Millennium: A Latin Reader (A.D. 374-1374)

Table of contents :
[front cover]
[title page]
Preface
Acknowledgements
Contents
List of Authors
Some Notes on Language
Some Notes on Verse
I The Bible
1
2
II The Christian Life
St Jerome
3
4
St Augustine
5
6
7
8
9
St Benedict
10
11
12
St Anselm
13
14
15
St Bernard
16
17
The Papacy
18
19
20
Virtue and Vice
21
22
23
The Four Last Things
The Death of Gerard (1138)
24
25
26
III History and Biography
The Venerable Bede
The Conversion of Northumbria
27
28
The Synod of Whitby (664)
29
William Rufus (1087-1100)
30
31
32
The First Crusade
The Council of Clermont (November 1095)
33
34
35
36
Postscript
Abbot Samson
37
38
IV The World of Learning
Spoiling the Egyptians
39
The Latin Lesson
40
41
A Defence of the Classics
42
Trouble at Oxford, 1238
43
In Praise of Books
44
Petrarch
45
46
47
48
To M. Tullius Cicero, 16 June 1345
49
V Wine, Women and Song
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
50
VI Satire and Complaint
60
61
62
63
The Gospel according to the Mark of Silver
64
65
66
VII Ghosts and Marvels
67
68
Buried Treasure
69
70
Commentary
Abbreviations
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
Select Bibliography

Citation preview

MILtENNIUM A LatinReader/374�1374 F.E.H.ARRISON

MILLENNIUM A LATIN READER A.D·374-1374 'Plurimi pertransibunt, et multiplex erit scientia'

F. E. HARRI S O N

O X F O RD U N I V E R S I TY PRE S S 1 968

Oxford University Press, Ely House, London W. I GLASGOW NEW YORK TORONTO MELBOURNE WELLINGTON CAPE TOWN SALISBURY IBADAN

BOMBAY

CALCUTTA

MADRAS

NAIROBI LUSAKA

ADDIS

ABABA

DACCA

KARACHI LAHORE

PREFACE

KUALA LUMPUR HONG KONG TOKYO

©

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

1 968

COVER:

St. Jerome in his Study, by Domenico Ghirlandaio, Mansell Collection

PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN

THIS book is intended for all who are interested in ex­ ploring the range of Latin literature well beyond the confines of the 'classical' period. There is, perhaps fortunately, no single label to cover this thousand years, but the two dates are significant. In 374 Aurelius Am­ brosius, governor of Liguria, with his seat at Milan, by now an administrative capital of the Western Empire, a layman and an unbaptized Christian, was acclaimed by the populace bishop of Milan-and sixteen years later he excommunicated the Christian emperor Theodosius for his part in authorizing a massacre : an exaltation of the Church, and fusion or confusion of Church and State, which would have been inconceivable a century earlier, on the eve of the last and most violent persecutions. In 1 374 Petrarch died-and if the modern world is to be dated from the fifteenth-century Renaissance, he, more than most in the field of scholarship, heralded and helped to shape the coIning age. Between these two dates many forces were at work. This book concentrates on two of them : the leaven of Christianity, and the persistence and vitality of classical thought and literature-revolution and conservatism side by side. Ifits theme can be summed up in a few words, it is continuity in spite of unceasing change : an adventurous, exploring continuity. Its limitations are conspicuous. It leaves on one side the major problems of politics, and in particular the central issue of Church and State ; it is concerned with literature, not documents, with highlights rather than with shadows, and with monks and clerics more than with laymen, since it was they who for most of these centuries wielded the pen.

vii

P R E FACE

P RE FACE

Of twenty-one known authors only one seems to be a layman-the author of the Gesta Francorum-and he is nameless. Even within these limits the omissions are glaring both in time and space : for example, the Carolin­ gians have been crowded out, and, apart from the First Crusade, there is no reference to the world that lay outside western Christendom. The compiler can only suggest that longer selections from fewer authors, in spite of the resulting lack of balance, are more valuable than snippets from a wider field. Passages are grouped under seven main headings, each of which spills over into the others, the first two in par­ ticular colouring all the rest.

gives the period the charm of unfamiliarity, while at the same time one sees the Latin classics in yet another light, through the eyes of an Augustine, a William of Malmes­ bury, a Petrarch. The Notes on Language sketch in outline its evolution, and provide a framework of reference for the Commentary. The texts, according to their sources and period, exhibit different styles of orthography, but these changes are generally indicated, and after a preliminary dip this will not cause much trouble. Where passages are shortened, summaries are sometimes given in English. With prose passages these may be in­ cluded in the text but, with verse, in the commentary, so as not to spoil the appearance of the page.

vi

I . The Bible ; 2. The Christian Life ; 3. History and Biography; 4. The World of Learning; 5. Wine, Woman, and Song; 6. Satire and Complaint; 7. Ghosts and Marvels.

Selections vary greatly in difficulty, but they have one thing in common : the ipsissima verba of a wide range of writers, with all the flavour and difficulty that involves­ the walking and climbing pace, compared with the chair­ borne ease of a translation. A small dictionary is taken for granted (Langenscheidt's Pocket Latin Dictionary-Latin­ English, by S. A. Handford (Methuen, London, 1 962) has been used as a basis) , and words and meanings not contained there are explained in the commentary. The historical and biographical introductions are deliberately full, on the assumption that most readers leave the Middle Ages behind at the age of twelve or so, and only return to them a good deal later. But at least this

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS deeply indebted all round. First to the authors and editors who are listed in the Bibliography; but in addition to them to a wide range of scholars without whom this book could not have been written by a latecomer from the classics to medieval studies. Beyond them I owe special thanks to two societies : to the Benedictines of Quarr Abbey, and to Brasenose College, Oxford, where I have long enjoyed the double freedom of a library and a home ; and to these I should add the British Museum Reading Room, and that vener­ able institution, the Bodleian Library. Among individual scholars I am especially grateful to Dr. R. W. Hunt, Keeper of Western Manuscripts in the Bodleian, to Professor Sir Roger Mynors, to Mr. L. D. Reynolds of Brasenose College, and to Professor R. W. Southern, for light in dark places, and for much personal kindness. I must not shelter unduly behind such names, and the proportions (or lack of proportion) and errors are all my own. I am most grateful to the Press for their patience and skill. Above and beyond all, to my wife, without whom . . . I am also indebted to the following editors and pub­ lishers for permission to use copyright texts : to Messrs. Nelson & Sons for Gesta Francorum, edited by Rosalind Hill (Nos. 34-36) , and The Chronicle ofJocelin of Brakelond, edited by H. E. Butler (Nos. 37-38) ; to Sansoni, Florence, for Francesco Petrarca, Le Familiari, edited by Vittorio Rossi (Nos. 46--49) ; to Ricciardi, Milan, for Francesco Petrarca, Prose, edited by G. Martellotti (No. 45) ; to Fiorentino, Naples, for Riccardo da Bury, Philobiblon,

I AM

x

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

edited by A. Altamura (No. 44) ; to the Oxford University Press for The Oxford Book if Medieval Latin Verse, edited by F. J. E. Raby (Nos. 25, 5 1 , 55-57, 65-66) ; to the Uni­ versity of California Press for Speculum Stultorum, edited by J. H. Mozley and R. H. Raymo (No. 60) ; and to the Manchester University Press and V. H. Galbraith for No. 70, reprinted from the introduction to The Anonimalle Chronicle. (It has not proved possible to trace the present ownership of the Ingilby MS.) The motto on the title-page will be found in Daniel, 1 2. 4 : 'Many shall run to and fro, and knowledge shall be increased.' F. E. H.

CONTENTS XVll

LIST OF AUTHORS

xix

SOME NOTES ON LANGUAGE SOME NOTES ON VERSE

XXVll

PART ONE. THE BIBLE

INTRODUCTION I. Trust in God: Psalm go (St. Jerome's Vulgate)

3

2. Wisdom: Proverbs 8. 22-36 (Vulgate)

4

PART TWO. THE CHRISTIAN LIFE 6

INTRODUCTION ST. J EROME (c. 345-420): Letters 3. Cicero or Christ? (XXII. 30)

7

4. Wars, and Rumours of Wars (CXXVII. 12)

8

ST. AUGUSTINE (354-430): The Confessions 5. Introduction

(1. I )

6. Childhood and Schooldays

10 13

(1.

g)

13

7. Adolescence (II. 2, 10)

15

8. Conversion (VIII. 11-12)

16

g. Looking Back (X. 27)

18

ST. BENEDICT (c. 480-547): The Rule

18

10. Introduction (from The Prologue)

20

11. The Abbot (ch. 64)

20

12. The Cellarer (ch. 31)

21

ST. ANSELM (c. 1033-1 109): Proslogion 13. Faith seeks Understanding (ch.

I)

22 23

xii

EADMER (c. 1055-C. 1 124): The Life of Anselm 14. Monastic Life under Difficulties (Il. 8--g)

26

15. St. Anselm and the Hare (Il. 18)

28

ST. BERNARD ( 1090- 1 153): Letters

29

16. Come to Clairvaux! (Letter 106)

31

17· Jerusalem Found (Letter 64)

33

THE PAPACY: St. Bernard, De Consideratione (treatise for Pope Eugenius Ill)

(H.

18. Your Greatness

xiii

C O NT E N T S

CONTENTS

35

15, 16)

35

19· Your Wretchedness (Il. 18)

37

20. Your Perils (I. 4, 13)

38

VIRTUE AND V I C E : Caesarius of Heisterbach (c. 1180c. 1240), Dialogus Miraculorum

39

WILLIAM RUFUS (1087-1100): William of Malmesbury (c. 1080- c. 1 143), De Gestis Regum Anglorum 30. The Siege of Mont-Saint-MicheI, 1091 (IV, §§ 30g-1O)

65

3 1. Back to Normandy, 1099 (IV, §§ 320-1)

67

32. His End, 1 100 (IV, §§ 331-3)

68 71

THE FIRST CRUSADE ( 1095-9) 33. The Council of Clermont: Robert the Monk (ft. 1100), Historia Hierosolomitana (chs. I , 2) 34. Bohemond takes the Cross: Anon., 35. The Battle of Dorylaeum: 36. Antioch:

Gesta Francorum

Gesta Francorum

Gesta Francorum

(Ill.

(I. iv)

ix)

73 75 77 80

(IX. xxvi, xxvii)

,Postscript

82

ABBOT SAMSON (1l35-1211): JoceIin of Brakelond (ft. 1200), Cronica de rebus gestis Samsonis Abbatis Monasterii Sancti Edmundi

84

21. Introductory (IV, concl.)

39

22. Avarice (IV. 68)

40

37. Who would be an Abbot! (ed. H. E. Butler, p. 36)

86

23. Simplicity (Il.

41

38. Portrait of Abbot Samson (pp. 3g-40)

86

I, 2)

THE FOUR LAST THINGS

44

24. The Death of Gerard: St. Bernard, Sermon 26,

Song of Songs

25. The Day of Judgement (c. 1190-- 1260)

On the 46

(Dies irae) :

PART FOUR. THE WORLD OF LEARN ING

Thomas of CeIano 49

26. The World to Come: Hildebert of Lavardin (1056-1133)

ST. AUGUSTIN E : De Doctrina Christiana 39. Spoiling the Egyptians

THE CONVERSION OF NORTHUMBRIA (625-64): Bede (c. 671-735), Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum

(H.

93

60--61)

AELFRIC (c. 950--C. 1020): Colloquia

PART THREE. H I STORY AND BIO GRAPHY

INTRODUCTION

89

INTRODUCTION

54

95

40. The Latin Lesson

EAD M E R : The Life of Anselm 56

27. Edwin, 625-32 (Il. 13)

58

28. Oswin and Aidan, 641-51 (Ill. 14)

61

29. The Synod of Whitby, 664 (Ill. 25)

63

41. St. Anselm: Thoughts on Education (I. 22)

WILLIAM OF MALMESBURY:

Cambridge

98 University

Library, MS. Dd. 13. 2 42. A Defence of the Classics

100

xiv

MATTHEW PARIS

43.

CONTENTS

CONTENTS

(C.

Trouble at Oxford,

1 02

63· 0 Most Pernicious Woman! (2) Anon. 64. The Gospel according to the Mark of Burana)

1 05

65 · 66.

1 200-59) : Chronica Majora

1 238

(Rolls Series, vol.

3,

pp.

481-4)

RICHARD DE BURY ( 1 287-1 345) : Philobiblon

44.

In Praise of Books (ch.

I)

108

PETRARCH: ( 1 304-74) : Letters

45.

Student Days at Bologna

46.

The Ascent of Mont Ventoux

(Senilium Rerum,

X.

2)

(Familiarium Rerum,

IV.

I)

( I ) (Fam. VI. 3) Come to Vaucluse! (2) (Fam. XVI. 6) 49. To Cicero (Fam. XXIV. 3, 4)

47. 48.

11I 1 12 1 16

Come to Vaucluse!

I I7 I I9

PART FIVE. WINE, WOMAN, AND SONG

1 22

INTRODUCTION

(50-59 are by anonymous 50.

Begone, dull Care!

52. 53.

A Drinking Song

1 56

The Witch of Berkeley: William of Malmesbury,

Regum Anglorum, 11, § 204.

68.

The Two Clerks of Nantes (Ill,

69.

Buried Treasure

70. Warning to Slanderers: Anon., The Ingilby MS.

55. In Praise of his Mistress (Ripoll Collection)

56. Love's Companion (Carmina Burana) 57. Love and Reason (Arundel Collection) A Cursing Song

(Carmina Burana)

PART S I X. SATIRE AND COM PLAINT

1 43

INTRODUCTION

60.

Money Talks: Nigel de Longchamps (ft.

Stultorum

I 1 70), Speculum

6 1 . Money is King (Carmina Burana) 62. 0 Most Pernicious Woman! ( I ) Anon., De Vita Monachorum

§ 237)

(n, § 1 69)

54. Phyllis and Flora (Carmina Burana)

59.

151 154

INTROD U CTION

67.

(Carmina Burana)

Reluctant Celibates

1 1 70)

1 50

PART SEVEN. GHOSTS AND MARVELS

The Debate between Wine and Water

58.

(Carmina

The Poor Scholar: Waiter of Chatillon

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY

51. The Archpoet's Confession

Silver

The Roman Curia: Waiter of Chatillon (ft.

COMMENTARY

twelfth-century poets)

(Carmina Burana)

xv

1 49

1 45 1 47 1 48 881771

b

De Gestis

1 56 1 58

LIST OF AUTHORS C HRO NOLOGICALLY ARRA NGED

(The numbers refer to passages in this book) The Bible St. Jerome (c. 345-420) St. Augustine (354-430) St. Benedict (c. 480-547) Bede (c. 671-735) Aelfric (c. 950-c. 1020) St. Anselm (c. 1033-1109) Eadmer (c. 1055-&. I124) Hildebert of Lavardin (1056-II33) Robert the Monk (jl. I100) Anon.--Gesta Francorum (jl. 1100) William of Malmesbury (c. 1080-c. 1143) St. Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-II53) 'The Archpoet' (jl. I170) Nigel de Longchamps (jl. II70) Waiter of Chatillon (jl. 1170) Anon.-Twelfth-century poets and satirists Jocelin of Brakelond (jl. 1200) Caesarius of Heisterbach (c. 1 180-c. 1240) Thomas of Celano (c. 1190-1260) Matthew Paris (c. 1200-59) Richard de Bury (1287-1345) Petrarch (1304-74)

1,2 3,4 5-9,39 10-12 27-29 40 13 14,15,41 26 33 34-36 30-32,42,67-69 16-20,24 51 60 65,66 50,52-59,61-64 37,38 21-23,70 25 43

44 45-49

SOME NOTES ON LANGUAGE FOUR

phases concern us here, which to some extent suc­ ceed one another, but still more overlap and combine to form what can loosely be called MEDIEVAL LATIN (M L). I. C LASSICAL LATIN (CL) can be broadly defined as that used by the outstanding writers of the late Republic and early Empire for some two hundred years, from Cicero (106-43 B .C .) to Suetonius (c. A.D . 6g-c. 140), from Lucretius (c. 99-55B.C.) and Virgil (70-IgB.C.) toJuvenal (c. A.D. 50-130). All were versed in Greek literature, but applied their knowledge and skill to enrich Latin largely from its own resources, and increase its flexibility and range while importing little of an alien vocabulary or syntax : Cicero, for example, and Lucretius coined new Latin terms when they naturalized Greek philosophy. By surviving as classics, or at worst as school-books, they served as a permanent background at all periods, offering standards of correctness, models for imitation, maxims for living, or tags for quotation, and in some cases friends for life. Petrarch looked to Cicero, as Dante did to Virgil, as father, master, and friend. Two more points : they reach us in an elaborately written, rather than spoken, language ; and the frontiers are not so rigid as grammarians tend to suggest, but the language emerges from an earlier pre­ classical period, and passes almost insensibly into 2. LATE LATIN (LL). The term is used to describe the next three hundred years or more (J. F. Niermeyer suggests c. A.D. 200-550). Within this large time-span and in the wide area of the Empire there was room for great differences ; but, broadly speaking, old standards of

xxi

S O M E N O T E S ON L A N G U A G E

S O M E N O T E S ON L A N G U A G E

accuracy were slipping, and declensions, conjugations, and sentence construction in general began to be confused, while debased vocabulary and hybrid Graeco-Latin and barbarous words increased (cf. 'cheeseburgers', 'beatniks'). In short, the language began to break down into the various Romance languages that were to succeed it. But there were positive developments too, such as the great increase in abstract nouns (e.g. iussio, impossibilitas); and the process as a whole-linguistic decay and growth side by side-is a familiar one in the evolution of a living language. (Twentieth-century English is both richer and poorer than that of the sixteenth.) Meanwhile literary traditions persisted, and the language could still be used with mastery, whether to uphold the old ways or to create new effects. This period too experienced a new and vitalizing influence, that of

establishing a precedent which was to persist throughout the Middle Ages. One more factor is to be reckoned with, not so much succeeding as underlying the other three-a powerful current which emerged in the later centuries in full flood:

xx

3. C H R I S T I AN, O R E C C L E S I A S T I C A L, LATIN (EL) . This brought a flood of new ideas, new vocabulary (largely Greek in origin), and a new way of writing into the lan­ guage-in the first instance from the Bible in its Greek and early Latin versions. They were exploited by men of genius such as Tertullian (c. 160-220) and the Latin Fathers Ambrose (c. 339-97), Jerome (c. 342-420), and Augustine (354-430), who between them bequeathed to the West an immense legacy of Christian 'classics' to set beside the pagan ones. As the tide of barbarism advanced, and literacy came to rest largely with the clergy, this thought and language seeped into every form of literature and written records, secular as well as religious, poetry as well as prose. By the fourth century too, emerg­ ing from its earlier isolation, the Church in such notable figures as Augustine drew on the pagan classics, in spite of reservations, to enrich Christian culture, thereby

4. P O P U L A R, O R V U L GAR, LATIN, i.e. the conversa­ tional language of daily life. It can be traced from the pre-classical comedies of Piautus (c. 254-184 B.C. ) , through Cicero's letters, the poems of Catullus, and the picaresque novel of Petronius to epitaphs and illiterate scribbles on the walls of Pompeii. It used diminutives extensively to express familiarity or affection or a mild contempt, till the practice became habitual, and often drove out the basic word. So French oreilte from auricula, soleil from soliculus (the same tendency is found in the popular speech of south Germany and Russia). It showed a grow­ ing preference for longer words: e.g. vado and ambulo for eo (Fr. alter combines the three); longo tempore for diu; for frequentative verbs such as cantare, pensare, and elaborate compounds over simple ones: e.g. Torrentem pertransivit anima mea (Ps. 123. 5). It adopted popular slang: e.g. bucca ('cheek') for 'mouth', bellus for pulcher, testa ('tile', then 'earthenware pot', and so 'skull') for 'head', till they often drove out their classical predecessors; and, along with Late Latin, it increasingly incorporated new words from the semi-Romanized West, particularly in the field of political and social institutions. To sum up, it was chiefly the pervasive influence of the Church, drawing on the Bible, the liturgy, and the Chris­ tian classics, while remaining rooted linguistically both in popular speech and pagan literature, which maintained the language as a highway across the centuries, falling into disrepair in places, but opening up new territory as it

xxii

xxiii

SOME NOTES ON LANGUAGE

SOME NOTES ON LANGUAGE

went ; while on either side tracks led off into a tangled undergrowth, out of which were to emerge eventually the Romance languages. (So the Norse sagas of the eleventh century preserved the Icelandic language with its elabor­ ate inflexions, while the parent Norwegian, without their stabilizing influence, fell into linguistic decay.) Something of a turning-point was reached at the end of the eighth century with the Carolingian 'Renaissance' and its schools ; and from then on the educational system in general purged the language to a fair extent ; while in yet another 'Renaissance' twelfth-century Latin literature reached new levels of achievement. For administrative purposes too, for a Europe with fluid frontiers and a multitude of local dialects, some kind of international language, however crudely adapted, was invaluable. But for much of this period almost all administration from government downwards was in the hands of ecclesiastics of one kind or another, so that once more we are carried back to the Church and to this common language as the main source of such cultural unity as existed. There is another side to the story :! the gross illiteracy of many of the clergy, whose howlers added to the gaiety of scholars, while they caused alarm and despondency at Diocesan Visitations; the drawbacks of a written rather than a spoken language; and the rooted strength all over Europe of men's mother-tongue. Bede, as he lay dying, sang Anglo-Saxon verses alongside Latin antiphons; and Ailred of Rievaulx ( I 1 09-67) crying 'Festinate, festinate' 'often drove the word home by calling on the name of Christ in English, a word of one syllable in this tongue and easier to utter, and in some ways sweeter to hear : "Festinate, for crist luve." 'z But beside their

Itlother-tongue, educated men had a second patria lingua, 1 rooted in a lifetime of liturgy and study; and this book is concerned with its successes, not its failures. Petrarch, at the end of the period, pinned his hopes of immortality not on his Italian poems, his nugae vulgares, but on his major Latin works and letters. He was proved wrong by history; and the humanists of the next two centuries helped to kill by devotion the language they loved; but for them, as for the thousand years represented here, it was, as it still is, a living tradition.

I See G. G. Coulton, Europe's Apprenticeship, Nelson, 1 940•

a

Vita Ailredi, by Waiter Daniel, trans. F. M. Powicke, Nelson, 1 950•

These changes can now be traced in some detail. VOCABULARY. Ca) New Words (largely Greek) flooded in from the Bible and the evolving life of the Church : e.g. ecclesia, diaconus, presbyter, episcopus, abba(s) (Hebrew by origin, but already naturalized in the N.T.), monachus (monk) , eremita (a man of the desert, hermit), clerus (the clerical order) and its adjective clericus (the sing. gives cleric and clerk, the pI. clergy) , elemosine (alms) , etc. Cb) Old Words acquired new meanings : e.g. gentes (Gentiles, or pagans) , virtutes (mighty works, miracles) , sacramentum (the soldier's oath of loyalty; then something to be kept sacred : hence the Christian 'mysteries'), con­ versatio (the Christian, and especially the monastic, way of life-the former meaning is retained in the A. V.) , peregrinus (a stranger and pilgrim on earth seeking· his patria in heaven, or-more specifically-some Christian shrine), villa (village or town) , civitas (city-already appearing in CL) , comes (king's companion, holding land in return for services; so 'count'-Eng. 'earl'. A similar usage had developed in the late Empire) . 5.

I 'From the civil law was borrowed the maxim, Roma est patria omnium': A. L. Smith, Church and State in the Middle Ages, Oxford, 1913.

:xxiv

:xxv

SOME NOTES ON LANGUAGE

S O M E N O T E S ON L A N G U A G E

(c) Celtic and Germanic languages contributed largely: e.g. caballus (a nag, cob) ultimately tended to supplant equus; bannus (a proclamation or command, with penalties attached; so bannire, etc.); werra (war), with its collateral forms gerra and guerra, which have replaced bellum in the Romance languages; marca (I ) (a weight of silver, a coin, etc.); marca (2) (boundary, border-land, hence 'marches'); and marckisus (defending the frontiers-'marquis)'.

takes on a good deal of extra work, as a substitute for the genitive: e.g. abbacia de Oseneie (Oseney abbey); and eventually in the Romance languages the case-system practically disappears. Neut. pI. nouns and adjectives (ending in -a) have a way of becoming fern. sing. nouns: e.g. montana, n.pl. adj. (Fr. la montagne) . (b) Pronoun-AdJectives : Hie, ille, iste, ipse lose their distinctive meanings and become largely interchange­ able. llle and unus are gradually reduced to a definite and indefinite article respectively. Reflexive se, suus are confused with eum, etc., aliquis with quisquam and ullus, nullus with nemo. (c) Adverbs and Prepositions tend to fuse and produce new compounds: e.g. abante (avant) , depost (depuis) , amodo (from now on). Notice ad/ab/pro invicem, (to/from/for each other); an extension of CL in vicem (mutually). (d) Verbs (i) The subjunctive loses ground in some directions (e.g. in Reported Questions and Result Clauses), but tends to replace the indicative without adequate reason in many subordinate clauses, being thought of as a typically subordinate mood. (ii) The distinction between ne and non tends to dis­ appear: e.g. non confundar in aeternum : 'Let me not be con­ founded . . .' (Vulgate). (ill) The present participle is used loosely, as in English; and a gerund in the ablative tends to take its place: e.g. pertransiit benefaciendo et sanando (Vulgate)-a usage that has persisted in Italian, and in French, where the two become confused (allant and en ailant) . (iv) 'Double' perfect passives are common: e.g. captus fui.

6. O R T H O G R A P H Y. There was a general fluidity in spell­ ing, especially in Germanic words. In particular: (a) By the eleventh and twelfth centuries the diphthongs ae and oe were almost completely replaced by e (reflecting a change in pronunciation), and did not appear again until they were reintroduced by the Humanists: e.g. preparo, pena (poena) , penitet (paenitet) . This can lead to confusion: e.g. cepit (from capio or coepi) , equus (equus or aequus) , queritur (from queror or quaero) . Texts exhibiting these changes will be noted when they occur. (b) t between vowels became c, and was pronounced 1$: e.g. eciam, nacio (cf. Italian na