Military Equipment and the Identity of Roman Soldiers: Proceedings of the Fourth Roman Military Equipment Conference 9780860545088, 9781407346724

Table of contents :
Blank Page
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
List of Contributors
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Abbreviations
Preface
THREE LEGIONARIES AT CROY HILL (STRATHCLYDE)
CERTAIN DOUBTS AND DOUBTFUL CONCLUSIONS: THE LORICA SEGMENTATA FROM NEWSTEAD AND THE ANTONINE GARRISON
A FRAGMENTARY SHIELD COVER FROM CAERLEON
CAVALRY EQUIPMENT OF THE ROMAN ARMY IN THE FIRST CENTURY A.D.
'SMALL FINDS' FROM TURRETS ON HADRIAN'S WALL
SOME MILITARY BRONZES FROM THE TRINOVANTIAN CIVITAS
THE FABRICAE: STATE ARMS FACTORIES OF THE LATER ROMAN EMPIRE
INDEX

Citation preview

Military Equipment and the Identity · of Roman Soldiers Proceedings of the Fourth Roman Military Equipment Conference edited by

J. C. Coulston

BAR International Series 394 1988.

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR S394, 1988:_'Military Equipment and the Identity of Roman Soldiers'

©

The Individual Authors,1988

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860545088 paperback ISBN 9781407346724 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545088 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

C ONTENTS P age L ist o f C ontributors

i v

L ist o f T ables L ist o f I llustrations

v i

L ist o f A bbreviations

i x

P reface

T hree l egionaries a t C roy H ill J .C. C oulston

1

C ertain d oubts a nd d oubtful c onclusions: t he l orica s egmentata f rom N ewstead a nd t he A ntonine g arrison A .G . P oulter

3 1

Af ragmentary s hield c over f rom C aerleon C . v an D riel-Murray

5 1

C avalry e quipment c entury A .D.

o f

t he

R oman

a rmy

i n

t he

f irst

M .C. B ishop

6 7

f rom t urrets o n H adrian 's W all L . A llason-Jones

1 97

S ome m ilitary b ronzes f rom t he T rinovantian c ivitas N .P. W ickenden

2 34

' Small f inds'

T he f abricae: E mpire

s tate

a rms f actories o f t he L ater R oman S . J ames

I ndex

2 57

3 33

i ii

L IST O F C ONTR I BUTORS

L . A llason-Jones

M useum o f A ntiquities,

The U niversity ,

N ewcastle u pon T yne, NE1

M .C.

B ishop

J .C.

C oulston

D ept. o f A rchaeology, The U niversity, N ewcastle u pon T yne, N E1 7 RU, England

D ept. o f A rchaeology,

T he U niversity,

N ewcastle u pon T yne, NE1

C .

v an D riel-Murray

7 RU, England

I .P.P.,

S ingel 4 53,

7 RU, England

1 012 W P Amsterdam ,

T he N etherlands

S . J ames

E ducation S ervice,

B ritish Museum ,

G reat

R ussell S treet, L ondon, W C1B 3 DG, England

A .G.

P oulter

D ept.

o f A rchaeology,

N ottingham, N G7 2 RD,

N .P. W ickenden

University o f

University P ark,

N ottingham ,

E ngland

C helmsford A rchaeological T rust,

1

W rittle Road,

C M1

E ngland

i v

C helmsford, E ssex,

3 BL,

L IST O F T ABLES P age B ISHOP T able 1 T able 2 T able 3 T able 4 T able 5 T able 6

S addle h orns G irth b uckles S addle p lates J unction r ings P halerae t ypes P endants

1 27 1 29 1 31 1 34 1 36 1 43

T able T able

J unction l oops S trap t erminals

1 58 1 65

T able 9 T able 1 0

S trap f asteners ( female) S trap f asteners ( male)

1 68 1 69

T able 1 1

S trap m ounts

1 71

7 8

J AMES T able T able

I I I

T able T able

I II I V

T able

V

3 23 3 24 D iocesan o rder o f p raesides A rmour f actory d oublets i n f rontier z ones

3 25 3 25 3 26

L IST O F

I LLUSTRATIONS P age

C OULSTON F ig.1 S culpture f rom C roy H ill. G eneral v iew F ig.2 S culpture f rom C roy H ill. D rawing F ig.3 S culpture f rom C roy H ill. V iew o f t he l ower p art o f t he f igures F ig.4 S culpture f rom C roy H ill. V iew o f t he c leaned u pper a rea F ig.5 T rajan's C olumn. D etail o f S cene L XXXVI. M arching, u narmoured s oldiers F ig.6 T rajan 's C olumn. D etail o f S cene LXIX . S tacked s hields a nd F ig.7

s lung h elmets F lavian p edestal r eliefs f rom M ainz

b ack v iew

F ig.8

7

3 5 3 5

V AN DRIEL-MURRAY F ig.1 C aerleon s hield c over F ig.2 S hield c omparisons a ) D oncaster ( after B UCKLAND,

F ig.4 F ig.5 F ig.6 F ig.7

3 3

7 8

P OULTER P 1.1 R econstruction o f t he N ewstead l orica s egmentata, u pper f ront v iew P 1.2 R econstruction o f t he N ewstead l orica s egmentata, u pper

F ig.3

2 2

5 4 1 978),

b )

V alkenburg ( after G ROENMAN-VAN W AATERINGE, 1 967), c ) C aerleon c over a s r econstructed, d ) B onner B erg f ragments p rojected o nto t he C aerleon m odel. L engths o f c ) a nd d ) a re h ypothetical S hield c overs p rojected o nto a g oatskin. S haded a re t he w eak a reas o f t he a xillae P lan o f c onstruction o f C aerleon r eplica D imensions o f s hield a nd c over C ross s ection t hrough u mbo c over a . U mbo c over b efore m oulding. b . U mbo c over a fter m oulding R oman s eam , a ) f ront b ) b ack

5 5 5 6 6 0 6 1 6 2 6 2 6 2

B ISHOP F ig.1 R elief f rom t ombstone o f T . F lavius B assus F ig.2 T . F lavius B assus. D etail o f h aunch j unction, s howing h aunch s traps p assing b eneath s addle p ommel F ig.3 T . F lavius B assus. D etail o f h orse's b reast s howing b reast b and a nd p endants F ig.4 T . F lavius B assus. D etail o f h orse's h ead w ith b ridle, b it, h ackamore, a nd p oll k not F ig.5 R elief f rom t ombstone o f L onginus B iarta F ig.6 R elief f rom t ombstone o f R omanus D ardanus

7 0 7 2 7 2

F ig.7

R elief f rom t ombstone o f u nknown c avalryman

7 3

F ig.8 F ig.9

R elief f rom M . S acrius b ridle, b it, R elief f rom R elief f rom R elief f rom R elief f rom

F ig.10 F ig.11 F ig.12 F ig.13

t ombstone o f M . S acrius P rimigenius P rimigenius. D etail o f h orse's h ead, p oll k not, a nd p halera t ombstone o f Lucius t ombstone o f O luper t ombstone o f N iger t ombstone o f M . A emilius D urises

F ig.14 R elief f rom t ombstone o f V onatorix

v i

6 9 6 9 7 0

7 3 w ith 7 5 7 5 7 6 7 6 7 8 7 8

P age F ig.15 R elief f rom t ombstone o f C antaber F ig.16 R elief f rom t ombstone o f C . R omanius C apito F ig.17 C . R omanius C apito. D etail o f h aunch j unction a nd t ail

8 0 8 0

b inding F ig.18 C . R omanius C apito.

8 2 8 2

D etail o f b reast j unction

F ig.19 D epictions o f h arness o n a rch o f O range a nd S t.Remy F ig.20 H orseman f rom t he Gundestrup C auldron

M ausoleum

a t

F ig.21 R elief f rom t ombstone o f R ufus F ig.22 T ypical f ront s addle h orns F ig.23 T ypical r ear s addle h orns

8 5 9 0 9 0 9 2 9 3

F ig.24 F ig.25 F ig.26 F ig.27 F ig.28 F ig.29

M ethods o f p endant s uspension a nd m artingale a ttachment R econstructed t ypical C elto-Roman h arness w ith t erminology J unctions a nd s trap f ittings T ypes o f C elto-Roman h arness T echniques o f s addle p late a ttachment t o t riplet s traps R econstruction o f t ypical T iberio-Claudian h arness

9 7 9 9 1 01 1 07 1 10 1 13

F ig.30 F ig.31 F ig.32 F ig.33 F ig.34 F ig.35 F ig.36 F ig.37 F ig.38 F ig.39 F ig.40 F ig.41

R econstruction o f t ypical F lavian h arness R econstruction o f t ypical F lavian p arade h arness J unction l oops f rom C orbridge ( Nos.1-3) J unction l oops f rom C orbridge ( Nos.4-8) J unction p halera f rom C orbridge T ype s ketches f or s addle h orns T ype s ketches f or g irth b uckles T ype s ketches f or s addle p lates, T ypes 1 -3 T ype s ketches f or s addle p lates, T ypes 4 -6 T ype s ketches ( decorative) f or p halerae T ypes 1 -3 T ype s ketches ( decorative) f or p halerae T ypes 4 -12 T ype s ketches ( functional) f or p halerae T ypes 1 -3

1 14 1 15 1 21 1 23 1 25 1 28 1 28 1 30 1 32 1 35 1 37 1 39

F ig.42 T ype s ketches ( functional) f or p halerae T ypes 4 -7 F ig.43 T ype s ketches f or p endants, T ypes l a-t

1 41 1 42

F ig.44 F ig.45 F ig.46 F ig.47 F ig.48 F ig.49 F ig.50 F ig.51 F ig.52 F ig.53 F ig.54 F ig.55

1 45 1 47 1 49 1 52 1 54 1 56 1 57 1 61 1 64 1 67 1 67 1 69

T ype T ype T ype T ype T ype T ype T ype T ype T ype T ype T ype T ype

s ketches s ketches s ketches s ketches s ketches s ketches s ketches s ketches s ketches s ketches s ketches s ketches

f or f or f or f or f or f or f or f or f or f or f or f or

p endants, T ypes l u-3 p endants, T ypes 4 -5 p endants, T ypes 6 -8e p endants, T ypes 8 f-9i p endants, T ypes 9 j-10h p endants, T ypes 1 0i-11 j unction l oops, T ypes 1 -5 j unction l oops, T ypes 6 -10 s trap t erminals, T ypes 1 -8e s trap t erminals, T ypes 8 f-10 s trap f asteners ( female) s trap f asteners ( male)

F ig.56 T ype s ketches f or s trap m ounts

1 70

A LLASON-JONES F igs.1-6 S mall f inds f rom H adrian 's W all t urrets F igs.7-8 S mall f ind d istribution b y s ite a nd a rtifact c lass

2 23 2 29

W ICKENDEN F ig.1 F ig.2

T he T rinovantian C ivitas i n t he R oman p eriod T he R oman t own o f C aesaromagus, w ith s ite c odes m arked

2 50 2 51

F ig.3 F ig.4

C opper a lloy o bjects f rom C helmsford, 1 -10 C opper a lloy o bjects f rom C helmsford, 1 1-20; H eybridge,

2 52

v ii

P age

F ig.5 F ig.6 P 1.1 P 1.2 J AMES F ig.1 F ig.2 F ig.3

2 1; G reat D unmow , 2 2 C opper a lloy o bjects f rom W ickford, 2 3-7; K elvedon , 2 8-32 M etal d etecting f inds, 3 5-6, s cale 1 :2; 3 7, s cale 1 :1. H arlow s ketches, 3 8-9 D ecorative t erminal f rom d ouble-lobed p endant. C helmsford D ouble-lobed p endant f rom A shdon

L ocations o f f abricae a ccording t o t he N otitia O rder o f n otation o f p rocuratores G ynaeciorum T he o rder o f n otation b y d iocese c ommonly u sed i n t he N otitia l ists F ig.4 T he f rontier d ioceses a nd t he c entres p roducing s words a nd a rmour F ig.5 F abricae s cutariae F ig.6 S pecialist f abricae F ig.7 T he o rder o f n otation o f f abricae i n t he N otitia F ig.8 F abricae a nd p rincipal r oads o f G aul F ig.9 F abricae a nd c ommunications i n I taly F ig. 1 0 E arly i mperial ( left) a nd l ate i mperial ( right) h elmet t ypes

2 53 2 54 2 55 2 56 2 56

3 27 3 27 3 28 3 28 3 29 3 29 3 30 3 30 3 31 3 31

ABBREVIATIONS AA

BJ Brit CIL CSIR cw

ESP ILS JRGZM JRS MA.AR MAKW NCH ORL PSAN PSAS RIB RIC RLO RM

Archaeologia Aeliana Bonner Jahrbilcher Britannia Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum Corpus Signorum Imperii Romani of -the Cumberland and Westmorland Transactions Ant!quarian and Archaeological Society E. Esperandieu, Receuil general des bas-reliefs, statues et bustes de la Gaule romaine, (Paris 1907-38) H. Dessau, Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae, (Berlin 1892-1916) Jahrbuch des romisch-germanischen Zentralmuseums Mainz Journal of Roman Studies Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome Mitteilungen der Altertumskommission filr Westfalen The Northumberland County History Committee,! History of Northumberland Obergermanisch-raetische Limes Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle upon� Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland R.G. Colingwood & R.P. Wright, -The Roman Inscriptions of Britain, I, (Oxford 1965) H. Mattingly & E.A. Sydenham, The Roman Imperial Coinage, (London 1923 etc.) Romische Limes in tlsterreich Mitteilungen des deutschen archaologischen Instituts, romischen Abteilung (Romische Mitteilungen)

ix

PREFACE The title of this volume was taken as a theme for the Fourth Roman Military Equipment Conference (ROMEC IV) held at Newcastle University (12th-13th April, 1986). It may be pursued on two levels. Firstly, small-finds inevitably have some bearing on the attempted identification of garrisons occupying Roman military sites. Some types of equipment may be seen as specific to certain types of troops (Coulston) or they may be judged to have been in general use (Poulter). Cavalry may be distinguished from infantry in the archaeological record and even cavalry horse harness may have been different from pack or draught harness (Bishop). Such issues might seem to be confused by the contemporaneous use of a variety of forms of one class of equipment (van Driel-Murray) whereas a broad study of one type of site (Allason-Jones), or of one geographical region (Wickenden), often reveals interesting patterns which might otherwise have been missed in an artifact-specific approach. Whatever conclusions are arrived at with regard to equipment specificity, they have an importance far beyond just the field of Roman military equipment studies. The second level on which the volume's theme might be pursued is more anthropological and hinges on the personal identity of a man as a soldier in ancient society. Before the mid-late 17th century the concept of 'uniform' in the modern military sense was unknown and most 'soldiers' wore normal 'civilian' dress, commensurate with their rank and social status. In many periods the violent sub-culture of soldiery sets them psychologically apart from the rest of society. Thus visible identifiers of military occupation were often necessary for troops when they were not in full armour. Macedonian military boots or the slashed extravagance of Renaissance Landsknechte are cases in point, as are the characteristic waist-belts and noisy aprons or strap-ends worn by Roman soldiers. Thus the role of military equipment in the identity of Roman soldiery transcends the bounds of Roman studies and forms part of a much longer-term process of development. No apology is necessary for the definitive article which does not accord title, and which was read in a shorter seminar. It is very pleasing to see this study of cavalry equipment appear after a

inclusion of Mr S. James' directly with the volume's version at the 1984 Sheffield work and Dr M.C. Bishop's long period in limbo.

The editor would like to take this opportunity to thank those people who have contributed papers to this volume. In addition, the following people delivered papers at the conference itself: Dr D. Baatz, Mr M. Erdrich, Dr K. Griffiths, Dr M. Grilnewald, Mr P. Johnson and Dr V.A, Maxfield (kindly read in absentia by Mr M.W.C. Hassall). Dr M.C. Bishop and Mr S. James read papers different from those appearing here. The editor is very grateful indeed to the following colleagues and friends who helped to organise, chair and run the conference and who contributed in no small part to its success: Miss L. Allason-Jones, Ms M.V. Andrews, Mr J. Bennett, Mr C.M. Daniels, Dr H. Dodge, Prof P.J. Fowler, Mr P.W.M. Freeman and Mr M.W.C. Hassall. Thanks are due to the Departments of Archaeology and Fine Art, Newcastle University, and to the Museum of Antiquities of the Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle upon Tyne, for the use of their premises, and to Mr P.G. Masterman of

X

U niversity P recinct S ervices. M rs A . G ibson Ankers v ery k indly d rew t he c onference l ogo. W ith r egard t o t he p roduction o f t his v olume, t he e ditor o wes a g reat d ebt o f g ratitude t o D r M .C. B ishop f or h is c onstant e ncouragement, k ind a dvice a nd p ractical h elp. J .C.

C oulston

N ewcastle u pon T yne

x i

T HREE L EGIONARIES A T C ROY H ILL ( STRATHCLYDE) J .C.

C oulston

T he s ubject o f t his p aper i s t he b uff s andstone r elief o f t hree a rmed m en f ound a round t he y ear 1 802 a t C roy H ill ( Strathclyde), a f ort o n t he A ntonine W all.' D ating p robably t o t he r eign o f P ius, i t v ery l ikely b elonged t o a f unerary s tela a nd i t h as l ost a n i nscription s ince i t w as f irst d iscovered T hree m en s tand f rontally, s ide-by-side, t wo y ounger f lanking a n o lder, b earded m an ( Fig.1-2). I t i s p ossible t hat t he l atter r epresents t he d eceased w ith t wo s ons, f riends o r b eneficiaries. T he u pper t hird o f t he f ront s urface i s b adly f laked a way b ut o therwise t he f igures a re w ell p reserved, d espite s ome c hipping. 3 C leaning o f t he s tone i n 1 980 r evealed s ome h itherto u nnoticed d etails s urviving i n t he f laked a rea ( Fig.4). 4 T he l oss o f t he i nscription m eans t hat t he i dentification o f t he t hree m en a s e ither l egionaries o r a uxiliaries d epends o n whether o r n ot c ertain f orms o f m ilitary e quipment w ere s pecifically c arried b y c ertain t ypes o f t roops.

T he m an o n t he l eft h as a t hin, y oungish f ace w ith a d ownturned m outh ( Fig.1-4). H e h as a f ull h ead o f h air b ut i s c lean s haven. H e w ears a s hort-sleeved t unic w ith f olds o n t he s leeves b ut t he s kirt h as h orizontally c hiselled l ines i n a ddition t o l ong, v ertical p leats. T he v isible t orso h anging d own a ppears t o b e w aist-height s urrounded b y

i s s moothed o ff. O ver t his i s w orn a c loak d epicted a s t he f ront o f t he b ody i n a ' V ' s hape. T he u nobscured l eg b are. T he m an's l eft h and r ests o n t he u pper e dge o f a c urved, r ectangular s hield w hich h as a c ircular u mbo

a r ectangular p late. T he l ower e dge i s c oncavely c urved e xposing, o r r esting o n, t he m an 's l eft f oot. O ver t he f ront o f t he s hield a bove t he b oss h angs a h elmet s een f rom t he t op, w ith p lain b owl, n arrow f rontal p eak a nd n eck f lange. I n h is r ight h and h e h olds v ertically a s hafted w eapon, t he s haft o f w hich h as a t riangular e xpansion t hree-quarters o f t he w ay u p i t, a t t he m an's e ye l evel, a nd i s t opped b y a s mall, t riangular h ead. T he c entral f igure i s s imilarly d ressed w ith a t unic b ut o nly v ertical p leats a re c hiselled o n t he s kirt. T he s mooth t orso a rea e xtends d ownwards t o t he h ips. F olds o n t he s leeve c ross o nto t he s houlder. T his m an i s b earded a nd t aller t han t he o ther t wo. H is f ully v isible r ight l eg h as d elineated m usculature a nd i s b are, b ut t here i s s ome i ndication o f f ootwear. T here m ay p erhaps b e a s word p ommel b etween h is a rm a nd b ody. H is s tance, s hield a nd s hafted w eapon d etails a re s imilar t o t he l eft-hand m an e xcept t hat t he w eapon i s l onger, c ommensurate w ith h is g reater s tature. A V -shaped c loak e xtends d own t he f ront o f h is b ody t o t he t unic h em b ut a t i ts p oint i t s eems t o d ivide, f orming a ' W ' p rofile. H is h elmet i s l arger t han t he f irst e xample, h as a s lightly p ointed p eak a nd a w ider n eck f lange. T he r ight-hand f igure w ears a t unic l argely o bscured b y a V -shaped c loak r eaching d own t o t he h em l evel. T he o ne s urviving l eg i s b are. H e i s t hin-faced a nd b eardless, a nd s tands

1

w ith

a

s hafted

w eapon

h eld

F ig.':

S culpture

f rom C roy H ill.

o f S cotland,

F ig.2:

G eneral v iew .

P hoto: N ational M useum

E dinburgh.

S culpture f rom C roy H ill.

D rawing:

2

M rs A G ibson A nkers.

F ig.3:

F ig.4:

S culpture f rom C roy H ill. f igures. P hoto: t he author.

S culpture f rom C roy P hoto: t he a uthor.

H ill.

V iew

V iew

3

o f

o f

t he

l ower

p art

o f

t he

t he c leaned u pper a rea.

a wkwardly b y o ne e nd i n h is r ight h and. O nly t he l ower s haft a nd s mall, t riangular p oint o f t he w eapon s urvive, t he l atter v isible i n t he d iffering c olour o f t he s tone a fter c leaning. H is s hield i s c arried o n h is l eft s ide a nd d oes n ot r est o n t he g round l ike t he o ther t wo b oards. I t h as t he s ame r ound u mbo a nd r ectangular b oss p late, b ut i t i s s een f rom a n a ngle a nd s o h as a t rapezoidal s hape d esigned t o r ender i ts c urve i n p erspective. A h elmet w ith n arrow , p ointed p eak a nd w ide n eck f lange h angs o n h is l ower t orso o ver t he c loak. T he s haft i s s hown o ver t he n eck f lange s o t he h elmet o bscures n one o f i ts l ength.

T he i nterpretation o f t he m en 's d ress i s a p roblem . B oth t he l eft a nd c entral m en h ave c arefully s moothed t orsos a nd p leated s kirts ( Fig.3). T he m an o n t he l eft h as h orizontal l ines o n t he s kirt w hich a re d eliberately s culpted a nd n ot t he r esult o f a ccidental d amage. T hese d etails a re m ost l ike a n o verlapping s eries o f l appets ( pteruges) d esigned t o p rotect t he w earer's t highs w ithout i nhibiting m ovement. 5 T he c entral m an 's s kirt c ould r epresent l ong p teruges o r j ust h eavily d epicted t unic f olds. T he d ifficulty i s t hat t he t orsos o f b oth m en a re s o s mooth y et t he s leeves h ave l ines w hich m ay r epresent a rm p teruges o r f abric d rapery. T he l ow l ine o f t he c entral m an's t orso m ay b e a t unic o ver-fold, o bscuring a w aist b elt, o r t he l ower l imit o f a rmour. M ail o r s cale d etails c ould h ave b een p ainted o nto t he s mooth s urface, 6 b ut t he p lates o f a ' lorica s egmentata' h ave n ot b een i ncised a nd a m uscled p late c uirass i s q uite i nappropriate h ere f or m en b elow t he r ank o f c enturion. 7 C onceivably t he m en m ay w ear o nly ' arming t unics' t o w hich p teruges w ere a ttached, a nd which c ould b e w orn u nder a ll f orms o f a rmour. 8 T he p ossibilities a re, t herefore, t hat t he m en w ear t unics a nd t he l eft h and p teruges a re a m istake; t hey w ear a rming t unics w ith p teruges; t hey w ear m ail o r s cale o ver p teruges. I t i s a p ity t hat s words a re n ot c learly r epresented b ecause t he s ide o f t he b ody o n w hich t hey w ere w orn i n t his p eriod w ould b e i nformative. D uring t he i st c entury t hey u sually a ppear o n t he w earer's r ight s ide; i n t he 3 rd c entury o n h is l eft. T he V -shaped f olds o f t he c loaks c learly i dentify t hem a s p aenulae, c ircular g arments f astened d own t he f ront. 9 F olding t he s ides o f t he c loak u p o nto t he s houlders p arted t he f ront b elow t he f astenings t o g ive t he c haracteristic ' W ' p rofile. 1° S culptors s ometimes s implified t his i nto a ' V', a s o n t he l eft-hand C roy s oldier, b ut t he g arment i s s till c learly d istinct f rom t he r ectangular s agum w hich w as f astened o n o ne s houlder. R epresentations o f s oldiers o n i st c entury t ombstones s how b oth t ypes o f c loaks w orn b y l egionaries a nd a uxiliaries. " A f ragmentary g ravestone f rom S hirva ( Strathclyde), a ssociated w ith f orts a t B ar H ill o r A uchendavy , a nd a b uilding i nsciption f rom B almuildy ( Strathclyde) r epresent b oth t he ' W ' a nd ' V' p rofiles o f p aenulae. 12 W ith t he C roy H ill s culpture t hese a re i mportant, d ateable p rovincial o ccurrences o f t he c loak, i ndependent o f m etropolitan s tylistic i nfluences. W ith f ar f ewer 2 nd c entury r epresentations o f s oldiers a nd m ore s tatic t roop d ispositions n ot h elping c lose d ating t here i s a c ase f or s uggesting t hat t hese A ntonine W all s tones a re p erhaps t he l atest p rovincial d epictions o f p aenulae. I n t he s culpture o f t he c apital p aenulae f requently a ppear w orn b y u narmoured p raetorians. 13 O n T rajan 's C olumn t hey a re c onfined

4

p rincipally t o u narmoured c itizen t roops i n T rajan's j ourney b etween t he t wo D acian W ars ( Fig.5). 14 S aga a re w orn f or t he m ost p art b y o fficers, a uxiliaries a nd D acians. S ignificantly , t he s agum f ell o pen n aturally t o e xpose t he t orso w hilst t he p aenula a lways o bscured i t a nd b ody-armour w as u sed o n t he c olumn s pecifically t o i dentify f igure t ypes v isually. T hus t he p aenula i s c onfined t o o ne m ilitary c ontext w ith a n u narmoured f igure t ype a nd l acks r eference t o o verall c ontemporary u sage. t his h as l ed t o

O n t he M arcus C olumn o nly s aga a re d epicted a nd s ome c onfusion r egarding t he t ypes o f c loaks i n u se

u nder M arcus. 15 H owever, t his w as a gain p robably a s tylistic d ecision r esulting f rom t he n ecessary d efinition o f f igure t ypes. T he A rch o f S eptimius S everus ( Forum R omanum) h as p aenulae w orn o n o ne s iege p anel a nd o n i ts p edestal r elief s .' 6 L ikewise t he S everan A rcus A rgentariorum h as

u narmoured

s oldiers

w earing p aenulael 7

b ut b oth t hese m onuments

h ave r eliefs which a re e xtremely c onservative i n e quipment a nd s tyle. T he S everan a rches r epresent a c ontinuous d evelopment f rom t he e arlier t wo c olumns w ith l ittle i nput o f c ontemporary e quipment d etails. W hen s telae w ith m ilitary f igures w ere w idely r evived a s a f unerary p ractice i n t he 3 rd c entury s aga, b ut n ever p aenulae, a re w orn. 18 T he

s hields

o n t he C roy H ill r elief a re s een e ither f ace-on a s a

c urving r ectangle o r o bliquely a s a c urving t rapezium ( Fig.3). I t i s r easonable t o a ssume t hat t he s ame t ype o f s hield i s i ntended i n a ll t hree c ases a nd t his n icely i llustrates t he p roblems e xperienced b y R oman a rtists i n p erspective r endition. A n o bliquely v iewed c urved, r ectangular s hield s hould i n f act b e m ore o f a p arallelogram s hape b ut t he t rapezium f orm w as p erhaps a dopted t o s uggest a c urve whilst a voiding a m ore a wkward s hape a nd o bscuring l ess o f t he p orter's b ody . T hese p erspective d ifficulties w ere s olved i n a v ariety o f w ays. T rapezoidal s hields a ppear o n t he F lavian M ainz p edestal r eliefs 19 a nd o n

t he

D omitianic s tela

o f C .

V alerius C rispus o f l egio V III A ugusta

f rom W iesbaden. 2 ° S hields o n t he A damklissi m etopes h ave c urved o r a ngled v ertical e dges 21 o r a re d epicted a s l ong, n arrow r ectangular b oards c arried b y u narmoured m arching s oldiers. 22 T he l atter f orm m ay a lso b e s een o n r eliefs f rom S t.Remy ( France) a nd P arma ( Italy). 23 O n T rajan's C olumn m ost o f t he s hields h ave t rapezoidal p rofiles w ith a f ew t rue r ectangular s hapes s een f rontally o r, l ess f requently, o bliquely. 24 A D omitianic o r l ater p eriod a ltar t o t he M atrones f rom B onn h as a f igure c arrying a r ectangular s hield w ith a n aturalistically c urving t op s een f rom a n o blique a ngle. 25 O n t he o ther h and, t wo s telae f rom B onn d epict c urving, r ectangular s hields s een f rom t he s ide w ith t he n earer e dge s horter p erspective r eality. 26

t han

t he

p arallel

f arther

e dge,

r eversing

T hese e xamples g raphically d emonstrate t he d angers o f r elying u pon s culpture a s a d etailed s ource f or s hield s hapes. G eneral i nformation o n t he c urrency o f r ectangular o r s ub-oval f orms i s a ll t hat m ay b e d educed, d epending u pon t he s culptural c ontext a nd t he s culptor's m otives. T his b eing u nderstood, i t m ay b e o bserved t hat t he u niform p icture o f c itizen t roops c arrying s olely r ectangular s hields a s p ropagated b y T rajan 's C olumn i s s omething o f a n i dentificational d evice m asking a g reater v ariety o f s hield f orms i n u se. A M ainz p rincipia p edestal r elief s hows a f igure w ith a c urved, o val s hield. 27 L ikewise s telae o f P . F lavoleius C ordus f rom M ainz ( pre A .D.43) 28 a nd C . C astricius V ictor f rom A quincum ( late D omitianic) 29 b oth s how o val s hields. A p raetorian s tela a t A quileia a lso d epicts t his f orm . 30

5

C urved, o val s hields c ommonly a ppear o n s culptures d epicting unarmoured p raetorians, a s o n C ancelleria R elief A , t he C laudian L ouvre r elief 3 1 a nd t he T rajanic P ozzuoli r eliefs. 32 T rajan's C olumn h as a n i dentical f igure t ype w ith c urved, o val s hields i n j ust t hree s cenes ( Fig.5). 33 O n m uch f irmer g round t he a rtifactual e vidence s upports t his d iversity o f f orms. O ne c omplete c urved, t ruly r ectangular s cutum, a nd f ragments o f t hree o thers w ere f ound a t D ura-Europos ( Syria), d ating t o a round t he m id 3 rd c entury. 34 O nly V indonissa ( Switzerland) h as p roduced l eather c overs f or r ectangular s hields, d eposited c .A .D.101, a nd t hese a re i dentifiable a s l egionary t itulature

l egionary b y t heir c ontext a nd b y a ppliqué ( XI C laudia). 35 A i st c entury l eather p iece f rom

C aerleon ( Gwent) b elongs t o t he u pper p art o f a l arge, s ub-oval s hield, s imilar t o t he s ub-oval v ariant

s traight-sided, f rom V alkenburg

( Holland). 36 F ragments f rom B onn ( W. G ermany), d ating t o t he A .D.130s, b elong t o c overs o f o val a nd s ub-oval s hields w ith l egio I M inervia a ppliqués . 37 T aken t ogether, t he p ictorial a nd a rtifactual e vidence f or s hields s uggests n either a u niformity a t a ny o ne t ime i n t he i st t o 2 nd c enturies, n or a l ogical e volution o f s hapes o ver t ime. A v ery l arge, c urved o val s hield w as c urrent d uring t he R epublican p eriod f rom a n e arly d ate. I t i s r epresented o n t he A emilius P aullus m onument ( Delphi) 2 .3 8 t he D omitius A henobarbus a ltar 39 a nd t he E squiline f rescoes ( Rome), 4 u a nd c orroborated b y t he F ayüm s hield. 41 T he f orm m ay h ave p rogressed w ith t he h orizontal c utting o ff o f t op a nd b ottom , p erhaps t o i ncrease v isibility a nd m anoeuvrability. T he e arliest d atable e xample ( c.20-10 B .C.) o f c urved s ub-oval o r r ectangular s hields a re t hose d epicted o n t he M ausoleum o f M unatius P lancus a t G aeta ( Italy) . 42 T hereafter t hey a ppear o n t he T iberian a rch a t O range 43 a nd o n J ulio-Claudian a dlocutio c oin i ssues. 44 T he o val s hapes c learly c ontinued t hrough i n c ontemporaneous u se a longside s ub-oval a nd r ectangular f orms. 45 T he r ectangular s hields o n t he C roy H ill r elief m ust b e v iewed i n t his l ight b ut t hey a re i mportant b ecause t hey a re p erhaps t he l atest d atable c lear d epiction o f t his f orm . " T he 2 edestal r eliefs o f t he C olumn o f P ius s how t he o val p raetorian t ype, 4 / w hilst s hields o n t he M arcus C olumn a re e ven m ore s tylised a nd d rastically s caled d own t han t hose o n T rajan's C olumn. T hey a re f lat, s ub-ovals w ith s traight t ops a nd b ottoms, e xcept i n a t estudo s cene, c opied f rom t he e arlier c olumn, where r ectangular b oards a ppear. " O n t he a rches o f S everus i n t he F orum R omanum a nd a t L epcis M agna o nly o val s hields a re d epicted, a gain w ith t he e xception o f t estudo f ormation o n t he l atter p lagiarised f rom e arlier m onuments. 49-- i jjtangular s hields r epresented o n t he n umerous 3 rd c entury s telae, t hese h avinG ,

a re n ot c oncave

o val b oards p aralleled a gain b y f inds f rom Dura-Europos. 5 u T hat t he r ectangular f orm d id c ontinue i nto t he 3 rd c entury i s, h owever, d emonstrated b y t he D ura f inds c ited a bove. 51 T he u mbones o n t he C roy H ill s hields w ith d omed b oss a nd r ectangular p late ( Fig.3) c orrespond c losely w ith b ronze a nd i ron f inds f rom C arnuntum ( Austria), A quincum ( Hungary), D ura-Europos ( Syria), V indonissa ( Switzerland), a nd t he R iver T yne ( England). 52 T he l ast t wo b oth p robably b elonged t o l egio V III A ugusta, a nd a ll e ither h ave l egionary i nscriptions o r c ome f rom l egionary b ases. T his t ype w as d esigned t o f it a s hield which c urved o n o ne p lane l ike t he D ura r ectangular s cutum

a nd

l ike t he o thers d iscussed a bove, a nd w as q uite

u nsuitable f or f lat s hields o r b oards c urving o n t wo p lanes.

6

T hat

t he

F ig.5:

F ig.6:

T rajan's C olumn. D etail o f S cene L XXXVI. s oldiers. P hoto: t he author.

T rajan's C olumn. D etail o f S cene s lung h elmets. P hoto: t he a uthor.

7

LXIX.

M arching,

u narmoured

S tacked s hields a nd

F ig.7:

F lavian p edestal r eliefs f rom M ainz.

8

P hoto:

t he a uthor.

f lange d id n ot, h owever, n ecessarily d ictate o r r eflect t he o verall s hape o f t he s hield i s d emonstrated b y t he r ectangular b oss p late o n t he o val s hield o f G naius M usius' s tela f rom M ainz. 53 M oreover, i t i s i mpossible t o d etermine f rom a l eather s hield c over whether t he s hield i nvolved w as f lat o r c urving. 54 T he

h elmets

o n t he C roy r elief a re p lausible i n h aving p eaks a nd

n eck f langes ( Fig.3) b ut i n c omparison w ith e xtant h elmets t he l atter a re s caled d own i n s ize. T he a bsence o f c heek-pieces i s e xplicable b y t heir b eing t ucked u p b eneath t he h elmet b owls b ut t he s mall f eatures o f c ross-bars a nd e ar-flanges t hat m ight b e e xpected o n 2 nd c entury h elmets w ere p robably b eyond t he l evel o f d etail t he s culptor w as p repared t o a pply. )5 T he s uspension o f t he h elmet o n t he f ront o f t he r ight-hand f igure's b ody i s d irectly p aralleled b y o ne M ainz p rincipia p edestal r elief w hich s hows a h elmet o n o ne s oldier's r ight c hest ( Fig.7). 56 O n T rajan's C olumn a rmoured m arching s oldiers c arry t heir h elmets i n t his m anner, a s d o u narmoured m en i n t ransit b etween t he w ars ( Fig.5). 57 ' Carrying h andles' a ttached t o t he n eck-flanges o f s o m any e xtant h elmets c learly f ulfilled t his s uspension f unction w ith a l eather s trap, h elmets w ere

y et n one o f t he r eliefs m ake i t c lear w hether t he s lung r ound t he n eck o r a ttached s omehow o ver t he

5 8

s houlder. I n t he f irst c olumn s cene b oth p ossibilities w ere i n t he s culptor's m ind t o j udge f rom t he n arrow s traps which c ross t he n eck f lange a nd g o o ver t he s houlder, a nd i n o ne c ase p ass d iagonally a cross t he c hest. T he s uspension o f h elmets o ver t he f ronts o f s hields d epicted o n t he C roy r elief i s a gain s een o n t he c olumn, where s hields a re s tood o n e nd ( so l ogically m ust b e t rue r ectangles) b y t roops e ngaged i n c onstruction w ork ( Fig.6). 59 T hey m ay h ave b een t ied b y s traps t o t he s hield's h and-grip o r t o a p utative c arrying-strap a ttachment o n t he b ack,

s omewhere a bove t he b oss. °

T he C roy H ill s hafted w eapons a re r eadily i dentifiable b y t heir t riangular s ections a nd s mall t riangular h eads a s p ila ( Fig.4). T he o rigins o f t he p ilum a re o bscure b ut i t w as a s hort-range, h igh-impact p rojectile, n ot a m elee w eapon, a nd w as u sed t o c onsiderable e ffect a gainst i nfantry a dversaries b y R epublican l eGionary t roops, p articularly i n t he M acedonian, P unic a nd G allic W ars.b 1 P erhaps t he e arliest d epiction o f a w eapon which m atches t he l iterary d escriptions a nd f inds f rom s ome R epublican m ilitary s ites i s a r elief o n a L ate R epublican o r A ugustan e xedral m onument f rom R ome ( Braccio N uovo, P alazzo d ei C onservatori ) . 62 T his s hows a l ong, n arrow s hank a nd a s mall t riangular h ead. O n t he M ausoleum o f S t.Remy ( France), 63 M ainz p rincipia p edestal r eliefs ( Fig.7) 64 a nd i st c entury A .D. s telae, i ncluding t hat o f C . V alerius C rispus, 65 a w eapon a ppears c onsisting o f a n arrow s hank, t opped b y a s mall t riangular h ead, o n a w ider s haft. S hank a nd s haft a re s pliced t ogether i n a w ide r ectangular o r t riangular s ection. F inds f rom i st c entury A .D. m ilitary s ites o f i ron s hanks, h eads, s plice s ections a nd c ollars e xplain t he e xact m ethod o f a ttachment a nd c orroborate t he s culptural d etails. " A m odified f orm o f p ilum i s f irst s een o n C ancelleria R elief A ( late D omitianic) 67 a nd o n t he s tela o f C . C astricius V ictor ( late D omitianic, o r l ater) 68 a nd t his h as a n a dditional s pherical, b all-like p rotrusion b elow t he s plice. T his w as p resumably a w eighting d evice a nd a ll t he p ila c arried b y l egionaries o n t he A damklissi m etopes e xhibit i t. 69 I n t his r espect t roops i n t he c apital s eem t o h ave b een e quipped

9

i dentically t o t he l egions. P ila l acking t he w eights a re r epresented o n p raetorian s telae a t A quilei P° a nd l 'Aquila, 71 a nd o n a n u rban c ohort f unerary a ltar a t V erona ( Italy).

7 2

T he C ancelleria p ila

h ave

w eights

d ecorated w ith e agles a nd d ecorated w eights a lso a ppear o n w eapons c arried b y p raetorians o n t he G reat T rajanic F rieze a nd t he V illa B orghese f ragments. 73 W eights a re d epicted o n p raetorian a nd u rban c ohort s telae i n R ome 74 a nd o n a c ohors u rbana g ravestone a t R eggio E milia r ecord.

( Italy) 75

b ut t hey h ave n ot s o f ar s urvived i n t he a rtifactual

F orms o f s hafted w eapons o ther t han p ila w ere c ertainly u sed b y c itizen t roops i n t he i st t o 2 nd c enturies. A p raetorian o n a P ozzuoli a rch r elief h olds a h asta 76 a nd o ne o n C ancelleria R elief A h as a s pear w ith a b road b lade o f a t ype g enerally a ssociated w ith b eneficiarii, s peculatores a nd f rumentarii./ 7 S pear-shafts a ppear a bove t he h eads o f f igures, p resumably r epresenting p raetorians, o n a n umber o f m etropolitan s culptures. 78 M oreover, b oth J csephus a nd A rrian, w riting i n t he F lavian a nd H adrianic p eriods r espectively,

s uggest t hat o n

t he

m arch l egionary s tandards a nd c ommanders w ere e scorted b y b odies o f m en a rmed d ifferently f rom t he m ajority, p robably w ith h astae o r l anceae. 79 I n d rawing u p h is l egionary c entre t o f ace t he A lani, A rrian s pecified t hat t he r anks w ould h ave b een d ifferentially a rmed, p robably w ith p ila a nd h astae. 8 ° T he C roy H ill p ila a re i nteresting b ecause t hey a ppear t o b e u nweighted, a f orm o f t he w eapon which s eems o n t he e vidence r eviewed a bove t o h ave g one o ut o f u se b y t he r eign o f T rajan. 81 H owever, c onsidering t he m any v ariations o f o ther e quipment i n c ontemporaneous u se i t s hould c ome a s n o s urprise t hat p erhaps o ne

t ype

o f p ilum

d id

n ot h old s way a t a ny g iven t ime o r o ver t he whole e mpire. M uch l ess w ere p ila t he o nly f orm o f s hafted w eapon u sed b y c itizen t roops. T he C roy p ila a re a lso i mportant b ecause a fter t he T rajanic s culpture t here a re v irtually n o p ilum r epresentations f or t he 2 nd c entury. O n t he A ntonine p anels o f t he A rch o f C onstantine a nd o n t he M arcus C olumn a ll t he c itizen t roops c arry h astae w ith n o p ila o ccurring a t a l1. 82 H owever, t his f orm o f m issile-weapon d id n ot g o o ut o f u se. I t a ppears o n t he A rch o f S everus ( Forum R omanum) 83 a nd h eavily w eighted p ila a re v ery c learly d epicted o n a s eries o f 3 rd c entury p raetorian s telae f rom R ome. 84 M oreover, t he 3 rd c entury g ravestone o f A urelius I ustinus o f l egio I I I talica f rom C elje ( Yugoslavia) h as a d amaged p ilum, 85 a nd a l ater 2 nd o r 3 rd c entury t ondo r elief f rom F lavia S olva ( Austria) h as a p ilum c learly o f t he w eighted v ariety. " V egetius c onfirms t hat s ome f orm o f p ilum-like t hrowing w eapon c ontinued t o b e u sed b y s ome t roops i nto t he 4 th c entury.

8 7

T he C orpus S ignorum e ntry f or t he C roy H ill s culpture c omments o n t he s oldiers t hat ' from t heir e quipment i t m ay b e c oncluded t hat a ll t hree w ere l egionaries', p resumably w ith r eference t o t he c urved, r ectangular s hields a nd p ila. 88 H owever, r ecent d iscussions o f t he i dentification o f f ort g arrisons f rom t he a rtifactual r ecord h ave d enied t he e xistence o f a ny d istinction b etween l egionary a nd a uxiliary e quipment. 89 T his i s b ased o n t he f requent f inds o f ' lorica s egmentata' f ittings i n i st c entury ' auxiliary' f orts o r i n ' vexillation f ortresses'. T hese s ites w ere i n p rovinces w here t here w as a pparently

1 0

t o p ermanent l egionary p resence, o r w ere i nvolved i n f luid c ampaign 3 ituations w hen l egions w ould s upposedly n ot h ave b een s plit u p i n t he f ace o f a n e nemy. T hus i t i s c oncluded t hat a uxiliaries w ere a s l ikely t o h ave w orn t he ' lorica s egmentata' a s l egionaries a nd a s imilar f inds p attern o f p ilum f ittings a nd b allista b olt d istinction i n w eaponry e ither. T his i s a

h eads s uggests n o v ery s eductive l ine o f

r easoning which m ust b e e xamined w ith r egard t o

t he

i dentity

o f

t he

C roy s oldiers. Y et i f a rtifacts t raditionally a scribed t o l egionary u se a re f ound o n m ilitary s ites s maller t han l egionary f ortresses t here s hould, l ogically, b e t wo p ossibilities w hich m ust b e g iven e qual a ttention. E ither a ll t roops c ould h ave h ad a ll f orms o f e quipment w ithout s pecificity, o r s ome m odern v iews o f l egionary g arrisoning p olicies a re t oo i nflexible. O n t he f irst c ount i t m ust b e a sked whether c ertain t ypes o f e quipment w ere b est s uited t o s pecific b attlefield r oles a nd w hether l egionaries a nd a uxiliaries h ad d ifferent t actical f unctions i n t he i st t o

2 nd

c enturies.

I n m ajor b attles t he l egiones i n f act c ontinued t o

f ulfill t heir R epublican f unction a s c lose-order l ine i nfantry t aking t he b runt o f t he f ighting. F or e xample, i n b attles a gainst C aratacus a nd B oudica l egionaries d rew u p i n c lose o rder a nd i n t he C ivil W ar l egion f ought l egion. A uxiliary t roops p rovided m issile s upport, a nd s creening a nd f lanking f orces. " T he l atter, e specially c avalry, d id a ct o ffensively, n otably i n p ursuing r epulsed o pponents. T acitus s pecifically c ontrasts t he c lose a nd o pen f ormations o f l egionaries a nd a uxiliaries d rawn u p b efore P lacentia. 91 T he r espective b attlefield f unctions a re m ost g raphically i llustrated i n A rrian's o rder o f b attle a gainst t he A lans w here t he e nemy i mpetus w as t o b e d isrupted b y a uxiliary m issiles, r epulsed b y p ursued b y a uxiliary i nfantry a nd

t he l egionary c entre a nd c autiously c avalry. 92 T here w ere o f c ourse

e xceptions t o t his p attern s uch a s i n t he b attle o f M ons G raupius where t he a uxiliaries a lone w ere s ufficient t o s catter t he C aledonian a rmy, 93 a nd i n t he C ivil W ar w hen B atavian r ebel a uxiliaries s eem t o h ave f ought i n c lose o rder. 94 T he f irst c ase w as t he r esult o f t he t actical s ituation a nd A gricola's c ool r efusal t o c ommit h is l egionary f orces w as e mphasised a s p art o f T acitus' p anegyric p urpose. T he v ictory w on w ithout l oss o f R oman b lood w as a n a chievement p aralleled c ontemporaneously t o T acitus' w riting b y t he l egionary n on-involvement i n b attles o n T rajan's C olumn. T his m ay h ave b orn l ittle r elation t o r eality. C ivilis' B atavians i n c lose o rder w ere v eteran t roops f ighting l egionaries i n a n e xtraordinary s ituation p erhaps n ot

t o

b e

e xpected

f or a rmies c entred a round l egionary f orces. T he e quipment t raditionally i dentified a s l egionary c omprises t he ' lorica s egmentata', t he c urved r ectangular s hield a nd t he p ilum. T he l orica o nly p rotected t he w earer f rom t he w aist upwards l eaving t he l egs e xposed. H owever, a l arge, c urved s hield a nd a c lose t roop f ormation w ould h ave c ompensated f or t his a nd a llowed f ull a dvantage t o b e t aken o f t he s uperior p rotective p roperties o f p late a rmour ow Ir o ther f orms. T he ' lorica s egmentata' w as u nsuited t o o pen o rder, s kirmishing f ormations. L ikewise, c urved s hields w ould h ave b een l ess m anoeuvrable f or l ight t roops a nd a f lat b oard w ould h ave c overed a w ider f ront, a n a dvantage i n d efence a gainst m issiles. O n h orseback b oth t he t otally

' lorica s egmentata' a nd t he c urved s hield w ould h ave b een i mpractical. " P ila w ere s hort-range, h eavy w eapons, u nsuited

t o t he l ong r ange e xchange o f

m issiles

1

b etween

s kirmishers.

L ighter

j avelins a nd s pears w ere e mployed f or t his p urpose b ut p ila b elonged t o t he l egionary m elee f unction f or which t hey w ere d eveloped. I t i s v ery l ikely t hat T rajan's C olumn u sed e quipment s pecifically t o d ifferentiate b etween i ts c itizen a nd a uxiliary f igure t ypes w ith r esultant s implification a nd o mission, y et e ven o n t he A damklissi m etopes, a nd a lways o n f unerary s telae, l egionaries a re r eadily d istinguishable f rom a uxiliaries. T acitus e vidently t hought t hat t here w as a d ifference b etween l egionary a nd a uxiliary e quipment, t wice c ontrasting t heir a rmour a nd w eaponry. " I t m ust b e e mphasised t hat n owhere i n t he p ictorial o r l iterary s ources a re c urved s hields o r p ila e ver a ssociated w ith n on-citizen t roops. H owever, t he l egionary s pecificity o f s ome e quipment o n p ractical c onsiderations d id n ot n ecessarily m ean t hat o ther e quipment w as u nsuitable f or c lose-order f ormations. T his w as o f c ourse n ot t he c ase b ecause l egionaries o n t he A damklissi m etopes a nd f unerary s telae w ear m ail o r s cale w ith p teruges a nd t he C roy s culpture m ay a gree w ith t his. 97 A lternative t ypes o f s hafted w eapons h ave b een d iscussed a bove. ere n ot p revented b y t heir b ody a rmour, B y t his t oken a uxiliaries w f ulfilling a v ariety o f b attlefield f lat s hields a nd w eapons f rom i n c lose-order f ormations. H owever, f or f unctions, e ven d rawing u p oncluded t hat b ecause l egionaries a t p ractical r easons i t c annot b e c t imes

m anifestly

a uxiliary

t roops

c arried c ould

u se

n on-legionary-specific c lose-order,

s pecialised

e quipment i tems

t hen w hilst

r etaining t heir s upport r ole. T his m ay s eem a n ice d istinction b ut i t i s t he c rux o f t he q uestion i f i t i s a ccepted t hat l egionaries a nd a uxiliaries w ere e xpected t o f ulfill d ifferent b attlefield f unctions. O f c ourse i n f rontier d efence c ontexts where t roops s eldom f ought m ajor b attles a d ifferent s ituation m ay h ave p ertained a nd m any o f t he a rtifacts w hich s eem t o c onflict w ith t he o ther c lasses o f e vidence c ome f rom f rontier i nstallations. P erhaps i n r egions w ith f ew l egionary t roops o n h and, s ome a uxiliaries w ere t rained t o f ight p rimarily i n c lose-order f ormations a nd w ere e quipped a ccordingly. I t i s g enerally a ccepted t hat l egionary a nd a uxiliary t roops g rew c loser t oðer i n f unction a s a l ong t erm r esult o f s tatic f rontier d efence. " H owever, a s t he e ffects o f t his w orked t hrough t o e quipment i t w as p recisely t he c lose-order f orms o f b ody-armour a nd s hields t hat l argely d isappeared, s o

t hat

b y

t he

3 rd

c entury

l egionary

a nd a uxiliary e quipment w as

v irtually i ndistinguishable. T herefore, i t i s p erhaps u nlikely t hat r estrictive e quipment f orms w ere c ommonly i ntroduced i nto a uxiliary u se,

e specially a s e arly a s t he i st c entury. O ne r eason f or t he c entral p lace o f

t he

i lorica

s egmentata'

i n

t his d iscussion i s t hat i t h as a n a rtificially h igh p rofile i n t he a rchaeological r ecord i n c omparison w ith o ther a rmour t ypes. 99 M ail w as s elf-cleaning a nd r obust, n eeding l ittle a ttention a nd s hirts p robably s urvived i n u se f or d ecades a t l east. I t w as d ifficult t o m islay s uch s ubstantial i tems a nd l arge p ieces o f m ail u sually o nly o ccur c ontexts

a s

s ite

a bandonment,

s iege

i n

s uch

w arfare a nd f unerary o r r itual

d eposition. 100 T he ' lorica s egmentata' i n c ontrast w as d ifficult t o m aintain b ecause o f i ts p erishable l eather s traps. T he m any c opper a lloy f ittings w ere m ade o f t hin s heet w hich t he C orbridee H oard d emonstrates w ere c ontinually d amaged, r epaired a nd r eplaced. 1°1 T hese f ittings a re r eadily r ecognisable s ite f inds a nd t hey s urvive i n l arge n umbers

b ecause

o f

t heir

m aterial.

1 2

M ail

u sually

h ad

o nly

t he

c hest-bridge m ade o f c opper

a lloy,

i f

t hat.

1°2

I n

p reserving

m uch

' lorica s egmentata' e vidence a nd l ittle f or t he u se o f m ail, t he a rchaeological r ecord p robably r eflects t he r everse o f t he r eality o f e quipment p ractices. C ontrary

t o

p opular

b elief,

m ail h ad a c omparatively c heap a nd

s imple m ethod o f p roduction i nvolving w ire-drawing a nd b ending t o f orm b utted o r r iveted r ings a nd p unching f or c losed r ings. I n c ontrast t he ' lorica s egmentata' n eeded f orging, c utting a nd b ending o f m ild s teel p late, l eather w orking f or i nternal a nd e xternal s traps, c opper a lloy s heet p roduction a nd c utting f or t he f ittings, t hen o verall a ssembly. B oth f orms o f a rmour p roduction w ould h ave b een d ivided u p i nto s eparate p rocesses f or m ass p roduction i n a f abrical° 3 b ut t he p late h ad t o b e m ade t o f it a s pecific w earer, whereas m ail d id n ot. I n c reating t he ' lorica s egmentata' t he e ase o f u pkeep i n e xchange f or v ulnerable p arts o f t he b ody.

a rmy s acrificed d urability a nd s uperior p rotection o n t he m ost

T hus i t w as n ot n ecessarily a

c heap

a nd

e asy a rmour f orm t o p roduce i n l arge n umbers f or g eneral u se, q uite a part f rom t he r estrictive f unctional c onsiderations o f i ts u se o n t he b attlefield. I n v arious c ontexts t he o ccurrence o f l egionary-specific e quipment o n m ilitary s ites o ther t han l egionary f ortresses c ould i n p art b e e xplained s imply b y a w ide u se o f l egionary v exillationes. T he d ecision w hether o r n ot l egionary b attle g roups w ere k ept i ntact p resumably d epended u pon t he p roblems p osed b y t he e nemy's s trategy a nd t actics. W ithout i nvolving v exillationes i t i s d ifficult t o e xplain t he s o-called ' vexillation f ortresses' o f s ub-legionary s ize i n C laudio-Neronian B ritain.' " L egionary g arrisons h ave b een p ostulated i n s mall f orts i n D orset d uring t he i nvasion p eriod a nd t here i s n o s uggestion t hat V espasian w as f aced b y a ny s izeable C eltic f ield

a rmy.

I n a c ampaign o f n umerous s mall b attles a nd s eiges t here w ould b e l ittle d anger and g ood a dvantage i n e stablishing s mall, w ell-defended l egionary g arrisons. 1°5 M ixed l egionary a nd a uxiliary g arrisons w ere a lso p lanted b y V espasian i n J udaea where another e nemy s eldom s tood t o f ight p itched b attles a nd h eld m any s trongholds. 1" M oreover, a t t his e arly p eriod e specially , a ny f inds o f b allista b olt h eads a re t he s trongest p ossible i ndication o f t he p resence o f l egionary t roops. T here i s n o e vidence f or a rtillery s pecialists i n a uxiliary u nits o f t he i st t o 2 nd c entury a nd l ittle f or d irect a uxiliary a rtillery u se b efore t he 3 rd c entury. 1 07 I n a l ater c ampaign c ontext i t i s i nteresting t o n ote a v exillatio o f l egio I I A diutrix, 8 55 s trong, a t T rer i Un ( Czechoslovakia), d eep i n T ransdanubian b arbaricum. 1°8 T he s maller p ermanent f orts a re u sually a ssumed t o h ave h ad a uxiliary g arrisons, b ut, e ven w ith t hese u nits, a ttempts t o i dentify g arrisons b y u sing b arrack-blocks a nd b arrack s ub-divisions h ave b een s ingularly u nsuccessful i n m ost c ases. T his i s p artly b ecause w hatever t heoretical u nit s trengths a nd o rganisations h ave b een d educed b y m odern s cholars f rom t he e vidence, t he R omans v ery i nconveniently d id n ot f ollow t hem.' " Y et e ven i f a f ort h ad a n i ndubitably a uxiliary g arrison t here a re a n umber o f m echanisms b y w hich l egionary-specific f inds c ould h ave b een d eposited. I n R aetia, f or e xample, a ll t he f orts w ould h ave r equired l egionary t roops f or t heir c onstruction, a t l east i n t he i st c entury. T he e vidence f or a uxiliary b uilding a ctivities i s e quivocal b ecause s tone m aterials a nd t hus s tone b uilding r ecords d ate

1 3

l argely

f rom

t he

e arly

2 nd

c entury

o nwards.

A uxiliaries m ay h ave

e ngaged w idely i n u nrecorded c onstruction w ork i n t he i st c entury b ut t his i s u nlikely c onsidering t hat t heir r ecords a re t he e xception r ather t han t he r ule u p until t he r eign o f P ius. M oreover, t here i s l ittle e vidence f or a rchitectural s pecialists w ithin a uxiliary u nits s o t his e xpertise m ay g enerally h ave b een p rovided b y t he l egions. 1 1 ° T he w idespread a ctivities o f l egio V III A ugusta i n G ermany, f or e xample, m ay b e s een i n t his l ight. " T he s killful d emolition o f f orts t o c onserve b uilding m aterials w ith t he c haracteristic d eposition o f s crap m etal a nd o ther m aterials i n t he p rocess m ay a lso h ave i nvolved l egionary t roops. 1 12 H ow l ong a l egionary v exillatio m ight h ave o ccupied a s ite a fter t he c ompletion o f c onstruction w ork w ould h ave v aried, b ut m ay c onceivably h ave i nvolved a w ait o f d ays o r m onths b efore t he i ntended g arrison m oved i n. T he l onger t he s tay t he g reater t he c hance o f e ffects o n t he a rtifactual r ecord. R aetia h as b een c ited a a a p rovince w ithout l egionary t roops i n w hich ' lorica s egmentata' f ittings h ave b een f ound. H owever, i t h as b een s uggested t hat R aetia c ame u nder t he c ontrol o f t he a rmy o f G ermania which s upplied a t l east w ork-vexillationes. A h elmet w ith a l egionary p unctim i nscription ( legio X VI) was f ound b y t he f ortlet a t B urlafingen ( W. G ermany) a s ite f or w hich t he e xcavator h as p osited a m ixed l egionary-auxiliary g arrison o n t he b asis o f t his a nd o ther s mall-finds. T here i s a lso t he q uestion o f l egionary i nvolvement i n e quipment p roduction a nd s upply t o a uxiliary u nits which r aises t he p ossibility t hat e ven p rovinces w ith a n e ntirely a uxiliary e xercitus m ay n ot h ave b een c losed t o l egionary p ersonne1.

1 13

T he o utright g arrisoning o f s mall f orts b y l egionary v exillationes i s s eldom s eriously c onsidered

i n B ritain,

b ut r eference

n eed

o nly

b e

m ade t o t he w idely s cattered a ctivities o f l egio I II Augusta i n N umidia t o s ee w hat c ould b e d one w ith l egionary t rooP73 14 I nscriptions o f d irect r elevance t o t he C roy H ill s culpture a ttest t he p resence o f l egionary p ersonnel a t f orts o n b oth H adrian's W all a nd t he A ntonine W all. L egionary b uilding i nscriptions m ay p erhaps b e i gnored a s h aving l ittle c lear r elevance t o l ong-term g arrisoning a nd s ome l egionary c enturions o n b oth w alls m ade i t c lear t hat t hey h ad b een p romoted t o t he c ommand o f a uxiliary u nits. 115 O ther d edications b y l egionary c enturions m ight b e g rouped w ith t he l atter b ut t heir u nlikely f ailure t o m ention t hese h ieher c ommands c ould e qually i ndicate t hat t hey w ere w ith v exillationes. 116 L onger p resence o f l egionaries b eyond j ust t ransient b uilding a ctivities m ay b e d enoted b y m ajor r eligious d edications, e ven i nvolving s hrine-building. 1 17 S tone f unerary m onuments

m ay

a lso

i ndicate l ong s tay r ather t han t emporary p resence

a nd t his o bviously b ears u pon t he C roy H ill s culpture. 115 O n H adrian's W all t he e vidence f or l egionary v exillationes h as b een i nterpreted a s t he m aintenance o f i nstallations b y ' caretaker g arrisons' w hilst t he A ntonine W all w as o ccupied. 1 19 L egionaries w ere p resent a t C hesters u nder P ius 120 b ut t his n eed n ot d etermine t he d ates o f t he o ther i nscriptions. A t H ousesteads a n u ndated l egionary g arrison s tyled i tself a gentes i n p raesidio, 1 21 y et t he i dea o f ' caretakers' d oes n ot r eally b ear c lose e xamination f or a l inear f rontier s ystem which w as n ot o nly s uperceded a nd a bandoned b ut p hysically b reached. I t w ould d enote a s erious l ack o f c onfidence i n i mperial p olicy a mongst p rovincial g overnors. A n i nscription f rom

C orbridge

( Northumberland),

a lso u ndated, h as t he s ame l egionary f ormula 122 a nd a n e xtension o f t he ' caretaker' e xplanation a way f rom t he f rontier i s e ven m ore

1 4

u nreasonable. T his e pigraphic e vidence m ight b e e xplained a way a s b uilding p arty p resence o r a s l egionary c ommand o f a uxiliary u nits o n o ne

f rontier

a nd

p ossibility o f c onsideration.

' caretaker

g arrisons'

o n

t he

o ther,

b ut

t he

l egionary g arrisons p er s e i s w orthy o f a t l east e qual

A f ull e xamination o f e ither R oman b attlefield p ractices o r g arrisoning p olicies i s f ar b eyond t he s cope o r i ntent o f t his p aper. H owever, t he o pportunity h as b een t aken t o d iscuss s ome o f t he c onflicting e vidence w hich p revents t he f ormation o f c omfortable c onclusions. T here i s g ood e vidence o f s pecificity i n m ilitary e quipment f or c lose-order t roops, e specially i n t he i st c entury. I f a uxiliary u nits w ere w idely a nd c onsistently e mployed e xclusively i n t his m anner t hen t hey m ay c ommonly h ave w orn t he ' lorica s egmentata' b ut t his w as n ot i n f act n ecessary b ecause t heir o ther e quipment i n n o w ay p recluded a c lose-order f unction. I n a ny c ase t he ' lorica s egmentata' w as o nly p artially u sed e ven b y l egionary t roops. T he o ccurrence o f l orica f ittings o n s mall f orts m ay h ave b een t he r esult o f d eposition b y a uxiliaries a rmed w ith t his a rmour f orm , o r b y l egionary c onstruction o r d emolition p arties, o r b y l ong o r s hort-term g arrisons o f l egionaries. I t i s d ifficult t o s ee t he w idespread s upply o f a uxiliary t roops w ith t he ' lorica s egmentata' a s a p ractical e xplanation i f t hese t roops w ere t o h ave m aintained t heir b attlefield s upport f unctions. I n p articular b allista b olt h eads s hould i ndicate a l egionary p resence o f s ome f orm o n s ites w here t hey a re f ound. T he t hree s oldiers f rom C roy H ill m ay a esthetically b e r ather c rudely d epicted b ut d etails o f h elmet s uspension, s hield b osses a nd p ila d enote a g ood k nowledge o f e quipment o n t he p art o f t he s culptor w ho w as q uite l ikely t o h ave b een a s oldier h imself. 123 T he m en a re s hown w earing s ome o f t he l atest r eliable r epresentations o f m ilitary p aenulae. T hey c ertainly c arry t he l atest d atable a nd d ependable d epictions o f c urved, r ectangular s cuta a nd u nweighted p ila. T heir i dentification a s l egionaries m ay b e m aintained, whether t he m en were p resent a t C roy H ill a s b uilders, o r a s p art o f a g arrison, o r a s b oth. ***

N OTES 1 . T he w riter i s v ery g rateful f or h elp r ecieved i n t he s tudy o f t his r elief f rom D r J . C lose-Brooks, M r T . C owie a nd M r I . S cott o f t he N ational Museum o f A ntiquities, E dinburgh, w here t he s tone n ow r esides. D r M .C. B ishop, M r C .M . D aniels, D r H . D odge a nd D r D .J. M attingly h ave v ery k indly r ead t he m anuscript b ut r esponsibility f or o pinions a nd a ny m istakes l ies w ith t he w riter a lone. M rs A . G ibson A nkers k indly d rew t he s tone f or p ublication. F ig.1 i s r eproduced b y k ind p ermission o f t he N ational Museum , E dinburgh. 2 . H eight

3 7cm;

w idth 3 6cm;

d epth 1 3cm. F or a f ull b ibliography s ee

K EPPIE & A RNOLD, 1 984, N o.90. T he f igures a re c omparatively s mall f or a p rovincial f unerary s tela ( cf. M ENDEL, 1 912-14, N o.914). T he w riter i s g rateful t o D r L .J.F. K eppie f or p roviding m aterial a t a n

e arly

s tage

f rom

t he

t hen

1 5

u npublished

S cottish C SIR

i n

c onnection w ith t his s tone. 3 . T he

l ower

e dge

i s c hipped a way a s a re t he l eft-hand m an's r ight

f oot a nd t he r ight-hand m an's l eft l eg. T he l eft a nd m iddle h elmet b owls, t he l eft u mbo, t he m iddle m an's b eard a nd h air a nd a ll t hree s hafted w eapons h ave s ustained m inor d amage. 4 . K EPPIE & ARNOLD, 5 . R OBINSON, 6 .

I bid.,

1 975,

1 984,

x v-xvi.

1 49.

1 69.

7 . N o i nsignia o f r ank a re s hown o n t he s tone. M uscled c uirasses a re u sually a ssociated w ith s enior o fficers b ut a t l east o ne c enturion i s r epresented w ith t his f orm o f p late a rmour ( HOFMANN, 1 905, F ig.29;

S CHOBER,

1 920,

N o.337).

8 . R OBINSON, 1 975, 1 49. T he s tela o f t he a pilifer G naius Musius a ppears t o d epict s omething o f t his s ort ( ESPtRANDIEU, 1 907-66, N o.5790). 9 . K OLB, 1 0. F or

1 973,

e specially 1 10-14.

c lear

d epictions

N o.5495; B ISHOP, 1 983, 1 985, N o.10, F ig.3. 1 1.

o f

P aenulae: i SPfRANDIEU, ( legionaries); ( auxiliaries). 6 125,

6 136,

B rit.

1 907-66,

s ee i SPfRANDIEU,

X V,

1 984,

N o.5495,

1 907-66,

P l.XXIV;

5 797-8,

5 816,

K OEPPEL,

5 822,

6 252

4 73, 5 861 . x 6 207, 6 575; f SPfRANDIEU, 1 931, N o.9, 1 6 S aga: i SPERANDIEU, 1 907-66, N o.5835 ( legionary);

6 137

1 2. K EPPIE & ARNOLD, 1 3. K OEPPEL,

f astenings

3 3-7;

1 984,

( auxiliaries). 1 984,

N o.7,

N o.111,

1 35e.

F ig.14-16 ( Cancelleria);

1 985,

N o.10,

F ig.3

( Chatsworth); K AHLER, 1 951, P 1.28-9 ( Pozzuoli); T ORELLI, 1 982, P l.IV,9, 1 6 ( Anaglypha T raiani); G JODESEN, 1 976, F ig.2-4 ( Arch o f T itus?); HASSEL, 1 4.

S cenes

L XXXV-VIII.

C ICHORIUS, 1 5. W ILSON,

1 966,

P 1.18,

A ll

2 0-1

( Arch o f B enevento).

T rajan's

C olumn

s cene

n umbers

f ollow

1 896-1900.

1 929,

c onfusedly f ollowing S criptores H istoriae

A ugustae,

M arcus A urelius A ntoninus 2 7. 1 6.

B RILLIANT,

1 967,

1 7.

I bid., F ig.61.

1 8.

C OULSTON,

1 987,

1 9. f S KRANDIEU, 2 0. i SPfRANDIEU,

P 1.49-59 ( pedestals),

6 4 ( man i n c ity).

1 41.

1 907-66, N o.5816, 1 931,

N o.11.

O LDENSTEIN-PFERDEHIRT,

1 984,

5 822;

F or 4 04.

1 6

t he

B ÜSING, d ating

1 982, o f

P 1.39.1,

5 ,

t his s tela

6 . s ee

2 1.

I nv.No.12, 1 3, 1 6-21, 2 8, 3 1, 3 5. T hese n umbers f ollow G . T ocilescu 's i nventory ( FLORESCU, 1 965, F ig.51). T he L atin n umerals a ssigned t o m etopes b y F lorescu r efer t o s upposed p ositions o n t he t ropaeum a nd t hese c hange w ith s uccessive r ethinks o n t he m etope o rder.

2 2.

I nv.No.22,

3 8, 4 3.

S ee a lso I nv.No.22,

2 3. i SPgRANDIEU, 1 907-66, N o.130; R ome, N egative N o.33.434.

2 9.

D eutsche A rchäologische I nstitut,

2 4. F rontal r ectangular s hields i n S cenes X X , L XIX, L XXIII, C XXVII, C XXVIII. R ectangular p rofile s hields i n S cenes LXVI, L XXI, L XXII, L XXIII, X CVIII, C II, C IV, C VI, C VIII, C XIV, C XV. 2 5. i SPgRANDIEU, 2 6. B AUCHHENSS, 2 7.

B USING,

1 907-66, N o.7763. 1 978, N o.2,

3 .

1 982, P 1.39.2.

2 8. g SPiRANDIEU, B ritain.

1 907-66, N o.5835.

2 9. H OFMANN,

1 905, F ig.47;

3 0. H OFMANN,

1 905, 6 ; W AURICK ,

3 1. K OEPPEL,

1 983, P 1.43.1;

3 2. K AHLER , 3 3.

D ated

b y

l egionary

m ovement

t o

S CHOBER , 1 920, N o.1621. 1 983, P 1.49.1.

1 984, N o.7, F ig.15-16.

1 951, P 1.28.

S cenes L XXXVI-VIII.

3 4. R OSTOVTZEFF e t a l.,

1 936, 4 56-66.

3 5. G ANSSER-BURCKHARDT,

1 942, 7 4-81.

3 6. S ee t he p aper b y D r C . v an D riel-Murray i n t his v olume. 3 7. V AN D RIEL-MURRAY & G ECHTER , 3 8. K AHLER ,

1 965, P 1.6,

3 9. R OBINSON,

1 8-19.

1 975, P 1.463-66; T ORELLI,

4 0. L EHMANN-HARTLEBEN, 4 1. K IMM1G,

1 4,

1 983, 3 0-8, P 1.6-7.

1 982, P 1.1.4.

1 926, F ig.12.

1 940. S ee P olybius V I,23 a nd C ONNOLLY,

1 981,

1 31-2.

4 2. F ELLMANN, 1 957, 3 1, 4 8. T he r ectangular s hield o n t he P alestrina N ilotic m osaic i s p roblematic b ecause a d ate o f c .100 B .C. i s c urrently a scribed t o t he w ork b ut i n t he p ast d ates r anging f rom t he f irst c entury B .C. t o t he 2 nd c entury A .D. h ave b een e ntertained ( WHITEHOUSE, 1 976, 4 -5, F ig.13b). T he w riter i s v ery

1 7

g rateful t o D r H . W hitehouse f or d iscussing t his m atter. 4 3. ANY e t a l.,

1 962,

4 4. F or e xample R IC, 4 5.

P 1.9-11, C aligula,

4 8. 2 3-5.

C rude c urved, o val s hields a ppear o n t he ( iSPiRANDIEU, 1 907-66, N o.16).

A ugustan

a rch

a t

S usa

4 6. R ectangular s hields a lso a ppear o n a T rajanic i vory f rom E phesus i n T urkey ( öNEN, 1 983, 1 19) a nd o n a 2 nd c entury s ports h elmet f rom N awa i n S yria ( ABDUL-HAK , 1 954-5, P l.VII). 4 7. V OGEL,

1 973,

F ig.28-9.

4 8.

S cene 1 896.

L IV. M arcus C olumn s cene n umbering f ollows P ETERSEN e t a l.

4 9.

B RILLIANT,

5 0.

C OULSTON,

1 967, 1 987,

F ig.98. 1 48.

T wo p ossible e xceptions a re

s hields

o n

o ne

t hird c entury s tela f rom C arrawburgh, N orthumberland ( COULSTON & P HILLIPS, f orthcoming, N o.193) a nd o n a nother i n t he B ritish M useum ( SMITH, 1 904, N o.2271). R ectangular s hields o ccur o n t he A rch o f G alerius a t S alonika b ut t hey a ppear t o b e c arried b y h ighly s tylised b arbarian a dversaries, n ot R omans ( LAUBSCHER, 1 975, 5 1.

P 1.15.1).

S ee n ote 3 4,

a bove.

5 2. V ON G ROLLER, 1 901, F ig.24 ( Aquincum); 1 971, 3 6, I nv.3.724,

1 18-9, P l.XX ( Carnuntum); H OFFILLER, 1 912, M r S imon J ames, p ers. c omm. ( Dura); T HOMAS,

P l.LIV ( Vindonissa); P l.VII ( Tyne).

5 3. g SPiRANDIEU,

&

M IKET,

1 984,

1 907-66, N o.5790.

5 4. T he w riter i s v ery g rateful e lucidating t his p oint. 5 5.

A LLASON-JONES

t o

D r

C .

v an

D riel-Murray f or

T here a re f ew 2 nd c entury i nfantry h elmets b ut s everal d atable b y c ontext o r t he a ddition o f b owl c ross-bars c ome f rom H ebron, P alestine ( ROBINSON, 1 975, 7 0-3); B erzobis, R omania ( PETCULESCU & P ROTASE, 1 975); F lorence, I taly ( ROBINSON, 1 975, 8 4-5). I ncreasingly s tatic f rontiers a nd p erhaps a d ecline i n r itual d eposition c ontributed t o t he p aucity o f s urviving e xamples c ompared w ith n umerous e xtant i st c entury h elmets. A h elmet f rom N iedermörmter, W . G ermany ( ibid., 7 2-4) w ithout b ars, m ay d ate t o t he l ate 2 nd c entury w hilst h elmets f rom B uch ( BECK & P LANCK, 1 980, F ig.11) a nd T heilenhofen, W . G ermany ( ULBERT & F ISCHER , 1 983, F ig.10) m ay b elong t o t he 3 rd c entury.

5 6. g S dRANDIEU, 5 7.

S cenes I V,

1 907-66,

N o.5822;

B ÜSING,

X XXIII, X LVIII, X LIX,

1 8

1 982,

L XXXVI,

P 1.39.6.

L XXXVIII,

X CVIII,

C I,

5 8. R OBINSON, 5 9.

1 975,

4 7-51,

6 3.

S cenes X II, L VI, LXIX,

C XXVII,

C XXVIII.

I t s hould b e n oted t hat i n

S cene X X t he p oles t opped b y h elmets a re i n t he b ackground a nd d o n ot h ave t he s hields r esting a gainst t hem. 6 0.

T he w riter i s v ery g rateful t o D r M .C.

6 1.

C OUISSIN , 1 926, 6 1-5; C ONNOLLY,

6 2. H ELBIG,

1 966,

2 0-5, 1 981,

B ishop f or t his s uggestion.

1 29-38, 1 81-213, 2 78-94; 9 9, 1 31; K EPPIE, 1 984, 2 35.

N o.1608;

W AURICK ,

1 983,

H ARMAND,

P 1.52.1. L ikewise o n t he

L ouvre p raetorians r elief a nd t he P ozzuoli r elief o nly a nd h and P 1.28).

a re

6 3. g SPgRANDIEU, 6 4.

v isible

( KOEPPEL,

1 907-66, N o.94,

I bid., N o.5822;

B ÜSING,

6 5. i SPgRANDIEU, 1 931, 6 252-3, 7 747.

1 945,

t he

s hank

K AHLER,

1 951,

P 1.39.6.

S ee a lso i SPgRANDIEU,

6 6. V ON G ROLLER , 1 901, 1 26-7; U LBERT, C ONNOLLLY, 1 981, 2 32-3; M ANNING, 1 985, 6 7. M AGI,

P 1.43.1;

1 14.

1 982,

N o.11.

1 983,

1 967,

F ig.26-7; K OEPPEL,

1 907-66,

1 968, 1 2-13; 1 59-60.

N o.5835,

D ENSEM ,

1 980;

1 984, N o.7, F ig.15-16.

6 8.

S ee n ote 2 9. A s tylised, w eighted p ilum a ppears o n a s tone i n A rchaeological M useum , S plit ( pers. o bs.).

6 9.

I nv.No.12, 1 3, 2 8, 3 1, 3 8, 4 3. C lose i nspection o f N o.31 makes i t c lear t hat a b roken p ilum i s u sed whilst o n N o.35 t he p ilum s hank m ay b e t hrust i nto t he kneeling b arbarian. I n n either c ase m ay a h asta b e i dentified.

7 0.

S ee n ote 3 0.

7 1.

C IL I X,

7 2.

P ers.

4 397.

o bs., n ow l ocated u nder t he R oman t heatre a t V erona.

7 3. K OEPPEL, 7 4.

1 985, N o.9,

F ig.54-5,

6 1;

N o.10, F ig.5,8;

N o.11,

F ig.5,9.

C . M onnenius S ecundus, G alleria C ongiunzione, M usei C apitolini ( pers. o bs.); Q . F lavius C rito, M useo G regoriano P rofano ( BENNDORF & S CHÖNE, 1 867, N o.151); M useo E pigrafico, V atican ( pers. L . T itius, A merican A cademy i n R ome ( OHL, 1 931, N o.29).

7 5.

t he

C IL X I,

7 6. K AHLER , 7 7. M AGI, 1 969,

o bs.);

9 58. 1 951,

P 1.29 ( if

t his

i s n ot a m odern r estoration).

1 945, F ig.28; K OEPPEL, 1 984, N o.7, F ig.14. S ee A LFöLDI, 1 1-12 f or t he p ictorial a nd e pigraphic e vidence s upporting

1 9

t he i dentification. P ila o n t he G reat T rajanic h ave b een m istaken f or t hese s pears. 7 8. T ORELLI, F ig.1, 2 ,

1 982, 4 , 7 ,

7 9. J osephus, A lanon 5 .

B ellum I udaicum 1 11,95,

8 0.

F rieze

P l.IV.5 ( Anaglypha T raiani); KOEPPEL, 1 0, 1 2 ( Great T rajanic F rieze).

I bid., 1 6-17. T here i s d escription i s c onfused.

a

1 20;

V ,47;

A rrian,

( note

7 3)

1 985, N o.9,

E ktaxis

k at

p roblem w ith h is t erminology a nd t he

8 1. A 3 rd c entury s tela a t B ologna h as a p ilum r epresented w ith a r ectangular s plice s ection a nd a b all a t t he p oint ( SUSINI & P INCELLI, 1 960, P l.XIX). 8 2. T he u se o f h astae f or c itizen t roops o n t he M arcus C olumn i s n ecessarily s ignificant b ecause, u nlike o n T rajan's C olumn, s hafted w eapons w ere d epicted t hroughout i n s tone

a nd p ila

n ot t he

w ould

p robably h ave b een t oo f ine f or t he s culptural s tyle i n t his m edium. M oreover, t he h astae w ere o ften e mployed f or p atterning a rtistic e ffect ( XXXVII1, L , L XI, L XVII, L XVIII, C VII1). O n T rajan's C olumn o ne s hafted w eapon r endered i n s tone i nstead o f b eing p rovided b y a b ronze i nsert i s s lim e nough t o b e a p ilum s hank ( CXIV), b ut i ts c omparability w ith e qually s lim a uxiliary s pears ( LXVI, C XIII) m akes t his i dentification u nsure. 8 3.

B RILLIANT, 1 967, P 1.62a. I n c omparison w ith t he M arcus C olumn t his p ilum m ay r epresent a lmost t he o nly c ontemporary ( A .D.203) i nput o f m ilitary e quipment d etail i n t he a rch's s culptures.

8 4.

V ON B IENKOWSKI,

8 5. H OFMANN,

1 905,

1 919-20, F ig.41;

F ig.117;

S CHOBER,

R OCCHETTI,

1 967-8, F ig.1-2,

4 .

1 920, N o.199.

8 6.

I bid., N o.341.

S ee a lso N o.351.

8 7.

V egetius, d e R e M ilitari 2 0. P ilum h eads f rom C aerleon ( Gwent) i n l egionary u se d ate t o t he 3 rd c entury ( NASH-WILLIAMS, 1 932, 7 0-1).

8 8. K EPPIE & A RNOLD,

1 984,

8 9. U LBERT, 1 968, 1 2-15; 1 28; M AXFIELD, 1 986,

N o.90.

1 970, 1 2; 6 6-72.

C ONNOLLY,

1 981,

2 33;

H ASSALL,

1 983,

9 0. T acitus, A nnales 1 1,52; X I1,35; X II1,38; X IV,34, 3 6-7; H istoriae 1 11,21-3; S ee a lso B J 1 1,512; V egetius 1 1,17; 1 11,14-17. 9 1. T ac., H ist 1 1,22: d ensum l egionum a gmen, a lso V egetius 1 11,15. 9 2. A rrian,

E k.

2 5-31.

9 3. T ac., A gricola 3 5-7. 9 4. T ac., H ist.

I V,20.

2 0

s parsa

a uxiliorum.

S ee

9 5.

C f.

F RERE & S T.JOSEPH,

1 974,

4 0.

9 6. T ac., A nn. X 11,35; H ist. 1 ,38. W hatever t he b attlefield f unctions t here w as a m ajor d ifference

r ealities o f i n l egionary

a nd a uxiliary s tatus i n t he i st t o 2 nd c enturies which m ay h ave b een r eflected i n e quipment f or v isual i dentification ( see B ISHOP, 1 986, 9 7.

7 19-21).

I nv.No.12-13, 1 5, 1 7-22, 2 9, 1 905, F ig.47; i SPgRANDIEU, ( stelae). S ee a lso A BDUL-HAK , a rmour w orn b y l egionary

3 1, 3 3, 1 907-66,

3 5 ( Adamklissi); H OFMANN, N o.5816, 7 763; 1 931, N o.11

1 954-5, P l.V, V II ( Nawa h elmet). T he s tandard-bearers, m usicians a nd

c enturions i s i rrelevant i n t his c onnection. 9 8. L UTTWAK ,

1 979,

1 17-25.

9 9. T he w riter i s a gain g rateful t o D r M .C. p oint. 1 00.

NASH-WILLIAMS,

1 932,

6 8 ( abandonment); R OSTOVTZEFF e t a l.,

1 92-7 ( seige); WAURICK, 1 01. R OBINSON,

1 975,

B ishop f or d iscussing t his

1 77-82;

1 980,

B ISHOP,

1 986,

7 17;

A LLASON-JONES & B ISHOP,

f orthcoming. F or a d ifferent t ypological a pproach a lloy f ittings s ee B ISHOP, 1 987, 1 20-2. 1 02. R OBINSON, 1 03.

1 975,

t o

t he

c opper

P 1.480.

B ISHOP, 1 985, 1 0-11. T he i st t o 3 rd c enturies A .D. p erhaps r epresent t he g reatest n umerical a nd w idest s ocial u se o f m ail i n t he h istory o f b ody a rmour, a nd p robably t he g reatest u se o f m etallic b ody a rmour i n E urope B urgundian a nd I talian w ars.

1 04. F RERE & S T.JOSEPH, 1 05.

1 936,

3 18-32 ( funerary d eposit).

1 974,

b efore

t he

l ater

1 5th

c entury

6 -7.

S ee S uetonius, D ivus V espasianus 4 ; R ICHMOND, 1 968, 1 21-2; W EBSTER , 1 980, 1 07-10; P EDD1E, 1 987, 1 46-54. A nalysis o f C aesar's c ampaigns i n G aul s uggest t hat h e w as n ot a verse t o s plitting h is f orces d own t o l egion-size g roups o r, o n o ccasion, t o e ven s maller d etachments i n r esponse t o t he n eed f or p rovisions a s much a s t o t he s trategic s ituation ( BG V ,24, 4 7; e specially 1 11,1). T he w riter i s v ery g rateful t o M r P .W .M. F reeman f or d iscussing t hese c ampaigns a nd f or s upplying r eferences. I t m ay e ven b e s uggested t hat t he d istribution o f f orts i n t he i mperial p eriod, f or e xample i n W ales a nd t he H adrian's W all h interland, w as d ictated b y s upply r esource m anagement r ather t han t he n eed t o ' hold d own' t erritory.

1 06. J os., 1 07.

B J I V,486.

S ee B AATZ,

1 966; M ARSDEN,

1 969,

1 91.

T he

q uestion

h as

r ecently

b een r e-examined a nd t he u sual a uxiliary l ack o f a rtillery h as b een r eaffirmed b y C AMPBELL, 1 986. 1 08.

C IL I II,

1 3439.

S ee S AXER,

1 967, N o.68-9;

2 1

B ÄHME,

1 975,

2 10-11.

A

c opper a lloy c hest-piece f rom a l orica s quamata, f rom f f lov ( Czechoslovakia) m ay h ave b elonged t o

i nscribed L EG X , a m ember o f a

l egionary v exillatio s imilar t o t he o ne o n t he T rerian i nscription ( KOLNIK , 1 986, 3 56). T here i s n o r eason why t his c lass o f a rtifact s hould h ave b een s olely ' parade' e quipment o r r estricted t o c avalry u se. F or a nother v ery s imilar l egionary p iece s ee G ARBSCH, 1 978,

C at.P7.

1 09. F or t he c onventional a pproach s ee J OHNSON, H ASSALL, 1 983, a nd f or a v ery u seful i nadequacies o f t he e vidence s ee MAXFIELD,

1 983, 2 0-5, e xamination

1 986,

1 66-76; o f t he

5 9-65.

1 10. J ONES, 1 975, 2 6, 3 7-8; J OHNSON, 1 983, 4 3-4; L ANDER , 1 984, 4 3. I t m ay b e s ignificant t hat o riental u nits a re p rominent a mongst t he e arliest r ecords o f a uxiliary c onstruction w ork i n s tone ( ibid., 4 3, 6 6). F or l egionary s pecialists s ee D igest 5 0,6,7; V ON D OMASZEWSKI, 1 967, x v, 2 5, 4 6. O ne a uxiliary m ensor i s r ecorded ( CIL X II1,6538) a nd H adrian's L ambaesis a dlocutio s peech m entions a uxiliary w ork i n w all c onstruction ( CIL V 111,18042). 1 11.

O LDENSTEIN-PFERDEHIRT,

1 12.

B ISHOP,

1 985,

7 -8;

1 984, F ig.11,

1 986,

1 4-15.

7 21-2.

1 13. MAXFIELD, 1 986, 6 8-9, 7 1; M ACKENSEN, 1 987, 1 25, n .314-7. T his i s n ot, o f c ourse, t o s uggest t hat e quipment w as e xclusively p roduced b y l arge l egionary f abricae, o r t hat a uxiliary t roops d id n ot c arry o ut a t l east s mall-scale w ork ( BISHOP, 1 985, 1 7; M AXFIELD, 1 986, 1 14.

7 0).

S AXER ,

1 967,

N o.299-306,

3 08,

3 13-23 ( Africa P roconsularis a nd

N umidia); 3 33 ( Mauretania C aesariensis); MATTINGLY, 1 984, T able 6 : C ( Tripolitania). T hese a re m ainly 3 rd c entury i nscriptions, b ut t he F lavian ' East F ort' a t L ambaesis ( Numidia) w as b uilt b y l egionaries ( AE 1 954, N o.137) a nd t he p resence o f a l egionary v exillatio i s a ttested a t C hemtou ( Africa P roconsularis) i n t he i st c entury ( CIL V III, 1 4603). T he w riter i s i ndebted t o D r D .J. M attingly who k indly d iscussed t his l egion's f ragmentation. D uring t he w ar a gainst T acfarinas t he l egion was s plit t o f orm s ingle c ohort g arrisons a nd t o p ass t he w inter ( Tac. A nn. 1 11,20-1, 7 4). E lsewhere, A rrian m ay r ecord a l egionary v exillatio i n g arrison a t P hasis i n T urkey ( Periplous E uxenou P ontou 9 ; C AMPBELL, 1 986, 1 25-6) a nd T rabzon w as o ccupied b y l egionary t roops ( CIL 1 11,6745, 6 747). T he B osphorus w as h eld a t v arious t imes b y l egionary v exillationes f rom M oesia ( see, f or e xample, J os., B J 1 1,367). T he w riter i s g rateful t o M r C .M . D aniels f or d iscussing t his a rea. 1 15. R IB 1 299,

1 733?,

1 880,

1 16. R IB 1 305,

1 330,

1 684,

2 120,

2 122-4,

1 17. R IB 2 146,

2 148,

2 160,

2 166.

S ee a lso 1 577,

1 18.

R IB 1 826,

2 181.

1 19.

S IMPSON,

1 966,

9 0-4;

2 135,

2 144.

H OLDER,

2 174-7.

1 982,

2 2

4 2;

1 582,

1 956,

1 961,

2 024.

H ANSON & MAXWELL,

1 983,

1 53-6. 1 20.

R IB 1 460-1.

1 21.

R IB 1 583. t he

S ee a lso

G iven t he p ossibility t hat l egionaries

g arrison

D ORE,

o f

& B ISHOP,

l east

f ormed

p art

o ne o f t he C orbridge f orts

R IB

i n t he C orbridge H oard t o a uxiliaries

o f

( BISHOP & il oricae

( ALLASON-JONES

f orthcoming).

1 130.

H adrianic

T he a nd

e xpertise o f

o f

l egionary

f rontiers

l egionary

t echnical

p ositioning

r emoteness A ntonine

s emi-permanent o f

a t

f orthcoming) t here i s n o n ecessity t o a ttribute t he

s egmentatae'

1 22.

1 330.

m ay

f ortresses h ave

f rom

t he

n ecessitated

a

p resence o n t he walls f or t he p rovision a nd

f ortresses

m anpower. o n

t he

I n

c omparison,

r iverine

f rontiers

t he

a nd t he

f ragmentation o f l egions e lsewhere i s u nderstandable. 1 23.

K EPPIE

&

A RNOLD,

f orthcoming,

1 984,

x vii-xviii;

i ntroduction.

C OULSTON

S ee D igest 5 0,6,7;

&

V eg.

P HILLIPS,

1 1,11.

B IBLIOGRAPHY A BDUL-HAK

1 955:

S .

A bdul Hak,

p rovenant d e l a ( Hauran)', A LFöLDI o f

1 959:

n 6cropole

' Rapport r omaine

p r aiminaire s ur d es o bjets

s ituge

a

p roximite

L es A nnales A rcheologiques d e S yrie, A .

A lföldi,

4 -5,

d e

1 954-5,

N awa 1 63-88

' Hasta s umma i mperii. T he s pear a s e mbodiment

s overeignty i n R ome',

A merican J ournal o f A rchaeology,

6 3,

1 959,

1 -27 A LLASON-JONES & B ISHOP f orthcoming: C orbridge

H oard

( HBMCE

L . A llason-Jones & M .C. A rchaeological

B ishop,

R eports),

T he

( London

f orthcoming) A LLASON-JONES & M IKET 1 984: L . A llason-Jones & R . M iket, o f

S mall F inds f rom S outh S hields R oman F ort,

T he

C atalogue

( Newcastle u pon Tyne

1 984) A NY e t a l.

1 962:

P icard, B AATZ 1 966:

& A . D .

R .

A my,

G .-Ch.

P iganiol,

B aatz,

P icard, J .-J. Hatt,

' L'arc d 'Orange',

1 978:

I nferior, B ECK

&

G .

B auchhenss,

P LANCK

1 980:

H eeres

& S CHÖNE 1 867:

1 66,

1 966,

D eutschland,

W .

B eck

&

D .

O .

B enndorf

d er

C h.

1 962

1 94-207

1 11,1,

P lanck,

D er

G ermania

( Bonn 1 978) L imes

i n

& R .

S chöne,

D ie a ntiken B ildwerke

( Leipzig 1 867)

1 919-20: P . v on B ienkowski, i n

D uval,

( Stuttgart 1 980)

d es l ateransischen M useums, V ON B IENKOWSKI

C SIR

B J,

B onn u nd U mgebung m ilitärische G rabdenkmäler,

S üdwestdeutschland, B ENNDORF

P .-M.

S upp1.15,

' Zur G eschützbewaffnung r ömischer A uxiliartruppen

i n d er f rühen u nd m ittleren Kaiserzeit', B AUCHHENSS

G allia,

s pätrömischen

2 3

' Zur

T racht

K aiserzeit',

d es

r ömischen

J ahreshefte

d es

Ö sterreichischen 1 919-20, 2 60-79 B ISHOP

1 983:

M .C.

A rchäologischen

B ishop,

1 985:

M .C.

B ishop,

i n

W ien,

X IX-XX ,

' The C amomile S treet s oldier r econsidered',

T ransactions o f t he L ondon a nd 3 4, 1 983 ( 1985), 3 1-48 B ISHOP

I nstitutes

M iddlesex

A rchaeological

S ociety,

' The m ilitary f abrica a nd t he p roduction o f

a rms i n t he e arly p rincipate', i n M .C. B ishop ( ed.), P roduction a nd D istribution o f R oman M ilitary E quipment. P roceedings o f t he S econd R oman M ilitary E quipment R esearch S eminar, ( BAR I nternational S eries 2 75),

( Oxford

1 985),

1 -42

B ISHOP 1 986: M .C. B ishop, ' The d istribution o f m ilitary e quipment w ithin R oman f orts o f t he f irst c entury A .D.', i n S tudien z u d en M ilitärgrenzen R oms I II. 1 3. I nternational L imeskongreß A alen 1 983 V orträge, ( Stuttgart 1 986), 7 17-23 B ISHOP 1 987: D AWSON,

M .C. 1 987,

B ishop,

"The e volution

o f

c ertain

f eatures ",

i n

1 09-39

B ISHOP & D ORE f orthcoming: M .C. B ishop & J .N. D ore, C orbridge E xcavations 1 947-80. A rchaeological I nvestigations o n t he R oman F orts a nd T own a t C orbridge, N orthumberland ( HBMCE A rchaeological R eports),

( London f orthcoming)

B ÖHME 1 975: H .W . B öhme, ' Archäologische Z eugnisse M arkomannenkriege', J ahrbuch d er Z entralmuseums M ainz, 2 2, 1 975, 1 53-217 B RILLIANT 1 967: R . B rilliant, T he A rch o f R oman F orum ( MAAR X XIX), ( Rome 1 967) B ÜSING

1 982:

H .

B üsing,

R ömische

( Römisch-Germanische F orschungen 4 0), 3 AMPBELL 1 986: 1 986, C ICHORIUS

D .B.

C ampbell,

z ur G eschichte d er R ömisch-Germanischen

S eptimius

S everus

M ilitärarchitektur

i n

i n

t he

M ainz

( Mainz 1 982)

' Auxiliary a rtillery r evisited',

B J,

1 86,

1 17-32 1 896-1900:

C .

C ichorius, D ie

R eliefs

d er

T raianssäule,

( Berlin 1 896-1900) C ONNOLLY 1 981:

P . C onnolly ,

G reece a nd R ome a t W ar,

C OUISSIN 1 926:

P . C ouissin,

L es a rmes r omaines,

( London 1 981)

( Paris 1 926)

C OULSTON 1 987: J .C. C oulston, ' Roman m ilitary e quipment o n 3 rd c entury A .D. t ombstones', i n DAWSON, 1 987, 1 41-56 C OULSTON & P HILLIPS f orthcoming: J .C. C oulston & E .J. P hillips, C SIR G reat B ritain, 1 ,6, H adrian 's W all W est o f t he g iver N orth T yne, a nd C arlisle, D AWSON 1 987: M . A ccoutrements

( Oxford f orthcoming) D awson o f W ar.

( ed.), R oman M ilitary E quipment: T he P roceedings o f t he T hird R oman M ilitary

E quipment R esearch S eminar ( BAR I nternational S eries 3 36),

2 4

( Oxford

1 987) D ENSEM

1 980:

1 ,3,

R .

1 980,

V ON D OMASZEWSKI H eeres,

D ensem,

' Pilum-heads f rom R oman B ritain',

1 967:

A .

v on D omaszewski,

D ie R angordnung d er r ömischen

( Köln 1 967)

V AN DRIEL-MURRAY & G ECHTER 1 984: ' Funde

a us

d er

F abrika

R heinlands I V), i SPgRANDIEU

C .

l egio

1 931:

E . g spgrandieu,

F LORESCU

R .

E . i spgrandieu,

F ellmann,

M .

G echter,

e s

r ömischen

R ecueil g gngral d es b as-reliefs, ( Paris

R ecueil

1 907-66)

g gngral

s tatues e t b ustes d e l a G ermanie r omaine, F ELLMANN 1 957:

&

1 -83

s tatues e t b ustes d e l a G aule r omaine, g SPgRANDIEU

M urray

IM inervia a us B onner B erg',

( Beiträge z ur A rchäologie

( Köln 1 984),

1 907-66:

v an-Driel

d er

R heinische A usgrabungen 2 3

( Basel

E xercitus,

2 7-33

D as G rab d es L .

d es

b as-reliefs,

( Paris 1 931)

M unatius P lancus b ei G aeta,

1 957) 1 965:

F .B.

F lorescu,

D as

S iegesdenkmal v on A damklissi,

( Bonn

1 965) F RERE & S T.JOSEPH 1 974:

S .S.

F rere

f ortress a t L ongthorpe', G ANSSER-BURCKHARDT

1 942:

V erarbeitung

A .

i m

&

B rit, V ,

J .K .S.

G ansser-Burckhardt,

r ömischen

( Veröffentlichungen

d er

S t.Joseph,

' The

R oman

1 -129 D as

L eder u nd s eine

L egionslager

G esellschaft

P ro

V indonissa

V indonissa

1 ),

( Basel

1 942 G ARBSCH 1 978:

J .

G JODESEN 1 976: A scani,

G arbsch,

M .

T .

S kydsgaard

R ömische P aradeausrüstungen,

G jodesen,

' A f ragment o f t he A rch o f

F ischer-Hansen, ( eds.),

S eptuagentarii,

S tudia

( Odense

H ANSON

&

MAXWELL

F rontier.

I I,

( Vienna

J ensen,

H onorem

P etri

i n &

K . J .E.

K rarup

7 2-86 ' Römische Waffen',

1 901),

D er r ömische L imes

8 4-131

1 983: W .S. H anson & G .S. M axwell,

( Paris

R ome's N orth-West

( Edinburgh 1 983)

1 967)

H ASSALL 1 983: M . H assall, i n

P rovinces, H ASSEL 1 966:

I n

T itus',

S .S.

J . H armand, L 'armge e t l e s oldat ä R ome d e 1 07 ä 5 0 a vant

n otre * re,

f orts',

J ohansen,

R omana

T he A ntonine W all,

H ARMAND 1 967:

F .

1 976),

V ON GROLLER 1 901: M . v on G roller, i n Ö sterreich,

( Munich 1 978)

' The i nternal

B .R. H artley & J . Wacher ( Gloucester

F .J. H assel,

r ömischen S enates,

1 983),

p lanning ( eds.),

o f

a uxiliary

9 6-131

D er T riumphbogen i n B enevent:

( Mainz

R oman

R ome a nd h er N orthern

1 966)

2 5

e in B auwerk d es

H ELBIG 1 966: W . H elbig, F ührer d urch d ie ö ffentlichen k lassischer A ltertümer i n R om, I I, ( Tübingen 1 966)

S ammlungen

H OFFILLER 1 912: V . H offiller, ' Oprema r imskoga v ojnika 1 p rvo d oba c arstva', V jesnik H rvatskoga A rheoldgkoga D rü gtva ( Zagreb), N .S. 1 2, 1 912, 1 6-123 H OFMANN 1 905: A . H ofmann, R ömische M ilitärgrabsteine d er D onauländer ( Sonderschriften d es ö sterreichischen a rchäologischen I nstitut i n W ien V ), ( Vienna 1 905) J OHNSON 1 983: A . J ohnson, R oman F orts o f t he i st a nd 2 nd C enturies A .D. i n B ritain a nd t he G erman P rovinces, ( London 1 983) J ONES 1 975: M .J. J ones, R oman S eries 2 1), ( Oxford 1 975)

F ort D efences t o A .D.117 ( BAR B ritish

K ÄHLER 1 951: H . K ähler, ' Der T rajansbogen i n P uteoli', i n G .E. M ylonas ( ed.), S tudies P resented t o D avid M oore R obinson o n h is S eventieth B irthday, I , ( St.Louis 1 951), 4 30-9 K ÄHLER 1 965: H . K ähler, D er F ries v on R eiterdenkmal d es A emilius P aulus i n D elphi ( Monumenta A rtis R omanae V ), ( Berlin 1 965) K EPPIE 1 984: L .J.F. K eppie, T he M aking o f t he R oman A rmy f rom t o E mpire, ( London 1 984) K EPP1E &A RNOLD 1 984: L .J.F. K eppie & B .J. A rnold, 1 ,4, S cotland, ( Oxford 1 984) K IMMIG 1 940: W . K immig, 1 940, 1 06-11

R epublic

C SIR G reat B ritain,

' Ein K eltenschild a us Ä gypten',

G ermania, X XIV,

K OEPPEL 1 983: G .M. K oeppel, ' Two r eliefs f rom t he A rch o f R ome', R M , 9 0, 1 983, 1 03-9

C laudius

i n

K OEPPEL 1 984: G .M . K oeppel, ' Die h istorischen R eliefs d er r ömischen K aiserzeit I I, s tadtrömisches D enkmäler u nbekannter B auzugehörigkeit a us f lavischer Z eit', B J, 1 84, 1 984, 1 -65 K OEPPEL 1 985: G .M . K oeppel, ' Die h istorischen R eliefs d er r ömischen K aiserzeit I II, s tadtrömisches D enkmäler u nbekannter B auzugehörigkeit a us t rajanischer Z eit', B J, 1 85, 1 985, 1 43-213 K OLB

1 973: 8 0,

1 973,

F .

K olb,

' Römische M äntel:

p aenula,

l acerna,

µ av8

W,

R N ,

L imesforschungen

i n

6 7-167

K OLNIK 1 986: T . K olnik, ' Neue E rgebnisse C .S.S.R.', i n P LANCK & U NZ, 1 986, 3 55-61

d er

L ANDER 1 984: J . L ander, R oman S tone F ortifications. V ariations a nd C hange f rom t he F irst C entury A .D. t o t he F ourth ( BAR I nternational S eries 2 06), ( Oxford 1 984) L AUBSCHER 1 975:

H .P. L aubscher,

i n T hessaloniki,

D er R eliefschmuck

( Berlin 1 975)

2 6

d es

G alerius-Bogens

L EHMANN-HARTLEBEN 1 926: K . L ehmann-Hartleben, D ie T raianssäule. r ömisches K unstwerk z u B eginn d er S pätantike, ( Berlin 1 926)

E in

L UTTWAK 1 979: E .N. L uttwak, T he G rand S trategy o f t he R oman E mpire f rom t he F irst C entury A .D. t o t he T hird, ( Baltimore 1 979) MACKENSEN 1 987: M . M ackensen, F rühkaiserzeitliche K leinkastelle N ersingen u nd B urlafingen a n d er o beren D onau, ( Munich 1 987) M AGI

b ei

1 945: F . M agi, I R ilievi f lavi d el P alazzo C ancelleria ( Monumenti V aticani d i a rcheologia e d 'arte 6 ), ( Rome 1 945)

M ANNING 1 985: W .H. M anning, C atalogue o f t he R omano-British I ron T ools, F ittings a nd W eapons i n t he B ritish M useum, ( London 1 985) M ARSDEN 1 969:

E .W .

D evelopments, M AXFIELD B rit,

M arsden,

G reek

a nd

R oman

A rtillery.

H istorical

( Oxford 1 969)

1 986:

V .A . M axfield,

X VII,

1 986,

' Pre-Flavian f orts a nd t heir g arrisons',

5 9-72

M ENDEL 1 912-14: G . M endel, C atalogue d es s culptures g recques, r omaines e t b yzantines, m us es e mperieux o ttomans, ( Istanbul 1 912-14) N ASH-WILLIAMS 1 932: a t C aerleon, I I',

V .E. N ash-Williams, ' The R oman l egionary f ortress A rchaeologia C ambrensis, 8 7, 1 932, 4 8-104

O HL 1 931: R .T. O hl, ' The i nscriptions a t t he American A cademy i n R ome', M AAR , I X, 1 931, 8 9-133 O LDENSTEIN-PFERDEHIRT 1 984: B . O ldenstein-Pferdehirt, d er l egio V III A ugusta', J RGZM , 3 1, 1 984, 3 97-433 ö NEN 1 983: Ü .

Ö nen, E phesus,

( Izmir

' Die

G eschichte

1 983)

P EDDIE 1 987: J . P eddie, I nvasion. T he R oman I nvasion o f B ritain i n t he Y ear A .D.43 a nd t he E vents L eading t o t heir O ccupation o f t he W est C ountry,

( Gloucester 1 987)

P ETCULESCU & P ROTASE 1 975: L . P etculescu & D . P rotase, l a B erzovia',

B anatica,

3 ,

1 975,

' Coiful R oman d e

8 5-9

P ETERSEN e t a l. 1 896: E . P etersen, A . v on D omaszewski, & G . C alderini, D ie M arcus Säule a uf d er P iazza C olonna i n R om, ( Monaco 1 896) P LANCK & U NZ 1 986: D . P lanck & C . U nz ( eds.), M ilitärgrenzen R oms I II. V orträge d es 1 3. L imeskongresses, A alen 1 983, ( Stuttgart 1 986)

S tudien z u d en i nternationalen

R ICHMOND 1 968: I .A . R ichmond, H od H ill 2 : E xcavations C arried O ut B etween 1 951 a nd 1 958 f or t he T rustees o f t he B ritish M useum, ( London 1 968) R OBINSON 1 975: H .R. R obinson, 1 975)

T he

A rmour

2 7

o f

I mperial

R ome,

( London

R OCCHETTI

1 967-8: L . R occhetti,

A nnuario

d ella

S cuda

I taliane i n o riente, R OSTOVTZEFF e t a l.

4 5-6,

1 936:

C .B. W elles,

o f

t he 6 th S eason o f W ork, I .S.

1 967-68,

d i

A tene

e

B ellinger,

T he E xcavations a t D ura E uropos;

R yberg,

d elle

m issioni

4 87-98

M .J. R ostovtzeff, A .R.

&

R YBERG 1 967:

' Su u na s tela d el p eriodo T etrarchico',

A rcheologica

O ct.1932 - M ar.1933,

C .

H opkins,

P reliminary R eport ( New H aven 1 936)

P anel R eliefs o f M arcus A urelius,

( New

Y ork

1 967) S AXER 1 967:

R .

S axer,

U ntersuchungen z u d en V exillationen d es r ömischen

K aiserheeres v on A ugustus b is D iokletian ( Epigraphische S tudien I ), ( Köln 1 967) S CHOBER

1 923:

P annonien

A .

S chober,

I nstituts i n W ien X ), S IMPSON

D ie

r ömischen

( Sonderschriften

1 966:

G .

d es

G rabsteine v on N oricum u nd

ö sterreichischen

a rchäologischen

( Vienna 1 923)

S impson,

B ritons

a nd

t he R oman A rmy,

( Farnborough

1 966) S MITH 1 904: A .H.

S mith,

A C atalogue o f

G reek a nd R oman A ntiquities, S USINI

&

P INCELLI

1 960:

G .

M useo C ivico d i B ologna. T HOMAS

1 971:

E .B.

S usini & R .

I l l apidario,

T homas,

H elme,

1 982:

M .

T orelli,

I II,

P incelli,

D epartment

o f

( London 1 904) L e c ollezioni d el

( Bologna 1 960)

S childe,

r ömische-pannonische W affenkunde, T ORELLI

S culpture i n t he

B ritish M useum,

D olche.

S tudien

ü ber

( Budapest 1 971)

T ypology a nd S tructure o f R oman H istorical

R eliefs,

( Ann A rbor

1 982)

U LBERT 1 968: ( Kleine

G . U lbert, S chriften

R ömische W affen d es 1 . J ahrhunderts n . C hr. z ur K enntnis d er r ömischen B esetzungsgeschichte

S üdwestdeutschlands 4 ), U LBERT 1 970: d ie

G . U lbert,

F unde

a us

( Stuttgart 1 968)

D as r ömische D onau-Kastell R ißtissen,

M etall,

H orn

u nd

T eil

1 :

K nochen ( Urkunden z ur V or- u nd

F rühgeschichte a us S üdwürttemberg Hohenzollern H eft 4 ),

( Stuttgart

1 970) U LBERT

& F ISCHER 1 983:

G . U lbert & T . F ischer,

D inkesbühl b is E ining, V OGEL 1 973: L . V ogel, W AURICK 1 980: S oumja', K önige,

T he C olumn o f A ntoninus P ius,

G . W aurick,

( Bonn 1 980), G . W aurick,

i n B ayern v on

( Harvard 1 973)

' Die S chutzwaffen i m n umidischen G rab v on

i n H .G. H orn & C .B.

W AURICK 1 983:

D er L imes

( Stuttgart 1 983)

R üger

( eds.),

D ie N umider:

E s

R eiter u nd

3 05-32 ' Untersuchungen z ur h istorisierenden

i n d er r ömischen Kunst',

JRGZM ,

3 0,

2 8

1 983,

2 65-301

R üstung

W EBSTER 1 980:

G . W ebster,

T he R oman I nvasion o f B ritain,

( London 1 980)

W HITEHOUSE 1 976: H . W hitehouse, T he D al P ozzo C opies o f t he P alestrina M osaic ( BAR I nternational S eries 1 2), ( Oxford 1 976) W ILSON 1 929: L .M. W ilson, ' Sculptural e vidence o f a n a rmy o rder b y M arcus A urelius', M AAR , V II, 1 929, 1 69-72

2 9

i ssued

C ERTAIN DOUBTS A ND DOUBTFUL CONCLUSIONS: F ROM N EWSTEAD AND T HE A .G.

T HE LORICA S EGMENTATA

A NTONINE GARRISON

P oulter

F ew s ites c an r ival t he i mportance o f N ewstead i n t he a rchaeology o f t he R oman o ccupation o f S cotland i n t he 2 nd c entury A .D. T he f ort's s trategic r ole a s a c entre f or t he R oman o ccupation o f t he S cottish L owlands a nd i ts p osition o n t he p rincipal a xis o f a dvance n orth a long D ere S treet i s r eflected i n i ts e xceptional s ize ( 5.9 h a) a nd i n t he s trength o f i ts A ntonine d efences. T he q uantity a nd v ariety o f t he f inds h ave p rovided a r emarkable c orpus o f m aterial e vidence, i ncluding a rmour a nd e quipment o f b oth t he F lavian a nd A ntonine o ccupations, a mongst w hich w ere f ragments o f l orica s egmentata. 1 T he i ntention o f t his p aper i s t o r eview t he e vidence o f t hese f inds f or r econstructing t he o riginal a ppearance o f t his t ype o f a rmour, t o e stablish i ts d ate a nd t o r eassess t he e vidence f or t he g arrison o f N ewstead d uring t he 2 nd c entury A .D. 2 A s t he t itle s uggests, t his a im h as i ts l imitations. F ew n ew c onclusions c an b e c laimed. R ather, i t w ill b e a rgued t hat o ur k nowledge o f A ntonine N ewstead i s c onsiderably l ess w ell-founded t han h as g enerally b een s upposed.

T HE R ECONSTRUCTION O F T HE L ORICA S EGMENTATA F orty-eight f ragments o f p late b ody-armour, i ncluding t wo l arge p ortions o f i ron p lates w ith b ronze m ountings, w ere d iscovered b y C urle i n a w ell w ithin t he p rincipia a t N ewstead. 3 T he c ircumstances o f d iscovery

w ere

d ramaticaly

d escribed

b y

t he

e xcavator. W ithin t he

c ourtyard o f t he p rincipia, t o t he r ight o f t he e ntrance f rom t he v ia p rincipalis, p it 1 p roved t o b e a w ell 2 5ft 6 in d eep. E xcavation y ielded a r emarkable a ssortment o f f inds. O ver f orty c artloads o f s mall s tones, s ome, p resumably f rom t he w ell-lining, w ere r ecovered a s w ell a s d ressed s tones, i ncluding t wo b locks c arved w ith s culptures o f a b oar ( emblem o f l egio X X V aleria V ictrix), a h uman s keleton , a nimal b ones a nd, a t 1 2ft, a n i nscribed a ltar ( RIB 2 123), t hen a c oin o f H adrian, p ottery, a v ariety o f o ther s mall-finds, a nd, c lose t o t he b ottom o f t he p it, a t 2 5ft, f ragments o f l orica s egmentata, a l inch-pin a nd t he r emains o f a n o ak b ucket. S maller i tems a t t he v ery b ottom o f t he p it i ncluded b rass s cale a rmour 3 c hain-mail, t he u mbo o f a s hield a nd a b ucket,

c oin o f V espasian o r T itus. 4 W ith t he p ossible e xception o f t he t he p resence o f t he m etal-work a nd s tone c an o nly b e e xplained

a s a r esult o f d eliberate d eposition ; t he m ost r easonable e xplanation b eing t hat a ll t he m aterial w as t hrown i nto t he w ell-shaft d urine c learing-up o perations p rior t o t he d eparture o f t he R oman g arrison. ) T hat t he f inds f rom t he w ell a re t herefore l ikely t o r epresent r ubbish - o r l ess v aluable i tems w hich w ere n ot w orth t aking a way - i s i mportant f or o ur u nderstanding o f t he a rmour a nd t he v alue o f t he s urviving a ppearance.

f ragments

i n

a ttempting

t o

r econstruct

i ts

o riginal

6

A n i nitial a ttempt t o r econstruct t he N ewstead a rmour w as m ade b y C urie, d rawing u pon t he c onclusions r eached b y v on G roller who, o nly a d ecade e arlier, h ad b een t he f irst t o i dentify a ctual f ragments o f

3 1

l orica s egmentata i n h is e xcavations a t C arnuntum .7 C urle r ecognised f ragments o f t he s houlder a nd g irdle-plates a nd f ollowed v on G roller i n p resuming t hat t he a rmour h ad o riginally b een f ixed b y r ivets t o a l eather j erkin. T wo r ectangular m etal s heets w ere i dentified a s p ortions o f b reast o r b ack-plates t o w hich t he g irdle-plates w ere a ttached. B oth i ron p lates a re c .0.2cm t hick , a ppreciably t hicker t han t he g irdle p lates w hich a verage c .0.1cm. T he b est p reserved p late ( hereafter d escribed a s p late A ), m easures 2 1.5cm b y a t l east 1 4cm. O ne o f t he s horter s ides h as a s harply e verted e dge, f orming a r im a nd t he o pposing e dge h as t wo d ecorative b ronze s trips, e ach f ixed t o t he p late b y s ingle r ivets. H oles, l cm f rom t he e dge, h ave b een p unched t hrough t he b ottom o f t he b ronze s trips a nd t hrough t he p late. O ne o f t he l ong s ides i s c omplete a nd h as t wo r ectangular s lots ( c.1.7cm l ong a nd c .lcm w ide) s urrounded b y s mall b ronze, r ectangular p lates, e ach h eld i n p osition b y f our r ivets, o ne a t e ach o f t he c orners. T he s econd p late ( plate B ) i s l ess-well p reserved a nd s urvives i n t wo p ieces. I nstead o f t wo s lots, t his p late h as o nly o ne w hich, l ike p late A , i s o n t he c omplete, l onger s ide. T his s lot i s a lso s urrounded b y a b ronze p late r etained b y f our r ivets. P late B i s s lightly s maller t han p late A a nd m easures 1 8.5 b y a t l east 1 2cm. L ike p late A , t his p late a lso h as a s harp, f langed e dge o n o ne o f t he s horter s ides a lthough t here i s n o i ndiction o f a h ole o r d ecorative b ronze p late o n t he o pposing e dge: o nly a l ength o f 8 cm i s p reserved, l eaving s ufficient r oom f or a s ingle h ole a nd b ronze s trip o n t he s ection which h as b een l ost w hich w ould c orrespond t o t he s ingle s lot u sed o n t he f ully p reserved a nd a djacent e dge. A lthough p lates A a nd B a re s imilar i n c haracter, t hey e ither c ame f rom d ifferent s uits o f a rmour o r, m ore p robably, t he t wo t ypes r epresent p ortions o f t he f ront a nd b ack-plates: t his w ould e xplain t he s imilarity i n t he t ype o f f ittings b ut a llow f or t he u se o f t wo s lots f or o ne s et o f p lates a nd o nly o ne f or t he o ther. A nother p iece o f i ron f rom t he w ell ( here c alled p late C ), a c orner w ith t wo a djacent s traight e dges ( 10.1 x 1 0.7cm), h as a f ragment o f b ronze r etained b y a r ivet a t t he b roken e nd o f t he s horter s ide. T his w as p resumably t he f ragment w hich C urle i dentified a s a c orner o f t he p late c orresponding t o p late B 1/B2. 8 H owever, t here i s n o t race o f a s lot e ither i n t he s urviving p ortion o f b ronze o r t he i ron p late i tself. S ince t he b roken e dge i s 1 0.1cm f rom t he e nd o f t he p late, i t d oes n ot c orrespond w ith p late A w here t he l ower s lot c ommences o nly 5 .5cm f rom t he c orner b ut n either d oes i t m atch e xactly p late B 1/B2 where t he b ottom o f t he s ingle s lot c ommences 8 .5cm f rom t he c orner. S ince p late C i s b roken, t he d istance o f 1 0.1cm i s o nly t he m inimum d istance b etween t he e dge o f t he p late a nd a p ossible s lot: t he d ifference o f m ore t han 1 .6cm w ould s eem t o e xclude t he p ossibility t hat p late C a nd B 1/B2 f ormed a n i dentical p air. T wo e xplanations r emain. T he l east l ikely i s t hat p late C c ame f rom a nother s uit o f a rmour i n w hich a s ingle s lot w as p ositioned m ore t han 1 .5cm f rom t he e dge o f t he p late. T he a lternative i s t o s uppose t hat p late C i s p art o f t he o pposing p late t o p late B 1/B2 b ut t hat i t h ad n o s lot. I n w hich c ase, t he b ronze p late a nd r ivet o n p late C m ust h ave h ad a d ifferent f unction. C urle a ssumed t hat p late A w as a r ight b reast-plate, p late B a r ight b ack-plate a nd t hat t he l onger s ides w ere p ositioned h orizontally s o t hat t he t urned e dges s erved t o p rotect t he a rms f rom c hafing a gainst t he m etal a nd t he h oles s urrounded b y t he d ecorative b ronze s trips w ere u sed t o a ttach t hem t o c orresponding p lates o n t he l eft s ide o f

t he b ody.

C urle a lso i nterpreted t he s lots a s h oles f or

3 2

s traps

t o a ttach t he b reast a nd b ack-plates t o t he g irdle-plates.

9

I n 1 960, a fter t he d iscovery i n L ondon o f a p iece o f a b reast-plate ( of C orbridge t ype), G raham W ebster a ttempted a n ew r econstruction o f t he N ewstead a rmour. 1° A lthough h e a ccepted C urie's p ositioning o f t he p lates A a nd B , h e a lso o bserved t hat t he c urved e dge c ould h ave b een t o p rotect t he n eck a nd n ot t he a rm . H e a lso n oted t he l ikely f unctional d ifference b etween t he s lots a nd t he h oles: w hereas t he h oles h e t ook t o b e f or h ooks, h e c onsidered t hat t he s lots w ere m ost p robably f or s traps, a s C urie h ad s uggested, a lthough h e a lso c onsidered t he p ossibility t hat t hey w ere i ntended f or t oggles, a n e xample o f w hich h ad b een p ublished f rom C arnuntum. T he t oggle w ould t hen b e a ttached t o t he m issing p late a nd p ass t hrough t he s lot t o l ink t he t wo h alves o f t he p lates t ogether. 1 1 B y 1 969, W ebster h ad c hanged h is m ind: h e h ad c learly t aken i nto a ccount t he r ecent d iscovery o f l oricae s egmentatae a t C orbridge. 1 2 In h is n ew r econstruction, t he b reast a nd b ack-plates h ave n ow b een t urned r ound w ith t he h ook-holes a t t he b ottom a nd t he f langed e dge o f t he p lates a t t he t op, a p osition w hich, f rom h is d iscussion o f t he f langed e dge, h e h ad p reviously a ccepted a s a p ossibility. H owever, h e w as s till r eluctant t o a bandon v on G roller's s uggestion t hat t he b ack-plates w ere h inged. H e a lso i gnored p late B a nd p roposed t hat t he b reast-plates c omprised t wo h alf-plates o f t ype A a nd t hat e ach p air o f s lots w as j oined b y a s trap a nd b uckle. R obinson 's s tudy o f t he C orbridge h oard a lso i ncluded a r einterpretation o f t he N ewstead a rmour, b asing h is a rgument b oth o n t he e vidence o f t he C orbridge f inds a nd a p ersonal i nspection o f t he N ewstead f ragments. 13 H e f elt j ustified i n c laiming t hat h is r econstruction h ad p roduced " a r easonably s ound w orking m odel f or t he f inds f rom N ewstead" .14 H owever, t here a re s till p roblems w hich t he C orbridge a rmour d oes n ot s olve: t he N ewstead a rmour's s lots a re n ot p arellelled o n t he C orbridge f inds a nd t he c ircumstances o f t he t wo f inds i s v ery d ifferent. T he C orbridge m aterial w ould s eem t o h ave b een b uried i ntentionally w ith a v iew t o l ater r etrieval a nd, a lthough f rom d ifferent l oricae, h as a s ufficiently l arge n umber o f p ieces t o a llow a d etailed a nd r eliable r econstruction o f t he a rmour's o riginal a ppearance. 15 H owever, t he N ewstead m aterial c omprises d isguarded f ragments w hich c ome n owhere n ear m atching t he c ompleteness o f t he C orbridge h oard. R obinson r ecognised t hree s urviving s ections o f t he c ollar u nit a nd, s ince t here w as n o t race o f h inges, h e a ssumed t hat t he s ections w ere f ixed t ogether w ith r ivets. T his m ay h ave b een t he c ase a lthough c aution i s n eeded i n a rguing f rom t he a pparent a bsence o f b ronze h inges: b ronze i s o f m uch g reater v alue t han i ron a nd b ronze f ittings a re l ess l ikely t o h ave b een t hrown a way: t hey c ould e asily h ave b een c ut o ff a nd l ater m elted d own f or r euse. O ne f ragment o f i ron f rom t he w ell s till b ears t races o f b ronze a s i f i t h ad o riginally c arried s uch a f itting, p erhaps a h inge. 16 R obinson s uggested t hat t he s houlder g uards c onsisted o f f ive p lates b ut t hat, u nlike t he C orbridge a rmour, t hey w ere a ttached b y r ivets t o t he c ollar u nit a nd n ot b y h inges a s i n t he e xamples f rom C orbridge. A lthough i nsufficient p ortions o f t he s houlder g uards s urvive t o p rove t his s uggestion, i t s eems p lausible e nough. 17 T he g irdle-plates, o nly f ragments o f w hich s urvive, h e

3 3

s uggests

w ere

o riginally f ive o r s ix i n n umber,

p erhaps w ith a d ouble

l ower p late t o a llow t he c ingulum t o b e b uckled m ore e asily t han i n t he C orbridge a rmour. 1 8 L oop-fasteners f or t he g irdle-plates, a s R obinson r ecognised, w ere s imple a nd r obust, c onsisting o f l oops o f b ronze p ushed t hrough a s lot i n t he e irdle-plate a nd p ushed b ack o n t he i nside l ike p aper f asteners.I 9 O n t he a uthority o f t he C orbridge l oricae, t he l obate h inges a re n o l onger r equired t o j oin t he b ack-plates a nd t hese w ere o mitted. A t C orbridge, a s ingle l eather t ie w as f ound a ttached t o o ne g irdle-plate l oop. T his w as t aken b y R obinson t o p rove t hat, i n b oth t he C orbridge i ndividually. 20

a nd N ewstead a rmour, t he g irdle-plates w ere t ied T his s eems i mprobable: i ndividual t ies a re f inicky t o

j oin u p a nd a re e asily l ost: l acing a s v on s uggested, w ould s eem a m ore p ractical m ethod. 2 1

G roller

o riginally

T hus f ar, t he r econstruction p roposed b y R obinson w ould s eem t o w ork q uite w ell ( Plate 1 ). A lthough m uch r emains u ncertain, t he a rrangement o f g irdle a nd s houlder-plates c an n ot b e r evised w ithout a dditional f inds. H owever, t he f ull-scale r econstruction o f t he N ewstead a rmour b y M r J . T urner, f ollowing t he m odel p roposed b y R obinson, p resented a n umber o f p roblems w hich s uggests t hat t he a rrangement o f f ront a nd b ack-plates r equires r evision.z 2 T here

i s n o c ertainty a s t o w hich o f t he t wo t ypes o f p late w as a

b ack-plate a nd w hich t he b reast-plate: a p roblem r eflected i n t he v arious a ttempts a t r econstructing t he a rmour. C urle a nd W ebster i nterpreted p late A a s p art o f t he b reast-plate a nd C urle h ad f ound a u se f or p late B a s a b ack-plate. R obinson r eversed t his o rder, a rguing t hat A w as a r ight b ack-plate a nd B a r ight f ront-plate. A lthough R obinson d id n ot e xplicity s tate w hy h e r eversed t he o rder, h e p robably d id s o o n t he e vidence o f t he C orbridge a rmour w here t wo p airs o f h ooks a ttach t he b ack-plates t o t he g irdle-plates a nd o nly o ne p air a re u sed a t t he f ront. 23 R obinson's a rrangement w ould s eem p lausible n ot j ust b ecause i t c an b e p aralleled i n t he C orbridge a rmour b ut a lso b ecause i t p rovides t he a dded s upport t o t he b ack w hich a lways t ook g reatest s train w hen p utting t he l oricae o n a nd t aking t hem o ff.

t he T he

o rientation o f t he p lates w ould a lso s eem t o h ave b een s ettled b y t he C orbridge f inds. T he f langed e dge m ust h ave b een t he t op a nd t he o pposing e dge w ith i ts h oles f or h ooks c losely p arallels t he a rrangement u sed i n t he C orbridge a rmour. S o f ar, s o g ood b ut t he a rmour, a s r econstructed, p resents t wo i mmediate p roblems. T he t op o f t he b reast-plate, t hough s lightly e verted, w ould p rove h azardous t o t he w earer: t he s harp e dge w ould h ave e asily c ut t he n eck u nlike t he r olled t op o f t he C orbridge a rmour w hich o ffered m uch b etter p rotection. A lthough R obinson h azarded t hat t he g irdle-plate u nder t he a rmpit w as r olled t o p revent i t c hafing t he a rm , i t i s s urprising t hat h e d id n ot r ecognise t he s till m ore s erious p roblem p resented b y t he s harp e dge a t t he t op o f t he b reast a nd b ack-plates w here t hey w ould s o e asily c ome i nto c ontact w ith t he n eck - e specially w hen t he u nfortunate o wner a ttempted t o e quip h imself i n a h urry. A h ole, j ust 2 mm w ide a t t he t op o f b oth p lates A a nd B , w as i nterpreted b y R obinson a s a m eans o f s ecuring a c ord, a ttached t o a p in f or j oining t he t wo f ront a nd b ack p lates. 24 I n b oth c ases, t he h ole h ad b een p unched t hrough f rom t he f ront a nd l eft r ough o n t he i nside. T his w ould s oon

3 4

P 1.1:

P 1.2:

R econstruction v iew .

o f

t he N ewstead l orica s egmentata, u pper f ront

R econstruction o f t he N ewstead l orica v iew .

3 5

s egmentata,

u pper

b ack

h ave c hafed a nd b roken a c ord, e specially a c ord t hin e nough t o p ass t hrough t he h ole. I t s eems m uch m ore l ikely t hat t he h ole w as i ntended t o r etain a r ivet. A n e xamination o f t he t op o f t he p lates s uggested a f unction f or a r ivet i n t his p osition. A round b oth h oles, t here i s c learly v isible a s mall s quare s urface o f m etal ( 1.4 x 1 .4cm) which h as n ot b een a ffected b y c orrosion. I t s eems r easonable t o c onjecture t hat t he r ivet h ad r etained a t ongue o f b ronze i mmediately b elow t he u pper l ip o f t he p late a nd t hat t his w as t he e nd o f a b ronze s trip which w as w rapped o ver t he f langed e dge. A long t he s urviving u pper p arts o f b oth p lates t here i s n o s ign o f a dditional r ivet-holes b ut n one w ould b e n ecessary u ntil t he o uter s ide o f t he p lates w hich d o n ot s urvive f or e ither p late A o r B . T his e xplanation i s s upported b y a s mall p iece o f i ron f rom t he w ell which h as j ust s uch a b ronze e dging: o n o ne s ide, p robably t he o utside o f t he p late, t he b ronze o verlaps t he e dge b y l cm b ut b y o nly 2 mm o n t he r everse s ide. T his r econstruction m akes b etter s ense o f t he s mall h ole i n e ach o f t he p lates a nd i t w ould a lso s olve t he p roblem o f t he d angerous u pturned e dge: t he w earer's n eck w ould n ow b e p rotected b y t he b ronze e dging. C onsequently , t he s uggestion t hat a c ord t o s ecure a p in w as t hreaded t hrough t he h ole c an b e d iscounted. T his r aises t he p roblem o f t he p in i tself: w ithout b eing a ble t o s ecure t he p in w hen n ot i n t he l ocking p osition, i t w ould b e e asily l ost a nd t he o wner m ust h ave r equired p lenty o f s pares! T here i s, h owever, a s till m ore c ompelling a rgument a gainst s uch a m ethod o f j oining t he p lates. T he r eplica s uit o f a rmour a s r econstructed b y M r T urner, p roved e xceedingly d ifficult t o p ut o n. F ixing t he t wo b reast-plates t ogether w ith p ins p roved q uite s atisfactory o nce t he l orica w as i n p osition b ut, i n o rder t o h ave s ufficient f lexibility i n t he b ack-plates t o g et i nto t he a rmour, t he p in j oining t he b ack-plates h ad t o b e l eft o ut w hile t he l orica was b eing p ut o n. H owever, o nce t he a rmour w as o n, i t p roved i mpossible t o r elocate t he p in w ithout a ssistance ( Plate 2 ). T here a re a dditional p roblems. M anoeuvring t o g et i nto t he a rmour p ut c onsiderable s train o n t he g irdle-plates w hich, e specially i f t ied i ndividually, e asily f ell a part. E ven when h elp w as o ffered t o i nsert t he p in i nto t he b ack-plates, t he b ronze h ooks c onnecting t he t op g irdle-plates t o t he b reast a nd b ack-plates w ere u nder s train a nd e asily b ent, m aking i t e ven m ore d ifficult t o g et t he a rmour o n - o r o ff. T his i s i n m arked c ontrast t o t he C orbridge a rmour w hich, a s r econstructed b y R obinson h imself, c an b e q uite e asily p ut o n b y t he w earer w ithout a ny h elp. I t i s i nconceivable t hat s tandard i ssue o f l oricae s egmentatae c ould e ver h ave r equired a s oldier t o s eek a ssistance i n g etting i nto h is o wn a rmour. T he d ifficulties e xperienced d uring t he s urprise n ight a ttack o n l egio I X H ispana b y t he C aledonians d uring A gricola's c ampaign i n S cotland w ould h ave b een e xacerbated i f e ach s oldier h ad f irst t o e nlist t he h elp o f a c omrade t o p ut o n h is a rmour i n t he d ark b efore d efending t he c amp! Whatever s implifications a nd i mprovements w ere m ade t o i ncrease t he r obustness o f t he N ewstead a rmour, w hen c ompared w ith t he C orbridge l oricae, s uch a s t he p ossible e limination o f t he w eak l obate h inges, t o b e e ffective, i t m ust a lways h ave b een p ossible f or t he s oldier t o p ut o n h is a rmour u nassisted: t he R oman s oldier i n l orica s egmentata c an i n n o w ay b e c ompared t o t he k night i n m edieval a rmour. I n R obinson 's r econstruction o f t he f itting w hich j oined h alves

o f

t he

t wo

t he f ront a nd b ack-plates, h e s uggested t hat t he l eft f ront

3 6

a nd b ack p lates h ad l oops o f b ronze o n t heir e dges w hich t hen p assed t hrough t he s lots i n t he o pposing p lates a nd w ere r etained i n p osition b y t he p ins. T here a re t wo i ron f ragments f rom t he p rincipia w ell which h ave b ronze l oops a ttached. O ne m uch d eformed f ragment ( FRA 1 21a), r einterpreted i n t he m useum r ecords a s p art o f t he c heekpiece o f a h elmet, i s n ot o bviously p art o f a l orica a nd t he s econd p iece, a s mall i ron f ragment w ith a b ronze l oop a ttached a t t he e dge a nd h eld b y a r ivet i s e qually d ifficult t o i nterprete. 25 T he b ronze l oop i s 0 .6cm i n d iameter a nd c ould h ave p assed t hrough a b reast o r b ack-plate s lot. H owever, t he i ron f ragment i s o nly 4 x 3 cm a nd t here i s n o r eason t o a ssume t hat i t h ad o riginally b een p art o f a p late o f l orica s egmentata. S ince n either o f t hese t wo p ieces c an b e c onvincingly i nterpreted a s p arts o f a b reast o r b ack-plate, t he l ack o f f lexibility i n t he a rmour, a s r econstructed, r emains a s trong a rgument a gainst t he u se o f s uch a m ethod f or j oining t he b ack a nd p resumably a lso t he b reast-plates. T he s implest m ethod w ould b e t he u se o f s traps, a ttached t o h inge-plates f ixed t o t he i nner e dge o f t he l eft-plates b y r ivets. T he s traps w ould t hen b e p assed t hrough t he s lots i n t he r ight-hand p lates a nd l ooped a cross t o a b uckle a nd h inge-plate, s et b ack f rom t he i nner e dge o f t he l eft p late; a s imilar a rrangement t o t he C orbridge a rmour. A s n oted a bove,

p late C c an

b e

i nterpreted

a s

p art

o f

t he

o pposing p late t o B 1/B2 a nd t herefore, f ollowing t he a rrangement a ccepted a bove, t he b ottom r ight-hand c orner o f t he l eft b reast-plate. I t h as b een o bserved t hat t he f ragment o f b ronze w ith a r ivet i s t oo f ar f rom t he b ottom e dge o f t he p late t o m atch e xactly t he p osition o f t he s lot i n t he o pposing r ight p late. B ut a b ronze p late i n t his p osition, a nd s lightly s maller t han t he s lot a nd b ronze p late o f B 1/B2, w ould m ake s ense i f i t w as p art o f a f itting t o r etain a s trap w hich t hen p assed d irectly u pwards t hrough t he s lot i n B 1/B2, d rawing t he t wo h alves o f t he b reast-plates t ogether. A s w ith t he C orbridge a rmour, t his a rrangement w ould h old

t he

b ack-plates

i n

p osition

w hile

t he

a rmour w as p ut o n a nd, i f n ecessary, t he s trap c ould t hen b e t ightened a t t he b ack b y t he w earer w ithout a ssistance. P lates B a nd C t hemselves a lso s uggest t hat t he m ethod o f a ttachment d id i ndeed e mploy s traps. W hereas t he b ronze s trips s urrounding t he h oles o n t he b ottom o f t he b reast a nd b ack-plates s eem p urely d ecorative i n f unction, t he b ronze p lates a round t he s lots w ere n ot d ecorated a nd t he b ronze n ot o nly s urrounded t he s lots b ut h ad b een c arefully w rapped a round t heir i nterior e dges: t hey s erved n o d ecorative p urpose a nd w ould n ot h ave b een n ecessary i f a m etal l oop w as u sed. H owever, i t w ould b e e xplicable i f a s trap w as i ntended t o p ass t hrough t he s lot s ince t he b ronze w ould p rotect t he l eather f rom t he s harp, i nternal e dges o f t he i ron p late. A lthough n ever e xplicity s tated, t he o riginal s uggestion b y C urle t hat t hese s lots w ere i ntended f or s traps w as p robably b ased u pon t his o bservation. A s n oted a bove, m uch h as b een m ade o f t he a bsence o f b ronze f ittings f rom t he N ewstead h oard. 26 H owever, t he c ircumstances o f d eposition d o n ot p rove t hat b uckles a nd s traps w ere n ot u sed i n t he N ewstead a rmour. T he e xcavations p roduced s everal e xamples o f s trap a nd b uckle f ittings f rom l oricae s egmentatae. T he b est e xample ( FRA 5 97) c onsists o f t wo p lates h inged t ogether. O ne ( 24.5mm x 1 4mm) a d ouble p late j oined b y t wo r ivets, t he o ther, a s ingle r ivetted p late ( 16.5mm x l4mm) w ith t he p in o f a b uckle a ttachment. U nfortunately, t here i s n o r ecord o f w here i t w as f ound. A nother s ingle b rass c uirass h inge-plate ( FRA 5 96) was f ound i n p it 6 5 which i s a lmost c ertainly F lavian i n d ate. 27 T wo o ther c uirass h inges ( FRA 3 97 and 5 98) a re i n t he museum c ollection a lthough, a gain, w e d o n ot k now whereabouts i n N ewstead t hey

3 7

w ere f ound. A ll t hese, i ncluding t he c oncentric c ircles a round t he r ivet h oles x c an b e e xactly p aralleled, f or e xample, b y f inds f rom L ongthorpe. 2 ö T here i s t herefore e vidence f or t he u se o f l orica s egmentata a t N ewstead which d id r equire b uckles a nd h inges. S ome m ay b e A ntonine a lthough t he o nly e xample w hich c an b e d ated w ith a ny c ertainty c omes f rom a F lavian c ontext; t oo e arly t o b e c ontemporary w ith t he N ewstead l orica. N evetheless, t he p ractical o bjections t o t he u se o f a l ess f lexible m ethod t han t hat p rovided b y t he u se o f s traps s eems a c ompelling a rgument a gainst t he u se o f a b ronze l oop a nd p in. I t i s e vident t hat, d espite t he i mportance o f t he C orbridge f inds, t he N ewstead a rmour c an n ot b e f ully r econstructed w ith c onfidence. H owever, a n umber o f c onclusions c an b e d rawn f rom t he C orbridge a rmour. T he u se o f i nternal l eather s traps t o j oin t he g irdle a nd s houlder-plates c an b e a ccepted f or t he N ewstead a rmour, f inally e liminating t he o riginal s uggestion b y v on G roller t hat t he p lates w ere m ounted o n a l eather j erkin. T he o rientation o f t he p lates, w ith t he f langed e dge a t t he t op, s eems s ecure: i t a llows t he h oles f or h ooks a t t he b ottom t o l ink t he b reast a nd b ack-plates t o t he g irdle-plates i n t he s ame w ay a s i n t he C orbridge a rmour, t ype C . T he i dentification o f p late A a s a r ight b ack-plate a nd B a s a r ight f ront-plate a gain f its w ith t he e vidence f rom C orbridge a nd s eems t he m ost p ractical s olution. T he a rrangement a nd n umber o f s houlder a nd g irdle-plates, a s p roposed b y R obinson, r emains r easonable a nd c an h ardly b e i mproved u pon. T o t hese c onclusions c an b e a dded a n umber o f n ew

o bservations.

T he

t op

e dge o f t he b reast a nd b ack-plates w ere n ot r olled a s i n t he C orbridge e xamples, b ut p rovided w ith b ronze e dging which p rotected t he w earer's n eck f rom t he s harp t op o f t he p lates. T he m ethod u sed t o a ttach t he b reast a nd b ack-plates w as p robably s traps a nd b uckles f ixed t o t he l eft b reast a nd b ack-plates. A m ore c omplete a nd c ertain r econstruction o f t he N ewstead a rmour m ust a wait a dditional f inds f rom N ewstead i tself o r m ore i nformative, c omparative m aterial f rom o ther s ites. 29

T HE D ATE O F T HE N EWSTEAD L ORICA S EGMENTATA A lthough

R obinson

a rgued

t hat

t he

N ewstead

a rmour w as a m ore

r obust a nd l ater t ype o f l orica s egmentata t han t he C orbridge e xamples, h e r egarded t he w ell d eposit a s c ontemporary w ith t he C orbridge h oard, d ating t o c . A .D. 9 8-100. " H owever, a c oin o f H adrian c ame f rom t he w ell a nd a t a d epth o f 1 2ft. 31 C urie, h imself, n oted t hat t he c ontents o f t he p it c ould a ll b e a scribed t o t he A ntonine p eriod. 32 M oreover, a t 2 2ft, a s amian c up ( drag.33), s tamped PROBVS.F w as e xcavated f rom t he w el1. 33 H artley h as a rgued t hat t his v essel c ould h ardly d ate e arlier t han A .D.160. 34 N or i s i t l ikely t hat t he p it w as f illed i n s oon a fter t his d ate. T he s amian e vidence f rom N ewstead s uggests t hat, u nlike f orts o n t he A ntonine w all, o ccupation c ontinued h ere l ater t han t he d eath o f A ntoninus P ius a nd p erhaps a s l ate a s t he 1 80's. 35 T he w ell w as n ot c overed b y t he c obbles w hich s eem t o r epresent t he r efurbishing o f t he p rincipia d uring t he s econd A ntonine p hase a nd C urie w as c onvinced t hat t he w ell w as i n u se d uring t he f inal p eriod o f o ccupation. 36 I t w ould t herefore s eem c ertain t hat t he c ontents o f t he w ell w ere n ot d eposited i n t he T rajanic p eriod. A d ate a s e arly a s t he e nd o f A ntonine I I i n t he m id 1 60's i s j ust p ossible, b ut i t a ppears m uch m ore l ikely t hat t he a rmour d ates t o t he e nd o f t he 2 nd c entury a nd w as d eposited i n t he w ell d uring c learing-up o perations i mmediately

3 8

p rior t o t he f inal a bandonment o f t he f ort. 37 T he d ate o f t he a rmour a lso r elates t o t he p roblem o f N ewstead's g arrison i n t he A ntonine p eriod.

T HE G ARRISON O F N EWSTEAD I N T HE A NTONINE P ERIOD F ollowing h is e xcavations a t N ewstead i n 1 947, R ichmond c oncluded t hat t here w ere o nly t wo A ntonine p eriods o f o ccupation, s eparated b y a b rief p eriod o f a bandonment. H e a lso a rgued t hat, d uring A ntonine I , a l egionary d etachment f rom l egio X X V aleria V ictrix w as q uartered w ith t he a la A ugusta V ocontiorum a nd, i n A ntonine I I, N ewstead w as p robably g arrisoned b y a m illiary a la. 38 R ichmond b ased h is a rgument u pon t he b arrack a ccommodation, t he f unction o f a ' dividing w all' s eparating t he p raetentura f rom t he r etentura i n A ntonine I a nd h is i nterpretation o f t he i nscriptions a nd t he a rmour, i ncluding t he f ragments o f l orica s egmentata f rom t he w ell. T he p raetentura c ontained 1 2 b arrack b locks, s uitable f or t wo c ohortes q uinquenariae. 39 T he r etentura w as p artitioned o ff b y a d ividing w all a nd t his R ichmond b elieved m ust h ave b een t o s egregate t wo d ifferent t ypes o f u nit: t he 1 2 b arracks i n t he p raetentura h e a ssigned t o a l egionary d etachment, t he r etentura t o t he a la A ugusta V ocontiorum. H owever, t he i dentity o f t he u nits i n A ntonine I c an n ot b e e stablished w ith a ny c ertainty f rom t he a rrangement o f t he b arracks: i n p articular, t he f irst A ntonine p hase i n t he r etentura h as n ot b een e xcavated a nd i t i s o nly s upposition t hat t he s pace, w hich i s a dmittedly a dequate f or a n a la, w as a ctually u sed f or b arracks o r s tables a t a l1. 4° T he i dentity o f t he u nit a ssigned b y R ichmond t o t he r etentura i s f ounded o n a d edication f rom N ewstead w hich h ad b een e rected b y a d ecurion o f t he a la V ocontiorum ( RIB 2 121). A lthough u ndated, t he i nscription i s c rudely c ut i n a c ursive s cript, u nparalleled b y t he o ther i nscriptions f rom N ewstead: a l ate A ntonine o r S everan d ate w ould s eem m ore l ikely. 41 A m ore c onvincing a rgument f or a n a uxiliary u nit a t N ewstead i n A ntonine I c an b e m ade f or c ohors IC ugernorum : t he I ngliston m ilestone ( RIB 2 313) r ecords r epairs c arried o ut t o t he r oad b etween C ramond a nd N ewstead c .A .D.143/6. 42 A lthough t he m ilestone a ppears t o h ave b een f ound c loser t o C ramond t han t o N ewstead, t he r eference t o t he d istance f rom T rimontium ( Newstead) m ay b e s ignificant: a uxiliary u nits w ere o ften r esponsible f or m aintaining r oads i n t he v icinity o f t heir b ases, r ecorded o n t he m ilestones t hey s et u p. 43 A c ompelling a rgument f or t he p resence o f a m ixed f orce o f a uxiliaries a nd l egionaries w as c onsidered t o b e t he f inds f rom t he w ell i n t he p rincipia which w ere t hought t o i nclude b oth a uxiliary e quipment a nd l egionary a rmour ( the l orica s egmentata). 44 H owever, i t h as b een a rgued t hat l orica s egmentata i n t he w estern p rovinces m ay a lso h ave b een i ssued t o a uxiliaries. 45- W ie c onquest o f D acia, r epresented o n T rajan 's C olumn , o riginally i nspired t he d eduction t hat s egmentata w as s tandard l egionary i ssue, b ut t here i s e qually a s uspicion t hat a uxiliaries i n D acia w ere b eing s upplied w ith l orica s egmentata d uring t he 2 nd c entury. 46 M oreover, a s a rgued a bove, t he c ontents o f t he w ell a re u nlikely t o h ave b een d eposited b efore t he e nd o f A ntonine I I a nd c ould w ell d ate t o t he l ater 2 nd c entury, p ossibly c .A .D.180 i f t his i s t he d ate o f N ewstead's f inal a bandonment. 47 T he c haracter o f t he e quipment f rom t he w ell d oes n ot t herefore p rovide a c onclusive a rgument i n f avour o f am ixed a uxiliary

3 9

a nd l egionary g arrison a nd t he d ate o f t he m aterial c an n ot b e A ntonine Ia nd c onsequently c an n ot b e c ontemporary w ith t he d ividing w all which w as t hought t o s eparate t he l egionary f rom t he a uxiliary d etachments: t he w all w as n o l onger u sed d uring t he s econd p eriod o f A ntonine o ccupation. 48 I f t he e vidence f or t he g arrison o f A ntonine I s eems s cant t o s ay t he l east,

t he g arrison

i n

A ntonine

I I

i s

s till

m ore

d ifficult t o i dentify. R ichmond s uggested a m illiary a la a lthough, s ince t he o nly m illiary a la known t o h ave b een i n B ritain w as t he a la P etriana a nd t his i s b elieved t o h ave b een b ased a t S tanwix i n t his p eriod, t he a rgument l acks c onvinction. 49 A lthough t he 1 2 b arracks o f t he p raetentura a ppear t o h ave b een r eused, t he s ize o f t he g arrison r emains u ncertain: t o a ccommodate a c avalry u nit o f m illiary s trength, R ichmond s upposed t hat t he r etentura h ad b een f ully o ccupied b y s tables b ut t hat t hose i n t he n orthern p art o f t he r etentura h ad b een d estroyed b y p loughing. H owever, C urie m aintained t hat t he c obbled s urface i n t he n orthern h alf o f t he r etentura w as a n o pen y ard a nd h ad n ever b een u sed f or b uildings: e ither w ay, t he c ase r emains u nproven . 5° I t w ould s eem t hat t he e vidence f or a m ixed l egionary a nd a uxiliary f orce a t N ewstead i n A ntonine I i s u nconvincing a nd t hat n o c onclusions c an b e s afely d rawn a bout t he g arrison i n A ntonine I I e xcept t hat t he c ross-hall a dded t o t he p rincipia m ay i ncluded c avalry. 51 T he

a rgument

i n

b e

f avour

t aken

t o

s uggest

t hat

t he

g arrison

o f a l egionary p resence i n t he A ntonine

p eriod w ould s eem t o b e s upported b y t he d iscovery o f f our d edications b y C . A rrius D omitianus, c enturion o f l egio X X V aleria V ictrix. T hree c ame f rom t he d itch o f t he e ast a nnexe a nd a re p ersonal d edications; t o D iana ' on a ccount o f f avourable r esults' ( ob p rosperos e ventus) ( RIB 2 122), a f ragmentary d edication ( RIB 2 125), 52 a nd o ne t o S ilvanus ' for t he w elfare o f h imself a nd h is f amily' ( pro s alute s ua e t s uorum) ( RIB 2 124), s uggesting t hat t he c enturion's f amily w as w ith h im a nd t hat h e w as p robably r esident a t N ewstead a nd n ot t emporarily a ssigned t o s upervise t he b uilding o f t he f ort o r i ts r ebuilding: t he d iscovery o f b uilding s tones c arved w ith t he b oar e mblem c ertainly p roves t hat l egio X X V aleria V ictrix w as r esposible f or c onstruction w ork a t N ewstead. 53 T he f ourth d edication ( RIB 2 123), t his t ime t o J upiter O ptimus M aximus, w as f ound i n t he w ell a t a d epth o f 1 2 f eet. P resumably t his a ltar h ad s tood i n t he p rincipia a nd h ad b een p urposely d eposited i n t he w ell p rior t o t he a bandonment o f t he f ort. T here i s n o s uggestion t hat a ny o f t he i nscriptions h ad b een r eused a s b uilding s tones a nd i t w ould s eem

r easonable t o c onclude t hat, a s w ith t he a rmour,

t hey d ate t o t he

l ate A ntonine p eriod a nd c ould h ave b een e rected a s l ate a s c .A .D.180. T he s urvival o f t hese i nscriptions s uggests, a s i n t he c ase o f o ther A ntonine i nscriptions f rom S cotland, t hat t hey w ere c arefully b uried t o a void d esecration a fter t he a bandonment o f t he f ort. I t h as b een a rgued t hat, s ince A rrius D omitianus i s a lways d escribed a s s imply a c enturion o f l egio X X , h e m ust h ave b een i n c ommand o f a l egionary d etachment a nd n ot a cting c ommander ( praepositus) o f a n a uxiliary u nit. 54 H owever, i t m ay b e o bserved t hat D omitianus d oes n ot d escribe h imself a s c ommader o f a l egionary v exillatio e ither. A rrius D omitianus i s n ot t he o nly c enturion a ttested a t N ewstead. A d edication t o A pollo ( RIB 2 120) w as e rected b y L . M aximius G aetulicus a nd i t, t oo, h ad b een c arefully h idden : i t w as f ound i n a n A ntonine p it i n t he s outh a nnexe. N o l egion i s s pecified. A lso, t he s pacing a nd c ruder l ettering f or t he t itle o f l egionary c enturion, a t t he e nd o f t he i nscription, i ndicates t hat t his w as a n a fterthought, a dded t o t he p rimary t ext w hich s imply g ave t he

4 0

c enturion's n ame. I t m ay b e p resumed t hat G aetulicus w as N ewstead d uring t he s econd p eriod o f o ccupation. H e m ay h ave o r s ucceeded A rrius D omitianus i n h is c ommand o r h e c ould h ave N ewstead i n c harge o f a nother u nit o r d etachment. F ortunately , r ather m ore a bout G aetulicus. I n A .D. 1 84, a s p rimus p ilus o f

a lso a t p receded b een a t w e k now l egio I

I talica a t N ovae i n M oesia I nferior, h e d edicated a s tatue f or t he w elfare o f t he e mperor C ommodus i n f ulfilment o f a v ow h e h ad m ade w hile a n o rdinary s oldier ( tiro) i n l egio X X V aleria V ictrix. 55 A ssuming n o e rror i n t he i nscription , h e w ould s eem t o h ave s erved f or t he r emarkable p eriod o f 5 7 y ears a nd t o h ave e nlisted i n A .D.127. H is c areer w ould a llow h im t o h ave N ewstead

e ither

u nder

s erved

a s

c enturion

o f l egio

X X

a t

A ntoninus P ius o r u nder M . A urelius b efore h is

t ransfer t o t he L ower D anube. G aetulicus a lso s et u p a d edication t o J upiter D olichenus a t G reat C hesters ( RIB 1 725). A s a t N ewstead, n o c ommand i s m entioned. C onceivably, h e w as i n c harge o f a l egionary d etachment b ut t here i s n o r eason t o a ssume t hat t his w as s o: a n a uxiliary u nit w as c ertainly s tationed t here i n A .D.166/9 ( RIB 1 737) a nd i t s eems m ore l ikely t hat h e w as a cting c ommander o f a n a uxiliary u nit o r d etachment o f a uxilia. 56 A lthough c ommon i n t he i st c entury A .D. a nd a gain i n t he 3 rd, t he u se o f l egionary c enturions a s c ommanders o f a uxiliary u nits w as a r arity i n t he A ntonine p eriod a nd i nvariably, when i t i s a ttested, t he c ommand

i s

e xpressed

i n

s uch

a

w ay

a s

t o

e mphasize i ts u nusual

c haracter a nd t emporary n ature. 57 H owever, i t i s i n A ntonine S cotland t hat t he u se o f l egionary c enturions a s t emporary c ommanders o f a uxiliary u nits i s r emarkably w ell-authenticated. F lavius B etto, c enturion o f l egio X X V aleria V ictrix a nd i n c harge o f c ohors V I N erviorum, e rected a n a ltar t o V ictory a t R ough C astle ( RIB 2 144). A nother c enturion o f l egio X X V aleria V ictrix, c ommanding c ohors I T ungrorum , s et u p a d edication t o t he M other G oddesses a t C ramond ( RIB 2 135). I n b oth c ases, t he u nits c an b e p resumed t o h ave b een i n g arrison a t t hese f orts o n t he A ntonine W all. T he w ife o f F lavius V erecundus, a nother c enturion o f l egio X X , d edicated a n a ltar w ith h er f amily a t W esterwood. 58 I n v iew o f t he o ther t wo e xamples, i t s eems m ost p robable t hat V erecundus w as a lso i n c harge o f a n a uxiliary f orce. A nother i nscription o ffers a p osssible e xplanation f or t he u se o f l egionary c enturions a s a uxiliary c ommanders i n A ntonine S cotland: I ulius C andidus, c enturion o f l egio I I talica, a nd a cting c ommander o f c ohors I B aetasiorum , s et u p a d edication t o I upiter O ptimus M aximus a t O ld K ilpatrick a lthough P ublicius M aternus w as s till p raefectus c ohortis. A p lausible d eduction w ould b e t hat t he u nit w as b ased a t B ar H ill ( RIB 2 169, 2 170) a nd t hat I ulius C andidus c ommanded a d etachment o f t he u nit a t O ld K ilpatrick. 59 T hree, p robably f our i nstances o f l egionary c enturions c ommanding a uxiliary u nits o r a uxiliary d etachments o n t he A ntonine W all i s u nparalled e lsewhere i n t he e mpire a t t his t ime. H owever, g iven t he l arge n umber o f f orts o ccupied i n S cotland d uring t he A ntonine p eriod a nd t he g enerally s mall s ize o f t he f orts o n t he A ntonine W all which m ust h ave c ontained d etachments n ot f ull a uxiliary u nits, i t w ould n ot b e s urprising i f t here w as a s hortage o f a uxiliary p raefecti, a nd t hat t his d eficiency w as m ade u p b y a ssigning c enturions t o t emporary c ommands o f a uxilia o r d etachments o f

a uxilary

u nits.

I n which c ase,

t he A ntonine a rrangement which u sed

c enturions a s a uxiliary c ommanders c an b e s een a s a n ovel a nd f lexible r esponse t o t he p roblems e ncounted d uring t he o ccupation o f S cotland. E xceptional a s t his m easure w as, i n c omparison w ith o ther p rovinces, i t

4 1

c an b e e xplained a s a r esult o f t he c haracter a nd d ispositon o f g arrisons, p eculiar t o t he t he n orthern f rontier o f B ritain i n t he A ntonine p eriod. T his c ircumstance w ould a lso c alls i nto q uestion t he p osition o f M . C occeius F irmus, c enturion o f l egio I I A ugusta, w ho, l ike A rrius D omitianus, i s c ommemorated o n a s eries o f d edications t o a v ariety o f d eities which s eem t o h ave b een b uried f or s afety i n a r ubbish p it c lose t o t he f ort o f A uchendavy ( RIB 2 174 - 2 177). O n o ne, t he c enturion r ecorded t hat i t w as s et u p t o h imself a nd h is f amily ( RIB 2 176): t he p resumption b eing t hat h e w as r esident a t t he f ort a nd p resumably i n c ommand a nd n ot t emporarily t here t o s upervise t he b uilding o r r econstruction o f t he f ort. A lthough d etachments o f l egio I I A ugusta ( RIB 2 180, 2 186) a nd l egio V I V ictrix ( RIB 2 184-5) w ere e ngaged i n b uilding o n t he w all i n t his s ector, t here i s n o c ertainty t hat t he f ort h eld a l egionary d etachment. ° A f unerary i nscription o f a s oldier o f l egio I I A ugusta ( RIB 2 181) a dds a l ittle t o t he a rgument i n f avour o f a p ermanent l egionary p resence. H owever, i t i s e qually p ossible t hat C occeius a uxiliary u nit o r a uxiliary d etachment. C onsequently i t

m ust

b e

c oncluded

F irmus

t hat

w as

t he

i n c harge o f a n

p resence

o f

t wo

l egionary c enturions a t N ewstead d oes n ot p rove t hat t he f ort e ver c ontained a l egionary d etachment. I ndeed, t he a bsence o f a ny r eference t o a c ommand f or G aetulicus a nd D omitianus i n t he N ewstead i nscriptions s uggests t hat t he c ommand w as n ot o ne which t hey t hought a ppropriate t o m ention o r c onvenient t o i nscribe o n a n a ltar: a ll t hree o f t he c ertain i nstances w here t he c enturions a re a ttested a s c ommanders o f a uxilia u se d ifferent e xpressions t o d esignate t heir f unction a nd n one e mploys t he t itle p raepositus. 61 S ince t he c ommand o f a n a uxiliary f orce w as n ot p art o f t he c enturion's n ormal c areer a nd w ould b e c onsidered a n a d h oc, t emporary m easure a nd n ot a p romotion, i t i s h ardly s urprising t hat s uch a v ariety o f t erms w as u sed t o d escribe s uch a p ost a nd t hat i t m ay h ave b een omitted o n t he a ltars a t G reat C hesters, A uchendavy a nd N ewstead. I n t he c ase o f A rrius D omitianus, a s w ith C occeius F irmus,

i t

r emains

u ncertain

w hether

h e

c ommanded a uxilia

o r

a

l egionary d etachment. M aximius G aetulicus a lmost c ertainly d id c ommand a n a uxiliary f orce a t G reat C hesters a nd i t s eems n ot u nlikely t hat h e d id s o a gain a t N ewstead. T entative t hough s uch c onclusions a re, e vidence t akes u s n o f urther.

t he

C ONCLUSION A s n oted i n t he i ntroduction t o t his p aper,

f ew s olutions

c an

b e

o ffered t o a ny o f t he p roblems which s urround N ewstead a nd i ts g arrison i n t he A ntonine p eriod. H owever, i t d oes s eem t hat t he r econstruction o f t he a rmour a s p roposed b y R obinson m ust b e m odified. T here w as n o p in t o j oin t he f ront a nd b ack-plates b ut t here w as a b ronze e dging w hich p rotected t he n eck f rom t he s harp t op o f t he p lates. T he m ethod o f c onecting t he f ront a nd b ack-plates w as n ot a r igid a rrangement w hich l ocked t he p lates t ogether b ut b oth s ets o f p lates w ere p robably j oined b y l eather s traps a ttached t o b ronze p lates a nd r etained b y r ivets t o t he i nner e dge o f t he l eft b reast a nd b ack-plates a nd l ooped t hrough t he s lots i n t he o pposing p lates t o r each b uckles m ounted o n t he l eft-hand s ide p lates. T he d ate o f t he a rmour, f ar f rom b eing c ontemporary w ith t he C orbridge h oard, s hould b e a ssigned t o c .A .D. 1 64 a t t he e arliest, p ossibly a s l ate a s c . A .D. 1 80. T he n ature o f t he

4 2

g arrison o f N ewstead i n A ntonine I

r emains

u ncertain:

t he

' dividing

w all' b etween t he p raetentura a nd r etentura c ertainly s uggests t hat t he t wo h alves o f t he f ort h ad s eparate f unctions a nd m ay i ndeed h ave s erved t o s eparate t wo u nits a lthough t here i s n o c ertainty w hether t he g arrison a t t his p eriod w as l egionary o r a uxiliary - o r b oth. O ne o f t he u nits i n g arrison a t N ewstead i n A ntonine I m ay h ave b een c ohors I C ugernorum. T he a rmour f rom t he w ell a nd t he l egionary d edications c an b e a ssigned t o t he s econd p eriod o f o ccupation. H owever, t he l orica s egmentata c an n o l onger b e t aken a s e vidence t hat l egionaries w ere i n g arrison a t N ewstead a nd t he t wo l egionary c enturions c ould a s e asily h ave b een c ommanders o f a uxilia a s c ommanders o f l egionary v exillations. I t i s t o t his p eriod, i f n ot l ater, t hat t he a ltar d edicated b y t he d ecurion o f t he a la A ugusta V ocontiorum c an b est b e a ssigned r ather t han t o A ntonine I . G iven t he s ize o f t he f ort, t here w ould b e r oom f or a dditional f orces, b ut, w ithout a ny e vidence f or t he f unction n or e ven t he e xistence o f b uildings, e specially i n t he n orthern r etentura, e ven t he s ize o f t he g arrison r emains u ncertain. E asy s olutions t o t he p roblem o f a g arrisons i n A ntonine f orts c an h ardly b e e xpected: t he v ariety o f a rrangements o n t he A ntonine W all i llustrate t he f lexibility o f t he m ilitary d ispositions where units c ould b e b rigaded t ogether o r s ubdivided a s n eeds r equired.

6 2

R ecent e xcavations a nd e pigraphic f inds h ave h ighlighted m ajor d ifficulties i n t he i nterpretation o f t he A ntonine o ccupation o f S cotland. T hey m ust a lso c all i nto q uestion t he v alidity o f c onclusions m ade a bout N ewstead a t a t ime when t he e vidence o f t he i nscriptions a nd t he a rmour a ppeared l ess ambiguous t han i t d oes t oday. ° F rustrating a s i t s eems t o b e, t he d ifficulties a pparent i n u nderstanding t he r ole o f f orts a nd t heir g arrisons d oes a t l east f ully r eflect t he c omplexity o f t he s olution w hich t he R oman a rmy e mployed i n a ttempting t o d eal w ith i ts o wn p roblem, t he o ccupation o f s outhern S cotland.

N OTES 1 .

C URLE,

1 911,

1 56-8.

2 .

T his c ontribution h as b een i nspired b y M r J . T urner's r eplica o f t he N ewstead a rmour, b ased u pon r econstruction. a dvice

a nd

I w ish t o

h elp

a cknowledge

a lso

M r

f ull-scale R obinson's

T urner's

e xpert

i n c onsidering a lternative e xplanations f or t he

N ewstead m aterial. I t i s a nticipated t hat M r T urner w ill c ontinue e xperimenting w ith o ther r econstructions o f t he a rmour a nd t hat h is r esults w ill b e f ully p ublished when t he s tudy i s c ompleted. T his p aper c ould n ot h ave b een w ritten w ithout t he c o-operation o f t he R oyal M useum o f S cotland a nd, i n p articular, I w ish t o a cknowledge t he h elp o f M r M . S pearman who a llowed m e t o e xamine t he u npublished p ieces o f t he N ewstead a rmour h oused i n t he m useum 's r eserve c ollection a nd t o i nspect t he m useum r ecords. H e a lso d iligently a nswered q ueries a nd c arried o ut s upplementary

3 .

m easurements, a l aborious t ask w ithout o bservations w ould n ot h ave b een p ossible.

w hich

T he R oyal M useum C atalogue n otes 4 9

o f l orica

4 3

p ieces

t he

f ollowing

s egmentata

u nder t he i nventory n umber F RA 1 17 a lthough a n a mendment r einterpretes o ne f ragment ( FRA 1 21A) a s p art o f a n i ron h elmet. T he p ublished a ccount n otes " some 4 0 p ieces" i n a ddition t o t he 4 p ieces o f b reast a nd b ack-plates; 1 911,

C URLE,

1 911,

1 56-7.

4 .

C URLE,

4 7-49 a nd 1 16-117.

5 .

M ANNING,

6 .

N one o f t he i tems i n p it 1 a re o f i ntrinsic v alue. T he i nscription m ay w ell h ave b een d eliberately d eposited i n t he p it t o a void d esecration b y t he e nemy b ut i t w ould b e w rong t o a ssume t hat t he f ragments o f a rmour w ere n ecessarily d eposited i n t he w ell t o p revent t hem f alling i nto t he h ands o f t he e nemy: a b ronze l aminated t high g uard h ad b een s imply a bandoned i n r oom 7 o n t he n orth s ide o f t he p rincipia; C URLE, 1 911, 5 1: R OBINSON 1 975, 1 85.

7 .

V ON G ROLLER ,

1 900,

8 .

C URLE,

1 58.

9 .

I bid. n ote 8 .

1 972,

1 911,

2 43-6.

9 5-113;

C URLE,

1 911,

1 56-158.

1 0.

W EBSTER ,

1 960.

1 1.

W EBSTER ,

1 960,

1 2.

W EBSTER , 1 969, 1 24-6 a nd f igs. 1 5 a nd 1 6. T he C orbridge h oard w as e xcavated i n 1 964: D ANIELS, 1 968, 1 15.

1 3.

R OBINSON,

1 4.

R OBINSON, 1 976, 1 80. R obinson a lso t ook a ccount o f t he f inds Z ugmantel i n G ermany, s ee b elow , n ote 2 9.

1 5.

D ANIELS,

1 6.

T his f ragment i s n ot i ncluded i n t he p ublication o f t he N ewstead a rmour, c f. C URLE, 1 911, F ig.11, 1 57. I t i s, h owever, i n t he r eserve c ollection i n t he R oyal M useum o f S cotland a nd i ncluded i n

1 972,

1 968,

1 94.

3 3;

i bid.,

1 25-6;

1 975,

R OBINSON,

1 80-1.

1 972,

3 0-33;

t he c atalogue u nder t he h eading F RA 1 17. 1 7.

i bid.,

S ee a bove,

1 975,

f rom

1 74-180.

n ote 3 .

N ear t he t op o f p late B i t here i s a s mall s quare c ut a s i f a r ivet h ad o riginally p assed t hrough a h ole a t t he b roken e dge, i n a p osition which w ould c ould s upport R obinson's d eduction.

1 8.

R obinson r efers t o t he s imilarity b etween t he l orica s egmentata f rom N ewstead a nd t he f ragments o f a rmour f rom Z ugmantel where a d ouble s ized b ottom g irdle-plate p rovides a r easonable R OBINSON, 1 975, 1 81, 1 84. S ee, h owever, n ote 2 9.

1 9.

R OBINSON,

1 975,

1 81;

2 0.

R OBINSON,

1 972,

3 2;

2 1.

V ON G ROLLER ,

1 900,

C URLE, i bid.,

F ig.

1 911, 1 975,

2 4.

4 4

1 58 a nd F ig.11, 1 81.

p arallel;

4 a nd 4 a,

1 57.

2 2.

S ee n ote 2 .

2 3.

R OBINSON,

1 972,

3 4;

i bid.,

1 975,

1 80.

2 4.

R OBINSON,

1 972,

3 3;

i bid.,

1 975,

1 80 a nd F ig.181.

2 5.

C URLE,

2 6.

R OBINSON,

2 7.

C URLE,

2 8.

F RERE & S T. J OSEPH,

2 9.

T he o nly f ragments o f l orica s egmentata which h ave b een r ecognised

1 911, F ig. 1 975,

1 911,

1 1 n o.10,

1 80;

C URLE,

1 57. 1 911,

1 58.

p late L XXXI.9 a nd p late L XXVI.11, 1 974, n os.22-30,

i bid.,

1 12 a nd 1 31.

4 8 a nd F ig.26.

a s b eing s imilar i n c haracter t o t he N ewstead t ype c ome f rom t he f ort o f Z ugmantel i n G ermany. R obinson e xamined t his m aterial ( which h e i ncorrectly a ttributed t o S aalburg) a nd i dentified p art o f a l eft b reast-plate w ith a f langed n eck: i t a lso h ad a b ronze p late m ounted o n t he e dge w ith a h ole p uched t hrough i t w hich h e t ook t o b e f or a t urning-pin t o p ass t hrough a s lot i n a r ight b reast-plate, f astening t he t wo p lates t ogether: a m ethod u sed t o f asten t he e mbossed b reast-plates u sed f or p arade l oricae s quamatae; R OBINSON, 1 975, 1 84. f astening f or t he p arade a rmour

T he a ttested u se o f s uch a i s n ot a h elpful p arallel:

a lthough i t i s f easible f or a b reast-plate, i ts u se i n c onnecting t he b ack-plates w ould p resent t he s ame d ifficulty n oted i n u sing a p in i n t he N ewstead a rmour. I n S eptember 1 987, w ith t he k ind p ermission o f D r D . B aatz, t he f ragments o f a rmour f rom Z ugmantel w ere e xamined i n t he s tores o f t he S aalburg M useum . T he c ollection ( Z.M. 1 425) i ncluded o ne p ortion o f a b reast-plate w ith f langed n eck c .9 x 7 cm a nd a s maller, i rregular p iece o f i ron, c .6.5 x 6 .5cm, w hich r etained a b ronze p late, c .3.5 x 3 cm, h eld b y t wo r ivets i n t he t op r ight-hand a nd b ottom r ight-hand c orners. T he

l eft

a nd

b ottom

l eft

s ides

o f

t he b ronze p late a nd t hat

p ortion o f t he i ron p late t o w hich i t w as a ttached, d oes n ot s urvive. O riginally, i t m ay w ell h ave b een a s quare p late ( 3.5 x 3 .5cm) h eld i n p lace b y a r ivet a t e ach o f t he f our c orners. A h ole h ad b een p unched t hrough t he c entre o f t he b ronze p late a nd t hrough t he i ron p late t o w hich i t w as a ttached. H owever, t he s ides a re r ough a nd w ere c learly n ot i ntended t o h old a t urning-pin. I t s eems c ertain t hat t he h ole o riginally h eld a r ivet. I f t his f ragment w as i ndeed p art o f a b reast-plate, t he b ronze p late c ould h ave h eld a b ronze l oop, a s R obinson s uggested f or t he N ewstead a rmour, o r, a s a rgued h ere f or t he N ewstead a rmour, a b ronze a ttachment f or a s trap. I t w ould t herefore s eem t hat t he Z ugmantel a rmour d oes n ot h elp w ith t he r econstruction o f t he N ewstead l orica. H owever, t he g eneral s imilarity b etween t he a rmour f rom N ewstead a nd Z ugmantel i s o f i nterest g iven t he a rgument h ere t hat t he N ewstead a rmour i s l ikely t o b e l ate A ntonine i n d ate. I t h as b een s uggested t hat, g iven t he c ircumstances i n w hich t he Z ugmantel a rmour w as f ound, t his e quipment p robably d ates t o a p eriod o f d estruction o r a bandonment o f t he f ort e ither c .A .D.170 o r c .A .D.233-60 ( Dr D . B aatz, p ers. c omm.).

4 5

3 0.

T hat t he N ewstead a rmour i s l ater t han t he C orbridge l oricae a nd r epresents a s implified, i f m ore r obust m odel s eems a n e ntirely r easonable d eduction ; R OBINSON, 1 972, 3 4; i bid., 1 975, 1 82. T he T rajanic d ate f or t he N ewstead a rmour w as, h owever, a ccepted; R OBINSON, 1 972, 3 3; i bid., 1 975, 1 75; D ANIELS, 1 968, 1 26.

3 1.

C URLE,

1 911,

1 16.

3 2.

C URLE,

1 911,

1 13,

3 3.

C URLE,

1 911,

4 9,

3 4.

H ARTLEY,

3 5.

1 16. 1 16.

1 972.

T he p resence o f

d ecorated

R heinzabern

w are

a nd

m id-

t o

l ate

A ntonine p otters' s tamps f rom N ewstead s trongly s uggests t hat, u nlike t he f orts o n t he A ntonine W all, N ewstead c ontined t o b e o ccupied

u ntil

c .A .D.180;

H ARTLEY,

1 972,

5 3-4.

P recision

i s

c learly i mpossible b ut i t w ould b e t empting t o a ssociate t he a bandonment o f N ewstead w ith t he e vidence f or s erious t rouble o n t he n orthern f rontier c .A .D.180/84. C f. H ANSON a nd M AXWELL, 1 983, 1 97-9. 3 6.

C URLE,

1 911,

3 7.

A lthough t here i s a s uggestion o f S everan a ctivity a t N ewstead i t d oes n ot s eem t o a mount t o a f ull-scale r eoccupation o f t he s ite; H ARTLEY,

4 7-8,

1 972,

1 15.

5 4.

3 8.

R ICHMOND,

1 950.

3 9.

R ICHMOND,

1 950,

4 0.

R ICHMOND, 1 950, 2 1. G iven t he u se o f a nnexes d uring t he A ntonine p eriod a t N ewstead, p resumably f or t emporary e ncampments a nd f or q uartering a nimals a nd s upplies i n t ransit, a s imilar f unction f or

2 1;

C URLE,

1 911,

7 4-6.

t he r etentura i n A ntonine I c an h ardly b e c onsidered i mpossible. 4 1.

I t s eems h ardly p robable t hat t he q uality o f t he i nscriptions a t N ewstead c an r eflect t he s tatus o f t he u nits; b oth t he i nscription s et u p b y t he d ecurion a nd t hose e rected b y t he c enturions w ere p ersonal c ontrasts

d edications. T he p oor q uality o f w ith t he g enerally h igh s tandard

t his i nscription o f l ettering i n

i nscriptions s et u p o n t he A ntonine W all. A lthough R IB 2 167 f rom B ar H ill i s s imilar, t he c ursive M a nd t he o mission o f t he h orizontal l ine i n t he A i s m ore t ypical o f t he 3 rd c entury c f. R IB 9 13, 2 238, 2 241, 2 251. 4 2.

K EPPIE,

4 3.

C f.

1 983, n o.11,

3 98.

c ohors I I F lavia B rittonum which w as b ased a t S exaginta P rista

( Ruse) i n L ower M oesia f rom t he m iddle

o f

t he

2 nd

c entury

a nd

w hich w as r esponsible f or r oad-repairs a long t he D anubian l imes i n t he v icinity o f i ts f ort; P OULTER, 1 983, 1 29-30, 5 86-7.

4 6

4 4.

R ICHMOND,

1 950,

2 1.

4 5.

M AXFIELD,

1 986.

4 6.

C f. t he c ase o f B uciumi which h as p roduced h ooks a nd h inges f rom l oricae s egmentatae; C HIRILA e t a l., 1 972, p late C XIII, n os.38,42,47. T he c ohors I I N ervia7- B rittonum i s a ttested a t B uciumi b ut t here i s n o r eason t o a ssume t hat t he f ort e ver c ontained a l egionary d etachment;

i bid.,

1 14-120.

4 7.

A bove,

n ote 3 5.

4 8.

R ICHMOND,

1 950,

4 9.

R ICHMOND,

1 950,21. A gainst t his s uggestion c f. D ANIELS,

5 0.

R ICHMOND,

1 950,

2 1,24.

5 1.

R ICHMOND,

1 950,

2 4.

5 2.

T hat

t his

i s

1 5-19,22.

a nother

c ertain: K EPPIE, 1 911,

d edication

1 983, n o.2,

b y C .

1 978,

3 11.

A rrius s eems r easonably

3 92.

5 3.

C URLE,

1 44.

5 4.

R ICHMOND,

5 5.

A rchaeologia ( Warsaw) X XXV ( 1984),

1 950,

1 9-20. 1 42-3.

( I a m g rateful

t o

J ohn

M ann f or d rawing m y a ttention t o t his i nscription). T he l ength o f s ervice o f G aetulicus c an b e a lmost m atched b y a nother c enturion w ho s erved d uring t he r eign o f A ntoninus P ius ( ILS 2 658): h is m ilitary c areer s panned h alf a c entury. 5 6.

T he f ragmentary i nscription f rom G reat C hesters a ttests t he p resence o f a n a uxiliary c ohort i n A .D. 1 66/9, a pparently a c ohors R aetorum ( RIB 1 737): i dentity w ith c ohors G aesatorum R aetorum, a d etachment o f w hich w as b ased a t G reat C hesters a nd c ommanded b y a c enturion ( RIB 1 724), s eems l ikely. H owever, t his c enturion, T abellius V ictor, w as p robably p raepositus o f t he u nit i n t he e arly 3 rd c entury a nd h is c ommand p rovides n o s upport f or t he v iew t hat t hat t he u nit w as u nder a l egionary c enturion i n t he A ntonine p eriod e ven i f i t w as a t G reat C hesters u nder A ntoninus P ius; c f. R IB 1 216, 1 217, 1 235, 2 117.

5 7.

B IRLEY,

1 976,

9 1-2.

A ntonine e xamples o f c enturions s econded t o

t ake c harge o f a uxiliary u nits a re a r arity o utside B ritain a nd t hose c ases a ttested a re c learly e xceptional; c f. I LS 9 127,9173,2615. F or a f ull d iscussion o f t he e vidence s ee B IRLEY, 1 983. 5 8.

K EPPIE,

1 983, n o.11,

4 01.

5 9.

K EPPIE, 1 983, o .14, 4 01-2; H ANSON a nd M AXWELL, 1 983, 1 57-8. A S everan d ate f or t he i nscription h as b een s uggested; B IRLEY, 1 983 7 5-7 a lthough t his s eems i mprobable c f. K EPPIE o p.

4 7

c it.

6 0.

R IB

2 179

a ppeaLs

t o

b e

a

A ugusta a nd p erhaps a n a la:

d edication

r esolving t he p roblem o f t he g arrison b uilding

i nscription;

K EPPIE,

1 983,

e nough e vidence t o d ecide t he i ssue. p ossible;

K EPPIE,

1 985,

3 3.

c ommanded a n a uxiliary f orce; 6 1.

I nstante ( RIB a (gente)

6 2. 6 3.

2 135);

( KEPPIE,

c f.

B REEZE,

T he

n ature

R ichmond

1 982,

s ince n o.5, A

i t

m ay

3 95.

c (uram

d etachment

a git)

1 983,

a i s

( RIB

1 67.

2 144);

c (uram)

4 01).

1 11-112.

a nd s equence o f g arrisons a t N ewstead,

h as

b e

C occeius F irmus m ay h ave

H ANSON and M AXWELL,

n o.14,

w ell

T here i s s carcely

l egionary

E qually,

c (uius)

1 983,

b y s oldiers o f l egio I I

a n o ddity i n i tself b ut n ot h elpful i n

r emained

l argely

u nchallenged.

a s p roposed b y

I n

p articular,

N ewstead h as b een c ited a s a n e xample o f a f ort which c ertainly w as o ccupied b y a m ixed g arrison o f a uxiliary a nd l egionary f orces;

R OBERTSON,

1 979,

3 5-36; H ANSON a nd MAXWELL,

1 983,

7 0.

B IBLIOGRAPHY B IRLEY

1 976:

E .

P apers, B IRLEY

1 983:

B irley,

( Kendal, E .

R oman

B ritain a nd t he R oman A rmy:

B irley,

' A R oman a ltar f rom O ld K ilpatrick a nd

c ommanders o f a uxiliary u nits', B REEZE

1 982:

D .J.

C ollected

1 976)

B reeze,

T he

L atomus, X LII,

N orthern

1 983,

i nterim

7 3-83.

F rontiers o f R oman B ritain,

( London 1 982) C HIRILA e t a l.

1 972:

R ömerlager

v on

E .

C hirila, B uciumi:

D acia P orolissensis, C URLE

1 911: J .

C urie,

N .

G udea,

V .

L ucacel,

C .

P op,

D as

B eiträge z ur U ntersuchung d es l imes d er

( Cluj

1 972)

A R oman F rontier P ost a nd i ts P eople:

N ewstead i n t he P arish o f M elrose,

t he F ort o f

( Glasgow 1 911)

D ANIELS 1 968: C . D aniels, ' A h oard o f i ron C orbridge', A rchaeologia A eliana,

a nd o ther X LVI ( 4th

m aterials s eries),

f rom 1 968,

1 15-126 D ANIELS

1 978:

H andbook t o t he

R oman

e dited a nd e nlarged b y C . F RERE

&

S T.

J OSEPH

1 974:

S .S.

f ortress a t L ongthorpe,

H ARTLEY

1 972:

( Edinburgh, B .R.

J .

C ollingwood

a nd

B ruce,

V ,

G .

1 974,

' The R oman

1 -129

M axwell,

R ome's

N orth

W est

1 983)

H artley,

e vidence o f s amian ware', K EPPIE

b y

( Newcastle u pon T yne 1 978)

F rere a nd J .K.St. J oseph,

B ritannia,

H ANSON & MAXWELL 1 983: W . H anson F rontier,

W all

D aniels,

' The

R oman o ccupation o f S cotland:

B ritannia,

I II,

1 972,

t he

1 -55

1 983: L .J.F. K eppie, ' Roman i nscriptions f rom S cotland: s ome a dditions a nd c orrections t o R IB I ', P SAS C XIII, 1 983, 3 91-404.

4 8

K EPPIE

a nd

WALKER

1 985:

L .J.F.

R oman f ort a nd s ettlement', MANNING 1 972:

W . H .

B ritain', M AXFIELD

1 986:

V .A .

B ritannia, P OULTER 1 983:

M anning,

B ritannia,

A .G.

D omitian

t o

1 985,

' Iron w ork H oards i n I ron

I II,

M axfield,

X VII,

K eppie and J .J. W alker, B ritannia, X VI,

1 972,

' Auchendavy

2 9-35. A ge

a nd

R oman

2 24-250

' Pre-Flavian f orts a nd t heir g arrisons',

1 986,

5 9-72.

P oulter,

M oesia

H eraclius,

I nferior

P h.D.

a nd

t hesis,

t he

I nst.

L ower

D anube,

o f A rch.,

( London

1 983). R ICHMOND 1 950: N ewstead,

I .A . R ichmond, ' Excavations a t 1 947', P SAS LXXX1V, 1 950, 1 -38

t he

R OBERTSON 1 979:

A .S.

( Glasgow 1 979).

R OBINSON

1 972:

a rmour', R OBINSON 1 975:

R obertson,

H .R.

T he A ntonine W all,

R obinson,

B onner J ahrbücher, H .R.

R obinson,

T he

' Problems C LXXII, A rmour

i n

1 972, o f

R oman

f ort

r econstructing

o f

R oman

2 4-35 I mperial

R ome,

( London

1 975) V ON GROLLER 1 900:

' III.

R ömische Waffen',

i n W ien f ür d as J ahr W EBSTER

1 960:

G .

s egmentata)', W EBSTER 1 969:

G .

1 899,

W ebster, J ournal o f

W ebster,

' A

( Vienna, n ote

o n

B ericht d es V ereins C arnuntum 1 900) t he

R oman

c uirass

t he A rms a nd Armour S ociety,

T he R oman I mperial A rmy,

4 9

3 ,

( lorica 1 94-196

( London 1 969)

A F RAGMENTARY S HIELD C OVER F ROM C AERLEON C arol v an D riel-Murray w ith c ontributions b y D r E .M .

F IND C IRCUMSTANCES b y D r E .M .

E vans & J . P ickett-Baker

E vans

I n J une 1 985 s ix t est p its w ere d ug b y m achine i n t he g rounds o f C ambria H ouse, M ill S treet, C aerleon b y B arrett D evelopment ( South W ales) L td w ho w ere a ssessing t he p otential o f t he s ite f or d evelopment. T he s ite l ies w ithin t he c ivil s ettlement t o t he e ast o f t he f ortress, b etween t he d efences a nd t he M on L wyd. T he G lamorgan-Gwent A rchaeological T rust, w hich w as a t t hat t ime e xcavating a nother p art o f t he s ame s ettlement, w as k indly p ermitted t o e xamine t he p its a s t hey w ere b eing d ug a nd t o g o t hrough t he u pcast s oil. T hose p its o n t he e astern h alf o f t he s ite i ndicated t hat t he n atural l ay 2 -2.5m b elow t he p resent g round s urface a nd w as o verlain b y o ccupation d eposits. O n a nalogy w ith o ther, m ore c ompletely e xcavated p arts o f t he s ettlement, t his c lay w as p robably l aid d own when t he a rea w as b eing d eveloped i n t he t hird c entury, t he d evelopment b eing r epresented b y t he o ccupation d eposit a bove. L ittle w ork h as a s y et b een d one o n t he e arlier l evels o f t he s ite, a nd c onsequently t here i s n ot a t t his m oment m uch i nformation o n t he n ature a nd d ating o f t he w aterlogged d eposits. F rom o ne w aterlogged p it c ame t he l eather s hield c over which i s t he s ubject o f t his p aper. G iven t he c ircumstances o f i ts d iscovery , i t c annot b e d ated s tratigraphically, b ut t he p ottery f rom t he p it i ncluded s amian d ating t o t he f irst a nd e arly s econd c entury ( Drag.29), a nd s uch a d ate i s l ikely f or t he e arlier, w aterlogged d eposits.

T HE L EATHER S HIELD C OVER ( UCC L ab n o.3966 8 2B

0 03,

0 04,

0 05)

W hen f ound, t he c over c onsisted o f a s emi-circular p iece o f g oatskin, 7 6 X 4 0cm , f olded i nto t hree ( Fig.1). T he l eather w as f ully c onserved b y M s K ate H unter a t t he D epartment o f A rchaeology, U niversity C ollege C ardiff, w ho m ade t he p reliminary d rawings o f t he o bject when w et. N o d ressings w ere a pplied o ther t han t he g lycerol u sed f or t he f reeze-drying p rocess. T his t reatment e nhanced t he s cuffing and c olour d ifferences o n t he g rain s ide o f t he l eather, m aking a reas c overed b y a pplied p anels s tand o ut w ell. T he t reatment l eft t he c over c lean a nd e asy t o h andle, t hough i t r emains f ragile, w ith c onsiderable s urface a nd e dge f laking. T he

o bject

r epresents

t he

t op

s ection o f a b road, o val s hield

c over w ith d ecorative s titching a nd a u nit i nsignia a ttached a t t he a pex. T he p iece h as b een r ather r oughly c ut a way f rom t he r est o f t he c over, b ut w as n eatly f olded u p, p ossibly i n a nticipation o f r euse. T he n eat f olding u p o f s crap l eather i s a r ecurrent p henomenon o n m ilitary s ites a nd i t m ay g o s ome way t o e xplaining t he n ature o f t he e xcavated l eather c omplexes. S aving a ll m anner o f o dds a nd e nds f or p ossible r euse i s a c haracteristic o f l eatherworkers e verywhere a nd t hese n eatly

5 1

f olded o f t he

p ackages a nd 1 ,u ndles o f s crap m ay r epreent a t horough c lean o ut w orkshop, w hen e verything n ot o f i mmediate u se w ould b e

j ettisoned. T his m ay e xplain t he v ery v aried a nd f ragmentary n ature o f m any o f t he l arger l eather c omplexes, a s w ell a s a ccounting f or t he f requent o bservation o f c ut a nd t orn e dges. T he l eather i n s uch c omplexes w ould t end t o b e o ld, t hough s till s erviceable, t he u seless a nd d amaged p ieces h aving b een r emoved a nd t hrown a way a t o nce. L eather s eems, t herefore, t o h ave b een r ecycled i n m ilitary w orkshops i n m uch t he s ame w ay a s i s s uggested f or m etalwork.' T he t entage a nd s hield c overs f rom t he B onner B erg 2 w ere s imilarly c ut u p, f olded a nd s tored a nd a t V alkenburg 3 s everal p ackages o f r eusable l eather l ay i n a s mall r oom o ff t he p rincipia where e quipment s eems t o h ave b een r epaired. T he o ccasion f or t he f inal c lean u p o f t he w orkshop a t B onn w as p resumably t he a bandonment o f t he f abrica o utside t he c amp 4 w hile a t V alkenburg a c hange o f g arrison a nd t he s imultaneous r aising o f t he c amp l iving s urface s ealed t he r oom a nd i ts c ontents. I n v iew o f s everal t ears a nd t he e xtensive s titching o n t he s urface i t m ay b e q uestioned whether t he C aerleon f ragment c ame f rom a l eather s tore. I t l ooks r ather m ore l ike t he p iece which w as c ut a way f rom a n o therwise s erviceable s heet: i n t his c ase, t he f olding m ust b e s een s imply a s a n e xample o f m ilitary p recision. M ost i mpressions v isible o n t he f lesh s ide a re f rom t he p re-tanning p rocesses ( fleshing a nd s cudding) a nd, f or m ost p art, t he i mprints o f t he o rganic m aterials a mongst w hich t he o bject l ay. N one o f t hese p ertains t o t he u se o f t he c over. T he l eather i s f ragile a nd, i n p laces, s everely w orn, m aking i t d ifficult t o d istinguish t he t hread i mpressions which a re c rucial t o t he i nterpretation o f t he t ypes o f h ems a nd s eams p resent. F ortunately t he c onservation l aboratory w as a ware o f t he a dverse e ffects o n v isibility o f d ressings, a nd o nly t he m inimum t reatment w as u ndertaken. I n c onsequence o f t his d ecision, m any o f t he r ather f aint t hread i mpressions a re s till v isible, a s a re n umerous t iny s titch h oles, a nd c hanges i n s urface c olour a nd t exture c an a lso b e d iscerned. T he f lesh s ide i s r ather b etter p reserved a nd s everal l ines o f t hread i mpressions a re v isible: i n v iew o f t he s ymmetry o f t he o bject, t he c ourse o f t he i mpressions c an b e r econstructed f rom r emaining s ections. P arts o f t he c over a re e xtremely w orn a nd t attered. T he t ears a t t he l ower l eft a nd r ight c orners m ay h ave b een c aused b y t he p ulling o ut o f t he d raw-string e nds which u sually e merge i n t his a rea. T he c over i s e dged b y a f olded, t acked h em , w hich h as l eft t he c haracteristic p aired s titch h oles a nd ( where v isible) t hread i mpressions a lternately o n t he f ront a nd b ack o f t he f old ( the o ccurrence o f t he i mpressions o n b oth s ides o f t he f old i ndicates t hat n o o ther p iece w as a ttached t o i t, a nd t he s titching i s t herefore a n e dging h em n ot a j oining s eam). T he h em h as b ecome f lattened-out o ver m ost o f i ts l ength a nd i s a lmost u nrecognizable, e xcept f or t he m atching s titch h oles a nd i n t he e xpectation o f t his a rrangement. W here p reserved i n i ts o riginal f orm , i t i s c lear t hat t he h em m akes a llowance f or a c ord t o p ass t hrough. T he c haracteristic p uckered h em o f t he c overs i n f act f orms a c hannel f or a d raw-string w hich c ould b e p ulled t ight t o f it t he c over r ound t he s hield b oard T he s trings w ould p resumably e merge a t t he f our s mall, i n

t he

h em

a t

t he

s ides

c ompletely p reserved e xamples,

o f

t he

c over,

s uch a s

5 2

t hose

w hich f rom

w hen n ecessary. r einforced h oles o ccur o n t he m ore

V alkenburg.

5

T his

w ould

e nable

t he

c over t o b e a djusted t o t he l ength a nd c urvature o f

t he i ndividual s hield b oard. N o

o ther

f orm

o f

a ttachment

w ould

b e

n ecessary. C aesar ( )

i mplies

t hat t he c overs c ould b e r emoved q uickly i n n eed:

t he p oint o f t he p assage i s t hat t he G auls a ttacked s o u nexpectedly t hat t here w as n ot e ven t ime t o r emove t he c overs. I n a ny c ase, t he c overs d id n ot s eriously i mpede t he s oldiers' u se o f t heir s hields. T he d raw-string a rrangement w ould i ndeed a llow t he s hield t o b e w ielded, t hough t he c over w ould, o f c ourse, a dd t o i ts w eight. L ess h appy w as t he e xperience o f V arus, w ho, i n t he i ncessant r ain, f ound t hat t he c overs a nd s hield s urfaces a bsorbed w ater, w eighing d own t he s oldiers s till f urther a nd, p resumably a lso c ausing t he g lued p lywood s hield b oards

t o w arp. 7

L ines o f s titching r eveal t he p osition o f p anels o nce s ewn t o t he f ront o f t he s hield c over. I n a ll c ases, c ontinuous t hread i mpressions ( running s titch, u sing 2 t hreads s imultaneously, p assing t hrough a wl-punched h oles a nd l eaving a t ypical 8 -shaped s titch h ole) a re v isible o n t he f lesh s ide, w hile t he g rain s urface w ithin t he s titching i s

s lightly

b etter

p reserved.

A s

p ointed o ut b y M iss P ickett-Baker

b elow , t he c urved s titching o n t he b ody o f t he c over a lso m arks a n a ttachment t o t he f ront: u nless i t i s o nly t he o uter e dge which i s c overed ( leading t he p ractical d ifficulties i n f olding t he e dge), t his w as p resumably o val i n s hape. H owever, n o a ppropriate s hapes i n l eather o ccur e ither i n V alkenburg o r B onn, s o i t m ight b e s uggested t hat t his w as o f c loth,

p erhaps r endered i n t he m anner o f t he D ura E uropos s hield

b oards a nd, l ike t hem , p ainted. 8 S uch a n a rrangement, u sing c loth a s t he s upport f or a ny d esigns, w ould t o s ome e xtent r econcile t he a pparent i ncompatibility o f p ictorial e vidence f or s hield d ecoration w ith t he a lmost t otal l ack o f i t f rom t he a rchaeological e vidence. T he u nit's s ymbol w as o riginally a ttached a t t he t op. A s t here a re n o t hread i mpressions o n e ither t he f lesh o r g rain s ide, a b acking must h ave b een s ewn o n t ogether w ith t he a pplique. T he c lose s et p airs o f s titch h oles i ndicate t hat a s ort o f w hip s titch w as u sed t o a ttach t he p anel, b ut t he a ssociated f elling s titches h ave p enetrated t he l eather t o c atch u p t he b acking m aterial ( cloth o r l eather). T he s ymbol must h ave c onsisted o f a s olid p anel, p erhaps a s a t V indonissa 9 a s n o m ore t han i ts o utline r emains v isible i n t he s titching. A s econd, s eparately a pplied p iece w as s ewn t o t he c entre o f t he p anel. A t b oth V alkenburglO a nd B onner B ergll s titching u sed t o p ick o ut t he d esign o n t he a pplied p anel h as l eft a c lear o utline o f t he b adges' s hapes o n t he s hield c over. T his i s u nfortunately n ot t he c ase h ere a nd t here i s n o h int o f a ny s ymbol o r i nscription w hich c ould h elp t o i dentify t he u nit i nvolved. D amage t o t he t op l eft h and c orner o f t he s titching f urther h ampers i dentification. T he g eneral f orm ( including i ts c rudity) a nd m ethod o f a ttachment s uggested f or t he r econstruction a ccords w ell w ith t he s urviving f eatures, e ven t hough t he l ettering i s h ypothetical. B oth h ere a nd a t o ther s ites, t he s titching u sed t o a ttach t he i nsignia i s r emarkable i n i ts c rudity. T his m ight b e i nterpreted a s e vidence o f t he p rofessional, p erhaps c entralized, m anufacture o f t he c overs t hemselves, c oncerned.

w hich

w ere

t hen

' personalized'

b y t he m en o f

t he u nits

T he g rain d irection o f t he l eather i ndicates t hat t he f ull

5 3

l ength

. •

•

C aerleon s hield c over ( 1:3).

,

N

-

5 4

0

F ig.2:

S hield

20c m

c omparisons a ) B onner B erg f ragments p rojected o nto t he

C aerleon D oncaster

m odel, ( after

b )

C aerleon B UCKLAND,

G ROENMAN-VAN WAATERINGE, h ypothetical. S cale 1 :10.

1 967).

5 5

c over

a s

1 978), L engths

r econstructed, d )

V alkenburg o f

a )

a nd

c )

( after b )

a re

o

F ig.3:

S hield

c overs

p rojected

3 0

o nto a g oatskin.

a reas o f t he a xillae.

5 6

S haded a re t he w eak

o f

t he

g oatskin w as u sed f or t he w idth o f t he c over ( Fig.3).

I n f act,

t he w idth o f t he c over i s m ore o r l ess e quivalent t o t he m aximum u seful b ack l ength o f a f ull g rown g oat. 12 I n v iew o f t he s ize o f t he c over a nd t he l oss o f p oor q uality s kin a t t he b elly a nd n eck , a t l east 2 s kins w ould h ave b een r equired, a nd i n s ome c ases 3 , f or t he b ody a lone. I f, a s M iss P ickett-Baker p oints o ut, t he a pplied p anels w ere a lso o f l eather, a n a dditional s kin w ould b e n ecessary. I f o nly 2 s kins w ere u sed f or t he c over, t he j oining s eam p robably f ell i n t he m iddle o f t he s hield, o ver t he umbo, a s i s t he c ase w ith t he l arge o val s hield c over f rom V alkenburg. 13 N either t he p osition n or t he s ize o f t he umbo o pening c an b e r econstructed w ith c ertainty, t hough i t w as p resumably l ocated i n t he c entre o f t he s hield. T here i s n o t race o f m etal e dging s trips, n or o f r ivet h oles f or t heir a ttachment: f or t his r eason t he l eather i s i nterpreted a s a c over a nd n ot a s a s hield s urface, a lthough l eather w as c ertainly u sed t o c over p lywood s hields. 14 T he m ere t anned l eather.

f act o f p reservation i mplies t he u se o f a v egetable I n v iew o f t he m ixture o f t anning a gents u sed a nd t he

e ffects o f p rolonged w aterlogging i n t he p resence o f r otting o rganic m aterials, m any o f w hich a lso c ontain t annins, a nalysis o f t he t annins u sed i s o f d oubtful v alue. A nalysis f or t races o f d yestuffs w ould b e u seful, b ut i s b eyond m y c ompetence. T he c urvature o f t he t op, t he s traight l ines o f s titching a t b oth s ides, t he b reak i n c urvature o n t he b est p reserved s ide a nd t he a ssumption o f s ymmetry m ake i t p ossible t o p ropose a r econstruction o f t he c omplete c over, a nd, b y i mplication, o f t he t ype o f s hield i t w as i ntended f or ( Fig.2). A lthough t he p roportions o f t he o bject a re t he s ame a s t hose o f t he v irtually c omplete b road o val s hield c over f rom V alkenburg ( Fig.2d), a n e xact p rojection o n t he s cale o f t he C aerleon p iece r esults i n a n i mpossibly l arge s hield, 1 49cm l ong a nd c .80cm w ide ( shrinkage s eems t o h ave b een n egligible, b oth i n t he g round a nd d uring c onservation). W hen c ompared t o o ther s urviving s hields, i t w ould s eem m ore l ikely t hat t he s hield, t hough l arger t han t he V alkenburg o nes, i s p roportionally s horter i n r elation t o i ts w idth ( Fig.2b). T he e xact l ength i s d ifficult t o e stimate, b ut s hields f rom D ura E uropos o f 1 02 X 8 3cm a nd 1 20 X 8 0cm 15 g ive s ome i dea o f t he r ange. T he D oncaster s hield b oard ( Fig.2c) 1 4 5 i s 1 25 X 6 4cm i n s ize a nd t hus r ather n arrower t han t he C aerleon c over ( which w ould h ave t o b e l arger i n a ny c ase, s ee b elow). I t i s, h owever, i dentical i n s hape, c urvature a nd w idth t o l eather s hield c overs f ound a t V indonissa. 17 A l ength w ould n ot, t herefore s eem u nreasonable f or o ur p iece,

o f 1 20-125cm e specially i n

v iew o f i ts w idth, s uggesting t hat t he D oncaster, V indonissa a nd C aerleon s hields w ere a ll o f t he s ame s ize r ange. T his l ength w ould c ertainly b e m ore m anagable. E xactly h ow m uch o f t he c over w as d rawn o ver t he s hield b oard i s d ifficult t o e stablish, t hough i t i s o f i mportance i n t he r econstruction o f t he s ize o f t he s hield i tself. T he f requent o ccurrence o f t ears i n t he b ottom e dges o f t he c overs i s p erhaps s ignificant i n t his r espect, s ince t hese m ay m ark t he p lace o f t he f old o ver t he e dge o f t he b oard. I n g eneral, t he t ears s eem t o c orrespond t o t he o utermost l ine o f t he p anel s titching, a nd t his a lso a ppears t o b e t rue o f t he C aerleon s pecimen. I mpressions o r v ariations i n t he c ondition o f t he g rain s urface which m ight m ark t he s hield e dge h ave n ot b een e ncountered o n a ny o f t he c overs s o f ar e xamined. T he t ears o n

5 7

V alkenburg

c over

n o.6

s uggest

a

w idth o f 4 0/42cm, while V alkenburg

c overs 1 1 a nd 2 0 w ould b e a bout 5 6cm b road. W ith s ome 5 cm o f t he e dge d rawn t o t he b ack o f t he b oard t he C aerleon s hield w ould s eem t o f it a s hield a pproaching t he w idth o f t he D oncaster b oard ( i.e. 6 4cm). T he C aerleon s hield c over ( and t herefore i ts s hield) i s u ndeniably o val i n s hape, u nlike e ither t he V indonissa o r D oncaster s pecimens. T his

w ould

s eem

t o

b e

c ontrary t o a ll a ccepted t heories c oncerning

l egionary e quipment i n t he i st c entury, y et t he f act r emains t hat i n c ontrast t o t he n umber o f o val s hield c overs n ow k nown, r ectangular c overs a re r emarkably r are. T he o nly s ite w ith a bundant e vidence f or r ectangular s hields i s V indonissa. T hen t here i s t he s ingle, u nique f ind o f a c omplete s hield f rom D oncaster. 18 T he s hields/covers f rom V alkenburg, V indonissa, a nd D oncaster a re a ll i st c entury; t hose f rom t he B onner B erg e arly 2 nd c entury, w ith C aerleon p robably f alling s oemwhere i n b etween, s o s ome c are i s r equired i n t he u se o f t he m id-3rd c entury s hields f rom D ura E uropos f or c omparative p urposes. A t t he 2 nd c entury l egionary f abrica o n t he B onner B erg, o nly o val s hields w ere p resent. I s ee n ow , i n t he l ight o f t he C aerleon s pecimen, t hat t hese s hields a re o f t he s ame b road t ype. I ndeed, t he p arallel l ines o f s titching a t t he t op, f rom w hich t he u nit's s ymbol i s s uspended, i s i dentical t o t he s traight s titching a t t he t op o f t he s titched M inerva o n a c over f rom B onn, w hich a t t he t ime s eemed t o b e t he o nly p ossible h int o f t he p resence o f r ectangular s hields t here. 19 I t n ow l ooks a s t hough t he c overs f rom B onn a nd C aerleon a re i dentical i n s hape, s ize a nd d isposition o f t he s titching ( Fig.2). M oreover, i n t heir d imensions t hey c losely m atch t he D oncaster s hield b oard. T his, t hen, m ay b e t he l egionary s hield t ype. S hield c overs f rom o ther, a uxiliary, s ites a long t he R hine a nd i n B ritain a re c learly o f t he s mall, V alkenburg t ype. T he p osition o f V indonissa, a s s ole p ossessor o f t he r ectangular s hield c overs, s till r equires e xplanation. I n

t he

c ase

o f B onn,

I s uggested 2° t hat t he l egionaries a dopted

t he m ore m anoevrable o val s hields i n t he f irst h alf o f t he 2 nd c entury: w as t his p rocess a lready u nderway i n B ritain a t t he e nd o f t he i st c entury? I n f act, t he i ncreasing b ody o f e vidence f or o val s hields - a s r epresented b y t heir l eather c overs - a nd t he a bsence o f r ectangular s hields f rom t hose s ites w here t hey w ould b e e xpected, p oses t he q uestion o f w hether t he r ectangular l egionary s hields w as e ver s uch a s tandard i tem o f e quipment a s T rajan's C olumn h as l ed u s t o b elieve. T he e vidence n ow p rovided b y t he l eather s hield c overs a ppears t o r einforce t he c onclusions d rawn b y G . W aurick 21 o n t he p attern-book a nd, i ndeed, a lmost s ymbolic n ature o f t he T rajan's C olumn r eliefs. T here w as p robably a f ar g reater a lthough

i t

d egree

o f

v ariation

i n

e quipment,

i s t o b e e xpected t hat t he s hapes a nd s izes o f s hields a t

l east, a re unlikely t o d iffer m uch w ithin a s ingle u nit. L ooking a t t he a rchaeological e vidence, i t m ay w ell b e t hat i t i s t he r ectangular s hield w hich w as e xceptional, b eing u sed p erhaps o nly f or s pecialist t actics s uch a s t he m uch-famed t estudo.

5 8

A PPENDIX A r eport o n t he r econstruction o f t he c over, w hich w as m ade b y M iss J . P ickett-Baker f or t he N ewport M useum a nd A rt G allery, N ewport, W ales, h as b een i ncluded i n v iew o f t he u seful d etails o n c onstruction a nd m anufacturing t echniques w hich e merged. T he v alue o f e xperimenting w ith a rchaeologically a ccurate r eplicas i s i ncreasingly r ecognized i n t he f ield o f R oman m ilitary e quipment s tudies. 22 E xperiment n ot o nly c larifies t echnical d etails b ut a lso l eads t o a b etter a ppreciation o f t he c apabilities a nd l imitations o f t he e quipment c oncerned, a s w ell a s p roviding a n i nsight i nto t he l ogistics o f s upply a nd m anufacture. 23 B y i ncreasing t he a wareness o f w hat t o l ook f or, e xperiment w ith r econstructions a lso s timulates t he i dentification o f m issing, o r f ragmentary i tems.

T HE R ECONSTRUCTION b y J . P ickett-Baker T his r eplica C aerleon s hield c over w as c onstructed o n t hree t ypes o f e vidence. F irstly, t he s ize a nd s hape o f t he C aerleon f ind a nd t he a rrangement o f a wl h oles f ound i n i t a nd t he i mpressions o n i ts s urface.

o ther

S econdly , k nown f acts a bout s imilar f inds i n o ther c ountries, R oman l eatherwork i n g eneral a nd m ilitary a ctivity i n t he

C aerleon a rea. T hirdly, m issing i nformation w as r eplaced b y p ractical i deas, w hich, i f n o e vidence e xisted t o d isprove t hem, w ere u sed. S ome o f t hese i deas, i n t he f uture, m ay, o f c ourse, t urn o ut t o b e w rong, i n w hich c ase t he s hield c over m ay n eed t o b e a ltered a ccordingly. T he s hape o f t he r emains s uggested a s triaght e dged s hield w ith a r ounded t op a nd b ottom, t his b eing t he t op t hird w ith t he i nsignia, b ut c lear o f t he u mbo. T he w idth t o l ength p roportions w ere s uggested b y o ther f inds, a nd t hat i t w as l ikely t o h ave b een s ymmetrical ( the b oss s ituated c entrally - F igs.4-5). I t w as v ital t o d ecide h ow t he c over w as g oing t o b e a ttached t o t he s hield b efore a nything e lse c ould b e c alculated. S trong e vidence e xisted f or a d rawstring; r ows o f a wl h oles a nd t hread i mpressions where t he e dge o f t he l eather h ad b een t acked b ack u pon i tself f orming a c asing. S ome s mall m ockettes o f c ardboard s hields a nd p igskin c overs w ere c onstructed t o t est t he d rawstring t heory w hich w orked w ell. I t was a lso e stablished t hat o n a s traight s ided s hield w ith a c urved t op a nd b ottom j ust t wo d rawstrings w orked b est, s ituated i n t he c entres o f t he s traight s ides; w hereas a c ompletely o val s hield n eeded f our d rawstring p oints s houlders o f t he s hield ( Fig.4).

s ituated

o n

t he

H aving d ecided o n a d rawstring, a n e stimated 5 cm ( allowing f or t he c asing a nd t he f old) was s ubtracted f rom t he d imensions o f t he c over t op a nd s ides t o g ive t he w idth o f t he s hield ( 66cm) f rom w hich t he l ength w as e stimated ( 115cm) a nd t he s hape o f t he c urved t op a nd b ottom. l eather

T he o verall s ize c ould t hen b e n eeded

c alculated

f or

t he

p iece

o f

( 76cm X 1 25cm) f or t he m ain s ection. A b asic s hield w as

5 9

, v , vv vv ,v _vv , m ot ion c u t it ) ,

\ Uc 7 rr n P

A e o g r ;

1

\ ; ( z r i t

7

P a m . 9

a i . ea p & 29" e c , ,

ANVV W

f . e a ‚d t e 4 ,

b yr N or

F ig.4:

P lan o f c onstruction o f C aerleon r eplica

6 0

( c.1:6).

,A c . Dere i -S

0 • H ( 1 )

( 1 '

. (

,

-

-

'

(/

(

( S .

I

(

( % (

a ) E l

t

)

,

,

/

. _ \ __ _ _ _ __ , _ _4 _t__ ,,% .% . , ‘, , , . . ‘

t .

1 15 c r r f r t

7 25

“ n 40 C oa e e , › I ' va 4 $ e d A eti 4 ;

F ig.6:

C ross s ection t hrough u mbo c over.

fr . M r e f t c F ig.7

,

,

' , . -,--e -

F ig.8

6 2

o r ie t i

t hen c onstructed t o a ct a s a f rame f or t he c over ( Fig.5). T hought w as

t hen g iven t o t he o ther a wl h oles.

C learly r einforcing

s trips h ad r un d own t he s ides a nd a cross t he t op a nd b ottom, b ut t hese d o n ot e xtend r ight t o t he e dges. M ore p uzzling w ere t he r ows o f s titch h oles f ollowing a p ath, i n f rom , b ut m ore c urved t han t he p rofile o f t he c over ( Fig.4). T hese e ither a ttached l eather b etween t hemselves a nd t he o uter e dge o f t he c over ( in which c ase t here w ould b e t wo l ayers o f l eather t o t ry a nd f old o ver a nd g ather), o r, t he r ows o f s titches w ere a ttaching a s ingle l arge o val p iece o f l eather c overing t he m ajority o f t he c entre o f t he c over. T he r emains w ere r e-examined f or s ubtle i ndentations, w hich p roved a mbiguous. H owever, t he m atter o f t he i nsignia a nd t he i mpracticalities o f t rying t o f old t wo l ayers o f l eather r esulted i n t he l arge o val t heory b eing p referable. T he s titch h oles where t he i nsignia w ere a ttached w ere p uzzling a s i mpressions o f n either l eather n or s titches e xisted o n e ither s ide o f t he r emains, o nly t he h oles. W ith t he o val l ayer b etween t he i nsignia a nd t he r emains t his p roblem i s s olved. A p iece o f l eather r einforcing w as a lso p laced b ehind t o l eave n o t hread i mpressions o n t he f lesh s ide, e ither, a s o n t he o riginal. T he s ize a nd s hape o f t he o val s ection was t hen c alculated. T his p asses u nder t he s trips s ewn a cross t he t op, b ottom, a nd s ides, t he s titches a long t he t he s traight s ides c orresponding. T he t op e dge o f t he i nsignia i s a lso c aught under t he s titching o f t he t op s trip. F ull s cale p aper p atterns w ere d rawn o ut w ith a ll d etails o n a nd t he f ootage o f l eather e stimated.

t hem

N o e vidence o f t he w ording o r t he d esign o f t he i nsignia e xisted, s o i t w as d ecided t hat i t s hould r ead ' LEG I I A VG', t he l egion b ased a t C aerleon. T he d esign w as i n t he s tyle o f o ther i nsignia a nd

s haped

t o

f it t he p attern o f a wl h oles. T hese m ay, t hough, h ave r esulted f rom m ore t han o ne e mblem o riginally. E vidence v aries a s t o w hat t his w ould h ave b een m ade f rom , i n t his c ase l eather h as b een u sed. N o u mbo c over r emains w ere f ound s o i t w as d ecided t his s hould b e a pproximately 1 5cm i n d iameter a nd a c ross b etween a c one a nd a h emisphere ( Figs.6-7). P lans o f o ther s hield c over r emains s how a r ound h ole i n t he l eather w ith t wo c oncentric r ows o f s titch h oles a round t his a nd a s eparate l eather c ircle w ith a m issing s egment w hich i s b rought t ogether t o f orm a s hallow c one. T his h as a s ingle r ow o f s titch h oles a long t he e dge. T his u mbo c over e asily c ould b e m oulded f rom a n u ncut u nstitched p iece o f l eather; h owever, a s a ll a vailable r eference p lans h ave s titching t his i s h ow i t h as b een m ade. A s eparate r ing o f l eather h as b een a dded o ver t he t op o f t he j oin b etween t he s hield c over a nd t he u mbo c over, t he o uter e dge o f t his i s s titched t hrough t he o uter r ing o f s titch h oles i n t he m ain c over. I n o ur c ase t he h ole f or t he u mbo i s t hrough t wo l ayers o f l eather. A fter t he u mbo c over h ad b een s titched i nto a c one i t w as w etted a nd m oulded o ver u mbo o f t he m ock-up s hield a nd l eft i n p lace t o d ry.

t he

S mall g roups o f o ther h oles a nd m arks e xist o n t he r emains b ut n ot i n a p attern s ufficient t o a dd o ther d efinite p attern p ieces. I t i s v ery l ikely t hat t he s hield c over r emains w ere a ltered i n t heir l ifetime.

6 3

MATERIALS R ough

G oat,

which

i s

u ndyed

f airly

s upple

v egetable

g oatskin was u sed f or t he m ajority o f t he s hield. A a nd

s tiffer,

u ndyed

s lightly

t anned t hicker,

v eg-tan g oatskin was u sed f or t he i nsignia,

a nd u mbo-ring c alled C rust G oat;

T he C aerleon r emains h ave n ot b een a nalysed f or d yestuffs. q uite

p ossible

t hat

t hese

c overs

f unction. A ll d yes f ade a nd

u mbo

a l eather m ore s uitable f or m oulding.

w ater

w ere a nd

n ot

o il

d yed

d arken

I t

i s

b ecause o f t heir l eathers.

I t

i s

p roposed t o h eavily o il t he l eather p robably w ith C od O il t o w aterproof i t.

T his

w ould

h ave

p rotected t he wooden s hield f rom warping i n wet

w eather. H and r olled a nd waxed l inen t hread h as b een u sed t o s titch t he c over. T wo a nd t hree p ly t hreads p roved a g ood w eight f or s titching d ifferent p arts. A t welve p ly t hread was m ade t o u se a s ( 3

X

4

p ly),

p erfectly g ood. g oat

s kins,

s hield.

A lum

G oat was c onsidered,

b ut

t he

The m ain s ection o f t he s hield c over was c ut

t he

t o

d rawstring

t he l inen s eemed

l ength

o f

g et

t his s eam t he r ight way u p,

r un i n t he t op o f i t

( Fig.8).

f rom

t wo

t he g oat r unning a cross t he w idth o f

T hese s ections w ere j oined w ith a s pecial R oman

i mportant w ith

T awed

S eam.

I t

t he w as

s o t hat water w ould n ot

The o val s ection was

c ut

i n

o ne

p iece

t he l ength o f t he g oat r unning w ith t he l ength o f t he s hield. Had

t his n eeded t o b e c ut s imilar

f ashion.

i n t wo p ieces i t would

M ost

h ave

b een

j oined

i n

a

o ther s eams were a t raditional l eatherworkers'

s titch m ade w ith t wo n eedles p assing

i n

o pposite

d irections

t hrough

e ach h ole.

T he i nsignia was

t acked o n w ith s mall s titches o n t he f ront,

l arge

t he

d rawstring

o n

b ack.

r unning i n a nd o ut o f

T he

t he h oles

a s

c asing s eam was a s ingle t hread

t he

i mpressions

s howed.

N OTES 1 .

B ISHOP,

1 985,

F ig.3.

2 .

V AN D RIEL-MURRAY & G ECHTER,

3 .

GROENMAN-VAN WAATERINGE,

1 967,

4 . VAN DRIEL-MURRAY & G ECHTER, 5 .

GROENMAN-VAN WAATERINGE,

6 .

G allic W ars 1 1,21,5.

7 .

D io,

8 .

R OSTOVTZEFF e t a l,

9 .

G ANSSER-BURCKHARDT,

1 0.

1 983,

1 96.

1 983,

1 967,

3 Off.

3 .

f ig.10.

R oman H istory LVI,3. 1 936, 1 942,

GROENMAN-VAN WAATERINGE,

4 57. A bb.61. 1 967,

f ig.10.

6 4

o n

t he

r emains

1 1.

V AN DRIEL-MURRAY & G ECHTER,

1 2.

I bid.,

1 3.

GROENMAN-VAN WAATERINGE,

1 4.

B UCKLAND,

1 5.

C ited i n V AN D RIEL-MURRAY & G ECHTER,

1 6.

B UCKLAND,

1 7.

GANNSER-BURCKHARDT,

1 8.

B UCKLAND,

1 9.

V AN DRIEL-MURRAY & G ECHTER,

2 1. WAURICK, C f.

2 3.

E .g.

T af.7 n o.137.

3 3.

1 978,

2 51;

1 967,

f ig.17.

R OSTOVTZEFF e t a l,

1 936,

1 983,

4 57.

3 5.

1 978. 1 942.

1 978.

2 0. V AN D RIEL-MURRAY,

2 2.

1 983,

1 986,

1 983,

3 5.

1 39-40.

1 983.

D AWSON,

1 987.

i n p articular C ONNOLLY,

1 987;

V AN DRIEL-MURRAY,

1 986.

B IBLIOGRAPHY B ISHOP

1 985: a rms

M .C.

i n

B ishop,

t he

P roduction

a nd

P .C.

B ritannia, C ONNOLLY

1 987:

D AWSON

1 987:

1 978,

M .

D RIEL-MURRAY 1 986: ( ed.),

1 983), D RIEL-MURRAY I I',

( ed.),

T he

M ilitary E quipment,

B ishop

BAR

1 -42 D oncaster',

' The R oman s addle' ( ed.),

R oman

i n DAWSON 1 987, M ilitary

E quipment:

BAR I nternational S eries 3 36,

z u

d en

' Shoes i n

7 -27

( Oxford

p erspective'

M ilitürgrenzen R oms

I II,

T he 1 987)

i n

C .

( Stuttgart

1 39-45 1 987:

C .

E xercitus,

D RIEL-MURRAY

M .C.

( Oxford 1 985),

v an D riel-Murray,

S tudien

i n

R oman

' A f irst c entury s hield f rom

D awson

C .

o f

2 47-70

C onnolly,

A ccoutrements o f W ar,

U nz

2 75,

B uckland,

I X,

P .

P rincipate'

D istribution

I nternational S eries B UCKLAND 1 978:

' The m ilitary f abrica and t he p roduction o f

e arly

&

v an-Driel

M urray,

2 :2,

7 -11

1 987,

G ECHTER 1 983:

C .

' Roman

m ilitary

v an D riel-Murray & M .

a us d er F abrica d er L egio I M inervia am B onner A usgrabungen, G ANSSER-BURCKHARDT

2 3,

1 983,

1 942:

A .

l eatherwork

G echter,

B erg',

' Funde

R heinische

1 -83 G ansser-Burckhardt,

D as

V erarbeitung i m r ömischen L egionslager V indonissa,

6 5

L eder u nd s eine ( Basel

1 942)

G ROENMAN-VAN W AATERINGE 1 967: W . l ederwerk u it V alkenburg Z .H.,

G roenman-van W aateringe, R omeins ( Groningen 1 967)

R OSTOVTZEFF e t a l 1 936: M .I. R ostovtzeff, A .R. B ellinger, C . H opkins, & C .B. W elles, E xcavations a t D ura E uropos. P reliminary R eport o f t he S ixth S eason o f W ork, 1 932-1933, ( New H aven 1 936) W AURICK 1 983: G . W aurick, ' Untersuchungen z ur h istorisierenden R üstung i n d er r ömischen K unst', J ahrbuch d es R ömisch-Germanischen Z entralmuseums M ainz,

3 0,

1 983,

2 65-301

N OTE

L td.,

I s hould l ike t o t hank T he G lamorgan-Gwent A rchaeological T rust a nd i n p articular M r S .H. S ell f or c ontacting m e a bout t his

e xtremely i nteresting f ind, a nd f or p ermission t o p ublish t he r esult o f m y e xamination o f t he o bject. I a m a lso g rateful t o M s K . H unter, o f t he D epartment o f A rchaeology, U niversity C ollege C ardiff, c onservation t reatment which n ot o nly p reserved s o m any o f t he f eatures b ut a lso m ade t he c over p leasant t o w ork w ith.

6 6

f or t he s urface

CAVALRY EQUIPMENT O F

T HE ROMAN A RMY

I N T HE F IRST C ENTURY A . D.

M .C. B ishop

I NTRODUCTION T he m ain a im o f t his p aper i s t o i dentify a nd d escribe t he e lements t hat w ent t ogether t o m ake u p R oman m ilitary h orse ( or r iding) h arness i n t he f irst c entury A .D.' C losely l inked w ith t his, h owever, w ill b e a c onsideration o f j ust h ow m uch t he a rchaeological e vidence c an t ell u s a bout t he m ilitary u se o f m ounts. 2 I t i s t o b e h oped t hat t he p resent w ork w ill a t l east s erve t o g enerate n ew i nterest i n c avalry e quipment a nd p rovoke d iscussion a bout t he f unctions o f i ts v arious c omponents. T here a re t wo m ain s ource a reas f or t he s tudy o f R oman m ilitary h orse e quipment: m onuments d epicting i ts u se a nd a rtefacts r ecovered f rom t he a rchaeological r ecord. P ictorial e vidence, m ost n otably t hat r epresented b y s culpture, c an b e u sed t o s how h ow t he v arious e lements o f h orse h arness f unctioned

a s

aw hole.

T he v alue o f s uch d epictions i s h otly d ebated,

b ut i t i s g enerally t rue t hat f unerary m onuments t end t o g ive a m ore a ccurate p icture t han o fficial s culpture, a lthough b oth c ategories v ary w idely i n q uality. 3 T wo t ypes o f t ombstone, t he ' Reiter' a nd t he ' Totenmahl'

a re c haracteristic o f t he f irst c entury A .D.

( although

n ot

e xclusively s o): 4 t hese s how, i n t he f irst i nstance, t he d eceased c avalryman r iding h is m ount i n c ombat, o ften w ith a c owering b arbarian b eing t rampled b eneath t he h orse; 5 t he o ther t ype d epicts t he d ead m an e njoying a f unerary b anquet i n t he a fterlife i n a n u pper s cene, w hilst h is h orse i s p araded i n a ll i ts e quipment i n a l ower. 6 T otenmahl d epictions u sually s how t he h orse b eing c ontrolled f rom b ehind b y m eans o f l ong-reins a nd w ith i ts s addle c overed b y a n o verblanket, whilst t he t rooper's c ab oc arries s pare s pears ( javelins?). A s h as b een n oted, t he q uality c ould v ary a nd t here a re c ases w here t he s culptor p robably d id n ot u nderstand h is s ubject m atter, b ut s ome o f t he b est p ieces, l ike t he s tone o f T . F lavius B assus a t K öln, a ppear t o b e d etailed d ocuments o f t he w ay i n which h orse h arness f unctioned. 7 A s w ell a s p rivate f unerary m onuments, m ention m ust b e m ade o f o fficial s culpture, i f o nly t o s ound t he n ow c ustomary n ote o f c aution a bout i nterpreting i t t oo l iterally. I t i s c ertainly i mportant t o a ppreciate t hat T rajan's C olumn , which i s t raditionally r egarded a s a p rime s ource o f i nformation a bout t he R oman a rmy, 8 i ncludes a n umber o f c lues t o t he f act t hat i t i s n ot a u seful s ource f or t he s tudy o f c avalry e quipment, a nd t hese w ill b e o utlined l ater i n s ome d etail. M uch t he s ame i s t rue o f m ost o f t he m ajor m onuments o f t he c ity o f R ome, 9 b ut e xamination o f s ome p rovincial s culpture o f a n o fficial n ature i s m ore p roductive.

T he t riumphal a rch

a t

O range,

1°

which

i s

p robably T iberian, i s a g ood e xample o f t his, w ith i mportant d etails a bout h arness b eing c onfirmed b y t he s tatic w eapons f riezes, whilst t he b attle s cenes p rovide a n i nteresting c omparison w ith t he R oman c avalry o n t he R hineland t ombstones.

6 7

d epiction

o f

i tems

A rchaeological e vidence i s u sually m anifested e ither a s i ndividual o f e quipment, r ecovered d uring t he p rocess o f e xcavating a s ite,

o r h oards o f h orse e quipment w hich h ave b een g athered f or s ome p urpose. " S ite f inds t end t o i nclude a w ide r ange o f t ypes o f a ny g iven f itting, whilst h oards o ften h ave a n arrower s tylistic r ange. A l arge p roportion o f p ublished s ite f inds c ome f rom e xcavations w here s tratigraphy w as i nadequately u nderstood a nd, f requently, w here t he s patial d istribution o f f inds w as n ot c onsidered t o b e o f i nterest. 12 S ite f inds c an a lso u sually b e f itted w ithin a b road d ate r ange f or a s ite, a nd n owadays, a s e xcavation ( and r ecording) t echniques i mprove, c an b e p laced w ithin a n arrower c hronological b racket. T he f act t hat a n umber o f h oards o f

R oman

h orse

e quipment

h ave

b een r ecovered i s e xtremely i mportant f or t he i nterpretation o f h orse h arness. S uch h oards i nclude t he c ollections f rom D oorwerth a nd X anten, F remington H agg, a nd C anterbury. 13 T he d ating o f t hese a ssemblages i s o ften p roblematic, b ut t heir v alue i n i nterpreting t he f unctional r elationships o f t he v arious e lements i s i nestimable.

R EPRESENTATIONAL E VIDENCE

w hich

A c omparatively l arge n umber o f f igured f irst-century t ombstones s how m ounted s oldiers h ave s urvived. S ome s how t he h arness i n

g reat d etail, m ost a re i ndifferent, w hilst a f ew a re p ositively c rude i n t he s tandard o f t heir d epiction o f d etail. T he e vidence p resented i s e quivocal, a s t he f ollowing s elective s urvey o f s ome o f t he m ore i mportant p ieces s hows. 14 U nfortunately, s ome d etails a re n ot v ery c lear

o n p hotographs a nd s ome t ombstones,

d o n ot r eproduce a t a ll w el1.

1 . F lavinus

( Reiter,

s uch a s

t hat o f P rimigenius,

1 5

a la P etriana) 16

H exham

A s tone w ith p robable p halera j unctions. B oth j unctions h ave s traps p assing h orizontally b eneath t he s addle b lanket a nd n o d istinct s addle i s d epicted. N o p endants a re s hown, b ut t he p endant s traps a t b oth j unctions h ave l unate t erminals. T here a re n o c lear s addle p ommels a nd t he s addle b lanket ( which a ppears t o b e f ringed) d oes n ot h ang b elow t he h orse's b elly. A b reastband i s w orn, a s i s a n eck s trap. L ate F lavian.

2 . R ufus

S ita ( Reiter,

c ohors V I T hracum) 17

G loucester

T his t ombstone h as a p halera j unction o n t he h aunch, b ut a s imple b and a t t he f ront, which p asses h orizontally b eneath t he r ider's t high. O ne s trap p asses f rom t he r ear j unction t o t he s addle. T here a re n o p endants a nd n o s addle b lanket o r b ridle a re d epicted ( suggesting t hat t hey m ay h ave b een a dded i n p aint).

C laudio-Neronian.

6 8

F ig.1:

F ig.2:

R elief f rom t ombstone o f T .

F lavius B assus.

T . F lavius B assus. D etail o f h aunch j unction, s howing h aunch s traps p assing b eneath s addle p ommel. K öln M useum.

6 9

F ig.3:

T . F lavius B assus. D etail o f h orse's b reast s howing b reast b and a nd p endants. K öln M useum.

F ig.4:

T . F lavius B assus. D etail o f h orse's h ead h ackamore, a nd p oll k not. K öln M useum.

7 0

w ith

b ridle,

b it,

3 .

S extus V alerius G enialis T here

i s

a t t he s houlder. h aunch p endant

( Reiter, a la T hracum) 18

a p halera j unction o n t he h aunch,

C irencester

b ut n o c lear j unction

T he h arness s traps a re b ordered, a s a re t he r eins a nd s trap ( the l atter i s a lso f ringed). T he h aunch s trap

p asses h orizontally b eneath t he s addle b lanket. T he b reast s trap b roadens t owards t he c entre o f t he a nimal's b reast. N o p endants a re s hown, b ut t he b ridle i s s tudded w ith p halerae. T he s addle ( with p ommels) i s d epicted, o ver a f ringed s addle b lanket. T here a ppears t o b e a s uggestion o f t riplet s traps b eneath t he s word, a t t he e dge o f t he b lanket. C laudio-Neronian.

4 . L onginus

( Reiter,

a la I T hracum) 19

C olchester

P halera j unctions a re i ndicated o n t his s tone,

t he p halerae

b eing

d ecorated w ith r osettes. B oth t he s houlder a nd h aunch j unctions f eature b ifurcating s traps, t he u pper s trap i n e ach c ase p assing h orizontally b eneath t he s addle b lanket, whilst t he l ower s traps p ass d ownwards. T hree p endant s traps h ang f rom e ach p halera a nd t here i s a l unate p endant a t t he b reast. S addle p ommels a re s hown a nd t here i s a s addle b lanket w hich a ppears t o b e f ringed ( although t he f ringe i s a mbiguously r endered). T here i s a b ordered n eckstrap a nd t he b ridle h as a s mall p halera ( at t he j unction o f t he t hroatlatch, c heekpiece, h eadpiece, a nd b rowband, t he l atter a lso h aving a l unate p endant i n t he c entre o f t he h orse's f orehead). T he t ail i s b ound. C laudian.

5 . O clatius N o

( hybrid,

a la A frorum) 2°

h arness i s s hown,

N euß

a part f rom a b reastband a nd n eckband,

p icked

o ut i n o utline. A l ong f ringed o verblanket ( which h angs b elow t he h orse's b elly) c overs t he s addle, t he p ommels o f which p rotrude. T he b ridle i s d epicted a nd t he a nimal w ears a p oll-knot, a s w ell a s h aving i ts t ail b ound.

6 . T .

F lavian.

F lavius B assus

( Reiter,

a la N oricorum;

F igs.1-4 ) 21

K öln

T wo p halera j unctions a re s hown, e ach w ith b ifurcating s traps p assing f rom t hem t owards t he s addle. A ll f our s traps p ass u nder t he p ommels o f t he s addle ( Fig.2). T here a re l unate p endants s uspended f rom t he b reeching, t he l ower o f t he h aunch s traps, a nd t wo f rom t he b reast s trap. T here i s a n arrow l ozenge-shaped p endant b etween t he t wo l unate o nes o n t he b reast s trap, a nd a nother o ne o n t he l ower s houlder s trap. T he u sual p endant s traps h ang f rom t he p halerae. T he b reast a nd s houlder s traps a re d ivided u p b y v ertical l ines, p ossibly i ndicative o f s trap-mounts. T he s addle b lanket i s f ringed a nd d oes n ot h ang b elow t he h orse's b elly. T here i s a g irth ( just b y t he r ider's k nee), a b road b reastband, a pparently f ringed, b eneath t he b reast s trap ( Fig.3), a nd a n eck s trap d ecorated w ith p ompons a nd a ttached t o a p halera o n t he b reast; t his i s a lso a pparently r elated t o a p endant s trap ( likewise d ecorated w ith a p ompon) t erminating i n a l unula t hat h angs o ver t he h orse's n eck. O n t he b ridle, t here i s a s mall p halera o n t he j unction. A l unate p endant i s s uspended f rom t he b rowband o n t he a nimal's f orehead a nd t here i s a s mall o ne j ust a bove i ts e ye, whilst

7 1

i ts

m ane

F ig.5:

F ig.6:

R elief f rom t ombstone o f L onginus B iarta. K öln M useum.

R elief f rom t ombstone o f R omanus D ardanus. K öln M useum.

7 2

F ig.7:

R elief f rom t ombstone o f u nknown c avalryman. K öln M useum.

m c .b

F ig.8:

R elief f rom t ombstone o f M .

7 3

S acrius P rimigenius.

i s t ied i n a p oll-knot

( Fig.4). L ate F lavian.

7 . L onginus B iarta ( Totenmahl,

K öln

a la S ulpicia; F ig.5)22

T his s tone d epicts p halera j unctions, a h aunch s trap p assing u p t o t he

s addle

( concealed u nder a c over),

a s d oes t he s houlder s trap. T he

h aunch s trap a ppears t o b roaden t owards t he s addle, s uggesting t hat b ifurcation i s i ntended. T here i s a l unate p endant o n t he b reast s trap a nd t he u sual p endant s traps a t t he j unctions. T he f ringed c loth c overs t he s addle, a lthough t he p ommels p rotrude, a nd t he l ower p ortions o f t riplet s traps a re v isible b eneath i t a t t he f ront a nd r ear. T here i s a s mall p halera o n t he b ridle. T he a nimal i s b eing g uided o n l ong-reins b y a c ab . F lavian.

8 . R omanus

( Totenmahl,

a la A frorum ; F ig.6) 23

P halera j unctions a re s hown a gain,

w ith

K öln b ifurcating

h aunch

a nd

s houlder s traps. T here i s a l unate p endant s uspended f rom t he b reeching a nd t wo o n t he b reast s trap, t he o ne i n t he c entre o f t he a nimal's b reast b eing l arger t han t he o ther t wo. A f ringed s addle-cloth i s w orn o ver t he s addle, a lthough t he p ommels p rotrude. T riplet s traps h ang b elow t his s habracque, which i s n ot l ong e nough t o h ang b elow t he h orse's b elly. A r ing i s c learly v isible i n t he r eins. T he h orse i s b eing g uided o n l ong-reins.

F lavian.

9 . U nknown ( Reiter, u nit u nknown;

K öln

F ig.7 ) 24

T his s tone p ortrays j unctions o f

t he p halera

t ype,

w ith

s ingle

h aunch a nd s houlder s traps; t he h aunch s trap p asses u nder t he r ear s addle p ommel, whilst t he s houlder s trap c learly p asses u nder t he s addle b lanket. T here i s a b reast j unction w ith a nother p halera and a m artingale i s v isible. A ll o f t he h arness s traps a re d ivided u p b y v ertical l ines, p ossibly i ndicating s trap m ounts. N o p endants a re s hown, b ut t he r ear p endant s trap i s d ivided u p l ike t he m ain h arness s traps

( the

f ront

s trap

i s

b adly

d amaged). T he s addle p ommels a re

e vident a nd t he c urved d epicted. T he s addle

l ower e dge o f t he s addle i s v ery c learly b lanket d oes n ot a ppear t o b e f ringed a nd n o

b ridle

t hese

i s

s hown ,

s o

m ay

h ave

b een

a dded

i n

p aint.

N eronio-Flavian?

1 0. M .

S acrius P rimigenius

( Totenmahl,

a la N oricorum; F igs.8-9) 25

K öln

T he h orse o n t his s tone h as p halera j unctions w ith b ifurcating h aunch a nd s houlder s traps. I n b oth c ases, t hese p ass u nder t he p ommels o f t he s addle. T here a re t wo l unate p endants o n e ach o f t he b reeching, l ower h aunch, l ower s houlder, a nd b reast s traps, a s w ell a s a l arger o ne i n t he c entre o f t he a nimal's b reast, t his l atter b eing s uspended f rom a p halera ( where t here a re a lso p ossible t races o f a m artingale). T he u sual p endant s traps a re s hown a nd t here a re t wo s ets o f t riplet s traps, r eaching a lmost t o t he g round, a nd t o t he t op o f t hese a re f ixed t hree r ectangular p lates o n e ach. T wo f ringed s addle-cloths a re b eing w orn, o ne l ong a nd t he o ther s hort: b oth a ppear t o b e w orn under

7 4

F ig.9:

M . S acrius P rimigenius. D etail o f h orse's h ead, w ith b ridle, b it, p oll k not, a nd p halera. K öln M useum.

F ig.10: R elief f rom t ombstone o f Lucius. K öln M useum.

7 5

F ig.11: R elief f rom t ombstone o f O luper.

F ig.12: R elief f rom t ombstone o f N iger.

7 6

B onn Museum.

t he s addle a nd t he t riplet s traps, t he s hort o ne b eing o ver t he l onger. A n eck s trap, w hich m ay b e d ecorated w ith p ompons, i s d epicted, a nd t he b ridle i s d ecorated w ith a n umber o f s mall p halerae. T here i s a p oll-knot, t o w hich i s f ixed a l arge u pstanding p halera, p ossibly d ecorated w ith a b ust ( Fig.9). T he m ane i s g athered i nto p airs o f s mall t ufts a ll d own t he h orse's n eck a nd t he t ail i s b ound. T he h orse i s b eing g uided o n l ong-reins b y a c ab . F lavian.

1. L ucius ( Totenmahl, a la A frorum; F ig.10) 26

K öln

T he p halera j unctions o n t his t ombstone r eveal b ifurcating s houlder s traps, b ut o nly a s ingle h aunch s trap. T wo l unate p endants a re s uspended o n e ach o f t he b reeching, h aunch , a nd b reast s traps a nd o ne o n t he l ower s houlder s trap. T here i s a l arge p halera i n t he c entre o f t he b reast, f rom w hich i s s uspended a f urther l unula. T here a re t wo p endant s traps h anging f rom t he j unctions. A s w ith P rimigenius, T here a re t wo s ets o f t riplet s traps h anging o ver t wo s addle b lankets, o ne s hort a nd o ne l ong. H owever, n o f ringe i s s hown o n e ither o f t he c loths a nd t hese m ay h ave b een a dded i n p aint. T he d ivisions o f t he t riplet s traps s tart a t t he b ottom o f t he s horter c loth , w hich m ay i ndicate t hat s addle p lates, l ike t he f ringes, w ould b e p icked o ut i n p aint. T here i s a n eck s trap w ith p ompons a nd a b reast b and ( which b roadens t owards t he c entre o f t he c hest) i s b eing w orn b eneath t he b reast s traps a nd p endants. T he b ridle i s d ecorated w ith s mall p halerae, w ith a s lightly l arger o ne a t t he j unction. T here i s a p oll-knot, t o w hich a l arge u pstanding p halera i s a ttached. T he a nimal i s o n l ong-reins. F lavian.

1 2. O luper ( Totenmahl,

a la A frorum; F ig.11) 27

K öln

T he h arness o n t his a nimal h as t wo v isible p halerae, t hat a t t he h aunch h aving t wo b ifurcating s traps p assing t o t he s addle, w hilst t he o ne a t t he f ront h as o nly o ne. T here a re l unate p endants ( one o f e ach) o n t he b reeching, l ower h aunch , a nd t he s houlder s traps, a long w ith a p ossible c entral o ne a t t he b reast. T he r ear p endant s trap s urvives b ut n one i s v isible a t t he s houlder. T he h arness s traps a ppear t o h ave v ertical d ivisions. T he p ommeled s addle, w ith i ts c urved l ower e dge, i s s hown o ver a s hort, f ringed s addle b lanket. T wo s ets o f t riplet s traps h ang f rom t he s addle, e ach h aving a s mall r ectangular p late, w ith a c ircular b oss, h alf w ay d own. T he h orse w ears a p oll-knot a nd i s o n l ong-reins. F lavian.

1 3. N iger ( Reiter, a la P omponiana; F ig.12) 28

B onn

T he j unctions a t t he s houlder a nd h aunch o n t his h orse a re o f t he r ing t ype. A t b oth j unctions, o ne s trap p asses u p t o t he p ommeled s addle a nd t he u sual p endant s traps a re i n e vidence. T here i s a l unate p endant i n t he c entre o f t he a nimal's b reast. T he s addle b lanket a ppears t o b e e ither b ordered o r d ouble t hickness a nd t here i s a g irth p assing u nder t he h orse's b elly t owards t he f ront. T iberio-Claudian.

7 7

F ig.13: R elief f rom t ombstone o f M . A emilius D urises.

B onn M useum.

F ig.14: R elief f rom t ombstone o f V onatorix. B onn Museum.

7 8

1 4. R eburrus

( Reiter,

a la F rontoniana) 29

B onn

T he s houlder a nd h aunch j unctions a re f ormed f rom l arge p halerae, b ut i t i s n ot c lear h ow m any s traps p ass f rom t hese t o t he s addle, a lthough t hey m ay b e s ingle i n b oth c ases. T here i s a l arge l unate p endant o n t he h orse's b reast a nd t he r ear p endant s trap s urvives. T he s addle p ommels a re e vident, a s i s t he c urved l ower e dge o f t he s addle. T riplet s traps h ang f rom t he f ront a nd t he r ear, a t t he e dge o f t he s hort f ringed s habracque. T here i s a s mall p halera o n t he b ridle. C laudio-Neronian.

1 5. C .

I ulius P rimus

( Totenmahl,

a la N oricorum) 3°

B onn

A p halera j unction i s s hown o n t he h aunch o f t his a nimal ( with b ifurcating s traps w hich p ass b eneath t he s addle-cloth, r ather t han t owards t he s addle), b ut n o j unction a t a ll i s s hown o n t he s houlder. T here a re l unate p endants o n t he b reeching, l ower s houlder s trap, s houlder, a nd i n t he c entre o f t he b reast. A l ong s addle-cloth i s w orn , o ver which h ang t wo s ets o f t riplet s traps, e ach o f w hich b ear f our r ectangles s eparated b y n arrow b ars. T he p ommels o f t he s addle a re r aked b ackwards. A b reast b and i s w orn a nd t he h orse i s l ong-reins. F lavian.

1 6. M . A emilius D urises T his

h orse

i s

( Totenmahl, p ortrayed

a pparently

o n

a la S ulpicia; F ig.13) 31

B onn

a s

w ith

h aving p halera

j unctions

b ifurcating h aunch a nd s houlder s traps. T here i s o ne l unate p endant o n e ach o f t he b reeching, l ower s houlder, a nd b reast s traps, a long w ith t he c ustomary p endant s traps. A f ringed s addle-cloth c overs t he s addle, a lthough t he p ommels p rotrude, a nd t riplet s traps h ang b eneath t he b lanket. T here i s a s mall p halera o n t he b ridle and a l unate p endant s uspended f rom t he b rowband o n t he f orehead o f t he h orse. T he b ound a nd t he a nimal i s b eing g uided o n l ong-reins. F lavian.

1 7. V onatorix ( Reiter,

a la L onginiana; F ig.14) 32

t ail

i s

B onn

T here a re p halera j unctions a t t he h aunch, s houlder, a nd b reast p ositions, o nly o ne s trap p assing t o t he s addle ( over t he b lanket) f rom e ach o f t he f ormer t wo. T here a re n o p endants, b ut p endant s traps h ang f rom t he s houlder a nd h aunch j unctions. T he s addle p ommels a re d epicted a nd t here i s a s hort f ringed s addle-cloth, b eneath ( and t owards t he f ront o f) which a g irth c an b e s een p assing u nder t he a nimal's b elly. T here a re t wo p halerae o n t he s ide o f t he b ridle a nd a nother i n t he c entre o f t he b rowband.

T iberio-Claudian.

1 8. C antaber ( Reiter, u nit unknown;

F ig.15) 33

M ainz

T he h indquarters o f t his h orse a re n ow m issing, b ut a re v isible i n E sperandieu's p ublished p hotograph. T his s tone f eatures r ing j unctions, a lthough s ince t hese a re c lose t o t he s addle i t i s n ot p ossible t o d iscern t he r ing,

h ow m any s traps p ass t o i t.

T riplet s traps a ppear t o h ang f rom

b ut o therwise t here a re n o p endants. H orns a re v isible o n t he

7 9

8 0

s addle a nd a s hort s habracque i s w orn u nder i t. A o ver t his c loth a t i ts f ront. T iberio-Claudian.

1 9.

S ilius T his

( Totenmahl, s tone

g irth

s trap

a la P icentiana) 34

d epicts p halera

j unctions,

p asses

M ainz w ith

o ne h aunch a nd t wo

s houlder s traps p assing t o t he s addle. T here n o p endants, a lthough p endant s traps a re d epicted a t t he j unctions ( but t hat a t t he s houlder h as b een d efaced). T he p ommeled s addle s its o n a f ringed s addle-cloth o f

t he s horter k ind, w ith a g irth p assing b eneath i t t owards

o f t he h orse's b elly. b reast j unction i s

t he f ront

T riplet s traps d escend f rom t he s addle. T he f ormed b y a nother p halera, f rom which d escends a

m artingale. T he t ail m ay b e b ound a nd t he a nimal i s o n a l eading r ein, p ossibly t he l ong-reins ( the r iding r eins, which h ave a r ing i n t hem , l ie a cross i ts n eck). F lavian.

2 0. P etronius D isacentus

( Reiter,

c ohors V I T hracum) 35

M ainz

L arge r oundels d ecorated w ith r osettes f orm t he h aunch a nd s houlder j unctions o n t his p iece. A s ingle h aunch s trap i s v isible, b ut t he s houlder s trap(s) a re h idden b y t he r ider's t high. T here i s a l unate p endant i n t he c entre o f t he h orse's b reast a nd t he p endant s traps a re p resent. T he p ommeled s addle r ests o n a n i ndistinct ( fringeless) s addle-cloth a nd a s et o f t riplet s traps d escends a t t he r ear, w hilst a t t he f ront a g irth c an b e s een. T he r eins a re b ordered a nd h ave a r ing i n t hem. C laudian.

2 1. A ndes

( Reiter,

a la C laudia) 36

N o j unctions a re a pparent,

M ainz

b ut t he b reeching a nd b reast s traps a re

d ecorated w ith s mall p halerae ( two o n e ach). T he b reeching p asses m ore o r l ess i n t he d irection o f t he s addle, b ut t he s houlder s trap i s a lmost h orizontal a s i t p asses b eneath t he s addle b lanket. T here i s a p endant s trap h alf w ay b etween t wo p halerae o n t he b reeching, b ut o therwise n o p endants. T he s addle p ommels a re e vident a s i s a f laring s addle-cloth, o n which t here a re t wo c lear s ets o f t riplet s traps ( one t o t he r ear a nd o ne b eneath t he r ider), w ith a p ossible t hird s et ( perhaps c onfused w ith a p endant s trap?) i n f ront o f t he r ider's t high. A b ordered g irth p asses u nder t he f ront o f t he s addle-cloth a nd t he h orse a lso w ears a b ordered n eck s trap. T he t ail i s b ound, t here p oll-knot, a nd t here m ay b e a p halera o n t he f orehead. F lavian.

i s

2 2.

M ainz

C . R omanius C apito

( Reiter,

a la N oricorum; F igs.16-18) 37

a

T hree p halera j unctions a re v isible o n t his t ombstone, a s ingle h aunch a nd t wo s houlder s traps p assing t o t he s addle o ver t he f ringeless s habracque ( Fig.17). T here a re n o p endants o ther t han t he t wo p endant s traps. A s et o f t riplet s traps h angs f rom t he r ear s addle p ommel. A g irth s trap p asses b eneath t he f ront o f t he h orse's b elly a nd u nder t he s addle-cloth. A t t he b reast j unction, a m artingale d escends f rom t he p halera ( Fig.18). T here i s a r ing i n t he r eins a nd t he t ail a ppears t o b e b ound. N eronian.

8 1

a nd t ail b inding.

C O 1 1

••

• 0 0 9 1 i k •

8 2 D etail o f b reast

2 3. A baius

( Reiter,

E nough

o f

a la P icentiana) 38

t his

f ragmentary

M ainz

s tone

s urvives

t o s how t hat i t h ad

p halera j unctions, d ecorated w ith r osettes. T he h aunch j unction h as t wo s traps which a ppear t o u nite b efore p assing t o t he s addle. T here a re n o p endants, b ut a p endant s trap s urvives. T here i s s addle-cloth, u nder w hich a b ordered g irth s trap p asses. b e b ound. F lavian.

a f ringed T he t ail m ay

2 4. U nknown ( Reiter, u nit unknown) 39

M ainz

T his f ragment o f a t ombstone h as a p halera j unction a t t he h aunch, f rom which a s ingle s trap p asses u p t o t he p ommeled s addle, p assing o ver a s habracque. T riplet s traps a re i n e vidence s uspended f rom t he r ear o f t he s addle.

2 5. L eubius

C laudio-Neronian.

( Reiter, a la S ebosiana) 4 °

W orms

T his h orse h as p halera j unctions, t he d iscs t hemselves b eing a dorned w ith r osettes. A s ingle h aunch s trap i s d epicted, b ut i t i s n ot p ossible t o t ell h ow m any t here a re a t t he s houlder, s ince t his i s o bscured b y t he r ider's t high; a ll h arness s traps a re b ordered. T here i s a l unula o n t he b reast a nd t here a re p endant s traps a t t he j unctions. T he p ommeled s addle i s s hown, b ut t here a re o nly l ight t races o f t he s addle-cloth ( a p ossible r ear e dge). T here i s a g irth s trap p resent a nd t here i s a r ing i n t he r eins. C laudio-Neronian.

2 6. Q . C arminius I ngenuus

( Reiter,

a la H ispanorum) 41

W orms

T he j unctions a re o f t he p halera t ype, b eing d ecorated w ith r osettes. T here a re t wo s houlder s traps, b ut t hose f rom t he h aunch j unction a re o bscured b y t he s word. B oth s houlder s traps p ass u nder t he f ront s addle p ommel, which i s d ecorated w ith a b order, a s i s t hat a t t he r ear. T here a re n o p endants o ther t han t he u sual p endant s traps. T here i s n o s ign o f a s addle-cloth o r g irth. T here i s a nother p halera a t t he b reast j unction and a m artingale i s c learly v isible. s mall p halera a t t he b ridle j unction a nd a nother o ne i n t he t he a nimal's f orehead, o n t he b rowband.

T here i s a c entre o f

T he t ail o f t he h orse i s b ound.

C laudio-Neronian.

2 7. L icinus

( Reiter,

a la I H ispanorum) 42

W orms

T his h orse h as p halera j unctions, w ith a s ingle h aunch s trap a nd b ifurcating s houlder s traps. T here a re p endant s traps, b ut n o p endants. T he p ommeled s addle s its o n a s addle-cloth. T here i s a r ing i n t he r eins a nd a s mall p halera o n t he b ridle, whilst t he t ail o f t he h orse i s b ound.

T iberio-Claudian.

8 3

2 8. T ogitio ( Reiter,

u nit u nknown) 43

P halera j unctions

M annheim

( decorated w ith r osettes) a re d epicted

o n

t his

s tone a t t he h aunch a nd s houlder p ositions. T here a re t wo s houlder s traps, b ut o nly o ne p assing f rom t he h aunch j unction t o t he p ommeled s addle. T here a re n o p endants a part f rom t he p endant s traps a nd a l unula o n t he b reast. T here i s n o s ign o f a s addle-cloth o r g irth. C laudio-Neronian.

2 9. A lbanus

( Reiter,

a la A sturum) 44

C halons-sur-Sa ne

T he h orse h as t hree v isible p halera j unctions ( with f igured d ecoration), w ith b ifurcating s traps p assing f rom t hose a t t he h aunch a nd s houlder t o t he p ommeled s addle. T here a re n o p endants o ther t han t he u sual p endant s traps. T he l ower e dge o f t he s addle, w hich i s a ngular, i s v isible, b ut t here i s a pparently n o s addle-cloth a nd o ne s et o f t riplet s traps h angs f rom t he c entre o f t he s addle. i s d ecorated w ith s mall p halerae. C laudio-Neronian.

W hilst

t he

T he

b ridle

t ombstone e vidence i s b y f ar t he m ost p rolific,

t here

a re a n umber o f p ieces o f o fficial s culpture w hich a lso p resent o f h orse h arness which a re w orthy o f c onsideration.

i mages

3 0. T riumphal a rch ( Fig.19) 45

O range

T here a re t hree m ain e lements o f t he a rch which c ontain d epictions o f h arness, n amely t he s tatic w eapons f riezes ( a), t he s mall b attle s cenes ( b), a nd t he l arge o nes ( c). a . T he s tatic w eapons f riezes s urvive i n c onsiderable d etail o n n orth-east, n orth-west, a nd s outh-east c orner f aces o f t he a rch.

t he

A mongst t he c ollection o f m aterial o n t he n orth-east c orner f ace, t wo b ridles a nd a s addle c an b e d istinguished. " T he l eft-hand b ridle ( Fig.19,1) i s d raped o ver a s hield a nd i s u ndecorated e xcept f or w hat m ay b e a c heekpieces

s mall p halera a t t he l ower e nd; w hilst h eadband a nd c an b e d istinguished, a s w ell a s a b it a nd r eins ( draped

b ack o ver t he s hield), t here a re a dditional s traps r unning d iagonally a cross t he f ace, a s w ell a s a f rontal r unning d own t he l ine o f t he n ose. O n t he r ight-hand b ridle ( Fig.19,2), w hich i s a gain l ying o ver a s hield, t here a ppears t o b e s ome s ort o f d ecoration, p ossibly i n t he f orm o f s mall p halerae. T he h eadband a t t he t op, t he c heekpieces, t he n oseband, t he f rontal, a nd t he b it a re a ll c learly d epicted, a s a re t he r eins w hich p ass b ack o ver t he s hield. T he s addle ( Fig.19,3), s ituated i n t he c entre r ight-hand s ide o f t he f rieze, c an c learly b e s een t o h ave

a

c urved

l ower e dge,

p ommels

( which a re p artially o bscured b y a

b undle o f w eapons r esting o n i t), a g irth s trap t erminating i n a b uckle, a nd t wo s ets o f r ectangular p lates a ttached ( in e ach c ase) e ither t o f our s traps, o r s trips o f m aterial w ith h eavy f olds ( by a nalogy w ith t he m any b elts i llustrated, t hey a re m ore l ikely t o b e s traps). T here a re t hree p lates o n e ach, t he l ower t wo r ectangles, w hilst t he u pper o nes a ppear t o b e

8 4

b eing b ordered d ecorated w ith

4

6

5

8

1 0

1 3

1 2 1

F ig.19: D epictions o f h arness o n a rch a t O range a nd

M ausoleum

a t

S t.

R emy. 1 -3: O range, n orth-east f ace; 4 : O range, n orth-west f ace; 5 -10: O range, s outh-east f ace; 1 1-13: S t.Remy m ausoleum; 1 2b: b reast a nd b reeching s traps; 1 2g: g irth; 1 2p: p endant s trap; 1 2t:

t riplet s traps.

8 5

c rescents. T here a re n o o bvious s trap e lements a ttached t o t he s addle. T he n orth-west f ace o f t he m onument i s q uite s everely d amaged,

b ut

i t i s p ossible t o m ake o ut a s addle i n t he b ottom c entre o f t he f rieze ( Fig.19,4). 47 T his h as a n i nteresting d esign a long i ts l ower e dge, c onsisting

o f

c ranellation

i nterspersed b y d ots, a bove what m ay b e a

f ringe. A g irth h angs d own i n t he c entre, a nd o n e ither s ide o f i t a re s ets o f f ive s traps. T he r ight h and s et i s t angled u p w ith a s trap c oming f rom t he r ight h and c orner o f t he s addle,

w here

t here

i s

t he

s uggestion o f a r ing. T he s outh-east f ace i s t he m ost i nformative o f a ll a nd c an b oast t hree b ridles a nd t hree s addles. " T he b ridle i n t he t op r ight-hand c orner ( Fig.19,5) i s d raped a cross a s hield, b ehind which t he r eins d isappear; t he b it a ppears t o b e l ooped. A f urther b ridle i s t o b e f ound i n t he c entre l eft o f t he f rieze ( Fig.19,6), a nd c heekpieces, b it, a nd r eins c an b e d istinguished. T he t hird b ridle ( Fig.19,7), j ust t o t he r ight a nd b elow t he f irst, i s p artially h idden b y a s hield a nd a s addle. C heekpieces, h eadband, a nd b it a re c ertainly d epicted, b ut i t i s n ot c lear w hether r eins o r a f rontal a re i ntended i n t he c entre o f t he b ridle. T he t hree s addles a re s ymmetrically a rranged, o ne o n e ither s ide i n t he c entre, a nd o ne a t t he b ottom c entre o f t he f rieze. T he l eft-hand e xample ( Fig.19,8) a ppears t o h ave s ome s ort o f p anelling d epicted o n t he s addle i tself; t he p ommels h ave s uffered d amage. T here i s a g irth s trap h anging f rom t he c entre, t erminating i n a b uckle, a nd d ecorated w ith a v oluted p attern. T o t he l eft s ide o f t his t here a re a t l east f ive s traps, w ith a f urther s ix t o t he r ight. A p air o f s traps h ang f rom t he r ight h and c orner, o ne v ertically, t he o ther c aught u p w ith t he r ight-hand g roup o f s traps. T he l eft h and s et o f s traps a lso a ppear t o h ave a nother s trap e ntagled w ith t hem. T he c entral s addle ( Fig.19,9) h as v ery p ronounced p ommels a nd a l ozenge p attern, o n i ts s urface ( possibly i ndicative o f q uilting?) a nd, u nlike t he o ther s addles

o n

t he f riezes,

i s t aller t han i t i s b road a nd h as a s traight

l ower e dge. A c entral g irth s trap a nd t wo g roups e ach

c ase)

h ang

f rom i t,

o f

s traps

( five

i n

a s d o t wo s traps f rom e ach o f t he t wo l ower

c orners. T he t hird s addle ( Fig.19,10), o n t he r ight-hand s ide, h as s imilar p anelling o n i t t o t he f irst a nd i s p ommeled. T he g irth i s h anging b ehind a s hield a bove which t he s addle a ppears t o b e s uspended. T wo s ets o f f ive s traps h ang o n e ither s ide o f i t; t he l eft h and s et i s c aught u p w ith a s trap ( possibly t he s ame o ne t hat i s d raped

o ver

t he

s hield n earby), whilst t wo s traps d escend f rom t he r ight-hand c orner o f t he s addle, w here t here i s a r ing. b . T he s mall b attle s cenes t hat c oncern u s i nvolve R oman c avalrymen a ttacking b arabarian f oot warriors. O n t he n orth f acade, t here a re t wo s uch s cenes, o ne i n e ither c orner. I n t he n orth-east e xample, 49 a s imple r ing j unction a t t he s houlder o f t he h orse c an b e d iscerned, f rom w hich a p endant s trap ( with f our h orizontal d ivisions) h angs. T he b it a nd r eins a re v isible, b ut t he h orse's h ead i s t oo d amaged t o p reserve a ny o ther d etails o f t he b ridle. A t t he n orth-west c orner, 5 ° a b reast s trap t hat b roadens t o a p oint i s a ll t hat c an b e s een. T he

s outh-west

p endant s trap, o f

t he b ridle,

c orner

s cene 51

a gain

a nd b roadening b reast s trap,

f eatures a r ing j unction, b ut t his

t ime

t he

d etails

b it a nd r eins a re q uite w ell p reserved. A s mall p halera

a ppears o n t he b ridle a t t he j unction o f t he

8 6

t hroatlatch,

c heekpiece,

h eadpiece, a nd b rowband. T he h orse o n t he s cene a t t he s outh-east c orner 52 h as s mall p halerae o n t he b ridle ( one a t t he s ide a nd o ne i n t he c entre o f t he b rowband). A g irth i s a lso c learly v isible b eneath t he b elly o f t he h orse. c . T here a re t wo l arge b attle s cenes, t he a rch.

o n t he n orth a nd s outh

f aces

o f

T here a re a t l east e ight h orses i n t he s outh f rieze which a re R oman. 53 T hey w ear a s imple h arness c onsisting o f a b reast s trap t hat b roadens t o a p oint a t t he c entre o f t he a nimal's c hest, w ith r ing j unctions a t t he s houlder a nd h aunch p ositions, f rom w hich p endant s traps h ang. T he f allen h orse i n t he b ottom l eft-hand c orner s hows o ff t he h arness, w ith t he b ordered s addle-cloth a nd g irth, t o a dvantage. T he o ther f allen h orse, i n t he b ottom c entre r ight o f t he f rieze, a lso h as a r ing j unction a t t he h aunch w ith a ssociated p endant s trap, a s w ell a s d ecorated b reeching a nd a p ossible f ringed s addle-cloth. T he n orth f rieze 54 h as t en h orses o n i t a nd t hey d isplay t he s ame t ype o f h arness. O ne h orse, a t t he e xtreme l eft-hand e dge o f t he s cene, i s p articularly c lear; a part f rom r ing j unctions a nd p endant s traps, a f ringed s addle-cloth a nd g irth a re v isible. A s a r ule, t hese t wo b attle s cenes d o n ot i nclude r epresentations o f t he s addle p ommels, h orse i n t he t op r ight c entre i s a n e xception t o t his. T iberian.

3 1. Mausoleum ( Fig.19) 55

S aint-Remy-de-Provence

T he f riezes o n t he b ase o f n umber o f d epictions o f h orses. O n

t he

n orth

f ace

b ut a

t he

m ausoleum

o f t he m onument,

f ive m ounted a nd o ne f allen.

5 6

a t

G lanum

i nclude

a

s ix h orses a re d epicted -

T he m ounted f igures s how

o nly

a

m inimal

a mount o f d etail, a lthough t he f act t hat s ome o f t hem a ppear t o h ave p oll-knots i s n oteworthy. S imple b reast s traps ( or b reast b ands?) a re a ttached t o b ordered r ectangular s addle-cloths. T he f allen , r iderless h orse ( Fig.19,11), o n t he o ther h and, i s e xtremely i nformative. 57 T he p ommeled s addle, t he s urface o f w hich i s d ecorated w ith d ots, s its o n a s mall r ectangular s addle-cloth a nd i s s ecured b y a g irth which p asses o ver t he b lanket. S traps h ang d own v ertically ( bearing i n m ind t hat t he h orse i s k neeling) f rom t he t wo v isible c orners o f t he s addle, w hilst t he b reeching c an b e s een p assing r ound t he r ump o f t he h orse a nd f astening t o t he r ear c orners. L ikewise, a p robable b reast s trap i s a ttached t o t he v isible f ront c orner o f t he s addle. A p endant s trap h angs o n t he h aunch o f t he a nimal. A nother m ounted f igure a ppears o n t he e ast f ace, 58 b ut t his h as a s imilar s implistic h arness t o t he p revious e xamples. T he s outh f ace, h owever, h as a nother r iderless h orse ( Fig.19,13) a t t he e xtreme l eft-hand s ide which a gain p resents a d etailed p icture o f h arness. 59 A d ecorated p ommeled s addle i s c learly s hown, r esting o n a r ectangular s addle-cloth. T he b reeching p asses b ack f rom t he c orner o f t he s addle a nd u nder t he t ail o f t he h orse. T here a ppears t o b e a s mall p halera j unction a t t he h aunch, f rom which a p endant s trap h angs. T he p recise a rrangement o f s traps a t t he f ront i s d ifficult t o i nterpret, b ut t here w ould a ppear t o b e a s et o f t riplet s traps h anging d own f rom t he f ront

8 7

p ommel,

a s w ell a s t he b reast s trap.

3 2. T ropaeum T raiani 60

t heir

A damklissi

T here a re v ery f ew r epresentations o f c avalry o n t his m onument a nd p recise i nterpretation i s o pen t o s ome d oubt. M etope I s hows

ah orse w ith b reeching a nd b reast b and b ut n o j unctions. T he b reastband b roadens t o a p oint a t t he c hest, o nce a gain, b ut t here i s a b reast s trap w ith e ight p halerae a nd a l unula a t t he c entre o f t he b reast. T he b reeching i s d ecorated w ith a s eries o f t en p endants, i n t he f orm o f v ertical s trips w ith b ulbous t erminals. T he h orse w ears a s addle-cloth, u nder which t he b reeching i s p assing h orizontally. T he a nimal a lso a ppears t o h ave a n eck s trap. T he d etail o f t he b ridle i s d amaged, b ut t here m ay b e a s mall p halera a t t he s ide j unction. M etope I I i s v irtually i dentical t o I , a nd t he h arness o riginally d epicted o n M etope I V w ould a ppear t o b e t he s ame a gain. T he h orse o n t he b reastplate o f t he t rophy i s a lso s imilarly e quipped.

3 3.

T rajanic.

T rajan 's C olumn 61

f our

R ome

A mongst t he 8 2 R oman h orses s hown o n T rajan 's C olumn, t here a re v arieties o f h arness a rrangement. I n a ll c ases, h arness s traps

p ass u nder s habracques/saddle

c loths.

P endants

a re

u sually

t refoil

d esigns, e xcept a t t he b reast, w here a l unula i s s ometimes d epicted. N o e vidence o f m artingales b eing w orn c an b e d etected ( cf. s cene LXXIV). T riplet s traps r ange f rom q uite d etailed e xamples w ith t erminals, t hrough t o

' folds'

i n t he e dge o f

t he s addle c loth.

1 . A s mall s addle c loth ( with z ig-zag e dges) o ver a l arger o ne w ith a f ringed b order, s een i n s cenes X XIV, X XXVI, X XXVII, X LIX, L XXXIX, X CVI(?), C II, a nd C IV(?). I n s cene X XIV, t his i s c ombined w ith a n eck s trap b and. T he h orse i n C IV a lso h as a n eck p endant s trap w ith t refoil t erminal, a s d o t hose i n CH. 2 . O nly o ne f ringed s addle c loth, b ut a lso e xhibiting p endant s traps. T his i s k nown o nly i n s cene XXI a nd a n eckband i s a lso e vident. 3 . A s ingle l ong s addle c loth w ith t riplet s traps a nd a f ringed l ower e dge. I t i s e vident i n s cenes X XXVIII, X LII, L VII, L VIII, C XLII, C XLV. O ne e xample o f a p endant s trap c an b e s een i n s cene C XLII. 4 . T he f inal v ariety i s s hown o n s cene L XXXIX and c learly d epicts t he h arness b ifurcating f rom t he h aunch a nd s houlder a rea. T he s addle c loth i s l ong a nd a ppears t o h ave n o d ecoration. N eck s traps w ith p endant t erminals a re e vident. A s w ell a s t he s culptural e vidence, t here a re a f ew r epresentations o f h orses a nd t heir h arness e xecuted i n p ipeclay. T hese m ay

b e

c ult

s imilarity i mpressive.

t o 6 2

i mages,

p ossibly

t he t ombstone T rajanic.

a ssociated e vidence

i n

w ith

E pona,

c ertain

3 4. P ipeclay f igurine "

b ut

t heir

d etails

i s

U nprovenanced

A lthough n o b reeching i s v isible o n t his f igure, t he p ommeled s addle i s v ery c learly d epicted, a s a re t he t riplet s traps h anging f rom t he h orns. A b and p asses a round t he n eck f rom t he f ront o f

8 8

t he

s addle

a nd m ay r epresent e ither t he b reast s traps o r a n eck b and.

3 5. P ipeclay f igurine 64 T he

h orse

B rimeux

d epicted

b y

t his

f igurine

i s

e quipped

w ith

r ing

j unctions o n t he h aunch a nd s houlder. A b reeching s trap a ppears t o p ass f rom t he h aunch j unction, w hilst t wo h aunch s traps c an b e d iscerned p assing t owards t he p ommeled s addle. T he s houlder s traps a re c oncealed a t t he f ront, b ut t he b reast s trap c an b e m ade o ut. P endant s traps h ang f rom b oth j unctions, w hilst t riplet s traps ( five a t t he f ront, t hree a t t he r ear) h ang f rom t he p ommels o f t he s addle.

A mongst h arness, w e

t he m ay

o ther r epresentational e vidence i nclude t he G undestrup c auldron

o f C elto-Roman ( which p robably

p re-dates t he f irst c entury A .D., a nd o ne o f t he d ecorated h elmets f rom N awa, w hich a lmost c ertainly p ost-dates i t. N evertheless, t hey p rovide a u seful c omparison w ith t he s trictly c ontemporary e vidence.

3 6.

S ilver p lated c auldron ( Plate E ; A lthough

i t

w as

f ound

F ig.20) 65

i n D enmark,

G undestrup

t here a re a cknowledged t o b e

c lear L a U ne a ffinities i n t he d etails o f t his v essel. T here a re f our h orsemen s hown a nd a ll f our h orses h ave i dentical h arness, c onsisting o f a p ommeled s addle o ver a r ectangular s addle-cloth, w ith a s et o f t riplet s traps h anging f rom t he r ear p ommel. T here i s a p halera a t t he h aunch j unction, w hich i s j oined t o t he s addle b y a h aunch s trap a nd f rom

w hich l ead b reeching a nd a p endant s trap. T here i s a lso a p halera

a t t he f ront o f t he h arness, a lthough i t i s b y n o m eans c lear whether a s houlder o r b reast j unction i s i ntended; o n b alance, t he f ormer s eems m ore l ikely. T here i s l ikewise a s ingle s trap l eading t o t his f rom t he s addle, b ut t here i s n o p endant s trap. T he t ails a re s hown w ith a h orizontal p attern i nscribed o n t hem , p ossibly i ntended t o r epresent f ull-length b inding. I t i s w orth n oting t hat t he r iders w ear s purs. 2 nd ist c enturies B .C.?

3 7.

C opper a lloy h elmet

( helmet B ) 66

N awa

I n a b attle s cene d epicted o n t his h elmet,

t hree R oman i nfantrymen

a nd o ne m ounted f igure a re p itched a gainst s ix b arbarian f oot a nd t wo m ounted m en. I t i s t he m ounted R oman f igure w hich c oncerns u s h ere. H e s its

a stride

a

r ectangular

f ringed s addle b lanket,

b ut n o s addle i s

v isible. A b reeching s trap p asses r ound t he a nimal's h indquarters

f rom

b eneath t he s addle b lanket a nd t here i s a p endant s trap o n t he h aunch ( but n o v isible j unction). A t t he f ront, a b reast s trap b roadens t o a p oint a nd t here i s a nother p endant s trap ( also w ithout a j unction). A part f rom a b ridle, t he o nly o ther s traps m ay b e i ntended a s r eins, a lthough i t m ay b e a rgued t hat a n eck b and i s m eant t o b e d epicted. A ll o f t he s traps a ppear t o b e s tudded.

I n

t he

S econd c entury A .D.?

f ace o f a s eemingly c ontradictory c orpus o f m aterial,

8 9

o ne

r n cb

F ig.20: H orseman f rom t he Gundestrup c auldron.

F ig.21: R elief f rom t ombstone o f Rufus.

9 0

M annheim M useum.

o f t he f undamental p roblems w ith t he r epresentational e vidence i s k nowing w hat t o b elieve. T he q uality o f d epiction r anges f rom t he c rude, p robably e arly t ombstones ( Fig.21), t hrough t he d etailed l ater e xamples, t o t he f ine, c lassical o fficial s culpture o f t he c ity o f R ome i tself. C omparison o f t he e quipment s hown o n t hese v arious i mages w ith m aterial f rom t he a rchaeological r ecord s trongly s uggests t hat t he T iberio-Claudian a nd F lavian t ombstones o f t he R hineland w ere c onsistently t he m ost a ccurate r epresentations o f R oman c avalry. 67 T he R omanius s tone ( and t hose l ike i t) a nd t hat o f B assus s eem t o b e t he h ighpoint o f s culptural r epresentation o f h orse e quipment, a nd i t i s n ot s urprising t hat t heir h arness m akes t he m ost s ense w hen v iewed f rom a p urely f unctional s tandpoint. H owever, t his i s v ery d ifficult t erritory - i s p lausible e quipment s ufficient e vidence f or t he a ccuracy o f t he t ombstone? 68

T HE A RCHAEOLOGICAL E VIDENCE S addle h orns

( Table 1 , F igs.22-3;

3 6)

T he m ost t angible a rchaeological e vidence f or t he C elto-Roman s addle a re t he s haped h orns t hat a re o ccasionally f ound. T hese a re m ade o f c opper a lloy s heet a nd s ome r etain t races o f l eather a dhering t o t he o uter s urface o r i nner e dge. A s et o f f our h orns c omprises t wo f ront a nd t wo r ear p ieces, n one o f t hem b eing i nterchangeable. T he h orns f rom t he r ear o f t he s addle h ave e xtensions o n o ne s ide, a t t he b ase, " w hilst t hose a t t he f ront a lso f lare m ore o n o ne s ide o f t he b ase ( but o nly s lightly), i n m ost c ases ( Figs.22-3). T he s et f rom P it X XII a t N ewstead h ave t he n umeral ' XV ' i nscribed p unctim o n o ne o f t he r ear p ieces, a nd ' XII' o n t he o ther t hree e lements. T he p iece w ith ' XV' a lso h as t wo s cratched g rafitti o n t he i nside, r eading ' SENECIO' a nd ' CRESCES', whilst t he o thers a re j ust m arked ' SENECIONIS', a gain o n t he i nside. S imilarly, o ne o f t he N euß o bjects h as t he n ame ' T. B ASSI' p unched f rom t he i nside a nd t he M oers-Asberg s et h ad a n ame s cratched ( and n ow i llegible) o n t heir i nner f aces. 7 ° E xamination o f t he c orpus o f p ublished e xamples ( as w ell a s s ome p ieces w hich a re n ot y et f ully p ublished) r eveals a n umber o f v ariations u pon t he b asic f orm. A round t he p eriphery o f t hese f ittings a re d rilled a s eries o f h oles; w ithin a s et, t he s pacing o f t he h oles i s m ore o r l ess s tandard, b ut i t c an v ary w idely b etween d ifferent s ets o f h orns ( compare t he t wo s ets f rom N ewstead, f or e xample). 71 H owever, t here a re f urther d ifferences b esides t he s pacing o f t hese h oles: s ome p ieces h ave a r aised b order i nside t his l ine o f h oles ( Types 2 -4), w hilst o thers p ossess a s emi-circular a perture i n t he b ase o f t he h orns ( Types 3 a nd 4 ). A nother m ajor d ifference i s m anifested i n t he s hape o f t he r ear p air o f h orns: t he R ottweil s et h as s traight e xtensions w hich a ppear t o b utt t ogether i n t he m iddle o f t he s addle, b ut m ost o f t he k nown e xamples o f t his t ype o f o bject h ave i nwardly c urving e xtensions a nd r ounded e nds ( Fig.23,B), a s i s t he c ase w ith b oth s ets o f N ewstead h orns, s uggesting t hat t hese w ere n ot i ntended t o m eet. 72 I t i s a lso w orth n oting t hat s ome o f t he M ainz-Weisenau p ieces h ave s mall ' pockets' a t t he t op ( Fig.22,C), which m ay i n f act b e i ndicative o f t he t hickness o f t he p ommel a t t his p oint. 73

9 1

2

•

/

A

1 z 1

iy

C

D

B

o

2 00

F ig.22: T ypical f ront s addle h orns, s howing A : p rofiles; B : v ariations o n l ower o pening; C : W eisenau ' pockets' a t t op o f h orn ; D : t hree t ypes o f e dging.

9 2

A

y -

2 00

2 00

F ig.23: T ypical r ear s addle h orns, s howing A : p rofiles o f r ight-hand p iece; B : p ossible v ariations i n s hape o f r ear o f s addle; C : s quare-ended p rojection; D : r ound-ended p rojection.

9 3

G irth b uckles ( Table 2 ; F ig.36) A part f rom t he f act t hat t heir s ize s uggests t hey m ay h ave f ulfilled s ome s uch r ole, a rchaeological e xamples o f t hese a re v irtually i mpossible t o p rove. M ost s eem t o h ave b een o f c opper a lloy w ith a n i ron s pindle. S ome e xamples a ppear t o h ave h ad t he l oop m oulded c omplete ( Types 1 -2 & 4 ), w hereas o thers w ere c learly c omposite ( Type 3 ), f ormed f rom s ide p ieces, c ross-member, s pindle, a nd t ongue. 74

S addle p lates ( Table 3 , F igs.37-8) M ade o f c opper a lloy, t hese o bjects w ere n ormally c ast. 75 O n t heir r ear f aces, a s eries o f r ivets a nd s trips s ecured t hem t o s traps. T he d imensions f ound i n t he c atalogue s uggest t hat t wo s tandard s izes w ere i n u se, w hat m ight b e t ermed t he ' narrow ' a nd ' broad' p lates, t he c ommonest w idths b eing 8 0-89mm a nd 1 20-129mm r espectively. A lthough m ost p lates w ere c ast i n o ne p iece, t he C astleford e xamples a re u nique s o f ar i n h aving t heir r oundels a dded i n c opper a lloy s heet m etal. S ilvering w as c ommon o n t hese o bjects, b ut t he C astleford p lates a lso s how s igns o f t inning w ithin t he c ircular r ecesses i ntended f or t he s eparate b osses. 76 S ome p ieces, s uch a s t hose f rom N euß a nd A islingen , h ave n iello i nlay. W erner's i dentification o f o penwork p lates ( Type 6 ) a s s addle p lates h as b een d oubted i mplicitly b y B rouwer, o n t he g rounds t hat i t w as i nspired b y t he D oorwerth o bjects o riginally p ublished b y H olwerda. H owever, t he t wo t ypes o f p late s hare a s imilar m ethod o f a ttachment a nd a re c lose i n s ize, s o t here i s n o r eason t o d ismiss t hem o ut o f h and .7

R ing j unctions

( Table 4 )

I n a ll c ases w here r ing j unctions h ave s urvived f rom t he f irst c entury A .D., t he r ing w as a c ast p iece o f c opper a lloy, s ometimes c ircular i n s ection, b ut h ollow L -sectioned e xamples a re a lso k nown. 78 T he e xample f rom S trasbourg w as d ecorated w ith n iello i nlay. M ost h ave a n e xternal d iameter o f 3 0-50mm a nd a re p robably h arness j unctions, b ut s maller e xamples m ay b elong t o t he b ridle o r r eins.

P halerae ( Table 5 , F igs.39-42) P halerae w ere a lmost i nvariably c ast i n c opper a lloy ( usually b rass). 79 W here a w hite m etal c oating i s f ound, i t i s u sually s ilver s heet s oldered i nto p osition a nd t inning i s s eldom f ound. " I t h as b een s uggested t hat t he l oops a nd r ings o n t he r ear f aces m ay h ave b een s oldered o r b razed i n p osition, r ather t han c ast a s p art o f t he o riginal m oulding, b ut t his i s b y n o m eans c ertain. 81

h ere

I t w ill b e a pparent f rom a n e xamination o f t he c atalogue p resented t hat p halerae m ay b e c lassified b y e ither p rofile ( i.e.

9 4

d ecorative) o r f unctional c riteria. 82 I f w e b egin w ith t he f unctional c haracteristics ( Figs.41-2), i t i s e vident t hat a c lear p attern c an b e d iscerned. a ) O ne l oop p halerae a re f ixed d irectly o nto t he s trap, w hich p asses t hrough t he c entral l oop a nd i s f astened b y a r ivet p assing t hrough t he c entre o f t he d isc. T hese a re u sually t he s mallest p halerae ( suspension T ype l a). b ) T wo l oop p halerae ( Types 2 a-f) a re f ound i n a n umber o f v ariants, b ut a re u sually a ssociated w ith a p endant. T he f irst k ind ( Types 2 a, d -e) h as t wo p arallel l oops t hrough which t he s trap p asses a nd i s f astened i n t he c entre o f t he d isc b y a r ivet. A t t he b ottom o f t he r everse f ace o f t he d isc, a h inge f or a p ivoted p endant i s s ituated a t t he c entre. T he s econd v ariety ( Type 2 h) c onsists o f t wo c onverging l oops, b eing c loser a t t he b ottom t han t he t op, a nd j oined a t t he b ottom b y a s hort b ar, w hich a cts a s t he h inge f or a n ecked p endant. T hese n ormally f orm t he i ntermediate s ize o f p halera. c ) T hree l oop p halerae ( Type 3 c) u sually h ave o ne l oop o n e ither s ide, o ne a t t he t op, a nd a h inge a t t he b ottom . A lthough i ntended f or t wo s traps m eeting a t r ight-angles, t he p recise f unction o f t his f orm i s d ebatable a nd i s c onsidered i n m ore d etail b elow . N ormally t he l argest k ind o f p halera. d ) F our l oop p halerae ( Type 3 d) a re p robably s imilar t o t he t hree-loop t ype a nd a re n ormally o ne o f t he l argest v arieties, a lthough a gain t heir e xact m anner o f u se i s n ot i mmediately o bvious. e ) T hree r ing p halerae ( Types 4 a-b) a re f rom j unctions a nd a re a mongst t he l arger e xamples, f or a ttaching j unction l oops.

s houlder o r h aunch t he r ings b eing u sed

f ) F our r ing p halerae ( Type 5 a) a re a lso f rom s houlder o r h aunch j unctions a nd o f a s imilar s ize r ange t o t hree-ring e xamples.

g ) External

r ing p halerae ( Type 6 a - u sually w ith f our r ings e qually s paced a round t he c ircumference o f t he d isc) a re n ot f ound v ery o ften a nd a re k nown i n b oth A ugustan ( Oberaden) a nd l ate-first t o m id-second c entury c ontexts ( Newstead).

T hese f unctional c riteria a re t otally s eparate f rom t he d ecorative r egimes f ound ( Figs.39-40) a nd t he t wo d o n ot a ppear t o b e c onnected i n a ny w ay. T he m ost c ommon d ecorative f orms o f p halera a re T ypes 1 a nd 2 , t he b asic p rofile o f w hich i s a c onvex p erimeter ( narrow o n T ype 1 , b road o n T ype 2 ) a round a c oncave c entre ( broad o n T ype 1 , n arrow o n T ype 2 ). A mongst t he l ess c ommon d ecorative f orms, a re t hose w ith v ery n arrow c onvex p erimeters a nd m ore-or-less c omplex c oncave c entres ( Type 3 ), t he c oncave ( Type 5 ), t he c onvex ( Type 9 ), t he f lat ( Types 8 a nd 1 2), a nd t he o rnately d ecorated ( Type 6 ). I t m ay b e t hat s ome o f t he m ore b izarre e xamples, s uch a s T ype 6 , w ere f rom o fficer's e quipment, g iven t he u nusual c ombination o f s ilver a nd c opper, a s w ell a s t he u nique f orm , b ut ( as a lways) t his i s a d ifficult a rgument t o s ubstantiate.

9 5

P endants ( Table 6 , F igs.24; A s

t he

4 3-9)

n ame i ndicates, p endants a re d esigned t o h ang f reely f rom

h arness. T o t his e nd,

s ome m eans o f s uspension

w as

n ecessary,

a nd

a

v ariety o f f orms w ere u tilised b y t he R omans ( Fig.24), b ut t he m ost c ommon w ere t he h inge a nd t he n eck. W ith a h inged s uspension, a p ierced l ug o n t he p endant was p laced b etween t wo s imilarly p ierced l ugs o n a p halera a nd a h inge p laced t hrough a ll t hree ( Fig.24,3). T he m ain a lternative was t o g ive t he p endant a l ong n eck which c ould f orwards

o r

b ackwards

b e

f olded

o ver a b ar o r r ing o n t he p halera o r s tud f rom

w hich i t w as s uspended ( Fig.24,2). A lthough t he m ethod o f s uspension w as u sually h idden b ehind t he p halera, s ome f orms o f p endant which w ere n ot s uspended i n t his w ay d eveloped d ecorated s uspension n ecks ( Fig.24,1). P endants

w ere

n ormally

c ast

f rom

c opper

a lloy

( brass);

t he

s ilvered a nd n ielloed o nes t hen h aving t heir e xterior f aces e ngraved a s n ecessary. T he X anten f ittings a ppear t o h ave h ad t heir s ilvering a pplied b efore t hey w ere e ngraved. 83 O ne o f t he c ommonest f orms o f p endant i n t he

f irst

c entury

w as t he s o-called ' trifid' p endant ( Type 1 ). T hese a ssociated w ith p halerae " a nd w ere u sually s ilvered a nd

A .D.

w ere a lways i nlaid w ith

n iello. T his t ype i s c losely l inked w ith t he l unula ( Type 9 ) w ith i nternal p endants ( Type 8 ), f rom w hich i t w as p robably u ltimately d erived, a nd i t i s t he t ype f ound i n t he D oorwerth a nd X anten h oards. T here w as a w ide r ange o f v ariations u pon t he t heme, b ut m ost v ersions h ad a c entral l obe d ecorated i n t he f orm o f a l eaf. A c ommon m otif i s t he o akleaf c entral l obe, f lanked b y a corn t erminals. T he X anten a nd D oorwerth p ieces a lso e xhibit ' eyebrows' a nd ' noses' ( Type l a) - i n f act t he s imilarities b etween t he t wo c ollections a re q uite r emarkable a nd p robably p oint t o a c ommon w orkshop f or t heir m anufacture. T he i nlaid d ecoration o n t hese p ieces i s u sually b ased o n a t heme o f v iticulture, w ith v ine l eaves, t endrils, a nd b unches o f g rapes a ppearing i n a v ariety o f m ore o r l ess s tylised f orms. 85 T his t ype i s f ound f rom e arlier. "

t he C laudian p eriod o nwards, b ut c annot y et b e s hown t o b e

T ype 2 p endants h ave o void b odies a nd,

l ike

T ype

1

p ieces,

a re

n ormally s uspended f rom p halerae ( by h inge o r n eck), a nd d ecorated w ith s ilvering a nd n iello i nlay ( again w ith t hemes d erived f rom v iticulture). T he C anterbury e xamples a re s o f ar u nique i n b eing s uspended f rom h inged s trap m ounts, a s w ell a s b eing d ecorated w ith b osses. L ike T ype 1 ,

t hese p robably d ate f rom t he C laudian p eriod. 87

E xamples o f T ype 3 a re c omparatively r are,

b ut s hown t o b elong

t o

t he f irst c entury b y t he e xample f rom D oorwerth. T hey a re i nteresting i nsofar a s m ost o f t hem i ncorporate a n o penwork p eltaform t erminal. S uspension i s u sually b y a n eck.

f rom

T ype 4 p endants d erive t heir s hape f rom l eaves, 4 a a nd 4 b d irectly v ine l eaves. S uspension m ethods v ary, a nd i nclude n eck, l oop, a nd

r ivet. T eardrop-shaped

p endants

( Type

5 )

9 6

a re

e xtremely

c ommon

a nd

2

3

4

5

m cb

F ig.24: M ethods o f p endant s uspension a nd m artingale a ttachment. 1 : n eck s uspension ; 2 : l oop s uspension ; 3 : h inge s uspension ; 4 -5: p ossible m ethods o f m artingale a ttachment t o b reast j unction.

9 7

f ulfilled a v ariety o f p urposes. S ome o f t he s maller o nes f ormed t erminals t o ' apron' s traps o r c entral p endants i n l unulae ( Type 9 ), b ut t he l arger e xamples c ould b e s uspended f rom p halerae, a s t he f inds f rom I nota s how.

8 8

T hese n ormally e mployed n eck s uspension,

b ut

h inges

a re a lso f ound. ' Bird-headed' o r ' winged' p endants ( Type 7 ) a re o ne o f t he c ommonest p re-Flavian t ypes, t he m ajor f orms b eing t he s imple 7 b a nd t he m ore e laborate 7 a. T inning s eems t o b e t he m ost f requent f orm o f d ecoration, b ut p ieces c ould i ncorporate p unctim p atterns. 7 a p ieces u sually h ave a s tylised w olf's h ead, b ut s ome h ave m ore n aturalistic r epresentations. 7 b u ses a s tylised b ird's h ead, e ither d uck o r g oose, b ut a gain s ome p ieces a re m ore r ealistic t han o thers. T he m ethod o f s uspension i s a lways b y n eck, which w as p assed t hrough a l oop ( often s uspended f rom a s tud) r iveted t o t he h arness s trap. T his t ype o f p endant w as p opular i n t he p re-Flavian p eriod ( a f act i llustrated b y t heir d istribution i n B ritain), b ut h as n ot s o f ar b een f ound i n A ugustan o r T iberian c ontexts.

8 9

L unate p endants ( Type 9 ) c ome i n a w ide r ange o f f orms a nd a re e xtremely c ommon. L arge, f lat f orms w ith a c haracteristically a ngular c rescent a re r are ( Types 9 a-c & n ), w hilst t he f lat c rescent w ith k nobbed t erminals ( Types d -e) i s q uite f requently f ound. W ell-formed c rescents w ith a n a ngular p rofile a re v ery d istinctive ( Type f ) a nd t here i s l ittle v ariation i n t his s ub-type. A c urved p rofile i s a lso q uite c ommon ( Type g ). T here a re a n umber o f e xotic v ariants which a re n ot v ery c ommon, b ut a mongst t he e arliest a re t he b oar's t usk p endants ( Type s ) which a re f ound i n b oth R oman a nd C eltic c ontexts. S uspension i s n ormally b y m eans o f a n eck, b ut l oops a re f ound, a s w ell a s t he a rticulated d ouble-hinge o f T ype 9 s. L unulae a re f ound f rom t he A ugustan p eriod t hrough t o t he s econd c entury A .D. i n a ssociation w ith c avalry h arness. " T ype 8 p endants a re n ormally f ound s uspended ( usually b y a n eck) i nside t he a rms o f a l unula. P hallic p endants ( Types 6 a nd 1 0) a re v ery c ommon i n R oman m ilitary c ontexts, b ut t hey e xhibit a g reat d eal o f v ariety, s o m uch s o,

t hat

n o

o ne

s ubtype

p redominates

a mongst

T ype

1 0. T he b asic

s ymbolic e lements a re a s tylised p hallus a nd f ist ( making t he m ano f ica s ign a gainst t he E vil E ye) i n a n u pward-curving c rescent, f rom w hich t estes a nd a f urther p hallus n ormally h ung. I t i s i nteresting t hat t hese p endants w ere a lmost i nvariably s uspended b y m eans o f a r ing, u sually l arge e nough t o f orm a j unction. I n f act, s ome p ieces a re known w ith j unction l oops s till a ttached, b ut n one o f t hese a re f orms o f s trap m ount which w e c an a ssociate w ith c avalry, w hich l eads t o t he q uestion o f w hether p hallic p endants b elong w ith v ehicle h arness o r b easts o f b urden.

9 1

T he s ame i s t rue o f T ype 6 p endants, m ost o f w hich h ave s imilar l oops a t t he t oR 1 a nd a n e xample f rom S trasbourg s till h as i ts j unction l oops a ttached.

9£

A lthough t here i s n o e vidence t hat t he p iece i s f rom c avalry h arness, t he f inal t ype o f p endant ( Type 1 1), t he l ozenge, i s i ncluded h ere b ecause o f i ts r esemblance t o o ne o f t he f orms o f p endant w orn b y B assus

( above, N o.6, a nd F ig.3).

9 8

BREECH ING

HEADP IECE

-' -BREAST

S TRAP

BREAST J UNCT ION

P ENDANT S TRAP

T HROATLATCH

HACKAMORE

CHEEKP IECE

BRO WBAND

-2

t

9 9

S trap f ittings

( Figs.26;

5 0-6)

R oman h arness w as a dorned w ith a

n umber

o f

d ifferent

t ypes

o f

f itting, m ost o f w hich w ere f unctional, r ather t han p urely d ecorative. I t i s n ecessary t o c onsider t he f ive m ain c ategories a s a w hole, a s w ell a s i ndividually, s ince e ach s et o f h arness u sually c ontained e xamples f rom e ach c ategory.

t en

A n e xamination o f t he p ublished m aterial s hows u s t hat t here a re b asic s tylistic g roups o f s trap f itting, b ut a t l east t wo o f t hese

( Types 7 and 1 0) p robably b elong t o e ither v ehicle o r n on-military r iding h arness. I n m any c ases, w e d o n ot p osses e xamples o f a c ategory f or e ach s ub-type, s o s ome i nterpolation i s n ecessary t o r econstruct s ets. T ype 1 f ittings a re t hose o f t he

' spectacle'

t ype, n ormally h aving

a f lat f igure-of-eight s haped b ody w ith t wo d ome-headed r ivets s ecuring t hem t o t he s trap. T hese a re c ommon t hroughout t he t wo G ermanies a nd B ritain a nd a ppear t o d ate f rom J ulio-Claudian u p t o H adrianic t imes. 93 T ype 2 f ittings a re s imilar, b ut h ave a s lightly m oulded p rofile t o t he b ody a nd a m ore-or-less s tylised v olute a t o ne e nd i t heir d istribution i s

m ore

l imited,

' double-spectacle' 1 . T hey e xhibit

b eing

r are

i n

B ritain.

9 4

T ype

3 ,

o r

t he

f ittings, e njoy a v ery s imilar d istribution t o T ype p airs o f r ivets s ecuring t hem t o t he s trap; whilst

t here a re a n umber o f v ariants, t he b asic f orm i s v ery d istinctive. T ype 4 f ittings a re t he o nes w ith ' moulded' d ecoration, u sing t hemes t hat i nclude t he b ordered o void a nd t he a corn, a nd t hey m ight a lso b e t inned o r s ilvered a nd i nlaid w ith n iello; t hese s eem t o b e l argely p re-Flavian i n t heir u se. 95 T ype 5 f ittings a re r ectangular w ith a b road d ecorated b and a t o ne e nd a nd t hese a ppear t o b e i n u se t hroughout t he f irst c entury A .D., b ut - i nterestingly - d o n ot i nclude s trap m ounts. T ype 6 a re a mongst t he m ost f amiliar, s ince t hese a re f ound i n t he D oorwerth, X anten, a nd F remington H agg a ssemblages. This t ype i s f lat, a lthough s haped, s ilvered, a nd i nlaid w ith n iello, u sing t endril m otifs r elated t o t hose t heir r espective p halerae. T ype 6 T iberio-Claudian

p eriod. %

T ype

f ound o n T ype 1 a nd 2 p endants a nd w as p robably i ntroduced i n t he

7

i s b ased o n t he t riangle a nd o nly

j unction l oops a re known f or t his t ype, h inting t hat t hey m ay n ot b elong w ith c avalry h arness. T ype 8 i s t he s imple r ectangle, s ome s ub-types b eing i nlaid, o thers n ot. T ype 9 a re q uite r are, s o t he a bsence o f s ome c ategories o f f itting m ay n ot b e s ignificant, b ut i t s uggests t hat t hey h ad a v ery l imited d istribution. T ype 1 0 i ncludes v arious r ectangular f orms a nd p robably b elongs t o v ehicle o r p ack a nimal h arness,

g iven t heir c rudity a nd t he a bsence o f o ther c ategories

a part f rom j unction l oops.

9 7

F ig.26: J unctions a nd s trap f ittings. 1 : p halera j unction ( from f ront) w ith T ype 6 j unction l oops; 2 : T ype 6 s trap m ount; 3 : r ing j unction w ith T ype 1 j unction l oops; 4 : p halera j unction ( from r ear); 5 : T ype 6 s trap t erminal; 6 : T ype 6 s trap t erminal w ith h inged p halera; 7 : T ype 6 f emale s trap f astener; 8 : T ype 6 m ale s trap f astener.

1 00

2

5

7

8 6

E l

' rN r //

/ ////////

1 01

/ //

r n cb

i . J unction l oops

( Table 7 , F igs.50-1)

T he f irst o f o ur f our m ain t ypes o f s trap f itting,

j unction l oops,

w ere n ormally c ast f rom c opper a lloy ( brass). I n f orm , t hey w ere s imply ad ecorated u pper p late which w as b ent o ver o n i tself a nd t he b ack e lement r iveted t o t he f ront, t he b end f orming t he l oop which w as a ttached t o t he r ing j unction

o r p halera.

T hey

w ere

n ot

o rdinarily

d etachable f rom t heir p arent j unction. A c lay m ould f or a T ype 1 j unction l oop h as b een f ound i n N ijmegen, d emonstrating t hat s ome a t l east w ere c ast i n t he f olded p osition. S ome o bjects f rom A rlaines, h owever, which a ppear t o b e T ype 2j unction l oops, h ave s traight l oops, whilst r etaining f lash.

t heir

c asting

9 8

A d istinction e xisted b etween j unction l oops i ntended f or u se w ith r ings a nd t hose t hat w ere t o b e a ttached t o p halerae: r ing j unction l oops h ad m oulded o r d ecorated l oops, f requently a rched u p f rom t he b ody

o f

t he

f itting,

w hereas

t hose f or p halerae w ere u nadorned a nd

s imply f olded b ack o n t hemselves ( as w as s o w ith T ype 6 a nd t he N ewstead T ype 5 e j unction l oops). T he c ommonest j unction l oops i n B ritain a nd t he G ermanies a re T ypes l c a nd l d, w ith t heir c haracteristic ( and p resumably s ymbolic) i ncised t riangle o n t he l oop.

9 9

J unction l oops s uffered a n umber o f d ifferent a lmost c ertainly t he r esult o f t heir m anner o f u se,

f orms o f d amage, a nd e qually l ikely

t he r eason f or t heir h igh d iscard r ate c ompared t o s ome o ther c ategories o f f itting ( they a re a rguably t he m ost c ommon o f t he h arness f itting r ecovered f rom t he a rchaeological r ecord). 1°0 W e may c lassify t hese f aults a s f ollows: a ) B roken l oop. C ommonly t he l oop f ractures j ust b elow t he a pex, s o t hat t he w hole o f t he r ear o f t he f itting i s m issing. P robably c aused b y m etal f atigue ( a p rogramme o f m etallographic e xamination w ould b e u seful h ere) b rought a bout b y t he f act t hat t his p art t akes t he s train a nd f riction o f c ontact w ith t he j unction r ing - c omplete e xamples s how c lear s igns o f w ear, d ue t o t he f act t hat t he l oop was h ollow a nd n ot s haped t o f it t he c urvature o f t he r ing. b ) D istorted l oop. H ere t he r ear s trip a nd l oop a re t wisted o r b ent o ut o f p lace, s ometimes s traightening o ut t he f itting. T his s uggests f orcible r emoval f rom t he s trap, e ither a ccidentally ( such a s a r ivet f ailing) o r d eliberately ( a w ish t o c hange t he f itting f or s ome r eason). c ) B ody f racture. T he b ody f ractures b elow t he l oop a nd f irst r ivet, b ut a bove t he s econd - v ery c ommon o n T ype 1 a nd 3 f ittings. P ossibly d ue t o t he s trap s tretching a nd c ausing t he i nflexible f itting t o f ail. d ) R ivet f ailure. A m ajority o f f ittings a re f ound w ithout t heir r ivets, s uggesting t hat t his w as a nother i mportant r eason f or t heir b eing

d iscarded.

L ike c ,

p ossibly c aused b y m ovement o f t he s trap;

t his c an l ead t o t he w hole i tem b eing r emoved f rom h arness. A lternatively, p ieces t hat f ailed f or o ne o f t he a bove r easons w ould

1 02

h ave

h ad

t heir

s urviving r ivets r emoved i n o rder t o t ake t hem o ff

t he s trap. M ore r ecently, t his t ype o f f itting h as s uffered s omewhat a t t he h ands o f s cholars, w ho h ave c oined av ariety o f n ames f or i t, b ut ' junction l oop' i s t he m ost d escriptive o f i ts f orm a nd f unction. T hey h ave e ven b een m istaken f or b aldric f astenings a s h ave c ategories i ii a nd i v b elow. 1°1

i i.

S trap t erminals

( e.g.

' baldric c lip'),

( Table 8 , F igs.52-3)

T hese o bjects w ere c ast i n c opper a lloy ( brass) a nd w ere u sed t o w eight t he e nd o f s traps. T here was u sually s ome p rovision f or b utting o r c rimping t he e nd o f t he s trap i tself, a nd t he f itting w ould t hen b e f inished o ff w ith a t erminal knob. C ommon f orms o f d amage i nclude t he t erminal k nob b reaking o ff a nd t he d istortion o r r emoval o f a ny r ivets h elping s ecure t he s trap.

i ii. M ale s trap f asteners ( Table 9 , F ig.54) T here

a re

t wo

b asic

f orms

f or

t he

m ale

h alf

o f

t he

' bar-and-keyhole' t ype o f s trap f astening. T he s implest o f t hese w as a a s imple b ar, c urved u pwards f rom t he m ain b ody o f t he f itting. A m ore e laborate v ersion c onsisted o f a n u pward c urving n eck, f rom w hich t wo s hort t erminals s prouted o n e ither s ide, g iving i t a v aguely z oomorphic a ppearance. O ne o f t he p ieces f rom D oorwerth w as a lso a j unction l oop a nd t his i s o ne o f t he c lues t o t he a ssociation o f t hese f ittings w ith c avalry h arness , 102 r ather t han b aldrics, b ut t he d ecorative s tyles a re t he c learest i ndication o f t heir t rue f unction, a ffinity w ith o ther t ypes o f h arness f itting. 1 03

d emonstrating T he D oorwerth

t heir p iece

m ay i ndicate t hat i t was c ustomary t o t wist t he f emale f itting t o f it i t o ver t he m ale.' "

i v. F emale s trap f asteners

( Table 1 0, F ig.55)

t wo m ost T he f emale ' keyhole' f astener c ame i n t hree f orms, t he he a ctual c ommon o f w hich h elp n ame i t. T he ' hinged k eyhole' h as t t hat t he f astening e lement h inged t o t he m ain b ody o f t he f itting, s o iece. m ale f itting r ested b etween t he b ody a nd h inged s ection o f t he p p iece. T he s econd t ype i s n ot h inged i n t his w ay, b ut i s c ast i n o ne T he t hird, f itting.

a nd

l east

c ommon,

n t he i s a s imple r ectangular o pening i

A s m ight b e e xpected, t he h inged e lement w as v ulnerable t o a nd i t a nd t he m ain b ody a re o ften f ound s eparately.

v .

d amage

S trap m ounts ( Table 1 1, F ig.56) T hese

a re

( apparently)

t he

o nly

n on-functional

h arness. T hey a re u sually s ymmetrical l ongitudinally,

1 03

e lements

t ypified

b y

o f t he

f act t hat t wo-rivet ' spectacle' f ittings h ave t hree r ivets i n t heir s trap m ount f orm. T ype 6 m ounts o ften f eature d ecorated r ivet h eads, e ither d omed o r d ished.

1°5

H ARNESS R ECONSTRUCTION T he S addle T he

m ost

i mportant

p iece

o f h arness f or a c avalryman,

i n o rder

t hat h e s hould b e t ruly e ffective i n c lose c ombat, w as t he s addle. T he o utstanding q ualities o f t his w ere t hat i t s hould d istribute t he w eight o f

t he

r ider u pon t he h orse's b ack w ithout c ausing i t a ny d iscomfort,

w hilst a lso p roviding a c omfortable a nd s afe s eat f or t he r ider.' " T o a chieve t he f irst, t he s addle h as t o h ave a w ooden ' tree' ( or f rame) w ith p adding, whilst t he s econd i s a ccomplished b y s haping t he s eat t o f it t he r ider.

1°7

P eter C onnolly h as r econstructed a C elto-Roman s addle o f t he f irst c entury A .D., b ased u pon t he a vailable e vidence. T his w as m ainly a rchaeological ( leather s addle c overs a nd c opper a lloy ' saddle h orns'), b ut was s upported b y s culptural e vidence ( taken f rom t ombstones a nd t he S t.Remy m ausoleum) . 108 T he e fficacy o f t his r econstructed s addle w as d emonstrated i n i ts a ctual e xperimental u se. C onnolly s uggested t hat t he s addle p ommels w ere w ooden a nd t hat t he h oles a round t he e dge o f s ome o f t he s addle h orns w ere f or n ailing t hese

o bjects

t o

t he

p ommels.

T hese h orns, which w ere c overed w ith

l eather, c annot h ave b een a ttached t o t he o utside o f t he s addle, s ince n ail h oles a re n ot f ound o n s urviving l eather f ragments. C onnolly f elt t hat t he b alance o f e vidence l ay i n f avour o f t heir b eing u sed t o s hape t he p ommel o n t he i nside, 1°9 b ut t he p eripheral h oles, i f i ndeed u sed f or n ailing, w ould i mply t hat t he w ooden p ommels t hemselves w ould h ave b een s haped, t hus r endering t he h orns u nnecessary. I t m ight b e a rgued t hat t hey w ere a f orm o f p rotection f or t he p ommels, p rotecting t hem a gainst d amage i n b attle o r m ishandling when t he s addle w as r emoved f rom t he h orse. H owever, a n a lternative e xplanation f or t he c opper a lloy h orns m ay b e t hat t he p ommels w ere n ot wholly w ooden. I f w e a ccept t hat t he h orns w ere

i ntended

t o

s hape t he p ommels,

t hen i t i s c onceivable t hat s ome

f orm o f p adding w as u sed t o f orm t hem. A f abric c over, s tuffed w ith h orsehair, w ould b e f airly r igid ( comparison w ith r ecent u pholstery t echniques c onfirms t his), y et e asier t o p roduce t han c arved w ooden p ommels; i f t he h orns w ere t hen s titched t o t he o utside, t hese w ould n ot o nly g ive t he p ommels t he d esired s hape, b ut a lso a dd a n e xtra d egree o f r igidity. 1 10 I t i s a lso p ossible t hat s uch p added p ommels h ad a s imple w ooden c ore, w hich w ould t hen b e a ttached t o t he t ree, t his w ould n ot s eem t o b e e ssential. T he s et o f h orns f rom P it XXII a t N ewstead i nclude

t wo

n ames

b ut

o n

o ne o f t he o bjects, which a lso h as a d ifferent n umeral p unched i n i t t o t he o thers. I t i s c onceivable t hat o ne p ommel o n S enecio's s addle ( number X II) h ad t o b e r eplaced w ith o ne f rom C resces' ( number X V); S enecio s cratched h is n ame i nside, b ut i n t he n ominative c ase, n ot t he g enitive, a s h e h ad d one i n t he o ther t hree. " T he s imilarity b etween

1 04

t hese t wo d ifferent r ear h orns a nd t heir i mplied i nterchangeability s uggests t hat s addlers u sed t he s ame b asic s hape o f h orn f or e ach s addle t hey m ade. 1 12

T he H arness I t s hould b y n ow b e a pparent r econstruction o f C elto-Roman h arness

t hat t he e vidence f or i s b oth a rchaeological

t he a nd

i conographic, t he f ormer p roviding v arious a rtefacts, t he l atter s uggesting w ays i n which t hey m ay h ave b een u sed. T he c hief m eans o f f astening t he s addle t o t he h orse w as p rovided b y t he g irth s trap; t his p assed u nder t he a nimal's b elly a nd a ttached t o t he s addle o n e ither s ide. M odern s addles r equire l eather ' flaps' t o p revent t he b uckles w hich a ttach t he s addle t o t he g irth f rom c hafing e ither h orse o r r ider, s o i t i s r easonable t o e xpect t he R oman s ystem t o h ave i ncluded s omething s imilar. 1 13 A s w e h ave s een, b uckles t hat a re l arge e nough t o h ave s erved a s g irth f astenings a re known, b ut i t i s u sually d ifficult t o c onfirm t heir i dentification a s s uch; h owever, t he r eliefs o n t he t riumphal a rch a t O range d epict w hat a re p resumably c aptured G allic s addles, a nd t hese h ave g irth s traps ( some o f w hich a ppear t o b e d ecorated), e ach w ith a s ingle l arge b uckle. 1 14 G irth s traps a re s hown o n s ome t ombstones, a lthough u sually w ithout a b uckle. " ) S urviving b uckles s uggest a w idth o f b etween 5 0mm a nd 6 0mm f or t he g irth s trap i tself.' " T he g irth, h owever, s erves o nly t o h old t he s addle o nto t he h orse, b ut i t c annot p revent i t f rom m oving b ackwards o r f orwards o n t he a nimal's b ack, m ay i nclude t he

a nd i t i s f or t his r eason t hat m odern h orse e quipment ' breastplate' a nd ' crupper'. 1 17 T he b reastplate f astens

t o t he s addle a nd p asses a round t he f ront o f t he a nimal, t hus p reventing t he s addle f rom s lipping b ackwards. T he c rupper, o n t he o ther h and, p asses u nder t he m oving f orwards. T hus t he

h orse's t ail a nd p revents t he s addle t hree e lements, g irth, b reastplate, a nd

c rupper, s erve t o k eep t he s addle f irmly i n p lace a nd p rovide a f irm s eat f or t he r ider. I n m odern h arness, t he g irth m ay b e c onnected t o t he b reastplate b y m eans o f a ' martingale', which m ay a lso b e c onnected t o t he b ridle i n s ome c ases. 1 18 R oman h arness ( Fig.25) a ppears t o h ave u sed a s imilar s ystem , a lthough d ifferently c onstructed. F our i mportant ' junctions' c an b e d iscerned f rom t he t ombstone e vidence, t wo o n t he h aunches, a nd t wo o n t he s houlders, w hilst a f ifth i s f ound o n t he b reast o n s ome o f t he h orses. a ) T he b reast j unction i s n ormally c omposed o f t hree s traps, o ne p assing d own t o t he g irth, f orming t he ' martingale', a nd o ne o n e ither s ide c onnecting w ith t he s houlder j unctions. b ) T he s houlder j unction c omprised t hree t he b reast j unction, o ne p assing t owards a p endant s trap, t he f unction o f which d ecorative. I n s ome c ases, a n a dditional j unction a nd t he s addle. c ) T he

e lements: o ne s trap f rom t he s addle, a nd o ne f orming a ppears t o h ave b een p urely s trap p assed b etween t he

h aunch j unction a lso c omprised e ither t hree o r f our e lements

1 05

a nd w as a m irror i mage o f t he s houlder a ssembly: o ne s trap p assing a round t he h orse's r ear t o a ttach t o t he o ther h aunch j unction, o ne a ttaching t o t he s addle D -rings, a nd o ne f orming a nother p endant s trap. A f ourth s trap m ight p ass t o t he s addle. T ogether, i s t he

a )

a nd b ) a re e quivalent t o t he b reastplate, w hilst c )

R omano-Celtic

p rototype

o f

t he

c rupper.

s uggested b y d etailed e xamination o f c onfirmed b y t he a rchaeological e vidence.

T his

t ombstones,

a rrangement, i s

a pparently

W ith t he e xception o f a f ew m ineralised p ieces o n t he r ear o f s ome o f t he X anten p halerae, 1 19 t here a re n o r ecognised e xamples o f h arness s traps s urviving, p ossibly b ecause t he l eather w as o iled r ather t han t anned, 1 20 T hese s how t he s trap t o h ave b een 2 0mm b road w ith a d ouble r ow o f s titching c .11mm a part. J enkins t hought t hat t he s titching i mplied d ouble t hickness l eather, 1 21 b ut s ince c ow h ide - w ith a t hickness o f a bout 5 mm - w as p robably u sed, d oubling w ould h ave p roved u nnecesary; t he s titching w ould s imply h elp p revent s tretching o f t he s traps.

1 22

T hese d imensions a re c onfirmed b y e xamining t he l oops o n t he

r ear o f p halerae: w idths o f a round 2 0mm a nd t hickness o f a bout 5 mm a re f ound t here t oo. I t i s p ossible t hat s traps h ad r ounded e nds, w hich w ould a void t he p roblem o f t he r edundant c orners o f t he s traps b ecoming t atty;

l eather s traps w ith r ounded e nds

( althou e i a lmost c ertainly n ot

f rom h orse h arness) a re known f rom V indonissa.

1 2

J

P halerae a nd r ings T wo f orms o f j unction w ere i n u se i n t he f irst c entury A .D., t he r ing a nd t he p halera ( Fig.26). W hilst e xamples o f b oth s urvive i ntact, t he p halerae f requently p reserve r ings a nd l oops o n t heir r ear f aces w hich s how p recisely h ow t hey w ere s upposed t o f unction w ithin t he h arness: e xamples w ith t hree a nd f our r ings a re w ell-attested f rom a v ariety o f s ites. S imilarly, r ing j unctions s urvive w ith v arying n umbers o f j unction l oops a ttached, a nd t hese c an b e c ompared w ith t he e vidence o ffered b y t he p halerae. R ings

o n p halerae

w ere

u sed

f or

a ttaching

j unction l oops, a s

s urviving e xamples d emonstrate. L oops, o n t he o ther h and, w ere i ntended f or t he s traps t hemselves. D ifferent t ypes o f s trap m ounts w ere u sed w ith

t he t wo t ypes o f j unction, b ut t he d istribution o f

' phalera-type'

a nd ' ring-type' f ittings s hows n o d iscernible p attern. J enkins r epeated t he i dea t hat p halera-type f ittings w ere a ssociated w ith a wards f or m erit. 124 H owever, s ince p halerae w ere p robably a ssociated w ith C eltic c avalry b efore t heir a ppearance i n R oman s ervice, t his a rgument d oes n ot n ecessarily f ollow . 125 T he f requency o f p halera-type f ittings i n t he a rchaeological r ecord w ould a lso

s eem

t o

m ilitate

a gainst

t his

i nterpretation. T he t ombstone e vidence i mplies v ariants o n t he b asic h arness ( Fig.27).

t he e xistence o f a n umber o f I n t he m ost c ommonly a ttested

f orm, f our s traps s ecured t he s addle t o t he h arness t ermed ' half h arness'), b ut i n s ome c ases t wo a dditional

( which m ay b e s traps m ight

b e f ound a t t he f ront o r r ear ( 'three-quarter h arness'). A f ew s tones d epict t he s addle s ecured b y e ight s traps ( 'full h arness').

1 06

A

F ig.27: T ypes o f C elto-Roman h arness. A : h alf h arness; B : f ull h arness; C : t hree-quarter h arness ( front); D : t hree-quarter h arness ( rear). C areful

s crutiny

o f

t he b est t ombstones,

i n p articular t hose o f

B assus a nd R omanius ( above, N os.6 a nd 2 2), s hows t hat ( in t he c ase o f f ull h arness) b oth s traps f rom a j unction p ass u nder t he n earest p ommel ( Fig.2), b ut w ith o ne s lightly a bove t he o ther. I t s eems l ikely t hat t here w as a n a ttachment p oint u nder e ach p ommel ( possibly r elated t o t he a perture i n t he b ase o f s ome s addle h orns) a nd t hat o ne s trap w as a ttached t o t his ( whether h alf, t hree-quarter, o r f ull h arness). W hen a n a dditional s trap w as u sed, i t m ay h ave c rossed o ver t o a ttach b eneath t he o pposite p ommel, a lthough t here i s n o w ay o f p roving t his.

P endants W hy d id R oman m ilitary r iding h arness ( and, p resumably, i ts C eltic p redecessor) i nclude p endants? I t h as b een s uggested t hat l unulae f rom D angstetten m ay h ave b een a d irect i ntroduction b y C eltic c avalry. T hey w ere c ertainly t he e arliest f orm o f f irst-century p endant. M ore i mportantly, t hey w ere ( and s till a re) v ery p owerful m agical s ymbols. I t i s, o f c ourse, p ossible t hat h arness d ecoration w as p urely a esthetic i n n ature, i ntended t o m ake t he c avalryman a nd h is m ount l ook a s s plendid a s p ossible, b ut i t must b e r ememberd t hat s ymbolism p layed a n i mportant p art i n b oth C eltic a nd R oman s uperstition a nd r eligion. 126 T he l unula w as s ymbolic o f t he m oon ( and f emininity), a nd t he p halera m ay h ave b een u sed t o r epresent t he s un ( and m asculinity) . 127 T his i maz .ery i s e nhanced i n t he e arly p endants b y t he u se o f b oar's t usks, 12 ö b ut i t m ay b e t hat t he t rifid p endants o f l ater y ears, a lthough c ontaining a m emory o f t he s hape o f t hese e arly e xamRles, h ad l ost s omething o f t he m eaning o riginally a ttached t o t hem. 129 W hatever t he c ase, t here s eems t o b e s ome r eason a t l east f or a ttributing a n a potropaic

r ole

n ineteenth

c entury,

t o

t he

d ecorative e lements o f h orse h arness.

h eavy-horse

h arness

1 07

i ncluded

h orse

I n t he

b rasses,

b eautifully c rafted p ieces w ith s ignificant s ymbols s uch a s t he c ross, t he s un , a h arvest s cene, o r t he c rescent m oon ( or l unula). 130 I t h as b een s uggested t hat t hese w ere p rotecting t he h orses f rom m align i nfluences. 1 31

w hich

P endants m ay h ave b een s omething o f a n uisance t o a h orse, i n c ase s ome a ttempt m ay h ave b een m ade t o s hield t he a nimal f rom

a ny h armful a brasion. I n h eavy-horse h arness, p endants w ere u sually b acked b y a s haped p iece o f l eather a nd i t i s n ot i nconceivable t hat s imilar m easures w ere a dopted i n R oman h arness. S ome p endants h ave r ivet h oles i n t heir b ody which m ay h ave b een u sed t o f asten t hem t o j ust s uch a b acking, w hilst b reast p halerae m ay h ave u sed t he m artingale s trap t o p rotect t he h orse f rom t he p endant ( Fig.24). 1 32 C ertainly,

t he p endants f ound a t I nota d o n ot a ppear t o h ave b een

f or much m ovement.

f ree

1 33

T he B ridle T he b ridle i s i mportant, b ecause i t i s o ne o f t he p rime m eans t he r ider h as o f c ontrolling h is m ount, a lthough c ontrol b y m eans o f h is l egs w ill h ave b een e ssential i n c ombat - p rotecting h imself w ith a s hield o n h is l eft s ide a nd u sing a w eapon o n t he r ight m eant t hat t he r eins l ay o n t he h orse's n eck a t t his c rucial s tage ( and t his i s u sually i ndicated o n t he s culptural e vidence - s ee a bove). I n m odern e questrian p ractice, a v ariety o f b its a re a vailable t o s uit t he t emperament o f t he a nimal a nd t he s ame a ppears t o h ave b een t rue i n t he f irst c entury A .D., b ut i t i s i mportant t o r emember t hat i n c ombat, t he r elationship b etween a nimal a nd r ider w ould h ave b een o f p aramount i mportance a nd, a t t hat p oint, t he t ype o f b it w ould h ave b een l argely i rrelevant. 1 34 T he b asic e lements o f t he b ridle - c heekpieces, n oseband, h eadband, t hroatlatch - a re a ll v isible i n t he r epresentational e vidence ( see a bove). S ome b ridles, l ike t hat o f P rimigenius ( Fig.9), w ere d ecorated w ith s mall p halerae, which w e m ay p resumably i dentify w ith s uspension T ype l a. T hese p ieces a re u sually q uite d iminutive, b ut t he l oop o n t he r ear f ace n evertheless s uggests t hat, i f o ur i dentification i s c orrect, t he s traps o f t he b ridle w ere o f s imilar ( perhaps m arginally n arrower) p roportions t o t hose o f t he r est o f t he h arness.

1 35

I t w as n ever t he i ntention o f t his p aper t o g o i nto t he b ridle o r b its i n a ny d etail, b ut i t s eems c lear t hat t he r ange o f b it a nd h ackamore t ypes s peaks e loquently o f t he s ophistication o f t he C eltic h orsemen. 1 36

T he S addle-Cloth R oman s addle-cloths o r s habracques w ere a pparently f ringed i n a s imilar m anner t o v exilla. T he s habracque was w orn u nder t he s addle a nd c overed t he h orse's f lanks i n m ost c ases; t he h orses o f S acrius P rimigenius a nd Lucius

( above, N os.10-11) h ave e xtremely l ong

e xamples

w ith a s econd, s horter c over o n t op ( possibly o ver t he s addle - s ee a bove). S ome o ther h orses h ave t heir s addles c overed b y l ong c loths,

1 08

b ut t he o nly s culptural r epresentations o f h orses b eing r idden w ith l ong s addle-cloths a re o n T rajan's C olumn ( No.33). o n t he C olumn, M any a spects o f t he d epiction o f c avalry h orses s u g g e s t t h a t t hey p articularly w hen c ompared t o T otenmahl s culpture, h o r s e s i n p a r a de a re m odelled o n t he p artially-understood e quipment o f g ear; t he e xtra-long s addle-cloths a re o ne e xample, whilst t he t riplet s traps h ave t urned i nto f olds a t t he f ront a nd r ear e dge o f t he s habracque. 137 S imilarly, t he h arness p roper d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave b een u nderstood b y t he s culptors a nd i s, i n m any e xamples, c ompletely i mpractical. 1 38 I n t he c ase o f t ombstones which d o n ot h ave a s addle-cloth, i t i s l ikely t hat i t w as a dded i n p aint. I t s hould b e n oted t hat a n umber o f i nconsistencies o ccur o n t ombstones, when g irth a nd h arness s traps c an b e s hown p assing u nder o r o ver s addle c loths

c ases

( see a bove).

T he g irth i s s hown p assing b eneath t he s addle-cloth i n s o m any t hat i t i s n ecessary t o a sk whether i t was n ot i n f act f itted

o ver t he s addle a nd g irth, b ut u nder t he h arness s traps. 139 I f t his w as i ndeed t he c ase, t hen t here m ay h ave b een a s mall under-blanket o f s ome k ind. 1 40

T he T riplet S traps O ne o f t he m ost i nteresting a spects o f t he C elto-Roman t he

s ets

o f

s addle

i s

p endant s traps f requently s hown a t t he f ront a nd r ear o f

t he s addle o n b oth s ides. T hese c an c onveniently b e r eferred t o a s ' triplet s traps', s ince t hey a re m ost c ommonly s hown i n s ets o f t hree. T hey a re f ound o n s ome t ombstones f rom t he T iberio-Claudian p eriod o nwards, b ut a re a lso t o b e s een o n t he G undestrup C auldron ( above, N o. 3 6 a nd F ig.20), t he a rch a t O range ( No.30 a nd F ig.19), a nd t he m ausoleum a t S aint-R6my ( No.31 a nd F ig.19), i ndicating a C eltic o rigin f or t hem. T he t ombstones o f P rimigenius ( No.10 a nd F ig.8) a nd Lucius ( No.11 a nd F ig.10) d epict b oth f ront a nd r ear s ets, w hilst R omanius ( No.22 a nd F ig.16) a nd P etronius D isacentus ( No.20) h ave o nly t hose a t t he r ear. T he h orse o f t he c enturion T . C alidius S everus a lso h as t riplet s traps, w hilst A ndes ( No.21) a nd C antaber ( No.18 a nd F ig.15) r ide h orses d ecked i n b oth s ets o f s traps. 1 41 T hey a re a lso d epicted o n T rajan's C olumn ( No.33). T he V alkenburg a nd V echten s addle c overs h ad t wo s ets o f s emicircular o penings ( protected b y f laps) j ust b elow t he p ommels, w hich P eter C onnolly h as s hown w ould h ave b een s ituated a t t he l ower e dge o f t he s addle. 142 T he f ront s et n ormally h ad m ore h oles ( six o r s even) t han t he b ack ( four) a nd w as c onsequently w ider. T he c onsistency w ith which t ombstones d epict t hree s traps, a nd n o o ther n umber, p robably m eans t hat t he t riplet s traps d id n ot p ass d irectly t hrough t hem. A pertures l ike t his i n l eatherwork w ere n ormally i ntended f or l aces; n evertheless, t hey m ay h ave b een t he m eans b y which t he t riplet s traps w ere s ecured t o t he s addle. T he f act t hat t he l atter w ere d etachable i s s uggested b y t heir a bsence f rom m any d epictions, e specially t hose o f h orses b eing r idden ( unless c oncealed b eneath t he s habracque).

1 09

o f

c ourse

t hey

w ere

A

F ig.28: T echniques o f s addle p late a ttachment t o t riplet s traps. A : T ype 2 p lates; B : T ype 3 p lates; C : d etail o f m ethod o f f astening; D : c ross-section.

S addle P lates A ny

d iscussion

o f

t he

t riplet

s traps

m ust

b e

r elated

t o a

c onsideration o f s o-called s addle d ecorative p lates f ound i n t he

p lates. A s eries o f r ectangular D oorwerth h oard w ere i dentified b y

H olwerda w ith t he o bjects d epicted

o n

t he

t ombstone

o f

M .

S acrius

P rimigenius ( above, N o.10 a nd F ig.8). B rouwer c ast d oubt u pon h is i nterpretation, b ut was u nable t o o ffer a n a lternative. 143

t he

A ny r econsideration o f t he r ole o f t hese o bjects m ust b egin w ith s culptural e vidence. A part f rom t he w ell-known s tone o f

P rimigenius, t hat o f L ucius ( No.11 a nd F ig.10) m ay h ave h ad s imilar a dornments a dded i n p aint a nd O luper ( No.12 a nd F ig.11) h as t wo r ectangular p lates h alf-way d own h is t riplet s traps ( see

a bove).

M ore

i mportantly, t he C elto-Roman s addles o n t he a rch a t O range ( No.30 a nd F ig.19) h ave r ectangular p lates a ffixed t o t heir t riplet s traps. 144 T he f act t hat t he s ets o f t riplet s traps s eem t o h ave c ome i n

t wo

w idths, i f w e b elieve t he e vidence o f t he s addles t hemselves, a nd t hat t wo s tandard w idths o f s addle p late a re k nown 145 must b e m ore t han c oincidence. T he m atter i s s urely p ut b eyond r easonable d oubt b y t he e xamination o f t he r ear f aces o f s addle p lates, where p rovision f or a ttachment t o t hree s traps i s t he n orm ( Fig.28) . 146 T hese o bjects o nly a ppear o n T otenmahl t ombstones a nd t he a rch a t O range, s o i t m ay b e t hat t heir u se w as p urely d ecorative: a f ull s et w ould h ave b een e xtremely h eavy a nd w ould h ave p resented a n u nacceptable n uisance t o b oth h orse a nd r ider w hen i n m otion. M any T otenmahl ( Figs.6;

s tones 1 3),

s how

t he

w hole s addle b eing c overed w ith a b lanket

s o i t i s p ossible t hat m ore p ieces h ave b een c oncealed i n

t his w ay.

1 10

O ther D etails E xamination o f t he t ombstones r eveals a n umber o f o ther a spects o f m ilitary h orse e quipment t hat a re w orth c ommenting u pon. M any o f t hese f eatures c ould n ot b e r econstructed f rom t he a rchaeological e vidence, s o r epresentational e vidence c omes i nto i ts o wn. T ail b inding o ccurs q uite f requently o n R oman f rom t he p rovinces,

f unerary

s culpture

c onsisting o f a b inding o f m aterial a round t he b ase

o f t he t ail ( Fig.17). Q uite a part f rom p resenting a p leasing ' streamer' e ffect, i t w ould h elp p revent t he a nimal's t ail b ecoming f ouled. T his m ay b e i nherited f rom C eltic p ractice, i f t he G undestrup c auldron i s t o b e b elieved ( No. 3 6 a nd F ig.20). N eck

s traps

d ecorative

a re

e ffect.

w orn

P halerae

i n

m any

w ith

c ases,

a gain

s uspension

p resumably

t ype

3 a

w ere

f or a lmost

c ertainly i ntended t o a ccommodate a n eck s trap. I n a f ew i nstances, c ollars o r n eck b ands a ppear t o h ave b een w orn u nder t he f ront h arness e lements. I n t he c ase o f B assus, t he b and s its u nder t he b reast s traps, j unctions, a nd p endants, s uggesting t hat i t m ay h ave b een i ntended a fford t he h orse s ome p rotection f rom t he d ecorations ( Fig.3).

t o

A f ew o f t he T otenmahl t ombstones s how t he h orses w ith t heir m anes g athered i nto k nots a long t he n eck, w ith o ne l arge p oll-knot b etween t he a nimals e ars. T he l atter i s a ccompanied b y a l arge p halera a pparently s eated v ertically ( Fie.9). T he p oll-knot a lso s eems t o b e s hown o n t he S aint-Remy m ausoleum. 147

T he H orse A lthough n ot d irectly r elevant

t o

t he

s ubject

m atter

o f

t his

p aper, t he h orses u sed b y t he R oman c avalry n evertheless d eserve b rief c onsideration, i f o nly b ecause t heir s ize w ould h ave a ffected t heir h arness.

T he

d iscovery

o f

o ne

o r

m ore

c avalry

c emeteries

a t

K refeld-Gellep h as p rovided d ata o n t he s ize o f h orses, w hich c an b e c ompared w ith e vidence f rom o ther s ites, p articularly N ewstead. 148 I t i s w orth s tressing t hat r epresentational e vidence c annot b e u sed r eliably t o a ssess t he s ize o f R oman h orses. 149 T he e xcavated d ata, o n t he o ther h and, s eems t o s uggest a n a verage h eight o f a round 1 4 h ands, m ost s pecimens b eing b etween f our a nd s even y ears o ld, b ut a nalysis o f t he Krefeld-Gellep m aterial a lso r evealed a h igh p roportion o f m ale a nimals, p ossibly s tallions. 15 ° T his l ast p oint a ppears t o b e r eflected o n

c avalry

r epresentations,

w here

e xamples

o f

u ngelded

m ales a re

k nown. 151 C avalrymen a ppear t o h ave b ought t heir m ounts f rom t he a rmy f or a n ominal f ee a nd i t i s p ossible t hat t he s ame was a lso t rue o f t heir h arness a nd o ther e quipment. 152

P revious H arness R econstructions S urprisingly f ew s erious a ttempts h ave b een m ade a t r econstructing f irst c entury A .D. r iding h arness, p ossibly a r esult o f t he p ervading v iew

t hat C elto-Roman c avalry w ere l argely i neffectual a nd s o u nworthy

1 11

o f s tudy. 153 M ost r econstructions c hose t o f ollow s culptural d epictions m ore o r l ess c losely, a nd a s ignificant n umber o f t hose u sed T rajan's C olumn. I n 1 985, I an J enkins p ublished f ully f or t he f irst t ime t he h oard o f h orse t rappings ( reputedly f rom X anten) i n t he p ossession o f t he B ritish M useum. B elieving t hat t his c onstituted m ost o f t he f ittings f rom a s ingle s et o f h arness, J enkins p rovided a r econstruction d rawing o f t he h arness f rom which t hey c ame. T he X anten m aterial c ontains o nly f our d iagnostic p halerae, A 1-4: A l h as t wo r ectangular l oops t o s ecure i t t o t he h arness, t wo l oops a bove t he s trap, a nd a h inge a t t he b ottom f or i ts p endant ( suspension t ype 3 a); A 2 a nd A 3 a re t hree-loop p halerae ( type 4 a); A 4 i s a f our-loop j unction, w ith o ne l oop o n o ne s ide, t wo o n t he o ther, a nd o ne a t t he b ottom ( type 5 a). J enkins' u ses A 2 a nd A 3 a s t he s houlder j unctions, w ith o ne

r econstruction s trap p assing

h orizontally u nder t he s addle b lanket; o n t he o ther h and, h e u ses A 4 ( and i ts m issing p artner) f or t he h aunch j unctions, w ith o ne s trap p assing h orizontally u nder t he b lanket, o ne d irected t owards t he s addle ( but a gain u nder t he b lanket), a nd o ne f orming t he b reeching. 1 54 A lthough s ome r epresentations s how s traps a pparently j oining u nder

t he

s addle b lanket, t hese a re s eldom t he m ost r eliable. A s s uch, h arness m akes n o s ense, u nlike t hose o f B assus a nd R omanius, which

t he a re

p erfectly f unctional. I f t he X anten f ittings a ll b elong t o o ne s et o f h arness, t hen t he e vidence o f t he p halerae s uggests t hat i t w as a t hree-quarter h arness. H owever, t here a re p roblems w ith i nterpreting t he p ieces i n t he c ollection a s o ne h omogeneous s et. T he f act t hat d ifferent n ames a re p unched o n s ome o f t he p ieces m ay b e o f n o c onsequence, b ut i t i s i nteresting t hat p endant B 6 b ears t he v ertical i nscription ' VERCUNDI', w hilst A l r eads ' T. C APITONI MARIAN ' h orizontally. M oreover, t he s cheme o f d ecoration o n t he t wo o bjects i s m arkedly d ifferent. 155 A t l east t hree d ecorative t ypes o f s mall p halera a re p resent i n t he g roup, 1 56 so i t i s n ot i mpossible t hat t he X anten m aterial, l ike t hat f rom D oorwerth, s et. 1 57

i s a c ollection o f b its o f h arness,

r ather t han o ne c omplete

T HE I DENTIFICATION O F C AVALRY ' Cavalry p aper.

e quipment'

I t m ight b e a rgued

m ilitary

h orse

h arness

i s,

i n i tself, a c ontentious t itle f or t his

t hat

i t

i s

n ot

p ossible

t o

d istinguish

f rom c ivilian, o r - e ven i f i t w as m ilitary -

w hether i t b elonged t o ' real' c avalry u nits ( alae), ' mixed' u nits ( cohortes e quitatae), l egionary c avalry d etachments, o r m ounted o fficers. 1511 I t i s t hus a pposite b riefly t o c onsider e xactly w hat w e k now a bout t he R oman h orseman a nd a ssess t he a ccuracy o f t he t erm ' cavalry e quipment'. R ome c eased t o u se c itizen c avalry

u nits

d uring

t he

R epublican

p eriod, a nd b y t he t ime o f C aesar's c ampaigns i n G aul, h e was e ntirely d ependent u pon G allic c avalry ( supplemented b y G ermans i n s ome c ases).

1 59

T he

e arly

i mperial

l egion

s till

c ontained

a

m ounted

c ontingent, 1 20 s trong a ccording t o J osephus, b ut t his a ppears t o h ave s erved a c ommunications r ole a nd m ay n ot e ven h ave b een a h omogeneous b ody f rom t he o rganisational p oint o f v iew. 16 ° T hese m en w ere c itizens,

12

F ig.29: R econstruction o f t ypical T iberio-Claudian h arness. b ut t hey w ere b y n o m eans c itizen c avalry. F ollowing t he e xample o f C aesar, t he a rmy o f t he p rincipate h ad c ome t o d epend u pon a uxiliary c avalry f or m ounted s upport, a nd t he m ajority o f t hese b een c omposed o f p eoples o f I ndo-European o rigin. 161

s eem t o h ave W e f ind G auls,

S paniards, G ermans, a nd T hracians i n f irst c entury c avalry a nd p art-mounted u nits a nd t hese f orm w hat m ight l oosely b e t ermed t he ' Celtic c avalry' . 162 A rrian w rote t hat, b y t he t ime o f H adrian, m ost o f t he c ommands g iven i n c avalry e xercises w ere C eltic i n o rigin 163 a nd t his w ould s eem t o s upport t he n otion o f a s trong C eltic e lement i n R oman h orsemanship u nder t he p rincipate. W e s hould n ot m ake t he m istake o f u nderestimating t he t he p eriod j ust b ecause l ance. 164 T he C elts w ere

c avalry

o f

t hey d id n ot h ave s tirrups o r u se a c ouched c learly a ccomplished h orsemen a nd R oman

c avalry w as a f ormidable w eapon i f u sed i n t he r ight w ay, e ven i n t he e arly d ays o f t he p rincipate. 165 F igured t ombstones o f t he p eriod s how v ery c learly t hat a n o verarm t hrust w as u sed w ith t he s pear i n t he r ight h and, t he s hield h eld i n t he l eft, a nd t he h orse c ontrolled b y t he r ider's t highs ( since t he r eins u sually l ie l oosely u pon t he n eck o f t he a nimal). M oreover, t hrusting w ith t he s pear a nd s winging w ith t he l ongsword d emanded t hat t he r ider s hould h ave a f irm s eat a nd t his w as p rovided b y t he C elto-Roman s addle. T he C eltic c avalryman w as, h owever, p rimarily a s kirmisher, a s m ay b e d emonstrated b y t he e mphasis

13

F ig.30: R econstruction o f t ypical F lavian h arness. l aid

u pon

m issile

T echne T aktika.

h andling

i n

t he m anoeuvers d escribed i n A rrian's

1 66

I n t he e arly s tages, c avalry units w ere a pparently t aken i nto t he a rmy f rom f riendly t ribes a nd c ommanded b y t ribal n obles. T his p ractice l ed t o u nits b eing known b y t heir f irst c ommander's n ame e ven when t hey w ere t horoughly i ntegrated i nto t he R oman a rmy. 1 67 E ven o rdinary c avalrymen must h ave b een w ealthy b y t he s tandard o f t he d ay, s ince t hey w ould h ave t o h ave p rovided t heir o wn e quipment.' " M oreover, t he r elative a ffluence o f c avalrymen s eems t o h ave c ontinued u nder R oman c ontrol, b ecause t he p ay o f a uxiliary c avalry w as p robably s uperior t o t hat o f t heir f ellow ( auxiliary) i nfantry a nd i t i s n oteworthy t hat o ver 5 0% o f f igured m ilitary t ombstones o f t he f irst c entury A .D. f rom B ritain a nd t he R hineland s how m ounted t roops o f s ome s ort. 169 A part f rom l egionary h orsemen a nd t he t roopers o f t he a lae a nd c ohortes e quitatae, o fficers a lso u sed h orses. T he t ombstone o f t he c enturion T . C alidius S everus i llustrates t his, 17 ° b ut t he e questrian a nd

s enatorial o fficers o f a uxiliary a nd l egionary u nits w ere l ikewise

m ounted, 171 s urviving

s o i t i s o bviously p ossible t hat a t l east ' cavalry' e quipment b elonged t o t hem. 172

s ome o f H owever,

p roportions o f t hese c ompared t o t roopers i n t he c avalry u nits a rmy

m akes

i t

m ore

o f

t he t he t he

l ikely t hat t he m aterial f ound d id b elong t o t he

1 14

F ig.31: R econstruction o f t ypical F lavian p arade h arness,

s howing h orse

o n l ong-reins. c avalry ( unless t here i s s ome u nseen b ias a ffecting t he w ay t hat m aterial i s d eposited i n t he a rchaeological r ecord, a nd t he e vidence w ould s eem t o s uggest t hat t his w as n ot s o). 173 I t

i s

f airly

c lear

t hat

t wo

d istinct

t raditions

o f

n iello

d ecoration o f m ilitary e quipment w ere t o b e f ound i n t he f irst c entury A .D. I n t he f irst p lace, b elt p lates d isplay o ne p articular g rammar o f o rnament ( largely b otanical i n o rigin), 174 t he c ombination o f which a ppears t o h ave b een c haracteristic o f i nfantry ( and t his w as a lso p icked o ut, a lbeit s omewhat s tylised, b y s culptors 175 ) . I n a ddition, i t w ould s eem t hat t hese p lates w ere u sually t inned. 176 E lements o f h orse h arness, o n t he o ther h and, r eveal a d ifferent d ecorative t radition, c losely l inked w ith v iticulture; m oreover, t hese o bjects a re u sually s ilvered,

r ather t han t inned.

1 77

I t i s t herefore e xtremely i nteresting when i tems o f h arness a re f ound t hat a ppear t o f all i nto t he f irst o f t hese t wo t raditions. A lmost i nvariably, t hese p ieces d o n ot c onform t o t he m ost c ommonly f ound

t ypes

o f

h arness

f itting.

1 78

T his m ight b e s een a s h inting a t

d ifferentiation b etween h orses i n i nfantry units a nd t he o f t he a uxilia, b ut i t i s h ardly p roven.

1 15

t rue

c avalry

I n t he f inal a nalysis, i t m ust b e t he n umerical a rgument t hat c onvinces u s t hat m ost e lements o f h orse h arness r ecovered f rom t he a rchaeological r ecord b elonged t o t he t roopers o f t he c ohortes e quitatae a nd a lae. H owever, t his a ssumption b egs t he q uestion o f w hether s uch m aterial c ould n ot a lso b elong t o c ivilian h arness. I t s eems f airly c ertain t hat i n b oth t he C eltic a nd R oman w orlds, h orse r iding w as l argely t he p rovince o f t he n obility a nd w as f requently a ssociated w ith w ar. W e h ave a lready s een t hat C eltic n obles f ormed t he b ackbone o f e arly I mperial c avalry, a nd w e n eed o nly n ote t hat, i n R oman s ociety, t he n ouveau-riche c lass w ere known a s e quites, o r t hat i t w as y oung a ristocrats w ho p articipated i n t he ' Trojan G ame'. 179 O ur e vidence f or c ivilian h orse-riding i n t he p rovinces d uring t he f irst c entury A .D. i s n egligible, s o a gain t he n umerical a rgument, p lus t he m ilitary c ontext, s uggests t hat i t i s u nlikely t o b e ' civilian ' h orse h arness t hat i s n ormally f ound.

1 8

°

C ONCLUSION T he p ictorial a nd a rchaeological e vidence a ll s eems t o p oint t o t he f act t hat C elto-Roman c avalry ( or r iding) h arness w as c ompletely p ractical a nd n ot m erely s omewhere t o h ang d ecorations. M oreover, i t s eems t o c onfirm t hat t he R omans a dopted t he e quipment o f t he ' Celtic' c avalry wholesale, s ince t he f unctional p arts o f t he h arness d o n ot c hange s ignificantly b etween t he t ime o f t he G undestrup c auldron a nd t he t ombstone o f B assus, p robably w ell o ver a c entury l ater. H owever, t his i s n ot t o d eny t hat c hange d id t ake p lace: i f d ecorations w ere o nly l unulae a nd p halerae when C eltic c avalry f irst s aw s ervice i n t he I mperial a rmy, t hey s oon t ook o n a d evelopmental l ife o f t heir o wn, e stablishing a t radition t hat w as i ndependant o f t heir o riginal

C eltic

h eritage a nd t heir n ew-found a llegiances. I t h as h opefully b een d emonstrated t hat t here i s l ittle r eason f or c onfusion o ver t he a ttribution o f h orse e quipment r ecovered f rom t he a rchaeological r ecord; t he m ajority o f i t m ust, l ogically, h ave o riginated w ith t he C eltic c avalry o f t he a lae and c ohortes e quitatae, a nd t hus i t i s n ot m isleading t o t alk o f i t a s ' cavalry e quipment.' M oreover, s ome p ointers h ave b een o ffered t owards t he i dentification o f t rappings f rom t he h orses o f o fficers a nd t hose b elonging t o v ehicle h arness.

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS S ince i ts o riginal c omposition i n 1 982, m any p eople h ave h elped m e w ith t his s tudy o f R oman c avalry e quipment. D avid K ennedy a nd P hillip F reeman w ere k ind e nough t o r ead d rafts o f t he f irst v ersion, w hilst t he r evised t ext w as r ead a nd c ommented u pon b y J on C oulston a nd M artha A ndrews,

f or which I t hank t hem. P eter C onnolly h as b een t he s ource

o f

m uch f ruitful d iscussion o n t he s ubject o f C elto-Roman h arness a nd h as s hared w ith m e t he r esults o f h is e xperiments, a s w ell a s r edrawing m y r ather

l ame

R oman

h orse.

I

a m

g rateful

t o t he f ormer a nd p resent

c urators o f t he H adrian's W all M useums, B ill H ubbard a nd G eorgina P lowright r espectively, f or p ermission t o p ublish t he C orbridge f inds. M r Hubbard a lso p roduced t he i llustrations o f t hese o bjects. J ohn

16

H edges

a nd

W est

Y orkshire

A rchaeological

S ervices

p ermitted m e t o

e xamine t he C astleford m aterial, whilst I h ave r eceived a ssistance f rom C anterbury A rchaeological T rust, t he G rosvenor Museum C hester, L ondon M useum , P eterborough C ity M useum, a nd W iesbaden M useum, when e xamining c ollections o f c avalry e quipment. O thers who h ave a ided m e a t s ome p oint i nclude L indsay A llason-Jones, M arijke B rouwer, M ike D obby, L iviu s eems t he a ppropriate p lace t o P etculescu, a nd P at S outhern. T his ermitted m e t o e xamine a nd a cknowledge t he v arious museums who h ave p T he p hotographs a re r eproduced p hotograph t heir c avalry t ombstones. h ere b y k ind p ermission o f t he f ollowing museums: ( Köln Museum) R ömisch-Germanisches Museum , K öln ( Bonn Museum) ( Mainz Museum) ( Mannheim Museum).

R heinisches L andesmuseum, B onn M ittelrheinisches L andesmuseum, M ainz S tädtisches R eiss-Museum, M annheim

h elp.

I s hould l ike t o t hank a ll o f t hose m entioned a bove f or t heir I f t here i s a ny m erit i n t his w ork, t hen i t i s s urely d ue t o

t heir u nstinting e fforts, whilst a ll r emaining s hortcomings must r emain m y o wn r esponsibility.

1 17

A PPENDIX 1 :

T HE P UBLICATION O F F INDS

D uring t he p reparation o f t his a rticle,

i t h as p roved n ecessary t o

r ely v ery h eavily u pon p ublished a rchaeological e vidence. C onsequently, s ome o f t he s hortcomings o f t his c orpus h ave b ecome a ll t oo a pparent, s o i t i s t he i ntention o f t his b rief a ppendix t o o utline s ome o f t hese a nd t o s uggest w ays i n which t he p ublication o f c avalry e quipment ( and, i ndirectly, m ilitary e quipment i n g eneral) c ould b e i mproved. M any a rchaeological r eports, b oth o ld a nd m ore r ecent,

s uffer f rom

d eficiencies i n t heir d escriptions o f i tems, p articularly i n t he p rovision o f a ccurate ( or e ven a ny) d imensions. I n m ost c ases where m easurements h ave b een g iven i n t his p aper, t hey h ave h ad t o b e p rovided b y m easuring i llustrations w ith V ernier c allipers a nd t hen s caling u p t he r esults - c learly n ot a v ery s atisfactory t echnique, a nd y et a m ajority m easurements. 1 81

o f

s mall-find

r eports s till

i gnore

v ital

I llustrating c avalry e quipment b y m eans o f p hotographs, a s w as c ommon i n e arlier r eports, i ntroduces c omplicated d istortions d ue t o t he i mperfection o f e ven t he b est c amera l enses. 182 A lthough i t i s p ossible t o c orrect s uch d eficiences b y m eans o f a c omputer, s uch a t ask s eems u nnecessarily c omplex p urely i n o rder t o o btain t he t rue d imensions o f a n a rtefact. M easured a rchaeological i llustrations a re b etter, b ut e ven t hen a p roportion o f t hese, where i t w as p ossible t o c heck p ublished d imensions w ith t hose p rovided b y V ernier c allipers ( even a llowing f or r ounding e rrors), p roved t o b e i naccurate. H owever, t hese a re t he e xamples t hat a re r eproduced w ith t he c orrect r eduction: s ome a re w rongly r eproduced o r l abelled a nd t his s ort o f m istake c an o nly b e d etected b y s tudying l arge a mounts o f m aterial a nd h aving i dea o f what t o e xpect. 183 I t

i s

s ome

c ommon t o a nswer s uch c riticisms b y s aying t hat t he e xpert

m ust s tudy t he o riginal c ollections, b ut t his s urely n egates t he w hole p oint o f p ublishing a rchaeological f inds i n t he f irst p lace? I t i s, m oreover, i gnoring t he f act t hat i t i s p erfectly p ossible t o p roduce u seful a nd i nformative r eports o n a rtefacts. R igorous s tandards n eed t o b e e nforced f or a rchaeological s mall-find i llustration a nd t he p ath h as a lready b een m arked o ut b y a r ound-table o rganised i n F rance, 1 4 64 w here t he p rinciples o f p ublishing a l ine d rawing a t 1 :1 ( with a s cale) a long w ith a p hotograph w ere e stablished. I t a lso s hould b e a dded t hat v iews f rom a ll a ngles a re e ssential, p articularly f or t he s tudy o f p halerae ( many w ere r endered u seless f or t he p urposes o f t he p resent s tudy b ecause n either t he t ext n or t he i llustration g ave a ny i dea o f what l ay o n t he r everse f ace o f t he o bject).

1 85

T o t his e nd, t he f ollowing g uidelines f or t he p ublication o f R oman c avalry e quipment m ay b e s uggested: 1 . L ine d rawings o f t he f ront a nd r everse f ace o f a n o bject, p referably a t 1 :1, b ut i n e very c ase t o i nclude a d rawn s cale, r ather t han a c aptioned o ne. 2 .

1 86

C ross-section o f t he o bject, p articularly u seful i n t he c ase o f p halerae ( but a lso v ery r are a t t he m oment - m ost o f t he e xamples i ncluded i n t his p aper a re

r econstructed

18

f rom

h ighlights

i n

t he

i llustration)

1 87

3 . A c oncise t extual d escription o f t he i tem, a n a ncient o r m odern d amage, c orrosion, a nd a ny d ecoration r emaining.' " 4 . D etailed m easurements, which s hould a lways i nclude m aximum w idth ( or d iameter), m aximum h eight, a nd m aximum t hickness, b ut s hould a lso i nclude a ny o ther i mportant d imensions. 5 .

I n a ddition t o t hese r equirements, a p hotograph o f t he o bject i s s ometimes u seful, i f o nly t o g auge h ow a ccurately t he s urface d etail h as b een r endered b y t he g raphic a rtist. 189 A n e xample r eport o f t his n ature i s i ncluded

( below ,

A ppendix

2 ,

a lthough t he d escriptions a re d eliberately m ore e laborate t han w ould b e n ormal); i t i s t o b e h oped t hat t hese b asic s tandards w ill a t l east b e c onsidered b y a rchaeologists, f or t he p resent l ack o f a ny c onformity o nly s erves t o h inder t he s tudy o f R oman m ilitary h orse e quipment.

19

A PPENDIX

2 :

S OME

U NPUBLISHED

H ORSE

E QUIPMENT

F ROM

C ORBRIDGE,

N ORTHUMBERLAND A mongst t he u npublished a nd u nstratified m aterial f rom s ite

a t

t he

R oman

C orbridge n ow h eld i n t he s ite museum, a re a n umber o f p ieces

o f R oman h arness e quipment.

E ight

j unction

l oops

a nd

o ne

j unction

p halera o f c ommon f irst o r e arly s econd c entury A .D. f orms a re p ublished h ere f or t he f irst t ime. N o i nformation a bout t he p rovenance o f t he o bjects s urvives, b ut t hey a re a lmost c ertainly f rom C orbridge a nd p resumably c ome f rom t he 1 906-14 c ampaigns o f e xcavation, a lthough n o e xplicit r eference i s m ade t o a ny o f t hem i n t he p ublished r eports. 1 .

' Spectacle' j unction l oop ( type l d; i nv.no.75.1338). F ig.32. T he l oop i s U -sectioned, w ith a s hallow s carp a t t he j unction w ith t he b ody o f t he f itting; t his p art i s d ecorated w ith a m oulding i n t he f orm o f a b road r elief b and b ordered b y t wo n arrower b ands. T here a re t races o f a n i ncised t riangle o n t he l oop, w ith i ts b roadest e nd a gainst t he m oulding. T he l oop s hows s igns o f w ear a t t he a pex, i t h as f ractured where t he l oop h as b een b ent u nder t o f orm

b ut t he

r eturn. T o j udge b y t he n ature o f t he f racture, i t i s p ossible t hat t he d amage o ccurred s ubsequent t o i ts d iscovery. T he b ody i s t he c lassic f igure-of-eight s hape w ith a s lightly c onvex u pper f ace ( and f lat

r ear

f ace), a lthough t here i s s light d amage t o t he e nd o f t he

o bject. A t t he b roadest p oints o f t he f itting, t wo f lat c ircular r ecesses s urround t he r ivet h oles. A d ome-headed r ivet s urvives i n s itu i n t he a rea n earest t he l oop, whilst t races o f t he o ther r ivet h ead a re t o b e s een a round t he e dges o f i ts r ecess. T he b ody h as b een b ent u p s lightly a t t he l oop e nd, c ausing t he r ivet h ead n ot t o s it q uite f lush w ith t he s urface. P atinated w ith n o a reas o f b right m etal. M aximum l oop: l oop h ead: 2 .

l ength:

5 1mm; m aximum w idth o f b ody:

1 4mm; m aximum w idth o f

7 mm; i nternal d iameter o f l oop: 8 mm; h eight o f s carp b etween a nd b ody: 2 mm; t hickness o f b ody: 1 .75mm; d iameter o f r ivet l lmm; h eight o f r ivet h ead: 5 mm; d iameter o f r ivet h ole: 3 mm

' Spectacle' j unction l oop ( type l c; i nv.no.75.1344). F ig.32. T his f itting h as a U -sectioned l oop w ith a h igh s carp b etween t he l oop a nd b ody, t he s carp b eing s urmounted b y a m oulding c onsisting o f a n arrow ( rather c rude) b eaded b and w ith a n arrow p lain b and o n e ither s ide o f i t. C orrosion m akes i t i mpossible t o b e c ertain t hat a n i ncised t riangle i s p resent, o r w hether t here a re a ny t races o f w ear n ear t he a pex, w hich i s t he p oint a t w hich t his f itting h as f ractured. T he b ody i s f lat a nd b ears n o r elief d ecoration; i t i s i n t he f orm o f a c ombination o f t he f igure-of-eight w ith s tylised v olutes. T he c entres o f t he t wo c ircular a reas h ave b een p ierced ( almost c ertainly p unched) f rom t he u pper s urface, w hilst t he l ower f ace s hows s igns o f h aving h ad t he e dges o f t he h oles b urred. T he e nd o f t he b ody n earest t he l oop h as a gain b een b ent s lightly u pwards. H eavily p atinated, w ith s evere p itting o n t he l oop i tself. M aximum l ength: 6 3.5mm; m aximum w idth o f b ody: 1 5mm; m aximum w idth

3 .

o f l oop:

l Omm; h eight o f s carp b etween l oop a nd b ody:

o f b ody:

l mm; d iameter o f r ivet h oles:

6 mm;

t hickness

2 mm

' Spectacle' j unction l oop ( type l c; i nv.no.75.1339). F ig.32. F itting w ith a m assive U -sectioned l oop w ith a h igh s carp a t t he j unction w ith t he b ody, t his b eing s urmounted b y a s imilar m oulding t o t hat

1 20

E E o_ L o

C \ I

0 —

1 21

J unction l oops f rom C orbridge ( Nos.1-3).

C T )

o f

N o.2, a lthough n o b eading c an b e d iscerned. T he i ncised t riangle

i s c learly v isible.

S igns o f w ear a re o nly c lear o n o ne s ide o f

t he

l oop, w hich m ay s uggest i diosyncratic u se. T he l oop i s b roken o n t he u nderside, a lmost c ertainly b efore l oss. T he l ower e nd o f t he b ody, w ith i ts r ivet a rea, i s m issing, b ut i t i s b roadly s imilar t o t hat o f

N o.2,

a lthough t he v olutes a re n ot p resent,

t he u pper s urface i s

s lightly c onvex, a nd t he c ircle a round t he s urviving r ivet h ole h as b een s lightly r ecessed. N o s igns o f b urring o n t he r ear f ace a round t he r ivet h ole. H eavily p atinated a nd s lightly p itted o n t he l oop. M aximum l ength: 4 7mm; m aximum w idth o f b ody: 1 3mm; m aximum w idth o f l oop: 1 0mm; i nternal d iameter o f l oop: 9 .5mm; h eight o f s carp b etween l oop a nd b ody: 8 mm; t hickness o f b ody: 2 mm; d iameter o f r ivet h ole: 4 .

' Spectacle'

3 mm j unction

l oop

( type l c;

i nv.no.75.1340). F ig.33. T his

f ragment i s r ecognisable a s b eing c losely a kin t o N o.3. T he U -shaped l oop i s d ecorated w ith a n i ncised t riangle a nd t here i s a h igh s carp b etween t he l oop a nd t he b ody o f t he f itting, c onsisting o f a m edium b and w ith n arrow b ands o n e ither s ide o f i t. T he l oop h as b een b ent u p b eneath t he b ody i n s uch a w ay a s t o s uggest t hat t he f itting was w renched o ut o f s hape; t he ' return' o f t he l oop, t o which t he r ivets f astened, h as b een t orn a nd d istorted where i t i s b roken o ff. T here a re s igns o f w ear a round t he a pex o f t he l oop. O nly a s mall f ragment o f t he b ody a round o ne r ivet h ole s urvives a nd t hat i s b ent a t a n a cute a ngle t hin m etal,

i n r elation t o t he l oop. T he b ody i s m ade o f e xtremely p ossibly t he r eason f or i ts f ailing. H ardly a ny

p atination; ' bright' m etal o bjects f rom C orbridge n ormally o riginate i n a naerobic c onditions, s ince t he s oil c onditions a re s o h ostile t o c opper a lloy a rtefacts, a nd o ne o f t he v arious d itches d iscovered b y F orster a nd K nowles s eems t he m ost l ikely p rovenance f or t his i tem. 1 90 M aximum l ength: 2 9mm; m aximum w idth o f b ody: 1 0mm; m aximum w idth o f l oop: 9 mm; i nternal d iameter o f l oop: 9 mm; h eight o f s carp b etween l oop a nd b ody: 5 .

6 mm;

t hickness o f b ody:

0 .25mm

' Spectacle' j unction l oop ( type i d?; i nv.no.75.1342). F ig.33. T he l oop d oes n ot a ppear t o b e h ollow o n t his e xample a nd t here i s n o t race o f a n i ncised t riangle o n i ts s urface. T he m oulding a t t he j unction b etween t he l oop a nd b ody i s a b road b and w ith a n arrow o ne a bove a nd b elow i t, b ut t here i s n o s ignificant s carp. T here a re n o c lear s igns o f w ear a t t he a pex o f t he l oop, b ut t his a rea i s q uite h eavily c orroded. T he b ody i s s lightly c onvex a nd b roken o ff b elow t he f irst r ivet b ase, t he d omed r ivet h ead s till b eing i n p lace. T he o bject i s h eavily p atinated, a s w ell a s c orroded i n s ome a reas ( notably t he r ear f ace o f t he l oop a nd b ody). M aximum l ength: 3 3mm; m aximum w idth o f b ody: 1 2mm; maximum w idth o f l oop: 6 mm; i nternal d iameter o f l oop: 5 .5mm; h eight o f s carp b etween l oop a nd b ody: 0 .5mm; t hickness o f b ody: 1 .5mm; d iameter o f r ivet h ead:

6 .

1 0mm; h eight o f r ivet h ead:

2 mm

' Spectacle' j unction l oop ( type l d?; i nv.no.75.1341). F ig.33. A f ragmentary e xample w hich a ppears t o h ave b een ( mechanically?) c leaned f airly v igorously a t s ome s tage s ince r ecovery. T he l oop b ears n o t race o f t he n ormal i ncised t riangle. T he m oulding i s u nlike t hat o f t he p revious j unction l oops, c onsisting o f a b road U -shaped g roove w ith d ouble n arrow b ands a bove a nd b elow

1 22

i t.

T hese

4

5

6 5 0mm

0

7

8

F ig.33: J unction l oops f rom C orbridge ( Nos.4-8). S cale 1 :1.

1 23

a re n ot e xecuted i n v ery h igh p rofile a nd t he s carp b etween t he l oop a nd b ody i s n ot v ery p ronounced. T here a re n o s igns o f w ear a t t he a pex o f t he l oop. W hat r emains o f t he b ody - e ssentially j ust p art o f o ne r ivet b ase - i s b ent u pwards. A n i ncised c ircle i s d iscernible a round t he r ivet h ole, b ut t he b ody m etal i s q uite t hin ( possibly a s a r esult o f t he c leaning). T here i s p atination w ithin t he p itting o n t he s urface o f t he o bject, ' bright' m etal.

b ut o therwise i t

d isplays

M aximum l ength: 2 3mm; maximum w idth o f b ody: 1 0mm; m aximum w idth o f l oop: 7 .5mm; i nternal d iameter o f l oop: 8 mm; h eight o f s carp b etween l oop a nd b ody: h ole: 2 .5mm 7 .

2 mm;

t hickness o f b ody:

0 .25mm;

d iameter

o f

r ivet

' Double s pectacle' j unction l oop ( type 3 a: i nv.no.75.1343). F ig.33. T he l oop o f t his f itting h as a v ery s hallow U -shaped s ection a nd m eets t he b ody i n a f lush j unction o n t he u pper f ace, whilst o n t he l ower t here i s a m assive l ug,

a nd i t m ay h ave b een i ntended t hat t he

s trap s hould b utt a gainst t his. T he l oop i tself h as f ractured b elow t he a pex b efore l oss. T he b ody f lares i n w hat a re p robably d egraded v olutes b etween t he l oop a nd t he f irst p air o f r ivet h oles, t he b ases o f w hich a re s lightly r ecessed i nto t he b ody o f t he f itting, w hich i s, i n t urn, a lmost c onvex. T he r ivet h oles a re s urrounded b y a n i ncised c ircle, w ith t he l eft h and c ircle o verlapping t he r ight ( when s een w ith t he l oop a t t he t op). T here i s n o s ign o f b urring o n t he r ear f ace o f t he r ivet h oles. B etween t his p air o f r ivet b ases a nd t he n ext i s a m assive p iece o f m oulded d ecoration, c onsisting o f a b road b and w ith t wo p airs o f n arrow b ands a bove a nd b elow i t, t he o utermost b ands b eing s lightly m ore p ronounced t han t he i nner o nes. T he b ack o f t his m oulding i s h ollow , a nd t here i s a s teep s carp o n e ither s ide a t t he j unction w ith t he b ody. T he b ody i s t erminated w ith a nother d ual r ivet b ase, t his t ime w ith t he r ight-hand i ncised c ircle o verlapping t he l eft. A s mall r ectangular t ongue o f m etal f inishes t he i tem a t t he b ottom. T his i tem i s h eavily p atinated w ith q uite h eavy c orrosion o n t he l oop. M aximum l ength: 5 2mm; m aximum w idth o f b ody: 1 9mm; maximum w idth o f l oop: 1 0mm; l ength o f m oulding: l lmm; h eight o f s carps b etween m oulding a nd b ody: 3 mm; t hickness o f b ody: 1 .75mm; t hickness a t m oulding: 6 .5mm; d iameter o f r ivet h oles: 2 mm 8 .

' Double s pectacle'

s trap f itting,

p robably

a

j unction

l oop

( type

3 a?; i nv.no.75.1346). F ig.33. T here i s n o l oop s urviving f or t his f ragment, b ut i t i s s o s imilar t o N o.7 t hat i t i s p robably f rom t he s ame h and. D etails a re v irtually ( but n ot e xactly) t he s ame a s f or t he p revious e xample. T he o bject h as f ractured a cross t he u pper p air o f r ivet h oles ( which i s a g ood r eason f or s uspecting t hat i t w as o riginally a j unction l oop) a nd i s h eavily p atinated. M aximum l ength: 2 9mm; m aximum w idth o f b ody: m oulding: 1 0mm; h eight o f s carps b etween m oulding t hickness o f b ody: r ivet h oles: 2 mm

1 .75mw;

t hickness a t m oulding:

1 8mm; l ength o f a nd b ody: 3 mm; 6 .5mm; d iameter o f

9 . J unction p halera ( Inv.no.75.1348). F ig.34. C oncave ( although f latter t owards t he c entre) c opper a lloy p halera o f d ecorative t ype 5 a, w ith f our r ings o n i ts r ear f ace ( functional t ype 6 a). W ithin t he c entral d ish o f t he p halera, a b road i ncised l ine s urrounds t he c entral r ivet h ole. T here a re t races o f s ilver f oil a dhering

1 24

t o

t he

f ront

o-

1

125

F ig.34: J unction p halera

E E 0_ L s )

c y )

f ace o f t he o bject, b ut n o r emains o f n iello i nlay c an n ow b e d iscerned. T he o bject a ppears t o b e c ast, a lthough i t i s n ot c lear w hether t he r ings w here f ormed a s o ne w ith t he p iece o r b razed o n a fter c asting. T he p halera i s s lightly b ent a bout w hat i s p robably t he

h orizontal

a xis;

o therwise,

t here i s n o s ign o f d amage t o t he

o bject, a lthough t here i s a s mall a mount o f c orrosion u nder t he b road i ncised l ine, w here t he m etal i s t hinner. O n t he r ear f ace, t here a re what m ay b e f ile m arks a round t he b ases o f t he r ings. T he o bject w as m arked ' 1996.' a t s ome p oint s ubsequent t o e xcavation. H eavily p atinated a nd s lightly c orroded. D iameter: 7 7mm; d iam . o f c entral i ncised

c ircle:

2 8mm;

d iam .

o f

c entral h ole: 1 .5mm; e xternal w idths o f r ings: 1 5mm; i nt. w idths o f r ings: 6 -7mm, h eight o f r ings: 1 3-14mm ; d istance o f r ings f rom p erimeter:

9 mm

T he s ix s pectacle t ype l oops r epresented h ere a re a ll i ndividuals a nd n one a ppear t o b e f rom t he s ame h and, l et a lone t he s ame m elt. A s s uch, t hey a re s imilar i n s o f ar a s t hey a re ' in t he t radition o f' s pectacle t ype f ittings. T he d ouble-spectacle f ittings, o n t he o ther h and, s how a r emarkable d egree o f s imilarity , a lthough t hey a re u nlikely t o b e f rom t he s ame m ould, s ince t he c ire-perdue m ethod m eant t hat e ach c asting w as t ruly u nique a nd t he m ould h ad t o b e b roken t o e xtract t he o bject. 191 O bjects m ay r esemble e ach o ther when a s eries o f c astings w ere m ade u sing t he s ame m aster t o f orm t he m ould ( a m ethod t hat h as b een a dvocated b y O ldenstein f or t he t ransmission, b y c opying, o f d esigns i n t he 2 nd a nd 3 rd c enturies o n t he G erman a nd R aetian l imes 192 ) . T he d ifferences b etween N os.7 and 8 a re s mall, b ut s uch t hat t hey c annot b e p ut d own t o i diosyncracies o f t he m ould. I t i s, h owever, p ossible t hat t hey a re d ue t o t he f inishing p rocess ( removing s prues, f iling o ff c asting f lashes). N evertheless, i t s eems f airly c ertain t hat t hese t wo p ieces a re t he w ork o f t he s ame w orkshop a nd p robably t he s ame c raftsman ( insofar a s t hey p robably d erive f rom a c ommon u sed

t o

f orm t heir m oulds).

o riginal

I t i s i nteresting t o n ote i n p assing t hat

n one o f t he p ieces e xamined i s i ntact. T here a re t wo b road t raditions o f s trap f itting r epresented b y t hese e ight o bjects, b ut w ithin t hese t here a re s even i ndividual d esigns. S uch a rtefacts, s eemingly s o i nsignificant, n evertheless e xhibit i ndividuality t o s uch a d egree t hat t he n otion t hat d esigns m ay b e c haracteristic o f p articular w orkshops c annot b e i gnored. 193 I n t hat s ense, c avalry h arness f ittings m ight p lausibly b e d iagnostic o f t he u nit t hat d iscarded t hem . O nly d etailed a nalysis o f f ittings l ike t hese o n a l arge s cale w ill e nable u s t o c onfirm t his h ypothesis.

1 26

A PPENDIX 3 : T he

C ATALOGUE A ND T YPE S KETCHES

c atalogue

o f c avalry h arness e quipment p resented h ere,

a long

w ith t he t ype s ketches w hich a ccompany i t ( Figs.35-56), c an b e u sed t o a ssist i n t he i dentification o f a rchaeological f inds. H owever, i t i s n ecessary t o s tress t hat, w hilst e very e ffort h as b een m ade t o m ake t hem a s c omprehensive a s p ossible, t here a re b ound t o b e p ublished e xamples w hich h ave b een m issed, a s w ell a s a g reat m any u npublished p ieces. T he t ype s ketches h ave b een d eliberately s implified: t hey a re n ot i ntended a s a ccurate s mall f inds d rawings, b ut s hould b e u sed s imply a s a g uide t o f orm . F ull r eferences a re g iven i n t he t ables f or e ach t ype i llustrated a nd t he r esearcher i s r ecommended t o e xamine t he o riginal p ublication i f p arallels a re s ought.

S ADDLE H O RNS Type

Site

Component

Height

Reference

(mm) 1

Haltern

Front

1

Mainz

Weisenau

Rear

1

Mainz

Weisenau

Front

1

Mainz

Weisenau

Rear

Right

1

Neuß

Rear

Right

1

Newstead,

Pit XXII

Front

1

Newstead,

Pit XXII

Front

1

Newstead,

Pit XXII

Rear

Left

1

Newstead,

Pit XXII

Rear

Right

1

Newstead,

Pit XXVII

Front

1

Newstead,

Pit XXVII

Front

1

Newstead,

Pit XXVII

Rear

Left

1

Newstead,

Pit XXVII

Rear

Right

1

Rottweil

1

Left

2 10. 0

MAKW,

158.0

KESSLER,

198.0

Ibid.,

Abb.7, 6

Taf. XIX, 8

1940,

Abb.7, 5

Ibid.,

Abb.7, 7

TAUCH,

1983,

10

197.0

CURLE,

1911,

Pl. XXXII

197.0

Loc.

cit.

185.0

Loc.

cit.

185. 0

Loc.

cit.

200.0

Loc.

cit.

200.0

Loc.

cit.

194.0

Loc.

cit.

196. 0

Loc.

cit.

Front

206. 0

PLANCK,

Rottweil

Front

206.0

Ibid.,

Taf.78, 2

1

Rottweil

Rear

Left

182.0

Ibid.,

Taf.77

1

Rottweil

Rear

Right

176. 0

Ibid.,

Taf.76

1

Sheepen,

region

Rear

Right?

163. 0

HAWKES

& HULL,

1?

Sheepen,

near

1 75. 0

Ibid.,

Pl. CI, c;

2

Neuß,

barracks

40/41

Front

174.0

LEHNER,

2

Neuß,

barracks

40/41

Front

156.0

Ibid.,

Taf. XXXA, 52

2

Neuß

Front

TAUCH,

1983,

2

Neuß

Front

Loc.

cit.

3

Neuß

Rear

Right

Loc.

cit.

3

Neuß

Rear

Right

Loc.

cit.

3

Unprovenanced

Front

3

Vinkovci

Rear

4

Moers-Asberg

Front

2 15. 0

HORN,

4

Moers-Asberg

Front

2 15.0

Loc.

4

Moers-Asberg

Rear

Left

195.0

Ibid.,

Abb.71

4

Moers-Asberg

Rear

Right

195. 0

Ibid.,

Abb. 70

3

A4

1 70.0

1905,

198.0 Right

1975,

Taf.78,1

1904,

LAWSON,

1947,

1977,

10

Mainz

Weisenau

Front

206.0

KESSLER,

Weisenau

Front

188.0

Ibid.,

5

Mainz

Weisenau

Rear

Right

178.0

Ibid.,

Abb.7, 3

5

Mainz

Weisenau

Rear

Left

180. 0

Ibid.,

Abb.7, 4

Neuß,

barracks

1 27

S1.21

Abb. 69

Mainz

T able 1

Taf.52, 4

cit.

5

?

( figure)

1912,

5

40/41

PI. CI, a;

d

Taf. XXXA, 50

1978,

HOFFILLER,

( figure)

LEHNER,

1940,

Abb.7,1

Abb.7, 2

1904,

367

b

1

5

4

3

2

o

3 00

m c b

F ig.35: T ype s ketches f or s addle h orns. ( scale i n mm)

1

4

3

2

1 00

o

F ig.36: T ype s ketches f or g irth b uckles. ( scale i n mm)

1 28

G I RTH B UCKLES Type

Site

Internal width

Reference

(mm)

1

Aislingen

6 1.0

ULBERT,

1

Augsburg-Oberhausen

42.0

HUBENER,

1

Augsburg-Oberhausen

44.0

Ibid.,

1

Augsburg-Oberhausen

42.0

Ibid.,

1

Chichester

49.0

DOWN,

1

Hofheim

48.0

R ITTERLING,

1

Hofheim

56. 0

I d.,

1

Hofheim

50.0

Ibid.,

Taf.XIV,23

1

Hofheim

48.0

Ibid.,

Taf.XIV,26

1

Laure-Minervois

44.0

FEUGtRE,

1

R ißtissen

63.0

Ibid.,

1

Waddon Hill

46.0

WEBSTER,

1

Woodcock Hall

58.0

BROWN,

2

Hofheim

6 2.0

R ITTERLING,

2

Rottweil

67.0

PLANCK,

3

Hüfingen

54.0

ORL Nr. 62a,

4

Aislingen

6 1.5

ULBERT,

4

Augsburg-Oberhausen

42.0

HUBENER,

4

Augsburg-Oberhausen

43.0

Ibid.,

1959,

Taf.18,26

1973,

Taf.23,33

Taf.23,34 Taf.23, 41 1978,

1913,

T able 2

Fig.10.32, 35 1904,

Taf.IV,52

Taf.XIV,21

1982,

Fig.19, a

Taf.61,36 1979,

1986,

Fig.40,215

Fig.31,238 1913,

1975,

Taf. XIV,20

Taf.34,16

Taf. XI, 62

1959, 1973,

Taf.18,24 Taf.14,12

Taf.23, 43

l a

l b

( n \ 3 a 1 c

( r-\ )( / r-) i d

3 b

2 a

0

0 3 c

2 b

2 00

( scale i n m m) F ig.37: T ype s ketches f or s addle p lates, T ypes 1 -3.

1 30

S ADDLE P LATES Type

S ite

Width ( mm)

Height

Reference

(mm)

la

Doorwerth

84

2 5

BROUWER,

la

Doorwerth

84

2 7

Ibid.,

Nr.204

la

Doorwerth

84

2 1

Ibid.,

Nr.201

la

Doorwerth

84

2 6

Ibid.,

Nr.203

la

Doorwerth

84

2 7

Ibid.,

Nr.205

la

Doorwerth

84

2 7

Ibid.,

Nr.202

la

Doorwerth

105

2 4

BROUWER,

la

Doorwerth

1 05

2 5

Ibid.,

Nr.238

la

Doorwerth

1 23

2 6

Ibid.,

Nr.232

la

Doorwerth

1 23

2 6

Ibid.,

Nr.231

la

Doorwerth

123

26

Ibid.,

Nr.230

la

Doorwerth

1 23

2 6

Ibid.,

Nr.229

la

Doorwerth

1 23

2 6

Ibid.,

Nr.228

l a

Doorwerth

1 26

2 3

Ibid.,

Nr.251

la

Doorwerth

1 26

2 5

Ibid.,

Nr.248

l a

Doorwerth

1 27

2 5

Ibid.,

Nr.247

la

Doorwerth

1 27

2 3

Ibid.,

Nr.250

la

Doorwerth

1 28

2 4

Ibid.,

Nr.249

la

Newstead

96

2 6

CURLE,

1911,

la

Newstead

9 6

2 7

Ibid.,

Pl.XXV, 42

lb

Doorwerth

7 5

2 3

Ibid.,

Nr.217

lb

Doorwerth

76

2 4

Ibid.,

Nr.216

lb

Doorwerth

8 1

2 2

Ibid.,

Nr.220

lb

Doorwerth

8 2

2 2

Ibid.,

Nr.221

lb

Doorwerth

84

2 2

Ibid.,

Nr.210

l c

Heddernheim

65

3 0

F ISCHER ,

id

Hüfingen

9 6

3 3

ORL

2 a

Castleford

1 14

68

P late A :

report

2 a

Castleford

1 14

7 0

P late

report

2b

Doorwerth

80

45

BROUWER ,

2b

Doorwerth

8 0

5 3

Ibid.,

Nr.219

2b

Doorwerth

8 0

5 0

Ibid.,

Nr.218

2b

Doorwerth

8 4

5 1

Ibid.,

Nr.200

2b

Doorwerth

8 4

5 2

Ibid.,

Nr.199

2b

Doorwerth

85

5 0

Ibid.,

Nr.209

2b

Doorwerth

105

1 28

Ibid.,

Nr.236

2b

Doorwerth

1 21

69

Ibid.,

Nr.227

2b

Doorwerth

1 25

6 2

Ibid.,

Nr.245

2b

Doorwerth

1 25

6 3

Ibid.,

Nr.246

2b

Doorwerth

1 27

6 2

Ibid.,

Nr.243

2b

Doorwerth

1 27

6 3

Ibid.,

Nr.244

2b

Neuß

7 3

60

LEHNER,

2b

Newstead

7 2

5 4

CURLE,

1911,

2b

Newstead

9 6

5 3

Ibid.,

Pl.LXXII,14

( sic)

1982,

1982,

P l.XXV , 44

1982,

3 a

Doorwerth

7 0

6 7

BROUWER,

3a

Doorwerth

7 4

79

Ibid.,

Nr.214

3 a

Doorwerth

7 4

79

I bid.,

Nr.213

3 a

Doorwerth

105

101

Ibid.,

Nr.235

3 a

Doorwerth

1 25

129

Ibid.,

Nr.242

3 a

Rheingönheim

7 2

7 7

3 b

Doorwerth

79

103

BROUWER ,

3 b

Doorwerth

8 1

1 03

Ibid.,

Nr.255

3 b

Doorwerth

8 3

100

Ibid.,

Nr.207

3 b

Doorwerth

8 4

64

Ibid.,

Nr.198

3 b

Doorwerth

8 4

65

I bid.,

Nr.208

3 b

Doorwerth

84

1 02

Ibid.,

Nr.195

3 b

Doorwerth

8 4

101

Ibid.,

Nr.197

T able 3

Abb.22,2

Taf. XI,102

1904,

ULBERT,

Nr.237

1973,

Nr.62a,

C :

Nr.233

forthcoming forthcoming Nr.215

Taf.XXXB, 60 PI. LXXII, 4

1982,

1969, 1982,

Nr.284

Taf.19,14 Nr.254

4 b

4 a

5 b

5 a

6 2 : 7 9 x 0 2 \ 3 , , 6 2 0 , x c E J uuuu p i g i , y2 i 0 9r 9-i 8 888 8 8 nn ( nn -i nn t i ,

Eg agE 6E 5 g ogg ö zE d 2 L _ , • e i 5 1 2_ _2 i ; e L L

3 99999668U n t I nn i lL 1 1, / u F , 0 \ gg a g a g oo i g ox o ye l i 6

0

2 00

( scale i n m m) F ig.38: T ype s ketches f or s addle p lates, T ypes 4 -6.

1 32

3b

Doorwerth

84

1 01

I bid.,

Nr.196

3 b

Doorwerth

120

8 0

I bid.,

Nr.225

3 b

Doorwerth

122

1 32

I bid.,

Nr.224

3b

Doorwerth

122

79

I bid.,

Nr.226

3b

Doorwerth

1 27

135

Ibid.,

Nr.241

3b

Neuß

7 3

1 01

LEHNER,

3 c

Castleford

1 14

1 25

P late

4a

Doorwerth

125

1 33

BROUWER,

4a

Doorwerth

1 25

1 34

Ibid.,

1904,

B :

Taf. XXXB, 58

report 1982,

forthcoming Nr.239

Nr.240

4b

Doorwerth

8 1

1 18

BROUWER ,

4b

Doorwerth

8 1

1 19

Ibid.,

4b

Neuß

7 3

1 18

LEHNER ,

5 a

Doorwerth

105

1 01

I bid.,

Nr.234

5 a

Doorwerth

1 23

1 50

Ibid.,

Nr.222

5 a

Doorwerth

1 23

150

Ibid.,

Nr.223

5b

Doorwerth

7 3

109

Ibid.,

Nr.212

5b

Doorwerth

75

1 12

Ibid.,

Nr. 211

5b

Doorwerth

84

1 36

I bid.,

Nr.194

5b

Doorwerth

84

1 36

Ibid.,

Nr.193

5b

Doorwerth

85

1 37

Ibid.,

Nr.206

6

Aislingen

5 5

45

6

Aislingen

9 3

105

6

Baden

96

42

UNZ,

6

Haltern

9 5

34

Ibid.,

6

Salona

82

45

WERNER ,

6

Vindonissa

5 0

42

UNZ,

1973,

Abb.11,118

6

Vindonissa

94

44

UNZ,

1973,

Abb.11,119

Further

f ragments

Abb.71, 6), Taf.III,17), Taf.28,14;

of

Wiesbaden Aislingen

16),

type ( OR! ,

ULBERT, Ibid.,

6 plates Nr.31,

( ULBERT,

and Vindonissa

are known

Taf. X,58; 1 959,

( UNZ,

1973,

1982, 1904,

1959,

1971,

Taf.19,19

Abb. 5, 41

Taf.II,2 1952,

Taf.II,1

f rom Moers-Asberg 6 3),

Abb.11,118)

1 33

Taf. XXXB, 59

Taf.19,20

Taf.19,18),

T able 3

Nr.253

Nr.252

Hofheim

( BECHERT,

( RITTERLING,

Rheingönheim

( ULBERT,

1974, 1904, 1969,

J UNCT ION R INGS S ite

Ext.

Int.

No.

Diam.

Diam.

Loops

(mm)

(mm)

Reference

of

AugsburgOberhausen

39

2 1

4

HUBENER,

B irten

35

20

4

HINZ,

1973,

Hüfingen

39

2 1

4

REVILLIO,

Kempten

46

2 1

4

KRÄMER ,

Lincoln

30

1 7

4

WEBSTER ,

The Lunt

4 1

25

4

HOBLEY,

Moers-Asberg

43

2 3

4

BECHERT,

Nijmegen

38

2 0

4

BOGAERS

Strasbourg

45

24

4

FORRER ,

Strasbourg

42

2 1

4

Ibid.,

Taf. LXXVII,1

Strasbourg

3 7

2 2

4

Ibid.,

Taf. LXXVII,2

Valkenburg

5 0

28

4

GLASBERGEN

1972,

Taf.13,1

Bild

1929,

1 957,

Taf.16,23

1949, 1969,

12,16 Abb.4,2

Pl. X, a Fig. 20, 3

1974,

Abb.71,1

& HAALEBOS, 1927,

& 7 2

1975, Fig.12

Taf. LXXVI, Q

& GROENMAN-VAN WAATERINGE,

P 1.14, 48 Hod Hill

3 3

1 7

3

BRAILSFORD,

1962,

Fig.2, A30

Hofheim

34

16

3

R ITTERLING,

1913,

Taf.XIII, 8

Hofheim

39

20

3

Ibid.,

Hüfingen

36

2 1

3

REVILLIO ,

-

3 0

3

DAVIES

& SPRATLING,

14

10

3

HAWKES

& HULL ,

Oberhausen

40

26

2

HUBENER,

Castleford

3 2

22

2

R eport

Hod Hill

19

1 1

2

BRAILSFORD,

1962,

Hofheim

15

1 1

2

R ITTERLING,

1913,

Taf.XIII,7

Windisch

48

27

2

S ITTERDING,

1962,

Abb.18,10

Oberhausen

20

14

35

19

Hüfingen

3 7

26

Seven Sisters

46

24

1 1 1 1

HUBENER,

Hofheim

Seven

S isters

Sheepen

Taf.XIII,34 1929,

Abb.4,1 1947,

1976,

No.4

PI.CIII, 9

Augsburg-

Augsburg-

1973,

1973,

R ITTERLING, REVILLIO, DAVIES

Taf.13, 2

forthcoming

Taf.13,12

1913,

1929,

Fig.2, A31

Taf.XIII, 41

Abb.4, 3

& SPRATLING,

T able 4

1 34

1976,

No.1

1974,

1

m t w or 'N .

‚e ms s imr %

l a

"% NA . . im i l

l b

‚NM » am m i e%

f e lla s i di l rl i

i f

l g

r %

e l m« a mm ir%

Alma mor t .

i d

l e

l c

e l•e» . m i g ie«N

, N

10» «Or \

2 a

e n"% i. m a ir 1

. 1— N i im i mee-N .

‚11. 0 1 1 3 1 0 1 '1

2 c

2 d

2 e

1 " Na lza .

2 b

ew e %

2 f

0 1 1. 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 11. 1 1 1 1%

"m i. mem o ir %

" 1 1 1 1 1 1.1 1. 1 1 1 1 1. 0%

3 a

3 b

3 c

F ig.39: T ypes s ketches ( decorative) f or p halerae, T ypes 1 -3.

1 35

m e cb

P H ALERAE T YPES Dec.

Susp.

Type

Type

Provenance

D iam.

Reference

( r am)

la

la

Doorwerth

44.0

BROUWER ,

la

la

Doorwerth

43.0

Ibid.,

1982,

la

la

Doorwerth

45.0

Ibid.,

Nr.108

la

la

Doorwerth

45.0

Ibid.,

Nr.109

la

la

Doorwerth

45.0

I bid.,

Nr.110

la

la

Doorwerth

40.0

Ibid.,

Nr.111

la

la

Doorwerth

44.0

Ibid.,

Nr.112

la

la

Doorwerth

42.0

Ibid.,

Nr.113

la

la

Doorwerth

44.0

Ibid.,

Nr.114

la

la

Doorwerth

45.0

Ibid.,

Nr.115

la

la

Doorwerth

40.0

I bid.,

Nr.116

la

la

Doorwerth

45.0

I bid.,

Nr.117

l a

la

Doorwerth

43.0

Ibid.,

Nr.118

la

la

Doorwerth

45.0

I bid.,

Nr.119

la

la

Doorwerth

43.0

Ibid.,

Nr.120

la

la

Doorwerth

43.0

Ibid.,

Nr.121

la

la

Doorwerth

45.0

I bid.,

Nr.122

l a

la

Doorwerth

45.0

Ibid.,

Nr.123

la

la

Doorwerth

44.0

I bid.,

Nr.124

la

la

Doorwerth

44.0

Ibid.,

Nr.125

la

la

Doorwerth

42.0

Ibid.,

Nr.126

la

la

Doorwerth

42. 0

I bid.,

Nr.127

la

la

Doorwerth

43.0

Ibid.,

Nr.128

l a

la

Doorwerth

45.0

I bid.,

Nr.129

la

la

Doorwerth

45.0

I bid.,

Nr.130

la

la

Doorwerth

?

I bid.,

Nr.131

lb

lb

Doorwerth

?

BROUWER ,

lb

lb

Doorwerth

1982,

43. 0

Ibid.,

Nr.133

lb

lb

Doorwerth

44.0

I bid.,

Nr.134

lb

lb

Doorwerth

43.0

I bid.,

Nr.135

lb

lb

Doorwerth

44.0

I bid.,

Nr.136

lb

lb

Doorwerth

43. 0

Ibid.,

Nr.137

lb

la

Xanten

43.0

JENKINS,

lb

la

Xanten

43.0

Ibid.,

No. C27

1985,

lb

la

Xanten

43.0

Ibid.,

No. C28

lb

la

Xanten

43.0

Ibid.,

No. C29

lb

la

Xanten

43.0

I bid.,

No. C30

lb

la

Xanten

44.0

I bid.,

No. C31

lb

la

Xanten

40.5

I bid.,

No. C32

lb

la

Xanten

40.5

I bid.,

No. C33

lb

l a

Xanten

4 1.5

I bid.,

No. C34

lb

la

Xanten

4 1.0

I bid.,

No. C35

lb

la

Xanten

3 9.0

I bid.,

No. C36

lb

la

Xanten

38.0

Ibid.,

No. C37

lb

la

Xanten

39.0

Ibid.,

No. C38 No. C39

lb

la

Xanten

39.0

I bid.,

lc

3 c

Doorwerth

89. 0

BROUWER,

lc

l d

Doorwerth

85. 0

I bid.,

Nr.177

lc

l d

Nr.178

lc lc

? 6b?

lc

?

1982,

Doorwerth

89.0

Ibid.,

Nawa

75.0

ABDUL-HAK,

Nawa

7 5.0

Ibid.,

Pl. XI,1

Ibid.,

P l.XI,1

Nawa

7 5.0

Nr.132

No. C26

Nr.176

1955,

lc

3a

Xanten

100.5

JENKINS,

lc

4a

Xanten

105.0

Ibid.,

No. A2

1985,

l c

4a

Xanten

105.0

Ibid.,

No. A3

lc

6b

Xanten

101.0

Ibid.,

No. A4

ld

2 a

Doorwerth

60.0

BROUWER,

ld

2 a

Doorwerth

60.0

Ibid.,

Nr.148

ld

2 a

Doorwerth

60.0

Ibid.,

Nr.149

T able 5

Nr.106

Nr.107

1982,

Pl.XI,1

No. A1

Nr.147

M an ta

M u m

"I sm o m i l ir•

4 a

4 b

5 a

5 c

5 b

6 a

A mu » 8 a

4 / 1 1 1 1 » mm

7 a

d b a mm i l lm

9 a

a l le am u l lb

9 b

1 0a

Im U ha

MW

=

ZM IZ I I

I 2a

M I I 1 2 1 2

F ig.40: T ypes s ketches ( decorative) f or p halerae, T ypes 4 -12.

1 37

id

2a

Doorwerth

60.0

I bid.,

Nr.150

Id

2a

Doorwerth

6 1.0

Ibid.,

Nr.151

I d

2a

Doorwerth

60.0

Ibid.,

Nr.152

id

2a

Doorwerth

60.0

I bid.,

Nr.153

id

2a

Doorwerth

60.0

Ibid.,

Nr.154

id

2a

Doorwerth

58.0

Ibid.,

Nr.155

id

2a

Doorwerth

5 7. 0

Ibid.,

Nr.156

id

2a

Doorwerth

60.0

Ibid.,

Nr.157

id

2a

Doorwerth

63.0

Ibid.,

Nr.158

i d

2a

Doorwerth

6 1.0

Ibid.,

Nr.159

id

2 a

Doorwerth

6 1.0

Ibid.,

Nr.160

id

2a

Doorwerth

6 1.0

Ibid.,

Nr.161

id

2 a

Doorwerth

6 1.0

Ibid.,

Nr.162

id

2a

Doorwerth

6 1. 0

Ibid.,

Nr.163

id

2a

Doorwerth

60.0

Ibid.,

Nr.164

i d

2a

Doorwerth

58.0

Ibid.,

Nr.165

id

2 a

Doorwerth

60.0

Ibid.,

Nr.166

id

2a

Doorwerth

59.0

Ibid.,

Nr.167

id

2a

Doorwerth

58.0

Ibid.,

Nr.168

i d

2a

Doorwerth

59.0

Ibid.,

Nr.169

id

2a

Doorwerth

60.0

Ibid.,

Nr.170

id

2a

Doorwerth

6 1.0

Ibid.,

Nr.171

id

2a

Doorwerth

59. 0

I bid.,

Nr.172

id

2a

Doorwerth

63. 0

I bid.,

Nr.173

id

2a

Doorwerth

6 2.0

Ibid.,

Nr.174

id

2 a

Doorwerth

62.0

Ibid.,

Nr.175

le

2b

Doorwerth

38.0

Ibid.,

Nr.179

l e

2b

Doorwerth

39.0

I bid.,

Nr.180

le

2b

Doorwerth

39.0

Ibid.,

Nr.181

le

2b

Doorwerth

39.0

Ibid.,

Nr.182

l e

2h

Fremington Hagg

3 7.0

WEBSTER ,

l e

la

Hod Hill

34.5

BRAILSFORD,

l e

ld?

H i lfingen

3 1.0

REVILLIO ,

le

3c

H t ifingen

34.5

I bid.,

Lixus

2 8.0

BOUBE-PICCOT,

1964,

Neuß

40.5

LEHNER ,

Taf.XXXIV,16

le

?

1971,

No.24

1962,

1929,

Fig.5, A126

Abb.2,2

Abb.2, 6 1904,

No.14

le

2a

le

2b

Newstead

70.0

CURLE,

1911,

l e

2b

Newstead

75. 0

Ibid.,

300-1,

PI. LXXIV,2

le

2b

Newstead

78.0

Ibid.,

300-1,

Pl. LXXIV, 3

le

2h?

Sheepen

3 4.0

HAWKES

& HULL,

le

2h?

Sheepen

38.0

Ibid.,

P I. CII, 31

l e

2d

Wroxeter

40.0

BUSHE-FOX,

if

6b?

Bonn

56.0

AuhV

if

3a

Doorwerth

105.0

BROUWER,

if

3a

Doorwerth

107.0

Ibid.,

if

4a

Doorwerth

108.0

I bid.,

Nr.140

if

4a

Doorwerth

108.0

Ibid.,

Nr.141

if

4a

Doorwerth

105.0

Ibid.,

Nr.1 42

if

4a

Doorwerth

108.0

Ibid.,

Nr.143

if

6a

Doorwerth

106.0

Ibid.,

Nr.144

if

6b

Doorwerth

107.0

Ibid.,

Nr.145

if

6a

Doorwerth

105.0

Ibid.,

Nr.146

4 ,

P l.LXXIV,1

1947,

1916,

1982,

Nr.138

Nr.139

if

2a

Xanten

54.5

JENKINS,

2a

Xanten

5 5.0

I bid.,

1985,

No. B6

if

2a

Xanten

5 3.0

I bid.,

No. B7

if

2a

Xanten

5 3.0

Ibid.,

No. B8

if

2a

Xanten

5 2.5

Ibid.,

No. B9

if

2a

Xanten

55.0

Ibid.,

No. B10

if

2a

Xanten

5 4.5

I bid.,

No. B11

if

2a

Xanten

5 5.0

Ibid.,

No. B12

if

2 a

Xanten

55.0

Ibid.,

No. B15

if

2a

Xanten

54.5

Ibid.,

No. B16

if

2a

Xanten

56.0

Ibid.,

No. B18

if

2a

Xanten

54.5

Ibid.,

No. B20

if

2 a

Xanten

55.0

Ibid.,

No. B21

PI. CII,30

Pl.XVIII, 30

Taf.45, 4

If

T able 5

300-1,

No. B5

l a

l b

2 a

2 f

2 b

.

2 g

3 a

l c

l d

2 c

2 d

2 h

2 i

l e

2 e

3 b

3 d

3 c

3 e

o

2 00

( scale i n m m) F ig.41:

T ype s ketches ( functional) f or p halerae, T ypes 1 -3.

1 39

' , K b

if

2a

Xanten

5 4.5

Ibid.,

No. B22

if

2a

Xanten

50.5

I bid.,

No. B23

l g

3 c

Fremington Hagg

7 3.0

WEBSTER ,

lg

3d

Fremington Hagg

7 1.0

I bid.,

lg

3d

Fremington Hagg

54.0

WEBSTER ,

lg

2h

Seven Sisters

5 3.0

2a

2b

Banasa

2 a

2f

Braughing?

2a

lc

2 a

2d

2a 2a

1971,

No.3

No.16;

CRADDOCK et al., 1971,

CRADDOCK et

1973,

Fig. 9

No.17;

al.,

1973,

Fig. 10

DAVIES & SPRATLING,

1976,

3 5.0

BOUBE-PICCOT,

No.26

36.5

WEBSTER,

1974,

Fig.1

Doorwerth

46.0

BROUWER ,

1982,

Nr.186

Doorwerth

35.0

I bid.,

Nr.191

4a

Doorwerth

76.0

I bid.,

Nr.189

6a

Doorwerth

77.0

Ibid.,

Nr.188

2 a

3c

Fremington Hagg

68.0

WEBSTER ,

2 a

le

Fremington Hagg

30.0

I bid.,

2a

2h?

Ham Hill

34.0

WEBSTER ,

2a

2d

Hod Hill

3 8.5

BRAILSFORD ,

1962,

Fig.5, A125

1913,

Taf.XV,71

1964,

1971,

No. 8

No.37 1960,

2 a

?

Hofheim

36.0

R ITTERLING,

2a

?

Hofheim

30.0

Ibid.,

Fig.5,121

Taf.XV, 78

2 a

3 c

Hüfingen

3 7.0

REVILLIO ,

2 a

2b

Tabernae

32.0

BOUBE-PICCOT,

2a?

2b

Alise-Sainte-Reine 43.0

1929,

2a?

7a

Chichester

50.5

Abb.2,7

1964,

RABEISEN & MENU, DOWN,

1978,

No.24

1985,

2b

3a

Doorwerth

8 1.0

BROUWER ,

1982,

Nr.187

i d

Fremington Hagg

5 3.0

WEBSTER ,

1971,

No.13;

CRADDOCK

et

2b

3d

Fremington Hagg

WEBSTER ,

1971,

2c

2b

2 c

?

Fremington Hagg

3 1. 0

I bid.,

Hofheim

43.0

R ITTERLING,

45.0

ULBERT,

al.,

1913,

1970,

2h

Rißtissen

2d

2b

Newstead

80.0

CURLE,

2 e

6b

Moers-Asberg

82.0

BECHERT,

1911,

No.13

Taf.XII,13

Taf.1,17 300-1,

1974,

2f

3c

Banasa

65.0

BOUBE-PICCOT,

2f

3 c

Volubilis

7 1.0

Ibid.,

3 a

2c

Doorwerth

47.0

BROUWER ,

3a

3b

Doorwerth

75.0

I bid.,

3b

2 a

Corbridge

35.0

Allason-Jones

P l.LXXIV,10

Abb.71, 8 1964,

No.15

No.16 1982,

Nr.184

Nr.184

f orthcoming, 3b

3c

Fremington Hagg

5 3.0

WEBSTER ,

3b

3 c

Fremington Hagg

54.0

Ibid.,

Hofheim

43.5

R ITTERLING,

in B ISHOP No.137

1971,

No.10

et

al.,

1973,

1913,

2 h

Colchester

34.5

WEBSTER,

4a

2g

Fremington Hagg

3 5.0

I d.,

1960,

4b

id

Banasa

40.0

BOUBE-PICCOT,

1964,

4b

5 a

Kempten

32.0

KRAMER ,

Taf. B,23

1971,

Fig.7

Taf. XI, 43

4a

Fig.4,77

No.4

1 957,

5 a

Newstead

86.0

CURLE,

4b

id

Oberstimm

3 8.0

SCHONBERGER ,

4b?

2 e

Mainz

5 0.0

BEHRENS,

4b?

5 a

Oberaden

28.0

ALBRECHT,

4b?

5 a

Oberaden

28.0

Ibid.,

4b?

id

Rottweil

3 3.0

PLANCK,

1975,

Taf.72,11

5 a

lb?

Aislingen

60.0

ULBERT,

1959,

Taf.19,13

5 a

2d

Banasa

36.0

BOUBE-PICCOT,

5 a

6 a

Corbridge

78.0

Acc. No.75.1348

5 a

2g?

FriedbergRederzhausen

3 1.5

VON SCHNURBEIN,

5 a

6b?

Heddernheim

77.0

F ISCHER ,

5 a

id

Heddernheim

76.5

Ibid.,

5a

2g

Hofheim

35.0

R ITTERLING,

1 40

1911,

302,

No.37

4b

T able 5

& DORE,

( copper alloy)

No.12;

CRADDOCK ?

1973,

No.14

No.2

2 c

3 c

Fig.7, 86

Fig.10.32,44

2b

?

No.2

repair)

P l. LXXIV, 6

1978,

1914,

( a

Taf.24, B201

Abb.2,13

1942,

Taf.47, 5

Taf.47, 6

1964,

1973,

( damaged?)

No.20

1983,

Abb. 8,12

Abb.16,1

Abb.16, 3 1913,

Taf. XII, 8

T able 5 5 a

la

Newstead

3 1.0

CURLE,

1911,

5 a

2b

Newstead

6 7.0

Ibid.,

300-1,

300,

5 a

3 e

Oberstimm

7 2.0

SCHONBERGER ,

5 a

la

R ißtissen

34.0

ULBERT,

5 a

2 e

Tanger

42.0

BOUBE-PICCOT,

5 a

2d

Tanger

40.0

I bid.,

No.19

5 a

2e

Thamusida

38.0

Ibid.,

No.13

5 a

2f

Vindonissa

28.0

UNZ,

5b

2 g

Fremington Hagg

3 4.5

WEBSTER,

5b

3 c

Hüfingen

3 2.0

REVILLIO,

5b

5 a?

Hüfingen

66.5

Ibid.,

5b

2b

Volubilis

45.0

BOUBE-PICCOT,

5 c

6a

Buciumi

74.0

CHIRILA et

6a

4b

Newstead

9 4.5

CURLE,

7 a

2h

Fremington Hagg

49.0

WEBSTER ,

8a

2 e

Rißtissen

40.5

ULBERT,

9a

4a

Hüfingen

36.0

REVILLIO ,

9a

3 c

Hüfingen

43.0

Ibid.,

9b

Nawa

40.0

ABDUL-HAK,

9b

Nawa

30.0

Ibid.,

Oberstimm

40.0

SCHONBERGER ,

Hüfingen

6 3.0

REVILLIO,

9b

2 i

10a

?

1978,

1970,

1973,

P l. LXXIII,1

Pl.LXXIV, 8 Taf.24, B203

Taf.1,18 1964,

No.18

Nr.1 46

1971,

No.23

1929,

Abb.2, 5

Abb.2, 8 1964,

al.,

1911,

No.1

1972,

Taf.LXXX

Pl. LXXII, 9

1971, 1959,

No.5 Taf.65,5

1929,

Abb.2,1

Abb.2, 3 1955,

PI.XI,2

P l. XI,2 1978,

1929, 1980,

Abb.2,10

ha

3 c

Canterbury

5 7.5

HASSALL,

ha

2d

Kempten

33.0

MACKENSEN,

Fig.4, B

ha

6 a

Neuß

3 4.0

LEHNER ,

1 2a

2 e

Castle f ord

40.0

R eport

forthcoming

1 2a

3 e

Castleford

4 1.0

Report

forthcoming

1 2b

lb

Casterly Camp

2 7.0

GRIFFITHS,

1987,

1904,

Taf.24, B200

Abb.66,12

Taf. XXXA, 9

1983,

No.3

5 a 4 b

4 a

7 a 6 b

6 a

2 00 IM 1 1 1 1• =

73 1

C _ __

F ig.42: T ype s ketches

( scale i n mm) ( functional) f or p halerae, T ypes 4 -7.

1 41

l c

l b

l a

i d

0

c .

Ö o

0

l g

l e

l i

l k

i h

1

t o

i n l m

l p

i s

l r l q

F ig.43: T ype s ketches f or p endants, T ypes l a-t.

1 42

l t

n ub

P ENDANTS Type

S ite

Width ( mm)

Height

Reference

(mm)

la

Doorwerth

120.0

1 45.0

BROUWER,

la

Doorwerth

120.0

1 39.0

Ibid.,

Nr.139

la

Doorwerth

7 3.0

89.0

Ibid.,

Nr.140

la

Doorwerth

70.0

9 1.0

Ibid.,

Nr.141

la

Doorwerth

70.0

9 3.0

Ibid.,

Nr.142

la

Doorwerth

70.0

9 4.0

Ibid.,

Nr.143

la

Doorwerth

7 0. 0

94.0

Ibid.,

Nr.144

la

Doorwerth

74.0

9 4.0

Ibid.,

Nr.145

la

Doorwerth

74.0

9 2.0

Ibid.,

Nr.146

la

Doorwerth

7 1.0

88.0

Ibid.,

Nr.147

la

Doorwerth

7 3.0

88.0

Ibid.,

Nr.148

la

Doorwerth

70.0

90.0

Ibid.,

Nr.149

la

Doorwerth

70.0

88.0

Ibid.,

Nr.150

la

Doorwerth

7 2.0

80.0

Ibid.,

Nr.151

la

Doorwerth

7 4.0

86.0

Ibid.,

Nr.152

la

Doorwerth

7 2.0

88.0

Ibid.,

Nr.153

la

Doorwerth

7 2.0

89.0

Ibid.,

Nr.154

la

Doorwerth

7 3.0

87.0

Ibid.,

Nr.155

1982,

la

Doorwerth

7 3.0

87.0

Ibid.,

Nr.156

la

Doorwerth

7 3.0

8 2.0

Ibid.,

Nr.157

la

Doorwerth

7 1.0

87.0

Ibid.,

Nr.158

la

Doorwerth

7 2.0

85.0

Ibid.,

Nr.159

la

Doorwerth

7 2.0

9 1.0

Ibid.,

Nr.160

la

Doorwerth

7 3.0

8 1.0

Ibid.,

Nr.161

la

Doorwerth

75.0

86.0

Ibid.,

Nr.162

la

Doorwerth

7 3.0

80.0

Ibid.,

Nr.163

la

Doorwerth

74.0

84.0

Ibid.,

Nr.164

la

Doorwerth

7 2.0

8 1.0

Ibid.,

Nr.165

la

Doorwerth

70.0

88.0

Ibid.,

Nr.166

la

Doorwerth

7 3.0

84.0

Ibid.,

Nr.167

la

Doorwerth

7 1.0

9 0.0

Ibid.,

Nr.168

l a

Doorwerth

74.0

88.0

Ibid.,

Nr.169

la

Doorwerth

7 3.0

79.0

Ibid.,

Nr.170

la

Doorwerth

7 3.0

8 3.0

Ibid.,

Nr.171

Ibid.,

Nr.172

Nr.138

la

Doorwerth

70.0

88.0

la

Xanten

108.5

1 28.0

JENKINS,

1985,

No. A1

lb

Doorwerth

1 10. 0

1 34.0

BROUWER,

1982,

Nr.176

lb

Lincoln

5 2.5

5 2.0

WEBSTER ,

1949,

lb

The Lunt

56.5

5 0.0

HOBLEY,

1973,

P l.X, b

( height damaged)

Fig.23, 30

( height

damaged) lb

Xanten

6 2.0

8 2.0

JENKINS,

lb

Xanten

6 2.0

80.0

Ibid.,

No. B6

5 8.5

lb

Xanten

54.0

lb

Xanten

58.5

lb

Xanten

5 7.0

lb

Xanten

lb

Xanten

lb

1985,

No. B5

Ibid.,

No. B7

( height damaged)

Ibid.,

No. B8

( height damaged)

7 7.5

Ibid.,

No. B9

6 2.5

8 1.5

Ibid.,

No. B10

64.0

80.5

Ibid.,

No. B11

Xanten

6 2. 0

6 7.0

I bid.,

No. B13

( height damaged)

lb

Xanten

6 2.0

65.5

Ibid.,

No. B14

( height damaged)

lb

Xanten

60. 0

6 2.0

Ibid.,

No. B15

( height damaged)

lb

Xanten

60.5

6 3.0

Ibid.,

No. B17

( height damaged)

lb

Xanten

6 2.0

6 2.0

Ibid.,

No. B19

( height damaged)

lb

Xanten

60. 0

Ibid.,

No. B20

( height damaged)

lb

Xanten

6 1.0

79.0

Ibid.,

No. B21

lb

Xanten

60.0

6 1.5

Ibid.,

No. B24

( damaged)

lb

Xanten

60.0

6 3.5

Ibid.,

No. B25

( damaged)

l c

Doorwerth

46.0

5 3.0

BROUWER ,

l c

Doorwerth

46. 0

54.0

Ibid.,

Nr.180

l c

Doorwerth

45.0

5 3.0

Ibid.,

Nr.181

?

?

T able 6

1 43

1982,

Nr.179

lc?

Heddernheim

45.0

38.5

F ISCHER ,

1973,

Abb.26, 4

id

Doorwerth

80.0

101.0

BROUWER,

1982,

Nr.183

l e

B anasa

42.0

55.0

BOUBE-PICCOT,

l e

Colchester

55.5

6 1.5

WEBSTER ,

l e

Hofheim

le

Richborough

47.0

48.0

1964,

1960,

Unpublished BUSHE-FOX,

( height damaged)

No.4

Fig. 4,58

( Wiesbaden Stadtmuseum) 1949,

Pl. LI,180

( height

damaged) l e

Wiesbaden

49.0

5 1.0

ORL

if

Sea Mills

3 1.0

6 3.0

WEBSTER ,

l g

Aislingen

38.0

5 5.5

ULBERT,

lg

Aislingen

36.0

4 1.0

Ibid.,

lg

Chester

24.0

46.0

Unpublished

( Grosvenor Museum

1 86. R.1976)

( damaged)

lg

Corbridge

29. 0

36.0

Allason-Jones

Nr. 31,

Taf.X,20

1960, 1959,

Taf.20,2

f orthcoming, l g

Corbridge

lg

Dura-Europos

lg

Heddernheim

44.5

47.0

lg

Hüfingen

40.5

4 1.5

42.0

44.0

I bid.,

Fig.7,181 ( damaged)

in

BISHOP

No.197

No.198

& DORE,

( damaged)

( damaged)

ROSTOVTZEFF et

al.,

F ISCHER ,

Abb.19,2

1973,

REVILLIO ,

( damaged)

Taf.20,1

1929,

19

, Pl. V1, 88 ( damaged)

Abb.2,5

( height

obscured) l g

Hüfingen

69.0

69.0

I bid.,

Abb.2, 9

( height

damaged) lg

Hüfingen

45.0

5 5.5

ORL Nr. 62a,

lg

Kempten

33.0

48.0

MACKENSEN,

lg

Mainz

45.5

5 5.0

BEHRENS,

lg

Neuß

60.0

74.0

LEHNER,

lg

Newstead

75.0

8 2.0

CURLE,

1911,

lg

Newstead

66.0

77.0

Ibid.,

P l. LXXIV, 7

lg

Oberstimm

43. 0

49.0

SCHONBERGER ,

Taf. XI,73 1987,

1912,

( height damaged)

Abb.66,13

( damaged)

Abb.4,18

( height damaged) 1904,

Taf. XXXIV, 6 Pl. LXXIV,5

( damaged)

( damaged)

( damaged)

1978,

Taf.24, 8206

( height

damaged) lg

R ißtissen

3 7.0

3 5.0

ULBERT,

lg

R ißtissen

3 1.0

3 3.0

Ibid.,

1970,

Taf.1,15

Taf.23, 346 1975,

( height damaged)

( damaged)

lg

Rottweil

3 6.0

46.0

PLANCK,

lg

Rottweil

43.0

5 1.0

I bid.,

Taf.73,1

Taf.35,1 ( height damaged)

lg

Rottweil

3 3.0

43.5

I bid.,

Taf.73,2

( height damaged)

lg

S isek

3 7.0

49.0

HOFFILLER ,

lg

Thamusida

46.0

40.0

BOUBE-PICCOT,

lg

Vindonissa

3 3. 0

4 1.0

UNZ,

lg

Volubilis

66. 0

45.0

Ibid.,

No. 6

lg

Volubilis

48. 0

6 3.0

I bid.,

No.1

lg

Wroxeter

3 9.0

40.0

WEBSTER ,

1912,

1973,

S 1.45

1964,

No

5

Abb.12,146

1960,

Fig.8,260

( height

d amaged) lh

Hod Hill

46. 0

5 5.5

R ICHMOND ,

1968,

Fig.31,"Pit

15b

Secondary" ih

Hüfingen

48.0

49.5

ORL

ih

Sheepen

34.0

36.0

HAWKES

Nr. 62a,

Taf.XI,72

& HULL,

1947,

( height obscured) P l. C111,22

( height

obscured) i i

Brecon

46.0

49.0

WHEELER ,

i i

Newstead

60.5

64.0

CURLE,

1926,

1 911,

Fig.57,2

Pl. LXXIII, 3

( damaged) ( height

damaged) l j

Newstead

55.0

5 5.0

I bid.,

P I.LXXIII,2

( height

damaged) l j

Newstead

5 4.0

54.0

I bid.,

P l.LXXIII,4

( height

damaged) lk

Fremington 5 5.5

7 2.5

WEBSTER ,

Hagg

3 7.0

48.0

I bid.,

Greensforge

42.0

5 1.0

I d.,

38.0

43.0

R ITTERLING,

Hagg 1 1

Fremington

1 1 1 1

Hofheim

1971,

No.1

No. 2

1981,

Fig.34 1913,

( height damaged) Taf. XII,37

( height

damaged) 1 1

Hüfingen

46.5

46.0

REVILLIO,

1929,

Abb.2, 6

( damaged

&

obscured) 1 1

Neuß

44.0

40.0

LEHNER ,

T able 6

1 44

1904,

Taf.XXXIV,16

( height

l u

1w 1y

l y

2 a

2 b 2 d

2 e

2 c

3 a

3 b 3 c 3 d

3 e

mcb

F ig.44: T ype s ketches f or p endants, T ypes l u-3.

1 45

obscured) 1 1

Oberstimm

3 7.0

44.0

ULBERT,

1 1

Rißtissen

36.0

3 2.0

I d.,

1957,

1 1

Valkenburg

40.0

47.0

GLASBERGEN & GROENMAN-VAN WAATERINGE,

11

Volubili 's

40.0

34.0

BOUBE-PICCOT ,

1 1

Volubilis

30.0

3 9.0

Ibid.,

1 1

Wiesbaden

45.0

5 1.0

ORL

lm

Fremington

1959,

1974,

( height damaged) ( height damaged)

P 1.16, 4 1964,

No.12

No.8

Nr.31,

Taf. X,22

Hagg

4 1.0

44.0

WEBSTER,

lm

Tanger

5 2.0

7 1.0

BOUBE-PICCOT ,

in

Hofheim

in

The Lunt

5 7.5

62.5

HOBLEY,

in

Seven Sisters

5 0.0

5 3.5

DAVIES

?

Abb.2, 4

Taf. 63,19

1971,

Unpublished

No.18 1964,

No.10

( Wiesbaden Stadtmuseum)

1973,

F ig.22,20

& SPRATLING,

1976,

No.3

( height

damaged) in

Wroxeter

5 8.0

6 2.0

BUSHE-FOX,

in

Wroxeter

46.5

43.0

Ibid.,

1915,

F ig.7,22

Pl.XVIII, 30

( height

damaged) lo

Neuß

9 7.0

9 4.0

LEHNER ,

lo

Wiesbaden

42.0

44.0

ORL

1p

Wiesbaden

40.0

44.0

Ibid.,

lq

Neuß

5 7.0

7 1.5

LEHNER,

1904,

Nr.31,

Taf. XXXIV,17

Taf. X,21

Taf. X,24 1904,

( height damaged)

Taf. XXXIV,18

( height

damaged) lr

Neuß

48.5

5 3.0

I bid.,

i s

Thamusida

50.0

45.0

BOUBE-PICCOT,

Taf. XXXIV,19

( damaged)

1964,

lt

Banasa

25.0

2 8.0

I bid.,

No.9

lu

Volubilis

6 3.0

5 2.0

I bid.,

No.11

lv

Cirencester

65.0

75.0

WACHER & MCWHIRR ,

No.3

1982,

Fig.35, 98

( height damaged) lw

Nawa

?

BOUBE-PICCOT,

lx

Southwark

?

HAMMERSON & SHELDON ,

ly

Wroxeter

59.0

86.0

West

Midlands

No.17, 2 a

Alise-Saint-Reine

44.0

89.0

1964,

1974,

P l.III 1987,

P1.2

Archaeological

News

Sheet

f ront cover

RABEISEN & MENU,

1985,

Fig.5,27

( unfinished?) 2a

Baden

40.0

49.0

UNZ,

2a

Baden

4 1.0

48.0

Ibid.,

1971,

Abb.6, 49

2 a

Doorwerth

9 1.0

88.0

BROUWER ,

2 a

Doorwerth

46.0

42.0

I bid.,

Nr.191 Nr.192

( height damaged)

Abb. 6,50 1982,

2a

Doorwerth

55.0

5 2.0

I bid.,

2a

Edington

4 1.5

47.5

GRIFFITHS,

2a

Fremington Hagg

7 7.0

75.0

WEBSTER ,

2 a

Hofheim

46.0

48.0

R ITTERLING,

2a

Kelvedon

5 1.0

5 0.0

WICKENDEN,

Nr.187 ( height damaged)

1983,

1971,

No.13

No.19

1913, this

Taf. XIV,2

vol.,

Fig.5,28

( height

damaged) 35.0

3 7.0

BOUBE-PICCOT,

1964,

No.14

2a

Lixus

2 a

Nawa

2a

Rißtissen

5 7.0

64.0

ULBERT,

1959,

2 a

Sheepen

5 1.0

5 8.0

HAWKES

& HULL ,

2a

Thamusida

45.0

49.0

BOUBE-PICCOT,

2 a

Valkenburg

47.0

48.0

GLASBERGEN & GROENMAN-VAN WAATERINGE,

2 a

Wanborough

46.5

5 0.0

ANDERSON

?

I bid.,

1 974,

P l.V Taf. 63,17 1947, 1964,

P l. CIII,13 No.13

P 1.16, 3 & WACHER ,

1980,

Fig.4,1

( height

damaged) 2a

Wiesbaden

48.0

48.0

ORL

2b

Cirencester

48.0

45.0

WACHER & MCWHIRR ,

Nr.31,

Taf. X,26

( height damaged)

1982,

Fig.35, 97

( height damaged) 2b 2b

Fremington Hagg

45.0

45.0

WEBSTER ,

Oberstimm

50.0

3 3.0

SCHONBERGER ,

1971,

No.20

1978,

( height damaged)

Taf.24, B205

damaged) 2b

R ißtissen

35.0

2 0.0

ULBERT, damaged)

T able 6

1 46

1970,

Taf.1,16

( height

( height

4 a

4 b

4 c

4 e

4 d

4 g

4 f

4 h

5 a

5 b 5 c

5 d

5 e 5 g

5 f

F ig.45: T ype s ketches f or p endants, T ypes 4 -5.

1 47

mb

2b

R ißtissen

3 1.0

34.5

Ibid.,

Taf.23, 348

( height

damaged) 2 c

Baden

3 8.0

57.0

UNZ,

2d

Canterbury

65.0

47.0

HASSALL,

2d

Canterbury

7 1.0

84.0

Ibid.,

2e

Chester

50.0

49.0

Unpublished

( Grosvenor Museum

1 85. R.1976)

( height damaged)

46.0

3a

Doorwerth

3a

Dura-Europos

3b

Hüfingen

6 1.0

3b

Newstead

3 7.0

69.0

1971,

Abb. 6, 51

1 980,

Fig.4, A

( height damaged)

Fig.4, C

BROUWER ,

1982,

Nr.281

ROSTOVTZEFF

et

99.0

ORL Nr. 62a,

Taf. XI,75

63.0

CURLE,

1911,

al.,

19

, Pl. VII, 92

P l. LXXXI,3

( height

damaged) 3b

Roanne

2 7.0

45.0

FEUGERE,

3 c

B aden

40.0

42.0

UNZ,

1983,

3 c

Baden

3 9.0

5 1.0

Ibid.,

Abb. 6,56

3 c

Baden

40.0

43.0

I bid.,

Abb.6, 57

3 c

Baden

47.0

54.0

Ibid.,

Abb.6,58

3 c

Baden

22.0

24.0

Ibid.,

Abb.6,59

3 c

Petronell

30.5

42.0

STIGLITZ,

1971,

Fig.26, 60

Abb. 6, 55

( height damaged) ( height damaged)

1986,

3 c

P etronell

3 1.5

46.0

Ibid.,

3 c

Rottweil

48.0

58.5

PLANCK,

3 c

S isek

36.0

45.0

HOFFILLER ,

3 c

S isek

26. 0

40.0

I bid.,

3d

Vindonissa

26.0

50.0

UNZ,

3d

Vindonissa

3 1.0

60.0

Ibid.,

3 e

Petronell

30.0

5 2.5

STIGLITZ,

( height damaged)

Taf.5,13

Taf.5,14 1 975,

Taf.35, 5

1912,

( height damaged)

S1.45

S 1.45

1973,

Abb.12,145

Abb.12,150 1986,

4a

Colchester

58.0

65.0

WEBSTER ,

4a

Hofheim

70.0

70.0

R ITTERLING,

4b

Kenchester

54.0

8 1.0

WEBSTER ,

Taf.5,1

1960,

Fig.4,59

191 3,

1981, 1978,

Taf.XIV,3

( damaged)

Fig.29

4b

Mainz

5 8.5

8 2.5

LAWSON,

4b

R ichborough

3 8.0

5 1.0

B USHE-FOX,

Taf.53, 5

4b

R ichborough

33.0

45.0

CUNLIFFE,

4c

Rheingönheim

16.5

5 1.0

ULBERT,

4d

Rheingönheim

33.0

54.0

Ibid.,

Taf.36,12

4d

Rheingönheim

2 5.5

5 2.5

Ibid.,

Taf.36,13

4e

Rheingönheim

22.5

46.5

Ibid.,

Taf.36,14

4f

Mainz

65.0

90.0

BEHRENS,

1 949, 1968,

1969,

Pl. LVI,275 P l.XXXIX,147

Taf.36,11

1914,

Abb.2,15

( width damaged) 4g

Rottweil

4h

Nawa

3 9.0

5 3.0

PLANCK,

1 975,

Taf.73, 3

BOUBE-PICCOT, 1974,

1964,

P l.IV,2

5 a

Baden

3 3.0

45.0

UNZ,

5 a

Colchester

3 7.5

60.0

WEBSTER ,

Abb.1, 8

5 a

London

2 7.0

42.0

I bid.,

5a

Rottweil

70.5

64.5

PLANCK,

5 a

S isek

40.0

42.5

HOFFILLER ,

1912,

5a

Vindonissa

22. 0

4 1.0

UNZ,

Abb.12,149

5b

London

34.5

5 1.0

WEBSTER ,

1960,

Fig.4, 62

( width damaged)

Fig.6,155 1975,

1973,

Taf.73,10

1960,

5b

Rottweil

3 0.0

43.0

PLANCK,

5 c

Chester

33.5

5 3.5

NEWSTEAD,

1975,

5 c

Neuß

3 4.0

64.0

LEHNER,

5 c

P etronell

30.5

45.0

STIGLITZ,

5 c

Straubing

43.5

6 1.5

WALKE,

5 c

Wroxeter

5 2.5

75.0

WEBSTER ,

Taf.35, 3

( damaged)

Pl. VII,11

Taf.XXXIV,12

1986,

1965,

( height damaged)

Fig.6,143

1928,

1904,

( damaged)

S 1.45

Taf.5, 6

( damaged)

Taf. 98,36

1960,

Fig. 8,261

( height

damaged) 5d

Sheepen

45.0

56.0

HAWKES

& HULL,

1947,

P I. CIII,10

damaged) 5 e

Castleford

19.0

46.0

R eport

5 e

Chester

1 6.0

3 7.5

NEWSTEAD ,

forthcoming

5 e

Chester

24.0

42.0

I bid.,

1928,

P l. VII, 8

Pl. VII, 7 ( height

damaged) 5 e

Chester

26.5

3 9.0

I bid.,

P l. VII, 9

damaged)

T able 6

1 48

( height

( height

6 c

6 b

6 d

7 b

7 e

7 c

7 f

7 d

7 g 7 h

8 e

8 d 8 a

8 b

8 c

F ig.46: T ype s ketches f or p endants, T ypes 6 -8e.

1 49

m cb

5 e

Chester

23.0

3 7.0

Ibid.,

PI. VII,10

5 e

Chester

30.0

50.0

Ibid.,

P l.VII,12

( height

damaged) 5 e

Hofheim

2 3.0

4 1.0

R ITTERLING,

5 e

Hofheim

38.0

69.0

Ibid.,

1904,

5 e

Hüfingen

42.0

5 7.0

ORL

5 e

Hüfingen

64.5

9 4.5

I bid.,

Taf.XI,79

5 e

Hüfingen

3 9.0

60.0

Ibid.,

Taf.XI, 80

Ibid.,

Taf.XI, 83

Taf.III,31

Taf.II1,32

Nr. 62a,

( damaged)

Taf. XI,78 ( damaged)

5 e

Hüfingen

36.0

60.0

5e

Neuß

7 7.0

1 15. 0

LEHNER ,

1904,

Taf. XXXIV, 9

5 e

Rottweil

65.0

97.5

PLANCK,

1975,

Taf.35, 6

5 e

Rottweil

54.0

7 1.0

Ibid.,

Taf.73, 4

5 e

Rottweil

5 4.0

79.5

Ibid.,

Taf.73, 6

5 e

Rottweil

8 1.0

109.5

Ibid.,

Taf.73, 9

5 e

Rottweil

33.0

5 1.0

Ibid.,

Taf.73, 8

5 e

Strasbourg

28.5

5 2.5

FORRER,

1 927,

Taf. LXXVII,14

5 e

Unknown

49.0

76.0

LAWSON,

1 978,

Taf.53, 4

5 e

Vindonissa

39.0

60.0

UNZ,

5 e

Vindonissa

40.0

65.0

Ibid.,

5 e

Wiesbaden

40.0

6 2.0

ORL

5 e

Wiesbaden

66.0

9 1.0

Ibid.,

5f

Lorenzberg

42.0

8 1.0

ULBERT,

5g

Heddernheim

42. 0

66.0

F ISCHER ,

1973,

Abb.17,1

6a

Colchester

64.0

6 1.5

WEBSTER ,

1960,

F ig.5, 83

6b

Valkenburg

76. 0

84.0

GLASBERGEN & GROENMAN-VAN WAATERINGE,

6b

Wall

69.0

63.0

WEBSTER ,

1973, Nr.31,

1 974,

Abb.11,128

Abb.11,

(width damaged)

131

Taf. X, 37

Taf. X, 40 1965,

Taf.2,14

P 1.15,3

( damaged)

( width damaged)

1960,

Fig. 8,224

( height

damaged) 6c

Chester

5 7.5

64.5

GREEN,

6c

Chisbury

5 3.5

75.5

GRIFFITHS,

6c

Hod Hill

6 2.5

5 2.5

BRAILSFORD ,

1984,

P 1.1 44

1983,

No. 6

( damaged)

1962,

Fig.3, A45

( height

191 3,

Taf. XIV,1

( height

damaged) 6 c

Hofheim

64.0

5 3.0

R ITTERLING, damaged)

6c

Mainz

59.0

60.0

BEHRENS,

6c

Vindonissa

47.0

44.0

UNZ,

6d

Sheepen

56.0

3 8.0

HAWKES

1918,

1973,

Abb.10,3

Abb.13,162

& HULL,

1947,

( height damaged) P l. CIII,17

( height

damaged) 6 e

Mainz

68.0

55.0

BEHRENS

& BRENNER,

1911,

Abb. 26,105

( damaged) Strasbourg

48. 0

7a

Aislingen

12.0

7a

Ashdon

63.5

6e

FORRER ,

1927,

Fig.435

2 2.5

ULBERT,

1959,

Taf.20, 8

62.0

WICKENDON ,

59.0

this

vol.,

( damaged) P1.2

(width

damaged) 7a

Baden

6 1.0

58. 0

UNZ,

7a

Baden

50.0

60.0

Ibid.,

1971,

Abb.5, 46

7a

Baden

43.0

4 1.0

I d.,

7a

Besançon

46.0

40.0

FEUGtRE,

7a

Cirencester

53.5

5 1.0

WACHER & MCWHIRR ,

Abb.5, 47

1974,

( width damaged)

Abb.1, 9

1983,

Fig.23, b 1982,

Fig.36,101

( width damaged) 7a

Ham Hill

5 2.5

34.5

WEBSTER ,

7a

Hofheim

56.0

42.0

R ITTERLING,

1960,

Fig.5,122

191 3,

7a

Kingsholm

62.0

54.5

HURST,

1 985,

7a

Kingsholm

44.5

46.5

Ibid.,

Fig.11,2

7a

Normanby

45.0

56.0

LEAHY,

1980,

7a

Rißtissen

55.0

3 5.0

ULBERT,

( damaged)

Taf.XIV, 4

F ig.11,1 Fig.9

1970,

Taf.23,345

( height

damaged) 7a

Roanne

57.0

3 5.0

FEUGtRE,

7a

Southwark

54.0

49.5

Rescue

1983,

News

Fig.23, 58

33,

Spring

HAMMERSON & SHELDON, 7a

Stadtbergen

60.0

5 2.5

MACKENSEN,

1987,

7a

Vindonissa

43.0

40.0

UNZ,

Abb.11,124

7a

Vindonissa

5 1.0

42.0

I bid.,

1973,

T able 6

1 50

Abb.11,125

1984;

1987,

Abb.64,12

P1.1

7 a

Wroxeter

8 2.5

40.0

WEBSTER ,

1960,

Fig. 8, 263

( height

d amaged) 7b

Aislingen

36.0

46.5

ULBERT,

7b

Baden

5 0.0

44.0

UNZ,

1959,

1971,

Taf.20, 3

Abb.7, 68

7b

Baden

5 3.0

48.0

I bid.,

7b

Baden

60.0

59.0

I d.,

7b

Baden

46.0

42.0

I bid.,

7b

Bern

5 0.0

3 9.0

MULLER-BECK

( width damaged)

( height damaged)

Abb.7, 69

1974,

Abb.1,10

Abb.1,11

( height damaged)

( height damaged)

& ETTLINGER ,

1963,

Taf.57, 4

( height damaged) 7b

Bern

7b

Besancon

7b

Bregenz

5 1.0

5 1.0

I bid.,

102.5

78.5

FEUG RE,

Taf.57, 5

5 1.0

5 2.5

MACKENSEN,

1983.,

Fig.25, a

1987,

Abb. 64, 7

( width

damaged) 7b

Bregenz

64.5

5 1.0

I bid.,

7b

Chichester

5 0.0

46.5

DOWN,

Abb. 64, 8 1978,

Fig.10.32, 42

( width

damaged) 7b

Chichester

5 1.0

43.5

Ibid.,

Fig.10.32, 43

( height

damaged) 7b

Colchester

3 8.0

47.5

CRUMMY,

7b

Harlow

30.0

3 9. 0

WICKENDEN,

1983,

No.4233

this

( width damaged)

vol.,

Fig.6, 39

( width

damaged) 7b

Hod Hill

45.0

45.0

BRAILSFORD,

1962,

Fig.3, A40

7b

Hofheim

5 2. 0

3 8.0

R ITTERLING,

1913,

Taf.XIV,7

7b

Hofheim

42.0

3 6.0

I bid.,

Taf. XIV, 9

7b

Hofheim

3 8.0

3 5.0

Ibid.,

Taf.XIV,10

( damaged)

( damaged) ( height

damaged) 7b

Hüfingen

3 9.0

42.0

ORE Nr. 62a,

7b

London

5 5.5

46.5

WEBSTER ,

7b

Longthorpe

5 2.5

5 0.5

FRERE

7b

Luxeuil

5 8.0

5 1.0

FEUG RE,

7b

Mainz

5 5.0

54.0

BEHRENS

Taf. XI, 87

1960,

( damaged)

Fig. 6,144

& ST.JOSEPH, 1983,

1974,

Fig.30, 62

Fig.25, b

& BRENNER ,

1911,

Abb.26,104

( height damaged) 7b

Neuß

78.0

68.0

LEHNER ,

1904,

Taf. XXXIV,10

7b

Oberstimm

74.0

66.0

ULBERT,

1957,

Abb.2, 6

7b

Rheingönheim

48.0

48.0

ULBERT,

1969,

Taf.36,1

7b

Rheingönheim

44.0

42.0

Ibid.,

Taf.36,2

7b

Rheingönheim

5 2.5

4 1.0

I bid.,

Taf.36, 4

7b

R ißtissen

3 8.0

4 7.0

I d.,

1 970,

( height damaged) ( width damaged)

( damaged)

Taf.33, 507

( width

damaged) 7b

5 0.0

R ißtissen

I bid.,

5 2.0

Taf.33, 508

( width

damaged) 7b

Roanne

4 1.0

40.5

FEUG RE,

7b

Sheepen

63.0

64.0

HAWKES

7b

Strasbourg

5 2.5

40.5

FORRER ,

1927,

Taf. LXXVII,16

7b

Unknown

1 18.0

9 5.0

LAWSON,

1978,

Taf.53,2

7b

Valkenburg

74. 0

66.0

GLASBERGEN 1974,

1983,

Fig.24

& HULL,

1947,

P l.CIII,12 ( damaged)

& GROENMAN-VAN WAATERINGE,

P 1.14, 52

7b

Valkenburg

44.0

43.0

Ibid.,

7b

Vechten

40.0

3 8.0

FEUG RE,

P 1.16, 6

7b

Vechten

3 9.5

48.0

I bid.,

Fig.25, f

( damaged)

7b

Verulamium

63.0

5 5.0

Ibid.,

F ig.25, c

( width damaged)

7b

Vindonissa

44.0

44.0

UNZ,

7b

Vindonissa

5 1.0

45.0

I bid.,

7b

Xanten

7 2.0

105.0

7 c

London

69.0

6 1.5

1983,

1973,

H INZ,

Fig.25, e

Abb.11,127

( damaged)

( width damaged)

Abb.11,129 1971,

WEBSTER,

Abb.33, 8

1960,

( height damaged)

Fig. 6,161

( height

damaged) 7d

Hofheim

5 3.0

5 1.0

R ITTERLING,

7d

Sheepen

48.0

45.0

HAWKES

1904,

& HULL,

Taf.II1,23

1947,

Pl. CIII,11

( height

damaged) 7 e

C irencester

182.0

1 28.0

WACHER & MCWHIRR ,

7e

Moers-Asberg

126.0

1 25.0

BECHERT,

Decorated this

suspension necks

vol.,

Fig.6,141); Aislingen

Fig.3, 2); Wroxeter ( ULBERT,

for

7 e

pendants

Colchester ( ibid.,

1959,

are known

( WEBSTER,

Fig. 8,256;

Taf.21,17);

1974,

1 960,

K ingsholm Kempten

T able 6

1 51

1982,

Fig.36,100

Abb.73, 9

from

Chelmsford

F ig.4, 69); ( LYSONS,

( MACKENSEN,

( WICKENDEN,

London 1 817,

1987,

( ibid.,

P l.XV ,10); Abb.66,14);

8 j

8 h

8 f

8 i

8 g

8 1 8m

8 k 8 o

8 p

9 a

9 g r n cb

F ig.47: T ype s ketches f or p endants, T ypes 8 f-9i.

1 52

Oberstimm

( SCHONBERGER ,

1978,

Taf.23, B189)

108.0

1 08.0

75.0

79.5

Unknown

39.0

3 7.0

AuhV

7 g

Valkenburg

42.0

44.0

GLASBERGEN & GROENMAN-VAN WAATERINGE,

7 h

Fingringhoe

7 f

Strasbourg

7 f

Straubing

7 g

Neuß

7 g

FORRER , WALKE,

?

LEHNER ,

Fig.394, E Taf. 98,38

1904,

3 :5,

1974, Wick

1927, 1965,

Taf. XXXIV,14

Taf.5, 6

( damaged)

P 1.16, 8

WEBSTER ,

1981,

133

f ig.

8a

Rißtissen

2 7.0

78.0

ULBERT,

8b

Hod Hill

59.0

40.0

BRAILSFORD,

8b?

Baden

3 2.0

5 0.0

UNZ,

8 c

Hod Hill

43.0

74.5

BRAILSFORD ,

8d

Hod Hill

30.5

60.0

Ibid.,

B e

R ichborough

36.0

2 1.0

BUSHE-FOX,

8f

Richborough

15.0

30.0

CUNLIFFE,

8g

Ham Hill

1 8.0

43.0

GRAY,

8h

Colchester

2 1.0

3 5.5

DUNNETT,

8h

Rheingönheim

25.0

3 5.0

ULBERT,

S i

Rheingönheim

1 7.0

34.0

I bid.,

8 j

Heerlen

19.0

3 1.0

ZADOKS-JOSEPHUS JITTA & WITTEVEEN,

1970,

Taf.10,160

1962,

1974,

Fig.3, A38

Abb.1,14 1962,

Fig.3, A48

( damaged)

1949,

Pl.LI,181

1968,

1924,

( damaged)

Fig.3, A39

P I. XXXIX,146

P l. XIII, E15

1971, 1969,

( height damaged)

Fig.11,17 Taf.36,16

Taf.36,17 1977,

P 1.34, 47 8 j

Hüfingen

19.0

24.0

ORL

8 j

Nijmegen

16.0

2 2.5

ZADOKS-JOSEPHUS JITTA & WITTEVEEN ,

Nr. 62a,

Taf. XI, 81 1977,

P 1.33,36 8 j

Nijmegen

18.5

40.0

Ibid.,

8 j

Vindonissa

22.0

3 6.0

UNZ,

8k

Vindonissa

1 7.0

40.0

Ibid.,

Abb.12,152

8k

Vindonissa

1 7.0

45.0

Ibid.,

Abb.12,153

8 1

Vindonissa

30.0

30.0

I bid.,

Abb.13,164

8m

Vindonissa

10.0

3 1.0

Ibid.,

Abb.13,165

8n

Friedberg36.0

49.5

VON

Rederzhausen

P1.34,37

1973,

Abb.13,167

SCHNURBEIN,

( width damaged)

1983,

Abb. 8,13

( width

damaged) 8o

Friedberg

48.0

80.5

ORL

8p

Wall

3 1.5

43.0

WEBSTER,

9a

Hod Hill

5 8.0

64.0

BRAILSFORD,

9b

Hod Hill

5 1.0

9 2.0

Ibid.,

9b

Nijmegen

79.0

9 0.0

Nr.26,

Taf. V, 3

1958,

Fig.5,1

1962,

Fig.3, A42

( height damaged)

Fig.3, A43 ( width

damaged) ZADOKS-JOSEPHUS JITTA & WITTEVEEN ,

1977,

P 1.31,11 9b

Nijmegen

77.0

79.0

I bid.,

9c

Richborough

68.0

70.0

BUSHE-FOX,

P 1.31,12

( height damaged)

1949,

Pl.LI,181

( height

damaged) 9d

Baden

6 2.0

67.0

UNZ,

9d

Nijmegen?

65.0

65.0

ZADOKS-JOSEPHUS JITTA

1971,

Abb.5,43

( height damaged?) & WITTEVEEN ,

1977,

P 1.33,28 9d

R ichborough

48.5

48.0

CUNLIFFE,

9d

Unknown

5 1.0

54.0

ZADOKS-JOSEPHUS JITTA & WITTEVEEN,

1968,

P l.XXXIX,1 46 1977,

P 1.30, 7 9d

Unknown

67.0

5 7.0

Ibid.,

P 1.32,20

9d

Unknown

3 8.0

3 9.0

I bid.,

P 1.32,22

9d

Unknown

3 7.0

36.5

Ibid.,

P 1.34, 42

9d

Vechten

77.0

78.0

Ibid.,

P1.33, 30

9d

Vechten

45.0

4 1.0

Ibid.,

P1.33, 31

9d

Vechten

38.0

48.5

I bid.,

P 1.33,32

9 d

Vindonissa

55.0

5 0.0

UNZ,

9 e

Augsburg-

1973,

Abb.11,126

Oberhausen

36.0

3 7.0

HUBENER,

Baden

6 3.0

82.0

UNZ,

9 e

Hofheim

54.0

62.0

R ITTERLING,

9 e

Mainz

5 3.0

57.0

BEHRENS,

9 e

Rödgen

62.0

7 3.5

SCHÖNBERGER & SIMON,

9e

T able 6

1 53

1973,

1971,

( width damaged)

Taf.14, 6

Abb.5, 44 1913,

1914,

Taf. XIV,5

Abb.2,16 1976,

Taf.41, 6

9 1 9 j

9 k

9m

9 p

9 0

9 r

9 s

1 0d 1 0a

1 0b 1 0c

1 0h 1 0e 1 0g

F ig.48: T ype s ketches f or p endants, T ype 9 j-10h.

1 54

m cb

9e

Strasbourg

46.5

60.0

FORRER ,

9f

Burum

45.0

3 9.0

ZADOKS-JOSEPHUS JITTA & WITTEVEEN ,

1927,

Taf. LXXVII,15 1977,

P 1.30, 9 9f

Ferwerd

5 0.0

43.0

Ibid.,

P1.30, 8

9f

P iaam

46.0

40.0

Ibid.,

P 1.30,10

9f

Unknown

3 7.0

40.0

Ibid.,

P1.30,1

9 f

Unknown

4 7.0

4 1.0

I bid.,

P1.30, 6

9f

Wiesbaden

54.0

45.0

ORL

9g

Castleford

54.0

5 7.0

Report

forthcoming

9g

Castleford

48.0

43.0

Report

forthcoming

9g

Corbridge

50.0

59.0

Allason-Jones

Nr.31,

Taf. X, 41

f orthcoming,

( height damaged)

in B ISHOP No.121

& DORE,

( damaged)

9g

H i lfingen

49.5

48.0

ORL

9g

Nijmegen

44.0

48.0

ZADOKS-JOSEPHUS JITTA & WITTEVEEN,

Nr. 62a,

Taf. XI, 81

( height damaged) 1977,

P 1.33, 36 9g

Nijmegen

43.0

7 1.5

Ibid.,

P1.34,37

9g

Nijmegen?

56.0

56.0

Ibid.,

P 1.34,38

9g

Vindonissa

60.0

6 3.0

UNZ,

9g

Vindonissa

3 1. 0

41.0

I bid.,

9h

Dormagen

54.0

66.0

MULLER,

9h

Straubing

50.0

5 7.0

WALKE,

9h

Unknown

40.0

4 1.0

ZADOKS-JOSEPHUS JITTA & WITTEVEEN,

1973,

( width damaged)

Abb.13,158

Abb.13,164 1979,

Taf.79,12

1965,

Taf.98,28 1977,

P 1.32,23 9h

Unknown

30.0

3 9.0

Ibid.,

9h

Unknown

7 2.0

67.0

LAWSON,

9h

Vechten

29.0

38.0

ZADOKS-JOSEPHUS JITTA & WITTEVEEN ,

P 1.34,40 1978,

Taf.53, 3 1977,

P 1.33, 33 9h

Waddon Hill

26.0

3 7.0

WEBSTER ,

9 i

Baden

3 6.0

54.0

UNZ,

9 i

Neuß

3 7.0

5 7.0

LEHNER,

9 j

Nijmegen

3 9.0

46.0

ZADOKS-JOSEPHUS JITTA & WITTEVEEN,

1960b,

1971,

1904,

P 1.31,15

Fig.6,1

Abb.5, 48

( height damaged)

Taf. XXXIV,23 1977,

( height damaged)

9 j

Vindonissa

3 1.0

47.0

I d.,

1973,

9 k

Haltern

6 3.0

7 1.5

MAKW

2 ,

Abb.13,165

9 1

Haltern

2 5.0

24.0

I bid.,

9m

Vechten

5 7.0

59.5

ZADOKS-JOSEPHUS JITTA & WITTEVEEN ,

1 20 Abb. 120

Abb. 1977,

P 1.30, 4 9m

Voorburg

3 5.0

44.0

9n

Friedberg

7 1.0

121.0

Ibid.,

P 1.34, 44

90

Colchester

5 3.0

7 2.0

DUNNETT,

9p

Carnuntum

57.0

50.0

RLO XXXII,

9q

Rheinberg

5 1.0

5 1.0

B INDING,

9 r

Unknown

85.0

88.5

LAWSON,

9 s

Dangstetten

150. 0

1 38.0

ORL Nr.26,

Taf. V,3

1971,

( width damaged)

Fig.11,19

Taf.66,17

1968, 1978,

F I NGERLIN,

( height damaged)

Abb.17

( height damaged?)

Taf.53,1

1981,

10a

The Lunt

6 7.0

5 1.0

HOBLEY,

1969,

Fig.20, 6

10a

Rheingönheim

67.5

54.0

ULBERT,

1969,

Taf.36,21

1 0b

Rheingönheim

70.5

45.0

Ibid.,

10c

Aislingen

66.0

70.0

I d.,

1959,

10d

Haltern

36.0

34.0

MAKW

2 ,

10d

Oberaden

5 5.5

46.0

ALBRECHT,

10e

Mainz

8 3.0

54.0

BEHRENS,

10f

Mainz

90.0

6 2.0

Ibid.,

( height damaged)

Abb.5

Taf.36, 20

( height damaged)

Taf.20, 9

( height damaged)

1 20 Abb. 1942, 1912,

Taf.44, 5 Abb.4,1

Abb.4,2

( height damaged) lOg

Mainz

9 0.0

98.0

I d.,

10h

Mainz

100.0

62.0

Ibid.,

1918,

10i

Rottweil

7 3.5

88.5

PLANCK,

10j

Baden

70.0

5 2.0

UNZ,

Abb.10,5

Abb.10, 6

( height damaged) 1975,

1971,

10k

Baden

6 2. 0

5 5.0

Ibid.,

101

Chichester

47.5

70.0

DOWN,

101

Hofheim

45.0

53.0

Taf.75,5

Abb.7,71

Abb.7,72 1978,

R ITTERLING,

( damaged)

Fig.10.33, 49 1904,

Taf.II1, 26

damaged) 10m

AugsburgOberhausen

79.0

50.0

HUBENER ,

T able 6

1 55

1973,

Taf.14,18

( height

T able 6 1 0m

Nijmegen

7 9.0

5 0.0

ZADOKS-JOSEPHUS JITTA & WITTEVEEN ,

1977,

P 1.32,18 10m

Vindonissa

7 6.0

54.0

UNZ,

1 0n

Vindonissa

7 2.0

7 1.0

Ibid.,

1973,

1 0o

Valkenburg

8 1.0

6 2.0

GLASBERGEN & GROENMAN-VAN WAATERINGE,

10p

Valkenburg

64.0

8 7.0

I bid.,

10q

Augsburg60.0

5 9.0

HUBENER,

l Or

AugsburgOberhausen

44.0

68.0

I bid.,

l Os

Nijmegen

7 6.0

6 7.0

BOGAERS

1 0t

Nijmegen

9 7.0

64.0

Ibid.,

ha

Rheingönheim

8 .0

64.5

ULBERT,

1 974,

Oberhausen

Abb.13,160

Abb.13,163 P 1.14,50

( height damaged)

P 1.15,9 1973,

Taf.14,3

Taf.14,10 & HAALEBOS,

1975,

Fig.11,5

Fig.11,6 1 969,

Taf.36,15

1 0k

1 0 1

1 0 1

1 0 1

1 0m

1 0p

1 0 q

1 0s

1 0r

m cb 1a

F ig.49: T ype s ketches f or p endants, T ypes 1 0i-11.

1 56

l a

l b

l k

l c

l m

i d

l e

l f

i n

l o

l p

I l g

l h

1

l j

1 9

g c s 00

2 b

2 c

3 a

3 b

3 c

4 b

4 c

4 d

1 ) CO B IM

CZ ) )

3 g

4 a

4 e

T< I ,

5 a

5 b

5 c

5 d

5 e

5 f

5 g

5 h

5 1

F ig.50: T ype s ketches f or j unction l oops, T ypes 1 -5.

1 57

J UN CT ION L OOPS Type

S ite

Length ( mm)

Width

Reference

( mm)

la

G loucester

5 0.0

9 .0

lb

S ea Mills

69.0

1 3.5

WEBSTER ,

1960,

No.100

l c

Castleford

5 7.0

1 5.0

Ibid., No.180 ( length damaged) R eport forthcoming ( length damaged)

lc

Corbridge

64.0

1 5.0

7 5.1344

( length damaged)

l c

Corbridge

47.0

13.0

7 5.1339

( damaged)

l c

Corbridge

40.0

1 8.0

A llason-Jones f orthcoming,

l c

Petronell

7 0.0

1 7.0

STIGLITZ,

l c

Petronell

66.0

14.5

Ibid,

in BISHOP No.123

1 986,

Taf.6,12

Taf.6,11

( length damaged)

( length damaged)

l c

South Shields

5 8.0

1 4.0

ALLASON-JONES & MIKET,

lc

Strasbourg

2 7.0

13.5

FORRER ,

l c

Strasbourg

34.5

13.5

1927,

& DORE,

( length damaged)

1 984,

Taf. LXXVII,2

3 .721

( length

damaged) I bid.,

Taf.LXXVII,2

( length

damaged) l c

Strasbourg

5 5.0

1 5.0

Ibid.,

Taf.LXXVII,2

l c

Strasbourg

3 7.5

13.5

I bid.,

Taf.LXXVII,2

( length

damaged) l c

Straubing

64.0

1 6.5

WALKE,

1965,

lc

Straubing

7 3.5

19.0

Ibid.,

Taf.99,5

Taf.99,4

l c

Verulamium

75.0

1 8.0

WEBSTER ,

l d

B irten

5 8.0

1 4.0

H INZ,

l d

B irten

59.5

1 4.0

I bid.,

ld

Birten

5 6.5

14.0

I bid.,

B ild 1 2,16

ld

Birten

5 9.0

1 4.5

I bid.,

B ild 1 2,16

1 960,

1971,

No.202

B ild

12,16

B ild 1 2,16

ld

Castleford

1 8.0

1 2.0

R eport

forthcoming

ld

Castleford

4 1.0

1 1.0

R eport

forthcoming

( length damaged) ( length damaged)

ld

Castleford

45.0

1 5.0

R eport

forthcoming

( length damaged)

l d

Corbridge

5 1.0

1 4.0

7 5.1338

ld

Corbridge

3 3.0

1 2.0

7 5.1342

l d

HUfingen

7 3.5

1 5.0

ORL

l d

HUfingen

64.5

1 5.0

I bid.,

Taf.XI,57

l d

Kingsholm

60.0

1 5.0

HURST,

1985,

ld

Oberstimm

5 8.5

16.0

SCHÖNBERGER ,

ld

Petronell

4 1.0

9 .0

l d

Rottweil

49.0

16.0

PLANCK,

ld

S ilchester

5 0.0

12.0

BOON,

l d

Woodcock Hall

26.0

1 1.0

BROWN,

l d

Wroxeter

6 7.5

1 4.0

WEBSTER ,

l e

The Lunt

44.0

1 3.0

HOBLEY,

i f

The Lunt

44.0

1 1.0

I d.,

lg

Hod Hill

3 8.5

9 .0

BRAILSFORD,

lg

Hod Hill

3 4.5

8 .0

Ibid.,

( length damaged)

6 2a,

Taf.XI,54

STIGLITZ,

F ig.36,10 1978,

1986,

1 975,

1 969,

No.196

1960, 1 969,

1 973,

Taf.6,14

Taf.72, 8

F ig.5,19

1986,

( length damaged)

Taf.23, 8178 ( length damaged)

( length damaged) ( damaged)

No.262 F ig.22,5

F ig.20,3 1 962,

( length damaged)

( damaged)

Fig.2, A31

Fig.2, A31

l g

The Lunt

43.0

1 2.0

HOBLEY,

lh

Gellep

5 7.0

1 4.0

PAAR & ROGER ,

1973,

ih

London

49.5

1 5.0

WEBSTER ,

F ig.21,12 1971,

1960,

l i

Burghöfe

5 5.5

13.5

ULBERT,

i i

Gellep

48.0

1 2.0

PAAR & ROGER ,

1959,

i i

Oberpeiching

5 5.0

1 2.0

MACKENSEN,

1 2.5

LEHNER,

Taf.51,6 1971,

1987,

R ITTERLING,

Bild 2 2,22

No.153

1 904,

Bild 2 3,23

Abb.63,6 Taf.III,11

l j

Hofheim

3 8.0

l j

Neuß

47.5

l j

Newstead

100.0

2 9.0

CURLE,

1911,

l j

Newstead

9 8.0

2 8.0

Ibid.,

P l.LXXIV,6

l j

Newstead

9 5.5

2 8.0

I bid.,

P l.LXXIV,6

l j

Newstead

9 8.0

30.0

Ibid.,

P l.LXXIV,6

l j

Rottweil

5 2.5

1 5.0

PLANCK,

1975,

Taf.72,10

l k

Rheingönheim

5 8.5

1 2.0

ULBERT,

1969,

Taf.35,8

l k

Southwark

45.0

14.0

SHELDON,

1904,

damaged)

T able 7

1 58

Taf.XXXA,9 P l.LXXIV,6

1978,

( length damaged)

F ig.131,110

( length

11

Lincoln

5 5.0

1 6.5

WEBSTER,

11

Lincoln

5 7.0

1 6.5

Ibid.,

P l. X, a

1949,

P l. X, a

11

Lincoln

5 2.5

1 7.5

Ibid.,

P l. X, a

11

Lincoln

5 5.5

1 7.0

Ibid.,

Pl. X, a

lm

Colchester

3 7.0

1 2.5

CRUMMY,

lm

Colchester

34.0

1 1.0

Ibid.,

lm

Kempten

2 8.0

10.0

KRAMER ,

lm

Kempten

2 8.0

1 1.0

Ibid.,

Taf. B,23

lm

Kempten

29.0

1 1.0

Ibid.,

Taf. B,23

in

Heddernheim

5 8.0

1 1.0

F ISCHER ,

in

Heddernheim

6 1.0

10.5

I bid.,

in

Moers-Asberg

6 2.0

1 3.0

BECHERT,

lo

Longthorpe

75.5

1 7.0

FRERE & ST.JOSEPH,

lo

Vindonissa

49.0

1 7.0

UNZ,

1p

Gallanach

56.0

15.0

R ITCHIE,

1p

Oberstimm

56.0

13.5

SCHONBERGER ,

1983,

No.4200

No. 4201 1 957,

Taf. B,23

1973,

Abb.16,2

Abb.16,2 1974,

1973,

Abb.71,2 1974,

Abb. 9, 94

1974,

Fig.2, 8

1978,

Fig.30, 58

( length damaged) ( length damaged)

Taf.23, B182

( length

damaged) lq

Oberstimm

46.5

14.0

Ibid.,

Taf.23, B186-

2 a

Hofheim

65.0

1 2.0

R ITTERLING,

2a

Hofheim

68.0

1 3.5

Ibid.,

Taf.XIII, 8

2 a

Hofheim

70.5

13.5

Ibid.,

Taf. XIII, 8

2 a

Hofheim

70.5

13.5

Ibid.,

Taf.XIII, 8

2 a

Mainz

6 3.0

2 a

Nij megen

6 1.0

2a

Nijmegen

2 a

Nijmegen

1913,

Taf. XIII,1

BEHRENS

& BRENNER ,

1 2.0

BOGAERS

& HAALEBOS,

6 2.0

1 2.0

I bid.,

Fig.12

5 0.0

13.0

I bid.,

Fig.12

1911,

Abb.26, 45

1975,

Fig.12

( length

damaged) 2 a

Nijmegen

6 2.0

1 2.0

I bid.,

2a

Rißtissen

7 8.0

1 5.0

ULBERT,

2 a

Vindonissa

68.0

1 4.0

UNZ,

2b

Sheepen

33.0

7 .0

HAWKES

& HULL,

2b

Sheepen

33.0

7 .0

Ibid.,

PI. CIII, 9

34.0

8 .0

Ibid.,

PI.CIII, 9

149.0

1 7.0

2b

Sheepen

2 c

Arlaines

Fig.12 1970,

1973,

BOUSQUET,

Taf.23, 356

Abb.10,103 1947,

1977,

P l.CIII, 9

pl. XLII, Ar.76-37

( unfinished?) 2 c

Arlaines

1 45.0

2 0.0

I bid.,

pl. XLII, Ar.76-37

2 c

Arlaines

1 53.0

1 8.5

Ibid.,

pl. XLII, Ar.76-37

( unfinished?)

2 c

Arlaines

137.0

2 2.0

Ibid.,

pl. XLII, Ar.76-37

( unfinished?)

2 c

Arlaines

1 49.0

1 8.0

I bid.,

pl. XLII, Ar.76-37

( unfinished?)

2 c

Arlaines

149.0

2 1.0

Ibid.,

pl. XLII, Ar.76-37

( unfinished?)

2 c

Arlaines

1 38. 0

1 9.0

Ibid.,

pl. XLII, Ar.76-37

( unfinished?)

3a

Corbridge

5 1.5

1 9.0

7 5.1343

3a

Corbridge

5 3.0

1 7.0

Allason-Jones

( unfinished?)

( length damaged)

f orthcoming,

in

B ISHOP

No.124

& DORE,

( length damaged)

3a

Hüfingen

48.0

1 6.5

REVILLIO,

3 a

The Lunt

5 5.0

2 0.0

HOBLEY,

3 a

The

Lunt

5 2.0

20.0

Ibid.,

Fig.20,3

3a

The

Lunt

48.0

2 0.0

Ibid.,

Fig.20,3

( length damaged)

3a

The Lunt

45.0

2 0.0

Ibid.,

Fig.20,3

( length damaged)

3 a

Moers-Asberg

5 1.0

16.0

BECHERT,

3 a

Moers-Asberg

5 0.0

1 8.0

Ibid.,

Abb.71,1

( length damaged)

3 a

Moers-Asberg

5 2.0

1 6.0

Ibid.,

Abb.71,1

( damaged)

3 a

Moers-Asberg

5 4.0

1 7.5

I bid.,

Abb.71,1

( length damaged)

3a

Neuß

45.0

1 6.0

LEHNER ,

Hall

1929,

1969,

1974,

1904, 1986,

Abb.4,2

Fig.20, 3

( length damaged)

( damaged)

Abb.71,1

( damaged)

Taf. XXX, A6

3 a

Woodcock

46.5

1 5.0

BROWN,

3a

Wroxeter

45.0

1 8.0

WEBSTER,

No.195

3b

Gloucester

4 9.5

1 5.0

I bid.,

3c

Newstead

7 5.0

2 6.0

CURLE,

1911,

3 c

Newstead

7 6.5

24.0

Ibid.,

Pl. LXXII,2

3c

Newstead

7 4.0

2 0.0

Ibid.,

Pl. LXXII, 5

3 c

Newstead

7 8.0

19.0

Ibid.,

P I. LXXII, 6

3 c

Newstead

7 3.5

1 8.0

Ibid.,

P l. LXXII, 7

3 c

Newstead

6 7.5

1 9.0

I bid.,

P l. LXXII,11

1960,

( length damaged)

No.247

( damaged)

No.101

T able 7

1 59

P l.LXXII,1

( length damaged)

3d

Hüfingen

46.5

1 6.5

REVILLIO ,

3d

Hüfingen

5 1.0

1 8.0

I bid.,

Abb.4,1

1929,

Abb.4,1

3d

Hüfingen

4 3.5

16.5

I bid.,

Abb.4,1

3 d

Hüfingen

5 1.0

1 6.5

I bid.,

Abb.4,2

3 d

Hüfingen

5 2.5

1 8.0

I bid.,

Abb.4,2

3 d

Hüfingen

5 4.0

1 8.0

I bid.,

Abb.4,2

3d

Hüfingen

5 5.5

1 8.0

I bid.,

Abb.4,2

3 e

Seven S isters

40.5

1 5.0

DAVIES & SPRATLING,

( length damaged)

1976,

Fig.3,4

( damaged) 3f

Hofheim

3 2.0

1 2.0

R ITTERLING,

3 g

Castleford

3 5.0

1 1.0

R eport

f orthcoming

3 g

Kingsholm

5 8.0

1 8.0

HURST,

1 985,

4a

Baden

3 9.0

10.0

UNZ,

4a

The Lunt

7 5.0

1 5.0

HOBLEY,

1 969,

F ig.21,12

1 959,

Taf.62,13

1971,

4b

R iBtissen

3 9.0

10.5

ULBERT,

4c

Hod Hill

6 5.0

12.0

BRAILSFORD,

4 c

Hod Hill

6 1.0

12.0

I bid.,

4c

Hod Hill

6 4.0

1 2.0

1 904,

Taf.III,14 ( length damaged)

F ig.11,7

Abb.5,34

1962,

F ig.2, A30

( length damaged)

( length damaged)

Fig.2, A30 ( length

damaged) I bid.,

F ig.2, A30

( length

damaged) 4c

Hod Hill

6 9.0

13.0

Ibid.,

F ig.2, A32

( length

damged) 4c

Kempten

64.0

1 3.0

KRAMER ,

4d

Hofheim

79.5

1 0.5

R ITTERLING,

1 957,

Taf.B,10

1 913,

1 927,

4e

Strasbourg

6 1.5

13.5

FORRER ,

4e

Strasbourg

5 8.5

1 5.0

Ibid.,

Taf.LXXVII,1

4e

Strasbourg

6 3.0

1 5.0

Ibid.,

Taf.LXXVII,1

4e

Strasbourg

6 3.0

1 3.5

I bid.,

Taf.LXXVII,1

4f

Seven S isters

7 2.0

13.0

DAVIES & SPRATLING,

4f

Verulamium

42.0

1 2.0

FRERE,

4g

Wiesbaden

3 7.0

10.0

ORL Nr.31,

5a

Brecon

80.0

1 7.0

WHEELER,

5 a

Chichester

7 7.0

1 9.0

DOWN

5 a

Hofheim

84.0

1 6.5

R ITTERLING,

5 a

Hofheim

66.0

1 6.5

I bid.,

Taf.XIII,34

5 a

Hofheim

6 7.0

1 6.0

I bid.,

Taf.XIII,34

5 a

Hofheim

66.0

1 7.0

I bid.,

Taf.XIII,34

5 a

Kempten

7 3.5

1 6.0

KRAMER ,

5 a

Kempten

7 3.5

1 6.0

I bid.,

Taf.16,23

5 a

Kempten

75.0

1 6.0

I bid.,

Taf.16,23

5 a

Kempten

7 4.0

1 6.0

I bid.,

Taf.16,23

5 a

Lincoln

7 5.0

1 7.0

Unpublished

5 a

Rheingönheim

6 6.0

1 6.5

ULBERT,

5 a

Sheepen

7 0.0

1 6.0

HAWKES & HULL ,

1984,

( length damaged)

Taf.XIII,30

Taf.LXXVII,1

1976,

Fig.3,1

F ig.12,86

Taf.X,51

1926,

& RULE,

F ig.57,1

1971, 1 913,

Fig.3.15,2 Taf.XIII,24

( damaged) ( length

d amaged)

1 957,

Taf.16,23

1969,

Taf.35,5 1947,

5 a

Vindonissa

84.0

2 2.0

S ITTERDING,

5 a

Vindonissa

5 2.0

22.0

Ibid.,

1962,

5 a

Vindonissa

7 1.0

14.0

UNZ,

5 b

Colchester

47.5

1 6.5

CRUMMY,

1983,

No.4199

5 b

Kempten

8 0.0

14.0

KRAMER ,

1 957,

Taf.B,7

& BRENNER ,

Abb.18,10

( length damaged)

P l.CIII,7

Abb.18,10 ( length

damaged) 1 973,

5 b

Mainz

5 2.0

?

B EHRENS

5 b

Mainz

9 0.0

?

BEHRENS,

5 b

Mainz

5 5.0

5 b

Rheingönheim

85.5

1 7.0

ULBERT,

5 b

Sheepen

6 9.5

14.0

N IBLETT,

?

I d.,

Abb.10,101

1912,

1 918,

( damaged)

1911,

Abb.26,46

Abb.3,5

Abb.8,8

1969,

Taf.35,6

1985,

Fig.72,103

( width

d amaged?) 5 b

Vindonissa

44.0

1 7.0

UNZ,

S c

Aislingen

5 7.0

13.5

ULBERT,

1 973,

5 d

RiAtissen

5 7.0

2 1.0

I bid.,

Abb.9,92

1959,

Taf.62,24

5 e

Newstead

7 3.5

1 9.0

CURLE,

1 911,

Newstead

7 3.5

1 9.5

I bid.,

P l. LXXII,13

5 e

Newstead

6 6.0

1 9.5

I bid.,

P l.LXXII,15

1 60

( length damaged?)

( length damaged)

5 e

T able 7

( damaged)

Taf.18,13 P I.LXXII,12

H 6 a

r,

6 c

0

6 d

7 a

1 /

0 ^

/

8 a

o

•

^-^

9 c

7 c

7— • \

-

•

8 d

9 b

7 b

7 -

8 e

8 f

J 2 9 a

0

9 d

89

8 h

8 1

-

o

" < ----',

0

A

o

o o

o

1 0a

1 0b

1 0c

1 0d

1 0e r a cb

F ig.51: T ype s ketches f or j unction l oops, T ypes 6 -10.

1 61

5 e

Newstead

7 0.5

2 1.0

I bid.,

5 f 5 9

Hofheim Augsburg-

46.5

1 0.5

R ITTERLING,

P l.LXXII,16

Oberhausen

64.0

1 1.0

HUBENER,

5 g 5 g

Lorenzberg Neuß

8 4.0 80.0

1 6.5 1 7.

ULBERT, LEHNER ,

1965, 1904,

Taf.2,11 ( length damaged) Taf.XXXA,16

1 5.0

FORRER ,

1927,

Taf.LXXVII,18

1 913,

1973,

Taf.13,5

5 g

Strasbourg

78.0

5 h

Mainz

60.0

5 i

AugsburgOberhausen Augsburg-

46.0

5 i

Oberhausen 5 i

Augsburg-

5 i

AugsburgOberhausen

5 0.0

S i

Valkenburg

7 3.0

5 i

Valkenburg

7 3.0

1 8.0

I bid.,

P 1.14,48

5 i

Valkenburg

7 0.0

1 8.0

Ibid.,

P 1.14,48

S i

Valkenburg

75.0

1 7.0

Ibid.,

P 1.14,48

Oberhausen

?

Taf.XII,17

BEHRENS,

1912,

Abb.3,6

1 6.0

HUBENER ,

1973,

Taf.13,1

6 0.0

13.0

Ibid.,

Taf.13,1

( damaged)

44.0

1 5.0

I bid.,

Taf.13,1

( damaged)

13.0

I bid.,

Taf.13,1

( damaged)

1 7.0

GLASBERGEN & GROENMAN-VAN WAATERINGE, 1 974,

( damaged)

P 1.14,48

6 a

Aislingen

5 4.0

9 .0

ULBERT,

6 a

Aislingen

5 7.0

8 .0

Ibid.,

1959,

6 a

Colchester

47.0

9 .0

CRUMMY,

6 a

Doorwerth

7 7.0

1 8.0

BROUWER ,

Taf.18,4

Taf.18,6 1983, 1982,

6 a

Doorwerth

79.0

1 9.0

I bid.,

Nr.138

6 a

Doorwerth

85.0

1 8.0

I bid.,

Nr.139

6 a

Doorwerth

8 2.0

1 7.0

I bid.,

Nr.139

6 a

Doorwerth

7 7.0

1 8.0

I bid.,

Nr.140

6 a

Doorwerth

8 1.0

1 8.0

Ibid.,

Nr.140

6 a

Doorwerth

7 9.0

1 8.0

I bid.,

Nr.141

6 a

Doorwerth

8 1.0

1 8.0

I bid.,

Nr.141

6 a

Doorwerth

86.0

1 9.0

I bid.,

Nr.142

6 a

Doorwerth

8 2.0

1 8.0

Ibid.,

Nr.142

6 a

Doorwerth

79.0

1 9.0

I bid.,

Nr.143

6 a

Doorwerth

79.0

1 9.0

I bid.,

Nr.143

6 a

Doorwerth

8 3.0

1 8.0

I bid.,

Nr.144

6 a

Doorwerth

8 3.0

1 7.0

I bid.,

Nr.144

6 a

Doorwerth

7 8.0

1 9.0

I bid.,

Nr.145

6 a

Doorwerth

79.0

1 8.0

I bid.,

Nr.145

6 a

Doorwerth

7 9.0

1 9.0

I bid.,

Nr.145 Nr.146

6 a

Doorwerth

8 3.0

1 6.0

I bid.,

6 a

Doorwerth

85.0

1 9.0

I bid.,

Nr.146

6 a

D oorwerth

85.0

1 8.0

I bid.,

Nr.146

6 a

Doorwerth

64.0

1 3.0

I bid.,

Nr.183

6 a

Doorwerth

6 2.0

1 3.0

I bid.,

Nr.183

6 a

Doorwerth

5 1.0

1 3.0

I bid.,

Nr.187

6 a

Doorwerth

5 2.0

1 2.0

I bid.,

Nr.187

6 a

Doorwerth

5 6.0

1 2.0

I bid.,

Nr.188

6 a

D oorwerth

5 9.0

1 3.0

I bid.,

Nr.188

No.4214

( length damaged)

Nr.138

6 a

D oorwerth

60.0

1 3.0

I bid.,

Nr.188

6 a

Doorwerth

5 3.0

12.0

I bid.,

Nr.189

6 a

Doorwerth

5 1.0

1 1.0

I bid.,

Nr.189

6 a

D oorwerth

5 0.0

1 2.0

I bid.,

Nr.189

6 a

Doorwerth

54.0

1 2.0

I bid.,

Nr.190

6 a

Doorwerth

5 2.0

1 2.0

I bid.,

Nr.190

6 a

Doorwerth

5 2.0

1 2.0

I bid.,

Nr.190

6 a

Doorwerth

5 2.0

1 2.0

6 a

S ilchester

5 2.0

6 a

Xanten

5 8.5

1 2.0

JENKINS,

6 a

Xanten

6 0.5

1 3.0

I bid.,

No.E61

( length damaged) ( damaged)

?

-

I bid., BOON,

Nr.190 1969,

F ig.5,2

1985,

No.E60

( length damaged)

6 a

Xanten

3 9.0

I bid.,

No. E62

6 a

Xanten

5 8.5

1 1.5

I bid.,

No.E63

( length damaged)

6 a

Xanten

5 7.0

1 2.5

I bid.,

No.E64

( length damaged)

T able 7

1 62

6 a

Xanten

43.0

Ibid.,

No. E65

( damaged)

6 a

Xanten

3 5.5

Ibid.,

No. E66

( damaged)

6 a

Xanten

32.5

Ibid.,

No. E67

( damaged)

6 a

Xanten

1 7.5

Ibid.,

No. E68

( length damaged)

6 a

Xanten

28.0

Ibid.,

No. E69

( damaged)

No. E70

( length damaged)

6 a

Xanten

3 1.0

12.0

Ibid.,

6b

Doorwerth

92.0

2 3.0

BROUWER ,

6 c

Aislingen

5 5.5

10.5

ULBERT,

6 d

Rißtissen

40.5

10.5

Ibid.,

7 a

London

43.5

14.0

WEBSTER ,

7b

Rheingönheim

5 8.5

23.0

ULBERT,

7 c

Valkenburg

47.0

15.0

GLASBERGEN

1982, 1959,

Nr.144 Taf.18, 5

Taf.62,17

1974,

1960, 1969,

No.152 Taf.35, 3

& GROENMAN-VAN WAATERINGE,

P 1.15,3

7 c

Valkenburg

48.0

1 6.0

Ibid.,

8 a

Aislingen

76.5

10.5

ULBERT,

1959,

8a

Mainz

76.0

BEHRENS

& BRENNER,

8b

Aislingen

7 3.5

1 3.0

ULBERT,

1959,

8b

Hofheim

60.0

1 4.0

R ITTERLING,

8b

Hofheim

70.5

10.5

Ibid.,

8b

Rißtissen

66.0

13.5

ULBERT,

8c

Ham Hill

76.5

1 5.0

WEBSTER,

8 d

Hofheim

74.0

12.0

R ITTERLING,

?

P 1.15,3 Taf.18, 22 1911,

Abb.26, 47

Taf.18,23

1913,

Taf. XIII, 33

Taf. XIII, 35 1970,

Taf.23,357

1960,

191 3,

No.117

1904,

( length damaged)

Taf.III,1

8 d

Hofheim

75.0

1 0.5

I d.,

8d

Longthorpe

7 2.0

1 0.5

FRERE & ST.JOSEPH,

Taf. XII,16 1974,

8d

Oberstimm

76.5

1 5.0

SCHONBERGER ,

Taf.23, B183

8e

Kempten

79.0

13.0

KRAMER ,

8f

Kempten

86.0

13.0

Ibid.,

1978,

1 957,

Taf. B, 8

Taf. B, 9

8g

South Cadbury

69.0

10.5

WILSON,

8h

Oberstimm

84.0

1 5.0

SCHONBERGER ,

Si

Sheepen

9 3.0

1 1.0

NIBLETT,

9a

Rheingönheim

5 5.5

19.5

ULBERT,

9b

R ißtissen

5 2.5

1 5.0

I d.,

9c

Hofheim

5 3.0

1 6.0

R ITTERLING,

9 d

Colchester

70.0

14.5

DUNNETT,

9d

Vindonissa

7 1.0

15.0

UNZ,

1970,

P l. XXXV, A 1978,

1985, 1969,

1959,

Taf.35, 4

Taf. 62,18 1904,

1971,

1973,

Taf.23, B184

Fig.72,102

Taf.III,12

Fig.11,21

Abb.10, 99

10a

Aislingen

64.5

1 6.0

ULBERT,

1959,

1 0a

Nijmegen

43.0

1 0.0

BOGAERS

& HAALEBOS,

1 0b

Hofheim

46.5

22.0

R ITTERLING,

1 0b

Hofheim

49.5

22.5

I bid.,

1 0c

Strasbourg

3 1.5

10.0

FORRER ,

1 0c

Vindonissa

3 8.0

1 0.0

UNZ,

10d

Dangstetten

5 8.5

26.0

F INGERLIN,

1 0e

Augsburg48.0

2 3.0

HUBENER,

1 0e

Augsburg5 2.0

23.0

Ibid.,

Oberhausen Oberhausen

Fig.30,59

1913,

1975,

1927,

Fig.435

Abb.10,109 1971,

1973,

Taf.13,2

T able 7

Fig.11,2

Taf. XIII, 40

Taf. XIII, 41

1973,

1 63

Taf.18,23

Abb.11,11

Taf.13,2

l a

2 a

l b

l c

I d

2 b

4 a

4 b

5 a

5 b

6 e

6f

4 c

5 c

6 g

l e

1

l g

l h

3 a

3 b

3 c

3 d

2 1 g

4 h

M 4 d

4 e

4 1

5 d

6 a

8 a

8 b

6 b

8 c

4 i

6 c

8 d

F ig.52: T ype s ketches f or s trap t erminals, T ypes 1 -8e.

1 64

6 d

B e

S T RAP T ERM INALS Type

S ite

Length ( mm)

W idth

R eference

( mm)

l a

Hüfingen

6 0.0

1 5.0

REVILLIO,

l a

Hüfingen

5 5.5

1 2.0

I bid.,

1 929,

Abb.3,5

Abb.3,8

l a

R ißtissen

4 7.0

1 2.0

ULBERT,

l a?

Chelmsford

4 7.0

1 8.0

W ICKENDEN,

1 970,

Taf.1,13

this vol.,

( length damaged) Fig.3,3

( length

d amaged) lb

N ewstead

4 6.0

1 2.5

CURLE,

lb

Corbridge

3 5.0

1 4.0

Allason-Jones f orthcoming,

No.116

lb

Straubing

5 6.0

1 4.0

WALKE,

Taf.99,10

l c

Corbridge

4 1.0

1 4.0

Allason-Jones

1911,

P l.LXXVI,13

1965,

f orthcoming,

& DORE,

( length damaged)

in B ISHOP No.117

l c

Gellep

49.0

1 4.5

PAAR & RUGER ,

l c

Gellep

3 4.0

1 4.5

I bid.,

ld

Longthorpe

5 9.5

1 4.0

FRERE & ST.JOSEPH,

id

South Cadbury

5 7.5

1 5.0

W ILSON,

l e

Longthorpe

5 8.0

2 2.0

FRERE & ST.JOSEPH,

B ild

( length damaged)

in B ISHOP

1971,

2 3,21

& DORE,

( length damaged) Bild 2 2,20

( length

d amaged) 1970,

1974,

Fig.27,44

P l.XXXV, A 1974,

Fig.30,57

( length damaged) if

Augsburg-

lg

Augsburg-

Oberhausen

88.0

14.0

HUBENER ,

1973,

Oberhausen

7 2.0

1 3.0

I bid.,

i h

C irencester

66.0

1 2.0

WEBSTER ,

2 a

The Lunt

4 7.5

1 2.0

HOBLEY,

2 b

Hofheim

6 7.5

1 3.5

R ITTERLING,

2b

Hofheim

6 4.0

1 0.5

I bid.,

2 b

R ißtissen

5 5.0

1 2.0

ULBERT,

3 a

Heddernheim

5 8.5

1 4.5

F ISCHER,

3 a

Hüfingen

5 2.5

1 5.0

REVILLIO ,

3 a

Newstead

5 3.0

1 3.5

CURLE,

3 b

Hofheim

42.0

1 3.5

R ITTERLING,

3 c

Hüfingen

4 1.0

1 6.5

REVILLIO,

3 d

Hüfingen

4 8.0

1 6.5

I bid.,

4a

Hod H ill

4 6.5

1 7.0

Taf.9,20

Taf.13,35 1960, 1 973,

F ig.3,26 F ig.22,24

1 913,

( length damaged)

Taf.XIII,2

Taf.XIII,12 1959,

Taf.62,9

1973,

Abb.15,5

1929,

1 911,

Abb.3,13

P l.LXXVI, 6 1 913,

1 929,

Taf.XV,74

Abb.3,12

Abb.3,14

BRAILSFORD,

1 962,

Fig.3, A37

( length

damaged) 4b

Hod Hill

5 0.0

1 0.5

R ICHMOND,

4 c

Sheepen

49.0

1 3.0

HAWKES & HULL ,

4d

Newstead

49.5

1 3.0

CURLE,

Hagg

6 1.0

1 9.0

WEBSTER,

4f

Strasbourg

5 4.0

1 0.5

FORRER ,

4g

Chichester

44.0

1 0.0

4h

Longthorpe

48.0

9 .0

FRERE & ST.JOSEPH,

4 i

AugsburgOberhausen

40.0

9 .0

HUBENER,

4 i

Oberstimm

5 8.0

8 .0

SCHONBERGER ,

5 a

Haltern

85.0

1 8.0

MAKW

5 a

Newstead

8 4.0

1 8.0

CURLE,

1911,

5 a

Newstead

88.5

1 8.0

I bid.,

P I.LXXII,10

5 a

Rheingönheim

7 3.5

1 8.0

ULBERT,

5 b

Aislingen

5 2.5

14.0

I d.,

5 c

Colchester

7 7.0

1 8.0

WEBSTER ,

5 d

Colchester

4 9.5

12.0

I bid.,

4e

1968,

1911,

F ig.56,15 1947,

P l.CII,26

P l.LXXVI,9

Fremington

D OWN,

1971, 1927,

1978,

3 ,

F ig.14,71 Taf. LXXVII,4

F ig.10.34,63

1973,

1974,

Fig.28,49

Taf.9,22

1978,

Taf.22,B153

Taf.XV,4 P l.LXXII, 8

1969,

1 959,

Taf.35,7

1960,

Fig.5,115

Fig.5,116

T able 8

1 65

( length damaged)

Taf.18,11

6 a

Colchester

3 5.0

1 0.5

I bid.,

6b

Doorwerth

7 1.0

1 6.0

BROUWER ,

F ig.4,72 1982,

( length damaged) Nr.133

6b

Doorwerth

6 3.0

1 7.0

I bid.,

6b

Doorwerth

7 3.0

1 8.0

Ibid.,

Nr.134 Nr.135

6b

Doorwerth

6 9.0

1 6.0

I bid.,

Nr.136

6 c

Aislingen

46.0

9 .0

6 c

Chester

5 8.0

1 0.5

Unpublished

( 384. R.1976)

6 c

Ham Hill

5 3.0

1 2.0

GRAY,

P l.XIV,E21

6 c

Longthorpe

5 9.0

1 3.0

FRERE & ST.JOSEPH,

6 c

M ildenhall

40.0

1 1.0

GRIFFITHS,

ULBERT,

1959,

1926,

Taf.18,10

1983,

6 c

Neuß

5 0.0

1 3.0

LEHNER ,

6 c

Oberstimm

5 0.0

12.0

SCHONBERGER ,

1904,

6 c

R ißtissen

4 3.0

8 .0

6 c

Sheepen

5 2.0

1 2.0

6 c

Sheepen

5 1.0

1 2.0

Ibid.,

6 c

Sheepen

5 5.5

14.0

NIBLETT,

6 c

Thamusida

45.0

7 .0

BOUBE-PICCOT,

6 c

Volubilis

3 6.0

9 .0

Ibid.,

No.46

6 d

Sheepen

48.0

1 6.0

HAWKES

& HULL,

6 e

Hüfingen

5 1.0

1 3.5

ORL Nr.62a,

6 e

Verulamium

4 9.5

14.0

FRERE,

6 f

Moers-Asberg

3 6.0

9 .0

B ECHERT,

6 f

Newstead

44.0

9 .5

CURLE,

6 f

Newstead

6 2.5

1 4.5

I bid.,

P l.LXXVI,7

6 f

Newstead

5 4.0

9 .5

I bid.,

P l.LXXVI, 8

6 f?

Corbridge

5 2.0

1 0.0

ULBERT,

Fig.28,45

Taf.XXXA,12 1978,

1970,

Taf.22, B154

Taf.23,353

HAWKES & HULL,

1 947,

( length damaged)

P I.C11,24

P l.C11,25 1985,

F ig.72,105 1964,

1984,

1 947,

P I.C11,27

F ig.11,80

1974,

1911,

Abb.67,10

P l.LXXVI,4

Allason-Jones ORL Nr.31,

No.45

Taf.XI, 6

f orthcoming,

in B ISHOP

& DORE,

No.114

Wiesbaden

48.0

1 8.0

8a

Burghöfe

4 9.5

8 .0

ULBERT,

8a

Newstead

48.5

9 .0

CURLE,

1911,

8 a

N ewstead

4 4.0

7 .0

I bid.,

P l.LXXVI,16

8a

R ißtissen

4 7.0

8 .0

ULBERT,

8b

Hod Hill

5 3.0

1 0.0

8b

Oberstimm

5 1.0

8 .0

6 g

1974,

No.9

Taf.X,50

1959,

Taf.51,5 P l.LXXVI,5

1970,

BRAILSFORD ,

Taf.23,354

1 962,

SCHONBERGER ,

F ig.3, A46

1978,

Taf.22,B155

( length

d amaged) ULBERT,

1969,

Taf.28,17

8 c

Rheingönheim

4 5.0

1 0.0

8d

Burghöfe

44.0

9 .0

I d.,

1959,

Taf.51,4

8d

Rheingönheim

5 8.5

1 0.5

I d.,

1969,

Taf.28,18

B e

Augsburg6 1.0

1 3.0

HUBENER ,

B e

Augsburg6 6.0

1 5.0

I bid.,

Taf.9,15

B e

AugsburgOberhausen

3 1.0

1 6.0

I bid.,

1973,

B e

Hofheim

5 6.0

13.0

R ITTERLING,

B e

Longthorpe

5 1.0

9 .0

B e

Oberstimm

6 0.0

8 f

Augsburg-

8g

Augsburg-

8h

Augsburg-

Oberhausen Oberhausen

Oberhausen Oberhausen

S i

1973,

( length damaged)

Taf.9,42 1 904,

Taf.III,15

FRERE & ST.JOSEPH,

1974,

1 2.0

SCHONBERGER ,

Taf.22, B156

8 4.0

1 7.0

HUBENER ,

5 8.0

14.0

I bid.,

Taf.9,44

I bid.,

1973,

Oberhausen

6 0.0

8 .0

Chester

48.0

1 2.0

1978,

1973,

Fig.28,48

Taf.9,19

Taf.9,21

Unpublished

( length damaged)

DOWN,

Fig.10.34,59

1978,

S i

Chichester

3 0.0

8 .5

S i

Colchester

4 3.5

1 0.5

8 i

Hofheim

5 7.0

1 6.5

R ITTERLING,

8 j

Richborough

5 0.0

1 2.0

B USHE-FOX,

R ißtissen

6 6.0

2 1.0

ULBERT,

1 0a

Taf.9,12

WEBSTER ,

1960,

T able 8

1 66

1913, 1932,

1970,

( length damaged)

F ig.4,73 Taf.XII,18 P l.XIV,48

Taf.23,355

8 f

8 g

8 h

8 1

1 0a

8 j

m cb

F ig.53: T ype s ketches f or s trap t erminals, T ypes 8 f-10.

l a

l b

3 b

6 b

6 c

l c

i d

l e

4 a

4 b

4 c

6 d

6 e

2 a

2 b

2 c

3 a

5 a

8 a

8 b

6 a

8 c

8 d

F ig.54: T ype s ketches f or s trap f asteners ( female).

1 67

9 a

S TRA P F A STENERS ( F EMALE ) Type

S ite

Length ( mm)

Width

Reference

( mm)

la

Ham Hill

5 8.5

1 8.5

lb

Hofheim

6 1.5

1 3.5

l c

Baden

7 6.0

1 5.0

UNZ,

l c

Corbridge

43.0

14.0

ALLASON-JONES & B ISHOP,

GRAY, 1 923, R ITTERLING,

P l.XI,13 ( length damaged) 1913, Taf.XIII,19 ( length

damaged) 1 971,

No. 235

Abb.5,42 forthcoming,

( length damaged)

i d

Oberstimm

65.0

1 8.0

SCHONBERGER ,

1978,

l e

Verulamium

45.0

1 6.0

FRERE,

Fig.11,78

2 a

Rofheim

42.0

1 2.0

1984,

R ITTERLING,

1913,

Taf.23, 8175 ( length damaged)

Taf.XIII,18

( length

damaged) 2 a

Rheinhessen

48.0

1 4.5

AuhV 2 ,

2b

Vindonissa

7 4.0

1 9.0

UNZ,

2 c

Oberstimm

65.0

1 6.0

SCHONBERGER ,

3 a

Oberstimm

8 3.0

2 0.0

I bid.,

3b

Chester

3 3.0

1 5.0

Unpublished

Heft X Taf.4, 8

1 973,

( length damaged)

Abb.9,96 1978,

Taf.23, B177

Taf.23, 8176 ( length damaged)

4a

Rheingönheim

88.0

2 0.0

ULBERT,

4b

Longthorpe

8 2.5

1 4.5

FRERE & ST.JOSEPH,

1 969,

3 5,9

4 c

Waddon Hill

49.5

1 5.0

WEBSTER ,

5 a

Hofheim

1 01.0

2 1.0

R I TTERLING,

1960,

1913,

6 a

D oorwerth

79.0

1 5.0

BROUWER,

6 a

Thamusida

7 2.0

1 7.0

BOUBE-PICCOT,

6b

Doorwerth

56.0

1 3.0

BROUWER,

6 b

Hod Hill

65.0

1 8.5

BRAILSFORD,

1974,

Fig.27,38

F ig.7,210

1 982,

Taf.XII,18

Nr.276 1964,

1982,

No.47

Nr.280

( length d amaged)

1962,

Fig.2, A35

1904,

Taf.III,21

( length

damaged) 6b

Hofheim

68.0

9 .5

R ITTERLING,

( length

damaged) 6b

R ißtissen

60.0

1 1.0

ULBERT,

6 b

R ißtissen

68.0

1 7.0

Id.,

1 959,

6 b

Xanten

65.5

1 3.5

JENKINS,

6 b

Xanten

6 5.0

6 c

Doorwerth

70.0

2 8.0

BROUWER ,

6 d

Aislingen

54.0

1 4.0

ULBERT,

6 d

Greens f orge

7 4.0

1 6.0

WEBSTER ,

6 d

Hofheim

6 0.0

1 7.0

1970,

Ibid.,

Taf.62,20

Taf.1,12

1985,

F 72

( length damaged)

( length damaged)

F71

( damaged)

1982, 1959,

Nr.271/285 Taf.18,12

1981,

RITTERLING,

( length damaged)

F ig.33

1913,

Taf.XI,45

( length

damaged) 6 d

Xanten

7 2.0

1 2.5

JENKINS,

6 e

Rheingönheim

5 2.5

1 2.0

ULBERT,

8a

Bregenz

5 4.0

1 8.0

MACKENSEN,

8a

Newstead

5 4.0

1 5.0

CURLE,

8b

Alise-Sainte-Reine

76.0

1 8.0

RABEISEN & MENU,

8b

R ißtissen

76.5

1 3.5

ULBERT,

8c

Vindonissa

89.0

2 1.0

UNZ,

8d

Nettleton Shrub

7 1.0

1 8.0

SWANN,

Harlow

80.5

13.5

FRANCE & GOBEL,

9 a

T able 9

1 68

1985, 1969,

1987,

1911, 1959,

1973,

F73 Taf.28,22 Abb.64, 6

P l.LXXVI,14 1985,

Fig.5,41

Taf.62,22

Abb.9.95

1970,

Fig.1 1985,

Fig.46,120

S T RAP F ASTENERS ( M ALE ) Type

S ite

Length ( mm)

la

Friedberg-

54.0

Width

Reference

(mm) 1 5.0

VON SCHNURBEIN,

Rederzhausen lb

1983,

Abb. 8,7

( length

damaged)

Verulamium

49.5

3 a

Brecon

3 a

Hüfingen

3b

1 3.0

WEBSTER ,

1960,

Fig.7,208

68.0

1 5.5

WHEELER ,

1926,

Fig.58,15

5 5.5

1 6.5

REVILLIO,

Hüfingen

5 0.0

15.0

Ibid.,

4a

Kempten

50.0

16.0

KRAMER ,

4b

Chichester

59.0

13.5

DOWN & RULE,

4c

AugsburgOberhausen

54.0

1 2.0

HUBENER,

5 a

Sheepen

67.0

1 8. 0

HAWKES

5b

Hofheim

75.0

16.0

R ITTERLING,

5b

Kempten

7 3.5

1 6.0

KRAMER ,

5b

Vindonissa

85.0

1 6.0

UNZ,

S c

AugsburgOberhausen

64.0

1 8.0

HUBENER ,

1973,

Taf.12,26

6a

Doorwerth

69.0

2 1.0

BROUWER ,

1982,

Nr.278

6b

Doorwerth

9 2.0

2 3.0

Ibid.,

6 c

Rheingönheim

49.0

16.0

ULBERT,

75.0

13.5

R ITTERLING,

14.0

HUBENER ,

8a

Hofheim

8b

AugsburgOberhausen

58.0

8c

Hofheim

9 4.0

1929,

Abb.3,1

Abb.3, 4 1 957,

Taf. B, 6 1971,

1973,

& HULL,

Taf.12,20 1947,

1913,

1 957,

1973,

Fig.3.18, 3

P l.CIII,2

Taf. XII,14

Taf.16,22

Abb. 9, 91

Nr.144 1969,

1913,

1973,

R ITTERLING,

Taf.28,19

( length damaged)

Taf. XII,20

Taf.12,27

1904,

Taf.III,13

T able 1 0

0) 0 0

l a

l b

5 a

5 b

3 a

5 c

F ig.55:

6 a

3 b

6 b

6 c

4 a

4 b

8 a

8 b

T ype s ketches f or s trap f asteners ( male).

i © l a

l b

l k

l c

2 a

4 n

4 o

6 f

i d

l e

S 2 b

4 p

4 q

6 g

6 h

i f

l g

2 c

2 d

4 h

4 i

4 1 j

6 a

6 b

6 i

6 j

i h

4 a

l j

4 b

4 c

4 k

4 1

4m

6 c

6 d

6 e

8 a

8 b

8 c

F ig.56: T ype s ketches f or s trap m ounts.

1 70

i

S T RA P M OUNTS Type

S ite

Length ( mm)

W idth

R eference

( mm)

l a

S heepen

7 0.0

2 6.0

HAWKES

l b

Gellep

5 3.0

1 6.0

PAAR & RUGER ,

1971,

l c

R ißtissen

5 5.0

1 3.0

ULBERT,

Taf.62,14

l d

Hofheim

7 0.0

1 5.0

R ITTERLING,

l d

Lincoln

6 6.0

1 4.0

Unpublished

ld

N euß

6 4.0

1 3.0

LEHNER ,

l e

H t ifingen

5 1.0

1 3.5

ORL Nr.62a,

if

Mainz

6 3.0

1 0.0

B EHRENS,

l g

Mainz

5 3.0

1 4.0

Ibid.,

i h

Unknown

6 2.0

1 2.0

BOUBE-PICCOT,

i i

Vindonissa

5 8.0

1 3.0

UNZ,

l j

Dormagen

3 1.0

1 4.0

MULLER,

l k

Manton Down

6 9.0

1 2.0

GRIFFITHS,

2 a

Hofheim

40.5

1 2.0

R ITTERLING,

2 b

Augsburg4 1.0

1 6.0

HUBENER ,

2 c

Augsburg6 0.0

1 2.0

I bid.,

Taf.13,27

2 c

AugsburgOberhausen

6 6.0

9 .0

I bid.,

Taf.13,28

2 d

Canterbury

6 0.0

1 7.0

HASSALL,

4a

R ißtissen

3 8.0

2 0.0

ULBERT,

4b

Hofheim

3 6.0

7 .0

4b

Rheingönheim

3 7.5

1 2.0

ULBERT,

4b

R heingönheim

43.5

1 2.0

Ibid.,

4b

R ißtissen

4 0.0

1 2.0

I d.,

4c

R ißtissen

5 3.0

1 0.0

I bid.,

4d

Hod H ill

49.0

1 2.0

BRAILSFORD,

4d

Hod H ill

6 0.0

1 0.0

R ICHMOND ,

4e

Hod Hill

5 8.5

1 4.0

I bid.,

4 f

Hofheim

6 3.0

1 0.0

R ITTERLING,

4 f

R ichborough

4 8.5

1 3.5

CUNLIFFE,

Oberhausen Oberhausen

4g

Gloucester

2 4.0

7 .5

4h

Ham Hill

5 7.0

1 2.0

4h

Hod Hill

5 8.5

1 3.0

& HULL,

1 947,

1959,

1 913,

1 904,

P l.CIII,21 B ild 2 3,24

Taf.XIII,17

Taf.XXXA,7

Taf.XI,4

1 918,

Abb.8,9

Abb.8,10

1 973,

1964,

No.44

Abb.10,112

1 979,

Taf.79,21

1983,

No.15

1913,

1 973,

Taf.13,10

1 980, 1 970,

R ITTERLING,

Taf.XIII,10

Fig.4, A Taf.23,347

1 913,

1969,

( length damaged)

Taf.XIII,21

Taf.28,10

Taf.28,11

1 970,

Taf.23,351

Taf.23,349 1 962,

1 968,

( length damaged) F ig.3, A46

Fig.56,17

F ig.56,18

WEBSTER, Ibid.,

1 913,

1 968, 1 960,

Taf.XV,95

P l.XXXVII,125 Fig.5,102

F ig.5,124

R ICHMOND ,

1 968,

Fig.56,16

( length

damaged) HAWKES & HUll,

4 i

Sheepen

44.0

1 1.0

4 j

Newstead

4 8.0

9 .0

4k

Xanten

30.5

1 0.0

H INZ,

4 1

R heingönheim

5 6.0

1 2.0

ULBERT,

4m

Hofheim

5 8.5

1 0.5

R ITTERLING,

4n

Folly Farm

54.0

1 2.0

GRIFFITHS,

4o

Verulamium

3 4.0

9 .5

FRERE,

4p

Verulamium

3 3.5

1 0.0

4q

Verulamium

5 2.5

1 5.0

4 r

Chester

43.5

1 8.0

Unpublished

4 r

Woodcock Hall

40.0

1 5.0

BROWN,

6 a

London

6 7.5

7 .5

6b

Alise-Saint-Reine

3 5.0

6 b

Augsburg

CURLE,

1 911, 1 971,

Pl.C11,28

3 5,6

Taf.28,12

1 913, 1983,

Taf.XIII,20 No.10

1 972,

Fig.32,37

FRERE,

1 984,

Fig.12,83

Ibid.,

F ig.12,84

WEBSTER,

No.213

1 960,

F ig.6,164

RABEISEN & MENU, HUBENER ,

1 973,

3 5.5

1 0.5

Burlafingen

3 4.0

8 .0

MACKENSEN,

6b

Colchester

3 7.0

7 .0

I bid.,

4 5.0

1 4.0

( length damaged)

( 140.R.52)

1 986,

Oberhausen

1 985,

Fig.7,38

Taf.11,6

1 987,

Abb.43,3

F ig.4,64

Fremington Hagg

6b

B ild

1 969,

6b 6b

1 947,

P l.XCII,4

WEBSTER ,

Fremington

T able 1 1

1 71

1 971,

Fig.14,69

( length damaged)

Hagg 6 b

Kempten

3 2.0 3 8.0

1 0.0 1 0.0

I bid., F ig.14,70 ( length damaged) MACKENSEN, 1 987, Abb.66,7

6 c

Aislingen

6 1.5

1 8.0

ULBERT,

6 c

D oorwerth

1 12.0

3 6.0

BROUWER,

6 c

D oorwerth

1 09.0

3 5.0

I bid.,

6 c

D oorwerth

1 07.0

3 4.0

I bid.,

Nr.258

6 c

Doorwerth

1 08.0

3 3.0

I bid.,

Nr.259 Nr.260

1959,

Taf.18,2

1982,

Nr.256

Nr.257

6 c

Doorwerth

1 09.0

3 5.0

I bid.,

6 c

D oorwerth

1 04.0

3 2.0

I bid.,

Nr.261

6 c

Doorwerth

1 04.0

3 3.0

I bid.,

Nr.262

6 c

Doorwerth

1 03.0

3 5.0

I bid.,

Nr.263

6 c

Doorwerth

1 01.0

3 3.0

I bid.,

Nr.264

6 c

D oorwerth

1 01.0

3 2.0

I Bid.,

Nr.265

6 c

D oorwerth

1 02.0

3 3.0

I bid.,

Nr.266

6 c

Doorwerth

1 00.0

3 4.0

I bid.,

Nr.267

6 c

Doorwerth

99.0

3 4.0

I bid.,

Nr.268

6 c

Doorwerth

9 7.0

3 4.0

I bid.,

Nr.269

96.0

3 3.0

I bid.,

Nr.270

5 6.5

2 0.5

WEBSTER,

6 c

Doorwerth

6 c

Fremington

6 c

Fremington Hagg

7 3.0

2 2.0

I bid.,

6 c

Hofheim

6 c

Hofheim

5 8.5 5 8.5

1 7.0 1 3.5

R ITTERLING, 1 913, I bid., Taf.XV , 94

Hagg

1971,

Fig.14,59

( length damaged)

F ig.14,63

6 c

Newstead

6 6.5

1 5.5

C URLE,

6 c

Rheingönheim

7 1.0

1 8.0

ULBERT,

6 c

R ichborough

43.0

2 0.0

CUNLIFFE,

1 911,

Taf.XII,21

P I.XCII,2

1969,

Taf.28,24

1968,

P I. XXXVII,126

( length

d amaged) 6 c

R ißtissen

5 0.0

2 0.0

ULBERT,

6 c

R ißtissen

6 3.0

2 0.0

I bid.,

Taf.62,2 & HULL,

1959,

Taf.62,1

6 c

S heepen

6 7.0

1 7.0

HAWKES

6 c

Thamusida

84.0

2 0.0

BOUBE-PICCOT,

1 964,

Taf.18,1

6 d

Aislingen

6 1.5

1 8.0

ULBERT,

6 d

Aislingen

6 0.0

1 8.0

I bid.,

6 d

C hichester

6 6.5

1 6.5

DOWN & RULE,

6 d

Doorwerth

89.0

1 8.0

BROUWER ,

6 d

D oorwerth

85.0

1 8.0

I bid.,

Nr.273

6 d

Doorwerth

84.0

1 9.0

I bid.,

Nr.274

6 d

Fremington 5 4.0

1 3.0

WEBSTER ,

6 d

Fremington

Hagg

1 959,

1 947,

Taf.18,3

P l.CIII,20 No.38

( length damaged)

1971,

1982,

( length damaged)

Fig.3.18,4

Nr.272

1971,

F ig.14,57

Hagg

7 1.5

1 4.5

I bid.,

6 d

Hüfingen

6 9.0

1 5.0

ORL Nr.62a,

Fig.14,62

6 d

Hüfingen

7 5.0

1 5.0

I bid,

6 d

Neuß

7 4.0

2 0.0

LEHNER ,

1904,

Taf. XXXA,1

6 d

Rheingönheim

5 1.0

1 3.5

ULBERT,

1 969,

Taf.28,25

6 d

R heingönheim

80.0

1 8.0

I bid.,

Taf.XI,18

Taf.XI,26

Taf.28,26

6 d

R ißtissen

60.0

1 3.5

I d.,

1 959,

Taf.62,4

6 d

R ißtissen

7 8.0

1 7.0

I d.,

1 970,

Taf.1,14

6 d

Sheepen?

6 6.0

1 5.5

CRUMMY,

1 983,

6 d

Waddon Hill

4 1.0

1 3.0

WEBSTER,

6 d

Wiesbaden

7 5.0

2 0.0

ORL Nr.31,

1979,

6 d

Xanten

1 00.0

1 3.0

JENKINS,

6 d

Xanten

1 02.5

2 5.0

I bid.,

No. D42 No. D43

( width damaged)

No.4219 Fig.28,40

Taf.X,52

( damaged)

( length

d amaged) 1 985,

No. D40

6 d

Xanten

89.0

2 4.0

I bid.,

6 d

Xanten

1 00.0

2 5.0

Ibid.,

No. D44

6 d

Xanten

5 7.0

2 4.5

I bid.,

No. D45

6 d

Xanten

?

2 3.0

I bid.,

No. D46

( length damaged)

6 d

Xanten

?

I bid.,

No. D54

( damaged)

6 d

Xanten

?

2 4.5

I bid.,

No. D55

( length damaged)

6 d

Xanten

?

2 4.0

I bid.,

No.D56

( length damaged)

6 d

Xanten

44.0

I bid.,

No.D58

( damaged)

6 d

Xanten

3 4.0

1 1.0

I bid.,

No. D59

( damaged)

6 e

Doorwerth

5 9.0

1 7.0

BROUWER ,

?

?

T able 1 1

1 72

1 982,

( length damaged)

Nr.279

6 e

Fremington Hagg

5 3.0

9 .0

6 e

Harlow

54.0

12.5

6 e

Rheingönheim

5 2.5

9 .0

6f

Doorwerth

87.0

3 3.0

BROUWER ,

6f

Hüfingen

48.0

24.0

REVILLIO ,

6f

Hüfingen

5 2.5

2 7.0

Ibid.,

6g

Baden

4 7.0

1 0.0

UNZ,

6g

Banasa

46.0

1 1.0

BOUBE-PICCOT,

6g

Fremington 4 1.5

7 .5

Hagg 6g

WEBSTER, FRANCE

1971,

Fig.14,56

& GOBEL,

ULBERT,

1969,

1985,

1982,

Nr.275

1929,

Abb.4,16

Abb.4,17

1971,

WEBSTER ,

Fig.46,121

Taf.28,21 ( damaged)

( damaged)

Abb.5, 35 1964,

1971,

No. 43

Fig.14,66

Fremington Hagg

46.0

1 0.0

6g

Hofheim

48.0

9 .0

6g

Rheingönheim

45.0

13.5

6g

Rißtissen

40.0

9 .0

Ibid.,

Fig.14,68

R ITTERLING, ULBERT,

1913,

1969,

Taf. XV , 88

Taf.28,23

Id.,

1959,

Taf.62, 8

1970,

Taf.23,352

6g

Rißtissen

3 8.0

9 .0

I d.,

6g

Thamusida

46.0

8 .0

BOUBE-PICCOT,

6g

Verulamium

3 8.0

1 1.0

FRERE,

1972,

Fig.32, 39

6g

Verulamium

47.5

1 2.5

FRERE,

1984,

Fig.12, 82

6g

Volubilis

45.0

9 .0

6g

Woodcock

47.0

1 1.0

BROWN,

6h

Rheingönheim

5 7.0

1 7.0

ULBERT,

1969,

Taf.28,20

6 i

Rißtissen

49.5

1 6.5

ULBERT,

1959,

Taf. 62,19

6 j

Stockton

58.0

10.0

GRIFFITHS,

8a

Alise-Sainte-Reine

7 2.0

14.0

RABEISEN

8a

Baden

69.0

12.0

UNZ,

Hall

1964,

BOUBE-PICCOT, 1986,

1964,

& MENU,

1985,

Abb.5, 36

Hüfingen

42.0

1 6.0

REVILLIO,

8a

Hüfingen

47.5

1 8.5

Ibid.,

Abb.3, 6

8a

Hüfingen

75.5

1 5.0

Ibid.,

Abb.3, 9

8a

Hüfingen

84.0

2 1.0

ORL

8b

Verulamium

42.0

1 1.5

FRERE,

1972,

8c

Ham Hill

34.5

9 .0

Ibid.,

Fig.5,118

8 c

Sheepen

60.0

1 2.0

T able 1 1

1 73

No. 41

No.21

1929,

Nr. 62a,

( length damaged)

No.207

8a

WEBSTER,

No. 42

1983,

1971,

( length damaged)

( length damaged)

Fig.7,33

(width damaged)

Abb.3,3 ( length

( length damaged) damaged)

Taf. XI, 20 Fig.32, 41

1960,

Fig.4,67

( length damaged)

N OTES 1 . T his p aper w as o riginally s ubmitted i n 1 982 f or i nclusion i n t he p rojected v olume R oman M ilitary S tudies 1 . W hen t his s till h ad n ot a ppeared i n J anuary 1 986,

c ontributors w ithdrew t heir

p apers

f or

p ublication e lsewhere, a nd t his h as a llowed a c omplete r evision o f t he t ext a nd i llustrations i n l ine w ith m ore r ecent i nformation a bout R oman h orse e quipment. 2 . T hroughout t his p aper,

t he t erm ' cavalry'

h as b een u sed,

a lthough

t he w riter f ully r ealises t hat m aterial f rom h orses b elonging t o o fficers, a nd e ven c ivilians, m ay b e i ncluded i n t he a rchaeological

r ecord.

F urthermore,

i n i ts n arrowest s ense,

t he

t erm w ould r efer t o h orse t roops o f t he a lae a nd c ohortes e quitatae, a lthough t he e quites l egionis c an c onveniently b e i ncluded w ithout i mplying t hat t he t actical r ole o f t he l atter w as a s c avalry p er s e. 3 .

C f. R OBINSON,

1 975,

4 .

G ABELMANN,

5 .

S CHLEIERMACHER,

1 972,

7 .

1 15-23. 1 984.

6 . T here i s n o m odern d etailed s tudy o f t he c ompare w ith S chleiermacher's t reatment

T otenmahl r eliefs t o o f R eiter t ombstones

( above, n ote 5 ). 7 .

T he p roblem o f t he a ccuracy o f r epresentational e vidence i s o ne t hat h as n ot b een e xplored a dequately, p articularly i n r elation t o p rovincial r eliefs. I t i s ( necessarily) a ssumed i n t his p aper t hat s ome d epictions a t l east w ere a ccurate.

8 . E .g. R ICHMOND , 9 .

C f. R OBINSON,

1 0. A MY e t a l.,

1 935; W EBSTER, 1 975,

1 985,

p assim.

7 .

1 962.

1 1. M ost h orse e quipment r ecovered f rom t he a rchaeological r ecord i s s crap ( BISHOP, 1 985b) a nd e ven o bjects i n h oards u sually s how s ome s igns o f d amage. I t h as b een s uggested t hat t he D oorwerth h oard w as c onnected w ith t he r evolt o f C ivilis i n A .D.69/70 ( BROUWER, 1 982 ,

1 66).

1 2. O n t he s patial d istribution o f e quipment,

s ee B ISHOP,

1 986.

1 3. D oorwerth : H OLWERDA, 1 931; B ROUWER, 1 982; X anten: J ENKINS, 1 985; F remington H agg: W EBSTER, 1 971; C RADDOCK e t a l., 1 973; C anterbury: p ublication

f orthcoming,

b ut s ee HASSALL,

1 980.

I a m g rateful t o

t he C anterbury A rchaeological T rust f or t he o pportunity t o e xamine t he M arlowe S treet c ar p ark m aterial. 1 4.

T he p resent c atalogue i s s elective a nd b y n o m eans i nstead

c omplete,

b ut

u ses e xamples which i llustrate t he r ange o f d epictions o f

1 74

h orse e quipment. 1 5. M ost o f t he R hineland t ombstones w ere v isited b y t he w riter i n S eptember 1 982, w hen t he o pportunity w as t aken t o i nspect a nd p hotograph t hem i n d etail. W here s tones h ave b een i t h as b een n oted b elow.

e xamined

1 6.

S CHLEIERMACHER,

1 984, N r.77; R IB 1 172. P ers.

1 7.

S CHLEIERMACHER,

1 984, N r.79;

R IB 1 21. P ers.

1 8.

S CHLEIERMACHER,

1 984, N r.75;

R IB 1 09. P ers. o bs., M ay 1 983.

1 9.

S CHLEIERMACHER,

1 984, N r.76; R IB 2 01.

2 0. E SP.6465; N OELKE, S eptember 1 983. 2 1.

S CHLEIERMACHER,

2 2.

I nv.Nr.25.

2 3. E SP.6465. 2 4.

P ers.

1 977,

o bs., M ay 1 983.

1 977.

P ers.

o bs.,

o bs.,

S eptember 1 982.

1 984, N r.18; E SP.6436. P ers. o bs.,

S eptember 1 982.

o bs.,

P ers. o bs.,

S CHLEIERMACHER,

o bs., J uly 1 986.

1 0-14; W EICHSELBAUMER,

1 984, N r.17; E SP.6435. P ers.

t hus,

S eptember 1 982. S eptember 1 982.

2 5. E SP.6448.

P ers. o bs.,

S eptember 1 982.

2 6. E SP.6454.

P ers.

S eptember 1 982.

o bs.,

2 7. E SP.6455. 2 8.

S CHLEIERMACHER,

1 984, N r.5; E SP.6283.

2 9.

S CHLEIERMACHER,

1 984, N r.6. P ers.

3 0. L EHNER,

1 918, N r.654.

3 1. E SP.6463.

P ers. o bs.,

P ers.

o bs.,

P ers.

o bs.,

o bs.,

S eptember 1 982.

S eptember 1 982.

S eptember 1 982.

S eptember 1 982.

3 2.

S CHLEIERMACHER,

1 984, N r.9;

3 3.

S CHLEIERMACHER ,

1 984, N r.22;

3 4.

E SP.5838.

3 5.

S CHLEIERMACHER,

1 984, N r.26;

3 6.

E SP.6292.

o bs.,

S eptember 1 982.

P ers. o bs.,

S eptember 1 982.

E SP.5786.

P ers.

o bs.,

S eptember 1 982.

S CHLEIERMACHER,

1 984, N r.20; E SP.5854.

P ers.

o bs.,

S eptember 1 982.

3 7.

S CHLEIERMACHER ,

1 984, N r.27; E SP.5852. P ers.

o bs.,

S eptember 1 982.

3 8.

S CHLEIERMACHER,

1 984, N r.19. P ers.

3 9.

I bid. N r.30.

P ers. o bs.,

P ers.

E SP.5784.

P ers.

S eptember 1 982.

o bs.,

o bs.,

S eptember 1 982.

1 75

S eptember 1 982.

4 0.

I bid.

N r.46;

4 1.

S CHLEIERMACHER ,

1 984, N r.45;

P ers.

o bs.,

S eptember 1 982.

4 2.

S CHLEIERMACHER,

1 984, N r.47; E SP.6016. P ers.

o bs.,

S eptember 1 982.

4 3.

S CHLEIERMACHER,

1 984, N r.36; E SP.5870. P ers.

o bs.,

S eptember 1 982.

4 4.

S CHLEIERMACHER,

1 984, N r.92;

4 5. A MY e t a l.,

E SP.6018.

P ers.

o bs.,

S eptember 1 982.

E SP.6014.

E SP.2150.

1 962.

4 6.

I bid.

p 1.16;

p 1.44 h arnachements ha,

4 7.

I bid.

p 1.17;

p 1.44 s elles I a.

I bid.

p 1.18;

p 1.44 h arnachements I Va,

4 8.

I Ib;

s elles

I Vb,

I Vc;

I Ia.

s elles

I Va,

I Vb,

C oulston ,

p ers.

I Vc. 4 9.

I bid.

5 0. L oc. 5 1.

p 1.29. c it.

I bid. p 1.30.

5 2. L oc.

c it.

5 3.

I bid.

f ig.51;

p 1.28.

5 4.

I bid. f ig.50;

p 1.28.

5 5. R OLLAND,

1 969.

5 6.

I bid. p 1.25.

5 7.

I bid. p 1.33,6.

5 8.

I bid. p 1.27.

5 9.

I bid.

p 1.28;

6 0. F LORESCU, 6 1.

p 1.33 f ace s ud 1 .

1 961.

C ICHORIUS,

P ers.

1 900;

o bs.,

S eptember 1 987.

L EHMAN-HARTLEBEN,

1 926; M r J .C.

c omm. 6 2.

S ee G REEN, 1 986, 1 71-5 o n C eltic d epictions o f ( including p ipeclay f igurines) a nd t he r ole o f E pona.

6 3. L AWSON, 6 4. L EMAN,

1 978, 1 975,

T af.52,2. f ig.26.

6 5. K LINDT-JENSEN, 6 6. A BDUL-HAK,

1 959;

1 955,

s ee a lso C ONNOLLY,

1 75-84 a nd P l.VII.

1 76

1 981,

1 14 f ig.

t he

h orse

6 7.

I n t he c ase o f s tones l ike t hose o f T . F lavius B assus o r C . R omanius C apito, n ot o nly t he p halerae a nd p endants a re c lose t o t hose f ound i n t he a rchaeological r ecord, b ut t he e quipment o f t he r ider

h imself,

s uch

a s

T af.32) a nd t he l orica

t he

h amata

h elmet ( cf. K LUMBACH, f astening

h ook

1 974, N r.32,

( ROBINSON ,

1 975,

P 1.480). 6 8.

U nfortunately,

t he

w hole

q uestion

o f

t he

a ccuracy

( and

c onsistency) o f f irst c entury r epresentational t ombstones h as y et t o b e t ackled s eriously i n t he l iterature, w here a rt-historical a spects o f t he r eliefs a re u sually f avoured. 6 9. L eather a dhering:

C URLE,

1 911,

1 77-8; H AWKES & H ULL,

7 0. N ewstead: C URLE, 1 911, 1 77 & F ig.17; N euß: L AWSON , M oers-Asberg: H ORN, 1 977, 8 3. 7 1.

C URLE,

1 947,

3 39.

1 978, T af.52,1;

1 911, P l.XXXII.

7 2. C learly v isible o n t he e xamples 1 983, 1 0 f ig.). 7 3. K ESSLER,

f ound

i n

1 980

a t

N euß

( TAUCH,

1 940, A bb.7,1-2.

7 4. F or o ne s uggestion o n t he m ethod o f f astening t he f ixed p art o f t he g irth s trap t o t he s addle, s ee C ONNOLLY, 1 987, 1 1. 7 5. A nalysis o f s pectroscopy , c omposition.

t he C astleford p lates, u sing a tomic a bsorption s howed t hem t o b e o f b rass o f a round 8 5/15

7 6.

I t w as n ot p ossible t o a nalyse t his t inning s atisfactorily, w as c learly a w ash, a s o pposed t o p lating.

7 7.

B ROUWER,

1 982,

1 57 e sp. n .54.

7 8. L -shaped s ection: C astleford s ection : M oers-Asberg ( BECHERT, 7 9. C f.

( report f orthcoming); 1 974, A bb.71,1).

t he a nalyses b y C RADDOCK e t a l.

i n J ENKINS, 8 0. J ENKINS,

1 985,

1 985,

1 973 a nd C raddock a nd L ambert

1 45;

B ROUWER,

1 982,

1 48.

S ee t he c omments b y B OUBE-PICCOT, n o. 1 3.

8 2.

S ee B ISHOP, 1 987 f or a d iscussion o f f unctional t ypologies, w ith r eference t o p halerae. 1 985,

c ircular

1 62-4.

8 1.

8 3. J ENKINS,

b ut i t

1 964,

1 75 w ith r eference t o h is

a nd

d ecorative

1 45.

8 4. An o bject f rom C irencester ( WACHER & M CWHIRR, 1 982, F ig.35,98), a lthough i ncluded a s T ype l w a mongst t he p endants, i s n ot a t rue p endant: t he r ing a t t he t op b etrays t he f act t hat i t i s m ore a kin

1 77

t o

t he p hallic

' pendants',

s o i t m ay b elong w ith v ehicle h arness;

s imilarly, t he s tuds o n t he r ear s uggest t hat i t w as a ttached t o a b acking o f s ome s ort. I n a ddition , t he i nlaid d ecoration i s f airly c rude. 8 5. B ROUWER, 1 982, A bb.4 i ncludes a g rammar o f d ecorative m otifs u sed o n t he D oorwerth o bjects. 8 6. T he i nscription P LINIO P RAEF(ECTO) E Q(UITUM),

w hich

i s

n ormally

t aken t o r efer t o t he E lder P liny ( JENKINS, 1 985, 1 54-5), t hus d ating o ne o f t he p halerae t o h is s pell a s c ommander o f a n a la i n G ermany - i n t he l ate f orties o r f ifties A .D. ( ibid. 1 57). T his a ppears t o b e t he e arliest d ate t hat i s a rchaeologically s ound f or a T ype 1 p endant. 8 7.

T he a ssociation o f T ype 1 a nd 2 p endants i n b oth t he D oorwerth a nd F remington H agg a ssemblages w ould s eem t o b e s trongly s uggestive o f c ontemporaneity , s tyle.

8 8.

a n otion s upported b y t heir c ommon d ecorative

S imilar o bjects w ere a lso u sed t o d ecorate t ool s heaths T af.10,167; J UNKELMANN , 1 986, T af.70c).

8 9. T he

e arliest

p ieces

w ould

a ppear

t o

B ern-Engelhalbinsel ( MÜLLERBECK & E TTLINGER, 9 0. A ugustan p eriod: H altern ( MAKW 2 , S IMON, 1 976, T af.41,6); T af.LXXI,28. 9 1. A n

e xample

o f

a

s econd

1 20 A bb.); c entury:

5 ,

f rom

1 963, T af.57,4-5). R odgen ( SCHÖNBERGER & a l.,

1 972,

p hallic p endant w ith j unction l oops c omes f rom 1 977, P 1.32,18.

1 927, f ig.435.

9 3. E xamples c ome f rom e arly c ontexts

9 4.

t hose

C HIRILA e t

N ijmegen ( ZADOKS-JOSEPHUS J ITTA & W ITTEVEEN, 9 2. F ORRER,

b e

( AuhV

a t

C olchester

( CRUMMY,

1 983,

N os.4200-01), a s w ell 1 972, T af.CXIV ,28).

a s f rom B uciumi i n D acia ( CHIRILA e t a l.

O nly C olchester S heepen,

t he L unt,

a nd C anterbury ( see

c atalogue)

p roduce f ittings o f t his t ype. 9 5.

I n B ritain, w ith t he e xception o f a p iece f rom N ewstead, m ostly c onfined t o t he s outh ( see c atalogue).

t hey a re

9 6. T he p iece f rom A ugsburg-Oberhausen ( HÜBENER, 1 976, T af.11,6) i s v ery m uch a n o ddity i n t his s upposedly A ugustan a ssemblage; whilst m ost o f t he e quipment l ooks g enuinely e arly, t his s trap m ount a ppears t o b e i ntrusive. 9 7.

T heir a ssociation w ith p endants o f T ypes n oted.

9 8. N ijmegen : B OGAERS & HAALEBOS, 1 975, B OUSQUET, 1 977, p l.XLII,Ar.76-37.

1 78

6 and 1 0 h as a lready b een

1 56 &

p l.LII,la-d;

A rlaines:

9 9. T his n eed n ot, o f i tself, m ean t hat r ing j unctions w ere m ore c ommon t han t hose u sing p halerae - f or i t c ould b e a rgued t hat t he w ear o n r ing j unction f ittings a ttrition r ate amongst f ittings.

w as

r esponsible

f or

a

h igher

1 00. F or d iscussion o f t he r easons w hy a rtefacts a re d eposited i n t he a rchaeological r ecord, s ee B ISHOP, 1 985; 1 986. 1 01.

' Harness c lip':

N IBLETT,

1 985,

3 :C1;

' baldric

c lip':

n o.101; ' harness l oop': F RERE & S T.JOSEPH, 1 974, m ount o r a pron t erminal': H URST, 1 985, 2 8 n o.7; C RUMMY, 1 983, 1 32 N os.4199-4201. 1 02. B ROUWER, 1 03. C f. 1 04.

1 982,

i bid.

l oc.

c it.

5 6-8; ' baldric ' strap l oop':

T af.2,144.

T af.10.

S ince i t w ould h ave b een e asier t his w ay. I n f act, t his f orm o f f astening i s v ery s pecialised, a s i t i s n ot a djustable ( one o f t he r easons w hy s uch f astenings w ould b e o f l ittle u se f or a w here a b uckle i s b etter s uited t o t he t ask).

b aldric,

1 05. T hese r ivet h eads u sually t ake t he f orm o f d omed o r d ished s tuds w ith n iello i nlay. 1 06. C ONNOLLY, 1 07.

I bid.

10.

R ICHARDSON,

1 982,

6 4-6.

1 987, 7 .

1 1-12.

I t i s u nlikely t hat h orns w ere m anufactured p urely t o g ive t he s addler a g uide t o t he s hape o f t he p ommels, i f h e w ere m aking t ham o ut o f w ood - c f. l oc. c it.

11. C URLE, 12.

1 2;

6 7-71.

1 08. C ONNOLLY, 1 09. I bid.

1 987,

1 911,

1 77.

I bid. P l.XXXII.

13. B ut c ompare t he ( RICHARDSON, 1 982, 14. A MY e t a l., 15. A s

o n

1 962,

d ifferent a rrangements 1 16 f igure). p 1.44,

s elles I Vb,

o n

w estern

s addles

h a.

t he t ombstones o f T . F lavius B assus a nd V onatorix ( see t he

s ection o f r epresentational e vidence f or m ore e xamples). 1 16.

S ee T able 2 .

17. B reastplate: R ICHARDSON, 1 18. C f.

i bid.

1 982,

1 08;

c rupper:

i bid.

1 07.

1 08 p late. M ost m odern m artingales

j oin

t he

r eins

a t

s ome p oint a nd a re d esigned t o k eep t he h orse u nder t he c ontrol o f t he b it ( ibid. 6 0-1). T he R oman m artingale i s m ore l ike t hat f ound

1 79

i n m odern d riving h arness, where i t s tops t he b reastplate r iding u p a nd c hoking t he h orse ( RICHARDSON, 1 982, 1 31). 1 19. J ENKINS,

1 985,

1 48 & P l.XB.

1 20. VAN DRIEL-MURRAY, 1 21. L oc. 1 22.

1 985,

4 4-6.

c it.

I a m p articularly g rateful t o D r v an D riel-Murray

f or

a dvice

i n

c orrespondence o n t his m atter a nd t o M r C onnolly f or p ointing o ut t hat d ouble s titching w as e mployed h ere, o n t he e vidence o f t he X anten p halera ( see n ote 1 20). 1 23. G ANSSER-BURCKHARDT, 1 942, A bb.14. I a m g rateful t o P eter C onnolly f or s uggesting t he a dvantages o f r ounded s trap e nds. 1 24.

J ENKINS,

1 25.

S ee t he d iscussion o f t he G undestrup c auldron a bove; f or p halerae i n H alstatt p eriod h arness, s ee KOSSACK , 1 954, 1 16-7 w ith A bb.l.

1 26.

I t

i s

1 985,

1 56-7.

i n t his l ight t hat i nlaid n iello d ecoration c oncerned w ith

v iticulture, a nd r elief d ecoration r elated t o o ak s ymbolism , b e v iewed ( BISHOP, 1 987, 1 18). 1 27.

Z ADOKS-JOSEPHUS J ITTA & W ITTEVEEN,

1 977,

t he s un w as a s poked wheel ( cf. G REEN, 1 28. F INGERLIN, 1 29. B ISHOP, 1 30. V INCE,

1 73;

1 986,

m ust

t he u sual s ymbol f or 3 9-55).

1 981, 4 30.

1 987,

1 18.

1 968.

1 31. C f. H ENIG, 1 984, 1 84-8 f or a d iscussion o f s uperstitious p ractices a nd t he u se o f amulets. 1 32.

S uch

r ivet h oles a re o ften f ound o n T ype 7 a p endants - c f. H URST,

1 985, F ig.11,1 & 3 . 1 33.

P ALAGYI,

1 34.

F or b its,

1 35. J ENKINS,

1 986, A bb.7,3. s ee R ICHARDSON,

1 982,

3 2-49.

1 985, F ig.11.

1 36. T he e ssence o f c ontrol w ith t he b ridle a re t he s even p ressure p oints ( RICHARDSON, 1 982, 3 0-1) a nd C elto-Roman h arness w as a ble t o e xploit a ll o f t hese. 1 37.

S ee a bove,

' Representational E vidence', N o.33.

1 38.

I a m v ery g rateful t o M r J .C. C oulston f or d iscussion s ubject o f t he a ccuracy o f d epictions o n T rajan 's C olumn.

1 80

o n

t he

1 39. A s i n t he c ase o f t he s cale b ards f rom D ura-Europos ( ROBINSON, 1 975, P ls.529-30), where a h ole i s l eft f or t he s addle. 1 40. A lthough s trictly t his w ould n ot b e n ecessary 1 06). 1 41. T .

C alidius S everus: 1 987,

R OBINSON,

1 975,

P 1.445;

( RICHARDSON,

H OFMANN,

1 905,

1 982,

3 1.

1 42.

C ONNOLLY,

1 1.

1 43.

B ROUWER, 1 982, 1 57, c iting a r elief f rom A uxerre ( ESP.2885). T his c learly s hows a s habracque w ith s quare p atterning a ll o ver i t, w hich B rouwer s uggests a s t he p robable e xplanation f or t he ' saddle p lates' o n t he R hineland t ombstones. H owever, t he o bjects o n t he R hineland t ombstones a re v ery c learly a ttached t o t riplet s traps, a nd c annot b e e xplained i n t his w ay. S imilarly, t he s addle o n t he n orth-east f ace o f t he a rch a t O range ( which B rouwer d oes n ot c ite) h as n o s habracque u nder i t a nd a gain d epicts r ectangular p lates f asted t o s traps

1 44. A MY e t a l.,

1 962,

( see F ig.19,3).

p 1.44,

s elles

ha.

1 45.

S addles: G ROENMAN-VAN W AATERINGE, 1 967, F igs.35,1; 3 8,9; C onnolly's r econstruction ( 1987, F ig.2) s uggests t hat t he b roader s ets w ere a t t he f ront o f t he s addle.

1 46.

R ivets a re u sually p laced i n t hrees, o n t he r ear f ace.

1 47. R OLLAND,

1 969,

p 1.33,

' face n ord'

j oined h orizontally

b y

b ars

1 -4.

1 48. K refeld-Gellep: P IRLING, 1 971; 1 977; 1 986; N OBIS, 1 973. N ewstead: J .C. E wart i n C URLE, 1 911, 3 62-71. F or o ther s ites, s ee N OBIS, 1 973, 2 25-7. I am g rateful t o P eter C onnolly f or m aking m e aware o f t his l ast r eference. 1 49. H orses a re g enerally r epresented a s t oo t heir r iders, ( cf. C OULSTON, 1 50.

S ize:

N OBIS,

p robably 1 986, 6 2).

1 973,

i n

o rder

2 32-40; a ge:

s mall

i n

c omparison

t o

t o e mphasize t he h uman f igure

i bid.,

2 32;

s ex:

l oc c it.

1 51. E .g. V onatorix ( above, ' Representational E vidence', N o.17) a nd A nnauso ( ESP.5785). L ater c avalry t ended t o a void t he u se o f s tallions, s ince t hey w ere p rone t o b e t emperamental a nd c ould b e d istracted b y m ares i n s eason. 1 52. DAVIES, 1 53.

1 962,

C f. E ADIE,

1 54. J ENKINS,

4 47-8.

1 967,

1 66;

C HEESMAN,

1 914,

1 04.

1 985, F ig.15.

1 55. V ercundi: i bid. F ig.9; T . C apitoni M arian: i bid. F ig.4; f or t he d ecoration o n t he f ace o f A l, s ee i bid. F ig.2, a nd f or t hat o f t he B s eries p endants i bid. F ig.7; n ote t he s tyle o f t he t endrils a nd

1 81

l eaves

i n

e ach c ase. H owever,

s ee n ow S ADDINGTON,

1 987, w here i t

i s s uggested t hat t he r eading s hould b e T (urma) C apitoni M arian(i) - ' belonging t o t he t urma o f C apitonius M arianus'. 1 56.

I bid. F ig.10.

1 57.

I t i s

n ot

p ossible

h orse-trappings

t o

a re...

a gree

w ith

J enkins

t he m ost c omplete,

t hat

' the

X anten

s ingle s urviving s et o f

R oman m ilitary h orse-trappings o f t heir k ind' ( ibid. 1 41) s ince t heir c ircumstances o f d iscovery r emain a mystery. I ronically, t he N awa m aterial ( unfortunately o nly p artially p ublished i n A BDUL-HAK, 1 955, 1 87-8 a nd p l.XI) i s t hus t he m ost i mportant d iscovery o f t his n ature, s ince i t a ppears t o h ave b een p art o f t he c ontents o f a b urial w ith e quipment. 1 58. T his v ery p oint i s c onsidered b y M AXFIELD, 1 986, 6 6. I t i s i mportant t o s tress t hat d raught h arness w ould h ave b een ( and s till i s) v ery s pecific n eeds

d ifferent f rom r iding h arness ( which m et t he o f t he m ounted w arrior), s o c onfusion i s u nlikley

t o a rise h ere. 1 59. K EPPIE,

1 984, 7 9;

1 60. J osephus, 1 61.

C f.

B ell.

S ADDINGTON,

1 62. K IECHLE,

1 964,

1 63. A rrian T ech. 1 64.

1 00.

l ud.

1 11,6,2;

1 982,

1 969,

5 3-5.

1 37-68.

1 14-22.

T akt. 3 3,1; K IECHLE,

1 964, 8 9.

C OULSTON, 1 986. F or what m ight b e t ermed a ' primitivist' v iew o f R oman h orsemanship, a dmittedly b ased l argely u pon t he e vidence o f N orth A frican m osaics,

1 65.

B REEZE,

s ee C HURCHES,

1 983.

I n t he f irst i nstance, h e a pparently d id b attle w ith l earned f rom

n ot

i ntend

g oing

i nto

t he c avalry h imself ( Bell. l ud. V ,52), b ut e vidently t his e xpertise a nd u tilised t hem ( V,288) a s a

s trike-force t o s ave t he d ay a t l east o nce. 1 66.

C f. K IECHLE,

1 67.

C f.

1 964,

l ist o n i bid.

1 68. DRINKWATER,

1 979,

1 69. T aking

o f

8 7

8 9-107 p assim. 1 49. 9 7-8;

t he

S ADDINGTON,

1 982,

1 48;

1 50-1.

b etter-known f irst c entury f igured t ombstones

( but o nly t hose d epicting m ilitary e quipment) f rom B ritain a nd t he G ermanies, t he p roportions a re a s f ollows: c avalry 5 4%, a uxiliary i nfantry 1 9%, l egionaries 1 4%, c enturions 6 %, u nknown i nfantrymen 6 %, l egionary c avalry 1 %. H owever r ough a nd r eady t his s urvey m ay b e,

i t g ives a g ood i dea o f t he g eneral t rend.

1 70. H OFMANN, 1 71.

S ee,

1 905,

3 1.

f or e xample,

t he R eiter t ombstone o f t he t ribune L . P ompeius

1 82

M arcellinus 1 72.

( SCHLEIERMACHER,

1 984, N r.122).

I t h as b een s uggested t hat o ne p halera f rom X anten m ay h ave b elonged t o t he E lder P liny ( JENKINS, 1 985, 1 54), b ut a n umber o f a lternative i nterpretations o f t he i nscription b een s uggested ( ibid. 1 55-6).

1 73.

i n

q uestion

h ave

T here w ould p robably h ave b een u nder 2 00 s ets o f h arness b elonging t o a l egion, e ven a llowing f or t he e quites l egionis, o fficers' h orses, a nd t he m ounts o f c enturions. T he p rovision o f r emounts w ould, n aturally, m ean t here w ould b e m ore a nimals t han t his b are m inimum ( officers p robably h ad m ore t han o ne h orse a nd t here m ust h ave b een a g eneral u nit ' pool' o f s pare a nimals; c f. D AVIES, 1 962,

1 74.

4 29 and n .3).

S ome o f t he d evices

e mployed

G ROENMAN-VAN W AATERINGE, 1 75. T he b eltplates o f f amiliar e xample. 1 76.

a re

i llustrated

i n

G LASBERGEN

&

1 974, F ig.13.

A nnaius D averzus

( ULBERT,

1 968, A bb.14) a re a

S mall f ind r eports f requently d isplay c onfusion a s t o w hether b elt p lates a re t inned o r s ilvered, b ut a s a r ule, n iello-inlaid b elt p lates s eem t o h ave b een t inned i n m ost c ases. H opefully, s cientific a nalysis w ill o ffer m ore a ccurate i nformation o n t his a t a f uture d ate.

1 77.

C f. B ROUWER, 1 982, A bb.4. F or d etails o f t he s ilvering p rocess, s ee J ENKINS, 1 985, 1 45.

1 78. T ype 8 s trap f ittings a re n otable f or t his. 1 79. V ON P ETRIKOVITS,

1 952.

1 80. A lthough t he b urials w ith r iding h orses a t c ivilian, ( PALAGYI, 1 81.

t heir 1 986).

n ature

C f. FRERE & S T.JOSEPH,

1 82. E .g. L EHNER,

s uggests

1 974; N IBLETT,

I nota

a re

c onsiderable

1 985;

B ROWN,

s tatus

1 986.

1 904, T af.XXXA & B ; O RL N r.62a, T af.XI.

1 83. E .g. W EBSTER, 1 971 where t he i llustrations a re c aptioned b ut a re r eproduced a t 1 :1. 1 84. F EUGiRE,

p resumably

s ocial

a s

1 :2,

1 982.

1 85.

I n t he c ase o f t he B uciumi p halera ( CHIRILA e t a l., 1 972, T af.LXXX), i t i s i llustrated f rom t he f ront a nd s ide, w hilst t he N awa e xamples a re s hown o nly f rom t he f ront ( ABDUL-HAK, 1 955, P l.XI,1).

1 86.

F EUGiRE,

1 87.

C f.

1 982,

B ROUWER,

1 1

1 982,

( 2.1.4). A bb.5-6.

1 83

1 88. Whilst t he d ifference b etween a ncient a nd m odern d amage i s u sually r eadily a pparent o n t he o bject i tself, i t i s s eldom p ossible t o c onvey t his b y m eans L EAHY, 1 980. 1 89. F EUG2RE,

1 982,

o f

a n

a rchaeological

S ee B ISHOP & D ORE, f orthcoming, m ilitary d itches a t C orbridge.

1 91.

T his i s d emonstrated b y t he m ould f or a N ijmegen ( BOGAERS & H AALEBOS,

1 92. O LDENSTEIN,

1 977,

1 93.

1 985b,

B ISHOP,

-

c f.

7 ( 1.2.2).

1 90.

C f.

i llustration

1 975,

7 5-6. 1 5;

1 987,

1 11.

1 84

f or a d iscussion o f t he v arious

j unction

l oop

1 56 a nd P l.LII,la-d.

f ound

a t

B IBLIOGRAPHY A BDUL-HAK 1 955: S . A bdul Hak, ' Rapport p rgliminaire s ur d es o bjets p rovenant d e l a n gcropole r omaine s ituge a p roximitg d e N awa ( Hauran)', L es A nnales A rchgologiques d e S yrie, A LBRECHT

1 942:

C .

A lbrecht,

U ferkastell i n ( Veröffentlichungen D ortmund 1 1,2),

D as

R ömerlager

4 -5,

i n

1 954-5,

O beraden

1 63-88

u nd

d as

B eckinghausen a n d er L ippe, v ol.2 a us d em S tädt. M us. f ür V or- u . F rühgeschichte

( Dortmund 1 942)

A LLASON-JONES & B ISHOP f orthcoming: L . A llason-Jones & M .C. B ishop, T he C orbridge H oard ( HBMCE A rchaeological R eport), ( London f orthcoming) A LLASON-JONES & M 1KET 1 984: L . A llason-Jones & R . M iket, o f S mall F inds f rom S outh S hields R oman F ort, 1 984)

T he

C atalogue

( Newcastle u pon T yne

A MY e t a l. 1 962: R . A my, G .-Ch. P icard, J .-J. H att, P icard, & A . P iganiol, ' L la rc d 'Orange', G allia,

P .-M . D uval, C h. S upp1.15, 1 962

A NDERSON & W ACHER 1 980: A .S. A nderson & J .S. W acher, ' Excavations a t W anborough, W iltshire: a n i nterim r eport', B ritannia, X I, 1 980, 15-26 A uhV: L . L indenschmit, ( Mainz 1 858-1911)

A lterthümer u nser h eidnischen V orzeit,

5 B de.,

B ECHERT 1 974: T . B echert, A sciburgium - A usgrabungen i n e inem r ömischen K astell a m N iederrhein ( Duisburger F orschungen 2 0), ( Duisburg 1 974) B EHRENS 1 912: G . B ehrens, ' Neue F unde a us d em Z eitschrift, 7 , 1 912, 8 2-109 B EHRENS

1 914:

G . B ehrens,

G . B ehrens,

M ainz', M ainzer

' Dritter B ericht ü ber F unde a us d em K astell

M ainz', M ainzer Z eitschrift, 8 -9, B EHRENS 1 918:

K astell

1 913-14,

6 5-93

' Dritter B ericht ü ber F unde a us

M ainz', M ainzer Z eitschrift,

1 2-13,

B EHRENS & B RENNER 1 911: G . B ehrens L egionskastell z u M ainz w ährend Z eitschrift, 6 , 1 911, 5 3-120

1 917-18,

d em

K astell

2 1-46

&E . B renner, d es J ahres

' Ausgrabungen i m 1 910', M ainzer

B INDING 1 968: G . B inding, ' Eine r ömische B efestigung a n d er A lten L andstraße b ei R heinberg, K reis M oers', i n B eiträge z ur A rchäologie d es r ömischen R heinlands ( Rheinische A usgrabungen 3 ), ( Düsseldorf 1 968), 1 21-51 B ISHOP 1 985a: M .C. B ishop ( ed.), P Roduction a nd D istribution o f R oman M ilitary E quipment. P roceedings o f t he S econd R oman M ilitary E quipment R esearch S eminar, ( BAR I nternational S eries 2 75), ( Oxford 1 985) B ISHOP

1 985b:

M .C. B ishop,

' The m ilitary f abrica a nd t he p roduction o f

1 85

a rms i n t he e arly p rincipate',

i n B ISHOP,

1 985a,

1 -42

B ISHOP 1 986: M .C. B ishop, ' The d istribution o f m ilitary e quipment w ithin R oman f orts o f t he f irst c entury A .D.', i n UNZ, 1 986, 7 17-23 B ISHOP 1 987: D AWSON, B ISHOP

M .C.

& a nd

R eport),

"The e volution

o f

c ertain

f eatures ",

&

D ore,

i n

1 09-39

D ORE

E xcavations F ort

B ishop,

1 987,

f orthcoming:

1 947-1980. T own

M .C.

B ishop

A rchaeological

a t C orbridge,

J .N.

I nvestigations o f

C orbridge t he

R oman

N orthumberland ( HBMCE A rchaeological

( London f orthcoming)

B OGAERS & HAALEBOS 1 975: J .E. B ogaers & J .K . H aalebos, ' Problemen r ond h et K ops P lateau ', O udheidkundige M ededelingen u it h et R ijksmuseum v an O udheden t e L eiden ( nieuwe r eeks), B OON 1 969:

G .C.

1 954-8

B oon,

w ith

' Belgic

a n

A rchaeologia,

1 02,

B OUBE-PICCOT 1 964:

C .

a nd

e xcursus 1 969,

R oman

o n

J .

J .W.

e arly

e xcavations

h istory

o f

o f

C alleva',

' Pha Ures d e M aurgtanie t ingitane', 5 ,

1 964,

1 45-81

C ahiers d u g roupe d e r echerches s ur l 'armee

r omaine e t l es p rovinces B RAILSFORD 1 962:

1 27-78

1 -42

B oube-Piccot,

B ousquet,

1 975,

S ilchester:

t he

B ulletin d 'Archeologie M arocaine, B OUSQUET 1 977:

5 6,

I ,

( Paris 1 977)

B railsford, H od H ill

i n t he D urden C ollection,

1 :

A ntiquities f rom H od H ill

( London 1 962)

B REEZE 1 969: D .J. B reeze, ' The o rganisation o f t he l egion: t he f irst c ohort a nd t he e quites l egionis', J ournal o f R oman S tudies, 5 9, 1 969,

5 0-55

B ROUWER 1 982: M .

B rouwer,

a us d em Rhein',

' Römische P halerae und a nderer

O udheden t e L eiden ( nieuwe r eeks), B ROWN

1 986: R .A.

B rown,

W oodcock H all,

L ederbeschlag

O udheidkundige M ededelingen u it h et R ijksmuseum v an 6 3,

1 982,

1 45-87

' The I ron A ge and R omano-British s ettlement a t

S aham T oney,

N orfolk',

B ritannia, XVII,

1 986,

1 -58

B USHE-FOX 1 915: J .P. B ushe-Fox, S econd R eport o n t he E xcavations o n t he S ite o f t he R oman T own a t W roxeter, S hropshire, 1 913 ( Reports o f t he

R esearch C ommittee o f t he S ociety o f Antiquaries o f L ondon 2 ),

( Oxford 1 915) B USHE-FOX 1 916: S ite

o f

J .P.

t he

B ushe-Fox,

T hird R eport o n t he E xcavations o n

R oman T own a t W roxeter,

t he R esearch C ommittee o f t he

S hropshire,

t he

1 914 ( Reports o f

S ociety o f Antiquaries o f L ondon

4 ),

( Oxford 1 916) B USHE-FOX 1 932: R ichborough,

J .P. B ushe-Fox, T hird R eport o n t he E xcavations a t K ent ( Reports o f t he R esearch C ommittee o f t he S ociety

o f Antiquaries o f London 1 0), B USHE-FOX 1 949:

J .P.

B ushe-Fox,

( Oxford 1 932)

F ourth R eport

1 86

o n

t he

E xcavations

a t

R ichborough,

K ent ( Reports o f t he R esearch C ommittee o f t he S ociety

o f Antiquaries o f L ondon 1 6), C HEESMAN

1 914:

G .L.

C heesman,

( Oxford 1 949)

T he A uxilia o f

t he R oman I mperial A rmy,

( Oxford 1 914) C HIRILA e t a l

1 972:

E .

C hirila, N .

r oman d e l a B uciumi, C HURCHES 1 983:

C .

( Cluj

C hurches,

R oman N orth A frica', C ICHORIUS

1 900:

C .

P .

C ichorius,

1 973:

N .

m osaics

o f

d er T raianssäule.

E rster

1 900)

' The R oman s addle',

P .T.

i n DAWSON,

1 987,

C rummy,

S mall F inds f rom

P roceedings o f a C olloquium

C raddock,

F remington

B ritish M useum Q uarterly, 1 983:

C astrul

7 -27

H eld

a t

1 986 ( BAR I nternational S eries

5 9-75

h orse-trappings f rom

C RUMMY

P op,

1 7-22

R eliefs

S heffield i n A pril

( Oxford 1 986), a l

& C .

C oulston, ' Roman, P arthian a nd S assanid t actical i n P . F reeman & D . Kennedy ( eds.), T he D efence o f

t he U niversity o f

C RADDOCK e t

1 983,

1 896,

t he R oman a nd B yzantine E ast. 2 97),

3 ,

D ie

( Berlin

C onnolly,

C OULSTON 1 986: J .C. d evelopments',

V . Lucacel,

' Roman h orse e quipment a nd t he

P rimitiae,

( Zweiter) T afelband, C ONNOLLY 1 987:

G udea,

1 972)

3 7,

J . L ang,

H agg,

1 973,

& K .S. P ainter,

R eeth,

Y orkshire,

i n

N .R.',

9 -17

C olchester A rchaeological R eport 2 :

E xcavations

' Roman

C olchester

1 971-9,

T he R oman

( Colchester

1 983) C UNLIFFE

1 968:

R ichborough,

B .W.

C unliffe

K ent,

N o.5 ( Reports o f t he R esearch C ommittee

( ed.),

E xcavations a t t he R oman F ort o f

S ociety o f Antiquaries o f L ondon 2 3), C URLE 1 911: J .

C urle,

A R oman F rontier P ost a nd i ts P eople.

N ewstead i n t he P arish o f M elrose, D AVIES

1 962: R .W.

D avies,

P resented

D AWSON

1 987:

A ntiquity:

t o

A rchaeology,

H .N.

( Cardiff

M .

A ccoutrements

2 8,

1 962,

E ssays

4 29-59

M ainly

S avory

u pon

1 976),

1 21-47

D awson o f

T he F ort o f

( Glasgow 1 911)

D AVIES & S PRATLING 1 976: J .L. D avies & M .G. S isters h oard: a c entenary s tudy', i n W elsh

t he

' The s upply o f a nimals t o t he R oman a rmy a nd

t he r emount s ystem ', L atomus,

( eds.),

o f

( Oxford 1 968)

( ed.),

W ar.

h is

R oman

P roceedings

S pratling, ' The S even G .C. B oon & J .M. L ewis o n

P rehistoric

R etirement

M ilitary o f

t he

a s

T opics

K eeper

E quipment:

o f

T he

T hird R oman M ilitary

E quipment R esearch S eminar ( BAR I nternational S eries 3 36),

( Oxford

1 987) D OWN 1 978: D OWN

&

A .

R ULE

D own, 1 971:

C hichester E xcavations V ol.3, A .

D own & M . Rule,

( Oxford 1 971)

1 87

( Chichester 1 978)

C hichester E xcavations V ol.1,

V AN DRIEL-MURRAY 1 985: C . v an D riel-Murray, ' The p roduction and s upply o f m ilitary l eatherwork i n t he f irst a nd s econd c enturies A .D.: a r eview o f t he a rchaeological e vidence', D RINKWATER 1 979:

J .F.

D rinkwater,

B .R.K.

T ransactions

D unnett,

o f

1 985a,

4 3-81

' A n ote o n l ocal c areers i n t he T hree

G auls under t he e arly e mpire', D UNNETT 1 971:

i n B ISHOP,

B ritannia,

X ,

' Excavations

t he E ssex A rchaeological

1 979,

i n

8 9-100

C olchester

S ociety,

1 964-8',

s er.3,

3 ,

1 971,

1 -106 E ADIE 1 967: J .W. E adie, ' The J ournal o f R oman S tudies, F EUG2RE

1 982:

m obilier

M .

F eugere,

1 983:

M .

( Documents

2 ),

F eugere,

p ays

s ggusiave',

d 'archgologie

c avalry',

l e

m gridionale.

( Lambesc 1 982) ' L lg quipement

D gpartement d e l a L oire. e n

m ailed

N ormalisation d u d essin e n a rchgologie:

n on-cgramique,

M gthodes e t t echniques F EUG2KE

d evelopment o f R oman 5 9, 1 967, 1 61-73

m ilitaire

r omain

C ontribution ä l 'gtude d e l a

C ahiers

d ans l e

r omanisation

a rchgologiques d e l a L oire,

3 ,

1 983,

4 5-66 F INGERLIN

1 971:

G .

L egionslager B ericht

F ingerlin,

d er

R ömisch-germanischen

A rchäologischen I nstituts, F INGERLIN

' Dangstetten,

1 981:

G .

5 1-2,

F ingerlin,

U .

H eddernheim

F ischer,

u nd F rühgeschichte F LORESCU 1 961: T raiani, F ORRER

F .B.

e d.2,

1 927:

a ugusteisches

2 ),

6 ,

1 981,

i n

d er

D eutschen

1 97-232

' Eberzahnanhänger

G rabungen

1 957-1959

K ommission

1 970-71,

F undberichte a us B aden-Württemberg, F ISCHER 1 973:

e in

a m H ochrhein. V orbericht ü ber d ie G rabungen 1 967-69',

a us

D angstetten',

4 17-32

r ömischen

S teinkastell

v on

( Schriften d es F rankfurter Museums f ür V or( Frankfurt 1 973)

F lorescu,

M onumental

d e

l a

A damklissi:

T ropaeum

A rgentorate,

2v ols.,

( Bucharest 1 961)

R . F orrer,

D as r ömische

S traßburg,

( Strasbourg 1 927) F RERE 1 972: S .S. F rere, V erulamium E xcavations I ( Reports o f t he R esearch C ommittee o f t he S ociety o f Antiquaries o f L ondon 2 8), ( Oxford 1 972) F RERE

1 984:

S .S. F rere,

V erulamium E xcavations

C ommittee f or A rchaeology M onograph 1 ), F RERE

&

S T.JOSEPH

1 974:

S .S.

f ortress a t L ongthorpe', G ABELMANN 1 972: H . G abelmann, R hein',

B onner J ahrbücher,

G ANSSER-BURCKHARDT

1 942:

A .

F rere

B ritannia,

&J .K.S. V ,

1 972,

U niversity

S t.Joseph,

' The R oman

r ömischen

G rabstelen

a m

6 5-140

G ansser-Burckhardt,

1 88

( Oxford 1 984)

1 -129

' Die T ypen d er 1 72,

I II

( Oxford

D as

L eder u nd s eine

V erarbeitung

i m

r ömischen

( Veröffentlichungen

d er

L egionslager

G esellschaft

P ro

V indonissa

V indonissa

1 ),

( Basel

1 942) G LASBERGEN

&

G ROENMAN-VAN

G roenman-van Z .H.

WAATERINGE

W aateringe,

( Verhandelingen

W etenschappen,

T he

d er

a fd.

1 974:

W .

P re-Flavian

K oninklijke

L etterkunde,

G lasbergen

&

W .

G arrisons o f V alkenburg

N ederlandse

n ieuwe

r eeks

A kademie

8 5,

v an

C ingula 2 ),

( Amsterdam-London 1 974) G RAY 1 923: H .St.G. S omerset',

G ray,

H istory S ociety, G RAY 1 924: H .St.G. 1 )',

6 9,

7 0,

1 924

P roceedings

S ociety,

7 2,

( 1925),

H am

H ill,

s outh

A rchaeological & N atural

4 9-53 s outh S omerset N atural

( part

H istory

1 04-16

' Excavations a t H am H ill,

o f

G reen,

r emains,

S omerset

S omerset A rchaeological &

t he

s outh S omerset

( part

S omerset A rchaeological & N atural H istory

1 926 ( 1927),

G REEN 1 986: M .J.

t he

' Excavations a t H am H ill, t he

G RAY 1 926: H .St.G. G ray, 3 )',

o f

1 923,

G ray,

P roceedings o f

S ociety,

' Archaeological

P roceedings

5 5-68

T he G ods o f

t he C elts,

( Gloucester 1 986)

G RIFFITHS 1 983: N . G riffiths, ' Early R oman m ilitary m etalwork f rom W iltshire', W iltshire A rchaeological a nd N atural H istory M agazine, 7 7,

1 983,

4 9-59

H AMMERSON & S HELDON 1 987: M . H ammerson & H . S heldon, ' Evidence f or R oman a rmy i n S outhwark', i n DAWSON, 1 987, 1 67-74 H ASSALL

1 980:

M .

H assall,

A ntiquaries J ournal, H AWKES & H ULL 1 947:

' Roman h arness f ittings f rom C anterbury',

6 0,

C .F.C.

t he

1 980,

3 42-4

H awkes

&

M .R.

H ull,

C amulodunum.

F irst

R eport o n t he E xcavations a t C olchester 1 930-1939 ( Reports o f t he R esearch C ommittee o f t he S ociety o f Antiquaries o f L ondon, 1 4), ( Oxford

1 947)

H ENIG 1 984: M . H enig, H INZ

1 971: H . H inz,

R eligion i n R oman B ritain,

( London 1 984)

' 4. B ericht ü ber A usgrabungen i n d er C olonia U lpia

T raiana b ei X anten', i n B eiträge d es r ömischen R heinlands ( Rheinische A usgrabungen 1 0), ( Düsseldorf 1 971), 9 6-199 H INZ 1 972: H . H inz,

' Ein f rührömisches G räberfeld auf d em K irchhügel i n

B irten, K reis M oers', i n B eiträge d es ( Rheinische A usgrabungen 1 2), ( Düsseldorf H OBLEY

1 969:

B

T ransactions S ociety, H OBLEY

1 973:

8 3,

I I

H obley,

' A

o f

B irmingham

t he

1 966-7

B . H obley,

( 1969),

r ömischen R heinlands 1 972), 2 4-83

N eronian-Vespasianic a nd

m ilitary

I II

s ite',

W arwickshire A rchaeological

6 5-129

' Excavations a t t he Lunt R oman

m ilitary

B aginton, 1 968-71. S econd i nterim r eport', T ransactions B irmingham a nd W arwickshire A rchaeological S ociety, 8 5,

1 89

s ite, o f t he 1 971-3

( 1973),

7 -92

H OFFILLER

1 912:

V .

H offiller,

' Oprema

r imskoga v ojnika u p rvo d oba

c arstva', y jesnik H rvatskoga A rheoloskoga 1 2,

1 912,

H OFMANN

1 905:

A .

H ofmann,

( Sonderschriften d es W ien V ), H OLWERDA

H ORN

( Zagreb),

N .S.

R ömische M ilitärgrabsteine d er D onauländer

ö sterreichischen a rchäologischen

I nstitut

i n

( Wien 1 905)

1 931: J .H. H olwerda,

' Een v ondst u it d en R ijn b ij D oorwerth',

O udheidkundige M ededelingen u it h et L eiden,

D rustva

1 6-123

1 2 s uppl.,

1 977: H .G. H orn,

1 931,

R ijksmuseum

v an

O udheden

t e

1 -26

' Die W iederherstellung a rchäologischer D enkmäler

i n d en W erkstätten d es Rheinischen L andesmuseums B onn

a m

r ömischer

1 976 ( Rhein.

S attelbeschläge',

R heinische

L andesmuseum B onn S onderheft),

A usgrabungen

( Bonn 1 977),

B eispiel

8 1-4

H ÜBENER 1 973: W . H übener, D ie r ömischen M etallfunde v on A ugsburg-Oberhausen ( Materialhefte z ur b ayerischen V orgeschichte 2 8),

( Kallmünz

1 973)

H URST 1 985: H .R. Hurst, O ther

S ites

w ith

K ingsholm. a

E xcavations a t K ingsholm

D iscussion

( Gloucester A rchaeological R eports J ENKINS

1 985:

I . J enkins,

' A g roup o f

f rom Xanten ( Castra V etera)',

o f

t he

1 ),

( Cambridge 1 985)

C lose

A rchaeology o f

s ilvered-bronze

B ritannia, XVI,

1 985,

a nd

t he A rea

h orse-trappings 1 41-64

J UNKELMANN 1 986: M . Junkelmann, D ie L egionen d es A ugustus. S oldat i m a rchäologischen E xperiment, ( Mainz 1 986)

D er r ömische

K EPPIE 1 984: L .J.F. K eppie, T he M aking o f t he R oman A rmy f rom R epublic t o E mpire, ( London 1 984) K ESSLER 1 940: S tadt

P .T. K essler,

M ainz

f ür

E rwerbungen', K IECHLE

1 964: F .

' Jahresbericht

1 . A pr.

M ainzer Z eitschrift, K iechle,

3 5,

1 959:

r eassessment',

O .

3 3,

1 954:

G .

K ossack,

K RÄMER 1 957: L AWSON

1 978:

W . K rämer, A .K.

1 ,

1 959,

G undestrup

b owl:

a

N iedergermanien

( Kunst

( Köln 1 974) a us

d es

G räbern d er ä lteren R ömisch-Germanischen

1 11-78

Uambodunumtorschungen

L awson,

' The

B ericht

1 61-9

J ahrbuch

1 954,

A rrianus', 8 7-129

' Pferdegeschirr

B ayerns',

Z entralmuseums M ainz,

6 4-75

1 964,

R ömische H elme a us

u nd A ltertum am Rhein N r.51),

H allstattzeit

4 5,

d er

1 940. Ausgrabungen u nd

1 940,

K lindt-Jensen,

A ntiquity,

K LUMBACH 1 974: H . K lumbach,

K OSSACK

A ltertums-Museums

' Die " Taktik" d es F lavius

d er Römisch -Germanischen K ommission, K LINDT-JENSEN

d es

1 939 b is 3 1. M ärz

' Studien

1 90

z um

1 953 - I ,

( Kallmünz

1 957)

r ömischen P ferdegeschirr',

J ahrbuch d es R ömisch-Germanischen Z entralmuseums M ainz,

2 5,

1 978,

1 31-72 L EAHY

1 980: K . L eahy,

' A f irst c entury m ilitary p endant f rom N ormanby,

S outh Humberside', L incolnshire H istory a nd A rchaeology,

1 5,

1 980,

8 3-4 L EHMANN-HARTLEBEN 1 926: K . L ehmann-Hartleben, D ie T raianssäule. E in r ömisches K unstwerk z u B eginn d er S pätantike, T afeln, ( Berlin u . L eipzig 1 926) L EHNER

1 904:

H .

J ahrbücher, L EHNER

L ehner,

1 11/2,

1 918:

' Die

1 904,

H .

L ehner,

P rovinzialmuseums i n B onn, LEMAN

1 975:

N ord',

P . L eman,

G allia,

L YSONS 1 817:

3 3,

E inzelfunde

v on

N ovaesium ',

B onner

S teindenkmäler

d es

2 43-418 D ie

a ntiken

( Bonn 1 918)

' Information a rcheologiques. 1 975,

C irconscription du

2 67-90

S . Lysons, R eliquiae B ritannico-Romanae, v ol.2,

M ACKENSEN 1 987: N ersingen

M . u nd

M ackensen,

F rühkaiserzeitliche

B urlafingen

V .A . M axfield,

B ritannia, XVII,

1 986,

M ÜLLER 1 979:

G . Müller,

M ÜLLERBECK

&

K leinkastelle

( München 1 987)

' Pre-Flavian f orts a nd t heir

v om

A usgrabungen i n D ormagen 1 963-1977,

E TTLINGER

F ebruar

d es

1 963:

J ahres

4 3-4,

H .

M üller Beck

R oman

1 962',

B ericht

1 962-3 ( 1963),

N EWSTEAD 1 928: R . N ewstead, t he

f ortress,

N IBLETT

&E . E ttlinger,

d er R ömisch-Germanischen

' Report o n t he e xcavations o n t he

s ite

( no.2)',

t he

D eanery

F ield,

C hester

a nd

A nthropology,

o f 1 5,

3 -32 1 985:

R .

N iblett,

1 973:

G .

N obis,

Z entraleuropa', N OELKE

' Die

K entnisstanden

a t

S heepen:

a n E arly R oman I ndustrial S ite a t

C amulodunum ( CBA R esearch R eport), N OBIS

( Bonn 1 979)

1 07-53

L iverpool U niversity A nnals o f A rchaeology 1 928,

g arrisons',

5 9-72

B esiedlung d er E ngelhalbinsel i n B ern a uf G rund d es K ommission,

b ei

a n d er o beren D onau ( Münchner B eiträge

z ur V or- und F rühgeschichte B d.41), M AXFIELD 1 986:

( 1817)

1 977:

J ahrbuch, O LDENSTEIN

' Zur

P . N oelke, 1 977, 1 977:

F rage

Z eitschrift f ür

( London 1 985) r ömerzeitliche

S äugetierkunde,

3 8,

H auspferde 1 973,

i n

2 24-52

' Grabsteine aus d em r ömischen N euss',

N eusser

5 -21 J .

A uxiliareinheiten.

O ldenstein, S tudien

' Zur

z u

A usrüstung

B eschlägen

u nd

Z ierat

r ömischer a n

d er

A usrüstung d er r ömischen A uxiliareinheiten d es o bergermanisch-raetischen L imesgebietes a us d em z weiten und d ritten J ahrhundert 5 7,

n .

1 976 ( 1977),

C hr.',

B ericht d er R ömisch-Germanischen K ommission,

4 9-366

1 91

P AAR & R ÜGER 1 971: u nd

I .

P aar & C .B.

G rabungsgeschichte

R heinlands I I

R üger,

b is

( Rheinische

' Kastell G elduba:

1 969',

i n B eiträge

A usgrabungen

1 0),

F orschungs-

d es

r ömischen

( Düsseldorf

1 971),

2 42-339 P ALAGYI

1 986:

S .

P alagyi,

' Über

J ochrekonstruktionen v on I nota', R oms

I II.

1 3.

( Stuttgart

I nternational

1 986),

P ferdegeschirr-

i n S tudien z u L imeskongreß

M ilitärgrenzen

A alen

1 983 V orträge,

3 89-97

V ON P ETRIKOVITS 1 952: H . v on P etrikovits,

' Troiaritt und

G eranostanz',

i n B eiträge

z ur ä lteren e uropäischen K ulturgeschichte

R .

( Klagenfurt

E gger)

I ,

P IRLING 1 971: R . P in ing, K refeld-Gellep',

u nd

d en

1 952),

' Ein

( Festschrift

1 26-43

B estattungsplatz

g efallener

A rchäologische K orrespondenzblatt,

1 ,

R ömer

1 971,

i n

4 5-6

P IRLING 1 977: R . P irling, ' Die A usgrabungen i n K refeld-Gellep 1 977', A usgrabungen i n R heinland ' 77, 1 977, 1 36-40 P IRLING

1 986:

R .

P in ing,

U ntersuchungen

i m

' Ein

M ithräum

a ls

K riegergrab.

V orgelände d es K astells G elduba',

N eue

i n UNZ,

1 986,

2 44-6 P LANCK

1 975:

D .

G eschichte

P lanck,

d es

A rae

F laviae

r ömischen

I .

R ottweil

N eue

U ntersuchungen

V or- und F rühgeschichte i n B aden-Württemberg 6 ), R ABEISEN & M ENU 1 985: E . R abeisen & M . M enu, b ronziers F rance,

d 'Alesia',

L aboratoire

R echerches g allo-romaines

d e F rance 9 ), R EVILLIO

i n

1 929:

( Paris P .

1 985),

z ur

( Forschungen und B erichte z ur ( Stuttgart 1 975)

' Mgtaux

e t

a lliages

d es

d e r echerches d es musges d e

I ( Notes e t d ocuments d es

m usges

1 43-81

R evillio,

' Kastell H üfingen ',

G ermania,

1 3,

1 929,

3 5-47 R ICHARDSON

1 982:

J .

R ichardson

( ed.), H orse

E quipment G uide f or R iding a nd D riving, R ICHMOND

1 935:

P apers o f R ICHMOND 1 968: B etween

I .A .

R ichmond,

' Trajan's

t he B ritish S chool a t R ome, I .A .

1 951

R ichmond, H od a nd

1 958

f or

H ill t he

T ack.

T he

C omplete

( London 1 982) a rmy

o n T rajan's C olumn',

1 3,

1 935,

2 :

E xcavations

T rustees o f

1 -40 C arried

O ut

t he B ritish M useum,

( London 1 968) R ITCHIE

1 974:

J .N.G.

G allanach, S cotland,

R itchie,

A rgyll', 1 03,

1 974,

' Iron A ge f inds

P roceedings

A usgrabungs-

n assauische 1 -110,

f rom

D an

a n

F heurain,

t he S ociety o f A ntiquaries o f

1 00-12

R ITTERLING 1 904: E . R itterling, i .T.

o f

u nd

A ltertumskunde

' Das

f rührömische

F undbericht', A nnalen u nd

L ager d es

G eschichtsforschung,

3 97-423

1 92

b ei

H ofheim

V ereins 3 4,

f ür 1 904,

R ITTERLING 1 913: E . R itterling, ' Das f rührömische L ager b ei H ofheim i .T.', A nnalen d es V ereins f ür n assauische A ltertumskunde u nd G eschichtsforschung, 4 0, 1 913, 1 -416 R OBINSON 1 975)

1 975:

H .R .

R obinson, T he

A rmour

d e

o f I mperial R ome,

R OLLAND 1 969: H . R olland, 1 969

' Le m ausolge

G lanum ',

R OLLAND 1 977: H . R olland,

' L'arc d e G lanum l , G allia,

G allia,

( London

s upp1.21,

s upp1.31,

1 977

R OSTOVTZEFF e t a l 1 949: M .I. R ostovtzeff, A .R. B ellinger, F .E. B rown, N .P. T oll, & C .B. W elles, T he E xcavations a t D ura-Europos. F inal R eport I V, P art I V. T he B ronze O bjects, F asc.1, ( New H aven 1 949) S ADDINGTON 1 982: D .B. S addington, T he D evelopment o f t he R oman A uxiliary F orces f rom C aesar t o V espasian ( 49 B .C. - A .D.79), ( Harare 1 982) S ADDINGTON 1 987: D .B, S addington, ' A n ew J ulio-Claudian a uxiliary d ecurion?', Z eitschrift f ür P apyrologie u nd E pigraphik, 6 8, 1 987, 2 61-2 S CHLEIERMACHER 1 984: M . S chleiermacher, R ömische R eitergrabsteine. D ie k aiserzeitlichen R eliefs d es t riumphierenden R eiters, ( Bonn 1 984) V ON

S CHNURBEIN 1 983: S . v on S chnurbein, ' Neu e ntdeckte f rühkaiserzeitliche M ilitäranlagen b ei F riedberg i n B ayern', G ermania, 6 1, 1 983, 5 29-50

S CHöNBERGER 1 978: H . S chönberger, K astell O berstimm: d ie G rabungen 1 968 b is 1 971 ( Limesforschungen 1 8), ( Berlin 1 978) S CHöNBERGER & S IMON 1 976: H . R ödgen ( Limesforschungen 1 5),

S chönberger & H .-G. ( Berlin 1 976)

S imon,

v on

R ömerlager

S HELDON 1 978: H . S heldon , ' The 1 972-74 e xcavations: t heir c ontribution t o S outhwark's h istory', i n J . B ird, A .H. G raham, H . S heldon, & P . T ownend ( eds.), S outhwark E xcavations 1 972-1974 ( London a nd M iddlesex A rchaeological S ociety a nd S urrey A rchaeological S ociety J oint P ublication N o.1), ( London 1 978), 1 1-49 S ITTERDING 1 962: M . S itterding, ' Ausgrabungen K önigsfelden 1 961. B ericht ü ber d ie F lächengrabung n ordwestlich d er K losterkirche', J ahresbericht d er G esellschaft P ro V indonissa, 1 961/62, 2 1-46 S TIGLITZ 1 986: H . S WANN 1 970:

V .G.

S tiglitz, S wann ,

D as A uxiliarkastell v on C arnuntum, ' An

u npublished

e arly

R oman

( ?

1 986)

b ronze

f rom

N ettleton, W iltshire', W iltshire A rchaeological a nd N atural H istory M agazine, 6 5, 1 970, 1 95-8 T AUCH 1 983: M . T auch, C lemens-Sels-Museum N euss. R ömische A bteilung ( Schnell, K unstführer N r.1429), ( München 1 983)

1 93

U LBERT 1 957: G . U lbert, ' Zum I ngolstadt)', G ermania, 3 5,

c laudischen K astell 1 957, 3 18-27

O berstimm

U LBERT 1 959: G . U lbert, D ie r ömischen D onaukastelle B urghöfe ( Limesforschungen 1 ), ( Berlin 1 959)

( Ldkr.

A islingen u nd

U LBERT 1 965: G . U lbert, D er L orenzberg b ei E pfach. D ie f rührömische m ilitärstation ( Münchener B eiträger z ur V or- u nd F rühgeschichte B d.9),

( München 1 965)

U LBERT 1 968:

G . U lbert, R ömische W affen d es

1 .

J ahrhunderts

n .

C hr.

( Kleine S chriften z ur K enntnis d er r ömischen B esetzungsgeschichte S üdwestdeutschlands 4 ), ( Stuttgart 1 968) U LBERT 1 969: G . U lbert, D as f rührömische ( Limesforschungen 9 ), ( Berlin 1 969) U LBERT

1 970:

G . U lbert,

K astell

R heingönheim

D as r ömische D onau-Kastell R ißtissen,

T eil 1 :

d ie F unde a us M etall, H orn u nd K nochen ( Urkunden z ur V oru nd F rühgeschichte a us S üdwürttemberg Hohenzollern H eft 4 ), ( Stuttgart 1 970) U NZ 1 971: C . U nz, ' Römische M ilitärfunde a us B aden - A quae H elveticae', J ahresbericht d er G esellschaft P ro V indonissa, 1 971, 4 1-58 U NZ 1 973: C . U nz, ' Römische F unde a us W indisch i m e hemaligen K antonalen A ntiquarium A arau', J ahresbericht d er G esellschaft P ro V indonissa, 1 973, 1 1-42 U NZ

1 974: C . U nz, ' Römische M ilitärfunde a us B aden, e in N achtrag', J ahresbericht d er G esellschaft P ro V indonissa, 1 974, 8 5-91

U NZ 1 986: C . U nz ( ed.), S tudien z u d en M ilitärgrenzen R oms I II. 1 3. I nternational L imeskongreß A alen 1 983 V orträge, ( Stuttgart 1 986) V INCE 1 968: J . V ince,

D iscovering H orse B rasses,

( Tring 1 968)

W ACHER & M CWHIRR 1 982: J .S. W acher & A .D. M cWhirr, C irencester E xcavations 1 : E arly R oman O ccupation a t C irencester, ( Cirencester 1 982) W ALKE 1 965: N . W alke, D as r ömische D onaukastelle S orviodunum ( Limesforschungen 3 ), ( Berlin 1 965) W EBSTER 1 949: G . W ebster, o f R oman S tudies, 3 9,

' The l egionary f ortress a t 1 949, 5 7-78

S traubing

L incoln ', J ournal

W EBSTER 1 958: G . W ebster, ' The b ath-house a t W all, S taffordshire, e xcavations i n 1 956', T ransactions o f t he B irmingham A rchaeological S ociety,

7 4,

1 956 ( 1958),

1 2-25

W EBSTER 1 960: G . W ebster, ' The R oman m ilitary a dvance S capula', A rchaeological J ournal, 1 05, 1 958 ( 1960), W EBSTER

1 971:

G .

W ebster,

f rom F remington H agg',

u nder 4 9-98

O storius

' A h oard o f R oman m ilitary e quipment f rom

i n R .M .

B utler ( ed).,

1 94

S oldier

a nd

C ivilian

i n R oman Y orkshire - E ssays t o C ommemorate t he N ineteenth C entury o f t he F oundation o f Y ork, ( Leicester 1 971), 1 07-25 W EBSTER 1 974: G . W ebster, ' A R oman m ilitary h arness m ount H ertford Museum ', A ntiquaries J ournal, 5 4, 1 974, 8 6-7

i n

t he

W EBSTER 1 979: G . W ebster, ' Final r eport o n t he e xcavations o f t he R oman f ort a t W addon H ill, S toke A bbott, 1 963-69', P roceedings o f t he D orset N atural H istory a nd A rchaeology S ociery, 1 01, 1 979, 5 1-90 W EBSTER 1 981: G . W ebster, i n B ritain A .D.48-58,

R ome A gainst C aratacus. ( London 1 981)

T he

R oman

C ampaigns

W EBSTER 1 985: G . W ebster, T he R oman I mperial A rmy o f t he F irst a nd S econd C enturies A .D., e d.3, ( London 1 985) W EICHSELBAUMER 1 977: H . W eichselbaumer, ' Zur R estaurierung G rabstele d es O clatius i n N euss', N eusser J ahrbuch, 1 977, 2 1-2

d er

W ERNER 1 952: J . W erner, ' Opus i nterrasile a n r ömischen P ferdegeschirr d es 1 . J ahrhunderts', i n F estschrift f ür R udolph E gger, B d.1, ( Klagenfurt 1 952), 4 23-34 W HEELER 1 926: R .E.M. W heeler, T he R oman F ort a t B recon ( Transactions o f t he H onorable S ociety o f C ymmrodorion 3 7), ( London 1 926) W ILSON 1 970: B ritannia,

D .R. W ilson, ' Roman B ritain i n 1 969. I , 1 970, 2 69-305

I s ites e xplored',

Z ADOKS-JOSEPHUS J ITTA & W ITTEVEEN: A .N. Z adoks-Josephus J itta & A .M . W itteveen, ' Roman b ronze l unulae f rom t he N etherlands', O udheidkundige M ededelingen u it h et R ijksmuseum v an O udheden t e L eiden, 5 8, 1 67-95

1 95

' SMALL F INDS'

F ROM T URRETS ON HADRIAN'S WALL

L indsay A llason-Jones

I n A rchaeologia A eliana f or 1 973 D orothy C harlesworth d iscussed J ohn C layton 's e xcavation o f T urret 2 9a a t B lack C arts. S he r eferred t o h is f inding ' coins o f V espasian, T rajan, H adrian a nd C onstantine t he G reat b ut n o i ntervening e mperors, f ragments o f m illstone, c oarse p ottery, s ome s amian, b roken g lass, a nimal b ones a nd h orn'. ' In f act' s he c oncluded, ' the n ormal r ange o f f inds f rom a t urret'. T he p urpose o f t his p aper i s t o e xamine t he m aterial f rom t urrets o n H adrian 's W all i n t he l ight o f t his s tatement i n o rder t o a scertain w hether ' small f inds' o f c opper a lloy, b one, i ron, e tc., a re i ndeed m issing f rom t he a rchaeological r ecord o f t urrets a nd, i f t hey a re p resent, w hat i nformation t hey c an g ive u s a s t o t he u se a nd d ate o f t he t urrets o n H adrian 's W all. 7 4 t urrets h ave b een e xcavated i n f ull o r p art, o f which 4 7 a ppear t o h ave p roduced n o s mall f inds ( see A ppendix). M ost o f t he s urviving m aterial i s h oused i n e ither t he M useum o f A ntiquities o f t he U niversity a nd S ociety o f A ntiquaries o f N ewcastle u pon T yne, i n t he T ullie H ouse M useum a nd A rt G allery, C arlisle, o r i n t he G illam c ollection o f t he D epartment o f A rchaeology, N ewcastle u pon T yne U niversity. U nfortunately m uch m aterial h as d isappeared s ince e xcavation a nd o ne h as h ad t o r ely h eavily o n t he p ublished r eports, h owever s ketchy. C onversely t he t hree c ollections h ave a lso r evealed m any f inds w hich a re n ot m entioned a t a ll i n t he e xcavation r eports. T he t urrets v ary c onsiderably i n t he q uantity o f f inds p roduced w hich m ay o r m ay n ot r eflect t he e fficiency a nd e xtent o f t he e xcavation. W herever p ossible i n t he C atalogue b elow t he e xact f indspot i s m entioned b ut f ew e xcavators s pecified i n t heir r eports w hether t he f inds c ame f rom i nside o r o utside t he t urret w alls, o r h ow m uch o f t he t urret w as c leared. M any o f t he e xcavations i n t he 1 930s w ere s imply i ntended t o c onfirm t he l ocation o f a t urret a nd c onsisted o f a s ingle n arrow t rench. I w ould l ike t o t hank C olin R ichardson o f T ullie H ouse M useum f or h is u nflagging e fforts i n t racking d own s ome o f t he m ore e lusive f inds a nd J ulian B ennett a nd N eil H olbrook f or d rawing m y a ttention t o s ome o f t he l ess w ell k nown e xcavation r ecords. T he f inds w ere p atiently d rawn b y L iz L azenby a nd a re r eproduced a t 1 :1 u nless o therwise s tated. C atalogue e ntries i ndicated w ith a d ot •

a re i llustrated.

C ATALOGUE 7 b D enton H all

( NZ 1 986 6 555) E xcavated i n 1 929.

N one o f t he f inds a re n ow a vailable:

A A4 V II,

1 930,

1 47.

F irst f loor l ayer: ' Nothing w as f ound i n i t, a part f rom a f ragment o f b ronze a nd a l ittle m ineral c oal'. P eriod

I :

' Among

t he

o ther f inds w ere a s pearhead, m uch c orroded;

1 97

s everal p ieces o f t ubular b ronze s heathing, t hat m ay h ave t he e dge o f a s hield; a nd p art o f a h ob-nailed b oot'. p .150: f ound; p ieces, r ounded

c ome

f rom

' Besides t he t wo s tone b owls... p arts o f t hree h and-mills w ere o ne o f t hem w as f airly c omplete, b ut b roken i nto s everal a nd t he u pper s tone w orn v ery t hin. T here w as a lso a r oughly b all o f s andstone, d iameter 3 i nches, w ith t wo g rooves c ut a t

r ight a ngles o f a c ord'.

r ound t he c ircumference, a pparently f or t he a ttachment

1 0a T hrockley ( NZ 1 602 6 682) F ound i n 1 928. E xcavated i n 1 980. •

1 .

I ron s pearhead w ith a l ong

l eaf-shaped

b lade

w ith

l ow

g ently

c urved s houlders. T he b lade h as am id-rib o n b oth f aces. T he s ocketed s hank h as a n i ron p in r iveted r ight t hrough. S urviving L : 2 86mm, M ax. W o f b lade: 5 4mm, D o f s ocket: 1 9mm, L o f r ivet: 2 2mm. C ontext 1 4. A A5 X I, 1 983, 5 1, F ig.16. R eproduced b y k ind p ermission o f J . B ennett. M useum o f A ntiquities 1 980.12. 2 .

I ncomplete m ottled b rown f lint t humb-scraper. L : 2 3mm. O ccupation l evel. A A5 X I, 1 983, A ntiquities 1 980.12.

B ronze A ge. 5 1. M useum

o f

3 . M ottled b rown f lint s truck f lake w ith n o s econdary w orking. W hite c ortex s till v isible. L : 2 6mm. O ccupation l evel. A A5 X I, 1 983, 5 1. M useum o f A ntiquities 1 980.12. 4 .

S truck f lake o f f lint b urnt w hite. L : 2 1mm. O ccupation A ntiquities 1 980.12.

5 .

l evel.

A A5

S truck f lake o f f lint b urnt w hite. L : 1 8mm. O ccupation l evel. A A5 X I,

X I,

1 983,

1 983,

5 1.

M useum

o f

5 1.

1 7a W elton W est ( NZ 0 580 6 825) E xcavated i n 1 931. B allista b all o f w hinstone. D : 5 3mm. W eight 2 88g. M useum o f A ntiquities i n e xcavation r eport: A A4 I X, 1 932, 2 57).

1 934.28.

( Not m entioned

1 8a W allhouses E ast ( NZ 0 434 6 844) E xcavated i n 1 931. F ound b ut n o l onger a vailable: ' A s mall b allista b all,

1 8b W allhouses W est •

1 .

A A4 I X,

1 932,

2 59

34 i nches i n d iameter'.

( NZ 0 384 6 844) L ocated i n 1 931,

e xcavated i n 1 959.

C ircular p late b rooch o f c opper a lloy w ith f our o penwork p eltae a rranged a round a r aised f lat b oss w hich c ontains a d isc o f r ed

1 98

e namel a nd h as b een m ade s eparately a nd r iveted i nto p osition. T he p eltae a nd t he b rooch i tself h ave r aised e dges a nd t he r esultant s unken f ield i s f illed w ith d ark b lue e namel. A round t he e dge a re p rojecting l ugs - t wo a re s mall a nd s emicircular(?) a nd a re p laced o pposite e ach o ther, t he t hird i s r ectangular a nd c overs t he c atchplate whilst t he f ourth i s l ooped a nd c overs t he h inge. T he h inged p in i s s till i n p osition. T his b rooch h as p arallels f rom C anterbury ( Smith V ol.VII ( 1880) P l.XXI); K naith P ark, L incs. ( in p rivate h ands); W allsend ( recent e xcavations N o.1310) a nd S outh S hields ( Allason-Jones i n M iket 1 983, N o.190). E xamination o f t he b rooches s uggests t he p ossibility t hat t hey m ay b e t he p roducts o f t he s ame m ould. L ate 2 nd c entury A D. M ax. D : 3 4mm , T otal H : 1 2mm. L ayer 2 . O ccupation d ebris o utside t urret. A A4 X LIII, 1 965, 9 ,d. M useum o f A ntiquities 1 961.21. •

•

2 .

3 .

F ragment o f a c urved c opper a lloy d isc w ith a r ounded e dge. D : 4 3mm, T : 1 .5mm. L ayer 1 6. F loor f oundation. A A4 X LIII, 9 6. G illam C ollection B W16.

1 965,

T hin c opper a lloy s heet s playing a t o ne e nd w ith a s mall c ircular h ole i n t he c entre n ear o ne e nd ( D: 2 mm) a nd a l arge h ole a t t he v ery e nd o f o ne ' arm ' ( D: 3 mm) p ushed r oughly t hrough. T races o f a nother h ole o n t he o pposite ' arm ' s urvive. L : 5 5mm, T : 0 .25mm. L ayer 2 2. F ound i n f oundation t rench o f s outh w all o f t urret. A A4 X LIII, 1 965, 9 6,A . G illam C ollection F 22.

•

4 .

R ectangular s trip o f c opper a lloy. L : 1 9mm; W :9mm; T : 0 .75mm. L ayer 9 . A shy l evel w ith a ssociated h earth, s tone e dged g ulley a nd l arge f lags a t w est. A A4 X LIII, 1 965, 9 7. G illam C ollection.

•

•

•

5 . R ectangular b one p laque w ith c hamfered c ircular h ole i n e ach c orner. I ncomplete. L : 3 9mm , W : 1 8mm, T : 5 mm. D rawn a t 1 :2. t rench f or 1 8th c entury c ottage w all, d ug A A4 X LIII, 1 965, 9 9,F. G illam C ollection A E

e dges

a nd

a d rilled

L ayer 1 . F oundation i nto r uins o f t urret. 1A .

6 . L eaf-shaped a rrowhead o f d ark b rown f lint. B ronze A ge. L : 1 8mm, M ax.W: 1 4mm . L ayer 3 . L ast s urviving f loor o f A A4 X LIII, 1 965, 9 8,C. G illam C ollection A L 3 l b. 7 .

S truck

f lake

t urret.

o f h oney b rown f lint w ith p art o f t he c ortex s till

v isible. N o s econdary w orking. B ronze A ge. L : 2 5mm. L ayer 4 . R obbing o f w est w all o f 1 965, 9 9. G illam C ollection A K4. A lso f ound b ut n o l onger a vailable:

A A4 X LIII,

t urret. A A4

1 965,

X LIII,

9 6-9.

' Three u nidentifiable i ron o bjects o f o val s ection a pproximately 21/ 2" i n l ength '. L ayer 1 6. F loor f oundation. ' Iron n ail w ith r ound h ead a pproximately 7/ 8" d iameter a nd s hank o f s quare s ection a pproximately 23S " l ong o verall. A lso o ther i ron c orroded i nto s mall f ragments'. L ayer 2 1. A sh u nder c obbled

1 99

h earth i n d oorway. ' Iron s tud'.

L ayer 2 0. A sh a ssociated w ith h earth i n d oorway.

' Broken i ron n ail'. L ayer 1 3. L ayer o verlying o riginal f loor. ' 3 p ieces o f m uch c orroded i ron r epresenting a n o bject o f 3/ 8" s quare s ection , a bout 442" i n l ength. 3 s hoe s tuds'. L ayer 1 5. T he a sh p it. ' Iron o bject w ith r ight-angled e nd, 342" l ong. 1 0 i ron s hoe s tuds r epresenting p arts o f o ne s hoe. T he s ize s eems v ariable p robably d ue t o c orrosion b ut t he b etter p reserved h ave a s quare p yramidal h ead 3/ 8" a cross a nd 3/ 8" t apered s hank. 3 i ron n ails o f i ndeterminate l ength, o ne w ith h ead'. L ayer 1 1. A sh o verlying f loor. ' Fragment o f c orroded i ron f rom s hoe. 1 6 s hoe s tuds r epresenting a d isintegrated s hoe. T hree l ayers o f l eather a re d iscernible o n s ome s tuds'. L ayer 9 . A sh l evel w ith a ssociated h earth, s tone e dged g ulley a nd l arge f lags a t w est. ' Eight

c orroded

s hoe s tuds w ith d iameter o f h ead b etween

a nd o ne p reserving s hank t o l ength o f t urret.

5/ 8"

3 1 4". L ayer 8 . F lags

a nd 1 " i nside

' Shield b oss, a pproximately 834 " d iameter, w ith p erforation o n f lange f or a ttachment. F ragmentary ( B). 9 s hoe s tuds w ith h eads a pproximately 5/ 8" d iameter a nd c ircular. P art o f o ne s hoe? I ron n ail 2 " l ong ( broken) w ith s hank o f s quare s ection '. L ayer 9 a. A ssociated w ith f lagging i n w estern h alf o f t urret. ' Iron o bject o f f lat o r o val s ection o f 34" x 534 " l ong. P erhaps a t ie. R ound h eaded n ail 5/ 8 " x 3/ 4" s hank'. L ayer 3 . L ast s urviving f loor o f t urret. ' Iron s hoe s tud. N ail? a pprox. 134 " r ubbish d eposit o utside t urret.

b ut

b roken'.

L ayer

6 .

F inal

' Portion o f i ron b lade, p erhaps f rom d agger o r s pearhead. L ength 414 " , 11/ 2" w ide, t apering t o r ounded e nd 51 8 ". T races o f w ood ' survive o n p oint ( E). I ron s hoe s tud, l ength 5/ 8" , t hickness o f h ead 14 ", d iameter o f h ead 3 1 8". F ragments o f t wo n ails. T hey a re t oo c orroded t o a ssess t heir o riginal f orm '. L ayer 2 . O ccupation d ebris o utside t urret. ' Square s hanked n ail a pprox. 24 2" l ong w ith s quare R uin o f t urret e xternally. ' Two

s hoe

s tuds,

h ead

o f

o ne

i n

a cross.

2 00

h ead'.

L ayer

f orm o f f our-sided p yramid

5 .

3/ 8"

2 5b S t. •

1 .

O swalds

( NZ 9 359 6 945) F ound i n 1 930,

e xcavated i n 1 959.

S hort c opper a lloy r od, a pparently c omplete, e xpanding t o t he c entre a nd t he c onical e nds. P ossibly t he c entre b ar o f a n o penwork b elt p late. L : 2 2.5mm , M ax. T : 5 mm. U nstratified. AA 4 X LIII, 1 965, 1 18,N. G illam C ollection A A M .

e 2 . C urved

s trip o f c opper a lloy b roken a long a r aised e dge. T he u pper f ace h as a s eries o f s hort i ncised l ines w hilst t he u nder f ace s hows t races o f t inning. L : 2 4mm, W : 1 5mm, T : 0 .25mm. U nstratified. A A4 X LIII, 1 965, 1 18,R. G illam C ollection B H O .

•

3 .

F lat c opper a lloy s trip w ith u ndulating e de .es. W aste? L : 2 7mm, W : 5 .5mm, T :lmm. U nstratified. A A4 X LIII, 1 965, G illam C ollection B H N .

1 18,0.

•

4 .

L ength o f U -sectioned c opper a lloy s heathing ; c urved a t o ne e nd. L : 6 1mm, W : 6 mm. L ayer 3 . O utside t urret. A A4 X LIII, 1 965, 1 17,1. G illam C ollection C F D 3 b.

•

5 .

S mall c opper a lloy s tud w ith a h ollow d omed h ead a nd a t hin s quare-sectioned s hank. D : 9 .5mm, H :8mm. Unstratified. A A4 X LIII, 1 965, 1 18,P. G illam C ollection A R 0 7 .

•

6 . H ollow d omed h ead f rom a c opper a lloy s tud f illed w ith l ead-tin a lloy c aulking w ith s pace f or a s quare-sectioned s hank. D : 2 6mm, H : 6 .5mm. G illam C ollection AR 0 7 .

•

7 .

C ow s capula t rimmed f lat a nd p ierced b y t wo c ircular h oles ( D: 7 mm) a t t he a pex. A s imilar i mplement i s known f rom S outh S hields ( Allason-Jones i n M iket 1 983, 1 37, N o.31). M acGregor ( 1985, 1 79-80) s uggests t hat t hey w ere u sed f or h andling f lour. L : 1 12mm. D rawn a t 1 :2. G illam C ollection A D L .

•

8 .

B one c ounter w ith a c ountersunk f ace p ierced b y a c ircular c entral h ole ( 2mm d iam.). C ut f rom a l ong b one. S ee M acGregor 1 985, f or d iscussion. D : 1 9.5mm, T :2.5mm. L ayer 2 . O utside t urret. A A4 X LIII, 1 965, 1 18,M .

•

9 .

C ounter c ut f rom g rey c oarse w are. D : 1 8mm, T : 5 mm.

• 1 0.

C ounter c ut f rom g rey c oarse w are. D :

2 0mm,

T :6mm.

• 1 1.

C ounter c ut f rom C entral G aulish s amian p ottery. D : 1 3-16mm, T : 7 mm

• 1 2.

C ounter c ut f rom E ast G aulish s amian p ottery. V ery r oughly c ut. D : 1 6mm, T : 6 mm.

T he

C hamfered e dge.

a bove c ounters w ere a ll f ound i n L ayer 2 o utside t he t urret.

2 01

A A4

X LIII,

1 965,

1 18. G illam C ollection A H 2 a B .

1 3. H alf a l arge s andstone d isc. L id. D : 1 15mm , T : 2 5mm. L ayer 1 . A A4

X LIII,

1 965,

18,L.

G illam

C ollection. 1 4. L arge s andstone d isc. L id. D : 1 29mm, T :21mm. L ayer

8 .

O utside

t urret. A A4 X LIII,

1 965,

1 17,E. G illam C ollection B C 8 G . 1 5. L arge s andstone d isc. L id. D : 1 15mm, T : 2 1mm. G illam C ollection C M R . A lso f ound b ut n o l onger a vailable:

A A4 X LIII,

' Iron s tuds f rom s ole o f s hoe' L ayer 1 0: ' Iron s hoe s tud, 3 4" l ong' L ayer 1 1: ' Thin b ronze d isc' L ayer 6 : ' Iron n ail,

1 965,

1 16-7.

o n f lagging.

f oundation f or f loor.

n orth f ace o f H adrian's W all.

s ome 642" l ong' L ayer 8 :

o utside t urret.

' Iron n ail, l ength 242", h ead 51 8 " s quare. A lso p art o f a nother l arge n ail. P iece o f b one s harpened a s a p ointed t ool.' L ayer 3 : o utside t urret. ' Some 8 t o 9 i ron s hoe s tuds, p robably p art o f t he s ame s hoe. T he r ust p reserves t he r emains o f t hree t hicknesses o f l eather. A lso s ome 2 0 s hoe s tuds, a pparently a ll p art o f a nother s hoe f rom j ust i nside t he t urret e ntrance. A gain r ust p reserves t hree t hicknesses o f l eather. F lake o f s truck f lint s howing b ulb o f p ercussion.' L ayer 9 :

f loor m aterial.

' Some h alf d ozen i ron s hoe s tuds r ather c orroded. P art o f a s ubstantial i ron n ail. A lso i ron d isc, 1 44" i n d iameter, o riginal t hickness p robably c . 4" L ayer 1 6: w orking a rea. ' Iron a rrow h ead'. T he i llustration ( J) s hows t his t o b e a t rilobate t ype w ith a s hort t ang: s ee C oulston 1 985, 2 64. L ayer 9 a: w orking a rea. ' Fragments o f 2 l arge n ails, a nd 2 s maller n ails,

l ength

a bout

1".

L ayer 9 a: w orking a rea. ' Fragments

o f s ome 2 o r 3 i ron n ails, a nd a n u nidentifiable p iece o f

i ron s trip, m uch b ent,

4 2" w ide

a nd

s ome

2 "

l ong'.

L ayer

1 :

m ortar s urface. ' Some 3 0 i ron s hoe s tuds, f lagging i n e ntrance'.

a pparently

' Fragment o f i ron n ail'. L ayer 2 : ' Iron n ail o f r ectangular s ection,

p art

o f t he s ame s hoe,

o n

o utside t urret. l ength 134",

2 42mm'. L ayer 5 .

2 02

t apers

f rom

5 mm

t o

' Iron s hoe s tud. A lso o ne o ther r ather c orroded s hoe s tud, a nd v arious f ragments r epresenting 1 0 n ails. P iece o f l ead f rom t he c ore o n t op o f t he G reat W all w est o f t he t urret. S heet l ead 214" X 11e. T here a re 9 s mall s tabbing m arks o n o ne s ide o f i t. O nly 1o r 2 mm t hick. S truck f lint f lake, n o s econdary w orking.' U nstratified.

2 6a H igh B runton ( NZ 9 264 6 969) F ound i n 1 930, 1 .

•

•

2 .

3 .

F ragment o f c opper a lloy b inding o f U -section. L : 1 01mm, W : 6 mm. L ayer 7 : f looring. A A4 X LIII, M useum o f A ntiquities 1 975.11.

1 965,

1 37,

C opper a lloy n eedle o f o val s ection w ith a l ong o val e ye. L : 6 7mm. L ayer 7 : f looring. A A4 X LIII, 1 965, 1 37, E . M useum A ntiquities 1 975.11.

D .

o f

C opper a lloy d agger p late w ith c urved s ides a nd b lunt e nds w ith a c entral r ectangular h ole ( 10 x 4 mm). L :

•

e xcavated i n 1 959.

2 5mm , W :

9 mm. Museum o f A ntiquities 1 975.11.

4 .

R ectangular c opper a lloy s trip w ith r ounded e nds, b oth p ierced b y l mm c ircular h ole. L : 3 0mm, W : 1 2mm. L ayer 7 : f looring. A A4 X LIII, 1 965, 1 37, G . M useum o f A ntiquities 1 975.11.

5 .

C opper a lloy s tud w ith a h ollowed f langed b oss h ead a nd a s hort t apering s quare-sectioned s hank. D : 2 1mm, T otal H : 1 3mm. L ayer 7 : f looring. A A4 X LIII, 1 965, 1 37, B .

6 .

F ragment o f a c rushed c opper a lloy s tud h ead. N o m easurements p ossible. L ayer 2 : f lagged 1 965, 1 38. M useum o f A ntiquities 1 975.11.

f loor.

A A4

X LIII,

7 .

T iny f ragment o f c opper a lloy s heathing o f U -section. L : 2 1mm, W : 6 mm. M useum o f A ntiquities 1 975.11.

8 .

T iny f ragment o f a n o penwork c opper a lloy b elt p late. L : 1 5mm, T : l mm. M useum o f A ntiquities 1 975.11.

9 .

S mall c opper a lloy t ack m ade b y r olling a s heet a nd h ammering t he h ead f lat. L : 1 5mm, D o f h ead: 6 .5mm. L ayer 2 : f lagged f loor. A A4 X LIII, 1 965, 1 38. M useum o f A ntiquities 1 975.11.

1 0.

S everal f ragments o f s heet c opper a lloy s ome o f w hich a re c learly o ffcuts. L ayer 4 : b ronze w orking h earth. A A4 X LIII, 1 965, J . M useum o f A ntiquities 1 975.11.

T he b rass k nob i llustrated a s F i n t he e xcavation r eport i s m odern. 1.

S heep's

m etacarpal

w ith

o ne

e nd

2 03

b roken a nd a d eep g roove c ut

a round t he s haft. K nife h andle? L : 9 3mm. U nstratified. A A4 X LIII,

1 965, R . M useum o f

A ntiquities

1 975.11. O12.

C ircular-sectioned b one p in b roken o ff a cross t he s pigot h ead w hich m ay h ave h eld a s hale o r g lass b ead a s a t S outh S hields ( Allason-Jones a nd M iket 1 984, T ype G ). L : 6 3mm. L ayer 4 : b ronze w orking h earth.

A A4 X LIII,

1 965,

1 38, K .

M useum o f A ntiquities 1 975.11. 1 3.

S andstone w hetstone o f r ectangular s hape a nd s ection. L : 7 0mm, W : 2 1mm, T : 1 5mm. L ayer 2 : f lagged f loor. A A4 X LIII, 1 965, 1 38, I . M useum o f A ntiquities 1 975.11.

1 4. D isc c ut f rom a w all s herd o f c oarse g rey w are. u sed t o c entre t he c ircle i s s till v isible. M useum o f A ntiquities 1 975.11. 1 5.

F ragment o f a c lay c rucible. T : 9 mm. L ayer 4 : b ronze w orking

a rea. A A4

T he c ompass p oint

X LIII,

1 965,

1 38.

M useum o f A ntiquities 1 975.11. O16.

I ncomplete

l arge

c lay

m ould

f or

c asting

a

c ircular

o r

s emicircular o bject o f 5 8mm d iameter w ith a n o uter r ib a nd a d eep c entral b oss. A w ide g ulley r uns f rom t he o uter e dge o f t he o bject s hape t o t he r ounded c orner o f t he m ould. T he b ack o f t he m ould s lopes i n a nd t here i s a s uggestion t hat t here w ould h ave b een a c ountersunk h ole t hrough t he c entre. L ayer 1 : r obber t renches o f t urret w all. A A4 X LIII, 1 965, 1 39, O . D rawn a t • 1 7.

1 :2. M useum o f A ntiquities 1 975.11.

T riangular

c lay

m ould w ith t wo c orners m issing. T his a ppears t o

h ave b een u sed t o c ast a n o penwork m ount s uch a s a b aldric m ount, c f O ldenstein 1 976, T af.31, N os.217-28. M id 2 nd c entury. L : 3 5mm, W : 3 8mm, T : l lmm. D rawn a t 1 :2. L ayer 1 : r obber t renches o f t urret w all. A A4 X LIII, 1 965, 1 39, N . M useum o f A ntiquities 1 975.11. • 1 8.

T iny c orner f ragment o f a c lay m ould. E nough s urvives t o s uggest t hat i t w as u sed t o c ast a t rompetenmuster o penwork m ount o r b rooch. L : 2 0mm. D rawn a t 1 :2. L ayer 1 : r obber t rench o f t urret w all. X LIII, 1 965, 1 39, N . M useum o f A ntiquities 1 975.11.

A lso f ound b ut n o l onger a vailable: A

A A4 X LIII,

1 965,

A A4

1 37-9.

' Handled i ron t ool m uch c orroded. T races o f a h andle, p robably w ooden s urvive. L ength 742". C orrosion o n b lade p reserves m arks o f a pparently s traw . P art o f a s ubstantial i ron n ail, a nd a lso a 2 " n ail'. L ayer 9 :

i nitial t urret f loor.

' Five p ieces o f a n a pparently f langed, d ished, c ircular i ron o bject, d iameter a bout 7 ", r etaining t races o f w ood u nder t he f lange, a nd v egetable m atter, a pparently h eather, o n t he u pper s urface. P robably a s hield b oss. I ron n ail, l ength 3 ". I ron n ail, l ength 442". 3 " n ail, o riginally w ith l arge s quared h ead a nd p art ( H) o f

2 04

a nother L ayer 7 :

n ail. I ron s hoe s tuds, s tone f looring.

p reserving s hape o f t oe o f s hoe.'

' Iron n ail,

l ength 214"

L ayer 8 :

s and f loor.

' Iron n ail,

l ength 2 42 "

L ayer 2 :

f lagged f loor.

' Roughly c ircular p iece o f s andstone, r ed a nd y ellow , 114 " t hick, w ith h ole c ut m ore o r l ess c entrally. P robably a c over'. L ayer 1 : r obber t renches o f t urret w all. 2 9a

B lack 1 971.

C arts

( NY 8 842 7 129) E xcavated i n 1 873,

F ound b ut n o l onger a vailable:

A A2 V II,

1 912, a nd a gain i n

2 60.

' Fragments o f m illstones'. I n 1 971 n o f inds w ere m ade:

A A5 I ,

1 973,

9 7.

2 9b L imestone B ank ( NY 8 795 7 148) E xcavated i n 1 912. •

1 .

C opper a lloy p enannular b rooch w ith t races o f t inning o n t he c ircular-sectioned s hank which e xpands s harply t o t he m illed knob t erminals. P art o f t he s trip p in s urvives w rapped a round t he s hank. F owler 1 960, T ype A 2, 1 74 f or p arallels. F owler i ndicates t hat T ype A 2 h ad a l ong p eriod o f m anufacture f rom l st-4th c entury A D a nd s ays t hat ' variations o n T ypes A a nd D i n p articular w ere c ommon o n s ites c onnected i n s ome w ay w ith t he a uxiliaries o f t he a rmy'. D : 3 2mm, T : 2 .5mm. C hesters M useum.

•

2 .

I ncomplete c opper a lloy p enannular b rooch o f

t he

s ame

t ype

a s

a bove b ut s maller. D : 2 6mm, T : 2 mm. C hesters M useum. •

3 . L eaf-shaped c opper a lloy t erminal p late w ith a s mall c ircular h ole ( D: 2 mm) a t t he e nd. T here i s a r aised r ib i n t he c entre a nd t he p late i s b roken a cross a l arger c ircular h ole ( D: 3 mm). L : 3 8mm, W : 2 0mm. C hesters Museum.

•

4 .

S mall t urquoise b lue o paque g lass m elon b ead. D :

9 mm, H :

7 mm. C hesters M useum.

A lso f ound b ut n o l onger a vailable:

A A3 I X,

1 913,

6 1:

' An i ron s hield b oss o f t he n ormal p attern, a l arge l eaf-shaped s ocketed s pear-head ( 10 i nches l ong).., s everal i ndeterminate f ragments o f b ronze, ..pieces o f m illstones, b oth o f l ocal s tone a nd o f A ndernach l ava, a f lint s craper a nd a f lint c ore, a nd a b roken s tone-slab s cored f or a d raughts-board'.

3 0b C arrawburgh W est ( NY 8 654 7 135) E xcavated i n 1 912.

2 05

• I ron l oop-headed s pike w ith a r ectangular t apering s hank.

S ee M anning

1 985, 1 30. L : 9 9mm, W a cross l oop: 2 3mm. D rawn a t 1 :2. G illam C ollection T opsoil A C. ( Not m entioned i n e xcavation r eport: A A3 I X , 1 913, 5 5).

3 1a T he S trands

( NY 8 557 7 118) E xcavated i n 1 966.

• R ectangular f ragment o f c opper a lloy w ith o ne e nd c omplete. a re r ounded a nd t here i s a c entral r ib a long t he u pper w hole i s s lightly c urved. H elmet d ecoration? L : 3 3mm, W : 1 5mm, T : 5 mm. G illam C ollection N ewsbulletin N orthd. C umb. a nd W estmorland N o.12, S ept.

T he e dges f ace. T he A F. A rch. 1 971, 1 6.

3 1b C arraw E ast ( NY 8 506 7 110) E xcavated i n 1 966. • C ircular-sectioned i ron r od, c urved w ith b oth e nds b roken. L : 1 10mm, T : l lmm. D rawn a t 1 :2. G illam C ollection AM .

3 3b C oesike ( NY 8 213 7 055) F ound i n 1 930, e xcavated i n 1 968. •

1 .

C opper a lloy d isc b rooch m issing i ts c entral b oss. A n i nner r ing h as m etal d ots s howing t hrough d ark b lue e namel whilst a n o uter r ing h as a s calloped e dge a nd i s f illed w ith r ed e namel. N one o f t he c atchplate s urvives a nd o nly t he s pring o f t he p in w hich i s h eld b etween t wo l ugs b y a n i ron p in. C f C oventina's W ell: A llason-Jones a nd M cKay 1 985, N o.43. 2 nd c entury A D. D : 3 0mm, T o f p late: 1 .25mm. R ubbish t ip o utside e ast w all o f t urret. A A4 L , 1 972, 1 71-4, F ig.8, N o.l. Museum o f A ntiquities 1 968.16.1.

•

2 .

C opper a lloy t rumpet b rooch w ith a f ine b ow w ith s tylized a canthus d ecoration a round t he w aist. T he l ower s hank i s t riangular i n s ection w ith i ncised m arginal l ines. T he f oot a nd c atchplate t urnover a re m issing. T he h ead i s r aised r im . A l oop a t t he b ack o f t he h ead s ecure t he s pring, a nd a s mall p rojection a t o ne w ith t he h ead. T he p in a nd t he s pring

i ncomplete b ut h as a which i s i ntended t o t he t op, a re c ast i n a re i ncomplete a nd

b roken b ut s till s urvive. C ollingwood a nd R ichmond 1 969, T ype R ii. E nd o f i st c entury - b eginning o f 2 nd. L : 4 9mm , W a cross w aist: 7 mm. R ubble i nside t urret. AA 4 L , 1 972, 1 75-6, F ig.8, N o.2. M useum o f A ntiquities 1 968.16.1:— •

3 . L ength o f c opper a lloy U -sectioned b inding. T he s ection i s r ather m ore a ngular t han i s u sual. L : 1 02mm, W :6mm. S pread o f b urnt m aterial f rom p rimary h earth. AA 4 L ,

•

4 .

1 972,

1 74,

F ig.9, N o.l. M useum o f A ntiquities 1 970.12.

C icular l ead p lug w ith f aint s cratches o n o ne f ace. D :

4 5mm. L atest f loor l evel.

A A4 L ,

1 972, F ig.9, N o.6. M useum

o f

A ntiquities 1 970.12. •

5 .

F ragment o f a n i ron k nife w ith f ragments s urviving o f a t wo-piece

2 06

b one h andle w hich i s s haped t o f ollow t he l ine o f t he b lade f or s ome d istance. T he b lade h as a s harp s houlder t o t he s traight b ack b ut a g entle c urve t o t he c urved c utting e dge. T he h andle i s f astened b y t wo i ron d isc-headed r ivets. L : 9 3mm. D rawn a t 1 :2. O ccupation a ssociated w ith s econdary h earth. A A4 L , 1 972, 1 75, F ig.9, N o.2. M useum o f A ntiquities 1 970.12:6 .

I ron b uckle o f o val s hape b ut v ery f ragmentary. T he s hank i s s emicircular i n s ection w ith a r ectangular-sectioned p in. D : 6 6 X 5 3mm, P in: 4 4mm. P acking b elow l atest f loor l evel. A A4 L , 1 972, 1 75, F ig.9, N o.5. M useum o f A ntiquities 1 970.12.

7 .

I ron n ail. L : 4 5mm. R ubble o utside A ntiquities 1 970.12.

8 .

9 .

1 0.

t urret. A A4

I ron n ail. L : 6 3mm. R ubble o utside A ntiquities 1 970.12. I ron n ail. L : 5 6mm. R uble o utside A ntiquities 1 970.12. I ron n ail. L : 4 3mm.

t urret.

L ,

A A4

t urret. A A4

1 972,

L)

L ,

1 71.

1 972,

1 972,

M useum

o f

1 71. M useum o f

1 71.

O ccupation a ssociated w ith p rimary f loor.

M useum

A A4 L ,

o f

1 972,

1 74. M useum o f A ntiquities 1 970.12. 1 1.

I ron n ail. L : 6 5mm. O ccupation a ssociated w ith p rimary f loor. A A4

L ,

1 972,

1 74. M useum o f A ntiquities 1 970.12. 1 2.

I ron n ail. L : 5 9mm. S pread o f b urnt m aterial f rom p rimary h earth. A A4 L , 1 972, 1 74. M useum o f A ntiquities 1 970.12.

1 3.

I ron n ail. L : 3 5mm. L evelling f or s econdary h earth. AA 4 L , o f A ntiquities 1 970.12.

1 4.

I ron n ail. L : 3 1mm. O ccupation 1 972,

1 5.

1 6.

1 75,

a ssociated

w ith

s econdary

1 972,

h earth. A A4

F ig.9, N o.3. M useum o f A ntiquities 1 970.12.

I ron n ail. L : 5 1mm. T rample o f l atest f loor l evel. o f A ntiquities 1 970.12. I ron n ail. L : 5 2mm. T rample o f l atest f loor. A A4 L ,

1 74. M useum

A A4 L ,

1 972,

1 972,

1 75.

L ,

—

1 75. M useum

M useum

o f

A ntiquities 1 970.12. 1 7. T hree i ron h obnails. D : 1 4mm, L : 1 5mm. O ccupation a ssociated w ith s econdary h earth. A A4 L , 1 972, 1 75, F ig.9, N o.4. M useum o f A ntiquities 1 970.12.

2 07

3 4a W est G rindon ( NY 8 128 7 043) F ound i n 1 913, a gain i n 1 971. •

1 .

e xcavated

i n

1 948

a nd

C opper a lloy ' dolphin' b rooch. T he b ow t apers f rom a b lunt h ead w ith a m edian g roove r unning t o t he f oot, f lanked b y s hallow r ibs w hich e xpand t o r aised o vals a t t he w aist. F rom t he o vals r un t wo m arginal g rooves. T he b ow e nds i n a g lobular t erminal w ith a r idge-and-grooved n eck. T he c atchplate i s p lain. A t t he h ead t he s hort o val-sectioned a rms e xpand s lightly a t t he e nds a nd a re p ierced t o t ake t he h inge p in b ut a re o therwise u ndecorated. T he s pring h as s even c oils a nd a v estigial s pring c lip s urvives. E ttlinger 1 973, T ype 3 8; C ollingwood a nd R ichmond 1 969, T ype H . C f N ewpark, P olmaise, S tirling ( Royal S cottish M useum L 1956.4): v ery s imilar s ilver b rooch b ut w ith a n o penwork c atchplate. i st t o e arly 2 nd c entury A D. L : 5 8mm, W a cross a rms: 1 8mm. Museum o f A ntiquities 1 975.15.

2 . R im a nd n eck o f a c opper a lloy v essel. T he r im t he n eck f lares w idely. D : 1 55mm. Museum o f A ntiquities 1 975.15.

i s

e xpanded

a nd

3 . F ragment o f a c ircular-sectioned c opper a lloy r ing. D : 3 5mm, T : 4 mm. M useum o f A ntiquities 1 975.15. •

4 .

I ron k nife b lade w ith a c onvex c utting e dge a nd a c oncave b ack. T he l ong r ectangular s hank e xtends b eyond t he h andle a nd e nds i n a w ide r ing. T he w ooden h andle i s i n t wo p ieces a nd i s d ecorated w ith i ncised t ransverse a nd c rossed l ines. T he h andle i s h eld i n p lace b y t wo i ron r ivets. L : 1 06mm, W : 5 4mm. D rawn a t 1 :2. t ype. A A5 I , 1 973, 1 09, F ig.10,

C f. M acGregor 1 985, N o.2. M useum o f

F ig.88e f or A ntiquities

1 975.15. 5 .

D isc-headed i ron s tud. L : 1 7mm, D o f h ead: 1 8mm. M useum o f A ntiquities 1 975.15.

6 .

N ine i ron h obnails. O n t he c lay f loor. A A5 I ,

1 973,

1 09, F ig.5. M useum o f A ntiquities

1 975.15. •

7 .

B lack

o r

i nset. D : 1 3mm, H :

v ery

d ark

6 .5mm.

g reen

b un-shaped

I n b locking

w all

i n

g lass c ounter o r b rooch e ast

s ide

o f

t urret.

M useum o f A ntiquities 1 975.15. •

8 .

G lass

c ylinder

b ead

w hich

t apers

d ecorated w ith b ands o f g rooves p owdery white. L : 1 6mm, W :

6 mm.

F rom

a long

t opsoil

s lightly a t t he e nd, a nd i s t he i nside

l ength. t urret.

D ecayed

t o

M useum

o f

A ntiquities 1 975.15. A lso f ound b ut n o l onger a vailable:

A A5 I ,

1 973,

1 09.

' Spearhead o n o riginal f loor w est s ide o f b aulk' F ig.10, N o.l.

2 08

' Two c hoppers,

o n o riginal f loor l evel'

F ig.10,

' Stirrup f ound i n c onsolidation, m edieval'

3 5a S ewingshields •

1 .

N os.3 a nd 4 .

F ig.10,

( NY 8 009 7 008) F ound i n 1 913,

N o.5.

e xcavated i n 1 958.

C opper a lloy w heel b rooch w ith a c ircular r ed e namelled d ot a t t he h ub. T he s ix s pokes a re d ecorated w ith t ransverse n otches a nd t here i s aw ide g roove a round t he i nner r im. A s eries o f s quares o f a lternate p ale b lue a nd r ed c hamplevg e namel r uns a round t he f lat r im w hich i s a lso n otched a long t he e dge. T he h inged p in i s m issing a lthough t he c urled c atchplate a nd l ugged h inge s urvive. E ttlinger 1 973, T ype 4 0. 2 nd c entury A D. W heel b rooches a nd s tuds a re c ommon i n t he m ilitary z ones o f B ritain a nd a re o ften a ssociated w ith t he c ult o f T aranis ( Jessop 1 979). D : 3 1mm, T o f w heel p late: l mm. L ayer 3 . O ccupation i nside t urret. AA 4 X LIII, 1 965, 1 55, D . M useum o f A ntiquities 1 959.3.

• 2 . F ragment o f a c opper a lloy v essel w ith u pright w alls a nd t wo b ands o f i ncised l ines a round t he r im a nd t wo m ore f urther d own. T he w all a ngles s harply i nward b elow t he l ast g roup o f l ines. S ee A A4 X LIII, 1 965, 1 55 f or m etal a nalysis. D : 8 0mm. D rawn a t 1 :2. L ayer 3 . O ccupation i nside t urret. AA 4 X LIII, 1 965, 1 55, A . M useum o f A ntiquities 1 963.6. — • 3 .

C opper a lloy s cabbard c hape o f c rescentic s hape w ith f ront a nd b ack i dentical b ut f or a s mall l ozenge-shaped h ole t hrough t he b ack ( 2 X 2 mm). S imilar c hapes a re a lso k nown f rom C orbridge ( Corstopitum M useum 7 5.1229), C hesters ( Chesters M useum : B udge 1 903, 3 95, N o.157) a nd S outh S hields ( Allason-Jones a nd M iket 1 984, 3 .404). H : 3 6mm, W : 5 5mm, T otal T : 1 2mm. U nstratified. A A4 X LIII, 1 56, J . G illam C ollection A 5 3 . —

4 . F ragment o f c urved U -sectioned c opper a lloy b inding. L : 2 6mm, W : 5 mm. U nstratified. A A4 X LIII, 1 965, 1 56,

I .

1 965,

G illam

C ollection A S 3 . S .

S mall q uartz s lingstone. D : 2 9mm. L ayer 3 . O ccupation i nside t urret. A A4 X LIII, B . G illam C ollection B D.

A lso f ound b ut n o l onger a vailable: E

1 965,

1 55,

1 55ff.

S traight-backed i ron knife w ith t he c utting e dge c urving o nly a t t he t ip. T he t ang i s s et i n l ine w ith t he b ack. L ayer 3 .

F

A A4 X LIII,

1 965,

O ccupation i nside t urret.

I ncomplete s ocketed i ron i mplement, f lat b lade a nd c urved s houlders. L ayer 3 .

O ccupation i nside t urret.

2 09

p ossibly a s pear, w ith a w ide

G

' Iron b lade, p erhaps a p iece o f d oor f urniture. F ound w ith i t w as a p iece o f 3 " i ron s trip, c urved, a nd o f t riangular s ection, t he s ide o f t he t riangle b eing 3/ 8" e ach. B oth p reserve t races o f w ood.' S mall n ail, w ood a dhering, l ength 1 44" ( incomplete). P art o f a s ubstantial n ail l ength 334". L ayer 3 .

O ccupation i nside t urret.

3 8b H ighshield C rag ( NY 7 639 6 785) E xcavated i n 1 911. S impson ( 1976) i llustrates a s election o f o bjects u nder t he h eading ' Objects o f B ronze, B one a nd G lass f rom H ousesteads, H ighshield C rag T urret ( 38b) a nd P eel C rag T urret ( 39a)' ( Fig.65). U nfortunately i t h as p roved i mpossible t o a scertain which o f t he o bjects w ere f ound a t H igh S hield C rag.

3 9a P eel C rag ( NY 7 562 6 763) E xcavated i n 1 909. •

1 . T wo l engths o f c opper a lloy U -sectioned b inding. L : 1 29mm, 9 8mm, W : 6 mm, 5 mm. D rawn a t 1 :2. F ound b elow t he u pper f loor l evel o f a c entral h earth. S impson 1 976, 9 9, F ig.65,6. G illam C ollection.

•

2 .

•

3 . L arge o val a nnular r ing o f o val s ection. D : 3 5.5 X 3 3mm, W : 4 mm , T : 4 .5mm. S impson 1 976,

S mall c opper a lloy a nnular r ing o f s emicircular s ection. D : 1 9mm, W : 2 mm, T : 3 mm. F ound n ear t he b urials o f a y oung m an a nd a n o lder w oman i n t he n orth-west c orner o f t he t urret. S impson 1 976, 1 00, F ig.65,1. G illam C ollection.

F ig.65,3.

G illam

C ollection. •

4 . R ough l ead d isc w ith a c onvex f ace. A s mall c ircular h ole h as b een d rawn t hrough t he c entre ( D: 2 .5mm). P ossibly c aulking f rom a c omposite s tud. D : 2 3mm, H : 5 mm. G illam C ollection.

•

5 . V ery c orroded h ave a n a rched s hort t apering T wo w ide b ands c entury A D. L : 1 05mm, W o f a t 1 :2.

•

6 .

a nd i ncomplete i ron k nife. T he b lade a ppears t o b ack a nd a s traight c utting e dge a nd t hickens t o a t ang w hich e nds i n a d isc t erminal, n ow b ent o ver. o f l ead c over t he j unction o f b lade a nd t ang. i st l ead b ands:

2 1mm, D epth o f l ead b ands:

l lmm. D rawn

G illam C ollection.

B lue o paque m elon b ead. D : l lmm, H : 9 .5mm. S impson 1 976,

F ig.65,4. G illam C ollection.

4 4b M ucklebank ( NY 6 814 6 671) E xcavated i n 1 892. F ound b ut n o l onger a vailable: ' Some

b uckles,

s tuds

a nd

A A2 X XIV,

s mall

1 903,

1 6.

o bjects o f b ronze w ere f ound j ust

2 10

a bove t he o riginal f loor l evel'. ' The n umber o f v ery l arge i ron n ails, m any m uch o xydized, f ound a t t his s tage o f t he e xcavations s eems t o i ndicate t hat a g reat p roportion o f t he u pper p art o f t he t urret m ust h ave b een c onstructed o f w ood'. ' There w ere n ot f ound a ny o f t he r ounded s tones u sed a s p rojectiles i n t he b allista'.

4 5a W alltown C rags ( NY 6 740 6 635) F ound i n 1 883, 1 886, e xcavated a gain i n 1 959. F ound b ut n o l onger a vailable: ' Socketed i ron g ouge c f.

A A4 X LIII,

C urle,

1 965,

1 66.

N ewstead p l.LIX, N o.13'.

' Iron s trip o f s ome 61/ 2" i n l ength, 1/ 2 " . P erhaps a t ie'. ' Fragments o f t wo i ron n ails,

p artially e xcavated i n

t hickness o f

48" ,

1 f airly s ubstantial

a nd

w idth

o f

( length 3 1 / 4").'

4 8a W illowford E ast ( NY 6 296 6 629) E xcavated i n 1 923. F ound b ut n o l onger a vailable:

C W2 X XVI,

1 926, 4 29-50.

' Stone -T wo f ragments o f m icaceous s andstone, r oughly m arked o ut i n s quares; p robably p ortions o f d raughts-boards'. O ne whetstone. ' A h eavy s tone d isc w ith c ircular s oot-mark o n s tand f or c ooking p ot)'.

o ne

s ide

' Half o f a s mall q uern i n t he m odern f ence w all a bove E .

( cover

t urret'.

' Two s mall ( iron) b road-bladed knives w ith t ang u pturned a t e nd W . w all o f E . t urret, f loor 3 )'. ' Small h eavy f ragment p yramidal i n s hape

o r

( near

( head o f p ilum?)'.

' Late 2 nd c entury ( bronze) knee f ibula w ith t hree f lutings o n t he b ow ( in l oose s oil t hrown o ut f rom b etween f loors l b a nd 2 ); f ragments o f a p air o f t weezers;

f olded

s trip

o f

t hin

b ronze

( edge o f s heath?)'.

4 8b W illowford W est ( NY 6 251

6 651) E xcavated i n 1 923.

F ound b ut n o l onger a vailable: F ragment

o f

s tone

C W2 X XVI,

d raught-board

1 926, 4 44-5.

' having

a r udely e ngraved r ow o f

t hree c ircles w ith p robably a f ourth c ircle a t o ne e nd a nd a m ore a ngular f igure a t t he o ther, 2 nd p eriod f loor'.

2 11

' Three w hetstones'. ' Several n ails o f v arious s izes ( all l evels). S pearhead 61/ 2 i nches l ong, t he b lade 24 4 i nches w ide. T wo b ars e ach 2 42 i nches l ong j ointed t ogether a nd l ooped a t e ach e nd, o ne b earing a l ink ( part o f a b it?).' ' Many c orroded p late-like f ragments i n h earth l a'. ' Hearth 2 c ontained s everal r ound l umps o f f used i ron'. ' Small ( glass) m elon b ead'.

4 9b B irdoswald T urret ( SW) •

1 .

( NY 6 113 6 620) E xcavated i n 1 913.

C opper a lloy b rooch i n t he f orm o f a l ong-eared d og r unning t o t he r ight. T he b ody h as a c ell o f d ark b lue e namel w ith s pots o f y ellow e namel, f ollowing t he s hape o f t he t orso. T he e ye i s a d ot o f w hite o r p ale g reen e namel. T he t ip o f t he t ail h as s everal t ransverse g rooves. T he p in i s s till i n p osition h eld b etween d ouble l ugs b y a c opper a lloy h inge-pin. T he c atchplate i s m issing. C f L erat 1 957, P l.VII, N o.152. L : 4 0mm, T o f p late: 3 mm. F loor I B. C W2 X III, 1 913, 3 05, 3 37, P l.XXVIII. T ullie H ouse M useum 4 .1913.1.

• 2 . R ectangular c opper a lloy b ar, h ollow a t t he b ack. T he f ace i s s et w ith m illifiori e namel c onsisting o f a c hequerboard d esign s et i n a d ouble r ow , r ed-and-white o n b lue, b lue-and-white o n r ed, m ustard y ellow a nd b lack. O ne e nd i s u ndercut a nd s hows t races o f a n i ron b lade h eld i n p lace b y a n i ron r ivet. T he o ther e nd h as i ncised b and d ecoration a t t he n eck a nd e nds i n a t hick c ircular l oop. K nife h andle? L ate 2 nd c entury A D. T otal L : 5 7mm, W : 1 3mm, M ax. T : 8 mm. F loor 1 B. C W2 X III, 1 913, 3 37, P l.XXVIII, N o.2. T ullie H ouse M useum 4 .13.9. 3 .

T hree f ragments o f U -sectioned c opper a lloy s heathing. O ne f ragment e xpands b efore e nding i n a t ight c url. T he i llustration i n t he e xcavation r eport s hows t hat w hen c omplete t he s heathing e nded i n a n e laboarte knob a nd c learly f ormed o ne c omplete s ide o f a d agger s cabbard b inding. L : 6 8mm. F ound o utside w alls. C W2 X III, N o.3. T ullie H ouse M useum 4 .1913.7.

4 .

1 913,

3 38,

P l.XXVIII,

S andstone d isc. D : 3 1mm, T : 6 mm. T ullie H ouse Museum 4 .1913.

5 0a T W H igh H ouse ( NY 6 023 6 569) F ound i n 1 934. •

L ength

o f

c opper

a lloy

b inding

o f

U -section

o blique g rooves o n f ace. C f C rummy 1 983, N o.4192. L : 8 3mm, W : 8 mm. T ullie H ouse Museum 4 .1913.

2 12

d ecorated w ith

5 0b A ppletree ( NY 5 973 6 573) E xcavated i n 1 911. •

1 .

C omplete p enannular b rooch o f o val s ection which e xpands s lightly t o t he d ouble d isced m illed t erminals. T he c ircular-sectioned p in i s f lattened o nly f ractionally a nd i s w rapped t ightly a round t he s hank. F owler 1 960, T ype A 4: t his b rooch i s l isted o n p .175. D : 3 4.5mm, W o f t erminals: 7 mm, L o f p in: 3 5mm. F loor I B. X III,

•

2 .

1 913,

3 38, P l.XXVIII, N o.5.

C W2

T ullie H ouse M useum 7 .19.11:—

C opper a lloy s trip f olded i n h alf a nd p ierced b y a n i ron r ivet a t t he t op t o a ttach i t t o l eather. A s t he p iece f olds i t t apers a nd p asses t hrough t he r ectangular l ooped h ead o f a l eaf-shaped p endant w hich h as c hamfered e dges o n b oth f aces. C f S outh S hields: A llason-Jones a nd M iket 1 984, 3 .602. A pron p endant. T otal L : 5 2mm, L o f p endant: 3 2mm, M ax. W o f s trap: 7 mm, M ax. W o f p endant: 8 mm, M ax. T o f p endant: 2 .25mm. O utside w alls. C W2 X III, 1 913, 3 38, P l.XXVIII, N o.9. T ullie H ouse M useum 4 .13.9. -

•

3 . E nd o f a p lain c opper a lloy s cabbard r unner. T he s lightly c onvex f ace t apers t o a b roken e nd. T he o ther e nd h as a s tepped p rojecting t erminal w hich h as b een b adly m ade s o t hat i t c urves t o o ne s ide. A n i ron s hank p rojects f rom t he b ack. C f S outh S hields: A llason-Jones a nd M iket 1 984, 3 .644 a nd 6 45. L : 7 1mm, M ax. W : l lmm. O utside w alls. C W2 X III, 1 913, 3 38, P l.XXVIII, N o.10. T ullie H ouse M useum 4 .13.6.

•

4 .

C opper a lloy s tud, c ircular w ith a s calloped e dge. T he s hallow c onvex f ace h as l ightly i ncised l ines r unning b etween t he s callops. A c entral r oved s hank p rojects f rom t he b ack. D : 3 5mm, H : 9 .5mm. C W2 X III, 1 913, P l.XXVIII, N o.8. T ullie H ouse M useum 4 .1913.8.

A lso f ound b ut n o l onger a vailable:

C W2 X III,

1 913,

3 38:

' Penannular b rooch; d iameter 13/ 8 i nches. O utside w alls'. F rom t he p hotograph ( Pl.XXVIII,No.6) i t a ppears t o h ave m illed knobbed t erminals, i .e. F owler 1 960, T ype A 2. ' A melon-shaped b ead o f b lue g lass-paste, o utside t he w alls o f A ppletree T urret'

5 1a P iper S ike ( NY 5 887 6 530) F ound i n 1 927,

N o.7, F ig.38, ( p.339).

c ame

f rom

e xcavated i n 1 970.

S everal i ron h obnails s urvive f rom b oth e xcavations ( Tullie H ouse M useum 1 31.1975.3 a nd 5 7.1933.3/4/5) b ut n o f inds a re m entioned i n t he e xcavation r eports ( CW 2 X XVIII, 1 928, 3 82 a nd C W2 L XXIII, 1 973, 6 7ff).

5 1b L ea H ill ( NY 5 844 6 501) F ound i n 1 927, •

1 .

e xcavated i n 1 958.

F ragment o f a c opper a lloy n ailcleaner. P art o f

t he

r od

h andle

s urvives a nd i s d ecorated w ith d eep i ncised t ransverse g rooves. T he b lade i s f lat a nd i s b roken w here i t b egins t o b ifurcate. L : 2 9.5mm, T : 3 .5mm. L ayer 7 c: o ccupation i mmediately a bove p ink

2 13

c lay f loor. •

2 .

A A4 X LIII,

1 965,

1 80, E . G illam C ollection D O T .

S mall h ollow d omed c opper a lloy s tud w ith a s hort r oved s hank. D : 8 .5mm, H : 5 mm. L ayer 7 c: o ccupation i mmediately a bove p ink c lay f loor.

A A4 X LIII,

1 965,

1 80,

D .

G illam C ollection C F5 & c.

•

3 .

C opper a lloy d isc s tud w ith a c entral c ountersunk b oss a nd a t urned b ack e dge. T he s hort s hank i s b ent t o o ne s ide. D : 1 4mm, H : 5 mm. L ayer 7 a: o ccupation l ayer. A A4 X LIII, 1 965, 1 81, J . G illam C ollection A V N 7 a.

•

4 .

S hallow h ollow d ome o f a c opper a lloy b oss o r s tud f illed w ith l ead-tin a lloy w ith t he s car o f a n i ron s hank. D : 3 0mm, H : 4 mm. G illam C ollection A L 4 . O utside NW c orner o f t urret.

•

5 .

F ragment o f c opper a lloy U -sectioned b inding w ith t races o f s till i nside. T he p iece i s c urved. L : 5 3mm , W : 6 mm. L ayer 1 : r uin o f t urret. A A4 X LIII, 1 965,

w ood 1 82,

X. •

6 .

F ragment o f a r ing o r b uckle o f s emicircular-sectioned a lloy. D : 3 1mm, W : 4 mm, T : 2 mm. G illam C ollection A V 7 a.

•

7 . R ib

b one

o f a n u ngulate,

c opper

s plit i n h alf a nd r ounded a t t he e nds.

O ne e nd h as a d eep t ransverse g roove. L : 6 5mm. L ayer 1 : r uin o f a t urret. A A4 G illam C ollection AX E .

X LIII,

1 965,

1 82,

T .

8 . R oughly c ut r ed s andstone c ounter. D : 2 0mm, T : 1 0mm. T ullie H ouse Museum 1 985.11. A lso f ound b ut n o l onger a vailable: ' Broken

s tone

l id

A A4 X LIII,

i n r ed s andstone,

1 965,

1 8Off.

b lackened b y f iring'. L ayer 9 ,

o ccupation m aterial. A . ' Stone c over i n t hin g rey m icaceous s andstone' f loor.

L ayer

8 :

p ink

c lay

B .

' Fragments o f s ome h alf d ozen i ron s hoe s tuds, l ength 5 4 3", h eads p yramidal. G rey-green h one o f f ine m icaceous s andstone, r ebated a t b road e nd t o t ake m ounting? L ength 34 2", w idth 1 ", t apering t o 4 2" » L ayer 7 c:

o ccupation a bove p ink c lay f loor.

' Iron n ail, l ength 114", r ound h ead 4 2" i n d iameter. P ortion o f l ava q uern, u sed a s f lagging'. L ayer 7 b: l aid f lags. ' Iron s hoe s tud,

l ength 4 2", h ead o riginally

p yramidal

i n

f orm .

c f

N ewstead p l.LXVII. T hree i ron n ails, o ne 2 14" l ong, r oundheaded, d iameter 1 "; a nother l ength 2 ", d iameter o f h ead 4 2". P ortion o f i ron b lade, r ounded o ne e nd, d iagonal b reak t he o ther. L ength 334", w idth 1 " t o 1 14 ". L ayer 7 a: ' Fine g rained m icaceous

g rey

g reen

2 14

o ccupation. s andstone

h one.

F ragments

o f

N iedermendig l ava q uern, d isintegrated.' c ollapse o f t urret. F inds r esidual.

L ayer 6 ;

3 rd c entury

' Ornamental b rass f itting, w ith t wo s hort s tuds a t b ack f or a ttachment' ( this i s a p eltate m ount o f t he t ype i llustrated b y O ldenstein 1 976, T af.53: l ate 2 nd c entury A D). 23N" n ail a nd a 21/ 2" n ail, v ery c orroded' L ayer 2 : o ccupation o n 4 th c entury h ut f loor. ' Stone c over o r p ot l id, d iameter 8 ", w ith c entral h ole, d iameter 3/ 4" . F iring o n a s lightly c onvex s urface i ndicates i ts u se a t o ne p eriod a s a p ot l id. C oarse m icaceous s andstone, i ron s tained, w ith d isseminated c arbonaceous f iring n orth o f h ut w all.

p articles'

O .

L ayer

2 a:

h eavy

' 2 1/ 2" n ail w ith l arge h ead ( 1" a cross). S tone p ot l id, 44 2" d iameter, w ith s calloped e dge, a pparently o riginally w ith 2 s callops t o e ach o f t he e ight d ivisions. S andstone a s 0 ' Q . L ayer 3 : u nder f lagged m odern).

f loor

o f

h ut.

( The b rass b utton ( P) f rom t his l ayer i s

' Portion o f i ron b lade, 3 " l ong, 11/ 2" w ide, w ith e nd o f b lade c urving u p t o t ang? V ery h eavily c orroded ( U). I ron s cabbard c hape, w ith f ragments o f c orroded b ronze a dhering i nternally a nd s traw p reserved i n t he e xternal c orrosion ( Y). S ix i nch n ail o riginally w ith h ead 1 " s quare. F ive i ron n ails, o ne 334 " l ong, h ead 1 " s quare. 4 n ails, l engths i ndeterminate, o ne s quare-headed. B one p laque, 1/ 10 " t hick, w ith h oles i n t hree s urviving c orners. T here a re s igns o f w ear b y d iagonal t hreads' ( this a ppears t o b e a w eaving t ablet: s ee W ild 1 970, 7 3, F ig.66). ( S). L ayer 1 : r uin o f t urret.

5 2a B anks E ast ( NY 5 747 6 472) F ound i n 1 927, f inds a re m entioned i n t he e xcavation r eport. 1 .

•

e xcavated

i n

1 933.

N o

C opper a lloy t rumpet b rooch, v ery s tylized w ith t he a canthus m otif a t t he w aist d egenerated t o f our t ransverse r idges. T he f oot i s n arrow w ith a d ouble r ib m otif. A r ectangular p late p rojects f rom t he h ead a nd a l oop p rojects f rom t his p late. A s econd l oop e merges f rom u nder t he c ylinder h inge. T he p in i s m issing i ts t ip. C ollingwood a nd R ichmond 1 969, R iii. L : 4 9mm. T ullie H ouse M useum 6 9.1937.4.

2 . R ectangular c opper a lloy b elt p late w ith a n o penwork d esign i n t he c entre c onsisting o f t wo e laborately f illed c ircles. F our t iny c ountersunk h oles a re p laced a t t he c orners s uggesting t hat t he p iece w as s ewn i nto p osition r ather t han r iveted. S uch p lates a re c ommon i n t he 2 nd c entury a lthough t his p articular d esign i s u nusual. L : 4 2mm, W :

•

3 .

2 3.5mm, T :

l mm. T ullie H ouse M useum 6 9.37.8.

I ncomplete c opper a lloy r ectangular b elt p late w ith o penwork f retwork i n t he c entre. O ne c ircular h ole s urvives m id w ay u p o ne e nd. C f O ldenstein 1 976, T af.62, 6 3. S outh S hields: A llason-Jones

2 15

a nd M iket 1 984, 3 .772. L : 3 1mm , W : 2 0mm, T : l mm . •

4 .

T ullie H ouse M useum 6 9.1937.7.

R ectangular c opper a lloy p late w ith t wo l ugs p rojecting f rom t he e dges a t o ne e nd. T he u pper f ace h as t wo i ncised b orders f illed w ith o blique n icks. A s ingle l oop p rojects f rom t he c entre l ine o f t he b ack whilst a d ouble l ugged h inge p rojects a t t he o ther e nd. L : 4 9mm, W :

2 0mm.

F ound w ith i t w as s ectioned a rms which

a r ectangular b uckle w ith t riangular h ollow s play o ut t o t he g lobular, d isc-necked

t erminals. A f ragment o f t he i ron h inge p in i s i n p osition. L : 2 7mm , W : 3 0mm. A lso f ound a nd a pparently f ixed a t r ight a ngles t o t he b elt p late i s

a

d ouble c ylinder h inge w ith a s hort o val-sectioned t apering

p in h eld i n p osition b y a n i ron p in. L o f p in: 2 5mm, T otal W o f h inge:

1 4mm.

T ullie

H ouse

M useum

6 9.1937.2. •

5 .

D omed c opper a lloy h ead f rom a s tud. D : 2 6mm, H : 4 mm. T ullie H ouse M useum 6 9.1937.16.

•

6 .

R ectangular

c opper

a lloy

s trip

w ith

s lightly

t apering s ides

p ierced b y t wo d isc-headed r ivets. L : 3 4mm, W : 1 0mm. T ullie H ouse Museum 6 9.1937.3. •

7 .

C opper a lloy s trip w ith o ne e nd

c urled,

t he

o ther

c urved

b ut

b roken a cross a c ircular h ole. L : 2 9mm, W : 5 mm. T ullie H ouse M useum 6 9.1937.3. 8 .

C opper a lloy s trip w ith a f lat r ectangular e nd. T he s lightly b ulging s hank h as t he e dges f olded i n b efore e nding i n a b roken l oop. L : 3 6mm, W :

•

9 .

• 1 0.

6 .5mm. T ullie H ouse M useum 6 9.1937.5.

C opper a lloy s trap-end w ith a l entoid b ody a nd s quared l oop a round a s emi-oval h ole. T he s trap-end i s f lat o n b oth s ides w ith d ecorative n otching o n e ach s ide o f t he l oop. C f A llason-Jones a nd M iket 1 984, 3 .597-606. L ate 2 nd c entury A D. L : 3 9mm, M ax. W : l lmm, T : 2 mm . T ullie H ouse Museum 6 9.1937.3. I ron

a xe

w ith a l ong s played b lade. L ugs p roject o n e ither s ide

o f t he o val s haft h ole a nd t he e nd i s s hort a nd b lunt. L : 1 33mm, W o f b lade: 5 2mm, E nd: 2 9 X 2 4mm. D rawn a t 1 :2.

T ullie

H ouse M useum 2 7.1935.5. • 1 1.

I ron

a nvil o r w edge o f r ectangular s ection m arkedly t apered. T he

t op s hows s igns o f m uch u se. L : 7 9mm, M ax. W : 5 0mm, M ax. T :

4 7mm. D rawn a t 1 :2.

T ullie

H ouse

M useum 2 7.1935.7. 1 2.

I ron

b ar o f i rregular s hape a nd s ection.

s urviving e nd. L :

I ngot?

9 2mm. T ullie H ouse M useum 2 7.1935.5.

2 16

S lightly s played a t t he

1 3.

I ron b ar o f i rregular s hape a nd s ection. L : 1 06mm. T ullie H ouse M useum 2 7.1935.5.

1 4.

I ron b ar o f i rregular s hape a nd s ection. L : 1 13mm. T ullie H ouse M useum 2 7.1935.5.

1 5.

I ron b ar o f r ectangular s ection t apering t o a o ther e nd n arrowing t o a s trip. L : 7 4mm, W : 1 3mm. T ullie H ouse M useum 2 7.1935.5.

1 6.

I ncomplete i ron n ail. T ullie H ouse M useum 5 7.1933.7.

A lso

c atalogued a s c oming f rom t he 1 933 e xcavations u nder a ccession n umber 6 9.1937 i n T ullie H ouse M useum b ut n o l onger a vailable:

. 6

' Two f ragments o f b ronze s heathings. F oundation l evel'.

. 9

' Part o f r im a nd s ide o f a b ronze c up a bt.

. 11

' Two f rags. o f a b one h andle,

. 15

' A l eaden h andle,

b urned,

s pike

w ith

t he

2 ins d iam.'

s howing s urface t ooling'.

6 i ns. a cross. N o l evel g iven'.

5 3a H are H ill ( NY 5 612 6 461) F ound i n 1 855, d ug i n 1 932. A s pindlewhorl i n T ullie H ouse M useum ( 16.20.25) i s r ecorded a s c oming f rom t his t urret b ut t here i s s ome d oubt a s t o t he a ccuracy o f t he p rovenance.

T he f irst f act w hich e merges f rom t he C atalogue i s t hat s mall f inds a re c ertainly p resent i n t he a rchaeological r ecord o f t urrets a nd i n b oth q uantity a nd q uality. T he b rooches i n p articular a re w orthy o f n ote - f our a re e namelled ( 18b.1, 3 3b.1, 3 5a.1 a nd 4 9b.1) c overing a v ariety o f t ypes b ut a ll d ated t o t he l ate 2 nd c entury. T he r est a re o f t ypes t ypical o n t he f rontier: t wo t rumpet b rooches ( 33b.2 a nd 5 2a.1), o ne knee b rooch ( 48a u nlocated) and f our p enannular b rooches ( 29b.1 a nd 2 , 5 0b.1 a nd 5 0b u nlocated). T here i s a lso a n u nusual d olphin b rooch o f i st c entury d ate ( 34a.1). T hey a re m ostly c omplete, t hat i s r eusable i f f ound, a nd t his m ay h ave i mplications f or t he c onditions w ithin t he t urrets d uring o ccupation. T he t ight d ating, a s w ill b e s een, r eflects t he g eneral d ate o f t he f inds f rom t he t urrets. O ne o f t he e namelled b rooches, f rom S ewingshields t urret ( 35a.1) i s i n t he f orm o f a wheel. S uch m otifs a re u sually i ndicative o f t he c ult o f T aranis, t he C eltic wheel g od. A w heel s tud w as a lso f ound i n t he e xcavation o f S ewingshields M ilecastle ( Allason-Jones i n H aigh a nd S avage 1 984, F ig.11,No.8) a nd t he o nly o ther w heel m otifs f rom t he Wall i tself a re b oth f rom H ousesteads: a b rooch a nd a n a pplied p ot m otif ( Green 1 978, P 1.47, 6 1, N os.1 a nd 2 ). T here i s t herefore a t ight g rouping o f w heel m otifs i n t he S ewingshields-Housesteads s ector a nd i t i s t empting t o s uggest T aranis, w as m anning

t hat a u nit S ewingshields

2 17

f rom H ousesteads, d evotees o f M ilecastle a nd t urret. N o o ther

j ewellery w as d iscovered b ar a f ew g lass b eads,

t he m ajority

o f

w hich

w ere m elon b eads ( 29b.4, 3 9a.6, 4 8b u nlocated a nd 5 0b u nlocated). I t h as b een s uggested t hat t hese b eads, d ated t o t he i st a nd 2 nd c enturies A D ( Guido 1 978, 1 00) a re t alismanic r ather t han m erely d ecorative, f ollowing t he d iscovery o f a d olabra s heath f rom B onn which w as f ound w ith m elon b eads a ttached ( Curie 1 911, 2 79). A n unusual f eature i s t he n umber o f p rehistoric f lints d iscovered a t t he e ast e nd o f t he W all. I t i s p ossible t hat t hey w ere b eing r eused b y t he s oldiers t o m ake a s park t o l ight f ires a lthough n o s trike-a -lights w ere f ound ( et S ewingshields M ilecastle: A llason-Jones i n H aigh a nd S avage 1 984, F ig.16, N o.162). C omparison

o f t he m aterial e xcavated f rom t urrets w ith t hat known

f rom m ilecastles s hows s ome d istinct s imilarities. S pearheads, s heathing, s hield b osses a nd s cabbard f ittings f or e xample, a re f ound i n f orts b ut n ot i n t he q uantity f ound i n t urrets a nd m ilecastles s uch a s S ewingshields ( Allason-Jones i n H aigh a nd S avage 1 984), C astle N ick ( Crow f orthcoming) a nd R andylands ( Allason-Jones, B ennett a nd W elsby 1 984). I n t he c ase o f t he t urrets s uch i tems m ust h ave b een b roken when d iscarded a s i t i s i mpossible t o i magine a nyone l osing a l arge s hield o r a 6 f oot s pear i n t he n arrow c onfines o f a t urret. Q uernstones a re a lso c ommon f inds m aking i t c lear t hat t hose o n d uty w ere p rovided w ith b asic p rovisions f or s everal d ays a t l east a nd e xpected t o f end f or t hemselves. T he n umbers o f g aming b oards a nd c ounters s uggest a c ertain a mount o f l eisure t ime was t aken i n t he t urrets - t he i nhabitants w ere n ot o n d uty a ll t he t ime. I t i s e qually i mportant t o n ote w hat i s m issing f rom t he C atalogue. T here a re n o o bviously f eminine o bjects s uch a s e arrings a nd b racelets, a nd u nlike t he m ilecastles t here a re n o f inger r ings o r i ntaglios. T his l ack o f f eminine o bjects w ill b e d iscussed l ater. T here i s l imited e vidence o f w eaponry - m ostly s pearheads w ith o nly o ne a rrowhead a nd n o o ther e vidence o f a rchery. T he k nives a re o f t he d omestic t ype r ather t han d aggers. T here i s n o h arness e quipment, n o o bviously r eligious o bjects a nd n o l ocks o r k eys. W hen t he f inds a re p lotted a ccording t o t ype a nd f indspot

i t

c an

b e s een t hat s ome o f t he o bjects a ppear t o g roup g eographically ( see F igs.7 a nd 8 ). S hield b osses a re g rouped b etween T urrets 1 8b a nd 2 9b, b allista b alls a re f ound o nly i n t he a reas 1 7 a nd 1 8 d espite t he f act t hat i n t he r eport o n 4 4b ( Mucklebank) i t w as f elt n ecessary t o m ention t hat ' there w ere n ot f ound a ny o f t he r ounded s tones u sed a s p rojectiles i n t he b allista' ( AA 2 X XIV, 1 903, 1 5). T his, a nd t he l imited w eaponry, m ay b e o f r elevance i n t he a rgument a s t o w hether o r n ot H adrian's W all p rovided a f ighting p latform ( see D obson 1 986, 6 ). T he d istribution o f n ails i s a lso i nteresting. A gain i n t he M ucklebank r eport

( AA 2 X XIV,

1 903,

1 5) i t i s s tated

' the n umber o f v ery l arge i ron

n ails, m any much o xydized, f ound a t t his s tage o f t he e xcavations s eem t o i ndicate t hat a g reat p roportion o f t he u pper p art o f t he t urret m ust h ave b een c onstructed o f w ood'. I f t his s upposition i s c orrect t hen o ne w ould e xpect t o f ind l arge i ron n ails i n q uantity o n a ll t he t urret s ites b ut, a lthough where n ails a re p resent t hey a re i nvariably i n s ome n umbers, t hey a re n either p articularly l arge, i .e. m asonry n ails, n or n umerous e nough t o warrant t he s uggestion t hat t he u pper p arts o f a ll t urrets w ere b uilt o f w ood. T he l ack o f n ails f rom m any

2 18

t urrets m ay b e s een a s a n a rgument a gainst D obson's s uggested r econstruction o f a s tone t ower w ith a t imber g allery a round i t ( Dobson 1 986, F ig.4b a nd c ). T he n ails t end t o g roup, 1 8b-26a, 3 3b-35a, 4 4b-48b a nd 5 1b-52a, i rrespective o f m odern o r a ncient e xcavating t echniques, a nd i t i s n oticeable t hat t hey a re e qually a s u ncommon i n t he T urf W all s ector t han a s i n t he S tone W all s ector. B elt-plates t end t o c luster a t t he w est e nd o f t he W all where t he c hapes a nd s cabbard r unners a re f ound. T he b elt f ittings c onsist o f s trap-ends, a m ilitary b uckle w ith a p lain b elt p late a nd s everal o penwork c opper a lloy p lates - a ll m id t o l ate 2 nd c entury. K nives a lso t end t o b e f ound a t t he w est e nd o f t he W all w ith whetstones a ppearing o n t he s ame s ites. T his g rouping m ay o r m ay n ot b e s ignificant b ut i t i s t empting t o s ee i t a s e vidence f or t he g arrisoning o f t he t urrets b y p articular u nits. B y g rouping t he t urrets b y f inds a nd t aking i nto c onsideration s uch f actors a s d istance a nd t he b arriers f ormed b y r ivers t he f ollowing h ypothetical l ist e merges: T urret 7 b s tands a lone a t t he p resent a nd c ould b e t entatively a trributed t o B enwell, 1 0a t o 1 8b c ould b e m anned f rom R udchester a lthough 1 8a a nd 1 8b c ould e qually b e m anned f rom H alton C hesters. T he t ight g rouping o f t he b allista b alls, h owever, s uggests t hat 1 7a, 1 8a a nd 1 8b m ay h ave b een m anned f rom R udchester. 2 5b a nd 2 6a c ould b e a ssigned t o C hesters a s t here a re g roupings o f b elt f ittings, s heathings, s tuds, p ottery l ids, b one o bjects a nd c ounters. 2 9b c ould b e manned f rom C arrawburgh b ut h as n o o bvious c onnexion w ith 2 9a a nd 3 0b o n e ither s ide. 3 3b c ould b e a ttached t o H ousesteads a s c ould 3 4a a nd 3 5a o n t he knife e vidence. 3 5a i s a lready l inked t o H ousesteads b y t he T aranis wheel m otif. O ther l inks b etween 3 3b, 3 4a a nd 3 5a a re s pearheads, t ools, e namelled b rooches a nd c opper a lloy v essels. 4 5a i s l ikely t o h ave b een t he r esponsibility o f C arvoran w hilst t he r est o f t he e xcavated t urrets, w ith t he g roupings o f b elt f ittings, s heathings, s tuds a nd p ottery l ids, m ay h ave c ome u nder t he j urisdiction o f B irdoswald. N one o f t his e vidence i s c onclusive b ut d oes p rovide f ood f or t hought a nd i t w ill b e i nteresting t o s ee i f f uture w ork o r t he p ottery e vidence s upports o r r efutes t his l ist. I f o ne c onsiders t he f inds p urely f rom a d ating v iewpoint i t i s n oticeable t hat t hey t end t o f all i nto t he 2 nd c entury A D w ith a f ew v ery l ate i st c entury f inds. T here i s n othing which c an b e a ssigned t o t he 3 rd o r 4 th c enturies. C onsidering t he p resently a ccepted h istory o f t urrets o n H adrian's W all t his m ight b e s een a s n ot s urprising. T he t urrets w ere b uilt a s p art o f t he o riginal p lan o f H adrian's Wall b efore t he d ecision w as m ade t o m ove t he f orts o nto t he W all. T his d ecision m ust h ave m ade t he t urrets r ather s urplus t o r equirements b ut i t w ould a ppear t hat n one w ere g iven u p ( Breeze and D obson 1 976, 1 30). I t w as o nly w hen t he whole o f H adrian's W all w as a bandoned, when t he f rontier m oved n orth a nd w as c onsolidated a s t he A ntonine W all, t hat a ny o f t he t urrets w ere e mptied. When t he A ntonine Wall i n i ts t urn was a bandoned m any o f t he t urrets w ere r epaired - i n f act i t a ppears t hat a ll t he t urrets s o f ar i nvestigated w ere p ut b ack i nto w orking o rder i n t he 1 60s, a lthough t he p ottery e vidence f rom 3 3b, 3 4a a nd 3 5a s uggests

2 19

t hat i n s ome c ases t his r eoccupation w as v ery b rief a nd i t w ould a ppear t hat m ost, i f n ot a ll, t he t urrets w ere a bandoned d uring t he m odifications o f t he 1 80s, b eing d emolished t otally.

s ome h aving t heir d oorways b locked a nd s ome I n t he C entral S ector n o t urrets b etween 3 3b

a nd 4 1b w ere l eft s tanding. S o t he e vidence s uggests t hat t he t urrets w ere o ccupied o nly f rom t he 1 20s t o t he 1 40s a nd t hen f rom t he 1 60s to t he 1 80s. E xcavations o f m ilecastles h ave p roduced 3 rd a nd 4 th c entury m aterial: S ewingshields f or e xample, w as c learly r eused a s a m etalworking f actory ( Haigh a nd S avage 1 984). T urret 2 6a p roduced m ould f ragments b ut t he o nly f ragment f or w hich t he f inal p roduct c an b e p ositively i dentified ( 26a.17) c an b e d ated t o t he m id 2 nd c entury i ndicating t hat t his p art o f t he t urret's h istory f ell i nto t he s econd p eriod o f o ccupation i n 1 60s-180s. N one o f t he o ther t urrets h ave s hown a ny s ign o f m etalworking. O nly T urret 5 1b h as a ny i rrefutable e vidence o f r eoccupation b y c ivilians b ut t his t akes t he f orm o f a h ut b uilt i ndependently w ithin t he r uins o f t he t urret r ather t han a r euse o f t he b uilding i tself. T his o ccupation c an b e d ated t o t he 4 th c entury a nd i s r eflected b y t he d iscovery o f a b one w eaving p late ( 51b u nlocated). T here i s a r eference t o t he d iscovery o f 4 th c entury p ottery a t T urret 7 b b ut t his w as u nstratified a nd m ay h ave c ome f rom o utside t he t urret ( AA 4 V II, 1 930, 1 49). T he f loor, w hich t he e xcavator r egarded a s b eing d ated b y t he d iscovery o f t he p ottery , ' had g one c ompletely h aving b een h igher t han t he m odern s urface l evel'. I f t he t urrets w ere o nly o ccupied f or 4 0 y ears i n t wo c lear c ut s tages, a nd t hen o nly f or m ilitary p urposes, p erhaps w e s hould l ook a gain a t t he t raditional d ivision b etween ' military' a nd ' civilian' i n t he c lassification o f s mall f inds. B rooches i nvariably a ppear i n t he c ivilian s ection o f r eports y et t hey a re s een r egularly o n s culpture a nd t ombstones f astening m ilitary c loaks. T he t urret e vidence c onfirms t hat s oldiers n ot o nly w ore b rooches b ut a lso l ost t hem w ith a g reat d eal o f u nmilitary c arelessness. N eedles, n ail-cleaners a nd t weezers w ould a lso b e s een t raditionally a s e vidence f or c ivilian o r e ven f emale o ccupation b ut c ivilian a nd m ilitary p opulations h ave t he s ame n eeds: 2 nd c entury s oldiers w ould h ave h ad t o m end c lothes, c lean n ails a nd r emove s plinters w hilst c ivilians w ould h ave n eeded a rrows a nd k nives f or h unting, h obnails f or t heir b oots a nd c hapes f or t heir k nife s cabbards. I t i s p ossible t hat t he R oman s oldier w as g iven a s urvival k it c ontaining s ewing e quipment o n e nlisting a s w as t he B ritish r ecruit i n t he S econd W orld W ar. T o f urther c onfuse t he i ssue m en w ould n o d oubt t ake c ivilian o bjects i nto m ilitary s ervice w ith t hem a nd t hen t ake m ilitary o bjects i nto c ivilian r etirement. T his s uggests t hat t he n ormal s eparation o f f inds i nto

' military'

a nd

' civilian'

b y u se

a lone

i s i nvalid. T o c onclude: i t i s c lear t hat g iven a r easonable e xtent o f e xcavation s mall f inds a re f ound i n t urrets o n H adrian's W all. S econdly t hese f inds a re a ll o f l ate i st t o 2 nd c entury d ate. 3 rd a nd 4 th c entury f inds a re n ot f ound i n t urrets s upporting t he t heory t hat t urrets w ere n ot r eused a s f actories a s w ere s ome m ilecastles n or w ere t hey r eused a s c ivilian h abitation b ut w ere o nly u sed b y t he m ilitary i n w hat a ppear t o b e t wo c learly d efined p eriods i n t he 2 nd c entury. A s t he f inds a re a ll f rom p urely m ilitary c ontexts t hey m ust i n t hemselves b e m ilitary t hus m aking t he t raditional s eparation o f f inds i nto

2 20

' military' a nd ' civilian' b y u se a lone untenable. t ypes o f f inds s eem t o g roup g eographically w hich

F inally s ome o f t he m ay s uggest w hich

f ort was r esponsible f or manning e ach s eries o f t urrets.

B IBLIOGRAPHY A LLASON-JONES,

B ENNETT,

W elsby,

' The

& W ELSBY 1 984: L . A llason-Jones,

f inds

f rom

M ilecastle

5 4,

J .

B ennett,

R andylands'

D .

AA 5 X II,

2 28-35 A LLASON-JONES & M CKAY 1 985: L . A llason-Jones a nd B . W ell,

A LLASON-JONES o f

B REEZE

&

C oventina's

& MIKET 1 984: L . A llason-Jones and R .F. M iket,

S mall F inds f rom S outh S hields

T yne

M cKay,

( Chesters 1 985)

R oman

F ort,

C atalogue

( Newcastle

u pon

1 984) D OBSON

1 976:

D .J.

B reeze

a nd

B .

D obson, H adrian 's W all,

( London 1 976) B RUCE

1 957: I .A.

J .C.

B ruce,

R ichmond),

B UDGE 1 903:

E .A.W .

H andbook t o

B udge,

A n A ccount o f

i n t he Museum a t C hesters, C OLLINGWOOD

&

t he R oman W all,

( Newcastle u pon T yne

R ICHMOND

1 969: R .G.

C OULSTON 1 985: ( ed.),

J .C.

T he

E quipment,

N .

1 911:

J .

C row,

C rummy,

C olchester C URLE

J .

C urle,

C ollingwood a nd I .A.

E TTLINGER

B .

a nd

D istribution

E .

o f

i n M .C. R oman

R oman

S mall

F inds

f rom

E xcavations

D ie

1 978:

M .J.

G reen,

R oman B ritain, G UIDO 1 978: M . G uido,

P PS XXVI,

t he F ort a t

r ömischen

AA 5 X IV,

1 -29

F ibeln i n d er S chweiz. ( Berne

' The o rigins a nd d evelopment o f t he

b rooch i n E urope', G REEN

i n

( Glasgow 1 911)

' The f unction o f Hadrian's Wall',

E ttlinger,

E . F owler,

B ishop M ilitary

( Colchester 1 983)

H andbuch d er S chweiz z ur R ömer- und M erowingerzeit, F OWLER 1 960:

T he

2 20-366

A R oman F rontier P ost a nd i ts P eople:

D obson,

1 973:

R ichmond,

( London 1 969)

N ewstead i n t he P arish o f M elrose, D OBSON 1 986:

b y

e xcavation r eport o f C astle N ick M ilecastle

T he

1 971-9,

( ed.

( London 1 903)

' Roman a rchery e quipment'

( Oxford 1 985),

C ROW f orthcoming: C RUMMY 1 983:

C oulston, P roduction

e d.

t he R oman A ntiquities P reserved

N orthumberland,

A rchaeology o f R oman B ritain,

1 1th

1 957)

1 973)

p enannular

1 49-77

S mall C ult O bjects f rom t he M ilitary A reas o f

( Oxford

1 978)

T he G lass B eads

P eriods i n B ritain a nd I reland,

o f

t he

P rehistoric

( London 1 978)

2 21

a nd

R oman

HAIGH

&

S AVAGE 1 984:

X II,

D . H aigh a nd M .J.D.

S avage,

' Sewingshields',

AA 5

3 3-147

J ESSOP 1 979:

P . J essop,

T aranis a nd t he W heel,

unpubl.

BA d issertation,

N ewcastle u pon T yne U niversity 1 979 L ERAT 1 957:

L .

L erat,

M ontbeliard, M ACGREGOR

1 985:

C atalogue

d es

C ollections

A rchgologiques

d e

( Paris 1 957) A .

M acGregor,

B one,

A ntler,

I vory a nd H orn,

( London

1 985) M ACLAUGHLAN 1 858: H . M acLaughlan, M emoir W ritten D uring a S urvey o f t he R oman W all T hrough t he C ounties o f N orthumberland a nd C umberland i n t he Y ears

1 852-4,

( London 1 858)

M ANNING 1 985: W . M anning, C atalogue o f t he R omano-British I ron T ools, F ittings a nd W eapons i n t he B ritish M useum , ( London 1 985) M IKET 1 983: R . M iket, T he R oman F ort a t S outh S hields: t he D efences 1 977-8, ( Newcastle u pon T yne 1 983) O LDENSTEIN

1 976:

J .

A uxiliareinheiten',

O ldenstein,

' Zur

W all, S MITH 1 880: W ILD

F .G.

A usrüstung

R ömisch-Germanischen K ommission d es

A rchäologischen I nstituts B ericht 5 7, S IMPSON 1 976:

E xcavation

S impson,

o f

r ömischer D eutschen

5 1-284

W atermills a nd M ilitary W orks o n

H adrian's

( Kendal 1 976) C .R.

S mith,

C ollectanea A ntigua, v ol.VII,

1 970: J .P. W ild, T extile M anufacture P rovinces, ( Cambridge 1 970)

2 22

i n

t he

( London 1 880) N orthern

R oman

1 8b .6

1 8b .7

1 8b .3

1 25b . 1

2 5b .4

2 5b .5

2 5b .3

2 5b .6

2 5b .7

F ig . 1

2 23

2 5b .8

2 5b .9

2 5b . 12

2 6a . 18

I 2 9b .4

2 6a . 2 2 6a .2

2 9b .2 2 9b .3 1

(ye )

2 9b . 1

3 3b . 1

3 1b 3 1a

F ig.2

2 24

3 3b .4

3 4a .8

3 3b .5

•••••••

3 5a . 1

3 4a .4 34a . 1

3 9a . 1

3 5a .21

3 9a .2

3 5a .3

2 25

•

F ig.3

3 9a .4 3 9a .6

3 9a .3 39a .5

4 9a1

rj e

r ed

z r

I

b lue b lack n a tura l

49a . 1

5 0b .2

5 0a 50b .4

F ig . 4

2 26

5 1b .2

5 1b . 1

5 1b .4

5 0b .3

5 1b .3 5 1b .5

5 1 1 3 .6 1 5 2a

' 2

5 1b .7

5 2a .3

5 2a .4

4 . 1 . ?

F ig. 5

2 27

5 2

a .6

:

5 2a .5

5 2a .7

5 2a .8

5 2a .9

F ig.6

2 28

1 8a

• i

l ead

c ounters

moulds

b eads

bone o bjects

f lints

g aming boards

•

,

0

i

i

2 5b

•

•

2 6a

•

•

• •

.

•

•

•

•

0 0

•

•

•

•

•

2 9a 2 9b

w hetstones

•

1 7a

1 8b

l ids

ballista balls

querns

c hapes

b uckles

t ools

a rrowheads

0

s tuds

1 0a

knives

•

s hield bosses

h obnails

•

n ails

s pearheads

7 b

•

•

•

•

•

,

•

•

•

•

•

•

0

3 0b 3 1a

0

3 1b 3 3b 1

•

3 4a

0 0

3 5a

0

•

0

, •

•

0 •

•

0

0

•

.

•

i

3 8b

•

,

4 4b

0

4 5a

0

4 8a

•

4 8b

•

0

0

0

3 9a

0

•

S

••• •

•

4 9b

•

•

•

5 0a

0

5 0b 5 1a

0

5 1b

•

5 2a

•

0

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

0

5

5 3a

F ig.7:

S mall f ind d istribution b y s ite a nd a rtifact c lass

2 29

k nives

s hield bosses

d omestic

4 . ) U )

r ings

buckles

s heathing

i tems

c hapes/runners

belt plates

v essels

other brooches

brooches

penannular

k nee brooches

t rumpet brooches

e namelled

brooches

U ) 7 5

7 b 1 0a 1 7a 1 8a 1 8b

•

•

•

2 5b

•

•

•

2 6a

•

•

•

•

•

2 9a 2 9b

•

•

3 0b 3 1a

•

3 1b 3 3b

•

•

•

3 4a 3 5a

• •

•

•

•

•

•

3 8b 3 9a

•

4 4b

• •

•

4 5a 4 8a

•

•

•

4 8b 4 9b

•

•

5 0a

•

•

5 0b

•

•

0

•

5 1a 5 1b 5 2a

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

5 3a

F ig.8:

S mall f ind d istribution b y s ite a nd a rtifact c lass

2 30

A PPENDIX T urrets l ocated o r e xcavated f or w hich n o s mall f inds s urvive: 6 b

B enwell H ill ( NZ 2 129 6 491) D iscovered i n 1 751. M acLaughlan 1 4.

1 858,

8 a

W est D enton ( NZ 1 880 6 596) D iscovered i n 1 928. o ccupation e arth w ere f ound' N CH 1 3, 1 930, 5 31.

8 b

U nion H all ( NZ 1 834 6 611) E xcavated i n 1 928. O nly t he w as e xamined. N CH 1 3, 1 930, 5 31.

9 b

W albottle ( NZ 1 694 6 659) L ocated i n 1 928. O nly t he o uter f ace o f t he s outh w all w as e xamined. N CH 1 3, 1 930, 5 33.

' Only p ottery a nd

s outh

w all

1 2a

H eddon W est ( NZ 1 304 6 708) E xcavated i n 1 930. P roduced c entury p ottery . A A4 V III, 1 931, 3 22.

e arly

3 rd

1 2b

N orth L odge ( NZ 1 256 6 721) E xcavated i n 1 930. A A4 V III,

1 931,

3 22.

1 3a

R udchester ( NZ 162 6 745) E xcavated i n 1 930. P roduced e arly 3 rd c entury p ottery . A A4 V III, 1 931, 3 22.

1 5a

W hitchester W est ( NZ 1 874 6 805) L ocated i n 1 931 a nd s ection e xcavated. H epple n otebook ( Durham U niversity).

1 5b

H arlow H ill E ast ( NZ 0 825 6 818) L ocated i n 1 931: s outh-east c orner a nd s outh a nd w est w alls e xcavated. H epple n otebook ( Durham U niversity).

1 7b

W elton W est ( NZ 0 531 6 830) L ocated d estroyed' A A4 I X , 1 932, 2 57.

1 9a

C larewood E ast ( NZ 0 286 6 859) E xcavated i n 1 932. ' The t otal y ield o f p ottery... w as d isappointingly s light, b ut t here w as n one t hat c ould b e d ated a s l ate a s A D 2 00' A A4 X , 1 933, 9 8.

1 9b

W est C larewood ( NZ 0 237 6 864) E xcavated i n 1 932. T he p ottery i ndicates o ccupation u ntil t he l ate 2 nd c entury A D. A A4 X , 1 933, 9 9; A A5 I II, 1 975, 2 22ff ( pottery r eport).

2 2a

P ortgate ( NY U niversity.

2 2b

S tanley ( NY 9 800 6 884) L ocated i n 1 930. U niversity.

H epple

2 4a

G reen F ield ( NY 9 559 ( Durham U niversity.

i n

2 4b

T ithe B arn ( NY 9 510 6 940) L ocated i n 1 930. H epple n otebook ( Durham U niversity.

2 6b

B runton ( NY 9 215 6 984) E xcavated i n 1 873 a nd V III, 1 880, 1 34; A A2 I X , 1 883, 2 2ff.

i n

1 931

' almost

s outhern

c ompletely

9 849 6 873) L ocated i n 1 930. H epple n otebook ( Durham

6 936)

L ocated

2 31

n otebook

( Durham

1 930. H epple n otebook

a gain

i n

1 880. A A2

2 7a

C hesters ( NY 9 119 7 016) E xcavated i n 1 945. X XXVI, 1 946, 1 34; A A5 X , 1 982, 1 99-200.

2 8a

W alwick ( NY 8 982 7 074) L ocated i n 1 727 a nd a gain i n 1 920. G ordon, I tinerarium S eptentrionale, 7 4; B ruce 1 957, 1 01.

3 0a

C arrawburgh E ast ( NY 8 701 7 144) E xcavated i n 1 912. A A3 5 5-6.

I X ,

3 5b

B usy G ap ( NY 7 990 6 974) E xcavated i n 1 946. J RS X XXVIII,

1 948, 8 4.

3 6a

K ennel 1 68.

3 6b

H ousesteads ( NY 7 896 6 885) E xcavated i n 1 949. A s t his t urret l ies u nder H ousesteads f ort i t h as p roved i mpossible t o d ifferentiate b etween t he f inds f rom t he t urret a nd t he r est o f t he f ort. P SAN 4 X , 1 947, 2 47; S impson 1 976, 1 29ff.

3 7a

R apishaw G ap ( NY 7 805 6 861) L ocated i n 1 911.

3 7b

H otbank C rag ( NY 7 758 6 848) L ocated i n 1 911 a nd f ound t o h ave b een d emolished. S impson 1 976, 7 4.

3 8a

M ilking G ap ( NY 7 687 6 792) L ocated i n 1 911. B ruce 1 957,

3 9b

S teelrigg ( NY 7 504 6 758) E xcavated i n 1 909. P ottery s uggests n o o ccupation a fter t he l ate 2 nd c entury. S impson 1 976, 1 10-13.

4 0a

W inshields ( NY 7 401 6 751) F ound i n 1 912. J RS X XXVII,

4 0b

M elkridge ( NY 7 352 6 723) F ound i n 1 912. J RS X XXVII,

1 947,

4 1a

C aw G ap ( NY 7 255 6 688) E xcavated i n 1 912 a nd 1 967. 1 08.

S impson

4 1b

T horny D oors ( NY 7 205 6 683) F ound i n 1 912. C harlesworth 1 968, 6 9; S impson 1 976, 1 08.

4 2b

G reatchesters ( NY 7 083 6 683) F ound i n 1 912. B ruce 1 957,

4 3a

C ockmount H ill ( NY 6 985 6 685) F ound i n 1 912. B ruce 1 957,

4 3b

A llolee E ast ( NY 6 935 6 685) F ound i n 1 912. B ruce 1 957,

1 59.

4 4a

A llolee W est ( NY 6 842 6 685) F ound i n 1 912. B ruce 1 957,

1 59.

4 5b

W alltown C rags W est ( NY 6 695 2 34ff.

C rag

4 9b T W B irdoswald 2 34ff.

( NY

( NY

P SAN 4 X ,

1 947, 2 74; J RS

1 912,

7 931 6 915) E xcavated i n 1 946. J RS X XXVII,

6 097

6 599)

6 607)

S impson 1 976,

E xcavated

L ocated

i n

i n

1 947,

1 08.

1 42.

1 947,

1 68. 1 68. 1 976,

1 52. 1 58.

1 883. A A2

1 934. C W2 X XXV,

I X ,

1 935,

5 0a S W H igh H ouse ( NY 6 020 6 587) E xcavated i n 1 911. F inds i ncluded s amian a nd c oarse p ottery , w indow g lass, a s tone t rough a nd a

2 32

m illing s tone. C W2 X III, 3 07, 3 09, 3 12. 5 3b

C raggle H ill ( NY 5 549 6 453) F ound i n 1 932. ' Its e xamination w as l imited t o p roving t hat t he t urret b elonged t o t he T urf W all s eries'. C W2 X XXIII, 1 933, 2 7Off.

5 4a

G arthside ( NY 5 457 1 38-44.

5 4b

H owgill ( NY 5 407 6 439) E xcavated i n 1 933.

5 5a

D ovecote ( NY 5 310 6 436) E xcavated i n 1 933.

5 6b

C ambeck ( NY 5 122 6 395) E xcavated i n 1 933.

5 7a

B eck ( NY 5 044 6 333) E xcavated i n 1 933. S amian , c oarse p ottery , a mphora a nd g lass f ound. C W2 X XXIV, 1 934, 1 32.

7 2a

W est E nd ( NY 3 189 5 908) C W2 L XI,

7 2b

R indle H ouse ( NY 3 144 5 922) F ound i n 1 948.

7 9b

J effrey C roft ( NY 2 283 6 256) F ound i n 1 934.

6 439)

E xcavated

1 961,

2 33

i n

1 933.

C W2

X XXIV,

C W2 X XXIV,

1 934,

C W2 X XXIV, C W2 X XXIV,

1 934,

1 31.

1 934, 1 934,

1 31. 1 32.

3 4. C W2 L II,

1 953,

C W2 X XXV,

1 4-15.

1 935,

2 17ff.

S OME M ILITARY B RONZES F ROM T HE T RINOVANTIAN C IVITAS N .P. W ickenden

I NTRODUCTION A

g roup

o f

m ilitary b ronzes,

p redominantly o f i st c entury d ate,

f rom a n umber o f ' small t own' s ites i n E ssex ( part o f t he C ivitas o f t he T rinovantes) h as c ome t o l ight d uring p ost-excavation w ork b y t he a uthor. T he s ites w ere l argely e xcavated b y M r P .J. D rury f or t he C helmsford E xcavation C ommittee ( now C helmsford A rchaeological T rust) i n t he e arly 1 970s; D r W arwick R odwell's e xcavations a t B eauchamps F arm , W ickford, a nd K irsty R odwell's w ork a t K elvedon h ave a lso b een i ncluded i n t he T rust's s eries o f m onographs. T he m aterial i s b eing p ublished s ite b y s ite, b ut i s h ere d rawn t ogether, t hough i t i s s tressed t hat i t i s i n n o w ay i ntended t o b e a c omplete c orpus o f m aterial f rom t hese t owns. S ites i ncluded ( see F ig.1) i n t his p aper a re: C helmsford, W ickford, G reat D unmow , H eybridge, a nd K elvedon. T he h istory o f e ach t own i s b riefly o utlined, f ollowed b y a c atalogue o f t he m ilitary, o r q uasi-military o bjects, e arly b rooches, a nd b y a l ist o f p re-Claudian, C laudian, N eronian, a nd V espasianic c oins r ecovered f rom t he T rust's e xcavations. A n umber o f m etal-detector f inds f rom o ther s ites t hat h ave b een b rought t o m y a ttention a re a lso i ncluded, a long w ith s ummaries o f m aterial f rom t wo f urther t owns, G estingthorpe a nd H arlow . A b rief d iscussion s ummarises w hat i nferences, i f a ny , c an b e m ade a bout t he e arly m ilitary n ature o f t he t owns i nvolved.

C HELMSFORD C helmsford l ies o n t he m ain R oman r oad m idway b etween L ondon a nd C olchester, a t t he p oint w here t he r oad c rosses t he r ivers C an a nd C helmer, n ear t heir c onfluence. T he R oman t own - C aesaromagus - w as s ited o n t he s outhern s lope o f t he C an v alley, a stride t he R oman r oad, f ounded o n a pparently v irgin,

a gricultural g round -

m aterial

e vidence

i ndicates a n a lmost t otal l acuna i n t he L ate p re-Roman I ron A ge.' A n

e arly

i nterim

b y

D rury 2

s uggested

a n umber o f p re-Flavian

f eatures, 3 m ainly d ated a t t he t ime o n t he e vidence o f t he s amian , n ow s hown f or t he m ost p art t o b e h ighly r esidual. S ome o f t his s amian, s upposedly f rom e arlier e xcavations, w as b urnt, w hich h ad l ed D rury i n a n e arlier i nterim 4 t o s uggest, b ut t hen t o d iscard t he p ossibility o f a f ire, a nd h ence a p re-existing s ettlement, a t t he t ime o f t he B oudican r evolt. I n f act t he s amian v essels i n q uestion a re a re n ow k nown t o h ave f ormed p art o f F rederic C hancellor's n ineteenth c entury c ollections, a nd p robably o riginated i n L ondon, w here h e w orked. D r W arwick R odwell, h owever, h as r ecently a rgued t hat a n a ssemblage o f s amian f rom S ite A G c omprises a h igh i ncidence o f d ecorated p re-Flavian v essels, d ating p erhaps f rom t he l ater 5 0s, t hroughout t he 6 0s, a nd e nding c .AD 7 0-75, a nd m ust b e r egarded a s m ilitary i n c haracter. 5 A d etailed e xamination o f t he o ther c eramics f rom C helmsford i n r ecent y ears b y C hristopher G oing ('h as l ed t o a r edating o f t he f oundation o f C helmsford, n ow t hought t o b e a p ost-Boudican m ilitary r oad s tation, o ne o f s everal s et u p a t n odal p oints i n t he r oad a nd r iver n etwork o f

2 34

t he C ivitas, t o a ct a s a c heck a gainst f urther r ebellion. T he s tation, w hich h as a s tone l aconicum, w as p robably s hort-lived, b ut s urvived a s am ansio, l ater r emodelled u nder H adrian a long w ith m uch o f t he r est o f t he t own a s p art o f h is r eorganisation o f t he C ursus P ublicus. D rury's e arly f ort 7 n ow h as n o a rchaeological b asis, t hough d itches o n S ite S ,8 a re s till t hought t o b e p art o f a g ateway a nd a nnexe o f t he p ost-Boudican f ort. T he g randiose t itle C aesaromagus - ' Caesar's p lain' o r ' market-place' - r emains e nigmatic, p ossibly s uggesting C helmsford w as o riginally i ntended a s t he n ew c antonal c apital.

t hat

F inally p ost-excavation w ork o n a m ajor 4 th c entury R omano-Celtic t emple ( Sites D , K a nd M ) h as r evealed a r eligious e nclosure d ated t o c . 7 0-80. 9 T he t own w as b riefly d efended b y a n e arthen r ampart a nd d itch i n t he l ater 2 nd c entury.

C atalogue A bbreviations

i n

i talics

p ublication o f t hat s ite, W ICKENDEN, f orthcoming b ;

u nder

t he

i .e. M ansio = D RURY, F rontage = W ICKENDEN,

c ontext

r efer

t o

t he

f orthcoming; T emple f orthcoming c .

=

F ig.3.1. S cabbard c hape, o ne s ide s lightly b ent a nd w ith a s mall p erforation. T he p atina b ears i mpressions o f g rass o r s traw . T here i s a c entral r ivet, a lmost i nvisible. F or a v ery s imilar, s lightly l arger p arallel, a nd a s maller, m ore r ounded e xample f rom R ichborough, s ee W ilson i n C UNLIFFE, 1 968, p l.XXXIV.91-2, a nd p .93 w ith r eferences. S ee a lso D RAPER, 1 985, f ig.15.114 ( Gestingthorpe); A LLASON-JONES & M IKET, 1 984, 4 01; O LDENSTEIN, 1 976, T af.19. C ontext 2 1 M oulsham S treet 1 968, p it 2 9. F rontage F ig.3.2 a nd P 1.1. D ecorated h ook t erminal f rom a l arge d ouble- l obed p endant, p robably u sed a s a f rontlet f or a h orse. F or a c omplete e xample f rom C irencester, s ee W EBSTER, 1 982, 1 09, f ig.36. T he t erminal, p lain o n t he u nderside, a ppears t o r epresent a s tylised b ird. T he b ack o f t he h ead, b ody a nd t op o f t he w ings ( moulded t o l ook f olded) a re d ecorated w ith r ows o f a rced n icks, i n a n i dentical m anner t o t hat f rom C irencester, a nd m ust i ndicate a c ommon p lace o f m anufacture, i f n ot t he s ame h and. T he o bject i s u nequivocally a n e arly m ilitary i tem. F or a nother d iscussion o f t he t ype, s ee B ISHOP, 1 987, 1 23-5. C ontext S ite V 1 975,

C at 3 89,

2 nd c entury f loor. F rontage

F ig.3.3. A braded a pron t erminal o r s trap e nd, w ith r emains o f a d ome-headed s tud a ttachment. B ronze, w ith a s mall a mount o f z inc. C ontext S ite D 1 970,

2 61,

s ilt o ver r oad,

P eriod V II.2,

4 th c entury.

T emple F ig.3.4. F ragmentary a pron s trap m ount, t erminating i n a s phere. C ontext S ite V 1 972, l ate i st c entury g ravel r oad s urface

L 25.

F rontage F ig.3.5. S tud w ith q uatrefoil d ecoration. B rass, w ith a s mall a mount o f l ead. T he i nlay a ppears t o b e n iello ( unconfirmed). S ee, f or i nstance HAWKES & H ULL, 1 947, p l.CII.30; B RAILSFORD, 1 962, f ig.5.A 1 25-6; R ITTERLING, 1 913, T af.XII.

2 35

C ontext S ite K 1 971, 4 79, e arly R oman g ravel 2 57, P eriod I V.3, c .AD 8 0-90. T he s ame c ontext a lso y ielded a c oin o f C laudius. T emple F ig.3.6. S tud. T he s haft h as b een b ent s o t hat i ts d own-turned r im. T he f ace i s c ountersunk, m altese-cross-like d ecoration. T here a re t races o f

t ip m eets t he w ith a f aint a w hite m etal

p lating i n t he h ollow . M ilitary; s ee, f or i nstance, B RAILSFORD, 1 962, f ig.5.A 1 24. C ontext S ite S 1 972, 1 75 I , P eriod V II.1, 3 rd c entury. M ansio F ig.3.7. C opper n ail w ith f lat h ead, d ecorated w ith t hree c oncentric g rooves; f or e xamples w ith s imilar d ecoration, s ee C UNLIFFE, 1 971, f ig.52.165; O LDENSTEIN, 1 976, T af.18.531. C ontext S ite Z 1 975, 1 03, P eriod V I.3 o nwards, c .AD 1 50+. M ansio F ig.3.8. S mall, c lenched n ail, w orn a nd c orroded, a s F ig.3.7. e xample c omes f rom W ickford ( Fig.5.27 b elow). C ontext S ite N 1 970, C at 3 33, p it, c .AD 9 0-120. F rontage

A nother

F ig.3.9. P lated b ox h asp w ith t ransverse m ouldings a nd a ' scallop' t erminal. F or a p arallel f rom C hichester, s ee D OWN & R ULE, 1 971, f ig.5.16.171 K . T he s ame m otif a ppears o n a h asp f rom R ichborough ( Wilson i n C UNLIFFE, 1 968, p l.XLV.193); s ee a lso a p endant f rom K elvedon, F ig.5.28 b elow . V ery h igh l evels o f t in a nd l ead s uggest a w hite m etal p lating o n a ? leaded b ronze b ase. C ontext S ite D 1 970, 7 1, P eriods I V-V, f irst c entury, s ubsoil u nder o vens. T emple F ig.3.10. H ollow c ast t erminal i n t he s hape o f

a

r am 's

h ead,

f illed

p artly w ith l ead, i nto which a h ole h as b een p ierced, p resumably a s am eans o f f ixing. T he r am i s w ell-modelled, a nd d espite b eing r ather w orn, t he d etail o f t he c ollar, d ecorated w ith r ing a nd d ot, a nd o f t he s piralling h orns, i s s till c lear. T he o bject i s p robably t he t erminal o f a l arge p atera h andle,

t hough i t i s p ossible i t i s a

f urniture f itting. N UBER 's H agenow t ype D p atera ( 1972, 3 8), w ith i ts d istinctive t wo-piece h andle, d ated f rom t he A ugustan p eriod t hrough t o t he B oudican r evolt. E xamples o f t his t ype, u nfortunately m issing t he a ctual t erminals, h ave b een f ound a t P leshey a nd H eybridge i n p robable b urial c ontexts ( for t he l atter s ee W ICKENDEN, 1 987). O n s tylistic g rounds t he t erminal i s s imilar t o o ther r ams h ead p atera h andles f rom V erulamium ( FRERE, 1 972, 1 38.148-9) a nd H od H ill ( BRAILSFORD, 1 962, e xample i s m uch l arger. C ontext M ansio

C hancellor

f ig.5.A 1 32 and p l.X),

C ollection,

t hus

t hough t he C helmsford

p erhaps f rom L ondon ( p.ßßß).

F ig.4.11. E namelled b elt o f h arness s lide; w ell c ast w ith g ood, o verall p atina. I t i s n ot c lear w hat c olours t he e namelling u sed, b eyond b right b lue, a nd what i s n ow d ark g reen . N ot t hought b y D r W ebster t o b e a n e arly m ilitary i tem ( pers c omm); p ossibly p art o f t he t emple r egalia, i n v iew o f i ts d iscovery o n t he r eligious p recinct, a lbeit i n a p ost-Roman c ontext. N o p arallels a re w riter. C ontext S ite K 1 971, 6 79, p ost-Roman p it. T emple F ig.4.12-14.

P ieces

o f

b road

k nown

t o

t he

d ecorated s trips, w ith p unched c ircles,

2 36

n icks a nd r ibs; p robably f rom t ypically i st c entury w ide b racelets ( cf H AWKES & H ULL, 1 947, p l.C.30; C RUMMY, 1 983, t ypes 1 586-7; F RERE, 1 972, f ig.32.30-1. A lternatively, p art o f a d ecorative f rom a h elmet ( Goodburn i n F RERE, 1 984, f ig.10.70).

b row

b and

C ontexts 1 2, S ite K 1 971, p it 8 7, P eriod I V.2, c .AD 6 0-90. T emple; 1 3, S ite V 1 972, L 17, i st c entury + l oam . F rontage; 1 4, S ite V 1 972, F 110 2 nd c entury s lot. F rontage F ig.4.15. S heet w ith a s mall h ole a t e ach t op c orner w ith c opper a lloy w ire p assing t hrough, a nd t apering s lightly t owards t he b ottom ( incomplete); t he e dges a re d ecorated w ith t wo r ows o f p eck-marks. P ossibly a f ragment o f l orica s quamata ( cf. R OBINSON, 1 975, f ig.159, p 1.436-41), t hough t he o bject a ppears t o b e s oldered o n t he u nderside, G unmetal, w ith a t in-lead white m etal p lating. C ontext S ite K 1 971, 7 48 ( non-feature). T emple F ig.4.16. C ut s heet f ragment; u nderside. C ontext S ite K 1 971,

g unmetal, w ith

p it 8 4,

t in-lead

2 nd c entury + .

s older

o n

t he

T emple

F ig.4.17. S heet f ragment w ith a s mall d rilled h ole t op c entre; c ompare a n e xample f rom K elvedon ( Fig.5.32 b elow). L ike F ig.4.15-16, t he u nderside w as c oated w ith a t in-lead(?) s older. C ontext S ite K 1 971, 1 139, s ite c learance. T emple F ig.4.18-20. A ntonine m ilitary e quipment, p ossibly c onnected w ith t he c onstruction o f t he 2 nd c entury e arthen d efences o f t he t own ( DRURY, f orthcoming). F ig.4.18. P ierced h eart-shaped m ount o f m ilitary p attern , s ilvered o n f ace. T his f inds p arallels i n t he l imes f orts o f t he A ntonine p eriod; f or s imilar e xamples f rom Z ugmantel, F eldberg, S aalburg a nd S tockstadt, s ee O LDENSTEIN, 1 976, T af.31. C ontext C hancellor C ollection ( ?London p rovenance). C HMER A ccn N o.B18040. M ansio F ig.4.19. P ierced h eart-shaped m ount. T his c ould b e i n t he s ame c ategory a s F ig.4.18, s ince O LDENSTEIN ( 1976, T af.32) d emonstrates t he m any v ariations w hich t he f orm c an t ake. I t i s u nusual i n h aving a n a symmetrical f oot ( but c f. O LDENSTEIN, 1 976, T af.68.895), b ut i t m ay b e o ne o f am atching p air, w ith o ne t wisted o ne w ay, a nd i ts p artner t he o ther. I t i s a lso p ossible t hat i t i s c ivilian r ather t han m ilitary. C ontext S ite A A 1 968, p it 1 .8, P eriod V I, c . A D 1 60-90. M ansio F ig.4.20. P art o f a n o pen-work m ount i n t he f orm o f a p elta, w ith a l arge f astening s tud o n t he b ack. I t c ould h ave b een p art o f a d ouble o r q uadruple m ount s imilar t o O LDENSTEIN, 1 976, T af.34,275-6, b oth o f w hich i ncorporate t he p elta. A ntonine o r l ater. C ontext S ite S 1 972, 1 065, P eriod V II.1, 3 rd c entury. M ansio

B rooches F irst c entury N auheim-derivatives,

t en

b rooches f rom H od H ill, o ne

2 37

C helmsford i nclude n ine T histle, t wo o ne-piece,

t wenty-one C olchester t wo-piece, s ix C olchester d erivatives, t rumpet, o ne t oothed-bow P olden H ill t ype a nd t hree p late e xamples.

o ne

C oins C unobelinus, MACK 2 53,

2 .218g,

S ite S

M arcus A ntonius, c . 3 1 B C, S 1 216, S ite S T iberius, A D 1 2- Z , R IC I 2 45 ( rev A ugustus), S ite M D rusus, A D 2 1-2, a s, R ome m int, R IC I 4 5 ( Tiberius), 2 1 M oulsham S treet D ivus

A ugustus, A D 2 2-30, a s, R ome m int, R IC I 8 1 ( Tiberius), 2 1 M oulsham S treet 1 4 X C laudius 1 , A D 4 3-64, C opy a s R IC I 1 00, 9 5 ( one e xample), S ites K , M , S , V , P rince o f O range, O rchard S ite 1 1 X V espasianus, A D 6 9-79, R IC 5 00, 5 28 ( X2), 7 53A , 7 64, a nd i llegible a sses a nd d upondii, S ites K , O rchard S ite a nd C ables Y ard.

M ,

S ,

V , P rince o f O range,

O ne C laudian a s w as o verstamped; another i s d ie-related t o a c oin f rom L incoln. O ne b atch o f c oins i s s till b eing c onserved, s o t hat i t i s p ossible t hese n umbers w ill i ncrease.

H EYBRIDGE E xcavations b y P .J. D rury i n 1 972 f or t he E ssex A rchaeological S ociety h ave r ecently b een p ublished. 1° T he e xcavated s ite f ronted a s ide r oad l eading e astwards t o M ersea w ithin t he R omano-British s mall t own w hich g rew u p o n t he n orth s ide o f t he R iver B lackwater a t i ts c onfluence w ith t he C helmer. T he m ain r oad f rom C olchester c rossed t he r ivers a t t heir j unction, a nd t hen t urned s outh-westwards t o C helmsford, b ypassing a n I ron A ge h ill-fort a t M aldon. W hilst m aterial e vidence f or l ate I ron A ge o ccupation c onsisted o nly o f a s catter o f ' Belgic' s herds a nd a p otin c oin, a g azetteer o f p ast f inds m ade i t c lear t hat H eybridge w as a f lourishing p re-Roman p ort; f inds i nclude a n a rretine p latter, a p atera a nd e wer b urial a nd W elwyn-type a mphora b urials. W ith t he R oman c onquest, t he s ettlement e xpanded, f unctioning p rimarily a s a p ort f or t he a rea, a nd C helmsford i n p articular. N o e vidence, s ave F ig.4.21 b elow , w as f ound f or a m ilitary o ccupation, t hough t he d iscovery o f b uilding s tone a nd o ther m aterials s uch a s t ile t esserae, w indow g lass, a nd b ox f lue t ile, m ay i ndicate t he p resence s omewhere i n t he t own o f a m ansio.

F ig.4.21. A braded o bject, p ost-Roman d itch.

1 1

p robably a n a pron f itting.

B rass.

F ound

i n

B rooches T wo

N auheim-derivatives

( one i ron) a nd a t hird f ragment;

o f a H od H ill.

2 38

f ragment

C oins P otin,

C lass

C laudius

I I, 0 2, w eight 0 .718g

1 , A D 4 3-64, G rubenhaus

c opy,

r everse

i ndeterminate,

r esidual

i n

G REAT D UNMOW E xcavations A rchaeological

b y P .J. S ociety

D rury f rom 1 970 a re s hortly t o

t o b e

1 972 f or t he E ssex p ublished. 12 T he

R omano-British s mall t own w as a r oadside s ettlement w hich g rew u p a long S tane S treet b etween C olchester a nd B raughing a long a r idge o f h igh g round a bove t he R iver C helmer. T he e xcavations l ay s ome 1 20m b ehind S tane S treet, a nd y ielded a n umber o f b oundary d itches. O f i mportance w as a s mall l ate F lavian - A ntonine f amily c remation c emetery w ithin a s mall e nclosure, w ith c asket b urials s imilar t o o nes f rom S keleton G reen. 13 I n t he l ater R oman p eriod t he s ite w as o ccupied b y a t imber ' shrine' w hich s urvived i nto t he 5 th c entury. T he a bsence o f a ny l ate I ron A ge p ottery s uggests t he R oman t own g rew u p o n v irgin, a gricultural l and, a nd t here i s l ittle e vidence f or a m ilitary o ccupation, b eyond F ig.4.22 f ound i n a s maller e xcavation. A g azetteer o f f inds h as i solated s everal c remation a nd i nhumation c emeteries, a nd a s tudy o f t he s urrounding c ountryside h as r evealed a p attern o f v illas,

f arming t he p rosperous g ravel t erraces o f t he C helmer v alley.

F ig.4.22. A braded b elt s tiffener, l ead g unmetal, d ecorated w ith i nlaid n iello ( AML 8 22856). S imilar p ieces c ome f rom C hichester ( DOWN, 1 978, f ig.10.34,67-8) a nd C olchester ( CRUMMY, 1 983, f ig.144.4181). I a m g rateful t o P aul W ilthew ( formerly A ncient M onuments L aboratory) f or a nalysing t he m etal. C ontext M arket G arden s ite,

c at 1 500, R oman g ravel p it.

C oins C unobelinus, MACK 2 53, w eight 1 .413g, 2X V espasianus, A D 6 9-79,

f ound w ith F ig.4.22

R IC 7 61, a s 7 64b

W ICKFORD

o f

R escue e xcavations b y W arwick R odwell f rom 1 965 t o 1 971 o n b ehalf W ickford A rchaeological S ociety, i n a dvance o f a h ousing

d evelopment, r evealed a m ultiperiod o ccupation. A l ate I ron A ge v illage w as p robably u sed a s t he s ite o f a C onquest-period m arching c amp: a l ength o f ' military-style' d itch w as f ound w ith a ssociated n ative a nd C laudian c oinage, i st c entury b rooches a nd a n umber o f m ilitary b ronzes. I n a ddition t o t he f inds p ublished h ere, w atching b riefs b y P auline N eild o n b ehalf o f t he E ssex C ounty C ouncil A rchaeology S ection p roduced f urther m ilitary b ronzes, e .g. q uatrefoil s trap j unctions, C laudian-Neronian b rooches, C laudian c opies a nd a n a s, p robably o f T iberius, c ounterstamped T IB.IM , a s u sed o n c oins a t t he R hine f rontier f ortress o f M oguntiacum ( Mainz), w hence l egio X IV G emina w as t ransferred t o t ake p art i n t he A D 4 3 i nvasion.I 4 A 2 nd c entury v illa

2 39

w as b uilt o n a gricultural l and t o t he e ast, a nd t he v illage a ppears t o h ave b ecome a s ervicing e state. P ost-excavation w ork o n R odwell's e xcavations h as b een u ndertaken b y C helmsford A rchaeological T rust a nd w ill b e p ublished i n d ue c ourse.

C atalogue F ig.5.23. T rumpet m outhpiece, i ncomplete, w ith a l ow m oulding a gainst t he m outh. P robably o riginally a bout 1 70mm l ong, o f a t ype f ound a t C olchester ( Colchester M useum A nnual R eport, 1 937-44, 2 8-9, p late 4 ), V erulamium ( FRERE, 1 972, f ig.40.129) a nd Lydney p ark ( WHEELER & W HEELER , 1 932, f ig.16.47, w ith G erman r eferences). P ossibly f or u se o n a C ornu. C ontext C at 3 128, p ebble c learance F ig.5.24. P ossible f ragment o f m artingale w ith a r adiating o penwork c entre, i .e. o rnamental h orse f urniture. A n ear c omplete e xample f rom S outh S hields i s r eproduced h ere ( ALLASON-JONES & M IKET, 1 984, 2 02, N o.3.665). C ontext U nstratified F ig.5.25. I ncomplete h inged h arness m ount w ith c ut-out c rescent d ecoration, a nd a s tud o n o ne p late. T he h inge i tself i s f ormed b y r oling o ver t he t erminal o f o ne p late a round t he t erminal o f t he o ther. A n e xact p arallel f rom S outh S hields i s r eproduced h ere ( ALLASON-JONES & M IKET, T af.X.70 ( Zugmantel). C ontext S ubsoil,

1 984,

2 27,

N o.3.790);

s ee

a lso O RL 8 ,

C at 2 158

F ig.5.26. S quare m ount f or a ttachment t o ? leather, c omprising t wo h alf c ylinders w ith a g roove b etween, a nd a c entral p rojecting s hank o n t he u nderside; c f. WACHER, 1 969, f ig.37.12; G oodburn i n F RERE, 1 984, f ig.17.145; F ig.6.36. C ontext P rimary S chool w atching b rief F ig.5.27. N ail w ith f lat r ound h ead, d ecorated c ircles; s quare s hank; s ee F ig.3.7-8 a bove. C ontext P it 5 97, d epositd c .AD 2 00

w ith

t hree

c oncentric

B rooches 1

L a

T ene

I

N auheim d erivative, o ne-piece, 8 B ow b rooches

s pring 3 H od

a nd H ill,

b ow , 2

f ragmentary,

o ne-piece

f rom a c remation.

C olchester,

1

1

u nusual

t wo-piece C olchester, 2 T rumpet. 2 l ate A ntonine D ivided a nd a n e arly c rossbow b rooch a re a ll r egarded a s

d istinctly m ilitary o n t he G erman l imes.

C oins G old s tater o f D ubnovellaunus B ronze c ore o f g old p lated s tater C unobelinus q uarter s tater,

g old p lated.

B ase s ilver MACK 4 46 C

2 40

? MACK 2 09

4X C unobelinus b ronzes, MACK 2 23,

2 25,

2 50,

2 51

3X C atuvellaunian b ronzes, o ne p robably MACK 2 25 3X B ritish p otin c oins, c lass I .L, I I.P, I I.P1 2X R epublican d enarii, C RAWFORD 4 15/1, 4 19/1, C remation 3 8 5X C laudius 1 , c opies a s R IC 1 00 V itellius, R IC ( rev) 1 09 6 X V espasianus, R IC a s 2 76 ( no T RP); i llegible a sses

5 28b;

i llegible d upondius;

3

K ELVEDON E xcavations b y K irsty R odwell a nd o thers b etween 1 968 and 1 973 8 64190)

f or

t he

E ssex

A rchaeological

S ociety

a re

s oon

t o

( TL b e

p ublished. 15 A n i nterim r eport o n f urther e xcavations b y t he E ssex C ounty C ouncil h as b een p ublished a lready. 1 6 K elvedon i s c onfidently i dentified a s C anonium, a nd l ies o n t he m ain r oad m idway b etween C olchester a nd C helmsford a t t he c rossing o f t he r iver B lackwater. I n s ummary, t he e xcavations r evealed t he L ate p re-Roman I ron A ge s ettlement w ith e vidence o f r ectangular h ouses; a m id i st c entury m ilitary p hase, c omprising a p ossible f ort d itch o f c haracteristically m ilitary p rofile w hich c ontained m ilitary e quipment. A p ossible r econstruction e stimates a n e nclosure w ith a n i nternal a rea o f 4 ha ( 10 a cres). A b attery o f t hree c ontemporary p ottery k ilns h ad b een c ut i nto t he r ampart. T he s mall q uantity o f s amian antedating c .AD 5 0 r enders a C laudian d ate u nlikely, a nd i t i s s uggested 17 t hat t he f ort w as i mmediately p ost-Boudican, b eing c onnected w ith t he b uilding o f t he m ain r oad, a nd w as i n e xistence f or l ess t han a d ecade. T he s mall t own g rew u p, p ossibly a s a v icus o utside t he f ort, e nclosed f or a t ime b y a d efensive e arthwork s imilar t o C helmsford. T he e xcavations r evealed s trip b uilding, a c ircular t emple, a nd p art o f o ne o f f our known c emeteries.

F ig.5.28. H arness p endant w ith m issing s uspension l oop, ( HAWKES & H ULL, 1 947, p l.CII.13). C ontext A rea B 3, 3 03 F ig.5.29.

S hield b inding,

C ontext A rea B 2.5,

c f B RAILSFORD,

1 962,

c f.

C amulodunum

f ig.l.A9-11.

d itch

F ig.5.30. R epouss6 p late, t he c entral r oundel

f ragmentary, p ossibly p art o f a b elt f itting; c ontains a n e ight-petalled f lower; c f.

B RAILSFORD, 1 962, f ig.4.A115 C ontext A rea J , m odern d isturbance F ig.5.31. H arness r ing w ith s tud a ttachment, p l.XI.197; A NDERSON & WACHER, 1 980, f ig.4.5.

c f.

B RAILSFORD,

1 962,

C ontext A rea J 3, d itch F ig.5.32. S cale o f l orica s quamata; a s ingle p erforation i s n ot c ommon, b ut c f. C UNLIFFE, 1 971, f ig.43.83 a nd F ig.4.17 f rom C helmsford. C ontext A rea B 6, u nstratified O ther f inds i nclude a r are

i ron

t histle-headed

l inch

b allista b olts a nd a s mall s ocketed s pearhead f rom t he d itch.

2 41

p in,

t wo

B rooches E arly b rooches i nclude n ine o f L a T ene I II t ype, f our N auheim d erivatives, e ight C olchester t ypes a nd s ingle e xamples o f t he t histle, r osette, A ucissa, C amulodunum X IV, H od H ill, B agendon C , a nd L angt (I i D own A t ypes.

C oins T here w ere e leven C eltic c oins f rom t he e xcavations, a nd f ive o ther f inds n oted; a ll w ere s ubmitted t o t he I ndex o f C eltic c oins a t t he I nstitute o f A rchaeology,

O xford.

G allo-Belgic DA , MACK 3 9 o r 4 2 P otins C lass I I, t ypes 0 , 0 1 X 2 , P 2, D E LA T OUR 8 620 7X C unobelinus, MACK 2 15, 2 22, 2 24, 2 29, 2 51, 2 52, a nd 2 53 ? Tasciovanus, MACK 1 70

R oman 1X 9X 1X 2X

R epublican C laudius 1 N ero V espasianus

M ETAL D ETECTOR I DENTIFICATIONS N o.33

( Plate 2 ).

1 947, 1 987)

D ouble l obed p endant,

c f.

C amulodunum ( HAWKES & H ULL,

p l.CIII.12), b ut e specially S outhwark ( HAMMERSON & S HELDON, a nd K ingsholm ( HURST, 1 985, f ig.12.1). F ound w ith t wo C eltic

c oins b y M r D avid L ewis n ear A shdon b etween S affron W alden a nd t he B artlow H ills, a nd b rought i nto S affron W alden Museum. M y t hanks t o S heila J ordain f or d rawing m y a ttention t o t he o bject. A nother s imilar p endant w as f ound i n F ebruary 1 987 w ith a m etal d etector c .800m s outh o f t he S . g ate o f t he f ort a t n earby G reat C hesterford, a long w ith a s econd i nlaid p endant ( C.J. G oing, i n p rep). N o.34 ( not d rawn). H arness m ount a ttachment f or l eather; o ne o f t wo r ivets s urvives w ith i ts e nd h ammered f lat t o g rip t he l eather, 4 -5mm t hick. F lat f lange w ith a t ypical c entral m otif, r aised 6 mm i n a h ollow e gg s hape, d ecorated w ith a l ongitudinal i ncised s lash ( cf. W ACHER , 1 969, f ig.38.19; O LDENSTEIN, 1 976, T af.34.269). F ound i n 1 980 b y M r M .J. C uddeford M useum f or i dentification.

a nd b rought i nto C helmsford a nd E ssex

F ig.6.35. M ount w ith p ierced s ide a ttachment ( broken) a nd c entral p rojecting t ang o n underside. F or a c omplete e xample f rom W oodcock H all, N orfolk, s ee B ROWN, 1 986, f ig.28.199; O LDENSTEIN, 1 976, T af.34.268. F ound a t H igh E aster b y M r M .J. C uddeford i n 1 986, a long w ith F ig.6.36, a nd o ther o bjects, i ncluding p art o f a c opper a lloy r iveted c auldron w ith h andle,

t wo C olchester b rooches,

2 42

a nd

s everal

C unobelinus b ronzes. A q uarter s tater o f A ddedomarus i s k nown f rom n earby; b rought i nto C helmsford A rchaeological T rust f or i dentification. F ig.6.36. M ount c omprising t wo h alf c ylinders, w ith p rojecting s hank o n u nderside. F or a p arallel f rom W ickford, s ee F ig.5.26. F ound b y M r M .J. C uddeford a t H igh E aster i n 1 986 w ith F ig.6.35. F ig.6.37. P enannular o mega b rooch, t hough t he l ack o f t erminals m akes p recise i dentification i mpossible. T he n earest p arallels c ome f rom A ugustan t o C laudian s ites, b oth i n B ritain a nd o n t he C ontinent ( SIMPSON, 1 979). T hey a re n ot c ommon, a nd t he d ecoration h ere m akes i t p articularly i nteresting. I a m g rateful t o M iss S .A. B utcher f or h er c omments. F ound b y M r J . B asham i n f ields n ear S pringfield, C helmsford i n 1 982, a nd t aken t o C helmsford a nd E ssex M useum f or i dentification. O ther f inds i n S pringfield m ade b y M r B asham i nclude a C olchester d erivative b rooch a nd a q uarter s tater o f C unobelinus.

O THER F INDS 1 . D r W arwick R odwell h as p ublished a b rief s ummary o f t he i st c enturx m ilitary o ccupation a t o ther s ites i n E ssex, w ith r eferences.' 5 B riefly, e arly m ilitary f inds h ave b een f ound a t R adwinter ( lorica s egmentata), e ast T ilbury, S affron W alden ( catapult h ead, s trap e nd, H od H ill b rooch), B radwell

( Hod

H ill

b rooch),

T olleshunt

d 'Arcy

( pilum h ead), a nd G reat W akering ( pilum h ead). A f urther p ilum h ead w as f ound a t F elsted S tation d uring e xcavations b y t he F elsted S chool A rchaeological S ociety i n 1 948. 19 C laudian a s c opies c ome f rom Mucking, T iptree a nd B illericay. 2 ° T wo m ilitary p endants a nd s everal e arly b ronzes a re t hought t o h ave c ome f rom Marks T ey. 2 1 2 .

G estingthorpe. D raper 22 h as p ublished a l arge c ollection o f f inds, c ollected o ver 2 5 y ears o n t he s ite o f a R omano-Britsh s ettlement a t G estingthorpe, b etween B raintree a nd L ong M elford. B rooches i nclude a N auheim d erivative, a n i ron o ne-piece, a q uasi L angton D own, a T histle v ariant, t wo H od H ill, a C olchester B a nd a p enannular. T he c oin l ist i ncludes a C unobelinus M ack 2 53, a p otin c lass I .C, t wo M . A grippa ( Tiberius) a sses, a i st c entury a s, a n a s o f C laudius, a d upondius o f A ntonia, a nd f ive V espasianus. B ronzes i nclude a s cabbard m ounts, 23

c hape s imilar t o F ig.3.1, a nd t hree d ecorative s trap a ll p aralleled i n O ldenstein's p ublication, 24 a nd h ence

t hought t o b e a uxiliary e quipment. 3 . H arlow . A r ecord o f t he e xcavations c arried o ut b y t he W est E ssex A rchaeological G roup b etween 1 962 a nd 1 971 o n t he s ite o f a R omano-Celtic t emple h as r ecently b een p ublished. 25 T he b rooch l ist i ncludes l arge n umbers o f i st c entury, m ostly p re-Flavian, b rooches ( e.g. N auheim d erivative, L angton D own, T histle, B agendon, H od H ill, D olphin, S awfish a nd C olchester t ypes). T he c oins i nclude 3 39 C eltic i ssues f rom a n umber o f s ites, d iscussed i n f ull b y A .P. F itzpatrick, 26 a nd 4 6 i st c entury R oman c oins ( Augustus, C aligula, 3 X A grippa, 2 1 X C laudius, 2 X A ntonia, 7 X N ero ( 4 s emis) a nd 1 X V espasianus). M ilitary e quipment 27 i ncludes C laudian-Neronian i nlaid p endants, s trap t erminals, m ounts a nd f asteners, a nd l obated h inge p lates

( with i ron p lating s till a ttached) f rom l oricae s egmentatae.

2 43

N ew e xcavations b y R ichard B artlett o n b ehalf o f H arlow M useum o n t he T emple s ite i n 1 985-86 h ave y ielded a f urther 2 74 C eltic c oins, o ne Augustus, o ne M arcus A ntonius, f ive N ero, t en C laudius a nd t hree V espasianus i ssues. F urther e arly b rooches i nclude H od H ill, N auheim d erivative, A ucissa, R osette a nd C olchester t ypes.

2 8

N orth-east o f t he t emple a t H olbrook's, o n t he s outh b ank o f t he r iver S tort w here t he m ain n orth-south r oad t o B raughing c rosses i t, w ork i n 1 970 r evealed a l arge n umber o f o bjects, i ncluding s ome e arly m ilitary b ronzes, I ron A ge c oins a nd 1 36 i st c entury b rooches. A n i nterim r eport 29 s ummarises t he e vidence s omewhat m eagrely . T he u npublished f inds f rom t hese e xcavations i nclude a n i ron p ilum h ead, a b uckle p late, a r ectangular n ielloed m ount, f olded i n a ntiquity ( sketched h ere, F ig.6.38) 3 ° a nd a h eart-shaped p endant, p ierced i n c entre, w ith a braded p lain b ird-headed t erminal a nd a p lain b ead f oot ( sketched h ere, F ig.6.39). 31 F urther w ork w as c arried o ut i n 1 978 b y D r J ohn C hapman ( discoveries i nclude a n u npublished n ielloed r ectangular m ount) 3 Z a nd i n 1 980-81 b y R ichard B artlett ( one a braded ? Claudius c oin).

S UMMARY S everal d iscussions o f e arly R oman f orts i n E ssex h ave b een p ublished 33 a nd t hese a re r eviewed b y E ddy, 34 w ho t akes a m inimalist's v iewpoint o f a g enuine i nventory o f t heir n umber. I t i s n ot p roposed t o d iscuss t he v arious a rguments f or t he e xistence o f C laudian f orts a t t he d ifferent t owns, o r what c riteria a re r equired t o p rove t heir e xistence, m erely t o p oint t he r eader t o t hese p apers. B riefly , h owever, E ddy d ismisses t he s uggestion o f f orts a t D unmow , K elvedon a nd C helmsford. O nly a t W ickford d oes h e c oncede t hat t he c oin l ists a nd m etalwork i ndicate a n e arly m ilitary p resence. S ingle o bjects a t H eybridge a nd D unmow c annot, i ndeed, b e t aken a s e vidence f or a ny m ilitary a ctivity, t hough t he t opography o f b oth m ight s uggest s omething. A t C helmsford, t here i s n ow s ufficient e vidence t o p ostulate a p ost-Boudican f ort o r r oad-station, w hilst t he l arge n umbers o f p re-Roman B elgic c oins a t K elvedon a nd W ickford m ight i ndicate C laudian a ctivity ( ?marching c amps), a nd t he d iscovery o f m ilitary-type d itches a t b oth t hese s ites s hould b e b orne i n m ind. M etal d etector f inds t oo, where g enuine p rovenances a re g iven, c an b e u seful, a s B rown h as s hown a t W oodcock H all i n N orfolk, 35 a nd M r M .J. C uddeford a t H igh E aster. T he g rowing n umber o f m ilitary b ronzes f rom H arlow m akes a m id i st c entury m ilitary p resence t here i nherently l ikely;

a t G estingthorpe t oo t here i s

m ore

t han

a

t oken

n umber

o f

r elevant f inds. F inally , a ll t he C laudian i ssues f rom t he e xcavated s ites u nder s crutiny i n t his p aper w ere s ubmitted t o M r R obert K enyon i n F ebruary 1 987, w ho w rites ( pers c omm), ' their s maller s ize a nd l ighter w eight i ndicates a l ate C laudian d ate o f m anufacture. A p ost-Boudican d ate i s q uite l ikely f or t heir l oss; t heir c irculation d ate b eing t he l ate 5 0s/early 6 0s t o t he e arly 7 0s w hen V espasian's m assive s upplies o f b ronzes s aw a n e nd t o t he C laudian c oins.'

2 44

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS P ost-excavation w ork h as b een f unded b y t he H istoric B uildings a nd M onuments C ommission. T he f inds d escriptions f rom K elvedon a re e xtracted f rom K irsty R odwell's f orthcoming m onograph, w ith h er k ind p ermission.

S pecialist

p ublications,

r eports, w ritten f or t he i ndividual s ites'

i nclude t he b rooches b y M iss S .A.

own

B utcher; m etal a nalyses

b y Justine B ayley ( Ancient M onuments L aboratory);

t he

p re-Roman

c oins

b y L yn S ellwood; t he R oman c oins b y J ohn D avies, R ichard R eece and R obert K enyon ( Claudian i ssues). G raham W ebster h elped i n t he i dentification

o f

F ig.4.18-19.

P late

1

i s c ourtesy o f

t he P assmore

E dwards Museum C onservation D epartment a nd P late 2 i s c ourtesy o f S affron W alden Museum. F inds i llustrations a re b y J ohn C allaghan, Mark D uncan,

F rank G ardiner a nd G raham R eed.

F igure

1

i s

b y

D r

W arwick

R odwell, a nd 2 i s b y P aul D rury. I am g rateful t o L indsay A llason-Jones f or p ermission t o r eproduce t he m artingale and h inged m ount f rom S outh S hields o n F ig.5.

I h ave b een g iven a ssistance i n

t his r eport b y B artlett, M r M .J.

s everal p eople, C uddeford, C arol

J ordain,

t he

p reparation

i ncluding M r J . B asham, C unningham, C hris G oing,

o f

R ichard S heila

D avid Lewis a nd Warwick R odwell.

N OTES 1 .

F or

a m iddle a nd l ate I ron A ge v illage a t L ittle Waltham,

C helmsford,

s ee DRURY,

2 .

DRURY,

3 .

A lso a ccepted i n WACHER,

4 . DRURY,

1 975.

1 972,

R eport i n W ICKENDEN,

6 .

G OING,

1 987.

7 .

DRURY,

1 972,

8 .

DRURY,

f orthcoming.

9 . W ICKENDEN,

1 986;

f orthcoming b .

W ICKENDEN,

1 1.

F or a n e arly S axon W ICKENDEN, 1 982.

B ORRILL,

f orthcoming c .

4 .

1 0.

1 2. W ICKENDEN,

1 987. s ettlement

R ODWELL,

w ithin

t he

t own,

s ee

f orthcoming a .

1 981.

1 4. M . H ammerson i n C OUCHMAN, 1 5.

1 974.

6 .

5 .

1 3.

6 km f rom

1 978.

1 979,

4 3-4;

f orthcoming.

2 45

E DDY,

1 980,

6 3-7.

D RURY

&

1 6. E DDY,

1 982.

1 7. R ODWELL,

f orthcoming.

1 8. R odwell i n D RURY & R ODWELL,

1 980,

6 4-5.

1 9.

P hotographed i n t he s chool m agazine,

2 0.

P ers c omm , W .J. R odwell.

2 1.

R odwell i n D RURY & R ODWELL,

2 2. D RAPER ,

1 980,

B ury M agazine,

6 5.

1 985.

2 3.

I bid.

2 4.

O LDENSTEIN,

2 5.

F RANCE & G OBEL,

2 6.

I bid.

4 9-66.

2 7.

I bid.

f ig.46.

2 8.

B ARTLETT,

2 9.

C ONLON,

f ig.14.98-100. 1 976. 1 985.

1 987.

1 973.

3 0. M ost s imilar i n d ecoration t o H AWKES & H ULL, 3 1.

C f.

B RAILSFORD,

1 962,

f ig.3.A40;

C RUMMY,

3 2. D ecoration r esembles t hat i n W EBSTER , 3 3. R ODWELL, 3 4. E DDY, 3 5.

B ROWN,

1 948.

1 975;

D UNNETT,

1 975;

1 947,

1 983,

1 982,

p l.CII.16.

f ig.156.4233.

f ig.39.127.

D RURY & R ODWELL,

1 980.

1 982. 1 986.

B IBLIOGRAPHY A LLASON-JONES

&M IKET 1 984: L . A llason-Jones & R . M iket,

o f S mall F inds f rom S outh S hields T yne 1 984) A NDERSON

&

W ACHER

R oman

1 980: A .S. A nderson & J .S. W acher,

W anborough, W iltshire',

B ritannia,

1 1,

B ARTLETT 1 987: R . B artlett, H arlow T emple I nterim R eport, H arlow M us O ccas P ap 1 , B ISHOP

1 987: M .C. D awson ( ed.),

F ort,

B ishop,

1 980,

T he C atalogue

( Newcastle

' Excavations a t

1 15-26

E xcavations 1 985-86. ( Gloucester 1 987)

"The e volution o f c ertain f eatures ",

R oman M ilitary E quipment:

2 46

u pon

A n

i n M .

t he A ccoutrements o f W ar,

B AR I nternational S eries 3 36,

( Oxford 1 987),

1 09-40

B ORRILL 1 981: H . B orrill, ' Casket b urials', i n C . P artridge, S keleton G reen, B ritannia M onograph S eries 2 , ( London 1 981), 3 04-21 B RAILSFORD 1 962: J .W . B railsford, H od H ill 1 . A ntiquities f rom H od H ill i n t he D urden C ollection, ( London 1 962) B ROWN

1 986: R .A. B rown, ' The I ron A ge a nd R omano-British s ettlement a t W oodcock H all, S aham T oney, N orfolk', B ritannia, 1 7, 1 986, 1 -58

C ONLON

1 973: R .F.B. C onlon, ' Holbrook's R omano-British s ettlement', E ssex J ournal,

a n 8 .2,

I ron A ge 1 973, 3 0-50

a nd

C OUCHMAN 1 979: C . C ouchman, ' Work o f E ssex C ounty C ouncil A rchaeology S ection, 1 978', E ssex A rchaeol H ist, 1 1, 1 979, 3 2-77 C RUMMY 1 983: N . C rummy, T he R oman S mall F inds f rom E xcavations i n C olchester, 1 971-9, C olchester A rchaeol T rust R ep 2 , ( Colchester 1 983) C UNLIFFE 1 968: B .W . C unliffe, F ifth R eport o n t he E xcavations o f t he R oman F ort a t R ichborough, K ent, S oc A ntiq R es R ep 2 3, ( Oxford 1 968) C UNLIFFE 1 971: B .W . C unliffe, E xcavations a t F ishbourne, A ntiq R es R ep 2 7, ( Oxford 1 971) D OWN 1 978: A . D OWN

D own,

C hichester E xcavations 3 ,

& R ULE 1 971: A . ( Chichester 1 971)

D RAPER 1 985: J . D raper, s ite a t H ill A rchaeology, D RURY

2 5,

D own

&

M .

R ule,

1 972,

C hichester

E xcavations

1 ,

C ooper o n t he R oman E ssex', E ast A nglian

1 985 r eport: t he C aesaromagus

l,

R omano-British E ssex A rchaeol

3 -29

D RURY 1 975: P .J. D rury, ' Roman C helmsford - C aesaromagus R OWLEY, 1 975, 1 59-75 D RURY 1 978:

S oc

( Chichester 1 978)

' Excavations b y M r H .P. F arm , G estingthorpe,

1 972: P .J. D rury, ' Preliminary s ettlement a t C helmsford, E ssex : H ist, 4 ,

1 961-69,

P .J. D rury,

E xcavations a t L ittle W altham,

l,

i n R ODWELL &

C BA R es R ep

2 6,

( London 1 978) D RURY

f orthcoming:

P .J.

D rury,

T he

M ansio

S outh-eastern S ector o f C aesaromagus, f orthcoming) D RURY

C BA

a nd R es

O ther R ep

S ites i n t he 6 6,

( London

& R ODWELL 1 980: P .J. D rury & W .J. R odwell, ' Settlement i n t he l ater I ron A ge a nd R oman p eriods', i n D .G. B uckley ( ed.), A rchaeology i n E ssex t o 1 500, C BA R es R ep 3 4, ( London 1 980), 5 9-75

2 47

D RURY & W ICKENDEN 1 982:

P .J. D rury & N .P. W ickenden,

' An

e arly

S axon

s ettlement w ithin t he R omano-British s mall t own a t H eybridge, E ssex ', M edieval A rchaeol, 2 6, 1 982, 1 -40 D UNNETT 1 975:

B .R.

D unnett,

T he T rinovantes,

E DDY 1 980: M . E ddy, ' Excavations i n E ssex, 1 2, 1 980, 3 9-85 E DDY

1 982:

M .

S mall T own, 1 982) F RANCE

E ddy,

K elvedon,

( London 1 975)

1 979',

E ssex A rchaeol

T he O rigins a nd D evelopment o f a R oman

E ssex C ounty C ouncil O ccas P ap 3 ,

& G OBEL 1 985: T emple a t H arlow,

F RERE 1 972: S .S. F rere, ( Oxford 1 972)

N .E. F rance &B .M . ( Gloucester 1 985)

G obel,

V erulamium E xcavations

1 ,

C .J. G oing,

( Westcliffe-on-Sea

T he R omano-British

S oc A ntiq R es R ep 2 8,

F RERE 1 984: S .S. F rere, V erulamium E xcavations 3 , C ommittee f or A rchaeol M ono 1 , ( Oxford 1 984) G OING 1 987:

H ist,

O xford

U niversity

T he M ansio a nd O ther S ites i n t he S outh-eastern

S ector o f C aesaromagus: ( London 1 987)

t he

R oman

P ottery,

C BA

R es R ep 6 2,

H AMMERSON & S HELDON 1 987: M . H ammerson & H . S heldon, ' Evidence f or t he R oman a rmy i n S outhwark', i n M . D awson ( ed.), R oman M ilitary E quipment: t he A ccoutrements o f 3 36, ( Oxford 1 987), 1 67-74 H AWKES

&

H ULL 1 947:

R es R ep 1 4,

W ar,

C .F.C. H awkes & M .R. H ull,

I nternational

C amulodunum,

S eries

S oc A ntiq

( Oxford 1 947)

H URST 1 985: H .R. H urst, ( Cambridge 1 985)

K ingsholm, G loucester A rchaeological R eports 1 ,

N UBER 1 972: H .U. v on N uber, ' Kanne R ömische-Germanischen K ommission, O LDENSTEIN

B AR

1 976:

J .

A uxiliareinheiten', 5 7, 1 976, 5 1-284

O ldenstein,

R OBINSON 1 975: H .R. 1 975)

' Zur

B ericht

A usrüstung

d er

r ömischer

B ericht d er R ömische-Germanischen K ommission,

R ITTERLING 1 913: ' Der f rührömische A nnalen d es V ereins f ür G eschichtsforschung,

u nd G riffschale', 5 3, 1 972, 1 -233

4 0,

1 913,

R obinson, T he

L ager b ei H ofheim i m T aunus', n assauische A ltertumskunde u nd 1 -416

A rmour

o f

I mperial

R ome,

( London

R ODWELL f orthcoming: K .A . R odwell, T he P rehistoric a nd R oman S ettlement a t K elvedon, E ssex, C BA R es R ep 6 3, ( London f orthcoming) R ODWELL 1 975: W .J. R odwell, ' Trinovantian t owns a nd t heir s etting', R ODWELL & R OWLEY, 1 975, 8 5-102

2 48

i n

R ODWELL & R OWLEY 1 975: W .J. R odwell & R .T. R owley, R oman B ritain, B AR 1 5, ( Oxford 1 975)

T he S mall

T owns

o f

S IMPSON 1 979: G . S impson, ' Some B ritish a nd I berian p enannular b rooches a nd o ther e arly t ypes i n t he R hineland a nd t he " Decumates A gri ", A ntiq J , 5 9 p t 2 , 1 979, 3 19-42 W ACHER

1 969: J . W acher, E xcavations a t B rough-on-Humber, A ntiq R es R ep 2 5, ( Oxford 1 969)

W ACHER 1 974: J . W acher,

T he T owns o f R oman B ritain,

1 958-61,

S oc

( London 1 974)

W EBSTER 1 982: G . W ebster, ' Gazetteer o f m ilitary o bjects f rom C irencester', i n J . W acher & A . M cWhirr, E arly R oman O ccupation a t C irencester, ( Cirencester 1 982) W HEELER & W HEELER 1 932: R .E.M . W heeler & T .V. W heeler, E xcavations o f t he P rehistoric, R oman a nd P ost-Roman S ite i n L ydney P ark, G loucestershire, S oc A ntiq R es R ep 9 , ( London 1 932) W ICKENDEN 1 986: N .P. W ickenden, ' A c opper a lloy v otive b ar a nd a c arved b one p laque f rom C helmsford, E ssex', B ritannia, 1 7, 1 986, 3 48-51 W ICKENDEN 1 987: N .P. W ickenden, R omano-British s mall t own H ist, 1 7, 1 987, 7 -68 W ICKENDEN f orthcoming a :

' Prehistoric s ettlement a nd t he a t H eybridge, E ssex ', E ssex A rchaeol

N .P. W ickenden,

E xcavations a t

G reat

D unmow,

E ssex: a R omano-British S mall T own i n t he T rinovantian C ivitas, E ast A nglian A rchaeol, ( forthcoming) W ICKENDEN f orthcoming b : N .P. W ickenden, T he T emple a nd O ther S ites i n t he N orth-Eastern S ector o f C aesaromagus, C BA R es R ep, ( London f orthcoming) W ICKENDEN f orthcoming b : N .P. W ickenden, R oad F rontage S ites i n C helmsford, a nd t he D evelopemnt o f C aesaromagus, ( forthcoming) -

2 49

2 50 T he T rinovantian

D unmow

i , Co lches ter I

e -

emp le

• : •

• • ( . . : • n c losu re •e •

\\

CAESAROMAGUS f r om t he

e a r ly s econd c en tu ry o nwa rds

R oads 7 0 e inc T own d e fences

k nown

c on jec tured

` " " •" '" '" » • ' " k nown c on jec tu red

L •

• b u

_ 1 . •

k nown

b u i ld ings

b u r ia ls

D ens i ty o f o ccupa t ion b o ld s t ipp le

a 0

m e t res

d i tches i n d ica ted

b y

2 00

a

L ondon 1

F ig.2:

pnnc ,pa l

C e meteneS

T he R oman t own o f C aesaromagus, w ith s ite c odes m arked.

2 51

4

r econs truc t ion

2

0 I

1

2 I

3 1

i t

5 cms I

3

S I

8

5

7

6

9

1 0

F ig.3:

C opper a lloy o bjects f rom C helmsford,

2 52

1 -10. S cale 1 :1.

1 2

1

1 4

1 3

2 0

1 7

1 5

1 9 0

1

2

i t

5 cms

2 2

F ig.4: 2 1

C opper a lloy o bjects f rom C helmsford, 1 1-20; H eybridge, 2 1; G reat D unmow, 2 2. S cale 1 :1.

2 53

2 4

e i

2 3

2 5

3C ( '

3 2 .

0

3 1 F ig.5:

n

C opper a lloy o bjects S cale 1 :1.

f rom

1

W ickford,

2 54

?

4

2 3-7;

2 9

5 cms

K elvedon,

2 8-32.

3 6

3 5

3 8

91

•••• ••

2 3 / , + cms

‚ 2 1,

0

F ig.6:

2

c ms

M etal d etecting f inds, 3 5-6, s cale 1 :2; s ketches, 3 8-9, s cale 1 :2.

2 55

3 7, s cale 1 :1. H arlow

( I ) E 0 1 .0

• 3 *

-

CV

-

0

u )

0 1

. . l

E 0 N1

CO

1

.t . i

2 56

-

-

C helmsford.

« ..-.

T HE FABRICAE:

S TATE A RMS FACTORIES O F THE LATER ROMAN E MPIRE S imon J ames'

I NTRODUCTION ' The h arsh n ecessity o f w ar h as i nvented t he g uild o f f abricenses, w hich g uards t he d ecrees o f t he E mperors w ith a k ind o f i mmortality.., f or t his g uild a rms, t his g uild e quips O ur a rmy. 1 . H ence p rovision h as b een m ade t hat s uch p ersons s hall b e s ubservient t o t heir o wn s kills, a nd w hen t hey h ave b een e xhausted b y t heir l abours, t hey , t ogether w ith t heir o ffspring, s hall d ie i n t he p rofession t o w hich t hey w ere b orn...'z I n t his d ramatic l anguage Theodosius I I p ortrays t he f abricenses 1 o r i mperial a rmourers, a s a n h ereditary c aste o f ' industrial s erfs', 3 l abouring u ntil t hey d ied t o f orge t he a rms w hich d efended t he b eleaguered e mpire. T he r eality o f t hese s tate a rms f actories w as a g ood d eal m ore p rosaic, b ut t he t ext q uoted a bove d oes e mphasise t he g enuine s trategic i mportance o f t he w ork o f t he a rmourers. B eyond b rief a rticles i n t he m ajor c lassical e ncyclopaedias 4 t here h as b een n o t horough s tudy o f t hese f actories, t he f abricae, 5 p erhaps t he m ost n umerous a nd i mportant o f a n umber o f c lasses o f s tate p roduction c entres, w hich a lso i ncluded t he m ints, t extile f actories a nd p urple-dye w orks. T he f ollowing p ages a re i ntended t o b e a f ull c onsideration o f t he f abricae, t heir s taff - t he f abricenses - and t he c ontext o f t hese w ithin t he i mperial s ervice a nd t he e mpire.

S OURCES O F E VIDENCE:

1 . T HE N OTITIA D IGNITATUM

A part f rom a n umber o f r eferences i n a ncient w riters a nd h istorians ( see b elow p .259), t here i s a c onsiderable q uantity o f r elevent i mperial l egislation t o b e f ound i n t he C odes o f T heodosius a nd J ustinian. 6 B ut t he m ost i mportant s ources f or u nderstanding t he d istribution o f t he f actories a nd t he v ariety o f t heir p roducts, a re t he l ists t o b e f ound i n t he N otitia D ignitatum. 7 T he r elevant s ections a re O riens C hapter X I a nd O ccidens C hapter I X , which l ist t he o ffices, m ilitary u nits a nd g overnment i nstallations u nder t he c ontrol o f t he M aster o f t he O ffices o f t he E astern a nd W estern e mpires r espectively, a t a d ate s ometime i n t he e arly f ifth c entury A D.Ö T he E astern s ection 9 l ists f ifteen f abricae, w hile t he W estern l istl° c ontains t wenty ( see T able I a nd F ig.1). I n a ddition, t he l ists o f o fficials u nder e ach o f t he t wo m agistri i nclude i ndividuals e ntitled s ubadiuvae f abricarum. T here w ere t hree i n t he E ast " a nd a n u nspecified n umber i n t he W est. 12

2 57

B oth

t he E astern a nd t he W estern f actory l ists c onvey e ssentially

t he s ame i nformation , n oting t he c ity o f l ocation o f e ach f abrica, w ith, i t w ould s eem , i nformation o n w hat e ach w as p roducing. T he i ndividual e ntries a re g rouped b y r egion u nder h eadings w hich, w ith t hree s light e xceptions,' 3 c orrespond g eographical o rder f rom E ast t o W est.

t o

d ioceses

i n

a pproximate

B efore t he i nformation i n t he l ists c an b e a nalysed, i t m ust b e t ested f or i ts r eliability a nd c ompleteness, i nsofar a s t his i s p ossible. S uperficial i nspection m akes i t a t o nce a pparent t hat t here a re s ome c orruptions a nd/or o missions, a part f rom s imple s pelling e rrors. F or e xample, o nly o ne o f t he e ntries f or t he f our E ast I llyrican f actories i ncludes i nformation o n w hat w as p roduced t here. 14 S eeck 15 b elieved t hat t he t hree o ther f abricae i n t his g roup w ere n ot a ccompanied b y a ny c lassification b ecause t hey w ere g eneral a rms w orks, a nd n ot s pecialised l ike m any o thers. Y et o ther f actories p roducing a g eneral r ange o f a rms a re l isted a s s uch, e .g. A rgentomagus, a rmorum o mnium, 16 while S eeck i s p repared t o e xplain t he a bsence o f a p roduction c ategory f or t he S oissons e ntry a s a l acuna. 17 T aking t hese o bservations i nto a ccount, i t s eems p referable t o r egard t he a bsence o f c ategorisation f or t hese I llyrican f abricae a s s omething o ther t han a d eliberate o mission. T he E astern l ist a lso c ontains a c lear c orruption , r esulting i n s ome c onfusion a mongst t he l ists f or P ontica, A siana a nd T hraciae ( see T able I I). w as a ctually i n A siana;

S ardis L ydiae i s l isted u nder P ontica, s imilarly H adrianopolis, e ntered

b ut u nder

1 8

A siana, 19 w as a ctually i n T hraciae. C learly w hat h as h appened i s t hat t he A siana a nd T hraciae h eadings h ave e ach b een d isplaced d own t he l ist b y o ne l ine. T hey m ay b e r estored, s o t hat T hraciarum d uae n ow l ies c orrectly a bove i ts t wo e ntries, H adrianopolis a nd M arcianopolis, a nd A sianae u na f alls a bove S ardis. T here n ow r emains t he p roblem o f a h eading r eading P onticae q uatuor, f ollowed b y o nly t hree e ntries. S eeck a mended q uatuor t o t res, " b ut t his s eems l ess s atisfactory t han t he o ther a lternative, t hat o riginally t here h ad b een f our e ntries, a nd t hat t he f ourth w as l ater d eleted o r a ccidentally o mitted. T he c onfusion i n t he e xisting m anuscript m ay w ell b e a n a ttempt a t a c orrection b y a l ater c opyist. S ince t here i s a s trong p robability o f a n o mission i n t he P ontica l ist, t he p ossibility t hat t here a re o thers e lsewhere m ust b e c onsidered. 2 I A t t he b roadest l evel, i f t he e xisting e ntries a re p rojected o nto a d istribution m ap ( Fig.1), i t i s c lear t hat l arge p arts o f t he Empire a re w holly d evoid o f f abricae. T his a pplies n ot o nly t o S pain, A frica, P eninsular I taly a nd t he I slands, b ut a lso ( and t his i s s urprising c onsidering t heir m ilitary s ignificance), B ritain a nd E gypt. J ullian s uggested t hat t he l ists o f f abricae f or t hese a reas a re m issing f rom t he N otitia. 22 T he a bsence o f t hese h ypothetical l ists f rom t he e xisting m anuscript m ight b e d ue t o d eliberate e rasure o r a ccidental o mission d uring c opying, p erhaps b y t runcation. H owever, w e c an a t l east t est t he l atter p ossibility, d ue t o t he g eographical s tructure o f t hese a nd t he o ther N otitia l ists.

r egular

A n umber o f o ther c atalogues o f g overnment i nstallations a nd p rovincial d ignitates i n t he N otitia a re s et o ut a ccording t o a s tandard p attern. O ne o f t he f ullest e xamples i s t he l ist o f p raesides, d ivided, a s a lways, i nto a n o riental a nd o ccidental p art. 23

2 58

L ike t he f abrica l ists, t he i ndividual e ntries a re g rouped t ogether b y d iocese, e xcept t hat t hose i n G alliae a nd S eptem P rovinciae a re l isted t ogether, a s a re t hose i n I taliae a nd S uburbicaria. T hese d iocesan g roups a re t hen s et o ut i n t he g eographical o rder o utlined i n T able I II. E ssentially s imilar s equences a re t o b e f ound i n o ther N otitia l ists, s uch a s t hose f or c onsulares. 24 M ore d irectly c omparable t o t he f abrica l ists, i s t he r egister o f s tate t extile f actories, t l , g ynaecea, 25 a nother g roup o f s tate p roduction c entres. U nfortunately, o nly t he W estern h alf o f t he l ist i s p reserved, 26 b ut t his a gain f ollows t he s ame g eographical c ourse o f a rrangement ( Fig.2). T hese e xamples a nd o thers ( such a s t he l ists o f c onsular g overnors a nd v icariates) s how t hat t he l onger o f t he g eographically-organised l ists 27 f ollow a c onsistent a nd f ixed o rder o f n otation b y d iocese a round t he e mpire, w hich i s s et o ut i n F ig.3. I f t his i s a pplied t o t he f abrica l ists, t he p osition o f J ullian's h ypothetical m issing l ists c an t hen b e s een. S tarting i n O riens, i t i s i mmediately o bvious t hat f abricae i n A egyptus s hould b e a t t he h ead o f t he E astern l ist. I n t he W est a ny f abricae i n P eninsular I taly , t he I slands, A frica, S pain o r S eptem P rovinciae s hould f all b etween t he l ists f or I talia a nd G alliae. 28 T his i s c onfirmed b y t he f act t hat t he l ast e ntry i n t he I talia l ist i s L ucca, 29 w hich a ctually l ies i n S uburbicaria. A lthough i t i s p ut i n w ith t he f actories o f I talia, i t i s p laced a fter t hem , a s S uburbicarian e ntries s hould b e. L ikewise, a lthough A rgentomagus i s i ncluded i n t he l ist f or G alliae, i t a ctually l ies i n S eptem P rovinciae. 3 ° A ccording t o t he t heoretical o rder, i t s hould b e l isted b efore t he f abricae o f G alliae i tself, a nd i ndeed i t c omes a t t he h ead o f t he G allic l ist. I t i s n ot p ossible t o m aintain t hat l ists f or I taly a nd t he S outh-West h ave b een l ost. T hey s hould h ave b een p laced r ight i n t he m iddle o f t he W estern l ist, a nd t he f act t hat t here w ere a ctually f abricae i n t wo o f t hese d ioceses, L ucca a nd A rgentomagus, a nd t hat e ach w as i ncorporated i nto t he l ist o f t he n eighbouring d iocese, s uggests t hat t hey w ere t wo i solated o utliers w hich w ere n ot c onsidered w orthy o f s eparate d iocese h eadings. T he c onclusion m ust b e t hat J ullian's h ypothetical e xtra l ists n ever a ppeared i n t he N otitia a nd t hat t here i s n o e vidence t hat t here w ere a ny f abricae i n E gypt ( see n ext s ection), P eninsular I taly o r t he S outh-Western p rovinces. T his l eaves o nly B ritain, which t he o rder m odel s uggests s hould c ome a t t he e nd o f t he W estern l ist, t he p osition m ost v ulnerable t o d amage. I f t he o ther b lank a reas n ever h ad f abricae, t hen i t i s u nlikely t hat B ritain h ad a ny e ither, b ut t here i s m ore r oom f or d oubt i n t his c ase, a nd t his q uestion i s c onsidered i n m ore d etail b elow ( p.263).

S OURCES O F E VIDENCE: H aving

2 . O THER L ITERARY S OURCES

s hown t hat t he i nternal e vidence s uggests t hat t he f abrica

l ists a re s ubstantially c omplete, t he e xternal e vidence f or f actory l ocations m ust t hen b e c onsidered a s a n i ndependent c heck. I n t he w orks o f a ncient w riters a nd h istorians t here a re r eferences t o f abricae a t N icomedia,31

C aesarea

C appadociae,

3 2

D amascus

a nd

E dessa, 33

H adriano plis, 34 a nd C remona. 35 M alalas m entions t hree f abricae a t A ntioch,J 6 w here t he N otitia r ecords o nly t wo; 37 b ut i t i s l ikely t hat h e i s i ncluding t he b ody o f b arbaricarii o r p recious m etal s miths k nown

2 59

t o

h ave

a spects

b een o f

a t

a rms

A ntioch.

3 8

p roduction,

T hese c raftsmen w ere i nvolved i n c ertain a nd

w ere

s ometimes

r eferred

t o

a s

f abricenses, 39 a lthough t hey b elonged t o a d ifferent b ranch o f t he i mperial s ervice. ° A mmianus a lso c ontains a p ossible r eference t o o ne o f t he T rier f abricae, 41 a nd c ircumstantial f actories a t A ugustodunum ( see b elow p .275).

e vidence

f or

t he t wo

J ullian c ited a l aw f rom t he T heodosian C ode 42 a s e vidence f or a f abrica a t C onstantinople b y t he t ime o f t he N otitia, b ut t he t ext r efers s pecifically t o b arbaricarii. T here i s n o e vidence f or a f abrica a t t he E astern c apital b efore Justinian. 43

S OURCES O F E VIDENCE:

3 .

S UBLITERARY T EXTS

A p a urus d ocument d iscovered i n E gypt c ontains r eferences t o f abricae. 44 T he g overnor o f t he T hebaid i s o rdering t hat s miths b e s ought o ut a nd f orcibly s ent t o h im f or w ork i n t he f abricae. T he d ate, A D298, i s T etrarchic, a nd t his m ay s eem t o p rovide e vidence f or t he s etting u p o f s tate a rsenals i n E gypt a t t his d ate. H owever, w e h ave s een t hat n o f abricae a re r ecorded i n E gypt i n t he N otitia. I s t he l atter i ncomplete? T he h istorical c ontext o f t he p apyrus m akes t his c onclusion u nnecessary. I n A D298 w ar w as r aging i n E gypt. D iocletian h ad a rrived p ersonally t o s uppress t he d angerous u surpation o f D omitius D omitianus. E gypt w as s warming w ith t roops, a nd t he p opulation w as r estive. 45 T he c limax w as t he l ong s eige o f A lexandria, w hich e nded i n s pring 2 98. U nder w ar c onditions, i t i s n ot s urprising t o f ind a g overnor i mpressing c raftsmen t o h elp o ut i n t he f abricae, w hich i n t his c ase a re m ost p robably r egimental w orkshops o r p ossibly t emporary f acilities l inked t o t he s eige. T here i s n o s olid e vidence f or s tate a rsenals i n E gypt b efore Justinian. "

S OURCES O F E VIDENCE:

4 .

E PIGRAPHY

T here i s a lso a s mall q uantity o f r elevant e pigraphic m aterial, c onsisting m ainly o f t he t ombstones o f f abricenses. T here i s o ne f rom S alona, 47 o ne r elating t o M arciano plis, 48— t wo — f rom S ardis L ydiae, 49 a nd n o l ess t han s ix f rom C oncordia. 5 u A f urther i nscription m entions a ' comes f abricarum o f t he w hole c ivitas o f B eneventum ' 51 ,b ut t hese f abricae a re u nlikely t o b e a rms w orks. T he r ank o f c omes f abricarum i s u nknown i n t his c ontext, a nd i n a ny c ase, a rsenals a s f ar s outh a s B eneventum a re u nlikely ( see b elow p .263). S eeck s uggested t hat t his c omes w as i n c harge o f b uilding w ork, 52 f abricae b eing u sed i n i ts m ore g eneral s ense t o m ean a p lace o f c onstruction. L ess ambiguous i s a n i nscription f rom R avenna, s et u p b y S ertorius S ilanus, v (ir) p (erfectissimus) p raepositus/ f abricae, d ating t o t he r eign o f C onstantine. 53— i t i s p ossible t hat, l ike t he f abricae o f B eneventum , t he R avenna e stablishment w as n ot p roducing a rms. I t m ay w ell h ave b een p roducing s hip's f ittings f or t he P raetorian f leet b ased t here. 54 T here s till r emains a s trong p ossibility, h owever, t hat t his i nscription r ecords a f abrica a rmorum n ot m entioned i n t he N otitia.

2 60

S OURCES O F E VIDENCE:

5 .

C ONCLUSION

E xcept f or t he d oubtful c ases o f t he E gyptian p apyrus a nd t he R avenna i nscription , t he i ndependent e vidence r elating t o f abrica l ocations i s i n c omplete a greement w ith t he N otitia l ists. I t s eems r easonable t o c onclude, t herefore, t hat t he N otitia l ists f orm a s ound b asis f or a c onsideration o f f abrica d istribution. B efore d oing s c,, h owever, i t i s n ecessary t o l ook a t t he p roduction c ategories which a ccompanied e ach e ntry i n t he r egisters.

T HE C ATEGORIES O F P RODUCTION O F F ABRICAE I N T HE N OTITIA M ost o f t he t erms u sed i n t he N otitia l ists i nterpreted. A rcuaria c learly r efers t o w orkshops b allistaria t o a rtillery p roduction, h astaria t o s pears,

a re r eadily m aking b ows, s agittaria t o

a rrows, s cutaria t o s hields a nd s patharia t o s words. I t i s a lso f airly c ertain t hat s cordisci a re m ilitary s addles. 55 M ore p roblematical, d ue t o t heir o verlapping m eanings, c libanaria. I t h as b een s uggested

a re t he t erms l oricaria, a rmorum a nd t hat t he l atter r efers t o h eavy

c avalry a rmour, f rom c libanarius, 56 o r t hat i t r efers t o i ron c uirasses i n g eneral, l oricaria r eferring t o l eather d efences. 57 A rmorum h as b een t aken

t o

r efer

t o

w eapons

o f

o ffence.

5 8

T here i s,

a s y et,

n o r eal

e vidence f or t he w idespread u se o f l eather o r r awhide a rmour i n t he R oman p eriod, 59 s o t he i nterpretation o f l oricaria a nd c libanaria i n t his w ay w ill n ot s tand. S econdly, t he t erm a rma i s n ot c onfined t o w eapons o f o ffence, b ut i s a g eneral t erm f or t he p anoply, i ncluding a rmour, h elmet, s hield a nd w eapons, e xcluding m issile w eapons ( tela). I t i s w orth n oting t hat a rma, a s u sed i n t he N otitia, d oes n ot i nclude s hields, a s i ndicated b y t he r ecurrent u se o f a rmorum, e specially i n t he E astern l ists. m utually e xclusive h ere. I t s eems s ound t o

t he p hrase s cutaria e t T he t wo t erms m ust b e i nterpret c libanaria a s

h eavy c avalry a rmour w orkshops, o n t he b asis o f t he d istribution o f t hese f abricae i n r elation t o t he u nits t hey s erved, a s r evealed i n t he N otitia. W hile o nly p art

o f

o ne

W estern f abrica

i s

g iven

o ver

t o

c libanaria, 6° i n t he E ast, t hree e ntire f actories a re d evoted t o s uch w ork. 61 T his s trong o riental b ias i s r eflected b y t he d istribution o f u nits o f c atafractarii a nd c libanarii, w ith o nly t hree r egiments i n t he W est, 62 a nd n o l ess t han f ourteen i n t he E ast. 6 5 T here r emains, t hen, t he f abricae l oricariae a nd f abricae

q uestion a rmorum.

o f t he d istinction b etween P resumably b oth t ypes o f

w orkshop w ere i nvolved i n t he p roduction o f b ody a rmour f or i nfantry a nd p erhaps l ighter c avalry. T he l oricaria c entres a re c onfined t o t he W est, 64 a nd i t i s n o c oincidence t hat t his i s a lso where t he o nly c entres d escribed a s f abricae s pathariae a re t o b e f ound. ° I t i s s uggested t hat f or r easons u nknown, s words a nd b ody a rmour w ere p roduced i n s eparate f actories i n p arts o f t he W est, whereas a long t he D anube a nd t hroughout t he E ast, t hey w ere m ade i n t he s ame w orkshop. H ence, t he m ore g eneral t erm a rma w as u sed. T his s eems t o r esolve t he p roblem. I n c onnection w ith a rmour, i t i s c urious t o n ote t hat h elmets a re n owhere m entioned i n t he N otitia l ists, e specially s o s ince h elmets a re t he o nly i tem o f l ate R oman a rmour w hich a re w ell k nown i n t he a rchaeological r ecord. " I t i s p ossible, h owever, t hat t hey w ere m ade i n t he g eneral a rms w orks, t he f abricae a rmorum. 67

2 61

F inally t here i s t he p roblem o f t he E dessa a rmamentaria. A rmamentarium i s a w orkshop c ategory u nique t o t hat c ity. T his h as b een r egarded a s a f actory p roducing n aval e quipment, 69 p resumably b ecause t he w ord a rmamenta i s o ften u sed t o d enote m arine f ittings. H owever, t here i s n o e vidence o f a s tanding E uphrates f leet a t t his d ate " a nd t he N otitia c ontains n o m ention o f s uch p roduction e stablishments ( although s ee t he R avenna i nscription p .260 a bove). B ut a rmamentari _e a lso m eans E dessa

' arsenal,

a rms

a rmoury,

f actory

w eapons-store'. M alalas r ecords t hat

w as b uilt

' for t he n earer s upply o f a rms'.

t he

7 1

T he

E dessa a rmamentaria m ay t herefore b e e xplained s imply a s a m ajor a rms d epot a ttached t o t he f abrica s cutaria a t t he c ity, a s trategic s tockpile f or t he f orward r esupply o f f orces o perating a gainst P ersia. I f n othing e lse,

t he c ategories

o utlined

a bove

i mply

a n

o ften

a stonishing l evel o f s pecialisation o f p roduction. I s t his i mpression a ccurate? T he c orrespondence b etween t he d istributions o f c libanaria a nd h eavy c avalry r egiments h as b een d iscussed a bove, b ut c ould p roduction o f i tems a s b asic a s a rrows r eally h ave b een c onfined t o f abricae i n t he W est? S ome o f t he C oncordia i nscriptions 72 s pecifically m ention t he f abrica s agittaria l isted b y t he N otitia, 73 v indicating e ven t his m ost e xtreme c ase o f s pecialisation. T he N otitia r egisters o f a rms f actories s eem , t hen, t o b e e ssentially c omplete, a nd t he a ppended d etails o f t heir p roducts r eliable. T here a re g rounds, t herefore, f or r elying o n t he r esults o f a n a nalysis o f t he d istribution p attern r evealed i n t he N otitia.

T HE D ISTRIBUTION O F F ABRICAE A t t he m ost g eneral l evel,

i t i s n ot p ossible t o s ay w hether t here

i s a ny p articular s ignificance i n t he f act t hat, while t here a re t wenty f actories i n t he W est, t here a re o nly f ifteen i n t he E ast. I t i s n ot c ertain whether t his i s d ue t o d ifferences i n t he r elative s izes o f t he a rmies

o f

t he t wo h alves o f t he e mpire,

o r t o a s ystematic d ifference

i n s ize o f t he E astern a nd W estern f abricae, o r t o t he e xtent t o w hich s tate p roduction i n t he t wo h alves o f t he e mpire w as c omplemented b y p rivate p roduction. T he l atter p ossibility i s d iscussed b elow ( p.282). A s

m ight

b e

e xpected,

t he

f actories

p roducing

f or

g eneral

r equirements a re m ost c ommon; s hield 74 a nd a rmour 75 c entres a re s pread e venly a cross t he E astern a nd N orthern f rontier z ones, a nd f orm t he l argest c lasses o f f abricae ( Figs.4 a nd 5 ). T he s pecialist f abricae o ccur i n s maller n umbers, a nd a re i rregularly d istributed. C entres p roducing m issile w eapons a re c onfined t o t he W est ( Fig.6). T he o nly b ow f actory i n t he e mpire i s a t T icinum 76 a nd i s c omplemented b y t wo a rrow f actories a t C oncordia a nd M atisco. 77 T he o nly b allistariae a re a t A ugustodunum a nd T rier. 78 C onversely, t he E astern b ias o f c libanaria h as a lready b een c ommented o n ( spathariae a re c onsidered a s p art o f t he g eneral g roup, a s t hey a re e vidently a ssociated w ith W estern l oricariae,

s ee a bove p .261).

T here a re t hus t wo d istinct c lasses o f f abricae, c entres p roducing e quipment u sed b y t he m ajority o f o rdinary f ighting u nits a nd c entres m aking e quipment f or s pecialist u nits. A s m ight b e e xpected, t he f ormer a re n umerous a nd w idely d istributed. T he l atter c lass c onsists o f

2 62

s maller g roups i n d istinct c oncentrations. I n t he p ast l ittle a ttention h as b een g iven t o t he s ignificance o f t he

d istribution

o f

t he f abricae.

W hy,

f or

i nstance,

w ere

t here

a pparently n o f actories i n B ritain, E gypt o r t he S outhern e mpire? S eeck p roposed t hat t he o verriding f actor w as i nternal s ecurity. 79 H e b elieved t hat D iocletian h ad s et u p t he f abricae a nd s ited t hem o ily 4n p laces where t he T etrarchs c ould o bserve t hem i n o rder t o p revent a rms s tocks f rom f alling i nto t he h ands o f u surpers. T his c ertainly m ight e xplain t heir a bsence f rom B ritain o r E gyRt, b oth o f which w ere s cenes o f m ajor r evolts d uring t he T etrarchy.ö° D iocletian w as p articularly h ostile t o t he A lexandrians a s h e h ad t o m ount a p rolonged s eige o f t he c ity. 81 H is c ontinued d istrust o f t he c ity, a nd p erhaps E gypt i n g eneral, m ay i ndeed h ave d issuaded h im f rom e stablishing a rsenals t here. O n t he o ther h and, i t i s m y o pinion t hat B ritain l acked f actories n ot b ecause t he T etrarchs f eared a r epetition o f t he t roublesome r evolt o f C arausius, b ut b ecause t he p rovince n o l onger h ad a l arge a rmy. 82 C onsequently, i t h ad n o m ore n eed o f i ts o wn a rsenals t han S pain o r A frica; i t c ould b e s upplied f rom t he m ain c oncentration o f c apacity i n N orthern G aul. S eeck

e xtended

h is

l ine

o f

a rgument

t o

e xplain

f actory

s pecialisation a s w ell, b y s uggesting t hat i t w as a m easure i ntended t o p revent a rmy c ommanders f rom b eing a ble t o a rm t heir t roops c ompletely f rom t he f actories i n a ny o ne a rea. T his i s a f ar f rom s atisfactory e xplanation. I t i s i ncredible t hat D iocletian w ould h ave a llowed a ny f ear o f u surpers

t o o verride s trategic a nd o ther c onsiderations i n

t he

s iting a nd o utput o f h is f actories a cross t he e ntire E mpire, w hatever s pecial r easons t here m ay h ave b een f or e xcluding E gypt. I n a ny c ase, i f a r evolt d id b reak o ut a mong t he p rincipal a rmy g roups o n t he R hine, D anube o r E astern f ronts, p roduction w as n ot s ufficiently d ispersed t o p revent c entres.

t hem

s eizing

a ll

t hey

n eeded

f rom

a

h andful

o f

n earby

8 3

W hat

i s c lear i s t hat t he f abricae w ere l ocated b roadly where t he

b ulk o f t he a rmy w as, i n t he z one b ehind t he R hine a nd D anube, a nd t hroughout t he E astern f rontier p rovinces ( Fig.1). D espite t heir s trategic s ignificance, t he m ilitary i mportance o f B ritain a nd E gypt w as v ery m uch r educed i n t he f ourth c entury. M ajor a ctivity w as c oncentrated o n t he N orthern a nd E astern f rontiers. T he S outhern e mpire h ad a lmost n o t roops, a nd s o h ad n o n eed o f f abricae. T he a rms f actories a ppeared o nly w here t hey w ere n eeded. A m ore d etailed s crutiny o f t he m ap o f f abricae r eveals a n i nteresting p attern i n t he d istribution o f c entres p roducing b ody a rmour a cross t he E mpire ( excluding t he s pecialist c libanaria). F or e ach m ajor z one o f t he f rontier t here a re p recisely t wo s uch c entres, l isted i n T able I V. T he p attern i s s o r egular t hat i t b etrays d eliberate p lanning. T his s uggestion i s c onfirmed w hen t he s ame i nformation i s p rojected o nto a m ap s howing p rovinces a nd d ioceses ( Fig.4), a nd i t c an b e s een t hat t he p airs o f a rmour f actories c orrespond e xactly w ith t he d ioceses. I n t wo c ases, 84 o ne o f t he p air l ies t o t he r ear o f t he d iocese i t s erves, b ut t his i s e xplained b elow a nd d oes n ot a ffect t he t ruth o f t he e quation, a s t he m ap d emonstrates. O nly t he d iocese o f D acia h as n o a rmour c entres, b ut t his i s c ertainly b ecause t he N otitia f ails t o r ecord w hat i ts

k nown f abricae

w ere

s cutariae i s c onsidered i n

m aking. t he

W hen t he d istribution o f f abricae

8 5

s ame

2 63

w ay,

a n

e ven

m ore

r emarkable

p attern a ppears ( Fig.5). A long t he e ntire l ength o f b oth t he R hine a nd t he D anube, e ach f rontier p rovince h as o ne s hield f actory ( the o nly p ossible e xception i s D acia R ipensis, where i t i s n ot k nown what t he f abrica was p roducing). A s w ith t he a rmour f actories, s ome o f t hese c entres a re t o t he r ear o f t he a reas t hey s erved. " T here i s n o s uch o bvious p attern i n t he E ast, b ut t his i s b ecause t here i s n o s imple l inear f rontier h ere, b ut r ather a d eep z one o f g arrisoned p rovinces o f v arying i mportance. T his r emarkable c orrespondence o f f abricae s cutariae w ith E uropean f rontier p rovinces, a nd o f p airs o f a rmour f actories w ith f rontier d ioceses i s h ighly s ignificant. S uch a r egular d istribution i s u nlikley t o h ave a risen b y a ccident, a nd c an o nly b e s atisfactorily e xplained b y t he e xistence o f a d eliberate p lanning p olicy b ehind a t l east t hose f actories m aking t he b asic p anoply. 87 T here s eems t o b e a mple j ustification, t herefore, f or p ostulating a n a rmaments f actory s ystem, e stablished a s a s ingle c onception r ather t han p iecemeal. B efore c onsidering t he i mplications o f t his, i t i s i mportant t o e xamine t he d istributions o f s pecialist c entres. C libanaria h ave b een c onsidered a bove ( p.261) a nd t heir E astern b ias w as s hown t o r eflect t hat o f t he u nits t hey s erved. T he s ame c annot b e s aid o f f actories a ll o f w hich a re c oncentrated i n t he W est

p roducing m issile w eapons, ( p.262). T his d istribution i s

c urious c onsidering t hat l arge n umbers o f a rchers w ere e mployed i n b oth h alves o f t he e mpire, 88 a nd e ven m ore s o s ince a rchery h ad a lways b een a n E astern s peciality. P eoples f rom t he f ringes o f t he E astern e mpire, e ven P ersians, c ontinued t he f abricae i n t he W est? T he

a nswer

m ay

t o s upply t he b est a rchers. W hy,

b e

t hat

s uch

c entres

w ere

t hen, w ere

u nnecessary

o r

i mpracticable i n t he E ast. I t i s p ossible t hat i t w as s imply n ot f easible t o o rganise t he b est b ow m akers i nto f actories b ecause m any o f t hem w ere t ribesmen, o r a t l east n ot u rban c raftsmen. J ohn L ydus r eveals t hat b ows w ere r aised a s a t ax i n k ind, p erhaps a n e asier s olution t o t he s upply p roblem . 89 S ome o f t he s killed a rchers o f t he E astern r egiments, w ho u sed b ows f rom c hildhood, m ay w ell h ave m ade t heir o wn w eapons a nd a mmunition. " T he s ituation i n t he W est w as q uite d ifferent. W ith

n o

i mportant

l ocal t radition o f a rchery, t here w as n o c omparable n ative t radition o f p roduction. W hile i t i s n ot c ertain t hat b ow p roduction w as e ntirely c onfined t o T icinum, 91 t here w as a s ound m otive f or c entralisation o f p roduction. T he h orn w hich w as a v ital c omponent o f t he c omposite r eflex b ow u sed b y t he R oman a rmy h ad t o b e i mported i nto E urope. 92 T icinum 's l ocation i s s uitably c entral f or d istribution o f f inished b ows N orth a nd E ast. C oulston h as s uggested t hat t he t wo a rrow f actories w ere s pecially d esigned t o s upply t he f ield a rmy, a gain a t s trategically c onvenient p laces.

9 3

a dditions

I f

s o,

t his

t o t he s ystem ,

t he T etrarchy w hen m any,

m ay a s

s uggest

t hat

t hey

a re r elatively l ate

t he f ield a rmy p er s e d id n ot e xist

i f n ot m ost,

f abricae w ere f ounded.

2 64

d uring

W hy

a rtillery f abricae o ccur o nly i n t he W est i s a m ystery.

I t i s

p ossible t hat f or s ome r eason t he p roduction o f c atapults r emained w ith a rtillery u nits o r i n p rivate h ands i n t he E ast. T here i s c ertainly e vidence f or p rivate a ctivity i n t his f ield i n t he s ixth c entury A D, b ut t he q uestion w ill h ave t o r emain o pen.

9 4

T HE F OUNDATION O F F ABRICAE

m ost

T here i s n o d irect e vidence f or t he d ate o f t he e stablishment o f o f t he f abricae. O ne o f t he f ew d irect r eferences i s M alalas'

s tatement t hat D iocletian b uilt f abricae a t E dessa a nd D amascus, a nd t hree a t A ntioch. 95 L actantius r ecords D iocletain's f oundation o f f abricae a t N icomedia. 96 L argely o n t he b asis o f t hese r eferences i t i s w idely a ssumed t hat t he f abricae a re a T etrarchic p henomenon. 97 I t i s t rue t hat m any f abricae a re n ot a ttested u ntil l ater i n t he f ourth c entury, 98 w hile t he o nly r ecord o f o thers i s i n t he N otitia i tself. 99 H owever, s ome m ay h ave e xisted b efore D iocletian. T he o rigins o f t he f abricae a re c onsidered b elow, s o l et i t s uffice h ere t o o bserve t hat t he s cutariae a t A quincum , C arnuntum , a nd L auriacuml°° m ight b e e xpected t o h ave g rown o ut o f t he e arlier a rmy f abricae o f t he l egionary b ases a t t hose s ites , 101 a nd w ere n ot n ew c reations o f D iocletian. D espite t he l ack o f d irect e vidence, p lausible d ates c an b e s uggested f or t he f oundations o f a n umber o f f abricae. F or e xample, L actantius 102 r eveals t he c onstruction o f t he N icomedia f abricae t o b e p art o f t he g reat b uildine p roject which D iocletain u ndertook a t h is f avourite c ity o f r esidence.I°J I t i s h ighly l ikely t hat t he T etrarchic f abricae o f A ntiochl° 4 w ere a lso p art o f s uch a m ajor s cheme, which, a s a t N icomedia, i ncluded t he e rection o f a p alace. 1°) T he T etrarchy w as r emembered a s a p eriod o f r ebuilding a nd r estoration o f c ities a nd t here a re a n umber o f o ther c ases where c onstruction p rogrammes o f t his t ime p robably i ncluded t he c onstruction o f f abricae. A g ood c ase i s T hessalonica, 1 06 which w as n ot p articularly i mportant u ntil G alerius c hose i t a s h is r esidence. a rrival o f t he e mperor,

1°7

Am ajor b uilding p rogramme c aused b y t he h is c ourt a nd u nits o f t roops, p rovides t he

o nly a pparent m otive a nd o pportunity f or t he s etting u p o f a f abrica a t t his s ite which w as r elatively r emote f rom t he f rontier z one. 1°8 A ugustodunum p rovides a s imilar c ase, w here C onstantius C hlorus i nitiated a g eneral r estoration o f t his i mportant c ity, s econding t roops a nd e ven i mporting a rtisans f rom B ritain. T his w ork i s w ell d ocumented, 1°9 a nd a gain, i s t he m ost l ikely c ontext f or t he c onstruction o f t he f abricae o f A ueustodunum. T he s ame a rguments c ould b e a pplied i n t he c ase o f S irmiumllu a nd o ther s ies. 1 11 A s t o t he d ate w hen t he f abricae w ere o rganised i nto t he s ystem o utlined a bove, a t erminus p ost q uem c an a t l east b e e stablished, s ince t he d istribution o f s cutariae d epends o n t he m ap o f p rovinces a s i t w as r eorganised b y D iocletian, 112 a nd m ore c onclusively, t he d istribution o f a rmour f actories r elates t o t he d ioceses w hich w ere a T etrarchic i nnovation. T he s ystem c annot, t herefore, b e p re-Tetrarchic, a nd i ndeed, f or a n umber o f r easons, f its b est i nto a D iocletianic c ontext. I f i t w as s et u p a t a l ater d ate i n t he f ourth c entury, t he s ystem w ould s till f it t he c ivil a nd a dministrative g eography, b ut n ot t he m ilitary g eography. F rom t he e arly f ourth c entury o nwards t his c eased t o b e c losely r elated t o t he p rovincial

2 65

s tructure,

p rimarily d ue t o t he

s eparation o f c ivil a nd m ilitary o rganisation, a p rocess which E tart s ad u nder D iocletian, b ut w as o nly c ompleted u nder C onstantine. D uring t he T etrarchy,

t he a rmy was s till

o n

t he

f rontiers,

a nd

m ainly u nder t he c ontrol o f p rovincial g overnors. 113 A t t he t ime, m ilitary a nd c ivilian h ierarchies w ere s till i ntegrated, a nd s o

t he t he

p rovincial a nd d iocesan d istribution o f t he g eneral a rms w orks r elated t hem a utomatically t o t he c ivilian o rganisation which s upported t hem, a nd t o t he g arrison o rganisation w hich t hey s upplied. 1 14 F rom t he b eginning o f t he f ourth c entury p rovincial g overnors s tarted t heir m ilitary c ommand f unctions, which w ent t o n ew o fficers,

t o l ose d uces o f

t he f rontier z ones, m en o ften c ommanding t roops o f m ore t han o ne p rovince. 1 15 A lthough t he p rocess b egan u nder t he T etrarchy i n s ome a reas, i t o nly b ecame g eneral u nder C onstantine, w ho a lso s et u p t he p ermanent m obile f ield a rmy. 116 F rom t his t ime t he c ivil a nd m ilitary g eography c eased t o b e i dentical. C learly, f abrica d istribution f its b est u nder t he T etrarchy, a nd t his i s s upported b y t he f act t hat t he o nly c ertain f oundation d ates o f f abricae a re i n t his p eriod, a t N icomedia, 1 17 E dessa, D amascus a nd A ntioch. 1 18 I t i s s ignificant t hat t hese i nclude b oth g eneral a rms w orks 1 19

a nd s pecialist c entres.

1 2

°

S everal l ines o f e vidence c onverge t o m ake i t f airly s ure t hat t he b asic s tructure o f t he f abrica s ystem w as a T etrarchic i nnovation. E ven i f t his h ypothesis i s a ccepted a s v alid, i t d oes n ot r ule o ut t he p ossibility o f l ater a dditions t o, o r c hanges i n t he s ystem . T wo s uch p ossible c ases a ppear i n t he N otitia l ists, a nd m ight b e e xplained a s a dditions o r a lterations a fter t he o riginal c omposition o f t he r egisters. T he N otitia l ists a re unusual i n t hat n ot o nly a re t hey a rranged i n g eographical o rder o f d ioceses, b ut w ithin e ach d iocese t he i ndividual e ntries a re a lso c arefully o rdered, 121 w ith t wo e xceptions ( see F ig.7). l ine a long

T he N orth G allic g roup o f f abricae a re s trung o ut i n a t he r oad f rom B oulogne t o T rier ( Fig.8), a nd a re l isted i n

W est-East o rder, e xcept t hat A mbianum , t he m ost w esterly a nd t herefore t heoretically f irst, i s e ntered l ast. 122 S imilarly, i n I llyricum, t he f abricae a re l isted f rom S outh t o N orth. S alona, a s m ost s outherly, s hould b e t he f irst e ntry, b ut c omes l ast. 123 T hese t wo c ould b e a dditions t o t he o riginal l ist, b ut t his i s u nlikely s ince b oth b elong t o t he ' basic a rms f actory' c ategory, 1 24 a nd s o, a t m ost, a re r eplacements f or o ther f actories n ow a bandoned. I t i s m ore l ikely t hat t hey s imply r epresent t he r e-siting o f t wo f abricae whose s taff w ere t ransferred e n m asse t o a d ifferent c ity. S uch r elocations o f g overnment p roduction c entres a re a ttested i n t he N otitia, 125 a nd o f p articular i nterest i s t he c ase o f t he g ynaeceum a t o riginally a t B assiana o n t he D anube, e ast o f

S alona w hich w as S irmium. 126 I t i s

s uggested t hat t he S alona f abrica w as a lso o riginally a t B assiana which i s, i n a ny c ase, a m ore t ypical s ite f or a l ower D anubian f abrica, b eing c lose t o t he r iver a nd t he m ain h ighway a cross t he B alkans t o I taly; a nd t hat b oth i nstallations w ere m oved t o t he h interland w hen t he f rontier z one b ecame u ntenable i n t he l ate f ourth c entury. 127 T he A mbianum c ase m ay w ell b e s usceptible t o a s imilar e xplanation, i n t hat i t r epresents a c hange o f l ocation, r ecorded a s a n o rder a nomaly i n t he l ist, f rom a m ore f orward s ite, p ossibly a t T ongres. 128 T he i mplications o f a ll t his f or t he h istory a nd d ating o f t he N otitia a re d iscussed i n A ppendix 1 .

2 66

F ACTORS D ETERMINING T HE L OCATION O F F ABRICAE J ullian, o ne o f t he f ew w riters t o c onsider t he r ationale b ehind f abrica d istribution, s uggested t hat a ccess t o r aw m aterials w as t he m ain f actor. 129 H e o bserved t hat A ugustodunum a nd C aesarea C appadociae w ere i n i mportant i ron m ining z ones. A rgentomagus, 13 ° N icomedia, 131 S ardis L ydiae, 132 a nd T rier 133 m ay a lso b e a dded t o t he l ist. T I L E s uggestion i n n o w ay c ontradicts t he e xplanation o f f abrica d istribution o utlined a bove, w hich p ostulates a g overnment p lan t o s et u p c ertain t ypes o f f actory i n g iven p rovinces o f d ioceses. J ullian's s uggestion m ay b e a n e xplanation o f t he c hoice o f a p articular s ite f or t he f actory w ithin i ts d esiGnated a rea. A ccess t o i ron s eems a n e minently r easonable e xplanation. 1 34

I taly

H owever, t here i s o ne i mportant a nomaly, i n t hat t he f abricae o f a re s uch a g reat d istance f rom t he m ines o f N oricum which

p resumably s upplied t hem . 135 W hy w ere t hey n ot n earer t o t he m ines, w here t hey w ould a lso b e n earer t o t he t roops? C learly o ther f actors w ere a t w ork. I f i t i s a ccepted t hat m ost o f t he s ites w ere c hosen d uring t he T etrarchy, t hen c lose p roximity t o t he a rmy m ay a lso b e d iscounted a s a m ajor f actor. C ertainly t he f abricae w ere i n t he f rontier d ioceses, b ut n evertheless, o ften s cores o r e ven h undreds o f m iles t o t he r ear o f t he a ctual f rontier w here t he t roops w ere s tationed, m any d ays t ravel w agon. 136 T he k ey t o t he p roblem i s f ound i n t he N otitia t hemselves, w hich r ecord f abricae under c ities o f l ocation. I t i s t hat t he f abricae w ere a t u rban c entres, u sually m ajor o nes, p rovincial o r d iocesan c apitals.

f or a l ists c lear o ften

T he b asic r equirements o f t he f abricae m ust b e c onsidered. T hey n eeded s ecure s ites t o p revent a rms f alling i nto t he h ands o f b arbarians o r b agaudae, a ccommodation f or w ork f orces a nd d ependents, a nd a ccess t o r aw m aterials a s w ell a s f ood, g oods a nd s ervices f or t heir s taff. F inally, t hey n eeded c ommunications w ith m eans o f t ransportation t o g et t he f inished w eapons

t o t he a rmy.

U rban w all c ircuits, o ften c ontaining s ettlements w hich w ere c onsiderably r educed b y A D 3 00, c ertainly f urnished a ccommodation a nd s ecurity. W ith r egard t o t he q uestion o f m aterials, J ullian o ver-emphasised t he n eed f or i ron. M any f actories w ould n ot h ave n eeded l arge q uantities. F abricae m aking b ows, a rrows o r s hields w ould h ave h ad a g reater n eed f or w ood a nd o ther o rganic m aterials which w ere m ore w idely a vailable i n t he p rovinces. T hose c entres w hose p roduction r equired l arge a mounts o f i ron - s uch a s c libanaria e tc. - d o a ctually t end t o b e i n t he i ron-making z ones, f or i ndirect r easons o utlined b elow ( p.269). T he f abrica r equired a b road v ariety o f m aterials a nd f uel, f ood, c lothing e tc, a nd i t i s n ot d ifficult t o i dentify t he m echanism o f c ollection. T he e ntire b asis o f a dministration a nd t ax c ollection i n t he e mpire w as t he c ity c ouncil, w hich w as e xpected t o a ssemble t axes f rom i ts t erritory f or c ollection b y i mperial o fficers. B y t he e nd o f t he t hird c entury, t his s ystem h ad b een e xtended s o t hat t he d ecurions w ere r esponsible f or c ollecting t axes i n k ind, f ood, m aterials a nd b ullion. 137 T he m achinery f or a ssembling t he m aterials f or t he f abricae a lready e xisted. N eedless t o s ay, a ll t hese c ities

2 67

w ere n odal p oints o n t he r oad s ystem , a nd m any w ere a lso o n n avigable w aterways, a llowing e asy d istribution. M ajor c ities, t hen, w ere t he o bvious p laces t o l ocate t he f abricae. T he g overnment s imply ' plugged i n' t he n ew i nstallations a t t he p laces w here t he r aw m aterials w ere b eing a ssembled. T he f inished i tems c ould t hen b e f ed s traight i nto t he d istribution s ystem . T he l atter c onsisted o f v ehicles i mpressed b y t he g overnment t o m ove s upplies f rom t he c ity-centred c ollection p oints o f t he a rmy. T he L aw c odes l end s upport t o t his r econstruction i n e dicts m entioning l evies, n ot o nly o f i ron, b ut o f w ood a nd c harcoal a s w el1. 138 F urthermore, a l aw p reserved i n t he C ode o f J ustinian p roves t hat t he t ransport s ervices w ere i ndeed u sed t o m ove a rms a long t he m ajor a rteries i n t he m anner s uggested.

1 39

I n c onsidering t he s ubject o f c ommunications,

i t i s

w orth

n oting

t hat g roups o f f abricae a re o ften s trung o ut a long t he m ain r egional s trategic h ighway. T his i s m ost c learly t o b e s een i n N orthern I taly w here a ll b ut o ne o f t he f abricae a re o n t he m ajor r oad f rom A quileia a nd t he D anube p rovinces i n t he E ast, t o M ilan a nd t he A lpine p asses i n t he W est ( Fig.9). S imilarly, t he f actories o f N orthern G aul a ll l ie o n t he r oad w hich a rcs w est a nd t hen n orth f rom T rier t o B oulogne, t he r oad p roviding a l ateral c ommunication b ehind t he l ate R oman f rontier i n m odern B elgium , a nd l inking t he g arrison o f B ritain w ith t heir s ources o f a rms i n G aul ( Fig.9). F urther e xamples i nclude t he c entres d otted a long t he s trategic r oad t hrough t he B alkans f rom A quileia t o C onstantinople, 1 40 a nd t hose i n A sia M inor. 141 F or N orthern I llyricum ( Noricum R ipense, P annonia I a nd V aleria), where t here w as n o m ajor t hrough-route, t he D anube p rovided t he t horoughfare. W hile t he f oregoing s eems t o p roduce a c oherent e xplanation o f f abrica d istribution a nd l ocation, i t h as s o f ar f ailed t o t ake i nto a ccount o ne f urther v ital f actor, n amely, t he a vailability o f s killed m anpower. T he a rmourer's t rade w as a s pecialised c raft; what w ere t he s ources o f s uch m anpower f or t he n ew f actories? T he o bvious s ource f or t hese a rtisans

( apart f rom t he a rmy) i s t he

o ld, s upposedly f ree-enterprise a rms i ndustry o f t he P rincipate. L ess i s k nown o f t he i ndustry i n t he f irst t hree c enturies A D t han i n t he f ourth t o s ixth, e ither i n t erms o f o rganisation o r o f l ocation. 142 H owever, t here i s s ome e vidence f or a t endency f or f abricae t o b e l ocated w here c ommunities o f a rmourers a lready e xisted. A n o bvious i nstance i s A ntioch, 143 f or c enturies a m ilitary b ase which m ust h ave d eveloped c onsiderable p roduction c apacity ( whether m ilitary o r ' private') a fter, i f n ot b efore t he a rrival o f t he l egionary g arrison. I n t his p articular c ase, t he s trategic a nd e conomic n ecessity o f f abricae l ocated a t A ntioch p robably h appened t o b e i n h armony w ith t he l ocation o f s killed m anpower, b ut i n o ther c ases t here s eems t o b e a c onflict. W hy, f or e xample, w ere f abricae e stablished a s f ar f rom t he f rontier a s A ugustodunum , w hen m any o ther G allic f actories w ere m uch f urther f orward? T hat c ity a ctually h eld t wo f actories, o ne o f w hich w as h ighly s pecialised.I 44 I t w as c learly a p articularly i mportant c entre, a nd t he b est e xplanation i s t hat t here w as a m ajor i ndustry a lready i n e xistence t here, o r a t l east i n t he a rea. T his i s s upported b y a n i nscription o f t he t hird c entury, t radition

o f

a rms

p roduction

1 45

a nd i t m ay w ell b e t hat

t he

i n t he r egion g oes b ack t o p reconquest

2 68

t imes.146 A n a lmost i dentical c ase c an b e m ade w hich i s e ven f urther f rom t he f rontier z one. I t i s p robably i ron-producing z ones,

o ut

f or

A rgentomagus,

1 47

s ignificant t hat b oth t hese a s i ndeed i s S ardis L ydiae,

e xamples a nother

a re i n c entre

r emarkably f ar f rom t he f rontier.' " N ot s urprisingly, m any i ron-mining a reas d eveloped a dvanced m etal-working i ndustries, i ncluding a rm s ' p roduction,

f rom e arly,

o ften p re-Roman p eriods,

s o t hat w hen

1 49

s ites

w ere c hosen f or t he n ew s tate f actories, t hese p re-existing c entres e xerted a n a ttraction which o utweighed o ther c onsiderations. T o t his e xtent t hen , i t m ay b e t hat i ron p roduction c entres h ad s ome i ndirect i nfluence o n f abrica d istribution, a nd c ircle t o J ullian's o riginal h ypothesis

s o t he a rgument ( see a bove p .267).

c omes

f ull

T his a nalysis r aises a s m any q uestions a s i t a nswers. S ince t here a lready w as a n a rms i ndustry, why w ere t he f actories b uilt a t a ll? T he o rigins o f t he f abricae a nd t he f abricenses must n ow b e c onsidered.

O RIGINS O F T HE F ABRICAE A ND T HE F ABRICENSES I t

w as

p ostulated

a bove

t hat a t l east s ome,

i f n ot m ost o f t he

f abricae, g rew o ut o f p re-existing i ndustries a t s uch p laces a s A ugustodunum. I n a n a rea s uch a s P annonia t here i s n o r eal e vidence f or s uch a n ative i ndustry a nd i t m ay b e s ignificant t hat t he l ate R oman f abricae i n t hat p art o f t he e mpire o ccur a t t he s ites o f t he o ld l egionary b ases a t C arnuntum , A quincum , a nd L auriacum. 15 ° S ince t hese w ere a lso t he o nly m ajor u rban c entres i n t he r egion, i t i s l ikely t hat d uring t he P rincipate, l ocal a rms p roduction w as a lso c entred o n t hem, w ith t he a rmy p roducing f or i tself, 151 o r b eing s upplied b y a rtisans ( including v eterans) i n t he a ttached c ivil s ettlements. F urther d own t he D anube, R atiaria m ay p rovide a s imilar c ase. 152 W ithin t he l egionary b ases a re w orkshops i dentified a s l egionary f abricae. A d iscusion o f whether o r n ot t he i dentifications a re c orrect, a nd i f s o, w hether t hey w ere t he s ites o f a ctual a rmy p roduction r ather t han s imple e quipment m aintenance d uring t he P rincipate, w ould b e o ut o f p lace h ere. 153 N evertheless, i t h as b een s uggested - e ven a ssumed t hat t he l ate i mperial f abrica a t C arnuntum w as h oused i n t he s tructure i dentified a s b elonging t o i ts s upposed l egionary p recursor.

1 54

W hile t here i s n o p roof o f t his, i t d oes s erve t o r aise t he p oint t hat f abricenses, w ho a ppear a s a h omogeneous g roup i n t he f ourth c entury, m ay h ave h ad t heir o rigins i n t wo d ifferent s ources, c ivilian i ndustrial c ommunities ( e.g. a t A ugustodunum) a nd t he a rmy i tself. I f t he L auriacum h ypothesis i s c orrect, t hen t he c hange f rom l egionary f abrica t o ' imperial' f abrica w ould h ave b een n ominal, t he f actory a nd i ts w orkers c easing t o b e p art o f t he l egion a nd c oming u nder d irect c entral g overnment c ontro1. 155 B ut i t i s e vident t hat t he g overnment g enerally b uilt n ew i nstallations, a nd t he n ew s ystem m ust h ave r equired a n i mmense e ffort o f c onstruction a nd o rganisation. M acMullen h as a sked w hy t he s tate h ad t o b uild a rms f actories - ' Why n ot c onfiscate t hem [ i.e. t he p rivate e stablishments]?' . 156 f undamentally, why d id t he s tate h ave t o a rms p roduction a t a ll? M otives

i nvolve

i tself

s imply M ore

d irectly

i n

a scribed t o D iocletian f or t his a ct o f s tate i nterference

2 69

( assuming t hat i t w as t his E mperor's d ecision) f all i nto t wo g roups, p olitical a nd e conomic. A mong t he f ormer, S eeck s uggested t hat f ear o f r ebels c ontributed t o t he t ake-over, i n o rder t o d eny a rms t o u surpers. 157 E nsslin s uggested t hat t he f abricae w ere s et u p b ecause e xisting s ources w ere i nadequate t o s upply D iocletian's ' greatly i ncreased' a rmy. 158 H owever, t he d egree o f e xpansion o f t he a rmy i s h otly d ebated, a nd i t i s b y n o m eans p roven t hat D iocletian's a rmy w as v astly l arger t han t he a rmy o f S everus. 159 M acMullen p roposed t hat t he i mmediate r eason f or t he e stablishment o f f abricae m entioned i n M alalas w as t he P ersian t hreat. 16 ° Y et t he N orth w as a lso t hreatened. M acMullen a lso m ade t he v ague s uggestion t hat t he n ew f actories w ere l inked w ith D iocletian's c oncern a t t he t rend t owards m ore s kimpy e quipment a mong t he s oldiers. "' T he p resent w riter i s n ot c onvinced o f t he e xistence o f a ny s uch g eneral t rend, a t l east b efore t he l ater f ourth c entury, n or w ould i t b e e asy t o r elate t o t he n ew f abricae.

t hat

T he e conomic e xplanations a re m ore s atisfactory. S eeck t he i nflation o f t he t hird c entury l ed t o t ax i n k ind.

o bserved S ince

1 62

a rms c annot b e s o a cquired, t he s tate h ad t o m ake t hem . M acMullen c ites ' the c haos o f t he c urrency', b ut g oes n o f urther.' " T he e ffects o f t he g reat t hird c entury i nflation o n t he a rms i ndustry m ay b e c onsidered i n m ore d etail. W hether h e b ought h is a rms p rivately o r h ad t hem i ssued, t he s oldier o f t he P rincipate h ad t o p ay f or h is e quipment h imself. W hether b y d irect p ayment o r a s s toppages, t he c ost f ell u ltimately o n h is p ay, 164 w hich w as, o f c ourse, i n c ash. T he n ature o f t he a rmaments i ndustry o f t he p rincipate h as r ecently b een d iscussed b y s everal w riters. 165 B ishop h as m ade a s trong c ase f or a l argely s elf-sufficient a rmy, a t l east i n t he f irst c entury A D, a nd h as p layed d own t he i mportance o f p rivate p roduction.' " H owever, t he s ituation i s f ar f rom c lear i n t he E ast, w here t he c ity-based l egions h ad a ccess t o m any p rivate c raftsmen. E ven i n t he W est, o ther a uthorities d etect a t rend a way f rom p urely ' in-house' p roduction f or a rms a nd o ther e quipment, i n t he s econd a nd t hird c entury. 16 W hat a re w e t o m ake o f t he r ather t hin, d isparate a nd o ften a pparently c onflicting e vidence? F or t he p resent, i t s eems r easonable t o c onclude t hat t here w as n o g reat u niformity a cross t he e mpire o r o ver t ime, a nd t hat i n s ome a reas, t he a rmy p rovided e ntirely f or i tself, w hile i n o thers, p rivate c raftsmen m ade a s ubstantial c ontribution. W hile t here c ertainly w ere s ome, p erhaps m any, s pecialist a rmourers , 168 p roduction o f c ertain w eapons c ould h ave b een a s tandard p art o f t he r epertoire o f b ronze-smiths a nd b lacksmiths,

t o b e t aken u p

a s o ccasion r equired, a llowing e xpansion o f c apacity i n e mergencies. T he e ffect o f t hird-century d isruption o n a rms p roduction c apacity c an c learly b e i magined. T he c ivil w ars a nd f oreign i nvasions o f t he m id-third c entury l ed t o m assive d islocation o f t he e stablished m ilitary i nfrastructure a s l egions w ere m oved a nd s plit u p, a uxiliary r egiments d ispersed o r d estroyed, a nd m any f orts, w ith t heir p roduction a nd s torage f acilities, w ere a bandoned, a t l east t emporarily. O n t he R hine, D anube, a nd E uphrates, t he a rmy's c apacity t o s upply i tself w ith a rms w ould a lmost c ertainly h ave b een r educed, j ust a t t he t ime w hen , d ue t o i ncreasing r ates o f a ttrition, d emand f or a rms w as i ncreasing. T he n ature o f t he e ffective p art o f t he a rmy o f t he 2 60s a nd 2 70s, a m obile

s triking

f orce,

w as i ll s uited t o s elf-supply.

f orges a re n ot i deal f or m aking s words,

2 70

T emporary f ield

a rmour a nd h elmets. U nder

s uch

c ircumstances,

i t

m ay

b e s uggested t hat t he a rmy b ecame i ncreasingly

d ependent o n c ivilian p roduction. B ut c ivilian c raftsmen d isruption. E ven i n s ecure p ressures, p erhaps P rivate a rmourers

w ere a reas

a lso t hey

v ulnerable t o w ere t hreatened

m ilitary b y o ther

m ost i mportantly t he c ollapse o f t he c oinage. c ould n ot l egally s ell t o t he p ublic l f or p rivate

p ossession o f a rms w as a n o ffence a nd e xport w as b anned. 169 F or a rmour a nd s hields t heir o nly l egal m arket w as t he a rmy, which p resumably p aid i n c ash. T he r esult o f t he i nflation w as t o m ake t he c ash n ear w orthless.

S oldiers c ould n ot b uy a rms, a nd a rmourers c ould n ot

a fford

r aw m aterials. P resumably t hey e ither s tarved, o r t urned t heir s kills t o o ther w ork. U nder s uch c ircumstances, i f t he s tate w anted a rms i t h ad

t o m aintain t he a rmourers,

g ive t hem f ood a nd p ay a nd p rovide t hem

w ith r aw m aterials i n e xchange f or w eapons. I n p ractice, a rmourers h ad a lways b een d ependent o n t he s tate a s t heir o nly l egal c ustomer. T he g overnment c ould d ictate c onditions, a nd c lose s upervision h ad l ong b een e xercised. 17 ° T his m ay w ell h ave b een s omething m ore t han q uality c ontrol, a nd e ven a s e arly a s t he s econd c entury s tate r egulation m ay h ave b een s o t ight t hat ' private i ndustry' i s a n i nappropriate d escription. I nflation w as a ffecting t he e conomy w ell b efore t he T etrarchy, a nd i t m ay b e e xpected t hat t he c hange f rom c ash p ayments t o d irect m aintenance o f a rmourers o ccurred l ong b efore A D 2 84. I n t his c ase, a ll D iocletian d id w as t o t ake t he n ext l ogical s tep o f o fficially i ncorporating t he a rmourers d irectly i nto t he i mperial s ervices, r egularising t he d e f acto s ituation a nd p utting t hings o n a p roperly o rganised b asis. T he f act t hat D iocletian d id h ave t o g o t o t he e xpense o f b uilding a ccommodation f or t he n ew s tate f abricae, s uggests t hat t he e xisting p rivate i ndustry w as n ot o rganised i n l arge p roduction u nits, b ut c onsisted o f i ndividuals o r s mall g roups; p rivate f abricae o n s uch a s cale w ere n ot a vailable t o b e ' nationalised'. 171 T he c areful a ccounting

o f

m aterials

a nd s crutiny o f w ork f orce a nd p roduct which

a re s uch f eatures o f t he e stablished s ystem i n t he f ourth c entury c learly n ecessitated c entralized f acilities i nto w hich t he h itherto s eparate a rtisans w ere d rafted: h ence t he b uilding p rogramme. L ocating t he m anufacture a nd s tockpiling o f a rms i n c ompounds which c ould b e g uarded i nside w alled c ities, w ould a lso

h ave

a

b eneficial

s ecurity

a spect, n ot s o m uch a gainst m arauding b arbarians, f or i t w ould c ut d own t he a vailability o f R oman a rms o utside t he f rontiers, whether l ost a s b ooty o r e xported. 172 W ithin t he f rontiers i t h ad l ong b een i llegal f or p rovincials t o b ear a rms. T he l aw i s r epeated f orcefully i n t he f ourth c entury, 173 a nd w ith g ood r eason. G aul e specially w as p lagued w ith t he r ural d isturbances c aused b y t he b agaudae, a s hadowy g roup, p erhaps d ispossessed p easants t urned t o b rigandage, i n n umbers l arge e nough t o c ause s erious d isruption. T he d efensible l ocations o f t he n ew f abricae h elped t o d eny t hem a rms.

R EVOLUTION I N T HE A RMS I NDUSTRY R EFLECTED I N H ELMET D ESIGN T his p eriod o f u pheaval a nd r eorganisation i n t he a rms i ndustry a lso s aw a s udden b reak i n c ontinuity i n t he d esign o f h elmets. T he f irst t hree c enturies A D h ad s een a p rogressive d evelopment o f d esign,

2 71

e ver g reater e laboration n eck-guard f orm d eepened

a nd i mprovement o f p rotection, a s t he a nd b roadened, t hroat-flanges w ere a dded t o

t he c heek-pieces, a nd t he h elmet s kull b ecame s trengthened b y r einforcing b ars ( Fig.10). 174 S ometime a round A D 2 70-300, t his t radition w as a bruptly r eplaced b y a t otally d ifferent o ne, i ncorporating a n ew r ange o f h elmet d esigns which w ere b oth s imple a nd f unctional. 1 /5 T hese h ad i n c ommon a s kull m ade i n t wo h alves j oined a nd r einforced b y a n i ron s trip r unning o ver t he t op o f t he h ead f rom b row t o n eck,

w ith s eparate n eck-guard a nd c heek p ieces.

C learly, t he d esign s tandard f or h elmets h ad b een c ompletely r e-thought. A ll t he e stablished t ypes r equired a l arge amount o f v ery s killed w ork, e specially t o m ake t he h elmet b owl a nd n eck-guard, w hich w ere w orked f rom a s ingle p iece o f m etal. T hey h ad t o b e t he c orrect t hickness a t d ifferent p oints, a nd o ften h ad r aised p anels o r c orrugations w orked i nto t hem f or a dditional r igidity. F ashioning a ccurate h inges f or t he c heek-pieces w as a lso a r elatively d elicate, t ime-consuming j ob. T he n ew h elmet t ypes d id away w ith a ll t he m ost c omplex e lements. T he a bandonment o f t he o ne-piece b owl i n f avour o f c omposite c onstruction e liminated t he n eed f or d ifficult f orgings, f or t he b owl w as n ow m ade i n t wo h alves, e ach o f w hich w as o ften i tself m ade o f t hree s maller p lates, a ll much s impler f orgings which w ere r ivetted t ogether. T he f ore-and-aft s trip w hich c onnected t he t wo h alf-shells w as u sually o f T - o r b ox-section f or r igidity, e liminating t he n eed f or a dditional r einforcing b ars w hich h ad b een a c onstant f eature o f e arlier i mperial h elmets. F inally, t he n eck-guard a nd c heek-pieces w ere much l ess e laborate t han h itherto, c ut o ut o f f lat p late a nd g iven t he a ppropriate c urvature, t hen a ttached t o t he b owl b y l aces, l eather s traps, o r s ometimes b uckles. C omplex h inges were g enerally a bandoned ( Fig.10). W hat w as

t he c ause o f t his a pparently s udden r evolution i n

h elmet

d esign? I t s eems u nlikely t hat i t c an b e e xplained s olely i n t erms o f c hanging f ashion, i f o nly b ecause t here s eems t o b e n o o verlap i n t ime b etween t he o ld a nd t he n ew d esigns. T he e arlier t ypes w ere s till c urrent i n t he m id t hird c entury a nd t he n ew p attern h elmets w ere e stablished b y t he b eginning o f t he f ourth. 17 b W hat h ad h appened t o m ake a rmourers c ompletely a lter t heir r epertoire and a lso r educe t heir s tandards ( for e ven t he m agnificent s ilver-plated a nd b ejewelled ' officer's' h elmets o f t he f ourth c entury a re o ften s tructurally c rude b y c omparison w ith t hird c entury e xamples)? I t s eems t o t he p resent w riter t hat t his m ust b e l inked t o t he r eorganisation o f t he a rms i ndustry w hich o ccurred a t t he s ame p eriod. H itherto, i t i s s upposed, t he i ndividual c raftsmen o ften w orked t o p roduce f ine p ieces c ommissioned b y w ealthy s oldiers o n a p rivate b asis. B ut w ith t he ' natonalisation' p rivate o rders

o f t he i ndustry, t he a rmourers n o l onger w orked b ut a lmost c ertainly t o f ill q uotas s et b y

t o t he

g overnment. 177 S ince t he s tate w as n ow p aying, i t e xercised c ontrol o ver t he q uantity a nd q uality o f t he p roduct. H ence t he n ew r ange o f h elmet d esigns which a ppears, p robably i n r esponse t o a g overnment s pecification f or a d esign w hich p rovided s imilar p rotection f or much l ess c ost a nd t ime. T he h elmet c eased t o b e t he w ork o f a rt t hat i t h ad b een i n t he t hird c entury. I t i s n ot s urprising t hen , t hat q uality d eteriorated s o s harply, 178 f or t he s miths h ad n either t he t ime n or t he p rofit

m otive

n ew s ystem ,

t o p roduce m ore t han t he a bsolute m inimum s tandard. T he

i t w ould s eem ,

d elivered t he g oods b ut c ould

2 72

n ot

m aintain

t he q uality a nd p ride o f c raftsmanship.

A DMINISTRATION A ND O PERATION O F T HE F ABRICA S YSTEM T he N otitia r ecords n ot o nly t he d etails o f t he f actories, b ut a lso s ome d etails o f t he b ureaucratic s uperstructure w hich c ontrolleo t hem. T his w as p art o f t he m inistry o f t he m agister o fficiorum o f e ach h alf o f t he e mpire. 179 C onsiderable a ttention h as b een g iven b y o ther w riters t o t he f act t hat, s ince t he f abrica s ystem a pparently a ntedates t he t itle o f m agister o fficiorum, t he f actories m ust o riginally h ave b een u nder t he c ontrol o f s ome o ther d epartment. M uch c onfusion a nd d isagreement s urrounds t he q uestion o f w ho w as o riginally i n c ontrol o f t he f abricae, a nd a t w hat d ate a nd u nder w hat c ircumstances t he f actories p assed i nto t he h ands o f t he m agister. T his q uestion i s d ealt w ith i n d etail i n A ppendix I I, w hich c oncludes t hat t hey p robably b elonged t o t he m agister C onstantine t he G reat. T he M aster

o f

t he

f rom

t he

O ffices

i nception

o f

e ach

o f

h alf

o f

t he

t he

o ffice under

e mpire

h ad

s ubordinates c alled s ubadiuvae f abricarum, d rawn f rom t he a gentes i n r ebus. T here w ere t hree s uch o fficers i n t he E ast, 1 80 b ut t he W estern l ist i s n ot s pecific. 181 T he E astern f igure m ay h ave i ncreased t o f our i n t he f ifth c entury. 1 82 T hese m en w ere v ery s enior o fficials i ndeed, d rawn

f rom

t he

h ighest

g rade

o f a gentes,

h olding

t he

r ank

o f

p rincipatus. 183 T he s ubadiuvae o f o ther m inistries w ere o f c onsiderably l ower s tatus. 184 T he f act t hat t hese p osts w ent t o s uch s enior m en, w ho,

w ithin

t he

m aster's o fficium

w ere s econd i n s tatus o nly t o h is

p ersonal a ssistant a nd h is d eputies, s erves t o u nderline t he h igh p riority g iven t o t he m aintenance o f t he s tate a rms f actories. T he p ost o f s ubadiuva f abricarum w as h eld f or o ne y ear b efore t he i ncumbent p roceeded t o y et h igher h onours. 185 N o m ention i s m ade a pparently

i n

t he N otitia

o f

t he

s crinium

f abricarum ,

a f ull-scale b ureau o f f abrica a dministration which e xisted

i n t he E ast b y t he r eign o f L eo, a nd t o which t he s ubadiuvae f abricarum w ere a nnually a ppointed.' " S ince t he N otitia c hapters d ealing w ith t he m agistri d o n ot m ention o ther s crinia w ithin

t heir

m inistries,

1 87

i t

w ould s eem t hat t he e stablishment o f t he s crinium f abricarum a s s uch, m ust p ost-date t he N otitia a nd p re-date t he r eign o f L eo, p utting i t i n t he f irst h alf o f t he f ifth c entury. W hatever t he d ate o f f oundation, t he s crinium f abricarum i s p resumably t he s ame a s t he s crinium f abricensium m entioned i n J ustinian's N ovel, L XXXV, p ermitting u s t o t race t he b ureau t o A D 5 39. T he b ureau p robably h ad t he s tandard c omplement o f c lerks, a lthough t he o nly o nes r ecorded a re c hartularii, a pparently a ccountants. 1 88 T here

i s v ery l ittle e vidence o f h ow t he s crinium f unctioned,

b ut

w e m ay a ssume t hat n ot o nly d id i t d eal w ith a ll a spects o f f abrica a dministration, s upply a nd p roduction, b ut a lso l egal j urisdiction o ver, a nd d isciplinary c ontrol o f t he f abricenses, f or a ll t hese f unctions f ell t o t he M aster a nd h is o fficium. T he f abricenses w ere t he l argest g roup under t he M aster's c ontrol, s colae. I t

h as

b een

s uggested

t hat

p robably f ar o utnumbering t he

e ach s ubadiuva

2 73

c ontrolled a ll t he

f abricae o f o ne d iocese.' " W hile t here i s n o d irect e vidence f or t his, t here m ay w ell b e s ome t ruth i n t he i dea a s t he f abricae w ere l argely d istributed o n a p rovincial a nd d iocesan b asis ( cf. p .267). D etails o l t he p rocess b etween t he r equest f or, a nd t he d elivery o f a rms t o a u nit a re l acking, b ut i t i s p ossible t o r econstruct i t i n p articular o utline, b y a nalogy w ith t he p rocess u sed f or o ther s upplies. ' Th r M asters o f t he S oldiers w ere b efore t he b eginning o f e ach i ndiction t s end t o t he i mperial s crinia r eturns o f u nit s trengths, a nd t he P raetorian P refect w as t o c heck i ssues m ade b y t he s usceptores a gains t , t hese r eturns...'. 19 ° I t m ay b e i nferred t hat r equests f or a rm f ollowed a s imilar c ourse, p assing f rom t he u nit c oncerned u p t o t he o ffice o f t he m agister m ilitum, whose d epartment t hen f orwarded t h ( r equisition t o t he M aster o f t he O ffices. T he s crinium f abricarum w ould t hen d irect t he a ppropriate f actory t o m ake o r r elease f rom s tock t he s pecified a rms. T he P raetorian P refecture w as a lso i nvolved i n t he p rocess, f or i t h eld u ltimate r esponsibility f or t he c ollection, s hipment a nd d elivery o f a rms c onsignments. T he m agister o fficiorum h ad ' to n otify t he e minent P refecture, a nd s tate t he q uantity o f a rms a nd t he p lace f rom w hich t hey a re t o b e t ransported, i n o rder t hat t he P refect m ay i mmediately o rder t he i llustrious g overnor o f t he p rovince t o

p rovide

s hips o r v ehicles o ut o f t hose b elonging t o t he p ublic f or

t he c onveyance o f s aid a rms... ' . 191 P resumably t his p rocedure w as t he r esponsibility o f t he p refect's s crinium a rmorum m entioned b y J ohn L ydus, who t ells u s l ittle e xcept t hat t he o ffice ' has d efinite p ayments f rom t he p rovinces, I m ean b owstrings, h orn a nd o ther t hin s. A nd f or t he e mergencies o f w ar, i t p rovides b y d irect r equisitions' . i92 F rom t his i t s eems t hat t he s crinium a rmorum h ad a v ariety o f d uties, i ncluding t he p rocurement o f a rms n ot m ade i n t he f abricae ( e.g. b ows i n t he E ast, p robably r aised a s t ax i n k ind, c f. p .264 a bove) a nd r esponsibility f or d elivery o f s upplies t o, a nd m ovement o f p roduct f rom t he f abricae. 193

T HE NATURE O F T HE F ABRICAE A ND T HE O RGANISATION O F P RODUCTION I t i s u nfortunate t hat s o l ittle i s k nown o f t he f unctions o f t he f abrica a dministration, b ut t he h istorians a re v irtually s ilent o n t he m atter.I 94 A g ood d eal m ore i s k nown a bout t he i ndividual f abricae t hemselves, a lthough t his i s b ased a lmost e ntirely o n t he N otitia a nd t he L aw C odes. B efore l ooking a t t his e vidence, t he a rchaeological e vidence,

o r l ack o f i t, m ust b e e xamined.

A ll f abricae s eem t o h ave b een a t u rban c entres, a nd w ere p resumably i ntramural f or s ecurity r easons. Y et n one o f t he h istorically a ttested o nes h as y et b een i ndisputably i dentified o n t he g round. P ossible c andidates i nclude t he l egionary f abricae ( if t hey a re c orrectly i dentified) i n t he m iddle o f t he D anubian b ases, b ut t he a rchaeological e vidence i s m eagre a nd a mbiguous, a nd n o i nscription h as b een f ound t o p rove t hat t he l egionary f abricae b ecame t he s tate f abricae o f t he f ourth c entury. C ertainly t he b est c andidate s o f ar i s B uilding A a t S ardis. T his w ell d efended l ate R oman e nclosure o f l arge, b ut i ndeterminate s ize s tands i n t he m idst o f t he c ity. H owever, o nce a gain t here i s n o s pecific e vidence t hat t his i s i ndeed t he f abrica. 195 W hile i t i s n ot s uggested t hat t he S everan f oundation a t C orbridge i s a f abrica i n t he s ense u nder d iscussion, b oth t his a nd t he l egionary f abricae

m ay

b e u sed a s a nalogies

t o g ive a n i dea o f t he s cale o f t he

2 74

l ater e stablishments. I n a rea, t hese e arly c omplexes r ange f rom a bout 0 .1 t o 1 .0 h ectares, b ut a verage l ess t han 0 .25 h ectares. 196 C orbridge f alls i n a bout t he m iddle o f t he r ange, a nd i t h as b een s uggested t hat i t c ould a ccommodate 1 00-150 m en i n i ts b arracks, p erhaps m ore. 197 A s w ill b e s hown b elow , t he p ost-Tetrarchic c entres w ere p robably o n t his s ort o f s cale, o r n ot m uch l arger i n a rea. C onsidering t he f act t hat p erhaps m ost o f t he c ities known t o h ave h ad f abricae a re d ozens, e ven h undreds o f t imes b igger t han t his, a nd t hat v ery f ew h ave s een a rchaeological e xcavation o n a s ienificant s cale, t hat t he f abricae a re s o e lusive.I 98

i t i s n ot

s urprising

A ll t his a ssumes t hat t he f abrica w as l ocalised w ithin t he c ity. J .P. W ild b elieves 199 t hat t he r oughly a nalogous i mperial g ynaecea o perated a s a s cattered c ottage i ndustry, b ut a rms w ere p olitically s ensitive, s o i t m ay b e e xpected t hat t hey w ere w alled i n a nd g uarded i n a d efined c ompound, c ontaining w orkshops a nd w arehouses, a s a t C orbridge i n t he t hird a nd f ourth c enturies A D. 2 ° ° N o d escription e xists o f t he f abricenses a t w ork, b ut i t m ay b e e xpected t hat e ach m an w orked i ndividually t o p roduce f inished p ieces f rom s cratch. I t i s p ossible t hat t here w as s ome d ivision o f l abour i n t he p roduction o f s ome i tems; f or e xample, m etal a nd w ooden p arts o f s hields m ay h ave b een m ade b y d ifferent w orkmen. T he o nly r eal h int o f s uch s pecialisation c omes f rom S ardis w here a t omb i nscription r ecords a f abricensis who i s a lso d escribed a s z ographos o r p ainter. 2 °1 T hey p robably w orked t o p roduction q uotas a ssessed i n t erms o f f inished p ieces.z° 2 A s d iscussed a bove, s upervision w as c lose, w ith s trict a ccounting

o f

m aterials

a nd

q uality

c ontrol p erhaps f acilitated b y

d ividing t he f abrica i nto a n umber o f o fficinae l ike t he m ints, 20 J a lthough t here i s n o e vidence o f s uch d ivisions. I t i s d ifficult t o s ee h ow

s ome o f t he s pecialist f abricae c ould h ave o perated o n t his b asis,

s ince n either a rtillery n or h eavy c avalry a rmour w as s uited t o m ass p roduction. T he l atter w as r equired i n r elatively s mall q uantities a nd i t i s l ikely t hat e ach f ull s uit o f a rmour h ad t o b e t ailor-made t o f it a n i ndividual s oldier ( and p erhaps h is h orse t oo). T he n eeds o f a rtillerymen w ere a lso h ighly s pecialised a nd r equired t he h ighest s tandards o f c raftsmanship a vailable o ften t o m ake u nique p ieces o f e quipment f or s eige-warfare. D irect l iason b etween t hese f actories a nd t he s pecialist units which t hey s upported i s t o b e e xpected, a nd s o i t i s n ot s urprising t o f ind i n t he m id-fourth c entury a u nit o f b allistarii a nd a u nit o f c ataphracts a t A ugustodunum, t he s ite o f t he o nly W estern c avalry a rmour f actory, a nd o ne o f o nly t wo a rtillery f actories i n t he e mpire. 2 " D id t hese u nits s end d amaged a nd w orn e quipment t o t heir f abricae f or r efurbishing? T his r aises t he b roader a nd p erhaps unanswerable q uestion, t o w hat e xtent d id a rmy u nits i n g eneral r epair t heir o wn e quipment? F or e xample, w as C orbridge a c entre f or t he s ervicing o f e quipment r ather t han i ts m anufacture? W as o ld e quipment r ecycled t o t he f abricae f or c omplete r efurbishment?

T HE F ABRICENSES:

S TATUS,

O RGANISATION A ND R ANKS

T he s tatus o f t he f abricenses w ithin t he i mperial s ervice d iffered f rom t hat o f a ny o ther g roup o f w orkmen. A lthough t hey w ere a rtisans, t hey r anked h igher t han t hose w ho w orked f actories o r g ynaecea, o r i n t he m ints. T hese

2 75

i n t he i mperial t extile w ere s laves, b ut t he

f abricenses a nd t he r elated b arbaricarii w ere f ree m en ( though l egally t ied t o t heir w ork) a nd s ervice among t heir r anks c ounted a s a f ull m ilitia. 2 °5 T his s tatus g ained t hem t he s ame p rivileges, l egal e xemptions a nd r ights t o d raw t he a nnona a s g overnment c lerks o r s oldiers, a nd l ike t hem t hey w ere r egarded a s m ilites. 2 " T he s taff o f e ach f abrica w ere o rganised i nto s ome k ind o f c orporate b ody r esembling t he s o-called g uilds o f c ivilian a rtisans, r esulting i n a s trange m ixture o f c ivil a nd p seudo-military o rganisation a mong t hem . I t h as b een o bserved 2°7 t hat e ach f actory w as o rganised l ike a m ilitary u nit, c ommanded b y a p raepositus, w ith a p rimicerius, a nd m any l ower g rades, a ll p ossessing t he n ames o f a rmy r anks. B ut o f c ourse, a ll t hese m ilitary t itles h ad p assed i nto s tandard u sage i n t he c ivil s ervice a s w ell, a nd s o t he m ilitary a nalogy s hould n ot b e p ressed t oo f ar. T he u nusually h igh s tatus o f t hese a rtisans r eflects t heir i mportance t o t he i mperial s ervice. W ithin t he j urisdiction o f t he M aster o f t he O ffices, t hey s eem t o h ave b een s econd o nly t o t he S colae among h is p riorities. 1°8 F abricenses w ere a lso v ery n umerous. N o e xact f igures s urvive, b ut e stimates m ay b e m ade. T he o nly c ontemporary e stimate i s t hat t here w as a ' great m ultitude' a t H adrianopolis.z° 9 A s M acMullen s ays, ' to s upply t he R oman a rmy, ( the f abricae) h ad t o b e b ig. I f, a s s eems l ikely, t hey w ere m odelled o n l egionary f abricae, t hey m ay e ach h ave h oused a c ouple o f h undred w orkers... t .210 J ones' a nalog y211 o f f abricae a nd a rmy u nits m ight s uggest g reater n umbers, p erhaps f our h undred t o f ive h undred m en, b ut t his i s h ighly s peculative. W ith t hirty-five f abricae k nown t o h ave e xisted, t hese f igures w ould g ive e stimates o f t he o rder o f 7 ,000 t o 1 7,500 m en e ngaged o n a rms p roduction a cross t he e mpire, w ith p erhaps t wice a s m any d ependents. E ven t he h igher f igure i s n ot u nreasonably l arge t o s upply a n a rmy o f ( supposedly) h alf a m illion o r m ore. A fter t he a rmy a nd t he c ivil s ervice, t he f abricenses w ere a pparently t he l argest g roup i n t he s tate e mploy. T hey w ere u nusual a mong t he b ranches o f t he i mperial s ervice i n t hat t hey w ere o rganised i nto w hat w as m ore o r l ess a t rade g uild, o r c onsortium f abricensium. 212 T he g overnment m ade m embership c ompulsory, a nd u sed i t a s a m eans o f e nforcing j oint r esponsibility f or r ecovering l osses i ncurred t hrough e mbezzlement b y i ndividual f abricenses. 213 A r oll o f m embers w as c arefully k ept. 214 I t i s u nclear whether t here w as o ne g uild f or a ll a rmourers, a s o ne l aw s eems t o i mply, 215 o r w hether e ach f abrica h ad a s eparate g uild f or i ts s taff. A l aw o f T heodosius s uggests t hat t he g uild h ad a n e lected h ierarchy o f m en who a pparently l ooked a fter t he a ccounting o f t he m aterials f or w hich a ll w ere r esponsible. 216 W hether t hese o fficers a lso d ealt w ith q uality c ontrol a nd s upervision i s u nknown, a nd e ven m ore p roblematical i s t he q uestion o f w hether t hey a re t o b e i dentified w ith t he j unior o fficers whose a rmy s tyle r anks a re w ell a ttested i n i nscriptions. W ere t here s eparate g uild o fficers a nd s upervisory o fficers? I f t hey w ere i dentical, t o w hat e xtent w ere t hey e lected, p romoted b y s eniority o r a ppointed b y t he g overnment? I t i s h ard t o b elieve t hat a ppointed b y b allot!

a ny

b ut

t he

l owest

w ere

T he s o-called n on-commissioned o fficer r anks u sed i n t he l ate R oman a rmy a nd c ivil s ervice w ere, i n a scending o rder o f i mportance:

2 76

c ircitor, b iarchus, c entenarius, d ucenarius, s enator a nd p rimiceriuZ7217- 7K n umber o f t ombstones o f f abricenses a re known, e ach r ecording t he r ank o f t he d eceased. T here a re t hree i nscriptions o f o rdinary f abricenses, o ne f rom S alona 218 a nd t wo f rom C oncordia, 219 f rom a c emetery which a lso p roduced t wo o f b iarchi , 220 a nd o ne o f a c entenarius. 221 A s econd c entenarius i s a ttested a t M arcianopolis. 222 T wo r ecently d iscovered m onuments a t S ardis L ydiae b elonged t o f abricenses o f t he r ank o f d ucenarius. 223 A nother g ravestone, o f a s cutarius o f t he r ank o f s enator f ound a t N icomedia w as i nterpreted b y G rosse a s a f abricensis a t t he f abrica s cutaria a t t hat c ity. 224 T he l ack o f a ny m ention o f t he f abrica

w ithin

t his

t ext

m akes

i t

m ore

l ikely t hat t he i ndividual c oncerned w as a s oldier o f a u nit o f s cutarii ( a c ommon u nit d esignation i n t he l ater R oman a rmy) r ather t han a s hield-wright.

t hat

T he o f

2 25

m ost s enior r ank, a part f rom t he f abrica c ommander h imself, a p rimicerius f abricae i s n ot a ttested o n a ny k nown

i nscription, b ut i t i s t he s ubject o f a l aw i ssued i n A D 3 90.

2 26

T he o nly p osts o f t his m ilitary-style h ierarchy n ot d irectly a ttested s o f ar a re c ircitor a nd s enator, b ut i t m ay b e a ssumed t hat t hey w ere u sed. T he d uties a nd m ethods o f s election a nd p romotion o f t hese o fficers r emain g enerally o bscure. 227 H owever, o ne m an, F lavius Z enis, s eems t o h ave e ntered t he M arcianopolis f abrica w ith t he r ank o f c entenarius, h aving s erved i n t he a rmy, 228 s uggesting s ome f orm o f ' direct

c ommission'

t o

s ome

r anks.

A l ittle m ore i s known a bout t he

m ost s enior ' NCO' g rade, t hat o f t he p rimicerius, a pparently a s ort o f f oreman. H e h eld h is p ost f or o nly t wo y ears, b efore b eing r etired a nd g iven m embership o f t he p rotectores, a c onsiderable h onour f or a ' mere' a rtisan.

2 29

E ach f abrica h ad a d irector o r c ommander c alled a p raepositus f abricae, 23 ° a s i s i llustrated b y t he t ombstone o f F lavius R omulianus, p (rae)p(ositus) f ab(ricae) s agitt(ariae) a t C oncordia. 231 A t R avenna t here i s a n i nscription s et u p b y S ertorius S ilanus v (ir) p (erfectissimus) p raepositus f abricae d uring t he r eign o f C onstantine. 232 N o f abrica a rmorum i s o therwise a ttested a t R avenna, s o t his e xample i s u ncertain. A mmianus m entions f abrica d irectors i n t hree s eparate i ncidents. I n o ne h e u ses t he t itle p raepositus f abricarum, b ut t he o fficial c oncerned w as p robably t he c ommander o f t he T rier b arbaricarii, a nd t hus n othing t o d o w ith t he f abricae p roper a t a l1. 233 E lsewhere, A mmianus c onsistently u ses t he t itle t ribunus o f t he d irectors o f t he f abricae 234 a t C remona, a nd A ntioch. 235 T his i s t he o nly s ource t o u se t ribunus r ather t han 2 raepositus, a nd t here h ave b een v arious a ttempts a t a n e xplanation.z 36 I t i s p robable t hat A mmianus s imply u sed t ribunus a s a g eneral t erm f or c ommander, a nd d id n ot m ean i t a s t he o fficial t itle, w hich p robably w as p raepositus. 237 T he r anking o f t he p raepositus f abricae w ithin t he i mperial s ervice i s n ot c lear. T he C onstantinian R avenna i nscription, 238 w hich, i f n ot s et u p b y a f abrica c ommander w as s et u p b y a n o fficer i n a c omparable p ost, r ecords t hat t he r ank w as h eld b y a m an t itled v ir p erfectissimus, a nd t herefore a m ember o f t he e questrian o rder. T he t ombstone o f t he C oncordia p raepositus d oes n ot m ention s uch a t itle,

2 77

b ut i t p robably d ates t o t he e nd o f t he f ourth c entury when

t he

t itle

v ir p erfectissimus h ad g reatly d eclined i n i mportance a nd w as e ven b eing g ranted t o r egimental q uartermasters. 239 T he N otitia c ontains s ome f urther c lues a s t o t he s tatus o f t he o ffice. T his d ocument s eems t o b e p rimarily a c atalogue o f o fficial p osts i mportant e nough f or t he e mperor h imself t o a ppoint t heir i ncumbents. T hese w ere t he p rized p osts o f t he l aterculum m aius, a nd m ost o f t he l ists a re i n t erms o f a ppointments,

i .e.

f ield a rmy u nit c ommanders,

o r t he p rocuratores o f

m ints a nd c lothing f actories. 24 ° T he l ess i mportant f rontier c ommands w ere n ot p art o f t his s ystem , a nd f ormed t he l aterculum m inus. T he N otitia s imply r ecords t hat t he f actories w ere u nder t he m agistri o fficiorum , b ut d oes n ot l ist t hem b y t heir c ommanders, who a re n owhere m entioned. T his s uggests t hat d espite t he s trategic i mportance o f t he f actories ( evident f rom t heir p rominence a nd t he a ttention g iven t o t hem

i n

t he

l ists),

t heir d irectors w ere n ot v ery i mportant m en, a nd

t heir p osts w ere p robably p art o f t he l aterculum m inus. 241 I f t he R avenna p raepositus i s a ccepted a s a v alid a nalogy, i f n ot a ctually a n a rms f actory c ommander h imself, t hen h is t itle o f v ir p erfectissimus ( still q uite a n e xalted r ank u nder C onstantine), a nd t he i nsignificance o f f abrica c ommanders i n t he N otitia m ay r eflect a s erious d ecline i n t he p restige a nd i mportance o f t he p ost d uring t he f ourth c entury. L ittle i s k nown o f t he p raepositi b eyond a f ew n ames. 242 d rawn f rom t he c ivil s ervice, ambitious, w ealthy c itizens,

W ere t hey d ecurions

b uying p osts i n t he s ervice o f t he e mperor t o e scape t heir c urial d uties, o r f rom o ther s ources? A ll m ay w ell h ave b een r epresented. O ne d irector o f t he C remona f abrica, i nvoluntarily e mbroiled i n a c ourt i ntrigue, f ound h imself o ut o f h is d epth a nd a ppealed t o b e t old w hat w as g oing o nl f or h e h imself a dmitted t hat h e w as a ' somewhat r ude a nd p lain m an'. 24 J H e, a t l east, w as n o w orldly-wise c ivil i n t he w ays o f c ourt l ife. I t

i s

n ot

s ervant

v ersed

b eyond t he b ounds o f p ossibility t hat s ome o r m ost o f

t he p raepositi w ere d rawn u p f rom t he f abricenses t hemselves. I t h as a lready b een s een ( p.277) t hat a fter t wo y ears s ervice, t he p rimicerius f abricae w as p romoted t o t he c orps o f p rotectores. T his p arallels a p ractice i n t he a rmy w here s oldiers w ho a chieved t he r ank o f p rimicerius w ere l ikewise p romoted t o t he p rotectores. 244 I t s eems t hat t he c orps a cted a s a k ind o f s taff c ollege, a nd m any unit c ommanders w ere d rawn f rom i t. T here t hus e xisted a r oute b y which c ommon s oldiers m ight r each h igh c ommands. P erhaps a s imilar p ractice e xisted i n t he f abrica

s ervice,

w ith p raepositi

b eing d rawn f rom r etired p rimicerii

f abricarum a mong t he p rotectores. S uch m en k nowledge o f t he w orkings o f t he s ystem.

T HE F ABRICENSES:

C ONDITIONS

O F

S ERVICE,

w ould

h ave

a n

i ntimate

P RIVILEGES, R ECRUITMENT A ND

D ESERTION T he f abricenses were t ied t o t heir j obs, a s w ere m any o ther p rofessionals b oth w ithin a nd o utside t he s ervice o f t he s tate. D espite T heodosius' e pic v ision o f a rmourers l abouring u ntil t hey d ropped, 245 t here i s e vidence t hat f abricenses c ould r etire, e ven i f t hey d id n ot b ecome p rimicerius

( p.277).

A

l aw

e xists

p rivileges o f f abricenses, which c ontinued s ervice

h ad

e xpired'

. 246

w hich

d efines

' even a fter

t heir

t he l egal t erm

o f

T he t ombstone o f Z enis i ndicates t hat t here

2 78

w as a f ixed l ength o f s ervice; h e s igned o n f or t wenty y ears. 247 O ne o f t he C oncordia t ombstones i s o f ' Flavius C alladinus v eteranus m ilitavit i n f abrica s agittaria... t .248 I t i s m ost l ikely t hat C alladinus w as, l ike Z enis 1249

a n

a rmy

v eteran

w ho

t ransferred

t o

t he

f abrica

o n

d ischarge.z 5 ° H owever, t he l ack o f a ny d etails o f a n a rmy c areer m ay i ndicate t hat h is v eteran s tatus c omes f rom s ervice i n t he f abrica. H owever, t here i s n o e vidence t hat f abricenses w ere e ntitled t o r etirement g rants o f l and o r m oney, a nd e ven i n t he a rmy m any v eterans p referred, o r w ere f orced, t o s tay w ith t heir r egiments. E ventually, s oldiers w ere l egally e ntitled t o s tay o n u ntil t hey d ied. I t i s l ikely t hat a f abricensis c ould o nly a fford t o r etire i f h e w as l ucky e nough t o h ave a ge.

a

s on t o r eplace h im a t t he f orge a nd s upport h im i n h is o ld

T he s taffs o f f abricae w ere m ainly k ept u p t o s trength b y t he s ons o f f abricenses r eplacing t heir f athers, a s t he l aw r equired. 251 H owever, t here w as a pparently a s hortfall s ignificant e nough t o r equire o utside

r ecruitment,

p resumably a s a r esult o f c hildless m arriages a nd

e arly d eaths, e tc. O ne s ource o f r ecruits w as a rmy v eterans, 252 s ince i n t he f ourth c entury t he g overnment a ssisted t hem t o t ake u p a t rade. 253 A l aw o f A D 4 12 254 d etails t he p rocedure f or s crutiny o f r ecruits t o t he f abricae, a nd i s p articularly i nteresting b ecause i t m akes i t c lear t hat ( at l east a t t hat t ime) t here w as a ctually a p ressure o f v olunteers t o g et i nto t he f actories; c onscription w as u nnecessary. T he m ain r eason f or t he c lose s crutiny o f r ecruits w as t o e nsure t hat t he a pplicant w as n ot a lready l iable t o s ervice i n s ome o ther c ompulsory t rade o r p ost, e specially i n a c ity o rdo, w hich w as a lways u npopular a nd e vaded i f p ossible. D ecurions i n t he f abricae a re d iscussed b elow . W hile c onstrained t o r emain i n t heir j obs, t he f abricenses w ere, n onetheless b etter o ff t han t he m ajority o f t he p rovincial p opulation b ecause o f t he p rivileges f ollowing f rom t heir e mployment i n t he s ervice o f t he e mperor, which w as a m ilitia. L ike s oldiers a nd c ivil s ervants t hat t hey w ere e xempt f rom c ompulsory p ublic s ervice o r c urial d uties, e ven when r etired. 252 T hey a lso h ad i mmunity f rom b illeting o f t roops o r o fficials i n t heir h omes a nd w orkshops ( unless t he S acred C omitatus i tself w as i n t he c ity 256 ) . T hey f urther e njoyed t he p rivilege o f b eing l iable t o a ppear b efore n o c ourt s ave t hat o f t heir u ltimate s uperior,

t he

M aster

o f

t he

O ffices,

e xtended t o t heir w ives a nd f amilies. 257 i mmunities w ere a c ommon f eature o f t he l ate

a

r ight

w hich

w as

S uch l egal p rivileges a nd i mperial s ervice, w here

o fficials o f e ach b ranch o f t he s tate w ere a ccountable o nly t o t heir h eads o f d epartment. S oldiers o f t he c omitatenses, f or e xample, w ere a nswerable o nly t o t he m agistri m ilitum. 258-- T he r esult m ight b e i nterdepartmental w arfare a nd a ttempts a t e mpire b uilding, a s m inisters t ried t o e nhance t heir i nfluence b y i mpinging u pon o r p oaching e ach o ther's t erritory. R ufinus' ' theft' o f t he f abricae i s a c ase i n p oint ( Appendix 2 ). P eople l ike t he f abricenses n aturally l ooked t o t heir s uperior a nd p atron, i n t his c ase t he m agister o fficiorum, f or p rotection. T he m agister i s t o b e s een a cting i n t his c apacity C odes, f or e xample, s ecuring t he f abricenses' f rom b illeting i n A D 4 05. 259

i n

t he

a forementioned i mmunity

W hile p rotecting t he a rmourers f rom o utside i nterference, t he M aster a lso h ad t o e nsure t hat t hey s tayed a t t heir j obs. D esertion o f

2 79

o fficials a nd c itizens f rom c ompulsory d uties w as a c ommon o ccurrence i n t he l ate E mpire, a nd t he i ntroduction o f t he b randing o f f abricenses ( in i mitation o f a rmy p ractice), s uggests t hat t he s taff o f a rms f actories w ere n o e xception. 26 ° F abricenses m ay n ot h ave d eserted b ecause l ife i n t he f actories w as i ntolerable; t hey w ere b etter o ff t han m any c ivilians. 261 T here a re i ndications t hat m any w ere t empted, r ather t han d riven a way f rom t heir j obs. T wo c urious l aws i mply t hat f abricenses w ere i n c onsiderable d emand a s e state m anagers x p resumably b ecause o f t he a ccounting s kills p ossessed b y m any o f t hem .L 6 £ I t w ould a ppear t hat t he m ore ambitious w ere t empted i n s ignificant n umbers t o d esert t he s ecurity o f t he f abricae f or t his l ucrative b ut i llegal c areer. I ndeed, t he f abricae c annot h ave b een t oo u npleasant, f or t here w ere o ther d eserters t rying t o g et i nto t he r elative h aven o f t heir r anks. T hese m en w ere m ostly d ecurions f rom t he c ity c ouncils. A c ommon m ethod o f a voiding t he o nerous b urden o f c urial r esponsibility w as i llegal e ntry i nto g overnment s ervice. T he P raetorian P refect h eld t he r esponsibility f or k eeping t hese m en i n t heir p osts s o t hat t he c ivil a dministration c ould f unction, a nd h e w as c onstantly c ombing t he r anks o f t he a rmy a nd c ivil s ervice f or r unaways t o r eturn t o t heir p ositions. T he C odes c ontain s everal t exts o n t he s ubject, 263 i ncluding o ne s pecifically a bout t he p rocedure w ith r egard t o d ecurions i n t he f abricae. 264 T hese l aws w ere p romulgated o ver a p eriod o f s eventy y ears, a nd m ake i t p lain t hat a pprehension o f d ecurions i n t he f abricae w as a p erennial t ask f or t he p refecture. F or t hose who w ere c aught, l ength o f s ervice, n o m atter h ow g reat, w as n o p rotection. 265

T HE F ABRICENSES I N S OCIETY I t i s u nfortunate t hat s o l ittle i s k nown a bout t he r ole o f t he f abricenses i n t he l ives o f t heir c ities. I t w ould b e o f p articular i nterest t o k now s omething o f h ow t hey r anked s ocially i n t he l ocal c ommunity. T hey w ere a n umerous a nd p ermanent p resence o f i mperial s ervants i n t he c ities. I n t his t hey w ere u nlike t he a rmy, s tationed e ither p ermanently o n t he f rontier o r b illeted t emporarily i n t he c ities f or t he w inter, o r t he c ivil s ervice, whose r epresentatives i n a c ity were f ar l ess n umerous, b ut p robably m ore i nfluential t han t he a verage f abricensis. H ow, t hen, d id t he c ommunity a s a w hole v iew t he a rmourers i n t heir m idst? O n t he o ne h and, t hey w ere t he v isible m anifestation o f a g overnment w hose e xactions s trained l ocal r esources ( and a l arge p roportion o f t hose r esources w ere f lowing i nto t he f abricae t hemselves). O n t he o ther h and, m any f abricenses w ere l ocal m en, b y b lood f ully p art o f t he l ocal c ommunity , a nd, l ike a ny o ther c itizens, o wned h ouses i n t he t own. 266 F abrica s ervice, a s a m ilitia, b rought p rivileges a nd e xemptions, g iving t he a rmourers a dvantages o ver t heir n eighbours. W hether t hese a dvantages w ere c ommonly e xploited a nd a bused i s u nknown. L ittle i s k nown o f t he r elative o r a bsolute w ealth o f t he f abricenses. M acMullen h as d escribed t hem a s ' industrial s erfs' 267 a nd i ndeed, t he f act t hat t he a rmourers w ere b randed m ight s eem t o s uggest t hat t hey l ived i n f airly d esperate c ircumstances. H owever, t he r ecent

2 80

d iscovery o f a s tone t omb w ith w all p aintings

b elonging

t o

a

j unior

o fficer ( ducenarius) o f t he S ardis f abrica h as l ed F oss t o s uggest t hat a t l east s ome f abricenses w ere q uite a ffluent, a lthough h is s peculation t hat t he i ndividual c oncerned w as a n e questrian i s t o b e r ejected. 268 G eneralisation o n t his q uestion i s n ot u seful. I t i s h ighly l ikely t hat t here w ere s ytematic d ifferences i n w ealth a nd s tatus b etween f abricenses w ho w ere p lain m ilites a nd t hose who o ccupied t he o fficer p osts ( it w ould b e s urprising i f t here w ere n ot) a nd, i n a ny c ase, t he l ot o f t he s taffs o f t he i ndividual f abricae m ay h ave v aried w idely i n d ifferent a reas a t d ifferent t imes. F or e xample, i n t he e arly f ifth c entury t he f abricenses i n t he W est must h ave s uffered a s t he p rovinces w hich s upported t hem d isintegrated, a nd t he a rmy t hey s upplied d windled a way. T he a rmourers i n t he e mpire s eem t o h ave p rospered.

f actories o f t he l argely i ntact E astern

I t i s f rom t hese E astern c entres

t hat t he o nly h istorical g limpses

o f t he f abricenses a t l arge c ome, a nd i t i s c lear t hat t hey c ould b e a s ource o f c onsiderable t rouble t o t he c ity a uthorities. C hristian s ectarian r ioting i n C aesarea C appadociae i nvolved m ost o f t he p opulation, b ut ' especially t hose c oncerned i n t he m anufacture o f a rms, a nd t he I mperial w eavers. A nd i ndeed, t hese a re t he h ottest i n m atters o f t his k ind, h aving t he a udacity, b eing m ade b old b y t heir f reedom o f a ction'. 269 T he s econd s entence s uggests t hat t he f abricenses' l egal i mmunities t empted t hem t o f lout t he l aw, w ith v irtual i mpunity. F urthermore, i t i s known t hat t his w as n ot a u nique i nstance, 27 ° a nd i t i s c lear t hat w hether t hey w ere m aterially b etter o ff t han o ther c itizens o r n ot, t he f abricenses w ere e vidently a p rominent e lement i n c ity l ife, a nd w ere p repared t o u se t heir l ocal p olitical w eight i f o nly i n t he v iolent r eligious d issensions o f t he p eriod. Am ore p eaceful a nd a ltogether h appier p icture o f t he l ife f abricensis i s t o b e f ound i n t his C hristian t omb i nscription:

o f

a

' With g ood f ortune. F lavius Z enis l ived f or 5 0 y ears; h aving s erved i n L egion X I C laudia, h e e nrolled i n t he f abrica o f M arcianopolis f or t wenty y ears s ervice a s a c entenarius; h e l ived a b lameless l ife w ith h is w ife a nd c hildren a nd m any f riends, a nd i n l eaving h is l ife, l eaves b ehind a s h eirs b oth h is w ife A urelia M artima a nd h is s on N ominatus a ged t welve. H e l eft m arried d aughters a nd f our u nmarried. H is s on M arcianus d ied a ged 2 0; h e l ived w ith h is w ife 3 0 y ears; h is d aughter V aleria d ied, m arried, a ged 2 2; h e h ad 1 2 c hildren; h is h eirs e rected t his s tele a s i t i s n ecessary t o d o f or t he s ake o f h is m emory. F arewell, p asserby. t 271

T HE LATER H ISTORY O F T HE F ABRICAE I n t he E astern e mpire i t i s p ossible t o t race t he h istory o f t he f abricae f ar b eyond t he t ime o f t he N otitia, m ainly v ia t he C odes. T he f ate o f t he f abricae i n t he W est i s m ore p roblematical. T he o riental f actories c ontinued d own t o t he e arly B yzantine p eriod, a nd t he C ode o f J ustinian c ontains s everal f ifth c entury t exts o n t he s ubject. 272 J ustinian h imself i ssued a N ovel o n a rms p roduction a nd t he f abricae i n A D 5 39. 273 T he l atter i s t he l atest e xisting l egislation t o d iscuss t hem.

F abricenses a re a lso m entioned b y C onstantine P orphyrogenitus

2 81

i n

a c ontext r elating a pproximately t o t his p eriod. J ustinian's

N ovel

2 74

i s p articularly i nteresting i n t hat i t r eveals

t he e xistence o f a c onsiderable p rivate a rms i ndustry a longside t he s tate c apacity i n t he e arly s ixth c entury. D oes t his s uggest t hat t he a rmament i ndustry h ad n ever b een c ompletely n ationalised? I t h as a lready b een n oted t hat c ertain a reas o f p roduction w ere p robably n ever o rganised i nto f actories ( p.264). T he a bsence o f w eapons D iocletian's P rice E dict i s i nstructive, 275 a nd p robably s uggests

f rom t hat

t here w as n o p rivate p roduction a nd s o n o n eed f or t he g overnment t o s pecify w hat i t w ill p ay. I t i s s uggested t hat t he i ndependent c raftsmen ( i.e. n ot s tate-employed), w hich f igure s o p rominently i n J ustinian's N ovel LXXXV, r epresent a r eappearance o f c ommercial, o r a t l east b lack-market p roduction. A lexandria s eems t o h ave b een a p articularly i mportant c entre o f t his i ndustry, 276 a nd J ustinian d ecided t o t ake a ction a gainst t his d angerous s ource o f a rms f or t he p rovincials a nd f oreign e nemies. T he N ovel p rovides f or t he s miths t o e nter t he f abricae i f t heir w ork i s a dequate a nd t hey a re w illing. T here i s n o e vidence o f a ny f abrica i n E gypt b efore t his t ime, s o p erhaps

J ustinian

o rganised

t he

A lexandrian

i ndustry i nto o ne

( cf.

p .263).

5 39,

T here a lso s eems t o h ave b een a f abrica a t C onstantinople b y A D which m ust b e a l ate f oundation p ost-dating t he N otitia, w hich

2 77

d oes n ot m ention i t. 278 I t i s n ot k nown w hether t here w ere o ther s ignificant c hanges i n t he E astern f abrica s ystem i n t he l ater f ifth a nd s ixth c enturies. S eeck s tated t hat ' a n umber o f f abricenses w ere a ttached t o t he i ndividual m ilitary u nits a nd t hey w ere t hen k nown a s d eputati', 279 a v iew w hich i s r eiterated b y M acMullen. 28 ° T his c onclusion w as b ased o n N ovel L XXXV, c hapter 1 , which d iscusses t hese d eputati who c learly w ere a rmourers a ssigned t o u nits, b ut t he t ext n owhere s tates t hat t hese m en w ere s econded f rom t he f abricae. W hile t his i s o ne a cceptable i nterpretation o f t he t erm d eputatus, i t m ight e qually m ean s imply ' conscript', i .e. a c ivilian a rmourer d rafted i nto s ervice i n t he a rmy. 281 C onsequently , t here a re n o f irm g rounds f or b elieving v iew

o f

t hat t he

t he d eputati f act

t hat

w ere s econded f abricenses, e specially i n

m uch

o f

N ovel

L XXXV

w as

c oncerned

w ith

e liminating p rivate p roduction a nd d rafting t he a rmourers i nto t he s ervice o f t he g overnment, e specially i nto t he f abricae. I f J ustinian's w ishes w ere w ere

r ejuvenated

b y

a n

c omplied

i nflux

w ith,

t he

E astern f abricae

o f s killed r ecruits i n t he m id-sixth

c entury. T he W est, h owever, p resents a wholly d ifferent p icture. L aws p ertaining t o t he f abricae c ontinued t o b e p romul pted i n t he n ame o f t he W estern e mperor d own t o t he r eign o f A nthemius,L 82 b ut t hey m ostly o riginated a t C onstantinople s o t hat t he a ppending o f t he W estern r uler's n ame m ay o nly h ave b een a f ormality. E xisting o pinion i s d ivided o ver whether t he W estern f abricae s urvived d own t o t he t ime o f t he O strogothic k ingdom o f I taly,

a s s ome b elieve.

2 83

T he o nly e vidence f or t his p eriod c onsists o f t wo t exts V ariae o f C assiodorus, a n i mportant R oman c ivil s ervant g overnment o f T heodoric t he G reat. a rmifactoribus', i s a s tandard

T he f orm

f irst, f or a

s econd,

e ntitled

a nd

' formula a d P PO d e a rmifactoribus',

2 82

t he t he

e ntitled ' formula d e l etter f rom t he k ine

a ppointing a n o fficer t o c ommand a b ody o f s oldiers T he

i n i n

a rmourers.

2 84

i s a s imilar

s et f ormula f or t he r oyal l etter n otifying t he P raetorian P refect o f t he a ppointment. 285 I t i s w orth s etting o ut i n f ull t hese t exts, w hich h ave b een l ittle s tudied, i n a l iteral i nvolved L atin b y D r. R obert I reland.

t ranslation

X VIII. F ormula d e a rmifactoribus C onsider w ell w hat y ou a re t aking o n,

f rom

t he

h ighly

a nd y ou c an understand

t hat y ou a re n ot t o e mploy y our p lace i n s inful a ctions. F or t o m ake a rms w ell, i s t o d esire t o g uard t he s afety o f a ll, b ecause, a s s oon a s h e h as s een t hem , t he e nemy i s t errified b y t hem, a nd b egins t o l ose h is c ourage, i f h e r ealises t hat h e h as n othing l ike t hese. A nd t hus, f rom s uch-and-such a n i ndiction, w e h ave s et y ou a bove t he s oldiers a nd m akers o f a rms [ armifactores], i nduced b y o ur o pinion o f y our c haracter, s o t hat y ou m ay d emand o f t he c raftsmen s uch a w ork a s y ou m ay k now m ay p lease u s. L et s ecurity r esulting f rom o ur a bsence n ot l ead y ou a stray. W e c an s ee what y ou a re d oing. F or i ndeed, b y o ur e xperience o f m ost s ubtle e nquiry, w e a re a ble a t f irst g lance t o d etect m istakes b y c raftsmen, a nd a lso t o j udge w hat h as b een p roperly c arried o ut. T ake c are, t herefore, o f t he d iligence a nd a ttention w ith w hich t hat i s t o b e m ade which i s known t o b e a bout t o b e s ubmitted t o o ur e xamination [ sic!]. A ct, t herefore, s o t hat n o v enality m ay s ink y ou, b ecause what i s d one w rong i n s uch a m atter i s u nforgivable. M ake s ure t hat y ou a re n ot p unished i n r espect o f y our e vil a ctions. T his i s a w ork w hich b rings d eath a nd s afety, t he d eath o f s inners, t he p reservation o f p roperty, a n a lways n ecessary a id a gainst t he e vil. I t i s s aid t hat P horoneus f irst o ffered t his a rt t o J uno t hat h e m ight m ake h is i nvention h oly b y t he a uspices o f t his d eity, a s t hey b elieved. T heir t hings a re n ecessary i n w ar, b ecoming i n p eace. A nd l ast o f a ll, s tronger t han a ll a nimals.

t hese m ake w eak a nd f rail m ortals

X VIIII. F ormula a d P PO d e a rmifactoribus B y t he r eports o f m any, w e h ave d iscovered t hat s o-and-so, a m an o f e xcellent c haracter, c an c arry o ut f aithfully t hat w hich h as b een e ntrusted t o h im. C onsequently , y our I llustrous M agnitude i s t o k now t hat w e h ave c hosen h im, s o t hat h e m ay b e b oth i n c harge o f t he s oldiers, a ccording t o a ncient c ustom , a nd m ay g ive i nstructions t o t he m akers o f a rms [ armifactores], s o t hat t hey m ay c arefully f ulfill t heir c ustomary t asks t hat n o o ffence m ay b e f ound i n t hem. A lthough n egligence a nywhere i s d angerous, t his i s a s erious b low i f t he a pparatus o f w ar i s n eglected. F or i ndeed i t i s t he e quivalent t o t reachery t o r emove f rom t he a rmy t hat w ith w hich i t i s a greed i t i s a rmed. T o t hese [ the a rmourers], y our P rovidence w ill a llot t heir c ustomary t asks s o t hat t he n ecessary t hings m ay b e m ore e asily r equired o f t hem , s ince t he e xcuse o f f ood i s r emoved f rom t hem [ sic]. I t i s w orthy o f n ote t hat t he r ank , t itle a nd g eographical l ocation o f t he d ignitas a re n owhere m entioned. A lso, n either t he t erm f abrica n or f abricensis a ppears. T hirdly, t he l atter f ormula i s a ddressed

t o

t he

P raetorian

P refect,

o fficiorum s till e xisted u nder T heodoric.

2 83

2 86

e ven

t hough

T hese t exts

t he m agister d o

a t

l east

p rove t hat t he O strogoths m aintained a g overnment s upervised, a nd p robably s tate-run a rms i ndustry. H owever, t he f abricae a s t hey a re p resently u nderstood i n t he f ourth c entury h ad e vidently c eased t o e xist b y t his d ate. I t i s t o b e r emembered t hat t he f abricae f ormed p art o f e xpected

a c omplex s upply s ystem f or t he W estern a rmy , s o i t w ould b e t hat t hey w ould d isintegrate a long w ith t he r est o f t he s ystem

a nd t he a rmy i tself i n t he f ifth c entury. T he c ommunities o f a rmourers p resumably l ived o n i n t heir c ities ( at l east i n I taly), a nd w ill h ave h ad l ittle t rouble m aking a l iving i n a t rade i n g reat d emand i n w ar-torn f ifth c entury E urope. T hey

w ere

p resumably

s till t here w hen T heodoric e stablished h is

k ingdom i n I taly w ith a l arge, w ell-equipped a rmy which h ad g reat o f t heir s ervices.

n eed

O ne o f t he m ost r emarkable t hings a bout T heodoric i s t hat h e w as a n a rdent r omanophile. H e t ook o ver a nd r epaired t he R oman t ax s ystem a nd c ivil s ervice i n I taly a nd i n m ost a spects o f g overnment c losely f ollowed i mperial t radition, m aintaining t he p rincipal m inisters i n t heir o ld j obs. I t w ould n ot b e u nexpected, t hen, i f h e a lso i mitated t he m aintenance o f a s tate a rms i ndustry. T he O strogoths c ontinued t o r aise t he a nnona f or t he g overnment a nd a rmy, a nd t he r eference a t t he e nd o f t he f ormula XVIIII t o t he ' excuse o f f ood' m ay b e a n a llusion t o t he r ight o f t he a rmourers t o d raw i t a s r oyal s ervants. W hatever t he e xact s tatus o f what l ooks t o b e a r evived s tate i ndustry, i t w as n ow u nder t he P raetorian P refect r ather t han t he M aster, f or f ormula XVIIII i s a ddressed t o t he f ormer a nd e xplicitly m entions h is c ontrol o f t he a rmourers. H e s upervised p roduction , a nd t he c urious p assage a bout t he ' excuse o f f ood' p robably i ndicates t hat t he a rmourers w ere k ept w orking b y t he t hreat o f t he w ithdrawal o f r ations. A l ittle m ore i nformation c an b e g leaned f rom t he c ontext o f t he t wo f ormulae. C assiodorus p ut t ogether t he t he t welve b ooks which g o t o m ake u p t he v ariae a t t he e nd o f h is p ublic c areer, a fter h is t erm a s P raetorian P refect, w hile B yzantine a rmies w ere o verrunning t he I talian p eninsula i n A D 5 35-6. 287 T en o f t he b ooks a re c omposed o f o fficial l etters a pparently d rawn f rom t he c orrespondence f iles a t R avenna. r emaining t wo, b ooks s ix a nd s even , a re o f d ifferent m aterial,

T he t he

n ature a nd p urpose o f which C assiodorus h imself e xplains i n h is p reface t o t he w ork: ' ...I d o n ot w ish o thers t he d ifficulty I f requently r un i nto i n c onferring t itles o f h onour, s o t hat t hey p roduce r ough a nd h asty c ompositions o n t he s pur o f t he m oment, a nd s o i n b ooks V I a nd V II, I h ave i ncluded t he f ormulae f or [ letters o f a ppointment t o] a ll o fficial p ositions t .288 T he f ormulae a re b roadly a rranged i n o rder o f d iminishing i mportance, s o t hat t hose f or t he P raetorian P refect a nd t he M aster o f t he O ffices a re i n b ook s ix. T he t wo a rmifactores t exts a re w ell i nto b ook s even, s uggesting t hat t hey a re n ot v ery s enior. W hat, t hen , w as t he r ank a nd t itle o f t he o fficial c oncerned? I t i s c lear t hat h e n ot o nly i n c harge o f t he a rmourers b ut a b ody o f s oldiers a s w ell, i t

i s

h is

r esponsibility

f or

w as b ut

t he a rmourers which r eceives r epeated

2 84

e mphasis i n b oth t exts,

t o

a nd t he m ilites a re m entioned o nly i n p assing.

S ome o f t he o ther f ormulae i n t he s ame p art o f b ook s even p ertain o fficials e ntitled c omes c ivitatis, 289 o fficers ' who c ommanded t he

g arrisons o f s uch c ities a s p ossessed t hem '. 29 ° S ome o f w ere g iven d uties o ver a nd a bove p urely m ilitary o nes. t he c omites o f N aples a nd S yracuse w ere r esponsible f or

t hese c omites F or e xamples, a dministering

t he p orts o f t hose c ities. 291 T he t wo a rms-related f ormulae a re a djacent t o t hose f or v arious c omites c ivitatum. 292 I t i s t herefore r easonable t o s uggest t hat t he t wo f ormulae i n q uestion r elated t o a ppointments o f c omites c ivitatum t o c ommands o f g arrison c ities w ith c ommunities o f a rmourers. S upervision o f t he a rmourers w as a n e xtra d uty l ike c ontrol o f t he p ort a t N aples. T he p assing r eference t o s oldiers i s a lso e xplained, a s c ommand o f t hese w ould b e t aken f or g ranted a s t he b asic d uty o f t he c omes: i t w as h is s pecial a dditional r esponsibility w hich r equired e mphasis. T hese o fficers p robably h eld t heir p osts i n t he o ld f abrica c ities o f N orthern I taly. T icinum, t he s ite o f c omes, 293

a b ow f actory i n t he f ourth c entury, i s k nown t o h ave h ad a s o t he f ormulae m ay r efer t o h im a nd p erhaps o thers.

I n I taly t hen , a d erivative f orm o f t he s tate a rms i ndustry s urvived i nto t he s ixth c entury, e ven i f t he c haracteristics o f t he f ourth c entury i tself w ere n o l onger e vident. T he f ate o f t he a rmifactores o f t he O strogothic p eriod o r t he f abricenses o f G aul a nd I llyricum a fter t he t ime o f t he N otitia i s e ven m ore o bscure. T he o utline o f t he c ollapse o f t he W est g ives a r ough g uide t o t he l atest p ossible d ates o f s urvival. F or i nstance, t he T rier f abricae a re u nlikely t o h ave s urvived t he w ithdrawal o f t he i mperial c ourt t o A rles i n A D 4 13, a nd t he l oss o f c ontrol o f N orthern G aul a ccompanied b y t he d isintegration o f t he a rmy, m akes t he s urvival o f t he G allic f abricae a fter t he 4 20s u nlikely. W hen t he P annonian a nd M oesian f abricae c eased t o o perate i s e qually unclear. I t m ay h ave b een a t a bout t he s ame t ime a s

t hat

s uggested

i ndications r ecords t hat

f or

t he

G allic

c entres,

a lthough

t here

a re

t hat i t m ay h ave b een s ignificantly e arlier. Ammianus i n A D 3 78 A quincum w as d eserted a nd C arnuntum t oo

d ilapidated t o s erve a s w inter q uarters f or t he a rmy. 295 G iven t his f act, i t i s h ard t o s ee h ow t he f abricae known a t t hese s ites f rom t he N otitia 296

c ould h ave b een o perating i n t he l ast q uarter o f t he f ourth

c entury. A mmianus i s s upported b y t he

a rchaeological

e vidence,

w hich

s uggests t hat A quincum was d eclining f rom t he m id-fourth c entury, p art o f a G eneral t rend among c ities a long t his p art o f t he D anube a t t he t ime.z 97 A ll t his s uggests t hat t hese f abricae h ad a lready c eased t o f unction a t a d ate h alf a c entury b efore t he s upposed c losing d ate o f t he W estern N otitia l ists, a round A D 4 25. z one h ad l ong b een v ulnerable t o a ttack, a nd t hat a t l east ( p.266). 298

o ne f abrica

C laudian g ives f actories. H e p uts

w as

B y t hat t ime t he f rontier i t w as s uggested a bove

e vacuated t o a m ore s ecure r ear a rea

t he l atest r eference t o t he L ower D anubian i nto t he m outh o f A laric a s peech i n which t he

G othic k ing r eveals t hat h e d rew o n t he f abricae o f T hrace t o e quip h is t roops. 299 T his c auses n o s urprise a s A laric w as m ade m agister m ilitum b y t he E astern g overnment i n A D 3 97, a nd m ay t herefore h ave b een g iven a ccess t o t he f actories. I t i s u nknown whether t he f abricae o f t he E astern B alkans s urvived

2 85

u p t o o r a fter t he H unnic i nvasions o f b y t he d epredations w holesale e vacuation

o f o f

t he 4 40s.

T he d isruption

c aused

A ttila, i nvolving w idespread d estruction a nd R oman t erritory, c ould h ave r esulted i n

w ithdrawal o f t he f abricenses t o t he s afety o f t he c apital, p roviding a n e xplanation f or t he r eference t o a h itherto u nattested f actory a t C onstantinople i n J ustinian's N ovel L XXXV. I t a ppears t hat t he f abricae c ontinued t o e quip t he a rmy t hroughout t he s ixth c entury, a nd i ndeed t he l atest r elevant t extual r eference k nown t o t he w riter d ates a s l ate a s A D 6 12, c onsisting o f a m ention o f t hree f abricenses f rom o ne o f t he N icomedian I n t he a bsence o f o ther e vidence, w e m ay f or t he p resent s tate p roduction r emained t he n orm. B y t he l ate s ixth p erhaps m uch e arlier, i t w as s tandard p ractice t o g ive

f actories. "° c onclude t hat c entury, a nd s oldiers c ash

a llowances f or a rms r ather t han t o i ssue t hem i n k ind, "' m oney w hich, o f c ourse, o ften w ent o n o ther t hings. M aurice i ssued a rms i n k ind t o t roops o n t he D anube, " 2 a n a ction which c ontributed t o t he g rowth o f d issaffection i n t he r anks a nd, u ltimately, t o t he u surpation o f P hocas. I f s oldiers w ere f ree t o b uy t heir o wn a rms, w as p roduction s till l imited t o t he s tate f actories? T here i s n o w ay o f d eciding t he q uestion a t p resent. I n m any w ays, t he e arly s eventh c entury m arked t he w atershed i n t he d evelopment o f t he E astern R oman empire i nto t he B yzantine e mpire. T he f irst t hree d ecades o f t he c entury s aw a lmost t he e ntire e mpire o verrun b y f oreign e nemies. B ulgars a nd P ersians r eaching t he g ates o f C onstantinople. N o s ooner h ad H eraclius l iberated E gypt a nd S yria-Palestine t han t he I slamic a rmies s wept o ut o f t he d esert, d riving R oman p ower o ut o f t hese a reas f orever. T he l oss o f S yria g ives a n e ffective t erminus a nte q uem f or t he e nd o f t he f abrica s ystem a s s uch, e ven i f t he c raftsmen t hemselves l ived o n t o s erve n ew m asters. I ndeed, i t m ay b e d oubted whether t he c omplex s ystem o f s upply w hich m aintained t he f actories h ad s urvived t he P ersian i nvasions.

w as

I n a ny c ase, i t i s p robable t hat f rom t he r eign o f H eraclius t here n o l onger a ny n eed f or a c omprehensive s ystem o f s tate a rms

p roduction c entres. T he P ersian i nvasions p recipitated a s eries o f f ar-reaching r eforms, w hich e ncompassed a t otal r eorganisation o f t he a rmed f orces. " 3 T he o ld a rmy c onsisted o f s tanding u nits o f r egulars, t he

m aintenance

o f

w hich

r equired

t he

c omplex

s upplies r un b y t he c ivil s ervice a nd p rovincial

s ystem f or l evying

a dministrations.

T he

f abricae w ere a n i ntegral p art o f t he s ystem . H owever, t he n ew a rmy was v ery d ifferent, b eing o rganised o n a l argely t erritorial b asis. S oldiers w ere m aintained b y g iving t hem l and, a nd i n r eturn w ere e xpected t o e quip t hemselves a nd b e a vai l able f or s ervice. " 4 T his n ew o rganisation e liminated much o f t he n eed f or a l arge-scale m ilitary s upply s ystem , a nd m ay h ave m ade t he n etwork o f b ig a rms f actories l argely o bsolete. T his i s n ot t o s ay t hat s tate a rms f actories w ere n ot m aintained t o s upply t he s mall f ield a rmy which w as q uartered a round C onstantinople. I ndeed, t here s eems t o b e s ome e vidence t hat i ndividuals c alled f abricenses s till e xisted i n t he B yzantine E mpire a s l ate a s t he e leventh c entury. " 5 T he v estiges o f t he c omprehensive n etwork o f s tate a rms f actories p robably d isappeared a long w ith t he b ulk o f t he a rmy i t h ad b een d esigned t o e quip, t he r egular a rmy a s r econstructed b y D iocletian a nd

2 86

C onstantine, w hich, d uring t he c rises o f t he e arly s eventh c entury was r eplaced b y t he T hematic a rmy o f t he B yzantine E mpire.

S UMMARY A ND C ONCLUSION T he f abricenses o ccupied a u nique p osition i n t he i mperial s ervice. A lthough a rtisans t hey w ere n ot s laves l ike t he w orkers i n t he s tate c lothing f actories o r t he m ints, b ut, l ike c ivil s ervants a s w ell a s r egular s oldiers t hey r anked a s m ilites. T his a nomalous s ituation p robably a rose f rom t he f act t hat w hen t he s tate t ook o ver a rms p roduction, a pparently l ate i n t he t hird c entury, m any o f t he c raftsmen d rafted i nto t he n ew f actories w ere d rawn f rom t he r anks o f t he a rmy a nd s o w ere m ilites a lready N evertheless, t he r elatively p rivileged p osition w hich f abricenses c ontinued t o e njoy i n s ucceeding c enturies r eflects t he i mportance a nd p restige o f t heir w ork.

t he

I t i s a rgued t hat t he s tate a rsenals d id n ot a ppear p iecemeal i n l ater t hird a nd f ourth c enturies, b ut w ere, p robably f rom t he

s tart, c reated a s t he e lements o f a w ell-conceived a nd h ighly o rganised s tate p roduction s ystem , p erhaps p artly d eveloped f rom t he o ld f abricae o f t he l egionary b ases a nd o ther m ilitary p roduction c apacity, b ut b uilt m ainly o n t he r uins o f t he e arlier, s upposedly f ree-enterprise, i ndustry which h ad s upplied w eapons d uring t he P rincipate. T he e arlier i ndustry i s b elieved t o h ave c ollapsed a s a r esult o f t he m ilitary a nd e conomic u pheavals o f t he t hird c entury ( especially t he c ollapse o f t he c oinage). H owever, t he c ontinued d emand f or w eapons p recipitated d irect s tate a ction t o k eep p roduction g oing. T he l ittle e vidence w e h ave s uggests t hat t he a mbitious n ew s ystem o f s tate f actories w as t he w ork o f D iocletian a s p art o f h is g reat r estructuring o f t he e mpire i n t he d ecades a round A D 3 00. Y et, s tate i nterference i n t he a rms i ndustry w as n othing n ew . T he f ormal g overnment t ake-over w as j ust t he c ulmination o f a l ong p rocess o f i ncreasing o fficial c ontrol a nd d omination o f a n i ndustry i n t he a lmost u nique p osition o f h aving t he s tate a s i ts s ole l egal c ustomer. I f t he r arity o f t heir a ppearance i n t he s ources s uggests t hat f abricenses s eldom i mpinged o n t he m ainstream o f h istorical e vents, t he l arge n umbers o f t hem l iving i n m any m ajor c ities a cross t he e mpire c annot h ave f ailed t o h ave h ad a p rofound e conomic a nd s ocial e ffect o n l ocal l ife. A t t he s ame t ime, t heir s trategically v ital w ork l ed t hem t o b ecome a n i ntegral p art o f t he s ervices o f t he i mperial r egime. O ver t he c enturies, t he f abricae b ecame a s m uch a n i nseparable p art o f t he f abric o f t he e mpire a s t he s tanding a rmy t hey s erved. T hey w ere s uch a f act o f l ife i n t he e mpire t hat t he O strogoths, w hose g overnment f aithfully p reserved s o m any i mperial i nstitutions, a pparently w ent s o f ar a s t o r evive s tate a rms f actories i n I taly, l ong a fter t he l ast W estern e mperor h ad b een d eposed.

2 87

A PPENDIX 1 :

T HE D ATES O F T HE F ABRICA L ISTS I N T HE N OTITIA

H offmann's a nalysis o f t he a rmy l ists i n t he N otitia D ignitatum ( 1969) h as d one m uch t o e lucidate t heir s tructure, d evelopment a nd d ating. T he l ists a re r evealed a s p alimpsests, c onsisting o f i nformation b ecoming p rogressively m odified a s t he o rder o f b attle o f t he a rmy c hanged d uring t he f ourth a nd e arlier f ifth c enturies, w hen t he l ists r eached t heir f inal f orm. T he l ists o f r egiments a re o rganised b y t ype o f u nit ( i.e. i nfantry o r c avalry) a nd w ithin e ach l ist, a t l east f or t he f ield a rmy, t he u nits a re a rranged i n o rder o r p recedence.

a re

T he f abrica r egisters, l ike o ther N otitia l ists o f o rganised o n a n e ntirely d ifferent b asis, i n

n otation w as d etermined b y g eographical l ocation ( cf.

i nstallations, w hich o rder o f

p .258).

I t

s eems

l ikely t hat t he l ists o f f actories r emained o pen t o a mendments f or s ome t ime a fter t heir o riginal c ompilation, a s i s s uggested b y t he c ases o f A mbianum a nd S alona d iscussed o n p .266.

l ist,

T he m ain c lue t o t he d ate o f t he r egisters c omes f rom t he s pecifically t he e ntries f or E ast I llyricum ;

E astern

N DOr. X I,36. T hessalonicensis 3 7. N aissatensis 3 8. R atiarensis 3 9. S cutaria H orreomargensis U nlike o ther e ntries, t he f irst t hree o f t hese c ontain n o m ention o f t he a rms m ade i n t he f actory c oncerned. S eeck 3 " t hought t hat t his w as b ecause

t hey

w ere

g eneral

a rms

w orks.

T his

i s

n ot a n a cceptable

e xplanation, s ince g eneral a rms w orks a re e lsewhere d esignated a s s uch ( e.g. a rmorum o mnium a t A rgentomagus. T he v arious f actories c ategorised a s s cutaria e t a rmorum a lso s eem t o b e g eneral a rms w orks). A n a nalagous c ase i s t o b e f ound i n t he W estern l ists, where t he e ntry f or S oissons a lso l acks a p roduction c ategory. 3 °7 S eeck i nconsistently r egarded t his a s a l acuna. I t

s eems

u nlikely

3 °8

t hat

t he

o mission

o f c ategories f rom t hree

s uccessive e ntries i n t he I llyrican l ists c ould b e a s imple a ccident. T he c opyist e ither d id n ot b other t o n ote t he c ategories o r d id n ot k now t hem.

I t i s s ignificant t hat t he f abricae u nder s crutiny

w ere

i n

a n a rea w hich w as s ubject t o a b oundary c hange b etwen t he E astern a nd W estern e mpires a t t he e nd o f t he f ourth c entury. I n A D 3 95, t he P raetorian P refect o f t he E ast, R ufinus, d emanded t hat S tilicho p ermanently r elinquish W estern s overeignty o ver t he d ioceses o f a nd M acedonia t o t he E astern g overnment. S tilicho c onceded. 3 °9 I f,

a s

i s

l ikely,

D acia

t he f abrica l ists a lready e xisted i n A D 3 95,

a mendments w ould h ave b een d eleted f rom t he W estern l ist a nd a dded t o t he E astern. S uch a mendments w ould p rovide t he o pportunity f or t he o missions t o o ccur. A fter a ll, t he N otitia a s i t s urvives, i s a greed t o b e p rimarily a W estern d ocument a nd u nusual i n b othering t o i temise i nstallations a t a ll. c entres, n otably t he

i ndeed, t he f abrica l ists a re t he l ocations o f t he E astern

F or o ther c lasses a nalogous g ynaecea,

W estern t extile f actories.

3 1

° I t m ight b e

2 88

o f g overnment p roduction t he N otitia l ists o nly t he t hat

t he

a lterations

w ere

m ade b y a W estern s cribe, who d eleted t he f abricae f rom t he W estern l ist a nd r ather c arelessly s cribbled t hem o n t he e nd o f t he E astern l ist. S ince t hey t hen c eased t o b e a c oncern o f t he W estern g overnment, a ccuracy a nd c ompleteness m ay n ot h ave b een i mportant. B ut w hy t hen, d id t he s cribe b other t o n ote t hat e ntries, h ad a f abrica s cutaria?

H orreum

M argi,

t he

l ast

o f

t he

A n a lternative e xplanation i s t hat i n A D 3 95 t he E astern a nd W estern l ists h ad n ot y et b een b rought t ogether. T he a mendments w ere m ade b y t he s eparate g overnments t o t heir o wn l ists, a nd i t m ay b e t hat t he E astern s cribe d id n ot h ave f ull i nformation o n what t he n ewly a dopted f actories w ere p roducing, e xcept f or H orreum M argi. T his w ould i mply s eparate o rigins f or t he l ists, a nd i ndeed, a re

p ut

t ogether i n d ifferent w ays. F or e xample,

t hey

t he O riental r egister

s pecifies h ow m any f abricae a re i n e ach d iocese, w hile t he W estern l ist d oes n ot. M ore f undamentally , i n t he W estern l ist, t he c ity c omes b efore t he p roduction c ategory i n e ach e ntry. T he E astern e ntries a re a rranged t he o ther w ay r ound. I f t he t wo l ists w ere s eparately c ompiled i n t he t wo h alves o f

t he

E mpire, t here i s a t erminus p ost q uem f or t heir c ompilation o f A D 3 64, w hen t he E mpire w as d ivided b y V alentinian a nd V alens a nd t he o ffices o f s tate, i ncluding t he p ost o f m agister o fficiorum b ecame f ormally a nd p ermanently d uplicated. 311 F rom t hat t ime f abrica d irection m ust h ave b een t erritorially d ivided b etween t he t wo m agistri. T he i ndependently c ompiled l ists w ould t herefore d ate t o A D 3 64 o r l ater. T he a nomaly o f t he E ast I llyrican e ntries s uggests t hat t hey e xisted i n A D 3 95. U nfortunately, n o g reater d egree o f c ertainty i s p ossible.

2 89

A PPENDIX 2 : T HE C ONTROL O F T HE F ABRICAE I N T HE P ALATINE M INISTRIES T he N otitia D ignitatum s hows t hat i n t he e arly f ifth c entury t he f abricae w ere u nder t he c ontrol o f t he m agister o fficiorum o f e ach h alf o f t he e mpire. 312 T his c annot a lways h ave b een s o. I t h as b een s hown a bove ( p.266) t hat t he f abrica s ystem w as a lmost c ertainly a T etrarchic i nnovation, b ut t he p ost o f M aster o f t he O ffices w as n ot c reated u ntil s omewhat l ater, d uring t he r eign o f C onstantine t he G reat. D uring i ntervening y ears a t l east, t he f abricae m ust h ave b een r esponsibility o f s ome o ther o fficial. T he r eform

o f

t he

g overnment

d uring

t he

T etrarchy

m ade

t he t he

t he

P raetorian P refect m ore p owerful t han e ver b efore, e ffectively c hief m inister a nd c ommander o f t he a rmed f orces. H e a lso b ore r esponsibility f or r aising r ecruits a nd s upplying t he a rmy, a nd i t i s t he l atter f unction w hich m akes i t r easonable t o s uggest t hat h e w as a lso g iven c harge o f t he n ew a rms f actories, f or t his w ould h ave c onstituted a n atural a djunct t o h is j urisdiction i n t he a rea o f m ilitary s upply. H owever, i t s hould b e e mphasised t hat t here i s n o p roof t hat a ctually t he c ase. I t i s o ften s tated a s a p roven f act, 313 m ore t han a r easonable d epartment c ontrolling

t his w as b ut i s n o

i nference. T he p roblem o f i dentifying t he t he f abricae a t t his e arly d ate i s s omewhat

c omplicated b y t he e xistence o f a c areer i nscription, d ating t o t he l ast y ears o f t he r eign o f D iocletian, o f a c ertain T ertullus, who h eld t he p ost o f p raepositus f abric[... 1 . 314 T he i ndividual c oncerned w as p robably n ot a p lain p raepositus f abricae, b ecause h e h eld t he h ighest p osts o f s tate a nd t he t itle u nder d iscussion i s v ery p rominent i n h is c areer i nscription. I t w as p laced s econd o nly t o t he U rban P refecture a nd a f inal t itle which m ay h ave b een t he P roconsulate o f A frica. T he p roposed r econstruction o f t he t itle i n C IL i s p raepositus f abricarum , s ince

i t

w as

s upposed,

t hen

a nd

s ince,

t hat

t he

o ffice w as

t oo

i mportant t o h ave b een c onfined t o t he c ontrol o f a s ingle f abrica. T his h as r esulted i n a n umber o f u nsubstantiated s tatements a bout t he r elationship o f t his o fficial t o t he f abrica s ystem P raetorian P refecture. B oak 315 f latly s tated t hat

a nd t he

t o t he a lleged

p raepositus f abricarum w as a s ubordinate o f t he P refect w ith r esponsibility f or a ll o r s ome o f t he f abricae, while S eeck b elieved 316 t hat t he o fficial w as i ndependent o f t he P refect, a nd r epresented t he l atter's l oss o f c ontrol o f t he f abricae b efore t he r eign o f C onstantine. M acMullen 317 s peculated t hat t his p raepositus f abric[...] w as c ommander o f o ne f abrica when t hey w ere s till

f ew

a nd

r elatively

i mportant. I t i s a lso p ossible t hat T ertullus h eld a s pecial p ost, c reated a s a t emporary e xpedient t o d eal w ith t he e normous a dministrative t ask o f s etting u p t he n ew f actories. H owever, i n t he a bsence o f o ther e vidence, i t i s m ost l ikely t hat t he f abricae w ere i n t he c harge o f t he P raetorian P refecture a t t he a ccession o f C onstantine. A c rucial q uestion i s a t w hat d ate d id t he m agister o fficiorum a cquire c ontrol o ver t he f abricae, p robably o ut o f t he h ands o f t he P refecture? D id t his o ccur w hen t he p ost w as c reated b y C onstantine, o r l ater, c loser t o t he t ime o f t he N otitia? S eeck s eems t o h ave b elieved t hat t he M aster t ook o ver t he f actories a lmost a s s oon a s h is m inistry w as e stablished. 318 M ost o ther a uthorities o pt f or l ater d ates; e .g. b y A D 3 90 1 a nd 3 69'.

3z °

p robably

B oak

b etween

3 88

w as m ore r eticent,

a nd

3 90;

3 19

' unknown

b ut

a fter

o bserving t hat t he f irst c lear p roof

2 90

o f t he M aster's c ontrol d ates t o A D 3 90 1 w hile n oting t he i nactivity o f t he P refect i n t his s phere b eforehand. 3 £1 W altzing o pts f or t he l atest d ate, A D 3 96, l inking t he c hangeover w ith t he f all o f t he p refect R ufinus, 322 a n e vent o f g reat i mportance t o t he q uestion i n h and.

t wo

W altzing c hose t he f all o f Rufinus a s t he m oment o n t he b asis o f s imilarly w orded p assages i n J ohn L ydus, 323 which r ecord t hat t he

e mperor A rcadius t ook a way ( among o ther t hings) R ufinus' c ontrol o ver t he a rms f actories. T he l atter w as P raetorian P refect a t t he t ime. T his i s

n ot

a s

c onclusive a s

i t a ppears,

b ecause o f

t he e vidence o n w hich

t he s lightly e arlier d ates m ooted b y B oak, M acMullen a nd J ones a re b ased. T hese w ere d erived f rom a n e xamination o f t he a ddressees o f v arious d ated l aws r elating t o f abricae i n t he C odes o f T heodosius a nd J ustinian. 324 M acMullen 's r elatively e arly t erminus a nte q uem o f A D 3 88 i s a pparently b ased o n t he b elief t hat t he t ext C Th. X .xxii.2 o f t hat y ear w as a ddressed t o t he M aster, w hereas i n f act i t w as a ddressed t o T atianus, t he P raetorian P refect. T here a re t hree p ossibilities 1 . T hat t he f abricae ( Seeck).

w ere

t o c onsider:

g iven

o ver t o t he m agister b y C onstantine

2 . T hat t he c hangeover c ame a bout i n A D 3 88-390 b ecause l aws r elated t o f abricae b egin t o b e a ddressed t o t he M aster f rom t hat t ime ( Jones). 3 . T hat t he c hangeover o ccurred i n A D 3 96, w hen p recipitated J ohn L ydus).

t he

d iminution

o f

t he

t he P refecture

f all

o f

R ufinus

( Waltzing b ased o n

I n a n a ttempt t o c hoose b etween t hese a lternatives, b e c onsidered f irst. A ccording t o J ohn L ydus,

t he

l ast

m ay

' ...a m an c alled Rufinus, i nsatiable i n g reed, whom A rcadius e mployed a s P raetorian P refect, d ecided u pon a t yranny d eparting f rom p urposes g ood t o t he s tate, and h urled t he m agistracy i nto a n a ppalling a byss, f or t he E mperor i mmediately t ook a way f rom h is m agistracy h is p ower o ver t he a rms, a nd t hen t hat o ver t he f abricae a s t hey c all t hem , t hat i s t he f actories m aking a rms.., a nd t he c ursus p ublicus, ..from a ll o f w hich h is m agistracy i s c omposed...'. 325 I t s eems c lear e nough f rom t his t hat t he c hangeover o ccurred i n A D 3 96, t he d ate o f Rufinus' f all, a nd t hat u p t o t his d ate ' the o versight o f f abricae r egularly b elonged t o t he P raetorian P refect'. 326 B ut M acMullen d raws a ttention t o t he f act t hat a l aw r elated t o f abricae o f A D 3 90 327 w as a ddressed t o t he M aster o f t he O ffices. H e e xplains t his b y s uggesting t hat t he p refect R ufinus h ad p oached t he f abricae f rom t he M aster a fter 3 90. B oak -1 28 t ook a s imilar v iew , i .e. t hat t he P refecture w as t emporarily u surping s omething f unction o f t he m agister o fficiorum b y 3 90. A ll t his d irectly c ontradicts L ydus,

b ut t he

w hich

l atter

w as a lready a

w as

w riting

l ong a fter t he e vents h e w as d escribing, s o h e m ay n ot h ave b een e ntirely c lear a bout t he r elationship o f t he f abricae t o t he p alatine m inistries

a t

t he

e nd

o f

t he f ourth c entury.

2 91

I t i s n oticeable,

f or

e xample, t hat while l oss o f t he f abricae i s m entioned a s p art o f t he d amage t o t he P refecture c aused b y t he f all o f R ufinus, L ydus d oes n ot e laborate. H e i s m uch m ore f orthcoming o n t he c onsequences o f t he l oss o f t he c ursus p ublicus, a bout w hich h e c learly knows m uch m ore. I f l aws o n t he f abricae w ere b eing a ddressed t o t he M aster i n A D 3 90, t hen L ydus w as s imply w rong i n t hinking t hat t he f abricae w ere s till a n i ntegral p art o f t he P refect's j urisdiction i n 3 96. T he c hangeover m ust h ave h appened a t s ome e arlier t ime. T he e vidence f or J ones' p roposed c hangeover b racket o f A D 3 88-90 must n ow b e e xamined. T his p roposal i s d erived f rom t he i dentity o f t he a ddressees o f v arious l aws r elated t o f abricae i n t he C odes. T he d ates a nd a ddressees o f a ll s uch l aws a re p resented i n T able V . I t i s a t o nce c lear t hat u p t o A D 3 88, a ll l aws w ere a ddressed t o t he P raetorian P refect. F rom A D 3 90, v irtually a ll w ere a ddressed t o t he M aster o f t he O ffices. ( The t wo t exts a ddressed t o t he c omes r erum p rivatarum were i nstructing h im n ot t o i nterfere t he f abricae c f. p .279). T his s eems t o l end s trong s upport t o J ones.

i n

J ones a lso o bserved t hat t he M aster o f t he O ffices i n A D388-90 w as n one o ther t han R ufinus, t he s ame m an w ho b ecame P refect i n 3 92 a nd w hose b loody e nd i n 3 96 d amaged t he P refecture a s L ydus r ecords. J ones p roposed t hat R ufinus, a s m agister o fficiorum, u surped c ontrol o f t he f abricae f rom t he P refecture i n 3 88-90, b ut h eld o nto t hem w hen h e h imself b ecame p refect i n 3 92, t hus t aking t hem b ack a gain. T hey w ere t hen t ransferred b ack t o t he M aster i n 3 96. I f J ones i s r ight, t hen t he c omplexity o f t hese e vents h elps t o e xplain t he c onfusion o ver t he d ates. H owever,

i f

i n

a ddition

t o

t he a ddressees,

t he c ontents o f t he

l egal t exts a re c onsidered, a s ignificantly d ifferent p icture e merges. A ll t exts a ddressed t o t he m agister, which a re d ated a fter 3 90, d eal w ith i ssues p ertinent t o t he r unning o f t he a rms f actories a nd t he a dministration o f t he s taff. T he t opics c overed i nclude t he p romotin; : o f f oremen, t he p rimicerii f abricarum, 329 b randing o f a rmourers, 33 U t heir i mmunity f rom b illeting, 331 — a nd p unishment f or d ereliction o f d uty. 332 O thers c oncerned t he d espatch o f a rms s hi2ments, a bsorption o f p rivate a rmourers i nto t he f abricae. 3 5 4

t o

3 33

a nd

t he

I f t he P raetorian P refect h ad b een i n c harge o f t he f abricae p rior A D 3 88, i t m ight b e e xpected t hat t he l aws r elating t o f abricae

p romulgated b efore t hat d ate a nd a ll a ddressed t o h im s hould a lso b e c oncerned w ith s uch i nternal m atters. T his i s n ot t he c ase. Two o f t hem c oncern t he a pprehension o f d ecurions h iding i n t he f abricae o r o ther b ranches o f t he i mperial s ervice,

s everal o f w hich w ere

c ertainly

n ot

u nder t he P refect's c ontrol, e .g. t he a rmy a nd t he a rgentarii. 335 A nother p ertains t o m easures t o b e t aken a gainst p alatines f or n eglect o f d uty. A gain, p raepositi f abricarum a re i ncluded a s p art o f a m uch b roader l ist o f o fficials f rom a v ariety o f d epartments. 336 F inally, t he l aw o f A D 3 88 i s c oncerned w ith t he q uality o f m etal d elivered t o t he f abricae,

a nd n ot what h appens a fterwards.

N one o f t hese s hows t he P refect

i n

c harge

o f

t he f abricae.

I n

f act, a ll a re e xplicable i n t erms o f o ther known f unctions o f t he p refecture. F or i nstance, a s h ead o f t he c ivil a dministration i t w as t he

P refect's

c ouncils, s ervice,

r esponsibility

t o

k eep

t he

d ecurions

i n

t he

c ity

a nd t o p ursue d eserters i n a ll b ranches o f t he i mperial i ncluding f abricae. A s c hief l egal o fficer, h e w as c oncerned

2 92

w ith p rosecution o f c rime ( including d ereliction o f d uty) i n a ll g overnment d epartments. H is i nvolvement w ith q uality c ontrol o f m aterials b eing s upplied t o t he f abricae m ay b e s een s imply a s p art o f h is w ider r esponsibility f or m aterial, n ot o nly f or t he a rmy, t he

i mperial

m ints t oo.

3 37

s upplying a ll g overnment n eeds c ivil s ervice a nd f abricae, b ut

T he l atter w ere n ot u nder t he P refect,

f or f or b ut

u nder t he c omes s acrarum l argitionum.

i n

T he s upposed c hangeover i n t he a ddressing o f f abrica l egislation 3 88-390 i s a lso m ore a pparent t han r eal, f or t here i s o ne f inal l aw

a ddressed t o t he P raetorian P refect,

d ated a s l ate a s 4 12.

3 38

L ike

t he

o thers, t his o ne i s e xplicable i n t erms o f t he P refect's o ther f unctions, f or i t c overs t he q uestion o f d eserting d ecurions a nd s crutiny o f r ecruits, i n t his c ase w ith r eference t o a rms f actories. I t i s s uggested t hat J ones a nd o thers h ave m isinterpreted t he e vidence i n t he C odes, a nd t hat t he c hangeover o f A D 3 88-390 w ill n ot b ear c lose s crutiny. T he t rue s ituation i s t hat t he c odes c ontain t wo g roups o f l aws. T he f irst c onsists o f t exts a ddressed t o t he P refect o n m atters where h is a ctivities i mpinged o n t he ' foreign t erritory' o f t he f abricae. N one s hows t he P refect i n c harge o f t he f actories, a nd t hey r ange i n d ate t hroughout t he f ourth c entury a nd i nto t he f ifth. T he s econd g roup i s c oncerned w ith t he i nternal a ffairs o f t he f abricae a nd a ll t he r escripts a re a ddressed t o t he M aster. T he f act t hat t he e arliest o f t hese t exts d ates t o 3 90, p robably r elates m ore t o t he s ources o f c ompilation o f t he c odes t han t he h istory o f p alatine a dministration o ver t he f actories. T he t wo g roups o f l aws d o o verlap i n t ime, b ut n ot i n c ontent. T hey a re c omplimentary, a nd t ogether p rovide t he k ind o f c oherent b ody o f l aw o n t he s ubject w hich w as t he e ntire p urpose o f t he w riting o f t he C odes. W hat, t hen, a re t he i mplications o f t his? T he C odes c ontain a s election o f l egislation. P resumably t here w as a t l east s ome b ias t owards l ater l aws where t hese s uperceded o lder l egislation, a nd t his m ay w ell b e t he r eason f or t he l ack o f t exts a ddressed t o t he m agister d ated b efore A D 3 90. T he f act t hat t he C odes a re a s election a nd n ot a c omplete c atalogue o f l egislation m akes t hem i n a ny c ase a d ubious b asis f or d ating t he c hangeover, a nd a s h as b een s een, t hey c annot b e h eld t o d o s o. I n f act, t here i s n o r eal e vidence f or t he d ate i n q uestion, a lthough t here a re i ndicators. I f i t i s a ssumed t hat t he M aster h ad a chieved c ontrol o f t he f abricae w ell b efore 3 88, J ones' c omplex s equence o f e vents s urrounding t he e nd o f R ufinus c an b e d isposed o f ( p.291), a nd a lso t he c urious f act c an b e e xplained t hat t he f abricae w ent t o t he m agister a gain i n 3 96 when, a ccording t o J ones, t hey h ad b een u surped f rom t he p refecture t o t hat o ffice o nly f our t o e ight y ears p reviously. W hat p robably h appened w as t hat R ufinus, a ppointed M aster i n 3 88, s imply i nherited t he f abricae f rom h is p redecessor. H e t hen r efused t o r elinquish c ontrol o f t hem when h e b ecame P refect i n 3 92. A s a n e stablished p art o f t he o fficium o f t he M aster, t he f actories r everted t o t he l atter w hen R ufinus w as a ssassinated i n 3 96. O ne f urther p iece o f e vidence i s t o b e f ound i n A mmianus, w ho r ecords t he u nwitting i nvolvement o f t he C remona f abrica d irector i n a p olitical i ntrigue. 3 3 8 T he p lot m isfired, a nd t he t reasonable c orrespondence e nded u p a t t he i mperial c ourt. T he l etter w as h anded

2 93

o ver t o o ne F lorentinus, who i s d escribed a s a gens o f t he M aster o f t he O ffices. T he i nference m ust b e t hat t he M aster's o fficium w as a lready J esponsible f or t he f abricae a t t he t ime, s o t hat a ll m atters r elating t o t he f actories o r t heir s taffs w ere h anded o ver t o i ts j urisdiction. T he d ate i s A D 3 55, t hirty-five y ears b efore t he d ate s uggested b y J ones. T he e vidence, M aster

a cquired

f ixed. H owever,

s uch a s i t i s, c ontrol

o f

d oes n ot a llow t he d ate a t w hich

t he

s tate

t he

a rms p roduction s ystem t o b e

t he u ndermining o f t he l ate f ourth c entury d ates l eaves

t he w ay o pen f or t he s impler h ypothesis t hat t he m agister o fficiorum h eld t hem f rom t he s tart, w hen C onstantine c reated h is p ost a s p art o f t he w ider r eorganisation o f t he g overnment. T he m ost s ignificant p art o f t hat r eorganisation w as t he r eduction o f t he m onolithic P raetorian P refecture, w hich i s k nown t o h ave l ost i ts p ower o ver t he a rmy a nd o ther a reas a t t his t ime. T he d eliberate p artial d ismemberment o f t he p refecture b y C onstantine p rovides b oth t he o bvious m otive a nd t he o pportunity

f or

t he

t ransfer

o f

t he f abricae

m agister o fficiorum.

2 94

t o t he n ewly-created

N OTES 1 . T his p aper w as w ritten i n 1 980-81 a nd w as i ntended t o a ppear i n R oman M ilitary S tudies I w hich w as t o h ave b een p ublished b y V ORDA . H owever, a s t he v olume was n ever p ublished, t his a nd a ll t he o ther p apers w ere w ithdrawn. I w ould l ike t o t hank R alph J ackson a nd F iona C ameron f or t he e ditorial w ork t hey u ndertook f or t he a bortive p ublication, a nd J on C oulston f or i ncluding i t i n t he p resent v olume. I h ave t aken t he o pportunity t o u pdate a nd r ethink i t s omewhat, a lthough n ot a s m uch a s Iw ould h ave w ished. Iw ould a lso l ike t o t hank t he s taff o f t he R oman D epartment o f t he W ilkes,

I nstitute o f A rchaeology, L ondon, n amely P rofesor J . D r R . R eece a nd M r M . H assall, f or r eading t his p aper i n

d raft f orm a nd m aking m any u seful c omments a nd s uggestions. M y c olleague R owena L overance, a nd A lan G riffiths o f U niversity C ollege, L ondon, g ave m e i nvaluable h elp w ith G reek t exts. P articular t hanks m ust g o t o D r R obert I reland, a lso o f U niversity C ollege, w ho t ook m y b arrage o f q uestions o n t he s ources w ith g reat p atience a nd g ood h umour, a nd w ent t o g reat l engths t o t rack d own a nd i nterpret s ome v ery o bscure t exts f or m e. I s hould a lso l ike t o t hank m y m other f or t yping t he o riginal m anuscript, P atricia P rice f or t he h ours s he s pent r etyping i t o nto c omputer, a nd M ike B ishop f or r etyping i t o nto a nother o ne!. 2 .

N ov.

T h.

6 , A D 4 38 ( trans.

3 . MACMULLEN, 4 .

J ULLIAN,

5 . A

1 960,

1 896;

n umber

o f

P harr).

3 2 n ote 8 2.

S EECK , w riters

1 909. h ave d iscussed t he f abricae a s p art o f t he

l arger s ubjects, e .g. WALTZING, M ACMULLEN, 6 .

S ee e specially C Th.

7 . T he

1 896;

B OAK,

1 919;

J ONES,

1 964;

1 960.

f ollowing

X ,xxii,

t akes

a s

' de f abricensibus', a nd b elow ,

i ndex.

i ts b asis t he p rinted e dition o f S EECK ,

1 876. 8 .

T he c omplex p roblem o f t he d ate o f t he N otitia i s n ot r elevant h ere. W hat i s c lear i s t hat s ome o r a ll o f t he l ists w ere a ltered a nd a mended

f or

s ome

t ime

H offmann, s tudying t he a rmy b etween A D 3 96 a nd 4 10 f or t he

a fter

c omposition.

t hat t he W estern l ists c annot h ave c losed l ater t han A D

4 25

5 8).

( 1969,

N DOcc.

I X,16-39.

1 1. N DOr. X I,44. 1 2.

o riginal

c oncludes

9 . N DOr. X I,18-39. 1 0.

t heir

l ists, a rgues f or a c losing d ate O riental l ists ( 1969, 5 2), a nd

N DOcc.

I X ,43.

2 95

1 3.

T he e xceptions a re A rgentomagus ( NDOcc. I X,31) which i s i n S eptem P rovinciae a nd n ot G alliae; L ucca ( NDOcc. I X,29) which i s i n S uburbicaria a nd n ot I taliae; a nd f abricae, w hich i s s imply h eaded

t he l ist o f E ast I llyrican ' Illyricum ', n ot d istinguishing

b etween t he d ioceses o f M acedonia a nd D acia ( NDOcc.

X I,35-39).

1 4.

N DOr. X 1,36-39.

1 5.

S EECK,

1 909,

1 6.

N DOcc.

I X ,31.

1 7.

N DOcc.

I X,35;

1 8.

N DOr. X I,30.

1 9.

N DOr. X 1,32.

2 0.

S EECK, 1 552.

2 1.

E specially i n t he W estern l ists, where t he r egional h eadings d o n ot s pecify t he n umber o f e ntries f ollowing.

2 2.

J ULL1AN,

1 876,

1 927.

S EECK,

1 909,

3 2; n ote 2 ,

1 896,

1 927.

f ollowing

G helen's e ditio

p rinceps

o f

9 60.

2 3. N DOr.

1 ,79-125;

2 4. N DOr.

1 ,57-77;

N DOcc. N DOcc.

1 ,50-77.

2 5.

N DOcc.

2 6.

I n c ommon w ith a lmost a ll o ther l ists o f i nstallations, s uch a s t hesaurii ( NDOcc. X I,21-37 a s o pposed t o N DOr. X III,10), m onetae ( NDOcc. X I,38-44 a s o pposed t o N DOr. X III,18) o r b afii ( NDOcc. X I,65-73 a s o pposed t o N DOr. X III,17). T he f act t hat o nly f or t he f abricae i s t he E astern e mpire c overed i n d etail, u nderlines t he i mportance o f t hese e stablishments.

2 7. A nd

X I,45-60.

1 ,84-121.

i ndeed

s ummarum 1 ,30-36). 2 8.

t he

T he g ynaecea h ave b een s tudied b y W ILD,

s horter o nes,

( NDOcc.

I .e. b etween N DOcc.

X I,9-20)

f or e xample t he W estern r ationales

a nd c omites

r ei

m ilitaris

( NDOcc.

I X,29 a nd 3 0.

3 0. N DOcc. I X,31. N ote t hat t he P rovinciae a re g rouped t ogether, S uburbicaria,

1 976.

e ntries f or G alliae a s a re t hose f or

a nd S eptem I talia a nd

j ust a s i n t he l ists o f p raesides.

3 1. L actantius, d e m ort. p ers. 7 , which s eems t o i mply m ore t han o ne f abrica. N DOr. X I,27-28 r ecord t wo a t N icomedia. 3 2. G reg. N az. 3 3. M alalas

O r. X L111,57.

1 3.

2 96

3 4.

A thanasius, H ist.

A r.

1 8;

A mm.

X XXI,6,2.

3 5. A mm. X V,5,9. 3 6. M alalas

1 3.

3 7.

N DOr. X I,21-2.

3 8.

C Th. X ,xxii,l.

3 9.

C Th. X ,xxii,1 r elates s pecifically t o b arbaricarii, b ut i n t he T heodosian C ode i s t he f irst l aw i n t he c hapter d e f abricensibus.

4 0.

O ccidens

X I:

S ub

d ispositione

v iri

i llustris

c omitis s acrarum

l argitionum : 7 4. 7 5.

P raepositi b ranbaricariorum* s ive a rgentariorum : P raepositus b ranbaricariorum* s ive a rgentariorum A relatensium :

7 6. 7 7.

P raepositus b ranbaricariorum* s ive a rgentariorum R emensium: P raepositus b ranbaricariorum* s ive a rgentariorum T riberorum :

* C opyist's e rror f or b arbaricariorum; S eeck e dition. I n t he o riental s ection a ppear t he M aster o f t he O ffices) N DOr. X I, 4 5. 4 6.

( Subadiuvae) B arbariorum ( sic) O rientis u nus.

4 7. 4 8. 4 9.

A sianae u nus. P onticae u nus. T hraciarum e t I llyrici u nus.

c f.

N DOcc. X I,

n ote

t he f ollowing e ntries:

3

i n

( under

t res ( sic).

S eeck i dentified t hese a s s ubadiuvae b arbari(cari)orum, r esulting i n t he w idespread b elief t hat b y t he t ime o f t he N otitia t he E astern b arbaricarii w ere i n t he h ands o f t he m agister o fficiorum. H owever, i n h is u npublished d octoral t hesis, J .P.C. K ent h as d emonstrated t hat t his w as n ot t he c ase, a nd t hat t he o fficers r eferred t o h ere w ere i ndeed s ubadiuvae b arbarorum , f or t hat t itle i s a ttested i n t he E astern empire t wice i n t he f ifth c entury ( KENT, u npub., 2 06). 4 1. Amm. X XIX,3,4. I t i s n ot e xplicitly s tated t hat t he i ncident o ccurred a t T rier. I n a ny c ase, t he r eference i s c oncerned w ith e mbellished a rmour, a pparently f or t he E mperor h imself; s uch p ieces w ere a lmost c ertainly m ade b y t he b arbaricarii, o f w hom t here w as a b ody a t T rier, ( NDOcc. X I,77). I t i s l ikely t hat t he p raepositus m entioned b y Ammianus w as c ommander o f t hese, a nd t hat t he f abricae w ere n ot i nvolved a t a ll. 4 2.

C Th. X ,xxii,l.

4 3.

N ov.J. L XXXV s eems t o i mply t he e xistence o f s uch a c entre 5 39.

4 4.

P .

B eatty

P anopolis

I ,

e specially

2 97

l ines

2 13-6,

a nd

b y

A D

3 14-46:

M ACMULLEN, 4 5. W ILLIAMS,

1 976, 1 985,

1 56 n ote 2 3. 8 2.

4 6.

J ust. N ov. L XXXV;

4 7.

C IL 1 11,2043.

s ee p .ööö.

4 8. M IHAILOV, 1 965, 1 50-3, n o.3; R OBERT & R OBERT, 1 966, 3 95 n o.257. T his s tone w as n ot f ound a t M arcianopolis, b ut i n t he r egion o f P autalia, n ear K iustendil, B ulgaria ( thanks t o D r A ndrew P oulter f or a ssistance w ith t his f ind). 4 9.

F OSS, 1 976, 1 06, i nscription I N64.3; 1 979, 4 , t omb 7 6.1.

5 0.

C IL V ,8742; D iehl 5 03, V ,8662+8697+8721.

5 1.

I LS 5 508 = C IL I X,1590.

5 2.

S EECK,

5 3.

C IL X I,9 = I LS 6 99.

5 4.

N DOcc. X LI1,7, P raefectus c lassis R avennatium c um c uris e iusdem c ivitatis, R avennae. I f t he R avenna f abrica w as s erving t he f leet a nd

1 909,

5 08;

F OSS,

1 979,

C IL V ,8745, 8 757;

2 79; G REENWALT,

D iehl 5 38a+b

=

C IL

1 927.

n ot m aking w eapons i t w ould n ot c ome u nder t he c ontrol o f t he

m agister o fficiorum. H ence i ts o mission f rom N DOcc. 5 5. D iocletian, E dict P ETRIKOVITS, 1 981, 1 942,

o n P rices X ,2; L AUFFER , 2 85, 3 03, s cordiscarius.

5 6.

E NSSLIN,

5 7.

S EECK ,

1 909,

1 926-7.

5 8.

S EECK,

1 909,

1 927.

I X.

1 971,

2 48;

V ON

6 5.

5 9. T he i dea t hat l eather a rmour w as e xtensively u sed i n t he l ate a rmy i s f irmly e ntrenched, a nd o f o bscure o rigins. N o u nambiguous l iterary e vidence f or s uch a rmour i s known t o t he p resent w riter, a nd o f i ts n ature l eather i s u nlikely t o s urvive i n t he a rchaeological r ecord. T wo c uisses o f l eather s cales w ere p reserved i n t he d ry c onditions o f D ura E uropos ( ROSTOVTZEFF e t a l, 1 936, 4 50 a nd p l.XXIII; R OBINSON, 1 975, 1 63), b ut t he e xtensive c ollections o f l eather f rom w aterlogged s ites i n t he W estern empire h ave p roduced n o c omparable f inds. I n m y o pinion t here i s n o r eason t o t hink l eather w as e ver v ery w idely u sed f or a rmour u nder t he e mpire. 6 0. A ugustodunum, N DOcc. 6 1. A ntioch,

N DOr.

I X ,33.

X I,22;

C aesarea

X 1,28.

2 98

C appadociae,

X 1,26;

N icomedia,

6 2. U nits o f c atafractarii a nd c libanarii i n t he W est: e quites c atafractarii, M orbio e quites

c atafractarii

( Britain;

i uniores

( vex,

N DOcc. c or n .

X L,21)

i n B ritain;

N DOcc.

i n

N DOcc.

V II,200) e quites

s agittarii c libanarii

V I,24 + 6 7 = O c.

( vex.

6 3. U nits o f c atafractarii i n t he E ast e quites c atafractarii,

A rubio

equites c atafractarii ( vex, e quites

c or n .

A frica;

V II,185).

c atafractarii

( total s ix): ( Scythia;

c or n .

N DOr. XXXIX,16)

p raesental a rmy;

A lbigenses

( vex.

c or n .

N DOr. V I,35)

i n T hrace;

N DOr.

V III,29) e quites c atafractarii A mbianenses a rmy;

( vex,

c om,

( vex.

c or n .;

i n

p raesental

N DOr. V I,36)

e quites c atafractarii B iturigenses c omites

c atafractarii

O riens;

N DOr.

B ucellarii

N DOr. V ,34)

I uniores

( vex,

c or n .

i n

V II,25).

U nits o f c libanarii i n t he E ast ( total e ight): c omites c libanarii ( palatine v exillation i n N DOr.

p raesental

a rmy;

V ,29)

e quites N DOr.

s ecundi

c libanarii

P almyreni

( vex.

c or n .

i n O riens;

V II,34)

e quites p rimi c libanarii P arthi N DOr.

( vex.

c or n .

i n p raesental a rmy;

V ,40)

e quites

s ecundi c libanarii P arthi ( ditto;

e quites q uarti c libanarii P arthi

( vex,

N DOr. VI,40)

c or n .

i n

O riens;

N DOr.

i n p raesental a rmy;

N DOr.

V II,32) e quites P ersae c libanarii

( vex.

p al.

V I,32) e quites p romoti c libanarii ( vex c or n . s chola s cutariorum c libanariorum; 6 4. Mantua, 6 5. Lucca, 6 6.

They

N DOcc. NDOcc.

a lso

c hapters O c.

I X ,26; I X,29;

f igure

A ugustodunum, R emi,

I X,36;

p rominently

i n O riens;

( NDOr.

I X,33.

Ambianum, i n

F or

h elmets c f.

I X,39.

t he i llustrations h eading t he

i n t he N otitia o n t he M asters o f

I X).

N DOr. V II,31)

X I,8).

t he O ffices

( NDOr.

X I.

t he a rchaeological e vidence r elating t o l ate R oman

K LUMBACH,

1 973;

J OHNSON,

1 980;

J AMES,

1 986.

6 7. H elmets a re d epicted i n t he i llustrations h eading t he s ections t he m agistri

o fficiorum o f E ast and West,

e vidence t hat t he w ere

f actories

p roduced

b ut

t his

h elmets.

o f

i s h ardly f irm

T he b arbaricarii

a lso i nvolved i n h elmet p roduction, a lthough t he i ndications

a re t hat t hey o nly p lated e xisting c omponents w ith p recious ( CTh.

X ,xxii,1).

6 8.

N DOr.

X I,23.

6 9.

S EECK,

7 0.

V IERECK,

7 1. Malalas

1 909,

1 926.

1 975,

2 58.

1 3.

2 99

m etal

7 2.

C IL V ,8742;

D iehl 5 08,

5 38A .

7 3.

N DOcc. I X,24. T he m odern t own i s k nown a s C oncordia S agitaria. I s t his a s urvival f rom t he f ourth c entury, o r a p iece o f m odern a ntiquarianism?

7 4.

F abricae s cutariae;

i n t he E ast ( NDOr. X I);

D amascus

( 20), A ntioch

( 21), E dessa ( 23), N icomedia ( 27), S ardis ( 30), H adrianopolis ( 32), M arcianopolis ( 34), a nd H orreum M argi ( 39), a t otal o f e ight c entres. I t i s p robable t hat t here w as a nother o ne a t R atiaria ( NDOr. X I,38. C f. p .269). I n t he W est ( NDOcc. I X); S irmium ( 18), A quincum ( 19), C arnuntum ( 20), L auriacum ( 21), V erona ( 25), C remona ( 27), A ugustodunum ( 34), T reveri ( 37), a nd A mbianum ( 39), a t otal o f n ine. 7 5.

F abricae a rmorum :

i n t he E ast ( NDOr.

X I);

D amascus

( 20),

A ntioch

( 21), N icomedia ( 27), S ardis ( 30), H adrianopolis ( 32), a nd M arcianopolis ( 34), a t otal o f s ix. I t i s p robable t hat N aissus ( 37) a nd T hessalonica ( 36) c an b e a dded t o t he l ist ( cf. n ote 3 0). I n t he W est ( NDOcc. I X); S irmium ( 18), S alona ( 22), V erona ( 25), M antua ( loricaria, 2 6), A rgentomagus ( loricaria, 3 3), a t otal o f s ix. 7 6.

N DOcc.

I X,28.

7 7.

N DOcc.

I X,24 a nd 3 2.

7 8.

N DOcc.

I X,33 and 3 8.

7 9.

S EECK,

1 909,

( 31),

a nd

A ugustodunum

1 926.

8 0. T hat o f C arausius a nd A llectus i n B ritain ( AD 2 87-296) a nd t wo i n E gypt, o ne i n A D 2 92, f ollowed b y a nother s hortly a fterwards, u nder D omitius D omitianus. 8 1. W ILLIAMS, 8 2. J AMES, 8 3.

1 985,

1 984,

8 2.

1 62-172.

S eeck a lso t hought t hat t he W estern f abricae were m ore s pecialised t han

t he E astern o nes

( 1909,

1 926). H e b elieved t hat t he f abricae

w ere m oving t owards g reater s pecialisation i n t he l ater f ourth a nd e arly f ifth c enturies A D, s o t he W estern l ist, w hich h e r egarded a s

l ater,

s hows

t he p rocess t aken f urther t han i s t he c ase i n t he

E astern r egister. T his i dea s eems t o s tem m ainly f rom t he f act t hat t here i s a t endency t owards s eparation o f p roduction o f s words a nd a rmour i n t he W estern c entres. T here i s

n o

r eason

t o

t hink t hat t his d ivision i s a n ew p henomenon o f t he f ifth c entury. I t i s m ore l ikely d ue t o d ifferences i n t he o rganisation o f t he a rms i ndustry i n E ast p re-Tetrarchic t imes.

a nd

W est,

p erhaps

g oing

b ack

t o

8 4. A rgentomagus ( NDOcc. I X,31) a ctually l ies o utside G alliae, a nd S ardis L ydiae i s o utside P ontica ( NDOr. X I,30).

3 00

8 5.

N DOr.

X I,36-8.

8 6. A ugustodunum ( NDOcc. I X ,34, p robably s erving M axima T reveri ( 37, s erving G ermania P rima), A mbianum

S equanorum), ( 39, s erving

G ermania S ecunda), V erona ( 25, s erving R aetia S ecunda?), C remona ( 27, s erving R aetia P rima?), H adrianopolis ( NDOr. X I,32, s erving M oesia S ecunda), M arcianopolis ( 34, s erving S cythia) a nd N icomedia ( 27) a nd S ardis ( 30) s erving t he E astern f rontier. 8 7.

T he c orrelations a re r eliable

e nough

t o

r econstruct

w ith

s ome

c onfidence w hat t he E ast I llyrican f abricae w ere p roducing. D acia R ipensis s hould h ave h ad a f abrica s cutaria. T here a re k nown f abricae a t t wo c ities i n t hat p rovince, R atiaria a nd N aissus, s o t he s hield f actory w as p robably a t o ne o r t he o ther. R atiaria i s t he

m ore

l ikely,

s ince i t i s a n o ld l egionary b ase o n t he D anube

l ike A quincum , L auriacum a nd C arnuntum , a ll o f w hich s cutariae. T his w ould l eave t he f actories a t

h ad f abricae N aissus a nd

T hessalonica t o b e t he t wo a rmour f actories w hich m ay b e f or t he d iocese o f D acia. 8 8. T he N otitia l ists f ifty u nits o f s agittarii, t hirteen o f f oot. T wenty-four r egiments l isted i n t he E ast, t wo-to-one E astern

e xpected

t hirty-seven m ounted, o f h orse a rchers a re

t hirteen i n t he W est. T his a pproximately b ias i s a lso s een f or f oot a rchers, w ith n ine

r egiments i n t he E ast a nd f our i n t he W est.

D espite

t he

E astern

b ias, i t i s c lear t hat a rchery w as r egarded a s i mportant i n t he W est, u nits o f s agittarii f ar o utnumbering, f or e xample, u nits o f h eavy c avalry ( cf. n otes 2 1 a nd 2 3). 8 9. J ohn L ydus, 9 0.

T here

i s

d e m ag.

3 ,5.

e vidence t hat b ows w ere w idely a vailable i n t he E ast i n

t he l ate e mpire. S ynesius, a b ishop i n C yrenaica i n t he e arly f ifth c entury A D w rote t o h is b rother i n S yria t o p rocure w eapons t o d efend h is f lock a gainst n omadic r aiders. H e c omplains t hat E gyptian a rrows w ill n ot f ly s traight, s o h e w ants s ome g ood S yrian o nes c omplete w ith p oints. B ows a re n ot t oo m uch o f a p roblem; h e k nows where h e c an b uy t hem ( epistulae 1 33, A D 4 05?). P rivate m anufacture a nd t rafficking i n a rms l ed t o a c rack-down u nder J ustinian ( Nov. L XXXV, which p laces b ows h igh o n t he l ist o f p roscribed i tems). V on P etrikovits ( 1981, 3 03) a lso c laims r eference t o a s hield-wright i n a f ourth c entury E gyptian p apyrus ( from H ermopolis; P . C air. P reis. 3 9,4), b ut t his i s e rroneous. T he i ndividual c oncerned w as c ertainly a s oldier, i n a c avalry u nit c alled M auri s cutarii, which i s k nown t o h ave b een i n E gypt f rom t he N otitia ( NDOr. X XXI,23; C uneus e quitum M aurorum s cutariorum a t L ykopolis. N ote a lso X XXI,24, C uneus e quitum s cutariorum a t H ermopolis i tself. 9 1. H orn c omposite b ow e ar l aths i n a ll s tages o f m anufacture b een f ound i n l ate l evels a t I ntercisa ( SALAMON & B ARKOCZI, 1 71). 9 2.

C OULSTON,

1 985,

2 59.

9 3.

C OULSTON,

1 985,

2 59.

3 01

h ave 1 982,

9 4.

N ov.

J . L XXXV.

9 5. M alalas 1 3. 9 6. L actantius, d e m ort.

p ers.

7 .

9 7. M acMullen t hought t hat t he b ulk o f t he f abricae h ad p ossibly b een e stablished b y t he e nd o f t he r eign o f C onstantine; M ACMULLEN, 1 979, 1 56-7. 9 8. F or e xample H adrianopolis i s f irst a ttested i n a c ontext d ating t o A D 3 75 ( Amm. X XXI,6,2), C remona i n A D 3 55 ( Amm. X V,5,9). T he C oncordia t ombstones d ate t o t he v ery e nd o f t he f ourth c entury ( HOFFMANN, 1 969, 8 3-107). 9 9. D efinite e vidence f or t he e xistence

o f

s pecific f abricae

b efore

t he d ate o f t he N otitia i s a vailable f or o nly t he t en c entres m entioned o n p .265. E ven a mong t hese, o ne o f t he S ardis i nscriptions m ay p ost-date t he N otitia. 1 00. N DOcc.

I X ,19-21.

1 01. F or e xample t he f abrica a t C arnuntum ( VON P ETRIKOVITS, V ON GROLLER, 1 909, 3 5-43). 1 02. L actantius, 1 03.

d e m ort.

p ers.

1 975,

9 0-1;

7 .

L actantius, d e m ort. p ers. 7 , m akes c lear t he s cale o f t he b uilding p rogramme. ' The e mperor h imself a ttended t he d edication o f t he h ippodrome a t N icomedia i n 3 04, which s uggests t hat t he p alace a nd t he h ippodrome t here h ad b een p ut u p t ogether' ( VICKERS,

1 972,

3 1,

n ote 4 9).

1 04. M alalas 1 3. M ATTINGLY s uggested t hat t hey m ay h ave b een e stablished w hen D iocletian a rrived a t A ntioch t o s upport G alerius i n A D 2 96 ( 1939, 3 36). 1 05. D OWNEY, 2 98. 1 06.

1 961,

3 18. T he p alace a t A ntioch

a lready

e xisted

b y

A D

N DOr. X I,36.

1 07. G alerius a rrived a bout A D 3 00. T his e vent s eems t o p recipitated a w ide-ranging c onstruction s cheme i ncluding n ot a p alace b ut t he h ippodrome ( VICKERS, 1 972) a nd t he t riumphal w hich s till s tands. T he f abrica was p robably b uilt a s p art o f p rogramme. 1 08. T hessalonica i s f ar t o t he r ear o f t he f rontier l ine and e ven h ave a p roper h arbour u ntil A D 3 14 ( Zosimus, 1 1,22). 1 09. E umenius,

p an.

l at.

i x,5,15

a nd 6 ,23;

B UCKLEY,

1 981,

d id

h ave o nly a rch t his

n ot

e specially

2 97-8. 1 10. T here w as a T etrarchic b uilding p rogramme a t S irmium ( MOCSY,

3 02

1 974,

3 12). 1 11. P ossibly T rier a nd S alona b ecause

a lthough

t he

l atter

i s

l ess

l ikely

D iocletian's e nergies t here w ent i nto t he e rection o f t he

g reat p alace a t n earby S plit.

I n a ny c ase i t i s p ossible t hat

t he

S alona f abrica m ay h ave b een s ited e lsewhere u ntil t he l ate f ourth c entury ( see p .266). 1 12. T he c hanges i nvolved h ere a re t hat R aetia w as d ivided i nto R aetia P rima a nd R aetia S ecunda, P annonia I nferior b ecame V aleria a nd P annonia S cythia. 1 13. MANN,

S ecunda,

1 977,

a nd

M oesia S uperior b ecame M oesia S ecunda a nd

1 2.

1 14. T he d ioceses w ere c ontrolled b y v icarii, w ho a re n ot u sually t hought o f a s m ilitary o fficers. H owever, t heir s ubordinate p rovincial g overnors w ere o ften a lso c ommanders o f t he p rovincial g arrisons. S ince t heir s uperior, t he P raetorian P refect, w as c ommander-in-chief o f t he a rmy, i t w ould b e s urprising i f t he i ntermediate v icarii h ad n o m ilitary f unctions a t a ll. T here i s a t l east e vidence t hat t hey w ere i nvolved i n f ort b uilding ( JONES, 1 964, 4 7). 1 15. MANN, 1 16.

1 977,

V AN B ERCHEM ,

1 17. L actantius,

1 2. 1 952,

1 14.

d e m ort.

p ers.

7 .

1 18. M alalas 1 3. 1 19.

S cutaria e t a rmorum, N icomediae ( NDOr. X I,27) s cutaria e t a rmamentaria, E dessa ( 23) s cutaria e t a rmorum, A ntiochae ( 21).

1 20.

C libanaria, N icomediae ( NDOr. X I,28) c libanaria, A ntiochae ( NDOr. X I,22).

1 21. F or e xample, t he f abricae o f I talia a re i n s trict E ast-West ( NDOcc. I X,24-28). 1 22.

N DOcc.

I X,35-39.

1 23. N DOcc.

I X,18-22.

o rder

1 24. A mbianum w as t he s hield f actory s erving G ermania S ecunda ( NDOcc. I X,39 and c f. f igs.6 a nd 1 0). S alona w as o ne o f t wo a rmour f actories s erving I llyricum. D espite i ts a ssociation w ith D iocletian, S alona d oes n ot s eem t o h ave u ndergone a m ajor r ebuilding d uring t he T etrarchy; l ocal r esources w ent i nto t he p alace a t S plit. T here i s, t herefore, n o r eason f or t he f abrica t o b e t here a s e arly a s D iocletian's r eign. 1 25.

F or e xample, t he g ynaeceum a t A ugustodunum ( NDOcc. X I,59).

M atisco

3 03

w as

o riginally

s ited

a t

1 26. N DOcc. X I,46. 1 27. T he p robable d ate o f t he t wo a mendments o f t he N otitia ( NDOcc. X I,22; 4 6), w hich m ust h ave b een m ade b etween t he o riginal c ompilation o f t he l ists a nd t he d ate w hen t hey w ere n o l onger a vailable f or m odification. S ee a lso n ote 1 25. 1 28.

S ee a lso n ote 1 25.

1 29. J ULLIAN,

1 896,

9 60.

1 30. W EST s uggested t hat t he A rgentomagus f abrica w as b ased o n t he i ron w orking o f t he B ituriges ( 1935, 8 1 n ote 6 7). 1 31. H EALEY,

1 978, 6 3.

1 32. F ORBES,

1 972,

2 78.

1 33. D AVIES,

1 935,

1 70.

1 34. A s a n a nalogy, i t h as b een s hown t hat t he s tate t extile a nd c lothing f actories w ere d istributed i n w ool-producing a reas ( WILD, 1 976, 5 3). 1 35.

I ron p roduction i n I taly h ad e ffectively c eased c enturies b efore ( HEALEY, 1 978, 6 3-4).

1 36. T his i s e specially s o A natolia; s ee F ig.l. 1 37. J ONES,

1 966,

i n

I taly ,

a nd

t he f abricae

o f

w estern

3 5.

1 38. E ven t he i mperial h ousehold w as n ot e xempt f rom p roviding c harcoal f or t he f abricae ( CTh. X ,xxii,2, A D 3 88; X I,xvi,15, A D 3 82; X I,xvi,18, A D 3 90). 1 39.

C J. X I,ix,7, d ating t o t he l ate f ifth o r e arly s ixth c enturies, w hich l ays d own p rocedure f or p rocurement o f w agons o r s hips t o m ove c onsignments o f a rms t o t he t roops. R esponsibility f or p roviding t hese v ehicles i s s hown t o l ie i n t he h ands o f t he P raetorian P refect, w ho i s k nown t o h ave b een i n u ltimate c ontrol o f t he m aintenance o f t hese c ommunications.

1 40. T he t rans-Balkan r oad w hich p assed t hrough N aissus, H orreum M argi, H adrianopolis, e tc.; M OCSY, 1 974, 2 12, 2 14 a nd 2 46. 1 41. O f t he t wo g reat r oads c rossing A natolia f rom w est t o e ast, t he n orthern r oute r uns t hrough t he f abrica c ities o f N icomedia a nd C aesarea C appadociae. S ardis L ydiae i s a stride t he s outhern r oute. Z osimus r ecords t he u se o f t he s outhern r oad f or m ajor t roops m ovements b etween t he D anube a nd t he E ast ( IV,30). 1 42. T he s parse e vidence f or t he a rms i ndustry o f t he P rincipate i s c onsidered i n M ACMULLEN, 1 960; O LDENSTEIN , 1 976, 1 985; a nd B ISHOP, 1 985.

3 04

1 43. N DOr. X I,21 a nd 2 2. 1 44. N DOcc. 4 5.

I X,33;

A ugustodunensis l oricaria,

C IL 1 11,2828 = I LS 7 047, t erritory o f t he A edui.

r ecording l orica

1 46. A p re-Roman a rsenal h as b een c laimed a t 1 870). 1 47.

N DOcc.

I X,31,

a rmorum o mnium,

b alistaria e t c libanaria.

C ome

p roductiol

C haudron

i n t he

( BULLIOT,

t herefore p resumably a m ajor c entre:

f abricae p ossess t his d escription i n t he N otitia l ists. 1 48. N DOr. X I,30. 1 49.

F or

e xample,

L ydian

s teel

w as v alued f or s words

( FORBES,

1 972,

2 78). T his p rocess m ay a lso e xplain R OBINSON's ' Imperial-Gallic' i ndustry o f t he e arly e mpire ( 1975, 8 ), a pparently a n ative i ndustry t aken o ver b y t he R omans a s a g oing c oncern t o s erve t he i mperial a rmy. I t m ay w ell h ave b een b ased o n A ugustodunum and A rgentomagus, n ote 6 4).

f or t hese w ere l ater i mportant f abrica c entres

( see

1 50.

N DOcc.

I X,19-21.

1 51.

T here

i s s ome a rchaeological e vidence f or t he a rmy m aking i ts o wn

w eapons,

b ut

t his m ay h ave b een l imited

s imple i tems K NOWLES, 1 912,

t o

m anufacture

o f

s uch

a s p rojectile h eads ( as a t C orbridge; F ORSTER & 2 50; R ICHMOND & B IRLEY, 1 940, 1 06, 1 12-3).

1 52.

N DOr. X I,38.

1 53.

V ON P ETRIKOVITS, 1 975. T he s tructures h e i dentifies a s l egionary f abricae a re h eterogenous, a nd t here i s v ery l ittle g ood a rchaeological e vidence f or t heir i ndividual f unctions, l argely d ue

t o

i nadequate

e xcavation. F or t he m ost r ecent d iscussion o f

e arly m ilitary f abricae, 1 54. V ON G ROLLER , ( 1977, 3 65). 1 55.

1 909,

4 3;

s ee B ISHOP,

1 985.

V ETTERS s uggests

t he

s ame

f or

L auriacum

S uch a c hange w ould h ave b een i n h armony w ith t he c entrifugal t endencies a t w ork i n t he l egions i n t he l ate t hird c entury, a s t hey l ost t heir s pecialist t roops s uch a s b allistarii ( apparently f ormed i nto s eparate u nits) a nd t heir b odies o f c avalry ( upgraded t o i ndependent s tatus a s r egiments o f e quites p romoti). L oss o f t heir f abricae m ight h ave b een a l ogical e xtension o f t he p rocess.

1 56. MACMULLEN, 1 57.

S EECK,

1 909,

1 58. E NSSLIN, 1 59.

S ee,

1 960,

3 9.

1 926.

1 942,

6 5.

f or e xample, M ACMULLEN,

1 980.

3 05

1 60. M ACMULLEN,

1 960,

2 9.

1 61. MACMULLEN,

1 960,

2 9.

1 62.

S EECK,

1 909,

1 926.

1 63. MACMULLEN,

1 960,

2 9.

1 64. MACMULLEN,

1 960,

2 3.

1 65.

B ISHOP,

1 985;

1 66.

B ISHOP,

1 985.

1 67.

O LDENSTEIN,

1 68.

F or e xample,

1 69.

T he l ex i ulia d e v i p ublica f orbade a rms t o c itizens o ther s oldiers, a b an which w as r eiterated i n t he l ate e mpire ( e.g. X V,xv,l.

O LDENSTEIN,

1 985;

1 985.

V AN D RIEL-MURRAY,

t he A eduan l oricarii,

1 985,

6 5-6.

C IL X III,2828 = I LS 7 047.

F or t he b anning o f a rms e xports,

C J.

t han C Th.

I V,xli,2).

1 70. A s t he A eduan i nscription m akes c lear, m entioning a n a rmy o fficer s upervising p roduction i n c entral G aul ( CIL X III,2828 = I LS 7 047). 1 71. L arge e stablishments h ad e xisted i n G reece c enturies b efore. o f t hem e mployed u p t o 1 20 s laves ( MOSSE, 1 969, 8 9).

S ome

1 72. R oman a rms a re f ar f rom r are b eyond t he n orthern f rontiers, b eing f ound a ll o ver F ree G ermany ( e.g. H UNDT, 1 971) a nd i n t he J utland b og

d eposits

e xports ( CJ. 1 73.

( TODD,

1 975,

1 74-6).

S ee a lso t he l aw b anning a rms

I V,xli,2).

C f. C Th. X V,xv,1: ' No p erson whatever, w ithout o ur k nowledge a nd a dvice, s hall b e g ranted t he r ight t o e mploy a ny a rms whatsoever,' A D 3 64 ( trans. P harr). T his l aw m ust h ave b een i mpossible t o e nforce a s b arbarian

t he a rmy b ecame i ncreasingly p owerless t o p revent i ncursions a nd c ivilians l ooked t o t heir o wn d efence

( see n ote 9 0). 1 74.

S ee R OBINSON,

1 75.

K LUMBACH,

1 975.

1 973;

J OHNSON,

1 980; J AMES,

1 986.

1 76. A n umber o f e xamples f rom E urope a re n ow B udapest, e lsewhere

B urgh C astle 1 77.

k nown,

f rom

B erkasovo,

I ntercisa, A ugst-Pfersee, W orms, A ugst, D eurne a nd ( KLUMBACH, 1 973). O ne h as r ecently b een i dentified f rom ( JOHNSON,

1 980).

C Th. X ,xxii,l. A D 3 74. T his l aw i s o ften s aid t o r efer t o f abricenses b ut i n f act, r efers s pecifically t o t he c losely r elated b arbaricarii, p recious m etal s miths u nder t he c ontrol o f t he c omes s acrarum l argitionum. N evertheless, i n t his c ase t he b arbaricarii

a re

m aking

a rms

s o

a nalogy f or t he f abricae.

3 06

t he t ext p rovides a v ery g ood

1 78. E specially t he I ntercisa h elmets ( THOMAS, 1 79. N DOr. X I,44; 1 80.

N DOcc.

1 971; K LUMBACH,

1 973).

I X,43.

N DOr. X I,44.

1 81. N DOcc.

I X ,43,

' subadiuvae f abricarum d iversarum '.

B OAK ( 1919,

1 02)

i nterpreted t his t o m ean t hat t here w ere m ore t han t hree u nder t he e astern m agister. T his s eems t o b e b ecause h e t ranslates s ubadiuvae f abricarum d iversarum a s ' various s ubadiuvae w ith r esponsibility f or a rms f actories' r ather t han ' subadiuvae w ith r esponsibility f or t he v arious a rms f actories'. T he l atter s ense i s s urely t he c orrect o ne, a nd h as n o i mplication a s t o t he a ctual n umber o f s ubadiuvae. 1 82. A s C J. X II,xx,5, d ating i ndicate. 1 83.

C J. X II,xx,5;

1 84. J ONES,

1 964,

B OAK ,

1 919,

t he

r eign

o f

L eo,

w ould

s eem

t o

1 02.

5 79 n ote 3 5.

1 85.

C J. X II,xx,5.

1 86.

C J. X II,xx,5;

1 87.

S crinium m emoriae d ispositionum ( NDOr. ( NDOr. X I,14; N DOcc. N DOcc. I X,13).

1 88. N ov.

t o

B OAK ,

1 919,

1 02.

( NDOr. X I,13; N DOcc. I X,10), s crinium X I,16; N DOcc. I X,11), s crinium e pistolarum I X,12), s crinium l ibellarum ( NDOr. X I,15;

J . LXXXV,3,5.

1 89. J ONES,

1 964,

5 79.

1 90. J ONES,

1 964,

6 28,

b ased

o n C Th.

V II,iv,24

a nd

V III,i,14

( both

d ated t o A D 3 98). 1 91.

C J. X I,ix,7, A D 4 67-515,

t rans. P harr.

1 92.

D e m ag. 1 11,5. T ranslated b y D r R obert I reland. T he s ame s crinium i s a pparently r eferred t o i n t he C ode o f Justinian, i n a l aw which s urvives o nly a s a n u ntitled a nd u ndated G reek s ummary ( CJ. X II,xlix,13), b ut w hich n evertheless a ppears t o h ave b een d irected a t t he p refecture.

1 93. W ere t he c omitatenses a rmed b ureaucratic p rocess? T hey m ay

t hrough t he s ame l ong-winded h ave s pent s ufficient t ime i n

w inter q uarters f or t his t o b e f easible, b ut h ow c ould t hey r e-arm q uickly o n c ampaign? F ield a rmy units w ere p rovided w ith w arrants a uthorising t hem t o d raw v ictuals f rom t he p rovinces t hrough which t hey p assed, s o i t m ay w ell b e t hat when o n t he m arch t hey c ould d raw o n a ny o f t he f abricae d otted a long t he m ain s trategic r oads a s t hey c ame t o t hem.

3 07

1 94. A n i nteresting p assage i n A mmianus r ecords t he s ending o f a f orged t reasonable l etter t o t he ' tribune' o f t he C remona f abrica a s p art o f a c ourt i ntrigue. T he l etter f ell i nto t he h ands o f t he g overnment, a nd w as h anded t o F lorentinus, who i s d escribed a s ' agens... p ro _ m agistro o fficiorum ' ( XV,v,12). T hat t he l etter s hould g o t o t he d epartment o f t he M aster o f t he O ffices A akes s ense; t he ' tribune' c oncerned w as a s ubordinate o f I to .L m i ,:sLer. W as t he a gens F lorentius o ne o f t he s ubadiuvae f abricarum? U nfortunately t here i s t he o bjection t hat t he s ame F lorentius w ent o n t o b ecome m agister o fficiorum h imself ( Amm. a dvancement o therwise u nknown f or a gentes i n r ebus. 1 95.

X XII,iii,6),

T he f abrica o f L auriacum l egionary b ase h as b een i dentified w ith t he l ater f abrica s cutaria a t t he s ame p lace ( VETTERS, 1 977, 3 65), b ut t his i s a n u nsubstantiated a ssumption. A r ather b etter c ase f or t he l egionary f abrica d eveloping d irectly i nto o ne o f t he N otitia c entres c an b e m ade f or C arnuntum , where t he s tructure i n q uestion p roduced s ubstantial n umbers o f f ourth c entury c oins a nd e vidence o f m etalworking ( STIGL1TZ e t a l, 1 977, 5 85-7 a nd 6 42-3). T his i s s till a f ar c ry f rom p roof t hat f ull s cale a rms p roduction w as u ndertaken i n t he b uilding, l et a lone p roof t hat i t i s t he f abrica s cutaria o f t he N otitia. A t S ardis ' about 5 00m E ast o f t he G ymnasium s tands t he l ong w all o f a n e xtensive R oman c onstruction [ Building A ] b uilt i n a s tyle s imilar t o t hat o f t he c ity w all... I ts c entral l ocation a nd f ortress-like a ppearance s uggest t he p ossibility t hat i t m ay h ave b een t he w eapons f actory o f S ardis, b ut t here i s n o e vidence t o s upport m y i dentification ' ( FOSS, 1 976, 3 6-7). T hanks t o J on C oulston f or d rawing m y a ttention t o t his r eference, w hich I h ad o verlooked. I dentifying a s tate f actory a s o pposed t o a ny o ther k ind o f f actory i s a p roblem n ot r eadily a pproachable v ia a rchaeological e vidence; i t i s r eally a n h istorical p roblem s oluble o nly b y d iscovery o f a n i nscription

o r

o ther d ocument. 1 96.

B ased o n t he i llustrations i n V ON P ETRIKOVITS,

1 97.

M ACMULLEN,

1 98.

S ome e xamples o f a reas o f c ities w here f abricae w ere s ited: A ntioch, 4 00+ha; A ugustodunum, 2 00ha; R emi, c .100ha; S ardis, c .250ha; S alona, 9 4.4ha. ( Figures d rawn f rom t he P rinceton

1 960,

2 9;

R ICHMOND,

1 943 ;

1 975,

B RASSINGTON,

B ild.

2 5-6.

1 975.

C lassical S ite i ndex, e xcept S alona, which i s f rom W ILKES, 1 969, 3 58). E ven i f b y c hance a n e xcavation s hould h it u pon a f abrica, c onclusive p roof o f i dentification w ould d epend o n o f e pigraphic m aterial. 1 99.

W ILD,

1 976,

t he

d iscovery

5 1-2.

2 00. A rms w ere c ertainly s tockpiled i n c ities ( e.g. Z osimus, 1 11,3) p erhaps o n a l arge s cale a t E dessa ( armamentaria, s ee p .262). S ince t he f abricae p robably w orked t o f ixed q uotas, i n p eacetime, l arge s tocks m ight b uild u p a t t he f actories, r equiring s ecure s torage f acilities. 2 01.

F OSS,

1 979,

2 79-83;

1 981.

p ainting o f t he t omb o f

T he t erm i s u sed i n t he c ontext o f

t he f abricenses:

3 08

i t i s a mbiguous s ince

t he i t

i s i mpossible t o t ell i f i t r efers t o h is p ainting o f t he t omb h imself, o r o nly h is r esponsibility f or t he w ork , o r w hether h e w as a z ographos o r p ainter ( of s hields?) i n t he f abrica i tself. M edieval a rmourers' w orkshops w ere o ften h ighly s pecialised, s ome m en b eing w holly e ngaged o n m aking h inges, o r p olishing ( BLAIR , 1 958, 1 88). 2 02. B y a nalogy w ith t he b arbaricarii o f C onstantinople a nd A ntioch, w ho a ccording t o C Th. X ,xxii,1 h ad f ixed m onthly p roduction q uotas f or h elmets ( see n ote 7 5). 2 03. M ACMULLEN,

1 960, 3 9, n ote 9 3.

2 04. A mm. X VI,ii,5. 2 05. C Th. X 11,i,37; C J X I,ix,6; s ee a lso C IL V ,8742. W ALTZING ( 1895, 2 42) s uggested t he u se o f s laves i n t he f abricae, b ut t he l aw f rom w hich h e d rew t his c onclusion ( CJ. V I,i,8) i s a ddressed t o t he p refect o f t he c ity o f R ome. N o a rms f actories i n h is t erritory a re k nown , a nd i f t here w ere a ny , h e w ould h ave j urisdiction o ver t hem . S ome o ther k ind o f f abrica i ntended.

h ad m ust

n o b e

2 06. C IL V ,8742. 2 07. J ONES,

1 964, 8 35.

2 08. N DOr. X I;

N DOcc. I X.

2 09. A mm . X XXI,vi,2. 2 10. MACMULLEN,

1 960, 3 9.

2 11. J ONES, 1 964, 8 35. 2 12. C Th. X ,xxii,6. 2 13. N ov. T h. V I. 2 14. N ov. J . L XXXV,3. ' Flavius Z enis... e nrolled i n t he f abrica a t M arcianopolis', M IHAILOV, 1 965, 1 50, n o.3, l ines 5 -8 ( translated b y A lan G riffiths a nd R owena L overance). 2 15.

C Th. X ,xxii,6.

2 16.

' Finally , i f a ny o ne o f t hem s hould c ommit a w rong, s uch a d elinquency i s a t t he r isk o f t he e ntire n umber, s o t hat t hey a re c onstrained b y t heir o wn n ominations [ i.e. t o p ositions o f r esponsibility] a nd t hey m aintain a c ertain w atchfulness o ver t he a ctions o f t heir a ssociates' ( Nov. T h. V I,2, t rans. P harr, w ith t he w riter's b racketed n ote).

2 17. G ROSSE,

1 920,

1 13-4.

2 18. C IL 1 11,2043.

3 09

2 19.

C IL V ,8742 a nd D iehl 5 30.

2 20.

C IL V ,8754,

2 21.

D iehl 5 08.

2 22. M IHAILOV, 2 23.

8 757.

1 965,

1 50 n o.3;

R OBERT & R OBERT,

1 966,

3 95 n o.257.

F OSS, 1 976; 1 979. I n p ublishing t hese i nscriptions, F oss h as i nclined t o t he v iew t hat t he t itle d ucenarius h eld b y t hese i ndividuals d enoted m embership o f t hat d egree o f t he e questrian o rder. I t s eems m ore l ikely t hat t he a rmy-style n on-commissioned o fficer r ank i s i ntended h ere, f or t hese w ere c ommonly u sed a mong t he f abricenses. N evertheless, i t i s n ot i mpossible t hat f rom t he l ater f ourth c entury, j unior o fficers o f t he f abricae c ould h old e questrian r ank, f or t he o rder b ecame g reatly i nflated i n n umbers, d ebasing t he p restige o f t he l ower g rades. S ome j unior a rmy o fficers c ame t o h old t he p erfectissimate ( JONES, 1 966, 2 70). C onsequently , e ven i f F oss i s c orrect a nd t he S ardis d ucenarii a re e questrians, t his n eed n ot s uggest i nfluential o r w ealthy m en.

2 24. G ROSSE,

1 918,

1 31;

t hat

t hey

w ere

p articularly

C IL 1 11,14188.

2 25. M ACMULLEN a lso r ejects G rösse's i dentification o n t he g rounds t hat ' industrial s erfs s urely d id n ot h old ( the r ank o f s enator)' ( 1960, 3 2, n ote 8 2). M acMullen s eems t o h ave t hought t hat m embership o f t he s enatorial o rder w as i ntended. H owever, s enator i s a w ell a ttested a rmy n on-commissioned o fficer r ank a nd i t i s s urely t his w hich i s i ntended h ere. 2 26.

C Th. X ,xxii,3.

2 27.

S EECK f avoured s eniority a s t he p rinciple o f p romotion, b ut a dduced n o e vidence ( 1909, 1 929). O n h is m odel t he p rimicerius w ould h ave b een t he l ongest-serving f abricensis i n e ach f actory.

2 28.

' Having s erved i n L egio X I C laudia, [ Zenis] e nrolled i n t he f abrica a t M arcianopolis f or 2 0 y ears s ervice a s a c entenarius' ( translated b y R . L overance); M IHAILOV , 1 965, 1 50 n o.3.

2 29.

T his w as t he p rocedure f rom A D 3 90, i f n ot b efore ( CTh. X ,xxii,3). M ACMULLEN s tates t hat t his w as l ater c hanged t o l ifelong s ervice ( 1960, 3 2), b ut t his i s b ased o n a p assage i n N ov. T h. V I w hich i n e pic l anguage d escribes t he h ardships f aced b y t he f abricenses w ho, w hen t hey h ave b een e xhausted b y t heir l abours... s hall d ie i n t he p rofession t o w hich t hey w ere b orn' ( trans. P harr). E ven a t a t wo-year r ate o f t urnover, m ost f abricenses w ould n ever h ave b ecome p rimicerius w ith t he s ubsequent p romotion t o t he p rotectores, s o T heodosius' s tatement i s s ubstantially t rue w ithout o ne.

s uggesting t hat t he p ost o f p rimicerius b ecame a l ifelong

2 30.

C Th. V II,xx,10.

2 31.

D iehl 5 38A + B = C IL V ,8662 + 8 697 + 8 721.

3 10

2 32.

C IL V I,9 = I LS 6 99.

2 33. A mm.

X XIX,iii,4.

2 34. A mm.

X V,v,9.

2 35. A mm. X IV,vii,20. 2 36.

S eeck s peculated t hat s ome m ay h ave b een s tyled t ribunus a s a p ersonal r ank, o r b ecause t hey w ere i n c harge o f p articularly i mportant f actories ( SEECK, 1 909, 1 928). J ones d odged t he q uestion: ' ...each 2 raepositus' ( JONES,

2 37.

f actory w as... 1 964, 8 35).

A mmianus r egularly u tilises

c ommanded

b y

a

t erms n o l onger i n c urrent

t ribune o r

u sage

b ut

d emanded b y l iterary c onvention. F or e xample, h e u ses ' legions a nd c ohorts' i n c ontexts where t hese t erms a re anachronistic. H owever, A mmianus c onsidered t hem s tylistically p referable t o t he c ontemporary v exillationes. 2 38.

t echnical

u nit

n ames,

s uch

a s a uxilia

a nd

C IL X I,9.

2 39. A l ate f ourth c entury d ate i s s uggested b y H OFFMANN ( 1969, 8 3-107). F or t he d ecline o f t he p erfectissimate, s ee J ONES, 1 964, 5 26; 1 966, 2 70. 2 40. N DOcc. X I,38-44; 2 41.

B OAK ( 1919, r easons.

8 9)

4 5-60. r eaches

t his

c onclusion,

p robably f or s imilar

2 42. E pigonius a nd E usebius a t A ntioch a round A D 3 54 ( Amm. X IV,vii,20), F lavius R omulianus a t C oncordia c .AD 3 95 ( ?) ( Diehl 5 38A) a nd p erhaps S ertorius S ilanus a t C onstantine t he G reat ( CIL X I,9).

R avenna

d uring

t he

r eign

o f

2 43. A mm. X V,5,10. 2 44.

J ONES,

2 45. N ov.

1 964,

6 34.

T h. V I, A D 4 38,

2 46.

C J. X I,xi,7;

2 47.

S ee n ote 2 28.

2 48.

C IL V ,8742.

2 49.

S ee n ote 2 28.

t rans.

c .AD 4 70.

2 50. T he s tate h elped v eterans S ee J ONES,

P harr.

1 964,

6 35.

t ake u p a t rade;

C Th. V II,xx,3 ( AD 3 25).

O ld s oldiers a re known t o h ave

e ntered

t he

a rms t rade i n e arlier t imes ( CIL X III,6677 = I LS 2 472, a v eteranus w ho b ecame a n egotiator g ladiarius i n t he r eign o f C ommodus).

3 11

2 51.

N ov.

T h. V I,1.

2 52.

J ONES,

2 53.

S ee n ote 2 50.

2 54.

C Th. X ,xxii,6.

2 55.

C J. X I,ix,6.

2 56.

C Th.

2 57.

C J. X I,ix,6.

2 58.

J ONES,

2 59.

C Th. V II,viii,8. A f urther a nd m ost r evealing e xample c oncerns a d ispute o ver t he r ight o f t he c orpus f abricensium o f a f actory t o j ointly i nherit t he g oods o f a ny m ember w ho d ied i ntestate.

1 964,

1 964,

6 34.

S ee n otes 2 28 a nd 2 50.

4 88.

N ormally s uch e states w ould g o i nto t he c offers o f t he r es p rivata, b ut t he f abricenses a nd o ther p rivileged g roups s uch a s s oldiers, c ivil s ervants, d ecurions a nd c lerics w ere e xempt ( CJ. V I,lxii,2,3; C Th. V ,xxxi). D uring t he r eign o f T heodosius I I, t he r es p rivata t ried t o s eize t he g oods o f t he i ntestate f abricenses, s omething w hich a pparently r esulted i n a d ispute b etween t he m agister o fficiorum a nd t he c omes r erum p rivatarum. T he j udgement f ound f or t he f abricenses, w hose r ights w ere a ffirmed o r r eaffirmed.

( CJ. V I,lxii,5).

C learly A urelianus,

c omes

r erum p rivatarum, c hose t o i gnore t he e mperor's d ecision, w hich p rompted a r eaction f rom T heodosius. T he e mperor d elivered a c hilling r ebuke a nd t hreatened t he r es p rivata w ith d ire c onsequences i f t hat d epartment s hould ' even a ttempt t o d raw u p a p etition [ against t he f abricenses] a fter t hey h ave r eceived a d ivine I mperial r esponse o f t his k ind' P harr). 2 60.

C Th. X ,xxii,4; A D 3 98. T hose f abricenses were s uitably p unished f actory t hemselves.

2 61.

T he s ituation e specially f rom e mpire s tarted m ade t hemselves

2 62.

C Th. X ,xxii,5, c entury.

2 63. E .g. t he

( Nov.

T h. V I; A D 4 38,

c aught h arbouring b y r elegation t o

t rans

f ugitive a n a rms

w as p robably w orse i n t he W est t han t he E ast, t he l ater f ourth c entury o nwards a s t he W estern t o d isintegrate a nd s hortages o f m en a nd m aterials f elt.

A D 4 04;

C J

X I,ix,7,

l ate

f ifth

t o

e arly

s ixth

C Th. X II,i,37; A D 3 44 c oncerning d ecurions i n a ny b ranch o f i mperial s ervice. S ignificantly , f abricae a re m entioned

s pecifically. 2 64.

C Th. X ,xxii,6, A D 4 12.

2 65.

C Th. X II,i,37; X ,xxii,6.

3 12

2 66.

C Th. V II,viii,8, A D 4 00-5.

2 67. M ACMULLEN, 2 68.

F OSS,

2 69. G reg.

1 979. N az.

1 960,

3 2, n ote 8 2.

S ee n ote 2 23. O r. X L111,57,

t rans R .

I reland.

2 70. A fter s imilar t rouble a t H adrianopolis, o ne s ide s truck b ack a t t he o ther b y a rranging t hat ' from t he f abrica t here ( as i t i s c alled), t he h eads o f t en l aymen s hould b e c ut o ff' ( Athanasius, h ist. A r. X VII1,57, t rans. D r R obert I reland). P resumably t he f abricenses h ad b een p rominent i n t he p receding d isturbances f or t hem t o b e s ingled o ut i n t his w ay. 2 71. M IHAILOV, 1 965, 1 50 n o.3; R OBERT & R OBERT, 1 966, T ranslated b y A lan G riffiths a nd R owena L overance. 2 72.

C J. X I,ix,6 o f t he r eign o f L eo a nd A nthemius;

3 95

n o.257.

C J X I,ix,7 o f t hose

e mperors o r o f A nastasius. 2 73.

N ov.

J . L XXXV.

2 74. D e c eremoniis; a ppx. 2 75.

a d l ib.

I 4 97.13 - 4 98.13, B onn.

T he e dict d oes m ention s pearshafts ( XIV,5; F RANK, 1 940, 3 60). I t i s n ot p ossible t o e xplain t he a bsence o f o ther w eapons f rom t he E dict i n t erms o f t he i llegality o f a rms s ales o n t he o pen m arket, f or t he E dict d oes i nclude o ther i tems which o nly m embers o f t he i mperial s ervice c ould b uy, s uch a s m ilitary u niforms, w hich i t w as i llegal f or c ivilians t o w ear.

2 76.

I mplied b y N ov. J . L XXXV,3,1. P rivate a rms p roduction i n E gypt h as a lready b een d iscussed ( p.282).

2 77. N ov. T h. L XXXV,3. 2 78. A t welfth c entury B yzantine w riter r ecords t hat C onstantine t he G reat b uilt a d epot f or s toring a rtillery i n p art o f t he c ity o f C onstantinople w hich b ecame k nown a s t he q uarter o f t he M angana a fter t he c atapults a nd o ther m achines s tored t here. T here i s n o i ndication t hat i t w as a ctually a f actory f or m aking a s w ell a s s toring e quipment. ( Michael G lycas, C SHB, 1 836, 4 68, l ine 6 ff, d ating t o A D 1 118, c f. a lso B anduri A non. 1 1,69, a t ext o f unknown d ate w hich r ecords t he M angana s torage d epot w here ' ...the w ar-engines o f t he w hole c ity a nd t he m echanical s tores w ere p reserved.., a nd t he a pparatus f or b eseiging w alls'. T his s ource a lso a ttributes t he d epot t o C onstantine. H is d escription s uggests t hat t his i s a s trategic s tore o f s eige e quipment a s w ell a s t he d epot f or t he c ity's d efensive a rtillery. A gain, m ention o f p roduction o f m achines i s c onspicuously a bsent). E xcavations i n t he q uarter o f t he M angana f ound n o t race o f t he d epot ( DEMANGEL & M AMBOURY, 1 932, 7 ). C onstantinople i s a lso k nown t o h ave h ad a n a rmamentarium, o r c ity a rmoury ( such s eems t o b e t he c onclusion f rom N ov. J . L XXXV, a nd i s, o f c ourse, n o s urprise). T he

3 13

a rmamentarium was r ebuilt b y M aurice o r P hocas 2 79.

S EECK ,

1 909,

2 80. MACMULLEN, 2 81.

1 929,

1 960,

( DU C ANGE,

1 729).

t rans. w riter.

3 2.

T hanks a re d ue t o

D r

R obert

I reland

f or

a ssistance

w ith

t he

p recise i nterpretation o f t his p assage. 2 82.

C J. X I,ix,6, A D 4 67-72.

2 83. MACMULLEN

c oncluded

t hat

t he f actories w ere t aken o ver a s g oing

c oncerns a nd ' that s oldiers f rom l egions [ !] w ere d etached t o t he f abricae' ( 1960, 3 2). J ONES d rew s imilar c onclusions, i .e. t hat a rms ' were a pparently, a s i n R oman d ays, i ssued f rom t he s tate f actories...' c oncluded t hat

( 1964,256). S eeck ( followed b y GROSSE, 1 920, 1 04) ' under t he G othic k ings i n I taly t he m anufacture o f

a rms w as o nce m ore u nder t he c ontrol o f t he P raetorian P refect... i t s eems t hat t his w as n o l onger c arried o n i n s pecial f abricae, b ut i n t he a rmy, where t he s ame o fficers c ommanded a nd a rmourers t ogether...' ( SEECK, 1 909, 1 928).

b oth

s oldiers

2 84.

C assiodorus, V ariae V II,xviii.

2 85.

C assiodorus, V ariae V II,xviii.

2 86.

C assiodorus w as h imself b oth m agister o fficiorum ( AD 5 23-527) a nd l ater P raetorian P refect ( AD 5 33-537) ( O 'DONNEL, 1 979, 5 7).

2 87.

J ONES,

1 964,

2 75.

2 88. T ranslated b y D r R obert I reland. 2 89. E .g. V ariae V II,xxvi t o x xviii. 2 90.

J ONES,

1 964,

a ppear

i n

2 57.

B esides

t he f ormulae,

l etters

o ther b ooks o f t he v ariae ( e.g.

t o

s uch c omites

I II,xxxiv t o t he c omes

o f M assilia). 2 91.

V ariae V I,xxii-xxv.

2 92. V ariae V II,xxvi-xxviii. 2 93.

V ariae I V,xlv a nd X ,xxix.

2 94.

T he o ther c andidate c ities w ould b e L ucca, C oncordia a nd M antua ( NDOcc. I X,24-27,29).

C remona,

V erona,

2 95. Amm. X XX,v,2 a nd 1 4. 2 96.

N DOcc.

I X,19-20.

2 97.

M OCSY,

1 974,

2 98.

I t

m ay

b e

b efore t he

3 10. a sked w hy t he N otitia i ncludes e stablishments d efunct

t ext r eached i ts f inal f orm . B ut t he N otitia

3 14

s eems

t o

b e a h andbook o f w hat s hould, i n t heory, e xist a t t he t ime t he l ists c eased t o b e a mended. I t i ncludes, f or e xample, d etails o f t he B ritish g arrison ( NDOcc. X XVIII a nd X L) which w as d efunct b efore t he l ists w ere c losed a bout A D 4 25. 2 99.

C laudian,

d e B ello G othico 5 35-9.

3 00. V ita S .Theodori

1 59,45-7,

c oncerning t hree f abrikesioi, T heodorus,

A nthimos a nd P rotasios, b rothers-in-law o f o ne o f t he s oldiers o f t he i mperial g uard ( a s cholarios). T his u nderlines t he c ontinued s ocial p restige o f t hese a rtisans. F or d iscussion o f t he p assage, s ee KAEGI,

1 975,

6 2.

3 01. J ONES,

1 964,

3 14.

3 02.

J ONES,

1 964,

3 14.

3 03.

B ROWNING,

1 980, 4 9.

3 04.

B ROWNING,

1 980, 4 9;

3 05.

' Das K ollegium d er f abricenses u nd a ndere H andwerkerkollegien e rfullten i n B yzanz m indestens b is i ns 1 1. J ahrhunderts s taatlich f estgesetzten A ufgaben ' ( VON P ETRIKOVITS, 1 981, 2 91). V on

H ALDON,

1 979,

P etrikovits r efers t he r eader t o

7 2 n ote 1 27.

h is

c omments

i n

B ECK e t

a l.,

1 981, b ut t he p resent w riter h as b een u nable t o l ocate t hem a nd s o i s n ot a ware o f t he e vidence o n w hich v on P etrikovits b ases t he a bove s tatement. 3 06.

S EECK ,

1 909,

1 927.

3 07.

N DOr.

3 08.

S EECK ,

1 909,

1 927.

3 09.

J ONES,

1 966,

7 5;

I X,35.

3 10. N DOr. X III,16; 3 11.

I t w as

t he

1 964,

1 83,986.

N DOcc. X I,45-60 and s ee a lso X II,26-7.

g eneral

p ractice

i n

t he

f ourth

c entury

f or

t he

a dministration o f t he e mpire t o b e d ivided b etween a n umber o f e mperors, e ach w ith h is o wn m inisters, a s ystem f ormalised f or a w hile i n t he T etrarchy. T he s ole r ule o f C onstantine o r C onstantius I I w as e xceptional, a nd t he f ormer d elegated p ower t o, a nd f inally d ivided t he e mpire b etween h is v arious s ons. C onstantius I I l ikewise f ound t hat h e c ould n ot c ope w ithout a d eputy, a ppointing f irst G allus, t hen J ulian a s C aesar. T he t erritories o f t hese d uplicate a dministrations c hanged r epeatedly, a nd o nly b ecame f ixed a long t he l ines r eflected i n t he N otitia i n t he j oint r eign o f V alentinian a nd V alens. 3 12.

N DOr. X I;

N DOcc.

I X.

3 13. E .g. MACMULLEN, 1 960, 3 1: ' Under D iocletian [ the f abricae] s upervised b y t he p raefectus p raetorii...'.

3 15

w ere

3 14.

C IL V I,1696.

3 15.

B OAK,

3 16.

S EECK,

1 919,

8 6.

1 909,

3 17. MACMULLEN,

1 928,

1 960,

f ollowed b y G ROSSE,

S EECK,

1 909,

1 928.

3 19.

J ONES,

1 964,

1 61,369.

3 21.

B OAK,

1 960,

1 919,

3 22. W ALTZING,

1 04.

3 1.

3 18.

3 20. MACMULLEN,

1 920,

3 2.

8 5.

1 895,

2 41.

3 23.

D e m ag.

2 ,10 a nd 3 ,40.

3 24.

B OAK 's ' earliest r ecorded d ate' o f A D 3 90 i s c learly b ased o n t he f act t hat C Th. X ,xxii,3, p romulgated i n t he y ear, was a ddressed t o t he m agister o fficiorum ( 1919, 8 7, n ote 6 ). J ONES a rrived a t h is d ates o n t he s ame b asis ( 1964, 1 61).

3 25.

J ohn L ydus,

3 26. MACMULLEN,

d e m ag. 3 ,40, 1 960,

l iteral t ranslation b y D r R .

3 2.

3 27.

C Th. X ,xxii,3.

3 28.

B OAK,

3 29.

C Th. X ,xxi,3, A D 3 90.

3 30.

C Th. X ,xxii,5, A D 3 98.

3 31.

C Th. V II,viii,8, A D 4 00-5.

3 32.

C Th. X ,xxii,5,

3 33.

C J X I,ix,6, A D 4 67-72.

3 34.

N ov. J . L XXXV, A D 5 39.

3 35.

C Th. X II,i,81, A D 3 44.

3 36.

C Th. V II,xx,10 A D 3 69. O fficers o f t he f leet, c ohort c ommanders a re i ncluded. N one o f

1 919,

I reland.

8 7.

A D 4 04.

c ontrol o f t he p refect. 3 37.

C Th. X I,xvi,15 a nd 1 8.

3 38.

C Th. X ,xxii,6, A D 4 12.

3 39. Amm. X V,v,12.

3 16

l aeti, l argesses a nd t hese w as u nder t he

S OURCES A mmianus = A mmianus M arcellinus A thanasius,

h ist.

( J.C. R olfe,

a r. = h istoria

1 950, L oeb)

a rianorum

a d

m onachos.

P atrologiae

G raecae X V B anduri a nonymus;

V enice

B yzantine

C orpus,

J avarina,

1 729, V ol.XX,

p p.3-56 o f 2 nd p agination s eries C IL = C orpus I nsciptionum L atinarum C J = C odex J ustinianus ( P. K rueger, B erlin 1 877) C Th = C odex T heodosianus P rinceton 1 952)

( Mommsen,

B erlin

1 905;

t rans.

P harr.

C ,

C assiodorus V ariae: M GH ( AA) X II C laudian,

d e B ello G othico

C onstantine P orphyrogenitus, D iehl

=

E .

D iehl,

d e c eremoniis;

I nscriptiones

a ppx. a d l ib.

I

L atinae C hristianae V eteres, B erlin

1 961 D iocletian,

E dict o n P rices

( Tenney F rank,

E umenius, P an. L at. = P anegyrici L atini,

1 940) I X

( IV),

( Oxford

C lassical

T ext) G reg.

N az.

O r.

=

G regorius

N azianus O rationes,

P atrologiae G raecae,

X XXV-XXXVI I LS = I nscriptiones L atinae S electae, J ohn L ydus, d e m ag. = d e T eubner 1 903) — L act.

d e m ort. p ers. X XVII, 1 71-238

M alalas = J ohn M alalas, M ichael G lycas,

m agistratibus

=

L actantius,

C hronographia.

C SHB 1 836,

N DOr. N ov.

p opuli

d e

R omani.

S eeck,

C SHB

B erlin 1 876)

= N otitia D ignitatum O ccidentalis = N otitia D ignitatum O rientalis

J . = J ustinian N ovellae

3 17

( R.

W uensch,

m ortibus p ersecutorum,

p 468

N otitia = N otitia D ignitatum ( O. N DOcc.

e d. D essau, B erlin 1 892-1916

C SEL,

N ov. T h. = T heodosius N ovellae P .

C airo P reis. = F . P reisigke, G riechische U rkunden M useums z u K airo. S trasbourg 1 911

S ynesius E pist. F itzgerald,

d es

= E pistulae, P atrologiae G raecae L XVI T he L etters o f S ynesius o f C yrene, 1 926)

V egetius, E pitoma r ei m ilitaris

( C. L ang,

A egyptischen

( trans.

T eubner 1 885)

V ita S . T heodori = G eorgios M onachos V ita S . T heodori S ykeotae F estugiere, S ubsidia H agioraphica 4 8, B russels 1 970) Z osimus H istoria N ova ( L. M endelssohn, L eipzig 1 887)

3 18

A .

( A.J.

B IBLIOGRAPHY B ECK e t

a l.

1 981:

H .

B eck,

D .

D enecke

a nd

H .

J ankuhn

( eds.),

U ntersuchungen z ur e isenzeitlichen a nd f rühmittelalterlichen F lur i n M itteleuropa u nd i hrer N utzung,

( Göttingen 1 981)

V AN B ERCHEM 1 952: D . v an B erchem , L 'armge d e D iocletian e t C onstantinienne, ( Paris 1 952) B ISHOP

l a

r eforme

1 985: M .C. B ishop, ' The m ilitary f abrica a nd t he p roduction o f a rms i n t he e arly p rincipate' i n B ISHOP, 1 985b, 1 -42

B ISHOP 1 985b: M .C. B ishop ( ed.), T he P roduction a nd D istribution o f R oman M ilitary E quipment. P roceedin e o f t he S econd R oman M ilitary E quipment R esearch S eminar, B AR I nternational S eries S 275, B LAIR

( Oxford 1 985)

1 958:

C .

B lair, E uropean

A rmour

,c irca

1 066

t o c irca 1 700,

( London 1 958) B OAK 1 919: A .E.R. B oak , T he M aster o f t he O ffices i n a nd B yzantine E mpires, ( New Y ork 1 919)

t he

L ater

R oman

B RASSINGTON 1 975: M . B rassington, ' A r eappraisal o f t he W estern E nclave a nd i ts e nvirons, C orstopitum i , B ritannia V I, 1 975, 6 2-75 B ROWNING 1 980: R . B UCKLEY 1 981: B . K ing a nd

B rowning,

T he B yzantine E mpire,

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2 87-315

B ULLIOT 1 870: M . B ulliot, ' Fouilles A rchgologique, N ew S eries X XI, 1 870, D U

( London 1 980)

d e 4 4

M ont

B eauvray', R evue

C ANGE 1 729: C harles d u F resne, S eigneur d u C ange, C onstantinopolis C hristiana; V enice B yzantine C orpus, V ol.XXI, J avarina ( Venice 1 729)

C OULSTON 1 985: J .C. 1 985b, 2 20-366 D AVIES 1 935:

C oulston,

' Roman a rchery e quipment',

O . D avies, R oman M ines i n E urope,

i n B ISHOP,

( Oxford 1 935)

D EMANGEL & M AMBOURY 1 939: R , D emangel a nd E . M amboury, L e Q uartier d es M anganes e t l e P remier R egion d e C onstantinople, ( Paris 1 939) D OWNEY

1 961: G . D owney, t he A rab C onquest,

E NSSLIN

1 942:

W .

E nsslin,

S itzungsberichte 1 942 H eft 1 F ORBES

1 972:

R .J.

A H istory o f A ntioch i n S yria f rom S eleucus t o ( Princeton 1 961)

d er

F orbes,

Z ur

O stpolitik

d es

B ayerischen

A kademie

S tudies

A ncient

i n

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3 19

K aisers

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d er W issenschaften,

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C .

F oss,

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( Harvard 1 976)

F OSS 1 981: C . F oss, ' A p ainter i n t he i mperial a rms f actory a t S ardis', A merican J ournal o f A rchaeology 8 5, 1 981, 8 7-8 F RANK

1 940: T . F rank, A n ( Baltimore 1 940) -

E conomic

S urvey

o f

A ncient R ome, V ol.V,

G REENWALT 1 979: C .H. G reenwalt, ' The S ardis c ampaign o f 1 977', B ulletin o f t he A merican S chool o f O riental R esearch 2 33, 1 979, 1 V ON GROLLER 1 909: M . v on Ö sterreich X , 1 909 G ROSSE

G roller,

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i n

1 918: R . G rösse, ' Die R angordnung d er r ömischen A rmee d es 4 -6 J ahrhunderts', K lio 1 5, 1 918, 1 22-61

G ROSSE 1 920: R . G rösse, R ömische M ilitärgeschichte v on G allienus b is z um B eginn d er b yzantinischen T hemenverfassung, ( Berlin 1 920) H ALDON 1 979: J .F. H aldon, R ecruitment a nd C onscription i n t he B yzantine A rmy, c .550-950. Ö sterreichische A kademie d er W issenschaften, P hilologisch-Historische K lasse, S itzungsberichte B and 3 57, 1 979 H EALY 1 978: J .F. H ealy, M ining a nd M etallurgy ( London 1 978)

i n

t he

A ncient

W orld,

H OFFMANN 1 969: D . H offmann, D as s pätrömische N otitia D ignitatum , ( Düsseldorf 1 969)

B ewegungsheer u nd d ie

H UNDT

1 960: H .J. H undt, S aalburg-Jahrbuch 1 8,

S chwertriemenhalter',

J AMES

1 984: S .T. J ames, ' Britain a nd t he l ate R oman a rmy', B lagg a nd A .C. K ing ( eds.), M ilitary a nd C ivilian B ritain, B AR B ritish S eries 1 36, ( Oxford 1 984), 1 61-86

J AMES

1 986: S .T. J ames, ' Evidence f rom D ura-Europos f or t he o rigins o f l ate R oman h elmets', S yria LXIII, 1 986, 1 07-34

J OHNSON 1 980: S . J ohnson, B ritannia X I, 1 980, J ONES

1 964: 1 964)

A .H.M.

' A l ate 3 03-12

J ones,

J ONES 1 966: A .H.M . J ones, 1 966)

' Eiserne r ömische 1 960, 6 8-66

T he

R oman

L ater

T he D ecline o f

h elmet

f rom

R oman E mpire,

t he

A ncient

i n T .F.C. i n R oman

B urgh

C astle',

2 84-602,

( Oxford

W orld,

( London

J ULLIAN 1 896: C . J ullian, ' Fabrica' i n C . D aremberg a nd E . ( eds.), D ictionnaire d es A ntiques G recques e t R omaines,

3 20

S aglio ( Paris

1 896) K AEGI

1 975:

W .E.

K aegi,

' Notes

i nstitutional c hanges c entury', B yzantina 7 , K ENT

o n

h agiographic

a nd c ontinuities 1 975, 6 1-70

s ources t he

L AUFFER 1 971:

S . L auffer,

S pätrömische G ardehelme,

D iokletians P reisedikt,

M ACMULLEN 1 960: R . M acMullen,

s eventh

1 960,

R . M acMullen,

2 35-337,

( Yale

1 980:

1 980, M ANN 1 977:

( Berlin 1 971)

American J ournal

o f

R oman G overnment's R esponse t o C risis,

R . MacMullen,

' How b ig was

J .C. M ann,

A D

t he R oman a rmy?', K lio 6 2,

' Duces a nd c omites i n

1 939:

H .

M IHAILOV 1 965:

M attingly,

G . M ihailov,

B urgas 2 , 1 974:

1 965,

A .

t he

T he S axon S hore, ' The

' MaTepwaAH

f ourth

1 939),

H

O 'DONNEL 1 979:

r ecovery',

c bo L leH le

P annonia

a nd

U pper

I zvestia

M oesia;

T he A ncient W orld a t W ork,

O 'Donnel,

C assiodorus,

J .

O ldenstein,

a rmy w ith b ronze f ittings',

A H istory o f t he

( London 1 974)

( London 1 969)

A usrüstung 4 9-284

r ömischer

' Manufacture and s upply o f t he R oman i n B ISHOP,

1 985b,

8 2-94

V ON P ETRIKOVITS 1 975: H . v on P etrikovits, D ie I nnenbauten L egionslager w ährend d er P rinzipätzeit, ( Opladen 1 975) P ETRIKOVITS

1 981:

H .

v on

P etrikovits,

r ömischen H andwerks I I ( Spätantike)', u nd E pigraphik 4 3, R ICHMOND & B IRLEY 1 940: C orbridge

M useum

( Berkeley 1 979)

O LDENSTEIN 1 976: J . O ldenstein, Z ur Auxiliareinheiten', R GK B ericht 5 7, 1 976, 1 985:

C ambridge

1 50-3

M ocsy,

J .J.

i n

2 97-351

M iddle D anube P rovinces o f t he R oman E mpire, C . M osse,

c entury',

( London 1 977)

i mperial

A ncient H istory, v ol.XII ( Cambridge

1 940,

6 4,

4 51-60

M ATTINGLY

O LDENSTEIN

A rchaeology

1 976)

D .E. J ohnstone ( ed.),

M OSSE 1 969:

( Munich 1 973)

2 3-40

M ACMULLEN 1 976:

M ACMULLEN

S acrarum

' Inscriptions o n a rmour a nd t he s upply o f

a rms i n t he R oman Empire',

V ON

f or s ome

e arly

u npublished: J .P.C. K ent, T he O ffice o f C omes L argitionum, U niversity o f L ondon D octoral T hesis, 1 951

K LUMBACH 1 973: H . K lumbach,

M OCSY

i n

r ömischer

' Die S pecialisierung d es

Z eitschrift f ür P apyrologie

2 85-306 I .A .

1 938-9',

R ichmond

&

A rchaeologia

8 5-115

3 21

E .

B irley,

A eliana

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a t

S eries) XVII,

R ICHMOND 1 943: I .A . s upply b ase S eries) X XI,

R ichmond, ' Roman l egionaries a t C orbridge, t heir a nd r eligious c ults', A rchaeologia A eliana ( Fourth 1 943,

R OBERT & R OBERT 1 966:

1 27-224

J .

R obert & L . R obert,

R evue d es E tudes G recques 7 9, R OBINSON 1 975: 1 975)

H .R .

R OSTOVTZEFF e t a l. a nd

R obinson,

1 936: M .I.

C .B.

W elles

1 982:

S EECK 1 876: S EECK

A rmour

T he

S alamon

S eeck,

&

L .

a l.

1 977:

S tiglitz,

M .

1 971:

T ODD 1 975: V ETTERS

E .B.

M .

T homas, H elme,

T odd,

S childe,

1 977: H . V etters,

( New HAven 1 936) ' Pannonien

i n

( Linz

1 982),

1 47-

1 876) i n

P auly-Wissowa,

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1 1,6,

a nd

W .

J obst,

5 83-730

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T he N orthern B arbarians,

H opkins

i n L and O berösterreich,

' Fabricenses',

H .

C .

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D ura-Europos:

B arkoczi,

( Berlin

' Carnuntum', A ufstieg u nd N iedergang,

a t

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( 376-476)',

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T HOMAS

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Z wischen R ömerzeit u nd V olkwanderung,

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S TIGLITZ e t

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3 35-449

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( eds.),

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1 966,

( Budapest 1 971)

( London 1 975)

' Lauriacum', A ufstieg u nd

N iedergang,

1 1,6,

3 55-79 V ICKERS

1 972: M . V ickers,

R oman S tudies 6 2,

' The h ippodrome a t T hessaloniki',

1 972,

V IERECK 1 975: H .D.L. V iereck,

D ie r ömische F lotte,

W ALTZING 1 896:

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J .P. W altzing,

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L .C.

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1 969:

I I,

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s ur

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t he O bjects o f T rade,

( Oxford 1 935)

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a nd P . ( Oxford

5 1-8

W ILLIAMS 1 985: 1 985) W ILKES

W est,

J ournal o f

2 5-32

S . W illiams,

J .J. W ilkes,

D iocletian a nd t he R oman R ecovery,

D almatia,

( London 1 969)

3 22

( London

Table

I

NDOr.IX 3 .

NDOc.XI

S ub d ispositione m agistri

v iri

i llustris

3 .

o fficiorum:

S ub

d ispositione

infrascriptae:

1 8.

Fabricae

i nfrascriptae:

16.

F abricae

Orientis

V :

1 7.

I n

S cutaria

et armorum,

D amasci.

2 1.

S cutaria

et armorum,

Antiochiae.

2 2.

C libanaria,

2 3.

S cutaria

et armamentaria,

2 4.

H astaria

I renopolitania,

2 5.

P onticae

C libanaria,

2 7.

S cutaria

2 8.

C libanaria,

2 9.

Asianae

Edesa. C iliciae.

t res:

Caesarea

et armorum,

S cutaria

3 1.

Thraciarum S cutaria

duae

34. 3 5.

[ Thraciarum S cutaria I llyrici

A cincensis

2 0.

C arnuntensis

scutaria.

2 1.

L auriacensis

scutaria.

2 2.

S alonitana

armorum.

Concordiensis Veronensis

2 6.

Mantuana

2 7.

Cremonensis

2 8.

T icenensis

Lydiae.

una]:

H adrianopoli

duae:] M arcianopoli.

I taliae:

2 9. 3 0.

et armorum,

scutaria

2 5.

S ardis

sagittaria.

scutaria

scutaria. arcuaria.

spatharia.

Galliis:

3 1.

A rgentomagensis armorum

3 2.

Matisconensis

Augustodunensis b alistaria

et

3 7.

N aissatensis.

34.

Augustodunensis

3 8.

Ratiarensis.

3 5.

S uessionensis

S cutaria i llustris s cola

suprascripti

magistri

agentum

i n

o fficiorum

rebus

est

3 6.

R emensis

3 7.

Triberorum

de

3 8.

Triberorum balistaria.

ita:

3 9. 40.

42.

Subadiuvae.

44.

F abricarum

u stris

Oriens

l ine

A lso,

underlining

2 5

l ines

the

scutaria. spatharia

autem

m agistri i n

et

scutaria.

suprascripti

v iri

officiorum de

rebus

h abetur

hoc

i ll-

scola modo:

t res. 43.

l isted.

spatharia.

Ambianensis Officium agentum

NB.

scutaria.

v iri

Horreomargensis

officiorum autem

loricaria,

clibanaria.

Thessalonicensis.

3 9.

omnium.

s igittaria.

3 6.

40.

et armorum.

loricaria.

L ucensis I n

3 3.

quatuor:

scordiscorum et

1 9.

2 4.

H aemimonti. 3 3.

scutorum,

2 3.

[ Asianae

et armorum,

S irmensis armorum.

N icomediae.

N icomediae.

et armorum,

I llyrico:

Cappadociae.

una:

3 0. 3 2.

Antiochiae.

[ quatuor]

2 6.

18.

i llustris

o fficiorum:

1 9. 2 0.

v iri

m agistri

i s

Ponticae

29-33,

correct

brackets

quatuor show

S ubadiuvae i n

actual

positions

3 23

the

MSS

f abricarum but

positions

of

only

diversarum.

three

h eadings

entries in

t he

are MSS,

C D r f

. c z

r d E 1

NDOr.XI,25-34

H H

3 24

Una;

Caesarea C appadociae

C libanaria,

N icomediae

( ...?missing entry h ere?...)

C libanaria,

P onticae Quatuor;

PROPOSED RESTORATION

Thraciarum Duae;

e c

Thraciarum Duae;

A sianae

N icomediae

N icomediae

S cutaria et armorum,

C libanaria,

S cutaria et armorum,

P onticae Quatuor;

E 1 X W P

.

T able

I II:

D iocesan o rder of praesides

( Based on NDOr.I and O c.) T he

E ast:

T he West

E gypt

I llyricum

O riens

I taliae 2

A siana

A frica

P ontica

H ispaniae

T hraciae

( W)

G alliae 3

I llyricum

( E)

B ritanniae

1

N otes: 1 .

Equals M acedonia and D acia

2 .

I ncludes

S uburbicaria.

3 .

I ncludes

Septem P rovinciae.

T able

IV:

S yria: T hrace:

( All

i n frontier zones

S ardis L ydiae and N icomedia

M arcianopolis and H adrianopolis

I llyricum: I taly:

armour f actory doublets

D amascus and Antioch

A natolia:

G aul:

t ogether.

S irmium and S alona

Verona and M antua* A rgentomagus and Augustodunum*

l isted as f abricae armorum except

3 25

* i ndicates

l oricariae)

/

D ATE A D

r es p r iva ta

C oun t o ft he

t he O ff ices

M as ter o f

P raetor ian

P re fec t

A DDRESSEE

. , /

R EFERENCE

3 44 C Th .X 1 1 . 1 .3 7 3 69 C Th .V I I .xx . 10 Th .X 1 1 . 1 .8 1 3 80 C

3 88-390

3 88 C Th . X. x x i i .2 ,/

Th .X .x x i i .3 3 90 C

4 4 9,

3 98 C Th . X. x x1 . 4 C Th .V I I .v i i i .8

4 04 C Th .X .xx i i .5

C Th .X .x x i .6 4 12 ' CIV I . Ix i i .5

3 8 r4

N ov .Th .V 1

_7

/

C J .X I . i x .6

7

4e :

C J .X 1 1 .xx .5

e

C J . X1 .i x .7

ov .J .L XXXV 5 39 N

T able V

3 26

1 7 -1 • Amb i anum • S ues sones ' ,e n . * T r ave r ' „ C . 4 . . r . n u r e um L ounacu r n

Augu s t cd tru r n

I nCU M

T i mm%

V e r . ona;Con co rd ia

m ow n

C remona

. H .r > r eu r n

, 4 3 . 5 .

. ' •F i s te r ia N os sus

: 5 4 a r c ianopo l t s . H adnanopo t is .r d s comed ia

f de sa rea