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MEXICAN CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS AS DEPICTED IN TEE WORKS OF GREGORIO LOPEZ Y 1UENTES

A th e s is P re se n te d to th e F a c u lty of th e U n iv e r s ity of S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a

In P a r tia l F u lfillm e n t of th e R e q u ire m e n ts f o r t h e D egree M a ste r o f A rts

^7 S te p h e n A n to n in R eyes Ju n e 1950

UMI Number: EP65444

All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the'author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion.

DisseatafSbn Publishing

UMI EP65444 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code

ProQuest' ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346

S 1& t R H s’ 7 This thesis, written by ^

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under the guidance of h..Fx... Faculty Com m ittee, and ap p ro ved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Council on Graduate S tu d y and Research in partial fulfill­ ment of the requirements fo r the degree of

h j i iU a

ttjf

I l f *

Date.

Faculty Committee .................

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Chairman

TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER

I .

PACE

BIOGRAPHY

xi

---------------------------------------------------

3

S t a t e m e n t o f t h e p r o b l e m ----------------------

3

I m p o r t a n c e o f t h e s t u d y -------------------------

3

D e f i n i t i o n o f t e r m s u s e d --------------------------

4

T h e v i l l a g e r ----------------------------------------------

4

The n a t i v e

--------------------------------------------

4

T h e m e s t i z o ------------------------------------------------

4

T h e c r e o l e --------------------------------------------------

4

T h e M e x i c a n ------------------------------------------------

4

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE M ex ican l i f e

i n t h e n o v e ls o f c u sto m -

5

T he I n d i a n i n c o n t e m p o r a r y M e x i c a n L i t e r a t u r e -----

5

MEXICAN SOCIAL CUSTOMS C o u r t s h i p and m a r r i a g e — -

III.

ii

THE PROBLEM AND THE DEFINITION OF TERMS USED The p r o b le m

II #

INTRODUCTION

7

F o o d a n d t a b l e ----------------------------------------

12

M e x ic a n s o c i a l o r t r i b a l g r o u p s -------

15

R iv a l r y and v e n d e t t a s

16

-------------------

W akes a n d b u r i a l s ---------------------------------

16

R e c r e a t i o n ------------------------------------------------

20

S e c r e c y ------------------------------------------------------

23

T h e m a c h e t e ----------------------------------------------

23

PAGE

CHAPTER III.

IT .

T.

V I.

V II.

V III.

MEXICAN SOCIAL CUSTOMS G a m b l i n g ----------------------------------------------------------- ,

24

E i r e v / a t e r --------------------------------------------------------

25

MEXICAN FAMILY CUSTOMS T h e M e x i c a n m a n ------------------------------------------

2?

T h e M e x i c a n w o m a n --------------------------------------

30

T h e f a m i l y h o m e -----------------------------

33

F a m i l y n a m e s ------------------------------------------------

34

F a m i l y h o n o r ------------------------------------------------

35

RELIGION W o r s h i p o f m any g o d s --------------------------------

37

T h e c h u r c h a n d t h e i n d i v i d u a l ---------------

40 *

THE GOVERNMENT AND THE VILLAGER T a x a t i o n ------------------------------------------------------

48

R e p r e s e n t a t i o n --------------------------------------------

50

TRIBAL JU STICE T h e h u e h u e s -----------------------

54

J u s t i c e --------------------------------------------------------

54

C a p i t a l p u n i s h m e n t ----------------------------------

57

MEXICAN PO LIT IC S AND POLITICOS The I n d i a n i s

s o l i c i t e d ------------------------

60

T he M e x i c a n p o l i t i c o ---------------------

61

B u lle ts

a n d b a l l o t s --------------------------------

62

Armed r e b e l l i o n ----------------------------------------

63

CHAPTER IX .

X.

PAGE

VIEWS ABOUT EDUCATION V ie w s a b o u t e d u c a t i o n ------------------------------

66

I l l i t e r a c y -------------------------

6?

L anguage d i f f i c u l t i e s

------------------------------

70

P r o b l e m s o f s c h o o l a t t e n d a n c e ---------------

?2

B u i l d i n g a s c h o o l --------------------------------------

73

MEDICAL NEEDS, MEDICINE AND THE NAHUAL H erbs and t h e

u s e s ----------------------------------

V e te rin a ria n p ra c tic e s

X I.

X II.

76

----------------------- —

79

R i t u a l h e a l i n g ------------------------------------------

60

T h e m i d w i f e ---------------------

81

The w i t c h d o c t o r

83

--------------------------------

MAKING A LIVING A g r i c u l t u r e ----------------------------------------------

88

H u n t i n g a n d f i s h i n g ------------------------------

92

M u le d r i v e r s --------------------------------------------

93

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS S u m m a r y --------------------------C o n c l u s i o n s ---------------------------------------------BIBLIOGRAPHY

98 100 102

INTRODUCTION P o litic a lly ,

so c ia lly ,

a n d e c o n o m i c a l l y , M e x ic o h a s

b een m ak in g a c o n t i n u o u s p r o g r e s s .

S in c e i t s

in d ep e n d en c e

(1 8 1 0 ) M ex ico h a s s u c c e e d e d i n w r e s t i n g i t s e l f a n a rc h is m and r i v a l r y o f t h e te m p te d t o

e o rre c t th e

from t h e

e a rly " c a u d illo s " , h as a t ­

a c c e p te d c o lo n ia l p r a c t ic e o f f a v o r ­

in g t h e C h u rch and t h e r i c h

a t th e

in g t h e p e r io d o f L ib e r a lis m ,

expense o f th e poor d u r­

and h a s s in c e th e l a t t e r

e m b a r k e d on a p r o g r a m o f l i b e r a l l e g i s l a t i o n

a ffe c tin g

d istrib u tio n

o f la n d ,

e x p lo ita tio n

o f th e c o u n try by fo re ig n i n t e r e s t s ,

fa v o rite

sta tu s

p e rio d th e

t h e im p ro v e m e n t o f t h e m a s s e s , t h e

o f th e C h urch.

and th e

T h i s i s known a s t h e p e r i o d

o f t h e M ex ican R e v o l u t i o n . M e x ica n p o l i t i c s h a s im p ro v e d v a s t l y days o f th e c o n tr o l th e ir m ilita ry ro y a list,

from th e

e a rly

o f th e c o u n try by th e a r i s t o c r a t s

" c a u d i ll o s " l i k e A g u stin de I t u r b i d e ,

and th e

who e n j o y e d h i s M e x i c a n E m p i r e fr o m 1 8 2 2 t o 1 8 2 3 ;

V a l e n t i n Gomez F a r i a s ;

V ic e n te G u e rre ro ;

and t h e u b i q u i t o u s ,

u n p r e d i c t a b l e and p e r e n n i a l A n to n io L o^ez d e S a n ta A na. stitu tio n s ,

" p la n e s* * o r l e g i s l a t i v e p r o g r a m s ,

Con­

p re s id e n tia l

p o w e r s a n d p r e s i d e n t i a l t e r m s se e m t o h a v e b e e n f i n a l l y s e t t l e d and to

f o l l o w a m o re o r d e r l y and s t a b l e

P re s id e n tia l a ssa ss in a tio n s

p a tte rn .

ended w ith t h e d e a th o f

P r e s i d e n t - e l e c t A lv a ro O bregon a t t h e h a n d s o f a r e l i g i o u s

f a n a tic ,1 Ju ly 17, 1918. M e x ica n p r e s i d e n t

P a s c u a l O r t i z R u b io w as t h e l a s t

to le a v e h is

o ffic e b efo re

th e e x p ira ­

t i o n o f t h e t e r m f o r w h i c h h e w a s e l e c t e d i n 1 9 2 9 . -Al­ th o u g h a s s a u l t s

o f v o tin g b o o th s and c a p tu r e o f th e b a l -

l o t boxes s t i l l

c o n tin u e d in

some m e a s u r e ,

a t l e a s t b y some d e g r e e b y p o p u l a r v o t e . d a te s no l o n g e r r e s o r t t o

p

e le c tio n i s

D e fe a te d c a n d i ­

a rm e d v i o l e n c e t o

f o r c e th e m ­

s e l v e s i n t o t h e p r e s i d e n c y a n d h a v e n o t done so s i n c e t h e e le c tio n

o f M a n u e l A v i l a C am acho i n 1 9 4 0 , w hen G e n e r a l

J u a n A n d r e u A lm az su i, a n i n d e p e n d e n t c a n d i d a t e , have had c e r t a in and t h r e a t s

seem ed t o

s u p p o r t e r s w ho g a v e e v i d e n c e o f u n r e s t

of re v o lt.

T hus,

sin c e th e

a ss a s s in a tio n

of

G e n e ra l O bregon i n 1928 and w i t h few d e m o n s t r a t i o n s o f r e b e llio u s a c t i v i t y s in c e th e n th e c o u n try h as e x p e ri­ enced a good m e a su re o f p o l i t i c a l E c o n o m i c a l l y , M e x ic o h a s

s ta b ility .

e x p e rie n c e d i t s

t u a t i o n s as h a s a lm o st e v e ry o th e r c o u n tr y . p o litic a l

S in c e i t s

i n d e p e n d e n c e f r o m S p a i n , M e x ic o h a s e n c o u n t e r e d

s o m e \d iffic u lt

e c o n o m ic p r o b l e m s t h a t b r o u g h t a b o u t c o n ­

sequences t h a t th re a te n e d i t s tim e s.

own f l u c ­

On p r e t e x t

v e ry fo u n d a tio n s s e v e ra l

of c o lle c tin g

o u ts ta n d in g d e b ts a f t e r

-*■ M a ry W i l h e l m i n e W i l l i a m s , T he P e o p l e a n d P o l i t i c s o f L a t i n A m e r i c a , G in n & C om pany, R e v . 1 9 3 8 , p . 5 0 3 . 2

E r n e s t G r u e n i n g , M e x ic o a n d i t s H e r i t a g e , T he C e n t u r y C o . , Hew Y o r k a n d L o n d o n , 1 9 2 8 , p . 3 9 0 . iii

paym ent h ad been d e f e r r e d ,

E n g la n d , F r a n c e ,

and S p a in i n ­

vaded th e c o u n try ,

a i d e d b y M e x i c a n s who r e a l l y w i s h e d f o r

a m on arch y i n s t e a d

of a

w ith th e in v a d e rs ,

was l i q u i d a t e d b y t h e M e x ic a n s a s s o o n

d e m o c r a c y .

3

T h is i n v a s io n ,

a lo n g

a s t h e A m e r i c a n C i v i l War w a s e n d e d i n 1 8 6 £ . T he f a i l u r e t o p a y an in d e m n ity t o t h e F re n c h g o v e rn m e n t f o r dam ages c a u s e d b y r i o t i n g M e x ic a n s t o

a F rench b a k e r r e s u l t e d

in

t h e P a s t r y War b e t w e e n t h e F r e n c h a n d t h e M e x i c a n s i n 1 8 3 8 . ^ The n a t i o n a l t r e a s u r y w as n o t i n a f a v o r a b l e c o n d i t i o n u n ­ til

I o s e / Yves L im a n to u r becam e t h e S e c r e t a r y o f F in a n c e

d u rin g th e P o r f i r i o

D ia z R e g im e , a r e g i m e w h i c h l a s t e d

from

I 884 u n t i l 1911. E c o n o m i c a l l y s p e a k i n g , M e x ic o e n j o y e d a f a v o r a b l e in te rn a tio n a l

sta tu s

n o m ic a lly sp e a k in g , such s t a t u s .

d u r i n g t h e D ia z a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .

Eco­

t h e p e o p l e o f r u r a l M e x ic o e n j o y e d n o

I t w as d u r i n g t h i s re g im e t h a t t h e M e x ica n

p e o p le w ere d iv id e d i n t o

tw o u n b e l i e v a b l y u n e q u a l c a m p s ,

t h o s e who ow ned p r o p e r t y a n d t h o s e who d i d n o t . of th e y e a r 1910,

th e

sta te

By t h e

end

t h a t i n c l u d e d t h e g r e a t e s t num­

b er o f heads of r u r a l fa m ilie s

o w n in g p r o p e r t y c o u l d go n o

3 M e x ic a n Y e a r B o o k , 1 9 2 0 - 1 9 2 1 , L o s A n g e le s M e x ica n Y e a r B ook P u b l i s h i n g C o . , 1 9 2 2 , p . 6 1 . 4 M a ry W i l h e l m i n e W i l l i a m s , o f L a t in A m e ric a , p . 4 6 1 .

iv

T he P e o p l e a n d P o l i t i c s

h ig h e r th a n 1 1 .3 $ o f th e t o t a l p o p u la tio n in th e t e r r i t o r y o f L ow er C a l i f o r n i a .

T he l o w e s t p e r c e n t a g e o f h e a d s o f

f a m i l i e s o w n in g p r o p e r t y w as i n O a x a c a , w h e r e i t T h is in c lu d e d a t o t a l 8 6 .7 $ o f t h e t o t a l w as a s h i n i n g

w as 0 0 . 2 $ .

r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n o f 9 0 1 .4 4 2 w h ic h was

s ta te p o p u la tio n .

e x a m p le o f t h i s

The s t a t e

o f C h ih u ah u a

u n p re c e d e n te d la n d h o ld in g .

” Es u s t e d d e C h i h u a h u a ” ? , J u a n T e r r a z a s w as a s k e d u p o n h i s b e in g in tr o d u c e d t o a f r i e n d .

The l a n d o w n e r v e r y p r o u d l y

a n s w e r e d t h e q u e r y w i t h a ”N o , s e h o r , A g r i c u l t u r e form s t h e b a s i c M e x ica n p e o p l e ,

C h ih u a h u a es d e m i . "5

o c c u p a tio n o f th e

a lth o u g h M e x ico f s g r e a t e s t s o u r c e o f w e a lth

i s to be found in

i t s m in e s and p e tr o le u m d e p o s i t s .

V a ria ­

tio n s in th e c o u n try f s c lim a te p e rm its a g r e a t d i v e r s i f i c a ­ tio n

o f c ro p s in c lu d in g h en eq u e n , w h e a t,

c h ic k p e a s ,

co ffee,

c h ic le , w in te r v e g e ta b le s ,

o f w h ich a g r e a t p e r c e n t a g e i s d u rin g t h e w in te r m o n th s .

bananas,

and f r u i t s ,

th e U n ite d S t a te s

th e m ost im p o rta n t s t a p le

o f th e a g r ic u ltu r a l la n d s i s

a n o th e r s t a p l e .^

A c co rd in g t o t h e M e x ic o w a s 1 9 ,

sh ip p e d to

C orn i s

o f M e x ico and a g o o d ly p o r t i o n d e v o te d t o b e a n s ,

c o tto n ,

census o f 1940, th e p o p u la tio n

6 5 3 ,5 5 2 m o st o f w h ic h i s

of

found in th e r u r a l

5 R o b e r t N . M cL ean , T h a t M e x i c a n , C o . , Hew Y o r k , C h i c a g o , 1 9 2 8 , p . 7 8 .

F l e m i n g H . R ev e l l

6 A . C u r t i s So R a u l D ’ E c a W i l g u s , O u t l i n e o f L a t i n A m e r i c a n H i s t o r y , r e v i s e d , B a r n e s So N o b l e , 1 9 3 9 , p . 1 6 3 . v

d istric ts

and i n

sm a ll to w n s.

C o m p are d w i t h t h e l i v i n g

s t a n d a r d s o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s m o st M e x ica n s l i v e tiv e

p o v e rty .

d u stria l

of th e

d ecad e b e c a u se o f s o c i a l and l a b o r l e g i s l a ­

a d o p te d b y t h e g o v e rn m e n t.? T h e f a s t m o v in g p i c t u r e

w o u ld l e a d o n e t o

o f t h e l a n d o w n in g s i t u a t i o n

c o n c lu d e t h a t t h i s

b a s i c p ro b le m s o f M e x ico ,

and so i t

w o u ld b e o n e o f t h e is.

Even p r i o r t o

B e n i t o J u a r e z T l a n d r e f o r m s , b u t m ore s p e c i f i c a l l y h i s p e r i o d d o we f i n d t h e l a n d fo rm s. th e

in ­

and a g r i c u l t u r a l l a b o r e r h a s im p ro v ed c o n s i d e r a b l y

d u rin g th e l a s t tio n

H o w ev er, t h e s t a n d a r d o f l i v i n g

in r e l a ­

B efo re J u a r e z ,

c o u n try i t

is

q u e s t i o n on p o l i t i c a l p l a t ­

sin c e th e

c o n s e r v a t i v e s d o m in a te d

e a s y t o u n d e r s t a n d why n o e f f e c t i v e l a n d

pro g ram c o u ld be s e t

up.

I t was d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d

L i b e r a l i s m and D e s p o tis m , t h e p e r i o d P o rfirio L erd o )

d u rin g

o f B e n ito J u a re z

D ia z t h a t l a n d r e f o r m s w e re b o t h p r o p o s e d

and s u p p r e s s e d i n t o

o b liv io n

of and

(L a L e y

( t h e D ia z r e g i m e ) .

I n h i s P l a n o f San L u is P r a n e i s c o I .

M adero p r o ­

posed t h e r e d i s t r i b u t i o n

o f l a n d s am ong t h e M e x i c a n p e a s ­

a n try .

an I n d i a n

B ttilia n o Z a p a ta ,

tio n ist,

was a p e r s o n a l s y m b o l o f l a n d f o r t h e l a n d l e s s .

By 1 9 1 0 t h e tia te d

spokesm an and r e v o l u ­

e n t i r e c o u n tr y w as in a t u r m o i l and h ad i n i ­

t h e M e x ica n R e v o l u t i o n ,

or th e

a t t e m p t b y t h e common

? A* C u r t i s & R a u l D f E c a W i l g u s , .A m e ric a n H i s t o r y , p . 1 6 5 . vi

O u tlin e

of L a tin

p e o p le to g a in tin u e s

e c o n o m ic a n d p o l i t i c a l p r i v i l e g e s w h i c h c o n -

even t o t h i s

day.

A fte r th e p ro p o sa l of la n d r e ­

form s by M adero, t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n o f 1917 i n c o r p o r a t e d t h e sam e i d e a i n

its

fam ous a r t i c l e

C hurch c o u ld n o t a c q u i r e , h o l d ,

2A w h ic h p r o v id e d t h a t t h e o r a d m in iste r r e a l p ro p e rty

and s t a t e d t h a t t h e o w n e rsh ip o f t h e la n d and w a te r w ith in t h e r e p u b l i c was o r i g i n a l l y v e s t e d i n T h e n ew c o n s t i t u t i o n

t h e M e x ica n p e o p l e .

a ls o p ro v id e d f o r th e d i s t r i b u t i o n

l a n d among t h e i n d i g e n t M e x i c a n Ttp e o n e s n .

L a te r,

of

in 1920,

P r e s i d e n t A lv a r o O bregon h a d la w s e n a c t e d a b o l i s h i n g t h e la rg e

e sta te s

S till la te r,

a n d t h e l a n d s d i v i d e d am ong t h e p e a s a n t s . i n 1 9 2 4 , P r e s i d e n t P l u t a r c o EL^as C a b le s c o n ­

t i n u e d t h e C hurch and l a n d p r o g r a m s .

I t was n o t u n t i l

L a z a r o C afrd en as, h o w e v e r, t h a t

p ro g ram was i n i t i a t e d

and m ore f u l l y th e

e n tire

e x e c u te d .

a real

C ard en as e n d eav o red to

c a rry out

s e t o f p r i n c i p le s o f th e R e v o lu tio n .

D u rin g h i s

a d m i n i s t r a t i o n som e 2 4 , 0 0 0 ,0 0 0 a c r e s o f l a n d w e r e d i s t r i b u t ­ e d among t h e

tTp e o n e s ft.&

N a tio n a liz a tio n

o f th e g r e a t in d u s ­

t r i e s b y h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w as u p h e l d b y t h e o f t h e l a n d , m uch t o t h e M e x ica n a r i s t o c r a t s ers.

suprem e c o u r t

awe a n d c o n s t e r n a t i o n o f b o t h

and la n d e d g e n t r y and f o r e i g n

The l a n d q u e s t i o n an d t h e n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n

a re p ro b a b ly s t i l l

e x p lo it­

p ro g ram s

f a r from s e t t l e d .

8 M a ry W i l h e l m i n e W i l l i a m s , of L a tin M e r ic a , p . 511. v ii

The P e o p le and P o l i t i c s

T he s o c i a l d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e M e x ica n p e o p l e , th o u g h i t

h as been a r e a l

s tru g g le , has serv ed to

w o r ld t h a t t h e tw o c u l t u r e s w hat a m a lg a m a te ,

a l­ sh o w t h e

can e x i s t s i d e by s i d e ,

so m e ­

and p ro d u c e an e le m e n t t h a t w i l l f u l f i l l

a d e s t i n y o f a m o v in g f o r c e a n d o f a g u i d i n g h a n d i n n a ­ tio n a l m a tte rs. th e

D u rin g t h e c o l o n i a l p e r i o d and lo n g a f t e r

in d ep e n d en c e of th e c o u n tr y t h e r e

e x is te d

th e a r i s t o ­

c r a t i c M e x ica n o f E u ro p e a n e x t r a c t i o n w ith h i s s y s te m o f p riv ile g e s,

t h e m ix e d o r m e s t i z o and h i s p r i v i l e g e s ,

h i s l a c k o f th em ,

or

a n d t h e u n d e r p r i v i l e g e d M e x ica n I n d i a n .

A lth o u g h e d u c a t i o n was n o t d e n ie d t h e n a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n it

w a s n o t v e r y l i k e l y t h a t m an y o f t h i s

g ro u p w o u ld s t e p

up t h e r u n g s o f t h e l a d d e r o f p r i v i l e g e .

H ow ever, B e n it o

J u a r e z was o f Z a p o te c I n d i a n b lo o d , F o r f i r i o D ia z was a m e s tiz o ,

and L a z a ro C a rd e n a s i s m a in ly o f I n d i a n b lo o d .

The C h u rc h h i e r a r c h y a n d t h e l o c a l p r i e s t s w e re n o t v e r y lik e ly to

i n c l u d e t h e I n d i a n and u n d e r p r i v i l e g e d m e s tiz o s

s in c e t h e p rie s th o o d m eant t r a i n i n g to

and t h i s w as d i f f i c u l t

s e c u r e w i t h o u t t h e m ea n s t o do s o .

e d u c a tio n w as t h e r e a l

I t w o u ld s e e m t h a t

s tu m b lin g b lo c k and im p e d in g ob­

s t a c l e t o t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e I n d i a n and m e s tiz o g ro u p i n t h e h i g h e r s tr a tu m

o f M e x ica n s o c i e t y .

E v en t h o u g h t h i s p r o b l e m w as r e a l i z e d b y w e l l m e a n i n g g o v ern m en t f u n c t i o n a r i e s t h e y h a d t o d iffe re n c e ,

sto ic ism ,

c o n te n d w ith t h e i n ­

and p l a i n n e g a tiv e n e s s p ro d u ced by v iii

th e c e n tu rie s m asses.

o f s u p p r e s s io n and e x p l o i t a t i o n

As M o is e s S aen z s t a t e s

about th e

o f t h e M e x ica n

a tte m p ts to

e d u c a te

th e m asses: "We kn o w t h e t a s t e o f s u c c e s s , i t i s t r u e , b u t we h av e a ls o t a s t e d f a i l u r e and d is a p p o in tm e n t. B ut our f a i l u r e s a r e o u r le s s o n s , and d e f e a t h a s o n ly i n c i t e d us to t r y a g a in . M e x ic o i s c o m i n g i n t o h e r ow n, a n d w h en t h e n a t i o n s h a l l f i n a l l y co m e o f a g e , s t u d e n t s w i l l t e l l u s t h a t n o t a sm a ll p a r t o f th e c r e d i t f o r i t s m a tu r in g s h o u ld f a l l t o t h e r u r a l s c h o o l . "9 E d u c a tio n i s m ak in g n o t i c e a b l e s t r i d e s w ith t h e gram t o lik e ly

e x te n sio n

and d ev elo p m e n t o f t h e

i n M ex ieo a n d

e d u c a tio n a l p ro ­

i n c l u d e m o re and m o re o f t h e p e o p l e t h e o u tco m e i s to r e p la c e th e red u ced la n d e d a r i s to c r a c y .

lig e n t p o p u la tio n p ro v id e th e

and a n a p p r e c i a b l e m id d le c l a s s

An i n t e l ­ sh o u ld

r u d d e r o f s t a b i l i t y w h ic h t h e c o u n tr y f o r m e r ly

sa d ly la c k e d .

P rim a ry e d u c a tio n i s

Ten y e a r s a g o , 1 ,0 0 0

now f r e e

and c o m p u ls o ry .

s c h o o ls w ere s u p p o r te d by th e F e d e r a l

g o v e r n m e n t i n u r b a n c o m m u n i t i e s w i t h a n a d d i t i o n a l 1 4 ,0 0 0 i n ru ral d is tr ic ts .

In c lu d in g th e

s c h o o ls s u p p o rte d by th e

s t a t e s t h e t o t a l nu m b er o f s c h o o l s i n M e x ic o a t t h a t tim e w as 2 0 , 0 0 0 , w i t h n e a r l y 2 , 0 0 0 ,0 0 0 p u p i l s

a n d 4 6 ,0 0 0 t e a c h e r s .

M o re t h a n 6 0 0 l i b r a r i e s h a d b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d . 1 0

9 M o i s e s S a e n z , Some M e x i c a n P r o b l e m s « U n i v e r s i t y o f C h ica g o P r e s s , 1 9 2 6 , p . I 8 4 . 1 0 A. C u r t i s & R aul D ’E ca W ilg u s , O u t l i n e o f L a t i n A n e ric a n H i s t o r y , p . 166.

M e x ic o d o e s w e l l i n l o o k i n g a h e a d . d i r e c t i o n w o u ld j u s t i f y

its

n ew o u t l o o k .

S te p s in t h a t M e x ica n s o f

E u ro p e a n s t o c k , M e x ic a n s o f m ix e d b a c k g r o u n d s , M e x ic a n s o f p u r e l y i n d i g e n o u s b lo o d a r e r a p i d l y b e c o m in g p l a i n M e x ic a n s,

a l l f o r one and one f o r a l l .

x

B io g r a p h ic a l S k etch G r e g o r i o L o p e z y P u e n t e s w a s h o r n S e p t e m b e r 1 ? , 1& 95, i n V e r a G r u z on a r a n c h c a l l e d **E1 Mamey*1. Ih en th e rev o ­ l u t i o n b r o k e o u t h e was f i f t e e n y e a r s o f - a g e a n d w e l l i n f o r m e d on t h o s e c o n d i t i o n s t h a t c a u s e d t h e r e b e l l i o n . D u r i n g t h e y e a r s 1 9 1 2 t o 1 9 1 4 sem e o f h i s w r i t i n g s w e r e p u b l i s h e d i n " N o s o t r o s ’l R e v i s t a a r t e y e d u c a c io n ” . L a te r on i n t h e y e a r s 1 9 2 1 t o 1 9 2 3 , L o p e z y P u e n t e s h a d som e a r t i c l e s p u b l i s h e d i n W3S1 M a e s t r o . R e v i s t a d e G u l t u r a N a c i o n a l 11. H e w a s a s c h o o l t e a c h e r a n d t a u g h t a t t h e N o r ­ m a l S c h o o l i n M e x ic o C i t y , b u t t h e c a l l o f h i s p e n w a s t o o much f o r h i m a n d h e g a v e u p t e a c h i n g f o r w r i t i n g . In th e e a r l y t w e n t i e s h e b e c a m e a s t a f f m em b er o f t h e " E l U n i v e r s a l G rsffic o ", a d a i l y t a b l o i d . At th e p re s e n t tim e , h e d i r e c ts th e n ew sp ap er. In 1923, he ran a s e r i e s o f s t o r i e s asa s p e c i a l f e a t u r e w ith t h e t i t l e o f "L a N o v e la D i a r i a de l a V id a R e a l " . T h is s e r i e s a p p e a re d in th e n ew sp a p er f o r a y e a r u n d e r t h e p s e u d o n y m o f f,T u l i o P. P e se e n z ". H av in g h a d a r e a l o p p o r t u n i t y t o t e s t h i s w r i t i n g a b i l i t y and h a v in g found i t t o h i s l i k i n g he w ro te h i s f i r s t n o v e l , "C am p am e n to ", w h ic h was p u b l i s h e d i n 1931* By 1 9 3 9 h e h a d w r i t t e n an d p u b l i s h e d s i x n o v e l s , a l l t r e a t ­ in g o f t h e r e v o l u t i o n , o r c o n d i t i o n s w h ic h h a d b r o u g h t i t a b o u t. S i n c e " H u a s t e c a " , w h ic h was p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 3 9 , o th e r n o v e ls have been p u b lis h e d . "L ps P e r e g r in e s I n m o v i l e s " ; " C u e n to s C a m p e sin o s d e M e x ic o " ; " E n t r e s u e l o " , c o m p r i s e so m e o f h i s l a t e r n o v e l s .

CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM AND THE DEFINITION OF THE TERMS USED M e x ica n w r i t e r s h a v e h e l p e d t o

a la rg e

op t h e n o v e l o f c u s t o m i n t h e New W o rld * have been th e first

e x te n t t o

d e v e l­

N o t a b l e am ong t h e s e

e a r l y w r i t e r s s u c h a s M anuel P a y n o , who, i n t h e

f u l l le n g th n o v e l a f t e r F ern an d ez de L i z a r d i , w ro te

a b o u t t h e t y p e s an d c u sto m s o f t h e

epoch i n h i s w ork, E l

F i s t o l d e l D ia b lo

(1 8 4 5 ) a n d i n h i s l a t e r w o r k , L o s B a n d i d o s

d el F r |o , w r itte n

i n tw o h e a v y v o l u m e s d e p i c t i n g

lig h t

i n a hu m oro us

”t h e c u s t o m s , c r i m e s a n d h o r r o r s ” -*- o f 1 8 8 9 # I g n a c i o

M anuel A lta m ira n o c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e g e n r e w ith h i s n o v e l s , E l Z arco

(1 8 8 8 )

a c tiv itie s

and C le m e n c ia

o f th e

( 1 8 6 9 ) , w hen h e w r o t e a b o u t t h e

”p la te a d o s ” , th e

s ilv e ry ones,

so c a lle d

b e c a u s e o f t h e l a r g e am ount o f s i l v e r y trim m in g s t h a t t h e y w o r e , a t y p e w h i c h w as d e p i c t e d a g a i n s t t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e F ren ch i n t e r v e n t i o n i n th e w e s te rn p a r t

o f M e x ic o *

D e l g a d o d e s c r i b e d M e x i c a n t y p e s i n t h e i r own l o c a l in g s in h is n o v e ls ,

La C a la n d ria

(1 8 9 1 )

R afael su rro u n d ­

a n d ”A n g e l i n a ” ( 1 8 9 5 ) #

I n o u r own d a y s e v e r a l w r i t e r s h a v e b e e n r e c o g n i z e d a s im p o r ta n t c o n t r i b u t o r s t o t h e n o v e l o f c u sto m o f c o n te m p o ra ry M e x ico .

N o t a b l e am ong t h e s e a r e E s t e b a n M aqueo C a s t e l l a n o s

who w r o t e ” R u i n s o f t h e G r e a t H o u s e ” i n 1 9 3 1 *

1 G o n z a l e z P e n a , p . 299#

M a rian o A z u e la

has

e n ric h e d th e

f i e l d w i t h h i s m any n o v e l s o f t h e R e v e l a t i o n

among w h i c h a r e f o u n d L o s d e A b a j o ( 1 9 1 6 ) , L a L u c i e ' r n a g a . a n d E l G a m a ra d a P a n t o j a .

E d u ard o J .

G o rre a g av e u s t h e c u sto m s

o f t h e t i m e s w i t h h i s n o v e l s L o n e l y S o u l s . The M i r a c l e o f t h e B e lls,

a n d The I m p o s t e r s .

h i s n o v e l,

T h e n t h e r e i s X a v i e r I c a z a who i n

T he M e x i c a n P e o p l e

(1 9 2 4 ) > g a v e u s t h e

cu sto m s o f

th e re g io n . I t was l e f t t o

G re g o rio Lopez y P u e n te s , h o w ev er, to

c o n c e n t r a t e on t h o s e c u s to m s and t r a d i t i o n s t h a t

form , to a

v e ry h ig h d e g re e ,

th e

d a ily l i f e

o f t h e lo w e r M ex ican c l a s s e s , 1 among w h i c h f i g u r e t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e e x t e n t t h e M e x i c a n i n ­

d ig e n o u s g r o u p s .

A n o t h e r g r o u p o f c isterns r e f e r r e d t o b y

L o p e z y P u e n t e s i n h i s w o r k s , b u t w i t h m uch l e s s

freq u en cy ,

a r e t h o s e c u sto m s t h a t h a v e t o do w i t h t h e r u r a l

o r m e stiz o

g ro u p .

O n ly b y r a r e c h a n c e ,

if

at a ll,

i n c l u d e t h e c u sto m s and t r a d i t i o n s c la ss e s,

e s p e c ia lly th e fo rm er.

d o es L^pez y P u e n te s

o f t h e u p p e r and m id d le

I h e r e v e r h e h a s done t h i s ,

h e seem s t o h a v e d one i t m o re t o c o n t r a s t th e m w i t h t h o s e o f th e I n d i a n and t o c r i t i c i s e

r a t h e r th an t o

e x t o l th em .

3 X.

THE PROBLEM

S ta te m e n t o f t h e p ro b le m . stu d y to

d e lin e a te

and t r a d i t i o n s

I t was t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s

i n a l o g i c a l fo rm and s e q u e n c e t h e c u sto m s

o f t h e M e x ica n p e o p l e a s L opez y P u e n t e s

v ie w e d th em an d t o c o m p a re th e m w h e r e v e r p o s s i b l e w i t h t h e v iew s o f o t h e r w r i t e r s t o t h e ta tio n

p resen ­

o f t h e s e c u sto m s be p r e s e n t e d t o t h e r e a d e r . Im p o rta n c e o f th e

and t r a d i t i o n s , is

end t h a t an i n c l u s i v e

stu d y .

as i n t e r p r e t e d b y G re g o rio L opez y P u e n te s ,

o f g r e a t im p o rta n c e t o th e

p r e s e n t s from t h e tra d itio n a l l i f e

T he s t u d y o f M e x i c a n c u s t o m s

s ta n d p o in t

in te r e s te d re a d e r because i t o f an o b s e r v e r and s t u d e n t th e

and c u sto m s o f t h e g r e a t m ass o f p e o p le

t h a t h a s w a n d e r e d a c r o s s t h e b o r d e r s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , An in s ig h t or th o u g h tfu l peek in to t h i s

tra d itio n a l lif e

o f our

M e x ica n n e i g h b o r s w i l l b e o f g r e a t a i d to w a rd s t h e u n d e r ­ sta n d in g o f th e s e p e o p le . m ay a p p e a r e x t r e m e .

In

som e i n s t a n c e s , t h e s e c u s t o m s

H o w ev er, i t

is

th e hope o f th e w r ite r

t h a t t h e i m p r e s s i o n m ay r e m a i n u p o n t h e r e a d e r o f t h e

tre ­

m endous i n f l u e n c e o f t h e s e c u s to m s upon t h e

d a ily liv e s

t h e M e x ica n p e o p l e .

as a l i t e r a r y

and c r i t i c a l

T h is t h e s i s i s

o ffered

s tu d y o f t h e c u sto m s an d t r a d i t i o n s

M e x ica n p e o p le a s s e e n t h r o u g h t h e

of

of th e

e y e s o f t h e g r e a t M e x ica n

c o s t u m b r i s t a . G re g o rio Lopez y P u e n te s .

4 X I. Y illa g e r.

DEETNITIOHS OF TERMS USED T h e w o rd i s

i n t e n d e d t o m ean p e o n o r p e a s ­

a n t an d i s m e a n t t o b e a n to n y m o u s w i t h t h e w o rd u r b a n o r c i t y d w e l l e r o r a p e r s o n who c a n r e a d o r w r i t e . w i l l b e synonym ous w i t h I n d i a n th a t th e se are i l l i t e r a t e M a tiv e .

o r even m e s tiz o ,

A v illa g e r p ro v id e d

o r a lm o st s o .

The w o rd n a t i v e i s

synonym ous w i t h I n d i a n ,

in d ig e n o u s , u rb a n and r u r a l . M e s t i z o . T he w o r d m e s t i z o m ix e d r a c i a l b a c k g r o u n d . m ix tu re

is

i n t e r p r e t e d t o m ean o f

I n m ost c a s e s t h i s w i l l be a

o f I n d ia n and E uropean. C re o le .

The w ord a ssu m e s i t s h i s t o r i c a l m e a n in g ,

n a m e ly a M e x i c a n o f u n m i x e d ,E u r o p e a n d e s c e n t , m o s t l y S p a n i s h . M e x ic a n .

E ith e r c re o le ,

In d ia n or m e s tiz o .

c h a p te r i i REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE L a V i d a Me,i i c a n a R e f l e 2 a d a e n l a s Hoy e l a s d e C o s t u m b r e . E d i t h R a th S a lm a n s T h e s i s , M.A. USC, 1 9 2 8 T he m a t e r i a l i n t h e a b o v e t h e s i s l y f r o m t h a t -which i s

p re se n te d in t h i s

M e x ica n c u s to m s and t r a d i t i o n s .

d iffe rs

in v e s tig a tio n

even w here such t o p i c s

in g in b o th s t u d i e s .

o f th e

M e ith e r G re g o rio Lopez y

F u e n te s n o r h i s v e r s i o n s o f M e x ica n l i f e in c lu d e d a t a l l ,

a lm o st e n t i r e ­

a re p re se n te d or are

s i m i l a r i n w ord­

The o n ly s u b - to p ic w h e re in t h e r e i s

so m e r e s e m b l a n c e b e t w e e n b o t h

stu d ie s i s

S a lm a n s’ t h e s i s

d e s c r i b i n g t h e M e x ica n w ake, w i t h t h e d i f f e r e n c e t h a t i n h e r s tu d y t h e p r a c t i c e s o r c u sto m s o f t h e u p p e r c l a s s e s a r e in c lu d e d . In th e in th a t

it

s u b - t o p i c , G a m b lin g ,

in c lu d e s th e r o u le tte ,

t h e sa m e i n c i d e n t

occu rs

a g am e o f c h a n c e e n j o y e d

o n ly by th o s e w ith t h e m eans n e c e s s a r y t o

e n jo y i t ,

th a t is

th e m oneyed c l a s s . T he I n d i a n i n C o n te m p o ra ry M e x ica n L i t e r a t u r e a s P o r t r a y e d i n t h e W orks o f G r e g o r i o L o p e z y P u e n t e s . E r n e s t J o h n Y orba M a s te r’ s T h e sis USC, 1 9 4 2

E rn e s t Jo h n Y orba,

in t h is t h e s is ,

w i t h t h e s o c i a l a n d e c o n o m ic p o s i t i o n

d e a ls

i n t h e m a in

o f t h e M e x ica n I n d i a n ,

He t o u c h e s o n h i s t r a d i t i o n a l c u s t o m s o n l y b y a c c i d e n t a s h e a tte m p ts to p o s itio n

e l a b o r a t e on i n c i d e n t s r e l a t i v e t o

i n M e x ica n s o c i a l

to d e lin e a te tio n s

a n d e c o n o m ic l i f e .

th e In d ia n f s As a n a t t e m p t

i n a l o g i c a l s e q u e n c e a l l t h e c u sto m s and t r a d i

o f a l l t h e M e x ica n p e o p l e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e v ie w s o f

L opez y F u e n t e s t h i s w o rk b y E r n e s t Y o rb a f a l l s

som ew hat

s h o r t o f th e m ark. In A d d itio n to t h e d e f i c ie n c i e s n o te d above r e l a t i v e to th e t h e s i s

i n q u e s t i o n , Y orba f a i l s

to

s tu d y t h e l a t e r w o rk s o f L opez y F u e n te s ,

in c lu d e in h is one o f w h ic h , L os

P e re g rin e s I n m o v ile s . a c c o rd in g to t h i s a u th o r ’s p o in t o f v ie w ,

is

seco n d o n ly t o El I n d io in im p o rta n c e in d e a lin g

w i t h t h e b a c k g ro u n d o f t h e n a t i v e M e x ica n e l e m e n t s .

CHAPTER I I I MEXICAN SOCIAL CUSTOMS M e x ica n s o c i a l

c a s t cans a r e s i m p l e ,

and h ig h ly t r a d i t i o n a l .

som ew hat p r i m i t i v e ,

The c o n s e r v a t i v e ,

ritu a lis tic

and

m a n -c e n te re d c u sto m s o f t h e S p a n ia r d s fo u n d a w e ll c u l t i v a t e d g ro u n d and a s u i t a b l e

c l i m a t e f o r a d o p t i o n w i t h some n a t i v e

m o d i f i c a t i o n b y t h e I n d i a n s , w h ich l a t e r p a r c e l o f th e s o c ia l l i f e s e e i n M e x ica n s o c i a l l i f e th e in d ig e n o u s,

o f th e m e s tiz o h im s e lf .

e le m e n ts o f S p a n ish c i v i l i z a t i o n , from t h e

and f i n a l ­

e ffo rt to

t h e n a t i v e w i t h t h e S p a n i s h m ode o f l i v i n g .

C o u rtsh ip and m a rria g e . tiv e ,

T h u s we

e le m e n ts o f th e t r a d i t i o n a l and

l y th e i n e v i t a b l e b le n d t h a t r e s u l t e d a ssim ila te

form ed p a r t and

b u t h ig h ly c o lo r f u l

R ig id ,

sy m b o lic ,

and p r i m i ­

are th e v a rio u s a s p e c ts o f c o u rt­

s h i p a n d m a r r i a g e i n M ex ican r u r a l l i f e . L opez y F u e n t e s d e s c r i b e s m a r r i a g e s w h ic h w e re n o t uncommon t o

f i n d b u t w h ic h d id n o t c o n c e rn s o l e l y th e

who e n t e r e d

in to th e c o n tra c t.

T h e re w as a lw a y s a t h i r d

p a r t y w hose c h i e f o b j e c t i v e w as t h e la b o r.1

tw o

g a i n i n g o f m anpow er f o r

T h i s p r a c t i c e m u s t h a v e b e e n u s e d w hen t h e l a n d s

w ere i n t h e h a n d s o f t h e p o w e r f u l and p r i v i l e g e d

few .

1 G re g o rio Lopez y F u e n te s , L os P e r e g r in e s I n m o v il e s , E d i c i o n e s B o t a s , M e x i c o , B . F . , 1 9 4 4 * P* 6 5 .

8 A l t h o u g h p e r m i s s i b l e f o r a man t o c a r r y a w a y t h e g i r l of h is

c h o ic e , h e h ad to he su re th a t

p ro m is e d t o or tr ib e . fo rm s.

sh e w as n o t a l r e a d y

a n o th e r , u n d e r p e n a l t y o f a n sw e rin g t o h e r fa m ily

P u n ish m e n t f o r su c h an o f f e n s e c o u ld t a k e v a r i o u s

T h e g u i l t y p e r s o n m i g h t b e m ad e t o g i v e

o f w ork” f o r t h e b e n e f i t sta n d th e

of th e

" s i x m oons

o f f e n d e d p a r e n t s . 2 To u n d e r ­

s e v e r i t y o f t h e p u n ish m en t one m ust u n d e r s ta n d th e

h u m i l i a t i o n t h a t t h e c a r r y i n g o f f o f a p ro m is e d g i r l b ro u g h t upon h e r p a r e n t s and h e r f i a n c e .

I t was t h e c u s to m t h a t a t

t h e t i m e o f m a r r i a g e b o t h c o n t r a c t i n g p a r t i e s d r i n k fro m a common r e c e p t a c l e , w h i c h i f w h o l e a n d u n d a m a g e d , m e a n t t h a t 1

e v e r y t h i n g was i n h o le s in i t , of th e

o rd er,

m eant t h a t

but i f

it

w a s o f f e r e d w i t h som e

s o m e th in g h ad g o n e w ro n g on t h e p a r t

g irl.

nY J o s e -" c o n l a j i c a r a e n l a s m a n o s , s e d i r i g i o a A n t o n i o , o f r e c i ^ n d o s e l a . . . .E n t a l e s c e r e m o n i a s , s i l a m u ehacha no t i e n e p a d r e e s l a m ad re l a que r e c i b e e l h o n o r , p o r s o b r e l o s m as v i e j o s y p o r s o b r e l o s m as a lto s fu n c io n a rio s : l a j i c a r a , a s i , b ie n l le n a y sin q u e d e j e e s c a p a r n i u n a g o t a d e s u c o n t e n i d o , e s un a l t o h o m e n a je q u e se r i n d e a l o s p a d r e s p o r q u e g u a r d a r o n p u r ^ a su h i j a . 11 r e c o n o c i m i e n t o / d e t a l e s c u i d a d o s e s p u b l i c o , com o e s p u b l i c a t a m b i e n l a a f r e n t a d e l o s p a d r e s cuando l a j i c a r a d e ja que se s a i g a e l l i ­ q u id o y m anche e l p ech o de q u ie n e s i n t e n t a n t o m a r l o . . . ft P o r fir^ , A n to n io , lle v a n d o s e l a jic a r a a lo s l a b i o s , b e b i o y bebic> c o n u n c i o n , p o n i e n d o g r a n c u i d a d o , no f u e r a a s e r que, por d e sc u id o , se c a y e ra una g o ta , In e llo e s t a b a su n o m b re , e l d e su m u j e r , e l d e

2 IbjLd., p . 1 2 6 .

9 su h i j a , If

e l de su e a sa y de to d o

a g irl

s u pueblo.3

i s t o be c o n s id e r e d p ro m is e d ,

and t h u s

en­

g a g e d , t h e r e m u s t 'h a v e b e e n a s y m b o lic o f f e r i n g by t h e f a t h e r o f th e boy to th e

f a th e r o f th e g i r l ,

w h ic h c o n s i s t s o f c h i c k e n s , b e a n s , and a b o t t l e

o f b ran d y .

d e sc rib e s th is

know n a s t h e t l a p a l o l e ,

a go u rd ,

Lopez y F u e n te s*

a h a n d k e rc h ie f,

p riz e -w in n in g n o v e l

sim p ly b u t th o r o u g h ly :

ffE l p a d r e r e c i b i o 7 l o s s f m b o l o s d e l c o m p r o m is o m a trim o n ia l, s in d e c ir p a la b ra : l a s g a llin a s , l a a b u n d a n c ia : e l f r i j o l , e l m a n ja r ; l a j i c a r a e l a g u a e n l l u v i a y e n i r i s y en s a l u d ; e l p s n u e l o , l a p renda; y e l a g u a rd ie n te , l a a le g r f a ." ^ O n ce t h e t l a n a l o l e i s

a c c e p te d , th e

g irl

i s n o t to be

to u c h e d by an y o t h e r m a n .5 .A n o th e r i n t e r e s t i n g age i s th e

o ffe r of th e

w h ic h c o n s i s t s

s y m b o lic c u sto m r e l a t i n g

c o c o n e te by th e boy to th e g i r l ,

o f a s m a ll h u m a n - l ik e f i g u r e m ade o f w ood,

o r c o m h u s k t o fo re w a rn o r rem in d t h e g i r l

c lo th ,

to m a rri­

of her

o b lig a tio n s. "E l c o c o n e te es l a a d v e r t e n c i a ," e x p la in s t h e w r i t e r m o re f u l l y , "q u e h a c e e l h om bre a l a m u je r q u e h a to rn a d o p o r e s p o s a , d e q u e s u d e s t i n o e s d a rle h i j o s - d io s de l a n a ta lid a d - , p ro p o s ito d e a u m e n t a r l a f a m i l i a , d e d a r m as h a b i t a n t e s a l p u e b lo , e l r e c o r d a t o r i o de que l o s h i j o s t i e n e n

^

^ b id . . pp.

284-8$.

^ G re g o rio L dpez y F u e n te s , M e x ico , D .'F ., 1 9 3 9 , p . 1 1 9 . 5

Ibid.. p. 115.

El I n d i o . I d ic io n e s B o ta s,

I

10 que a y u d a r a su p a d r e en e l e u l t i v o de l a t i e r r a y una r a t i f i e a e i o n a l a s p a l a b r a s d e l a m adre que in s tr u y e a l a h i j a r e s p e c to a su s o b lig a c io n e s .” & T h a t a m an f o l l o w h i s woman i s u n t h i n k a b l e .

”No e s

c o s t u m b r e q u e l a mu j e r s i g a a l h o m b r e ? " ? q u e r i e s a v i l l a g e r , i n c r e d u l o u s t h a t L u p e f s h u s b a n d s h o u l d b e f o r c e d t o m ove o u t to h e r p e o p le ’s v i l l a g e . d ire c tio n

T hat a husband m ust ch o o se h i s ^

and t h a t h i s w if e m ust fo llo w

t i v e b u t l i t e r a l when i t e e e d on t h e i r w a y t o

is

o jo s b a jo s ,

co n a n d a r m enudo,

s u h o m b re .* 1** A le ss

se lfis h

sp o n ta n e o u s m a rria g e i s

and a m b itio u s p a r e n t s ,

u s u a lly a rra n g e d by

who a r e m o r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h

th e ir th e

own f a m i l y w e l f a r e t h a n w i t h t h e h a p p i n e s s o f e i t h e r a• son o r th e d a u g h t e r . I t is not unusual to h ear of a

g i r l b e in g p ro m ise d a s a b r i d e t o le ss

to

say,

t h e i r p le d g e s

a t e n y e a r o ld b o y . H eed­

a re as b in d in g a s any o th e r and

are to be f a i t h f u l l y o b serv ed .

From t h e m om ent o f t h e

g a g e m e n t n o o t h e r m an c a n a s p i r e t o t h i s

6 op. c i t ..

P. 153.

\

d e m o n s t r a t e d how a c o u p le p r o - y

t h e i r hom e a f t e r t h e m a r r i a g e c e re m o n y .:

” . • .L a m u c h a c h a i b a c o n l o s tra s

i s n o t o n ly fig u ra -^

en­

g i r l ’s a tte n tio n s ,

G re g o rio Lopez y F u e n te s , P e r e g r in e s I n m ^ v ile s . p p . 246- 247.

7

Ib id ..

p. 265.

^

G re g o rio Lopez y F u e n te s ,

121 I n d i o , o p . c i t . ,

11 u n le ss th e t r a d i t i o n a l g i f t s

a re re tu rn e d by th e g i r l ’ s f a t h \

er.

The cu sto m g o e s so f a r a s t o

even c o n s id e r th e

su rv iv o r

a s a w id o w o r w i d o w e r s h o u l d e i t h e r o n e d i e b e f o r e h e o r s h e is

fo rm a lly m a rrie d ,

b le th u s ,

so b i n d i n g i s

th e c o n tra c t.

It

is p o ssi­

t o h a v e e v e n s e v e n y e a r o l d w i d o w s , who f r o m t h a t

t i m e on h a v e t o

f o llo w t h e c u sto m s r e s e r v e d

f o r w id o w s.9

W idows a n d w i d o w e r s f o l l o w t h e i r own t r a d i t i o n a l p r a c ­ tic e s .

A w id o w e r,

c a p tu re h is p r iz e .

i f h e h o p e s f o r m a r r i a g e h a s t o p u r s u e and A w id o w er,

accused o f k id n a p p in g ,

d efen d ed

h i m s e l f a c c o r d in g t o t h e cu sto m : / ..N o l a h e r o b a d o — com enzcf a d e c i r — : l a h e v e n c i d o . Tu s a b e s q u e e n t r e n o s o t r o s e r a c o s t u m b r e c a s a r n o s m uy j c f v e n e s , p u e s q u e a l o s am o s l e s i n t e r e s a b a q u e n o s r e p r o d u i e r a m o s p r o n t o — T6. s a b e s q u e y o c a s e , p e r o m i m u j e r m u r io en l a t i l t i m a e p i d e m i a . . s a b e s q u e , se g tln hem os r e s ta b le c jid o l a s c o stu m b re s de n u e s t r o s m a ^ o r e s .. . . l o s v iu d o s s o lo p u ed en to m a r m u je r s i l a v en cen a l h a l l a r l a en e l cam po y s i e l l a e s l i b r e , p o r q u e q u i e n e s r e s u c i t a r o n e s t a l e y t u v i e r o n en c u e n t a que s i e l v iu d o n o p u e d e d o m in a r a u n a m u je r , no e s i^ e re c e d o r de e l l a , e s d e c ir , a l o m e jo r ya es v i e j o y d e b i l . . . 1 0 W h at w a s t h e w id o w ’ s l o t ?

If

sh e was t o m a r r y ,

she had

t o b e s o l i c i t e d b y a w i d o w e r , who d i d n o t h a v e t o b e s o g e n e r ­ ous in h i s

o ffe rin g to h e r,

f o r w as h e n o t d o in g h e r a f a v o r

by m a r r y i n g h e r ?

9 G - r e g o r i o L