Methodological Aspects of Iranian Archaeology: Past and Present 9781841711348, 9781407351889
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English Pages [264] Year 2000
Polecaj historie
Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Summary
Acknowledgements
Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
Introduction
Chapter 1: A Brief History of Archaeology and Archaeological Research in Iran
Chapter 2: A View of Theory in Contemporary Archaeology and the Iranian Perspective on Theoretical Archaeology
Chapter 3: Archaeological Survey: An Efficient Means of Data Recovery in the Regional Archaeological Approach
Chapter 4: Palaeoenvironmental Background of Iran and its Archaeological Implication
Chapter 5: Research Priorities and Methodological Structure for the Future Development of Palaeolithic Archaeology in Iran
Chapter 6: Towards a Real Appreciation of Archaeology in Iran through Managing its Archaeological Heritage Theory, Methodology, Implementation
Conclusions
Bibliography
Figures
Appendix
Citation preview
Methodological Aspects of Iranian Archaeology: Past and Present
Kamal Aldin Nilmami
BAR International Series 852 2000
Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 852 Methodological Aspects of Iranian Archaeology: Past and Present © Kamal Aldin Niknami and the Publisher 2000 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781841711348 paperback ISBN 9781407351889 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841711348 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by John and Erica Hedges in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 2000. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.
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S ummary T h i s r e sea rch i st h e f i r s t o v erv iew o ft h e h i s to ry a nd p r e sen t s t a t e o fa r cha eo logy i nI r an . I t s a im i st o c on s ide r t h e r e levanc e o f r e cen t d eve lopmen t s i n We s ter n a r chaeo logy , a nd t h e i r r e levance t o aN ea r E a s t e rn I s lam ic S t a te . T he P a la eo l i th ic o fI r an i st a ken a s ac a se s t udy . T h e f i r s t c once rn o f c hap t e r s ( 1 ) a nd ( 2 ) , i nt h i s r e sea rch i st o e va lua t e t h e d i s t inc t ive ly n a t iona l c ha rac t e r i s t ic s o f a r cha eo logy i n I r an . S pec if ica l ly t h e c hap t e r s c on s ide r t h e d eve lopmen t o f a r chaeo logy i n I r an i n t h e 1 960 s a nd 1 970 s i n r e la t ion t o t h e ' New A rcha eo logy ' i nt h e U SA . I ti sc l ea rt ha tt h e se e x ter na l i n f luence s h ad o n ly am in ima l i mpac t o na r chaeo logy i nI r an ; t h e ' New A rchaeo logy ' w h ich f i r s td ev e loped i n Am e r ican c i rc le s m o re t h an t h ir ty y ea r sa go , mad e as om ewha tb e la t ed i mpac to nI r an ian a r cha eo logy i nt h e s e ven t ie s . N o t a l o fi t s a genda h a s b een a dop ted , a nd b ecau se i tw a s p i onee red b y a n th ropo log i s t s o n r e la t ive ly r e cen t a nd s imp le N ew Wo r ld s i te s , i ti sn o t t o ta l ly a pp l icab le t ot h e l o ng h i s to r ica l s e quence o fc omp lex I r an ian m ound s . Ia rgue t h a tI r an ian a r cha eo logy w a s s imp ly l ef tb eh ind , "o u t o fd a te" a nd g ene ra l ly a t h eo r e t ica l . Ia l so s t r e s s t h a t i t s t r ad i t iona l a u tho r i ty s t ruc tu r e p r even ted d i scu s s ion o fn ew i d ea s . C hap te r ( 3 ) , e mpha s i se s t h a t , d e sp i t e aw ide r a nge o f a r cha eo log ica l w o rk i nI r an , t h e b l ank s o n t h e a r cha eo log ica l map s a r e f a r g r ea te r i ne x ten t t h an t h e s ma l l r e g ion s t h a t h av e t o s ome e x t en t b een f i l led i n . O n t h e o t he Y h and t h e u npa ra l le led e xpan s ion o fa r cha eo logy p a r t icu la r ly t h e c omp lex i ty a nd c o s t s o ff i e ldwo rk , w i l l f o rce u s t o d e t e rm ine p r io r i t ie s m uch mo r e c l ea r ly . T hu s i nt h e f u tu re w e w i l l p robab ly s e e f ewe r o ft h e e no rmou s t e n -y ea r e xcava t ion s a tT e l l s i t e s s uch a s c ha rac te r i sed t h e 1 960 s a nd 1 970 s . We h av et om ove t os ma l le rp ro jec t s d e l ibe ra t e ly d e s igned t oa n sw e r s p ec if ic p rob lem s ( i . e . , e xcava t ion a to ne p e r iod s i t e s ; s u rf ace s urvey , a nd r e g iona l s t ud ie s ) . B ecau se t h e c oncep t o fs u rf ace s urvey ing a s ar e l iab le m e thod o f d a ta r e cove ry h a s n o t b een i n t roduced i n to t h e a r cha eo logy o f I r an , a nd a r cha eo log i s t s t h e re a r e s t i l l n o t f am i l ia r w i th i t s m e thod s a nd t e chn ique s , t h i s c hap te r a im st oe mpha s i s t h e i mpo r tance a nd p roduc t iv i ty o ft h i s s t ra tegy a nd p rov ide s ag ene ra l m od e l o fa r cha eo log ica l s urvey m e thodo logy f o r t h e f u tu re . T he p r e sen t t h e s i s g oe s r ad ica l ly b eyond t h e t r ad i t iona l c u l tu ra l -h i s to r ica l p a rad igm s o f I r an ian r e sea rch o r ien ta t ion , a nd s ugge s t s , f o r i n s tance t ha t t h e s t udy o f P a laeo l i th ic A rcha eo logy ( i n n ew p e r spec t ive s ) i s af undam en ta l p e r iod o fh uman c u l tu ra l p rog re ss , b u t o ne t h a t h a s l o ng b een c omp le te ly n eg lec t ed i nI r an ian a r cha eo logy . T h e c u r r en t i s sue s o fP a la eo l i th ic A rcha eo logy , t h e i mpo r tance o f e nv i ronm en ta l d a ta , a nd t h e r a nge o f o u r u nde r s tand ing o f I r an ian P a la eo l i th ic A rcha eo logy a r et h es ub jec t s o fC hap te r s ( 4 ) a nd ( 5 ) . T he p o l i t ica l a nd i d eo log ica l p rob lem s o ft h e a r chaeo logy o fI r an a r ed i scu s sed i nc hap te r ( 6 ) w he r e Ia r gue t h a tt h e c oncep t o fA rchaeo log ica l H e r i tage Managemen t i s am a t te r o ft o p p r ior i ty f o r I r an ian a r chaeo logy . T h i sc hap te rd i scu s se s m a jo rd i sa s t e r s i nI r an ian c u l tu ra l h e r i tage ( i . e . , l o o t ing o fs i t e s d ue t oa l a ck o f l e ga l p ro t ec t ion , a n a d equa t e managem en t s y s t em , a s w e l l a s e conom ic a nd s o c ia l p rob lem s ) . Ic onc lude i nt h i s t h e s i s t h a tt h e re a r e m a jo r c ha l lenge s f o r a r chaeo logy i nI r an i n t h ef u tu re ;t h eo l de rg en e ra t ion i sa lmo s tg on e , t h en ew g en e ra t ion c om ing t ot h e f o re mu s tf a ce many t a sk s , a mong t h em t h e t r an s i t ion f r om a m ono l i th ic n a t iona l s c hoo l t o am o re s ub t le , many s ided a pp roach t oa r cha eo log ica l p rob lem s . I tm u s t s a lvage w ha t i tc an o fs i te s r a p id ly b e ing d e s t royed b y v a r iou s f a c to r s . A t t h e s ame t ime w e w i l l h ave t oc ha l lenge t h e p o l i t ica l a nd i d eo log ica lc on s t ra in t s a f ec t ing a r chaeo logy i ns o c ie ty . T he n ew g en e ra t ion mu s te nv i s ion am a s te r -p lan f o r t h e f u tu re a r cha eo log ica l d eve lopmen t i n t h i s r e g ion , w he re e conom ic d eve lopmen t a nd p ro spe r i ty s t i l l a low s g ood o ppor tun i t ie s a nd s uppo r t f o r s y s t ema t ic a r chaeo log ica lr e sea rch .
A cknow ledgemen t s
Iw ou ld l i ke t oe xp re s s m yg r a t i tude t om y s u pe rv i so r p rof e s so rJ .R . C o l l i s f o r p rov id ing t h e i n i t ia l i mpe tu s f o r t h i s i n ve s t iga t ion a nd f o r h i s i n va luab le a dv ice a nd g u idance t h roughou t t h e p ro jec t .
H e
p rov ided m e w i th s ugge s t ion s a nd e ncou ragemen t d u r ing t h e c ou r se o ft h e r e sea rch a nd m ade m any c ommen t s o n t h e w r i t ten wo rk a si t w a sp roduced . T hank s a r e a l so d ue t oP rof e s so r K . B ran igan , D r . P . H a l s tead , D r . M . P a rke r P ea r son a nd D r . M . C ha r le s f o r t h e i r a dv ice .
If u r the r
w i sh t o a cknow ledge D r . B . O t taway a s t h e H ead o ft h e R e sea rch S choo l f o r p rov id ing r e sea rch f a c i l i t ie s i n t h e D epa r tmen t o f A rchaeo logy a nd P reh i s to ry . F ur the r t h ank s a r e r e se r ved f o r m y s pon so r , t h e M in i s t ry o fC u l tu re a nd H ighe r E duca t ion o ft h e I s lam ic R epub l ic o fI r an , f o r p rov id ing t h ef i nanc ia ls uppor tf o rm ys t udy .
1
C on ten t s
I n troduc t ion
1
C hap ter 1 :AB r ie fH i s tory o fA rchaeo logy a nd A rchaeo log ica l R e search i nI r an
5
1 .I n t roduc t ion
5
2 .T h ef i r s ts t age : f r om t h eb eg inn ing t o 1 927
6
3 .T h es e cond s t age : 1 927 -1 960
9
4 .T he t h i rd s t age : 1 960 -1 978
1 2
4 . 1 P a la eo l i th ic a r cha eo logy
1 3
4 . 2N eo l i th ic a r cha eo logy
1 4
4 . 3 B ronz eA g ea r cha eo logy
1 9
4 . 4I r on A g ea r cha eo logy
1 9
4 . 5 H i s to r ica la r cha eo logy
2 1
4 . 6I s lam ic a r cha eo logy
2 2
C hap ter 2 :AV iew o fT heory i nC on temporary A rchaeo logy a nd t he I r an ian P er spec t ive o nT heore t ica lA rchaeo logy
2 4
1 .I n t roduc t ion
2 4
2 .D ev e lopm en to ft h eo ry a nd c u r r en ti s su e si nt h eo r e t ica la r cha eo logy
2 5
3 .T h ei mpac to ft h e ' New A rcha eo logy ' o nt h ea r cha eo logy o fI r an
3
4 .T h eI r an ian p e r spec t iv eo nt h eo r e t ica la r cha eo logy
3 8
5 .T h ec u l tu r eh i s to ry p a rad igm i nI r an ian a r cha eo logy
4 2
6 .C onc lu s ion s a nd p ro spec t s
4 5
C hap ter3 : A rchaeo log ica lS urvey : A n Ef i c ien t Mean s o fD a ta R ecovery i nt he R eg iona lA rcha eo log ica lA pproach
5 1
1 .I n t roduc t ion
5 1
2 .B ackg round o ft h et e chn iqu e
5 3
1 1
3 . Me thodo logy o fa r cha eo log ica ls u rv ey
5 6
3 . 1 A bund ance a nd c l u s t e r ing
5 8
3 . 2 O b t ru s ivene s s
5 9
3 . 3 V i s ib i l i ty
5 9
3 . 4A cce s s ib i l i ty
6 1
4 .S i t ed ef in i t ion
6 1
5 .S urvey i n t en s i ty
6 4
6 .S amp l ing s t ra t egy
6 5
6 . 1 S amp l ing d e s ign
6 7
6 . 1 .1 S imp le r a ndom s amp l ing d e s ign
6 7
6 . 1 .2 S t ra t if i ed s amp l ing d e s ign
6 8
6 . 1 .3 S y s t ema t ic s amp l ing d e s ign
6 8
6 . 1 .4 S t ra t i f ied s y s t ema t ic u na l ign ed d e s ign
6 8
6 . 2 S amp l ing u n i t
6 9
6 . 2 .1 U n i ts i z e
6 9
6 . 2 .2 U n i ts hape
7 0
7 . S u r f ace a r t if ac tc o l lec t ion s t ra t egy
7 1
8 . B ackg round a nd s om ep rob lem so ft h et r ad i t iona ls u rf a ce s u rv ey ing m e thod i nI r an
7 5
9 .D e s ign ing ar e g iona ls c a le a r cha eo log ica ls urv ey s t ra t egy
8 2
C hap ter 4 :P a laeoenv ironmen ta lB a ckground o fI ran a nd i t sA rchaeo log ica l I mp l ica t ion
8 7
1 .I n t roduc t ion
8 7
2 .P rob lem so ft h eP a la eo env i ronm en ta ls t udy i nI r an
8
3 .G eog raphy a nd e nv i ronm en t so ft h eN ea rE a s t
9 0
4 .T h eQ ua t e rna ry e nv i ronm en ta la nd c l ima t ic c hange si n t h eN ea rE a s t
9 1
i v
5 .C h rono logy o ft h eQ ua t e rna ry i nt h eN ea rE a s t
9 4
6 .C h rono logy o ft h ec l ima t ic c hang e sa nd c u l tu ra lt r an sf o rma t ion s i nt h eN ea rE a s t
9 6
7 .G eo log ica lb a ckg round
9 7
8 .G eog raph ica lb a ckg round
9 9
9 .C l ima t e
1 05
1 0 .V eg e ta t iona lp a t t e rn s
1 07
1 . P a la eoc l ima t ic p a t t e rn o fI r an
1 09
1 .1 G eomo rpho log ica le v id enc e
1 09
1 .2 P a lyno log ica le v id enc e
16
1 2 . G en e ra lc onc lu s ion
19
C hap ter 5 :R e sea rch P r ior i t ie s a nd Me thodo log ica lS truc ture f o rt h eF u ture D eve lopmen to fP a la eo l i th ic A rchaeo logy i nI ran
1 24
1 .I n t roduc t ion
1 24
2 .T h ee m e rgen ce o fm od er nh uman s
1 32
3 .T h ec on t r ibu t ion o fa r cha eo logy
1 3 5
4 .P a la eo l i th ic a r cha eo logy i nI r an
1 38
5 .S equenc e so ft h eP a la eo l i th ic p e r iod i nI r an
1 39
5 . 1 T h eL ow e rP a la eo l i th ic
1 39
5 . 2T h eM idd le P a la eo l i th ic
1 4 1
5 . 3 T h eU ppe ra nd E p ipa la eo l i th ic
1 4 5
C hap ter 6 :T owa rd s aR ea lA pprec ia t ion o fA rcha eo logy i nI ran t h rough Manag ing i t sA rcha eo log ica lH er i tage
1 57
1 .I n t roduc t ion
1 57
2 . Ah i s to ry o fd ev e lopm en to f AHM
1 58
3 .P h i lo sophy b eh ind t h ed i sc ip l in e
1 59
4 .G en e ra lp r inc ip le so fA l IM
1 60
5 .T h ek i nd so ft h r ea ta nd c on se r va t ion p o l icy
1 64
6 .P r e sen ta t ion o fa r cha eo log ica lh e r i tag e
1 66
7 .H i s to ry o fd ev e lopm en to fl e g i s la t ion c on t ro l
1 67
8 .D ev e lopm en to fi n t e rna t iona ll e g i s la t ion
1 70
9 .A rcha eo log ica lh e r i tag em anag em en ti nI r an
1 7 1
1 0 . P rob lem s
1 74
1 . Manag ing p ub l ic a r cha eo logy i nI r an
1 7 5
1 2 . T h ep l ace o fa r cha eo logy i nt h ee duca t iona ls y s t em o fI r an
1 77
1 2 .1 F o rma le duca t ion
1 77
1 2 .2 N on -f o rma le duca t ion
1 79
1 3 . T h er o le o fm u seum si np ub l ic e duca t ion
1 80
1 4 . Manag ing P a la eo l i th ic a r chaeo log ica lh e r i tage
1 82
1 5 . P ro spec t sf o rt h ef u tu r e
1 86
C onc lu s ion
1 89
B ib l iography
1 96
F igure s
2 28
A ppend ix
2 46
v i
L i s t o fF igure s
F ig . l aG eo log ica lm ap o fI r an
2 29
F ig l b P hy s iog raph ic m ap o fI r an
2 30
F ig .2 L ake Z e r iba ra nd L ak eM i rabad p o l len d i ag ram s
2 31
F ig . 3L ake U rm ia p o l len d i ag ram
2 32
F ig . 4A map o ft h eO ld Wo r ld i n d ica t ing t h ed a te s o fH omo e r ec tu s s i t e s
2 33
F ig .5 T he n umbe ro ft h eP a la eo l i th ic e xcava t ion s i nI r an
2 34
F ig . 6L owe rP a laeo l i th ic f i nd s i nI r an
2 35
F ig .7 S e lec ted L ow e rP a la eo l i th ic a r t if ac t s f r om I r an
26
F ig . 8M idd le P a la eo l i th ic f i nd s i nI r an
2 37
F ig . 9S e lec t ed M idd le P a la eo l i th ic a r t if ac t s f r om I r an
2 38
F ig . 1 0U ppe ra nd E p i -Pa la eo l i th ic f i nd s i nI r an ( e xcep tZ a rz ian )
2 39
F ig . 1 U ppe ra nd E p i -Pa laeo l i th ic f i nd s i nI r an ( Ba rado s t ian a nd Z a rz ian )
2 40
F ig . 1 2 S e lec t ed U ppe ra nd E p i -Pa la eo l i th ic a r t if ac t s f r om I r an
2 41
F ig . 1 3 C h rono logy o ft h eI r an ian P a la eo l i th ic
2 42
F ig . 1 4R a t io o ft h eP a laeo l i th ic u n i t st ot h et o ta ln umbe ro fa r chaeo log ica lu n i t s ( M Ad eg ree ) , U n ive r s i ty o fT eh ran
2 43
F ig . 1 5 R a t io o ft h eP a laeo l i th ic u n i t st ot h et o ta ln umbe ro fa r chaeo log ica l u n i t s ( B Ad eg ree ) , U n ive r s i ty o fT eh ran
2 44
F ig . 1 6T he n umbe ro ft h eP a laeo l i th ic s p ec ia l i s t s i nt h e D epa r tmen to f A rcha eo logy -Un ive r s i ty o fT eh ran
2 45
v i i
L i s t o fT ab le s
T ab le 1Ma jo re xcava t ion p ro jec t si nI r an f r om 1 898 t o 1 978
v i i i
2 47
I ntroduc t ion
I th a s l o ng b een r e cogn i sed t h a t a r cha eo logy h a s d eve loped d if e ren t ly i n v a r iou s c oun t r ie s o r r e g ion s o ft h ew o r ld . A s i no t h e rp a r t s o ft h eN ea rE a s tt h e d eve lopmen to fa r cha eo logy i nI r an h a s b e en d ue t o ( 1 ) i np a r tt h e n a tu r e o ft h e r e g iona l a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd a nd t h e r e sou rce s a va i lab le f o r a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch ; ( 2 ) m o r e f u ndamen ta l ly d ue t o n a t iona l o r e t hn ic l o ya l t ie s a nd a dhe r ence t op o l i t ica l p h i lo soph ie s a nd c u l tu ra l t r ad i t ion s ; a nd ( 3 ) t h e c ruc ia l i n f luence o fe m inen t s c ho la r s .
T he g oa l o ft h e p r e sen t t h e s i s i st o e x am ine a nd t r y t o a ccoun t f o r v a r ia t ion s i nt h e
q ue s t ion s a sked a nd i nm ode s o fa na ly s ing a nd e xp la in ing d a ta e mp loyed b y a r cha eo log i s t s i nI r an . T h i st h e s is d i scu sse st h es p ec ia lf a c to r sa f ec t ing t h ed eve lopmen to fa r cha eo logy i nI r an , t os e e h ow f a r t h e se c an a ccoun t f o r t h e f e a tu re s t h a t d i s t ingu i sh t h e a r chaeo logy c u r ren t ly p rac t i sed i nI r an f r om t ha t e ncoun te r ed e l sewh e re . a r chaeo logy i n I r an . p o s s ib le
t h e
F o r t h i s , t h e f i r s t g oa l i s t o e xp la in t h e p r e sen t s t a te o f
T o a ch ieve t h i s Ia l so a im t o d e l inea te a s c l ea r ly a nd d i spa s s iona te ly a s
s p ec ia l
c ha rac t e r i s t ic s ,
a ch ievemen t s ,
a nd
t h e
c u r ren t
p rob lem s
o f I r an ian
a r cha eo log ica lt r ad i t ion . I r an ian a r cha eo logy t o day i sc ha rac t e r i sed b y a n a ppa ren t a b sence o fs c ien t if ic m e thod s a nd s o c ia l s c ience t h eo ry i na r cha eo log ica l a pp roa ch e s ; t h e a b sence o f mu l t i -d isc ip l ina ry r e sea rch s t ra t eg ie s ; a l a ck o f f am i l ia r i ty w i th t h e m any b r anch e s o f a r cha eo logy ( e .g . e nv i ronmen ta l , l a nd scape , a nd e t hnoa rchaeo logy ) ; d om ina t ion o f a r t h i s to r ian s a nd t r ad i t iona l a r chaeo log i s t s ; an eg lec t o f p r eh i s to r ic a r chaeo logy ; a n i s o la t ion o fa r chaeo logy f r om t h e p ub l ic s phe r e a nd f t ' om s o c ia l a nd p o l i t ica l d eba te s ; a nd a n e mpha s i s o n m e r e ly r e con s t ruc t ing c u l tura l h i s tory w i thou t r e ga rd t o c u l tu ra lp roce s s . T h e se f e a tu re s g i ve t h e o b serve r a n i mp re s s ion o ft h e Wo r ld A rchaeo logy o ft h e e a r ly 1 960 s a s a p a ra l le l f o r t h e s t a t e o f I r an ian a r cha eo logy a tt h e p r e sen t t ime .
T h i s s i tua t ion i s ap roduc t o f
s e v e ra l p a ra l le l a nd o f t en c onf l ic t ing t r ad i t ion s . T he se i n c lude ab road ly -ba sed a n t iqua r ian i sm a nd t h e s oc io -po l i t ica l c l ima t e w h ich h a s d om ina ted t h e e vo lu t ion o f I r an ian a r cha eo logy s i nce t h e 1 9 30 s .
D ur ing t h e p r e -R evo lu t ion p e r iod , t h e p o l i t ica l i d eo logy o f t h e r e g ime s ome t im e s
e n cou raged , b u t m o r e o f t en r e s t r ic ted , t h e d eve lopm en t o fa r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch .
A s ar e su l t o f
s e ve re r e s t r ic t ion s a n i n c rea s ing n umbe r o f a r cha eo log i s t s d evo ted t h e i r a t ten t ion o n ly t o t h e r e f inemen t o ft y po log ica l d ef in i t ion s a nd c h rono log ica l c hange s . A s ar e su l t o ft h e l o s s o fc on tac t s w i th c o l league s a b road t h a t b egan w i th t h e R evo lu t ion a nd c on t inued f o r s ome t im e t h e r eaf t e r , I r an ian a r chaeo log i s t s s t i l l p u r sue t h e i r r e sea rch i nt h e d i rec t ion s s e t i nt h e 1 950 s .
1
D ur ing t h e
s i x t ie s a nd s even t ie s n ew t r end s w e re d eve loped b y t h e ' New A rcha eo log is t s ' s u ch a s mu l t i d i sc ip l ina ry r e sea rch , t h e q ue s t ion ing o fd i f f u s iona ry t h eo r ie s , a nd g row ing c oncer nw i th p rob lem s o f s o c ia l
s t ruc tu re ,
e conom ic p roce s s ,
s e t t lem en t p a t te rn a nd u rban i sa t ion .
Wh i le
t h e se
d ev e lopm en t sw e r ec e r ta in ly w e lcome , t h ey e ngaged t h e a t ten t ion o fr e la t ive ly f ew a r cha eo log i s t s ; i n p ar t , I r an ian a r chaeo log i s t s , b ecau se o f s e v e ra l r e s t r ic t ion s , d i d n o t h eed t h e v o ic e o ft h e ' New A rcha eo log i s t s ' s uch a s B ra idwood , f o r e xamp le , w ho w a s w o rk ing i nI r an a tt h i s t i m e a nd w ho u rged ac hange d i rec t ion o fr e sea rch t owa rd h ypo the s i s t e s t ing , p roce s sua l a na ly s i s , a nd i n jec t ion o f a n th ropo log ica l t h eo r ie s i n to a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch . A n th ropo logy i nt h e Ang lo -Saxon t r ad i t ion w h ich l a id s t rong e mpha s i s o n s c ien t if i c m e thod s a nd t e chn ica l a na ly s is , h a s n o t af ec t ed a r cha eo log ica l a pp roache s i nt h i s c oun t ry . I n s t ead , ap a ra l le l t r ad i t ion o fa r chaeo logy a sh i s to r ica l r e sea rch d om ina ted t h e i n d igenou s a n t iqua r ian t r ad i t ion . I tw a s af i rmed a s a n a cad em ic d i sc ip l in e i nt h e p r e -R evo lu t ion p e r iod b y a r cha eo log i s t s a nd h i s to r ian s af i l ia ted w i th t h e I mpe r ia l r e g im e . T h e s t ruc tu re o f I r an ian a cadem ic i n s t i tu t ion s h a s a lway s t e nd ed t o p erpe tua t e t h e r e sea rch o r ien ta t ion s t ha t a r e f am i l ia r t ot h o se i np o s i t ion s o fa u thor i ty . A s ar e su l t t h e d om inan t r e sea rch p a rad igm h a s a lway s b een t owa rd p rob lem s o fs e quence a nd c h rono logy r a the r t h an c once rn w i th b road e rc u l tu ra l i s sue s a nd as o c ia l a r chaeo logy . T h i s t r ad i t ion h a s c a r r ied o n s ca rce ly u nchanged i nt h e p o s t -R evo lu t ion p e r iod a s w e l l .
T hu s , w ha t w e s e e t o day r e su l t s f r om a n a r chaeo log ica l
e vo lu t ion t h a tb egan w i th t h e p a s t r e pr e s s iv e r e g im e i nI r an . Ib e l ieve t ha t a r chaeo logy i nI r an w i l l r ema in i s o la t ed f r om t h e ma in s t ream o f Wo r ld A rchaeo logy , u n le s s I r an ian a r chaeo log i s t s r e d i rec t t h e i r e n e rg ie s t owa rd u pda t ing a r chaeo logy t h rough c on s t ruc t ing a n ew o rgan isa t ion f o r i t , a nd a dop t ing n ew i d ea s . I ti so bv iou s t ha t a ny n ew p l an f o r a r cha eo logy i nI r an s hou ld b e b a sed o n a k now ledge o f i t s b ackg round , i t s d eve lopm en t , a nd t h e m o s t i mpo r tan t f a c to r s a f ec t ing t h e se p roc e s se s .
U nf or tuna te ly , I r an ian a r cha eo log i s t s a r e n o t i n te r e s t ed i nt h e s t udy o ft h e h i s tory o f
a r cha eo logy ( a pa r t f r om a f ew d e sc r ip t iv e a r t ic le s ) , n o r h a s t h e re b een a ny c r i t ica l r e v iew o f a r cha eo logy p ub l i shed .
T hu s r e sea rche r s w ho n eed a cce s s t o t h e a r ch ive s e ncoun t e r many
d if i cu l t ie s d ue t od ef ic ienc ie s i nt h e managem en t s y s tem o fa r cha eo logy , a nd ah eavy b u reauc racy d om ina t e s t h e w ho le a dm in i s t ra t ive s y s tem o f t h e c oun t ry . H owev e r , s i nce t h e k evo lu t ion t h e s i tua t ion h a s c hanged ; f o r i n s tance , t h e a ppea rance o f ar e la t iv e ly g ood p o l i t ica l a nd s o c ia l c on tex t i n I r an ian s oc ie ty ; t h e a ppea rance o f ay oung e r g ene ra t ion o f a r chaeo log i s t s ; t h e a va i lab i l i ty o f a d equa t e f i nanc ia l r e sou rce s ; a n i n c rea se i nn ew a r chaeo log ica l d epa r tmen t s i nu n iv e r s i t ie s ; a nd a g row ing a t ten t ion o fg ove rnm en tt oa r cha eo logy . D e sp i te t h e se , a tp r e sen t I r an ian a r cha eo logy i si n av i r tua l s t a te o fc r i s i s ( s ee c hap t e r 2f o r d e ta i l ) . T h e p o s t -R evo lu t ion t r an sf o rma t ion h a s p roduced o n ly af ew c hange s a nd t h em o s ti mpo r tan tf e a tu r e s o ft h e c r i s i s ( mo s t ly i n he r i t ed f r om t h ep rev iou s r e g im e ) a nd t h e i r ma in c au se s s t i l l r ema in u nchanged .
I nt h i s t h e s i s Iw i l l t r y t o e xp la in t h e ma in
c au se s o f t h is c r i s i s i n t h e a r cha eo logy o f I r an , a nd a s m en t ioned a t t h e b eg inn ing o f t h i s
2
i n t roduc t ion t os how w hy I r an ian a r cha eo logy i ss oi mperv iou s t oc u r r en t s o ft h ough t i nt h e r e s t o f t h e w o r ld , e spec ia l ly t e chn ica l a nd t h eo re t ica l o ne s .
Ib e l ieve t h a t t h e g r ea t g ap b e tween t h e
a r chaeo logy o fI r an a nd Wo r ld A rcha eo logy c anno t b e s imp ly r emoved b y c a r ry ing o u t e mp i r ica l r e sea rch i nv a r iou s f i e ld s ,b ecau se t h ep r e sen ts t ruc tu re o fa r chaeo logy a nd i t s g r ea td ef i c ienc ie s w i l l p r even t t h e c on t r ibu t ion o f s uch w o rk f r om a low ing f u r the r d eve lopmen t .
T h e r ef o r e o ur f i r s t
p r io r i ty i nd o ing a r cha eo log ica l r e sea rch m u s tb e c oncer n ed w i th t h e w ay i nw h ich a r cha eo logy c an b e s a lvaged f r om i t s p r e sen t p i tf a l l s . W i thou t af i rm r e cogn i t ion o ft h e c i rcum s tance s u nde r w h ich a r chaeo logy o pe ra t e s , e v en t h ei d ea o fm od e rn i s ing a r chaeo logy w i l lb e am ean ing le s sm a t te r . I n t h i s s ho r t s ke tch , Iw i l l t r y t h roughou t t h i s t h e s i s , t o a ch ieve t wo t h ing s : f i r s t , b y l o ok ing b ackwa rd ,t os e eh ow w ea r r ived w h e re w ea r et o day ; s e cond , b y l o ok ing a h ead ( h oweve rr i sky , i na r a p id ly d eve lop ing f i e ld )i no rde rt od e sc r ibe s om eg oa l s ma in ly i nt h eory a nd m e thod . H e r e Im igh t a sw e l lb eb o ld a nd s ugge s tw ha t It h ink i sa ni d ea lp rog ramme f o rt h ef u tu r e . T h i s r e sea rch i st h ef i r s to v erv iew o ft h eh i s to ry a nd p r e sen t s t a te o fa r chaeo logy i nI r an . I t s a im i s t o c on s id e r r e cen t d eve lopmen t s i n We s t er n a r chaeo logy , a nd t h e i r r e levance t o aN ea r E a s te rn I s lam ic S t a te . T he P a la eo l i th ic o fI r an i st a k en a s ac a se s t udy . T he f i r s t c once rn o fc hap t e r s ( 1 ) a nd ( 2 ) i nt h i s t h e s i s i st oe va lua t e t h e d i s t inc t iv e ly n a t iona l c ha rac t e r i s t ic s o fa r chaeo logy i nI r an . S pec if i ca l ly t h ec hap te r s c on s ide rt h ed ev e lopm en to fa r chaeo logy i nI r an i nt h e 1 960 s a nd 1 970 s i n r e la t ion t ot h e ' New A rcha eo logy ' i nt h e U SA . I ti sc l ea r t h a t t h e se e x ter na l i n f luence s h ad o n ly a m in ima l i mpac t o n a r cha eo logy i nI r an ; t h e ' New A rcha eo logy ' , wh ich f i r s t d eve loped i n Ame r ican c i rc le s m o re t han t h ir ty y ea r s a go , m ad e as omewha t b e la ted i mpac t o n I r an ian a r cha eo logy i nt h e s e ven t ie s . N o t a l i t s a genda h a s b een a dop ted , a nd b ecau se i tw a s p i onee red b y a n th ropo log i s t s o n r e la t ive ly r e cen t a nd s imp le N ew Wo r ld s i t e s , i ti sn o t t o ta l ly a pp l icab le t o t h e l o ng h i s to r ica l s e quence s o fc omp lex I r an ian mound s . Ia r gue t h a tI r an ian a r chaeo logy w a s s imp ly l e f tb eh ind , ' o u t o fd a te ' , a nd g ene ra l ly a t heo re t ica l .
Ia l so s t r e s s t h a t i t s t r ad i t iona l a u tho r i ty s t ruc tu re p r even ted
d i scu s s ion o fn ew i d ea s . C hap te r( 3 )d emon s t ra t e st h a t , d e sp i te aw ide r ange o fa r cha eo log ica l w o rk i nI r an , t h e b l ank s o nt h e a r chaeo log ica l m ap s a r e f a r g rea t e r i ne x ten t t han t h e s ma l l r e g ion s t h a t h av e t o s ome e x t en t b een f i l led i n .
O n t h e o t he r h and t h e u npa ra l le led e xpan s ion o fa r cha eo logy ,
p a r t icu la r ly t h e c omp lex i ty a nd c o s t s o ff i e ldwo rk , w i l l f o rce u s t od e t erm in e p r io r i t ie s m uch m o re c l ea r ly . T hu s i nt h ef u tu re w ew i l lp robab ly s e e f ewe r o ft h e e no rmou s t e n -yea re xcava t ion s a tT e l l s i t e s s uch a sc ha rac t e r i sed t h e 1 960 s a nd 1 970 s . We h ave t o mov e t os ma l le r p ro jec t s d e l ibe ra t e ly d e s igned t o a n swe r s p ec if i c p rob lem s ( e .g . e xcava t ion a t o ne p e r iod s i te s ; s u r f ace s u rvey ; a nd r e g iona l s t ud ie s ) .
B ecau se t h e c oncep t o fs u rf ace s u rvey ing a s ar e l iab le m e thod o fd a ta r e cove ry
h a s n o t b een i n t roduced i n to t h e a r cha eo logy o fI r an , a nd a r cha eo log i s t s t h e r e a r e s t i l l n o t f am i l ia r w i th i t s m e thod s a nd t e chn ique s , t h i s c hap t e r a im s t oe mpha s i se t h e i mpor tance a nd p roduc t iv i ty o f
3
t h i s s t ra t egy a nd p rov ide s ag ene ra lm ode lo fa r cha eo log ica l s urvey m e thodo logy f o rt h e f u tu r e . T he p r e sen tt h e s i sg oe s r ad ica l ly b eyond t h et r ad i t iona l c u l tu ra l -h is to r ica l p a rad igm s o fI r an ian r e sea rch o r ien ta t ion , a nd s ugge s t s , f o r i n s tance , t h a t t h e s t udy o f P a la eo l i th ic A rcha eo logy ( i n n ew p e r spec t ive s ) i s af undamen ta l p e r iod o f h uman c u l tu ra l p rog r e s s , b u t o ne t ha t h a s l o ng b een c omp le te ly n eg lec ted i nI r an ian a r chaeo logy .
T he c ur r en t i s sue s o f P a laeo l i th ic A rcha eo logy , t h e
i mpor tance o f e nv i ronmen ta l d a ta , a nd t h e r a nge o f o u r u nd e r s tand ing o f I r an ian P a la eo l i th ic A rcha eo logy a r et h e s ub jec t s o fC hap te r s ( 4 ) a nd ( 5 ) . T h e p o l i t ica l a nd i d eo log ica l p rob lem s o ft h e a r cha eo logy o fI r an a r e d i scu ssed i nc hap t e r ( 6 ) w he re Ia rgue t h a t t h e c oncep t o fA rcha eo log ica l H e r i tage Managemen t i s ama t te r o ft o p p r io r i ty f o r I r an ian a r cha eo logy .
T h i s c hap te r d i scu sse s
m a jo rd i sa s te r s i nI r an ian c u l tu ra l h e r i tage ( e .g . l o o t ing o fs i te s d ue t o al a ck o fl e ga l p ro t ec t ion , t h e l a ck o fa n a dequa te managemen t s y s tem , a sw e l l a se conom ic a nd s o c ia l p rob lem s ) .
Ic onc lude i n
t h i st h e s i s t h a tt h e re a r e m a jo rc ha l lenge s f o r a r cha eo logy i nI r an i nt h e f u tu re ; t h e o l de r g en e ra t ion i sa lmo s t g one , t h e n ew g ene ra t ion c om ing t o t h e f o r e mus t f a ce m any t a sk s , a mong t h em t h e t r an s i t ion f r om am ono l i th ic n a t iona l s choo l t o am o r e s ub t le , m any s ide a pproach t oa r cha eo log ica l p rob lem s . I tm u s t s a lvage w ha t i tc an o fs i t e s r a p id ly b e ing d e s t royed b y v a r iou s f a c to r s . A t t h e s am et i me w ew i l lh ave t oc ha l lenge t h ep o l i t ica la nd i d eo log ica l c on s t ra in t s af ec t ing a r cha eo logy i n s o c ie ty . T he n ew g ene ra t ion mu s te nv i s ion am a s t e r -p lan f o rt h e f u tu r e a r chaeo log ica l d ev e lopmen t o f t h i s r e g ion , w he re e conom ic d eve lopm en t a nd p ro spe r i ty s t i l l a low s g ood o ppor tun i t ie s a nd s uppo r t f o r s y s t ema t ic a r cha eo log ica l r e sea rch .
O n ly a d ra s t ic c hange i nt h e n a t iona l p o l icy o f
a r cha eo logy a nd e duca t ion a nd much m o re c o -ope ra t ion w i th t h e a r chaeo log ica l i n s t i tu t ion s o ft h e d ev e loped c oun t r ie sc an r e ve r se t h ep r e sen ts i tua t ion o fa r cha eo logy i nI r an .
4
Chap ter 1
AB r ief H i story o f Archaeo logy
a nd Archaeo log ica l Re search i nI ran
1 .I n t roduc t ion T h es t a r t ing p o in to ft h eI r an ian a r cha eo logy w a s t h e s am e a sf o r o t he rN ea r E a s t er na r cha eo log ica l r e sea rch w h ich r e la te st ow e s ter ns cho la r sh ip i n t e re s t s , f i r s t ly t od i scove ry t h e l o s t c i v i l i sa t ion o ft h e B ib le L and s ,t h en t od i sp lay i n te r e s t ing o b jec t s i nm u seum s . U p t o 1 927 t h e a r cha eo logy o fI r an w a s e xc lu s iv e ly u nde r F rench c on t ro l .
A l l e xcava t ion s w e r e
d i r ec t ed t ot h e d i scove ry o ft h e v i s ib le a nc ien t c i ty o f S u sa , a s ar e su l t much r ema rkab le ma ter ia l f o und i t sw ay t ot h eL ouv r e Mu seum . S oon a f t e r 1 928 , t h ough t h e t e rm ina t ion o fF r ench m onopo ly o pened t h e g a te s t oa l l , t h e p rev iou s t r end i n mu seum i n t e r e s t c o l lec t ion r ema in ed d om inan t , w i th s ome t r an sf o rma t ion i n i d ea s a nd t e chn ique s
D eve lopm en t o f r e g iona l c h rono log ie s p reva i led i n t h e a r cha eo log ica l r e sea rch ;
n ev e r th e le ss , w e s hou ld n o t et h a ti n ve s t iga t ing an umbe ro fp r eh i s to r ic s i te s f o rmed t h e b a s ic g oa l o f t h i sp e r iod o fa r chaeo log ica la c t iv i t ie s . I tw a s o n ly a tt h e b eg inn ing o ft h e 1 960 s t h a tt h e Ame r ican N ew A rchaeo log i s t s ' s t a r t ed p rob lem o r ien t ed a nd h ypo the s i s t e s t ing a pp roache s , m a in ly i n t h e N eo l i th ic p er iod .
S uch a pproache s
i n i t ia t ed an ew e r ai nt h ea r chaeo logy o fI r an . A dvanced m e thod s o fs t ra t ig raphy a nd c a r ef u l c on t ro l o v e r t h e c on tex t o f m a t e r ia l r ema in s w a s w ide ly u sed , a nd r e sea rch d e s ign s t o s o lve p rob lem s c onc e rn ing t h e e conom ic r e la t ion sh ip s o fh uman c ommun i t ie s r e ce ived mo re a t t en t ion r a th e r t h an a m o r ed e sc r ip t ion o fc u l tu ra l ma t e r ia l . D oub t le s s t h e a r chaeo logy o fI r an w i th m o re t h an 1 00 i mpo r t an t e xcava t ion p ro jec t s ( s ee N egahban 1 997 : 4 82 -505 ) h a s p l ay ed af undam en ta l r o le a nd m a jo r c on t r ibu t ion i nt h e N ea r E a s t t h rough t h e 1 9 th a nd 2 0 th c en tu r ie s . T he m a in p u rpo se o ft h i s c hap te r ,t h rough ac onc i se r e v iew o fi t sh i s to ry , i s t o r e cogn i se t h e m a jo r f a c to r s a f ec t ing i t s d eve lopmen ta l p roce sse s , i n o rde r t o d e sc r ibe s om e p r o spec t s f o ri t sf u tu r ed ev e lopmen t . I tc an b e c a tego r i sed i nt h ree s t age s , e ach o ft h em w i th i t s o wn c ha rac t e r i s t ic s .
I ti sn e ce s sa ry t o n o t e h e r e t h a t t h e f o ur th s t age o f a r chaeo logy i n t h e p o s t -
R evo lu t ion p e r iod ( s ta r t ed i n 1 979 ) i sn o t r e v iew ed h e re , b ecau se , f i r s t ly , t h e r e vo lu t ion b rough t a l f o r e ign e xcava t ion s t o a n e nd , a nd , s e cond ly , m any c hange s o ccur red i n t h e o rgan isa t ion o f
5
a r cha eo logy w h ich h a s l e dt o a1 0y ea rc e s sa t ion o fw o rk . F o r tuna t e ly i th a s b ecom e a c t ive a ga in b y t h ep a r l iam en t a pp rov ing o fn ew l aw s a nd ar e o rgan i sa t ion o fv a r iou s a r chaeo log ica l c en t r e s u nd e r t h e ' Cu l tu ra lH e r i tage O rgan i sa t ion ' ( CHO ) i n1 989 . T hough t h i s o r gan i sa t ion b egan i mmed ia t e ly t o r e f o rm a nd r e o rgan i se
a r cha eo log ica l
a c t iv i t i e s ,
n ev e r th e l e s s ,
t h e
u nf am i l ia r i ty o f I r an ian
a r cha eo log i s t s w i th t h e n ew t h ough t s o ft h e ' Wo r ld A rcha eo logy ' a nd m any d ef i c ien c i e s a s soc ia t ed w i th t h e s y s t em o fa r cha eo logy , m ean s t h e r e a r e f ew i mm ed ia t e p ro spec t s f o rt h e d ev e lopm en t o fa p rog ramm eo fa r cha eo log ica le xcava t ion ; f o rt h i sw em ay h av et ow a i tf o r al o ng t im e . 2 .T he F i r s tS tage : f r om t h eb eg inn ing t o1 927 T h eN ea rE a s th a s a t t rac t ed t r av e l le r s f r om t h e 1 7 th c en tu ry o nwa rd s f o rt wo ma in r e a son s : f i r s t ly , a st h e l a nd s o ft h e B ib le ; s e cond ly b ecau se o fi t s a nc ien t v i s ib l e r ema in s . B o th r e su l t ed i na n e v e r i n c r ea s ing ly a t t en t ion p a id b y a dv en tu r e r s , t r av e l le r s a nd s c ho la r s ( H i lp r ech t 1 903 , C e ram 1 951 , G ab r ie l 1 969 ,D an ie l 1 975 , F agan 1 985 ,T r igge r 1 989 , S t ieb ing 1 993 ) . I r an h ow ev e r d i d n o t e n joy t h e s ame l e v e l o fi n t e r e s t a s s om e n e ighbou r ing c oun t r i e s , e xcep t S u sa w h ich B en jam in o fT ud e la , aS pan i sh J ew i nt h e t w e lf th c en tu ry i d en t if i ed a s t h e l o ca t ion o ft h e B ib l ica ls t o ry o fD an ie l( Gab r ie l 1 969 : 4 6 -54 ) . A s e a r ly a st h e s e v en t een th c en tu ry t r ave l le r s s u ch a sP i e t ro D e l la V a l le , a n I t a l ian n ob leman , m ad e j o u rn ey s t o I r an a nd t o ok a way a c opy o ft h e P e r sepo l i s i n sc r ip t ion ; i tw a s t h e f i r s t e xamp le o f c un e if o rm w h ich r e ached E u rope .
I tw a s a f t e r t h e 1 600 s t h a t e s tab l i shm en t o f t h e E a s t I n d ia
C ompany a nd t h er i va l ry b e tw een E ng land a nd F r anc ep u tI r an i n as t ra t eg ic a nd f avou rab l ep o s i t ion t oa t t ra c tt r av e l le r s , m e rchan t s a nd p o l i t ic ian s . T h ey w e r e g en e ra l ly a ccompan ied b y a r t i s t s w h ich m ad ei tp o s s ib le t om ak ea c cu ra t ed raw ing o fo u t s tand ing m onum en t s a nd i n sc r ip t ion s o fP e r sepo l i s , f o ri n s tance , b yH e rbe r ti n1 626 , T ave rn ie ra nd h i s d r augh t sman d eS l and e s i n1 631 a nd d eB ru in i n 1 701 ( Ce ram 1 970 : 1 67 176 ) . B u t i tw a s n o t u n t i l 1 765 t ha t K a r s t en N iebuh r , aD an i sh s cho la r , t o ok ag r ea t s t ep t owa rd s t h e d ec iph e rm en t o ft h e c un e if o rm b y m ak ing w onde rf u l ly a c cu ra t e a nd c l ea rc op ie so ft h em ( Ra jab i 1 965 : 10 -15 ) . T h i sw o rk f o rmed t h eb a s i so ft h eg rea tb r eak th rough i n t h ed ec iph e rm en to ft h ec un e if o rm i n sc r ip t ion sb yH en ry R aw l in son w ho a s am i l i ta ry a dv i so rt ot h e P e r s ian g ov e rno r o fK u rd i s tan i nI r an f r om 1 8 35 .
A t K e rm an shah h e d i scove red a f o u r h und r ed
l i n e s i n sc r ip t ion e ng rav ed i n5 16 B .C . o n t h e o rd e r s o f D a r iu s t h e G r ea t .
T h i s t r i l ingua l ( O ld
P e r s ian , E l am i t e , a nd B aby lon ian )i n sc r ip t ion i s1 22 m e t r e s a bov et h eg round o nt h ef a c eo ft h eg r ea t r o ck o fB i s ton n ea r K e rman shah . B yt h e e nd o f 1 8 37 h e h ad c omp l e t e ly c op ied a nd t r an s la t ed t wo h und r ed l i n e s o ft h e O ld P e r s ian s e c t ion o ft h ei n sc r ip t ion . H i st r an s la t ion o ft h e e n t i r e O ld P e r s ian t e x ta ppea red i nt h eJ ourna lo ft h e R oya lA s ia t ic S oc ie ty i n1 846 -47 . T h i s d ec iphe rm en tb ecam e a
6
k ey t ot h e u n lock ing o ft h e e a r ly h i s to ry o fw e s t er n A s ia— see H . R aw l in son ( 1 852 ) , G . R aw l in son ( 1 898 ) , C e ram ( 1 958 ) . B yt h em idd le o ft h el a s tc en tu ry t h em a jo rs i t e s o fE gyp ta nd Me sopo tam ia w e re b e ing e x cava t ed t o o b ta in v a luab le a n t iqu i t ie s , e s pec ia l ly i n Me sopo tam ia u nd e r t h e j o in t d i p loma t ic a r cha eo log ica l a g r e em en tb e tw een F rance a nd E ng land ( S t ieb ing 1 993 : 9 6 ) ; B o t ta a nd L aya rd e xcava t ed t h e m o s t i mpo r t an ta nc ien ts i te s a tN im rud ,N in eveh a nd K ho r sabad d u r ing 1 842 1852 ( L loyd 1 976 ) . A tt h a t t im et h e e x i s t ence o f as t a t e o fw a r b e tween I r an a nd R u s s ia p r ev en t ed a ny s im i la r a r cha eo log ica l w o rk i nI r an . B u t t h e s t udy o fc u s tom s a nd c u l tu r e s o fI r an ian t r ibe s i no rde r t ou nd e r s t and t h e i r p o t en t ia l s t r eng th t oc onf ron t R u s s ian t h r ea t s t oI n d ia b ecam e a n i n t e r e s t o fm any B r i t i sh p o l i t ica l a g en t s i nt h e r e g ion . L aya rd w a s o n e o ft h em , a nd h em ad e aj our n ey t oI r an i n 1 840 -42 t oo b ta in " i nf o rma t ion t ot h eB r i t i sh g ov e rnm en tt op r ev en tt h eR u s s ia i n t en t ion t od raw P e r s ia a way f r om t h e i n f luenc eo fE ng land" (Laya rd 1 887 : 9 ) . H eo b se rv ed m any a r cha eo log ica l s i t e s a nd a c cu ra t e ly n o t ed t h em f o rt h ef i r s tt ime i nh i st r av e la c coun t . T h e f i r s t c onv en t iona l e xcava t ion , l i k e t h o se o f Me sopo tam ia , d i d n o t s t a r t i nI r an u n t i l t h e 1 8 50 s w h en L uf to s , ag eo log i s t i nt h e T u rko -Pe r s i an F ron t ie r C omm i s s ion f o r d e t e rm in ing t h e b o rd e r o f I r an a nd t h e O t toman Emp i r e , a nd a p o l i t ic ian i n t e r e s ted i n a cqu i r ing m a jo r f i nd s f o r m u seum d i sp lay ( L loyd 1 980 : 1 32 ) , v i s i t ed S u sa , w h ich w a s i d en t if i ed a s t h e B ib l ica l S hu shan .
H e h ad
a l r eady e xcava t ed a t Wa rka , t h e B ib l ica l E r ech , a s e a r ly a s 1 850 o n h i s b e l ief t h a t " . . .f rom o u r c h i ldhood w eh ave b een l e dt or e ga rd t h i s a st h e c r ad le o ft h e h uman race" ( Dan ie l 1 981 : 7 8 ) . T h e h ug e r u in s o nt h e S u sa a c ropo l i s e n cou raged h im t om ak e a n e xcava t ion o n t h e c en t ra l p a r t o ft h e m ound . H i s c ampa ign f o rt h e f i r s tt im e b rough tt ol i gh t ac o lumn ed h a l l o ft h e A cha em en id p e r iod ( Moghada rn 1 973 : 3 ,7 7 ) . I n s p i t e o f t h e mo r e s oph i s t ica t ed e xcava t ion s i n Me sopo tam ia d u r ing t h e s e cond h a lf o f t h e n i n e t e en th c en tu ry u nd e r B r i t i sh d i r ec to r s s uch a s Sm i th a tK uyn j ik i n 1 873 , a nd R a s sam a tT e l l B a lava ti n1 878 -1882 , F r ench e x cava t ion u nd e r d e S a rz ec a tT e l lo i n1 877 , a nd t h e Am e r ic an f i r s t e xped i t ion a tN ippu r i n 1 884 ( L loyd 1 978 ) , t h e a r cha eo logy o fI r an d i d n o t d ev e lop a s d i d t h a t o f I r aq . A tt h e s ame t im ei n t e r e s ti nb u r ied t r ea su r e l e dt ot h e d i gg ing o fa r cha eo log ica l s i t e s n o t o n ly b yt h e o rd e ro ft h e S h ah b u ta l so b yr e g iona lg ov e rno r s . E t emad -A l -Sa l tan eh a st h e s p ec ia l a dv i so r o fK ing N a se rE dd in a nd D r . F euv r i e ra sh i sm ed ica l d oc to rw ro t ei nt h e i r d i a ry m emo i r e s , h ow t h e p l und e r ing o f s i t e s a nd t h e t r ag edy o f ' Shah A r chaeo logy ' h appen ed ( E t emad -A l sa l tan eh 1 977 , E ghba l 1 947 ) .
A n e xcava t ion t e chn ique t h a t s hou ld b e m en t ioned h e r e w a s t h a t o b se r v ed b y H .
S ch ind le r , at e leg raph e ng in ee r i n 1 870 , w h en h e s aw w o rkm en w ho w e re d i gg ing f o r t r ea su r e s a t T epe H i s sa r ; h i s s ugge s t ion a bou t o b ta in ing t h e i n tac tp o t t e ry v e s se l s b yu s ing w a t e rt ow a sh a way
7
t h e s o i l s u r round ing t h e a r t if ac t s l e d t ot h e d i v e r s ion o f ac ana l t h rough t h e s i te ( Rou shan i 1 968 : 2 06 ) . T h en ex ts t ep i nt h e a r cha eo logy o fI r an w a st a k en b yt h e F r ench g ove rnm en t a nd a r cha eo log i s t s o n May 1 2 1 895 . A cco rd ing t o at r ea ty t h e S hah , N a s se rE dd in , g av et h e F r ench e xc lu s iv e e xcava t ion r i gh t st oa l o fP e r s ia ( I ran ) , p rov id ing t h a tt h e s a c r ed p l ac e s s u ch a s mo sque s , s h r in e s a nd t h et omb o f D an i e l s hou ld n o t b e t o uch ed ; a l g o ld a nd s i lv e r o b jec t s f o und s hou ld b ecom e t h e e xc lu s iv e p rop e r ty o fH i s Ma je s ty ; a l o t he ro b jec t s d i scove r ed s h ou ld b e d i v ided b e tween t h e F r en ch M i s s ion a nd P e r s ia , a nd t h e F r ench g ov e rnm en t , i nr e tur n f o r H i s Ma je s ty 's g ene ro s i ty , s hou ld p ay 1 0000 T oman t o h im .
T h i s c on t rac t w a s r e n ew ed
a nd e x t end ed f o r s i x ty y ea r s w i th t h e n ew S hah ,
Moz af f a r E dd in , t h r ee y ea r s l a t e r , g i v ing a l l o ft h e o b jec t s f o und i nS u s iana t o F r anc e ( Ma soum i 1 976 : 4 6 ) . A cco rd ing t ot h i s c onv en t ion i n1 897 d e Mo rgan t h ef amou s E gyp to log i s t , p r eh i s to r ian , a nd m in ee ng in e e r ,w a sa ppo in t ed a sd i r ec to ro ft h eD e l ega t ion F ran g l ise e nP er se .' T h ed e lega t ion h a s b e en d e sc r ibed a s" p robab ly t h e m o s t i mpor tan ta r cha eo log ica l e xped i t ion t ha t h a s l e f tE u rope" ( Ca r l ton 1 9 39 : 3 4 ) . T h e m od er n e xp lo ra t ion o f I r an b egan i n 1 897 w h en t h e F r ench monopo ly o f a r chaeo log ica l e xcava t ion w a s e s tab l i sh ed . D u r ing t h e s ucceed ing d e cad e s ah uge A cha em en id t e l l w a s e xcava t ed a nd t h em app ing a nd t h e i d en t if i ca t ion o fp r eh i s to r ic a nd h i s to r ica l s i t e s p rog re ssed r a p id ly . A tt h e s am et i m e k now ledge o fa r cha eo log ica l m e thod w a s p r omo t ed b yt h e e s tab l i shmen t o fi n t er na t iona l s choo l s t h roughou t t h e N ea r E a s t , a nd P e t r ie 's i n nova t ion o f t e l l s t ra t ig raphy .
H i s t e chn ique
a ppea r ed o nt h es c en ei n1 890 a t am ound i nP a le s t in e . T hough t h et r ue n a tu r e o ft e l l s h ad f o rm e r ly b een r e cogn i sed b y S ch l iemam i a tT roy , P e t r ie d ev e loped t h e p r inc ipa l t o o l s o f l a t e r e x cava t ion s : s t ra t ig raphy o rt h ea r to fr e cogn i t ion o fd eb r i s l a y e r si n am ound ; a nd c e ram ic t ypo logy ,t h e s t udy o f t h ec hang ei np o t t e ry s t y le s a s ac l ue t oc h rono logy . D u r ing t h i sp e r iod t h eF r ench d e lega t ion l o ck ed t h e I r an ian g a t e o f a r cha eo logy t o a l . a r cha eo logy i n o u r f i e ld .
T he se e a r ly d ecad e s c on t inued a f o rma t iv e p e r iod i n
T h e t r ue n a tu r e o f t h e t e l l s , a nd h ow t h ey w e r e f o rm . e d , w e r e t h e
f undam en ta lq ue s t ion s . A rcha eo log i s t sb egan t ol e a rn h ow t od i s t ingu i sh t h es ucce s s iv es t ra ta a nd t o d a t ee a ch b yi t sc on t en t s ,p a r t icu la r ly t h ep o t t e ry . T h et a sk w a sm o r ec omp lex t han f i r s tt h ough t ,b u t i ty i e ld ed ar o ugh o u t l in eo ft h eh i s to ry a nd c u l tu re o fa nc ien tK huz i s tan i nI r an . I ne ach e xcava t ion p o t t e ry a nd o b jec t sw e r ef ound i na bund ance b u ts c a r c e ly as i ng l ep i ece w a s r e por ted i nr e la t ion t oa c on t ex t . T h er e su l ti st h a td e Mo rgan ' sr e por t s , l i k ea lp r e Wo r ld Wa r Ip ub l ica t ion s ,w e r ev a s t ,b u t o f t en u s e le s s i nt e rm s o fi n f o rma t ion .
I ti sc l ea r t h a t t h e p r im i t iv e e xcava t ion t e chn iqu e o b scu r ed
m uch e v id enc e , s om e o fi td e s t roy ed f o r eve r . I nt h i s f i r s tp e r iod a r cha eo log i s t s b egan t of am i l ia r i se t h em se lv e sw i th t h ec ha rac t e r i s t ic m a t e r ia l so ft h em ound s ,b u tn od e sc r ip t ion m ade o nt h ee c onom ic , s o c ia la nd r e l ig iou sl i f eo fp a s tc u l tu r e s .
8
D u r ing t h e f i r s t s e a son o f h i s w o rk h e moved at o ta l o f 1 8000 c ub ic m e te r s o f e a r th w i th 1 200 w o rkm en . H eb egan t od i g as e r ie so fv e r t ica l s haf t s a su sed i ni n du s t r ia lm in ing i no rde rt oe s tab l i sh ar e la t ive ly a ccu ra t e p i c tu r e o f t h e s ucce ss iv e c u l tu ra l p ha se s o f t h e h i s to r ica l ' a nd p r eh i s to r ic p e r iod s , a sw e l la st of i nd i n tac ts t ruc tu ra l r ema in s b u r ied u nde rh eap s o fr ubb le . T hen h et u rned h i s a t t en t ion t ot h em a in a c ropo l i so fS u sa ,u s ing am a s ive t r ench 2 5 m e te r s w ide b y 1 00 m e te r s l o ng ( d e Mo rgan 1 905 : 5 0 , 1 906 : 4 ) .
H i s s pec ia l m e thod , n ame ly ' t he e xp lo ra t ion o f t h e r e gu la r s t ra ta '
n e ed ed t o r emove a w id e r a nge o f a r cha eo log ica l l a ye r s , b y u s ing a l a rge n umbe r o f w o rkmen , r e su l t ed i n t h e d e s t ruc t ion o f av a luab le p a r t o ft h e A cha emen ian ma in p l a tf o rm a nd o f E lam i t e a r ch i t ec tu ra lm a t e r ia l ( S t ev ea nd G a sch 1 941 : 4 5 -6 , H o le 1 987 : 4 1) . E xcava t ion s b yt h eF rench d e lega t ion w e r en o tr e s t r ic ted j u s tt oS u sa , b u t d e Mo rgan e x t end ed t h em t o t h e C a sp ian S ea s ho re w hen h e e xcava ted t h e re o n p r eh i s to r ic s i te s i nt h e l a s t d ecad e o f t h e n i n e t een th c en tury ( d e Mo rgan 1 896 ) .
Wi th t h e G au t ie r a nd L ampe r e xcava t ion s , u nd e r t h e s ame
e xped i t ion , a tt h e p r eh i s to r ic Mou s s ian i n 1 902 -3 , t h e i r r e a lm r e ached t o L ur i s tan ( Gau t ie r a nd L ampe r 1 905 ) . H e r ew e s hou ld n o t et h a tt h ep hy s ica l r emova l o fd eb r i s a nd t h e d emo l i t ion o fs uppo sed ly w or th le s s a nc ien t wa l l s t oo b ta in v a luab le a n t iqu i t ie s , w e r e a ccep t ed b y t h e F rench d e lega t ion ( Pa r ro t 1 953 : 3 9 ) , b u t d e Mo rgan a nd h i s s ucce sso r s b rough t t o I r an t h e n ew i d ea o f a r chaeo logy a nd a b a s ic e xcava t ion m e thod t h a th ad f o rme r ly b een d eve loped i nE gyp ta nd Me sopo tam ia . Ar e su l to ft h eF rench a r cha eo log ica l m onopo ly , i mpo sed b y r oya l e d ic t , g ave t h e F rench a u tho r i t ie s a b so lu te c on t ro l o fa r cha eo logy i nI r an , s o t h a t n o o ne w a s a lowed t o e xcava t e , e xcep t w i th t h e i r s a nc t ion , u n t i l 1 927 . 3 .T he S econd S tage : 1 927 t o1 960 An a t iona l i sm b a sed o n r e g iona l c u l tu re a ppea r ed t h roughou t t h e N ea r E a s t ern c oun t r ie s w h en t h e O t toman Emp i r e c o l lap sed a f t e r t h e F i r s t Wo r ld Wa r .
T h i s i d ea e ncou raged n a t iona l i d en t i t ie s t o
d eve lop p an T u rk i sm , p an A rab i sm a nd p an I r an i sm , a tl e a s t i nt h e e a s te rn p a r t o ft h e N ea r E a s t . G ov e rnmen t s s ough t l e g i t ima t ion t h rough t h e s uppor t o f a r chaeo logy a nd h i s to r ica l r e sea rch .
A
c hange i nt h e p o l icy o fR eza S hah ( who r e igned i nI r an f r om 1 920 t o 1 941) , f o l low ing t h i s n ew p o l i t ica l d oc t r ine , i n t roduced t h e a r chaeo logy o f I r an i n t h e n ew s t a te . a r cha eo log ica l m onopo ly w a s c ance l led b y t h e I r an ian p a r l iamen t .
I n 1 927 t h e F rench
I to pened t h e l o cked g a te s o f
a r cha eo logy t oa l c oun t r ie s . T h i s p e r iod i nI r an c o inc ided w i th a dvanced p o s t -wa r a r chaeo logy i n t h eN ea rE a s t , i np ar t icu la ri n Me sopo tam ia , ag row ing n a t iona lf e e l ing a mong v a r iou s n a t ion s o ft h e N ea rE a s t , a nd e ven t s o ft h e F i r s t Wo r ld Wa r r e su l t ed i nc hange s i nt h e a n t iqu i t ie s l aw s i nt h e mo s t p a r t s o f t h e N ea r E a s t , e s pec ia l ly i n I r aq .
T he n ew r u le s c hanged t h e p o s i t ion o f f o re ign
9
a r cha eo log ica le xped i t ion s , a nd e s tab l i sh ed n a t iona ld epa r tm en t s o fa n t iqu i ty a nd an a t iona l m u seum ( Dav id a nd J oan O a t e s 1 981 : 2 9 ) . O nt h e o t h e rh and n ew i mp rov ed a r cha eo log ica lt e chn ique s w e r e d ev e loped b y a r cha eo log i s t s , w ho w o rk ed h e r e f o r m any y ea r s .
A n e xped i t ion o r gan i sed b y t h e
D eu t sch e O r ien tG e se l l schaf tt oI r aq w a s m o r e c onc e rned w i th t h e r e cov e ry o fi n f o rma t ion t h an t h e e n r ichm en t o fm u seum c o l lec t ion s .
T h ey p roduced n ew t e chn iqu e s o fe xcava t ion t h a t w ou ld b e a
' p ro to type o f a l s t ra t ig raph ica l i n ve s t iga t ion i nl a t e r t im e ' ( L loyd 1 978 : 1 78 ) .
D ev e lopm en t o f
p o t t e ry s e quenc e s d ev i sed b y P e t r ie i nt h e e a r ly 1 900 s , w a s s u cce ssf u l ly c on t inued b y Woo l ley ( S t i eb ing 1 993 : 1 7 )w ho i nt h e 1 930 su nd e r took t h ee xcava t ion o fm agn if i c en tt omb s a tU r (Woo l ley 1 9 34 ) c ompa rab le w i th S ch l iemann 's d i scov e ry a t Mycena e a nd C a r t e r a tT u tankhamun 's t omb ( Dan i e l 1 975 : 2 0 1 ) . T h e Am e r ican e xped i t ion a tK haf a je i n1 9 30 ( De lougaz a nd L loyd 1 942 ) , t h e B r i t i sh S choo lo fA r cha eo logy 's e xcava t ion b y Ma l Iowan a tT epe A rpach iya i n1 933 ( MaBow an a nd R o se 1 9 35 ) , a nd t h e B r i t i sh Mu seum e xped i t ion d i r ec t ed b yT homp son a nd Ma l Iowan a tK uyn j ik i n 1 9 31 ( Thomp son a nd MaRow an 1 932 ) , t h r ew n ew l i gh t o n a s pe c t s o f e a r ly p reh i s to r ic I r aq t h a t h i th e r to w e r eu nknown . Two y ea r s a f t e rt h e a nnu l l ing o ft h e F r ench m onopo ly a nd d ue t ot h e e ncou ragem en t o fg ove rnm en t o f I r an , a n a n t iqu i ty d epa r tm en t w a s e s tab l i sh ed u nd e r A . G oda rd a F rench a r ch i t ec t ( Ma soum i 1 976 : 9 ) . T h i s e v en t r e su l t ed i nt h e o pen ing o fa r cha eo log ica l e x cava t ion t o a l l , e s pec ia l ly t ot h e Am e r ican I n s t i tu t ion o fA r cha eo logy , e s tab l i shed i nI r an i n1 9 30 . A tt ha tt ime e xcava t ion b y l a rg e f o r e ign e xped i t ion s w a s e n cou raged .
T h e e xcava t ion s c a r r i ed o u t u nd e r t h e se c ond i t ion s a r e t o o
n um e rou s t o l i s t i n f u l l , b u t t h e monum en ta l Am e r ican e xcava t ion s a t T akh t -e Jam sh id w e r e a l a ndma rk a sw a s t h e F r ench s pon so red e xcava t ion a tS i a lk ( b e low ) .
T hough t h e m a in i n te re s t s o f
a r cha eo log i s t s w e r et or e cov e re v idenc e o fa nc ien t s i t e s , i tw a s a t as e r ie s o f much s ma l le r m ound s t h a t S chm id t a nd G h i r s lunan r e a l ly t r an sf o rm ed a r cha eo logy f r om a l a rge i n tu i t ive a f a i r i n to a s y s t ema t ic ( i fn o t s c ien t i f ic ) d i sc ip l in e . B yt h e b eg inn ing o f 1 9 30 p r eh i s to r ic a r cha eo logy b egan t o a ppea r o n s om e s ma l l m ound s a nd G h i r s lunan m a s t e r ed t h e p o t t e ry a nd t h e s t ra t ig raphy .
H i s
c h rono log ica l a nd t e rm ino log ica l f r am ewo rk , w o rk ed o u t i nt h es am ey ea r , r ema ined b a s ic f o rm any y ea r sf o ra r cha eo log i s t s . T h i sp ha se i nI r an ian a r cha eo logy s aw t h ed eve lopmen to fr e a l s o ph i s t ica t ion s ; a sm e thod s a dvanc ed , t h ef i e ld m ov ed f r om e n l igh t en ed t r ea su r e h un t ing t os cho la r ly c ompe t ence . A cco rd ing t oi mp rov ed m e thod s i n f i e ldwo rk a nd i n t e rp r e ta t ion , ac h rono log ica l s e qu en c e b a sed o n p o t t e ry s t y le s w a s p roduc ed ( f o r d e ta i led e xp lana t ion o ft h e r o le o fp o t t e ry a s ak ey m a t e r ia l i nt h e c h rono logy i nI r an s e e : McCown 1 942 , 1 9 54 , P i ggo t t 1 943 , G o rdon 1 947 , C h i ld e 1 952 , Y oung 1 958 , 1 969 , D y son 1 967 , 1 9 87 , H en r ick son 1 985 , V o ig t 1 987 ) , a nd a n o u t l in e o ft h ep o l i t ica l h i s to ry o fI r an e me rg ed , c omp lem en t ing t h e l i t e ra ry a ccoun t s i nt h e c un e if o rm t e x t s a nd i n t eg ra t ing t h e c oun t ry i n to al a rg e
1 0
f r am ewo rk o fe v en t s i nt h e a nc i en tN ea r E a s t . S t i l l , h ow ev e r , a r cha eo logy w a s b e t t e r a ta n sw e r ing s u ch q u e s t ion s a s ' wha t ' w h e r e ' a nd ' h ow ' , r a th e rt h an ' why ' . T h e f o l low ing l i s t s t h en umbe r a nd l o ca t ion o fe xcava t ion s c a r r i ed o u ti nt h i sp e r iod , a nd t h ei n d iv idua l si n vo lv ed : Wu l s in a tT u rang T epe i n 1 9 31 ( Wu l s in 1 932 ) ; S chm id t a tT epe H i s sa r i n1 931 ( Schm id t 1 937 ) ; L ang sdo rf fa tT e l l B acon ( Lang sdo rf fa nd McCown 1 942 ) ; G h i r shman a tT epe G iyan i n1 931 a nd S i a lk 1 9 33 ( Con t enau a nd G h i r shman 1 935 G h i r shman 1 938a , 1 9 39 ) ; A rn e a tS hah T epe i n 1 933 ( A rn e 1 945 ) ; S chm id t a tC h e shm e A l i i n 1 934 ( Schm id t 1 935 ) ; S chm id t a tP e r sepo l i s 1 934 a nd I s ta ld i r 1 935 ( Schm id t 1 953 , 1 936 ) ; a nd G h i r shman a t B i shapou r 1 936 a nd a t S u sa 1 946 ( Gh i r shm an 1 938b , 1 952 ) . A l though d u r ing t h i sp e r iod s t ra t ig raphy a nd c on t ro lo v e rt h er e covery o f a r t if a c t s w a s d ev e loped , b ecau se o ft h e p redom inance a nd e mpha s i s o n t h e e n r ichm en t o f mu seum c o l l e c t ion s , s om e o ft h e w o rk s uch a sG h i r sh rnan 's e xcava t ion a tG iy an o rt h e w o rk o fS chm id t a t H i s sa r s e em ' c oa r se b y m od er n s t anda rd s ' a nd n e ed s r e excava t ion ( Dy son 1 987 : 6 48 -652 , H o le 1 9 87 : 5 1 ) . N ev er th e l e s s d u r ing t h i s p e r iod p r eh i s to r ic a r cha eo logy c ou ld p roduce r e l iab le e nough e v id enc e t o e s tab l i sh a c h rono log ica l f r am ewo rk f o r t h e p r eh i s to ry o f t h e I r an ian P la t eau , a s McCown i nh i s ' Compa ra t iv e S t ra t ig raphy o fE a r ly I r an ' ( McCown 1 942 ) h a s d e sc r ibed i nd e ta i l . T h ec h rono logy p ropo sed b y S chm id ta nd G h i r shm an f o rh i s to r ica la nd p r eh i s to r ic I r an r ema ined f o r al o ng t im et h eb a s i s f o ra l c ompa ra t iv ew o rk . T h e se w e r er ef in ed b yn ew e v idence f ound a tG od in b yY oung i n1 965 ( Young 1 965 , 1 969 ) a nd a tA l i K o sh b y H o le i n1 977 ( Ho le 1 987 : 5 1 , 1 977a ) , a nd c on t inu ei nu se u n t i lt h ep r e sen t . T h e s e cond p ha se o ft h i s p e r iod i sa ccompan ied b y c l and e s t in e d i gg ing b y t r ea su re h un t e r s , w h ich h a s b een a sp roduc t ive o ff i nd s a s s c ien t if i c e xcava t ion ( Ba con 1 960 : 1 76 ) .
I n 1 928 t h e b ronz e
o b je c t s o fL u r i s tan b egan t oa ppea r o n t h e a r t m a rke t ( S ta rk 1 9 32 ) a nd t w en ty y ea r s l a t e r m any h und r ed so fo b jec t s o fg o ld , s i lv e ra nd b ronz ec ou ld s t i l lb ep u r cha sed f r om a n t iqu i ty d ea le r s i nI r an , E u rope a nd t h e U n i t ed S t a t e s . T h e se o b jec t s w e r e o b ta in ed i na n i l ega l e xcava t ion a tZ iw iye ( Y . G oda rd 1 948 ; Mu sca r r e l la 1 977 ) ( f o ro t h e rp l unde r ed s i t e s s u ch a sK hu rv in a nd Z a lu -Ab , s e e : R ad a nd H ak em i 1 950 ;V and en B e rgh e 1 955 ; G oda rd 1 933 ) . E a ch o ft h em c au sed i nt ur n t h e d ef in i t ion o f a r cha eo log ica l p r ob lem s , f o r i n s tanc e , t h a t o ft h e L u r i s tan B ronz e s , w h ich l e dt h ea t t en t ion o ff i e ld a c t iv i ty a nd r e sea rch t ot h e L u r i s tan d i s t r ic t . F i r s t o f a l S chm id t , o n b eha lf o ft h e O r ien ta l I n s t i tu t e o f C h icago U n iv e r s i ty , c onduc t ed t h e H o lm 's E xped i t ion t o L u r i s tan f r om 1 935 t o 1 938 ( Schm id t 1 938 ) .
H e m ad e a n a e r ia l s u rv ey o f t h i s
p rov ince ( S chm id t 1 940 ) w h ich h e lped h im t or e cogn i se t h e l o ca t ion o fs i t e s t ob e e xcava ted . H i s w o rk i nt h e f o rm o ft u nn e l l ing d ef in ed t h e n um e rou s s i t e s i nt h i s a r ea a nd y i e ld ed s p lend id a nd v a luab le a r t if ac t s.
1
A tt h es am et im e S i rA u r e l S t e in , aB r i t i sh e xp lo r e r ,m ad eh i sf o u r th j our n ey t oI r an , i np a r t icu la rt o L u r i s t an ( f o rf u l la c coun to fh i sj our n ey s s e e : S t e in 1 934 ; 1 935 ; 1 9 37 ; 1 940 ) . H ev i s i t ed a nd p l o t t ed t h e l o ca t ion o fm any s i t e s a nd m ad e t r ia l e xcava t ion s a l a l ong h i s r o u t e o n a ny v i s ib l e a r t if i c ia l m ound ( S t e in 1 940 : 1 7 1 313 ) .
T hough h i s e l abo ra t e d e sc r ip t ion o fs i t e s a nd a r t if a c t s f o rm ed t h e
b a s i sf o rt h eB ron z eA g eo fI r an , h i s e x t en s iv ea nd p r im i t iv e e x cava t ion t e chn ique w a s e v en m o r eo f am ena c e t h an t h e L u r i t r ea su r e h un t e r s ( Gof f 1 980 : 1 7 ) w ho w e r e i n t roduc ed t o t h e v a lue o f a n t iqu i t i e st h rough t h i s s o r to fe x cava t ion . T h e d i s t in c t iv e f e a tu r e s o f t h e I r an ian A rcha eo logy d u r ing t h e se e a r ly y ea r s w e r e : ( 1 ) t h e c on c en t ra t ed e f o r t t o r e cov e r an a t iona l h i s to ry , p a r t icu la r ly o f t h e A cha em en id e r a ; ( 2 ) a r cha eo log ica l o r gan i sa t ion , r e sou r c e s , a nd t e chn ica l f a c i l i t i e s , s u ch a s o n ly a l o ca l s c hoo l c an p rov id e ; ( 3 ) ap r ef e r en c e f o r l a rge s c a le e xpo su r e o fa r ch i t ec tu r e a tv i rg in s i t e s , r a th e r t h an m o r e c a r ef u ls ound ing s a ts ma l lp r eh i s to r ic o rr e ex cava t ed s i t e s ; ( 4 )a ne mpha s i s o nb u i ld ing u p ac o rpu s o fw ho l e p o t t e ry f o und i ns i t u r a th e r t h an d e ta i led a na ly s i s o fs h e rd s .
T h e se o b jec t iv e s t o s om e
e x t en t w e r e a c c ep tab l e , b u t t h e i s o la t ion f r om d ev e loped t e chn iqu e s o f a na ly s i s a nd i n t e rp re ta t ion e l sewh e r e m ean t t h a t t h e a r cha eo logy o f I r an d i d n o t t a k e f u l l a dv an tag e o f t h e s t ra t ig raph ic r e vo lu t ion u n t i l l a t et h e 1 9 60 s . A s ac on sequ enc e , s om eo ft h ea r ch i t ec tu ra lp ha s ing w a s i mp r ec i se , a nd i n t e rp r e ta t ion s h av e r ema in ed c on t rov e r s ia l .
F u r th e rmo r e , a s w i th t h e I r an ian e xp e r im en t i n
m e thod , p ub l ica t ion f e l l s o f a r b eh ind f i e ldwo rk t h a t i ti ss o d if i cu l t t oj udg e t h e m e r i t s o ft h e v a r iou sm e thod se mp loy ed a nd t h er e su l t so b ta in ed 4 .T he T h ird S tage : 1 960 t o1 978 C hang ing p o l i t ica l c ond i t ion s i nt h e p o s t Wo r ld Wa r Iy ea r s , h e lped m ax im i se t h e i n vo lv emen t o f f o r e ign a r cha eo log i s t s t ot h e i r p eak a nd a tt h e s am e t im e f o s t e r ed t h e d ev e lopm en t o f an a t iona l s choo l o f a r cha eo logy i n I r an .
T h i s p e r iod a l so c o in c id ed w i th t h e g r ea t e s t d ev e lopmen t i n
a r cha eo log ica lt e chn iqu e s ,m e thodo logy a nd s t ra t eg i e s i nt h eN ea rE a s t . T h ef i r s td ev e lopm en tc am e f r om K a th l een K enyon 's i n t roduc t ion o fs t ra t ig raph ic m e thod s ,p e r f e c t ed l a t e rb y Wh e e l e ra nd o t h e r s o nR omano -B r i t i sh s i t e s . S h ea pp l ied t h i sm e thod t ot h ec omp l ex p r ob l em s o fP a l e s t in ian m ound s i n h e r e x cava t ion a tJ e r icho i n1 9 52 -58 ( K enyon 1 972 ) . H e r e s h e d ug i ns ma l l s qua r e s w i th in ag r id , l e av ing i n t e rv en ing c a twa lk so rb a lk s , t h a tw e r et h en u s ed t os e et h ed epo s i t s i ns e c t ion a nd t og u id e c a r ef u lp r ob ing a nd s t r ipp ing o ft h es t ra ta . D igg ing p roc e ed ed n o to n ly b ya r ch i t ec tu ra ls t ra ta , r a th e r t h an b y a r t if i c ia l l e v e l s , b u t a l so , b y f o l low ing t h e n a tu ra l s t ra t if i ca t ion , s e pa ra t ing s o i l l a y e r s b y c o lou r ,t e x tu r e a nd d epo s i t iona l c ha ra c t e r , e t c . T h i s s y s t em i n t roduc ed b o th t h et h i rd ,d im en s ion a nd t h e e l em en to fc on t ro lt h a tm ad e i tp o s s ib l et os e pa ra t e d eb r i s l a y e r s a nd t h e o b jec t s t h ey c on ta in ed w i th g r ea t e ra ccu ra cy . I n d e ed a tt h a tt im et h es y s t em w o rk ed s ow e l lt h a tv a r iou s a dap ta t ion s o ft h e
1 2
s o -ca l led Whee le r -K enyon f i e ld m e thod s w e re e mp loyed o n n ea r ly a l Ame r ican a nd B r i t i sh e xcava t ion si nI r an i nt h e 1 960 s a nd 1 970 s . T h e s e cond d eve lopmen t c ame f r om t h e
' New A rchaeo logy ' ,
a n a r chaeo logy w h ich w a s
r e vo lu t ion i sed b yn a tu ra l s c ience , s oc ia l s c ienc e , e t hnog raphy , a nd e nv i ronmen ta l s t ud ie s i n Ame r ica i nt h e l a te 1 960 s .
T he t e amwo rk p h i lo sophy o f t h i s a pproach b rough t i n to f i e ld a r cha eo logy
s p ec ia l i s t s w ho s oon d emon s t ra t ed t h a t t h ey c ou ld c on t r ibu te much t ot h e s t udy o f a spec t s o ft h e m a t e r ia l c u l tu re w h ich h ad b een n eg lec ted . B y t h e l a te 1 960s i nb o th t h e L evan t a nd Me sopo tam ia i n t e r e s t i np reh i s to r ic r e sea rch s h if t ed i ne mpha s i s f r om t r ad i t iona l h i s to r ica l a nd c u l tu r e -h i s to r ica l a pp roa che s t o a mo re d e ta i led i n v e s t iga t ion o f h um an l i f e s t y le .
Hypo the s i s t e s t ing , e s pec ia l ly
q ue s t ion s c once rn ing t h e o r ig in o fs e den ta ry l i f e , f o rmed a ma jo r f a c to r i nt h e c hange i nr e sea rch d i r ec t ion wh ich f i r s t b egan t o a ppea r w i th B ra idwood 's w o rk i n t h e h i l ly f l ank s o f n or ther n Me sopo tam ia . T h i sk i nd o fr e sea rch r e qu i r ed s p ec ia l i sed g eomo rpho log i s t s , b o tan i s t s , z oo log i s t s a nd c h em i s t s r a the rt han a r chaeo log i s t s a l one . T he e xcava t ion t e chn ique s w e re a l te red f r om l a rge s ca le h o r izon ta l t o t h e s ma l l v er t ica l o ne s u s ing c a r ef u l s t ra t ig raphy a nd c on t ro l t o r e cove r p l an t a nd a n ima l r ema in s . T he b eg inn ing o ft h e 1 960 s s aw ag r ea t c hange i na r cha eo logy i nI r an u nde r t h e p r ob lem o r ien ted r e sea rche s o fB ra idwood o nt h eN eo l i th ic , w h ich l e d t h e w ay t ot h e n ew g ene ra t ion o f a r chaeo log i s t s .
I ti s r e levan t t o n o t e h e re t h a t , i n v i ew o f t h e l a rge a moun t o f e xcava t ion
u nd e r taken , ab r ief s umma ry o fa r cha eo log ica l a c t iv i t ie s w i l l b e d i scu s sed p e r iod b y p e r iod i nt h i s s e c t ion . 4 . 1 P a laeo l i th ic A rchaeo logy T he b eg inn ing o fP a laeo l i th ic a r chaeo logy i nt h e N ea r E a s t w a s l a te r t han i nE u rope
T he f i r s t
P a la eo l i th ic d i scove ry w a s m ade b y D . G a r rod w hen s h e s t ar ted a n e xcava t ion a t Moun t C a rme l , P a l e s t ine , i n1 920 , a nd t h en i nn o r ther nI r aq a tH eza r Ma rd c ave i n 1 928 ( Ga r rod 1 930 ) . T he1940 s s aw n ew e f o r t s t o d i scove r s i t e s o n b o th t h e w e s t a nd e a s t s i d e s o ft h e Z ag ro s moun ta in s l o ca ted b e tw een I r an a nd I r aq . A t t h i s t im e R . S o leck i e xcava ted a tS han ida r c ave a nd d i s t ingu i shed f ou r m a jo r a r cha eo log ica l l e ve l s ( Mou s t e r ian , B a rado s t ian , a nd Z a rz ian B 2 , B i) s pann ing t h e p a s t 1 00 ,000 y ea r s ( So leck i 1 961) .
T he s e cond c on t empo ra ry p ro jec t w a s t h a t o f C oon , a n Ame r ican
a n th ropo log i s t . I n 1 949 h ef i r s t ly d ug i nt h eh un te r s ' c ave a tB i s tun , a tT am ta rne c ave n ea rt h e L ake Unn ia , a nd t h e Me so l i th ic o ccupa t ion o ft h e B e l t c ave o n t h e C a sp ian f o re sho re . d ug b o th B e l t c ave a nd t h e n ea rby H o tu c ave ( Coon1951 , 1 957 ) .
T hen i n 1 951 h e
I r an , b y t h i s p i onee r ing
i n v e s t iga t ion , w a s s hown t oh ave b een o ccup ied i na tl e a s t t h e m idd le P a la eo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic p e r iod s . O th e re xcava t ion s a nd s u rvey sh ave b een m ade i nI r an b yv a r iou s f o re ign p reh i s to r ian s :
1 3
F i e ld m ade s e v e ra lt r enche s i nL u r i s tan i n1 950 ( F ie ld 1 951 ) ; B ra idwood s ' g roup e xcava t ed s e v e ra l P a la eo l i th ic s i t e sa tK e rm an shah i n1 959 -60 ( B ra idwood 1 960 ) ; a nd H o le a nd F lann e ry d ug f i ve s i t e s i nL u r i s tan i n1 965 ( Ho le a nd F l ann e ry 1 964 ) .
Sm i th w a s e x cava t ing a t ac ave i nB i s tun i n 1 965
( Young a nd Sm i th 1 965 ) , w h i le a tt h e s am e t im e McBur n ey ( 1 964 , 1 968 , 1 970 ) e xcava ted t h e M idd le P a la eo l i th ic c av e o fK e -A ram Ii n Mazanda ran i n 1 963 , a s w e l l a s u nde r tak ing Me so l i th ic i n v e s t iga t ion s a t A l i T epe n ea r B eh shah r o n t h e c a sp ian i n 1 962 a nd 1 964 , a nd l a t e r ( 1 969 ) i n v e s t iga t ed aM idd le P a la eo l i th ic c ave i nL u r i s tan . T h e r eh av ea l so b een af ew P a la eo l i th ic s ur v ey s a nd s u rf ac e c o l lec t ion s p a r t icu la r ly i nA ze rba i jan b y S o leck i ( So leck i 1 969 )a nd i nL u r i s tan b y Mo r t en sen ( Mo r t en sen 1 974 ) . P a la eo l i th ic a r cha eo logy i n I r an , i n c ompa r i son w i th t h e B ronz e a nd I r on Age s , h a s n o t b e en s uf i c ien t ly d ev e loped . T he b a s ic r e a son f o rt h i sm ay l i e i nw ha t Sm i th a nd N egahban h ave s t re s sed ( Sm i th 1 986 :40 -42 ;N egahban 1 981 , 1 982 : 1 2 ) . T h ey c onc lud ed t h a tt h e r e la t iv e r emo t en e s s o fI r an f o r E u ropean s cho la r s , t h e e xc lu s iv e m onopo ly o f e xcava t ion b y t h e F r ench a r cha eo log i s t s , t h e p o l i t ica l s t a t e o f I r an a s an on -manda te c oun t ry l i m i t ing e a sy a c ce s s , a nd t h e l a ck o fl o ca l s cho la r ly i n t e r e s t , c ou ld b ep a r to ft h e e xp lana t ion f o rt h e t i m el a gi nP a la eo l i th ic r e sea rch o fI r an ( s ee a l so c hap t e r5 ) . I ns p i t e o ft h e s po rad ic e xcava t ion s a tK un j i c av e a nd A l i T epe , e xcava t ed b y Ho le , F l ann e ry a nd B u rn ey , w ho se d a ta p r ov id e s s uf i c ien ti n f o rma t ion t ob u i ld u p ar e g iona l c h rono log ica l f r am ewo rk , t h el e v e lo fr e sea rch o nt h ew ho le s t i l lr ema in si na nu nd e rd ev e loped s t a t e . A no th e r w eak p o in t i st h e l a ck o fa na ly t ica l s t ud ie s o fs t on e a r t if ac t s .
T hough Ho le a nd F l ann e ry
b egan t op rov id e at y po log ica l m od e l o ft h e f l in t i n du s t ry b a sed o nt h e i r s ma l l s amp le , a nd t h ough t h i s w a s c on t inued b y B aum le r a nd S pe th ( Baum le r a nd S pe th 1 993 ) , b ecau se o ft h e a b sence o f c omp r ehen s iv e s t ud ie s o n p r ev iou s w o rk , a nd t h e u nw i l l ingn e s s o f I r an ian s cho la r s t o i n vo lv e t h em se lv e sw i th t h eP a la eo l i th ic p e r iod ( s ee c hap t e r2 ) ,n og r ea tp rog r e s sh a sb e en mad e . 4 . 2N eo l i th ic A rchaeo logy : P r io r t o 1 960 t h e r e w a s l i t t le k now ledge a bou t N eo l i th ic s i t e s w h ich w e r e s imp ly b y -p roduc t s o f o t h e r e xcava t ion s .
T h e m a in r e a son f o r t h e s l ow d eve lopm en t o fi n t e re s t i nN eo l i th ic I r an , a s i n
P a la eo l i th ic a r cha eo logy , l a y i nt h e p o l i t ica l c ond i t ion s a nd t h e F r ench m onopo ly .
T h e e f ec t o f
C h i ld e 's h ypo th e s i s o nt h eo r ig in o fa g r icu l tu r et h a tl e da r cha eo log i s t st ot h el ow land s a nd t o' o a se s ' t of i nd t r ace sr e levan tt ob eg inn ing o ft h eN eo l i th ic i sa na dd i t iona lf a c to r . U n t i lt h e 1 960 s a l o u rk now ledge o fN eo l i th ic I r an w a s d e r iv ed f r om t h e e xcava t ion s c a r r i ed o u t a t S i a lk , T epe H i s sa r , C h e shm e A l i , G iyan , a nd K huz i s tan b y b o th F r ench a nd Ame r ican e xped i t ion s
1 4
d u r ing t h e f i r s tt h i rd o ft h e p r e sen t c en tu ry .
T h e e a r l ie s t o ccupa t ion w a s a tS ia lk Id a t ed t o 500
B .C . ( Gh i r shman 1 938 , 1 939 ) . No o t he r a t t emp t w a s m ad e u n t i l 1 949 w h en C oon s t ar t ed h i s c ave e xp lo ra t ion a tt wo c ave s o nt h e C a sp ian f o re sho re . U n l ike t r ad i t iona l a pproache s , h e f o cu sed o nt h e s u b s i s t ence p a t ter n o ft h e i n hab i tan t s o ft h e c av e , w ho se s e ven teen l a ye r s s howed t h e d eve lopmen t f r om h un te r g a the rt ot h e l a t e rN eo l i th ic a nd h i s to r ica l p e r iod s . H i s a b so lu te d a te s u s ing t h e n ew ly d ev e loped C a rbon 14 m e thod , p u shed t h e N eo l i th ic o f I r an b ack t o 6 100 B .C . ( Coon 1 951 ) .
T he
a r cha eo logy o fI r an r e ce ived p ar t icu la ra t t en t ion f r om 1 960 o nwa rd s w h ich h a s c on s ide rab ly a l t e red t h e d i rec t ion o f r e sea rch .
T he ma in r e a son w a s t h e g ene s i s o f n ew h ypo the se s c once rn ing t h e
t r an s i t ion f r om aP a laeo l i th ic t oa na g r icu l tu ra lw ay o fl i f e . H e re as hor tr e v iew w i l l b e mad e o n ly o f C h i lde 's a nd B ra idwood 's h ypo the se s . C h i ld e i n t roduced t h e t e rm ' Neo l i th ic R evo lu t ion ' t od e sc r ibe t h e o r ig in o ff ood p roduc t ion a nd i t s c on sequence s
( Ch i lde
1 9 52 :
2 3 ) ,
m ak ing
a r cha eo log i s t s
a wa r e
t r an sf o rma t ion f r om h un t ing a nd g a the r ing t o f o od p roduc t ion .
o f t h e
i mpor tance
o f t h e
T h i s r e vo lu t ion t ook p l ac e i nt h e
N ea rE a s t d u r ing t h e p o s tP l e i s tocene p e r iod f r om a bou t 1 0 ,000 B .C . C h i lde f o rmu la ted t h e ' o a s i s ' o r ' p rop inqu i ty ' h ypo the s i s f o r t h e i n v en t ion o f a g r icu l tu r e c en t re s .
H e b e l ieved t ha t u nde r t h e
e f ec t s o f am a jo rc l ima t ic c hange much o ft h eN ea rE a s tb egan t od ry u p . T he h un te r s , g a the r s a nd a n ima l s w e r ef o rced t ot a k e r e f uge n ea rt h e r i ve r s a nd o a se s t h a t h ad n o t d r ied u p . P lan t s c on t inued t og r ow o n ly n ea r s ou rce s o fw a t e r .
B ecau se o ft h e p rox im i ty o ft h e p l an t s , a n ima l s a nd h uman s ,
p eop le h ad t h eo ppor tun i ty t or e cogn i se t h e i rb ehav iou r , a nd s ub sequen t ly d ome s t ica t ed t h em ( Ch i lde 1 9 52 : 2 5 ) . Me sopo tam ia a nd P a le s t ine w e r e t h e f i r s t p l ace s i nt h e N ea r E a s t w he re a r cha eo log i s t s b egan t oe xcava te N eo l i th ic s i t e st ot e s tt h eC h i ld eh ypo th e s i s . Two p ro jec t s w e r e c onduc ted b y B ra idwood a tJ a rmo i nI r aq a nd K enyon a tJ e r icho i nP a le s t ine ; b o th w e re o fs p ec ia li mpo r tance d u r ing t h ee a r ly p o s t Wo r ld Wa r Ip e r iod . B ra idwood o rgan i sed a n a r cha eo log ica l e xped i t ion t os e ek e v idence c once rn ing t h e e a r ly s t age s o ff a rm ing , p a r t ly i nr e ac t ion t oC h i lde ( Bra idwood e ta l . 1 960 :2 -3 ) .
H e g a the red a r ound h im a n i n te rd i sc ip l ina ry t e am o fb o th
a r chaeo log i s t s a nd n a tu ra l s c ien t i s t s s uppor ted b y t h e O r ien ta l I n s t i tu te o ft h e C h icago U n iv e r s i ty , e s tab l i sh ing a n a pp roach t h a t h a s s i nce b ecame s t anda rd .
B ra idwood w a s i nf luenced b y P eak a nd
F l eu re , w ho h ad f o rme r ly c l a imed w hea t a nd b a r ley m u s t h ave b een d ome s t ica ted f i r s t ly i n t h e ' F e r t i le C r e scen t ' ( Redman 1 978 :95 ) . B ra idwood 's e xcava t ion s a nd a dd i t iona l s i t e s u rvey s i nI r aq ( 1945-55 ) a nd I r an ( 1960 ) a ch ieved s i gn if ican t r e su l t s t h a t l e d h im t o f o rmu la t e h i s t h ough t s a bou t t h e o r ig in s o f a g r icu l tu r e , a n h ypo the s i s t h a t h a s c om e t ob e k nown a st h e ' Na tu ra l H ab i ta t Z one ' o r ' Nuc lea r Z one h ypo the s i s ' . I nc on t ra s t t ot h e C h i ld e h ypo the s i s h e f i r s t c onc luded t h a t t h e r e h a s n o t b een s i gn if ican t c l ima t ic c hange i nt h ep a s t 1 2000 y ea r s ( Bra idwood a nd H ow e 1 960 : 1 81 ; 1 962 : 1 42 -3 ) . H e i n i t ia l ly a rgued
1 5
f o r a' Nuc lea rZ on e ' , ap l ace w h e r et h e a n ima l s a nd p l an t s c ou ld h av e e x i s t ed i nt h e w i ld s t a te . S o t h e p i edmon t h i l l s a nd l ow e r i n t e rmon tan e v a l ley s o ft h e Z ag ro s -Tauru s a r c o fm oun ta in s w a s a n i d ea l l o ca t ion f o r f o od p roduc ing ( B ra idwood 1 958 : 1 426 1429 ) .
F o r h im t h e d ev e lopmen t o fa n
a g r icu l tu ra l w ay o fl i f e s e em s t oh av e o ccu r r ed a st h e ' c u lm ina t ion o ft h e e v e r i n c r ea s ing c u l tu ra l d if e r en t ia t ion a nd s p ec ia l i sa t ion o fh uman c ommun i t ie s ' (B r a idwood 1 960a : 1 32 ) .
A round 8 000
B .C . t h e i n hab i tan t s o ft h e h i l l s a round t h e F e r t i le C re sc en th ad c om et ok now t h e i r h ab i ta t s o w e l l t h a tt h ey w e r e b eg inn ing t od om e s t ica t e t h e p l an t s a nd a n ima l s t h ey h ad p r ev iou s ly b e en c o l lec t ing a nd h un t ing .
B u t , s t a r t ing i n 1 962 , b ecau se o f t h e m any e xcava t ion s o n t h e n ew s i te s a nd
i n c r ea s ing ly mo r ea ccu ra t ed a ta s upp l ied b yn a tu ra ls c ien t i s t s , h eb egan t oa l t e rt h eg eog raph ic l i m i t s o ft h e ' Nuc lea rZ on e 't oi n c lud et h eh i gh land o fA na to l ia a nd t h eh i l ly r e g ion o fL ebanon a nd J uda ea ( W r igh t 1 971 :457 ) . T h e s e cond p ro jec tt e s t ing t h e C h i ld e h ypo th e s i s w a s u nde r tak en b y K a th le en M . K enyon w hen s h e b egan t oe xcava t e a tJ e r icho i n 1 952 .
H e r d e sc r ip t ion o f ' b r i l l ian t g r e en o a se s i nt h e a r id l a nd '
( K enyon 1 954 : 1 2 1 )o ft h e L evan t a st h e p r ima ry l o ca t ion o ft h e a g r icu l tu ra l r e vo lu t ion s e emed t o s uppo r t C h i lde 's p o s i t ion . D u r ing 1 960 a nd l a t e r , d if e r en t N eo l i th ic s i t e s w e r e e xcava t ed i nb o th t h el ow land s o ft h eL evan ta nd t h ef oo th i l l s o ft h eZ ag ro s ;t h em a jo r i ty o ft h em f i ti n to B ra idwood 's ' Nuc lea rZ on e ' w h e r ea s n o o n e e xcava ted i nd r y r i v e r s o rn ea r o a se s ( R edman 1 978 :97 ) . I ts e em s t h a tt h eh ypo th e s i so fB ra idwood w a sv i c to r iou so v e rC h i ld e 's i nt h ew a ro fi d ea s. D u r ing t h e t wo d ecad e s o ft h e 1 960 s a nd 1 970 s a dd i t iona l e x cava t ion s o n s i te s o ft h e N ea r E a s t p rov id ed am a jo rc on t r ibu t ion t oo u rk now ledge o fN eo l i th ic c u l tu r e : Me l laa r t c a r r ied o u t t h e e x t en s iv e e xcava t ion p ro jec t s a t H a c i la r a nd C a ta l H uyuk i n T u rkey ( Me l laa r t 1 961 ; 1 967 ) . I n Me sopo tam ia T e l l -E s sawan ( Abu a lS oof 1 968 ) C hogha Mam i ( Oa t e s 1 969 )a nd Y a r im T epe ( Me rpe ta nd Muncha ev 1 973 )w e r ee xcava t ed . A tt h e s ame t im ei ns ou th e rn J o rdan a nd S y r ia t h ef amou s s i t eo fB e idha w a s e xcava t ed b y K i rkb r id e ( 1 966 ) , d e C o t en son ( 1971 ) e xcava t ed a tT e l lR amad a nd V an loon ( 1 968 )a t as i t en ea rt h eE uph ra te si nS y r ia . S uch e x cava t ion s o n N eo l i th ic s i t e s d i d n o t a ppea r i n I r an u n t i l t h e 1 960 s w h en B ra idwood 's e xped i t ion u nd e rt h eI r an i an P r eh i s to r ic P ro jec tc am et os e ek f o rt h ew o r ld 's f i r s tf a rm e r s i nP e r s ian K u rd i s tan ( B ra idwood 1 960b ) . T h ei n i t ia la im o ft h i sp ro jec tw a s ' t h er e c lama t ion a nd i n t e rp r e ta t ion o f e v id ence f o r t h e e a r l ie s t a ppea rance o f a n e f ec t ive f o od p roduc ing a nd v i l lag e - f a rm ing c ommun i t ie s w ay o fl i f e ' ( B ra idwood e ta l . 1 961 : 2 008 ) . H e s t a r t ed h i s w o rk a tt wo s ma l l mound s ( A s iab a nd S a rab )i nt h ew e s t er np a r to fI r an: A s iab w a s as ma l l l ow m ound , t h a t w a s a n e ncampmen t o fi n t en s ive f o od c o l lec to r s , w ho se f l in t i n du s t ry w a s s om ewha t m o r e d ev e loped t h an t h a t o f K a r im S hah i r ian i n I r aq i K u rd i s tan . T h e
1 6
s ound ing a l so y i e lded i t em s i ns t one a nd n ume rou s s ma l l c l ay o b jec t s , i n c lud ing af ew f r agm en t s o f f i gu r in e s . O th e ra r t if ac t s i nt h e A s iab a s semb lage i n c lud e b ead s a nd p endan t s . N o e v idence b ea r ing o n a r ch i tec tu r ew a s f ound e xpec t o ne r ound s ha l low b a s in w h ich w a s i n te rpr e t ed a s af l oo r o fs ome k i nd o f s em i sub te r ranean s t ruc tur e .
R ema rkab le o b jec t s i n A s iab w e re g r ea t q uan t i t ie s o f
c op ro l i te s , r e ga rd ed a s a n i n va luab le c l ue t o t h e d i e t o f p eop le w ho w e r e h un te r -ga the r e r s . B ra idwood s ugge s ted ad a te f o rA s iab o fb e tween 9 000 a nd 7 000 B .C . ( B ra idwood 1 961 : 3 7 ) . Af u r the r p ha se o ft h e e a r ly f o od c o l lec t ing c u l tu r e i ss e en a tT epe S a rab .
T he re n o m ud w a l led
a r ch i t ec tu re w a s f ound , b u tt h e s i te c on ta ined t h e r ema in s o fp i t d we l l ing s . T he Sa rab V enu s ' a nd o t h e rf o rm s o ff i gu r ine s w e r e mad e o fb ak ed c l ay . P a in t ed p o t t e ry , f l in t a nd o b s id ian o b jec t s c ou ld b ec ompa red t ot h o se o fJ a rmo i nI r aq . S a rab s how ed t h e p r e sence o fd ome s t ica t ed g oa t s , b u t t h e r e w a s ag rea tc oncen t ra t ion o ns h e l l s o f al o ca l l a nd s na i lg a th e red f o rf o od . S a rab 's p o s i t ion i n d ica t ed t h a ti tmay b ea ne a r ly v i l lage f a rm ing c ommun i ty ( B ra idwood e ta l . 1 961 : 2 008 -9 ) . I n1 9 63 am a jo re xcava t ion p ro jec tt o ok p l ace b y F .H o le 's t e am i nt h e Z ag ro s a r ea . H e c onduc t ed t h em o s t s i gn if i can t e xcava t ion a tA l i K o sh , aN eo l i th ic s i t e i nL ur i s tan . R ema in s a tA l i K o sh a nd a na d jacen tm ound h ave b een s ubd iv ided i n to s even p ha se s ; t h et h ree i n i t ia lp ha se s w e re o ccup ied b y N eo l i th ic p eop le : B u s Mo rdeh ; A l i K o sh ; a nd Mohammad J af a r .
B u s Mo rdeh i st h e e a r l ie s t p ha se
a nd d a te s f r om 7 500 t o6 750 B .C . T he d i e t w a s ac omb ina t ion o fw i ld a nd d ome s t ica ted r e sou rce s b o th p l an t s a nd a n ima l s .
T he s e t t lemen t o f t h e A l i K o sh p ha se f r om a bou t 6 750 t o 6 000 B .C .
p r ov ed t o b e l a rge r t h an t h e e a r l ie r p ha se , a nd t h e d ev e lopm en t o f a r ch i t ec tu r e , d ome s t ica t ion o f a n ima l s a nd p l an t s , a nd a r t if ac t s s ugge s ted t ha tt h e c ommun i ty o fA l i K o sh w a s ap e rmanen t v i l lage . T h e l a s t p ha se o fo ccupa t ion d a te s f r om 6 000 t o 5 600 B .C . , c ha rac te r i sed w i th t h e i n nova t ion o f s u b s tan t ia l a gr icu l tu ra l t o o l s , t h e i n t roduc t ion o fp o t t e ry , a nd n ew b u i ld ing t e chn ique s ( Ho le e ta l . 1 9 69 ) . T h e i n i t ia l r e su l to ft h eA l i K o sh p ro jec tt o ok t h e N eo l i th ic c u l tu r e o fI r an b ack t ot h e e i gh th m i l lenn ium B .C . a nd i n t roduced t o I r an mod e rn a r cha eo log ica l t e chn ique s .
T he s y s t ema t ic
e x cava t ion , u s ing f l o ta t ion a nd c a ref u l s i ev ing , e nab led e xcava to r s t o o b ta in a l a rge q uan t i t ie s o f p l an t a nd a n ima l r ema in s . T h i s ma t e r ia l f o rmed t h e b a s i s f o r t h e r e con s t ruc t ion o fi h e e conomy o f A l i K o sh . F i na l ly H o le a nd F lanne ry w e re a b le , o nt h e b a s i s o ft h e r e su l t s , t o of e r am ode l f o rt h e b e g inn ing o fa g r icu l tu r ei nt h eN ea rE a s t . T h roughou t t h e 1 960 s a nd 1 970 s s e ve ra l s ucce s s ive e xcava t ion s b rough t m o r e N eo l i th ic s i t e s t o l i gh t , e spec ia l ly c oncen t ra ted a l ong t h eZ ag ro s r ange : D y son a nd Y oung c onduc ted a n e xcava t ion a tH a j if i ruz i nA ze rba i jan i n 1 960 ( Dy son a nd Y oung 1 9 60 ) , c on t inued b y V o ig t i n1 968 ( Vo ig t 1 983 ) . A tt h e s ame t ime w hen B u rney w a s e xcava t ing a t
1 7
Y a rük T epe ( Bur n ey 1 961 ) , o t h e r s i t e s i nL u r i s tan s uch a s T epe G u ran ( Mor t en sen 1 963 ) , G ang D a r eh ( Sm i th 1 968 )a nd T epe A bdo lH o s sa in ( Pu l la r 1 973 )c am eu nd e re xcava t ion . T h e m o s t i mpo r t an t e x cava t ion s o u t s id e o ft h e Z ag ro s r ang e o ccu r r ed i nt h e s ou th ea s ter n p a r t o f I r an d i r ec t ed b y L ambe rg K a r lov sky a tT epe Y ahya i n 1 967 ( Lambe rg K a r lov sky 1 9 69 ) . Ano th e r s i t ei n am a rg ina lp l a in o ft h ec en t ra l d e se r tw a sT epe Z agh ee x cava t ed b yT eh ran U n iv e r s i ty ( Ma lek S hahm i r zad i 1 977 ) . Among t h e v a r iou s N eo l i th ic s i t e s , G ang D a r eh h a s ai mpo r tan t r o l e , b ecau se t h e o l d e s t s e t t lem en t ( Lev e l E ) a tt h i s s i t e i ss o f a r w i thou t p a ra l le l .
C a rbon 1 4 d a t e s s ugge s t ed t ha t t h e d a te o ft h i s
s e t t l em en tl i e s i nt h em idd l e o ft h e e i gh tm i l lenn ium B .C . m ak ing i tt h e o l d e s tN eo l i th ic s i t e i nI r an , w i th t h ee a r l ie s tp o t t e ry i nt h eN ea rE a s t( Ho le 1 987a : 4 9 ; R edman 1 978 : 1 69 ) . L ev e l Dd a ted f r om 7 500 t o7 000 B .C . w a s c ha ra c t e r i sed b y l o ng p ia n o -convex b r ick s u s ed i nr e c t i l inea rb u i ld ing s , t h a t m ay h av eb een c on s t ruc t ed i nt wo s t o rey s . T h ee v id ence o ft h i s l e v e ls how ed t h e e conomy o fp eop l e a tt h i s e r a w a s b a sed o n d om e s t ica t ed g oa t s a nd p l an t s ( Sm i th 1 972 ) . A pa r t f r om t h e e xcava t ion s m en t ion ed a bov e ,t h i sp e r iod i sc ha rac t e r i sed a l so b ys ub s tan t ia l s u rf ac es u r vey s , c on c e rn ed w i th t h e N eo l i th ic I r an . O n ew a s l e d b y Wr igh tt oi n v e s t iga t e t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tw een c l ima t ic c hange a nd t h e i n t roduc t ion o fa g r icu l tu r e . H e i n i t ia t ed r e sea rch o n p o l len a na ly s i s , s amp l ing L ak e Z a r iba r i n n o r thw e s tI r an ,p roduc ing as e quence d a t ed f r om 2 1000 t o9 000 B .C . H ec on c luded t h a tt h ec l ima t e o ft h i s r e g ion b ef o r e 9 000 B .C . w a s c oo le r a nd p robab ly d r ie r t h an t o day ( W r igh t 1 968 , s e e a l so c hap t e r 4f o rd e ta i l ) . T h es e cond w a s m ad eb yA dam s w ho s u rv ey ed t h e r e g ion o fK huz i s tan wh e r e t h e s u cc e s s iv e c u l tu r e s a r e m o r e e a sy t or e cogn i se t h an i no t h e r a r ea s .
H e l o ca ted a bou t 1 30 n ew
s i t e s ,s om eo ft h em d a t ed t ot h es i x th m i l lenn ium B .C . ( Adam s 1 962 ) . T h e se s o ph i s t ica t ed r e sea r ch e s c once rn ing N eo l i th ic I r an h av e i n d ica t ed t h e s i gn if i can t r o le o ft h i s r e g ion ,w h en N eo l i th ic a r cha eo logy f i l led i n am a jo rg ap o fN ea rE a s t er na r cha eo logy c on c er n ed w i th t h ei n t roduc t ion o fa g r icu l tu r e . I nc ompa r i son w i th t h e L evan ta nd Me sopo tam ia w ea r es t i l l al o ng w ay f r om r e so lv ing t h ep r ob lem s , a nd t h e re a r e m any g ap s t ob e f i l led ( Sm i th 1 971 : 1 3 ) ; h owev e r , a r cha eo log i s t s i n I r an h av e p roduced l a rge a moun t s o f d a ta t h a t g i v e aw ide r p e r spec t ive o f p r eh i s to r ic l i f ei nt h eN ea rE a s t , a sw e l la sp rov id ing t h eb a s i s f o rh ypo th e se s c once rn ing t h e o r ig in s o ft h e a g r icu l tu ra l w ay o f l i f e .
P e rhap s i ti sr e levan t t o n o t e h e r e t h a t t h e re a r e a tl e a s t t h r e e
h ypo th e se st h a th av eb e en f o rmu la ted d i rec t ly o nd a ta g a th e red f r om I r an : P opu la t ion P r e s su r e H ypo th e s i s p ropo sed b y Sm i th a nd Y oung ( 1 982 ) ; Ma rg ina l Z on e H ypo th e s i s , s ugg e s t ed b yB inf o rd a nd r e f in ed b yF lanne ry ( 1 969 ) ;N eoc l ima t ic C hange H ypo the s i sf o rmu la ted b y Wr igh t( 1 968 ; 1 976 ) . T h i sb r ief s t udy c anno td ea lt h em w i th d e ta i l .
1 8
4 . 3B ronze A ge A rchaeo logy A s m en t ioned b ef o r e , t h e a ppea rance o ft h e s o -ca l led Tu r i s tan B ronze s ' o n t h e a r t ma rke t s i nt h e 1 920 s s t imu la ted a r chaeo log i s t s t os e a rch f o rt h e i r o r ig in . I nt h e l a te 1 930 s m a jo r e xcava t ion s w e r e c a r r ied o u t f o r t h i s e nd .
S oon a f t e r t h e e nd o ft h e S econd Wo r ld Wa r , t wo i mpo r tan t s i t e s o ft h i s
p e r iod , T u reng T epe ( Wu l s ine 1 932 ) a nd G eoy T epe ( Bur ton -B rown 1 951) , w e r e e xcava t ed a nd h ave a pp r ec iab ly i n c r ea sed o u ru nde r s tand ing o ft h et h i rd a nd s e cond m i l lenn ium B .C . o ccupa t ion o f I r an . T he m o s t i mpo r tan te xcava t ion s o ccu r red f o rt h e f i r s tt ime i nt h e s ou th -ea s te rn p a r t o fI r an s uch a s t h o se c onduc ted b yC a ldwe l l a tT e l i Ib l i s ( Ca ldwe l l 1 960 ) ; T o s i a tS hah r i -Sokh ta ( To s i 1 969 ) ; a nd L ambe rg K a r lov sky a tT epe Y ahya ( C . a nd Ma r ta L ambe rg K a r lov sky 1 972 ) .
A t t h e s am e t ime
c ompa rab le e xcava t ion s w e r e c onduc t ed i nt h e w e s t e rn p a r t o ft h i s c oun t ry b y D e lougaz a nd K an to r a tC hogam i sh ( De lougaz a nd K an to r 1 973 ) ; V anden B e rghe a tv a r iou s s i te s i nL u r i s tan ( Vanden B e rghe 1 973 ) ; N egahban a tH af tT epe i nK hu s i s tan ( Negahban 1 969 ) ; a nd S umne r a tT epe Ma ly a n ( Sumn e r 1 974 ) . T he s u cc e s s ive e xcava t ion s i ns ou th -ea s t er n I r an b rough t t ol i gh t t r ace s o fm any u nknown c u l tu r e s f r om t h eN eo l i th ic t ot h eH i s to r ica lp e r iod a nd p roduced s t rong e v idence f o ro rgan i sed t r ade p a t t er n s , l i nk ing a r ea s t ot h e w e s t ( Me sopo tam ia ) ,t h e e a s t ( I ndu s V a l ley ) , a nd t h e s ou th ( t he P e r s ian G u l f ) . I ts e em s t h a tt h e i n t e rna t iona l i sm o ft h e E lam i t e Emp i r e ( Lambe rg K a r lov sky a nd K oh l 1 971 : 2 1 ) , a nd t h e g row th o ft h e p o l i t ica l a nd e conom ic p owe r o ft h e i r k i ngdom i nt h e m id th i rd m i l lenn ium B .C . o nwa rd s , f o rced S ume r ian t r ad e i n to n ew c hanne l s .
T he se s i te s i n s ou th -ea s ter n I r an
s p ec ia l i sed i nt h e p rov i s ion o fs pec if i c r e sou rce s : s m e l t ed c oppe r o b jec t s a tI b l i s ; s t ea t i te o b jec t s a t Y ahya ; a nd L ap i s L azu l i o b jec t s a tS hah r i -Sokh ta ; a nd t h ey p l ayed a s ubs tan t ia l r o le i nr e g iona l e xchange a nd c on t ro l l ing l o ng d i s tance t r ade r ou t e s b e tw een Me sopo tam ia a nd t h e I n du s V a l ley . F o r f u r th e ri n f o rma t ion s e c : B ur n ey 1 977 :147 ;H e r rmann 1 968 ; L ambe rg K a r lov sky 1 972 ; K oh l 1 974 . Wo rk o n t h e B ronz e A ge p e r iod i nt h e w e s t p a r t o fI r an w a s c omp lem en ted b y e x ten s ive s urvey s . S umne r i nh i s e xce l len t e xcava t ion a nd s u rvey i nt h e Ma rvda sh t p l a in c oncen t ra ted h i s a t t en t ion o n p opu la t ion g row th a nd t h ed eve lopm en to fs t a t e o r gan iza t ion ( Sumne r 1 979 ) a sw e l l a st h e e conom ic a nd p o l i t ica ls y s t em o ft h eB ronze A ge c ommun i ty . 4 . 4I r on Age A rchaeo logy A l though t h e I r on A ge i nI r an i st h e s ho r te s t a r cha eo log ica l p e r iod ( 1 250 -550 B .C . ) , w i th in t h i s s h or ts pan t h ea moun to fe xcava t ion c a r r ied o u th a s b een g r ea t e rt h an f o r o t he r p er iod s . O ve rt h ir ty I r on A ge s i t e s i nI r an h ave b een e xcava t ed , m o s t o ft h em a f t e r 1 960 .
R e sea rch o n t h e o r ig in o ft h e
I r an ian c u l tu r e , i t sm a te r ia l s a nd d a t ing a nd i t s a ppea rance o n t h e I r an ian P la teau , w a s i n i t ia ted b y
1 9
G h i r shman 's w o rk a tT epe G iyan i n1 931 a nd t h en a tT epe S i a lk i n1 9 33 . Af t e rt h e S econd Wo r ld Wa rh ea l so e x cava t ed t h e P e r s ian A cha em en id v i l lage i nS u sa ( Gh i r shman 1 954 ) . T h e d if e r ence s b e tw een s t ra ta , a nd t h ea ppea r an ce o ft h en ew g r ey w a r e ( g r ey b l a ck w a r e ) e nab led h im t oc ompa r e t h e v a r iou s s i t e s , a nd s ugg e s t w h en t h e I r an ian c u l tu r e r e ach ed t h e P l a t eau . H e c onc luded t h a tt h e f i r s t m ig ra t ion c am e f r om t h e C auca su s a t t h e e nd o f t h e s e cond m i l lenn ium , a nd t h e s e cond m ig ra t ion a tt h e b eg inn ing o ft h e i s t m i l lenn ium B .C .
F o r af u l l a ccoun t o fh i s h ypo the s i s s e e
G h i r shman 1 9 54 ; 1 977 , T h en ex ts t ep ,t os o lv et h e I r an ian m ig ra t ion p rob lem , w a st a k en b yD y son i n 1 957 , w h en h e s t a r t ed am a jo r p rog ramm e , t h e s o -ca l led ` Ha san lu P ro jec t ' t h a t c on t inued u n t i l 1 977 . T h em a in a im o ft h i sp r o jec tw a st oe s tab l i sh ab a s ic c h rono logy a nd t os t udy t h el i t t le -known p r e -and p ro toh i s to r ic p e r iod o fA z e rba i jan i nn o r thw e s tI r an . As e r i e s o fo t he r s e t t l em en t s a d ja cen t t h e m a in H a san lu T epe w e r e e x cava t ed i no rd e r t oc onf i rm t h e s e quence a nd t of i l l i ng ap s .
T h e
e x ten s iv e s u r f a c e s u rv ey s u nd e r tak en b y Y oung , a s am embe r o f t h e H a san lu P , ro jec t , a nd t h e f o l low ing e x cava t ion s , r e v ea l ed H a san lu a sa n ' a ncho r ' a nd a st h e ' I ron A g e p a r e x e l lence ' ( Lev in e 1 971 : 4 0 ) i nw e s t er n I r an , ap o s i t ion t h a t i ts t i l l r e ta in s . P ro jec t s e e D y son 1 961 ; 1 964 ; 1 972 ; B u rn ey 1 972 .
F o r m o r e i n f o rma t ion a bou t t h e H a san lu I n 1 962 S t ronach b egan t o e xcava t e a t
P a s sa rgad a st h e f i na l p o in t o fI r an ian m ig ra t ion ( S t ronach 1 978 ) .
A n i mpo r tan t e x cava t ion w a s
o rg an i sed b yY oung a tG od in T epe f r om 1 965 t o 1 973 ( Young 1 967b ) . A tt h e s am et i m e S t ronach d ug a tN u sh jan T epe ( S t rona ch a nd R oaf 1 978 ) , a nd G of fs t a r t ed t o e xcava t e a tB aba jan ( Gof f 1 969 ) , t wo i mpor t an t s i t e s o ft h e p e r iod o f t h e Mede s .
A t t h a t t im e V anden B e rgh e w a s a l so
e xcava t ing a tc eme t e r ie s o fP u sh t i -Kuh , L u r i s tan . Wh i le much w o rk c on t inued i nt h e c en t ra l a nd n o r th er nZ ag ro s , o t h e ra r ea sw i th I r on A ge e v id ence e xc i t ed a t t en t ion a nd I r an ian a r cha eo log i s t s f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e c onduc t ed s e v e ra l e xped i t ion s i n d epend en t ly , f o r i n s tance , t h e e xcava t ion o f Ma r l ik T epe ( Negahban 1 965 )a nd t h el a rge I r on A ge c em e t e ry a tG h ey ta ry eh ( Kamba l c h sh f a rd 1 969 ) . S umma r i s ing : b y t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e s e v en t ie s m a jo r a r cha eo log ica l e xcava t ion h ad s t a r t ed a nd s ucceed ed i ni d en t if y ing t h eI r on A ge o fI r an , i np a r t icu la ri nt h en o r thw e s t a nd w e er np a r t o ft h i s c oun t ry . T h et y po logy o fp o t t e ry w a st h eb a s i st oc l a s s if i ca t ion a nd i n t e rp r e ta t ion , s p e c ia l ly t h eg r ey b l ack w a r e , r e ga rded t oh av eb e en a ni n d ica to ro ft h ef i r s tI ndo I ran ian t r ibe s , Two h ypo th e se s w e r e f o rmu la t ed b yY oung a nd D y son t oe s tab l i sh t h e d a t e a nd r ou t e s o ft h e I r an ian m ig ra t ion i n to t h e P la t eau . Y oung d i v id ed t h e I r on A ge p e r iod w i th in t h ree h o r izon s , e a ch c ha rac t e r i sed b y as pec if i c p o t t e ry t e chn ique :t h ee a r ly w e s t e rn g r ey w a r eh o r izon ;t h el a t ew e s t e rn g r ey w a r eh o r izon ; a nd al a t e b uf fw a re h o r izon . H ec on c lud ed t h a tt h ec hange s i n ma t e r ia l c u l tu r e i nt h e s t ra ta p r ov et h e a r r iva l o f an ew p opu la t ion . T h en h e p ropo sed a n e a s t -w e s t movem en t r a th e r t h an a n o r th sou th o n e , a s s ugge s t ed b y G h i r shman ( Young 1 965 ; 1 967a ) . A l though h i s c onc lu s ion o n r ou t e s o fm ig ra t ion i s
2 0
n o t t h e s ame a s G h i r shman , t h e i r d a t ing o f t h e f i r s t m ig ra t ion i nt h e l a s t c en tury o f t h e s e cond m i l lenn ium ( a bou t 1 300 / 1250 B .C . )w a s i na g reemen t . D y son o nt h eb a s i s o ft h e d eve lopmen to ft h e m a te r ia l c u l tu re c ame t os im i la r c onc lu s ion s a s Young b u t h e r e p laced Y oung 's c e ram ic h o r izon s w i th t h e p er iod s o f I r on A ge 1 ,2 , 3( Dy son 1 965 ) . T hough t h e d i v i s ion o ft h e I r on A ge I r an i n to t h ree p e r iod s h a s b een a ccep ted b y mo s t r e sea rche r s ( I ron A ge 1a pp rox ima te ly 1 300 / 1250 1000 ; I r on A ge 2 1 000 -800 /750 ; I r on A ge 3 7 50 -550 B .C . ) , t h ed eba te a bou tw he re t h eI n do I ran ian c ame f r om a nd h ow t h ey m ig ra ted s t i l lr ema in su n re so lved . 4 . 5H i s tor ica lA rchaeo logy U n t i l 1 9 50 o u r k now ledge a bou t t h e Mede s , t h e f i r s t I r an ian d yna s ty ( 7 28 -550 B .C . ) , w a s c omp le t e ly b a sed o ni n d i r ec ta nd s e conda ry , s ome t im e s h i gh ly b i a sed s ou rce s i n c lud ing t h e A ssy r ian a nd B aby lon ian t e x t s a nd t h e l a te r w r i t ing s o f H e rodo tu s .
I n t h e e a r ly 1 900 s s cho la r s s uch a s
B uck ingham ( 1 829 ) a t t emp t ed t of i nd t h eG o lden C i ty o ft h e Mede s i na nc ien t E kba tan o n t h e b a s i s o fH e rodo tu s ' n a r ra t ive . T h roughou tt h e n i ne teen c en tury s cho la r s s uch a s R aw l in son ( 1 865 ) u sed a lt h o se u n re l iab le s ou rc e st os yn the s i se t h e Med ian p e r iod . B u tt h e l a ck o f Med ian w r i t ten s ou rce s r e su l t ed i n c on t rad ic to ry c onc lu s ion s a nd m a jo r d i sag reemen t .
E xcava t ion s c onduc t ed i nt h e l a te
1 9 50 sa nd t h roughou tt h e 1 960 s a nd 1 970 s i nA ze rba i jan s h ed n ew l i gh t o nt h e Med ian p er iod . T he i mpo r tan t e xcava t ion s o ft h e H a sa rdu a nd G od in P ro jec t s , a s w e l l a s t h e N u sh i jan a nd B aba jan p r o je c t s , y i e lded s i gn if i can t a r ch i tec tu ra l d a ta a sw e l l a s p o t te ry a nd i r on o b jec t s .
T he se d a ta w e re
a b le t oc on t r ibu t et ot h e q ue s t ion s o f Med ia a st h e o r ig in o ft h e f i r s t I r an ian t r iba l m ig ra t ion s t ot h e I r an ian P la teau . U n l ik e t h e Med e s , A chaemen id a r chaeo logy w a s a lway s al i ve ly a nd c on t rov e r s ia l f i e ld f r om t h e e a r ly 1 900s u p t op r e sen t .
Magn if icen t a r ch i tec tu ra l r ema in s o ft h e i r e mp i re ( 5 50 -331 B .C . ) , t h e
f i n eg l azed a nd u ng lazed t i l e s , a nd l a rge i n sc r ibed r e l ief s w e r e f o und a tt h e A chaemen id c ap i ta l s o f S u sa , P e r sepo l i s , a nd P a s sa rgad . u nd e r F rench e xcava to r s .
S u sa i t se lf h a s b een e xcava t ed c on t inuou s ly f o r a bou t ac en tury
T he O r ien ta l I n s t i tu te o f C h icago U n iv e r s i ty h a s e xp lo red P e r sepo l i s ,
w h i l e t h e B r i t i sh I n s t i tu t e o f P e r s ian S tud ie s h a s e xcava ted P a s sa rgad .
T he se e xcava t ion s w e re
f o l low ed b y I r an ian a r chaeo log i s t s p rov id ing d e ta i led i n f o rma t ion a bou t A cha em en ian a r t a nd h i s to ry . D e sp i te e x t en s ive e xcava t ion s , r e sea rch a nd p ub l ica t ion w h ich h ave i n c rea sed o u r u nde r s tand ing o f t h e of i c ia l a nd p ropag and i s t ic a r t o f t h e A chaemen id r u le r s , t h e i r e mp i re w a s b u i l t u pon t h e s ub jec t ion a nd t h es uf e r ing o fm any p eop le ( Ny lande r 1 971 : 5 1 ) , b u tn o r e sea rch h a s y e t b een d one t or e vea lt h ee ve ry d ay l i f eo ft h e se c ommone r s .
2 1
I nt h e c a se o ft h e P a r tho -Sa s san ian p e r iod ( 2 50 B .C .-642 A .D . ) a r cha eo log i s t s w e r e a t t rac t ed t oa b r i l l ian ta r ta nd a r ch i t ec tu r e , w h en t h ep ub l ica t ion s o fG h i r s lunan a tB i shapu r , I v an e K a rkhe , B a rd e N e shandeh a nd o t h e r s b rough tt h em t ol i gh t . A l though t h e se e a r ly c onv en t iona l a nd t os ome e x t en t c omme rc ia l w o rk s w e r e e no rmou s ly d e s t ruc t iv e t ot h e a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd ( Kea l 1 971 : 5 6 ) t h ey i n t roduced t h i s p e r iod t on ew p ra c t i t ion e r s , w ho d ev e loped n ew s t anda rd s o fe xcava t ion o n P a r tho S a s san ian s i t e s a s e a r ly a s 1 960 .
S ev e ra l o ccupa t ion s i te s o ft h i s p e r iod i nw e s t er n a nd s ou th -
w e s t er nI r an h av eb een s y s t ema t ica l ly e xcava ted , i n c lud ing J und i shapu r( Adam s a nd .H an sen 1 968 ) , Q a s r i -Abuna s r( F ry e d . 1 973 ) , Q a l eY azd ig i rd ( K ea l 1 967 ) , S hah r i -Qum i s ( H an sm an a nd S t rona ch 1 974 ) . Much o f t h e a r cha eo log ica l e v id enc e , i n f a c t , c am e n o t f r om e xcava t ion s , b u t f r om s y s t ema t ic r e g iona l s u rv ey s . Wenk e( 1 987 )u sed s u r vey d a ta t os t udy t h ec u l tu ra lc omp lex i ty , a nd p o l i t ica l a nd e conom ic a s pec t s o ft h i s p e r iod . I na dd i t ion , t h e a va i lab i l i ty o fe x t en s iv ed ocumen ta ry s ou rce s s u ch a si n sc r ip t ion s a nd e a r ly I s lam ic t e x t s , b e s id e s a r cha eo log ica l e v id ence , e nab led s om e a r cha eo log i s t s s uch a sV and en B e rgh e( 1 993 )t or e con s t ruc t ao u t l in eo fP a r tho -Sa s san ian c u l tu r eh i s to ry . 4 . 6I s lam ic A rchaeo logy U p t o 1 960 t h e f i e ld a c t iv i t ie s c onc e rn ing t h e I s lam ic p e r iod h ave b een c a r r ied o u tb yt h e F r ench e xped i t ion a tS u sa , f o l low ed b yt h e Am e r ican e xped i t ion u nde rt h el e ad e r sh ip o fS chm id ta tE s ta l ch r a nd R ay , l o ok ing f o r p r e I s lam ic r ema in s ; t h e w ea l th o f I s lam ic f i nd s h a s o n ly b e en r e po r t ed i n s umma ry .
T h e se e xcava t ion s w e r e f o l low ed b y t h o se o f a no th e r Am e r ican t e am a tN i shapu r ,
n o r th ea s t er nI r an , f r om 1 9 35 t o 1 947 . T h i s e xcava t ion t h ough i n i t ia l ly p l anned t or e cov e rv a luab le S a s san ia na r t if a c t s , p roduc ed al a rge a moun to fa r t i s t ic ma t e r ia l a sw e l l a se v idence o f af l our i sh ing u rban s e t t lem en t d a t ing t ot h e e l ev en th c en tu ry .
A l though t h e c l a s s if i ca t ion o fN i shapu r p o t t e ry
p roduced b y W i lk in son ( 1 973 ) h a s b ecom e as t anda rd r e f e r enc e , t h e c oncen t ra t ion o n a e s th e t ic a spec t so fa r th a sm ean tt h a th i sw o rk h a sn o tt r an scend ed s imp le d e sc r ip t ion . T h e f i r s t s y s t ema t ic e xcava t ion o fa n I s lam ic s i t e d i d n o t t a ke p l a ce u n t i l t h e l a t e 1 960 s , w hen t h e B r i t i sh I n s t i tu t eo fP e r s ian S t ud ie sc a r r ied o u te x t en s ive f i e ld w o rk u nd e r Wh i t ehou se a tS i raf o nt h e P e r s ian G u lf f r om 1 966 t o 1 974 .
T h i s e xcava t ion e xpo sed a n umbe r o f i n te r e s t ing b u i ld ing s ,
c e ram ic s a nd s ma l l f i nd s ( Wh i t ehou se 1 970 , 1 971 , 1 972 , 1 975 ) . T h e r ew e r ea l so af ew s ma l l s c a le e xcava t ion s o nt h eI s lam ic s i t e s , s uch a se xcava t ion o f Wi l l iam son a tT epe D a sh t i -d eh ( W i l l iam son 1 971 ) , B iva r a nd F ehe rva r i a tG hubaya ( 1 972 ) , a nd B u l l ie t a tN i shapu r ( Bu l l ie t 1 976 ) ; n one h a s b een p ub l i sh ed i nd e ta i l . T o s um u p , t h e s t udy o f I s lam ic a r t a nd a r cha eo logy i n I r an i sp r im i t iv e a nd u ndev e loped a nd c e r ta in ly c anno tb ec ompa r ed t ot h ea ch iev emen t s o fh i s to r ica la r cha eo logy . A ma jo rr e a son f o rt h i s
2 2
i st h a tI s lam ic a r chaeo logy h a s b een n eve rp rob lem -o r ien ted ; i td oe s n o t s e ek t or e so lve q ue s t ion s b y e xcava t ion , t h ough t h e i n nova t ive w o rk a t S i raf t e nd ed t o s o lv e c e r ta in p rob lem s o f t r ade b y d emon s t ra t ing t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f t r ade o b jec t s
(Wh i tehou se
1 983 )
a nd f o cu sed o n
s oc ia l
d if e r en t ia t ion i na nI s lam ic u r ban c ommun i ty . B u ti tw i l ln o ts ucceed u n le s s al a rge n umbe ro fo the r s i t e s c an b e e xcava t ed .
T h e s e cond r e a son l i e s i ni t s n ove l ty , w h ich m ean s i t s p rac t i t ione r s h ave
b een , a nd s t i l l a r e , r ema rkab ly f ew .
T he f i na l r e a son c om e s f r om t h e l a ck o f g ove rnmen ta l
e ncou ragemen ti nt h ep r e -R evo lu t ion p e r iod , w h ich d i r ec ted r e sea rch o r ien ta t ion t oh i s to r ica l p e r iod s ; n o I s lam ic s i te h a s b een s u b jec ted t oc omp le t e e xcava t ion b y I r an ian a r cha eo log i s t s , b u t t h e re h ave b e en v ery s ho r t t e rm r e scue e xcava t ion s o n m any t h rea ten ed s i te s .
T oday , d e sp i te t h e g rea te r
a t t en t ion b e ing p a id t o I s lam ic s c ience s , b ecau se o ft h e o ve ra l l d ef i c ienc ie s o fa r chaeo logy i n I r an ( s e ed i scu s s ion so ff o l low ing c hap te r s ) , a si no t he rf i e ld s o fa r chaeo logy , n o d eve lopmen tc an b e s e en i nt h ea r chaeo logy o ft h i sp e r iod .
2 3
Chap ter 2
AV iew o fT heory i nC on temporary A rchaeo logy a nd
t he I ran ian P er spec t ive o n Theore t ica lA rchaeo logy
1 .I n t roduc t ion T h e a bund anc e o f i n f o rma t ion a va i lab le a bou t t h e p a s t , a nd t h e g r ow th o f u n sc ien t if i c i n t e rp r e ta t ion s b y p eop l e o u t s id e a cad em ic a r cha eo logy , r e qu i r e c a r ef u l t h ough t b y a r cha eo log i s t s . T h e b u i ld ing o f t h eo r e t ica l f r am ewo rk s r ema in s ap re r equ i s i t e o f s e r iou s r e sea r ch .
S om e
a r cha eo log i s t s s t i l l c on s id e r t h a t t h ey e xam in e d a ta o b jec t iv e ly , a nd " l e t t h e f a c t s s p eak f o r t h em se lv e s" . T h em a jo r i ty n ow d ev e lop ac on sc iou st h eo re t ica la pp roa ch a nd c o l lec td a ta o re xp lo r e e x i s t ing i n f o rma t ion w i th a ne xp l ic i tt h eo r e t ica lf r am ewo rk i nm ind a nd ac l ea rp rob l em o r ien ta t ion . T h eo r e t ica l f r am ewo rk s a r en ow d ev e lop ing r a p id ly , a cco rd ing t ot h ea dvanc e s o fr e sea r ch . U n l ik e t h e 1 960 s a nd 1 970 s w h en t h e h o t t e s t a r ea o f d eba t e w a s b e tw e en t r ad i t iona l a nd " New A r cha eo logy" , d i scu s s ion n ow c e n t r e s u pon t h ea pp l icab i l i ty o fr i va lt h eo r e t ica l a pp roa ch e s . Many a r cha eo log i s t s ( i n I r an ) e s pe c ia l ly t h o se w ho a r e w o rk ing i n h i s to r ica l p e r iod s , s t i l l r e ga rd a r cha eo log ica lt h eo ry a s as ub -d i sc ip l in et h a tm ay b e i g no red . T h e i rm i s tak e i st oo v e r look t h e f a c t t h a t a l i n v e s t iga t ion o ft h e p a s t i n vo lv e s at h eo r e t ica l p e r spe c t iv e .
We a r e p roduc t s o f as oc ia l
e nv i ronm en tt h a th a s c ond i t ion ed o u rv i ew o nt h e w o r ld , a nd o u r v i ew o ft h e p a s t i si n f lu en ced b y o u r p e r c ep t ion o ft h e p r e sen t .
I n f a c t , o u r v e ry c ho ice o f r e s ea r ch t o p ic s p r obab ly r e f l e c t s o u r
p e r sona l o p t ion s ( T r igg e r 1 9 89 : 4 10 ) .
Awa r en e s s o f a r cha eo log ica l t h eo ry a low s u s t o
a cknow ledg e t h i s p rob l em , e v en i ft h e r e i sv e ry l i t t l e t ha t w e c a n d o a bou t i t . I ta l so h e lp u s t o p e r c e iv e o u ro wn p o in t s o fv i ew c l ea r ly , a nd t og ua rd a ga in s t a nu n th ink ing i mpo s i t ion o fo u r o wn v a lu e s a nd p r eoccupa t ion s o na n c i en ts o c i e t i e s . S i n c em o s tb r an ch e s o fa r cha eo log ica lt h eo ry h av e t h e i r r o o t s i np h i lo sophy o r o t h e r d i sc ip l in e s s uch a s s oc io logy o r a n th ropo logy , t h ey o f e r t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o f g a in ing n ew i n s igh t s i n to f am i l ia r a spec t s o f t h e p a s t .
T h eo ry d oe s n o t p rov id e
a n sw e r s , b u t i ts ugg e s t s aw id e r r a ng e o f i n t e r e s t ing q u e s t ion s t h a t r e v iv e e x i s t ing d a ta a nd e ncou rage as e a r ch f o r n ew a nd b e t t e r i n f o rma t ion .
T h i s c hap t e r w i l l n o t a t t emp t t oe x p la in t h e
c u r r en t s t a t e o fa r cha eo log ica lt h eo ry i ng en e ra l , b u t r a th e r i ti sa n a na ly s i s o ft h e c u r r en t s t a t e o f t h eo r e t ica l a r cha eo logy i nI r an , i no r d e r , o nt h e o n e h and , t od emon s t ra t et h e i mpo r tan t r e a son s f o r s u ch n on th eo r e t ica la r cha eo logy i nI r an , a nd o nt h eo t h e rh and t or e f l ec tt h em a tu r i ty o ft h es ub jec t
2 4
a nd t h e p r inc ipa l i d ea s w h ich I r an ian a r chaeo log i s t s w i l l i n ev i tab ly n eed f o r t h e i r f u tu re d eve lopmen t . 2 .D eve lopmen to ft heory a nd c urren ti s sue s i nt heore t ica l a rchaeo logy Af t e rt h e S econd Wo r ld Wa ra r chaeo logy w a s s t i l l as ma l l f i e ld . B yt h ef i f t ie s a nd t h e s i x t ie s i tw a s e xpand ing r a p id ly a nd t ak ing am o re s c ien t if ic a pproach . A tt h a tt im eg r ea t a dvance s w e re m ade i n b r ing ing s c ience i n to a r cha eo logy , t h rough n ew d a t ing m e thod s , am u l t i -d i sc ip l ina ry a pp roach , e xpe r imen t s w i th t h e u se o fs t a t i s t ic s , a nd d evo t ing s ub s tan t ia l a t t en t ion t oi n c rea s ing t h e p r ec i s ion o fa r t if ac tc l a s s if i ca t ion . I nt h eU n i t ed S ta te s a st h eb i r th p l ace o ft h e ' New A rchaeo logy ' t h e re w a s a n
i n c rea s ing
e mpha s i s
o n
e nv i ronmen t ,
o t he r
c u l tu re s ,
a nd
p eop le -o r ien ted
d i sc ip l ine s .
A n th ropo logy a nd a r cha eo logy g r ew m a rked ly b ecau se o f t h e se t r end s , a nd a r cha eo log i s t s w e re u rged t ob ecom ec oncer n ed w i th s o c io log ica l i s sue s -t h ep eop le b eh ind t h ea r t if ac t s . I tw a s d u r ing t h e se d ecad e s o f r a p id c hange t ha t m any o f t h e m a in c oncep t s o f t h e ' New A rcha eo logy ' m ade b ys cho la r s s uch a s Wa l te r T ay lo r ( 1948 ) , J u l ian S t ewa rd ( 1 955 ) , L e s l ie Wh i te ( 1 959 ) , a nd A lbe r t S pau ld ing ( 1 960 ) e n te red t h e l i t e ra tu r e . B u tt h ep e r son w ho q u ick en ed t h e ' New A rchaeo logy ' m ovemen t w a s L ew i s B inf o rd w ho i n co rpo ra ted e a r l ie r l i ne s o f t h ink ing w i th a n e xp l ic i t c onc er n f o r s c ien t if i c m e thod s a nd f i e ld r e sea rch d e s ign .
H e w ro t e as e r ie s o fp owe rf u l
m e thodo log ica l a r t ic le s s e t t ing t h eg u ide l ine s f o rt h e ' New A rchaeo logy ' ( 1 962 , 1 964 , 1 965 , 1 968 ) . T h rough t h ew o rk o fB inf o rd h im se lf a nd h i s s t uden t s , much o ft h e ' New A rcha eo logy ' p rog ramme h a s s urv ived a nd h a sb ecome t h em a in s t ream o fa r cha eo logy . P e rhap s t h e m o s t i mpor t an t i mpac to f ' New A rcha eo logy ' i si t s d emand s f o r ac l ea r a r cha eo log ica l m e thodo logy i n f o rmu la t ing b o th r e sea rch d e s ign f o r t h e f i e ld a nd a na ly t ica l s t ra teg ie s f o r i n t e rp re ta t ion o f r e su l t s .
T he r e i sn ow
u n ive r sa l a g r eemen tt h a te xp l ic i tq ue s t ion s h ave t ob e f o rmu la t ed a nd ar e sea rch d e s ign e s tab l i shed b ef o re a r cha eo log ica l w o rk i sc a r r ied o u t .
O the r c ha rac te r i s t ic s o ft h e ' New A rcha eo logy ' a r e t h e
r e cogn i t ion o ft h e d i ve r s i ty o fm a t e r ia l n eeded t os uppor t a n i n te rp re t ive p ropo s i t ion , t h e i n c rea s ing u se o fs amp l ing i nm any a s pec t so ff i e ld a nd l a bo ra to ry w o rk , a nd t h eg row ing r e l iance o n s t a t i s t ica l p rocedu re s . T h e ' New A rcha eo logy ' of e red ag r ea te rc hange t ot h em e thodo logy o fa r cha eo logy b y e mpha s i s ing as y s tem ic v i ew , f o re xamp le , o fc u l tu re , a s as e r ie s o fi n t e r r e la t ed s ub sy s t em s a f ec ted b y e co log ica l p h enomena .
T h i s r e la t ion sh ip s ough t c onf i rma t ion i n e xam in ing t h e v a r iou s d a ta
d ef ined a nd s amp led t h rough e x t en s ive r e sea rch d e s ign s . Empha s i s o n e xam in ing v a r iab i l i ty a mong d a ta l e d
s c ho la r s
t o d ev i se
s p ec ia l
p rocedu re s
f o r u nde r s tand ing a r t if ac t t y po log ie s
a nd
e xpe r imen ta t ion w i th a r t if ac t c l a s se s . T he ' New A rchaeo logy ' h a s a l so h ad ac on s id e rab le i mpac t o n t h e p rof e s s iona l s t ruc tu re o fa r cha eo logy .
I tc au sed t h e e s tab l i shm en t o f n ew d epa r tmen t s o f
a n th ropo logy a nd a r cha eo logy i nu n ive r s i t ie s t h roughou t t h e U n i ted S t a te s a nd r e su l t ed i no pen ing t h e d oo rf o ry oung s cho la r s t om ak e s i gn if ican t c on t r ibu t ion s t ot h e f i e ld . Many o ft h e p eop le w ho
2 5
t r a in ed p rof e s s iona l ly i nt h e s e v en t i e s d u r ing t h e ' New A rcha eo logy ' p e r iod , a r e n ow i n vo lv ed i n p ub l ic a r cha eo logy .
T he i r m e thodo log ica l a nd p h i lo soph ica l f o cu s h a s b e en o n d ev e lop ing d a ta
r e cov e ry s t ra t eg ie s a nd m anagemen t p r inc ip le s .
I t s e mpha s i s o n r e sea rch d e s ign a nd h ypo th e s i s
t e s t ing i sf undam en ta li nm uch o fp ub l ic a r cha eo logy t oday ( t h ef o l low ing r e f e renc e sg i v e ad e ta i l ed i n f o rma t ion a bou t t h e c oncep t a nd d ev e lopm en t o ft h e ' New A r cha eo logy ' , f o r e xamp le ; B inf o rd 1 972 , 1 989 , C la rk e 1 978 , R enf r ew a nd B a lm 1 996 , T r igge r 1 9 89 , Wa t son e ta l . 1 971 , W i l ley a nd S ab lof f1 993 ) . F u r th e r d ev e lopm en t s o f t h e ' New A r cha eo logy ' h av e i n vo lv ed e t hnoa rcha eo logy , e xpe r imen ta l s t ud ie s a nd o t h e r w ay s o f g i v ing a d equa t e m ean ing t o t h e a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd , as e r ie s o f a pp roache s o f t en c a l led ' m idd le r ange t h eo ry ' ( s e e S ch if f e r 1 976 ) . T he s t udy o ft h em a t e r ia l o ft h e a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd , c h em ica l a nd p hy s ica l a na ly s i s o fm a t e r ia l , c omb in ed w i th t h e o b jec t iv e o f d i scov e r ing b ehav iou ra l p a t t er n s t h rough v a r iou s s y s tema t ic a na ly t ica l a pp roach e s , a lowed f o r m u l t ip le s t ep s o fi n t e rp r e t iv e r e su l t s . I nt e rm s o fd i s t r ibu t ion s t ud ie s , m od e l s a nd t e chn ique s t a k en f r om g eog raph ica la nd e co log ica ls c ienc ea low ed ar i che re xp lana t ion o fo b ser v ed p a t t er n s . Mo s t o ft h e e l em en t s o ft h e ' New A rcha eo logy ' a r e c on ta in ed i ne xp r e s s ion s s u ch a s p roce s s , s y s t em , e xp lana t ion , l aw s , h ypo th e s i s , a nd t e s t ing .
S y s t em s t h eo ry p rov id e s au sef u l w ay o f
s t udy ing t h e i n t e rac t ion b e tween v a r iou s p a r t s o f as oc ie ty a nd i t s e nv i ronm en t .
H ypo the s i s
f o rmu la t ion a nd t e s t ing r ef l ec t s a ni n t e r e s ti ns c ien t if i ct h eo ry a nd t h eu se o fs t a t i s t ic s . T h eg r ea t e s t d r awba ck i nt h e ' New A rcha eo logy ' i st h eq u e s t ion o fl aw s , a nd t h e a s sump t ion t h a t s uch l aw s n o t o n ly e x i s t , b u t c an b e d e t ec t ed a r cha eo log ica l ly , i s f undam en ta l t o t h e t e n e t s o f t h e ' New A r cha eo logy ' . T h i sg rand g oa ll e dt o ac r i t ic i sm a nd a c t ive d eba t ea mong t h e" New A rcha eo log i s t s" t h em se lv e s a bou th ow r e a l i s t ic t h e i ro b jec t iv e s w e r e ( s ee f o re xamp le , C la rk e 1 973 , F l ann e ry 1 973 , H odd e r 1 992 , c h . 2 ) .
A s G lyn D an i e l h a s s t r e s sed , t h e h ope o f d i scov e r ing l aw s o f c u l tu ra l
d ynam ic si na r cha eo logy a nd a n th ropo logy i sp e rhap s av a in o n e ,d oomed t of a i lu re ( 1 981 : 1 92 ) . T h e l e ad ing s uppo r t e r o ft h e ' New A rcha eo logy ' i n E u rope h a s b een C o l in R enf rew w ho h a s m a in ta in ed t h e e mpha s i s o n g ene ra l i sa t ion a nd e xp lana t ion ( R enf r ew 1 982 ) .
H e g av e ac l ea r
e xpo s i t ion t o s y s t em s t h eo ry a s a n e xp lana to ry m e thod i nh i s a na ly s i s o ft h e g row th o f A eg ean c i v i l i sa t ion .
T h e i d ea s o f Ame r ican n eo evo lu t ion i s t s s uch a s S e rv ice ( 1962 ) w i th h i s s c h ema t ic
t y po logy o fb and , t r ibe , c h ief dom a nd s t a t e w e re i n t roduced a nd a pp l ied t oE u ropean c a se s t ud ie s a nd o pen ed u p t o an ew m ode l o fa r cha eo log ica l r e sea rch a nd w r i t ing .
T h i s m od e l s t r e s sed t h e
p roc e s so fs oc ia la nd e conom ic c h ang ew i th in as y s t em st h eo ry f r am ewo rk , w i th ap a r t icu la ri n t e r e s t i n e xchange , r i tua l m onumen t s , s e t t lemen t p a t t er n s , a nd c en t ra l p l ace s ( R en f r ew 1 982 ) a s t h e e v id enc ef o rt h o se p roce s se s i nt h e a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd . T h em e thodo logy u s ed d epend ed g r ea t ly o ns c ien t if i ct e chn ique s , o n q uan t if i ca t ion , a nd o ng eog raph ica l a nd m a thema t ica l m od e l s ( R enf r ew
2 6
e ta l . 1 982 : 2 87 -421) . T h ek i nd o fa r cha eo logy a dvoca t ed b yR enf r ew f r om t h el a t e 1 960 s o nwa rd s h a s d om ina t ed t h e d i sc ip l in e o f a r cha eo logy i n B r i ta in .
T h i s i s t h e s o -ca l led ` P roce s sua l
A rcha eo logy ' w i th i t s e mpha s i s o ns o c ia l a nd e conom ic p roce s se s , i t s s y s t em ic v i ew o fc u l tu r e , a nd i t s a ccep tance o fn eo evo lu t iona ry s o c ia l t y po log ie s , e mp loy ing am e thodo logy c on ta in ing a l l t h e n ew s c ien t if i c ,m a th ema t ica la nd g eog raph ica lt e chn iqu e s . Many a r cha eo log i s t s d i d n o t a dop t c omp le t e ly a l a spec t s o ft h e P roc e s sua l ( New A rchaeo logy ) t hough t , a nd t h e r ew a s a lway s c e r ta in a moun t o fc r i t ic i sm . T h e v o lum e a nd i nf luenc e o fc r i t ic i sm i n c r ea sed g r ea t ly i nt h e 1 980 s , e s pec ia l ly i nB r i ta in . T he t e rm ` Po s tp roc e s sua l ' c ov e r s av a r ie ty o f a pp roach e s t h a t a r e d if e r en t i nm any w ay s f r om P roce s sua l t h ough t a nd p rac t ic e .
T h e mo s t
p rom in en to ft h e se c r i t iqu e s o r ig ina t e s i nt h ew o rk s o fI a nH odd e r ( 1 982a , 1 982b ) , w ho c o ined t h e t e rm P o s tp roc e s sua lA rcha eo logy , a nd h i s s t uden t s a tC amb r idge . T h i st h eo ry g r ew u p f r om l a rge r d i scu s s ion s o f p o s t s t ruc tu ra l i sm a nd p o stmod e rn i sm i n F rance a nd B r i ta in . " Po s tp roce s sua l A rcha eo logy" a r gue s t h a t ` P roc e s sua l A r cha eo logy ' h a s p a id i n suf f i c i en t a t t en t ion t o t h e s oc ia l c on t ex to fa r cha eo log ica lr e sea rch a nd h a s f o cu sed t o o much a t t en t ion o nm e thod , i g no r ing m ean ing a nd p rog r e s s ,b o th i nt h ep a s ta nd i nt h ep r e sen t( Pa t t e r son 1 990 : 1 9 1 ) . T h r e em a in s t rand s i np o s t m od er n , P o s tp roc e s sua l t h eo ry , a tl e a s t i nA ng lo -Ame r ican d eba t e s ( Pa t t e r son 1 990 , C hamp ion 1 991 , H odd e r 1 991a , 1 992 , P r euc e l 1 991 , T r igge r 1 991a ) , a r e t h e r a d ica l p o s t s t ruc tu ra l i s t w o rk s o fS hank s a nd T i l ley ( 1 987a , 1 987b , 1 989 , T i l ley 1 991 , S hank s 1 992 ) , t h e w o rk i nt h e U .S .A . b y L eon e a nd o t h e r s w h ich d r aw s u pon c r i t ica l t h eo ry ( Leon e 1 986 , L eon e a nd P r euc e l 1 992 ) , a nd H odd e r 's e mpha s i s o n t h e s o c ia l c on t ex t o ft h eo ry ( Hodd e r 1 986 , 1 988 , 1 989a , 1 989b , 1 991a , 1 992 ) . A l lt h r e e s t rand s o fP o s tp roc e s sua lt h eo ry a sk a r cha eo logy t ob u i ld ar e f lex iv e p roce s s i n to i t sp ra c t ice a nd i n to t h es t ruc tu r et h a tf o rmu la t e s i t si n t e rp r e ta t ion s . O n eo ft h em a jo rc on t r ibu t ion s t ot h e d eba t e h a s b e en t h e r e cogn i t ion t h a t a r cha eo log ica l o b serva t ion s a r e l a d en w i t h t h eo ry a nd e mbedd ed i n s o c i e ty .
T h i s i sw hy a p o l i t ic i sed a r cha eo logy s hou ld r e cogn i se t h e d i v e r s i ty o f
i n t e r e s t si nt h ep a s to u t s id ea r cha eo logy . I n g en e ra l P o s tp roc e s sua l i s t s i d en t if y f o u r m a jo r p rob lem s a r i s ing f r om P roc e s sua l a pp roache s , i n c lud ing : ( 1 )b ad p rac t ic ei nt h eu s eo ff o rma lt e chn ique s ( e .g . c ompu t e ra nd s t a t i s t ic s ) , a nd ah eavy e mpha s i s o nt h er e su l t so fs t a t i s t ica la pp roa ch e s ; ( 2 ) p h i lo soph ica lm od e l su sed f o rt h eo ry a nd p ra c t ic ea r en ow s e en t ob ep rob lema t ic ; ( 3 ) t h e re w as i n suf f i c ien t a t t en t ion t ot h e p rob lem s t h a t a r i se i nt r y ing t o c onn ec t a r cha eo log ica l o b se rvab le sw i th t h ee n t i t ie st h a ti n t e r e s t ing t h eo ry i sa bou t ;
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( 4 ) P roc e s sua l i s t s t e nd ed t o a dop t u n sa t i sf a c to ry s o c io -cu l tu ra l t h eo ry ( Cowg i l l 1 993 : 52 -3 , H odd e r 1 992 , c h . 1 ,7 ,P r euc e la nd H odd e r 1 996a , c h . 1 ,H odd e r 1 982a ) . S om e o ft h e o b jec t ion s t ot h eb a s i s o fP roc e s sua l A rcha eo logy a nd t h e k i nd s o fe xp lana t ion o ft h e p a s t w h ich i to f e r s , c on c e rn i t s f un c t iona l i s t a c coun t o fh uman c u l tu ra l a nd s o c ia l o r gan i sa t ion , r e duc ing al a rg e a moun to fh uman e xpe r i enc et om e r e a dap ta t ion t oe nv i ronm en t . Ma t e r ia l c u l tu r e i sm o r e t h an j us t at o o l f o r s u rv iva l o r a n i n f o rma t ion s y s t em f o r ef i c iency o fa dap ta t ion .
T h e
a dop t ion o f as y s t em s t h eo ry a pp roa ch t o e xp lana t ion h a s a l so d en ied t h e a c t iv e r o l e o f t h e i n d iv idua l , w ho w a s l a rg e ly n eg l ec t ed i n t h e d i scu s s ion o f s y s t em a nd s ub sy s t em a s t h e k ey e xp lana to ry u n i t s .
F u r th e rmo r e , i tf a i l s t o d e sc r ibe t h e c au se o f s o c ia l c h ang e w i th in s o c i e ty ;
s y s t em st h eo ry r e l i e so nf a c to r s s u ch a se nv i ronm en ta lc h ang ea nd p opu la t ion g row th , a se x t er na lo r i n d ep end en tv a r iab l e sn o ts ub je c tt os o c ia lf a c to r s( Ch amp ion 1 99 1 : 1 34 ,H odd e r 1 9 92 : 3 4 ) . ` P o s tp roc e s sua l A r cha eo logy ' t a k e s d if e r en t e l em en t s f r om S t ruc tu ra l i sm , P h enom eno logy , P o s t s t r uc tu ra l i sm a nd C r i t ica l T h eo ry a sw e l l a s Ma rx i s t s o c ia l t h ough t . I nB r i ta in , t h e b i r thp la c e o f P o s tp roc e s sua l i sm , i ti s I a n H odd e r a t C amb r idg e U n iv e r s i ty w ho i s t h e p i on e e r o f t h e P o s tp roc e s sua l i s t s t ud i e sj u s t a sB in f o rd l e d ' New A r cha eo logy ' . H odd e r 's e a r ly c on t r ibu t ion s t o a r cha eo logy w e r ei nq uan t i ta t iv em e thod sa nd l o ca t iona la na ly s i s( Hodd e ra nd O r ton 1 976 ) . H odd e r h a s s a id t h a th ew a s l e dt o an ew w ay o ft h ink ing w h ich d if e r s f r om t ha to f' New A r cha eo logy ' a s d ef in ed b y C la rk e .
H e w a s a b l e t o d ev i se s oph i s t ica t ed q uan t i ta t iv e m e t hod s t o d e sc r ibe t h e
d i s t r ibu t ion o f a r cha eo log i ca l a r t if a c t s o r p h enom ena .
H e i n i t ia l ly c ho se E a s t A f r i ca f o r a n
a r cha eo log ica li n v e s t iga t ion o ft h es pa t ia lp a t t er n ing o fa r t if a c t s i nr e la t ion t ot h e e t hn i cb ounda r i e s . H et h en t u rn ed h i s a t t en t ion t ot h e s t udy o fm a t e r ia lo b jec t s , s ymbo l s y s t em s , a nd t h e i rc on t r ibu t ion t oa r cha eo log ica l i n t e rp r e ta t ion . I ne xam in ing i d ea s a bou ts pa t ia lp a t t e rn ing o fm a t e r ia l c u l tu r e , h e f o und t h a t h i s o b se rva t ion s c on t rad ic t ed t h e s e i d ea s .
F o r e x amp l e , r a th e r t h an m o r e i n te ra c t ion
b e tw e en g roup s .c au s ing g r ea t e rs im i la r i ty o fa r t if a c t s , h en o t ed t h a tt h en a tu r eo ft h ei n t e ra c t ion a nd t h e d eg r e e o f c omp e t i t ion c on s t i tu t e s e t hn ic g r oup d i s t in c t ion .
H e a l so f ound t h a t t h e s ymbo l ic
p a t t e rn s a nd t h ec u l tu ra lm e an ing s o fi t em s s u ch a ss p ea r s c a r r i ed b yy oung u nma r r i ed m en a nd t h e c a laba sh e s d eco ra t ed b yy oung m a r r ied w om en d e t e rm in et h e f o rm a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e se i t em s w i th in a nd b eyond as i ng l e s o c i e ty ( Hodd e r 1 9 82 : c h . 4 ,1 991b : 1 0 1 119 ) . H odd e r ' s i d ea s a r e s t i l l l e ad ing i nt wo d i r ec t ion s : f i r s t , t oi n v e s t iga t eg en e ra l i t ie s a bou th uman e x i s t enc e ; s e cond , e mpha s i s o n e t hnoa r cha eo log i ca l s t ud i e s i no rd e r t op u t t h e o b je c t s b e ing i n v e s t iga t ed i n to ar i ch e r c on t ex t . H ec l a im st h a t( 1 99 1c ) : ( 1 )t h ep a s ti n t e rpen e t ra t e st h ep r e sen ta nd f u tu r e ;
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( 2 ) d if e ren t p a r t s o fs oc ie t ie s r e p re sen t d if e r en t i d ea s o ft h e p a s t b ecau se o ft h e e x i s tence o ft h e d if e r en tc oncep t ion s o ft h ep a s tw i th in s oc ie ty ; ( 3 )d i scou r se s a bou tt h ep a s tr e f lec tt h er e la t ion o fp owe ra nd a u tho r i ty t h a te x i s tw i th in s oc ie ty ; ( 4 )t h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd i sa no b jec t ive s t ruc tu re ; i tb o th s hape s a nd c on s t ra in s i n te rp re ta t ion o f i t ss i gn if icanc e ; ( 5 )t h em idd le range t h eo r ie se ncouraged b yP roce ssua l a r cha eo log i s t s a r ei n adequa te . As e cond c r i t ic i sm t ot h e ' New A rchaeo logy ' c ome s f r om t h e w r i t ing s o fP o s t s truc tu ra l i s t s s uch a s S hank s a nd T i l ley ( 1 987a , 1 987b , T i l ley 1 991 , S hank s 1 992 ) . T h ey a r e a r gu ing a bou t ar e a l i s t ic p a s t w h ich i mp l ie s t h a t t h e o b servab le i s g ene ra ted a nd p a r t ly e xp la ined b y u nobservab le r e la t ion sh ips o rp roce sse s . T hey c l a im t h a t : ( 1 ) a r cha eo logy i sa n i n t e rp r e t ive p rac t ice w h ich t a ke s p l ace i nt h e p r e sen t a nd b r ing s t h e p a s t t o p r e sen t ; ( 2 )t h e re a r ev a r iou s v e r s ion s o fa r chaeo log ica l u nd e r s tand ing s o ft h e p a s tw h ich r e f lec t p r e sen t -day p ow e rr e la t ion s ; ( 3 )a r cha eo logy s hou ld u se d i a lec t ica l a pp roach e st oe s tab l i sh t h eg round s f o r i n qu iry i ng ene ra l , f o r c ommun ica t ion , f o r i n qu iry i n to o t he r s o c ie t ie s a nd c u l tu re s a nd i n ve s t iga t ion o f o b jec t s .
T he
d i a lec t ica l a pp roach i sn ec e s sa ry n o t o n ly t o e s tab l i sh t h e r e la t ion s o f m ean ing , k now ledge , a nd e xp lana t ion ,b u ta l so t oa dd re s s i s sue s o fp ow e r , i d eo logy , s t ruc tu r ea nd s oo n ; ( 4 ) b y r a t iona l i s ing t h e d i sc ip l ine i nt e rm s o f m e thodo log ica l p rocedu re s t h i s w i l l p roduce mo r e o b jec t ive v i ew s o ft h e p a s t t h an ` P roce s sua l A rchaeo logy ' w h ich p l aced t h e p rac t ice o f s c ience o u t s ide t h es o c ie ty i nw h ich i to ccu r s ; ( 5 ) a r chaeo log i s t s s hou ld c ha l lenge t h e e s tab l i shed s oc ia l o rde r a nd f o rm s o fp owe r a nd k now ledge , a nd t h ey s hou ld a l so a t t emp tt oe s tab l i sh s i tua t ion s i nw h ich t h e i r e xpe r t i se c an b e u sed t oc omba t i d ea s o fs upe r io r i ty . T h e t h i rd ` Po s tp roce s sua l A rchaeo logy ' w a s i n t roduced b y L eon e a nd o t he r s ( Leone e ta l . 1 987 , L eon ea nd P reuce l 1 992 ) . T hey a rgue t h a t : ( 1 ) a r chaeo log ica l p rac t ice a nd a r chaeo logy a s i d eo logy a r e p a r t o f t h e p r e sen t a nd r e vea l t h e h i s to r ica l ly s p ec if ic n a tu re o fc oncep t s l i k er a t iona l i ty , a na ly t ica l f r amewo rk s a nd k now ledge ; ( 2 )t h e r ei s an eed f o rc r i t ica la s se ssmen to fb o th t h ea na ly t ica l f r amewo rk a nd k now ledge ;
2 9
( 3 )t h e r ei s an eed t oe xam in ei d eo logy a nd f o rm so fs o c ia l c a t ego r ie sw h ich s haped h i unan a c t ion i n t h ep a s t . T h ey m ay n o tb e d i r ec t ly v i s ib le f r om t h e s o c ia l r e la t ion s a nd t h e d i a lec t ica l l i nk b e tw e en t h em a nd p o l i t ica le conomy ; ( 4 ) i no r d e rt ou nd e r s tand t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tw e en t h e p a s t a nd p r e sen t i ti sn ece s sa ry t oe xam in e t h eh i s to ry o fi d eo logy . ` Po s tp roc e s sua l A rcha eo logy ' d if e r s f r om t h e P roce s sua l ' New A rcha eo logy ' o ve r an umbe r o f i s sue s : O n ep o in tc onc er n sm e thodo log ica lo b jec t iv i ty . S om eP o s tp roce s sua l i s t s b e l iev et h a tt h e r ei s al i t t le c h anc e o fo b ta in ing a n o b jec t iv e v i ew o ft h e p a s t w i th p r e sen t a pp roa ch e s , b ecau se a r chaeo log ica l e xcava t ion i sd e s t ruc t iv e o fc on t ex tua l r e la t ion sh ip s .
I fw e d o n o t h ave a n e f ec t iv e m e thod f o r
u nd e r s t and ing t h e se r e la t ion sh ip s , i tc ou ld b ea r gu ed t h a ta l le x cava t ion s hou ld s t op ( e .g . M i l le ra nd T i l ley 1 984 ) .
O n t h e o t h e r h and , a s t h ey a r gue , b e l ief i nt h e l a ck o f o b jec t ive r e a l i ty i so f t en
d im in i sh ed o nc ea na r cha eo log i s ts p end s s ub s tan t ia lt im ed o ing f i e ldwo rk , a nd t h a ti t‚ s om e t im e s c an l e ad t od e lu s ion s i nt h e o t h e r d i r ec t ion . T h i s e ncou rage s t h e v i ewpo in tt ha t i fw e e xpec t o b jec t ive w o rk , p r ec i se m ea su r em en t s s hou ld b eu sed d u r ing f i e ldwo rk a nd l a bo ra to ry a na ly s i s . D e sp i t et h i s c l a im , t h e c on s i s t ency o f m uch o f t h e ma t e r ia l w h ich h a s b een s y s t ema t ica l ly c o l lec t ed d u r ing f i e ldwo rk a nd r e po r t ed i nr e c en t d ecad e s , h a s l e d m o s t a r cha eo log i s t s t oa ccep t i ta s as uf f i c ien t ly o b jec t iv es e to fd a ta t os e rv ea st h eb a s i s f o ri n t e rp r e ta t ion a nd f u r th e rr e sea rch ( R enf r ew a nd B ahn 1 996 : 4 3 ) . S econd , P o s tp roce s sua l i s t s s ay t h a t i ti se s sen t ia l t op u t a r cha eo log ica l o b jec t s i nt h e c on t ex t o f a nc ien t m ew l ing .
T h ey h av e m ad e s om e i n t e r e s t ing n ew c on t r ibu t ion s i n t h i s a r ea b y s e ek ing
c on t ex tua lr e la t ion s . T hough t h i s w a s ap r ima ry c onc er no ft h e ' New A rcha eo logy ' t os e e o b jec t s , f e a tu r e s , a nd s i t e sw i th in t h e i rs y s t em ic a nd e co log ica lc on t ex t s ,m any e xamp le so ft h e i rw o rk i nt h i s r e spec t
r e f lec t ed
a s imp l e
m a t e r ia l i s t -f unc t iona l
v i ewpo in t .
T h e
m a in
c on t r ibu t ion
o f
P o s tp roc e s sua l i s t s i st o e xpand t h e d ef in i t ion o f c on t ex t t o i n c lud e w ide r s ymbo l ic a nd s o c ia l c on t ex t s ( Hodd e r 1 992 , c h . 7 ,P r euc e la nd H odd e r 1 996b : 3 00 -307 ) . T h i rd , a n i mpo r tan t d r awba ck o ft h e ' New A rcha eo logy ' i si t s o v e r -empha s i s o n v a l ida t ion a nd e f o r t s t o b e o b jec t iv e ( Shank s a nd T i l ley 1 989 , H odd e r 1 987 ) .
T h i s a pp roach r e qu i r e s t h a t
k now ledg e c om e s f r om a d i a logue b e tween s ub jec t ( i nv e s t iga to r ) a nd o b jec t ( t h e a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd ) , a nd a ccep t s t h e e x i s t enc e o f as e t o fm e thod s f o r d e t e rm in ing t r u th , r a t iona l i ty o rr e a l i ty . T h ey s e ek o b jec t iv i ty b y a pp ly ing t h e s am e m e thod s , o b se rva t iona l t e chn ique s , s t anda rd s o f e v id enc e a nd c r i t e r ia o f v a l id i ty , a s a r e u sed i n t h e n a tu ra l s c ienc e s .
3 0
T he P o s tp roc e s sua l i s t s
e ncou rage t h e m o re r e a l i s t ic v i ew w h ich a s ser t s t h e n ece ss i ty o fu nd e r s tand ing a nd e xp la in ing t h e u nob se rvab le r e la t ion sh ip a nd p roce s se st ha tp roduce w ha ti so b ser ved . F ou r th , t h e a pp roach t o t h e r o le o f ma te r ia l c u l tu r e i n ` P roce s sua l A rchaeo logy ' h a s n o t b een p rope r ly r e cogn i sed . P roce s sua l i s t s h ave r e ga rded e v idence c on s i s t ing o fm a t e r ia l c u l tu re i t em s a s t h ep a s s ive r ema in s o fp a s tb ehav iou r , a nd t h e ma in g oa l s o fa r cha eo log i s t s w e r e t of i nd m e thod s o f t r an s la t ing t h e se s u rv iv ing r ema in s i n to p a s t b ehav iou r .
D e sp i te m any s t ud ie s o n t h e s oc ia l a nd
p hy s ica l p roce s se s r e la t ing p r e sen t ma te r ia l t o t h e p a s t ( e .g . S ch if f e r 1 976 ) , t h e b a s ic r o le o f m a te r ia l c u l tu r e a s t h e p a s s ive r ema in s o ft h e p a s t w a s n o t s e en a s ac r i t ica l p rob lem .
H odde r
( 1 982b ) t h rough h i s e t hnog raph ic s t udy h a s a rgued t h a t m a te r ia l c u l tu r e s hou ld b e s e en a s h av ing s ymbo l ic m ean ing a nd a s a c t ive , c r ea t ing s oc ia l r e la t ion sh ips ; c l o th ing , f o r e xamp le , p er f orm s n o t j u s t af unc t iona l n eed o f p r ov id ing p ro tec t ion a ga in s t t h e e nv i ronmen t , b u t a l so h a s as ymbo l ic m ean ing a nd i sp a r to fa na c t iv es o c ia l s t ra tegy ;t hu st h ee mpha s i s s hou ld b e o nt h em ean ing , n o tt h e f u nc t ion o f ma t e r ia l c u l tu re , a nd t h a tm ean ing w i l l b e s pec if ic t ot h e s o c ia l a nd h i s to r ica l c on tex to f u sage . I nt h i s r e spec tt h e a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd i sn o t ap a s s ive r e f lec t ion o fp a s t b ehav iou r , b u t i t c r ea t e s am ean ingf u l p a r t o fp a s t s o c ia l b ehav iou r . I no rde rt ou nde r s tand i t ,i ti sn ece s sa ry t of i nd w ay so fi n te rp r e t ing t h em ean ing o fp a s tc u l ture s . A n a pp roach t os o lve t h i s p r ob lem c ome s a l so f r om t h e c on t r ibu t ion o fM i l le r a nd T i l ley ( 1 984 ) b y t h e i re mpha s i so nt h ec oncep to fi d eo logy a nd o fs ymbo l ic m ean ing . T hey a r gued t h a f i d eo logy i sa n i mpor tan tp a r t o fs o c ia l r e a l i ty a nd ap a r t o ft h e p r inc ip le s i nt e rm s o fw h ich i n d iv idua l s o rgan i sed t h e i r l i ve s a nd t h e i r a c t ion s a nd t h e ref o re i t b ecome s a n i n teg ra l p a r t o f t h e p a s t w h ich a r cha eo log i s t s s hou ld b e s e ek ing .
I nt h i s m e thodo logy t h ey t r ied t o l i nk t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e
s ymbo l ic m ean ing o f ma t e r ia lc u l tu re w it he xp lana t ion s o fs oc ia lo rgan i sa t ion a nd c hange . H odde r 's c on t ex tua l a pp roach ( 1 986 ,
1 992 ) i s a no the r w ay t o a dd re s s t h i s p rob lem .
H e
d i s t ingu i she s ac on t ex tua lm ean ing f o rm a te r ia l c u l tu re w he re i td e r ive s a tl e a s t p a r t o fi t s m ean ing f r om i t s c on t ex ta nd p r eced ing c on tex t s . I nt h i s a pp roach ( wh ich s e em s t ob e u sef u l i nd ea l ing w i th h i s to r ica l s o c ie t ie s r a the rt h an t h em o re r emo te p a s t ) , H odde ru se s t h ek i nd o fh i s to r ica l e xp lana t ion d e r ived f r om ah i s to r ica l a pp roach . H e r e ga rd s t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd n o t a s e v id ence t o make i n f e rence s b u t a s at e x t w h ich h a s t o b e r e ad .
A n a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd c on ta in s s ome s o r t o f
o b jec t ive a ccoun t o ft h e p a s t , i fw e h ave t h e c o r rec t m ean s o fd ecod ing i t ;w e s hou ld t h ink o ft h e e v id ence o ft h ep a s ta s at e x tt ow h ich a r chaeo log i s t s a sr e ade r s g i ve m ean ing ( Hodde r 1 988 , 1 989a , T i l ley 1 990 ) . I nt h eh i s to r ica l p e r iod , b ecau se o ft h e a va i lab i l i ty o fn on -ma te r ia l f o rm s o fe v idence a ss ou rce s o fm ean ing , r e ad ing s uch ma te r ia l m ay b e p o s s ib le , b u t i si mpo s s ib le f o r r ema in s f r om t h e d i s tan t p a s t . B a r re t t ( 1 988 ) s howed t h e i mpo ss ib i l i ty o ft h i s a pp roach a nd h a s a r gued t ha t w e m ay u nde r s tand h ow t y pe s o fm a te r ia l c u l tu re w e re u sed b y p a s t s o c ie t ie s a nd t h e i r r o le s i ns oc ia l
3 1
r e la t ion sh ip s , b u t w e c anno t g a in ar e a l a cc e s s t ot h e a c tua l m ean ing w h ich p a s t s o c ie t ie s w ou ld h ave a t ta ch ed t ot h e i rm a t e r ia lo b jec t s . F if th , t h e r e a r e d if e r en t v i ew s o f t h e P roc e s sua l i s t s a nd P o s tp roce s sua l i s t s o n t h e c oncep t o f c u l tu r e . A s e a r ly a st h em id t w en t i e s T ay lo r , a n Ame r ican a n th ropo log i s t , p ropo sed ar a d ica l v i ew o fc u l tu r e . H e a r gued t h a tc u l tu r e i s am en ta lp h enomenon c on s i s t ing o ft h e c on t en t s o fm ind s , n o t ma t e r ia lo b jec t s o ro b se rvab le b ehav iou r( Tay lo r 1 948 : 9 6 , s e ea l so D unn e l l 1 986 : 3 6 ) . I nh i s v i ew c u l tu ra l h e r i tage c on s i s t s o fm en ta l c on s t ruc t s , a nd i t s p hy s ica l f o rm i s ap rope r ty o ft h e w o r ld o f p hy s ic s a nd n o to fc u l tu r e . Ma t e r ia l c u l tu r e , a c co rd ing t oT ay lo r , i sn o t c u l tu r e a nd i si nf a c t t wo r emov e s f r om t h e r e a lt h ing : t h e l o cu s o fc u l tu r e i sm en ta l , i d ea s i np eop l e 's m ind s . ' A r t if ac t s a nd a r ch i t ec tu r e a r e t h e r e su l t s o fb ehav iou r , w h ich i t se lf d e r iv e s f r om m en ta l a c t iv i ty .
F o r T ay lo r
c u l tu r e ( t h e f i r s t o rd e r p h enomenon ) i su nob servab le a nd n on -ma t e r ia l ; b ehav iou r ( s e cond o rd e r p h enom enon ) i so b se rvab le b u t n on -ma t e r ia l ; a nd o n ly w i th t h i rd -o rde r p h enomena r e su l t ing f r om b ehav iou r d o w e c om e t oa r t if ac t s , a r ch i t ec tu r e a nd o t h e r m a t e r ia l s m ak ing u p t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . T h i s t h i rd -o rd e r c on s i s t s o n ly o fo b jec t if i ca t ion o fc u l tu r e a nd d oe s n o t c on s t i tu t e s c u l tu r e i t se lf ( Tay lo r 1 948 :1 00 ) . I n 1 962 B inf o rd p ub l i sh ed a n a ccoun to fc u l tu r e q u i t e d if e r en t f r om t h a t o fT ay lo r . F o r B inf o rd , c u l tu r e i s" m an 's e x t ra soma t ic m ean s o fa dap ta t ion" ( B inf o rd 1 962 ) t o s uppo r t h uman i n aw id e r ange o fp hy s ica l e nv i ronm en t s i ns pa c e a nd t im e . F o r B inf o rd c u l tu r e d ocumen t s t h e i n t e rp lay o f c l ima t ic , t o pog raph ic , f l o ra l , f a una l , g eo log ica l , a nd o t h e r n a tu ra l f a c to r s w i th h un t e r -ga the r e r f o rage r s ub s i s tence a nd t e chno logy . B y t h i s d ef in i t ion h e a t ta ck ed t h e t r ad i t iona l a n th ropo log ica l c u l tu r e c on cep t b ecau se i tw a s n o t a pp rop r ia t e t oh i s g oa l s a nd p rac t ice a s a n a r cha eo log i s t .
H e
t e nded t o s how l i t t le i n t e r e s t i nt h e m ean ing s o f a r cha eo log ica l m a t e r ia l s , a nd m en ta l i s t id ea l i s t c oncep to fc u l tu r e . H ev i ew ed a r t if a c t s a nd a s so c ia ted n on -a r t if a c tua le cof a c tua l i n f o rma t ion a st h e e s sen t ia lm ean st oi n t e rp r e tt h ed yn am ic so fp a la eoenv i ronm en ta nd h uman p a la eoeconom i e s . I n c on t ra s t t o B inf o rd , H odd e r b egan w i th t h e m en ta l i s t c on c ep t o f c u l tu r e .
F o r h im c u l tu r e i s
m en ta l ( s ymbo l ic ) m a t e r ia l , s o c ia l b ehav iou ra l a nd t h e r e cu r s iv e r e la t ion s a mong a l t h r ee .
F o r
Hodd e r a r t if ac t s p l ay a n i mpor t an t r o le , a nd c ha ra c t e r i se h uman s o c ia l e ncoun te r s ( Hodd e r 1 991b , 1 991c ) . U n l ik eB inf o rd h ei sn o ti n t e r e s t ed i nt h es ub s i s t ence p a t t e rn s o fp r eh i s to r ic s o c ie t i e s , r a th e r h e i si n t e r e s t ed i nt h e m ean ing s a s soc ia t ed w i th a r t if ac t s a nd t h e r o le w h ich t h ey p l ay i nc omp lex s oc ia l a c t ion s a nd i n t e ra c t ion s . H eb e l i ev e s t h a t s ymbo l s y s t em s a r e w ha t d i s t ingu i sh e s t h e h uman p r ima t e f r om a l l o t h e r s p ec ie s ; s ymbo l s y s t em s i n c lude a nd a r e s haped b y m a t e r ia l o b jec t s a nd a r ch i t ec tu ra lf o rm s ( Hodd e r 1 982b ) .
3 2
I nr e cen ty ea r st h e r eh ave b een a t t emp t sb ys ome s cho la r s , p a r t icu la r ly f r om t h eN or th Ame r ica , t o b u i ld ab r idge b e tween t h eb a s ic t h eme s o ft h e P roce ssua l a nd P o s tp roce s sua l a r chaeo log ica l t h eory a nd p r ac t ice ,t oi mp rov eo u ru nde r s tand ing o ft h ep a s t . R edman i so ne o ft h em , a nd h e b e l ieve s t h a t t h ough b o th a pp roache s a r e o bv iou s ly c omp lemen ta ry , i ti su n l ike ly t h a t t h e r e w i l l b e s i gn if ican t i n t eg ra t ion . H em ake st h e s ugge s t ion t h a ta n i d ea l c omb ina t ion o ft h e b e s t o ft h et wo a pp roache s i s t h eb e s t way w ec an e xpec t , a nd r e commend s t ha t ( 1 991 :304 ) " we e ncou rage s e r iou s s cho la r s t od o w ha tt h ey a r eb e s t a td o ing a nd t oc o -o rd ina te d i ve r se t h ink ing t of o rm al o o se , b u t l a s t ing a l iance f o rn ew k now ledge o ft h ep a s ta nd p r e sen t" . As im i la rd i scu s s ion i nt h i sr e spec tw a sp ub l i shed b yT r igge r( 199 l b ) w ho c ha rac t e r i se s ` P roce s sua l A rchaeo logy ' a sn eo -evo lu t ion i sm a nd e co log ica l d e t e rm in i sm , a nd ` Po s tp roce s sua lA rcha eo logy ' a s d ea l ing t h e p sycho log ica l a nd m en ta l a spec t s o fh uman e xpe r ience .
I nh i s v i ew t h e c onf ron ta t ion
b e tw een t h e t wo i d ea s i si n f a c t t h a t b e tween r e a son a nd c u l tu r e .
H e a r gue s t h a t e co log ica l ,
t e chno log ica l , a nd e conom ic f a c to r s a r e e x ter na l c on s t ra in t s o n h uman b ehav iou r , w h i le c u l tu ra l t r ad i t ion s a r ei n t er na lc on s t ra in t s . B ecau se c u l tu re s a r eh i s to r ica l p henomena , t h e i n nova t ion o fn ew c oncep t s i ss t rong ly a f ec t ed b y e a r l ie r c oncep t s a nd t h e i r h i s tory . T h e b e s t m ean s a r cha eo log i s t s h ave t o g e t a tt h e c u l tu ra l m ean ing s o fh i s to r ica l ly r e la ted a r chaeo log ica l e v id ence i st o d eve lop a d i r ec t h i s to r ica l a pp roach .
O n t h e o t he r h and , h e e ncou rage s a r cha eo log i s t s t o s t udy c u l tu ra l
t r ad i t ion s a s w e l l a s t h e i r i n te ra c t ion s w i th e co log ica l o r o t he r e x te rna l c on s t ra in t s i mpo sed o n h uman b ehav iou r . T h e ref o re h e s yn th e s i se st h e e co log ica l d e t e rm in i sm o f` P roce ssua l A rchaeo logy ' w i th t h ep sycho log ica l ly o r ien t ed P o s tp roce ssua l A rcha eo logy ' . 3 .T he i mpac to ft h e ' New A rchaeo logy ' o nt he a rchaeo logy o fI ran T he d i scu s s ion t h a t f o l low s a im s t oc ha rac te r i se t h e m e thodo log ica l a nd t h eo re t ica l a spec t s o ft h e w o rk c a r r ied o u t b y Am e r ican ' New A rchaeo log i s t s ' i nI r an d u r ing t h e 1 960 s a nd 1 970 s .
T h e
q u e s t ion o fw hy t h i s t r end h a s n o t l e d t o af undamen ta l c hange i nt h e t r ad i t iona l o r ien ta t ion o f I r an ian a rcha eo logy w i l lb ed i scu s sed l a t e ri nt h i s c hap t e r . F i r s t ly a ni mpor tan tp o in ts hou ld b em en t ioned h e re ,t h a tI r an ian a r cha eo logy f r om i t s o r ig in s i nt h e F r ench t r ad i t ion u p t o t h e p r e sen t t im e ( a bou t 1 50 y ea r s ) h a s a lway s b een p ragma t ic , s o t h a t n owhere i nt h el i t e ra tu re c an o n ef i nd ag ene ra l d ef in i t ion o fa r chaeo logy o r ab ody o fa r cha eo log ica l t h eo ry .
T h i s i si ns ha rp c on t ra s tt o Am e r ican a n th ropo log ica l a r cha eo logy w h ich h a s g ene ra ted a
l a rge n umbe ro ft h eo re t ica l w o rk s ( f o rt h eo re t ica l t h eme s o f Ame r ican a r cha eo logy , s e e W i l ley a nd S ab lof f1 974 , 1 980 , 1 993 , B inf o rd 1 977 ) . T he Ame r ican ' New A rchaeo log i s t s ' i n t roduced t h ef o l low ing a pproache st oI r an :
3 3
( a ) am u l t i -d i sc ip l ina ry a pp roa ch ;
( b ) t h e c on s id e ra t ion o f e nv i ronm en ta l f a c to r s ;
( c ) t h e
c on s id e ra t ion o ft h e v a lue s o fe t hnoa rcha eo logy ; ( d ) t h e e mp loym en t o fg ene ra l s y s t em s t h eo ry ( a s y s t em ic v i ew o fc u l tu r e ) w i th i t sq uan t i ta t iv em e thodo logy ; ( e ) t h e c oncep t o fa n e xp l ic i t s c ien t if i c m e thod w i th h ypo th e s i st e s t ing . T h e se w e r et h ef u ndamen ta ld i r ec t ion so ft h e ' New A r cha eo logy ' o f t h e 1 960 s i n Am e r ica (W iley a nd S ab lof f 1 974 : 1 83197 ) a nd a tt h e s am e t ime i nt h e N ea r E a s t ( R edman 1 978 )a nd I r an ( f o rt h ec a se o fI r an , s e et h eb i b l iog raphy c i t ed i nc hap te r 1 ) . I n m e thodo logy t h e i n nova t ion s o ft h e ' New A r chaeo logy ' i nI r an f o l low ed f r om c on t empo ra ry t h eo ry i n Am e r ican a r cha eo logy .
H ow ev e r , b ecau se o f t h e t y p ica l c ha rac t e r i s t ic s o f t h e
a r cha eo log ica l a pp roach o fI r an ian a r cha eo log i s t s ( p ragma t ic r a th e r t h an c oncep tua l ) e mpha s i s o n m e thodo logy p r eva i led o v e r t h e d eve lopm en t o f t h eo ry .
B ef o r e t h e a r r iva l o f
t h e ' N ew
A rcha eo logy ' , t r ad i t iona l e xp lana t ion s o fc u l tu ra l c hange i nI r an w e re b a sed u sua l ly o n ( a cco rd ing t ot h e G h i r shman s c hoo l ) f a c to r s s uch a s a r t , r e l ig ion , p o l i t ic s , h i s to ry a nd t ypo logy . T h e ' New A rcha eo logy ' i nc on t ra s tp l a c ed a ne mpha s i s o nt h e e nv i ronm en t a nd t e chno logy ( s uch a st h e w o rk c a r r ied o u tb yB ra idwood a nd h i s c o l league s i nI r an ian K u rd i s tan , a nd b yH o le a tA l i K o sh ) . T h ey a pp l i ed s oph i s t ica t ed m e thod s o fr e cov e ry a nd s c ien t if ic a na ly s i s .
S uch m e thod s e nab l ed t h em t o
r e cogn i se i mpo r tan te v id ence o fe nv i ronm en ta l a dap ta t ion s , s ub s i s t ence s y s tem s , t r ad e , a nd t h e l i k e . I nt h e i ri n t e rp r e ta t ion o fp roc e s se sb yw h ich h uman s o c ie ty e vo lv ed o v e rt im e ' New A r cha eo log i s t s ' f o cu sed o ne xp lana t ion i n s t ead o fs imp ly d e sc r ip t ion . T h e e nv i ronm en ta l a pp roa ch w i th i t s c onc er n f o r e cof a c t s a nd a r t if a c t s , a nd i t s g oa l s o f r e con s t ruc t ing p a s t c u l tu r e a s p a r t o f t h e e c o sy s t em c onc en t ra t ed o n r e g iona l s u r f a c e s urv ey , e s pec ia l ly s imp le r o n e -pe r iod s i t e s , a nd s e t t l em en t p a t te rn s t ud ie s .
I n e xcava t ion a l a rge mu l t i -
d i sc ip l ina ry s t a ff o fe nv i ronm en ta l a r cha eo log i s t s s uch a s e t hnobo tan i s t s a nd z oo log i s t s a t t emp t ed t o ta l r e cov e ry o ff l o ra l a nd f a una l r ema in s t h rough i mp roved m e thod s o fs i ev ing a nd f l o ta t ion o f e xcava t ed a r ea s i no rd e rt oa na ly se t h ef o od p roduc t ion e conomy ( Ho le e ta l . 1 968 ) . P a lyno log i s t s a t t emp t ed t od e te rm in e t h e d eg r e e o fc l ima t ic c hange ( s ee c hap t e r 4f o r d e ta i led i n f o rma t ion a nd b i b l iog raphy ) .
U rban g eog raph e r s s ough t t h rough ' c en t ra l p l a c e ' a na ly s i s t o e s t ima t e p opu la t ion
s i z e f o rt h e r e g ion a nd t ob u i ld m od e l s o fe xchang e a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o fp roduc t s ( e .g . H .T . Wr igh t 1 975 ) . T h ea pp r ec ia t ion o ft h ev a lue o fe t hnog raphy w a s r e la t iv e ly n ew . Ag ene ra l l a ck o fa n th ropo log ica l t r a in ing h a s p r ev en t ed I r an ian a r cha eo log i s t s f r om e qu ipp ing t h em se lv e s o b se r va t ion s .
f o r , e t hnog raph ic
F u r th e rmo r e , t h e w ea l th o f h i s to r ica l t ex t s l e ad s t h em g en e ra l ly t o c ompa ra t iv e
m e thod s w h ich f o cu s l a rge ly o n ad i r ec t h i s to r ica l a pp roa ch ( s e e F lanne ry 1 967 f o r as im i la r e xp lana t ion ) . T he f i r s t s t ep o fu s ing e t hnog raphy a s at o o l o fa r cha eo logy w a s t aken b yt h e ' New A r cha eo log i s t s ' .
T h e i r s t ud ie s c ompa red m od e l s o f a n th ropo logy a nd p r eh i s to ry w i th a na log ie s
3 4
d rawn f r om t h e s t udy o fm od er ns o c ie t ie s . K rame r ( 1982 ) s t ud ied am oder nv i l lage i n We s t e rn I r an t ou nd e r s tand s oc io -econom ic c hange o ft h er e g ion i nt h ep reh i s tor ic p e r iod . T h e a dop t ion o f g ene ra l s y s t em s t h eory ( a s y s t em ic v i ew o f c u l tu re a nd f o cu s ing a t ten t ion o n v a r iou s s ub sy s t em s b y s t udy ing t h e n a tu r e a nd t h e e x ten t o f a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd a s w e l l a s a r cha eo log ica l p a t t er n ing a s ar e f lec t ion o fh uman b ehav iou r ) h a s n o t b een a sw id e sp read i nI r an a s i th a sb een i nc on t empo ra ry Ame r ican a r cha eo logy . I nm e thod t h i s a pp roach u sed t h et e chn ique s o f s amp l ing , r e t r ieva l t e chn ique s ( n o ted a bov e ) a nd mu l t i -va r ia t e s t a t i s t ica l a na ly s i s ( f o r ag ene ra l d i scu s s ion o n s y s t em s t h eo ry s e e F l anne ry 1 968 , 1 976 ; B inf o rd a nd B inf o rd 1 968 ; .C la rke 1 978 ) . S uch a na ly s i s o n ly b ecom e s f e a s ib le a s c ompu te r s a r e f u l ly a pp l ied t o t h e m an ipu la t ion o f a r cha eo log ica l d a ta . I r an ian a r cha eo logy h a s n o tu sed c ompu te r s e ven s imp ly a s am echan ica l t o o l t o r e co rd b a s ic i n f o rma t ion f r om f i e ld r e co rd s .
T he i n i t ia l c ompu te r p rog ramm ing o f e xcava ted
m a t e r ia l i n c lud ing p o t t e ry a nd o t h e r a r t if ac t s w a s e mp loyed b y L ambe rg -Ka r lov sky a tT epe -Yahya f r om 1 971 , b u t t h e r e h a s b een l i t t le t e s t ing o f r e su l t s a nd n o p ub l i shed r e po r t s o f f u r the r d eve lopmen t s ( Lambe rg -Ka r lov sky a nd B ea le , e d s . , 1 986 , c h . 1 ) . A n e xp l ic i t ly s c ien t if i c m e thod w a s ab a s ic t r end i nt h e c u r ren t Ame r ican o r ien ta t ion .
I ta s sumed
t h a tt h et e s t ing o fg ene ra l " cove r ing l aw s" a nd t h e e xp lana t ion o fc u l tu ra l p a t te rn ing i nt h e s c ien t if ic s e n se s hou ld b e t h e m a jo r o b jec t ive o f a r cha eo logy (Wa t son e ta l . 1 971 ; R enf rew 1 973 ) . v i ewpo in t h a s n o t b een a dop ted b y t h e a r chaeo logy o fI r an .
T h i s
A n i mpor tan t r e a son f o r t h i s f a i lu re
m ay b e t h e h i s to r ica l o r ien ta t ion o fI r an ian r e sea rch t h a t i sn o t a menab le t o s c ien t if i c ( d educ t ive ) m e thod s ( s ee b e low ) .
H ow eve r , t h e g ene ra l i n f luence o ft h i s i d ea i ss e en i nt h e d eve lopmen t o f
r e sea rch d es ign , i nt h e e mpha s i s o fp rob lem s o lv ing s t ra teg ie s , a nd i nt h e t e s t ing o fh ypo the se s t h a t i n c r ea s ing ly c ha rac te r i sed s om e Am e r ican p ro jec t s i nI r an i nt h e 1 970 s . T he se p ro jec t s u sed n a tu ra l s c ience s i n a r ea s s uch a s r a d ioca rbon d a t ing , g eo log ica l a na ly s i s o f s e d imen t s , a nd t h e l i ke , b u t o t h e r c on tempo ra ry s c ien t if i c m e thod s s u ch a s t h e t h e r rno lum ine scence a nd n eu t ron -ac t iva t ion a na ly s i s c apab le o fd a t ing a nd s t udy ing t h e e xac t s ou rce o fc e ram ic s , f o r i n s tance , h ave n eve r b een i n t roduced i n to I r an ian a r cha eo logy . I n s umma ry , i tm ay b e s a id t h a t p e rhap s t h e s i ng le mo s t i mpo r tan t c on t r ibu t ion o f t h e ' New A rcha eo logy ' t o o u r f i e ld i nI r an ,
i st h a t i th a s r a i sed t h e r i gh t q ue s t ion s .
I th a s f o cu sed o n t h e
p o t en t ia l o fa r cha eo logy f o ru nde r s tand ing c u l tu ra l c hange i ng ene ra l , r a the r t h an e mpha s i s ing o n a d i r ec th i s tor ica l a pp roa ch . I th a s a l so b rough tt ol i gh t ma ss o fn ew e v idence f o rt h e e l uc ida t ion o fa s pa t ia l tempo ra l r a nge a nd s ucce s s ion o f m a t e r ia l c u l tu re i n I r an .
D e sp i te t h i s , t h e re a r e s ome
c r i t ica l q ue s t ion s c onc e rn ing t h e m e thodo log ica l a nd t h eo re t ica l a spec t s o ft h i s a pp roach f o r o ne w ho a tt h e e nd o ft h i s c e n tu ry ( af t e r a bou t 2 5 y ea r s a f t e r i t s a pp l ica t ion i n I r an ) r e v iew s t h i s i mpo r tan te n t e rp r i se .
3 5
T h ef i r s tq ue s t ion c onc e rn s t h e ' New A rcha eo logy 's ' u n c r i t ica l a pp l ica t ion o fm e thod d e r iv ed f r om N ew Wo r ld s i t e s t ot h e s t ra t if i ed T e l l s o f I r an ( a nd i nt h e N ea r E a s t i ng ene ra l ) .
I ts hou ld b e
s t r e s sed h e r et h a tm uch o ft h e ' N ew A r cha eo logy ' i n Am e r ica w a s d ev e loped o n s i ng l ep e r iod s i t e s i nt h e a r id S ou thw e s t .
T h e r e t h e s ha l low a nd r e la t iv e ly s imp le d epo s i t s a lowed ar e p r e s en ta t iv e
e xpo su r e , a nd p roduc ed s t ra t i f i ed m a t e r ia l .
I n t e r e s t ing ly , m any o f t h e se s i t e s w e r e s imp ly
a bandon ed r a th e r t h an l o o t ed a nd d e s t roy ed .
T h ey p r e se rv ed i ns i tu al a rge q uan t i ty o fm a t e r ia l
e v en o n t h e l i v ing s u r f a c e s . F i na l ly , t h e c u l tu r e s r e p r e sen t ed t h e r e w e r e r e la t iv e ly r e c en t , s ot h a t e t hnog raph ic a pp roa ch e sw e r ec apab le o fi d en t if y ing r e l evan tb ehav iou ra lp a t t e rn sb e tw e en p a s ta nd p r e sen t . I n d eed , f ew o ft h e se c ond i t ion s a r ep r e sen ta tt h eI r an i an T e l ls i t e s . I ts hou ld b em en t ion ed h e r e t h a t t h e T e l l ( ab a s ic e l em en t o fN ea r E a s t er n a r cha eo logy ) i su n ique a nd r ema in s t h e m o s t d e t e rm ina t iv ef a c to ri ns hap ing a r cha eo log ica lm e thodo log i e s , a nd t h e i ra pp l ica t ion i nt h i sb ran ch o f a r cha eo logy . Wa s t h e ' N ew A r cha eo logy ' a pp l icab le t ol a rg e T e l l s i t e s w i th m o r e c omp lex s t ra t i f ica t ion ? A nd i f s o , w ha t m od if i ca t ion s w e r e n e c e s sa ry ? Wha t i st h e n a tu r e o f t h e a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd i nt h e s t ra t if i ed m ound s o fI r an ? Wha ti sp r e ser v ed a nd w hy ? Wha t i ss i gn if i can t f o rt h e c u l tu ra l p r oc e s s i nt h ef o rma t ion a nd l o ng h i s to ry o fT e l l s? F u r th e rmo r e , i tm u s tb ea s k ed h ow much u sab l em a t e r ia l c an b er e scu ed f r om ab ad ly p r e se r v ed , f r equen t ly d e s t roy ed a nd p oo r ly s t ra t if i ed m ound . H ow c an t h e l o g ica l p rob lem s o fe xp lo r ing , e xcava t ing , a nd r e co rd ing m a t e r ia l t h roughou t s uc c e s s iv e l a y e r s b e s o lv ed ? H ow r e p r e sen ta t iv e i s t h i s m a t e r ia l ? D o e s i tr e f l ec t c u l tu ra l p a t t e rn ing? Mo s t i mpo r t an t ly , i n aT e l le xcava t ion , w ha tc on s t i tu t e s as t a t i s t ica l ly v a l id d a taba se? L loyd s ( 1 963 ) a nd G .E . Wr igh t ( 1 975 ) , a dd r e s sed t h e se q ue s t ion s , b u t t h ey m e t w i th l i t t le u nd e r s tand ing f r om N ew Wo r ld c o l leagu e s ( s e ea l so H o l ea nd H e iz e r 1 973 : 6 -77 ) . T h e a bov e q ue s t ion s w e r e n o t a d equa t e ly a dd r e s sed i nt h e l i t e ra tu r e o ft h e ' New A r cha eo logy ' i n I r an . T h ey a l so h av e n o t b e en s o ugh t b y I r an ian a r cha eo log i s t s , w h ich w a s e spec ia l ly u nf o r tuna t e b ecau se t h e i r r e su l tan t f a i lu r e t oa dap t n ew e r m e thod s c r i t ica l ly , h a s a lway s p r even t ed t h em f r om p r ope rt e s t ing a nd f u r th e re xpe r im en ta t ion . U n r e so lv ed p h i lo soph ica l i s su e s r a i se c e r ta in q u e s t ion s a bou t t h e ' N ew A rcha eo logy ' , s om e o f w h ich w e r em en t ion ed e a r l i e ra tt h eb eg inn ing o ft h i s c hap t e r . Mu ch o ft h ep h i lo sophy o ft h e ' New A r cha eo logy ' i sb a sed o nt h ep o s tu la t e so fp o s i t iv i s tp h i lo soph e r so fs c i en c el i k eH emp e la nd o t h e r s , f o r w hom t h e o b jec t iv e i ss c i en t if i c e xp lana t ion .
T h e u s e o ft h e H ypo th e t ico -deduc t iv e m e thod
( m e thod o ft e s t ing h ypot h e se s ) i sa n a t t emp t t of o rmu la t e g en e ra l c ov e r ing l aw s ( Wa t son 1 991 : 27 ) .
3 6
Many Amer ican a r cha eo log i s t s ( e .g . R edman 1 991) w ou ld i n s i s t t h a t s uch l aw s a r e t h e l e g i t ima te a nd t h e e xc lu s ive g oa l o f a r cha eo logy .
B u t i st h e re a ny c on sen su s a mong p h i lo sophe r s a nd
s c ien t i s t s o nt h en a tu re o fs c ien t if ic r e a son ing? I si ta pp l icab le t oa r chaeo logy e i th e ra sh i s tory o ra s as t udy o f t h e h uman c u l tu ra l p roce s s? I sa r cha eo log ica l i n ve s t iga t ion b y n a tu re a d educ t ive o r i n duc t ive i n qu iry , o rb o th? C an a r cha eo logy b e s c ien t if ic a nd s hou ld i t ? I fs o , w h e r e d oe s t ha t l e ave a l l t h e p rac t i t ione r s o fI r an ian a r chaeo logy f r om t h e e a r ly b eg inn ing s u n t i l t h e p r e sen t? A nd m any o t he rq ue s t ion s . C lea r ly t h e se b a s ic q ue s t ion s m u s tb e a dd re s sed i nI r an ian a r cha eo logy i ft h e ' New A rcha eo logy ' i st oh ave a ni mpo r tan ti mpac tu pon i t . A no the r i s sue i s t h e l a ck o f as i gn if ican t b ody o f g ene ra l a r cha eo log ica l t h eory a t t h e t ime c oncer n ed . D u r ing t h e 1 960 s a nd 1 970 s ' New A rchaeo log i s t s ' a t t emp ted t os o lv et h i s p rob lem i na v a r ie ty o f way s . O ne m a jo rt y pe o fs o lu t ion h a s b een t ot ur nt oo t he r s c ien t if i c d i sc ip l ine s .
S uch
b o r row ing o f t h eory f r om d i sc ip l ine s s uch a s e co logy h a s o f e red a g r ea te r s ucce s s f o r a r cha eo log ica l t h eory b u i ld ing ( much o ft h e w o rk o ft h e ' New A rchaeo log i s t s ' i nI r an a tt h i s t ime i n d ica t e s i t s i n f luence ) . B u ta si mpo r tan ta st h i s a pp roach i s ,i td oe sn o tp rov id et h eu l t ima te a n swe r t ot h e p rob lem o f a r cha eo log ica l t h eo ry ; a s G ume rman a nd P h i l ip s ( 1978 ) h ave p o in ted o u t t h i s a pp roach , i fc on s i s ten t ly a pp l ied , c ou ld l e ad t ot h e l o s s o fa r cha eo logy 's d i sc ip l ina ry i d en t i ty .
B u t
e v en i fs uch i d en t i ty w e r e t ob e r e ta ined , a no the r s e r ious p rob lem r ema in s . I nt h i s r e spec t B inf o rd ( 1 981 :23) h a s c onc luded t h a t " many o t h e r s c ience s may b e c oncer n ed w i th t h e v a r iou s a spec t s o f h uman b ehav iou r , h i s to ry a nd s oc io -cu l tu ra l c hange i n wh ich t h e p henom ena s t ud ied a r e e ven t s , b ehav iou r , o rp a t tern ing i nc ommun ica t ed t h ough t . T h e b a s ic p h enomena w i th w h ich w e w o rk a r e s t a t ic , m a te r ia l , u n t ran s la t ed i n to s ymbo l s o rc l ue s t oh um an t h ough t s . No o t h e r s c ience a dd r e s se s s uch p henomena" . Af u ndamen ta l q ue s t ion w a s , a nd s t i l l i s , w h e the r t h e a r chaeo logy o fI r an s hou ld b e h i s tor ica l ly o r a n th ropo log ica l ly o r ien t ed , o rb o th . Mo s t Am e r ican ' New A rchaeo log i s t s ' b e l ieve t h e s t a t emen t o f W i l ley a nd P h i l ips ( 1 958 : 2 )t h a t " a rcha eo logy i sa n th ropo logy o ri ti sn o th ing" . t h e a r chaeo logy o f I r an i sh i s to ry o r i ti sn o th ing .
O n t h e c on t ra ry
H i s tory a s a n i n duc t ive s c ience i sg ene ra l ly
c onc er n ed w i th c h rono logy , i n d iv idua l e ven t s , a nd a t temp t s t o r e con s truc t h uman h i s to ry , w h i le a r cha eo logy t oday i sg ene ra l i s ing a nd d educ t ive , a nd c oncer n ed w i th t h et ime le s s c hange o fc u l tu ra l p roce s s a nd u n ive r sa l h uman b ehav iou r . A rcha eo logy a t temp t s t oe xp la in s uch c hange t h rough a n e xp l ic i t ly s c ien t if ic a pp roach .
Much o ft h e ' New A rchaeo logy ' i nt h e We s t w en t b eyond g ene ra l
a n th ropo log ica lt h eo ry t ot h e s p ec if ic a dap ta t ion s o ft h e ` P roce s sua l i sf s choo l . Wh i le t o day w e c an o n ly a pp laud t h e n o t ion t h a t a r cha eo logy i sn o t e xc lu s ive ly a n t iqua r ian i sm ; t h ough t h e u l t ima te a im o ft h e a r cha eo logy i st h e f u l le r u nde r s tand ing o fh uman n a tu r e , t h ough t , a nd a c t ion , q ue s t ion s o f s p ec if i c a pp l ica t ion r ema in .
S uch q ue s t ion s m ay i n c lude : d o t h e r e e x i s t u n ive r sa l l aw s g over n ing
3 7
c u l tu ra lc h ang e ? C an h uman b ehav iou rp a s to rp r e sen t , r e a l ly b ee xp la in ed ? I fs o ,t ow ha te x t en td o t h e r ema in s b r ough t t ol i gh t b y a r cha eo logy p r e se r v e a d equa t e e v id enc e f o r t h i s t a sk , a nd w i l l t h e m a t e r ia l i s t ic -d e t e rm in i s t ic s c h em e c on s t i tu t e as a t i sf a c to ry e xp lana to ry f r am ewo rk ( s e e a l so q ue s t ion sr a i sed b y To s tp roc e s sua lA r cha eo logy ' ) . Wha tw en e ed n ow a tt h ev e ry l e a s ti sa na pp l ica t ion o fa n th ropo log ica l a r cha eo logy d r awn l a rg e ly f r om p r eh i s to ry , w h ich m u s t b e e xam in ed a nd a pp l ied b o th c r i t ica l ly a nd s e l e c t iv e ly t o t h e a r cha eo logy o fI r an ( wh ich i sh i s to ry b a sed )b o th o nt h ea r t if a c tua lr ema in sa nd o nt h ea bund an c eo f d ocum en ta ry r e sou r c e sg o ing b a ck 3 000 y ea r s . 4 .T he I r an ian p er spec t ive o nt h eor e t ica l a r cha eo logy D ea l ing w i th t h e h i s to r ica l f o rma t ion o ft h e b ody o f b e l i ef s a nd i d ea s t ha t c on s t i tu t e I r an ian a r cha eo logy r e qu i r e s m uch m o r e e x t en s iv e t r ea tm en t a nd d ocum en ta t ion o f t h e i mpac t o f t h e p o l i t ica l h i s to ry o fI r an o n t h e p o s i t ion o fI r an ian a r cha eo logy .
I tr e qu i r e s a l so a s u r vey o ft h e
d eg r e et ow h i ch d if e r en tg roup s o fi n d iv idua l s a c c ep t ed t h ed om inan t i n t e rp r e ta t ion o ft h e p a s t a nd a ne va lua t ion o ft h er e l iab i l i ty o ft h ed om inan ti d eo logy . B e cau se t h e r eh a sn eve rb e en a na t t emp tt o p rov id e ac r i t ica l e va lua t ion o fa r cha eo logy o fI r an , t h em ech an i sm s o ft h ev a r iou s p o l i t ica l , s o c ia l , a nd e c onom ic f a c to r sc on s t i tu t ing t h ef o rma t ion o fa r cha eo logy a r ec omp le t e ly u nknown . A r cha eo logy i nI r an f r om i t s b eg inn ing h a s a lway s b e en u sed a sa n i d eo log ica l l i nk w i th n a t iona l p a t r io t ic a s p i ra t ion s .
I tw a s at r ad i t ion w h ich n o t o n ly a f e c t ed I r an a nd a l l t h e N ea r E a s t e rn
c oun t r i e s t oh i gh l igh tt h e i r p a s t i no rd e rt oa dd t h e n ec e s sa ry c o lou rt ot h e d om inan t i d eo logy , b u t a l so , a st h ep o s t -Napo leon ic p e r iod h a s w i tn e s sed , am a rk ed i n c r ea se i nn a t iona l i s t ic t r end s b a ck ed b y r oman t ic i sm p r eva i led t h roughou t E u rope a tt h e t i m e ( T r igg e r 1 984 : 3 58 ) .
R en f r ew ( 1 980 )
d i s t ingu i sh ed t h i sg r ea tt r ad i t ion o fa r cha eo logy i nt h e Med i t e r ran ean l a nd s a nd t h eN ea rE a s ta so n e w h ich r e ga rd ed t h ep r in c ip le s o fa r cha eo logy a ss imp l e a nd s e lf e v id en t , a nd a r cha eo logy f o rm s o n e e l em en t i nt h e c ha ra c t e r i sa t ion o f an a t ion ' s c u l tu ra l s up e r io r i ty . T hu s , a r chaeo logy v e ry q u ick ly e n t e r ed i n to t h e s e rv ic e o ft h e g l o r if i ca t ion o ft h e p a s t , a nd av e ry d e f in i t e p a t r io t ic c on t en t w a s i n c lud ed . I nt h eN ea rE a s tt h i si d eo log ica lu s eo ft h ep a s th ad t wo a spec t s : o n ei st h ee n cou rag em en t o fn a t iona l i s t i c f e e l ing s w h ich f o cu sed i n t e r e s t o n a r cha eo log ica l r u in s a nd h i s to ry a nd ac omp l e t e s e to fc u l tu ra lp h enom ena , t h e o t h e r , i sa n a c t iv e i n t e rna t iona l c on c e rn f o rt h e d i scov e ry o fb i b l ica l m onum en t sr e f l e c t ing t h ei n t e r e s to fE u ropean n a r ra t iv e s . A s ac on sequ enc ev e ry l i t t l ea t t en t ion w a s p a id t o a ny o r ig ina l a pp roa ch w h ich m igh t e s cap e t h i s i mpo sed p o s i t ion .
C u l tu ra l h i s to ry a nd
h i s to ry o f a r t b ecam e t h e m a in r e sea r ch g oa l s a nd a tt h e s am e t im e t h e r e w a s n o p a r t icu l a r e n cou rag em en t f o r I r an ian a r cha eo logy t o f o l low c on t empo ra ry We s t er n t h eo r e t ica l o r i en ta t ion . H uman h i s to ry a s ac en t ra li s sue i nc oun t r i e s l i k eE ng l and w i th al e ad ing i n t er na t iona lp o l i t ica l r o l e
3 8
a tt h a tt ime ( T r igge r 1 984 : 3 04 )w a so fn oc once rn t oI r an ian h i s to ry . T he a r cha eo log ica l a spec t s o f t h ed eba t ed i s sue s s uch a st h ei d ea o fp rog re s s o fa r chaeo logy a nd i t s r e la t ion , f o re xamp le , t os oc ia l s t ruc tu r e ( T r igge r 1 989 ) , s o c ia l e vo lu t ion i sm , t h e e nv i ronmen ta l d e te rm in i sm o fR a tz e l ( Ea r le a nd P r euce l 1 987 ) , t h e h i s to r ica l p a r t icu la r i sm o f B oa s ( Ha r r i s 1 968 ) , wh ich w e r e a l o f p a r t icu la r i n t e r e s ta mong s cho la r s a tt h et im e , l ef tt h ea r chaeo logy o fI r an c omp le te ly u naf f ec t ed . O n eo ft h e ma in e f ec t s o na r cha eo log ica lt h ough ti nI r an d ur ing t h ep re -R evo lu t ion p e r iod h a s b een t h e c oun t ry 's p o l i t ica l s i tua t ion u nde r t h e r e g im e h eaded b y t h e P ah lav i D yna s ty ( 1 921 -1978 ) . C er ta in a t t i tude s w e re o r i en t ed b y a u tho r i t ie s w ho b l ocked t h e i n t roduc t ion o f t h eo r ie s a nd t h e d eve lopm en t o fm ode l s o ppo sed t ot h e of i c ia l i d eo logy .
R e la ted t ot h i s p o l i t ica l e nv i ronmen t , t h e
s y s tem o f u n iv e r s i t ie s a nd a r chaeo log ica l c en t re s f avour ed c e r ta in k i nd s o f t r ad i t iona l r e sea rch r a the r t h an t h eo re t ica l i n nova t ion s o fr a t iona l a nd m e thodo log ica l a r chaeo logy .
A rcha eo logy w a s
c l a s s if i ed a mong t h e h uman i t ie s w h ich i s o la ted i t f r om t h e i n f luence s o f n a tu ra l s c ience s . F u r thermo r e , a t at im ew h en t h et r end i no t h e rp a r t s o ft h ew o r ld w a s f o rp reh i s to r ic s t ud ie s t os e ek i n sp i ra t ion f r om a n th ropo logy a nd t h e n a tu ra l s c ience s , t h e s ub jec t o f p reh i s to ry a t t rac ted l i t t le a t ten t ion o rw a s e ven c omp le t e ly i g no r ed .
O the r f a c to r s e ncou rag ing t r ad i t iona l a r cha eo logy h ave
i n c lud ed e conom ic l im i ta t ion s i nt h e f i e ld o fe duca t ion a nd r e sea rch o n t h e p reh i s to r ic p e r iod .
A
p a r t ia l i ty t o s ome f o re ign r e sea rche r s a nd t h e i r f a sh ion s p reven ted t h e g ene s i s o f a n i n d igenou s a l ter na t ive .
A s w e h av e s e en , t h e c oncep t o f t h e ' New A rchaeo logy ' w a s i n t roduced t o t h e
a r cha eo logy o fI r an b yB ra idwood 's i n t e rd i sc ip l ina ry a pp roach w h ich w a s c on t inued b yt h e w o rk o f H o le a nd F lann ery . T h ey a pp l ied t h e i rt h eo r ie s , m e thod s , a nd p rog ramme s t ot h e q uan t i ta t ive ly a nd q ua l i ta t ive ly r i ch a r cha eo log ica l m a te r ia l a va i lab le i nI r an , a nd s o t e s ted t h em a ga in s t t h e t h eo r ie s a nd m e thod s o f p rev iou s t r ad i t ion s , e . g . t e s t ing C h i lde 's h ypo the s i s c once rn ing t h e b eg inn ing o f a g r icu l tu re i nt h eN ea rE a s t ( s ee c hap te r 1f o r d e ta i led d i scu ss ion ) . D e sp i te t h e p r e sence o f ag r ea t n umbe r o f I r an ian a r cha eo log i s t s w o rk ing w i th t h o se t e am s , a nd t h e i r f am i l ia r i ty w i th t h e a pp l ica t ion o fp hy s ica l , c h em ica l , b i o log ica l , a nd m a thema t ica l t e chn ique s , s uch at r ad i t ion d i d n o t t a k e r o o t i nI r an a nd a n t i theo r e t ica l t r ad i t ion s c on t inued t ob e d om inan t .
T he g en e ra l p o s i t ion o f
a r cha eo logy i nt h ec oun t r yt h rough t ime c an b eo u t l in ed a sf o l low ing : ( a ) al a ck o fs u i tab le o r gan i sa t ion a nd r e sea rch s t ruc tu re ; ( b ) al a ck o fa ny c ohe ren tp rog ramme o f r e sea rch ; ( c ) ac omp le t e l a ck o ft h eo re t ica l a nd m e thodo log ica l o r ien ta t ion ; ( d ) t h e d om inance o f t r ad i t iona l a nd d e sc r ip t iv e a r chaeo logy ; ( e ) d ef ic ien t c on s ide ra t ion o fe nv i ronmen ta l f a c to r s ; ( f ) t h e a b sence o fi n te rd i sc ip l ina ry a nd mu l t i -d i sc ip l ina ry s t ud ie s . T he r e a r e an umbe r o fp o s s ib le r e a son s r e spon s ib le f o r t h e n eg lec t o ft h eo re t ica l p henomena i nt h e a r cha eo logy o fI r an , p o s s ib le e xp lana t ion si n c lud e :
3 9
( 1 ) t h e a cad em ic s y s t em o fI r an w a s u n t i l r e c en t ly i s o la t ed a nd a lway s h ad d if i cu l t i e s i nr e n ew ing i t s e lf o ra c c ep t ing i n nova t ion s o fa ny k i nd . A r cha eo log ica l d e pa r tm en t s h av e n o t b e en a f ec t ed b y t h eo r e t ica lc on s id e ra t ion s . A r th i s to r ian sw e r e , a nd s t i l la r e , d om in an ti na l d epa r tmo t s . T h e r ea r e n o c ou r se s e mpha s i s ing g en e ra l i sed a pp roa ch e s , o rt h e t e a ch in g o ft h e m e thodo logy , e p i s t emo logy a nd p h i lo sophy o fa r cha eo logy , a s w e l l a s e nv i ronm en ta l a r cha eo logy , c ompu t ing o r q uan t i ta t iv e m e thod s .
I ng en e ra l , a r cha eo log ica l c ou r se s d o n o t r e f lec t t h e m a jo r a dvanc e s i na r cha eo log ica l
k now l edg e o rm e thod s , a nd t h ey d o n o t c on s id e r e x cava t ion t e chn ique s a nd s om e b a s ic c onc ep t s s u ch a st y po logy a nd s t ra t ig raphy .
I ti st y p ica l t h a t u n iv e r s i ty t e x tbook s w h ich r e f e r t om od er n
a r cha eo log ica ll i t e ra tu r eh av en o ta ppea r ed i nI r an , a nd s t i l lm ak en os pec if i cm en t ion o ft h ew o rk o f t h ep i on e e r ing a r cha eo log i s t s . T h e a t t i tud e s o ft h e l e ad ing a r cha eo log i s t s a sw e l l a st h e i rw o rk a r e c omp l e t e ly u nknown t h rough a cad em ic t r a in ing c ou r se s . T h e i n ad equacy o ft r a in ing p rog ramm e s a l ong w i th t h e l i m i t ed e mp loym en t o f p rof e s s iona l a r cha eo log i s t s i nt h e a r cha eo log ica l s e rv ic e s p r ev en tt h ei n f u s ion o fn ew i d ea s i n to t h ep rof e s s ion . F u r th e rmo r e , a s Ih av em en t ion ed e a r l ie r( s e e a l so c hap t e r s 6f r om a d if e r en t p e r spe c t iv e ) t h e i d eo log ica l a nd n a t iona l i s t ic c ha ra c t e r o f t h e d i sc ip l in e i nI r an o f e r s p e rhap s am uch m o r e a cc ep tab le e xp lana t ion f o rt h e u nd e rd ev e lopm en t o f t h eo r e t ica l a r cha eo logy i nI r an .
S e le c t ing b e tw e en c hang ing p a rad igm s w a s n ev e r aq ue s t ion o f
a cad em ic c ho ic e a nd a r cha eo log i s t s f r om t h e i r l i m i t ed s o c ia l p o s i t ion h av e al i m i t ed p o t en t ia l f o r a f e c t ing t h i sh i s to r ica l ly f o rm ed i d eo log ica ls t ruc tu r e ; ( 2 )o r g an i sa t iona lf a c to r s ;t h i s i s am a jo rg en e ra l d r awba ck o fa r cha eo logy i nI r an . T h e d i v i s ion o f t h e a r cha eo log ica l c ommun i ty i n to t wo s e pa ra t e b r an ch e s , CHO a nd u n iv e r s i t ie s , w i thou t a ny c ommon p l a tf o rm f o rd i scu s s ion a nd e x chang eo fi d ea s ; ( 3 ) t h e s p ec if i c c onc en t ra t ion o f I r an i an a r cha eo log i s t s o n h ug e e xcava t ion p ro jec t s m a in ly i n r e la t ion t o S t a t e a sp i ra t ion s .
T h e se e no rmou s p ro jec t s h av e a lway s d i v e r t ed a r cha eo log i s t s '
a t t en t ion f r om t h et h eo r e t ica lq ue s t ion s ( n ow a sb ef o r e ,t h e r ea r ee x t en s iv ep ro jec t sb e ing u nd e r tak en b u tn op r io r i ty i sg i v en t oa r cha eo log ica lf i e ld r e sea r ch a nd t h eo r e t ica li s sue s ) ; ( 4 ) t h e t h eo r e t ica l d i scu s s ion s i na r cha eo logy h av e m a in ly b e en d ev e loped b y s c ho la r s c onc e rn ed w i th t h e p r eh i s to r ic p e r iod . I nI r an , i nt h e a b sen c e o fa ny c on sc iou st e nd en cy b y a r cha eo log i s t s t o s t udy t h i s p e r iod , t h et h eo r e t ica l d eba t e s f o cu s ing o n q ue s t ion s a bou tt h en a tu r e o fe xp lana t ion a nd t h ee xp l ana t ion o ft h ep roc e s se s o fs o c ia lc h ang eh av eb e en c omp l e t e ly i g no r ed . O nt h eo t h e rh and , t h e a r cha eo log i s t s o f t h e h i s to r ica l p e r iod a r e m o r e i n t e r e s t ed i n t h e h i s to r ica l ly d ocum en t ed m a t e r ia l s , a nd d on o tf e e ls u ch c on c er n st ob er e l evan tt ot h e i rf i e ld ; ( 5 ) i tc an b e a r gu ed t h a t t h e w ea l th o fd a ta a nd a va i lab i l i ty o fa r cha eo log ica l m a t e r ia l m ay b e r e spon s ib l e f o r t h e l i m i ta t ion o ft h eo r e t ica l t h ink ing i nI r an . E v e rywh e r e ag r ea t n umbe r o ff i nd s
4 0
a ppea r . U n l ike s ome c oun t r ie s ( e .g . Ame r ica ) w he re al a ck o fa r cha eo log ica l f i nd s c an r e su l t i na m a jo r t h eo re t ica l d eve lopm en t , i nI r an a r cha eo log i s t s h ave b een u sua l ly mo re i n c l ined t o b ecome a n t iqua r ian s a nd a r th i s to r ian s ; ( 6 ) t h e i s o la t ion o f I r an ian a r chaeo logy f r om t h e e x t e rna l i nf luence s i n t h e b o th p r e a nd p o s t R evo lu t ion p e r iod s c an b e am a jo r r e a son f o r t h e l a ck o ft h eo re t ica l c on s ide ra t ion i na r cha eo logy . T h i s p rob lem w a s i n c rea sed u nde r t h e p o l i t ica l a nd e conom ic c r i s i s o f t h e c oun t ry a f t e r t h e R evo lu t ion wh ich made a cce ss t o n ew l i t e ra tu r e a nd a r chaeo log ica l s c ience s m o re d if i cu l t a nd s om e t ime s i mpo ss ib le . A no the r r e a son i st h e d i ff i cu l ty m any I r an ian s t uden t s o fa r cha eo logy h ave i nr e ad ing c omp l ica ted E ng l i sh t h eo r e t ica l t e x t s w i th a ny c e r ta in ty o fu nde r s tand ing t h em p rope r ly . I ts h ou ld b e m en t ioned h e r e t h a t t h e i mpo r t an t t h eo r e t ica l w o rk s s uch a s t h o se b y t h e ' New A rcha eo log i s t s ' i n Ame r ica o r b y C la rke i n B r i ta in h ave n eve r b een t r an s la ted i n to t h e I r an ian l a nguage , o r s e r iou s ly a nd c r i t ica l ly p r e sen t ed a nd d i scu s sed i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l l i t e ra tu r e .
T he
r e cen tP o s tproce s sua lt r end s i nB r i t i sh t h eo r e t ica ld eba t ea r e a l so c omp le te ly u nknown , a nd F em in i s t a nd G ende r p e r spec t ive s h av e n o t y e t f ound t h e i r w ay i n to a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch a nd p ub l ica t ion i nt h i s c oun t ry ; ( 7 ) a s i th a s b een s ugge s t ed , s ome i d eo log ie s s u ch a s Ma rx i sm h ave p l ayed a n i mpo r tan t r o le i n g en e ra t ing t h eo re t ica l d i scu s s ion s i na r cha eo logy ( e .g . H odde r 1 991) .
Marx i sm i nI r an h a s n eve r
b een a ne f ec t ive a l ter na t iv et ot h ed om inan ti d eo logy e s pec ia l ly a t ap ub l ic l e v e l ( b ecau se o fd eep ly h e ld I s lam ic b e l ief s ) , a l though i t s i n f luence s o n a cadem ic a pp roache s m ay b e c on s ide rab le .
Af t e r
t h e S econd Wo r ld Wa r t h e C ommun i s t P a r ty , l o ya l t oR u ss ian p o l i t ica l a nd i d eo log ica l s t ra teg ie s , f o rm ed am ino r i ty g roup . A n a wa r ene s s o f Ma rx i sm i ns oc ie ty a nd i ns c ience h a s b een a dvoca ted b yi n t e l lec tua l s i nt h e r e a lm s o fs oc io logy , b u tn o t i na r chaeo logy . Among al a rge r ange o f Ma rx i s t l i t e ra tu re wh ich h a s b een t r an s la ted i n to t h eI r an ian l a nguage , o n ly o ne w o rk o fC h i 1de ( Man Make s H im se l f )h a s b een t r an s la t ed a nd p ub l i shed . I ti sf o rt h e se r e a son st ha ta r chaeo logy i st r ea t ed w i th in ah i s tor ica l f r am ewo rk l e ad ing t oe s sen t ia l ly d e sc r ip t ive r e sea rch .
As u rvey o fI r an ian a r cha eo log ica l j ourna l s p ub l i shed s i nce 1 965 ( A r t a nd
P ub l ic ; A rcha eo logy ; J our na l o fH i s to r ica l S tud ie s ) a nd t wo i mpor tan tj our na l s p ub l i shed s i nce t h e R evo lu t ion ( A tha r ; J our na l o fI r an ian A rchaeo logy a nd H i s tory ) s how s t h a t a l l a r t ic le s a r e m e re ly d e sc r ip t ive ( r epor t s o fa r cha eo log ica l m a t e r ia l r e cove r ed f r om e xcava t ion s , o r s t ud ie s o fc o l lec t ion s o ri n d iv idua lo b jec t s ) , w i th n oa t t emp ta tw iden ing t h ea na ly s i s b eyond af ew t ypo log ica l s e r ie s . T he a r t ic le s r e por t ing e xcava t ion s how at o ta l l a ck o ft h eo re t ica l c on s id e ra t ion . T h e c u l tu ra l h i s to r ica l v i ewpo in t s
( t he i n te rp re ta t ion o f a r cha eo log ica l d a ta w i th in a h i s to r ica l
o r c u l tu r e -h i s tory
f r amework ) m ean s t ha t a r chaeo logy i st r ad i t iona l ly u sed t oi lu s t ra t e h i s to r ica l r e sea rch o n a nc ien t
4 1
I r an ian c u l tu r e s , c on f in ing a r cha eo log ica l r e sea r ch t o e s tab l i sh ing c h rono log ie s , o r d ef in ing t y po log ica la nd s t y l i s t ic v a r ia t ion s . S om e t im e s as ma l lm ov em en tt owa rd s t h e n ew i d ea s i na r cha eo logy h a s b een s t a r t ed b y am ino r i ty g r oup w h ich i sa c t iv e a nd i n f lu en t ia l w h e r ev e r t h e y oung e r g en e ra t ion h a s a t ta in ed p o s t s o f r e spon s ib i l i ty a sr e sea rch e r s o rl e c tu r e r s . T h e i r i n i t ia l i n t e r e s th a s b e en l e s s t owa rd s a dap t iv e a nd e vo lu t iona l t h eo r i e s a nd m o r e t owa rd s s c i en t if i c m e thod s .
T hu s , o n e c anno t t a lk o f t h eo r e t ica l
d eba t ei nI r an , o ro ft h ed ev e lopm en to fi d ea st h rough p ropo s i t ion s , c r i t iqu e s , a nd r e p l i e s ; a tl e a s ti t d o e s n o ta pp ea ri nt h ep ub l i sh ed r e co rd . T h e r e a son s f o rt h i s s i tua t ion r e la t et ot h e n on th eo r e t ica l s t ruc tu r eo ft h eI r an i an a r cha eo logy , t h ep o l i t ica l a nd i d eo log ica l c ond i t ion s o fs oc i e ty , a nd t h el a ck o f ag en e ra l a wa r en e s s i nu nd e r s t and ing t h e p o t en t ia l o ft h eo r e t ica l t h ink ing i nt h e d ev e lopm en t o f a r cha eo logy .
T h i s b r i ef d i scu s s ion s how s t h a t t h e l a ck o ft h eo ry i nI r an ian a r cha eo logy i sn o t
s imp ly t h e r e su l t o ft h e i s o la t ion o fI r an f r om t h e c e n t r e s o ft h eo r e t ica l i n nova t ion s ; i ti sa l so t h e r e su l to fh i s to r ica lp roc e s se s t h a tf r om a ne a r ly d a t et i ed t h e r e con s t ruc t ion o ft h ep a s tt o as p e c if i c p o l i t ica l i d ea . Wha t c an b e s a id f r om t h i s d i scu s s ion i st h a t t h e w o rk a r cha eo log i s t s d o i nI r an i s g en e ra l ly i d en t if i ed w i th p o l i t ica l i d eo log ica l p u rpo se s , d eny ing a r cha eo logy a s ad i sc ip l in e , i t sr e a l e xp lana to ry p o t en t ia la nd o fi t sa b i l i ty t om ak e ac on t r ibu t ion t os o c ia ld ev e lopm en t s . I tw i l lb eo n ly w i th in t h i s s o c ia l c on t ex t t h a t o n e c an e nv i sag e ar e a c t ion a ga in s t t h e t r ad i t iona l p a rad igm s a nd o v e rcom et h el a ck o fi n f lu en c eo ft h e ' New A rcha eo logy ' i nI r an . 5 .T he c u l ture h i s tory p a rad igm i nI ran ian a r cha eo logy I n I r an ian a r cha eo logy , t h e m a in a r ea s o f i n t e r e s t h av e a lway s b e en c h rono logy , t y po logy , a nd c u l tu ra l h i s to ry , f o rt h e p u rpo se o fe s tab l i sh ing t h e c on t inu i ty o fI r an ian h i s to ry , a nd t h e o r ig in s o f e t hn ic g r oup s , a nd t h e i r c u l tu r e , a nd t h e d ef in i t ion o ft h e i n f luen c e s a nd c on tac t s b e tw e en t h em . Wh i l e s u ch c on s id e ra t ion s h av e at h eo r e t ica lb a s i s , t h et h eo ry i sc omp l e t e ly t a c i t . I nt h i s p a rad igm d i scu s s ion a bou tm e thodo log ica l q u e s t ion s i sg en e ra l ly c on c e rn ed w i th t r ad i t iona l p r9b l em s s u ch a s t h e n a tu r e o ft y po log i ca l c hang e , t h e d ef in i t ion o ft r ad i t iona l a r cha eo log ica l e n t i t i e s ( e .g . c u l tu r e g roup s ) , a nd t h e r e con s t ruc t ion o fr e la t iv e s e qu en c e s . A r cha eo log i s t s i nI r an s t i l l c on t inu et ow o rk w i th in t h i s p a rad igm , e v en t ot h e p r e sen td ay . T h ey a r e i nf a c t a n t iqua r ian s , r e p r e sen ta t ive s o fa n a r cha eo logy w h ich e mpha s i se s ad i r ec t a pp roa ch t o o b jec t s , a nd a na ly se s o f m onum en t s o u t s id e t h e i r c on t ex t s .
T h ey w e r e , a nd a r e s t i l l , n o t g en e ra l ly i n t e r e s t ed i n e cof ac t s a nd t h e n a tu ra l
p rope r t i e s o fa r t if a c tua l e n t i t ie s .
T hough t h e r a d ioca rbon d a t ing m e thod w a s e x t en s iv e ly u sed i n
I r an b y f o r e ign e xped i t ion s , i ti sr a r e ly u sed b y I r an i an s f o r s u ch p u rpo se s .
Y e t t h e m e thod s o f
p robab i l i s t ic s amp l ing a nd p l ann ing o fe x cava t ion a sw e l l a su s ing s c i en t if i c p ro spe c t ing m e thod s ( e .g . g eoch em ica l a nd g eophy s ica l ) h av e n o t t a k en r o o t i n I r an ian a r cha eo logy .
4 2
U nd e r s u ch
c i rcum s tance s I r an ian a r cha eo logy h a s m i s sed o ppo r tun i t ie s f o r a pp ly ing n ew m e thodo log ie s b y w h ich n ew q ue s t ion sm ay a r i se a nd h e lp t ou nd e rm in et h ec u l tu r eh i s to r ica lp a rad igm . O f t h e m any f o r e ign a r cha eo log i s t s w ho h av e w o rk ed i n I r an b e tw een t h e t wo Wo r ld Wa r s , G h i r shm an , aF r ench a r cha eo log i s t w ho c a r r i ed o u t al a rg e n umbe r o fe x cava t ion s t h roughou t t h e c oun t ry ,h a sh ad ac on s id e rab le i mpa c to nI r an ian h i s to ry ( Gh i r shman 1 954 ) . H ew i sh ed t ot ur nt h e s t udy o fm onum en t s i n to as p ec if ic m ean s o fa cqu i r ing k now ledge a bou tt h e p a s t , a nd t oe s tab l i sh s t y l i s t ic r u le s w h ich w ou ld p e rm i t e a ch o b jec t t o b e a t t r ibu t ed t o ap e r iod a nd t o ap l a c e . p ub l ica t ion s c oncen t ra t e p r ima r i ly o n a e s th e t ic i n t e rp r e ta t ion s o f a n t iqu i t ie s .
H i s
H i s t h eo re t ica l
a pp roach d i d n o t s imp ly s t op a t d i f f u s ion i s t i n t e rp r e ta t ion s t o e xp la in t h e " I ndo I ran ian" p h enom enon ( ap r im e i n t e r e s to ft h eI r an ian C ou r t ) b u tt r i ed t od emon s t ra t et h e s upe r io r i ty o ft h e i r c i v i l i sa t ion s i n c on t ra s t t o i n d igenou s c u l tu r e s ( s e e d i scu s s ion i n c hap te r 1 ,u nd e r ' h i s to r ica l a r cha eo logy i nI r an ' a nd r e l evan tb i b l iog raphy ) . T h et y po log ica l m e thod i nt h e a n t iqua r ian s choo l o fG h i r shman w a s b a sed o n s e v e ra l f u nd amen ta l a s sump t ion s : ( a ) d i s t inc t ive a r t if ac tt y pe s m ay b e u sed t oi d en t if y c u l tu r e s ; ( b ) t h e d i s t r ibu t ion s o fs u ch a r t if ac t t y pe s r e f lec t c u l tu ra l d oma in s ; ( c ) c u l tu ra l d oma in s r e f le c tt h e p r e sence o ft r iba l o r e t hn ic g roup s . H ed i s t ingu i sh ed m any t y pe so fd i s t inc t iv ea r t if a c t s a sc ha ra c t e r i s t ic o fc u l tu r e st h roughou tI r an a nd d i v id ed t h em i n to i n d igenou sa nd i n vad e rc a t ego r i e s . H i sm od e ld i dn o tt r yt oe qua t e l a nguage s a nd e t hn ic g r oup sw i th s pec if i ca r cha eo log ica l c u l tu r eg r oup s o re ven w i th i n d iv idua lt y pe s o fa r t if ac t s . Wha th ea t t emp t ed w a st oi d en t if y , o nt h eb a s i s o f ad e ta i led k now ledge o ft h ep a s tc u l tu r e s , p e r iod s o fc on t inuou s d ev e lopm en t a nd p e r iod s o f d i scon t inu i ty .
T h i s s choo l a nd i t s I r an ian f o l low e r s ,
h ow ev e r , m ad e m any a t t emp t s a ts o lv ing p a r t icu la rp r ob lem s w i th in t h e ' I ndo I r an ian ' q ue s t ion b y c onc en t ra t ing o n t h e o r ig in s a nd l a t e r d i sp lac em en t s o fv a r iou s t r ibe s .
S o lu t ion s p ropo sed w e r e
m o s t ly b a sed o nt h e c on s id e ra t ion o fa r t s t y le s , r e l ig iou s b e l ief ( ma in ly g rave r i tua l s ) , a nd a r t if a c t t y po logy . T h ea r cha eo log ica li n t e rp r e ta t ion o ft h i ss c hoo li nt e rm so fd if u s ion a nd m ig ra t ion , s e em s t ob e d e r ived t o s om e e x t en t f r om K o s s inna 's a pp roa ch w h ich a f t e r t h e F i r s t Wo r ld Wa r h ad a p r of ound i n f luence o nG e rman a r cha eo logy ( T r igge r 1 9 89 : 1 63167 ) . A ni mpo r tan tq ue s t ion h e r ei st h ed if e r ence si nt h ea r cha eo log ica lm a t e r ia lb e twe en v a r iou st y pe s o f g r av eg ood s , a nd t h e i rp o s s ib le a s soc ia t ion s w i th d if e r en tp opu la t ion g roup s ( e .g . t h e i d en t if i ca t ion o fs o c ia l s t ra ta a nd g roup s ) . Q ue s t ion s o ft h i st y pe a r eb a sed o n s pec if i c a r t if ac tt y pe s , a nd o nt h e d ef in i t ion o fs ymbo l s , r a nk , a nd p ow e r i n ag i v en p e r iod . S uch a na ly se s n eve r q ue s t ion ed w h e th e r m a t e r ia l c u l tu r e i ss u i tab le f o r r e con s t ruc t ing s o c ia l s t ra t if i ca t ion . A rcha eo logy i nI r an h a s a lway s a t t emp t ed t oc l a r if y s o c ia l q u e s t ion s o n t h e b a s i s o ft h e a r cha eo log ica l m a t e r ia l ( e .g . i n t e rp r e t ing
4 3
s o c ia lp o s i t ion i n ag i v en p e r iod a cco rd ing t od a ta o ni n sc r ip t ion s )r a th e rt h an ad e ta i l ed e xam ina t ion o ft h ee n t i r em a t e r ia lc u l tu r e . D e sp i t e ar e c en tr e a s s e s sm en t ( e .g . R enf r ew 1 987 ) o ft h e ' I ndo -Eu ropean ' q ue s t ion w h ich s ugg e s t s t h a tt h e s o lu t ion t ot h i s q u e s t ion i sc e r ta in ly n o tt ob e f o und i na r cha eo logy a l on e , b u t w i l l r e qu i r e c o l labo ra t ion b e tw e en a r cha eo log i s t s , l i ngu i s t s , e t hno log i s t s , a nd m y tho log i s t s t o d ev e lop n ew t h eo r e t ica l m od e l s , t h eb i a s i nf a vou r o fd i f f u s ion i sm i ss t i l l e v id en t i nt h e p r e sen t d ay a r cha eo logy o fI r an . T h e c u l tu r e -h i s to ry p a rad igm h a s c on t inu ed w i thou t a ny c han g e i na l f i e ld s o fa r cha eo logy u n t i l r e c en t ly . N eo l i th ic a r cha eo logy w h ich w a s o r i en t ed b y B ra idwood t ot h e n ew i d ea s o ft h e e a r ly 1 9 60 s ,h a sr e v e r t ed t ot r ad i t iona lw ay s . I r an ian a r cha eo log i s t s o ft h eN eo l i th ic p e r iod a r eo f t en w e l l a wa r e o f t h e w o rk d on e b y H o le a nd F l ann e ry , b u t t h e i r o wn p ro jec t s a r e c a r r i ed o u t w i th a m in imum o ft h eo ry o rm o r e o f t en n ot h eo ry a ta l . O th e rf i e ld s o fa r cha eo logy s uch a st h e B ron z e A g e a nd I r on A g e h av e c on t inued i nt h e s am e w ay a s l a id d own b y t h e G h i r s lunan a n t iqua r ian s c hoo l ( s e e b i b l iog raphy i n c hap t e r 1 ) .
S om e o f t h e r e su l t s a r e t h e p u r su i t o f t y po logy a nd
c h rono logy a sa ne nd i ni t s e lf , a nd a no v e r empha s i s o nt h er i ch b u r ia l s . T h e r e i sn om od e lb u i ld ing o rt h eo r e t ica l i n t e rp r e ta t ion i nt h i s f i e ld .
P ro toh i s to r ic a r cha eo logy h a s i t s s ha r e o f t r ad i t iona l
a n t iqua r ian a pp roa ch e s , b u t o n t h e w ho l e i tp r e sen t s av a r i ed p i c tu r e . Much o ft h i s i sd ue t ot h e i n f lu en c e s o f s c ho la r s s uch a s D y son a nd Y oung , w ho s t a r t ed w id e r a ng ing p ro je c t s i n vo lv ing p r o toh i s to r ic a r cha eo logy i nI r an d u r ing t h e 1 960 s a nd 1 970 s . T h ey p roduced ac u l tu ra l h i s to r i ca l i n t e rp r e ta t ion o f c h rono log ica l a nd s pa t ia l p a t t e rn s o f a r t if a c t s d i scov e r ed ( s e e c ' hap t e r 1 ,f o r b i b l iog raphy ) .
F rom a t h eo r e t ica l p o in t o f v i ew , D y son ' s s o c io -po l i t ica l i n t e rp r e ta t ion s o f
p r o toh i s to r i c p a t t e rn s i nN o r th er nI r an , w e r e m o r e i mpo r tan tb e cau se h e t r i ed t ou se h i s to r ica l a nd a n th ropo log ica l c on c ep t s t o o v e r com e t h e l i m i ta t ion s o f t h e t r ad i t iona l
d ef in i t ion
o f a n
a r cha eo log ica lc u l tu r e . S uch a t t emp t sh av en ev e rb een c on t inued a f t e rt h ey l e f tI r an . H i s to r ica l a nd I s lam ic a r cha eo logy h av e c l o se l i nk s w i th h i s to r ica l , l i ngu i s t ic a nd d ocum en t ed s u b je c t s .
T h ey p r e sen t af r agm en t ed p i c tu r e w h ich m ak e s i td if i cu l t t o s p eak o f h i s to r ica l o r
I s lam i c a r cha eo logy .
T h e se f i e ld s o fa r cha eo logy w e r e , a nd s t i l l a r e , d om ina t ed b y a r t -h i s to r i ca l
a pp roa ch e s , w h i ch s e tt h em a pa r t f r om a l o t h e rb ranch e s o fa r cha eo logy . Ap rob lem o fh i s to r i ca l s t ud i e s i st h e u n c r i t ica l u s e o fh i s to r ica l a nd w r i t t en s ou r c e s f o r t h e i n t e rp r e ta t ion s o f e v id en c e . B o th f i e ld sa r ec on c e rn ed w i th t h em a t e r ia lr ema in so ft h ef u l lh i s to r ica lp e r iod . A l so t h e r eh a s b e en n o d ev e lopm en t o f a pp roa ch e s t o a n a na ly s i s o r i n t e rp r e ta t ion o f e v id enc e , o r t h eo r ie s o r m e thodo logy t oo v e r com e t h e l im i ta t ion s o ft h e d if e r en t t y pe s o f e v id en c e a va i lab l e .
H i s to r i ca l
a r cha eo logy i n I r an s e em s t o b e m o r e c on se rva t iv e ; i t s m a in f o cu s h a s a lway s b e en o n t h e
4 4
s oph i s t ica t ed p a lace s a nd a r ch i t ec tu ra l r ema in s a nd h a s n eg lec t ed t h e p eop le w ho l i ved a r ound s uch a r ea s . I n g ene ra l , h i s to r ica l a r cha eo logy i n I r an i ss e en a s s ubs id ia ry t o h i s tory , a nd d e sc r ip t ion s a r e w r i t t en w i th in a f r amewo rk o fh i s to r ica l c on t ex t .
S ome p roduc t iv e r e sea rch s t ra teg ie s h ave b een
c onduc t ed i nt h i s f i e ld , s uch a s Wh i tehou se 's e xcava t ion a tS i raf ( s ee c hap te r 1 ) , f o r e xamp le .
A t
t h et im et h e se w e r e s ome th ing o f ar e ac t ion t ot h e a r ch i tec tu ra l a nd a r t h i s to r ica l a pp roache s t ot h e s u rv iv ing ma te r ia l o ft h e h i s to r ica l p e r iod , t o t h e e xc lu s ion o f o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd . T he i ri mpac to nI r an ian a r chaeo log ica l a pp roache s s e em st oh ave b een n eg l ig ib le , a nd t h e r e h a s n o b een c on t inua t ion o ft h i s a r ea o fa r chaeo log ica l i n t e re s t .
F ina l ly , t h e s t a temen t o fC la rke
( 1 972 : 1 8 ) t ha t t h e h i s to r ica l p e r iod s c ou ld of e r a n i mpo r tan t t e s t ing g round f o r t h eo r ie s o f i n t e rp r e ta t ion , s i nce a r chaeo log ica l d a ta c ou ld b e s e t a l ong s ide i n dependen t s ou rce s o fi n f o rma t ion , h a sn eve rb een c on s ide red b yI r an ian h i s to r ica la r cha eo log i s t s . 6 .C onc lu s ion s a nd P ro spec t s T he re a r e many p o s s ib i l i t ie s f o r d eve lop ing ar ad ica l d i scou r se ; e conom ic p r io r i t ie s s t i l l l e ad mo s t a r cha eo log ica l a c t iv i t ie s ; a l though I r an h a s i mpo r tan t e co log ica l p rob lem s , e nv i ronmen ta l s t ud ie s a r e s t i l l d e sc r ip t ive i na pp roach , a nd n o s o c io -econom ic e co log ica l p e r spec t ive h a s b een d eve loped ; t h e c u l tu ra l h e r i tage a nd t h e p rob lem o f w ha t t o d o w i th i t , h a s n o t b een c on s id e r ed f r om a a l t er n a t ive p o s i t ion ; n e i the r h a s ap rog ramm e o ft h e r o le o f a r cha eo logy i ne duca t ion .
Af t e r t h e
R evo lu t ion t h e re h a s b een a ni n c r ea se i nt h en umbe r o fe xcava t ion s , b u tt h e r e su l t s a nd t h e s pec if i c p roce s s o fr e sea rch r ema in u nd e r t h e c on t ro l o ft r ad i t iona l a r cha eo log i s t s .
Mo s t i mpo r tan t ly , o ne
s hou ld m en t ion t h e a b sence o f c ommun ica t ion b e tween a r chaeo logy a nd t h e r e s t o f s oc ie ty ; a r cha eo logy h a sn or o le i nt h es o c ia l , e conom ic , a nd p o l i t ica l d eba te s i ns oc ie ty . T he a r cha eo log ica l c ommun i ty g ene ra l ly r ema in s m o r e i n t e re s t ed i n t h e ma in tenance o f i t s i s o la ted e l i t i s t p o s i t ion , r a th e rt h an of e r ing ac r i t ica lv i ew o ft h ep a s ti nr e la t ion t ot h ep r e sen t . T h er emedy f o rt h ea r chaeo logy o fI r an s hou ld b e c on s ide red i nt wo d i rec t ion s ; f i r s t , u pg rad ing f i e ld m e thod s a sa l ready m en t ion ed . I ti s af a c tt h a t I r an ian a r cha eo logy h a s n o t e xpe r ienced e a ch o ft h e f o u r c ompe t ing p a rad igm s o r a pp roach e s t h a t C la rk e s aw i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l s c en e o f 1 972 ( C la rke 1 972 : 4 3 ) . T h ey h ave i n c lud ed t h e m orpho log ica l , t h e a n th ropo log ica l , t h e e co log ica l , a nd t h e g eog raph ica l p a rad igm s .
S ome a spec t s o fs uch p a rad igm s w e re b rough t t o I r an b y t h e ' New
A r cha eo logy ' b u t c au sed n o c hange s i nt h e t h ink ing o f I r an ian a r chaeo log i s t s . a r cha eo log i s t s
s hou ld
b e
e xpand ing
t h e
a pp l ica t ion
o f s c ien t if ic
c onc en t ra t ing o n t h e r e covery o f o b jec t s a nd a r ch i tec tu ra l s t ruc tu re s .
F o r t h e f u tu re ,
t e chn ique s ,
r a the r
t han
T he n ew m e thod s ma in ly
c onc e rn t h e a na ly s i s o fo r gan ic m a te r ia l , m e ta l o b jec t s , s t one i mp lemen t s , t h e r e co rd ing o fi n t ra s i t e
4 5
d i s t r ibu t ion p a t t e rn s a nd s y s t ema t ic f i e ld s u rv ey ing .
I ts h ou ld b e m en t ion ed , h ow ev e r , t h a t t h e se
n ew a r cha eo log ica l t e chn ique s m u s t b e u sed i n ac r i t ica l w ay a nd s hou ld b e r e la t ed t o s p e c if i c q u e s t ion s o rs om et h eo r e t ica l f r am ewo rk f o rt h er e con s t ruc t ing o fp a s t s o c ie t ie s . A tt h e s ame t i m e , s p e c if i c r e sea r ch p rog ramm e s s hou ld b e p r epa r ed w i th e xp l i c i t h ypo th e se s o n t h e e nv i ronm en t , e c onomy a nd s o c ie ty , a sw e l l a s s o c ia l t h eo r i e s o fh i s to r ica l c h ang e a nd t h e d i scu s s ion o fs p e c if i c a s p ec t sw i th in a r cha eo log ica lt h eo r i e s . S e cond , t u rn ing t ot h eo r e t ica l a r cha eo logy ; a r cha eo logy i t s e lf a tt h e e nd o ft h e p r e s en t c en tu ry h a s b e com e ap a r t icu la r i s t ic , h i s to r ica l , q uan t i ta t iv e a nd a r t if a c t -ba sed d i sc ip l in e ( s om e a s pec t s w e r e p r ed ic t ed b y C la rk e i n 1 972 ) .
I ti sa l so s ub je c t iv e , a nd a n t i -po s i t iv i s t , m u l t i -pa rad igma t ic a nd
p l u ra l i s t ic , m o r e p o l i t ica l ly , a nd i d eo log ica l ly c on sc iou s , b o th a s ah uman i s t ic a nd as o c ia l s c i en c e ( Hodd e r 1 985 , S h ank s a nd T i l ley 1 987 ) . T h i st r end n e ed s c o l labo ra t ion w i th o t h e rd i sc ip l in e s s u ch a sp h i lo sophy , s o c ia l a n th ropo logy , s o c io logy , h i s to ry , e t hno logy , e t c . Ag l ance a tt h eb i b l iog raphy o f t h e a r cha eo log ica l l i t e ra tu r e i n I r an s how s t h e g ap b e tw e en I r an ian s o c ia l t h ough t i n o t h e r d i sc ip l in e s a nd a r cha eo log ica l r e sea r ch e s u nd e r tak en . T h ea dop t ion o fs uch a n a r cha eo logy ( f rom a t h eo r e t ica lp o in to fv i ew )r e qu i r e st h ef o l low ing n e c e s sa ry d ev e lopm en t s : ( 1 )i na ni n i t ia ls t age o fd ev e lopm en to fa r cha eo log ica lt h eo ry , o n eo ft h ec en t ra lq u e s t ion sw i l lb et o f i nd a na d equa t ed ef in i t ion o ft h e s ub jec ta nd i t so b jec to fs t udy . A s w eh av ea l r eady s e en ,t h em a in g oa l o ft h e ' N ew A r cha eo logy ' w a s t o d e f i n e a r cha eo logy a s t h e s c ienc e s t udy ing t h e m a t e r ia l r ema in s w h ich s o c ie t i e s i na l t im e s a nd p l a c e sh av ec r ea t ed f o rt h e i r e x i s t en c e . I nt h i s r e spec t , t h e o b je c t s o f s t udy o f a r cha eo logy a r e t h e m a t e r ia l r ema in s t h em s e lv e s .
S i n c e a l a r cha eo log ica l
m a t e r ia l sa r en o to ft h es am eo rd e ra nd t h e r ef o r ec anno tb eg r oup ed i n to t h es am et y p eo fc a t ego r i e s , t h i s i mp l i e s t h a t e a ch m a t e r ia l h a s as p ec ia l m ean ing i ni t s e lf . T h e p rob l em t h a t a r i se s i st ha t o n e o b je c tm ay p o s se sm o r et h an o n ec u l tu ra lm ean ing . O n ly t h ec on t ex tua l r e la t ion s o ft h eo b jec t s c an h e lp t or e p la c et h em i n ac u l tu ra l s t ruc tu r e . T h e o b jec t c on c e iv ed a s am e s sage w ou ld c on s i s t o fa s eman t ic v a lu e , w h ich i mp l ie s ad i r e c t m ean ing ( e .g . f l ak e s , b on e s , e t c ) , a nd a n a s soc ia t ed v a lue w h ich a r i se s f r om i t s c on t ex tua l r e la t ion s .
T hu s t h e a im o ft h e t h eo r e t ica l d i scu r s iv e a na ly s i s ,
s h ou ld b e t o d ef in e t h e d im en s ion s o f s t ruc tu ra l c omp l ex i t ie s , i no rd e r t o r e v ea l t h e i r s t r uc tu ra l f u n c t ion . T h e d ef in i t ion o fs t ruc tu ra l c a t ego r i e s w i l l a low u s t op rov id e a n e conom ic a nd s o c ia l m ean ing . T h e k now l edg e o fa r cha eo logy i nI r an m u s t r e f e rt ot h e m ean ing a nd t h e s t ruc tu ra l a nd c on t ex tua l p o s i t ion s o ft h e m a t e r ia l o b jec t s . T h i s c an o n ly b e a ch iev ed t h rough t h e b u i ld ing o fa s c i en t if i c a r cha eo logy , w h ich m ean s ad i sc ip l in e w i th ap a r t icu la rt h eo r e t ica l f r am ewo rk .
I t s a im
s h ou ld b e t of o rmu la t e t h e l o g ica l r e p r e sen ta t ion s o fp a s t s o c ia l a nd c u l tu ra l f a c t s , a nd t h e r e a l o b je c t o fs t udy o fa r cha eo logy s hou ld b e t op ropo se c oh e r en t r e p r e sen ta t ion s w h ich b y v a l ida t ing t h eo r i e s a nd w i th e mp i r ica l s uppo r t , e xp la in t h e h i s to r ica l m ean ing o ft h e n a tu r e , p r ope r t i e s a nd
4 6
p r e sence o fa rchaeo log ica lm a te r ia l s . I no r de rt oa ch iev et h i s t r ue s c ien t if ic k now ledge , a r cha eo logy w i l l n e ed a s pec if ic p a rad igm . T h i s p a rad igm i su rgen t ly n eeded i nI r an w he re t h e a r chaeo log ica l o b jec ti ss t i l l a dm i red a nd i n duc t iv i s tp o s i t ion i ss t i l l d om inan t ; ( 2 ) I r an ian a rchaeo log i s t s s hou ld b e a wa r e o ft h e r e cogn i t ion o ft h e p o l i t ica l a nd s oc ia l c on tex t o f t h e p rac t ice o fa r chaeo logy a nd a s se ss t h e i mp l ica t ion s o fs uch a r e cogn i t ion .
S hank s a nd T i l ley
( 1 987a , 1 987b ) , t h rough t h e i r c r i t ica l d i scu ss ion o f c on tempo ra ry E u ropean a r chaeo logy , h ave p rov id ed as pec if ic a n swe r t ot h e a bove p rob lem . I nt h e i r v i ew c on tempo ra ry a r cha eo logy w i th i t s v a r iou s c ha rac te r i s t ic s a nd c l a im s ( i . e . i t s s e pa ra t ion o ft h eo ry f r om p rac t ice , i t s d i vo rc ing o ft h e p a s tf r om t h ep r e sen t ) , i sa ne l em en ti nt h es t ruc tu r eo fp ow e r a nd k now ledge b yw h ich t h e c ap i ta l i s t e conom ie s o f E u rope h ave c ome t o d om inance .
I n c on t ra s t , a r cha eo logy s hou ld b e am ean s o f
e xpo s ing t h e se i d eo log ie s , o fr e a s se s s ing t h e r o le o ft h e p a s t i nt h e d i scou r se o ft h e p r e sen t , a nd e ngag ing i n ac r i t ique o fm ode rn s oc ie ty ; a r cha eo logy i sn o th ing i fi ti sn o t c r i t ique ( Shank s a nd T i l ley 1 987b : 2 13 ) .
T o f a c i l i ta te o u r a t temp t s t o a t ta in o u r o b jec t ive s w e h ave t o d i scu s s t h e
p r ob lem o fh av ing ap o l i t ica l i d eo logy -ba sed a r cha eo logy , a nd t h e p o l i t ica l f a c t s s hou ld n o t d i s t rac t u sf r om t h ep rob lem s o ft h eo re t ica la r chaeo logy . A r cha eo log ica l r e sea rch s hou ld r ef l ec tt h e p o l i t ica l a s pec t s o fI r an ian s oc ie ty , a im ing a td emon s t ra t ing h ow t h e a r cha eo log ica l p a s t i n f luence s p r e sen t d ay s o c ie ty , a nd h ow p r e sen t i d eo log ie s f o rm o u r c on s t ruc t ion s o ft h e p a s t .
O n t h e o t he r h and ,
a r cha eo log is t s a l so mu s t b e m o re a wa r e o f t h e i r p o l i t ica l a nd i d eo log ica l i n f luence s i n m odem s o c ie ty , a nd m u s t e xp l ic i t ly a na ly se a nd e xp r e s s t h e f undamen ta l s o f t h e i r s c ien t if i c g oa l s a nd r e sea rch .
F o r tuna te ly , i n I r an i n r e cen t y ea r s , t h e re h ave b een d eba te s ( among t h e y ounge r
g ene ra t ion o f a r chaeo log i s t s ) l e ad ing t owa rd s ac r i t ica l r e a s se ssmen t o f c ur r en t a t t i tude s o f a r cha eo logy .
S uch d eba t e s s hou ld p rov id e t h e w ay f o r ar e app ra i sa l o f t h e s t a te a nd a im s o f
t r ad i t iona l I r an ian a r chaeo logy , a nd t oc ha l lenge t h e p o l i t ica l m i su se o fa r chaeo logy .
A t t h e s ame
t i m e t h e i d eo log ica l n a tu r e o fe t hn ic s t ud ie s w h ich h ave d eep r o o t s i nI r an ian a r cha eo logy a nd a r e s t i l lv e ry much a l ive , s hou ld b ee xpo sed a nd c r i t ic i sed ; ( 3 )t h i s s en se o fc r ea t ing am ode rn a r chaeo logy f i nd s e xp re s s ion i nt h e u n ive r s i t ie s , b u tt h i s l e ad s t o t h e
q ue s t ion o f t h e p o t en t ia l o f a r cha eo logy i n s o c ie ty .
T he t h eo r e t ica l a nd m e thodo log ica l
f o unda t ion s o ft h ed i sc ip l in e s hou ld b ed i scu s sed w i th t h e a im o fd eve lop ing amodem f r am ewo rk i n w h ich a mo re s c ien t if i c a nd s o c ia l ly r e levan t a r cha eo logy c an b e u nde r taken .
T he c r ea t ion o f a
n umbe r o f p o s t s a nd d epa r tm en t s o f a r cha eo logy i n u n ive r s i t ie s w i l l o pen t h e p o ss ib i l i ty o f i n s t i tu t iona l i s ing t h e c oncep t o f t h eory , a nd t h i s w i l l g i ve i t af i rm b a s i s i nt h e c oun t ry .
S ome
a r cha eo log ica l c ou r se s a tu n iv e r s i t ie s s hou ld i n co rpo ra te s e ve ra l a r ea s o ft h e t h eo r e t ica l k now ledge n e eded t o d ev i se a n ew f r amewo rk , s uch a s t h e b a s ic s o f p h i lo sophy , e conom ic s , g ene ra l
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s o c io log ica l a nd a n th ropo log ica l t h eo r ie s , a nd an ew s e t o fq ue s t ion s p roduced b y t h e se t h eo r ie s . T h ei n c rea se i np ub l ica t ion sa nd c onf e rence s o nt h eo ry w i l lh e lp t h ed eve lopmen to ft h ec oncep t ; ( 4 )t h i s n eed s t ob e s e en a ga in s t t h e b ackg round o ft h e p o l i t ica l b ounda r ie s o ft h e N ea r E a s t w h ich w e r e d r awn u p a f t e r t h e F i r s t Wo r ld Wa r , a nd w h ich d o n o t c o inc ide w i th a rcha eo log ica l e t hn ic b ounda r ie s .
T h i s p rob lem h a s g ene ra l ly g i ven r i se t ot h e c hauv in i s t ic p o l i t ica l v i ew s w h ich o f t en
e mp loy h i s to r ica l a nd a r chaeo log ica l d a ta i n o r d e r t o p rov e t h e i r p a r t icu la r p ropo s i t ion s .
T he
r e v iva l o f t h i s t r end t o day a mong s ome C en t ra l A s ian c oun t r ie s ( s ee , f o r e xamp le , K oh l a nd T se t skh ladze 1 995 c h . 1 0 )w i th s t rong g ov e rnmen ta l s uppor t , m ay f o rce I r an ian a r cha eo logy t ot a k e p a r t i n ap o in t le s s c ompe t i t ion , w i th i t s p o l i t ica l c on sequence s . T o a vo id t h i s , a s f a r a s t h e e t hn ic g roup s o f I r an a r e c oncer n ed , w e h ave t o d emon s t ra te t h a t o n ly a f t e r d e ta i led s t ud ie s c an t h e p rob lem o fe t hn ic a t t r ibu t ion s b er e v i sed , a nd o n ly t h en c an t h et e n ta t ive s t ep s b et akei f r om s p ec if i c a r cha eo log ica l p rob lem s t owa rd s t h e i mpor tan t i s sue s o f c o r r e la t ion b e tween a r chaeo log ica l c u l tu r e s , a s semb lage s , l a nguage s , a nd e t hn ic g r oup s ; ( 5 )f i na l ly , o ne c anno to ve r look t h ef a c tt h a t f r om a bou tt h e 1 980 s , t h e r e h ave b een aw ide r ange o f p rog ramma t ic a nnouncemen t s d rawn u p i n t h e I r an ian l i t e ra tu re p re sen t ing p a rad igm s f o r t h e h uman i t ie s a cco rd ing t oI s lam ic p h i lo sophy ( i th a s d eep ly a f ec t ed t h e c i rcu la t ion o fs ome a cad em ic r e sea rch p a r t icu la r ly i ns o c io logy ) . T he i nf luenc eo ft h i s p h i lo sophy i sm o re c omp lex , a nd y e tw ha t i ss t a ted i nI s lam ic s y l labu se s i sn o t i nf a c t i n co rpo ra ted i nt h e r e sea rch p rac t ice o fa r chaeo log i s t s . N ever th e le s s , t h e a t t emp t s t o d ef in e t h e a im s o f a r chaeo logy a s a n i n dependen t d i sc ip l ine , a nd e va lua t ion s o fI s lam ic i d ea s a nd t h e i r i mpac t o n t h eo re t ica l q ue s t ion s , s hou ld b e am a jo r o b l iga t ion o fa r cha eo log i s t s . I ns umma ry , i th a s b een s hown t ha tt h e re i s al i m i ted r ange o fa r chaeo log ica l t h eo r ie s a nd r e sea rch d i r ec t ion s i nI r an ian a r cha eo logy , a nd a l so t h a t t h eo re t ica l i d ea s f r om t h e ' New A rcha eo logy ' a nd f r om t h ei n ter na t iona l l i t e ra tu re h ave mad en o s e r iou s i mpac to nt h e a r cha eo logy o fI r an . T he b a s ic q ue s t ion sw h ich r ema in t ob ea n swe red a r ew hy t h ey h ave n o tg en e ra ted t h eo re t ica l d eba te s a nd w hy t h ew o rk o fI r an ian a r cha eo log i s t s d oe s n o t r e f lec tt h em . O bv iou s ly t h e i n te rd isc ip l ina ry a pp roach , w h ich p l ayed a n i mpor tan t r o le i n t h e ' New A rchaeo logy 's ' r e sea rch ( a nd a l so i n m oder n a r cha eo logy ) h a s n o t f o und i t s p l ace i n I r an ian a r chaeo logy .
I ts hou ld b e r emembe red t ha t t h e
b a ckg round t ot h ed eve lopm en to fa r cha eo logy i nI r an i sh i s to r ica l r e sea rch , a nd a r cha eo logy h e re i s c on s id e r ed p a r t o ft h e h uman i t ie s .
T he l a s t a nd c u r ren t g ene ra t ion o f I r an ian a r chaeo log i s t s h a s
b e en t r a ined i nt h i s t r ad i t ion ( e ven t h o se w ho w e r e t r a ined i nt h e U .S .A . i nt h e 1 970 s ) , a nd i nf a c t m any o ft h em d evo t em uch o ft h e i rt im et os t ud ie s i nh i s tory , h i s to r ica l g eog raphy , a nd a r t h i s tory . T h e a n th ropo log ica l a pp roach w i th i t s q uan t i ta t iv e a na ly s i s o fm e t r ica l a t t r ibu te s , w h ich f o rm s t h e b a s i s o f t h e ' New A rcha eo logy ' h a s y e t n ev e r i n f luenced c onven t iona l a r chaeo logy i n I r an .
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F ur th e rmo re , t h e r o le o ft h e I r an ian a r chaeo log i s t s i nj o in t a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch w i th w e s t e rn p ro jec t s h a s n o t b een s c ien t if ic , r a the r i th a s b een a n e x ecu t ive r o le , o r , i ns ome e xc ep t iona l c a se s , t h e i r u nf am i l ia r i ty w i th t h e c ha rac te r i s t ic s o f c on t empo ra ry a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch , a nd a l so l a nguage b a r r ie r , h ave a f ec ted t h eq ua l i ty o ft h e i r s c ien t if i c c on t r ibu t ion s . I na dd i t ion , p o l i t ica l a nd i d eo log ica l c on s t ra in t s h av e a lway s p l ayed a n i mpor tan t r o le i nt h i s r e spec t .
D u r ing m o s t o ft h e
p e r iod c on s id e red i n t h i s c hap te r , t h e se c on s t ra in t s r ema ined f undamen ta l b ecau se i d eo logy h a s a lway s b een p a r t o ft h e i n s t i tu t iona l i sed s e c t ion o ft h e p o l i t ica l s y s tem .
T h i s c i rcum s tance h a s
t h r ea t en ed a r cha eo logy i nm any w ay s ; t h e a mb igu i ty o fi t s p lace ( a s p u re h uman i s t ic s c ience o r a s e xpe r imen ta l s c ience ) w i th in t h e a cadem ic s y s t em o fI r an , i ss t i l l ama jo r p rob lem f o r a r cha eo logy , r e su l t ing i nm any l im i ta t ion s f o r a r cha eo log i s t s e i the r i na t t rac t ing f und ing f o r r e sea rch a nd h i gh q ua l i ty s t uden t s t o s t udy a r cha eo logy ( i n c ompa r i son t o t h e o the r s ub jec t s , a r cha eo log i s t s a r e g en e ra l ly d i s sa t i sf ied f r om t h e i r j ob ) .
N eed le s s t o s ay , w i thou t a mu l t i la te ra l r e f o rma t ion o f
a r cha eo logy i nt h i s c oun t ry , t h ep r e sen to rgan i sa t ion o fa r chaeo logy w i th o n ly af ew a r chaeo log i s t s , t r a ined ma in ly i nt h eo l df a sh ion , c anno t of e r much c hange i nr e sea rch d i rec t ion s . H oweve r , w e a r e o p t im i s t ica l ly n ow l o ok ing f o rwa rd t o s oc ia l a nd p o l i t ica l c hange i n I r an ian s o c ie ty . A tt h e momen tm any a r ea so fp ub l ic a nd i n t e l lec tua l l i f e a r eb ecom em o re h i gh ly p o l i t ic i sed t h an e ve r b ef o re , a n a tmo sphe re w i th in w h ich e v en s c hoo l c h i ld ren a r e m o re i n t e r e s ted i n , a nd r u nn ing , c r i t ica l d eba t e s .
A t t h e s am e t ime , c ompu l sory e duca t iona l p rog ramme s a r e b e ing
e n cou raged t or e ach e ven t h e r emo te s tp a r t s o ft h e c oun t ry . T he p o ten t ia l o fs c ience a nd t e chno logy t oe xp la in t h e w o r ld a nd i mp rov e i ta r e a pp rec ia ted . T h e re i s ag row ing t e nd ency t or e cogn i se t h e a b i l i ty o f s c ience t o s o lv e t h e p rob lem s o f t h e w o r ld .
I nnova t ion i n t e chno logy a t t rac t s m a jo r
s uppor ta st h eb a s i s o fe conom ic d eve lopmen t a nd g ene ra l p ub l ic w e lf a re . T he se a t t i tude s g radua l ly c h ange t h e s o c ia l a nd i n t e l lec tua l c l ima t e o fs o c ie ty a nd w i l l p rov ide a s u i tab le s o c ia l c on tex t f o r d ev e lop ing r a d ica lt h eo re t ica ld eba t e s . T h e e xpan s ion o fu n ive r s i t ie s i nt h e p o s t -R evo lu t ion p e r iod a r e g i v ing r i se t o an ew g ene ra t ion o f a r cha eo log i s t s , w ho h ave b een h eav i ly i n f luenced b y t h e d emoc ra t ic s en se o ft h i s p e r iod , a nd b y c on t empo ra ry s o c ia l a nd p o l i t ica l d eba te s . U nf o r tuna t e ly t h e I r an ian u n ive r s i ty s y s t em f r om ae a r ly d a t e h a s a lway s b een c on serva t ive , a u tho r i ta r ian , a nd d om ina ted p rof e s s iona l ly a nd p o l i t ica l ly . T he se h ave p r even ted i n nova t ive i n t e l lec tua l c l ima te s , a cadem ic p rog re ss a nd i n d iv idua l f r eedom t o c hoo se t h e p a r t icu la r o r ien ta t ion f o r ad i sc ip l in e .
D e sp i t e many r e f o rm s i nr e cen t y ea r s n o g r ea t
c hange c an y e tb e s e en ; i ti s ,h oweve r , p a r t o ft h e r e spon s ib i l i ty o ft h e n ew g ene ra t ion t oe ngage i n s u ch d i scu ss ion o fu n ive r s i ty p rob lem s . I nm o re g ene ra lt e rm s , t h ef u tu r e e xpan s ion o fa r cha eo logy i nI r an c an b e e xpec t ed a so ne a spec t o f t h e e conom ic d eve lopm en t , c au s ing m a ss ive p rog ramme s o f u rban d eve lopmen t , e ng inee r ing ,
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a g r icu l tu ra l , a nd i n du s t r ia l p ro jec t s . T h e se l e ad t og row th o fr e scu e e x cava t ion s a nd e ven tua l ly a p ub l i c a wa r en e s s o f a r cha eo logy .
F ina l ly w e h ope t h a t t h e c u r r en t p o l i t ica l a nd e conom ic
d ev e lopm en t i n I r an a wak en s t h e r e spon s ib l e o r gan i sa t ion s t o u nd e r s tand t h e i mpor tanc e o f A r cha eo log ica l H e r i tag e Manag em en t , w h ich i n t u rn w i l l o f e r t h e o ppor tun i ty t o c on s id e r t h eo r e t i ca lm a t t e r s s u ch a st h ep r e sen ta t ion o ft h ep a s ta nd c on s t ruc t ion o fm ean ing . G iv en t h e p r e sen t s i tua t ion w i th i n c r ea s ing o ppo r tun i t ie s f o r i n t e rna t iona l c on ta c t s ( e .g . s e nd ing s t ud en t s o f a r cha eo logy t o We s t e rn c oun t r i e s ) w e w i l l u ndoub t ed ly s e e t h e g row ing i mpa c t o f f o r e ign r e sea r ch w h ich w i l l c e r ta in ly l e ad t o ad ev e lopm en t i n m e thodo log ica l a nd t h eo r e t ica l d eba t e s . We h ope t h e e n su ing d eba t e s w i l l e n cou rag e f u r th e r r e sea r ch , b u t o n ly i ft h e m o s t b a s i c i su e sa nd q u e s t ion sc an a l so b es ub jec t ed t od i scu s s ion w i thou ta ny k i nd o fr e s t r ic t ion s . A s a l r eady m en t ion ed , an ew g en e ra t ion o fa r cha eo log i s t s i sc om ing o n t ot h e s c en e ; t h ey w i l l n o t a c c ep t t h e t r ad i t iona l p h enom enon o fa r cha eo logy a st h e i n c r ea se o ft a ng ib l e f i nd s ; t h ey p r ef e rt h e r ef in em en t o fo b s e r va t ion t h a tw i l le n r ich I r an ian a r cha eo logy a nd i t sp e r c ep t ion o ft h ep a s t . N ow , w e h av e t o w a i t a nd s e e i fI r an ian a r cha eo log i s t s w i l l a c tua l ly c hang e t h e i r p r ev iou s p o s i t ion s .
We m u s t f i r s t d ea l w i th t h e d eba t e w h ich h a s g on e o n i n Am e r ican , B r i t i sh , a nd
S c and inav ian a r cha eo logy s i nc et h e 1 960 s . We c an t h en m ov ei no t h e rd i r ec t ion s ; m ak ing e x t en s iv e u s e o fo u r o wn d om e s t ic p h i lo sophy t oo r ig ina t e p a r t icu la r h ypo th e se s f o r o u r r e g iona l p rob lem s . T hu s t h e o u t com e m ay b e r a th e r d if e r en t f r om t h e Am e r ican ' N ew A r cha eo logy ' a nd t h e B r i t i sh ' P o s tp ro c e s sua lA r cha eo logy ' .
5 0
Chap ter 3
A rchaeo log ica l S urvey :
An E ff ic ien t Means o f Da ta Recovery i n t he
Reg iona lA rchaeo log ica l Approach
1 .I n troduc t ion F i e ld s u rvey c on s i s t s o f ar a nge o ft e chn ique s d e s ign ed t oc o l lec ti n f o rma t ion c onc e rn ing t h en a tu r e , v a r iab i l i ty , a nd o rgan i sa t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o fa r t if ac t s a nd s e t t l em en t s a c ro s s al a nd scape . I ti sa l e g i t ima t e a nd p roduc t iv er e sea rch t o o l r e spon s ib le f o rt h e d i scov e ry a nd d ocum en ta t ion o fc u l tu ra l r ema in so nt h em od er ns u rf ace . I th a sb e en a l so r e ga rd ed a s ap r in c ipa ls ou rc eo fd e l inea t ing al a rge a moun to fi n f o rma t ion a bou ta r chaeo log ica l s i t e s . S u rv ey a l so w i th in am e thodo log ica l f r amewo rk i sd e f in ed a s am e thod t op rov id e ae s t ima t ion o ft h eg en e ra lo rs p ec if i cp a ram e t e r s o ft h es t udy a r ea i nr e spon se t ot h et a rge tp a rame t e r sw h ich i sd e t e rm in ed b yp rob l em o r ien ta t ion ( Amme rm an 1 981 ; C h e r ry 1 983 ; D unn e l la nd D ancey 1 983 ;D ancey 1 974 ; F l ann e ry 1 976 ; J ohn son 1 977 ; L ewa rch a nd O 'B r ien 1 981 ; P log e ta l . 1 978 ; R enf r ew a nd B ahn 1 991 ; R en f r ew a nd Wag s taf f1 982 ; S ch if f e re t a l . 1978 ; S t ruev e r 1 971 ) F rom t h e 1 970 s i th a sb e en p romo t ed u nd e rt h e c on se rva t ion a r cha eo logy o ft h eU n i t ed S ta t e s w i th e x t end ed l a rg e s ca le s u rv ey s t ra t eg ie s t o s t udy r e g iona l s e t t l em en t p a t t e rn s i n a dvance o f l a nd m od if i ca t ion p ro jec t s , a nd t o f a c i l i ta t e l o ng t e rm m anagem en t o fp ub l ic r e sou rce s ( Sch if f e r a nd G um e rman e d . 1 977 ) .
T h i s k i nd o fr e sea rch p a r t icu la r ly i nt h e Am e r ican S ou thwe s t w h e re f i e ld
c ond i t ion s a r e o p t ima l f o r s u rvey w o rk , h a s c r ea t ed m uch o f t h e s t anda rd l i t e ra tu re o f s u r vey m e thodo logy a nd t e chn ique s uch a s p robab i l i ty s amp l ing ( e .g . R edm an 1 974 ; s e e a l so r e levan t s e c t ion ) . F o r m any r e a son s d a ta o b ta in ed t h rough s u rvey h av e b een v i ew ed a s e qua l ly i mpor tan t a s d a ta o b ta in ed b ye xcava t ion , s ome t im e se v en o fg r ea t e ru t i l i ty . I mpo r tan tr e a son sa r e: ( 1 ) o b ta in ing s u rv ey d a ta i se a s ie r t h an t h o se f r om e xcava t ion e s pec ia l ly , w h e r e l o g i s t ica l a nd e c onom ic f a c to r sa r ec onc e rn ed ( Che r ry 1 9 83 ;D unn e l la nd D an cey 1983 ) ; ( 2 )s u rvey d a ta r e p r e sen t aw id er a nge p e r spec t iv eo fr e g iona lp a t t er n s ( Ch e r ry 1 983 , 1 984 ; D unn e l l a nd D ancey 1 983 ) ;
5 1
a nd ( 3 ) s u rvey d o e s n o t d e s t roy a r cha eo log ica l s i t e s a s e xcava t ion , a nd r e su l t s c an b e r e p l ica ted ( Ch e r ry 1 9 83 ) . A s w i th o t h e r a r ea s o fa r cha eo log ica l d i sc ip l in e , t h ep o t en t ia l o fa r cha eo log ica l s urv ey a l so i nt u rn h a s b e en c r i t ic i sed . A l though s om ep rob lem s n ow h av e b een d i sm i s sed , s ome a r e n o ti n s ign if ican t . F o rt h ep r ob lem o ft h ei n t eg r i ty o fs u rf ace r ema in sa sa ga in s tb u r ied r ema in s , s e e Amm e rman 1 978 , 1 981 , 1 9 83 ; C h e r ry 1 984 ; D iume l la nd D ancey 1 983 ; H ope -S imp son 1 983 , 1 984 ; S haa r 1 983 . F o r t h e p rob lem o ft h e q ua l i ty o ft h e s urvey r e su l t s ac on s id e rab le d i scu s s ion c an b e f ound i nC owg i l l 1 986 , 1 9 89 , 1 990 . P i on e e r ing w o rk b yP log e ta l . 1 978 a nd S ch if f e re ta l . 1 978 a nd r e c en tw o rk o f C he r ry e ta l . 1 991 r e p r e sen t e f o r t s t o d ev e lop a m e thodo log ica l b a s i s f o r s u rf a c e s u rv ey b y e xam in ing t h e f a c to r s t h a t a f ec tt h e a ccu ra cy a nd c on s i s t ency o fs u rv ey r e su l t s .
R e la t ed s t ud ie s
h av e d emon s t ra t ed t h e e f ec t s o f d if e ren t s amp l ing p rocedu r e s a nd s u rvey i n t en s i ty o n s u rvey r e su l t s ( Ch e r ry e ta l . 1 978 ; C owg i l l 1 990 ; J udge 1 981 ; Mue l le r 1 975 ; P l og 1 976 ; P log e ta l . 1 978 ; R edman 1 974 ) . F o ley ( 1 981 ) a nd G a l lan t ( 1 986 )h av e a dd re s sed s om e k i nd o fb i a se s t h a t a f ec t ed s urv ey r e su l t s i nt h e i r e xpe r ience i nt wo r e g ion o fK enya a nd t h e G r e ek I s land s .
F ina l ly a l a rge
a moun to fi n f o rma t ion a bou ts u rv ey m e thodo logy c an b ef ound t h rough c a se s t ud ie s d ar n ed o u to ve r t h e l a s t 3 0 y ea r s i n d if e r en t p a r t s o f t h e w o r ld .
T h e se e xpe r i en ce s h av e p roduc ed a h i gh ly
s oph i s t ica t ed m e thodo logy f o r r e g iona l a r cha eo log ica l s u rvey .
R e su l t s o fs uch e xpe r ien ce s t oday
c an p rov id e ad e ta i led p i c tu r e o fp a s t h uman l i f e o v e rt h e w o r ld . S e e , f o r e xamp le , A dam s 1 981 ; B ak e r a nd L loyd 1 991 ; D y son 1 982 ; K e l le r a nd R upp 1 983 ; Mc In to sh a nd Mc In to sh 1 980 ; Mac r eady a nd T homp son 1 9 85 ; P o s tga t e 1 982 ; R en f r ew a nd Wag s taf f1 982 ; Wha l lon 1 979 . T h e m a in g oa l o f r e sea r ch i nt h i s c hap t e r i so n t h e o n e h and t o e xp lo r e t h e p o t en t ia l o f a m e thodo log ica l ly w e l l -d efm ed f r am ewo rk o fr e g iona l a r cha eo log ica l s u rv ey w h i le o nt h e o t h e rh and e mpha s i s ing t h e p roduc t iv i ty o f t h i s s t ra t egy a s a n a r cha eo log ica l a pp roach p a r t icu la r ly w he r e p rob lem o r i en ta t ion r e sea r ch e s a r e p l anned .
B o th a r e i n tend ed t o b e a dop ted i n f u tu r e I r an ian
a r cha eo log ica l a c t iv i t i e s t h rough p roduc ing ag en e ra l m od e l o fa r cha eo log ica l s ur vey m e thodo logy . Wha t s h ou ld b e s t r e s sed h e r e i st ha t m any a r cha eo log ica l s i t e s i nI r an a r e b e ing c on t inuou s ly t h r ea t ed b y i l ega l e xcava t ion s , l a rge s c a le d ev e lopm en t p ro jec t s , a nd n a tu ra l d i sa s t e r s .
T he se
f a c to r sw i l la f ec tt h et e chn ique so fs y s t ema t ic s u r f a c es u rvey a s am a jo ra r chaeo log ica la pp roach t o t h ea r cha eo logy o fI r an . I nf a c t , d u r ing t h el a s td ecade st h i s a pp roa ch h a sn o tb een d ev e loped e i the r b y f o r e ign o rb y I r an ian a r cha eo log i s t s .
F ur th e rmo r e , I r an ian a r cha eo log i s t s a r e n o t f am i l ia r y e t
w i th t h e m e thodo log ica l a nd t e chn ica l a spec t s o fa r cha eo log ica l s u r v ey .
Mo s t i mpor tan t ly , i nt h e
l a ck o fr e cogn i t ion o ft h e p o t en t ia l o fo t h e r t e chn ica l a pp roach e s , t h e n o t ion o fe xcava t ion a s t h e o n ly m ean s o fd a ta r e cov e ry i ss t i l l a dvoca t ed . s c ien t if i ca r cha eo logy i nI r an .
5 2
T h e se p rob lem s m ak e s ur vey a t o p p r io r i ty f o r
2 .B a ckground o ft h et e chn ique F rom t h e 1 960 st h et h eo re t ica ld imen s ion so fa r chaeo logy h ave g rown a nd c hanged r ap id ly , a sn ew t h eo r e t ica l v i ewpo in t s o f a r chaeo log i s t s h ave c hanged t h e i r a pp roach t o t h e c ha rac te r o f h uman c u l tu r ef r om as t a t ic t o ad ynam ic o n e . T h i s h a s i np rac t ice r e su l t ed i n as h if ti na t ten t ion f r om t h e s e t t l em en t a s au n i t o fa na ly s i s t ot h e r e g ion a s t h e a na ly t ica l u n i t .
W i l ley ' sp i onee r ing s t udy o f
s e t t lemen t p a t t e rn s i nt h e V im V a l ley o fP e ru ( 1 953 ) t ur n ed a r chaeo log i s t s ' a t ten t ion t os e t t lemen t a r cha eo logy . A tt h e s am et i m e B inf o rd ( 1 962 ) p ropo sed h uman c u l tu re a s a n o rgan i sa t iona l s y s tem b y w h ich p eop le i n t e rac t w i th o t he r c u l tu ra l a nd n a tu ra l s y s t em s i nt h e i r e nv i ronmen t .
H e a rgued
t h a tc u l tu ra l s y s t em s a nd p r oce sse s o pe ra ted o v e rt h e e n t i re r e g ion r a the rt han o n as i ng le s i te , a nd t h er e g ion mu s tb e c on s ide r ed a st h e a na ly t ica l u n i t . O th e r a t t emp t s w e re made t oc l a r if yt h i s i s sue b y i d en t if y ing t h e n a tu r e o f a r chaeo log ica l m a t e r ia l a nd s i t e s o n t h e o ne h and , a nd f o rmu la t ing p r inc ip le s o fa r cha eo log ica l s u rvey t e chn ique s o n t h e o t h e r h and .
T hu s a r chaeo log ica l s i t e s w e re
a s sumed t o r e p r e sen tt h e s pa t ia l ly d if e ren t ia ted a c t iv i ty l o c i o f ac u l tura l s y s tem , w he rea s as i ng le a r cha eo log ica l s i t ec anno tr e f l ec ta l l o ft h e a c t iv i ty p a t t er n s o f ap a r t icu la r s y s t em ( J uge e ta l . 1 975 : 8 2 ; C he r ry a nd S hennan 1 978 : 1 01) .
T hu s , i ft h e e xp lana t ion o f ac u l tu ra l s y s tem a nd o f i t s
s t ruc tu r ing a nd f u nc t ion ing i ss ough t , t h ee xam ina t ion o ft h et o ta l r a nge o ft ype s o fc ompon en t s i te s a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o f a r cha eo log ica l ma te r ia l o ve r t h e w ho le a r ea b ecome s a s e s sen t ia l p a r t o f t h e r e sea rch s t ra t egy .
T he s c ope o f s uch r e sea rch m ay e ncompa s s t h ousand s o f s qua re k i lome t re s .
S i n ce e xam in ing t h e n a tu r e a nd v a r iab i l i ty o fa l a r cha eo log ica l m a t e r ia l e x i s t ing i n ag i ven a r ea i s p r a c t ica l ly a nd e conom ica l ly i mpo s s ib le , p robab i l i ty s amp l ing t e chn ique s w e r e d eve loped t op rov ide r e p r e sen ta t ive d a ta ( s ee b e low ) . A t t h e s am e t ime p rob lem o r ien ted a pp roach e s w e re c onduc t ed i n v a r iou s r e g ion s l e ad ing t o s u b s tan t ia l d eve lopmen t s .
T he l a rge sca le s u rv ey p ro jec t s i nt h e B a s in o f Mex ico ( Sande r s e ta l .
1 9 79 ) , Me sopo tam ia ( Adam s 1 965 , 1 981) , a nd d if e r en t a r ea s o ft h e S ou thw e s ten i U n i t ed S ta te s a pp roached b y S ARG ( Sou thwe s ter n A n th ropo log ica l R e sea rch G roup ) , n o t o n ly p roduced m uch e mp i r ica l d a ta , b u t a l so l e d t o i n c rea sed a t t en t ion t o f o rmu la t ing r e sea rch q ue s t ion s i n r e g iona l t e rm s . T he d if e rence b e tween s uch m a jo r p ro jec t s a nd m o re t r ad i t iona l o ne s l i e i nt h e i r r e sea rch s p ec if ic q ue s t ion s , t h e i r e xpec ta t ion s f r om s u rv ey d a ta , a nd t h e a pp roache s u sed . I na l t h ree c a se s f i e ldwo rk w a s c onduc t ed o ve r as ub s tan t ia ln umbe ro fy ea r s . T he m a in g oa l o fr e sea rch i na l c a se s h a s b een t h e u nd e r s tand ing o f c u l tu ra l p roce s se s b y f o cu s ing o n t h e v a r iab i l i ty o f t h e s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h es e t t lem en tp a t ter n s , t h eh uman l o ca t iona l b ehav iou r c ha rac te r i s t ic s ( P log a nd H i l l 1 9 7 1) , t h e p roce s se s c on t r ibu t ing t o c u l tu ra l e vo lu t ion , v a r iab i l i ty i n n a tu ra l e nv i ronmen t a nd c on t empo ra ry a g r icu l tu ra l s y s tem s , c hange s i np opu la t ion s i ze a nd c u l tu ra l c omp lex i ty ( Adam s 1 9 81 ; S ande r s e ta l . 1 979 ) , a nd t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween p opu la t ion g row th a nd e conom ic g row th .
5 3
T he se q ue s t ion s n ec e s s i ta t ed a pp ropr ia t e m e thod s b o th i nf i e ldwo rk a nd a na ly s i s .
Mo s t a t t en t ion
w a s p a id t op opu la t ion e s t ima t ion o n t h e b a s i s o f d en s i ty o f s u rf ac e m a t e r ia l a nd s i t e f unc t ion t h rough o b ta in ing r e l iab le q uan t i ta t iv e i n f o rma t ion . T o t h i s e nd t h e i n t roduc t ion o fn ew s amp l ing s t ra t eg ie sp rov ed m o s tp roduc t iv e . S urvey t e chn ique s s u ch a s as t anda rd s y s t em f o rr e co rd ing s i t e s , c l a ss if y ing s i t e s o nt h eb a s i s o fs i t e s i z e , a nd e x t en s iv e f i e ld w a lk ing s t ra t eg ie s t o l o ca t e s i t e s o ve r l a rge a r ea sw e r ed ev e loped t h rough t h e se p ro jec t s . I nf a c t ,t h er e a la dv an c ei na r cha eo log i ca ls urvey m e thodo logy t o ok p l ac e w h en SARG p ropo sed a r e sea rch p rog ramm e t o s o lve b i g p r ob lem s o f c u l tu ra l p roc e s se s i n 1 971 .
I nt h i s g roup mo r e t h an 3 0 a r cha eo log i s t s w e r e c o -ope ra t ing .
T h e i r
c oncep t o fa r cha eo logy a s as c ience a nd d ea l ing w i th q ue s t ion s c on c e rn ing e n t i re h uman c u l tu ra l s y s tem s c ha ra c t e r i sed t h em a s ad if e r en t c l a s s o fa r cha eo log i s t . I nt h e i r v i ew a r cha eo logy w a s a m ean s t or e spond t ot h e b i g p rob lem s o fc u l tu ra l p roc e s s s uch a sc hang e a nd s t ab i l i ty i ns oc ie t ie s a nd c u l tu ra lm echan i sm s b yw h ich s o c ie t ie s a dap tt oc hange i nt h e i rn a tu ra la nd s oc ia le nv i ronm en t . T o s o lv e s u ch p rob lem s r e qu i r e s p rog r amm e s o f l o ng t e rm f i e ldwo rk a nd a na ly s i s , i n t e rd i sc ip l ina ry a nd m u l t i s tag e r e sea rch .
a nd
F o r t a ck l ing t h e g en e ra l q ue s t ion o f " why a r e s i t e s
l o ca ted w h e r et h ey a r e ?" b e s id e s o t he ra nc i l la ry q ue s t ion s , SARG h a sf o rmu la ted am o r ep roduc t ive r e sea r ch d e s ign c ove r ing t h ef o l low ing p o in t s ( s e e : G um e rman 1 971 , 1 973 ) ( 1 ) p l ann ing a n i n t en s iv e , p r obab i l i s t ic r e g iona l s u r v ey ; ( 2 ) p l ann ing a m u l t i s tage a pp roach t o r ef in ev a r iab l e s a nd m ea su r em en t s i nt h e c ou r se o ff i e ld w o rk a nd a na ly s i s ; ( 3 ) s pec if y ing i nd e ta i l t h e v a r iou s c ha ra c t e r i s t ic s o f a r cha eo log ica l m a t e r ia l s a nd e x i s t ing v a r iab le s ; ( 4 ) s t anda rd i s ing s amp l ing s t ra t egy ( as t ra t if i ed s amp l ing d e s ign i nt e rm s o fn a tu ra lv a r iab i l i ty w a s a r gu ed t ob et h e b e s tp roc edu r e ) a nd i n t en s i ty o ff i e ld w o rk ; a nd ( 5 ) u s e o f ac ompu t e r d a ta b ank t oc on t ro l s urv ey i n f o rma t ion a nd t oa low s t a t i s t ica la na ly s i s . T h i sm od e lp roved t ob em o s ta dvan tageou s , a nd s ome a r cha eo log i s t s ( e .g . C h e r ry 1 978 )s ugge s t ed i ts hou ld b ea pp l ied i no t h e rc oun t r ie s . I n s umma ry , s i nc e 1 970 av a r ie ty o ft h e k ey e l em en t s l e d t ot h e r a p id d ev e lopmen t s i n moder n a r cha eo log ica ls u r v ey : ( 1 ) i nt e rm s o fm e thodo logy i tw a s a f ec ted b y i n s igh t s o ft h e ' New A r cha eo logy ' e s pec ia l ly t ho se i n i t ia t ed b yB inf o rd ( 1 964 , 1 965 )w h e r et h eg r ea te mpha s i s w a s c onc en t ra t ed o n e xp la in ing c u l tu ra l p roce s se s , a nd s o c ia l a nd e c onom ic c hange o f p a s t s o c ie t ie s .
T h i s k i nd o f r e sea r ch r e qu i red
e xp l ic i t ly w e l l -d ef in ed r e sea rch d e s ign s ,f o rmu la t ing h ypo the se sa nd c on s t ruc t ing mod e l s . ( 2 ) e xp lo r ing t h e e n t i r e r a ng e o f ar e g ion r a the r as i ng le s i t e , s i n c e h uman b ehav iou r t e nd s t o b e r e g iona l ly c i rcum sc r ibed . S e t t lem en t a nd l a nd u s e i no ne p a r t o f ar e g ion t e nd s t ob e c l o se ly t i ed w i th s e t t lem en t a nd l a nd u s e i no t he rp a r t s o ft h e s am e r e g ion . S uch t i e s a r e n o t s t a t ic b u t c hange t h rough t im e , a nd t h es t udy o ft h ec hang ing i n t e r r e la t ion sh ip b e tw e en d if e r en tp a r t s b f ar e g ion i sa
5 4
c r uc ia l g u ide t ou nde r s tand ing p roce sse s o f c u l tu r e .
A t t h e s ame t ime e nv i ronmen ta l a pp roache s
s t a r t ed t or e cogn i se t h e i n te rac t ion b e tween m an a nd h i s a s soc ia t ed e nv i ronmen t a nd t h e p o s i t ion o f a r cha eo log ica l s i t e s a nd m a t e r ia l t o e ach o t he r .
I ti n vo lved s pa t ia l a r cha eo logy w h ich a dop ted
m a th ema t ica l m e thod s a nd s t a t i s t ica l t e chn ique s .
T h i s p rocedu r e h ad b een d eve loped b y
g eog raphe r s t oe l uc ida te m od er np a t tern s o nt h e s u rf ace , a nd m a thema t ica l a pp roach e s w e re u sed t o e xam in e m any k i nd s o f i n f o rma t ion d e r ived f r om r e g iona l s t ud ie s . s t ud ie s w a s t o e xam ine a r chaeo log ica l d i s t r ibu t ion p a t t er n s
O n e b a s ic e l emen t i n s uch
a nd i n te r r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween
s e t t lemen t s . ( 3 ) d ef in ing a dequa te t e rm s a nd t h e t h eo r e t ica l b a s i s f o r a r chaeo log ica l t e rm s w a s m uch d eba ted . T h e d ef in i t ion o f a n a r chaeo log ica l ' s i t e ' f o r e xamp le , i s s t i l l a c on t rove r s ia l ma t t e r f o r a r cha eo log i s t s . F ew a r cha eo log i s t s w ou ld f i nd a ny d if i cu l ty i nd ef in ing f i nd s o n t h e s u rf ace , b u t w ha t e xac t ly i s as i te , w ha t a r e i t s l i m i t s a nd h ow s hou ld i tb e r e cogn i sed f r om t h e a r t if ac t s o r f e a tu r e s s urv iv ing o n t h e s u r f ace , h ave b een d eba ted f o r al o ng t ime .
A s D unne 1 1 ( 1 992 : 2 2 ) h a s
p o in t ed o u t , t h e t e rm ' s i te ' i sa n a r t if ic ia l c oncep t i n ven t ed i nt h e p r e sen t w i th n o m ean ing i nt h e p a s t .
I ti so n ly w i th t h e g row th o f f i e ldwo rk i nt h e p r e sen t c en tu ry t h a t f unc t iona l w o rd s l i ke
' monumen t ' , ' c amp ' a nd
v i l lage ' b egan t ob e r e p laced b y t h e m o re o b jec t ive t e rm ' s i te ' .
O n t h e
o t h e rh and s ome s t ud ie so fh un te rg a the rs o c ie t ie s s ugge s ted t h a ti n d iv idua l ' s i t e s ' a r em ean ing le s s i f t h ey a r en o tv i ewed i nt e rm s o ft h e s h if t ing p a t t er n s o fa c t iv i t ie s t h a t m ake u p t h e o ve ra l l manne r o f s u b s i s t ence ( Sm i th 1 992 : 1 -26 ) , o rc anno tb e r e la t ed t o ap a s t s y s t em ( B inf o rd :1992 : 5 6 ) . A no the r p r ob lem e me rged w hen a r chaeo log i s t s c ame t o r e con s tr uc t t h e f u l l h uman u se o ft h e l a nd scape . T h ey r e a l i sed t h a tt h e re w e re v e ry f a in t s ca t t e r s t h a t m igh tn o t q ua l if y a s s i te s , b u t w h ich r e p re sen t s i gn if i can th uman a c t iv i ty . T h i s p henomenon c an b e s e en i na r ea s e spec ia l ly w h e re m ob i le s oc ie t ie s h av e l ef t s pa r se a r chaeo log ica l r ema in s .
F o r s u ch p henom ena a r cha eo log i s t s u sed t h e t e rm ' n on -
s i t e ' o r ' of s i t e ' , b u t t h e se r e qu i re s pec ia l m e thodo logy t ol o ca te a nd r e co rd s uch a r t if ac tua l f i nd s ( Dunne l la nd D ancey 1 983 ; s e ea l so r e levan ts e c t ion i nt e x t) . ( 4 ) t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t f a c to r i n d eve lop ing a r cha eo log ica l s urvey p a r t icu la r ly i n r e cen t y ea r s , r e la t e s t ot h e e x ten s ive u se o fn ew t e chn ica l a pp roache s a nd s pec ia l i n s trumen t s , n o t o n ly f o r t h e d i scovery o fs i t e s , b u t m o r e c r uc ia l ly f o r r e co rd ing t h em , i n te rp re t ing t h em , a nd m on i to r ing c hange i nt h em t h rough t ime . Among t h em a e r ia l p ho tog raphy h a s l o ng b een u sed , w h i le s ome o t he r s h ave b e en d ev i sed r e cen t ly . F o rt h e i n co rpo ra t ion o fs uch t e chn ica l a pproache s i na r cha eo log ica l s urvey s e e f o r e xamp le ; A e r ia l P ho tog raphy ( R i ley 1 984 ; W i l son 1 982 ) , G eo log ica l S urvey ing ( Spoer ry 1 9 92 ) , Magn e t ic S urvey ing ( C la rk 1 990 ) , Me ta l D e t ec to r s ( S tead 1 991) , S o i l A na ly s i s ( Cour ty e t a l . ,e d . 1 990 ) , G IS Geog raph ica lI n f o rma t ion S y s tem s ( A l len 1 990 ) .
5 5
T h e r e i sa l so a n i n c r ea s ing a wa r en e s s o f s t a t i s t ica l m e thod s i nd i scov e ry a nd a na ly s i s . p robab i l i ty s amp l ing h a s b e en i n t eg ra t ed i n to a r cha eo log ica l s u rv ey .
T hu s ,
S oph i s t ica t 9d q uan t i ta t iv e
p rocedu r e s s u ch a sm u l t iva r ia t e a na ly se s , f o r e xamp le , h av e b e en u s ed c ommon ly . T h i s p rocedu r e c an b e d e s ign ed t ol o ok f o r s i gn if i c an t r e la t ion sh ip s o rc on t ra s tb e twe en e l emen t s t od ef ine g roup s , t hu s b r ing ing g r ea t e r o rd e r i n to d a ta .
Mu l t iva r ia t e s t a t i s t ic s n o tab ly c l u s t e r a na ly s i s a nd f a c to r
a na ly s i s c an p roduce s i gn if i can t r e su l t s w h e r e t y po log ica l c l a s s if i ca t ion o fa r t if ac t s o rs e r ia t ion o f a s semb lag ea r es ough t . F o rm o r ed e ta i ls e eF l e tche ra nd L ock 1 99 1 . 3 . Me thodo logy o fa rcha eo log ica ls u rvey T h ec omp l e t en e s sa nd c on s i s t en cy o f as u rvey s t ra t egy d epend sd i r ec t ly o n: ( 1 ) e va lua t ing c ha rac t e r i s t ic s o ft h es u rf ace a r cha eo log ica lm a t e r ia l ( a rcha eo log ica l r e co rd s ) a nd ( 2 ) d ocum en t ing t h e se c ha rac t e r i s t ic sa c cu ra t e ly . A rcha eo log i s t sw ho d ocum en tt h ea r cha eo log ica l r e co rd , n eed t o r e a l i se t h ed if e renc e sb e tw een t h e s u rf a ce a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd a nd t h e d ocum en t .
T he a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd i sd ef in ed a s " t h e
e mp i r ica lr e a l i ty o ft h es u r f a c ea r cha eo log ica ld epo s i t s" ( Wand sn id e ra nd C am i l l i 1 992 : 1 70 ) . T h ey e qua t ed i tw i th w e l l k nown " phy s ica l c on sequence p opu la t ion " o r " po t en t ia l f i nd s p opu la t ion" a s C owg i l l ( 1 970 : 1 62 )h a s p o in t ed o u t , w h i le t h e a r cha eo log ica l d ocum en t i si d en t if i ed a c co rd ing t o C owg i l l ( 1 970 : 1 6 3 ) a s t h e " phy s ica l f i nd s p opu la t ion" .
T h e d i s t in c t ion b e tw een ' r eco rd ' a nd
' d ocum en t ' i si mpo r tan t b ecau se w ha t i se xpo sed f o r d i scov e ry o n t h e s u rf ace i sn o t n ec e s sa r i ly w ha t i sa c tua l ly d i scove r ed , o r , i no t h e r w o rd s w ha t c an b e f o und a nd w ha t i sf o und ; ' r eco rd ' d eno te sw ha te x i s t s o nt h es u r f ac ea nd ' d ocum en t ' d eno t e sw ha ti sf o und i na ny s i ng l e i n spec t ion o f t h e s u r f a c e ( a cco rd ing t o Wand s ind e r a nd C am i l l i ' su sage w h ich c an b e e qua ted w i th C owg i l l 's t e rm ino logy ) ; f o rt h en a tu r ea nd d eg r ee o ft h e se d if e r ence s s e e : Wand sn id e ra nd C am i l l i 1 992 ; a l so E be r t 1 992 . T h e se p opu la t ion s i np a r tc an b e a f ec t ed b yt h e m e thod a nd p rac t ice b e ing u sed . A s C owg i l lh a sd emon s t ra t ed , s om ep hy s ica lt r ac e so fa na c t iv i ty m ay s u rv iv e , b u tb eu nd e t ec tab le w i th t h e m e thod s a nd i n s t rum en t s a va i lab le ( 1 970 : 1 63 ) . T h i s i si mpo r tan tt oh i s c onc lu s ion t h a t , " t h e p hy s ica l f i nd p opu la t ion" i st h e o n ly k i nd o f p opu la t ion w h ich w e a r e o r d ina r i ly r e a l ly a b le t o s amp le . As u r f ac e r e co rd c an b e c ha rac t e r i sed a r cha eo log ica l ly b y p rope r t ie s s uch a sa bund anc e ( t h en umbe ro fa r t if ac t so nt h es u r f a c e ) , c ompo s i t ion ( t h en umbe ro rr e la t ive f r equency o fs pec imen s i nv a r iou sc l a s se si nt h es u r f ac er e co rd ) , a nd d i s t r ibu t ion ( t h ea r rang em en to ft h o se s pec im en sa c ro s s t h e s u r f ac e ) ( Sho t t 1 995 : 4 77 ) . T h e se p roper t ie s m ay b e g en e ra l ly c o r r e la t ed ; t h e r e a r e e mp i r ica l e xamp le s t o s how h ow t h e se p r ope r t ie s c o -va ry , a r gu ing t h a t a bundanc e o f r e co rd i n c rea se s a s d i s t r ibu t ion t e nd st ob em o r ec l u s t e r ed , a nd t ha t c ompo s i t ion i nr e ga rd t oa r t if ac t s i z ec l a s se s v a r i e s w i th a bundance ( Du rm e l l 1 988 : 3 4 ; S chof i e ld 1 991 : 1 24 126 ; Wand sn id e r a nd C am i l l i 1 992 : 1 74 ) .
5 6
B u tt h e c o -va r ia t ion c an b e ap roduc t o ft h e m e thod s u sed t om ea su r et h e s u rf ace r e co rd , a nd d oe s n o t r e la te t ot h e e s sence o ft h e r e co rd i t se lf . T he a r cha eo log ica l d ocum en t c an b e a f ec ted b y o u r o b ser va t ion s m ad e o n t h e s u r f ace a nd v a r ie s a cco rd ing t o t h e m e thod s w e u se t o c ha rac te r i se a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd s .
V a r ia t ion b e tween s u rf ace d ocumen t s , h ow ev e r , c an b e t h e r e su l t o f t h e
v a r iou s m e thod s w e u se . T he r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd a nd d ocumen t v a r ie s a cco rd ing t o t h e v a r iou s f a c to r s e x i s t ing i n t h e s t udy a r ea s uch a s s i t e o b tru s ivene s s , d en s i ty , c l u s t e r edne s s a nd s o o n .
V a r iab i l i ty b e tw een s u rf ace r e co rd a nd d ocumen t c an b e m ea su red b y
m ean so fa ccu racy ,p rec i s ion , r e l iab i l i ty a nd v a l id i ty . A l l s u rvey w o rk i sa s sumed t ob e h i gh l e ve l i n t h e se r e spec t s , b u t s e e P l og ( 1 986 ) . D ocumen t ing t h e s u rf ace a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd i nt h e l i gh t o f t h e se q ua l i t ie s h a s b een a n o b jec t ive o fa r chaeo log i s t s ( e .g . N ance 1 988 ) .
H e m ade a d i s t inc t ion
b e tw e en t h ed i r ec tm ea su r emen tw h ich c an b e mad eo fo b jec t s , a nd i n d i r ec tm ea su remen t s w h ich c an b em ad e o ft h e p a s tb ehav iou r . H e a s se s sed t h e v a l id i ty o ft h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tw een f auna l r ema in s a nd p r eh i s to r ic d i e t . V a l id i ty i s at e rm c once rned w i th t h eq ua l i ty o fi n d i r ec tm ea su r emen t ( e .g . p a s t b ehav iou r ) w h i le t h e o b jec t ive m a t e r ia l s o n t h e s u rf ace ( e .g . c on t en t a nd c onf igura t ion o f a n a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd ) d o n e ed d i rec t m ea su remen t i nt e rm s o fp r ec i s ion , r e l iab i l i ty a nd a ccu racy . T h e se q ua l i t ie s r e la te t ob o th t h e m ea su r ing i n s trumen t s a nd t h e d i r ec t m ea su remen t s t h a t c an b e m ad e b y t ho se i n s trum en t s .
P rec i s ion r e f e r s t o t h e c omp rehen s ivene ss o f t h e m ea su remen t
i n s t rumen t s , f o r e xamp le , c hoo s ing t h e a pp ropr ia te l e ve l o fs u rvey i n t en s i ty .
R e l iab i l i ty r e f e r s t o
t h e q ua l i ty o fm ea su rem en t s m ade b e tween s im i la r v a r iab le s w i th as ma l l a moun t o fe r ro r .
I n t h e
c ou r se o fs i t e s u rvey , i fd if e r en t f r equenc ie s o fm a te r ia l o b ta ined u nde r d if e ren t p rocedu re s f r om t h e s am e a r ea t e nd t ob e s im i la r , t h ep rocedu r e a nd r e su l t s hou ld b e r e l iab le . A ccuracy i st h e l e ve l o fa c cu ra te m ea su r ing , t h e d ev ia t ion b e tween a c tua l a nd m ea su red p h enomenon ; t h e s ma l le r t h e d ev ia t ion t h e h i ghe r t h e l e v e l o fp r ec is ion .
S u rvey w h ich h a s t h e se q ua l i t ie s p rov ide s af a i thf u l
r e p r e sen ta t ion o f a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd s ( Cowg i l l
1 990 ; Wand sn id e r a nd C am i l l i
1 992 ; f o r
m ea su rem en t o ft h e se q ua l i t ie s i ns t a t i s t ica l t e rm s , s e e a l so P l og 1 976 ) . S pec if i c c ha rac ter i s t ic s o f a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd s s hou ld b e a ccu ra te ly a nd r e l iab ly d ef ined b y s u rvey p rocedu r e s ; t h i s w i l l d e pend u pon t h e d e s i red l e ve l o fp r ec i s ion t h a t o n e i sa sk ing f r om t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd .
A l l
l e ve l s o fp rec i s ion n eed a c cu ra t e i n f o rma t ion o ff r equenc ie s a nd s t a t e o fd i scove red ma te r ia l s . T he m a in p urpo se o fs amp l ing s t ra t egy w i th in t h e c on t ex t o fa r chaeo log ica l s u rvey i st or e p re sen t t h e se t wo c ha rac te r i s t ic so fm a t e r ia l s a sa ccu ra te ly a sp o s s ib le . A no the ra spec to ft h e a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd r e la t e s t ot h e s pa t ia l r e la t ion sh ip b e tween m a te r ia ls . I n s u ch c a se s a l d i s t r ibu t iona l p a t t er n s a nd n a tu r e o fs t ruc tu re s n eed t ob e k nown b ef o rehand .
S ome
a r chaeo log i s t s s ugge s t af u l l c ove rage o ft h e s u rvey a r ea a nd r e co rd ing a l ma te r ia l s ( e .g . a r t ic le s c on t r ibu ted t oF i sh a nd K owa lew sk i 1 990 ) .
I te nab le s a r cha eo log i s t s t of i nd o u t af u l l p i c tu re o f
5 7
s pa t ia l r e la t ion sh ip b e tw e en t h o se m a t e r ia l s .
W i th s uch a p i c tu re , t h e s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o f
m a t e r ia l sa nd s t ruc tu ra lp a t t er n sc an b er e v ea led . D ocum en t ing t h e a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd t oe s t ima te p opu la t ion p a rame t e r s i st h e p r in c ipa l g oa l o f a ny s u rv ey r e sea r ch , b u t t h e r e a r e f a c to r s t h a t a f ec t o u r o b se rva t ion a nd e v en tua l ly c o r r ec t e s t ima t ion .
S om e f a c to r s r e la t ing t ot h e a r chaeo log ica l a nd e nv i ronm en ta l c ha rac t e r i s t ic s o ft h e
s t udy a r ea c anno tb ed i r ec t ly c on t ro l led b ya r cha eo log i s t s s uch a sn a tu ra lp roce s se s o fd epo s i t ion o r v i s ib i l i ty ( Ebe r t 1 992 : 4 0 -43 ; R edman 1 982 : 3 77 ; S ch if f e r e ta l . 1 978 ; S ch if f e r a nd We l l s 1 982 ; S ch if f e r 1 987 : 1 4 1-262 ; S h ennan 1 985 : 3 5-42 ; T e r r ena to a nd Amme rman 1 996 ) . T h e r e a r e o t h e r c on t ro l lab l e f a c to r s t h a t i n f luenc e o u r r e su l t s , s amp l ing s t ra t egy ( S ch if f e r e ta l . 1 978 : 4 ) .
f o r i n s tanc e , s u rv ey t e chn ique s a nd p robab i l i ty
O th e r f a c to r s s uch a ss urv ey i n ten s i ty ( i n spec t ing t h e
s u rv ey a r ea b y c r ew m embe r s ) , o b t ru s iv en e s s o f m a te r ia l s , a bundanc e , a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e s u r f ac e r e co rd h av e c on s id e rab le e f ec t s o n r e su l t s ( Ba rk e r 1 991 : 3 ; C he r ry 1 983 , C h e r ry e ta l . 1 991 : 1 8 19 ; P l og e ta l . 1 978 , R edman 1 982 , S ch if f e r e ta l . 1 978 , S ch if f e r a nd We l l s 1 982 ; S h ennan 1 985 , Wand sn id e ra nd C am i l l i 1 992 ) . 3 . 1 A bundance a nd c l u s ter ing A bund ance r e la t e st os i t eo ra r t if ac td en s i ty , a nd i n d ica t e st h ef r equency o fs i t eo ra r t if a c tt ype i na s t udy a r ea , w h i le c l u s t e r ing i st h e s pa t ia l a gg r ega t ion o fa r cha eo log ica l m a t e r ia l i nt h e s ame a r ea ( R ead 1 986 ; S ch if f e re ta l . 1 978 : 5 ) . I ft h ef r equency o fa r cha eo log ica l m a t e r ia l ( a r t if a c t s o r s i t e s ) i sh i gh a nd n o t h i gh ly c l u s t e r ed , t h e t o ta l f r equency o f t h i s m a t e r ia l c an b e e s t ima t ed f r om a n a ccu ra t e a nd r e l iab l e s u rv ey o f ar e la t iv e ly s ma l l a r ea .
H e r e t h e s pa t ia l r e la t ion sh ip b e tw e en
m a t e r ia l c anno tb e e s t ima t ed b y s amp le . T hu s i ns uch a r ea s e v en t h e c r ud e s t m e thod o fs amp l ing t e chn ique c an p roduc e u s eab le d a ta f o r p a rame t e r e s t ima t ion b u t i nt h e a r ea s w h e r e a bund anc e ( f r equency ) f a l l s o r m a t e r ia l s t e nd t o b e m o r e c l u s t e r ed , a n a ccu ra t e a nd p r ec i se p a ram e t e r e s t ima t ion o r d i scov e ry r e qu i r e s al a rge s amp le s i z e t ob e t a k en ; t h u s , i nt h i s r e spe c t p robab i l i ty s amp l ing t e nd st ob em o r ec o s t ef f ec t ive . A ga in , i nt h ea r ea sw h e r et h ee x t r eme v a lu e so fr a r et y pe s o rc l u s t e r ing a r es ough t , s amp le s u rv ey b ecom e s al e s s r e l iab le w ay o fd ocum en t ing t h ec ha rac t e ro f a r cha eo log ica ls u r f a c ed i s t r ibu t ion , s i nce s u rv ey w i th in t h es amp l eu n i t sm ay , o rm ay n o t ,e n coun t e r a r cha eo log ica l r ema in s ( S ch if f e r e ta l . 1 978 : 4 , Wand sn id e r a nd C am i l l i 1 992 : 1 7 1 ) .
I n s t ead , a
p u rpo s ive s amp l ing t e chn ique w ou ld b e a pp ropr ia t e . I nt e rm s o fp u rpo s ive t e chn iqu e , p a r t icu la r ly w h en i ti n co rpo ra t e s i n t e rv iew d a ta ( o b ta in ed f r om l o ca l i n hab i t an t s ) , a e r ia l p ho to s , s o i l s u rvey a nd t o pog raph ic m ap s c an l e ad t o ac omp le t e i n ven to ry o fs i t e s .
F u r th e rmo r e , av a r ie ty o fp r ed ic t iv e
m od e l s c an b e u s ed a s t h e b a s i s f o r t h e p u rpo s ive t e chn iqu e s , s uch a s t h o se t h a t d emon s t ra t e r e la t ion sh ip sb e tw e en e nv i ronm en tv a r iab le s a nd t h eo ccu r r enc eo fs i t e a nd a r t if ac tt y pe s . L oca t ion o f c l u s t e r ed m a t e r ia l s u ch a s t h e h yd ro log ica l p a t t er n o r s p ec ia l i sed a r ea s a t w h ich p a r t icu la r
5 8
a c t iv i t i e st o ok p l a ce c an b er e v ea led t h rough p u rpo s iv et e chn ique ( S ch if f e re ta l . 1 978 : 5 ) . . A no th e r p rodu c t iv e w ay i n ap u rpo s ive t e chn ique t o r e cogn i se s i t e l o ca t ion c an b e t o ' m ak e u se o f e t hnog raph ic d a ta a nd w e l l d ocumen ted h i s to r ica l s ou rc e s . I ns om e a r ea s l o ca l i n hab i tan t s a r e t h e m o s tu s ef u l s ou rce o fi n f o rma t ion , w h i le i no t he ra r ea s r emo t e s e n s ing o rd i sp ropor t iona t e s amp l ing o fa r ea sw h e r eh i gh d en s i ty o fr a r e ma te r ia le x i s t s c an i n c r ea se t h ed i scov e r yo fc l u s t e red m a t e r ia l s . H ow ev e r , i ti st r ue t h a t t h e i n f o rma t ion d e r iv ed f r om p u rpo s iv e t e chn iqu e s a r e h i gh ly b i a sed . A n a l t er n a t iv ew ay t oi n c r ea se p r ec i s ion a nd r e l iab i l i ty o fs u ch t e chn ique sw ou ld b em ic ro s t ra t if ica t ion , i nw h ich t h e s t udy a r ea i sd i v id ed u p i n to s ma l l s pac e s o fm ic ro s t ra ta ; e a ch u n i t w ou ld c on ta in a c e r ta in n umbe r o f s i t e s a nd a r t if ac t s , a nd w h en s e a r ch ed s y s tema t ica l ly c an p roduc e a cc ep tab le p a ram e t e re s t ima t ion . 3 . 2O b tru s ivene s s O b t ru s iv en e s s r e la t e s t ov a r iou s c h arac t e r i s t ic s o ft h e a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd ( s i t e s a nd a r t if ac t t y pe ) s u ch a ss i z e , s u rf ac em o rpho logy , a nd t h e i rp hy s ica l a nd b i o log ica l p a t t er n . O b t ru s iv en e s s i s t h e d e g r ee o fp o s s ib i l i ty o fd e tec t ing a r cha eo log ica l m a t e r ia l u s ing ap a r t icu la r t e chn ique .
T hu s ,
o b t ru s iven e s s d epend s u pon c ha rac te r i s t ic s o f t h e a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd o n t h e ' o n e h and , a nd s p ec if i c t e chn ique o n t h e o t h e r h and ( Sch if f e r e ta l . 1 978 : 6 , S ch if f e r a nd We l l s 1 982 : 3 47 ) . O b t ru s ivene s s o ft h e a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd af ec t s t h e r a t e o f m a t e r ia l b e ing d i scov e r ed , i f , f o r i n s t anc e , ar e g ion c on ta in sl a rge s u rf ace o ra r ch i t ec tu ra lr ema in sa nd m ound sw h ich c an b ef o und b y e v en as imp le i n spec t ion t e chn ique , w he r ea s ah un t e r -ga th e ra c t iv i ty a r ea w i l l n eed m o r e s p ec ia l i sed t e chn ique so fd i scov e ry . O b t ru s iv en e s so ft h ea r cha eo log ica lr e co rd ca nb em ea su r ed b yi n t en s i ty o f s u r v ey e f o r t . T hu s , t h e o b t ru s ivene s s o fh i gh d en s i ty a r t if ac t s c a t t e r s w i th ad i am e t e r o f3 0m i s h i gh i ft h e s u rv ey t r an sec t s pa c ing i s1 5m o r l e s s ( Cowg i l l 1 990 : 2 52 -256 , R edman 1 982 : 3 77 ) , w h i l e t h e o b t r u s iv en e s s o ft h e s am e p h enom enon w i l l b e r e duced a s i n t e rva l s o ft r an sec t s pa c ing i n c r ea se .
C o r r e la t ion b e tw e en o b t ru s iven e s s a nd s u rv ey i n t en s i ty a f ec t d i scov e ry p robab i l i ty , a s
S ch if f e ra nd We l l sp o in t ed o u t ( 1982 : 3 47 ) ; d i scov e ry p robab i l i ty i s1 . 0 o n ly w hen o b t ru s iv en e s s i s e qua lt oo rg r ea t e rt h an c r ew s pa c ing i n t e rva l . 3 . 3V i s ib i l i ty V i s ib i l i ty i st h e m ea su r e o f d e t ec t ing t h e a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd w i th in t h e e nv i ronm en ta l v a r iab i l i t ie so f as t udy a r ea ( S ch if f e re ta l . 1 978 : 8 ,S ch if f e ra nd We l l s 1 982 : 3 48 ) . O n e o ft h ek ey i s su e s i n s u r v ey m e thodo logy i st h e r e la t ion sh ip b e twe en s u rf a ce v i s ib i l i ty a nd t h e d i scov e ry o f a r cha eo log ica ls i t e s i nt h el a nd scape . I ti sc l ea rf r om e xpe r ienc et h a ta l a r cha eo log ica lm a t e r ia l o n t h e l a nd scape d oe s n o t h av e a n e qua l c hance o f b e ing d i scov e r ed , d u e t o t h e d if e r ence s i n e nv i ronm en ta l c ha ra c t e r i s t ic s e x i s t ing i n t h e v a r iou s p a r t s o f ar e g ion .
5 9
A g row ing c r op , f o r
e xamp le , w i l l a f ec t t h e v i s ib i l i ty o fs i t e s o rs c a t t e r s o fa r t if a c t s . I ns uch a n a r ea t h e d if i cu l ty o f o b se rva t ion o ft h eg round s u r f ac eo f e r s al ow e xpec ta t ion o fs i t ed i scove ry . S ome r e c en ts t ud ie s i n t h eA egean I s land o fK eo s a nd a tC ec ina i nI t a ly , f o r e xamp le , m ea su r ed i nq uan t i ta t iv et e rm s t h e s c a le o fi mpac t o fv i s ib i l i ty o n s i t e d i scov e ry . T he a u tho r s f o und e v id ence t h a t c ou ld d ocum en t a c l ea r p a t te rn o fa s soc ia t ion b e tw e en s u r f a c e v i s ib i l i ty a nd s i t e d i scov e ry a nd a s t ropg r e la t ion sh ip b e tw e en t h em ( Ch e r ry e ta l . 1 991 ,T e r r ena to a nd Amme rman 1 996 ) . T h em o s ti mpo r tan tf a c to r st h a th av e as i gn if i can te f ec to nm a t e r ia ld i scov e ry a r e : ( 1 ) t h e i n t en s i ty o fp a s t a nd p r e sen t l a nd u s e ( e .g . p l ough ing , f o r a s se s s ing d eg r e e o f e f ec t b y p l ough ing s e e : Amm e rm an 1 985 ) ; ( 2 ) s u r f a c e s o i l f o rma t ion p roce s se s ( S ch if f e r 1 9 87 ) ; ( 3 ) t h e c ha ra c t e r i s t ic s o f t h e a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd ; a nd ( 4 ) t h e e nv i ronm en ta l c ha ra c t e r i s t ic s a nd g eomo rpho log ica lp a t t e rn o ft h es t udy a r ea ( Amm e rman a nd S chaf f e r 1 981 ) . E nv i ronmen ta l c ha ra c t e r i s t ic s o f a n a r ea s u ch a s r e cen t a luv ia l d epo s i t ion , p r e c ip i ta t ion a nd s e a sona l c hange s i nv eg e ta t ion a f ec tv i s ib i l i ty o fs i t e l o ca t ion s ,t h a t i s ,a na r id a r ea o f e r s v i s ib i l i ty o f s i t e s m o re t h an f o r e s t ed a nd w a t e r logged a r ea s .
T echn ique s t o b e u sed i n s u ch a r ea s a r e
d epend en t o n t h e n a tu r e o fv i s ib i l i ty . B ecau se as t udy a r ea m ay c on s i s t o fv a r iou s e nv i ronmen ta l c ha ra c t e r i s t ic s , d i v id ing u p t h e a r ea i n to z on e s a cco rd ing t o t h e i r d if e r en t v i s ib i l i ty h e lp s t o e mpha s i se t h ed if e r ence s a nd t oj u s t if yt h es p ec i f ic t e chn ique t ob eu sed i ne a ch z on e . T hu s aw id e r a ng eo ft e chn iqu e s i sa va i lab le t oa pp ly i ne a ch a r ea t oi n c r ea se t h e c h anc e o f d i scov e ry . I na r ea s w i th a n e x tend ed a nd v i s ib le s u rf ac e s u ch a s c u l t iva t ed f i e ld s , o r w i th s pa r se v eg e ta t ion , f i e ld w a lk ing c an b e p roduc t iv e , i ff a c to r s t h a t o b scu r e o r r e duce v i s ib i l i ty o fs i t e s o r i s o la t ed ma t e r ia l c an b e c on t ro l led ( S ch if f e r e ta l . 1 978 : 8 ,C h e r ry 1 983 ) .
Aw ay o u t o ft h e p rob l em o fv i s ib i l i ty
p a r t icu la r ly i nt h ea r ea w h e r ei s o la t ed m a t e r ia l sa r ea bundan t , i st h ei n t en s if i ca t ion o ff i e ld c ove rage , s i nc e t h e l a nd scape i sc ove r ed m o r e i n t en s iv e ly a nd mo re a t t en t ion i sp a id t o l i gh t e r s ca t te r s o f m a t e r ia l o n i t s s u rf ac e ( Ch e r ry 1 983 ) .
A e r ia l r emo t e s e n s ing i s au sef u l t e chn iqu e i ni d en t if y ing
l a rge s i t e s a nd r e v ea l ing h yd ro l ic a c t iv i ty , a r ch i t ec tu ra l a nd v ege ta t iona l p a t t er n s .
I na r ea s w h e r e
e xpo su r e o ft h e g r ound s u rf a c e i so b scu r ed b y l ow v ege ta t ion o rg eo log ica l d epo s i t ion , s y s t ema t ic u s eo fs hove lp i t s c an b eu sef u l , w h i le s i t e sb u r ied a t ag r ea t e rd ep th c an b ed e t ec ted b ya ugu r ing o r c o r ing t o o l s ( e .g . McMan amon 1 984 , S ho f f 1 985 ) .
B u t s uch a pp roach e s a r e a pp l i cab l e t o s ma l l
a r ea sn o tt o ar e g ion ( T e r r ena to a nd Amm e rman 1 996 : 9 2 ) . I ti so bv iou s t h a t ac o r r ec t e s t ima t ion o fp a ram e t e r s d epend s h eav i ly o n c on s id e ra t ion o f a l l t h e a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd s i nt h es t udy a r ea . F a i lu r et od ot h i s c an i n t roduce al a rge a mo im to fb i a s i n to e s t ima t ion o fp a ram e t e r s a nd e v en tua l ly a f ec t so u rr e con s t ruc t ion o ft h eh uman p a s t . T o o v e rcom e s u ch b i a se s , a nd b ef o r e d e s ign ing a ny s u rvey , t h e r e i s an eed t o c o l lec t c omp le t e i n f o rma t ion o f
6 0
v ege ta t ion , t o pog raphy , g eo log ica l h i s tory , h yd ro logy a nd s o i l s .
T h i s i n f o rma t ion c an a i d t h e
s t ra t if i ca t ion o nt h eb a s i s o fm a te r ia lv i s ib i l i ty ; a pp ropr ia te t e chn ique s c an t h en b e a pp l ied i n to e ach s t ra tum . 3 . 4A cce ss ib i l i ty A cc e ss ib i l i ty i st h e p o s s ib i l i ty o fm ak ing o bse rva t ion s a t ap a r t icu la r p l ace ( Sch if f e r e ta l . 1 978 , S ch if f e r a nd G ume rman 1 977a : 1 86 187 , S ch if f e r a nd We l l s 1 982 : 3 49 ) . T h i s f a c to r a l so af ec t s t h ed i scove ry r a te w hen a dv e r se f a c to r s a r ee ncoun t e red w h ich c an r e duce t h e ef i c iency o ft h e c r ew , f o r i n s tance , w hen h eavy r a in m ake s s u r f ace s w e t a nd s l ippe ry a nd m uddy , a f ec t ing t e am m o ra le . B e s id e s c l ima t ic f a c to r st h e r e i s av a r ie ty o fa dv e r se f a c to r s s uch a sd en se f o re s t a nd j ung le ma r shy l a nd , a nd r ugged o r m oun ta inou s t e r ra in t h a t a f ec t c r ew m ob i l i ty a nd t r an spor ta t ion .
T hey may
a l so i n h ib i t s u r vey w o rk b y a f ec t ing s hape a nd s i ze o f c o l lec t ion u n i t s o r t h e d i rec t ion o f f i e ld s u rv ey ( f o r r e su l t s o f aq uan t i ta t ive m ea su rem en t o f a cce s s ib i l i ty , s e e S ch if f e r a r id We l l s 1 982 : 3 48 ) . T he re i sa l so ap rob lem o fa cce s s ib i l i ty t h a t a r cha eo log i s t s a r e f a c ing w i th r e f e r ence t o t h e l a nd o wne r sh ip p a t t e rn i ns ome c oun t r ie s . A cce s s t op r iva t e l a nd n eed s p e rm i s s ion b u t i tmay b e r e f u sed b yt h e l a nd o wne r . I ns uch ac i rcum s tance s i n d i rec t p rocedu re s o fd a ta c o l lec t ing a nd s i t e d i scovery s uch a s r emo te s e n s ing , p r ed ic t ive m ode l s a nd i n te rv iew s c an r e p lace d i rec t a cce s s ( S ch if f e re ta l . 1 978 : 9 ) . 4 .S i te d ef in i t ion T h eq ue s t ion o fw ha ti s as i t eh a s a lway s b een ap rob lem . I nt h et r ad i t iona l v i ew o fa r cha eo log ica l d a ta as i te h a s c on s i s ted o f as pec if i c c l a s s o fa r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia l o r al a rge a moun t o fv i s ib le a r t if ac t s , o r o u t s tand ing a r ch i tec tu ra l s t ruc tu re s , w he rea s s ma l l s i te s , a c t iv i ty a r ea s a nd s imp le a r t if ac t s ca t t e r s w e re o u t s ide o fi n te re s t ( Ho le a nd H e ize r 1 973 : 11 ; s e e a l so D unne 1 1 a nd D ancey 1 9 83 ) .
Many a r cha eo log ica l s i t e s w e re e xc luded b y s uch a n i n te rpr e ta t ion .
T h i s m ay o r ig ina te
f r om ( 1 ) ac on sc iou s o m i s s ion o n t h e b a s i s o ft h e r e sea rch o b jec t ive o r ( 2 ) u ncon sc iou s ly o n t h e b a s i s o fh ow m e thodo log ica l ly as i t e i sd ef ined . P log e ta l . ( 1 978 : 3 86 ) p ub l i shed t h e r e su l t o ft wo s u r v ey s c a r r ied o u t i nC haco C anyon N a t iona l Monumen t ( 5 2km2)a nd
i nt h e S ta r L ake a r ea o f
Mex ico ( 60k rn2) . A l though , b o th s urvey s w e r e s im i la r i nt h e i n t en s i ty o fi n ve s t iga t ion , d en s i ty o f a r chaeo log ica lm a te r ia la nd r ange o ft o pog raphy a nd v ege ta t ion , t h e f o rm e rs urvey h ad o ve r looked a l a rg en umbe ro fp r e -ce ram ic s i t e s : 1 09 s i t e s f ound i nt h e l a t t e r s u rvey , a ga in s t o n ly 1 5 s i t e s f ound i n t h e f o rme r , d ue t o t h e d if i cu l ty o f p e rce iv ing s pa r se l i t h ic s c a t te r s a s s i te s i nt h e f i r s t s urvey . D if f i cu l t ie s i no pe ra t iona l i s ing t h es i te c oncep tf o rced a r cha eo log i s t st op rov ide a n e xp l ic i t d ef in i t ion o fa r chaeo log ica l s i t e s . Af u r the rs t ep i nr e spon se t ot h i s p rob lem h a s b een t a ken b y a r cha eo log i s t s s u ch a s S ch if f e r e ta l . ( 1 978 : 1 4 ) b y d ef in ing as i te a s : a r t if ac t s i nt h e s t udy a r ea o ccu r i n ac l u s te r
6 1
r e p r e sen t ing n a tu ra l o b se rva t ion u n i t s c a l led ' s i t e s ' .
Two m o r e s uch d e f i n i t ion s i n c lud e : as i t e i s
" d ef in ed a s a ny l o ca t ion c ha rac t e r i sed b y t h e d epo s i t ion o f t h e r ema in s o f h uman a c t iv i ty" ( SARG .1974 : 10 ) a nd " any p l a ce w h e r et h e r ea r et r ace so fh um an a c t iv i ty i s as i t e" ,( S chaa r 1 983 : 2 6 ) . E ach o ft h e se i st e chn ica l ly c o r r ec t b u t o fl i t t le o pe ra t iona l v a lue i nt h e f i e ld s p ec ia l ly i na n a r ea w h e r e s pa t ia l ly c on t inuou s o rh i gh ly d i spe r sed d i s t r ibu t ion o fc u l tu ra l r ema in s e x i s t a c ro ss t h e r e g ion . F o re x amp le , a sG a l lan t ( 1 986 : 4 08 ) h a s s hown f r om h i s e xpe r ienc e , o n ly 1 . 6% o ft h e o n e h ec ta r e s amp l e u n i t w a s c omp le t e ly d evo id o fs u rf ace a r t if a c t s .
A n a l t e rna t ive w a s af o rma l i sed
a pp roach t h a te s tab l i sh ed d en s i ty -ba sed c r i t e r ia f o rs i t e d ef in i t ion s uch a st h a t p roduc ed b y SARG : " a s i t e i sa ny l o cu s o fc u l tu ra l m a t e r ia l , a r t if a c t s o rf a c i l i t ie s w i th ad en s i ty o f ma t e r ia l o fa tl e a s t f i v e a r t if a c t s p e r s qua r e m e t e r" ( P log a nd H i l l 1 971 : 8 ) .
A no th e r i st h a t o f t h e A r izona S t a t e
Mu seum R e sea rch G roup w h ich p ropo sed at h r e e p a r t d ef in i t ion : " a s i t e ( 1 ) i t mu s t h ave s pa t ia l l i m i t s ; ( 2 ) i tm u s t h av e m u l t ip l e a c t iv i ty l o c i ; a nd ( 3 ) i nt h e l a ck o f ( 1 ) a nd ( 2 ) i tm u s t h av e a n a r t if a c td en s i ty g r ea t e rt h an f i v e a r t if a c t s p e r s qua r e m e t e r ( Do e l le 1 977 : 2 02 ) . T h e d en s i ty -ba sed d ef in i t ion s h av e p o t en t ia l ly g r ea t e r u t i l i ty b u t h av e b e en c r i t ic i sed b y f i e ld e xpe r im en t s : ( 1 ) a s t anda rd i sed d en s i ty o f 5a r t if ac t s p e r s qua re m e t e r i st h e e x cep t ion r a th e rt h an r u le ; ( 2 ) r e vea l ing mu l t ip le a c t iv i ty l o c i a nd s pa t ia l l i m i t s i nc e r ta in t y pe o fs i t e s , s uch a s n on seden ta ry s i t e s w h e r e t h e i r p opu la t ion h a s l e f t l ow d en s i ty s c a t t e r s , c an b e d if i cu l t ; a nd ( 3 ) t h e se ' c r i t e r ia w ou ld u ndoub t ed ly e xc lud e t h e v a s t m a jo r i ty o fa r t if ac t s i nm any s u rvey a r ea s ( Che r ry 1 983 : 3 94 -396 , G a l lan t 1 986 : 4 08 ,P l og e ta l . 1 978 : 3 86 -387 ) . A tt h e s am et im et h e r e h av e b een o t h e r a t t emp t s t os o lv et h e p r ob lem . O n e m ade b y P l og e ta l . i s m o r e i n c i s iv e ( 1 978 : 3 88 -389 ) ; i nt h i s d ef in i t ion a s i t e i s" a d i sc r e t e a nd p o ten t ia l ly i n t e rp re tab le l o cu s o fm a t e r ia l" . B y d i sc r e t et h ey m ean t " spa t ia l ly b ounded w i th t h o se b ounda r ie s m a rked b y a t l e a s tr e la t ive c hange s i na r t if a c td en s i t ie s" . T h ey a l so e mpha s i s ed t h ev a lue o ft h e " t ra i l ing e dge o f t h e a r cha eo log ica l s i t e s p ec t rum" , t h a t i st h o se l o c i o f c u l tu ra l m a t e r ia l w he re a r t if a c t ma t e r ia l d i s t r ibu t ion i ss pa r se a nd d i f f u se . O fg r ea t i mpo r tanc e i nr e spon se t ot h ep rob lem o fs i t e d ef in i t ion h a sb e en t os h if tt h eo r ien ta t ion o fr e sea rch a way f r om t h et r ad i t iona l s i t e . Ag row ing a wa rene s s o f l ow d en s i ty d i f f u se d i s t r ibu t ion o fc u l tu ra l ma t e r ia lh a s l e dt ot h es ugge s t ion t h a t , i nc e r ta in a r ea s o r f o r t h e i n v e s t iga t ion o f c e r ta in c l a s se s o f m a t e r ia l , t h e s i t e c oncep t h a s t o b e r e p lac ed w i th a r e co rd ing s y s t em w h e r e t h e l o ca t ion o f as i ng l e c u l tu ra l i t em b ecom e s t h e b a s ic u n i t o fd i scove ry . T h i s r e sea rch s t ra t egy i sc a l l ed s i t e le s s , ' n on s i t e ' o r ' of s i t e ' s u rvey .
I n s uch ä p rocedu r e i n
r e g iona l s u r v ey t h e e l em en ta ry u n i t o f o b se rva t ion a nd a na ly s i s i st h e a r t if ac t ( Dunn e l l 1 993 , D unn e l l a nd D ancey 1 983 : 2 72 , E be r t 1 992 : 6 2 , F o ley 1981 ) .
T h i s p rocedu r e o f e r s s eve ra l
a dvan tage s :( 1 ) i tp rov id e s s i tua t ion s i n w h ich m any s i t e s c an b e d e t ec t ed ; ( 2 ) i tp rov ide s a r e cogn i t ion o ft h ev a r iab i l i ty o fd en s i t ie s o fs i t e s b y c onc en t ra t ing o n f i n eg r ada t ion i nt h e i n ten s i ty
6 2
o fh uman a c t iv i ty a nd m ov eab le c u l tu ra l i t em s o f s u ch a c t iv i ty ; a nd ( 3 ) i ti sh e lpf u l i nt r y ing t o e xp la in q uan t i ta t ive ly v a r ia t ion i nt h es u rf ace d en s i t ie s o fc u l tu ra lm a te r ia l s ( Cher ry 1 983 : 3 96 ) . T h i s p rocedu r ei sv ery l a bou r i n ten s ive a nd r e qu i re s r i go rou s m ode l s o fs amp l ing s t ra tegy t ha t m ay b e r e ga rded a s ad i sadvan tage o ft h i s s y s tem . H ow eve rb e s ide s m o re a t t emp t s t oo pe ra t iona l i se t h e ' n on s i te ' c oncep t , D oc i le ( 1 977 ) h a s made a c r i t ica l a r gumen t i n w h ich ' s i te s ' a nd ' n on s i te s ' c anno tb o th b e r e co rded d u r ing as i ng le s urvey o fa n a r ea . H e r e commend ed ac omb ined p rocedu re t e rmed " w ide spaced , r a p id -pa ced" t o p rov ide a r e l iab le i n ven to ry o fv i s ib le l a rge s i te a s w e l l a s n on s i t e man if e s ta t ion s . Af u r the r s t ep t owa rd ao pe ra t iona l d ef in i t ion o f as i t e h a s b een t a ken b y G a l lan t ( 1986 : 4 09 ) ; h e a r gued t h a t as i t ew ou ld b e ac omb ina t ion o ft h e c oncep to ft h e s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e a r t if ac t a s ac on t inuum o n ar e g iona l s c a le a nd o f ah i gh d en s i ty s c a t te r o r s i t e a s o n ly o ne e nd o f t ha t c on t inuum .
O nt h e b a s i s o ft h e d ef in i t ion o fP log e ta l . h e c onc luded as i t e c an o n ly b e d ef ined i n
r e la t ion t oo v e ra l lr e g iona la r t if ac td en s i ty wh ich i nt u rn w i l lb ea f ec ted b yv i s ib i l i ty . I nt h ee nd , i ts e em s m o r er e a sonab le h e re t ou se C he r ry 's c ompu t e r i sed m ode l o fs i te c oncep t . T h i s c oncep t i sb a s ica l ly b a sed o n s e ve ra l a s sump t ion s : ( 1 ) t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd c on s i s t s o f a v i r tua l ly c on t inuou s s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o fm a te r ia l o ve rt h e l a nd scape ; ( 2 ) d i s t r ibu t ion i se x t reme ly v a r iab le i nd en s i ty ; a nd ( 3 ) ad i s t r ibu t ion m ay c on s i s t s o ft wo v a r iab le c omponen t s , o fd ome s t ic o r s t ruc tu ra lr ema in s , a nd o fb ackg round n o i se ( v ery l ow d en s i ty o fm a t e r ia l s c a t t e red a c ro s s t h e f i e ld ) . T he d i scr im ina t ion b e tw een t h e t wo k i nd s o fs ca t t e r s s h ou ld b e w e l l d ef ined ( Che r ry 1 982 , C her ry a nd S he rman 1 978 , s e e a l so D unne l l a nd D ancey 1 883 : 2 72 -273 ) .
C he r ry d eve loped h i s m ode l
w hen h e w a s w o rk ing o n Me lo s . I nh i s c ompu t e r -d rawn t o pog raph ic r e l ief m ode l t h e p eak s d o n o t i n d ica te n a tu ra lt o pog raphy b u t r a the r i n d ica te a r ea s w h e r e t h e d en s i ty o fm a t e r ia l c an b e e xpec ted t ob eh i gh . T h i sa r ea i su sua l ly t e rmed a' s i te ' . T h eg r ea ti mpo r tance o ft h i s mode l i si t sa pp l ica t ion t od ea l w i th e v e ry s t age o fd en s i ty l e ve l ( e .g . s l ic ing t h rough t h e m ode l a ta ny d en s i ty l e ve l m ake s i t p o s s ib le t o r e ta in a t o ne e x t reme o n ly t h e t o ps o f t h e h i ghe s t p e ak s , a t t h e o t he r t h e e n t i re c onf igu ra t ion o ft h e d en s i ty o ft h e l a nd scape ) ; t h u s i ti s ap roce s s i nw h ich d a ta /ma te r ia l c an b e r e ta ined o r d i sca rd ed . w i th s amp l ing p roce s s .
I ft h e s e lec t ion i st h e c a se , t h e q ue s t ion o fs i t e d ef in i t ion p rove s t ob e t i ed A s C he r ry p o in ted o u t , t h e c oncep t o f as i t e w i th in t h e p opu la t ion o f
a r cha eo log ica l m a t e r ia l i n ar e g iona l s ca le w ou ld d epend u pon : ( 1 ) s p ec if ic c ha rac te r i s t ic s o ft h e d i s t r ibu t ion ; ( 2 ) t h e r e sou rce a va i lab le ; a nd ( 3 ) t h e i mpo r tance o fc e r ta in c l a s se s o fa r cha eo log ica l d a ta . Ap o in tt ob es t r e s sed h e r e i st h a t , d e sp i t e d eve lopmen t i nt h e o n to log ica l a nd t h eo r e t ica l c oncep t o f t h ea r chaeo log ica l ' s i te ' o ve rl a s t3 0y ea r s , s ome a r cha eo log i s t s a r en ow t h ink ing o ft h e d eve lopmen t
6 3
o f an ew a nd a ccu ra t et e rm ino logy . T h i sa s sump t ion i sb a sed o nt h ef a c tt h a t ,a sS ho t tn o t e s ( 1 995 : 4 70 ) , s i nce t h ea r cha eo log ica lr e co rd i sc on t inuou si nd i s t r ibu t ion a nd n o td i sc re t ea sa s sum ed b yt h e ' s i t e ' a pp roach , ac on t inuou st e rm w ou ld b en ece s sa ry t od e sc r ib eb e t te rt h e " h igh d en s i ty m od e s i n c on t inuou sa r cha eo log ica lr e co rd" . 5 .S urvey i n ten s i ty T h i s a f ec t s f undam en ta l ly t h e p robab i l i ty o fm a t e r ia l d i scov e ry a nd p a r am e t e r e s t ima t ion ; t h e d eg r e e o ft h e i n t en s i ty o ft h e s urv ey i so n e o ft h e mo s t b a s ic d e c i s ion s i nc onduc t ing a ny s ur v ey p ro jec t( Ch e r ry e ta l . 1 991 , C owg i l l 1 990 , S ch if f e re ta l . 1 978 ) . I n t en s i ty c an b em ea su r ed b yt h ea moun to fd i s t ance s e pa ra t ing m embe r s o f as u rv ey t e am o rb yt h e n umbe r o fp e r son -day s s p en t i ns u r v ey ing a p a r t icu la r a r ea ( P log e ta l . 1 978 : 3 90 , S ch if f e r a nd We l l s 1 982 ) . T h e l e v e lo fi n t en s i ty d epend s d i r ec t ly o n av a r ie ty o fc ond i t ion s a nd f a c to r s e x i s t ing i nt h e a r ea s uch a st im e a nd r e sou rc e s a va i lab le a sw e l l a s l o ca l c ond i t ion s s uch a se a se o fa cce s s a nd t r an spo r ta t ion . I th a s b e en s ugg e s t ed t h a t o n ly w i th ah i gh l e v e l o fi n t en s i ty w i l l m any s i t e s b e f o und . T he h ypo th e s i st h a t " The h i gh e rt h e i n t en s i ty , t h e l a rge rw i l l b et h en umbe r o fs i t e s f ound" w a s e x am ined b y P l og e ta l . ( 1 978 ) o n 1 2 p r ev iou s ly s urv ey ed a r ea s o ft h e Ame r ic an S ou thw e s t . T h er e su l ti l u s t ra t ed ap o s i t iv e c o r r e la t ion b e tw een p e r son -day p e rs qua re u n i ta nd s i t ed i scove ry ( a s u rv ey i n t en s i ty o f2 0p e r son -day sp e rs qua r em i le c ou ld p roduc e ad en s i ty o fs l igh t ly m o r et h an 1 0 s i t e s , w h e r ea s w i th 8 0 p e r son -day s a pp rox ima t e ly 6 5 s i t e s w e r e d i scove r ed ) .
T h e p a t t er n i st h a t
s p end ing m o re d ay sp e ru n i ta r ea p roduc e sm o re s i te sp e ru n i ta r ea . T h e i re xpe r im en ta l so i n d ica t ed t h a t o n ly a g r ea t e r l e v e l o fi n t en s i ty w ou ld d e t ec t m o re a r cha eo log ica l s i t e s w h i le S ch if f e r e ta l . ( 1 978 : 9 ,1 3 ) a nd S ch if f e ra nd We l l s ( 1 982 : 3 70 ) h ave c onc lud ed t h a tt h e g r ea t e r l e v e l o fi n ten s i ty m ay s t i l l o v e r look m a t e r ia l w i th l ow o b t ru s iv en e s s . T hey p ropo sed t h r ee k i nd s o fi n t en s i ty l e v e l s : t h el a rg e s paced i n t e rva l s ( a t 1 00m ) f o ra r ea s w i th m o re o b t ru s iv e m a te r ia l s , c l o se s pa ced i n t erva l s ( a t af ew m e t re s ) f o r i s o la t ed m a t e r ia l s , a nd i n t e rm ed ia t e s pa c ed i n t e rva l s ( a t 1 0 -75m ) .
S im i la r
e xpe r im en t s b y R edm an ( 1 982 : 3 78 ) s how t h a t t h e l a rge s pac ed i n t e rva l s ( e .g . t r an sec t s a t 1k m i n t e r va l s )c an l o ca t ea l l a rge o b t ru s iv es i t e s (e .g . 2 00m i nd i am e t e r )b u tt h a to n ly 1 5% o ft h es u rf a c e s c a t t e r s ( e .g . 5 0m i nd i am e t e r ) w h i le t r an sec t s a t2 00m i n t erva l s w ou ld i n c r ea se t h e p robab i l i ty o f d i scov e r ing l ow o b t ru s iv e s i t e s ( e .g . 1 00m i nd i am e t e r ) t o 1 00% a nd s u rf ac e s c a t t e r s t o7 5% . T h e c on c lu s ion f r om b o th S ch if f e re ta l . a nd R edman ( s ee a l so C h e r ry 1 983 , C h e r ry e ta l . 1 99 1 ) i st h a t i n c r ea s ing s u rv ey i n t en s i ty a nd e xpend ing m o r e t im e p e r u n i t a r ea w i l l p rov id e m o r e s i t e s o fl ow o b t ru s ivene s sa nd i s o la t ed a r t if ac t s . A p o in t t o b e e mpha s i sed h e re c on c e rn s t h e a pp rop r ia t en e s s o f i n ten s iv e a nd e x t en s iv e s urv ey m e thod s . Wha t s o r t o ft e chn ique s s h ou ld b e c ho sen a nd wh ich l e v e l o fi n t en s i ty c an b e p roduc t iv e
6 4
w i l l d epend o n an umbe r o f f a c to r s , i n c lud ing p ro jec t g oa l , t h e s t a t e o f e x i s t ing k now ledge , t h e e nv i ronmen ta l c ha rac te r i s t ic s o ft h e s t udy a r ea a nd t h e r e sou rce a va i lab le . I ft h e r e sea rch i sa imed a te s t ima t ion r a the rt h an o v e ra l l r e g iona l p a t te rn s , as e lec t ive , i n ten s ive s u rvey b a sed o n p robab i l i ty p r inc ip le s i st h em o s tp roduc t ive a pp roach ( Che r ry 1 983 : 3 91-2 ) . B u t w he re amu l t i s tage r e sea rch c yc le i si np rog r e s s s p ec if i c q ue s t ion s w i l l b e p o sed a te ach s t age o fr e sea rch a st h e s urvey p ro jec t p rog re s se s , a nd t h e re i s an e ed t oc omp lemen ti n ten s iv ea nd e x ten s ive s urv ey m e thod s . 6 .S amp l ing S tra tegy A rcha eo log i s t s h av e l o ng r e cogn i sed t h a t i n f e rence s a bou t p a s t h uman b ehav iou r a r e i nf a c t b a sed u pon s ma l l s amp le s . T he c oncep t o fr e p re sen ta t ivene s s o fs amp le s a nd u s ing s amp l ing m e thod t o c o l lec ta r t if ac t s w a s a n i mpor tan ti s sue i nN ew Wo r ld a r chaeo logy i nt h e f i r s tq ua r te ro ft h e p re sen t c en tury ( e .g . w o rk s c a r r ied o u t b y S p ie r i n 1 917 a nd G ladv in i n 1 928 , s e c C henha l l 1 975 : 3 ) . S om ewha t l a t e r , o n t h e b a s i s o fb o th t h e V iru V a l ley a nd t h e L ow e r M i s s i s s ipp i A l luv ia l V a l ley s ur vey p ro jec t s ( Ph i l ip s e ta l . 1 951 , F o rd a nd W i l ley 1 949 ) , F o rd d i scu s sed s amp l ing p rocedu re i n m o r e d e ta i l .
A l though t h e se e a r ly w o rk s c oncer n ed t h e v a l id i ty o ft h e i r s amp le s , t h e r e w a s n o t a
f i rm u nde r s tand ing o ft h ep r inc ip le so fs t a t i s t ica l r a ndom s amp l ing . D u r ing t h e 1 950 s s amp l ing s t ra t egy a t t rac ted m o re a t ten t ion f r om a r cha eo log i s t s a nd a dop ted t h e d eve loped m a thema t ica l ly b a sed f r amewo rk o fs amp l ing t e chn ique k nown a sr a ndom s amp l ing . B u t i tw a s n o t u n t i l t h e 1 960 s t h a t B inf o rd ( 1964 ) p ropo sed a r e sea rch d e s ign i nw h ich p robab i l i ty s amp l ing ( r andom s amp l ing ) w a s a s sum ed a s a n i n t eg ra l p a r t o f ac omp rehen s ive r e sea rch d e s ign a nd t h eb e s tm ean s o fo b ta in ing r e p r e sen ta t ive a nd r e l iab le d a ta . I nh i s v i ew s amp l ing i so ne o ft h e m o s t i mpo r tan t e x e rc i se s i n d eve lopmen t o f r e sea rch d e s ign t h rough w h ich o ne c an e xam ine s t a t i s t ica l ly t h ep ro jec t 's r e sea rch g oa l s , t h ed a ta r e qu i r emen t , a nd t h e b e s tm e thod f o rc o l lec t ing t h e r e qu i r ed d a ta . F rom 1 960 a g row ing n umbe r o f Ame r ican a r cha eo log i s t s w a s i n t e re s ted i n t h e p o ten t ia l o f s amp l ing t e chn ique s i na r chaeo logy . A s Mue l le rh a s p o in t ed o u t ( Mue l le r 1 975 : x)t h i s w a s d ue t o : ( 1 ) t h e i n c rea s ing c o s t s o fp e rf o rm ing f i e ld w o rk ; ( 2 ) t h e d ec rea s ing a va i lab i l i ty o fr e sea rch f und s ; ( 3 )t h eh uge a moun t o fa r t if ac tua l a nd n on a r t if ac tua l d a ta ; a nd ( 4 ) t h e a bundance o fr e g ion s , s i te s a nd a s semb lage st ob es e a r ch ed . T he se f a c to r s l e da r cha eo log i s t st oe xp l ic i t a pp l ica t ion o fs amp l ing t h eo ry i nt h es u rvey o f ar e g ion , e xcava t ion o f as i t ea nd a na ly s i s o fa na s semb lage . Ac l ea r p o r t ra i t o f s amp l ing c oncep t , c an b e f ound i nt h e F lanne ry 's i n t roduc t ion t o a n a r t ic le w r i t t en b y P l og ( F lann ery 1 976 : 1 3 1135 ) .
I n t h i s i n t roduc t ion t h rough a d i a logue h e t r ied t o
d emon s t ra te ab r ief a ccoun t o fs amp l ing p rocedu re a nd i t s g r ea t i mpo r tance i nt h e r e g iona l l e ve l s u rv ey . A s h e h a s p o in t ed o u t , t h e g r ea te s t Me soam e r ican i s t s s uch a s S and e r a nd MacNe i sh h ave
6 5
s u rv ey ed e n t i r er e g ion s f i e ld b yf i e ld a nd m e t r eb ym e t r ew i th e xpend i tu r e o f mo r em on ey a nd t im e . H eh a s a r gued t h a tt h e " r ea l Me soam e r ican a r cha eo log i s t s" h ave n o t a pp l ied p robab i l i ty s amp l ing ; t h e i rr e a son s w e r e ( 1 ) s amp l ing i s aw a s t e o fe n e rgy ; ( 2 ) i st o ot im e c on sum ing ; ( 3 ) i sn o t r e l iab le ; a nd ( 4 )i sn o ta pp l icab le t oc omp lex s o c ie t ie s . T h ey a l so a dded :" a2 0% s amp l ing d e s ign h a sm i s sed T eo t ihuacan t h e l a rg e s tp r e -Co lumb ian c i ty i nt h en ew w o r ld" . H e r e F l ann e ry , t od ef end s amp l ing v a l id i ty , h a s r e f e r r ed t ot h e e xce l len t w o rk o fB inf o rd a nd r e p l i ed: " p robab i l i ty s amp l ing i sn o t a d i scov e ry t e chn iqu et of i nd l o t s o fc i t ie s , b u t i ti sj u s tt h e b e s t w ay t og e t r e p re sen ta t iv e s amp le o f s i t e s i fy ou c anno tg of o rt h ew ho le u n iv e r se . . ." H eh a s c onc lud ed t h a tt h e f u l l c ove rag eo fa ne n t i r e r e g ion t of i nd ar a r et y pe o fs i t em ay w a s t em o r et im et h an p r epa r ing a2 0% s amp le , s i nc et h e r em ay b em o r et ime s pen t" pu sh ing t h ej e ep o u to ft h em ud" . F lanne ry i nh i s a rgumen th a st r i ed t op rov id e ag ood u nd e r s t and ing b e tw e en t h e t wo c on t rad ic to ry o p in ion s : o n e g roup d ef end ing t r ad i t iona l s u rv ey t e chn ique s c l a im ed t h a t p robab i l i ty s amp l ing w ou ld n o tf i nd l o s t c i t ie s o r "T h e P y ram id o f t h e S un" , o t he r s r e l ied h eav i ly o np robab i l i ty s amp l ing a st h eb e s t a r cha eo log ica l a pp roa ch . I nt h e e nd , h i s t wo s ugg e s t ion s s e em t oc l a r if y s imp ly t h e p u rpo se o fs amp l ing : " f i r s t , i fy ou c an s urv ey e n t i r e r e g ion m e t e r b y m e t e r , d o s o i np r ef e r enc e t o s amp l ing .
S econd , o the rw i se . . .do a 2 0%
s amp le . . .by u s ing s om ek i nd o fp robab i l i ty s amp l ing . . . , b e l iev e i td oe s n o tt a k e mo r et i m et h an y ou w e re a l r eady p l ann ing t os p end . . .
A l though t h i s s amp l ing m ay f a i l t of i nd t h e 8s qk m c i ty o f
Mon t eA lban ,b u ti ti su n ique" . F rom t h e 1 960 s o nwa rd s p robab i l i ty s amp l ing h a s a lway s h e ld a c en t ra l p o s i t ion i n t h e a r cha eo log ica lr e sea rch a nd l i t e ra tu r e . Aw id er a ng eo fi n f o rma t ion c once rn ing s amp l ing t h eo ry a nd m e thod c an b ef ound t h rough t h ef o l low ing r e f e r enc e s: B in f o rd 1 964 , C h e r ry 1 983 , C h e r ry a nd S h enan 1 978 , v a r iou s p ape r s i nC he r ry e ta l . e d s . , 1 978 , C owg i l l 1 964 , 1 970 , 1 990 , F l anne ry 1 976 , H o le 1 980 , J uge 1 9 81 , v a r iou s p ape r s i n Mue l le r e d . , 1 975 ,N ance 1 981 , 1 983 ,1988 , P l og 1 978 , R ead 1 986 ,R edman 1 974 , 1 987 . T h e c oncep t o fu t i l i s ing a p robab i l i ty s amp l ing s t ra t egy i nm od em s urv ey n ow h a s ac en t ra l p o s i t ion i nt h e d i sc ip l in e . A s h a s c ommon ly b e en s t r e s sed i nt h e a r cha eo log ica l l i t e ra tu r e , d ec i s ion m ak ing o np robab i l i ty s amp l ing i sb a sed o nf u ndam en ta la s sump t ion s : ( 1 )a r cha eo log i s t sa r en o ta b le t oi n v e s t iga t ec omp le t e ly a l le x i s t ing m a t e r ia l s ; ( 2 ) al i m i t ed a moun t o f m a t e r ia l s e lec t ed t h rough a v a l id p roc edu r e r e f lec t s a c cu ra t e ly t h e p a ram e t e r so ft h et o ta lp opu la t ion ; ( 3 ) i n v e s t iga t ing a l o ft h e m a t e r ia l s m ay b e i mpo s s ib le o rn eed ah uge a moun t o fm on ey a nd t im e . T he se l i m i t ed r e sou rc e si mpo se o n ly t h ei n v e s t iga t ion o f as ma l lp o r t ion o ft o ta l ma t e r ia l s ;
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( 4 )t h ep a t te rn o fc u l tu ra lr ema in sr e f lec t st h en a tu re o fp a t t e rn s o fp a s tb ehav iour . S amp l ing o n ly a p o r t ion o ft h e s u rf ace r ema in s t h rough a s y s tema t ic p rocedu re a low s u s t o make i n f e rence s f r om t h a ts amp le o ft h ee n t i r ep a t t e rn o ft h ep a s t . T he o b jec t ive o fp robab i l i s t ic s amp l ing i st o o b ta in a r e p r e sen ta t ive s amp le f r om w h ich e s t ima te s c an b e m ade o ft o ta l p opu la t ion p a rame t e r s o ra s at oo l t oa i d a r chaeo log i s t s i ns e lec t ing au n i t o f i n ve s t iga t ion .
I n p l ann ing a s amp l ing d e s ign t h e re a r e f o u r m a jo r s t ep s f o r c on s ide ra t ion :( 1 )
s t a t emen to fo b jec t ive ( r e sea rch q ue s t ion ) ; ( 2 ) d ef in i t ion o ft h e p opu la t ion t ob e s amp led ; ( 3 ) c ho ice o fs amp le s i ze a nd s amp l ing u n i t ; a nd ( 4 ) s e lec t ion o fs amp l ing t e chn ique ( P eacock 1 978 : 1 83 ) . T he o b jec t ive o fs amp l ing s t ra t egy i na r cha eo log ica l s urv ey v a r ie s f r om t h e r e la t ive ly s imp le t a sk o f e s t ima t ing t h e a ve rage d en s i ty o fc u l tu ra l r ema in s i n ar e g ion t os amp l ing a n a r ea t o e s t ima t e t h e m ean ingf u l p a rame te r s o ft h o se r ema in s .
T he e xpec ta t ion f r om t h e s amp l ing s t ra t egy may n o t b e
s a t i sf i ed u n le s s d ec i s ion s a r e m ade o n u t i l i s ing a n e f ec t iv e s amp l ing m e thod o fd i scove ry a nd a n ef i c ien ts amp l ing m e thod o fe s t ima t ion ( Nance 1 983 : 2 91) . S amp l ing m e thod s a r e c oncer n ed w i th t h e a t temp t t o i n f e r t h e q uan t i ta t ive r e la t ion sh ip b e tween a l a rge e n t i ty ( popu la t ion ) a nd as amp le o ft h a tp opu la t ion . I nt h i s p rocedu re b a s ic a t ten t ion n eed s t o b e p a id t ot h e r e p re sen ta t iven e s s o fs amp le s , s amp le e s t ima t e s a nd s t a t i s t ica l t h eory . I nc on t ra s t t o t h e s amp l ing m e thod o fd i scove ry w h ich r e la te s t ot h e p roce s s o fl o ca t ion o fc u l tu ra l p henomena , s amp l ing m e thod s o fe s t ima t ion c oncer nt h eb e s te s t ima t ion o fg ene ra l c ha rac te r i s t ic s o fp henomena . H oweve r , f o r t h e p u rpo se o ft h e p rope r i mp lemen ta t ion o f s amp l ing p rocedu re s i na r chaeo log ica l s u rv ey w o rk i nt e rm s o fs amp l ing s t ra t egy , t h e re a r e s e ve ra l v a r iab le s t h a t h av e t ob e i d en t if ied a nd t h er e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h em m u s tb eu nde r s tood b ef o r ehand . P opu la t ion : i s al a rge r e n t i ty a bou t w h ich s ome k i nd s o fi n f o rma t ion i sr e qu i r ed . E lemen t s : a r et h e i n d iv idua lm embe r s o f ap opu la t ion . P opu la t ion p arame ter : i st h e p rope r ty o fi n t e re s t i n ap opu la t ion , w h ich i sd e r ived f r om v a lue s o f a l m embe r s o f t h e p opu la t ion .
S amp le e s t ima te : i st h e i n f o rma t ion o f p opu la i ion p a rame t e r
o b ta ined f r om o b serva t ion o fs amp le e l emen t s . S amp le s i ze : i st h en umbe r o fe l emen t s a ppea r ing i n t h es amp le . S amp le f r ac t ion : i st h ep ropo r t ion o fp opu la t ion t h a ti ss e lec t ed f o re xam ina t ion . 6 . 1 S amp l ing d e s ign S amp l ing d e s ign i st h e p rocedu r e b y w h ich s amp l ing u n i t s a r e s e lec ted .
T he r e a r e f ou r t ype o f
s amp l ing d e s ign u seab le i na r cha eo logy t h a th ave b een d ef in ed b yg eog raphe r s ( Hagge t te ta l . 1 977 ) . 6 . 1 .1 S imp le r andom s amp l ing d e s ign :t h e s t udy a r ea i nt h i s m e thod i sg r idded i n to s qua r e s . T he t wo a x e s o ft h ea r ea a r en umbe red a nd al o ca t ion i sc ho sen a cco rd ing t o ar a ndom n umbe r s t a b le o r b y ap a i r o fr a ndom c o -o rd ina t e s . T he a dvan tage s o ft h i s m e thod a r e : ( 1 ) d if e r en t s amp l ing u n i t s h ave ae qua l c hance o fb e ing c ho sen ; ( 2 ) t h i s m e thod r e duce s o b se rva t ion b i a se s .
6 7
B u t t h e re a r e
s om e d i sadv an tage s : ( 1 ) i tn e ed s s i t e b ounda r ie s b ef o r e r andom i sa t ion a nd t h e se a r e n o t a lway s k nown w i th c e r ta in ty ; ( 2 )t h eg r ea td r aw b a ck o ft h i s m e thod i st ha t , i nt h e a r ea w he r eh i gh d en s i ty o fm a t e r ia l s t e nd t o b e c l u s t e r ed , r a ndom ly s e lec t ion o fs amp l ing u n i t s m ay m i s s m o r e c l u s t e r ed u n i t s t ob e t e s t ed ( R edm an 1 974 , R edman a nd Wa t son 1 970 , P log 1 976 , P log e ta l . 1 978 ) . T h e b e s te xamp le o fu s ing t h i s m e thod c an b e s e en f r om w o rk o f Ma rcu s W in t e r a tt h e s ma l l f o rma t iv e p e r iod s t udy o fT ie r ra sL a rga si nt h eO axa ca -Mex ico . 6 . 1 .2 s t ra t if i ed s amp l ing d e s ign :t h e s t udy a r ea i sd i v ided i n to n a tu ra l s egmen t s , a nd s amp le s a r e d r awn i n d epend en t ly f r om e a ch s e gm en t .
W i th in e ach s e gm en t t h e l o ca t ion o f t h e p o in t i s
d e t e rm in ed b yt h es am er a ndom i sa t ion p roc edu r ea si ns imp le r a ndom s amp l ing . I na r ea sw h e r et h e a r cha eo log ica l ma t e r ia l s a r e e v en ly d i s t r ibu t ed , s ubd iv id ing t h e a r ea i n to h omog en eou s s t ra ta o f e qua l s i z ew i l l b em o s te f ec t iv e . B u tt h e s i z e s o fs t ra t if i ed u n i t s a r en o t a lway s e qua l . B ecau se i n s om ec a se s w h en t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fv a r iab le s i sn o te qua l o ve rt h e s t udy a r ea , t h e s t ra ta w i th m o r e v a r iab l e s a c tua l ly n eed m o r e o b serva t ion t h an s t ra ta w i th l e s s v a r iab le s ( P log e ta l . 1 978 : 4 03 ) . Ef ec t iv e s t ra t if ica t ion w ou ld r e duce s amp l ing s t anda rd d ev ia t ion .
R educ ing t h i s f a c to r i n c r ea se s
s amp l ing p r ec i s ion a nd p roduce sb e t t e re s t ima t ion w i th in e ach s t ra ta ( Nance 1 983 : 3 0 , 8 ) . 6 . 1 .3 s y s tema t ic s amp l ing d e s ign :i sb a sed o nt h es e lec t ion o ft h ef i r s ts amp l ing u n i tt ob es amp led b ys om er a ndom m e thod . Af t e rt h ef i r s tu n i th a sb een s e lec t ed t h en , a l s ub sequen ts amp l eu n i t s a r e s e lec t ed a t as pec if i ed i n t e rva l . S y s t ema t ic s amp l ing r e duce s t h e r i sk o fm i s s ing a ny u n ique p o r t ion o f t h e s i t e w h ich c ou ld h appen i n r a ndom s amp l ing .
F o r av a luab le e xamp l e o f a pp l ica t ion
s y s t ema t ic s amp l ing , s e er e g iona ls u rv ey o n Me lo s ( Ch e r ry 1 982 ) . 6 . 1 .4 s t ra t if i ed s y s tema t ic u na l igned d e s ign :i ti s a mo r e s a t i sf ac to ry m e thod t o u se w h ich c omb in e st h e ma in e l em en t s o fa l t h r ee r a ndom , s t ra t if i ed a nd s y s t ema t ic d e s ign s . I nt h i s m e thod t h e s t udy a r ea i sd i v id ed s y s t ema t ica l ly i n to ar e gu la r c h eck e rboa rd o ft h e s ub -a r ea s . Ap o in t Ii s d e t e rm in ed b y r andom n umbe r s i nt h e c o rn e r o ft h e s ub -a r ea . T h e X -ax i s a nd Y -ax i s o ft h e s ub a r ea a r en umbe red b e twe en z e ro a nd n i n e . Ar a ndom n umbe rb e tw e en z e ro a nd n i n e ty -n ine g i v e s a c o -o rd ina t ep o s i t ion w i th r e spec tt ob o th a x e s . T h e Xc o -o rd ina te i sk ep tc on s tan ta l a l ong t h e r ow b u tt h e Yc o -o rd ina t ei sv a r ied b yu s ing ar a ndom n umbe r s t a b le . A s t h e se n umbe r s a r e d r awn t h e p o in t s m ov eu p a nd d own w i th r e spec tt ot h eY -ax i s , b u t r ema in s i nt h e s am e p o s i t ion w i th r e spec t t ot h e X -ax i s .
Wh en b o th t h e f i r s t r ow a nd c o lumn a r e c omp le t ed an ew c o rn e r p o in t mu s t b e
g en e ra t ed p o in t I . . .
T h i s p roce s s c on t inue s u n t i l a l r ow s a nd c o lumn s a r e f u l l .
T h i s m e thod
p rov id e s au nb ia sed s e t o f s amp le s o v e r t h e w ho le a r ea . R edm an a nd Wa t son ( 1 970 ) u sed t h i s m e thod f o rc o l lec t ing s u rf ac em a t e r ia la t al a rg em ound o fG i r ik i -Ha c iyan i nT u rk ey .
6 8
T h e ef i c iency a nd p r ef e rence o f e ach s amp l ing d e s ign d e sc r ibed a bove h a s b een t e s ted b y P log ( 1 976 )o ns ome s amp le st a ken f r om m a jo rs u rvey s i nt h eV a l ley o f Mex ico . I n ac ompa ra t ive s t udy h e t r i ed t oa s se s s t h e ef i c iency o fe ach d e s ign a tp red ic t ing t h e t o ta l n umbe r o fs i t e s f r om a 1 0% s amp le .
H e c onc lud ed t h a t s y s tema t ic a nd s t ra t if ied s y s tema t ic s amp l ing w e r e s l igh t ly mo re
ef i c ien tt h an t h e s imp le s t ra t if i ed r a ndom s amp l ing d e s ign . B u tt h e re a r e n o s i gn if i can t d if e rence s b e tw e en t h e m o re c omp lex a nd s imp le s t d e s ign s .
T he ref o r e , i n mo s t c i rcum s tance s s uch a s
s u rv ey ing u nknown a r ea s ,t h es imp le s ts amp l ing d e s ign w ou ld b et h e mo s tp rac t ica l 6 . 2 S amp l ing u n i t S t a t i s t ica l s amp l ing i na r cha eo log ica l s u rvey e n ta i l s t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f ag r id o ve rt h e a r ea t ob e s amp led .
T he se a r e g en e ra l ly q uad ra t s , t r an sec t s o r o t he r a r b i t ra ry u n i t s .
s e lec t u n i t o f p a r t icu la r s i z e a nd s hape f r om w h ich t o d raw a s amp le .
A n i n v e s t iga to r mu s t A n umbe r o f s t ud ie s
i l u s t ra t ed t h e e f ec t o fs i z e a nd s hape o f s amp l ing u n i t s ; o n d i scovery p robab i l i ty .
S ee : C he r ry
1 983 , P l og e ta l . 1 978 , R edman 1 974 , S ch if f e re ta l . 1 978 . 6 . 2 .1 U n i t s i ze T h e c ho ice i st y p ica l ly b e tw een l a rge a nd s ma l l s amp l ing u n i t s . B a s ica l ly l a rge u n i t s h ave s eve ra l a dvan tage s : ( 1 ) t h e e dge e f ec t t h a t c au se s o ve re s t ima t ing t h e t o ta l n umbe r o fs i t e s i n as amp l ing a r ea i sr e duced f o rl a rge a r ea s ( P log e ta l . 1 978 : 3 99 , S ch if f e r e ta l . 1 978 , S ch if f e r a nd We l l s 1 982 : 3 50 ) .
T he h ypo th e t ica l o r e f ec t ive c ove rage o f ar e a l s amp l ing u n i t i sg r ea t e r t h an t h e i r a c tua l
s u r f ace a r ea . F o r i n s tance f o u r s qua r e s amp l ing u n i t s t ha t a r e 0 . 25km 2 e ach a nd c ove r at o ta l a r ea o f1 . 00km 2 w i l lh ypo the t ica l ly c ove r aa r ea o f1 . 44km 2,w he rea s t wo s qua re s s amp l ing u n i t s t h a t a r e 0 . 50km 2 e ach a nd c ove r at o ta l a r ea o f 1 . 00 Ian 2 w i l l h ypo the t ica l ly c ove r a n a r ea o fo n ly 1 . 30k rn 2; ( 2 ) l a rge u n i t s g ene ra l ly t e nd t o r e vea l s pa t ia l c l u s te r ing , p a t te rn s o f a s soc ia t ion a nd i n te r s i t e r e la t ion sh ip ; ( 3 )c o s t sa r el owe ra nd m ov ing c r ew sb e tween l a rge u n i t s a r ee a sy ; a nd ( 4 ) s i te c oun ti n s u ch u n i t s w i l l b e g r ea t e r .
A l so t h e u se o f s ma l le r u n i t s i n c r ea se s
p rob lem s a s soc ia ted w i th
s k ewne ss o ft h e p opu la t ion d i s t r ibu t ion ( Nance 1 983 : 3 08 , R edman 1 974 : 1 9 ) ; u s ing l a rge u n i t s r e duce s t h e se p rob lem s .
I nc on t ra s t : ( 1 ) a s P log 's e xper ience s h ave d emon s t ra t ed , o w ing t o t h e
g r ea t e r a r ea o f h ypo th e t ica l c ove rage o f s ma l le r s amp l ing u n i t s , s ma l le r u n i t s w ou ld of e r t h e l i k e l ihood o f f i nd ing m o r e s i t e s t h an l a rge r u n i t s .
F o r e xamp le i n t h e V a l ley o f O axaca f o r
d i scove r ing t h e N o r iega s i t e q uad ra t e s e ach 0 . 5 I cm x 0 . 5 1 cm o r 2 5 1 cm2 w e r e s e lec t ed r a ndom ly .
I n
o r d e rt od i scove rp a r to fN o r iega , 1 3 .5km 2 o r2 5% o ft h et o ta l q uad ra te s h ad t ob e s u rveyed . When t h e s i d e o fq uad ra t e s w e r e d oub led t o 1 cm 2 t h e t o ta l a r ea t ob e s u rveyed b ecame 1 8 1an 2 o r 3% o f s u rv ey q uad ra te s . B u t c onv e r se ly e xpe r ience s howed t ha t w hen t h e s i ze o fe a ch q uad ra te d ec rea se s t oo n ly 0 . 25 1 cm 2 t h e t o ta l a r ea e xpec ted t ob e s urveyed d ec r ea se s t o o n ly 6 . 0 I cm 2 o r 1 .1 % o ft h e
6 9
s urv ey q uad ra te s ( s ee o t h e re xamp le s i nP l og e ta l . 1 978 : 3 95 -398 ) ; ( 2 ) o ne w ay t or e duc et h ee f e c t o fa gg r ega t ion i st ou se s ma l le rs amp l ing u n i t s . A sP l og ( 1976 : 1 57 )h a s d emon s t ra t ed , r e duc t ion i n t h e s amp le u n i t s i z e i n c r ea se s p r ec i s ion . H ow ev e r , t h e r e w i l l b e ap rob lem o fi n c r ea s ing c o s t s o f e xam in ing l a rge n umbe r s o fs ma l l s amp l ing u n i t s ; ( 3 ) b ecau se o ft h e l a rge n umbe r o ft h e s ma l l e r u n i t s i nt h es t udy a r ea t h ey w ou ld y i e ld i mp rov ed p a rame t e re s t ima t e ( P log e ta l . 1 978 : 4 0 , S ch if f e r e ta l . 1 978 : 1 ) . S amp l ing u n i t s i ze i sa f ec t ed b y m any f a c to r s s u ch a s l o g i s t ic s , f und ing , t a rge t p a ram e t e r s a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o fr e levan ta r cha eo log ica lm a t e r ia l . I fm oney i sa va i lab le a nd t h e i n ten t ion i st ol o ok a t i n t e r s i t e r e la t ion sh ip s , s t ra t ig raph ic c or r e la t ion a nd s pa t ia l a na ly s i s , l a rge u n i t s c an b e e mp loy ed . O nt h eo t h e rh and w h en f u nd s a r el ow a nd t h er e sea rch g oa li st h ee s t ima t ion o fo ve ra l l s i t ed en s i ty , o r at o ta l i n ven to ry o fc ommon o b jec t s ( R edman 1 987 : 2 60 ) , i n t e rmed ia t e a nd s ma l l s i z eu n i t s m ay b e c ho sen .
T h e d ec i s ion o n t h e u n i t s i z e s hou ld b e r e lev an t t ot h e p rob lem o r ien ta t ion ( p ro je c t
s pec if i c ) ; i ft h e a im o fr e sea r ch i st od ea l w i th m u l t ip le t a rg e tp a r am e t e r s , c hoo s ing v a r iou s s i z eo f u n i t sw ou ld b ea pp rop r ia t e . 6 . 2 .2 U n i ts hape A s w i th u n i t s i ze , c hoo s ing t h e s hape o f s amp l ing u n i t s ( t ran sec t , q uad ra t ) a l so n e ed s s om e c on s id e ra t ion . A l though t h er e su l t s o fs e v e ra ls t ud ie so nt h eu n i ts hape a r en o tc onc lu s iv e ,t h e r ea r e c on s id e rab le i n d ica t ion st h a tt ra n sec t s ( al a rg e r e c t ang le ) a r ee f ec t iv e f r om as t a t i s t ica lp e r spec t iv e ( e .g . C h e r ry 1 983 , P l og 1 976 , P l og e t a l . 1 9 78 , S ch if f e r e t a l . 1 978 ) s i nce : ( 1 ) t r an se c t s h ypo th e t ica l ly c ov e r al a rge r a r ea t h an q uad ra t s , a nd t hu s c an b e e xpec ted t o d i scov e r ag r ea t e r p e rcen tag e o fs i t e s ( e xamp le s c an b e f o und i nP l og e ta l . ( 1978 : 4 01) b a sed o n t h e i r e xpe r ienc e i n t h e V a l ley o fO axaca s how ing t h a t i ns i x c a se s t r an sec t s amp l e s h av e f ound a g r ea t e r n umbe r o f s i t e st h an o t h e rc ho ice s ) ; ( 2 )t r an sec t s a r ee a s ie rt oh and le a nd t oc ov e rl o ng d i s tance s ; ( 3 )t r an sec t s c an b e d e s ign ed t o r e co rd a r t if ac t d en s i t ie s a c ro s s t h e l a nd scape a nd w ou ld m e e t av a r ie ty o f t opog raph ic a nd e nv i ronm en ta l e l em en t s ; t h u s t r an sec t s a r e i d ea l t o e s t ima t e s i t e v a r iab i l i ty a nd g en e ra l p opu la t ion p a ram e t e r s ( J udg e e ta l . 1 975 : 8 , S ch if f e r e ta l . 1 978 : 1 2 ) ; ( 4 ) t r an sec t s h av e l o ng e dge s s oi n t e r sec tm o r e s i t e s r e su l t ing i nm o r e i n f o rma t ion w h e r e ar e g iona l o ri n t ra s i t e s u rv ey i si n t end ed ( Sch if f e ra nd We l l s 1 982 : 3 76 ) . I nc on t ra s t : ( 1 ) an umbe r o fr e gu la r ly p l a c ed q uad ra t s w ou ld p roduce t w ice a sm uch e dg e e xpo su r e a st r an sec t s . T hu s t h ey w ou ld h ave al a rg e r s amp le a r ea t h an t r an sec t s . F o rf i nd ing i n d iv idua lt h ing so rp a r t icu la rs i t e s , al a rge a ccumu la t ion o fa c t iv i ty l o c i a nd d i s t r ibu t iona l p a t t er n s , t h ey a r e s uppo sed t ob e e qua l ly a se f ec t ive a s t r an sec t s ( Ch e r ry a nd S h ennan 1 978 : 3 0 , R edman 1 97 : 2 0 ) ; ( 2 ) q uad ra t sh ave l e s se dge e f ec t( h ypo th e t ica lc ov e rag e ) t h an t r an sec t s .
F o r e xamp l e as qua r e t h a t i s3 00m o n as i d e c ov e r ing a n a r ea o f0 . 09km 2,w i l l
h ypo th e t ica l ly c ov e ra na r ea o f0 . 16km2,w h e r ea s ar e c tang le t h a ti s9 00 b y 1 00m , a l so c ov e r ing a n
7 0
a r ea o f 0 . 09km 2 w i l l h ypo the t ica l ly c ove r a n a r ea o f 0 . 20km2 ( P log e t a l . 1 978 : 3 99 ) .
T hu s
p o t en t ia l ly t r an sec t sf i nd m o re s i t e sb u ti ti sm o re l i ke ly t ha tt h e e s t ima t ion w i l l b eb i a sed w i th o ve r r e p re sen ta t ion o ft h et o ta ln umbe ro fs i te i n as amp l ing a r ea ; ( 3 ) s amp l ing e r ro ri nq uad ra tu n i t s may b el ow e rt h an t r an sec tu n i t s( Che r ry a nd S he rman 1 978 : 3 0 ) . A l though a pp ly ing t r an sec t s amp l ing u n i t s s e em s t o b e a dvan tageou s , t h e u n i t s i ze , a nd s hape o f u n i t sc ho sen w i l la l so d epend o nr e sea rch o r ien ta t ion a nd s pec if ic p rob lem s . 7 .S urf ace a r t if ac tc o l lec t ion s t ra tegy T h e c ommon g oa l o f a l i n v e s t iga to r s i n ma ter ia l c o l lec t ion i st o o b ta in a s amp le o f s u rf ace m a te r ia lt h a tc an b er e p r e sen ta t ive o ft h ew ho le m a te r ia l f r om as i t eo rr e g ion . T rad i t iona l ly , s urf ace a r t if ac t s h ave l o ng b een u s ed t o l o ca te s i t e s , e s tab l i sh r e g iona l c u l tu re h i s to ry , a nd t o d e te rm ine w he r e t oe xcava te w i th in as i t e ( Ho le a nd H e ize r 1 973 ) .
I nr e cen t y ea r s i n c r ea s ing a pp l ica t ion o f
s u rf ace c o l lec t ion i n c u l tu ra l r e sou rce m anagemen t ( CRM ) a nd b a s ic r e sea rch p ro jec t s h ave e xpanded t h et r ad i t iona lr o le o fs u rf ace c o l lec t ion t o ar e sea rch p rob lem ( Dunne l l a nd D ancey 1 983 , P log e ta l . 1 978 , R edman a nd Wa t son 1 970 , S ch if f e re ta l . 1 978 ) a nd t o ar e cogn i t ion o ft h e e f ec t s o ff o rma t ion p roce s se s o ns u r f ace p h enom ena ( Sch if f e r 1 976 , S ch if f e r 1 987 ) . T oday t h e s y s tema t ic c o l lec t ion o f ma t e r ia l f r om as i t e s u rf ace f o rm s ac on s ide rab le p a r t o fa r cha eo log ica l s u rvey d e s ign . Am e thod o fc on t ro l led s u rf ace c o l lec t ing y i e ld s d a ta t ha t make s ar e g iona l s u rvey m o re ef i c ien ta nd p roduc t ive . B a s ica l ly ,t h ec oncep to fs u rf ace c o l lec t ion i sb a sed o nt wo a s sump t ion s: ( 1 ) i na ny a r cha eo log ica l s i t e , t h e r e i s am ean ingf u l r e la t ion sh ip b e tween m a te r ia l d i s t r ibu ted o nt h e s u r f ace a nd u nde rg round d i s t r ibu t ion .
F rom s u rf ace d a ta , t h e c ond i t ion o ft h e s ub sur f ace c an b e
p r ed ic ted ( B inf o rd e ta l . 1 970 ) r e ga rd ing a 1 : 1 c o r re spondence b e tween s u r f ace a nd s ub surf ace ( s ee R edman a nd Wa t son 1 970 ) ; ( 2 ) t h e s upe rf i c ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o f a r t if ac t s c on s t i tu t e s a n a pp ropr ia te s ou rce o f a r cha eo log ica l d a ta i n dependen t o f s ur f ace r ema in s ( Dunn e l l a nd D ancey 1983 : 2 70 , L ewa rch a nd O 'Br ien 1 981 : 3 00 ) . T he q ue s t ion o f t h e v a l id i ty o fs u rf ace c o l lec t ion i sc r i t ica l b o th c once rn ing t h ec ompo s i t ion o fs u rf ace d epo s i t s a nd t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween s u rf ace a nd s ub surf ace m a t e r ia l .
T he q ue s t ion s t h a t m ay b e a sk ed h e re a r e : ( 1 ) w ha t i st h e r o le o f f o rma t ion p roce s se s
( c u l tu ra l a nd n a tu ra l ) t h a t c r ea te c on tempo ra ry s u rf ace m a te r ia l s ; ( 2 ) h ow i st h e , c on tempo ra ry s u rf ace d if e ren tf r om t h ep a s ts u r f ace , s ub sur f ace d epo s i to ro t he rm oder ns u rf ace s . T h i s q ue s t ion i sd e r ived f r om t h ef a c tt h a ti nm any c a se s d if e ren ta r t if ac tc l a s s f r equenc ie s c an b eo b served e i the r b e tween s u rf ace a nd s ub su rf ace o r o n t h e s u rf ace a t v a r iou s t ime o f c o l lec t ion ( Te r rena to a nd Amme rman 1 996 ) . T hu s , m od er n s u rf ace s a r e n o t t h e s ame a s p a s t s u rf ace s a nd t h ey d if e r f r om o ne a no the r . A s h a s b e en d emon s t ra t ed i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l l i t e ra tu re t h e se d if e rence s c an b e d ue t o m od e rn l a nd m od if i ca t ion p roce s se s o r t o g eomo rpho log ica l p roce sse s ( Lewa rch a nd O 'Br ien
7 1
1 981 : 3 00 ) .
C u l tu ra l a nd n a tu ra l t r an sf o rma t iona l p roce s se s a r e d i s tu rb ing t h e s i t e s a nd c au s ing
s u r f ac em a t e r ia lt ob e m oved f a r th e r a way f r om i t s o r ig ina l c on t ex t s o ro l d a nd n ew m a t e r ia lt ob e m ixed t o g e th e r .
I d en t if y ing t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tw een s u rf a ce a nd s ub su rf ace i ns uch a r ea s ( e .g .
p l ough ed z on e o rc u l t iva t ed a r ea ) i sm o r e c omp l ex , s i nc e a r t if ac t s i ns uch a na r ea a r eu nd e rgo ing a h i gh r a t e o fd amage a nd d i s tu rbanc eb yp l ough ing . I tc an c au se v a r ied d en s i t ie s o fa r t if a c t s o nt h e s u rf ace ; t h e p rob lem i st h a t , s i nc e p l ough ing p e rman en t ly b r eak s u p b ody s h e rd s , t h e d en s i t ie s o f d i agno s t ic s h e rd s d oe s n o th av e am ean ingf u l r e la t ion sh ip w i th c u l tu ra l a nd b ehav iou ra l p roce s se s . I ns uch c a se st h e r e su l t s m ay b eb i a sed b ecau se l ow d en s i ty m a te r ia l s m ay b e o v e r look ed . A no th e r p rob lem a r i se sf r om aw id e sp r ead s c a t t e ro fs h e rd s v i s ib le o nt h e s i t e c au sed b ym anu r ing p rac t ic e s o nt h e c u l t iva t ed a r ea o rm ix ed w i th r e f u se f r om t h e d a i ly l i f e o fh ab i ta t ion a r ea s . R upp ( 1 983 : 6 7 ) h a s w i tn e s sed t h i sp rob lem b yr e p r e sen t ing a ne x amp le o ft h ee a r ly N or th Am e r ican o ccupan t st h a t t h ey t h r ew t h e i r r e f u se o u t o ft h e i r l i v ing a r ea s s ot h a t t h e r e w a s l i t t l e m a t e r ia l f ound w i th in t h e f o unda t ion o fs t ruc tu r e s . T hu s i ns u ch a r ea s w ec an q uan t if ya r t if a c td en s i t ie s ,b u ti ti sc onf u s ing i f o n e i si n t e r e s t ed i ni d en t if y ing t h e p a t t er n s o fa c t iv i ty a r ea s i nr e la t ion t oh i gh d en s i ty o fa r t if a c t s , s i nce a r t if ac t d en s i t ie s c anno t n ec e s sa r i ly d ef in e a c t iv i ty a r ea s o t he r t h an i nt h e c a se o f r e f u se d epo s i t s . I nt h e a r cha eo log ica l l i t e ra tu r e t h e r e h av e b e en av a r ie ty o fs t ud ie s s pec if ica l ly t o e va lua t e t h e d eg r e et ow h ich f o rma t ion p roce s se s c r ea t e s u rf a c em a t e r ia l s . V a r iou s a t t emp t s h av eb e en m ad et o u nd e r s t and t h e i mpac t o f d epo s i t iona l , e r o s iona l a nd c u l tu ra l p roce s se s t h rough ' e xam in ing t h e s u rf a c ec l a s sf r equ en c i e si n as i t eo rr e g ion ( e .g .H an son a nd S ch if f e r 1 975 ,H e s se 1 971 ) . Ef ec t s o f a luv ia l d epo s i t ion o ns u r f ac e s h e rd f r equenc ie s h av eb een e x am ined b yK i rkby a nd K i rkby ( 1 976 ) . T h ey d ev e loped as e r ie s o fp robab i l i ty e qua t ion s f o r r e cov e r ing s u rf ace m a t e r ia l s b a sed o n o r ig ina l p opu la t ion s i z e , a ve rage a ccumu la t ion r a te s a nd t i m e s i nce d epo s i t ion . T h ey d e t e rm in ed t h a t a f t e r 1 00 y ea r s 3 7% o ft h e o r ig ina l s h e rd s i nt h e d epo s i t w i l l b e d e t ec t ed o nt h e s u rf a ce . B u t r e cov e ry p robab i l i t ie s d r op s ha rp ly w i th t i m e s o t ha t , a f t e r 1 000 y ea r s o n ly , 0 . 004% o ft h e o r ig ina l s h e rd p opu la t ion w i l l b e e xpo sed a s s u rf ace m a t e r ia l s .
T h e h ypo th e s i s t h a t d i s t r ibu t ion o f s u rf a c e
m a t e r ia l s r e f lec t u nd e rg round c ond i t ion s w a s t e s t ed b y R edman a nd Wa t son ( 1 970 ) a tt h e t wo p r eh i s to r ic s i t e s o fC ayonu a nd G i r ik i -Hac ian i nT u rkey . T h ey o b ta ined a s i gn i f ican t c o r r e la t ion b e tw e en s u r f a c e a nd s ub s u rf a c e b y m ea su r ing t h e r a t io o fa r t if ac t c a t ego r i e s o b ta in ed f r om t h e s u rf ac ea nd t h es ub su rf a ce . T h ey a l so c onc lud ed t h a t , w i th i n c r ea s ing d ep th , c o r re la t ion o fs u rf ac e t os ub su rf ac ea r t if ac tc l a s s f r equenc ie s w i l l d ec r ea se . I ng ene ra l , c o r r e la t ion d r opped s i gn i f ic an t ly b e low a5 0cm d ep th f r om t h e s u rf a ce , a l though , s om e t e s t s qua r e s s how ed h i gh c o r r e la t ion b e low l m . d ep th ( R edman a nd Wa t son 1 970 , s e e a l so R edman 1 973 ) .
T h e e f ec t o f c u l tu ra l
t r an sf o rma t iona l p roc e s se s s u ch a s p l ough ing , h a s b een a n a r ea o f i n t e r e s t i nt h e a r cha eo log ica l
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l i t e ra tu r e ( e .g . Amme rman 1 9 85 , C la rk a nd S chof i e ld 1 991) .
P lough ing c an b e v i ew ed a s al a rge
s c a le f o rma t ion p roce s st h a ti su n ique t ot h em oder ns u rf ace . T h i s f a c to rc au se s l a te ra l a nd v e r t ica l d i sp lacemen to fa r t if ac t s a nd c hange sa r t if ac tc l a s s f r equenc ie s o ve rt h e s u rf ace , e ven tua l ly r e su l t ing i n s e r iou s d i s tu rbance t ot h ea r chaeo log ica l p a t ter n s . T he n a tu re o ft h ep l ough z one a nd t h e e f ec t o fp l ough ing o n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd h av e b een a n i mpo r tan t r e sea rch a r ea i nw h ich a t t emp t s o nt h eo ne h and h ave b een m ad et od ef ine i t sc ha rac te ri nt e rm s o ff o rma t ion p roce s se s ( e .g . S ch if f e r 1 975 , 1 987 ) , a nd o n t h e o t h e r h and t oq uan t if y c hange s i na r t if ac t s i ze a nd w e igh t c l a s s r a t io s i n o rde r t o e s t ima t e r e l iab le p opu la t ion p a ram e te r s . T h e p l ough z one s u r f ace c on ta in s a n a moun t ( s amp le ) o f t h e u nde r ly ing p l ough z one a r t if ac t p opu la t ion , w h ich i sa f ec t ed b y a r t if ac t s i ze , c u l t iva t ion m e thod a nd o t h e r f a c to r s .
D i scove ry r a te o n s uch a s u rf ace d epend s ‚ h eav i ly o n t h e
d en s i ty o fe xpo sed a r t if ac t s ,v i s ib i l i ty c ond i t ion s a nd s urvey i n ten s i ty ( Amme rman 1 985 ) . O ne m o s t i mpo r t an tp rob lem i nt h ep l ough z on e c once rn s t h e d en s i ty o fa r t if ac t s a ppea r ing o nt h e s u r f ace . A n umbe r o fs t ud ie s h ave s how ed t h a t o n a v e rage b e tween am in imum o f0 . 3% a nd am ax imum o f 1 6 .6% o fp lough z one a r t if ac t s c an a ppea r o n t h e s u rf ace ( r ef e rence s c an b e f ound i nS hor t 1 995 : 4 78 ) . T e r rena to a nd Amm e rman ( 1 996 : 9 3-95 ) h ave t r ied e xper imen ta l ly t oi l u s t ra t e t h e e xpo su re r a t ea nd s t ocha s t ic v a r ia t ion o fa r t if ac t sb ys imu la t ing t h e c i rcu la t ion o fm a t e r ia l i nt h e p l ough z one . T he i r e xpe r imen t w a s c a r r ied o u t b y t r ia l s u s ing s amp le s o f 1 0 , 3 0 , 1 00 , 3 00 a nd 5 00 f r agmen t s . R e su l t s s howed t h a t , i nt h ec a se o f1 0f r agmen t s , o n ly i nt wo o u t o f 1 0t r ia l s d i d o ne p i ece m ake i t s a ppea rance o n t h e s u rf ace , w h i le a tt h e l e ve l o f 3 00 p i ece s af a i r n umbe r o f p i ece s m ade t h e i r a ppea rance o nt h es u rf ace ( 9p i ece s i na ny o n et r ia l ) . T h i s m ean s t h a tw hen t h en umbe ro fp i ece s i n t h ep l ough z one i sc ompa ra t iv e ly s ma l l ( l e s st h an 1 0 p i ece s ) t h i s s t ocha s t ic i ty e xpre s sed i t se lf i nt h e p r e sence o ra b sence o fm a t e r ia l o nt h e s u rf ace . B ecau se o fv a ry ing d en s i ty v a lue s f r om o n et r ia l t o t h en ex t ( f rom o ne y ea rt ot h en ex ty ea r ) , t h i s i s sue i nt ur nc an c au se p rob lem s s uch a s : ( 1 ) w e c an h ave l i t t le c onf id ence i n i n t e rp re ta t ion s m ade o n t h e b a s i s o f s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o f s uch l i gh t s c a t t e r s ; ( 2 ) d ef in ing s i te s a nd o f s i te s w i l l b e mo r e p rob lema t ic s i nce a s i t e d ef ined i no n e t r ia l ( y ea r ) m ay b eo f s i te i nt h en ex ty ea r ; ( 3 ) s i ng le i n spec t ion o fs uch as i te o ve r look s l i gh t e r s c a t t e r s , p roduc ing b i a sed a nd u n r ep r e sen ta t ive s amp le s o f t h e a r t if ac t p opu la t ion .
T o o ve rcome t h i s
Amm e rman a nd F e ldman ( 1 978 ) h ave p ropo sed s ucce ss ive a nd r e p l ica ted c o l lec t ion o f s u rf ace m a t e r ia l . D e sp i te m any s oph i s t ica t ed q uan t i ta t iv e s t ud ie s t h a t h ave s hown a n i n dependen t b ehav iou r t o s pa t ia l p a t te rn ing o fs u r f a ce m a t e r ia l s e ven u nde r p l ough d i s tu rbance ( B inf o rd e ta l . 1 970 , D unne l l a nd L ewa rch 1 974 , R edman a nd Wa t son 1 970 ) , t h e re h ave b een o t he r a t t emp t s t r y ing t os how t ha t s upe rf ic ia l p a t t e rn ing c an o n ly b et h e r ef l ec t ion o fs ub s u rf ace o ne s ( Amm e rman 1 983 , V oo r r ips e t a l . 1 978 , S haa r 1 983 , f o r m o r e d i scu s s ion s e e a l so L ewa rch a nd O 'B r ien 1 981 , C he r ry 1 983 ) .
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I t
m ean s t h a tt h e o n ly l e g i t ima t e w ay t oo b ta in a r chaeo log ica l d a ta w i l l b e b y e xcava t ion r a the r t han b y s u rf ace c o l lec t ion . I ti s ac r i t ica l a r ea i na r cha eo log ica l r e sea rch t ha t c an b e s o lved w i th ag ood u nde r s tand ing o ff o rma t ion p roce sse s .
N ever the le s s , L ewa rch a nd O 'Br ien i n t h e i r c ompa ra t ive
s t udy ( 1 981) h ave t r ied t op rov ide ag ene ra l s t a t eo fk now ledge a bou th ow f o rma t ion p roc e sse s f o rm s u rf a ce p henomena .
S uch a s t udy e nab led t h em t o c onc lude w i th s eve ra l g ene ra l i sa t ion s .
Mo s t
i mpor tan t ly a c onf i rma t ion w a s m ade o n i s omo rph i sm o f s u r f ace t o s ub surf ace , c ond i t ion ed b y v a r iou sf a c to r ss uch a sd ep th , e r o s iona lr e g im e s a nd c u l tu ra l f e a tu re s . T h i s i sa na logou s t oR edman a nd Wa t son 's o b se rva t ion , a nd m igh tb e s y s t ema t ica l ly s t a ted a s ag ene ra l p r inc ip le : t h e p robab i l i ty o fs u rf ace / sub surf ace a r t if ac tc l a s s i s omo rph i sm d ec rea se s w i th d ep th f r om s urf ace . T h ei mpo r tan tr e a son f o rd o ing s u rf ace c o l lec t ing i st ha te xcava t ion c an y i e ld l e ss i n f o rma t ion w i th t h ee xpend i tu r eo fm o re m oney a nd t im e . Moder nr e sea rche s d on e ed c ompa ra t ive i n f o rma t ion f r om m o r e t h an o ne s i t e .
I fr e g iona l s t udy i st h e r e sea rch a im , o n ly as y s tema t ic s urf ace c o l lec t ion c an
p rov id ec ompa ra t ive d a ta f o rt h ev a r iou s s i t e s i n ar e g ion . H ow eve ru ncon t ro l led s u rf ace c o l lec t ion m ay c au se l o s s o f i n f o rma t ion o n p roven ience a nd d e s t roy s t h e c o r re la t ion b e tween s u rf ace a nd s ub sur f ace m a te r ia l s .
A n o bv iou s d i sadvan tage o f s u rf ace c o l lec t ion p ar t icu la r ly i n t h e n on -
c u l t iva t ed a r ea s c oncer n s t h e f r equenc ie s o f d i agno s t ic m a t e r ia l ; i n a n a r ea w he r e s i t e s a r e u nde rgo ing r e cyc l ing o f ma te r ia lb yn a tu ra lg eomo rpho log ica l p roce ss , c oncen t ra t ion o fm a t e r ia l o r d en s i ty o fd i agno s t ic a r t if ac t s may b ec on s ide rab ly l owe rt h an i nt h o se a r ea s w he re r e cyc l ing f a c to r s a r e m o r e a c t iv e .
I nt h e se c i rcum s tance s c on t inuou s c o l lec t ing m ay c au se many s i t e s t od i sappea r .
T hu s , a na ly s ing a r t if a c t s i nt h ef i e ld w i thou t c o l lec t ing h a s b een a dvoca ted ( Sch if f e ra nd G ume rman 1 977a : 1 89 190 ) , i ft ime a nd s pec ia l i s t s a r e a va i lab le .
B u t t h e r e a r e s eve ra l r ea son s w h ich m ake
c o l lec t ing s t ra t egy e s sen t ia l ( 1 ) s p ec if ic r e sea rch e s r e qu i r e m o r e d e ta i led a na ly s i s , w h ich i sn o t p o s s ib le i nt h e f i e ld o n ly ; ( 2 ) t h e l a ck o fc o l lec t ion p roh ib i t s r e -ana ly s i s , r e s tud ie s a nd r e t e s t s o f d a ta w h ich m ay b er e qu i red i nt h en ex ts t age s ( P log e ta l . 1 978 :406 ) . As y s t ema t ic s u rf ace c o l lec t ion i n vo lv e s c omp le te c o l lec t ion o fs e lec ted p or t ion s o ft h e s i t e s u r f ace i no rd e rt ou nd e r s tand d i s t r ibu t ion p a t t e rn s o fa r t if ac tt y pe s a c ro s st h er e g ion . S e lec t ing ap or t ion o f t h e s u r f ace a nd r a nge o fa r t if ac t s t ob e c o l lec ted r e qu i re s ap rope r p robab i l i ty s amp l ing s t ra t egy t o b e c a r r ied o u t . I ft h e s amp le i sd rawn p rope r ly i tc an : ( 1 ) m in im i se s e lec t ion b ia se s r e su l t ing f r om t h e o v e r rep re sen ta t ion o f l a rge a r t if ac t s .
A s s t a t ed a bove l a rg e a r t if ac t s o n t h e s u rf ac e h ave a
b e t t e rc hance o fb e ing c o l lec ted . L a rge s i zed a r t if ac t s a r e o ve r r ep re sen ted o nt h e s u rf ace a nd h av e a h i gh r e cove ry r a t e , s ot h a tu nde ra na r b i t ra ry c o l lec t ing p rocedu r eb i a se sw i l l a ppea r . A n a l ter na t ive w ay t or e duce l a rge s i zed a r t if ac t b i a se s h a s b een p ropo sed b y Amme rman a nd F e ldman ( 1 978 ) . T h i s p rocedu re i st h e r e pea ted c o l lec t ion o fs e t s o fg r id s qua re s o fa n a r ea a td if e ren t t ime s , a s a m ean s o fc heck ing t h ek i nd s o fv a r ia t ion i nt h e s u rf ace p a t ter n ; ( 2 )p rov ide t h e l e ve l o fc onf idence i n
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t h ee s t ima t ion o fp opu la t ion p a rame te r s ; ( 3 ) a l low q uan t i ta t ive c ompa r i son o fa r t if ac tf r equenc ie s i n o r d e rt oe x t rapo la t et h ep a t te rn s o fa r t if ac td i s t r ibu t ion . T h e re a r e many d if e ren tt y pe s o fs amp l ing d e s ign s a va i lab le . E ach s amp l ing d e s ign t ob e a pp l ied t o s u rf ace c o l lec t ing s hou ld p r ima r i ly c on s id e r t wo p o in t s : ( 1 ) c o l lec t ion s hou ld b e m ade f r om d if e r en tp a r t s o ft h e s t udy a r ea t op rov ide i n f o rma t ion a bou t a l l o ccupa t iona l p e r iod s , t h e i r s pa t ia l e x t en t , a nd f unc t iona l s im i la r i t ie s b e tween a r t if ac t a nd c h rono logy ; ( 2 ) t ime r e s t ra in t s a r e a n i mpor tan tp o in ti ns amp l ing d e s ign . S ome s amp l ing p rocedu re s r e qu i re m o re t ime t oc o l lec t s amp le s a nd l o ca te s amp le u n i t s . A l though s imp le r andom s amp l ing h a s t h e a dvan tage o fe qua l ly c hoo s ing s amp le u n i t s , i ti sm o re t im e c on sum ing ( P log e ta l . 1 978 : 4 07 ) a nd i tm ay l e ave m o r e p roduc t ive a r ea s u n samp led ( R edman a nd Wa t son 1 970 : 2 81 ) . T h e a l t e rna t ive w ay t od e l in ea t e s uch p rob lem s c an b e t h e u se o f s y s tema t ic s amp l ing d e s ign s uch a s s t ra t if i ed s y s t ema t ic u na l ign ed s amp l ing ( R edman 1 987 : 2 52 ) . I na dd i t ion , t h e re a r e o t he r f a c to r s s uch a s s amp l ing u n i t s hape a nd s i ze ( s ee s amp l ing s ec t ion ) t h a t c an a f ec tt h e a ccu racy o ft h e c o l lec t ing s t ra t egy . I t mu s tb e c on s ide r ed t h a t i n t h e mo re e l onga ted u n i t s t h e p roven ience o f a r t if ac t s may b e l o s t .
E xpe r im en t s h ave
d emon s t ra ted t h a ts qua r eu n i t s c an p rov ide p r ec i se i n f o rma t ion a bou tp roven ience o fa r t if ac t s r a the r t h an r e c tangu la ru n i t s a nd t h e re i s al e ss c hance o fm ix ing a r t if ac t s f r om d if e ren t a c t iv i ty a r ea s o r f r om d if e ren t o ccupa t iona l p e r iod s ( P log e ta l . 1 978 : 4 08 ) . S i ze o fs amp l ing u n i t s a nd t h e s i ze o f s amp le s a r er e levan tt ot h es i t e s i ze i ns qua re m e t re s , a nd t h e a r t if ac td en s i ty . T he se f a c to r s h ave t o b e b a lanced i nr e la t ion t ot h e r e sea rch p rob lem .
U n i t s o f a dequa t e s i ze w ou ld p rov id e s uf i c ien t
n umbe ro fa r t if ac t s f r om d i f f e ren ta r ea s . T he s i z e o fs amp le ( s amp l ing f r ac t ion ) f o re a ch s i t e v a r ie s w i th t h e s i ze o ft h e s i t e .
T h rough a l a rge a moun t o f s amp l ing f r ac t ion a s uf i c ien t n umbe r o f
a r t if ac t s a s aw ho le c an b ec o l lec ted f r om t h es t udy a r ea . 8 .B ackground a nd s ome p rob lem s o ft r ad i t iona l s urf ace s urvey ing m e thod s i nI r an F o r d ecad e s m o s t a r cha eo log ica l i n ve s t iga t ion i nt h e N ea r E a s t ( I ran ) f o cu sed o n e xcava t ion o f r e la t ive ly l a rge T e l l s i t e s . N ever the le s s , r e g iona l i n ve s t iga t ion s w e re c ommon i nt h e b eg inn ing o f p r e sen t c en tu ry , w he re s i t e i d en t if ica t ion w a s am a jo r p rob lem , a nd a ga in i nt h e 1 930 s a nd 1 940 s w hen n ew c e ram ic s e quence s m ade i tp o s s ib le t od a t e m o r e o ft h e s i te s f ound b y r e g iona l s u rvey s . T rad i t iona l ly , s i te s urvey i nI r an h a s e n ta i led t h e c o l lec t ion o f s u rf ace a r t if ac t s , t h e i r d a t ing w i th r e f e rence t oc ompa rab le m a te r ia l s e xcava t ed a to t he r s i te s , a nd t h e s e lec t ion o fo n e o rm o re o ft h e s u rveyed s i t e sf o re xcava t ion . S eve ra l r e cen t s u rv ey p ro jec t s r e pre sen t ar a d ica l d epa r tu re f r om t h i s t r ad i t iona l a pp roach t ot h e n o t ion t h a t e xcava t ion s a t as i ng le s i te c on t r ibu t e t o t h e d ef in i t ion o f s pa t io tempo ra l c ha rac t e r i s t ic s o f a r t if ac t a s semb lage s a nd t o t h e d eve lopm en t o f r e g iona l c h rono log ie s , b u tt h ey c anno ti nt h em se lv e s c l a r if y c hange s o ccur r ing o n ar e g iona l s c a le , w h ich a r e r ef l ec ted i np a r tb yv a r ia t ion sa mong s i te s . T h em o s ti n f luen t ia l s urvey s , a nd t h e f i r s t s y s t ema t ica l ly
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a im ed a tt h e s t udy o fa n c ien tp a t te rn s o fr u ra l l a nd u se a nd t h e d ef in i t ion a nd e xp lana t ion o fl o ng t e rm t r an sf o rma t ion i ne conom ic a nd p o l i t ica l o r gan i sa t ion i nI r an a nd I r aq , w e r e t h o se o fA dam s a nd J ohn son c onduc t ed f r om t h e 1 950 st o1 975 ( Adam s a nd H an sen 1 968 , A dam sa nd N i s sen 1 972 , A dam s 1 981 , J ohn son 1 973 ) .
T he se h i gh ly p roduc t ive s u rv ey s e ncou raged o t h e r s t o u nde r tak e
a r cha eo log ica ls u rv ey si nm any p a r t s o ft h eN ea rE a s t . D u r ing t h e 1 970 sm any r e sea r ch e r sa dop ted t h e m e thod s o f a r cha eo log i s t s w o rk ing i n t h e s ou th ea s t e rn U n i t ed S t a te s t o s u r v ey ing f o r a r cha eo log ica l e v id enc e i n s ou the rn I r an .
S ur vey t e chn iqu e s t h a t a r e h i gh ly p roduc t iv e o n t h e
i r iga t ed a l luv ia l p l a in s o fI r an ian K huz i s t an a nd Me sopo t am ia ( a nd i nt h e s ou thw e s t e rn Am e r ican d e se r t )m ay n o tb ea pp rop r ia t ei nt h eh i gh land s o fI r an . T h eg oa lt h a tg u id e sm any r e g iona ls u rvey s i nI r an i st od ocum en tc hange i nl a nd u se , i ns e t t lem en t s y s t em s , a nd i nt h e s i ze a nd 'd i s t r ibu t ion o f h um an p opu la t ion s . I ts hou ld b e s t r e s sed h e r e t h a t al a rge f l a t a luv ium t h a t s uppo r t s a g r icu l tu r e o n ly u nd e r i r iga t ion o f e r s d if e r en t p o s s ib i l i t ie s a nd p r e sen t s d if e r en t d if i cu l t i e s t o t h e a r cha eo log i s t s t h an s u r vey s i nt h e w e t t e r h i gh land s . N eve r th e l e s s , s om e a r cha eo log i s t s h ave u sed t h e se l ow land s u rv ey s a si n sp i ra t ion f o r s u r v ey s i nr e g ion s w ho se p hy s ica l a nd c u l tu ra l l a nd scape s d if e r r a d ica l ly .
F o r i n s tanc e , A dam s ' s u rv ey s o f l ow land Me sopo tam ia a nd t h e f l oodp la in o f
I r an ian K huz i s tan w e r e d eve loped m a in ly o n t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o f r e cogn i s ing a nc ien t n e two rk s o f c ana l s a nd n a tu ra l w a t e rcou r se s o n t h e f l oodp la in s .
I n e xam in ing a e r ia l p ho tog raph s o f t en " a
p a t t e rn o fl i nea r d i sco lo ra t ion s e me rged , g en e ra l ly c on s i s t ing o ft h e f a in tt r ace s o fa nc ien t l e v ee s" . H ea l so s ugge s t ed t h a ti ns em ia r id a r ea s s e t t lem en tw ou ld h av eb e en p o s s ib le o n ly w h e r ew a te rw a s a va i lab le a l ong r i ve r s a nd c ana l s . Whe r es e t t l em en t s o f ap e r iod s howed l i n ea rp a t t er n s , i tc ou ld b e a s sum ed t h a t t h e l i n e s r ef l ec t ed t h e w a t e r cou r se s u pon w h ich t h e s e t t lem en t s d epend ed ( Adam s 1 9 81 : 2 7 -28 ) .
S om e p rob lem s a r i se f r om t h i s t y pe o f s u rv ey ; o n e o f t h e p rob lem s A dam s
e n coun t e r ed w a st h a tm od er na g r icu l tu ra lf i e ld s a f ec ted v i s ib i l i ty ; c r op s c ove red t h e‚ s t udy a r ea a nd i n s om e c a se s t h e s l igh t ly r a i sed c on tou r s o f c ana l l e v e e s a nd l ow T e l l s i t e s w e r e s ub jec t t o o b l i t e ra t ion b yp l ough ing . T h e se c i rcum s tanc e s a r e c ommon w h e r e f i e ldwa lk ing h a s b e en t h e o n ly m e thod f o r s i t e l o ca t ion . A dam s ' e x t en s iv et y pe s u rvey w a s m o r e d epend en t o n g round c h eck s o f h i gh ly v i s ib le s i t e s a nd l e v ee s b y v eh ic le .
T h e m od er n c ana l s , f u r the rmo r e , a r e ac on s ide rab le
i mped im en tb o th t of i e ldwa lk ing a nd t ov eh icu la rs urv ey s . A dam sa t temp t ed t oa vo id b o th p rob lem s b y r e s t r ic t ing m o s t o fh i s s u rv ey t ot e r r i to ry o u t s ide m od er n c u l t iva t ed l a nd s ( Adam s 1 981 : 3 5 ) . A no th e r s e r iou s s ou rce o fp rob lem i sg eomo rpho log ica l .
I nt h e f l oodp la in s o f Me sopo tam ia a nd
I r an t h e r ei sr e gu la ri n unda t ion o fr i ve r ss u ch a st h eE uph ra t e s a nd K a run w h ich a r ea s soc ia t ed w i th a gg rada t ion .
D epo s i t s o fs e d im en t a round m any a nc ien t T e l l s i t e s a r e n ow m o r e t h an 5 m h i gh e r
t h an t h el ow e ro ccupa t ion f l oo r s o ft h e s i t e s ( Adam s 1 981 : 1 0 ) . T h e i mp l ica t ion i st h a tm any s i te s c ou ld b e c omp le t e ly b u r ied b y t h e r i v e r 's s e d im en t s ( B rooke s e ta l . 1 982 : 2 95 -299 , K i rkby a nd K i rkby 1 976 ) . I ft h ick a luv ium c an h i d e e v en aT e l l s om e 4 mh i gh , h ow m any mo r e o ft h e s ma l l ,
7 6
l ow s i t e s m ay b e h i dd en ?
P e rhap s w h e r ev e r a luv ia t ion h a s c on t r ibu t ed s i gn if i can t d epo s i t s o f
s e d im en tt h e r e w i l l b e u nd e r r ep r e sen ta t ion n o t o n ly o fs ma l l o rl ow s i t e s , b u t a l so o fs i t e s w ho se m o s tr e c en to ccupa t ion i sv e ry a n c i en t . I no t h e rw o rd s ,t h e r ew i l lb ea ni n v e r s er e la t ion sh ip b e tw e en t h e p r obab i l i ty o f d i scov e r ing a s i t e i nt h e a luv ium a nd t h e a g e o f i t s m o s t r e c en t o ccupa t ion . F u r th e rmo r e , A dam s ' a nd J ohn son ' s s u rp r i s ing d i scov e r ie s o f d en se s e t t l em en t s i nb o th r e g ion s l a ck ing a ny d emon s t rab l e a s soc ia t ion s w i th c ana l s i n d ica t e ar e sea rch p rob l em t h a t p u rpo s iv e s amp l ing a l ong c ana lr o u t e sc an n ev e ra dd r e s s ,a nd t h el a ck o fc on t ro l led s amp l ing p r ev en t su sf r om a s s e s s ing t h e a c cu ra cy a nd p r ec i s ion o fe s t ima t e s o ft h e p a r am e t e r s o ft h e p opu la t ion o fa l s i t e s . I n d e ed , t h e f a c tt h a tt h ey f o und s om any o fs i t e s i ns p i t e o f as u r v ey s t ra t egy t h a t a vo id ed t e r r i to ry n o t a s soc ia t ed w i th c ana l t r a c e s s ugg e s t s t h a t s uch s i t e s m ay b e e v en m o r e c ommon t h a t t h e i r e v id en c ei n d ica t e s . T oc on c lud e , e xc ep tu nd e rc u l t iva t ion t h ef l a ta luv ium a f o rd se a sy v i s ib i l i ty f o r t h em o r e o b t ru s iv e s i t e s , s u ch a sh i gh T e l l s a nd b e t t e rp r e se rv ed l e v e e s . T h e f l a ta r ea a l so p e rm i t s e a sy a nd r ap id s u r v ey b ya i ra nd w h e e l ed v eh ic le . U nf o r tuna t e ly ,t h e se b en ef i t s a r ea ccompan i ed b y t h e s y s t ema t ic l o s s o fd a ta f r om s i t e s b u r i ed b y d e ep s e d im en t s . u n iqu e i nr e p r e sen t ing c l u s t e r s o f s i t e s a l ong c ana l s .
A l luv ia l p l a in s i nI r an a l so a r e
E conom ic s u rv ey s t a k e a dvan tag e o ft h i s
c l u s t e r ing b yr e s t r ic t ing f i e ldwa lk ing t oa r ea s a d ja c en tt oc ana l l e v e e s . T h e se a r ea s m ay b et r ea t ed a so n e s t ra tum o f as t ra t if i ed s amp l e t h a t u nd e rgo e s m uch m o r e i n t en s iv e i n v e s t iga t ion t h an o t h e r s t ra t a( Sch if f e re ta l . 1 9 78 : 5 6 ) . I fw ea r et or e con s t r uc tt h ea g r icu l tu ra lh i s to ry o fs u ch p l a in s , a nd o u ra s sump t ion t h a ta g r icu l tu r e a nd s e t t l em en t d epend o n i r iga t ion i sv a l id , t h e se a r e c e r ta in ly t h e m o s te conom ic f i e ld s t ra t eg ie s ( a pa r tf r om s amp le b i a se s ) ; a nd t h ey p e rm i t as ma l l c r ew t oc ov e r a l a rg e a r ea i nf ew s e a son s o f f i e ldwo rk a s w a s t h e c a se i nA d am s ' s ur v ey s .
I ti si mpo r t an t t o
r e cogn i se t h a t i ft h e i r iga t ion a s sump t ion c anno t b e s ub s tan t ia t ed , o ri fw e a r et od i scov e rt h e f u l l r a ng eo fs i t e si nt h es u r v ey a r ea , o t h e rf i e ld s t ra t eg i e sa r en ece s sa ry . I nt h eh i gh land s , g eomo rpho log ica la nd c u l tu ra lp h enom ena p r e sen t ad if e r en tp o s i t ion . S y s t ema t ic b u r ia l o fl ow o rm o r e a n c i en t s i t e s b y a luv ium i sm o r e r a r e , s i t e s a r e n o t o b scu r ed b y o v e r ly ing d e po s i t s , b u t b y c o l luv ia l o rc u l tu ra l a nd p l an t c ov e r s .
I nt h e h i gh land s w h e e l ed t r an spo r ta t ion i s
g en e ra l ly d if i cu l to ri mpo s s ib le . I ns om es u ch a r ea s s o i lm ay b ea ccumu la t ing o rs i t 9v i s ib i l i ty m ay b e l ow ; i n o t h e r s t h e s o i l m ay b e d ef la t ed o r w a sh ed a way , m ak ing s i t e s m o r e v i s ib l e .
I n t h e
m oun ta inou s a r ea s , f u r th e rmo r e , t h e r e i su sua l ly l i t t l e v i s ib l e c on t ra s t b e tw e en s i t e s a nd n a tu ra l f e a tu r e s ; f r om ad i s t an c e o f 1 00m aT e l lm ay b e i n d i s t ingu i shab l e f r om an a tu ra l h i l l . I ng en e ra l , t h ep rob lem o fa r cha eo log ica ls u r v ey i nt h eh i gh land si st h a tt h ev i s ib i l i ty a nd o b t r u s iv en e s s o fs h e rd s c a t t e r s a r e e x t r em e ly l ow .
V eg e ta t ion c ov e r a nd l e af -f a l l a r e ac ommon i mp ed im en t t o s h e rd
v i s ib i l i ty ,p a r t icu la r ly i nt h ew ood ed p a r t s o ft h eZ ag ro s a nd E lbu r zh i gh land s . C o l luv ia ld epo s i t ion i nv a l ley b o t tom s b u r i e s s i t e s t h e r e , a nd c au se s o u r e s t ima t e s o fs i t e d i s t r ibu t ion t ob e b i a sed i n
7 7
f a vou ro fe r od ed h i l l top s . I na dd i t ion , t h e s t ony s u rf a c e c ov e r o nm any s o i l s c on t ra s t s v e ry p oo r ly w i th s c a t t e r s o fs h e rd s o rl i t h ic s . F u r th e rmo r e , i nt h eh i gh land s o fI r an t h e r e a r e n o r e g iona l c ana l n e two rk s a l ong w h ich w e c an e xp e c t s i t e s t oc l u s t e r , a nd i nt h e h i gh land s t h e s i t e s ( e spec ia l ly t h e N eo l i th ic s i t e s ) a r e o f t en s ma l l a nd d i spe r sed t h roughou t t h e l a nd scape .
T hey o c cu r i nd i v e r se
h ab i ta t st h a to f t en o b scu r e s i t ev i s ib i l i ty . A s ar e su l t , i ns uch a r ea s t h et e chn ique s u s ed b yA d am s w i l l t e nd t op roduc e b i a sed s amp l e s , a nd e v en tua l ly p oo r e s t ima t e s o fs i t e l o ca t iona l p a ram e t e r s . T hu s , i ti su sef u lt oc on s id e r a l t y pe s o fa r cha eo log ica l s u rv ey . T h i s p e rm i t s s om eg en e ra l i sa t ion a bou tt h e f a c to r s t h a t c on t r ibu t et ot h e p robab i l i ty t h a tt h e s ur v ey w i l l d i scove r p a r t i cu la r k i nd s o f s i t e si nv a r iou se nv i ronm en t s .
I ns umma ry , s u rv ey d a ta c on s t i tu t e ab a s ic s ou r c e o fa r cha eo log ica l i n f o rma t ion f o rt r a c ing s h if t ing r e g iona l p a t t er n s o fh uman p a s t l i f e s t y le s . S u rv ey d a ta a l so p e rm i t i n t e rp r e t ive r e con s t r uc t ion s o f t h e c h ang ing p a t t e rn s o f s e t t l em en t , s o c ia l , e c onom ic , a nd p o l i t ica l o r gan i sa t ion s t r uc tu r e o f r e g iona l ly d ef in ed c ommun i t i e s .
C on s id e rab l e c au t ion i sn e ed ed w h en o b ta in ing a nd a na ly s ing
r e g iona l s u rv ey d a ta . T h e l a nd scape m u s tb ev i ew ed a sa n e vo lv ing a r t if a c t s ub jec tt om any o ft h e s am ep roc e s se s o fd i s to r t ion a so t h e r a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd s . H ow r e g iona l d a ta a r e c o l l ec t ed a nd w ha tp r oc e s se s c on t r ibu t ed t ot h e f o rma t ion o ft h e r e co rd t h a t i ss amp l ed a r e q ue s t ion s t h a t a f e c t d i r e c t ly t h e a ccu ra cy a nd r e l iab i l i ty o f t h e d a ta t h em se lv e s .
Much h a s b een n i ad e o f s u rv ey
m e thodo logy o v e rt h ep a s tt h r e ed e cad e s , p a r t icu la r ly t h ei s sue o fs amp l ing s t ra tegy ( s e e r e f e r en c e s i nt h eb eg inn ing o ft h i s c hap t e r ) . C en t ra lt ot h i s d i scu s s ion h a s b e en ac onc er nf o rt h ec on s t r uc t ion o fe xp l ic i ts u rv ey r e sea r ch d e s ign ( e .g . S ch if f e re ta l . 1 9 78 ) . E v e ry s u rv ey i sg u id ed b y ar e sea r ch d e s ign ,w h e th e ri th a sb e en m ad ee xp l ic i to rn o t . C u l tu ra l a nd n a tu ra lf o rma t ion p roc e s s e sr e p r e sen t as e cond s e t o fi s sue s t h a t m u s t b e a dd r e s sed w h en a s se s s ing t h e a c cu ra cy o f s urv ey d a ta .
T h e
i mpa c t t h a t n a tu ra l f o rma t ion p roc e s se s s uch a s e r o s ion a nd a luv ia t ion c an h av e o n t h e a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd i sp rof ound . I nm o s t p a r t s o fI r an , w i th t h e i r l o ng h i s to ry o fs e t t l em en t , t h e s u rv ey u n iv e r s ei sp a r t icu la r ly c omp l ex . I ns ou th e rn I r an , f o re x amp l e , e r o s ion a nd a luv ia t ion h av e h ad ap ow e rf u l e f ec t , a l t e r ing t h e t o pog raphy a nd i n f luenc ing t h e d i s t r ibu t ion a nd v i s ib i l i ty o f a r cha eo log ica l s i t e s ; f o r i n s t an c e , u nd e r t h e s e d im en t d epo s i t s m any s i t e s t h a t w ou ld h av e f o rm ed p a r t o ft h e s e t t l em en t l a nd scape i n ag i v en p e r iod n ow l i e b u r i ed b en ea th a luv ium ( s e e t h e a bov e d i scu s s ion , a nd d i scu s s ion i n c hap t e r 4 ) .
A l though i n s uch c a s e s av a r ie ty o f u s e f u l s ur v ey
a pp roa ch e s f o cu s ing s p ec ia l ly o n t h e o f s i t e c ompon en t s o f s e t t l em en t s y s t em s w i l l b e o fg r ea t i mpo r tan c e , w i thou t s ub su r f a c et e s t ing e v en t h e se i n nova t iv e m e thod s w i l l f a i l t od e t e c tt h i s b u r i ed p o r t ion o ft h ea r cha eo log ica lr e co rd . T h ei mpa c to fc u l tu ra l a c t iv i ty a l so p l ay s a n i mpo r tan tr o l ei n t h ef o rma t ion o ft h ea r cha eo log ica lr e co rd . I nc a se o fI r an ,t h eN eo l i th ic a nd E a r ly B ronz eA g e s i t e s
7 8
a r ef r equen t ly b u r ied b enea th t h ea c cumu la t ion o fm i l lenn ia o fs ub sequen th uman a c t iv i ty , o b scu r ing l a rge p o r t ion s o ft h e se r e co rd s . Many o fT e l l s i t e s , h oweve r , c l ea r ly c on ta in e x ten s iv e a ccumu la t ion o fd if e ren t o ccupa t ion l e ve l s , i nw h ich e ach o ft h em i se nve loped a nd c oncea led b enea th m e t r e s o f d eb r i s . I nt h eP a laeo l i th ic p e r iod t h ea bov ep rob lem i sv e ry o bv iou s a nd t h e i d en t if ica t ion o ft h eP a la eo l i th ic s i t e s i sv ery d i ff icu l t . I nt h i sp e r iod t h ep e r iod ic f l uc tua t ion s o fc l ima te d u r ing t h e v a s t s pan o ft ime c ov e r ed b y t h e P a la eo l i th ic p e r iod h ave l e d t o i t s a r chaeo log ica l e v idence b e ing c on ta ined w i th a v a r ie ty o ft ype s o fg eo log ica l d epo s i t s .
T he se a r e o f t en d eep ly b ur ied a nd o n ly a cce s s ib le i nt h e
p r e sen t -day w he r e t h ey h av e b een e xpo sed , b u t n o t y e t d e s t royed b y e i the r n a tu ra l o r h uman a c t iv i t ie s . T hu s , au nde r s tand ing o ft h eg eo log ica l c o r re la t ion s t om ake c l ima t ic a nd e nv i ronmen ta l f r amewo rk f o r P a laeo l i th ic s e em s t o b e m o re n ece ssa ry .
I n I r an , s o f a r t h e P l e i s tocene
e nv i ronmen ta l f r amewo rk h a s n o t b een e s tab l i shed f r om t h e i n ve s t iga t ion o fn ume rou s P l e i s tocene d epo s i t s , many o fw h ich m ay n o tc on ta in d i r ec te v idence o fh uman a c t iv i ty ( s uch a sE t h ic a r t if ac t ) , a nd h ence t h ey a r e n o t r e cogn i sed a s P a la eo l i th ic a r cha eo log ica l s i te s .
A l so u nd i s tu rbed
l a nd su rf ace s c on ta in ing l i t h ic a r t if ac t s a s soc ia ted w i th e nv i ronmen ta l e v idence h av e n o t b een r e cogn i sed b y a r cha eo logy o fI r an . H oweve r , o t he r t ype o fs i t e a l so c on t r ibu te s i gn if ican t ly t oo u r u nd e r s tand ing o ft h e P a la eo l i th ic .
S i te s c on ta in ing a r t if ac t s a nd o r f auna l r ema in s ,e ven w hen
d i s tu rbed , h e lp t o c omp le t e o u r u nde r s tand ing o f t h e r e g ion s o f I r an o ccup ied , o r o t herw ise , a t d if e r en t s t age o ft h eP l e i s tocene a nd t h e c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s t o le ra t ed b y e a r ly h om in id p opu la t ion s . S i t e w i thou t a r t if ac tua l r ema in s a l so p [ lay a m a jo r r o le i nt h e P a laeo l i th ic r e sea rch , h e lp ing t o p rov ide t h e c h rono log ica l , c l ima t ic , a nd e nv i ronmen ta l f r amewo rk w i th in w h ich t h e a r t if ac tua l e v id ence c an b e s t ud ied . S i t e s r i ch i nm amma l ian r ema in s b u t w i thou t a r t if ac t s o rh om in id s k e le ta l r ema in s a r e s o i mpor tan t i n t h e s t udy o f t h e h uman p hy s ica l e vo lu t ion . T h e P a laeo l i th ic a r cha eo log ica l r e sou rce s w i th i t s s p ec ia l n a tu r e n eed s ad i s t inc t ive s e t o f a cadem ic p r io r i t ie s a nd r e sea rch s t ra teg ie s .
A t p r e sen t , t h e I r an ian a r chaeo log ica l e xe rc i se s f o cu s m a in ly u pon t h e m o re
v i s ib le , a cce s s ib le , a nd b e t t e r d ocum en ted a r cha eo log ica l s i t e s a nd d o n o t a dequa te ly a dd re ss t h e n e ed s o f t h e P a laeo l i th ic p a r t o f t h e I r an ian a r chaeo log ica l r e sou rce s .
T he b i gge s t p rob lem o f
P a la eo l i th ic I r an i st h e f a c tt h a t t h e p o t en t ia l a r cha eo log ica l s i gn if icance o fn on -a r t if a c tua l s i t e s i s n o t w ide ly a ccep ted , t h i s m ean s t h a t s uch s i t e s a r e e xc luded f r om t h e a ny r e sea rch p r ior i t ie s e v en tua l ly t h roughou t t h e h e r i tage m anagemen t p o l ic ie s ( s ee a l so c hap te r 6 ) .
a nd
T h e re a r e a l so
p rob lem s f o rt h es i te sc on ta in ing a r t if ac t s , w h ich a r ea tl e a s tg en e ra l ly a ccep ted a sa n a r cha eo log ica l s i t e . T he d eep ly b u r ied a nd n on s truc tu ra ln a tu r e o fP a la eo l i th ic s i te s m ake s t h em m uch m o re l i ke ly t ob e i n adequa te ly p r e se r ved . I nI r an o pen a i r P a la eo l i th ic s i t e s a r e b yt h et r ad i t iona l d ef in i t ion s o f ' a rchaeo log ica l s i t e ' ( a bov e )a r ee xc luded f r om s t a tu tory p ro tec t ion o n a r chaeo log ica l g round . W i th
7 9
r e sp ec t t oa bov e d i scu s s ion , i ta ppea r s t h a t t h e i d en t if i ca t ion a nd d e l im i ta t ion o ft h e P a la eo l i th ic s i t e si s ak ey t a sk . A tf i r s ts t ep ac omp r eh en s iv es u r v ey s t ra t egy t h roughou tI r an ( bo th i nt h eo r e t ica l a nd i np ra c t ica l s i d e s a s o u t l in ed a bov e ) i sn e ed ed .
I tw i l l p rov id e ac omp le t e i n v en to ry o fa l
P a la eo l i th i cs i t e ss c a t t e r ed t h roughou tI r an ( p a r t icu la r ly t r a c e s o ft h eL ow e ra nd M idd l eP a la eo l i th ic I r an , s e ec hap t e r5 )a nd t h e i d en t if i ca t ion o fa l P l e i s toc en e d epo s i t s , t h e i rc ha rac t e r i sa t ion i nt e rm s o fr e lev an t a t t r ibu t e s , a nd t h e i r s ub sequ en t d i sc r im ina t ion s . T h e i mpo r t an t a t t r ibu t e s a r e i n c lud ed f o r e xamp l e , k i nd s o f P l e i s toc en e d epo s i t s , p e r iod , d i s tu rbanc e , s t ra t ig raph ic a nd g eo log ica l e v id en c e , b o tan ica l e v id en c e , m amma l ian e v id enc e , m o l lu scan e v id enc e , a nd a r t if a c tua l e v id en c e . T h i s i n v en to ry a s soc ia t ed w i th s u ch a t t r ibu t e s w i l lp r ov id et h eb a s ic i n f o rma t ion w h i ch c an b eu s ed a s ad a ta b a se f o r t h e r e sea r ch p r io r i t i e s a nd a r cha eo log ica l h e r i tag e m anagemen t p o l ic ie s . Wha t r ema in s t ob e n o t ed h e r e i st h a t i nt h e a r ea s w h e r e t h e P a la eo l i th ic s i t e s a r e b u r ied b en ea th t h e d epo s i t ion s , t h e g a th e r ing o fi n f o rma t ion i nt h e a b s en c e o ft e chn ica l e qu ipm en t may b e i mpo s s ib l e a nd s u r v ey ing t h e s u r f a c e a l on e m ay f a i l t op rov id e t h e n ec e s sa ry d a ta .
I ns uch c a se s s u rv ey ing
s t ra t egy s h ou ld b e o r i en t ed t owa rd s af u l l i n v e s t iga t ion ( s uch a s g eo log ica l a nd e nv i ronm en ta l p roc e s se s , s e e c hap t e r4 )o ft h e p r e sen t l a nd scap e o ft h e s t udy a r ea . S uch i n ve s t iga t ion s e nab l eu s t oa s se s st h ek ey v a r iab l e st h a tm igh th av ei n f lu en c ed t h eo pe ra t ion o fc u l tu ra l s y s t em s i nt h e a r ea s . F o rt h er e con s t ruc t ion o ft h ea n c ien th uman e nv i ronm en t s , w ha tw ec an l o ca t eb ys u rv ey i sa sm uch g eo log ica la nd e nv i ronm en ta la c c id en ta sc u l tu ra la r t if a c t sl e f to nt h es u rf a c e . R e la t ed t o t h i s p rob lem i st h e q u e s t ion o f h ow r e p r e sen ta t iv e s u rf a c e d i s t r ibu t ion s a r e o f t h e s ub su r f a c e d i s t r ibu t ion s .
A l though e xpe r im en t s h av e s hown t h a t c u l tu ra l d eb r i s i np l ough ed s o i l
t e nd s t od i sp la c e l a t e ra l ly a nd v e r t ica l ly , w i th s u r f a c e m a t e r ia l c ompo s ing o n ly a s ma l l f r a c t ion o f t h e t o ta l d i s t r ibu t ed b e low g r ound , ab road i s omo rph i sm b e tw e en s u r f ace a nd s ub su rf a c e a s semb lag e s g en e ra l ly p e r s i s t s ( R edman a nd Wa t son 1 970 ) .
H ow ev e r , t h e r e la t ion sh ip s b e tw e en
s u r f a c e a nd s ub su r f a c em a t e r ia l d i s t r ibu t ion s d ep end o n av a r ie ty o ff a c to r s , i n c lud ing t h e d ep th o f d epo s i t ion , e r o s iona lr e g im e sa nd c u l tu ra lf e a tu r e s( Du rm e l la nd S im ek 1 995 ) . Mod e rn d ev e lopm en t a nd i nm o s t c a se s i nI r an t h e f r equ en t r e su rv ey ing o f as i t e o rr e g ion a dd f u r the r d i s to r t ion t ot h e v i s ib l e a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd . F o r s u rv ey r e su l t s t op rov id e r e l iab l e d a ta , t h e ref o r e ' , t h e t empo ra l a nd s pa t ia l l i m i ta t ion s o ft h e se d a ta m u s t b e c l ea r a nd m u s t c ond i t ion a ny a t t emp t t or e con s t ruc t h um an p a s ta c t iv i t i e s . T h em a in g oa lo ft h i s c hap t e ri sc on c er n ed w i th t h ed ev e lopm en to ft h em e thodo logy w h ich Ib e l i ev e i ss e r iou s ly r e qu i r ed b y a r cha eo logy i nI r an .
T h e m a in t h ru s t o ft h e c hap t e r i st o i n t roduc e a
f r am ewo rk t oe xp la in t h e p r in c ip l e s o fs u r v ey s t ra t egy , a sw e l l a st os ugg e s t t h e f a c t t h a t i nI r an , t h e r ei s ag r ea td ea lw h ich c ou ld b ed on et oi mp rov et h es i tua t ion . I tw i l lb ea r gued f r om t h ep r e sen t s t a t e o f a r cha eo log ica l s u rv ey m e thod s i nI r an t h a t w ha t i sl a ck ing , i ne f ec t , i s am e thodo logy
8 0
t a i lo r ed t ot h e v e ry s pec if i c p rob lem s o fs u rvey d a ta a nd i t s i n te rpre ta t ion . O n ly b y d o ing t h i s c an t h e d ef ic ienc ie s i n he ren t i n I r an ian s u rvey w o rk c an b e r e cogn i sed ( whe the r t h ey r e la te t o a r cha eo log ica l m e thod , t h e n a tu r e o fa r chaeo log ica l a nd e nv i ronmen ta l f a c to r s , o r t o t h e p r e sen t s y s t em o fI r an ian a r cha eo logy ) , a nd t h e m ean s o fc ompen sa t ing f o r t h em b e d ev i sed . T h i s c hap te r e mpha s i se s t ha t r e g iona l ly b a sed , e co log ica l ly s t ra t if i ed , mu l t i s tage d a ta c o l lec t ion p rog ramme s ( Ch e r ry a nd S hennan 1 978 ) a r e t h e b e s t m ean s o fo b ta in ing a dequa te s amp le s o ft h e f u l l r a nge o f I r an ian a r chaeo log ica lh e r i tage t os e rve f o rp l ann ing , e duca t iona l a nd r e sea rch p u rpo se s . S uch d a ta c o l lec t ion p rog ramme s i n vo lve a ne xp l ic i ts u rvey r e sea rch d e s ign a nd a n i n teg ra t ed r a nge o fs u rf ace s u rv ey t e chn ique s .
U nf o r tuna t e ly , n o p ro jec t s t h a t a r e c onduc t ing s urvey i nI r an a r e m ak ing a n
e f or t t o d e sc r ibe t h e i r s u rv ey d e s ign . c onduc t ing a r e g iona l s u r vey i sp rov ided .
T o a ch ieve t h i s , a mod e l d e sc r ib ing t h e p roce s se s o f I nt h i s mode l a mong t h e v a r iou s t e chn ique s o fs u rvey
s t ra t egy t h e ma in e mpha s i s i sb a s ica l ly o n f i e ldwa lk ing t e chn ique , b ecau se u nde r p r e sen t f i nanc ia l c i rcum s tance s a nd t h e a b senc e o fs p ec ia l i s t s w o rk ing i nv a r iou s t e chn ica l f i e ld s c onduc t ing s u rvey s w h ich n eed t e chn ica l e qu ipm en t s uch a s g eophy s ic s may b e i mpo ss ib le .
S ome o f t h e m a in
r e qu i remen t s o f ac ompe t en ts u rvey t e am a cco rd ing t ot h i s mode l may b e s umma r i sed a sf o l low s : 1 an u nde r s tand ing o fc u r ren t k now ledge c onc e rn ing n a tu ra l a nd h uman l a nd scape s , t h e i r h i s tory a nd t h e ir f o rma t ion p roce s se s . T h i s i se s sen t ia l f o r a n u nde r s tand ing o ft h e p rob lem s i n vo lved a nd f o rt h ed e s ign , i mp lemen ta t ion a nd i n te rp re ta t ion o fs urvey p rog ramme s ; 2 a k now ledge o fa r t if ac t s o fd if e r en t p e r iod s ; ak now ledge o fc u l tu ra l p roce sse s l e ad ing t ot h e i r o c cu r rence i n t h e a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd ; a n u nde r s tand ing o f h ow s uch a r t if ac t s a nd t h e i r d i s t r ibu t iona lp a t t e rn sm ay b ea f ec t ed b yn a tu ra la nd c u l tu ra lp roce s se s ; 3 a k now ledge o ft h e r a nge , l i m i ta t ion s , a nd a pp l ica t ion s o ft h e d if e ren t f i e ldwa lk ing t e chn ique s a va i lab le a nd o fs amp l ing t h eo ry . T he r e i sa l so an eed t ou nde r s tand t h e f a c to r s a f ec t ing a r t if ac t r e covery i nt h ef i e ld ,t e am m anagemen ta nd e xpe r ience .
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300m e l eva t ion , w h i le t h e b a s in o fL ak e U rm ia r ema in ed u nchanged a s d ry land a sb ef o r e ( v an Z e i s t a nd B o t t ema 1 99 1 : 7 0 , Wr igh te ta l . 1 967 : 4 42 ) . I n f o rma t ion o n v eg e ta t iona l s e quenc e a nd c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s i nw e s t e rn I r an i nt h e e a r ly H o loc en e c om e s o u tf r om t h ep o l len e v idence f r om t h ea bov em en t ioned l a k e s . F o rt h ep e r iod b e tw een 1 0 500 a nd 6 000 B .P . t h e p o l len d i ag ram s s ugg e s t ed a m ax imum f o r t r ee g row th i n t h e U rm ia a r ea .
18
A l though t h e t empe ra tu re r e ach ed p r e sen t d ay l e ve l s , t h e Z er iba r e v idence i n d ica t e s t h a t t h e e a r ly H o loc ene c l ima te o f We s t e rn I r an m u s t h ave b een r e la t ive ly w a rm a nd d ry ( E l -Mo s l iman i 1 986 , Wr igh t 1 976 , Wr igh t e ta l . 1 967 ) . O ak -p i s tach io f o r e s t s teppe s d eve loped aw ide d i s t r ibu t ion a ta n e l eva t ion b e tween 8 00m a nd 2 500m a nd s ugge s t s a n i n c rea se i np r ec ip i ta t ion . T h i s p a t ter n c an b e c ompa red w i th t h a t o ft h e p r e sen t d ay Z ag ro s o ak w ood land .
B ecause o ft h e a r id i ty o ft h i s p e r iod
m o s t p a r t s o ft h e f o re s t s t eppe a r ea s m u s t h ave b een t aken o ve r b y s t eppe c on ta in ing A r t em i s ia . Two k i nd s o fA r t em is ia s t eppe f am i ly w e re d i s t ingu i shed : t h e e l eva ted i n t er io r p l a t e 'au w a s c ov e red b yA r t em is ie t ea h erba -a lba i r an ica , a nd t h eZ ag ro sf o o th i l l s b e low 8 00m b y Me sopo tam ian l ow land t y pe s t eppe ( b o th a r e c ompa rab le t ot h e p r e sen t d ay s t eppe p a t ter n ) .
T he c l ima t ic c ond i t ion a nd
v eg e ta t iona l p a t t er no ft h e s ou th er ns h o r e l ine o ft h e C a sp ian S ea a nd t h e n or th f a c ing s l ope s o ft h e E l bu rz Moun ta in s d u r ing t h i s p e r iod s e emed t o b e s im i la r t o t ho se o ft h e p re sen t d ay H y rcan ian F o r e s ta s d e sc r ibed b yZ oha ry ( 1 973 ) . T h i s s im i la r i ty i nv ege ta t iona l c ove r c an b e a t t r ibu t ed t oa n a pp rox ima t e ly s im i la r l e v e l o fp r ec ip i ta t ion w i th h um id c ond i t ion s ( van Z e i s t a nd B o t t ema 1 991 : 18 ;s e ea l so F r ey a nd K u r schne r( 1 989 ) , F r ey e ta l . ( 1 985 ) f o rt h e r e levan tm ap s ) . 1 2 . G enera l c onc lu s ion T h i s r ev iew o ft h e l i t e ra tu re o n l a t e Q ua t er na ry g eomo rpho logy a nd p a lyno logy i nI r an s ugge s t s t h a t , d e sp i t e t h e i n t e rp re ta t ive p rob lem s , t h e se i n depend en t s e t s o f p a laeoc l ima t ic d a ta r e f lec t a u n if o rm i fb road p a t ter n .
I n v e ry g en e ra l t e rm s , o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e p o l len r e co rd s , t h e Z ag ro s
Moun ta in s e xpe r ienced a c o ld a nd d r y c l ima t ic c ond i t ion f r om 2 3 °C (W r igh t 1 980 ) t o 5 8 °C ( K r in s ley 1 970 , v an Z e i s t a nd B o t t ema 1 977 ) b e low t h e p r e sen t t ime t empe ra tu r e 'd u r ing t h e l a s t g l a c ia l max imum .
T h e v ege ta t iona l p a t t er n o f t h e a r ea u nde r t h e se c ond i t ion w a s d om ina t ed b y
A r t emes ia a nd C henopod iaceae .
T h i s p a t t er n t o day c an b e s e en o n ly i nt h e m o s t a r id m oun ta in
r e g ion s s uch a sa tt h ev e ry e a s ter ne nd o ft h eZ ag ro s n ea rt h e S h i raz a nd c o ld s t eppe o ft h e A rmen ian ( W r igh t 1 993 , Wr igh t e t a l . 1 967 ) a s w e l l a s t h e c oo l a nd d ry m oun ta inou s a r ea s o f n or th A f ghan is tan ( v an Z e i s t a nd B o t t ema 1 977 , 1 991) .
S ubsequen t p o l len s t ud ie s i no t he r p a r t s o ft h e
n o r th a nd e a s t Med i te r ranean a r ea s a nd t h eN ea rE a s t s uppor tt h e i n f e rence st h a tt h e l a te P l e i s tocene c l ima te o ft h i s e n t i r e a r ea w a s c o ld a nd d ry r a th e r t h an mo i s t .
I ti sa s sumed t h a t t h e se c ond i t ion s
t h roughou t t h e E u ra s ian c on t inen t r e la te t o t h e S i be r ian w in te r a n t icyc lon ic c i rcu la t ion ( F re i tage 1 977 ) , a nd s ugge s t s a n a nnua l p r ec ip i ta t ion o f 5 0 -200 mm o r a bou t at h i rd o f p r e sen t d ay p r ec ip i ta t ion .
A t t h e s am e t im e l ow e r e vapo ra t ion i n c rea sed a n a ccumu la t ion o f i c e a nd c au sed a
g ene ra l l owe r ing o f t h e s now l in e o f 1 800m o n t h e o u twa rd s l ope s o f t h e Z ag ro s a nd E lbu rz Moun ta in s , a nd b e tween 3 000 -4000m o n t h e m oun ta in s o f i n te r io r I r an ( B rooke s 1 982 ) .
T h i s
i n d ica te s t h a t t h e c hang e s l e ad ing t og l ac ia l c ond i t ion s i nI r an w e re ma in ly c au sed .b y t empe ra tu re d epre ss ion , a f ec ted b y t h e g ene ra l p a t t er n o fa tmo sphe r ic c ond i t ion s , d if e rence s i ne xpo su re , a nd
19
d if e r en c e s i nt h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fp r ec ip i ta t ion . D u r ing t h e c oo l e r p ha se i nt h e m oun ta in s , a tl e a s t , s umm e r s w e r e p robab ly m i ld b u t t h e w in t e r s w ou ld h av e b e en e x t r em e ly c o ld w i th h e avy s now f a l l ( W r igh t 1 976 ) , a nd l a k e l e v e l s a t l e a s t s e a sona l ly h i gh e r b e cau se o f d ec r ea sed e v apo ra t ion a nd h i gh e rm e l twa t e r , w h i l ei nw ann p ha se sm any o ft h em m ay h av ed r ied u p . T hu s , t h ec o o l e rp ha se o f I r an , p a r t icu la r ly i nt h e m oun ta inou s a r ea s , w i th ap oo r v eg e t a t ion c ov e r a nd a n ima l l i f e , p robab ly d i dn o ta low h un t e rg a th e r e rg roup st oo c cupy t h e a r ea s . U n f o r tuna t e ly , f o rt h e o t h e rp a r t s o fI r an o u t s id e t h e Z ag ro s ap r im i t iv e s t a t e o fk now l edg e e x i s t s t o day f o r r e con s t ruc t ing t h e p a s t c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s , b u t a cco rd ing t og eomo rpho log ica l e v id enc e t h e i n t e r io r b a s in s o f I r an d u r ing t h e l a s t g l a c ia lp e r iod c on ta in ed l a k e s o fv a r iou s s i z e s a nd d ep th s . S i n c et h ee nd o ft h e P l e i s to c en e mo s t o f t h em h av ed r i ed u p o rh av eb e en r e duc ed i ns i z e , t h ough s om e l a k e s s u ch a st h o se a r ound S h i ra z i n F a r s , p e r s i s t a tl e a s t p e r enn ia l ly ( K r in s ley 1 970 ) . T h e H i lmand L ak e i ns out h ea s t ,I r an w a s much l a rg e r a nd d e epe r i nP l e i s toc en e t im e s ( Co s t an t in i a nd T o s i 1 9 78 : 1 7 1 ) .
T hu s , d u r ing t h e c oo l e r
p ha se , a tl e a s t , t h e r e w a s m uch m o r e s u rf a c e w a t e r t h an t o day i nt h e i n t e r io r b a s in s o f I r an . A l though t h e r eh a s b e en l i m i t ed P a la eo l i th ic r e sea r ch , Sm i th ( 1 986 ) , o nt h e b a s i s o fs p o rad ic f i nd s o fP a la eo l i th ic s u rf a c em a t e r ia l a nd t h es im i la r i ty o fp a s tc ond i t ion so ft h e se a r ea st ot h ep r e sen t d ay i n t e r io r d e se r t o fA u s t ra l ia , h a s s ugge s t ed t h a t t h e r e w e r e r a t h e r m o r e f avou rab le l i v ing c ond i t ion s f o rh un t e r s , g a th e r e r s a nd p e rhap s f i sh e rm en . A t t emp t s t oe va lua t et h e s ou th er n c oa s ta l r e g ion s o f I r an m e e t w i th s im i la r d if i cu l t ie s b ecau se v e ry l i t t le p a la e o c l ima to log ica l a nd a r cha eo log ica l r e sea r ch h a sb een a t t emp t ed i nt h e se a r ea s . S om er e sea rch h a sc on c lud ed t ha td u r ing t h el a s tg l a c ia l p e r iod t h eP e r s ian G u lf w a sm uch s ma l l e rt h an i ti st o day , a nd i t se xpan s ion o c cu r r ed i nt h ew ann e r p ha s ew h en t h ew o r ld ' s o c ean s r o se b ecau se o ft h em e l t ing o ft h eg r ea ti c e s h e e ti nt h en o r th er na nd s ou th er nh em i sph e r e s ( s e eA l -A sf ou r 1 982 ,D a long ev i l l ea nd S an lav i l l e 1 987 , F a i rbank s 1 9 89 ) . T h e s am e m ay b e t r ue f o r t h e Om an S ea s ho r e l in e s t owa rd P ak i s tan .
T h e p rob l em t ha t P a la eo l i th ic
a r cha eo log i s t sa r ef a c ing h e r ei sw h e th e ro rn o tt h e se n ow subm e r g ed c oa s ta lb e l t s w e r ei n hab i t ed b y P a la eo l i th ic g r oup s . T h e P l e i s toc en e c ond i t ion s i nt h e n o r th er n h i gh land s a r e a l so n o t k nown i nd e ta i l , b u t K r in s ley ( 1 970 ) s ugg e s t ed i n c r ea sed s n owf a l l i nt h e C a sp ian b a s in i ng l a c ia lt i m e s b ecau se o ft h e d e c r ea sed t empe ra tu r e .
V an Z e i s t a nd B o t t ema ( 1 977 , 1 991 ) a t t r ibu t ed t h i s z on e t o ac on t inuou s f o r e s t
v eg e ta t ion w i th in w a rm e ra nd m o r eh um id c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s . T h i sp a t t er ns how s ad i s t in c tc on t ra s t t ot h e t r e e l e s s r e g ion s o fm o s t o fI r an w h e r e ac o ld a nd d ry c l ima t e p r eva i l ed . G eomo rpho log ica l e v id en c eh a sd emon s t ra t ed s e v e ra lf l uc tua t ion so fs e aw a t e rl e v e li nt h eC a sp ian S ea a nd an umbe ro f b ea ch e s c on s id e rab ly h i gh e rt h an t h e m od e rn o n e ( u p t o9 0m ) . A l though i nt h e l a t e P l e i s to cen e t h e C a sp i an s h o r e l in e s s e em s t oh av e b e en v e ry p rom i s ing h un t e r -ga th e r t e r r i to ry , s o f a r n o s i t e s h av e
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b e en f o und h e r e .
I ti sl i ke ly t ha t s ucce s s ive f l uc tua t ion s o f s e a l e ve l h ave d e s t royed t h e s i te s o r
b u r ied t h em d eep b enea th t h e moder np l a in . A bou t a round 1000 B .P . , b ecau se o ft h e r e duc t ion i nt h e w in te r c yc lon ic a c t iv i ty o ve r t h e N ea r E a s t , s u rf ace a i rt empe ra tu r eb ecame 5 10 °C w a rm e rt h an d u r ing t h e l a s tg l ac ia l max imum ( B rooke s 1 9 82 : 1 94 ) .
T h i s i n c rea sed e vapo ra t ion a nd , e ven tua l ly , a r id i ty a nd h i gh e r t empe ra tu re s c au sed a
t r an s i t iona l p a t t er ni nt h e v ege ta t ion , f r om t h e s t eppe t oo pen w ood land , ap a t te rn w h ich a tt h e t ime d om ina ted mo re o rl e ss t h eh i ghe rr e g ion s o ft h eN ea rE a s t . Wa rm d ry c ond i t ion s w e r et h e d om inan t c h a ra c te r i s t ic s o ft h ee a r ly H o locen ei nm o s tp a r t s o fI r an . W i th t h eh ighe rt empe ra tu re t h e s e al e ve l d r opped a nd c oa s ta l p l a in s w e re e xpand ed . Wa rm s umm e r s a nd me l io ra t ed w in t e r s o ft h et e rm ina l P l e i s tocene a l lowed P a laeo l i th ic h uman o ccupa t ion i n s ide c av e s o ry ea r r ound o pen s i te s i nt h e b o th t h eZ ag ro s a nd t h eE lbu rz f o o th i l l s . T he se c ond i t ion s p e rm i t t ed h uman s , p l an t s a nd a n ima l st om ov e o u t o fr e s t r ic t ed a r ea s , a nd t h en m an w a s a b le t o e n la rge h i s g eog raph ic r ange a nd t o a dop t n ew e c onom ic s t ra t eg ie s , n ew t e chno log ie s a nd e ven tua l ly a n ew w ay o f l i f e w i th t h e b eg inn ing o f a g r icu l tu re . C l ima t ic v a r ia t ion i nI r an i ss hown t or e ach am ax imum a r id i ty a round 6 000 B .P .
B y 500 B .P .
p r e c ip i ta t ion a ga in i n c r ea sed a nd c au sed l a k e l e ve l s t or i se a nd c hanged t h e o pen w ood land c ove r o f t h e Z ag ro s t o at r u ly f o r e s t v ege ta t ion ( v an Z e i s t a nd Wr igh t 1 963 : 6 7 ) .
B o th t h e p o l len a nd
s e d imen t p rof i le s a s w e l l a s a r chaeo log ica l e v idence r e vea l a s e r ie s o f f l uc tua t ion r e ve r sa l s p a r t icu la r ly d u r ing t h e p e r iod o f9 000 a nd 6 000 B P . T he r e i sg ene ra l a g r eemen t o n t h e b a s i s o f v e g e ta t iona l h i s to ry t h a t i mp l ie s t h e m ode rn t empe ra tu re a nd p rec ip i ta t ion r ange s h ad b een e s tab l i shed b y a bou t 4 000 B P . ( v an Z e i s t a nd B o t tema 1 982 : 2 89 ) , w h i le G an j i ( 1 978 : 1 62 ) a nd S i ahpou sh ( 1 973 : 2 7 ) h ave a r gued f o r l e s s r a inf a l l , h i gh e r t empe ra tu re a nd m o re a r id i ty c ove r ing m o s tp a r t s o fI r an b e tween 4 400 a nd 2 850 B .P . I nt h e i rv i ew t h e c l ima t ic s t ab i l i sa t ion i nI r an m u s t o c cu r red a f t e r 1 300 B .P . I na dd i t ion t ot h e se t r ad i t iona la t temp t st or e con s truc tt h ep a s tc l ima t ic c ond i t ion s i nI r an an ew l i n e o fe v idence h a s r e cen t ly b een d eve loped . I ti s ac l ima te m ode l i nw h ich i ti sa s sumed t h a tt h e c l ima t e i sg over n ed b y a tmo sph e r ic c i rcu la t ion p a t t er n s , w h ich a r e i nt ur n af ec ted b y s u rf ace b ounda ry c ond i t ion s , d i s t r ibu t ion o fl a nd , g round c ove r , i c e s h ee t s , s e a i c e a nd s ea t empe ra tu re s a nd b y t h e e a r th 's o r b i ta lp a rame t e r s ( COHMAP Membe r s 1 988 ; K u tzbach 1 981 , 1 983 ; K u tzbach e ta l . 1 993 ) . F o r t h e p r e sen t d i scu s s ion t h e e s sen t ia l p o in t s a r e t h a t a t 1 8000 B .P . i c e s h ee t s w e re a t t h e i r m ax imum a nd s e a s u r f ace t empe ra tu re a nd s e a l e ve l s w e re l owe r t han a t p r e sen t .
T h i s m od e l
d emon s t ra t e s f o rt h e N ea r E a s t aJ anua ry t empe ra tu r e o fa tl e a s t 1 0 °C l owe r t h an a tp r e sen t a nd a J u ly t empe ra tu re o f 1 2 °C l owe r t h an t o day .
F o r t h e e a r ly Ho locene c l ima te m ode l s c onf i rm
p a laeoenv i ronmen ta ld a ta i ns how ing c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s s i gn if i can t ly d if e ren tf r om t h o se o ft h e l a t e
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P l e i s toc en e a nd t h e p r e sen t ; s imu la t ed e xpe r im en t s s how ed a g radua l w a rm ing o f t h e n o r th er n h em i sph e r e c au sed b y i n c r ea s ing s o la r i n so la t ion ( r ad ia t ion r e ce iv ed b y t h e e a r th ) d ue t o t h e c h ang ing t i l t o ft h e e a r th ' s a x i s , t o ge the r w i th as h if t ing b a lanc e i nt h e i n f luence o ft h e s ou thw e s t m on soon a nd t h el o ca t ion o ft h ew e s t e r l ie s i nt h eN ea rE a s t a nd N o r th A f r ica ( COHMAP Membe r s 1 988 , K u t zba ch 1 981 ) . A tt h es am et im e ( a round 9 000 B .P . )t h ee a r th w a s c l o se s tt ot h e s un o n 3 0 J u ly , r e su l t ing i na ni n c r ea se i ns umm e rt empe ra tu r ea nd c o r r e spond ing ly c o lde rw in t e rt empe ra tu r e s . I ti se s t ima t ed t h a tJ u ly t empe ra tu r e s i nt h en o r th er nh em i sph e r ea v e raged 2 -4 °C a nd o v e rS ou thwe s t A s ia a t9 000 B .P . 2 3C 0 h i gh e r t h an t oday .
T h e r e su l t w a s g r ea t e r s e a sona l i ty i nt h e n or ther n
h em i sph e r ea nd i nt h i s p e r iod t h eN ea rE a s te xpe r i en ced t h e m o s te x t r em e s e a sona l i ty i ni t s h i s to ry . I na dd i t ion t og r ea t e rc on t ra s tb e tw een s umm e ra nd w in t e rt empe ra tu r e s , s umm e ra r id i ty w a s l o ng e r , a nd w in t e rt empe ra tu r e s a r ea s sum ed t ob e 1 . 5 °C l ow e rt h an m od er nv a lue s . T he e nhan c ed t h e rma l c on t ra s tb e tw e en s e a son s a nd g r ea t e rs umm e rh ea t ing o ft h eA s ia l a ndma s s r e su l ted i na ni n c rea se i n t h e i n t en s i ty o fb o th t h e w e s t e r l ie s a nd t h e m on soon s y s t em s .
A t t h e s am e t im e t h e i n te r t rop ica l
c onv e rg enc e z on e i st h ough tt oh av e s h if t ed n o r thwa rd t os ou th o ft h e Med i t e r ranean a r ea s , a c ro s s N o r th A f r ica a nd p e rhap s n o r th o f t h e P e r s ian G u lf ( Robe r t s 1 982 : 2 09 , S i rocko e ta l . 1 993 ) r e su l t ing i np ow e rf u l m o i s t m a r i t im e a i r f r om t h e I n d ian O cean c au s ing s umme r r a in o n t h e a r ea f r om t h es ou th er ne dge o ft h eA t la s Moun ta in s i nP ak i s tan t ot h ew e s t er np a r t s o fS ou th er nI r an a nd Me sopo t am ia ( E l -Mo s l im an i 1 986 : 6 2 ) . T hu s , i n c r ea sed r a inf a l li nt h ee a r ly H o locen ei ns ome p a r t s o ft h eN ea rE a s t , a si nN o r th A f r ica , c an b ea t t r ibu t ed t ot h ej o in tc on t r ibu t ion s o ft h ew e s t e r l ie s a nd t h em on soon s y s t em ( Ku tzba ch 1 983 ) . T h er e su l t so ft h i s mod e lc an b ec on f i rmed f o rt h em o s tp a r t s o ft h eN ea r E a s tb yt h e p a la eoc l ima t ic d a ta i nt h e f o rm o fh i gh e rl a ke l e ve l s , ( Robe r t s a nd Wr igh t 1 993 : 1 96 ) f o r e xamp le , b u t i td oe s n o t , h ow ev e r , e xp la in w hy p a r t s o ft h e e a s ter n Med i t e r ranean r e g ion s s u ch a sI r an i nt h ee a r ly H o locen ew e r e d r i e rt h an a tp r e sen t , a s s ugge s t ed b yp a lyno log ica l d a ta . T h ec l ima t em od e l s ugge s t s , t h a t i tm ay h av eb e en as t rong e rw in t e r o u t f low o fc o ld a i r f r om t h eE u ra s ian l a nd m a s st h a tb l ock ed t h ee a s t e rwa rd m ov em en to fa i r f low f r om t h e Med i t e r r an ean S ea i n to i n t e r io r a r ea s s uch a s A na to l ia a nd I r an ( W r igh t 1 993 : 2 18 , c . f . t h e p a lyno log ica l d a ta r e p r e sen t ed b yv an Z e i s ta nd B o t t ema 1 977 , 1 982 , 1 991 ) . F rom t h e m ax imum e f ec t o ft h i s i n c r ea sed s o la r i n so la t ion a t9 000 B .P . , t h e mode l t h en s ugge s t s t h a tt h e r e w a s ad ec l in e t ov a lue s o ft empe ra tu r e a nd p rec ip i ta t ion a pp roach ing t ho se o ft o day b y a r ound 6 000 B .P . A sm en t ion ed a bove ,t h es ou th e rn ea s t er ns e c to ro ft h eN ea rE a s t( I r an l i e s i nt h i s s e c to r )r e c e iv ed m o i s tu r ef r om b o th t h em on soona ls y s t em f r om t h es ou thw e s ta nd t h e Med i t e r ranean s y s t em d r iv en b y w e s t e r l ie s ( COHMAP Membe r s 1 9 88 , S i rocko 1 993 , K u tzbach e ta l . 1 993 ) . A s s o la ri n so la t ion d ec l in ed t h em on soon b ecam ep rog r e s s ive ly w eak e r a nd s h if t ed t ot h e s ou th , a nd s o t o ta lp r ec ip i ta t ion d ec l in ed a nd b ecam em o r e s e a sona lo ccu r r ing o n ly i nw in t e r s . T h i s e v en ta round
1 22
6 000 B .P . h a s b een w e l l d ocumen ted b y K ay a nd J ohn son ( 1 981 : 2 59 ) a tl e a s t f o rt h e s ou ther np ar t o fI r an . T hey c onc luded t h a tt h eh um id e p i sod ei nt h e s ou th er nZ ag ro s e nded a round 5 900 B .P . a nd t ha t t h e e n su ing d r ie r p e r iod l a s ted u n t i l a bou t 3 000 B .P . a f t e r w h ich moder n w e t te r c ond i t ion s a ppea r ed . I nt h ec en t ra lZ ag ro st h ey n o ted aw e t t e r p e r iod f r om a bou t 6 400 -5200 B .P . , f o l lowed b y a r id i ty t oa bou t 3 400 B .P . H oweve rt h e r a p id d ec l ine f r om f a vou rab le c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s af ec ted s ub s tan t ia l ly t h e N eo l i th ic s y s tem o ft h e c en t ra l a nd s ou the rn Z ag ro s .
T h i s c l ima t ic e ven t c an b e
s e en c l ea r ly i n a r chaeo log ica l d a ta i n t h e f o rm o f aw ide r a nge d i s loca t ion o f p opu la t ion , a nd a bandonmen to fs ome r e g ion st h roughou tt h eZ ag ro s ( Ho le 1 994 ) . I n te re s t ing ly , a r chaeo log ica l d a ta o b ta in ed f r om N eo l i th ic s i t e s ( d u r ing t h e s i x th -f if th m i l lenn ium ) t h roughou t t h e Z ag ro s r e g ion s c onf i rm t h i s c l ima t ic e v en t a nd e ven tua l ly t h e s ame d emog raph ic t r end a nd s e t t lemen t p a t ter n s . S umne r( 1988 : 2 9 -38 ) r ema rk st ha t " s eden ta ry p opu la t ion d ec r ea sed a ta n a cce le ra t ing r a t e b e tween 4 900 -4350 B .C ." a r e duc t ion o f 6 9% i n 5 00 y ea r s wh ich , h e a t t r ibu t e s t o " a ' s eve r e c r i s i s i n s ub s i s t ence p roduc t ion" .
T h i s p a t t er n s im i la r ly c an b e s e en i n Marvda sh t ( Sumne r 1 988 : 4 ) ,
B akh t ia ry ( Zaga re l l 1 982 : 6 5 ) , F a sa a nd D a rab ( M i ro sched j i 1 973 ) , D eh L u ran ( Ho le 1 987a : 8 5 ) , B ehbahan ( N i s sen a nd R edman :1971) a nd R amho rmuz ( Ca ldw e l l 1 968 ) , i na l l o fw h ich t h e r e w a s a m a rk ed d ec l ine i n s i te s , a nd a t s ome s i t e s t h e c l ima t ic c hange f o rced p eop le t o s h if t a way f r om a g r icu l tu re t owa rd a n ima lh u sband ry , a so ccu r r ed i nL u r i s tan ( Hen r ik son 1 985 : 4 0 ) .
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Chapter 5
R e search P r ior i t ie s a nd Me thodo log ica l S truc ture f or t he Future Deve lop ment o fP a laeo l i th ic Archaeo logy i n I ran
1 .I n troduc t ion My t h ough t s o n P a laeo l i th ic a r cha eo logy i n I r an a r e b a sed o n t h e o n e h and o n m y p e r sona l o b se rva t ion s a nd o nt h e o t he rh and o nt h e r e su l t s o fp rev iou s ly c onduc ted a nd o n -go ing P a laeo l i th ic r e sea rch i nv a r iou s p a r t s o fI r an .
F i r s t o fa l l , h ow eve r , i ti sn ece s sa ry t om en t ion c e r ta in i mpor tan t
p rob lem s . O u rk now ledge o ft h e P a laeo l i th ic i nI r an i sq u i te f r agmen ta ry . Mo s t o ft h e r e sea rch a nd s t ud ie s a r e f a r f r om g i v ing u s p rec i se i n f o rma t ion e i the r o n t h e l o ca t ion o f s i t e s o r o n t h e c h rono s t ra t ig raphy o fP a la eo l i th ic ma t e r ia l s . I na dd i t ion I r an h a s b een o n ly p a r t ia l ly e xp lo red a nd a h uge a r ea s t i l ln eed st ob es u rveyed . I nt h el i gh to ft h i s my s ugge s t ion s a r ep rov i s iona l a nd o fc ou r se o pen t o c hange o r a t t h e v ery l e a s t t o f u r the r m od if ica t ion .
D e sp i t e i n su f ic ien t s t ud ie s t h e
P a la eo l i th ic o fI r an i sv ery r i ch a nd a l low s u s n ev er the le ss t oa t t emp t af ew s umma ry t h ough t s o nt h e p rob lem s o f I r an ian P a laeo l i th ic a r chaeo logy . t h eor e t ica l o r m e thodo log ica l w ork .
I tm us t b e p o in t ed o u t t h a t t h is e s say i sn o t a
I ti su nf or tuna t e t ha t t h e i n f orma t ion w e h av e a bou t t h e
P a laeo l i th ic i nI r an t oday d oes n o t a l low t h a t k i nd o fp resen ta t ion .
I n s t ead t h is i sb as ica l ly a
d e scr ip t iv ea ccoun tt h a tt r ies t oi d en t if yt h e m a in p rob lem a r ea s . T he f i r s t s e c t ion o ft h i s c hap t e r a t t emp t s t o e xp la in t h e c ur r en t s t a te o fa cadem ic k now ledge o f P a la eo l i th ic a r cha eo logy a s ab a s i s f o r ad i scu ss ion o ft h e f u tu re o fI r an ian a r chaeo logy ; t h e s e cond s e c t ion w i l l t r yt oi l u s t ra t e t h e p r e sen t d ay s t a te o ft h e P a laeo l i th ic i nI r an a nd i nt h e t h i rd s e c t ion s om es ugge s t ion sw i l lb em ade a bou tw ha tw en eed t ok now t om ake f ur the rp rog re ss . T h eP a la eo l i th ic p e r iod i st h eo l de s tp e r iod o fh uman p reh i s tory a nd i nI r an s pan s t h et im ef r om t h e a s sumed a ppea ranc e o f Homo e r ec tu s c a . 0 . 8 m i l l ion y ea r s a go ( c a . 0 . 8 Ma )t ot h e b eg inn ing o ft h e ' Neo l i th ic R evo lu t ion ' c a . 1 0 ,000 t hou sand y ea r s a go ( c a . 1 0 K a ) . C ur r en t p r ior i ty i nP a laeo l i th ic r e sea rch i n c lud e s t h e u nd e r s tand ing o f t h e p hy s ica l e vo lu t ion , t h e c u l tu ra l d eve lopm en t a nd t h e g l oba l c o lon i sa t ion o fo u re a r ly a nce s to r s . A l though t h e re i s ad i ve r s i ty o ft h ink ing o fh ow t os t udy
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t h e P a laeo l i th ic a nd w ha t p a r t s o fa r e i n t e re s t ing a nd i mpo r tan t ( e .g . Gamb le 1 987 , Wynn 1 991) , t h e r ei sac ommon a g reemen tw i th in t h i s d i ve r s i ty t os t udy : ( 1 ) t h e a bso lu te a ge o fo u r e a r l ie s t a nce s to r s a nd i n f o rma t ion o n t h e p a laeoc l ima te i nw h ich t h ey s u rv iv ed ; ( 2 )t ou nde r s tand t h er o le o fe nv i ronmen ta la nd c h rono s t ra t ig raph ica li n f o rma t ion i na s soc ia t ion w i th g eog raph ica l p roce sse s w h ich i s ak ey a spec t o fp a laeo l i th ic r e sea rch .
T he p e r iod ic f l uc tua t ion o f
c l ima t e d ur ing t h e v a s t s pan o ft ime i n c lude s a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f r om a v a r i e ty o ft y pe s o f g eo log ica l d epo s i t s i n c lud ing r i ve r , l a ke , m a r ine , c o l luv ia l a nd s o l if luc t ion d epo s i t s . T he se a r eo f t en d e ep ly b u r ied a nd a cce ss t ot h em c an o n ly b e p o s s ib le w h e r et h ey a r e e xpo sed b y n a tu ra l p roce s se s s u ch a sr i ve re r o s ion o rh um an a c t iv i t ie ss uch a sq ua r ry ing ; ( 3 ) t h e ma in d i rec t e v idence o fh uman s i nt h e P a la eo l i th ic i st h e i r l i t h ic a r t if ac t s . T ypo log ica l a nd t e chno log ica l a na ly s i s o fl i t h ic a r t if ac t s b ecome s mo re s i gn if i can t w he re t h e i r c hange s t h rough t ime c an b ei d en t if i ed a nd i n te rp r e t ed ; ( 4 ) s t udy ing h om in id s k e le ta l m a te r ia l h a s ag r ea t i mpo r tance w he re t h e p roce s se s o f h uman p hy s ica le vo lu t ion a r es ough t ; ( 5 ) s t udy ing t h e p a s t w ay s o f t h ough t f r om m a te r ia l r ema in s ( c ogn i t ive a r chaeo logy ) .
S uch
a pp roach a t t emp t s t o p rov ide a n swe r s t o s ome f undam en ta l q ue s t ion s o f t h e a b i l i ty o f a r cha ic h uman s i n t h e P a la eo l i th ic t o p l an a head i n t e l l igen t ly a nd o r gan i se t h em se lve s l o g i s t ica l ly ( e .g . G amb le 1 987 ) . O fg r ea ti mpo r tance a r ea l so s t udy ing t h er ema in s o fa n ima l s u sed f o r f ood a nd t h e z ema in s o fn on f o od m amma l s , mo l lu sc s , p o l len a nd i n sec t s .
S uch e v idence p rov ide s k now ledge o ft h e p r eva i l ing
c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s a nd e nv i ronmen ta l c on tex t s o f t h e P a la eo l i th ic a nd e conom ic p a t te rn s o f P a la eo l i th ic l i f e . T h em a in i n t e re s t o fP a la eo l i th ic r e sea rch i st h e i n t erp r e ta t ion a nd r e con s truc t ion o ft h e l i f e o fp a s t e x t inc t h uman s f r om t h e i r p r e served s k e le ta l r ema in s , t h e i r a s sumed b ehav iou r a nd t h e p roce s se s t h a ts haped t h em , b yu s ing amu l t id i sc ip l ina ry a pp roach a nd w i th in am e thodo log ica lc on t ex t . T hu s , t h eq ue s t ion s o f' why ' w he re ' a nd ' h ow ' d i d s ome l a t e r s p ec ie s o fh om in id s s uch a s Homo e r ec tus a nd H omo s ap iens e me rg e o r d i spe r se t oo t h e r p a r t s o ft h e w o r ld a ppea r s t o s om e a r cha eo log i s t s a nd a n th ropo log i s t st ob et h e s i ng le m o s ti mpor tan tp o in to fc on t en t ion . A s h a s b een s t re s sed i nt h e a r cha eo log ica l a nd a n th ropo log ica l l i t e ra tu re s , t h e N ea r E a s t , a s t h e g eog raph ic c r o s sroad b e tween A f r ica ,A s ia , a nd E u rope , w a sc e r ta in ly ama in r ou t e f o rt h ed i spe r sa l o fH omo e r ec tus i n to E u ra s ia . T he a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd o fs ome p ar t s o ft h e N ea r E a s t ( w e s ter n A s ia ) c an c on t r ibu t e t o e xp la in t h e M idd le t o U ppe r P a la eo l i th ic r e vo lu t ion .u nd er taken b y a na tom ica l ly m od er nh uman s . T h i s r e g ion w a s a l so t h e c o r e a r ea w he re t h e ' Neo l i th ic R evo lu t ion '
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t o ok p l a c e .
T he s ucce s sf u l a dap ta t ion o f h om in id s i n w e s t er n A s ia f a c i l i ta t ed t h e i r mov em en t
f a r th e ri n to e a s ter np a r t s o ft h eN ea r E a s t ; t h e r ef o r e l o ca t ing t h ee a r l ie s t s i te s i nt h eN ea r E a s tt h a t m a rk t h e p o s s ib le r ou t e s o fh om in id s a tv a r iou s p er iod s i so fg r ea t i mpor tance .
S uch s i t e s m ay
p rov id e c l u e s t ow hen t h e se m ov em en t s t o ok p l ac e a nd t og a in i n s igh t s i n to t h e v a r iou s p ha se s o f h um an e vo lu t ion a nd t h e i r b ehav iou ra l c apa c i t ie s w h i le c o lon i s ing e ach r e g ion .
U nf o r tuna t e ly ,
a mong t h e N ea r E a s ter n c oun t r ie s , o n ly t h e e x t en s ive r e sea r ch i nt h e L evan t c on t r ibu t e s t ot h e se p rob l em s o f P a la eo l i th ic r e sea rch i n c on t ra s t t oT u rk ey , I r aq , I r an a nd A f ghan i s tan w h e r e s uch r e sea r ch i sl a ck ing . I ti sw o r th m en t ion ing t h a t t h e c h rono logy o f t h e f i r s t a ppea ran ce o f t h e h om in id s a nd t h e e vo lu t iona ry p ha se s i nA s ia h a s b een i nr e cen t y ea r s as ub je c t o fm a jo r c on t rov e r sy .
A l though
a lmo s t t h e w ho le o f A s ia i ss t i l l b l ank o n a r cha eo log ica l m ap s , t h e r e cen t d i scd v e r ie s o f e a r ly h om in id s i nC h ina , P ak i s tan a nd C en t ra l A s ia s e em t oc hange t h e d a t e a nd t r ad i t iona l v i ew s o nt h e i s sue a nd m o s t i mpor tan t ly t h ey i n d ica t e t h e p o t en t ia l o fA s ia t op rov id e d a te s a nd t h e p o ss ib i l i ty t h a t t h e r e l ev an t d a ta m ay b e a va i lab le e l sewh e r e i n A s ia . U nf o r tuna te ly , a t t h e m omen t t h e u nd ev e loped s t a t e o fP a la eo l i th ic r e sea rch i ns om e c oun t r ie s o ft h e N ea r E a s t p r ev en t s r e sea rch e r s l i nk ing a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd s b e tween t h e L evan t a nd e a s t er nA s ia , a nd t h e rby r e con s t ruc t ing t h e p o s s ib le r o u t e so fe a r ly h om in id d i spe r sa li n to A s ia . A s h a s b e en p o in t ed o u tb ys om es c ho la r s ( e .g . Wo lpof fa nd Nk in i 1 985 : 2 04 ) Homo e r ec tu s i sf a r b e t t e r r e p r e sen t ed o u t s ide o fA f r ica t h an i ti s w i th in A f r ica , p a r t icu la r ly i n A s ia .
A s w e w i l l s e e , t h i s i sa l so t r ue f o r t h e e m e rgence o f
a na tom ica l ly m od er nh uman s . T h e ref o r eA s ia ( p a r t icu la r ly w e s t er nA s ia ) c an b ev i ew ed a sa ni d ea l r e g ion f o r t e s t ing a n umbe r o f c on f l ic t ing e vo lu t iona ry h ypo th e se s .
I f t h i s i st h e c a se , t h e
P a la eo l i th ic s hou ld h av e at o pp r io r i ty i na r cha eo log ica lr e sea rch i nw e s t er nA s ia . T h e e a r l i e s th uman f o s s i l c om e s f r om A f r ica d a t ed t ob e tw een 4 . 0 a nd 5 . 0 Ma b u t c omp le t e f o s s i l r ema in s a r e o n ly k nown f r om b e tween 3 . 0 a nd 4 . 0 Ma ( J ohan son e ta l . 1 982 ) . T he se a r e g en e ra l ly a t t r ibu t ed t oA u s t ra lop i thecu s . T he e a r l ie s t s p ec ie s a t t r ibu ted t ot h e g enu s H omo i sH omo h ab i l i s ( t h e f i r s t t o o l mak e r ) w h ich m ay h ave f i r s t a ppea red a ta bou t 2 . 3 Ma b u t t h e e a r l ie s t g ood f o s s i l e v id en c ei s al i t t le l e s st h an 2 . 0 Ma o l d . Membe r s o fH . h ab i l i sa r ew e l l d ocumen ted i nE a s tA f r ica i nd epo s i t s a tO lduva i a nd K oob i F o ra ( Leak ey a nd Wa lk e r 1 9 76 ) .
T hey p roduced t h e s o -ca l led
O ldowan t e chno logy b yw h ich as t on e p ebb le ( t h e c o r e ) , u sua l ly o fl a va , w a s s t ruck u s ing as e cond ( t h eh amm e r ) t op roduc e ac r ud e c hoppe r o rs c rape r a nd s ha rp f l ak e . B o th t h ep ebb le t o o l s a nd t h e f l ak e sw e r ep robab ly u sed i nv a r iou sw ay s ,b u tt h e i rt e chno logy i ss e en a s am o r eo ppo r tun i s t ic s t on e s hap ing o rt o o lm ak ing r a th e rt h an as y s t ema t ic t e chno logy ( I saa c 1 984 , 1 986 ) . B y 1 . 6 Ma o rm o r e , Homo h ab i l i s w a s f o l low ed b y s pec ie s c ha ra c t e r i sed b yt a l l s t a tu r e n am ed Homo e r ec tu s ( f o rm o r e d e ta i l s e e R igh tm i r e 1 990 ) . T he t r an s i t ion f r om h ab i l i s t oe r ec tu s i n vo lved as l igh t e n la rg em en t o f
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t h e b r a in a nd a c hange i nf a c ia l f e a tu re s i n c lud ing t h e d eve lopmen t o f p rom in en t r i dge a bove t h e e y e s , t h e b row r i dge ( Tur n e r a nd C hambe r la in 1 989 ) . B y 1 . 4 Ma t h e O ldowan t r äd i t ion h ad b een s upp lem en ted b y an ew t r ad i t ion ; A ch eu l ian t e chno logy i sc ha rac te r i sed b y l a rge b i f ace s i nt h e f o rm o fh and a xe s a nd c l eave r s . T he n umbe ro fi d en t if iab le t o o l t y pe s i nA cheu l ian a s semb lage s i ss ma l l , n o ta l o f wh ich o ccu ra te v e ry s i t e ; i ns om ec a se st h ed om inan tt oo l i st h eb i f ace . H ow ev e r ,t h eg r ea t m a jo r i ty o f t yp ica l A cheu l ian a s semb lage s i n A f r ica , t h e N ea r E a s t a nd I nd ia c omb ine v a ry ing p e r cen tage s o f b o th A ch eu l ian a nd O ldowan c omponen t s b u t n one o ccu r i n E a s t A s ia ( Gow le t t 1 9 88 ) . I n s tead , ac hopp ing t o o la s semb lage l i k et h e O ldowan a ppea r s i nt h i s p a r to ft h ew o r ld . T h i s d if e r en t p a t ter ni sa rgued t oi n d ica te t h e e x i s t ence o ft wo d if e ren t t ype s o fp eop le i nt h e w e s t a nd t h ee a s t , b u t C la rk ( 1992 : 2 10 ) c onc lud e st h a t i nt h e F a r E a s tt h e r aw m a te r ia l s u sed b yH . e r ec tus w e r e m o s t ly n o t h a rd a nd r e s i s tan t . b amboo , wood a nd t h e i r b y -p roduc t s .
S o , i ti sl i ke ly t h a t t h e t e chno logy w a s b a sed o n t h e u se o f T h i s i s sue c an b e s t e xp la in t h e u n spec ia l i sed n a tu re o ft h e
s t on ei n du s t r ie s i nt h i s r e g ion , t h e u se o fw h ich h av e b een r e s t r ic ted t ot h e b a s ic n eed s o fc hopp ing , s aw ing a nd s c rap ing t h e se r aw ma te r ia l s . I nA f r ica a bou t 0 . 5 Ma t h e r e b egan t o a ppea r h om in id s t h a tr e p laced H . e r ec tu s . T h i sg roup s how s m o re a dvanced m o rpho log ica l c ha rac te r i s t ic s c omb in ing H . e r ec tus f e a tu re s w i th c e r ta in m od er no ne s . T he n ew f o rm o fh om in id s , s pec imen s o fw h ich h ave b e en f ound i nA f r ica , E u rope a nd A s ia , a r eg ene ra l ly k nown a sa r cha ic H omo s ap ien s . I ti sa rgued t h a td u r ing t h e L owe rP l e i s tocene a nd e v en t h e e a r ly p a r t o ft h e M idd le P l e i s tocene s ome H . e r ec tus b e came e x t inc t a nd d u r ing t h e l a t e r M idd le P l e i s tocen e o r e a r l ie r l a te r P l e i s tocene ( c a . 0 . 5-0 .2 Ma ) s p e c imen s o f a r cha ic H omo s ap ien s o ccup ied E u rope , t h e L evan t , I nd ia a nd e a s t er n A s ia .
T h e
e a r l i e s t h om in id f o s s i l s i nE u rope a r e g en e ra l ly a s s igned t ot h i s s pec im en a nd a r e a s soc ia ted w i th b o th A cheu l ian a nd O ldowan t y pe t e chno logy ( Robe r t s e ta l . 1 994 , R oeb roek s 1 994 , S t r inge r 1 989 ) . I nt h e L evan t a tZ u t t iyeh , t h e s t one i n du s t ry i sa n e vo lved A cheu l ian ( Vande rmee r sch 1 989 ) ; a t H a thno ra i nI n d ia i ti sa l so at y p ica l l a t e r A cheu l ian ( d e L um ley a nd S onak ia 1 985 ) . I nC h ina a nd s o u thea s t A s ia a s soc ia t ed s t one a r t if ac t s a r e i nt h e c o re /choppe r t r ad i t ion ( R igh tm i r e 1 990 : 3 4 -52 ) . T h e A cheu l ian t y pe b i f ace s w h ich a r e c ha rac te r i s t ic o f s p ec ia l i sed A cheu l ian c o r e t e chn ique s i n A f r ica , E u rope a nd w e s t er nA s ia h ave n o tb een f ound i ne a s tA s ia a sy e t . T he d a te a nd c i rcum s tance s i nw h ich t h e e a r ly H . e r ec tu s d i spe r sed f r om t h e i r A f r ican h ome land , w h e re s eve ra ls pec ie se vo lved f r om c a4 . 0t o2 . 0 Ma i s am a jo ri s sue d eba ted b y s cho la r s f o r s e ve ra l d e cade s . T he n ew d a t e sf o rt h eJ avane se h uman f o ss i l s w ou ld i n d ica te t ha t Homo e r ec tus a r r ived i n s o u thea s tA s ia a ta bou t 1 . 8 Ma ( Sw i sh e re ta l . 1 994 ) b u tt h i s n eed s t ob e c onf i rmed b y f u r the r f i e ld w o rk .
T he n ew d a ta a l so s ugge s t s t h a t H omo e r ec tus a s as pec ie s w i th i n nova t ive a b i l i t ie s a nd
g e n e ra l a dap t ive s k i l l c ou ld h ave e me rged e i the r d u r ing o ri mmed ia t e ly a f t e r t h e O lduva i s ubch ron w h ich i sc u r ren t ly d a ted t o2 . 1/ 1 .98 1 .75 Ma ( Cand e a nd K en t 1 992 ) . T hu s , t h e e a r ly d i spe r sa l o f
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Homo e r ec tu s m ay h ave o ccu r r ed a f t e r 1 . 8 Ma , p r obab ly f r om t h e s ou th t owa rd s t h e n o r th o f A f r ica , a nd t oE u ra s ia u nd e r as e ve r ec l ima t ic c on s t ra in t( Tu rn e r 1 992 ) . T h e ref o re t h ee a r ly p a r to f t h e L ow e r P l e i s tocen e a bou t c a 1 . 8 -1 .4 Ma w a s t h e c r uc ia l f o rma t iv e p e r iod f o r H omo e r ec tu s p opu la t ion s . I n t h e l a ck o f c onv inc ing e v id enc e t o d emon s t ra t e a n a l t e rna t ive r o u t e o f h uman m ig ra t ion i n to E u rope a nd A s ia , t h e N ea r E a s t w i l l r ema in t h e o n ly p o t en t ia l c o r r ido r f o r Homo e r ec tu sm ig ra t ion o u to fA f r ica ( Ba r -Yo sef 1 994 : 2 14 -2 17 ) . T he e v id ence f r om L ow e rP a laeo l i th ic s i t e s i nw e s t er n A s ia i n d ica t e s t h a t b o th U be id iya a nd Dman i s i w e r e a mong t he f i r s t s t a t ion s o f Homo e r ec tu si nt h eN ea rE a s ta nd E u ra s ia ( f ig . 4 ) . Dman i s i , a no pen s i t ei ns ou th G eo rg ia , i ss i tua t ed o n ab a sa l t ic b l ock b e tw e en t he t wo t r ibu ta r ie s o f t h e K u ra R iv e r .
S t ra t if i ed f a una l a s semb lage s o ft h i s s i te a r e a s soc ia t ed w i th a l i t h ic i n du s t ry
c on ta in ing c o r e -choppe r s b u t n o b i f a ce s . D a ta g a th e r ed f r om t h e s i t e s ugge s t al ow e r P l e i s toc en e a ge f o rt h es i t e , w hen aw e te nv i ronmen tw i th w e l l -wa t e r ed f o r e s t s w a s d om inan t ( Dzapa r idze e ta l . 1 989 ) . T h eh om in id m and ib le d i scov e red f r om t h e s i t ei sc on s id e r ed t ob em o r e p r im i t iv et h an t h a t o fU be id iya ; t h e r ef o r e t h e s i t e i st h ough t t oh av e b e en o ccup i ed c on t empo ra r i ly w i th t h e O lduva i s ubch ron a nd i sd a t ed w i th in at im er a nge o f1 . 8±0 .1 Ma . P a la eomagne t ic a na ly s i s o ft h el a va f l ow ( t h e s i t e s o ccu r s o v e r al a va f l ow ) r e v ea led n o rma l p o la r i ty a nd a c co rd ing ly wa s a s c r ibed t o t h e O lduva i e v en t . S i nce t h e l a ye ro ccu r s s t ra t ig raph ica l ly a bove t h el a va f l ow , t h e KA r a g ep rov ided t h eu ppe rl i m i to ft h e Homo e r ec tu sf i nd . S i nc et h ef i nd l a ye ri sa l so n o rma l ly p o la r i sed , a l though i t w a s a r gued t h a ti tb e long ed t ot h e O lduva i e ven t , h ow ev e r , i ti si np r inc ip le p o ss ib le ,t oa s c r ibe i tt o t h eB runch e se poch c a . L e s st h an 8 00 /000 k y r( s ee S i nghav ie ta l . 1 998 ) . E xcava t ion a tU be id iya i nt h e J o rdan V a l ley p roduc ed af a i r ly l a rg e l i t h ic a nd f auna l a s semb lage ( Opdyk ee ta l . 1 985 ) . D epo s i t s a tt h i s s i t e a ccumu la t ed i no rn ea ra n a nc ien t l a ke a nd m o s t o ft h e a r cha eo log ica l h o r izon s a r e a s soc ia t ed w i th a s i ng l e p er iod o fr e g r e s s ion o ft h e l a k e w a t e r .
T h e
f a una l r ema in s i n c lud e an umbe r o fl a rge m amma l s a sw e l l a s r o d en t s pec ie s a nd t h e se i n d ica t e a c l ima t e m o r e h um id a nd c oo le r t h an a tp r e sen t .
T h e d a t ing o fU be id iya i sb a sed o n t h e f a una l
s t ud i e s b yT ch e rnov ( 1992 ) t h a th e s ugge s t st h e a g ea s 1 . 4 -1 .0 Ma . T h e r aw ma t e r ia l u s ed f o rt h e m anuf a c tu r e o fa r t if ac t s w a s b a sa l t , f l in t a nd l i m e s ton e .
T h e e a r ly h om in id s u sed e a ch t y pe f o r
d if e r en tt o o lt y pe s : c o r e -choppe ra nd l i gh tt o o l s w e r em ade o ff l i n t , w h i le t h eh and a x eg r oup w e r e m ad e o fb a sa l t . T h e e a r l ie s t l a y e r s o fU be id iya c on ta in a n a bundanc e o fc o r e -choppe r s b u t l a ck s b i f ac e s . T h e se a s semb lag e s a r es im i la rt ot h o se o fd ev e loped O ldowan t r ad i t ion a nd c an b eu sed a s a n i n d ica t ion f o r t h e p r e sence o fa n e a r ly g roup o fH omo e r ec tu s i nt h i s a r ea .
T he u ppe r l a y e r s
c on ta in al i t h ic i n du s t ry w h ich i n c lud e s b i f a c e s , t e rm ed a s e a r ly A ch eu l ian i n du s t ry b y B a r -Yo sef a nd G o r en Inba r ( 1 993 ) . T h e p r e sence o r a b senc e o fb i f ace s i nt h e d if e r en t l a ye r s o ft h i s s i t e i s t ak en t od e s igna t e d if e ren tg roup s o fp eop le w ho l i v ed i nt h i s a r ea . I nt e rm s o fo ve ra l l p a t t er n o f
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m amma l ian movemen t s , h om in id r ema in s a nd l i t h ic i t em s f r om Dman i s i a nd U be id iya s e em t om a rk as t age i nh uman d i spe r sa l f r om A f r ica i n to E u ra s ia . E v idence f r om Dman i s i a nd U be id iya w ou ld e nf o rce t h e p o s s ib le h ypo the s i s t h a t i nt h e l a t e P l e i s tocene s e ve ra l mamma l ian s pec ie s m oved f r om A f r ica a c ro ss A rab ia , p robab ly v i a t h e L evan t , o r p e rhap s t h rough t h e B ab -e l -mandab S t ra i t s ( Wood a nd T ur n e r 1 995 : 2 40 ) .
A s h a s l o ng b een d eba t ed b y w e s te rn a r cha eo log i s t s a nd
p a la eon to log i s t s ,t h es p read o fH omo e r ec tu sf r om A f r ica t h rough t h eL evan t ine c o r r ido rt ot h e e a s t , e v en tua l ly r e ach ing i n to t r op ica l A s ia , may h ave o ccur red a r ound 1 . 0 -1 .2 Ma . T he i r c onc lu s ion i s m o s t ly b a sed o n s im i la r i t ie s b e tween t h e m o rpho log ica l p a t t er n s o f t h e h om in id f o s s i l s f r om t h e t empe ra te r e g ion so ft h eF a rE a s t( J ava a nd P ek ing m en ) a nd A f r ican h om in id s o nt h e o ne h and , a nd t h e r e semb lance o fa s soc ia t ed s t one a r t if ac t s o fP ek ing man t ot h e d eve loped O ldowan t r ad i t ion i n A f r ica o n t h e o t he r (We i Q i 1 988 ) .
D u r ing t h e l a s t d ecade s t h e re h ave b een s po rad ic a t temp t s
p a r t icu la r ly b y C h ine se s c ho la r s t od emon s t ra te a s e pa ra t e o r ig in f o r t h e h om in id l i n eage i nA s ia , s ugge s t ing t ha tt h eh om in id r ema in s f r om E a s tA s ia a r e f r om m o re t h an o ne s pec ie s . T h ey r e f e rt h e h om in id r ema in s o fE a s t A s ia t o a n e a r ly f o rm o fA us t ra lop i thecus a nd s ugge s t a n e a r l ie r mo r e p r im i t ive p ha se o fh om in id e vo lu t ion i nE a s t A s ia . R ecen t ly t h e e xcava t ion o fL onggupo C ave i n C h ina b y aj o in tC h ine se , Ame r ican a nd C anad ian t e am p rov ided i mpor tan te v id ence , i n c lud ing v e ry a r cha ic h om in id d en ta lf r agmen t s a nd p r im i t ive s t one t o o l s . T h i s e v idence e nab led t h e e xcava to r st o c l a im t ha t t h e h om in id r ema in s f r om L onggupo C ave a r e c ompa rab le i na ge a nd m o rpho logy w i th t h ee a r l ie s t e xamp le s o ft h eg enu s H omo ( H . h ab i l i s a nd H . e rga s t er ) a nd t h e O ldowan t e chno logy i nE a s tA f r ica . T he a ge o ft h eL onggupo h om in id i st e n ta t ive ly e s t ima ted a s 1 . 96 1 .78 Ma ; i tm ean s t h a tt h is h om in id may b eo l de rt h an a ny r e por ted Homo e r ec tu s f r om C h ina ( Huang e ta l . 1 995 ) . I f t h e d a te o f 1 . 8 Ma s ugge s t ed f o rt h e I n done s ian Homo e r ec tus ( Sw i she r e ta l . 1 994 ) i sc or rec t t h e n ew e v idence o ft h e L onggupo C ave s ugge s t s ad a te f o r t h e h om in id o ccupa t ion o f E a s t A s ia a t a r ound 2 . 0 Ma . T he se e v id ence f r om P ak i s tan ( s ee b e low ) a nd C h ina o pen s u p t h e' p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t t h ef i r s th om in id t ol e ave A f r ica w a s a tl e a s ta sp r im i t ive a s Homo e rga s t er a nd i n d ica te st h a t Homo e r ec tus may h ave e vo lved w i th in A s ia a nd t h en s p read b ack i n to E u rope a nd A f r ica , ( s e e a l so Wood a nd T u rne r 1 995 , D enne l l 1 995 ) . H omo e r ec tus i sc on s i s t en t ly p r e sen t t h roughou t t h e L owe r P l e i s tocene a nd m o s t o ft h e M idd le P l e i s tocene , a tl e a s t i nE a s t A s ia ( How e l l 1 994 : 2 67 ) a nd i nt h e L evan t ( Ba r -Yo sef 1 994 : 2 14 ) . A dm i t ted ly , i n mo s t o ft h e N ea r E a s t t h e re h a s b een n o th ing l i ke s uch d e ta i led m u l t id i sc ip l ina ry s u r vey s f o r f o s s i l h om in id s a nd a s soc ia ted c u l tu ra l a nd f a una l r ema in s a s t h e re h ave b een i nt h e L evan t .
T he r e sea rche s c a r r ied o u t i n ad i ve r s i ty o f s i tua t ion s a nd i n as ucce ss ion o fg eo log ica l
c on t ex t s a ts i t e s s uch a s L a tamne ( O ron t e s R ive r ) , E v ron -Qua r ry ( c oa s ta l p l a in ) , G e she r B eno t Y a 'a c iov ( J o rdan V a l ley ) a nd J oub J ann ine I ( s ou the rn B ekaa ) p rov ided i n f o rma t ion a bou t t h e
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A cheu l ian i n du s t ry c omp lex a nd c l ue s t ot h e e a r ly c o lon i sa t ion o fw e s te rn A s ia b y Romo e r ec tus . T he s y s t ema t ic e xcava t ion a tE v ron -Qua r ry c onduc ted b y R onen ( 1 991) r e vea led a n a r chaeo log ica l h o r izon o ft h eL owe rP a la eo l i th ic c on ta in ing s ma l l p ebb le s o fq ua r tz , l i m e s tone a nd f l i n t . T he l i t h ic a s semb lage r e po r ted f r om t h i s s i t e c on s i s ted o fb i f ace s , f l in t a r t if ac t s a nd v a r iou s f l ak e s i n c lud ing r e touched p i ece s .
B if ace s a r e g ene ra l ly l a rge a nd s im i la r t ot h o se f ound a t U be id iya , w h i le f l in t
a r t if ac t s a r e r e la t ive ly s ma l l . T he f auna l r ema in s h ave a l so ac l o se s im i la r i ty t o t h o se o fU be id iya a nd i n d ica t e am ixed w ood land e nv i ronmen t a tt h i s s i te a round 7 00 -500Ka . L a tame i s au n ique s i t e o n t h e t e r rac e s o f t h e O ron t e s R ive r . c o l league s ( San lav i l le e ta l . 1 993 ) .
T h i s s i t e h a s b een r e -excava ted b y S an lav i l le a nd h i s
S tudy o ff l o ra , f a una a nd t h e i ns i tu l i t h ic a s semb lage o ft h e
L a ta r r ine o ccupa t ion f l oo r , u s ing TL d a t ing , s uppor t s ad a t e i nt h e m idd le L owe r P a la eo l i th ic ( t he M idd le A cheu l ian i nt h e L evan t ine c h rono logy c a . 7 00 -500 K a ) f o r t h e s i t e .
T h e m amma l b one
a s semb lage i sc ompo sed m a in ly o f e qu id s a nd e l ephan t t y pe s , a l though t h e p r e sence o f t wo a dd i t iona l s p ec ie s , d e e r a nd a t y pe o fg aze l le , i ss ugge s ted .
T h e w o rked t o o l c a t ego r ie s i n c lude
b i f ace s m ad ef r om l i m e s tone a nd b a sa l t , a sw e l l a sc o r e c hoppe r s w h ich t y po log ica l ly a r e s im i la rt o t h e U be idd iya t e chno logy .
Among t h e k nown L owe r P a laeo l i th ic s i te s i nt h e L evan t , t h e s i t e o f
G e she rB eno tY a 'aqov i nt h e u ppe rJ o rdan V a l ley i su n ique , s i nce t h e d epo s i t s o n t h e s i t e p roduced t h e r ema in s o f h om in id s : t wo b roken f emo ra w h ich a r e a t t r ibu ted t o Homo e r ec tus .
T he
a r cha eo log ica lh o r izon o ft h i s s i t ew a s e mbedded i n ad epo s i t iona l s e quence t h a t a ccumu la ted a bove al a va f l ow . T h i s f o rma t ion , t o ge the rw i th t h e f a una a s semb lage r e t r ieved f r om t he s i t e , w e re d a t ed t oa r ound 9 00 -700 K a( Go ren Inba re ta l . 1 992 ) . T he l i t h ic a s semb lage c on s i s t s o fa n A f r ican t y pe a s semb lage c on ta in ing a bundan t b i f ace s i n c lud ing b o th h and a xe s a nd c l eave r s a nd ad i ve r s i ty o f f l ak e t o o l s w i th e x t en s ive e v idence o fL eva l lo i s t y pe s ( t h i s t o o l m ak ing t e chn ique o r ig ina ted i nt h e A cheu l ian ; t h e c o r e i ss haped a nd f l ake s o f t h e r e qu i red s i z e a nd s hape c an b e r emoved ; i ti s c ha rac t e r ic t ic o f Mou s t e r ian t e chno log ie s ) ( Go ren Inba r 1 992 ) . I ti sv e ry u n f o r tuna t et h a t o u t s ide o ft h e L evan t t owa rd t h e e a s tt h e L ow e r P a laeo l i th ic s e quence s a nd t h e r e co rd o fe a r ly h uman s i n much o fA s ia ( p a r t icu la r ly i nt h e N ea r E a s t ) i sn o t a ta l c l ea r . F o r e xamp le , u n t i l o n ly af ew y ea r s a go t h e r e g ion e x tend ing f r om e a s t o ft h e E uph ra t e s a c ro ss t h e p l a t eau o f I r an a nd o n t h rough C en t ra l A s ia w a s a lmo s t w i thou t a n e xamp le o f' as i t e o f e a r ly P a la eo l i th ic p eop le t h a tc ou ld b er e l iab ly d a ted o nt h eb a s i s o fi t sg eo log ica l c on t ex t . T h e r ef o re l i t t le i sk nown a bou te a r ly m an a nd h i s w ay s o fl i f e i nt h i s l a rge , a r id z on e o fi n te r io r A s ia . F o r tuna te ly i nr e cen ty ea r s i ns ome p a r t s o ft h i s z one t h e r e h av e b een e xcava t ion s a nd f i e ld r e sea rche s , w i th t h e u se o f T L a nd E SR d a t ing m e thod s .
T hey p rov ide c onv inc ing e v idence a nd s ugge s t al o nge r
c h rono logy f o rt h es i t e st h an p r ev iou s ly w a s a ccep t ed .
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F i e ld r e sea rch a nd e xcava t ion i nt h e A rab ian P en in su la i n d ica t e n ume rou s r e pea ted o ccupa t ion l e v e l s c on ta in ing t h e A ch eu l ian b i f ace t r ad i t ion . B if ace s h ave b een m a in ly f ound f r om t h e w e s ter n p a r t o ft h i s r e g ion w he r et h ey w e re made f r om av a r ie ty o fr aw m a t er ia l s s uch a s f l in t , b a sa l t a nd r o ck s . F i nd s po t s a l ong t h eR ed S ea a nd s i t e o fS af f aqah p rov ided e v idence f o r t h e A cheu l ian l i th ic t r ad i t ion w i th b i f ace s , c l eav e r sa nd f l ake s (Wha len e ta l . 1 983 , 1 984 ) . I nt h eT ran scauca su st h eL owe rP a laeo l i th ic s e quence i sk nown f r om t h e c ave o fA zykh i ns ou ther n A z e rba idzhan . T he re a r e 1 4m e t r e s ( 10 l a ye r s ) o fi nf i l l ing w i th c on t inuou s h uman o ccupa t ion i nt h e l ow e r 6u n i t s . T he a r t if ac t s o ft h e e a r l ie s t o ccupa t ion i st e rmed t h e K urucha i i n du s t ry ( Gu se inov 1 9 81 ,1985 ) a nd c ompr i se c obb le s i n c lud ing c hopp ing t o o l s , c o re s a nd i r regu la r r e touched f l ake s . T he a s semb lage s r e semb le t h e s o -ca l led d eve loped O ldowan t r ad i t ion a nd a r e d a ted a s e a r ly a s 1 . 2 My . T he A cheu l ian i n du s t ry i sd ocumen ted i nu n i t 6a nd 5w h ich c on ta in ma in ly c obb le s , b i f ace s , c hoppe r t o o l s a nd r e touched f l ake s .
A s semb lage s o f f a una l r ema in s i n t h i s s i te c ompr i se
m ic romamma l s s uch a sr o d en t s pec ie s , c a rn ivo r e s , b i son a nd c ap r in e s t o ge the r w i th ah om in id r i gh t m and ib le f r agmen t . T he p o l len a na ly s i s a tt h e s i t e f o r t h e E a r ly A ch eu l ian ( un i t 6 )i n d ica te s w a rm c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s w i th aw in te rt empe ra tu r e o f9 14 C °a nd ap r ec ip i ta t ion o f5 00 -1000 mm , a nd a s ub sequen tr e duc t ion o fb o th d u r ing t h eM idd le A cheu l ian ( u n i t5 )( Gu se inov 1 985 ) . T h e L ow e r P a laeo l i th ic s e quence i sa l so k nown f r om t wo o t he r c ave s i n G eo rg ia ; K ouda ro a nd T sona , b o th i nw e s ter n G eo rg ia .
T he K ouda ro s i t e c omp r i se s A ch eu l ian o ccupa t ion h o r izon s , t h e
l owe s t o fw h ich ( 5 1 3 ) c on ta in s mamma l ian r ema in s s im i la r t o t h a t o f A zykh u n i t 6( Lub in a nd B a rych inkov 1 984 ) . R ecen t ly t h em o s tr e l iab l ee v idence o fe a r ly h uman p r e sence i nt h e a d jacen t r e g ion s o ft h eN ea r E a s t w a s o b ta ined f r om C en t ra lA s ia . F i e ldwo rk a l ong w i th s t ra t ig raph ic , p edo log ica l a nd p a lyno log ica l s t ud ie s a tK u lda ra , as i t e i ns ou ther n T a j ik i s tan , r e vea led a L ow e r P a laeo l i th ic s i te w i th in a v ery l o ng s t ra t ig raph ic s e r ie s o fl o e ss i nw h ich 2 8 p a la eo so i l s w e re d epo s i t ed o ve r 1 05 My r s . T he s i te o ccu r s i nt h e 11 t h a nd 1 2t ho ft h e se p a laeo so i l s . A na ly s ing t h e a r cha eo log ica l a s semb lage s , i n c lud ing l i t h ic a r t if ac t s a nd as ma l l q uan t i ty o fb roken b one r ema in s , e nab led e xcava to r s t os ugge s t ad a te o f 0 . 85 Ma f o r t h is s i t e ( Ranov e ta l . 1 995 ) .
Among t h e L owe r P a la eo l i th ic s i te s n ow k nown f r om
C en t ra l A s ia a r e K honako a nd K uh i -P ioz i nT a j ik i s tan , r e spec t ive ly d a ted t o c a . 0 . 5 Ma a nd t h e e a r ly M idd le P l e i s tocen e ( c a . 0 . 6 Ma ) o n t h e b a s i s o fg eo log ica l e v idence ( Gabo r i 1 987 ) .
B o s -
B a rmak i nK y rgyz s tan , w he re al a rge a moun t o fo b jec t s w a s f o und o n t h e a nc ien t t e r race s o fL ake I s sy -Ku l i sa s s igned t ot h e l a te M idd le P l e i s tocene . K a ra tau Ia nd L ahu t i Ib o th i nT a j ik i s tan h ave b een d a t ed
t o 0 . 195 -0 .21 a nd 0 . 13 -0 .15 Ma r e spec t iv e ly .
T he l i t h ic i n du s t ry i n K a ra tau Ii s
c ha rac t e r i sed b y p ebb le t o o l s s im i la r t ot h e A cheu l ian t r ad i t ion b u t w i thou t b i f ace s ( Dav i s e ta l . 1 980 ) .
S c lungu r C av e i nK y rgyz s ta n c on ta in ing s k e le ta l r ema in s a t t r ibu tab le t o Homo e r ec tus
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( I s lamov 1 990 ) . U ran ium se r i e s d a t ing o nt h eb a s i s o fg eo log ica l e v id enc e s ugge s t ed a n a ge o fc a . 0 . 126 Ma f o rt h es i t e . T h el i t h ic i n du s t ry i nt h i s s i t ei ss im i la rt ot h a to fK a ra tau Ii nt h ea bsence o f c o r e sa nd t h ep r e senc eo fp ebb le t o o l s b u td i sp lay s am o r ed ev e loped f e a tu r e( Ranov e ta l . 1 995 ) . I n I r aq a nd I r an ( s e e b e low ) l i t t le i sk nown a bou tt h e L ow e r P a la eo l i th ic s e quence a nd t h e n umbe r o f s i t e s i ss t i l l r a th e r s ma l l . As im i la r s i tua t ion s t i l l p r eva i l s i nT u rk ey w h e r e m o s t o ft h e f i nd s a r e s u rf a ce o ccu r r enc e s a nd o f t en o fi s o la t ed b i f ac e s o r c o r e -choppe r s ( Ya l? inkaya 1 981 ) .
Men t ion
s hou ld b e m ad e h e r e o f ac l a im f o r s t on e a r t if a c t s i nc ong lom e ra t e s o ft h e u ppe r S iwa l ik G roup , n o r th er nP ak i s t an . D enn e l l a nd h i s a s soc ia t e s s ugg e s t ad a t e o f2 . 0 Ma f o rt h e l i th ic a s semb lage a t R iwa to nt h e b a s i s o fp a la eomagne t ic a nd g eo log ica l c r i t e r ia . T h e R iwa tf i nd s a r e s t r ik ing i nt h e i r a n t iqu i ty a nd w e r e i n t e rp r e t ed a s mad e b yH omo h ab i l i s ( Denn e l l a nd R end e l l 1 988 , D enn e l l e ta l . 1 988 ) . T h eR iwa tf i nd sh av eg ene ra ted c on t rov e r sy ( f o rd e ta i l s e eH em ingway 1 989 , S t ape r t 1 989 , D enn e l l 1 995 ) . 2 .T he e mergence o fm odern h uman s T h e i s sue o f t h e o r ig in o f m oder n h uman p opu la t ion s h a s b e en a c en t ra l t h eme o f d eba t e t h roughou tt h eg r ea t e rp a r t o ft h i s c en tu ry . T h e i s sue o ft h e b i o log ica l a nd d emog raph ic o r ig in o f m od er n h uman p opu la t ion s h a s b een s e en g ene ra l ly a s ac on f l ic t ing i s sue b e tw een t wo s c hoo l s o f t h ough t . O n ev i ew ( t h e ' Ga rd en o fE den ' o r ' Noah 's A rk ' o r' Ou t o fA f r ica ' Hypo th e s i s ) ; a s se r t s t h a tb i o log ica l ly a nd g en e t ica l ly m od er nh uman p opu la t ion s e vo lv ed i n i t ia l ly i nA f r ica a ts om e t im e w i th in t h el a s t2 00 -300 K aa nd s ub sequen t ly d i spe r sed t oa l lo t h e rr e g ion s , r e p lac ing Homo e r ec tus w i thou t a ny g en e t ic a dm ix tu r e w i th t h e p r e ex i s t ing p opu la t ion w i th in t h e s am e r e g ion s ( How e l l s 1 976 , S t r inge r 1 990 , 1 992 , 1 994 , Wi l son a nd C ann 1 992a , Me l la r s e ta l . 1 993 ) .
I nc on t ra s t , t h e
' Mu l t i r eg iona l ' H ypo th e s i s a s se r t s t h a t a n e s sen t ia l ly g radua l , c on t inuou s p roce ss o fe vo lu t iona ry c hang e t o ok p l a ce o v e r al o ng p e r iod t im e i ne a ch o ft h e d if e r en t r e g ion s t ow h ich Homo e r ec tu s s p r ead , r e su l t ing i nt h e a ppea rance t h e r e g iona l v a r ie t ie s o fm od em m an i ne a ch o ft h e se r e g ion s . G en e f l ow b e tw e en p opu la t ion s i nt h e d if e r en t r e g ion s i sa s sum ed t om a in ta in a b road ly s im i la r p a t t er n o fe vo lu t iona ry d ev e lopm en t w i th in t h e d if e r en t r e g ion s t h roughou t t h e w ho le o ft h i s t ime r a ng e( Wo lpof f1 989 , 1 992 , Wo lpof fe ta l . 1 994 ,T hor n ea nd Wo lpof f1 992 , F ray e re ta l . 1 993 ) . T h e r e c en td ev e lopm en t i nt h e f i e ld o fm o lecu la rg en e t ic s i sp o t en t ia l ly c r i t ica lt ot h i s l o ng r unn ing d eba t e . S uppo r tf o rt h er e c en te me rgence o fm od er nm an f r om A f r ica i sp rov id ed b yg en e t ic s t ud ie s e s pec ia l ly o fm i tochond r ia l DNA ( m tDNA ) . T h i s i sb a sed o nt h e d e ta i led w o rk c a r r ied o u t o nt h e v a r iab i l i ty i nm tDNA f r om a bou t 1 40 i n d iv idua l s o fd if e r en t m od e rn g eog raph ic o r r a c ia l o r ig in , u nd e r t ak en b yW i l son a nd h i s c o l league s a nd r e po r t ed i n 1 987 ( W i l son a nd C ann 1 992b ) .
I th a s
b e en c l a im ed t h a tt h ei mpo r tan ta spec to ft h i sg en e t ic r e sea rch i si nt h ev a r iou s e s t ima t e s o ft h e r a t e o fg en e t ic mu ta t ion o fm tDNA , w h ich c an b e u s ed t od a t e t h e e m e rg ence o ft h e i n i t ia l h uman s i n
1 32
A f r ica .
A s m tDNA i si n he r i t ed f r om t h e m o th e r a l on e t h e m tDNA i n a l m embe r s o f as ma l l
p opu la t ion m ay d e r ive f r om a ny o ne a nce s t ra l f ema le , a s o t he r f ema le l i neage s r a ndom ly f a i l t o p roduce f ema le r e p roduc t ion i n ag i v en g ene ra t ion a nd d i sappea r . I fs uch ap opu la t ion t h en d i v ide s u p i n to s e pa ra t ed g roup s , t h e a ccumu la t ion o fn eu t ra l m u ta t ion s i nt h e m tDNA c an b e u sed a s a c l ock t oi n d ica t e t h e l e ng th o ft ime t ha t h a s p a s sed s i nce t h e g roup s s e pa ra ted .
Wi l son a nd C ann
p o s tu la t ed t ha t ac ommon f ema le a nce s to rh ad p robab ly l i ved i nt h e r e g ion b e tween c a . 5 0 a nd 3 50 K a , a nd t h a tt h e d e scendan t s o ft h i s i n i t ia l p opu la t ion h ad p robab ly e xpanded t om o s t o t he r r e g ion s o ft h ew o r ld b y a r ound 3 0 -100 K a . O ne f e a tu r et h a te me rged f r om t h e se s t ud ie s i st h a tt h e p r e sen t d ay p opu la t ion i nA f r ica s how s aw ide rr ange o fg ene t ic v a r ia t ion t h an t h e c omb ined p opu la t ion s i n a l o t he r r e g ion s o ft h e w o r ld s ugge s t ing a l o ng e r p e r iod o f e vo lu t ion o f m oder n h uman s i nt h i s r e g ion t h an e l sewh e r e( V ig i lan te ta l . 1 991) . T h i s i n d ica te st ha t moder nm an h a s e x i s ted i ns ou ther n A f r ica f o r l o nge r t han e l sewhe re a low ing l o ca l p opu la t ion s mo re t ime t o d i ve rge ( S t r inge r a nd A nd r ew s 1 988 , C ann e ta l . 1 994 s e e a l so C ann e ta l . 1 987 , S tonek ing a nd C ann 1 989 ) .
S im i la r
c onc lu s ion s h ave b een d e r ived f r om t h e a na ly s i s o fg ene t ic p o lymo rph i sm s a nd t h e d eve lopmen t o f l a nguage .
A r e con s t ruc t ion o f t h e h uman p hy logene t ic t r ee b a sed o n b l ood -g roup a nd e nzyme
p o lymo rphy sm s s how st h a tt h e f i r s ts p l i ts epa ra te s A f r ican s f r om n on -Af r ican s . L ingu i s t ic f am i l ie s l a rge ly r e la te t ot h ep opu la t ion g roup ing s d ef ined b yt h et r ee ( Cava l l i -Sf o rza 1 991) . T he se t wo t h eo r ie s o ft h e e vo lu t ion o fm od er n m an a r e c u r r en t ly i nc onf l ic t .
O ne o ft h e m o s t
c r i t ica l a nd c on t rove r s ia l c onc lu s ion s o ft h e m tDNA s t ud ie s i st h a t t h e t o ta l r e p lacemen t o f o ne h uman p opu la t ion ( e .g . E u ra s ian )b ya no the r ( e .g . A f r ican ) , w i thou ta ny t r ace s o fg ene t ic a dm ix tu re , r e su l ted i n ah i gh d eg r ee o fi s o la t ion o ft h e E u ra s ian a r cha ic p opu la t ion s a nd t h e ref o re t h ey b ecame e x t inc t w i thou t m ak ing a ny s i gn if i can t c on t r ibu t ion t o t h e b i o log ica l m ake u p o f a ny o f t h e s ub sequen t p opu la t ion s .
T he o t he r c on t rove r s ia l i s sue t h a t i sc ha l lenged b y s uppo r te r s o f t h e
"Mu l t i reg iona l E vo lu t ion" s choo l i st h e p rob lem o f e s t ima t ing m u ta t ion ra t e ( t he r a te o f g en e t ic d i ve rgence o fm tDNA ) .
T hey a r gue t h a t b y u s ing a d if e ren t s e t o f e s t ima te s o ne c an p u sh t h e
s ugge s ted d a t e o ft h e i n f e r red c o lon i sa t ion o fE u ra s ia t oa s e a r ly a s 8 50 K a , ad a t e t h a t h a s b een g ene ra l ly a ccep ted f o rt h ea ppea rance o f Homo e r ec tu s i nn o r the rn l a t i tud e s i nt h e E a r ly P l e i s tocene ( s ee Wo lpof f1 989 ) . Af u r th e r p rob lem r e la t e s t ot h e p hy logene t ic t r ee s d e r iv ed f r om m tDNA d a ta .
T emp le ton ( 1 992 ,
1 993 ) a r gue st h a tt h ec o -wo rke r s o ft h ep hy logen e t ic t r ee s m i sapp l ied t h e " pa r s imony a na ly s i s" a nd t h e d a ta s e t s u sed w e re t o o l a rge t o a low t h e c ompu t e r p rog ram e mp loyed t o p rov ide a u n ique s o lu t ion . H e a l so p o in t s o u tt h a tt h ej o in ing t ime o ft h e se t r ee s w a s v e ry u ncer ta in a nd l i ke ly t ob e m uch m o r e t h an 2 00 K a .
S o , t h e d e ta i led m tDNA r e su l t s t ha t w e re s e en t o s uppor t t h e ' Ou t o f
A f r ica ' h ypo the s i s s e em t oh av eb een d i scoun ted ( b e low ) ( s ee a l so K le in 1 994 : 6 ) .
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F i na l ly ,b i o log i s t s s p eak o f a' b o t t l en eck ' w h en t h en umbe ro fi n d iv idua l s i n ap opu la t ion i sr e duc ed a f t e r w h ich i tm ay o n c e m o r e e xpand .
T h e p r inc ip le o f p opu la t ion b o t t len e ck i st h a t al a rg e
p opu la t ion d i sp lay s w id e g en e t ic d i v e r s i ty a mong i t sm embe r s . I ft h e p opu la t ion f a l l s t ov e ry l ow n umb e r s , o n ly af r a c t ion o ft h e e x i s t ing g en e t ic v a r ia t ion w i l l s u rv iv e a nd b e p a s sed o n t of u tu r e g en e ra t ion s ( W i l son e ta l . 1 985 ) . I no t h e rw o rd st h en ew p opu la t ion r e p r e sen t s o n ly ' as ma l l s amp l e o f t h e g en e t ic v a r ia t ion t h a t o r ig ina l ly e x i s t ed .
T h i s t h eo ry a s se r t s t h a t ab o t t l en eck m ay b e
a s so c ia t ed w i th t h e o r ig in o fn ew s p ec i e s a nd c an b e u sed t oi n t e rp r e tt h e o r ig in o fH omo s ap i en s . S u ch a n a na ly s i s w a s c a r r ied o u t b y R og e r s a nd H a rpend ing ( 1 992 ) s ugge s t ing t h a t am a jo r p opu la t ion e xpan s ion o ccu r r ed a r ound 4 5 K a .
T h ey a r gu e f o r ad r ama t ic r e duc t ion i n h um an
n umbe r s i nA f r ica a bou t 6 0 K a , f o l low ed s ho r t ly a f t e rwa rd s b y t h e a pp ea ranc e o ff u l ly m od e rn h uman si nb o th A f r ica a nd E u ra s ia a nd t h ed i sappea ran c eo ft h eN e and e r tha l s . T o s umma r i se , t h et wo m od e l s a r e v e ry d if e r en t i nt h e i r r e qu i r em en t s f o rg ene f l ow . T h e ' Ou t o f A f r ica ' m od e l a s sum e s as p e c ia l e v en t i n ag eog raph ica l ly r e s t r ic t ed p opu la t ion , f r om w h ich d e sc endan t sm ov ei n to o t h e rr e g ion s o ft h eO ld Wo r ld . G en ef l ow o ri n t e rb r e ed ing o c cu r sw i th in a n o r ig ina lp opu la t ion a nd t h en b e tw e en n e ighbou r ing g roup s o fd e sc endan t s . T h e r ei sn o r e qu i r em en t f o re x t en s iv eg en ef l ow o v e r d i s t an tg eog raph ica l r e g ion s i nt h ep r oc e s s o ft h e e vo lu t ion o fm od em h um an s . I nc on t ra s t ,t h e ` Mu l t i r eg iona lE vo lu t ion ' m od e lr e qu i r e se x t en s iv eg en ef l ow n o to n ly o v e r l a rg e g eog raph ica l r e g ion s b u t a l so t h rough l o ng t r a c t s o ft im e .
I ti sf a i r t o s ay , 't h e r ef o r e , t h a t
g en e t ic e v id enc es uppo r t st h e ' Ou to fA f r ica ' h ypo th e s i s . T h e ` Mu l t i r eg iona l E vo lu t ion ' h ypo th e s i s f i nd s l i t t l e o r n o s uppo r t f r om t h e g en e t ic d a ta a tl e as t a s i n t e rp r e t ed b y s om e s c ho la r s .
F o r
i n s t an c e , C ava l l i -Sf o r za ( 1 99 1 : 1 04 106 )s t a t e st h a t" suppo r t e r so ft h e ` Mu l t i r eg iona l ' m od e ld on o t u nd e r s tand p opu la t ion g en e t ic s ; t h ey u se am od e l t h a t r e qu i r e s c on t inuou s c hang e o fg en e s , b u t i t r e qu i r e s a n e no rmou s a moun t o ft im e t o r e a ch e qu i l ib r ium .
T h e r e h a s b e en i n suf f i c i en t t im e i n
h uman h i s to ry t or e a ch t h a te qu i l ib r ium" . I n d e ed g en e t ic d a ta p u sh ed t h e ' Ou to fA f r ica ' h ypo th e s i s e v en f u r th e rt h an i t sa n th ropo log ica l s uppo r t e r s i n i t ia l ly t h ough tb yi n d ica t ing c omp le t e r e p la cem en t o fe s tab l i sh ed a r cha ic p opu la t ion s b yi n com ing m od er nh uman s ( ar e la t iv e ly r e c en to r ig in f o rH omo s ap i en s b e tw e en 2 00 k a a nd 1 00 k a b a sed o n a s sum ed r a t e s o fm u ta t ion ) .
T h e i d en t if i ca t ion i n
1 997 o fm tDNA i nt h et y pe s p e c im en o fN eand e r tha l s a ppea r ed t op rov et h ec a se . T h e DNA c ou ld n o tb em a t ch ed w i th a ny l i v ing p opu la t ion . A l so t h ei d en t if ica t ion o ft h e l a rg en umbe ro fm u ta t ion s b e tw e en t h e a nc i en tN eand e r tha l DNA a nd o u r o wn , i n d ica t ed t h a t a bou t 4 00 k a h ad p a s sed s i nc e w e l a s t s h a r ed a n a nc e s to r . ( s e e B a rh am 1 999 ) . T hu s , b a sed o n m en t ion ed e xpe r im en tt h e g en e t i c e v id ec e t h e r ef o r e s ugg e s t s t h a t N eand e r tha l s e vo lv ed i n to ad i s t in c t iv e s p e c ie s w e l l a dap t ed t ot h e r i go ru so fg l a c ia lp e r iod si nE u ra s ia ,w h en m od er nh um an sw e r ea b sen t( s e en ex t ) .
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I nr e cen t y ea r s a n a l te rna t iv e h ypo the s i s w h ich i n co rpo ra t e s e l em en t s o ft h e ' Ou t o fA f r ica ' a nd ' Mu l t i reg iona l ' h ypo th e se s h a s b een a dvoca ted ( e .g . Sm i th 1 994 , T re i sman 1 995 ) .
A cco rd ing t o
t h i s h ypo the s i s t h e m oder nh uman e vo lved i ni s o la t ion i nA f r ica a nd t h en s p r ead b y m ig ra t ion a nd b yh ybr id i sa t ion , o rg ene e xchange , o rb o th ,t h roughou tt h ea r cha ic p opu la t ion s . H ow ev e r , d eba t e s o nt h e o r ig in o fm oder nh uman s c on t inue a nd n o d oub t t h e p rob lem c an o n ly b e s o lv ed i nt h el i gh to ff r e sh e v idence a nd f u r the rr e sea rch . 3 .T he c on tr ibu t ion o fa rchaeo logy O n e r o le o fa r cha eo logy i st o r e con s t ruc t c hange i nb ehav iou r a s soc ia t ed w i th t h e e vo lu t ion o f m od er n h uman s , a nd t o d i s t ingu i sh b ehav iou ra l d if e rence s b e tw een n on -moder n a nd moder n h uman st oh e lp e xp la in w hy n on -moder nh uman s f a i led t os u rv iv e . I na r chaeo log ica l t e rm s t h et r an s i t ion f r om M idd le t oU ppe r P a laeo l i th ic i nE u rope c o inc ided w i th a n a brup t c hange i nt h e b ehav iou ra l , o rgan i sa t iona l a nd t e chno log ica l p a t ter n o f a nc ien t h uman s o c ie t ie s , a nd t h e a ppea rance o fa na tom ica l ly moder n h uman s t h a t i st h ough t t ob e c on tempo ra ry w i th t h i s e ven t . T he m a in b ehav iou ra l d if e rence s b e tween t h e M idd le a nd U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic a r e t h ep r oduc t ion o fb one a nd a n t le ro b jec t s ; u se o fw o rked m a r in e s h e l l s ; d ev e lopm en t o fr o ck a r t a nd t h ep r e sence o f af ew a r t o b jec t s ; f r equen tu se o fr e d o ch re ; a nd t h e e x t en s ive u se o fg r ind ing t oo ls . T h eM idd le t oU ppe r P a la eo l i th ic t r an s i t ion i sa l so m a rked b y i n nova t ion s a nd i n ven t ion s i n c lud ing n ew o r i mp rov ed t e chn ique s o f f ood a cqu i s i t ion a nd p r epa ra t ion w h ich w ou ld h ave l e d t o b e t te r n ou r i shmen t a nd p opu la t ion i n c rea se . T h et r an spor ta t ion o fm a t e r ia l s o v e r l o ng d i s tance s i n d ica te s h i gh e r mob i l i ty , l a rge r t h an t h e p r eced ing p e r iod ( Me l la r s 1 989a , 1 989b , 1 992 ) .
T he M idd le t o
U ppe rP a la eo l i th ic t r an s i t ion c an b e e xp la ined a sr e su l t ing f r om c hange s i nt e chno log ica l a nd s oc ia l o r gan i sa t ion t h a tt o ok p l a ce w i th in o ne r e g ion a nd t h en s p read t h roughou t o t he r a r ea s ( Soi f e r 1 994 , B a r -Yo sef 1 994 ) .
B y c on t ra s t s ome s cho la r s r e f e r t h i s b ehav iou ra l t r an sf o rma t ion t o t h e
b i o log ica l ly b a sed a dvance s i nh uman m en ta l c apac i ty a nd d eve lopm en t o fm oder n l a nguage ( K le in 1 9 89 , 1 994 , C la rk 1 992 ) .
D av id son a nd N ob le ( 1992 ) h ave p ropo sed t h a t t h e a b i l i ty o fm ode rn
h uman s a ta bou t 5 K a y ea r s t oc r o s s t h e 1 00 km w a t erway t oA u s t ra l ia w a s a ccomp l i shed w i th b oa t sw ho se c on s truc t ion r e qu i red t h eu se o fm oder nl a nguage . T h e a r cha eo log ica l e v id ence f o rt h et r an s i t ion i sb e s t k nown i nw e s ter n E u rope a nd i se mp loyed b y m any s cho la r s a s am ode l f o r o t he r r e g ion s .
I n E u rope t h e C ha te lpe r ron ian c u l tu re s e em s t o
r e p re sen t at r an s i t iona l p ha se b e tween t h e Mou s te r ian a nd t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic . A rchaeo log ica l e v id ence i n d ica t e s t h a t a n a brup t c hange i n b ehav iou ra l p a t ter n s o ccur red a bou t 4 0 K a , a nd Mou s te r ian N eand e r tha l s o f t h e C ha t e lpe r ron ian w e r e r e p laced b y m od er n h uman s o f t h e A u r ignac ian ( C ro Magon ) mov ing i nf r om e l sewh e r e ( Ha r ro ld 1 989 ) . I nt h e N ea r E a s t a nd A f r ica
1 35
t h e c u l tu ra l p e r iod s t h a t c o r r e spond t o t h e E u ropean Mou s t e r i an o r M idd le P a la eo l i th ic ( b ef o r e 4 0 ,000 y ea r s a go )a r ec ommon ly a l so c a l led Mou s t e r ian a nd a r ec ha rac t e r i sed b yt h es ame t r ad i t ion o fa r t if ac tt y pe sa sc ha ra c t e r i se t h eE u ropean Mou s t e r ian . T h es u cc eed ing c u l tu ra lu n i t( af t e ra bou t 4 0 ,000 y ea r s a go ) i sc a l led t h e U ppe r P a la eo l i th ic a nd i sm a rk ed b y s om e k i nd s o fa r t if ac t s t h a t c ha ra c t e r i se t h eU ppe rP a la eo l i th ic i nE u rope . T h eN ea rE a s t( p a r t icu la r ly t h eL evan t ) i so ne o ft h e m o s ti n t e r e s t ing a r ea sf o rt h es t udy o fm od e rn h um an o r ig in s , s i nc ei th a sp roduced ar e la t iv e ly l a rge s amp le o fs k e le ta l r ema in s b e long ing t ot h i s p e r iod a nd t h e r ema in s s how ar ange o fm o rpho log ica l d i ve r s i ty w h ich h a s g i v en r i se t o av a r ie ty o fc ompe t ing i n t e rp r e ta t ion s . A dvoca t e s o ft h e ' Ou t o f A f r ica 'h ypo the s i sf i nd t h er ema in sf r om S khu la nd Q af zeh c av e s , d a t ed b y TL a nd E SR m e thod st o t h e t im e r a nge o f 1 20 -85 K a , c ompe l l ing e v id en ce f o r e a r ly m od e rn h uman s i nt h e N ea r E a s t . P ropon en t s o ft h e "Mu l t i r eg iona l E vo lu t ion" h ypo the s i s r e ga rd t h e h uman r e l ic s f r om T abun C ave a st r an s i t iona lf o s s i l sb e tw e en a r cha ic H omo a nd f o rm s c l o se rt om od em h uman s . B o th h ypo the se s a g r e et h a t s u ch f o rm s a sQ af z eh o r S khu l a r e n o t f u l ly m od e rn ; t h e se f o rm s o ccu r o n ly d u r ing t h e U ppe r P a la eo l i th ic ( Ba r -Yo sef 1 995 : 5 14 ) .
T h i s m ean s t h a t a dd i t iona l m o rpho log ica l c hange s
w i th in t h i s l i neage t o ok p l a c e i nt h e f o l low ing p e r iod a nd p robab ly c on t inued i n to t h e e a r ly p a r t o f t h eU ppe rP a la eo l i th ic . T h es k e le ton u ncov e r ed f r om t h e Mou s t e r ian d epo s i to ft h eK eba ra C ave i n 1 987 i ss e en a s aN eand e r tha l ( Va l lada s e ta l . 1 988 ) . A TL e x am ina t ion d a t ed t h e s k e le ton a nd i t s a s soc ia t ed f l i n ta r t if a c t st oa na ge o fc a . 6 0 K a . T h e b i g s u rp r i s e c am e i nt h e f o l low ing y ea r , w hen t h e s am e l a bo ra to ry p roduc ed a n a ge f o r t h e H omo s ap ien s f o s s i l s o fQ af z eh c a . 9 2 K a .
T he se
d a t e si n d ica t et h a ts om eH omo s ap ien sp r ec ed ed N eand e r tha l si nt h ea r ea , a nd t h u st h eN e and e r tha l s c ou ld n o tb ea nc e s to r so fm od em h uman s . I n1 989 m o r ed a te sw e r ed e t e rm ined ,t h i st i m ef o r S khu l ( e a r ly m od e rn ) a nd T abun ( Neand e r tha l s ) o f 1 00 K a a nd 1 20 K a r e spec t ive ly ( Vand e rme e r sch 1 992 ) . T h e se d a t e s i n d ica t e a n e a r ly p r e senc e o fN e and e r tha l s i nt h e r e g ion , p robab ly i mm ig ra ted f r om E u rope , e v en t h ough t h e f i r s t Homo s ap ien s a ppea r s s om e 2 0 K a l a t e r .
T h e a ppea ranc e o f
N eand e r tha l s a tK eba ra C av e f r om 6 0 K a w ou ld c omp l ica t e t h e i n t e rp r e ta t ion o fm od e rn h uman s o r ig ina t ing f r om t h eN eand e r tha l s i nt h i s r e g ion . I fN eand e r tha l s h ad e vo lv ed i n to m od em h uman s i nt h e r e g ion a st h e "Mu l t i r eg iona l i s t s" p o s tu la t e , t h en n oN eand e r tha l s w ou ld b ee xpec t ed a f t e rt h e a ppea r an c e o f Mod e rn h um an s .
T h e K eba ra C ave N eand e r tha l p o s tda t e s S khu l b y 4 0 K a .
T h e
' Ou to fA f r ica ' i n t e rp r e ta t ion o ft h e se f o s s i l s a nd t h e i rd a t e s s ugg e s t st h a tN eand e r tha l s m oved i n to t h e N ea r E a s t f r om E u rope b y 1 20 K a , a nd m od em h uman s m ig ra t ed i n to t h e r e g ion b y 1 00 K a f r om A f r ica , a nd t h e t wo p opu la t ion s c o ex i s t ed f o r s om e 4 0 K a .
B ecau se t h e a na tom ica l
c ha ra c t e r i s t ic s o ft h eN eand e r tha l a nd H omo s ap ien s i nt h e L ev an t i n d ica t e n o s im i la r i ty t o e ach o t h e r , S t r inge r ( 1 989 ) c on c lud e s t h a t N eand e r tha l s a nd m od e rn h uman s e vo lv ed s e pa ra t e ly , t h e f o rme ri nE u rope a nd t h el a t t e rp robab ly i nA f r ica . I ft h eS khu la nd Q af zeh f o s s i l s a r et r u ly c l o se i n
1 36
d a t e t o 1 00 K a o l d , t h i s p u t s t h em c l o se t ot h e e a r l ie s t moder n h uman f o s s i l s i ne a s t o r n or ther n A f r ica . I ta l so m ean st h a tt h eN ea rE a s t mu s tb ec on s ide red a s ap o s s ib le c en t re o fo r ig in . H ow ev e r , mo r e r e cen t ly , n ew t y pe o fe v idence d i scove r ed f r om t h e s i te s o fZ amb ia a nd K enya i n A f r ica s hed n ew l i gh to nt h eo r ig in so f mode rn h uman . T he e a r l ie s tu se o fp i gmen td a l ing t ob e tween 2 00 a nd 3 50 k aa nd n ew w ay s o f mak ing a nd u s ing s t one t o o l s d a t ing t oa bou t 2 00 k a f ound f r om t h o se s i te s s ugge s t s f o r t h e m ake r s as ymbo l ic a wa rene s s a nd n ew b ehav iou r s .
T he se l i ne s o f
e v id ence e nab led e xcava to r s t o s ugge s t ad a te o f 2 00 k a o r e a r l ie r f o r t h e e me rgence o f moder n h uman s i nA f r ica ( s ee B a rham 1 999 ) . T h em a jo r c u l tu ra l c hange i nt h e L evan t f r om t h e M idd le t oU ppe r P a laeo l i th ic t o ok p l ace a round 4 5 K a .
T he s e quence o ft h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic h e r e b eg in s w i th t h e t r an s i t iona l i n du s t ry o ft h e
Em i ran c u l tu r e ( e a r ly U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic ) t ha t i sb e s t k nown f r om t h e K sa r A k i l r o ck she l te r i n L ebanon , a nd f r om B oke r T ach t i t , a n o pen a i r s i te i nt h e N egev h i gh land s ( Ohnuma a nd B e rgman 1 990 ) . T h i s c u l tu re i sc ha rac t e r i sed b y t h e c on t inued u se o ft h e u n ipo la r L eva l lo i s c o re r e duc t ion t e chno logy w i th i n c r ea s ing f r equenc ie s o f p r i sma t ic c o r e s .
S im i la r u n ipo la r , c onve rgen t b l ank s
w i th in t h e l a t e Mou s t e r ian t ime s s haped i n to p o in t s w e re m od if i ed d ur ing t h i s p e r iod i n to e nd s c rape r s , c hamf e r ed p i ece s a nd b ur in s .
T he e a r ly U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic wh ich f o l low s t h e i n i t ia l
t r an s i t iona l p ha se i nt h e L evan t i st h e A hma r ia t r ad i t ion t h a t i sc ha rac te r i sed b y a' s e r ie s o fb l ade a nd b l ade le t i n du s t r ie s a nd i sd a ted t o a bou t 3 8 -35 t h rough t o2 2 -20 K a .
T he A hma r ia s equence
w a s s ucceeded b y t h e L evan t in e A u r ignac ian s e quence w h ich o ccu r s i nt h e c en t ra l L evan t .
T h e
A u r ignac ian p ha se A i sc ha rac te r i sed b y as e r ie s o f b l ade a nd b l ade le t s w i th c a r ina t ed n o sed s c rape r s a nd r e touched b l ade le t s . T he c ha rac t e r i s t ic s o ft h eA u r ignac ian p ha se B s t one i n du s t ry a r e t h e f l ake , n o sed a nd c a r ina ted s c rape r s w h ich a r e f o l lowed b y t h e A ur ignac ian p ha se C f l ake , s c rape r a nd b u r in i n du s t r ie s ( Ma rk s a nd F e r r ig 1 988 , B a r -Yo sef a nd B e lf e r -Cohen 1 988 ) .
I n
s umma ry ,t h eM idd le t oU ppe rP a laeo l i th ic t r an s i t ion i sw e l l d ocumen ted i nt h e L evan tg i v ing r i se t o d if e ren t i n te rp re ta t ion s .
Wh e the r o r n o t t h e c hange i s a n i n d igenou s o n e o r t h e r e su l t o f
a c cu l tu ra t ion i ss t i l l d eba t ed . T he c a se f o r i ns i tu c hange f i nd s s uppor t f r om m any s cho la r s ( e .g . B a r -Yo sef 1 992 , G i leada 1 991) .
N ever the le s s , t h e s ou thwe s t A s ia M idd le /Uppe r P a laeo l i th ic
t r an s i t ion r e p r e sen t s c u l tu ra l c hange s a t as im i la r r a t et ot h a ti np a r t s o fA f r ica . T he A hma r ian , t h e e a r l ie s t U ppe rP a la eo l i th ic ( c a . 3 7 K a ) i nt h e L evan t , i sc ompa rab le t o , a nd c on tempo ra ry w i th , t h e D abban i nC y ren ica , a nd t h e N az le t K ha t e r c u l tu re a l ong t h e u ppe r N i le ( V e rmee r s.c h e ta l . 1 990 , V an P ee r 1 991) . T he ref o r e ,t h ee v idence m ay s ugge s tt h a t n or the rn A f r ica a nd t h e L evan t c ou ld b e c on s ide red a s as i ng le c u l tu r ea r ea w i th r e g iona l v a r ian t s , t h em a t er ia l p roduc t s o fw h ich w e r e m ade b ya na tom ica l ly m oder nh uman s .
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4 .P a laeo l i th ic a rchaeo logy i nI r an T he r e sea rche r s w ho d ea l w i th t h e P a la eo l i th ic p e r iod i n I r an a r e i n i t ia l ly f a c ing t h e f o l low ing p rob lem s . F i r s t , d u r ing ah und red y ea r s o fI r an ian a r cha eo logy t h e i mpor tance o ft h e P a laeo l i th ic h a s n o t b een p rope r ly r e cogn i sed . A l though t h e re w a s ah andf u l o f P a laeo l i th ic e xcava t ion s p a r t icu la r ly d u r ing t h e6 0 s a nd 7 0 s , t h e f a c ti st h a tn o I r an ian p reh i s tor ian h a s e v e r s p ec ia l i sed i nt h e P a la eo l i th ic o rh a s e ve r p roduced a p ub l i shed r e por t .
A l so P a laeo l i th ic r e sea rch h a s n o t b een a lway s ap r ior i ty i n
o ff i c ia l c i rc le s . Af t e rt h e I r an ian R evo lu t ion i n1 979 , d e sp i te t h e m any e xcava t ion s n ow i np rog re s s i nI r an , n o r e sea rch i sc once rn ed w i th t h e P a laeo l i th ic .
T h i s of i c ia l i g no rance o ft h e P a laeo l i th ic
s e em s t ob e d ue t o ac on t ra s tb e tween I s lam ic t h ough t a nd t h e m a t e r ia l i s t ic v i ew o ft h e P a laeo l i th ic ; c on t ra ry t ow e s ter np r econcep t ion o fI s lam ic b e l ief st h e re i sn od i r ec te v idence o fc u l tu ra lp r e ssu re a t l e a s ta ta na cadem ic l e ve l . I n s tead , t h et r ad i t iona l v i ew s o fI r an ian a r cha eo log i s t s a nd a r cha eo log ica l s e rv ic e s l e ad t h em t o c oncen t ra te s t rong ly o n t h e h i s to r ica l p e r iod .
Al a ck o f i n t e r e s t w i th in t h e
e duca t iona l s y s tem i nt h eu n iv e r s i t ie s a l so e xp la in st h el a g o fP a laeo l i th ic a r chaeo logy i nI r an . S econd ,t h ev ery o bv iou s f a c to ri st h e r e la t ive ly l i m i ted amoun to ff i e ldwo rk t ha t h a s b een d one , a nd t h e s ma l ln umbe ro fs i t e st h a th ave b een p rope r ly e xcava ted ( f ig . 5 ) . F o rt h e mo s tp a r tt h e w o rk h a s b een s po rad ic i nn a tu re w i th f ew e x ten s ive e xcava t ion s l a s t ing m o r et h an o ne o rt wo s e a son s a nd n o e f o r t h a s b een made t o p romo te p rob lem -o r ien ted mu l t i s tage i n v e s t iga t ion o r s e r iou s mu l t i d i sc ip l ina ry r e sea rch . T h i rd ,t h e r ei s as e r iou s s amp l ing b i a s r e su l t ing f r om t h e h eavy e mpha s i s o n f i e ldwo rk i nt h e Z ag ro s a r ea a tt h e e xpen se o fo t he r r e g ion s . E ven t h e r e , h oweve r , t h e q ua l i ty o fe xcava t ion h a s n o t a lway s b een h i gh , n o r h a s t h e a na ly s i s o ft h e e xcava t ed m a te r ia ls p roduced l a ndma rk s i na r chaeo log ica l m e thod s . I ti ss i gn if ican tt h a t , m any s i te s t h a t h ave b een t e s ted o re xcava ted , h ave i nf a c t r e ce ived o n ly af ew l i ne s i np r in t . U n t i ln ow t h e re i so n ly o ne r e por tf u l ly p ub l i shed a nd t h er e su l t s o fs ome o f t h er e sea rche sc a r r ied o u ti nt h ep a s ts e ve ra l d ecade s a r e s t i l l n o tf u l ly a va i lab le f o rd i scu s s ion . F ou r th , t h e re i sa l so ag r ea t d ef ic iency o fp a laeoenv i ronmen ta l a nd p a la eoeco log ica l d a ta w h ich h a s l i m i t ed o u rk now ledge o ft h ep a s te nv i ronmen ta l e ven t s a nd p roce sse s i nI r an , a nd , a l though s ome o f t h e f i e ld s t ud ie s p a r t icu la r ly i np a lyno logy h ave b een e xce l len t c on s id e r ing t h e ir r e s t r ic t ed s cope , t h e i rn umbe rh a s b een s ma l l . T hu s w e s t i l l c anno t p rope r ly e va lua t et h e e nv i ronmen ta l b a ckg round o f h uman a c t iv i t ie s i n a ny s i ng le r e g ion o f I r an e ven i n t h e c ompa ra t ive ly w e l l s tud ied Z ag ro s Moun ta in s , l e ta l one i nt h ec oun t ry a s aw ho le . F if th , t h e o t h e r h and icap i so u r u nde r s tand ing o f t h e a bso lu t e a nd r e la t ive c h rono logy o f t h e P a la eo l i th ic s e quence . T h i si s aw eakn e s s i no u ru nde r s tand ing o fm any o t he rp a r t s o ft h eN ea r E a s t ,
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b u ti nI r an i ti se ven m o re a ppa ren t . T hu s , o ft h e n i ne teen I r an ian r ad ioca rbon d a te s k nown , o n ly a f ew c an b ea cc ep t ed a tf a ce v a lue a nd i na ny c a se t h ey r e f e ro n ly t ot h ep a s t5 0 K ao rl e s s . T he re a r e n o m e thod s y e t a pp l ied t oa r range i ne ven a pp rox ima te c h rono log ica l o rde r t h e m any t h ou sand s o f y ea r s o f t h e e a r l ie r P a la eo l i th ic c u l tu re s a l though s uch m e thod s s uch a s p o ta s s ium a r gon , t h e rmo lum ine scence o ru ran ium t ho r ium h ave b een s ucce s sf u l ly u sed i no t he r p a r t s o ft h e w o r ld t o d a t eP a la eo l i th ic s i t e s . S ix th , t h e P l e i s tocene p e r iod d ur ing w h ich t h e d eve lopmen t o ft h e P a laeo l i th ic c u l tu re s o ccu r red i s n o tw e l lu nde r s tood i nI r an . T hu s , t h es o -ca l led g l ac ia l a nd p l uv ia l e nv i ronmen ta l f l uc tua t ion s o ft h e P l e i s tocene p e r iod a r ep oo r ly d ocumen ted . C on sequen t ly i ti sn o t p o s s ib le t os ay w i th a ny p rec i s ion h ow l o ng a ny o ft h eP a la eo l i th ic c u l tu r e s o rt r ad i t ion s i nI r an l a s ted , t ow ha t d eg ree t h ey o ve r lapped w i th e ach o t h e r , a nd h ow t h ey m igh t b e c h rono log ica l ly s ubd iv ided t o d ocumen t t h e i r i n te rna l c hange s . S even th , t h e a na tom ica l f e a tu re s o ft h e h uman s a r e n o t w e l l d ocumen ted a nd t h e re i s av ery l i m i ted i n f o rma t ion a bou t h uman s k e le ta l ma t e r ia l s a va i lab le .
T hu s , w ho t h e p eop le w e r e i nt h e v a r iou s
c u l tu ra l p e r iod s , h ow t h ey e vo lved p hy s ica l ly , a nd t o w ha t d eg ree w e c an s p eak o f b i o log ica l c on t inu i ty f r om t h e P a la eo l i th ic o ccupan t s o fI r an t ot h e m o re r e cen t i n hab i tan t s a r e p rob lem s t h a t a wa i ts o lu t ion . E igh th , n o e f or t h a s b e en m ade t o r e la t e P a la eo l i th ic I r an w i th n e ighbou r ing r e g ion s , e ven t hough s ome a u tho r s a s sume I r an i s ac r o ss road a nd mu s t b e s e en a s am ee t ing p o in t o fc u l tu ra l i nf luence s f r om a l l t h e a d jo in ing a r ea s ; i n deed s ome r e sea rche r s h ave a s sumed t h a t t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic c u l tu re s o fE u ra s ia w e r e b or n o n t h e I r an ian P l a teau ( e .g . G a r rod 1 938 , McBurney 1 964 ) .
A t t h e
m omen t w i th t h e l a ck o fa ny c ompa ra t ive s t ud ie s o ft h e m a te r ia l c u l tu re t o d ef ine s im i la r i t ie s o r p a ra l le l s ,t h i si sn om o re t h an a na t t rac t ive a s ser t ion . 5 .S equence s o ft he P a laeo l i th ic p er iod i nI ran 5 . 1 T he l ower P a laeo l i th ic ; t h i s p e r iod i nI r an i st h e m o s t a mb iguou s p e r iod i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l s e quence o ft h i s c oun t ry . T h e p auc i ty o fe v id ence i nt h i s p er iod may b e d ue t ot h e a moun t a nd t h e q ua l i ty o ft h e s i t ee xp lo ra t ion s o nt h eo ne h and , o r , a si no t he rp a r t s o ft h eN ea r E a s t , d e s truc t ion o r c ove r ing o f r e levan t s i t e s u nde r s ed imen ta t ion o r s ubme r s ion c au sed b y f r equen t e nv i ronmen ta l f l uc tua t ion s o nt h eo t h e r . E xamp le s c an b e f o und i nB a r -Yo sef ( 1994 ) , s e e a l so c hap te r 4f o r d e ta i l . T he l im i t ed e v idence f r om t h e L owe r P a la eo l i th ic i nI r an c ome s f r om o pen -a i r s i te s ; n o c ave s o r r o ck she l t e r s i t e s a r e k nown i nt h i s p e r iod . T h i s s i tua t ion i ss im i la r t oA f r ica a nd t h e L evan t w he r e c ave sw e r el i t t le u t i l i sed u n t i lt h ee nd o ft h eL owe r P a la eo l i th ic . U n t i l n ow t h ee a r l ie s tk nown L owe r P a laeo l i th ic s i t ei nI r an i s as ma l l s i t e i nK a shaf rud B a s in ( Kho ra san ) i n ve s t iga t ed i n1 974 a nd 1 975
1 39
b y A r ia i a nd ' T h ibau l t ( 1 977 ) .
T h ey f ound a r e la t iv e ly l a rge a moun t o f s t one a r t if a c t s i n c lud ing
c hoppe r s a nd c hopp ing t oo l s m ad e f r om q ua r tz i t e , a nd s ma l le r t o o l s o f f l ake s s uch a s s c rape r s , n o tched p i ece s a nd ak i nd o fk n if e .
As imp l e r e v iew o ft h e s t on e i n du s t ry d i scov e r ed a tt h e s i t e
s how s a n a ppa r en t r e semb lanc e t oA s ian c hoppe r / chopp ing t o o l t r ad i t ion f r om C en t ra l A s ia , I n d ia a nd t h e L evan t w h ich e nab led i n v e s t iga to r s t os ugg e s t ad a t e o f8 00 K a f o rt h e s i t e , c on t empo ra ry w i th t h eA ch eu l ian t r ad i t ion i nA f r ica . N o d ev e loped d a t ing m e thod s w e r eu sed , n o rw a s a s soc ia t ed e v id ence s uch a s f a una a nd f l o ra r ema in s a nd r e la t ion sh ip s b e tw e en ma te r ia l s a nd t h e i r g eo log ica l c on tex t s s t ud ied ; t hu s , t h e s ugg e s t ed d a t e a tt h e m om en t r ema in s u nconv inc ing u n le s s a dd i t iona l i n s i tu ma t e r ia l sa r ed i scov e r ed f r om t h i sr e g ion . S im i la ra r t if a c t si nt h ef o rm o fs u r f a c es c a t t e r sw e r eo b ta in ed f r om a no pen a i rs i t ei nB a luch i s t an b y H ume i n1 966 -67 ( Hum e 1 976 ) , s o -ca l led L ad iz ian c u l tu r e . T h e s t on e i n du s t ry o ft h i s c u l tu r e w a s r e f e r r ed t ot h eA s ian c hoppe r / chopp ing t o o l c omp lex . T h e i n du s t ry i s ma in ly c ompo sed o fs c rape r s , k n ive s , n o tch ed a nd p o in ted p i ec e s , b u t n o h and a x e s o rc l eav e r s . N o s t udy h a s b een m ad e o ft h e f a una a nd f l o ra r ema in s , o rt h ec l ima t ic a nd e nv i ronm en ta l b a ckg round o ft h e r e g ion . A l though t h e g eo log ica l a nd g eomo rpho log ica l f e a tu r e s o ft h e r e g ion a r e s t i l l c omp le t e ly u nknown , H um e , o nt h e b a s i so ft h eg eo log ica lp roce s se s o b se rvab le o nt h ea nc ien tr i ve rt e r race s , h a s d a ted t h eL ad iz ia nt oa p e r iod b eg inn ing i nt h e R i s s a nd e nd ing d u r ing t h e Wü rm g l a c ia t ion p e r iod .
A t t h e m om en t t h e
c l a im t ha t many o fs t one t o o l s f o und i nL ad iz ian a r et h ep roduc to fn a tu ra lp roce s se s r a th e rt h an b y h uman s , o r t h a t t h ey w e r e m ad e i n p o s t P a la eo l i th ic p e r iod s ( e .g . Sm i th 1 986 : 1 5 ) m ak e s a n e va lua t ion o fL ad iz ian i mpo s s ib l e . V e ry l i t t le i sk nown a bou tt h e L ow e r P a la eo l i th ic i nw e s t er nI r an e xcep t s om e o ccu r r en c e s m a in ly i nt h e f o rm o f s u r f a ce f i nd s i n B a rda B a lka o f I r aq i K u rd i s tan , t h e c l o se s t r e g ion t o I r an ian K u rd i s t an ( B ra idwood a nd H ow e 1 960 ) o rP a l B a nk i nL u r i s tan ( Mor t en sen 1 974 ) a nd A ze rba i jan ( Sad ek -koo ro s 1 976 ) . T he B a rda B a lka a nd P a lB a nk f i nd s r e p r e sen ts t on ei n du s t r ie s w h ich i n c lud e p ebb le f l ak e t o o l s a s soc ia t ed w i th a s ma l l n umbe r o fA ch eu l ian l ik e h and a x e s , w h i le A z e rba i jan y i e ld s a r t if a c t s o f t h e g en e ra l c hoppe r f l ak e t o o l s w i thou t h and a x e s , s im i la r t o t h o se f o und i n K ho ra san a nd B a luch i s tan d e sc r ibed a bov e . I nt h ea b senc eo fa ny c l ea rd a t es ugge s ted f o rt h ea bove f i nd s w e a r en o ta b le t om ak e i n f e r enc e s a bou td if e r ence s b e tw e en t wo g roup s o fp eop l ew ho m ay h ave l i v ed i nt h e w e s t , w i th t h e h and a x e t r ad i t ion , a nd i nt h e e a s t w i thou t i t . Whe th e r o rn o t t h e t r ad i t ion s o fp ebb le t o o l s a nd h and a x e s b e long t o as i ng le e n t i ty , o r a r e s e pa ra te , n e ed s f u r the r r e sea rch . A sm en t ioned e a r l ie ri nt h i sc hap t e r ,i ft h ec l a im f o rt h ec omb ina t ion o fb o th t r ad i t ion s a sa s i ng le e n t i ty f r om t h eL evan t in ea nd A f r ican s i t e s i sc o r r ec t( s ee B a r -Yo sef 1 994 a nd G ow l e t t 1 988 ) , w e c an a s sum e t h a t t h i s c u l tu r e w a s f i r s t e s tab l i sh ed i nw e s t e rn I r an b y p eop le w ho p robab ly m ig ra t ed i nf r om o u t s id e . T h ey l i v ed o n ly i nt h i s a r ea a nd r a re ly p en e t ra t ed i n to t h e e a s t er np a r t s o f
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t h e c oun t ry a nd l e f t f ew t r a ce s .
U nf or tuna te ly , i nt h e l a ck o f r e l iab le e v idence s uch a s s k e le ta l
m a t e r ia l s o r a d equa te t y po log ica l s t ud ie s o ft h e s t one a r t if ac t s w e c anno t m ake a ny f i rm s t a temen t a bou tt h et ime o fa r r iva lo ft h ee a r l ie s ti n hab i tan t s , t h e a c tua l d i rec t ion s f r om w h ich t h ey c ame o rt h e b i o log ica lt ype s o fh om in id s i n vo lved . T he manne ri nw h ich t h ey e xp lo i t ed t h ep hy s ica l e nv i ronmen t a nd t h e n a tu r e o ft h e i r s e t t l emen t p a t t e rn s a nd s ubs i s t ence s y s t em s a r e l a rge ly u nknown .
T he r a t e
a nd n a tu re o ft h e r e g iona l a nd f unc t iona l v a r ia t ion s i nl i t h ic i n du s t r ie s i sa no the r p rob lem a wa i t ing s o lu t ion ( f ig . 6 ,7 ) . 5 . 2 T he M idd le P a laeo l i th ic ; t h e s i tua t ion i nt h e M idd le P a la eo l i th ic p e r iod i ss omewha t b e t te rt h an f o rt h e L owe rP a la eo l i th ic . S ome t wen ty M idd le P a laeo l i th ic s i te s i nt h e f o rm o fc ave s , r o ck she l t e r s a nd s u rf ace s c a t t e r s h av eb een r e por ted f o r I r an . Mo s t o ft h em o ccu r i nt h e Z ag ro s Moun ta in s , b u t s om e a r e k nown i no t he r z on e s a s w e l l .
T he m o s t i mpo r tan t M idd le P a laeo l i th ic s i te , S han ida r i n
I r aq i K u rd i s tan a d jacen tt ot h e I r an ian b o rde r , i st h e r i che s t o ne s o f a r f o und . T h i s s i te p roduced a w ea l th o f d a ta i n c lud ing h uman s k e le ta l r ema in s w h ich c an b e u sed f o r t h e e xam ina t ion o f t h e I r an ian s i te s i nt h i s p e r iod . W i th in t h e c l u s te r o fs i te s l o ca t ed i nL u r i s tan n ea r K hor ramabad , t h r ee s i t e s , K un j i C ave , G a r A r janeh a nd C hama r i C ave w e r e i n v e s t iga t ed b y H o le a nd F l annery i n 1 963 a nd 1 965 ( Ho le a nd F lanne ry 1 967 ) . T h e Mou s te r ian o ccupa t ion h e r e w e re d a ted w i th r ad ioca rbon t ob e tween 5 0 K a a nd 3 8 K a B .C . T he s t one i n du s t ry r e po r ted f r om t h e s i t e s i sc ompo sed o ff l ake t o o l s f e a tu r ing s i de s c rape r s , u n if ac ia lt r iangu la r p o in t s , b u r in s a nd b o re r s b u t n o L eva l lo i s m e thod . T he v ery p oo r ly p r e served f a una l r ema in s i nt h e se s i t e s w e r e e xam ined a nd t h e a u tho r s c onc lud ed t h a t t h e se s i t e s w e re s e a sona l c amps a nd o nage r s w e re h un ted b y t h e i n hab i tan t s o fK un j i C ave a t l e a s t . T he o t h e r r o ck sh e l t e r s i te i nt h i s z one c a l led H um ian w a s i n ve s t iga ted b y Mc 'Burney i n 1 969 ( McBun iey 1 970 , B ew ley 1 984 ) . I tw a s l i ke ly as umme r c amp s i t e t oh un t i b ex o rg oa t a nd s h eep t h a tm ig ra t ed u p f r om t h ep l a in s . I nt h e H u la i lan V a l ley o n t h e S a ima r reh R ive r Mor ten sen ( 1974 , 1 993 ) l o ca t ed a t l e a s t s e ven Mou s te r ian s i te s , t wo o f w h ich ( Cha rv i l la a nd G ha r H uch i ) a r e r o ck she l te r s w h i le t h e o t he r f i ve a r e s u rf ace o ccur r ence s .
T he H u la i lan s i t e s w e r e c l a imed t o b e
s e a sona l h un t ing s i t e s ( Mor t en sen 1 975 ) , a nd s t one t o o l i n du s t r ie s r e semb le t h o se r e p re sen ted f r om K ho r ramabad s i t e sb u tw i th L eva l lo i sm e thod . T owa rd t h e n o r th o n t h e Z ag ro s Moun ta in s t h e b e s t k nown a r e Wa rwa s i r o ck she l te r e xcava ted i n 1 9 59 -60 b yH ow e ( B ra idwood a nd H owe 1 960 ) a nd B i s tun c ave e xcava t ed b y C oon i n 1 949 ( Coon 1 9 51) . O nb o th s i t e st h el i t h ic i n du s t ry i sc ompo sed o f ah i gh f r equency o f Mou s te r ian t ype s c rape r s a nd p o in t s w i th s om e L eva l lo i s e l emen t s .
T h e f a una l r ema in s o b ta ined f r om t h e Wa rwa s i s i te
s ugge s ted t h a t i ts e rved m o re a s ac amp s i te f o rh un t ing o nage r , r e d d ee r a nd o t h e rt y pe s o fa n ima l s t h an a s al i v ing s i t e ( f o r d e ta i l a nd c ha rac te r i s t ic s o ft h e s t one i n du s t ry i n Warwa s i s e e a l so D ibb le a nd H o ldaway 1 993 ) .
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L e s s i su nd e r s tood f r om t h e p r e l im ina ry r e po r t s a bou tt h e o t h e r Mou s t e r ian s i t e s i nt h i s r e g ion . F o r i n s tance , C ha r i -Kha r ( Young a nd Sm i th 1 966 ) , s i t e s n o . 1 6 a nd 1 7 n ea r H a r s in ( Sm i th a nd Mo r t en sen 1 980 ) a nd t h e e a r l ie s t l e v e l o fG ang D a reh ( Sm i th 1 975 ) . I ti sa l so t r ue f o r t h e r e g ion e x t end ing f r om t h e c en t ra l Z ag ro s t owa rd t h e P e r s ian G u lf .
F rom t h i s z on e s om e k ind s o f
Mou s t e r ian t y pe t o o l s h av eb een r e por t ed a ss u r f a ce s ca t t e r s b u ta l l a ck f u r th e r i n f o rma t ion o nt h e t y po logy o fl i t h ic i n du s t r i e sf o und , o ra na d equa t es t udy o fs ub s i s t enc ea nd s e t t lem en tp a t t er n s . S i t e s i n c lud e F a r s ( F ie ld 1 939 ) , K u r r i v e r b a s in ( Sumn e r 1 977 ) , T e l l i Ib l i s i nK e rman ( Ca ldw e l l 1 967 ) a nd I z eh p l a in i nK huz i s tan ( W r igh t 1 979 ) . T h es ame l i m i ta t ion e x i s t s i nt h eg r ea t e rp a r to fn or th e rn I r an , B a luch i s tan i nt h ee a s ta nd t h e s ho r e l in e s o ft h e P e r s ian a nd Oman S ea i nt h es ou th . T he o n ly e x t en s iv ew o rk i nt h eE lbu r z Moun ta in s , n o r th er nI r an , i s McBur n ey 's e xcava t ion ( 1 964 )c a r r ied o u t i n al a rge c av ec a l led K e -A ram I .H i s e xcava t ion h e r ep roduc ed al a rge a moun to fs ma l l s t one t o o l s c a t ego r i sed a s Mou s t e r ian t y pe s im i la rt ot h a to ft h eZ ag ro s . T h ea n ima l sh un t ed h e r es u ch a sc a t t le , r e dd e e r a nd r h inoce ro s , r e f lec tf o r e s tc ond i t ion s a nd s o amod er nt y pe o fc l ima t e , p e rhap s d a t ing t o t h e l a s t i n t e rg lac ia l p e r iod o rt o aw a rm p ha se o ft h e l a s t g l a c ia t ion , a cco rd ing t ot h e e xcava to r . H ow ev e r , t h i s c l a im s hou ld b er e ga rded w i th s om e r e serve u n t i l i tc an b e c onf i rmed b ym ean s o t h e r t h an f a una lr ema in sa l on e . A l lt h ea bove i n d ica t et h el e v e lo fo u ru nd e r s tand ing a bou tt h eM idd le P a la eo l i th ic i nI r an ;t h e ref o r e i ti sh a rd t os p eak w i th a ny c on f id enc e a bou tt h eb eg inn ing o re n do ft h e Mou s t e r ian p e r iod i nI r an . A r e a son f o r t h i s w eak p o in t i st h a t t h e r e h a s b een n o d a t ing o t he r t h an t h e s po rad ic u se o f r ad ioca rbon d a t ing f o rw h ich o bv iou s ly t h ee a r l ie s tp ha se o ft h e Mou s te r ian i sf a rb eyond i t s r ang e . A l so t h e r e h a s n o b een a t t emp tt od a t et h eg l a c ia l d epo s i t s o ft h e E a r ly o rM idd le P l e i s tocen e t ob e u sed a sa ni n d ica t ion t od a t ea r t if ac t so b ta in ed w i th in s uch d epo s i t s . H owev e r ,b yc on s id e r ing a na g e o f 1 00 K a f o r l a y e r D a t S han ida r s ugge s t ed b y S o leck i ( 1 963 ) a nd e v id ence t h a t i mp l ie s t h e Mou s t e r ia nl a s t ed i nt h eZ ag ro s t oa bou t 4 0 K a ( Ho le a nd F lann e ry 1 967 ) , a c cep t ing ad u ra t ion o f 5 0 o r 6 0 K a f o r t h e Mou s t e r ian p e r iod o ft h e Z ag ro s w ou ld b e r e a sonab le , b u t w h e th e r i ts p r ead e l sewh e r ei nI r an i sa tp r e sen tc omp le t e ly u nknown . F o rt h e Mou s t e r ian i nI r an n oi mpo r tan ts k e le ta l ma t e r ia l sh av eb e en f ound t oh e lp u st ou nde r s tand much a bou t t h e b i o log ica l s i d e o f t h e i n hab i tan t s .
T hu s , t h e o n ly e v id enc e f o r t h e b i o log ica l
c ha ra c t e r i s t ic s o ft h eh uman p opu la t ion i nt h i s p e r iod , a tl e a s t i nt h eZ ag ro s r e g ion , i st h e a va i lab l e e v id en c ef r om t h e S han ida rC av e . T h el e v e lo fe a r l ie s to ccupa t ion i nt h i s c av ei s at h ick Mou s te r ian d epo s i tw h ich i sc ha ra c t e r i sed b yp o in t s ,f l ak e s , s c rape r s a nd s e v e ra lh uman s k e l e ton s ( So leck i 1 963 , 1 971 ) .
T h e S han ida r s k e le ton s s ugg e s t ed t h a t t h e p opu la t ion w a s N eand e r tha l i nt y pe w i th l a rg e
c r an ia l c apac i t ie s , a nd m a s s iv e f a ce s w i th f a i r ly l a rge b row r i dg e ( T r inkau s 1 983 ) .
F rom a n
e xam ina t ion o ft h e f o s s i l i sed p o l l en c on ta ined i nt h e e a r th s u r round ing t h e se s k e le ton s , i ts e em s t ha t
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a tl e a s t o ne o ft h eb od ie s w a s p u rpo se ly b u r ied w i th f l ow e r s s t rewn a c ro s s i t( So leck i 1 971 , b u t s e e G a rg e t t 1 989 f o r ad if e ren ti n te rp re ta t ion ) . T h i s t ype o fa t ten t ion t ob u r ia l a tl e a s t 5 0 K a y ea r s a go i si n t e r e s t ing e v idence f o rh uman b ehav iou r . I ft h e S han ida re v idence i sc o r rec t , t h e r .w e c an a s sume as im i la rp hy s ica l a nd b ehav iou ra l p a t te rn f o rt h e Z ag ro s ; h oweve rt h e o r ig in o ft h e N eander tha l s i n t h i s r e g ion i nr e la t ion t ot h e t wo e vo lu t iona ry h ypo the se s r a i se s p rob lem s .
I ti sh a rd t o s ay a tt h e
m om en t w he th e r t h e se N eand e r tha l s e vo lv ed l o ca l ly f r om p reced ing p opu la t ion s o rm ig ra ted t ot h e r e g ion , w he the rt h ey r ema in ed u nchanged t ot h e e nd o ft h e M idd le P a la eo l i th ic o rh ad a l r eady b een r e p la ced b y o r d eve loped i n to m oder nH omo s ap iens .
T he r e i s ag ap i nh uman s k e le ta l ma te r ia l s
f r om t h e l a te s t s k e le ton o fS han ida r d a t ed t oc a . 4 4 K a B .C . t ot h e H o locene t ime a bou t 9K a B .C . T h ep r ob lem c anno tb es o lved w i thou tf u r the rf i e ldwo rk . T h et e chno log ica l s i de o ft h e Mou s te r ian o ccupa t ion i nI r an a l so r ema in s p rob lema t ic . A s w e h ave s e en , t h e a r t if ac ta s semb lage s a r e f r om c av e s a nd o pen s i te s . T he r e i s as t rong e mpha s i s o n p o in t s , s i d e sc rape r s , d en t icu la t e s a nd b o re r s , b u t t h e L eva l lo i s m e thod i sr a r e ly u sed .
T he re may b e
s i gn if i can t d if e rence s b e tw een a s semb lage s f ound i n c ave s a nd t h o se f r om o pen -a i r s i te s .
T he
Mou s t e r ian i n du s t ry i nt h e L evan t c on s i s t s o fs c rape r s , n o tched p i ece s , b o r e r s a nd s ome b u r in s , a nd t h e L eva l lo is m e thod a s w e l l a s t h e A ch eu l ian t r ad i t ion w a s f r equen t ly u sed . Moun ta in s t h e re a r e b o th s im i la r i t ie s a nd d if e rence s w i th t h e Z ag ro s s i t e s .
A s 'f o r t h e T auru s
T he s e t t lemen t s i nt h i s
z on es u ch a sK iz i l in a nd O kuz in i( Kayan e ta l . 1 987 ) a r e f ound i nc ave s a nd o pen -a i r s i te s . T he r aw m a t e r ia l i sg en e ra l ly f l i n t a nd t h e c o re s a r e r e duced t ot h e i r l a s t l i m i t s .
T he c ha rac t e r is t ic s o ft h e
a s semb lage s f o und a r ed i sc c o re s a nd ag r ea tn umbe ro ft h ick f l ake s ; c ommon t o o l s a r e d en t icu la te s , n o t ch e s a nd s c rape r s .
S om e L eva l lo i s f l ake s a r e p re sen t . T h i s i n d ica t e s t h a t t h e L eva l lo i s m e thod
w a s k nown b u ta si nt h e Z ag ro s i t s u se w a s v e ry l im i ted . D e sp i t e t h e l o ca l a nd i n t er na l d if e rence s , t h e s im i la r i t ie s o ft h e Z ag ro s a nd T auru s r e g ion s b ecome m o r e o bv iou s w hen i ti sc ompa red t ot h e Med i t e r ranean c oa s t .
A spec t s t ha t s e em t o d if e r b e tween t h e m oun ta in s a nd t h e c oa s t s a r e t h e
l e ng th t ow id th a nd w id th t ot h ickne s s r a t io f o rt h e f l ake s a nd b l ade s . T he se r a t io s s how l o nge r a nd t h inn e rf l ake so nt h e Med i t e r ranean c oa s tt h an i nt h e moun ta in a s semb lage s ( M inzon i -De roche 1 993 : 1 50 ) .
A s im i la r Mou s t e r ian t e chno log ica l p a t t e rn s e em s t oh ave e x i s t ed c on tempo ra r i ly e l sewhe re
a d ja c en tt ot h eI r an ian P l a t eau . T h et r an s i t ion f r om t h eL ow e rP a laeo l i th ic t ot h eM idd le P a laeo l i th ic i nI n d ia t o ok p l ace n o tl e ss t han 1 00 K a y ea r s a go .
T h e a s semb lage s f r om t h e t wo M idd le P a la eo l i th ic s i t e s o f P a tpa ra a nd
N ak jha rkhu rd , n o r ther nI n d ia , i n d ica t et h a tt h e s t one i n du s t ry a ppea r s t of o l low t h e p a t ter no bserved i nA f r ica ( C la rk a nd W i l l iam s 1 990 ) a nd t h e L evan t w he re t h e A cheu l ian b i f ace s d i sappea r a nd t h e f l ak et oo l c ompon en t sb ecome a bundan t . B u tt h et ypo logy a nd t e chno logy o ft h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a s semb lage s f r om b o th s i t e s s ugge s tt h e i r d i r ec t d e r iva t ion f r om t h e p r eced ing A ch eu l ian i n du s t ry o f
1 43
t h e r e g ion w h ich a r ec ha ra c t e r i sed b yb i f a ce s a nd c o re c hoppe r sw i thou tt h e L eva l lo i s m e thod . T h e c ha ra c t e r i s t ic s o ft h e I n d ian Mou s t e r ian t e chno logy d a ted t o4 0 -50 K a i s af l ak e -ba sed t e chno logy ( f lak e s w i th a n i n v e r se r e touch ) w i th m od if i ed f o rm o ft h e L eva l lo i s m e thod ( C la rk a nd W i l l iam s 1 987 : 3 0 , C la rk 1 992 : 2 08 ) . T h eM idd l eP a la eo l i th ic i nC en t ra lA s ia c an b es e en a s ad e r iva t iv eo ft h e L owe rP a la eo l i th ic , w h ich i sc ha ra c t e r i sed b y c o r e c hoppe r s a nd s c rape r s ( f o r d e ta i led i n f o rma t ion o n t h e s i t e l o ca t ion s a nd s t on e a r t if a c t s , s e e I s lamov 1 990 , D av i s e ta l . 1 980 ) . T he s am ep a t t e rn i sa l so s e en f r om t h e c av e s i t e so ft h eT r an scauca s ian r e g ion , w h e r ep a lyno log ica l a nd f a una l d a ta i n d ica te ac l ima t ic c ond i t ion d r i e ra nd m o r es e ve r et h an a tp r e sen ta f t e rt h eb eg inn ing o ft h e Wü rm . I nt h i s r e g ion t h ef i r s tu s eo f c av e s i t e s t o ok p l ac e i n t h e Mou s t e r ian p e r iod w hen t h e c av e s b ecam e d ry a nd s u i tab le f o r o ccupa t ion ( Be l ia eva 1 997 : 1 5 1 ) .
T he Mou s t e r ian c u l tu ra l h o r izon h e r e i sr e co rd ed i nt h e t h r e e
c av e s o f Mona she skaya , B a raka ev skaya , A u t lev skaya a nd i n t h e G ub sk iy r o ck sh e l te r .
T h e
Mou s t e r ian l a y e r s o ft h e se s i t e s w e r e d a t ed a s b e long ing t ot h e M idd le Würm a nd h ave y i e ld ed r ema in s o ft h eo pen g r a s s land s p ec ie s s u ch a sb i son , w i ld h o r se a nd C auca s ian s he ep o rg oa ta sw e l l a s h uman r ema in s b e long ing t o aN eand e r tha l m a le ( Be l ia eva 1 997 :
1 51-153 ) .
T h e s t on e
a s semb lag ei st y p ica l ly Mou s t e r ian , r e semb l ing t h o se o fa d jo in ing w e s t er nA s ia ( t h eL evan t ) w i th i t s d i s t in c t iv ei n du s t r ie s ( Lub in 1 997 : 1 46 ) i n c lud ing s c rape r s o fv a r iou st y pe s a nd ah i gh f r equency o f p o in t s ,d en t icu la t ed a nd n o t ch ed t oo l s ,b o r e r sa nd b u r in s . H ow ev e r , t h e M idd le P a la eo l i th ic a s semb lage s r e cove red f r om I r an p a r t icu la r ly f r om t h e Z ag ro s i n d ica t em any a spec t s o ft h es t on e i n du s t ry i nt h i sp e r iod . I n c lud ed a r e s im i la r i t ie s i nr aw ma t e r ia l s , c o r er e duc t ion t e chno logy ,r e touched t o o lm o rpho logy , a nd o t h e ra s pec t s o fa s semb lage s ( D ibb le a nd H o ldaway 1 993 ) . T h en o t ion o f aZ ag ro s Mou s t e r ian a s ar e cogn i sab le e n t i ty w i th in t h i s r e g ion a nd d i s t in c tf r om o t h e rN ea rE a s t e rn a s semb lag e ( p a r t icu la r ly t h o se o ft h e L evan t ) h a s b een w id e ly u s ed f o rm any y ea r s ( e .g . H o l e a nd F l anne ry 1 967 : 1 55 , Sm i th 1 986 ) , a nd i sn o t d i scu s sed h e r e . B u to f c ou r se i ts hou ld b e t h e s ub jec t o f c on t inu ing d i scu s s ion a nd r e f in emen t , m o s t p a r t icu la r ly w i th r e spec t t ot h e l ow f r equency o fL eva l lo i s p roduc t s i nZ ag ro s s i t e s i nc on t ra s t t o t h e i r s uppo sed ly much h i gh e r i n c id en ce i nL ev an t ine s i t e s ( D ibb le 1 984 ) .
T h e d eg r ee o ft ypo log ica l h omogen e i ty
w i th in a nd a mong t h e Z ag ro s Mou s t e r ian a s semb lage s i ss t r ik ing , a nd a ppea r t o e x i s t d e sp i t e t h e l a rg e r e g ion e ncompa s sed b yt h i s t r ad i t ion , t h e d if e rence s b e tw e en s i t e s i ne l eva t ion a nd i nv a r iou s e nv i ronm en ta l s e t t ing , a nd t h e l o ng p e r iod o ft i me t h a t may b e i n vo lv ed ( Baum le r a nd S pe th 1 993 ) . E xp la in ing t h e se s im i la r i t i e s i sn o t s imp le m a t t e r , a nd o ne t h a t i sf a r b eyond t h e d e sc r ip t iv e g oa l o f t h i s c hap t e r .
F o r a tt h e h ea r t o f t h i s i s su e l i e s t h e c omp lex d eba t e c once rn ing t h e n a tu r e o f
v a r iab i l i ty i nt h e P a la eo l i th ic s t one t o o l a s semb lag e s , a nd i np a r t icu la r t h e d eg r e e t o w h ich t h e o b se r v ed v a r iab i l i ty i s ar e f l ec t ion o fs t y le , f u nc t ion , t e chno logy . D ibb le ( 1985 ) h a s p r e sen ted d a ta
1 44
t h a td emon s t ra te a no the rk i nd o fp a t ter n ing w i th in t h e Mou s t e r ian o fs ou ther nF rance t h a ta ppea r st o b er e la ted t od if e rence si nr aw m a ter ia l( s ee a l so R o land a nd D ibb le 1 990 ) I nI r an a s i na d jacen t r e g ion s i ti su nc lea r w he the r t h e v a r iab i l i ty i nM idd le P a la eo l i th ic s t one t o o l a s semb lage s s uch a si n f r equency o ft h e L eva l lo i s t r ad i t ion i mp l ie s ar e g iona l t e chno log ica l t r ad i t ion a nd ad eg ree o fc on t inu i ty i n dependen t f r om t h e w e s t ( t he L evan t ) a s h a s b een a r gued ( a bove ) o r a l t er na t ive ly t h e Mou s te r ian o fI r an h a s d eve loped a st h e r e su l to ft h ed i f f u s ion o ft e chn ique s ( on t h e b a s i s o f t h e a ppa ren t h omogene i ty i n Mou s t e r ian s t one t o o l a s semb lage s p ar t icu la r ly i n Z ag ro s Mou s t e r ian a s semb lage s d i scu s sed a bove ) a nd e ven p eop le f r om o u t s ide o fI r an , p o s s ib ly f r om t h e L evan t , C en t ra l A s ia o r I n d ia .
T he se a r e q ue s t ion s w h ich , w i th s uch a s c an ty e v idence n ow
a va i lab le , c anno tb ea n swe red a nd r e qu i re f u r the rf i e ldwo rk ( f ig . 8 ,9 ) . 5 . 3 T he Upper a nd E p ipa laeo l i th ic ; a sm en t ioned e a r l ie r i nt h i s c hap t e r , a r cha eo ldg i s t s a rgue t h a t t h e t r an s i t ion f r om t h e M idd le t o t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic w a s a ccompan ied b y am a jo r c hange i n h uman l i f e w ay s i n c lud ing a s h if t i n b ehav iou ra l p a t ter n s , s ub s i s t ence s t ra t eg ie s a nd s t one t o o l i n v en tor ie s .
A s f a r a s t h e I r an ian U ppe r P a la eo l i th ic i sc once rned , d e sp i t e t h e a va i lab i l i ty o f
r e la t ive ly w e l l d ocum en t ed i n f o rma t ion f r om U ppe r P a la eo l i th ic s i t e s i n t h e Z ag ro s a s w e l l a s i n f o rma t ion o n t h e p a la eoenv i ronmen ta l c ond i t ion s o f t h e r e g ion ( a t a bou t 4 0 K a ) t h e re i sn o r ema rkab le i mp rovemen ti no u ra r chaeo log ica lk now ledge t ou nde r s tand t h i st r an s i t ion i nI r an . T he U ppe r P a la eo l i th ic s t age s i nI r an a s I r aq ( ma in ly i nt h e Z ag ro s ) i sd i v id ed i n to t wo p e r iod s . T h ef i r s ti sc a l led B a rado s t ian ( t he n ame u sed b y S o leck if o rl a ye r Ca tS han ida r ) , a nd t h e s e cond t h e Z a rz ian ( l aye r Ba tS han ida r ) .
T he B a rado s t ian i n du s t ry i nt h e Z ag ro s i sb a sed m a in ly o n b l ade s
i n c lud ing s ome m ic rob lad e s . T ypo log ica l ly , i ti sd om ina t ed b y b u r in s , s c rape r s a nd n o tched b l ade s , b u tw i th n ou se o ft h e L eva l lo i s m e thod . T he re a l so h eav ie ri mp lemen t s s uch a sp i ck s , c hoppe r s a nd g r ind ing s t one s .
T he r a d ioca rbon d a t ing s ugge s t s ad a te o f 3-38 K a f o r l a ye r C a t S han ida r
( S o leck i 1 963 ) . T h e B a rado s t ian c u l tu re i nI r an i ss e en i nt h e s o -ca l led K ho r ramabäd V a l ley i nt h e t h ree w e l l d ocumen ted a r cha eo log ica l s i te s o ft h e Yaf t eh C ave , P a sanga r a nd G a r -A r janeh .
T he
B a rado s t ian d epo s i t s a tt h e se s i t e s c on ta in ag rea te rv a r ie ty o ft o o lt y pe s a nd e v id ence , a nd t h e re w a s m uch g r ea t e r e mpha s i s o n t h e t e chn ique o f mak ing b l ade s .
C ha rac t er i s t ic s o ft h e B a rado s t ian i n
t h e se s i te s , a s i n S han ida r l a ye r C , a r e s ma l l s l ende r p o in t s , b acked b l ade s , r e touched b l ad e le t s , s c rape r s , a nd s imp le a nd p o lyhed r ic b u r in s .
S eve ra l c oa r se s t one s u sed f o r g r ind ing o ch re w e r e
f o und a tY af t eh C av e ; t h ey a r e t h e f i r s t e v idence o f ag round s t one t e chno logy t h a t w a s ap r e r e qu i s i te f o r e a r ly a g r icu l tu r e . W i ld g oa t s e em s t o h ave b een t h e m a in g ame a n ima l .
O ch re w a s
u s ed p e rhap sf o rb ody d eco ra t ion . S ome f r agmen t s o fh uman b one c ove red w i th o ch re w e re f ound a t o ne o ft h e s i te s ( Ga r -A r janeh ) a nd s ome p ebb le s w h ich m ay h ave b een p o l i shed f o r o rnamen ta t ion . O n t h e b a s i s o f t h e K ho r ramabad e v idence H o le a nd F lanne ry ( 1 967 ) s aw t wo p ha se s : a n e a r ly
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B a rado s t ian ( 3 8 k a -30 k a ) a nd al a te B a rado s t ian ( 3 0 k a -20 k a ) , w i th ap rog re ss ive r e duc t ion i ns i ze o ft h e i mp lemen t s a nd a n i n c rea se i nt h e m ic ro l i th ic e l emen t .
T h i s r e qu i r e s c on ama t ion a t o t h e r
s i te s . H oweve r , t h e d a t ing o ft h e B a rad i s t ian s i t e s i nt h e K ho r ramabad V a l ley a ppea r s t ob e m o re c r i t ica l ; i fw e a r e r e a sonab ly s u r e o ft h e b eg inn ing o ft h e B a rado s t ian , w e a r e f a r l e s s s o a bou t i t s e nd .
T h e r e a r e a t l e a s t t wen ty two r ad ioca rbon d e te rm ina t ion s a va i lab le , a l l f r om S han ida r a nd
y af teh C av e s , w h ich r ange f r om c a . 3 8k ao ro l d e rt oc a . 2 0 k a ( a l though n o d a te s a f t e rc a . 2 5 k aa r e c on s id e red r e l iab le ) . T hu s , w e c anno t r e a ly s a y h ow l a te t h e B a rado s t ian s u rv ived i nt h e Z ag ro s o r w he th e r i tl a s ted l a t e r i ns om e a r ea s .
I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t s ome s i t e s s uch a s S han ida r C ave w e re
a bondon ed b e tween c a . 2 6 k aa nd 1 2 k a , (S o leck i 1 963 ) w hen , i tw i l l b e r e ca l led , t h e c l ima te i nt h e Z ag ro s w a s a ti t s c o lde s t a nd d r ie s t ( v an Z e i s t a nd B o t tema 1 991) , b u t o fc our se o ccupa t ion s may h ave p e r s i s t ed i no t he r Z ag ro s s i t e s ; m uch d epended o n l o ca l c ond i t ion s .
I nt h e Z ag ro s Moun ta in s
t h e o t h e r B a rado s t ian s i te s a r e G ha r i -Kha r a nd B i s t iun n ea r K e rman shah ( Young a nd S m i th 1 966 ) a nd Wa rwa s i r o ck she l te r . T he re may b es ome B a rado s t ian i nt h eH u la i lan V a l ley o fL u r i s tan among t h e f i f t een U ppe rP a la eo l i th ic s i te s s urveyed b u tt h i s i sn o t c er ta in ( Mor ten sen 1 974 ) . F u r the r s ou th i nF a r s a nd K huz i s tan s ome B a rado s t ian s i te s s u ch a sB a rm i S hu r C ave o n L ake T a shk n ea r S h i raz ( P ipe rno 1 974 ) , G av i C ave n ea r t h e K u r r i ve r ( Sumne r 1 977 ) a nd s i te s o n t h e I z eh P l a in (W r igh t 1 979 ) w e r e r e po r ted o n t h e b a s i s o fo n ly s u r f ace c o l lec t ion s , w h i le i ti sb y n o m ean s u n l ik e ly t ha t t h e se o ccu r rence s a r eB a rado s t ian . T he re a r en of i nd s o fB a rado s t ian s i te s i nI r an e a s to ft h eZ ag ro s t owa rd st h eC a sp ian s ho re o rt h ei n t e r io rp l a teau . U n l ike t h e Mou s te r ian t h a t i sf a i r ly w id e sp read i n i r an ( a s a l ready m en t ioned ) , i ti sf ound f r om t h e c en t ra l Z ag ro s t ot h e C a sp ian s ho re a nd t h e A f ghan b o rde r .
T he e a r ly U ppe r P a la eo l i th ic ( Ba rado s t ian ) t h a t i mmed ia te ly f o l low s i ts e em s t o h ave a
much m o r e r e s t r ic ted d i s t r ibu t ion i nI r an , h av ing b een f ound s o f a r o n ly i nt h e w e s t er n p a r t o ft h e c oun t ry . Y e tt h e U ppe rP a la eo l i thc , a s ac u l tu ra l s t age , i st r ad i t iona l ly s e en a st h e p roduc to fp eop le w i th g r a t e r a dap t ive p owe r s , w ho w e re mo r e e xpan s ive g eog raph ica l ly w i th a t e ndency t o f i l l a l l z one s s u i tab le f o r h un te r s a nd g a the re r s a nd t oe xp lo i tt h e a va i lab le r e sou rce s mo re i n t en s ive ly t han d i dt h o se o ft h eM idd le P a la eo l i th ic ( e .g . Me l la r s 1 992 ) . T he p o s s ib le e xp lana t ion s f o rt h er e s t r ic t ion o ft h e B a rado s t ian s i t e s c an b e p e rhap s d ue t ot h e p r eva i l ing c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s w h ich w e r e mo re c o ld a nd d ry o u t s i de t h e Z ag ro s a nd i t s s l ope s t h a t may n ow h ave h i nde r ed s e t t lemen t .
I tc an b e
a rgued t h a t o u t s ide o ft h e Z ag ro s w he re a va i lab le c ave s i te s w e re m uch r a re r t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f a va i lab le r e sou rce s w ou ld h ave b een af ec t ed b y e nv i ronmen ta l f a c to r s , a nd t h e B a rado s t ian may h ave b een l e s s a dap tab le t o l i f e o n t h e I r an ian p l a teau t han w e r e t h e M idd le P a la eo l i th ic g roups , p ar t icu la r ly i ft h e c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s w e re m o r e s e ve re .
T h i s e xp lana t ion f o r t h e C a sp ian s ho re
s e em s t ob e c r i t ica l , b ecau se t h e p a lyno log ica l a nd g eomo rpho log ica l d a ta ( s ee c hap t e r 4 )i n d ica te t h is z on e a s av e ry p rom i s ing t e r r i tory f o r h un t e r a nd g a the r e r , b u t s o f a r n o t h e B a rado s t ian s i te s h ave b een f o und h e r e . I ti sl i ke ly t h a ts ucce s s iv e f l uc tua t ion s o fs e a l e ve l h ave d e s t royed t h e s i te s o r
1 46
b u r ied t h em d e ep b enea th t h e mode rn p l a in .
O r ( a nd t h i s i s p robab ly t h e b e s t a n swe r ) t h e
B a rado s t ian b eyond t h eZ ag ro sa r es t i l lt ob ef o und a nd i d en t if i ed a ss u ch . I ts e em s l i ke ly t h a t i nt h e n on -moun ta inou s r e g ion s s u ch a s t h e i n t e r io r p l a t eau o f I r an t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic s e t t lemen t s p robab ly c on s i s t ed o fo pen s i t e sw i th t e n t s o rh u t s , a tl e a s ti nt h ec o ld e rm on th s . N o th ing o ft h i s k ind i sy e tk nown , s ow he the rt h e a b sence o fU ppe r P a laeo l i th ic s i t e s i nm o s t p a r t s o fI r an i sd ue t ot h e p auc i ty o f f i e ld r e sea rch o r r ef l ec t s t h e i n t er io r o f I r an a s al e s s f a vou rab le s i tua t ion f o r h uman o ccupa t ion r ema in st ob es e en . T h e o t he r a r cha eo log ica l p r ob lem i nt h i s r e spec t c once rn s t h e t r an s i t ion f r om t h e M idd le t o U ppe r P a la eo l i th ic i nt e rm s o f c on t inu i ty o r d i scon t inu i ty o f t h e l o ca l c u l tu ra l t r ad i t ion s .
T he re i sn o
r e l iab le e v idence t oi n d ica t e ad i rec tt r an s i t ion f r om Mou s te r ian t oB a rado s t ian a nd n o s t ra t ig raph ic h i a tu se s a r e s e en b e tween t h e M idd le a nd U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic o ccupa t ion s .
T h i s s i tua t ion h e re i s
s im i la rt ot h a t o fa mb igu i ty r e p re sen t ed i nt h e L ow e r t oM idd le P a la eo l i th ic t r an s i t ion . I ti s af a c t t h a t i nI r an t h e r e a r e n o t r ace s o fa n o l de r l i t h ic t r ad i t ion i d en t if iab le a s t h e o r ig in f o r t h e U ppe r P a la eo l i th ic t r ad i t ion . A s m en t ioned e a r l ie r t h e t r an s i t ion f r om t h e M idd le t oU ppe r P a laeo l i th ic i n t h eN ea rE a s ti sw e l l s e en i nt h e L evan t ine P a la eo l i th ic s equence s a tt h e s i t e o fB ok e r T ach t i t . H e re t h e r ei s at r an s i t iona l i n du s t ry w h ich d if e r sf r om t h e Mou s te r ian i n du s t r ie s b y d im in i sh ing u se o ft h e f l a t u n ipo la r a nd b i po la r L eva l lo i s c o re r e duc t ion a nd a ppea rance o f am oder n i n du s t ry i n c lud ing m od if i ed b l ank s f o r s c rape r s , b u r in s a nd t h e f r equen t u se o fp r i sma t ic c o re s ( Ma rk s 1 983 ) .
S ome
p r eh i s tor ian s ( e .g . Ma rk s 1 9 83 )e xp la in t h i st r an s i t ion a sf unc t iona l o rt e chno log ica l v a r ia t ion s o ft h e l o ca li n du s t r ie sw i th ap u r e ly i n d igenou s o r ig in , w h i le o t he r s ( e .g . B a r -Yo sef 1 995 ) p r ef e rt os e e i ta s ar e su l to ft h er a p id a ccu l tu ra t ion ,t h a ti si t so r ig in m ay b e s omewhe r eo u t s ide t h er e g ion . Wh icheve r e xp lana t ion i sp r ef e r red , b ecau se t h i s t r an s i t iona l p ha se s e em s t o b e a b sen t i nI r an , w e h ave n o e v idence f o r s u ch ap h enom enon .
F ur th e rmo re , a pa r t f r om a mb igu i ty i nt h e l i t h ic i n du s t r ie s , o the r
c ha rac te r i s t ic s o ft h eU ppe rP a la eo l i th ic p e r iod s uch a ss oc io -econom ic a nd b ehav iou ra l p a t tern s a r e n o t c l ea r i nt h e B a rado s t ian p e r iod o fI r an . R i tua l o rr e l ig iou s b ehav iou r a r e a b sen t a nd t h e re i sn o e xamp le o fa r t i nt h e Z ag ro s s uch a s p a in t ing , e ng rav ing , o r s cu lp tu r e s o n c ave w a l l s o r i ns t one , b on e o ra n t le r . B ead s , p endan t s a nd o t he ro b jec t s f o rp e r sona l u se a r e v e ry r a r e . Mo s t i mpo r tan t ly , s o f a r , n o s k e l e ta l r ema in s o ft h e h uman s w ho p roduced t h e B a rado s t ian a r t if ac t s i nI r an a nd I r aq ( e .g . t h e f r agm en t s o fh uman b one f ound a tG a r -A r janeh ) h ave b e en s t ud ied .
T hu s , a s w i th t h e
M idd le P a la eo l i th ic p eop le , w he the r t h ey e vo lved f r om al o ca l a nce s to r o ri mm ig ra ted t oI r an f r om o u t s ide w i l lr ema in a s ab a s ic p rob lem f o rf u tu r er e sea rch . T he t e rm E p ipa la eo l i th ic i su sed t oi d en t if yt h e a r chaeo log ica l p e r iod s c ha rac te r i sed b y m ic ro l i th ic i n du s t r ie s . T h i s p e r iod i nt h e L evan t p o s tda te s t h e L evan t ine A u r igna c ian C a nd p r eda t e s t h e p re p o t tery N eo l i th ic . I nt h eZ ag ro st h i s p e r iod ( f rom c a . 1 5 K at o 8K a ) f a l l s i n to t wo s p ec if ic p ha se s ;
1 47
o n e i sa s s ign ed t ot h e v e ry e nd o ft h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic a nd o t h e r t o t h e v e ry b eg inn ing o ft h e N eo l i th ic . T h e f o rm e r i st e rm ed E p ipa la eo l i th ic o rt h e Z a rz ian c u l tu re ( Shan ida r l a y e r B 2 ) a nd t h e l a t t e r i st e rmed p ro to N eo l i th ic o rt h e Z aw i C h em i /Ka r i rn S hah i r c u l tu r e ( Shan ida r l a y e r B 1) ( R .S . S o leck i 1 963 , S o leck i a nd S o leck i 1 970 , 1 982 , H o le 1 987b ) . T he Z a rz ian wa s f i r s t e xcava t ed i n I r aq iK u rd i s t an a tt h et y pe s i t eo fZ a rz ib yG a r rod i n1 928 ( Ga r rod 1 930 ) a nd s i nce t h en a tS han ida r C av ea nd P a legaw ra (B ra idwood a nd H ow e 1 960 ) . T h eZ a rz ian s i t e si nI r an o ccupy r o ugh ly t h es ame g eog raph ica la r ea sa st h eB a rado s t ian o n e s . T h e k nown s i t e s i nt h e n o r th e rn Z ag ro s a r e G a r i -Kha r a nd Wa rwa s i .
I nt h e K ho r ramabad V a l ley t h e
u ppe rmo s t l a y e r s o fP a sanga r p roduc ed Z a rz ian ma t e r ia l s ( Ho le a nd F l ann e ry 1 967 ) .
A bundan t
Z a r z ian s i t e s h av e b e en r e po r t ed f r om t h e H u le i la n V a l ley o f L u r i s tan , s uch a s , Ma r R uz , Ma r G u rga lan S a rab a nd G ha r i -Goge la nd o t h e ra dd i t iona l o pen -a i rs i t e s ( Mo r t en sen 1 974 , 1 975 , 1 993 ) . N o r a d io c a rbon d a t e s w e r e o b ta in ed f r om t h e se s i t e s b u t t h e e mpha s i s o n g eom e t r ic m ic ro l i th s s ugg e s t s t h e l a t e r p ha se o f t h e Z a r z ian ( Mo r t en sen
1 993 ) . A r e la t iv e ly l a rg e n umbe r o f
E p ipa laeo l i th ic s i t e s h av e b e en r e po r t ed f r om F a r s a nd K huz i s tan .
T he m o s t i mpo r t an t a r e t wo
r o ck sh e l t e rs i t e s o nt h e s ho r eo ft h eL ak e Maha r lu n ea r S h i raz ( F ie ld 1 939 ) ; a nd a n o pen -a i rs i t eo n t h es ho re o ft h eL ak eN ey r iz ( K r in s ley 1 970 ) . S umn e r ( 1 977 ) , o nt h eb a s i s o fh i s s u r f a c ec o l lec t ion s a r ound Ma rvda sh t , h a s r e po r t ed s om e n i n e t een E p ipa la eo l i th ic s i t e s o fv a r iou s f orm s .
T h e s am e
n umbe ro fs i t e so fv a r iou s k i nd sw e r ea l so r e po r t ed b y Wr igh t( 1 979 ) f r om t h e moun ta inou s z on eo f n o r th ea s t er nK huz i s tan . U nf o r tuna t e ly , w ek now l i t t le m o r e a bou tt h e se s i t e s t h an t h e i r s t one t o o l s ; t h ey a r e a l l f r om s u r f ac e f i nd s , n o t e xcava t ion s , a nd i nt h e a b sence o f a ny d a t ing m e thod t h e i r a b so lu t ed a t ei su nknown a nd t h e i rr e la t iv ea ge a l so i su ncer ta in . T h e e v id en ce f o rt h e E p ipa la eo l i th ic o ccupa t ion o ft h e r e s t o fI r an i sm o r e s pa r se . F rom t h e v a s t r e g ion o fB a luch i s tan a nd Mak ran c oa s t o n ly o n e i sk nown ( V i ta -F inz i a nd C ope land 1 9 80 ) .
T h e
b e s t e v idenc e f o rt h e E p ipa la eo l i th ic c u l tu r e o u t s id e o ft h e Z ag ro s c ome s f r om t h e t h r e e e xcava t ed c av e s i t e s o ft h e C a sp ian r e g ion . H e r e , t h e c av e s o fB e l t a nd H o to e xcava t ed b y C oon ( 1 957 ) , a nd A h T epe , e xcava t ed b y McBur n ey ( 1 968 ) , a l d a t e t o 1 0 .05 K a -9 K a a nd i lu s t ra t e ad if e r en t v a r ie ty o f t h e E p ipa la eo l i th ic h un t e r -ga th e r e r l i f e .
T h e e co sy s t em h e r e of e red a bundan t f o od
r e sou rce s o fw i ld p l an t s a nd w i ld a n ima l s s uch a s c a t t le , g az e l le , e qu id s , C a sp ian s e a l , f i sh a nd s n a i l s .
T h e s t on e i n du s t ry a tt h e B e l t a nd A l i T epe s i te s i sm ic ro l i th ic i nt y pe a nd h a s ag en e ra l
s im i la r i ty t o t h e Z a rz ian o f t h e Z ag ro s w i th a s omewha t l o ca l f a c ie s ( McBu rney 1 9 68 ) .
H ow
i n t en s ive ly t h e E p ipa la eo l i th ic i n hab i tan t s o ft h i s p a r t o fI r an e xp lo i t ed c e r ta in a n ima l s a nd p l an t s w h ich l a t e r w e r e d om e s t ica t ed , i sa n i n t e r e s t ing q ue s t ion c once rn ing t h e p rob lem o f o r ig in o f a g r icu l tu r e . McBur n ey ( 1 968 )h a s s ugge s t ed t h a tt h e r em ay h av eb e en a n i n c ip ien t d om e s t ica t ion o f g oa t s o rs h eep a nd p e rhap s o fw h ea t o ro t h e r l o ca l g ra in s .
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U nf o r tuna t e ly , t h i s v i ew p o in t h a s n o t
b een p u r sued b y r e sea rch e r s i nf a vou r o ft h e a bundan t E p ipa laeo l i th ic s i te s f ound i nt h e Z ag ro s . I f t h es u gge s ted p a t ter ne x i s t ed h e r e ,w he the ri tw a s ap u re ly i n d igenou s d eve lopmen to rw a s i nf luenced b y c on tempo ra ry d eve lopm en t s i nt h e Z ag ro s r e g ion i s aq ue s t ion w h ich r e qu i re s f u r the r f i e ld r e sea rch . T he o t he rp rob lem c oncer n ing t h e E p ipa laeo l i th ic o fI r an i st h a t a tt h e m omen t w e d o n o t k now a c tua l ly w he re t h e Z a r z ian b egan a nd w ha t i t s o r ig in w a s .
H o le a nd F l anne ry ( 1 967 : F i g .2 )
h ave s ugge s ted a t ime r a nge o f c a . 2 0 K a t o 1 0 K a f o r t h e Z a rz ian b u t t h e r ad io c a rbon d a te s o b ta in ed f r om S han ida ra nd P a legaw ra a r el i m i ted t ot h e l a te r p a r t o ft h i s t ime r ange . T he S han ida r l a ye r B 2 i sd a ted a t 1 0 .05±0 .4 K a a nd P a legaw ra h a s f i ve d a te s r ange f r om c a . 1 2 .05 K at o 1 .01 K a . Whe the ri tg oe s b ack f u r the rt h an t h e s ugge s ted d a te s i su ncer ta in . I tm ay h ave e ven c oex i s ted t os ome e x ten tw i th t h el a t e rB a rado s t ian o r , a sH o le a nd F lannery h ave a r gued ( 1967 s e e a l so H o le , 1 970 ) o n t h e b a s i s o ft h e i r w o rk i nL u r i s tan , t h e Z a rz ian may h ave d ev e loped d i r ec t ly o u t o ft h e B a rado s t ian c a . 2 0 K a . T h i sc l a im i sb a sed o nt h et y po log ica la nd t e chno log ica lc on t inu i t ie sb e tw een t h e l a t e B a rado s t ia n a nd t h e Z a rz ian r e p r e sen ted a tP a sanga r .
U nf o r tuna t e ly , t h e a b sence o f a ny
r a d ioca rbon d a t ing f o r m o s t s i t e s i n t h e Z ag ro s b e tween 2 5 K a a nd 1 3 K a p r even t s f u r the r e xp lo ra t ion o ft h ei s sue . I n d i r ec te v idence c ome s f r om t h ep a laeoenv i ronmen ta lp a t te i-no ft h eZ ag ro s d u r ing t h i s p e r iod . T h e r e w a s p o s s ib ly av e ry c o ld a nd v e ry a r id c l ima te w i th at r ee le s s l a nd scape w h ich w ou ld h ave i n h ib i ted t h e h uman o ccupa t ion o ft h e Z ag ro s h i gh land s a nd a d jo in ing r e g ion s ( v an Z e i s t a nd B o t tema 1 977 , 1 991) . T he re i s ar e a l g ap o fa bou t t e n t h ou sand y ea r s i nt h e h uman o ccupa t ion t h a ti sw e l l s e en i nS han ida rb e tween t h e l a te B a rado s t ian a nd t h e e a r l ie s t Z a rz ian . S uch ah i a tu s s e em s t o o ccu r i nn or ther n A f ghan i s tan a nd c en t ra l A s ia u nde r t h e c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s a r ound 3 0 K at o 1 2K a( Dav i se ta l . 1 980 , L ub in 1 992 ) . I fi ti st h e c a se , p e rhap s t h em i s s ing e a r l ie r Z a rz ian s i te s a r et ob e f o und i nt h e w a rme rl ow land z one s o fI r an ( p o ss ib ly i nt h e s ou ther np a r t s o f t h e i n te r io rp l a t eau ) a nd I r aq ( Sm i th 1 986 : 2 9 ) . E v idence f o r t h e d i rec t d eve lopmen t o ft h e Z a rz ian c anno t b e s e en f r om S han ida r , s i nce t h e re i s at ime g ap o f 1 5 K a b e tween t h e B a rado s t ian a nd t h e Z a rz ian . B u tS o leck i ( 1 982 : 1 26 )b e l ieve st h a t i nt h e f i na l s t age o ft h eZ a rz ian s equence i nS han ida r t h e r e i se v idence w h ich e n cou rage s t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o f ad i rec t d eve lopmen t o ft h e Z aw i C hem i c u l tu re o u t o ft h e Z a rz ian . I ft h e a bove e xp lana t ion o ft h e P a sanga r a nd S han ida r s i t e s i sc o r rec t , t h ey s ugge s t al o ca l Z ag ro s s e quence f r om t h e B a rado s t ian t ot h e Z a rz ian t oZ aw i c he i m ( f rom t h e e a r l ie r U ppe r P a la eo l i th ic t ot h e p ro to N eo l i th ic ) .
T h i s i sa n i s sue w h ich n eed s m uch m o r e d a ta
b ef o re i tc an b er e so lved . I ng ene ra l ,t or e con s t ruc tt h eZ a rz ian w ea r ei n ab e t te rs i tua t ion t h an f o rp r ev ious p e r iod s w i th af a i r a moun t o fi n f o rma t ion . A s t h e e nv ironmen ta l d a ta i n d ica te , a ta bou t 1 4 K a ac l ima t ic p a t te rn w a s e s tab l i shed i nt h eZ ag ro sw i th h i ghe rt empe ra tu re a nd g r ea te rp rec ip i ta t ion ( s ee c hap te r4 ) . I tc au sed t r e eg row th a nd d im in i sh ing c oo l s t eppe t y pe g ra sse s a nd e ven tua l ly i n c rea s ing p opu la t ion s o fg ame
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a n ima l s . T h e s e t t lem en t p a t t er n i nt h e Z a r z ian v a r ie s f r om q u i t e s ma l l s h e l te r s t ol a rge c av e s i t e s s u ch a s S han ida r .
S i t e s a r e c ha rac t e r i s t ica l ly l o ca t ed i nt h e v a l ley s o ft h e Z ag ro s Moun ta in s a t
d if e r en t a l t i tud e s r ang ing f r om S han ida r C av e a ta n e l eva t ion o fa bou t 7 50 m t o Wa rwa s i a to v e r 1 300 m ,t hough p o s s ib le o pen -a i rs i t e sh av ea l so b een l o ca t ed . A l l o ft h e s i te s w e r ec ho sen f o rt h e i r e a sy a cce s st oa va i lab le r e sou rc e s . Mo s to ft h em f a ce s ou th a nd s ou thea s tf o rg ood l i gh ta nd w a rm th ( S o leck i a nd S o leck i 1 982 : 1 24 ) . T h e s e t t lem en tp a t t e rn s i nt h eZ a rz ian f unc t iona l f y f a l l i n to t h r e e h ypo the t ica l c a t ego r ie s p ropo sed b y H o le a nd F l ann e ry ( 1 967 : 1 63 -164 ) .
T he l a rg e s t o ft h e t h r e e
t y pe s i s as e a sona l b a se c amp f unc t ion ing a sl i v ing p l ace a nd a c t iv i ty a r ea . I nt h e Z ag ro s t h e b a se c amp s i nt h e l ow e r m oun ta in v a l ley s w e r e p robab ly o ccup ied d u r ing t h e w in te r m on th s , a nd o pen c amp so rs he l te r s a th i gh e re l eva t ion sw e r eu s ed d u r ing t h es umm e r . T he s e cond t y pe a r eb u tch e r ing s i t e s . T h ey a r eg ene ra l ly s ma l le rt h an t h eb a se c amp s , a nd t h e i ra s semb lage s i n c lud eb u tch e r ing a nd k i l l ing t o o l s b u tt h ey l a ck t h eb a se c amp i mp l em en t s . A tt h e K ho r ra rnabad s i te s H o l e a nd F l ann e ry ( 1 967 ) h av e f ound r ema in s o fc omp le t e s e t s o fb on e s o fw i ld g oa t s a nd s h eep a tt h eb a se c amp , b u t n o t f o r w i ld c a t t le a nd r e d d e e r , w h ich l e ad s t ot h e c onc lu s ion t h a t t h e p r ima ry p r epa ra t ion o ft h e l a rge a n ima l s t ook p l ace a tt h e b u t ch e r ing s t a t ion s a nd o n ly s e lec t ed p a r t s w e r e c a r r ied t o b a se c amp s . T he s ame i st r ue f o r Wa rwa s iw h e r et h eg r ea t r e p r e sen ta t ion o ft e e th w i th f ew l e g a nd f o o t b on e s i nt h eZ a rz ian s amp le s s ugge s t st h a tt h e c a r ry ing o fc a rca s se s ( o r a tt h e v e ry l e a s tt h e h ead s ) d i do ccu ra f t e rt h ei n i t ia lp r epa ra t ion a tt h e Wa rwa s ib u tch e r ing s t a t ion ( O l szew sk i 1 993 : 2 15 ) . T h e t h i rd t y pe a r et r an s i to ry s t a t ion s a c t ing a s ap o in tt ol o ok o u ta nd s e a rch f o rg am e .• T h ey m ay a l so h av e b een u sed f o r p r epa r ing n ew t o o l s , h un t ing s ma l l a n ima l s o r g a the r ing p l an t f o od s .
I n t h e
K ho r ramabad V a l ley t h e K un j i , Y af t eh a nd G a rma r i c av e s p r obab ly f unc t ion ed a sb a se c amp s a nd G a rA r jan eh a nd P a sanga ra sb u tch e r ing s t a t ion s . T h e Z a rz ian s t one i n du s t ry i sc ha rac t e r i sed b y r e gu la r s iz ed c h ipped s t one a r t if a c t s g en e ra l ly s ma l le rt h an t h eB a rado s t i an t r ad i t ion . B lad e sa r ef r equen ta nd t h e r ea r ea l so m ic ro l i th so fb o th n on g eom e t r ic a nd g eome t r ic f o rm s ( e spec ia l ly s c a len e t r iang le s ) , m ic robu r in s , t humbna i l s c rape r s , p e rf o ra to r s , b ack ed b l ad e s a nd s hou ld e r ed p o in t s ( f ig . 1 2 ) .
O b s id ian i n s ma l l q uan t i t ie s i s
r e p r e sen t ed f r om S h an ida r , P a legaw ra a nd Z a rz i ( s e e f o r f u r th e r i n f o rma t ion G a r rod 1 930 , B ra idwood 1 960 , H o le a nd F l anne ry 1 967 , Wah ida 1 981 , S o leck ia nd S o leck i 1 982 ) . T h e s ub s i s tence p a t t er no ft h e Z a rz ian i sb a sed m a in ly o n h un t ing a nd g a th e r ing . A n ima l b on e s e x cava t ed f r om t h e v a r iou s s i t e s i n d ica t ed t h a ta n ima l s s uch a sg oa t , s h eep , o nage r , a sw e l l a sl a nd s n a i l s , f r e sh w a t e rc r ab sa nd t u r t le sw e r eh un t ed f r equen t ly . A l so v a r iou sb i rd s i n c lud ing d uck , s t o rk a nd e ag le o ccu r ( Tu rnbu l l a nd R eed 1 974 , T ur n bu l l 1 975 ) . T h e r e i sn og ood e v id en c e f o rt h e w id e s c a l eu se o fp l an tf o od o rc e r ea l u t i l i sa t ion ( e .g . f r om f o od p roc e s s ing t o o l s s uch a sq ue rn s , mu l le r s a nd s oo n ) , a l though s om eg r ind ing s t one s ,p o s s ib le s t o rage p i t s ,a nd af l in tb l ad ew i th " s ick l e s h e en "
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o no n ee dge ( p robab ly f o rc u t t ing p l an t s )a r ep r e sen ta tS han ida r a nd G ha r i -Kha r ( Young a nd Sm i th 1 966 ) . P i s tach io n u t s may h ave b een e a t en b u tt h e c on sump t ion o ft h eb uck tho rn s e ed s f ound a tt h e s i t eo fZ a rz i i sn o ts oc e r ta in ( Wah ida 1 981) . I nt h e l a te r p a r t o ft h e E p ipa la eo l i th ic i nt h e Z ag ro s i mpor tan t c hange s t o ok p l ace s uch a s s em i p e rman en t a nd p e rmanen t v i l lage s , e x t en s ive p roce ss ing o f p lan t f ood a nd p robab ly s om e u se o f d ome s t ica ted c e rea l s , s ome d om e s t ica t ed a n ima l s , e l abo ra te b ur ia l s w i th g rave g ood s , w o rked b one s , g round s t one i n du s t ry , a nd s oo n . Many o ft h e se t r a i t s i n d ica te mo re c omp lex s o c io -econom ic a nd t e chno log ica l p a t t er n s t ha t l e ad t ot h e " Neo l i th ic R evo lu t ion" i nt h i s r e g ion .
C ompa ra t ive ly f ew
Z ag ro s s e t t lemen t s o ft h e e a r ly p o s t -P le i s tocene h ave b een d e sc r ibed i nd e ta i l , a nd t h e c h rono logy , d i s t r ibu t ion a nd i n t er na l o rgan i sa t ion o ft h eZ ag ro s s i t e s o f9 -7 B .C . r ema in t ob e f u l ly d ocumen t ed . I ng en e ra lt h ee v id ence f o rt h i sp e r iod t h roughou tt h eZ ag ro s a nd i t s a d jacen t a r ea s i ss pa r se a nd t h e s e t t lemen t s a r e g ene ra l ly q u i t e s ma l l .
T h i s p a t t er n m ay r e f lec t s amp le b i a s r e su l t ing f r om t h e
c on s id e rab le a l luv ia t ion a nd t h e r e cen t d i s tu rbance a nd s ca t t er ing o f a r cha eo log ica l r ema in s t h a t w e r en eve rv e ry l a rge ( Ho le 1 987a : 3 2 -33 ) (f ig . 1 0-13 ) . I nt h eZ ag ro s , s omewha t l a t e rt h an t h eZ a rz ian , s e ve ra l o pen -a i r s i te s h ave b een f ound o nt h e I r aq i s i d es u ch a sZ aw i C hem i S han ida r( So leck i 1 981) , K a r im shah i r a nd M ' lef aa t ( B ra idwood a nd H owe 1 960 )a nd o ne s i t eo nt h eI r an ian s i de , A s iab ( B ra idwood e ta l . 1 961) . T he se s i t e s h ave y i e ld ed l i t t le b o tan ica l ma t e r ia l a nd f ew r ema in s o f av a r ie ty o fw i ld a n ima l s , b u t al a rge a moun t o f a r t if ac t s i n c lud ing s ma l l c h ipped s t one t o o l s a sw e l l a s h eav ie r c h ipped a nd g round s t one s .
S ome o ft h e se
m ay h ave b een u sed i nc l ea r ing w ood land a nd p roce s s ing p lan t f ood s ( e .g . q ue rn s , p e s t le s , mu l le r s a nd m o r ta r s ) . I na dd i t ion t ot h e i r z oo log ica l a nd a r t if ac tua l r ema in s , t h e se s i t e s ( e .g . Z aw i C h em i ) h ave p roduced e v idence o f s t ruc tu r e s i nt h e f o rm o f p i t s a nd p e rhap s p i t h ou se s ( So leck i 1 981 , S o leck i a nd S o leck i 1 982 ) . A l though t h e b o tan ica l a nd f a una l r ema in s h ave n o t y e t b een a na ly sed , s om ea u tho r s ( e .g . P e rk in sa nd D a ly 1 974 : 8 0 ) s ugge s tt h a tb yc a . 8 500 B .C . s h eep h ad b een b rough t u nd e r t h e c on t ro l o f i n hab i tan t s o fZ aw i C hem i S han ida r a nd a tt h e s am e t ime Bököny i ( 1977 ) r e po r ted f o rA s iab a ne a r ly o ccu r rence o fd ome s t ica ted g oa t . T o s umma r i se , f r om ar e v iew o ft h e U ppe r P a la eo l i th ic c u l tura l p roce s se s i nt h e Z ag ro s r e g ion t h e p a t t e rn o f ag radua l c hange i n s t on e t o o l s , t e chno logy , s ub s i s tence a nd b ehav iou r b ecome s m o re c l ea r . I ti sa l so c l ea rf r om t h i s r e v iew t h a td u r ing t h e P a laeo l i th ic t h e re w a s as l ow d eve lopmen to fa s t on et oo lt e chno logy f r om t h e l a rge , m u l t ipurpo se t o o l s t os ma l le r o ne s , ad eve lopmen tt h a t b ecam e m o r e r ap id t owa rd t h e e nd o ft h e P a la eo l i th ic ; a l so t h e u se o f ag round s t on e t e chno logy a nd o f s t o rage p i t s .
I n c r ea s ing f r equency a nd u s e o fs uch t e chno log ie s d ocumen t t h e f ounda t ion f o r e a r ly
a g r icu l tu re . T he u se o fs ma l le r c h ipped s t one t o o l s o rw o rked m ic ro l i th s i nc omb ina t ion w i th b one a nd a n t le rh af t s w a s am a jo ri n nova t ion a tt h e e nd o ft h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic . O ne c h ipped s t on et o o l
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t h a ts om e t im e s i sf o und h af t ed i n ab on e o ra n t l e r i s as e r i e s o ff l i n t b l ad e s w i th " s ick l e s heen " . I t h a s b e en s ugge s t ed t h a tt h e se i mp l em en t s w e r e u s ed i nr e ap ing g ra in s o r u sed t o c u t s ome s o r t o f v eg e tab l e s . T h e i rp r e s en c ei nt h e l a t e U ppe r P a la eo l i th ic d epo s i t s s ugge s t s i n c r ea s ing a ten t ion w a s p a id t op l an tr e sou r c e s a nd d ev e lopm en to ft e chno logy l e ad ing t ot h e s ub sequen t a g r i cu l tu ra l w ay o f l i f e . T h ee v id enc ef o rt h eZ ag ro s s ugg e s t st h a tt owa rd t h ee nd o fP a la eo l i th ic t h et r ad i t ion o fh un t ing w a sc h ang ed a nd n ew m e thod s o fo b ta in ing f o od w e r ed ev e lop ed . T h eh un t ing s t ra t egy w a s c hang ed f r om l a rg e m amma l s t o t h e s ma l le r a n ima l s , b i rd s , f i sh a nd l a nd s na i l s . A dd i t iona l s ou r c e s ( p a r t icu la r ly p l an tf o od s )w e r em o r ea va i lab l et h an g am ea n ima l s , a nd p rov id ed f ood w h e r et h eg am e w a sn o ta va i lab le . I nt h i ss i tua t ion i ti sp robab l et h a ts om ek i nd s o fa n ima l s s uch a ss h e ep a nd g oa t s w e r ee xp lo i t ed i n am ann e rt h a tc on ser v ed t h e i rn umb e r s . I tc ou ld b ep o s s ib le b ys e l e c t iv eh un t ing o f a n ima l s ( F lann e ry 1 969 : 7 -80 ) . U n f o r tuna t e ly ,t h e r ei sn o r e l iab l e e v id enc e f o ra n ima le xp lo i ta t ion p ra c t i s ed b yt h e E p ipa la eo l i th ic i n hab i tan t so ft h eZ ag ro s r e g ion , b u tB ököny i ( 1977 : 9 )h a s a r gu ed f o r am o rpho log ica l c hang e b e tw e en w i ld a nd d om e s t ica ted s h e ep a nd g oa t s , s om e o fw h ich w e r e r e cov e r ed f r om A s iab .
I ti sr e a sonab le t o s uppo se t h a t g oa t s a nd s he ep w e r e c on t ro l l ed b y t h e
i n hab i tan t s o fA s iab f o r al o ng t im e b ef o r e s u ch c hang e o c cu r r ed .
T hu s , t h e a pp ea r anc e o ft h e
m o rpho log ica lc hang ea tt h ee nd o ft h eE p ipa la eo l i th ic c an s uppo r tt h ev i ew t h a tm an e xp lo i t ed t h e s e s p e c i e ss y s t ema t ica l ly d u r ing t h i sp e r iod . T h e r e a r e a l so n o a r cha eobo t an ica l a n a ly s e s o f t h e E p ipa la eo l i th ic s i t e s t o i n d ica t e t h e c i r cum s tan c e s u nd e r w h ich t h e e a r ly c u l t iva t ion o f p l an t s a mong t h e f o rag ing g r oup s o f t h e E p ipa la eo l i th ic p opu la t ion s d ev e loped i n to t h e a g r icu l tu r e o ft h e f a rm ing g roup s o ft h e N eo l i th ic . E v id en c e f r om t h e L evan t s how s t h a t b y t h e e nd o ft h e E p ipa la eo l i th ic ( t e rmed N a tuf ian ) p l an t s i n c lud ing e i nkom a nd p e rhap s o t h e r c e r ea l s a nd l e gum e s w e r e d e l ibe ra t e ly c u l t iva t ed , a tl e a s t b y 9 000 B .C . a t Mu r e ib i t ( Moo r e 1 985 , v an Z e i s t 1 9 88 : 5 3 55 ) . T h e B o s Mo rdeh e v id en c e f r om A l i K o sh a ta bou t7 500 B .C . ( Ho l e 1 977b : 2 4 , H o l e 1 9 87b : 3 4 ) i n d i ca t e s t h e c u l t iva t ion o fb o th c e r ea l s a nd p u l se s . I ft h ev i ew i sc o r r e c tt h a tt h ei n hab i t an t so ft h ee a r l i e rs e t t lemen t si nt h eZ a g ro s c o l lec t ed t h es ma l l se ed ed l e gum e s n o tf o rh um an c on sump t ion , b u ta s af o dd e rf o rg oa t s a nd s h e ep ( H e lba ek 1 969 : 3 98 ) , s oi ts e em s r e a sonab le t oa r gu et h a t , a sH o le ( 1 977b )h a s c onc lud ed , s uch am any s i d ed a g r i cu l tu ra la nd h e rd ing s y s t em m u s th av eh ad al o ng h i s to ry o fd ev e lopm en t , s t a r t ing w i th t h e e a r ly E p ipa la eo l i th ic p opu la t ion s o f t h e r e g ion .
A s m en t ion ed a bov e , t h e f o rma t iv e s t ag e s o f t h e
a g r icu l tu ra l d ev e lopm en t h av e n o t b e en p r ope r ly d ocum en t ed i nI r an e v en i n t h e r e la t iv e ly w e l l s t ud i ed a r ea s o ft h e Z ag ro s .
I n t h e f u tu r e t h o s e w ho w i sh t o e xp la in h ow a nd w hy a g r icu l tu r e
d ev e lop ed i nI r an a nd i t sp o s s ib l er e la t ion sh ip st ot h eo t h e rr e g ion s ,w i l ln eed t ot u rn t h e i ra t t en t ion t o i d en t if y ing m o r e l a t e P l e i s toc en e s i t e s .
A t t h e s am e t im e a n u nd e r s tand ing o f p r eva i l ing
e nv i ronm en ta l c ond i t ion s d u r ing t h e l a t e P l e i s to c en ea sw e l l a sr e co rd ing a nd a na ly s ing o fe conom ic
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a nd s o c ia l e v idence w i l l b e t te r e xp la in t h e c hange s i n t h e r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween m an a nd h i s e nv i ronmen t a nd c hange s i n s o c ia l o rgan i sa t ion t h a t ma rk ed t h e e a r l ie s t s t age s o f a g r icu l tu ra l d ev e lopmen t .
T h e f i na l p o in t i nt h i s p r e sen ta t ion d ea l s w i th t h e f u tu re p ro spec t s f o r P a la eo l i th ic ' a r chaeo logy i n I r an .
O bv iou s ly i nt h e f a ce o fs uch s can ty p r ima ry e v idence a nd s uch a mb igu i ty i nt h e d a ta n ow
a va i lab le , w e a r e s t i l l al o ng w ay f r om b e ing a b le t o s peak w i th a ny c onf idence a bou t p roce sse s , p a t t e rn s a nd r e gu la r i t ie s . We a r es t i l lv e ry much i nt h ep i on ee r ing s t age o fe nqu i ry b u tu n f or tuna te ly i ti so n et ha th a sb een t o ol o ng d rawn o u ta nd e ven i nt h ef u tu re w ef a ce s t agna t ion . We n eed mo r e i n f o rma t ion a bou tt h e s p read o f Homo e r ec tu s i n to A s ia , t h e s p read o fm od er nm an a nd e vo lu t ion o f E p ipa la eo l i th ic i n to a g r icu l tu ra l s oc ie t ie s .
We a l so n eed a m o r e a ccu ra te
c h rono logy f o r P a la eo l i th ic I r an , s i nce w e d o n o tk now h ow e a r ly h uman s o ccup ied t h e l a nd o rh ow l o ng t h ev a r iou sc u l tu ra lp e r iod sl a s t ed , o rh ow much c on t inu i ty t h e re w a s b e tween . I ti sn o tp o s s ib le t os a y whe the r as ho r to rl o ng c h rono log ica l f r amewo rk i sa pp rop r ia te . We a l so n eed m o r e r e g iona l s t ra t ig raph ic l i t h ic a nd c l ima t ic i n f o rma t ion t h roughou t I r an a nd e f or t s t op l ace t h e a r cha eo log ica l m a t e r ia l s w i th in t h e se c on t ex t s .
S im i la r ly , m o r e i n ten s ive s u rvey s a r e r e qu i r ed t h roughou t t h e
c oun t ry t of i l l i nt h em any g ap s i no u rk now ledge o ft h e d i s t r ibu t ion a nd d en s i ty o fo ccupa t ion i nt h e v a r iou s g eog raph ica l z one s a nd c u l tu ra lp e r iod s , e ven i nt h e a r ea s w h ich h av eb een W e l l e xp lo red . I t s h ou ld b em en t ioned h e re t h a tt h e r ea r em any u n recogn i sed b l ank s po t s . As t udy o fg r ea ti mpo r t ance f r om t h e v i ewpo in t o fh uman a dap ta t ion w ou ld b e t h e a na ly s i s o f a r cha eo log ica l f a una l m a t e r ia l s ( w i th s eve ra l h e lpf u l t e chn ique s o fi n ve s t iga t ion s uch a st a phonomy ) w i th in as i ng le r e g ion t h rough t h e v a r ious p r eh i s to r ic p e r iod s . T h i s w ou ld e s tab l i sh s e ve ra l f a c to r s ( 1 ) w he th e r o rn o t t h e re w e r e s i gn if ican tc hange s i nt h et y pe a nd f r equency o fm a jo rg ame s p ec ie s e xp lo i ted t h rough t ime , ( 2 ) w ha t a g ea nd s ex c l a sse sw e re p r ef e r red w i th in as pec ie s , a nd ( 3 ) h ow t h ey b u tche red a nd h ow t h e s k e le ta l r e s idue s w e re d i spo sed o f . T he se i n ve s t iga t ion s w ou ld b ep a r t icu la r ly v a luab le f o ru nde r s tand ing t h e M idd le t o U ppe r P a la eo l i th ic c hange w h en i n nova t ion i nt e chno logy a nd s o c ia l o rgan i sa t ion l e d t o g r ea te rh un t ing ef i c iency a nd a ne mpha s i s o nc e r ta in g am e a n ima l s . B u t i ti si mpo r tan t a l so f o rt h e e va lua t ion o f a ny p o s s ib le c hange i nh un t ing s t ra tegy a nd c on sump t ion o ft h e U ppe r P a la eo l i th ic c u l tu re s .
A l though s uch s t ra teg ie s h av e b een c onduc ted s e ve ra l t ime s i n I r an i ts e em s t h a t t h e i r
p r imary c oncer n w a s d i r ec t ed t ot h e m o rpho logy o ft h e d if e ren t s pec ie s , a nd w ha t t h ey c ou ld t e l l t h em a bou t e nv i ronmen t , c h rono logy a nd d ome s t ica t ion .
B u t o n t h e q ue s t ion o f, t h e i n te rac t ion s
b e tween p eop le a nd a n ima l s , n o f u r the r s t ep h a s b een t a ken t h an l a be l l ing a n ima l s a se i the r w i ld o r d ome s t ic , a nd t h e p eop le a sh un te r s o rh e rd e r s . A t b e s t , aq uan t if i ed l i s t o ft h e s pec ie s e ncoun t e red i n as i te w a s p rov ided ( b e low ) . F o ri n s tance , t h e Wa rwa s i ( l a te B a rado s t ian ) g am e a n ima l s amp le a s
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e xam in ed b y T runbu l l ( 1 975 ) i sc on s i s ted o f s ome p a r t s o f a n ima l s s uch a s E quu s h emon ionus , C apra a egagrus , O v is o r ien ta l is , B o s p r im ig en iu s , a nd C an i s l u pus a s w e l l a s s ma l le r r o d en t s p ec ie s s u ch a s Mer iones c f . P er s icus ,A l lac taga s p . J erboa , E l lob ius c f .f uscocap i l lu s , O cho tana c f . r uf e scen s , a nd L epu s c f . C apen s is . T h i s s amp le i sc ompo sed a lmo s t e n t ire ly o ft e e th , w i th o ne h o rn c o r e ( Ov is ) a nd a f ew s ca t te red f o o t b on e s .
T he f a c t t h a t m o s t o f t h e f a una l s amp le h e r e
c on s i s t ing m a in ly o f t e e th , w i th a f ew l e g a nd f o o t b one s .
S i nce t e e th a r e p a r t o f t h e s k u l l
c ompon en t ,t h eg rea te rr e pr e sen ta t ion o ft h e se i nt h eB a rado s t ian s amp le s ugge s t e i the rt h a tt r an spor t o fc a rca s se s t o t h e r o ck she l t e r d i d i nf a c t o ccu r , w i th p e rhap s f u r th e r t r an spor t o fm ea t t o o t h e r l o ca l i t ie s a f t e ri n i t ia l b u tche r ing a t Wa rwa s i . Al i m i ted u se o ft h e r o ck she l te r m igh t a l so e xp la in t h e l a ck o ff e a tu r e s i nt h e l a te B a rado s t ian .
I n t h i s r e ga rd , H o le a nd F l anne ry ( 1967 : 1 6 3 -164 ) w ho
d ef ine b u tche r ing s t a t ion s a s t ho se s i te s w h ich l a ck h ea r th s a nd c l ea r ly d ef ined l i v ing f l oo r s , a nd w h ich y i e ld f ew i d en t if iab le a n ima l b one s , n o t e t h a t , i nt h e K ho r ramabad Va l ley o f I r an , a n ima l h ead s a nd h i nd w e re b rough t t op r eh i s tor ic b u tch e r ing s t a t ion s f o r f u r the r d i smembe rm en t a nd t h en t r an spo r tt ob a se c amps . T hu s , t h e l a t e B a rado s t ian o ccupa t ion a t Wa rwa s i p robab ly s aw t h e u se o f t h er o ck she l te r a s ag ame o u t look a nd b u tche r ing s t a t ion . Hun t e r s m ay h ave p a ssed t h et ime w a i t ing f o r g am e b y manuf ac tu r ing h un t ing i mp lemen t s .
T he f a c t t h a t s o m uch o ft he l i t h ic a s semb lag e
r e f l ec t sh eavy r e duc t ion s ugge s t st h a tt h e se l a t e B a rado s t ian h un t e r s b rough t f ew n ew s ou rce s o fr aw m a t e r ia l s w i th t h em e ach t ime t h ey r e occup ied t h e r o ck she l t e r , r e ly ing i n s tead o n p i ck ing u p p r ev iou s ly d i sca rded l i t h ic i t em s a nd r e u t i l i s ing t h e se t om anuf a c tu r en ew t o o l s o rt or e sha rpen t h e se o l d e r t o o l s f o r n ew u se ( i n ten s iv e r e duc t ion o f s t one r aw m a t e r ia l s i s ap a t te rn f o und i n t h e Mou s t e r ian a s semb lage f r om K un j i c ave a nd m ay i n d ica t e t ha t h eavy u t i l i sa t ion o fe x i s t ing p i ece s i s al o ng t e rm t r ad i t ion f o rt h e Z ag ro s r e g ion , s e e B aum le r a nd S pe th 1 993 ) . A no the r e xamp le c om e s f r om t h e s t udy o f H e s se ( 1984 ) o n t h e a n ima l b one s t o m ea su r e t h e s ex a nd a ge r a t io o f t h e d om e s t ica t ed a n ima l s a tt h e s i te o fG ang D a r eh T epe t h e o l de s t N eo l i th ic s i te i n I r an .
H i s s t udy
s howed ac on t ro l led c u l l o fg oa t s a tt h i s s i te , i nw h ich mo s t m a le s w e re k i l led when s t i l l j uven i le w h i le f ema le s l i ved w e l l i n to a du l tl i f e . T h i s s ex a nd a ge r e la ted d if e rence i ns urv iva l , w a s a s sumed ap e r sua s ive c a se f o r am anaged h e rd u nde re a r ly d ome s t ica t ion . A no th e r s t udy a r ea c oncer n s t h e a na ly se s o ft h e s t one a r t if ac t s .
R e la t iv e ly l i t t le e f o r t h a s b een
i n v e s t ed i nd e ta i led s t y l i s t ic , t y po log ica l a nd t e chno log ica l a na ly s i s t h a t m igh t e nab le u st ob u i ld u p l o ca l a r cha eo log ica l s equence s .
T he i d en t if ica t ion o f z ona l s t y le s w h ich m igh t r ef l ec t r e g iona l
s p ec ia l i sa t ion h a s s im i la r ly b een n eg lec ted .
T he p rob lem o f t h e e x ten t t o wh ich t h e l o ca l r aw
m a t e r ia l s i n f luence t h e t y po logy , a nd p a r t icu la r ly t e chno logy , i n t h e e a r l ie r p e r iod s o f t h e P a la eo l i th ic , h a s b een l i t t le d i scu ssed i nI r an .
H owev e r i ts e em s m o re r e a sonab le t o m ake u se o f
s om e t e chn ica l a na ly se s s uch a s u se -wea r o n s t on e t o o l s f o r t h e p urpo se o f u nde r s tand ing t h e i r
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f u nc t ion a s ag u ide o rt a rge ti nf u tu re w o rk . F ina l ly w em u s tn o te t h et h rea tp o sed b yt h e p rob lem o f s i t e d e s t ruc t ion i nI r an .
S i nc e t h e re a r e n o c omp rehen s ive m aps o ft h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fP a la eo l i th ic
s i t e s ,t h eq uan t i ty o fd e s t ruc t ion , a nd t h es e ve r i ty a nd e x ten to fl o ss a r es t i l l c omp le te ly u nknown , b u t i ts e em s t o b e af a c t t h a t al a rge n umbe r o f P a laeo l i th ic s i te s h ave b een d rowned b y i n c r ea s ing h yd ro log ica l p ro jec t s o rd e s t royed b ya g r icu l tu ra l o ro t he ro pe ra t ion s . E conom ic p ro jec t s i ng ene ra l , a nd t r ea su re h un t ing i np ar t icu la r , a r et h rea t ing t h e s i t e s . A l though P a laeo l i th ic s i t e s r e ce ive much l e s sa t t en t ion f r om t r ea su r eh un t e r st han s i t e s o fl a te rp e r iod s , t h el o s s i sn o l e s s s e r iou s . I ns umma ry , P a laeo l i th ic r e sea rch t o s t udy f o s s i l i sed r ema in s o f o u r h uman a nce s to r s a nd t h e i r a s soc ia t ed ma t e r ia l s i sb e ing d on e i na l t h e i n hab i ted c on t inen t s . C lea r ly , t h e p u r su i t o fk now ledge c once rn ing t h e p roce s se s o f h uman e vo lu t ion a nd t h e l o nge s t p e r iod o f t h e h uman c u l tu ra l d ev e lopmen tn eed s t ob e ac o -ope ra t ive v en tu r e s ha red a mong s c ien t i s t s o fa l l n a t ion s . H ow eve r , i n t h eN ea rE a s tt h e re a r e s om e i mpor tan t i mba lance s a mong t h e c oun t r ie s s uch a sI r an i nc on t r ibu t ing t ot h i s i s sue .
S eve ra l l i n e s o f p o ss ib le a c t ion t o o ve rcome i mba lance s o ccu r r ed i n P a laeo l i th ic
r e sea rch i nI r an w i l l b e : ( 1 ) r e cru i tmen t a nd t r a in ing o fy oung s c ien t i s t s ; ( 2 ) m u seum a nd r e sea rch f a c i l i t ie s ; ( 3 )e duca t ing t h ep ub l ic a nd i n f o rm ing g ove rnmen t . I ti sc l ea rt h a tt h e se l i ne s o fa c t ion a r e c l o se ly i n t e r l inked ; f o r e xamp le , t r a in ing c anno t b e s ucce ssf u l u n le s s t h e p ub l ic , t h e r e la ted o r gan i sa t ion s , a nd t h e g ove rnmen t b ecom e a wa r e o fa nd i n t e re s ted i nP a laeo l i th ic m a t e r ia l s a nd t h e a ch i evemen t s o f r e sea rch .
S im i la r ly , t r a in ing a nd e duca t ing t h e p ub l ic c anno t b e p o s s ib le i fn o
e n cou ragemen t b y g ove rnmen t a nd s u i tab le f a c i l i t ie s a r e a va i lab le .
I ti sq u i te i mpor tan t t h a t t h e r e
s h ou ld b e d eve loped a s e n se o fp a r tne r sh ip l i nk ing s c ien t i s t s a nd t h e w e l l -e s tab l i shed t r ad i t ion s o f r e sea rch f r om t h e d eve loped c oun t r ie s w i th t h o se i nI r an , w he re l o ca l i n vo lvem en t i sj u s t b eg inn ing . I ti sa l so af a c tt ha t d u r ing t h e p a s t d ecad e s t h e c o -ope ra t ion o fI r an ian s w i th in t h ej o in t e xped i t ion s h a s o f t en b een v ery l ow , o r r e s t r ic ted t ou n sc ien t if ic r o le s .
Wha t i si mpor tan t t oi n s i s t o n f o r t h e
f u tu r e d eve lopmen t , i s as y s tema t ica l p l an t oh e lp g ue s t s c ien t i s t s i nt h i s c oun t ry t og i v e c l a sse s , l e c tu r e s , a nd p rov id ing i n f o rma t ion f o r n ew spape r s , e xh ib i t ion s a nd p o s s ib ly f i e ld s c hoo l s .
A t t h e
s am et ime t h es c ien t if i ce xchange b e tween t h ef o r e ign s c ho la r s a nd I r an ian s s hou ld b ee ncou raged . I t w ou ld b eb enef ic ia li fs c ho la r sf r om d eve loped c oun t r ie s a nd I r an c ou ld v i s i te ach o t he r 's i n s t i tu t ion s a nd p ar t ic ipa te i n o ne a no the r 's f i e ld r e sea rch p ro jec t s .
T h i s w ou ld p rov ide a n o ppo r tun i ty t o
I r an ian o rgan i sa t ion st os upp lemen tf a c i l i t ie s a nd a l so h e lp i nb road en ing t h el e ve lo fk now ledge . I n I r an d oub t le s s t h e r e a r e n ow v e ry g ood p o l i t ica l , c u l tu ra l a nd e conom ic c ond i t ion s f o r a r cha eo log ica l r e sea rch , a nd w i th in t h e se c on t ex t s p romo t ing P a laeo l i th ic a r cha eo logy i s t h e r e spon s ib i l i ty o fI r an ian s c ho la r t h em se lve s .
T he d eve lopmen t o fa n i n d igenou s p rof e s s iona l i sm i n
I r an m u s t b e m ade b y ag r ea te r p opu la r a pp r ec ia t ion o f p reh i s to ry i ng ene ra l a nd o f P a laeo l i th ic a r chaeo logy i np ar t icu la r ; t od o s o , s e ve ra l c on t r ibu t ion s f r om o rgan i sa t ion s s uch a sa r chaeo log ica l
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s e rv ic e s a nd a cad em ic c en t r e s c an f a c i l i ta t e t h i s .
Of e r ing s om e g en e ra l i n f o rma t ion o n t h e
P a la eo l i th ic p e r iod f o r t h e p r e -un iv e r s i ty l e v e l s a nd c r ea t ing a n i n d ependen t p e r sona l i ty f o r P a la eo l i th ic a r cha eo logy i nt h e u n iv e r s i t i e s , w h e r e a tt h e m om en tt h e P a la eo l i th ic i sn o tt a ugh t a nd s t ud ied ( f i g . 1 4 , 1 5 ) , c an b e a n e f ec t iv e p o l icy f o r f u tu r e d ev e lopm en t .
A t t h e s am e t i m e ag r ea t
e mpha s i s s h ou ld b e p l a c ed o n t r a in ing t h e n e ed ed p rof e s s iona l s t af f a s w e l l a . ; t o p l an m o r e c omp r eh en s iv e a pp roach e s t ot h e s o lu t ion o fc e r ta in s p e c if i c p rob lem s . I nt e rm s o fp ub l i c i n t e r e s t , m o r e o r gan i sed p ub l ic i ty w ou ld a l so i n c r ea s e p ub l ic a wa r en e s s a bou t t h e P a laeo l i th ic a s w e l l a s g i v ing r i se t os p ec if i cq u e s t ion sa bou th uman c u l tu ra la nd p hy s ica le vo lu t ion w i th in s o c i e ty . F o r ab e t t e ru nd e r s tand ing o fw ha tI r an 's r o l ea nd s p ec ia lc h a ra c t e rw a s i nt h e P a la eo l i th i c , w h en i t f o rm ed o n ep i ec ei nt h em o sa ic o fw id e ly v a ry ing P a la eo l i th ic c u l tu r e st h roughou tA s ia , t h e r ec an b e n os ub s t i tu t ef o rd ev e lopm en tp r og ramm e so fm u l t i -d i sc ip l ina ry f i e ldwo rk i nt h ec oun t ry .
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Chap ter 6
T oward s aR ea l Apprec ia t ion o fA rchaeo logy i nI ran t hrough Manag ing i t sA rchaeo log ica l Her i tage Theory , Me thodo logy , Imp lementa t ion
1 .I n troduc t ion F rom ar ev iew o ft h ea r cha eo log ica l l i t e ra tu re w ec an a g ree t ha tt h ea r cha eo log ica lh e r i tage i s : ( 1 ) af i n i te n on r enewab le r e sou rce ( Da rv i l l 1 987 : 1 , McG im sey 1 972 : 2 4 , C lee re 1 984 : 1 27 ) ; ( 2 ) ama t te ro fp ub l ic c once rn ( McG im sey 1 972 : 5 ,F ow le r 1 982 : 1 ) ; ( 3 )g ove rned b yl e g i s la t ion ( McG im sey a nd D av i s 1 977 : 9 ,F ow le r 1 982 : 4 ,S ch if f e r a nd Gume rman 1 977 : 3 ,D a rv i l l 1 987 : 3 2 ) ; ( 4 ) s ub jec t t o a s se s sm en t f o r i t s a r chaeo log ica l s i gn if icance ( C lee r e 1 984 : 1 27 , D unne l l 1 984 , S chaaf sma 1 989 ) . T hu s , f r om t h e a bove d e sc r ip t ion AHM c an b e c once ived a s ap roce s s o r as e t o fp rac t ice a imed a t t h em anagemen t o fc u l tu ra l h e r i tage . I nt h i s p roce s s AHM r e l ie s o n ( a ) i t s f o rmu l i sed p rac t ice ; ( b ) o n l e g is la t ive a nd g ov e rnmen ta l p o l icy a nd ( c ) o n p a r t icu la r i s sue s s uch a s " who o wn t h e p a s t" , r e bur ia l i s sue s ,t our i sm , i s sue s o nr i gh to fa cce s st oa r cha eo log ica l s i t e s , e t c . I n t h e 1 990 s s om e a u tho r s h ave c on s ide r ed t h a t t h e p rev iou s d ef in i t ion s o f AHM t o h ave b een d e sc r ip t ive a nd t oh ave t e nded t oa vo id p l ac ing AHM i ne i the r ad i sc ip l ina ry o rt h eo r e t ica l c on tex t , r e su l t ing i n as epa ra t ion o f AHM f r om a r chaeo logy a nd a r cha eo log ica l r e sea rch ( e .g . C a rman 1 991 , Sm i th 1 993 ) . I nt h en ew d ef in i t ion AHM i sr e ga rded t ob e much mo r et han t h e p rev iou s d ef in i t ion , a nd f u lf i l l s o t he r r o le s a nd f unc t ion s . AH M i sc once ived a s f u lf i l l ing ac u l tu ra l a nd s oc io -po l i t ica l r o le i n s oc ie t ie s ; i n c u l tu ra l t e rm s AHM i s u sed t o e s tab l i sh a nd m a in ta in c u l tu ra l a nd o t he r i d en t i t ie s .
I n s oc io -po l i t ica l t e rm s , w i th t h e i n s t i tu t iona l i sa t ion o f a r cha eo logy , a rchaeo log ica l
k now ledge p l ay s ar o le i nS ta t e d i scou r se s t o a rb i t ra te o n d eba te s o ve r c u l tu ra l i d en t i t ie s .
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T hu s
AHM a r cha eo logy a s ad i sc ip l ine h a sb ecom ed i r e c t ly e ngaged w i th c u l tu ra la nd p o l i t ica ld eba te a nd c on f l ic t( Sm i th 1 993 , 1 994 ) . 2 .Ah i s tory o fd eve lopmen to f AH M A r cha eo log ica l h e r i tag e m anag em en t m ay b e a s sum ed t o h av e b egun w i th t h e S w ed i sh R oya l P roc lama t ion o f1 666 , d ec la r ing a l lo b jec t sf r om a n t iqu i ty t ob et h ep rope r ty o ft h e C rown w h ich f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e a cknow ledged t h e i mpo r tanc e o ft h e r ema in s o ft h e p a s t w i th in a n a t iona l c oncep t ( K r i s t i an sen 1 989 ) . J u r id ica l c on t ro l o fa nc ien tr ema in s w a s am a t t e rw h ich w a s e ncou raged b yt h e s om e S t a t e s o fE u rope d u r ing t h e 1 8 th c e n tu ry a nd D enma rk d eve loped t h i s c onc ep t i nt h e f i r s t d ecad eo ft h e 1 9 th c en tu ry ( K r i s t ian sen 1 984 ) . B yt h e e nd o ft h e c en tu ry t h e a nc ien tm onumen t s o f m o s to ft h ew e s t e rn c oun t r ie s w e r e c ov e r ed b yp ro t ec t ive l e g i s la t ion ; f o re x amp le t h e UK p a ssed i t s f i r s t A nc ien t Monumen t s P ro t ec t ion A c t i n 1 8 82 ( C lee r e 1 984 ) a nd t h e U .S .A e na c t ed i t s f i r s t a n t iqu i t ie sl aw i n1 906 ( McG im sey a nd D av i s 1 984 ) . T h ee nd o f Wo r ld Wa r Is aw t h eb eg inn ing o fa r cha eo log ica lh e r i tage managemen ta sa ni n t eg ra l c ompon en to fs oc ia la nd e c onom ic p l ann ing , a nd t h ec oncep to f' r e scue ' o r' s a lvage ' a r cha eo logy i n a dvanc e o fd ev e lopm en to rr e -d ev e lopm en tb ecam e a n i mpo r tan t s ub jec t i na r cha eo logy . P o s t -wa r r e con s t r uc t ion a nd t h e w o r ld -w id e e c onom ic d ev e lopm en t o f t h e l a te r 1 950 s a nd 1 960 s w a s a ccompan ied b yt h ec om ing t on a t ionhood o fm any c o lon ia l r e g ion s p a r t icu la r ly i nA s ia a nd A f r ica . S i n c e t h en e conom ic d ev e lopm en t h a s b ecom e t h e d om inan t i s sue i n b o th t h e d ev e loped a nd d ev e lop ing c oun t r ie s , a f ec t ing n a tu ra le nv i ronm en t , a nc ien tl a nd scape s , a nd a r cha eo log ica l s i t e s b y e x t end ing h i ghway s , r e sou r ce e xp lo i ta t ion , a nd o t h e r l a nd scape p r ac t ice s . A tt h e s am e t i m e w h i le t h eg r ow th o ft ou r i sm b ecam e am a jo ri n du s t ry ,m any c oa s t l ine sw e r es ubm e rged u nd e rc on s t r uc t ion d ev e lopm en t , a nd v i s i to r p r e s su r e c au sed s om e d e t r imen ta l e f ec t s s uch a s p hy s ica l a t t r i t ion i n a r cha eo log ica ls i t e sl i k eS t on eh enge ( s ee C h ipp inda l e 1 983 , G o ld ing 1 989 ) . I nt h e d ev e lop ing c oun t r ie s w h e r e t h e s ho r t com ing s o fp ro t ec t ion l e g i s la t ion w e r e a ppa r en t t h e t h r ea t sw e r em o r es e v e r et h an i nt h ed ev e loped c oun t r ie s . I nt h e se c oun t r ie s l a rge sca le p rog ramme s o f i n du s t r ia l i sa t ion w e r e p u t i n to e f ec t w i thou t a ny r e ga rd f o r t h e i r i mpac t o n t h e n a tu ra l a nd h i s to r ica l e nv i ronm en t .
I nB raz i l f o r i n s tanc e m uch o ft h e Ama zon j ung le h a s b een d e s t roy ed i n
r e c en ty ea r s , a nd h eavy m in ing h a s d i s tu rbed l a rg ea r ea s o fn a tu ra la nd h i s to r ica l l a nd scape s ( Co s ta e ta l . 1 988 ) . A tt h es am et im et h e r ew a s ap opu la t ion g row th t h roughou tt h eT h i rd Wo r ld c oun t r ie s , a nd a s e r iou s p rob lem o ft r ea su r e h un t ing a nd i l ic i t t r ad e , w i th i n t er na t iona l f i nanc ia l s uppo r t , c r ea t ed af u r the r s ou rc e o ft h r ea t t ot h e a r cha eo log ica l h e r i tag e .
N eve r the le s s , t h e d ev e lopm en t
p r e s su r e o f t h e 1 960 s r e su l t ed i n a n a wa r en e s s o f t h e e nv i ronm en t w h ich i n s t iga t ed r e l evan t r e a c t ion s , m o s t o ft h em b y t h e d ev e loped c oun t r i e s o r of i c ia l o r gan i sa t ion s .
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S i nc e t h e 1 970 s ,
t h e ref o r e , t h e i mpac t o fe conom ic d eve lopm en t o n t h e n a tu ra l a nd c u l tu ra l e nv i ronmen t b ecam e a m a jo r i s sue t o b e d eba ted i ns uch c oun t r ie s .
T he UN E nv i ronmen ta l P rog ramme ( UNPE ) w a s
e s tab l i sh ed a nd f und s b ecame a va i lab le t o p ro tec t t h e i mpac t o f d eve lopm en t ; e v en s o i n s ome c oun t r ie s s uch a s t h e U n i t ed S t a t e s t h e e nv i ronmen ta l p ro tec t ion p rog ramme s w e re e xpanded t o p ro t ec t a r chaeo log ica l h e r i tage a s w e l l . H oweve r , i n mo s t c oun t r ie s ( e .g . We s t A f r ican c oun t r ie s ) t h e i mpo r tance o fa r cha eo log ica l c on serva t ion w a s l a rge ly o ve r looked a nd t h e a n t iqu i t ie s s e rv ic e s s t ood a pa r t f r om o t he r g ov e rnmen ta l e nv i ronmen ta l p ro tec t ion a genc ie s ( Okpoko 1 988 ) .
B y t h i s
t im e m o s t E u ropean c oun t r i e s h ad e nac t ed n ew p ro tec t ive l e g i s la t ion t o r e p lace o u tda ted l aw s ; t h i s l e d t o a n i n c rea se i n p e r sonne l t o c a r ry o u t t h e n ece s sa ry w o rk o f r e co rd ing , d e s igna t ion a nd e xcava t ion , a s w e l l a s c au s ing a n a wa r ene ss o f t h e n eed f o r e s tab l i sh ing p h i lo soph ica l a nd m e thodo log ica l f r amewo rk s b y w h ich t h e a cadem ic a nd s o c ia l r e la t ion sh ip a nd o b l iga t ion c an b e i d en t if i ed . T h e c oncep t o f C u l tu ra l R e sou rce Managemen t ( CRM ) , p ub l ic a r cha eo logy a nd c on se rva t ion a r cha eo logy w e re d ev e loped i nt h eU n i t ed S t a te s o ve rt h ep a s td ecade s . S inc et h e a ppea rance o ft h e A rcha eo log ica l a nd H i s to r ica l C on serva t ion A c t i n 1 974 t h e re h a s b een a l a rge a moun t o f i n ve s t iga t ion , r e co rd ing , a nd c on serva t ion o fb o th p reh i s to r ic a nd h i s to r ic s i t e s . T he t e rm CRM i s t h u s u sed f o r o ff ic ia l i n vo lvemen t f o r a r cha eo log ica l p urpo se s . S ch if f e r a nd G ume rman ( 1 977b : 2 ) h ave d ef ined t h eb u s ine ss o f CRM a st h et o ta l p re serva t ion o fs ca rce n on r en ewab le r e sou rce s . T h e m anagemen to fc u l tu ra l r e sou rce s i n vo lve s d e te rm in ing t h e l e a s t l o ss o fi n f o rma t ion c once rn ing p a s t l i f eway s ; t h e e mpha s i s i su pon p l ann ing r e sea rch a nd c on serva t ion p o l ic ie s ( s ee a l so F ow le r 1 982 ) . U nde rt h i s s y s tem t h ep ub l ic i n te re s t a nd v a lue s o fc u l tu ra l h er i tage a r e t h ough tt oo ve r r id e m a t t e r s o fp r iva te c oncer n . 3 .P h i losophy b eh ind t h ed i sc ip l ine I na r chaeo log ica l t e rm s t h e p a s t a s am a jo r s ymbo l ic r e sou rce c an b e u sed a s am ean s b y c e r ta in a u tho r i t ie s t o l e g i t im i se t h e i r n a t iona l i s t ic , i d eo log ica l , o r c hauv in is t ic p u rpo se s .
I n s uch c a se s
i d en t if ica t ion i sr e s t r ic ted t ot h ee l emen t st h a t h ave ad i rec t s i gn if icance t os u ch p u rpo se s . T hu s t h e i d en t i ty o ft h e p a s t a nd p r e sen t i so f t en c l o se ly a s soc ia t ed t h rough s pec ia l s i t e s a nd t h e t a ng ib le r ema in s o f p a s t h uman a c t iv i t ie s s uch a s a r chaeo log ica l m a t e r ia l s o r i n tang ib le r e l ic s o f h uman t h ough t s ymbo l i sed , f o ri n s tanc e , b yr i tua l s i te s ( Fow le r 1 987 ; s e e a l so K r i s t ian sen 1 989 , 1 993 ) . A g r ea t p ar t o f t h e d ev e lopm en t o f m u seum s i s c once rned n o t s imp ly w i th f i nanc ia l g a in b u t i s m o t iva ted b y as e a rch f o rt h er o o t s o fl i v ing c i v i l i sa t ion s . T h i s u se o ft h e a r cha eo log ica l h e r i tage , t o e s tab l i sh c u l tu ra l o r n a t iona l i d en t i ty , i sb e s t s e en f r om t h e n a t ion s e s tab l i sh ed a f t e r t h e e nd o f c o lon ia l i sm i nt h e p o s t -wa r p e r iod .
A n e xamp le i st ha t o ft h e f o rme r B r i t i sh c o lon ia l t e r r i tory o f
S ou the rn R hode s ia w h ich t o ok i t s n ame f r om i t s g rea t e s t a r chaeo log ica l m onumen t , Z imbabw e .
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A no th e re xamp le i s Mex ico w h ich , s i nce t h et im eo fa ch iev ing i t s i n d ependence , h a s m ade e x t en s ive u s e o fi t sp r e -co lon ia l a n t iqu i t ie s t oc on so l ida t et h e s e n se o fc u l tu ra l a nd p o l i t ica l i d en t i ty ( T r igge r 1 989 : 1 30 134 , 1 80 ) .
F o r o t h e r e xamp le s o v e r t h e w o r ld s e e G a th e rco le a nd L ow en tha l ( 1 990 ) ,
K oh la nd F awce t t( 1995 ) . T h ee duca t iona l v a lue o ft h ea r cha eo log ica lh e r i tag ei sa ni mpo r t an ti s sue i nh e r i tag em anag em en t p o l icy .
T h e o bv iou s w ay o f e ncou rag ing p opu la r s uppo r t i st h rough p ub l ic e duca t ion .
g en e ra l ly a r gued i nt e ach ing h i s to ry o r r e la t ed s ub jec t s .
I ti s
T h e u se o fa r cha eo log ica l e l em en t s c an
s t imu la t e t h e i mag ina t ion o f t h e c h i ld mo r e e f ec t iv e ly t h an a ny a moun t o f f o rma l t e a ch ing o r r e ad ing .
T h e r e a r e m any w ay s o f i mp lem en t ing p ub l ic e duca t ion p rog ramme s i n a r cha eo logy
r a ng ing f r om as imp le d i sp lay o fa r cha eo log ica l m a t e r ia l , t oe n cou rag ing v i s i t s t os i t e s w h ich h av e b e en r e s to r ed , o ra r e s t i l l u nde r e xcava t ion . . N owaday s , m anag ing t h e a r chaeo log ica l h e r i tage f o r t h ep u rpo se o fp ub l ic e duca t ion i sr e ga rd ed a sb e ing a n i n compa rab le s t ra tegy f o r i n c r ea s ing p ub l ic a wa r en e s s , a nd i ti sw id e ly u sed i na l p a r t so ft h ew o r ld ( s ee a l so S t on e 1 994 ) . T h e r o le o fa r cha eo log ica l h e r i tage i nt ou r i sm i so fg row ing i mpo r tance i nh e r i tage m anagem en t . Ma s s t o u r i sm i s af e a tu r e o fm od er n e conom ic l i f e , a nd i ti s ab i g b u s in e s s b o th n a t iona l ly a nd i n t e rna t iona l ly . I nB r i ta in , f o ri n s tanc e , b y 1 994 i ti sp r ed ic t ed t h a t 1 67 m i l l ion v i s i t s ( b yr e s id en t s a nd o ve r sea sv i s i to r s )t od e s igna t ed h e r i tage s i t e sw i l lg en e ra t e£ 24 b i l l ion o fe xpend i tu r e . Wa le si n 1 9 89 a t t ra c t ed a bou t 7m i l l ion v i s i to r s o f wh ich 4 . 3 m i l l ion v i s i t s a r e r e co rded b yp ay ing v i s i to r st o a r cha eo log ica ls i t e s ,g a l le r ie s , a nd m u seum s ( Ca r r 1 994 : 5 5 -56 ) . A no th e r i mpor tan t f e a tu r e o f h e r i tage m anag em en t i st h e p r o t ec t ion o f t h e d a taba se f o r t h e a cad em ic d i sc ip l in e o f a r cha eo logy .
A d a taba se c on ta in s av a s t a moun t o f .a r cha eo log ica l
i n f o rma t ion c o l lec t ed t h rough f i e ld s u rv ey a nd d ocum en ta ry r e s ea r ch . T h i s s o r t o fi n f o rma t ion c an b eu sed i nh e r i tage m anagemen tp o l icy f o rt h ef o l low ing p u rpo se s ; ( 1 ) c on se rva t ion i s t s a nd p l ann ing a r ch aeo log i s t s a r e c once rn ed w i th p ro t ec t ing t h e a r cha eo log ica l h e r i tage f r om b e ing d e s t roy ed ; ( 2 ) r e sea rch e r s a r e c oncer n ed w i th c on s t ruc t ing i mag e s o ft h ep a s t a nd i n t e rp re t ing t h e r ema in s o fp a s t h um an a c t iv i t ie s i n aw ay t h a t i su nd e r s tandab le a nd i n t e r e s t ing f o r p eop le ; ( 3 ) e duca t iona l i s t s a r e r e spon s ib l e f o rt r an s la t ing a nd t r an sm i t t ing t h e se c on s t ruc t ed i mag e st ot h e p ub l ic f r om t h en u r se ry s c hoo lt of u r th e re duca t ion , i n t eg ra t ing i ti n to i n f o rma le duca t ion ( F ra se r 1 993 ) . 4 .G enera lp r inc ip le s o f AH M G iv en t h ed if e r ing c on s t ra in t su nd e rw h ich a r cha eo log ica lm anag em en to rgan i sa t ion sh av et ow o rk , i ti sn o t a n e a sy t a sk t o o u t l in e g en e ra l p r inc ip l e s ; h ow eve r t h e r e i sa g r eem en t o n t h e f o l low ing a r ea s :
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T h e f i r s t s t ep i nt h e i d en t if i ca t ion a nd m anagem en t o f a r cha eo log ica l h e r i tage i st o p roduce a n i n t eg ra t ive managemen tp roc e s s t os t ruc tu r et h e i n ven to ry , e va lua t ion a nd p ro tec t ion . T h i s p roce s s c an b e s t ar ted w i th t h e f o rmu la t ion o fa n a r chaeo log ica l h e r i tage o verv iew i nt h e a r ea c oncerned . T h ep rocess c on t inue s b yu nder tak ing f u r the r i n ven to ry t h rough a s se ss ing p rev iou s ly r e co rded s i te s a s w e l l a s s urvey ing f o r n ew s i t e s .
I n t h e a r ea s w h e re l a nd -a l te r ing f a c to r s m ay i mpac t a n
a r cha eo log ica l h e r i tage , t h i s p roce s s c an o u t l in e a dd i t iona l r e sea rch r e qu i red t o e va lua te t h e i mpor tance o fh e r i tage a nd p r opo se p r e se rva t ion a nd p ro tec t ion p rog ramme s ( s ee a l so C lee re 1 989 ) . A no the r t a sk o f AHM i st h e a s se s sm en t o f t h e v a lue s o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l h e r i tage .
AHM
i n vo lve s many j udgemen t s a nd d ec i s ion s . Many d ec i s ion s i n AHM c oncer ns pec if i c a r chaeo log ica l q ue s t ion s s uch a s : i s as i t e o f s uf i c ien t i mpo r tance t o q ua l if y f o r l e ga l e xcava t ion? S hou ld a d eve lopmen tp ro jec tb ea lowed t oc on t inue a nd d e s t roy a r cha eo log ica l r ema in s? Wh ich s i te s h ave a p r io r i ty t og a in a l loca t ion o ff und s f o re xcava t ion , p r e serva t ion a nd p ro tec t ion? D ow ek now e nough a bou tt h e r ema in st om ak et h er e qu i red d ec i s ion o ri sf u r the rf i e ld e va lua t ion n ece ssa ry ? e t c . Ac e n t ra l p rob lem f o r s e v e ra l y ea r s i n AHM h a s b een h ow t h e s i gn if icance o f a r chaeo log ica l h e r i tage i st ob e e s tab l i sh ed , a nd w h ich p a r t s o ft h e a r chaeo log ica l h e r i tage a r e o f s i gn if icance a nd n e ed t o b e s e lec ted f o r t h e m anagemen t p roce s se s s uch a s r e co rd ing a nd p ro tec t ing ( Schaaf sma 1 9 89 , S tar t in 1 993 , 1 995 ) . I ns ome c oun t r ie st h ep rocedu re s f o r d e te rm in ing s i gn if i cance a r en o ts o c l ea r ; f o r i n s tance , t h e 1 966 H i s tor ic P r e serva t ion A c t o f Ame r ica c on s ide red o n ly t h e h i s to r ic m onumen t st ob e s i gn if i can t( Fow le r 1 982 ) . S om e t ime s t h ey a r e a f ec ted b y e conom ic a nd p o l i t ica l c on s ide ra t ion s o rb yn on sc ien t if ic s t anda rd s . F rom t h i s p e r spec t ive i tm ean s t ha t s ome t h ing s w i l l h av et ob e d i sca rded . U nde rt h e se c i rcum s t ance s t h ep roce s s i st oi d en t if y t ho se f ew r e sou rce s a nd t h en i g nore t h e r e s t .
T he r e s t a r e r e ga rded a s p r e sumab ly i n s ign if i can t .
e s pec ia l ly o n t h e t h eo r e t ica l s i de , b eg inn ing i n t h e
N um e rou s a t temp t s ,
1 970 s , r e su l ted i n r e cogn i t ion t h a t a l
a r cha eo log ica l ma te r ia l sa r ci mpo r tan tf o rt h e i rp o t en t ia l c on t r ibu t ion t os c ien t if ic r e sea rch . D unn e 1 1 a nd D ancey ( 1978 : 2 3 ) i d en t if i ed t wo t y pe s o fs i gn if icance , h uman i s t ic a nd s c ien t if i c , f o r a l l o ft h e a r chaeo log ica lh e r i tage ( r e sou rce s ) . T he h uman i s t ic s i gn if icance i s ama t te r o fc u l tu r.a lh e r i tage a nd c an b e e va lua ted i n t e rm s o f t h e s p ec if i c l e g i s la t ion c r i te r ia o f s i gn if icance .
T he s c ien t if i c
s i gn if icance r e la te s t oi n f o rma t ion i nt h e a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd s , a nd t h e s i gn if i canc e o f as pec if ic a r chaeo log ica l h er i tage i si t s p o ten t ia l f o r p rov id ing a n swe r s t or e levan t r e sea rch q ue s t ion s .
T hu s
s i gn if icance i sn o t a n a b so lu t e c oncep t b u t am echan i sm f o r s t ruc tu r ing i n qu i ry a bou t c u l tu ra l h e r i tage . A t t h e s ame t ime , t h e c oncep t o f v a lu ing t h e a r chaeo log ica l h e r i tage i sc en t ra l t o m uch o f t h e l i t e ra tu re c once rn ing t h e m anagemen t o fa r cha eo logy .
T h i s i sg ene ra l ly s t ud ied f o r a s se ssmen t o f
t h e s i gn if icance o ft h e i n d iv idua l c omponen t s o fa r cha eo log ica l h e r i tage . G reen ( 1 980 : 2 )m ake s a
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u sef u l d i s t inc t ion b e tw een v a lue a nd s i gn if i canc e . T h ev a lue o f ac u l tu ra l r e source c an b e a s se s sed i nt wo w ay s : ( 1 )w h e th e ri t sc ha rac t e ri ss uch t h a ti ns i tu p r e se rva t ion o ra dap t ive r e u se a r em e r i t ed , a nd ( 2 ) w h e th e r i th a s d emon s t rab le s c ien t if i c v a lue .
I n t h i s v i ew v a lue b ecom e s af u nc t ion o f
s i gn if i cance ; t h ev a lue o f ar e sou rce i si t sp o t en t ia l o fy i e ld ing d a ta t oc on f i rm r epu i ed s i gn if icanc e v e r su s i n s i tu p r e serva t ion .
F o r t h e o t h e r s p ec if i c m ean ing o f v a lue a nd s i gn if i canc e i n t h e
Am e r ican CRM s e eD av i s ( 1 989 : 9 7 ) , S ch if f e ra nd G ume rman ( 1 977b : 3 1 ) . C onc e rn w i th t h e c oncep t o fv a lue , p a r t icu la r ly i nB r i ta in , i sn ow t u rn ing t ot h e c on s id e ra t ion o f h ow t h a t v a lue i sa s c r ibed t o a r cha eo log ica l r ema in s , a cc ep t ing t h a t v a lue i s n o t i n h e r en t i n a r cha eo log ica lm a t e r ia l , b u ti sa s c r ibed t oi tt h rough s o c ia lp ro c e s se s . T h e q ue s t ion b ecom e s , t h en , n o t ' wha tv a lue d oe s t h i s h ave ? ' , b u t " wha t k i nd o fs o c ia l v a lu e d oe s i tr e p re sen t a nd w h e re d oe s t h i s c om e f r om ?"
I n s p i t e o f ac ommon a g r e em en t o n v a lua t ion , t h e r e e x i s t s aw id e r ange o f
d if e r en t m e thodo log ie s a nd t e rm ino logy t ou nd e r s t and v a lua t ion .
C a rman , f o r i n s t an c e , u se s t h e
t e rm ' v a lue g r ad ien t s ' ( 1995 , 1 996 )a nd c on s id e r sv a lue a s ad ynam ic p roce s s w h ich i sc ompo sed o f t wo e l em en t s :t h et y pe o fv a lue , a nd i t sq ua l i ty . F o rC a rman t h ep r oce s s o fv a lua t ion i s ar e a l s oc ia l f a c ta nd c om e sa tt h ee nd o f as o c ia lp roc e s so fs e lec t ion . D ar v i l l ( 1 995a ) c on s ide r sv a lu et ob e r e a l a nd t od e r iv ef r om ac omb ina t ion o ft h ee xpe r tk now ledge o ft h ea r cha eo log i s t s a nd p r iva t ei n t e re s t . T h e r e i sa l so ad eba t e c onc e rn ing t h e m ea su r em en t o ft h e s i gn if i c ance o fa r chaeo lbg ica l r ema in s . D a rv i l l e mpha s i se s t h e r o le o f t h e c oncep t o f i mpo r tanc e i n a s se s s ing a r chaeo log ica l r ema in s . S t a r t in l o ok s a tt h e m e thod f o r i d en t if y ing m a t e r ia l o fn a t iona l i mpo r t ance i nr e la t ion t ol e ga l a nd o t h e rf o rm so fp ro t ec t ion ( Da r v i l le ta l . 1 987 , S t a r t in 1 993 ) . T h e w o rd ' a s se s sm en t ' i sg en e ra l ly u sed t o g i v e v a lue w h e r e t h e i mpo r t ance o f a r cha eo log ica l r ema in s i sc onc er n ed .
T h e b a s ic r e a son w hy a r cha eo log ica l r ema in s a r e i mpo r t an t i sf o r t h e
i n f o rma t ion t h ey c on ta in a bou t t h e p a s t .
T hey a r e f r ag i le a nd n on r en ewab le ; e ach s i t e c on ta in s
u n iqu e i n f o rma t ion t h a t c an b e l o s t f o r ev e r u n le s s r e co rded .
I nt h e AHM l i t e ra tu r e t h i s c an b e
t e rm ed ' a cad em ic v a lue ' , b ecau se t h e v a lue i t s e lf e n ta i l s e xam ina t ion a nd i n te rp r e ta t ion o f , f o r i n s tan c e , t o ta l ly b u r ied s i t e s .
T he re a r e a l so o t h e r v a lue s ; v i s ib l e s i t e s o r l a nd scape s f o rm a n
i mpo r tan tv i sua lc ompon en t , a nd c on t r ibu t et ot h e a e s th e t ic v a lu e s o fr ema in s . T hey a l so p rov ide a d i r ec t e duca t iona l r e sou rce a nd c on t r ibu t e t ot h e r e c r ea t iona l a c t iv i t ie s o fm ode rn s o c ie ty .
Many
a r cha eo log ica l s i t e s a l so h av e as ymbo l ic v a lue f o r t h e p a s t , o rb ecau se t h ey w e r e i n t en t iona l ly c r ea t ed a sm onum en t s . P r inc ipa l ly , i nr e c en t y ea r s t h e r e h ave b e en a t t emp t s t o s t anda rd i se a nd d eve lop a s e r ie s o fv a lue c r i t e r ia f o r a r cha eo log ica l r ema in s , o fw h ich t h r e e m a in v a lue s y s t em s c an b e i d en t if i ed : t h ey a r e c ha ra c t e r i sed a su s ev a lue , o p t ion v a lue a nd e x i s t enc ev a lue . T h e i rd ef in i t ion i sb a sed o nd if e r ence s i na t t i tud ina la nd i n t e r e s tb a sed o r ien ta t ion ( Da rv i l l 1 995a ) .
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T h e a t t i tud ina l o r ien ta t ion o f u se v a lue i sb a sed o n an umbe r o f s t anda rd s a nd e xpec ta t ion s o f a cadem ic a nd s c ien t if ic r e qu i remen t s s uch a s a r cha eo log ica l a nd s c ien t if ic r e sea rch , e duca t ion , r e c r ea t ion a nd t ou r i sm , s ymbo l ic r e pre sen ta t ion , l e g i t ima t eo fa c t iv i t ie s , e conom ic g a in , a nd s oo n . O p t ion v a lue c oncer n s t h e i d ea t h a t w e h ave t o m a in ta in s om e o ft h e r e sou rce i n av i rg ina l a nd u n exp lo i ted s t a te b ecau se t h ey a r e n o t i mpor tan t a tp r e sen t b u t t h ey may b e i nt h e f u tu r e .
I ti s
r e cogn i sed t ha tt h e re w i l l a lway s b e n ew q ue s t ion s a bou tt h e p a s tt ob e a dd re ssed , a nd t h e r e w i l l b e n ew t e chn ique s a nd m e thodo log ie s t oi n ve s t iga t e t h e p a s t . T he a t t i tud ina l o r ien ta t ion o ft h i s v a lue s e ti sb a sed o nh uman i s t ic b ehav iou ra s sum ing t h a tt h ef u tu re w i l l b eb e t te rt h an p re sen t . T h ee x i s t ence v a lue c oncer n st h ep sycho log ica lb ehav iou ro fp eop le i n te re s ted i na ni mp re s s ive p a s t . T h ey r e p re sen tt h e i r f e e l ing o fb e long ing t ot h e p a s t b y h av ing p e r iod ic f e s t iva l s , c e leb ra t ion s , a nd s p ec ia lo cca s ion s ( Fow le r 1 992 : 4 4 -52 ) . A t p r e sen t t h e m a in p r ef e r red o p t ion o f p ro t ec t ion i s t s a nd a r cha eo log ica l h er i tage m anage r s c oncer n s o p t ion v a lue a nd e x i s tence v a lue .
U se v a lue n eed s a pp ropr ia te c on s ide ra t ion s s i nce
a cad em ic k now ledge o ft h e p a s t a lway s n eed s f r e sh d a ta .
T h e re c an b e mo re i mpo r tan t u se s o f
s pace t h an t h ep r e se rva t ion o fb u r ied r ema in s , a nd t h e r ea r e a lway s n ew p h i lo soph ie s i na r chaeo logy a nd A l IM p rac t ice s t o b e d eve loped t h rough f u r the r r e sea rch .
H oweve r t h e re r ema in s a n
a s sump t ion t ha t s ome th ing c an b e m ea su red i nv a lue t e rm s b y a pp ropr ia te m e thod s .
T he p r ec i se
r e la t ion sh ip b e tw een a nc ien t m a t e r ia l w h ich u ndoub t ed ly e x i s t s i n ap hy s ica l f o rm a nd t h e r ema in s w h ich c an o n ly b e i d en t if i ed a s" a rcha eo log ica l" a s ar e su l t o fs oc ia l p roce ss w i l l b ecom e t h e g r ea t a r ea o fd eba te i nt h ef u tu re . A c ha l lengeab le a r ea i n e va lua t ing t h e a r cha eo log ica l r e sou rce c oncer n s t h e s i t e b a sed c ha rac t e r i s t ic o ft h e a r cha eo log ica l r e sou rce w h e r e t h e l e g i s la t ion m echan i sm o f r e co rd ing v a lue s s u ch a r e sou rce a s h av ing n a t iona l o r a r cha eo log ica l i mpo r tance .
T h is m ean s t h a t t h e t yp ica l
d ef in i t ion o fa r chaeo log ica ls i te s s e e st h em a s as e r ie s o fs pa t ia l ly b ounded e n t i t ie s , a nd t h e r ef o r et h e s pace b e tw een a r cha eo log ica l s i te s i sa s sumed t ob en o a r chaeo log ica l v a lue . R ecen t ly an umbe r o f d eve lopmen t s w i th in a r cha eo log ica l t h ink ing h a s h i gh l igh ted t h i s i s sue .
T he g row th o f n on s i t e
a r chaeo logy ( e .g . F o ley 1 981 , D unne 1 1 a nd D ancey 1 983 , S hennan 1 985 ) h a s c r i t ic i sed t h e s i t e b a sed n o t ion i nr e g iona l a na ly se s . N on s i t e b a sed a r cha eo logy r e cogn i se s t h e a r cha eo log ica l s i te a s aa r t if ic ia l c on s t ruc t ion , a nd p l ace s t h e e mpha s i s o n a r chaeo log ica l r ema in s r e vea led f r om s urvey a nd o n t h e i s sue s s uch a s s amp l ing w h ich a r i se f r om t h e u se o ft h i s e v idence ( s ee a l so c hap te r 3 ) . T h e r e h a s a l so b een a n i n c r ea s ing i n te re s t i nt h e c oncep t o f l a nd scape ( e .g . Wag s taf f 1 987 ) t h a t i n co rpo ra t e s t h e s pa t ia l m an if e s ta t ion o f t h e r e la t ion b e tween h uman s a nd t h e i r e nv i ronmen t s ( Crum ley a nd Ma rqua rd t 1 990 : 7 3 ) .
I n t h i s r e ga rd l a nd scape a r chaeo logy a im s t o s t udy t h e
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f o rma t ion a nd t r an sf o rma t ion p roce s se s o f t h e e nv i ronmen t c au sed b y e i the r n a tu ra l o r h uman a genc ie s , a nd t o e xp lo re t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e t wo .
T hu s , t h e n o t ion o f s i te b a sed
a r chaeo log ica l v a lue i na r ea s w he r e as e to fd i sc re t e c ompon en t s e x i s t s c an b e s e en t ob e i nc on f l ic t b o th w i th t h e n on s i te b a sed m e thodo logy f o r r e g iona l a na ly s i s , a nd w i th t h e c on t inu i ty w h ich i s e mbod ied i nt h e i d ea o fl a nd scape .
T h i s i sp o s s ib le o n ly t h rough c on s id e r ing t h e a r cha eo log ica l
r e sou rce a s as pa t ia l ly c on t inuou s v a r iab le ( Ken t 1 990 : 1 ,K ro l l a nd P r ice 1 991 : 1 3 , S t a r t in 1 995 , Whea t ley 1 995 : 1 7 1) . A no the r s i gn if ican t managemen t t a sk i st o d e t e rm ine t h e i mpac t o f l a nd -u se p l ann ing o n t h e a r cha eo log ica l h e r i tage ( Mac inn e s 1 993 ) .
I n s om e d eve loped c oun t r ie s t h e r e i sl e g i s la t ion t ha t a l
p l ann ing d ec i s ion s s hou ld b e r e v iew ed i na dvance t o d e te rm ine t h e i r i mpac t o n t h e h e r i tage .
F o r
m o s t l a nd -u se p l ann ing , t h i s m ean s t h a t a r cha eo log ica l h e r i tage m anage r s m us t a t t emp t t o d ev i se p o ss ib le w ay s f o r ap ro jec t t o a vo id , o r m in ima l ly d amage t h e a r chaeo log ica l h er i tage w i th in t h e p l ann ing a r ea .
I ti sc l ea r t h a t a ny l a nd scape p l ann ing d i s tu rb s t h e h uman i mpr in t s , b a lance s o f
b i o log ica l s p ec ie s , a nd a e s the t ic q ua l i t ie s o ft h e l a nd scape s t h rough a l te r ing t h e i r p hy s ica l f o rm s . T he r e i sg ene ra l ly at r end t oc on serve s pec if ic s i te s a nd m onumen t s b ecau se o ft h e i r h i s to r ica l a nd a e s the t ic i mpo r tance . Wha ti sg en e ra l ly f o rgo t ten b ya r cha eo log i s t s i st h ep r e se rva t ion o fe cof ac tua l e v idence o f a n a nc ien t l a nd scape .
I n m any c oun t r ie s t h e o l d f a sh ioned n o t ion o ft h e s i ng le s i t e
c on s t i tu te s t h e o n ly l e ga l s y s tem o fp ro t ec t ion ; t h e a l ter na t ive i st h e c u r r en t ly e s tab l i shed n o t ion o f t h e c on ser va t ion a r ea p rac t iced i n s ome c oun t r ie s ( e .g . P lann ing P o l icy G u idance N o t e 1 6 , i n B r i ta in ) t h rough w h ich t h em onumen t s a r e c on s id e red i nr e la t ion t oe ach o t he r a nd t ot h e l a nd scape o f w h ich t h ey f o rm a p a r t .
I n t h i s r e spec t , t h e AHM p o l ic ie s s hou ld b e i n teg ra t ed i n to a
c on serva t ion p o l icy t ha t c ove r s e very a spec t o fe nv i ronmen ta l h e r i tage p ro tec t ion i n c lud ing w i ld l if e l a nd scape , c oa s ta lp ro tec t ion , a nd m uch mo re ( K r i s t ian sen 1 984 ) . 5 .T he k i nd s o ft h rea t a nd c on serva t ion p o l icy A s m en t ioned a bove , w ha t mu s t b e p r e served d epend s o n t h e v a lue s a nd r e sea rch a im s o f t h e p r e sen t .
I ti sm o re o bv iou s t h a t n o t a l a r cha eo log ica l s i t e s a nd a r cha eo log ica l h e r i tag e c an b e
p r e ser ved f o r t h e i mmed ia te f u tu r e b ecau se o f t h e u navo idab le t h r ea t s f r om n a tu ra l a nd h uman a genc ie s .
I ns u ch c a se s t h e a pp l ica t ion o fr e scue o r s a lvage a r cha eo logy t o r e co rd a r cha eo log ica l
r ema in s i na dvance o ft h ed e s truc t ion i s ac ommon r e spon se t ot h e e ndange red s i t e s . T he r e a r e t wo m a jo rc a tego r ie so fd e s truc t ion : t h o se o f an a tu ra l o r ig in ; a nd t h o se a s soc ia t ed w i th h uman a c t iv i t ie s o nt h el a nd scape . N a tura la gen t s i n c lude t h ea c t iv i t ie so fv a r iou sp l an t s , a n ima l s a nd e r o s iv ea c t ion s ( w ind s , w a t e r a nd t empe ra tu re ) w h ich a f ec t a l a r cha eo log ica l h e r i tage i na r chaeo log ica l c on tex t s . F o r d i scu s s ion a nd d e sc r ip t ion o ft h e se p roce sse s a st h ey r e la t e t oa r cha eo log ica l s i te s s e e S ch if f e r ( 1 987 ) . H uman -cau sed d e s truc t ion i n c lud e :
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( 1 ) d e s t ruc t ion b y l a rge s ca le d eve lopmen t p ro jec t s b y wh ich t h e e a r th 's s urf ace i sn ow b e ing e xp lo i t ed f o rt h ec omme rc ia l a nd i n du s t r ia lp urpo se s m o re e x ten s ive ly t han e ve rb ef o re ; ( 2 ) d e s t ruc t ion b y m echan i sed a g r icu l tu re ; t h e m o s t e x ten s iv e d amage t o a r chaeq log ica l s i t e s i s a g r icu l tu ra l i n ten s if ica t ion .
T hough i ti ss l ow i ti sj u s t a s d e s t ruc t ive .
Mechan ica l p l ough ing
p en e t ra t e s b e low t h e s ur f ace a nd c au se s c on s id e rab le d amage t o b u r ied r ema in s . f o r e s t p l an ta t ion a nd t r ee r o o t s a r e d e s t roy ing s i t e s a nd m onumen t s .
I n o t h e r a r ea s
E l sewhe re t h e e x t en s ive
c l ea r ance o fw ood land s i st r an sf o rm ing t h e n a tu re o ft h e e nv i ronmen t s o t h a t l a nd i sb e ing e r oded a nd e c of ac t s a r eb e ing l o s t . I ns uch c a se s e f ec t ive m anagem en td epend s n o t o n ly o n l e g i s la t ion b u t a l so o nt h e d e s igna t ion o fm e thod s t or e duce d amage , a nd t ot h e e f ec t ive p ro t ec t ion o ft h e r ema in s ( s e ea l so N icken s 1 991) ; ( 3 )d e s t ruc t ion b yv anda l i sm a nd l o o t ing ;t h ed e l ibe ra t ed e s t ruc t ion o fa r cha eo log ica l s i te s c au sed b y l o o t ing a nd t h e s i te v anda l i sm c on s t i tu te s o n e o f t h e m o s t s e r iou s t h rea t s t o t h e a r cha eo log ica l h e r i tage . T he p rob lem i sw o r ld -w ide i n c lud ing a l a r cha eo log ica l h er i tage ; n eve r the le s s t h e p rob lem o fv anda l ism i sn o t n ew .
V a r iou s R oman Empe ro r s i s sued e d ic t s t o p ro tec t monumen t s ; s im i la r
e d ic t s o r l aw s w e re i s sued b y v a r iou s E u ropean c oun t r ie s f r om t h e 1 6 th c en tury . T he p rob lem o f p r o t ec t ing t h ea r chaeo log ica lh e r i tage w a s e xace rba t ed i nt h e l a s t c en tury b yt h e d ev9 lopmen t o ft h e g r ea t mu seum s i nt h e We s t . T o f i l lt h e se g r ea t c en t r e s t h e a r cha eo log ica l h e r i tage o fm any n a t ion s w e r e o f t en i l ega l ly e xpo r t ed .
I tw a s o n ly f r om t h e 1 970 s t h a t UNESCO p a s sed a c onven t ion t o
p r oh ib i t a nd p r even tt h e i l ic i t i mpo r t a nd e xpor t o ft h e c u l tu ra l h e r i tage . A tt h e s am e t ime a no the r i n t e rna t iona l d eve lopmen t w a s t h e d ec i s ion o ft h e I n t e rna t iona l C ounc i l o f Mu seum s ( I CO M ) t o a vo id a cqu i r ing a r t if ac t s w i thou t ar e l iab le p rovenance ( B jö r n s tad 1 989 ) . T he s ca le o ft h e p rob lem v a r ie s f r om o ne c oun t ry t oa no the r a cco rd ing t ot h e p ro tec t ive l e g i s la t ion , p ub l ic c on t ro l , l e ve l o f l i v ing c ond i t ion s , a nd t h e q ua l i ty o f l a nd o wn e r sh ip .
I n s om e c oun t r ie s , t h e U n i ted S ta te s f o r
i n s tance ,t h ep rob lem i sc omp l ica t ed b yt h ee x i s t ence o fs i te s o np r iva te l a nd , s ot h a tt h e c omme rc ia l e xp lo i ta t ion o fs i te s i so f t en c omp le te ly l e ga l a nd s ome t ime s t h e e xp lo i ta t ion b y t r ea su re h un t ing i s c a r r ied o u tw i th t h e a s s i s tance o fc on su l t ing a r cha eo log i s t s a nd CRM s t af f s ( E l ia 1 992 ) .
I n s ome
l a rge c oun t r ie s ( e .g . I r an ) w h e re t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o fa r cha eo log ica l h e r i tage e ven o n p r iva te l a nd i s i l ega l , i ti si mpo ss ib le t oe n su r e t h e p ro tec t ion o ft h e h e r i tage s c a t t e r ed o ve r t hou sand s o f s qua re k i lome t re s . F o r tuna te ly , n owaday s , a l n a t ion s o ve rt h e w o r ld a r e m ak ing a n t i loo t ing e f or t s ap r io r i ty a nd a r e t a k ing s t ep st oo ve rcome t h i s p rob lem , t h rough m o re r i go rou s l aw e nf o rcemen t , p ub l ic i n f o rma t ion , a nd v a r iou s r e levan t a c t ion s p rov id ed b yn a t iona l a nd i n te rna t iona l a c t s ( s ee , f o r e xamp le , O 'Keef e a nd P ro t t 1 984 , Mc Manamon 1 991 , H ut e ta l . 1 992 , C lee re 1 993 ) .
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6 .P re sen ta t ion o fa r cha eo log ica lh e r i tage T h e p r e s en ta t ion o f a r cha eo log ica l h e r i tag e t o t h e g en e ra l p ub l ic i sa n e s sen t ia l m e thod o f p romo t ing a nd u nd e r s tand ing o ft h eo r ig in a nd d ev e lopm en to fm od e rn s o c i e t ie s . A tt h es ame t im ei t i st h e m o s t i mpo r t an t m ean s o fp romo t ing a n u nd e r s tand ing o fi t s p ro t ec t ion .
T h e p r e sen ta t ion
s t ra t egy c an i n c lud ev a r iou st e chn iqu e s . T h e se i n c lud ep e rm an en ta nd t empo ra ry e xh ib i t ion s , a ud io v i sua lp r e sen ta t ion ,d emon s t ra t ion , d i sp lay p an e l s ,g u id ed w a lk , a nd t a lk s a nd l e a f l e t s . T he d ec i s ion a bou t w h ich t e chn iqu e t o u se s hou ld b e d e t e rm in ed b y c on s id e ra t ion s s uch a s w ha t i s b e ing p r e sen t ed f o rw hom a nd f o rw ha tp u rpo se s . A r cha eo log ica lh e r i tag ec an b ep r e sen t ed i nm any w ay . M any h i s to r ica l s i t e s p r ov id e ad emon s t ra t ion o f s k i l l s , c r af t s a nd a c t iv i t ie s f r om t h e p e r iod c on c e rn ed .
T h e m o s t p o s i t iv e a spec t o fd emon s t ra t ion i st h e o ppo r tun i ty f o r v i s i to r s t ob ecom e
f am i l ia r w i th a s p ec t s o ft h e p a s t l i f eway s . T h e d emon s t ra t ion a l so h e lp s t op e rpe tua t e k now ledg e w h ich o t h e rw i s ew ou ld b el o s t . O n s i t e p r e sen ta t ion i sa n e f ec t iv e m e an s o f p opu la r i sa t ion .
T h e m a in o b jec t iv e s o f o n s i t e
p r e sen ta t ion c an b e : ( 1 ) i mp rov ing a c c e s s t o t h e a r cha eo log ica l s i t e w h i l s t p ro t ec t ing t h e mo s t s e n s i t iv e a nd f r ag i l e a r ea s o ft h e s i t e ; ( 2 ) i n c r ea s ing p ub l ic a wa r en e s s o ft h e h i s to r ica l a nd c u l tu ra l d im en s ion o ft h e a r ea ; ( 3 ) i n vo lv ing aw id e r a nge o fo r gan i sa t ion s , g roup s , a nd i n d iv idua l s i nt h e p r o t e c t ion o fa r cha eo log ica lh e r i tag e ; ( 4 ) p r omo t ing e nv i ronm en ta l a nd a r cha eo log ica l e duca t ion b y u s ing t e chn i ca l m ean s ; a nd ( 5 ) p rov id ing p ub l ic i ty a nd p ub l i c r e la t ion s uppo r t ( s e e a l so S t an l ey P r ic e 1 990 ) . A r cha eo log i ca lm u seum sh av ea ni mpo r tan tr o le i nt h em anag em en to fa r cha eo log ica lh e r i tage a nd i nt h e p r e sen ta t ion o ft h e se m a t e r ia l s i n aw id e r a ng e o fd i sp lay a nd i n t e rp r e t iv e p ro je c t s a imed t o e n t e r t a in , e du ca t e a nd e n l igh t en . I nr e c en t y ea r s t h e a t t i tud e s o fm u seum s h av e c hang ed f r om t h e t r ad i t iona l e n o rmou s a c cumu la t ion o f l u xu ry f i nd s , t o t h e e xh ib i t ion o f f i nd s f o r i n t e rp r e t iv e p u rpo se s , i mag ina t iv e d i sp lay s o ff i nd s i nc on t ex t , a nd ar e con s t r uc t ion o fa r cha eo log ic a l h e r i tag e . I ti s a r gued t h a t d if e r en t t e chn iqu e s o f e xh ib i t ion i n m u seum s s t imu la t e d if e r en t k i nd s o f u nd e r s t and ing .
T h ea r r ang em en to ff i nd sw i th in as t rong a x ia l s t ruc tu r e , w i th l i t t le s pa c eb e twe en
d i sp lay u n i t s a nd ap r ed e t e rm in ed r o u t ef o rm ov ing v i s i to r s , h e lp s t h e r e la t ion sh ip t ob eu nd e r s tood b e t t e r t h an t h e s t r uc tu r e s w i th m u l t ip l e c i r cu la t ion r o u t e s , w i th e a ch d i sp lay u n i t f o rm ing a n i n d epend en ta s pec to fk now l edg e( P ea r c e 1 993 ) . L o ca l m u s eum s p l ay a ni mpo r tan tr o l ei nc h i ld r en 's c u l tu ra l e duca t ion a nd i np ub l ic a wa r en e s s , b y m ak ing u s e o fa r t if a c t s a nd e t hnog raph ic m a t e r ia l s . B y u s ing a ud io -v i sua l i n s t rum en t s a s pec t s o f p eop le ' sp a s tc an b ed emon s t ra t ed , a nd c h i ld r en e n cou rag ed t oa c qu i r ek now l edg e .
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I n r e cen t y ea r s i n s i tu p r e sen ta t ion o f a r cha eo log ica l ma t e r ia l s t o e n l igh t en t h e p ub l ic t h rough v a r iou s e xcava t ion p rog ramme s a nd r e con s truc t ed a r cha eo log ica l s i te s h a s s e en c on s ide rab le e f o r t s i nv a r iou s c oun t r ie s , f o r e xamp le , t h e I mpe r ia l T omb a tX ian i nC h ina o rt h e J o rv ik V ik ing C en t re a tY o rk i n B r i ta in .
T he l a t te r i sp l ay ing a n i mpo r tan t r o le n o t o n ly i n p re sen t ing a p a r t icu la r
e x cava t ion a nd e xp la in ing t h e s e quence o f a r cha eo log ica l d i scovery i na n i mag ina t ive w ay t o t h e p ub l ic b u t t h e m e s sage s a r e r e p re sen ted w i th in a n e n joyab le a nd d ynam ic a tmo sphe re ( Addyman 1 990 ) . P opu la r i s ing a r chaeo logy t h rough m ed ia a nd a r cha eo log ica l p ub l ica t ion s h a s f ound a n i mpor tan t p l ac ei nh e r i tage m anagemen t . T hough i nm o s t c oun t r ie s t h e re a r e l a rge n umbe r s o fa r cha eo log ica l r e po r t s , a r cha eo log i s t s o f t en m ake l i t t le e f o r t t ot r an s la te d ry a nd t e chn ica l r e por t s i n to p opu la r a c coun t s , o r m ak ing t h e i r w o rk s c omp reh en s ib le t o t h e p eop le w ho a r e u l t ima te ly p ay ing t h e p r og ramme 's e xpen se s . O nt h eo t he rh and i n f o rma t ion i s made a va i lab le t h rough p ub l ica t ion o ft h e r e su l t s . T h i s may n o tt a ke p l ace u n t i l l o ng a f t e rt h e e xcava t ion h a s b een c omp le ted , s i nce t h e re a r e o f t en many s p ec ia l i s t s w ho se w o rk h a s t ob e c o -o rd ina t ed a nd w ho se c omb ined f i nd ing s h ave t ob e a na ly sed . N eve r the le ss , i th a s b een c l a imed t h a t i nB r i ta in , f o r i n s tance , u p t o6 0 p e rcen to fm oder n e x cava t ion s r ema in u npub l i sh ed a f t e r 1 0 y ea r s ( R enf rew a nd B ahn 1 991 : 4 81) .
T he re a r e s ome
i n d ica t ion s t h a t t h i s s i tua t ion i s i mp rov ing a nd a r chaeo log ica l i n f o rma t ion i s n ow b ecom ing a va i lab le a tl e a s t i nt h e d eve loped c oun t r ie s t h rough p ub l i sh ing b ook s a nd magaz ine s a s w e l l a s b r ochu re s a nd b ook le t s o nt h em o re g ene ra lt o p ic s o fa r chaeo logy ( s ee C anou t s 1 992 f o rd e ta i l ) . T h e r o le o f o t h e r m ed ia s uch a s t e lev i s ion a nd r a d io i n t h i s w ay b y p rov id ing n ew s , f i lm a nd a r cha eo log ica lp rog ramme si sm o re i mpo r tan ta nd m o r ee f ec t ive . 7 .H i s tory o fd eve lopmen t o fl e g i s la t ion c on tro l T h roughou t t h e w o r ld t h e p ro t ec t ion a nd p r e serva t ion o f a r cha eo log ica l r ema in s b y l e g i s la t ive c on t ro l h a s l o ng b een r e cogn i sed .
T he e a r l ie s t l aw s t o p ro tec t a nc ien t m onumen t s d a t e b ack t o
a nc ien tt ime s , a nd w e re c once rned w i th t omb robb ing , l i nked w i th r e l ig iou s s anc t ion s , s u ch a st h a t a ga in s tt h eg rave r obbe r s o ft h eP ha raon ic T ombs o rt h e R oya l T omb s o fU r (Woo l ley 1 953 : 9 1-93 , D an ie l 1 975 ) .
H oweve r , t h e l i m i ted l e g i s la t ive a c t s f r om a nc ien t t ime s d i d n o t e s tab l i sh a ny
i mpor tan t t r ad i t ion i n E u rope .
T he f i r s t s t age t o p ro t ec t a r cha eo log ica l h e r i tage i nt h e e a r l ie s t
E u ropean l e g i s la t ion w a s c once rned w i th t h e p r even t ing v anda l i sm , i n ten t iona l d e s truc t ion a nd t h e i mpo r t ing o ff i nd s . I n 1 462 P ope P iu s Io rde red t h ep ro tec t ion o ft h e a nc ien t monumen t s o fR ome , a nd a R oya l P roc lama t ion o f 1 666 f o rbade t h e d e s t ruc t ion o f a nc ien t monumen t s i n S weden ( O 'Keef e a nd P ro t t 1 984 : 3 4 ) .
C on s id e r ing t h e r ema in s o ft h e p a s t a s at a ng ib le m an if e s ta t ion o f
h uman a ch ievem en t s a nd n a t iona l c u l tu ra l i d en t i ty a s e xp re ssed i n AHM t e rm s i s ar e cen t
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p h enom enon . Mo s tE u ropean c oun t r ie st ook t h e i rf i r s ts t ep si nt h i s d i r ec t ion i nt h el a t e 1 9 th c en tu ry l a rg e ly a s ar e su l t o ft h e d ev e lopmen t o ft h e m od e rn s c ien t if i c a pp roach t o a r cha eo logy a nd a n a pp r ec ia t ion o fv a lue o fi n d igenou s c u l tu r e s ( n o t s imp ly c l a s s ica l c i v i l i sa t ion ) . O u t s id e E u rope t h e e s tab l i shm en t o fl e g i s la t ion a nd o rgan i sa t iona l i n s t i tu t ion s f o r p ro t ec t ion o r p re serva t ion p u rpo se s w a s g en e ra l ly l a t e r a nd v a r ied e ven m o re i nc on t en t . P a r t icu la r ly i nA f r ica a nd A s ia , f o r i n s tance , w i th t h ee xp i r ing o ft h ec o lon ia l Emp i r e s i nt h ey ea r sf o l low ing Wo r ld Wa r Ia nd t h ec r ea t ion o ft h e n ew n a t ion s t a t e s , an ew g en e ra t ion o f a n t iqu i t ie s p ro tec t ion l e g i s la t ion w a s b o rn .
T he r o le o f
c u l tu ra l h e r i tag e i nt h e e s tab l i shm en t o fc u l tu ra l i d en t i ty i s af undam en ta l o n e , s i nc e i tp rov id e s a b a se b y w h ich t h e p roof o f ad i s t inc t n a t ionhood c an b e p o s s ib le . A s ar ef l ec t ion o ft h i s n a t iona l f e e l ing ,m any o ft h en ew s t a t e s e nac t ed l e g i s la t ion t oc on t ro l a l t h eh e r i tage o ft h ep a s tw i th in t h e i r c oun t r i e s , e s pec ia l ly a s ub s tan t ia l c on t ro l o v e r t h e e xpo r t o f c u l tu ra l m a t e r ia l , v anda l i sm , a nd d e s t ruc t ion o f n a t iona l a n t iqu i t ie s .
I t w ou ld b e i mpo s s ib le i n t h i s c hap t e r t o p rov id e a
c omp r eh en s iv eo v e rv iew o ft h ed eve lopmen ta lp roce s so ft h ei s sue o v e rt h ew o r ld . T h e r eh a sb een a g r ow ing l i t e ra tu r e c onc e rn ing t h i s f i e ld b o th r e g iona l ly a nd i n t er na t iona l ly ; m o re r e f e r ence s c an b e f o und i nO 'K e ef ea nd P ro t t( 1 984 ) , P ro t ta nd O 'K e ef e( 1 989 ) , O 'K e ef f e( 1 993 ) , C lee r e( 1 993 ) . S i n c et h e s e cond s e c t ion o ft h i s c hap t e r d ea l s w i th c u r r en t s i tua t ion o f AHM i nI r an , h e re , o n ly a b r ief r e v iew i sm ad e o n t h e d eve lopm en t o ft h e f i e ld i nt h e N ea r E a s t t o s e e h ow t h e l e g i s la t ion s y s t em o fI r an w a sd eve loped w i th in t h i s c on t ex t . T h e g r ea t e r p a r t o ft h e N ea r E a s t w a s c on t ro l led b y t h e O t toman Emp i r e u n t i l t h e F i r s t Wo r ld Wa r . T h eu sua lp rac t ice w a st oo b ta in ap e rm i tf r om t h e S u l tan a low ing t h ec o l lec t ion a nd r emova l o fa n t iqu i t ie s .
U nd e r t h i s s y s t em L o rd E lg in r emov ed m a rb l e s f r om t h e A c ropo l i s i nA th en s i n
1 799 , L aya rd a nd B o t ta r emov ed t h e A s sy r ian s c u lp tu r e s f r om t h e T e l l s o f Me sopo t am ia b e tw een 1 843 a nd 1 851 ( L loyd 1 980 : 9 8 100 ) , a nd n um e rou s i t em s w e r e r emoved b y S ch l iema rm f r om h i s e xcava t ion a tT roy f r om 1 870 t o 1 890 .
I n T u rk ey i n 1 874 t h e A n t iqu i ty R egu la t ion b rough t a l
a r cha eo log ica l e xcava t ion i nt h e Emp i r e u nd e r c on t ro l s ot h a t f o r e ign r e sea rch e r s c ou ld n o t l o ng e r r a vag e a nd r emov e f r om t h e Emp i r e w ha t t h ey f o und , b u t i n s t ead h ad t o l e av e o n e th i rd o ft h e i r d i scov e r ie s t ot h e S t a t e .
A t t h e s am e t im e t h e N a t iona l Mu seum a nd a s choo l t ot r a in O t toman
a r cha eo log i s t s a nd m u seum s p ec ia l i s t s w e r e e s tab l i sh ed .
T he D i r ec to r o f Mu seum s p e rm i t t ed t h e
B r i t i sh Mu seum 's e xcava t ion a tK uyun j ik a nd o b l iged t h em o n ly t op r e sen tt ot h e mu seum c op ie s o f t h e i r a r cha eo log ica l p ub l ica t ion s a nd c a s t s o fA s sy r ian r e l ief s ( L loyd 1 980 : 1 70 ) .
Af t e r t h e F i r s t
Wo r ld Wa r n ew l e g i s la t ion r e p laced t h e p r ev iou s O t toman l aw t h rough w h ich e xcava t ion s a nd a n t iqu i ty e xpo r t sw e r ea low ed o n ly w i th t h ea pp rova lo ft h eg ov e rnm en t , a nd o b jec t s r e su l t ing f r om e x cava t ion sw e r et ob ed i v id ed b e twe en t h ee xcava to ra nd t h eg ove rnm en ti n af i xed p ropo r t ion .
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T he s i tua t ion i nI r aq u n t i l 1 9 17 w a s t o s om e e x ten t t h e s ame a s T u rkey .
I n t h i s y ea r B r i ta in
o ccup ied I r aq a nd aB r i t i sh w oman , G e r t rude B e l l , b ecam et h e f i r s t D i rec to r o f An t iqu i t ie s a nd s h e e s tab l i shed t h e f i r s t mu seum i n I r aq . e xcava t ion s .
I n 1 924 a l aw w a s p a ssed t o c on t ro l t h e c onduc t o f
T h i s l aw r e f lec ted s t anda rd s o fc on tempo ra ry a r chaeo logy a nd f o rced e xped i t ion s t o
u se t h em o s ti mp roved a nd u p to -da te m e thod s . A cco rd ing t ot h i s l aw , a l though a l l f i nd s w e r e i nt h e f i r s tp l ace t h ep rope r ty o ft h e S ta t e , a tt h ee nd o fw o rk , t h ee xped i t ion s w e r e g i ven t h e r i gh tt os e lec t an umbe r o fo b jec t s i nr e compen se f o rt h e i r p a in a nd e xpen se . T he A n t iqu i ty L aw o f 1 936 l i m i ted t h e r i gh t o ff o r e ign e xcava to r s t o as ha re o ft h e r emovab le f i nd s .
T he a mendmen t s o f 1 974 a nd
1 975 h ave b roadened t h ep r ev iou s l aw a nd p rov ided at o ta l p roh ib i t ion o fe xpor t . I r aq h a s a lway s h ad al a rge n umbe r o ff o re ign e xcava t ion t e am s . I nr e cen t y ea r s t h e r e h a s a l so b een i n c rea sed c o o pe ra t ion b e tw een t h eI r aq ia n t iqu i t ie s a u tho r i t ie s a nd f o r e ign e xped i t ion s f o r r e scue o pe ra t ion s s uch a st h eH am r in a nd H ad i tha p ro jec t s ( s ee a l so L loyd 1 980 , Ma sry 1 981 : 2 33 ) . L ebanon a nd S y r ia , a s F r ench manda te s , a pp l ied t h e f i r s t a n t iqu i t ie s l e g i s la t ion c r ea ted b y t h e F r ench a dm in i s t ra t ion . T he r e gu la t ion w a s r e newed i n1 947 ; t h i s w a s ac omp le te p i ece o fl e g i s la t ion o nt h eF r ench p a t t e rn , a nd p rov ided f o rt h ec l a s s if ica t ion o fc u l tu ra l p roper ty o fs pec ia l s i gn if icance . I ta l so p rov ided a c r uc ia l c on t ro l o n e xcava t ion a nd t h e t r ad ing o f a n t iqu i t ie s .
T he c u r ren t
l e g i s la t ion i nb o th c oun t r ie s i sb a sed o n t h e o l d e r l e g i s la t ion ; t h ey h ave s t reng thened t h e p rov i s ion r e ga rd ing s t a te o wn e r sh ip , l i cen s ing e xcava t ion s a nd t r ad ing a n t iqu i t ie s . I n P a le s t ine ( mod er n I s rae l a nd J o rdan ) t h e s i tua t ion w a s s im i la r t o t h a t o f L ebanon a nd S y r ia . B r i ta in w a s r e spon s ib le f o rt h e m anda te o fP a le s t in e a f t e r t h e F i r s t Wo r ld Wa r , a nd i n t roduced a n a dm in i s t ra t ive r e gu la t ion k nown a s A n t iqu i ty O rd inance .
C u r ren t l e g i s la t ion i n I s ra e l p a ssed i n
1 978 h a s s om e e xce l len t p rov i s ion o n s i te p ro tec t ion a nd u nderwa te r c u l tu ra l h e r i tage .
J o rdan ian
l e g i s la t ion , p a s sed i n 1 975 , h a s m ade p rov i s ion s uch a st h e r e qu i r emen t o ft h e l o g i s t ic i n f o rma t ion f o r i s su ing e xcava t ion l i cence s a nd p rov i s ion s o n t h e s a f e ty o f t h e m i s s ion s ( O 'Keef e a nd P ro t t 1 984 : 5 0 ) . E gyp t , b ecau se o f i t s v i s ib le m onumen t s , h a s l o ng a t t rac t ed E u ropean t r ave l le r s , f r om t h e 1 6 th c e n tu ry .
Many e xcava t ion s w e re c a r r ied o u t d u r ing t h e 1 8 th c en tury a nd , a s i n Me sopo tam ia , a
l a rge n umbe r o fe xcava ted f i nd s f ound t h e i r r o u te s t ow e s ter n m u seum s .
T he f i r s t r e gu la t ion t o
p ro t ec t t h e E gyp t ian a r chaeo log ica l h e r i tage w a s c r ea t ed b y F rench e xcava to r "Ma r ie t te" w ho e s tab l i shed a n E gyp t ian S e rv ice o fA n t iqu i t ie s a nd E gyp t ian N a t iona l Mu seum i n 1 858 .
I n 1 884
Ma spe ro , h ead o ft h e F rench I n s t i tu te i nC a i ro , e ncou raged t h e E gyp t ian G ove rnmen t t oa low t h e e xpor t o fs ome p a r t o ft h e f i nd s b y e xcava to r s , a nd t h i s r e su l ted i na n e n thu s ia sm f o r f und ing o f e xcava t ion s i nE gyp t b yv a r iou s E u ropean i n s t i tu t ion s ( D rowe r 1 982 : 1 4 , 3) . I n 1 889 t h e B r i t i sh E gyp tE xp lo ra t ion S oc ie ty c a r r ied o u ta r cha eo log ica l s u rvey s i nE gyp ta nd r e co rded ag r ea t n umbe r
1 69
o fa r cha eo log ica l m onum en t s . T h e c u r ren t l e g i s la t ion i nE gyp t , e na c t ed i n 1 951 , u s e s as y s tem o f l e g i s la t ion s im i la rt ot h a t o ft h e F r ench s y s t em . A cco rd ing t ot h i s a c t n o r e g i s t e r ed a n t iqu i t ie s c an b ee xpo r t ed , f i nd sm u s tb er e po r t ed a nd a l le xcava t ion mu s tb el i c en sed . A rcha eo logy i nt h e c oun t r i e s o ft h e A rab ian P en in su la s t a r t ed v e ry m uch l a te r t h an i no t h e r N ea r E a s ter n c oun t r ie s .
A n t iqu i t ie s l e g i s la t ion i nt h e se c oun t r ie s w a s a dop ted f r om o t h e r a d jacen t
r e g ion s ,p a r t icu la r ly f r om S y r ia , i n1 970 . I n I r an p r io r t o 1 927 a r cha eo logy w a s e xc lu s iv e ly u nde r t h e c on t ro l o fF rance ( s e e c hap te r 1f o r d e ta i l s ) . T h e f i r s t I r an ian a n t iqu i t ie s l aw p a s sed i n 1 930 p rov id ed p r o t ec t ion o ve r a r chaeo log ica l monum en t s . I nt h i s l e g i s la t ion t wo k i nd s o fe xcava t ion w e r e d ef in ed : s c ien t if i c e xcava t ion f o r t h e p u rpo se o f a r cha eo log ica l r e sea r ch r e qu i r ed s p ec ia l l i c enc e , a nd e xcava t ion f o r c omme rc ia l e xp lo i ta t ion p u rpo se sw a sp e rm i t t ed o n ly o nu n r eg i s t e red s i t e s . A cco rd ing t ot h i s l aw a l f i nd s f r om s c ien t if i c a nd c omm e rc ia l e x cava t ion s ( e xc ep t 1 0 s e lec t ed i t em s ) w e r e t h e p roper ty o f t h e e xcava to r s . T h e a m endm en t s o f 1 968 a nd 1 973 h av e b road en ed t h e p r ev iou s l aw a nd p rov id ed a r e s t r ic t ion o n c omm e rc ia l e xcava t ion s , i l ega l e xcava t ion s a nd a n t iqu i t ie s e xpo r t s , a s w e l l a s p ro t ec t ing n a t iona l h e r i tag e o n p r iva t e p rope r ty ( Cu l tu ra l H e r i tag e O rgan i sa t ion 1 989 : 3 7 , 5 0 , 5 ; N egahban 1 997 : 3 9 -41 ) . F o r as ho r tt im e a f t e rt h e b eg inn ing o ft h e I s lam ic R evo lu t ion i nI r an i n 1 979 , u n t i lt h e e s tab l i shm en t o fn ew o rgan i sa t ion s i n1 985 , a r cha eo log ica l h e r i tag e r ema ined i na n u ncon t ro l l ed p o s i t ion i nw h ich d amage t os i t e s r e a ched i t s m ax imum .
I nt h i s y ea r t h e P a r l iam en t
p a s sed a l aw p rov id ing t h e p ro t ec t ion o f t h e S t a t e o n b o th n a t iona l a nd p r iva t e p rope r ty , a l c l and e s t in ee x cava t ion b ecam ei l ega l , a sw e l la st h ee xpo r to fr e l ic s . O n ly s c ien t if i ci n s t i tu t ion s a r e a u tho r i sed t o d o f i e ldwo rk .
A cco rd ing t o t h i s l aw a n ew o r gan i sa t ion k nown a s t h e ' Cu l tu ra l
H e r i tag e O rgan i sa t ion ' w a s e s tab l i sh ed a s ac en t r e t o m anag e a l a r cha eo log ica l a c t iv i t ie s t h roughou tt h ec oun t ry . 8 .D ev e lopmen to fi n terna t iona ll e g i s la t ion A t t h e i n t e rna t iona l l e v e l UNESCO ( 1 985 ) h a s r e spon s ib i l i ty f o r a s e r ie s , o f i mpo r tan t r e comm enda t ion s a nd c onv en t ion s s uch a st h eC onv en t ion f o rt h eP ro t ec t ion o fC u l tu ra l P roper ty i n t h ee v en to fA rm ed C on f l ic t s ( Th eH ague C onv en t ion 1 954 ) ,t h eC onv en t ion f o rt h eP roh ib i t ing a nd P r even t ing t h e I l ic i t I mpo r t , E xpo r t a nd T ran sf e ro fC u l tu ra l P rope r ty ( 1 970 ) , a nd t h e C onven t ion f o rt h eP ro t ec t ion o ft h e Wo r ld C u l tu ra la nd N a tu ra lH e r i tage ( 1 972 ) . UNESCO h a s r un an umbe r o f m a jo r i n t er na t iona l c ampa ign s l a rge ly f i n anc ed b y c on t r ibu t ion s f r om Membe r S t a t e s ; t h e se i n c lud e : t h e c ampa ign i nN ub ia i na dvance o ft h e c omp le t ion o ft h e A sad D am ; t h e r e s to ra t ion o f t emp le s a tB o robodu r ( I ndon e s ia ) a nd i nK a tmandhu ( Nepa l ) ; t h e e x cava t ion a tC a r thage ( Tun i s ia ) a s w e l l a sp ro t ec t ing o r r e pa i r ing m a jo r a r cha eo log ica l s i t e s o v e r t h e w o r ld s uch a st h e E gyp t ian
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P y ram id s ( C lec re 1 993 ) . UNESCO h a s a l so b een a c t ive i np rov id ing s ub s tan t ia l m a ter ia l s uppor t f o r l a rge n a t iona l p ro jec t s a nd i ns upp ly ing e xper t s t oh e lp i nv a r iou s w ay s w i th s ma l le r p ro jec t s . T h e r e h a s a l so b een as e r ie s o fr e comm enda t ion s c once rn ing AHM i s sued b y UNESCO i n c lud ing : P r inc ip le s A pp l icab le t o A rchaeo log ica l E xcava t ion ( 1959 ) ; P r e serva t ion o f E ndange red C u l tu ra l H e r i tage ( 1968 ) ; E xchange o fC u l tu ra l P rope r ty ( 1976 ) ; P ro tec t ion o f Moveab le C u l tu ra l H er i tage ( 1 978 ) . I n 1 985 I CO MOS ( I n t e rna t iona l C ounc i l o n Monumen t s a nd S i te s ) c r ea ted a n I n te rna t iona l C omm i t tee o nA rchaeo log ica lH e r i tage Managemen t ( I CAHM ) . I CAHM ( 1 990 ) i d en t if i ed t h e n eed f o r a n i n te rna t iona l C ha r t e r t o p rov ide t h e p h i lo soph ica l b a s i s f o r p ro t ec t ion a nd h er i tage m anagemen t . T h i s C ha r te rw a s r a t if i ed b y I CO MOS i nL au sanne i n1 990 ( I COMOS 1 990 ) .
T he
C ha r t e r d ef ine st h e p rof e s s iona l s t anda rd s a nd g oa l s f o r A l IM i nf i e ld s s uch a sp ro tec t ion p o l ic ie s , l e g i s la t ion a nd e conomy , f i e ldwo rk , m a in t enance a nd c on serva t ion , p rof e s s iona l q ua l if ica t ion , e t c . A no the r i n te rna t iona l b ody w h ich h a s b een a c t ive i n c r ea t ing r u le s o f i n t er na t iona l l aw i st h e C ounc i l o f E u rope .
T he E u ropean C u l tu ra l C onven t ion o f 1 954 e s tab l i shed t h e c oncep t o f a
E u ropean c u l tu ra l h e r i tage , a nd t h e C onven t ion o f 1 969 c ove r ed c l ande s t ine e xcava t ion s . I n 1 992 , 2 0 E u ropean S t a te s s i gn ed t h e E u ropean C onven t ion o n t h e P ro tec t ion o f t h e A rchaeo log ica l H e r i tage t o r e p lace t h e o r ig ina l C onven t ion o f 1 969 .
T he R ev i sed C onven t ion , t h rough m ak ing a
c omp rehen s ive d ef in i t ion o fa r chaeo log ica lh e r i tage , s t re s se st h ev a lue o ft h e a r chaeo log ica l h e r i tage a s as ou rce o fE u ropean c u l tu re a nd a sa ni n s trumen tf o r s c ien t if i c s t udy . T he m o s t i mpor tan t f i e ld s t o b e c ove r ed b y t h i s C onven t ion a r e : p ro tec t ion a nd c on ser va t ion , s c ien t if i c p ub l ica t ion a nd e duca t ion , p ro t ec t ion o fu nderwa te rh e r i tage , s c ien t if ic e xchange o fe xpe r ience s a nd e xpe r t s b e tween S t a t e s , l e ga l a cqu i s i t ion o ff i nd sb ys t a t em u seum s , e t c ( O 'K eef e 1 993 ) . 9 .A rchaeo log ica lh er i tage managemen ti nI ran T h e c ur ren tw eakne s s o fI r an ian a r cha eo logy i nt h eo r e t ica l a nd m e thodo log ica l t e rm s i st h e b road p r edom inance o f c u l tu ra l h i s to r ica l m e thod , t h e i n comp le t e a ccep tance o f n ew t e chn ique s i n f i e ldwo rk , i nd a ta a na ly s i s ( p a laeobo tany , s t a t i s t ica l a na ly s i s , e t c ) , a nd ab road i g no rance o ft r end s i ni n t er na t iona la r chaeo logy . A rcha eo logy i nI r an f r om i t sb eg inn ing h a s b een s t ruc tu red t of i nd a nd d i sp lay a r t if ac t s . A tn o t ime t h e r e h ave b een a ny a t t emp t s t o s t udy r e la t ion sh ip s b e tw een f i nd s a nd t h eo re t ica l c on s idera t ion s . T hu s , i ne mp i r ica l s t ud ie s s uch a s e xcava t ion t h e i mmed ia t e i mpac t o ff i nd s o n t h eory i sg ene ra l ly n eg lec ted . T he r e h a s n o t y e t b e en s uf i c ien t r e -exam ina t ion o ft h e s t a t e o f a r cha eo logy a nd a r cha eo log ica l r e sea rch a nd i t s r e la t ion t oI r an ian s o c ia l a nd p o l i t ica l c on t ex t s ( p re -and p o s t -R evo lu t ion ) i n I r an .
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A pa r tf r om t h er e c en tw o rk o fN egahban ( 1 997 ) w h ich i nh i s a u tob iog raphy d ea l s o n ly v e ry s imp ly w i th t h e b eg inn ing o fa r cha eo logy i nI r an , t h e r e r ema in s o n ly t h e a c coun t o f Ma l ek S h ahm i r zad i ( 1 987 ) w ho d e sc r ibe s s om e a s pe c t s o fI r an ian a r cha eo logy w i thou t m ak ing a n a s se s sm en t o ft h e p o l i t ica l c onn ec t ion o f a r cha eo logy o r t r y ing t o a na ly se t h e t h eo r e t ica l b a se f o r t h e s ub je c t . T h e r ef o r e , i nt h el a ck o ft h ep ub l i sh ed i n f o rma t ion a nd d if i cu l ty i na cc e s st ou npub l i sh ed d a tabank s i nI r an , s t a t em en t si nt h i st h e s i sc anno tb ed ocum en t ed i na l d e ta i l s , b u tt h ey a r i se f r om t h ep e r sona l k now ledg ea nd e xpe r i en c eo fa u tho ra s at e a ch ing m embe ro fa r cha eo logy i nt h em a in d e pa r tm en to f a r cha eo logy i nT eh ran . F rom t h ev e ry b eg inn ing a r cha eo logy i nI r an w a sl a rge ly v i ew ed a s ad ev ic et os uppo r tt h ed oc t r in e o f of i c ia ln a t iona l i sm i nt h ep r e -R evo lu t ion r e g im e . T h es t udy o fm a t e r ia lr ema in s w a sr e ga rd ed a s a ni n s t rum en tf o rp r omo t ing P an I r an i sm b ye mpha s i s ing t h eg l o r i e s o ft h eI r an ian n a t ion b ef o r et h e S a sm id c i v i l i sa t ion w a s a bo l i sh ed b y t h e i n va s ion o ft h e A rab ic Mo s l em s i nt h e s e v en th c en tu ry A .D . D u r ing t h e e n t i r e p e r iod o ft h e P ah lav i D yna s ty , t h ey l e g i t im i sed t h e i r a u tho r i ta r ian i sm b y r e f e r en c et ot h et h eo r e t ica l c on c ep t o f" k ing sh ip i s ad i v in e b l e s s ing" , t h e o n ly p h i lo sophy d ec la r ed a cc ep tab l eb yt h eG ov e rnm en t . T h i s l e dm o s ta r cha eo log i s t s ( b ecau se o f of i c ia l e n cou rag em en t )t o d ot h e i rb e s tt oj u s t if yt h eI r an ian I mpe r ia lp a s tb yd ea l ing w i th o n ly h i s to r ica l a r cha eo logy . D u r ing t h i s p e r iod , a r cha eo logy a dap t ed i t s e lf t o t h e r e g im e .
I tw a s c ha ra c t e r i sed b y ac e n t ra l i sa t ion
d i r e c t ed a nd s t rong ly c on t ro l led f r om t h ec ap i ta lb ya r cha eo log i s t sw ho w e r et os om ee x t en t l o ya lt o t h e r e g im e a nd i n t e r e s t ed i na n i n t e rp r e ta t ion o fh i s to ry w h ich m a t ch ed t h e c on t empo ra ry p o l i t ica l s i tua t ion . A l though m o s t w o rk h av e b e en o r i en t ed a r ound t h i s i s su e , n ev e r th e l e s s f r om t h e 1 960 s t h e re h a s b e en i mpo r t an td i scov e r i e s o fp r eh i s to r ic s i t e s , m a in ly b yf o r e ign e xped i t ion s . D e sp i t et h ew ea l th o f d a ta c o l l ec t ed f r om e x cava t ion sw h ich h av ef i l l ed a r cha eo log ica ls t o r e s a c ro s st h e c oun t ry , l i t t le h a s b e en p ub l i sh ed a nd f ew s c i en t if i ca na ly t ica l s t ud ie sh av eb e en c a r r ied o u tb yI r an ian a r cha eo log i s t s . A s ac on sequ en c e , a r cha eo log ica l a im s ( t ot a k e c a r e o fn ew f i nd s , p ro t e c tt h em , a nd t h e i n spec t ion o ft h ew o rk o fp rof e s s iona l a r cha eo log i s t s ) w e r e n o t d ef in ed a nd p a t ch i ly i mp lem en t ed . T h e s y s t em r e l i ed e n t i r e ly o n p e r sona l a b i l i ty w i thou t of i c ia l s uppo r t ; t h e s y s t em a l so e ncou rag ed u nqua l if i ed p eop l e t ob e a ppo in t ed t oa r cha eo log ica l p o s t s . T h i s s a d f a c t i s ar e f l ec t ion o ft h e a b s enc e o f a d ynam ic r e sea r ch s t ra t egy s uppo r t ed b yt h eG ov e rnm en t , a nd o ft h el ow p rof e s s iona la b i l i ty o fm any I r an ian a r cha eo log i s t s . A l la r ep r ob lem sw h ich a r eb e ing a dd r e s sed a tt h ep r e sen tt im e( s e eb e low ) . Ma jo r c h ang e s t o ok p l a c e i nt h e I r an ian a cad em ic w o r ld a tt h e e nd o ft h e S econd Wo r ld Wa r . T h e se w e r e r e f le c t ed i n t h e p r e sen ce o f al a rg e n umbe r o f i n t e l le c tua l s a nd s p e c ia l i s t s w ho , a cco rd ing t o ad ev e lopm en t p o l icy , h ad b een e duca t ed i nw e s t e rn c oun t r ie s .
T h e a va i lab i l i ty o f
p o s t sf o rt h em i ng ov e rnm en ta lc i r c le sa low ed t h eo r gan i sa t ion sf o rm ed a tt h i st im et oc on t inue w i th
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o n ly m ino rc hange su n t i lt h eR evo lu t ion . I na r chaeo logy t h i s f e a tu re i s ma rked b yt h e e s tab l i shmen t o f v a r iou s i n s t i tu t iona l o r gan i sa t ion s f o rmed m a in ly u nde r t h e i n f luence o f t h e E u ropean a nd Am e r ican s choo l s . T h e I s lam ic R evo lu t ion i nI r an i n 1 979 l e d t o ar e -o rgan i sa t ion o fa l l s c ien t if ic r e sea rch i n c lud ing a r cha eo logy , t h rough wh ich t h e v a r iou s i n s t i tu t e s o f a r cha eo logy , mu seum s , a nd a r chaeo log ica l c en t re s w e re u n i t ed i n to a s i ng le b ody a nd r e -named ' Cu l tu ra l H e r i tage O rgan i sa t ion ' ( CHO ) , a t f i r s t u nde r t h e M in i s t ry o f C u l tu re a nd H ighe r E duca t ion , a nd t h en u nde r t h e M in i s t ry o f
t h e
C u l tu r e a nd I s lam ic G u idance , w h i le t h e d epa r tmen t s a nd r e sea rch i n s t i tu t e s o fa r chaeo logy a tt h e u n ive r s i t ie s r ema in ed i nt h e f o rme r M in i s t ry a sb ef o re . T he e xpan s ion o fu n ive r s i t ie s i nI r an f r om 1 984 g ave a n ew g ene ra t ion o f i n t e l lec tua l s a cce ss t o a cadem ic p o s t s , t o ge th e r w i th a g rea te r d emoc ra t ic
s e n se
r e su l t ing f r om t h e
R evo lu t ion ,
a nd b rough t
a n
o ppor tun i ty
f o r
y oung
a r cha eo log i s t s t o t h ink a bou t t h e s o c ia l a nd p o l i t ica l c onn ec t ion s o f a r cha eo logy a nd u l t ima te ly a bou ti t st h eo r e t ica l a nd m e thodo log ica ld eve lopmen t . A no p t im i s t ic v i ew s ugge s t st ha tt h e a dop t ion o fI s lam ic t hough t i nI r an ian p o l i t ic s d oe s n o t p r even t g enu ine d i scu ss ion o ft h e b a s ic p r em i se s o n w h ich s c ien t if i c i n t e rp r e ta t ion o f a r cha eo log ica l m a te r ia l r e s t s .
F o r tuna te ly , I s lam . i t se lf h a s a
p o s i t iv e v i ew t owa rd s a r cha eo logy a nd t h e H o ly K o ran c on ta in s many V e r se s r e commend ing Mo s lem st ot r ave l a r ound t h ee a r th t os e et h e r e l ic s o fp a s tg ene ra t ion s . Af t e r a bou t 2 0 y ea r s s i nce t h e e s tab l i shmen t o fa n I s lam ic r e g ime i nI r an , t h e re c an b e s e en n o o ppo s i t ion t o a r chaeo logy b y r e l ig iou s s cho la r s a ta n a cadem ic o rp ub l ic l e v e l .
I ti sa l so i mpo r tan t t os t r e s s h e r e t h a t t h e re h a s
b e en n oc onf l ic to nh i gh ly c on t rove r s ia l i s sue s s uch a sh uman e vo lu t ion a st h e r e h a s b een i nE u rope a nd Ame r ica , r a th e r t h e r e a r e s i gn s o f i t s g ene ra l a ccep tance ( e .g . t r an sf o rma t ion i d ea i nh uman e vo lu t ion ) .
a ccep t ing a spec t s
o f
D e sp i t e t h i s , a tt h e momen t n o g r ea t p rog re s s h a s b een
m ad e , s i nce f i r s t ly , s h if t s i ni d eo log ica l a nd p o l i t ica l e mpha s i s h ave n o t i mpac ted o n a r chaeo logy b ecau se mo s tI r an ian a r cha eo log i s t s d ea l p u re ly w i th n on th eo re t ica l a r chaeo logy a nd h ave n o t e ve r h ad a ny s e r iou s i d eo log ica l o rp o l i t ica l i n vo lvemen t . I ti sa l so t r ue f o rt h e p r e sen tt ime t h a t d e sp i te t h e p r e sence o f ar e la t ive ly l a rge n umbe r o fI s lam ic a r cha eo log i s t s w o rk ing a tt h e u n ive r s i t ie s o r o t h e rr e sea rch i n s t i tu t ion s ,t h e re i sn od i scu s s ion o ff undamen ta l i s sue s s uch a st h e i mpac to fI s lam ic t h ough t a nd p o l i t ic s o n a r chaeo logy .
S econd ly , d ue t ot h e c en t ra l i sed a nd h i e ra rch ica l s y s tem o f
m anagemen t i na r chaeo logy a cce s s a nd p romo t ion o fy oung a r cha eo log i s t s t op o s t s i sv ery l i m i ted b ecau se o ft h e d om ina t ion o ft h e o l de r g ene ra t ion .
T h i rd ly , c onf in ing r e sea rch e xc lu s ive ly t o t h e
a r cha eo logy o f I r an p roduce s al a ck o f i n t e r e s t i n i n te rna t iona l a r chaeo logy .
F ina l ly , s i nce t h e
R evo lu t ion , b o th e x t er na l a nd i n ter na l c i rcum s tance s s uch a s e conom ic c ond i t ion s h ave r e su l ted i n t h e e f ec t ive i s o la t ion o f I r an ian s c ience .
T h i s r e s t r ic t s t h e p o s s ib i l i t ie s f o r c ommun ica t ion w i th
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o t h e r c oun t r ie s a nd r e c e iv ing n ew t h ough t s o n a r cha eo logy , w h i ch l e av e s a r cha eo logy a ti t s p r e R evo lu t ion l e v e l , e v en s om e t im e sw i th ap rog r e s s iv ed r op i ns t anda rd s . T h eo r gan i sa t ion d e sc r ib ed a bove h a s an umbe ro fd i sadv an t ag e s . O nt h eo n eh and , CHO i sg i v en e x t en s iv e p ow e r a sm anag e r a nd c o -o rd ina to r f o r a r cha eo log i ca l a c t iv i t ie s i nI r an . T h i s c en t r e i s r e spon s ib l e f o r u nd e r tak ing v a r iou s l a rg e r e scu e e x cava t ion p ro je c t s a s w e l l a s m anag ing a r cha eo log ica l h e r i tag et h rough a dm in i s t ra t iv e a u tho r i t ie s t h roughou t t h e c oun t ry . O th e r i n s t i tu t e s s u ch a su n iv e r s i t ie s h av et oo b ta in t h e n e c e s sa ry p e rm i s s ion f o rt h e i r f i e ldwo rk . I tm ean s t h a t a l a r cha eo log i s t s a r e r e qu i r ed t or e po r tt h e i r f i e ldwo rk r e su l t s t ot h e CHO a nd t h i s i st h en f i l ed i nt h e c e n t r e ' s a r ch iv e . A tp r e s en tt h ea r ch iv ec on ta in s af u l ld ocum en ta ry r e co rd o ff i e ldwo rk c a r r i ed o u t d u r ing t h e l a s t d ecad e s ; m o s t o ft h i s i ss t i l l u npub l i sh ed a nd i n a c c e s s ib le . O nt h e o t h e rh and s om e a r cha eo log ica l i n s t i tu t e s l o s t t h e i r f i nan c ia l i n d epend enc e w h i ch u n t i l t h en h ad p r ov id ed a d equa t e r e sou r c e s t of u nd t h e i ro wn r e sea rch a c t iv i t ie s . I np ra c t ic e , h ow ev e r , t h i s r o le i so b s t ruc ted b yt h e S t a t eb u r eauc ra c ie s , w h i ch w i sh t oc on t ro l f u nd s f o ra r cha eo log ica l w o rk . A s ac on sequ en ce m any d if i cu l t i e sh av ea r i sen i nm anag ing a r cha eo log ica lf i e ldwo rk ,h e r i tag es y s t em s , a nd p ub l ica t ion sa nd s oo n ,a ni n t r ica t ep r ob l em w i th in ac omp lex b u r eauc ra t ic s y s t em . T h em o s ti mpo r t an td i sadv an tag e o ft h i s s y s t em i s ad e l ib e ra t en eg lec to fu n iv e r s i ty s t af f s ' r e sea r ch p o t en t ia l i na r cha eo log ica l w o rk , e v en t h ough s om et e a ch ing s t af fh av eg ood e xp e r ien c ea nd t r a in ing . T h i s s y s t em r e s t r ic t s s t af ft od o o n ly l i b ra ry w o rk o r , i fp e rm i s s ion i sa va i lab l e , t od o l e s s i mpo r tan t t r ia l e xcava t ion s f o r t r a in ing s t ud en t s . T hu s , t h e r ea r e s om e t im e s i n suf f i c i en ts p e c ia l i s t s a v a i lab l et oc a r ry o u tt h ew o rk p l ann ed b y CHO a nd t h eq ua l i ty o fw o rk i ss e v e r e ly a f ec t ed b yt h i s p r ob l em . T h e i n ad equa t ec o -ope ra t ion b e tw e en u n iv e r s i t i e s a nd CHO i so n e o ft h e s ho r t com ing s o fa r cha eo logy i n h e r i t ed b y t h e p r e sen t r e g im e . N e ed le s st os a yt h a tf o rt h e f u tu r e d ev e lopm en to fa r cha eo logy i nI r an t h i s p r ob l em s hou ld b e s o lv ed b y ac l o s e c o -ope ra t ion b e tw e en u n iv e r s i t i e s a nd CHO i nt e rm s o fj o in t f i e ldwo rk a nd r e sea r ch p ropo sa l s . 1 0 .P rob lem s T h e p r ob l em s f a c ed b y a r cha eo logy i ng en e ra l a nd a r cha eo log ica l h e r i tage m anag em en t ( d e sc r ibed i nt h ef i r s ts e c t ion ) i np a r t i cu la ra r eg en e ra l ly a k in t ot h e d if i cu l t i e s e n coun t e r ed b yI r an ian s o c i e ty a s aw ho le . T h em o s ti mpo r tan tp rob lem si n c lud e : ( a )t h ed e ep e c onom i cc r i s i s o ft h e p o s t -wa rs i tua t ion a nd i t sc on t inua t ion w h ich a f e c t st h e a moun t o f f u nd ing a loca t ed t o b a s ic s c ienc e a nd r e sea r ch .
I n a r cha eo logy i tc au se s ac on s id e rab l e
r e s t r i c t ion i nf i e ld a c t iv i t i e s a nd t h en ec e s sa ry h e r i tag em anag em en ts t ra t eg ie s . O n ly af ew r e sea r ch e x cava t ion sw i th c en t ra lb udg e t ing h av eb e en c a r r ied o u ti nt h el a s tf ew y ea r s ;
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( b ) am a jo r p rob lem a r i se s f r om t h e u nce r ta in ty i nd ec i s ion m ak ing b y v a r iou s a u tho r i t ie s w ho a r e a ppo in t ed g ene ra l ly f o rn on sc ien t if ic c on s ide ra t ion s . T he l a ck o f as pec if i ed p o l icy a nd t h ef r equen t c hange i nt h ep o s i t ion o f manage r sm ake a ny l o ng t e rm p l ann ing f o r a r chaeo logy i mpo ss ib le . U nde r s uch c i rcum s tanc e s e ven t h e c u r r en t s hor t t e rm a c t iv i t ie s a r e a l so q ue s t ionab le . a no the r p rob lem s t em s f r om t h e d i s in teg ra t ion o f a r cha eo log ica l i n s t i tu te s . s u r round s t h e c apab i l i ty o ft h e CHO i nm anag ing a r chaeo logy .
I n t h i s r e spec t
A ma jo r c on t rove r sy
I n f a c t , t wo r i va l a r cha eo log ica l
c e n t re s( CHO a nd u n ive r s i t ie s )e ach c l a im ing t h er i gh tt or e p re sen ta r chaeo logy ; ( c ) a lmo s t a l l a r chaeo log ica lt e ach ing a nd t r a in ing h a s b een c en t r ed i nT eh ran . T he l o ng a nd s ho r t s p ec ia l i s tc ou r se s h ave b een s o f ew i nn umbe r t h a t i si mpo s s ib le t os peak o ft h e r e b e ing an a t iona l p rog ramme o rp o l icy . F o re ign s c ien t if ic l i t e ra tu r e i nr e la t ed c ou r se s c om ing i n to I r a i l ian l i b ra r ie s i s s po rad ic a nd l im i ted d ue t ot h e a b sence o fl i nk s w i th t h e e xpe r ienced i n s t i tu t ion s i nt h e r e s t o ft h e w o r ld .
P rof e s s iona l t r a in ing f o r s t uden t s i s i n adequa t e a nd d eep ly a f ec t s t h e l e ve l o f t h e i r
c apab i l i t ie s ( s ec b e low ) ; ( d ) I r an ian a r chaeo log ica l l aw o n t h e p ro tec t ion o f a r cha eo log ica l s i te s l a ck s ab a s ic a b i l i ty t o p r o t ec t s i te s f r om t h rea t s r e su l t ing f r om e i the r t r ea su re h un t ing o r d eve lopmen ta l p ro jec t s . T h eo r e t ica l ly , as ma l l n umbe r o f s chedu led m onum en t s a r e p rope r ly p re ser ved b ecau se s pec ia l p e rm i t sf o ra ny a l t e ra t ion a ts uch s i t e s i sn eeded . 1 . Manag ing p ub l ic a rchaeo logy i nI ran W i th in a cadem ic a r chaeo logy t h e i n te re s t i nm o re e x t en s ive d i ssem ina t ion o f a r chaeo logy t o a w ide ra ud ience c an b es e en a sp a r to ft h e much w ide rd eba t et h a th a s d i scu s sed t h e r o le a nd v a lue o f t h ep a s ta sa ne l em en to fp ub l ic h e r i tage ( e .g . C lee r e 1 989 , L ay ton 1 989 ,1990 ) . T he m a in e mpha s i s o ft h i s c hap te r i st oi n t roduce t ot h e a r chaeo logy o fI r an t h e b e l ief t ha t a n e x ten s ion o ft h e w ay i n w h ich t h e a r chaeo logy i ss t ud ied a nd u nde r s tood b y s t ud en t s a nd t h e g ene ra l p ub l ic w ou ld b e i d ea l a nd i ft h i s c an b e a ch ieved w i l l e nhance t h e a wa rene s s o fI r an ian s oc ie ty a s aw ho le ( f o r as im i la r c onc lu s ion s e e , MacKenz ie a nd S t one 1 990 ; S ton e 1 994 ) .
Wha t c an b e g a ined f r om t h e
a pp r ec ia t ion o fa r chaeo logy b y t h e g ene ra l p ub l ic w i l l b e a tl e a s t ag r ea t e r l e ve l o fp ro t ec t ion f o r a r cha eo log ica l s i t e s a nd i ng ene ra lh e lp t h ep romo t ion o fA l IM ( e .g . S tone 1 994 ) . H ow t h e p a s t i sr e p re sen t ed a nd c ommun ica t ed i st h e s i gn if ican t a spec t h e re , a s i d eo log ica l a nd p o l i t ica lp roce s se s a tw o rk i nI r an a f ec ts uch k now ledge r e sou rce s . I nI r an t o day , a sd u r ing t h e l a s t r e g im e , s ome v e r s ion s o ft h e p a s t a r e h i gh ly v i s ib le a nd a r e h i gh l igh ted ; o t he r s may b e h i dden , o v e r looked o ri n ten t iona l ly e xc luded . A s m en t ioned e a r l ie rt h e m o s t f undam en ta l r e a son f o rt h e l a ck o fs uppor t f o re duca t ion f o rp reh i s tory may o r ig ina t e f r om t h e i d eo logy o ft h e p r ev iou s a nd p r e sen t S t a t e s . I nt h ep r e -R evo lu t ion p e r iod t h e s y l labu s w a s b road ly a im ed a tg i v ing c h i ld ren t h e s t age s o f
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h uman c u l tu ra lp roc e s se s , s t a r t ing f r om t h ea pp ea r anc eo ft h eM ed e s D yna s ty a ta bou t7 00 B .C . I t w a sd on eo n ly f r om an a t iona l i s tp e r spec t iv et os uppo r tt h ep h i lo sophy o ft h e c on t empo ra ry r e g im e ; t h i s a ti t sb e s t i sb i a sed a nd t os om e e x t en t r a c i s t . I nt h e p o s t -R evo lu t ion s i tua t ion t h et r ad i t ion o f d i v id ing h uman h i s to ry i sc on t inued b yf o cu s ing o n ly o nI s lam ic e v en t s . T h e p r ima ry c onc er no ft h i s c hap t e r i st ou s e a r cha eo log ica l k now l edg e a nd t e chn iqu e s t or emov e s om e o ft h e d ead t r ad i t ion s i nt h e p r e sen ta t ion o ft h e p a s t . T o a c comp l i sh t h i s , Iw i l l c on s id e rt h e v a r iou s a l t e rna t iv e w ay s u sed b y p eop l e i nm od er n s oc ie t i e s , f i r s t c on s id e r ing h ow t h e p a s t i s c on f ron t ed , i l u s t ra t ed a nd t a ugh t . I nt h i s v i ew a r cha eo log i s t s a nd e duca t iona l i s t s a t t emp tt ob r ing t o g e th e rt h e i d eo log ie s o fe duca t ion w i th t h em a t e r ia l e v id enc e a nd k now l edge o ft h e p a s t p rov id ed b ya r cha eo logy . A ni mpo r tan ti d ea a r ound t h i se xpe r ienc ei st h a tt h ec on c ep t ion a nd u s eo ft h ep a s t i sn e c e s sa r i ly a ccomp l i sh ed b y as imp le c hang e i nc u r r icu la .
I n I r an i ti so bv iou s t h a t , t h ough
p r epa r ing as p ec if i cc u r r icu lum m ay p roduc es h o r t t e rm b en ef i t s , i nt h el o ng t e rm t h ec on cep to ft h e p a s t c anno t b e i mp rov ed b y s imp ly a dd ing m o r e i n f o rma t ion , a sm u seum s c anno t b e i mp rov ed b y m e r e ly a dd ing o rc hang ing d i sp lay s . T oa ch i ev et h i s ,t h ev e ry n a tu r eo ft h eo b jec t s a nd i n f o rma t ion r e p r e s en t ing t h e p a s t , a s w e l l a s t h e f o rm s a nd s t ruc tu r e o f c ommun ica t ion a nd a u tho r i t ie s ' v i ewpo in t sn e ed t ob er e con s id e r ed . Mo s ti mpo r tan t ly , t h e r em u s tb ec hang ei nt h ei n s t i tu t ion s b o th i nt h e v i ewpo in t s a nd s t ruc tu r e s , t oc r ea t e ap a s t s e n s i t iv et ot h e n ew w ay s o fs oc i e ty . I nI r an t h e a u tho r i t i e s h av e a t t emp t ed t o i mpo se s p e c ia l i sa t ion o n i n s t i tu t ion s t h a t r ef l ec t t h e p r io r i t i e s a nd p ra c t ic e so fn a t iona l i sm a nd i d eo logy , r a th e rt h an t a k ing i n to a c coun ti n d iv idua le xp e r i en c e s a nd t h e p ra c t ica l i n t e ra c t ion o fp eop le i ns p ec if i c c ommun i t ie s a nd s p e c if i c s i tua t ion s .
I r an i st e rm ed a
m u l t i l ingua l a nd m u l t icu l tu ra l c oun t ry . Wha t i si g no r ed h e r e i s ,h ow ev e r , t h e c on t r ibu t ion o ft h e v a r iou s i n d ig enou s c u l tu r e s m an if e s t ed i nm any e t hn ic g roup s e a ch w i th i t s o wn c ha ra c t e r a nd t r ad i t ion . T h e r ef o r e , w e n e ed t ot a k e t h e p a s t b a ck t ot h e I r an ian c ommun i ty t op r ov id e t h e r e a l f e a tu r e so ft h ep a s tf o rt h ep eop le f o rw hom i ti sp a r t ly a tl e a s to u to fs i gh ta nd r e a ch . I np ra c t ica l t e rm s , i tw i l l b e p o s s ib l e o n ly b yt e a ch ing a nd p r e sen t ing t h e r e a l p a s t w i th r e f e r en c et ot h e p eop le a nd h i s to r i e s w i th in t h e i r s o c i e t ie s . I nI r an t h e r e i sa n o b l iga t ion f o rt h e S t a t e a nd a l e duca t iona l i n s t i tu t ion st oe duca t et h ep ub l ic a bou tw ha ta r cha eo log i s t s d oa nd w hy i ti si mpo r t an t . I na dd i t ion t ot h ep o t en t ia lb en ef i t si ni n f o rm ing s o c ie ty ,f u r th e rs t ep sw i l ln e ed t ob et a k en : ( 1 )i n c lu s ion o fa r cha eo logy i nf o rma la nd i n f o rma le duca t ion p r og ramm e s ,t oa pp r e c ia t et h ev i ta l i ty o ft h e AHM a nd i t s r o l e i nm od er n a ch i ev em en t s ; a nd e xpan s ion a nd m od er n i s ing a r cha eo log ica l d epa r tm en t s i n t h e l a rg e u n iv e r s i t ie s .
A t t h e m omen t t h r e e s t a t e u n iv e r s i t ie s w i th c ha i r s o f
a r cha eo logy a r e n o t e nough f o r ac oun t ry a sl a rg e a s I r an w i th ap opu la t ion o f7 0 m i l l ion a nd a n i mm en s ea r cha eo log ica lh e r i tag e ;
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( 2 ) e mpha s i s o n t h e g en e ra l p ub l ic 's i n t e re s t i n a r cha eo logy t h rough p rog ramme s p rov ided b y a cad em ic i n s t i tu t ion s ; ( 3 )b a lanc ing t h ep a s ta nd t h ep re sen tb ye n l igh ten ing t h eg ene ra l p ub l ic o nt h e n o rm s a nd v a lue s o f I r an ian a r cha eo log ica lh e r i tage ; ( 4 ) ac omprehen s iv e p o l icy f o r mu seum c o l lec t ion , a nd t r a in ing a pp ropr ia te p e r sonne l , a s w e l l a s e s tab l i sh ing a ne duca t ion of i ce i nm u seum st ol i nk w i th p ub l ic i n te r e s t s a nd t h e e duca t iona l s y s t em o ft h e c oun t ry m u s t b e o n e o ft h e p r io r i t ie s o ft h e S ta t e .
I n s uch a w ay a dequa te b udge t s a nd
n ece s sa ry e qu ipmen ts hou ld b ep repa red ; ( 5 ) a tt h e s am et im ea c t iv ee ncou ragemen ts hou ld b eg i ven t ot h e e s tab l i shmen t o fl o ca l a u tho r i ty o r c ommun i ty m u seum s , s i nce t h e o b jec t s c o l lec ted b y mu seum s i nl o ca l a nd c ommun i ty l e ve l s h av e g r ea tp opu la r i ty a nd a r chaeo log ica l s i gn if icance . 1 2 . T he p lace o fa r chaeo logy i nt he e duca t iona l s y s tem o fI ran 1 2 .1 F orma le duca t ion ; a l f o rma l e duca t ion i nI r an i sS ta te c on t ro l led a nd a l though t h e S ta te g i ve s p e rm i ss ion t oi n d iv idua l st or un s choo l s ( unde r s p ec ia l c ond i t ion s t or un u n ive r s i t ie s ) , t h e c u r r icu la , s y l labu se s , t im e tab le s , e xam ina t ion a nd c e r t if i ca t ion a s w e l l a s t h e g ene ra l s uperv i s ion o f i n s t ruc t iona lp rog ramm e sa r et h er i gh t s o ft h e S ta t e . H i s to ry i so ne o ft h e s ub jec t s i nt h e c u r r icu lum o fI r an ian s c hoo l s . I ti si n t ended t oi n f o rm s t uden t s a bou tt h e h uman p a s t , i n c lud ing t ha t o fI r an ian s o c i e ty . I nI r an H i s to ry f o r al o ng t ime w a s t a ugh tf r om ap e r spec t ive w h ich i sn ow t o ta l ly o u tda ted f o r t h e p re sen t g ene ra t ion .
S tuden t s i nI r an c ommon ly c on s id e r h i s tory b o r ing , u n in te re s t ing a nd
i re levan t i nt h e i rp r e sen t w o r ld . T he r e a son f o r t h i s i st h a t m o s t h i s tory t e ache r s s t re s s t h e r e co rd o fd yna s t ie s , o fk i ng s a nd t h e i rw a r s , d a te s a nd n ame s . A rcha eo logy a s ad i sc ip l ine i nn o tt augh t a t a ny l e ve l i nt h e s c hoo l e duca t iona l s y s t em . I np r ima ry a nd s e conda ry s choo l s a r cha eo logy a ppea r s o n ly i n c iden ta l ly a sp a r t o fh i s to ry ; i ns uch ac a se i ti sn o rma l ly t a ugh t a s p a r t o ft h e I r an ian p r e I s lam ic c i v i l i sa t ion b yt e ache r s w ho i nm o s t c a se s h ave n o t r e ce ived i n s truc t ion i na r chaeo logy . I n a dd i t ion , e v en t h et e x t s h ave b een w r i t ten b yp eop le w ho k now n o th ing a bou tt h e d i sc ip l ine . S choo l t e x t s u sed i nI r an d o n o t g i ve e nough i mpor tance t o p r eh i s to r ic c u l tu re , i n s t ead t h ey f o cu s t h e i r a t t en t ion o n h i s to r ica l , e s pec ia l ly I s lam ic , e ven t s .
S tud en t s a r e n o t m ade t o u nd e r s tand t ha t t h e
h i s to ry o fI r an i s ap roce s st h a th a s g one o n f o rt h ou sand s o fy ea r s d u r ing w h ich h uman s a dap ted i n d if e ren tw ay st ov a r iou s e nv i ronmen t s . A tu n ive r s i ty l e ve l a r chaeo logy i sn ow t a ugh t i nt h ree s t a t e u n ive r s i t ie s a nd i nt h e t wo n ew ly e s tab l i shed a r chaeo log ica l d epar tmen t s i nt h e O pen U n ive r s i ty ( I s lam ic A zad U n iv e r s i ty ) a sw e l l a si na n a r chaeo log ica l d epa r tmen t o rgan i sed b y CHO . T h ree o f t h e se of e r ac ou r se l e ad ing t o a Ma s t e r 's d eg ree i na r cha eo logy . T h i s i s at h ree y ea r p rog ramme a nd t h e f i r s t t wo y ea r s a r e d evo ted t o t a ugh t c ou r se s a nd e xam ina t ion , w h i le t h e t h i rd y ea r
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c and ida t e s c a r ry o u t r e sea rch a nd p r e sen tt h e r e su l t i nt h e f o rm o f at h e s i s . C our se s t ob et aken b y c and ida t e s m a in ly i n c lud e ; a r t h i s to ry , a r chaeo logy o f I r an , I s lam ic a r t a nd a r ch i t ec tu re .
T he
P a la eo l i th ic i sn o t t a ugh t i na ny l e ve l i n u n ive r s i t ie s , a nd p r eh i s tory g ene ra l ly b eg in s w i th t h e N eo l i th ic , s e e a l so ( c hap t e r S and f i g . 1 4-15 ) . i n adequa te . g round s .
U nf or tuna te ly , t h e c hange i nu n ive r s i t ie s h ave b een
I ti s af a c t t h a t t h e re a r e mo re p o s t s i nu n ive r s i t ie s w h ich a r e o ccup ied o n p o l i t ica l
I n a l u n ive r s i t ie s t h e f a c i l i t ie s f o r t e ach ing a r cha eo logy g ene ra l ly r ema in r u d imen ta ry .
B a s ic t e x t s a r eh a rd t oc om eb y a nd l a bo ra tory e qu ipmen t mo s t ly n on -ex i s ten t . S tud en t s a r e t a ugh t ma in ly t r ad i t iona l s ub jec t s .
A na ly t ica l a r cha eo logy a nd t e chn ica l s k i l l s s uch a s c ompu t ing , a r e
p oo r ly d eve loped .
S tuden t s a r e n o l o nge r g ua ran teed j ob s b a sed o n t h e i r s k i l l s ( e xc ep t t ho se a r e
t r a in ed a t CHO ) .
Mo r eov e r , f i e ldwo rk i sn o t s uf i c ien t ly p rov ided f o r i nt h e c ur r icu lum o r i ti s
g ene ra l ly l i m i t ed b y f i nanc ia l p rob lem s . T hu s s t uden t s w i sh ing t op a r t ic ipa te i nf i e ldwo rk h ave t o d os ob yj o in ing p ro jec t s r u nb y CHO o u t s ide t h eu n ive r s i ty , b u ti ti sn o tg ene ra l ly p o s s ib le . P e rhap s t h e i n t roduc t ion o fa r cha eo logy , e ven a s af i r s t s t ep , a sa n a d junc tt oh i s tory w i l l b e u sef u l b ecau se i tm ay h e lp t oc r ea t e i n t e r e s t i nl o ca l a nd r e g iona l o r ig in s a nd s o e ngage t h e g en e ra l p ub l ic i na na pp r ec ia t ion o ft h e i ro wn p a s t . I fi ti st h e c a se , w e w ish t os e e ac hange i nt h e c u r r en t s y s t em o f e duca t ion .
A f i r s t s t ep s hou ld b e mak ing a n on -po l i t ica l , n on sec ta r ian , a nd n on rac ia l
c u r r icu lum t op or t ray t h ep a s tw i th amode rn a pp roach t oa r chaeo logy w h ich may p rov id e c h i ld ren w i th am o re b a lanced o u t look o nt h ew o r ld a round t h em . T he s t udy o fp r eh i s to ry s hou ld b eg iven a n a pp ropr ia te p l ace i nt h e c u r r icu lum .
I n s t udy ing p r eh is tory , s t uden t s s hou ld b e i n t roduced t o t h e
t e chn ique s a nd m e thodo logy o f a r chaeo logy w h ich w ou ld h e lp t r a in t h e y oung i nt h e s c ien t if ic a na ly s i s o fe ven t s a nd t h e i n t e rp r e ta t ion o f ma t e r ia l c u l tu re r a th e r t h an s imp ly f i l l ing t h em w i th h i s tor ica l f a c t s , a s w e l l a sv i s i t ing e xamp le s o fp reh i s to r ic s i te s i no rde r t os e e t h e e v id ence o ft h e p a s td i rec t ly . I n t e re s ti np r eh i s to r ic s i te s c ou ld t h en b e e a s i ly t r an sf e r red t oh i s to r ica l m onumen t s t o s e e t h e c on t inua t ion o f c u l tu ra l p roce s se s .
T h rough t h e e xpe r ience s g a ined i n v i s i t s t o
a r cha eo log ica l s i t e s ,t h es t uden tc an b et a ugh tt or e ad a nd i n te rp r e tt h e s oc ia l a nd e conom ic c on tex t s o ft h e e ven t s w h ich i nh i s to r ica l w r i t ing s a r e o b scu r ed a nd o ve r la id b y m o r e p o l i t ica l a nd p e r sona l d e ta i l s . A n a r cha eo logy s y l labu s i nI r an s hou ld s t a r t w i th l o ca l m a t e r ia l a nd m ove o u twa rd s t ot h e w id e r w o r ld .
S t uden t s s hou ld f i r s t b e a cqua in ted w i th t h e i r e nv i ronmen t s a nd t h en g radua l ly
i n t roduced t oa r cha eo log ica l s i t e s f r om t h e e a r l ie s t p e r iod i nt h e i r r e g ion a nd t h en i nt h e c oun try a s aw ho le . S t uden t sw ou ld t h en s t udy t h eN ea r E a s t a nd f i na l ly w o r ld a r chaeo logy . F o r au s ef u l p l an o fa r cha eo logy t ot e ach s t ud en t sb o th i nc l a ss room a nd o n s i te , s e eH owk in s ( 1 991) , Sma rdz ( 1990 ) . T or e a l i se s uch as y l labu s ,t e ache r sm u s tb et r a ined n o t o n ly i na r cha eo logy b u t i ns k i l l st ot e ach t h e s ub jec t t o s t ud en t s .
T he t r a in ing c ou r se s s hou ld c ove r s imp le w ay s o f i n te rpre t ing a r t if ac t s a nd
p a r t icu la r ly t h e b a s ic c oncep t s o f A l IM i n t h e a r ea s o f i n f o rm ing s t uden t s a bou t t h e v a lue s o f
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a r cha eo log ica l s i t e s a nd p ro t ec t ing t h em , a nd i n c lud e v i s i t s t om u seum s a nd a r chaeo log ica l s i te s , s em ina r s w i th a r cha eo log i s t s a nd mu seum p rof e s s iona l s .
T o m ake t h i s t r a in ing p o ss ib le t h e
g ov e rnmen t mu s tm ak e m on ey a va i lab le . Ad epa r tmen t o fa r cha eo logy t or un p rog ramme s mu s t b e c r ea t ed a to ne o ft h eu n ive r s i t ie s w i th t h en ece s sa ry s t af fb o th t e ach ing a nd s uppo r t ing . A pa r t f r om u n iv e r s i ty a cadem ic t r a in ing , p rov i s ion mu s t b e m ad e a tt h e ' T each e r T ra in ing C en t re s ' f o r t h e t r a in ing o fa r cha eo log ica lt e ache r s . F ur the rmo re , i ti sa l so n ece s sa ry f o rt h e CHO a nd mu seum s t o b eg in t h e i r a r cha eo log ica l p rog ramme , f o r a r cha eo logy e duca t ion w i l l n o t b e p o s s ib le w i thou t t h e i n f lu en ce o nt h eg en e ra lp ub l ic p rov ided b y mu seum s . 1 2 .2 N on -f orma l e duca t ion : n on -f o rma l e duca t ion h a s i mp roved s i nce T he R evo lu t ion w i th i n c r ea sed g ov e rnm en t s uppor t . T h i s s y s tem s e rve s t h e r u ra l p opu la t ion ( t h ey a r e a bou t h a lf o ft h e t o ta l p opu la t ion )t h rough a du l t l i t e racy p rog ramme s a nd o t h e r s e rv ice s . Mo s t o fi t s c u r r icu la c ove r s ub je c t s o f p ar t icu la r i n t e re s t t o r u ra l p eop le s u ch a s h ea l th , f a rm ing a nd e nv i ronmen ta l c on se rva t ion . Many p eop l e i nI r an ( pa r t icu la r ly t h e r u ra l p opu la t ion ) f i nd i td if i cu l t t oa pprec ia t e t h e v a lue o fa r cha eo logy a su nde r s tood i nt h e c u l tu r e o fm any p eop le i nt h e w e s te rn c oun t r ie s . s u ch c oun t r ie s p eop le d evo t e t h e i r l e i su re t ime t ov i s i t ing m u seum s o r a r chaeo log ica l s i t e s .
I n
I nt h e
c oun t r ie s w he r et h e s t anda rd c ond i t ion s o fl i v ing a r e l owe r a nd n a t iona l p o l ic ie s a r e o r ien t ed t owa rd r e so lv ing t h e b a s ic e conom ic p rob lem s , i tt h u s b ecome s mo r e c omp lex t oc o -o rd ina t e s t ra teg ie s f o r i mp rov ing t h ea pp rec ia t ion o fa r chaeo logy i nt h e s ame w ay s a so ccu r i nd eve loped c oun t r ie s . I ft h e s t udy o fa r chaeo logy i st os u rv ive a nd f l ou r i sh i nI r an , i tm u s t b e p opu la r i sed a nd m ade r e levan t t o l o ca l a nd r e g iona l c u l tu r e a nd e duca t iona l c u r r icu la .
U nf o r tuna t e ly , mu seum s i n I r an h ave n o t
s u cc e s sf u l ly c a r r ied o u t t h e r e spon s ib i l i ty o fi n f o rm ing p ub l ic . m u seum s i nI r an a r e e l i t i s t a nd u rban i n s t i tu t ion s .
O ne o bv iou s f a c to r i nt h i s i st h a t
T he ir p o l icy i sn o t w e l l -def ined a nd t h e re i sa
u nc e r ta in ty a nd d i sag reemen t a bou t t h e r o le o f m u seum s i n I r an ( s ee b e low ) .
Ma s s m ed ia ,
e s pe c ia l ly r a d io a nd t e lev i s ion a nd i n f o rma t ion t e chno logy , a r e c ommon ly s e en a s t h e b e s t s o lu t ion t ot h ep rob lem o fb r ing ing t h e v a s t a moun t o fp ub l ic i ng r ea te r c on tac tw i th a r chaeo log ica l h e r i tage ( Bend e r a nd W i lk in son 1 992 ) .
P rog ramme s a bou t a r chaeo logy a ppea r s s po rad ica l ly o n r ad io a nd
t e lev i s ion , b u t f ew a r e s y s tema t ic , w e l l p l anned , r e sea rch ed a nd u seab le f o r t h e n on -u rban p opu la t ion s , i n d ica t ing t h a t r e sea rch c en t re s d o n o t h av e al i nk w i th t h e m ed ia . A t p r e sen t i nI r an , t h e r e i s ah o t d eba t e o n u s ing t h e i n t er na t iona l n e two rk s y s t em s p roduced b y v a r iou s s a t e l l i te s a s w e l l a s t h e s o -ca l led G loba l C ompu t e r N e two rk .
S ome e ncou rage t h e i d ea o f c onnec t ing t h e
s y s t em s , w h i le s ome a r e c l a im ing t ha tt h e c on ten t s o ft h e se s y s tem s w i l l c on f l ic tw i th t h e p r inc ip le s o fI s lam ic m o ra l i ty a nd t h e b e l ief s o fp eop le . N eed le s s t os ay , t h e o ve ra l l i mp l ica t ion o ft h e a r r iva l o fs u ch s y s t em s i nI r an w i l l h ave p rof ound e f ec t s o n I r an ian p eop le a st h ey b ecome m o r e f am i l ia r w i th t h ew o r ld a r ound t h em ( a pa r t f r om p o s s ib le c on t ra s t s ) . I nr e la t ion t ot h i s s ub jec t , t h e q ue s t ion
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a r i se sa st ow ha te x t en tt h en ew t e chno log i e so fi n f o rma t ion p roc e s s ing c an f i tw i th in t h es o c ie ty a nd s o lv e t h e p rob lem o f c ommun ica t ing I r an ian c u l tu ra l o r ig in s . T h e p rog ramm e s o n t h e se n ew n e two rk s t e nd t ob eu rban i nf o cu s , w h i le i nm o s t o ft h e c oun t ry t e lev i s ion p rog ramm e s a r e n o ty e t a va i lab le .
I n a dd i t ion , t h e l e v e l o f p rog ramm ing r e qu i r ed f o r t h e r u ra l a r ea s b ecau se o f t h e
d if e r ence s i nl a nguage s a nd l o ca l t r ad i t ion s p o se s f u r th e r p rob lem s .
U nd e r t h e s e c i r cum s t anc e s ,
i n f o rma t ion t e chno logy c anno t e a s i ly a ccomp l i sh i t s f u l l p o t en t ia l f o r i mp rov ing a cc e s s t o a r cha eo log ica l h e r i tage i nI r an ian s o c ie ty a t l e a s t i n t h e r u ra l a r ea s .
T he p o s s ib l e w ay a tt h e
m omen tt oi mp rove t h ea c c e s s o fs u ch p eop le t oi n f o rma t ion o na r cha eo logy w i l l r ema in o n ly i nt h e h e lp o fe duca t iona l i n s t i tu t ion s s u ch a ss c hoo l s a nd m u seum s a nd o t h e r r e la ted a c t iv i t ie s . I ft h e se i n s t i tu t ion s a r e g o ing t os u cc e ed t h ey m u s t n o t o n ly u se mod em t e chn ique s b u t m u s t a l so b ecom e m o r e s e n s i t iv e t ot h e r e a l i t ie s o fl o ca l s i tua t ion s a nd u nd e r s tand ing o ft h e c once rn s o f ad i ve r se p ub l ic . 1 3 . T he r o le o f mu seum s i np ub l ic e duca t ion : m u seum s p l ay a ni mpo r tan ts oc ia l a nd c u l tu ra l r o le i nh e lp ing t oe duca t et h ep ub l ic a bou th i s to ry , a nd t h e n a tu r e o fo t h e rc u l tu r e s . Mu seum s , t h rough p r e sen t ing i t em s f r om t h e p a s t , p rov id e t h e b a s i s f r om w h ich w e c on s t i tu te n o t ion s o f s e lf a nd c u l tu ra l i d en t i ty . T h e c on t r ibu t ion o fm u seum s t oc u l tu ra l l i f e c an b e s e en i n av a r i e ty o fw ay s . Mu seum s a r eg en e ra l ly d e sc r ibed a sp ub l ic i n s t i tu t ion s e s tab l i sh ed f o r p ub l ic e duca t ion . T h ey a r e r e spon s ib le f o rm anag ing s t ra t eg i e s f o rc o l lec t ing , c on serv ing , r e sea rch ing , e n ter ta in ing , s t imu la t ing n a t iona l i n t e r e s t s , p ro t ec t ing t h e a r cha eo log ica l h e r i tage f o rt h e r e con s t ruc t ion o ft h e n a t ion 's p a s t , a nd p rov id ing t h e c u l tu ra l l i nk b e tw e en p eop l e s ( I CO MOS 1 986 , P ea rc e 1 990 , M e r r iman 1 991 , H oope r -G r e enh i l l 1 992 , U cko 1 994 ) . I nv i ew o ft h e se v a ry ing r o l e sm u seum s may b er e ga rded a sa p ub l ic a f a i r .
Mu seum s i nI r an h av e b een i ns e r iou s c r i s i s i nr e cen t y ea r s .
T h e p r ob l em s h av e
e m e rged f r om t h e i d eo log ica l a nd p o l i t ica l t r end s , m anagemen t s y s t em , a nd p a r t icu la r ly f r om t h e e conom ic t r oub le s .
T h e s i tua t ion o ft h e a r cha eo log ica l m u seum s i nI r an i s mo re c omp l ica ted ; a l
m u seum sc om ed i r ec t ly u nd e rt h eg en e ra ls uper v i s ion o ft h e CHO . T h el a rg e s ta nd o l d e s to ne i st h e N a t iona l Mu seum f ound ed i n1 941 , v e ry r i ch i np r eh i s to r ic , h i s to r ica l a nd I s lam ic c o l le c t ion s . T h e o t h e rm a in m u seum i nT eh ran i sR eza A bba s i , v e ry r i ch i nI s lam ic a r ta nd a r cha eo logy ,b u ti tl a ck s as u i tab le s pa ce f o rd i sp lay a nd s t o rage . I na dd i t ion t ot h et wo l a rge m u seum s i nT eh ran ,t h e r e i sa c on s ide rab le n umbe r o fp rov inc ia l m u seum s , w h ich h ave b e en g r own a ta n i n c r ea s ing r a te a s a r e su l to fl a rg e s c a le e xcava t ion p ro jec t s . S uch m u seum s a r eg ene ra l ly b ad ly s t af f ed a nd s t ruc tu r ed , a nd r e s to ra t ion a nd c a ta logu ing f a c i l i t ie s a r e i n su f i c ien t .
T h e c hange s t h a t a r e. n ow g radua l ly
t a ck ing p l ac ei nI r an p r e sen tb o th ac ha l l eng ea nd o ppo r tun i ty f o rm u seum s a st h ey n e ed t oa t t rac ta n ew a ud ienc e t os u rv iv e . B ecau se t h e p ub l ic n eed s t ob e i n f o rm ed , mu seum s s hou ld b e c hang ing f r om t h e i r l o ng s t and ing p o s i t ion .
T rad i t iona l m u seum p rac t ice s a r e n ow b e ing q ue s t ion ed b o t h
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f r om w i th in t h e m u seum f i e ld a nd f r om w i thou t . Wha t i s am u seum f o r a nd h ow d oe s i tr e la te t o o t he r i n s t i tu t ion s i ns o c ie ty ? A s m en t ioned e a r l ie r , I r an ian a r chaeo log ica l mu seum s f unc t ion a s a t r ea su r es t o re r a the rt h an d o ing r e sea rch . T hey h ave b een , a nd a r e , p oo r ly d e s igned , o u tda ted o nt h e o ne h and , a nd l i m i ted b y al a ck o ff und s o n t h e o t he r . mod er n f unc t ion s ( e xc ep t t h e N a t iona l Museum ) .
T he i r s t ruc tu r e i sn o t p rope r ly s u i ted f o r
T hey a r e g ene ra l ly l a ck ing t h e s pec ia l i sed
p e r sonn e ld ue t ot h e i n eff i c i ency o fc ou r se s of e r ed i nt h et r a in ing c en t r e s . B ecau se t h e e duca t iona l c u r r icu la h ave n ume rou sg ap si nc ove r ing o ft h ep a s t ,t h e mu seum s s hou ld b e e ncou raged t od eve lop e duca t iona l l i nk sw i th r e la t ed i n s t i tu t ion s . A l so t h e r eh ave n ob een s y s tema t ic a t temp t st oe ncourage s choo l t eache r s a nd o t h e r e duca t iona l is t s t ou se t h e mu seum s f o r t e ach ing r e la ted s ub jec t s s uch a s h i s to ry .
T rad i t iona l ly , t h e a im o f d i sp lay ing m a te r ia l i n mu seum s i st o p r e sen t t h e i r a e s the t ic
a spec t s , a nd t h eo b jec t s d on o tg ene ra l ly t e l l am o re c omprehen s ive s t ory o fh uman k i nd . Ac en t ra l p h i lo sophy b eh ind m u seum e xh ib i t ion w h ich c onvey s ac l ea ru nd e r s tand ing o fh uman s o c ie t ie s mu s t b ed eve loped i nI r an . I no r d e rt od eve lop amu seum c u l tu re i ti sn ece s sa ry t ou nde r s tand t h e p l ace o ft h e m u seum i nt o day 's s o c ie ty , t od e te rm ine h ow t h e m e ssage a bou t t h e i r i mpor tance t os oc ie ty c an b e d i ssem ina ted , a nd t od emon s t ra te h ow t h e p ub l ic c an r e a l i se t h e f u l l b enef i t s o f mu seum s . A n i mpo r tan t t a sk i nt h e n ew a pp roach t o d eve lop ing e xh ib i t ion s i nI r an s hou ld b e r e ga rd ing t h e d emand s o ft h e p ub l ic a nd w ha t t h ey m igh t w an t t os e e .
T heo r e t ica l ly , I r an ian c u l tu re i s al i v ing
c u l tu r e a nd t h e re a r e t h em e s a nd my th , r e l ig ion a nd p h i lo sophy b eh ind m o s t t h e o b jec t s i n a m u seum . T he re i sn ot r ad i t ion o fc on su l t ing e t hn ic o r l o ca l g roup s p r io r t os e t t ing u p d i sp lay s f o r t h em . T hu s i ti sm o re e s sen t ia lt oh ave r e sea rched b ackg round i n f o rma t ion a nd t h ough tf u l d i sp lay s . T echn ica l ly e ach d i sp lay s h ou ld f o l low amo re f unc t iona l a nd p rac t ica l e xh ib i t ion i nw h ich s t o r ie s a r et o ld t h rough t h ee xh ib i t s ,t h e i ra r rangemen ta nd t h e i re xp lana to ry n o t e s . Mo reove r mu seum s i nI r an s hou ld a c t ive ly r e ach o u tt oa l l e v e l s o fc ommun i ty i ne xh ib i t p l ann ing . A n e f ec t ive u t i l i sa t ion o fm u seum s e rv ice s m u s t b e ab r idge b e tween t h e mu seum s a nd t h e r u ra l p opu la t ion s . A l l mu seum s i nI r an a r e l o ca ted i nu rban c en t re s a nd s ot h e r u ra l p opu la t ion s r a re ly b enef i t f r om t h em .
I na dd i t ion , m o s t o ft h e c u l tu ra l i n f o rma t ion i sd e s igned t o i n f o rm t h e u rban
p ub l ic ; v ery l i t t le i si n t ended t oi n f o rm t h e o t he r s .
T hu s m o s t o ft h e A l IM p rac t ice s , e spec ia l ly
c once rn ing p ro tec t ion s e em t oh ave f a i led . B ecau se t h e ma jo r i ty o fa r cha eo log ica l s i t e s a r e l o ca ted i nt h er e a lm s o ft h e r u ra lp opu la t ion s w he r e t h e re i s al a ck o fp ub l ic i n t e r e s t , t h e p ro tec t ion o fs i te s i ss e v e r e ly h ampe r ed . T h e i d ea o fm ob i le e xh ib i t ion s a s a n a l ter na t ive t o t h e mo r e h i gh ly c en t ra l i sed mu seum s i n I r an s hou ld b e c on s ide r ed .
I nt h i s w ay t h e e duca t iona l a nd c u l tu ra l p rog ramme s
t h rough e xh ib i t ing
p l ann ing f o rr u ra lo rl o ca lc ommun i t ie s mu s tn o to n ly b eb a sed o nt h ec o l lec t ion s , b u t c l o se ly r e la ted t ot h el i v ing c u l tu re , a r cha eo logy , h i s to ry a nd a r t o ft h e r e g ion c oncer n ed . L oca l l e gend s , r i te s , a nd
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t r ad i t iona l f e s t iva l s c an p rov ide t h eme s f o r t h e e duca t ion o ft h e l o ca l p ub l ic .
W i th s u ch c ommon
g round t h ey c an a s soc ia t et h em se lve sd i rec t ly w i th t h e mu seum p rog ramme s . S ugge s t ion f o r e x t en s ion s e rv ice s t oe s tab l i sh c on tac t s w i th s c hoo ls h a s a l ready b een m ad e . s ucce s sf u l s t ep i nt h i s r e spec t i sm u seum w o rk shop a c t iv i t ie s .
O ne
Mu seum w o rk shops o f e r h e r i tage
e duca t ion t oe ngage s choo l c h i ld ren t h rough p hy s ica l a nd i n te l lec tua l a c t iv i ty t ha t b r ing i d ea s a nd v a lue s f r om t h e p a s t i n to t h e l i f e o ft h e p r e sen t .
I f mu seum s i nI r an a dop t t h e m e thodo logy o f
w o rk shop s i nt h e i r e duca t ion p o l ic ie s t h ey w i l l f i nd t h a t t h e i r e duca t iona l i mpac t i mp rove s g r ea t ly . C e r ta in ly ,t h eh and l ing o fc u l tu ra lm a t e r ia l , p r eh i s to r ic a r t if ac t s f o re xamp le , i nt h ew o rk shop m ake s c h i ld r en a wa r e o ft h e f r ag i l i ty o ft h e c o l lec t ion s a nd t h e b e s t w ay s t oh and le a nd k eep t h em . When c h i ld ren a r e a lowed t ot a ke p a r t i n ad ynam ic r e la t ion sh ip w i th t h e p a s t t h rough s uch w o rk shop s ; t h e ref o re t h ey b ecome a wa r e o ft h e i r o wn c u l tu ra l r oo t s a nd i nt h e l o ng te rm i tc r ea t e s i nt h em a s e n s i t iv i ty a bou t t h e a r cha eo log ica l p a s t i nt h e i r r e g ion a s w e l l a s a n i d ea a bou t h ow t oa pp r ec ia t e t h ep a s ta nd p ro tec ti t . 1 4 . Manag ing P a laeo l i th ic a rchaeo log ica l h er i tage T h e c ha rac t e r i s t ic s o f P a laeo l i th ic a r cha eo logy a s w e l l a s t h e m a in f a c to r s r e spon s ib le f o r t h e d ef i c ienc ie s o fP a laeo l i th ic a r cha eo logy i nI r an h ave b een d i scu ssed i nc hap te r ( 5 ) a nd t h e r e i sn o n eed t os t r e s s t h em a ga in h e re .
I tw a s s hown t h a t , d e sp i te s ub s tan t ia l f und ing f o r a r chaeo logy i n
I r an , t h e f i e ld c on t inue s t ob e n eg lec t ed ; P a laeo l i th ic s i te s c on t inue t ob e t h rea ten ed o rs uf e r f r om s ub s t anda rd w o rk a nd q ue s t ionab le r e su l t s .
I n AHM t e rm s t h e se i n d ica t e t h e l a ck o f ac onc r e t e
p o l icy ( a ) t oi n f o rm p ub l ic o ft h e p o t en t ia l a nd v a lue o fP a laeo l i th ic s i te s ; ( b ) t o e nf o rce c on s i s t en t e nf o rcemen t o fs t anda rd s ; a nd ( c ) t ot h e c r i t ica l s hor tage o fs pec ia l i sed p rof e ss iona l t r a in ing . T h e AHM p rac t ice s i nI r an a r e g ene ra l ly t os c hedu le t h e n a t iona l ly i mpor tan t m onumen t s a nd t of o cu s u pon t h em o re v i s ib le , a cce ss ib le a nd b e t t e r d ocumen ted a r chaeo log ica l s i te s a nd m onum en t s o ft h e p reh i s to r ic a nd h i s to r ic p e r iod s ; t h ey d o n o t a dd re s s t h e n eed s o ft h e P a laeo l i th ic p a r t o ft h e I r an ian a r cha eo log ica l h e r i tage p a r t icu la r ly t h o se a spec t s w h ich a r e n o t v i s ib le ( s ee b e low ) . T h e b a s i s f o r a ne f ec t ive m anagem en to ft h ea r cha eo log ica l h e r i tage i sh av ing c l ea r c r i t e r ia t oa s se s s t h e v a lue o f i t s d if e ren t p a r t s (Wa inw r igh t 1 989 , E ng l i sh H e r i tage 1 991 ) .
I n I r an i n t h e a b sence o f t h e
c on t r ibu t ion o f c u r r en t k now ledge i n t h e a s se s smen t p roce s se s , s uch c r i te r ia h av e n o t b e en e s tab l i shed , r e su l t ing i n ac omp le t e e xc lu s ion o f P a la eo l i th ic s i te s f r om l e ga l p ro t ec t ion o n a r cha eo log ica lg round s , a nd p roduc ing t h ef o l low ing s pec if ic p rob lem s : T he r e co rd -ba sed i n ven to ry p roce s s t o r e cogn i se a nd i d en t if y P a laeo l i th ic a r chaeo log ica l h e r i tage f o cu se s u pon t h e v i s ib le t r ace s o fh uman s l e f to n t h e s urf ace o ft h e p re sen t d ay l a nd scape .
I nt h i s
v i ew s i t e s a nd m onumen t s a r e c on s ide r ed a s t h e b a s ic t oo l s f o r k now ing w h e re P a la eo l i th ic
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a r chaeo log ica l r e sou rce s s u rv ive .
T he ma in p o in t w h ich h a s t o b e c on s ide r ed i s t h a t t h e
i n ve s t iga t ion a nd u nde r s tand ing o ft h e P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod d epend s o n t h e a na ly s i s o fe v idence n o t c au sed b y h uman a c t iv i ty . G eo log ica l d epo s i t s w i thou t a r t if ac t s c an b e i n ve s t iga t ed t op rov ide t h e c h rono s t ra t ig raph ic , c l ima t ic a nd e nv i ronmen ta l f r amewo rk o f t h e P a la eo l i th ic w i th in w h ich t h e a r t if ac tua l e v idence c an b e s i tua t ed .
T he e nv i ronm en ta l e v idence p l ay s as i gn if ican t r o le b y
c on t r ibu t ing d i r ec t ly t o t h e i n ve s t iga t ion o f P a laeo l i th ic l i f e .
S i t e s c on ta in ing f a una l a nd f l o ra l
r ema in s h e lp t oc omp le t e o u ru nd e r s tand ing o ft h e c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s o ft h e r e g ion o ccup ied b y t h e e a r ly h om in id p opu la t ion s (Wenban -Sm i th 1 995a ) .
I ti sv e ry i mpor tan t t h a t t o u nd e r s tand t h e
c u l tu ra l d ev e lopmen t t h rough t h e P a laeo l i th ic t h e a r t if ac tua l e v idence a l so s hou ld b e p l aced a nd a na ly sed , a l ong w i th n on -a r t if ac tua l e v idence , w i th in t h i s f r amewo rk ( Eng l i sh H e r i tage 1 991 : 3 4 3 5 ) . T he re a r e a l so p rob lem s a s soc ia ted w i th c a r ry ing o u t a n i n ven to ry o fs i te s c on ta in ing a r t if ac t s w h ich a r e g ene ra l ly a ccep ted a s a n a r chaeo log ica l h e r i tage .
T he d eep ly b u r ied a nd n on s t ruc tu ra l
n a tu re o f P a la eo l i th ic h e r i tage m ake s i t i n acce s s ib le a nd i mpo s s ib le t o b e c ha rac te r i sed b y s upe rf ic ia l o b ser va t ion s .
O n t h e o t he r h and P a la eo l i th ic s i te s c on s i s t ing m a in ly o f l i t h ic s ca t t e r
( Schof i e ld 1 994 ) a r en o tc ove red b yt h et r ad i t iona l d ef in i t ion o fs i te s a nd monumen t s , s i nce t h e v a s t ma jo r i ty o f a r cha eo log ica l r ema in s , a nd h ence b ehav iou ra l i n f o rma t ion d e r ivab le f r om t h em , a r e l o ca ted ` of s i t e ' ( B lumen sch in e a nd Ma sao 1 991 : 4 56 ) . T he s t udy o fI s aac a nd H a r r i s ( 1 980 : 2 1) c onf i rmed t h a t , i nt h e P a la eo l i th ic , a r t if ac t s a r c s ca t te r ed b e tween s i t e s , a nd m uch l e s s t h an 1 0% o f a l a r t if ac t s o ccu rw i th in e xcava t ed c oncen t ra t ion s w h ich c ou ld b e c a l led s i te s , s ot h ey a r e e xc luded f r om t h e f o rma l l e ga l p ro t ec t ion p o l icy . I n o t he r w o rd s , a s m en t ioned a bove , a n i mpor tan t p ar t o f P a la eo l i th ic a r cha eo log ica l h e r i tage i sc ompo sed o ft h e n a tu ra l g eo log ica l d epo s i t s a s soc ia ted w i th b i o log ica l r ema in sw h ich c anno tb es chedu led a sa n a nc ien tm onumen ta nd p ro tec ted . Many s i te s o f P a laeo l i th ic s i gn if i cance i nI r an a r e s t i l l n o tr e cogn i sed b yo l d f a sh ion ed c r i te r ia , a nd f o rs i t e s w h ich d o n o ta ch ieve t h e s t a tu s o fn a t iona l o ri n te rna t iona l s i gn if icance , t h e r e i sn o f o rma l s a f e ty p o l icy i n t h e l o ca l o r n a t iona l p l ann ing p roce s se s .
I n I r an c on serva t ion o ft h e n a tu ra l e nv i ronm en t i st h e
r e spon s ib i l i ty o f t h e ' Env i ronmen ta l C on serva t ion O rgan i sa t ion ' ac en t re c on s i s t ing o f v a r iou s s pec ia l i s t s b u t n o a r cha eo log i s t .
I t s l e ga l f unc t ion s r e la te t o n a tu re c on se rva t ion s uch a s
c on serva t ion o f t h e n a tu ra l e nv i ronmen t , f l o ra a nd f auna a nd g eo log ica l f e a tu re s , b u t w i th n o o b l iga t ion t oi n ven to ry a nd p ro t ec tg eo log ica l d epo s i t s w i th r e spec tt ot h e i rP a laeo l i th ic h e r i tage . A s ub sequen t a r ea f o r d eba t e i s t h e p rob lem o f m i t iga t ion , w he r e t h r ea t s a r c af ec t ing t h e P a laeo l i th ic h e r i tage . I ns uch c a se s w he re i d en t if y ing a nd r e co rd ing o f at h r ea t ed P a laeo l i th ic s i te s h ave a l r eady b een c omp le ted , t h en t h e n ex t s t ep s hou ld b e t o d ec ide h ow t o r e duce t h e t h rea t , t o p re se rve o rt oe xcava te i t . I nt h i s r e spec t , a cadem ic k now ledge i sn eeded o n h ow t o m i t iga t e t h e e f ec t s , t h e s e lec t ion o f a r ea s f o r e xcava t ion , m e thod s o f r e co rd ing , t h e a pp l ica t ion o f s c ien t if ic
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t e chn ique s f o rr e cove r ing a nd a na ly s ing m a t e r ia l s uch a s s ma l lm amma l s a nd b o tan ica l r ema in s , a nd a dop t ing a n a pp rop r ia te r e sea rch s t ra t egy i na dvance o fd e s t ruc t ion . T he se s k i l l s a r e n o tp r e sen t i n t h e r e levan t a r cha eo log ica l o rgan i sa t ion s o f I r an a nd r e su l t i n c on s id e rab le d amage t o t h e P a la eo l i th ic h er i tage . Wha t i si mpo r tan tt os t r e s s h e r e i st h e k ey r o le p l ayed b yg eo log ica l c on tex t s ( d epo s i t s ) i n P a la eo l i th ic s t udy ; i fs uch d epo s i t s c an b e c on s ide red a s a n i n t eg ra l p ar t o f t h e P a laeo l i th ic r e sou rce s , t h et h r ea t s t ot h em c an b e c on t ro l led a nd m i t iga ted i nt h e s am e w ay s a s f o r o t he rp a r t s o ft h ea r chaeo log ica lh e r i tage ( s ee a l so Wenban -Sm i th 1 995b ) . T he s o lu t ion t o t h e p rob lem s i nt h e b a s ic a r ea s o ft h e managemen t o f P a la eo l i th ic h e r i tage w i l l d epend u pon g rea t ly i mp roved AHM p rog ramme s , b u t g i v en t h e g ene ra l d ef i c ienc ie s o f t h e a r cha eo log ica l s y s t em a nd t h e p r inc ipa l w eakn e ss o f P a laeo l i th ic a r cha eo logy w i th in t h i s s y s t em w h ich b o th af ec tt h ep roce sse s o f AHM , a ch iev ing t h eg oa ls w i l l n o tb e e a sy . I fn o s uch e f or t s a r e m ade i nt h i s r e spec t , i ti sl i ke ly t h a t t h e P a la eo l i th ic h e r i tage o fI r an w i l l b e l o s t i nt h e i mmed ia t e f u tu r e . I ns umma ry , s i nce t h ec oncep t s o f AHM h av en o tb een i n t roduced i n to t h e a r cha eo logy o fI r an , a nd I r an ian a r chaeo log ica l o r gan i sa t ion s a r e s t i l l n o tf am i l ia rw i th t h e p roce sse s o f AHM , s oi nt h e l a ck o fa ny l o ca l e xpe r ience r e la t ing t ot h e i s sue , p u t t ing f o rwa rd a ny r e commenda t ion i n ev i tab ly w i l l b e b a sed o n t h e k now ledge a nd e xpe r ience s o f f o r e ign c oun t r ie s c on t r ibu t ing t ot h e f i e ld .
A s e t o f
i d ea l s a nd p r inc ip le s t oi n f o rm a ny f u tu r e I r an ian P a laeo l i th ic m anagemen t s y s t em i sa dop t ed h e r e f r om t h e e xpe r ience s s uch a s t h o se c r ea ted f o r e xamp le b y t h e I CO MOS a nd I CAHM C ha r te r s , E u ropean C onven t ion s , p rac t ice s c a r r ied o u t b y E ng l i sh H e r i tage i nB r i ta in ( e .g . E ng l i sh H e r i tage 1 991 , 1 992 ) , a nd CRM i nt h eU SA ( e .g . Sm i th a nd E h renha rd 1 991 , Mc Mana rnon 1 994 ) . T h en ece s sa ry i mpo r tan ts t ra teg ie st om anage t h eP a laeo l i th ic h e r i tage i nI r an ( t hey a l so c an b e u sed f o rh e r i tage o fo t he rp e r iod s )a r ea sf o l low : ( 1 )i ts hou ld b ew ide ly r e cogn i sed t h a t ak now ledge a nd u nde r s tand ing o ft h eo r ig in a nd d eve lopmen t o fh uman s oc ie t ie s i so ff u ndamen ta l i mpor tance t o h uman i ty i ni d en t if y ing i t s c u l tu ra l a nd s oc ia l r oo t s . T h e P a laeo l i th ic a r chaeo log ica lh e r i tag e c on s i s t s o ft h e b a s ic r e co rd o fp a s th uman a c t iv i t ie s . I t s p ro t ec t ion a nd p rope r m anagemen t i se s sen t ia l t o e nab le a r chaeo log i s t s a nd o t he r s c ho la r s t o s t udy a nd i n te rpre ts uch r e co rd s ; ( 2 ) d ef in ing a nd i d en t if y ing P a laeo l i th ic a r cha eo log ica l h e r i tage a sd i scus sed a bove . I ti si mpo r tan t t o s t re s s h e re t ha t a n a ccu ra te d ef in i t ion a nd i d en t if ica t ion o f w ha t i st o b e p ro t ec ted h e lp s t o i mp rove p ro tec t ion o ft h eP a laeo l i th ic h e r i tage . E l emen t s o fP a la eo l i th ic h e r i tage a r en o tj u s t o b jec t s t h a ta r ei mpor tan t ; a ny e v id ence o fw ha t eve rn a tu re t ha tc an t h row l i gh to nt h i sp e r iod i si mpor tan t ;
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( 3 ) t h e P a laeo l i th ic h e r i tag e i s a f r ag i le a nd n on renewab le a r cha eo log ica l h e r i tage .
c u l tu ra l
r e sou rce l i ke
o t he r
B ecau se o ft h e n on s t ruc tu ra l n a tu re o fP a la eo l i th ic s i te s a nd t h e g r ea te r
f r ag i l i ty o f t h e i r o b jec t s , h uman a nd n a tu ra l a genc ie s , l a nd u se p rac t ice s , f o r i n s tance , w ou ld d amage t h em m o r e s e ve r e ly t h an t h e h e r i tage o f o t h e r p e r iod s . S uch e f ec t s mu s t t h e ref o r e b e c on t ro l led a nd d eve loped i no rd e r t o m in im i se t h e d e s t ruc t ion o f s uch h e r i tage .
P rov id ing t h e
n ec e s sa ry p ro tec t ive l e g i s la t ion a nd p rov i s ion s i sa n e f ec t ive w ay t o r e duce h uman e f ec t s a nd p rov ide s s uppor t f o r h e r i tag e m anagemen t . L eg i s la t ion s hou ld f o rb id t h e d e s t ruc t ion , d eg rada t ion , a l t e ra t ion t h rough c hange o f a ny P a la eo l i th ic s i te s a nd t h e i r a s soc ia t ed n a tu ra l e nv i ronmen t s . L eg i s la t ion s hou ld of e rp ro t ec t ion n o t o n ly t oi d en t if ied P a laeo l i th ic h e r i tage s uch a sc ave s i te s f o r e xamp le , b u tt ot h ea r ea sw h e re t h er e cove ry o fP a laeo l i th ic s i te s c an p o t en t ia l ly b ee xpec t ed ; ( 4 ) m anag ing P a la eo l i th ic h e r i tage f o r p ro t ec t ion a nd f o r o t he r managem en t p u rpo se s n eed s aw ide r a nge o f i n f o rma t ion a bou t t h e e x t en t a nd n a ture o f s uch h e r i tage .
I ti sp o s s ib le o n ly b y t h e
a pp l ica t ion o f s ucce s sf u l s u rf ace s u rvey s t ra teg ie s i n t h e w ho le c oun t ry .
A t t h e s ame t ime a
c ompu te r ised r e sou rce d a taba se c on s i s t ing o fk now ledge o fa ny P a la eo l i th ic h er i tage f o r p ro tec t ion p u rpo se a nd f o rs c ien t if i c s t udy a nd r e sea rch s hou ld b ec omp i led ; ( 5 ) t h e o ve ra l l o b jec t ive o f P a la eo l i th ic h e r i tage m anagemen t s hou ld b e t h e p r e serva t ion o f P a la eo l i th ic s i te s i ns i tu , e xcep t u nde r s ome c i rcum s tance s w hen p r e se rva t ion b y r e co rd s hou ld b e i mp lemen ted .
I n s uch c a se s as amp le o f s i te s i se xcava t ed b ef o re t o ta l e xcava t ion .
E xcava t ion
p r io r i t ie s s hou ld b e f o cu sed o n t h rea tened s i te s w h i le t h e e xcava t ion o f n on th rea t ened s i te s f o r r e sea rch g oa l s mu s t b e p r eceded b y m any s c ien t if ic c on s ide ra t ion s . H ow ev e r , e xcava t ion f o r n on r e scu ep urpo se s s hou ld l e ave ap or t ion o ft h e s i te u nd i s tu rbed f o rf u tu re r e sea rch ; ( 6 ) i nt e rm s o f l o ng t e rm c on serva t ion a nd c u ra t ion p o l icy o f a r cha eo log ica l h e r i tage , I r an h a s r e la t ive ly l i t t le e xpe r ienc e .
U n l ike t h e o u t s tand ing b u i ld ing s w h ich a r e w e l l p r e served , p r eh i s tor ic
h e r i tage , p a r t icu la r ly h e r i tage f r om t h e P a la eo l i th ic p e r iod , h a s n o t a t t rac ted o ff ic ia l s uppor t ; i ti s f a c ing s e r iou s l o s se s ( e .g . b y m a jo r h yd ro log ica l a nd m in ing p ro jec t s n ea r P a la 'e o l i th ic s i te s ) . A rchaeo log i s t st r ad i t iona l ly l e a rn s ome a spec t s o fe xcava t ion a nd c o l lec t ion t e chn ique s , b u tt r a in ing i nt h e a r ea s o fs i te c on serva t ion , i n c lud ing p o s t -excava t ion c on serva t ion t e chn ique s , i sn o t u sua l ly p a r t o f a n a r cha eo log i s t 's e duca t ion .
T he l a ck o f p rof e s s iona l t r a in ing c au se s g ene ra l ly a
s ub s tanda rd p erf o rman ce o f w o rk i n t h e f i e ld s uch a s r e sea rch , d a ta a cqu i s i t ion , a na ly s i s , i n t e rpre ta t ion , a nd r e po r t ing . T hu s , t h et r a in ing o fa n a dequa te n umbe ro fq ua l if i ed p rof e s s iona l s i n t h e v a r iou s f i e ld s o f P a laeo l i th ic a r chaeo logy a nd i nt h e r e levan t s p ec ia l i sed f i e ld s s hou ld b e a n i mpor tan t o b jec t ive f o r t h e e duca t iona l p o l icy i nI r an .
A t t h e s ame t ime e f ec t ive q ua l i ty c on t ro l
s hou ld b e made o n t h e w o rk b e ing d on e b y a ny r e spon s ib le o rgan i sa t ion s .
A n i mpor tan t t a sk f o r
s u ch o rgan i sa t ion s i st o g u ide a r cha eo log i s t s t h rough a n umbe r o f p ub l i shed s t anda rd s i n t h e
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p er f o rmance o ft h e i r w o rk .
An umbe r o fs p ec ia l s k i l l s n eed ed i nt h i s f i e ld i n c lude , i na dd i t ion t o
s t r ic t ly P a laeo l i th ic k now ledge : a n u nde r s tand ing o f t h e r e levan t l aw , r egu la t ion , a nd p o l ic ie s ; a wa ren e s s o ff u ndamen ta l s o fa dm in i s t ra t ion , m anagemen t a nd b u s ine ss ; a nd a n u nd e r s tand ing o f t h e e t h ic s a nd p r inc ipa l s a pp l icab le t ot h e g ene ra l p ub l ic . F o r an umbe r o f o th e r u sef u l a cadem ic t r a in ing p rog ramme s i nt h i s f i e ld s e e A lexand e r ( 1989 ) , S t an ley P r ice ( 1989 ) , E ng l i sh H e r i tage ( 1 99 1) , D arv i l l( 1995b ) ; ( 7 ) t h e p r e sen ta t ion o ft h e P a laeo l i th ic h e r i tage t ot h e g ene ra l p ub l ic b y v a r iou s m ean s a s o u t l ined b ef o r e , i s a n e s sen t ia l c omponen t o f p romo t ing a n u nde r s tand ing o f t h e v a lu e o f P a la eo l i th ic a r cha eo logy . A tt h e s ame t im e i t s e f ec t ive p r e sen ta t ion p romo te s u nde r s tand ing o ft h e n eed f o r i t s p ro t ec t ion . F i na l ly , t h e re i s an eed f o r i n te rna t iona l a s s i s tance a nd a c o -ope ra t ive p rog ramm e f o r P a laeo l i th ic h e r i tag e managemen t .
I tr e qu i r e s t h e a s s i s tance o fp rof e s s iona l s d ea l ing w i th t h i s i s sue f r om t h e
d ev e loped i n s t i tu t ion s o fv a r iou s c oun t r ie s . A tt h e s ame t ime t h e n o t ion o fo rgan i s ing i n t e rna t iona l s em ina r s a nd c onf e rence s , a s w e l l a s i n ter na t iona l e xchang e o f p rof e ss iona l s t af f , s hou ld b e d ev e loped a s am ean so fr a i s ing s t anda rd s o fP a la eo l i th ic manag emen t s t ra teg ie s . 1 5 . P ro spec t sf o rt h ef u ture I r an , a s as i gna to ry t ot h e UNESCO Wo r ld H er i tage C onven t ion , h a s a l ready d ec la r ed s om e p l ace s a s p o s se ss ing w o r ld h e r i tage s t a tu s .
O ne o ft h e se i st h e c en t ra l p a r t o ft h e c i ty o f I s f ahan , a nd
a no th e r i sT akh t J am sh id i nS h i raz ; b o th p o s se s s i mmen se a r cha eo log ica l s i gn if ica nc e . D u r ing t h e p a s t f ew y ea r s t h e r e h a s b een p rof e s s iona l a c t iv i ty c once rn ing t h e p re serva t ion a nd r e s to ra t ion o f h i s to r ica l monumen t s .
S uch a c t iv i ty i s d e s igned t o i n t eg ra te t h e a r ch i tec tu ra l , e ng inee r ing
c on ser va t ion , a nd a r cha eo log ica l a spec t s o fp r e serva t ion .
Wh i l e h i ghe r p rof e ss iona l s t anda rd s o f
m anagemen t a r e b a sed o n af i rm u nde r s tand ing o f AHM p o l ic ie s , t h e v a lue s o f c on serva t ion p h i lo sophy
a nd m uch g r ea te r p a r t ic ipa t ion o f a r chaeo log i s t s
a r e
n eeded .
d i sadvan tageou s i fd i spa ra te a pp roache s a r e a dop ted f o r p r eh i s to r ic s i te s .
I t w i l l
p rove
T he re i s an eed o n a
n a t iona l b a s i s f o r p o l ic ie s t o c o -o rd ina t e m anagemen t s t ra teg ie s b e tween v a r ious i n s t i tu t ion s , t o i n vo lve g r ea t e r p a r t ic ipa t ion o f a r chaeo log i s t s , a nd t o e ncou rage a p o s i t ive d i a logue b e tw een s p ec ia l i s t so nt h es t ra t eg ie sc oncer n ed , a nd t or e la t ep rof e ss iona lw o rk st op ub l ic e duca t ion i s sue s . I ti sw o r th m en t ion ing h e r e t h a t w h i le m a jo r a r t g a l le r ie s s p end mo re m oney o n b u i ld ing a nd a cqu i s i t ion s , m any p r eh i s to r ic a nd h i s to r ica l s i t e s o fp o ten t ia l i mpo r tance a r e p e rm i t ted t od i sappea r u n r eco rded a nd u np ro t ec t ed .
I t i s u rgen t t h a t a r chaeo log ica l c oncer n s , b o th p r eh i s to r ic a nd
h i s to r ica l , s hou ld b e a s s igned l e g i t ima t e a nd h i ghe r p r io r i ty t h an t ha t a cco rded a t p re sen t b y g ov e rnmen t .
I ti sa l so a f a c t t h a t t h e g ene ra l i n ter na t iona l c on se rva t ion i s sue s i nt h e f i e ld o ft h e
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e nv i ronmen t s uch a s t h e p r o t ec t ion o fw i ld l if e o r p lan t l i f e , h ave r e ached i n I r an o n ly r e cen t ly . C on sequen t ly , i th a s r e ce ived l e s s a t t en t ion i ne nv ironmen ta l p rocedu re s . I ndeed , w h i le m agn if icen t h i s to r ica l s i te s h ave a t t rac t ed p o l i t ica l c on s id e ra t ion s , t h o se s ma l l p r eh i s to r ic r ema in s w h ich d i d n o t s e em t op o sse s s c on tempo ra ry r e levance w e r e b u l ldozed u nknown a nd u n reco rded . T h i s s i tua t ion i s a l so s e en mo r e o r l e s s a tp r e sen t .
A t t h e m om en t a r cha eo log ica l s i te s c ommon ly a r e t h e l a s t
r e sou rc e s s urvey ed , a nd o n ly a f t e r d ec i s ion s h ave b een t a ken b y g ove rnmen t o r i n du s t r ie s , w h ich e n su r e s t ha t d i scove r ie s c anno t a l te rt h e p l ann ing p roce s se s .
U nde r s uch c i rcum s ta ,nce s , d i scove ry
o r r e scue e xcava t ion o ccu r s s o i n conven ien t ly l a te , b ecause o ft h e l a ck o f a dvance w a rn ing t h a t n e i th e r p e r sonne l o r s u i tab le f und ing a r e m ade a va i lab le .
I t i s mo re l i ke ly t h a t i f m a jo r
a r cha eo log ica l s u rvey s h ad p r eced ed t h e p l ann ing f o r t h e i n du s t r ia l o r e conom ic p ro jec t s ( e .g . t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f an ew a i rpo r t n ea r T eh ran i nr e cen t y ea r s ) , b ecau se o ft h e p o ten t ia l a r cha eo log ica l r e sou rce s i nt h ea r ea , s i t el o ca t ion m ay h ave b een d if e ren tw i thou t a ny a dve r se e f ec to nt h ep ro jec t c onc er n ed .
S uch l o ng t e rm c on s id e ra t ion s o fa r chaeo log ica l p o ten t ia l s hou ld b e p rov ided f o r a r ea s
s ub jec t ed t o f u tu re d eve lopm en t s .
S uch i st h e s i tua t ion w i th t h e i mpor tan t i s sue o f l a nd u se
p r a c t ice s , p a r t icu la r ly m in ing . I tc anno tb e d en ied t h a t i ns ome p l ace s v ege ta t iona l r e gene ra t ion a nd e v en tua l ly e nv i ronmen ta l b a lance s a r e a f ec t ed b y v a r iou s f a c to r s o fe conom ic d eve lopm en t .
T h e
f o r e s ted
a nd
s ho r e l ine
g eomo rpho log ica l
o f t h e s t ruc tu r e s
C a sp ian
S ea
i s a n
o u t s tand ing
a r e o f m a jo r i n te re s t i n I r an ,
e xamp le . w h i le
i t s
I t s
l a ndf o rm s
f o r e s t c ove r s
m any
a r cha eo log ica ls i te s . T h er e la t ion sh ip b e tween p r eh i s to r ic o ccupa t ion a nd t h e r a p id f o rma t ion o ft h e s o i l sa f t e rd e l ibe ra te o b l i t e ra t ion o fa bou to ne t h i rd o ff o re s t s r e qu i r e s s y s tema t ic i n v e s t iga t ion . T h e e nv i ronmen ta l d a ta w h ich t h i s a r ea c on ta in s m ay b e c r uc ia l , p a r t icu la r ly w he re am ean ingf u l a nd c omp le te p a t t er n o f p r eh i s to r ic l a nd scape i sc oncer n ed .
T he s ame p r inc ip le s a pp ly t o t h e b u i l t
e nv i ronmen t , w hen s i gn if i can t h i s to r ica l a nd p reh i s tor ic s i te s , d emo l i shed i n t h e n ame o f d ev e lopmen t ( o r b y l o o t ing ) , o r w hen t h ey a r e r e s to red w i thou t e s sen t ia l c on s ide ra t ion s f o r t h e i r a r cha eo log ica l i n t eg r i ty .
E v iden t ly I r an ian a r chaeo log ica l manage r s a r e l e s s f am i l ia r w i th t h e
c oncep tt ha tp r eh i s to ry a nd h i s to ry a r ev a luab le e conom ic r e sou rce s . F o r ac oun t ry s oi n ten t o nt h e d eve lopmen t o f t o u r i sm , t h i s f a i lu r e i s s ad ly a ppa ren t .
I t c an b e a ccep ted t h a t m anag ing
a r cha eo log ica l h e r i tage i n ac oun t ry s uch a s I r an w he re e conom ic u nde rdeve lopmen t a nd i t s c on sequence s e x i s t , a f ec t s s o c ie ty 's e conomy b y i n c r ea s ing m oney s pen t b y t o u r i sm o n t h e o ne h and , a nd r e duce s u nemp loymen t a nd c r im e r a te s o n t h e o the r .
B ecause o ft h e f r equen t s hock s t o
t h ei n ter na t iona lp r ice s o fc r ud e o i l w h ich i st h e b a s ic s ou rce o fI r an ian f o re ign e xchange , t h e re h a s b een i nr e cen t y ea r s at r end t os ub s t i tu t e i tb y d eve lop ing t h e t our i sm i n du s t ry .
A rchaeo logy s t i l l
h a s l i t t le p l ace i nt h i s s t ra t egy , b u tf o rt h e f u tu re I r an 's a bundan t a r chaeo log ica l h e r i tage c an m ake f o r ar ap id a nd i n t en s iv e d eve lopm en t i n t h i s f i e ld , i f t h e d e ta i led s t ra t eg ic p lann ing t a k e s a r chaeo logy i n to a ccoun tm o r es e r iou s ly t h an i ti sa tp re sen t .
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S uch c on s id e ra t ion d oe s n o ti mp ly t h a t a r cha eo log i s t s w i sh t op r e se rv e a l a r cha eo log ica ls i t e s ; i ti s i mpo s s ib le , b u t t h e i r d e s t ruc t ion s hou ld b e b a sed o n s y s t ema t ic p r io r r e sea r ch a nd e s sen t ia l e va lua t ion . T h e p r e r equ i s i t e s a r e ap rope r r e sea r ch d e s ign , f u nd s , q ua l if i ed s t a f f ; a d equa t e t im et o r e co rd , i n v e s t iga t ea nd t od ec id ec on se rva t ion p r io r i t ie s . A r cha eo log i s t s i nI r an , h ow ev e r , a r e l i k e ly t ob e c on s t ra in ed b y m o r e t h an t h e se p r e s su r e s . T h ey m u s t a c c ep t o b l iga t ion s .
I nt h e f i r s t p l a c e
t h o se w o rk ing i na cad em ic p o s i t ion s s hou ld a c c ep tt h ef a c tt h a tt h e i rd i sc ip l in e d oe s n o tc on s i s to fa s ma l l a s soc ia t ion o fs c ho la r s d o ing t h e i r o wn t h ing s . T h ey h av e a n i mpo r tan t e du ca t iona l r o l e t o p l ay , i n vo lv ing s om e f o rm o f p ub l ic a r cha eo logy .
T h ey s h ou ld f a c e t h e c ha l l eng e o f p ub l ic
a r cha eo logy , f o ri n s t an c e , i nd ev e lop ing t h er e c e iv ed p r econ c ep t ion so fa u tho r i t ie s a nd i n s t i tu t ion s . F o r tuna t e ly , t h e I r an ian g ov e rnm en t i nr e c en t y ea r s h a s e n cou rag ed t h e i d ea o f d e c en t ra l i sa t ion . F r e ee c onomy i ss om e t im e s e n cou rag ed a nd s pon so r sh ip i sa s sum ed t oh av e ag rea t e ri mpo r t anc e . I t w ou ld b e b e s t f o r t h e a r cha eo log ica l s y s t em t os h ape i t s e lf w i th in a r e g iona l f r am ewo rk u nd e r a c en t ra l i s ed b ody . I ns uch aw ay t h e d om inan t r o l e o ft h e S t a t e i nc on t ro l l ing a r cha eo logy w i l l b e w e ak en ed i ff und s f o r a r cha eo log ica l f i e ldwo rk a nd h e r i tag e p ro t ec t ion c an b e p r ov id ed b y t h e a pp rop r ia t ep r iva t e c en t r e s . I ns u ch c a se s a r cha eo log ica l o r gan i sa t ion s s u ch a s CHO w i l lm a in ta in t h e i r r o l e a s an a t iona l c o -o rd ina to r a nd o r gan i se r o fa r cha eo log ica l w o rk t h roughou tt h e c oun t ry . U nf o r tuna t e ly , a tp r e sen tt h eI r an ian a r cha eo log i ca lh e r i tag ei ss uf e r ing g r ea t ly f r om l o o t ing o fs i t e s a nd t h e i l ic i t e xpo r t o fa r cha eo log ica l m a t e r ia l s . T h i s i sd u e t o al a ck o fj ud ic ia l p r o t e c t ion , t h e o pen ing u p o ft h e c oun t ry ' s b o rd e r s , e conom ic a nd s o c ia l p rob l em s , a nd i ng ene ra l b yt h el a ck o fa p rog r e s s iv e m anagem en t s y s t em . I ti s am a jo r c a ta s t roph e f o r I r an ian c u l tu ra l h e r i t a g e . I ti st h e r e spon s ib i l i ty o ft h e S t a t e 's a r cha eo log ica lc e n t r e st op rov id e an ew c onc ep tua la pp roa ch i nt e rm s o f AHM s t ra t eg ie s i no rd e rt oo v e r com et h ep rob l em ,n o tj u s tb yw a rn ing , b u ta l so b yc r ea t ing r e spe c t f o r c u l tu ra l h e r i tag e v a lu e s . Mod e rn t e chn iqu e s o fp ro t ec t ion m u s t b e i n t roduced a nd a tt h e s am e t im ea ne f o r tm u s tb em ad et ou pda t ep ro t ec t iv el e g i s la t ion a nd i n c r ea s ing p ub l ic a wa r en e s s . F i na l ly , d i scu s s ion o n I s lam ic p h i lo sophy a nd i t s r e la t ion sh ip t o a r cha eo logy n e ed s as p ec ia l b a ckg round i nt h i sf i e ld , w h ich i sb eyond o ft h ea im so ft h i sp r e s en tt h e s i s . H ow ev e r , i ts e em s c l ea r t h a tt h eq ue s t ion o ft h ef u tu r eo fa r cha eo logy i nI r an c anno tb es o lv ed b y as i ng le s id ed a pp roach t o i t si d eo log ica l p rob l em s , b u t m u s t b e c on s id e r ed w i th in t h e f r am ewo rk o ft h et o ta l d ev e lopm en t o f s o c i e ty .
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Conc lus ions
A r e v iew o ft h e a r cha eo logy o f I r an s howed t ha t a r chaeo logy i n I r an h a s b een v i ew ed a s i ti s e l sewhe re i nt h eN ea rE a s ta s ab ranch o fh i s tory r a th e rt h an a n th ropo logy . O ne c on sequence o ft h i s p o s i t ion i st h a ta t ten t ion t ot h e r emo te p a s th a s b een f o cu s sed l a rge ly o n I r an ian n a t ion s . Q ue s t ion s o fe t hn ic o r ig in s h ave t h u s b een p a ramoun t i nt e rm s o fa pp roache s t ot h e n a t iona l h i s to ry i nI r an , a nd i nt h ep a s ta n swe r sh av eb een f ound w i th r e f e rence t o my tho logy a nd b ya ppea lt oa nc ien tt e x t s . G ene ra l ly a r cha eo logy h a s b een a sked t os upp ly s om e a n swe r s t oe t hn ic q ue s t ion s o ri nm o r e c a se s a r cha eo logy h a s b een u sed t o v a l ida te t h e e s tab l i sh ed my tho log ica l o r l e genda ry c on s truc t s r e ga rd ing t h e o r ig ina l a nce s to r s .
A t t h i s i n t e r sec t ion o f my tho logy , h i s to ry , a nd a r cha eo logy l i e
m any p rob lem s f o r t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e p a s t .
P o l i t ica l a nd n a t iona l i s t ic m o t iva t ion f o r
p r ef e r r ing o ne i n t e rp r e ta t ion o ve ra no the ra r ea tt h eh ea r to ft h e se p rob lem s . T h i s r e sea rch a l so r e vea led t h a tt h e p o l i t ica l p o s i t ion o fa r chaeo logy i nI r an , h a s t e nded i nt h e p a s t t og i ve af a l se i mp re s s ion o fu n if orm i ty t ow ha th a s b een t e rmed a sP an I r an i sm . T h i s c onv en ien t ly i g no re s t h e v e ry d if e ren t h i s to r ie s a nd c u l tu ra l a nd e conom ic t r ad i t ion s o ft h e p eop le s w ho h ave p ar t ic ipa ted i nt h e c on s truc t ion o fI r an ian c i v i l i sa t ion . Mo s t g ove rnmen ta l a nd s c ien t if i c s t ruc tu re s i nI r an w e re c ompe l led t o c onf o rm w i th t h i s m od e l a nd t op ay l i p serv ice t o I r an ian n a t iona l i sm . A rchaeo logy w a s n o e xcep t ion t o t h i s p roce s s ; i n deed , i tw a s c yn ica l ly u sed b y n a t iona l i s t p o l i t ic ian s t or e inf o rce t h e i r i d eo log ica l m e s sage ( a nd i ns o d o ing o f t en b enef i ted f r om r e sou rce s t o e ncou rage t h i s r o le ) .
T he s udden c o l lap se o ft h e I r an ian R oya l r e g ime i n 1 979 a nd i t s a f t erma th
h ave t h e ref o re b een a d if i cu l t e xpe r ience f o r a r cha eo logy i n t h i s c oun t ry .
O ve r f i f t y y ea r s o f
d om ina t ion b ys u ch r u le r s f o rced I r an ian a r chaeo logy i n to t h i s i d eo log ica l a nd p o l i t ica l d i rec t ion . A s t udy o ft h e I r an ian a r cha eo log ica l l i t e ra tu re s how s t h a tt h i s i d ea l i sa t ion a nd p o l i t ic i sa t ion h i nde red t h e a pp l ica t ion o f b a s ic c onc ep t s .
A rchaeo logy s t uden t s h ave b een e xpo sed a t u n iv e r s i t ie s t o a
s i ng le p h i lo soph ica l s y s t em a nd a c tua l s t eps h ave b een t a k en t op r even tt h em f r om e xpo su r et oo t he r d oc t r ine a nd t h eo r ie s .
U n ive r s i ty t e ach ing h a s b een t h e C inde re l la o fa r cha eo logy a nd b ecause o f
t h e m any l i m i ta t ion s o fr e sou rce s i nt e rm s o f s pec ia l i sed s t af f , f und ing a nd a n a dvanced t r a in ing p o l icy ,t h ey h ave b een i n vo lved o n ly ma rg ina l ly i nr e sea rch . H oweve r , d u r ing t h e s e cond h a lf o ft h e p r e sen t c en tu ry I r an ian a r cha eo logy u nderwen t c on s ide rab le d eve lopmen t m a in ly b y f o r e ign s c ho la r s . I tw a s a l so i n s t i tu t iona l i sed a s as c ience a nd m any e xcava t ion s w e re c a r r ied o u t . C en t ra l g ove rnmen ta lf u nd ing w a st h ee xc lu s ive s ou rce f o re xcava t ion s a nd p ub l ica t ion s i no rd e rt oi n c r ea se i t so wn g l o r if i ca t ion .
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D u r ing t h i s p e r iod t h e c u l tu r e -h i s to ry p a rad igm d om ina t ed a l a r cha eo log ica l a pp roa ch e s a nd a r cha eo log ica l w o rk h a s b e en c on c en t ra t ed o n t wo s ub jec t s : f i r s t , t h e m a t e r ia l a s pe c t s o ft h e p u r e I r an ian c u l tu r e ; a nd s e cond ly , t h e t r an s i t ion f r om t h e I n do I ran ian s t ot h e e a r ly h i s to r ica l I r an i an s . A l though m o s t w o rk h a s b e en o r i en t ed r o und t h e se p o l e s , t h e r e h av e b e en q u i t e u np r e c ed en t ed p r eh i s to r ic d i scov e r i e s , n o tab ly f r om t h e N eo l i th ic , B ron z e a nd I r on A g e , b ecau s e l a rg e s c a l e e xcava t ion p ro jec t s p rov id ed t h e o ppo r tun i t i e s f o r d i scov e r ie s . A l though d i scov e ry i sa n i mpo r t an t c ompon en to fa r cha eo logy , a r cha eo log i ca lp r a c t ic ed oe sn o te nd t h e r e . I no rd e rt oe va l ua t et h et o ta l a r cha eo log ica l a ch i ev em en t o fI r an t h e f o l low ing t h r e e f i e ld s s hou ld b e c on s id e r ed : t h e s c i en t if i c n a tu r e o ft h e g u id ing t h eo ry ; t h e c r ea t iv i ty o ft h e s t udy ; a nd t h e a dvancem en t o fr e sea r ch f a c i l i t i e s a nd m e thodo logy . Im a in ta in t h a td u r ing t h ew ho le o ft h ep r e -R evo lu t ion p e r iod d ef i c i en c i e si nt h e se t h r e e a r ea s u nd e rm in ed s om e o f t h e i mpo r t an c e a t ta ch ed t o t h e m a t e r ia l d i scov e r i e s . P rob l em s a f e c t ed d ev e lopm en t i na l t h r e e a r ea s . I nt h e a r ea o ft h eo r e t ica l c onc ep t s , a l ong w i th t h e m any r e a son s d i scu s sed , t h e c e n t ra l o n e m u s t b e t h e n ega t iv e i n f luen c e o ft h e d om inan t c u l tu r e -h i s to ry a pp roa ch s uppo r t ed b yi d eo log ica l a nd p o l i t ica lp r e s su r e s . I no rd e rt od emon s t ra t e I r an ian c u l t u ra l s upe r io r i ty , mo s tw o rk c a r r i ed o u tb ya r cha eo log i s t s w a s r e s t r ic t ed t ot h em a t e r ia l st h em se lv e s w i th ah eavy c onc en t ra t ion o n h i s to r ica l d a ta .
S uch a pp roach e s m ad e a r cha eo logy r ema in a n t i -
t h eo r e t ica l , a nd i g no r ed t h e i mpo r tanc e o ft h e p r eh i s to r ic p e r iod ; f o r e x amp le , t h e s t udy o fs o c ia l , e conom ic a nd c u l tu ra l p a t t e rn s t h rough a r cha eo log ica l d a ta i no r d e r t o d i scov e r t h e l aw s o ft h e d ev e lopm en t o f h uman s o c ie ty h a s n o t b e en a r e a l i n t e r e s t .
T hu s e v en n ow m any I r an ian
a r cha eo log i s t s s t i l la vo id d i scu s s ing t h eo r e t ica lp rob lem s , l e ta l on ed ev e lop ing n ew t h eo r i e s . I nf a c t , i n ac oun t ry s uch a sI r an w i th i t s v a s t l a nd , v a r iou s e t hn ic g r oup s , a nd d i v e r s i ty o fs o c ia l t y p e s , r e sea r ch e r s , i ft h ey m anag ed t o l i be ra t e t h e i r t h ink ing a nd f r e e t h em se lv e s f r om t h e a bov e c on s t ra in t s , c ou ld u s e t h e a bund an t f i nd s t o o b ta in m o r e r e l iab l e c onc lu s ion s a bou t t h e a n c i en t s o c i e t i e s o ft h e d if e r en t p eop le s i n hab i t ing t h e d i spa ra t e e co log ica l r e g ion s . R ega rd ing f i e ldwo rk , t h e l a ck o f ac on c r e t e g u id ing t h eo ry a nd v a l id t e s tab l e s c i en t if i c h ypo th e se s m ean t t h a t t h e e x cava t ion p rog ramm e s , t h e s e l ec t ion o fm a t e r ia l s , a nd t h et y pe o fr e co rd k e ep ing , a l f o l low ed a n u nd ev e loped p a t t er n . Many v a luab l e p h enom ena w e r e i g no r ed .
S om e r e sea r ch d a ta w e r e t o ta l ly
d i sca rd ed , e spec ia l ly m a t e r ia lc on c e rn ing t h en a tu ra le nv i ronm en ts uch a sf l o ra l a nd f a una lr ema in s , a sw e l l a s o t h e r m a t e r ia l s n o t c on s id e r ed t ob e c u l tu ra l r e l ic s . T h e a bov e p rob lem s s e em a l so t o h av e r e su l t ed f r om t h e a b senc e o f as e r v ic eab l e g u id ing t h eo ry r a th e r t h an t ot e chn ica l p rob l em s . T h e r e h a s a l so b e en l i t t l e i mp rov em en t i nt e rm s o f r e sea r ch f a c i l i t ie s , t o o l s a nd m e thodo logy . T e chn iqu e s a nd i mp l em en t s u sed i nf i e ldwo rk v i r tua l ly s t agna t ed a tt h e l e v e l o ft h e e a r ly 1 9 50 s . C on sequen t ly , a l t h e a r cha eo log ica l t e am s r ema in ed v e ry b a ckwa rd i n t e rm s o f e xcava t ion t e chn ique s , d i gg ing t o o l s , l a bo ra to ry e qu ipm en t , a nd r e s to ra t ion a nd s t o rag e m e thod s , a s w e l l a s e xp lana to ry m e thod s .
E v en r e la t iv e ly l ow co s t p roc edu r e s , s u ch a s f l o ta t ion o r c ompu t e r d a ta
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p roce ss ing a nd a na ly s i s , c ou ld n o t b e p opu la r i sed o w ing t ot h e i g no rance o ft h e a dm in i s t ra to r s .
A
n ece s sa ry r o le o fr e sea rch s hou ld b e t or e por t n ew ly e xp lo red a r cha eo log ica l m a ter ia l , c omp le te ly a nd e xped i t iou s ly . B u tf o r s e ve ra l r e a son s I r an ian a r cha eo log i s t s f r equen t ly c ou ld n o t d o t h a t ; t hu s a r cha eo log ica lm a t e r ia l sw e r ed i scov e r ed s or a p id ly a nd i ns uch q uan t i ty t h a tt h ew o rk o fp roce ss ing a nd a na ly s ing c ou ld n o t k e ep p ace . T he se c i rcum s tance s p roduced c r i t ica l c on sequence s ; t h e v a s t a moun t o fd a ta w a s n o tq u ick ly p roc e s sed ; o ro n ly ab r ief d e sc r ip t ion w a s p rov ided , l a ck ing p rec i se d e ta i l ; e xcava t ed m a te r ia l w a s p ack ed a way i ns t o re r o om s y ea r a f t e r y ea r . A s t ime p a ssed , l a be l s b ecame m ixed a nd o r ig ina l r e co rd sw e re l o s t . F rom t h e s c ien t if ic p e r spec t ive much i mpor tan t d a ta w a s e ven tua l ly r e duced t oi n dec iphe rab le r ubb i sh . S uch p rob lem s w e r e b ecom ing m o r e p r eva len t d u r ing t he R evo lu t ion a nd a f t e r , s i nce s u cce ss ive p o l i t ica l c ampa ign s o ccup ied m o s t o ft h e w o rk ing t im e s o fa rcha eo log i s t sw ho w e re a l r eady s hor t -handed . T h e I s lam ic R evo lu t ion b r ough t ad e ep c hange i nt h e s t ruc tu re o f I r an ian s oc ie ty i n 1 979 .
T he
t r an s i t ion f r om d i c ta to r sh ip t od emoc racy i nI r an i sm o r et h an as imp le m echan ica lc hange f r om o ne s y s tem t o a no the r .
T he p roce s s i s am o r e c omp lex o ne , a nd i ti sd i ff icu l t t o m ake a d ef in i t ive
s t a t emen ta bou t i t . I ti ss t i l lt o o e a r ly t oa s se s s t ow ha te x ten td emoc ra t ic c hange s i nd if e ren t a r ea s o fl i f eh ave b een a dop t ed . I ti sc l ea rt h a tt h e I r an ian s i tua t ion h a s c e r ta in p ecu l ia r i t ie s t h a t n eed n o t b e d e ta i led h e re .
O n e c l ea r t h ing i st h a t I r an ian s o c ie ty i n r e ga in ing i t s d emoc ra t ic a nd h uman
i d en t i ty , a nd t h i s s hou ld c r ea t e t h e c ond i t ion s n eed ed f o r i n teg ra t ion w i th d i gn i ty i n to t h e h uman c u l tu re s .
T he r e c an b e n o d oub t t h a t t o day i nt h e f i e ld o fh uman s c ience s m any c oncep t s w h ich
r e su l ted i n s t agna t ion a nd a l a ck o f v a l id i ty a t t r ibu tab le t o t h e p re -Revo lu t ion s y s tem a r e b e ing r e jec ted .
S ome c ha rac t e r i s t ic s o ft h e s y s tem a r e r e f lec ted i ns c ien t if ic k now ledge .
We m us t n ow
c a r ry o u t g enu in e a na ly s i s , s o t h a t w e m ay f r ee o u r s c ience o nce a nd f o r a l f r om n on sc ien t if ic t o ta l i ta r ian c oncep t s . T h i s i se s pec ia l ly i mpor tan t i nt h e h i s to r ica l s c ience s w h ich a r e m o re h eav i ly i n f luenced b ys uch c oncep t s . I nt h ep o s tR evo lu t ion p e r iod , d e sp i t em any c hange s i n ' the h uman i t ie s , a r chaeo logy s aw n og r ea tc hange . T h er e a son s , w h ich Ih ave d i scu s sed i nt h er e levan tc hap te r s a r e : a r chaeo logy h a s g ene ra l ly b een u s ed a s as uppor t f o r t h e i d eo logy o f t h e p r ev iou s r e g ime ; a u ncer ta in ty i ni t s r e a l p l ace a mong t h e h uman i t ie s ; a n u ncer ta in ty i ni t s i d eo log ica l a nd p o l i t ica l r e la t ion s t ot h ed om inan tI s lam ic t h ough t ; p ub l ic u nawa r ene ss o fi t sp o ten t ia l ; t h e d om ina t ion o ft h e t r ad i t iona l a r cha eo log i s t s ; t h e l a ck o fi n vo lvemen t o fa r chaeo log i s t s i nt h e s e r iou s i d eo log ica l a nd p o l i t ica l d eba t e ; al a ck o f i n t e r e s t i n i n t er na t iona l a r cha eo logy ; t h e i s o la t ion o f I r an ian s c ience ( a rchaeo logy ) f r om Wo r ld A rcha eo logy b ecau se o f t h e e conom ic a nd p o l i t ica l c ond i t ion s ; t h e a b sence o fa ny d eve lopm en ti ni t sh i gh ly c en t ra l i sed a nd h i e ra rch ica lm anagemen ts y s t em . T he g ene ra l s t ruc tu r e o f a r cha eo logy s t i l l r ema in s a s b ef o r e ; n ow I r an ian p o l i t ic s e xe rc i se t r emendou sp owe ro v e ra r chaeo logy t h rough t h ea u sp ice s o ft h eI r an ian g ove rnm en t , t h ough Id o n o t
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b e l i ev e t h i s s o c io -po l i t ica l c on t ex t o f a r cha eo logy c omp le t e ly c on t ro l s t h e o rgan i sa t ion o f t h e d i sc ip l in e , o rt h e r e sea r ch o fa r cha eo log i s t s . N ev e r th e le s s , i nt h e c a se o fI r an , t h e g ov e rnmen t h a s a lway s s haped t h e k i nd s o fr e sea r ch a r cha eo log i s t s d o , t h e w ay t h ey s t ruc tu r e a nd o r gan i se t h e i r w o rk , a nd t h e u se o fa r cha eo log ica l r e su l t s i nt h ep ub l ic r e a lm , p a r t icu la r ly t h e u se o fa r cha eo logy t od ef in e I r an i an n a t iona l i d en t i ty . A s m en t ion ed e a r l ie r , i nt h ep r e R evo lu t ion p e r iod t h i s c on t ro l w a s o bv iou s . I tw a s m an if e s t ed t h rough t h e e n cou rag em en t o fa n of i c ia l v e r s ion o fh i s to ry , b a sed o nt h em y th o fI mpe r ia ls a n c t i ty . I nt h ep o s t r evo lu t ion p e r iod , i ti sc l ea rt h a ta r cha eo logy u nd e rt h e c on t ro lo ft h eI r an ian a u tho r i t i e sh a sb egun a ga in t of e ed i n to an ew i d eo logy , a ni d eo logy t h a ti sn o t f o cu s sed o n t h e I mpe r ia l o n e , b u t w h ich h a s a si t sc en t ra l t h em e , t h e n o t ion o ft h e Mu s l im s a s a c oh e s iv e a nd h omog en eou s e t hn ic g r oup . We s e e i nt h i s p e r iod ar e f o rma t t ing o ft h e i d eo log ica l s y s t em ,t h ec r ea t ion o f as e n se o fc oh e s ion a nd h omog en e i ty a mong Mu s l im s t od eny i n t er na l s o c ia l c on f l ic t s . T h en ew i d eo logy h a sb e en t r an sf o rm ed f r om as y s t em o fb e l ief b a sed o nt h en o t ion o fa n a t iona l b ody i nw h ich t h e I r an ian p eop l e w e r e s e en a s af am i ly l i nk ed t ot h e R oya l f am i ly i na p a t er n a l i s t ic b ond , t o av i s ion o f t h e I r an ian p eop le a s am embe r o f t h e g r ea t I s lam ic f am i ly . P a ra l l e l ing t h i sg en e ra li d eo log ica lt r an sf o rma t ion , w eu nf o r tuna t e ly s e e at r an sf o rma t ion w i th in t h e f i e ld o fa r cha eo logy f r om n eu t ra l w o rk t h a t d i d n o t t h r ea t en t h e I mpe r ia l my th t ow o rk t h a t f e ed s i n to t h e m y th o fh omog en e i ty . A t t h e p r e s en tt i m e c on t ro l o n a r cha eo logy m an if e s t s i t s e lf o n t wo l e v e l s ; o nt h e f i r s t l e v e l , t h et h em e s t h a ta r cha eo log i s t s e xp lo r e a nd t h e w ay a r cha eo logy i su sed i n t h e p ub l ic r e a lm o ft h e m a s s m ed ia a nd t h e t o u r i s t i n du s t ry i sa c t iv e ly c on t ro l led b y t h e I r an ian a u tho r i t i e s . T h i s c on t ro l i sm an if e s t ed t h rough t h e f und ing f o r r e sea r ch , f o cu s s ing o n I s lam i c a r t a nd a r ch i t ec tu r e , a nd t h e p r e se rva t ion o fs p ec if i c s i t e s l i nk ed t ot h i s t h em e . T h e s e cond a nd m o r e s ub t l e l e v e l a tw h ich t h e I r an ian g ov e rnm en t c on t ro l s a r cha eo logy i st h rough i t s p o l icy o ff und ing e mp i r ica l r e sea r ch .
T h i s i ss e en i nt h e r e scu e o r ien ta t ion o f t h e a r cha eo log ica l a dm in i s t ra t ion
i n s t ead o fr e sea r ch ,w h i ch f a vou r st o ta ls i t ee xcava t ion a nd d e ta i l ed d e sc r ip t ion o fd a ta . T h eo v e ra l l r e su l t o ft h i s e mpha s i s o n d e ta i l ed e mp i r ica l w o rk r a th e rt h an t h eo ry i st ha t I r an ian a r cha eo logy i s l o s ing i t s c r i t ica l e dg e ; a r cha eo log i s t s , p a r t icu la r ly t h o se w ho a r e w o rk ing i nt h e a dm in i s t ra t iv e s y s t em o f CHO , a r e b e com ing t e chn ic ian s , u nab l e o r n o t i n t e r e s t ed t o l o ok a tt h e i r d a ta w i t h a s y n th e t ic o rc r i t ica le y e . H ow ev e r , a tt h e p r e sen tt im e , I r an i si n at r an s i t ion p e r iod , w h en d emoc ra cy i ss t i l l at e nd e r p l an t , a nd d emoc ra t ic i n s t i tu t ion s a r e s t i l l i n t h e p r oc e s s o f b e ing c r ea ted .
Ib e l i ev e t h a t t h e se
d ev e lopm en t s l e ad ing t o e c onom ic a nd s o c ia l s t ab i l i ty w i l l b r ing a bou t ar e f o rma t ion , ar e o r gan i sa t ion f o ra r cha eo logy a nd as p i r i tua la nd m a t e r ia lr e na i s san c ef o ri t . T h i sp r e sen tt h e s i s i sa im ed a tp rov id ing ac r i t ica lr e v iew o ft h ea r cha eo logy o fI r an o nt h eo n eh and ( a s t h e f i r s t a t t emp t i nt h i s r e spec t ) , t ou nd e r s tand t h e p o t en t ia l a nd t h e i mpo r tan t w e ak p o in t s o f
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I r an ian a r cha eo logy w i th r e f e rence t o Wo r ld A rcha eo logy . O nt h e o t h e rh and i tp rov ide s as e r ie s o f p rac t ica l s ugge s t ion s f o r t h e a r cha eo logy o fI r an t o r e lea se i tf r om i t s p i tf a l l s .
I nt h i s r e ga rd m y
s ugge s t ion s a st h ec onc lu s ion s o ft h i st h e s i s c once rn i nb r ief t h e f o l low ing a r ea s o fa r cha eo logy . 1 (a ) a r chaeo logy s hou ld b e f r ee o fp o l i t ica l a nd i d eo log ica l c on s t ra in t s ; ( b ) a r cha eo log i s t s s hou ld a t temp tt op rov ide ac r i t ica l e va lua t ion o fa r chaeo logy i nt h e p a s t , f o r ab e t te r u nde r s tand ing o ft h e m echan i sm s o f t h e v a r iou s p o l i t ica l , s o c ia l , e conom ic , a nd i d eo log ica l f a c to r s a f ec t ing t h e f o rma t ion o f a r cha eo logy i n t h e p r e sen t ; ( c ) a r chaeo log i s t s s hou ld b e a wa re o f t h e m i su se o f a r cha eo log ica l e v idence a nd i n te rp r e ta t ion ; ( d ) t h ey m u s t c ha l lenge t h e d om ina t ion b y t r ad i t iona l a r cha eo log i s t s ; ( e )t h ey m u s te qu ip t h em se lve s w i th t h e n ew t hough t s o n a r cha eo logy b o th i nt h eory a nd i nf i e ld m e thod s . 2 I ran ian a r chaeo logy t ob e r e lea sed f r om i t s p r e sen t s i tua t ion , n eed s t o a dop t t h e n ew i d ea s o n a r cha eo logy f r om Wo r ld A rcha eo logy .
I tc an b e d one b y t r an s la t ing t h e r e levan t i s sue s i n to t h e
I r an ian l a nguage a nd s e nd ing s t uden t s o fa r chaeo logy t ot h e We s t . A tt h e s am e t im e a r chaeo log ica l t r a in ing p rog ramme si nt h ec oun t ry i t se lf s hou ld b e r e v i sed t or e f lec ts uch i n te r e s t s . 3 -A rchaeo log i s t s s hou ld a t temp t t o b r ing a r chaeo logy i n to t h e p ub l ic r e a lm .
T h i s k i nd o f
c on s id e ra t ion w i l l h ave s ome a dvan tage s : ( a ) a r cha eo logy h a s ar o le i nt h e s o c ia l , e conom ic , a nd p o l i t ica l d eba te s i n s o c ie ty ; ( b ) a r cha eo log ica l r e sea rche s r e la te t o p ub l ic n eed s ; ( c ) p ub l ic a wa rene s s o fa r cha eo logy w i l l p r e serve a r cha eo log ica l ma te r ia l a nd w i l l s a lvage i tf r om t h e p re sen t d ange rous t h rea t s o fd e s tr uc t ion ; ( d ) p ub l ic ly f unded a r chaeo logy w i l l f r ee a r cha eo logy f r om t h e a bove m en t ioned c on t ro l s ; ( c )i tw i l lp romo t et h er o le o fa r chaeo logy i ne duca t ion . T hu st h e c oncep t o fA rchaeo log ica l H e r i tage Managem en t m u s t b e g i ven a t o p p r io r i ty ; f o r t h i s t h e f o l low ing a r e n eed ed : ( a ) i n c lu s ion o fa r chaeo logy i nf o rma l a nd i n f o rma l e duca t ion p rog ramme s ; ( b ) e xpan s ion a nd m ode rn i s ing a r cha eo log ica l d epa r tmen t s i nt h e l a rge u n ive r s i t ie s ; ( c ) e mpha s i s o n t h e g en e ra l p ub l ic 's i n te r e s t i n a r cha eo logy , t h rough p rog ramme s p rov ided b y a cadem ic i n s t i tu t ion s ; ( d ) b a lanc ing t h e p a s t a nd p r e sen t b y e n l igh ten ing t h e g ene ra l p ub l ic o n t h e n o rm s a nd v a lue s o f a r cha eo log ica l h e r i tage ; ( e ) p rov id ing a c omp rehen s ive p o l icy f o r mu seum c o l lec t ion s a nd e s tab l i sh ing a n e duca t ion of i ce i nm u seum s t ol i nk w i th p ub l ic i n t e re s t a nd t h e f o rma l e duca t iona l s y s t em ; ( f )p rov id ing l i nk b e tween m a s sm ed ia a nd a r cha eo logy t op opu la r ise a r cha eo logy . 4 -A rchaeo logy i n I r an l a ck s t e chn ica l a spec t s o f a r chaeo logy i n i t s f i e ldwo rk s t ra teg ie s ; f o r e xamp le , a r chaeo log i s t s o ft h i s c oun t ry a r e n o t f am i l ia r w i th t h e c oncep t , a im s , p o t en t ia l , a nd t h e u t i l i ty o fc on tempo ra ry s u rf ace s u rv ey . T h rough t h i s t h e s i s It r ied t oi n t roduce am e thodo logy a nd a pp l ica t ion o fs uch am e thod t ot h e a r cha eo logy o fI r an , a cco rd ing t ot h e p ropo s i t ion s t h a t : ( a ) a m a jo r i ty o fI r an ian t e r r i to ry i ss t i l l a r cha eo log ica l ly u nknown ; ( b ) s urvey d a ta c an r e p re sen t aw ide
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r a ng eo fp e r spec t ive o fr e g iona lp a t t e rn s , ( c ) l a rg e s c a le e xcava t ion m ay d e s t roy t h e s i t e s e s pec ia l ly i nt h ea r ea s w h e r et h e e xcava t ion t e am s a r e u np rof e s s iona l , b u t s u rv ey d oe s n o t ; ( d ) s u rv ey d a ta i s e qua l ly i mpor tan ta nd r e l iab le a se xcava t ion d a ta ; ( e )c o l lec t ing s u rv ey d a ta i s mo re e conom ica lt h an e xcava t ion d a ta . 5 -Th ec a se s t udy c ho sen t oe va lua t et h ep o t en t ia lo fI r an ian w a st h eP a la eo l i th ic ,t h ep r e sen t s t a t eo f t h i s p e r iod i nI r an s how s t h a t , i n c ompa r i son t o t h e o t h e r p e r iod s o f a r chaeo logy , P a la eo l i th ic a r cha eo logy h a s a t t rac ted l e s s a t ten t ion , i nt e rm s o fe xcava t ion , r e sea r ch , t r a in ing p rog r amm e s , a nd p ub l ica t ion .
R ega rd ing t h e P a la eo l i th ic p e r iod , t h e r e a r e e x i s t s e v e ra l i mpo r tan t p rob lem s : ( a )
e x c ep t as ma l l p or t ion o f t h e c oun t ry l o ca t ed i nt h e Z ag ro s a r ea (W e s t er n I r an ) , i nt e rm s o f P a la eo l i th ic d a ta , t h e o t h e r p a r t s o ft h e c oun t ry a r e s t i l l c omp l e t e ly u nk nown ; ( b ) t h e s t udy o f e nv i ronm en ta la nd p a la eoenv i romnen ta l d a ta h a sn o tf o und i t sw ay i n to a ny a r cha eo log ica l r e sea r ch c i rcu la t ion ; ( c ) u nce r ta in ty i nt h e c h rono log ica l s e quence s o fP a la eo l i th ic d a ta ; ( d ) t h e a b senc e o f a ny a dvan ced d a t ing m e thod s ; ( e ) d e s t ruc t ion o f P a la eo l i th ic s i t e s a nd t h e l a ck o f am ean ingf u l d e f in i t ion o fP a laeo l i th ic s i t e s ; ( f ) t h e f a i lu r e t ot e a ch t h e P a la eo l i th ic a s a n i n d epend en t u n i t a t u n iv e r s i t ie s ; ( h ) ac omp le t e i s o la t ion o f I r an i an P a la eo l i th ic a r cha eo logy f r om t h e a dvanc ed m e thodo log ica la nd t h eo r e t ica li s sue so f Wo r ld A rcha eo logy . I n f a c t , a ny d eve lopmen t o f P a la eo l i th ic s t ud ie s n e ed t o b e s e en i nc onn ec t ion w i th t h e g en e ra l d ev e lopm en to fa r cha eo logy i nt h i sc oun t ry w h ich w i l lr emov es om eo ft h o se p rob lem s . T op p r io r i ty i nP a la eo l i th ic r e sea rch s hou ld b eg i v en t ot h es t udy o fh uman o r ig in s i nI r an a nd o fe a r ly H omo , t o s o lv e p rob lem s o f h uman e vo lu t ion .
S uch i n t e r e s t h a s l o ng b een d eve loped i n t h e a r ea s
n e ighbou r ing I r an s uch a st h e L evan t , C en t ra l A s ian c oun t r ie s , P ak i s tan a nd I nd ia , p o in t ing t ot h e N ea r E a s t a st h e g eog raph ica l c r o s s road s b e tw e en A f r ica , A s ia , a nd E u rope a s c e r ta in ly am a in r o u t ef o rt h ed i spe r sa lo ft h ee a r l ie s th om in id s . Am a jo rp rob lem i nh uman e vo lu t io n ii sw he the rt h e e a r l ie s th om in id se vo lv ed i nA f r ica a nd s p r ead e a s twa rd , o re vo lv ed i n d epend en t ly i nS ou th ea s tA s ia a nd p e rhap s s p r ead w e s twa rd , o r b o th .
A n sw e r s c an o n ly b e s p ecu la t ive u n t i l r e l iab ly d a t ed
m a t e r ia l s a r e f ound i n L a t e P l iocen e o r E a r ly P l e i s tocen e d epo s i t s i n S ou thea s t A s ia , b u t t h e s ugg e s t ion o fh uman m ig ra t ion a nd c on tac tb e tw e en A f r ica a nd I n d ia i s as t rong o n e( p a r t icu la r ly i n t h eA cheu l ian p e r iod ) . I fi ti st h ec a se , L ow e rP a la eo l i th ic s i t e sm u s te x i s ti nt h ea r ea . T h e c oun t ry o fI r an p r e sen t s ao bv iou s c o r r ido r ; ac onn ec t ing l i nk b e tween t h e F a r E a s t , a nd t h eN ea r E a s ta nd b eyond . T h es im i la r i ty b e tw een m amma l sa nd p r ima t e s ( i nc lud ing h om in id s ) , o fA f r ica , E u rope a nd A s ia f r om , a tl e a s t M ioc en et im e s o nwa rd , i ss t rong ly s ugge s t iv e o fi n t er na t iona l m ig ra t ion s . F rom P l io -P l e i s tocen et im et h el i k e ly l a nd l ink i sI r an . I nt h e h i s to r ica l p e r iod m ig ra to ry m ov emen t s a nd w a r r io r 's c ampa ign sh ave f r equen t ly s wep ta c ro s si t sb o rd e r .
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6 -Ano the rp rob lem t h a ts t r ik e s a tt h eh ea r to ft h em a t te r , i st h en eed f o rc on tac ta nd i n te rac t ion w i th f e l low a r chaeo log i s t s a nd t h o se w o rk ing i nr e la t ed d i sc ip l ine s . R egu la r i n te rac t ion a nd d i scu ss ion s a r e e s sen t ia l i fk now ledge o fc u r r en t r e sea rch i st ob e m a in ta in ed . T he I r an ian g ove rnmen t s hou ld e ncou rage j o in tr e sea rch p rog ramme sb e tween I r an ian i n s t i tu t ion s a nd r e sea rch t e am s f r om We s t e rn c oun t r ie s .
T he se r e sea rche r s o f t en p rov ide t h e f und ing a nd e qu ipmen t f o r t h e p rog ramme s w h ich
w i l l l e ad t of u r the rt r a in ing o fI r an ian a r chaeo log i s t s . T h i s , If e e l , i st h e mo s t p rac t ica l w ay t oh e lp I r an ian n a t iona li n s t i tu t ion sa nd p rof e s s iona l s . 7 -Ano the r ma t t e r d e ser v ing a t ten t ion i st h e n eed f o r r e gu la r a nd p romp t p ub l ica t ion o f r e sea rch r e su l t s , i np a r t icu la r , i ni n t e rna t iona l j ou rna l s .
T h e re h a s n o t b een much o ft h i s o u t s ide o f I r an .
C lea r ly t h e re a r e s om ed if i cu l t ie s i nt h ep rov i s ion o ff und s f o rp r in t ing a nd p ub l ica t ion o fj our na l s , w h ich i sf r u s t ra t ing .
P ub l ica t ion i sh oweve r , t h e b e s t w ay t ol e t o t he r s k now o fw o rk b e ing d one
a nd i ti se s sen t ia l w h en s e ek ing f und s f o rf u r the r w o rk . O bv iou s ly , t o day , p ub l ica t ion r e co rd i na n E u ropean o r Ame r ican u n ive r s i ty i s , p e rhap s , t h e m o s t i mpor tan t p a r t o f ar e gu la r p romo t ion a nd f u nd ing o fr e sea rch p ropo sa l s ;t h i s s hou ld b et h ec a se i nI r an a sw e l l .
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B ib l iography
A bua l S oo f , B ehnam , 1 968 . T e l l e s -Sawan : E x cava t ion o ft h eF ou r th S ea son ( Sp r ing196 :7 ) . S umer 2 4 : 3 1 5 . A dam s ,R ober t McC . , 1 962 . A g r icu l tu r e a nd U rban L i f e i nE a r ly S ou thwe s te rn I r an . S c ience 1 36 : 1 091 22 . 1 965 L and B eh ind B aghdad . C h icago : U n ive r s i ty o fC h i cago P re s s . 1 981 H ea r t land o fC i t ies : S ur vey o fA nc ien tS e t t l emen t a nd L and U s e o n t h e C en t ra l F lood P la in o ft h e E uphra t es . C h icago : Un iv e r s i ty o fC h icago P r e s s . Adam s , R ober t McC . , a nd D .P . Han sen , 1 968 . A r chaeo log ica l R econna i s sance a nd S ound ing i n J und i shapu r . A r sO r ien ta l is7 : 5 3 -73 . A dam s , R ober t McC . ,and Han s N i s sen , 1 972 . T he U ruk C oun t r y s id e . P re s s .
C h icago : Un ive r s i ty o f C h icago
A ddyman , P e ter V . , 1 990 . R econ s t ru c t ion a s I n t e rp r e ta t ion : T he E xamp le o f t h e J orv ik V ik ing C en t re , Y o rk . I n : P .G a the r co le a nd D . L ow en tha l , e d s . , T he P o l i t ic s o ft h e P a s t . ( One Wo r ld A r cha eo logy 1 2 ) . L ondon : U nw in H yman , 2 57-264 . Ahmad i ,H . , 1 988 .A pp l ied G eomorpho logy ( i nP e r s ian ) . T eh ran : U n ive r s i ty o fT eh ran P re s s . A i tken M .J . , 1 990 . S c ience B a s ed D a t ing i nA rchaeo logy . L ondon :L ongman . A l -A s f our ,T .A . , 1 982 . C hang ing S ea L ev e la l ong t h eN or th C oas to fK uwa i t . L ondon : K egan P au l . A lbrech t , G . , a nd H . Mü l lerBeck ( e d s ) , 1 994 . D a sP a lao l i th ikum v on S ehr emuz b e iS amsa ta m E uphra t . T ub ingen : V e r lag A r chaeo log ica V en to r ia . A lexander ,J ohn , 1 989 . AS ugge s ted T ra in ing S ch em ef o r A rchaeo log ica l R e sou rce Manag e r s i nT rop ica l C oun t r ie s . I n : H .F . C lee r e , e d . ,A rcha eo log ica lH er i tag e Managemen t i nt h e Mod ern W or ld . ( On e Wo r ld A rchaeo logy 9 ) . L ondon : U nw in H yman 2 80-284 . A l i jan i , B . , 1 990 . F o rma t ion o f S i be r ian H igh a nd i t s Ef ec t o n t h e C l ima t e o fE a s te rn I r an . J ourna lo fG eog raph ica lR es ea rch ( i nP e r s ian ) , 1 7 : 4 151 .
Q ua r t er ly
A l len ,K . e d . , 1 990 .I n t erp re t ing S pace : G IS a nd A rcha eo logy . L ondon : T ay lo ra nd F ranc i s . Ammerman , A lber t J . , 1 981 . S u rv ey a nd A r cha eo log ica l R e sea rch . A nnua lR ev iew o fA n thropo logy 1 0 : 6 3-88 . 1 983 D i scu s s ion . I n : D .R . K e l le ra nd D .W . R upp , e d s . ,A rchaeo log ica lS urvey i nt h e Med i t e r ranean A r ea . Ox f o rd : BAR I n te rna t iona lS e r ie s 1 55 1 985 P low -Zon eE xpe r imen t si nC a lab r ia , I t a ly . J ourna lo fF ie ld A rchaeo logy 1 2 : 3-40 . Ammerman , A lber t J . , a nd M .W . F i e ldman , 1 978 . R ep l ica ted C o l lec t ion o f S i te S u r f a c e . A n t iqu i ty 4 3 : 7 34-740 .
Amer ican
Ammerman ,A lber tJ . , a nd G .D . S cha f f er , 1 981 . N eo l i th ic S e t t lem en tP a t t er ni nC a labr ia , I t a ly . C ur r en t A n thropo lo gy 2 2 :430-432 . v an Ande l ,T .H . , 1 989 . L a t eQ ua t e rna ry S ea L ev e la nd A rchaeo logy . A n t iqu i ty 6 3 : 7 33-745 .
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A na l ,A . , a nd C . T h ibau l t , 1 977 . N ouve l le s P r6c i s ion s äP ropo s d e L 'ou t i l lage P a l k . l i th ique Anc ien t S ur G a le t sd u Khora ssan ( I ran ) . P a lä or ien t 3 : 1 01-108 . Arne , A .J . ,
1 945 . E xcava t ion a t S hah T epe , I ran .
R epor t s f r om t he S c ien t i f ic E xped i t ion t o t he
Nor thwe s tern P rov ince s o f Ch ina . S tockho lm : S ta ten sE thnog ra f iska Mu seum . Bacon , E dward , 1 960 . D igg ing f o r H is tory ( A S urvey o fR ecen t Wo r ld A rchaeo log ica l D iscove r ie s 1 9451 959 ) . L ondon : Adam a nd C ha r le sB lack . B arham ,L . , 1 999 . F rom A r ta nd T oo ls C ame Human O r ig in s . B r i t ish A rchaeo logy 2 4 : 8 -9 . B arker , Graeme , 1 991 . I n t roduc t ion : Me thod a nd P rob lem .
I n : G . B a rker a nd J .A . L loyd , e d s . , R oman
L and scapes : A rchaeo log ica l S urvey i n t h e Med i ter ranean R eg ion .
Monograph o f t h e B r i t i sh S choo l a t
R ome , N o . 2 . L ondon : B r i t ish S choo l a tR ome , 1 -9 . B arker , Graeme , a nd J ohn A . L loyd , e ds . , 1 991 . R oman L and scapes : A rchaeo log ica l S urvey i n t h e Med i ter ranean R eg ion .
Monog raph s o f t he B r i t i sh S choo l a t R ome N o . 2 .
L ondon : B r i t i sh S choo l a t
R ome . B arre t t , J ohn C . ,
1 988 .
F i e ld s o f D iscou r se : R econ s truc t ing a S oc ia l A rchaeo logy .
C r i t ique o f
A n thropo logy 7( 3 ) : 5 -16 . B ar -Yosef , 0 . , 1 992 . T he R o le o f Wes tern A s ia i n Modern Human O r ig in s . P h i losoph ica l T ransac t ions o f t h eR oya lS oc ie ty 3 37 : 1 93-200 . 1 994 T he L owe rP a laeo l i th ic o ft he N ea rE a s t . J ourna lo f Wor ld P reh is tory 8( 3 ) : 2 11-265 . 1 995 T he R o le o f C l ima te i n t he I n terp re ta t ion o f H uman Movemen t s a nd C u l tura l T ran sf o rma t ion s i n We s te rn A s ia .
I n : E .S . V rba , G .H . D en ton , T .C . P ar tr idge a nd L .H . B u rck le , e d s . , P a laeoc l ima te a nd
E vo lu t ion , w i th Emphas is o nH uman O r ig ins . N ew H aven : Ya le Un ive r s i ty P re ss , 5 07-523 . 1 998 E a r ly C o lon i sa t ion a nd C u l tu ra l C on t inu i t ie s i n t h e L ower P a laeo l i th ic o f We s tern A s ia .
I n : M .D .
P e t rag l ia a nd R . K or ise t ta r , e d s . , E ar ly Human B ehav iour i n G loba l C on tex t , t h e R ise a nd D iver s i ty o ft h e L ower P a laeo l i th ic R ecord . L ondon : R ou t ledge ( One Wor ld A rchaeo logy 2 8 ) 2 21279 . B ar -Yosef , 0 . , a nd A . B e lf er -Cohn , 1 988 . T he E a r ly Uppe r P a laeo l i th ic i n L evan t ine C ave s .
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H of f ecke r a nd C .A . Wo lf , e d s . , T he E ar ly U pper P a laeo l i th ic . Ox fo rd : BAR I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s 4 37 : 2 34 1 . 1 989 T he O r ig in o f S eden t i sm a nd F a rm ing C ommun i t ie s i n t he L evan t . 4 47-498 .
J ourna l o fW ör ld P reh is tory 3 :
1 991 F rom S eden ta ry Hun te r -Ga the re r t o T e r r i tor ia l F a rme r s i n t he L evan t . I n : S .A . G regg , e d . , B e tween B and sa nd S ta tes . C a rbonda le : C en t re f o rA rchaeo log ica l I nve s t iga t ion s , 1 81-202 . 1 992 F rom F orag ing t o F a rm ing i n t he Med i te r ranean L evan t . I n A .B . G ebauer a nd T .D . P r ice , e d s . , T rans i t ions t o Agr icu l ture i nP reh is tory . P reh is to ry P re s s , Mad ison , Wis , 2 1-48 . B ar -Yo sef , 0 . , a nd N . Goren Inbar , 1 993 . T he L i th ic A ssemb lages o fU be id iya : AL ower P a laeo l i th ic S i te i nt h eJ ordan V a l ley . J e ru sa lem : T he H eb rew Un ive r s i ty o fJ eru sa lem . B aum ler , Mark F . , a nd J .D . S pe th , 1 993 . AM idd le P a laeo l i th ic A s semb lage F rom Kun j i C ave , I r an . I n : D . I . O lszew sk i , H .L . D ibb le , e d s . , T he P a laeo l i th ic P reh is to ry o ft h e Z agros -Taurus .
P h i lade lph ia : T he
Un ive r s i ty Mu seum , Un ive r s i ty o fP cnn s i lvan ia Monog raph 8 3 : 1 -77 . B eaumon t ,P e ter , 1 972 . A l luv ia l F an s a l ong t h eF oo th i l ls o ft he E lbu rz Moun ta in s , I r an . P a laeogeography , P a laeoc l ima to logy , P a laeoeco logy 1 2 : 2 51-273 . B eaumon t , P e ter , Gera ld H . B lake , a nd J . Ma lko lm Wag s taf f , 1 988 . T he M idd le E as t , aG eog raph ica l S tudy ( s econd e d i t ion ) . L ondon : D av id F u l ton P ub l ishe r s .
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B e l iaeva ,E len , 1 997 . P a la eo l i th ic C av e S i te s i nG ub s C anyon , N o r th e rn C auca su s . I n : C .B on sa i ! , a nd C . T o lan -Sm i th , e d s . , T he H uman U se o fC aves . O x f o rd : BAR I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s6 67 : 1 50154 . B ender , S . , a nd I t Wi lk in son , 1 992 . P ub l ic E duca t ion a nd t h e A cademy . E d uca t ion 3 :1 3 .
A rchaeo log y a nd P ub l ic
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( On e
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2 02
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2 03
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Managemen ti nt h e Mod ern W or ld . ( One Wo r ld A rchaeo logy 9 ) . L ondon : Unw in H yman , 2 56-264 . Gordon ,D .H . , 1 947 . S ia lk , G iyan , H is sa ra nd t he I ndo I r an ian C onnec t ion . Man i nI nd ia 2 4 : 1 96-241 . Goren Inbar , N . , 1 992 . T he A cheu l ian S i te o fG e she r B eno t Y a 'a i lov : An A f r ican o r A s ian E n t i ty? I n : T . Akazawa , K . A ok i , a nd T . K imu ra , e d s . , T he E vo lu t ion a nd D isper sa l o f Mod ern Human i nA s ia . T okyo : H oku sen -Sha , 6 7-82 . Goren -Inbar , N . , S . B l i tzky , K . V ero sub , E . Werker , M . K is lev , A . He imann , I . Carm i , a nd A . R o senf ie ld , 1 992 . N ew D iscove r ie s a tt h e M idd le P le is tocene : A cheu l ian S i te o f G e sher B eno t Y a 'a c iov , I s rae l . Q ua ternary R esearch 3 8 : 17-128 . Gow le t t ,J .A .J . , 1 988 . AC a se o fD eve loped O ldowan i nt h eA cheu l ian . Wor ld A rchaeo logy 2 0 : 1 3-26 . Green , D .F . , 1 980 . B r ief Ana ly s i s a nd A dv ice o n t h e C en t ra l A r izona P ro jec t t o Wa te r a nd P owe r R esou rce s S erv ice . C en t ra l A r izona P ro jec t . P hoen ix , A r izona . Gumerman , G .J . , 1 971 ( ed . ) . T he D is t r ibu t ion o fP reh is tor ic P opu la t ion Aggrega te .
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Mc In to sh , S u san K eech , a nd R oder ich J . Mc In to sh , 1 980 . P r eh i s tor ic I nves t iga t ion i n t h e R eg ion o f J enne , Ma l i . AS t ud y i nt h e D eve lopmen t o fU rban ism i n t h e S ahe l , P a r t i : T he R eg iona l S ur vey a nd C onc lus ions . C amb r idge Monog raph si nA f r ican A rchaeo logy 2 . Ox f o rd : BAR I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s8 9( i ) . Mc Manamon , F ranc i s P . , 1 984 . D i scov e r ie s S i t e s Un seen . I n : M .B . S ch if f e r , e d . , Ad vances i n A rchaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heory 7 :2 23-292 . 1 991 T he F ede ra l G ovenun en t 's R ecen t R e spon se t o A rcha eo log ica l L oo t ing . I n : G .S . Sm i th a nd J . E . E h renha rd , e d s . ,P ro t ec t ing t h eP a s t . A nn A rbo r : CRC P re s s . 2 61-270 . 1 994 P re sen t ing A r cha eo logy t ot h e P ub l ic i n t h e U SA . I n : P .G . S t on e a nd B .L . Mo lyneaux , e d s . , T he P r es en t ed P as t . ( On e Wo r ld A r chaeo logy 2 5 )L ondon : R ou t ledge , 6 1-81 . Megard , RP . , 1 967 . L a te Q ua te rna ry C ladoce ra o fL ak eZ e r iba r . E co logy 4 6 : 1 79189 . Me l laar t ,J ame s , 1 961 . E xcava t ion a tH a c i la r . A na to l ia S tud ies 1 : 7 0-75 . 1 967 2 2 ta lH uyuk :A N eo l i th ic T own i nA na to l ia . N ew Y o rk McG raw -H i l l . . Me l lar s ,P .A . , 1 989a . Ma jo rI s su e s i nt h e Eme rgence o f Mode rn H uman s . C ur r en tA n thropo logy 3 0 : 3 493 85 . 1 989b T echno log ica lC hange sa tt h eM idd le -Uppe rP a laeo l i th ic T ran s i t ion : E conom ic , S oc ia l a nd C ogn i t iv e P e r spec t ive s . I n : P . Me l la r s a nd C .B . S t r inge r , e d s . , T he Human R evo lu t ion : B eha v ioura l a nd B io log ica l P e r spec t ives o nt h e O r ig ins o fM od ern H umans . E d inbu rgh : E d inbu rgh U n iv e r s i ty P r e s s , 38365 . 1 992 A rchaeo logy a nd t h e P opu la t ion -D i spe r sa l H ypo th e s i s o f Mod er n H uman O r ig in i n E u rope . P h i losoph ica l T ransac t ions o ft h eR oya lS oc ie ty 37 : 2 25-234 . Me l lar s , P .A . , M .J . A i tken a nd C .B . S t r inger , 1 993 . Ou t l in ing t h e P rob lem . I n : M .J . A i tken , C .B . S t r inge r a nd P .A . Me l la r s , e d s . , T he O r ig in o f Mod ern Humans a nd t h e I mpac t o fC hronome t r ic Da t ing . N ew J e r sey : P r in ce ton U n ive r s i ty P r e s s , 3 11 . Merr iman , N . , 1 991 . B eyond t h e G la s s C a s e : T he P as t , t h e H er i tag e a nd t h e P ub l ic i nB r i ta in . L e ice s t e r Mu seum S tud ie s . L e ice s te r : L e ice s t e rU n iv e r s i ty P r e s s . Me s ser l i ,B . , 1 967 . D ie E i sze i t l iche u nd G egenwa r t ige V e rg le t sch e rung i mM i t t e lmee r raum . G eog raph ica H e lve t ica 2 2 : 1 05-228 . M i l ler , D an ie l , a nd C hr i s topher T i l ley , e d s . , 1 984 . I d eo logy , P owe r , a nd P r eh is tor y . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s .
C amb r idg e :
M i l ler , N aom i F . , 1 991a . T he O r ig in o fP lan t C u l t iva t ion i n t h e N ea r E a s t . I n : C .W . C owan a nd P . J . Wa t son , e d s . , T he O r ig ins o f Ag r icu l tur e i n I n t erna t iona l P e r spec t ive . Wa sh ing ton : Sm i th son ian I n s t i tu t ion P re s s , 2 958 . 1 991b A rchaeobo tan ica lR e sea rch i nt h eN ea rE a s t . I n : W . v an Z e i s t , K . Wa sy l ikowa a nd K .E . B eh re , e d s . , P rog res s i n O ld W or ld P a laeoe thnobo tany , A R e t rospec t ive V i ew o n t h e O cca s ion o f2 0 y ear s o ft h e I n t erna t iona l W ork G roup f or P a laeoe thnobo tany . R o t te rdam : B a lk ema , 1 33-160 . M inzon i -Däroche , A . , 1 993 . M idd le a nd U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic i n t h e T au ru s -Zag ro s R eg ion . O l szew i sk i a nd H .L . D ibb le , e d s . , T he P a laeo l i th ic P reh is to ry o ft h e Z ag ros -T aurus . U n ive r s i ty Mu seum ,U n ive r s i ty o fP enn sy lvan ia , 1 47158 .
I n D . I .
P h i lade lph ia : T h e
M iro sched j i , P . , 1 973 . P rospec t ions A rch ä o log ique d ans l e s V a l l &s d e F asa e t Da rab .
P roceed ing s o f
t h e i s t Annua l S ympo s ium o nA r chaeo log ica lR e sea r ch i nI r an , 1 972 ,1 : 1 -7 . Moghadam ,S a lma , 1 973 . S u se: S i t ee t Mu s e . T eh ran : M in i s t ry o fC u l tu r ea nd A r t Moore , A .M .T . , 1 985 . T h e D eve lopm en t o f N eo l i th ic S oc ie t ie s i nt h e N ea r E a s t . A rchaeo logy 4 :1 -69 .
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Ad vances i n W or ld
Moore ,A .M .T . a nd H i l lman , G .C . , 1 992 . T he P le is tocene t oH o locene T rans i t ion a nd Human E conomy i n S ou thwe s t A s ia : T he I mpac to ft h e Younger D rya s . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 5 7 : 4 82-494 . Moore ,P .D . ,A .J . Webb , a nd M .E . C o l l inson , 1 991 . P o l len A na ly s is . Oxf o rd : B lackwe l l S c ien t if ic . Mor ten sen ,
P eder ,
1 963 .
E a r ly
V i l lage
O ccupa t ion :
E xcava t ion
a t T epe
Guran
L u r is tan .
Ac ta
A rchaeo log ica 3 4 : 10121 . 1 974 A S urvey o fP reh is to r ic S e t t lemen t s i n Nor the rn L u r i s tan . A c ta A rchaeo log ica 4 5 : 1 -47 . 1 975 S u rvey a nd S ound ing s i nt he H o la i lan Va l ley 1 974 . I n : F .B agherzadeh , e d . , P roceed ings o ft h e I l rd A nnua lS ympos ium o nA rchaeo log ica lR esearch i nI r an 1 975 .
T eh ran : I r an ian C en t re f o r A rchaeo log ica l
R e sea rch 1 -12 . 1 993 P a laeo l i th ic a nd E p ipa laeo l i th ic S i tes i n t h e Hu la i lan V a l ley , N or the rn L u r is tan . a nd H .L . D ibb le , e d s . , T he P a laeo l i th ic P reh is tory o ft h e Z agros -Taurus .
I n : D .I . O lszew isk i
P h i lade lph ia : T he Un iver s i ty
Mu seum , Un ive r s i ty o fP enn sy lvan ia , 1 59-186 . Mue l ler ,J ame s W. e d . , 1 975 . S amp l ing i nA rchaeo logy . T ucson : T he Un ive r s i ty o fA r izona P re ss . Muscare l la , O scar Wh i te , 1 977 . ` Z iw iye ' a nd Z iw iye :T he F o rge ry o f aP roven ience .
J ourna l o fF ie ld
A rchaeo logy 4 : 1 97-219 . N ance , J ack D . , 1 981 . S t a t i s t ica l F ac t a nd A rchaeo log ica l F a i th : Two Mode ls i n Sma l l S i te s S amp l ing . J ourna lo fF ie ld A rchaeo logy 8 : 1 51-165 . 1 983 R eg iona l S amp l ing i n A rchaeo log ica l S u rvey : T he S ta t is t ica l P e r spec t ive .
I n : M .B . S ch if f er , e d . ,
Ad vances i nA rchaeo log ica l Me thod a nd 7 heory 6 :2 89-356 . 1 988 R e l iab i l i ty , V a l id i ty a nd Quan t i ta t ive Me thod s i n A rchaeo logy .
I n :
M .S .
A ldender f e r ,
e d . ,
Q uan t i ta t ive R esearch i nA rchaeo logy . N ewbury P a rk : S age P ub l ica t ion , 2 44-293 . N egahban E za t 0 . , 1 965 . N o te s o n S ome O b jec t s f r om Ma r l ik . J ourna l o fN ear E as tern S tud ies , 2 4 (4 ) : 3 09-324 . 1 969 H af tT epe . I ran 7 : 1 73 -77 . 1 981-82 P rob lem s o fA rchaeo logy o fI r an . I n I r an ian S tud ies S em inar , Un ive r s i ty o fP ennsy lvan ia , Annua l P roceed ing s , 1 7 -21 . 1 997 T he S urvey o f F if ty Y ears o f A rchaeo logy o f I ran ( i n P e r s ian ) .
T eh ran :
C u l tu ra l H er i tage
O rgan i sa t ion . N ickens , P au l R . , 1 991 . T he D e s truc t ion o f A rchaeo log ica l S i te s a nd D a ta .
I n : G .S . Sm i th a nd J .E .
E h renhard , e d s . , P ro tec t ing t h eP as t . Ann A rbo r : CRC P re s s , 7 3-81 . N i ssen , H .J . , a nd C .R . R edman , 1 971 . P re l im ina ry N o te s o nA rchaeo log ica l S urf ace S urvey i nt h e P la in o f B ehbahan a nd t h eL owe rZ u reh V a l ley . B as tan S henas i 6 :4 8-50 . N y lander , C ar l , 1 971 . T he a chaemen id Emp ire . E xped i t ion 1 3 : 5 0-54 . O 'Keefe , P .J . a nd L .V . P ro t t , 1 984 . L aw a nd t h e C u l tura l H er i tage . V o l . 1 .D iscovery a nd E xcava t ion . A b ingdon : P rof e s s iona lB ook s . 1 993 T he E u ropean C onven t ion o nt he P ro tec t ion o ft he A rchaeo log ica l H er i tage . An t iqu i ty 6 7 : 4 06-413 . Oa te s , Dav id , a nd J oan Oa te s , 1 981 . T he N ea rE a s t : AP e r sona l V iew . I n J .D . E van s , B . C un l if f e a nd C . R en f rew , e d s . ,E ssays i n Honour o fG lyn Dan ie l . L ondon : T hame s a nd Hud son , 2 8-34 . Oa te s ,J . , 1 969 . C hoga Mam i , 1 967 -68 : AP re l im ina ry R epor t . I r aq 3 1 : 15152 . Ohnuma , K . , a nd C .A . B ergman , 1 990 . AT echno log ica l Ana ly s is o ft he U ppe rP a laeo l i th ic L eve ls ( XXV V I ) o f K sa r A k i l , L ebanon .
I n : P . Me l la r s , e d . , T he Emergence o f Mod ern Humans : An A rchaeo log ica l
P er spec t ive . E d inbu rgh : E d inbu rgh Un iver s i ty P re s s , 9 1-138 .
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Okpoko ,I kechukwu A . , 1 988 .H ow t oC rea te a n Unde r s tand ing o ft h eN e ed f o rR e scue O pe ra t ion s i n We s t A f r ica . I n : A rchaeo logy a nd S oc ie ty . P roceed ing s o ft h e I CAHAM S ympo s ium i n S t o ckho lm . I CAHAM R epo r tN o 1 :4 1-54 . O l szew sk i , D eborah I . , 1 993 . T h e Z a rz ian O ccupa t ion a t Wa rwa s i R ock she l t e r , I r an . I n : D . I . O l szew i sk i a nd H .L . D ibb le , e d s . , T he P a laeo l i th ic P r eh is tory o ft h e Z ag ros -T aurus . P h i lade lph ia : T h e Un ive r s i ty Mu seum , Un ive r s i ty o fP enn sy lvan ia , 2 07-217 . Opdyke , N .D . , E . L ind say , a nd G . Kuk la , 1 985 . E v idence f o r E a r l ie r D a t e o fU be id iya , I s ra e l H om in id S i t e . N a ture 3 04 : 3 75378 . P ark in , D .W . , a nd N .J . S ha cke l ton , 1 973 . T rad e W ind s a nd T empe ra tu r e C o r r e la t ion s D own aD eep -Sea C o r eo ft h eS aha ran C oa s t . N a tu r e2 45 : 4 55-457 . P arro t , Andre , 1 953 .A rch d i o log ie Mesopo tam ienne ( Vo l . 2 ) . P a r i s . P a t ter son , T homa s C . , 1 990 . S ome T heo r e t ica l T en s ion s w i th a nd b e tw een t h e P roce s sua l a nd P o s tp roce s sua lA rcha eo log ie s . J ourna lo fA n t hropo log ica lA rchaeo logy 9 :1 89-200 . P au l i s sen , E . , a nd P .M . V ermeer sch , 1 987 . E a r th , Man , a nd C l ima te i nE gyp t ian N i le V a l ley d u r ing t h e P l e i s tocene . I n : A .E . C lo se ,ed . , P r eh i s to ry o f N or th A f r ica : E s say i n H ono r o fF red Wendo rf . D a l la s : S ou th e rn Me thod i s tU n iv e r s i ty P r e s s , 2 9-67 . P eacock , Wi l l iam KB . , 1 978 . P robab l i s t ic S amp l ing i nS he l lM idd en s : AC a se S t udy f re O ron say , I nne r H eb r id e s . I n : J . F . C h e r ry , C . G amb le , a nd S . S hennan , e d s . , S amp l ing i n C on t empora ry B r i t ish A rchaeo logy . Ox f o rd : BAR B r i t i sh S e r ie s5 0 : 1 77190 . P earce ,S u san , 1 990 .A r chaeo log ica lC ura tor sh ip . L e ice s te r : L e ice s te rU n iv e r s i ty P re s s . 1 993 Mu seum A r cha eo logy . I nJ .H un t e r , a nd I .R a l s ton , e d s . , A rchaeo log ica lR esourc e Manag emen t i n t h e UK :A nI n t rod uc t ion . S t roud : A lan S u t ton P ub l i sh ing L td , . 2 32-242 . P erk in s , D . , J r . , a nd P . D a ly , 1 974 . T h e B eg inn ing o fF ood P rodu c t ion i nt h e N ea r E a s t . I n : R . S t ig le r , e d . , T he O ld W or ld . N ew Y o rk : S t . Ma r t in 's P r e s s , 7 1-97 . P h i l ip 's E ncyc loped ic Wor ld A t la s , 1 992 . L ondon : G eo rge P h i l ip L im i t ed , 1 03 . P h i l ip s , P h i l ip , J ame s A . F ord , a nd J ame s B . Gr if f in , 1 951 . A rchaeo log ica l S ur v ey i n t h e L owe r M is s is s ipp i V a l l ey , 1 940 -1947 . P ape ro ft h eP eabody Mu seum , H a rva rd U n ive r s i ty 2 5 . P iggo t ,S tuar t , 1 943 . D a t ing t h eH i s sa rS equenc e-The I nd ia E v idenc e . A n t iqu i ty 1 7 : 1 69-82 . P iperno , M . , 1 974 . U ppe rP a la eo l i th ic C ave s i nS ou the rn I r an . P r e l im ina ry R epo r t . E as ta nd W es t 2 4 : 9 1 3 . P log ,F .T . , a nd J .N . H i l l , 1 971 . E xp lan ing V a r iab i l i ty i nt h eD i s t r ibu t ion o fS i te s . I n : G .J . G ume rm an , e d . , T he D is t r ibu t ion o fP r eh is tor ic P opu la t ion A gg r ega t es . P re sco t t : P re sco t t C o l leg e , A nt h ropo log ica l R epo r t s 1 :4 5-54 . P log , S t ephen , 1 976 . R e la t iv e Ef ic ien c ie s o f S amp l ing T echn ique s f o r A r cha eo log ica l S u r vey . I n : K .V . F lann e ry , e d . , T he E a r ly Me soamer ican V i l lag e . N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic P r e s s , 1 36158 . 1 978 S amp l ing i nA rcha eo log i ca lS u rvey : aC r i t ique . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 4 3 :280-285 . 1 986 T h e S u rvey S t ra t egy . I n : S .P log , e d . , S pa t ia l O rgan isa t ion a nd E xchange -Archaeo log ica lS urvey o n N or thern B lackmesa . C a rbonda le : S ou the rn I l ino i s Un ive r s i ty P re s s , 3-49 . P log , S , F . Nog , a nd W . Wa i t , 1 978 . D ec i s ion Mak ing i n Mod e rn S u rvey . Ad vances i nA rchaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heory 1 :3 83-421 .
2 16
I n : M .B . S ch if f e r , e d . ,
P o s tga te ,J .N . , 1 982 . A bu S a lb ikh . I n : J .C ur t is , e d . , F if ty Y ears o f Mesopo tam ian D iscovery . T he W ork o f t h eB r i t ish S choo lo fA r chaeo logy i nI raq , 1 932 -1982 . T he B r i t i sh S choo l o fA rchaeo logy i nI r aq , 4 8-61 . 1 992 E ar ly Mesopo tam ia , S oc ie ty a nd E conomy a tt h e Down o fH is tory . L ondon : R ou t ledge . P reuce l , Rober t , 1 991 . I n t roduc t ion . I n : R . P reuce l , e d . , P roces sua l a nd P os tprocessua l A rchaeo log ies : Mu l t ip le Ways o fK now ing t h e P as t . C en t re o fA rchaeo log ica l I nve s t iga t ion , C a rbonda le : S ou the rn I l ino is Un ive r s i ty , O cca s iona lP ape r , 1 0 : 1 -14 . P reuce l , Rober t , a nd I an H odder , 1 996a . C ommun ica t ing P resen t P a s t s . e d s . , C on temporary A rchaeo logy i nT heory . L ondon : B lackwe l l 1 -20 . 1 996b Ma te r ia l S ymbo ls .
I n : R . P reuce l a nd I . Hodder ,
I n : R . P reuce l a nd I .H odde r , e d s . , C on temporary A rchaeo logy i n T heory ,
L ondon : B lackwe l l , 2 99-314 . P ro t t , L .V . , a nd P .J . O 'Keef e , 1 989 . L aw a nd t h e C u l tura l H er i tage .
V o l . 3 . Movemen t . L ondon :
B u t te rwor ths . P u l lar ,J ud i th , 1 979 . T epe A bdu lH osse in . I ran 1 7 : 1 52-55 . R ackham ,J . , 1 994 . I n terpre t ing t h eP as t :A n ima lB ones . L ondon : B r i t ish Mu seum P ub l ica t ion . R ad , M . , a nd A . Hakem i , 1 950 . F ou i l le s S c ien t if ique s äG ad i -Tepe e t S u r d ' a u t re s T epe s d e Khurv in . G ozareshha -y i -Bas tan S hena s i 1 :8 2-122 . R a jab i ,P . , 1 965 . T rave lA ccoun to f K ars ten N iebuhr . ( i nP e r s ian ) . T eh ran : E lm i . R anov , Vad im A . , E . C arbone l l , a nd , X .P . Rodr iguez , 1 995 . Ku lda ra : E a r l ie s t Human O ccupa t ion i n C en t ra l A s ia i ni t s A f ro -A s ian C on tex t . C urren t An thropo logy 3 6 : 3 37-346 . R aw l inson ,G . , 1 865 . T he F ive G rea t Monarch ies o ft h eA nc ien tE as tern W or ld . L ondon . 1 898A Memo ir o f Ma j or -Genera lS i rH .C . Raw l inson . L ondon. R aw l inson , H enry C . , 1 852 . N o te s o n S ome P ape r C a s t s o f C une if orm I n sc r ip t ion s u po 'n t h e S cu lp tu red R ock a tB eh i s ton . A rchaeo log ia 3 4 : 7 3-82 . R ead , Dw igh t W. , 1 986 . S amp l ing P rocedu res f o r R eg iona l S urveys : AP rob lem o fR ep re sen ta t ivene ss o f Ef ec t ivene s s . J ourna lo fF ie ld A rchaeo logy 1 3 : 4 77-491 . R ech inger , Kar l He inz , e d . , Umrahmend en
G eb irge
1 963-1997 . F lora I ran ica , F lora d es I ran ischen Hoch land es u nd d er
P er s ian ,
Af ghan is tan ,
T e i le
v on
W es t
P ak is tan ,
N ordI raq ,
A zerba id jan ,
T urkmen is tan . Akadem i sche D ruck -u . V er lagsan s ta l t G razAu s t r ia . R edman , Char les L . , 1 973 . Mu l t i -S tage F ie ldwork a nd Ana ly t ica l T echn ique s .
Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 3 8 :
6 1-79 . 1 974 A rchaeo log ica lS amp l ing S t ra teg ies . Add ison - We s ley Modu le i n An th ropo logy 5 5 . 1 978 T he R ise o fC iv i l isa t ion . S an F ranc isco : F reeman . 1 982 A rchaeo log ica l S u rvey a nd t h e S tudy o f Mesopo tam ian U rban S y s tem , aR ev iew A r t ic le .
J ourna l o f
F ie ld A rchaeo logy 9 :3 75382 . 1 987 S u rf ace C o l lec t ion , S amp l ing , a nd R esea rch D e s ign , aR e t rospec t ive . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 5 2 :2 492 65 . 1 991 D is t ingu i shed L ec tu re i n A rchaeo logy :
I n D ef en se o f t he S even t ie s :The Ado le scence o f N ew
A rchaeo logy . Amer ican A n thropo log is t9 3 : 2 95-307 . R edman , C har les L . , a nd P .J . Wa t son ,
1 970 .
S y s tema t ic I n ten s ive S u r f ace C o l lec t ion .
Amer ican
A n t iqu i ty 3 5 : 2 79-291 . R enfrew , C o l in ,
1 973 ( e d .) . T he E xp lana t ion o f C u l ture C hange : Mod e l s i n P reh is tory .
D uckwor th .
2 17
L ondon :
1 980 T he G rea t T rad i t ion V e r su s t h e G r ea t D iv ide : A r chaeo logy a sA n th ropo logy? Ame r ican J ourna l o f A rchaeo logy 8 4 : 2 87-298 . 1 982a E xp lana t ion R ev i s i t ed . I n : C . R enf r ew , M .J . R ow land s a nd B .A . S eg rave s , e d s . , T heory a nd E xp lana t ion i nA rchaeo logy . T h e S ou thamp ton C on f e r ence , L ondon : A cadem ic P r e s s , 5 -24 . 1 982b S oc io -econom ic C hang e i n R ank ed S oc ie t ie s . I n : C . R en f rew , a nd S . J . S hennan , e d s . , R ank ing , R esource a nd E xchang e :A spec t s o ft h eA rchaeo logy o fE ar ly E u ropean S oc ie ty . C amb r idg e : C amb r idg e U n iv e r s i ty P re s s , 1 -8 . 1 987 A rchaeo logy a nd L anguag e . T he P uz z l e o fI nd o -European O r ig ins . L ondon : J ona than C ap eL td . R en f rew , C o l in a nd P au l B ahn , 1 991 .A rchaeo logy : T heory , Me thod sa nd P rac t ice . L ondon : T hame s a nd H ud son . 1 996 A rchaeo logy : T heory , Me thod sa nd P rac t ice . ( R ev i sed e d . ) . L ondon : T hame sa nd H ud son . R en f rew , C o l in , a nd Ma lco lm Wag s ta f f , e d s . , 1 982 .A nI s land P o l i ty , t h eA rchaeo logy o fE xp lo i ta t ion i n Me los . C amb r idge : C amb r idg eU n ive r s i ty P re s s . R igh tm ire , G .P . , 1 990 . T he E vo lu t ion o fH omo e r ec tu s . C amb r idg e : C ambr idg eU n ive r s i t 'y P r e s s . R i ley ,D .N . , 1 987 .A ir P ho tog raphy a nd A r chaeo logy . L ondon : D u ckwo r th . R oebroek s ,W . , 1 994 . U pda t ing t h eE a r l ie s tO ccupa t ion o fE u rope . C ur ren tA n thropo logy 3 5 : 3 01-305 . R ober t s , M .B . , C .B . S tr inger , a nd S .A . P ar f i t t , 1 994 . A H om in id T ib ia f r om M idd le P l e i s tocen e S ed im en t sa tB oxg rov e , UK . N a tur e 3 69 : 3 11312 . R ober t s , N e i l , 1 982 . L ak e L eve l s a s a n I nd ica t ion o f N ea r E a s t er n P a laeoc l ima te s : A P re l im ina ry A pp ra i sa l . I n : J . L . B in t l if f a nd W . v an Z e i s t , e d s . , P a laeoc l ima t e s , P a laeoenv ironmen t s a nd Human C ommun i t ies i nt h eE a s t ern Med i t er ran ian R eg ion i nL a t er P r eh is tory . BAR I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s 1 33 : 2 352 67 . R ober t s , N e i l , a nd H .E . Wr igh t , J r . , 1 993 . V eg e ta t iona l , L ak e -Lev e l s , a nd C l ima t ic H i s to ry o ft h e N ea r E a s ta nd S ou th We s tA s ia . I n : H .E . Wr igh t , J r . , J . E . K u tzba ch , T . Webb I I , W .F . R udd iman , F .A . S t ree t P e r ron , a nd P . J . B a r t le in , e d s . , G loba l C l ima t es s i nc e t h e L as t G lac ia l Max imum . M inneapo l i s : Un ive r s i ty o fM inne so ta P re s s , 1 94-220 . R oger s , A .R . , a nd H .C . Harpend ing , 1 992 . P opu la t ion G row th Make s Wav e s i n t h e D i s t r ibu t ion o f P a i rw i se D if f e r ence s . Mo l ecu la rB io logy a nd E vo lu t ion 9 :5 52-569 . R o l land , N . , a nd H .L . D ibb le , 1 990 . A N ew S yn th e s i s o f M idd le P a laeo l i th V a r iab i l i ty . A n t iqu i ty 5 ( 3 ) : 4 80-499 .
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R ouen ,A . , 1 991 . T h eL ow e rP a laeo l i th ic S i te E v ron -Qua r ry i n We s t er nG a l i lee , I s ra e l . I n : F e s t s chr if tK a r l B runnack e r . Kö ln : G eo log i sch e sI n s t i tu td e rU n ive r s i tä tz u Kö ln , 1 87-212 . R ou shan i , G . , 1 968 . T he T hr ee T rave lA ccoun t o fH ou tums S ch ind l er : Hara t , Mar v , a nd Ma shhad . P e r s ian ) . T eh r an : E lnü .
( i n
R upp , D .W . , 1 983 . D i scu s s ion . I n : D .R . K e l le r , a nd D .W . R upp , e d s . , A rchaeo log ica l S ur vey i n t h e Med i t er ranean A r ea . Ox f o rd : BAR I n t e rna t iona l S e r ie s 1 55 . S adek -Kooro s . H . , 1 976 . E a r ly H om in id T ra ce s i nE a s t A ze rba i jan . I n : F .B agh e rzadeh , e d . ,P roceed ing s o ft h e I V th A nnua l S ympos ium o n A rchaeo log ica l R es earch i nI r an 1 975 . T eh ran : I r an ian C en t r e f o r A rchaeo log ica lR e sea r ch 1 10 . S ander s ,W .T . ,J .R .P ar son s ,a nd R .S . S an t ley , 1 979 . T he B a s in o f Me x ico . N ew Y o rk: A cadem ic P re s s . S an lav i l le ,P . , 1 988 . S yn the se s u rl eP a leoenv i ronnemen t . P a lö or ien t 1 4( 2 ) 5 7-60 .
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S an lav i l le , P . , J .B e sançon , L . C ope land , a nd S . Muhe sen , e d s . , 1 993 . L e P a le "o l i th ique d e l a V a l löe Moy enne d e 1' O r en t e ( S ' y r ie ) . O x f o rd : BAR I n t e rna t iona l S e r ie s 5 87 . SARG ( Sou thwe s tern A n thropo log ica l R e search G roup s ) , 1 974 . S ARG : A C o -ope ra t iv e A pp roach t owa rd s Unde r s tand ing t h eL o ca t ion o fH uman S e t t lem en t . W or ld A rchaeo logy 6 :1 07116 . S ar iand i ,V .L , 1 971 . T he L ap i s -Lazu l iR ou t ei nt h e An c ien tE a s t . A rchaeo logy 2 4 : 1 2 -15 . S arn the in , M . , 1 972 . S ed im en t s a nd H i s to ry o f t h e P o s t -G la c ia l T ran sg re s s ion i n t h e P e r s ian G u lf a nd N or thw e s tG u l fo f Oman . Ma r ine G eo log y 1 2 : 2 45-266 . S arva t i , M .R . , 1 993 . G eomo rpho logy i nI r an . I n : H .J . Wa lke r a nd W .E . G rabau , e d s . , T he E vo lu t ion o f G eomorpho logy . L ondon : J ohn W i ley a nd S on sL td . , 2 17-222 . S chaa f sma , C ur t i s F . , 1 989 . S i gn i f ican tu n t i l P roven O therw i se : P rob lem sv e r su s R ep re sen ta t iv e S amp le s . I n : H .F .C lee r e , e d . ,A rchaeo log ica lH er i tag e Manag emen ti nt h e Mod ern W or ld . ( One Wo r ld A r chaeo logy 9 )L ondon : U nw in H yman , 3 8-51 . S chaar , K .W . , 1 983 . D i scu s s ion . I n : D .R . K e l le r , a nd D .W . R upp , e d s . , A rchaeo log ica l S urvey i n t h e Med i t er ranean A r ea . Ox f o rd : BAR I n t e rna t iona l S e r ie s 1 55 . S ch i f f er ,M ichae lB . , 1 976 .B ehav ioura lA rchaeo logy . N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic P r e s s . • 1 987 F orma t ion P roces s es o fArchaeo log ica lR ecord . A lbuque rqu e : Un iv e r s i ty o fN ew Mex ico P re s s . S ch i f f er ,M ichae lB . ,a nd G .J . Gumerman , 1 977a . A cqu i s i t ion o fS u rvey D a ta . I n : M .B . S ch if f e ra nd G .J . G um e rman , e d s . , C ons er va t ion A rchaeo logy : AG u id ef or C u l tura l R esource Managemen t S t ud ies . N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic P re s s , 1 8 3190 . 1 977b C u l tu ra l R e sou r c e Managem en t . I n : M .B . S ch if f e r a nd G .J . G um e rman , e d s . , C onserva t ion A rchaeo logy : AG u id ef o rC u l tura lR esource Managemen tS t ud ies . N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic P r e s s , 1 17 . 1 977 ( e d s . ) C ons er va t ion A r chaeo logy : AG u id ef or C u l tura l R esource Managemen t S t ud ies . N ew Y o rk : A cad em ic P r e s s . S ch i f f er , M ichae l B . , A lan P . S u l l ivan , a nd T imo thy C ok l inger , 1 978 . T h e D e s ign o f A r cha eo log ica l S ur v ey . W or ld A rchaeo log y 1 0 : 1 -28 . S ch i f f er , M ichae l B . , a nd S u san J . We l l s , 1 982 . A rcha eo log ica l S u rvey : P a s t a nd F u tu r e . I n : R .H . McGu i re , a nd M .B . S ch if f e r ,e d s . ,H obo / cam a nd P a tayam : P reh is tory o fS ou thwes t ern A r izona . N ew Y o rk : A cad em ic P r e s s , 3 45383 . S chm id t , E .F . , 1 935 . E x cava t ion a t R ayy . P h i lade lph ia : U n iv e r s i ty o f P enn sy lvan ia . B u l l e t in o ft h e U n iver s i ty Mus eum 5 :4 1-49 . 1 937 E xca va t ion a tT epe H i s sa r , Damghan , 1 931 -1933 . P h i lad e lph ia : .Un ive r s i ty o fP enn sy lvan ia P re s s 1 938 T he S e cond H o lm e s ' E xped i t ion t o L u r i s tan . B u l l e t in o f Amer ican I n s t i tu t e o fI r an ian A r t A nd A rchaeo logy 5 :2 05 -218 . 1 940 F l igh tO v er A nc ien tC i t ies o fI r an . C h icago : Un iv e r s i ty o fC h icago P re s s . 1 953 P er s epo l is I ,S t ruc tu r e , R e l ieves a nd I n sc r ip t ions . C h icago : O r ien ta lI n s t i tu t eP ub l ica t ion N o .48 . S chof ie ld , A .J . , 1 991 . A r t i f ac t D i s t r ibu t ion s a s A c t iv i ty A r ea : E xamp le s f r om S ou thea s t H amp sh i re . I n : A .J . S chof i e ld , e d . , I n t e rp r e t ing A r t if ac t S ca t t er s : C on t r ibu t ions t oP lough Z one A rchaeo logy . Ox f o rd : O xbow Monog raph 4 : 17128 . 1 994 L ook ing B a ck w i th R eg re t ;L ook ing F orwa rd w i th O p t im i sm : Mak ing Mo re o fS u r f a ce L i th ic S ca t t e r s . I n : N . A sh ton a nd A . D av id , e d s . , S t or ies i nS t one . L ondon : L i th ic S tud ie s S oc ie ty O cca s iona lP ape rN o . 4 : 9 0-98 . S chrader ,H . , 1 979 . Q ua t e rna ry P a la eoc l ima to logy o ft h eB la ck S ea B a s in . S ed imen tary G eo logy 2 3 : 1 651 80 .
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S chwarcz ,H .P . , 1 994 . C h rono logy o f Mode rn H uman s i nt he L evan t . I n : 0 . B a r -Yo sef a nd R .S . K ra , e d s . , L a t e Q ua t erna ry C hrono logy a nd P a laeoc l ima t e o ft h e E as t ern Med i t er ranean . T uc son : R ad ioca rbon a nd t h eP eabody Mu seum , 2 132 . S chwe ingruber , F .H . , 1 988 . T r ee R ing s : B a s ic s a nd App l ica t ions o fD end rochrono l og y . R e ide l .
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S te ib ing , Wi l l iam H , J r . , 1 993 . U ncover ing t h e P a s t : AH is tory o fA rchaeo logy . N ew Y o rk : P rome theu s B ook s S te in , S i r Aure l , 1 934 . A r cha eo log ica l R econna i s san ce s i n S ou th e rn P e r s ia . G eog raph ica l J ourna l 8 3 : 1 26154 . 1 935 A nA r cha eo log ica lT ou ri nt h eA nc ien tP e r s ia . G eog raph ica lJ ourna l8 6 : 4 90-507 . 1 937 A rchaeo log ica l R econna i s sance s i n N o r th -we s te rn I nd ia a nd S ou th -ea s te rn I r an . Ma cm i l lan . 1 940 O ld R ou t es o fW es t ern I r an . N ew Y o rk : G r eenwood P re s s .
N ew Y o rk :
S t eve ,M .J . , a nd H . G a sch , 1 971 . L' A c ropo ld eS us e , N ouve l les F ou i l l es . Memo i r e s d e l aD e lega t ion A r ch ä o log ique e nI r an 4 6 . P a r i s : P au lG eu thne r . S teward ,J u l ian H . , 1 955 . T heory o fC u l tur e C hang e : T he Me thod o logy o f Mu l t i l inear E vo lu t ion . U rbana : U n iv e r s i ty o fI l ino i sP r e s s . S tone ,P e ter G . , 1 994 . I n t rodu c t ion : Af r am ewo rk o fD i scu s s ion . I n : P .G . S t one a nd B .L . Mo lyneaux , e d s . , T he P r es en ted P a s t . ( On e Wo r ld A r cha eo logy 2 5 )L ondon : R ou t ledge , 1 5-28 . S tonek ing , M . , a nd R .L . C ann , 1 989 . A f r ican O r ig in o f Human M i tochond r ia l DNA . I n : P . Me l la r s a nd C .B . S t r inge r , e d s . , T he H uman R evo lu t ion . E d inbu rgh : E d inbu rgh U n ive r s i ty P r e s s , 1 73P . S tr ee t -Perro t t , F .A . , a nd A .T . G rove , 1 979 . G loba l Map s o fL ak e s L eve l F luc tua t ion s i n c e 3 0 ,000 y ea r s B .P . Q ua t erna ry R es ea r ch 1 2 : 8 3118 . S tree t -Perro t t , F .A . , a nd N e i l , R ober t s , 1 983 . F luc tua t ion i n C lo sed B a s in L ak e s a s a n I nd ica to r o fP a s t A tmo sphe r ic C i rcu la t ion P a t t e rn s . I n : F .A . S t ree t -Pe r ro t t , M . B e ran , a nd R . R a tc l if f e , e d s . , V a r ia t ion i nt h e G loba l W a t er B udg e t . D o rd r ech t : R e ide l , 31345 . S tr inger , C .B . , 1 989 . T h e O r ig in o fE a r ly Mode rn H uman s : A C ompa r i son o f t h e E u rop ean a nd N on E u ropean E v iden ce . I n : P . Me l la r s a nd C .B . S t r inge r , e d s . , T he H uman R evo lu t ion : B eha v ioura l a nd B io log ica lP er spec t iv es o n t h e O r ig ins o f Mod ern H umans . E d inbu rgh : E d inbu rgh Un ive r s i ty P re s s , 2 322 44 . 1 990 T he Eme rgence o f Mod er nH uman s . S c ien t if ic Amer ican 2 63 : 9 8104 . 1 992 R ep lacemen t , C on t inu i ty , a nd t h e O r ig in o f H omo s ap ien s . I n : G . B räu e r a nd F .H . Sm i th , e d s . , C on t inu i ty o rR ep lac emen t : C on t rover s ies i nH omo s ap iens E vo lu t ion . R o t te rdam : A .A . B a l l c ema , 9 -24 . 1 994 O u to fA f r ica -A P e r sona lH i s to ry . I n : M .H . N i tec i c i a nd D .V . N i t eck i , e d s . , O r ig ins o fA na tom ica l ly Mod er nH umans . N ew Y o rk : P l enum P r e s s , 1 49172 . S tr ing er , C .B . , a nd P . A ndrew s , 1 988 . G ene t ic a nd F o s s i l E v iden ce f o r t h e O r ig in o f Moder n Human s . S c ienc e 2 39 : 1 2631268 . S tronach , D av id , 1 978 . P a sa rgadae : aR epor t o n t h e E xcava t ion s C ond uc t ed b y t h e ,B r i t ish I ns t i tu t e . Ox f o rd : C la rendon P r e s s . S trona ch ,D av id ,a nd M ichae l R oa f , 1 978 . E x cava t ion a tT epe Nu sh i jan , P ar t 1 .I r an 1 6 : 1 11 . S truever , S . , 1 971 . C omm en t s o n A rchaeo log ica l D a ta R equ i rem en t s a nd R e sea rch s t ra t egy . A n t iqu i ty 3 6 : 9 19 .
Amer ican
S umner , Wi l l iam M . , 1 974 . E xcava t ion a tT e l li - Ma lyan, 1 971-72 . I r an 1 2 : 1 55-80 1 977 E a r ly S e t t l emen t i nF a r s P rov ince , I r an . Moun ta ins a nd L ow land s :E s say i n t h e A rcha eo logy o f G r ea t e r Mesopo tam ia . B ib l io theca Me sopo tam ica 7 . Ma l ibu : Undena P ub l ica t ion s , 2 91306 . 1 979 E s t ima t ing P opu la t ion b y Ana logy : A n E xamp le . I n C a ro l C anne r , e d . , E thnoa rchaeo logy : I mp l ica t ion o fE thnog raphy F or A rchaeo logy . N ew Y o rk : C o lumb ia U n ive r s i ty P r e s s , 1 64174 .
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1 988 Ma lyan , T e l le(An shan ) , R ea l lex ikon d er A ssyr io log ie u nd V ord eras ia t ischen A rchaeo log ie 7 : 3 063 20 . Sw i sher , C .C . , G .H . C ur t i s , T .J acob , A .J . Ge t ty , A . S upr i jo a nd Wid ia smoro , 1 994 . A ge o ft he E a r l ies t Known H om in id s i nJ ava , I ndones ia . S c ience 2 63 : 118-1121 . T ay lor , Wa l ter W. , 1 948 . AS t udy o fA rchaeo logy . Mena sha , WI : Ame r ican An th ropo l9g ica l A ssoc ia t ion Memo i r No . 6 9 . T chernov , E . , 1 988 . T he P a laeob iogeog raph ica l H is tory o ft he S ou thern L evan t .
I n : Y . Yom -Tov a nd E .
T che rnov , e d s . , t h eZ oogeog raphy o fI s rae l . T he H ague : D rW . J unk , 1 50-159 . 1 992 T he A f ro -A rab ian C omponen ti nt h eL evan t ine Mamma l ian F auna -A S hor tB iogeog raph ica l R ev iew . I s rae lJ ourna lo fZ oo logy 3 8 : 1 55-192 . T emp le ton , A .R . , 1 992 . H uman O r ig in a nd Ana ly s is o fM i tochond r ia l DNA S equence s . S c ience 2 55 : 7 37 . 1 993 T he ' EVE ' Hypo the se s :A G ene t ic C r i t ique a nd R e -ana ly s is . Amer ican A n thropo log is t9 5 : 5 1-72 . T errena to , N ico la , a nd A lber t J . Ammerman , 1 996 . V is ib i l i ty a nd S i te R ecove r ing t h e C ec ina V a l ley S urvey , I t a ly . J ourna lo fF ie ld A rchaeo logy 2 3 : 9 1-109 . T hompson , R . C ampbe l l ,a nd M .E . L . Ma l lowan , 1 932 . T he B r i t ish Mu seum E xcava t ion a t N ineveh , 1 9311932 . L iverpoo lA nna l so fA r chaeo logy a nd A n thropo logy 2 0 : 7 1186 . T horne , A .G . , a nd M .H . Wo lpof f , 1 992 . T he Mu l t ireg iona l E vo lu t ion o f Human s .
S c ien t if ic Amer ican
2 66 : 2 8-33 . T i l ley , Chr is topher ,
1 990 ( e d .) . R ead ing Ma ter ia l C u l ture : S truc tura l ism , H ermeneu t ics , a nd P os t -
S t ruc tura l ism . Oxf ord : B a s i lB lackwe l l . 1 991 Ma ter ia lC u l ture a nd T ex t : T he A r to fAmb igu i ty . L ondon : R ou t ledge . T os i ,M . , 1 969 . E xcava t ion a tS hah r i -Sokh ta : P re l im ina ry R epor to nt h e S econd C ompa ign . E as ta nd W es t 1 9 : 2 83-386 . T re i sman , M iche l , 1 995 . T he Mu l t ireg iona l a nd S ing le O r ig in Hypo the se s o f t he E vo lu t ion o f Modern Man : AR econc i l ia t ion . J ourna lo fT heore t ica lB io logy 1 73 : 2 3-29 . T r igger , B ruce G . , 1 984 . A l terna t ive A rchaeo log ie s : N a t iona l is t , C o lon ia l i s t , I mpe r ia l is t , Man 1 9 ( 3 ) : 3 55-370 . 1 989 A H is tory o fA rchaeo log ica l T hough t . C ambr idge : C ambr idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s . 1 991a P os tp roce ssua l D eve lopmen t i n Ang lo -Ame r ican A rchaeo logy .
N orweg ian A rchaeo log ica l R ev iew
2 4 (2 ) : 6 5-76 . 1 991b D is t ingu ished L ec tu re i nA rchaeo logy : C on s t ra in ta nd F reedom - AN ew S yn the s is f o r A rchaeo log ica l E xp lana t ion . Amer ican A n thropo log is t 9 3 : 5 51-569 . T r inkaus ,E . , 1 983 . T he S han idar N eand er tha ls . N ew Y ork : A cadem ic P re s s . T urnbu l l , P .F . , 1 975 . T he Mamma l ian F auna o f Warwa s i R ock she l te r , We s t -Cen t ra l I r an . F ie ld iana G eo logy 3 : 1 41-155 . T urnbu l l , P .F . , a nd C .A . R eed , 1 974 . T he F auna f r om t h e T erm ina l P l e i s tocene o f P a legw ra C ave , a Z a rz ian O ccupa t ion S i te i nN or thea s te rn I r aq . F ie ld iana An thropo logy 6 3 : 8 1-146 . T urner , A . , 1 992 . L a rge C a rn ivo re s a nd E ar l ie s t E u ropean H om in id s : C hang ing D e term inan t s o fR e sou rce A va i lab i l i ty d ur ing t h eL owe ra nd M idd le P le is tocene . J ourna lo f Human E vo lu t ion 2 2 : 1 09-126 . T urner , A . , a nd A .T . Chamber la in , 1 989 . S pec ia t ion , Morpho log ica l C hange a nd t h e S ta tu s o f A f r ican H omo e rec tus . J ourna lo fH uman E vo lu t ion 1 8 : 15-130 .
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U cko , P e ter J . , 1 994 . Mu seum s a nd S i t e s : C u l tu r e o f t h e P a s t w i th in E duca t ion-Z imbabw e , S ome T en Y ea r s o n . I n : P .G . S t on e a nd B .L . Mo lyn eaux , e d s . , T he P res en t ed P a s t . ( One Wo r ld A r chaeo logy 2 5 ) L ondon : R ou t ledge , 2 37-282 . U erpmann , H .P . ,W . F rey , 1 981 . D ie Umg ebung V on G a r -e -Kama rband ( Be l tCave ) u nd G a r -eA l i T eppe ( Beh shah r , Mazanda ran , N I ran )H eu t eu nd i m S pä tp le i s tozan . I nW .F rey a nd H .P . U e rpmam i , e d s . , B e i t r ä g e z ur Umwe l tg esch ich t e d es V ord er en O r ien t s .
B e ih . Tüb ing e r A t la s d e s V o rde ren O r ien t s , R e ih e A
( Na tu rw i s s ) 8 :1 34190 . V ah ida ,G . , 1 981 . T he R e -ex cava t ion o fZ a rz i , 1 971 . P roceed ing so ft h eP r eh is tor ic S oc i e ty 4 7 : 1 9-40 . V a l lada s , H , J .L . R ey s s , J . J oron , G . V a l lada s . 0 . B ar -Yo se f , a nd B . Vandermeer sch , 1 988 . T he rmo lum ine scence D a t ing o f Mou s t e r ian ` P ro to -C ro -Magnon ' R ema in s f r om I s rae l a nd t h e O r ig in o f Mod e rn Man . N a ture 31 : 6 14-616 . V an L oon , Maur t i s , J ame s H . S k inner , a nd Wi l ler Van Z e i s t , 1 968 . T he O r ien ta l E xcava t ion a t Mu r eyb i t , S y r ia : P re l im ina ry R epo r to nt h e 1 965 C ampa ign . J ourna lo fN ea rE as t ern S t ud ie s2 7 ( 4) : 2 652 90 . V an P eer , P . , 1 991 . I n te ra s semb lag e V a r iab i l i ty a nd L eva l lo i s S t y le s : T h e C a se o ft h e N o r the rn A f r ican M idd le P a laeo l i th ic . J ourna lo fAn thropo log ica lA rchaeo logy 1 0 : 1 07151 . v an Z e i s t , Wi l lem , 1 967 . L a t e Q ua te rna ry V ege ta t ion H i s to ry o f We s t e rn I r an . R ev iew s i nP a laeobo tany a nd P a lyno logy 2 :3 01-311 . 1 988 S ome A spec t so fE a r ly N eo l i th ic P lan tH u sband ry i nt h eN ea rE a s t . A na to l ica 1 5 : 4 9-67 v an Z e i s t ,W . ,a nd S .B o t tema , 1 977 . P a lyno log ica lI nve s t iga t ion i n We s t er nI r an . P a laeoh i s tor ia 1 9 : 1 98 5 . 1 982 V ege ta t iona l H i s to ry o ft h e E a s t er n Med i te r ran ean a nd t h e N ea r E a s t d u r ing t h e L a s t 2 0 ,000 Y ea r s . I n : J . L . B in t l if fa nd W . v an Z e i s t , e d s . , P a laeoc l ima t es , P a laeoenv i ronmen t s a nd Human C ommun i t ies i n t h eE as t ern Med i t er ranean R eg ion i nL a t er P r eh is tory . BAR I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s 1 33 : 2 7732 1 . 1 991 L a t e Q ua t ernary V ege ta t ion o ft h e N ea rE a s t . B e ihe f te z um Tüb inge r A t la s d e s V o rd e r en O r ien t s , R e ih e A( Na tu rw i s sen scha f t en )N r 1 8 . R e ich e r t , W ie sbad en . V anden B erghe ,L . , 1 957 . L aN ec ropo le d eK hor v in . G hoza resh h a -y i -Ba s tan S henas i 5 : , 3248 . 1 959 A rch é o log ie d e1 ' I ran A nc ien t . L e id en : E . J . B r i l l . 1 971 E xcava t ion i nP o sh t i -Kuh , I r an . A rchaeo logy 2 4 ( 3 ) : 2 63-27 1 . 1 973 E xcava t ion i nL u r i s tan a tK a l leh N i s sa r . S h i raz :B u l l e t in o ft h eA s ia I n s t i tu t e 3 :2 5-56 . 1 993 S p l end eur ed es S a s san id e s . B ruxe l le s : Mu säe sR oyaux d 'A r te td 'H i s to i r eC ommuna l . V andermeer sch ,B . , 1 989 . T h eE vo lu t ion o f Moder nH uman s : R ecen tE v idence f r om S ou th -We s tA s ia . I n : P . Me l la r s a nd C .B . S t r ing e r , e d s . , T he H uman R evo lu t ion . E d inbu rgh : E d inbu rgh Un iv e r s i ty P re s s , 1 551 64 . 1 992 T he N ea rE a s te rn H om in id sa nd t h eO r ig in so f Mode r n Human si nE u ra s ia . I n : T . A kazawa , K . A ok i , a nd T .K imu ra , e d s . , T he E vo lu t ion a nd D isper sa lo fMod ern Human i nA s ia . T okyo : H oku s en -Sha , 2 938 . V ekua , A .K . , 1 987 . L owe r P l e i s tocen e Mamma l ian P a laeon tog raph ica I t a l ica 7 4 : 6 3-96 .
F auna
o f A kha lka lak i
( Sou th e rn
G eo rg ia ) .
V ermeer sch ,P .M . ,E . P au l i s sen , a nd P .V an P eer , 1 990 . L e P a l &A i th iqu e d e l aV a l l ed uN i lE gyp t ien . A n thropo log ie 9 4 : 4 35-458 . V ig i lan t , L . , M . S tonek ing , H . Harpend ing , K . Hawke s , a nd L .C . Wi l son , 1 991 . Af r i can P opu la t ion s a nd t h eE vo lu t ion so fH uman M i tochond r ia l DNA . S c ience 2 56 : 6 28-632 .
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V i ta -F inz i , C laud io , 1 969 . L a te Q ua te rna ry A l luv ia l C h rono logy o fI r an . G eo log ische R und schau 5 8 : 9 519 73 1 973 T he L a te Q ua te rna ry S ub s idence . G eog raph ica lJ ourna l 1 39 : 4 14-421 . 1 975 Q ua terna ry D epo s i t s i nt h e I r an ian Mak ran . G eog raph ica lJ ourna l 1 41 : 4 15420 . V i ta -F inz i , C . ,a nd L . C ope land , 1 980 . S u rf ace F ind sf r om I r an ian Mak ran . I ran 1 8 : 1 49-155 . V o ig t ,M .M . , 1 983 . Ha j iF iru z T eppe , I r an : T he N eo l i th ic S e t t lemen t . H a san lu E xcava t ion R epor t , V o l . I . Un ive r s i ty Mu seum Monog raph 5 0 . P h i lade lph ia : T he Un ive r s i ty Mu seum , Un ive r s i ty o fP enn sy lvan ia . 1 987 R e la t ive a nd A b so lu t e C h rono log ie s f o r I r an b e tween 6 500 a nd 3 500 B .C . I n 0 . Au renche , J .E v in a nd F .H ou r s , e d s . , C hrono log ies i nt h eN ear E as t , BAR I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s 3 79 ( 2 ) . V oorr ip s , A lber tus , D iane P . G if ford , a nd A lber t J . Ammerman , 1 978 . T owa rd a n E va lua t ion o f S amp l ing S t ra teg ie s : S imu la t ed E xcava t ion U s ing S t ra t if ied S amp l ing D e s ign . I n : J . F . C her ry , C . G amb le , a nd S t ephen S hennan , e d s . , S amp l ing i nC on temporary B r i t ish A rchaeo logy .
O x f o rd : BAR B r i t ish S e r ie s
5 0 2 27-263 . Wag s ta f f , J .M . , 1 987 . L and scape a nd C u l ture : G eog raph ica l a nd A rchaeo log ica l P er spec t ives .
Ox f o rd :
B a s i lB lackwe l l . Wa inwr igh t , G .J , 1 989 . T he Managemen t o f E ng l i sh L and scape . I n : H .F . C lee re , e d . , A rchaeo log ica l H er i tage Managemen ti nt h e Mod ern W or ld . ( One Wo r ld A rchaeo logy 9 )L ondon : U nw in H yman , 1 64170 . Wand sn ider ,L uAnn , a nd E i leen L . C am i l l i , 1 992 . T he C ha rac te r o fS u rf ace A rchaeo log ica l D epos i t s a nd i t sI nf luence o n S u rvey A ccu racy . J ourna lo fF ie ld A rchaeo logy 1 9 : 1 69188 . Wa t son , P a t ty J o , 1 991 . O r ig in s o fF ood P roduc t ion i n We s te rn A s ia a nd E a s te rn N or th Ame r ica .
I n :
L .C .K . S hane a nd E .J . C u sh ing e d s . , Q ua t ernary L and scape . M inneapo l is : Un ive r s i ty o fM inne so ta P re s s , 1 37 . Wa t son , P a t ty J o , S teven A . L eB lance , a nd C har le s L . R edman , 1 971 . E xp lana t ion i nA rchaeo logy : A n E xp l ic i t ly S c ien t if ic A pp roach . N ew Y o rk : C o lumb ia Un ive r s i ty P re s s . Wa t son , R ichard A . , 1 991 . Wha t t h e N ew A rchaeo logy h a s A ccomp l i shed .
C ur ren t A n thropo logy 3 2 :
2 75-291 . We i Q i , 1 988 . L e C ad r e S t ra t ig raph ique , G och rono log ique e tB io s t ra t ig raph iqe d e s S i te s l e s P lu s Anc ien t C onnu s e n C h ine . A n thropo log ie 9 2 : 9 31-938 . We i s s , H . , M .A . C our ty , W . We t ter s torm , F . Gu ichard , L . S en ior , R . Meadow , a nd A . C urnow , 1 993 . T he G ene s is a nd C o l lap se o fT h i rd M i l lenn ium N or th Me sopo tam ian C iv i l i sa t ion . S c ience 2 61 : 9 95-1004 . Wenban -Sm i th , F ranc i s , 1 995a . S qua re P eg s i nR ound H o le s . I n : M . A . C oope r , A . F ir th , J .C a rman , a nd D . Whea t ley , e d s . , Manag ing A rchaeo logy , L ondon : R ou t ledge , 1 46162 . 1 995b Manag ing t h eP a laeo l i th ic H e r i tage I V : T he E nd o ft h e B eg inn ing . I n : A .J . S chof ie ld , e d . , L i th ic i n C on tex t , S ugge s t ion s f o rt h e F u tu re D i rec t ion o fL i th ic S tud ie s . L ondon : L i th ic S t ud ies S oc ie ty O ccas iona l P aper No . 5 : 15124 . Wenke , R ober t J . , 1 987 . We s te rn I r an i nt h e P ar tho -Sa s san ian P e r iod : T he I mpe r ia l T ran sf o rma t ion . I n : F rank , Ho le , e d . , T he A rchaeo logy o fW es t ern I ran . Wa sh ing ton : Sm i th son ian I n s t i tu t ion P re s s , 2 51-281 . Wha len , N . ,H . S ind i , G . Wah ida , a nd J .S . S ira j -A l i , 1 983 . E xcava t ion o fA cheu l ian S i te s N ea r S af f aqah , i nA d -Dawadnü 1 982 . A t la l7 :9 -21 . Wha len , N . , S .J . S i ra j -A l i a nd W . D av i s , 1 984 . E xcava t ion o f A cheu l ian S i te s N ea r S af f aqah , S aud i A rab ia , 1 983 . A t /a l8 :9 -24 .
2 25
Wha l lon , R . , 1 979 .A nA r chaeo log ica lS ur vey o ft h e K eban R es er v ior A rea o fE as t -C en t ra l T urk ey . A nn A rbo r : Mu seum o fA rchaeo logy ,U n ive r s i ty o fM ich igan Memo i r 1 . Whea t ley , D av id , 1 995 . T h e I mpac t o f I n f o rma t ion T echno logy o n t h e P rac t ice o f A rchaeo log ica l Managemen t . I n : M . A . C oope r , A . F i r th , J .C a rman , a nd D . Whea t ley , e d s . , Manag ing A rchaeo logy . L ondon : R ou t ledge , 1 63174 . Wh i te , L e s l ie A . , 1 959 . T he E vo lu t ion o fC u l tur e : T he D eve lopmen t o fC iv i l isa t ion t ot h e F a l l o fR ome . N ew Y o rk : McG raw H i l l . Wh i tehou se ,D . , 1 970 . S i r e A Med ieva lP o r to nt h eP e r s ian G u lf W or ld A rchaeo logy 2( 2 ) : 1 4 1158 . 1 971 E xcava t ion a tS i raf F ou r th I n t e r im R epor t . I r an 9 :1 18 . 1 972 E xcava t ion a tS i ra f : F if th I n te r im R epo r t . I r an 1 0 :6 3-88 1 975 S i raf . I r an 1 3 : 1 87 . 1 983 Ma r i t im eT rad ei nt h eG u l f : t h e 1l t ha nd 1 2 th C en tu r ie s . W or ld A rchaeo logy 1 4 ( 3 ) : 3 28334 . Wi lk in son , C har le s K . , 1 973 . N ishapur : P o t t ery o fE a r ly I s lam ic P er iod . Mu seum o fA r t .
N ew Yo rk : T h e Me t ropo l i tan
Wi l ley , G ordon R . , 1 953 . P r eh is tor ic S e t t l emen t P a t t ern i n t h e V i ru V a l ley , P eru . E thno logy B u l le t in 1 55 .
B u r eau o f Ame r ican
Wiley , G ordon R . , a nd J eremy A . S ab lo f f , 1 974 . AH is tory o f Amer ican A rchaeo logy . S an F ranc i sco : F r eeman . 1 980 A H is tory o fA m er ican A r chaeo logy ( R ev i sed E d i t ion ) . S an F ranc i sco : F reeman . 1 993 A H is tory o fAmer ican A r chaeo logy ( 3 rd e d i t ion ) . L ondon : T ham e sa nd H ud son . Wi l ley , G ordon R . , a nd P h i l ip P h i l l ip s , 1 958 . Me thod a nd T heor y i n Amer ican A rcha eo logy . U n iv e r s i ty o fC h icago P re s s .
C h icago :
Wi l l iam son , Andrew, 1 971 . T epe Y ahya P ro jec t : T epe D a sh t i -Deh . I r an 1 3 : 1 82-3 . Wi l son ,A .C . ,a nd R .L . C ann , 1 992a . T he Mo th e ro fU sA l l . S c ien t if ic Amer ican 2 66 : 6 8-73 . 1 992b T h eR ecen tA f r ican G en e s i so fH uman s . S c ien t if ic Amer ican 2 66 : 2 2-27 . Wi l son , A .C . , R .L . C ann , S .M . C arr , M . G eorge , U .B . Gy l len s ten , K M . He lm -Bychow sk i , R .G . H iguch i , S .R . P a lumb i , E .M . P rager , R .D . S age a nd M . S tonek ing , 1 985 . M i tochond r ia l DNA a nd Two P e r spec t iv e si nE vo lu t iona ry G en e t ic s . B io log ica lJ ourna lo ft h eL innean S oc ie ty 2 6 : 3 75400 . Wi l son ,D .R . , 1 982 .A ir P ho tog raphy I n t erp r e ta t ion f or A rchaeo log is t s . L ondon : B a t sf o rd . Wo lpo f f ,M i l f ord H . , 1 989 . Mu l t i reg iona lE vo lu t ion : T he F o s s i l A l t e rna t iv et oE den . I n : P .A . Me l la r s a nd C .B . S t r inge r , e d s . , T he H uman R evo lu t ion ; B eha v ioura la nd B io log ica lP er spec t ives o n t h e O r ig ins o ft h e Mod ern H umans . E d inbu rgh : E d inbu rgh U n ive r s i ty P r e s s , 6 2108 . 1 992 T h eo r ie s o f Mode rn H uman s O r ig in s . I n : G . B räue r a nd F .H . Sm i th , e d s . , C on t inu i ty o r R ep lacemen t : C on t rover s ies i nH omo s ap iens E vo lu t ion . R o t te rdam : A .A . B a lkema , 2 5-64 . Wo lpof f , M i lf ord H . a nd A be l Nk in i , 1 985 . E a r ly a nd E a r ly M idd l eP l e i s tocene H om in id sf r om A s ia a nd A f r ica . I n : E r ic D e l son , e d . ,A nc es tor s : t h eH a rd E v id ence . N ew Y o rk : A lan R . L i s s , I nc . , 2 02-205 . Wo lpo f f ,M H . , AG . T horne , FH . Sm i th , DW . F rayer a nd G G . P ope , 1 994 . Mu l t i reg iona lR evo lu t ion : A Wo r ld -W id eS ou r ce f o r Mod er nH uman P opu la t ion s . I n : M .H . N i t eck ia nd D .V . N i teck i ,e d s . , O r ig ins o f A na tom ica l ly Mod ern H uman s . N ew Y o rk : P l enum P r e s s , 1 75199 . Wood ,B ernard a nd A lan T urner , 1 995 . O u to fA f r ica a nd i n to t h eA s ia . N a ture 3 78 : 2 39-240 . Woo l ley ,C .L . , 1 934 . U rE xca va t ion(V o l . 2 ) : T he R oya lC eme t ery . L ondon .
2 26
1 953 S pad ework . L ondon :L u t t e rwo r th . Wr igh t , G . E rne s t , 1 975 . T h eN ew A r chaeo logy . T he B ib l ica lA rchaeo log is t3 8 : 1 04117 . Wr igh t , Gary A . , 1 971 . O r ig in o fF ood P roduc t ion i n S ou thwe s t e rn A s ia : A S u r vey o f I d ea s . C ur ren t A n t hropo logy 1 2 ( 4 -5 ) : 4 47-477 . Wr igh t ,H .E ,J r . , 1 961 . P l e i s tocene G lac ia t ion i nK u rd i s tan . E is z e i ta l t er u nd G eg enwa r t 1 2 : 1 31164 . 1 968 N a tu ra lE nv i ronm en to fe a r ly F ood P roduc t ion i nt h eN ea rE a s t . S c ience 1 61 : 34339 . 1 976 T he E nv i ronmen ta l S e t t ing f o rP lan tD ome s t ica t ion i nt h eN ea rE a s t . S c ience 1 94 : 3 85389 . 1 977 E nv i ronm en ta l C hang e a nd t h e O r ig in s o fA g r icu l tu re i nt h e O ld a nd N ew Wo r ld s . I n : C ha r le s A . R e ed ,e d . , O r ig in o fAg r icu l tu re . T he H ague : Mou ton , 2 81318 . 1 9 80 C l ima t ic C hange a nd P l an tD om e s t ica t ion i nt h eZ ag ro s Moun ta in s . I ran 1 8 : 1 45148 . 1 9 93 E nv i ronmen ta lD e t e rm in i sm i nN ea rE a s ter nP reh i s to ry . C ur r en tA n thropo logy 3 4 : 4 58-469 . Wr igh t , H .E , J r . , McAndrew s , a nd W . v an Z e i s t , 1 967 . Moder n P o l len R a in i n We s te rn I r an a nd i t s R e la t ion t oP lan tG eog raphy a nd Q ua te rna ry V ege ta t iona lH i s to ry . J ourna lo fE co logy 5 : 4 15-443 . Wr igh t , Henry T . , 1 975 . P opu la t ion , E xchang e , a nd E a r ly S t a te F o rma t ion i n S ou thw e s ter n I r an , Ame r ican A n thropo log is t7 7 : 2 67-289 . Wr igh t , Henry T . , e d . , 1 979 . A rchaeo log ica l I nves t iga t ions i n N or thea s t ern X u z es tan 1 976 . R e sea rch R epo r t si nA r chaeo logy ; C on t r ibu t ion 5 ,T echn ica lR epor t 1 0 . A nn A rbo r : Un ive r s i ty o fM ich igan , Mu seum o fA n th ropo logy . Wu l s in , P .R . , 1 9 32 . E x cava t ion a t T ur eng T epe , N ear A s ta rA bad . Am e r ican I n s t i tu t ef o rP e r s ian A r ta nd A r chaeo logy N o . 2 .
S upp lem en t t ot h e B u l le t in o f t h e
Wynn , T . , 1 991 . T oo l s , G ramma r a nd t h e A rchaeo logy o fC ogn i t ion . C ambr idg eA rchaeo log ica lJ ourna l 1 , 2 : 1 91-206 . Y a lg inkaya , L , 1 981 . L e P a laeo l i th ic I n fer io r d e T u rqu ie . I n : J .C auv in a nd P . S an lav i l le , e d s . , P rö h i s to ir ed uL evan t . P a r i s : CNRS , 2 07-218 . Y oung , T . C uy ler ,J r . , 1 965 . AC ompa ra t ive C e ram ic C h rono logy f o r We s ter nI r an , 1 500-500 B .C . I r an 3 :5 3-85 . 1 9 67a T he I r an ian M ig ra t ion i n to t h eZ ag ro s .I ran 5 : 1-37 . 1 9 67b G od in T epe . I r an 5 :1 39-40 . 1 9 69 T h e C h rono logy o ft h eL a t eT h i rd a nd S econd M i l len ia i nC en t ra l We s t er nI r an a sS een f r om G od in T ep e . Amer ican J ourna lo fA r chaeo logy 7 3 ( 3 ) : 2 87-91 . Y oung , T . C uy ler , J r . , a nd P .E .L . Sm i th , 1 966 . R e sea rch i n t h e P reh i s to ry o f C en t ra l We s t er n I r an . S c ience 1 53 : 3 86391 . Z agare l la , A . , 1 982 . T he P r eh is tory o ft h e N or theas tB ak t iya r i Moun ta ins , i r an . B e ih ef t e z um Tüb inge r A t la sd e sV o rde ren O r ien t s ,R e ihe B ,N r . 4 2 . R e iche r t , Wie sbaden . Z ohary , M ichae l , 1 973 . G eobo tan ica l F ounda t ions o ft h e M idd l e E as t V o l .1 a nd 2 . S t u t tga r t : G u s tav F i sche rV e r lag .
2 27
F igure s
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2 29
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2 32
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2 33
F ig .5 R a t io o ft h e e xcava t ion a tP a laeo l i th ic s i te s t o t h e t o ta l n umbe r o f e xcava t ion a ta l p e r iod s
23
4
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F ig . 6L owe rP a laeo l i th ic f i nd si nI r an ( F rom Sm i th 1 986 )
2 35
F i .g . 7S e lec ted L owe r P a laeo l i th ic a r t if ac t s : ( a ) h and a x e ( b if ace s ) f r om P a lB a nk ; ( b ) c o re f r om K a shaf rud B a s in ; ( c ,d ) c hoppe r s f r om K a shaf rud B a s in ; ( e ) f l ake w i th i regu la r r e touch f r om P a l B a t ik . ( F rom A r ia i a nd T h ibau l t 1 977 , Mor ten sen 1993)
2 36
4 0°
3 5°
H u la i lan s i tes C ha r V i l la C ha r H uch i S a r S a rah C hashmen K ah reh K ho r ramabad s i tes . K un j i C ave G a r A r jeneh G hama r i C ave
3 0°
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F ig . 8M idd le P a laeo l i th ic f i nd si nI r an ( F rom Sm i th 1 986 )
2 37
F ig . 9S e lec ted M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a r t if ac t s : ( a ) e l onga ted Mou s te r ian p o in tf r om S han ida r ; ( b )t y p ica l Mou s te r ian p o in tf r om G a r i -Kha r ; ( c ,d ,e ) L eva l lo i s p o in t s f r om H u la i lan V a l ley , G a r i -Kha r , K un j i C ave ; ( f ) c o re f r om H u la i lan V a l ley ; ( g ) n o tched f l ake f r om H u la i lan V a l ley ; ( h , i , j ) sc rape r s f r om K un j i C ave . ( F rom Mo r ten sen 1 993 , H o le a nd F l anne ry 1 967 ; Sm i th 1 986 )
2 38
6 0°
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2 39
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2 40
F i g .12 S e lec ted U ppe r a nd E p i -Pa laeo l i th ic a r t if ac t s : ( a ,b ) g eome t r ic m ic ro l i th s f r om H u la i lan V a l ley ; ( c ,d ) m ic ro b l ade s f r om Wa rwa s i ; ( e ) b a cked b l ade le t f r om K ho r ramabad s i te s ; ( 0 r e touched b l ade f r om K ho r ramabad s i te s ; ( g ) d en t icu la ted b l ade f r om Wa rwa s i ; ( h , ij )bu r in s f r om G a r i -Kha r , Wa rwa s i ) ; ( k ) b o re r f r om H u la i lan V a l ley ; ( 1 ) s c rape r f r om Wa rwa s i . ( F rom Mor ten sen 1 993 , O l szew sk i 1 993 , Ho le a nd F l anne ry 1 967 , Sm i th 1 986 ) 2 41
Nor thern H igh lands /
Z ag ro s
u l tu ra l G eo log ica l C P er iod s Y ea r sB .P P er iods
Z ag ros C en t ra l is tan C a sp ian E a s te r n H igh land s Khuz H igh land s ow land s H igh land s P l a teau L ow land s L ( I ran ) ( I raq ) I v eh s i te s
N eo l i th ic
I z eh s i te s
H o locene S han ida r
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( B 1)
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Wa rwa s i
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?
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( Zarz ian )
c ene
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P a laeo l i th ic
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s i te s
A r jenah Y af t eh
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?
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i an ) 4 0 ,000 K h ramabad s i te s J ah rom H um ian Gha rV i l la Unnamed Gha r s u r f ace
M idd le P a laeo l i th ic
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-, . . . . . . . . ..— M idd le P l e is to -
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Huch i
C ave
T eh ran P la in? T e l i -
s i te s
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Hun te r 's C ave Gha r i Kha r T am tama?
c ene
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1 50 0 00
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9
9
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K ashaf rud B as in? ( Kho ra san)
1 , 800 . 00 '0
1
F ig . 1 3 As yn the s i s o ft h eI r an ian P a laeo l i th ic . C h rono log ica ls ubd iv i s ion s a r en o tt os ca le a nd p os i t ion s o fi n d iv idua l s i te sw i th in t h ec u l tu ra lp e r iod sa r eo n ly a pp rox ima te .
2 42
F i g . 1 4 R a t io o ft h e u n i t s c ove r ing t h e P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod t ot h e t o ta l n umbe ro fu n i t s t a ugh tf o r M As t uden t s i nt h eD epa r tmen to fA r chaeo logy - U n ive r s i ty o fT eh ran
2 43
F ig .15 R a t io o ft h e u n i t s c ove r ing t h e P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod t ot h e t o ta l n umbe ro fu n i t s t augh tf o r BAs t uden t s i nt h e D epar tmen to fA r chaeo logy - U n ive r s i ty o fT eh ran
2 44
F ig . 1 6N umbe ro ft he P a laeo l i th ic s pec ia l i s t s i nt h eD epar tmen to fA rchaeo logy U n ive r s i ty o fT eh ran
2 45
Append ix
2 46
S usa Khuz is tan
9 . ° , . 4 0 4 c z
O rgan i ser a nd F under ( Un iver s i t ie s ; I n s t i tu te s ;
P e r se
D e lega t ion F rança ise e n
A r chaeo log ica l P er iod s
A chaemen id ( 5 50 -331
Mu seum s) B .C . ) I s lam ic
D e lega t ion F rança i se e n
1O r ien ta l I n s t i tu t eo f C h icago U n ive r s i ty
P e r se
N eo l i th ic
1N eo l i th ic
E xcava t ion D irec tor ( s ) a nd
N a t iona l i ty
d e Mo rgan
F rench
d e Maquenm e F rench -G a -u t ie r ,L amp e r
H e rz f e ld ( German ) ;L ang sd rof f a nd McCown ( Ame r ican )
H erz f e ld, S chm id t Amer ican
1 928 -33
Un iv e r s i ty Mu seum o f
Un ive r s i ty Mu s eum o f P enns y lvan ia
P enn sy lvan ia A chaemen id
N eo l i th ic 1 935 -39
Gh i r s lunan F rench
L e B r e ton F rench
L ouv re Mu seum I r on A ge
B ronze A ge N eo l i th ic
B ronze a nd I r on A ge
H is to ry
S wed i sh I n s t i tu te o fN a tu ra l
Un iver s i ty Mu s eum o f P enn sy lvan ia
S wed i sh
A rn e
E lam i te ( 2 200 -640 B .C . )
L ouv r e Mu s eum
N eo l i th ic
1 931-37
1 931-32
1 931-36
c o
D a te o f E xcava t ion
T ab le 1Ma jo re xcava t ion p rog ram si nI r an f r om 1 898 t o 1 978 ( F rom N egahban 1 997 )
Anc ien tS u sa
T ep eH i s sa r J am sh id N ahavand
Khuz i s tan
D juv i B oh lan D ja lT a rA bad
c n
N eo l i th ic
Me t ropo l i tan Mu seum
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2 47
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1 932 -34
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K a shan 1 9 33-34
1 9 32 -34
N eo l it h ic
N eo l i th ic B ronz e A ge
S a san id ( 2 24 -624 A .D . )
L ouv r e Mu s eum
Me t ropo l i tan Mu s eum
O r ien ta lI n s t i tu t eo f C h icago U n iv e r s i ty
I r on A ge
B ronze a nd I r on A ge
B ronz ea nd I r on A ge
A chaemen id S a san id
E lam i te A chaem en id
U n iv e r s i ty Mu seum o f P enn sy lvan ia
A rchaeo log ica lC en t r eo f I r an
U n ive r s i ty o f Manche s te r
A rcha eo log ica lC en t r eo f I r an
A r chaeo log ica l C en t r eo f I r an
L ouv re Mu s eum T h eF r ench N a t iona l R e sea r ch C en t r e( C .N .R .S )
U n ive r s i ty Mu s eum o f P enn sy lvan ia
P a laeo l i th ic ;N eo l i th ic
W i lk in son a nd U p ton Ame r ican Gh ir s lunan
F r ench
G lü r shman F r ench
Ü
T ep e S i a lk 1 9 34 -36
A chaem en id S a san id I s lam ic
L ouv r e Mu seum
B o s ton Mu s eum o fF in eA r t a nd U n ive r s i ty m u seum o f P enn sy lvan ia
1 946 -51
1 939 -51 1 968 -73
1
S
C he s lun eh A l i
N aghadeh We s tA ze rba i jan We s tA ze rba i jan
. 4 0
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T akh t i -J am sh id P a sa rgad N agh sh i -R o s tam
G oy T ep e
C a sp ian S ho r e Mazanda ran
G h i r s lunan F r ench
R avanbod ;B ehnam ; S am i ; T ad jv id i I r an ian
H ak em ia nd R ad I r an ian
B rown B r i t i sh
C oon Ame r ican
2 48
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N aghad eh We s tA z e rba i jan
N aghad eh We s tA z e rba y jan
1 959 1 964 -78
N eo l i th ic
B ronze a nd I r on A ge
G en tU n iv e r s i ty
L ouv r e Mu s eum a nd C .N .R .S
G en tU n ive r s i ty
V and en B e rghe B e lg ian
G h i r shman F r ench
V anden B e rgh e B e lg ian
B ronze a nd I r on A ge
U n iv e r s i ty Mu s eum o f P enn sy lvan ia
U n iv e r s i ty o fT okyo
N eo l i th ic B ronze A g e
A r chaeo log ica l C en t r eo f I r an A r chaeo log ica l C en t r eo f I r an
T ava l lo l i I r an ian
I r on A ge ; A cha em en id S a san id ; I s lam ic
A cha em en id S a san id
B ronze I r on A ge
O r ien ta lI n s t i tu t eo f C h icago U n iv e r s i ty
U p sa la U n iv e r s i ty a nd G e rman A r cha eo log ica l I n s t i tu te i nI r an
U n iv e r s i ty o fL yon
Un ive r s i ty Mu seum o f P enn sy lvan ia
v on d e rO s t en ;N oumann ; H uf f G erman
D e shaye s F r ench
N eo l i th ic
N eo l i th ic
O r ien ta lI n s t i tu te o fC h icago U n ive r s i ty B r i t i sh A r chaeo log ica l I n s t i tu te i nI r an
P oomP T .E i l l
T epe A s iab a nd S a rab
P a laeo l i th ic N e o l i th ic B ronze A g e
U n ive r s i ty o fT okyo
F i e ld Am e r ic an S t rona ch B r i t i sh E gam ia nd F uka i J apane s e
u e opau rv
Ma rvda sh t ; T eymo ran ; J a n; S hogha C hoghazanb i l
T e l l e -B akon
Ku rv in ; A g in D o j in T epe
T epe D ja l ian
P ap i lah ;P ahvandeh ; Z aghe e
P • o
I r on A ge
2 49
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U n iv e r s i t y Mu seum o fP enn sy lvan ia
We i s s Ame r ican
R ice U n ive r s i ty
D e lougaz a nd C an to r Ame r ic an
N eo l i th ic N eo l i th ic
O r ien ta lI n s t i tu t eo f C h icago U n iv e r s i ty U n ive r s i ty o f Man ch e s te r
S t ronach B r i t i sh
Mor ten sen D an i sh
N eo l i th ic B ronze A ge
B r i t i sh A r chaeo log ica l I n s t i tu t ei nI r an
Mu sca r e l la Ame r ican
A r chaeo log ica l C en t r eo f I r an a nd U n iv e r s i ty o fT eh ran U n iv e r s i ty o f Mon t re a l
L ouv re Mu seum a nd C .N .R .S
V and en B e rghe B e lg ian
N egahban I r an ian
G h i r shman ; S t ive ; P a ro t F r en ch
B ronze A g e
N eo l i th ic
G en tU n iv e r s i ty
Sm i th C anad ian B ronze a nd I r on A g e
K ea l C anad ian
E lam i t e A chaemen id I s lam ic 1 964 -1979
g
T epe G u ran
P a sa rgad F a r s
S u sa K huz i s tan H af tT epe K huz i s tan
1 965 -74
1 965 -78
°
R oya lO n ta r io Mu seum
c o
A l lK o sh
A chaemen id
A r chaeo log ica lC en t r eo f I r an
t • . )
B ronze a nd I r on A g e
B ronze a nd I r on A g e
U n ive r s i ty Mu s eum o f P enn sy lvan ia
R oudba r G i lan
B ronze a nd I r on A ge
( A )
00
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CT CD
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Ma s j id S o le iman K huz i s tan P a la eo l i th ic
A chaem en id
R ice U n ive r s i ty
I r an ian O i lC ompany
Gh ir shman F ren ch
e . u )( )
L u r i s tan
C D
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K un j ia nd P a sanga r C ave s
N eo l i th ic N eo l i th ic
N eo l i th ic ,E lam i te
C l . CA
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C I
C D
B r i t i sh A r cha eo log ica l I n s t i tu t ei nI r an B r i t i sh mu seum P eabody Mu s eum U n ive r s i ty o fH a rva rd A rchaeo log ica lC en t r eo f I r an
R oya lO n ta r io Mu s eum U n iv e r s i ty o fT o ron to U n iv e r s i ty Mu s eum o f P enn sy lvan ia
R oya lO n ta r io Mu seum U n iv e r s i ty o fT o ron to
g . . 0 0 E gR -
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5 .
Wh i tehou se B r i t i sh
G e rman
d eC a rd i B r i t i sh
C a ldwe l l Ame r ic an
H o le ; S p e th Am e r ican McBun iey B r i t i sh
1 967 -77 1 967 -74
1 967 -78
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S a sa iüd I s lam ic
S t ronach a nd H an sman B r i t i sh
L ev in e C anad ian D y son ;Y oung ( Ame r ican ) ; V o igh t( Br i t i sh )
e e c rQ
i e . < 4 -
4,.
1 968 -74
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C 5N N •O
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bN V : ;,
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Ma s j id J ama eE sf ahan S a l ina s We s tA z e rba y jan
S av eh
1 968 -75
K hoy We s tA ze rba y jan
1 970 -75
1 970 -78
B ehbahan K huz i s tan
B a rd s i r K erman
1 970 -79
B ronze a nd I r on A ge Mede s( I ron A g e ) ; A chaemen id S a sa iüd
C)
N eo l i th ic I r on A ge
N eo l i th ic
U n ive r s i ty o f Manche s te r
P eabody Mu s eum, U n ive r s i ty o fH a rva rd
A r chaeo log ica l C en t r eo f I r an A r chaeo log ica lC en t r eo f I r an
A rchaeo log ica l C en t r eo f I r an
U n ive r s i ty o fL ondon
B e r l in O p en U n ive r s i ty O r ien ta lI n s t i tu te o fC h icago U n ive r s i ty
G e rman A r chaeo log ica l I n s t i tu t ei nI r an
N eo l it h ic
A rchaeo log ic a lC en t r eo f I r an a nd U n iv e r s i ty o fT eh ran
U n ive r s i ty o fL ondon P e rc iva lD av id F ounda t ion a nd R oya lO n ta r io Mu seum
N eo l i th ic
W i l l iam son Am e r ican H akenü a nd K abo l i I r an ian K ambakh sh F a rd I r an ian
P u l la r B r i t i sh
N i s s en Ame r ican
.
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Ma s j id J ama e S aveh T ep eA bdo lho s sa in
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B iva ra nd F ehe rva r i B r i t i sh
N egahban a nd S hahm i r zad i I r an ian
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D jaf f a rAbad D juv i B oh ln B endeba l
G hab re s tan
S u sa K huz i s tan
B ronz ea nd I r on A ge
N egahban a nd Mad j id Z ad eh I r an ian
N eo l i th ic B ronz eA g e E lam i te
N eo l i th ic B ronz eA g e
U n iv e r s i ty o fI n sb rug
U n iv e r s i ty Mu s eum o fP enn sy lvan ia
U n iv e r s i ty o fT o sokuba
K o rdovan i ,I r an ian
A rchaeo log ic a lC en t r eo f I r an a nd U n iv e r s i ty o fT eh ran
A rcha eo log ica lC en t re o f I r an
D o l l fu s F ren ch
B ronze a nd I r on A g e
L ouv r e Mu s eum a nd CN .R .S
1 970 -71
A chaemen id
A r chaeo log ica lC en t r eo f I r an U n iv e r s i ty Mu s eum o f p enn sy lva iüa
B ronze a nd I r on A g e
N eo l i th ic
1 971 -78
A r cha eo log ica lC en t re o f I r an
A r chaeo log ica lC en t r eo f I r an A r chaeo log ica lC en t r eo f I r an 1 973 -78
8 L -IL6 1
C hoga G avan eh
U rm ia We s tA ze rbay jan
1 974 -78
A r cha eo log ica lC en t r eo f I r an
iK
Ma suda J a pane se
9
I s lam A bad K e rman shah
Ma s j id J ama eG hazv in
H o rmozgan
1 974 -75
A r chaeo log ica lC en t r eo f ,I r an
0
B o raz jan B ou sh eh r
T epe F l i s sa r S hah roud
H o rmoz I s land
B ou sheh r
1 974 -75
L ipp er t A u s t er ian
S hah id Z ad eh I r an ian
2 53
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A nc ien tE sf ahan
1 976 -78
1 976 -78
P a laeo l i th ic I r on A g e
B ronz ea nd I r on A ge
A r chaeo log ica lC en t r eo f I r an
A r chaeo log ica lC en t re o f I r an
A rchaeo log ica lC en t r eo f I r an
A rchaeo log ica l C en t r eo f I r an Un iv e r s i ty o fT okyo
K o rdovan i I r an ian
1A d la nd K o sa r i I r an ian
G and jav i I r an ian
_
B ib i S hah rbano E shka f t G av i
1
S o l tanyeh Z an jan R oud B a r G i lan
A rchaeo log ica lC en t re o f I r an
Y aghma i i I r an ian
A chaemen id
25 N
g
B o raz jan
A rchaeo log ica lC en t r eo f I r an
K o rdovan i 1I r an ian
C rQ
A r chaeo log ica lC en t r eo f I r an
e d,
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1 977 -78
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