from an internal, or autobiographical, perspective (Long, 2002). Consolidation involves the relocation or transferral of information from one brain area to another, such as from the neocortex to brainstem nuclei, or from the cerebellar cortex to cerebellar or vestibular nuclei (Nagao, 2010). Consolidation is dependent on the association of information with existing knowledge1 and an essential rest phase. For example, when the consolidation period for a “just” acquired motor skill is interrupted, the skill is forgotten. Research in motor skill retention finds a minimal period of between 2 and 5 hours before a new motor skill may be introduced, and up to 2 years for complete consolidation of motor memory — for the movement of motor information from the cerebellar cortex to the cerebellar and vestibular nuclei (Nagao, 2010). Depolarization is initiated by a stimulus. “The action potential is an explosion of electrical activity that is created by a depolarizing current. This means that some stimulus event causes the resting potential to move toward 0 mV. When the depolarization reaches about −55 mV a neuron will fire an action potential” (Byrne, 1997–present). The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle that forms the floor of the thorax, or “the fence between” the thorax and the abdomen (Hixon, 2006, pp. 18–19). Contraction effects descent or flattening of the diaphragm muscle and expansion of the rib cage causing air to enter the lungs. The diaphragm is a striated skeletal muscle, attached at the lumbar vertebrae. Disynaptic and polysynaptic reflexes are most common and involve not only a sensory neuron and a motor neuron, but also at least one interneuron interposed between the sensory neuron and motor neuron (Tamarkin, 2011). A disynaptic or polysynaptic connection is slower due to feedback modulation processes. An episode is an event or a group of events occurring as part of a larger sequence; a chunk, sound bite, or neuroanatomical episodic representational unit.

 “Unless the information is transferred and allowed to make contact [via association] with already formed meaning-bearing representations, there is little chance it will be available later (Kroll & Potter, 1984)” (Rosenbaum, 2006).

Glossary 193

Executive function “refers to a complex cognitive construct underlying controlled goal-directed responses to novel or difficult situations” (Long, 2002). Executive functions coordinate goal-directed behavior and mediate conscious experience (Rosenbaum et al., 2006). They are characterized by novelty, choice, and the ability to voluntarily influence consciously and unconsciously mediated actions. Expert or elite behavior involves the effortless coordination of active and passive motor controls that elicits a succession of uninterrupted fluid movements versus the more crudely executed “knee-jerk” reflex. The look of an elite performer is characterized by an unshakeable focus and concentration as well as a reliable and consistently effortless succession of fluid movements in a rich and pleasurable state of heightened awareness and calm. Feedforward processing is a behavior pattern that anticipates, rather than responds to, a change in external conditions (Morris, 1992). Feedforward signals are anticipatory motor impulses sent before movement to prepare the musculoskeletal system for postural adjustments. The feedforward mechanism is thought to help prepare muscles to perform required tasks (Venes, 2009). (See gain control.) Forced entrainment involves the transfer of preexisting information, such as perceptual images that are cued by external stimulus events (e.g., sights or sounds). Gain control means fewer stimuli are required to trigger muscle contraction (i.e., to breach the threshold that stimulates an action potential and neuronal firing). The resulting effect is quicker reflex response times and the ongoing flow of synchronized behaviors. Coactivation of alpha and gamma motor neurons heightens the sensitivity of muscle spindles, effecting gain. Hebbian cell assemblies are interconnected functional units of memory networked, or “wired,” by associative processes. “Hebb proposed that ‘two cells or systems that are repeatedly active at the same time will tend to become associated, so that activity in one facilitates activity in the other’ . . . such that they can substitute for one another in making other cells fire” (Fuster, 1997, p. 451). The

popular maxim, neurons that fire together, wire together, evolved from this. The Hering-Breuer “fill level” reflex terminates inhalation when stretch receptors activated by lung inflation signal inhibition of inhalatory forces once a prescribed level has been reached (Mann, 1997–2014, p. 15–8). Homeostasis refers to the state of our internal environment. We might experience homeostatic equilibrium (internal balance) as a sense of well-being, calm, or having a “happy body.” Homeostasis acts as a coping mechanism that seeks to maintain a condition of balance (equilibrium, stability, and constancy) within our internal environment when dealing with changes in stimuli under varying degrees of stress. The three major systems that maintain homeostasis are the autonomic nervous system, the neuroendocrine system, and the limbic system, which is also described as our motivational state. An ideal performing state is characterized by heightened awareness, vigilant attention, and autonomic balance or “calm,” absent of anxiety (Emmons & Thomas, 1998, p. 11). An image is most commonly defined as either “a mental representation of a stimulus event that has been experienced and perceived or a mental construct of what can be imagined as the result of a stimulus event that has been experienced and perceived” (The Penguin Dictionary of Psychology, 2009). Imagery is the phenomenal product of our imagination and is the highest of human cognitive abilities as expressed in art. Intentional behavior describes most human behavior; that is, people typically perform behaviors that they intend (or plan) to perform, and they do not perform behaviors they do not intend to perform. In addition, they usually intend to perform (or not perform) a behavior for one or more of three reasons: they think that performing the behavior is a “good” thing to do, they feel strong social pressure to perform the behavior, or they believe that they have the necessary skills and abilities to perform the behavior” (Fishbein, 2004). Intermediate representations of space between sensory input and motor output, generated in part by the vestibular system from multimodal information and represented in the posterior parietal cor-

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tex, are essential to performing spatial operations  — motor action (Andersen, 1995, p. 519). (See also “The Working Memory — Visuo-Spatial Domain.”) Interneurons are neurons located entirely within the central nervous system that process and transmit information from sensory neurons to motor neurons. An interneuron may also receive signals from other ascending and descending pathways and can, therefore, be influenced by additional sensory and upper-level controls. Interneurons may be excitatory or inhibitory. For example, when an inhibitory interneuron is stimulated, it inhibits action. Intuition involves the ability to arrive at a solution without reasoning, to directly access knowledge (cognition) without evident rational thought, or inference. Isometric contraction effects no movement.  When an effector (muscle) effects an effect (movement), the effort is effective, or efficacious. When an effector fails to effect an effect, the effort is ineffective and isometric tension results. Isometric tremor is defined as involuntary oscillations of one or more body regions occurring in situations of isometric muscle contraction and rigid resistance (Zesiewicz, Encarnacion, & Hauser, 2002, p. 324). The limbic system is a convenient way of describing several functionally and anatomically interconnected nuclei and cortical structures that serve to quickly evaluate sensory data, trigger motor responses, and assist in the formation of memory (http://willcov.com/bio-consciousness/review/ Limbic System.htm). Areas that are typically referred to as limbic structures include the hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus, and cingulated gyrus (see Figure 0–8) (http://www.dartmouth​ .edu/~rswenson/NeuroSci/chapter_9.html). Mechanoreceptors are sensory receptors that respond to mechanical pressure or deformation. They detect the degree (amplitude) and speed of displacement of our body parts over time (frequency rate), which taken together calculate the force of changes in our position, or movement. Mechanoreceptors in skin, joints, muscles, and tendons, are among those most often categorized as proprioceptors, or self- (proprio) sensors, whose cortical projections may be interpreted as

the immediate position of any or all of our body parts (see adaptation). Metamonitoring is a term that borrows from cognitive psychology; where metacognition is thinking about how we think, metamonitoring involves consciously monitoring the unconscious mediation (monitoring and correction) processes of our intelligent sensorimotor systems, including the wide-ranging mediation of our autonomic system that maintains homeostasis, which we experience as a sense of well-being. It is closely aligned with spatial cognition and proprio-kinesthesis. Like “gross” proprio-kinesthetic perception, metamonitoring refers to a global sense of awareness which is in contrast to micro- or mesa-monitoring detailed component feedback that often accompanies early-stage learning of a motor skill. It is likely that the unconsciously mediated rhythmic entrainment of complex behaviors across multiple processing levels is the property we consciously metamonitor to maintain metastability (i.e., an ideal performing state). Metastability refers to rhythmic self-organization of fleeting moments of global synchrony that occur at predictably frequent or infrequent intervals to provide a gross sense of stability, or homeostatic equilibrium. Mindfulness is defined by David LaBerge as follows: “During the moments when the activity in a cortical area that specializes in a perception, idea, or plan of action is elevated sufficiently by the thalamocortical circuit [unconscious to conscious mind], that perception, idea, or plan appears to ‘fill the mind’” (LaBerge, 1995, p. 222). Mnemonic cues or memory “triggers” include lexical information such as solfège, notation, International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) symbols, and even tonal information (e.g., pitch frequencies, pitch sequences, or “tunes,” and harmonic progressions). Monosynaptic reflexes involve a single (mono = one) synapse, where the sensory neuron synapses directly on the motor neuron. Therefore, this reflex is quick, taking less than a second for the information signal to travel the reflex circuit from muscle to sensory neuron, and to motor neuron and back to the muscle.

Glossary 195

Motor output is the largely unconscious response of passive and active motor controls to a stimulus or plan of action. Muscle tone regulation is mediated by reflex circuitry. Gamma motor neurons “regulate the gain of the stretch reflex by adjusting the level of tension in the intrafusal muscle fibers of the muscle spindle. This mechanism sets the baseline level of activity in [alpha] motor neurons and helps to regulate muscle length and tone” (Purves, 2004, p. 391). Natural frequency is the frequency at which a structure, such as our skeletal bones or a tube, such as our vocal tract, naturally vibrates. Neural oscillations represent the synchronous and rhythmically repetitive firing patterns of neuronal interplay. When the action of two or more neurons is synchronized, it mathematically represents a single neural oscillator. For example, a neural oscillator describes the synchronized action of motor neurons that generate the phonatory oscillations associated with vibrato rate. Neural plasticity “comprises not only the formation and storage of memories, but also such phenomena as neuromodulation [and] sensory adaptation to environmental changes. . . . Mechanisms contributing to neural plasticity include rewiring of neuronal circuits, generation of new neurons, remodeling of dendrites, synaptic plasticity, and plasticity of neuronal excitability” (Martin & Morris, 2002; Zhang & Linden, 2003; cited by Frick & Johnston, 2005). A neuron is a specialized cell of the nervous system (neuronal cell). A neuron may be further categorized as a sensory neuron, a motor neuron (motoneuron), or even an interneuron that transmits information between neurons within the central nervous system (i.e., from a sensory neuron to a motor neuron), and so forth with increasing specification of function. Because of their various functions, neurons come in many different shapes and sizes, but all have a cell body and specialized extensions called dendrites and axons (see Figure 0–4). A nucleus (pl. nuclei) is a group of neurons (nerve cells) that bear a direct relationship to a particular nerve (transmission pathway) and share both

proximity and broad function. Sensory nuclei are distributed throughout the brain from the brainstem (hind brain) to the uppermost hub, the thalamus (Stein et al., 1995, p. 684). Optimal performance is characterized by smooth coordination and expert execution of a complex sequence of events such as singing. It relies on an equalized state where our resources of the moment are equal to our purpose of the moment. We not only have all the information we need when we need it, but we also have all the energy we need when we need it, and the task at hand is performed optimally with ease. Paralinguistic gestures denote the nonlexical elements of communication expressed in facial, postural, and phonatory behaviors. The expressive gesture of the voice involves unconscious production of rapid-fire and often subtle variations in pitch (inflection) and tone (tonus). Pattern-elicited responses involve reflex actions controlled by the brainstem that may also be stimulated by cortical controls. For example, swallowing actions may be voluntarily stimulated by the driving force of the tongue (McCaffrey, 1998–2014). “Try it!” Notice the preparatory rising action of first the forward tip and then the back of tongue, before the “plunging” action of the tongue forces saliva or food down the esophagus. Peak performance, as described in the seminal text on performance psychology, Power Performance for Singers (Emmons & Thomas, 1998), is a performance that “exhibits the strength of the mindbody link. For you as a peak performer what you think is echoed by what you do.” It is accompanied by a sense of inner calm and a high degree of concentration, a feeling of effortless control, and at the same time, an extraordinary sense of awareness. Furthermore, this ideal performing state is reported to effect uninterrupted focus and concentration as well as an ability to regulate anxiety and arousal during performance (Emmons & Thomas, 1998, p. 11). Planning voluntary behavior is a cognitive process that involves predicting outcome. It is an executive function involving the ability to manipulate novel and existing information to form strategies for achieving a behavioral goal, to construct

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possible outcomes at a rapid-fire pace according to our willed purpose of the moment or intentions (e.g., expressing our thoughts and feelings overtly with our singing voice). Planning expertise requires accurate definition of our immediate goal for the task at hand, as well as the ability to recall knowledge and generate a mental representation, or image, to guide intuitive performance of that task. Moreover, artistic performance requires the ability to mentally manipulate that image for a phenomenal (one-of-a-kind) experience. The “power law of learning” involves the ability to process an ever-increasing volume of variable (complex) information in “evermore inclusive routines” (Newell & Rosenbloom, 1981). Proprioception refers to an “awareness of posture, balance or position due to the reception of stimuli produced within the organism, which stimulate receptors located within muscles, tendons, joints and the vestibular apparatus of the inner ear” (Millodot, 2009). Proprioceptors are a subcategory of mechanoreceptors located in skin, joints, muscles, and tendons. They detect and transmit information relevant to our position, or placement in space. Proprio-kinesthesis refers to the gross sense of one’s own position in and movement through space over time. There are no specialized receptor cells or neuroanatomical systems for proprioception or kinesthesis. Rather, these categorizations describe variable uses for information arising from mechanoreceptors in our skin and joints, muscles and tendons, and inner ear of the somatic and vestibular senses. Resonance involves a continuing series of effects, to be repeated several times, to reverberate. More specifically, reflex resonance refers to a rapidly repeating motor action or oscillation. “Summarizing the preliminary findings on the physiology of vocal vibrato in our own laboratory, Titze et al. (1994) observed a 5–6-Hz reflex resonance mechanism for vocal vibrato that involved the CT and TA muscles . . . The basic hypothesis in this model is that the reflex gains and delays resonate” (Titze et al., 2002). Rhythmic entrainment “involves the formation of regular, predictable patterns in time and/or space through interactions within or between systems

that manifest potential symmetries” (Collier & Burch, 1998). Rhythmic entrainment refers to the synchronous occurrence of neural events and is manifested in elegant coordination of complex behaviors and metastability across multiple levels of control. We might associate entrainment with the rhythmic regularity and predictability of simple, highly redundant behaviors such as running, phonatory oscillations, or the autonomically regulated rhythms of our heart and breathing rates that maintain homeostasis. However, entrainment also occurs at less frequent intervals. One of the challenges that face us in understanding entrainment concerns the mechanism for its regulation. Selective attention involves the innate ability of our sensory systems to gate information according to its motivational significance or usefulness in accomplishing the task at hand. Self-organization involves a balance of active and adaptive controls and passive and spontaneous controls that together yield cohesion. Sensorimotor intention “specifies the detail of how an intended movement is to be carried out” (Pockett, 2009, p. 125). Sensorimotor processing is the processing of neural information involving both sensory and motor systems, functions, and pathways for the purpose of executing the task at hand in accordance with behavior outcome goals. Sensory information (input) processing refers to the processes by which information from a stimulus event in our environment or ourselves is received, transmitted, interpreted, and perceived as a mental representation or image with the potential to be stored as knowledge. Spontaneous entrainment involves any neural impulse not directly initiated by a known stimulus, such as perceptual images that rise from internal sources (e.g., emotions or memories) in the absence of external sensory stimulation. Symmetry refers to uniformity or invariance. Symmetry breaking is the process by which such uniformity is, in part, broken. P. W. Anderson, Nobel laureate in physics, speculated that increasing levels of broken symmetry in systems of many interacting components correlates with increasing complexity and functional specialization (Anderson, 1972).

Glossary 197

Sympathetic action denotes an effect that arises in response to a similar action elsewhere. Synergy is the interaction or cooperation of two or more agents to produce a combined effect that is different than the sum of their separate effects. Tidal, or resting-level, breathing, as occurs throughout much of our day, is characterized by a relatively regular inhalation-exhalation (inspiration-expiration) pattern (Hixon, 2006, p. 66). The predominant active muscle of respiration is the diaphragm (Johns Hopkins University Medical Institute, 1995). As the diaphragm contracts, internal (alveolar) lung pressure is reduced and air is drawn into the lungs — we inhale. Conversely, exhalation during tidal breathing is predominantly passive: as the inhalatory muscles relax, the lungs and chest wall return to resting volume (Johns Hopkins University Medical Institute, 1995). The vestibular system is what we normally think of as our “inner ear” and our sense of balance. It is essential to spatial cognition. As an integrative sensory and motor system, its primary role is to monitor and correct postural and autonomic equilibrium during voluntary behaviors such as singing, and to contribute to the calculation of the spatial coordinates that position our effectors to make the right sounds at the right time.

Vocal vibrato has been described as a sympathetic (if not synergistic) oscillation phenomenon among laryngeal muscles (Titze et al., 2002), where consecutive compensatory reflexive responses effect oscillations in pitch every approximately 170 to 200 ms, resulting in approximately 5 to 6 Hz modulation of fundamental frequency (Leydon et al., 2003; Titze et al., 2002). (See reflex resonance.) Voluntary actions “are to be considered, not as mere responses to a stimulus, but as the self-generated expression of conscious cognitive states” (Jeannerod, 2009). Voluntary behaviors are controlled actions that are generated from within, independent of external influences and distinguishable from automatic stimulus response mechanisms. They are the intentional expression of our thoughts and feelings. More specifically, voluntary motor plans of action “are tailored to meet a specific goal at a specific moment” (Perkins & Kent, 1986, p. 459). Will is the faculty by which a person decides on and initiates action (Oxford American Dictionary). Willed intentions “are abstract, early plans for movement. They specify the goal and scope of movement, but not the detail of how the movement will be carried out” (Pockett, 2009, p. 125).



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Index Note: Page numbers in bold reference non-text material.

A Abbie, Andrew Arthur, 121 Abdominal wall, 151–153 Abducens nerve, xxviii Absolute pitch, 59 Accessory muscles, of respiration, 145, 153–155, 154 Acoustic fading, 118 Action potential, xxvi, xxvi–xxvii, 119 Active memory, 18 Active perception, 16–17 Adaptation description of, 58 muscle, 106–107 practical application exercise for, 13 voluntary, 113 Afferent, xxxi, xxxii, 6, 9, 11, 12, 14, 112 Age, memory and, 59 Agonist muscle, 98, 98 Airborne transmission, of sound, 24 Alexander Technique, 74 Alpha motor neurons, 110, 149 Ambiguity, 84, 84 Amygdala, xxix, xxx Anal sphincter stretch reflex, 161 Antagonist muscle, 98, 98 Anterior scalene muscle, 156, 157 Anticipatory control description of, 50 practical application exercises for, 50–52 Anxiety, 14–15 Appendicular skeleton, 100 Arborization, of dendrites, 55, 57 Arcuate fasciculus, xxxvi–xxxvii, xxxvii, 66 Aristotle, 6, 36 Arousal ascending reticular activating system’s role in, 9, 74

description of, 8–10 optimal, 14 practical application exercises for, 11 Ascending reticular activating system, 9, 10, 22, 74 Association areas, xxxv Attentional focus, 8, 27, 188 Attentive listening, 12–13, 16, 75–76 Attentive listening posture, 75–78, 143–144, 178 Audiation, 71–72, 76 Auditory feedback for vocal control, 28, 32 Auditory imagery, 20, 70, 76 Auditory nerve, xxviii Auditory perception airborne transmission, 24, 25 bone-conducted transmission, 24–27, 26 integration and, 20 of one’s own voice, 23–29 Auditory system. See also Inner ear attentional focus of, 27 descending information, 12 description of, xxxi, 6 practical application exercises for, 28–29 receptivity calibrated to listening context, 10 schematic diagram of, xxxi, 7 sense organs of, xxx, xxx–xxxi, 25 sensory information processing in, 7 two-way neural pathway of, 12 Auditory-phonological imagery, 73 Auditory-phonological loop, 65 Auditory-tonal imagery ambiguity, 84, 84 cognitive skills for, 81–82 description of, 66, 73 loudness and, 84–85 practical application exercises for, 79–85 reevaluation strategies, 82 Auditory-tonal information, 59 Auditory-tonal loop, 65–66 Auditory-tonal memory, 80–82

205

206 Mind-Body Awareness for Singers:  Unleashing Optimal Performance Auditory-vocal-motor control, xxxvi–xxxvii Autogenic inhibition reflex, 112–113 Automation, 21, 67, 75, 90 Autonomic balance, xxv Autonomic equilibrium, xvi, 36 Awareness bodily, xiii–xv, xiv characteristics of, 5 definition of, xiv, 1 heightened, 10–11, 14 inclusive, 13 novelty and, 22–23 perceptual, 20–21, 23 responding to novelty with, 22 reticular formation’s role in, 8–10 spatial, 40 Axial controls, 99, 100–103, 167 Axial skeleton anatomy of, 99 musculature of, 137 Axial stabilization of neck, 164–165 Axon, 55, 56–57

B Background muscle tone, 106–107, 137, 149 Baddeley, Alan, 62, 62 Ballistocardiograph, 120 Basal ganglia, xxix, xxx, 105, 121–122 Bastian, Henry Charlton, 31 Bodily awareness characteristics of, xiv in singing, xiii–xv Bodily-kinesthetic awareness, xvi Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence definition of, xiii, xv development of, 107 “Body mapping” networks, 169 Bone-conducted resonance, 32–35, 179 Bone-conducted transmission, 24–27, 26 Bony labyrinth, 35 Brain amygdala, xxix, xxx basal ganglia, xxix, xxx, 105, 121–122 cerebellum, xxix, xxx, 38, 105, 122–124, 123 cerebral cortex. See Cerebral cortex cerebrum, xxvii–xxix, xxviii cognitive, 72 cortical activations in, xl–xli hippocampus, xxix, xxx hypothalamus, xxix, xxix–xxx imaging of, xxxviii

learning effects on, 61 reticular formation. See Reticular formation in singing, 2–3 subcortical structures of, xxix, xxix–xxx thalamus, xxix, xxix, 7, 9 Brainstem anatomy of, xxix, xxx, 39 direct pathways of, 126 upper-level controls, 125–128, 126 Braking action, 152–153 Breath support, 136 Breathing. See also Respiration; Respiratory system description of, 75 tidal, 141–144 Broca’s area, xxxvi, xxxvi Brodmann’s areas, xxxix, xxxvii

C Calf muscles, 106, 107 Calm, 14, 74 Central executive, of working memory, 62, 62 Central nervous system anatomy of, xxi, xxi components of, xxi. See also Brain sensory information processing in, 7 Central pattern generators, 116, 120 Cerebellum, xxix, xxx, 38, 105, 122–124, 123 Cerebral blood flow, xl, xxxviii Cerebral cortex activity of, xl–xli anatomy of, xxvii, xxviii, xxxiv direct pathways of, 126 divisions of, xxxvii frontal cortex, xxxiv–xxxv gyri of, xxxix, xxxvii information flow tracking in, xxxviii–xl posterior cortex, xxxv–xxxvii tonal loop model, xl Cerebrum, xxvii–xxix, xxviii Cervical spine, 161 Cervical vertebrae, 141 Change coping with, 21–23 distortion of, 21–22 perceptual systems’ response to, 8–10 Chest wall, 141, 143 Choking, 47 Chunking, 88–90 Coactivation, 114–115 Coccyx, 141, 161 Cognition

Index 207

definition of, xiv in singing, xiii–xv in vocal technical skill development, xv–xvi Cognitive bodily-kinesthetic awareness description of, xv–xvi research in, xiv–xv Cognitive movement methods, xvi Cognitive processing, 96 Complex visuomotor behavior, 46–47 Conable, Barbara, xiii, 13, 44 Conditional associative learning, 9, 18 Consolidation, 55, 57 Coping with change, 21–23 with novelty, 22 Corpus callosum, xxxvii Corticospinal pathway, 132, 133 Coup de la glotte, 160–161 Cranial nerves, xxvii, xxviii Cricothyroid muscle, 120 Crossed extensor “stepping” reflex, 115–117 Cross-modal multisensory association, 44 Cross-modal sharing, 30

D Darwin, Charles, 15, 36 Delay, 92 Dendrites arborization of, 55, 57 description of, xxv, 55, 56 Depolarization, xxvii Diaphragm anatomy of, 151–152 contraction of, 156 description of, 143 Diaphragmatic braking, 152 Diaphragmatic stretch reflex, 151 Direct stimulation, 24–25 Disambiguation, 80 Distal controls, 100–103, 167 Distal state of mind, 102–103 Distortion, 21–22 Doige, Norman, 31 Domain-specific storage systems, 62, 65 Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex anatomy of, xli, xxxiv, xxxv, xxxviii in conditional associative learning, 9 Dual-pathway model, for sensorimotor processing, 63, 63 Dual-phase cycle, for locomotion and phonation, 116–117

E Ear. See also Auditory system anatomy of, xxx, xxx–xxxi, 25 inner. See Inner ear Efferent, xxvii, xxxi, xxxii, 11, 12, 14, 29, 98 Electrocardiogram, xxxviii Electroencephalogram, xxxviii Elite behavior, 50, 55 Emmons, Shirlee, xiv, 13 Entrainment forced, 178 rhythmic. See Rhythmic entrainment spontaneous, 177 Episode, 63 Episodic buffer, of working memory, 62–65, 68 Episodic memory, 59–60 Equilibrium autonomic, xvi, 36 monitoring of, xviii practical application exercise for, 40 Executive attention, 96 Executive functions definition of, xiv description of, 52 levels of, 52–53 practical application exercise for, 52–53 Exhalation, 142 Explicit memory, 60 Expressive gesture of the voice, 87–88 Extrafusal fibers, 110

F Facial nerve, xxviii Fascicle, xxvii Fast-fatiguing motor units, 106, 107 Feedforward imagery, 79 Feedforward processing, 65–66, 74, 80, 89, 92, 114, 119, 127–128, 130, 135, 146, 149, 152, 159, 160, 167 “Fill level” reflex, 149–151 Flexor “withdrawal” reflex, 113–115, 115 Footprints in the sand practical application exercises, 27–28, 51–52, 66 Forced entrainment, 178 Forced vibrations, 32 Forgetting, 61 Free will, 46, 48 Frontal bone, 33 Frontal cortex, xxxiv–xxxv Frontal lobe anatomy of, xxix, xxviii memory and, 18, 19, 58 Fuster, Joaquin M., 54

208 Mind-Body Awareness for Singers:  Unleashing Optimal Performance

G Gain control, 114–115, 117, 178 Gamma bias and gain, 114–115, 117–118 Gamma motor neurons, 110, 114, 149 Garcia, Manuel, 50 Gardner, Howard, xiii, 29, 61 Gating, 11 Gazzaniga, Michael, 48 Genioglossus muscle, 167, 169 Geschwind’s territory, xxxv–xxxvi Gestalt psychology, 41–42 Gestalt theory, 178 Getting into the zone, 74–75 Glossopharyngeal nerve, xxviii Goal-state imagery, 49, 60, 92 Golgi tendon organs, 109, 112–113 Gyri, cortical, xxxix, xxxvii

H Haas effect, 27 “Hammer Time!” practical application exercise, 159, 159–160 “Happy body,” 14 Haptic sense, 109 Harmonic context, of pitch, 79–81, 80–81 Harmonic motion, 81 Head musculoskeletal structures of, 165 proximal positioning of, 164–165 Heart rate variability, 75–76 Hebbian cell assemblies, 58 Hebb’s law, xxvi, 58 Heightened awareness description of, 10–11 inner calm and, 14 Hering-Breuer reflex, 149–150 Higher-level perceptual processing, 52–53, 59 High-stakes performance, 47 Hip flexors, 162–163, 163 Hippocampus, xxix, xxx Hitch, Graham, 62 Hixon, Thomas, 141 Homeostasis as coping mechanism, 14 definition of, xviii description of, xxi, xxv maintenance of, 14, 74 sensory information processing limitations and, 20 Homunculus, 104, 109, 129–130, 130 Howell, Peter, 24, 28, 32

Hyoglossus muscle, 167, 169 Hyoid bone, 101, 103 Hyperventilation, 75 Hypoglossal nerve, xxviii Hypothalamus, xxix, xxix–xxx Hypoventilation, 75

I “I Ate Ice Cream!” practical application exercise, 159, 159–160 Ideal performing state bodily-kinesthetic awareness and, xvi characteristics of, xviii, 13–14 goal-state imagery for optimal behavior in, 49 imagery and, 73–74 zoning into, 74–75 Iliacus muscle, 162 Iliocostalis muscle, 137 Iliopsoas muscles, 162–163 Image to impulse, 181 Imagery and images ability as basis for, 72 alternative strategies, 78–79 auditory, 76–77 auditory-phonological, 73 auditory-tonal. See Auditory-tonal imagery defining of, 70–71 description of, 2, 69–70 function of, 87 goal-state, 49, 60, 92 ideal performing state and, 73–74 knowledge as basis for, 72 mental manipulation of, 20 multimodal, 72 musical and vocal-motor expertise development using, 73–90 perceptual-motor, 72–73, 92 practical application exercises for, 70 relaxation and, 74 sensorimotor, 92 summary of, 90, 92 tactile, 73 vestibulo-autonomic control and, 74–76 visual-auditory, 71–72 visuospatial, 85–87 “What If?”, 87–88 Imitation, 17, 131 Implicit memory, 60 Improvisatory performance, xxxviii, 84, 90, 124, 188 Impulse, xxvi, xxvi–xxvii Inclusive awareness, 13

Index 209

Indirect stimulation, 27 Information flow, in cerebral cortex, xxxviii–xl Infrahyoid muscles, 167 Inhalation termination, 151 Inner ear. See also Auditory system anatomy of, xxx, xxx–xxxi, 25 auditory sense organs of, 36 functions of, 3, 6 vestibular sense organs of, 35–37, 36, 125 Inner singing, 76–77 Insular lobe, xxix Integration, auditory perception and, 20 Intentions sensorimotor, 48–49 willed, 48, 88 Intermediate representations of space, 49, 64, 66, 68, 86, 92 Internal representations, 69 Interneurons, 111, 115–116 Interoception, 41 Intrafusal fibers, 110 Intuition, 21 Ischial tuberosis, 161–162 Ischiocavernosus muscle, 161 Isometric tension, 166 Isometric tremor, 166

J Jazz, xl, 48, 124, 179 Joint receptors, 109–110

K Kegel exercises, 161–162 Kent, Raymond, 50 Kinesthesis, 31–32 Knee-jerk reflex, 110–111, 111, 138, 152 Knowledge imagery based on, 72 sensory information as source of, 43

L Language processing, xxxvi Larynx anatomy of, 160 intrinsic structures of, 101, 102 muscles of, 101, 103 stabilization of, 166 tracheal tug reflex on, 156 Lateral prefrontal regions, xli

Lateral scalene muscle, 156, 157 Latissimus dorsi muscle, 137, 148, 153–154 Law of the first wavefront, 27 Learned memories, 58 Learning anatomy of, 54–58 brain health and, 61 description of, 22–23 neural plasticity and, 55, 58 Levator ani muscle, 161 Levator costarum muscle, 137 Levator veli palatini muscle, 172 Levitin, Daniel, 61, 92 Lexical-semantic memory, 59 Libet, Benjamin, 47 Limbic structures, xxx, 124–125 Limbic system definition of, 124 functions of, 124 optimally regulated, 14 reticular formation and, 22 Listening. See Attentive listening Local reflex circuitry, 111–112 Locomotion, 116–117 Longissimus muscle, 137 Long-term memory, 55, 57 Loudness, auditory-tonal imagery and, 84–85 Lower motor neurons, 106 Lower torso muscles, 161–162, 162 Lumbar vertebrae, 141 Lumbro-sacral spine, 161 Lung volume, 150–151

M Mastery, 92–93 Matching game, 18 Mechanoreceptors, 31–33, 109 Medial prefrontal cortex, xli, xxxiv, xxxv Medial vestibulospinal tract, xxxiii, 125 Memory active, 18 age and, 59 anatomy of, 58 auditory-tonal, 80–82 episodic, 59–60 explicit, 60 hierarchy of, 58–59 implicit, 60 inborn, 58 lexical-semantic, 59 neuroanatomical, 69

210 Mind-Body Awareness for Singers:  Unleashing Optimal Performance Memory  (continued) passive, 18 perception and, 18, 54 practicing retrieval of, 61 procedural, 58, 60, 96 recollections used to create, 44, 60–61 as skill, 60 working. See Working memory Mental imagery, 8 Mental manipulation of imagery, 20 Mental rehearsal, 92. See also Imagery and images Messa di voce, 88 Metamonitoring, 40–41 Metastability, 175, 183, 187 Metrical organization, 85 Middle ear, 25 Midtemporal area, xxxvi Mindfulness, 10–11, 22 Mirror neurons, 17, 31 Mnemonic cues, 59, 88–90 Mnemonic processing, 19 Motion sense, 31 Motor areas, xxxiv–xxxv Motor behaviors planning and execution of, 133, 134 spatial cognition and, xiv Motor controls, 107, 108 Motor cortex anatomy of, 129 direct pathways of, 131–133, 132 functions of, 128–129 indirect pathways of, 131–133, 132 premotor cortex, 128, 131 primary, 129, 129–131 topographical organization of, 130 Motor memory consolidation of, 57 organization of, 58 Motor neurons description of, 103–105, 110 lower, 106 upper, 125, 133 Motor output processing characteristics of, 102 description of, 2 levels of control description of, 103–105 lower-level, 105–121 schematic diagram of, 105 upper-level, 121–135 overview of, 95–96

Motor processing, 133. See also Sensorimotor processing Motor unit composition of, 105–106 description of, 105–106 fast-fatiguing, 106, 107 force and, 106 muscle adaptation and, 106–107 muscle spindle and, 110, 110 schematic diagram of, 106 Multifidus muscle, 137 Multimodal confluence, 40–41 Multimodal imagery, 72 Multimodal neurons, 30 Multimodal perception description of, 29 images and imagery, 70 proprio-kinesthesis, 31–32 sensory inputs, 29–30 Muscle adaptation, 106–107 Muscle contraction purpose of, 107 stimulation of, 105 Muscle spindle description of, 109 motor unit and, 110, 110 stretch reflex and, 110–111 Muscle tone, 146 Musculoskeletal structures axial controls, 99, 100–103 distal controls, 100–103 lower extremities, 139 proximal controls, 100–103 skeletal muscle, 97–98 vocal tract, 171–172 Musical pitches, 9 Myelination, 55, 57 Myotatic reflex, 111 Mythical islands, 66, 86, 88

N Natural frequency, 27, 180 Neck axial stabilization of, 164–165 musculoskeletal structures of, 165, 167, 168 Neck reflexes, xxxiii Nervous system autonomic, xxi, xxv purpose of, 20 Neural oscillations, 175

Index 211

Neural oscillator, 175 Neural plasticity, 55, 58 Neuroanatomical memory, 69 Neurons anatomy of, 55, 56 axon of, 55, 56–57 dendrites of, xxv, 55, 56–57 description of, xxv–xxvi, 55 firing of, xxvi mirror, 17, 31 motor, 103–105 multimodal, 30 network of, 56 synchronous convergence, 58 Nociception, 109–110 Noradrenaline, 74 Novelty, 21–23 Nuclei, xxvi

O Occipital bone, 33 Occipital lobe, xxix, xxviii, xxxv Oculomotor nerve, xxviii Olfaction, 13 Olfactory nerve, xxviii One and only perfect sound, 15, 22 One’s own voice. See Voice, one’s own voice Optic nerve, xxviii Optimal arousal, 14 Optimal performance, xviii Otolithic membrane, 35 Outer ear, 25

P Palatoglossus muscle, 167, 169, 172 Pandya, Deepak, 18 Paralinguistic expressive gesture of the voice, 87–88 Parasympathetic nervous system, xxi, xxiii Parietal bone, 33 Parietal lobe, xxix, xxviii, xxxv Passive memory, 18 Passive perception, 17–18 Pattern of four, 182 Pattern-elicited responses, 146 Peak performance, 13, 22, 41, 48, 52, 74, 178, 182, 188 Pectoralis major muscle, 153–154, 154 Pectoralis minor muscle, 154 Pelvic girdle, 101 Pencil drop practical application exercise, 52

Perception active, 16–17 active and passive processes involved in, 19 attentional focus, 8 auditory. See Auditory perception change and, 8–10 contextual influences on, 41 definition of, 69 description of, 16 innate abilities involved in, 19 memory and, 18, 54 passive, 17–18 somatosensory, 34–35 temporal limits on, 21 tools for optimizing, 43–44 Perceptual awareness, 20–21, 23 Perceptual learning, 186 Perceptual processing higher-level, 52–53, 59 stages of, 53, 186 Perceptual-motor imagery, 72–73, 92 Peripheral nervous system cranial nerves, xxvii, xxviii description of, xxvii spinal nerves of, xxii Perkins, William, 50 Petrides, Michael, xxxviii, xl, 18 Pharynx, 167, 169, 170 Phonatory oscillation, 119–120 Phonological context, of pitch, 79 Phonological loop, 65 Phonological problems, alternative strategies for, 78 Pitch matching, 79–80 Pitch strings practical application exercises, 80–82, 81–83 Pitch-shift reflex, 119 Pockett, Susan, 48 Position sense, 31 Posterior cortex, xxxv–xxxvii Posterior parietal cortex, xxxv Posterior scalene muscle, 156, 157 Postural balance, 137 Postural tone, 136 Posture/postural controls attentive listening, 75 axial, 137, 140–141 dynamic, 138, 140 muscles involved in, 15, 136–140, 137 overview of, 135–140 practical application exercises, 140–141 tonic regulation of, 137–138, 140

212 Mind-Body Awareness for Singers:  Unleashing Optimal Performance Power law of learning, 92 Practical application exercises accessory muscles of respiration, 154–156 anticipatory control, 50–52 attentive listening, 12–13, 16, 75–76, 143–144 auditory imagery, 76 auditory system, 28–29 auditory-phonological loop, 65 auditory-tonal imagery, 66, 79–81, 79–85 auditory-tonal memory, 80–82 axial postural controls, 140–141 coactivation, 114–115 equilibrium, 40 executive functions, 52–53 “fill level” reflex, 151 “Fill the Hall,” 86–87 flexor “withdrawal” reflex, 114–115, 115 footprints in the sand, 27–28, 51–52, 66 gain, timing controls, and phonation, 118–119 gamma gain, 117–118 hip flexors, 163–164 images and imagery, 70–71 inhalation termination, 151 inhaling for the phrase, 76 Kegel exercises, 162 matching game, 18 “Matching Game,” 87 measure for meter, 182–183 mental manipulation, 20 metamonitoring multimodal confluence, 40–41 metrical organization, 85 neutral to arousal, 11 overriding receptor fatigue, 13 pencil drop, 52 perceptual-motor imagery, 72–73 pitch matching, 79–80 pitch strings, 80–82, 81–83 postural controls, 140–141 postural processes, 140–141 respiratory controls, 141 respiratory force reflex, 158–160 rhythmic entrainment, 182–183 rhythmic organization, 85, 86 scalene muscles, 158 simple tonal memory, 80 somatosensory perception, 34–35 spatial awareness, 40 subvocalization, 77–78 tactile sense, 34–35 tidal respiration, 143–144 tonal mnemonics, 88–90

tracheal tug reflex, 156 vestibular sense, 40 vestibulo-motor reflexes, 16 visual-auditory imagery from symbols, 71 visuospatial imagery, 85–87 “What & When Improv,” 88–90, 91, 188, 189 “What If?”, 52–53 working memory, 64 Practicing, 92–93 Prefrontal cortex anatomy of, xxxiv, xxxiv dorsolateral anatomy of, xli, xxxiv, xxxv, xxxviii in conditional associative learning, 9 Premotor cortex, 105, 129 Primary motor cortex, 129, 129–131 Procedural memory, 58, 60, 96 Proprioception, 108, 147 Proprioceptors, 31, 108–109 Proprio-kinesthesis, 31–32, 39 Protective sneeze reflex, 158, 161 Proximal controls, 100–103, 167 Psoas major muscle, 162, 163 Psoas minor muscle, 162 Psychoacoustic effect, 27 Pull-Down exercise, 147–148, 148, 153 Pulmonary-chest wall unit, 141, 143, 150 Purkinje cells, 57 Purposeful amplification, 15

Q Quadratus lumborum muscle, 137, 162

R Receptivity description of, 8 top-down sensory control mechanism and, 11 Receptor fatigue, 13 Receptors, 6, 13 Recollection, 44, 60–61 Recurring vestibular stimulation, xviii–xix, 35–37 Red nucleus, 125, 126, 128 Reflected sound, 27 Reflex autogenic inhibition, 112–113 crossed extensor “stepping,” 115–117 definition of, 111, 146 flexor “withdrawal,” 113–115, 115 knee-jerk, 110–111, 111, 152

Index 213

local circuitry of, 111–112 myotatic, 111 pitch-shift, 119 respiratory force, 156–160 stretch, 110–111, 148, 150 vestibular, 15, 29 vestibulo-motor, 16 vestibulo-ocular, 16, 75, 116, 125 vestibulo-sternocleidomastoid, 16, 75, 138 voluntary adaptation of, 113 Reflex resonance, 119–120 Reflexive control systems, 144–161 Reflexive diaphragmatic contractions, 152 Relax, 73–74 Resonance bone-conducted, 32–35, 179 reflex, 119–120 Respiration accessory muscles of, 145, 153–155, 154 description of, 135–136 lumbro-sacral stabilization for, 162–163 passive force of, 142 reflexive control systems and, 144–161 special acts of, 144–161 Respiratory force reflex description of, 156–158 practical application exercise for, 158–160 Respiratory rate, 75–76 Respiratory system. See also Breathing anatomy of, 141–143, 142 overview of, 135–136 practical application exercise for, 141 Reticular formation anatomy of, xxx descending motor control pathways from, 127 description of, 43, 127–128 as integration mechanism, 8–10 limbic system and, 22 upper motor neurons of, 127 Rhythmic entrainment auditory stimulation of, 178 causes of, 177 communication of, 179 of ongoing sequences of behavior, 180–183 practical application exercise for, 182–183 predictability and variability of, 174–176 promotion of, 180–183 properties of, 179 spontaneity of, 182 training the singer’s brain, 185–188 Rhythmic organization, 85, 86

Rib cage muscles of, 145 wall of, 152–153

S Sacrum, 141 Scalene muscles anatomy of, 156, 157 in neck stabilization, 164 respiratory action of, 158 Selective attention definition of, 14 examples of, 14–15 function of, 13 ideal performing state and, 13–14 as innate ability, 15–16 purposeful amplification, 15 as sensory control system, 17 unintentional inhibition, 15–16 Self-consciousness, 14, 48 Self-organization, 177–178, 180, 186 Semispinalis muscle, 137 Sensorimotor imagery, 92 Sensorimotor intentions, 48–49 Sensorimotor memories, 107 Sensorimotor processing cyclical nature of, 3 definition of, 2 description of, 1, 121, 133 dual-pathway model for, 63, 63 functions of, 2, 2 goal of, 4 loop of, 2, 2 mind-body awareness as, xix Sensory control pathways, descending, 11 Sensory information conscious attention of, 43 definition of, 54 description of, 41 inhibition of, 15 knowledge from, 43 processing of complexity of, 21 definition of, 2 description of, 5–6 limitations on, 20 physiology of, 6–8 receptivity, 8 selective nature of, 8, 9 Sensory nucleus, 7

214 Mind-Body Awareness for Singers:  Unleashing Optimal Performance Sensory receptors, 108 Sensory-guided movement, 107–109 Serratus anterior muscle, 137 Simple tonal memory, 80 Simple visuomotor behavior, 46–47 Sinatra, Frank, 90 Sine wave, 180, 180–181 Singing bodily awareness in, xiii–xv cognition in, xiii–xv continuous variable demands for, 149 ventilation during, 150 systems of, 2–3, 3 “Singing on the breath,” 136 Skeletal muscles agonist, 98, 98 antagonist, 98, 98 description of, 97 function of, 97–98 Skeletal transmission, of forced vibrations, 32 Skeleton anatomy of, 97 appendicular, 100 axial, 99 Skull bones, 33 Slow tonic fibers, 106 “Smart body,” 14–16 Sneeze reflex, protective, 158, 161 Solitary tract, 38 Somatic senses, 32, 109–110 Somatic sensory receptors, 108 Somatosensory cortex, xxxv, 32, 131 Somatosensory perception, 34–35 Somatosomatic reflexes, 146 Sound airborne transmission, 24, 25 bone-conducted transmission, 24–27, 26 reflected sound, 27 Sound bites, 54, 63, 65, 67, 74, 81, 82–83, 88–90, 89, 91, 187–188, 189 Spatial awareness, 40 Spatial cognition definition of, xv, 38 motor behavior and, xiv Sphenoid bone, 33 Spinal accessory nerve, xxviii Spinal cord cross-sectional view of, 104 lower motor neuron of, 106 Spinal erectors, 136

Spinal nerves, xxii Spinalis muscle, 137 Spine, 141 Spontaneous creative processing, 124 Spontaneous entrainment, 177 Spontaneous resonance, 27 Spontaneous rhythms, 177 Sternocleidomastoid muscle, 164–166, 165 Stimulus-response phenomenon, 2 Stretch reflex, 110–112, 148, 150 Styloglossus muscle, 167, 169 Subglottal air pressure, 149 Subtractive color mixing, 11 Subvocalization, 76–78 Superior colliculus, 125, 126, 128 Superior constrictor muscle, 172 Superior temporal gyrus, xxxix Supplementary motor area, xxxv, xl, 129, 131 Supragottal air pressure, 169 Suprahyoid muscles, 167 Swallowing, 146 Symbols, visual-auditory imagery from, 71–72 Symmetry breaking, 161, 169, 179, 185 Sympathetic nervous system, xxi, xxiv Synchronous convergence, 58, 64 Systems of Singing, xvii Systems of Speech, Language, and Hearing, xvii

T “T Pitch,” 158–159, 159 Tactile imagery, 73 Tactile sense, 32–35 Tapetum, xxxvii Temporal bone, 33 Temporal lobe, xxix, xxviii, xxxv Temporospatial, 64, 85–86, 88 Tensor veli palatini muscle, 172 Thalamus, xxix, xxix, 7, 9 Thomas, Alma, xiv, 13 Thoracic cavity, 144 Thoracic vertebrae, 141 Thyroarytenoid muscle, 120 Tidal breathing, 141–144 Tomatis, Alfred, 29, 76–77 Tonal loop model, xl Tonal memory, 20 Tonal mnemonics, 88–90 Tonal problems, alternative strategies for, 78 Tongue, 167, 169, 169–170 Top-down processing, 11–13

Index 215

Tracheal tug reflex, 156 Transverse perineal muscle, 161 Trapezius muscle, 137 Trigeminal nerve, xxviii Trochlear nerve, xxviii Tulving, Endel, 52

U Unconscious inference, 16–17 Unintentional inhibition, 15–16 Unusual but useful, 15, 22 Upper motor neuron pathway, 104–105 Upper motor neurons, 125, 128, 133

V Vagus nerve, xxi, xxviii Variable force, 107, 108 Velopharyngeal port, 172 Ventral premotor area, 17 Ventrolateral frontal cortex, xxxviii Vertebrae, 141 Vestibular “head turn” reflex, 166 Vestibular network, xxxii, 37–40, 38, 127 Vestibular nuclei, 37–38 Vestibular receptors, 37 Vestibular reflexes, 15, 29 Vestibular system anatomy of, xxxii, xxxii–xxxiii definition of, xvi description of, 125, 127 functions of, 125 head position changes detected by, 15 of inner ear, 29, 35–37, 36 Vestibulocochlear nerve, xxxii Vestibulo-motor reflexes, 16 Vestibulo-ocular network, 37 Vestibulo-ocular reflex, 16, 75, 116, 125 Vestibulo-spinal system, xxxii, xxxiii, 38 Vestibulo-sternocleidomastoid reflex, 16, 75, 138 Vestibulo-thalamo-cortical network, 37 Vestibulo-thalamo-cortical projections, 38–39 Vibrato frequency, 118–119 Vibrato rate variability, 118 Visual-auditory imagery, 71–72 Visuomotor behavior complex, 46–47 in expert performing musicians, 48 high-stakes performance, 47 research trends in, 46–48

simple, 46–47 Visuospatial domain, 66 Visuospatial imagery, 85–87 Vocal control, auditory feedback for, 28 Vocal cord adduction, 160–161 Vocal folds, 184 Vocal technical skill development, xv–xvi Vocal tract musculoskeletal structures of, 171–172 occlusion of, 152 Vocal vibrato, 118–119 Voice expressive gesture of, 87–88 one’s own voice, perception of, 23–43 auditory perception, 23–29 multimodal perception, 29–32 somatic senses’ role in, 32 Volition, 46 Voluntary adaptation, of complex reflex circuitry, 113 Voluntary behaviors conscious guidance of, 40 definition of, 46 heart rate variability and, 75–76 nature of, 45–46 performance of, 133 planning of, 74 respiratory rate and, 75–76 Voluntary movement programs, 49–50 von Helmholtz, Herman, 16

W Waveform, 181 Wegner, Daniel, 46 Wernicke’s area, xxxvi, xxxvi “What & When” practical application exercise, 88–90, 91, 188, 189 Will, 46, 48 Willed intentions, 48, 88 Word-length effect, 65 Working memory auditory-phonological loop, 65 auditory-tonal loop, 65–66 central executive, 62, 62 cognitive functions supported by, 61–62 delay and, 92 description of, 18, 19, 92, 96 domain-specific storage systems of, 62, 65 dual-control system and, 63–64 episodic buffer of, 62–65, 68 frontal projections for, 19

216 Mind-Body Awareness for Singers:  Unleashing Optimal Performance Working memory (continued) importance of, 61 models of, 62, 62–63, 67–68 practical application exercise for, 64 for singing, 67, 67–69 summary of, 67–69 Wyke, Barry, 32, 50

Y Yerkes-Dodson law, 14

Z Zoning into ideal performing state, 74–75