Mesopotamian Cosmic Geography 0931464994, 9780931464997

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Mesopotamian Cosmic Geography

Wayne Horowitz

EiSenbrauns Winona Lake, Indiana 1998

MESOPOTAMIAN CIVILIZATIONS General Editor

Jerrold S. Cooper, Johns Hopkins University Editorial Board

Walter Farber, University of Chicago Marvin Powell, Northern Illinois University Jean-Pierre Grégoire, C.N.R.S. Jack Sasson, University of North Carolina Piotr Michalowski, University of Michigan Piotr Steinkeller, Harvard University Simo Parpola, University of Helsinki Marten Stol, Free University of Amsterdam Irene Winter, Harvard University

1. The Lamentation over the Destruction of Sumer and Ur

Piotr Michalowski 2. Schlaf, Kindchen, Schlaf! Mesopotamische Baby- Beschwörungen und -Rituale Walter Farber 3. Adoption in Old Babylonian Nippur and the Archive of Mannum-mešu-lissur

Elizabeth C. Stone and David I. Owen 4. Third-Millennium Legal and Administrative Texts in the Iraq Museum, Baghdad Piotr Steinkeller and J. N. Postgate 5. House Most High: The Temples of Ancient Mesopotamia

A. R. George 6. Textes culinaires Mésopotamiens / Mesopotamian Culinary Texts

Jean Bottéro 7. Legends of the Kings of Akkade: The Texts Joan Goodnick Westenholz

© Copyright 1998 by Eisenbrauns. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Horowitz, Wayne, 1957Mesopotamian cosmic geography / Wayne Horowitz. p. cm. — (Mesopotamian civilizations ; 8) Includes bibliographic references (p. ) and index. ISBN 0-931464-99-4 (cloth : alk. paper) 1. Cosmology, Babylonian. 2. Cosmology, Sumerian. 3. Akkadian language—Texts. 4. Sumerian language—Texts. I. Title. II. Series. B147.C68H67 1998 113'.0935—dc21 98-17770 CIP

The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1984. ®TM

Contents

Foreword Acknowledgments Abbreviations and Conventions Introduction

vii viii ix xii

Part I: SourceS for MeSopotamian CoSmic Geography 1. The Levels of the Universe: KAR 307 30-38 and AO 8196 iv 20-22

3

2. "The Babylonian Map of the World"

20

3. The FlightS of Etana and the Eagle into the Heavens

43

4. The Sargon Geography

67

5. Gilgamesh and the Distant Reaches of the Earth's Surface

96

6. Cosmic Geography in Accounts of Creation

107

7. The Geography of the Sky: The "Astrolabes;' Mul-Apin, and Related Texts

150

8. BagM. Beih. 2 no. 98 and the Compass Points

193

9. "Seven Heavens and Seven Earths"

208

Part II: The RegionS of the Universe 10. Names for Heaven

223 V

vi

Table of Contents

11. The Geography of the Heavens

243

12. Names for Earth

268

13, The Geography of Earth

318

Appendixes Indexes Subject Index Ancient Texts and Modern Editions Sumerian and Akkadian Terms Stars Plates

363 369 369 382 391 397

399

FOreword

Mesopotamian Cosmic Geography represents the main part of my first decade of study as an assyriologist. The book began its life as a Ph.D. thesis of the same name under the supervision of Professor W. G. Lambert of the University of Birmingham. After completion of the Ph.D. thesis in 1986, I continued to collect materials relevant to the study of Mesopotamian views of cosmography with the intention of revising the thesis as a book in the early 1990s. The book Mesopotamian Cosmic Geography presents this revised, more mature examination of the topic. Wayne Horowitz Kfar Adumim February, 1994

vii

Acknowledgments

First and foremost I would like to thank Professor W G. Lambert of The University of Birmingham. Professor Lambert both supervised the original 1986 Ph.D. thesis "Mesopotamian Cosmic Geography" and then graciously reread the manuscript of the book. His wise and learned eriticisms were invaluable in the preparation of the book. I would also like to thank my colleagues at The Hebrew University, Professors Aaron Shaffer and Hayim Tadmor, and my first teachers of Akkadian and Sumerian, Dr. Martha Morrison and Professors Anne Kilmer and Wolfgang Heimpel, for their support during the various stages of my career. In addition, a special word of thanks is due to Professor Tsvi Abusch, who assisted in the preparation of the original Ph.D. thesis. I would also like to thank the Trustees of The British Museum for permission to publish materials included in the book, and colleagues at The Western Asiatic Department of the British Museum, Das Vorderasiatische Museum, and The University Museum for their hospitality during study visits to London, Berlin, and Philadelphia, respectively. In addition, I would like to thank The American Friends of Hebrew University, The Lady Davis Foundation, and The Israel Academy of Sciences for their financial support during the period of the preparation of the manuscript. Finally, special thanks are due to my parents Dawn and Paul for their continued encouragement and support (financial and otherwise); my wife Lilach, for her selfless help over the past decade; Lilach's parents, Professor Chaim and Miriam Brandwein; and of course my children Lisa, Mikhael, Liam, and Gilbe for their unseen contributions to the preparation of this book.

viii

Abbreviations and ConventiOns

Abbreviations, with the exception of those listed below, are as in The Assyrian Dictionary of The Oriental Institute of The University of Chicago (CAD), or if indicated, as in The Sumerian Dictionary of The University Museum of The University of Pennsylvania (PSD). In transliterations from editions of texts, the most likely reconstruction of the ancient text is provided, not necessarily that of the edition. Star-names are not translated from Sumerian to Akkadian or from Akkadian to Sumerian. Dates in the text are B.C.E. unless otherwise noted. Ancient Cosmologies Archaic Bookkeeping Benito Enki Berlin Enm. Bottéro Mesopotamia Bottéro MrB Burstein Berossus BWL Charpin Le Clerge Cohen Balag Cohen Canonical Cohen Eršemma Cooper Curse of Agade Dalley Myths Deimel Pantheon EAE Ee ELA

C. Blacker and M. Loewe, eds., Ancient Cosmologies (1975) H. Nissen, P Demerow, and R. Englund, Archaic Bookkeeping; trans. P. Larsen (1993) C.Benito, "Enki and Ninmah" and "Enki and the World Order" (1969) PSD: Enmerkar and Ensuhkešdanna J. Bottéro, Mesopotamia, Writing, Reasoning and the Gods; trans. Z. Bahrani and M. van de Mieroop (1992) J. Bottéro, Mythes et Rites de Babylone (1985) S. Burstein, The Babyloniaca of Berossus = Sources from The Ancient Near East 1/5 W. G. Lambert, Babylonian Wisdom Literature (1960; repr. 1996) D.Charpin, Le Clergé d'Ur au Siècle d'Hammurabi (1986) PSD: M. E. Cohen Balag M. Cohen, The Canonical Lamentations of Lamentations Mesopotamia (1988) PSD: M. E. Cohen Eršemma J. S. Cooper, The Curse of Agade (1977) S. Dalley, Myths from Mesopotamia (1989) A. Deimel, Pantheon Babyloniacum (1911) The Astronomical Series Enuma Anu Enlil Enuma Elish

PSD: Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta

ix

x

Emar EN Enki's Journey EWO Fest. Artzi Fest. Hallo

Fest. Tadmor

Abbreviations and Conventions

D. Arnaud, Emar 6: Recherches au pays dAštata (1985) PSD: Enki and Ninmah PSD: Enki's Journey to Nippur PSD: Enki and The World Order Bar-Ilan Studies in Assyriology Dedicated to Pinhas Artzi (1990) M. Cohen, D. Snell, and D. Weisberg (eds.), The Tablet and the Scroll: Near Eastern Studies in Honor of William W Hallo (1993) M. Cogan and I. Eph'al (eds.), Ah Assyria...: Studies in Assyrian History and Ancient Near Eastern Historiography Presented to Hayim Tadmor [=Scripta

Hierosolymitana 33[ (1991) FGrH Fuchs Sargon Grayson Chronicles

Die Fragmente der grieschischen Historiker (1923-

1958) A. Fuchs, Die Inschriften Sargons II. aus Khorsabad (1994) A. Grayson, Assyrian. and Babylonian Chronicles = TCS 5

George BTT George Temples GHT

A. George, Babylonian Topographical Texts (1992) A. George, House Most High: The Temples of Ancient Mesopotamia (1993) Gilgamesh and the Huluppu-Tree (= A. Shaffer, Sumerian Sources of Tablet XII of the Epic of

Gilgamesh (1963)

GMS 3

Grazer Morgenländische Studien 3 = Die Rolle der Astronomie in den Kulturen Mesopotamiens (1993)

Halley's Comet

F. Stephenson anff C. Walker, Halley's Comet in

HBA

E. Weidner, Handbuch der babylonischen Astronomie (1915) H. Hunger and D. Pingree, Mul.Apin: An Astronomical Compendium in Cuneiform = AfO Beiheft 24 PSD: Inanna's Descent PSD: Inanna and Enki as in PSD T. Jacobsen, The Treasures of Darkness (1976) Darkness P. Jensen, Die Kosmologie der Babylonier (1890) J. Kinnier Wilson, The Legend of Etana (1985) J. Koch, Neue Untersuchungen zur Topographie des Untersuchungen Babylonischen Fixsternhimmels (1989) Pettinato Menschenbild 86-90 W. G. Lambert, Catalogue of The Kouyunjik Collection, Third Supplement (1992) B. Lewis, The Legend of Sargon (1980)

History (1985)

Hunger-Pingree ID Inanna und Enki Jacobsen Harps Jacobsen Treasures of Jensen Kosmologie Kinnier Wilson Etana Koch Neue Lahar and Ašnan: Lambert Cat. Lewis Sargon

Abbreviations and Conventions

Livingstone

A. Livingstone, Mystical and Mythological

Ludlul

Explanatory Works of Assyrian and Babylonian Scholars (1986) Ludlul Bel Nemeqi = BWL 21-62, 343-44; R. Barnett,

xi

Machinist TN Epic Malamat Mari

AnSt 30 101-7 P Machinist, The Epic of Tukulti-Ninurta (1978) A. Malamat, Mari and the Early Israelite Experience (1979)

MEE Naissance

Materiali Epigrafici di Ebla Naissance de l'écriture cunéiformes et hiéroglyphes

Natural Phenomena

(1982) D. Meijer, ed., Natural Phenomena: Their Meaning Depiction, and Description in the Ancient Near East

OA Oppenheim Man and Pettinato Menschenbild

(1992) Oriens Antiquus A. Oppenheim, Dictionary of Scientific NatureBibliography, vol. 15, pp. 634-66 G. Pettinato, Das altorientalilsche Menschenbild und die Sumerischen und Akkadisches Schöpf ungsmythen

Pickaxe Reisman Two Hymns RTCA Tigay Gilg. Saporetti Etana Science Awakening Shamash Hymn SG Sladek ID SLTN

(1971) Pettinato Menschenbild 82-85 D. Reisman, Two Sumerian Royal Hymns (1969) Recueil de Travaux et Communications de l'Association des Études du Proche-Orient Ancien J. Tigay, The Evolution of the Gilgamesh Epic (1982) C. Saporetti, Etana (1990) B. van der Waerden, Science Awakening I, II (1954, 1974) BWL 121-38 = Sargon Geography: Edition pp. 68-75 W. Sladek, Manna's Descent to the Netherworld (1974) S. Kramer, Sumerian Literary Texts from Nippur in the Museum of the Ancient Orient at Istantbul =

Steible Rim-Sin Sumerian Flood Story Tadmor Tigl. Two Elegies Unity and Diversity Van Soldt Solar Omens Weidner GestirnWest Theogony World Map

AASOR 23 (1944) H. Steibel, RimSin, Mein König (1975) Lambert-Millard Atra-hasis 138-45 H. Tadmor, The Inscriptions of Tiglath-Pileser III, King of Assyria (1994) as in PSD H. Goedicke and J. Roberts, eds., Unity and Diversity (1975) W. van Soldt, Solar Omens of Enuma Anu Enlil: Tablets 23 (24) - 29 (30) (1995) E. Weidner, Gestirn-Darstellungen auf Darstellungen babylonischen Tontafeln (1967) M. L. West, Hesiod's Theogony (1966) Edition: pp. 20-25.

IntrOduction

This study collects and presents the available evidence in Sumerian and Akkadian texts for Mesopotamian ideas of the physical structure of the universe and its constituent parts (Heaven, Earth, Apsu [the subterranean waters], Underworld). All texts from all periods and genres are considered, from the earliest phases of cuneiform writing through the late period. What emerges from this study is a Mesopotamian view of the universe that is both cohesive on the one hand, and discordant and deficient on the other. In many respects, ancient Mesopotamian understandings of the universe remained remarkably constant over the 2,500 years or so from the earliest evidence for cosmography in literary materials through the end of cuneiform writing. Throughout this time, the extant texts demonstrate that Sumerians and Akkadians understood the universe as consisting of superimposed levels separated by open space. From above to below, the levels were: a region of heaven above the sky where the gods of heaven dwelled, the starry sky, the earth's surface, the subterranean waters of the Apsu, and finally the underworld of the dead:

A View of The Mesopotamian Universe

Heaven of Anu Middle Heavens Sky Earth's Surface Apsu

Underworld

xii

Introduction

xiii

This universe, according to both Sumerian and Akkadian traditions, was built by the gods in earliest times and held together by cosmic bonds. It is this conception of the physical universe that underlies for example, early cosmological traditions in literary works from the middle of the third millennium, the cosmography of the Babylonian national epic Enuma Elish from the late second millennium, and traditions preserved in late archives such as that of Hellenistic Uruk. Similarly, important Mesopotamian cosmographical ideas, such as the existence of an unseen region of the gods above the sky, or the tradition of the "Four Regions of the World" (an. u b . d a .1 i m m u .b a = kibrat arba'i, are present in materials before the end of the third millennium, and these traditions live onward through the end of cuneiform writing. Nonetheless, the available evidence does document change in Mesopotamian conceptions of the universe. Mesopotamian understandings of the geography of the sky evolved over time as Mesopotamian astronomy improved, and Akkadian texts from the end of the second millennium onward divide the region of heaven above the sky into two parts. Anu, the king of heaven, dwells in the higher of the two, which is often called "The Heaven of Anu:' Yet, despite the eontinuity of tradition between the earliest and latest documents, one does find disagreement between texts from different periods, of different genres, and even among texts from the same period and genre. For example, a number of texts seem to ignore the existence of the waters of the Apsu between the earth's surface and the underworld, and one text (KAR 307) even preserves an apparent contradiction whereby Igigi-gods are placed in a heaven belonging to Anu, the upper of three heavens in one line, and then in an intermediate level of heaven between Anu's heaven and the sky in the very next line. Finally, the available evidence leaves a number of problems completely unsolved. For example, no surviving text presents clear evidence for the bounds of the physical universe or explains what might be found beyond the limits of the universe. Such problems are endemic to this study, since no single surviving ancient Mesopotamian source or set of sources presents a comprehensive view of the physical universe. This investigation attempts to glean evidence from the widest possible variety of surviving sources in order to present as clear a picture as possible of Mesopotamian views of the universe. At the same time, however, it must be recognized that this approach poses certain dangers, not the least of which are our distance in time and space from the aneient writers, as well as the vagaries of archaeological discovery. For example, the most complete deseription of the earth's surfaee is found in The Babylonian Map of the World, which is known from but a single manuseript, and ancient Mesopotamian authors do not distinguish between cosmographic ideas drawn from direct observation of the physical world (for example, the movement of stars in the sky) and those not derived from direct observation (for example, the geography of the Heaven of Anu above the sky or the fantastic regions visited by Gilgamesh in Gilg. IX—X). The current evidence simply does not allow us to know, for instance, if ancient readers of

Introduction

xiv

Gilgamesh really believed that they too could have visited Utnapištim by sailing across the cosmic sea and "the waters of death' or if a few, many, most, or all ancient readers understood the topographical material in Gilg. IX-X in metaphysical or mystical terms. Thus, herein I do not attempt to assess the plausibility of aneient cosmographic traditions, to harmonize conflicting traditions, or to flesh out surviving materials by speculation or through comparison with materials from other cultures. Rather, as noted above, the aim of the study is to to collect and present the available evidence in Sumerian and Akkadian texts for Mesopotamian ideas of the physical structure of the universe and its constituent parts. As such, this study, despite its use of a wide variety of materials from the entire history of euneiform civilization, is limited in scope and may be thought of as a data-base that may be used to facilitate future explorations in the field of Mesopotamian eosmography. Mesopotamia Cosmic Geography is divided into two parts. The first part (chapters 1-9) presents studies of the main sources for Sumerian and Akkadian views of the physical universe. Included here is a study of lists of heavens and earths in KAR 307; editions of The Babylonian Map of the World and The Sargon Geography; traditions concerning voyages to heaven in the Akkadian epics Etana, Adapa, and Nergal and Ereškigal; cosmography in Sumerian and Akkadian accounts of ereation; the geography of the sky in astronomical texts; an edition of a late fragment of what may be an ancient Mesopotamian drawing of a compass-card or sundial; and finally an evaluation of a possible tradition of seven heavens and seven earths in Sumerian language incantations. Part II presents general studies of Sumerian and Akkadian names for heaven and earth (ehapters 10, 12), and examines the geographies of the two halves of the universe (chapters 11, 13). Here it is noted that the Sumerian and Akkadian lexica contain no single word that conveys our notion of cosmos or universe. Instead, general words or phrases for totality are used sueh as Akkadian kiššatu, kullatu, or kiššat kal gimrati 'the entirety of all of everything' (Ee IV 14). More often both Sumerian and Akkadian materials speak of the entire universe in terms of its two constituent halves, `Heaven and Earth'. Most common are Sumerian an, k i and the Akkadian equivalent šamû u ersetum, but other more poetic pairs are also attested including Sumerian a n - u r a š and gis 1 a m, and Akkadian šamamu u qaqqaru, and the pairs šamamu - ešmahhu, andurunna - ersetu, elâtu - šaplatu, ašru - kigallu, ermi dani - ganzer, and burumu—matatu.I In the studies of the geographies of heaven and earth in Part II, materials are drawn from the entire Sumero-Akkadian corpus, including texts previously examined in Part I. Thus, Part II helps place the materials presented in Part I in a broader context. The book concludes with handcopies and photographs of ancient texts, and indexes. 1

A list of such pairs may be found in the index sub Heaven Earth -

Part I Sources for Mesopotamian Cosmic Geography

Chapter 1

The Levels Of the Universe

KAR 307 30 38 and AO 8196 iv 20-22 -

Two short passages, KAR 307 30-38 (for a new copy, see plate 1)' and A0 8196 iv 20-22 (Af0 19 taf. 33), list the levels of the universe, with short descriptions of each level. KAR 307, a religious explanatory text in Neo-Assyrian script from Assur, lists three sets of heavens and three earths, while AO 8196, a late astrological-astronomical tablet, lists the three heavens but does not list the earths. AO 8196 iv 20-22 is nearly identical to the opening portions of KAR 307 30, 31, and 33. In both texts, the levels of the universe are listed in descending order beginning with the highest heavens.

KAR 307 30 38 (VAT 8917); New Copy, Plate 1 -

30.

šamûü elûti (an .ta)t' na4lu- lu-da-ni-tû ša da nim 300(5 uš) d1lg'z ga ina -

lib bi û š[e] ršib' šamûü qablûti (murub4 )tt na4sag-gil-mud ša dÎ-gi gi be lum ina libbi paramahi(bâra.mab) ina lib rbi' i-na parakki(bâra) na4uqnî(za.gin) ft-šib GIs bu-si-(in) NA 4 el-mšinbtar šamûrti' šaplûtu(ki.ta)meš na4aš-pu-u ša kakkabani (meš>Z lu-ma-ši ša ilâni reš ina muhhi (u g u) e-sir rina libbil [dan]nat([kall a.ga) erseti° eliti (an .rt al) zi-qi-qu améluti (nam.1u.ùlulu) ina libbi û-šar-bi-is -

31.

-

-

-

-

32. 33. 34.

1 KAR 307 38 may or may not belong to the descriptions of the levels of universe (see p. 19). 2 Text emended on the basis of AO 8196 iv 22.

3

4 35.

The Levels of the Universe [ina libbi danna]t([kala.g]a) ersetitt qab[liItu (mu[ru]b,)tndea(Dzg) aba(ad)-šti ina libbi û -še -šib

[xxxx ] x x si-hu ul û-maš-ši 37. [ina libbi dannat(k al a.ga) erseti] t' šaplitu(ki.t a) néru(geš.u) dr a-nunl -na-rki' ina lzb-bi e-sir 38. [xxxx ] BU MU X X [ x ina] rlibbi na4l aš-pu-u 36.

30. The Upper Heavens are luludanitu-stone. They belong to Anu. He settled the 300 Igigi inside. 31. The Middle Heavens are saggilmud-stone. They belong to the Igigi. Bel sat on the high dais inside, 32. in the lapis lazuli sanctuary. He made a lamp? of electrum shine inside. 33. The Lower Heavens are jasper. They belong to the stars. He drew the constellations of the gods on them. 34. In the ... of the Upper Earth, he lay down the spirits of mankind. 35. [In the .. ] . of the Middle Earth, he settled Ea his father. 36. [ ... ] .. He did not let the rebellion be forgotten / identify rebellion. 37. [In the ... of the the Lower Earth, he shut inside the 600 Anunnaki. 38. [ .... ] .... [ . in]side jasper AO 8196 iv 20-22 (AfO 19 pl. 33)

iv 20 [šamû" e] lûtutu4 na4lu-lu -da-ni-tu4 šd da-nim iv 21 [šamû"] qablûtu(murub,)t°4 na4 sag-gil-mud šd dÎ-gi-gi iv 22 %mû° šaplûtutn4 na4aš-pu-u šd kakkabani meš iv 20 The Upper Heavens are luludanitu-stone. They belong to Anu. iv 21 The Middle Heavens are saggilmud-stone. They belong to the Igigi. iv 22. The Lower Heavens are jasper. They belong to the stars.

The Date of the Lists

Although the tablets KAR 307 and AO 8196 both date to the first millennium, the lists of cosmic regions in KAR 307 30-38 and AO 8196 iv 20-22, in their present form, may be as old as the Kassite period. The lists as preserved cannot have been written earlier than this time, because KAR 307 places the Igigi-gods in the heavens and the Anunnaki-gods in the underworld. This divi-

The Tablets

5

sion of the Igigi and Anunnaki is not known before Kassite times. 3 Nevertheless, the tradition of three heavens and earths could be older.

The Tablets KAR 307 (VAT 8917) 4 KAR 307 is one of a small number of first-millennium mystical-religious compilations. 5 The tablet preserves 63 lines of text divided into six sections by horizontal rulings, with three sections on the obverse and three on the reverse. The section of the tablet describing the levels of the universe (obv. 30-38) occupies the final section of the obverse. No horizontal ruling follows, so the first section of the reverse (rev. 1-10) may belong to the same section as the list of eosmic regions. The colophon notes that KAR 307 conveys privileged information. Its first line describes the tablet as a pirišti ilani rabûti `secret of the Great Gods' and admonishes the reader "let the knowing reveal it only to the knowing, do not let the unknowing view it, it is a taboo (ikkibu) of the Great Gods." 6 This secret information consists mainly of identifications and explanations. Everyday and religious articles, religious practices, parts of the universe, and astronomical phenomena are listed and their religious, mystical, or cultic significance explained. For instance, the first 18 lines of the text equate everyday items such as drums, fish, figs, and oil with parts of a divine statue or god's body; lines 19-21 identify Ištar of Nineveh as Tiamat and explain that she was the wet-nurse (mu .eniqtum) of Bel; and rev. 4 states that the "disk" of the Sun is 60 leagues and that of the Moon is 40 leagues.? This line is repeated verbatim in ACh Ištar 28: 42, demonstrating that KAR 307, like AO 8196, provides some astrological information. 3 For the Igigi as gods of heaven, see Oppenheim, Man and Nature 657 n. 81. For the Anunnaki as gods of the underworld, see B. Kienast in AS 16 156-58 and A. Tsukimoto, AOAT 216 184-200. The earliest known example of this distinction is found in the Sumerian myth preserved 'on a statue of the Kassite king Kurigalzu (see pp. 143-44). For this distinction in a Middle Babylonian kudurru, see W. Sommerfeld, OF 16 303 v 9-15. 4 A transliteration and translation of KAR 307 appears in SAA 3 99-102. Editions of various sections of KAR 307 also appear in A. Livingstone, Mystical and Mythotogical Explanatory Works. A now outdated edition of the tablet is offered by E. Ebeling in TuL 28-37. See also W. G. Lambert, Aneient Cosmologies 58-59; E Kraus, ZA 43 88; B. Landsberger, JCS 21 154-155; Oppenheim Dreams 235; Oppenheim Man and Nature 640641, 658 n. 96; Thompson DAC 75-76. 5 For editions of these texts see A. Livingstone, Mystical and Mythologicat Explanatory Works and SAA 3 81-105. A number of these texts are also diseussed in W. G. Lambert, JSS 13 104-112 and Unity and Diversity 72-76, with partial editions in the footnotes of the article. For new examples of this genre, see A. George, ZA 80 157-59; A. Livingstone, NABU 1990 no. 91; G. Beckman and B. Foster, Sachs Mem. Vol. p. 4, no. 22. 6 Hunger Kolophone no. 206. For similar colophons, see also Hunger Kolophone 89, 98, 110, 533, and 562; CAD M/2 166 mudû c. 7 For HAB-rat'disk' in astronomical contexts, see ACT 197-198; AfO Beih. 22 5051, 288.

6

The Levels of the Universe

Much of the information revealed by KAR 307 relates to the battles of Marduk and Ninurta against their enemies Tiamat, Kingu, Enmešarra, and the Anzu-bird that are known from literary texts sueh as Enuma Elish, The MoonGod and the Demons (= Utukku Lemnutu 16), The Judgment of Enmešarra (T, G. Pinches, PSBA 30 53-62, 77-83), The Anzu-Myth, Lugale, and Angimdimma. KAR 307 rev. 3, for instance, notes that Tiamat has four eyes and explains that her right eyes form the sources of the Tigris and her left eyes form the sources of the Euphrates. In Ee V 55, Marduk opens the sources of the two rivers in the eyes of Tiamat. Ee I 97-98 states that Marduk himself was endowed with four eyes and four ears. Likewise, KAR 307 24-27 alludes to Ninurta's victory over the Anzu-bird, whieh was celebrated in the various recensions of the Anzu-Myth. Often, information in KAR 307 correlates events in the aforementioned texts with ritual practice. For instanee, KAR 307 rev. 20-25 apparently conneets a ritual involving the king with materials similar to Angimdimma and Lugale. In the ritual, the king, who sits on a throne, is carried out of Ekur and then returned to Ekur. Cedar is then burned before him. The mystical explanation of the ceremony identifies the king as Ninurta, who avenged his fathers. In Lugale, Ninurta leaves the Ekur to fight enemies on behalf of his fathers and then returns triumphantly to Ekur. Similarly, KAR 307 rev. 19 equates the ritual throwing of a dove with the splitting of Tiamat. Thus the ritual act in KAR 307 is explained in terms of Ee IV 137-38, where Marduk splits Tiamat in half before constructing the heavens. Such passages correlating ritual practiee and mythological events are typical of the genre of mystical-religious works that includes KAR 307, but it is not clear if these passages served as rough scripts for cultic reenactments of mythological events or if the association between myth and ritual occurred on a more mystical plain. Other sections of KAR 307 present religious traditions that have not been preserved elsewhere. KAR 307 rev. 11-16, for example, identifies the ghosts of Enlil, Anu, the Daughters of Anu, and Tiamat as animals. In these lines, the ghost of Enlil is a donkey; the ghost of Anu is a wolf; the ghosts of the Daughters of Anu are gazelles; and the ghost of Tiamat is a camel with shorn hums, bound feet, and a cut-off tail. These traditions may be based on religious ceremonies where such animals were understood to represent the aforementioned gods.8 However, no sueh ritual application is obvious for the list of the levels of the universe in KAR 307 30-38. Therefore, it seems probable that this list was included in KAR 307 because of the close affhnities between the list and materials in Enuma Elish. In both Enuma Elish and KAR 307 30-38, Marduk/Bel settles Ea in the Apsu, mankind on the earth's surface, and groups of gods in heaven and earth. KAR 307 33, like Ee V 1-8, states that Marduk arranged the stars in heaven. 8 Note, for example, KAR 307 rev. 17-18, where eattle and sheep that are slaughtered in a ritual represent Kingu and his seven sons, and Racc 26: 6, where the seven sons of Enmešarra are represented by seven heaps of flour (zidubdubbû). However, for the ghost of Anu as a wolf compare VR 46 2: mulu r. b a r. r a = da-nu, `The Wolf-Star is Anu'.

The Tablets

7

AO 8196 (AfO 19 pls. 31-34) AO 8196 presents a late-Babylonian collection of astronomical, astrological, and religious information. The tablet is poorly preserved. When complete, AO 8196 presented six columns, with three columns on eaeh side. The entire first and sixth columns, most of the second and fifth columns, and portions of columns three and four are missing. The surviving text is divided into sections by horizontal lines. Each section consists of a short list of related identifications. For instance, the section of immediate interest (iv 20-22) is comprised of three lines that name the three heavens and identify each set of heavens with a stone. E. Weidner, in his article "Ein astrologischer Sammeltext aus der Saigonidenzeit" (AfO 19 105-113), identified AO 8196 as one of eight exemplars of a Neo-Assyrian astrological work best known from K. 250+ (CT 26 40-41).9 In the article, an attempt is made to reconstruct the original tablet utilizing materials from AO 8196, K. 250+, and the other sources. Although portions of AO 8196 do duplicate portions of these tablets, AO 8196 is not an exemplar of this astrological compendium. The list of heavens in AO 8196 iv 20-22, and six other sections occupying AO 8196 iv 28-50, are not found in any preserved exemplar of the Neo-Assyrian work. However, the exact relationship between AO 8196 and the Neo-Assyrian tablets remains uneertain since all proposed exemplars for the Neo-Assyrian astrological text are incomplete. In addition to the section listing the three heavens, well preserved sections of AO 8196 include two lists of stars (iii 1 -15; iii 16-38); a list of synonyms for sallummû `comet' (iii 39-44); I 0 sections identifying the quadrants of the Moon, months, and watches of the night with the countries of Akkad, Elam, Amurru, and Subartu (iii 45-48; iv 13-19; iv 28-30); a section identifying various parts of the month, and the sun at sunrise and sunset, with various deities (iv 23-27); a list identifying the four winds with animals (iv 33-36); the names of the two calves of Adad and two horses of the flood (iv 37-42); 11 and a list of seven manifestations of the goddess Gula worshipped in different cities (iv 43-50). Most of the information preserved on AO 8196 can be used when interpreting astronomical omens. The series Enuma Anu Enlil includes numerous omens relating to the observation of comets and meteors, the lands of Akkad, Elam, Amurru, and Subartu appear frequently in the apodoses of astronomical omens, and the interpretation of astronomical phenomena is dependent on the month of the year and time of night that the phenomena are observed. Yet, no s The full tablet of K. 250+ is K. 250 + 7646 (CT 29 47) + 11184 + 13677 (CT 26 50) + 13709 + 16242 (CT 34 14). The other seven sourees utilized by E. Weidner are listed in AfO 19 105-6. For a new rendering of the text, see U. Koch-Westenholz, Mesopotamian Astrology (1995) 187-205. 1° For sattummû meaning 'comet', see R. Chadwick, GMS 3 170-80. 11 Note the parallels in Atrahasis 122 rev. 5-6 where Adad rides on "the four winds, his donkeys"; Atrahasis 94: 15-16 where the flood bellows like a bull and the winds of the flood "whinny like a wild donkey"; and Cohen Eršemma 58: 13-16 where Iškur harnesses seven storms. For parallels with ralcabu `to ride' in meteorological contexts, see AHw 945 rakabu G 9-10.

8

The Levels of the Universe

practical application for the names of the calves of Adad, horses of the flood, Gula-goddesses, or the list of the heavens is obvious. The Levels of the Universe The presentation of lists of cosmic regions in both KAR 307 (a mystiealreligious text) and AO 8196 (an astronomieal-astrological text) demonstrates that the beliefs expressed in the lists were part of both the general religious traditions of Mesopotamia and the tenets of Mesopotamian astronomy and astrology. Of course, the disciplines of astronomy and astrology were but part of the overall religious system. Major deities such as Marduk, Anu, Enlil, and Ea were believed to have arranged the stars in heaven in early times, and gods are often identified with stars and constellations in astronomical works such as the `Astrolabes" and Mul Apin. -

The Heavens

The list of heavens in KAR 307 is drawn from two sources. The descriptions of the heavens in both KAR 307 and AO 8196 begin by identifying each heaven with a stone. These identifications can be identified as "Source A." AO 8196 preserves only material from "Source A°' KAR 307 adds additional information from a second source, "Source B." This information is introduced by ša and always includes a preterite verb. In each case, the subject of the verb apparently is Bel. The deseriptions of the three earths in KAR 307 34-38 also derive from "Source B." Preterite verbs occur in these descriptions, with Bel apparently also the subjeet. Although the two sources are expertly joined by ša in KAR 307, a elose inspection of KAR 307 30-38 reveals that the two sources are contradictory. In the opening portions of KAR 307 30-31, "Source A' assigns the Upper Heavens to Anu and the Middle Heavens to the Igigi. "Source B" in the latter sections of line 30 and lines 32-33 disagrees. Here, the Igigi are plaeed in the Upper Heavens and Bel is placed in the Middle Heavens. Both sources, however, agree that the Lower Heavens belong to stars. The first part of line 33 assigns the Lower Heavens to stars, while the later half of the line states that Bel drew constellations on the Lower Heavens. This is not contradictory, beeause constellations are groups of stars. Below is a table identifying the denizens of the three heavens according to Sources A and B: 12 12 The division of the heavens into three zones is also attested in the second tablet of the series Bit Meseri where portions of the heavens are assigned to Anu, Enlil, and Ea: a-qa-dig-ku dlugal-gir-ra samêe ša lal ti sû nu šu-ut da-nim su-ut denlil (bad) su-ut dé-a G. Meier, AfO 14 142:43-44 I have purified the three heavens for you Lugalgirra: those of Anu, those of Enlil, and those of Ea.

9

The Levels of the Universe

Heavens

Source A

Source B

(KAR 307 and AO 8196)

(KAR 307 only)

Anu Igigi Stars

Upper Middle Lower

300 Igigi Bel Constellations

The Stones of Heaven. Source A notes that the three heavens are composed of luludanitu stone, saggilmud-stone, and iašpû stone 'jasper'. It is inconceivable that these heavens were composed of three giant contiguous blocks of stone, because this would not allow for movement within the heavens. Therefore, it must be assumed that the floors of each level of the heavens were composed of a different type of stone, and that there was open space between eaeh stone floor, just as there is open space between the earth's surface and the Lower Heavens. Furthermore, it may be assumed that eaeh stone floor was visible from below and served as a roof for the region below. These assumptions find support in a parallel from Exodus, where the floor of heaven is apparently built of blue brick: -

-

Then Moses, Aaron, Nadab, and Abihu, and the seventy elders of Israel rose up and they saw the God of Israel, and beneath his feet was the likeness of "sapphire" (Hebrew `',D0) brick just like the heavens for clarity. Exodus 24:9-10 (cf. Ezekiel 1:26-28, 10:1)

Hebrew 'sapphire', which is equated with Greek aâitcpstpoç and Latin sappirus, is a blue stone and has often been identified with lapis-lazuli. I3 Thus, the blue brick floor of heaven in Exodus, when seen from below, may be identified with the blue background color of the sky on clear days and the darker blue of the clear night sky. In KAR 307 30-31, Anu and the Igigi apparently stand on luludanitu-stone and saggilmud stone floors of the Upper and Middle Heavens, just as the God of Israel stands on a blue 'sapphire' brick heavenly floor in Exodus. -

The Upper Heavens. The highest level of the universe in both KAR 307 and AO 8196 is called the Upper Heavens. Source A assigns this level of heaven to Anu and reveals that this level is made of luludanitu-stone. Source B states that Bel settled 300 Igigi in the Upper Heavens.

In this passage, however, the three heavens probably refer to the astronomical paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea in the visible heavens, rather than three superimposed levels of heaven, 13 Note for example the following general studies: The Interpreter's Dictionary of The Bible 4.219; Der Kleine Pauly Lexicon der Antike 4.1545; Liddell and Scott, A GreekEnglish Lexicon (1968) 1583; R. Forbers, Studies in Ancient Technology 7.89, and note more reeently P Kingsley, JRAS Third Series 2(1992) 39-46. However, for an identification of the stone with modern sapphire see D. Ginzburg, Eretz-Israel 17 4*, 83-85.

10

The Levels of the Universe

The assignment of the Upper Heavens to Anu in Source A identifies this heaven with the Heaven of Anu (šamû ša danim; šamû danim). The Heaven of Anu is well known in Akkadian literature and incantations. Examples of the Heaven of Anu oeeur in Gilgamesh, Nergal and Ereškigal, and Erra, as well as Akkadian incantations in the series Bit Meseri, Bit Rimki, and in Namburbis.' 4 TheidntfcaoAu'shevntiglofheavnKAR307 and AO 8196 provides the most explicit evidence that the Heaven of Anu is in fact the highest level of the universe. The reason for the identification of Anu's heaven with luladanitu- stone is unclear. In Abnu - šikinšu, a series deseribing the appearances of stones, 15 ludanit-soe brdishtone: [abnu(n a4) šiki]n(g ar)-šû kima °a4 hulali (nir) na4muššari (m u š . g i r) "' lu lu4 da ni tum šum [šu] (m u . [n i] ) -

-

-

[abnu šikin] šü sama(sa5) pusa(b abbar) u salma(gi 6) na4lu-lu4 da-ni-tum šumšu -

STT 108:14-15 [The stone whose appearance is like hulalu- stone and muššaru-stone is named luludanitu- stone. [The stone whose appearan]ce is red covered with white and black [patc]hes is named luludanitu-stone. Thus KAR 307 and AO 8196 seem to imply that the surface of the Heaven of Anu was thought to be colored red, white, and black. There is no obvious explanation for this tradition. A few passages allude to red heavens, but these passages always refer to the red color of the sky at sunrise and sunset's rather than to a visible high heaven above the sky. Thus it seems likely that the reddish hue of the Upper Heavens is based on unknown religious or mythological considerations."

14 's

For examples of the Heaven of Anu, see pp. 244-46. For the series Abnu sikinsu, see W. Horowitz, ZA 82 112-22. 16 Note SAA 8 266 rev. 4, 309:1; van Soldt Solar Omens 46:5-47:7; M. Leibovici, BA 50 18: 28-38; Nabnitu XX 44 (MSL XVI 181); and a number of passages where the Heavens are said to 'be beaten red' pinta mahis at sunrise (see CAD S 124 sâmtu B). This expression apparently refers to blood-red heavens, since the same expression is used for bloody fingers in Labat TDP 98: 58-59. For blood in the sky in mythological contexts, see Lugale 178; CT 13 34 rev. 7'-9' (The Labbu Myth); and a similar allusion in Ee IV 32. See also CAD S 382 samu b), AfO Beih. 22 55-57, and S. Langdon, Babyl. 7 234-35. For a parallel expression urqa mahis `to turn yellow/green', see W. von Soden, ZA 71 110: 3. 17 For instance, red, white, and black tuludanitu-stone may be identified with the Heaven of Anu because Anu himself is identified with the colors red, white, and black. In Summa Alu (CT 40 49: 29-30), a red bird with a white patch on his head is identified as the "bird of Anu' and red, white, and black patterns of deeorative cones were found in the archaeological remains of Anu's city, Uruk (see for example Bagd. Mitt. Beih. 1 Beilage 2-3, taf. 1-7). -

-

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The Levels of the Universe

11

The tradition of 300 Igigi in the Upper Heavens in Section B agrees with the apocryphal line of Enuma Elish, Ee VI 69: 300 dÎ gi i šâ šâ ma [m]i u 600 šâ apsi kali(dù) šû nu pay ru The 300 Igigi of heaven and 600 of the Apsu, all of them, were gathered. -

-

-

In Ee VI 37-44, Marduk plaees 300 Anunnaki, rather than Igigi, in heaven. The Middle Heavens. Source A assigns the Middle Heavens to the Igigi and notes that these heavens are made of saggilmud stone. Source B explains that Bel's cella is located in the Middle Heavens. The identification of the Middle Heavens with saggilmud stone is appropriate, since saggilmud-stone is a blue stone. The blue color of saggilmud-stone can be established on the basis of information in Uruanna, Urgud, and Abnušikinšu. In Uruanna (MSL X 70: 30) and Urgud (MSL X 33: 113), saggilmudstone is identified as hašmanu-stone. The color of saggilmud/hašmanu-stone can be established on the basis of hašmanu-colored wool. In an economic tablet from Ugarit, hašmanu-colored wool is said to be a shade of lapis-lazuli colored wool: -

-

2 t"gkitû gad[ames 2 me-alt sikiuqnî (za.g1n) 2 me-at Siki na4 haš-ma-ni a-na [ ... ] 2 tûgkitll mes [21 [me a] t sikiuqnîmeš 2 me at -

-

sikiuqnî haš-ma-ni a-na mar [ 1 tûgkitû me-at sikii ttgra 1 me-at sikiugni-haš-ma-ni a-na 'LLtup-pa-nu- [ru]

RS 11.732 B 3-5 (MRS 6 181, Syria 21 258) 2 garments (made of [20]0 (shekels) of blue wool (and) 200 of "hašmanu"-wool for [ ... ] 2 garments (made of) 2[00] (shekels) of blue wool (and) 200 of blue-"hašmanu" wool for the "son" { ... ] 1 garment (made of) 100 (shekels) of blue wool (and) 100 of blue-"hašmanu" wool for the tuppanu[ru-offhcial] The description of saggilmud stone in Abnu šikinšu, although partially damaged, confirms that saggilmud-stone is the same color as lapis-lazuli: -

-

abnu šikin-šû kima [na4] ru qul ni na4sag [gill mud šum[šu] STT 108:88 -

-

-

-

The stone whose appearance is like lapis-lazuli is named saggilmud-stone The blue lapis-like color of the Middle Heavens may be compared with the blue brick roof of the sky in Exodus 24:10. Therefore, KAR 307 and AO 8196 suggest that the bottom surface of the Middle Heavens was visible from the earth's surface.

The Levels of the Universe

12

The Cella of Bel in the Middle Heavens . 18 In KAR 307 31-32, Tradition B describes a heavenly cella of Bel in the Middle Heavens. Two elements of the cella appear in the text: bara = parakku and bara.mah = paramabiu. It is difficult to distinguish between these two terms, since KAR 307 31-32 provides the only contextual example of parakku and paramahu together, and chairs can be placed on both. Urra 5, for example, lists chairs of both the parakku and paramaliu:19 (kussi)] pa-rak-ki (chair of the parakku) [gišgu.za.bâra.m] ah = [MIN] pa! - ra!- ma - hu! (chair of the paramahu) Urra 5 87-87a (see MSL V 157, IX 170)

[g'šgu.za.bâra

=

MIN

The translation of parakku as 'sanctuary' is based on Malku and Explicit Malku, which list parakku as a synonymn for a number of words meaning 'shrine, sanctuary, etc.' (A. Kilmer, JAOS 83 429: 274-75, 443: 152-55). The second part of the description of Bet's cella, as written, states that Bel made a GIs bu - si NA 4 el-me-ši shine inside thc cella. This phrase is problematie. As preserved GIs bu - si NA 4 el - me - ši can refer to three objects, two objects, or a single object. For instanee, there may be three separate wood (GIs), glass (busu), and stone (na4elmešu) furnishings in the cella of Bel; a g'šbu-si that is made of wood and glass, plus a stone object; or a single wooden object inlaid with glass and elmešu-stone. Two suggested emendations solve some but not all of these difficulties. CAD B 349 busu A 3' deletes GIs, and translates: He (Marduk) made it shine within with busu-glass and erystal (elmešu-stone). This translation, however, does not explain the form or function of the glass and elmešu-stone. CAD E 107 (sub elmešu a) offers a better solution. Here, the editors of CAD emend to read g'sbu-si-(in) and then translate `lamp (made of) elmešu-stone', explaining that Marduk lit a lamp (businnu) of elmešu-stone in the cella. 20 A parallel can then be found in an Esarhaddon oracle where Ištar lights a light of elmešu-stone in a heavenly cella: 21

For cellas and daises in Heaven, see pp. 250-52. PSD B does not separate bâra from bâra.mah. Sumerian bâra.mah is translated into Akkadian in bilingual texts by the both the loanword paramahu and as parakku siru `majestic dais' (see PSD B 142 3-5). The loanword paramahu is chosen in KAR 307 31 so that the word parakku is not repeated in both KAR 307 31 and 32. However, a rendering parakku siru remains possible. See PSD B 135-36 1.4 for examples of s'šgu.za.bâra and g'šgu.za.bara.mah in Sumerian texts. 20 B. Landsberger (JCS 21 154) also emends bu si (in) and translates `Lampe'. A. Oppenheim (Oppenheim Glass 16; Oppenheim Man and Nature 641) omits GIs and translates `bûsu-glass'. A. Livingstone (SAA 3 100) translates 'has made a lamp of electrum shine there'. 21 Note the Hebrew parallel in Ezek 1:26-27 and an Akkadian parallel in KAR 98 rev. 8-9: u-ki-in ina qaqqadi ka ka a[b t]am el me ši nam r[i] `I placed on the head a star of shining etmešu-stone'. For possible Sumerian parallels, see M. Stol, Natural Phenomena 255, 269 n. 90. 18 19

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-

-

.

The Levels of the Universe

13

g'2kussâ-ka ina šapal (k i . t a) šamê e ra-bu-te uk-ti-in in ma-si-ki ša hurasi ina qereb šamê e a-ha-ri-di nu ur ša el me ši in pani mdaššuràha- iddina šar, kuraššuri û-šâ-na-ma-ra -

-

-

4R2 61 iii 29-35

.

I have established your throne below the great heavens. From the golden cella in the midst of heaven I will keep watch over you. I will make a light of elmešu-stone shine before Esarhaddon, the King of Assyria. However, one might object that businnu normally means `lamp-wick', while the lamp itself is a bit businni 'house of the wick' (see CAD B 348). Nonetheless, a copper businnu 'lamp' is found in ADD 964 rev. 15 without bitu. 22 Another reference to the Middle Heavens (šamê qablûti) is to be found in the mystical explanatory work OECT 11 69+70 i 35-37 (OECT 11 p. 28) in the context of a celebration of an Akitu festival of Ninurta on the 24th of Iyar: den-lfl ih-du-šum-ma rbui-su-rat šul-mi a-na dlugal-dub kù-ga a-na šamêe qab-lu-(ti) iš-pur

OECT 11 p. 28, nos. 69+70: 33'-34' Enlil rejoiced over him (Ninurta) and sent a message of well-being for Lugaldukuga to the Middle Heavens. The appearance of Lugalkuduga in the Middle Heavens in this passage is puzzling. Elsewhere, Lugalkuduga is either an ancestor of Enlil who dwells in the underworld, or a name for Ea who is normally to be found in the Apsu (see W. G. Lambert, R1A 7 133-34). If Lugalkuduga in this context is the underworld god, then one might find a parallel in Adapa, where the underworld gods Tammuz and Gizzida stand at the Gate of Anu at the entrance to heaven (p. 65). If Lugalkuduga is Ea, then one might note the events in Nergal and Ereškigal, where Ea is to be found in the heavens along with Anu and Enlil (p. 66). The Lower Heavens. ' Sources A and B agree that the Lower Heavens were composed of jasper and that these heavens belong to stars. Source A assigns the jasper heavens to the stars in general, while Source B is more specific, explaining that Marduk drew the lumasu 'constellations' on the jasper heavens. Jasper is a type of chalcedony, a hard, glassy, often translucent stone. 23

Manycietvrsofanluchedywraljsp(ï1Etç= iaspis) in the classical world, although modern jasper is generally opaque. Pliny, in his Natural History (Book 37 37), states that jasper (iaspis) is often translu-

cent and refers to many varieties of "jasper," ineluding a hard, dull, grayishgreen jasper from Cyprus, a sky blue "aerizusa" jasper from Persia, and rosecolored, violet, yellow, and purple varieties of jasper. The sky-blue "aerizusa" jasper from Persia is appropriate for the jasper of the Lower Heavens in KAR 22

23

Note also a bit g'šbu si ni in BAM 304: 20'. See G. F. Herbert Smith, Gemstones (1940) 348-49. -

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The Levels of the Universe

14

307 and AO 8196, since the Greeks thought this variety of jasper resembled the appearance of the sky in Autumn:

The fourth variety (of jasper) is known among (the Greeks) as "boria" or "northwind" jasper, beeause it is like the sky on an autumn morning. This will be identified with the kind that is ealled "aerizusa." Pliny Natural History 37 37 (Loeb Classical Library 10 258 59) -

Deseriptions of two varieties of jasper in Abnu-šikinšu explain why the Lower Heavens are identified with jasper in Mesopotamia: abnu šikin-šû kima šamê e za-ku-ti na4aš-pu-u šumšu abnu šilcin-štir kima urpat (d u n g u) rihsi (g1 r i . b a l) [natal š-pu-u šumšu BAM 378 iv 19-22//STT 108: 76-77 24 The stone whose appearance is like the elear heavens is named jasper. The stone whose appearance is like a rain cloud is named [j] aspen Another reference to jasper of the heavens is found in CT 51 89 iii 13: ... ] na4aš-pû u šâ kima ršainê el [ .. . ... ] jasper which like heaven [ .. .

The series Abnu-šikinšu describes a gray jasper that has the appearance of the overcast sky and a variety of jasper that has the appearance of the elear sky. The first variety may be compared with the grayish-green jasper of Cyprus, while the seeond is probably to be identified with sky-blue jasper of Persia or yellow jasper. On elear sunny days, the blue sky often appears to be tinged yellow by the sun. Both varieties of jasper in Abnu-šikinšu are appropriate stones for the Lower Heavens. On cloudy days, the lowest portion of heaven appears to be eolored gray by elouds, while on sunny days, the lowest portion of heaven seems to be the clear, open sky. In his Natural History (37 37 115), Pliny states that ancient jasper (iaspis) was often translucent. This would explain how the blue saggilmud-stone floor of the Middle Heavens could be seen from the earth's surfaee through the 'jasper' floor of the Lower Heavens. There is no evidence that saggilmud-stone is translucent, so the blue saggilmud-stone floor of the Middle Heavens apparently kept humans from seeing into the homes of Anu, the Igigi, and Bel in the Middle Heavens and Highest Heavens, above the saggilmud-stone. It is not clear, however, how the jasper of the Lower Heavens might have been thought to ehange from clear to cloudy. The terminology of KAR 307 33 suggests that the stars and constellations were thought to be etehed directly onto the jasper surface of the Lower Heavens. The text explains that the stars are drawn ina muhhi the Lowest Heavens. This prepositional phrase is apparently contrasted with ina libbi, which occurs seven times in KAR 307 30-38. The Igigi, "spirits of mankind;' Ea, and the 24 STT 108: 76, rza!' !' difference betwerza

su ti may be read za qat ti or be an error for -tind sU is but a single strok su

-sU

-

-

za ku ti (the -

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The Levels of the Universe

15

Anunnaki all dwell ina libbi their regions. Thus ina libbi here must mean `on (and above) the surface of the region', because mankind lives on and above the surface of the earth. In contrast, ina muhhi occurs just one time in KAR 307 33 and implies that the stars were drawn directly onto the stone surface of the Lower Heavens. In a parallel on a late Lamatu tablet, ina muhhi and eseru are used when a lunar crescent and solar disk are etched onto a clay tablet: dù.dù.bi tuppa(dub) tašattar(sarr uskara(u4.s akar) šæmšata(as.me) [kakkaba gamla] ina muh-hi to-es-sir .. . LKU 33 rev. 18-19 + duplicates (see CAD S/1 333 c) It's ritual, you inscribe a tablet. A crescent moon, solar-disk, [star, and hooked-staff] on it you draw... Further evidence for stars and constellations inscribed onto the sky is found in other Akkadian texts. In a literary passage from Enuma Anu Enlil, Anu, Enlil, and Ea draw constellations in the sky (E. Weidner, AfO 17 89:4-5). In The Labbu Myth, Enlil draws a 50-league-long constellation in the heavens: den-lil ina šamê e i-te-ser [ 50 beru mu-rak-šu 1 ber[u ru-pu-us-su]

CT 13 33:7-8 Enlil, in the heavens, drew [ 50 leagues was its length, 1 leagu [e was its width.] Another text explains how to draw various constellations, including mulšu.gi 'Perseus', mulal.1u 5 `Cancer' and mulmar.gid.da 'Ursa Major' (E. Weidner, AfO 4 7475). Surviving sketches of constellations are found on the Neo-Assyrian planisphere CT 33 10, and drawings of stars and constellations, including muIur.gu.la 'Leo' and the seven stars of m u 1. m u 1 `Pleiades', are found in E. Weidner GestirnDarstellungen pls. 1-2, 5-6, and 9-10. 25 A tradition that the fixed-stars were inseribed onto the surface of the heavens implies that this surface rotated every 24 hours, since inscribed stars could not move independently. This tradition is reasonable since stars and constellations maintain fixed positions relative to one another as if inscrihed on a rotating sphere. The Sun, Moon, and planets do not maintain fixed positions in relation to the stars, leading later Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic astronomers to speculate that these heavenly bodies were located on different levels or spheres from the fixed stars.

25 For CT 33 10 (K. 8538), see now J. Koch, Neue Untersuchungen zur Topographie des babytonischen Fixsternhimmels. Note also the terms sitir burûme (writing of the night-sky') and šitir same (writing of heaven'), which refer to the arrangement of the stars in the sky; the drawing of misrâtu `boundary lines' in the sky in Ee V 3; the stars drawn

on eireular Astrolabes (CT 33 11); and the Old Akkadian exercise tablet AfO 25 104.

16

The Levels of the Universe

The Earths

KAR 307 34-38 lists and identifies three earths. The Upper Earth is inhabited by the "spirits of mankind' the Middle Earth by Ea, and the Lower Earth by 600 Anunnaki. These inhabitants live in/on the dannatu of these earths. It is almost certain that the dannatu of these earths are the surfaces of each earth, although dannatu has a wide range of meanings including 'hard ground', 'fortress', `hard times', 'bottom of a foundation pit', and even a part of the lungs (see CAD D 87). The only direct evidence connecting dannatu with the earth is found in Malku I 51 where dannatu is listed as a synonym for ammatu (A. Kilmer, JAOS 83 425). In the commentary to the Babylonian Theodicy (BWL 74: 58), ammatiš is explained as lama ersetu (like earth'), so dannatu can be a name for `earth' as a whole. Indireet evidence for dannatu as the surfaces of the earths is found in the equivalence between dannatu and Sumerian KI.KAL, literally `hard earth'. If this sense of dannatu is intended, then the dannatu of the three earths could correspond to the stone floors of the three heavens. The dannatu of the Apsu, in this case, would be the the `ocean floor' of the Apsu, rather than the top surface of the Apsu. The Upper Earth. The Upper Earth should logically be the earth's surface, because the earth's surfaee lies directly beneath the heavens. Yet, KAR 307 34 places the ziqiqu of mankind on this earth, and ziqiqu normally are ghosts of the dead (see CAD Z 58-59). Dead human beings reside in the underworld rather than on the earth's surface. A parallel from the series Bit Rimki helps solve this paradox:

dutu mas.sù.mah di.ku5 an.ki.da.me.en dšamaš mas sù ft si r[u]? dajan(di.ku5) šamêe u ersetimt`m at ta5 -

-

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ni sà.ta i.0.0 inim šu [ x x x x ] 1a1?' DI DU u mim ma šâ ina làb bi ba âš šu û 1 a'?- [mat? x x ilq -qab- bu - u -

sig.sig.ga nigin nam.lu.ùlulu.ke4 šu.min ma.ra.ni.Ib.gi4.gi4 zi qti qa šd nap bar ni ši û šd an na ka -

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-

-

lû ni.érim e.gir bi.ib.šub.bu.dè rag ga cir h0 tu šam qa at -

-

-

-

-

lu ni.zi ni.si.sa bar.ta bî ib.ag .en kit ta u me šâ ra te be er R. Borger, JCS 21 3: 11-15 (Oppenheim Dreams 235) .

-

-

-

-

-

Sun-god, you are the august leader, the judge of heaven and earth. Whatever is inside, the word? w[hich ... , so i]t is said, the spirits of all men repeat to you. You strike the evil-man quickly. You ehoose truth and righteousness.

The Levels of the Universe

17

In Bit Rimki, there is no suggestion that the ziqigu ša naphar niši 'spirits of all men' are located anywhere but the surface of the earth. Thus, the ziqiqi ameluti 'spirits of mankind' in KAR 307 34 must be the embodied spirits of living humans on the earth's surface. A parallel may be found in the Kassite period Sumerian literary work The Duties and Powers of the Gods that is inscribed on fragments of a statue of Kurigalzu: a.n[e].er ki.a šu.nigin a.za.lu.lu al.nu.nu Sumer 4 pl. 4 vi l'-6' For him, they lay down all of mankind on earth. In this passage, unnamed gods settle a.za.lu.lu on ki. Here, ki must be the earth's surface, because the underworld is identified as kur in this text (see p. 144). Sumerian nil parallels rabasu in KAR 307 34, and a.za.lu.lu is equivalent to both amélutu `mankind' and nammaštu 'herd-animals'. 26 The Middle Earth belongs to Ea. This earth must be the Apsu since the Apsu is the cosmic region of Enki/Ea. In Ee IV 145-46, Ea occupies the Apsu when Anu and Enlil take possesion of the heavens (šamamu) and Barra. KAR 307 36 is obscure. The verb in the line, umašši, may be understood as a preterite of mussfilmuššû 'to identify' or a II/1 preterite of magi. `to forget'. 27 In the latter case, a parallel might be found in LKA 73:5: The Middle Earth.

sil-hi ul a-maš-ši

LKA 73 rev. 5 (SAA 3 104)

rebel] lion? I will not forget The verb mussûlmuššû `to identify' does not oecur in the I/1 stem. It is not certain, however, how a rebellion in KAR 307 36 could be connected with Bel, Ea, and the Apsu, because no account of a rebellion by Ea against Marduk is known. In a parallel to KAR 307 36 in a mystical-religious text, Marduk sends Ea down to the Apsu without any reference to a rebellion: d é-a

ša ina to-li-šu dbel i-dar-su-ma a-na apsî û še rid [su]

Livingstone 116:2 (SAA 3 96: 8-9) ... Ea, whom Bel pushed away from his bosom and sent down to the Apsu. The term ersetu qablitu 'Middle Earth' also occurs a number of times in BE 39099, a late-Babylonian account of the flood (Lambert-Millard Atra-basis 26 For nu = rabisu, see AHw 933. For a.za.lu.lu = both amélûtu `mankind' and nammaštu 'herd animals', see CAD A/2 58, N/1 234. 27 For examples of mussû/muššû `to identify' written with variants s and s, see Shamash Hymn 127 (BWL 134) and Erra V 10 (Cagni Erra 122-23).

18

The Levels of the Universe

116-21). In this text, the Middle Earth is not necessarily the Apsu. BE 39099 explains that Sin and Nergal were assigned to guard the Middle Earth before the flood at a time when Anu and Adad guarded the heavens, and Ea guarded the šigaru nahbalu tâmti `bolt, "Net of the Sea —. If the Middle Earth in BE 39099 is the Apsu, Ea may have been removed from his region because he could not be trusted to implement the commands of Enlil. In both Atrahasis and the flood story of Gilg. XI, Ea saves the human race by revealing the secret of the fl ood. The Lowest Earth

The bottom level of the universe in KAR 307 is the Lowest Earth. This earth is the underworld. KAR 307 37 notes that Bel shut 600 Anunnaki in the underworld. The information in KAR 307 37 is consistent with much of our knowledge of the underworld. As noted earlier, the Anunnaki, from the Kassite period onward, are almost always underworld gods, and a few texts confirm that the Anunnaki of the underworld numbered 600. For instanee, a hymn to Nergal praises the king of the underworld as the Ašir dannina saniq ner `Controller of the underworld, Supervisor of the 600' (Bollenrucher Nergal 8:4), 28 while a late bilingual passage refers to the 600 Anunnaki of 'earth': da.nun.na ki.a mu.uš.u.bi da nun nc ki šti ersetimr'na ne e er šic -

-

-

-

-

-

SBH 139:157-58 The Anunnaki of the earth, the 600 of them. It is also implied elsewhere that the Anunnaki are locked in the underworld, although no text other than KAR 307 explicitly states this fact. In An Address of Marduk to the Demons, the Anunnaki are located within the gates of the underworld (AfO 19 117 24-30). Furthermore, the underworld name erset la târi 'Earth of No Return' indicates that Anunnaki could not have reasonably hoped to escape from the realm of the dead. Only privileged offhcers of the underworld, such as Kaka, the vizier of Ereškigal in Nergal and Ereškigal, ever left the gates of the underworld, but even Kaka was expected to return. An exception is Inanna/Ištar in Manna's Descent and The Descent of Ištar, but she must provide a substitute to take her place in the underworld. The tradition that Marduk, or any god, locked the Anunnaki in the underworld is not found in surviving Mesopotamian texts, but a parallel may be found in the Theogony of Hesiod. In the Theogony, Zeus jails his defeated enemies in Tartarus after putting down their rebellion against his rule (Hesiod Theogony 713-35). 28 For the name of the Anunnaki written d600(GES.U), note also Borger Esarh. 79: 9, 96: 8; SAA 3 8: 26, 30; 9: 8 (= Craig ABRT 29-31); 72: 12 (Underworld Vision); Livingstone 32: 4.

The Levels of the Universe

19

It is certain that Enuma. Elish is not the source of KAR 307 37. Enuma Elish does not even mention the underworld, and Ee VI 39-44 places 300 Anunnaki in earth, rather than 600 Anunnaki, as in KAR 307. The final line preserved on the obverse, KAR 307 38, refers in some way to jasper, but it is unlikely that this line continues the description of the underworld, because line 37 ends with a preterite verb. Preterite verbs mark the end of the deseriptions of each of the five previous cosmic regions in KAR 30730-37.

Chapter 2 "The Babylonian Map Of the World"

The Late Babylonian tablet BM 92687 preserves a unique Babylonian bird's-eye view of the earth's surface. The sketch, commonly called "The Babylonian Map of the World" or "Mappa Mundi;' occupies the upper half of the obverse, while the remainder of the obverse and entire reverse preserve related textual information. The text was first published more than a century ago by F. E. Peiser (ZA 4 [1889] 361-70) and then recopied by R. C. Thompson in 1906 as CT 22 48. This second copy served as the basis for later studies by E. Weidner (BoSt 6 [1922] 85-93) and E. Unger (in Unger Babylon 254-58 [1931]). Then, in 1988, I published a new edition and copy of BM 92687 in Iraq 50 (1988) 147-65. More recently, I. Finkel identified and joined a tiny ("square inch or so of backed clay"), but important, fragment to the map on the obverse.' A revised copy and photographs of BM 92687 are found below (see pp. 402-3,405-6). 2 The Captions

1.ša-du-rûV 2. uru 3, ii-ra-aš-tu[m]

Mountain city Urartu

This chapter appeared in an earlier form as an article entitled "The Babylonian Map of the World' Iraq 50 147-65. This discovery is reported by 1. Finkel in British Museum Magazine 23 (1995) in the News & Events section. The author thanks Dr. Finkel for his cooperation in the study of the new fragment. 2 The earliest photo of the tablet known to me is in C. Ball, Light from The East (1899), 23. However, note that a third nagû (no. 21) has now fallen off (compare the photo in Ball with pl. 6, p. 406 here). For other photos of the obverse only and further bibliography, see Iraq 50 147 n. 2; SAA 8 94; A. Millard in J. B. Harley and D. Woodward, eds., The History of Cartography I, 111-14. Note also W. Heimpel, ZA 77 68; J. Glassner, Akkadika 40 20; Naissance 257; M. Stohl, Pheonix 34 29-35; W. Horowitz, VTSup 41 35-43. '

20

"The Babylonian Map of the World"

Assyria Der

4 kuraš +šurki 5. dér(BAD.AN)ki 6. x ra-[ 7. ap-pa-r[u[ ô. [š}uša[n] ([M]TJS. I EREM k -

...

9. bit qu -

10. bit ia ' ki nu -

-

-

-

11. uru 12. ha ab ban -

-

['?])

swamp Susa ehannel Bit Yakin eity Habban

21

22

"The Babylonian Map of the World" 13. TIN.TIRk`

14. 'amar-ra-tum 15. [('a)mar-ra-tum] 16. [ ('a) m] ar-ra-tum

17. mar-r[a-tum] 18. BÀD.GU.LA 1 6 1 beru

ina bi-rit a-šar d šamaš la innammaru (nu.igi.1a) 19. na-gu*-tic 6 beru ina bi-rit 20. [na-gu]-126' [(...) 21. [na] -gu-t [(...) 22. na-gu-t t8' beru ina bi-rit 23-25. No Inscription Signs visible on early photographs

Babylon ocean [ocean] [o] cean oce[an] Great Wall 6 leagues in between where the Sun is not seen Region 6 leagues in between [Regio] n [Re]gion [(...) Region 8 leagues in between

The Text on the Obverse 1'. 2'.

]xxxx[ ] x alanumeš ab-t[u-tu

3'. [ ... tam-tum rapaštumtu]m šs i-bar-ru-ti d r marduk ti -tti-I ri qé-r[eb-ša] 4'. [ b]i u ilanu1rigi3 ab-tu-t[u] šk ina l'ib-bi tam-tim t-še-[ši-bu] 5'. [... x] -x-ršul iz-za-zu ba-aš-mu mušhuššu rabû (m u š . buš gal) ina libbi an-zu-ti girt[ablullû ] (g i r. t [ a b.l u. ù 1 uIu] 3 6'. [ x x a]r-mu sa-bi-tum ap-sa-su-t [n]im-ru ki-sa-r[i-ku] 7'. [ x x n] ešu (u r. m a b) barbaru(u r. b a r. r a) lulimu (lu .1i m) it bu - t - [ su] 8'. [ pa-gu] -r tit u pa-gi - turn turahu (d à r a) lu - ur-mu šu - ra- nu her ba bi li 9'. [ x x x ] tit-ma-mu šâ ina muhhi tam-tim gal-l [a-t] im dmarduk ib-nu-šu-n[u-ti] 3 The reading girtablullû for gir.tab.lu.ulu'° is suggested by the loanword lullû from Sumerian l û ù l u (see CAD L 242). There are no phonetic writings of the word, to confirm this reading, or girtablilu as proposed in AHw 291.

23

The Text

10'. [ x x m] rdlut-napištim(zi)tim šarru-kin u nur (zalag) d [d]a-gan šàr bur-ršaan?-ha1 - a[n-dal 11'. [ x x kla-ap-pi issuriš(mušen)'is ma man-ma qé-reb-ši-na ul ri1 -[du-tic] -

-

Translation 1'. ] . the rui[ned] cities [ 2'. 3'. [ ... the vast [Sea] which Marduk sees. The bridge in[side her?] 4'. [ ... ] . and the ruine[d] gods which he settled] inside the Sea 5'. [ .... ] .. are present; the viper, great sea-serpent inside. The Anzu-bird, and scorpi [on-man] 6'. [ .. moun] tain goat, gazelle, zebu, [p] anther, bull-m[an] 7'. [ .. Ilion, wolf, red-deer, and hye[na], 8'. [monk] ey, female-monkey, 4 ibex, ostrich, cat, chameleon, 9'. [ ... ] beasts which Marduk created on top of the res[tl]ess Sea, 10'. [ .. U]tnapištim, Sargon, and Nur-[D]agan the King of Buršaba[nda], 11'. [ .. wings like a bird, which/whom no one can com[prehend.] ]....[

]

The Text on the Reverse 1'. 2'. 3'.

]x[ tab?]-ra?-[ti? tam-t]u4 ra-bi-tü [

4'. [mah-ru? na gu-üa ina e-re-b]i-štic tal-l[a-ku 7 beru ... .

5'. [a-na šanûû na-gu-û] raI -šar tal-la-ku 7 be[ru .. .

6'. [ .... ] x x x šap-[liš/lat .. . 7'. [a-na šalšu][ü1 na-gu!(text Du) ft a-šar tal-la-ku 7 ber[u .. . -

8'. [is-su]-ru mut-tap-ri-ši la tic-šal-l[a-am uruk-šu] 9'. [a-na re]-bi-i na-gu-tic a-šar tal-la-ku 7 be[ru .

.

10'. [ x x x [-du ik-bi-ru ma-la par-sik-tum 20 uban [u] (š u . s [ i]) [

. .

4 For pagû and pagitu as male and female monkeys, see Urra 14 118-19: ugu. dul.bi = pa-gu-u, munusu g u .dul.bi = pa-gi-ti (MSL 8/2 16),

24

"The Babylonian Map of the World"

11'. [a-na hanš]urš°' na-gu-tic a-šar tal-1la'-ku 7 beru [ .. .

12'. [ x x ] mi -lu -štic 1 usta.àm su up pan x [ 13'. [x x x ] x zi-nu-šic a na aš lataàm [ . 14'. [ x x ]-x-mi da-mi-šu ul im-mar [ . 15'. [x x x ] ni-il -lu aš-ri tal-la-[ku .. . 16'. [x x x x tall -al-la-ku [71 b[eru . 17'. [xxxxxx].A a-si-1išâ?ina?šu?'-[.. 18'. [x x x x] štic i bi ri [ . -

-

.. .

-

-

.

.

.

-

-

-

.

19'. [a na šešš&l na gu ic a šar tal la ku [7 bru . -

-

-

-

-

-

.

20'. [ x x x x x ina?] muhhi a na ku KIM /DiM m[u -

-

-

21'. [a-na sebi ]1i' na-gu-tit a-šar tal-la-ku [ 7 béru

.. .

22'. šk alpu(gu4) gar-nu šak-nu [ .. . 23'. i-rla'-as-su-mu-ma i- kaš -šâ-du-1 û' [ .. . 24'. a-na [šam]ani i na-gu-tit a-šar tal-ka-ku 7 béru

.. .

25'. [x x x x ] a-šar ti -še -ru ina ha-an-du-ri-šic 1iclšam'-[x-x] 26'. [x xxxx t]i šlc kib -ra-a-ti er-bet-ti šâ kal x [ ...1 -

27'. [x xxxx ] x : qé-reb-ši-na man-ma la 11i'-[du-tic]

ša ti ir ma ba r[i] 29'. [xxxxx ] mar-šic šâ mis-su-[ru' [ma]r mdea(id im)-bel (en)-il[i mes

28'. [x xxxx ] x ki-ma la bi ri i šu

-

Translation 1'.

]x[

2'.

wo] nde [rs?

3'.

] great s[ea?

4'. [The first? region?, when one ent]ers it you tra[vel ... leagues ... 5'. To the second region] where you travel 7 lea[gues

.. .

6'. [ .... ] ... be[low 7'. [To the third region, where you travel 7 leagu[es

...

8'. A winged [bi]rd cannot safely comp[lete its journey]

]

25

The Text

9'. [To the fo]urth region, where you travel 7 lea[gues 10'. [ ... ] . are thick as a parsiktum-measure/vessel, 20 finger(s) [ ...

11'. 12'. 13'. 14'. 15'. 16'. 17'. 18'.

[To the fif ]th region, where you travel 7 leagues [ [ .. is] its height/flood; 840 cubits is its . [ ... 5 [ ... ] , its frond/rain; as much as 120 cubits° is [ its ... [ ... ] . its blood he does not see[ [ ... which we climb?, where you trave[1 you/] I will travel 7 leagues [ ] . the departure whieh? is in . [ [ [ .... ] its [ ... ] he crossed [ .. .

.. .

...

.. .

.. .

.. .

19'. [To the sixth] region, where you travel [ 7 leagues ... on? ] top, I [ 20'. [ .. .

21'. [To the seven]th region, where you travel [ 7 leagues . 22'. where cattle equipped with horns [ 23'. they run fast and reach .. .

[ .. .

24'. To the [ei]ghth region, where you travel 7 leagues 25'. [ .... the place where ... dawns at its entrance'.

...

26'. [ 27'. [

] . of the Four Quadrants of the entire . [ ...] ] .: which no one can compre[hend]

28'. [ 29'. [

] . eopied from its old exemplar and colla[ted] ] the son of Issuru [the descend] ant of Ea- bel-il [i]

The Date and Composition of the Text The map, at least, can be no older than the ninth century. The author of the map ealls the ocean marratu (salt-sea) and includes the sites of Bit Yakin (no. 10) and Urartu (no. 3). The earliest example of marratu occurs in an inscription of Shalmaneser III (858-824) that identifies the name as a loanword from a Chaldean dialect into Akkadian: 5

1 Us

(720 cubits) + 2 suppu (120 cubits) (see RIA 7 459 Table II). As written,

suppan is dual. 6 1 aslu = 120 cubits (see RIA 7 459).

26

"The Babylonian Map of the World" ka-šid ultu tam-di rabiti ti ša mat a-mur-ri ša šul-me dšam -ši a-di tam-di ša mat kal-di ša tdmar-ra-tam i qa bu ši ni

KAH 100 3-6 (E. Miehel, WO 1 387; cf. WO 1 466:51) Conqueror from the Great Sea of the Land of Amurru of the setting of the Sun to the Sea of the Land of Chaldea which they call the marratu.

Likewise, Bit Yakin also occurs for the first time during the ninth century (see Brinkman PKB 169, 199), and Urartu occurs regularly in Neo-Assyrian inscriptions beginning at this time, although an earlier form Uruatri oceurs in Middle Assyrian inscriptions (see RGTC 5 274-75). It is likely, however, that the map dates to the late eighth or seventh century. In the Shalmaneser III inscription, the Persian Gulf is called marratu, while the Mediterranean is called tâmdu rabitu. The World Map identifies the entire world ocean as marratu. The earliest evidence that the Mediterranean was called marratu is found in an inseription of Sargon II (721-705) where the king rules the (dmarrati elîti and idmarrati šapliti `Upper and Lower Ocean' (R. C. Thompson, Iraq 7 112 fig. 1:12). It is not certain if the text on the obverse and reverse was composed together with the map. The text on the reverse was probably written to accompany the map, because both include nagû, but the text on the obverse was probably composed separately and joined to the map by a later editor. This text calls the ocean tâmtu, instead of marratu, and does not mention any of the places drawn on the map. The map was composed in Babylonia rather than Assyria. Babylon is represented by a large rectangle encompassing almost half the width of the central continent, while Assyria is represented as a small oval. The provenance of the Late Babylonian copy BM 92687 itself is uncertain. Most of the 82-7-14 collection (BM 92687 = 82-7-14, 509) is from Sippar (see Leichty Cat. 6 xxxiii), but it is possible that the tablet comes from Borsippa. The tablet preserving the map (82-7-14, 509) is assigned an out-of-sequence BM number (see Leichty Cat. 6 198), suggesting that the tablet may not be from Sippar, and the colophon of the tablet identifies the scribe who prepared BM 92687 as a descendant of Ea bel ili. In an economic document, a scribe of the same name is identified as being from Borsippa:

initti- dnabu- balatu mar štil šâ m la a ba ši mar mdea bel ili mes bar sipa" TuM II/III 220:12-13 Itti-Nabû-balâtu, the son of Labaši, the descendant of Ea-bél-ili of Borsippa -

-

-

-

-

-

The Map The map as preserved depicts the earth's surface as two concentrie eircles, with triangular areas radiating from the outer circle. The area within the inner

The Map

27

circle represents the central continental portion of the earth's surface, where important sites such as Babylon and Assyria are located. The area between the two circles is identified as the marratu `ocean'. On the map, this cosmic ocean circumambulates the central continent. The area beyond the outer circle consists of the triangular areas, which are identified as nagû `regions', and unchartered space. The drawing is unique among ancient Mesopotamian maps. Numerous maps or plans of cities and rural areas, such as the map of Nippur (S. N. Kramer, FTS 274), 7 are known, but only the World Map is drawn on an international scale. Nevertheless, the World Map utilizes standard Mesopotamian cartographic conventions. Both the World Map and small-seale maps use geometric shapes to represent topographic features. For instance, the placement of the marratu `ocean' within two concentric circles is comparable to the practice of drawing rivers and canals within parallel lines representing their banks. One small map fragment (RA 4, plates following p. 84 no. 72) even preserves a circular segment of a river or canal that is similar in shape to the cosmic ocean on the World Map. 8 Similarly, the oval shape of the region marked `mountain' (no. 1) may be compared with semicircular hills drawn on the Old Akkadian map from Nuzi (HSS 10 1). Nonetheless, the World Map differs from other cuneiform maps and plans in other respects. On other cuneiform maps, rivers, fields, buildings, and other features are drawn to scale, and the relative positions of features seem reasonable. In contrast, the relative size and location of many of the features on the World Map seem preposterous. For instance, the circle representing the city of Der (no. 5) is as large as the circle representing Assyria. The Continent

The continent on the World Map contains various geometric shapes representing places and topographic features. The place-names include the countries of Assyria (no. 4) and Urartu (no. 3); the cities of Babylon (no. 13) and Der (no. 5); and Bit Yakin (no. 10) and Habban (no. 12). Topographic features include šadû `mountain' (no. 1), apparu `swamp' (no. 7), and bitqu `channel' (no. 9). The oval labeled Susa (no. 8) is placed within the circle representing the continent but is located across the `swamp' and `channel' from Babylonia. The parallel lines that begin in the region marked `mountain' and end in the rectangle marked 'channel' and `swamp' provide the means for interpreting the map. On cuneiform maps and plans, parallel lines represent river banks. On The map of Nippur is also published in C. S. Fisher, Excavations at Nippur, pl. 1. For other maps and plans see Iraq 50 154 n. 5; RlA 6 464-67, A. Millard in J. B. Harley and D. Woodward, eds., The History of Cartography I, 107-14; Naissance 243; George 28, 133; Archaic Bookkeeping 64-69. 8 For drawings of rivers and eanals, note, for example, the Map of Nippur (FTS 274); Naissance 243; CT 22 49; HSS 10 no. 1 (cf. AOS 74 81-82); KAV 25; and JNES 21 80.

28

"The Babylonian Map of the World"

the World Map, the parallel lines are not identified, but the course of the lines indicates that they represent the banks of the Euphrates. Near the middle of the map, the two parallel lines bisect the rectangle labeled `Babylon'. In the first millennium, the Euphrates flowed through the center of Babylon. Herodotus (Book 1 180) states: "there are two sections of the city [Babylon] for a river flows through the middle. It's name is the Euphrates?' Nebuchadnezzar speaks of building projects on both sides of the river (VAB 4 130:7-132:30), and the excavations of Babylon by Koldewey found arehiteetural remains on both sides of the ancient course of the river (see R. Koldewey, Excavations at Babylon, 16). When the parallel lines are identified as the Euphrates, the locations of many of the other features on the map beeome clear. The `mountain' at the source of the river represents the mountains of southern Turkey where Shalmaneser III visited the sources of the Tigris and the Euphrates: ina 15 palê(bala)me-ia ina reš e-ni šâ idiglat(hal,ha1) 'apuratti (a.rat) a-lik sa-lam šârru ti is ina ka-pi-ši-na ul ziz -

Layard ICC 92:92-93 (E. Michel, WO 2 152) In the 15th year of my reign, I went by the headwater(s) of the Tigris and Euphrates. My royal relief I erected on their cliffs. On the bronze gates of Balawat, this expedition to the sources of the rivers is drawn in mountains (L. W. King, Bronze Reliefs, pl. 109). The rectangle at the mouth of the river marked apparu `swamp' and bitqu 'channel' represents the swamps along the lower Euphrates and a waterway conneeting the mouth of the Euphrates with the Persian Gulf. The modern Euphrates does not issue directly into the Persian Gulf but joins with the Tigris to form the Shatt-Al-Arab, a channel eonnecting the rivers to the Gulf. The left edge of the rectangle on the World Map, next to the label bitqu, touches the shore of the marratu, so the bitqu is probably an ancient equivalent of the Shatt-Al-Arab. In a letter, this aneient bitqu is loeated near Bit Yakin, just as Bit Yakin is drawn along the shore of the bitqu on the map: lnšakin tern (GARKU) ù e-muq šk bitmia a ki nu it-ti-šic-nu a-di mzchhi bit-qa ki-i il-li-ku-ni ABL 542:12 13 -

The governor and forces of Bit-Yakin went with them as far as the bitqu. It is likely that the bitqu was a shipping channel that enabled ships to bypass the marshes of southern Babylonia on their way to the open sea, because the bitqu on the map conneets the mouth of the Euphrates with the ocean and leads away from the area marked `swamp'. The bend of the Euphrates by the reetangle marked 'Babylon' apparently represents the shift in the course of the river from southeast to a more southerly direction, near Babylon, rather than the great bend of the Euphrates upstream. In eontrast to the relatively accurate depiction of the eourse of the Euphrates, the map omits the Tigris altogether. The Tigris should rise in the

The Map

29

oval marked `mountain', pass through Assyria and to the right of the rectangle labeled `Babylon', before emptying into the rectangle marked 'channel' and 'swamp'. The ancient course of the Tigris passed approximately 80 km. northeast of Babylon in the first millennium (see RGTC 8, maps). Thus, it is not possible that the two parallel lines represent both the Euphrates and the Tigris. The locations of other features are also problematic. Assyria and Urartu are correctly placed east of the Euphrates, with Urartu north of Assyria, but Assyria is located too far south in relation to Babylon. Bit Yakin, the southernmost entity in Babylonia during the first millennium, is correctly positioned near the mouth of the Euphrates, but is moved from the east side of the river to the west. Susa is correctly positioned below the outlet of the Euphrates, but should be located to the right of Babylon, rather than direetly below the city. Habban (no. 12) is located west of the Euphrates, although the land and city Habban of the Kassite tribe Bit Habban were located east of the Tigris. 9 Other features on the map cannot be identified. The crescent-shaped area extending from the east bank of the Euphrates to the marratu (no. 6) may represent an arm of the ocean separating southern Babylonia from Elam, since the traces inside the the figure can be restored [ma]r-ra-[tum].10 This erescent, however, might also be an arm of the Euphrates ([plu-ra-[tu]), a canal, or even a road ([ha]r-ra-[nu])leading from the river to the coast. Of course, the two circles identified uru (city) and the three circles containing only compass points cannot be identified. The reason that these sites are not labeled is unclear, but it is likely that their names were damaged on an earlier copy of the map. However, it is also possible that these sites may be ancient ruins whose names were no longer remembered, such as the `ruined cities' in obv. 2. The marratu `Ocean'

The circular band enclosing the continent is identified four times on the map as the marratu `ocean' (nos. 14-17). The term marratu is a first-millennium synonym of tâmtu `sea'. For instance, Sargon II of Assyria states that the gods entrusted him with leadership of the peoples ištu'dmarrati elîti adi'dmarrati šapliti 'from the Upper Ocean to the Lower Ocean' (R. C. Thompson, Iraq 7 112 fig. 1:12), just as Sargon of Akkad is given the tiamtam alîtam u šapiltam 'Upper and Lower Sea' by Enlil in a third-millennium inseription (H. H. Hirsch, AfO 20 48:9-13, Gelb-Kienast 182). The term marratu, unlike tâmtu, is often written with the ID determinative used for rivers and canals. This suggests that the marratu was thought to be a relatively narrow body of water rather than a boundless sea. On the map, the marratu is bounded on both sides by circles and, as drawn, is not much wider See RGTC 8 145. 10 RlA 8 229 suggests `Horn of the Sea' (i.e., *1-ra-[an tamti]) and a relationship between this term and the Sumerian equivalent si a.ab.ba in the writing of the Sumerian name of Borsippa (bàd.si.a.ab.bak'). The reference to A. L. Oppenheim, Dict. of Scientific Biography (= Oppenheim Man and Nature) in RlA 8 229 should be to p. 655 n. 31. 9

30

"The Babylonian Map of the World"

than the Euphrates. This mistake in scale almost certainly reflects the crudity of the map rather than a belief that the world ocean was almost as narrow as a major river. Similarly, the fact that the lines marking the banks of the Euphrates touch the inner shore of the marratu need not necessarily mean that Mesopotamians thought that the Euphrates began at the cosmic sea. The nagû The five triangular areas (nos. 18-22) radiating from the outer circle are identified as nagû. When complete, the map may have included as many as eight such nagû. The text on the reverse deseribes eight nagû, and there is room for additional missing nagû along the broken bottom edge of the map where Peiser drew two nagû in ZA 4 369. Nevertheless, it is not possible to correlate the surviving nagû on the map with those described on the reverse, and it cannot even be certain that the nagû deseribed on the reverse are identical to those drawn on the map. On the reverse, the nagû are said to be seven leagues ina birit `in between', but the nagû on the map itself are not equidistant from each other. The nagû on the map, however, are all equidistant from the coast of the continent so "seven leagues" may measure the distance across the marratu to the nagû, rather than the space between nagû.

The Term nagû in Assyrian and Babylonian Texts. In the first millennium, the geographic term nagû is common in Neo-Assyrian royal inscriptions, but rare in Late Babylonian royal inscriptions and literary texts. In Neo-Assyrian royal inscriptions, nagû is generally used with a political nuance to refer to administrative districts or provinces. For example, Sargon II states that he conquered 430 cities belonging to seven nagû `districts' (TCL 3 66:422), and Sennacherib conquers the nagû 'province' of Judah (OIP 2 86:15). 11 This Assyrian meaning of nagû is not appropriate for the World Map because there is no evidence that any Mesopotamian king conquered any of the nagû nor are the nagû across the marratu divided into political units. In Late Babylonian royal inscriptions, the term nagû is used for distant unspecified areas. This sense of the word is appropriate for the World Map. The term nagû survives five times in published Late Babylonian royal inscriptions: four times in the inscriptions of Nebuchadnezzar and onee in those of Nabonidus. In three of the Nebuchadnezzar examples, the nagû are located ina qereb tâmti `in the sea', suggesting that these nagû are islands. 12 11 For other examples of nagû in Neo-Assyrian inscriptions, see CAD N/1 121-22 nagû A 1. For a possible Old Babylonian example of nagû, see A. Grayson and E. Soll-

berger, RA 70 115 L II 12'. 12 Oppenheim (Man and Nature 655 n. 36) eonnects this sense of nagû with an Aramaic eognate nagwan. For an equation between the nagû on the World Map with "the isles of nations" in Genesis 10:5, see W. Horowitz, VTSup 41 35-43. MSL 17 60 n, 74 no longer identifies i'û and nagû as near synonyms in Erimhuš as in CAD I/J 317 i'û. H. and J. Lewy (HUCA 17 12-13) argued that the nagû on the World Map are mountains rising

The Map

31

The clearest example is found in a description of the empire that Marduk granted to Nebuchadnezzar: ku-ul-la-at ma-rti1 -ta-an gi-mi-ir ka-la da-ad-mi ul-tu ti-a-am-tim e-litim a-di ti-a-am-tim ša ap li tim mateiti (m a. d a. m a. d a) ru-qâ-a-tim ni-ši da-ad-mi ra-ap-ša-a-tim šarrani'neš ša-di-i ne-su-tim it na-gi-i bé-e-ru-tim ša qé-re-eb ti-a-am-tim e-li-tim ù ša-ap-li-tim ša dmarduk be-ll a-na ša-da-ad si it di šu š%ra-at-si-na u ma al lu ù qd-to-u-a BE 1/1 85 ii 13-29 (VAB 4 146 ii 17-33) (cf. VAB 4 146 iii 2-148 iii 7; 206:17)

All the lands, the entire inhabited world from the Upper Sea to the Lower Sea, distant lands, the people of vast territories, kings of far away mountains and remote nagû in the Upper and Lower Sea, whose lead-rope Marduk, my lord, plaeed in my hand in order to pull his yoke. In the remaining Nebuchadnezzar inscription (CT 46 45 If 23-24) and the Nabonidus inscription (C. J. Gadd, AnSt 8 52:20), nagû% are also said to be distant (nesû), but it is not clear if they are located in the sea since both passages are broken. Further evidence for nagû as islands in the sea may be found in The Gilgamesh Epic where nagû emerge at the edge of the sea as the waters of the fl ood recede: ap-pa-li-is kib-ra-a-ti pa-tû tâmti(a. a b . b a) a-na 12 (var. 14) taàm i-te-la-a na-gu - û a-na kurni-muš i-te-mid g'elippu(m a) 13 šadû ' kurni-mùš g'šelippa is-bat-ma a-na na-a-ši ul id-din Gilg. XI 138-41 (Thompson Gilg. pl. 48)

I scanned the regions at the edge of the sea. At (each) 12 (var. 14) a nagû appeared. After the ship put in at Mt. Nimuš, the mountain Mt. Nimuš held the boat fast, did not allow it to rock. In this passage, the nagû are the first outcroppings of dry land to emerge after the flood. These nagû, therefore, seem to be temporary islands surrounded by the receding waters of the flood. This meaning of nagû (island') may also be found in three Neo-Assyrian passages. In parallel passages from the inscriptions of Assurbanipal, the newly diseovered land of Lydia is described as a nagû across the sea:

out of the sea drawn from a frontal view, rather than regions in the sea that are drawn from a bird's-eye view. 13 For the reading Nimuš, see W. G. Lambert, RA 80 185-86.

32

"The Babylonian Map of the World" mgu-ug-gu šen- lay lu-ud-di na-gu-u šâ ni-bir-ti tâmti âš -ru ru-u-qu ša šarranumeš abemeš-ia la iš-mu-ti zi-kir šumi-šu

VR 2 95-96 (Streck Asb. 20:95-96, cf. 166:13-14). Gyges, the King of Lydia, a region across the sea, a place which the kings my fathers had not heard mention of. In a takultu-ritual, nagi'anu (a plural of nagû) in the Upper and Lower Seas, as well as the Tigris River, appear to be islands: 14 ididiglat(h al.hal) a-na si-bir-t[i-šâ xxxx ] ù na-gi-a-nu 1 šâ' [qé-reb-šdl tam-turn elitum(AN.TA) tam-t[um šaplitum] tam-tum a-na si-hir-[ti-šâ xxxx ] ù na-gi-a-nu š[â] q[é-reb-ša] ù tu-ub-qa-[at er-bet-ti xxxx ]

KAR 214 rev. iii 18-23 (Frankena Tâkultu 26, collated) The Tigris in [her] entire[ty . , .. ], and the "islands" which [are inside it], The Upper Sea and [The Lower] Se [a], The Sea in [its] entire [ty and the islands wh [ich are] in [side it] and the [four] corne[rs .... ] .... ]

The nagû on the World Map may also be islands, because they lie across the sea from the continent. Yet, this cannot be certain, since two sides of the nagû extend into an uneharted area. This uncharted space could represent a body of water, such as a portion of the tâmtu beyond the marratu, the Apsu, or even the mê muti `waters of death' referred to in Gilg. X (see p. 103). However, it is also possible that this terra incognita is a distant land mass, or that the nagû extend over the far edge of the earth's surface. In the later case, a traveler crossing over the sides of the nagû beyond the cosmic ocean might fall directly into the Apsu or underworld. The Northern nagû (no. 18). The northern nagû (no. 18) is identified as `Great Wall .. . where the Sun is not seen'. This identification is obscure. 'Great Wall' may literally refer to an actual cosmie wall separating this nagû from some other cosmic region, or perhaps figuratively to a `wall of mountains' located in part or all of the nagû. In Neo-Babylonian royal inscriptions, high city walls are often compared to mountains, so it is not impossible that Babylonians might likewise have thought of high mountains as a wa11. 15 14 For this passage, cf. K. Deller et. al., Or 56 180. The plural form nagi'anu may be compared to Aramaic nagwan (cf. VTSup 41 42). 15 See CAD S/1 36 gadaniš; VAB 4 82 i 22, 90 ii 5-92 ii 9. For parallels, see Cooper Curse of Agade 42; SBH p. 99 53: 54-55; CT 15 11:11; PSD B 39-40 bad s 1.1; CAD S/1 59 sadû A 4; and Angim 60:33, where Ninurta brings one of his creatures out of bàd.gal gal kur.ra `Great Wall of the Mountain'. For a possible parallel "Great Wall of Heaven

The Text on the Obverse

33

Two possible explanations for the statement that the Sun is not seen in this region also come to mind. First, the northern nagû may be a region of perpetual darkness. Comparable dark regions are found in Gilg. IX iv-v, where Gilgamesh follows the Barran dšamši 'Path of the Sun' through total blackness, and in literary traditions coneerning Sargon of Akkad. For instance, Sargon of Akkad traverses a dark region in an omen apodosis:I 6 ... a-mu-ut lšar-ru'-ki-in ša ek-le-tam il5 li-ku-ma nu-ru-um tic-si-aš-šu-um V Scheil, RA 27 149:16-17

... the omen of Sargon, who went through the darkness and a light came out for him. Second, the missing northern nagû may be called `a place where the Sun is not seen' because the Sun, when viewed from the latitude of Mesopotamia, never passes through the northern portion of the sky. North of the tropic of cancer, the Sun describes an arc in the southern sky throughout the entire year." Thus, some Babylonians might have believed that the Sun never reached the northern skies because of the 'Great Wall'. In this case, however, the northern nagû need not necessarily be a land of everlasting night since sunlight could have entered the nagû from the south.

The Text on the Obverse The obverse preserves eleven lines of text. This text is difficult to interpret because the beginnings and ends of each line are missing and the opening portion of the obverse is almost completely lost. Nevertheless, a general concern with distant places and early times is discernible. Obverse l'-2'

The first two lines yield only the single phrase &a-nu abtutu `ruined cities'. The adjeetive abtu, when applied to buildings, refers to old buildings that have fallen into disrepair (CAD A/1 67). Thus the `ruined cities', as noted earlier, could be the ruins of uninhabited ancient sites that could no longer be identified by name, such as the ovals labeled uru `eity' on the map (nos. 2, 11). Obverse 3'- 9'

Lines 3'-9' provide information relating to the earliest of times, the era of creation. Lines 3'-4' parallel passages in Enuma Elish. The ruined gods in the sea in line 4' are probably to be identified with the ereatures of Tiamat that and Earth' (BAD.AN.K1 GAL- i) in lines 20, 30 of "The Sargon Legend' see Horowitz, "The Great Wall of Sargon of Akkad; forthcoming in NA.B.U. 16 For Sargon of Akkad and the region of darkness, see J.-J. Glassner, BA 79 12224. For Gilgamesh and the region of darkness, see pp. 98-100. 17 This interpretation is suggested by C. B. F. Walker in a brief British Museum leaflet.

"The Babylonian Map of the World"

34

Marduk defeats in Enuma Elish. In Ee VI 151-54, Marduk is praised by the name Asalluhi-Namtila and hailed as the savior of these gods: 18 d asal-lû

hi dnam-ti-la šd-niš im -bu -u ilu muš -neš -šu

šd ki-ma bi nu ti štic ma ik ši ru ka-lu ilani ab-tu-ti

be-lum šd ina sip-ti-šu el-le-ti ii bal li tu ilani mes mu -ab-bit eg -ru-ti za-' -i-ri i ni -1 'u -daI

mi-tu -ti Ee VI 151-54

Asarluhi-Namtila, secondly they named him, the healing god, who mended all the ruined gods in accordance with its (the name's) strueture. The Lord, who gave life to the dead gods by his holy incantation, who destroys wicked enemies, let us praise (him). In an inscription of Sennacherib listing elements of a relief depicting the battle in which Assur replaces Marduk, creatures of Tiamat are said to be inside the goddess, just as the `ruined gods' are inside the sea in obv. 4': [tij amat a di nab nit qer bi šû Meissner-Rost Senn. pl. 16 edge 2 (OIP 2 142 b 2) (cf. OIP 2 140:10-12) -

-

-

-

-

[Tij amat together with the creatures inside her. An analogous tradition is preserved in The Babyloniaca of Berossus. Here, creatures are placed inside primeval water, which is later identified with the waters of the primeval Sea-goddess: They say there was a time when everything was darkness and water, within which monstruous beings lived, which were born alive having strange forms. E Jacoby, FGrH 3/1 p. 370(6); (Burstein Berossus 14 2.1) Later, Marduk defeats the sea and splits it in half. Thus the sea in Berossus is to be identified with Tiamat, whom Marduk divides into two parts in Ee IV 137-38' Line three mentions Marduk and a bridge. This line can be compared with Ee VII 74-75, where Marduk as dsirsir erosses the sea during battle as if crossing a bridge:

šd ti-amat rapaštata i-ti-ib-bi-ru uz-zu-uš-Mc ki-i ti-tur-ri i-ti-it-ti-qu a-šar šd-ciš-me-šd

Ee VII 74 75 -

who crossed the broad sea in his fury, passed over its place of battle as if on a bridge. Lines 5-9 list animals, beasts, and fantastic creatures. These beings are divided into two groups. As preserved, the first group consists of only two 18

Cf. Erra IIIe 32: ki sk ila ab!(=*BA) -ta.

..

35

The Text on the Obverse

beings, the bašmu `viper' and mušhuššu rabû `great sea-serpent', which live ina libbi 'inside', presumably inside the sea. Mythological bašmu and mušhuššu are placed inside the sea in other works. Angimdimma 139 (Cooper Angim 80) compares a mace with the mušhuššu of the sea (muš.huš a.ab.ba = mušhuš tâmtim), and the Labbu myth speaks of a 60-league-long fantastic bašmu that was created in the sea: i-na tâmti (a. a b. b a) ib-ba-ni 'n°'ba-[aš-mu] 1 šu-ši beru (d a n n a) šâ-kin u-rak-Ku] KAR 6 21'-22' (cf. CT 13 33:5-12) 19 In the sea the vi [per] was created. [His] length was set at 60 leagues. The remaining beings are explained in line 9' as `beasts which Marduk created on top of the restless sea'. This group eonsists of the the anzû `fabulous eagle or winged horse', 2° girtablullû `scorpion-man', armu 'gazelle', sabitu `gazelle', apsasû `zebu, water buffalo', 21 nimru `panther', kusarikku 'bull-man', néšu lion', barbaru 'wolf', lulimu 'red-deer', busu `hyena', pagû 'monkey', pagitu 'femalemonkey', turahu `ibex', lurmu `ostrich', šuranu `cat', and hurbabillu `chameleon'. The statement that Marduk creates these animals 'on top of the sea' may be compared with the account of the creation of animals in The Bilingual Account of the Creation of the World by Marduk (CT 13 35 37 + dupl.). In this text, Marduk creates dry land on top of the sea by building a (reed-)raft (g'diri = amu) and pouring out dirt (CT 13 36:17-18). Then, in lines 20-22, Marduk creates mankind and the animals on dry land on top of the raft, whieh floats on the sea. Thus, in terms of the map, the two groups of animals may represent the sea-animals that inhabit the marratu and the animals that live above the sea on the continent and the nagû. On the reverse of the tablet (rev. 21'-23'), horned cattle run about on the seventh nagû. With the exception of the cat, all of the beings listed in lines 5'-8' were not common in Mesopotamia cities, although they were familiar to Mesopotamians from depictions and statues, literary works, and military campaigns in distant lands. For example, representations of the mušhuššu, apsasû, anzû, kusarikku, lion, ape, and monkey adorned the public buildings of Babylonia and Assyria; 22 Assyrian kings brought home hyenas, panthers, red-deer, lions, -

19 For the Labbu myth, see T. Lewis, JAOS 116 (1996) 28-47. For the anzû as winged horses in first-millennium materials, note KAR 307:25 (see SAA 3 100), where horses hitched to a chariot are mystically identified with anzû, and AfO 19 107:21, where the anzû-star is identified with the "Horse-star:' Cf. A. George, RA 85 157 n. 122. 21 In the third millennium, at least, the apsasû (Sumerian âb.za.za ) is a real animal that was imported to Mesopotamia from afar (Cooper Curse of Agade 50:21) and is probably to be identified with the Indian water buffalo (see R. M. Boehmer ZA 64 11-13) or the Indian zebu-bull. First-millennium apsasû, on the other hand, are mythological composite creatures that are often represented in palace reliëfs (see CAD A/2 193-94). 22 Note for example, AKA 146:16-147:19; Borger Esarh. 61 15-21, 87 rev. 4; Rost Tigl. III 76:29; TCL 3 58:379; Parpola SAA 1 77, 78, 140. See R. D. Barnett, Assyrian Palace Reliefs, 9, 33-34, for drawings of elephants and monkeys. 20

36

"The Babylonian Map of the World"

monkeys, ostriches, and gazelles with them from their campaigns; 23 and the bašmu, mušlhuššu, girtablullû, and kusarikku are listed among the eleven creatures of Tiamat in Enuma Elish (Ee I 141-46). These beings may have been considered the fauna of distant lands, and as such would have provided a tangible link with the faraway places on the map. 24 Obverse 10'

Line 10' continues the theme of distant lands and distant times, but is concerned with human beings rather than animals. The line lists three famous figures from the third millennium who are associated with far-away places: Utnapištim, Sargon of Akkad, and Nur- Dagan. The first, Utnapištim, is the wellknown hero of the fl ood story that is incorporated into tablet eleven of The Gilgamesh Epic. In this account of the flood, Utnapištim is settled in the distant locale ina pi narati `at the source of the rivers' as a reward for saving the human race (Gilg. XI 193-98). In the Sumerian flood story, the hero Ziusudra is settled in Dilmun (Lambert-Millard Atra-hasis 144:258-60). Both the home of Utnapištim and Dilmun (modern Bahrain), like the nagû, are loeated across the sea from Mesopotamia. The seeond figure, Sargon of Akkad, is the famous third-millennium king who was remembered as a conqueror of the entire world. In terms of the World Map, the empire of Sargon of Akkad would have included the entire central continent as well as the nagû across the marratu. The third figure, Nur- Dagan, the king of Buršabanda, is the antagonist of Sargon of Akkad in The''ccr Tamhari Epic. The Amarna version of the epic (VS 12 193; EA 359) describes the long and arduous journey from Akkad to far away Buršahanda. 25 Obverse 11'

The final line of the obverse preserves two phrases. The first, [... w]ings like a bird, may either describe the heroes in line 10' or serve some other function. In Descent of Ištar 10 (Sladek ID 241) and Gilg. VII iv 38, the dead in the 23 Note, for example, AKA 89:5-90:6, 141:19-25, 201:41-203:46; KAH 84:126-27; and D. J. Wiseman, Iraq 14 34:97-100. For the propaganda value of these beings in royal monumental art, see S. Lieberman, RA 79 88, and M. Marcus, Iraq 49 77-90. 24 For additional literary examples of the beings listed in obv. 5'-8', note the anzû in Lugalbanda and the various recensions of The Anzu Myth. For the kusarikku in the sea in SB Anzu see JCS 31 92:12. Note also the girtablullû that live by Mt. Mau in Gilg. IX ii; and the hyena, panther, red-deer, lion, and ibex that are ineluded among the bilt nammašsê Seri (herd animals of the steppe) in Gilg. VIII (see O. R. Gurney, JCS 8 92:9-11). For kusarikku, see also M. de Jong-Ellis, Fest. Sjöberg 121-35. For mushusšu, see F. Wiggerman, RlA 8 455-62. See also the articles by Wiggerman and A. Green in RlA 8 222-64 (Mischwesen A, B), with bibliography. 25 For The Sar Tamhari Epic, see J. Westenholz, JAOS 103 329 5. For a recent study of Buršahanda/Purušhanda, see A. Kempinski and S. Košak, Tel Aviv 9 99-100.

The Text on the Reverse

37

underworld wear birdlike garments. However, the flood hero Utnapištim, who is granted eternal life, should not be plaeed in the underworld. If the phrase does not describe the heroes, it may refer back to a statement in the broken opening lines of the obverse. In this case, [... w]ings like a bird' could explain that the world map offers a view of the earth's surface that only birds or passengers on birds' wings could have seen. One such passenger could have been another third-millennium hero, Etana, who flies up into heaven on the baek of an eagle in The Etana Epic. The possibility that obv. 11' refers back to the broken opening seetion finds support in the closing phrase manma gerebšina ul i [dû]. This phrase includes a suffix that has no antecedent in the surviving text. It is possible that this missing antecedent is kibrat erbetti (`four quadrants of the earth's surface'), because the closing phrase of the obverse is repeated almost verbatim in rev. 27' after kibrat erbetti in rev. 26'.

The Text on the Reverse The reverse is divided into nine seetions comprising 27 lines of text. Sections two through eight contain standardized descriptions of the second through eighth nagû. Each section opens with an introductory line that identifies the nagû by number and assigns a distance of seven leagues to the nagû with the phrase ašar tallaku `where you go'. A short passage describing the nagû then follows. These descriptions are limited to one or two lines, with the exception of the description of the fifth nagû, whieh occupies eight lines. Only the descriptions of the third, fifth, seventh, and eighth nagû are even partially intelligible, due to breaks in the text. The first and ninth sections of the reverse do not describe nagû. The first section is almost completely lost, but the surviving traces suggest that it introduced the reverse and explained how to identify the first nagû. The word tabrâti `wonders' may be preserved in rev. 2'. The following deseriptions of the nagû relate wondrous features, while rev. 3' `great s{ea?' could refer to the cosmic ocean marratu on the map. Line 4', which may preserve the phrase ina erebtšu 'when he enters it', could have explained how to enter the map at the first nagû. Without an introduction of this sort, it is impossible to correlate the nagû on the map with the descriptions on the reverse. The ninth section (rev. 26'-27') apparently provides a summary of the reverse. This section refers to the kibrat erbetti `four quadrants' (of the earth's surface). The Third nagû (rev. 7'-8')

The third nagû is described in rev. 8' as a place that winged birds eannot reach. This nagû may be a distant desert or a mountainous region. The inscriptions of Assurbanipal describe the desert area of Hararina and Ayalla as "a

38

"The Babylonian Map of the World"

place where there are no steppe animals and the bird of heaven does not establish a nest" (Streck Asb. 70:87-88). In the inscriptions of Samši-Adad V, three mountains in Na'iri are described as "hanging from heaven like a cloud which winged birds cannot pass" (I R 30 ii 47-49). 26 The Fifth nagû (rev. 11/-18')

The description of the fifth nagû is by far the longest, but it is difficult to interpret due to the poor preservation of the tablet. Two possible interpretations of the fifth nagû derive from the ambigous writings MI.LU and ZI.NU in rev. 12' and 13'. First, the nagû may be a region of wondrous trees. If the word MI.LU is interpreted as melû `height', then line 12' may explain that the nagû contained tall trees. Elsewhere, distant lands are noted for their unusual trees. Gilgamesh visits a grove of stone-bearing trees in Gilg. IX v-vi, and the Sumerian epic Gilgamesh and the Cedar Forest speaks of a larger-than-life forest. 27 If MI.LU refers to the height of trees, then ZI.NU in rev. 13' can represent the word zinû 'date frond', and damišu `its blood' in rev. 14' can refer to the sap of the tree, since tree sap as well as animal blood is called damu. For instance, in S umma-Alu, a felled date-palm sheds its "blood": šumma 5i 8gišimmara šap-liš tak-ki-is-ma da-mi iq-qi .. .

CT 41 19:12 (cf. CAD D 79 damu d) If you eut a date-palm down and it sheds sap ... Further support for the identification of the fifth nagû as a region of trees is found in rev. 16' "You/I go seven leagues:' In The Sar Tambari Epic, the road to Buršahanda is blocked by a seven-league region of forested mountains (VS 12 193:28-32). A possible verbal form, nillu `which we climb', in rev. 15' may then refer to an ascent of tree-covered mountains or an attempt to climb the fantastic trees themselves. 28 Second, the nagû may be a region of high rainfall and flooding, because MI.LU could represent milu `flood' and ZI.NU could represent zinnu `rain'. It is difficult, however, to explain damu in this context. 29 The only clues that might help identify MI.LU and ZI.NU are the figures of 840 cubits and 120 cubits in rev. 12'-13'. These measurements, however, probably belong to the missing second halves of the lines, rather than to MI.LU and ZI.NU. 26 For similar phrases, see CAD S/I 52 sadû b); AKA 270 49; Streck Asb. 72:110, 204:11-12, 31-32; TCL 3 16:98; E. Weidner, AfO 6 82:30. 27 For Gilgamesh and the Cedar Forest, see A. Shaffer, JAOS 103 307-11. 28 Note also the seven mountains that Gilgamesh crosses in Gilgamesh and the Cedar Forest and the seven mountains that Lugalbanda crosses in Lugalb. 122:344. 29 Another possibility for rev. 15' is [uš]nillû '[they laid (the dead) to rest' (see CAD N/1 206); this might be in some way related to `blood' in rev. 14'. A further possibility would be to emend rev. 14' mi tam! mi šu ut im mar `its (the Sun's) shine he does not see' and speculate that the fifth nagû is a region of darkness (for mi lam mu as the glow of the Sun, see BWL 126:11); in this ease, the fifth nagû might be identified with the northern nagû on the map. -

-

-

-

-

-

The Text on the Reverse

39

The Seventh nagû (rev. 21'-23')

The seventh nagû is deseribed as the home of horned cattle. Horned cattle may have been included among the fauna of distant lands, together with many of the animals on the obverse. It is probable that rev. 23' `move fast and reach' deseribes the horned cattle, although there may be room for a change of subject at the end of rev. 22'. The Eighth nagû (rev. 24'-25')

The eighth nagû may be located in the far east, where the Sun rises. The verb in line 24', ti-še-'-ru, may be understood as a third-person feminine subjunctive present-future of šêru `to rise early', with an incorrect prefix ti/te9 for Babylonian dialect ta. A reading te9 provides a possible Assyrian form, but the World Map is a Babylonian text (and copy). The noun handuru may refer to a gate of sunrise at the eastern end of the earth's surface, or to part of such a gate. The Sun, Moon, and stars often enter and leave the sky through heavenly gates (see pp. 265-67). Evidence associating handûru with gates is found in the inscriptions of Sennacherib and lexical lists. În a Sennacherib inseription, one of the western gates of Nineveh is named abul handuri:

dškr-ur4 mu-šam-qit a-a-ab šarri abul ha-an-du-û-ri CT 26 32 viii 3 (OIP 2 113) "Sarur, destroyer of the enemy of the king," (is the name of) the handûru-gate. In both Malku II and Explicit Malku III (ZA 43 240:170; CT 18 3 ii 17), a near homonyn andurû is equated with daltu (door). 30 However, there is no proof that andurû and handuru are related, and handuru in the gate-name may have nothing to do with the gate itself. Without the missing first part of the line, it is not possible to determine if šu in bandurišu refers back to the eighth nagû or to a different antecedent. Likewise, the last word ü/šam-[x-x] may be a II- or III-stem main verb or a noun acting as the subject of tišêru. 31 The Ninth Section (rev. 26'-27')

Reverse 26' refers to the kibrat erbetti 'four quadrants' of the earth's surface, but the complete phrase is missing due to a break. Peiser's early copy 30 The phonetic switch of a to h in opening syllables also occurs in words such as

annûlhannû and ammulhammu.

si The last word, if it is a noun, may be restored šam-[ša-tuj `sun-[diskj', with the translation "where the sun-disk dawns at its entrance:' For samšatu in astronomical eontexts, see CAD S/I 334 2 and SAA 8 337. For the sun with the verb šêru in the astronomical omen KUB 37 150:11, see CAD S/2 335 sêru A c. A translation `where storms whirl around?' from CAD S/2 259 še'éru may also be possible.

40

"The Babylonian Map of the World"

shows a full xi sign ( ) after kal, instead of the single stroke (X) now preserved at the end of the line. This HI can be read šâr or taken as the first half of IM, allowing for three possible restorations: kib rat er bet ti šk kal kiššati (š â r) -

-

-

... four quadrants of the entire universe. kib rat er bet ti šâ kal ša[rj}(I[H)mris] -

-

-

... four quadrants of all the wi[nds.] kib rat er bet ti šâ kal ša[r erbetti] -

-

-

... four quadrants of all fo[ur winds.] Parallel passages where the `four winds' refer to the entire earth's surface are found in Shamash Hymn 151-52 and The Tukulti Ninurta Epic (Machinist TN Epic 66 LA 13'). Reverse 27' preserves the phrase qerebšina manma la idû 'which no one can comprehend'. The suffix šina here, as noted earlier, apparently refers back to kibrat erbetti in rev. 26'. Thus the closing section of the text seems to explain that the earth's surface extends for an incomprehensible distance to the north, south, east, and west of Babylonia. -

The Babylonian Map of the World and Distant Places The emphasis on distant places in the texts aceompanying the map suggests that the purpose of BM 92687 was to locate and describe distant regions. The map illustrated where these distant areas were located in relation to familiar locales, such as Babylon, Assyria, and the Euphrates. The obverse related these distant places to familiar literary figures and exotic animals, and the reverse described conditions in the far-away regions. The ancient author's interest in distant plaees refleets a general interest in distant areas during the first half of the first millennium, when the Assyrian and Babylonian empires reached their greatest extents. Other manifestations of this interest include the construction of kirimahu `botanical gardens', filled with the flora of distant lands in Assyria during the reigns of Sargon II, Sennacherib, Esarhaddon, and Assurbanipal; 32 the aforementioned expedition of Shalmaneser III to the sources of the Tigris and Euphrates (Layard ICC 92: 92-93); and the writing of The Sargon Geography, a text purporting to describe the worldwide empire of Sargon of Akkad—all during this same period (see pp. 92-93).

The Babylonian Map of the World, Greek Maps, and Babylonian Geometry Although the Babylonian Map of the World is unique among cuneiform documents, there is textual evidence that Greek geographers developed compa32 For royal kirimahu, see CAD K 406; D. J. Wiseman, in Monarchies and SocioReligious Traditions in the Ancient Near East (= Bulletin of the Middle-Eastern Cultural Center in Japan, Vol. 1 (1984) 37-43.

Greek Maps and Babylonian Geometry

41

rable maps during the middle of the first millennium. Herodotus (Book IV 36 of his history) refers to circular world maps before providing his own description of the inhabited world: I laugh when I see so many men drawing maps of the Earth, as none till now have drawn reasonably, for they draw Oceanus flowing in a cirele around the Earth as if drawn with a compass making Asia equal to Europe, but I myself will explain how big each of them is and how to draw them.

Unfortunately, none of the Greek maps dismissed by Herodotus have survived. One map that Herodotus may have seen was the map of Anaximander (610540), a disciple of Thales. This map and similar antique maps are discussed by the fourth century B.C.E. geographer Agathemenus: Anaximander, the Milesian, the diseiple of Thales, was the first to draw the inhabited world on a tablet ... and the ancients drew the inhabited world as round and Greece lay in the middle, and Delphi (lay) in the middle of it for it is the umbilicus of the Earth ... and swift flowing Oceanus completed a circle around the Earth. C. Muller, Geographi Graeci Minores II 471-72 33

Both the Greek maps described by Herodotus and Anaximander and the Babylonian map on BM 92687 share a belief that the inhabited world was surrounded by water. In Greece, the cosmic ocean Oceanus, like the marratu on BM 92687, was believed to encircle the continental portion of the earth's surface. Both Homer and Hesiod indicate that Oceanus surrounded the inhabited world, and Strabo in Book I.1: 8 of his geography explicitly states that the inhabited world is an island encircled by Oceanus. 34 In Mesopotamian literature, one finds a parallel tradition in The Bilingual Creation of the World by Marduk (CT 13 35-37), which states that Marduk ereated dry land on a raft floating upon and surrounded by the cosmic sea (see pp. 130-31). Nonetheless, BM 92687 does not fully agree with the Greek traditions. First, the compass point at the center of the Greek maps is identified as Delphi, while the compass point on the Babylonian map is unlabeled. The city of Babylon is drawn as a reetangle above the compass point and thus cannot be considered the umbilicus of the Babylonian world. 35 Second, the Greek maps do not include any land areas beyond Oceanus that ean be compared with the nagû on the Babylonian map. Another similarity between the Babylonian and Greek maps is the shared use of geometric shapes to represent topographic features. In the map of 33

Another early Greek map was the map that Aristagorous of Miletus brings to Sparta in Herodotus V:49. This map eonsists of "the entire world, entire sea, all the rivers" drawn on a bronze tablet. Later Greek world maps include the third eentury B.C.E. map of Eratosthenes that is described by Strabo (Book II.1 1); and the second century C.E. maps of Marinus of Tyre and Claudius Ptolemy (see E. L. Stevenson, ed., Geography of Claudius Ptolemy, The New York Publie Library, New York, 1932). 34 Homer Iliad XVIII 607-8, XXI 195-96; Odyssey XI 13, XXIV 11-12; Hesiod Theogony 789-91; Shield of Heracles 314. See also Strabo Book I.1 3, where the geographer notes that Homer indicated that Oceanus encircled the inhabited world. 33 The indentifieation of Nippur and Babylon as `bonds of heaven and earth' (d u r. an.ki = markas šamê u erseti) is never explicitly interpreted in Mesopotamian texts to mean that the eities are placed at the exact center of the earth's surface.

42

"The Babylonian Map of the World"

Anaximander, two coneentric circles and the compass point represent the general outline of the earth's surface, with Delphi in the middle. On the Babylonian world map, various standard geometric shapes, including the kippatu `circle', santakku `triangle', naru `river', nalbattu 'brick mold' (no. 13) and alpi `eye of an ox' (no. 1) 36 represent the various features of the earth's surface. These shapes are also found on BM 15285 (RA 54 132-33), an Old Babylonian tablet illustrating geometric problems, so it apppears that the author of the Babylonian world map was well versed in geometry. Two other Mesopotamian mathematical texts even include illustrations that are similar in design to the sketch on the world map. Böhl Colleetion 1821 (W. Leemans, CRRAI 2 31-35; A. Kilmer, Studies Oppenheim 142-43) presents a geometric problem concerned with a new residential area ringing an older city center. This problem is illustrated by two concentric eircles, just as the continent and marratu, without the rage!, appear as two concentric circles on the map. A second text, BM 85194 i 37-52 (MKT II pl. 5; Studies Oppenheim 144) preserves three concentric circles that illustrate a geometric problem concerned with the area of a city ringed by a diteh and a dike. Another mathematical text even includes the geometric shape "circle in a circle" in a list of standard geometric functions: ki-pa-tam i-na li-bu kip-pa-tim e-pé-ša-am ki-pa-t[am] a'-na ši-na at-he za za am e-pé-ša-am i-na li-bu na-al-ba-tim ki-pa-ta-am i-na li-bu ki-pa-tim na-al-ba-ta-am IM 52916 rev. 18-21 (Sumer 7 third plate following p. 154) -

-

To make a cirele inside a eircle. To make the division of cirele into two equal parts. (To make) a circle inside a brick-mold. (To make) a brick-mold inside a circle. Furthermore, the map and text on the reverse are similar in format to geometric problems that consist of diagrams and second-person procedural instructions. The map can be considered a diagram, and the text on the reverse repeats the phrase ašar tallaku 'where you go'. Thus it is possible that geometric conventions, as well as cosmographic traditions, influenced the development of The Babylonian Map of the World. 36 For the geometric shape `eye of an ox', see Sumer 7 137:12. The shape of the region labeled mountain on the world map (no, 1) is identical to the shape of ox eyes on reliefs such as those in R. D. Barnett, Assyrian Palace Reliefs, pl. 36.

Chapter 3

The Flights of Etana and the Eagle intO the Heavens Introduction The Etana Epic tells the story of Etana, a king of Kish, who is described in The Sumerian. King List as sipa lu an.šè ba.e 11 .dè 16 kur.kur mu.un. gi.na `a shepherd who ascended to heaven, who organized the lands' (AS 11 80:16-18), I an eagle, and a snake. Near the end of the preserved portion of the text, Etana and the eagle fly up into heaven. The account of their flight provides information eoncerning the geography of the heavens and the appearance of the earth's surface when viewed from above. The Etana Epic is known from Old Babylonian recensions, from both Babylonia and Susa, and from Middle-Assyrian and Neo-Assyrian recensions.' 1 This same tradition is also known from the bilingual myth of the "Seven Sages" (E. Reiner, Or n.s. 30 2:1'-4'); the Late Babylonian omen BRM 4 13:33: summa(BE) tiranu (š à. n i g i n) kima(g i m) eri (t i8) mušen amût (BÀ) ut de-ta-na šarru šC ana šamê e elû (e ll) 'If the "coil" is like an eagle, it is the omen of Etana, the king who aseended to heaven'; and a passage in a poem about early rulers where Etana is identified as Entena: [me].e men.te.n[a lulgal.e lu an.sè bi.in.è.dè (Sumerian Version) B. Alster, ASJ 8 4 B H 4; Emar 767:12 me.e men.t[e.na lugal.e 16.an.šè bi.in]. ^ en1 . [d]è

a-le-e m[e-to-n]a ša [a-na samêe e-lu-u]

(Bilingual Version) Emar 767:12 Where is Etana, the king, who ascended to heaven? The poem about early rulers is at least as old as the Old Babylonian period (see M. Civil, Aula Orientalis 7 7 no. 767). For an etymology of the name of Etana, `he who went up to heaven', see AS 11 80-81. 2 For the Akkadian "Series of Etana" in literary eatalogues, see W.,G. Lambert, JCS 16 66 VI 11; Kramer AV 314 K. 13684+ 5; Bezold Cat. 1627 20. Although no Sumerian examples of Etana have been identified, the story of Etana and the Eagle's flight to heaven, at least, must have eirculated in the third millennium, because Etana's ascent to heaven is recorded in The Sumerian King List, and a hero (probably Etana) is drawn on an eagle's back in Old Akkadian cylinder seals (see n. 20). See also Kinnier Wilson Etana 27-28.

43

44

The Flights of Etana and the Eagle into the Heavens

The Neo-Assyrian is by far the most complete version, but major portions of the epic, as well as the conelusion of Etana, are not available in any recension. The most complete study of Etana is the 1985 edition by J. V. Kinnier Wilson in The Legend of Etana. In this edition, Kinnier Wilson offers transliterations and translations of tablets that have been identified as part of The Etana Epic, as well as a new reconstruetion of the plot (pp. 5-16). Since 1985, a new Italian edition has been published by C. Saporetti (Etana; Palermo: Sellerio, 1990), and new translations of the epic into English have been offered in Dalley Myths 189-202 and Foster Before the Muses 437-60. An earlier 1931 edition by S. Langdon is found in Babyloniaca 12 1-56. 3

The Etana Epic The flights to heaven oceur late in the preserved portion of the epic. Long before the flights of Etana and the eagle, the Old Babylonian and Neo-Assyrian recensions of Etana open with prologues that recount the descent of kingship from heaven. The prologue to the Neo Assyrian recension (Kinnier Wilson Etana 82-85) mentions Etana and his city, Kish, so it may be assumed that the prologues relate the descent of kingship following the flood. In The Sumerian King List, the dynasty of Etana at Kish is the first dynasty in Sumer after the great flood (AS 11 76). The first complete section of Etana following the prologues in both the Old Babylonian and Neo-Assyrian recensions (Kinnier Wilson Etana 32; 88), as well as the first surviving passage of Middle-Assyrian Etana (Kinnier Wilson Etana 52), introduces the eagle and the snake. In all three recensions, the eagle and snake swear friendship with Shamash as the guarantor of their oath. Both then bear offspring. After the eagle's offspring are fully grown, the eagle violates the agreement by eating the children of the snake, causing the snake to cry out to Shamash for vengeance. Shamash helps the snake capture his former comrade, and the snake finally throws the eagle into a pit, after ripping off his wings and talons. At this point, Etana reenters the story, pleading with Shamash to provide him with the `plant of birth' (šammu ša aladi), which will apparently enable Etana to bear an heir and so save his line. Shamash tells Etana to find the eagle in the pit and that the eagle will lead Etana to the `plant of birth'. It is not entirely clear what happens next in the Neo-Assyrian recension, but the Old Babylonian and Middle-Assyrian recensions (Kinnier Wilson Etana 40-41; 60-63) refer to a second agreement, this time between the snake and -

3 A bibliography of Etana is offered in Kinnier Wilson Etana 17-19. For a shorter study of Etana's Flight to Heaven, see W. Horowitz, Or 59 511-17, with further bibliography at p. 511 n. 1. See also the relevant entries in the bibliography of C. Saporetti, Etana, 145-50.

The Journey of Etana and the Eagle into the Heavens

45

Etana. In the Middle-Assyrian recension, Etana agrees to rescue the eagle from the pit, and the eagle apparently agrees to help Etana find the 'plant of birth'. The sequence of events after the eagle is rescued is not clear, due to gaps in the text, but it appears that Etana falls asleep and dreams. In both the MiddleAssyrian and Neo-Assyrian recensions, Etana dreams of heaven. The MiddleAssyrian version preserves the name of heaven elâtu 'The Heights' in a dream (Kinnier Wilson Etana 64 I/G:2; 66: 10), and Etana speaks of the gates of heaven when he explains his dream to the eagle in the Neo-Assyrian version (Kinnier Wilson Etana 108 IV B:3-6). Such dreams are also attested in the `Assyrian Dream Book": šumma ana šamê e elû (e„) umu meš-šu ikarrû (k u5) meš

Oppenheim Dreams 311:3 If (a man) ascends to heaven (in a dream), his days will be short. 4 When Etana awakens, the eagle offers to lift Etana into the heavens, and the two comrades continue their quest for the `plant of birth' by flying upward. Eventually Etana and the eagle return to the earth's surface without finding the `plant of birth' in the heavens. It is not clear from the surviving text if Etana ever does manage to find the plant or produce an heir by some other means, although a son of Etana, Balib, is listed as a king of Kish in The Sumerian King List (AS 11 80). In any case, Etana may not have lived long after his return from the heavens, sinee a Neo-Assyrian passage assigned to tablet V speaks of the death and ghost of Etana (Kinnier Wilson Etana 124:4-7). Thus the prophecy of the `Assyrian Dream Book” concerning dreams of ascent to heaven may have been fulfilled.

The Journey of Etana and the Eagle into the Heavens The journey of Etana and the eagle is known from six exemplars of Etana: five Neo-Assyrian exemplars and a single Middle-Assyrian tablet. In

these exemplars, the eagle lifts Etana upward in stages of three leagues. After each league of flight, Etana describes the appearance of the land and sea below to the eagle. These descriptions, with a few exceptions, take the form of couplets, with the first line describing the land and the seeond deseribing the sea. The Middle-Assyrian Account of the Flight

The Middle-Assyrian account of the journey is poorly preserved. The only surviving source for the journey (VAT 10137; Kinnier Wilson Etana pl. 9) preserves only portions of two paired similes. This passage corresponds to Section A 25-38 of the Neo-Assyrian recension journey (see pp. 52-53): 4 Note also Oppenheim Dreams 327:70: summa ilu ana tibbi (š à) samêe erub (ku 4)ma . . . `If a god went into the "heart" of heaven...

46

The Flights of Etana and the Eagle into the Heavens

1'. [me-ta-na a-na šW-šu-ma a] naI [eri mušen izakkar-šu] -1

2'. [ma-a-t] u-mi l[i-mid-da šadâ]

3'. [ù tam-t]u i-tu -ra a-n[a m]e-e-me!-1 e' - [ma]5 4', [šâ-al]-šâ b[e]-ra 5'. [erû mušen a-na ša-š]u-[ma] 6'. [a nam]re ta nal x [ (x) KI.MI ■ ] 7'. [du-gul] ib-ri matu 1 ki-il [ibašši] -

-

-

8'. [su-ub-bi] tam-ta ri-da'-ta-1šâ1 [bit-ri] 9'. [me-ta-n]a 1 a'-[na KLMIN] 10'. [a-n]a er]i[nluPen izakkar(mu)-š[u] 11'. [i-tu-ra matu a-n]a mu-šâ-re šâ nukaribbi(nu.(kiri6 ))-ma 12'. [tam-tu i]-tu-r[a ki]-i mêmes palgim(pa5) ma -

13'. [ ... ] x x [ ... ] KI.MIN era r musent [( , , , 14'. [ ... ] KI.MIN 15'. [(...)] rai na me t[a na (...)] KI.MIN 6 Further Fragmentary Lines Kinnier Wilson Etana -

-

-

pl.

9 vii l'-15'

1'. [Etana spoke t]o [the eagle saying] 2'. ["Lo the lan]d s[tands by the mountain] 3'. [and the Se]a has turned int[o w]ater[s]?' 4'. 5'. 6'. 7'. 8'.

(When) he lifted [him] up [a thi]rd league, [The eagle spoke to h]i[m] [to] Etana . [ . saying] ["Look] my friend at how the land [seems]. [Gaze] at the sea, [peer at] its sides?'

9'. [Etan] a t[o him] 10'. [to the] e[ag]le spoke: 11'. ["The land has turned int]o the garden of a gardener. 12'. [The sea has b]eco[me li]ke the waters of an irrigation ditch?' 5

Lines 2'-3' are restored on the basis of p. 52, Section A 29-30. Cf. pp. 61-62.

The Journey of Etana and the Eagle into the Heavens

13'. [...]

..

[...1

47

6

14'. [ ... ] the eagle [(...)] 15'. [(...)] to Eta[na (...) 6 Further Fragmentary Lines The Neo-Assyrian Account of the Flight

The Neo-Assyrian account of Etana and the eagle's journey is much better preserved than the account on the Middle-Assyrian fragment. The five NeoAssyrian exemplars preserve two sections of text comprising approximately 115 lines. Yet many uncertainties remain. No single exemplar preserves the entire journey, and it is not certain how the surviving exemplars are to be arranged.

The Number of Flights in the Late Recension. In his 1985 edition of Etana, J. V. Kinnier Wilson reconstructs two late-recension journeys of Etana into heaven in Tablet IV and suggests that Etana and Eagle might have flown upward as many as four times (Kinnier Wilson Etana pp. 10-12). However, an alternative arrangement of the surviving exemplars could indicate that Etana traveled to heaven but once. For example, in 1931 S. Langdon utilized four manuscripts' to reconstruct a single journey of six leagues' distance into heaven (Babyloniaca 12 43-52): three leagues from the earth's surface to the Heaven of Anu, and three additional leagues upward above the Heaven of Anu. Although Kinnier Wilson's edition of Etana utilizes materials that were not yet available to Langdon in 1931, it is probable that Langdon's understanding of Etana's flight to heaven is more reliable. In the half century or so between editions of Etana by Langdon and Kinnier Wilson, joins were made to two of Langdon's four sourees and one totally new exemplar was identified. 8 In his edition, Kinnier Wilson utilizes these materials to reconstruct two separate journeys from the earth's surface to heaven: Langdon's original journey of six leagues with a descent to within three cubits (nikkassu) of the earth's surface (= Kinnier Wilson Etana 108-18), and a second journey of three leages from the earth's surface to the Heaven of Anu (Kinnier Wilson Etana 118-21). The disagreement between the two editions derives from a problem concerning K. 3651+8578 (Kinnier Wilson Etana pls. 26-28 = Source N; collated by the author). Both fragments of the tablet were known to Langdon but were not s Kinnier Wilson Etana 68-69 reconstructs lines 13'-15' as the arrival of Etana and the Eagle at the gates of heaven. This reconstruction, however, cannot be proved by the surviving signs. 7 K. 8563, Rm 2,454, K. 3651, Rm 522. 8 Rm 2,454 is now K. 19530 + Rm 2,454 + 79-7-8, 180 (= Kinnier Wilson Etana source M); K. 3651 is now K. 3651 + 8578 (= Kinnier Wilson Etana souree N). The new exemplar is 83-1-18, 489 (= Kinnier Wilson Etana source L). I have collated all of these tablets.

48

The Flights of Etana and the Eagle into the Heavens

yet joined. Although the join is certain, it is not possible positively to identify which side of the joined tablet is the obverse and which is the reverse. Only the upper edge of what appeared upon collation by me to be the flatter side of K 3651+8578 is preserved. Kinnier Wilson interprets this side to be the obverse of the tablet, perhaps because obverse sides of tablets are usually flatter than . the reverse sides. This side, which preserves 38 consecutive lines of text, will hereafter be identified as "Side B." "Side B" (Photo, Kinnier Wilson Etana pl. 32a). "Side B" preserves three leagues of aseent (Kinnier Wilson Etana 116:30-38) from the Heaven of Anu before breaking off. Here Side B duplieates parts of Kinnier Wilson Etana manuscripts M and O. The events at the the height of three leagues above the Heaven of Anu, as well as Etana and the eagle's subsequent descent, then continue in manuscripts M and O (Kinnier Wilson Etana 116:42-118:51). First, Etana and the eagle descend three leagues to the level of the Heaven of Anu. 42. MO 43. MO

My friend I will not (continue) going go up to heaven. Set the way, let me go back to my city

44. M 45. M

One league, he dropped him. The eagle went down and caught him on his wing.

46. M 47. M

A second league, he dropped him. The eagle went down anSeet

48. M 49. M

A third league, he d[ropped hi]m. The eagle went down and cau[ght him on his wing] Section B: 42-49 (see p. 57; Kinnier Wilson Etana 116-18)

wing.

In the next couplet, Etana and the eagle continue their flight downward to a point three cubits (nikkassu) above the ground (qaqqaru): 50. M 51. M

om the ground [he dropped him]. [The eag]le went down and ca[ught him on his wing.] . Sect see p. 57; Kinnier Wilson Etana 118)

Lines 50-51 must represent an additional stage of Etana and the eagle's descent below the altitude reached by the pair in lines 48-49, because the surviving portion of line 51 duplicates the corresponding portions of the previous three couplets: Until thrim-da-har-šu erû nrusen im qu ut ma im-da har su .. . -

-

-

-

-

Section B 45, 47, 49 (see p. 56; Kinnier Wilson Etana 116-18) d[a bar gu . im-d[a-bar-šu [era]muen im qu ut ma im -

-

-

-

-

-

.

Section B 51 (see p. 56; Kinnier Wilson Etana 118)

The Journey of Etana and the Eagle into the Heavens

49

If so, lines 50-51 must occur below the Heaven of Anu, since Etana and the eagle already reach the level of the Heaven of Anu by the end of line 49. In this case qaqqaru in Kinnier Wilson Etana 118:50-51 must be identified as either a level of the heavens below the Heaven of Anu or, more likely, the earth's surface itself. 9 In any case, Etana and the eagle's ascent from the earth's surface must begin before the intact upper edge of "Side B" since "Side B" opens' with Etana and the eagle already present in the Heaven of Anu:

Side A

"Side A' (Photo Plate VI). "Side A' (Kinnier Wilson Etana pl. 28 Rev. [1] [2]) is poorly preserved. The bottom edge survives, but the top edge is missmissin ing,gaproximately 10 lines interrupts two short fragmentary secseetio tionst.per section of "Side A' preserves the beginnings of 11 lines of an ascent to heaven. The lower portion preserves only the first signs of five 9 In ZA 45 (1939) 77-78, W. von Soden suggests that qaqqaru in the fourth couplet ("Section B" 50-51) may be the surface of the Heaven of Anu. This suggestion is no longer tenable, although heavenly qaqqaru are attested in astronomical texts as regions in the sky around the sun, stars, and constellations (see p. 166; CAD Q 121 5b; F. Rochber RochbergHalton,ih.11, 88).

The Flights of Etana and the Eagle into the Heavens

50

lines above a horizontal ruling, followed by traces of at least three additional lines below the ruling. Kinnier Wilson identifies the first line below the horizontal ruling as a catehline (Kinnier Wilson Etana 120 n. 37a). If this is correct, "Side A' must be the reverse of Tablet IV and the journey to heaven on the upper portion of "Side A' must be restored as a second journey to heaven as proposed by Kinnier Wilson Etana 118-21. However, it is likely that "Side A' is the obverse of Manuscript N and that "Side B" is the reverse. "Side A' duplicates materials from the obverse of Rm 2,454 (joined with K. 19530 + 79-7-8, 180 = Kinnier Wilson Etana Manuscript M), while "Side B" duplicates materials from the reverse of Rm 2,454+. Langdon, in faet, utilized this arrangement in Babyloniaca 12 47-50 to reconstruct "Side A' and the obverse of Rm 2,454 as the obverse of Tablet IV, and "Side B" and the reverse of Rm 2,454 as the reverse of Tablet IV Furthermore, the three or four lines of text below the horizontal ruling at the bottom of "Side A' need not be a eolophon, because horizontal rulings do occur within the main text of other Akkadian literary tablets from Kouyunjik. 10 If "Side A' is the obverse and "Side B" is the reverse as proposed here, then the eagle and Etana fly up three leagues to the Heaven of Anu on "Side A', and then fly an additional three leagues above the Heaven of Anu on "Side B", before descending towards the earth's surface on manuscripts M and O after "Side B" breaks off. In this ease, "Side A' simply becomes one more source for

'° Note, for example, Kinnier Wilson Etana pl. 31 K. 13859; pl. 21 79-7-8, 43 (from Kouyunjik); Thompson Gilg. pls. 3, 16, 18, passim; CT 15 49 + CT 46 6, CT 46 10-13 (Atrahasis); CT 15 39-40, CT 46 36 (Anzu).

Section A

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

K K KL KL KLM L KLM KL 13 14

rdi e?*ta?*-na* [pa-a]-šu* ipuš(dù*) [a-ma ana erimaenizakkar-šu] 13

ribl [ri û šab r]a a ilu ršu1 u rma1 [šu ut ta] -

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

né-reb šcî bab da-nim den-h[l tic] rdl é- [a nu-uš-ke-nu [a-ha-meš a-n]a-ku u at-[ta] né-reb šâ bah dsin dšamaš dadad u 1dištar1 ni-ba-'-rtiii 14 [nu-uš-ke-nu a-ha-meš] a-na-ku u at-[ta] a, mur bita ap ti l [a aš šu] °a4kunukku (k i š i b) [ x x x ] 1s dalat(ig)'-[s]a a-sa-kip-ma e-tar-ba-c-d-[šu] -

-

-

-

The transliteration of Section A:1 is based on my collation. M obv. 1': KI-x [ .... Perhaps to be read qé deb -

... .

The Journey of Etana and the Eagle into the Heavens

51

Etana's original ascent to the Heaven of Anu from the earth's surface, eliminating any second journey into heaven. When "Side A' is taken as the obverse, the journey of Etana and the eagle to heaven can be reconstrueted as follows:" The Neo-Assyrian Texts construction Symbol—Museum Number

Copy in Kinnier Wilson Etana 12 Sections/Lines

K K. 8563 obv. L BM 83-1-18,489 M K. 19530+Rm 2,454+ 79-7-8, 180 N K. 3651 +8578

plate 23 plate 22

O

Rm 522

obv. rev. plates 26-28 "Side A' "Side B" plate 23

A 1 - 18 A 3 - 12 A 5 - 44 B 31 - 56 A 34 - 44 54'- 61' B 1 - 38 B 25 - 43

11l' Both Foster (Before the Muses 457-59) and C. Saporetti (Etana, 100-115) also follow Langdon's old reconstruction of the texts (i.e., Side A obv. - Side B rev.). A third ararrangement of the text is offered by Dalley (Myths 196-200). " For Langdon's hand-copies, see B . 8-11. The fragment 79-7-8,43 is no longer joined to K. 8578 as on Babyl. 12 pl. 8. For 79-7-8, 43, now see Kinnier Wilson

Etana pls. 20-21.

Section A

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

K K KL KL KLM

Etana [spo]ke [to the eagle saying:] "My fri[end] this god show[ed (me) a dream] We passed through the entrance of the Gate of Anu, Enli [1 and] E [a.] We bowed down [together, m]e and yo [u.] We passed through the entrance of the Gate of Sin, Shamash, Adad, and Ištar. 6. LM [We bowed down together] me and yo[u.] 7. KLM I saw a house [which had n]o window, the seal [ ... ] 8. KL Pushing in the door, I went inside,

The Flights of Etana and the Eagle into the Heavens

52

9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24.

KLM ciš-bat ina l'zb-bi ištetet [ x x x ] KL [ aga (a g a)' ru- us - su - na- at 1 kal (d ù)' [zil mé (m ù š)-[ša x x x ] KLM gakussû (g u . z a) nadat(š u b) -ma AN x [ (x) i] t- tak - ba- [šu] KLM ina šap-la giskussî la-b[e-e i-r]ab-[bi-su] KM at-be-ma a-na-ku la-be-1 e1 [ .. . KM ag-gal-tam-ma ap-ta-ru-u[d .. . KM erûmušen ana šâ-šu-ma ana de-ta-na [iz-zak-kar-šu] KM ib - ri šu- pa-a x [ .. . KM al-ka lu -uš-ši-ka-ma a-na S'amêe [ .. , KM ina muhhi (u g u) irti (g a b a) ia šu-Icun [irat-ka] ina muhhi na-as kap-pi-ia šu-kun [kap-pa-ka] M ina muhhi i-di -ia šu-Icun [i-da-ka] M ina 'muhhi irti-šu iš-ta-kan [irat-su] M ina muhhi na-as kap-pi-šu M-ta-kan ka[p-pa-šu] M ina muhhi i-di-su iš-ta-kan M M û.-dan-nin-ma ir- ta-kas bi-lat-su M išten eri béru (danna) û - ša- q[I- šû -m]a erûmuen a-na šci-šu-ma a-na de-ta-na iz-zak-k[ar-š]ti M du-gul ib-ri ma-a-tu ki-i i ba a[š] ši M su-ub-bi tam-tum i da te šâ bit [r] i M M ma-tum-me-e li- mid-da šadâa tam-tum i-tu-ra a-na me-e-me-e-ma M M šand a beru û šâ ^ qi šû ma erûmue" a-na šâ-šu-ma a-na de-ta-na iz-z[akl-kar M du-gul ib-ri ma-a-tum ki-i i - ba- âš- ši M MN ma-a-tum me-e-met -[el -ma MN šal-šâ béru û šâ qi šû ma MN erûmušen a-na šâ-šu-ma a-na de-ta-na iz-[zak-k]ar MN du-gul ib-ri ma-a-tu ki-i i b[a âš š]i MN tam-tum i-tu-ra a-na i-ki šâ lunukar[ibbi(nu.ki [ri6 )] MN iš-tu e -lu -ü a-na šamêe ša du al -[nim] MN ina bab da nim den-lfl u dé-a i- ba-'-[ti] MN [e]rûmuknde-t[a-n]a a-ha-meš uš-[ke-nu] MN ina bah dsi[n(30) dšamaš dadad u dištar:] MN rerrimu šen de-ta-n[a a-ha-meš uš-ke-nu]

25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. MN

-

-

e-mur [bita ap-ti la-aš-šu]

Gap of 10-12 lines

g['sdalta]

The Journey of Etana and the Eagle into the Heavens

9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44.

KLM A single [ ... ] was sitting inside. KL Magnifieent with a tiara, her entire [count]enance [ ... ] KLM A throne was set up, .. [ . s] ubmit [ted themselves.] KLM Beneath the throne lio[ns lab/ do[wn.] KM When I rose up, the lions [ KM Then I woke up, began to tremb [le .. " KM The eagle spoke to Etana [saying] KM "My friend, clear are the . [ KM Come let me lift you to the heaven [ KM On my chest place your [chest.] M On my wing feathers plaee [your hand.] M On my side place [your side.]" M On his chest he placed [his chest.] M On his wing feather he placed his h[and.] M On his side he place his si[de.] M He secured and bound his load. M After he had lif [ted hi]m one league; M The eagle addressed Etana: M "Look my friend, what is the land like? M Gaze at the sea, peer at its sides" M "Lo, the land stands by the mountain. M The sea has turned into waters." M After he had raised him a seeond league; M The eagle spoke to Etana saying: M "Look my friend, what is the land li[ke?]" MN "Land (and) wa[ter]s!" MN After he raised him a third league; MN The eagle spoke to Etana sa[yin]g: MN "Look my friend, what is the land l[ik]e?" MN "The sea has turned into the ditch of a gard[ener.]" MN After they ascended to the Heaven of A[nu.] MN They passed through the Gate of Anu, Enlil and Ea. MN [The eagle and Etana together bow[ed down.] MN At the Gate of Si [n, Shamash, Adad, and Ištar,] MN The eagle and Etan [a together bowed down.] MN He saw [a house which had no window, h] e pushed in the d[oor] Gap of 10-12 lines .. .

.. .

.. .

53

The Flights of Etana and the Eagle into the Heavens

54 54'. 55'. 56'. 57'. 58'. 59'.

N N N N N N

[xxxx]x[... x[xxx]x[... x[xx]x[...

mahar [dl [xx] x [...

ilanu 11eš ma a

[

ša nin šu nu' [ -1

-

-

.

.. .

Three or four further fragmentary lines Beginning of N "Side B"

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

N N N N N

6. N 7. N

8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

N N N N N N N N N

17. N

18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

N N N N N N N NO

1 d*' šamaš ? 1 belu (e n) pi-i' -š [u .. [x(x)]x [at-m] i I6 is-su-1 ri ' [ .. . [ x x ] -si-ku-ma [

.

15

[...

.. .

[mim]-mu-a šu ûi qab b[uû .. . [m]im mu-û a-na-ku a-qab-b[u-û .. . ina pi-i dšamaš qu-r[a-du .. . at-mi is-su-ri [ .. .

erû'nusen pi-i-šu i-pu-š[am-ma ana de-ta-na izakkar-šu] [mil-na-a tal-li -ka [ .. . de-ta-na pi-i-šu i-pu-š[am-ma ana erîmuš en izakkar-šu] 1 ib' ri id nam 1 ma' [ . . l ku- li -man'-n[i [b]il-ta [ .. .

. .

le'ziibma [... l issuru (m u š e n)'? in si-t[i-šu?

.. .

1 ina umi (u d)' -š ü ki-a-am [ [e-d]en-nu-ia-ma l[u .. . [l]u-bi-la-ku-um-ma [ .. . [i]l-lik-ma e-[ ..

[e] rû"'°šen is su da [ .. . ul i- ba-aš-ši [ .. . -

-

al-ka ib-ri [ .. . it-ti diš-tar belet [ ina li -it diš-tar belet [ .. .

15 The eagle cannot be speaking here because the eagle answers this speeeh in lines 9-10. The photograph on Kinnier Wilson Etana pl. 32 seems to preserve an UD sign at the start of the first line, suggesting the restoration [d] lšamaš'. 16 As written, [at-m]i should be a writing for atmu (young animal) rather than atmû (speech); cf. section B 8.

The Journey of , Etana and the Eagle into the Heavens

54'. 55'. 56'. 57'. 58'. 59'.

N N N N N N

[

] [ [...] [ .[..].[ Before . [ ] . [ . The gods .. Their equal [ ...

...

...

[ .. .

.. .

Three or four further fragmentary lines Section B 1. N

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N NO

Shamash', the lord spo[ke to the eagle saying] "[.].[ [The you]ng of the bird [ [..] [What]ever he sav[s [Wh]atever I say'[ At the command of her[oic] Shamash [ The young of the bird [ ..." The eagle spo[ke to Etana saying]: "[W]hy have you come [ ... ?" Etana spok[e to the eagle saying]: "My friend please give me [ ... ] Show m[e [The b]urden [ Abandon [ Will the bird? by [his] depar[ture? At this time thus [ ... ] [I al] one wi [ll [Le] t me carry you [ [... h] as gone and . [ .. [Has] the eagle then turned back [ ... ? Is there no [ ... ? "Come my friend [... With Ištar the lady of [ Before Ištar, the lady of [ ...

.. .

...[.,.

.. .

.. .

.. .

.. .

.. .

.. .

.. .

.. .

55

The Flights of Etana and the Eagle into the Heavens

56 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56.

ina muhhi idi -ia [su-ku-un ida-ka] NO ina muhhi na-as kap-pi-i[a šu-ku-un kap-pa-ka] NO ina muhhi idi-šu iš-ta-kan [ida-su] NO ina muhhi na-as kap-pi-su [iš-ta-kan kap-pa-šu] NO is-ten béru [û-ša-qi-štii-ma] NO MNO ib-ri nap-lis-ma ma-ra-tú' k[i-i me-ni-i i ba âš ši] MNO šâ ma-a-ti i-ha-am-b[u-ub ... -ša] 17 MNO ù tam-tum rapaštumtnm ma-la tar-ba-si MNO ša-na-a bér[u ti-fa-cif-fa-ma] MNO ib-ri nap-li -is ma-a-tu ki-i [me-ni-i i ba âš ši] MNO it-tur ma-a-tu a-na mu-sa-re-e x [ ... ] MNO ù tam-tum rapaštutu ma-la bu-gi-in-ni MNO sal-ša beru [ti-š]a-1qi'-šii-ma MO ib-ri nap-li -is ma-a-tu ki-i me-n[i-i] ^ i' ba âš ši MO MO MO MO M M M M M M M M M M M M M

ap-pal-sa-am- ma ma-a-tu u[l] a-na-tal it tam-turn rapaštumtum ul i-šeb-ba-a rii ib-ri ul e-li a-na šamêe 18 šu-kun kib -su lu -ut-rtal '-lik a-na ali-ia

-

na a a -

-

iš-ten béru is-su-ka-âš-šum-ma erûmnšen im-qu-ut-rna im-da-bar-šu iva kap-pi-šu ša-na-a beru is-su-ka-âš-šum-ma era mušen im -qu - ut-ma im - da- har- šu vina kap [ p]i šu šal-ša beru is-s[u-ka-âš-šum-m]a erûmusen im-qu-ut-ma im-da-ba[r-šu iva kap-pi-šu] [n]ik-kàs a-na qaq-qa-ri [is-su-ka-aš-šum-ma] [era]mušen im-qu-ut-ma im-d [a-har-šu iva kap-pi-šu] [ x (x)] x erûmušen i - tar- rak/haš-šal šâ e - t[a- na? .. . [(x)] xx [ [xxx]xkata[ ... [xxxx] xxx [... ...

17 AHw 316 and Kinnier Wilson Etana 116:32 restore this verb i - ha- am - mu[š] with the meaning `to be reduced to one-fifth size'. This restoration seems unlikely because hamasu in the I/1 stem oceurs only once, in an Old Babylonian letter with the meaning 'to do something fifth' (see CAD H 61), and the same root in the II/1 stem means `to increase fivefold'. It is improbable that something in the land would appear to beeome larger when viewed from above. 18 Here the present-future tense must indicate future or continuous aetion, because the eagle and Etana are already flying in the heavens,

The Journey of Etana and the Eagle into the Heavens

26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53.

On my side [place your side.] NO NO On my wing feathers [place your hand.]" On his side he plaeed [his side.] NO On his wing feathers [he placed his hand.] NO [After he raised him up] one league: NO MNO "Look my friend, the land, what is it like?]" MNO "The [...] of the land murmu [rs] MNO and the broad sea is as small as an animal-pen?' MNO [After he raised him up] a second league: MNO "Look my friend, the land, what is it [like?]" MNO "The land has turned into a garden . [ ... ] MNO and the broad sea is as small as a trough:' MO [He lifted him up a third league: MO "Look my friend, the land, what is it like?" MO "I am looking, but I do not see the land, MO and my eyes do not feast on the broad sea. MO My friend I will not (continue) going up to heaven. MO Set the way, let me go back to my city" M One league, he dropped him. M The eagle went down and caught him on his wing. M A seeond league, he dropped him. M The eagle went down and caught him on his wing. M A third league, he d[ropped hi]m. The eagle went down and cau[ght him on his wing] M Until three cubits from the ground [he dropped him]. M M [The eag]le went down and ca[ught him on his wing.] M [ .. ] the eagle stretched out/crushed M The ... of Et[ana Three further fragmentary lines

57

58

The Flights of Etana and the Eagle into the Heavens

Summary of Sections A and B. Section A opens with Etana describing a dream. In the dream, Etana and the eagle pass through the entrance of the Gate of Anu, Enlil, and Ea, and the Gate of Sin, Shamash, Adad, and Ištar. At these gates, the two bow down. Once inside the Gate of Sin, Shamash, Adad, and Ištar, Etana enters a house where he sees a goddess on her throne. Lions lie beneath the throne. This goddess must be Istar, because the eagle suggests that he and Etana visit Ištar in Section B 24-25, and the goddess Ištar is often associated with lions. For example, lions flank Ištar's throne in the cella of Ištar of Uruk in a Nabonidus inscription just as lions flank the godesses' throne in Etana. I9 dištar uruk" ru-ba-a-ti sir-ti a-ši -bat at-ma-nu hurasi ša ša-an-da -ti sibitti (7) la -ab-bu

MVAG 4 75 iii 11-15 (VAB 4 274; cf. 274 iii 30-276 iii 33)

Ištar of Uruk, the magnificent princess, resident of the golden cella, who drives seven lions. The dream ends at this point, with Etana telling the eagle that he awoke and trembled with fear. In the following passage, it is clear that the eagle has understood the meaning of the dream, for he immediately proposes to lift Etana up into the heavens. Etana then elimbs onto the eagle's baek and together they fly three leagues upwards. 20 At the height of three leagues, Etana and the eagle enter into the Heaven of Anu through the Gate of Anu, Enlil, and Ea, and the Gate of Sin, Shamash, Ištar, and Adad. 2I Here the gap interrupts. At the start of Section B, someone other than Etana or the eagle is speaking. The traces suggest that this speaker is Shamash, the guarantor of the oath between Etana and the eagle. In any case, the speaker mentions Shamash and the 'young of the bird', so it appears that this speaker is reminding the eagle of his treaehery. The eagle then turns to Etana and says, "[W] hy have you come [ ..." (Section B 10), perhaps because the 'plant of birth' is not to be found at this level of the heavens. Etana then pleads with the bird (Section B 11-22), and the eagle agrees to carry him further upward (Seetion B 23-27). However, here in Section B, Etana and the eagle do not reach a higher level of the heavens, after their three league flight (Section B 30-41). Instead, Etana tells the eagle in Sec19 Note also BBR 51:7; and the epithet of Ištar labbatu (`Lioness') (CAD L 23); cf. Kinnier Wilson Etana 10 n. 19. 20 For a recent study of probable representations of Etana on the eagle's back on Old Akkadian cylinder-seals, see Marie-Paule Baudot in OLA 13 1-10. See also S. Langdon Bab. 12 44-45 n. 5; Dailey Myths 189. 21 It is tempting to identify the Gate of Anu, Enlil, and Ea, and the Gate of Sin, Shamash, Ištar, and Adad as seven gates rather than two gates, by analogy with the seven gates of the underworld. However, the gates of the underworld are usually listed individually, as in Inanna's Descent 125-60, rather than in groups of three gates and four gates. Kinnier Wilson's restoration of KAR 302 4' [adi I]V.kAIvt i na hab da-nim [den la u dé a i ba 'u ni] 'For the fourth time they passed through the gate of Anu, Enlil, and Ea' (Kinnier Wilson Etana 1 2) is highly improbable. -

-

-

-

.

-

-

The Geography of the Heavens in Etana

59

tion B 42-43 that he no longer wants to ascend to heaven. Lines 40-41 explain why Etana has changed his mind: ap-pal-sa-am-ma ma-a-tu [u] l a-na-tal ù tam-tum rapaštumt°n' ul i-seb-ba-a 1i'-na-a-a

I am looking, but I do not see the land, and my eyes do not feast on the broad sea. In line 41, the verb šebû is used in an idiomatic phrase with inan `eyes' meaning 'to be able to see'. A parallel phrase is found in The Gilgamesh Epic where šebû is used in the expression `to be filled with sleep', meaning `to be able to sleep': Thompson Gilg. X v 28 Nit ta to ab ta ul iš bu u pa nu u a My face was not filled with sweet sleep. -

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Thus Etana apparently abandons his flight because he can no longer see the earth's surface below and becomes frightened. After Etana and the eagle abandon their flight to heaven, the two begin to descend. The descent is accomplished in five couplets. In the first line of each couplet, the eagle is said to drop (nasaku) Etana, and Etana is referred to by the accusative pronominal suffix. Parallels are found in Summa Alu (see CAD N/2 17 nasaku 2) where birds nasaku 'direct objects'. In the first three couplets (Section B 44-49), Etana and the eagle descend three leagues, reaching the level at the start of Section B. In the next couplet, they descend to a point only three cubits above the gaqqaru; apparently the surface of the earth (Section B 50-51, see p. 49). Finally, in the fifth couplet (Section B 52-53), the eagle either stretches out, perhaps to allow Etana to disembark from his wings, or crushes something because Etana and the eagle have fallen from such a great height.

The Geography of the Heavens in Etana The preserved portion of The Etana Epic provides a partial description of the Heaven of Anu. In Section A, Etana and the eagle enter two gates to this heaven: the Gate of Anu, Enlil, and Ea, and the Gate of Sin, Shamash, Adad, and Ištar. The Gate of Anu, Enlil, and Ea must be the outer gate, because Etana and the eagle pass through this gate first. In Section B, Etana and the eagle, as understood above, fly into a portion of heaven above the Heaven of Anu. Although the Heaven of Anu is located above two lower levels of heaven in KAR 307 and AO 8196 (the levels of the stars and Igigi), the author of The Etana Epic does not refer to the starry sky or an intermediate heavens between the sky and the Heaven of Anu. Nevertheless, it may be noted that Etana's journey to the Heaven of Anu is accomplished in three paired similes, just as there are three levels of heaven in KAR 307 and AO 8196.

The Flights of Etana and the Eagle into the Heavens

60

The Heaven of Anu in Etana Section A 40-44, and probably also Section B 1-25, recount events in the Heaven of Anu. In Section A, Etana and the eagle pass through the two gates leading into the Heaven of Anu. Etana also dreams of these gates in Section A 3-6, The preserved portion of Section A and the opening part of Section B offer no additional information concerning the topography of the Heaven of Anu, but Section A 7-12 indicates that Ištar possesses a house in this heaven. Etana and the eagle apparently reach this house in Section A 44. The Region above the Heaven of Anu

22

In Section B 30-43, Etana and the eagle fly three leagues upward to a point where the land and sea below disappear from sight. This level of heaven must be above the Heaven of Anu, because Etana and eagle can still see the earth's surface below when they arrive at the level of the Heaven of Anu in Section A 35-41. Although the Heaven of Anu is the highest level of the universe in KAR 307 and AO 8196, there is no reason that there cannot be open spaee above the Heaven of Anu, just as there is space between the earth's surface and lowest heavens, and between the three heavens themselves. The remoteness of the region above the Heaven of Anu from the earth's surface may explain why the earth's surface is not visible from a height of six leagues. The Descriptions of the Land and Sea During their ascent to heaven, Etana describes the appearance of the land and sea to the eagle at intervals of one league. Five descriptions are preserved in the Neo-Assyrian recension, and two are preserved in the Middle-Assyrian recension. The five Neo-Assyrian paired similes occur in sets of three (Section A 25-38) and two (Section B 30-37). In Section B, the eagle does not describe the appearance of the land and sea after the third league of flight above the Heaven of Anu. Instead, Etana tells the eagle that the land and sea have disappeared from view. The preserved portions of the Middle-Assyrian descriptions are very similar to parts of the Neo-Assyrian descriptions. The first Middle-Assyrian description (lines 2'-3'), as preserved, is almost identical to the first Neo-Assyrian deseription. The second Middle-Assyrian description (lines 1 l'-12') and the fifth Neo-Assyrian description both compare the land with a `garden' (mušarû/ musarû). Thus any cosmographic information in the Neo-Assyrian descriptions also reflects earlier cosmographic beliefs. Not one of the couplets deseribing the land and sea is fully preserved, so the imagery intended by the author is not completely clear. Nonetheless, the descriptions seem to be based on two images. First, the sea is described as encircling the land just as the cosmic ocean marratu encircles the central continent on the World Map. Second, the author describes the land and sea in terms of agri22

For the region above the Heaven of Anu, see W. Horowitz, Or 59 515-17.

The Geography of the Heavens in Etana

61

cultural features (gardener's diteh, garden, animal pen, ir ri gation diteh, trough) as the earth's surface appears to decrease in size when viewed from the heights of three, four, and five leagues. These descriptions may derive from birds'-eye view field plans depicting similar topographic features (see F. Thureau-Dangin, RA 4 pls. 24-26; K. R. Nemet-Nejat, Studia Pohl series maior 11). 23 The Neo-Assyrian descriptions, together with the corresponding portions of the Middle-Assyrian descriptions, are examined below. Description I: One League (Section A 27-30). The paired description of the land and sea from a height of one league is closely related to the previous two lines where the eagle invites Etana to look at the land and sea below. du-gul ib-ri-ma ma-a-tu ki-i i ba â[š] ši su-ub-bi tam-tum i-da-te-šâ ma-tum-me-e li-mid-da šadela tam-tum i-tu-ra a-na me-e-me-e-ma

"Look my friend, what is the land like? Gaze at the sea, peer at its sides:' Lo, the land stands by the mountain. 24 Thesaturndiow. In line 28, the eagle invites Etana to look at the sides id itu of the sea. In both "Nebuchadnezzar King of Justice" (CT 46 45 rev. iv 8, Iraq 27 6) and a Mari letter (ARM 3 15:26, cf. CAD I 12-13 2), the idu of a river is the river bank, so the 'sides' of the sea should be the seacoast. Thus, the descriptions of the land and sea in lines 29-30 should refer in some way to the borders of the land, mountain, and sea. The verb emedu in line 29 indicates that the land is bordered by the mountain. Elsewhere, emedu in the G-stem occurs in literature in the context of weapons, mountaintops, treetops, and so on, that lean against (reach as far as, touch) heaven (see CAD E 139c). This same verb in the N-stem is used with the sense of two areas that border one another (see CAD E 145-46 7a), so line 29 apparently describes the land (matu) and mountain as adjacent to one another. Akkadian `land' (matu) often refers to flat plains in contrast to mountains (see CAD M/1 418-19 2a, b). Thus, in line 29 Etana from a height of one league is apparently able to see the general outline of the geography of Mesopotamia and Syria: a flat plain (the Tigris and Euphrates valleys) bordered by the mountains of Iran, Anatolia, and the Lebanon.

For further references to maps and field plans, see chapter 3 nn. 8-9. This reading of the signs follows that of S. Langdon in Babyl. 12 46, which was accepted by E. Speiser in ANET 118 n. 47 and CAD S/I 51 1. For other readings of the signs and interpretations of the line, see Kinnier Wilson Etana 112:29, Dalley Myths 200; Saporetti, Etana, 101 n. 28. 23 24

62

The Flights of Etana and the Eagle into the Heavens

The word me -e - me -e - ma, which describes the sea both here and in the Middle-Assyrian recension, only occurs once elsewhere, also in Etana, but in a broken context: Kinnier Wilson Etana pl. 12 rev 8'

tu]m? me - e - me - e - ma [ ...

Thus the deseriptions of the sea provide the only eontext for understanding this word. Since me -e -me -e -ma describes the sea, it is likely that the word is in some way related to the word mû 'water'. Unless me -e -me -e -ma is a completely new word, it is probable that it is a variant writing for mamu `waters', which is a cognate of mû. In the inscriptions of Sennacherib mamu is written with a final e vowel in the genitive case ma -a-me (see CAD M/1 202), so it is not impossible that memema could be written with two e vowels, 25 If this interpretation of mee - me - e - ma is eorrect, then the deseriptions of the land and sea in Section A 2930 explain that the earth's surfaee appears to consist of the waters of the sea, mountains, and a plain, when viewed from a height of one league. On the World Map, the region labeled `mountain' lies between the rectangle marked Babylon (on the Mesopotamian plain) and the cosmic ocean marratu beyond. Description II (Section A 34). The desc ri ption at the height of two leagues is preserved only in manuscript "M" and occupies only one line instead of the usual couplet. Nevertheless, the line may refer to both the land and the sea: 26 ma - a- tum me - e - me! - [e] - ma

land (and) wat [er] s !. Description III (Section A 38). At the level of three leagues, the Neo-Assyrian recension only describes the sea: tam - tum i - tu - ra a- na i- ki šâ'2nukar[ribi](nu.ki [ri6 )] The sea has turned into the ditch of a gard [ener.]

The image of the sea as an iku is clear. One of the meanings of iku is 'boundary ditch'. `Boundary ditches', along with boundary lines (misru) and boundary stones (kudurru) marked the borders of fields. 27 The cosmic ocean, which marked the boundary of the central continental portion of the earth's surface, was in effeet a cosmic boundary ditch marking the borders of the land. The deseription of the immense cosmic ocean as a boundary diteh probably reflects the small size of the sea when viewed from a height of three leagues. Later in Sec25 Note also the West-Semitic word mema in Amarna texts (see CAD M/2 17). Another possible reading is me e me e ma `waters, waters!' 26 Kinnier Wilson Etana reads ma a tum me e li[m] ma on the basis of his sign T- (1tJim) in pl. 24:24. The original and Langdon's copy (Babyl. 12 pl. 10:24) clearly preserve ME. 27 For boundary ditches, lines, and stones surrounding fields, see CAD I 67 iku 1. For iku filled with water, see Bauer Asb. 2 p. 78 K. 7673:8. Note also CAD I 68 for Sumerian boundary ditches (e) filled with water. -

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

63

The Geography of the Heavens in Etana

tion B, the sea is compared to a buginnu `trough', which holds even less water than a ditch. Although the Neo-Assyrian recension omits a description of the land, a parallel eouplet in the Middle-Assyrian recension completes the paired simile: [i-tu-ra matu a-n]a mu-šâ-re šâ nukaribbi(nu.(kiri6 ))-ma [it tam-tu ii-tu-r[a ki]-i mê'nes palgim(pa5)-ma

Kinnier-Wilson Etana pl. 9 vii 11' 12' -

[The land has turned into the the garden of a gardener. [The sea has b] eco [me li] ke the waters of an irrigation ditch. This couplet seems to explain that the sea encircles the land just as canals and boundary ditches often surrounded fields and gardens. The fourth and fifth paired deseriptions utilize the word mala (as large as, as small as) to describe the size of the sea. In these descriptions, the small size of the sea becomes important since the sea will soon completely disappear from view. In the fourth paired description, the sea is said to be as small as an animal pen: Description IV (Section B 32-33).

šâ ma-a-ti i-ham-b[u-ub... -šW] it tam-tum rapaštumtum ma-la tar-ba-si The [...1 of the land murmu [rs] and the broad sea is as small as an animal pen. The image of the sea as a tarbasu in Section B 33 offers the best evidenee in the paired descriptions that the sea was believed to ring the land. Among the various meaning of tarbasu are (1) the `halo' that rings the Moon and (2) `animal pens' that are completely surrounded by fences. In a Nabopolassar inscription, tarbasu occurs in an epithet of the wall of Babylon Imgur-Enlil, demonstrating that the word can refer to fences, as well as the area enelosed by fences: tuk-šu dan-nu e-di-il pi-i mat a-a-bi tarbasu (t ù r) sum-du-lu ša di gi4 gi4 ki-sal-lu pal-ka-a ša da-nun-na-ki -

F. N. H. Al-Rawi, Iraq 47 4:12-14

(Imgur-Enlil) the mightly shield which bars the enemy land, the broad "sheep-fold" of the Igigi, the wide courtyard of the Anunnaki, Thus the image of the sea as a tarbasu may explain that the sea 'fenced' in the land. 28 The image of the sea as the fence of an animal pen may fit perfectly with the description of the land in the previous line. In Section B 32, the land may emit the sound of the verb hababu. In the II/1 form, this verb is often written

64

The Flights of Etana and the Eagle into the Heavens

with the double consonant bb replaced by mb as in the I/1 present-future iham-b[u-ub] above. 29 This verb has the general meaning 'to make a soft sound'. With running water, the verb means 'to gurgle or murmur', with birds 'to chirp', with snakes 'to rattle', and with cattle 'to low'. In the late bilingual hymn SBH 69, bulls low in their tarbasu just as the land seems to give off a murmuring sound in the tarbasu of the sea in Etana: [gu4 .z]u tùr.ra gu hé.mi.ni.ib.du iI [a] l- pi - ka ina tar- ba- su lu šâ ah bi ib

SBH 69 p. 121: 19-20 I will make your bulls low in the pen.

A soft lowing sound in Etana may be compared with the loud bull-like roar of the land in Atrahasis: [m]a- tum ki - ma li - i i -ša- ab- bu

Lambert-Millard Atra-basis 72:3 [The land was bellowing like a bull. It is possible that the author of Etana is eontrasting the soft, distant murmuring of the land that Etana hears high above the earth's surface with the loud hustle and bustle of human activity heard by those below. 3o Descripton V (Section B 36-37). it-tu-ra ma-a-tu a-na mu-sa-re-e x [ .. . ù tam-tum rapaštut° ma-la bu-gi-in-ni

The land has turned into a garden . [ .. . and the broad sea is as small as a trough. Section B 36-37 seems to refer only to the small size of the land and sea one league beneath the point where the earth's surfaee disappears completely. In this context, the image of the land and sea as a garden and a trough is reasonable, because gardens are very small plots of land and troughs hold very little 28 Sueh imagery may be related to an identifieation of the earth's surface as the `animal pen of mankind' in a š u. i l a to Ištar: at ti ma ina tibbi tarbasi(tur) ni ši lu up nu is di hu tu kan ni Ebeling Handerhebung 60:13 (Ištar) you bring poverty and prosperity into being in the "animal pen" of mankind. A parallel may be found in the Sumerian literary work Lahar and Ašnan 35-36 where amaš.kù.ga `holy sheepfold' occurs in a cosmologieal context. Note, however, the new reading of Ebeling Handerhebung 60:31 by K. Veenhof in RA 79 94-95; cf. W. Mayer, Or 59 477; CAD S/2 146b. 28 See AHw 301 hababu D 3) for the verb in the H/1 stem with the writings u haam ba bu, ii he em bi bu, and tu ha am bab. 3° Compare JNES 33 199:14, where a city emits the sound of a kettle-drum (lilissu); ZA 43 309:3-5 where the "face of heaven" seems to hababu; and the phrase habib niše in a broken context in ACh Supp. Ištar 33:46. -

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

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-

Journeys to Heaven in the Adapa Epic and Nergal and Ereškigal

65

water. Yet, the image of a trough surrounding a garden is diffIcult to understand if this paired description is intended to describe the sea ringing the land. Journeys to Heaven in the Adapa Epic

and Nergal and Ereškigal The Akkadian literary works The Adapa Epic and Nergal and Ereškigal preserve accounts of journeys to the heavens that may be compared with the journey of Etana and the eagle. 3' In all three accounts, travelers journey to the heavens, but in Adapa, and Nergal and Ereškigal, the travelers do not fly up to heaven, so heaven and earth must be physically connected in some way. In Adapa, Anu summons Adapa to heaven in order to explain why he has broken the wing of the south wind. Adapa arrives at a gate of heaven named "Gate of Anu" by traveling along the harran šamê `Path of Heaven': [har]-Ira'-an1ša'-me-e ra'-[nia ša-me-e

tic še es bi is su ma

a-na ša-me-e i-na e-le-fu a-na ba-ab da-ni i-na te4-he-šu i-na ba-a-bu da-ni ddumu-zi dgiz-zi-da iz-za-az-zu i-mu-ru-šu-ma '°a-da-pa il-su-tic na-ra-ru

VS 12 194: 37-40 (Picchioni Adapa 118: v 45-50) 32 He made him take the [Palth of Heaven, and he went up to heaven. When he went up to heaven, drew near to the Gate of Anu, Tammuz and Gizzida were standing at the Gate of Anu. When they saw Adapa, they cried out "help!" In Adapa, as in Etana, a gate lies at the entrance to heaven. In Adapa, the gate is named 'Gate of Anu' and is guarded by two gods. The gates to the heavens in Etana do not seem to be guarded. The 'Path of Heaven', which leads to the 'Gate of Anu', is not mentioned in any other known text, so the route and earthbound terminus of the path are not known. 31 For an ascent of Shulgi to heaven after death in an Ur III economic document and related matters, see W. Horowitz and P. Watson, ASJ 13 410-16. For further diseussion of Shulgi's ascent and the presence of other early heroes in heaven, see W. Hallo in Fest. Tadmor 158-59; D. Foxvog, Fest. Hallo 103-8, and SpTU 2 8:9 for the ascent of the apkatlu Utu-Abzu in Bet Meseri. "The passage is from the Amarna exemplar of Adapa VS 12 194 (= EA 356), which is now also edited by S. Izre el in A. E Rainey (ed.), kinattatu fa darati: Raphael Kutscher Memorial Volume (1993) 51-57. A new edition of Adapa by S. Izreel will appear in the Mesopotamian Civilizations series. For Sumerian Adapa, see A. Cavigneaux and E Al-Rawi, Iraq 55 92-93.

66

The Flights of Etana and the Eagle into the Heavens

In the Sultantepe version of Nergal and Ereškigal,33 Nergal, Kakka (the vizier of Anu), and Namtar (the vizier of Ereškigal) travel along the simmelat šamami, which leads from the outer gate of the underworld to the Gate of Anu, Enlil, and Ea at the entranee to the heavens: 34 1 e' la a dnam-tar 1âr! -kat!' S'sim-me-lat ša- m[a - mi] ana rbab' danim sien lil u dé-a ina ka -M-d[i]

[^ a ni]m t^ 4 en lil u dé a 1 e1 -mu-ru-šu-ma [mi-n]a-a tal-lak dnam-tar -

STT 28 v 13'-16' (cf. 42'-45', AnSt 10 122-24) Namtar ascended the length of the Stairway of Hea[ven.] At [his arrival at the Gate of Anu, Enlil, and Ea, [An]u, Enlil, and Ea saw him and (said) ["W]hy do you come Namtar?" The Uruk version of the text identifies this heaven as the Heaven of Anu (SpTU I 1 iii 9'), so both Etana and Nergal and Ereškigal place "The Gate of Anu, Enlil, and Ea" at the entrance to this heaven. 35 It is not clear from Nergal and Ereškigal if the simmelat šamami is a ladder, such as the traditional view of "Jacob's ladder" in Genesis 28:12, or an inclined stairway, sueh as those found on ziggurat temples, since simmeltu has both meanings (see CAD S 273-74). A possible parallel in an Old Babylonian extispicy prayer, where a simmeltu leads to a door of heaven, may solve this problem: dšamaš te-ep-to-a-am s%ik-ku-ri da-la-at ša-me-e te-li-a-am s%mi la at uq-ni-im el-li-im

Starr Baru 30:9 // RA 38 87:10-11 Shamash, you opened the bolt of the doors of heaven. You ascended the stairway of pure lapis. In the Old Babylonian prayer, it is probable that the simmeltu of pure lapis was a staircase that was paved with blue lapis-colored bricks rather than a lapis lazuli ladder. Thus the simmelat samami in Nergal and Ereškigal is probably also a staircase. 36 33 Three reeensions of Nergal and Ereskigal are known. The Sultantepe recension (STT 28; edition by O. R. Gurney in AnSt 10 105-31), an Amarna recension (EA 357 VAS 12 195), and a late Uruk recension (SpTU I 1), For a study of Nergal and Ereskigat with a German translation, see M. Hutter, Altorientalische Vorstellungen von der Unterwelt: Literar- und religionsgeschichtliche Überlegungen zu "Nergal und Ereskigal" (= Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis 63; 1985), 34 Note also the following passages that refer to the simmetat samami: AnSt 10 108:16'; 110:53'; 118:26'; 126:18. The simmelat šamami does not occur in the preserved portions of the the Amarna or late Uruk sources for Nergat and Ereskigal. 35 For same sa danim 'Heaven of Anu' restored in the Sultantepe reeension, see AnSt 10 110:52'; 118:24'; and 124:37'. In the Amarna version, this heaven is called samê sirûti `majestie heavens' (EA 357:8). 36 Oppenheim Man and Nature 640 and CAD S 274e explain simmelat šamami in this context as mountain ranges or ridges that ascend to heaven.

Chapter 4

The SargOn GeOgraphy

Two first millennium tablets, the Neo-Assyrian tablet VAT 8006 (KAV 92 pl. 1) and the Late Babylonian tablet BM 64382+82955 (AfO 25 pls. 12 + pls. 4-5 here), preserve portions of a text describing the empire of Sargon of Akkad that has been assigned the modern name The Sargon Geography. In the text, the empire of Sargon is said to include the `totality of the land under heaven' (SG 31) and 'the lands from sunrise to sunset, the sum total of all the lands' (SG 43). Thus, Sargon's empire apparently encompasses the entire earth's surface. As such, The Sargon Geography provides important evidence for the geography of this cosmic region. The Neo-Assyrian exemplar VAT 8006 has been known for more than 80 years. It was found in 1910 at Assur among a group of literary tablets (see A. Grayson AfO 25 57). The obverse was published as KAV 92 in 1920. In 1952, E. Weidner published a new copy of the obverse together with an edition of the text (AfO 16 1-24). The reverse of VAT 8006 has never been published because its surface has worn away, leaving only traces of signs. The Late Babylonian tablet was first identified as a duplieate of VAT 8006 in the 1970s. The fragment was published with a new transliteration and translation of the whole text with notes by A. Grayson (AfO 25 56-64). Subsequently, the fragment BM 82955 was joined to BM 64382. A new edition of the entire Sargon Geography is offered below.' = AfO 16

1 For further bibliography, see AfO 25 56 n. 2, AfO 16 2 n. 4; see also D. Frayne, AOS 74 89-90; G. MeEwan, RA 74 171-73; D. Potts, JNES 41 279-88; W. Heimpel, ZA 77 66-68; E Roehberg-Halton, AfO Beih. 22 203; E. Herzfeld, The Persian Empire, 204-37; E. Quintana, NABU 1992 no. 92. BM 64382 + BM 82955 is from Sippar (see E. Leichty et al., Tablets From Sippar, 2.123.

67

The Sargon Geography

68

Edition of the Sargon Geography A. VAT 8006: KAV 92, AfO 16 p1.1; photo AfO 25 p. 58 (all obverse only); collated. B. BM 64382: (AfO 25 pls. 1-2, photo AfO 25 pp. 58-59) + BM 82955 (pl. 4, p. 402 here). For a photo of the reverse only, see pl. 5, p. 403.

1. A- 1

[ultu (t a) x x ] x ti-tur-ri ba-zaki šâ pat (z à) harran (k a s k a l!) me-luh-rhakii

KUR

2. A- 2 3. A- 3

[adi (e n) šadi (hu r. s ag) q š ereni KUR ha-nu-fi ki 9 šarranu (lug al. e. n e) [ultu sadî(hur.sag) Oerljni adi an-za-anza-an ki KUR subartu(su.bir4) ki2

4. A- 4

[ x x na-š] i ! bi lti (gun) ba-bfl igisê (igi . s 6.) e a-na šarru-ken (lugal.gi.na)

5. A- 5

[šâ nišemeš/matdti ka]l kiš šâ ti i bé lu š[i n]a ti : i bé lu šu nu ti

6. A- 6

[ultu x x x ] 1Ki' šâ kišad(gu) id puratti(buranun) ki radi' sü-up-ri KUR má-r1 1 ' [ultu x x x adli ia-bu-še-e KUR ra-pi-quki [ultu x x ] x adi ma[š]-katn-šarri KUR aššurki [bi-rit] [Id] idiglat (idigna) it id puratti (buranun)ki [ultu x-x-] ha-a adi lu-ub-di KUR ar-rap-haki bi-rit idza-ba-an e-li-i it šap-li- i ki ultu it-ru-na adi si-nu KUR lul lu bi iki ultu eb-lâ adi rbit'-na-rni-ib1 KUR ar-ma-ni-iki ultu hi-iz-za-at adi abul (ka.gal)-dadad(10) KUR ak-ka-di-iki ultu abul-fdl [adad] adi hal-la-baKUR gu-ti-umki ultu hal-ht-baki adi KUR niq-quki ultu šur-bu adi ib-rat KUR dér(Bàn.AN) ki ultu ib-rat adi iš-pa-tum KUR lagaš (IR.BUR.LA) ki ult[u .. . ultu k[ul-l]a-bi adi tâmti (a.ab.ba) nišume s ku itu' um ta ki ultu k[ul-la-bi .. . ultu PA adi ma-an-gi-suki (erasure) KUR hurim(NE.RU) ki

7. A- 7 8. A- 8 9. A- 9 10. A-10 11. A-11 12. A-12 13. A-13 14. A-14 15. A-15 16. A-16 17. A-17 18. A-18 B- 1' 19. A-19 B- 2' 20. A-20 B- 3'

ultu KI [ . .

2 The writing an-za-an for Anshan (both here and in SG 40, 45 with a phonetic eomplement za-an) is standard in Neo-Assyrian royal inscriptions (see AOAT 6 20) and common in first-millennium Babylonian texts (see RGTC 8 24).

The Sargon Geography

69

Translation

2.

[From .. ] . the bridge of Baza at the border of the road to the Land of Meluhha, [to the] Cedar [Mountain] is the Land of Hanu; 9 kings.

3.

[From the Cedar Mou] ntain to Anšan is the Land of Subartu.

4.

[ ... bea]rer of tribute and earrier of gifts to Sargon

5.

[ who] ruled [the lands/peoples of the who] le world.

6.

[From ... ] . on the bank of the Euphrates to Supri is the Land of Mari;

1.

7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

[from ... t] o Iabuše is the Land of Rapiqu; [from .. ] . to Maškan -arri is the Land of Assyria; [between] the Tigris and Euphrates; [from .. ] .. to Lubdi is the Land of Arrapha; between the Upper and Lower Zab; from Uruna to Sinu is the Land of Lullubi; from Ebla to Bit-Nanib is the Land of Armani; from Hizzat to Abul-Adad is the Land of Akkad; from Abul-[Adad] to Hallaba is the Land of Guti; from Hallaba to Zumirini is the Land of Niqqu; from urbu to Ibrat is the Land of Der; from Ibrat to Išpatum is the Land of Lagash;

19.

from Kullabi to the Sea are the Kutumta-people;

20.

from . , . to Mangisu is the Land of Hurim;

The Sargon Geography

70

(ak)-ka-di-iki

21. A-21 B- 4'

ultu damru (HI.GAR) ki adi [si] pparki (erasure)

22. A-22 B- 5'

ultu tir-ga-an šâ gu-ti-um adi û-zar-i-lu -luki KUR e-da-ma-ru-uski ultu tir-[ga-an .. . ultu û zar i lu luki adi bit-dsin-na KUR ma-ri-iki

23. A-23 B- 6'

KUR

ultu HI,[GAR .. .

ultu ü [za]r i lû rlu' [

rultu' bit-dsin-na adi maš-kân-šapirki

ma-al-gi-iki

24. A-24 B- 7'

ult[u bit] dsinki a[di

25. A-25 B- 8'

[ult]u šhr-sf-naki adi me-e mar-ru-udItû KUR e- mut - ba-lumki ul[tu šà]r-dsinki ad[i me-e mair-r[u-ud/tn] F KUR 1 [e-mut- ba-lumki]

26. A-26 B- 9'

[ul]tu bit-hub-baki adi ra-ha-bu-utki KUR Hsi-i]n-rnak° u[ltu bil t-hub-baki adi ra- ha-buk' : ra-ka-bu KUR à si rinkil ful]tu bit-gaba-gal adi e ri ia baki [ x x ]-x-aki ru/10' ultu bit-ga-ba-gal adi e-ri-ia-ba : ultu tt r-gu adi Id- kur -raki KUR m[u-ut]-ra'-bal k' [ultu] tar-gurkü adi Id- kur-raki KUR mu-ut-a-balki ultu abul-ršušant(MÙS!.ERIN!)ki adi gim-Dtrs? KUR amurrû (mar. d ui) ki šâ pat md(tablet é) -riki KUR šu-me-ri ki [ultu a]bul-šušan(MÙS.ERIN!)k` adi gim-dub KUR amurrûki ša mâ-ri rki' KUR šu-me-ri ù ak-ka-di-i 120(2 US) beru(danna) ši-id-du ultu zibbat(kun) id pu-rat-ti adi pat KUR me-luh-ha mci-gan! (text ri) ki [120 ber]u ši-id-du ultu zibbat idpurattirki' adi me! luh harki'

27, A-27 B-10' 28. A-28 B-11' 29. A-29 B-12' 30. A-30 B-13'

KUR

[mi d-gan-nark°

32. A-32 B-15'

kiššati(šâr) e-nu-ma mat si-hi-ip šamê e ina ru pu lu uk ki šci [ x x x sI a šarru-ken šàr kiššati (k i š) e-nu-ma mat si-hi-ip ršamêe' ina-a-rù I'd-pal-llk talbit(sil a.dagai.!a) -sa im-SLIM [pu- lu -ulc-ki -ša] 1 ü1 -pal-rlik talbit' -sa im-šu-uh

33. A-33 B-16'

40 béru tal-bit KUR mar-ha-šiki [ , .. , ] KUR mar-ha-šilo

34. A-34 B-17'

1 šu-ši beru tal-bit KUR tuk-rig ki [ .... ] KUR tu k-riš ki

35. A-35 B-18'

90 beru tal-bit KUR elami (e l a m . m a) ki

36. A-36 B-19'

180(3 us) beru tal-bit KUR akkadi (uri [ ] [KUR 'akkadi ki

31, A-31

kt šarru-kén(1ugal.gi.na) šàr -

B-14'

[

.

.

kurelami ki

The Sargon Geography

21.

from Damru to Sippar is the Land of Akkad;

22.

from Tirgan of Gutium to Uzarilulu is the Land of Edamarus;

23.

from Uzarilulu to Bit-Sin is the Land of Mari;

24.

from Bit-Sin to Maškan-apir is the Land of Malgi;

25. 26.

from ar-Sin to the "waters of Marrud"/bitter waters is the Land of Emutbal; from Bit-Hubba to Rahabu is the Land of Isin;

27.

from Bit-Gabagal to Eriaba [ is the Land of .. ] ..;

28.

from Turgu to "Mountain-River" is the Land of Mutiabal;

29.

from "the Gate of Susa" to Gimdub is the Land of Amurru at the border of Mari, the Land of Sumer and Akkad;

30.

120 leagues is the length from the "tail of the Euphrates" to the border of Meluhha, Magan;

31.

that which Sargon, the King of the Universe, when he conquered the totality of the land under heaven,

32.

delineated borders for and measured the eircumference of.

33.

40 leagues is the circumference of Marhaši.

34.

60 leagues is the cireumference of Tukriš.

35.

90 leagues is the circumference of Elam.

36.

180 leagues is the circumference of Akkad.

"

71

72

The Sargon Geography

37. A-37 B-20'

120 (2 us) beru tal-bit KUR subarti (s u . b i r4) ki ] rKUR' subarti ki [

37a. B-21'

[

38. A 38

120(2 us) bru tal-bit KUR amurrî((mar).dû)ki ultu la-ab-na-nu adi (tu-ruk-ki-i) ki tu ruk k]i ik [ 90 beru tal bit KUR lul lu bi i ((tu ruk ki iki)) [ /ul1 -lu -bi-iki 90 bru tal bit kuran-za-anza-an ki

-

B 23' -

39. A 39 -

B-22' 40. A-40 B-24'

] Arr.x.DU.DU ki

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

a]n ki

[

a na kù ki kàp ta raki matatu(k u r, k u r) eberci (b a l . r i) [Omit/ eliti (an.ta) 42 . A-42 tilmunki mâ-gan-naki matatu eberti tâmti šapliti(ki.ta) 43. A-43 it matatu ultu sit d ša[mši] (du tu.rè!',[a]) adi ereb dsamsi(dutu.š u.a) B rev. 1' ] x [ .. dUTUsû].rA' 43a. B rev. 2' 1 sihirti(nigin)ti matnti kalisina(k ur,dù.a.bi) sa sarru-ken sàr kissa[ti](ki[š]) adi 3-4ti qat-su ik-šu!-du 44. A 44 B rev. 3' ... ] [ ] adi 3 Mt qat su ik su du 45. A 45 ultu an za anna a" ki adi m[is] ri iki sur rru'ki sur-sâ takki m]i is r[i i ki] sur-ru-urki sur-sa-takki B rev, 4' Pfki adi x [ x x ] ki lu lu rptic' unk' mâ-gan-naki 46. A-46 gab la ] ku-ku-x-x mâ gan naki B rev. 5' 47. A-47 [b]a-zaki U [RU' x (x)] ki it KUR tic-da-ni-iki mi-sir tu-me-ra ]x KUR tic-d[a-ni] _Fil ki mi- i r s1,b-me-ri ma-la ba-§u-ti. B rev, 6' i-iaki Bte-em-ma-n 48. B rev. 7' [ ma-] m-bu-rù' [k]i x-x-uki te-ma-a : tit te-em-ma-ni-iak' ] -x-ki-iar ki ti -d [u-u] m-mu gi in nir tum 49. B rev. 8' [ 50. B rev. 9' [ m]u-un-ni ki x [A]N-D[U-D]U ki là ptic u : tit ha la puliki a-mur-r[u] -1 u' sab (é r i n) sûti(IMù l u) i° 51. B rev. 10' ni-[ x x x s i , s â) lul lu bu cg sa pan nu tu 52. B rev. 11' ul ri di kal ku ta al la 53. B r ha bi-gal-bat-i2 i-gal -bat-üki sâ a-sar-§tc-nu ru-qu 54. B rev. 13' ha-b ZER/ QUL-[i]a-Clski sur gi ni ia Cds ki 55. aki ma-ra-cg-ma-anki ZER/QUL-[i]a-Clsk' n-da nis s hatti(gidri (gitilsi(gis) d ri) i( iš) is-ri 56. B rev. 15' ha a- kii-ia-â ia âsk'ki ša sa pa ni ti-x- lu -riki gigišhatti ha-an

41. A 41 -

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-a

-d

-k

-

-

s

-

g

73

The Sargon Geography

37.

120 leagues is the circumference of Subartu,

38,

120 leagues is the cireumference of Amurru from the Lebanon to Turukki.

39.

90 leagues is the circumference of Lullubi.

40.

90 leagues is the circumference of Anšan.

41.

Anaku and Kaptara, the lands across the Upper Sea,

42. 43,

Dilmun and Magan, the lands across the Lower Sea, and the lands from sunri [se] to sunset, the sum total of all the lands,

44,

which Sargon, the King of the Unieer[se], conquered three times.

45.

From Anšan to Egypt, Tyre, Suršatak;

46.

Byblos to . [..] . Lullupun, Magan;

47.

Baza . [...] . and the land of Udani at the border of Sumer, all that there is. [ . Mo] ab .... Tema/Til Temania. E[do]m, Ginnirtum. [ M]unni, , Lapu/Til Halapu. . [ .. ] , ... [A]klitû, Amurru, the people of the South, Lullubu, the people of the North, who do not know construction. The Lower Akriyaš, Maršuna, Angi, all of Kutalla, Hanigalbat, whose locations are distant, Duda, Marašman, Zer/Quliyaš, Surginiyaš, Handakiyaš, which is before ... , the seepter, the just wood. 3

48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56.

-

3

For scepters described as 'just', see CAD H 154 battu d.

74

The Sargon Geography

57. B rev. 16' kar-zi-naki ša muh-hi -ša u-rru'-[uh-š]u-nu i-n[a] nag-la-bi bd-e-ru 58, B rev. 17' i-kil-ti išati(izi) šâ la i-du-rû1 qé-bé-ra (g a) lapti (še,sa.a) š[a a-kal t]i-nu-ri 59.B rev. 18' a-kil šeri(uzu) a-kil lab-b[a-šu-n]u la i-du-d kar-as-su-nu asiriš an-nu-tum [ .. , . ] mihrit(gaba.ri) tâmti 60.B rev. 19' 61.B rev. 20' a-tar-ma x [ .... ] ia rpurattikil 62.B rev. 21' su-ta-a-a lul-lu -b[i- .. . 63. B rev. 22' ü lab bi i[š .. . 64. B rev. 23' gu-ti-um [.. 65.B rev. 24' kil x[,. , A]N.KI 4 Left Edge: 4 Here A]N.KI may be for `[, , . Heav]en and Earth' or represent the two final signs of a line that the scribe of BM 64382+ has accidentally omitted. One possibility is SG 17, which closes BAD.AN ki (Der).

VAT 8006 and BM 64382+ represent variant texts of The Sargon Geography, BM 64382+ rev. 2' (SG 43a) is not preserved in VAT 8006, and the lands

listed in lines 38-40 occur in a different sequence in BM 64382+ than the sequence in VAT 8006. Other variants include the alternate Sumerian writings š â r and k i š for kiššatu in line 31 and the addition of Akkad at the end of BM 64382+ in SG 29. The inclusion of glossenkeils in both exemplars (SG 5, 26-27, 48, 50) demonstrates that the two exemplars themselves (or the tablets they were copied from) were compiled from more than one source. The Reverse of VAT 8006

It is nearly certain that the reverse of VAT 8006 duplicated the reverse of BM 64382+ because surviving traces in VAT 8006 rev. 2-6 duplicate portions of BM 64382+ rev. 7'-11'. 6 A number of other traces are preserved, but no other phrase can now be restored with certainty. E. F. Weidner in Af0 16 4 also identified a few signs near the bottom of the reverse of VAT 8006 and suggested that they form part of the colophon of the tablet: 6 The surviving traces indicate that A rev. 2-6 = B rev. 7'-11' (SG 48-52). A rev. 2: m]a ni iak [i ... for Til Temania; A rev. 3: ... u]m- u gi nir rtim?' ... for Edom, Ginnirturn; A rev. 4: ... mu-u[n ... for Munni; A rev. 5 ... rak-li'-t[u x x x x x ] a-mur-ru. A rev. 1 does not appear to be represented in B just as B rev. 2' (SG 43a) is not preserved in A.

The Structure of The Sargon Geography

57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65.

75

Karzina, which is above it, 5 whose ha[ir-style] is chosen with a razor, devoured? by fire, who do not know burial. Meat-eaters, milk (and) roasted-grain eaters, whos [e insi] des do not know oven-baked bread, bellies (do not know) beer. These are the. [ ] facing the Sea It exceeds . [ ] the Euphrates The Suteans, Lullube [ans . . He? dresse [d Gutium [ .. . .. [... ..

5 For sa muhhi in border deseriptions, see CAD M/2 175 s.v. mu/3,4u b; Grayson Chronicles 284:12; Sachs-Hunger Diaries II 496 C 14'. For parallels to the second half of the line, see AHw 122 bêru 2b.

.1 I Ltupšarru (a. b a)

URU aš-šur [ .. . rab tupšarri mes [ ... ] a scribe of the city of Assur [ .. . ... ] the chief of the scribes [ . ... ] . . ItI

AfO 16 4:36-37

.

However, no discernible dividing line separates this portion of VAT 8006 from the main body of the tablet, so the above lines may belong to the main text rather than a colophon. Without a colophon, it is impossible to determine whether The Sargon Geography is a single-tablet work, a multi-tablet work, or perhaps even one segment of a longer series that detailed the geographies of early empires.

The Structure of The Sargon Geography The Sargon Geography is composed of lists of place-names interspersed with materials relating to the reign of Sargon of Akkad. At present, four sections of place-names can be identified. The first two sections (SG 1-3, 6-30) list areas with their borders. The third seetion (SG 33-42) lists lands with the talbitu 'circumference' of each land and the lands across the seas. The fourth seetion (SG 45-59) lists both place-names and the names of peoples, such as the Amorites and Lullubeans (SG 51). This section also ineludes a number of anthropological observations. For instanee, line 59 refers to a people who do not bake bread.

76

The Sargon Geography

The first three sections of place-names are followed by two line segments (SG 4-5, 31-32, 43-44) that relate the place-names to the reign of Sargon of Akkad. Lines 31-32 are joined to the second list of p e-names (SG 6-30) by fa, ša, y u and fa. ša. The openand SG 43-44 are jo d list place ing signs of SG 1-5 are missing, so it is not certain how the territories listed in SG 1-3 are related to the subjects of Sargon, who bring tribute in SG 4-5. The final portion of the preserved text, SG 60-65, seems to follow a pattern similar to SG 1-59. Lines 62-65 list the names of three peoples (Suteans, Lullu utium), so this section, seetion, when complete, was probably similar to SG 45-59. SG 60-61 may be compared with the earlier two-line segments that explain Sargon's relationship to the lists of place-names. On the obverse of VAT 8006, horizontal rulings divide the first 47 lines into fo ts. The first and seeond nes 1-3 and ntain the first secsection of place-names and the first two-line segment that refers to Sargon. The third unit, lines 6tains the second section seetion of place-names and the second two-line segment that refers to Sargon. The fourth unit, lines 33-47, contains both the third and fourth sections of place-names, as well as the third two-line segment referring to Sargon. These units, however, may not be original features of The Sargon Geography. BM 64382+ preserves rulings under almost every line, and the rulings are not used systematically on VAT 8006. For instance, VAT 8006 omits a ruling before the beginning of the fourth list of place-names in SG 45, even thought this line clearly begins a new section of the text.

The Sources of The Sargon Geography The sources for both the historical and hic information included ineluded in The Sargon Geography are unknown. Neither Sargon's own inscriptions nor surviving literary acc presee geographic information, mation, and the events in the two-line segments that refer to Sargon (SG 4-5, 31-32, 43-44) are not repeated in any known source. Nonetheless, the surviving sources for the reign of Sargon do establish the fact that Sargon ruled a worldwide empire. The Sargo phy purports to describe deseribe this empire. The most complete historical account of the reign of Sargon is found in CBS 139 he unpublished duplicate duplieate Ni. 3200 (for both, see AfO 20 34; Gelb Kienast 139-47). The tablet CBS 13972 is an Old Babylonian anthology of inscriptions from the E i xt collects eolleets inscriptions inseriptions from the s of i Rimuš, nd Manistusu, Maništušu, Sargon. When comcomplete, the text preserved 28 columns of Old Akkadian, Sumerian, and bili ptions. inseriptions on this tablet portray Sargon as an unri The inscriptions g whose domain stretched stretehed from the Upper Sea to the Lower Sea (MO 20 36 iii iv 7-10). Conquests are listed in three areas: within Sumer, in the upper lands on the way to the Upper Sea, and in areas east of Mesopotamia. The first inscription records that Sargon washed his weapons in the Lower Sea after conquering

The Sources of The Sargon Geography

77

Lagash (AfO 20 35 i 51-53, ii 53-55), while the fifth and sixth columns record Sargon's campaigns against lands to the north and west of Akkad (AfO 20 38), including Mari on the Middle Euphrates, Yarmuti, Ebla, and the Cedar Forest and Silver Mountain in Anatolia and the Lebanon. Column 12 (AfO 20 47) relates the conquest of Elam and Susa in Iran and the conquest of Parahsum (Sumerian Marhaši), another land east of Akkad. The fifth and sixth columns of the tablet (AfO 20 37) also claim that Sargon brought the trading ships of faraway Magan, Meluhha, and Dilmun, sites located down the Persian Gulf, to the quay of Akkad. Thus Sargon's realm, aecording to his own inscriptions, stretched from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean and from Anatolia to Iran, while Sargon's influence extended across the sea. The geography of Sargon's empire in The Sargon Geography is similar to the geography of Sargon's empire in the royal inscriptions. Both the inscriptions and the Geography list Mari, Ebla, the Cedar Forest/Mountain, the Lebanon, Elam, Susa, and Marhaši as part of Sargon's realm, although SG 41-42 exaggerate when they include the lands across the Upper and Lower Seas within the empire. In the royal inscriptions, Dilmun, Magan, and Melutiha trade with Akkad, but Sargon does not campaign against these lands. Nevertheless, the surviving inscriptions do not contain detailed lists of boundaries of lands or circumferences of lands, such as those found in SG 6-29 and 33-42. The two-line segments SG 4-5, 31-32, and 43-44 are comparable to materials included in the pseudo-historieal works The Chronicle of Early Kings (Grayson Chronieles 152-56), The Weidner Chronicle (Grayson Chronieles 14551; F. Al-Rawi, Iraq 52 1-13), and The Legend of Sargon (Lewis Sargon 24-29). These three texts, like The Sargon Geography, are known from first millennium exemplars but inelude traditions that presumably date baek to the Old Akkadian period. Sumerian literary works, sueh as The Curse of Akkad and The Sumerian Sargon Legend provide early literary aceounts of events during Sargon's reign, and the section of The Chronicle of Early Kings dedicated to Sargon's reign is based on historical omens that date at least to the Old Babylonian period.' These literary texts and omens are also not primary sourees for The Sargon Geography. Together, they inelude only twelve place-names in the empire of Sargon (Akkad, Der, Dilmun, The Sea Land, the Upper and Lower Mountains, Babylon, Elam, Amurru, the Upper Land, Kazallu, and Subartu), while The Sargon Geography in its present form includes close to 100 place-names. Furthermore, the traditions presented in SG 4-5, 31-32, and 43-44 are not found elsewhere in surviving texts, although The Sargon Legend preserves a Note in this context an Old Akkadian excerpt tablet relating to The Great Revolt against Naram-Sin (J. Westenholz, Legends of the Kings of Akkade, 223-29). For the literary materials relating to the Old Akkadian kings, see now this new 1997 monograph. For historical omens, see I. Starr, BiOr 43 628-42. Note in partieular the Old Babylonian omens collected by A. Goetze in JCS 1 253-65. For Middle Babylonian omens, see G. Frame, RIM Annual Review 5 8: 8', 18'. For first millennium omens, see King Chronicles H no. III-IV and TCS 4 76:33, 77:44, 46-47, 81:87-88, 82:94, 119:61', 207:52.

78

The Sargon Geography

tradition that Sargon conquered the Sea Land three times, just as Sargon conquers the world three times in Sargon Geography 44: 8 [ma] -ti tâmti (t i - a m a t) lu-ft al-ma-a 3-šû

CT 13 42:17//CT 13 43:18 (J. Westenholz, Legends of the Kings of Akkade, 42) [The La]nd of the Sea I encireled three times. The elimination of all known sources for Sargon's reign as possible sources for The Sargon Geography presents a dilemma. Either the author of the text had access to materials that have not survived, or he compiled The Sargon Geography by synthesizing a variety of materials, not all of whieh pertained directly to Sargon of Akkad. This second possibility seems most likely. The diverse nature of The Sargon Geography indicates that various sections of the text eome from different types of sources. The list of lands and borders in SG 629 can be compared to the Old Akkadian itinerary published by B. Foster (Rencontre Assyriologique 38 73-76) and Old Babylonian itineraries (see A. Goetze, JCS 7 51-72; W. Hallo, JCS 18 57-88), 9 while SG 4-5, 31-32, and 43-44 seem to be drawn from literary or omen traditions. SG 45-50, which list place-names from Anshan in the east to Egypt in the west, may be compared with lists of eonquests in royal inscriptions and lists of rebel kingdoms in the various versions of The General Revolt against Naram-Sin (J. Westenholz, Legends of the Kings of Akkade, 221-61). Thus, although the actual sources of The Sargon Geography have yet to be identified, it seems elear that the text was compiled long after the death of Sargon by a scribe who had access to a wide variety of materials. Some of these sources could have been substantially older than others. Therefore it is prudent to examine The Sargon Geography in greater detail before attempting to date the composition as a whole. The Text: Commentary Sargon Geography l-3: The First Section of Place-Names

VAT 8006 begins in a surprising manner. The first three lines do not introduee Sargon of Akkad or provide an overview of Sargon's empire but instead locate the lands of Hanu and Subartu and state that Hanu had nine kings. Thus 8 Also note Sargon's crossing of the tamtu ina it samsi 'Sea in the East' in The Chronicle of Early Kings (Grayson Chronicles 152:3), and Naram-Sin's crossing of the

Lower Sea during his invasion of Magan in B. Foster, RIM Annual Review 8 31 x 20-32. 9 For itineraries, see B. Foster, Rencontre Assyriologique 38 75 n. 7. E. Herzfeld (The Persian Empire, 204-37) argues that the sequenee of lands in SG 6-30 follows the routes of the ancient roads of Old Babylonian period Mesopotamia. D. Frayne in AOS 74 89-90 presents materials that indieate that the editor of SG 6-30 had access to pre-Old Babylonian sourees as well, some of whieh may have even dated back to the Old Akkadian period.

79

The Text: Commentary

it is possible that VAT 8006:1-3 does not belong to a description of Sargon's realm. Instead, Hanu and Subartu may belong to the empire of another king, or these lines may complete a description of Sargon's realm that begins on an earlier tablet of The Sargon Geography. Both lands, however, would have traditionally been included within the empire of Sargon of Akkad. Sargon's conquests included the t i r gise r e n `Cedar Forest' (AfO 20 38:25-26) and Hani (h é . n i Id AfO 20 47:25), while Subartu is included in the empire of Sargon in a NeoAssyrian omen (4R 34 rev. 3-9). Hanu and Subartu are the lands of two nomadic peoples, the Haneans and Subareans. These peoples inhabited the regions bordering Sumer and Akkad on the northwest and northeast during the late third millennium and first half of the seeond millennium. There is no evidence that either people were ever united under a single ruler. Instead, they seem to have been organized into confederations of tribes. For instance, a Yahdun-Lim inscription speaks of seven sheikhs of Hanu that ruled an area along the Euphrates above Mari (E. ThureauDangin, RA 33 51:15-23, RIM 4 603). The nine kings of Hanu in SG 2 presumably belong to a similar confederation. The borders of Hanu and Subartu in SG 1-3 confirm that these two lands represent vast regions northwest and northeast of Akkad. In SG 1-2, Hanu is said to reach from Baza, at the border of the road to Meluhha, to the Cedar Mountain, while Subartu stretehes from these same mountains to Anšan in Iran. Baza, the southern border of Hanu, is located in the North Arabian desert in the inscriptions of Esarhaddon, 10 so both Baza and Meluhha are loeated to the west of Assyria, with Meluhha beyond Baza. In this context, Meluhha must be identified with the Meluhha near Egypt of the Amarna period and NeoAssyrian inscriptions, rather than the third millennium site of Meluhha down the Persian Gulf." Baza in Northern Arabia would be a suitable terminus for a road to this Meluhha and Egypt, since Esarhaddon campaigned in Meluhha soon after leaving Egypt:

;

ul-tû mat mu-sur karaši (k a r a s) ad-ke-e-ma a-na me-luh-ha uš-to-še-ra har-ra-nu

KUR

Borger Esarh. 112:15 From Egypt I broke eamp and set course for Meluhha. The second border of Hanu, the Cedar Mountain, is the name for the mountains northwest of Assyria in modern Lebanon, Syria, and Turkey. From Old Akkadian times onward, this term is often identified with the Lebanon and Amanus 'o See Borger Esarh. 33:26; 56:53; 57:76; 86 no. 57:4. For a recent study of VAT 8006:1, see D. Potts, JNES 41 279-88, with the location of Baza examined on pp. 282-84. See also J. Brinkman, PBK 160 n. 970. 11 For Meluhha in Amarna texts, see W. Moran, Les Lettres d'el Amarna, 600. For studies of the sites of Meluhha, Magan, and Dilmun see E. During Caspers and A. Govindankutty, JESHO 21 113-45; W. Heimpel, ZA 77 22-91; T. Howard-Ca rt er, JCS 39 54-117; G. Pettinato, Mesopotamia 7109-10, 114, 116-17; I. J. Gelb, RA 64 1-8. For Meluhha near Egypt, see also D. Potts, JNES 41 284-86.

80

The Sargon Geography

ranges (see CAD E 274 erénu a). For example, Gudea of Lagash brings down cedars from the Amanus (Gudea Statue B y 28-36), while Naram-Sin elaims to fell cedars in the Lebanon in an Old Akkadian year-name (Westenholz OSP 2. 16 iv 1-8). Thus Hanu in lines 1-2 includes all the lands northwest of Akkad from Arabia to the mountains of modern Lebanon and Turkey, while Subartu includes the lands north and east of Akkad, from a border with Hanu to the area of Ansh an beyond the Zagros in Iran. The Cedar Mountain is a realistic border for both H_ anu and Subartu. In a Naram-Sin inscription (AfO 20 72 i 12-16; Geld Kienast 249), Naram-Sin claims to rule Subartu as far as the Cedar Forest. In The Lipšur Litanies, "The Mountain of Hanu" is identified as the `Mountain of Juniper-Scent' (š i m.1 i = burašu) (E. Reiner, JNES 15 132:19). This identification points to a highland area inhabited by Haneans near the Cedar Mountain, because Neo-Assyrian inscriptions place stands of juniper and cedar trees side by side in the Amanus range (see CAD B 326 1). Such a highland area would mark the limits of Hanean territory, because Haneans are generally found farther south and east along the Upper Euphrates. Further evidence for the Cedar Mountain serving as a boundary for both eastern and western areas, such as Hanu and Subartu, is found in the Sumerian epic Enmerkar and Ensuhkešdanna: 12 éren.gal.mu sig.ta igi.nim.šè ab.ta kur.eseren.šè kur.šim.0eren.na .šè gu ga.mu.ni.ib.gar Berlin Enm. 50:159-60 (cf. 48:146-47)

tgi,ntm,šè

My great army, from below to above, from the sea to the Cedar Mountain, Above, to the mountain of cedar-resin, let me make bow down (to him). Sargon Geography 4-5: The First Two-Line Segment Section That Refers to Sargon

The second section (SG 4-5) introduces Sargon . This seetion states that Sargon received tribute and gifts from his subjects, and that Sargon ruled the entire world. Sargon Geography 6-30: The Second Section of Place-Names

SG 6-30 lists 26 areas that were ruled by Sargon. Lines 6-29 list 21 lands, with two borders for each land. SG 19 lists the Kutumta-people; SG 9 and 11 list areas between the Tigris and Euphrates, and the Upper and Lower Zab; and SG 30 locates the lands of Magan and Meluhba. In five instances, areas share a common border (SG 14-15, 15-16, 17-18, 22-23, 23-24). A majority of the lands do not share common boundaries, so it is clear that this portion of The Sargon Geography does not provide fixed borders of provinces. 12

For a possible parallel, kur e r e n. n a z à x [ ... , see P. Michalowski, JCS 30 118:3.

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81

The repertoire of place-names in SG 6-30 suggests that this section of The Sargon Geography was meant to list the lands of the Mesoptamian homeland. In SG 6-29, no land is listed farther upstream than Mari on the Euphrates and Assyria on the Tigris (SG 6, 8). Mari, although outside the borders of modern Iraq, was considered part of Mesopotamia and is even listed as a royal capital of Sumer in The Sumerian King List (AS 11 102). The southern limit of the list is the mouth of the Euphrates at the head of the Persian Gulf (SG 29). SG 30 then states that Magan and Meluhba are located 120 leagues (across the sea) from the mouth of the Euphrates. The eastern and western borders of the list are the Zagros Mountains and Arabian Desert. Lullubi (SG 12) may include areas in the Zagros Mountains, but the lands and cities of Ancient Iran, such as Elam, Anshan, and Susa, do not appear in SG 6-30. The source(s) for SG 6-30 date no later than the Old Babylonian period. No place-names that occur for the first time after this period oecur in the seetion, and a few place-names, such as Iabuše (SG 7) and Išpatum (SG 18), occur for the first time during the Old Babylonian period. The use of two boundary points to fix the borders of lands in SG 6-29 is problematic, because a line drawn through two points yields a line segment rather than an area. One possible explanation for this phenomena is suggested by the Sargon passage in The Chronicle of Early Kings: maréme ékalli-šü a-na 5 beri ta. àm tic še šib um mat mdtati mes mit ha riš i be el -

-

^ma^

-

Grayson Chronicles 153:7-8 His royal officials he settled at 5 league intervals. He ruled over the peoples of his lands equally. It is possible that the border points in SG 6-29 are meant to be understood as sites where Sargon's officials were stationed. Following is a survey of the geographic information in SG 6-30. The list begins with the Land of Mari on the Middle Euphrates (SG 6). The northern border of Mari is Supru, which is located between Mari and Terqa (RGTC 3 214). Its second border is apparently located downstream on the Euphrates on the way to Rapiqu (SG 7). The city of Rapiqu has not yet been loeated but was probably situated in the vicinity of modern Ramadi, approximately 150 miles downstream from Mari (RGTC 3 193). The land of Assyria (SG 8) is listed after Rapiqu. The preserved border of Assyria, Maškan-šarri, is located on the west bank of the Tigris (see Herzfeld, Persian Empire, 221). Thus SG 9 'between the Tigris and Euphrates' probably refers to a part of Assyria. The next lines, SG 10-16, list seven areas that are located east of the Tigris. Arrapha (SG 10) is located east of the Tigris below the Lower Zab in the vicinity of Kirkuk (RGTC 3 22), so line 11 'between the Upper and Lower Zab' refers to the area between the two rivers north of Arrapha. Lubdi, the seeond border of Arrapha, is located between the Lower Zab and Radanu (see Brinkman, PKB 178 n. 1096; AOS 74 58, 89).

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The Sargon Geography

Line 12 locates the land of Lullubi. The Lullubi people first appeared in the Old Akkadian period and are pietured in defeat on the "Victory Stele of Naram-Sin." h 3 In the Neo-Assyrian period, Lullumu is located east of the Lower Zab beyond the Babite Pass in the Zagros Mountains (see AKA 306:34). Uruna, which may be located in the vicinity of the con fluence of the Upper Zab and Tigris (AOS 74 74-76), appears to be the western border of Lullubi. The site of Sinn is not known. Aramni (SG 13) stretches from Ebla to , Bit-Nanib, The land of Armani, also written Alman and Halman, was located in western Iran during the Middle Assyrian and Kassite periods (Brinkman MSKH 46-47 249). However, Old Akkadian and Ur III Arman has been identified with Aleppo in Syria (see RGTC 1 18; 2 15) and Ebla is Tell Mardikh in Syria. Thus, a placement of Armani east of the Tigris is problematic. Two solutions to the problem may be proposed. (1) Ebla in SG 13 may not be the famous Syrian Ebla, but a city Eblal Abla/Ubla east of the Tigris (see AOS 74 60-61, 90). This eastern Ebla would be an appropriate border for the later Middle Assyrian and Kassite land of Armani in Iran. (2) One may note the close associations between Syrian Ebla and Arman in Naram-Sin materials where Arman (= Aleppo) and Ebla often appear together. For example, Naram-Sin conquers both Arman and Ebla in the Naram-Sin inscription UET 1 275/276 + duplicates (see B. Foster, JANES 14 27-36), and Arman itself is listed as one of the lands that revolted against Naram-Sin during the general insurrection (RA 70 115:20'). It is possible that the editor of The Sargon Geography forgot the western locations of Old Akkadian Arman and Ebla in Syria but knew of the conneetion between the two sites. If so, the later eastern Arman in Iran may have been equated with the western Arman of Old Akkadian times, and the Syrian Ebla then moved into the Zagros to join the eastern Arman. The next three lands in the list are adjacent to one another. Akkad (SG 14) shares a border with Guti at Abul-Adad, and Guti shares a border with Niqqu at Hallaba. The placement of Akkad between the lands of Arman and Guti is troublesome, because Akkad should not be located this far to the east of the Tigris.l 4 Akkad is listed a second time in line 21, Sippar, a logical border between When Sumer and Akkad, is listed as one of Akkad's boundaries. In contrast, neither Hizzat nor Abul-Adad occur elsewhere as boundaries of Akkad or even as towns in Babylonia. Hizzat, in fact, is probably to be identified with Old Babylonian hišat, which is loeated east of the Tigris in itineraries (RGTC 3 98-99). If so, it is eonceivable that Abul-Adad The Gate of Adad' is a mountain pass in the 13 For one of many photographs of "The Victory Stele of Naram-Sin," see P Amiet, Art of the Ancient Near East, pl. 49. For a related in situ drawing of Naram-Sin in the mountains of Kurdistan, see S. Smith, Earty History of Assyria, 96-97; H. Frankfort, The Art and Architecture of The Ancient Orient, 43. 14

For a reeent study of the loeation of the city of Akkad/Agade, see C. WallRomema, JNES 49 205-45. Here it is proposed that Tell Muhammad on the outskirts of Baghdad is "the best candidate for Agade" (JNES 49 243-44).

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83

Zagros even farther to the east. No satisfactory explanation for the location of Akkad far to the east of the Tigris is obvious. Guti (SG 15) borders Akkad at Abul-Adad, and Niqqu at Hallaba. Neither border can be preeisely located, but it is certain that the Guti-land in line 15 is to p âeed in the Zagros and its foothills because the Guti came down from the Zagros to destroy Akkad at the end of the Old Akkadian period. Although the site of Hallaba is not known, it is certain that this Hallaba east of the Tigris eannot be equated with the Syrian Hallaba (Aleppo). Niqqu (SG 16) is known from two short Naram-Sin inscriptions from Luristan that refer to the énsi of Niqqu and from a mace-head that was reputed to have been found in Khafajeh (RGTC 1 133). Thus Niqqu should be situated south of Gutium in the area around Khafajeh between the Tigris and the Zagros.' 5 After Niqqu, the list turns to areas that were traditionally considered part of Sumer and Akkad. Line 17 locates the Land of Der, the area around the site of Der near modern Badrah. Three more areas are then listed before Akkad itself appears in SG 21: Lagash (SG 18), the region of the the Kutumta-people (SG 19), and Hurim (SG 20). Sumer itself does not oceur in the second section of place-names, so these three areas should oceupy at least all of Sumer. Thus the loeations of Lagash, the Kutumta, and Hurim should be interrelated. The third-millennium state of Lagash included most of southeastern Sumer, from a point somewhere in the vicinity of Nippur to the Persian Gulf. In SG 18, Lagash reaches from Ibrat to Išpatum but does not continue to the Sea. Instead, the Kutumta-people in SG 19 occupy the region from Kullabi to the eoast. If Kullabi is to be understood as Kullaba, the sacred district of Uruk, then the Kutumta-people can be located in the southwestern part of Sumer, with Lagash to the north and east. Hurim in line 20 should then be a northern part of Sumer that borders Akkad. In economic doeuments from the time of Gudea and Ur III, Hurim is part of the state of Lagash (RGTC 2 79-80). 16 Mangisu, one of the borders of Hurim, may be located as far north as Baghdad (RGTC 3 158-59; RIA 7 339) and is therefore an appropriate border between Sumer and Akkad, which is listed in the next line (SG 21), Here in SG 21, Sippar is one of Akkad's borders, so Akkad is correctly positioned in northern Babylonia. Earlier in SG 14, Akkad is incorrectly placed far to the east of the Tigris (see p. 82). After Akkad, all the remaining places in the seeond section of placenames, except Isin (SG 26), lie east of the Tigris. Edamarus (SG 22) is a tribal name known mainly from Old Babylonian texts where Edamarus refers both to an area east of the Tigris, between Elam and Gutium (RIM 4 389:25-41) and is The king and kingdom of Niqqu may also be listed as one of Naram-Sin's ene-

mies in a Hittite exemplar of The Great Revolt against Naram-Sin:

mur-b[a]-an-da LUGAL KUR °runi-iq-rqiI [

]

KBo III 13:14' (H. Güterboek, ZA 44 68). is For the location of Hurim, see RGTC 1 50 sub Erim. For the reading hurimk'

for

NE.RU ki,

see AnOr 30/31 31 n. 9.

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The Sargon Geography

an area in northern Mesopotamia under the in fluence of Mari (see R1A 5 2830). In SG 22, Edamarus is the eastern area, beeause Tirgan of Gutium forms one of its borders. Uzarilulu can be identified with Old Babylonian Zaralulu (modern Tell DibaDi) by the Diyala near Baghdad (RGTC 3 261; AOS 74 90): The land of Mari (SG 23) shares a common border with Edamarus at Uzarilulu. This Mari, is almost certainly to be equated with Old Babylonian w/marûm, whieh was located east of the Tigris in the vicinity of Ešnunna, rather than with the city of Mari on the Middle Euphrates in SG 6. In SG 23, the name is written with a long vowel ma-ri-i k', while Mari on the Upper Euphrates is written mâ-ri k' in SG 6, 29. Malgi (SG 24) shares a common border with mlwarûm at Bit-Sin. The other border of Malgi, Maškan-šapir, has been identified with Kut-al-'Amara east of the Tigris (R1A 7 300, 447-48). Emutbal (SG 25) is also located east of the Tigris. Emutbal extends from the Sar-Sin to mê marrudltu 'bitter waters/waters of Marrud'. The second border may be the name of a bitter lake, a region of brackish ground water, or a city next to these waters, because a city Marrud occurs in lexical lists and Sargonic texts. 17 It is likely that this city itself takes its name from the waters, because a city Unu mê marrud oecurs in a kudurru of Merodach-Baladan I (AfO 23 5 i 5). SG 26 lists the land of Isin, Isin, modern ï an Bahrijat, is located between the Tigris and Euphrates south of Nippur. In SG 26, Isin reaches from BitHubba to Rahabu. Rahabu is located near Larsa (RGTC 3 194). The loeation of Bit-Hubba is unknown. The name of the land that reached from Bit-Gabagal to Eriaba in SG 27 is missing in both sources. In VAT 8006, the land name is damaged, but BM 64382+ leaves the space for this land name vacant. This may indicate that VAT 8006, or a copy of this tablet, was a source for BM 64382+. The city of Eriaba itself may be identified with the town of Ariaba that occurs in VAS 1 103:6 (RGTC 5 36-37). Mutiabal (SG 28) is probably to be located just beyond Emutbal. An Old Babylonian letter from the reign of Hammurabi reports that armed eitizens of Mutiabal eseaped into Emutbal (ARM 2 72:19-21), indicating that the two lands bordered one another at that time. The second border of Mutiabal, id kur raki occurs as a river name without ki in both a Larsa year-name (RIA 2 150:112) and a list of rivers (MSL 11 145 i 21). The river name with ki in line 28 may refer to a town on the banks of this river, or the river itself. In SG 9 and 11, ki is added to the names of the Euphrates and Lower Zab. SG 29 presents the location and borders of the Land of Amurru: 'the West-Land' or Amorite Land'. VAT 8006 places this land at the border (zà = patu) of Mari and Sumer, while BM 64382+ omits z à and adds Akkad. Here, Amurru seems to belong to Mari, Sumer, and Akkad. VAT 8006 seems to preserve the more reliable text. It is unlikely that Amurru is part of Mari, Sumer, 17

For mê marrud, see G. MeEwen, RA 74 172; AOS 74 90.

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85

and Akkad, since Mari and Akkad are listed earlier in SG 6, 14, and 21. Thus, Amurru could be identified as a region bordering Mari, Sumer, and Akkad on the west. All of the other lands listed in SG 6-30 are located between the Tigris and Euphrates, or are east of the Tigris. However, in SG 29, Amurru also appears to include areas north, and perhaps also east, of Mesopotamia. The second border of Amurru in SG 29 is the 'Gate of Susa'. This presumably refers to a mountain pass that provided access to the Iranian Plateau east of the Tigris. 18 Thus,AmrcanildesbothanwfMespotmi.Inh case, Amurru might refer to areas inhabited by Amorites on both the eastern and western fringes of Mesopotamia. Line 30 locates the lands of Magan and Melubba. The borders of these two lands are not provided. Instead, Magan and Melubba are said to lie 120 leagues from the `tail' (kun = zibbatu) of the Euphrates. In Sumerian texts, the kun 'tail' of canals and rivers are often paired with the kâ ('mouth' of these bodies of water). In two royal inscriptions, the 'tails' of canals extend to the Sea, indicating that the 'tails' are the downstream ends of the canals: 19 id siraraki du id ki.ag.ga.ni al mu.na .dù kun.bi ab.šà.ga mu.na,ni.la

Sollberger Corpus Ukg. 4-5 C ii 10-15 The canal that goes to Sirara, his beloved canal, he excavated for him Its "tail" he connected for him to the sea. id.da dnanna.gu.gal mu.bi id ki.sur.ra.kam mu.ba.al kun.bi a.ab.ba.ka i,lâ Cros Tello 169 i 10-14 (SAKI 188 i)

The canal whose name is "Nanna, the Canal Inspector' which is a boundary canal, he dug. He connected its "tail" to the sea. 20 In Akkadian texts, the zibbatu — tail"' of a canal came to mean 'storage basin of a canal' (CAD Z 102 zibbatu 2b). Storage basins of eanals were dug at the downstream ends of canals to help drain canals that did not have natural outlets. Such basins became salty as the relatively fresh waters in the basin evaporated, leaving mineral deposits. The "tail of the Euphrates," therefore, apparently refers to a salt-water outlet of the Euphrates, such as the bitqu 'sluiee' on the World Map that connects the Euphrates with the cosmic ocean (see p. 28). Thus the 'tail of the Euphrates' should be located in southernmost Babylonia near the head of the gulf, and Magan and Melubba should be located 18

Compare `The Gate of Susa' with ig.gal elam.a The Great Door of Elam' in M. Civil, Or. 54 28 ii 2', and see also P Stcinkeller, ZA 72 244 n. 25. 19 Note also UET 6 106:31-36 (Steible Rimsin 92-93) and related place names in geographic lists (MSL 11 17 40-42; 105:315-16). See also A. Poebel, ZA 39 160, E Kraus, ZA 51 53, and F. Vallat, NABU 1 1987 3-4. 20 For the "Nanna, the Canal Inspeetor" canal, see T. Jacobsen, Iraq 22 177-78. The full name of the eanal is probably Inanna gûgal an.ki .

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The Sargon Geography

120 leagues down the Persian Gulf. This fits well with the location of Magan and Dilmun across the Lower Sea in SG 42, but eonflicts with the location of Meluhha in SG 1, where Meluhha is located in the west. SG 31-32: The Second Two-Line Segment That Refers to Sargon

SG 31-32, "which Sargon, the King of the Universe, when he conquered the totality of the land under Heaven, delineated its border, and measured its circumference," refer both to the just-completed list of territories in SG 6-30 and to the upcoming list of lands in SG 33-42. The penultimate phrase, 'delineated its border', points backward to SG 6-29, where borders are listed. The final phrase, 'measured its circumference', points forward to SG 33-40 where circumferences of lands are provided. The phrase 'totality of the land under heaven' (mat sihip šame) indicates that Sargon's empire comprised the entire earth's surface. In bilingual texts, a parallel phrase sihip šamd u erseti translates Sumerian an,kistI.a `the entirety of heaven and earth' (see CAD S 238). 21 The cosmic scale of Sargon's empire in lines 31-32 fits well with the epithet of Sargon, "King of the Universe' in SG 31. The tradition that Sargon established the borders of the land and measured its circumferenee is not found elsewhere but is similar to Marduk's role in determining the dimensions of the heavens and Apsu in Ee iv 141-44. SG 33-42: The Third Section of Place-Names SG 33-42 lists the areas of Sargon's Empire a second time. SG 33-40 lists eight lands with their circumferences (talbatu), and lines 41-42 list the lands across the Upper and Lower Seas. The cireumferences of the lands in lines 33 40 seem to represent a realistic attempt to measure the size of these lands. The circumferences are measured in leagues. Each league is approximately 10.8 kilometers (see AHw 130). Thus the cireumference of Akkad (SG 36), which is said to be 180 leagues, is equivalent to approximately 2,000 km. Such a circumference allows for an oval or reetangle eneompassing the width of Mesopotamia from a border line drawn between Assur and Samarra in the north to the gulf coast. If Akkad includes both Sumer and Akkad, since Sumer is not listed in lines 33-42, then a circumference of 180 leagues for Akkad is reasonable. As in lines 6-30, a majority of the lands listed in lines 33-40 are located east of Mesopotamia. The first land listed, Marbaši, is closely connected with Elam in sources for the Old Akkadian period. In the Akkadian portion of these texts, the land is called Parahsum, while Marhaši is a Sumerian name for this land. Traditionally, Marhaši/Parabsum has been located north or northwest of Elam, but recent studies by P. Steinkeller (see R1A 7 381-82) propose that Marhaši be placed east of Elam. Support for this argument includes the fact that 21 Note also KAR 360:17 sa-hi-ip sa-ma-mu and further examples in CAD S 32-33 sapu f.

The Text: Commentary

87

Ur III kings never reach Marhaši when they campaign in the vicinity of Elam, and close associations between Marhaši and distant lands such as Dilmun, Magan, and Meluhha. This evidenee suggests that Marhaši was a distant eastern land. 22 In any case, Marhaši was not remembered by the author of The Sargon Geography as a large land. The eircumference of Marhasi, 40 leagues, is the smallest of all the lands listed in lines 33-40. Tukriš (SG 34) is also located east of Mesopotamia. This land appears together with Elam, Gutium, and Subartu in the Hammurabi inscription UET I 146 iii-iv 1-4 and has been identified with the mountains of Luristan (RGTC 3 239; P Michalowski, JCS 40 162-63). Elam (SG 35) and Anshan (SG 40) to the east and southeast of Babylonia together have a total eircumferenee of 180 leagues, equaling the size of Akkad (SG 36), whieh is by far the biggest land in SG 33-40. Subartu (SG 37) also oecurs in SG 3. After SG 37 VAT 8006 and BM 64382 diverge. VAT 8006 lists the lands of Amurru, "Lullubi Turukki," and Anshan, while BM 64382+ adds the unknown land AN.X.DU.DU and then lists what appear to be the ends of Lullubu, Anshan, and Turukki. The closing seetion, VAT 8006:38 (la-ab-na-nu adi), is also problematic, because the second border of Amurru is not provided. These problems can best be solved by moving Turukki from the end of VAT 8006:39 to the end of VAT 8006:38. The place-name Turukki then becomes the second border of Amurru. SG 38-40 can then be translated as follows: 38. (A 38-B 23') 120 leagues is the circumference of the Land of Amurru from the Lebanon to Turukki. 39. (A 39-B 22') 90 leagues is the cireumference of the Land of Lullubi, 40. (A 40-B 24') 90 leagues is the circumference of the Land of Anshan. Amurru (SG 38) stretehes from the Lebanon to Turukki. The Lebanon.is the western border of Amurru, so Turukki must be the eastern border, because the Turukki-people are a nomadic tribe who lived east of the Tigris (RGTC 3 240-41). Thus, here in SG 38, as in SG 29, where Amurru extends to the "Gate of Susa" (perhaps a pass in the Zagros; see p. 85), the Land of Amurru includes areas both east and west of Mesopotamia. The next two lands, Lullubi (SG 39) in the Zagros, and Anshan (SG 40) in Iran, would be located east of such a pass. SG 41-42 list the Upper and Lower Lands without indicating the circumferenee of these lands. SG 41 identifies Anaku and Kaptara as lands across the Upper Sea (Mediterranean), and SG 42 lists Magan and Dilmun as lands across the Lower Sea (Persian Gulf/Indian Ocean). Kaptara has been identified with biblical Caphtor, the island of Crete. An adjectival form of the place-name Kaptara 22

See also E Vallat, Paleorient 11/2 52.

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The Sargon Geography

(kaptarû) occurs in Mari texts. 23 Anaku, perhaps the place of tin (an.na), has been identified as Cyprus, Greece, areas of metal deposits in Anatolia, and even Spain (see A. Malamat, AS 16 365-66). Magan has been identified with the coasts of Oman and Iran, and Dilmun with the island of Bahrain. 24 Although there is little doubt that Mesopotamians knew of lands aeross the Upper and Lower Seas, it is often dangerous to attempt precise identifieations for distant places. Very little is actually known about the distant lands that traded with Mesopotamia in the third millennium, and much of the available information is shrouded in myth. For instance, Dilmun not only trades with Sumer and Akkad but is also the eventual home of the Sumerian flood hero Ziusudra (Lambert-Millard Atra-basis 144:258-60). Therefore, for the purposes of The Sargon Geography, the exact locations of Anaku, Kaptara, Dilmun, and Magan are not of critieal importance, but the inclusion of these lands within Sargon's empire does reflect the tradition that Sargon conquered l ands across the sea. Another example of this tradition is found in The Chronicle of Early Kings. 25 šâ-lum-mat-su eli matatime S it-bu-uk tâmta(a.ab.b a) ina sit šamši (dutu.è) i-bi-ir-ma

Grayson Chronicles 152:2-3 He poured out his splendor over the Lands. He crossed the Sea in the east. SG 43-44: The Third Two-Line Segment That Refers to Sargon SG 43-44 equates the empire of Sargon with all the lands from sunrise to sunset. Although these lines are joined to lines 41-42 by u, it is probable that these lines belong to a traditional source for Sargon's reign, beeause u is not used elsewhere in the text to connect passages within geographic sections. SG 43, which states that Sargon conquered 'all the lands from sunrise to sunset' may be compared with a passage in The Weidner Chronicle where all the lands from sunrise to sunset revolt against Sargon (Grayson Chronicles 149:52-53). 23 RGTC 3 131; RlA 6 229. For an Old Akkadian cylinder seal from Cyprus, see A. Malamat, AS 16 366, Cf. E. Guralniek, Rencontre Assyriologique 38 329 n. 8 for a Sargon H stele from Cyprus. 24 For Dilmun as Falaika in the Neo-Assyrian period, see R. Borger, ZA 62 136. For Magan see RlA 7 195-99. 25 See n. 8 and compare the Sargon and Naram-Sin materials with the following passage in an Old Babylonian eopy of a Su-Sin inscription: kur šubur.r[a] gaba.gaba a.ab.[ba i]gi.nim.ma x [ x x ] ù mâ.ganki ma.d[a me-luh-ha] kur.d[ilmun] bal.a.ri a.[ab.ba] i[gibrsigl [... JCS 21 27 B rev. 9'-11' The Land of Subur on the shores of the Upper Sea [ .. ] and Magan, the lan [d of Melupha] the Land of D [ilmun] aeross the Lo[wer S]ea... .

The Text: Commentary

89

SG 44, which states that Sargon conquered the entire world (kiššati) three times can be compared with the passage in The Sargon Legend where Sargon conquers the Sea-Land three times (see p. 78) and with the apodosis of an Old Babylonian omen: a-mu-ut šar-ru-ki-in ša ki-ša-tam i-be-lu YOS 10 59 rev. 8-9 (A. Goetze, JCS 1 255) The omen of Sargon who ruled the entire world. Line 43a (BM 64382+ rev. 2'), which is omitted in VAT 8006, adds that Sargon conquered 'the sum total of all the lands'. SG 45-59: The Fourth Section of Place-Names SG 45-59 begins a new section of The Sargon Geography. This portion of the text can be divided into two parts: SG 45-50, which only lists place-names, and SG 50-59, which ineludes place-names as well as other information. Sargon Geography 45-50. 26 The preserved portion of SG 45-50 lists just over 20 place-names, 11 of which can be positively identified: Anshan, Misri (Egypt), Surru (Tyre), gab-la-Pf (Byblos), Magan, Baza, Udanu, Tema, Moab, Edom, and Munni. Anshan is located in Iran and Surru is Tyre. Misri in SG 45 is Egypt. 27 Magan is identified with Egypt and her border areas in Neo-Assyrian inscriptions (R1A 7 196 3), while both Baza and Tema are in northern Arabia. 28 The last place-name in SG 47 Udani 'at the border of Sumer', is the city of Udani in southern Babylonia. 29 The writing gub-la-Pf for Byblos in SG 46 apparently derives from a misreading of a writing gub-la-à/ju (à/ju = pi). Writings of the name of Byblos with à/ju occur in Mari texts (see G. Dossin, Syria 20 111; RGTC 3 81). Moab and Edom are Ancient Israel's neighbors in what is now Jordan. Munni (SG 50) is probably to be identified with the site of Munna by Lake Urmiah in the Zagros (see J. V. Kinnier Wilson, Iraq 24 [1962] 111-12), 30 while Lapu/Til Halapu in the same line might be Aleppo (AfO 25 64 n. 50). 31 26

See also W Horowitz, "Moab and Edom in The Sargon Geography:' IEJ 43 151-56. For various spellings of Egypt, see AOAT 6 249-52. Note in partieular the writing me-es-ri in Iraq 25 54:36, where the name of Egypt occurs together with Tyre, Sidon, and Hanigalbat. 28. For Baza and Tema (Tayma) in Northern Arabia, see n. 11; RGTC 8 73, 307-8. The va ri ant tit te-em-ma-ni-ia in Sargon Geography 48 Source B might, however, be identified with Assyrian Temanaja (see AOAT 6 350). For a possible Late Babylonian example of this name, see RGTC 8 308. 29 See RGTC 8 317-18; P. Beaulieu, ASJ 13 105-9, Brinkman, PKB 395. 30 Cf. SAA 8 418:11-12 for Maneans with Cimmerians. Less likely is an identifieation with mu-'-na-a-a (Meunim) below Egypt in the inscriptions of Tiglath-Pileser III (see R. Borger and H. Tadmor, ZAW 100 250-51). 31 For halab = Aleppo, see RlA 4 50-53. The writing lu-lu-PTi-un in SG 46 A eould perhaps be a strange writing for Lullubu (lu-lu-bu4 un; see AOS 74 60-61). Note, however, that Source B preserves ku-ku-... (perhaps an error for lu-lu-... ). 27

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The Sargon Geography

Sargon Geography 45-50 is apparently intended to provide points along the frontiers of the Neo-Assyrian empire, thus explaining the expanse of Sargon of Akkad's ancient third-millennium empire in terms of the borders of the contemporary Neo-Assyrian empire. Most of the identifiable place-names in SG 45-50 lie at the frontiers of the Neo-Assyrian empire: Udani is placed 'at the border of Sumer' (southern Babylonia); Anshan and Munni are located in Iran at the eastern edge of the empire; Egypt, Byblos and Tyre at the western edge of the empire; Baza and Tema along the fringes of the Arabian Desert; and Magan near Egypt in Neo-Assyrian sources. In this context, Moab and Edom form part of the southwestern frontier of the Neo-Assyrian empire along the Arabian desert beyond the aneient Israelite kingdoms of Israel and Judah. The northern kingdom of Israel fell to Shalmanessar V and Sargon II in 722-720, and Sargon II elaims for himself the title "Subduer (mušakniš) of The Land of Judah" in Winckler Sarg. 168:8. 32 Sargon Geography 51-59. SG 51-59 provides insight into the customs of foreign lands and peoples, as well as the names of foreign areas. Unfortunately, this portion of The Sargon Geography is difficult to interpret because most of the place-names in SG 51-59 cannot be identified and much of the text is either damaged or eompletely lost. Among the preserved plaee-names, only Amurru and Lullubu (SG 51), Akriyaš (SG 52), Habigalbatu (SG 54), and Karzina (SG 57) ean be positively identified. Karzina is the name of a eity in Media that occurs in Sargon II inscriptions (AOAT 6 202). Habigalbatu, the Middle Assyrian name for the second-millennium Hurrian state of Mitanni, is located in the vieinity of the Nairi land by Lake Van in Neo-Assyrian royal inscriptions. 33 AkriyašocusnthepiofTukl-NnrtaI(WeidT27:)n in a Kassite-period eeonomic documents (RGTC 5 10). The -yas suffix in Akriyaš is an Indo-European element that is equated with Akkadian matu land in the Kassite-Akkadian vocabulary (see Balkan Kassit. Stud. 155-56). Thus, Akriyaš, as well as Zer/Quliyaš, Surginiyaš, and Handakiyaš in SG 55-56 are IndoEuropean place-names. Kutalla (SG 53) may be identified with Old Babylonian Kutalla (= Tel Sift.) near Larsa (see RIA 6 383). Both Amurru and Lullubu are listed earlier in SG 12, 29, 38-39. Here, in SG 51, the peoples of Amurru and Lullubu are identified with points of the compass. The Amurru are identified as the 'people of the south' and the Lullubu are identified as the 'people of the north'. This may refer to a system of identifying peoples with all four compass points, such as the one outlined in abbreviated form on the astrological text AO 8196: 34 32 For the historical background to this epithet, see M. Sweeney, Bibliea 75 467-69. 33 Note especially AKA 242:53 (Assurnasirpal). For ha bi gat bat (= Armenia in a campaign of Antioehus IV) in Late Babylonian astronomical diaries, see Sachs-Hunger Diaries 2 496 -164 B: 15'; 3 346 -110: 14'. 34 For such schemes, see also AfO Beih. 22 51-55. -

-

-

91

The Text: Commentary IM š26tu kur elamti ki IM iltanu kur akkadi k` IMšadû kursubarti (s u) u guti (g u) ki IMamurru(m a r) kuramurri k

'

AO 8196 iv 31-32 (MO 19 pl. 33) The south-wind, the Land of Elam; the north-wind, the Land of Akkad, The east-wind, the Land of Subartu and Gutium; the west-wind, the Land of Amurru. Lines 52-59 preserve references to foreign customs. Line 59 refers to a nomadic people who eat meat, milk, and roasted grain instead of the traditional Mesopotamian fare of bread and beer. The latter half of the line, 'whose insides do not know oven-baked bread, bellies (do not know) beer', repeats a derogatory description of nomads, particularly the Amorites in the third millennium. For instance, the Amorites are said to be ignorant of grain when they bring animals as offerings to Inanna in The Curse of Agade. 35 mar.du.kur.ra lû še nu.zu gu4.du7 mâš.du 7.da mu.un.na ,da.an.ku 4 .ku4 Cooper Curse of Agade 52:46-47 The Amorites of the mountain, the people who know no grain, brought in perfect cattle with perfect goats for her. Line 58 seems to indicate that some foreigners had strange funerary practices as well as strange diets. The reference to fire in the first half of the line, coupled with the statement 'who do not know burial' in the second half, suggests that The Sargon Geography alludes to a people who eremated their dead. This may be eompared with a statement about the Amorites in The Marriage of Mardu: u 4 ti.la.na é nu.tuku.a u 4 ba'.ug 7.a.na ki nu.tum.mu .dam S. Kramer, Fest. Artzi 20:137-38 While he lives he has no house. When he dies there is no burial. 36 Line 52 may explain that the Amorites and Lullubeans did not build houses. The opening phrase in SG 52 may be restored ul idû kisrutum. The word kisrutum may be an astract noun from the root kasaru. One of the meanings of kasaru is `to build, to construet' (CAD K 258), so SG 52 may refer to Amorites and Lullubu that do not build homes but instead live in tents as nomads. 35

For a review of sueh remarks, see Cooper Curse of Agade 30-33; J. Klein, Raphael Kutscher Memorial Volume (Tel Aviv, 1993) 104-6.. For the parallel in The Gilgamesh Epic where Enkidu does not know how to eat bread before hecoming civilized, see Tigay Gilg. 198-209... 36 For ki.ttiim = qeberu see CAD Q 201. For cremation in the Ancient Near East, see P Bienkowski, Levant 14 80-89.

92

The Sargon Geography

The second half of SG 57, 'whose ha[ir-style] is ehosen with a razor', presumably refers to a people who shaved at least part of their head, instead of letting their hair grow long like Assyrians. 37 The brief references to foreign customs in SG 51-59 are comparable to the short descriptions of the nagû in "The Babylonian Map of the World' as well as the exhaustive ethnographic and anthropological information in the histo ri es of Herodotus. 38 Like Herodotus, the author of The Sargon Geography seems to be interested in the customs and life-styles of foreign nations. Lines 60-61

Both lines 60 and 61 are incomplete but should refer to Sargon in some way, if the pattern of geographic sections interspersed with sections discussing Sargon's reign is repeated. Line 60, which opens 'These are .. ' and closes `facing the sea', may have explained that Sargon's reign extended all the way to the coasts of both the Upper and Lower Seas, while SG 60, which ends with the name of the Euphrates, may have stated that Sargon ruled territories along the entire length of the Euphrates. Although there is no evidence that Sargon of Akkad himself reached the sourees of the Euphrates, Naram-Sin eelebrated an expedition to the sources of both the Tigris and Euphrates by naming a year Mu dnaram-dsin nagab idiglat u purattim ikšudu 'The year that Naram-Sin reaehed the sources of the Tigris and Euphrates' (see CAD N/1 109 nagbu 1). Lines 62-65

The beginnings of lines 62-65 mention the Suteans, Lullubeans, and Gutium. Unfortunately, these lines are too poorly preserved to yield even a partial understanding of the text.

The Date of The Sargon Geography Although The Sargon Geography is known only from two first-millennium exemplars, portions of the text are probably much older. The traditions in the two-line segments relating to the reign of Sargon may be at least as old as the Old Babylonian omens that serve as the basis for The Chronicle of Early Kings, and the second and third lists of place-names (SG 6-30, 33-42) include sites that were important during the second and third millennia but insignificant 37 For Assyrians with full heads of long hair, note examples in R. D. Barnett, Assyrian Sculpture. The hair-style 'ehosen with a razor' may be eompared with a hair style

of third-millennium Mari, where the beard was allowed to grow long, but the head itself was shaven (see P Amiet, Art of The Ancient Near East, 363-65). 38 Note, for example, Herodotus IV 23-32,46,103-9.

Cosmographic Implications of The Sargon Geography

93

during Neo-Assyrian times. These include Lagaš (SG 18), Hurim (SG 20), Mutiabal (SG 28), and Tukriš (SG 34). Furthermore, all of the identifiable placenames in these two lists occur by the Old Babylonian period. Therefore, the two-line segments and the second and third lists of plaee-names could have been composed as early as Old Babylonian times. In contrast, the first section of place-names (SG 1-3) and the fourth section of place-names (SG 45-59) must belong to a later period. The location of Melubba by Baza in northern Arabia in SG 1, rather than down the Persian Gulf, as in SG 30, is not attested before the Amarna period (see p. 79 n. 11), and the site of Baza itself is not attested before the Neo-Assyrian period. Likewise, the earliest occurrence of Edom (SG 49) is also found in Amarna texts (EA 256:24), and Munna and Karzina (SG 50, 57) are not attested before the first millennium. Finally, the writing an-za-an for Anshan (SG 3,40) is first attested in the Neo-Assyrian period (see n. 2). Thus, as suggested by A. K. Grayson (AfO 25 57), The Sargon Geography, at least in its present form, was almost certainly composed during the Neo-Assyrian period, perhaps even during the reign of Sargon of Akkad's namesake, Sargon II of Assyria, or more likely, at the time of his successors Sennaeherib or Esarhaddon. Cosmographic Implications of The Sargon Geography The Geography of the Earth's Surface

Beeause The Sargon Geography equates the entire earth's surface with the empire of Sargon of Akkad, the text provides a detailed geography of the earth's surface. In the text, the earth's surface includes all of Assyria and Babylonia; areas to the east of Mesopotamia as far as Marhaši beyond Elam and Anshan; territories along the upper Euphrates as far as the Cedar Mountain; the Cedar Mountain itself; areas beyond the mountains as far as the Mediterranean coast, ineluding Tyre and Byblos; the Upper and Lower Seas; the lands across these seas; and Egypt. Sargon's empire in The Sargon Geography, excluding the lands aeross the seas, eorresponds to the continent on the World Map. On the map, the northern edge of the continent is occupied by an oval shaped region marked `mountain', where the Euphrates begins. This region must be the mountains of modern Turkey by the sources of the river. In The Sargon Geography, these mountains form part of the Cedar Mountain. Because there are no lands beyond the Cedar Mountain in the text, it is reasonable to as sume that the author of The Sargon Geography believed that a northern arm of the cosmic sea lay beyond the mountains, just as the marratu flows along the northern rim of the continent on the World Map. A tradition of a northern ocean may have been based on the loeations of the salt-water Black and Caspian Seas. On the World Map, the cosmic ocean flows beyond the far border of Urartu.

94

The Sargon Geography

The southernmost land in The Sargon Geography is the land of Anshan, the portion of Iran southeast of Babylonia beyond Susa. On the map, a region ineluding Susa lies at the southern end of the central eirele across the bitqu and apparu (channel and swamp) from Babylonia. In the east and west, however, the correspondence between the World Map and The Sargon Geography is not as elear. In The Sargon Geography, no lands are listed to the east of the Iranian Plateau and Marhaši or northeast of the lands in the Zagros. Thus, one may assume that an eastern arm of the cosmic ocean flowed beyond these territories, just as the cosmic ocean marratu on the World Map is to be found beyond Assyria and Der. Dilmun and Magan, the lands across the Lower Sea in SG 42, are to be found southeast of Mesopotamia, down the Persian Gulf. The western sections of the continents on both texts are not well defined. On the map, only Habban is situated west of the Euphrates. Similarly, SG 1-44 lists numerous places east of the Tigris but only four places west of the Euphrates (Baza, Meluhha, Hanu, Amurru). Mesopotamians were mueh more familiar with lands in the Zagros and Iran to the east than with territories in the west. The Zagros and Iran are mueh closer to Mesopotamia than the Mediterranean eoast, and the lands in the east often came under Mesopotamian hegemony. In contrast, only the Old Akkadian dynasty, Yabdun-Lim of Mari and Samši-Adad I of Assyria in the eighteenth century, the Middle Assyrian kings Tiglath-Pileser I and Assur -Bel-Kala, and later first-millennium rulers of Assyria and Babylon were able to conquer areas by the coast of the Mediterranean Sea. 39 The lands of Anaku, Kaptara, Dilmun, and Magan in SG 41-42 and Meluhha and Magan in SG 30 lie outside the central continent in The Sargon Geography, just as the nagû are drawn across the marratu on the World Map. In The Sargon Geography, these five lands may lie near the ends of the earth's surfaee, because they are the most distant lands ineluded in the text and SG 31 states that Sargon's empire included all the lands under heaven. The placement of Magan and Meluhha at the ends of the earth's surface fits well with a passage in Gudea Cylinder A where these two lands are placed at an.zà 'the horizon': 40 mu.bi.e an.zà.ta kur.kur.re gu im.ma.si.si ma.gan me.lub.ha kur.bi.ta im.ma.ta,e 1 .ne Gudea Cyl. A IX 18-19 At its name (E-Ninnu's) the foreign lands gather from the horizon. Magan and Meluhha come up from their land, The Size of the Earth's Surface

SG 31, which states that Magan and Meluhha are located 120 leagues from the 'tail of the Euphrates', may provide evidence for the size of the earth's 39 For Samaši-Adad and Yabdun-Lim, see RIM 1 50 81-87, 4 605-6. For these and other campaigns to the Mediterranean Sea, see A. Malamat AS 16 365-73. 40 For an.zà meaning `horizon', see p. 234.

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95

surface. If the `tail of the Euphrates' is the mouth of the river in southern Babylonia as proposed (see pp. 85-86), then these two lands would be placed just over 1,300 km, south of the head of the Persian Gulf or approximately 2,250 km, from Assyria. Assuming that Assyria was located near the middle of the earth's surface, it is possible that the earth's surface was believed to have a diameter of appproximately 4,500 km. 4' A circle of this diameter with its center at Assyria would extend to the southern end of the Persian Gulf, past the eastern border of Iran, the north eoast of the Black Sea, and the western border of modern Egypt. Even the island of Crete (ancient Kaptara; see p. 87), would fall inside the circle. 41

For a possible measurement of the diameter of the Earth's Surfaee as 218,400

bru `leagues' in the astronomical text AO 6478 (TCL 6 21), see p. 187 n. 58.

Chapter 5

Gilgamesh and the Distant Reaches of the Earth's Surface

In Tablets IX and X of the late recension of The Gilgamesh Epic,' Gilgamesh journeys from his home in Uruk to the faraway home of Utnapistim at ina pi narati 'in the mouth of' the rivers'. During this journey, Gilgamesh crosses a eosmic mountain, Mount Maši', that is inhabited by scorpion-men, traverses a 12-league-long region of darkness by way of the `Path of the Sun' (harran dšamši) before reaching a grove of gem-bearing shrubs and trees, sails across the sea (tâmtu), and erosses the 'waters of death' (m6' muti), before finally reaching his destination. Upon arrival, Gilgamesh tells Utnapištim of his travels: 2 [al s-hur al-li-ka ka li ši na mdtati(kur)mes l e1 to it ti qa šadê (k u r) mes mar-su-ti e-te-to-bé-ra ka li ši na ta-ma-a-tu4 Gilg. X v 25-27 (Thompson Gilg. pl. 42) I wandered and walked through all the lands. I traversed the diffIcult mountains. I crossed all the seas. In the prologue to The Gilgamesh Epic, the journey of Gilgamesh is also described as a trek across mountains to the seashore and a sea crossing to a land in the east, where Utnapištim is to be found: [ x ] x dgilgameš gft-ma -lu ra-šub-bu [ pe t] u û né-re-bé-e-ti šâ sur-sa-a-ni

1 For a seleet bibliography of The Gilgamesh Epic and related materials, see Tigay Gilg. 309-33. A new edition of Gilgamesh is being prepared by A. George. 2 For parallel portions of Old Babylonian Gilgamesh, see p. 103 n. 18.

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Mount Mašu

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[he-ru]-12 bu-ü-ri šâ ahi (g u) šadi' [e-b]ir a-ab-rba' [t]a-ma-ti rapašti(daga1)' adi it šamši (du tu.6) muš-t[e]-131 -12 ba-la-ti [ha]-a-it [ka] ši id dan-nu-rus'-su a-na rdl ut-napištim ru-tic-qz Gilg: I i 35-40 (Iraq 37 pl. 37)

[ .. ] Gilgamesh, perfect, splendid, [who ope] ned the passes of the mountain-range. [Who d]ug the wells at the side of the mountain, Icro]ssed the ocean, the broad sea, to the rising sun. [Who exa]mined the world-regions, soug[ht] out life, [Who re] ached, by his own power, Distant Utnapištim. The journey of Gilgamesh to the home of Utnapištim in the east in Gilg. IX-X provides further evidence for ancient Mesopotamian ideas concerning the distant reaches of the eontinental portion of the earth's surface, the cosmic sea, and territories across the sea. This evidence may be compared with information concerning distant lands in The Babylonian Map of The World, The Sargon Geography, and royal inscriptions. Mount Mau In Gilg. IX-X, Mount Mašu 3 is the first landmark on the way to ina pi narati. Here, the mountain is described as a mountain of sunrise and sunset, with a peak that extends upward to šupuk šamê `the firmament', 4 and a base in arallû 'the underworld'. Scorpion-men inhabit the mountain and observe Shamash at sunrise and sunset:

Gilgamesh IX ii 1-9 (Thompson Gilg. pl. 35) 1. šâ ša-di -i še-mu-štir ma-š[u šum-šu] 2. ana ša-ad ma-a-ši i-na ka-š[a-di] 3. šâ u4 mi -šam-ma i - na-as -sa-ru a-s[i dšamšis' u e-reb dšamšis'] 4. e- lu -šu-nu šu -pu -uk šamée k[aš-du] šap-liš a-ra-le-e i- rat-su -nu kaš-da -cit 5. 6. gir-tab-ltic-ùlu'° i-na-as-sa-ru bibi (k 6.)-šu 7. ša ra-aš-bat pu -ul-hat-su -nu-ma im-rat-su -nu mu-ttic gal-tu mi- lam-mu-šu-nu sa-hi-ip hur sa a ni 8. 9. ana a-si dšamš l u e-reb dšamšis' i- na-as-sa-ru dšamšis'-ma 3 Mount Maki is probably to be translated `Twin (masu) Mountain(s)' and may be eompared with twin-peaked mountains that the Sun rises through in Old Akkadian cylinder seals (see WA 7 531). Note the plural KUR.ME ma-a- su in Gilg. IX iv 40. 4 For supuk šame, see p. 240.

98 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Gilgamesh and the Distant Reaches of the Earth's Surface

The name of the mountain, Maš[u is its name]. When he (Gilgamesh) arri[ved] at Mt. Maki, whieh daily observes 5 the risi[ng sun and setting sun], whose tops, the firmament, r[eaches.]. whose foundations below reaeh the underworld. Scorpion-men guard its gate (mountain pass), whose awesomeness is magnifieent, gaze is death. Their fearsome sheen covers the mountain-range. At sunrise and sunset they observe the Sun.

The deseription of Mount Maki in Gilg. IX ean be compared with wondrous mountains that Mesopotamian kings encounter on their campaigns in foreign lands. For example, in Sargon's eighth campaign, Mount Simirriya on the way to Urartu, like Mount Mau, is described as a mountain with its top in heaven and base in the underworld (arallû): kurs

i-mir-ri-a uban (š u. s i) šadi i rabitutu ša ki-ma še-lu-ut šu-kur-ri zaq-pat-ma eli hur-šci-ni šu-bat dbe let ili mes td-qa-at re-e-ši

ša e-liš re-šd-a-šci ša-ma-mi en-da-ma šap-la-nu šur-šu-šâ šuk-šud-du qé-reb a-ra-al-li

TCL 3 pl. 1 18-19 Mount Simirria, a mighty mountain-peak, which spikes upward like the cutting-edge of a spear, on top of the mountain-range, the dwelling of Belet-Ili, rears its head. above, its (Mt. Simirriya's) peak leans on the heavens, below its roots reach into the underworld. 6 The wondrous height of the mountains ringing Mesopotamia, when compared with the flatness of the Mesopotamian plain, apparently suggested to ancient Mesopotamians that the mountain regions were inhabited by wondrous creatures such as the scorpion-men in Gilg. IX, the giant Huwawa/Humbaba/Huppipi of the "Cedar Mountain" in T i both the Sumerian and Akkadian Gilgamesh tradition, and the Anzu-bird in the Sumerian Lugalbanda Epic and Akkadian Anzu Epic.? The Region of Darkness In Gilg. IX iv 45'-IX v 46', Gilgamesh travels for 12 leagues along the harran dšamši 'Path of the Sun' (IX iv 46') from the home of the scorpion-men 5 For nasaru in Gilg. IX ii 3, 9 and other passages, with the meaning 'to observe astronomical phenomena', see CAD N/2 38-39 5. 6 For further parallels, see CAD A/2 226 araltû a 7 For the reading of the name Huppipi, see M. Guichard, NABUJ 1994 pp. 64-66 no. 74.

The Region of Darkness

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at Mt. Maki to a grove of gem-bearing trees by the seashore, where the alewife Siduri is to be found. For at least the first nine leagues of the journey, Gilgamesh passes through a region of darkness. At the end of the eleventh league, dawn approaches, and by the end of the twelfth league, the sun has risen: 8 Gilgamesh IX

38' 39' 40' 41'

y

38'- IX y 46' (Thompson Gilg pls. 36-37)

9 be[ru ina ka-šâ-di-šu] IMiltanu (s i .s â) ] -ha pa-ni-šu 9 [ [ša-pat ek-le-tum-ma ul i-ba]-dš-ši nu-ru

42' 43' 44' 45' 46'

[ul i-nam-di-in-šu ana amari pa-na]-at-sa arka-su [10 beru ina ka šâ] di šu [ ] qit-ru-ub [ ] kV' beri [11 beri ina ka šâ di šu it-t]a-si la-am dšamšis' [12 beri ina ka šâ di šu] na-mir-tü šak-na-at

38' 39' 40' 41' 42' 43' 44' 45' 46'

[When he completed] 9 leagues, the north-wind. ] . before him. [ [Dense is the darkness there is n] o light, [it does not allow him to see its fro]nt or its back. When he com[pleted 10 leagues] ] is near. [ ] of a league [ [When he completed 11 leagues], the dawn ca[me forth]. [When he completed 12 leagues] it was light.

It is not certain why the Sun does not shine along the 'Path of the Sun' in Gilg. IX, nor if this area is always shrouded in darkness. One possibility is that the Path of the Sun is shrouded by clouds. In Atrahasis III, dense darkness occurs when the Sun disappears at the coming of the flood: 19 [ša-pa-at e]-tü-tu dšamaš la-aš-šu [ ] x-šu ki-ma su-ub-bi [ . ri-gi-i]m' a-bu-bi

Lambert-Millard Atra-basis 94:18-20 8 For studies of this passage, see also W. Heimpel, JCS 38 140-46; E. Lipinski, OLP 2 49-54; D. Edzard, Or 54 52-53. For a region of darkness in the Bible, note Job 10:22 and Jeremiah 2:31. 9 For a restoration from napahu, see A. Oppenheim, Or 17 47. For napahu in connection with the possibility that, in Gilg. IX v 38', the north-wind fans the fires of the rising sun, see W. Heimpel, JCS 38 142. For a restoration [i-sal-ba, see A. Schottt, ZA 42 131. i° For sapû with this meaning, see CAD S /1 489 sapû A d.

100

Gilgamesh and the Distant Reaches of the Earth's Surface

[Dense is the darkness, Sun there is none. [ .... ] its ... like flies. [ . the roar of the flood. A seeond possibility is that the 12-league 'Path of the Sun' is a tunnel such as the Tigris tunnel near the source of the river. 11 If so, a parallel may be found in a Neo-Assyrian deseription of what may be Hezekiah's water tunnel in Jerusalem, in a Sennacherib inscription: . ] e-kil la na-pi-i4-šü dšamšušll mûmeš-šti2 ina e-t[u]-ti šit-ku-nu-ma mu-sa-[štir .. .

N. Na'aman, BASOR 214 26:15 (cf. JCS 12 81:14) ... ] was dark. The sun was not shining for him, its waters in darkness were situated and [its] outflow [ However, it is most likely that the region of darkness was a perpetually sunless region, sueh as the far north during the arctic winter. In Mesopotamian texts, regions of darkness are found both to the north and east of Mesopotamia. Sargon of Akkad encountered a region of darkness during a campaign to the east (see J. Glassner, RA 79 122-24), and the World Map identifies the northern nagû as 'Great Wall ... where the Sun is not seen' (see p. 22). If the dark portion of the 'Path of The Sun' in Gilg. IX is located in the north, this may explain the presence of the north-wind in Gilg. IX If 38. 12 The Grove of Gem-Bearing Stones After traversing the 12 leagues of "The Path of the Sun" Gilgamesh arrives at a fabulous grove along the shores of the sea where trees and shrubs produce precious stones instead of foliage and fruit: Gilg IX v 47'- vi (Thompson Gilg pl. 37) Gilg. IX v 47' a-x [ x x] x gi-is-si xmeš ina a-ma-ri i-ši-ir 13 48' na4 samti (g u g) na-šd-at i-ni-ib-šä.

11 The 'Path of The Sun' has been identified as a tunnel by a number of scholars. See, for example, Jacobsen Treasures of Darkness 204; Dalley Myths 131 n. 101; D. Edzard, Or 54 52-53; and E. Lipinski, OLP 2 49-50. W. Heimpel (JCS 38 140-43) suggests that the 'Path of the Sun' be imagined as an open corridor passing underneath the earth from the place of sunset to the plaee of sunrise through `heaven's interior'. 12 In Gilg. IX, the region of darkness does not reach from Mt. Mau until the very end of the earth's surfaee, beeause day breaks as Gilgamesh reaches the eleventh and twelfth leagues of his journey. The `region of the dawn in Gilg. IX may be compared with the eighth nagû in World Map rev. 24'-25': [ .... the pi lace where ... dawns at its entranee?'. 13 Dalley Myths 131 n. 104 restores a [sa gi et to t]i gi is si 'All kinds of t[horny, prick] ly, spikey bushes'. -

-

-

-

-

-

The Grove of Gem-Bearing Stones 49'

50' 51'

101

is-hu-un-na-tum ul-lu-la-at a-na da-ga-la ttbat(du I0 )b't na4ugnû (z a. g i n) na-ši ha-as-hal-ta in-ba na-ši-ma a-na a-ma-ri sa-a-a-ah

Gap of Approximately 23 Lines Gilg, IX vi 24' [...] xx [ 25' [..] giSereni [ 26' rzi'-nu-šu na4pappardil[lu(babbar.dili) x xxx ] x x ni 27' la-ru-uš tâmti(a.ab.ba) [x xxx n]a4sasu(nir.ziz) kima šbalti (ri i m) u s' ašag[i (k i š i 16) x x x x n a4AN.GUG.ME 28' .,

]

29'

30' 31'

32' 33' 34' 35'

36'

ha-ru-ub du!-u[l . , .. na4à]ba-aš-mu na4šubû(šüba) na4z[û-x x x x n]a4AN-x-(x) m[é-eš-r]e-e u la-le-[e x x x] x tJ x [(x)]

ktma x [xxx ] x [xxx na4]ugu.âš,gi 4 .gi4 šâgi-x[xxxxxxx]xtâmti i-šu ME [xxxx g]a?-li lul-lu4 dgilgameš [x xx ] x ina i-tal-lu-ki-šti iš-š[i ine-šu xxx ] xxx šu-a-tum

Catchline: mnnussi-d [u-ri sa bi] 1 tug šâ ina sa-pan tam-ti cis-bat 47' 48' 49' 50' 51'

thorns ....were visible. Right away Carnelian bears its fruit, Grape-clusters (of stone) hang down, beautiful to behold. Lapis-lazuli bears foliage, bears fruit, delightful to see. Gap of Approximately 23 Lines

Gilg. IX vi 24' [...] . [ ] 25' [ .. ] cedar [ 26' Its frond is pappardi[llû-stone . Sea-laruššu [ .... ] sasu-stone 27' Instead of thistles and bram[bles ... ] AN.GUG.ME-stone 14 28' 29' Carob .. [ .... a] bašmû-stone šubû-stone [ ... ]-ob[sidian] .. -stone 30' R [fiche] s and luxur[ies ... ] ... [. ] 31' ...

..

14

For

['a 4AN.GIUG.ME =

]

..

.

za as ki tum, see Emar 553 176' (Emar parallel to Urra). -

-

-

102 32' 33' 34' 35' 36'

Gilgamesh and the Distant Reaches of the Earth's Surface

ugu.âš.gi 4 .gic stonel 5 Instead of . whose .. [ of the sea It is . [ ] .. is abundant. Gilgamesh as he wandered about, He raise[d his eyes . , ] ... thus. [ , . , ] . [ , .. ]

]

[ , . , ] ,

Catchline: Siduuri the Alewife who lives on the strand of the sea. The grove of gemstones in Gilg. IX v-vi lies by the seashore where Gilgamesh meets Siduri the Alewife at the start of Gilg. X. The notion of a fabulous distant grove of gemstones in Gilg. IX probably reflects an ancient Mesopotamian belief that gemstones, whieh had to be imported into the Mesopotamian plain from afar, were plentiful in distant lands. In a later tradition concerning Alexander the Great's sojourn in distant regions, gemstones lie on the ground for the taking in a region of darkness near the ends of the earth: For four months they had not seen the sunlight or moonlight or their own faees. They marched on gravel not knowing what was under their own feet. They tasted and smelled the stones, but because of the darkness they could not tell what they were. Therefore all who had gone to the Land of Darkness were filled with remorse because of those stones. For when they left they diseovered that the stones were all precious gems, rubies, and ehrysolite.t 6

The idea that gems "grew on trees" in distant lands might have been strengthened by perceived similarities between the shape and color of certain gemstones and fruits. For example, carnelian (Gilg. IX v 48') and abašmû-stone (Gilg. X vi 29') are compared with boxthorn (eddetu) and unripe grapes in Abnušikinu; 17 ašgikû-stone (Gilg. IX vi 32') is compared with inib karaši `the fruit of the leek-plant' in Urgud (MSL 10 33:114); and KUB 22 70 refers to ishunnatu `grape-clusters' (Gilg. IX v 49) of precious stones (see CAD I 190). Although no gem-growing tree or shrub ever aetually reached Assyria or Babylon, comparable `wool-bearing' trees (isu naš šipati) were to be found in the royal kirimahu 'botanical garden' of Sennacherib in Nineveh (OIP 2 111:53-56, 116:64).

15

For na4ugu.as.gi 4. gi 4, see CAD A/2 427 3'b. This stone may be related to

as. gi 4 .g i 4 = ašgikû. 16 Pseudo-Callisthenes, Iskandarnama (trans. Minoo S. Southgate [New York: Columbia University Press] 1978) 58. For the region of darkness in Alexander Romances, see also E. Lipinski, OLP 2 43-47; J. Boyle, Bulletin of The John Rylands Library 60 (1977-78) 22-24. For parallels to the grove of gemstones in The One Thousand and One Arabian Nights, see Heidel Gilgamesh 68 n. 143; R. Burton, The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night (1897) vol. 10.50. See also P Jensen, Das Gilgamesh Epos, 2.122-24; and West Theogony p. 228 n. 215 for "golden apples" (= oranges?) in Greek mythology. 17 See CAD S 122 samtu 2' and CAD A/1 39 abasmû a. For the seed of the a§ plant, see CAD A/2 427 2. ' a'

The Cosmic Sea and Waters of Death

103

The Cosmic Sea and Waters of Death In Gilg. X, Gilgamesh erosses the cosmic sea (tâmtu) and mê mûti `waters of death' on his way to Utnapištim, despite the warnings of Siduri that only the Sun-god Shamash ean cross the cosmic sea. Gilgamesh X ii 20-27 (Thompson Gilg pl. 39 // CT 46 30) 18

20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

sa-bit a-na šâ-šu-ma izakkara(mu)ra a-na dgilgameš ul ib-ši dgilgameš né-be-ru ma-ti-ma u ma-am-ma ša ul-tu u4-um sa-at ikšudu (kur) la ib-bi-ru tam-ta e-ber tam-ti dšamaš qu-ra-du-um-mu ak-la dšamaš eb-ber man-nu pa-âš-qat né-ber-tum šup-šu-qat û-ru-uh-ša ù bi-ra-a mê meš mu-ti šâ pa-na-as-sa par-ku a-lum-ma dgilgameš te-te-ber tam-ta a-na mê mes mu-û-ti ki-i tak-tal-du te-ep-pu-uš mi-na

20. 21. 22,

The Alewife addressed Gilgamesh, saying: Never, Gilgamesh, has there ever been a crossing, and anyone who has come sinee the dawn of time has not been able to cross the sea. The crosser of the sea is valiant Shamash, other than Shamash, who can cross? The crossing is difficult, its way is burdensome, and everywhere the "waters of death" block its approach. How, Gilgamesh, would you eross the sea? When you arrived at the "waters of death;' what would you you do?

23. 24. 25. 26. 27.

Despite this warning, Gilgamesh is undeterred. Gilgamesh and the boatman of Utnapištim, Uršanabi, reach the 'waters of death' in only three days, after traveling a distanee of `one month and 15 days' (Gilg. X iii) and then cross the 'waters of death', first by using punting poles (Gilg. X iii-iv) and then, when the supply of punting poles is exhausted, by sail (Gilg. X iv). Finally, in Gilg. X v-vi, Gilgamesh arrives at ina pi narati, where he encounters Utnapištim. The use of punting poles to eross the 'waters of death' indicates that the `waters of death' were shallow, unlike the the deep waters of the open sea. The presence of 'waters of death' in the sea (tâmtu) in Gilg. X is unparalleled in cuneiform texts. 19 A belief that the distant reaches of the ocean were 18 For the Old Babylonian parallel to this seetion of Tablet X, see A. Millard, Iraq 26 99-101 (= CT 46 16); see also W von Soden, ZA 53 230-31; Daliey Myths 149-51. 19 The term `waters of death' does oecur in The Adapa Epic (Picchioni Adapa 116:37), where Adapa fails to drink mê balrti `waters of life', believing them to be the mê mûti `waters of death' (Picchioni Adapa 120:78).

104

Gilgamesh and the Distant Reaches of the Earth's Surface

connected with death may derive from the notion that one could pass directly into the underworld through the waters of the far reaehes of the sea, just as the sun appears to rise and set directly from/into the ocean by the seashore. 2° The Location of ina pi ndrdti Although Gilg. IX-X provide no information eoncerning the location of ina pi narati21 other than that it lies across thé sea from Mount Mau and the grove of gemstones, the prologue to The Gilgamesh. Epic indicates that the home of Utnapištim at ina pi narati lies to the east of Mespotamia:

[ , . ] Gilgamesh, perfect, splendid, [who opened the passes of the mountain-range. [Who d]ug the wells at the side of the mountain, [cro]ssed the ocean, the broad sea, to the rising sun. [Who exa]mined the world-regions, soug[th] out life, [Who reached, by his own power, Distant Utnapištim. Gilg. I i 35-40 (see pp. 96-97) This eastern loeation of the home of the flood hero is confirmed by materials in Sumerian Flood Story 258-60, where Ziusudra is settled in the direetion of the rising sun (east) in the land of Dilmun. In the Old Babylonian Gilgamesh, the home of Utnapištim is also located to the east of Uruk: dgilgameš su-mi a-na-ku ša al-li-kam iš -tu uruk ki* é-an-ni

ša âs*-4,u'-ra-am ša-di -i ur-ha-am re-qé-e-tam wa-sa* -tic* dšamšiši MVAG 7/1 15 iv 8'-1l' (coll. W G. Lambert) Gilgamesh is my name, am I. He who came here from Uruk -Eanna.

He who wandered through the mountains. A distant way of the rising of the sun. In the insc ri ptions of Sargon II, Dilmun also lies offshore, in the direction of sunrise from Mesopotamia: mtic-pi -ri šàr tilmunki ša ma-lak 30 ben i-na qabal tam-tim šâ si -it dšamšiši ki-ma nu-tic -ni nar-ba-su šit-ku-nu-ma A. Fuchs, Die Inschriften Sargon II. aus Khorsabad (Göttingen, 1994) 65:34-66:36 20 For the Sun, the eosmic ocean, and the ends of the earth's surface,' see pp. 332-33. 21 Any conneetion between ina pi nârâti in Gilg. with the town of the same name (see RGTC 2 153; 3 185) is almost certainly coincidental.

The Geography of the Earth's Surface in Gilg. IX-X

105

Upiri, King of Dilmun, whose lair is located a distance of 30 leagues inside the Sea of the Rising Sun. An identification of ina pi narati with Dilmun (modern Bahrain and the Bahrain arehipelago), finds further support later in Gilg. XI when Gilgamesh dives down into the sea off the coast of ina pi narati in search of the plant `Man Becomes Young in Old Age': 271. 272. 273. 274. 275. 276.

dgilgameš an-ni-tam ina še-me-štie : ip-ti r[a-a-ta] tic-rak-ki-is abne mes ina šépé me-šu] il-du-du-šu-ma ana aps[î ...1 šu-tic il-qi šam-ma-ma is-[bul gat0-šu] 22 ii-bat-ti-iq abnenid kab to tie' [ti ina šépémes-šu] ta[m]-tum is-su-kaš-štic a-na kib-ri-šd Gilg. XI 271-76 (Thompson Gilg. pl. 53//CT 46 35)

271. 272. 273. 274. 275. 276.

When Gilgamesh heard this, he opened the wa[ter-pipe] He tied heavy stone [s onto his feet] They dragged him to the Aps [u He took the plant, it pr[icked his hands.] He untied the heavy stone [s on his feet] The sea deposited him on its shore. .. .

As noted by E. During-Caspers (Persica 12 [1987] 64-67), the ratu 'water-pipe' in Gilg. XI 271 may serve as a conduit between the waters of the Apsu and salt waters of the sea. If so, Apsu in this context may refer to the sources of freshwater springs that bubble up from an aquifer beneath the Gulf floor off the coast of Bahrain. 23

The Geography of the Earth's Surface in Gilg. IX—X Although the travels of Gilgamesh to ina pi narati in Gilg. IX-X cannot be traeed on any modern or aneient map of the Near East, Gilg. IX-X, like the World Map and Sargon Geography, eonfirms that ancient Mesopotamians believed that the earth's surface consisted of three main components: a central continent, a cosmic sea, and land(s) across the sea. In Gilg. IX-X, Gilgamesh traverses the eentral continent from Uruk in Sumer, past Mount Mau, as far as 22

For this restoration, see CAD S 29 sahâlu 2. For the home of the Mesopotamian flood heroes (Ziusudra, Atrabasis, Utnapishtim) identified with Bahrain, see E. During Caspers, Persica 12 57-95, with further bibliography. Here, the prickly plant is identified as a type of coral (ibid., 89). For further discussion of the râtu in Gilg. XI and a possible parallel in The Bitingual Creation of the World by Marduk, see p. 132. 23

106

Gilgamesh and the Distant Reaches of the Earth's Surface

the coast of the sea. Then Gilgamesh sails across the cosmic sea (tâmtu) and the `Waters of Death', before finally reaching the home of Utnapištim at ina pi narati. In terms of the World Map, the journey of Gilgamesh in Gilg. IX-X may be understood as a journey from Babylonia to the shores of the cosmie ocean marratu (perhaps by way of the region marked 'Mountain'), and a sea crossing to one of the nagû across the marratu. In SG 33-44, Sargon's worldwide empire includes eight lands on the central continent (Marhaši, Tukriš, Elam, Akkad, Subartu, Amurru, Lullubi, Anšan), as well as lands across the Upper and Lower Seas, ineluding Dilmun, the home of the flood hero Ziusudra in The Sumerian Flood Story:

41. Anaku and Kaptara, the lands across the Upper Sea, 42. Dilmun and Magan, the lands across the Lower Sea, 43. and the lands from sunrise to sunset, the sum total of all the lands, 44. which Sargon, the King of the Universe, conquered three times. SG 41-44 (see p, 73)

The Place of Gilg. IX—X in Mesopotamian Cosmic Geography Although Gilg. IX-X describes places and natural phenomena that stretch the limits of modern credulity, this does not mean that ancient Mesopotamians rejeeted the descriptions of Mt. Mau, the `Path of the Sun', grove of gems, `waters of death', and ina pi narati as outright fabrications or exaggerated aceounts of true conditions in distant lands. Parallels in later materials reflect similar views to that of Gilgamesh concerning the far reaches of the earth's surfaee. In Odyssey XI 13-22, for example, one finds a region of darkness across the sea from the land of the Cimmerians, while Alexander Romances describe Alexander the Great as a Gilgamesh-type figure who reached a region of darkness near the ends of the world in his search for eternal life (see p. 102). In this light, one should remember that the final blank spaces on modern world maps were only charted during the twentieth century and that Spanish conquistadors in the Americas sought the "fountain of youth;' just as Gilgamesh himself obtains, and then loses, the plant `Man Becomes Young in Old Age' in Gilg. XI 271-89. 24 24 The world, in reality, is filled with inexplicable wonders and wondrous natural phenonomena, such as voleanoes, geysers, glaciers, waterfalls, and the great redwood and sequoia trees of the American West.

Chapter 6 COsmic Geography in Accounts Of Creation

Evidence coneerning the geography of the universe is found in aecounts of the organization of the universe in early times. These accounts explain how the universe, as eoneeived by Mesopotamians, came to be as it was and hence reveal ancient beliefs concerning the structure of the universe. The longest single surviving account of the building of the universe is found in the Babylonian epie Enuma Elish. In Enuma Elish, Marduk fashions heaven and earth from the body of Tiamat, commands the building of Babylon, and organizes a number of other features of the universe. Two other accounts of creation by Marduk also preserve a substantial amount of information. The Bilingual Creation of the World by Marduk (CT 13 35-37 + duplicates) presents a bilingual incantation in Late Babylonian script that records the ereation of the earth's surface. A Greek language account of creation by Marduk is found in The Babyloniaca of Berossus. A number of other Sumerian, bilingual, and Akkadian literary texts and ineantations preserve either brief aceounts of creation or short introductions that relate cosmological events of early times. In these texts, Anu, Enlil, and EnkilEa, rather than Marduk, are usually identified as the creators or rulers of the universe.

Enuma Elish Enuma Elish' is comprised of seven tablets. Tablets I-VI of the epic reeount the evolution of the universe from earliest times through the building

1 Text editions eited below utilize the text of Enuma Elish established W G. Lambert in Enuma Elish. For exemplars of Enuma Elish, see R. Labat, La poème babylonien de la Creation. For a now outdated list, see also A. Deimel, Enuma Elish, pp. ii-viii.

107

108

Cosmic Geography in Accounts of Creation

of Babylon. In the closing portion of Tablet VI and most of Tablet VII, the gods proclaim fifty names of Marduk. The epic closes with a short epilogue. The text itself, in the form available to us, was almost certainly composed no earlier than the late seeond millennium, because no exemplars older than the early first millennium are known. Nevertheless, some of the materials utilized by the author(s) of Enuma Elish are much older. Lists of creatures comparable to the eleven ereatures of Tiamat in Ee I 141-46 are found in Lugale and Angimdimma, whieh were translated into Akkadian in the Old Babylonian period. The earliest surviving association between Marduk and such creatures dates to the Kassite period. In an inscription of the Kassite king Agum I, representations of a bašmu, lahmu, kusarikku, ugallu, kulullû , uridimmu, and suhuramšû are said to decorate the doors of the cella of Marduk and Sarpanitum in Esagil (5H 33 iv 50-v 1). 2 In Enuma Elish, six of these seven are included among the eleven creatures of Tiamat, and Marduk decorates the Apsu-gate with depietions of the creatures of Tiamat in Ee V 73-76. The presence of such creatures in Esagil as early as the Kassite period suggests that the tradition of a battle between Marduk and enemy ereatures, such as the battle in Tablet IV, dates at least to the Kassite period and perhaps even the Old Babylonian period, because Marduk and Babylon first rose to prominenee at this time. Cosmographic information within Enuma Elish also points to an Old Babylonian origin for at least part of the materials incorparated in the epic. In Ee VI 39-44, the Anunnaki are divided into two groups. One group is sent to heaven, and the other is dispatched to earth. From the Kassite period onward, Anunnaki are usually gods of the earth while the Igigi are generally gods of heaven. 3 Therefore, it is likely that Ee VI 39-44 is drawn from a tradition that predates the Kassite period. The Evolution of the Universe in Enuma Elish

The first six lines of Enuma Elish describe the universe before the cosmos was shaped and relate the beginnings of the formation of the universe: 4 2.

e-nu-ma e -liš šap -liš am-ma-tum

la na-bu-tic ša-ma-mu su -ma la zak-rat

3. 4.

apsû-ma mu-um-mu ti-amat

reš-tu-6 za-ru-šu-un mu-al-li-dat gim-ri-štic-un

1.

2 For this inscription, see Brinkman MKH 97; B. Foster, Before the Muses I, 27377. For the authenticity of the inscription, see ibid n. 8; M. Astour, JAOS 106 327-31; N. Na'aman, Iraq 46 121-23; and eompare VAS 24 97 rev. 5 (Kassite period literary fragment): basmu, mushusšu, [ugal]lu, uridimmu, kulutlû, sub.urmafû. 3 See chap. 1, p. 5 n. 3. 4 For studies of Ee I 1-6, see M. Held, Kramer AV 231-39; C. Wileke, ZA 67 16369; M. Hutter, RA 79 187-88; H. Vantisphout, NABU 1987 no. 95; W. Moran, NABU 1988 no. 21.

9 5.

mêmešštii-nu stii nu mê

6.

gi-pa-ra la ki-is-su-ru

-

niš

-

üsüšte nis i hi qu û ma

su -sa -a la Ee I 1-6

When heaven above had not yet been named earth below had not yet been called by name, Apsu, the first, their progenitor, Creative Tiamat who bore them all, they mixed their waters together, when no meadow was matted, no canebreak was found.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

At the start of Enuma Elish, the universe is comprised of water. Only Apsu and Tiamat, the deified underground waters and deified waters of the sea, were in existence. The first couplet explains that even heaven and earth did not exist at ing of the wawans with this early time. The evolution of the uni ters of Apsu and Tiamat in lines 5-6. In the following 12 lines, new gods come Anšar Kišar. Ansar Laba d Anšarr and Kisar. into being, including the pairs Lahm himself sires Anu, who in turn fathers Ea-Nudimmud. The first cosmic locality to appear in the epic is Andurunna, in Ee I 24: -sa sâ ti-amat 23. dal-u-nim-ma qé-reb an-durun-na su šu-3-du-runšâ -du-ru 24. i-na -3

Ee I 23-24 23. They were muddling Tiamat's inside frolie i 24. with their frightening frolic e The meaning of An y `' l e Anu dwells':

bilingual Balag

sition as

û.mi.a mar.ma.an.zé.en ki.aW.dôr,ru.Wa,šè ki.aW•dôr,ru•Wa,sè u.mi.a hi-sa-nu a-far [uš-sa-b] u ni-ši ni-si hi-ša-nu a-šar da-nu-um [us-sa-b] SBH 21 rev. 33-34 + dupl. (Cohen Balag 227 33'-34') O people, hurry to where Anu dwells. The location of Andurunna is not explained in Enuma Elish, perhaps because the author of the epic no longer understood the significance of the term. The editor(s) of the the series An = Anum appear to have forgotten that nna as šund instead identify a Andurunna was a cosmic place-name a GU4 .Di7B official of Anu: 5 CT 24 2:11 a n, d u r û ndu.runa. n a= su After the appearance appearanee of the cosmic Andurunna in Enuma Elish, there are no furpe until Ea establishes the Apsu in Ee I 61-78: ther additions to the cosmi 5

offieials of Anu and CT 24 2:7-8 for two 1-3:17 for seven GU4.D11B officials references, see Tallqvist Götterepitheta 74-75.

See Ninšubur. officials of Ninsubur. F GU4 .DtlB

Cosmic Geography in Accounts of Creation

110 61. 62.

ib-šim-šum-ma û-nak-kil-šu

us-rat ka-li û-kin-š[u] šu-tu-ra ta-a-šu el-lum

63.

im-nu-šum-ma šit-tu irtehišü

ina mêmeš â_šap ši ih sa-lil tu-ub-ba-taš

65.

ii-šâ-as-lil-ma apsâ

66,

dmu-um-mu tam-la-ku

re-hi šit-tum da la-piš ku-ü-ru

67. 68.

iš-ta-hat a-ga-šu šu-ü ü- ia-di-iq

69. 70.

ip-tur rik-si-šu me - lam-mi-štii it-ba-la ik-mi-šu-ma dmu-um-mu i-ta-sir

71. 72.

ft-kin-ma dmu-um-mu it-ta-mah

eli apsî šu-bat-su û kal ser-ret-su

73. 74.

ul-tu lem ne e štic d e-a uš-ziz-zu

ik-mu-û i-sa-a-du ir nit ta šû eli ga-re-šû

75. 76.

qer-biš ku um mi sû im bi šum ma apsâ

77,

âš-ru-uš-šu dé-a u ddam-ki-na hi-ra-tuš

šup šu hi iš i-nu-ûh-ma il-ad-du-û eš-re-e ti gi-pa-ra-šû tic šar šid ma

64.

78.

-

apsâ i-na-ra-âš-šu eli šû ip-tar-ka

ina rab-ba-te uš-bu Ee I 61-78

61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78.

He (Ea) designed and implemented a comprehensive plan. He skillfully prepared it, his outstanding holy spell. He recited it, made it rest on the waters. He poured sleep over him (Apsu) while he was resting peacefully. When he put Apsu to sleep, pouring out slumber, Mummu, the advisor, through lack of sleep was in a stupor. He (Ea) untied his (Apsu's) bands and then removed his tiara. Then he took his aura and he himself put it on. After he defeated and slew Apsu, He fettered Mummu putting a stop to him. He ereeted his home on Apsu, grasped Mummu holding his leash. After Ea defeated and vanquished his enemies, had established his victory over his foes, He rested peacefully inside his cella. He named it Apsu, whose shrines he appointed. There he established his bed-chamber. Ea and Damkina, his spouse, dwelt there in splendor.

Enuma Elish

111

Ee I 61-78 illustrates three interrelated meanings of Apsu. First, the god Apsu is slain by Ea. Later, Apsu is a fresh water ocean, and then a residence of Ea. Ee I 61-66 explains the formation of the cosmic ocean Apsu. Ea casts a spell over the defeated god Apsu and puts him into eternal slumber. This explains why subterranean waters identified as Apsu are at rest, in contrast to the turbulent waters of the ocean on the earth's surface. Ee I 71-78 refers to the residence of Ea named Apsu. Ea and Damkina live in the cella of the Apsu, and Ee I 76 states that Ea assigned shrines to other gods in the Apsu, just as all major temples housed shrines of many deities. The location of the cosmic Apsu is not explained in Ee I 61-78. The next addition to the cosmos in Tablet I are the šar erbetti (four winds'), which Anu presents to his grandson Marduk in Ee I 105-6, and the dust, mehû-wind, and wave, whieh are mentioned in Ee I 107-8. The šar erbetti are identified as the North, South, East, and West winds in Ee IV 41-44. Tablets Two and Three

The only new locality mentioned in Ee II and III is ubšukkinakku 'the place of the assembly' (Ee II 126; III 61, 119). 6 In these two tablets, Tiamat and her consort Kingu decide to eliminate the gods allied with Anšar, Anu, and Ea. These gods then call on Marduk to save them. Marduk agrees to battle on their behalf, providing that they convene the assembly in ubšukkinakku and elevate him to the kingship of the gods. The gods agree to Marduk's terms and the third tablet ends with the enthronement of .Marduk. However, the location of ubšukkinakku is never explained. Tablet Four

The first addition to the universe after the enthronement of Marduk is a single constellation (lumašu), which the gods set up in Ee IV 19-26 to test Marduk's powers. The gods challenge Marduk to destroy and reconstitute the constellation by the power of his word. In Ee IV 25-26, Marduk aeeomplishes this task. In nature, eonstellations appear to disintegrate and reassemble as the individual stars that comprise the constellation appear and disappear separately at dusk and dawn, or rise and set separately over the horizon. After Marduk proves his powers by reconstrueting the constellation, preparations begin for Marduk's battle against Tiamat. In Ee IV 35-50, Marduk prepares his weapons, including eleven winds and storms listed in Ee IV 41-48. A twelfth weapon, the abubu 'flood', is added in line 49. After fashioning his weapons, Marduk mounts his storm ehariot and rides off to join battle with Tiamat. By lines 125-26, the battle is over, Marduk has put Tiamat to death,

6 There is evidence that ubsukkinakku was an outdoor assembly courtyard rather than an indoor assembly hall. See George BIT 288-91.

112

Cosmic Geography in Accounts of Creation

leashed her eleven creatures, and dispensed with Kingu. Now Marduk begins the process of fashioning the universe in earnest. The major construction project in Enuma Elish begins in Ee IV 135-46 and continues through Ee V 68. The building material is the corpse of Tiamat, and the architect and builder is Marduk. In the closing section of Tablet IV, Marduk constructs cosmic regions and assigns these regions to Anu, Enlil, and Ea: 135. 136. 137. 138. 139. 140. 141. 142. 143.

144, 145. 146.

i-nu-ûh-ma be-lum uzuku -bu ü-za-a-zu ih-pi-ši-ma mi-iš- lu-iicš-ša iš-ku-nam-ma iš-du-ud ma, -ka me-e -ša la šu-sa-a šame e i-bi -ir uš - tam-hi -ir mi-ih-rit ap-si-i im-šu-ûh-ma be-lum èš-gal-la tam-ši-la-šu

šâ-lam -taš i-bar-ri i- ban-na-a nik-la-a-ti ki-ma nu-un maš-te-e a-na ši-ni-šu šâ ma mi us-sal-lil ma-cis -sa -ru ü šâ as bit šu nu ti um-ta-' -ir (g-ra-ta i hi tâm ma šu-bat dnu -dim -mud šâ ap-si-i bi-nu-tuš-šu ti-kin é-šâr-ra

èš-gal-la é-šâr-ra šâ ib-nu-u ša-ma-mi da-nim den-lil u d é-a ma-ha-zi-šu-un uš- ram-ma Ee IV 137-46 V

135. 136. 137. 138. 139. 140. 141. 142. 143. 144. 145. 146.

Then Bel relaxed examining her corpse, to divide her flesh and make wonders. He split her in half like a dried fish. Then he set half of her up and made the Heavens as a roof. He stretched out a skin and assigned a guard. He ordered them not to let her waters eseape. He erossed the Heavens and examined Ašrata He made it a replica of Apsu, the dwelling of Nudimmud. Then Bel measured the dimension of Apsu. He established Ešarra as the duplicate of Ešgalla. In Ešgalla, Ešarra which he made, and the Heavens, Marduk settled Anu, Enlil, and Ea in their sanctuaries.

In lines 137-38, Marduk divides `Tiamat in half and fashions half of her corpse into the Heavens. Then in lines 139-40, Marduk stretches out a skin, presumably to keep the watery corpse of Tiamat from draining downward into Apsu, since Marduk appoints guards to keep her waters from escaping. In lines 14142, Marduk erosses the Heavens and examines Ašrata. Then Marduk makes this region equivalent to Apsu.- Finally in Ee IV 143-46, Marduk builds a second region, Ešarra, which is equivalent to Ešgalla, and then assigns Anu, Enlil, and Ea to their cosmic homes.

113

Enuma Elish

The Cosmos at the End of Tablet IV. Three rare cosmic plaee-names are used in Ee IV 137-46: Ašrata, Ešarra, and Ešgalla. Ašrata occurs in Ee IV 14142, where Marduk constructs the Heavens (šamû) and then examines Ašrata. The only other known occurrence of the cosmic place-name occurs in Ee V 121. Barra and Ešgalla appear twice in Ee IV 143-46, while Ešarra oceurs a third time in Ee V 120. In order to understand the structure of the universe at the end of Tablet IV, it is first necessary to identify these terms correctly. The identity of Ešgalla can be established on the basis of Ee IV 143-46, where Bel measures the dimensions of Apsu and establishes the Ešarra, making it equal to Ešgalla, but Ešgalla itself is not built. Then in Ee IV 145-46, Ešgalla is assigned to Ea when Anu reeeives the Heavens (šamamu), and Enlil receives Ešarra. Thus, Ešgalla must be a second name for Ea's region, the Apsu, whieh is already in existence at the start of Tablet IV. Ee IV 145-46, together with Ee V 119-22, identify and locate Ešarra. In lines 145-46, Marduk assigns Ešarra to Enlil, the Heavens (šamätuu) to Anu, and the Apsu to Ea. Ee IV 138 states that the Heavens (šamamu) are a cosmic 'roof', so Ešarra must be located below this level. In an analagous passage in Atrahasis (Lambert-Millard Atra-basis 42:13-18), the same three gods divide the regions of the universe, with Anu ascending to heaven and Enki/Ea descending to the Apsu (see p. 126). Enlil is then left on the earth's surface. In Ee IV 137-46, there is no earth's surface for Enlil to occupy, so Enlil is sent to Ešarra, the region between the Heavens that belong to Anu, and the Apsu of Ea. 7 Now that Ešarra and Ešgalla have been located, it is possible to locate and identify Ašrata. In Ee V 119-22, Mrata is listed alongside Apsu, the earth's surface, and Ešarra, but the Heavens proper (šamûišamamu) are omitted. In Ee IV 145-46, Ašrata is omitted when the Heavens, Ešarra, and Apsu are assigned to their respeetive gods.

Ee IV 145-46

Ee V 119-22

Atrahasis

šamamn—Anu Ešarra—Enlil —— Apsu—Ea

Ašrata Ešarra Earth's Surface Apsu

Anu in Heaven Enlil on Earth Ea in the Apsu

7 The location of Ešarra, between Heaven and Apsu in Ee IV 137-46, and hetween the earth's surface and Ašrata (a name for heaven or a feature of the heavens) in Ee V 119-22, suggests that Barra is the level of the winds and storms of Marduk in Ee IV 41-50, or that Ešarra is just above the level of the winds and storms at the end of Ee IV; before the stars are set in plaee in Ee V 1-8. Thus, the universe in Ee IV 146, consisting of the waters of heaven above, the waters of Apsu below, and perhaps a level of winds, may be compared to the early universe in Genesis 1. The distribution of cosmic regions between Anu, Enlil, and Ea in Ee IV is not to be confused with the system of dividing the sky into Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea in astronomical works such as Mul-Apin and `Astrolabes?'

114

Cosmic Geography in Accounts of Creation

As Mrata replaces šamamu 'Heavens' in Ee V 119-22, it seems probable that Mrata is a part of the Heavens, or a second name for the Heavens, just as Ešgalla is used as a second name for Apsu, and Nudimmud is used as a seeond name for Ea in Ee IV 142. 8 Lines 141-44 explain that the Heavens plus Mrata and Barra are both equivalent to Apsu/Ešgalla, so it is probable that all three levels of the universe were thought to be the same size. Thus the universe at the end of Tablet IV seems to eonsist of three equal cosmic regions:, the Heavens with Mrata, Barra, and Apsu/Ešgalla. Tablet Five

Marduk's cosmic construction project continues in Ee V 1-68. In Ee V 146, Marduk arranges the stars, moon, and sun in the visible heavens; in Ee V 47-58, Marduk provides the sources of fresh water in heaven and earth; and in Ee V 59-68, Marduk positions the eosmic bonds that hold the various features of the universe in place and releases his net. Ee V 1-46. In Ee V 1-10, Marduk arranges the kakkabu (stars, planets, and constellations) 9 and provides gates for these astral bodies to use when they enter and leave the visible heavens: 1. 2.

tic ba âš šim man za za kakkabanimes tam- šil -šu-n[u]

3.

4.

ü-ad-di šatta (mu.an.na) 12 arhu me š

5. 6.

iš-tu u4-mi ša šatti igi-far-šid man za az dné-bé-re

7. 8.

a-na la e-peš an-ni man-za-az den-lzl u dé-a

9.

ip -te -ma abullati (kâ.g al) mes ši -ga -ru û- dan-ni-na

10.

-

-

-

-

an ilani rabûti lu-ma-ši uš -zi-iz mi-is-ra-ta tic -as-sir kakkabanumes 3ta.àm uš-zi-iz us-s [i-r] u i su ra ti ana ud-du-u rik si štic un la e-gu-'d ma-na-ma 6-kin it-ti-šil ina si-li ki-lal-la-an šu-me-la u im-na -

-

-

Ee V 1-10

1. 2.

He fashioned the stations for the great gods. The stars, their likeness he set up, the constellations.

8 It is not certain why the rare cosmie place-names Ašrata, Barra, and Ešgalla are used in Enuma Elish, It is possible that the names are used for literary rather than cosmologieal reasons. Ašrata, Ešarra, Ešgalla, and šamû/samdmû, all contain the letter f and thus may be used together for alliteration. There is no known synonym for apsû, besides Ešgalla, which includes the letter f. 9 For a discussion of the term kakkabu, see pp. 152-53.

Enuma Elish

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

115

He fixed the year, drew the boundary-lines. Set up three stars for each of the 12 months. After he drew up the designs of the year. He set fast the station of Neberu to fix their bands. So that none would transgress or be neglecful at all, he set the station of Enlil and Ea with it. Then he opened the gates on the two sides, strengthened the bolts on the left and right.

The stellar system described in Ee V 1-8 refers to the organization of the sky in the `Astrolabes, where three stars are listed for each month of the year: one star each for the Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea. 10 Diagrams of this system survive on "Astrolabe" fragments that were eomposed in circular form (CT 33 11-12). In these diagrams, stars are located in individual zones that are delineated by lines drawn to mark the bands of Anu, Enlil, and Ea and to indieate the months of the year. These lines are comparable to the borders that Marduk draws in the sky in Ee V 3. Lines 5-8 allude to a special role assigned to star Neberu and the stations of Enlil and Ea in this system. The star Neberu is identified as the star of Marduk in both Astrolabe B (KAV 218 B ii 29-32) and Ee VII 124-27, where Marduk is praised by the name Neberu. 11 The passage in Ee VII explains that Neberu regulates the heavens: 124.

dné-bé-ru né-bé-re-et

125.

e-lif ù fap-lif šap-lišla eh- 196-ru e-li

šamêe famêe u ersetimt'm lu-ü lu -û ta-me-eh-ma li qi ' šü fû šd-a-šu fd-a-fu V

126. 127.

dné-bé-ru kakkabu-,ü kakkabu-,ti tbit kun-sag-gi lu

ša-a-šu lu-û pal-su-fü pal-su-šü šu-nu fu-nu fa-a-fu

fet

ina famée û fâ pu u Ee VII 124-27

124. 125. 126. 127.

Let Neberu be the holder of the crossing of heaven and earth, so that they cannot ean no cross above and below, but must wait for him. 10 is his (Marduk's) star, which he made appear in the heavens. Nebe . He is the one who holds the "turning point, 12 they must look t

Later, Ee VII 130-31 explains that Neberu keeps the stars in heaven on their courses: 1 ° For the Astrolabes, see pp. 154 -66. 11 For Neberu as Marduk's star, see also CAD N/2 147 3; Hunger Pingree Mul-Apin 126; J. Koeh, Koch, WO 22 48-72. For a study of Marduk's stars, see A. Schott, ZA 43 124-45. For this star in Enuma Elish, see B. Landsberger and J. V. Kinnier Wils so p. 162. 12 The Akkadian loan-word kunsaggû from Sumerian kun.sag is only attested quivalence or kunsaggû is based on šnum . The translation `turn g pšâ c l circ rkišetthe he tšamée nt of kun .ga = mutt,ru `street 'street h CAD M/2 177).

116

Cosmic Geography in Accounts of Creation

130. šci sci kakkabani mes sâ-ma-mi 131. ki-ma se -e-ni li-ir -a

al-kàt-su-nu li-kin-ma ilani gim-ra-šû gim-ra-fû -un

Ee VII 130-31 130. The stars of heaven, let him set their course. 131. Let him shepherd all the gods like sheep. In Astrolabe B, Neberu and the stations of Enlil and Ea are identified with either the last month of ar), or the first month of the new year (Nisan). Astrolabe B lists Marduk's star, Neberu, dar-star f the Path of Anu and identi this star with the New Year (KAV 218 B ii 29-32). The stastation tion of Enlil can ean be identified as n `The 'The Plough Star', the Enlil-star for Nisan in KAV 218 B iii 1-3. Here sta 'Enlil entified as `Enlil who determines miIk u6 'Piscis the destinies'. The station of Ea can be identified with milk `Piscis Austrinus', the Ea star for Adar in Astrolabe B: [m]uik u6 dé a KAV 218 B i 27 "The Fish" is/of Ea. -

Thus, Neberu and the stations o apparently regulate the heavens by leading the remaining stars of the Paths of Anu, Enlil, aa hrough their annual courses. Lines 9-10 allude to the gates that the stars, Moon, and Sun use when risrising and setting. These gates appear in numerous other sources, such as Prayers to the Gods of the Night, where the stars apparently come out through these gates. 13 After arrang ns his attention to t n 11-12, Marduk makes the Moon come out: ina ka-bat-ti-šâ-ma ka-bat-ti-fâ-ma dnanna-ru us-te-pa-a uš-te-pa-a

Miš-tais-ta-kan kan e-la-a-ti mu-šâ iq-timu-sâ

Ee V 11-12 Then in her belly he set up "The Heights, made the Moon appear, assigned him the night. The location loeation of the Moon's home, elâtu, is not explained in this passage or anywhere els s t is not possible to establish the relationship between this region and the Heavens (samûlsamamû), (šamû lšamamu), Eša Esarra, rra, and Mrata in Tablet IV, or vel of the stars in Tablet V. In cosmic contexts outside Enuma Elish, elâtu is usually paired with saplâtu šaplâtu (lower parts of the universe), which generally refers to the underworld. In such contexts, elâtu refers, in part at least, to the earth's surface as well as the heavens. 14 After the Moon is placed in elâtu, Marduk sets the monthly phases and course of the Moon. , the Moon is commanded t ax until the 13 14

For the gates of heaven, see pp. 266-67. elatunes elat 1 pp. 227, 236. For elâtu and el

Enuma Elish

117

fifteenth day; and in lines 19-22, the Moon is commanded to wane for the rest of the month, beginning with the time that the Moon sees the Sun on the horizon. At the middle of the lunar month, the full Moon rises on the eastern horizon just as the Sun is setting on the western horizon. At this time, the lunar and solar disks appear to gaze at each other across the breadth of the heavens.' 5 Lines 23-46 of Tablet V, are incomplete. This section, however, probably the annual and daily course of the Sun and the seasons of the described year. Ee 25-29 mentions the Sun, while preserved portions of Ee V 39-40 and Ee 45-46 refer to day and night. ib-ni-ma u4-mu [ .. . šattu(m u4 . a n .n a)

lu-u hi-tam-hit-rat

Ee V 39-40 [Text restored courtesy of W. G. Lambert] Then he made the day [ The year was indeed equal. .. .

ul-tu u4-me tic-[ .. . ma-as-rat mu-ši u i[m-mi .. . Ee V 45-46

After the days he [ the watches of night and d[ay he . . .. .

Ee V 40 apparently refers to the fact that there are an equal number of daylight and night hours over the course of the year. Ee V 47-58. After organizing the heavens, Marduk creates the sources of fresh water in both heaven and earth. The waters of heaven are created first. In line 47-52, Marduk creates precipitation and designates himself as the god who controls the weather: 47.

ru-pu-uš-tü šâ ti-am[at

48.

dmarduk ib-ta-n[i

49. 50. 51. 52.

]

... ] x x x šâ as bi i' ana u[r-pa-a-til û sâ ik-sur-ma Ee V 15-22[šu]-uz-nu-nu [fu]-uz-nu-nu ka-sa-sa te-bi fd-a-ri šd-a-ri im-ti-š4 ka -mar im-ti-f4 fu-uq-tur imbari(m u šu-uq-tur ticšdfd hi iz qat-su ra-ma-nu-uš 11-ad-di-ma ra-ma-nu-uf Ee V 47-52

47. 48.

The spittle of/which Tiam[at Marduk then creat[ed ereat [ed ... ] .. .

]

" For the Moon and Sun gazing at each other on the 12th to 16th of the month, e reports in SAA 8 see SAA 8 pp. n see Thompson Rep. 119-67. For H. V tisphout, ne-half lunar cyc an interpretation o JCS 33 196-98.

118

Cosmic Geography in Accounts of Creation

49. 50. 51. 52.

He collected it and rolled it into clouds. To raise the wind, to make the rain fall, to make fog thicken, to heap up her (Tiamat's) venom, he appointed to himself and placed in his own hand.

Following the creation of precipitation, Marduk creates the sources of fresh water on the earth's surface: 53. 54.

iš-kun qaq-qad-t sa' nag-bu up-te-et-ta-a ip-te-ma i-na inéi'-sä

55. 56.

na-bi-ri-šâ na-bi-ri-sâ up-t[e]-ha-a iš-pu-uk is-pu-uk ina ser-ti-šci ser- ti-sci nam -ba [u] p ta li sâ

57. 58.

iš-pu-uk 1mû1' it-tas-bi

pu-r[a-at-ta] 1i'-di-ig-lat x x e-te-ez -ba

(ser-ti

š[â-de]-le' s[â-de]-le' bé-ru-ti

ana ba- ba-lim kup-pu Ee V 53-58

53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58.

He set up her head, headed up dirt. Then he opened up the spring, it became saturated with water. Then he opened the Euphrates a n her eyes. He plugged her nostrils, left ... behind. He heaped up the "distant" mountains on her breast. Then he drilled a water hole to carry the catchwater.

Ee V 53 begins the description deseription of the building of earth from the lower half of Tiamat. He first sets up the head of Tiamat and then pours out dirt. This act seems to be the first step in the buil the earth's surface. In The Bilingual Creation of th by Marduk (CT 13 36:17-18; see pp. 130duk creates dry land by pouring dirt on a raft. 16 Then Marduk fashions the sources sourees of fresh water found on, or just below, the earth's surface. surfaee.First, Marduk opens a nagbu (`spring, souree') source') in Tiamat's he en, in lines 55-56, pens the sources of the Tigris and Euphrates in Tiamat's eyes and plugs her nostrils so that no other streams can escape. Thus, the w rs in Tiamat's head (réšu) serve as the nagbu `spring' 'spring' of the two rivers, and her (ina) are the sources of the Tigris and Euphrates. This imagery dependent on word-play. Akkadian res reš ini refers vers (see CAD I/J 158 2'). On the World Map, s ourees the source souree of the Euphrates is drawn d g shape ini alpi `eye 'eye o (see p. 42). After establishing the Tigris rates, Marduk turns his attention to smaller waterways. In line 57, Marduk heap th šadû dû berûtu berutu `Distant 'Distant Mountains'. te 'Distant istant Mountains' seems to refer to mountains in gengeneral, e rather than anyinéi'-šäc ange. In The S ymn 16 See also Race Ra Racc cc 134:240, šâere Marduk is praised as sapik sâpik ersetim, and where Marduk -Sirsir is called sâpik sadî. sadi.

Enuma Elish

119

126:6, 19), `Distant Mountains' seem to include all the mountains under the Sun. The waters of the water-hole and catchwater in Ee V 58, then, presumably refer to pools of water in the mountains that feed the springs that flow down to the plains. 17 Ee V 59-68. In Ee V 59-68, Marduk completes his construction project by fashioning cosmic bonds and setting the universe in place:

dur-ma-h[i-iš] û-rak-kis-ma šâ pal še-pu-uš-šu re-ta-at šâ ma-rai er-se -ti uk-tin-na lib bu uš ta-wa-wa-ti û šâ as bi ka-liš uš-te-si šamêe u ersetimtim flu' x x x ma-x-x kun-nu-ni ü ba ši mu par-s[i-šu] d é-a uš ta-as-bit Ee V 59-68

59. 60. 61. 62, 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68.

e-gir zib-bat-sa [xx(x)]xx apsâ [iš kun h]al-la-šâ [meš la šâ u]s sal li la [iš tu š]i-ip-ra [uš-pa-ri-iir fsa'-pa-ra-šu ip-fte' -eq-ma [ x (x) ] ri-kis-su-nu iš-tu pel- lu -de-šu us-si-ru [ser-r]e-e-ti it-ta-da-a

59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68.

Twisting her tail he fastened it as the Great Bond. He , , . the Apsu beneath his feet. [He set up] her croteh wedging up the heavens, [the half which h] e made as a roof, earth was set firm. [After] he completed the work inside the sea. [He loosened his net and let it out completely. Then he inspeeted: "heaven and earth are ... ([ ... ] their bonds ... twined?' After he designed his rites, made his rul [es,] he then cast down the [lead]-ropes, he made Ea take them.

-

-

-

-

-

Ee V 59-68 refers to three cosmic regions (the Apsu, heaven, and earth) and the bonds that hold them together. The Apsu and heaven already exist before Tablet V, but no name for earth occurs until ersetu in Ee V 62. In this context, 'earth' must refer to the earth's surfaee, because Marduk has just completed the construetion of features of the earth's surfaee, including the Tigris, Euphrates, and mountains in Ee V 53-58.

17 For šadû berûtu in royal insc ri ptions both east and west of Mesopotamia, see CAD B 207-8. The role of the mountains as nagbu (sources of fresh waters) is made elear in a Bit Rimki incantation (R. Borger, JCS 21 2:1-3:2), and a gu .i1.1a to Samaš (J. Cooper, ZA 62 74:29), both of whieh refer to sadû nagbi.

120

Cosmic Geography in Accounts of Creation

The first cosmie bond that Marduk creates in Ee V 59-66 is the durmahu `Great Bond'. In Ee VII 95-96, the term is explained as markers ilani 'bond of the gods'. In Ee V 59-60, the function of the durmahu seems to be to hold the Apsu, heaven, and earth's surface in position since Marduk apparently stands on the Apsu in Ee V 60 as he fastens the durmahu. At this time, the heavens, the earth's surface, and the Apsu seem to lie adjacent to one another, because Marduk's next act is to hoist the heavens upward, away from Apsu and earth, by using Tiamat's croteh as a wedge. This may explain why heaven is distant from earth but the subterranean waters of the Apsu lie just below the earth's surface. In Ee V 63-64, Marduk finishes his work inside Tiamat and lets out his net. Any remaining waters of Tiamat released from the net may form the eosmic sea. Then, in lines 65-66, Marduk completes his construction project by inspecting heaven and earth and, apparently, checking that the bonds that hold the universe together are in place. Finally, in lines 67-68, Marduk throws down lead-ropes that regulate the universe to Ea in the Apsu. Ea may then hold these lead-ropes in order to keep heaven and earth in place over the Apsu. Marduk himself holds similar lead-ropes in Assurbanipal's Acrostic Hymn to Marduk and Zarpanitum (SAA 3 9:8-9), and Assur is deseribed as holding heavenly lead-ropes in a Sennacherib inscription. {I er-re-e-ti šamê e rabûti mes mar-kas d [i-g'i-gi] u da-nun-na-ki ü-kal rit-t[uš-šu]

A. George, Iraq 48 135 B 8-9 The lead-rope of the mighty heavens, the bond of the I[gigi] and Anunnaki, he (Assur) holds [in his hand. Ee V 117-30. Ee V 117-30 oceurs at the gods' victory celebration following the defeat of Tiamat and her allies. During the celebration, the gods remind Marduk that he had promised to provide shrines for them, In Ee V 117-30, Marduk informs the gods of plans to build Babylon to house their shrines: 117. 118.

dmarduk pa-a-šu i-pu-uš-ma an ilani abbé(ad.ad) -šu

i-qab-bi a-ma-tum iz-zak-kar

119. 120.

e-le-na apsi mi-ih-rit é-šâr-ra

šu-bat haš-ma-ni šd ab-nu-û a-na-ku el-ku -un

121. 122.

šap-liš ed-ra-ta lu-pu-uš-ma bi-ta

û-dan-ni-na qaq-qar-šc lu û šu-bat la-le-e-a

123. 124.

qer-bu-uš-šu ku-um-mi lu-ud-da-a

ma-ha-za-šu lu-šar-šid-ma lu kIn šar-ru-ti

125. e-nu-ma ul-tu apsi tel-la-a ana pu -ruh -ri' 126. ciš-ru-uš-šu lu-u nu-bat- ta-ku-una-na ma-har pu-hur-[k]u-un 127.

e-nu-ma ul-tû Id-ma-mi

tur-r[a-dal ana [pu-uh-ri]

128. âš-r[u-uš-šu] lunu-bat-ta-ku -un a-na ma-bar pu-hur-ku-un

121

Enuma Elfish 129.

lu-ub -bi -ma sum-[fu babili

bitatu (é) mes i

130.

(kâ.dingir.ra)]ki (kâ.dingir.ra)]k' n[i-i] -ni qer-b[u-us-fû] qer-b[u-us-šü]

ni-ip-pu-[u]š ni-ip-pu-[u]s i-x-t

rabîttime'

Ee V 117-30 117. Ma opened his mouth speaking; , ds his fathers he addresses a speech: speeeh: 118. 119. `Above the Apsu, the abode of hamânu-stone; hamanu-stone; 120. facing E -arra which whieh I built above/for you; 121. toAšrata, below Asrata, whose ground I made firm; 122. let me build a house to be my dwelling of opulence. 123. Inside it let me erect its sanctuary. 124. Let me build my cella so that I may establish my kingship. 125. When you come up from the Apsu for the assembly, 126. Here will ur night resting place before your assembly.'$ u com[e down] from heaven for [the assembly,] 127. Whe ht r plaee 128. Here] will be lace before your assembly. 129. Let its name be [Babylo]n, `The 'The Homes of the Great Gods'. 130. W [e] will do ... the [re.]" The location loeation of n, and the earth's surface where Babylon is situated, is n, explained in Ee V 119-22, although t al building lon does not ococcur until Ee VI 57-64, In Ee V 119-22, the building site of Babylon is placed above Apsu, below A Ašrata, g Esarra. Ešarra. Lines 125-28 confirm that the earth's sur stoneen the Apsu and heavens, because the gods need to descend deseend Ašrata. he hea ascend from the Apsu inhašmanu-stone Lines 119-21 also preserve short identifications of Apsu, Barra, and Asrata. Apsu is identified as the `abode of hasmânu-stone'. hašmânu-stone'. Babylon.hašmanuBecause hasmanuAšrata. anustone is blue-colored, arently explains that the Apsu is colored colo Apsu presumably derives from the belief that the Apsu blue. The was a blue-colored blue-eolored body of water. In E , Marduk identifies the E Ešarra s arra a '(the elkun (above you/for you')'. When Marduk builds Barra in Ee IV 143-46, Ešarraa Esarra is inserted beneath the Heavens (S'amillsamamû) (šamillšamamû) bovelt bove the Apsu. Thus, the gods must have d 'whose in the Apsu or in open spacelear. een Apsu E and Esarra at thAšrataof the building of Esarra Ešarra šarrain Ee IV. The second half of line 121, `whose ground I made firm', is not clear. It is possible that the Asrata itself was thought to have a solid floor, since the three heavens in KAR 307 have floors that are made of stone. Another possibility is 18 The phrase ana mahar puhurkun is understood as a te `before (earlier than šum-[fue) of yo t is, the g Babylon before the assembly eonvenes following morning.

lause meaning night in

122

Cosmic Geography in Accounts of Creation

that the `ground' of Ašrata is the hard surface of the earth below Ašrata, since the next line (Ee V 122) begins the plans for the building of Babylon, Tablet VI

The first section of Tablet VI, lines 1-38, recounts the ereation of mankind. After mankind is created, Marduk divides the gods (ilanu) into two groups, the Anunnaki of heaven and the Anunnaki of the earth: dmarduk šarru da nun-na-ki gim-rat-su-nu

dani 72-za-3-iz e liš u šap-liš

42.

tii-ad-di a-na da-nim 300 (5 Us) ina šamêe

te-re-tuš na -sa -ru 'd-kin ma-sar-tu

43. 44.

uš-taš-ni-ma i-na šam& ù ersetimtim

al-ka-kàt ersetimttm û - as-sir 600 (DA.u) uš-te-šib

39. 40. 41.

-

Ee VI 39-44 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44.

Marduk, the king, divided the gods, All the Anunnaki above and below. He designated for Anu to guard his commands, He set 300 in the heavens as a guard. Then he did it a second time, designed the ways of earth, In heaven and earth he settled 600.

In Ee VI 41-44, Marduk places 300 Anunnaki in heaven and 300 Anunnaki in earth, thereby producing a sum of 600 Anunnaki. In this context, the Anunnaki of earth must dwell in Apsu, because gods are said to come up from Apsu to Babylon on the earth's surfaee in Ee V 125-26 and there is no underworld in Enuma Elish.

After Marduk divides the Anunnaki, the Anunnaki petition Marduk to be allowed to build a sanetuary and remind Marduk of his earlier promise to build Babylon in Ee V 117-30. In Ee VI 55-68, Marduk commands the gods to build Babylon. First, the Anunnaki build Esagil, Marduk's temple, and the abodes of Anu, Enlil, and Ea. Then the Anunnaki build their own shrines: 55. 56.

57, 58.

59. 60. 61. 62.

dmarduk ki-ma u4-mu

an-ni-tu in še-me-e-šû im-me-ru zi-mu-šii ma-'-diš

ep-šd-ma babiliki lib-na-at-su lip-pa-ti-iq-ma

par-rak-ka zuq-ra

da-nun-na-ki šat-tu [ išl -ta-at ša-ni-tu šattu šâ é-sag-il mi -ih-rit apsi

šâ te-re-ša ši-pir-šü it-ru-ku al-la li- bit-ta-šû al-tab-nu ina ka-šd-di ul -lu -u re-ši-štic

Enuma

Elish

123

zig -gur-rat apsff, e-le-te ft-kin-nu šub-tam

63. 64.

ib-nu-ü-ma a-na da-nim den-lfl dé-a

65. 66.

ina tar-ba-a-ti šur-šiš é-šâr-ra

ma-har-šic-nu ü ši ba am ma i-na-at-ta-lu qar-na-a-šic

67. 68.

ul-tu e-sag-Il da-nun-na-ki ka l [i šu] nu

i-pu-šu ši -pir-štic pa-rak-ki-šic-nu ib-taš-mu

u.TA -šic

Ee VI 55-68 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68.

When Marduk heard this, his face glowed brightly like the day. "Build Babylon whose construction you desire. Let its briekwork be fashioned, raise the sanctuary" The Anunnaki wielded the hoe. For one year they made its bricks. When the second year arrived, They raised the head of Esagil, the counterpart of Apsu. When they built the high ziggurat of Apsu, for Anu, Enlil, and Ea his , .. they established a dwelling. He (Marduk) sat in splendor before them, Gazing towards to roots of Barra at its (Esagil's) horns. After they completed the eonstruction of Esagil, all the Anunnaki fashioned their own shrines.

Twice in Ee VI 61-64, the Apsu is mentioned in the context of Esagil. Neither reference to Apsu is completely clear. In line 62, Esagil is called a mihrit (counterpart) of Apsu. Line 63 refers to the high ziggurat of Apsu. Parallels are found in Tintir IV 1-2, where Esagil is said to be a mihrit of Apsu and Etemenanki is a mihrit of Ešarra (George 58), as well as in an Assurbanipal inseription: é-s[ag-til ü-šak-lil] mihrit(g a b a. ri) ap- 1si-e' eka[l ...

E. Weidner, AfO 13 205:14-15 Es[agil I eompleted], the counterpart of Apsu, the pala[ce .. . These passages suggest that Esagil and mihrit apsî stand in appositon in Ee VI 62 and that Esagil is a new version of Apsu, perhaps beeause the shrines of the gods are being transferred to Esagil in Babylon from the Apsu of Ea. In The Bilingual Creation of the World by Marduk, Esagil and Babylon supersede Eridu and Apsu. In lines 12-13 of the text, Esagil is built in Eridu and placed in Apsu, but in line 14, Marduk builds Babylon, thereby completing Esagil. If Esagil is to be identified as a new version of Apsu, then the 'high ziggurat of Apsu' in Ee VI 63 can be identified as the ziggurat of Esagil. However, a parallel to mihrit apsi occurs in a passage from the inseriptions of Nebuehadnezzar, where the foundations of the Ištar Gate are located mihrat apsi:

124

Cosmic Geography in Accounts of Creation

i si is sa mi -hi-ra-at ap-si-i ina šu -pû-ul mé-e bé-e -ru-tim ü ša ar ši id 1R 52 no. 3 ii 18-19 (VAB 4 86) Itt (the Ištar Gate's) foundation I set fast at the level of the Apsu, the depth of the ground waters. Foundations are often placed at mihrit me 'the water level' in Late Babylonian royal inseriptions (see CAD M/2 52 3'), so it is possible that Ee VI 62 explains that Esagil was built with its foundations resting on the Apsu. Lines 65-66 refer to the top of Esagil. In the couplet, Marduk gazes at the horns of Esagil in the direction of Ešarra. Bovine horns are depicted at the tops of ziggurats and other buildings throughout the ancient Near East (see D. Potts, RA 84 33-40). 19 In a parallel to Ee VI 65-66, Assurbanipal boasts of destroying the ziggurat of Susa and cutting off its horns: zig -gur-rat um, u-šâ-an ša ina a-gur!-ri na4 ugni šu -pu -šat ub-bit û kap pi ra qarne meLki ša pi-tiq eri nam-ri 5R 6 vi 27-29 (Streck Asb. 52:27-29; see CAD Q 139 e) I destroyed the ziggurat of Susa, which was made of blue bricks. I cut off its horns made of shining east copper. After the building of Babylon and Esagil, Ee VI 69 refers to a gathering of 900 Igigi: 300(5.us) digti gi šâ šâ ma [m]i u 600(Dis.U) ša apsi [ka]li šû nu Ee VI 69 pah-ru The 300 Igigi of heaven and 600 of the Apsu, all of them, were gathered. This line appears to be a late addition to the epie rather than an original line of Enuma Elish, Line 69 oecurs without a coupled line and contradicts Ee VI 3944, where 600 Anunnaki, rather than Igigi, are divided into groups of 300 in heaven and earth. The tradition of 900 Igigi in Ee VI 69 (300 Igigi in heaven and 600 in the Apsu) may be derived from the series Tintir, which refers to 300 shrines of Igigi and 600 shrines of Anunnaki in Babylon (George 68:85) The final addition to the universe in Enuma Elish is the Bow-star, which Anu places in the heavens in Ee VI 90-91. Earlier, in Ee VI 86-87, Anu calls the bow a daughter. In Astrolabe B (KAV 218 B i 14-16), the Bow-star is identified as Ištar of Elam and called the daughter of Anu. The astronomical text 5R 46 23 identifies the Bow-star as Ištar of Babylon. 20 19 See also SAA 3 p. 21; P. Albenda, JANES 12 3; Oates Babylon 119. The horns atop the ancient buildings may be compared with the "horns" that adorn mosques. A comparison between a ziggurat and Apsu also oceurs in Gudea Cyl A 24:20: gi.gun 4.bi abzu.gim ki.sikil.e bi.mu `He founded its ziggurat in a pure place like Apsu'. Note also BAM 338 rev. 21' (KAR 233):... z]i -gur-rat a[ps]i s'c d é-a bel er[i4 dic10]. Note also the icskaru 'lunar erescent' on the Esagil in "The Verse Account of Nabonidus" (BHT pl. 9 v 18, 22). For qarnu as lunar crescents, see CAD Q 137-38. 20 For the Bow-star and Ištar of Elam, as well as a constellation Elamatum, see C. Walker, AnSt 33 146-47.

Enuma Elish

125

A number of passages in the next portion of Enuma Elish, where the gods proclaim Marduk's 50 names, include eosmographic information. These passages are examined below (pp. 128-29) following a study of the eosmography of the eompleted universe of Enuma Elish. The Universe in Enuma Elish Enuma Elish ineludes seven cosmic regions: the Heavens (šamû/ šamamu), Ešarra of Enlil, Apsu/Ešgalla, the earth's surface, elâtu, Andurunna,

and the unnamed level of the stars in Ee V 1-8. Another cosmic place-name, Ašrata, is either a second name for the heavens (šamûlšamamu) or a part of this region. These cosmic regions are held together by the durmnhu 'Great Bond' in Ee V 59-60, and perhaps by other bonds and lead-ropes in Ee V 65-68. The relative position of the Heavens (šamû/šamamu), Barra, the earth's surfaee, and Apsu/Ešgalla, is explained in Ee IV 137-46 and Ee V 119-22. The Heavens (šamûlšamamu) are the highest region, with Barra, the earth's surface, and Apsu/Ešgalla below, in descending order. These two passages do not consider the elâtu, Andurunna, or the stars. When considered by themselves, the Heavens (šamû/šamamu), Ešarra, the earth's surface, and Apsu/Ešgalla provide a cosmography of two heavens and two earths that may be compared with the three heavens and earths of KAR 307. Anu dwells in both the highest level of heaven (šamû/šamamu) in Enuma Elish and the highest region of heaven in KAR 307 (šamû elûtu 'the Upper Heavens'). Likewise, the two earths of Enuma Elish, the earth's surface and Apsu, are the upper and middle earths in KAR 307. In addition, the Barra of Enlil, between the region of the stars and Anu's heaven, can be compared to Bel's cella in the Middle Heavens in KAR 307. Enuma Elish never explains how the level of the stars in Ee V 1-8 and elâtu fit into the scheme of two heavens and earths that is outlined in Ee IV 137-46 and Ee V 119-22. Nevertheless, it is clear that this portion of the heavens (sky) must be equated with the lower jasper heavens of the stars and constellations in KAR 307 and AO 8196. There is no underworld in Enuma Elish. No human beings die in the text, and the King and Queen of the. Underworld, Nergal and Ereškigal, do not appear in the epic.

KAR 307

Upper Heavens — Anu, 300 Igigi Middle Heavens — Igigi, Bel's Cella Lower Heavens — Stars, Constellations Upper Earth — Mankind Middle Earth — Ea (Apsu) Lower Earth — Underworld

Enuma Elish

Anu, 300 Anunnaki Barra Stars, Moon, Sun, elâtu Babylon, Mankind Apsu

126

Cosmic Geography in Accounts of Creation

The source of the cosmographic model described in Enuma Elish is uncertain. One possible source is a tripartite system described in the prologue to Old Babylonian Atrahasis, which also omits an underworld: 11. 12, 13. 14.

[q]a-tam i-hu-zu qa-ti-ša is-qâ-am id-du-U i-lu iz-zu-zu

15. 16.

[ši-ga-ra n]a-ah-ba-lu ti-a-am-tim [it-ta-aid-nu a-na d EN.KI na aš ši ^ki^

17.

[iš-tu a-nu-u]m i lu ^ û šaI one e ša [ù dEN.KI a-na a] p-si-t iß [i] to ar du

18.

ra-nu' i-te-li š[a-me]-t e'-ša [x x]xxx rer1 -še-tam ba tic lu ^ tu ^ uššu

Lambert-Millard Atra-basis 42:11-18 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

The gods had held hand in hand, had cast lots, made a division, Anu had gone up to heaven [ .. ] ... the earth to his subjects (mankind), [the bolt, "Met of the Sea" [they had gild en to Ea, the prince, [After Aniu went up to heaven. [and Ea to the A]psu went down,

Although the passage in Atrahasis is incomplete, the outline of the division of cosmic regions seems clear. Anu, Enlil, and Ea divide the universe among themselves by lot. Anu aseends to heaven (šamû), Ea descends to the Apsu, and Enlil remains on the earth's surface. Although Enlil does not aetually obtain the earth's surface as a fiefdom in the preserved text, line 14 preserves both the name of earth and the noun ba'ulatu, a near synonym of tenešetu and amélutu 'mankind' (Erimbuš V 47-50; MSL 17 69). Furthermore, a number of passages call the human race ba'ulat denlil `subjects of Enlil' (see CAD B 182-83). Thus, Atrahasis presents a tripartite universe, with regions belonging to Anu, Enlil, and Ea, that parallels the incomplete universe of Ee IV 137-46: Ee IV 137-46

Anu in Heaven/Ašrata Enlil in Ešarra Ea in the Apsu/Ešgalla

Atrahasis

Anu in Heaven Enlil on the Earth's Surface Ea in the Apsu

The two additional levels of the completed universe of Enuma Elish, the earth's surface (the level of the mountains, and Tigris and Euphrates Rivers) and

Enuma Elish

127

the sky (level of the stars, Sun, and Moon), are inserted between Apsu and Barra in Tablet V. Later, in Ee VI, Babylon is built on the earth's surface by gods. The Cosmic Regions in Enuma Elish

The Heavens (samû/namamû). The Heavens (šamûlšamamu) are the highest level of the universe in Enuma Elish. They are assigned to Anu in Ee IV 145-46. In Ee VI 39-44, Marduk dispatches 300 Anunnaki to guard these heavens. These heavens are fashioned from one-half of the body of Tiamat in Ee IV 137-40 and are apparently made of water, since Marduk orders guards to keep the waters of heaven from escaping in Ee IV 140. The lower border of the heavens is the skin (mašku), which Marduk stretches out to keep the waters of Tiamat in place in Ee IV 139. The existence of this skin may explain why it is not possible to see into the heavens where Anu resides. Anu's heaven in Enuma Elish is to be identified with the Heaven of Anu, although this term is never used in the epie. In KAR 307 30, the highest heavens belong to Anu, but also house 300 Igigi. In Enuma Elish, the highest heavens house Anu and 300 Anunnaki. Esarra. The Ešarra is located between the heavens (šamûlšamamu) and the earth's surface. Marduk builds the Esarra in Ee IV 143-44 and apportions this level of the universe to Enlil in Ee IV 145-46. In Ee VI 65-66, Marduk sees the horns of Esagil as he gazes towards Ešarra. In this passage, Marduk on earth can see as far as Ešarra, through the level of the stars and constellations. The Level of the Stars, Sun, and Moon. In Ee V 1-46, Marduk places the stars, Sun, and Moon in the sky. Enuma Elish offers only one name for this portion of heaven, elâtu 'The Heights'. In Ee V 11-12, Marduk sets up 'The Heights' in Tiamat's belly and makes the moon appear. The author of Enuma Elish offers no name for the region of the stars in Ee V 1-8. The Earth's Surface. The relative position of the earth's surface in Enuma Elish is known from the location of the city of Babylon. In Ee V 119-22,

the site of Babylon is placed above the Apsu, faces Ešarra, and is located below Mrata. Thus the earth's surface must lie between the Apsu and Ešarra. Although the gods build shrines in Esagil in Ee VI 68, no god other than Marduk resides permanently on the earth's surface. The other gods travel to the earth's surface from the heavens or the Apsu at the time of the assembly. Apsu/Esgalla. The Apsu is the lowest region of the universe in Enuma Elish. The earth's surface must be located above the Apsu, because Marduk

commands the gods of Apsu to go up to Babylon at the time of the assembly. In Ee I 61-78, Ea puts the god Apsu to death and builds his residence on Apsu. This aet must establish the cosmic region Apsu, since Marduk does not rebuild

128

Cosmic Geography in Accounts of Creation

the Apsu in Ee IV 137-46. The deified Apsu, along with deified cosmic sea Tiamat, exist at the start of Enuma Elish. The second name of Apsu in Ee IV 143-46, Ešgalla, literally 'great shrine', does not occur elsewhere as a name for the Apsu or any other cosmic region, although a diri-compound È.GAL can be read as the underworld name urugal (see p. 293). A third name of Apsu, šubat dnudimmud 'Abode of Nudimmud', occurs in Ee IV 142. Andurunna. The cosmic region Andurunna exists in the early universe in Ee I 23-24, before the other eosmic regions come into being. The relative position of Andurunna and the other regions in the eompleted universe of Enuma Elish is never explained in the epic. Cosmographic Information in Marduk's Fifty Names

In Ee VI 121-VII 138, the Igigi proclaim Marduk's fifty names. With the exception of the Ašain in Ee VII 123, Neberu in Ee VII 124, and perhaps second half of the name in Ee VI 155 (Asarluhi-Namru), 21 all the names are Sumerian. A short Akkadian explanation follows each name. Passages from this portion of Enuma Elish that reveal cosmographic information are examined below. Ee VII 15-18 15. dtu-tu dzi-ukkin-na

16. 17. 18.

15. 16. 17. 18.

sâ tic-kin-nu nšâ a -na ilani al-kàt-su-un is-ba-tu-ma a-a im-ma-ši im-ma -si ina a-pa-a-ti

na-pß-ti um-ma-ni-[su] um-ma-ni-[šu] samêe šamêe el- lu -[ti]

û ad du û [man-za-as-su-un] ep- se -ta-[su li -kil-la] še-ta-[su Ee VII 15-18

Tutu-Ziukkina, the life of [his] host, who established the pure heavens for the gods. He is the one who held their course, designated [their stations.] May he not be forgotten among mankind. Let them [rememb ds.

Ee VII 15-18 refers to Marduk's arrangement of the stars in heaven. The `course' movements of the stars in the night sky. Ee refe in E (alkatu) of the stars in 'the VII 130 refers to these movements as `the patte stars stars in e V 1-8, Marduk organizes the annual patte accordanee with the Astrolabes. accordance nam.šub 21 Akkadian ru `bright, shining' is preferred over Sumerian nam. pure god' in Ee VI 156. For namru and el n `th basis of ilu ellu 'th yms, see CAD N/1 239-40. onyms,

he

ynssyn-

The Bilingual Creation of the World by Marduk

129

Ee VII 82-83 da-gil-m šâ na si ih a-gi-i ba-nu-u ersetimt'm e-lis même

82. 83.

sšal-[g]i a-Sir sal-[g]i mu-kin e-la-a-ti

Ee VII 82-83 Agilma, the exalted, ereationves the cap, provides the snow, who built the earth over waters, established the "Heights".

82. 83.

creationves MarEe VII 83 refers to the creation of the earth's surface and el duk builds dry land. Later, we are told that the earth's surfa ated above Simil the waters of the Apsu. Simila e lands float on a raft above the waters of aMarAccount of the Creation of the World by MarMarthe sea (tâmtu) in The Bil duk (see pp. 130-31). The creation of the elâtu by Marduk 'cap V 1112, where the data is the home of the Moon. 12, Ee VII 82 may refer to the melting of snow in the spring. The `cap i is line may be the snow-capped peaks of high mountains. Such snow-caps are removed by the spring thaw.

Ee VII 135-36

âš âs stic štic cg-ri ib-na-a bél matati(en.ku

d

r) sum-su

ip-ti-qa -ni-na it-ta-bi a-bu den-la

Ee VII 135-36 Becaus ed the heavens, fashioned the earth, name that father Enlil gave him. "Lord of the Lands" is'Lord ašru and danninu mean šamû samû Commentary B to Enuma Elish explains that asru e J. Bottéro, Festserift Festscrift Fin 3-14). It is and ersetu (heaven and ea fitting that Enlil names Marduk `Lord of the Lands' in Enuma Elish. In earlier texts such as Old Babylonian Atrahasis, Enlil, rather than Marduk, rules the earth's surface. surfaee. Here in Enuma Elish, Enlil acquiesces aequiesces to Marduk's usurpation of his traditonal role. The Bilingual Creation of t

Marduk

The obverse of CT ls. 35-37), a Late Babylonian tablet from Sippar, preserves the best exemplar of a bilingual incantation commonly called The Bilingual Creation of t uk 22 This ineantation incantation preserves an ion of the lands, animals and mankind who dwell in the ion account of lands, and a number of aphic features of the lands. Although Marduk is ation, there is evidence that the te is based on a SuSuthe protagonist of th ation, merian merian original, where Ene-lišayed ta-šir ant role. The first god-name 22 and bibliography is available in BotBotA Freneh French translation of thešum-su text with téro MrB 302-12.

130

Cosmic Geography in Accounts of Creation

preserved in the text is dlugal.du 6 .kù.ga (line 13). This seems to be a name for Enki/Ea, Marduk's father, rather than a name for Marduk. In the Iqqur-ipuš commentary CT 41 39 rev. 8, Lugaldukuga is identified as Ea (dl u g a l . d u s. k ù . g a = dé-ral ). In Enuma Elish itself, Marduk is identified as dd u m u . d u 6 . k ù Son of Duku' (Ee VII 99-100). 23 In addition, a fragmentary duplicate of the bilingual incantation, preserves the name of Enki/Ea in line 32 (see below). Thus the bilingual incantation may be based on a Sumerian original where Enki, rather than Marduk, fashioned the world. The Bilingual Creation of the World by Marduk opens at a time when the lands do not yet exist. There were no reeds, trees, brick molds, bricks, animals, temples, or cities. Even the ancient shrines of Anu, Enlil, and Ea (Eanna in Uruk, Ekur in Nippur, and Apsu in Eridu) had not yet been eonstrueted. At this time, the universe was comprised of a primeval sea, just as the universe eonsists of waters of Tiamat and Apsu at the start of Enuma Elish: 24 [nigin].kur.kur.ra.ke4 a.ab.ba (a.ba) nap-bar ma-to-a-t-ri tam-tum-ma

[igi š]à.ab.ba .ke4 yita.na.nam i-nu šâ qé-reb tam-tim ra-to-um-ma CT 13 35:10-11

All the lands were sea. The spring in the sea was a water main. Creation begins in lines 12-14, First Eridu and Esagil are built, then Babylon is built and Esagil is eompleted. 25 Next, the Anunnaki are brought into being (line 15), and Babylon is given a magnificent name (line 16). In Ee VI 39-44, Marduk sends 300 Anunnaki to heaven and 300 to earth. Marduk names Babylon in Ee V 129. In lines 17-18, after the eonstruetion of Esagil, Eridu, and Babylon, Marduk builds dry land by weaving a raft over the primeval waters and pouring soil on the raft: rdlgi.lim,ma gidiri i.bI.na.a nam.mi.ni.in ,kešda dmarduk a-ma-am ina pa-an me-e ir-ku-us sahar.ra i.mu.a ki a.dag nam,mi.in.dub 26

e-pe-ri ib-ni-ma it-ti a-mi iš-pu-uk CT 13 36:17-18 22 = Akkadian mdr-du6-)tù/bin-duskù. W. von Soden, Iraq 31 85:24-25; W Sommerfeld, AOAT 213 7 n. 3. For the cosmic region du 6-kù and Akkadian equivalents, see pp. 315-16. 24 In CT 13 35-37 the Sumerian and Akkadian portions of each line appear sideby-side, with the opening and closing Sumerian text separated by the Akkadian text. In the study below, the Sumerian and Akkadian portions of each line have been rearranged for the convenienee of the reader. 25 For the theologieal background of this line, see George BTT 251-53. 26 For the reading a.dag, note the variants g'a.dag/dàg = amu in Urra 8:231 (MSL 7 22).

The Bilingual Creation of the World by Marduk

131

Gilimma-Marduk wove a raft on the face of the waters. He created dirt and poured it on the raft. The raft and soil floating on the waters is the lands (matatu) that do not yet exist in line 11. After ereating the lands, Marduk creates the inhabitants of the lands and a number of topographic features. In lines 19-30, Marduk brings mankind, domestieated animals, wild animals, the Tigris and Euphrates, various marshes and reed swamps, plants, gardens, and forests into existence. Then, in lines 31-32, Marduk and Enki join together to extend the lands by filling in the edge of the sea: [endasa1.lu.hi] zà.ab.ba .ke4 sa[har bi.i]n.s[as] be-lum dmarduk ina pa-at tam-tim tam-la-a û-mâl-li

[den.ki a.ab.ba .ke4] 5'sgi pa.rim4 bi. [in.gar] [dea (i d i m) tam-ta] m a-pa na-ba-la iš-ku-un

CT 13 37:31-32 (restored from duplicates, see PSD B 125 2.) The lord Marduk filled in landfill at the edge of the sea. Ea established the sea, reed thicket, and dry land. (Sumerian: Enki, by the sea, established the reed thieket and dry land.) The reed thicket and dry land in line 32 must refer to new areas that are reclaimed from the sea in line 31. Seven types of reed marshes are ereated in lines 25-27, and dry land must already exist when gardens and forests are ereated in line 29. The final eight partially-preserved lines (33-40) parallel the opening portion of the text, suggesting that reeds, trees, brick molds, bricks, cities, settlements, Nippur and the Ekur, and Uruk and Eanna, which did not exist at the opening of the incantation, now existed. The Lands and the Sea in CT 13 35-37

The creation of the lands in CT 13 36:17-18, `Marduk wove a raft on the face of the waters / He ereated dirt and poured it on the raft', describes the lands as a raft floating on top of waters and surrounded by waters. The waters surrounding the lands must be the waters of the eosmic salt-water ocean that encircles the central continent on the World Map. In The Bilingual Creation of the World by Marduk, the waters beneath the raft do not seem to be differentiated from the waters surrounding the earth. This is problematic, since KAR 307 and most other sourees indicate that the waters beneath the earth's surface belong to the Apsu. Unless the author of The Bilingual Creation of the World by Marduk intended to ignore the existence of the Apsu altogether, the Apsu and the sea may here form a single body of water, which the author of the text calls tâmtu 'sea'. 27 27

For a study of the Apsu and the sea, see pp. 340-41.

132

Cosmic Geography in Accounts of Creation

The construction of the world raft in CT 13 36:17-18 may have a parallel in Ee VII 83, where Marduk as Agilma is said to have banû ersetim eliš mê `built the earth over waters' (see p. 129). The ratu `water main' (CT 13 35:11)

The function of the ratu 'water main' in the sea in line 11 is unclear. Another ratu is found in Gilg. XI 271 and 298. In Gilg. XI 271, Gilgamesh opens a ratu, dives down to the Apsu in search of the plant "Man Becomes Young in Old Age' and then is deposited on the shore of the sea: 271. 272. 273. 274. 275. 276.

When Gilgamesh heard this, he opened the wa[ter-pipe] 28 He tied heavy stone[s onto his feet] They dragged him to the Aps[u . He took the plant, it pricked his hands.] He untied the heavy stone[s on his feet] The sea deposited him on its shore. Gilg. XI 271-76 (Thompson Gilg. pl. 53//CT 46 35, see p. 105) .

Here in Gilg. XI, the Apsu and the sea may be physically joined by the ratu, since Gilgamesh dives into the Apsu after opening the ratu and then ends his dive on the seashore. In The Bilingual Creation of the World by Marduk, the ratu may serve as a conduit between waters of Apsu beneath the sea floor (such as the submarine sweet-water springs of the coast of Bahrain) and salt waters in the sea (see p. 105). If so, waters from the Apsu may flow through the ratu and fill the young sea in CT 13 35 10-11. A connection between the waters of the sea and waters beneath the earth is found in the Theogony of Hesiod, where the underworld river Styx is connected to Oceanus: Far under the wide-pathed earth a branch of Oceanus flows out of the holy river (Oeeanus) through the dark night, and one-tenth of the (waters of Oeeanus) have been alloted to it (the Styx) as a share. After winding around the earth and the broad surface of the sea with nine swirling silver-streams, (Oceanus) falls into the brine, but one-tenth part flows forth from a rock and is a great bane to the gods. Theogony 787-92

The Babyloniaca of Berossus A third account of ereation by Marduk is found in the Greek language work The Babyloniaca of Berossus, a priest of Bel at Babylon who fled into 28 Water-pipe' (r[a-a-ta) is restored in Gilg. XI 271 on the basis of Gilg. XI 298: raa-ta ki-i ap-tu-u [x x ] x it-hu u-nu-tam `as soon as I opened the water-pipe [ .. ] ... the

equipment'.

The Babyloniaca of Berossus

133

exile on the Greek island of Kos soon after the ascension of Antiochus i in 281. The full text of the Babyloniaca has not survived, but excerpts from the writings of Berossus were included in works of later authors and thus preserved. A new English translation and edition of the writings of Berossus, with a bibliography of the surviving fragments, is found in S. Burstein, The Babyloniaca of Berossus. 29

In the first book of the Babyloniaca; Berossus recounted Marduk's victory over Tiamat, the separation of heaven and earth, and the ereation of the astral bodies. This aeeount of ereation opens at a time when the universe was filled with water (FGrH 3C1 680 F 1.6; Burstein Berossus 14 2.1). Then, strange beings, ineluding men with two wings, men with four wings, men with the feet of horses, fish, reptiles, and other wondrous creatures, come into being within the waters. Berossus tells us that these creatures were ruled by a woman named Thalath (0akett0), which means sea (eCaao-6a) (FGrH 3C1 680 F 1.6; Burstein Berossus 14 2.2). This woman ruling the creatures of the sea is undoubtedly Tiamat. Berossus then explains that Bel created heaven and earth and separated the two halves of the universe from one another. Two versions of this episode survive: Version A (FGrH 3C1 680 E 1.7; Burstein Berossus 15 2.3a) ... Bel rising up split the woman in half, made earth from half of her and heaven from the other half, and destroyed the ereatures within her ... Version B (FGrH 3C1 680 E. 1.8; Burstein Berossus 15 2.3b) Then Bel, who is translated as Zeus, splitting the darkness in half, separated earth and heaven from each other, and arranged the cosmos. Then the creatures died as they could not bear the force of the light...

In both versions, the universe is split into two parts. Half of the universe beeomes earth and the other half becomes heaven. Version A explains that Bel created heaven and earth from the body of Tiamat. This agrees with the account of creation in Ee IV 137-46, where Marduk splits Tiamat's corpse in two and builds the heavens. Version B seems to be influenced by Genesis 1. In this version, Bel splits a primeval darkness into two parts, separates heaven and earth, and then ereates light. This light then kills the creatures of Tiamat. 3° A second reference to the primeval waters is found later in Book I (FGrH 3C1 685 E 1; Burstein Berossus 17 5):

29 The standard edition of the surviving Greek fragments attributed to Berossus has been published by F. Jacoby, Die Fragmente der Griechischen Historiker (FGrH) 3C1 680 E 1-22. Additional materials that Abydenos attributes to Berossus are found in FGrH 3C1 685 F. 1-6. Two additional astronomical fragments in Latin may also belong to the first book of the Babyloniaca (see Burstein Berossus pp. 15 3, 16 4). 29 For a Syriac version of the Hebraized version (Version B), see W. G. Lambert, "The Background of Jewish Apoealyptic' p. 15.

134

Cosmic Geography in Accounts of Creation

And concerning the (tradition) that Nebuchadnezzar walled Babylon, (Berossus) himself wrote this: They say at the beginning everything was water which was called "Sea." Then Bel held her baek, assigned a place to everything, and built a wall around Babylon.

After the separation of heaven and earth and the creation of mankind, Berossus states that Bel created the stars, sun, moon, and the five planets (FGrH 3C1 680 F. 1.9; Burstein Berossus 15 2.4).

Other Accounts of Creation A number of Sumerian, bilingual, and Akkadian literary texts and incantations include accounts of the creation and organization of the universe in early times. These aecounts are examined below.

Sumerian and Bilingual Accounts No Sumerian or bilingual ereation epic such as the Akkadian epic Enuma Elish, where Marduk builds and arranges the features of the universe, is known. Instead, evidence concerning Sumerian conceptions of the beginnings of the universe is found in two types of cosmological accounts. A number of literary texts open with prologues that record events of early times. Five of these, the prologues to Gilgamesh and the Huluppu Tree, The Creation of the Pickaxe, Enki and Ninmah, and the bilingual works KAR 4 and SpTU 3 67 preserve accounts of the separation of heaven and earth. 31 A similar passage is preserved on the literary fragment NBC 11108 (Kramer AV pl. 8), which appears to represent the opening portion of an as yet unidentified Sumerian literary composition. A number of these texts describe the era of the separation of heaven and earth in terms of days and nights and may be compared with the seven days and nights of creation in Genesis. 32 The second group of texts, Enki and the World Order, The Duties and Powers of a Kassite King (S. N. Kramer, Sumer 4 1-38), and The Exaltation of Ištar, recount the distribution of divine duties in early times, including the assignment of the Moon-god and Sun-god to their heavenly posts. 31 B. Alster (Kramer AV 15) and W. Hallo (JAOS 103 165) identify the opening eleven lines of Lugalbanda I (Lugalbanda in IIurrumkurra) as another example of a eosmological prologue that preserves an aceount of the separation of heaven and earth. This portion of the epic is preserved in TuM NF 3 10 1-11, but this identification cannot be confirmed, because only the ends of lines survive. For further examples in both the standard an d uD.GAt..r1TJrl orthographies, see PSD B 36 bad B 3. Note also u 4. u l an k i. t a in Sumerian literary catalogues (see S. Kramer, RA 55 172:37). 32 For references to primeval days and nights before the flood, see Lambert-Millard Atra-hasis 26. See also M. Dietrich, AOAT 240 57-72.

Sumerian and Bilingual Accounts

135

Group I: Accounts of the Separation of Heaven and Earth Gilgamesh and the Huluppu Tree (edition, Shaffer Sumerian Sources). A passage in the prologue to Gilgamesh and the Huluppu Tree recounts the separation of heaven and earth and the distribution of cosmic regions to three gods.

8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

an ki.ta ba.da.bad.ra.ba ki an.ta ba.da.sur.ra.a.ba mu nam.lu.ulùI° ba.an.gar.ra.a.ba u 4 an.né an ba.an,tum.a.ba den,111.le ki ba.an.tum.a.ba d eres.ki,gal.la.ra kur.ra sag.rig 7.ga .šè im.ma.ab.rig 7.a.ba GHT 8-13 (cf. GHT 54-56)

8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

After heaven was made distant from earth; After earth was made remote from heaven; After the name of mankind was established; After the time when Anu carried off heaven; After Enlil carried off earth; After Ereškigal was given the underworld as a gift;

At the end of this passage, the universe consists of three regions: heaven, earth, and underworld. The heavens belong to Anu, the earth belongs to Enlil, and the underworld belongs to Ereškigal. In the passage, no god assigns these regions to the three gods. Instead, Anu and Enlil carry off their regions, while Ereškigal, the queen of the underworld, receives her region as a gift. In Nergal and Ereškigal, Nergal receives the kingship of the underworld from Ereškigal as a wedding gift, but it is not clear who presents the underworld to Ereškigal in Gilgamesh and the Huluppu Tree. 33

GHT 8-13 also does not explain whieh god(s) separated heaven from earth. An unpublished variant, however, explains that Anu and Enlil made heaven and earth distant from one another: [u 4 a] n.né an b ad.ra.a. [ba den.li] l.le ki bad.râ.a.b [a] Ni, 4507:11-12 (cf. PSD B 36 3.) [After A]nu made heaven distant, [Enli]1 made earth distant. It is probable that Apsu existed before the separation of heaven and earth in GHT 8-13, although the Apsu is not mentioned in the prologue to Gilgamesh and the Huluppu Tree. Enki, the god of the Apsu, appears in GHT 14-16 immediately after the division of the cosmic regions, and no later passage of the text 33 The verb sag-rig ? = Akkadian saraqu does not necessarily imply that Ereškigal received the underworld as a wedding gift. For another interpretation of the passage, see T. Jacobsen, Fest. Hallo 120-23.

.

136

Cosmic Geography in Accounts of Creation

records the creation of the Apsu. This suggests that Enki has already taken up residence in the Apsu before heaven and earth are separated in GHT 7-13. In Enuma Elish, the Apsu exists at the very beginning of creation, long before Marduk constructs heaven and earth in Tablets IV and V The Creation of the Pickaxe (see Pettinato Mensehenbild 82-85). Lines 3-5 of The Creation of the Pickaxe preserve the tradition that Enlil separated heaven and earth in order to provide space between them for the "seed of the land" to come forth:

den.111 numun.kalam.ma ki.ta è.dè an ki.ta bad.râ.dè sag na.an.ga.ma.an .sum ki an.ta bad.râ.dè sag na.an.ga.ma.an .sum Pettinato Menschenbild 82:3-5 Enlil, in order to make the "seed of the land" rise from the earth, hastened to make heaven distant from earth. Hastened to make earth distant from heaven. In the above passage, the separation of heaven and earth allows the land (kalam) to come into being. Before this time, heaven and earth were presumably bonded together in a solid mass, so that there was no space between heaven and earth for the "seed of the land:' This may imply that some Sumerians believed that the bottom surface of the heavens, like the upper surface of the earth, was solid. The identity of the "seed of the land" is not certain. The term ean be taken literally to refer to plant seeds, beeause The Creation of the Pickaxe recounts the creation of a number of agricultural implements. However, it is also possible that the term is a kenning for the human race, because the creation of agricultural implements culminates in the creation of mankind in Pickaxe 19: sag nam.lu.ùlu'' Où.šub.ba mi.ni .gar Pettinato Menschenbild 83:19 The first of mankind he placed in the brick mold. KAR 4 (edition with duplicates, Pettinato Menschenbild 74-81). KAR 4, a Middle Assyrian tablet from Assur, preserves a bilingual aceount of the creation of mankind. The tablet is written in three columns. The first eolumn preserves an edition of Silbenalphabet A.34 The second and third columns preserve the Sumerian and Akkadian versions of the ereation myth. The very first event in KAR 4 is the separation of heaven and earth. Unfortunately, only the Sumerian portion of the line is preserved: 34 The first column of KAR 4 was first identified as Sitbenatphabet A by B. Landsberger in MO Beiheft 1 170. For a Sumerian-only version of the myth, with both Silbenalphabet A and its Akkadian translation Silbenvokabular A, see E Beaulieu, ASJ 1711 n. 24.

Sumerian and Bilingual Accounts

137

u4 an ki.ta tab.gi.na bad.a.ta bà'a. [ba] [ ... KAR 4:1 After heaven was made distant and separated from earth, (its) trusty companion. Enki and Ninmah (Edition Benito Enki 20-81). Enki and Ninmah is known from both Sumerian and bilingual editions. The first two lines of the bilingual edition preserve an incomplete aecount of the separation of heaven and earth. These lines are not found in any known exemplar of the Sumerian edition: u 4 .ri.a.ta u 4 an.ki.bi .ta ba.an [ ... ina u4-mi ul-lu-ti R. ..)] ša šamû ù ersetumtum u[B/UP .. .

gi 6 .ri.a.ta gi b an.ki.bi .ta b [a.an ri1 -na mu-ši ul-lu-ti [(...)]

.. .

ršal šamû u ersetumtum Us/UP-x-[ .. .

R. Borger, OrNs 54 19:1-6 (= Benito Enki 21:1-2) In ancient days when heaven and earth were [ In ancient nights when heaven and earth were . [

.. .

. .

The portions of lines 1-2 of the bilingual edition of Enki and Ninmah that explain what happened to heaven and earth in ancient times are missing. The events of EN 1-2, however, can be restored on the basis of the uB/UP-signs at the end of the Akkadian version of EN 1-2 and parallels between EN 1-2, GHT 8-13, and Pickaxe 4-5. The context of the us/uP-signs at the end of the Akkadian version of EN 1-2 requires a II/ii stem verb (`were..: ). In GHT 8 and Pickaxe 4-5, the Sumerian verb bad.râ is used to describe the action of separation of heaven and earth. In Izi J (MSL 13 213 iii 10), bad'râ is listed as an equivalent of Akkadian parasu 'to separate'. Since II/ii-stem forms of parasu begin up-, it seems likely that EN 1-2 refers to the separation of heaven and earth (bad.râ = parasu). If this proposal is correct, lines 1-2 may be restored and translated as follows: In aneient days when heaven and earth were separated; In ancient nights when heaven and earth were separated; The following portion of Enki and Ninmah, EN 3-14, provides indirect information about the early history of the Apsu. The Sumerian edition of the text begins in line 4 with the birth of the Anunnaki. Then, in line 6, the gods and goddesses are divided into two groups. One group is sent to heaven and a second group is sent to earth. The goddesses then marry, conceive, and bear ehildren, while gods busy themselves digging rivers and eventually complain to Enki that their toils are burdensome. At this early time, the Apsu is already in existence. In EN 12-14, Enki is peacefully asleep in the Apsu while the gods dig:

138

Cosmic Geography in Accounts of Creation

u 4 ,ba géštug.dagal mud.dingir.šâr.šâr,gâl.0.1 rap-šu] uz-ni ba-nu-it ilanime5 rabûtimes den.ki.ke4 engur.bùru a.sur.ra ki dingir.na,me šà.bi u6 nu.um.me ]x ru-qu-û-ti [ .. , ma-am-man lia i-du-titi ki.nu,ni i,nu ù.ku nu.um.zi.zi

Benito Enki 22:12-14 (Sumerian from Sumerian version) At that time, the one with broad wisdom, the creator of the great gods, Enki, in the deep Apsu, where water flows, into which no god can see, was lying in his bed, sleeping, he did not get up. Here in Enki and Ninmah, as in Gilgamesh and the Huluppu-Tree and Enuma Elish, the Apsu apparently exists before the separation of heaven and earth. NBC 11108 (Kramer AV pl. 8; edition: J. van Dijk, Kramer AV 125-33). NBC 11108, an Ur III Sumerian literary fragment from Nippur (see Kramer AV 128), preserves a 13-line passage that supplements information found in the aforementioned prologues, The tablet is badly damaged, but may be restored as follows: 1.

r u4 ? an? en 1 .né an mu.kâ [r?] ki mu.gi6 kur.šè igi m [u.1â?/bar']

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12, 13.

bùru a nu.bal ninda nu.gar ki.dagal x x rai nu.aka [i]sib.mahden.rliP.lânu.ù.gâl [s]u.rluhJ.kù.ge ršu'nu.ù.ma.du 7 [ x ] x an.na,rke 4 šup nu.ù.rdu71 [di.k]u5? rnuI.di [an.k]i téš.bi.a mu.dab5 [xxš]è? nu.u.[k]in ru4 nu.zalag' gi 6 .a an mu.lâ an.né da.ga.an.na gir17 .zal mu.ni,Ib.kâr ki Du u.šim.ma ni nu.mu . [x]sér.e me den.rlil.l6,ke41 kur.kur.ra ršu nu,ù.du 71 [k]ù rdin.nin é.anl.na .rke41 nid [ba] rnu?.ù?.tum? 1 rdia.nu [n.na d] i n [u],um.di.di [(x)] dingir.an.na ding[ir.k]i.a nu.ù.ma.rsu8 .su8 '.ge.éš NBC 11108 (Kramer AV pl. 8, eollated by author)

1.

When Anu?, the lord, made heaven shine?, made earth dark, [set the] eye toward the underworld. In the deep, water was not libated, bread was not set in place, in the broad earth, ... service was not done; [the c]hief purification priest of Enlil did not exist, the holy hand-washing ceremony was not performed; [the . ] .. of Anu was not performed, [judgi]ng? [was not] judged.

2. 3. 4.

Sumerian and Bilingual Accounts 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

139

[Heaven and ea]rth, he held together as one. 35 ... was not sought for , Day did not shine; in night, heaven stretehed forth. (Then), heaven, in its entirety, splendidly, shone forth, (but) earth, bringing forth plant life 36 did not glow 37 on its own. The me of Enlil was not perfeeted in the lands. Holy Inanna at Eannä was not brought? food-of [ferings]. The Anun[naki did n]ot render [jud]gment. [ . ] the gods of heaven and the god [s of e] arth were not present. . .

As preserved, NBC 11108 seems to describe the universe just before and just after the first acts of creation. Line 5, '[Heaven and earth he held together as one', apparently refers to the time before the separation of heaven and earth. Lines 8-13 seem to deseribe the universe immediately after the separation of heaven and earth. At first, in line 7 there is perpetual night, apparently because the heavens do not yet shine. This parallels Genesis 1:1-2, where the primordial universe is filled with darkness before the creation of light in Genesis 1:3. Then in NBC 11108:8-9, heaven shines, but earth does not glow on its own, apparently because the earth's surface is eovered by plant life. In NBC 11108:8, as in Genesis, where day exists before the ereation of the sun, moon, and stars, the heavens are eoneeived to have had their own glow, irrespective of the presence of luminaries. As in Enuma Elish, the Apsu may already exist when heaven and earth are separated. In NBC 11108:2, bùru may be considered a name for the Apsu meaning `The Deep'. In EN 12-14, Enki rests in the engur.bùru 'deep Apsu' in early times before the creation of mankind (see p. 138). The regions listed in line 1— heaven, earth, and underworld—are the same as those in GHT 8-13 (see p. 135), where Anu, Enlil, and Ereškigal take possession of their cosmic regions. 38 35 For téš.bi = išténiš, see CAD I 279 isténis in the lexical section. Compare Sollberger Corpus Ukg.,15 ii 2: an.ki téš.ba, and R. Borger, JCS 21 3:4 (Bit Rimki): an.ki téš.hi ... = samû u ersetu isténis... . 36 The translation of DU û.sim.ma as 'bringing forth plant life' is suggested by Nabnitu XXVH 184 (MSL 16 236) DU = (a- su -u) ša cIš u G1 (DU is the eoming forth of tree and reed'). A parallel in an Akkadian text is found in a Kudurru of Merodachbaladan I (AfO 23 15:15'): a-a û- se - si ur- qé- ti '(May Adad) not let (his fields) bring forth plant life'. The eonstruetion DU u,šim.ma, if it is to be construed as participle plus noun, is awkward in Sumerian, although this construction is common in Akkadian. Note, however, a parallel Sumerian eonstruction in line 34 of The Curse of Agade:

emeda.ga.la šu.gid dumu šagina.ke 4 .ne Cooper Curse of Agade 52:34 The wet-nurse, holding the son of the viceroys.... For šér (BU) = namaru, see CAD N/1 210 namaru seeond lexieal paragraph. Note also the parallel between NBC 11108:2, where bread does not exist at the dawn of ereation, and GHT 6-7 where the existence of bread and ovens precedes the separation of heaven and earth, 37 38

140

Cosmic Geography in Accounts of Creation

Sollberger Corpus Ukg. 15. Sollberger Corpus Ukg' 15, 39 a literary fragment from Lagash, preserves part of a pre-Sargonic literary passage that parallels NBC 11108:

ii 1 an en.nam sul.le.šè al.gub ii 2 an.ki téš.ba x an.gi 4,gi4 ii 3 u 4.ba enki nun.ki nu.sig7 ii 4 den.lil nu,ti ii 5 dnin.lil nu,ti iii 1 u 4 .da im.ma iii 2 ul.[hé?] im.m[a] iii 3 utu nu.zal iii 4 i.ti nu.è.è Sollberger Corpus Ukg. 15 ii 1-iii 4 ii 1 Anu was lord, was present as a youth. ii 2 Heaven and Earth, together, were . , . 40 ii 3 On that day, Enki and Ninki had not yet ... ii 4 Enlil was not alive. ii 5 Ninlil was not alive. iii 1 In the day ... iii 2 In the firm [ament?] , . [ . ] 42 iii 3 The Sun did not shine. iii 4 Moonlight did not eome forth.

41

This passage, like NBC 11108, seems to recount the long-ago era before the separation of: heaven and earth. At this long-ago time, Anu, who is a venerable god in historieal times, is deseribed as a youth, and Enlil and Ninlil are apparently not even alive. Heaven and earth are apparently still attached, before their separation, and the Sun and Moon have not yet been placed in the sky. The statement that Enlil and Ninlil are not yet alive in Corpus Ukg 15 ii 4-5 suggests that the passage describes the universe during the era before the 39 For other studies of this text, see J. van Dijk, AcOr 28 40-44; W. Hallo, JCS 23 65-66; B. Alster, RA 64 189-90. For An as the head of the pantheon before Enlil and parallels in Greek materials, see B. Alster, JCS 28 122. 40 In this context, a meaning of the verb gi 4 .gi4 'to be joined together' would be appropriate. Such a meaning may be indieated by Nabnitu 0 265-66 (MSL 16 294) gi 4 / gi 4 .gi4 = lawû, sinee Akkadian tamûllawû does have a sense of `enclose, hem in, wrap up'. Unfortunately, the portions of Ea, Aa, and the commentary to Aa that might have expanded on this sense of gi 4 .gi4 are broken (see MSL 16 304, 321, 325-26). 41 For this reading and interpretation of the line, see B. Alster, RA 64 189-90. The earlier reading, u4 . b a en. k i e rid uki ... 'On that day Enki in Eridu..: , however, remains possible. 42 Restore ul. [h é] (= šupuk šamê). See J. Cooper, RA 74 94 for an Early Dynastic period example of this term (see p. 240).

141

Sumerian and Bilingual Accounts

birth of Enlil and Ninlil. Divine ancestors of Enlil and Ninlil are known from god lists as early as the Fara Period. 43 SpTU 3 67. The late Uruk tablet SpTU 3 67, from the series Bit-Rimki, opens with a long address to the Sun-god that preserves another aecount of the separation of heaven and earth and the events of the early days and nights of the universe. 44 The opening lines of the text refer to the long-ago days, nights, and years when heaven and earth were separated, when day and night were first established, and when the sea first encireled the land as on The Babylonian Map of the World.

1. dutu u4 .ri.a.ta d šamaš ina u4-mu ul -lu -ti

u4 .sud.ra.ri.a.ta ina u4-mu ru-qu-ti ul -lu -ti

3. dutu gi4 .ri.a.ta ina mu-ši ul -lu -ti

gi6 .bad.ra.ri.a.ta

5. dutu mu.ri.a.ta

mu.sud.râ.ri.a.ta

ina G16 ni-su-ti ul -lu -ti ina ša-na-ti ru-(qa)-ta ul-la

ina ša-na-ti ul-la-ti

7. dutu u4 x ni.ir ina u4-mi ša it-tal-ku

gi6 .ba im.š[i.u]š.a.ta ina-mu-ši ša i[t-ta]b'-šu-ti

9. dutu u4 an.ki .ta

1

-

tu

ba'.ra.bad.râ.a.ta is-su-u1

e-nu-ma ša-mu-n it-tti

11. dutu u4 gi6 .ba gizkim e-nu-ma u4-mu u mu-šu

x x-an-du 11 .ga.çš.a.ba

13. dutu 114 ambar kalam.ma

KA GAR KA

tic-to-ad-du-tic

šu.a!.ba

e-nu-ma tam-tu4 ma-ta la-1wi'-a-tu

SpTU 3 67 1-14 (M. Dietrich, AOAT 240 67) 1. Utu, in aneient days, in far-away ancient days, 3. Utu, in ancient nights, in far-away ancient nights, 5. Utu, in aneient years, in far-away ancient years, 7. Utu, in days that went by, nights that once were, 9. Utu, when the heavens were made distant from earth, 11. Utu, when day and night were assigned, 13. Utu, when the sea encircled the land. 45 43 For the divine ancestors of Enlil and Ninlil, including Enki and Ninki, see W. G. Lambert, Aneient Cosmologies 51-52; J. van Dijk, AcOr 28 1-16; SpTU III 72; cf. W. Farber, ZA 79 234-35. For the era when Anu was still lord, cf. NBC 11108:1 above and M Geller, BSOAS 48 215-16, with the variant opening line of Lugale: an lugal.dingir. re.e.ne .ke4 1nir.gal' '(When) Anu, the King of the Gods, was sovereign'. 44 For a study of SpTU 3 67 with parallels, see M. Dietrich, AOAT 240 67-71. 45 The now obseure Sumerian line 13, which preserves ambar, rather than a common name for the oeean (a.ab.ba or the like), may refer to an image of the creation of reed-swamps along the coasts of the lands as in lines 31-32 of The Bitinguat Creation of the Wortd by Marduk (see p. 131) rather than a circumambulating ocean. For the

142

Cosmic Geography in Accounts of Creation

Later, after mountains and rivers are brought into being in lines 17-18, heaven and earth are married, and this union is then apparently put asunder when Anu and Enlil divide heaven and earth between them: dutu u4 an.[ki].bi nam.[da]m.šè ba.an.tuk.eš.a.ba e-nu-ma rša-ma'-[mu u gaq-q]â?-ru ana âš-u-tiin-na-ah-zu dutu u4 an den-lf [1] an.ki.a mu.un.hal.bal.eš.a.ba duTu e-nu-ma da-nim u den-lil šamê e U KI.TIM i-zu-zu SpTU 3 67 19-22 (M. Dietrich, AOAT 240 67) (trans. from Akkadian version) Utu; when heav[en and ear]th? were taken in marriage, 46 Utu,whenAadElivuphenadrt, As preserved, the sequenee of events in lines 19-22 appears to disagree with the sequence of events in lines 9-14. In lines 9-14, heaven is made distant from earth, and the earth's surface is then arranged with land and sea elements. Yet, in lines 19-22, heaven and earth seem to be physically joined in marriage and then separated by Anu and Enli1. 47 The cosmographic seetion of SpTU 3 67 culminates with Anu; Enlil assigns the Sun-god to his divine duties. Group II: Distribution of Divine Duties

Enki and the World Order (Benito Enki 85-160). In lines 248-385 of Enki and the World Order, Enki distributes various cosmic duties to individual

gods and goddesses. Three passages in this portion of the text provide information about the ereation of rivers, precipitation, and the course of the sun. In EWO 251-59, Enki fills the Tigris and Euphrates rivers with his semen. In EN 9-10 and Atrahasis (Lambert-Millard Atra-hasis pp. 42-43), the gods dig the

Sumerian verb su in what may be a parallel context, see BWL 327 nn. 83-84, for the famous Sumerian proverbial saying ... lû. dagal.la.kur.ra la.ba.an.šu .šu, which corresponds to Dialogue of Pessimism 83-84: ajû rapšu sa ersetim ugammerû 'who is so broad as to encompass the earth' (BWL p 148). Cf. the name of the Sea, mugammirtum `the eneloser' (see p. 306) 46 Here note the restored pair samamû qaqqaru, despite the writings AN.E-KI.TIM in the following lines. Cf. p. 291 for an argument that KI.TIM is to be read qaqqaru instead of ersetim when paired with names for heaven in the first millennium. 47 A solution to this problem may be found in the opening lines of the bilingual version of Enki and Ninmah (Benito Enki 21; seep. 137). Here, after the days and nights when heaven and earth are separated (EN 1-2), goddesses are taken in marriage, and then distributed throughout heaven and earth (EN 5-6). The closing signs at the end of Enki and Ninmah (bilingual version) 5-6 and SpTU 3 67:19-22 are nearly identical. Thus, an earlier (and more reliable) version of the Sumerian text may have preserved at this point an account of the marriage and distribution of goddesses, rather than the marriage and division of heaven and earth as on the current tablet. -

Sumerian and Bilingual Accounts

143

river-beds, so this passage apparently explains how the waters of the rivers filled the dry river courses. 48 In EWO 308-16, Enki places Iškur in charge of clouds and rain and announces Iškur's duties. One of these responsibilities is to bar the bolt of the heavens: šsi.gar.kù an.šà.ge gib.ba

EWO 313 (Benito Enki 102) To bar the holy bolt by "heaven's Midst:" 4s In EWO 376-79, Enki assigns the duties of the sun-god Utu. These inelude rising from the horizon: su6 na4za.gin

lâ

an.kù.ga an.[û]r'.ta è.a EWO 377 (Benito Enki 107)

To wear a lapis-lazuli beard, to rise from the horizon in the elear heavens. The Duties and Powers of the Gods (S. N. Kramer, Sumer 4 1-38). Five fragments of a diorite statue from Dur Kurigalzu preserve what remains of a eosmological myth that has been given the modern name "The Duties and Powers of The Gods?' The myth includes the nâme of the Kassite king Kurigalzu (Sumer 4 pl. 4 C iv 18'-19'), so it is certain that the myth was composed during the Kassite period. The fragmented state of preservation of the text presents four major diffIculties. First, the beginning and the end of the text are missing. Second, it is not possible to determine what percentage of the text has survived. Third, the surviving fragments cannot be arranged in order with any degree of certainty. Finally, the preserved portions of the myth are generally not long enough to allow the context of each passage to become clear. Also, the author of the text utilizes numerous syllabic spellings, so the meanings of many of the preserved passages are either ambiguous or completely obscure. Despite these difficulties, the surviving portion of .the text preserves valuable evidenee for the loeation of the Anunnaki and Igigi during Kassite times. In fragment A, the Igigi are identified as the gods of heaven: 50 u4 dnun.gal.an.ùn.na.ke4 .ne su.hu.ul.la.bi ba.da.an ,šu Sumer 4 pl. 1 ii 6'-11' When the Igigi of the high heavens eovered their... In fragment C, the Anunnaki are identified as gods of the underworld:

48 When joined, Enki and Ninmah and The Sumerian Flood Story recount the events of Atrahasis. 4s For an.sà, see pp. 238, 247-49. s° These two passages are also treated by W. Sommerfeld in AfO 32 13.

144

Cosmic Geography in Accounts of Creation

lugal dnerigal.ra kun.sag kur.ra ki da,nun.na.ke 4 .ne te.gâ den.ill Sumer 4 pl. 4 iv 26'-37'

For King Nergal, Enlil [and] Nin [lil] . , . the ... of the underworld, where the Anunnaki draw near [ .. .

Before the Kassite period, Anunnaki and Igigi inhabit both heaven and earth, but from the Kassite period onward, the Igigi are usually gods of heaven, while the Anunnaki are underworld deities. These two passages provide the earliest evidence for this distinction. The identity of the kun.sag of the underworld is unsure, but it may be a stairway that leads to the underworld. Nabnitu VII 287 (MSL 16 113) lists simmeltu 'staircase' as a possible meaning of ku n. s ag; a simmelat šamamt `stairway of heaven' leads from the underworld to heaven in Nergal and Ereškigal (see p. 66); and simmelat ganzer `Stairway of the Underworld' occurs as an epithet of the wall of Babylon in a Nabopolassar inscription (F. Al-Rawi, Iraq 47 4:15). The Exaltation of Istar (edition by B. Hruška ArOr 37 473-522).

The

Ištar, a bilingual text known primarily from two Late Babylonian tablets from the Res Temple in Uruk, preserves an account of the appointment of the Moon and Sun-gods to their heavenly duties by Anu, Enlil, and Ea: Exaltation of

25. 26.

27. 28. 29.

30.

25. 26. 27.

sag.tab an den.lil den.ki.ke 4 ni.hal.hal.la ba.an.bà.a.ta šur-ru-g da-nu d en-121 u dé-a tic za ' i zu zi-za-a -tim [dingir.min.n] a.bi en.nu.un.an.ki.a gšig.an.na gal.la.ar ana ilani meš ki-lal-la-an ma-as-sar šantee u ersetimtim pe-tu -tic da-lat d a- nu dnanna dutu.ra gi sg' u4.da šu.ta.ta an.ni.ši.Ib.si ana dsîn u dšamaš 44-mu u mu -ši ma-al-ma -lis ba-šim-ma an.iir.ta an.pa.sllšè â.dù.a.bi im.ta.an .zu,zu.ne iš-tu i -šid šamê e ana e-lat šamê e a-da-š4-nu tic- ta-ad-du-nu ab ,sisin,gim'i.dur.dur.re.eš.àm mul.an zà.til.bi ki-ma ši -ir-3i su - un -nu-qu kak-kab šamê e gi- mir -š4 -un gu4.gim us ba.ab.si.sI.ga.eš .àm dim.me.er dub.sag.ga.ar ki-ma al-pi g -sa šu -hu-zu ilanimes šu-ut mal-ri RA 11 145 25-30 = TCL 6 51 pl. 97 obv. 49-rev. 10 (B. Hruška, ArOr 37 484:49-485:60) In the beginning, when Anu, Enlil, and Ea shared out the shares, for the twinned gods, the watchmen of heaven and earth, who open the Door of Anu (Sumerian: Door of Anu/Heaven), for the Moon-god and Sun-god, night was created evenly with day,sl st The base si is apparently a phonetie writing for si = bašdmu (see Nabnitu

VII:110-14; MSL 16 108 with n. 114).

Akkadian Accounts of Creation

28. 29. 30.

145

from Horizon to Zenith, they assigned their tasks: to keep all the stars in place as in a furrow, to make the gods at the fore keep to the path like oxen.

In the passage, Anu, Enlil, and Ea appoint the Moon and Sun-gods to keep the visible heavens running properly. This parallels Ee V 11-12, where Marduk entrusts the night to the Moon-god Nannar, and Genesis 1:14-18, where the Moon and Sun are commanded to rule night and day. In line 27 Anu, Enlil, and Ea assign the Moon and Sun to open the 'Door of Anu'. This door is apparently part of a gate leading into the sky that the Sun and Moon pass through as they rise and set. Lines 29-30 seem to refer to a tradition that the Moon and Sun keep the stars in line and on course. 52 This disagrees with Ee V 1-8, where Marduk's star Neberu, together with the stars of the stations of Enlil and Ea, keep the stars from transgressing (see p. 116). Akkadian Accounts of Creation 53 Atrahasis

In the prologue to the Old Babylonian recension of Atrahasis, Anu, Enlil, and Ea distribution heaven, earth, and the Apsu among themselves by lots (Lambert-Millard Atra-basis 42; see p. 126). This parallels Ee IV 137-46, where Marduk assigns the cosmic regions šamû/šamamu, Barra, and Apsu to these same three gods (see p. 112). The division of heaven, earth, and the Apsu by lot in Atrahasis may be compared with the casting of lots to apportion properties among humans in economic documents (see P. Steinkeller, RA 78 86). CT 46 43 "The Theogony of Dunnu CT 46 43 preserves a short theogony from the city of Dunnu, 54 which opens with a parallel to Genesis 1:1: 55 [ x ] t i'-na re-e[š ... [ . ] in the begin [ping

CT 46 43 1 (collated)

]x ...

] .

52 For parallels to this passage, see Sjöberg Mondgott 167:20-21; CT 16 19:5220:69 + duplicates (= Utukku Lemnutu XVI = The Moon-God and the Demons; see Thompson Devils 1 93:55-69). 53 The following aeeount of creation, and others, are also examined by J. Bottéro in Bottéro MrB 279-328. 54 CT 46 43 was first published as "The Theogony of Dunnu" by W G. Lambert and P. Walcot in Kadmos 4 (1965) 64-72. Later, T. Jacobsen republished the text in 1984 as "The Harab Myth" in SANE 2/3. The two editions disagree on a number of points. The remarks below follow the earlier study of Lambert and Walcot. 55 For the eity of Dunnu, see T. Jacobsen, SANE 2/3 22; RGTC 3 57, 4 84; and AOS 74 29-32.

146

Cosmic Geography in Accounts of Creation

Three deified cosmographic features appear later in the text: the goddesses Sea, Earth, and River. In line 4, gods whose names are not preserved in the surviving text bring sea into being by digging her with plows: [hut m]i-hi-is har-bi-šu-nu û še eb nu û dtâmta(a, ab.ba)

CT 46 43:4

By the stroke of the their plows they created Sea. The goddess Sea also appears in lines 14, 18-19, and 22. The goddess Earth appears in lines 10 and 19, and the goddess River oecurs in lines 21 and 30. In "The Theogony of Dunnu; . Earth is the mother of Sea and Sea is the mother of River. DT 41:l-2 (CT 13 34)

The first two lines of the introduction to a fable preserve a brief account of the ereation of heaven and earth: e-nu-ma ilanumeš i-na pu uh ri šti nu ib-nu-1 û' [ .. . û-ba-âš-ši-mu b[u]-ru-mi ik-su-[ru . :

When the gods in their assembly created [ .. . [her... fashioned the firmament, and bound toget [her The cosmie place-name burumu is a name for the sky (see p. 226), so the seeond half of line 2 should refer to the ereation of a part of earth. Passages from Enuma Anu Enlil

Three prologues to various sections of the astronomical omen series Enuma Anu Enlil 56 reveal information about the organization of the visible

heavens. The obverse of the school tablet 82-7-14, 4005 (STC 2 pl. 49) eontains two extracts from the introduction to the series that explain the duties of the Sun and Moon. A third passage considers the stars: 57 1. 2. 3.

e-nu da-nu den-lIl u dé-a ilanumes rabûtime' šamê e u ersetata ib nu û û ad du u gis-kim-ma ii-kin-nu na-an-za-za [û-š]ar-ši-du gi-is-gal-la

4. 5.

ilanimes mu ši tim û [x x] x ü za i zu bar-ra-rni' kakkabanim tam ši li [šu nu us-s]i-ru lu-ma-a-[01

s6 An outdated edition of parts of the series Enuma Anu Entil by C. Virolleaud is to be found in ACh. The first two fascicles of a new edition by E. Reiner and D. Pingree are available in BPO 1-2. For further bibliography see E Rochberg-Halton, ZA 77 207 n. 1. For part of the Shamash section of the series, see now Van Soldt Solar Omens. 57 For previous editions of this passage, see E. Weidner, MO 17 89; B. Landsberger and J. Kinnier Wilson, JNES 20 172; and AfO Beih. 22 270-71. Note also Emar 652:80'-82'.

Akkadian Accounts of Creation

6. 7.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

147

mûša uma mal' ma' [liš im du d]u ar-ha u šatta ib-nu-u rana sin (30) 1 šamaš(20) x x [ x purussê šame] e u ersetimt'm iprusu (t a r)s [u] K 5981 (+) 11867:1-7 // VAT 9805+ 14'-17' eollated (AfO 17 taf. 4-5, p. 89)

When Anu, Enlil, and Ea, the great gods, heaven and earth built, fixed the astronomical signs; established the stellar-positions, [se]t fast the stellar-locations; the gods of the night they . [..] . , divided the paths; the stars, the likenesesses [of them they dr] ew, the constellatio [ns;] night (and) day, as equal's' they measure]d, month and year they created; for Sin and Shamash, .. [ . the deeisions of heave]n and earth they (Anu, Enlil, and Ea) determined.

This passage relates that Anu, Enlil, and Ea positioned the stars in their astral stations, divided the night sky into stellar paths, drew the constellations, and organized units of time (night, day, month, year). Parallels to these beliefs are found in other Mesopotamian accounts of the creation of the sky and luminaries. In Ee V 1-8, Marduk organizes the stars into three stellar-paths of twelve stellar sectors in the image of the `Astrolabes, thereby establishing the months and years (see pp. 114-15). Later, in Ee V 11-46, the movements of the Moongod and Sun-god define the days of the month and the time of day. Line 5, whieh preserves a tradition that Anu, Enlil, and Ea drew the stars and eonstellations in the sky, parallels KAR 307:34, where Marduk draws constellations on the Lower Heavens. The possible reference to night and day as equals (malmališ) in line 6 may parallel Exaltation of Ištar 27 (see p. 144) and K. 7067 10' (see below). K. 7067 (CT 13 31)

The fragment K. 7067 preserves a few lines of another account of the arrangement of the stars in the sky. In this account, the great gods apparently arrange the heavens through the use of mathematics: 1'. r dé-a ina apsi' [ .. .

7'.

ilanume rabûtume im-tal-ku-ma ina m[il ki šu nu .. kakkabanimeš tam -šil zi-im bu - un -n[é-e . . šamée rap-šu -ti [ .. . ištu sit šamši (dutu.è) adi ereb šam[ši (dutu.š [u. a) .. réša(sag) ù šidda(uš) uš ta Ici lu [ .. . rùl -da ù purussâ(eš.bar) [ .. ,

8'.

ilanumes tic za' i zu

2'. 3'.

4'. 5'.

6'.

m[a-an-za-zi

, . .

148 9'.

10'. 11'.

12'. 13'.

Cosmic Geography in Accounts of Creation

ina man-za-az man-da-a [ .. . muša(gi6) u4-me [ .. [ x muša ana oi[r-hi .. . [ x x ] man-da-ra' [ .. .

[xx

M]A.NAX [

...

K. 7067 (CT 13 31, collated) 1'. 2'. 3'. 4'. 5'. 6'. 7'. 8'. 9'. 10'. 11'. 12'. 13'.

Ea in the Apsu [ .. . The Great Gods took council and in their decisions .. . The stars, like a beaut[iful] glow of ... 58 The vast heavens [ .. . From sunrise to suns [et .. . They multiplied the width by the height [ .. . omens and oracular-decisions [ .. . 59 The gods divided up the st[ations .. . In the station, the pole [ . Night and day [ .. [ . n] ight, for the M [oon/month .. . [ .. ] the pole [ . [ . . m]inas? . [ ... 60 .

.

Although the tablet is too poorly preserved to allow a clear understanding of the gods' actions, the use of the formula for determining the area of a rectangle in the arrangement of the heavens in K 7067 6' is not surprising. Mesopotamian astronomers recognized that the patterns of observed astronomical phenomena were mathematical in character long before the development of mathematical astronomy in the Persian and Hellenistic periods. Cosmological Incantations

BiOr 30 180 71-78 and Parallels. A ritual procedure text containing instructions for the preparation of foundation figurines (R. Borger, BiOr 30 17683) preserves two cosmological incantations. The first incantation (BiOr 30 179: 42-180:69) is bilingual and poorly preserved. Lines 53-54 and 66-67 mention 58 Compare RAcc. 68 16: a na tam-šil zi-i-mu bu-un-né-e kakkabu šâ-ma-mi `in the likeness of a beuatiful glow of a star of the heavens'; and note parallels quoted in CAD Z 121 zimu 2. 59 For ûdu/uddu in a similar context, see Bauer Asb. taf. 49 Sm. 671 13: [ ... den-11(t u d é-a mu-se-tiq f l-di su-ut šamê ersetim mu-pa-as-si-su ittate(giskim)md `[... Enl]il and Ea, who let pass the omens of heaven and earth, blot out the ominous signs'. so A reference to `minas' here may refer to the mathematical system used to measure the length of day and night hours over the months of the year in units of minas on water cloeks, as in the `Astrolabes; Mul-Apin, and other astronomical texts (see pp. 188-92). -

149

Akkadian Accounts of Creation

Anu, Enlil, and Ea, and lines 51-52 refer to mountains and rivers, so it is possible that Anu, Enlil, and Ea created mountains and rivers in the incantation. The second incantation is written in Akkadian and is almost completely preserved. The opening line of the incantation preserves an account of the distribution of the regions of heaven and earth in early times: i-nu da-num den-lil u dté-al šamê e u ersetim i-hu-zu BiOr 30 180:71-71a When Anu, Enlil, and Ea took possesion of heaven and earth The regions of the universe are also divided between Anu, Enlil, and Ea in Atrahasis and Enuma Elish. A late bilingual prayer of the kalû-priests from Uruk preserves an analogous tradition: 1u41 an den.111.la den.ki an.ki.a mu.un.dim.dim.e.ne i nu tic da-nim den-lil u dea(i dim) šamê e u ersetimt'm ib - nu - tic W. Mayer, Or 47 438:1-2 When Anu, Enlil, and Ea built heaven and earth, In the opening line of another Akkadian incantation, Ea alone ereates heaven and earth: 61

Érr d é-a šàr apsi pa-ti-qu šamê e u ersetimm ba-nu-u nišé mes KAR 252 rev. iii 39 Incantation: Ea, King of the Apsu, Builder of Heaven and Earth, Creator of Men ... When Anu Built the Heavens (enûma danu ibnû samê). 62 Lines 24-40 of a Late Babylonian ritual for the restoration of temples from the city of Babylon preserves the cosmological incantation When Anu Created the Heavens. In the opening lines of the incantation, the heavens are created by Anu, and Ea creates the Apsu: e-nu-ma danu ib-nu-tic šamê e dnu-dim-mud ib-nu-U apsâ .41-bat-su dé-a ina apsi ik-ru-sa ti-ta-lam]

Weissbach Bab. Misc. no. 12:24-26 61 Note also R. Borger, Fest. Bohl 51 52 Si 12 rev.' 11' = 12' + duplicates: ÉN dé a d samas u B asal lû hi ilanume: rabûtume6 ba nu tic da ad mi u es-re-e-ti -

-

-

-

-

-

mu-kin-nu ma-ha-zu mu-sap-pi-ku hur-sa-a-nu pa-ti-qu ka-la mim-ma sum-[štir]

Incantation: Ea, Shamash, Asalluhi, the great gods, who created the inhabited regions and the shrines, who established the sanctuaries, heaped up the mountains, fashioned everyth 62 For the ineantation When Anu Built the Heavens and the accompanying ritual, see W. Horowitz, RA 85 75-77.

150

Cosmic Geography in Accounts of Creation

When Anu built the heavens; Nudimmud built the Apsu, his home, Ea in the Apsu pinched off cla[y]. In the remainder of the incantation, Ea fathers gods whose work is needed in the restoration of temples or the performance of temple rites and creates geographic features whose products are used in temples. The geographic features that are created in the incantation inelude reed marshes and forests (line 28) and mountains and seas (line 30). Medical Incantations

Two medical incantations, The Worm and šundu danu irhû šamê, contain brief accounts of the creation of heaven and earth. In The Worm, Anu creates the heavens and the heavens ereate the earth: 63 ul-tu da-nu-um ib-nu-il šamêe šamûû ib-nu-tic er-se-tum

CT 17 50:1-2 + duplicates

After Anu built the heavens, the heavens built earth. In the chain of creation that follows, earth ereates rivers, rivers ereate ditches, ditches create muck, and muek creates worms. The worm then climbs into human teeth and causes toothaches. A command to extract teeth by their roots follows. In the opening lines of šundu danu irhu šamê, Anu ereates the heavens and Ea creates the earth: 64 ÉN šu-un-du danu ir-hu-u šamûrü' dea (diš) ersetimum u-kin-nu-rüi-[ma]

BAM 333 1-2

When Anu engender the heavens, Ea established the earth, A third medical incantation, The Ergot, 65 is similar to The Worm. In The Ergot, the earth bears mud, mud bears a stalk of grain, the stalk of grain bears an ear of grain, the ear of grain bears the ergot, and the ergot then works his way into human flesh. 63 For The Worm and parallel incantations, see Borger HKL 2 290 and Bottéro MrB 281-84. Note also YOS 11 3-5; Lambert Cat. 85 K. 17344. 64 For other examples of the incantation, see BAM 4 pp. xi-xii (no. 333); Bottéro MrB 291-93. For parallels, note Lugale 26; Erra I 28. 66 For The Ergot, see B. Landsberger and T. Jacobsen, JNES 14 14-21; Bottéro MrB 282-84.

Chapter 7 The Geography Of the Sky: The "Astrolabes;' Mul-Apin, and Related Texts

Introduction Mesopotamian astronomical and astrologieal texts are known from the Old Babylonian period onward. The latest stage of Mesopotamian astronomy, dating from the Persian Period to the end of cuneiform writing, is eharaeterized by precise mathematical tables describing lunar, solar, and planetary motion.' However, these mathematical works represent a departure from traditional astronomical materials. Traditional astronomical works, such as the `Astrolabes" and Mul -Apin, are concerned with the course of observable events in the sky and correlate these events with the passage of time. This is illustrated by a passage from a treatise on divination: 12 arhumes ša šatti Pam 360 (6 us) u4 -me-šci mi - na-at zag- muk ina qati-ka sabat(dib)-ma bi-ib-li uddazallê(ud.da.zal.1 a.) e ša ta-mar-ti kakkabanim 3 a-dan-na-ti-šu-nu mit-hur-ti reš šatti(sag m u) šâ muliku ta-mar-ti dsîn(30) u dšamaš ša ltuaddari u ituululi ni ip ha u tamarti (i g i . d u8 , a) meš šâ dsin ar- hi - šam namru (i g i) ru Wee (kin.kin) -ma šit-qul-ta ša m u l . m u l u dsîn usur (ù r u) -ma li-pu-ul-ka-ma 1 For cuneiform astronomical texts in general, see O. Neugebauer, The Exact Sciences in Antiquity, and Science Awakening II. For editions of late mathematicalastronomical tablets, see O. Neugebauer ACT. For other types of late astronomical works, see A. Sachs, JCS 2 271-90, Sachs-Hunger Diaries 1 11-20. For a bibliography of Mesopotamian astronomieal works, see C. Walker, Grazer Morgentändische Studien 3 407-49.

151

The Geography of the Sky

152

šâ šatti arhi meL a arhi mes ftméme - šu še'e (k i n) -ma mim -mu - ii te pu šu šu-ul-lim -

-

A. Oppenheim, JNES 33 200:57-63 12 are the months of the year; 360 are its days. Take the length of the new year in your hand 2 and continuously seek out the times of the disappearance (of the Moon), the expected heliacal risings of the stars, the conjuction of the New Year with "The Field' the sightings of the Moon and Sun in Adar and Elul, the risings and first appearances of the Moon whieh are seen monthly. Observe the 'eorrespondence' of the Pleiades and the Moon and let it provide you with the answer. Seek out the months of the year, the days of the month. Be exact in everything you do. 3

The 360-day-year mentioned in this passage is the ideal astronomical year; it consists of 12 months of 30 days. Both the 'Astrolabes" and Mul-Apin correlate astronomical activity with the passage of time. Both relate the annual pattern of stellar movement with the months of the ideal astronomical year, and Mul-Apin examines related topies, such as the movement of the Sun and Moon over the seasons of the year. As a by-product of this endeavor to correlate astronomical aetivity with the days of the year, both the `Astrolabes" and Mul-Apin provide deseriptions of the geography of the visible heavens. Before examining these deseriptions, it is necessary to examine basic Mesopotamian pereeptions of the visible heavens and visible astral bodies. The Visible Heavens Aceording to the lists of the heavens in KAR 307 and AO 8196, the level of the stars and constellations is the lowest of the three heavens. The Sun, Moon, and planets are not eonsidered in the lists, but they too almost certainly belong to this level, because they cannot be placed in the Heaven of Anu or the Heaven of the Igigi and Bel's cella, Thus all astronomical aetivity presumbably takes place in the lowest heavens. 4 Mesopotamian texts group the visible astral bodies differently from modern astronomers. Two categories of astral bodies are discernible: `stars' (mul = kakkabu) and 'planets' (udu.idim = bibbu). These two categories partially overlap. The first category, 'stars', includes all astral bodies whose names are usually The exact sense of the idiomatie phrase mint zagmukki ina qattika sabat is unminatu in other astronomical contexts (see CAD M/2 87 e. 3 The niphu of astronomical bodies refers to any rising or appearance of that body in the heavens, while tamartu generally refers to a heliaeal or first rising. For instance, note AfO 14187:7-8, where the tamartu of the Moon occurs on the first day of the month, and ABL 657:11-12, where the tamartu of Mercury is said to be approaching. The term šitqultu refers both to astronomical conjunctions and oppositions (see CAD S/3 133). 4 Diodorus Siculus (Book H 30.6) states that the Babylonians believed that the stars were situated below (vito) the planets. There is, however, no evidence for this belief in surviving Mesopotamian materials. 2

eertain but may be related to the use of

Names of Stars

153

prefixed with the m u 1 ('star') determinative. These include individual fixed stars, eonstellations, and the planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. With the exception of the five planets, all 'stars' maintain fixed east-west courses in the heavens, and each star maintains a fixed position vis-à-vis the other stars. Thus the entire pattern of stars in the sky seems to rotate from east to west over the course of each night, and individual stars are found in an almost identical position in the sky at annual intervals. In fact, the solar year is only 20 minutes longer than the true astronomieal year (the interval between the annual heliacal risings of fixed stars). Over 70 years, this amounts to a diserepancy of approximately one day, so the difference between solar and true astronomical calendars is barely noticeable over a single lifetime. The second category of astral bodies is the 'planets'. The planets appear to move in relation to the 'stars' and are called bibbu `wild sheep' in Akkadian. In contrast, fixed stars and constellations are often compared with domesticated sheep and cattle. 5 In Mesopotamian astronomy, the Sun and Moon, as well as Mereury, Venus, Mars, Saturn, and Jupiter, are considered to be 'planets'. For instance, all seven are listed as bibbu in HBA 19 19-21, and the seven planets are listed together in Antagal G 303-9 (MSL 17 229). Like fixed stars, the Sun and Moon always move from east to west, but the position of these two 'planets' vary in relation to the general pattern of fixed stars. The other 'planets' do not always move from east to west but sometimes appear to stand still or even move backward in a retrograde motion, 6 The differences between modern and ancient astronomical terminology can often eause confusion. Below are definitions of terms as they will be used in the remainder of this ehapter. Star Planet Modern Planet Fixed-Star Constellation

Equivalent to mu1, including ineludingfixed-stars, constellations, and planets nets: the Moon, Sun, Mercury, The Spro Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn Mereury, Individual stars (not planets) As in standard English usage

Names of Stars The identification of ancient star-names with the modern names for fixedapparent positions of stars, planets, and constellations is pro 5 For stars behaving like oxen in The Exaltation of Istar, see p. 145. Note also BPO (see p. 255). of Anu, Enlil, and Ea are co 2 42, where the asSumerian literature, see W. Heimpel, Fest. Sjöberg 249-52. The asFor this imager ll be understood as meaning `wild tronomical tronomical term UDU.IDIM = bibbu (planet 7 Astrat Magic in Babylon despite the Urra XI entry cited by E. Reiner in Astral s 'skin of a wild? sheep'. The [Kuš.U]DU.BAD/IDIM/TIL[°] DU.BAD/IDIM/TIL[°] du tt-il — (masak) bi-ib-bu `skin n. 22: [KuA.U] eonfuis context most likely reflects a misunderstanding arising from confugloss udu 2). 'live sheep' sion sion with the word udu.ti.la = udutilû `live 'to turn back' (see CAD S 40 1d). 6 The Akkadian term for retrograde motion is saharu `to

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The Geography of the Sky

in the heavens have changed since antiquity, and many ancient constellations are no longer recognized. Furthermore, names of fixed-stars and constellations may have varied during ancient times, and constellations, whose names remained constant, may have been eomposed of different stars in different periods or as viewed from different eities. Thus it is often best not to attempt precise identifications of ancient star-names with modern names. In the following study of astronomical texts, the names of stars will be presented as written in the ancient texts. For the gonvenience of the reader, sug gested modern equivalents will also be provided. Unless otherwise noted, the modern equivalents will be identified aceording to the "Star Catalog" of E. Reiner and D. Pingree in BPO 2 10-16.'

The "Astrolabes" Astrolabe" 8 is a modern misnomer given to a group of ancient astronomieal texts. 9 True astrolabes are instruments that were used to determine the altitude of stars, but the function of the Mesopotamian 'Astrolabes" was completely different. The Mesopotamian Astrolabes" purport to identify stars that rose each month in the Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea. Hence the `Astrolabes" list 36 month-stars, one star for each path every month. Examples of the 'Astrolabes" are known to us in both circular and list formats. The circular `Astrolabes" were divided into three concentric rings repre senting the Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea, and split into 12 radial segments representing the 12 months of the year, thereby producing 36 individual zones, one zone for eaeh of the 36 month-stars. In surviving circular `Astrolabe" fragments, the stars are either drawn as six-pointed star figures (CT 33 11) or as circles (CT 33 12). The Ea-stars are placed in the outer ring of the circular "Astrolabes' with the Anu-stars in the middle ring and Enlil-stars in the inner ring. The month-stars in each ring continue in a clockwise direetion from Nisan to Adar. The radial segment representing Adar borders the segment representing Nisan, so the stars of the `Astrolabe' like those in heaven, move in an unending cyclical progression from year to year. A number of `Astrolabes" preserve information that supplements the lists of month-stars. Astrolabe B (KAV 218) and BM 82923 (MDOG 109 27-30) preserve identifications of month-stars, and the circular 'Astrolabes" as well as listAstrolabes LBAT 1499 and BM 82923 preserve a numbering system that assigns For earlier lists of modern equivalents of ancient star-names, see SL 4/2 and C. Bezold, Zenit- and Aequatorialgestirne. More recent identifications of Akkadian starnames are found in CAD and AHw. For studies of modern equivalents of ancient constellations, see Koch Neue Untersuchungen. 8 An edition of the `Astrolabes" is being prepared by the author. For now, see HBA 62-102; Science Awakening 2 64-67; BPO 2 3-5. 9 A. Schott (ZDMG 88 311 n. 2) identifies the ancient name of the 'Astrolahes" as "The Three Stars Each" (kakkabanu 3 tàam) on the basis of Thompson Rep. 152 rev. 6 (= Parpola LAS 1 319 = SAA 8 19) and Ee V 4.

155

The `Astrolabes"

values to each month-star. As will be demonstrated below (pp. 188-92), these numbers are related to a system of calculating the length of day and night hours over the months of the year. The following ehart lists published Astrolabes" and indicates which `Astrolabes" preserve short identifications of stars and/or assign numbers to month-stars: "Astrolabe"

Star-Descriptions

Numbers

Circular "Astrolabes"

Sm. 162 (CT 33 11) K. 14943 (+) 83-1-18, 608 (CT 33 12)

Yes Yes

List `Astrolabes"

Astrolabe Ba KAV 218 Section B KAV 218 Section C LBAT 1499 LBAT 1500 BM 82923 (MDOG 109 28-29) Sm, 1125 (CT 26 49)

Yes Yes Yes

Yes

Related Texts'0

TCL 6 13b 81-7-27, 81 (see pp. 175-77) KAV 218 Section B preserves a star-catalogue with 12 stars in each stellar path that does not list the stars in order of heliacal risings. b For the `Astrolabe" stars of TCL 6 13, see F. Rochberg-Halton, ZA 77 212, 218.

Astrolabe B (KAV 218) Astrolabe B (KAV 218) preserves the earliest known example of the "Astrolabes?' The tablet dates to the Middle Assyrian tablet eollection from the time of Tiglath-Pileser I (1115-1077) and his father Assur -Reš-Iši (1133-1116) (see AfO 16 210 no. 75), 11 and consists of four sections: 10 For a new edition of and duplicates to the menology in KAV 218 Section A, see BPO 2 61-63, 81-82; G. Cagirgan, Belleten 48 399-416; and TUAT 2/1 48-53. For astronomical omens relating to `Astrolabes' see BPO 2 52-69. Note also the circular astronomieal and astrological texts CT 33 10; SpTU I 97; and Weidner Gestirn-Darstellungen taf. 3-4. For a study of CT 33 10 (K. 8538), see Koeh Neue Untersuchungen 56-113, P. Huber, Centaurus 30 172-73. Note that this planisphere divides the sky into eight segments, rather than 12, as in the `Astrolabes." Two additonal circular astrological diagrams are found on TCL 6 13 (see F. Roehberg-Halton, ZA 77 224-28). Note also H. Hilprecht, Explorations in Bible Lands (1903) 530; W. Al-Jadir, Archeologia 224 (1987) 26-27. 11 For this eollection, see also W. G. Lambert, Iraq 38 85 n. 2, O. Pedersen, Archives and Libraries in the City of Assur. For the colophon of KAV 218, see n. 16.

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The Geography of the Sky

CirGular Astrolabe ReGonstruction

A. A bilingual menology (upper two-thirds of obverse); B. A star-catalogue listing 36 stars: 12 stars each for The Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea (lower third of obverse, upper half of reverse); C. A list-Astrolabe (middle of reverse); D. A list of "Stars That Rise as Others Set;' based on the list-Astrolabe in Section C (lower portion of reverse).

The `Astrolabes"

157

The 'Astrolabe" itself (KAV 218 C) lists the names of the 12 months of the year and assigns one star to each path each month. The following section (KAV 218 D) states that month-stars for eaeh month rise in that month and set one-half year hence. There are two exceptions, muIdili.bad (Venus) and m°dapin (`The Plough') (see p. 161). For example, in KAV 218 D 1-2, the stars that rise in Nisan are the Nisan stars of the 'Astrolabe" in KAV 218 C 1, and the stars that set are the month-stars for the seventh month of the year, Tishreh (KAV 218 C 7): ituba

ra nu-di ku šu-ut dé-a m° ^ dili.bad su-ut da-nim m°Iap in šu-ut den-l[il] KAV 218 C 1

Nisan: "The Field" (in the Path) of Ea, Venus (in the Path) of Anu, "The Plough" (in the Path) of Enitill [itubâra mulIiku muid ili.bad und gisapin rè [mu]inin.mah muIzi-ba- ni -tum muIen.te.na.bar.tiu [m š u] KAV 218 D 1-2 ^

[Nisan:] "The Field; Venus, "The Plough" rise. [N]inmah, Libra, Centauru [s set.] KAV 218 B, the seetion preceding the `Astrolabe, preserves star-eatalogues for the Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea written in three side-by-side eolumns. The catalogue opens with the Nisan-stars of the 'Astrolabe" in KAV 218 C and then deseribes and locates 11 other stars in each path. These 11 stars are not necessarily the stars of the `Astrolabe" in KAV 218 B, nor are they always listed according to the sequence of their heliacal risings. For example, the Ea-stars is lê (Hyades) and en. te.na.bar. hum (Centaurus) in KAV 218 B are replaced by gu.la (Aquarius) and nu.muš.da in KAV 218 C. Lists of the stars of the Star Catalogue of KAV -218 B and the month-stars of the 'Astrolabe" in KAV 218 C are published in BPO 2 4-5. A reconstruction of a circular "Astrolabe" based on the month-stars of the list-Astrolabe KAV 218 C appears on page 156. The Date of the Astrolabes

Although Astrolabe B (KAV 218), the earliest known example of the 'Astrolabes;' is found on a Middle Assyrian tablet, it is probable that the first 'Astrolabe" was composed no later than the Middle Babylonian Period and perhaps as early as the Old Babylonian Period. An Old Babylonian tablet, BM 17175+17284 (Hunger Pingree Mul-Apin 163-64, pl. 13a), preserves a system of ealeulating day and night hours over the course of the year which is nearly identical to that of the `Astrolabes." In BM 17175+, as in `Astrolabes' the equinoxes and solstices fall in the third, sixth, ninth, and twelfth months of the lunar year, and equinoxes are marked by a 3:3 ratio between day and night hours, while the summer solstice is marked by a 4:2 ratio between day and night and winter solstice by a 2:4 ratio. In Mul-Apin, the solstices and equinoxes fall one month later, in

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The Geography of the Sky

Months I, IV, VII, and X (see Hunger-Pingree Mul-Apin 163). 12 Nonetheless, this does not prove the existence of an 'Astrolabe" in the Old Babylonian period. No system for calculating day and night hours is present in the Middle Assyrian "Astrolabe" KAV 218, so it is possible that the system for calculating day and night hours was first joined to `Astrolabes" as late as the first millennium. Likewise, surviving Old Babylonian astronomical and astrological materials, including The Venus Tablet of Ammisaduqa (Enuma Anu Enlil 63; see BPO 1), Old Babylonian astronomical omens (see T. Bauer, ZA 43 308-14), and Old Babylonian Prayers to the Gods of the Night (G. Dossin, RA 32 180-83) preserve no evidence for either month-stars or the Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea. 13 In contrast, the earliest surviving evidence for both month-stars and the Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea dates to the Middle Babylonian Period, suggesting that the first 'Astrolabe" was produced at this time. The earliest evidence for month-stars and for the division of the sky into bands of stars belonging to Anu, Enlil, and Ea is found in the Middle Babylonian Prayer to the Gods of the Night from Boghazkoi (KUB 4 47), 14 and the unpublished Middle Babylonian star-catalogue from Nippur HS 1897 (see J. Oelsner, WZJ 20 147 no. 2). The prayer lists a number of stars in the sequence of their heliacal risings (KUB 4 47 rev. 43-46; see BPO 2 2) and then closes with a reference to stars of Anu, Enlil, and Ea: šu-d-ut dé-a nap-bar šu-ü-ut da-ni ru-sa-ni šu-ü-ut den-l[fl] ge5-me-er-ku-nu iš'•-ra ni .. .

KUB 4 47 rev. 47-48 (K. van der Toorn, Sin and Sanction in Israel 130) Those of Ea, all those of Anu, help me, those of Enlil, all of you, make me prosper . .

Although the prayer does not actually refer to the stellar paths (harranu) of Anu, Enlil, and Ea, the pronoun šut occurs both in the parallel phrases kakkabanu šut dealanimlenlil (stars of Ea, Anu, and Enlil) in the star-catalogue on 12 On the circular-Astrolabe fragments, the solstices and equinoxes fall in months III, VI, IX, and XII. On Sm. 162 (CT 33 11) the Winter Solstice falls in Month IX, where the Ea and Anu-stars for this month are assigned values of "2" and "L" The circularAstrolabe K. 4193+ (CT 33 12) preserves a value of 2,20 for Ea and 1,10 for Anu in Month X, while BM 83-1-18,608 (CT 33 12) preserves a value of 1,10 for Anu in Month VIII, In both instances, the value for Month IX would be 2,0 for Ea and 1,0 for Anu as in Sm. 162. In the Paths of Anu and Enlil in the list-Astrolabe LBAT 1499, the solstices and equinoxes fall one month later (Months I, IV, VII, X), as in Mut-Apin. 13 Although the text of the prayers is Old Babylonian, the extant copies of the prayers may date to the early Middle Babylonian period rather than the Old Babylonian period. For Old Babylonian period omens in the Enuma Anu Enlit tradition, see AfO Beih. 22 19-22. 14 For the Middle Babylonian date of KUB 4 47, see E. Weidner in RlA 3 73 3; W. G. Lambert, JAOS 107 95-96. This date was reeently confirmed in an oral communcation by I. Singer, who dated the tablet to the thirteenth century, certainly no earlier than the fourteenth century. Note, however, BPO 2 2, where the list of stars in KUB 4 47 is identified as a "... transc ri ption by a Hittite scribe of an Old Babylonian text?' For a Neo-Assyrian duplicate, see LKA 29g.

,

The `Astrolabes"

159

Astrolabe B (KAV 218 B i 28; ii 33; iii 27) and the Middle Babylonian star-catalogue HS 1987, as well as with every star in the list-Astrolabe KAV 218 C. The Middle Babylonian star-catalogue from Nippur (HS 1897) itself lists ten stars for each of the Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea and appears to be a "forerunner" to the star-eatalogue Astrolabe B Section B that lists twelve stars for each of the three stellar paths.' 5 Further evidence for a Middle Babylonian or older origin for the first "Astrolabe" is found in the Middle Babylonian fragment from Babylon, VAS 24 120, which preserves a short Sumerian version of the bilingual menology known from KAV 218. Thus, both the star-catalogue Astrolabe B Section B and bilingual menology Astrolabe B Section A may be based on Middle Babylonian sourees, which themselves may derive from earlier Old Babylonian traditions. A Babylonian, rather than Assyrian, origin for the `Astrolabes" can be established on the basis of the last star of the year for the Path of Anu in both the star-catalogue and the list-Astrolabe on KAV 218: kakkabu (m u l) samu (s a5) ša ina tib (z i) IMšuti (ù l u) lu arki (eg i r) Zlani mes mušiti (g i6) ti ug- da- mi - ru-nim-ma šamê e izûz(b a r) -ma izziz(gub)iz kakkabu šu (mul. bi) dné-bé-ru dmarduk KAV218Bii29-32 The red star, which stands at the rising of the south-wind after the gods of the night have finished their duties and divides the heavens, this star is Neberu, Marduk. ruš e muIk ] u6 šu-ut dé-a mul dmarduk šu-ut da-nim mulk a5a šu-u[t den-lIl] KAV 218 C 12

[Adar: The Fish (in the Path) of Ea, Marduk (in the Path) of Anu, The Fox (in the Path) o [f Enlil] In KAV 218 B and C, the last star in the Path of Anu is néberu, the star of the head of the Babylonian pantheon, Marduk. This star is also Marduk's star in both Ee V 1-8 and in Mul-Apin I i 36-38, where Marduk as néberu is Jupiter (muisag.m e.g ar).1 6 It is most unlikely that a Middle Assyrian author would have assigned the Babylonian King of the Gods, Marduk, to such an influential role in the sky. 17 is See W Horowitz and J. Oelsner, "The 30 Star-Catalogue HS 1897 and the Late Parallel BM 55502," MO (in press). 16 For a discussion of Marduk's star in Enuma Etish, see pp. 115-16; For muIneberu as a name for both Jupiter, as in Mul-Apin I i 36-38, and for Mercury, see Hunger Pingree Mul-Apin 126-27. 17 The eolophon of KAV 218 indicates that Astrolabe B is a Babylonian text copied onto the Middle Assyrian tablet. In the eolophon (Hunger Kolophon 30 no. 43; G. Cagirgan, Belleten 48 399-400) the scribe of the tablet is named as mdmarduk balatsu tires, the son of mdninurta ubattitsu, the royal scribe (tupsar Barri). Another member of this family bears the name mdbel-ahu-iddina (see E. Weidner, AfO 16 202-3). The divine names Marduk/Bel in the names of the scribes suggest that the family of mdmarduk balâtsu eres was a Babylonian scribal family in the service of the Assyrian king in Assur. -

-

-

-

-

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The Geography of the Sky

Finally, it is certain that the menology (KAV 218 A) and the three following seetions of the tablet belong at the least to a shared astronomical tradition. The menology identifies ten of the twelve months with stars. A comparison of the stars of the menology with those of the Path of Ea in KAV 218 B (the stareatalogue) and KAV 218 C (the list-Astrolabe) demonstrates a elose affinity between the three lists: šâ18 KAV A Month

Menology

KAV

218 B

Star Catalogue

KAV 218 C

List Astrolabe

iku iku ikû Nisan mu1.mul mul.mu l a mul.mul = zap Iyar sipa.zi.an.na is lê gù.an.na Sivan kak.si.sa sipa.zi. Tammuz sip a.zi.an.na=sitadallu pan sukûdu kak.si.sâ Ab kak.si.sa kak.si.sâ = šukûdu kalitum pan Elul pan ni MU.BU.kéš. da = niru MU.BU.kés.da Tishreh idim i nin.mah Arahsamnu ur.idi Kislev `Brillance of Venus" salbatanu Tebet nu.la e8me'en t e$me'en nu.mug.da nu.muš.da en.te.na.bar.hum Shevat k us k us k us Adar a It is not completely certain that the Sumerian star-name is always to be read mul.mul `the stars', rather than mulmul, since mul = zappu is found in Aa IV/6 (MSL 14 291:26). Note brew iln,D, Pleiades); see W G. Lambert in C. Cagni, ed., wri t Ebla mul.mul = kà nguismo à Ebla (1984) 396-97. b g ù.an.na = gu 4.an.na `The Bull of Heaven'. s"k šk ddišt[ar]. dift[ar]. c ni.g [ al di n a n n a. k

ix stars in the menology are identical to the first six stars listed in the Th star-catalogue, while the menology, list-Astrolabe, and KAV 218 D all agree on the Ea-stars for the months of Adar, Nisan, and Iyar, the last month of the old bbebeyear and the first two months of the new year. This is particularly significant because this sequence of first risings was a sign of the new year. For example, the diviks the new year in both the treatise on divin rising of "The Fiel nation (see p. 151-52), and the Star-Catalogue of Astrolabe B: natio ina tib(z1) lMsadî izzazu(g u b)zu ana 1Msûti parik (gib) ku sâi1Mšut ) kakkab rés réš satti tti (mul sag.mu) a-lik pani kakkabu šu sû (mul.biiša šu-ut d é- a kakkabani mes su-ut

KAV 218Bi1-4 the "The Field" which stands in the east and lies across the star is the star of the new year, the leader of the stars of Ea.

his this

menol A Middle Babylonian date for the authorship of both thenimenolbilingual menolthe first "Astrolabe(s)" should not come as a surprise,-ogy ogy (KAV (KAV

161

The `Astrolabes"

because this period was a time of interest in cosmographic matters, when Sumerian works were composed. For example, Marduk is first identified as "King of the Gods" in a Kassite period personal name (see W. G. Lambert, Fest. Meek 8), and the Kassite period Sumerian language cosmological account The Duties and Prayers of the Gods preserves the earliest attestation of the distinction between the Igigi of the heavens and Anunnaki of the underworld (see p. 144). Furthermore, the Akkadian epic Nergal and Ereškigal, which explains how Nergal replaced Ereškigal as sovereign in the underworld, first appears in the contemporary Amarna Corpus (EA 357). The Astronomical Theory of the `Astrolabes"

The theory of the `Astrolabes" is explained in KAV 218 D 13-36. This section states that the stars that are assigned to the Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea for each month rise in that month. According to this system, each month is marked by three stars and the year is marked by 36 stars. Aceording to Enuma Elish, Marduk himself arranged this system of 36 stars when he organized the visible heavens: 1. He fashioned the stations for the great gods. 2. The stars, their likeness, he set up, the constellations. 3. He fixed the year, drew the boundary-lines. 4. Set up three stars for each of the 12 months. 5. After he drew up the designs of the year. 6. He set fast the station of Neberu to fix their bands. 7. So that none would transgress or be neglectful at all, 8. he set the station of Enlil and Ea with it. Ee V 1-8 (see pp. 114-15) KAV 218 D also states that all 36 stars, with the exception of 'um apin (The Plough) and muid i 1 i .bad (Venus), set s ix months after rising. For instance, m u 1. mul (The Pleiades), muIšu.gi (Perseus), and muIanunitum are said to rise during the seeond month of the year and set during the eighth month of the year. This theory, however, does not reflect the actual course of events in the sky. The stars of the Path of Anu are visible for much more than half of the year, and many of the Enlil-stars are in fact circumpolar stars—stars that never set. Even the editor of Astrolabe B notes that mulap in The Plough', the Enlil-star for Nisan, is a circumpolar star: muiapin kal šat-te i -za-a[z!] "The Plough" is present the entire year.

KAV 218 D iii 14

The Planets as Month-Stars in The "Astrolabes"

The identification of Mars, Venus, and Jupiter as month-stars in the "Astrolabes" is problematic. Planets do not rise in the same position of the sky at

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The Geography of the Sky

annual intervals and therefore cannot be inserted in a list of month-stars, if this list is to be used for more than a single year. Thus, it is possible that "Astrolabes" listing planets as month-stars may have been intended to predict heliaeal risings for a single year, just as modern farmers' almanacs predict the weather and astronomical phenomena on an annual basis. A second possibility is that certain months are identified with planets for religious or mythological reasons. The gods identified with Venus and neberu, namely, Inanna and Marduk, play important roles in the eeremonies of the New Year. This may explain why KAV 218 C identifies Inanna's star, Venus, as the Anu-star for Nisan, the first month of the new year, and Marduk's star, neberu, as the Anu-star for Adar, the last month of the old year. Similar religious considerations may also lie behind the identification of Nergal's planet, Mars (salbatanu) as the Enlil-star for Kislev.Ig In the menology on the obverse of KAV 218, Nergal is said to rise from the earth during this month. Thus, a rising of Mars in Kislev may have been interpreted as an ascent of Nergal, although Mars did not necessarily rise during Kislev every year. A special role for Marduk's star, neberu, in the `Astrolabes" is alluded to in both Astrolabe B and Enuma Elish (Ee V 5-6, Ee VII 124-31). In Ee V 3-4, Marduk's star, together with those of Enlil and Ea, serve "to fix the year and define the boundary lines" in accordance with Marduk's plans. This tradition is explained in the star-catalogue of Astrolabe B (KAV 218 B), where Marduk's star and stars of Enlil and Ea are to be found in the sky as the old year passes into the new. Marduk's star neberu stands in the Path of Anu, the central path in the sky, at the end of the old year in Adar; Ea is muIk u 6 `Piscis Austrinus' (the Eastar for Adar), and Enlil is the `Plough-star' m°Iapin (the Enlil-star for the first month Nisan): muiku6 dé-a KAV 218 B i 27 (Adar) Piscis Austrinus is Ea mu! ' 5 a p i n

...

den-lfl šâ ši -mat mati (ku r) i-šim-m[u]

KAV 218 B iii 1-3 (Nisan) The Plough ... is Enlil who determines the destinies of the land. The Function of the `Astrolabes"

The `Astrolabes;' as noted above, were closely related to the tradition of the ideal astronomical year. The ideal astronomieal year is one of three calendar years known to Mesopotamian scribes. First was a lunar year consisting of twelve lunar cyeles. The lunar year is ideal for determining the length of months and the days of the month, because a quick glance at the Moon at night indicates which day it is. The new month begins with the crescent moon; the full moon marks the middle of the month; and the Day of Disappearance' (um bubbulim), 18 For Nergal identified with the planet Mars, see L 4/2 116 no. 302. For Nergal and Kislev in Iqqur-ipuš, see Labat Calendrier 196 no. 105:9.

The `Astrolabes"

163

when no portion of the Moon is visible, occurs at the end of the lunar month. However, lunar calendars are unsuitable for determining annual events. Twelve lunar eycles eomprise approximately 354-55 days, ten days less than the true solar year. This discrepancy necessitated the insertion of leap months approximately every third year. Using a solar ealendar, of course, would have eliminated these problems, but the Sun is too bright to be observed except at sunrise and sunset, and variations in solar movement and position are not perceptible to the naked eye from one day to the next. A true astronomical calendar eliminates the shorteomings of both the solar and lunar calendars. It is much easier to monitor the movement of the stars at night than the apparent motion of the Sun during the day, and the stars return to their original positions every 365 days, eliminating the need to intercalate leap years, as in the lunar calendar. Yet, astronomical calendars do not provide an immediate means for determining the months, such as the phases of the Moon. One method for determing the months in an astronomical calendar, though, is to identify the sequenee of months with a sequence of heliacal risings of selected stars, beeause heliaeal risings of stars occur at annual intervals. The month-stars of the 'Astrolabes" fulfil this function. Nevertheless, it is awkward to use a stellar calendar to determine the months of the year, because 3654 days do not divide evenly into twelve lunar cycles. Hence, an ideal astronomical calendar of twelve months of 30 days came into being. It must be .stressed, however, that a better approximation of the true astronomical and solar years was known by the Neo-Assyrian period. In Mul-Apin II ii 11-12, th e year is said to consist of twelve months plus ten additional days. It is not explicity stated in the 'Astrolabes" which day the month-stars were supposed to rise, but there is indirect evidence that the Ea-stars for each month, at least, were meant to rise on the first of the month. The first Ea-star, m°Iiku `The Field', is identified as the star of the new year (the first of Nisan) in Astrolabe B (see above). In the first millennium, m u l . m u l `Pleiades', the Ea-star for Iyar in Astrolabe B, served this same funetion (see Mul-Apin II Gap A 8-9). Heliacal risings of stars occur at annual intervals on the eastern horizon just before dawn. Thus, heliacal risings of stars at the start of lunar months would ideally be observed along the eastern horizon just before dawn on the first of the month. New Year's Day (the first of Nisan), if the lunar and stellar calendars were in step, would have been marked first by the heliaeal rising of the star of the New Year on the eastern horizon just before sunrise, and then later, at dusk, by the appearance of the crescent new Moon of Nisan on the western horizon. 19 This correspondence between the heliaeal rising of stars and the new moon explains the funetion of the 'Astrolabes?' The first day of each 19 The correspondence between the new moon and the Pleiades may be depieted on a Neo-Assyrian cylinder seal (AfO 13 287 no. 22), where a crescent moon and seven dots representing the Pleiades face one another and a solar symbol is placed below the crescent. Note also AfO 13 283 no. 16-18; 287 no. 19-20 and M. Stol, Natural Phenomena 254-55. For conjunctions of the Moon and Pleiades, see W. Papke and D. Pingree in MO 31 67-71.

164

The Geography of the Sky

month should have been marked by the heliacal rising of the Ea-star, and perhaps also the Anu and Enlil-stars, on the eastern horizon and the appearance of the new moon on the western horizon. If these events did not occur at their expected times, it was a sign that the astronomical and lunar calendars were out of synchronism. On the occasions when stars rose late, a leap year would have been declared to bring the lunar and astronomical years baek into agreement. Evidence for such caleulations is found in Mul-Apin II Gap A 8-ii 17 and a Neo-Assyrian report that notes that it was unlucky for stars to rise late: 20 arha lid-ru-ru kakkab šamêe gab-bu it-ta-lmar1 -ku-u ina lemni (hu1) it°addaru (š e!) lu la et-ti-iq lid-ru-ru Thompson Reports 251 rev. 8-10 21 (SAA 8 98, Parpola LAS 1 325)

Let them intercalate a month. All the stars of heaven are late. Let Adar not pass unluckily. Let them intercalate it. In this astronomical report, the astronomer suggests that an intercalary Adar be deelared since the stars of heaven are rising late. The "unluckiness" or danger posed by stars rising late can be explained by the menology on the obverse of KAV 218. In the°menology, the rising of stars in the Path of Ea is connected with agricultural work. For instanee, Iyar, the month of Pleiades, is said to be the month of the 'turning of the soil', and Tammuz, the month of Orion, is said to be the month of `pouring out the seed'. If these farming tasks were not completed on time, more often than not the result would have been a poor harvest and hunger the following winter. Therefore, it was essential that farmers had access to an accurate means of determining dates for farming tasks. This eorrespondence between stars and the months of the year on the `Astrolabes" offers farmers this information, so it is probable that the earliest `Astrolabes" were intended, in part at least, to help farmers determine the optimum dates for farming activities. 22 No Mesopotamian source indicates when the Anu and Enlil-stars were supposed to rise, so it is possible that they were meant to appear together with the Ea-star. However, Diodorus Sieulus attributes a system of decans (stars that rise at ten-day intervals) to Babylonian astronomers: Every 10 days one of the (stars) above is sent to the stars below as a messenger, and one of those below (is sent) baek in the same way to those above. Diodorus Siculus II 30.6

20

Compare also Borger Esarh. 14 Episode 6; C. Virolleaud, ZA 19 382; K. 3597:4';

ina MU.3.KAM MU i-tam-min `in three years the year becomes unlucky'.

Compare LAS 38 rev. 10-20 (SAA 10 pp. 32-33, no. 42). Note in this eontext that the astronomical omens relating to the `Astrolabes" in BPO 2 56-61 have favorable apodoses when month-stars rise as expected but unfavorable apodoses when month-stars rise late. Compare similar eonnections hetween heliacal risings of stars and farming activities in Hesiod's Works and Days. 21

22

165

The `Astrolabes"

Such a system was utilized in Egypt as early as the Middle Kingdom (see Science Awakening 2 14-32). If applied to the `Astrolabes' the Anu and Enlil stars for each month could have risen on the eleventh and twenty-first of the month, The Geography of the Heavens according to the `Astrolabes"

The `Astrolabes" divide the heavens into three bands that eross the sky from east to west. The central band is identified as the Path of Anu, and the southern and northern bands are the Paths of Ea and Enli1: 23 N

S

On the eircular `Astrolabes' each band comprises approximately one-third of the "Astrolabe' and the stars of each band are drawn equidistant from each other. In actuality, the arrangement of month-stars in the sky is not so symmetrical. .

Astronomical Traditions Derived from the `Astrolabes"

The production of `Astrolabes" over the course of a millennium in different sites and the reference to the 'Astrolabes" in Enuma Elish demonstrate that the astronomical model of the 'Astrolabes" was widely known, at least in learned circles. Thus, this model may have influeneed Mesopotamian ideas concerning the geography of the heavens and, hence, Mesopotamian astronomical terminology. Two sets of terms may derive from the eircular astrolabes: one for dividing lines or borders in the sky, and the seeond for the spaces between these lines. In Ee V 3-4, Marduk draws misratu 'boundary lines' in the sky. These boundary lines seem to refer to the actual lines drawn on the circular 'Astrolabes." Mesopotamian astronomers could apparently visualize such boundaries. For 23 In SSB Erg. III, Sehaumberger caleulates the Path of Anu to have boundaries 17° north and south of the celestial equator (see C. Walker and H. Hunger, MDOG 109 33). For calculated declensions of stars in Astrolabe B, see BPO 2 4-5; see also Koch Neue Untersuehungen 14-15.

166

The Geography of the Sky

example, a Namburbi fragment preserves an observation that a comet passed from the Path of Anu to the Path of Enlil: sal lum mu û ša Tina harran' šu-utda-nim innamru(igi.la) ana harran šu-ut den-lIl i[l-l]i-ku-ma ir-bu-u

CT 41 23:10-12 (cf. Halley's Comet 24:16-17) ... a comet that appeared in the Path of Anu, and went to.the Path of Enlil, and set. Terms for star-sectors, the areas surrounding stars and constellations, may be related to the spaces surrounding each star on the cireular 'Astrolabes:' These terms include qaqqaru 'territory' and pirku 'sector'. In omens, lunar eclipses are said to occur in the qaqqaru of various stars (E. Weidner, AfO 20 118). Mul-Apin I iv 31-39 states that the Moon passes through 18 pirku over the course of the year. Additional evidence for star-sectors is found in a Neo-Assyrian letter: ina muhhi muls ag. m e, g a r ša ina pa-ni -ti a-na šcirri bel -ia ciš- pur-an-ni nu-uk ina harran šu-ut da-nim ina qaq-qar mulsipa.zi.an.na it-ta-mar .. .

ABL 744 14-rev. 2 (Parpola LAS 1 290) In respect to Jupiter, about which I have previously written to the king, my lord, it has appeared in the Path of Anu in the sector of Orion .. .

The qaqqaru of Orion in the Path of Anu apparently refers to Mul-Apin, sinee Orion is Anu-star in Mul-Apin but an Ea-star in the `Astrolabes" Nevertheless, in earlier periods astronomers may have identified the location of stars and planets in heaven according to the 36 zones of the "Astrolabes." 24 Sumerian Star Charts There is evidence that the Sumerians developed a star chart long before the earliest exemplar of the `Astrolabes" In Sumerian literature from the third millennium, gods use a tablet called dub.mul.an 'Tablet Stars of Heaven'. In the texts, the tablet is often said to be made of lapis-lazuli and to belong to the Nisaba, the goddess of writing. In The Blessing of Nisaba, Enlil places this tablet on his knee and consults with it:

gal nam.mi.in .tag4 I0.na nam.mi.in .gar dub.zagin dub mul.an.kù.ta šà im.ma.kuš:ù W Hallo, Rencontre Assyriologique 17 125:29-31 é géštu.dnisaba.ke 4

24 For qaqqaru 'stellar seetors', see also p. 256; AfO Beih. 22 10-11; F. RoehbergHalton, JNES 43 128.

167

Sumerian Star Charts

He opened the temple "Wisdom of Nisaba" He placed the lapis-lazuli tablet on his knee. He took council with the "Tablet Stars of the Clear Heavens:' In Sumerian Temple Hymns and Gudea Cylinder A, Nisaba herself uses a similar tablet to find out information about the lands: 25 duh.za.gin.ta ad gi 4.gi4,gi4 kur.kur.ra ad ša, 0.ga.g0

TCS 3 49:538-39

She eonsults with the lapis-lazuli tablet. She gives advice in the Lands. dub.mul.an dulo.ga im.mi.gâl ad im.da5 ,gi4 .gi4

Gudea Cyl. A iv 26—v 1

She plaeed the "Tablet Stars of Heaven" on the knee. She consulted with it. It is clear from the passages where the' tablet is placed on the knee, that the "Tablet Stars of Heaven" is a real tablet, but it is not clear in any of the passages how this tablet might have been used. It may be guessed that the dub.mul.an was used in divination in some way, because the tablet is connected with the stars and provides advice, although no Sumerian astronomical omens or related mate'rials survive. 26 The fact that the "Tablet Stars of Heaven" is made of lapis lazuli, a blue stone, may indicate that the Sumerians, like the author of the lists of heavens in KAR 307 and AO 8196, believed that the sky was made of stone. If so, the Sumerians may have thought of the sky as giant blue cosmic lapis lazuli tablet inscribed with stars, and considered the dub mul,an to be a replica or chart of the cosmic tablet. Such a tradition may lie behind the phrase an.za.gin (`clear heavens/lapis heavens', i.e., "blue skies") in TCS 3 45:475, an ineantation to Utu (B. Alster, ASJ 13 37:1), and a Rim-Sin hymn: itu.kiri4.zal,asilaX(EzEN)D.b[i] nl.ba.aš ba.mu.na .ab mu.šar.a mul.an.za.gin.gim šid.bi nu.til.le sag.e.eš rigs mu.na.ab UET 6 104:67-68 (Steible Rimsin 34) Give him months of happiness and joy as a gift. Present him with numerous years, whose count, like the stars of the "lapis" heavens, do not end.

25

For additonal examples of the dub. m u 1. a n, see B. Alster, JCS 28 117-20. See also Römer Königshymnen 231; Fest. Sjöberg 303 Su-Sin J: 9. 26 For a possible conneetion between Shulgi and observations of Jupiter, see C. Walker, Bulletin of The Soeiety of Mesopotamian Studies 5 (1983) 21-23.

168

The Geography of the Sky

However, Lugale 10 and lexical lists translate za.gin as ellu 'clear', so an.za. gin above may therefore be interpreted as šamû ellutu (clear heavens). 27 In any case, the function and even the existence of the dub m u l . a n seems to have been forgotten long before the introduction of the 'Astrolabes, because the editor of the bilingual version of Lugale incorrectly translated m u 1. a n. d a as 'with Anu', ignoring mu l in the Sumerian text: munus.zi mul.an .da šà.kuš.ù.e ki.sikil dnisaba zà.mi šinništu kit-turn ša it-ti da-nim im tal li'ku xrsrKiL dnisaba nu-û-da-at

Lugale 726 Bilingual Version (cf. Lugale 715) Faithful lady, who consults the stars of heaven, maiden Nisaba, be praised. Akkadian:... who consults with Anu .. .

Mul-Apin

The series Mul-Apin presents a compilation of astronomieal information. At present two tablets of the series have been reconstructed by H. Hunger and D. Pingree (Hunger Pingree Mul-Apin = AfO Beihaft 24) from 41 exemplars. 28 Mul-A pin in at least one edition of the series Thexistncofardble is proved by a colophon of an exemplar of Mul-Apin II that preserves both a catchline and the phrase DUB 2.KikM muIapin la qati `Second Tablet of MulApin, not complete' (Hunger Pingree Mul-Apin 123 D). Standard Mul-Apin tablets are written in four columns: two on the obverse, two on the reverse. A few double tablets, preserving both Mul-Apin I and II on a single tablet, are also known. L9 The exact date of the series is uncertain. The earliest dated exemplar of Mul-Apin, VAT 9412+, was produced in 687 B.C.E. (during the reign of Sennacherib), but astronomical information included in two seetions of Mul-Apin I (iii 13-33; iv 1-30) may fit best with the year 1000. 30 Thus it seems likely that the series was edited into its present form between 1000 and 687. However, the sources used by the editors of Mul-Apin, and even eomplete sections of the text, 27 For za.gin = ellu, see CAD E 102 and MSL 16 310 ii 11'. See also B. Alster, ASJ 12 8 rev. 4'; CAD B 344 burûmitu. 28 For a bibliography of Mul-A pin, see Hunger Pingree Mul-Apin 3, 155-56. Three additional fragments of Mul-Apin have been identified (see W. Horowitz, AfO 36/37 116-17; OECT 11 86 (cf. A. George, ZA 80 159). 29 For the problem of Mul-Apin III and alternate formats of Mul-Apin tablets, see Hunger Pingree Mul-Apin 8-9. 30 For this date assigned to astronomical materials in Mut-Apin, see Hunger Pingree Mul-Apin 10-12. Note also the reference to the series in a N eo-Assyrian letter (CT 53 115:5) from the reign of Esarhaddon or Aššurbanipal.

Mul A pin

169

may be older. For instance, one section of Mul-Apin II (ii 18-20) lists intercalary months of the dynasties (palû) of Shulgi, the Amorites, and the Kassites. It is probable that Mul-Apin was edited in Babylonia rather than Assyria, because the eolophon of the Neo-Assyrian exemplar K. 11251 (CT 26 47) identifies this tablet as a copy of an original from Babylon. The entire first tablet of Mul-Apin is devoted to an examination of the arrangement of the stars. Mul-Apin I opens with a catalogue of stars in the Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea and then eontinues with lists of heliacal risings of stars, a list of stars that rise as others set, and a list of ziqpu-stars, before closing with a list of stars in the Path of the Moon. The first and last sections of MulApin I are most important for the study of the geography of the heavens, sinee the repertoire of stars in the stellar-paths and the Path of the Moon define the limits of these paths. Mul-Apin II examines the planets, interealation sehemes, the use of the gnomon and water clock, and finally closes with a short eollection of astronomieal omens. A synopsis of Mul-Apin I-II is found in Hunger-Pingree Mul-Apin 13.

The Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea in Mul-Apin I The first section of Mul-Apin preserves a star-catalogue listing 71 stars: 33 Enlil-stars, 23 Anu-stars, and 15 Ea-stars (Hunger Pingree Mul-Apin 18-39). 31 Thistoalfrexd36softhe`Arlab'dmnstighe stars listed in Mul-Apin I are not only month-stars. Thus these lists must serve another purpose. In the first section of Mul-Apin I, short identifications accompany each star, so one of the functions of the star-eatalogue was to help locate important stars in the night sky. It is also likely that this section of Mul-Apin was intended to define the borders of the stellar paths. Many of the stars listed in both Mul-Apin I Seetion I and the `Astrolabes" are moved to different paths in Mul-Apin. For instance, mul i k u 'The Field' is the first Anu-star in Mul-Apin, instead of the first Ea-star, as in Astrolabe B. Another difference between the `Astrolabes" and the star list of Mul-Apin I Seetion I is that Mul-Apin lists the Enlil-stars first and Ea-stars last. In the "Astrolabes," the Ea-stars are always listed first. The reason for this ehange is not certain, but it is possible that the Enlil-star list occurs first in Mul-Apin because this list is so mueh longer than the lists of Anu and Ea-stars. Lists of the Anu, Enlil, and Ea-stars of Mul-Apin I Section I, with proposed modern equivalents, are found in BPO 2 7-8 and Hunger Pingree Mul-Apin 137-39.

31 Hunger Pingree Mul-Apin 137 proposes that the original Mul-Apin star-eatalogue contained only 60 stars. It is argued that the contemporary 71 stars comprise the o ri ginal 60, plus six circumpolar stars and the planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn.

170

The Geography of the Sky

The Borders of the Stellar Paths in Mul-Apin

As in 'Astrolabes;' Mul-Apin divides the stars into paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea. In the introduction to their edition of Enuma Anu Enlil 50-51 (BPO 2 6-8), E. Reiner and D. Pingree provide lists of the Anu, Enlil, and Ea-stars of MulApin I Section I, with computed declinations (stellar latitudes) for the fixedstars and constellations that appear in the lists. Aceording to this study, the Enlil-stars ranged from 73.2°N to 13.4°N, the Anu-stars ranged from 12.5°N to 25.8°S, and the Ea-stars ranged from 11.3°S to 45.9°S. Although these exact figures are dependent on the method used by Reiner and Pingree to obtain the ancient deelinations, the results do indicate that that the Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea were equatorial, northern, and southern bands of the sky, respectively. 32 The 36 Stars of Mul-Apin

Although Mul-Apin I Section I lists 71 stars belonging to the Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea, Mul-Apin does not fully abandon the earlier convention of 36 stars that serves as the basis for the 'Astrolabes;' Mul-Apin I section II (Mul-Apin I ii 36-iii 12, Hunger Pingree Mul-Apin 40-47) lists 36 stars that rise eonseeutively over the course of the year beginning with muI Iûhun.ga 'Aries' on the first of Nisan (the first day of the first month), and CT 33 9, a tablet from the library of Aššurbanipal, seems to preserve a list-Astrolabe that is based on the star lists of Mul-Apin (see p. 174). The Path of the Moon in Mul-Apin 1 Section 8

The closing section of Mul-Apin I (Mul-Apin I iv 31-39, Hunger Pingree Mul-Apin 67-69) lists stars in the Path of the Moon. This list reflects the annual motion of the Moon. The list begins with the fifth Anu-star in Mul-Apin I Section I, m u 1. m u l 'The Pleiades', and ends with the star that immediately preeedes the m u 1. m u 1 in this list, the constellation mu' lûh u n . g â 'Aries'. In the list, the Moon moves among the stellar paths in the sequence (see table, p. 171): Anu—Enlil—Anu—Ea—Anu This account of the movement of the Moon was accepted by the editors of a contemporary astrological tablet (E. Weidner, Af0 20 118) that refers to lunar eclipses in the qaqqaru 'sectors' of many of the stars listed in the Path of the Moon in Mul-Apin. During lunar eclipses, stars that are normally occulted by the shine of the Moon, become visible.

32 The editors of BPO 2, however, have never published their data. For the boundaries of the Path of Anu at 17° north and south of the celestial equator, see n. 23 (p. 165).

171

Mul-Apin Star in the Path of the Moon

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

m u l. m u l gu4 ,an.na sipa.zi.an.na šu.gi gàm maš.tab.ba.gal.gal a l , l us ur.gu.la ab.sin

10. zibanitu

11. gir,tab 12. pa.bil.sag 13. subur.mâš 14. gu.la 15. zibbatu(kun)ma 16. sim.mah 17. anunitu v

18. luhu n. g â

Path in Mul-Apin

Modern Equivalent

Anu Anu Anu Enlil Enlil Enlil Enlil Enlil Anu Anu Ea Ea Ea Ea Ea Anu Anu Anu

Pleiades Taurus Orion Perseus Auriga Great Gemini Caneer Leo Virgo Libra Scorpio Sagittarius Capricorn Aquarius "Tails" 33 Pisces Pisces Aries

The Paths of the Planets in Mul -Apin II

The opening section of Mul-Apin II, which immediately follows the section listing the stars in the Path of the Moon, equates the Path of the Moon with the paths of the other six ancient planets: barran dsin illakuku-ma dšamaš illakak barran dsin illakuku-ma dš u 1. p a. è. a illakak harran dsin illakuku-ma dd i l i .bad illakak barran dsin illakuku-ma dsal-bat-a-nu illakak barran dsin illakuku-ma mul bibbu (u du.idim) gu4 .utu šâ dninurta šum-šu il[lak ak] barran dsin illakuku-ma dbibbu kajamanu (g e n n a) illakak

Mul-Apin II i 1-6 (Hunger Pingree Mul-Apin 70-71)

33 Hunger Pingree Mul-Apin 144 Table VII lists only 17 stars in The Path of the Moon, beeause zibbatu `Tails' is joined to muIsim.mah `The Swallow'. However, note CT 33 9:15, where bibbu sa ina zibbât 'the planet that is in "The Tails"' is an Ea-star For the existence of zibbatu elsewhere as an independent constellation, see CAD Z 102 zibbatu 3. Hunger Pingree Mul-Apin 68 iv 36 translates accordingly "the Goat-fish, the Great One, the Tails, the Swallow." .

172

The Geography of the Sky

The path which the Moon goes in, the Sun goes along. The path which the Moon goes in, Jupiter goes along. The path which the Moon goes in, Venus goes along. The path whieh the Moon goes in, Mars goes along. The path which the Moon goes in, the planet Mercury, whose name is Ninurta, go [es along]. The path which the Moon goes in, the planet Saturn goes along. The information in Mul-Apin II i 1-6 indicates that the editors of Mul-Apin correctly recognized that all seven ancient planets were to be found along a single band of the sky. This band, which is today called the ecliptic, is inclined in relation to the paths of the stars due to the inclination of the earth's axis. Thus the planets could be seen in the Paths of Anu, Enlil, or Ea at different times of the year. It is probable, however, that the editors of Mul-Apin did not mean to equate the irregular paths of Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn with the more regular courses of the Moon and Sun. Later, Mul-Apin II i 38-67 (Hunger Pingree Mul-Apin 80-86) provides accurate information concerning the periods of the planets. This indicates that the editors of Mul-Apin understood planetary motion, despite the faet that the star-catalogue in Mul-Apin I places Jupiter in the Path of Enlil, and Mercury, Venus, Mars, and Saturn in the Path of Anu. The Path of the Sun in Mul-Apin

The apparent position of the Sun in the sky ehanges with the seasons. In the northern hemisphere, the Sun describes a more northerly arc during spring and summer, and a more southerly are during the autumn and winter. At the spring and vernal equinoxes, the Sun describes an arc along the celestial equator. The Sun reaches its northernmost and southermost locations at the summer and winter solstices, which occur in Mul-Apin on the fifteenth of Tammuz and Tebet (Mul-Apin II ii 25, 35). At the latitude of Babylon, the Sun rises and sets approximately 30° north of due east and west at the summer solstice and approximately 30° south of due east and west at the winter solstice. At the equinoxes, the fifteenth of Nisan and Tishreh (Mul-Apin II ii 21, 31), the Sun appears to rise and set due east and west. Mul-Apin II explains this apparent motion of the Sun in terms of the stellar paths: 1. ultu UD.l kam šli ituaddari adi u4 30kam šCl harran (k a s k a l) šu-ut da -nim 2. illak (d u) -ma zi-qu u se[tu] (uD.D [A] )

ituaiari dšamaš ina

3. ultu un.lkam šC itusimani adi u4 30kam šCl ituabi dšamaš 4. ina harran šu-ut den lIl illak-ma eberu (b u r u14) u uš-šui 5. [ul]tu un.l kam š l ituul1,di adi u4 30kam šj ituarahsamni d ama 6. ina harran šu-ut da-nim illak-ma zi-qu u sau

173

Mul-Apin 7. [ultu uD.lk]am šâ it°lcislimi adi u4 30kam 8. šu -ut dé- a illak-ma kussu (en.te.na)

ša itušaba.ti dšamaš ina harran

Mul-Apin II Gap A 1-6 (Hunger Pingree Mul-Apin 88-89) 1. From the 1st of Adar to the 30th of Iyar, the Sun travels in the Path of Anu; breeze and warm weat[her]. 3. From the 1st of Sivan to the 30th of Ab, the Sun travels in the Path of Enlil; harvest and heat. 5. [Fr]om the 1st of Elul to the 30th of Arahsamnu, the Sun travels in the Path of Anu; breeze and warm weather. 7. [From the ls]t of Kislev to the 30th of Shevat, the Sun travels in the Path of Ea; cold weather. In the passage, the Sun is said to cross from one stellar path to another every 90 days. The equinoxes and solstices fall midway through these periods, on the 45th day. The Sun travels in the Path of Anu for 45 days before and after the equinoxes; the Sun travels in the Path of Enlil for 45 days before and after the summer solstice; and the Sun travels in the Path of Ea for 45 days before and after the winter solstice: The Movement of the Sun according to Mul-Apin

f

Path of

Pat

mer summer mer

sp Sp Equinox SoutAde/ 3othAder Ade/

15th 3oth Shevat Nisan 30 Path of Anu

solstice solst Solstice

na! AuIumnal A uIumna! nal

Winter

solstice solstice Solstice

Equinox

1st Kisl 5th 1st Adar lyar 15th 1st El AAder 5th ivan Tammuz 30th Ab Tishreh 30th 3oth Arahsammu Tebet 30th 3othShevat 3oth I

Path of Enlil

Path of Anu

I

Path of Enlil

I

The progression of the Sun through the stellar-paths Anu-Enlil-Anu-Ea-Anu is the same as that of the Moon in Mul-Apin I Section 8 (see p. 170). Thus, the description of the movement of the Sun in Mul-Apin confirms that the Path of Enlil and Ea are northern and southern bands of the sky and that the Path of al equator. The placement of the Sun in the Anu is located al

174

The Geography of the Sky

three stellar-paths also demonstrates that the day sky as well as the night sky was divided into bands belonging to Anu, Enlil, and Ea. 34 Mul-Apin and the Ideal Astronomical Year

Both Mul-Apin I Seetion 2 and Section 4 provide information concerning the ideal astronomical year. In Section 2, the dates of heliacal risings for 36 stars are listed beginning with mu!lûhun.ga 'Aries' on the first of Nisan and ending with muIl( uh 'piscis Austrinus' and niulšu.gi 'Perseus' on the 15th of Adar. Section 4 provides the number of days between heliacal risings of stars. Within this seetion, the length of time between one heliacal rising of miIk a k .s i . s â 'The Arrow' and the next is 360 days (Mul-Apin I iii 35-47). The total of 360 days equals the length of the ideal astronomical year. Thus these two sections confirm that the ideal astronomical year lasted from Nisan to Adar and that the length of this year represented, in theory at least, one stellar eyele.

Related Texts CT 33 9

CT 33 9, a Neo-Assyrian astronomical tablet from the library of Aššurbanipal, preserves lists of Anu, Enlil, and Ea-stars in the format of a list-Astrolabe, When complete, the text, like the `Astrolabes' listed twelve stars for each stellar-path. However, CT 33 9 differs from the 'Astrolabes:' CT 33 9 lists Enlilstars first and Ea-stars last, as in Mul-Apin I, rather than Ea-stars first, as in the "Astrolabes" Furthermore, most stars are placed in the same path in CT 33 9 as in Mul-Apin I, and stars are generally listed in the same sequence in CT 33 9 as they appear in Mul-Apin I (see table, p. 176). The correspondences between the stars of CT 33 9 and those of Mul-Apin present few problems. Of the 28 surviving stars in CT 33 9, at least 24 are plaeed in the same path as in the star-catalogue of Mul-Apin and the sequence of stars in CT 33 9 generally follows that of the Mul-A pin star-catalogue. Thus, CT 33 appears to represent a Neo-Assyrian attempt to update the astronomical information in the 'Astrolabes" on the basis of Mul-Apin, while preserving the `Astrolabe" format. 35 34 The author of the hymn to Shamash KAR 105//361 develops this point further by alluding to the faet that stars are actually present in the day sky but are obseured by the glare of the Sun: [me-lam-miu-ka dgirra nap-hu kat-mu kakkabanuma šamee gi-mir ûmi KAR 105:5 // 361:5 (Shamash) your [sheeln is a blazing fire, the stars of the sky are covered all the day. See also LAS 64 rev. 11-20; W Horowitz, NABU 1993 54-55. 35 For a second Neo-Assyrian period `Astrolabe" type text, see V. Donbaz and J. Koch, "Ein Astrolab der Dritten Generation: N.V. 10;' JCS 47 (1995) 63-84. The repertoire of stars in N.V. 10 is similar to that of CT 33 9. The late date of the publication of this text precluded any opportunity to integrate the materials in N.V. 10 fully into this book.

Related Texts

175

The Elam, Akkad, and Amurru Stars

Two exemplars of a Neo-Assyrian astronomical-astrological text (CT 26 41 v 1-9; CT 26 44 rev.) preserve lists of Elam, Akkad, and Amurru-stars. 36 When complete, these texts assigned 12 stars to each of the three lists, just as the "Astrolabes" assign 12 stars to each stellar path. At present, 27 of the 36 Elam, Akkad, and Amurru-stars are preserved. All 27 also occur in the `Astrolabes' and like the Astrolabe-stars, the Elam, Akkad, and Amurru-stars are listed in order of their heliaeal-risings. 37 For example, the first Akkad and Amurru-stars are mulap i n The Plough' and muliku 'The Field'. In Astrolabe B Section C, these are the Enlil and Ea-stars for Nisan. Thus, it is elear that the Elam, Akkad, and Amurru-stars are month-stars and are in some way related to the `Astrolabes:' However, the function of the Elam, Akkad, and Amurru-stars is not certain. Omens with Astrolabe"stars for the lands of Akkad, Subartu, Elam, and Amurru occur in Enuma Anu Enlil (BPO 2 64-67), so the Elam, Akkad, and Amurru-lists may have been used to correlate `Astrolabe" stars with omens concerning the three lands. Yet, there is no discernible principle that determines which star appears in which list, so the exact relationship between the lists of Elam, Akkad, and Amurru-stars and the lists of Anu, Enlil, and Ea-stars in the `Astrolabes" remains unclear. 38 A missing link between the 'Astrolabe" lists and the lists of Akkad, Elam, and Amurru-stars may be found in the astrologieal fragment 81-7-27, 81—a learned commentary (mukallimtu) to the series Enuma Anu Enlil: 39 l'. , :. ] (traces) 2'. , , .1 x KUR akkad ki harran šu-ut d x [ .. .

3' ] muIdili-bad kakkab [KUR .. . 4'. ... ] mul.mul kakkab KUR elamtî (elam.ma) ki muIšu, [gi .. . 5'. ] muIsipa.zi.an.na [ mu] d muš [ 7'. ] mid dmaš.tab.ba [.. . 8'. ... ] muIp an [ 9'. ] mulmar.gId. [da ... ] mulu [ gamugen 10'. 11'. ... ] mut nin.m [ab ... 12'. ... ] muten.t [e,na.bar.hum 6'.

...

]

.. .

.. .

.. .

.. ,

For this text, K 250+ and dupl., see p. 7. For the lists of the Elam, Akkad, and Amurru-stars, see Science Awakening 2 68; HBA 13, 16. 38 Note, for example, BPO 2 64 XII 1-4, where omens for "The Field" yield apodoses relating to the lands of Akkad, Subartu, Elam, and Amurru. B. L. van der Waerden in Science Awakening 2 68 and JNES 8 12-13 previously proposed that the Elam, Akkad, and Amurru-star lists are sources of the lists of Anu, Ea, and Enlil-stars in the "Astrolabes" because the land names Elam, Akkad, and Amurru are known earlier than the "Astrolabes:' 39 For copies of the tablet, see Craig AAT 67, ACh Ištar 39. 36

37

176

The Geography of the Sky

Star in CT 33 9

Enlil -stars 6. maš.tab.gal.gal 8. ur.gu.la 10. šu.pa 12. ùz Anu -stars 1. [sim],mah 2. iku 3, anunitu 4. mul.mul 5. gu4 .an.na 6. sipa.zi.an.na 7. kak.si.s a 8. u g amušen 9. ab.sin 10. zibanitu 11. dingirtušû 12. t e$mnen Ea-stars 1. gu.la 2. "planet" a 3, nu.muš.da 4. ku6 5. dû-ge-eb 6. dar.lugalmeš C 7. NUN.KI

8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

nin.mah šullat u dhaniš šâr.ur4 šâr,gaz pa.bil,sag suhur.mâš

Path in Mul-Apin I

Line in Mul-Apin I

Path in Astrolabe B

Enlil Enlil Enlil Enlil

i5 i8 i 12 i 24

Anu Anu Enlil Enlil

Anu Anu Anu Anu Anu Anu Anu Anu Anu Anu Enlil Anu

i 41 i 40 i 42 i 44 ii 1 ii 2 ii 6 ii 9 ii 10 ii 11 i 23 ii 12

Enlil Ea Enlil Ea Ea Ea Ea Anu — Anu

Ea —? Ea Ea Anu Ea Ea Ea Ea Ea Ea

ii 20 — ii 27 ii 19 — — ii 20 ii 21 ii 25 ii 32 ii 33 ii 34

Ea

—

Enlil

Ea Ea — — Ea

mulbibbu(u du.idim) ša ina zibbâtime (cf. n. 33) `The planet which is in the constellation "Tails"'. b

For mul d-ge-e, see aiso V. Donbaz and J. Koch, JCS 47 66 rev. 38. Probably to be equated with mUIdar.1ugal, the tenth Anu-sIar in Mul-Apin Iii 5.

1'.

] (traces)

2'. , „ ] . of the land of Akkad, the Path of . [ . 3', ... ] Venus, a star of [the land of

177

Distances in the Heavens

4'. 5'. 6'. 7' 8'. 9'. 10'. 11'. 12'.

... ] Pleiades, a star of the land of Elam, Pers[eus ... ] Orion . . Hydra ] "The Twins" [.. . ... ] "The Bow" [ . . ] Ursa [Major/Minor .. . ... ] Co [rvus .. . .. Ninm [ah .. . ... ] Cen [taurus , ]

.

. ]

.. .

Lines 2'-4' indicate a relationship between the Elam, Akkad, and Amurru-lists and the `Astrolabes." Line 2' refers to the land of Akkad and a stellar path, and line 4' indicates that the Pleiades is an Elam-star. 40 Here, Pleiades must be the Elam-star for the month of Iyar (Month II), because the other two 'Astrolabe"-stars for this month are identified as Anu and Enlil stars in CT 26 41 and CT 26 44: Stars of Iyar

m u l. m u l(Pleiades) mul u.gi (Perseus) mu!

a-nu-ni-tum

Elam, Akkad, and Amurru-stars

Astrolabe B Section C

Ea

Elam (81-7-27, 81:4') Amurru (CT 41 v 3) Akkad (CT 44 rev.)

Anu Enlil

Distances in the Heavens Three texts provide information relating to distances in the heavens: A. B.

C.

The Neo-Assyrian fragment (CT 46 55) preserves part of a text that considers distanees between eosmic regions. The Middle Babylonian tablet HS 245, "The Hilpreeht Text" (O. Neugebauer, Quellen and Studien B [1936] pp. 273-77; dupl. AfO 18 393, CT 33 11 rev.), presents a mathematical problem involving the distances between stars and the Moon. 41 The late Uruk tablet AO 6478 (TCL 6 21 = RA 10 216-17, Neo-Assyrian dupl. CT 26 50, K. 9794).

The third text, whieh measures distances between ziqpu-stars, presents a circular model for stellar motion that is applicable to "The Astrolabes" and MulApin. This model is examined on pp. 188-92. 40

Note also MO Beih. 22 224 rev. 14: IM.sLSA

KUR URI.K1

II KASKAL stic -ut dé-a

KUR

MAR.D [i1KI] 'north-wind, Akkad; Path of Ea, Amurru'. 41

For "The Hilpreeht Text;' see W. Horowitz, GMS 3 149-59; E. Rochberg-Halton, JNES 42 209-17. An edition of "The Hilprecht Text" will appear in my fortheoming book on `Astrolabes" and related texts.

178

The Geography of the Sky

CT 46 55 (BM 123379)

CT 46 55 preserves the remains of a text from the library of Aššurbanipal that, when complete, apparently provided distances between cosmic regions: ... šuq] ultu( [k i ] . l â šamê e ... ki]p?-pat šamêe

1'. 2'. 3'. 4'. 5'.

2' MIE 16 LIM beru .

] a -si'[ .. , ša]mêe .. ] [ ... ] ra' -sur-rak-ki

6'. ... šu]qultu [ ... ] 14 ME 32 LiM béru 7'. ... ist]u (t a) [ersetimi [tim] a-na a-sur-rak-ki 8'. 9'. 10'.

... ] 2 ME 16 LIM béru ... ] šamêe . , . ] ersetimnm

1'. 2'.

... wei]ght, heaven . circ] le? of heaven

3'. 4'. 5'.

... 2116,000 leagues ... ] ris [ing' ... hea]ven ] "asurrakku" ][

6'. 7'.

] 1,432,000 leagues ... w] eight [ ... ] from ear[th] to "asurrakku"

8'. 9'. 10'.

... 1 216,000 leagues ... ] heaven ... ] earth

A number of elements in CT 46 55 present no problems. The numbers of leagues are straightforward. The sum 216,000 in line 8' is clear, and the use of units of "100,000" and "1,000" to write 1,432,000, instead of millions and thousands, reflects the absence of a Mesopotamian term for one million. 42 The number 216,000 itself, although awkward in Base Ten, is a round number in the Mesopotamian sexagesimal system, because 216,000 is the produet of 3,600 x 60, or in sexagesimal terms, 1,0,0,0. The number 1,432,000 preserved in line 6' is twice 216,000 plus one million (2 x 1,0,0,0 Base 60 + 10 6). The identification of the cosmic regions that appear in the text is more diffIcult. Heaven in this eontext may refer to the level of the stars or a region

Distances in the Heavens

179

above the sky. Earth can be the earth's surface or underworld, and asurrakku can be a name for the Apsu or be associated with stars. In a few literary passages, asurrakku is used as a poetic name for the Apsu (see pp. 310-11), but the same word also oceurs twice in Enuma Anu Enlil with referenee to stars: šumma kakkabu isrur(s u r) -ma sirih(s u r)-šû ne-eh ina qereb šamê irabbi(šû)-ma [ .. . šumma kakkabu isrur-ma sirih-šû ha-mut ina a-sur-rak-ki x [ .. . irabbi(š u)

ACh Ištar 29:12-13 (collated) If a star flares, and its flare is slow, sets in the center of heaven and [... If a star flares, and its flare is speedy, sets in asurrakku . [ .. . .. ] x x-ma ina ri-bi ina a-su-ra[k]-k[i .. .

ACh Supp. 2 Sin 19: 2 (collated) ] ... while setting in asurrk[ku .. Despite the difficulties eneountered in CT 46 55, the text does demonstrate that some Mesopotamians realized that the universe was very large. Therefore, extrordinarily large cosmic distances in other texts may be taken seriously. 43 The Hilprecht Text: HS 245 + Duplicates

The Middle Babylonian tablet from Nippur HS 245 ("The Hilpreeht Text") 44 preserves a mathematical problem concerning the distances between stars and between stars and the moon. Like many ancient mathematical texts, the tablet presents a problem, the procedure to solve the problem, and finally the solution to the problem. The problem and procedure are presented as follows: 45 1.

19 ad d30 mul.mul 17 ad mul.mul mulsipa.an.na

42 The formula "x ME + X UM" is also used to express hundreds of thousands and millions in AO 6478, where the sum total of bru ina šamê, 655,200, is written 6 ME 55 um 2 ME (600 + 55 x 1,000, + 200), and in the ziqpu-star text VAT 16436 (see ZA 50 226-27). Thus E Rochberg-Halton's interpretation of the numbers in JNES 42 215 must be abandoned. It is possible that the original distances were 2,432,000 and 1,216,000 leagues. If so, the distance in lines 3' and 8' would be one-half the distance in line 6'. In this case, one might guess that the larger figure represented the distance between heaven and the Apsu or underworld, and the lesser figure the distance between these regions and the earth's surfaee. This would suggest a universe eomprised of three equidistant regions as in Ee IV 137-46 (see p. 114). 43 For possible large cosmic numbers of stars in Sumerian literature, see W. Heimpel, Fest. Sjöberg 249-52. 44 For the duplicates and further bibliography, see p. 177 and n. 41 above. 45 The first five stellar distances oecupy HS 245:1-4. For the star-names on the duplicates, see W. Horowitz, GMS 3 156, Table A. For an.ta.gub, see V Donbaz and J. Koeh, JCS 47 71-73.

180

The Geography of the Sky

14 ad muisipa.an.na mulkak.tag.ga 11 ad muikak.tag.ga muIpan 9 ad muIpan muišu.pa 5. 7 ad muišu.pa muigir.tab 4 ad muIgir.tab muIan.ta.gub ak-mur-ma 120 (2 us) bru ilu i-na eli ili ki ma-si ru-t -qu ZA.E KI DA ZU.DÈ

10. 19 17 14 11 9 7 4 ku-mur-ma 1,21 ta-mar IGI 1,21 GAL.BI 44,26,40 ... HS 245:1-11 (collated) (O. Neugebauer, Quellen and Studien B 274-75, E Rochberg-Halton, JNES 42 212)

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

It is 19 from the Moon to the Pleiades; 17 from the Pleiades to Orion; 14 from Orion to "The Arrow"; 11 from "The Arrow" to "The Bow"; 9 from "The Bow" to Bootes; 7 from Bootes to Seorpio; 4 from Scorpio to an.ta.gub. I added up and it was 120 leagues. How far is one god above the other god? You, as for your procedure, 19 17 14 11 9 7 4 add and you see 1,21 (81). The reciprocal of 1,21 is 44,26,40.. .

When the problem is solved, the distances can be calculated as follows: Leagues

From the Moon to Pleaides 28 From Pleiades to Orion 25 From Orion to "The Arrow" 20 3 From "The Arrow" to "The Bow" 16 From "The Bow" to Bootes 13 From Bootes to Scorpio 10 From Scorpio to an.ta.gub 5s

Us

GAR 46

4 5 2 8 10 11 7

26 2 33 13 53 0 6â 46 â

Cubits

4 4 4 4 0 2 2

(see O. Neugebauer ibid pp. 275-76)

46 For GAR to be read ninda and translated into Akkadian as nindanu `12 cubits', see CAD N/2 238. Note, however, E Roehberg-Halton, Centaurus 32 168 n. 6 for problems raised by this value of ninda. See also A. George, AfO 38/39 55 n. 13.

181

Distances in the Heavens

The astronomical relevance of these totals is uncertain. The sum of the distances in the problem, 1,21 (= 81), and its reciprocal 44,26,40, were familiar to Mesopotamian mathematicians as the last pair of numbers in reciprocal tables; tables listing pairs of number whose product was one, 60 (1,0), or any product of 60 (1,0,0; 1,0,0,0 etc.) (see MCT 11). Thus, HS 245 preserves a mathematical problem text requiring knowledge of the use of reciprocals. This fact, when coupled with the measurement of inter-stellar distances to the nearest cubit, suggests that the text was an exercise in mathematics rather than a serious attempt to investigate distances between stars. 47 In AO 6478, in contrast, distances between stars are approximated to the nearest 100 leagues (see p. 184). Although the measured distances between stars in HS 245 are derived from mathematical calculations rather than actual distances in the sky, there does seem to be an astronomical background to the mathematical problem. In HS 245, the stars Pleiades, Orion, "The Arrow," "The Bow;' Bootes, Seorpio, and an.ta.gub appear in sequence. In Astrolabe B (KAV 218 C), Pleiades, Orion, "The Arrow; and "The Bow" rise in the Path of Ea consecutively in months IIV. The next star, Bootes, is the Enlil-star for Month VI, and Scorpio is the Anustar for Month VIII. Month and Path in Astrolabe B

Star in HS 245

si kak.tag.ga pan su.pa šu.pa gir.tab

Pleiades Ori "The Arrow" "The Bow" Bootes Scorpio

II III IV V VI VIII

Ea Ea Ea Ea Enlil

fied with mu!angubbû, apap is ta.gub, if it is The last star in th istance-pears 4. pears as a ziqpu-star two stars after Bootes i supersequeneetween superasured verti surementsHS 245 are not m betw imposed horizontal planes in the heavens but are meant to be me imposed mmeamearise sequenee.4848 Comparable measuresf the sky between st st n both from surements of intervals betwe hich hieh meamearom Mul-Apin Iii 36 36 the zigpu-star texts themse sures eonsecutivequence. risings of stars over the course of sure the number of days between consecutive n between HS 245 + dupls. cal astronomical and the later zigpu-star ziqpu-star texts is suggested by the duplicate Sm. 1113:1'-3', where 47 Note, however, the use of 1,21 and 44,26,40 in the late mathematical-astronomimathematical-astronomical text JCS 10 132 -10'. See also ibid. 134 (notes to section 3), JCS 22 101:25; p. 111. 48 In JNES 42 21Ori erg-Halton identifies the astronomical situation describ Seorpioox on the 15th of Tishreh. HS šu.pa 245, wit autumna

182

The Geography of the Sky

measurements offered in gin (line 2) and ma. [II a] (line 3) precede the portion of the tablet that duplicates HS 245. In the later ziqpu-star texts, distances between stars are measured in these same units using water clocks. 49 The Astronomical Text K. 9794//A0 6478

The astronomical text K. 9794//AO 6478 is one of a group of texts examining ziqpu-stars, which are a series of stars that culminated in sequence when viewed from the latitude of Babylonia and Assyria. 50 In many of these texts, the distance between culminations of zipqu-stars is expressed in measurements of time and angular distance (arc). Time is measured in units of m a. n a using water clocks, and are is measured in units of beru (30°) and ug (1°). K. 9794//AO 6478 differs from the main body of zipqu-texts in two ways. First, this text alone measures the distance between stars in the heavens in units of beru ina šame 'leagues in heaven', and second, K. 9794//AO 6478 identifies the units of uš as us ina qaqqari 'degrees in qaqqaru'. AO 6478 (TCL 16 21, pls. 41-42; RA 10 216-17). The late Uruk tablet AO 6478 is by far better preserved than K. 9794. The Assyrian exemplar preserves only portions of 19 lines of the text, while AO 6478 is nearly complete. Only the opening and closing lines of AO 6478 are entirely missing, and most other lines are fully preserved. The preserved portion of AO 6478 is divided into four sections. The first section is poorly preserved. At present, only the lower half of a single line is available. This line may be restored as follows: 7 rna-gu-tic ša!-tir!1 -ma F u ma-su-ma gereb(šà')1 -š[u'] rla idû(zu)-ma ša' tâmti (a. a b . b a) ina 1 bi-ri-ti ša-I[ ...1 AO 6478 1' inscribed with seven regions, and which are equal, whose' inside? no one knows, and concerning the sea in between . [...] AO 6478 1' seems to associate the zigpu-stars with seven nagû and the ocean. On The Babylonian Map of the World, nagû are inseribed beyond the limits of the cosmic ocean (marratu). The text on the reverse of the map describes eight sueh nagû. Furthermore, the aceompanying texts on the obverse and the reverse of the World Map may preserve parallels to gerebšu la idû in AO 6478 1':

49 For the use of water cloeks, see Hunger Pingree Mul-Apin 153-54 and O. Neugebauer, Isis 37 37-43. °° For editions of AO 6478 (= TCL 6 21; RA 10.216-17), see HBA 131-40; E ThureauDangin, RA 10 215-25; and E Kugler, RA 11 1-21. Note also E Roehberg-Halton, JNES 42 210-11, RIA 7 467-68. For additonal ziqpu-star texts and discussion of the ziqpu-stars, see JNES 42 211 n. 8; W. Horowitz, JCS 46 89-98.

183

Distances in the Heavens

World Map 11'

... man-ma qé-reb-ši -na ul .. qé-reb-ši-na man-ma la 1 il -[du-ft]

World Map rev, 27'

Thus, AO 6478 1', when eomplete, may have explained that ziqpu-stars rose and set into or beyond the cosmic ocean amidst nagû. The seeond seetion of AO 6478, lines 2'-4', serves as an introduction for the astronomical information that follows: bi -rit kakkabani meS ziq-pi ša ina harran šu-ut den-lil i-na qereb š[amêe] mihrit(i gi)it irti (gaba) šâ nasir(ùru)`r šamé e izazzumazu-ma muša(gi6) niphi(sar) bi ù r [ibi (š6)] 51 ša kakkabanimeš i-na lib bi šu nu i[m-ma -ru]

AO 6478 2'-4' The (distance) between culminating-stars that stand in the Path of Enlil in the middle of the sky opposite the one who observes the sky, and the rising and s [etting] of the stars that he sees in their midst at night. Almost identical passages introduce ziqpu-star lists in Mul-Apin I iv 1-3, 7-9, as well as follow a list of ziqpu-stars in the ziqpu-star text BM 38369+38694 (W Horowitz, JCS 46 92:23-93:24). The third section of AO 6478 (obv. 5'-rev. 24) lists the zigpu-stars of the Path of Enlil and the distances between the stars. The final section, AO 6478 rev. 24-32, is only partially preserved. This section opens with sum-totals of the measurements offered in the previous section but breaks off before the end of the tablet. Stellar Distances in AO 6478. The chart below presents the distanee between zigpu-stars in AO 6478 in units of m a. n a, us ina qaqqari, and beru ina šamé. In all cases, the ratio of m a. n a to us ina qaqqari is 1 : 6, and the ratio of Us ina qaqqari to beru ina šamé is 1 : 1,800 (see table, p, 184). " us ina qaqqari" and "beru ina famé." Units of ug and beru are used to measure time, linear distance, and degrees of arc. In Babylonian geometry, 30 Ug = 1 beru; and 12 beru comprise a full eircle of 360°. Thus each beru represents 30° arc and each ùg represents 1° arc:

circle = 360° beru = 30° ug = 1°

51

The surviving trace allows for readings r[i-... or gU-[bi].

184

The Geography of the Sky

Stellar DistaUš es in AO 6478 52 From Star No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 2 21 22 23 24 25 26 1

12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 TOTAL

Sexa

To Star No.

Base 10

ma.na

us ina qaqqari béru ina samê

15 10 30 5 20 20 10 20 10 10 25 8

16,200 21,600 27000 9,000 18,000 18,000 36,000 18,000 36,000 36,000 18,000 27000 27000 18,000 27000 18,000 54,000 9,000 36,000 36,000 18,000 36,000 18,000 18,000 45,000 14,400

60;40

364

655,200

1,0;40

6,4

3,2,0,0

1;30 2;00 2;30 ;50 1;40 1;40 3;20 1;40 3;20 3;20 1;40 2;30

2;30 1;40 2;30 1;40 5;00 ;50 3;20 3;20 1;40 3;20 1;40 1;40 4;20 1;20

9 12 15 5 10 10 20 10 20 20 10 15 15

In AO 6478, the ratio of béru ina samê to us ina qaqqari is much larger than 30 : 1. In fact, this ratio is 1,800: 1,60 oUs times larger than tandard tšamêratio. Thus beru ina samê cannot measure arc. Nevertheless, us ïna qaqqari does seem to 1calmean degrees of arc. In AO 6478, the sum total of us ina qaqqariis caleulated culated to be 12 béru 4 us (= 364 ug). This total is close to the normal 360 us Us in a circle, and the anamoly of 364 IA' can be explained. In astronomical contexts, eontexts, the 360 ug of a circle cirele represent the 360 days of the ideal astronomical year. At the end of each annual cycle, stars return to their original position and thus 52 For the stars of AO 6478, see F. Kugler, RA 11 14-21; J. Schaumberger, Sehaumberger, ZA 50 228-29; Hunger-Pingree Mul-Apin 143-44.

Distances in the Heavens

185

seem to have moved in a circle. This is observed in Mul-Apin I, which states that the position of the stars changes 1 US each day: u4-mu 1 Ustàam kakkabanumeš ina šèr-ti ana G16 irrubu(ku4)mes-ni u4-mu 1 UStàam kakkabanume' ina li-la-a-ti ana u4-me ussû (è)mes-ni Mul-Apin I iii 49-50 (Hunger Pingree Mul-Apin 57) 53 Each day, the stars go into the evening 1 degree. Each evening, the stars eome out into the day 1 degree. Therefore, each star may be understood to travel one Us each day. In this case, the 364-US circumference of the Path of Enlil in AO 6478 reflects an ancient approximation of the length of the true astronomieal year as 364 days. This approximation may also be found implicitly in from Mul-Apin. Mul-Apin II ii 12 states that the year consists of 12 months plus 10 additional days. In ACT 210 ii 7 the length of 12 lunar months is calculated as 354 days plus a small fraction (5,54,22,1,40). The number of days in the lunar year in ACT 210 (354), plus the 10 additional days of Mul-Apin II ii 12, yields a total of 364 days. 54 Now that Us has been explained, the significanee of qaqqaru must be examined. There are two possibilities. First, qaqqaru in this context may refer to degrees of arc on earth, because qaqqaru is a name for earth. Second, Us ina qaqqari may refer to the sky. Of the two, the latter suggestion is more likely. In astronomical texts, qaqqaru refers to portions of the sky belonging to or surrounding astral bodies. 55 For example, in Af0 20 118, the qaqqaru of 18 stars comprise the Path of the Moon (see p. 170). Therefore, us ina qaqqari, in the context of the stars of the Path of Enlil in AO 6478, must, be identified as `degrees of arc' in each stellar segment of the Path of Enlil. The term beru ina šamê can now be explained. As noted earlier, beru ina šamê cannot be units of 30° of arc, because the ratio of beru ina šame to Uš ina qaqqari is 1,800: 1, instead of 30 : 1. Likewise, beru ina šame cannot refer to double-hours of time, because a full 364-day-year consists of only 4,368 doublehours. Therefore, beru ina šamê must measure linear distance and refer to actual conceived distanees between ziqpu-stars as measured in 'leagues in heaven'. Elsewhere, units of beru are used to measure distances in the heavens: "The Hilprecht Text" expresses the distances between stars in units of beru (see p. 180); Etana and the Eagle fly six beru upward into heaven in The Etana Epic; and a lion-shaped 50-béru-long astronomical phenomenon (perhaps a supernova) remains in the sky for more than three years in The Labbu-Myth (CT 13 33:7-8). Thus, it seems probable that the author of K.9794//AO 6478 would have argued that an "astronaut" or eagle traveling from Star 1 to Star 2 This observation is repeated in BM 38369+ 25-28 (W. Horowitz, JCS 46 93). The 364° circuit of ziqpu-stars in AO 6478 may be related to later 364-day calendars in the Apoerypha and the Qumran corpus. See W. Horowitz, JANES 24 40-41. For further diseussion, see J. Koch, NABU 1996 pp. 97-99, no. 111, and W. Horowitz, "The 364-Day Year in Mesopotamia, Again;' NABU (in press). 55 For this meaning of qaqqaru, see CAD Q 121 5 b and p. 256. 53

54

The Geography of the Sky

186

("The Yoke to The Harness") would have needed to travel 16,200 leagues, and that a cireumnavigation of the Path of Enlil would have entailed a journey of 655,200 leagues. Although born ina šamê measures distances in heaven, rather than 30° units around a stellar circle, the ratio I,800: 1 used to generate the distanees between stars in AO 6478 is extrapolated from cireular geometry. The number 1,800 can be expressed sexagesimally as 30,0 (30 x 60), so the stellar distanees in AO 6478 are based on a cosmic ratio of 30,0 beru ina šamê per us ina qaqqari, instead of the standard geometric ratio of 30 us = 1 béru. Thus, the distances between the ziqpu-stars of the Path of Enlil in AO 6478 are measured around the circumference of a eosmic astronomical cirele. The Circle of the zigpu-Stars of the Path of Enlil. AO 6478 not only provides a figure for the length of the Path of Enlil (655,200 leagues) but also indicates that the ratio between linear distance and degrees of arc, 30,0: 1 (Base 10, 1,800: 1), remains constant between points (stars) along the circle. Only in perfect circles do linear distance and angular distance between a series of points remain constant. Thus, in AO 6478, the path of the 26 ziqpu-stars deseribes a circle in the Path of Enlil. Two additional texts from the Neo-Assyrian period also allude to a geometrical circle of ziqpu-stars in The Path of Enlil. The first, the Neo-Assyrian zigpu-star text BM 38369+ 38694, explicitly refers to "12 born circle": [PA]P? 12 beru kip-pat zi [iq pi]

bi-rit kakkabani meš ša harran šu-utd [en-111]

BM 38369+ ii' 20-21 (W. Horowitz, JCS 46 92) [A tota]1? of 12 leagues of the circle of (those that) cul[minate] amidst the stars of the Path of [En lil]. A parallel is found in a blessing formula from Sultantepe: 12 KI.MIN 12 beru kakkabani mes ziq'-pi šk harran šu-ut den-lfl STT 340:12 12 Ditto : 12 are the leagues of the ziqpu-stars of the Path of Enlil. 56 Henee, AO 6478 preserves but one of three known examples of a circle of ziqpu-stars in the Path of Enlil. Implications of K. 9794//AO 6478

The identificaton of the Path of Enlil in K.9794//AO 6478 as a perfect geometrie cirele bears a number of important implications for Mesopotamian ideas 56 Read according to the copy in STT 340 on the basis of the parallel in BM 38693+, although O. Gurney in AfO 28 94 collates:... kakkabâni me mu!-0, sa harrân .

š

su-ut, den lil.

187

Distances in the Heavens

about the size and shape of the visible heavens. These implications are considered below with a degree of hesitation, because there is no direct statement that any of these implications occurred to Mesopotamian astronomers or mathematicians. The Height of the "zigpu-point" of the Path of Enlil. If it is assumed that the Path of Enlil in K.9794//AO 6478 is a perfect cirele, then each star on the Path of Enlil was equidistant from the point on the earth's surface directly beneath the spot where Enlil-stars eulminated. Thus, radii drawn from this point on the earth's surface to all stars in the Path of Enlil would be of equal length:

ziqpu-point

East Horizon

West Horizon

The length of these radii can be calculated using the Babylonian equation for determining the perimeter of a circle: Perimeter = 6 x Radius 57 6 Radii = 655,200 leagues 1. Radius = 109,200 leagues Therefore, it could be argued that the zigpu-point on the Path of Enlil was loeated 109,200 leagues above the earth's surface. 58

For this equation, see Seience Awakening 1 75, 81. Likewise, if it is assumed that both the Path of Enlil and the earth's surface are circles and that stars set at the very edge of the earth's surfaee, the edge of the earth may be plaeed 109,200 leagues from the spot on the earth's surface directly below the ziqpupoint. If so, the diameter of the earth's surface can be calculated as 218,400 leagues. 57 58

188

The Geography of the Sky

Stellar Motion on the Path of Enlil. The identification of the Path of Enlil as a perfect circle seems to imply that the Path of Enlil was conceived as a circular band of stars moving in a constant east-west "ferris-wheel" motion:

r

West

East

In such an astronomical model, stars would be located above the earth's surface for six months of the year, and below the earth's surface for the remaining six months of the year. Such an astronomical model is in fact espoused in KAV 218 D (see p. 161) where almost all stars set six months after rising. The Place of K. 9794//AO 6478 in Mesopotamian Astronomy us ina qaqqari, and béru in Us Although the precise ratios betweema .naUs on of K. 9794//AO 6478 was to some extent a šamê mê suggest that theomposition

se in circular geometry rather than astronomy, there is evidence that the exereise astronomical model of K. 9794//AO 6478 must be considered seriously. As noted ry texts (BM 38369+ and STT 340) also refer to circles above, tweontemporary es which are of ziqpu-stars in Enlil's path; and CT 46 55 includes cosmidistanees even larger than those offered in K. 9794//AO 6478. There is alsampleving ce for the circular theory of AO 6478 in other astronomical textineluding dence ce the Astrolabes and Mul-A pin. The circular `Astrolabes" diagram a circular pattern of stellar movement; KAV 218 D presents a circular pattern ostellarisings gs and settings whereby stars set 180 days (= 180°) after rising; and Mul-Apin I iii 34-48 presents a list of stars that rise in sequence over a 360 day circuit from one heliacal rising of kak,si.sâ "The Arrow" (Sirius) to the next.

Circular Models in the Astrolabes and Mul-Apin s" and Mul-Apin may preserve a circular geometric model Th'Astrolabes" for describing stellar and solar motion similar to the system found on K.979411 ch month-star, s, numerals are assigned teaeh AO 6478. In many of th'Astrolabes,

Circular Models in the Astrolabes and Mul-Apin

189

while Mul-Apin assigns numerical values to the months of the year. In the "Astrolabes' a value of 3;00 is assigned to the Ea-stars for the months of the equinoxes, and values of 4;00 and 2;00 are assigned to the Ea-stars for the months of the summer and winter solstices. Between the solstiees and equinoxes, the values for the Ea-stars increase or decrease 0;20 per month, depending on the season of the year. The Anu month-stars for eaeh month are assigned one-half the Ea-star value for that month, and the Enlil month-stars are assigned one-quarter the value of the Ea-stars. In Mul -Apin, the equinoxes and solstices are assigned the same values but occur one month after those in all "Astrolabes" except LBAT 1499 (see p. 158):

Month in the Astrolabes

Adar Nisan Iyar Sivan Tammuz Ab E Tishreh Arabsamnu Kisl Tebet Shevat

Enl

3;00 3;20 3;40 4;00 3;40 3;20 3;00 2;40 2;20 2;00 2;20 2;40

Ea-star

Anu-star

1;30 1;40 1;50 2;00 1;50 1;40 1;30 1;20 1;10 1;00 1;10 1;20

0;45 0;4 0;50 0;55 1;00 0;55 0;50 0;45 0;40 0;35 0;30 0;35 0;40

minm inThese values form a zigzag function funetion with a maximum value of four and a minimum value of two in the Path of Ea. imumm corMul-Apin II ii 21-35 and II ii 43—iii 12 demonstrate that these values cormearespond to the length of day and night hours over the course of the year as mearespondd suredd sured by a water clock. In Mul-Apin II 21-35 he equinoxes on the 15th of sured Nisan and 15th of Tishreh are indicated by a ratio of 3 : 3 between day and night hours, while the solstices on the 15th of Tammuz and Tebet are indicated by ratios of 4 : 2 and 2 : 4. A more complete exposition of this system is found in Ussevery half Mul-Apin II ii 43-iii 12, where the night values change by 10 us month. As demonstrated in the chart below, the numbers assigned to night on the 15th of the month in Mul-Apin II 43-54 are the "inverses" of the value assigned to the Ea-stars in the `Astrolabes"; that is, the value assigned to the Easix. Day values stars in the `Astrolabes" plus the night value in Mulfor the equinoxes and solstices found in Mul-Apin II ii 21-35, as well as the he Anu and Enlil-stars in the `Astrolabes' also appear in numbers a use of parts of "6" to measure day and night hours in the the chKisle

190

The Geography of the Sky

Day and Night Values II

I Month

Spring Equinox SE + 1 SE + 2 Summer Solstice SS + 1 +2 Autumn Equinox AE + 1 AE + 2 Winter Sol WS + 1 WS + 2

III

IV

Night Hours

(Day Hours Restored)

Mul Apin II

Astrolabe

3.00 2.40 2.20 2.00 2.20 2.40 3.00 3.20 3.40 4.00 3.40 3.2šd

V

VI

Day Hours Mul Apin II Total

Ea

Anu

Enlil

ii 21-35

I+ II

3.00 3.20 3.40 4.00 3.40 3.20 3.00 2.40 2.20 2.00 2.20

1.30 1.40 1.50 2.00 1.50 1.40 1.30 1.20 1.10 1.00 1.10 1.20

0.45 0.50 0.55 1.00 0.55 0.50 0.45 0.40 0.35 0.30 0.35 0.40

3.00 4.00 3.00 2.00 -

6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00

tric šu-utthe Mesopotamiam Astrolabes" andš u-utApin mištue relate itten wi i 6 and 360 a circle of 12 cirele 'leagues' `leagues' = 360°. In e numera "

Fpf = 6,0 = 360 f

=0,6=6

Thus, the daily circuit of the sun from one sunrise or sunset to the next may be measured as 6,0 = 360 units, just as circuits of ziqpu-stars in the Path of Enlil Ug) in BM 38369+ and STT 340. In are measured as 12 beru (= 6,0 u = 360 ug) fact, the Path of the Sun is also measured as 12 beru in an astronomical work from Assurbanipal's library in Neo-Babylonian script seript relating to seasonal hours over a 360-day ideal year: an-nu-ti tal lak tû sd dšamaš dramas itu harran su-ut šu-ut den-lI[l] adi harran su-utdé-a istu harran su-ut dé-a amši (dutu . è) adi ereb samsi šamsi adi harran šu-ut §u-ut den-lfl itu sit šsamsi (dutu.šu.a) (dutu.gü .a) gag-gar mi-sih-ti a-sar-ri samši 12 ber qaq-gar istu ereb šamši samsi adi it samsi

K 2077+ rev. ii 1-4 (D. Pingree and E. Reiner, AfO 25 52)

191

Circular Models in the Astrolabes and Mul-Apin

This is the course of the Sun from the Path of Enlil to the Path of Ea; From the Path of Ea to the Path of Enlil; from sunrise to sunset, from sunset to sunrise, 12 "leagues in area" is the measurement of the circuit?. 59 Here the annual Path of the Sun from north (Path of Enlil) to south (Path of Ea) and back again, as well as the daily cireuit of the sun from one sunrise to the next, are apparently deseribed as 12-league (360°) circuits. Thus, both the 12 beru of the Path of Enlil and 12 ber qaqqari of the Path of the Sun correspond to a circle in the sky, and eaeh of the 6 minas of water in the waterclock in "Astrolabes" and Mul-Apin seem to correspond to 60° of are along such a stellar or solar eircle, 60 A similar correspondence between minas of water as measured on a water elock and degrees of arc traveled by stars in the sky is found in the ziqpu-star text K. 9794//AO 6478, where each mina of water corresponds to 6 uš 'degrees' of movement along a stellar arc (see p. 183): AO 6478

Minas

Degrees

Total Sexagesimal Notation

60,40 1,0;40

364 6,4

If the 'Astrolabes" and Mul-Apin do indeed preserve a circular model for stellar and solar motion, then the sun and stars may have been perceived as completing equal semicircular day and night courses of 3,0 us (180°) length from 59 The meaning 'eireuit' for asarru is proposed on the basis of CAD A/2 329-30 diseussion sub asarru A. If this meaning is aecepted, "asarru B-tablets" (see CAD A/2 330) may be round tablets, such as the Neo-Assyrian planispheres, or round Old Babylonian exercise tablets (see TIM 10; R. Falkowitz, AfO 29 18-45). 60 Ratios of 8 : 4 4 : 8 to calculate day and night hours are used both on the British Museum ivory prism BM 123340, where Face D measures a day as 8 beru and night as 4 beru at the summer solstiee in the month of Tammuz (see Langdon Menologies 55 Face D'), and in K. 2077+: muh1.1u, izzazaz ù dsin [ ] x muIs uljur.mdš ka6 izzaz-ma 8 beru ûmu 4 beru musi K. 2077+ 1-2 (D. Pingree and E. Reiner, AfO 25 51) Cancer is present, and the Moon ]. Capricorn is present. 8 leagues day, 4 leagues night. In Mul-Apin Iii 41-43, Cancer rises just 10 days before the summer solstice (the 15th of Tammuz), when day and night watches are measured as 4 and 2 beru. For studies of BM 123340 and other measurements of day and night hours, see Langdon Menologies 5564; S. Langdon, RA 33 194-95; Scienee Awakening 2 86-89; S. Smith, Iraq 31 74-81; D. Pingree and E. Reiner, MO 25 54-55; Livingstone, 24-29, 43; F Rochberg-Halton, Centaurus 32 146-70. Both the 4 : 2 2 : 4 ratio for solstices and equinoxes and the 360day astronomical year are certainly as old as the Old Babylonian period and may even be as old as the third or fourth millennia (see W. Horowitz, JANES 24 38-39). [

]

[

]

[

192

The Geography of the Sky

Month in Mul-Apin

Nisan Iyar Sivan Tammuz Ab Elul Tisreh Arahsamnu Kislev Tebet Shevat Adar

Minas for Day Hours

3,00 3,20 3,40 4,00 3,40 3, 3,00 2,40 2,20 2,00 2,20 2,40

Degrees

180 200 220 240 220 200 180 160 140 120 140 160

horizon to horizon at the equinoxes. However, on all other days during the year, aethe day and night portions of the circle would not be equal. For example, acible above the cording to this model, at the winter solstice, the Sun wou horizon for only one-third of its path (2,0 us = 120°), but invisible below the ho). At this time, circumpolar stars rizon for two-thirds of its path solstiee,but would be visible at night for two-thirds of their path at the winter solstice, not clear, however, only one-third of their path at the su ld have wor how the mechanics of si By the first millennium, Mesopotamian astronomers had already recognized that approximati the 4 : 2 2 : 4 ratio between day and night hours was false, and a better approximat estabsolstiees, Apin,,e differential between day and night hours at thesolstie solstices, 3 : 2 2 :Rochberghed (see O. Neugebauer, Isis 37 38; Hunger Pingree Mul-Apin 153-54). For previous lished studies on the numbering system for day and night hours in the "Astrolabes" and MulRochbergApin, Apin,esee O. Neugebauer Isis 37 40; Weidner Gestirn-Darstellungen 19-20; F. RochbergHalton, Centaurus 32 150-51; A. George, AfO 38/39 52-73; and see n. 57 above. Note Halton,, Halton, that E. Weidner (HBA 65-76) and T. Pinches (JRAS 1900 573-75) previously understood the numerals on the circular-Astrolabes as units of 60.

Chapter 8

BagM. Beih. 2 nO. 98 and the Compass Points

BagM Beih. 2 no. 98 (W.20030/121) preserves a small flake in Late Babylonian seript from the Reš Temple in Uruk that may shed some light on Mesopotamian ideas of the shape and o ri entation of the heavens and earth's surface. When complete, the text included a diagram that apparently eonsisted of a circle enelosing a square containing four triangles. Only about one-half of the diagram remains, including two triangles and slightly less than half of the square and cirele.

n 1. 2.

3. 4, 5,

6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Southwind 'ma luluu 1u lu lulu dsamsi(dutu. è) Sunrise dšam si dšamši(dutu.è) Westwind IMamurru(m ar. d fi) u) I K.Ti7M [is-t] u tt°addari (s(š e .kin) 1u41 14 a di [itu] simani (si g4) [iš-t] to the the 5th of Sivan, a , .. wind. [Fro]m it°s ani u4 [6] a di it°ulûli(kin,hinni it°ululi(kin,hinninn. na) [u 4 . (.. )] IM 4k [am] iš-tu is tu it°simâni x R )] 1 Fromthe[6]fSivan .oElu,-wind Ocean? .. , ] id?[mar ra tum? .. , [Eastwind] [Sunset] [Northwind] ind.] [From the ... of Elul to the ... of Kislev, a . h of Adar, a ... wind.] [From the ... of Kislev to the -

-

im

-

-

-

193

194

BagM. Beih. 2 no. 98 and the Compass Points

5. From the [6th] of Sivan to the [ ... ] of Elul, a ... wind, [(.. )]

a

9

/ N ^`^% I ô \

^^

/ / i

✓I I

_

av, 3 m

Po I

•Ç co

I

C D• 1 wo CD

(DD I

(Ni

: m/ * 56 o

I

I \ ^^^

oo ô [PUPA

//

i

... e 'aept/ 10 41E I- eql

ol nals!N ;o • •. •1ol . 11104 111o4/., ' G G/ i.

\

^

—

--

-i

The diagram on BagM. Beih. 2 no. 98 seems to correlate the positions of the four winds, the locations of sunrise and sunset, and the seasons of the year. The area within the square preserves two triangles that are labeled "Southwind" (no. 1) and "Westwind" (no. 3), with the space between them labeled "Sunrise" (no. 2). Based on this pattern, it may be surmised that the missing half of the square preserved triangles labeled "Northwind" (no. 9) and "Eastwind" (no. 7), with the space between these triangles labeled "Sunset" (no. 8). Along the sides of the square, between the square and the circle, two short inseriptions are preserved. Periods of approximately three months are listed, with what appear to be names or descriptions of winds. One side deals with the period from Adar to Sivan, which is the spring season (no. 4), and the second

Winds and Compass Point Directions in Ancient Mesopotamia

195

side deals with the period from Sivan to Elul, which is summer (no. 5). 1 Thus each side of the square apparently represents one of the four seasons, and each season is assigned a charaeteristic wind. Traces of a sign (no. 6) are also found beyond the circle that eneloses the square. The significanee of the diagram is difficult to determine. No aceompanying explanatory text, such as that found with the World Map, is available, and it is not certain how much of the text is missing, beeause the flake does not preserve any edge or provide an indication of the thickness of the original tablet. It is not even certain where the top of the diagram is. The surviving text is symmetrical, with the bases of all signs drawn toward the center of the diagram. Thus, the diagram in its present form has no top or bottom. Furthermore, the diagram need not be aligned according to the north-south axis used on most modern maps; there is no such convention in ancient maps. For example, the Map of the World and a late third-millennium map of Nippur (S. N. Kramer FTS 2 274) are drawn along axes following the course of the Euphrates, and an Old Akkadianperiod map from Nuzi (HSS 10 1) is drawn with "westwind" at the bottom. 2 Despite these uncertainties, it seems likely that the diagram was meant to correlate at least two sets of variables: those plaeed inside the square (sunrise, sunset, north, south, east, and west winds), and those placed outside the square (the seasons of the year, with their characteristic winds). Before examining this hypothesis further, it is first neeessary to consider how aneient Mesopotamians identified the four compass-point directions and to examine BagM Beih. 2 no. 98 in greater detail.

Winds and Compass Point Directions in Ancient Mesopotamia Aneient Mesopotamians possessed no reliable method for determining due north, south, east, and west. Modern compasses were not invented until approximately 1000 C.E., and the modern North Star (Polaris) was more than 12° south of due north during antiquity. 3 Therefore, other less reliable indicators were used to determine the approximate locations of the four eompass points. These indicators included the Sun, winds, and stars.

1 The total number of days in No. 4, from the 14th of Adar to the 5th of Sivan, is 80 days in an ideal 360-day calendar of twelve 30-day months. No reason for a period of 80 days is clear, but the number of days in No. 4 may be compared with a period of 160 days (twice 80) in a first-millennium religious-mystical text (see Livingstone 256-57 BM 34035 50-53 and cf. ibid., 255 BM 34035 1-8). 2 For Neo-Babylonian field plans with eardinal points other than north at the top, see Nemet-Nejat LB Field Plans 373-74 Table IVB. For related tables, see Nemet-Nejat LB Field Plans 371-72, 375-81. For the Nuzi map, see Frayne, AOS 74 81-82. 3 Hipparchus states that Polaris was situated 125° south of due north in his time (seeond century B.C.E.). See the Geography of Ptolemy i.7.4 (E. L. Stevenson, The Geography of Claudius Ptolemy, p. 30).

196

BagM. Beih. 2 no. 98 and the Compass Points

The Sun Numerous Sumerian and Akkadian texts use the terms "sunrise" and "sunset" as terms for "east" and "west". 4 This is not surprising, because the sun rises each day in the east and sets in the west, but only on the first days of Spring and Autumn does the sun actually rise and set due east and west. During the Spring and Summer months, the sun actually rises and sets north of due east and west. Conversely, in the Autumn and Winter, the sun rises and sets south of due east and west. The maximum deviation of the locations of sunrise and sunset from due east and west occurs at the Summer and Winter solstices. At the latitude of Babylon, the Sun appears to rise and set approximately 30° north of due east on the first day of Summer, and 30° south of due east on the first day of Winter. 5 Sunset

-

Sunrise

Summer Solstice

Summer Solstice

W

30°

30°

Sunset

Sunrise

Winter Solstice

Winter Solstice

S

These variations were recognized by Mesopotamian astronomers. A Mul-Apin fragment explains that the sun spends different seasons of the year in different paths of the sky (see p. 173), and Mul-Apin II states that the Sun moves toward the south after the Summer solstice (II i 11-13) and toward the north after the Winter solstice (II i 17-18). The Winds The northwest-southeast mountain ranges east of Iraq influence the winds of Mesopotamia. As a result, the prevailing winds are northwest and southeast winds, rather than true north, south, east, and west winds. Ancient Mesopotamians, like ourselves, recognized four primary winds (north, south, east, and west), and assigned the names of the four winds to the four compass points. In Sumerian, north is called IMsi.sâ or IMmir, south is iMk iMm a r. dThe u. sig ficalled IMù l u, east is called IMk u r,and r west • is called IMm For examples of ereb dsarnsi dsarnšisamsi an used as terms for `east' and `west', 'west',se 258-59 and CAD 216-17. 5 See Meteorological Office (U.K.), Observer's Handbook, 2 p. 155 (bottom diagram), where the distance between the positions of sunrise and sunset and due east and west, at a latitude of 34°N on June 22, is just under 30°. The sun rises and sets slightly nearer to due east and west at the latitude of Babylon (32°30'N). For the times of sunrise and sunset in Nineveh and Assur, see Parpola LAS 2 408-9. 4

Winds and Compass Point Directions in Ancient Mesopotamia

197

cance of the names for the east and west winds is certain. The name of the east wind, IMkur.ra `mountain wind' refers to the mountains east and northeast of Mesopotamia. The west wind, IMm ar, d u, bears the name of the Amorites, who arrived in Mesopotamia from the west in the third millennium. 6 In Akkadian, the names of these two winds, IMšadû and IMamurru, are exact equivalents of the Sumerian names. The derivations of the Sumerian names of the north and south winds and the corresponding Akkadian names IMiltanuPMištanu and IMšutu, are less certain. Sumerian 'north wind', iMsi.sa `appropriate/straight wind' (si.sâ = ešéru), may reflect the fact that the most common wind in Mesopotamia blows from the northwest. Akkadian IMiltanu/IMištanu may be the same word as a homonym meaning `the number one' (see CAD I/J 275). However, there is evidenee that the south wind was considered to be the "first" wind, followed in order of priority by the north, east, and west winds. The winds are listed in this order in Erimhuš II 82-85 (MSL 17 30-31), Emar 576 l'-4', and a passage in The Practical Vocabulary of Assur (AfO 18 334: 841-44) that can be restored on the basis of KAV 81: 7

IM.2

= =

IM.3 IM.4

=

IM.1

§u-u -tu u-u-tu [i] l-ta-nu sâ-du-u šâ-du-u [

al -mur-ru

`south wind' 'south `north 'nort wind' `eas 'east `west wind' 'west

oriAncient Mesopotamians (like ourselves) named the winds for their oriward which the winds were blowing (i.e. the gins, gins, ra north wind has its origin in the north and blows southward). This i demona ry of the violent southwi šutu strated

uhe

pic:

na bi-it be-li-ia

stratqa-a-ab-la-at i-na ga-a-ab-la-at qa-a-ab-la-at to-am-ti nu-ni a-ba-ar fi-il-ma ši-il-ma il-ma mé- i ta-ambia-a-ši su-û-tu ia-a-ši ut-te-eb-ba-an-ni šu-û-t šu-û-tu i-zi-gci-am-ma ia-a-ti [i-nia bi-it nu-ni ul-ta-am-si-il mé-se[šu-t]a i-na ug-ga-at li-ib-bi-ia se[šu [š[su-t]a u-t]a -t]a at-ta-za-ar

(Picchioni Adapa 118:62-67, cf. 114 B 1-6) My lord, for the house of my lord I was catching fish in the midst of the sea. The sea was like a mirror then the south wind blew and sank me. 6 The term mar. d û first occurs in Fara texts (see RGTC 1 115). For the homeland of the Amorites in Syria, see, for example, Buccellati Amorites 235-37. e a inds in preserved lis'north t Note '-17'. 4), and MSL 17 44 RS 25.4 .

BagM. Beih. 2 no. 98 and the Compass Points

198

I spent the night [iln the "house of fish." In my anger I cursed the [south wind. The common south wind in southern Mesopotamia is a calm southeast wind, but a strong, violent southwest suhaili wind also occurs, bringing elouds, rain, and fog in its wake. This southwest wind from the gulf poses a danger to small eraft on the Persian Gulf, such as the boat of Adapa. Thus sutu '(ancient) south' must include modern southwest or be equivalent to modern southwest. 8 As of yet, no ancient deviee to determine the directions of winds has been identified. However, an obscure passage from "The Fable of the Willow" may refer to a weather vane of some sort that was placed on roofs or aboard ships: a-na šu-zu-ub û-ri šâ-kin x [ .. . ki-ma ki-li-li ékallu zu-'u-na-at x [ .. . [i]s-sur šd-a-ri ana maš-tak šari i-na-ta-lu x ] x [ x ] re Irt"malahu(ma.lab 4) i-za-bi-la [ .. . BWL 166:11 14 [ ... ] . is placed to save the roof. Like a headband, the temple is adorned with [ They look at the "[b]ird of the wind" to test the wind. the sailor carries [ The 'bird of the wind' in this context may be compared with the rooster that sits atop many modern weather vanes, 9 [

-

.. .

.. .

The Stars

Although no single star, such as the modern pole-star Polaris, served as an indicator, of the eompass-point directions in ancient Mesopotamia, it is clear that Mesopotamians did use combinations of stars and constellations to determine the locations of north, south, east, and west. One seetion of Mul-Apin II even explains how to determine all four eompass points by observing the stars: šum-ma mu-se-e ša1"L mes" ana amari (igi .16)-ka muIm a r. g d. d a ina 68. tib (z IMiltani (si.sa) park[a]t([g] i b) [8] 69. murk u6 ina tib IMšuti (ù 1 u) 1° parik mulg f r, t a b ina tib IMamurri (m a r. d û) park[a]t[61' 70. m°isu.gi u mul.mul ina tib IMšadi (kur.ra) izzazzuma z[u] 71. ina u4-me massarti (e n .nun) -ka šara šâ illakuk° kakkabanumes û-kalmuc[] Mul-Apin II i 68-71 (Hunger Pingree Mul-Apin 87) I° ^

8 Note also G. Roux, RA 55 15-20, and Gudea Cyl. A xi 19-23, where the northwind (IMmir) dwells in the mountains "north" of Mesopotamia. Mountains are found both northeast and northwest of Mesopotamia. 9 For the winds in Mesopotamia, see further R. Englund, JESHO 31'166 n, 37. For a study of wind directions in Hittite texts, see J. de Roos, Journal of Ancient Civilizations 5 (1990) 87-96. 10 For this passage, see more recently J. Koeh, AfO 42/43 155-62.

Winds and Compass Point Directions in Ancient Mesopotamia

199

68.

In order for you to observe the departure of the winds: Ursa Major lies across the rising of the north wind, 69. Piscis Austrinus lies across the rising of the south wind, Scorpio lies across the rising of the west wind, 70. Perseus and the Pleiades stand at the rising of the east wind, 71. on the day of your observation, the stars will tell you which wind is blowing. The correlations between stars and winds in this passage are reasonably aecurate. Ursa Major is a northern star, Piscis Austrinus is a southern star, and Scorpio and the Pleiades are said to be loeated aeross from each other at the eastern and western ends of heaven in Mul-Apin I: mu1.mul inappah(kur)-ma mulgir.tab irabbi(š u)b' inappah(kur)-ma mul mul irabbi (šu)b1 Mul-Apin I iii 13-14 (Hunger Pingree Mul-Apin 47)

muI gIr.tab

The Pleiades rise when Scorpio sets. Scorpio rises when the Pleiades set. Thus for a time each year, the Pleiades would rise at the eastern horizon while Seorpio was setting at the western ho rizon, when Ursa Major and Piseis Austrinus were to be found in the northern and southern quadrants of the sky. MulApin I identifies this time of year as the beginning of lyar: ina 't°aiari (g u 4) u4 Pan' m u 1.m u l innammar (igi .16) Mul-Apin I ii 38 (Hunger Pingree Mul-Apin 40) On the 1st of lyar, the Pleiades are seen. The first of Iyar occurs just after the Spring equinox on the 15th of Nisan in Mul-Apin (see Mul-Apin II i 19-21), so sunrise and sunset on this day would be very close to due east and west. Nevertheless, west in Mul-Apin II i 69 seems to be southwest rather than due west, because Scorpio is an Ea-star (southern star) in Mul-Apin I ii 29 rather than an equatorial Anu-star, as is the Pleiades in Mul-Apin I i 44.' This demonstrates that "west' as well as "south" (as in Adapa), ineludes southwest. Thus, as E. Weidner recognized in AfO 7 271, each compass-point direction in Mesopotamia included a range of 90°, with "north" including areas from northeast to northwest, "south" areas from southeast to southwest, "east" areas from northeast to southeast, and "west" areas from northwest to southwest (see diagram, p. 200). 11 11 For similar models of winds and compass points in astrology, see Parpola LAS 2 406-7; AfO Beih. 22 53-54. Note in this context a south(-east) wind in an astronomical diary: tùLU' sa ana KUR sat-pu itliku(d u)

Sachs-Hunger Diaries I p. 164-333: 8 a south wind which slants to the east blew.

BagM. Beih. 2 no. 98 and the Compass Points

200

Topographic Features In addition to the position of the sun, the winds, and the stars, topographic features also seem to have influeneed Mesopotamian eonceptions of the compass points. The name of the east wind, 'mountain wind', points to the role of the mountains in Mesopotamian conceptions of 'east'. Similarly, identifica tions of the Persian Gulf and Mediterranean as seas of sunrise and sunset, in passages sueh as the following excerpt from a Sennacherib inscription, suggest that these bodies of water influenced Mesopotamian views of "east" and "west": 12 ul-tu tâmti (a. a b . b a) e-li-ni-ti ša šá-lam dšamši s' a-di tam-tim šap-li-ti ša si-it dšamši s` gim-ri sal-mat qaqqadi (sAG.Dca) û-šak-niš še-pu-ü-a OIP 2 163 i 13-15 (OIP 2 23) From the Upper Sea of the setting sun to the Lower Sea of the rising sun I made all of the human race submit at my feet. The head of the Persian Gulf is in actuality southeast of Babylonia and Assyria, rather than due east, providing further indication that 'east' includes a range of 90° from northeast to southeast. The Mediterranean eoast is reached by traveling north and then west from Babylonia but lies due west of Assyria.

Examination of BagM Beih. 2 no. 98 The Square When complete, the square almost certainly contained four triangles labeled north, south, east, and west winds, with two of the spaces between the triangles labeled sunrise and sunset: 12 For additional examples, see AOAT 6 345-47.

-.

Examination of BagM Beih. 2 no. 98

a) Ç

201

Q)

k.

co

co

This restoration is problematic because it results in the sun rising in the west 20and setting in the east! It is suggested in the catalogue of BagM Beih. 2 (pp. 20h les reflect the ultimate destinations of 21) 21) that th ls att attaehed the winds rather than their points of origin. If so, the south and west winds would originate in the north and east. Yet, as noted earlier, there is no evidence ing toward in MesopotaotaAMesop direetion they Mesopotathat winds were named for the direction ifies a wind blowing from the southwest Adapa mian sible placement of explanations as sûtu šûtu šutu `southwin 'southwin T 'southwind'. have been `sunrise' remain. First, it is possible that `sunrise' 'sunrise' and 'sunswitched on BagM Beih. 2 no. 98 as the result of a scribal error. Switching 'suncing the south and west winds in y me rise' and 'sunset' yield the north and east: 13 BagM Beih. 2 98 Sunrise/Sunset switched

Winds = Destination

a5` w Ç

a)

7 Ç'n'n cn Ci) ((D

S

u)

^

Cn i Ç =

c

V) 'o co

Q)

Q

13 Note for example Nemet-Nejat LB Field Plans 374 Table IVC, which lists eight tablets where north and south, or east and west, are reversed.

202

BagM. Beih. 2 no. 98 and the Compass Points

The second possibility is that BagM Beih. 2 no. 98 illustrates a device where `sunrise' and 'sunset' can be moved independently of the triangles representing the winds. In this case, the tablet could . depict an impossible placement of 'sunrise' that a user could eorrect, just as the arrow of a compass is meant to be turned to point toward the side labeled 'north'. For instance, the square, circle, and triangles could have been placed on separate pieces of wood that were held together by a peg, with `sunrise' and 'sunset' attached to this same peg by thin pieees of wood, reeds, or rope. This would have allowed the square, circle, triangles, and `sunrise' and 'sunset' to move in relation to one another. In fact, the "impossible" placement of sunrise and sunset in the west and east on sueh a device might very well indicate that the elements in the square, at least, functioned as a rudimentary sundial of some sort, where the morning shadow at sunrise fell to the west and evening shadow at sunset fell to the east. 14 The Names of the Winds in No. 4 and No. 5

Neither the Spring wind in no. 4 nor the Summer wind in no. 5 can be positively identified." The first signs in the wind-name in no. 5 may be read either 4kam or zA-x. In the former case, the wind-name almost certainly represents `west wind' (amurru), because the numeral 4 is used to write amurru both in lexical lists (see p. 197) and in Summa-Alu and other texts. 16 An identification of `west wind' as the Summer-wind in no. 5 would be appropriate since west winds are common during the months of June, July, and August in southern Iraq. 17 However, it is not elear why the numeral 4 here is written 1 i m m u 5 (zA) instead of the more common l i m mu (GAR). Other possible identifications of the wind name are even less satisfactory. An identification of IM 4 as šar erbetti (the four winds = north, south, east, and west winds) is improbable, because south and east winds are not common during the Summer months in Iraq, and no wind name, or adjective describing winds, beginning za, ša or sa is obvious. 18 ,

14 On a sundial, the seasonal variations in the location of sunrise and sunset should require that `sunrise' and `sunset' be able to move independently of each other as well as the triangles representing the `winds' (compass points). For Mesopotamian sundials and gnomons, see most reeently Hunger-Pingree Mul-Apin 153-54; F. Rochberg-Halton, Centaurus 32 162-65. The author is grateful to Mr. Avraham Avitzour for his advice on the matter of ancient sundials. Mr. Avitzour and the author are at present preparing a more detailed study of BagM. Beih. 2 98. 15 For previous discussion of the wind-names in Nos. 4-5, see BagM Beih. 2 pp. 2021; J. Oelsner, Materialien zur Babylonischen Geseltschaft and Kultur in Hettenistischer Zeit (1986) 432 n, 666; J. McEwan, BiOr 38 641. AHw 1590 šesšektu reads sar ši ši ik tu4 for No, 4 and identifies this passage with the word se/išše/iktu (AHw 1220). is For additional examples of this system, see CT 39 38 rev, 3-6 (Summa Atu); A. Sachs, JCS 6 146: 4'-5'; CAD A/2 92-93 amurru. 17 See Wind Tables for June, July, and August in Climatological Atlas for Iraq (Republie of Iraq, Meteorological Department, Climatology Seetion) Publication No. 13 pp. 191-99. 18 J. Oelsner in Materiatien zur Babylonischen Gesettschaft and Kultur in Hellenistischer Zeit (1986) 432 n. 666 reads "za.qilq Il.

Examination of BagM Beih. 2 no. 98

203

The wind name for the Spring (no. 4), although complete, presents greater difficulties. There are two ways to understand the name. First sTsLTK.TTJM may be understood as a single word. An Akkadian word šiššiktu is known but only occurs as a name for a stone or as a topographic term (see AHw 1220). Other possible explanations of the word include a reading šar abiktim(sTSI)'k -nm (Wind of Destruction'), or a reading si I7.siI7 .IGem.h9 Lexical evidence connecting s i s s i g with winds is found in parallel passages in Urra II and Izi M: sig.sig si g. sig

sig.sig s i g. s i g sig.sig

= = = = =

ša-a-ru

'wind' 'storm wind' 'breeze' 'stillness' 'stillness' Urra II 306-10 (MSL 5 74-75)

me-hu-û za-qI-qu WI-gum-ma-turn, ša-hur-ra-tum

[s]i.si.ig = ša-bur-r[a-tu] Isil.si.ig = zi-qi-q[u] s i. s i. i q = šu-uh-ra-tu

'stillness' `breeze' `stillness' Izi M ii 6'-8' (MSL 13 216)

If sI.I.TK can be accepted as a phonetie writing for s i s si g, then the wind name in BagM Beih. 2 no. 98 could be this word with a feminine ending (slssIGt°m). If so, šaqummatum and šahurratum `still wind' are possible readings, and this might indicate that there was little or no wind during the Spring season. However, Spring winds in Iraq are not noticeably weaker than the winds of other seasons. 20 ThescondpibltraofhewindmrSualso depends on a reading si 17.si 17 for sLŠT. In the Boghazkoi version of a "Prayer to the Gods of the Night"(KUB 4 47 rev. 42), the name of the north wind is written si17.si17, which apparently is a substitute for the regular Sumerian writing si. sâ (see G. Meier, ZA 45 197-98). Thus si I7.st I7 alone could be a name for the north wind, and IG.TUM could represent an adjective. During the months of Mareh, April, and May, true north winds are common in southern Iraq, 21 but these north winds become less frequent during the Summer. Hence, the prevailing northwest wind of, Mesopotamia could be thought of as a north wind during the Spring and west wind during the Summer. Unfortunately, no adjective ig/k/qtum or eg/klq-tum is appropriate for winds. A reading gal-tum 'terrifying' is possible, but no other example of this word being written with gal instead of 19

For the reading sI.sI = si 17 .si 17 , see A. Goetze, JCS 11 97; cf. J. McEwan, BiOr 38 641. Note also GHT 243, where Sumerian si.si.ig. (ni) parallels zaqiqu Gilg. XII 84, and ACh Adad 33:23, where ziqiqu is identified with the north wind. A loanword ziqziqqu/ siqsiqqu is equated with sdru wind in a list of synonymns of šaru in Malku III (CT 18 21 K.11191+ i 3-4 + duplicates; see CAD Z 134). For st.st = abiktum see CAD A/1 5253 abiktu. It is likely that the din-compound gIst is to be read bad 5 .bad 5 when equated with abiktu, by analogy with bad 5 .bad 5 = dabdû (see CAD D 14 dabd(1). The homonym CAD S 322 sissiktu (zizziktu, šisšiktu) `fringe, edge, hem of a garment' can hardly be associated with winds. 20 Ctimatological Attas for Iraq, pp. 182-90. 21 Ibid.

BagM. Beih. 2 no. 98 and the Compass Points

204

ordinary gal is known, and there is no evidence that the winds of Summer were partieularly dangerous. Thus the identity of the wind name for the Spring season seems even less ce rt ain than that of Summer. The Area beyond the Circle

It is coneeivable that the cosmic ocean lies beyond the cirele preserved on BagM Beih. 2 98, because the traces in no. 6 may be interpreted as the remains of the dirt-eompound ID(= A.ENGUR). On The. Babylonian Map of the World, the cosmic ocean is identified as the kimarratu, and this oeean flows beyond a circle marking the border of the known world. If the area beyond the circle in BagM Beih. 2 98 is also the cosmic ocean, then the relationship between this ocean and the winds may be important. In a Sumerian incantation, diseasebearing winds blow from the Upper and Lower Seas: IM rsag'.ba rim.da.ta.daP a.ab.ba sig.ga .ta im.da,t [a.d] al a.ab.ba ig[i]. 1 nim'.ta im.da.ta.dal t an.ur'.ta du.a.ni šà.gig im.tum libiš.gig im.tum

OECT 5 23:1-5

The wind blew to the fore. From the Lower Sea, it blew forth. From the Upper Sea, it blew forth. As it came from the Horizon, it brought heart-disease, brought heart-sickness. Winds blowing from Upper and Lower Seas could be the prevailing northwest and southeast winds of Mesopotamia, because the Upper Sea (Mediterranean) is located north/northwest of Assyria and Babylonia and the Lower Sea (Persian Gulf) is located southeast of Babylonia. However, the t ri angles labeled 'South wind' and `West wind' on BagM Beih. 2 98 are placed well within the circle that may mark the shores of the eosmic sea. Interpretation of the Diagram The Square

Despite the diffIculties outlined above, the diagram on BabM Beih, 2 98 does seem to illustrate a number of important Mesopotamian cosmographic traditions. The placement of triangles labeled 'South wind' and 'West wind' in the corners of the square seems to illustrate the tradition of the kibrat arba'i `four regions' in which heaven and the earth's surface are divided into northern, southern, eastern, and western quarters. The 'four regions' of the earth's surface are well known from historical inseriptions and literary texts, where the 'four regions' comp ri se the entire earth's

205

Interpretation of the Diagram

surface, 22 The 'four regions' of heaven are less well known but are mentioned in connection with winds, atmospheric phenomena, and stars in astronomical omens and reports where various phenomena are located in the northern, southern, eastern, and western quarters of the sky. Examples include Mul-Apin II i 6871 (see p. 198), whieh correlates the four winds with constellations; Prayers to The Gods of the Night, which mention the stars of the fourwinds; 23 and a passage in Surpu that connects the four quarters of the sky with both stars and winds and speaks of the stars of the 'four winds' in conjunetion with the `seven winds': kakkabanume' IMšuti(ùlu)Ii IMiltani (si.s a) IMšadi (kur.ra) IMamurri (mar. d u)

šaru mes si-bit-ti li-zi-qu-nim-ma li-pat-ti-ru ma-mit-su

Surpu 17:165-67 May the stars of the south wind, north wind, east wind, and west wind, the seven winds, blow upon him and let them release his oath. The placement of the t ri angles representing the winds in the corners of the square, at an angle of 45° to a line drawn though `Sunrise', suggests that the four quarters were divided so as to create four equal t ri angles rather than four equal squares:

22

See further examples and discussion, p. 259. See KUB 4 47 rev. 42 (ka4 ak ka4 ab! [text

ad] tù.m°u l .1 a t°z i tù.muk u. u . r a ef. G. Meier, ZA 45 197-98); A. Oppenheim, AnBi 12 283:40; OECT 6 pl. 12 K. 3507 16' (OECT 6 75). Note also KAR 214 iii 26-27 (Frankena Tâkultu 26). 23

tù.mug ar14.du;

-

BagM. Beih. 2 no. 98 and the Compass Points

206

This geometric figure, which may have illustrated the geographic tradition of the 'four regions', oceurs on mathematieal tablets (MCT 42-43, 141; MDP 34 pl. 1; cf. H. Saggs, RA 54 132). The Circle

The circle surrounding the square seems to illustrate another Mesopotamian cosmographie concept. This cirele, which eneloses the square of the winds, suggests that the winds blew in a circular region, just as the circular shape of the planisphere (CT 33 10) and cireular 'Astrolabes" (CT 33 11-12) suggest that the level of the stars and the earth's surface were also eoneeived as circles. 24 Further evidenee for the circular shape of the region of the winds is found in a Shalmaneser III inscription, where the weather-god Adad holds the kippat Ore `circle of the winds' (J. Kinnier Wilson, Iraq 24 93:4), and in The Tukulti-Ninurta Epic, where Tukulti-Ninurta inspires fear among the kings of kippat šar erbetti 'eircle of the four winds' (Machinist TN Epic 60 IA 13'; cf. 116Av17). 25 BagM. Beih. 2 No. 98 as an `Ancient Compass"

Evidence in BagM. Beih. 2 no. 98 suggests that the tablet diagrams a device that was used to identify the directions of the compass, as defined in ancient Mesopotamaia. Two of the three indicators of compass-point directions used in Mesopotamia (the sun and winds) are represented on the tablet by the positions of sunrise and sunset and the origins of the winds. These two compass-point directions apparently are correlated with the seasons of the year and the type of wind eharacteristic of each season. This is significant, because the locations of sunrise and sunset and the frequencies of winds vary over the course of the year. Furthermore, the apparent impossible placement of 'sunrise' on the tablet opens the possibility, at least, that 'sunrise' and `sunset' could have been moved to more appropriate positions on a moveable device that may have ineluded some elements of a sundial. The user of such a device might have been able to correlate wind direction with the location of the sun and time of year in order to determine the compass-point directions. Such a device would have been very useful, since the only attested method for determining the four compass points (that of Mul-Apin II i 68-71, which utilizes the positions of constellations) can For the `eirele of the heavens/night skies' (kippat šame, burum, see pp. 26465). The planisphere CT 33 10 (= Koch Neue Untersuchungen 56) preserves eight sectors marked off by dividing lines drawn 45° apart, just as 'sunrise' and 'sunset' are inscribed 45° away from the triangles representing the winds on BagM. Beih. 2 98. However, BagM Beih. 2 98 lacks a label in the space between `West wind' (no. 3) and `[North wind]' (no. 9), which might indicate that that circle on this fragment also was to be divided into eight 45° sectors. 25 Note also Weidner TN 8:5: kippat tubuqât erbetti `The Circle of the Four Corners'; and Erra 136:... lama Mni zi [q]ma kippata Nita `Blow like the wind, survey the circle'. 24

Interpretation of the Diagram

207

only be used at night. Nevertheless, the evidence cited above does not prove that BagM. Beih. 2 no. 98 diagrammed an "ancient compass' because it is unclear how sueh a device would work and the text is too broken to allow for any final conclusions. Thus all hypotheses deduced from the surviving fragment must remain only hypotheses pending the diseovery of a more complete duplicate or missing fragments that can be joined to BagM. Beih. 2 no. 98.

Chapter 9

"Seven Heavens and Seven Earths": an.7 ki.7, an.7.bi ki.7.bi, an.7.ki.7.bi.da

A number of Sumerian incantations may preserve a Sumerian cosmographic tradition of seven heavens (an) and seven earths (ki) that can be compared to the three heavens and earths of the Akkadian mystical-religious text KAR 307 30-38: 1. Editions of the incantation m e. š è b a. d a. d a l preserve the phrase an.7 ki.7. 2. Editions of the incantation hé.daddag.ge an den.lil den.ki dnerigal preserve the phr as e an,7.bi ki.7.bi. 3. The medieal incantation AMT 103 8-12 preserves the phrase an.7.bi ki.7,bi.da. 4. A number of incantations preserve chains of seven or more an and ki signs. It is not clear, however, from the eontext of these incantations how the phrases with an and ki are to be understood. It is possible that these phrases refer to seven superimposed levels of heaven and earth that are invoked to rid the supplicant of disease. Versions of both me.šè ba.da.dal and hé.daddag.ge an de n. l i l den.ki dnerigal, as well as AMT 103:8-12, preserve the exoreism formula zi.an.na hé.pà zi.ki.a hé.pà 'be exorcised by heaven, be exorcised by earth'. Other zi-exorcism and lipšur formulas invoke cosmographic features, including heaven, earth, winds, mountains, and rivers.' Nevertheless, it is also possible that the phrases were meant to refer to demons that affliet the supplicant, rather than heavens and earths that may help eure the supplicant. In a 1 For editions of zi formulas, see E. Ebeling, ArOr 21 357-403. For Lipšur-litanies invoking the mountains and rivers listed in Urra XXH (MSL 11 23-28), see E. Reiner, JNES 15 132-135. See also YOS 11 p. 22 12; CAD S/2 135 b.

208

The Incantation me.šè ba.da.dal

209

bilingual incantation from Utukku -Lemnutu V, a similar phrase an.7.àm ki.7.àm occurs in the context of disease-spreading lamaštu- demons in heaven and earth:

13. 7.àm dingir an.dagal.la .meš 14.

si-bit ilanume 5 šamee rap-šu-ti

15. 7,àm dingir.kalam.ma.dagal.la .meš 16.

si-bit ilanume š ma-a-ti ra ap âš ti

17. 7. àm dingir ur4.ur4.re.a.meš : si-bit ilanume š maš ši 3 û ti 18. 7.àm dingir 7.àm.meš : si-bit ilanume 5 kiš-šâ ti -

19. 7.àm dingir.hul.a.meš 20.

si-bit ilanumeg lem-nu-tu 4

21. 7.àm ddim.me.hul.a.meš 22.

si-bit la-maš-ti lem-nu-tu 4

23. 7,àm ddim.me.a šed7.dè.hul,a,meš 24.

si-bit la-maš-tu4 li-3-bu lem-nu-tu4

25. an.7.àm ki.7.àm 26. ina šamêe si-bit ina ersetim"m si-bit-ma udug._h ul a.lâ.hul gidim.hul gal 5 .la.hul dingir.hul 27. maškim.hu1 28. zi.an.na hé.pà zi.ki.a hé.pà CT 16 13 iii 13-14 iii 28 13. Seven gods of the broad heavens. 15. Seven gods of the broad land. 17. Seven robber gods. 18. Seven gods, all, 19. Seven evil gods. 21. Seven evil lamaštu-demons. 23. Seven evil infeetious lamaštu-demons. 25. Heaven seven, earth seven. 26. [Akkadian] In heaven seven, in earth seven. 27. O evil demon, evil devil, evil ghost, evil ghoul, evil god, evil prowler; 28. be exorcised by heaven, be exorcised by earth. Here, the phrase an.7.àm ki.7.àm = ina šame sibit ina ersetim sibit follows descriptions of seven evil demons in lines 13-24 and precedes the exorcism of these demons in lines 27-28. Thus, it is not certain if an.7.àm ki.7.àm = ina šamê sibit ina ersetim sibit refers to the demons themselves or heaven(s) and earth(s) meant to exoreise the demons. This incantation and others, as well as

210

"Seven Heavens and Seven Earths"

possible interpretations of the phrases an.7 ki.7, an,7,bi ki.7.bi and an.7.bi ki.7.bi.da, are examined below. The Incantation me.sè ba.da.dal The ineantion m e. š è ba.da.dal is known from eight exemplars: two namburbi duplicates, three medical tablets, and three unidentified fragments.

An extract of the incantation, beginning with the phrase an.7 ki.7, is included in the Akkadian Utukku-Lemnutu/Enuru incantation CT 51 142 without translation from Sumerian, and a short version of the incantation occurs in SpTU III 83:15-16. A related incantation that opens an.7 u 4 .7 (seven heavens, seven storms) is found in CT 44 33 iii 5'-9': Exemplars ofme.šè ba.da.dal Exemplar

A. B. C. D. E. F. G. H.

KAR 20 ii 2'-8' K. 157+ 2'-5' BAM 508 iv 11'-17' K. 2542+ ii 37'-42' K. 9329+ b 5'-8' BM 50958 a 3'-l1' BM 17311 ii 6'-13' Sm. 1802 ii 2'-3'

Copy/Photo

Identification

— Namburbi 2 OrNS 40 300 taf. III-IV Namburbi — Medical Text Plate 8 3 Medical Text Plate 10 Medical Text Plate 10 Unidentified Unidentified Plate 10 Plate 10 Unidentified

Related Texts

1. CT 51 142 2-3

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2. SpTU III 83:15-16

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3. CT 44 33 iii 5'-9'

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Utukku-Lemnutu /Enuru Short Version of me.šè ba.da.dal an.7 u4.7

A number of different versions of m e. š è ba.da.dal circulated in antiquity. A composite version of the incantation is presented below, with a diseussion of the more important variants following. A transliteration of each example of the ineantation is found in Appendix A (pp. 363-65): 1. ÉI■ me.šè ba.da.dal ki.šè ba.da.zah me.šè gub.ba igi.mu nu.gub an 7 ki 7 IM 7 iM.gal 7 For KAR 20//K. 157+, see R. Caplice, OrNs 40 140-47. To be copied in a forthcoming volume of BAM (cf. Af0 21 19 n. 47). An old copy of the ineantation is available in BE 31 60 ii 18'-23'. 2 3

The Incantationme.šè

ba.da.dal

211

izi 7 igi 7 bar 7 bar.ta.7 bar.ta.igi.7 zi.an.na 116.0. zi.ki.a hé.pà 5. mušen.an ,gim ha.ba.dal.en i.bi.gim an.na ha.ba.e 11 .dè muru9 .gim ki.a ha.ba,ni,in,šub tu6 .du11.ga en.gal den.ki eriduk'.ga.ke4 nam,mu.un.da.an.bur.ra Tu6,ÈN 1. Incantation: Where has it flown? It has escaped to earth. Where is it standing? Before me it does not stand. O "seven heavens' "seven earths' "seven winds, "seven great winds;' seven fires' "seven fronts, "seven baeks;' "seven sides' seven... Be exorcised by heaven, be exorcised by earth. 5. Like a bird of heaven may you fly away. Like smoke may you go up into heaven. Like a cloud may you fall on earth. Let the spoken incantation of the Great-Lord, Enki of Eridu not be undone. "

Most of the variants between versions of m e. š è b a, d a. d al are minor. These include the omission of bar.ta.7 in BAM 508 iv 12, the omission of bar.ta. igi.7 in BM 17311 7', and the insertion of the verbal-prefix ši in K.2542+ ii 37', resulting in the incipit reading m e . š è b a. d a. š i . d a 1. Other variants, however, are of greater consequence. BM 50958 a 4' preserves igi.na nu.gub 'before him it does not stand' instead of igi.mu nu.gub 'before me it does not stand', while K.2542+ ii 38', on the other hand, apparently omits this phrase altogether. 4 Seeond, BM 50958 a 3' opens [ÉN m e.šè ba.d]a.ra. Here, ra may or may not be a phonetic variant of DAL/RI = naprušu `to fly'. 5 The incipit m e. š è b a. d a. d al is also found in medical texts where the recitation of the incantation is required but the full text is not provided, 6 and in a list of medical and Muššu'u ineipits (E Kocher, AfO 21 17:19, 22, 26). Thus additional examples of the incantation may come to light as more exemplars of Muš are identified. The verbal chain b a. d a. š i .dal is only found in K.2542+-šu' ii 37' at the start of the ineantation and in ineipits in K.2542+ ii 30 and 35. The medical applications of two occurrenees of the incantation are known. In K 2542+ the ineantation is recited to alleviate paralysis (šimmatu). In BAM 508, the incantation is reeited into the right ear of a patient to relieve `buzzing of the ear': 7 4 Between me and gub.ba in K.2542+ ii 38 there is room for as many as five very closely written signs, so a restoration sueh as m[e.šè gub.ba igi nu.g]ub.ba is possible, though unlikely. Both readings dal (da-al) and ri (ri-i) oceur in lexical lists (see CAD N/1 314). Further evidence for dal is found in bilingual texts, where dal is resumed by la (LKU 14 ii 13, 15; SBH 54 rev. 23). 6 K.2542+ iii 5, iv 7/BAM 354 iv 6,17 (see BAM IV p. xiv-xv); K.3274 5', 12', rev. 13', 7 For this medical condition, see CAD S/1 64 §ageimu 2; Parpola LAS 2 p. 250.

212

"Seven Heavens and Seven Earths" ka-inim-ma šumma amêlu (n a) uzneI [I-šu i -šag-gu-ma] 3-šii a-na uzni imitti(15)46 [tamannu(šid)nu]

BAM 508 iv 26-27

Incantation; if a man's ear[s buzz,] three times into his right ear [you recite it] The Incantation hé.daddag.ge an den.lil den.ki dnerigal The incantantation hé.daddag.ge an den.lil den.ki dnerigal preserves the phrase an.7.bi ki.7.bi, Like m e. š è b a. d a. d a 1, more than one version of the incantation has survived. The incantation is known from the Old Babylonian lamaštu-tablet TIM 9 63//OECT 5 55 (M. Tonietti, Or 48 304-5) and a number of amulets but was apparently not included in the main lamaštu series, beeause no other known lamaštu-tablet preserves the incantation. 8 The most complete version of the incantantion, that of the lamaštu-tablet TIM 9 63, is presented below. Transliterations of the other examples of the incantation are found in Appendix B (pp. 366-67). 6'. 7'. 8'. 9'. 10'. 11'. 12'. 13'. 14'. 15'. 16'.

hé.daddag.ge an den.lil den.ki dnerigal an.7.bi ki.7.bi en.7.bi su.7.bi en.na 16.u dumu.dingir.ra.na na.an.ga.ti.la u ba.ra.da.gu 7,e a ba.ra.da.na8,na8 g'šgu.za rba'.ra,da.tuš giš.nu ba.ra.da.nû g'sgu.za ba.ra.da.tuš.ù.dè g'šnu ba.ra.da.nû.ù.de g's banšur a.a.zu d en.1i1.1a.(( rzu')) šu.zu ba.ra.bi.in .te ddim.me zi.an.na 116.0. zi.ki.a hé.p [à] zi dingir.gal.e.ne hé,pà ka.inim.ma ddim.me TIM 9 63:6-16

6'. 7'. 8'. 9'. 10'. 11'. 12'.

Cleanse him O Anu, Enlil, Enki, Nergal, "seven heavens;' "seven earths;' "seven lords?", "seven bodies?", Until the man, the son of his god, lives, 9 May you not eat food, may you not drink water. May you not sit on a chair, may you not lie in bed. May you not be allowed to sit in a chair. May you not be allowed to lie in bed.

8 The incantation hé.daddag.ge an den.lil den.ki dnerigal is not included in the list of lamastu-ineantations in 4R 2 55 no. 1 rev, 1-19. In the amulets, the names of the four gods occur in the line below hé.daddag.ge , so this first word alone may be the aneient title of the ineantation. 9 The verbal chain na.an.ga.ti.la is understood as: na (affirmative) + iga + a + BASE + a (subjunctive). The sense of 'until' is derived from conjugation is with subjunctive a. See M. Tonietti, OrNS 48 313 8'.

The Incantation hé.daddag.ge an den.lil den.ki dnerigal

13'. 14'. 15'. 16'.

213

May your hand not touch the table of your father, Enlil. 0 Lamaštu, be exorcised by heaven, be exorcised by earth. Be exorcised by the Great Gods. A Lamaštu-incantation. 10

The amulet YOS 11 89 preserves a version of the incantantion that includes both the phrase an.ki.7!.bi (seven heavens and earths), as well as an.7.bi ki.7.bi (YOS 11 89:3, 7; see Appendix C, no. 2). The Gods in TIM 9 63 6'

In TIM 9 63 6' four gods are invoked in sequence at the start of the incantation: An, Enlil, Enki, and Nergal. These gods are leading gods of their eosmic regions. In the Sumerian pantheon, An is the king of heaven, Enlil is the king of the earth's surface, and Enki is the king of the Apsu. The god Nergal obtains the kingship of the underworld by marrying the Sumerian queen of this region, Ereškigal, in the Akkadian epic Nergal and Ereškigal. Although the earliest copy of this epic is from the Amarna Period (EA 357), Nergal is already sovereign in the underworld as early, as the Ur III-period Sumerian literary work The Death of Ur-Nammu: n

dnerigal den.lIl kur.ra.ra sipa ur.dnammu.ke4 é.gal.a.na giš im.ma.ab.tag.ge S. Kramer, JCS 21 114:89-90 To Nergal, the "Enlil of the Underworld;' the shepherd Ur-Nammu offers a sacrifice in his palace. Hence, the four gods in the incantation are listed in descending order according to the location of their cosmic kingdoms. Cosmic Region

God ,_

Heaven Earth's Surfaee Apsu Underworld

An Enlil Enki Nergal

10 For ddim.me = lamatu, see CAD L 66 lamaštu lexical and bilingual sections. For a bilingual parallel to TIM 9 63 8-13, see CT 16 11 v 56-62. The second-person pronominal suffix zu in TIM 9 63:13 demonstrates that the verbs with prefix bâra in lines 9'-13' must be second person. 11 For Nergal as King of the Underworld before the Kassite period, see AOAT 11 14-15; W G. Lambert, BiOr 30 356.

214

"Seven Heavens and Seven Earths"

The Incantation an.7.bi ki.7.bi.da AMT 103, an exemplar of the third tablet of the medical series UGU (see HKL 2 284) preserves an incantation that apparently opens with the words 'seven heavens and seven earths': ÉN an.7.bi ki. [7.b]i.da hé,7.bi dutu nam.tar.ra n[a]m.ba.luh.k[ù.g]a u.me.luh nam.mu.un.da.a.bur.ra nam.mu.un.da.a.la.e : al.li ma.da ma.da.bi den.ki lugal abzu.ke4 : dasal.lu.hi dumu.eriduki.ga ,ke4 nam.mu.un.da.an.bur.re: zi an.na hé.pà zi ki.a hé.pà AMT 103 8-12 Incantation: Seven heavens and [seven] earths, seven firmaments, O Utu who determines the destinies. May you make binding the absolution when one washes with pure wash. Land by land O Enki, king of the Apsu, Asalluhi, son of Eridu, may you absolve. Be exorcised by heaven, be exorcised by earth. In the incantation, an.7.bi ki.7.bi.da appears as part of an opening chain of cosmographic terms. Utu is the Sumerian sun-god and hé.7.bi may be identified with the sky, because the Sumerian element 136 appears in Sumerian equivalents of Akkadian šupuk š amê `firmament, sky' (see pp. 240-41). Although this context suggests that `seven heavens and seven earths' may be 14 cosmic regions, the editor of UGU may have understood an.7.bi ki.7.bi.da as 14 demons in heaven and earth, because 14 statuettes are used in the ritual accompanying the incantation (see AMT 103:14). Incantations with Seven

AN

Signs

Ineantations beginning with seven AN signs may be related to the phrases a n.7 and an, 7.bi. In various versions of the incantation AN.AN.AN.AN.AN.AN ,AN, 12 AN may be understood as the Sumerian name for heaven, and each individual AN sign may invoke one of seven heavens. In one such incantation, seven KI signs that may invoke seven earths follow seven AN signs: ÉN en.ni.nu.na an.an.an.an.an.an.an ki, ki. ki. ki, ki. ki, ki su.su.su.su.su.su.su

bara.bâra.bâra,bara,bâra.bâra,bâra xx.x.x.x.x,x For related incantations, see M. Tonietti, OrNs 48 311-12. Note that NBC 3830 is YOS 11 66, not 64b. Compare also EA 355. 12

The Lists Beginning an.7 ki.7 and an.7.bi ki.7.bi

215

nin!.nin!.nin!.nin!.nin!.ninLnin! ezen?.ezen?,ezen?.ezen?.ezen?.ezen?.ezen? 13 BIN 2 16 1-8 Another incantation opens with a string of nine AN signs (W. G. Lambert, Iraq 38 62 A), and the first two lines of the partially preserved incantation YOS 11 67 11-18 preserves room for at least nine AN and KI signs. Nonetheless, the mere repetition of AN and KI signs does not prove the existence of seven, nine, or more heavens and earths. In Maglu I 37 for example, ersetu is repeated three times in an invocation of the underworld. This invocation in no way proves the existence of three underworlds. The Lists Beginning an.7 ki.7 and an.7.bi ki.7.bi Both me.šè ba.da.dal and hé.daddag.ge an den.lIl den.ki dnerigal list a number of items after an and ki. The former lists winds (IM), great winds (IM.gal), and fires (izi), followed by igi, bar, bar.ta, and bar.ta.igi. The surviving examples of the latter ineantation list six items in addition to en and s u, whieh appear in TIM 9 63. These are du b (hills), zà (sides), gaba (chests), bâra (daises), hal (crotches), and bar (backs). If is likely, however, that the priests who recited the incantations did not fully understand the meaning of the lists beginning with an and ki. In the Akkadian Utukku-Lemnutu ineantation CT 51 142, the extract from m e. š è ba.da.dal beginning an.7 k i. 7 is not translated from Sumerian into Akkadian. This suggests that the list here was recited as a magical "hocus-poeus" formula.l 4 Non-Cosmographic Items in the Lists

Many of the items listed after an and ki are not eosmographic features. For instance, the last four items listed in me.šè ba.da.dal (igi, bar, bar,ta, bar.ta.igi) may refer to demons surrounding the supplicant. In Sumerian literary texts, igi and bar occur together in contexts where they refer to the front and back of human beings and gods. For example, in Manna's Descent, demons guard Inanna at the front, back, and sides of the goddess when she is allowed to leave the underworld in seareh of a substitute: 15 13 The sign in BIN 2 16:6 also oecurs in W. G. Lambert, Iraq 38 62:3 and PBS 13 33 2-3. M. Tonietti (OrNS 48 311-12) reads the sign u dug. If u dug is the correet reading, then BIN 2 16:6 apparently refers to seven demons; ef. OrNS 48 310 n. 21. The "boxes" of the nin and ezen signs in line 8 are uninscribed in the copy. The ezen sign might therefore be read bàd or represent any of the EZENxX group of signs. 14 For the possibility of Elamite personal names reeited as "magical mumbojumbo" in versions of AN.AN.AN.AN.AN.AN.AN , see W G. Lambert, RA 77 94-95. See also W Farber, Schlaf, Kindchen, Schlaf 144-45. is For these meanings of igi and bar, see PSD B 93 bar A 1.2 and note the bilingual passage in The Blessing of Nissaba (W. Hallo, Rencontre Assyriologique 17 125 vii 44) where bar corresponds to warku `back'. See also B. Alster, Dumuzi's Dream p. 95 and Sladek ID pp. 216-17. !

216

"Seven Heavens and Seven Earths"

lii igi.na sukkal nu.me,as' 1gidri šu bi.in.du$ bar,ra.na ra.gaba nu.me.a g'štukul tIr.ra bi,in,lâ ga15 ,16.tur.tur gi.sukur,gim gal5.lâ,gal.gal gi.dub.ba.an.na .gim zà.ga.na ba.an.dab5 ,be.eš Sladek I.D. 139:291-140:294 The one at her front was not a vizier, he held a scepter. The one at her back was not a courier, he earried a mace at his thigh. The small demons like a reed hut, the large demons like reed fencing clung to her side. This suggests that igi.7 and bar.7 in me.šè ba,da.dal may refer to demons that go in front of and behind the supplicant. Similarly, bar,ta.7 can refer to the demons at the sides of the supplicant, since bar.ta, like z à, is equated with ahu (`arm, side') in bilingual texts such as SBH no. 67: 16 érim.dè.èm bar.ta ba.da.gub.be . [en] ki-ma a-a-bi a-hi-i ta-az-zi-Fiz] SBH p. 119 no. 67 rev. 7-8 Like an enemy you stand at the side. Thus the chain igi.7 bar.7 bar.ta. 7 may be translated 'they are seven (demons) at the front, they are seven (demons) at the back, they are seven (demons) at the side'. The final phrase bar.ta.igi.7 is not attested elsewhere, but may be a compound of bar.ta and igi meaning 'front-side'. Most of the items listed in bé.daddag.ge an den.lil den,ki dnerigal seem to refer to parts of the body afflicted by the lamaštu-demons. For instance, TIM 9 63 itself preserves the phrase su.7.bi (seven bodies), and other versions of the incantation list z à ('sides'), g ab a (`ehests'), h al (`crotehes'), and bar (`backs'). Thus both an.7 ki.7 and an.7.bi ki.7.bi may refer to demons that originated in heaven and earth, but later came to surround the supplicant, or invade his body. Interpretations of an.7 ki.7, an.7.bi ki.7.bi, an.7.bi ki.7.bi,da

There are at least three possible interpretations of an,7 ki.7, an.7.bi ki.7.bi, and an,7.bi ki.7.bi.da, First, the phrases could be understood literally as referring to 14 separate cosmic regions. Second, they may be taken figuratively to mean 'all of heaven and all of earth' or 'all heavens and earths', because the numeral seven is sometimes translated from Sumerian into Akkadian as kiššatu 'all, entirety' (see CAD K 457). Third, the phrases can be understood to refer to demons in heaven and earth. 1. Seven Superimposed Heavens and Earths. It is conceivable that the incantations preserve a Sumerian tradition of seven superimposed levels of 16 For bar.ta and bar.ta.bi .šè eorresponding to ahu `side', see PSD B 103-4 bar A Bil. 4-5.

The Lists Beginning an.7 ki.7 and an.7.bi ki.7.bi

217

heaven and earth that ean be compared to the three superimposed heavens and earths of KAR 307 30-38. A tradition of seven heavens and seven earths was popular in the Near East during the later part of the lirst millennium B.C.E. and the first millennium C.E. Surviving Hebrew and Arabic texts from this time present eosmographies in which seven heavens and earths are explained in detail. For example, the Hebrew Book of Enoch speaks of seven superimposed heavens belonging to the seven archangels. In Enoch, these heavens rise above the spheres of the sun, moon, stars, and planets. 17 The Koran similarly speaks of seven heavens in Sura 65 verse 12 and Sura 78 verse 12. The earlier verse also alludes to the existenee of seven analogous earths: 18 It is Allah who ereated the seven heavens: and concerning the earth, (it is) similar to them.

There is, however, no evidence to prove a direct conneetion between these later Hebrew and Arabic eosmographies and a possible Sumerian tradition of seven heavens and earths. Despite the absence of direct evidence for seven superimposed heavens and earths in Sumerian and Akkadian texts, indireet evidence for understanding an.7 ki.7, an.7.bi ki.7.bi, and an.ki.7.bi.da as allusions to 14 cosmic regions is available. If the phrases in the incantations allude to multiple heavens and earths, then these incantations invoke the heavens and earths to cure a supplieant. Such invocations of cosmic regions do occur in a number of other incantations. For example, Maqlu I 37 invokes ersetu `earth' by repeating the cosmic place-name three times at the start of an ineantation, and the medical incantation AMT 32/1 rev. 1-3 begins by invoking KUR u KUR.NU.GI4 .A `earth and underworld' (see p. 278). Similarly, zi-formulas invoking IM.7.bi `the seven winds' and an.ki.ub.da.limmu 'the four quarters of heaven and earth' (E. Ebeling, ArOr 21 397:77-78) can be compared with the formula zi'an.na hé.p à zi.ki.a hé.pà in the incantations me.šè ba.da.dal and hé.daddag.ge an den.lfl den,ki dnerigal.ls

17 For a general overview of Jewish eosmography, see L. Jacobs in Ancient Cosmologies 66-84, and for additional referenees to multiple heavens in Hebrew texts, see The Jewish Encyclopedia sub "heavens?' See H. Odeberg, 3 Enoch Part II 46-48 for a list of angels belonging to each heaven. 18 For an overview of Islamic cosmography, see E. Jaehimowicz in Ancient Cosmologies 143-71. is Note also further examples in n. 1 (p. 208). The powers of the underworld invoked in AMT 32/1 may be compared with the powers of the gates of the underworld to bless Kaka, the vizier of Anu, in Nergal and Ereskigal (O. R. Gurney, AnSt 10 108:19') and the blessing of the doors of heaven in Abel-Winckler p. 59:1-6:

O Sun-god, when you enter "Heaven's Interior (an.šà);' may the bolt of the clear heavens say "hello?' May the doors of the heavens bless you. (See p. 248) Note also biblical parallels in Psalms 19:2; 24:7-10; 96:11-12.

218

"Seven Heavens and Seven Earths"

The grammatical structure of the phrase an.7.àm ki.7.àm in the Sumerian portion of CT 16 14 iii 25-26 (Utukku-Lemnutu V) also allows for a Sumerian tradition of seven heavens and earth, despite the Akkadian translation ina šamêe sibit ina ersetimtlm sibitma `in heaven seven, in earth seven'. In The Sumerian Flood Story, a parallel construction u 4 .7.àm gi6 .7.àm refers to seven days and nights: a.ma.ru ugu.KAB.dug4 .ga ba.an.da.ab.ùr.e u4.7.àm gi6 .7.àm a.ma,ru kalam.ma ba.ùr.ra.ta Sumerian Flood Story 202-4 The flood swept over the top of , . . The days were seven, the nights were seven. After the flood swept over the land, Thus, by comparison, Sumerian an.7.àm ki.7.àm in CT 16 14 iii 25 should be translated `the heavens are seven, the earths are seven'. The Akkadian translation in CT 16 14 iii 26 is, in any case, problematic. The Sumerian line (iii 25) includes no locatives that correspond to ina in the Akkadian line (iii 26), while the structure of the terms an.7.àm ki.7,àm (noun + number + am) follows a normal pattern for expressing plurality in Sumerian (see M. L. Thomsen, The Sumerian Language, 83 no. 140 [115], 276 no. 543). Furthermore, an.7.àm ki.7.àm occurs in iii 25-26 just before the exorcism of the lamaštu-demons by heaven and earth in iii 27-28. Thus, an.7.àm ki.7.àm may have invoked seven heavens and earths in the original Sumerian incantation, despite the Akkadian translation. 20 If so, the author(s) of the original incantation, as well as those of me.šè ba.da.dal and h é.daddag.ge an den.lil den.ki dnerigal, may have known a cosmography based on seven heavens and earths that was no longer known, or not popular, when the bilingual edition of Utukku-Lemnutu was prepared. This might also explain why the author of the Akkadian Utukku-Lemnutu incantation CT 51 142 omits a translation of the Sumerian refrain beginning a n.7 ki.7 altogether. 2. `All of Heaven and Earth, All Heavens and Earths:' Even if an.7 ki.7 and an.7.bi ki.7.bi do indeed refer to cosmic regions rather than demons, it cannot be certain that there are exactly seven heavens and seven earths. As noted above, the numeral "7" in Sumerian texts is sometimes translated in Akkadian as kiššatu (`all entirety'), 21 Thus, it is possible that 'seven heavens, seven earths' in the Sumerian incantations edited above could refer to an unspecified number of heavens and earths that comprise the entire universe ,

20 Sumerian forerunners to the bilingual Utukku-Lemnutu incantations are published by M. Geller in Forerunners to Udug.Hut, 1985. 21 See CT 16 13 iii 18 7.àm dingir 7.àm.meš = sibit itanu kissati; CAD K 457; Nabnitu 14 36 (MSL 16 135); Lu I 52 (MSL 12 94); Leiehty Izbu 220:309 (Summa-Izbu Commentary); W. Schramm, OrNS 39 406:11-14.

The Lists Beginning an.7 ki.7 and an.7.bi ki.7.bi

219

or refer to heaven and earth in their entireties, just as pairs of an and ki signs in a Sumerian hymn to Inanna offer no proof that the universe consisted of exactly two heavens and earths: nin an.an.šè ki.ki.šè ni."šà.zu ni.gal a.ba.a mu.e.da.an.zu CT 36 34:16 - 17 (cf. CT 36 34:22; D. Foxvog, Fest. Hallo 104) Lady throughout the heavens, throughout the earths, the matters of your heart are great. Who can comprehend you? 3. "Seven Demons in Heaven and Earth:' The third possibility, that an.7 ki.7 and an.7.bi ki.7.bi refer to demons in heaven and earths, as noted earlier, is suggested by CT 16 14 iii 25-26 where Sumerian an.7.àm ki.7.àm 'heaven seven, earth seven' is translated into Akkadian as ina šamê e si-bit ina ersetimttm si-bit-ma 'In heaven they are seven, in earth they are seven': 13. Seven gods of the broad heavens. 15. Seven gods of the broad land. 17. Seven robber gods. 18. Seven gods, all. 19. Seven evil gods. 21. Seven evil lamaštu-demons. 23. Seven evil infectious lamaštu-demons. 25. Heaven seven, earth seven. 26. (Akkadian) In heaven seven, in earth seven. 27. 0 evil demon, evil devil, evil ghost, evil ghoul, evil god, evil prowler; 28. be exoreised by heaven, be exorcised by earth. CT 16 13 iii 13-14 iii 28 (Utukku-Lemnutu V; see p. 209) Here an.7.àm ki.7.àm occurs in line 26 following seven lines of the incantation that speak of seven lamaštu-demons (13-24), but (as noted above) just before these demons are exorcised by heaven and earth in lines 27-28. In line 25, the Akkadian translator understands an.7.àm ki.7.àm to refer baek to the seven demons although, as preserved, CT 16 14 iii 27 names only six demons. 22 InTM963/OEC5,an.7bikocursthenvaig lamaštu-demons in the incantation hé.daddag.ge an den.lil den.ki dnerigal. Further support for the identification of an.7 ki.7 with demons is found in AMT 103, where the recitation of an.7.bi.ki.7.bi.da is accompanied by a ritual 22 The six demons of CT 16 13 iii 27-28 also appear in sequence in Utukku-Lemnutu 10, followed by a number of additional demons (see J. Prosecky, ArOr 43 249:94250:108). It is also possible that the winds, great winds, and even fires in me.šè ba.da. dal ean also be identified with demons. Both the long Utukku-Lemnutu incantation The Moon God and the Demons (CT 16 19-21 + duplicates) and the Utukku-Lemnutu incantation that ineludes the phrase an.7.àm ki.7.àm (CT 16 13 ii 65-14 iii 38) refer to seven wind-demons and demonic-storms. Incantations against isatu (`fires' = fevers) have been published by W. G. Lambert in AfO 23 39-45.

220

"Seven Heavens and Seven Earths"

using 14 figurines (see p. 214) and in CT 51 142, where a list of seven demons follows the refrain beginning an.7 ki.7: 23 di-tic-urn mu-ur-sum šu ru up pu tic ha-mi -tum e- te -em-mu mu- ut- ta-ag-gi -šu ša-ag-ga-a-šu ša-ga-aš-ti ilanu lemnutu (di n g i r. h u 1. a) mes

CT 51 142:4-6 Headache, Sickness, Cold, Inflammation, 24 RoamingGhst, Murder, Murderess: evil gods.

Conclusions

The phrases an.7 ki.7 an.7.bi ki.7.bi and an.7.bi ki.7,bi.da in Sumerian incantations may or may not refer to seven superimposed heavens and earths. A tradition of seven heavens and earths does exist in later Hebrew and Arabic traditions, yet no surviving Mesopotamian text preserves a cosmos that ineludes more than three heavens and earths. Furthermore, the Akkadian translators of the bilingual Utukku-Lemnutu passage CT 16 14 iii 25-26 understood an.7.àm ki.7.àm to refer to seven demons in heaven and earth. None, theless, it is possible that a Sumerian tradition of seven heavens and earths may be a source for the later traditions of seven heavens and earths, although such a tradition is never expressed in surviving Akkadian materials. A solution to this problem may await the discovery of Akkadian translations of the Sumerian incantations examined above. 23 See CAD L 200 lippu b for the recitation of m e.š è b a. d a. d al in K. 2542/BAM 354 in conjunction with rituals employing seven tappu and riksu (`burls' and `knots'). 24 The disease h amit tum is not found elsewhere but is apparently derived from the verb hamâtu `to burn, to be inflamed', whieh does oecur in medieal texts (see CAD H 64 hamâtu B b).

Part II The Regions of the Universe

Chapter 10

Names for Heaven

an = šamû, šama'u, šamamu The most common names for `heaven' in Sumerian and Akkadian texts are Sumerian an and Akkadian šamû.l Both names are used in all periods and genres, and both appear as names for heaven as a whole, or for individual levels of heaven as in KAR 307 and AO 8196, where the three heavens are the šamû elûtu, šamû qablûtu, and šamû šaplûtu (upper, middle, and lower heavens). Sumerian an is a singular noun. This name for heaven is also the Sumerian name for the king of the heavens, the god An. It occurs numerous times as a name for all of heaven in the cosmic pair an.ki (heaven and earth'). Likewise, a n is separated from ki in Sumerian accounts of the separation of heaven and earth (see pp. 135-42). There are also almost countless examples of an as a name for the sky where stars shine and birds fly, such as passages where stars are called mul.an.na (star of heaven') and birds are called mušen.an.na (bird of heaven'). 2 Akkadian šamû, unlike Sumerian an, is a plural noun. The name is a cognate of the most common names for heaven in other Semitic languages, including Arabic L (šama'u), Aramaic ( ?CU (šemaya), and Hebrew O'7tU (šamayim). In Akkadian, the name for heaven occurs both in the contracted form šamû, as well as the uneontracted forms šama'u and šamamu. The contracted form šamû, originally *šamawu, is by far the most common and is used "

1 For lexieal examples of an = samû, see CAD 8/1 339-40; AHw 1160. For the name written ag, see Sulgi B 198 `Q' mul.ag.gâ (G. Castellino, Two Shulgi Hymns 5051). For a writing sa-mu-ma at Ugarit, see Ugaritica V 246:33", 247:13; and cf. sa-mu-ma/ ša-me-ma at El-Amarna (EA 211:17; 264:16). For unusual Sumerian plural writings an.an, see CT 36 34:16-17 (above, p. 219) and Raec. 129:17-130:18. 2 For mušen.an.na , see, for example, Inanna and Enki 30:9; CT 38 20:70 (Namhurbi); SGL I 17:118. For mul.an.na see Fest. Kramer 88:49, 67 and CAD K 46 kakkabu. See also TCS III 138 n. 480, CAD S/1 344-45.

223

224

Names for Heaven

in all genres in all periods. Although the origins of šamû are unknown, a learned etymology is offered in the series Inamgišhuranki: ... ] šamê (an)e ša me(a)mes CT 25 50:17 (Livingstone 32:6)

] heaven: (composed) of water, .. . This explanation reflects a tradition that the heavens were fashioned from water. In Ee IV 137-46, for example, Marduk fashions the heavens from the watery corpse of Tiamat. Another connection between the name of heaven and water is that a singular homonym šamû (šamûm with mimation) means 'rain'. The uncontracted forms most often occur in literary texts, because šamû cannot end a line of poetry. The two forms are popular in different periods. The form šama'u is popular in second-millennium literary works such as Old Babylonian Etana (Kinnier-Wilson Etana 30:13, 36:35), Old Babylonian Atra-basis (Lambert-Millard Atra-basis 94:48), and a passage in an Old Assyrian Lamatu incantation: 3 a-nu-um a-bu -ša iš-tù

ša-ma-e i-pu -sa-ši qd-qci-ar-šu-um BIN 4 126:10-13

Anu, her father, cast her (lamaštu) down from heaven earthward. The second form, šamamu, is popular in the first millennium and is treated as a separate name for heaven in Malku, where šamamu is listed as a synonym for šamû (CT 18 10 iii 22). This form apparently retains the final consonant w, with w ehanging to m. An identical phenomena is found in the synonyms mû and mamu 'water' (see A. Rainey, Tel Aviv 3 131:1; W. G. Lambert, Fest. Reiner 192:63. 4 Almost all examples of šamamu oceur in literary works, incantations, or stock phrases such as such as 'star of heaven' (kakkab šamelšamami), 'bird of heaven' (issur šamêlšamami), `writing of heaven' (šitir šamelšamami) and šamamu u qaqqaru `heaven and earth', 5 Early examples of šamamu occur in an Old Babylonian hymn to Ištar (VAS 10 213:6', 8', 10'). In addition to the numerous examples of the equation an = šamû in bilingual texts and lexical lists, an is equated with ašru in Commentary B to Enuma Elish (see J. Bottéro, Fest. Finklestein 13:135), and šamû is equated with a number of rare Sumerian names for heaven in lexical lists (these names are examined below, pp. 228-33). Three more Akkadian synonyms of šamû (burumu, ašru, and ermi danim) are listed in Malku II (See CAD S/1 340). 3 Note also Thompson Gilg. 20:6; JRAS Cent. Suppl. (1924) 73:29; R. Nougayrol, RA 45 174:61; CH H: 31; C. Walker, AnSt 33 148:37, 39; Ludlul I 9,11; W. G. Lambert, Fest. Moran 293 LE with the note on p. 294; and cf. F. Al-Rawi, RA 86 79:9 ša-ma.. 4 For the synonyms mémû and mama, see p. 62. 5 Note, for instance, Streck Asb. 258:33, 268:20; BAM 127:10; CT 16 43:70-71; CT 17 19:11-12; VAB 4 74:2, 86 ii 2; Erra I 127 134; BBR II 98:41; Or 17 420:3 (= Ebeling Parfum Rez. pl. 49:3) with the writing AN-ma -mi. Note also the use of both samû and §amama in Ee IV 137-46.

andurunna `Where Anu Dwells'

225

andurunna `Where Anu Dwells'

The term andurunna, literally 'Where Anu Dwells', occurs as a cosmic place-name in Enuma Elish, "An Address of Marduk to the Demons," and an incantation to Enmešarra. The meaning of the term is explained in a Balaghymn where andurunna occurs in a non-cosmie eontext: ki an.dur.ru.na .[šè] ü.mi.â mar.ma.an.zé.en a-šar da-nu-um [uš-ša-b]u ni-ši hi-ša-nu ki an.dur.ru.na .šè da.nun.na ki an.dur.ru.na .šè u.mi.a mar.ma.an.zé.en SBH p. 44 rev. 33-36 (Cohen Balag 227-28) O people, hurry to where Anu dwells. Anunna, (hurry) to where Anu dwells. O people, hurry to where Anu dwells. Only in the incantation to Enmešarra is it certain that andurunna is a name for heaven. Here, andurunna is paired with the name for earth ersetum, just as another name for heaven, ašru is paired with the underworld name kurnugû:

bel âš-ri u kur-nu-gi4 šâ-du-tic šâ da-nun-na-ki pa-ri-is purussê (e š .b a r) ersetimttm mar-kas rabûû šâ an-durun-na R. Borger, ZA 61 77:43-44 (Enmešarra) Lord of Heaven and Underworld, Mountain of the Anunnaki, Determiner of the Destinies of Earth, Great Bond of andurunna. In Ee I 23-24, the place-name occurs long before the heavens are built. In An Address of Marduk to the Demons B:5 (W. G. Lambert, AfO 17 313), the name occurs in the epithet of Marduk-Asalluhi, muma'ir andurunna 'Commander of andurunna'. The name andurunna also occurs in the series An = Anum as the name of

an offIcial of Anu (CT 24 2:11; see p. 109). Here the divine name may have been intended to be read ddurun.na. ašru 'Place' Akkadian ašru is a poetic name for heaven. The name occurs only in lexical lists and literary texts. In Malku II 100 (see CAD S/1 340) and Commentary B to Ee VII 135 (Fest. Finklestein 13:135), ašru is explained as a synonym of šamû. In Ee VII 135 itself, ašru is paired with the poetic name for earth danninu, and this same pair probably also occurred in a now-broken line of The Marduk Theology: asra ibnû iptiq[u dannina] (CT 25 47 K 8222 ii 12'). In two Nabu hymns (W. G. Lambert, JAOS 88 130 rev. 6; Khorsabad II 130:13), ašru is paired with the poetic name for the underworld, kigallu. In the incantation to Enmešarra (ZA 61 77:43-44), ašru is paired with the underworld name, kurnugû.

226

Names for Heaven

ašrata

The cosmic place-name ašrata occurs in Ee IV 141-42 and Ee V 121-22, but it is not certain from these contexts that ašrata is an alternate name for the heavens (šamû) that belong to Anu or a feature of these heavens (see p. 114). There are at least three possible explanations of the name. First, the name may be a feminine form of ašru. Second, ašrata may be related to the Babylonian plural form ašratu from the noun aširtu 'shrine'. This form occurs in The Agum-Kakrime Inscription (5R 33 ii 43, iv 5) and a Nabopolassar inscription (VAB 4 86 i 4 // JCS 26 67 no. 86:5). If so, ašrata may refer in some way to shrines of the gods in heaven. Third, ašrata may be related to the word ašartu 'hard ground', which occurs with a construct form carat (see CAD A/2 420). KAR 307 and AO 8196 preserve traditions that the floors of the heavens are made of hard stone. burumu, burummu

The term burumu is a common name for the level of the stars or the night sky in first-millennium texts. The name derives from the root baramu B 'to be speckled' (CAD B 103) and refers to the appearance of the night sky, where stars are seen as specks on a dark background. Like šamû, burumu is a plural noun, as is demonstrated by the plural adjective in the term burumu ellutu `clear night skies' (R. C. Thompson AAA 20 80:4; OIP 2 149 V 5). Passages identifying burumu as the night sky inelude an inseription of Nebuchadnezzar II, where a beautiful boat is said to sparkle like a kakkab burumu 'star of the night sky' (PBS 15 79 ii 25), and a passage in a Neo-Assyrian inscription where the Moon-god illuminates the burumu: [d]sin na-[an-na-ar šamêe u ersetiti]bel agê bu-ru-me

(en.aga) mu-nam-mir

E Thureau-Dangin, RA 27 14:6-7 Sin, Mo[on-god of heaven and earth], Lord of the Lunar-disk, who illuminates the night-skies. Additional evidence identifying burumu as the region where the stars shine is found in the term šitir burumé `writing of the night sky', which refers to the fixed arrangement of stars in the sky. This sense of šitir burumé is revealed in a hymn to Assur: [ x x k]i-ma ši-tir bu- ru-um-me ul i-mes-sa a-dan-na SAA 3 p. 4 no. 1:21 (BA 5 653 21, cf. SAA 3 p. 5 no. 1:24) [who , . like the "writing of the night sky" does not disregard a fixedtime. In astronomical contexts, the adannu of stars are the fixed times of their risings and settings over the course of the year. Thus, the adannu of šitir burumé must refer to the regular pattern of stellar movement during the course of a year. Similarly, the term kippat burumé u ma[tati] `circle of the night sky and the

227

elâtu

lands', which occurs in a hymn to Marduk (SAA 3 7:8), and kippat burume, in a hymn to Nabu (S. A. Strong, PSBA 20 156:16), refer to the circular shape of the sky on clear nights. elâtu

The term elâtu `higher regions' is used both on its own and paired with šaplatu `lower regions'. On many occasions, šaplatu is a name for the underworld (see pp. 292-91), so elâtu can often be a name for any higher region, including both the heavens and earth's surface. For instance, in Underworld Vision 68-69 (SAA 3 76 rev. 28-29), the prince is ordered back to the elâtu during a dream and wakes up on the earth's surface. On a few occasions, however, elâtu is clearly a name for the heavens or part of the sky. For instance, in MiddleAssyrian Etana, elâtu occurs twice in broken contexts during Etana and the eagle's flight to heaven (Kinnier Wilson Etana 64 I/G 2', 66:10). Elsewhere, the Moon-god, Sun-god and Ištar (Venus) shine in elâtu. In Ee V 11-12, Marduk commands Nannar to appear in elâtu (see p. 116); the Sun-god shines in the elâtu in a bilingual incantation (A. Falkenstein, UVB 15 36:5); and Ištar (Venus) is said to sit on the dais of Anu in elâtu in the Akkadian portion of The Exaltation of Ištar (B. Hruška, ArOr 37 484:37-38, see p. 250). ermi danim Anu's Cover'

In Malku II 101 (see CAD S' /1 340), ermi danim Anu's Cover' is listed as a synonym of šamû. Apart from Malku, the term occurs three additional times in Neo-Assyrian royal inscriptions as a name for heaven paralleling the underworld name kigallu (OIP 2 149 V 4; Ebeling Parfumrez. pl. 27:10; Borger Esarh. 75:3), and once in an epithet of the tuppi šimati 'Tablet of Destinies': [p]i-riš-ti šâ-ma-mu ù èš m[ah hi] [m] ar-kas er-mi a-nu u ga-an-sir ser-ret t[e-ne-še-ti ?]

A. George, Iraq 48 135 B 4-5 (Tablet of Destinies) [S] ecret of Heaven and Great Shrine, Bond of "Anu's Cover" and Underworld, Lead-Rope of M [ankind?] Two passages in the inscriptions of Assurbanipal (Streck Asb. 148:26; Thompson Esarh. pl. 14 i 31) refer to ermi danim made of musukkannu-wood that are decorated to resemble the sky (šamames). These wooden ermi danim are wooden ceilings or canopies of some sort. A comparable musukkannu-wood šamû is built by Nebuchadnezzar II in VAB 4 164:12. 6 ešarra

Akkadian ešarra, like ašrata, only occurs as a name for part of heaven in Enuma Elish. In Ee IV 145-46 and Ee V 119-20, the region of heaven named 6 For samû-canopies, including the golden samû of Esagil, see CAD S/1 348 2. Note also the canopy of Enki's boat an.ma.dùl (see J. Klein, Fest. Artzi 93:19 n. 151).

228

Names for Heaven

ešarra belongs to Enlil and is located above the Apsu and earth's surface but below the heavens proper (šamû/šamame) that belong to Anu. The name ešarra also oecurs as a name for temples of various deities in various cities, ineluding the temple of Assur in Assur and the temple of Enlil in Nippur (see George Temples 144-45).

šubat danim, šubat šame `The Abode of Anu, Heaven' The expression šubat danim stands in apposition to the term šamû rapšatu 'broad heavens' in the Akkadian portion of a passage from The Moon God and the Demons:

an.dagal.la ki.tuš an lugal.la.ke 4 hul.dib.bé su8 .ga gaba.ri nu.tuku.a.meš ina šamêe rap-šu -ti šu -bat danim šar ri lem niš iz-za-zu-ma ma-hi-ra ul i -štic-u CT 16 19:48-51

In the broad heavens, the Abode of Anu the king, they stand angrily. They have no rival. A parallel term, šubat šamê/šama'i occurs in the prologue to the law-eode of Hammurabi (CH ii 30-31) and the inscriptions of Tukulti-Ninurta I (Weidner TN 16:50-52). In the later text, the Assyrian king decorates a room, making it as beautiful as šubat šame. In a parallel from the inscriptions of Tiglath-Pileser I (AKA 98:98-101), a room is decorated with stars to make it shine like the libbi šame `middle of heaven'. In this context, šubat šamê is the sky where stars are seen at night. Equivalences of šandi A number of equivalences of šamû7 are known from lexical lists and commentaries. In lexical lists, these terms appear in the left "Sumerian" column, indicating that they are non-Akkadian words. Because most of the equivalences only occur in lexical lists, it is not always possible to determine if they are names for heaven or equivalences of the homonym šamû meaning 'rain'. The List K. 2035+ ii 17-33

K. 2035+ (2R 50+) contains a list of equivalences of šamû. At present, 17 of these equivalences are preserved: 8 7 For the equivalances of šamû, see below, CAD S/1 339-40; George BTT 80:5-6: I1 = samû, and cf. the Greek renderings of šamû in J. Knudsen, AOAT 240 138 rev. 1, 3. 8 The tablet is K. 2035a + 4337. A photograph is available in J. Curtis and J. Reade, Art and Empire (1995) 202 no. 218. See previously E Weissbaek in ZDMG 53 655-57; CAD S/1 339-40. A translation of the geographic portion of the tablet is found in MSL 11 54-56.

229

Equivalences of šamû an = šâ-mu-t na = š[ -mu-i me = šâ-mu-tic

si = šd-mu-ft u.de.éI9üAS šâ-mu-ü zi.kaum ENGUR M-mu-i zi.kara (IMxIM) šâ-mu-tic e.nirnmm š[a-mu]-tic rel.aimi d i m = ški-mu-61 u r5, r a. a š š [d -mu-tic] DU'd uI0 X V] UR š[d-mu -ti]

mu = M-mu-i e.nuen = M-mu-ft ge.esg i š M-mu-i im = M-mu-i sisims 1 r

šd -mu-ü

A much shorter list of equivalents is found in Nabnitu IV 371-73: 9 an = šâ-mu-tic idim = MIN ur5 .ra.aš = MIN

MSL 16 92 The Equivalences na (K 2035+ ii 18). No examples of na = šamû are known outside K.

2035a+, me (K 2035+ ii 19). Sumerian me is also equated with šamû in Izi E i 1 (MSL 13 185), Proto-Aa 71:7 (MSL 14 91), and the commentary of An Address of Marduk to the Demons F: 8 (AfO 19 118). In the commentary, the syllable me of the word melammu is understood as a name for heaven while lam is equated with ersetu `earth'. Additional examples oecur in Kassite-period cylinder seals, where me me is used as a writing for šamê u ersetim in epithets (see W G. Lambert, BiOr 32 222 4.16). mu, gis (K 2035+ ii 20, 22). The name mu is also equated with šamû in Izi G i 9 (MSL 13 201) and the catchline to Emesal II, where mu is the Emesal equivalent of šamû and giš is the standard dialect word: 9 Another long list of heaven names and related terms may be found in a poorly preserved portion of Izi A:

... sam]ê* ...] 2 3 ] samêe ... ] samêe ... MIN dal-nu ... ] samêe ... s]amêe ... MIN e-lu]-tum ... MIN sap-lu-tu]m ]

MSL 13 173 i 11'-20' Note also MSL 11 61 AT 155-64; Emar 567 l'-12'.

230

Names for Heaven mu = giš = ša-mu -ü

MSL 4 10:116 Sumerian giš is also equated with šamû in Idu II 176 (CAD Š/1 339), and in Syllabaire Sa from Emar (Emar 537:208) where giš oecurs with a gloss ni-eš (for giš). Another example of giš = šamû is found in a commentary explaining the name of one of two horses of the flood: gig.lam.šâr.šar = muštabil šame u ersetim 'The One who understands Heaven and Earth' (E, Weidner, AfO 19 110:40). 10 Both mu and giš also occur in the name for the sky or parts of the sky mu.hé and giš.hé (see pp. 239-38). im (K 2035+ ii 23). Sumerian im is also attested as an equivalent of šamû in Idu II 340: i.mi = Ilvt = šâ-mu-u (see CAD S/1 340). si (K 2035+ ii 25). The equation si = šamû may be based on the equation si.ùn.na = elât šame, which is attested in a bilingual hymn from Uruk: dutu.gim dungu.na na.an.ku4 .k[u4 .dam] ki-ma dšamaš ana û-pe-e la ter- ru-u[b] dnanna'.gim si.ùn.na muš nam'.ba.[an.t(m.ma] 11 ki-ma dsin ina e-lat šamê e la ta-pa-ra-[ak- ka] SBH p, 128 rev. 36-39

Like the Sun-god, you do not enter a cloud. Like the Moon-god, you do not stop in the "Heights of Heaven:' In this passage si must be the equivalent of šamû because ùn is an equivalent of elû ('high'; see CAD E 110) , although ùn itself may be equated with šamû in Aa VIII/2 46 (MSL 14 498). Another example of si = šamû is found in Aa III/4 171: ,

si = nu-ft-rum 'light' si = na-ma-rum 'to shine' si = na-pa-hu 'to kindle' si = šâ-mu-u `heaven'

(MSL 14 341:168-71) Here si may be a name for heaven because si has a general meaning 'light'. According to NBC 11108 (see p. 139), the heavens glow with their own light independent of the luminaries in the sky. A related equation s i. a n. t a = elâtu occurs in a late bilingual incantation to Utu (A. Falkenstein UVB 15 36:5). 10 Compare also the name of Nippur dir.giš.1am `Bond of Heaven and Earth', which is equivalent to the more eommon dur.an.ki (see A. George, RA 85 160), and O. Neugebauer and A. Sachs, JCS 21 213: giš.nim giš.šu = `east, west'. See also p. 257 for Craig ABRT I 32 rev. 9. 11 muš -tum = naparkû: see CAD N/1 279.

Equivalences of šamû

231

zikum (K 2035+ ii 27). The equivalence zikum = šamû is also documented in Aa I/2 236 (MSL 14 215), while zikum itself occurs in the Ur III personal name u r. z i k u m. m a (Kang SACT I 119:2). This same sign with the reading engur is a eommon Sumerian name for the Apsu. zikara (K 2035+ ii 28). Two entries in Antagal preserve equivalences for šamû that may be compared with zikara (IMxIM) = šamû. zi.ga.ar riMlx = šâ-mu-û IM

Antagal III 177 (MSL 17 156) zi.ga .rum U.sA

=

šW- m u-û

U.SA

Antagal G 281 (MSL 17 228) Here, zigar (IMxIM) is the same name as zikara. The entry in Antagal G may also represent this name, although a different Sumerian writing is used. The name(s) of heaven zikara, zigar, zigarum presumably represent a foreign word(s). idim (K 2035+ ii 30). The equation idim (BAD) = šamû occurs in K. 2035+, Nabnitu IV (see p. 229), Aa VIII/2 (MSL 14 499:59), and Emar 537:693', 568:51'. 12

uras. Sumerian uraš occurs as a synonym for šamû in K. 2035a+, Nabnitu IV (see p. 229), and Izi H 232 (MSL 13 208), as well as Ea I 338b and Aa I/ 8:35 (MSL 14 194, 240), A Sumerian literary example of uraš as a name for the sky occurs in a hymn of praise to the barge of Enlil in Shulgi R: mâ.sag.zu.ù dnanna ur 5 ,ra.aš sa62.[ga? (x x x )]. 1me'.è [n] mâ.egir.zu,ù dutu an.ur.r [a (x x x x) è.a.me.èn] J. Klein, Fest. Artzi 104:37-38 As for your prow, you are (like) Nanna graci[ng (...) the sky. As for your stern, [you are (like)] Utu [rising o]n the horizon. Elsewhere, however, u r a š is usually a name for earth rather than heaven. For instance, the Sumerian pair an.uraš occurs in numerous contexts meaning `heaven and earth'. 13 The process by which u r a š developed a seeond meaning `heaven' is not clear but may parallel the evolution of the divine name durctš from a name for Anu's spouse, Antum, to a name for Anu himself.f 4

12

For this name at Ugarit, see J. Huehnergard, NABIJ 1991 p. 39 no. 58. For the cosmic pair an.uraš, see Sjöberg Moongod 67 n. 4, 75 n. 5, and 79 nn. 14-15. Note also ZA 52 59:27; OrSuec 19-20 147 no. 3 rev. 6. 14 See W. G. Lambert, Unity and Diversity 197. 13

232

Names for Heaven

bu r, bur, buru, burû. Sumerian b u r u `pit, hole, well' occurs as an equivalent of šamû in the catchline of the god-list K. 2100 (CT 25 18 rev. ii 20). The same name, or a homonym, is also attested at Emar: bur = HAL = šamû (Emar 537:291). Akkadian burû occurs three times as a name for heaven: twice in a late copy of a hymn to Aya (SpTU III 75:12, 19) and once as a variant of burumu in a š u . i l a to Nabu (see W. Mayer, Or 59 461:9; see n. 9 [4] ). The Akkadian name may be a loanword from Sumerian bùr/bùru or be derived from burumu; as suggested by W. Mayer, in Or 59 465. 15 u+GA (utah, utu). The sign a+GA occurs in Sb and a precursor to Ea with readings utah and utu as equivalents of šamû and šupuk šame:' 6 . u.tu

= =

= =

U+GA U+GA

šu-puk sâ-rr šâ-r ^u-u u-u sâ-mu-tic šâ-mu-tic / su-puk r^

di-ik-tum

Sb87-88 (MSL 3 104; 4 206) ùu . t uü

=

1

0+ [G] A

=

Sa-mu ša -tic -mu-tic

ši-1 §i-1 ip1 ip' -ku Textual examples of In a hymn to

MSL 14 119:32-33 nstrate that the term is a name for the sky. -god shines in utah:

.du10 gal.zu du1D.duI0 a.a dnanna utahbe.bad.ta gi b du1D A. Sjöberg, OrSuec 19/20 146:7 t ake ake the night sweet thr Father Nanna, who kk the distant heavens. o Rim-Sin inin a Rim-Sin Hymn (UET 6 101: Parallels are fo scriptions (RIM 4 272:6, 300:5). h samû a šamû in Aa VIII/2 46, ùn/ùg. Sumerian ùn/ùg (high ùn/ug. let: [X] = related name is listed later in this sa 51 (MSL 14 498ocša-qü-u, ša-mu-u sa-mu-u (MSL 14 499:80-81). The name may also ocEZEivx KASKAL = sa-qü-u, cur in a hymn to Nanna:' 7 šu.du7 ùn.na è me.an.na su.du7 TCL 16 pl. 152:2 (Sjöberg Mondgott 65:2) (Nanna) who comes out in "The Above" perfects the me of heaven. 15 W. Mayer in Or 59 465 n. 9 derives the name burûmue > burûmlwe > burûw. For Aa II/4 129 (MSL 14 283), see W. G. Lambert, JNES 33 302 n. 6. For the god-list K. 2100, see A. Kilmer, JAOS 83 423. See also Ea II:216 (MSL 14 256). 16 In Or 52 237-40, M. Civil argues that u+GA was originally used to desi o be known as sipku in Akkadian. Sumerian U+GA, then, came to eal samê in the sipkulš pku in sipikl šipikl be a name for heaven through the homonym sipkulsupku Old Babylonian period. See also CAD D 138-39 diktu and Charpin Le Clergé 199. A eS u ' also occurs oceurs ipInomical di word utah meaning `li ies I 33). giš.hé.a me. 17 Note also A. Sjöberg, OrSuec 19/20 148:32, 37: ù .e gis.hé.a u

Names of Parts of the Sky

233

girra. The name girra for heaven is known from parallel entries in Aa II/4 (MSL 14 284:141) and Antagal D 121 (MSL 17 205). In both lists, girra is written U.MAS.KAB. In Antagal D, the name occurs before three names for earth (see p. 271). Exactly how girra can to be a name for heaven is unclear.'$ Kassite Names for Heaven

Kassite names for heaven may be listed in a Kassite-Akkadian list, where dagilgi and ilulu are equated with šamû. da-gil-gi i-lu-lu zi-in-bi-na

= šamûu = šamû6 = zi-na miriiaâš = er se tum tu-ru-uh-na = ša-a-ru T. Pinches, JRAS 1917 103:19-23 (Balkan Kassit. Stud. 4) -

-

At least one of the two Kassite equivalences of šamû could mean 'rain' instead of `heaven'. The third term is translated zi-na, which may be a writing for Akkadian zinnu 'rain'.

Names of Parts of the Sky A number of Sumerian terms and Akkadian equivalents serve as names for parts of the sky. These include: 'Horizon':

an.ur = išid šamê 'Heaven's Base, The Base of Heaven', an.zà 'Heaven's Edge', nablptû

`Zenith':

an.pa = elât šamê 'Heaven's Top, The Heights of Heaven'

'Middle of the Sky':

a n . š à = qereb šamê, libbi šamê

Akkadian šupuk šamê and its Sumerian equivalents including gi š. h é, mu.hé, ul.hé. These terms are not used in a consistent manner. They often seem to be synonymous with one another or to refer to overlapping areas. For example, different versions of a bilingual lamentation translate mu. b é as šupuk šamê (Cohen Canonical Lamentations p. 154:18) and elât šamê (KAR 375 ii 42-43; see Cohen Canonical Lamentations p. 173). 18 Note in this context a broken passage in Inamgišhuranki that may relate the heavens to the fire-god Girra:... ] an dgi -ri `... ] (of?) An/Heaven is Girra?' (CT 25 50: 18, Livingstone 32:7; and van Soldt Solar Omens 45:17': gi - ra- aU.MAS.KAB: sa-mu-u). Girra is both a son of Anu and eonstellation in Girra and Elamatum (C. Walker, AnSt 33 14553, esp. 150 n. 48) and a constellation in Prayers to the Gods of the Night (RA 32 180:15, 181:16).

234

Names for Heaven

Each of the terms consists of a name of heaven, with a second noun referring to a portion of the sky. In the Akkadian terms, the part of the sky comes first, followed by šamû or burumu in the genitive case. In the Sumerian terms, the opposite occurs, with the name of heaven placed first. For instance, an.ur and an . p a consist of an (heaven) followed by ur and p a. Likewise, m u. h é and gis.hé consist of the Sumerian names mu and gis (which are equated with one another and šamû in the Emesal voeabulary (MSL 4 10:116), plus h é. The order of nouns in these Sumerian terms is the reverse of the standard genitive construction, where the part precedes the whole. This reversal of order cannot be explained, but parallel constructions occur with a few other nouns, including giš `tree', kur 'mountain', a b 'sea', u r u `city', and gi 'reed'. 19 Ancient scholars conceived of these names as a group of related terms. Entries an.ur = išid šame and an.pa = elect šame often occur consecutively in lexical lists, Antagal G lists four sets of terms as a group, and Emar 567:2-4 preserves three paired terms: 2o u14

= šu-pu-uk šamêe

u14 . h 6. a =

MIN

bu-ru-me

an.pa = e-lat šamêe an.šà.ga = qé-reb šamêe Antagal G 223-226 (MSL 17 227) an. d i m = il-di šd-me-e (išid šame) an. p a. d i m = i-la-a šâ-me-e (elât šamê) an.a.šà.ga = qé-re-eb ša-[me-e]

Emar 567:2-4

`The Horizon'

an.ur = i'id samê, an.zà = pat samê, kaplan samê. 21 Terms for 'horizon' refer to the lower portion of the sky, including the actual horizon where heaven and earth meet and a band above the horizon. This portion of the sky is usually identified as an.zà 'Heaven's Edge' or an.ur `Heaven's Base' in Sumerian texts and išid šame `the Base of Heaven' in Akkadian texts. In addition to the visible horizon in the sky, an.ur, an.zà, išid šame, and pat šame also refer to the edge of the earth's surface. The border between `Horizon' and 'Zenith' is never defined in any Sumerian or Akkadian text. 22

19 For giš.pa and giš.iir, see MSL 5 139:514-15. For ab.šà and kur.šà, see TCS 3 108 n. 283. For kur.bar and kur.šà, note PBS 1/2 115:15-16. For uru.bar and uru.šà, see PSD B 97 2.2.5. For gi.Gr/šà/pa/bar, see MSL 7 17:153-56. 20 For further lexical examples, see Antagal III 152-54 (MSL 17 155-56, see p. 237); MSL 13 16:18-22, 34:11'-12' (Proto-Izi), MSL 11 61 y 159-60, and MSL SS1 87 ii 5'-6'. For Akkadian and bilingual examples, see CAD E 79 C. 21 Note also KAR 375 ii 40-41 an.dib.ba = išid šame (see Cohen Canonical Lamentations 173). 22 For a different opinion, see E. Weidner, Babyl. 6 2 n. 1.

235

Names of Parts of the Sky

an.ur = isid samê `Heaven's Base', `The Base of Heaven'. Sumerian an.ur and Akkadian išid šamê are equated with each other in numerous lexical lists and bilingual works (see CAD I 235-36). In Bit Rimki, an.ur = išid šamê is the place where heaven and earth meet and the Sun passes from heaven to earth at sunrise: ki.šè an.ki téš.bi lâ.a.ta an.ur.ta um.ta.è.na.z [u.š] è ana e-ma šâ-mu-tic u ersetumtum ištenišnis na-an-du-ru iš-tu i-štd šamêe ina (a-se-ka)

R. Borger, JCS 21 3:4 When you (Sun-god) rise at the place where heaven and earth embrace, from the horizon. In Ee V 1.7-20, the Moon and Sun are said to see each other at išid šame at the middle of the month, the time of the month when the Moon rises at the eastern horizon just as the Sun sets at the western horizon. The fact that an.ur and išid šamê include a band of heaven above the horizon is demonstrated by BBR 2 p. 102:101 and parallel passages, where išid šamê turns red at dawn before the Sun rises. 23 At this time of day, the lower part of the eastern sky above the horizon is tinged red by the approaching Sun. A parallel with u r. a n. n a instead of an.ur is found in Lugale 181: me.dam ur.an.na sig hé.ma.da.gim sa5 .šè ur 5 hé.en.na.nam.ma ma-ti-ma i-štd šamêe ki-ma na-ba-ši sa-rip ši-i lu-u ki-a-am

Lugale 74:181 (Bilingual Version) When the horizon is dyed red like red-wool, let this be so, an.zà = pat samê 'Heaven's Edge', The Edge of Heaven'. Sumerian an.zà is a near synonym of an.ur = išid šamê. Although the normal meaning of z à is patu `edge, border', z à is also equated with tšdu in Aa VIII/4 9 (MSL 14 509). Like an.ur, an.zà comprises the actual horizon, plus a band above the horizon. In Gudea Cyl. A IX:18-19 (see p. 94), kur.kur 'the lands' apparently extends to an.zà, just as earth meets heaven at an.ur and išid šamê in Bit Rimki. 24 In the hymn to Inanna an.ta.è.a.ra, an.zà includes the part of heaven above the horizon where Venus shines: nin an.usan an.zà.gè mah.[àm] Reisman Two Hymns 153:85 The Lady of the Evening (Inanna) [is] magificent at the horizon.

23

For parallels, see chapter 1 n. 16 (p. 10). Note also Westenholz OSP 1 no. 6:2 (= B. Alster, Kramer AV p, 14): kur.kur gurum.ù den.lil an.zàsè, and Fest. Sjöberg 305:59 an.ki.zà.tilla.lbi'.è. See also W. Römer, Kraus AV 305. 24

236

Names for Heaven

The planet Venus alternately shines in the lower western sky at dusk, and the lower eastern sky at dawn. A bilingual example of an.zà as a cosmic place name occurs in UtukkuLemnutu VI, where an.zà is equated with pat šame. mu nu,tuku mu.ne an.zà.fè šu-ma ul i-ša-u šum-štil-nu ana pat šamée

CT 16 33:189

O (demon) who has no name, their name (goes) to the horizon. In this context, an.zà and pat šame refer to the ends of the earth's surface where demons could presumably cross into the underworld, just as the Sun rises and sets from the underworld. A parallel with names for both heaven and earth occurs in Samsuiluna E : 25 ni.me.lâm nam.lugal.la.mu zà.an,rki'.ke 4 hé.'en.dul' pu-luh-ti me-lam šar-ru-ti-ia pa-at ša-me-e it er-se-tum lu ik-tum

RIM 4 382, Sumerian version 68-70 Akkadian version 64-66 My terrifying royal splendor covered the borders (i.e. all) of heaven and earth. šaplan šamé `The Lower Parts of Heaven'

The term šaplan šamé occurs in an incantation to Shamash, replacing išid šamé alongside an unusual writing of elât šamé: (ištu)

AN.PA

šamée ana šap-la-an šamée uš-šû-ru ša-ru-ru-ka

KAR 32:26 Your shine runs free (from) the "zenith of heaven" to the horizon. Zenith (an. p a, elât šame, appi šame) `Heaven's Tip', The Heights of Heaven', The Tip of Heaven'

The portion of the sky an.pa = elât šamé is the part of the sky above an. ur = elât šame. The meaning of elâtu 'upper parts' in elât šame is obvious, because elât šame is the top part of the sky, but the etymology of an.pa requires explanation. Two ancient explanations of an.pa are available. First, pa is understood as appu 'tip' in Proto-Izi: [a] n.pa = a-pi ša-me (MSL 13 36 B 5). Second, pa is itself explained as elâtu in Aa and Antagal:

25

Note also M. Civil, NABU 1987 n. 49: zà an.ki; E Al-Rawi, Iraq 52 3:21: pat kisšat

same u ersetim; AAA 20 p1. 90: 3 4:... pat samame u qaqqari, -

Names of Parts of the Sky

(p a. a = PA)

=

237

e-li-tum e-la-tum šâ šamê e

Aa I/7B ii 4'-5' (MSL 14 237) pa= an.pa = an.tIr =

e-la-a-tum MIN šamêe

i- šit-tum šamêe Antagal III 152-54 (MSL 17 155-56)

In many contexts, an.pa = elât šamê is paired with an.ur = išid šamê, indicating that these two parts of the sky together comprise the entire visible heavens. In The Exaltation of Ištar, the Sun- and Moon-gods are assigned the task of keeping the stars on their courses from an.ur = išid šamê to an.pa = elât šamê (B. Hruška, ArOr 37 484:55-56; see pp. 144-45). In the inscriptions of Tiglath-Pileser III, Nebuchadnezzar II, and Neriglissar, the kings claim worldwide dominion from išid šame to elât šamê. 26 Here, these two parts of heaven apparently cover the entire earth's surface (see diagram, p. 261). In addition to the Sun, Moon, and stars, which perform duties in 'horizon' and 'zenith' in The Exaltation of Ištar, other texts place meteorological phenomena, including clouds, a rainbow, and akukutu 'haze', in elât šamê (see CAD E 79 2'). an.pa an.ka, AN.PA samê. Two unusual writings of 'the zenith of heaven', an.pa an.ka and AN.PA šame, apparently construe an.pa as equivalent to elâtu instead of elât šamê. In the Kassite period Sumerian work The Duties and Powers of the Gods, the Akkadian-speaking author apparently translates elât šamê back into Sumerian as a genitive construction an.pa an.ka:

x].da kù.ga.bi nu.mu.ni.in.te.eš .àm an.pa an.ka ba.ra.an.sum.mu.uš dnanna gib zalag.ge .da u4.da ug.gâ ku.ku.da [g]iskim gi6 .a [zu.z]u.da ... Sumer 4 pl. 1 v l'-16' they could not ... , they had not given in "the ... I their clear zenith of heaven:' In order that Nanna would make the night bright, would rest during the day when it is light, would [make known the [s] ign of the night,... The Akkadian writing an.pa an.ka.

AN.PA šamê

in KAR 32 26 (see p. 236) parallels Sumerian

mu.hé = elât samê. As noted above (p. 233, KAR 375 ii 42'-43'), one exemplar of a bilingual lamentation preserves the equation mu. h é = elât šamê. 26 See CAD E 79 2'; Tadmor Tigl. 158:4, 194:4. Compare The Gilgamesh Letter 14 (E Kraus, AnSt 30 109) and Piceioni Adapa 122:7-8. Note also B. Alster, ASJ 13 48:6869 and Sargon Geography 31, where Sargon of Akkad eonquers mat sihip samê `the totality of the land under heaven'.

238

Names for Heaven

si.un.na = elât samê. The term si.ùn.na is translated as elât šamê in the late copy of a bilingual hymn (SBH 128 rev. 38-39; see p. 230) where the Moon-god is placed in the region. Here, si is probably the name of heaven si = šamû, and ùn is probably to be interpreted as elâtu. Three additional examples where the Moon shines in si.ùn.na also occur in Sumerian literature: Sjöberg Moongod 70:2; ELA 271; Death of Ur-Nammu 13 (see JCS 21 113). The Sumerian term also occurs in a lists of cosmic terms in Proto-Izi and Nabnitu:

an ki gig.bé ggiš.bé ul.hé ub,sl kur.ùn.na si.ùn.na ub.da.4 an.si.ù[n.na si.BÀD.b [a si.ùn. [n] a k u r.BÀD. b a a

Proto-Izi

MSL 13 18)

= e-la-at samêe] = MIN MIN] = [MIN MIN]

[sa-du-u e-lu-u] = [MIN MIN]

c[ša-du-

Nabnitu XXV 145-49 (MSL 16 227) patIn Nabnitu XXV 145 as restored, the term an,si.ùn.na is en an followed by an.ur, and an.zà, with the name of tern f an.pa, an.fir, f si.ùnšamê) only the Moon is found si.ùn.na (= lât . In surviving exampšamê, ass well as the meteorologica in the region, although the Sun and meteorologica šame. ound in an.pa = elât same. The Middle of Heaven' (a n . ššs à ššs à. a n . n a, qereb samê, libbi samê) ,

probpprobthe `middle of heaven' 27 as a part of the sky are probThe use of terms urs in a few passages as an unseen portion of curs lematic. Sumerian a n, sšš lematic. e, Sumerian heaven above the sky, where Anu lives (see pp. 247-49). sition nitive case can be used as a p wing noun in th sà ššà with a ina nal ph ina libbi meaning `in'. 'in'. ''in'. Similarly, the Akkadian pre šamê, an (('in'). Thus an.zà, ina qereb samê, qereb often mean little more than ina (`in'). aning `in ''in heaven'. Nevertheless, there are with th šamê šamê do seem to be used as here an.sà, aan.šà, qer šamê,ê, and libbi samê 56 7:2-4 . for part of the sky. In Antagal G 223-26 and E n Horizon', `Zenith', ''Zenith', and h name samê occurs in lis n.a.gà.ga = qereb šamê êan. šà.ga samê as a name for the 27 CAD Q 8 qqabtu qablu A b offers no syllabic examples of qabal ššamê rendered examplešamêe]UxUB4ššamê šam under qablu MUxUB44 samê `middle of the sky'. Thus, examplešamêe]uxuB

ššamê. qereb samê.

239

Names of Parts of the Sky

šupuk šamêlburume (see p. 234). Likewise, šà.an.na = qereb šame oceurs in a common blessing formula alongside names for heaven and earth:

an.gim hé.en.kù.ga : ki-ma šamêe li-lil ki.gim né.en.sikil.la : ki-ma ersetimt'm li-bi-ib sà.an.gim hé.en.daddag.ga : ki-ma qé-reb šamêe lim-mir Šurpu 53:26-28 May he be pure like heaven. May he be clean like earth. May he shine like the "middle of heaven?' The shine of an.šà and qereb šamê is the glow of the stars. This is demonstrated by an inscription of Tiglath-Pileser I where a temple is described in terms of the stars and libbi šame: ki-ma lzb-bi šamêe ti-be-en-ni i-ga-ra-a-te-šu ki-ma kakkabanimes ü-si-im ü-šar-rib,

ša-ru-ur si-it AKA 98:98-101

I decorated it like the heart of heaven. I made its walls shine with a brillance befitting the light of the stars. Other visible astronomical and meteorological phenomena seen in an,šà include the Moon (Sjöberg Mondgott 44:9), the Sun (Gudea Cyl. B I:7), Venus (Reisman Two-Hymns 153:82, 154:104, 155:120, 157:141), clouds (Sjöberg Mondgott 119:8); and rainbows (EWO 345). 28 Although it may be assumed that the "Middle of Heaven" included the eenter of the sky around the apex of the celestial dome, it is not possible to determine how far the "Middle of Heaven" extended downward. šupuk šame and Its Equivalences

šupuk burume, šipik šame giš.hé, mu.hé, ul/u14 .11é, u14, utah

The term šupuk šame and its equivalences occur in literary texts as the portion of the heavens where stars, the Sun, Moon, and Venus shine and winds blow. In The Moon God and the Demons (= Utukku Lemnutu 16), the Sun, Moon, and Venus are said to regulate u l . h é = šupuk šame: dnanna dutu dinanna.ke 4 ul.hé.a si.sâ.e.dè im.ma.ni.in .gar dsin (30) dšamaš u diš -tar šu -puk šamê e ana šu- te-šu-ri uk-tin-nu CT 16 19:59-61 the Moon-god, Sun-god, and Venus were appointed to regulate the firmament 28 For an.šà see also Gud. Cyl. A 25:4, B 1:18. For additional Akkadian and bilingual examples of qereb same, see CAD Q 220-21. See also Oppenheim Dreams 327:70 and George Temples 143 nos. 1009, 1011.

240

Names for Heaven

In Antagal G 223-24 (see p. 234), u1 4 and u 1 4 . h é . a are equated with šupuk šamê and šupuk burumu, In variant exemplars of Sb, Sumerian utah is translated alternately as šamû and šupuk šame (see MSL 3 104:87, MSL 4 206:87), while ul.hé is translated as šupuk šamê in the hymn to Inanna/Ištar (Cohen Eršemma 132:24 = SBH 53 rev. 48-49), but as šamû in the Exaltation of Ištar (B. Hruska ArOr 37 484:29-30), and LKA 23 rev. 8'-9'. Thus, šupuk šame and its equivalences are in some sense equivalent to the entire sky. Although the above examples establish the sense of the terms, their origins and etymologies are uncertain. Therefore, it is useful to examine each more closely. gis.hé, mu.hé, ul.hé, u1 4.hé. 29 The terms giš.hé, mu.hé, ul.hé, and u14 .hé consist of a common element hé with a preceeding noun. The element h é corresponds to šupku in Akkadian šupuk šame, and while giš, mu, ul /u14 šamû. Thus, the first elements should be names for heaven or re- corespndt lated terms. Sumerian giš and mu are listed as equivalents of šamû in the Emesal vocabulary (MSL 4 10:116) and K 2035+ ii 20', 22' (see p. 229). The word ul /u14 does not occur as an equivalent of šamû but may be identified as ul = kakkabu 'star' (see CAD K 46). Nonetheless, the origins of the element hé in the Sumerian terms and how h é came to be equivalent to šupuk šame remains unclear, because no surviving evidenee for hé = šupku/šipku exists other than the terms themselves. One possibility is that the meaning of h é = šupku/šipku reflects an early lexical tradition that did not survive to be included in Old Babylonian canonical lists suchs as Proto-Ea and Proto-Aa (see MSL 14 476, 489), although the meaning "giš . h é, m u . h é, ul.hé = šupuk šame (and equivalents)" did survive. An Early Dynastic period example of u1 4 .hé referring to the sky may occur in The Stele of the Vultures (see J. Cooper, RA 74 94). 30 supuk samêlsipik samê, supuk burûmû. Like their Sumerian equivalents, Akkadian šupuk šame, šipik šamê, and šupuk burumu consist of a name for heaven and a second noun. All three terms are synonymous. Akkadian šupku and šipku are equivalent nouns derived from the root šapaku `to pour out, to heap up', and burumu and šamû are synonyms. The terms can be compared with the parallel constructions šipik šadi/šupuk šadi (see AHw 1245 šipku 4; 1280 šupku 2), which refer to the foundations of mountains. As such, 29 The reading h é for GAN is based on the variants giš . hé/he (= supuk samê) in TCS 3 36:324. Additional writings with be may be found in TCS 3 26 164 (ul.be.a/ utab.gE.a) and MSL 11 61 v 156 (ul.HE). However, ul. t E here is followed by an.šâr, ki.šar `all of heaven, all of earth' (MSL 11 61 y 157-58), so giš.jE, mu. HE, ul.1E might best be understood, at least in some cases, as giš/mu.šâr (all of heaven') and ul.šér of the stars'). If HE is always to be read šâr in these compounds, then a reading gan for HÉ cannot be ruled out (i.e., giš.gan, mu.gan, ul.gan, perhaps again `all of heaven, all of the stars' on the basis of GAN = kuttatu entirety'). The element hé might also be the same as that in bé.nun = nuhsu `abundance'. Cf. TCS 3 115 no. 324 for further examples and diseussion and ibid. no. 164. 3° See also p. 140 for Sollberger Corpus Ukg. 15 iii 2: ul. [hé'I.

Names of Parts of the Sky

241

the imagery suggested by šupuk šamêlšipik šame and šupuk burumu may be that of the sky serving as the foundation for the unseen higher regions of heaven above, just as mountains rise above their foundations. 31 Other Examples of supuk same and Its Equivalences. Numerous other examples prove that šupuk šame and its equivalents are names for at least part of the sky. A passage in The Moon God and the Demons states that seven wicked storm demons whirled around the Moon in u 1 4. h é = šupuk šame (CT 16 20:7074); hymns to Nannar place the Moon in giš.11é (A. Sjöberg, OrSuec 19/20 144:2, 145:1; 148:32, 37 149:64); and Gilg. IX ii 4 explains that scorpion-men observe the setting Sun by Mt. Makh, whose peak reaches up to šupuk šame. In this Gilgamesh passage, the Sun may move along šupuk šame before setting behind Mt. Mašu. The term šipik šame occurs in Proto-Kagal (Bilingual) (MSL 13 87:44), translating giš.11é, and perhaps also in Babyl. 6 98:6 (see AHw 1245 5). The only known example of šupuk burumu is Antagal G 224 (MSL 17 227). 32 pani šame `Face of Heaven'

The term pani šame occurs in Neo-Assyrian royal inscriptions and astronomical omens. In these passages, pani šame is a portion of the sky where the stars and moon are seen on clear nights. When the sky is not clear, pani šame is said to be covered. Thus pani šame must be the surface of the elear sky above the eloud cover. For instance, the 'face of heaven' is obscured by smoke from fires in the inscriptions of Sargon II (TCL 3 30:182; 32:198; 42:261, 268), by smoke and dust in the inscriptions of Sennacherib (OIP 2 40:80; 44:58-59), and by anqullu `haze' in an astronomical omen (ACh Šamaš 14 7 see CAD A/2 144 b). In contrast, the visible `face of heaven' shines like moonlight in an Old Babylonian astronomical omen: 33 [šumma š]a-mu-û ki-ma s[i-i]t wa-ar-hi-im pa-nu-šu-nu na-am-ru-û .. .

T. Bauer, ZA 43 309:3-4 If the face of the heavens shines like moonlight ... In AS 16 286 rev. 23, pani šame is contrasted with the Heaven of Anu above the sky (see p. 246).

For sapaku with mountains, clouds, and the sky, see CAD S/1 414-15 6'. Note also Surpu 46:38:... an.ur hé.an.na '... horizon and " supuk same"' and AMT 103 8 h é. 7. b i `seven firmaments' (see p. 214). 33 For additional examples of peini fame, see AHw 820 9 and AfO Beih. 22 287 rev. 10, where E Rochberg-Halton translates `the surfaee of the sky'. 31

32

242

Names for Heaven

an.bar The term an.bar, another name for a portion of the visible heavens, is formed on the pattern an.zà, an.ur, an.pa , and an.šà. The term occurs as a cosmic place-name in a hymn to Ningišzidda: lugal ni,ri.a ildu utu.bi sag.ba gin.a an.bar an.ta a.ba šâ.du.ne a.na an.da.sa.a TCL 15 pl, 113 rev. 6'-7' (J. van Dijk, Sumerische Götterlieder 82:28-29) Fearsome king, Sun-god of the host, who goes at the fore, at the ... above, who can equal you? What can rival you? The term an.bar may be an opposite of an.šà since bar and šà are often opposites meaning `outside' and 'inside' (see PSD B 93, 96-98). If so, an.bar may be another name for the horizon, since an.šà refers to the center of the sky. A related term, an.bar.bar, may also occur as an opposite of an.šà in Gudea Cylinder A: 34 é.KA.gid.da,bi an.bar.bar.ra ni.gâl.la .àm é é.dul 4 .la.bi null an.šà.ge diri.ga .àm Gudea Cyl. A 25:2-4 (cf. PSD B 93 1) The long . , . of the temple was splendid at heaven's sides. The .. , of the temple was like a light filling the center of the sky.

34 Note also an.ba = samû and an.ba.ni = šamû petûtum (AS 16 24:90-91); an.bar.BU.a in MSL 11 61 v 163; Emar 567:10' an.bar.an . [... .

Chapter 11

The Geography Of the Heavens

Introduction Heaven is the upper of the two halves of the universe. In ancient Mesopotamia, as in the Judeo-Christian tradition, the heavens include both visible areas, where the stars, Sun, Moon, and planets are seen, and higher regions above the sky, where gods of heaven dwell. Only the lists of KAR 307 and AO 8196 and Enuma Elish provide clear evidence that the heavens consist of the sky and more than one level above the sky. In both KAR 307 and AO 8196, three heavens are listed: the Upper Heavens, belonging to Anu; the Middle Heavens of the Igigi above the sky; and the Lower Heavens (the sky) of the stars. KAR 307 adds that Marduk settled 300 Igigi in the Upper Heavens, that Bel sits in his cella in the Middle Heavens, and that Marduk drew stars on the Lower Heavens. The interior of Marduk's cella in the Middle Heavens is not seen from earth, but its blue saggilmud-stone floor may be visible as the blue sky (see p. 9). Below the heavens in KAR 307 there are three earths: the earth's surface, Apsu, and underworld. The area between the earth's surface and the stars is not listed in KAR 307 or AO 8196 but is part of the heavens in other texts. For instance, numerous passages speak of birds, clouds, and winds in the heavens (See CAD S/I 345-47), so the region of the universe we call the "atmosphere" or "sky" was clearly part of heaven in ancient Mesopotamia. This interrelationship between heaven and the atmosphere is further illustrated by a passage from Lamaštu, where dew is said to come from the stars: 1 .

Note also the following passage from Sagigameš: mul.an .gim sur.sur.ra a.gim gi s.a al.du.du ki-ma kak-kab SW-ma-me i -sar-ru-ur ki-ma mê meš mu-ši il -tak CT 17 19:11-12 (Headache) flashing like a star of heaven, comes like "water of the night" (dew). See also W. Farber, Schlaf, Kindchen, Schlaf 62:195, with notes on pp. 63-64. 1

243

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The Geography of the Heavens

ki-ma na-al-ši ša kakkabanimes ki-ma za! qi qi šâ a-pa-a-ti ki-ma šik-ke-e la ta-bal -lu -pi sir-ra-niš 4R 582 i 18-19 // PBS I/2 113:53

Like dew of the stars, like the breeze of a window, do not slip past the door pivot like a mongoose. In Enuma Elish, there are at least three heavens: the heaven that belongs to Anu, the Ešarra of Enlil, and the level of the stars. Another cosmic placename, elâtu, occurs in Ee V 11-12 as the region of the moon-god Nanna, and the tern ašrata occurs in Ee IV 141 and Ee V 121 as a name for a region of heaven or a feature of heaven (see p. 114). In addition, a number of Sumerian ineantations, including m e.š è b a. d a. d al, may or may not preserve traditions of seven or more levels of heaven (see p. 220). Outside KAR 307 AO 8196, and Enuma Elish (and perhaps the Sumerian incantations), the heavens can be divided into two regions only: (1) the sky and (2) the region above the sky. In Sumerian literary texts, a region of heaven above the sky belonging to An is called an.šà, and a term a n.ù n.na 'High Heaven' occurs in both Inanna and Sukkaletuda and the Kassite period Sumerian language work The Duties and Powers of the Gods. In Akkadian texts from the Middle Assyrian period onward, heavens above the sky are called "The Heaven of Anu:' Although full geographies of the high heavens are not available, much is known about these heavens from Akkadian texts, such as the fact that these heavens include gates, divine homes, and in Nergal and Ereškigal, a courtyard. The Heaven of Anu and high heavens in Akkadian texts are examined below. A study of parallel materials in Sumerian and bilingual works follows on pp. 247-49.

High Heavens in Akkadian Texts The Heaven of Anu

In Enuma Elish, KAR 307 and AO 8196, the highest level of heaven belongs to Anu. Elsewhere, this heaven is identified as the "Heaven of Anu" (šamû ša danim; šamû danim). 2 Additional evidence that the Heaven of Anu is the highest heaven is found in The Gilgamesh Epic and The Erra Epic. In Gilg. XI 113-14, gods aseend to the Heaven of Anu in order to escape the terror of the flood on the earth's surface below: 2

Following is a list of oceurrences of the "Heaven of Anu": Gilg XI 114; Cagni

Erra 74:153; JNES 15 134:67; Laessoe Bit Rimki 25 iii 51; Ebeling Handerhebung 30:2 n. 5; E. Ebeling, RA 49 40:5; Surpu 43:78; W. G. Lambert, AS 16 286 rev. 23, AfO 23 40:15, 41:33; G. Meier, AfO 14 142:41; KAR 83 i 6; STT 23 obv. 17'-18'; Kinnier-Wilson Etana 112:39; SpTU I 1 iii 9; AnSt 10 110:52' n. 14. Note also the possible restoration [MIN (samû) 'a]-nu in MSL 13 173 i 16' (Izi A, see p. 229).

245

High Heavens in Akkadian Texts ilanumeš ip-la-hu a-bu-ba-am-ma it-te-eh-su i-to-lu-et ana šamêe šâ da-nim

Thompson Gilg. XI 113-14 The gods became frightened by the fl ood, so they departed, went up to the Heaven of Anu. It is logical that gods escaping the fl ood would move as far away from the earth's surface as possible, so the Heaven of Anu should be the most distant heaven from the earth's surface, the highest level of heaven. In Erra I, a cosmic mésu-tree reaches from the lowest earth, the underworld (arallû), to the Heaven of Anu through the region of the heavens called elâtu: a-li g°mésu šir ilanimeš si-mat šàr gim-[ri] is-su el-lu et-lu! si-i-ru šâ šu-lu-ku a-na be-lu-ti šâ ina tam-tim rapaštimtim mêmes 100(1 ME) béru i-šid-su ik-šu-rdu' šu pul a-ra-al-[le-e] qim-mat-su ina e-la-a-ti em-de-tu šamê e šâ d [a-nim]

Cagni Erra 74:150-53 Where is the mésu-tree, the flesh of the gods, the emblem of the King of the Univ[erse], the pure tree, august hero, which is becoming to lordship, whose roots reach 100 leagues through the vast sea to the depth of the under [world], whose crown, in the heavens, leans on the Heaven of [Anu]? The Heaven of Anu, in this context, must be the highest heaven, since the cosmic mésu-tree apparently stretched from the lowest earth to the highest heaven. In many sources, Anu shares his heaven with other gods. In KAR 307 30, Anu lives in the highest heavens with 300 Igigi. Lipšur (E. Reiner, JNES 15 134:67) also places Igigi in the Heaven of Anu. In Etana, Etana and the eagle ascend to the Heaven of Anu in search of Ištar and apparently find Ištar's home (see p. 58). Elsewhere, Bit Rimki (Laessee Bit Rimki 25 iii 51') and a š u. i l a (Ebeling Handerhebung 30:1 n. 5) call Gula ašibat šamê danim 'Resident of the Heaven of Anu', and a supplicant calls out to the gods of the Heaven of Anu in Namburbi (E. Ebeling, RA 49 40:5). Divine assemblies take place in the Heaven of Anu in Nergal and Ereškigal (see p. 66) and Surpu: ina u4-me an-ni-i ilanumes rabûtumes a-ši-bu šamêe d anim

lip] šu ru ka

inapuhr(k)-štliu[a

Surpu 43:78 On this day, let the great gods who reside in the Heaven of Anu rel [ease you and abs] olve you in their assembly. In these texts, the Heaven of Anu apparently houses the heavenly pantheon. Gilgamesh XI and the lists of three heavens in AO 8196 and KAR 307, however, may imply that only Anu and his court lived in the Heaven of Anu,

246

The Geography of the Heavens

while other heavenly gods, such as the Igigi, lived in intermediate levels of heaven above the sky. In AO 8196 iv 20-22 and KAR 307 (Source A), Anu is placed in the Upper Heavens, while the Igigi are placed one level below in the Middle Heavens. In KAR 307 "Source B" 300 Igigi are placed in the highest heavens with Anu, and Bel's cella occupies the Middle Heavens. In Gilg. XI 113-14, gods ascend to the Heaven of Anu during the emergency created by the flood. These gods may have included divine refugees from both an intermediate level(s) of heaven, as well as from the earth's surface. The Development of the Tradition of the Heaven of Anu

The only evidence for the term "Heaven of Anu" before the first millennium is found in a Middle Assyrian incantation:

Same šâ da-nim e-na x [ W G. Lambert, AS 16 288 rev. i 23 (AS 16 286 rev. 23)

i-na pa-ni šamêe

.. .

... on the "face of heaven' the Heaven of Anu ... [ In Enuma Anu Enlil, atmospheric phenomena on the "face of heaven" is seen from the earth's surface (see p. 241), so the Heaven of Anu must be contrasted with puni šamê if the Heaven of Anu is a high heaven above the stars in this context. There is evidence for high heavens above the stars in other second-millennium texts, but these texts do not use the term "Heaven of Anu:' In the Amarna version of Nergal and Ereškigal, Namtar ascends to the šamê siruti 'majestic heavens' (EA 357:8) instead of the Heaven of Anu, as in the first-millennium Sultantepe and Uruk versions of the epic (AnSt 10 110 52' n. 14; SpTU I 1 iii 9). An Old Babylonian example of Anu's heaven is found in the preserved portion of the prologue to Old Babylonian Etana (Kinnier Wilson Etana 30-31), where the emblems of kingship lie before Anu in heaven (šamu'u). Another old example of Anu's heavens may be found embedded in Ee VI 37-44, where 300 Anunnaki are sent to dwell with Anu in heaven (šamû/šamumu). These 300 Anunnaki may be compared with the 300 Igigi that inhabit Anu's heaven in KAR 307. By the Middle Babylonian period, Igigi rather than Anunnaki are the gods of heaven, so Ee VI 37-44 presumably derives from an Old Babylonian source. 3

The Intermediate High Heavens Intermediate heavens are found between the heaven that belongs to Anu, and the level of the stars in both KAR 307 and AO 8196, as well as in Enuma Elish. In KAR 307 (Source A) and AO 8196, a middle heavens belonging to the 3

See p.5n.3.

Evidence for High Heavens in Sumerian Texts

247

Igigi is made of saggilmud-stone. KAR 307 (Source B) states that the cella of Bel was located in this heaven. In Enuma Elish, a region of heaven named Ešarra belonging to Enlil lies beneath Anu's heaven (šamû/šamarnu).

Evidence for High Heavens in Sumerian Texts an .šà The term an. š à is translated qereb šame 'the middle of heaven' in Antagal G 226 (MSL 17 227) and the commentary 2R 47 ii 13. In Akkadian and bilingual texts, an.šà and qereb šamê often refer to a part of the sky (see pp. 23839). Nonetheless, evidence in Sumerian texts and the Sumerian portions of bilingual incantations indicate that an. š à is also a name for an interior region of heaven above the stars that may be compared with the Heaven of Anu. 4 The clearest evidence for an.šà as a high region of heaven above the sky is found in a passage from The Curse of Agade, where Anu abandons Akkad for an.sà just as Enki leaves the city for his cosmie region, the Apsu: me.lam an.né im.us.sa ,a.bi an.né an.šà.ga ba.e.e 11 g'sdargul.kù im.dù.dù.a.bi den.ki.ke4 abzu.a mi,ni.in.gId Cooper Curse of Agade 52:72-54:75 Its (Akkad's) aura, which leaned on heaven, Anu took up to "Heaven's Interior:" Its well firmly planted mooring pole, Enki dragged into the Apsu. "Heaven's Interior" is also the home of Anu in heaven in Sumerian hymns to Anu's viziers, Baba and Ninšubur (BL 195:4; UET 6/1 72:3; STVC 36:3, 9, 13), TCS 3 38:371, and the Sumerian portion of the bilingual edition of Angimdimma: ni

me.lam an.na an.šà.ta sag.ga.eš mu.un.rig7.ga

pu-luh-ti me-lam-me da-nu-um ina qé-reb šamê e ana ši-rik-ti iš-ruk-šu

Angim 66:70

4 No exaet Sumerian equivalent of Akkadian samû danim/šamû sa danim is possible. Both the Sumerian equivalent of samû and danim are written with the AN sign, and a eonstruct an.an.na would be ambiguous. In Akkadian texts, the two words are clearly differentiated, so the term "Heaven of Anu," as well as the divine-name `Anu of the Heavens," are possible. Note for example danum u dantum sa šame in Race. 79:30, and the epithet of Sin `Anu of Heaven" (E. Ebeling, Or 23 213:9). See also CAD S/1 341 2'; OECT 11 p. 17 nn. 1-2; W. Farber, JNES 49 301.

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The Geography of the Heavens

Sum.: (Ninurta) who was given the fearsome splendor of Anu as a gift in "Heaven's Interior," Akk.: Anu granted him fearsome splendor as a gift in the "middle of heaven?' In these passages, there is no reason to place Anu's home among the stars or at the same level as the sun, moon, and clouds. Thus an.šà here, like the Akkadian Heaven of Anu, must be Anu's region of heaven above the sky. Other evidence identifies an. š à with a night resting place of the sun. In an incantation that was to be recited at sunset, the Sun-god enters an.šà: 5 d

utu an,šà.še ku 4 .ku4 .da.zu,dè

(dramaš) ana qé-reb šâ -me-e ina e-re-bi-ka g'šsi.gar.kù.an.na.ke4 silim.ma hu.mu.ra.ab.bé ši-gàr ša-me-e el-lu-tim šul -ma lig-bu-kum g'šig.an.na.ke 4 sud4 hu.mu.ra.ab.bé da-la-at ša-me-e lik-ru-ba-a-kum

Abel-Winckler 59 no. 2 1-6 O Sun-god, when you enter "Heaven's Interior," may the bolt of the clear heavens say "hello:' May the doors of the heavens bless you. In this context, the Sun apparently sets into an.rà after passing through the gates of heaven. In a second incantation, the Sun rises from an.šà: en.gal an.šà.kù.ga .ta [è].zu.dè be-lum rabûû iš-tu qé-reb šamée [elluti i]na a-ši-ka

ur.sag šul dutu an.šà.kù.ga .ta [è].zu.dè qar-ra-du et-lum dšamaš iš-tu qé-reb šamêe (elluti) ina a-ši-ka

4R 17:1-4 Great Lord, when you rise from clear "Heaven's Interior," hero, youth, Shamash, when you rise from clear "Heaven's Interior' Thus, according to one Sumerian tradition, the Sun-god apparently spent the night in an.šà instead of passing under the earth's surface through the Apsu or underworld. It is not clear, though, how the Sun-god might have passed from the western to eastern horizon at night through an. š à. 6 Thus, it is not surprising 5 For the recitation of this incantation at sunset, see Abel-Winekler 60:25 kainim-ma-ki dutukam ša dutu.sü.a `an ineantation of the Sun-god at sunset'. Note the parallels R. Kutscher, Kramer AV 307:17: gišsi.ga[r an.na.ke 4 silim.ma] bu. [mu].da. gi4.gi4; Cohen Eršemma 57 no. 184:8 [lci dut]u.è.dè dutu.ku 4 .ku4.dè. Note also B. Alster, ASJ 13 51:86, where Utu judges in an. š à. For a study of the sun's movements at night, see W. Heimpel, JCS 38 127-51. 6 W. Heimpel concludes (JCS 38 151) that `heaven's interior' (an.sà) "is the invisible part of heaven below the earth. This eoncept implies the belief that the sun and the other heavenly bodies remained at all times in heaven and did not pass into the realm of

Evidence for High Heavens in Sumerian Texts

249

that this tradition posed severe proplems for a later author, who translates an.šà as išid šame instead of qereb šame in a Bit-Rimki incantation: ÉN dutu an.šà.ta è me.l [â.m.zu an.dul.la] dšamaš ina i-šid šame e tap-pu-ha me-l [âm-ma-ka šame e i-kat-tam] 7

Laessoe Bit Rimki 52:1-2 (cf. 53:15-16) Incantation: Sun-god, when you rise from "Heaven's Interior" (Akk.: the horizon), [your] sh[een covers the heavens.] an.ùn.na In "Duties and Powers of the Gods" (Sumer 4 pl, Iii 6'-11'; see p. 143), an.ùn.na houses Igigi, suggesting that this region is a high, unseen level of heaven-:-This literary work, however, was written during the Kassite period, so this example of an.ùn.na , cannot prove a third-millennium Sumerian tradition of high heavens. Additional examples of the term, however, occur in the traditional Sumerian literary work Inanna and Sukalletuda:8 sig.šè igi mu.il an.ùn,na kur.utu.è.ke4 .ne igi bi.du8 kur.utu.šu.ke 4 .ne igi bi.du8 nim.šègulaù 8 an.sikl?bd!rgmu. an.bad.râra giskim mu.ni .zu ISET II pl. 9 iii 44-479 He (Sukalletuda) lifted the eye eastwards and looked at the high heaven by the mountain of sunrise. He lifted the eye westwards and looked at the high heaven by the mountain of sunset. He gazed at the shining? distant heaven. In the distant heaven he understood the sign. Although Sukalletuda sees an.ùn,na by mountains of sunrise and sunset, an. ù n. n a in this passage might still be a region of heaven above the sky, since Adapa is able to see the visible parts of heaven išid šame and elât šame (horizon and zenith) while standing in Anu's heaven in Adapa D:7-8 (Piccioni Adapa 122). Sumerian an,bad.ra `distant heaven' must be visible from earth in Inanna and Sukalletuda, since it provides Sukalletuda with a sign. earth upon setting" This argument, although appealing, contradicts the many texts where the Sun and Moon are placed in the underworld at night (see, for example, p. 352) and passages where Anu's abode in heaven is placed in an.šà in Sumerian literature. 7 Cf. R. Borger, Or 54 16:11-12: an.ša.kù.ga = samû ellûtu. 8 Note also an.ùn.na in BE 31 27:14-15: ba dingir.re.e.ne.er mu.ri.in.sU.e.ne an.ùn.na ki ib.ta.sag.ku 5 sag.ku5 .zu x x a mu zu x 9 K. Volk (Inanna and Sukaletuda, 177) interprets this passage and parallels in a different manner.

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The Geography of the Heavens

The Geography of the High Heavens Very little is known about the interior of the Heaven of Anu or the other high heavens. The only evidence for the interior of the Heaven of Anu is found in Nergal and Ereškigal and Etana. In Nergal and Ereškigal, the assembly of the gods convenes in a courtyard named kisal danim 'courtyard of Anu'. In this same text, a gate to the Heaven of Anu is named "Gate of Anu, Enlil, and Ea;' and this gate is reached by ascending the simmelat šamami `stairway of heaven': i-la-a rdnaml -tar âr-kàt s'sim-me-lat šâ-m[a-mi] ana bab da-nim den-la u dé-a ina ka - [šâ-di] da-nim den-lfl u dé-a e-mu-ru-s[u!-ma]

STT 28 v 42'-44' d [ na]m-tar

ana ki-sal-li danim e- ru-u[b-ma]

STT 28 v 47'

Namtar ascended the long stairway of hea[ven.] When he arr[fved] at the Gate of Anu, Enlil, and Ea, Anu, Enlil, and Ea sa[w him] (and said ...) "Namtar ente [ri into the courtyard of Anu ;'

In Etana, Etana and the eagle fly to the Heaven of Anu and enter through the Gate of Anu, Enlil, and Ea, and Gate of Sin, Samaš, Adad, and Ištar on their way to find a windowless home of Ištar that Etana has seen in a dream (see p. 58). This information suggests that the Heaven of Anu was a great temple complex complete with a courtyard, gates, and shrines to house important gods. Such a tradition may have developed by analogy to the underworld, which also has a courtyard, gates, and divine homes (see p. 350-49). In Adapa, Anu also lives in a high heaven beyond a road to heaven named 4, arran šamê'Path of Heaven' and a gate called "Gate of Anu" (see p. 65), but the term "Heaven of Anu" is not used.

Divine Abodes in Heaven In both Sumerian and Akkadian texts, gods live in the high part of heaven above the sky. In KAR 307 32-33, a dais of Bel is located in the middle heavens. Parallel divine cellas and daises above the sky are found in a number of texts. In bilingual passages, Inanna/Ištar sits on the dais of Anu in heaven: I0 10 Note also another possible bilingual example of the dais of Anu in heaven in TCL 6 53:17-18 [ba] ra?.an.na.zu = [ina] samere paI rak k[u] .... Note also A. Sjöberg, OrSuec 22 116:8; EWO 74; Ebeling Handerhebung 55:1-2; PSD B 141-42 bara A Bilingual 1; PSD B 145 bâra.si.ga Bilingual 1. A heavenly bara may also appear in a lexieal list of cosmic terms: an, u1.JE, an.šâr, ki,šâr an.ur, an.pa, bâra, bâra.an.dul, an.har.sU.a, an (MSL 11 61 v 155-64). Note also the hiblieal parallel in 1 Kings 22:19 and Isaiah 14:13. -

,

-

251

Divine Abodes in Heaven bâra nam.lugal.la.mu .šè gâ.na ù.b1 .GALAM.GALAMga.ga.la.am an.ta behé.gâl ana pa-rak-ku šar ru ti ia ga-na ut-li-li -ma ina e-la-a-tû ta-bi Exaltation of Ištar 18-19 Come, take yourself up to my (Anu's) royal dais, sit in the "Heights:' [x.bdra].nam.lugal.la.an.na.ke 4 ul.hé šu bi.in.t[i mandi] [x]-x pa-rak šar-ru-ut da-nim šamêe i -hu uz [tis-qar-tum] LKA 23 rev. 8'-9' (collated) [The exalted lady] took hold of the ... of the royal dais of Anu of heaven (Sum, Anu/heaven).

Other passages refer to a solar cella in an unseen portion of heaven above the sky where the Sun-god passes the night. In a Sumerian hymn to Inanna, Inanna as Venus shines in the sky after the Sun enters his cella at sunset: dutu agrun.na.šè ku 4 .ra.a,ba dinanna i,zi.gim an.ta im.gùr.ru.a.zu.dè BE 31 12 rev. 24-25 After Utu goes into his cella, Inanna, like a fire, you are raised up high. In parallel Old Babylonian Prayers to the Gods of the Night, the Sun-god enters his cella before the stars come out: da-a-a-an ki-it-tim a-bi ki-it-tim dšamaš i - te-ru-ub a-na ku-um -mi-šu

RA 32 181:14-15 (cf. 180:12-13) The Judge of Truth, Father of Truth, Shamash has gone into his cella. Earlier, both prayers call the night-resting place of the Sun utul šamê lap of heaven' (RA 32 180:7 181:7). In GHT 47-49 and 91-93, Utu leaves his cella when he rises at dawn, and a star apparently rises from a cella at the horizon in Namburbi: 11 ÉN mul agrun.ta 1 è'. [a (...)] an.ur.ta rè'. [a] R. Caplice, Or 39 113:1 Incantation: Star rising (...)] from the cella, risin[g] from the horizon. Other cellas of Ištar, Shamash, and Sin, however, may be partially visible from earth. In an Esarhaddon oracle, Ištar can see Esarhaddon when she sits in 11 Note also O. Gurney, AAA 22 92 i 179 -80; Kramer AV 307:9; ELA 132, 204; and the Sagigameš incantation CT 17 19 i 34-39, where the Sun-god sets into a house and then rises the next morning. R. Capuce (OrNs 42 299-305) suggests that agrun is a name for the Apsu in these contexts.

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The Geography of the Heavens

her golden heavenly cella, but the Assyrian king can only see a light of elmešustone: I have established your (Esarhaddon's) throne below the great heavens. From the golden eella in the midst of heaven I will keep wateh over you. I will make a light of elmesu-stone shine before Esarhaddon, the king of Assyria. 4R2 61 iii 29-35; see p. 13)

The light of elmešu-stone in Ištar's cella may be compared with the elmešustone in Bel's cella in KAR 307 33. This, however, is problematic, because the goddesses' throne in the interior of the heavenly cella was not visible from earth. A possible solution to this problem might be that the light inside the cella shone through a window and was therefore visible from earth, while the interior of the cella was not visible. Yet, Etana and the eagle apparently find that Ištar's heavenly cella has no window in The Etana Epic (see pp. 50-51). Similar problems arise in a hymn to Sin, where the throne of the Moon-god is located in the šamû ellûtu 'clear heavens' (Perry Sin 5a:2-5c:16), and a š u. i 1 a to Shamash, where the Sun-god sits on a dais in the šamû ellûtu (KAR 55:1-2; Ebeling Handerhebung 52). Such passages, where the Sun, Moon, and goddess Venus (Ištar) are visible in their shrines even when their shrines are not visible, demonstrate that the visible and non-visible heavens were not always totally separate in Mesopotamian thought.

The Visible Heavens (The Sky) The Heavens of the Stars, Sun, Moon, and Planets

Sumerian and Akkadian texts preserve three systems for describing the geography of the sky. First, Akkadian texts speak of paths of the heavens belonging to the stars and the seven ancient planets (u du. i dim = bibbu) : the Moon, Sun, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. Second, both Sumerian and Akkadian texts refer to a system of dividing the heavens into quadrants that may be compared with the four quarters of the earth's surface. Third, a number of Sumerian terms and their Akkadian equivalents are used as names for various portions of the sky. These include an.ur = išid šamê `Horizon' and an.pa = elât šamê 'Zenith' (see pp. 233-42). In Mesopotamian texts, no region of heaven exists between the earth's surface and the level of the stars, sun, and moon for lesser astronomical objects such as comets or shooting stars. For example, the term kakkabu 'star' applies to meteors as well as fixed stars (see CAD K 48 2). The Paths of the Heavens. The division of the visible heavens into paths (barranu) is the most common system in astronomical texts. In these texts, the

term usually refers to bands of the sky reaching from the eastern to western horizon. Both "The Astrolabes" and Mul-Apin divide the sky into three stellar

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The Visible Heavens (The Sky)

paths that cross the sky from the eastern to western horizon: a northern path belonging to Anu, a central path belonging to Enlil, and a southern path belonging to Ea. The Moon and Sun-gods use similar paths, called "The Path of Sin" and "The Path of Shamash," on their way across the sky: N

Path of Enlil

Path of Anu

Path of Ea

S

The Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea. The 'Astrolabes" and star-catalogue of Mul-Apin (Mul-Apin I i 1—ii 35) list Anu, Enlil, and Ea-stars that travel along the Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea over the course of the year. These paths are also mentioned in many other astronomical and astrological texts where, on occasion, the positions of astronomical phenomena are defined in terms of the Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea-stars. For example, CT 41 23:10-12 states that a mišhu and a sallummû 'comet' move from the Path of Anu to the Path of Enlil; Parpola LAS I 290 notes that Jupiter has moved from the sector (qaqqaru) of mulsipa. z i . a n , n a (Orion) in the Path of Anu to the sector of muI gisg i g i r (The Chariot') in the Path of Enlil; Borger Esarh. 2 i 37—ii 9 reports that Venus and Mars appeared in the Path of Ea; and Enuma Anu Enlil preserves numerous protases where Venus or other planets stand in one of the three stellar paths: 12

šumma mild i l i .b ad ina sit šamši u ereb šamši ina harran šu-ut den-l2l izziz-ma .. . [šumma mull d i l i . bad ina sit šamši u ereb šamši ina harran šu-ut da-nu izziz-ma .. . [šumma muIl d i l i . bad ina sit šamši u ereb šamši ina harran šu-ut dé-a izziz-ma .. .

ACh Ištar 4 10-12 12 See also E. Weidner, AfO 7 170-78; ACh Ištar 16:13'-15'; ACh Supp, 34:5-7, 37:34-47; 53:10-15; LAS I 64 rev. 12, 18, 110+300:5 (LAS H p. 375), 289: 15-16, 290:17, rev. 5, 10, 14, 324:3; AfO Beih, 22 224 rev. 14; SAA 8 144: 6, 175:1, 4, 211:1, 323:4, 326:3, 349 rev. 2; Halley's Comet 24:16-17.

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The Geography of the Heavens

If Venus at sunrise or sunset stands in the Path of Enlil .. . [If ] Venus at sunrise or sunset stands in the Path of Anu [If ] Venus at sunrise or sunset stands in the Path of Ea ... This demonstrates that Mesopotamian astronomers used the Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea to locate heavenly bodies in the sky, just as modern astronomers use degrees of latitude and longitude. In Mul-Apin II, the location of the Sun in the sky over the course of the year is explained in terms of the three stellar paths: 1. From the 1st of Adar to the 30th of Iyar, the Sun travels in the Path of Anu; breeze and warm weat[her]. 3. From the 1st of Sivan to the 30th of Ab, the Sun travels in the Path of Enlil; harvest and heat. 5. [Fr]om the 1st of Elul to the 30th of Arahsamnu, the Sun travels in the Path of Anu; breeze and warm weather. 7. [From the 'sit of Kislev to the 30th of Shevat, the Sun travels in the Path of Ea; cold weather. Mul-Apin II Gap A 1-7 (see p. 173) Here the Sun is said to travel through the Path of Anu during the spring and autumn seasons, the Path of Enlil in summer, and Path of Ea in winter, demonstrating that the day sky, as well as the night sky, was divided into Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea. This system of dividing the sky into Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea was well known in the first millennium. References and allusions to the Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea are found outside astronomical and astrological works in literary contexts, including Ee V 1-8, a Prayer to the Gods of the Night (A. Falkenstein, AnBi 12 284:43-44), an incantation from Sultantepe (STT 73:92-94), and Assurbanipal's Acrostic Hymn to Marduk and Zarpanitum, where Marduk establishes harranu 'paths' and malaku 'courses' in the sky for the constellations (SAA 3 9 no. 2 rev. 8-9). 13 Such literary allusions demonstrate that non-astronomers were familiar with the practice of dividing the visible heavens into Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea. The earliest evidence for the Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea dates to the second millennium. The final portion of a Boghazkoi version of a Babylonian "Prayer to the Gods of the Night" lists 17 stars belonging to Ea and refers to stars of Ea, Anu, and Enlil (KUB 4 47 rev. 43-48; see p. 158). However, this prayer does not use the term harranu. The earliest surviving evidence for /jarranu itself dates to the late second millennium; the Middle Babylonian "forerunner" to the 'Astrolabes" HS 1897 from Jena and the slightly later Middle Assyrian Astrolabe KAV 218 (Astrolabe B; see pp. 158-59). Nevertheless, the fact that stars maintain regular courses must have been observed in very early times. 13

Note also AfO 17 89:4-5 (see pp. 146-47); RA 48 8:23; Borger Esarh. 14 Episode 6, cf. BBR 98:41-42.

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The Visible Heavens (The Sky)

Although no text ever explicitly states that the Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea together comprise the entire sky, this may be inferred from a passage in a NeoAssyrian Prayer to the Gods of the Night that parallels KUB 4 47: kakkab d1M šuti (iIl LI) dIMiltani(si.s a) d IMšadê(k ur) d IMamurri(m ar) šu-pu-tu4 kakkabanumes a-hu-tu4 šâ i-ni la i-mu-ru-štiff-nu-ttii mu-pal-su la mu-pal-su la ip-pal-su-šû-nu-tù šu-ut da-nu al-si-ku-nu-(ši) šu-ut denlil(50) na-as-hu-ra-ni šu-ut dé-a gi-mir-ku-un pu-uh-ra-ni

A. Oppenheim, AnBi 12 283:40-284:44 Star of the north, south, east, and west, brillant stars, others which the eye has not seen, whieh observers or non-observers have not observed, those of Anu, I cry out to you. Those of Enlil turn to me. Those of Ea, all of you, gather around me. In this context, all of the visible stars in heaven seem to be included among the stars of Anu, Enlil, and Ea. 14 The stars that have not been seen are probably 14 Note a nearly identical passage in STT 73:92-94. The Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea may also be said to eomprise the entire heavens in two obscure passages in Enuma

Anu Enlil:

m°lé,tùr.ra dim.ma.an.na [du 1 ,.ga] a-na nap-bar samêe DIM : na[p-ha-ru (..)] a-na bi-nu-ut samê e i-qab-bi

BPO 2 42:22-22a

The "Cattle-pen"-star, all of Heaven [so it is said] for all of Heaven. DIM means tot[ality (..)], so it says, for the creatures of heaven. harran dsamas se-pi-it tarbasi (t ù r) fu-ut (Tea (d harran dšamaš m[i-sil talrbasi su-ut da-nu harran dšamas reš bit tarbasi (é. tù r) BPO 2 42:24b su u[t den lzt ... The Path of the Sun at the foot of the cattle-pen belongs to Ea, The Path of the Sun in the m[iddle of the ca]ttle-pen belongs to Anu. The Path of the Sun at the head of the eattle-pen belong[s to Enlil .. . In the first passage, the entire heavens (naphar same) seems to be a cattle-pen for the creatures of heaven (i.e., the stars). In the second passage, the eosmie eattle-pen seems to be divided into thirds, with each third representing one of the three astronomical paths. The Path of Ea in the south is at the bottom, the Path of Anu in the center of the sky is in the middle of the cattle-pen, and the Path of Enlil in the north is at the top of the eattle-pen. However, a parallel places the Path of Ea at the top of the cattle-pen and the Path of Enlil at the bottom (see BPO 2 43 n. 24b). The Path of the Sun erosses into all three paths, as in Mul-Apin H (see p. 173). As noted by W. Heimpel (Fest. Sjoberg 24952), the eattle of the sky in this context, as in Sumerian literature, are the stars. If so, the identification of the "cattle-pen" with only the eastern horizon in BPO 2 p. 17 2.2.1.2.1 must be abandoned, sinee stars are found throughout the sky. For a further reference to stars behaving like cattle in The Exattation of Ištar, see p. 145. For a previous study of the cattle-pen (viehhof) of the stars, see Koch Neue Untersuehungen 119-32. The image -

-

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The Geography of the Heavens

lesser stars that are not very bright or stars that have yet to rise or already set. Although unseen, the powers of such stars could still have been helpful. Astronomical Lines of Latitude, Meridians, and Stellar Sectors. The Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea themselves were divided into stellar zones. On the circular Astrolabes, the sky is divided into 36 zones by "latitudinal lines" marking the borders of the Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea and "longitudinal meridians" marking the beginnings and ends of the months. In Ee V 1-8, Marduk draws misrctu 'boundary lines' when he arranges the stars of the `Astrolabe" in Ee V 1-8. Grids of heavenly lines and meridians, such as those drawn on the circular Astrolabes, establish stellar sectors in the sky. Evidence for such stellar sectors is found in Mul-Apin and other texts from the first millennium where the terms qaqqaru `area' and pirku 'sector' refer to areas of the sky surrounding important stars. Likewise, in the late period the positions of the stars of the zodiac and normal stars were used to define sectors of the sky called h a.l a = zittu. 15 The Paths of the Moon, Sun, and Planets. The Moon, Sun, and planets move over the course of the year in relation to the fixed-stars. Both the terms Path of Sin and Path of Shamash, like the Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea, refer to fixed bands in the sky. In Mul-Apin I iv 31-39, the closing section of Mul-Apin I, the Path of Sin (harran dsîn) is explained in terms of 18 stars (see p. 171). According to this list, the Moon moves through the stellar paths in the annual sequence Anu-Enlil-Anu-Ea-Anu. The term Path of Shamash (harran dšamas§) occurs as a fixed band in the sky in astronomical reports and omens where stars reach (kasadu) the Path of Shamash at night (i.e., enter into the course that the Sun follows during the day). 16 Likewise, in Ee V 21-22, the Moon-god is commanded to approach (rutaqrib) the Path. of Shamash on the last day of the lunar month (um bubbulim), where neither the Sun nor Moon is seen in the sky at night. The opening section of Mul-Apin II identifies the Path of Shamash and the paths of the planets with the Moon's path: of the starry sky as a eattle-pen may provide indirect evidence that the sky was pereeived as a dome. The original pictograph of the TOR (eattle-pen) sign ineludes a dome-shaped element (see Labat 87a), suggesting that some cattle-pens had dome-shaped roofs that might have been compared with the apparent dome of the sky. For the "head" and "foot" of the sky, see also CAD S/2 294 e. 15 For qaqqaru = 'stellar sector', see p. 166; SpTU I 94; AfO Beih. 22 219 EAE 20 Text a, 285:29. Compare also the later 12 h a.l a = zittu `parts' of the microzodiac (AfO Beih. 22 39 n. 24; E Rochberg-Halton, JAOS 108 57-60). For boundary lines and meridians in the sky, compare also TCL 6 14 37-rev. 4 where planets stand (are stationary) on tallu `dividing lines', DUR (= riksu, turru) `bands, ropes', and mIAIR (perhaps a writing for misir; see A. Sachs, JCS 6 74). Compare also DUR in TCL 6 13 ii 7-8, rev. ii 1-20 (E Rochberg-Halton, ZA 77 212-15, ef. 222-24). Lines are also established in the sky by joining stars to form qû `ropes' in BM 78161 (D. Pingree and C. Walker, Fest. Sachs 31322). For tallu and zittu on sundials, see E. Rochberg-Halton, Centaurus 32 164-65. 16 See E. Weidner, AfO 7 175-77; SAA 8 49 rev. 4, 230:5-6; BPO 2 39 n. II 13b, SpTU I 90 rev. 8.

The Visible Heavens (The Sky)

257

The path which the Moon goes in, the Sun goes along. The path which the Moon goes in, Jupiter goes along. The path which the Moon goes in, Venus goes along. The path which the Moon goes in, Mars goes along. The path which the Moon goes in, the planet Mercury, whose name is Ninurta, go [es along]. The path which the Moon goes in, the planet Saturn goes along. Mul-Apin II i 1-6 (see pp. 171-72) The Moon's Path is itself defined by the 18 stars in the Path of Sin in the immediately preeeeding closing section of Mul-Apin I. Thus, the paths of the Sun and the five modern planets in Mul-Apin II, like the Path of Sin in Mul-Apin I, crosses the boundaries between the Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea. Later in MulApin II, the Sun is said to travel in different stellar paths during different seasons of the year (see pp. 172-73). In a few other texts, the paths of the Sun, Moon, and planets are called tâlaktu 'eourse' or malaku 'way' rather than barranu 'path'. Parallel terms "Way of the Moon" and "Way of the Sun" occur in Late Babylonian astronomical texts (ACT 200 i 20; O. Neugebauer and A. Sachs, JCS 21 202 rev. 23-24, cf. 201 8, 15, 20), while the courses of the Sun, Moon, and planets are called tallaktu in E. Reiner and D. Pingree, AfO 25 52 rev. ii 1, 13. In Assurbanipal's Acrostic Hymn to Marduk and Sarpanitum, both "ways" and "paths" of constellations reach from east to west: ina sitar (GIS.NIM) u silan (Gls.sir) lu-maš-ši us 1 ziz may har-ra-nu ma-la-[ku i]s ruk šû nu ma û-[ x x x x x x 1

Craig ABRT I 32 rev. 9 (SAA 3 9) In the east-sky and west-sky he set up the constellations, ] 17 provided them with paths and way[s], and . [ On other occasions, however, harrânu seems to be used with the sense of the course of the Sun or planets in the sky at a given time, rather than a fixed band of the sky. For example, cloud formations (nidu) stand in the "Path of the Sun" in two of four omens in Thompson Reports 182 (= SAA 8 401) and the path of the rising Sun in a third: 18 Dg

20

KUR ina harrani (k a s k a l) -stir ni-du šUB.MEs

Thompson Reports 182 rev. 1 (SAA 8 401) If the Sun rises (and) cloud-formations lie in its path. The Shape, Length, and Width of the Astronomical Paths. In the "Astrolabes" and Mul-Apin, it is assumed that the paths of the stars are circles, with 17 18

= samû, see pp. 229-30. For the Path of Shamash, Path of Sin, and the planets, see also E. Weidner, AfO 7 175-78, SpTU I 100:8' (Path of Mercury), Livingstone 24:24 (quotes Ee V 21-22), SAA 8 55: rev. 7-8. For "The Path of the Sun" in Gilg. IX, see pp. 98-99.

giš

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The Geography of the Heavens

stars returning to their original positions each year. Thus each path should consist of 360 degrees. As noted on p. 186, this may be confirmed for the Path of Enlil in both the ziqpu-star text BM 38369+ and the blessing formula from Sultantepe, STT 340:12. In the Neo-Assyrian astronomical text AfO 25 52 rev. ii 1-4, the daily course (tâlaktu) of the Sun is also described as a circle (see pp. 190-91). In AO 6478, the Path of Enlil is 364 degrees long, instead of 360 degrees, but this slight anomaly reflects the author's intention to provide a better approximation of the true astronomical year of 3654 days (see p. 185). Nevertheless, there is no direct statement in any surviving text that circles of the Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea, or Sin and Shamash, extended beneath the earth's surface, although this may be inferred from ziqpu-star texts, where the Path of Enlil is 360° or 364° long, and from Astrolabe B Section D, where most of the Anu, Enlil, and Ea-stars rise on the eastern horizon six months (180 days = 180°) after setting on the western horizon. The width of the "Way of the Moon" (malak dsîn) is provided in late astronomical texts. In ACT 200 this figure is said to be 12 degrees: epésu(dù)s' šâ NIM u SIG sa sin(30) arha(ab) ana arhi(ab)12 ma-lak dsîn(30)

DAGAL

ACT 200 i 20 (cf. SpTU I 94 20-21) The procedure for (determining) the positive and negative latitude of the Moon month by month. 12 (degrees) is the width of the "Way of the Moon" An equivalent measurement in cubits (6 k(i) is provided in parallel texts (JCS 21 201:8, 15, 20; JCS 21 202 BM 33739 rev. 2). This total of 12° represents the maximum north-south deviation of the course of the Moon over the 18-year lunar cycle. 19 Only the length of the Path of Enlil is measured in surviving texts. In the ziqpu-star text AO 6478, ziqpu-stars that circumambulate the Path of Enlil travel 655,200 leagues (see p. 186). The Movement of Heavenly Bodies. No text explains in detail how the stars, Sun, Moon, and planets move through the sky. In KAR 307, the stars are said to be inscribed upon the lower jasper heavens. As noted on p. 15, stars inscribed onto the stone floor of heaven would not have been able to move independently. Thus, the author of KAR 307 may have explained that stars appear to move in the night sky because the entire sky rotated. Such a cosmographic belief could not explain the independent motion of the Sun, Moon, planets, comets, or shooting stars, nor could it explain why circumpolar stars remained above the horizon throughout the year while other stars rose and set. 20 19 For 1 Ki7S = 2°, see CAD A/2 74 ammatu A i. For further discussion of the astronomical mâlaku, see ACT pp. 191 -93 and JCS 21 203-5. 2 Ô See B. Alster, ASJ 13 30-31 for a team of four lions that apparently pulls the ehariot of Utu across the sky.

The Visible Heavens (The Sky)

259

The Four Quadrants of Heaven. The tradition of the four quadrants of heaven parallels the tradition of the four quadrants of the earth's surface. This tradition in heaven is illustrated by Mul-Apin II i 68-71 (see pp. 172-73), where the constellations Ursa Major, Piscis Austrinus, Scorpio, and the Pleiades are said to lie across the north, south, east, and west winds. Other examples of this tradition include Šurpu II 165-67 and Prayers to the Gods of the Night, which refer to stars of the four winds (A. Oppenheim, AnBi 12 283:40; OECT 6 75:16). A diagram of the four quadrants of heaven may be found on BagM Beih. 2 no. 98 where triangles labelled "Southwind" and "Westwind" are placed in the corners of a square above and below the label "sunrise:' The placement of these triangles suggests that the four quadrants of the heavens were equal triangles rather than four equal squares (see p. 194). 21

The tradition of the four quadrants of heaven may also be illustrated by two Sumerian passages where Venus shines in the sky. In a hymn to Inanna, the goddess is said to shine in ub.an: nam.dingir.zu dnanna dutu,gim an.kù.ge dalla.è izi!.gar.zu ub.an.na zalag.ge kukku zalag.ge.éš gar A. Sjoberg, ZA 65 198:209-10 (cf. 206 n. 210) Your divinity, like the Moon and Sun, is resplendent in the clear heavens. Your torch shines in the "Corner of heaven", turns darkness into light. The Duties and Powers of the Gods preserves a parallel passage, with an.ub instead of ub.an: 21 For the four winds in astrology, see AfO Beih. 22 57-60. Note also SAA 8 33435 and Sachs-Hunger Diaries I 118 -372:11: is]tu MURUB4 šamê ana s[I ... 'fr]om the "center of heaven" to the nor[th .. '

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The Geography of the Heavens

an.na diri.ga.aš ki.a sig.ge.dam an.ub.ta da.gan lil.da ba.tab.ba Sumer 4 pl. IV vii 19'-29'

dbélet.i.li

.. .

So that Venus would waft in heaven, to make her go down in "earth", to make her burn from "Heaven's Corner" through the entire atmosphere? ... 22 The term an.ub also also occurs in The Kesh Temple Hymn paralleling ki.ub: gâ.nun g â.ra.bi an.ub ki.ub (TCS 3 173:96). Both ub.an and an.ub are probably variations of Sumerian names for the the four quadrants of the earth's surface, an.ub.da.lImmu.ba and ub.da. lImmu.ba. The term an.ub is formed on the same pattern as an.ur, an.pa, and an.šà, while ub,an is similar to the term ub.da.an.ki , which occurs in two Sumerian hymns see p. 299). A related Akkadian geographical term, kippat sâr erbetti `Circle of the Four Winds', occurs in an epithet of Adad and The TukultiNinurta Epic (see p. 206; CAD K 399 kippatu 3d). 23 A number of other passages demonstrate the close affmities between heavenly and earthbound geography. These include Sargon Geography 31, where Sargon rules all the lands sibip šame 'under heaven' (see p. 86); passages in first millennium royal inscriptions where kings claim dominion from "horizon to zenith" (see p. 330); and the Sumerian phrase mul.mul.kur,kur. ra `stars of the lands', which oeeurs in an incantation (LKA 145:4 // AMT 104:19). Parts of the Sky. A repertoire of equivalent Sumerian and Akkadian terms are used as names for parts of the sky. These terms, including Sumerian an.ur, an.pa, and giš.hé, and their Akkadian counterparts ifid same, elât same, and supuk same, are examined on pp. 233-42. The repertoire of terms represents a traditional means for expressing the geography of the heavens, rather than a scientifically based system, and as such does not refer to welldefined parts of the sky. The `Atmosphere." The area between the stars and earth's surface is not considered a separate level of the universe in KAR 307. Other texts, however, demonstrate that this spaee is a part of heaven, and there is some evidence that this spaee had its own geography and perhaps even a Sumerian name. Two Assyrian texts speak of kippatu `circles' of the winds, which may be compared with the kippat šame 'circle of heaven' and kippat burûme 'cirele of 22 For lit as a possible name for the atmosphere, see below. The verb sig is understood as a phonetie variant for sig with the general meaning sapâlu `to be low, to go down'. For t ab = hamâtu 'to glow, to burn', see CAD H 64. 23 The division of the heavens into eight sectors is attested in the planisphere CT 33 10 (Koeh Neue Untersuchungen 56-61). Cf. Lugale 77 and CAD S/2 136 saru A2 for Lyon Sar. 10:66, 17:82.

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The Visible Heavens (The Sky)

the sky' in heaven, 24 In the inscriptions of Shalmaneser III, Adad is said to hold the kippat šâre 'circle of the winds' (J, V Kinnier Wilson, Iraq 24 93:4). In The Tukulti-Ninurta Epic, the Assyrian king excercises control over the kippat šar erbetti 'circle of the four winds' (Machinist TN Epic 66 1A:13). This 'circle of the winds' may be illustrated by the cirele enclosing the square with triangles labeled "Southwind" and "Westwind" on BagM Beih. 2 no. 98. Sumerian 111 may be used as a name for the level of the winds between heaven and earth. In The Duties and Powers of the Gods, the glow of Venus in heaven seems to shine in 111: an.ub.ta da.gan lil.da ba.tab.ba Sumer 4 pl. IV vii 25 29' (see p. 260) '-

.. , to make her (Venus) burn from "Heaven's Corner through the entire atmosphere(?) This sense of 111 also fits the name of the god Enlil, perhaps literally `lord of the open space'. Enlil, as the ruler of the earth's surface, would have been responsible for the open space above his region. The source of winds is never fully explained in Mesopotamian texts. One possibility is that winds were believed to issue out of the heavens and underworld and then to blow into Mesopotamian from the edges of ` the earth's surface. Wind-blown demons come from heaven and the underworld, and winds are said to blow in from an.ur 'the horizon' in an "Incantation of the Wind" (OECT 5 23:1-4; see p. 204). 25 24 For kippatu in cosmie eontexts, see CAD K 399 and J. V, Kinnier Wilson, Iraq 24 100-101. 25 Note, for example, the opening lines of The Moon-God and the Demons, where wind-demons are born in ul.bé = supuk samê (CT 16 19 i 1-5). In the World Map of Claudius Ptolemy, winds blow from an area beyond a cosmic ocean that extends to the ends of the earth's surface. For a reproduction of this map, see E. L. Stevenson (ed.), Geography of Claudius Ptotemy. In the Book of Enoch, portals and treasuries of the winds are found at the ends of the earth (see Charles Apocrypha II Enoch 18:34-36,41,76.

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The Geography of the Heavens

The Composition of the Heavens There are two traditions concerning the composition of the heavens. According to one tradition, the heavens are made of water. In the second, the heavens are made of stone. Water

Explicit statements that the heavens are made of water are found in Babylonian texts. Examples include Ee IV 137-46, where Marduk builds the heavens out of part of the watery corpse of Tiamat, and Inamgišuranki, where the Akkadian name for heaven, samê, is explained as ša me 'of water' (Livingstone 32:6; see p. 224). In Ee IV 139-40, Marduk stretches out a skin and assigns guards to keep the waters of heaven from draining downward onto lower regions of the universe. These traditions may be compared with Genesis 1, where the primeval waters are divided in two, with the upper waters positioned above the firmament (Tr), and Psalms 104:3 and 148:4, which speak of waters above the heavens. The tradition of watery heavens almost certainly derives from the observation that waters fell from the heavens in the form of preeipitation. This observation is reflected by close connections between Sumerian and Akkadian names for heaven and words for 'rain'. In Sumerian, the word for 'rain' šèg is written with a dirt-compound that ineludes the Sumerian name for heaven, an: A.AN (water of the sky') (see CAD Z 160-61). As noted earlier, Akkadian samû `heavens' (plural) is related to a common word for precipitation samû/šamûm/ *nami'urv, pl. šami'dtu, šamâtu. The phenomenon of rainfall is explained in different ways. In the Lamatu incantation 4R 2 58 // PBS 1/2 113, dew is connected in some way with the stars (see p. 244). In Sumerian texts, rain issues out of cosmic teats called u b u r. a n . n a 'teat of heaven', whieh serve as rain ducts in the sky. In a royal hymn to Rim-Sin, the opening of these ducts results in rainfall: ubur.an.sud.aga gal hu.mu.ra.ab.tag 4 seg x(TM.A).an.na hu.mu.ra.ab.šèg UET 6/1 102:23 (Steible Rim-Sin 6) May he open the teat of the elmešu heavens, may he make the rain of heaven rain down. Because sud.aga = elmesu (see CAD E 107), the surface of the heavens appears to be made of elmesu-stone, and rain water may be stored in reservoirs above. Additional examples of the "teat of heaven" are found in the Vase Inscription of Lugalzagesi (BE 1/2 87 iii 27-28), a Rim-Sin inscription (RIM 4 272:6), a hymn to Nanna (A. Sjoberg, ZA 63 32:24), and a passage in a hymn to Enki: ubur.an.na .ke 4 gal hu.mu.na.ab.tag 4 [ ... ] buru 14 .bi h6.na.[ .. . A. Sjoberg, JCS 29 31 B i 7 (photo ZA 63 50 no. 2) May he open the "teat of heaven" for him, may he ... the harvest [ .

, .

The Composition of the Heavens

263

In this last passage, the opening of the "teat of heaven" apparently provides rain for the harvest. Thus, the "teat of heaven" seems to provide life-sustaining rain waters, just as human and animal teats provide mother's milk. 26 Sumerian u b u r. a n. n a may have an Akkadian equivalent. Some examples of the term serret šamê, translated by CAD 135 4 as lead-rope of heaven', may in fact represent serret same `breasts of heaven', with serret understood as a plural eonstruct of sirtu 'breast' written with doubled r (note, for instanee, Ee I 85 ser-ret). Examples where the meaning `breasts of heaven' is more appropriate than lead-rope of heaven' include passages in an Agum II inscription and a late hymn to Marduk: 27 ser-re-et samêe rap-§u-ti li ip pe to šü er-pé-tu zu-un-na li'-[ .. .

5R 33 vii 16-21 (Agum II) Let the breasts of the broad heavens be opened for him, let the clouds . {...1 the rain. [mu-ša-a]z-nin na-al-si ina ser-ret šâ-ma-mi [ x x j x šâ-a-ri ti-iq me-e e-lu qar-ba-a-ti W Lambert, AfO 19 61:9-10 Who rains down dew from the breasts of heaven, [ .. j . wind and raindrops over the fields. Stone

The tradition that the heavens are made of stone is found in KAR 307 and AO 8196, where the floors of the three heavens are made of luluddnitu-stone, saggilmud-stone, and jasper, and the Rim-Sin hymn that refers to elmesu-stone heavens (Steible Rim-Sin 6:23; see above). The tradition of stone heavens may derive from an observation that certain heavenly objects were the same color as minerals. For instance, Sirius shines like copper in the inscriptions of TiglathPileser I (AKA 140:15), and a shooting star is said to shine like zagindurû (lapis or lapis-colored glass) in astronomical omens (S. Langdon, Babyl. 7 233:20-21). The identification of astronomical bodies with stones, although probably originally based simply on color, may have lead to a tradition that the heavens themselves were composed of stone. Such a belief might have been confirmed by finding stone meteors that fell from the sky. 28 26 Note also Gudea Cyl. B iv 8-9: im.ma.al.an.na .ke 4 ubur si ba.ni.ib.sâ `On the cow of heaven she set the udder aright' (see Jaeobsen Harps 428 n. 14). 27 For serret šamê/samcimi, see also BWL 126:17 318 nn. 17, 18 (Shamash Hymn); MSL 2 99-101; TCS 3 116-17 n. 332; AHw 861 petit' N 5; E. Reiner, Astrat Magic in Babylonia, 59; Van Soldt Solar Omens 66 note to line 14'; and see W. Farber, JNES 49 316-17 4.5: 3 for variants MUL samdmil[MU]L.MES samdmilser-ret šamê (here translated 'the Milky Way'). 28 For falling stars reaching the earth's surfaee, see Oppenheim Dreams 283. For a study of meteorites and meteoric iron, see J. Bjorkman, Meteors and Meteorites in the Ancient Near East, 110-18; and R. Chadwick, GMS 3 161-70. In Sumerian texts, the heavens themselves may be compared with the blue color of lapis-lazuli. The tablet dub mul.an "Tablet Stars of Heaven' which may have been an early star chart, was made of lapis-lazuli (see pp. 166-68).

264

The Geography of the Heavens

The Size of the Heavens Mesopotamians believed that the heavens were extremely broad and high. In many contexts, the heavens are said to be vast (d a gal = rapšu), and a number of texts make it clear that the heavens extended over the entire earth's surface. Twice, in Etana and in AO 6478, the immense size of heaven is expressed in measured units. In Etana, Etana and the eagle fly upward for six leagues without reaching the top of the heavens, and AO 6478 states that a circumnavigation of the Path of Enlil entails a voyage of 655,200 leagues (see p. 186). In CT 46 55, an even larger figure of 1,432,000 is recorded as the distance between asurrakku and earth, but the meaning of asurrakku in this context is not certain (see pp. 178-79).

The Shape of the Heavens The visible heavens were thought to be circular in shape, since the clear sky appears to be a giant circle. Textual evidence for this belief is found in the terms kippat burûmé 'circle of the sky' (see pp. 226-27) and kippat šamê `circle of heaven'; the latter occurs in two hymns to the Sun-god: za.e zâlag.ga.ta sag.kul sù.da an.na.ta at-ta-ma nu-ur-šû-nu šk kip-pat samêe ru-qu-ü-tu 4

4R 19 no. 2:51-52 You are their (mankind's) light in the circle of the distant heavens (Sum. distant bolt of heaven) 29 [muš-te-š ] it niée meš sâ kip-pat samê e [at-ta]

K. 2830:3 (Gray Samaš pl. III, Bit Rimki) [You are the director of people in the circle of heaven Further evidence for the circular shape of the sky may be found in the circular shape of Assyrian planispheres (CT 33 10-12), the circle enclosing the winds in BagM Beih. 2 no. 98, and the terms kippat šâré 'circle of the winds' and kippat sdr erbetti `eircle of the four winds' (see p. 260). Although the clear sky seems to us to be shaped like a dome, rather than a flat cirele, there is no direct evidence that ancient Mesopotamians thought the visible heavens to be a dome. Akkadian kippatu are always flat, circular objects such as geometric circles or hoops, rather than three dimensional domes. Nonetheless, evidenee for dome-shaped, or curved, heavens may be found in the ziqpu-star text BM 38693+, the blessing formula STT 340:12, and AO 6478, where the Path of Enlil is 364° long. All three imply that the Path of Enlil, at least, is a curved band that encircles the earth's surface (see p. 258). However, 29 9'šs a g. k u l =

sikkuru 'bolt' (see CAD S 256).

The Bonds of Heaven

265

this does not prove that the surface of heaven is curved, since stars need not have necessarily traveled along the surface of the sky. 30 There is also no direct evidence for the shape of the high unseen heavens, although it is likely that these levels too were thought to be circles. A cryptic reference to the possible circular shape of the Heaven of Anu may be found in a šu.fla where the Heaven of Anu is identified with a nignakku 'censer' (Ebeling Handerhebung 14:16). Censers were flat, round objects. The Bonds of Heaven A number of texts refer to cosmic bonds, including 'bonds' (riksu, markasu), lead-ropes' (serretu), and the durmahu (great bond'), which secure the heavens in place. The most complete explanation of how the heavens are secured is found in Ee V 59-62 (see p. 119). Here Marduk twists Tiamat's tail into the durmahu, and uses this durmahu to keep the heavens in place over the earth's surface and Apsu. Then, Marduk uses Tiamat's crotch as a wedge to hoist the heavens upwards and keep the heavens from falling. Later in Ee V 65-68, Marduk seeures the riksu `bonds' of heaven and earth and fastens serretu `leadropes', which he hands to Ea in the Apsu. These lead-ropes may be tethered to higher regions of the Universe, and Ea, the lord of the bottom region in Enuma Elish, may hold these lead-ropes to keep the higher regions from floating away. 31 Although it is not certain how the apparatus described in Ee V looked when it was fully operational, it is likely that it had the appearance of a lattice of rope work, with the durmahu as its eentral axis. This durmahu may have been a thick reed bundle, since a "reed" durmahu is listed in -Urra VIII: gi.dur.mah = su-hu (durmahu) gi.dur.mah = gir-ri-gu-u gi.dur.gal = MIN MSL 719:186-88 Both the gi.dur.mab and gi.dur.gal, according to their etymologies at least, should be large objects made of reeds. 32 3o For a possible drawing of a dome vault of the sky at Mari, see W. G. Lambert, Or 54 202. See also p. 256 n. 14. 31 Note also the parallel in A. George, Iraq 48 134 B 8-9 (see p. 120). For further examples of markasu, see CAD M/1 283 4, and perhaps also Kinnier Wilson Etana 66:10 (ef. 64 I/G 2). For serretu, see CAD S 135 ab, W. G. Lambert, Kraus AV 196:2, SAA 3 121 K. 5708a 6', and Erra IIId:3. Note also the turru `bond' in Ee VII 80; Maqlu 23:33; Cohen Canonical Lamentations 154:17, with dupl. pp. 172-73; and Ugaritica V 32:20'. Another example of Marduk lifting heaven upward may be found in Ludlul Bel Nemeqi. CAD N/2 89 2' understands the parallel lines Ludlul Bel Nemeqi I 9, 11: (dmarduk) sa nagbi qatesu ta inašsû sama'û (BWL 343 // D. J. Wiseman, AnSt 30 102) as explaining that Marduk's hands hold up the heavens: "from the depth, do his (Marduk's) hands not hold up the heavens?" However, a more likely translation of the line "(Marduk) whose full hands the heavens cannot bear" is suggested by a bilingual parallel (see BWL 344 n. 9). 32 For the bonds of heaven and earth, see also George BTT 261-62; CAD S/2 381: seams (šibitu) of heaven and earth.

266

The Geography of the Heavens

The Gates of Heaven The Moon, Sun, stars, gods, and others pass through gates 33 when entering and leaving the heavens. Gates occur in both Sumerian and Akkadian texts and lead into both visible and nonvisible levels of heaven. Gates to the High Heavens

Gates to the high heavens are found in Adapa, Nergal and Ereškigal, and Etana. In Adapa, Adapa travels along the harran šame `Path of Heaven' to the Gate of Anu, where he finds the gods Tammuz and Gišzidda guarding the gate (see p. 65). In Nergal and Ereškigal, the simmelat šaraami 'Stairway of Heaven' leads to the Heaven of Anu by way of the Gate of Anu, Enlil, and Ea (see p. 66). In Etana, Etana and the eagle enter the Heaven of Anu by passing through the Gate of Anu, Enlil, and Ea, and the Gate of Sin, Samaš, Adad, and Ištar (see pp. 50-51). Gates to the Visible Heavens

In numerous Akkadian and Sumerian texts, the Moon, Sun, Venus, and the stars are said to pass through heavenly gates. As these astronomical bodies rise or appear in the sky, they are said to enter the heavens through gates. Conversely, as they set or disappear, they leave the heavens through gates. For instance, in an ikribu- prayer to Sin, the Moon-god opens the door of heaven when he appears in the sky (S. Langdon, RA 12 190:3); Adad thunders by the gate of the Moon in SAA 8 119:5; the opening of the abulli ša same rapšüti `gate of the vast heavens' allows stars and constellations to take their places in the night sky in a Prayer to the Gods of the Night (OECT 6 74:10-75:17), and Venus is said to open the bolt of heaven in a bilingual hymn (Cohen Eršemma 132:21). A gate of Ištar also occurs in a broken context in an astronomical diary (Sachs-Hunger Diaries 1 106 -373 rev. 17'). In Enki and the World Order, the weather-god Iškur, rather than the Sun, Moon, or Venus, is charged with opening the bolt of heaven (Benito Enki 102:313; see p. 143). Thus, elouds, winds, and other atmospherie phenomena can also enter the sky through gates. The gates to the visible heavens are probably to be located at the eastern and western ends of the sky, where the Sun rose and set. In Old Akkadian cylinder seals, the Sun-god is depieted as rising through a gate by mountains that may be identified with the mountains east of Mesopotamia (see RIA 7 531 "Mnsu"). In Ee V 9-10, the gates and bolts of heaven are placed on the right and left sides of heaven.

33 For gates and gate-parts of the heavens, see W. Heimpel, JCS 38 132-40; E Rochberg-Halton, JNES 42 214; CAD S/1 344, S/2 410; and n. 34 below. For recent studies of gates and gate-parts, see J. Scurlock, Or 57 421-33; E. Leiehty, JCS 39 190-96.

The Gates of Heaven

267

Parts of the Gates of Heaven

A number of passages refer to parts of the heavenly gates. Examples include the "Door of Anu" in The Exaltation of Ištar (see pp. 144-45), a SinIddinam cone where Utu opens the g'šsi.gar.an.na 'bolt of heaven' (RIM 4 167:3), and a passage in Bit Rimki where the sun lifts the key-peg of the bolt in heaven's gate: 34 g'ssi.gar

an.kù.ga.ta g' kak ni.kak.ti te.ga.da.zu.dè šu -li -i-ka 4R 17:5-6 + duplicates (see CAD N/1 256 namzaqu bil. section)

ina si -gar šamê e ellûti mes sik -kat nam-za-qf ina

When you lift the peg of the key from the bolt of the clear heavens. Approaches to the Gates of Heaven

There are three ways to reach the gates of heaven in Akkadian literature. First, it is possible to fly to the gates from the earth's surface, like Etana and the eagle. Second, it is possible to take a road, like Adapa. Third it is possible to climb a stairway like the simmelat šamâmi `Stairway of Heaven' in Nergal and Ereskigal. The Sun may use a similar stairway in an Old Babylonian prayer where Shamash opens the dalât samê 'doors of heaven' and ascends a lapislazuli stairway (Starr Bârû 30:9//RA 38 87:10-11; see p. 66). Another reference to a ramp or stairway of some sort may be found in a Nabonidus inscription that calls the wall of Babylon Imgur-Enlil a melit samâmi 'Incline of Heaven' and simmelat ganzer 'Stairway of the Underworld' (E Al-Rawi, Iraq 47 4:15). Although it is never explicity stated how the Sun, Moon, stars, and planets reach the gates of heaven in other texts, it is logical to assume that the astronomical paths continued below the horizon. This may be confirmed by AO 6478, where a full circuit of the Path of Enlil includes travel below the horizon. 34 Note also the namzaqu 'key' of Anu in UVB 15 36:12. For additional examples of the gates of heaven and parts of the gates, see n. 33 above; Sjoberg Moongod 167:20; E. Ebeling, OrNS 17 420:7, 16; BA 5 572 no. 6:16-17; BiOr 28 10 Aššur IV 23; LKA 32:18, 139 rev. 20//140:5; STT 144 9'-10'; ZA 67 10:34; EWO 313; ACh Sin I:8; Craig ABRT 1 22 ii 15; Cohen Eršemma 122:13-16,125:14-17,132:21; SpTU III 75:21; SAA 8 459:11-12.

Chapter 12

Names for Earth

Numerous Sumerian and Akkadian names for earth and the regions of earth (the earth's surface, Apsu, and underworld) are known. Most names for earth are also names for the earth's surface and the underworld. For instance, ersetu, the most common Akkadian name for earth, is also the common Akkadian name for the underworld, and the three earths of KAR 307 30-38 (earth's surface, Apsu, and underworld) are identified as ersetu elitu, ersetu qablitu, and ersetu šaplitu `upper, middle, and lower earths'. Nonetheless, with the exception of the term ersetu qablitu `middle earth' in KAR 307 35, no name for earth is also used as a name for Apsu. Names of the Apsu are examined on pp. 30617, while names for earth, the earth's surface, and the underworld are examined below. Additional geographic terms and names for the sea are examined on pp. 295-306. Names for `Earth', the Earth's Surface, and the Underworld Lexical Evidence

Most common names for earth, the earth's surface, and the underworld, as well as a number of rare or poetic names, are found in lexical lists.' The lists include at least 17 Sumerian names and 16 Akkadian names: Sumerian Names a. r â arali bùr

Akkadian Names ammatu arali/arallû bit ddumuzi `House of Dumuzi' danninu ersetu erset la târi 'Earth of No Return'

ganzer idim

ki

For previous studies of names for earth and underworld, see Sladek ID 58-61, with further bibliography; Jensen Kosmologie 160-260; J. Bottéro, Mesopotamia, 273-75.

268

Names for `Earth, the Earth's Surface, and the Underworld

269

ganzerlkanisurra hastu `The Pit' irkalla kukku `Darkness' kiûru kur kiûru kur.gi kukkû `Darkness' kunugi/kurnugia 'Earth kurnugû 'Earth of No Return' of No Return' lammu lam/lamma mdtu šaplitu `Lower Land' lamhu qagqaru uraš 2 urugal/erigal 'Grave/Great City' kir5

ZÉ

The longest lists of names are found in Group Vocabulary CT 51 168, and parallel sections of Diri and Proto-Diri. Group Vocabulary CT 51 168 iv 62-70 lists nine equivalents of Akkadian ersetu: 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70.

kur lam ZÉ

a.ra

er-se-tu = MIN = MIN = MIN

ara.lI KUR.BAD = MIN IGI.KUR

kur.gi kur.nu.gi ga.an.zé.er

= MIN = MIN = MIN = MIN

Parallel sections of Diri and Proto-Diri explain the diri-compounds IGI.KUR.ZA (see CAD E 308 ersetu): 145. hi,lib

IGI.KUR

146. 147. 148. 149. 150. ga.an .zèr 151. 152. 153. 154.

IGI.KUR.ZA

ha.li.ib

IGI.KUR

IGI.KUR

and

pa-an er-se-ti er-se-tu ir-kal-la dan-ni -na ga-an-zé-er bâb(k â) der-se-ti der-se-tu dir-kal-la ddan-ni -na ga-an-zè Diri II 145-54

ir-ka-al-la pa-ni er-se -tim

2 Sumerian uras is a name or both heaven and earth (see MSL 14 194; Ea I šamû, ersetum). Cf. E Wiggerman, Natural Phenomena 282, 291. For 338b-c: uras = samû, u r a sš as a name for heaven, see p. 231.

270

Names for Earth

[g a.an.zé.er IGI.KURZA]

da-ni-na ka-ni-sur-ra ku-uk-[ku-u] ba-ab er-se-tim

Proto-Diri III a, aa-e Both h i l i b/h a l i b and ganzer are names for the entrance to the underworld, as well as the underworld as a whole. The entry puni ersetim 'front of the underworld' is a literal translation of the diri-compound IGI.KUR, since IGI is equivalent to panu and kur is equivalent to ersetu, while ganzer = bab erseti indicates that ganzer is a name for a gate to the underworld. In GHT 167 a gate to the underworld is called kâ.gal ganzer `ganzer-gate', and Inanna enters the underworld at é. g al ganzer The Palace ganzer' in Inanna's Descent (see Sladek ID 59-60). The significance of the divine determinatives before the names in Diri II 150-53 is uncertain. The next longest fully preserved list is found in the lexical tablet LTBA 2 2 i 2-5: = er-se-turn da-ne-ne ki-û-ru = MIN [i]r-kal-lum = MIN [l]am-mu = MIN

Other lists with three or more names are found in Aa, Igituh, Nabnitu, Group Vocabularies, and Proto-Izi: 3 Aa VI/4 29-33 (MSL 14 441) [a.ra.1i] = URUxx]

[u.ru.gal = URUxx]

= er-se -tum

a-ra-li bit ddumu-zi = er-se -tum qâ ab-rum -

Igituh (Short Version b) 157-59 (B. Landsberger, AfO 18 82-83) kur.nugi,.a = su I ,KUR a.ra.li BAD = a-r[a-al-lu -u] = er-[se-turn] IGLKURg a.an.zér ZA Nabnitu XXV 72-74 (MSL 16 226) la'.ra.li = a-ra-al-l[u-u] É,KUR MIN .BAD aru. gaI UrUgal

= MIN = MIN

3 For single entries and lists with two entries, see Aa IV 3 107 (MSL 14 381); Ea H 121-22 (MSL 14 252); Ea IV 162-62a (MSL 14 361); Ea VI C 12'-13' (MSL 14 432); Ea H Aššur MA Exeerpt 5 (MSL 14 261); Diri HI 205 (see CAD E 308); Diri IV 236-37; Lanu C iii 2 (see CAD K 564); Proto-Izi I Bilingual D i 21'-22' (MSL 13 37); Shi 216 (see MSL 4 206); Group Voeabulary K. 4177+ i 14-15 (see CAD I 177); Emar 537:282, 300; 568:52'.

Names for `Earth, the Earth's Surface, and the Underworld

271

Group Vocabulary CT 18 30 rev. i 28-30 a r a l i (É.KUR.BAD) = er-se-tu arali = bit mu-ti = na-aq-ba-ru arali Unilingual Proto-Izi 1 386-89 (MSL 13 30)

u rug a l ga-ab-"rum urugalerle -tum a.ra.li kur.nu.gi4 Antagal D 122-24 (MSL 17 205) [ x x] KAxKI = er-se-tum [IGI.KU]R.zA = it-kal-l [um] [É.KUR].BAD naq-[ba-rum]

Many of the Sumerian names also occur in PBS I/2 112 in a list of z i. p à (exorcism) formulas: 4 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69.

zi dnerigal den.lfl uru.gal.la .ke4 [hé] zi dereš.ki.gal nin šà ki.gal.la .k [e4 hé] zi dnin.giš.zi.da gu.za.lâ kur.ra.ke 4 [hé] zi dnam.tar na.gal.mah kur.nu.gi.gi.da.k [e 4 hé] zi dhuš.bi.ša agrig kur.ra.ke4 hé zi dšâr.šâr.bi.id giri.lâ kur.ra?.ke 4? hé zi dè.ta.na sukkal arali x (É.KUR.BAD)s'?.ke 4! hé zi dbil?.ga?.meš? x x kur.ra? hé zi ganzer. [ke, hé] PBS I/2 112 61-69 (collated)

61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69.

Be exorcised by Nergal, the Enlil of the underworld. Be exorcised by Ereškigal, who is queen in the underworld. Be exorcised by Ningišzida, the `chair-bearer' of the underworld. Be exorcised by Namtar, the chief nagallu of the underworld. Be exorcised by Hušbiša, the steward of the underworld. Be exorcised by Saršarbid, the butcher of the underworld. 5 Be exorcised by Etana, the vizier of the underworld. Be exorcised by Gilgamesh', the .. of the underworld. Be exorcised by.... , the door-man of the underworld.

A parallel bilingual list of zi.pà-formulas is found in K. 3179+ (see E. Ebeling, ArOr 21 387:50-388:80a). Note also OECT V 19:30, 33-34, K. Deller, NABU 1991 pp. 1416 no. 18. 5 Compare the tree sarsabittu (= Sumerian ONE.DU.KU). dNE.DU is of course the gatekeeper of the underworld (see J. Bauer, Altorientalistische Notizen 1992 no. 45).

272

Names for Earth

ki, kur, ersetu The most common names for earth are Sumerian ki and kur and Akkadian ersetu. The name ersetu is the most common Akkadian name for earth, the earth's surface, and the underworld, but Sumerian kur and ki only have some of these meanings. Sumerian ki is the most common name for earth and the earth's surface but is almost never used as a name for the underworld. In contrast, kur, the most common name for the underworld in Sumerian texts, is never used as a name for the earth's surface, although Sumerian k u r. k u r 'the lands' is a common name for this region. The three names also occur in compound names with ki, kur, or ersetu as the first element. Examples include the underworld name 'Earth of No Return' (kur.nu.gi = erset la târi), and ki.gal = kigallu 'Great Earth'. ki. Sumerian ki occurs countless times in the cosmic pair an.ki 'heaven and earth' and in parallelisms between heaven and earth in texts such as Gilgameš and the Huluppu-Tree, Enki and Ninmah, and KAR 4, where an and ki are separated from one another in early times (see pp. 134-42). As such, ki also oceurs as a name for the exposed upper surface of earth, the earth's surface. Two examples of ki = ersetu as the underworld occur in bilingual texts. In SBH 139 no. iv 157-58, 600 Anunnaki are placed in ki = ersetu (see p. 18). These 600 can be identified as the 600 Anunnaki of the underworld in KAR 307 37. In Utukku Lemnutu XVI, demons are sent down to ki = ersetu from the earth's surface: 6

udug.hul a.lâ.hul ki.šè ba.ba.e iI .dè û-tuk-ku lem-nu a-lu-û lem-nu ana ersetimtim li-ri-du

CT 16 22: 280-281 + duplicates (cf. O. Gurney, AAA 22 86: 136-137) Let the evil utukku-demon and evil alû-demon go down to the underworld. kur. The ordinary name for the underworld in Sumerian texts is kur. In addition to the meaning `underworld', kur is also equivalent to Akkadian šadû 'mountain' and matu 'land'. The sign KUR was originally a pietograph of a mountain, so the use of kur as a name for the underworld may indicate that the underworld was once conceived to be a mountain, thought to lie in the mountains outside the Mesopotamian plain, or was placed inside a cosmic mountain that the earth's surface rested upon. Unfortunately, the origins of kur as a name for the underworld are not explained in surviving materials.?

Also note M. Geller, AfO 35 17:48. It has long been argued that a eosmie mountain or weltburg exists in Sumerian cosmology on the basis of Labar and Ašnan 1: hur.sag.an.ki.bi .da `mountain of heaven and earth' (see TCS 3 51 n. 2). 6 7

Names for `Earth, the Earth's Surface, and the Underworld

273

Numerous examples of kur as a name for the underworld occur in texts concerned with the underworld. For example, the term occurs more than 60 times in Manna's Descent, over 30 times in Gilgameš and the Huluppu-Tree, and more than 10 times in The Death of Ur-Nammu. Two other examples occur in the list of mes in Inanna and Enki, where Inanna steals mes, ineluding kur.e 11 .dè 'descending to the underworld' and kur.e Ii .da 'ascending from the underworld' (Inanna and Enki 28:23, 54:19-20). In ID 4-13 Inanna is said to abandon her temples before descending to kur. Later in ID 284-85, the goddess ascends from kur. Additional examples oceur in a wide variety of texts, including the zi.pà-formulas in PBS 1/2 112 (see p. 271) and a hymn to Nergal: garza.gi Is.sa 1ni'.da.ri kur.šè ršu.du 7.du7' dnerigal lugal u4 .šu x x x x d en,lil dnin.lil.bi sag.e.eš mu.ni.ri[g7] BL 196:26-28 (collated AOAT 11 15) Enlil and Ninlil gave Nergal, the king who daily... , the (duty of) perfecting the eternal rite and everlasting deed for the underworld, as a gift. ersetu. Akkadian ersetu is the most common Akkadian name for both the earth and underworld and is paired with Sumerian kur 'underworld' and ki `earth', as well as common Sumerian names for the underworld, including arali, ganzer, kur.nu.gi , and urugal in lexical and bilingual texts. Like Sumerian kur and ki, ersetu has a number of other meanings, ineluding 'land, sterritory, ground, and soil' (see CAD E 308). The term is a cognate of the most common names for earth in other Semitic languages such as Hebrew (yirt, 'ere?) and Arabic (,l, ard). Unambiguous examples of ersetu as a name for the underworld occur in a wide variety of texts. In Gilg. XII, the Akkadian parallel to Gilgames and the Huluppu-Tree, Akkadian ersetu translates Sumerian kur 'underworld' more than 30 times (see Shaffer Sumerian Sources). Other examples of ersetu as the underworld occur in dream omens (Oppenheim Dreams 327:71-328:85); An Underworld Vision of an Akkadian Crown Prince (SAA 3 68-76); epithets of underworld gods such as Nergal, Ereškigal, Namtar, Bidu, and Enmešarra (see CAD E 311 2b); and a funerary text, where offerings are presented to the underworld gods in ersetu: qi-§a-a-ti a-na mal-ki da-nun-na-ki ù ildnimes a-si-bu-ut ersetimt'm [ü] -qa-a-is K. 7856:19-22 (TuL p. 58)

I presented offerings to the malku-gods, the Anunnaki, and the resident gods of the underworld. Unambiguous examples of ersetu as a name for the earth's surface are more difficult to identify, but three ean be found in The Shamash Hymn, Atra-basis, and a prayer to Shamash and Adad. In Shamash Hymn 176-79, the Sun-god

Names for Earth

274

shines over the earth (ersetu) and vast earth (ersetu rapaštu) during the day (BWL 136). In the prayer to Shamash and Adad, Adad brings rain down on the kippat erseti 'circle of the earth': ... dadad qû ra du ina kip pat ersetit' û šâ az na an (nu) nu uh! šu! BBR II no. 100:16 (CAD Z 43 zandnu A 2) -

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... heroic Adad who brings down bounty on the "circle of the earth" ... Here kippat erseti is the earth's surface, since rain falls from heaven directly onto the surface of the earth. In a broken passage in Atra hasis, the flood-hero explains that he must build his boat because he can no longer live on the erset denlil 'Earth of Enlil' (Lambert-Millard Atra-basis 90:48). In the parallel passage in Gilg. XI 41-42, Utnapištim explains that he can no longer remain on qaqqar denlil `The Ground of Enlil', and so must descend to the Apsu. The only portion of earth above the Apsu is the earth's surface. -

ersetu elitu, qablitu, saplitu 'Upper, Middle, Lower Earth'. The terms ersetu elitu, qablitu, saplitu occur in KAR 307 35-38 as names for the three

earths. The Upper Earth is the earth's surface where Marduk settles the spirits of mankind; the Middle Earth is the Apsu of Ea; and the Lower Earth is the underworld, where 600 Anunnaki are imprisoned (see pp. 16-19). The term ersetu qablitu 'Middle Earth' also occurs a number of times in the Late Babylonian flood tablet BE 39099 (Lambert-Millard Atra-basis 11621) as a name for the earth's surfaee, rather than the Apsu: [ .. ] x taq-bi-ma (da-nu u) dadad is-sur e-le-nu [dsîn u dnerga] l is-sur ersetuxû qab-li-tu4 [ši-ga-ru n]a-ah-ba-lutam-ttii [a-na-ku as]-sur qa-du lab*-me-Ia

Lambert-Millard Atra-hasis 118:16-19 [ .. ] . You (Enlil) commanded and (Anu and) Adad guarded above, [Sin and Nerga]l guarded the Middle Earth, [The Bolt, "NJ et of the Sea", [I (Ea) gu] arded together with my lahmu. Here, 'Middle Earth' is placed between Anu's region above and a region of Ea below. The earth's surface lies between Anu's heavens and Ea's region, the Apsu, where lahmu are often to be found (see p. 308). ki.gal =

`Great Earth'

Sumerian ki.gal and Akkadian kigallu have a number of meanings. In addition to 'underworld', ki.gal can be the base or pedestal of a statue, and the dirt-compound KI.GAL can be read s u r 7 with the meaning berûtu `foundation

Names for `Earth, the Earth's Surface, and the Underworld

275

pit' (see CAD B 213). Akkadian kigallu also has the meaning `base or pedestal of a statue' and `raised platform for cultic use' (see CAD K 348). 8 As a name for the underworld, ki.gal occurs in the name of Ereškigal, the Queen of the Underworld, as explained in PBS I/2 112:62: zi d e reš.ki.gal nin šà ki.gal.la .k [e4 he] 'Be exorcised by Ereškigal, who is queen in the underworld'. Elsewhere, ki.gal oceurs in epithets of underworld deities (see TCS 3 54 n. 16), and Inanna turns her mind toward ki.gal from heaven before descending to the underworld in Manna's Descent: 9 an.gal.ta ki.gal,šè géštu.ga.ni na.an.gu [b] dingir an.gal.ta ki.gal.šè géštu.ga.ni na.an .[gub] dinanna an.gal.[ta ki.gal.šè] géštu.ga.ni na.an .[gub] Sladek ID 103:1-3 She se[t] her mind from great heaven to great earth. The goddess [set] her mind from great heaven to great earth. Inanna [set] her mind from great heaven [to great earth.] A phonetic variant ki.gul is attested in the epithet of Ningišzida lugal. ki.gu.la `Lord of the Underworld' in TCL 15 25 rev. 10' and in an incantation to Utu (B. Alster, ASJ 13 46:55). This name can be compared with the term tuš.gu.la 'great abode' that occurs as a variant of tuš.kur.ra 'abode of the underworld' in GHT 164 (Shaffer Sumerian Sources 69). Akkadian kigallu is used as a name for the earth as a whole as well as the underworld. In literary contexts, kigallu occurs in parallelisms with the poetic names of heaven asru (W. G. Lambert, JAOS 88 131 rev. 6; OIP 40 103 no. 1:13) and ermi danim (OIP 2 149 v 4; Borger Esarh. 75:3). In the urviving Akkadian portion of a bilingual work, kigallu is paired with tâmatu `ses' (W. G. Lambert, JCS 21 129:28). Elsewhere, kigallu is clearly a name for the underworld. In Late Babylonian royal inscriptions, foundations are placed on kigallu or irat kigalli 'surface of the underworld' (see CAD K 349 3). The underworld god Enmešarra is called sabit kippat kigalli `Holder of the Circle of the Underworld' in R. Borger, ZA 61 77:48, and kigallu may be explained as the region of the dead in a Late Babylonian fragment: ] t ki'-gal ilanimeš i-N[E ... ] ki gal la : ersetimtim sâ mi [tu? ti? .. . -

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SpTU I 164:3'-4'

] the ... of the gods he . [ ] kigallu (means) "earth of the d[ead"? .. ,

.. .

8 For ki.gal in an Old Akkadian inscription with a possible meaning `burial mound', see A. Westenholz, AfO 23 27-31. 9 Compare CT 16 10 iv 25-30 II SpTU III 64 iv 17-26 (Utukku Lemnutu 10; see p. 280).

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There are no surviving examples of the equation ki.gal = kigallu, but ki.gal corresponds to ersetu in poetic names for the date-palm. Urra III 276 lists g'si b i l a. k i .gal 'Heir of the Underworld' (MSL V 116) as an equivalent of gišimmaru 'date-palm'. Both Malku II 129 (ZA 43 239+dupl.) and Explicit Malku III (CT 18 2 i 57+dupl.) equate gišimmaru with apil ersetim 'Heir of the Underworld'. Thus ki.gal in ibila.ki .gal corresponds to ersetim in apil ersetim. ki.ùr.ra, kiûru The Akkadian synonym list LTBA 2 2 i 2-5 lists Akkadian kiûru, danninu, lammu, and irkallu as synonyms of ersetu. A near Sumerian homonym ki.ùr.ra is explained as néreb ersetim 'entrance of the underworld' in Antagal G 22 (MSL 17 221), and this same name also occurs in Akkadian in a š u. i l a to Nabu paralleling the name for the sky burûmû: ga-mir šip-ti u purussê (e š . b a r) bu-ru-me ki-ùr-ra šâ da-num den-lzl dé-a se-mu-u zi-kir-sû

W Mayer, Or 59 461:9-10 (Nabu) who controls the incantation and decision of sky and earth, whose command Anu, Enlil, and Ea obey. Thus, kiûru may be a loanword from Sumerian. The other possibility is that both the Sumerian and Akkadian names are derived from Urartian qewra, since this word corresponds to ersetu and qaqqaru in Urartian-Akkadian bilingual texts (see CAD K 476 kiûru B; AfO Beiheft 8/1 44 no. 23). Any relationship between the cosmic place name and the homonym meaning "metal cauldron" (see CAD K 476) is unclear. ki dereš.ki.gal = asar dreskigal The Place of Ereskigal' See p. 289. Sumerian kur.nu.gi4 /gi, kur.nu.gi4 /gi.a, kur.nu.gi4 .gi4 /gi.gi Akkadian kurnugû, erset la târi `Earth of No Return'

The compound name of the underworld 'Earth of No Return' is well attested in lexical lists and Akkadian texts but rare in Sumerian and bilingual works. The significance of the name is that human beings and most gods who descended to the underworld were never able to return to their former homes, as explained in ID 83-84: a.na.àm ba.du.un kur.nu.gi4 .šè ha.ra.an lû.du.bé nu.gi4 .gi4 .dè šà.zu a.gim tum.mu.un Sladek ID 113 83-84

Why have you (Inanna) come to the Earth of No Return? What brought you to take the road whose traveler never returns?

Names for `Earth, the Earth's Surface, and the Underworld

277

In Akkadian times, the name was construed as the underworld name kur = ersetu plus a negative infinitive. In the Sumerian forms kur.nu.gi 4 .gi4 and kur.nu.gi.gi , the stem is reduplicated as with nu.gi 4 .gi 4 .dè in ID 84. Sumerian and Bilingual Examples. Both short Sumerian writings kur.nu.gi and kur.nu.gi 4 , as well as long writings kur.nu.gi 4 /gi.a and kur.nu.gi 4 .gi4 /gi.gi are known. Proto-Izi and Proto-Izi Bilingual preserve kur.nu.gi4 (MSL 13 30:389; 37:22'), while Group Vocabulary CT 51 168 iv 69 preserves kur.nu.gi . The long writing kur.nu.gi 4 .a occurs in an excerpt from = ša (MSL 12 106:65) and Lanu C iii 2' (see CAD K 564). The writing Lu kur.nu.gi.gi occurs in PBS I/2 112 64 and kur.nu.gi 4.gi4 occurs in a bilingual Sagigameš incantation: dnam.tar udug.gal urugal.la kur, 1 nu'.gi4 .gi4 .ke4 dMIN tic tuk ku rabû° šâ gab-ri e[r-s]e-ti la ta-ri STT 173:1-2 + duplicates (J. Prosecky, ArOr 47 50) Namtar, great utukku-demon of the grave (and) 'Earth of No ^ {eturn' Another writing, kur.nu.gi .da, occurs in an oath formula in LKA 77: : niš den.uru.ul.la zi den.uru.ul.la : dnin.uru.ul.la dnin.uru.ul.la [kur].nu.gi.da.ke4 bé.pà : šâ kur-nu-gi LKA 77 i 5-7 (E. Ebeling, ArOr 21 361) Be exorcised by Enurulla and Ninurulla of `The Earth of No Return'. In the oath, kur.nu.gi .da is in the genitive case, so da following the base gi must represent the ending ede plus the a of the genitive ak. Other Sumerian examples of the term occur in ID 83 (see p. 276) and an Enuru incantation found on an amulet: "kin.gi4 .a dumu.nam.tar.me. [eš] ka.gal kur.nu .g[i.(a)] im.ta.è.me.e [š]

RA 64 68:5-8

The messenger, the son of the fates, came forth from the gate of "The Earth of No Re[turn".] Akkadian Examples. Akkadian scribes rendered 'Earth of No Return' both by a loanword kurnugû and an Akkadian translation erset la târi. In lexical lists, the loanword occurs in Lanu C iii 2' (see CAD K 564), Igituh (short version) (AfO 18 82:157), and Ea II 122 (MSL 14 252), while kur.nu.gi 4 .a and kur.nu.gi are translated as erset la târi in Lû (MSL 12 106:65) and Proto-Izi Bilingual (MSL 13 37 22'). Outside lexical lists, the term is almost always written KUR.NU.GI4 ,A, but it is not clear if this writing represents the Akkadian translation erset la târi, the

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loanword kurnugû, or a loanword 'kurnugia'. Both Igituh (Short Version b 157), where kur.nu.gi 4 .a is translated as šu `itself', and the opening line of The Descent of Istar indicate that KUR.NU.GI4 .A was not always meant to be translated: a-na KUR.NU.GI4 .A qaq-qa-ri l[a ta-ri]

CT 15 45:1

An Akkadian rendering of the line ana erset la târi qaqqari la târiseems awkward, so KUR.NU.GI4 .A here almost certainly represents one of the loanwords. If so, qaqqari la târiin the second half of the line was probably meant to explain the Sumerian loanword, just as lullû-amelu 'human being' in Gilg. I iv 6 and Ee VI 7 consists of lullû a loanword from 1u.ù lu Iu, plus the Akkadian equivalent amélu. I ° In a medical incantation KUR.NU.GI4 .A is contrasted with ersetu:11 ,

ersetu(ki) u KUR.NU.GI4 .A sa- lam-štid LOU KUR.NU.G[I4 .A .. .

AMT 32/1:1 'Earth' and underworld, his image from the underw [orld .. . kur.gi. Sumerian k u r. g i= ersetum occurs immediately before k u r. n u. gi 'Earth of No Return' in Group Vocabulary CT 51 168 iv 68-69 and should be the opposite of this underworld name. It is possible, though, that kur.gi is a phonetic writing for kur.gi s `dark earth', since numerous passages explain that the underworld is a dark region (see pp. 352-53). Another possibility is that kur.gi is a scribal error for kur.nu.gi , which was taken up in the scribal tradition. Vast Earth ersetu rapastu, ki.dagal, kur.dagal. The term ersetu rapaštu is a common Akkadian name for the underworld but also occurs a few

times as a name for the earth's surface. Sumerian equivalents of the term, ki.dagal, ki.ni.dagal, and kur.dagal, occur in bilingual texts. Examples of ersetu rapaštu as a name for the underworld include passages in Nergal and Ereškigal, incantations, and royal inscriptions. In the Amarna version of Nergal and Ereškigal, Ereškigal offers Nergal kingship in the Vast Earth as a wedding gift: at-ta lu mu-ti-ma a-na-ku lu cg-ša-at-ka lu še es bi it ka šar-ru-ta i-na er-se-e-ti ra-pa-as-ti lu-us-ku-un tû-up-pa ša né-mé-e-qi a-na qâ-ti-ka at-ta lu hé-e-lu

K. Bezold, Tell el-Amarna Tablets 82 rev. 34-36 (EA 357:82-84) 10 For a similar phenomenom with the name of Ursa-Minor, m ° lmar.gid.da.an .na = eriqgi samê/samami, see W. Horowitz, ZA 79 244. Note also W. G. Lambert, Kraus AV 198:55: dnin-an-na = sar-ra-tu4 sa ma a me. 11 Other examples of KUR.NU.GI4 .A inelude BWL 130:80 (Shamash Hymn); W. G. Lambert, AfO 19 117:23; KAR 76 rev. 14, 227 ii 3; Oppenheim Dreams 311:5; STT 73 35-36; Deseent of Istar 12, 93-94; Erra I 185; STT 28 iv 19' (Nergal and Ereskigal, ef. SpTU I 1 iii 3': KURNU.G[I ...). For KUR.NU.GI/GI4 = the loanword kurnugû, see Deseent of Ištar 41, 86, BWL 70:10 (The Babylonian Theodicy, see pl. 19), Farber Ištar und Dumuzi 242 65'; R. Borger, ZA 61 77:43.

Names for `Earth, the Earth's Surface, and the Underworld

279

You will be my husband, I will be your wife. I will have you receive kingship in the Vast Earth. I will place the tablet of wisdom in your hand. You will rule. In the late Uruk version of the text, Ereškigal instructs her vizier Namtar to sit on her underworld throne in the Vast Earth prior to a planned visit to the Heaven of Anu:

e -li -ma ti-sab ina giškussi parakki(ba ra) šarru-ü-tü di-ni er- se -tu4 ra-pa-cg-tu4 i-pu-us at-ta SpTU I 1 iii 7'-8' Go up and sit on the throne of the dais of kingship. You render the judgements of the Vast Earth. Elsewhere, the underworld gatekeeper bears the epithet idugal ersetu rapaštu 'chief gatekeeper of the Vast Earth' (Farber Ištar und Dumuzi 174 n. 146), and an incantation to Shamash speaks of the vast earth in conjunction with the gates of the underworld: te -pe-et-ti abul(k a.gal) ersetiti rapaštiti tu -nam-mar nu-ra ana da-nun -na-ki tu-gam'-mar' di-nam

KAR 32:30-31 You open the gate of the vast earth. You make light shine for the Anunnaki, you settle the court case. In Late Babylonian inscriptions, foundations are placed at irat erseti rapasti 'surface of the vast earth', just as they are placed at irat erseti and irat kigalli `surface of the underworld' in similar contexts (see CAD I 186-87 irtu 1 c). In other passages, `vast earth' refers to the earth's surface. In Ee VII 6869, Marduk as Enbilulu-Regal is said to rain down abundance on the 'vast earth', and dew settles on the vast earth in LKA 70 ii 25:

kima na-al-ši er-se-tim rra-pa'-kg-tim li-iz-nun] ... like dew of the va[st] earth [may you rain down]. Shamash Hymn 176-79 list duties of the Sun-god over the earth's surface, including those concerned with the `vast earth', and humans on the `vast earth' gaze at the sun in a bilingual parallel: 12 ki.ni.dagal.la zu.šè igi.ne.ne i.nam.ma

sâ er-se-hm rapastimtim di-gi-il-§i-na at-ta-ma NI.NI igi nam.mi.in .di hùl.la un.dagal.la.eš .àm

i-na-at-ta-la-ka-ma i-had-da-a nišûmeS rap-sâ-a-ti 4R 19 no. 2 53-56

On the vast earth, their gaze looks toward you. The widespread people look at you and rejoice. 12 For the sea described as a ki.ni.dagal.la and ersetu rapaštu, see Sjoberg Moongod 45:37 and 52 n. 37. Note also EWO 306 (see p. 341).

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Names for Earth

In Utukku Lemnutu IV, ki.dagal = ersetu rapastu is reaehed by way of the "Gate of Sunset" and is associated with Nergal: ÉN

en.e an.gal.ta ki.dagal.la .šè géštu.ga.a.ni nam.[gub] be -lu is-tu šamê e rabûtimes a-n[a] erseti ti ra-pa-é s-ti tic-zu-u[n-su is-kun]

en.gal den.ki.ke4 an.gal.ta ki.dagal.šè géštu.g[a.ni nam.gub] be -lu ra-bu-ü dé-a is-t[u] r samê e ^ [rabûti mes] a-na erseti n 1 12 1 -[zu-un-su is-kun] rapécsti

dingir.gal an.gal.ta ki.dagal.la .šè géš[tu.ga.ni nam.gubl

ilu rabû1' is-tu samê e rabûti mes ana erseti[ t'rapastit1 tie-zu-un-su iš-kun]

kâ.gal dutu.šu.a.šè gést[u.ga.ni nam.gub a-na a-bul-lu4 e-reb dsamši ši [ii-zu-un-su iš -kun] x da.ri dnerigal x [ []xx[ SpTU III 64 iv 17-26//CT 16 10 iv 25-30

The lord set his mind from the great heavens to the vast earth. The lord Enki/Ea [set his mind] from the [great] heavens to the vast earth. The great god [set his mind from the great heavens to the vast earth. [He set his mind toward the `Gate of Sunset'. . eternal Nergal . [ .. . This passage parallels ID 1-3, where Inanna turns her mind from an.gal 'the great heavens' toward the underworld (ki.gal) before traveling to the underworld gates (see p. 275). Enki/Ea's departure toward the underworld here in Utukku Lemnutu can be compared with GHT 14-16, where Enki sails to the underworld kur. In another bilingual passage, `The Vast Earth' (k u r. d ag al = ersetu rapaštu) is the underworld abode of an asakkku-demon (CT 17 3:22). `Great Earth'k u r. g al = ersetu rabitu

The Akkadian term ersetu rabitu occurs as a name for the underworld twice in the Sultantepe version of Nergal and Ereškigal (STT 28 v 10', vi 6; see AnSt 10 122, 124), and twice in An Address of Marduk to the Demons (W G Lambert, AfO 19 117:26, 32; see pp. 356-57). In the second text, a new arrival to the underworld must pass the gate and stream of the Great Earth. Another example of the gates of ersetu rabitu may be found in the apodosis of an astronomical omen: ]xe

KUR,GAL

har-gal-lu-SW it-tab-ba-ku

ACh Adad 19:36 13

... ] .. the locks of the great earth will be overturned. 13

ACh Adad 17:34 preserves a similar apodosis:

dadad séc KUR: sâ A.AB.BA har gal li s'a HEHE.

Names for `Earth', the Earth's Surface, and the Underworld

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The feminine pronoun ša indicates that KUR.GAL should be grammatically feminine, like ersetu rabitu, rather than masculine as in šadû rabû 'great mountain'. A parallel, where the doors of the underworld hold their locks in place, is found in Bit Meseri II: dbi-dub atû rabû sâ ersetimt'm pa-nu-us-sü li-iz-ziz it gisdaltu hur gul li sû li is bat

G. Meier, AfO 14 146:127-28 Let Bidu, the chief door-keeper of the underworld, stand before him, and let the door hold its locks fast. Sumerian examples of kur.gal as a name for the underworld include the epithet of Nergal en.kur.gal (A. Sjoberg, ZA 63 4:39, RIM 4 345 no. 11:1); an Ur III literary text where Nergal "fills" kur.gal (see A. Sjoberg, ZA 63 10 no. 39), and a Surpu-incantation where Girra provides a light in kur.gal: dgirra še.er.gal kur.gal.ta [Il].la kir5 ktIkku.ga zalag nu.[x.x] ug.an.na .ke4 an.na lè'(uD.[Du).an.na] si.kù.ga.a.ni bu.mu.r [a.an.sum] Surpu 48 107-10 (BBR pl. 73 102-5) cf. Surpu 53 6-13

ÉN

Ineantation: Girra, Great Light, [exalt] ed throughout the Great Earth. In the Netherworld and "Darkness" where light does not [ .. ] [when] the light of heaven (the Sun) in the sky ri [ses,] let hi [m give] his pure ray, to you. `Earth of the Dead' kur.ug 5 .na = erseti mitûti

The term `Earth of the Dead' occurs in an obscure passage in a Dumuzi text as the destination of Dumuzi: 14 in.di in.di gaba kur.ra. [šè] il -lak i -lik a -na i -rat er-se-tim

[u4].zal.e u4 .zal.e kur.ug 5 .na .šè us-ta- bar-ri : %amaš ir-ta-bi-sü ana er-se-tim mi-tu -ti

4R 30 no. 2 22-25 He goes, he went to the surface of the underworld. All day long, all day long, to the 'Earth of the Dead'. (Akk.: It remained present: the Sun set for him toward the `Earth of the Dead'.)

14 For this text and passage, see Jacobsen Treasures of Darkness 66, 247 n. 47; Unity and Diversity 86 n. 22. Sumerian kur.ùn.na can also mean šadû elû 'high mountain' and sadû etûtu `high mountains', as is probably to be restored in Nabnitu 25:148-49 (MSL 16 227). Compare also SpTU I 164:3'-4' (see p, 275).

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Names for Earth

`Distant Earth' k u r. s ù. d alersetu rügtu

The Akkadian portion of a later passage in 411 2 30 no. 2 preserves another compound name for the underworld, `Distant Earth': mes

ki.a.na.sù nu.mu.un.da.pà.da ls et -lu ana ersetimilm ru-uq-ti šâ la in-nam-ma-ru

4R 30 no. 2 34-35 (Dumuzi) the youth to the distant earth, which is never seen A parallel to Akkadian ersetu rûgtu may be found in the first line of a hymn to Ningišzida: [ur].sag en šà.ttIm a.gàra 1 ur'.mah kur,s [ù.da] TCL 15 25:1 [He]ro, Lord of Meadow and Field, Lion of the Dista[nt] Earth. ammatu (ambatulabbatu)

The term ammatu, a poetic name for earth, occurs in Enuma Elish, The Babylonian Theodicy, and Malku. In Ee I 1-2, šamamü and ammatu 'heaven and earth' do not exist at the very start of creation. 16 The Theodicy preserves an adverbial form of the term, ammatiš, which is explained by the commentary as lama erseti 'like earth' (BWL 74:58). In Malku I 51, ammatu (ambatu) is listed as a synonym for the name of earth, dannatu (A. Kilmer, JAOS 83 425), 17 Akkadian ammatu is probably a cognate of Hebrew rou ('adamâ) `ground'. arali, arallû The underworld name arali = arallûis eommon in Akkadian and bilingual texts but relatively rare in Sumerian works. Four Sumerian writings of the term are known. Most common are the syllabic writing a.ra.li and the dinicompound É.KUR,BAD, which is glossed a.ra.li in Igituh (Short Version) 158 (AfO 18 82). Less common are the writings KUR.BAD (arali x), which is glossed a.ra.li in Group Vocabulary CT 51 168 iv 66, and URUxx, which is known from parallel entries in Ea and Aa: a. r a. l [ i] =

URUx [x] = er-se-tum

Ea IV C' 12' // Aa VI/4 29 (MSL 14 432, 441)

is Compare RIM 4 284: 3:ki.an.a.na.šu.a.aš/ki.an.na.a.ki.šûLa.aš . 16 In RA 79 187-88, M. Hutter argues that ammatu is a name for the underworld in Ee i 1-2. For Ee I 1-2, see also p. 108. 17 The writing am ba tum is only attested in STT 392:51 (Malku I 51), so this may be a scribal error for am ma tum. For the commentary to Theodiey 58, see also CAD A/2 75 ammatu B "lexical section" -

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Names for `Earth, the Earth's Surface, and the Underworld

283

In Akkadian texts, both a short writing arali and a long writing arallû are known. For example, Nabnitu 25 72-73 preserves a-ra-al-l [u-u] (MSL 16 226), while Aa VI/4 30 preserves a-ra-li (MSL 124 441), probably for aralu. The origins of arali as a name for the underworld are unclear, but it seems probable that the term became a name for the underworld because of close connections between a.ra.li, Dumuzi, and Dumuzi's city BadTibira. 18 A temple named é.a,ra.li belonging to Dumuzi is located in or near Bad-Tibira in TCS 3 30:215, and Dumuzi is captured by gallû-demons in a "ditch of arali" (e.a.ra.li) before being carried away to the underworld in Dumuzi's Dream: e.a.ra.li.ka hé.en.šub ki.ni ba.ra,zu ddumu.zi.dè e,a.ra.li.ka mu.ni.in.dab 5 .bé.ne B. Alster, Dumuzi's Dream 70:150-51 "He fell into the ditch of arali. I do not know where he is:' They (the gallû-demons) seized Dumuzi in the ditch of arali. In this passage, e.a.ra.li `ditch of arali' may be pun on the temple name é.a,ra.li or even allude to a ditch that an underworld stream flows through. In two other Dumuzi texts, a.ra.li is located in steppe-lands that presumably lie outside Bad-Tibira: edin nigin edin nigin šeš.mu edin.nigin edin a.ra.li edin.nigin šeš.mu edin.nigin Cohen Ershemma 88:28-29 (CT 15 19) (Geštinanna) roams the steppe, roams the steppe, "my brother" (Dumuzi, she cries) as she roams the steppe. The steppe, arali, she roams the steppe, "my brother" (she cries as) she roams the steppe. a.ra.li KA.edin,na.ke 4 [ d-ra-a-lâ-a he-péeü

.. .

TCL 6 54 rev. 20-21 At arali the ... of the steppe

(new break) [

In any case, arali is already in use as a name for the underworld in the Ur IIIperiod literary work The Death of Ur-Nammu: nitalam.a.ni dnin.a.zi, [mu.a] dub.[sar.mah a].ra.li.[ra] S. N. Kramer, JCS 21 115:125-26 [To] his wife Ninazi[muai, the [august scribe of the [u]nderworld 1 8 In JAOS 103 195 g, T. Jaeobsen suggests that arali was originally the name of the desert between Bad-Tibira and Uruk and that the use of arali as a name for the underworld is secondary.

284

Names for Earth

A bilingual parallel where Ninanna replaces Ninazimua is found in UtukkuLemnutu III: dub.sar.mah.arali = tup-sar-ra-tum sir-tum šâ a-ra-al-le-e (CT 16 3:95-97). Another Sumerian example of arali as a name for the underworld occurs in a late Enuru amulet: lu ba.ug7 ki.nu nu.tuku lu ba.ug7 sag.èn.tar nu.tuku a.ra.li ki.tuš.a ba.tuš RA 64 68:2-4

The man who is dead has no bed. The man who is dead has no attendant. In arali he sits on a seat. In a bilingual incantation to the Sun-god, dead gods inhabit arali = arallû: sag.tuku dingir.ug 5 ga.àm šà.ga arali.ke 4 ra-bi-is dingir-ug5 -ga-e i-na qé-reb a-ra-al-li

A. Falkenstein, UVB 15 36:9 (Sun-god) caretaker of the dead-gods inside the underworld. In Akkadian texts, arallû is both a name for the underworld and a mountain where gold is found. 19 Examples of arallû as the underworld include Underworld Vision 28, 30, 53, and 58 (SAA 3 70-74) and an incantation where the name occurs alongside the synonym "Earth of No Return": a-na KUR.NU.GI4 .A li-se-re-es-su-nu-ti a-na etemmi (g i d i m) a-ra-le-e li-ru-sû-nu-ti

LKA 154 rev. 12-13 Let it (fire) take them down to the "Earth of No Return", let it direct them to the ghost of the underworld. In Gilg. IX ii 4-5 and the account of the eighth campaign of Sargon II (TCL 3 6:19), the bases of cosmie mountains Mt. MašrI and Mt. Simirriya reach into arallû below, while the peaks of the mountains reach the heavens above. In Erra I 151-53, the roots of a cosmic mesu-tree reach down to arallû (see p. 245). KURBAD

In Group Vocabulary CT 51 168 iv 66, the dirt-compound KUR.BAD is glossed a.ra.li, indicating that the two signs can be read arali x. Elsewhere, 19 For arallû as a mountain of gold, see Urra 22:22 (MSL 11 23), Lipšur Litanies (E. Reiner, JNES 15 132:21) and the inseriptions of Esarhaddon and Assurbanipal (Borger Esarh. 88 rev. 14; E. F. Weidner, AfO 13 205:26). The name of the mountain, however, derives from the land of gold h a r a l i = harallû known from third millennium and Old Babylonian tablets (see A. Sjoberg, JCS 40 174), so the shared name between the mountain and the underworld is probably eoineidental. A seeond Mt. Arallu is identified with the cella of the god Assur, Ehursagkurkurra, in the city of Assur (Winckler Sargon 70:416-17; 128:156).

Names for `Earth, the Earth's Surface, and the Underworld

285

however,

KUR.BAD is resumed by m in an exorcism formula, suggesting that could also represent a different name: KUR.BAD.m a : [sa ...1 (ArOr 21 373:46). One possibility is a reading k u r. i d i m, since i d i m is equated with ersetu 'underworld' and ekletu, etûtu 'darkness' in Emar 568 52'-54'. Another possibility is a diri-compound KUR.BAD = dalam on the basis of a lexical tablet related to the series Malku. 20 KUR.BAD

KUR.BAD =

da-la-mu

KUR.BAD = be pd eš-s û -

KUR.BAD = be-pd

e5û

CT 18 29 ii 26-28

If dalamu does represent a loanword from Sumerian dalam, which is a name for the underworld, then lines 27-28 may have preserved common names for the underworld, such as ersetu and arallû. The cosmic place name KUR.BAD also occurs in the divine name den .KUR. BAD (PBS I/2 106:17).

bùr, bùru, haštu Sumerian bin/bùru `pit, hole' occurs as a poetic name for the underworld. In Aa I1/4 110 (MSL 14 283), bùru is equated with ersetu. The same name occurs in a hymn to Lugalgirra and Meslamtaéa en dlugal.gir.ra giri.zu um.mi.gub nun.kur.ra.ke 4 ša.mu.e.ši.gam.e.dè.eš bùr.ra u4 .zalag ša.mu.un.ne.ri.ib,è A. Sjoberg, Or. Suec. 19-20 142:23'-25' Lord Lugalgirra, when you set foot there, the prince(s) of the underworld indeed bowed down to you. In "The Pit" you made a shining light go out for them. In line 25, bùr.ra may be a syllabic spelling for bùru = ersetu plus locative a. Akkadian hastu 'hole, grave, pit' is explained as ersetum in the commentary to Theodicy 62 (BWL 74): "For the crime which the lion committed the haštu `hole' (i.e., ersetum `underworld') is opened for him" a. ra Sumerian a.ra is equated with ersetu in Group Vocabulary CT 51 168 iv 65. This is surprising, since none of the usual meanings of a.ra (see MSL 14 206:194-210) explain how a.ra can be a cosmic place name.

2° K. 2054+ (CT 18 29-30) may be an exemplar of an expanded version of Malku = Sarru. The colophon identifies that tablet as the third tablet of the series Sarru (CT 18 30 rev. ii 32), and the opening line preserves the entry [malj-ku = Sarru, followed by 30 more equivalenees of šarru. Canonical Malku only lists five equivalences (A. Kilmer, JAOS 83 424:1-5).

286

Names for Earth

dannatu and danninu

Both dannatu and danninu derive from the root dannnu 'to be strong'. In KAR 307, the surfaces of each of the three earths, including the underworld, are identified as dannatu (see p. 16). In Malku I 51 (JAOS 83 425), dannatu is listed as a synonym of the name of earth ammatu, while the lexical tablet LTBA 2 2 i 2 and commentaries to Enuma Elish equate danninu with ersetu (see CAD D 91; Fest. Finkelstein 14). The term danninu occurs both as a name for the underworld and for the earth as a whole. In Diri II and Proto-Diri III, danninu is equated with the Sumerian underworld names h i l i b and g a n z e r (see pp. 269-70), and a hymn to Nergal identifies the 600 Anunnaki of the underworld with danninu: a-ši-ir dan-ni-na sa-ni-iq ni-i-ir lu us tar ri ih nar-bi-ka

Bollenrucher Nergal 50:4 (Nergal) controller of the underworld, organizer of the 600, let me extol your might. In Ee VII 135-36, the term is paired with the name for heaven ašru: âš štic cg-ri ib-na-a ip-ti-qa dan-ni-na dbel mâtâti šum-šu it-ta-bi a-bu den-lzl

Ee VII 135-36 Because he created the heavens, fashioned the earth "Lord of the Lands" is the name that father Enlil gave him. In Assurbanipal's Acrostic Hymn to Marduk and Zarpanitum, danninu occurs with Apsu and lumdšu-stars (SAA 3 8:37). erigal—See urugal

eš ally The name ešgalla is a a loanword from Sumerian š.gal 'great shrine'. In Ee IV 143-46, esgalla is a second name for the Apsu (see p. 113). However, it is possible that ešgalla was also a name for the underworld, since the signs used to write èš.gal (AB.GAL), when joined ABxGAL, form a writing for the underworld name urugal = ersetu (Ea IV 162a, Aa IV/3 107; MSL 14 361, 381). esmahhu

Akkadian ešmahhu occurs twice as a cosmic place name. In the Marduk hymn STC I 205 19-21 (see pp. 310-11), esmahhu is the underworld that houses the dead sallûtu (literally `the sleepers'). Here, esmahhu is a poetie name for the underworld alongside poetic names for the other three regions of the universe: heaven, the earth's surface, and the Apsu (samamû, dadmû, asurrakku). The second example of ešmahhu is found in a Sennacherib inscription in the first of

Names for `Earth, the Earth's Surface, and the Underworld

287

two epithets of "The Tablet of Destinies": [p]irišti šamâmû u esm[ahhi] '[S]ecret of Heaven and esm[ahhi]', and [m]arkas ermi anu u ganzer '[Blond of Anu's Canopy (Heaven) and Underworld' (A. George, Iraq 48 133 B 4-5; see p. 227). Here efmahhu parallels ganzer. ganzer, kanisurra Sumerian ganzer is both a name for the underworld and an entrance to the underworld. In Dirt II and Proto-Diri III (see pp. 269-70), ganzer, written IGI.KUR.ZA, is both explained as bab erseti `gate of the underworld' and also translated by the underworld names ersetu, danninu, irkalla, and kukkû, as well as by loanwords ganzer and kanisurra. In Antagal D 123, Sumerian ganzer is equated with Akkadian irkallû (MSL 17 205). The etymology of ganzer is uncertain (see A. George, Iraq 48 136 n. 5). In addition to the diri-compound IGI.KUR.ZA, the name is also written IGI.KUR in Group Vocabulary K. 4177+ with a gloss [gal . a n. z è r (see CAD I 177). 21 In Diri and Proto Diri, the dirt-compound IGI.KUR is treated as a separate name for the underworld, to be read bilib or halib. The clearest textual examples of ganzer as a name for the underworld are found in GHT 176, 180, and 233, when Gilgameš's pukku and meklcû fall into ganzer. The corresponding lines of Gilg, XII translate ganzer by the underworld name ersetu (see Shaffer Sumerian Sources 71-72, 83). Earlier in GHT 167, however, ganzer occurs in the name of a gate to the underworld: -

kâ.gal ganzer IGi.KUR.ra.ka tuš im.ma.ni.in .gar In this line, IGI.KUR is probably to be understood as pani erseti 'front of the underworld', as in Dirt II 145 and Proto-Diri III aa, with the subsequent translation: At the ganzer-gate at the front of the underworld they (the pukku and mekkû) came to a rest. Nevertheless, a reading ganzer for IGI.KUR is possible here, since the signs are resumed by r. The first part of GHT 167 is repeated verbatim in a variant of ID 126 (see Sladek ID 118 n. 126). Examples of ganzer in names for the entrance of the underworld include passages in Manna's Descent, where g'si g. k u r. r a `door of the underworld' and kâ.gal.kur.ra `gate of the underworld' are located at é.gal.ganzer 'the palace ganzer' (see Sladek ID 59-60); Inanna and Enki 60:41, which preserves é,ga. a n. z é. e r 'the house ganzer'; and the divine epithet Ills i ,gar ganzer `door-man of ganzer' in PBS I/2 112:69. The only known Akkadian examples of ganzer outside lexical lists occur in a Sennacherib inscription, where ganzer parallels ermi danim (A. George, Iraq 48 133 B 5), and a Nabopolassar inscription, where simmelat ganzer `Stairway 21 For writings ga.an.ze/zé.er, see Group Vocabulary CT 51 168 iv 70; JCS 4 139 rev. ii 7; Inanna und Enki 60:41; UET 6/2 141 ii' 2'.

288

Names for Earth

of the Underworld' parallels meltt samdmi `Incline of Heaven' (E Al-Rawi, Iraq 47 4:15). Akkadian kanisurra also occurs in the divine name dkanisurra (RIM 4 468:1; Ugaritica V 212:23, 248:11; RGTC 8 373). haštu—See bùr, bùru, hastu, p. 285

hilib, halib Dirt and Proto-Diri preserve parallel sections explaining hilib and halib (IGI.KUR), and ganzer (IGI.KUR.zA; see pp. 269-70). No certain examples of the names outside Diri and Proto-Diri are known, since IGI.KUR is never resumed by a syllable beginning with b. Possible examples of the term, however, may be found in Group Vocabulary CT 51 168 iv 67, where IGI.KUR is translated as ersetu, GHT 167, where IGI.KUR occurs with ganzer (see p. 287), and a passage in Utukku Lemnutu XII: 22

ki.tuš.a.na

ki.IGI.KUR.àm

tu-bat-su a-tar er-se-tim -ma

(M. J. Geller, Iraq 42 28:8'-9') His abode is the place of the underworld. A related entry may be found in Group Vocabulary K. 4177+: X.le.k UIGt.KuK =

sir [kal la] (see CAD I 177 irkalla)

irkalla

Akkadian irkalla, a literary name for the underworld, occurs both with and without determinative dingir and in the compounds šubat dirkalla, mâšab dirkalla, and bit irkalla. The name may be an Akkadian rendering of the Sumerian underworld name urugal/erigal, but no lexical or bilingual equivalence between the Sumerian and Akkadian names is known. In lexical lists, irkalla is equated with Sumerian hilib/balib, ganzer, kir 5 , and lamhu (see CAD I 177). Outside lexical lists, irkalla occurs in literary works and the late mysticalreligious commentary O 175:7 (Livingstone 190). In Descent of Ištar 4, Gilg. VII iv 33, and Nergal and Ereškigal (STT 28 ii 7', IT 8', vi 47), as well as O 175:7, the term is written with the determinative dingir. Examples without the determinative include Erra I 135 and IV 123; Ludlul II 47 (BWL 40); and LKA 62 rev. 11, 13-14 (the variant edition of The Descent of Ištar). 22 Note also d IGLKUR in Shaffer Sumerian Sourees 70 167 2 r. For a Mari and western month name itu dTGLKUR.ra and possible connections with Manna's Descent and The Descent of Ishtar, see Langdon Menologies 41; RlA 5 301 Mari month VI; W. G. Lambert, MARI 4 526.

Names for `Earth, the Earth's Surface, and the Underworld

289

Within the texts listed above, irkalla oecurs in compound forms four times. In parallel passages from The Descent of Istar and Gilg. VII, the underworld is called "House of Darkness" and šubat dirkalla: a-na bit e -te -e

šu -bat dir-[kal-la] a-na bit ek-le-ti su -bat dir-kal-la

CT 15 45:4

Gilg. VII iv 33

To the "House of Darkness" the abode of the underworld, O 175:7 also preserves this same compound with the writing TUS dir-kal-la. A variant to Gilg. VII iv 33 preserves mûšab irkalla and LKA 62 rev. 14 preserves bit irkalla.

The use of the determinative before the underworld name may indicate that irkalla in the compounds, at least, should be understood as a divine name as well as a place name. In an Old Babylonian god-list, dirkalla is identified as a name of the goddess Allatum, who is equated with Ereskigal: dereš-ki-gal-la = [dal]-la-t[um] dal-la-tum = d a [l-l]a-t[um] d ir-kal-la = dal- la-t[um]

E. Weidner, AfK 2 73:23-25 (cf. Ugaritica V 218:116-18) On this basis, the parallel lines in The Descent of Istar and Gilgamesh could be translated 'to the House of Darkness, the abode of (the goddess) Irkalla'. If so, this name may be compared with the underworld name `Place of Ereškigal' (kidereš.ki.gal = ašar deretkigal), which occurs once in Dumuzi and Geštinanna 6 (Sladek ID 226:6) and onee in a bilingual incantation in UtukkuLemnutu VI (O. Gurney, AAA 22 86:130-31). kir, and kiši, idim The rare underworld names kir, and k i š i occur in Ea II 121-22. k i . i r = IDIM k i . š i = IDIM.BUR

= MIN

(i-dim -mu)

= ir-kal-la

= kur-nu-gi

= IDIM

MSL 14 252

The name k i r5 appears once elsewhere as a name for the underworld in Surpu 48 108 (see p. 281). An equation idim = ersetum occurs in Emar 568:52'. kukku, kukkû,

KI.KI

Sumerian kukku 'darkness' occurs as a name for the underworld in Diri IV 236-37: k u . u k. k u =

KI.K [I] = k [u!-ul k-ku!-tic! = ma a ttic šap l [i ttic]

CT 11 48 rev. iii 4' (CAD K 498)

290

Names for Earth

In Proto-Diri IIId, Akkadian kukkû is equated with g a n z e r and synonymous with danninu and kanisurra (see pp. 270-71). Although the name is written KIKI in Diri IV, the term most probably originated from a writing of the word kukku (Ku 10 .xu I0 = Mi.Mi) that is equivalent to Akkadian ekletu and etûtu 'darkness' (see CAD E 413). Sumerian KI.KI, with the reading u t u, may also be listed as a name for the underworld in Antagal G 19: Ki a;t°Ki

= ersetimt'm [a . , .

MSL 17 221

The term 'House of Darkness' (é.kukku = bit ekleti) occurs in Surpu 53 rev. 12-13, a Sumerian incantation (see YOS 11 p. 20e) and parallel descriptions of the underworld in The Descent of Iftar, Gilg. VII, and Nergal and Ereskigal (see p. 349). lam, lamma, lammu Sumerian lam and lam m a, and the loanword lammu, are listed as equivalents of ersetu in lexical lists and commentaries. In LTBA 2 2 i 2-5, lammu is listed as a synonym of ersetu along with danninu, kiaru, and irkalla, while Sumerian lam is equated with ersetu in Group Vocabulary CT 51 168 iv 63, and lamma is equated with ersetu in Sbl 216: la, a m. m a = LAM = er-se-turn MSL 3 115:216 eorrected by MSL 4 206:216 Outside lexical lists, lam is equated with ersetu in explanations of the word melammu in commentaries: 23 [ME :1 šame : LAM : er-se-tü : a-fib šamê e ersetimttm W. G. Lambert, AfO 19 118 F 8 giš.lam.šâr.šâr = muf-ta-bil famêe u ersetimtim AfO 19 pl. 33 iv 40 (AO 8196) lamhu The Sumerian name lammu occurs in a Middle Assyrian excerpt from Ea that lists rare signs and readings: lam.hu = KuR.Hnx

= ir-kal-la

MSL 14 261:5

matu šaplitu Lower Land'

Diri IV equates matu šaplitu with the underworld name kukku = kukkû `darkness' (see p. 289). The term matu šaplitu usually refers to southern areas downstream from central Mesopotamia, or down the Persian Gulf. 23

See also Antagal G 317 (MSL 17 229) [gis.lam.šâr.šâr = muš-to-b]it AN u K!. Note also the name of Nippur dur.gis.lam (= markas samê u ersetum; see A, George, RA 85 160).

Names for `Earth, the Earth's Surface, and the Underworld

291

mitu

An entry in Group Vocabulary 5R 16 equates Akkadian mitu 'dead' with the Sumerian underworld name arali: É.KURara.Ii $AD = mi-i-tum `Dead' ki.tum = qé-bé-ru 'to bury' 5R 16 iv 42-43

miril/aš Kassite miriyaš occurs as an equivalent of Akkadian ersetu in the KassiteAkkadian vocabulary T. Pinches, JRAS 1917 103:22 (Balkan Kassit. Stud. 4).

naqbaru Akkadian naqbaru `tomb, burial place' appears as an equivalent of arali in a Group Vocabulary CT 18 30 rev. i 30 and Antagal D 124 (see p. 271). The name naqbaru can be compared both with Sumerian urugal/erigal, which has the meaning qabru `grave' as well as `underworld' (see p. 293), and Akkadian hastu 'pit, grave' (see p. 285). qabru—See u r u g a l= qabru, pp. 293-94 qaqqaru

Akkadian qaqqaru, like Sumerian ki, is commonly used as a name for earth and the earth's surface but also occurs as a name for the underworld. The word occurs from the Old Akkadian period onward and is the most common name for earth in Achaemenid royal inscriptions (see CAD Q 123 2'). 24 An Old Assyrian example occurs in an incantation (BIN 4 126:13). Old Babylonian examples occur in three parallel lines in a hymn to Ištar (VAS 10 213 i 6', 8', 10') and a broken passage in an Old Babylonian religious text: ] I ûI šu li i.a šu ka-qâ-ar-su

(W. G. Lambert, Fest, Reiner 192:43 (cf. 192:32) ] he raised him up to earth. In this passage, qaqqaru must be the earth's surface, since there is no cosmic region below the underworld or earth (the lower half of the universe as a whole). Other examples where qaqqaru refers only to the earth's surface include Gilg. VII iii 44, where the princes of the qaqqaru are said to kiss Enkidu's feet; Gilg. XI:41,

24 Parpola (LAS H 117 n. 6, 21) proposes that Neo-Assyrian KI.TIM, when paired with šamû, be read as forms of qaqqaru (kaqqaru, qaqqiru, ete.) rather than ersetimt" See also K. Deller, Fest. von Soden 48 u.

292

Names for Earth

where the earth's surface is identified as qaqqar denlil `the Earth of Enlil', and a hymn to Gula, where mankind lives on the qaqqaru: ina q]aq-qa-ri tu-ma-'-ir ab-ra-a-ti ana ilâni meš rabûti meš tu-šar-bi zik [ra ki]

LKA 17:15

... on the eaarth's surface you directed mankind, for the great gods you made [your name great. Two other texts, The Cruciform Monument of Maniftušu (E. Sollberger, JEOL 20 55:78-80) and an Amarna letter (EA 105:11), contrast qaqqaru with names for the sea, so qaqqaru can also refer specifically to the dry land portion of the earth's surface. Examples of qaqqaru as a name for the underworld include the terms qaqqaru la tari'Earth of No Return' and qaqqiru rabîtu `Great Earth' in variant versions of The Descent of Ištar (CT 15 45:1; LKA 62 rev. 10, 12) and a passage in fire incantations (W. G. Lambert, AfO 23 43:32). 25 A reference to the underworld river as na-i-il ka-a[q-qa-ri ... Watercourse of the Ea[rth ..: in W. G. Lambert, Fest. Sjoberg 326 i 64 parallels na'ilu sa erseti rabtti `Watercourse of the Great Earth' in An Address of Marduk to the Demons (W. G. Lambert, AfO 19 117:32). 26 saplâtu `Lower Regions'

The name saplettu, a general term referring to lower parts of the universe, often appears as an opposite of elâtu 'Upper Regions' (see CAD S/1 464 2). On a few occasions, sapleitu refers specifically to the underworld. In funerary texts, both šaplâtu and elâtu occur in a common blessing: 27 i-na e-la-ti sum-šu li-id-mi-iq i-na ša ap la ti e-te-em-mu-su me-e za-ku-ti li il to û

VAS 1 54:15-19 In the upper regions let his name be praised. In the lower regions let his ghost drink pure water. In a broken passage in a funerary text, the Anunnaki gods are found in šaplâtu: ] šu-bat da-nun-na .1-am i-na sa ap la ti

Kish I pl. 34 2:11-12 See also I. Finkel, AfO 29-30 9 ii 2' and an unpublished parallel in CAD Q 124 9. Note the unusual order qaqqarum samâ'um in an Old Babylonian parallel to The Descent of Istar and an Old Akkadian incantation (see W. G. Lambert, Fest. Moran 293-94 LE). Compare Genesis 2:4. 27 For other examples of the blessing and pairings of saplatu with elatu, see CAD E 77-78 etatu 2; A. Tsukimoto, AOAT 216 154. For šaplatu as the underworld, see also CAD S/1 464 2. 25 26

-

Names for `Earth, the Earth's Surface, and the Underworld

293

the abode of the Anunna-gods. ... ] . in the lower regions. ]

urugal, erigal The Sumerian underworld name urugal/erigal, literally 'Great City', occurs in the name of the king of the underworld Nergal. The Emesal god list explains that the most common writing of the god's name, dne.eri iI .gal (= dnerigal I), is a contracted form of en.urugal 'Lord of the Great City': 28 dumun.rurugall = dnè.eri lI .gal =

su Emesal I 106 (MSL 4 9)

In Emesal I:2, 12-14, 43, and 50 (MSL 4 4-7), names of gods beginning u m u n in Emesal start with en in the standard dialect. Hymns to Nergal and epithets of Nergal also use the name urugal. In PBS I/2 112 iii 61, Nergal is called "Enlil of urugal". This epithet is explained in a hymn to Nergal: dnerigal é?.da.ri eri ll .gal den.lil.bàn.da.me.en S. Kramer, Fest. Sjoberg 306:67 Nergal, at the eternal house?, "The Great City;' you are the junior Enlil. In Death of Ur-Nammu 89 (S. Kramer, JCS 21 114), Nergal is identified as n.lil.kur.ra 'Enlil of the Underworld'. Sumerian urugal/erigal also occurs in epithets of other underworld gods in Death of Ur-Nammu 109, 133 (JCS 21 114-15) and in RIM 4 284:3. In lexical lists and bilingual works, urugal is translated by Akkadian names for the underworld. Nabnitu XXV 74 equates urugal with arallû (MSL 16 226), and urugal = ersetu occurs in Proto-Izi 387 (MSL 13 30) and the bilingual menology of Astrolabe B (KAV 218 A iii 3, 8). Broken examples of urugal = ersetu are also found in Ea and Aa (MSL 14 361:162a, 381:107 441:32). As noted earlier, Akkadian irkalla is probably a loanword from urugal/erigal. de

urugal = qabru As well as a name for the underworld, urugal also has the more common meaning qabru 'grave' (see CAD Q 17-18). Both meanings are clearly related, since the destination of all those lowered into graves was the underworld. An example of urugal = qabru as the underworld may occur in the opening line of a bilingual totengeist-incantation where "captive gods" are found in urugal = qabru: 28 For a series of studies of erigal/urugal in the name of Nergal, see W G. Lambert, ZA 80 40-52; P. Steinkeller, ZA 77 161-68; ZA 80 53-59. Note also dNE.EnI 11 .KL GAL in eylinder seals (D. Colton, Catalogue of the Western Asiatic Seals in the British Museum, Cylinder Seals III (1986) no. 53,112.

294

Names for Earth ÉN

dingir.dib.dib.bé.e.ne urugal.la.[ta] im,ta.è.a[meš] ilanume' ka -cmu-ti' iš -tu gab-rim it- ta-su-ni W. Schramm, OrNs 39 405:1-3 (cf. 4-10)

Incantation: The captive gods came forth from the underworld/ grave. The 'captive gods' are placed at the gates of the underworld in Bit Meseri II 126-28 (AfO 14 146) and may be associated with the underworld gate bob kamûti 'Gate of the Captives' (AfO 19 117:25; TuL 128 8'). 29 zikura

A rare, possibly foreign name for `earth', zikura (KASKAL.ÀS) is listed in Antagal G 282 (MSL. 17 228) as an equivalent of ersetu. House Names

A number of Akkadian names for the underworld are kennings formed by compounds with bitu `house'. These include `House of Darkness' (bit etî, bit ekleti), 'House of Death' (bit mûti), 'House of Dumuzi' (bit ddumuzi), and `House of Dust' (bit epri), A related equation é.ki.kur = ersetu is found in K. 2873:1-2 (CT 17 41). 30 Related Terms

Ekur/bit ekur. AHw 196 identifies the name of Enlil's temple at Nippur, Ekur, as a name for the underworld on the basis of passages in Ludlul Bel Nemegi and bilingual ineantations. In these texts, Ekur is the haunt of demons, but there is no proof that Ekur is a name for an underworld beneath the earth's surface. In Ludlul, an utukku-demon leaves Ekur when a number of diseasedemons leave their homes for Babylon in order to infect Subši-Mešre-Sakkan:

51. im-hu/di im-hul di [is-tu 52. [u]l-te i-rat ersetimt'm 53. 1 u-ic' -lu lem-nu

29 For the Gate

same šame e i-zi-ga i-zi-qa i-fi-ha i-ši-ha it-ta -sa -a ap-su-uš-sii ap-su-us-sii

Captives and captive gods, see p 57. ) CT 15 45:4 (Descent of Istar), Ištar), AMT 88 2:3; Maqlu 20 183; (bit ekleti) ekteti) LKA 62 rev. 17 (Descent of Istar), Gilg. VII iv 33; (é.kukku.ga = bit (Ištar), ekleti) Surpu 53 12-13; YOS 11 p. 20e. `H f Death' (bit mati) CT 18 30 rev. i 30, arali = bit mati, (é.ug7.ga) W. G. Lambert, AfO 19 118 'House of Durnuzi' (bit . `House i) Aa VI/4 31 (MSL 14 441) = [arali]. `House of Dust' (bit epri) Gilg. VH VII iv 40, 45, see Descent of [iš-tu 45). Note also é?.da.ri `eternal house?' in Kra dIštar s erg 306:67 (

3° `House of Darkness'

295

Geographic Terms 54. [ü-tuk-ku lia [ni]-'i 55. [la-mas-tu ü- ri]-da

ü -sa -a ul -tu é-kur ul -tu qé-reb šadî'

Ludlul II 51-55 (BWL 40) 51. An evil wind, [from the hor]izon has blown in. 52. [F]rom the surface of the underworld headache sprung up. 52. An evil cough has come forth from the Apsu. 54. [A relent]less [utukku-demon] departed from Ekur, 55. [A lamaštu -demon has desce]nded from the mountain. Later, in Ludlul III, the utukku -demon leaves the body of 8ubši-Mešre-8akkan and returns to Ekur: [uš-te] -rid ap-su -uš-šü šu -û -lu lem -[nu] u- 1 tuk'-ku la ni-'i ft-tir é-kur- ri-[is] BWL 52:6-7

[He sent d] own Apsu-ward the evil cough. The relentless utukku-demon he returned [to] Ekur. In Ludlul, it is unlikely that Ekur is an underworld beneath the earth's surface, since the utukku-demon neither ascends nor descends between Ekur and Babylon. In contrast, the 'evil cough' descends from Babylon to the Apsu in BWL 52:6, Examples of Ekur in bilingual incantations also fail to identify Ekur as an underworld beneath the earth's surface. In these incantations the cosmic Ekur is identified with Enlil's temple Ekur in Nippur. In the opening lines of a Sagigameš incantation, headache leaves Ekur (CT 17 25:1-4). Here Ekur is identified as the "House of Enlil:' In Utukku-Lemnutu III (CT 16 1:23-27), disease-demons leaving 6.a é. k u r = bit ekur 'the Temple Ekur' are identified as messengers of Enlil. In a second Sagigameš incantation (J. Prosecky, ArOr 47 51:37-38) demons leave è š é .kur = bit ekur for the land (kalam = matu). In all three incantations, as in Ludlul II 54, forms of the verb è = asû `to leave' describe the movement of the demons from Ekur to the earth's surface, rather than e lI = elû 'to go up', as might be expected if Ekur was an underworld beneath the earth's surface. 31

Geographic Terms In addition to names for earth such as ki, ersetu, and qaqqaru, a number of geographic terms refer to vast expanses of the earth's surfaee and perhaps even 31 CT 17 25:1-4 nam.ta. iè' = it-to-sa-a; CT 16 1:25 è.a.meš = it to su ni; J. Prosecky, ArOr 47 51:37-38 è.a.ne.ne.ke, = a-04u-n[u] (see ArOr 47 53 Variants nos. 17-18). Ekur is also aceepted as name for the underworld in Jensen Kosmologie 185-95, and K. Tallqvist, StOr 5/4 25-32. CAD E 70, however, translates "(a locality where demons live)."

Names for Earth

296

the entire land portion of earth. These include 'the land' (kalam, kur, ma.da, matu), 'the lands' (kur.kur, matatu), 'the four quadrants' (an.ub.da.lf mmu.ba, ub.da.lfmmu.ba, kibrat arba'i, kibrcttu), dadma, adnatu, and nabalu 'dry land'. A number of these terms are listed together in Malku I 187 -93: 32 187. ir-bu -u 188. ir-bu -u kib-ra-a-tum 189. ad-na-tum 190. un-na-tum 191. da-ad-mu 192. ma-ti-tan 193. da-ad-mu

= kib-ra-a-tû = kib-rat âr-ba'i = ma-a-tum = MIN = MIN = ma-ta-a-ti = a-lum A. Kilmer, JAOS 83 428

The Land' kalam, kur, ma.da, matu Akkadian matu, like the English word `land', has a wide range of meanings. Among these are `dry land' (as opposed to seas), `flat plain', 'country' in a political sense, and 'homeland'. In its broadest sense, matu can refer to all dry land areas on the earth's surface. For example, the worldwide empire of Sargon is said to occupy mat sihip šame' 'the land under heaven' in Sargon Geography 31, and Etana reports that he sees matu `land' and tâmtu 'sea' when he gazes down at the earth's surface during his flight to the heavens (see pp. 60-65). No comparable unilingual Sumerian examples of kalam, kur, or ma.da are known. However, two bilingual texts may preserve passages where kalam refers to at least the continental portion of the earth's surface. In UtukkuLemnutu V, kalam.dagal.la = matu rapastu `vast land' parallels an.dagal.la = samû rapsûtu `vast heavens' (CT 16 13 iii 13-16). In a bilingual literary letter, kalam extends from sunrise to sunset: mu.mah lugal.mu sig igi.nim.ma hi-ma-am si-rum sa be-li-ia is-tu ma-tim e-li-tim a-di' (ma-tim ša-ap-li-tim) d utu.è.ta utu.šu.uš zà.šè kalam.til.la .a mi.ni.in.tûm.tum.ma is-tu (sit šamsi adi) ereb šamsi (Dts.u) ana pa-te4 gi-mi-ir-ti ma`tim i-gam(text DAM!)-mi-ra PBS 10/4 8:6'-7' (WO 5 2:7-8)

32 For ma.da, kur, and kalam, see H. Limet, BA 72 1-12. The equivalence of a number of these geographie terms is demonstrated by the bilingual Akkadian-Aramaic Tell-Fekherye inscription, where Aramaie mt is translated by Akkadian dadmû, kibratu, and matu (see J. Greenfield and A. Shaffer, Iraq 45 110).

Geographic Terms

297

The exalted name of my lord (extends) from below to above/from the Upper Land to the Lower Land. From sunrise to sunset it encompasses the land to its full extent. The Lands' k u r. k u r= matatu

`The Lands' is used from the Early Dynastic period onward to refer to all the countries on the earth's surface. When combined, the territories of these countries comprised the entire earth's surface. k u r. k u r `The Lands'. The term kur.kur is the most common Sumerian name for large portions of the earth's surface. Examples where kur.kur includes most if not all of the lands include a Sumerian hymn in which Enki's g i s s u 'shade, protection' covers kur.kur from sunrise to sunset (CT 36 32: 5) ; a hymn to Inanna, where kur.kur reaches from above to below (Reisman Two Hymns 148:13-14); and Gudea Cyl. A 9:18-19, where ku r.kur extends to an.z à 'the horizon' (see p. 94). In the Vase Inscription of Lugalzagesi, kur.kur extends from the Upper Sea to the Lower Sea and from sunrise to sunset (BE I/2 87 i 44—ii 16; see p. 321). No Sumerian examples of m a. d a. m a. d a used in cosmic contexts with reference to the entire earth's surface are known, although matatu is often written ma.da.ma ,da in Late Babylonian royal inscriptions. 33 matatu The Lands'. Akkadian matatu is the usual equivalent of Sumerian kur.kur (see CAD M/1 415). The term occurs regularly from the Old Babylonian period to the Hellenistic period. An earlier example"may be found in The Cruciform Monument of Manistusu (the son of Sargon of Akkad), but this text is generally thought to be an Old Babylonian or later forgery (see E. Sollberger, JEOL 20 50-51). The term mate/1u can include all the lands on the earth's surface. Often, rulers who claim universal kingship also claim to rule the matatu. For instance, Sargon is said to rule the matatu from sunrise to sunset in Sargon Geography 43. Parallels in royal inscriptions include a passage in which Tukulti-Ninurta I receives tribute of the matatu from sunrise to sunset (Weidner TN 26:22-24) and a late parallel in the Antiochus-Soter inscription (VAB 3 134:17-18; A. Kuhrt and S. Sherwin White, JHS 111 76 ii 17-18). Examples in literature include the final two lines of The Erra Epic, where all the matatu and the people of the dadmû are implored to praise Erra (Erra V 60-61), and Shamash Hymn 20, 22, 40, where the Sun shines over matatu (BWL 126-28). An adverbial form of the term, matitan, meaning '(in) all countries' or 'everywhere' is also known (see CAD M/1 411-12). In Malku I 192 the term is equated with matatu. 33 Note, for example, IR 66 iii 21 (VAB 4 94); PBS 15 79 i 17, 21; S. J. Levy, Sumer 3 13:9; J. Zablocka and P. R. Berger, OrNs 38 123 ii 1.

298

Names for Earth

The Four Regions: ub.da.limmu.ba, an.ub.da.lImmu.ba, ub.da.limmu, ub.da.an.ki , an. u b, kibrat erbettilarba'i, tubuqat erbettilarba'i, kibratu34

The geographic term 'The Four Regions' is based on a tradition of dividing the earth's surface into northern, southern, eastern, and western quadrants derived from the four winds or compass point directions. Ancient Mesopotamians could determine the four directions by correlating the position of the sun, moon, and stars with wind direction and the time of year (see pp. 195-200). The close connection between the four winds and earthbound geography is demonstrated by the names of the east and west winds. The east wind, IMkur.ra = šadû bears the name of the mountains east of Mesopotamia, and the west wind Immar.du = amurru bears the name of the Amorites who first arrived in Sumer and Akkad from the west in the third millennium. The importance of the four winds in geography is also documented by Shamash Hymn 151-53, where the Sun reveals omens to the human race in the world (dadmû) in all four wind directions (BWL 134), and passages in The Tukulti -Ninurta Epic (Machinist TN Epic 66 I A1:3', 116 I A V:17), where the terms kippat šar erbetti 'circle of the four winds' and kippat erbetti `circle of the winds' refer to Tukulti-Ninurta's empire. A system of dividing the earth's surface and level of the winds into four quadrants may be diagrammed on BagM Beih. 2 no. 98 (see p. 194). 35 Numerous Sumerian and Akkadian versions of the geographic term 'the four regions' are known. The most common are Sumerian u b , d a. l i m m u . b a and an.ub.da.limmu.ba 'the four corners', and Akkadian kibrat arba'i, kibrat erbetti 'the four regions' and kibratu `the regions'. The term is first attested in both Sumerian and Akkadian during the reign of Naram-Sin in the royal epithet `King of the Four Regions' (lugal.an.ub.limmu.ba = šar kibrat arba'im).36 Thus it is not possible to determine whether the Akkadian or Sumerian version is oldest. The Sumerian and Akkadian terms, although equated with one another in lexical lists and bilingual works, are not all exact translations of one another. Sumerian ub.da has the basic meaning tubqu 'corner/edge' while Akkadian kibratu appears to be a plural noun derived from kibru `edge, shore'. Exact translations of Sumerian u b. d a.l I m m u. b a as tubuqat arba'i and tubuqat erbetti are known, but rare. The term tubuqat erbetti occurs three times: in a Tukulti-Ninurta I inscription (Weidner TN 8:5), a Tiglath-Pileser I inscrip34 For additional versions of the term, see CAD K 331 and AHw 1365 tuqbu 5, and note B. Alster, ASJ 13 79 n. 2. For Aramaie equivalents, see S. Paul, Scripta Hierosolymitana 31 202. 35 See R. Capliee, OrNs 40 148:48, 152 n. 48 for 'The Four Regions' in rituals where ritual acts are performed in the four compass point directions. 36 See Hallo Royal Titles 49-56. For additional examples, see H. Hirsch, AfO 20 75:20-22, 77:5-7; A. H. Ayish, Sumer 32 70:6-7; B. Foster, RIM Annual Review 8 42 (a); PBS 15 81:4-5. For an argument that the Sumerian and Akkadian homeland was not part of the `The Four Regions' (i.e., the world would have consisted of five parts, `The Four Regions' and Mesopotamia) see J. Glassner, Akkadica 40 17-34.

Geographic Terms

299

tion (E. Weidner, AfO 18 349: 9), and in Izi, where both tubugât erbetti and kibrat erbetti are equated with u b . d a. l i m m u5 (MSL 13 212 i 9-10). The equivalent tubuqât arba'ioceurs in LTBA 2 l iv 11-1 . 2, where both tubuqat arba'iand kibratu are equated with mdtatu. A third Akkadian version of the term, tu buuq rer? bit" ti may occur in a bilingual work from Susa (MDP 57 36 i 30). There are numerous passages where Akkadian forms of the 'the four regions' encompass all the land areas on the earth's surface (see CAD K 33133). Perhaps the clearest example is World Map rev. 26'-27', where kibrat erbetti apparently refers to the entire earth's surface on the map. In Sumerian texts, no sueh unambiguous examples of `the four regions' as the entire earth's surface can be found. Utu-Hegal and kings of the Ur III dynasty adopted the title `King of The Four Regions', 37 although these kings could not claim anything approaching the "worldwide" empire of Naram-Sin. In Sumerian literature, Duranki (Nippur) is placed in the center (murub 4) of ub.da.limmu.ba in a hymn to Enlil (Reisman Two-Hymns 49:68), but the hymn does not provide the outer borders of `the four regions'. It is also not certain how the terms for `the four regions' originated. There are two lexical diffIculties. First, Sumerian ub.da `corner/edge' and Akkadian kibratu `edges, shores' should logically refer to the outer edges of the earth's surface rather than its interior. Second, the common Sumerian form of the term an.ub.da.limmu.ba , which begins with the name of heaven an, could be the name of a region of heaven like an.ur, an.pa, and an.zà. Both problems can be solved. Mesopotamian terms often refer to the interior of regions when only borders are named. For example, in Neo-Assyrian inscriptions, kings are said to conquer lands adi pat gimriša, literally `up to the edge of its entirety' (i.e., to its full extent; see AHw 852). Although this phrase refers literally only to borders, it is clear that the kings conquered the interior of the lands as well. Similarly, Sargon Geography 33-40 lists the talbitu 'circumference' of lands included in Sargon's Empire rather than measuring their interiors in units comparable to modern "square miles" (see p. 86). Thus u b. d a. l I m m u . b a and kibratu include territories up to the borders of the earth's surface at the horizon. This explanation of ub.da and kibratu also helps explain a n. u b . d a. l i m m u. b a. A number of passages explain that the far ends of the earth's surface and heaven meet at the horizon (see pp. 330-31). Hence, the corners and sides of heaven are also those of the earth's surface. Thus a term beginning with an ean also to refer to the ends of the earth, as do the Sumerian names for the horizon an.ur and an.zà. This explanation of an.ub.da.lImmu.ba is confirmed by the equivalent term ub.da.a 'Lk i 'corner of heaven and earth', which occurs in two Sumerian hymns (A. Sjoberg, OrSuec 19-20 145:13; A. Falkenstein, ZA 49 118:21). -

-

37

-

See Hallo Royal Titles 52-53; JCS 20 140:37-38; C. Wilcke, Fest. Sjoberg 561.

300

Names for Earth

dadmû

The term dadmû, when used in cosmic contexts, seems to be synonymous with terms for `the lands' and 'the four regions'. On other occasions, however, dadmû refers to cities or smaller settlements. On a cosmic scale, dadmû can be equal to the entire earth's surface. Sumerian g u kin (LAGABxKIN) is equated with both kisšatu `the entire world' and dadmû in Ea I 120-21 (MSL 14a 14 183), and kur.kur is translated as dadmû, rather than matatu, in a hymn to Inanna/Ištar: 38 ul.hé.šè mu.mu kur.kur.ra zà.ša4 mu.bi âr,re.mu sâ ina šu-pu-uk šamê e nap-ha-tu4 ina da-dd-me zi-kir-šû su-pu-u MIN (tanadatua)

SBH no. 53 rev. 48-49 (Cohen Eršemma 132:24) My praise (is for) the one who shines on the firmament, her name is exalted in the lands/dadmû. Other cosmic examples of dadmû include the opening line of The Erra Epic, where both dadmû and kibratu oecur in epithets of Erra [ša] r gimir dadmé banû kib[ratil `[Ki]ng of the entire World, Builder of the World Reg[ions]' (cf. Erra V 60-61); an Esarhaddon inscription where kullat dadmé seems to be equivalent to kal kibraui (R. Borger, AfO 18 113:10-11); and a parallel in a hymn to Nabu: a-a-u 1 eß-pis kul-lat (da)-äd-me lu-tas-qar kali(dù)-Si-na šâ kib-ra-ra1 -[ti] dan-n[u] skis sa tip q%bit ka si-rat dnabû at-to-[ma] LKA 16:6-7

Let me praise the one who made all the world, all of the regions, the mighty one of the universe, O Nabu, your command is exalted. In a Sennacherib inscription, dadmû occurs alongside the names of heaven and underworld ermi danim and kigallu (OIP 2 149 v 3-4). Although dadmû is a near synonym of kibratu, matatu, and kissatu, dadmû need not always include the entire earth's surface. In the inseriptions of Nebuchadnezzar, dadmû extends only from the shores of the Upper Sea to the shores of the Lower Sea but not across the sea to the nagû (VAB 4 146:18-22) Here, dadmû seems to correspond to the central continent on the World Map (see p. 31). However, in Shamash Hymn 182-83 (BWL 136), dalat dadmé `door of the world' parallels sikkur šame `bolt of heaven', indicating that dadmû can extend to the ends of the earth's surface where the Sun passes through the gates of heaven. 39 38 For additional examples of kur.kur = dadmû, see CAD D 18 and note also BA 5 646:7-8. For šargadu = kišsatu, gukin = dadmû, see also MSL 14 400:99-100, 417: 121-22. See also M. Civil, Or 56 237. 33 Compare also Shamash Hymn 153 (BWL 134) and Hinke Kudurru i 14-15 (ef. BWL 323 n. 174).

301

Names for the Sea adnatu

The geographic term adnatu is a near synonym of dadmû. In Malku I 189-91, both are listed as synonyms of matu, and the two occur in nearly identical passages in The Shamash Hymn:

šâ ad-[na]-a-ti dšamaš uz-[nil-ši-na tuš -pat-ti BWL 134:149

Shamash, you open the minds of the (the people) of the regions. kal si -hi-ip da-kd-me u[z]- ni-fi-na tuf- pat-ti

BWL 134:153

You open the minds (of the people) until the limit of world. In both passages, adnatu and dadmû refer to the human population of the earth's surface rather than just to the geographic features of earth. It is possible that adnatu, like dadmû in VAB 4 146:18-22 (see above), only refers to the continent. In an inscription of Tiglath-Pileser III, adnatu extends from the Upper Sea to the Lower Sea: 4° ad-na-ti fa if tu tam-tim eliti (a n. t a) ša šu-lum dfarrff s' adi tam-tim šapliti (k i , t a) fa [d ] U[TU.E .. .

J. N. Postgate, Sumer 29 fig. 1:15 (following page 59) The people/regions from the Upper Sea of sunset to the Lower Sea of [s] u [nrise .. . nabalu

The term nabalu, a noun from the root abalu B 'to dry out, to dry up' (see CAD A/1 29), is paired in Neo-Assyrian royal inscriptions with tâmtu (see CAD N/1 20 b), so the term in its broadest sense refers to all dry land. An example of the term in literature oecurs in a hymn to Gula: belet nabali šarur kullati 'mistress of dry land, glow of the universe' (K. 3371:20; see CAD N/1 21).

Names for the Sea Sumerian Names

ab, a.ab.ba, ab.ba. The two most common Sumerian names for the sea 41 are ab and a.ab.ba. Both are equated with tâmtu, the most common Akka4

° Cf. the month-name adnatu at Mari (M. E. Cohen, The Cuttic Calendars of the

Ancient Near East, 285).

41 For a detailed study of names for the sea in Assyrian royal inscriptions, see J. Elayi, OA 23 75-92. For the Lower Sea (Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean), see W. Heimpel, ZA 77 22-91. See also RGTC 5 319-21; AOAT 6 345-47; RIA 8 1-3.

302

Names for Earth

dian name for the sea (see AHw 1353), and the two occur together in Nabnitu IV 110-11: ab = tam-tu m a.ab.ba = MIN

MSL 16 81

Evidence from the third millennium suggests that a.ab.ba is a genitive construction meaning 'water(s) of the sea' (a of ab). Twice in Old Babylonian copies of inscriptions of Sargon of Akkad, the k of the genitive post-position ak appears: once due to the combination of the genitive and a locative, and once due to a double-genitive construction: g`štukul.ni a.ab.bà.ka i.luh AfO 20 35:51-53 (Gelb-Kienast 158) (Sargon) washed his weapon in the sea. zà a.ab.ba.ka.šè ma me.luh,hak' ma mâ.gan.naki mâ dilmunk' kar ag.ga.dèk'.ka bi.kesda AfO 20 37 IT 8-13 (Gelb-Kienast 164) At the edge of the sea, (Sargon) tied the boat of Meluhha, the boat of Magan, and the boat of Dilmun to the quay of Akkad. Other examples of a.ab.ba with the genitive k occur in Ur-Nammu Clay Cone B i 14 and The Bilingual Creation of the World by Marduk (CT 13 35:10, CT 13 37:31-32 + dupl.; see pp. 130-31). This might suggest that ab was the earlier form of the name a.ab.ba. The sea name ab may also occur in the Sumerian name for the Apsu abzu. 42 Sumerian texts identify two seas by name: the Upper Sea = Mediterranean a.ab.ba igi.nim/.ma), and the Lower Sea = Persian Gulf/Indian Ocean (a.ab.ba igi.sig/.ga/.sig.sig). The earliest examples of these terms occur in The Vase Inscription of Lugalzagesi (BE 1/2 87 ii 3-9; see p. 321). Examples are also known from Old Akkadian royal inscriptions and Gudea texts (see RGTC 1 203-5). 43 Other Sumerian Equivalences of tâmtu. In addition to ab and a.ab.ba, Akkadian tâmtu is also equated with nab in Aa II/6:22 (MSL 14 291), and with sug and tul (see AHw 1353). Akkadian Names tâmtu, tâmatu, ti'amat. The most common Akkadian name for the sea is tâmtu, a name that also oceurs in the uncontracted form ti'amat/ti'amtu, and 42 For possible etymologies of abzu = apsû, see p. 307. Note also lists with a.ab.ba, a.ab.ab.si.ga, a.ab.ba.hu.luh.ha, a.ab.ba.sig. ga, and a.ab.ba.igi.nim.ma in Proto-Izi and Proto-Kagal (MSL 13 28-29, 76), and MSL 11 147 iii 11'-13': a.ab.ba, a.ab.ba.igi.nim.ma , a.ab.ba.igi.sig. 43

Names for the Sea

303

as tâmatultâwatu (see AHw 1353). The word derives from the root thm and is a cognate of Hebrew tehôm. The name tâmtu is used in all genres of texts, during all periods, and with reference both to the Persian Gulf/Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean. The Persian Gulf/Indian Ocean is usually called tâmtu šaplitu 'Lower Sea', and the Mediterranean tâmtu elitu 'Upper Sea'. In Middle-Assyrian and Neo-Assyrian inscriptions, smaller bodies of water to the north of Assyria, including the seas of the lands of Nairi and Zamua (almost certainly Lake Van and Lake Urmia), are also called tâmtu. 44 Thus Akkadian tâmtu, like English 'sea', can refer to large lakes as well as the ocean. ajabba. Akkadian ajabba is apparently a loanword from Sumerian a.ab.ba. In an Old Babylonian bilingual hymn, ajabba translates Sumerian a.ab.ba (see A. George, NABU 1991 p. 16 no. 19). Elsewhere, the term occurs both as a name for the Mediterranean in "The Foundation Inscription of YandunLim" of Mari (G. Dossin, Syria 32 1-28; RIM 4 602-8) and Amarna texts and in the phrase ajabba tâmtu rapaštu'ocean, vast sea' in Gilgamesh and ineantations. In the Yandun-Lim inscription, ajabba occurs three times. In one of these examples, tâmtu and ajabba occur in phrases joined by ma, demonstrating that the two names refer to a single body of water: a-na ki -ša-ad ti-a-am-tim il- li-ik -ma a-na a-a-ab-ba ni-qz šar-ru-ti-fu ra-bi-a-am iq-q2 Syria 32 6 ii 8-11 (ef. ii 12, 22, RIM 4 606)

He went to the shore of the the sea and offered his great royal offerings to the ocean. In the Amarna letters, ajabba is the standard name for the Mediterranean. Examples of ajabba at Amarna include EA 105:11-13, where ajabba 'sea' parallels qaqqaru `dry land' (see CAD A/1 22la). This name for the sea also occurs in the Amarna literary fragment EA 340:6e (see P. Artzi, Eretz-Israel 24 232*). In the prologue to The Gilgamesh Epic, ajabba tâmatu rapasturefers to the cosmic ocean that Gilgamesh crosses later, in Tablet X, on his way to visit Utnapištim: [e-b]ir a-a-rba' [ti a-ma-ti rapastit' adi sit šamši(dutu.è)

Gilg. I 38 (Iraq 37 p. 162, pl. 37) [(Gilgamesh), crosser of the ocean, [v]ast sea as far as sunrise 44

For the seas of the Lands of Na'iri and Zamua, see J. Elayi, OA 23 80-87 and E. Michel, WO 2 410 H ii. For the sea of the Land of Na'iri, see RGTC 5 321 and AOAT 6 346. For tamtu elénitu as a name for Lake Van, see RGTC 5 319 no. 1. However, see AOS 74 81 for an identification of Lake Zeribor as the (a?) Sea of Zamua. Although it may be assumed that the existence of the Black and Caspian Seas was known from at least the time of Tukulti-Ninurta I, no certain references to these seas are known. For possible references to the Black Sea, see RGTC 5 319 1, 320 3.

304

Names for Earth

In this context, ajabba and tâmtu rapaftu are also a single body of water. In incantations, the waters of the ajabba tâmtu rapaštu `ocean, the vast sea' are apparently used as cleansing agents to wash off evil spells (see W. Farber, JNES 49 305-16). In one such medical incantation, the waters of the ajabba tâmtu rapaštu are sprinkled on a supplicant: man-nam lu-oš-pur a-na marat(meš> rdi [a-nim] lil-qa-an-ni ka ni si na fa rna41 [hulali] kar-pa-ti-ši-na ša na4uqn [i] (z a. g [ i n] ) li-sa-ba-ni mêmes a-ab-ba ta-ma-te rapaIštih] me(a) 'lidiglat u `dpurat[ti] li is lu ha li-bal-la-a sik-ka-tu mi iq tû a [fi a]

BAM 543 30'-35' (JNES 49 317) Let me send someone for the Daughters of Anu. Let them take their jugs of [bulalu]-stone (and) their pitchers of lap[is] for me. Let them draw the waters of the ocean, the vast sea, (and) the water of the Tigris and Euphrat[es]. Let them sprinkle it and extinguish the sikkatu, miqtu, and argil-diseases.

It is not clear why ajabba is used together with tâmtu rapaštu. It is possible that tâmtu rapaftu was originally intended to explain the relatively rare word ajabba, although most copies of a parallel incantation preserve tâmtu rapaftu with the name of the Ulaja River instead of ajabba (JNES 49 314-15:6). 45 Another example of ajabba alongside tâmtu, albeit without the adjective rapaštu, occurs in a prayer to Nabu (W. G. Lambert, RA 53 135:44). The word also occurs in an epithet of Inanna/Ištar: [dinn] i [n] .a.ab.b ak = ia-bi-i-[tu]

KAV 73:4' + KAV 145 rev. 3'

In Summa Alu, this same epithet is written A.AB.BA -ta (CT 28 38 K. 4079a:11'). A male deity lug a 1. a. a b . b a is also known (Deimel Pantheon 163 no. 1854) and d A.AB.BA is equated with the west-semitic Sea-god Yamm at Ugarit. 46

jamu. Akkadian jamu, a loanword from the common West-Semitic name for the sea, yamm, occurs in Uruanna as part of the plant-name kusajame (see CAD I/J 322; J. Durand, MARI 7 57-60). marratu. The name marratu is a first-millennium synonym of tâmtu. The word derives from the root mardru 'to be bitter' and apparently refers to the fact that sea water is not potable. The name appears to be an Aramaic loanword into Akkadian, since it does not appear before the first millennium and Shalmaneser III identifies marratu as a Chaldean name for the Persian Gulf 45 For the Ulaja River in what may be a related context, se SAA 6 288; J. Scurlock, NABU 1993 pp. 11-12 no. 17. 4s For A.AB.BA in the west and the western Sea-god Yamm, see J. Nougâyro1, Ugaritica 5 58 line 29 and Malamat Mari 107-12.

305

Names for the Sea

(WO 1 387:3-6; see p. 26). On the World Map, the cosmic ocean is labeled marratu (see pp. 21-22).

In Neo-Assyrian texts, marratu occurs regularly as a name for the Persian Gulf. Examples include the Shalmaneser III inscription, a passage in the inscriptions of Sargon II where Bit Yakin and Dilmun are located by the marratu (Winekler Sargon 100:22), and a passage in the inscriptions of Sennacherib where the city of Kar-Nabu in Chaldea is located on the shore of the marratu (A. Grayson, AfO 20 88:8-9). In contrast, only two Neo-Assyrian examples of the term as a name for the Mediterranean are known. Twice in the inscriptions of Sargon II the Mediterranean is called the upper marratu while the Persian Gulf is identified as the lower marratu (R. C. Thompson, Iraq 7 87:12; Winckler Sargon 176:23-24). 47 Thus it is possible that the term was originally only a name for the Gulf, rather than a synonym of tâmtu. However, on the World Map, which was composed in Babylonia during the Neo-Assyrian period (see pp. 25-26), the entire cosmic ocean is identified as the marratu. By the Late Babylonian and Aehaemenid periods, marratu is used as a synonym of tâmtu for both the Upper and Lower Seas. In a Neriglissar Chron icle, the city of Pitusu on the coast of Asia Minor is placed on the shore of the marratu (Grayson Chronicles 104:20; see RGTC 8 251), Egypt lies by the marratu in the inscriptions of Darius (VAB 3 11 no. 6:5), and Greeks live on the shore of the marratu and across the marratu in the inscriptions of Xerxes (Herzfeld API 30 no. 14:18-19). Late examples of marratu as a name for the Mediterranean occur in historical notices in astronomic diaries (see, for example, Sachs-Hunger Diaries II 496 C 14'; III 72 upper edge: Antioch which is on the `dma-rat). On the World Map, and in a number of other texts, marratu occurs with the f d (river) determinative, demonstrating that the marratu was, in some sense, thought to be a river. 48 A related term jarri marti `pool of bile' oecurs in apposition to tâmtu gallatu 'restless sea' in a description of a defensive moat outside Babylon built by Nebuchadnezzar (VAB 4 134 vi 45-46). Other Synonyms of tâmtu

Malku II lists four more equivalents of tâmtu `sea' and one equivalent of tâmatu `seas': se-er-kup -pu ta-am-tû MIN mu-gam- mir-tû ši -qi-tû1 = MIN maš -qi-tum a-ba-ma-a-tum = ta-ma-a -tu

`the swamp' `the encloser' `the drink' `the watering-place'

W. von Soden, ZA 43 235:35-38 // SpTU III 119:37 40 -

47

For marratu in Sargon II inscriptions, see further A. Fuchs, Die Inschriften Sar-

gons II. aus Khorsabad, 450. 48 Compare with Hesiod's Theogony 241-42, where Greek Oceanus bears the epithet "Perfect River:'

306

Names for Earth

The synonyms of tâmtu only occur in lists and commentaries. The equation serkuppu = tâmtu is also attested in An VII:11, and the same word (or a homonym) with the meaning apû `reed-swamp' occurs with writings serkuppu, serkuppu, zarkuppu later in Malku II 77 (see CAD S 177). Exactly how a reed-swamp could also be a sea is not clear unless ancient Mesopotamians considered eoastal marshes, as well as the open sea, to be part of the ocean. The name mugammirtu = tâmtu also occurs in the synonym list K. 4233+ ii 30 (CT 18 9) and in the late commentary LBAT 1577 rev, ii 2' (mu-gam-mirt[um = ... P. This name is a II-stem feminine participle from gamaru (gummuru) with a probable meaning `the encloser', since the sea, on the World Map at least, encloses the lands. The variants sigitu/mašgitu, both from the root saqû 'to water, to give to drink' may be compared with the English slang name for the ocean "the drink" AHw 1353 eompares abamâtum with Nuzi ammu = team-te.

Names for Apsu

Four names for the cosmic Apsu 49 oceur in lexical lists: abzu = = engurru, anzanunzû,50 and asurrakku. The first two are the most common names for the cosmic Apsu. In lexical lists, abzu and engur are equated with apsû in Proto-Izi I (bilingual) i 10'-11' (MSL 13 37), and Sumerian engur is equated both with a loanword engurru and apsû in Ea I 70, Aa I/2 233-34, and Proto-Aa 40:1-2 (MSL 14 180, 215, 91). A parallel list in unilingual Proto-Izi I 363-64 (MSL 13 29) lists Sumerian engur, e n g u r. m a h, and a b z u. 51 Akkadian anzanunzû and asurrakku are not equated with abzu = apsû or engur = engurru in lexical lists but do appear in Malku II as synonyms of mû saplitum lowlying waters, deep waters' in a section of terms related to water and bodies of water: an-za-na-an-zu-tic = mû meš šap-lu-tum a-sur-rak-ku = MIN a-ru-ru = MIN

W. von Soden, ZA 43 236:52-54 // SpTU III 119 54-56 In Aa II/4, mû šaplitu occurs as a near synonym of mû rûqûtu 'distant waters, deep waters': 4s For a previous study of abzu = apsû and synonyms, see Green Eridu 154-60. 50 The reading anzanunzû is preferred over dzanunzû because the term is never written without AN/dingir as are other cosmic place names that are occasionally written with dingir. For cosmic place names written both with and without dingir in Diri and Proto-Diri, see pp. 269-70. 51 Note also sug = apsû in Aa I/2 208 (MSL 14 214); ap.ar = apsûm in MSL 3 217 G5 6'; and broken entries in Aa I/8 239 (MSL 14 241) and Sbl 142a (MSL 3 110). For ABxA as a name for Apsu in UET 6 67 see Charpin Le Clerge 371 n. 1. For a Greek transliteration ui n/aßCcu, see E. Knudsen, AOAT 240 138 rev. 6-7.

Names for Apsu

307

(ban' u) šâ mu(a)' šâ mu-ü ru-qu-ü-tum

šâ mu-ti šap- lu -tum Aa II/4 129-30 (MSL 14 283, PSD B 201 buru 3 B) Thus anzanunzû and asurrakku are, in some sense, distant deep waters of the Apsu below the earth's surface. A list of synonyms for apsû also occurs in a list of temples and shrines in Malku I that begins with synonyms for esirtum 'sanctuary': ré -engur'-ra

= ap-su -u

[x-xi-ra

MIN

C1116- 1a1

MIN MIN MIN

làl-gar A [BZI U

Malku I 288-91 (A. Kilmer, JAOS 83 429) A badly damaged parallel list occurs in Explicit Malku (JAOS 83 444:175-79) between terms for shrines and ziggurats. Here, only the equivalents é-engurr a and d u s k ù can be restored. Three of the four names in Malku I 288-91 are names for temples or shrines. Eengurra is the name of Enki's temple in Eridu. Abzu is the name of Enki's shrine in Eengurra, as well as shrines dedicated to Enki/Ea in Eridu, Ur, and Lagash (see Green Eridu 177-80). 52 Shrines called du 6 .kù were also found in Eridu, Nippur, Lagash, and, later, in Babylon. 53 Akkadian duku also occurs as a cosmic place-name, but no connection between the cosmic duku and the Apsu is certain (see pp. 315-16). The name lalgar occurs as a cosmic plaee-name belonging to Ea, but there is no evidence for temples or shines named lalgar.54 Thus lalgar may appear Malku I 290 because it is a name for the cosmic Apsu. Two other equivalents of apsû, š e g b a r and h a l, a n. k ù, only oecur as names for Apsu shrines. abzu = apsû Sumerian abzu and Akkadian apsû are names for Apsu temples and shrines, cultic water basins, and the god Apsu, as well as name for the cosmic Apsu. The origins of the word are uncertain. Akkadian apsû may be a loanword from Sumerian abzu, but it is also possible that abzu is borrowed from Akkadian, or that both abzu and apsû are borrowed from a third language. If the term is originally Sumerian, abzu may derive from the Sumerian name for the sea, ab. If so, abzu may mean `knowing sea' (ab.zu), since the Apsu belongs to 52 For the ab zu of Ur, Eridu, and Lagash, see UET HI "Indexes Volume" 196-97 no. 66; RIM Annual Review 8 54-56 no. 8-9. V. E. Crawford, JCS 29 194 y' 6' with n. 23; For the apsû shrine at Babylon, see CAD A/2 196 apsû e. See also CT 29 48:22 for the bit apsi in Esagil, and George Tintir 301-3. Note also the town Apsu -Ištar in RGTC 5 33. 53 See George Temples 77. 54 The only exception is the name of the Apsu-temple of Enki/Ea at Eridu É.LAL. G[AR] in The Canonical Temple List (see George Temples 14:187, 26 n. 187)

308

Names for Earth

Enki, the Sumerian god of wisdom. A later interpretation of the word as 'distant sea' may be found in a hymn to Enlil: me.bi me.abzu lu igi nu.bar.re .dè gà.bi ab.sù.da an.zà nu.zu.a Reisman Two-Hymns 46:43-44 Its (Ekur's) mes are mes of the Apsu which no one can understand. Its interior is a distant sea which 'Heaven's Edge' cannot comprehend. 55 In Sumerian texts, engur occurs much more regularly as a name for the cosmic Apsu than abzu itself. Nonetheless, examples of abzu as a cosmic place name are found in The Curse of Agade and Lugalbanda. In The Curse of Agade, An and Enki remove possessions from Akkad to their cosmic homes in an.šà and Apsu prior to the destruction of the city (Cooper Curse of Agade 52:72-54:75; see p. 247). In Lugalbanda 221, a labama comes out of abzu, just as 50 lahama inhabit engur in Inanna and Enki 40:28, and lahmu live in the apsû in S amaš Hymn 38 (BWL 128). 56 Sumerian abzu also occurs as a name for the cosmic waters of the water tablet beneath the earth's surfaee in Sumerian literature. Examples include passages in The Kesh Temple Hymn (where abzu occurs with an.š).), Enki's Journey 22, and an Ur-Nammu hymn: eb.gal an.né us.sa zi.da.gal an.né us.sa men.gal an.né us.sa dtir.an.na an.né us.sa mûš.bi an.šà.ga la..a te,me.bi abzu.a si.ga é é é é é

TCS 3 169:31-36 (Keš Temple Hymn) Temple, `great shrine' reaching heaven. 57 Truegatmplchinev. Temple, great crown reaching heaven. Temple, rainbow reaching heaven. Temple, whose gleam stretches into `Heaven's Midst', whose foundation is fastened on the Apsu. 58 55 Note also the parallel [é].gal ab.su.ra an.zà nu.zu [ ... in A. Sjoberg, Or.Suec. 23/24 166:15'. 56 For additional examples of lahmu and lahamu in the Apsu, see CAD L 41, Green Eridu 108-9. For the lahmu and tahamu of the Apsu, see W. G. Lambert, OrNs 54 189-202. 57 For this passage in the Archaic Kesh Tempte Hymn, see R. Biggs, ZA 61 201:3136. For ib/eb meaning `shrine', see TCS 3 181 n. 31. For eb.gal meaning `temple oval', see ZA 61 205. 58 In RA 80 40-60 S. Dunham collects attestations of temen with the verb si (g). It is suggested in RA 80 52-53 that temen — si(g) refers to a tradition that the foundations

309

Names for Apsu

e kù na4za,gin,na ki.gar.ra temen.bi abzu.a si.ga Enki's Journey 21-22 Temple, built of silver and lapis, whose foundation is fastened on the Apsu uru.me.duI o. dulo. ga bâra.mah nam.lugal.la èš driki gu.gal ke.en.gi .ra ki.kù.ga dù.a uru! bàd.gal ki.gar.ra.zu abzu.ta mu.a TCL 15 12:1-3 (G. Castellino, ZA 53 118) City with good mes, august seat of kingship. Shrine, Ur, preeminent (city) of Sumer, built on a holy site. City, your great well-founded wall grows out of the Apsu. Similarly, in Late Babylonian royal inscriptions, walls and foundations of buildings are placed in apsû, and irat apsî 'the surface of Apsu' (see CAD A/2 196 b). Akkadian apsû is by far the most common name for the cosmic Apsu in Akkadian texts. Examples of the term as a cosmic place name include Ee IV 137-46, where apsû/esgalla is the lowest of three cosmic regions, and Atra-basis I 17-18, where Ea descends to the Apsu in early times when Anu ascends to heaven (Lambert-Millard Atra-basis 42). engur = engurru The most common Sumerian name for the cosmic Apsu is engur. Examples in Sumerian literature include EN 13-14, where Enki rests in the e n g u r. b ù r u 'deep Apsu' (see p. 138) ; Lugalbanda 78-79, where the Anzu-bird ascends to heaven and his wife deseends to engur in search of their missing fledgling; Inanna and Enki 40:28, where 50 lahama inhabit engur; and a passage in a hymn to Ninurta-Ningirsu, where a god grants Ninurta kingship in heaven, earth, and Apsu: nam.lugal.zu an.rna 1 mu.un.gâl ki.a rmu'.un.gâl den.ki .da engur.kù.ga za.e ša.mu.un.ne.dab 5 .en

STLN 61 i 12-16

Your kingship, he established in heaven. He established in earth. With Enki in the Apsu, You, he made take it. of temples were fastened by foundation-pegs all the way into the Apsu. See also B. Alster, ASJ 9 32 line 5. For an early study of this and related aspects of Apsu see R. Burrows, Or. 1 231-56.

310

Names for Earth

The loanword engurru is only known from lexical entries in Ea, Aa, and Proto-Aa (see p. 306). In bilingual texts, engur is translated as apsû, rather than engurru (see CAD A/2 194-95). In CT 16 45:136-37, é . e n g u r occurs as a variant for engur = apsû. 59 anzanunzû and asurrakku

Although neither anzanunzû nor asurrakku60 is ever equated with abzu = apsû or engur = engurru in lexical lists or bilingual texts, both are used as names for the Apsu or waters of the Apsu. In Malku II 52-53, both names occur as synonyms for tnft saplitum `deep waters' (see p. 306). In literature, both occur as cosmic place names for the Apsu together with names for other cosmic regions. In a literary letter that introduces an exemplar of The Weidner Chronicle, anzanunzû and asurakku occur together with 'heaven' in a blessing: rik'?-ru-ba-an-(ni) ina a-sur-rak-ki-i ma-an-za-za to-1 ka-an' ina an-za-nun?-rze-e1 ta-x-ri NIM [a-na] šamê e ru-qu-tu re-si-ka ta-na-aš-ši .. .

AK? LA

E Al-Rawi, Iraq 52 3 S:15-16 She (Gula) blessed (me): In asurrakku you will establish an abode, in anzanunzû you will [Toward] the distant heavens you will lift your head ... In Ludlul II 37-39, anzanunzû occurs with qereb šame: a-a-ü te-em ilâni mes mi-lik šâ an-za-nun-ze-e e-ka-a-ma il-ma-da

qe-reb šamêe i-lam-mad i-ha-ak-kim man-nu a-lak-ti ili a-pa-a-ti

BWL 40:36-38

Who can learn the will of the gods in heaven? What man can explain the plan of (the gods in) the Apsu? Where has the human race ever learned the way of a god? In the hymn to Marduk STC I 205, asurrakku occurs with names for heaven, the earth's surface, and the underworld: ul-tu a-sur-rak-ka be-lurn ilâni mes su-ut da-âd-me i-na pa-an g'šqa§ti(p a n) -šu ez-ze-ti im-me-du sâ-ma -mi ša ešmahhi sal-lu-tum ha-mu-ü it gar -ru

STC I 205:19-21

59 For a possible writing an.kur for engur, see W. G. Lambert, Iraq 38 61 B 5; see also S. Kramer, JAOS 105 139 n. 17. 6° Variant writings anzananzû and anzanuzû are also attested for Malku II 52 (see p. 306).

311

Names for Apsu

He is the lord of the gods of the inhabited world from asurrakku (upward). Before his furious bow the heavens stand still. The "sleepers" (dead) of the `Great Shrine' (underworld) are stunned and panic-stricken. In an earlier portion of this same text (STC I 205:9), Marduk `roils' the Apsu, just as Marduk roils asurrakku in a bilingual parallel: e.ne.èm dasal.lu.hi a.sur.bi ab.lù.lù a-mat dmarduk a-sur! -ra-ak-ku i dal la ah 4R 26 no. 4:51-52 The word of Marduk roils asurrakku. a-na tic- ta-az-zu -mi -sû id dal la hu ap-su -u

STC I 205:9

The Apsu is roiled by his (Marduk's) roaring. In Descent of Ištar 27, the goddess roils apsû. Three other examples of the anzanunzû are known. In these examples, anzanunzû occurs in the context of subsurface waters, both identifying anzanunzû as a name for Apsu and justifying the equation anzanunzû = 'deep waters' in Malku II. In The Shamash Hymn, a mariner almost drowns in anzanunzû: te-em-mi-id a-na al-la-ki šâ sup-su-qat û-r[u-uh-sû] a-na e-bir tâmti (a. a b, b a) a-dir a-ge-e ta-nam-d[in x x] har-ra-na-a-ti šâ la am-ra sa-3-i-da-ta a[t-ta] [su] li i terteniddi (u š)mes alma-hi-ru šâ d [šamsi] sl [ûtamkâ)ru na-aš ki-si ina e-de-e tu-še-zib tu-šel-li a-rid an-za-nun-ze-e tu-šâ-a§-kan kap-pa

I

BWL 130:65-70 // Rm. IV 277 (see CAD A/2 153) You stand by the traveler whose w [ay] is diffIcult. To the one who crosses the sea, fears the waves you give ...1. Y[oui are the one who patrols the routes that are unseen. You ceaselessly follow the paths before the S [u] n. T[he merchant carrying his capital you save from high waves. You raise up the one going down to anzanunzû , you provide (him) with a wing. In this context, anzanunzû is the depths of the sea, since Shamash saves the mariner from drowning in anzanunzû by raising him upward. In Shamash Hymn 35-38 and 171-73, apsû is the depths of the sea (see p. 340), 61 61 For a parallel in Psalm 107, see M. Weinfeld, AfO Beih. 19 275 - 77.

312

Names for Earth

In a bilingual Bit Rimki ineantation, fish are boiled alive underwater in an. [za.nu].un.zu = [an-z]a-nu-un-zi-i (R. Borger, JCS 21 8 63-66). Fish are boiled alive in engur and engur = apsû in CT 15 10 rev. 5 and SBH no. 56:66-67. In duplicates of a Sargon II inseription, a quay wall extends below the surface of the Euphrates into anzanunzû (see G. Beckman, RIM Annual Review 5 2-3 no. 3). The Apsu is also to be found in rivers in an incantation to the River of Creation (R. Caplice, Or. 39 135:24), the Akkadian incantation The 21 Poultices (W. G. Lambert, AnSt 30 80-82), and Lambert-Millard Atra-hasis 78 iii 25-30 (for all of these, see pp. 338-39). In CT 46 55, asurrakku occurs as a cosmic place name alongside heaven and earth, but it is not certain that asurrakku is a name for the Apsu in this context (see pp. 178-79). Three additional examples of asurrakku occur in the inscriptions of Sennacherib, where the Tebiltu river in Nineveh has an asurrakku (OIP 2 96:76; 99:49; 118:15). This asurrakku appears to be an underground culvert that Sennacherib built to redirect the waters of the Tebiltu River away from the planned building site of his new palace. 62 The hidden culvert of the Tebiltu, like the cosmic Apsu, was filled with underground waters. The Etymology of asurrakku and anzanunzû. The doubled consonant k at the end of the asurrakku indicates that asurrakku is a loanword from Su-

merian. As written, the term would seem to be based on a genitive construction 'a (water) of s u r', A possible etymology _ based on such a construction might be 'a of s u r6 /7 (= mes berûtu) `water of the foundation pit'. 63 In a Nebuchadnezzar II inscription, the foundations of the Ištar-Gate at Babylon are placed both at irat apsî `the surface of Apsu', as in other Neo-Babylonian royal inscriptions (see CAD A/2 196 b), and at me berûtu: ... i ši is sa mi hi ra at ap-si-i i-na šu-pü-ul me-e bé-e-ru-tim

tic-ša-ar-ši-id

IR 52 no. 3 ii 18-19 (VAB 4 86 ii 18-19) (The Ištar- Gate's) foundation I set fast at the surface of Apsu at the depth of the "waters of the foundation-pit" (i.e., the ground waters) Nonetheless, a passage in Enki and Ninmah and a bilingual incantation seem to understand asurrakku as '(place of/where) a. s u r. r a (flowing waters, roiled waters, deep waters)' from sur = sarâru.64 In Enki and Ninmah 13, engur. bùru, the deep Apsu, is described as a place where water flows:

62 Such a culvert can be eompared with Sennacherib's aqueduct tunnel (described in OIP 24 47-49) and the Negub tunnel (see C. Davey, Iraq 47 49-55). 63 See CAD B 213. Less likely is sùr = sûru `ditch' and other homonyms (see CAD S 415-16). 64 For sur = sarâru A, see CAD S 105-6.

Names for Apsu

313

den.ki.ke4 engur.bùru a.sur.ra ki dingir.na .me šà.bi u6 nu.um.me [... ] x ru-qu-û-ti [ ... ma-am-man lia i-du-û Benito Enki 22:13 Enki, in the deep Apsu, where water flows, into which no god can see The same meaning of a.sur.ra is evident in a bilingual incantation in the context of waters belonging to Enki/Ea, the king of the Apsu: a.sur.ra den,ki.ke 4 sag bi.in.gâ.gâ [(x x x)] §ci a-na me-e sar-ru-ti sa dé-a '-it-[ru] [gi] š.pàr den.ki.ke 4 hé.ni.ib.dib. [dib.bé] gis-pàr-ru sâ d é-a li bar [su] CT 17 34:23-26 (W. Romer, Fest. Sjoberg 468:12-13) Any (demon) who goes against the flowing water of Ea; let the trap of Ea catch [him]. Yet a third etymology, a.sud.ra, '(place of) distant/deep waters', is suggested by Antagal III 15, where asurrakku translates a.sù(d).ra `distant/deep waters' (MSL 17 150). Both the Sumerian hymn ZA 52 59:6 and the bilingual fragment BA 5 646:5-6 describe the abzu = apsû as distant/deep (see p. 342). No Sumerian etymology of anzanunzû seems obvious, so the word may very well be a loanword into Akkadian from a third language. However, it is just possible that the word derives from the Sumerian phrase an.zà nu.zu.a `which Heaven's Edge cannot comprehend'. This phrase occurs in the context of the Apsu in Reisman Two-Hymns 46:43-44 and A. K. Sjoberg, Or.Suec. 23/24 166:15' (see p. 308). lalgar The equation lalgar = apsû in Malku I 291 (JAOS 83 429; see p. 307) demonstrates that lalgar is in some sense a synonym for apsû. In all known Akkadian examples of the term, lalgar is written without case endings. This curious fact may indicate that lalgar is a foreign word. 65 Seven examples of the term are known. In three of the seven, lalgar appears alongside names for heaven and earth, demonstrating that lalgar is a cosmic place name. In the bilingual literary fragment LKA 23, Ištar takes possesion of heaven, earth, and lalgar: [x x bâra].nam.lugal.an.na.ke 4 ul.hé šu bi.in.t [i gal.di] [ x x ] x pa-rak sar-ru-ut da-nim samê e i-hu-uz [tiz-qur-tum]

[ x x ] x namden.lil.1a kur.ra šu bi.in.ti [gal.di] [ x ]-x-[t]i den-lfl-ü-ti ma-a-rta' e-hu-uz tiz-qu[r-tum] 65 W. G. Lambert in AfO 17 319 C no. HI identifies the term with the name of the second king of the Sumerian King List, a.l à 1. g a r (AS 11 70:5). See also M. Civil in RA 60 92.

314

Names for Earth 1

unu 1 dnu'.dim.mud.da làl.gar šu bf.in.ti g[al.di]

Nu-bat dé-a la-al-1 ga-ar' i-hu-uz tiz-qur-[tum]

LKA 23 rev. 8'-13' (collated) [The exalted lady] took hold of the [ ... ] of the royal dais of Anu of heaven. [The exalted] lady took hold of the ... of Enlilship of the land. [The exalted] lady took hold of the abode of Enki/Ea, lalgar. Here, lalgar must be the Apsu, since it is a cosmic abode of Enki/Ea. In two other passages, lalgar occurs with names for heaven and earth: an.na za.e m[ah.me.en

.. .

ina šamêe s[i-ra-ta at-ta .. .

ki.a za.e mah.me.e [n lal.gar.r] a 1 za.e 1 m [ah.me.en] ina er-se-ti at-ta si-ra-ta ina lal-[gar at-ta si-ra-ta]

K. 5201 1-4 (BA 5 396) In heaven [you are] ex[alted In earth you are exalted, in lal [ garyou are exalted] .. .

kul-lat nag-bi né-me-qi ni- sir-ti ka -kù-ga -lu -ti ka -nak g'šusurâti mes šamê u erseti pi- riš-ti làl-gar

KAR 44 rev. 7-8

All sources of wisdom, the secret of the exorcist, the sealing of the designs of heaven and earth, the secret of lalgar. A fourth example of lalgar as a cosmic region may be found in a š u: f l a to Nabu, where the god is called mukil markas lalgar paqid dus kù-ga 'holder of the bond of lalgar, commander of duku' (W. Mayer, Or 59 461:7; see p. 316). Although the above examples demonstrate that lalgar can be a cosmic place name, the only direct evidence that identifies lalgar with the cosmic Apsu is found in LKA 23 rev. 12'-13', where lalgar is a home of Enki/Ea. However, no surviving text identifies lalgar as a body of water. Thus, if lalgar is to be identified as a name of the cosmic Apsu, the link between lalgar and the Apsu may be that lalgar is associated with wisdom, as in KAR 44 rev. 7-8. Elsewhere, Asarluhi is said to view lalgar and formulate plans in An Address of Marduk to the Demons (W. G. Lambert, AfO 17 313 C 11), and Nineveh is praised as an ancient seat of wisdom where the nisirti lalgar 'secret of lalgar' is studied, in the inscriptions of Sennacherib (OIP 2 94:63-65; 103:32). 66 Related Terms

nagbu. Akkadian nagbu 'spring, source' is sometimes used as a name for the waters of the water table that belong to the Apsu. For example, a number of Assyrian royal inscriptions place foundations at the me nagbi 'waters of the water 66

For parallels with nisirti apsi `seeret of the Apsu', see CAD N/2 276 d.

315

Names for Apsu

table' (see CAD N/1 110 2b), and a drought occurs in Atra-basis when the milu 'flood' from the Apsu and rain from heaven cease (Lambert-Millard Atra-hasis 72:11-12; 78 iv 1-2). A four-column god-list from Assurbanipal's library may even identify nagbu with both the god Ea and the name of the Apsu, e n g u r: en.gur den.engur dé-a ša n [a-ag-bi] CT 25 48: 3 + dup1. 67 engur : Lord of Engur : Ea of the s[ource].

Although it is clear that nagbu in these contexts can refer to waters normally associated with the Apsu, it is unlikely that nagbu was ever understood as a synonym of apsû, since the word never occurs as an equivalent of any known name of the Apsu. Furthermore, the Apsu itself has its very own nagbu 'source' in identical lines of two incantations: idim,abzu.ta 7.na.meš ina na-gab ap-si-i si-bit-ti šit-nu CT 16 15 v 30-31 (Utukku Lemnutu V) idim.abzu. [ta] 7.na. [meš] [ina 7/la-gab ap-si-i si-bit-ti sû-nu CT 17 13:14 They are 7 (demons) at the source of the Apsu. 68

esgalla. The name esgalla occurs as a second name for the cosmie Apsu in Ee IV 143-46 (see pp. 127-28). du6.kù. Akkadian dub ku occurs twice in Akkadian texts as a cosmic place name: in a Bit Rimki incantation, where the Sun rises from a cosmic Duku situated by mountains east of Mesopotamia, and in a bilingual incantation: Éiv dutu kur.gal.ta um.ta.è.na.zu.šè dramas ul-tu šâ-di-i ra-bi-i ina a-se-ka

kur.gal kur.idim.ta um,ta.è.na.zu.šè iš-tu šci-di-i ra-bi-i šd-ad nag-bi ina a-se-k[a] du6 .kù ki.nam.tar,tar.re.dè um.ta.è.na.zu.šè iš-tu dub kù a-far fi-ma-a-tum is-šim-ma ina a-se-k[a]

ki.šè an.ki téš.bi 16.,a.ta an.ur.ta um.ta.è,na.z [u.š]è ana e-ma ša-mu-û u ersetumtnm iš tenif' na-an-du-ru iš-tu i šid šamêe ina (a-se-ka) -

R. Borger, JCS 21 2:1-3:4 67 For a restoration dea sa nari `Ea of the River', see H. Gaiter, Der Gott Ea/Enki in der Akkadischer Überlieferung 23:3, 24 n 3. Compare dlugai.a.ki .a = dMarduk sa nagbi (CT 24 50 BM 47406 :2; AOAT 240 399). 68

For this incantation, see F. Köcher, AfO 21 15.

316

Names for Earth

Sun-god, when you rise from the Great Mountain, when you rise from the Great Mountain, the "Mountain of the Spring," when you rise from Duku, the place where the destinies are determined, when you rise at the place where heaven and earth embrace, at the horizon. TU?/DU6 ?.kur.ti.ta šà.bi im.ti.a.meš iš-tu dub kù ana qé-reb ersetimt'm it-to-su-nu šü-nu

K. 2873:3-4 (CT 17 41) (Akk.) They left Duku for the "middle" of the earth. Neither passage indicates that the cosmic Duku is to be identified with the Apsu. In the Bit Rimki passage, Duku seems to be located along the horizon rather than below the earth's surface. In K. 2873:3-4, the Sumerian equivalent of Akkadian duku includes the name of the underworld, kur, suggesting that duku here is to be identified with the underworld rather than the Apsu. 69 A third example may be found in a š u. i l a where Akkadian dub ku occurs in an epithet of Nabu, paralleling l alga r: mu-kil mar-kàs làl-gar/la-al-ga-ar pa-qid du skù-ga a-šd-red di g'a g'z a ši it da-nun-na-ki W. Mayer, Or 59 461:7-8 Holder of the bond of lalgar, Commander of duku, Foremost of the Igigi, Director of the Anunnaki, hal.an.ku. Sumerian bal.an .kù is equated with apsû in an Old Babylonian Proto-Ea/Aa tablet (MSL 14 142:18). This term is certainly a name for an Apsu shrine, rather than the cosmic Apsu. Sumerian h al. an.kù occurs as a name for Eengurra, or a part of Eengurra, in both The Canonical Temple List (see George Temples 26 no. 193) and The Blessing of Nissaba by Enki (W. Hallo, Rencontre Assyriologique 17 125 42), which preserves both Sumerian bal.an . kù and an Akkadian loanword hallanku in the bilingual version. segbar. The term šegbar, like hal.an.kù, is a name for a shrine in Eridu (see George Temples 26 no. 189). Twice in bilingual works šegbar is equated with apsû: in Šurpu 52:6-7 and in BM 54745, where a man is brought into a shrine šegbar = apsû to pacify a deity: 69 For the cosmic du6.lcù, see also A. Tsukimoto, AOAT 216 212-17; F. Wiggermann, Natural Phenomena 285-86, 295-96; and p. 130 above. Note also the ancestors of Enlil, d e n.du6 .kù.ga and dn in.du6 .kù.ga (see J. van Dijk, AeOr 28 chart p. 6; Ancient Cosmologies 51-53). The god d e n.du6 .kù.ga occurs as a gatekeeper of the underworld in Nergal and Ereskigal (SpTU I 1 iv 2). Sumerian du 6.ku also occurs six times in a eosmic eontext in Labar and Ašnan 27-42. See also TCS 3 50-51, and note gods of heaven, earth, Apsu, and Duku in H. Zimmern, ZA 23 374:82-85.

Names for Apsu

317

šà šeg9,bar.ra i.bf nu,bar.re.dam qé-reb ap-si-i šâ la nap-lu-si

i.bf.bi ir.ra x,bi.a ir.ra.àm pa-nu-sü bi-ki-tum x-da bi-ki-tum-ma

i.bf,bi ir.ra mu.rlu' mu.un.ku 4 .ku4 pa-nu-sü bi-ki-tum ro-we'-lam û-še-er-re-bu

šà.bi a.še.er,ra mu.lu im.ta.è.a lib ba su ta-ni-hi a-we-lam û-se-es-sa-a BM 54745:47-54 (cf. Enki's Journey 44-48) In the midst of Apsu, which cannot be seen. His face is weeping, ... weeping. His face is weeping, they bring in a man. When his heart sighs, they take the man out. The origins of šegbar as a name for the Apsu are not clear. A homonym š e g9 . b a r = sapparu 'a type of wild goat or sheep' is known, but it is uncertain how such an animal can be related to the Apsu shrines.

Chapter 13

The Geography of Earth

The portion of the cosmos below the heavens consists of solid and liquid elements. Earth is a solid, and the waters of the Apsu and cosmic sea are liquids. Other waters in earth include the rivers, lakes, and streams of the earth's surface, and the underworld river Hubur. The waters of lakes and streams drain into the sea by means of the rivers. There is no statement in Mesopotamian materials that the waters of the underworld river are connected in any way to the sea or bodies of water on the earth's surface. KAR 307 divides the portion of the cosmos below the heaven, like heaven itself, into three levels: an upper earth, middle earth, and lower earth. The Upper Earth is the earth's surface, the home of mankind in the universe. In KAR 307, Marduk settles the spirits of mankind on this level. The Middle Earth is the Apsu, which Marduk assigns to Ea. The Lower Earth is the underworld where Marduk shuts in 600 Anunnaki, KAR 307 does not refer to the ocean. In Sumerian mythology,' the earth is a solid block of matter that is separated from heaven in early times. Heaven and earth are made distant from one another, thereby exposing the dry land on the upper surface of the earth, where mankind is later settled. The underworld below the earth's surface also apparently belongs to this solid block of matter. Sumerian traditions of the separation of heaven and earth do not consider the waters of the Apsu beneath the earth's surface nor the cosmic sea whose surface is visible from the earth's surface. These waters appear to be primordial elements in Sumerian mythology. In Babylonian myths, cosmic waters that eventually form the Apsu and sea are primoridal elements. In Enuma Elish, the divine waters of both the Apsu and the sea-goddess Tiamat exist at the very start of creation. In Ee I 711 For the Sumerian and Babylonian aecounts of the creation of earth, dry land, and sea, see ehapter 6.

318

The Levels of Earth

319

88, the god Apsu is pacified by Ea and put to death. His watery corpse forms the waters of the cosmic region Apsu. The sea-goddess Tiamat is slain in Ee IV. After the heavens are built from the upper half of her corpse in Ee IV 137-46, parts of the lower half of her body are used to form mountains, the springs of the Tigris and Euphrates, and other cosmic features (Ee V 1-60). Then, in Ee V 61-64, Marduk hoists the heavens upward over earth and then releases his net, allowing any remaining parts of Tiamat's corpse to escape: 61. [He set up] her erotch wedging up the heavens, 62. [her half which h] e made as a roof, earth was set firm. 63. [After] he completed the work inside the sea. 64. [He loosene] d his net and let it out completely. Ee V 61-64 (see p. 119) Here, waters of the primeval sea-goddess are apparently released from Marduk's net, thereby creating the cosmic sea. In The Bilingual Creation of the World by Marduk, the sea (t(imtu) exists at the start of creation, before ancient cities are built, and the topographical features of the earth's surface are formed on top of a raft floating on the primordial sea. Likewise, in The Babyloniaca of Berossus, the Sea-Goddess exists before Bel fashions the rest of the universe. A different tradition is found in The Theogony of Dunnu, where the gods bring the goddess Sea into existence with their plow (CT 46 43:4; see p. 146). Here the gods apparently dig the hollow of the sea, so the sea-floor is in effect an extension of the earth's surface. 2

The Levels of Earth The Level of the Earth's Surface (Dry Land and Sea)

The portion of the earth visible to living human beings is formed by the upper surfaces of two cosmic regions: earth itself, and the sea. These are visible to mankind as dry land and the surface of the sea, respectively. The earth's surface is the highest level of earth. With a few notable exceptions—such as Etana and Adapa, who travel to the heavens—living human beings are limited to this level. The relative position of the earth's surface, between the lowest heaven and Apsu in KAR 307, is confirmed by other texts. For instance, in Ee V 119-22, the site of Babylon on the earth's surface is placed between Enlil's region of heaven, Ešarra, and the Apsu. Although dry land and the sea belong to separate cosmic entities and mountains can stretch thousands of feet above sea level, there is no suggestion 2 Parallels where gods dig rivers are found in EN 10; Lambert-Millard Atra-basis 42:23-24, 43 K. 8562 5-6; BWL 162:1-2; and various examples of "An Address to the River of Creation' including STC 1 200:1-2//STC 1 201 1-2, and R. Capliee, OrNs 34 130:3'-4'.

320

The Geography of Earth

that dry land and the sea surface do not share a single level of the universe. The depths of the sea, however, are sometimes identified with the Apsu (see p. 340). Further confusion between the sea and Apsu arises in The Bilingual Creation of the World by Marduk, where waters beneath the world raft are identified as tâmtu 'sea', rather than Apsu. The Geography of the Earth's Surface Although Sumerian and Akkadian texts eontain a vast amount of geographical information, only two sources, The Babylonian Map of the World and The Sargon Geography, provide descriptions of the earth's surface. In both texts, the earth's surface consists of a central continent, sea, and territories across the sea (see pp. 93-94). This tripartite view of the earth's surface fits well with information from other texts. In Gilg. IX-X, Gilgamesh travels from Uruk to the home of Utnapištim. During this journey, Gilgamesh passes the cosmic mountain, Mount Mašu, and traverses the Barran dšamsi `Path of the Sun' on his way to the shores of a cosmic sea that only the Sun normally crosses. Then, Gilgamesh sails across this cosmic sea, which includes the mê mûti `waters of death', before finally reaching his destination. When he arrives, he tells Utnapištim that he has passed lands, mountains, and seas: I wandered and walked through all the lands. I traversed diffIcult mountains. I crossed all the seas. Thompson Gilg. X v 25-27 (see p. 96) The level of the earth's surface in this context consists of a continent where Uruk and Mount Makh are situated, the cosmic sea with the waters of death, and the home of Utnapištim across the sea. Parallels are found in first-millennium royal inscriptions. Nebuchanezzar II claims universal kingship over both the dadmû `inhabited world' from the Upper to the Lower Sea, as well as nagû `regions' aeross the sea (VAB 4 146 ii 17-33; see p. 31). Neo-Assyrian kings also claim territories across the seas, including Dilmun in the lower sea, Lydia neberti 'across' the Upper Sea (Streck Asb. 20:95, 166:13), and Iadnana (Cyprus), Tarsis, and laman (Ionian Greece) qabal `in' the Upper Sea (Borger Esarh. 86 no. 57:7-10). Later, in the inscriptions of Xerxes, the Greek homeland in Europe is placed across the sea: mat ia-a-man-na šâ ina idmar-rat cg-bu-û u sâ a hu ul lu û sâ 'dmar-rat Cs-bu-ü Herzfeld API 30 no. 14:18-19 The Land of the Greeks who live in the ocean, and on the far side of the ocean. Many of these lands, including Greece, Lydia, and Tarsis, are in reality on the Eurasian land-mass but were normally reached by sea in ancient times and thus classified as lands across the sea.

The Continent

321

The Continent Mesopotamian geographers had no way of knowing that Babylonia and Assyria were part of the Eurasian land-mass that stretches from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from the Arctic to Indian oceans. The ancient geographers imagined that the continent they lived on was much smaller. On the World Map, the cosmic ocean marratu is drawn just beyond Assyria, Urartu, and mountains where the Euphrates rises, while more distant areas are drawn as nagû across the marratu. The author of The Sargon Geography also believed that the continent was relatively small. The most distant areas in The Sargon Geography are the Cedar Mountain in the north, the land of Anšan in the south, Marhaši in the east, and Egypt in the west. Although the author of the text does not explicitly state that the cosmic sea flowed beyond these lands, this can be inferred from Sargon Geography 33-42, which lists the circumferences of eight continental countries (Marhaši, Tukriš, Elam, Akkad, Subartu, Amurru, Lullubi, and Anšan), followed by the names of the lands across the Upper and Lower Seas. The eight continental lands encompass an area comparable to the continent on the World Map (see pp. 93-94). Evidence from third-millennium royal inscriptions and geographic lists suggests that the World Map and Sargon Geography present commonly-held views of the geography of the continent. For example, the third-millennium empire of Sargon of Akkad, with the addition of Egypt, is nearly identical to the empire in The Sargon Geography, and the realm of Lugalzagesi, as described in "The Vase Inscription" (BE 1/2 87), is similar to the sketch of the continent on the World Map: u4 d en.lil lugal.kur.kur.ra.ke 4 lugal.zà.ge.si nam.lugal.kalam.ma e.na.sum.ma.a igi.kalam.ma .ke4 si e.na.sâ,a kur.kur giri.na e.ni.si.si.ga.a utu.è.ta utu.šû.šè gû e.na.gar.ra.a u 4 .ba a.ab.ba sig.ta.ta idigna buranuna.bé a.ab.ba igi.nim.ma .šè giri.bi si e.na.sâ utu.è.ta utu.šu.sè [de]n.lil.le [gaba.š]u.gar [n]u.mu.ni .tuku BE I/2 87 i 36—ii 16 (eollated J. Cooper, JCS 32 117-18) When Enlil, the King of the Lands, gave Lugalzagesi the kingship of the country, set his way at "eye of the land, 3 brought down the lands at his feet, and made them submit to him from sunrise to sunset, at that time, from the Lower Sea, along the Tigris and Euphrates, to the Upper Sea, he made the campaigns against them proceed. Enlil did [n]ot allow any [ri]val from sunrise to sunset. 3 The phrase igi.kalam.ma is problematic. A temple é.igi.kalam.ma of Lugalmarada in Marad is known (see George Temples 104), but it seems unlikely that this temple ean be related to Enlil's decision to grant Lugalzagesi universal kingship. An Akkadian equivalent, inu mdtim `eye of the land', oceurs as an epithet of the Sun and Moon gods in personal names (see CAD I 156 d).

322

The Geography of Earth

In the passage, the empire of Lugalzagesi extends from the Lower Sea, along the course of the Tigris and Euphrates, to the Upper Sea following the course of a campaign from southern Sumer to the Mediterranean coast. On the map, the Euphrates flows through nearly the entire length of the continent, from the upper part of the world ocean to the rectangle labeled 'channel and swamp' (bitqu, apparu) that touches the lower part of the world ocean. A second-millennium view of the continent may be found in the land lists of Urra XXI that were composed during the very late Old Babylonian period or the Kassite period 4 and the land lists of the slightly later Ras Shamra and Emar parallels to Urra. Urra XXI itself preserves two sub-lists of land-names: one list in whieh Sumerian land-names are prefixed with kur, and a second list in which Sumerian land-names are prefixed with m a. d a. The lists are known from two editions of the series: I, A Middle Assyrian edition from Assur preserving the kur list is represented by KAV 80+90+137(+)89 (see W. Horowitz, AfO 35 64-72). II. A Babylonian version preserving both kur and ma.da lists is known from Ashmolean 1924.798+ (a tablet from Kish), BM 40739, and two exercise tablets (S and X below). Exemplars

B. Ashmolean 1924.798+ (MSL 11 pls. I-II) C. BM 40739 (MSL 11 C 1) E. KAR 80+137+190(+)189 (W. Horowitz, AfO 35 64-72) S. BM 46837 (MSL 11 Sil) X. BM 22854 (photo: AfO 35 70)

m a. d a List, Babylonian Version* 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

BSX BSX BSX BSX BX BX

ma.d ak' ma-a-tum ma.da ki.in.giki MIN šu-me-ri ma,da ki.in.gi.urik' MIN MIN u [ak-k]a-di-i ma.da ki.in.gi.sag.6ki MIN ia-m[ut-ba-li] ma.da su.bir4ki MIN su-bar-[ti] ma,da elam.maki MIN e-la-m[i -i]

'land' Sumer Sumer and Akkad Emutbal Subartu Elam

4 The exact date of canonical Urra cannot be established, sinee only first-millennium exemplars of the full series have survived. Nonetheless, the existence of Middle Assyrian, Ras Shamra, and Emar parallels to Urra from the second millennium indicates that a Middle Babylonian version of the series circulated as well. It is unlikely that Urra could have been compiled any earlier than the late Old Babylonian period, since Old Babylonian single-column precursors to later lexical series are characteristie of this time. Thus the most probable date for the earliest edition of the series is the Kassite period, although a very late Old Babylonian date cannot be completely ruled out. See also M. Civil in L. Cagni ed. Ebla 1975-1985 (1987) 131-40.

323

The Continent

7. BX 8. X 9. X 10. X

ma,da gu.ti.umki ma.da zà.gu.ti.umki [m] a.da igi.nimki [m] a.da igi.sigki

MIN MIN MIN MIN

qu-ti -[i] pa-at MIN e-li-tum sap-li-tum

Guti Border of Guti Upper Land Lower Land

*For a previous edition without X, see MSL 11 18.

kur List, Babylonian Version*

1. B 2. B a BC 4. BC 5. BC 6. BC 7. BC 8. C 9. C 10. C 11. C 12. C 13. C

[kur gise r i nki] [kur mar.ha.šiki] kur su.[bir,ki] kur elam. [maki] kur gu.ti.ruml[ki] kur zà.gu.ti.ruml[ki] kur ši.rumk[i] kur ši.rumk[i] kur šir.rumki kur bi.ta,lâki kur hé.a.naki [kur lu l]u.buki [kur,k] ur ,

[m]a-at re-rel-nu [MI] N

pa-ra-si- i

[MI] N su-bar-tum [MIN] rel -la-mi -i [MIN qu-t]i-i [MIN pa-at] MIN

Cedar Land Marhaši/Paraši Subartu Elam Guti Border of Guti

MIN i-[te-n]i** [MIN x x x

[MIN x x x ] MIN [x x x MIN [ha-a-ni] MIN [lul-lu-bi-i] [ma-to -tu]

TJani Lullubi The Lands

kur List, Assur Version (AfO 35 65 ii l'-15') 1. E

[kur u.ki]

KUR [xxx

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

[kuu

KUR x [... KUR x [... KUR q[u-ti-i] KUR pa-a[t MIN] KUR a-mu[r-ri-i] KUR pa-[ra-Si-i] pa-[ra-ši-i]

E E E E E

[kur xxx]ki [kur gu-t]iki [kur zà.g] u.tiki [kur mar].dûki [kur mar.ha] mar.ha].šiki .siki

i-[te-ni] *" a-x

8. E 9. E 10. E

kur [Si.r] [ši.r]umki kur [si.r] [ši.r]umki kur s [ir.r] umki

KUR KUR

7. E 8. E 9. E

kur i1. lSahU.SaLIu ki kur fi.saL u.saLrlal,aki r la l ,aki .sal.rnàl .aki kur i.sal.rnàl.

KI.MIN [ ..

14. E 15. E

kur igi.nimrkil kur igi.sigrkil

e-li-turn] [KUR e-li-tum] [KUR šap-li-tum] sap

*For **Re

Guti Border of Guti Amurru Marhasi/Parasi Marhaši/Paraši

KUR x- [x-x]

[KI.M1I [N .. . Upper Land Lower Land

tion see MS 4-15. šf MSL 11 43:14' (Ras Shamra parallel to Urra). on basis

324

The Geography of Earth

Together the three sub-lists preserve 15 identifiable land-names: Sumer, Sumer and Akkad, Emutbal, Subartu, Elam, Guti, pat quti `The Land at the Border of Guti', The Upper Land, The Lower Land, The Cedar Land, Marbaši/Paraši, Bitala, Hani, Lullubi and Amurru. The Ras- Shamra and Emar parallels to Urra preserve parallel lists: 5 Emar (kur) Emar 558 59'-68'

Ras Shamra (m a. d a) MSL 11 43 l'-16' Akkad Suba Ela Guti The Land at the Border of Guti Amurru SMarhaši/Paraši Marhagi/Paragi ši.rum gi.rum šir.rum gir.rum Upper Land Lower

Ced Subartu Guti The Land at the Border of Guti Amurru Marhaši Marhagi ši.rumd gi.rum gir.rum Upper Land Lower Land

s Shamra and Emar lists also occur in the Urra lists. FurAll the la thermore, thermore, both lists end with the Upper and Lower Lands, as do the kur-list of the Middle Assyrian recension of Urra and the Babylonian ma.da-list. With the possible exception of the Upper and Lower Lands, all of the countries in the lists lie within the land borders of Sargon's empire in The Sargon Geography. In Sargon Geography 41-42, lands across the Upper and Lower Seas are listed after the eight continental lands in Sargon Geography 33-40.

The Four Regions of the Earth's Surface Various Sumerian and Akkadian terms for `the Four Quarters' or `Four souththe division of the earth's surface into equal northern, southRegions' ern, eastern, and western quadrants. These quadrants correspond to the four ern, compass point directions. As demonstrated by the diagram on BagM Beih. 2 98 (see p. 194), these quadrants are arranged so as to form four equal regions when transposed on a modern map with north at the top. parllist in also MSL 11 55:15-56:4 (Misc. Geographical List 1) and par5 Note Su(Sumerian, Akkadian, Amorite, Elamite, Gutian, Subartean, Sulle lists of l aallel tean) in MSL SS1 10 xi 28'-33', 12 iii' 7'-11', 24:30-34,32:240-45. tean)

325

W

E

The diagram may also provide a pictorial representation of the geographi rms'The `The Circle of the Fours','The `The Circle of the Four Corners', `The Circle of the Four Region'The and `The Circle of the Winds' (see p. 205). On BagM Beih. 2 98, the area outside the circle may be labeled marratu n`ocean' (see p. 195). If so, the area inscirele e circle may be equivalentcontinent on World Map that is encircled by a cosmic ocean marratu. In this case, the continent alone, rather than the entire level of the earth's surface, may be divided into four quadrants. Elsewhere, however, `The Four World Regions' seem to stretch to the very ends of the earth. In World Map rev. 26', the phrase ' occurs after the kibrati betti ša sa kal ... `The Four Quadrants of the entiroecurs descriptions of nagû across the marratu from the continent. Likewise, Shamash Hymn 11-12 appears to identify kibrat erbetti as the entire level of the earth's surface beneath the Sun: mi-lam-mu-ka is-te-ni -rû' [ kib-rat er-bet-ti ki-ma dgir[ra

BWL 126:11-12 (cf. W. Horowitz, NABU 1993 54-55, no. 69) Your shine ever seeks out [ The Four Regions, like the fir [e-god,

]

The Sea The Babylonian Map of the World and The Bilingual Creation of the World by Marduk demonstrate that Babylonians, at least, believed that a cosmic

ocean encircled the continental portion of the earth's surface. The most familiar parts of the this ocean were the Upper Sea (Mediterranean) and the Lower Sea (Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean), but it is clear from the World Map that the cosmic ocean was also believed to flow to the east of Babylonia beyond Iran, and to the north of the mountains of modern Turkey. The tradition of a northern part of he Black the ocean may have been influenced in part by vague knowledgeBlaek and Caspian seas. Additional northern upper seas, including the "seas" of Nairi and Zamua (see p. 303), are mentioned in Assyrian royal inscriptions beginning at the time

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of Tukulti-Ninurta I. These seas, however, are inland lakes such as Lake Van and Lake Urmia that, like the ocean, have no egress. The Depth of the Sea

The only exaet figure provided for the depth of the sea is found in Erra I 152, where the roots of a cosmic mésu-tree are said to reach 100 leagues through the tâmtum rapaštum `vast sea' to the underworld (see p. 245). This passage, however, may confuse the waters of the Apsu with the depths of the sea, since the Apsu lies between the earth's surface and the underworld according to KAR 307. 6 The Limits of the Sea

Available evidence for the far limits of the sea is problematic. On the World Map, the far shore of the marratu is drawn as a circle. Beyond this circle, uncharted space extends to the ends of the tablet. Triangular-shaped nagû extend into this uncharted territory. Because the area beyond the marratu is not labeled, it is not possible to determine if a cosmic sea beyond the marratu extends to the ends of the earth's surface, if the nagû hang over the horizon, or if a second continent lies beyond the marratu (see p. 32). A more mysterious tradition concerning the far reaches of the sea is included in The Gilgamesh Epic. In Gilg. X, Gilgamesh and Uršanabi encounter the me mati 'waters of death' in a distant part of the sea on the way to the home of Utnapištim at ina pî narati (see pp. 103-4). Here too it is unclear if the 'waters of death' extend to the ends of the earth's surface. Features of the Sea

sigaru nabbalu tâmti The Bolt (Named) "Net of the Sea —. The term sigaru nahbalu tâmti occurs six times in the Late Babylonian Flood Story BE

39099 (Lambert-Millard Atra-basis 116-21) and probably an additional time in Old Babylonian Atra basis (Lambert-Millard Atra-basis 42:15). In both accounts, the sigaru nahbalu tâmti belongs to Enki/Ea, but it is not certain if the term refers to one item or two. The term, as written, can best be translated 'bolt (named) "Net of the Sea —, since both sigaru and nahbalu are, as written, in the nominative case. The šigaru nabbalu tâmti can be at least partially identified by examining the the meanings of šigaru and nahbalu. A šigaru is a bolt on a door. In the context of the sea, the sigaru nahbalu tâmti may be a bolt on a water-lock that holds the waters of the sea in place. Such a bolt (šigaru) appears in the Late Babylonion flood story twice in the context of the killing of the `guards of the -

For the Apsu and the sea, see pp. 340-41.

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The Sea

sea' (massarû tâmti) (Lambert-Millard Atra-basis 118:23-24, 120:39-40). A nahbalu is a net or snare of some sort. It is apparently made of both netting and a wooden frame, since a common Sumerian equivalent of the term, gise s. s a, d (see CAD N/1 134), is written with the giš `wood' determinative and means literally 'made of netting and rope' (eš = ašlu, sa = "etu). Objects made even in part of netting are porous, so it is not clear how a nahbalu could restrain the sea . Thus nahbalu tâmti `Net of the Sea' seems to be a proper name rather than an actual objeet and, if so, may be the name of the `bolt of the sea'. 7 Although the exact function of the sigaru nahbalu tâmti is not explained in the Mesopotamian fl ood stories, it can be compared with doors and a bar that hold the sea in place in the biblical book of Job: And who shut in the sea with doors when it burst forth coming out of the womb, when I made a cloud as its cover, and fog its swaddling band? It is I who imposed my laws upon it and stationed a bar and doors. Then I said "to this point you may come, but no more, for here your prideful waves will be destroyed?' Job 38:8-11 In this passage, the funetion of the bar and doors of the sea is to keep the waters of the sea within their bounds. The sigaru nahbalu tâmti was probably meant to serve the same purpose, since it is mentioned in connection with the flood, a time when the normal restraints of the sea may have been removed. The argullu `Lock' of the Sea. In addition to the šigaru nahbalu tâmti, the waters of the sea may have also been held in check by locks. An obscure reference to such locks is found in an astronomical omen: dadad šâ sadî II ša tâmti (a.ab.ba) b ar-gal-li-ša HI.Hr

ACh Adad 17:34 Adad will ... the locks of the mountain/sea. A second referenee to the locks may occur in a broken passage near the end of an Esarhaddon inscription: aban (n a4) na-de-e bar-gul-li se-ref tam-tim .. .

BA 3 297:52 (Borger Esarhaddon 85) A stone for placing locks against the sea/Tiamat .. .

7 The name `Net of the Sea' may be compared with the net saparru that Marduk uses against Tiamat in Ee IV-V (see also CAD S 161-62 saparru A b).

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Regions across the Sea and the Ends of the Earth's Surface Although Mesopotamian texts often speak of distant areas across the seas, and the ends of the earth's surface beyond, information relating to the far reaches of the earth's surface is limited. Most of what is known about distant regions across the seas comes from three sources: references to Dilmun, Magan, and Meluhha in third-millennium texts, the descriptions of the nagû in The Babylonian Map of the World, and information in Gilgamesh IX-X. Most of the available information concerning the actual ends of the earth's surface relates to the plaee where the Sun-god crosses the boundary between heaven and earth as he rises and sets. Dilmun, Magan, and Meluhha

The lands of Dilmun, Magan, and Meluhha are located down the Persian Gulf from Mesopotamia. In Sargon Geography 30, Magan and Meluhha are placed 120 leagues from the outlet of the Euphrates, and Dilmun and Magan are located across the Lower Sea in Sargon Geography 42. In third-millennium texts, the lands of Dilmun, Magan, and Meluhha are often grouped together as trading partners of Sumer and Akkad. For example, boats bring trade goods from all three lands to the quays of Akkad in the inscriptions of Sargon of Akkad (H. Hirsch, AfO 20 37:8 13; Gelb-Kienast 164). Modern research has identified the third-millennium locations of all three lands. Dilmun has been identified with Bahrain, Magan has been identified with the upper Persian Gulf Coast including modern Oman, and Meluhha has been identified with the Indus Valley Culture. In third-millennium sources, Meluhha always lies across the sea from Sumer. Magan could also be reached by sea but may have been accessible by overland travel as well, since it is much closer to southern Mesopotamia. In the inscriptions of Naram-Sin and The Chronicle of Early Kings, Naram-Sin mounts a successful campaign against Magan (MDP 6 3 ii 1-7; Grayson Chronicles 154:27). 8 Unfortunately, neither source explains how Naram-Sin reached Magan. Third-millennium texts demonstrate that Dilmun was a sacred locale, as well as a trading partner of Sumer and Akkad. In Sumerian literature, Dilmun is both the setting for the myth Enki and Ninhursag (P Attinger, ZA 74 1-52) and the eventual home of Ziusudra, the hero of the Sumerian flood story: -

u4 .ba zi.u4 .sud4 .ra lugal.àm mu.ni.gilim.ma numun.nam.lu.ùlu ùri.aka kur.bal kur.dilmun.na kidutu.è.šè mu.un.ti,eš PBS 5 1 vi 10-12 (Lambert-Millard Atra-hasis 145:258 60) -

Note also the inscribed bowl of Naram-Sin in The Bible Lands Museum, Jerusalem, which is identified as "Booty of Magan" (see O. Muscarella, ed., Ladders to Heaven, 80; Guide to the Cottection of the Bible Lands Museum, Jerusatem [1994] 38). 8

Regions across the Sea and the Ends of the Earth's Surface

329

At that time, Ziusudra, the king, the one who protected the seed of mankind during the era of disaster, they settled in the "Land of the Crossing;' the Land of Dilmun, a place in the direction of the rising sun. After the Ur III period, eontact with the three lands diminished, but the names of Dilmun, Magan, and Meluhha continued to be remembered in geographic lists, literary texts, and historical omens, as well as through goods identified as being of the Dilmun, Magan, or Meluhha type. 9 Later in the second millennium, evidence for direct contact with these three lands reappears. A Kassite governor of Dilmun is known from a cylinder seal (see J. Brinkman, NABU 1993 89-91, no. 106). The name of Dilmun also occurs in two Kassite letters, as well as in the inscriptions of the Middle Assyrian king Tukulti-Ninurta I, who adopts the royal title "King of Dilmun and Meluhha" (see RGTC 5 261). Elsewhere in the inscriptions, Tukulti-Ninurta's empire is said to extend to the border of Magan (see RGTC 5 182). 1° In the first millennium, all three lands occur in Neo-Assyrian inscriptions. Dilmun, which lies in the middle of the sea in the inscriptions of Assurbanipal, Sargon II, and Sennacherib, continues to be a name for Bahrain, but Magan and Meluhha are moved from the Persian Gulf to the borders of Egypt. The nagû on the World Map

Portions of five nagû are preserved across the marratu on the map itself, and eight nagû are described on the reverse of the tablet. When complete, both the map and the deseriptions on the reverse probably revealed a tremendous amount of information about distant areas, but even the small amount of information that is preserved reveals that distant lands were believed to be strange and wondrous places. For example, the northern nagû on the map is said to be a place where the "sun is not seen;' and the seventh nagû on the reverse (rev. 2 l'-23') is inhabited by speedy horned cattle. Gilgamesh

Distant areas in The Gilgamesh Epic are also filled with wonders. Beyond the shores of the continent, 'waters of death' flow in a cosmic sea (Gilg. X iv), and Utnapistim, the immortal survivor of the fl ood, lives in a region beyond the `waters of death'. The distant part of the continent is also filled with stange and wondrous phenomena. Before reaching the seacoast, Gilgamesh passes a cosmic mountain where fantastic beings, who are part-human and part-scorpion, observe the Sun (Gilg. IX ii); he travels along a 12-league-long path through a region of darkness (Gilg. IX iv-v); and finally he reaches a grove where trees 9 See CAD M/1 131 makannû, M/2 15 meluhhû, and AHw 1359 tilmunnû. 10 Tukulti-Ninurta I apparently inherited this title from the Kassite Dynasty, which had previously ruled Dilmun (see J. Brinkman, AJA 76 276).

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The Geography of Earth

bear precious stones instead of fruit (Gilg. IX v-vi). These episodes in The Gilgamesh Epic provide further evidence that Mesopotamians believed that distant lands were very different from their own. Such beliefs were not unfounded, since Neo-Assyrian kings brought strange and wondrous plants and beasts back with them from their campaigns in distant lands. These included trees that bore wool for making clothing instead of food to eat (OIP 2 111:56, 116:64) and pagû and pagitu 'male and female monkeys', which are depicted in Neo-Assyrian reliefs with almost-human heads, hands, and feet, but animal bodies. 11 The Ends

of the Earth's Surface

All of the available evidence agrees that the earth's surface ends at the horizon, the place where heaven and earth meet. Yet, there is widespread disagreement about the topography of the ends of the earth's surface. Some texts suggest that the ends of the earth's surface are marked by eosmic mountains, while others suggest that the cosmic ocean extends to the ends of the earth. Still others are ambiguous. The Sun and the Ends of the Earth's Surface. Evidence for the course of the Sun defining the limits of the earth's surface is found in royal inscriptions and literary texts. In Late Babylonian royal inscriptions, Neriglissar claims to rule all of mankind on the earth's surface under the sun from horizon to zenith:

iš-tu isid samê (a n . u r)

a-di elât samê (a n . p a) e-ma dšamas a-su-û sa sarrâni(1 u g a 1.1 u g a 1) ki-ib-ra-a-ti ša ka-al te- né-še-e-ti bi-la-at-su-nu ka-bi-it-ti lu-um-hu-ûr qé- er-bu-uš -sa

1R 67 ii 37-40 (VAB 4 214) From horizon to zenith, wherever the sun goes out, may I receive the heavy tribute of the kings of the world regions of all mankind in (my palace). Tiglath-Pileser III (Tadmor Tigl. 158:4, 194:4) and Nebuchadnezzar (VAB 4 120:52, 140 x 13) also claim kingdoms from `horizon to zenith', and Sargon of Akkad rules all the lands sihip šamê 'under heaven' in Sargon Geography 31. Likewise, all the lands extend from 'sunrise to sunset' (ase dšamsi adi ereb dšamsi) in Underworld Vision 63 (SAA 3 74:23), and from `horizon to zenith' in a Gilgamesh letter from Sultantepe:

šâ

ki-ma qe-e [ ... u] l-tu išid samê (a n . u r) a-di elât samê (a n . p a) mâtati (k u r, k u r) naphar(n i gi n) -si -na i-be-lu

O. Gurney, AnSt 7 128:4 (F. Kraus, AnSt 30 109) who (Gilgamesh), as if with a ... cord rules all the lands from horizon to zenith. 11 For a detailëd discussion of Gilgamesh's journey to ia pi ndrâti, see Chapter 5.

Regions across the Sea and the Ends of the Earth's Surface

331

The Ends of the Earth's Surface, Mountains, and Regions of Darkness. Evidenee that the Sun-god passes over mountains as he rises at dawn is found in a number of texts. Two sources suggest that these mountains lie at the very ends of the earth's surface. In Bit Rimki, the Sun-god rises by a mountain identified with the shrine Duku at the horizon: 12 Sun-god, when you rise from the Great Mountain, when you rise from the Great Mountain, the "Mountain of the Spring;' when you rise from Duku, the plaee where the destinies are determined, when you rise at the plaee where heaven and earth embrace, at the horizon. R. Borger, JCS 21 2:1-3:4 (see p. 316) In a Sumerian passage in a hymn to Enlil, the mountains of sunrise and sunset also seem to be equated with the edges of heaven and earth: ù.mu.un zà.an.na ù.mu.un zà.ki. 1 ke41 kur.utu.è.a.ta kur.utu.šu.a.šè kur.ra ù.mu.un nu.mu.un.ti za.e ù,um.un ab.ak dmu,ul.lil kur.kur.ra ga.ša.an nu.mu.un.ti dam.zu ga.ša.an ab.ak R. Kutscher, Oh Angry Sea 61:25-29 (Cohen Canonical Lamentations 339-40) Lord, as far as the edge of heaven, lord as far as the edge of earth, from the mountain of sunrise to the mountain of sunset. In the mountain/land, no (other) lord resides, you exercise lordship. Enlil, in the lands no (other) lady resides, your wife, exercises ladyship. These passages may be related to Old Akkadian cylinder seals that picture the Sun-god rising by a gate over a hilloek. The gate may be identified as a gate of sunrise, and the hillock may represent the mountain of sunrise (see R. M. Boehmer, ZA Ergänzungsbande 4 pls. 33-36). 13 In other possible parallels, mountains of sunrise and sunset may be located at the far ends of the central continent, rather than across the sea at the edge of the earth. These include a hymn to Inanna, where the Sun rises from kur. š i m giše r en `the mountain of cedar scent' (CT 36 34 rev. 3-4), 14 and a bilingual 12

For both cosmie and non-cosmic examples of du 6.k ft, see pp. 315-16. Note also Urra XXH (MSL 11 23:5 // SpTU III 114:5) and Lipsur Type I 1:4 (E. Reiner, JNES 15 132:4) where Mt. Budubudug is explained as nereb d ramaš ana Baja 'the entrance of Samaš to Aya'. For mountains of sunrise and sunset, see also W. Heimpel, JCS 38 143-46; W. G. Lambert, JCS 41 5 i 1; MSL 11 38 b 4-5. 14 The rising of the sun from the Cedar Mountains both here and in other passages (see Tigay Gilg. 77 n. 11) indicates that the Cedar Mountain included mountains to the east of Mesopotamia during Sumerian times, as well as the Lebanon range in the west. This brings the commonly aceepted identifieation of g'seren = `cedar' into question, since there is no evidence for true cedars east of Mesopotamia. Thus, g' 1eren in the east 13

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The Geography of Earth

incantation where demons are identified with light and dark mountains of sunrise and sunset: 7.bi tur.sag.gi6.ga ba.a.tu.ud.da.mee si-bit-ti su-nu ina sâ-ad e-reb dšamsisi i'-al-du 7.bi hur.sag.babbar.ra ba,bùlug.a.meš si-bit-ti su-nu ina M-ad si-it dsamsi si it-bu-ü CT 16 44:84-87 (98-101) They are seven (demons) who were born in the Dark Mountains (Akk. The Mountain of Sunset). They are seven demons who were raised in the Bright Mountains (Akk. Mountain of Sunrise). This dark mountain of sunset may be compared with Mt. Mau in Gilg. IX, where Gilgamesh encounters a region of darkness (see pp. 98-100). Mt. Mau, of course, is located on the central continent. Gilgamesh only reaches the sea coast in Gilg. X after crossing Mt. Maki and the region of darkness. Sargon of Akkad eneounters a similar region of darkness in the mountains east of Mesopotamia (see p. 33). On the World Map, however, a region "where the sun is not seen" is located across the northern portion of the cosmic ocean marratu from the mountain on the continent. The Cosmic Ocean, the Sun, and the Ends of the Earth's Surface. In The Gilgamesh Epic, The Babylonian Map of the World, and Sumerian works, seas lie beyond mountains of sunrise and sunset. In Gilg. IX-X, Gilgamesh encounters the sea (tâmtu) and the 'waters of death' after passing Mt. MakI, where scorpion-men observe the rising and setting of the Sun. The prologue to The Gilgamesh Epic indicates that the waters crossed by Gilgamesh may extend as far as the place of sunrise in the east: a-ab-1 ba' [t] a-ma-ti rapasti ti adi sit famsi(du t u. è)

Gilg. I i 38 (Iraq 37 pl. 37) (Gilgamesh) who crossed the ocean, the vast sea, as far as the sunrise. On the World Map, the cosmic ocean marratu flows beyond a region marked `mountain' upstream from Babylon and Assyria. Sumerian evidence for cosmic seas located beyond mountains is found in the Sumerian literary composition Inanna and the King:

dutu.è.ta dutu.šu.šè IMù 1 u . t atumto .mu.uI.lu .ta IMm 1 r, r a. a. s etuurlo.mu.AN.misa a.ab.ba.igi.nim.ta a.ab.ba .sig,šè may refer to another tree such as Juniperus Excelsa, which shares many of the same properties as cedars (see J. Hansman, Iraq 38 23-35).

Regions across the Sea and the Ends of the Earth's Surface

333

g'sha.lu.ub.ta g''erin.na.ta

ki.en.gi.rki'.uri.ašibir šibir sum.mu.na.ab' CT 42 pl. 8 ii 13-17 (S. Kramer, PAPS 107 501) From sunrise to sunset, from the northwind to the southwind, from the Upper Sea to the Lower Sea, from the huluppu-tree, from the cedar, in Sumer and Akkad, give him the scepter and staff. In the passage, the author seems to work from the outer ends of the earth's surface inward, beginning with sunrise and sunset and ending with Sumer and Akkad. Thus the seas seem to be beyond distant eastern lands where hulupputrees grow, such as Magan and Meluhha (see CAD H 56), and the distant western mountains, where cedars grow. A parallel may be found in The Shamash Hymn where the Sun rises over the sea and then crosses mountains each day: is te-te-ni-ti-iq gi-na-a sâ-ma-mi Nu-um-dul-ta er-se-tu to-ba-'a u4-me-sam mil (i ll u) tâmti (a. a b . b a)' hur-sa-a-ni er-se-ta sâ-ma-mi ki-i GAN/sA-(x)-x-si gi-na-a to-ba-'a u4 -mi-šam BWL 126 27-30

(Shamash) you continously cross the heavens, daily you pass over the vast earth. The flood of the sea, mountains, earth, and heavens, daily you pass over faithfully like a .... Together, these passages indicate that at least some ancient 'Mesopotamian geographers conceived of the continental portion of the earth's surface as a flat plain ringed by mountains and surrounded by the waters of a cosmic ocean. The Ends of the Earth in the World Map and Sargon Geography. Neither the World Map nor The Sargon Geography provide clear descriptions of the ends of the earth's surface. On the map, an uncharted blank area stretches beyond the far shore of the marratu and most distant points of the nagû. Similarly, the preserved portion of the The Sargon Geography does not explain what lies beyond the distant lands of Dilmun, Meluhha, Anaku, and Kaptara. Such ambiguities and the existence of conflicting traditions coneerning the ends of the earth's surface reflect the fact that little was actually known about distant areas during antiquity. In the words of the author of The Shamash Hymn, knowledge of the far reaches of the earth's surfaee was not one of the privileges of mankind, but the prerogative of Shamash, who moved daily over the entire expanse of the earth's surface: is Note also parallel passages in Cohen Ersemma 57:5-8; Cohen Balag 247:19-27;

A. Sjoberg, JCS 34 76:28'.

334

The Geography of Earth 1 a1 -na štd-di šâ la i -di né-su-ti u bi -ri la ma-n[u-ti] dšamaš dal-pa-ta šâ ur-ra tal-li-ka u mu-sâ ta-sah-r[a] BWL 128:43-44 To distant stretches which are not known and uncounted leagues, Shamash you work ceaselessly going by day and returning by night.

The Shape of the Level of the Earth's Surface

All of the available evidence demonstrates that the earth's surface was thought to be basically circular in shape. The geographic terms kippat mâtâti `circle of the lands', kippat erseti 'circle of earth', kippat tubuqat erbetti 'circle of the four corners', kippat sar erbetti 'circle of the four winds', and kippat erbetti `circle of the four (regions)' (see CAD K 399 3), if understood literally, demonstrate that the earth's surface was a circle. Similarly, the author of the World Map drew the .level of the earth's surface as two concentric circles, with nagû radiating from the outer circle. On BagM Beih. 2 98, the names of the south wind and west wind are inseribed by triangles inside a square that is itself drawn inside a circle. This square apparently corresponds to the geographic concept of 'The Four Corners' or 'The Four Regions' (see p. 204). Thus, the placement of the square inside a circle in BagM Beih. 2 98 may illustrate that 'The Four Corners/Regions' were thought to be located inside a circle defining the borders of the earth's surface, or earth's surface and sea. The Size of the Level of the Earth's Surface

No ancient text measures the dimensions of the earth's surface. However, modern calculations based on distances between ziqpu-stars in the astronomical text AO 6478 indicate that the level of the earth's surface could have a diameter of 218,400 leagues in this text (see p. 187). This figure, though, is incredibly large when compared with the size of lands in Sargon Geography 33-40 and the scale of the World Map.

The Apsu In KAR 307, the ApsuIs is the middle earth, is located between the earth's surface and the underworld, and belongs to Ea. The Apsu also lies beneath the earth's surface and belongs to Enki/Ea in the cosmographies of Enuma Elish, Atra-basis, and The Gilgamesh Epic. In Ee IV 137-46, Marduk assigns the Apsu to Ea. Later in Ee V 119-22, Marduk indicates that the city of Babylon on the earth's surface is to be located above the Apsu. The mystical-religous work Livingstone 116:2 (= SAA 3 96:8-9) also relates that Marduk sent Ea down to 16

For a previous study of Apsu and related topics, see Green Eridu 160-69.

The Apsu

335

the Apsu (see p. 17). In Old Babylonian Atra-basis, Ea descends to the Apsu from the earth's surface when Anu aseends to heaven, and Enlil remains on the earth's surface (Lambert-Millard Atra-basis 42:17-18; see p. 113). In Gilg. XI 41-42, Utnapištim tells his fellow citizens of Uruk that he is building his ark because he must abandon the qaqqar denlil `earth of Enlil' (earth's surface) and descend to join Ea in the Apsu. No Sumerian text preserves an account of the creation of the Apsu or the separation of the Apsu from heaven and earth in early times. This apparently indicates that the Sumerians conceived the Apsu to be a primordial element, just as the divine Apsu exists at the very start of Enuma Elish. In Enki and Ninmab, for example, the Apsu already exists in EN 12-14, where Enki is present in e n g u r. b ù r u 'the deep Apsu', although the Apsu is not mentioned when heaven and earth are separated in EN 1-2 (see p. 138). 17 In Ee I, the deified Apsu is one of two primordial elements, the other being the deified sea (Tiamat). The cosmic Apsu is formed from the corpse of the deposed god Apsu and remains intact throughout the epic. In contrast, Tiamat is butchered into a number of cosmic features. The incantation When Anu Built the Heavens disagrees. Here Ea builds the Apsu just as Anu builds his region: When Anu built the heavens; Nudimmud built the Apsu, his home Ea in the Apsu pinched off cla[yl. Weissbach Bab. Misc. no. 12:24-26 + duplicates (see pp. 149-50) In both Sumerian and Akkadian texts, the Apsu is identified as a watery region rather than a solid earth. In numerous instances the Apsu is inhabited by fish (CAD A/2 194 b), and Ea establishes his home over the eosmic Apsu amidst the waters of the slain god Apsu in Ee I 61-78. The Apsu in Sumerian and Akkadian Texts

Mesopotamian texts preserve a number of different views of the Apsu. The Apsu is both a cosmic region on a par with the heavens, earth's surface, and underworld, while the waters of the Apsu occur as the waters of the water table just beneath the earth's surface, waters in marshes and swamps, waters in rivers, waters in the sea, and distant cosmic waters. On a few other occasions, the Apsu even seems to be confused with the underworld. In order to understand the overall Mesopotamian conception of the Apsu, these various aspects must first be examined separately.

17 The Apsu may also exist as a primordial element before the separation of heaven and earth in Gilgamesh and the Huluppu-Tree and NBC 11108 (see p. 139). Note also in this context the learned assoeiation: ullanu = dea = mû'primordial = Ea = waters' (see Livingstone 74).

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The Geography of Earth

The Apsu as a Cosmic Region

The tradition of the Apsu as an independent eosmic region is better attested in Akkadian texts than in Sumerian texts. The Apsu is one of the six regions that comprise the universe in KAR 307 one of at least four regions in Enuma Elish, and Ea receives the Apsu as his cosmic realm at the same time that Anu and Enlil occupy the heavens and earth's surface in Old Babylonian Atra-basis (Lambert-Millard Atra-basis 42:11-18). 18 In contrast, the Apsu is not considered when cosmic regions are assigned to their leading gods in the cosmological prologues to the Sumerian literary works Gilgamesh and the Huluppu-Tree, Enki and Ninmah, and The Creation of the Pickaxe, or the prologue to the bilingual work KAR 4. Nevertheless, there is ample evidence for the Apsu as a cosmic region in Sumerian literature. The Sumerian hymn STLN 61 i 12-16 lists engur Apsu' alongside an and ki 'heaven and earth' (see p. 309); Enki is said to lie in the engur.bùru `deep Apsu' in EN 13; and Apsu and heaven occûr in parallelisms in Curse of Agade 72-75 (see p. 247) and Lugalb. 78-79, where the anzu-bird and his wife look for their missing fledgling in heaven above and engur below. The Apsu, Waters of the Water Table, Marshes, and Swamps

A number of passages indicate that the waters of the Apsu include the waters of the water table. At higher elevations, these waters are not visible. Here, the Apsu is reached by digging downward. At lower elevations these same waters are visible on the earth's surface as the waters in marshes and swamps. The Apsu and Ground Waters

Most examples where the Apsu is assoeiated with ground waters come from southern Mesopotamia, where the water table is very elose to the earth's surface. These include a number of passages where the foundations of temples reach down to Apsu, including Enki's Journey 21-22: Temple, built of silver and lapis, whose foundation is fastened on the Apsu. Enki's Journey to Nippur 21-22 (see p. 309) Parallels in first-millennium Babylonia include the Sargon II inscription, where a quay wall in Babylon is placed in anzanunzû (RIM Annual Review 5 2-3 no. 3), and passages in Late Babylonian royal inscriptions such as VAB 4 86 ii 18-19 (see p. 312 for both), where foundations are placed by Apsu. In Assyria, where ground waters are farther from the earth's surface, the only attested ex18 Note also Neo-Assyrian Anzu, where apsû oecurs with ersetu `earth', arallû `underworld', and tamtu `sea' (M. Vogelzang, Bin Sar Dadme: Edition and Anatysis of the Akkadian Anzu Poem, 121:29'-32'), and Erra I 183-85, where apsû occurs between samû `heaven' and KURNU.GI4.A `underworld'.

The Apsu

337

ample of foundations resting on the Apsu dates to the reign of Esarhaddon, a time of close cultural ties between Assyria and Babylon.

sic -qa-a re-šac -a-stir sac-ma -mi

-su-šu

en-du šap-la-nu i-na apsi

šu - te - lu!-pu

sur

KAH 127 vi 5'-10' (Borger Esarh. 5 vi 20-23) above, its top (Ehursaggula's) 19 reaches to heaven; below, its foundations are entwined in the Apsu. The connection between the Apsu and subsurface waters is also illustrated by passages where bitumen is said to come from the Apsu. In Mesopotamia, bitumen bubbles up to the surface from subterranean sources. One such font of bitumen near modern Hit is described both in the annals of TukultiNinurta II (Scheil TN 16:59-60) and by Herodotus: 20 There is another eity which is eight days journey from Babylon named Is. Here there is a river that is not large and Is is also the name of this river, and the river empties in the Euphrates. From the springs of the river Is, great clods of bitumen rise along with the water. Herodotus I 179

In Mesopotamian sources, both crude bitumen (ittû) and fine bitumen (kupru) rise up from the nagbu `underground waters' in The Underworld Vision of An Akkadian Crown Prince (SAA 3 69:9), and bitumen is said to come from abzu in Shulgi D 357-358 (Klein Sulgi 86), and Nanna-Suen's Journey to Nippur: 21 lg'šma.gur8 ,ra1 a.ésir.bi abzu,šè daš.Im.babbar.re 1u im.ši.in.gi4.gi4 Nanna-Suen's Journey to Nippur 47:41-42 (cf. 49:61-62) (For) the makurru- boat's pitch, to the Apsu, Ašimbabbar dispatched a man. Similarly, clay, which is found just below the surface in almost all of Mesopotamia, is also said to come from the Apsu in texts such as Ninurta and the Turtle (JCS 24 121:36), Curse of Agade 231, and the incantations STT 198:1-2, CT 17 29:30-31, and When Anu Built the Heavens (Weissbach Bab. Misc. no. 12 24-26 + duplicates; see p. 149). In EN 31 and 58, elay found over the Apsu is used in the creation of mankind. The Apsu, Marshes, and Swamps

Apsu waters belonging to the water table are visible on the earth's surface in marshes and swamps. Reeds from marshes are said to grow in the Apsu in For this temple at Assur, see George Temples 101. For a photograph of the bitumen fonts at Hit, see Das Vorderasiatische Museum Berlin (1992) p. 32. 21 For the Apsu in similar contexts, see also Green Eridu 168-74. 19

20

338

The Geography of Earth

Corpus Urn. 49:1-2 and STT 198:21, 34. 22 In a Sumerian hymn to Enlil, fish belonging to engur are placed in a canebrake: ku6 .engur.ra.ke 4 giš.gi.a nunuz Reisman Two-Hymns 54:118 The fish of the Apsu would not lay eggs in the canebrake. In parallel Akkadian passages, fish belonging to apsû inhabit the marshes along the Euphrates near Babylon (Borger Esarh. 14 7c), and apsû-fish from marshes are presented as offerings in the inscriptions of Nebuchanezzar (see CAD I 318 izhu). 23 The Apsu and River Waters

There is evidence associating the Apsu with both cosmic rivers and real rivers on the earth's surface. In An Address to the River of Creation, Ea is said to build his home in the cosmic river instead of the Apsu: ÉN at-ta iD ba-na-a-tu[m] ka-la-mu e-nu-ma ih-ru-ki ilanumes rabûtume š ina a-hi-ka iš-ku-nu dum-qi ina qer-bi-ka dea(i dim) Mr apsî ib-na-a su-bat-su

STC I 200:I-4 24

Ineantation: You, River, creatress of everything. When the Great Gods dug you, they placed good things on your banks. Within you, Ea, the King of the Apsu, built his home. In a later part of another version of the incantation, the river is asked to remove evil from a supplicant by taking it down to the river's apsû: [eš-re-e-t]a ID šu-ri-di apsû-ki ID lemnu(hu1) šd-a-M is-a-ši u bitia (é.mu) la i-qar-ru-bu

R. Caplice, OrNs 39 135:24 (cf. STC I 201:11-12) [You are strai]ght O river. Take it down to your apsû O river. May that evil not approach me or my house. In this passage, the depths of the river seem to be called apsû. A related zi.pà formula preserves a tradition that the Divine River is the mother of Apsu:

22

For Corpus Urn. 49 1-2, see T. Jacobsen, Or 54 65-72; J. Cooper, SARI 1 32-33. Note also MSL 3 217:6'-7' (ap.ar = apsû, sug = ap-a-[rum]). Sumerian ap.ar is apparently a loanword back into Sumerian from Akkadian apparu `marsh' or a phonetic writing for *abbarlambar. See also CAD A/2 194 lb'. 24 For this ineantation, see also STC I 201; Caplice OrNs 34 127, 130-31; Or 36 4, 290. For Divine Rivers, see also CAD N/1 374 1. 23

The Apsu

339

zi did' ama.en.gu.ra.ke 4 [h]e PBS I/2 112:30 (ArOr 21 395:30) Be exorcised by the River-goddess, the mother of the Apsu. In the Akkadian incantation The 21 Poultices, the Apsu is itself a cosmic river or contains a river. At the start of the text, Ea is located by a river named 'dé.silim.ma muš,huš nunuz ur4 ,ur4 .a.dè 'House of Peace where the mushussu Gathers "Eggs"'. 25 Nabu then visits Ea in this river in order to take the 21 poultices up to the earth's surface (elâtu). Later, we are told that the poultices in the river were inside the Apsu: [2] l mêli (a.ugu) sa pî (ka) dé-a [dnabu] ul-tu 'dé.silim.ma mug.huš nunuz ur 4 ,ur4 .a,dè [u] l-tu qé-reb apsî û še el la LKA 146 rev. 16-18 // AnSt 30 80 BM 33999 rev. 12-14 (W G. Lambert, AnSt 30 79-80) [2] 1 poultiees composed by Ea. [Nabu] brought them up from the river "House of Peace where the mushussu Gathers 'Eggs'", from the midst of the Apsu. A parallel with a river on the earth's surface is found in Old Babylonian Atra-basis where Atra-basis addresses Ea in the Apsu while standing on the

banks of a river: 26

iš-tu-ma i[s- .. . pu-ti-iš na-ri [ .. . i-na ki!-ib-ri x a-na ap-si-i tit-[rid-di zi-kar-su?] [ .. .

is-me-e-ma dEN.K[1 a-wa-as-su] a-na la-ah-mi ü-[ .. . Lambert-Millard Atra-hasis 78 iii 25-30 After he [ .. . Facing the river [ .. . At the bank . [ .. . To the Apsu went [down his speech.] When Ea heard [ his words,] He ... to the Labmu. 25 For the `eggs' identified as precious stones, see W. G. Lambert, AnSt 30 82-83. Note also the god name did 5',umas i l i m in An H (CT 24 16:25). 26 Compare the following passage in The Destruction of Lagas: abzu e.ga.ka šu bi.ti5 `(The Ummaite) laid hands on the abzu of the ditch' (Sollberger Corpus Ukg. 16 iii 11-12). For eg = E = iku (see Ea III 236, MSL 14 313).

340

The Geography of Earth

The Apsu and the Sea

The relationship between the Apsu and the sea on the earth's surface is not completely clear. Many passages in Akkadian texts suggest that the two were identical in some way, physically connected, or that the deep part of the ocean was called apsû. The closest association between the Apsu and the Sea may be found in Bilingual Creation of the World by Marduk, where the continental portion of the earth's surface is placed on a raft above the waters of a cosmic sea (tâmtu), rather than the Apsu (see pp. 130-31). A parallel may be found in an old copy of a curse in an inscription of the Lullubean king Annubanini: ti-am-ti e-li-tum u ša-pil-tum ša apsî a-bi-[šu] u šu-sa-[šu lil-qu-tu]

MDP 2 68 ii 12-18

Let the Upper and Lower Seas of the Apsu, his father and [his] offspring, [cut off]. Here, the Upper and Lower Seas appear to be part of the Apsu. More recent editions of this inseription no longer confirm the presenee of the word apsû in this context (see D. Edzard, AfO 24 74 ii 12-18, RIM 4 70:5). Other passages identify the Apsu with the Sea. Twice in the The Shamash Hymn, apsû is either a name for the sea or the deep part of the sea, In Shamash Hymn 35-38, the rays of the Sun-god passing over the sea penetrate into apsû, where the lahmu of the sea reside (BWL 128). In other texts, lahmu are usually associated with Enki/Ea and the Apsu. Later in Shamash Hymn 171-73, the riches/locust of the sea are said to be in Apsu, and the lahmu are once again in the tâmtu: 27 dlàh mu š[u-u]t tâm]ti sâ ma-lu -û pu-luh-ta e-ri-ib tâ[m]ti sa apsâ i-ba-'-û mi sIr ti nari šâ ir te du tic dšamaš ina mah-1 ri1 -ka BWL 136:171-73

The lahmu o[f the se] a who are filled with fearsomeness, the riches of the sea/locust of the sea (shellfish) which passes through the Apsu, the produce of the river which moves, O Shamash, before you. A parallel is found in Shamash Hymn 65-70, where mariners who are about to sink into anzanunzû from the sea surfaee need to be lifted up by Shamash (BWL 130; see p. 311). Ea himself sees the face of the Sun shining into Apsu in a short hymn to Shamash: dé-a da-a-a-in de-e-ni qé-reb apsî i-na-šal pa-nu-uk-ka

E. Ebeling, MVAG 23/1 25:9 Ea, the judge who gives judgements, sees your face inside the Apsu. 27 For Shamash Hymn 171-73, see W. Horowitz and S. Paul, NABU 1995 11-12 no. 15. Cf. above, Lambert-Millard, Atra-hasis 78 iii 25-30, and p. 308 here.

341

The Apsu

Apsu may also be found in the depths of the ocean in Gilg. XI, where Gilgamesh descends to the Apsu in search of the plant "Man becomes Young in Old Age": 271. When Gilgamesh heard this, he opened the wa[ter-pipe] 272. He tied heavy stone [s onto his feet] 273. They dragged him to the Aps[u .. . 274. He took the plant and it pr[icked his hands.] 275. He untied the heavy stone [s on his feet] 276. The sea deposited him on its shore. Thompson Gilg. XI 271-76 // CT 46 35 (see p. 105) In this passage, Apsu may be the deep part of the sea, as in The Shamash Hymn, since Gilgamesh dives down into the sea, is dragged by the stones to the Apsu, and then returns to the seashore. A physical link between the Apsu and sea is also implied in the annals of Sennacherib, where the king presents offerings to Ea at the shore of the Persian Gulf (OIP 2 74:78-75:80). 28 The Sumerian epic Enki and the World Order also preseves an association between the Apsu (engur) and the sea in a broken passage enumerating the duties of Nanše: a.gi6.uru16 .gal.la engur.[ra].ke 4 i.zi.hu.luh.ha kur.ku ab.ba [ , .. ] x [ ... ] zi.pa.âg.ta è. [a . , . ] x in.nin.sIrar[ak' ama dnan]še a.ab.ba ki.ni.d [agal].la.ba den.ki.ke4 zà.ba nam.mi.in .ša4 EWO 302-7 The one who is the great high wave of the Apsu, ] the sea, the fearsome wave, flood [which? who, at the roar, comes out [ .... ] . 29 the Lady of Sirar[a, Mother Nan]še, Enki charged her with the sea, whose expanse is vast. The Apsu and Deep Cosmic Waters

Three passages confirm that the Apsu included a deep region of waters far below the water table. In a bilingual fragment, the interior of the Apsu is said to be distant:

Compare the epithet of Ea in OIP 2 81:28-29 as quoted in CAD N/1 109 2': bel ta-ma!-a!-ti 'Lord of springs, fountains, and seas'. 29 The word zi.pa.âg is taken as a variant writing for za.pa.âg = rigmu.

28

nagbi kuppi u

342

The Geography of Earth

šà.abz]u.sù.ud.ra.gim dingir.na.me nu.mu.un.pà.da.e.dè ] sâ ki-ma qé-reb ap-si-i ru-üff-gu ilu ma-am-man la ut-tu-ù BA 5 646:5-6 ... I which like the interior of the distant Apsu no god can discover. A unilingual Sumerian parallel is found in a hymn to Inanna: dim.ma.zu abzu sud,râ.àm igi.bar.re nu.um.zu A. Falkenstein, ZA 52 59:6 Your form is like the distant Apsu, the viewer cannot comprehend it. Further evidence for a deep part of the Apsu is found in a broken portion of Utukku Lemnutu X:30 ]

x x [s]ap la a ti šâ ap si [i a-na-ku] CT 16 17:2' (J. Prosecky, ArOr 43 247:20)

[ I am ... ] .. the depths of the Apsu. The Apsu and the Underworld

Although no text explicitly places dead human beings in the Apsu, there is evidence that the Apsu and underworld were either confused with one another or that the Apsu itself was thought to be a netherworld inhabited by malevolent spirits. The clearest example of such confusion is found in The Incantation of Eridu in Utukku-Lemnutu XII, where Enki/Ea resides in ganzer, a name for the underworld or gate to the underworld: ÉN

eriduki giš.kin ki.sikil.la mu.a

ina eri4-dulo giskiškanû ina ât-ri el-lim ib-ba-ni muš,bi na4za.gin.duru 5 abzu.ta lâ.a zi-mu-štiff na4uqnî elli (k ù) ina ap-si-i tar-su

den.ki.ke4 ki,lah5 hé.gâl BU,ta.àm tac dé-a a-lak-ta-šii hegalla ma-la-at ki.tuš.an.na ki.ganzer.àm mu-šab-šu a-šar er-se- tim-ma S. Geller, Iraq 42 28:2-9 Incantation: In Eridu a kitkanû-tree was created in a pure place. IN appearance is gleaming lapis-lazuli, stretching forth at the Apsu. The way of Enki is full of abundance. His abode is the place of the underworld.

3° For further parallels, see Green Eridu 166-67; M. Civil, Aula Orientalis 5/1 20.

343

The Apsu

Enki/Ea is also associated with the underworld river Hubur in Farber Ištar und Dumuzi 137:179-82 (see p. 354) and perhaps also in a broken passage in The Shamash Hymn, where the Sun-god renders verdicts at the underworld Hubur River five lines after descending into the Apsu: [ul ib-ši šâ] ur-ra-du ina apsî ba-li-ka [. . . , s]e-e-ni u za-ma -né-e tu -fd-pi di-in- su -u[n] ax[

]

ire eh hi su ma fit-ta x x x [

]

] tu- tar-ra sal-pa šâ la-mu-ü [ x [ ti-is -bu -tû tu sel li ina hu-bur sa di -na

]

BWL 128:57-62

[There is none who] descend into Apsu .except you, [For the ... , w]icked and rebellious you make clear their judgment. [

]

He pours out sleep on him/it ...

]

You return the crook who is surrounded [ You raise up the one caught in a lawsuit from the Hubur . [ ]

]

Further diffIculties arise in texts that place underworld deities and demons in Apsu. In the god-list An = Anum, the deity dl u g a l .gal ,abzu 'Great King of Apsu' is listed as a name of the underworld king Nergal (see RIA 7 138), while the Anunnaki reside in in Apsu instead of the underworld in The Erra Epic. 31 a-na šamêe el-li-ma a -na di-g'z-gi a-nam-din ur-ta [ur-r]ad a-na apsî da-nun -na -ki tic-paq-qad gal-le-e šam -ru-ti ana KUR.NU.GI4 .A a-tar-rad

Cagni Erra 78:183-85 I will go up to heaven and give instructions to the Igigi. [I will des]cend to the Apsu, direct the Anunnaki. I will send the wild gallû-demons to the "Earth of No Return?' Seven demons live in the nagab apsî `spring of the Apsu' in parallel incantations in CT 16 15 v 30-36 and 17 13:14 (see p. 346), and a disease causing convulsions (buru 5 = dimitu) comes up from the Apsu in Surpu 36:1-2. In Ludlul II 52-53, a "ghost" may even reside in the Apsu: [u] l-te i -rat ersetimttm i si ha ti i - l u lem -nu it- ta-sa-a ap-su -uš-sû

t šu-ü'

Ludlul II 52-53 (BWL 40; cf. BWL 53:5-6)

For a parallel in a eultie context where Marduk casts a spell against Enlil and consigns him to the Anunnaki, see SAA 3 93:3-4. Cf. SAA 3 94:32'-34'. 31

344

The Geography of Earth

[Fri om the surface of the underworld headache sprung up. An evil šûlu came forth from the Apsu. In the commentary to Ludlul, šûlu is explained as etimmu `ghost' (BWL 40). In Akkadian texts, etimmu are normally the ghosts of dead human beings, so the arrival of an etimmu from Apsu would indicate that some human ghosts resided in Apsu instead of the underworld, or that the Apsu was a/the underworld. However, it is possible that the commentary has misidentified sûlu. Malku IV explains that sûlu can mean sa'âlu `cough' (see CAD S 1 sa'alu lexical section). If so, a disease demon, rather than a departed human spirit, may exit from the Apsu in Ludlul. The apparent confusion or overlap between the Apsu and the underworld is probably based on empirical observation. It is logical to place both the Apsu and the underworld directly beneath the earth's surface. When one digs a well, one reaches the waters of Apsu without passing through the underworld, but graves of the dead are located above the groundvvaters. 32 Underworld rivers, such as Mesopotamian Hubur or Greek Styx, which souls must cross on their way to the underworld, probably represent the waters of the water table between graves and the realm of the dead further below. The Geography of the Apsu

The various aspects of Apsu share a number of common elements. The Apsu is always filled with waters, the Apsu is always lower than the earth's surface, and waters identified with Apsu are found below the surface of rivers, seas, and other bodies of water. For example, groundwaters in the Apsu are located beneath the earth's surface, and Apsu waters in marshes, swamps, seas, and rivers are lower than the banks of these bodies of water. These common elements suggest that the Apsu can be thought of as a cosmic subterranean lake that maintains a constant surface level. If so, it would be logical for the Apsu to form groundwaters below the earth's crust, where the earth's surface is higher than the Apsu, but also possible for Apsu waters to seep into marshes, swamps, rivers, and the ocean, when the earth's crust dips below the level of the Apsu. Other deeper portions of the Apsu, of course, could be located beneath the hard floors of these bodies of water, just as groundwaters flow below the courses of rivers and canals. Nonetheless, it is clear that there were many different conflicting views of the Apsu in antiquity, and a few authors apparently ignore the existence of the Apsu altogether. For instance, Inanna and Ištar reach the underworld in Manna's Descent and The Descent of Istar without ever crossing the Apsu, and the lands float on a raft above the waters of the tâmtu 'sea', instead of the Apsu, in The Bilingual Creation of the World by Marduk.

32 For the Apsu mentioned in the context of exeavating a grave in a broken context in Adapa and Enmerkar, see Picchioni Adapa 106:20.

345

The Apsu The Top of the Apsu

In Old Babylonian Atra basis and Gilg. XI, the flood heroes Atra-hasis and Utnapištim are commanded to roof their arks like the Apsu: -

su a ti sü ul li il si a ia i mu ur dama qé re eb sa lu ic šâullaateliišùsapli is Lambert-Millard Atra-basis 88:29-31 (CT 46 pl. 13) Roof it over like the Apsu. Do not let the Sun look inside it. Let it be roofed at the front and the baek. 33 [k]i ma ap si i -

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

[l]u-â mit -bur ru- pu -us -sa it mu-rak-§á [k]i-ma apsi sâ a si su ul lil fi

Thompson Gilg. XI 30-31 Let its width and length be equal. Roof it over like the Apsu. If the roofed Apsu refers to the eosmic Apsu, then the earth's crust can be identified as Apsu's roof. Another reference to the roof of the Apsu may be found in fire incantations: dé-a ina te-e-ka ib-ba-ni a-me-lu-tü tuš-tag-ni-ma i-na ciš-rat ap-si-i titta (i m) -fi-na tak-ri -is

W. G. Lambert, AfO 23 43:25-26 Ea, by your spell mankind was created. You continued, pinched their clay from the hard surface of Apsu. In this context, asrat can be understood as the construct state of the noun asartu `hard ground', and asrat apsi may be the earth's surface over the Apsu. The Floor of the Apsu

The only direct evidence for the floor of the Apsu is found in KAR 307, where the Apsu has a dannatu 'hard surface', just as the three heavens have stone floors, and the dannatu of the upper earth is the solid earth's surface where mankind dwells. In this context, the dannatu of Apsu must be the 'seafloor' of the Apsu and must separate the Apsu from the underworld.

33 For this understanding of elis and saptis, see A. Shaffer, RA 75 188-89. Note also abzu.sa.dur.ra, perhaps `the "rear part" (bottom) of Apsu', in Shulgi G (J. Klein, Fest. Tadmor 302:12, 307 n. 12).

346

The Geography of Earth

The Sides of the Apsu

In a bilingual incantation, Enki/Ea tells his son Marduk that seven demons from the underworld, who wreak havoc on the earth's surface, once came to the sides of the Apsu: 7.bi kur,ta ba.bùlug.ga ,a.meš

si bit ti su nu ina er-se-ti ir-bu-6 dada (é).engur.ra.ke 4 zukum.e ba.an.na.te.eš i-da -at ap-si-i a-na ka -ba-su it-hu-û -ni CT 16 45:134 37 -

The seven of them grew up in the underworld. They came near me to tread at the sides of Apsu. This passage suggests that the demons passed the edge of the Apsu when they traveled from the underworld to the earth's surfaee. Thus it may have been possible to travel directly from the underworld to higher regions of the universe by passing outside the borders of Apsu. 34 The Interior of the Apsu

There is almost no evidence concerning the interior of the Apsu. One might assume that the Apsu was completely filled with water, since the upper surface of the Apsu, in some contexts, is identified with ground waters. However, this hypothesis cannot be proved. Two features of the interior of the Apsu are known: the cella of Enki/Ea and the `spring of the Apsu' (idim.abzu = nagab apsi), which presumably supplied the Apsu with a never-ending source of waters. Seven demons inhabit the 'spring of the Apsu' in CT 17 13:14 and Utukku Lemnutu V (CT 16 15 v 30-36; see p. 315). In the latter passage, the cella of the Apsu is located at this site: 35 idim,abzu.ta agrun.ta è.a.meš ina na-gab ap-si-i ina ku-um-me ir-bu-u šü-nu

CT 16 15 IT 34-36 At the 'spring of the Apsu', in the cella, they grew up. In Ee I 71-72, however, the cella of Ea is place eli apsi `on Apsu'. Here Ea's cella may be located on the upper surface of the Apsu, just as Ea's cella in Eengurra is located above the marshes of Eridu in a hymn to Enki: abzu kur me.nun.na dù.a ki.sikil.la x [ ... ] sug.gal sug.muš lâ.a eridu èš [ .... ] A. Sjoberg, JCS 29 30 A obv, ii 7-8 u Cf. Nergal and Ereskigal, where "The Stairway of Heaven" leads from the Heaven of Anu to the underworld, bypassing the earth's surface and Apsu (see p. 66). 35 See also E Wiggermann, Natural Phenomena 295d.

The Apsu

347

Apsu, mountain built on princely mes, in a pure place . [ ... Great Marsh, extending over the `snake'-marsh, Eridu, shrine [ .... ] 36 The Depth of the Apsu

No figure is ever provided for the depth of the Apsu or the distance between the earth's surface and the underworld via the Apsu. Indirect evidence for this distance, however, may be found in the fragment CT 46 55 (see pp. 178-79), which states that ersetu is 1,432,000 leagues from asurrakku. If ersetu in this context is the earth's surface and asurrakku is here a name for the cosmic Apsu rather than the asurrakku of stars (see p. 179), then the distance from the earth's surfaee to the Apsu may be 1,432,000 leagues. However, the distance 1,432,000 leagues need not represent a straight line drawn from the earth's surface downward, and it is not possible to determine which point on earth and which part of the Apsu might be 1,432,000 leagues apart. 37 The Gate of the Apsu in Ee V

In Ee V 73-76, Marduk places representations of the 11 creatures of Tiamat at the Gate of the Apsu as a reminder of his vietory for future generations: [ù] 1t is1 -ten es-ret nab-nit-sa [kak-kii -su-un ih- te -pa-a

sâ ti-amat ib-nu-u ii-[x-x] i-sir se-pu-uš-šu se-pu-us-su

nu ib -ni -ma sal mi [su [š [ah]-ra-tas la im-ma -sa -1a

bâb] ap-si-i û-sâ-as-[bit] lu it-tu Ee V 73-76

And the eleven creatures which Tiamat bore . [ .. Their [weapo]ns he broke and bound them at his feet. [Gate] of Apsu (saying) He made images [of them] and placed th "[So] that this will not be forgotten in the future, let it be a sign" The images of the eleven creatures of Tiamat here at `The Gate of Apsu' allude to the images of fantastic fantastie beings that decorated the Esagil at Babylon, which housed an Apsu-shrine. 38 Here in Ee V 73-76, one could argue that the `Gate of Apsu' is a cosmic gate, since Esagil and Babylon are not built until Ee VI. 3G Cf. AHw 1115 [s u

= susû `canebrake, swamp'. A second reference to the depth of Apsu may be found in an obscure passage o Bure Amarna version of Sar Tamhari in the description of mountains on the way to Buršabanda: um-muq' 7 zU?,AB bi-ra-su `Its ... is 7 Apsus? deep?' (VS 12 193:29). Here umsabanda: H/Istative from the root emequ with a western meaning `to muq might be construed as a II/I be deep', as in the standard Hebrew word for valley pnv (`emeq). Thus the passage may explain that the height of the mountain peaks over t e valley bottoms was seven times greater than the depth of the Apsu. uFor the Apsu shrine of Esagil, see CAD A/2 196-97 c and George 30 the Esagil and fantastic creatures, see p. 108. 37

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The Geography of Earth

The Underworld The underworld is the lowest region of the universe, the home of underworld deities such as Nergal and Ereškigal, and the final resting place of deceased humans. In KAR 307, the underworld is identified as the lowest of three earths, and 600 Anunnaki are shut inside. No text other than KAR 307 can confirm that the underworld was located below the Apsu, since only KAR 307 considers the relative locations of the the underworld, Apsu, and earth's surface together. Nonetheless, many texts do demonstrate that the underworld was lower than the earth's surface. For example, Ludlul II 46-47 states that people worry about descending to the underworld during times of distress: 39 ina ţa-a-bi i-ta-ma-a i li sâ ma 'i û tas šâ šâ ma i-dab-bu-ba a-rad ir-kal-la BWL 40:46-47

In good times people speak of going up to heaven. Whey they become worried they mutter about going down to the underworld. In contrast, no one is ever said to ascend to the underworld, and there is no evidence for any cosmic feature below the underworld. The Creation of the Underworld

Very little information concerning the early history of the underworld has survived. The only known reference to the actual building of the underworld may be found in a short passage in Lugale where Ninurta builds urugal = qabrum from stone: [u4].da.ta a.sàg nam.ba.sâ na 4 mu.he hé.[em] [ a-a iq-qa]-bi ab-nu lu šum-šü na4 na4zalag mu.bi hé.em na4 mu.bi hé.em a[b-n]i [za-la-qu lu-u] sum-sû ab-nu lu-u šum(mu)-sû

ur5.ra.àm bar.bi urugal bé.em ht-tit z[u-mur-šü] lu sâ qab-rim

Lugale 327-29 (Sumerian from Sumerian version) [From now] on it will not be called asakku, stone will be its name. Zalâqu-stone will be its name, stone will be its name. Its body will be the underworld (Akk.: of the grave). If urugal = qabru is taken as a name for the underworld, rather than a simple noun meaning `grave', Lugale reveals that the underworld was fash39 For additional examples of descent from the earth's surface to the underworld, note Sladek ID 226:4-10 (Dumuzi and Gestinanna); LKA 154 rev. 11-13; Ebeling Handerhebung 24:22; Oppenheim Dreams 327:71-328:85; Underworld Vision 28 (SAA 3 70).

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349

ioned from the stone corpse of the asakku-demon. 40 This tradition can be compared to Ee IV 147-56, where Marduk fashions the heavens from the watery corpse of Tiamat. The Sumerian epic Gilgamesh and the Huluppu-Tree offers a second tradition. In GHT 8-13, the daughter of Enlil, Ereškigal, receives the underworld (kur) as a gift, after heaven (an) and earth (ki) are carried away by Anu and Enlil and mankind is created (see p. 135). Here the underworld is apparently a part of earth (ki) that is assigned to Ereškigal. The Geography of the Underworld

Despite the numerous references to the underworld and the large number of names for the region (see chapter 12), little is known about the geography or interior of the underworld. Most of the available information concerns the approaches to the underworld, ineluding a road that leads to the underworld, a river that flows at the entrance to the underworld, and the gates that lead into the underworld. The Interior of the Underworld

Descriptions of the interior of the underworld and its inhabitants are found in a few literary texts. One nearly identical deseription is repeated in Gilg. VII, Nergal and Ereskigal, and The Descent of Istar, where the description is best preserved: 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

a-na bit e-te-e to-bat dir-[kal-la] a-na bit to e-re-bu-stii la a-su-[û] a-na har-ra-ni is a-lak-ta-sâ la to-a-a-[rat] a-na biti ša e-re-bu-tû zu-um-mu-ü nu-[û-ra] a-tar epru(sabar)h 6 bu-bu-us-su-nu a-kal-tu-nu ti-i[t-ta] nu-ü-ru ul im-ma-ru ina e-tu-ti âš-[bu-u] lab-su-ma kima is-su-ri su-bat kap-[pi-i] 11, eli gisdalti u gissikkûri (sag.gul) šâ-pu-uh ep-ru

Descent of Ištar 4-11 (CT 15 45) (ef. Gilg. VII iv 34-39; STT 28 iii 1-8, AnSt 10 114) 4. to the House of Darkness, the abode of Ir[kalla,] 5, to the house which no one who enters can leav[e,] 6. to the road whose journey has no ret[urn,] 7. to the house where one who enters is deprived of li [ght,] 8. where dust is their sustenance, their food is cl [ay.] 9. They see no light, in darkness they dw[ell,] 10. clothed like birds with a garb of feat[hers.] 11. Over the door and bolt dust lies. 4o For "captive gods" in urugal = qabrum, see W. Schramm, Or. 39 405:1-3 (see p. 294). For a parallel to Lugale 327-29, see W. G. Lambert, JNES 48 216-18. For a different interpretation of these lines, see W. Heimpel, JNES 46 310; Jacobsen Harps 251, Sachs Mcm. Vol. 230-31.

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The Geography of Earth

In The Descent of Ištar and Nergal and Ereskigal, the narrator provides the descriptions of the underworld, but in Gilg. VII, Enkidu describes the underworld after a nightmare in which he sees residents of the underworld, including Etana and Ereškigal (Gilg. VII iv 48-51). 41 Three other literary works offer accounts of conditions inside the underworld. In The Death of Ur-Nammu (S. N. Kramer, JCS 21 104-22), the ghost of Ur-Nammu pays courtesy calls to the underworld palaces (é.gal) of various underworld gods, including Nergal, Ereškigal, and Dumuzi, soon after his death. In Gilgamesh and the Huluppu-Tree and the parallel portion of Gilg. XII, Enkidu describes the ultimate fates of various categories of humans in the underworld (Shaffer Sumerian Sources pp. 86-95). Many of the underworld gods themselves are described in The Underworld Vision of an Akkadian Crown Prince (SAA 3 68-76). For instance, the gatekeeper Bidu is said to have the head of a lion, human hands, and feet of a bird (SAA 3 72:7). 42 Features of the Interior of the Underworld

Almost all known features of the underworld are architectural rather than topographical. In The Death of Ur-Nammu, the deceased Ur III king visits the palaces (é.gal) of Nergal, Gilgamesh, Ereškigal, Dumuzi, Hušbiša, Ningišzida, Dimpimeku, and Ninazimua, bringing gifts (JCS 21 114:89-115:127) before acquiring his own underworld home: urdnammu bdra.gal.kur.ra.ke 4 mu.ni.ib.tuš,ù.ne kur.ra ki.tuš?.ni mu.na.ga.ga.ne S. N. Kramer, JCS 21 115:135-36 (collated)// (PSD B 139 bcira 1.8.4) Ur-Nammu they seated by the great dais of the underworld. In the underworld, they established his abode? for him. In Descent of Ištar 111-17, Ereskigal orders Namtar to summon the Anunnaki from the underworld palace é.gal.gi.na , and Anunnaki may even live in an underworld temple tower in a funerary text from Elam: al-ka lu-li-ka i-l'z be-li a-na ma-ah-ri-rti' e-nu-na-ki 'lu'-ti-iq g[i4?-g]un4?-na

MDP 18 250:1-3

Come, let me go, my god, my lord, into the presenee of the Anunnaki. Let me pass the t[emple-tower?, 43 41

Compare also W. G. Lambert, Fest. Moran 291:10-292:16 (UET 6 395), H. Hoffner, Sachs Mem. Vol. 191-99. 42 For the reading of the name Bidu/Bitu/Biti, see K. Deller, NABU 1991 pp. 14-16 no. 18 and A. George, NABU 1991 p. 16 no. 19 4. 43 CAD G 70 reads har?-[r]a? -na.

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In the Sultantepe and late versions of Nergal and Ereškigal, Ereškigal holds court in an underworld courtyard (kisallu) (STT 28 vi 29; SpTU I 1 iv 3). In the Amarna version, Ereškigal sits in a temple/house: i -na li-ib-bi bi -i -ti is- sa-ba-at e re es ki i gal i-na sa-ar-ti-ša û g%id di da a âš ši im ma iš -tu

ku-us -si-i

C. Bezold, The Tell-el-Amarna Tablets 82 rev. 29-30 (EA 357:77-78) Inside the temple/house he seized Ereškigal. By her hair, he pulled her down from her throne. The presence of palaces, a house/temple, a courtyard, and perhaps even a temple-tower in the underworld demonstrates that the region was conceived as a great temple complex. In some traditions, this temple complex may have represented the entire underworld. However, it is more likely that the underworld was thought to be a complete underground city. The term u r u g a l /e r i g a l `Great City' was a popular Sumerian name for the underworld (see pp. 293-94), and it is diffIcult to imagine all the generations of mankind living in a temple complex alongside the underworld gods. Most probably, ordinary deceased people were thought to dwell outside the temple complex of the underworld, just as they did not reside in palaces and temples during their lifetimes on the earth's surface. Nevertheless, important deceased humans, such as Gilgamesh, Etana, and Dumuzi, resided with the gods in the underworld and even became underworld gods themselves. Etana is found in the underworld along with Ereškigal in Gilg. VII iv 49-50, and both Gilgamesh and Dumuzi, as well as Nergal and Ereškigal, have underworld palaces in The Death of Ur-Nammu. Topographic Features

The only possible evidence for topographical features in the underworld is found in a passage from Damu in the Underworld, where underworld rivers, fields, and sheep are very different from those on the earth's surface: id.kur.ra.ke4 a nu.um,tùm a.b [i nu.um.si.si ] a.šà kur.ra.ke še [šu.bi nu.mu.ur5 .re] udu.kur,ra.ke siki nu.[un.lâ š]u.bi [na.ma.az ?.az?] UET 6/1 23 rev. 26-28 (rest. from V Scheil, RA 8 170 rev. 3-5) The river of the underworld does not carry water, its water [does not fill it] The field of the underworld grows no grain, [its hand does not grind it] The sheep of the underworld [produce] no wool, its hand does not ... 1 ,14

44 Cf. CT 58 3 18-19:... ] id.mah.a, ... ] a.gà.bi ... For id.mah and the underworld river, see p. 358.

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Underworld Darkness

The names of the underworld kukku/kukkû 'Darkness' (see pp. 289-90) and 'House of Darkness' in Gilgameš, The Descent of Ištar, and Nergal and Ereškigal (see p. 349) demonstrate that the underworld was a dark place. This darkness is explained in an Akkadian medical incantation and an excerpt from The Descent of Iš tar. The medical incantation states that no fires or lights illuminated the underworld: ... ] x ina e-re-bi-hi ana bit e-ti -i ša ifâta(i z i) u nura(z al a g) la immaru(nu.igi.du8) crib (ku4)-šû AMT 88 2:3 ... ] . when he enters into the 'House of Darkness' whose enterer sees neither fire nor light. The Descent of Istar explains that no stars shine in the underworld: (bi) it ek le tû kakkabu(mul) ul û-ša-a

LKA 62 rev. 17 House of Darkness, where a star does not come out. Additional references to the underworld darkness are found in urpu 48:10710 (see p. 281) and a passage from The Death of Gilgamesh: rdi[ , .. ].tur/dumu dutu.ke 4 kur.ra ki.kukku.ka u4 hu.mu.na.an.gâ.gâ SEM 25 rev. i 1-2 + SEM 28 4-5 (BASOR 94 7:25-26) Let ... {... I the ... / son of Utu, 45 in the underworld, the place of darkness, set up a light for him. These passages, however, may not mean that the underworld is always bereft of light. In a number of passages, the Sun-god passes through the underworld at night on his way under the earth's surface from the western horizon to the eastern horizon. For example, Shamash Hymn 31 (BWL 126) places the Sun-god in the underworld alongside the underworld malku, kusu, and Anunnaki-gods. A Sumerian literary work explicitly states that the Sun-god Utu illuminates the underworld before offering judgment in the underworld: 46 45 For this passage, compare R. Borger, AOAT 1 10:175; M. Geller ZA 73 114:6, where Utu/Shamash's son is the flame (nablu). For sons of Utu, see Deimel Pantheon 252-53. 4° The epithets of Shamash, dajan famé u erseti `Judge of Heaven and Earth', dajan elati u šaplati `Judge of Upper and Lower Regions', and dajan digigi u dnunnaki `Judge of the Igigi and Anunnaki', also imply that the Sun-god rendered judgments in the underworld (see also Tallqvist Götterepitheta 79-80; CAD D 32 3'). For the Sun-god at night in the underworld, see also W. Heimpel, JCS 38 146-51. For Utu as an underworld judge, see B. Alster, ASJ 13 27-32. For the Moon-god and Sun-god as judges in the underworld, see Livingstone 42. The name of the underworld god in the funerary texts from Elam MDP 18 251:4, 252:7, mu-se-KI-li-im may be read mušékitum `He who makes darkness' or museqqilum `He who weighs (judgments)' (see M. Leibovici, RTCA 2 41-42).

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dutu.en?.gal a.ra.li .ke4 ki.ku Io .ku lo u4 .šè ù.mi,ni.in.ku4 di.ku5 .zu 1.ku5 .dè Two Elegies 54:88-89

Utu, the great lord? of the underworld, after changing the place of darkness to light, will render your judgment. The Approaches to the Underworld

The most commonly attested route to the underworld followed a road from the earth's surface to the underworld gates or the banks of a river that flowed by the entrance to the underworld. All humans passed this way after death. This road is often called 'The Road of No Return', since humans who traveled along the road could never return to life on the earth's surface, as is explained in The Gilgamesh Epic and Descent of Istar: a-na harrâni sâ a-lak-ta-M lata-a-a-rat

Thompson Gilg. VII iv 35, CT 15 45:6 to the road whose journey has no return. Gods, demons, and ghosts had alternate routes to the underworld. They could travel along the simmilat sameimi `Stairway of Heaven', which leads directly from the gates of heaven to the gates of the underworld in Nergal and Ereškigal, or they could spring up from the underworld through cracks in the earth's surface like the spirit of Enkidu in GHT 242-43 = Gilg. XII 83-84 or plants that pierce the earth's crust. The Road to the Underworld

Although the road to the underworld is mentioned in numerous texts, its exact route is never explained, and the terminus of the road varies. In some instances, the road leads directly to the underworld gates, while elsewhere, the road ends at the underworld river which must then be crossed. The only known itinerary of a journey to the underworld from a Mesopotamian city is found in manna's Descent, where Inanna journeys from her city Uruk to the underworld. Her route follows the Iturungal Canal upstream from Uruk to Bad Tibira, Zabalam, and Adab, and then continues northward to Nippur, Kish, and finally Akkad (ID 7-13). 47 From Akkad, the goddess proceeds directly to the gates of the underworld without crossing the Hubur River. When she arrives at the gates, she is challenged by Bidu, the gatekeeper of the underworld, to explain her presence. She answers that she is traveling eastward to the 'Place of Sunrise', presumably to rise as the morning star Venus, since she identifies herself as the `Lady of Heaven': 47 For the Iturungal Canal, see RGTC 2 271. The route of Inanna along the canal is examined in Sladek ID 61-63 and G. Buceellati, SMS 4/3 3-5, where manna's journey is explained as a ritual journey to Kutha. This proposal must be reeonsidered in light of C. Wall-Romema's identification of Tell Muhammad near Baghdad as the site of Akkad (see JNES 49 243-45).

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The Geography of Earth

me.e dga.ša.an.na kidutu.è.a.aš Sladek ID 113:81 I am the Lady of Heaven (going) towards the `Place of Sunrise' Bidu is not satisfied with her answer: tukum.bi za.e dinanna kidutu.è.a,aš a.na.àm ba.du.un kur.nu.gi4.šè ha.ra.an lû.du.bé nu.gi4.gi4 .dè šà.zu a.gim tum.mu.un Sladek ID 113:82-84 If you are Inanna (going) to the 'Place of Sunrise', why have you come to the 'Earth of No Return'? What made you decide to take the path whose traveler never returns. Inanna then uses the excuse that she has come to attend the funeral of her brother-in-law Gugalanna in order to gain entry to the underworld. Inanna's need to excuse her presence at the gate suggests that Inanna has not followed her normal course eastward to the 'Place of Sunrise' and that she is lying to Bidu when she tells him she has traveled eastward to the gates. Thus, it cannot be certain that Inanna has traveled eastward to the underworld. Although Inanna does not cross an underworld river during her trip to the underworld, there is evidence elsewhere for a river lying at the end of the road. For instance, The Babylonian Theodicy states that the destiny of all mankind is to follow a road to the underworld River Hubur: na-a[d]-nu-ma ab-bu-nu na-'a'-ri hu-bur ib-bi-ri

il-la-ku ü-ru-uh mu-û-t[u] qa-bu-ü ul-tu ul-la

BWL 70:16-17 Our fathers gave in, traveled the road of death. "They crossed the river Hubur;" as the old saying goes. Similarly, Dumuzi travels along a road to the Hubur River, bearing the sin of a supplicant in an incantation: e-nu-ma tal-la-ku ü ru uh ka lem-nu suh 4 hir-su-ma pa-nu-uš-ka lil-lik e-nu-ma te-eb-be-ru idhu-bur tum mi štil ma d é-a-ma a-a i-tur-ra

W. Farber Ištar and Dumuzi 137:179-82 (cf. 186:51-54) When you go on your road, turn the evil away, let it go before you. When you cross the Hubur, exorcise it by Ea so that it will not come back. In a bilingual parallel, this road is identified as the `Road of No Return':

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al.di ga.da.an .gin guruš.me.en bar.ra.an nu.gi4 .gi4 tu-ku-um-ma al-lak et-lu û-ru-uh la ta-ri

4R 30 no. 2 11-12 Boldly, I (Dumuzi), the youth, go along the `Road of No Return'. This road is also called harran la tariin Maqlu 22:29 // STT 82 29; and uruk in STT 73:36. In a broken passage from The Death of Ur-Nammu, after death the Sumerian king travels along a road in a chariot to the underworld gates:

KUR.NU.GI4 .A

[ x x kur].ra in.ti sù.ga.àm x [x x ] g' gigir ba.da.šu bar.ra.an im.ma.da,sùh šu nu.um.ma .nigin i.rdu8' x [(x)] g'šgigir ba.da.šu bar.ra.an im.ma.da.sùh šu nu.um .nigin lugal.mu [ .(..) 1. kur.ra 7.bi ni.ba ba.da.sum.mu PBS 10/II 6 ii 32-35 // TuM NF 4 28 ii 1'-2'// Rencontre Assyriologique 17 83 73-76 (S. N. Kramer, JCS 21 114:73-76) [At the ... of the underworld he arrived. It was empty. . [ ..1, the chariot fell down. The road became disordered. He eould not proceed. 48 The gatekeeper . [(.)], the chariot fell down. The road beeame disordered. He could not proceed. My king gave the seven [ . (..) ] of the underworld an offering. Here, the seven gods who receive offerings are presumably the seven gatekeepers of the underworld. In Manna's Descent and The Descent of Ištar, the goddess is required to give eaeh of the seven gatekeepers an article of clothing. The chariot that Ur-Nammu rides to the underworld in The Death of Ur-Nammu may be compared with the vehicles excavated by Woolley in the "Royal Graves of Ur." The River of the Underworld

A number of Sumerian and Akkadian texts speak of a river flowing at the entrance to the underworld. 49 In Sumerian texts, this river is not identified by name, but many Akkadian texts call the river the Hubur. The Location of the River. The relative position of the underworld river, road, and gates is not explained in any single text. In The Babylonian Theodicy 48 For šu — nigin meaning `to proceed along a road', note parallels in Klein Shulgi 198:76 and Enmerkar and Ensuhkešdanna 44:88. 49 For the underworld river and cosmic waters, see also T. Fymer-Kensky, The Judicial Ordeat in the Ancient Near East (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1977) 587-604.

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(BWL 70:16-17) and Farber Ištar und Dumuzi 137:179-82, the river seems to be located at the end of the road to the underworld. Here one might suppose that the river flows before the gates. This idea finds support in the phrase i d d a. d a k u r. r a. k a `river at the sides of the underworld' in Damu in the Underworld (V. Scheil, RA 8 170 rev. 1). If so, new arrivals at the underworld would have been ferried across the Hubur, just as the boatman Charon ferries the dead across the Styx to Hades in Greek mythology. A similar Mesopotamian boatman is described in Underworld Vision 45: dhu- mut-ta-bal Iûmaleth (mâ.lah5) ersetimtim qaqqadu an-zumu "sen 4 qata u

SAA 3 71 no. 32 rev. 5

Humuttabal, the boatman of the underworld, with the head of an Anzu-bird, four hands and fe [et ... In a few texts, however, the underworld river need not necessarily flow outside the entire series of gates. In LKA 90, the Hubur is mentioned between a gatecomplex belonging to the Anunnaki and the "Gate of the Captives, indicating that the Hubur may flow within the series of gates: 5°

ana dnam-tar sukkal ersetimtim pi qi is su [nu ti] itti da-nun -na-ki abulla(k a.gal) li- ru-bu-ma a-[a i - tu -ra] idhu-bur li- ru-bu-ma a-a is-sah-r[u] bab (kd) ka -mu-ti li -ru-bu [x x x x] a-a innamr[u](igi) r [u] LKA 90 photo lines 19-22 from bottom edge (TuL 128:5'-8') Consign them to Namtar the vizier of the underworld. Let the enter the gate with the Anunnaki, let them nev[er return] Let them enter the Hubur, let them never come back. Let them enter the Gate of the Captives [ ] let them never be seen again. A parallel is found in An Address of Marduk to the Demons E 23-32, where the gates of the underworld are mentioned before the na'ilu ša ersetim rapaštim `stream of the Vast Earth': 23. li-din-ku-nu -fi rimes-lam- ta-è-ral (ana) KUR.NUGI4.A 24. lip-qid-ku-nu -si ana 7 ate (i. d u8 )mes [ša] dereš-ki-gal 25. KI.MIN ana dnam-tar sukkal ersetimtim šâ bah k[a-mu]-ti ü-kal -lu 26. li-se- ri- bu -ku-nu -si ab[ul ersetilti rabitit' 27. ana gate n gallêmes rabûti li m[a a]l li ku nu si 28. dbi-dub i -dub gal ersetimtim mahar-ku-nu li-iz-ziz 29. lid-din-ku-nu -si ana dnin-giš -zi -da gu-za-la ersetimtim ra-pa-cg-ti 30. da-nun -na-ki ilanumes rabûtumeš lik [m]u ku nu ši 5o For the "Gate of the Captives" and the "eaptive gods, see also CAD K 127-28 kamû B and p. 294. For seven gallû-demons of the underworld by the underworld river

in a broken context see, OECT 5 19:1-7 (OECT 5 pp. 27-30).

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357

31. û-tam-me-ku-nu-Si gu-za-lâ-a rabâa sa dal-la-ti 32. lik-la-ku-nu-si na-a-i-lu sa ersetimt'm rabttit'

W. G. Lambert, AfO 19 117:23-32 + duplicates 23. Let Meslamtaea give you over to the "Earth of No Return:' 24. Let him consign you to the seven gatekeepers of Ereškigal. 25. Let him consign you to Namtar, the vizier of the underworld who controls the "Gate of the Captives:' 26. Let him bring you through the Gate] of the Great [Earth]. 27. Let him place you in the hands of the great ga llû-demons. 28. Let Bidu, the chief gatekeeper of the of underworld, stand before you. 29. Let him give you to Ningišzida, the "chair-bearer" of the Vast Earth. 30. Let the Anunnaki, the Great Gods, bind you. 31. I exorcise you by the great "chair-bearer" of the goddess Allati (Ereškigal).si 32. Let the stream of the Great Earth keep you in eheck. The above passage apparently describes the process by which a demon is banished to the underworld. First, the demon is handed over to the underworld. Then he is admitted through the seven gates of the underworld by the gatekeepers of Ereškigal and by Namtar, who escorts him through the "Gate of the Captives:' At this point, the newcomer is passed to the gallû-demons, who may hold him while Bidu locks the gates. Ningišzida then takes charge of him and passes him on to the Anunnaki in the interior of the underworld. In this passage, the underworld stream is not mentioned until the demon reaches the home of Allati, well within the underworld gates. The Course of the Underworld River. There is no information concerning the source, outlet, or course of the river other than the passage in Damu in the Underworld, where the river is said to flow at the sides of the underworld (see p. 356). Therefore, it cannot be proved that the river eircumambulated the underworld. The source of the waters of the river remains a mystery, since the underworld itself is a dry region. The Size of the Underworld River. There are two conflicting traditions concerning the nature of the river. In Damu in the Underworld, waters do not flow in the river of the underworld (see p. 351), suggesting that this underworld river may be a stagnant stream, like small waterways on the earth's surface during the dry season, or perhaps even a dry river bed. In eontrast, passages from a hymn to Lugalgirra and Meslamtaea and An Address of Marduk to the Demons describe the underworld river as a great river: 51 For dallatu as a name for Ereškigal, see AfK 2 73:23 (p. 289); CT 25 4:24, 8:8; Ugaritica 5 55-56.

358

The Geography of Earth

id.zu id.kala.ga .àm nam.tar.ra,Jàm1 id.mah ki.utu.è igi nu.bar.re .dam A. Sjoberg, OrSuec 19/20 142:19'-20' Your river is a great river, which determines the destinies. A mighty river at the place of sunrise, which no one can comprehend. [m] .MIN šl šamêe ru-qu-u-ti mi la sü nu hi-i-tu [KI].MIN sâ hu-bur pal-ka-ti su pu ul sâ i-di

W. G. Lambert, AfO 17 312:8-9 [(I am ] Asarlubi) who has examined the height of the distant heavens. [(I am ] Asarlubi) who knows the depth of the broad Hubur. The Gates of the Underworld

The best-known feature of the underworld is its gates. These gates lead from the approaches to the underworld into the interior of the region. In a number of texts, the underworld is reached through a series of seven gates. The clearest explanation of the configuration of these gates is found in Inanna's Descent, when Ereškigal instructs Bidu, the gatekeeper of the underworld, on how to admit Inanna to her realm: ka.gal,kur.ra 7.bi 5'šsi.gar.bi hé.eb. is é.gal.ganzer dili.bi g'sig.bi šu ha.ba.an .ûs Sladek ID 118:119-20 Let the bolts of the gate of the underworld, the seven of them, be set down. Let the doors of the underworld palace be opened individually. In this passage, all seven gates are located in é.gal.ganzer, demonstrating that these gates belong to a single gate complex rather than seven separate gate eomplexes in seven concentric walls, or seven gates spread along the circumference of the underworld. Other examples of the seven gates and gatekeepers of the underworld include An Address of Marduk to the Demons E 24 (see p. 356); passages in Nergal and Ereskigal, where the gates are listed with the names of their keepers; 52 KAR 142 rev, iv 12-15, which lists seven gatekeepers of Ereškigal; and two zi.pà-formulas from Utukku-Lemnutu V that invoke the seven doors and locks of the gates: zi g'šig.kur.ra 7.bi hé nis da-[lat ersetim 7 šü-nu MIN]

zi g'šsahab(u.DIs).kur.ra 7.bi hé CT 16 13:46-48 52 STT 28 i 20'-26', iii 41'-47', vi 19'-28' (see AnSt 10 108-26); SpTU I 1 iii 13'iv 3. For the El-Amarna parallel EA 357:47-50, 67-74, see below.

The Underworld

359

Be exorcised by the seven doors of the underworld. Be exorcised by the seven locks of the underworld. In the Amarna version of Nergal and Ereškigal, 14 gatekeepers are listed (EA 357:67-74), but these 14 gatekeepers probably guard seven gates, with two portals and two gatekeepers to each gate. Likewise, gates to the underworld such as k a. g al g an z e r in GHT 167, and bab dreskigal 'The Gate of Ereškigal' in Nergal and Ereskigal (STT 28 vi 19'; EA 357:51-52) can be gate complexes with multiple gates. In ID 74-75, the entrance to the underworld is identified as ka.gal.kur.ra 'Gate of the Underworld'. Only later in ID 119-20 do we learn that k 6..g a l .k u r. r a is in fact a gate-complex with seven gates. The underworld gates, like those of heaven (see pp. 265-67), were identical in structure to city gates on the earth's surface. These gates consisted of many gate parts, including doors, door frames, bolts, locks, and keys. For example, the door and locks of the underworld gates are mentioned in CT 16 13 46-48 (see above); ID 74, 120, and 126 refer to an underworld door; Descent of Istar 17-18 (CT 15 45) speaks of the door, bolt, and door frame (sippu) of the underworld; and KAR 267 II BMS 53 (J. Scurlock, JAOS 108 207:22-23) refers to the key that opens the lock of the underworld gate. Bit Meseri II 128 refers to a door and a lock guarded by Bidu: ilanume 3 ka-mu-tu lil-qu-su dbi-dub i-du8 gal ša ersetimt`m pa-nu-us-sû li-iz-ziz it sadaltu har gul li sü li is bat

G. Meier, AfO 14 146:126-28 Let the captive gods take it (all evil). Let Bidu, the chief gatekeeper of the underworld, stand before it, and let the door hold fast its lock. This gate may be identified as the bab kamûti 'Gate of the Captives', which occurs in LKA 90 (TuL p. 128) and in An Address of Marduk to the Demons E 25 (AfO 19 117; see pp. 356-57), where the 'Gate of the Captives' is mentioned after the seven gatekeepers of Ereskigal. The 'Gate of the Captives' was presumably among the inner gates of the underworld, if not the innermost gate, since it would not have been prudent to allow captive gods to approach the exit from the underworld. 53 The Stairway of Heaven

Two texts refer to stairways leading to the underworld. In the Sultantepe version of Nergal and Ereškigal the simmilat šamami `Stairway of Heaven' leads from the Gate of Anu, Enlil, and Ea in the heavens to the Gate of Ereškigal at the entrance to the underworld, bypassing the earth's surface, Apsu, and 53 For the `Gate of the Captives', see n. 50 above. Note also the `Gate of Sunset' and Nergal in a broken context in SpTU 3 64 iv 17-26 + dupl. (see p. 280), and CT 58 p. 19 no. 43 for the Moon-god and underworld doors.

360

The Geography of Earth

Hubur River (see p. 60). In a Nabopolassar inscription (F. Al-Rawi, Iraq 47 4:15) simmelat ganzer `Stairway of the Underworld' occurs as an epithet of the wall of Babylon Imgur-Enlil. A possible parallel to these two passages may be found in The Duties and Powers of the Gods:

.., dnerigal.ra kun.sag.kur.ra ki da.nun.na.ke 4.ne te.ga den.111 Sumer 4 pl. IV iv 27'-37' ... for Nergal, the 'stairway'? of the underworld, where the Anunnaki draw near, Enlil and Nin [lil .. . Nabnitu VII 287 (MSL 16 113) lists kun.sag as an equivalent of simmiltu

ša

gigunê `stairway of a temple-tower'. Cracks in the Earth's Surface

Demons and ghosts could pass vertically from the underworld directly to the earth's surface through openings in the earth without using the underworld gates. In GHT 242-43 = Gilg. XII 82-83, the ghost of Enkidu issues out of the underworld through a hole and speaks to Gilgamesh in Uruk: 54 ab.làl kur.ra gal im.ma.an .tag4 si.si.ig.ta šubur.a.ni kur.ta mu.ni.in.e ll .dè GHT 242-43 (Shaffer Sumerian Sources 85-86) (Gilgamesh) opened a hole in the underworld. As a ghost, his servant (Enkidu) came up from the underworld. lu-man tak-ka-ap ersetimtim ip-te-e-ma ü-tuk-ku šâ den-ki-dù ki-i za-qi-qi ul-tu ersetimtim rit-ta51 -sa-a

Thompson Gilg. XII 83-84 Now, when (Gilgamesh) opened a hole in the underworld, the ghost of Enkidu eame forth from the underworld as a ghost. Underworld demons also seem to be able to pass through openings in the earth's surface. In a bilingual incantation, seven demons reside in a crack in the underworld: ki.in.dar kur.ra.ke 4 durun.na,a.meš ina ni gi is si er-se-ti it- ta- na-dš-šâ -bu

CT 16 44:88-89 (cf. 102-3) In the crack of the underworld they are dwelling. 54 K. Szarzynska (Akkadica 23 45-49) suggests that this literary opening to the underworld is to be identified with the "Steingebaude" of Archaic Uruk. Note also A. Koefoed, ASJ 5 17-23.

The Underworld

361

Similarly, a zi.pà tablet lists ki.in .dar urugal.la = nigis erseui 'crack of the underworld' as a haunt of demons (Fest. von Soden 10 no. 21 185). In Surpu, a demon even pierces his own opening in the earth's crust like a sprouting plant: dù.dù u.šim.gim ki.a mu.un.dar ah-ha-zu ki-ma ur-qé-ti er-se-ta i pe s [i] lipessa Surpu 36:5-6+dupl. (see CAD All ] . 85)

The jaundice-demon is breaking through the ground like a plant. Such openings in the earth's crust allowing contact between the earth's surface and the underworld below can be compared with clay pipes (arûtu) that were placed in the earth as conduits for libations to the dead (see CAD A/2 324; ASJ 13 86 n. 131). Mountains

It may have been possible to enter the underworld by crossing distant mountains. In The Death of Gilgamesh, 'climbing the mountain' may be used as a euphemism for dying: hur.sag e11 .dè.dè ba.nu ur 5 nu.mu.e.[da.an.zi.zi] g'nu.nam.tar.ra.ka ba.ntt ur 5 nu.mu.e.da.an.zi.zi S. N. Kramer, BASOR 94 7:67-68

He (Gilgamesh) lies 'climbing the mountain', he cannot [raise himself up.] He lies on the bed of destiny, he cannot raise himself up. . The king of the underworld, Nergal, is associated with a mountain of sunrise in SGL II 37:46. 55 The Size and Shape of the Underworld

There is very little evidence for the size and shape of the underworld. The names of the underworld kur.gal, kur.dagal, ki.gal, ki.dagal, urugal, kigallu, ersetu rabitu, and ersetu rapaštu all demonstrate that the underworld was very large, but no text ever measures the dimensions of the region. The only known evidence for the shape of the underworld is found in the epithet of Enmešarra sabit kippat kigalli 'Holder of the Circle of the Underworld' (R. Borger, ZA 61 77:48). If `cirele' in this context can be taken literally, then this epithet reveals that the underworld, like the heavens and earth's surface, was circular in shape.

For Mountains of Sunrise and Sunset, see also pp. 331-32 and W. Heimpel, JNES 38 143-46; J. Scurlock, JAOS 108 206:18-23. 55

362

The Geography of Earth

The Depth of the Underworld

The only evidence for an exact distanee between the underworld and a higher region is found in Erra I 152, where a cosmic mésu-tree is said to descend 100 leagues through the tâmtu rapaštu `vast sea' to the depth of the underworld (see p. 245). Thus, the interior of the underworld must be at least 100 leagues below sea-level in this passage. Late Babylonian building inscriptions, where foundations are placed at the irtu `edge' of the underworld, 56 implythaeundrwosmchle.Hwvr,asGigmhnd Enkidu learned when they tried to retrieve their fallen instruments in GHT 164-67, it was not possible for humans to reach down into the underworld. 56 For examples of irat kigatli, irat erseti, and irat erseti rapasti, see CAD I/J 18687 c. Note also F. Al -Rawi, Iraq 47 4:39; WVDOG 59 42 i 34-35, 62 49 no. 9; and the Sumerian parallel in E Al-Rawi, Sumer 37 117:13-14.

Appendix A

Transliteration Of Examples of "me.sè ba.da.dal"

A. KAR 20 ii 2-8 2.

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

ÉN me.šè b [a .. . me.ršè' gub.ba! [ .. . IM.7 IM,ga1.7 [ .. . zi an.na bé.pà [ .. . mušen an.gim ha.ba.dal [ .. . ki.a ha.ba.ni.in .šub tu6.duiI .ga en.gal d .. . [

B. K. 157+ 2'-5' (Photo OrNs 40 p. 300 taf. III, collated) 2' ÉN me.šè ba[... 3' an.7 ki.7 IM.7 I[M .. . 4' mušen.an.gim ba.ba.da[1... 5' muru9 .gim ki.a ha.ba.n [i . . C. BAM 508 iv 11/-17'

11' ÉN me.šè ba.da.dal ki.sè ba.da.zah me.šè gub.ba igi.mu n [u.gub] 12' an.7 ki.71M,71M.ga1.7 izi.7 igi.7 bar.7 bar.ta.ig[i.71 13' zi an.na hé.pà zi.ki.a hé.p [à] 14' mušen.an.gim ha.ba.dal.en i.bi.gim ha.ba.e n (Du[L.DU).dè] 15' muru9.gim ki.a ha.ba.ni.i [n.šub] 16' tu6 .dul l .ga en.gal den.ki [(x x )] 17' eriduki.ga.ke4 nam.mu.un.da.an ,bûr.ra T[u6 .N]

363

Transliteration of Examples of "me.sè ba.da.dal"

364

D. K. 2542+ ii 37'-42' (Plate 8, p. 408) 37' É[Nme.šè ba.da.š]i.dal ki.šè ba.da.zah 38' m [e.šè (x x x x) g] ub.ba an.7 ki.7 IM.7 IM.gal.7 39' [izi.7 igi.7 bar]. 1 7 1 bar.ta.igi.7 zi.an.na bé.pà zi.ki.a hé.pà 40' [mušen.an.gim b]a.ba.dal.e i.bi.gim an.na ba.ba.e Il .dè 41' [muru9].rgim' ki.a ba.ba.ni.in .šub tu 6 .duI1 .ga en.galden.ki.ga .ke4 42' [eriduk]i.ga.ta nam.mu.un.da.an.bur.re Tu6 .ÉN E. K. 9329+ A 5'-8' (Plate 10, p. 410)

5' 6' 7' 8'

ÉN me.šè L... me.šè izi.7 [ .. . z[i].a[n...

E. BM 50958 a 3'-11' (Plate 10, p. 410)

3' 4' 5' 6' 7' 8' 9' 10' 11'

[(zah)] [Nme.šè ba.d]a.ra ki.šè ba.da [(ba)] [me.šè] gub.ba igi.na nu.gub [a] n 7 ki.7 IM.7 IM.ga1.7 izi.7 ig [i.7] bar.7 bar.ta.7 bar.ta.igi.7 zi.an,na bé.pà zi.[ki.a hé.pà] [m]ušen an.gim ba.da.dal 1 i'.bi.gim, an.na ba.da.e 1.d[è] [mu] ru9 .gim ki,a ba.ba.ni.in . [šub] [tu6 .d] u 11 .ga en.gal den.ki.ga .k [e4] ...nam.mu.u]n.da.an.bur. 1ra' [T]u6 .[ÉN]

G. BM 17311 ii 6'-13' (Plate 10, p. 410)

4' 5' 6' 7' 8' 9' 10' 11'

ÉN me.šè ba.da.da[1 .. . me.šè gub.ba igi.mu n [u .. . ki.7 IM.7 IM.gal 7 [ .. . bar.7 bar.ta 7 zi.an.n[a... zi.ki hé.pà lmušen an.giml[ .. . i.bi.gim an.na lha'. [b] a. 1 e111 L... muru9 .gim ki.a L... x.ga en.gal den,ki.ke 4 T[u6.ÉN]

H. Sm. 1802 ii 2'-3' (Plate 10, p. 410)

1' .VN 2' me[ .. . .

Transliteration of Examples of "me.sè ba.da.dal"

Related Texts 1. CT 51 142:l-3 1' 1 N' é.nu.ru 2' an.7 ki.7 IM.7 tM.gal 7 izi.7 igi.7 3' bar.7 bar.ta.7 bar.ta.igi.7 2. SpTU III 83 15

15 ÉN an.7 ki.7 tM.7 tM.ga1.7 izi.7 igi.7 bar.7 bar.ta.7 zi.an. [n] a hé.pà zi.ki,a hep [à] 3. CT 44 33 iii 5"-9" 5' 6' 7' 8' 9'

ÉN é!.nu.ra an.7 u4.7 [... an.7 iki.7'[... igi.r7'[... b far ...

365

Appendix B

Examples of "hé.daddag.ge an den.lil den.ki dnerigal"

l. E Bohl, MLVS 2 9-10 collation: Or 48 309) (

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

en.nun.ùr.re hé.en.daddag.g[a] an den,111 den.ki dnerigal an.7.bi ki.7.bi du6 .7.bi bâra.7.bi zi.in.zi.la .ah zi,hi.la.ah hu.6h.la .ah hu.ûh.ti.lav hu.ûh.me.la .ah ddim.me zi.an.na hé.pà zi.ki.a hé.pà en.na lu.ùlu dumu.dingir.ra.ni ki.bé gi4 .gi4 .dè u ba.ra.an.da.gu 7.e a ba.ra.an.da.na 8 .na8 gabanšur a.a.zu den.111.le šu.zu ba.ra.bI .du11

2. YBC 5627 (YOS 11 89) 1. rÉN' é.nu.ru hé.daddag.g[e] 2. [a]n den.lil den.ki dnerig [al] 3. an.7.bi ki.7.b [i] 4. du6 .7.bi zà.7.b [i] 5. gaba.7.bi bâra,7.bi 6. bal.7.bi bar.7.bi 7. an.ki.7'.bi zi.im.zi.ra.a[h] 8. dnu.me.la .[ah] 9. dnun.abzu.m [e.en] 10. dnun.uh.[1a.ah] 366

Examples of "hé.daddag.ge an den.lil den.ki dnerigal" 11. ddim,m [e] zi.an.na hé.p [à] 12. zi.[ki.a hé.p] à zi.den.lil. [la hé.pà] 13. [an].na sag mu.un.[Il] rki,a' sa[g m]u.[un,sig?] [k] a,inim.ma.ddim.me,k [am] 3. Iraq 38 62 Face B 1. hé,da.da.da 3. AN en.lil den.ki dnerigal 6. ÉN é.nu.ru 7. an.an 8.

dub?. d us?

367

Indexes

Subject Index 1,21-44,26,40 180-81 Abla/Ubla 82 Abul-Adad 68-69, 82-83 Adab 351 Adad/Iškur 7-8, 18, 139, 143, 206, 260, 273-74,327 Adapa 65, 103, 197-98, 249, 267, 319 Agathemenus 41 Agilma 129, 132 Agum 108 Akitu 13 Akkad/Agade 7, 68-71, 74, 77, 79-80, 8283, 85-87, 91, 106, 175-77, 247, 302, 308, 328, 353 Akkad-stars see Elam, Akkad, and Amurru-stars Akkadian Language 324 and passim Aklitu 72-74 Akriyaš 72-73, 90 Alalgar 313 Aleppo 82-83, 89; see also Hallaba Alexander Romanees 102, 106 Alexander the Great 102, 106 Allatu 289, 357 Alman 82; see atso Armani Amanus 80 Amarna 62, 65, 79, 93, 213, 223, 303; see atso EA Amorite/Amorites 75, 84-85, 91, 169, 197, 298, 324; see also Amurru Amurru 7, 26, 70-73, 77, 84-85, 87, 90-91, 94, 106, 177, 321, 323-24; see also Amorites

Amurru - stars see Elam, Akkad, and Amurru-stars An see Anu Anaku 72-73, 87-88, 94, 106, 333 Anatolia 77, 88 Anaximander 41-42 Andurunna see Heaven Angi 72-73 Anšan 68-69, 72-73, 79-81, 87, 89-90, 93-94, 106, 321 Anšar 109, 111 Antioeh 305 Antiochus I 133 Antiochus IV 90 Antu 227 Anu/An 3-4, 6, 8-10, 14-15, 17-18, 107,109, 111 -13, 118, 122 -27, 130, 135, 138-42, 144 -47, 149, 158, 168, 212-13, 217, 225, 227-28, 231, 233, 238, 243-50, 274, 276, 308-9, 313-14, 335; see atso Daughters of Anu Anu of Heaven 247, 251 Anu-Stars see Path of Anu, Enlil, Ea Anu, Enlil, Ea-stars see Path of Anu, Enlil, Ea Anunna 138, 143, 292-93; see also Anunnaki Anunnaki 3-4, 11, 15-16, 18-19, 63, 108, 120, 122-25, 127, 130, 137-39, 143-44, 161, 246, 272-74, 279, 286, 292, 316, 318, 343, 348, 350, 352, 356-57, 360 Anzan see Anzan

369

370

Indexes

Anzu-bird 6, 22-23, 33, 36, 98, 309, 336, 356 Apsu 3-4, 11, 13, 16-18, 32, 86, 105, 108-14, 119-28, 130-32, 135-39, 145, 148-50, 179, 213, 228, 231, 243, 247-48, 265, 268, 274, 286, 294-95, 302, 306-20, 326, 334-48, 359 Deep Cosmic Waters 341-42 Depth of 347 Depths 342 Floor 345 Gate of the Apsu 347 Ground waters 336-37, 344, 346 Interior 346 Marsh 337-38, 344 River 338-39, 344 Roof 345 Sea 339-40,344 Sides 346 Spring 346 Swamp 337-38, 344 Top 345 Underworld 342-44 nagbu 314-15, 343, 346 see also Eengurra, Ešgalla, abzu, du 6 .kù, engur, lalgar, anzanunzû, apsû, asurrakku, engurru, lalgar, šubat dnudimmud

Apsu-shrines 347 Arabia/Arabian Desert 79-81, 89-90, 93 Arabic 223 Aramaie 223 Arctie Ocean 321 Ariaba see Eriaba Aristagorous of Miletus 41 Arman 82; see also Aleppo, Armani Armani 68-69, 82 Arrapha 68-69, 81 Asalluhi/Asarluhi 34, 128, 131, 214, 225, 314, 358 Asarluhi-Namru 128 Ascent to Heaven see Heaven-Ascent Assembly 245; see also Heaven, ubšukkinakku

Assur (City) 67, 86, 136, 159, 196, 228, 284 Assur (God) 120, 226, 228 Assur-Bel-Kala 94 Assur-Reš-Iši 155

Assurbanipal 31-32, 37-38, 40, 123-24, 168, 178, 190, 315, 329 Assyria 21, 26-27, 29, 40, 68-69, 81, 9395, 200, 321, 332, 336-37 Assyrians 92 Maru 128 Ašrata 112-14, 116, 120-22, 125-27, 226-27 Atlantic Ocean 321 Atmosphere 243, 260 Atrahasis 105, 339; see also Utnapištim, Ziusudra Aya 232 Baba 247 Babylon 22, 26-29, 40-41, 62-63, 77, 94, 108, 120-25, 127, 130, 132, 134, 169, 172, 196, 267, 294-95, 307, 312, 319, 332, 334, 337-38, 347, 360 Walls 63, 360; see atso Imgur-Enlil Babylonia 26-29, 93-94, 202, 321, 325, 336 Badrah 83 Bad-Tibira 283, 353 Baghdad 82-84,353 Bahrain 36, 88, 105, 132, 328-29 Balih 45 Baza 68-69, 72-73, 79, 89-90, 93-94 Bel see Marduk Belet-Ili 98, 260 Berossus 132-34 Bidu 273, 350, 353-54, 356-59 Bird 37-38, 211, 223-24, 243, 349 Bitala 323-24 Bit Gabagal 70-71, 84 Bit Habban 29 Bit Hubba 70-71, 84 Bit Nanib 68-69, 82 Bit Sin 70-71, 84 Bit Yakin 21, 25-26, 305 Bitter Waters see Marrud Bitumen 337 Black Sea 93, 95, 303, 325 Bolts, Cosmic 115, 143; see also Heavenbolt, Underworld-bolt, gisi.gar, sigaru Bond/Bonds, Cosmic 41, 114, 119-20, 125, 230; see also Heaven-Bond; dur, durmahhze, markasu

Subject Index Border of Guti 323-24 Borsippa 26, 29 Botanical Gardens 40, 102 Buršabanda 36 Byblos 72-73, 89-90, 93 Calendar 162-64 Caphtor 87; see also Crete, Kaptara Captive Gods 293-94, 349, 359 Caspian Sea 93, 303, 325 Cedar Forest, Land, Mountain 68-69, 77, 79-80, 93, 98, 101, 321, 323-24, 331, 333; see also glseren = erenu Cella, Heaven see Heaven-Cella Chaldea/Chaldean 25-26, 304-5 Channel see bitqu Chariot of Utu 258 Charon 356 Cimmerians 89, 106 Circle see also kippatu Astronomical, Stellar, Solar 183-88, 190-92, 206, 257-58 Earth's Surface 260, 265, 274, 334 Four Winds/Corners/Regions 325, 334 Heaven 178, 206, 260, 264 Underworld 275, 361 Winds/Four Winds 206, 260, 264, 325, 334 see also kippatu

Claudius Ptolemy 195 Clay 149-50, 335, 349 Cloud 118, 266 Comet 7 166, 252-53, 258 Compass/Compass Points 193-207, 298 Constellations 3-4, 8-9, 13-15, 49, 111, 114, 127, 146-47 152-54, 198, 207-8, 257, 286 Continent 27-32, 41, 60, 93-94, 97, 105, 296, 320-22, 324-26, 331, 333 Creatures of Tiamat see Tiamat Cremation 91 Crete 87-88, 95; see also Caphtor, Kaptara Cylinder Seals 43, 58, 88, 163, 229, 266, 293, 329, 331 Cyprus 88 Dais (Heaven)

see Heaven

371

Damkina 110-11 Damru 70-71 Darkness/Land of Darkness/Region of Darkness 33, 96, 98-100, 102, 106, 133, 278, 329, 331-32; see atso Underworld-Darkness, kukku, kukku Daughters of Anu 6, 304 Day 117, 134, 137-41, 147-48, 152, 162, 189, 191, 334 Day and Night Hours 155, 157, 189-92 Days and Nights of Creation 134, 13739, 141-42 Dead Gods 284 Delphi 41-42 Der 21, 27, 68-69, 74, 77, 83, 94 Dew 243-44, 279 Dilmun 36, 72-73, 77, 79, 86-88, 94, 104-6, 302, 305, 320, 328-29, 333 Diodorus Siculus 152,164 Disease 206, 210 Distances in Heaven 177-88 Diyala River 84 Door of the World see datat dadme Dream 45, 60, 227, 250, 273 Duda 72-73 Duku 130, 315-16, 331; see atso du6.kù/ du6.ku.ga, duku Dumudukuga 130 Dumuzi/Tammuz 13, 281, 283, 350-51, 354-55 Dunnu 145-46 Duranki 299; see also Nippur Dur-Kurigalzu 143 Ea 4, 8-9, 13-15, 17-18, 109-16,122-23, 126-27, 131, 144-50, 158, 250, 274, 276, 309, 318-19, 326, 334-36, 33840, 354; see atso Enki/Ea, Nudimmud Ea-stars see Path of Anu, Enlil, Ea Eanna 104,130-31,138-39 Earth 268-362 and passim Distant Earth 282 Great Earth 272, 280-81, 292, 356-57 Lower Earth 3-4, 16, 18, 268, 274, 318 Middle Earth 3-4,16-18, 268, 274, 318 Seven Earths 208-20; see atso an.7-ki.7

Indexes

372

Earth (cont.) Upper Earth 3-4, 16-17, 274, 318 Vast Earth 278-80, 356-57; see also ersetu rapaktu, ki.dagal, kur.dagal see also Earth's Surface, Ends of the Earth, Underworld; bùr/bùru, ki, lam/lamma, uraš, zikara, danninu, ersetu, ekmahhu: miriyak: qaqqaru:

Earth (goddess) 145-46 Earth of Enlil 274, 292; see also erset denlil, qaqqar dentil

Earth of No Return 18, 217, 269-72, 276-78, 284, 336, 343, 354-57; see also kur.nu.gi4.a, kur.nu.gi.gi , erset la târi, kurnugu Earth of the Dead 275, 281 Earth's Surfaee 16-17, 20, 26-27, 39-43, 47, 49-51, 60-62, 64, 67, 86, 93-97, 105, 118-22, 125-27, 129, 179, 18788, 193, 204-6, 213, 227-28, 236, 243-46, 248, 252, 258, 264, 268, 272, 274, 278-79, 286, 291-92, 294-301, 307, 318-20, 325-26, 328-34, 33940, 344-47, 351, 353, 357, 359-61 Diameter 187, 334 Shape 334 Size 334 East/Eastwind 91, 104, 193-202, 205, 230, 249, 257 Ebla 68-69, 77, 82, 160; see atso Abla/ Ubla Edamarus 70-71, 83-84 Edom 72-74, 89-90, 93 Eengurra 307, 310, 316, 346 Egypt 72-73, 79, 89-90, 93, 95, 165, 321, 329 Ehursaggula 337 Ekur (Cosmie Region) 294-95 Ekur (Temple) 6, 76, 130-31, 294 Elam 7, 70-71, 77, 81, 83, 85-86, 91, 93, 106,321-24, 350 Elam, Akkad, and Amurru-stars 175-77 Elamatum 124 Elamite 324 Electrum see elmeku Elephant 35 Emutbal 70-71, 84, 322, 324 Enbilulu-Regal 279

Ends of the Earth's Surfaee/Earth 236, 325, 328-34; see also Horizon E-Ninnu 94 Enki/Ea 17, 107, 129-30, 135-44, 149, 211-14, 247, 262, 280, 297, 307-9, 313-15, 334-35, 340, 342-43, 34546; see also Ea Enkidu 291, 350, 353, 360, 362 Enlil 6, 8-9, 13, 15, 17, 107, 112-13, 11516, 122-23, 125-27, 129-30, 135-36, 138-41, 144-49, 158, 212-13, 228, 244, 247, 250, 274, 276, 294-95, 308, 313-14, 321, 331, 338, 343, 349, 360 Ancestors of Enlil and Ninlil 141 Enlil-stars see Path of Anu, Enlil Ea Enmešarra 6, 225, 273, 275, 361 Enoch (Book of) 217 Enurulla 277 Equinoxes and Solstices 157-58, 172, 181, 189-92, 196, 199 Ereškigal 18, 66, 125, 135, 139, 161, 213, 271, 273, 275, 278-79, 289, 348-51, 357-59; see atso Allatu Eriaba 70-71, 84 Eridu 130, 211, 307, 316-17, 342, 346-47 Erra 297, 300 Esagil 108, 122-24, 127, 130, 227, 307, 347 Esarhaddon 13, 40, 79, 93, 168, 251-52 Barra (cosmic region) 17, 112-14, 116, 120-21, 123-27, 145, 227-28, 244, 247, 319 Ešgalla (cosmie region) 112-14, 125-28, 286, 309, 315 Ešnunna 84 Etana 37, 43-44, 185, 227, 245, 250, 252, 264, 266-67, 271, 296, 319, 350-51 Etemenanki 123 Euphrates 6, 28-30, 68-69, 74-75, 77, 79-81, 84-85, 92-95, 118-19, 195, 321-22, 328, 338 Tail of (kun = zibbatu) 70-71, 85, 9495 see also Tigris and Ephrates Exodus 9, 11 Ezekiel 9, 12 Falaika 88 Fara Period/Texts 141, 197

Subject Index Firmament 262; see also be, hé/hé.an.na, GAN, giš.bé, mu.hé, ul.he, burûmû, supuk šamê, supuk burûmé

Fish 312, 335, 338 Flood 7 31, 36, 44, 99, 104-6, 111, 134, 218, 244-45, 326-29; see also Sumerian Flood Story (ancient texts) Four Corners/Quarters/Quadrants/ Compass Points/Winds Earth's Surfaee 24-25, 32, 37 40, 9091, 111, 204, 206, 252, 259-60, 296, 298-300, 324-25, 334 Heaven 204-6, 217 252, 255, 259-60 see also an.ki.ub.da.limmu.ba, an.ub, an.ub.da.limmu.ba, ki.ub, ub.an, ub.da.an.ki, ub.da.limmu.ba, kibratu, tubuqatu

Four Winds

see Four Corners, Winds

Gate of Susa 70-71, 85, 87 Gates see Heaven-Gates, UnderworldGates Gems see Grove of Gem-Bearing Stone Genesis 66,113,133-34,139,145, 262, 292 Geographic Terms 295-301 Geometry 40-42, 183-86, 190, 206 Geštinanna 283 Ghost 343-44, 353, 360 Gilgamesh 38, 96-106, 132, 271, 303, 320, 326, 329-30, 332, 350-51, 36162; see also Gilgamesh Akkadian, Gilgamesh Sumerian Gilimma-Marduk 130-31 Gimdub 70-71 Ginirtum 72-74 Girra 174, 233, 281 Gizzida 13, 65 Glass 12 Gnomon 169, 202 Gods of the Night 146-47; see atso Prayer to the Gods of the Night Greece 88, 320 Greek Transliterations of Cuneiform 228, 306 Grove of Gem-Bearing Stones (Gilgamesh) 96, 99, 100-102, 104, 106, 329-30 Gudea 80, 83, 302 Gugalanna 354

373

Gula 7-8, 245, 292, 301 Guti/Gutium 68-71, 74-75, 82-84, 87 91-92, 323-24 Gutian 324 Gyges of Lydia 32 Habban 21, 29, 94; see also Bit Habban Hades 356 Halab see Aleppo Hallaba 68-69, 83; see also Aleppo Halman 82; see also Armani Hammurabi 84, 87 Handakiyaš 72-73, 90 Hanigalbat/Habigalbat 72-73, 89-90 Hanu/Haneans 68-69, 78-80, 94, 323-24 Heaven/Heavens 223-67 and passim Ascent to 43-66, 267 Assembly 245, 250 Bolt 217 248, 264, 266-67 300 Bond 265 Cattle-Pen/Cow 255-56, 263 Cella 12-13, 152, 243, 246-47 250-52 Circle 178, 264-65, 334; see atso kippatu

Clear/Lapis Heavens see an.za.gIn Composition of Heaven 262-63 Courtyard 244, 250 Dais 227 250-51 Distances in see Distances in Heaven Distant Heavens 249 Divine Homes 244-45 Dome 256, 264 Door 144-45, 217 248, 266-67 Face 64, 241 Floor 9, 226, 258, 263 Four Corners/Quadrants/Quarters/ Regions of see Four CornersHeaven Gates 39, 45, 52-53, 58-60, 114-16, 144-45, 244, 248, 250, 265-66, 287 300, 359 Gate of Anu 65, 250, 266 Gate of Anu, Enlil, and Ea 52-53, 58-60, 66, 250, 266, 359 Gate of Sin, Shamash, Adad, and Ištar 52-53, 58-60, 250, 266 Gate-parts 266 Incline 288

374

Indexes

Heaven/Heavens (cont.) Interior 60, 244-45, 247-50 Key 266-67 Key-peg 266-67 Intermediate Heavens 246-47 Kassite Names 233 Lower Heavens 3-4, 8-9, 13-15, 125, 147 243, 258 Middle Heavens 3-4, 8, 11-14, 125, 243, 246 Path 65, 147 177 252-58; see atso Path of Anu/Enlil/Ea Seam 265 Seven Heavens 208-20; see also an.7-ki.7 Size 264 Shape 264 Stairway 66, 250, 267 346, 353, 35960; see atso simmelat samami Stone 262-63 Teat 262-63 Upper/Highest/High 3-4, 8-11, 14, 125, 127 143, 243- 50, 265; see also Heaven of Anu Visible Heavens see Sky Waters 262-63 see atso Ašrata, Barra, ag, an, an.gal, bur, bur, girra, giš, idim, Il, im, me, mu, si, ul 4, ùn, uraš, utah, zikara, zikum, andurunna, asru, burûmû, etatu, ermi danim, samdmû, šamamû, samû, sa-mumalša-ine-ma, subatd anim, subat samê/šamd'i

Heaven of Anu 10, 47-53, 58-60, 66,127, 152, 241, 244-47 265, 279 Area above the Heaven of Anu 60 Heaven-Apsu 124, 126 Heaven-Earth Seven Heavens and Earths 208-20 an-ki 74, 86, 135-42, 272 and passim an-uraš 231 an.dagal.la-kalam.dagal.la 296 an.gal-ki.gal 275, 280 giš-lam 230 me-lam 229-30, 290 me-me 229-30 andurunna-ersetum 225 ašru-kigallu 225

asru-kurnugû 225 burûmû-ki-ùr-ra 276 burûmû-matatu 226 elatu-šaplatu 227 292, 352 ermi danim-ganzer 227 287 ermidanim-kigallu 227 samdmû-irkalla 348 samdmû-qaqqaru 224 samdmû-ammatu 108, 282 samdmû-apsû 337 samamû-dadmu 310

šamamû-ersetu

119, 333

samamû-esmahhu 227, 287, 310 samamû-qaqqaru 142, 224, 236 samû-ersetu passim samû rapsûtu-matu rapaštu 296 Heaven-Underworld see Heaven-Earth: ašru-kigatlu, asru-kurnugû, ermi danim-kigallu Heaven's Cover see Heaven; ermi-danim Heaven's Edge see an.zà

Hebrew 223, 273, 282, 303, 347 Heliacal Rising 163-64, 169, 175, 188 Herodotus 28, 41, 92, 337 Hesiod 18, 41, 164, 305 Shield of Achilles 41 Theogony 18, 41, 132, 305 Hezekiah 100 Hipparchus 195 Historieal Omens 77 89 Hit 337 Hittite/Hittites 198 Hizzat/hisat 68-69, 82 Homer 41, 106 Illiad 41 Odyssey 41, 106 Horizon 94, 111, 117 140, 143, 187 19192, 233-36, 238, 242, 248, 251-52, 258, 267 294-95, 299, 308, 316-17, 326, 331, 352 see also Ends of the Earth, an.tir, an.zà, isid samê, nab/ptu Horizon-Zenith 144-45, 330 House of Darkness 289-90, 294, 349, 352 House of Death see bit mûti House of Dumuzi see bit ddumuzi House of Dust 294 Hubur 318, 344, 353-56, 358, 360; see also Underworld-river

Subject Index Human Beings see Mankind Humbaba see Huwawa/Humbaba/ Huppipi

Humuttabal 356 Huppipi see Huwawa/Humbaba/

375

Jerusalem 100 Job 327 Jordan 89 Judah 30, 90 Juniper 80

Huppipi

Hurim 68-69, 83, 93 Hurrian 90 Husbiša 271, 350 Huwawa/Humbaba/Huppipi 98 Iabuše 68-69, 81 Iaman 320 Ibrat 68-69, 83 Igigi 3-4, 8, 11, 14, 59, 63, 108, 120, 12425, 127, 143-44, 152, 161, 243, 24547, 249, 316, 352 IIliad see Homer Imgur-Enlil 63, 267, 360 Inanna /Ištar 18, 91, 124, 138-39, 160, 219, 235, 245, 250-52, 259, 270, 273, 275, 291, 304, 313, 331, 344, 353-54 Ineantations, Cosmological 148-50 Indian Ocean 87, 303, 321, 325 Indus Valley Culture 328 Intercalation 164, 169 Intermediate Heavens see Heavens Ionian Greece 320 Iran 60, 77, 79-82, 85, 87-89, 94, 325 Is 337 Isaiah 250 Isin 70-71, 83-84 Iskandarnama see Alexander Romances Israel 89-90 Iškur 7; see also Adad/Iškur Išpatum 68-69, 81, 83 Ištar 54-55, 58, 60, 64, 250; see also Inanna/Istar

Ištar of Babylon 124 Ištar of Elam 124-25 Ištar of Uruk 58 Ištar Gate 123-24, 312 Itinerary 78, 82 Iturungal Canal 353 Jacob's Ladder 66 Jasper 4, 13-14, 19, 258, 263; see also iaspû

Jaundice 361

Kaka 18, 66, 217 72-73, 87-88, 94-95, 106, 333; see atso Caphtor, Crete Kar -Nabu 305 Karzina 74-75, 90, 93 Kassite/Kassites 169, 233, 291 Kazallu 77 Khafajeh 83 1 Kings 250 Kingu 111-12 Kirkuk 81 Kish 43-44, 353 Kisar 109 Koldewey, R. 28 Koran 217 Kos 133 Kudurru 84, 139 Kullaba/Kullabi 68-69, 83; see also Uruk Kurdistan 82 Kurigalzu 143 Kutalla 72-73, 90 Kutha 353 Kutumta-people 68-69, 80, 83

Kaptara

Lagash 68-69, 77, 83, 93, 307 Lahama/Lahmu/Labamu 108-9, 288, 308-9,339-40 Lakes 318 Lake Urmiah 89, 303, 326 Lake Van 90, 303, 326 Lake Zeribor 303 Land/Lands/Dry Land 60-65, 296-97, 319-24 and passim Land at the Border of Guti 323-24 Lower Land 87, 269, 323-24 Upper Land 77, 87, 323-24 Upper and Lower Land/Lands 72-73, 87-88,296-97 see also Earth's Surfaee, ki, kalam, kur.kur, mdtu, mdtdtu Languages 324 Lapis Lazuli 9, 11, 101, 166-67, 263, 309 Lapu see Til Halapu

376

Indexes

Larsa 84 Latin 133 Lead-ropes see serrétu Lebanon 60, 72-73, 77 80, 87 Light 133, 139 Lock of the Sea see Sea Lower Zab see Zab River Lubdi 68-69, 81 Lugalakia 315 Lugalbanda 38 Lugaldukuga 13, 130 Lugalgirra 285, 357 Lugalmarada 321 Lugalzagesi 76, 262, 321-22 Lullubi/Lullubeans 68-69, 72-76, 82, 87 89-92, 106, 321, 323-24, 340 Lullupun 72-73; see Lullubi Lunar see Moon Lydia 31-32, 320 Magan 70-73, 77, 79-81, 85-90, 94, 106, 302, 328-29, 333 Malgi 70-71, 84 Maneans 89 Mangisu 68-69, 83 Maništušu 76 Mankind/Man/Men 6,15-17, 35, 64,122, 125-26, 129, 131, 135-36, 149, 274, 292, 310, 318, 320, 328-29, 337, 345, 349, 351 Maps, Ancient Cuneiform 26-27 60-61, 195; see also Babylonian Map of the World, Map of Nippur Marad 321 Maraman 72-73 MardukBel 3-4, 6, 8, 11-14, 17-18, 2223, 31, 34-35, 86, 107-8, 112-34, 136, 145, 147 156, 159, 161-62, 22425, 227, 243, 246-47 250, 252, 256, 262-63, 26 274, 279, 286, 310, 315, 318-19, 327 334, 343, 346, 349; see also Asalluhi/Asalluhi, Gilimma, Neberu, Sirsir Marduk's Fifty Names 108, 128-32 Marhaši/Paraši Marhasi/Parasi 70-71, 77, 86-87 93-94, 106, 321-23; see also Parabsum Mari 61, 68-71, 77 79, 81, 84-85, 88-89, 92, 94, 264, 288, 301, 303 Marrud 70-71, 84 Marsuna 72-73

Maškan-Sapir 70-71, 84 Maškan-Sarri 68-69, 81 Math/Mathematical Texts 179-81, 206; see atso Geometry Media 90 Mediterranean 77 87, 93-94, 200, 204, 302-3, 305, 322, 325 Melubba 68-71, 77 79-81, 85-87, 93-94, 302, 328-29, 333 Merodach-Baladan I 84, 139 Meslamtaea 285, 356-57 Metals 88 Meunim 89 Mierozodiac 256 Mitanni 90 Moab 72-73, 89-90 Monkey 22-23, 35, 330 Month 115, 117, 147-48, 151-52, 154, 163, 193-94, 256 Month-star 154-55,157-58,161-63,175, 189 Moon/Moon-god/Lunar 15, 114, 116-17, 125, 127 129, 134, 139-40, 144-45, 147-48, 151-53, 163-64, 166, 16972, 179-80, 191, 226-27 230, 232, 235, 237-41, 243, 248-49, 252, 25659, 266-67 298, 321, 352, 359 Lunar Calendar 163 Lunar Crescent 15 Lunar Cycle 258 Lunar Eelipse 166, 170 see atso Nannar/Sin, Path of the Moon, Sin Mountain/Mountains 20, 27-29, 52-53, 61, 119, 126, 149-50, 196-98, 200, 208, 272, 295, 315-16, 319-21, 327 329-32, 361 Cosmie Mountain (Weltburg) 272 Sunrise and Sunset 97 249, 331-32, 361 Upper and Lower Mountains 77 sadû bérûtu 118-19 sadû nagbi 119 see also Amanus, Cedar, Zagros Mount Mau 36, 96-98, 104-6, 241, 266, 284, 320, 332 Mount Simirriya 98, 284 Mummu 110 Munna/Munni 72-74, 89-90, 93 Mutiabal 70-71, 84, 93

377

Subject Index Nabonidus 30-31, 58 Nabopolassar 63 Nabu 225, 227, 232, 276, 300, 304, 314, 339 Nairi 90, 303 Namtar 66, 246, 250, 271, 273, 277 279, 350,356-57 Nannar/Sin 18,144-45, 227, 231-32, 237, 239, 247, 251-52, 259, 262; see also Moon Nanše 341 Naram-Sin 78, 80, 82-83, 92, 298 Neberu 115-16, 128, 145, 156, 159, 161-62 Nebuchadnezzar II 28, 30-31, 134, 227, 237 Nergal 18,66,125,144,161-62,212-13, 271,273-74,278,280-81,286,293, 343,348,350-51,359,361 Neriglessar 237, 305 "Net of the Sea" see sigaru nahbatu

tamti New Year 151-52, 160, 162-63; see also

zagmukku Night 117 134, 137-39, 147-48, 162-63, 191, 334; see also Watches of the Night, Days and Nights of Creation Ninanna 284 Ninazimua 283-84, 350 Nineveh 102, 196, 312, 314 Ningirsu 309 Ningišzidda 242, 271, 275, 282, 350, 356-57 Ninki 140- 41 Ninlil 140-41, 144, 360 Ninšubur 109, 247 Ninurta 13, 32, 171-72, 247-48, 257 309, 348 Mereury 171-72, 257 Ninurulla 277 Nippur 27, 41, 76, 83-84,130-31,138,179, 195, 228, 230, 290, 294-95, 299, 307, 353 Niqqu 68-69, 82-83 Nissaba 166-68 Nomads 91 North/Northwind 72-73, 90-91, 99-100, 177,193-203,205,332-33 Nudimmud 109, 112, 114, 128, 149-50; see also Ea

Nur-Dagan 23, 36 Nuzi 27 195, 306 Ocean see Sea Oeeanus 41,132,305 Odyssey see Homer Oman 88, 328 Omens 39, 77-78, 89, 92, 148; see atso Astronomieal Omens One Thousand and One Arabian Nights 102 Pacific Oeean 321 Parahsum 77 86; see also Marhaši Path of Anu, Enlil, Ea/Anu, Enlil, Eastars 115-16, 154, 156-66, 169-77 181, 183, 186-91, 199, 253-58, 264, 267 Borders between Paths 165-66, 169-70, 173 Path of Planets 256-57 Path of Mercury 257 Path of the Moon 169-71, 185,.256-58 Path of the Sun 33, 96, 98-100, 106, 172, 190, 256-58, 320 Persian Gulf 28, 77 81, 83, 85-87 93-95, 105, 198, 200, 204, 290, 302-5, 325, 328-29, 341 Planet/Planets/Planetary 114, 134, 151-53, 161-62, 169, 171-72, 176, 243, 252, 257-58, 267; see atso Path of Planets; Jupiter, Mars, Mercury, Saturn, Venus, UDUIDIM,

bibbu Plant `Man Becomes Young in Old Age' 105-6, 132 Plant of Birth 44, 58 Plants/Plantlife 129-32, 139, 304, 353 Proverb (Sumerian) 142 Psalms 217 262 Pseudo-Callisthenes 102 Radanu 81 Rababu 70-71,84 Rain 118, 228, 262-63 Rain Duets 262 Rapiqu 68-69, 81 Ras Shamra see Ugarit Reciprocal/Reciprocal Tables 180-81; see atso igi-gal.bi

378

Indexes

Reed/Reed Marsh 131, 141, 150, 306, 335-38, 344, 346-47; see atso ambar, apparu Region of Darkness see Darkness Reš-Temple 193 Rim-Sin 167, 232, 262-63 Rimuš 76 Rivers 27, 84, 142, 149-50, 208, 312, 318, 335, 338-39, 344 see also Diyala, Euphrates, Tebiltu, Tigris, Tigris and Euphrates, Zab River (goddess) 146, 338-39 River of Creation 312, 338 Royal Graves of Ur 355 Samarra 86 Sapphire 9 Sargon H 26, 29-30, 40, 90, 93, 98, 104, 284, 329 Sargon of Akkad 29, 33, 36, 40, 67-73, 75-81, 88, 92-93, 100, 106, 237, 260, 296-97, 299, 321, 324, 330 Sarpanitum 108 Scorpion-Man 22-23, 35-36, 96-98, 329; see also'girtablullû

Sea/Seas/Sea-goddess 18, 25-26, 45-46, 52-53, 56-57, 60-65, 68-69, 74-75, 77, 80, 83, 87, 93, 96-97, 102-6, 111, 119-20, 128-34, 141, 146, 150, 182, 197, 204, 245, 279, 296, 301-7, 311, 318-20, 325-33, 335-36, 340-41, 344 Apsu 340-41 Bolt .(named) `Net of the Sea' see sigaru nahbalu tâmti

Depth 326 Floor 319 Limits 326 Lock 327 Lower Sea 72-73, 76-77, 86-88, 9294, 301-3, 320-22, 328 Sea of Nairi 303, 325 Sea of Zamua 303, 325 Sunrise and Sunset 200 Upper and Lower Sea 31-32, 72-73, 76-77, 86, 88, 92-93, 106, 200, 204, 301-2, 305, 320-21, 324-25, 332-33, 340 Upper Sea 72-73, 76-77, 87-88, 9293, 302-3, 320-22

see atso Black Sea, Caspian Sea, Indian

Ocean, Mediterranean, Oceanus, Persian Gulf, Tiamat, a.ab.ba, ab, ab.ba, ajabba, jamu, marratu, mugammirtum, šigaru nabbalu tamti, tamtu

Sea Land 77-78 Seasons 194-95, 254, 257 Sennaeherib 30, 34, 39-40, 62, 93, 100, 102, 329 Shalmaneser III 25-26, 28, 40, 206, 304-5 Shalmaneser V 90 Shamash 44, 54-55, 97-98, 103, 147, 252, 273-74, 311, 352 see also Sun, Utu/Shamash Shulgi 65, 167, 169 Sidon 89 Siduri 98, 101-3 Silver Mountain 77 Sin 18, 147, 247, 274; see also Nannar/Sin Sippar 26, 70-71, 82-83, 129 Sirsir/Marduk-Sirsir 118 Sky/Visible Heavens 49, 127, 151-92, 226-28, 233-43, 247, 250, 252-61, 276, 281 Snow 129 Solar see Sun Solstices see Equinoxes and Solstices South/South Wind 65, 72-73, 90-91, 193-202, 204-5, 332-33 Star-Catalogue 156, 160 Stars/Fixed-stars/Stellar 3-4, 6-7, 13-15, 49, 59, 114-16, 125, 127-28, 134, 139, 144-48, 151-54, 157, 166-67, 178, 180, 191, 198-200, 205-6, 22324, 226-28, 237, 239-40, 243, 24648, 252-59, 265-67, 298, 347 "Cattle of the Sky" 255 Circumpolar Stars 169 Culminating Stars see zigpu-stars Winds 255 Star Charts, Sumerian 166-68; see also dub.mul.an Stars of Anu, Enlil, Ea see Paths of Anu, Enlil, Ea Stellar Circle see Cirele Stellar Distances 182-88 Stellar Lines of Latitude/Meridians 256; see also misrâtu, tallu

Subject Index Stellar Motion 188-92 Stellar Paths see Path of Anu, Enlil, Ea Stellar "Ropes" see qû Stellar Sectors/Segments 165-66, 170, 185, 253, 256; see also pirku,

379

Syria 61, 82, 197 Sinu 68-69, 82 Supri 68-69, 81 Suršatak 72-73

qaqqaru

Stone/Stones 3-4, 9-14, 100-102, 121, 167, 226, 262-63, 330, 345 Strabo 41 Styx 132, 344, 356 Subartean 324 Subartu/Subareans 7, 68-69, 72-73, 7780, 87, 91, 106, 175, 321-24 Sukalletuda 249 Sumer 70-73, 76, 81, 83-86, 89-90, 105, 322, 324, 328 Sumer and Akkad 70-71, 82-86, 88, 298, 322, 324, 328, 333 Sumerian Language 324 and passim Sun, Sun-god, Solar 49, 104, 114, 116-17, 125, 127, 134, 139-40, 142, 144-45, 151-53, 163, 171-73, 190-92, 196200, 206, 227, 230, 235-39, 241, 243, 248-49, 251-52, 256-59, 264-67 273-74, 279, 281, 284, 298, 315-16, 320-21, 325, 328-33, 340, 343, 345, 352 Solar Disk 15 Solar Motion 188-92 see atso Path of the Sun, Shamash/Utu, Sunrise, Sunset, Sunrise-Sunset, Utu Sundial 202, 256 Sunrise/Rising Sun 97, 99, 104, 193-96, 199-202, 205-6, 235, 248, 259, 26667, 281, 303, 316-17 328-29, 35354; see also Sunrise-Sunset Sunrise-Sunset 72-73, 96-98, 106, 14748, 163, 173, 190-91, 193-96, 199202, 206, 296-97, 321, 330, 332-33; see also Sea, Mountain Sunset, Setting Sun 193-96, 199-202, 206, 248, 266, 328; see atso SunriseSunset Surginiyaš 72-73, 90 Susa 21, 29, 43, 70-71, 77, 81, 94, 124, 299; see also Gate of Susa Sutean/Suteans 74-76, 92, 324 Swamp 322, 335-38; see also Marsh, ,

apparu

amši-Adad I 94 Sar -Sin 70-71 Saršarbid 271 Subur 88 Subbu 68-69 Tablet of Destinies 227, 287 Tablet Stars of Heaven see dub.mul.an Takulti-Ninurta I 298 Tammuz 13, 65; see also Dumuzi/ Tammuz Tarsis 320 Tebiltu River 312 Tell Muhammad 82, 353 Tema 72-73, 89-90; see also Temanaja, Til Temania Temanaja 89 Temple-tower see gigunû Terqa 81 Thales 41 Theodicy see Babylonian Theodicy Theogony see Hesiod, Hesiod Theogony Tiamat 6, 34, 36, 108-9, 111-12, 117-18, 120, 127-28, 130, 133, 224, 262, 265, 318-19, 335, 347, 349 Creatures of 33, 36, 108, 133, 347 see also Sea Tiglath-Pileser I 94, 155 Tiglath-Pileser HI 237, 330 Tigris 28-29, 32, 81-85, 87, 92, 94, 100, 118-19, 131; see also Tigris and Euphrates Tigris and Euphrates 5, 28-29, 40, 61, 68-69,80-81,92,118,126,131,142, 319,321-22 Til Halapu 72-73, 89 Til Temania 72-74, 89 Tirgan of Gutium 70-71, 84 Tukriš 70-71, 87, 93, 106, 321 Tukulti-Ninurta I 326, 329 Tunnel 312 Turgu 70-71 Turkey 80, 93, 325 Turukki 72-73, 87

380

Indexes

Tutu-Ziukkina 128 Twenty-One Poultiees 312, 339 Tyre 72-73, 89-90, 93 Udani 72-73, 89-90 Ugarit/Ras Shamra 11, 223, 231, 304, 322-24 Ulaja River 304 Underworld 13,18-19, 32, 58, 66, 97-98, 104, 122, 125-26, 135, 138, 143-44, 161, 179, 213, 215, 217, 227, 236, 243, 245, 248-49, 268-95, 311, 318, 326, 334-36,342-46,348-62 Approaches 349, 353 Boatman 356 Bolt 287, 349, 358-59 Courtyard 351 Darkness 289-90, 294, 349, 352-53 Depth 362 Door 281, 287, 349, 358-59 Entrance 276, 349, 353 Fields 351 Gatekeeper 271, 279, 281, 316, 350, 353, 355-59 Gates 58, 269-70, 279-81, 287, 294, 349, 353-54, 356, 358-59 Gate of Ereškigal 359 Gate of Sunset 280, 359 Gate of the Captives 294, 356-57, 359 ganzer 269-71, 287, 358 kâ.gal ganzer 270, 359 ka.gal kur.ra 358-59 House 351 Interior 349-53 Key 359 Lock 281, 358-59 Palace 270, 350-51, 358 é.gal.ganzer 270, 287, 358 Place of Ereškigal 276, 289 River 132, 292, 318, 344, 349, 351, 354-58 see atso Hubur-River, Styx, Underworld- Stream, Watercourse Road 349,353-56 Road of No Return 353-55 Shape 361 Size 361

Stairway 144, 353, 359-60; see also Heaven-stairway, kun.sag, simmeltu Stream 280, 283, 356-57; see also me' du

Surface 275, 279 Water Course 292 see also Earth, Earth of No Return, a.ra.li, erigal, ganzer, ki, ki.gal, ki.gul, kirs kur, ki.ùrra, kur.nu.gi4.a, urugal, arallûlarati, bit ddumuzi, erset la tari, irkalla, kanisurra, kigattu, lamhu, mita, qabru, saplatu Upper and Lower Land see Land Upper and Lower Mountains see

Mountain Upper and Lower Seas see Sea Upper and Lower Zab see Zab River Ur 307, 355 Ur III 65, 83, 329 Urartian 276 Urartu 21, 25-26, 29, 93, 98, 321 Ur-Nammu 213, 308, 350, 355 Uršanabi 103, 326 Uruk 10, 83, 96, 104-5, 130-31, 144, 193, 230, 283, 320, 335, 353, 360-61; see atso Kullaba/Kullabi Uruna 68-69 Utnapištim 36-37, 96, 103-6, 303, 320, 326, 329, 335; see also Atrahasis, Ziusudra Utu/Shamash 140-44, 214, 231, 251, 259, 267, 352-53; see also Chariot of Utu, Shamash, Sun Utu-Abzu 65 Utuhegal 299 Uzarilulu 70-71, 84 Visible Heavens

see Sky

Watches of the Night 7, 117 Water 117, 127 Water clock 148, 169, 182, 189 Waters of Death 96, 103, 106, 320, 326, 329, 332 Waters of Life 103 Water Table 335-36, 341, 344 Way of the Moon 257

Subject Index Way of the Sun 257 West/Westwind 81, 91, 193-202, 204-5, 230, 249, 257, 298 Wind/Winds 65, 111, 113, 117-18, 193206, 208, 243, 266, 332-33 Four Winds 111, 197, 202, 259; see also IM 4, sir erbetti Lists 197 Seven Winds 205 see atso Circle, East, Four Winds, North, South, West Writing of Heaven 224; see also sitir

samêlburûme Yabdun-Lim 79, 94 Yamm 304 Yarmuti 77 Year 115, 147, 151-52, 155, 162, 194, 206, 258 360-Day Year 152, 174, 181, 184, 190, 195 364-Day Year 185 Astronomieal Year 153, 185, 258 Ideal Astronomical Year 152, 162, 174, 181, 184, 258

381

Leap Year 163-64 Lunar Year 157, 163 Solar Year 153, 163 Stellar Year 153 see also New Year Zabalam 353 Zab River, Upper and Lower 68-69, 8082, 84 Zagros 80-83, 87, 89, 94 Zamua 303 Zaralulu see Uzarilulu Zenith 144-45, 233, 236-38, 252; see atso Horizon-Zenith, an.pa, elat

same Zer/Quliyaš 72-73, 90 Zeus 133 Ziggurat 123-24, 307; see also gigunû Ziusudra 36, 88, 104-6, 328-29; see also Atrapasis, Utnapištim Zodiae 256; see also Microzodiac Zumirini 68-69

382

Indexes

Ancient Texts and Modern Editions 81-7-27, 81 155, 175-77 82-7-14, 4005 146 Aa 140, 160, 229-33, 235-37, 270, 28283, 285-86, 293, 306-7, 310 Commentary to Aa 140 Proto-Aa 229, 240, 306, 310, 316 Abel-Winckler 217, 248 ABL 542 28 657 152 744 166 Abnu-šikinšu 10-11, 14, 102 ACh Adad 17 280, 327 19 280 ACh Ištar 4 253 28 5 29 179 39 175-77; see 81-7-72, 81 ACh Supp. Istar 33 64 ACh Supp. 2 Sin 19 179 ACh Samaš 14 241 ACT 200 257-58 210 185 Adapa 13, 65, 103, 197-99, 201, 249-50, 266 Adapa and Enmerkar 344 ADD 964 13 Address of Marduk to the Demons 18, 225, 229, 280, 290, 292, 314, 356-58 AfO 18 393 see Hilpreeht Text AfO Beih. 22 177 Agum-Kakrime Inscription (5R 33) 108, 226, 263 AKA 90, 228, 239, 263 Al-Rawi, Iraq 47 144, 267, 288, 360 Al-Rawi, Iraq 52 236, 310 Alster, ASJ 8 4 43 Alster, Dumuzi's Dream 283 AMT 32/1 217, 278 88 352 103 208, 214, 219, 241 104 260 An = Anum 109, 225, 306, 339, 343 Angimdimma 6, 32, 35, 108, 247-48 Antagal 153, 231, 233-34, 236-38, 241, 247, 271, 290-91, 294, 313 Antiochus-Soter Inscription 297

Anzu 6, 36, 98 AO 6478 (TCL 6 21) 95, 177, 179, 18188, 191, 258, 264, 267, 334 AO 8196 3-4, 7-15, 59, 90-91, 125, 152, 226, 243-44, 246, 263, 290 ARM 3 61 Ashmolean 1924.798+ 322-23 Assurbanipal's Acrostic Hymn to Marduk and Zarpanitum 120, 227, 254, 257, 286 Assyrian Dream Book 45; see also Oppenheim Dreams Astrolabes 8, 15, 115-16, 128, 147-48, 151-52, 154-66, 169-70, 174-75, 177, 181, 188-90, 206, 252-53, 256-57 Astrolabe B (KAV 218) 115-16, 124, 154-55, 157-63, 169, 176, 181, 188, 254, 258, 293 BM 82923 (C. Walker, MDOG 109) 154-55 Circular Astrolabes 154-56, 158, 165, 206, 256, 264; see also CT 33 1112 LBAT 1499 154-55, 158, 189 LBAT 1500 155 List Astrolabes 154-56, 158-59, 170 Sm. 1125 (CT 26 49) 155 Astronomieal Diaries 90, 199, 266, 305 Astronomical Omens 39, 155, 158, 169, 175, 205, 241, 256, 263, 280, 327 Astronomical Reports 256; see also SAA 8, Thompson Reports Atrahasis 7, 18, 64, 99, 113, 126, 129, 142-43, 145, 224, 273-74, 309, 312, 315, 326-27, 335-36, 339, 345 BA 3 327 BA 5 226, 313, 342 Babyloniaca of Berossus 34, 107, 132-34, 319 Babylonian Map of the World/World Map 20-42, 60, 62, 85, 92-94, 97, 100, 105-6, 118, 131, 141, 182-83, 195, 204, 299-300, 305-6, 320-22, 325-26, 328-29, 332-34 Babylonian Theodicy 16, 282, 285, 354-56

Ancient Texts and Modern Editions BagM. Beih. 2 no. 98 193-207, 298, 32425, 334 Balag 109, 225 Ballad of Early Heroes 43 BAM 127 224 304 13 333 150 338 124 354 211 378 14 508 210-12 543 304 Bauer Asb. 148 Bauer, ZA 43 241 BBR 224, 235, 254 BE 1/1 85 31 1/2 87 262, 297 31 27 249 31 60 210 BE 39099 (Flood) 17-18, 274 (LambertMillard Atra-hasis 116-21) Benito Enki see Enki and Ninmah, Enki and the World Order BHT 124 Bilingual Creation of the World by Marduk 35, 41, 105, 107, 118, 123, 129-32, 302, 319-20, 325, 340, 344 BIN 2 16 214-15 BIN 4 126 224, 291 Bit Meseri 8, 65, 281, 294, 359 Bit Rimki 16, 119, 139, 141, 235, 245, 249, 264, 267, 312, 316, 331 BL 195 247 196 273 Blessing of Nissaba 166-67 215, 316 BM 15285 42 17175+17284 157 17311 210-11 22854 322-23 34035 195 38369+38694 183, 186, 188, 190, 258, 264 40739 322-23 46837 322-23 50958 210-11 54745 316-17 64382+82955 see Sargon Geography 82923 see Astrolabes 92687 see Babylonian Map of the World

383

123340 (Ivory Prism) 191 BMS 53 359 Böhl Collection 1821 42 Bollenrucher Nergal 18, 286 Borger, BiOr 30 148-49 Borger Esarh. 18, 79, 164, 227, 253-54, 275, 300, 320, 327, 337-38 Borger, Fest. Bohl 149 Borger, JCS 21 16, 139, 235, 312, 316-17 331 Borger, Or 54 249 Borger, ZA 61 225, 275 BPO 2 42 255 BWL 166 198; see also Babylonian Theodicy, Ludlul Bel Nemeqi, Shamash Hymn Canonical Temple List 316 Caplice, Or. 39 251, 312, 338 Castellino, Two Shulgi Hymns 223 Castellino, ZA 53 309 CBS 13972 76 CH 228 Chronicle of Early Kings 77-78, 81, 88, 92, 328 Civil, NABU 1987 236 Civil, Or 54 28 85 Cohen Balag 109, 225 Cohen Canonieal Lamentations 233-34, 332 Cohen Eršemma 7, 240, 248, 266, 283, 300 Corpus Ukg., Urn. see Sollberger Corpus Craig AAT 67 see 81-7-27, 81 Craig ABRT 18; see Underworld Vision Creation of the Piekaxe 134, 136-37, 336 Cros Tello 169 85 Crueiform Monument of Maništušu 292, 297 CT 11 48 289 CT 13 31 see K. 7067 33 see Labbu 34 see DT 41 CT 16 1 295 3 284 10 275 13-14 209, 218-20, 296, 358-59 15 315, 346 17 342 19 228 22 272

384

Indexes

Death of Gilgamesh 352, 361 CT 16 (cont.) Death of Ur-Nammu 213, 238, 273, 283, 43 224 293, 350-51, 355 44 360 Descent of Ištar 18, 36, 288-90, 292, 344, 45 310, 346 349-50, 352-53, 355, 359 CT 17 3 280 Destruction of Lagash 339 13 315 19 224, 243, 251 Dialogue of Pessimism 142 Dietrieh, AOAT 240 141-42 25 295 Diri 269-70, 286, 288-90 34 313 Proto-Diri 269-70, 286, 288, 290 CT 18 9 306 DT 41 146 10 224 Dumuzi and Geštinanna 289, 348 21 203 Dumuzi's Dream 283 29-30 285 Duties and Powers of the Gods (Sumer 4) CT 24 2 109, 225 17, 134, 143-44, 161, 237, 244, 249, CT 25 18 232 259-60,360 47 225 48 315 Ea (lexical series) 140, 231-32, 269, 277, 50 224, 315 282, 286, 289-90, 293, 300, 306, 310, CT 26 32 39 339 41 175-77 Proto-Ea 240, 316 44 175-77 EA 105 292, 303 47 169 49 155 256 93 340 303 CT 28 38 304 355 214 CT 33 9 170, 174 357 see Nergal and Ereškigal 10 (Planisphere = K. 8538) 15, 155, Ebeling, ArOr 21 217, 285 206, 264 11 rev. (Hilprecht Text) see Hilprecht Ebeling Handerhebung 64, 245, 252, 265, 348 Text 11-12 (Circular Astrolabes) 115, 154- Ebeling MVAG 23/1 340 Ebeling, Or 17 420 224 55, 264 Ebeling Parfüm Rez. 224, 227 CT 36 32 297 Ebeling, RA 49 245 34 219, 223, 331 Emar 537 230-32 CT 38 20 223 553 101 CT 39 38 202 CT 41 19 38 567 229, 234, 238, 242 23 166, 253 568 231, 285, 289 CT 44 33 210 576 197 CT 46 43 see the Theogony of Dunnu 652 146 55 177-79, 188, 264, 312, 347 767 43 CT 51 142 210, 215, 218, 220 Emesal Vocabulary 234, 240, 293 Enki and Ninhursag 328 168 269, 277-78, 282, 284-85, 288, Enki and Ninmah 134, 137-39, 142, 272, 290 309, 312-13, 335-37 CT 53 115 168 Enki and the World Order 134, 142-43, CT 58 351, 359 239, 266, 279, 341 Curse of Akkad /Agade 32, 35, 77, 91,139, Enki's Journey 308-9, 336 247, 308, 336 Enmerkhar and Ensuhkesdanna 80, 355 Enmerkhar and the Lord of Aratta 238 Damu in the Underworld 351, 356-57

Ancient Texts and Modern Editions Enuma Anu Enlil 7, 10, 15, 146-47 158, 175, 179, 246, 253-55 Enuma anu ibnu šamê see When Anu Built the Heavens Enuma Elish 6, 10, 15, 19, 33-34, 36, 86, 107-32, 134, 136, 138, 145, 147, 154, 159, 161-62, 165, 224-25, 227, 235, 243-44, 246-47 254, 256, 262-63, 266, 278-79, 282, 286, 309, 318-19, 327 334-36, 346-47 349 Commentaries 129, 177, 224-25, 286 Ergot 150 Eridu Genesis see Sumerian Flood Story Erimhug 126, 197 Erra Epie 10, 17 34, 206, 224, 244-45, 265, 284, 288, 297, 300, 326, 343, 362 Etana Epie 37, 43-66, 185, 224, 227 24546, 250, 252, 264, 296 Exaltation of Ištar 134,144-45,147, 153, 227 237, 251, 255, 267 Fable of the Willow 198 Falkenstein, UVB 15 227 230, 284 Falkenstein, ZA 49 299 ZA 52 342 Farber Ištar und Dumuzi 279, 343, 354, 356 Farber, JNES 49 263, 304 Flood Story see Flood (subject index), Sumerian Flood Story Foxvog, Fest. Hallo 219 Frankena Takultu 32, 205 Fuchs, Die Inschriften Sargon II 104-5, 305 Geller, Iraq 42 288 George, Iraq 48 120, 227, 265, 287 Gilgamesh (Akkadian) 10, 18, 31-33, 36, 38, 59, 96-106, 132, 241, 244-45, 257, 273-74, 278, 284, 287-92, 303, 320, 326, 328-30, 332, 334-35, 341, 345, 349-53, 360 Gilgamesh (Sumerian) 38, 98, 134-39, 352, 361 Gilgamesh and the Cedar Forest 38 Gilgamesh and the Huluppu Tree 134-39, 251, 270, 272-73, 275, 280, 287-88, 335-36, 349-50, 353, 359-60, 362

385

see also Death of Gilgamesh Girra and Elamatum 233 Grayson, AfO 20 305 Grayson Chronicles 77 81, 88, 305, 328 Gray Samaš 264 Great Revolt against Naram-Sin 77-78, 82-83 Hittite 83 Group Vocabularies 269-70, 277-78, 282, 284-85,287-88,290-91 Gudea Cyl. A 94, 124, 167 198, 235, 239, 242, 297 Gudea Cyl. B 239, 263 Gudea Statue B 80 Gurney, AAA 22 251, 272, 289 Gurney, AfO 28 186 Gurney, AnSt 7 330

Halley's Comet 166 hé.daddag.ge an den.lil den.ki dnerigal (Incantation) 208, 212-13, 215-19, 366-67 Herzfeld API 305, 320 Hilprecht Text 177, 179-82, 185 Horowitz, W., JCS 46 92-93 183, 186 HS 245 see Hilprecht Text HS 1897 158-59, 254 HSS 10 1 195 Idu 230 Igituh 270, 277 282 IM 52916 42 Inamgišhuranki 224, 233, 262 Inanna and Enki 273, 287 308-9 Inanna and Sukkaletuda 244, 249 Inanna and the King 332-33 Inanna's Descent 18, 58, 215-16, 270, 273, 275-77 280, 287-88, 344, 35355, 358-59 Ineantation of Eridu 342 Incantation to Utu 167, 275 Iqqur-ipus 162 Commentary 130 ISET H 249 Ivory Prism 191 Izbu-Commentary see Summa-Izbu Izi 137, 203, 229, 231, 244, 299 Proto-izi 234, 236, 238, 270, 277, 293, 302, 306

386

Indexes

Judgment of Enmesarra 6 K. 157 210 K. 250+ 7 175, 230 K. 2035+ 228-31 K. 2054+ 285 K. 2077+ 191 K. 2100 232 K.2542+ 210-11 K. 2830 264 K. 3179+ 271 K. 3274 211 K. 3371 301 K. 3507 205 K. 3597 164 K. 4079a 304 K. 4177+ 287-88 K. 4233+ 306 K. 5201 314 K. 7067 147-48 K. 7856 273 K. 9239+ 210 K. 9794 182; see AO 6478 K. 11191+ 203 K. 11251 169 K. 14943 (+) 83-1-18, 608 155; see atso Circular Astrolabes Kagal 197 Proto-Kagal 241, 302 KAH 337 Kang SACT I 231 KAR 4 134, 136-37, 272, 336 6 see Labbu 20 210 32 237 279 44 314 55 252 98 12 142 358 214 32, 205 233 124 252 149 267 359 302 58 307 3-19, 59, 121, 125, 127 131, 147, 152, 167,208, 226, 243-46, 250, 252, 258, 260, 263, 268, 272, 274, 286, 318-19, 326, 334, 336, 345, 348

360 86 375 233-34,237 Kassite-Akkadian Vocabulary 90, 291 KAV 80+ 322-23 81 197 92 see Sargon Geography 73 + 145 304 218 see Astrolabe B KBo HI 13 83 Kesh Temple Hymn 260, 308 Khorsabad H 225 Kilmer, Studies Oppenheim 42 Kinnier Wilson J., Iraq 24 93 206 Kish I 292-93 Klein, Fest. Arzi 231 Klein Shulgi 337 355 Koeh, AfO 21 17 211 Kramer, Fest. Sjöberg 293 Kraus, AnSt 30 330 KUB 4 47 158, 203, 205, 254-55 Kuhrt and Sherwin White, JHS 111 297 Kurigalzu Statue see Duties and Powers of the Gods (Sumer 4) Kutscher, Oh Angry Sea 331 Labbu 10, 15, 35, 185 Laessoe Bit Rimki 249 Lahar and Ašnan 64, 272, 316 Lamaštu 15, 212-13, 224, 243, 262, 294-95 Lambert, AfO 19 263 Lambert, AfO 23 292, 345 Lambert, AnSt 30 312, 339 Lambert, AS 16 241, 246 Lambert, Fest. Moran 350 Lambert, Fest. Reiner 291 Lambert, Fest. Sjöberg 292 Lambert, Iraq 38 215 Lambert, JAOS 88 225, 275 Lambert, JCS 21 275 Lambert, Kraus AV 198 278 Lambert, RA 53 304 Lambert-Millard Atra -hasis see Atrahasis, BE 39099, Sumerian Flood Story Langdon, Babyl. 7 233 263 Langdon Menologies 55 191 Langdon, RA 12 190 266 Lanu 277

Ancient Texts and Modern Editions Layard ICC 28 LBAT 1499 see Astrolabes 1500 see Astrolabes 1577 306 Leemans, CRAI 2 42 Legend of Sargon see Sargon Birth Legend Leighty Izbu 218 Lipsur 80, 208, 245, 284, 331 Lipšur Livingstone 17-18, 195, 224, 233, 262, 334-35 LKA 16 300 17 292 23 240, 251, 313-14 29 158 62 288-89, 292 70 279 73 17 77 277 90 356, 359 145 260 146 339 154 348 LKU 14 211 33 15 LTBA 2 270, 276, 286, 290, 299 Lu 218,2 Ludlul Bel Nemeqi 265, 288, 294-95, 310, 343-44 Commentary 344 Lugalbanda Epic 38, 98, 308-9, 336 Lugalbanda and Hurumkurru (Lugalbanda I) 134 Lugale 6, 10, 108, 168, 235, 348-49 Machinist TN Epic 206 Malku and Explicit Malku 12, 16, 39, 203, 224-25, 227, 276, 282, 284-86, 296-98, 301, 305-7 310-11, 313, 344 Map of Nippur 27, 195 Map of the World see Babylonian Map of the World Mappa Mundi see Babylonian Map of the World Maqlu 215, 217, 355 Marduk Theology 225 Marriage of Mardu 91 Mayer, Or 47 149 Mayer, Or 59 232, 276, 314, 316

387

MCT 206 MDP 2 340 6 328 18 350, 352 34 206 Meier AfO 14 281 Meissner -Rost Senn. 34 (Ineantation) 208, 210me.šè me.sè b 12, 215-18, 220, 244, 363-65 Michel, E., WO 2 2 Michalowski, JCS 30 80 MKT 2 42 Moon-God and the Demons (= Utukku Lemutu XVI) 6,145, 219, 228, 239, 241 , 157-59; Mul-Apin 8, 115, 148, 163-64, 166, 168-74, 176-77, 181, 185, 188-90, 196, 198-99, 206, 25254, 256 -57, 259 Muššu'u Mussu'u 211 MVAG475 58 Na'aman, BASOR 214 26 100 Nabnitu 10, 139-40, 144, 218, 229, 231, 238, 270, 281, 283, 293, 302, 360 51 Namburbi 166, 210, 223, 2 Nanna-Suen's Journey to Nippur 337 NBC 3830 214 NBC 11108 134, 138-39, 141, 230, 335 Nebuchadnezzar King of Justice 61 Nebuehadnezzarntation) d Plans 61, 195, 201 Nemet-Nejat Nergal and Ereškigal Ereskigal 10, 13, 18, 65-66, 125, 135, 161, 213, 217 244-46, 250, 266-67 278, 280, 288, 290, 316, 346, 349-53,358-59 Neugebauer, JCS 10 132 181 Neugebauer and Saehs, JCS 21 201-2 257-58 Ni. 3200 76 4507 135 Ninurta and the 'Turtle 337 Nougayrol, RA 38 87 66, 267 0.175 288-89 OECT 5 23 204, 261 55 212, 219 OECT 6 74-75 205, 259, 266 OECT1169+70 13 86 168

388

Indexes

OIP 2 34,102, 200, 226-27, 275, 300, 312, 314, 330, 341 OIP 40 275 Oppenheim, AnBi 12 205, 254-55, 259 Oppenheim Dreams 5, 16, 45, 273, 348 Oppenheim, JNES 33 200 151-52, 160 Parpola LAS 154, 164, 166, 253 PBS 1/2 106 285 112 271, 275, 277, 287, 293, 339 113 262 PBS 5 1 328-29; see also Sumerian Flood Story PBS 10/4 8 296-97 Perry Sin 252 Pingree D. and E. Reiner, AfO 25 191, 257-58 Postgate, Sumer 29 301 Praetieal Voeabulary of Assur 197 Prayers to the Gods of the Night 116, 158, 203, 205, 233, 251, 254-55, 259, 266 Prosecky, ArOr 43 342 47 277, 295 Proto-Aa see Aa 1R 30 38 52 124, 312 17 248, 267 67 330 2R 50 see K. 2035+ 3R 26 309 4R 17 248 19 264, 279 4R 30 281-82, 355 34 79 4R2 55 212 58 262 61 13, 252 5R 6 124 16 291 46 124 33 see Agum-Kakrime Inscription Raee 118, 148, 223, 247 Reisman Two Hymns 235, 239, 297, 299, 308, 313, 338 RIM 4 236, 262, 281-82, 288, 293, 303 Romer, Fest. Sjöberg 313

Royal Inscriptions Agum 103, 108, 226, 263 Annubanini 340 Antiochus-Soter 297 Assurbanipal 31-32, 37-38, 90, 12324, 224, 227, 284, 320 Darius 305 Esarhaddon 79, 227, 284, 300, 320, 327,337-38 Hammurabi 87 Nabonidus 30-31, 58, 267 Nabopolassar 63, 144, 226, 287, 360 Naram-Sin 80, 82-83, 328 Nebuchadnezzar H 28, 30-31, 12324, 226-27, 300-301, 305, 312, 320, 330, 338 Neriglessar 237, 330 Rim-Sin 232, 262 Samsuiluna 236 Sargon of Akkad 29, 76-77, 79, 302, 328 Sargon II 26, 29-30, 88, 90, 98, 104-5, 241, 305, 312, 336 Sennacherib 30, 34, 39, 62, 100, 102, 120, 168, 200, 226-27, 286-87, 300, 305, 312, 314, 341 Shalmaneser HI 25-26, 28 Sin-Iddinam 267 Samši-Adad I 94 Samši-Adad V 38 Su Sin 88 Tiglath-Pileser I 228, 239, 263, 29899 Tiglath-Pileser HI 89, 301, 330 Tukulti-Ninurta I 90, 228, 297, 299, 303, 329, 337 Ur-Nammu 302 Urukagina 85 Xerxes 305, 320 Yahdun-Lim 79, 94, 303 RS 11.732 11 SAA 3 226; see also Assurbanipal's

Acrostic Hymn to Marduk and Sarpanitum, Underworld Vision SAA 8 10, 117, 154, 164, 257, 259, 266 Sachs-Hunger Diaries 90, 199, 259, 266, 305 Sagigameš 243, 251, 277, 295

Ancient Texts and Modern Editions Sargon Geography 67-95, 97 105-6, 237, 260, 296, 299, 320-21, 324, 328, 330, 333-34 Sargon Legend 33, 77-78, 89 Sb 232, 290 SBH 18, 64, 109, 211, 216, 225, 230, 238, 240, 272, 300, 312 Scheil, BA 8 351, 356 Scheil, RA 27 33 Scheil TN 337 Sehramm, Or 39 218, 294 Scurloek, JAOS 108 359 Seven Sages 43 Shamash Hymn 17, 40, 118, 263, 273, 279, 297-98, 300-301, 308, 311, 325, 333-34, 340, 343, 352 Shulgi Hymns 223, 231, 337 Silbenalphabet A 136 Silbenvokabular A 136 Sjöberg, JCS 29 262, 346-47 Sjöberg, Mondgott 232, 238-39 Sjöberg, OrSuec 19/20 232, 241, 285, 299, 358 Sjöberg, OrSuee 23/24 308, 313 Sjöberg, ZA 63 262, 281 Sjöberg, ZA 65 209-10, 259 SLTN 61 309, 336 Sm. 162 155, 158; see also Circular Astrolabes Sm. 1125 155 Sm. 1802 210 Sollberger Corpus Ukg. 85, 139-41, 339 Sollberger Corpus Urn. 338 SpTU 1 94 258 97 155 100 257 164 275, 281 SpTU 3 64 275, 280, 359 67 134, 141-42 75 232 83 210 Starr Baru 30 66, 267 STC 1 286, 310-11, 338 STC 2 146 Steible Rim-sin 85, 167, 262-63 Stele of the Vultures 240 Streck Asb. 124, 224, 227, 320 Strong, PSBA 20 227

389

STT 73 254, 355 108 10-11, 14 173 277 198 338 340 186, 188, 190, 258, 264 STVC 36 247 Sumerian Flood Story 36, 88, 104, 106, 143, 218, 328-29 Sumerian King List 43-45, 81, 313 Sumerian Sargon Legend 77 Sumerian Temple Hymns 167; see atso TCS 3

Sar Tamhari Epic 36, 38, 347 S GL I 223 S GL H 242, 361 Su.ila 64, 119, 265, 276, 314 S umma -Alu 10, 38, 202 S umma-Izbu Commentary 218 Sundu danu irhû šamê 150 Surpu 205, 239, 241, 245, 259, 281, 28990, 343, 352, 361 Tadmor Tigl. 330 Takulti-Ninurta Epic 206, 298 Takultu 32 TCL 3 98, 241, 284 TCL 6 13 155 21 see AO 6478 53 250 54 283 TCL 15 242, 275, 282, 309 TCL 16 232 TCS 3 167, 247, 260, 283, 308 Theogony of Dunnu 145-46, 319 Thompson, AAA 20 226, 236 Thompson, Iraq 7 305 Thompson Esarh. 227 Thompson Reports 117, 154, 164, 257; see also SAA 8 Thureau-Dangin, RA 27 14 226 Thureau-Dangin, RA 32 251 TIM 9 63 212-13, 215-16, 219 Tintir 123-24 Tonietti, Or 48 304-5 212 Tukulti-Ninurta Epic 40, 260 TuM NF 3 10 134 Twen ty -One Poultices 312, 339 Two Elegies 353

390

Indexes

134 UET 1 146 87 275/276 82 UET 6 23 351 6 67 306 72 247 101 232 102 262 104 167 106 85 395 350 Ugaritica V 288-89 UGU (Medical Series) 214 Underworld Vision (of an Akkadian Crown Prinee) 18, 227, 273, 284, 330, 337, 348, 350, 356 Urgud 11, 102 Ur-Nammu Clay Cone B 302 Urra = hubullu 12, 23, 130, 153, 203, 208, 265, 276, 284, 322-24, 331 Emar Parallel 101, 322, 324 Ras Shamra 322-24 Uruanna 11,304 Utukku Lemnutu 145, 209-10, 215, -21820, 236, 272, 280, 284, 289, 295-96, 315, 342, 346, 358-59 see also CT 51 142, Moon-God and the Demons UD.GAL.NUN

VAB 3 297, 305 VAB 4 31, 58, 124, 224, 226-27, 300-301, 305, 312, 320, 330, 336 van Dijk, Sumerische Götterlieder 242 van Soldt Solar Omens 233, 263

VAS 1 54 292 1 103 84 10 213 224, 291 12 195 66 24 97 108 24 120 159 VAT 8006 see Sargon Geography Vase Inscription of Lugalzagesi 262, 297 302, 321 Venus Tablet of Ammisaduqa 158 Verse Aecount of Nabonidus 124 Vietory Stele of Naram-Sin 82 Walker, MDOG 109 see Astrolabes Weidner, AfK 2 289 Weidner AfO 13 205 123 Weidner, AfO 17 89 15, 147 Weidner, AfO 18 299 Weidner, AfO 20 118 170, 185 Weidner Chronicle 77 88, 310 Weidner Gestirn-Darstellungen 15, 155 Weidner TN 90, 228, 297-98 Westenholz OSP 80, 235 When Anu Built the Heavens 149-50, 335, 337 Winckler Sarg. 90, 284, 305 World Map see Babylonian Map of the World Worm 150 YOS 10 89 YOS 11 213-15, 290

Zi-formula 208, 217 277 285 see atso zi.an.na hé.pa zi.ki.a hé.pa Zi.pà-formula 271, 273, 338-39, 358-59, 361

Sumerian and Akkadian Terms

391

Sumerian and Akkadian Terms Sumerian Terms a.ab.ba 130-31, 141, 301-4, 341 ab/ab.ba 301-2 abzu 306-10, 315, 317, 337, 342, 346 ag 223 (Heaven) an (Heaven) 223-24, 229, 243, 278, and passim an.7 see Heavens-Seven, an.7-ki.7 an.7-ki.7 208-10, 212-20 an.7-u4.7 210 an.an 219 an.bad.râ 249 an.bar 242 an.bar.BU.a 250 an.dagal 209, 296 andurunna 109, 125, 128, 225 an.gal 275, 280 an.ki passim an.ki.ub.da.limmu.ba 217 an.ki.zà 235 an.pa 144, 233-34, 236-38, 242, 250, 252, 260-91 an.pa an.ka 237 an.pa same 237 see atso Zenith, appi same, elat šame an.šà/an.šà.ga/ša.an.na 143, 233-34, 23839, 242, 247-49, 308 an.sà (Highest Heavens) 244, 247-49; see atso Heaven's Midst an.šar 240, 250; see also Anšar an.ub 259-61 an.ub.da.limmu.ba 298-99 an.ùn.na 143, 244, 249; see also Upper/ Highest Heavens an.ùr 143-44, 233-35, 237-38, 241-42, 250, 252, 260-61, 299 see atso Horizon, ur.an.na , isid same an.ür-an.pa 144 an.zà 233-36, 238, 242, 299, 308, 313; see

bad.râ 137 bâra 48, 309; see also Heaven-Dais bur/bùr/bùru 138-39, 232, 285, 288, 307 (Earth) 285 (Heaven) 232 dal = naprušu 211 ddim.me 209, 212-13; see also lamastu du6.kù 130, 307, 315-16; see also Duku dub.mul.an 166-68, 263 dur 256 (astronomieal) dur.an.ki 41 (Nippur); see also markas same u erseti

engur 138-39, 306, 308-10, 312, 315, 335-36,338-39,346 g'seren see Cedar, Cedar Forest, Mountain erigal 269, 286, 288, 291, 293, 351; see also urugal gaba.kur.ra 281 GAN 240 268-71, 286-88, 290, 342, 358-59 GAR = ninda = nindanu see ninda girra (Heaven) 233 giš (Heaven) 229-30, 240 giš.bé/giš.hé (supuk šame) 232-34, 23840, 260 ganzer/ganzer

hala (astronomical) 256 bal.an.kù 307, 316; see atso hallanku be/hé/hé.an.na 214, 239-41; see also supuk šamê

bilib/halib 269-70, 286, 288 hur.sag 361 Nur.sag.an.ki.bi .da 272

atso pat same

zà.an.ki 236 zà.an.na 331 zà.ki 331 an.za.gin 167-68 anzanunzu 312 arali 268, 270-71, 282-84, 353

idim (Heaven) 229, 231 idim (Earth) 268, 289 id- kur -ra 70-71 Id- kur-rake 70-71 gisig.kur.ra 287 igi-gâl.bi 180; see also Reciproeal

Indexes

392 igi.kalam.ma 321 1GI.KUR 269-70, 287-88 ersetu 269-70, 288 irkalla 288 11 (Heaven) 228 IMittanu/istanu 197; see atso North im /IMxIM (Heaven) 229-30 IM 4 202; see also Four Winds kâ.gal.kur.ra 287 kalam 136, 209, 295-96, 321 see atso matu

ki 268, 272, 295, 349 and passim ki.7 see Seven Earths, an.7-ki.7 ki.dagal 278, 280, 361 ki.gal 271-72, 274-76, 280, 361 irat kigalli 275 kigallu-tamatu 275 kippest kigalli 275, 361 ki.gul 275 ki.ki 219 KLK1 289-90 g'skin = kiskannu 342 kir5 269, 281, 288-89 ki.šar 240 kiši 269, 289 ki.tûm 91 ki.ub 260 ki.ùr.ra 276 kukku 269, 281, 289-90, 352; see also kukkû

kun.sag 115, 144, 360 kur (Earth/Underworld) 135, 138, 144, 213, 217, 269-73, 280-81, 285, 296, 349-52, 355-56, 358-60 kur (Land) 313-14, 322-23; see also matu

gaba.kur.ra = irat ersetim 281 tuš.kurra 275 kur.bad 284-85 kur.dagal 278, 280, 361 kur.gal (mountain) 315-16 kur.gal (underworld) 280-81, 361 kur.gi (= ersetum) 269, 278 kur.idim 285, 315 kur.kur 130, 138, 167, 235, 260, 272, 29697, 321, 323, 331 kurkur = dadmû 300 kurkur = matatu 130, 323

see also Land/Lands, matatu kur.nu.gi/gi 4 269, 271, 276-78, 354 kur.nu.gi/gi 4.a 217, 269-70, 276-78, 336, 343, 355-57 kur.nu.gi.gi/gi 4.gi4 271, 276-78 see also Earth of No Return, kurnugû IMkurra 196-97; see also East kur.sù.da = ersetu rûqtu 282 kur ši.rum/šir.rum 323-24 kur.ti.ta 316 kur.ug5.na = erset mttûti 281 kur 6.sa11a/IZ.sal.na 323-24; see also gaba.kur.ra, 5' 1ig.kur.ra, kâ.gal.kur.ra, tuš.kur.ra, ersetu

lalgar 307, 313-14 lam/lamma 269, 290; see also HeavenEarth lamhu 269, 290 1i1 260 1û.ù1u = tuttû 22, 278 ma.da 296-97, 322 ma.da.ma.da 297 IMmar.dù 196-97; see also West me 232, 273, 346-47 me (Heaven) 229-30; see atso HeavenEarth me.lâm 247, 290 ME.LIM 178-79 IMmir 196, 198; see also North mu (Heaven) 229-30, 240 mul.an/mul.an.na/mul.âg.gâ 223, 243 nab (Sea) 302 nam.lu.ùlu 16 ninda 180 sag.kul 264 si (Heaven) 229-30; 238 si.an.ta = elâtu 230 si.un.na = etat same 230, 237 g'ssi.gar 143, 248, 267; 287; see atso Bolts,

sigaru 'LLsi.gar 287 IMsi.sâ 196-97; see also North si.si.ig 203, 360 sigsig 203 si.ùn.na/an.si.ùn.na = elat šamê 230, 238

Sumerian and Akkadian Terms

sud.âga = elmešu 262 sug = apsû 306 sug = tamtu 302 šà.an.na see an.šà segbar 307, 316-17 ši.rum/šir.rum see kur ši.rum/šir.rum temen-si(g) 308-9 téš 138-40, 315 tul = tamtu 302 tuš.kur.ra 275 ub.an 259-60 ub.da.an.ki 260, 298-99 ub.da.limmu.ba 260, 298-99 ubur.an.na see Heaven Teat UDU.IDIM = bibbu 153 1114 (Heaven) 234, 240 ul.hé/ul.hé.a 140, 233-34, 238-41, 25051; see also Firmament, hé, supuk

393

IM Ùlu 196 ùn (Heaven) 230, 232, 238 ur.an.na 235 uraš (Earth) 231, 269 uraš (Heaven) 229, 231, 269 urugal 269-71, 286, 288, 291, 293, 348, 351, 361 ersetu 361 qabru 348-49 Us ina qaqqari 182-86 utah (Heaven) 232, 240

zà see an.zà za (Earth) 269 zi.an.na hé.pà zi.ki.a hé.pà 208-9, 211-12, 214, 217 zikara/zigar/zigarum (Heaven) 229, 231 zikum (Heaven) 229, 231 zikura (Earth) 294

same

Akkadian Terms abamâtu 305-6 amelûtu ametûtu 3-4, 17 ammatu 16, 108, 268, 282, 286 ammu 306 I Mamur šame97 202; see also West andurunna 109, 125, 128, 225 anzanunzû 306-7 310-13, 336, 340 apparu 21, 28, 94; see also Swamp appi same 236 apsasû 22, 35 apsû -17, 339, 342-43,

345-46 an sim Lexical Equivalents 306-7 see also Apsu, abzu, engur, lalgar aralilarallû aralilaratlû 97-98, 268, 270, 282-85, 336 asakku 280, 348 asarru 190-91 asurrakku 178-79, 264, 286, 306-7 31013, 347 ašrata 302, Asrata asrata seeAšrata, asru ašru (Heaven) 129, 224-25, 286

basmu bašmu

22, 35-36, 108

ber qaqqari 190-91 ina same

179,

bibbu 153 bit apsî 307 bit d dumuzi 268, 270, 294 bit ekleti 289, 294 bit ekur 294-95 bit epri 294 beti bit etî 289, 294 bit irkatta irkalla 289 bit mûti 271, 294 bitqu (Channel) 21, 28-29, 85, 94,

322 burû šupuken) 232 burûmitu 168 burûmû 15, 146, 20

27 232,

234, 276 kippat burûmé 206, 260, 264 sitir burûme 15, 224, 226 supuk burûmé 234, 239-40 bûsulbusinnu 12-13

394

Indexes

31, 286, 296-98, 300-301, 310, 320 dalat dadme 300 kur.kur 300 dalam 285 dannatu 3-4, 16, 286, 345 danninu 18, 129, 225, 268-70, 276, 286, 290 duku 314,316 durmâhhu 119-20, 125, 265 dadmû

116, 144, 230, 233-38, 252, 260-61; see atso Zenith, an.pa, si.ùn.na, elâtu, išid samê-elat šamê etâtu 45, 116, 125, 127, 129, 227, 230, 236-37, 244, 251, 339 see also Heaven-Earth, elat samê, si.un na, si.an.ta elatu-šaplâtu 116, 292 elis-šaptis 115, 122, 345 elmesu 3-4, 12-13, 252, 262; see also sud.âga = elmesu engurru 306, 309-10; see also engur erenu see Cedar, Cedar Forest, Mountain ermi danim 224, 227, 287, 300 Canopies 227 ersetu 268-82, 285, 287-90, 292-95, 355-62 and passim Sumerian equivalences 269-73, 342 erset la tari 18, 268-69, 276-77 bab erseti 270, 287 pani erseti 269-70, 287 irat erseti 294, 343 kippat erseti 274, 334 qereb erseti 316 erset dentit 274 erseti mitûti 281 ersetu rabitu 280-81, 356-57, 361 ersetu rapastu 274, 278-80, 356-57, 361 ersetu rûqtu 282 esarra see Ešarra esgalla see Ešgalla ešmahhu 227, 286-87, 310 elat šamê

.

gallû 356-57 ganzer see ganzer gigunû 350 girtablutlû 22, 35-36; see also Scorpion-

Man

hababu 63-64 HAB- rat

5

hallanku 316; see also hal.an.kù handûru 24,39 argullu 327 harrânu (astronomical) 146-47 harran samê 65, 250, 266 harran dsamsi see Path of the Sun see also Path hasmanu 11, 120-21 hastu . 269, 285, 288, 291 iaspû 3-4, 9, 14 IMiltanu/istanu 197; see also North ina pi narati 96, 103-6, 326 irkalla 269-70, 287-90, 293, 348-49 irtu irat apsi 309 irat erseti/erseti rapašti/kigalli 275,

279, 281, 294, 362 see also gaba isid samê 144, 233-37, 249, 252, 260-61, 315-16; see atso Horizon išid šamê-etât šame 144, 330

i'û 30 jam 0 304 jarri marti 305 .

kanisurra 269-70, 287-88, 290; see atso

ganzer kibratu 31, 97, 296, 298-300 kibrat arba'i 204, 296, 298 kibrat erbetti 24-25, 37, 39-40, 298-

99, 325 see also Four Corners, Earth's Surface kigattu 225, 272, 274-76, 300, 361 irat kigatti 275 kigallu-tamatu 275 kippat kigalli 275, 361 kippatu 42, 178, 206, 260, 264, 325 kippat burûmé 206, 226-27, 260,

264 kippat burûmé u matati 226 kippat erbetti 298, 334 kippat erseti 274, 334 kippat kigalti 275, 361 kippat matati 334 kippat samê 178, 206, 260, 264

Sumerian and Akkadian Terms kippat sar erbetti 208, 260, 264, 298,

334 kippat sare 206, 264 kippat tubuqat erbetti 206, 334 kirimahu 40, 102 kisrûtum 91 kissatu 40, 74, 89, 216, 300 ki-ùr-ra 276

kiaru 269-70, 276, 290 269-70, 289-90, 352; see also kukku kunsaggû 115; see also kun.sag kurnugû 225, 269-70, 276-78, 289; see also Earth of No Return, kur.nu.gi/gi 4 kusarikku 22, 35-36, 108 kusu 352 kukkû

395

mélit šamami 288 me marred /tu 70-71, 84; see also Bitter

Waters, Marrud mê mati see Waters of Death mihirtu 123-24 mihrit mê 124 minatu 151-52 miriyaš (Kassite) 291 misratu 114, 165, 256 mitu (Underworld) 291 mugammirtum (Sea) 142, 305-6 muhhu 75 mušhuššu 22, 35-36, 108, 339 nabalu 301 nablptû 233

nagbu 118-19,314-16,337,343 nagû 22-26, 30-33, 35, 37-39, 41-42, 92,

lalgar 313-14; see also lalgar lamaštu 209, 213, 216, 218-19, 295 lammu 269-70, 276, 290 libbi samê 228, 233, 238-39 tultû 22, 278 luludanitu-stone 3-4, 9-10, 263 lumasu 13, 111, 114, 146-47, 257, 286

254, 257 malku-gods 273, 352 manzazu/nanzazu (astronomical) 128, 146-48 markasu 120, 265 markas itani 120 markas lalgar 314 markas šamê u erseti 41 (Nippur); see atso dur,an.ki marratu 22, 25-30, 35, 37, 42, 60, 62, 94, 106, 182, 193-94, 204, 304-5, 32021, 325-26, 329, 332-33 mašqitu (Sea) 305-6 matatu 130-31, 296-97, 299-300, 323, 330, 334 kippat matati 334 see also kur.kur, ma.da.ma .da matitan 297 matu 295-96, 301, 313-14, 322; see atso Land, kalam, ma.da matu saplitu (underworld) 269, 289-90 mê balati see Waters of Life metammu 38, 110, 174, 229, 290, 325 malaku

94, 100, 106, 182-83, 300, 320-21, 325, 328-29 nahbalu 326-27; see also sigaru nahbatu tamti na'ilu 292, 356-57; see atso

Underworld-stream naqbaru 271,291 nindanu 180; see also ninda niphu (astronomical) 151-52 pani same. 241, 246 pat šamê 234-36; see atso an.za

patu 31, 234-36 pirku (astronomieal) 166, 256 qabat šamê 238 qabru 270-71, 291, 293-94, 348-49; see also urugal qaqqar denlil 274, 335

qaqqaru 48-49, 56-57, 120, 142, 185,

269, 276, 278, 291-92, 295, 303 qaqqar d enlil 292 qaqqari ta tari 278 qaqqaru (astronomieal) 49, 166, 170, 182-86, 190-91, 253, 256; see atso Stellar Sectors qaqqiru rabîtu 292 see also Heaven-Earth šamamti-

qaqqaru, US ina qaqqari qarnu 29,123-24 qeberu 91

Indexes

396 qereb same 183, 233-34, 238-39, 24749, 259, 310; see also an.šà qû (astronomical) 256

ratu 105, 132

riksu 256, 265 saggilmud-stone 3-4, 9, 11, 14, 243, 247, 263 saparru 327 serkuppu (Sea) 305-6 sihpu 86 sahip samami 86 sihip same 86, 260, 296 sihip same u erseti 86 sikkur same 300

simmiltu simmelat ganzer 144, 267, 287-88, 360

simmelat šamami 66, 144, 250, 267, 353, 359 serretu (lead-ropes) 119-20, 265 serretu (teats) see Heaven Teat IM Sadû

197; see atso East

samamû 17, 66, 86, 98, 108, 112-14, 116, 120-21, 125, 127, 145, 223-24, 227, 236, 243, 247, 250, 278, 288, 310, 337 meltt samami 267, 288 sama'û 223-24, 228, 246, 348 sammu ša aladi see Plant of Birth samsatu 39 samû 223-42 and passim Canopies 227 Equivalences 228-33 tarbasu 255 see also appi šame, elat same, išid same, harran same, kippat šame, tibbi same, pani šame, pat same, qabal šame, qereb šame, sikkur same, saplan šame, sipik same, sitir šame, šupuk same, utut same samû `Rain' 224, 228 sa muhhi 75 sa-mu-malsa-me-ma 223 samû rabûtu 280 šamû rapsûtu 209, 228, 296 šamû sirûtu 66, 246 ša plan same 234, 236 šaptatu 116, 227, 292-93

šar erbetti 202, 206, 260, 264, 298, 334; see also Four Winds, kippat sar erbetti sêru 39 sigaru 114-15, 267, 326-27 šigaru nahbalu tamti 18, 126, 274, 326-27 see also Heaven-Bolt, si.gar šipku 232, 240 sipik same 232, 240-41; see atso supuk same siqitu = tâmtu 305-6 šisšiktum 193-94, 205 sitir burûmê, šamamé, šame 15, 224 sitqultu (astronomical) 151-52 subat danim 228 subat irkattaI dirkalta 288-89 subat dnudimmud 112, 128 subat samêlsama'i 228 supuk burûmé see burûmû supuk same 97-98, 214, 232-34, 239-41, 260; see also Firmament, hé, ul.hé, šipik same IMSÛtu 197; see atso South talbitu 70-73, 75, 86, 299 talaktu (astronomical) 257 tallu (astronomical) 256 tamartu (astronomical) 151-52 tamtu 301-6 and passim; see also Sea, Tiamat, a.ab.ba, ab /ab.ba, ammu, masqitu, mugammirtum, serkuppu, siqitu tarbasu 63-64, 255 tubuqat arba'i 298-99 tubuqat erbetti 206, 298-99

turru 256, 265 ubsukkinakku 111 ûm bubbulim 162, 256 utul same 251 zagmukku 151-52 zaqiqu 202-3 ziqiqulzaqiqu 3-4, 16-17, 360; see also si.si.ig ziqpu-stars 169, 177, 179, 181-88, 190, 258, 264, 334 circle of 186-88 ziqpu-point, height of 187 zittu (astronomieal) 256

Stars

397

Stars Sumerian and Akkadian Star Names mul ab.sin 171, 176 mul al.1u 5 = alluttu 15, 171, 191; see atso muIalluttu mul alluttu

156; see atso mulal.lu5 181 mulangbû muI an.ta.gub 180-81 mu!anunitu 156, 161, 171, 176-77 mul apin/`nu I g1 apin 116, 156-57, 161-62

mulbibbu gu4.utu 171-72; see atso mulgu 4.utu dbibbu kajamanu; see kajamanu, Mercury mul da.mu 156 muldar.lugal 176 muldili.bad 156-57, 161, 171-72, 175-76 mul dingirtukû 176 mul en.te.na.bar.hum 156-57, 160, 175, 177 eriqqi samêlsamâmi mulé.tùr.ra 255

278

mullugal 156 muI mar.gid.da 15, 156, 175, 177 198-99; see also Ursa Major mul margid.da.an.na 278; see also Ursa

Minor mul mag.tab.ba 156, 175, 177 mut maš.tab.ba.gal.gal 156, 171, 175-77 mul mU.Bukéš.da 160 mul.mul 15, 151-52, 156, 160, 163, 17071, 175-77, 179-81, 198-99 mulmuš 156, 175, 177 mu l neberu

see Neberu, Marduk mutnin.mah 156-57, 160, 175-77 mulniru 160; see also muMU.Bu.kéš.da mul nu.muš.da 156-57 160, 176 mu!NUN.KI 176

mul pa.bil.sag 171, 176 mulpan 156, 160, 175, 177, 180-81; see also The Bow-Star

mulgàm 171 mulgenna; see kajamânu, dbibbu kajamanu mul gis gigir 253 mulgir.tab 156, 171, 180-81, 198-99 mul gu 4.an.na/gu.an.na/gù.an.na 160, 171, 176 mutgu.la 156-57, 160, 171, 176 mulgu 4.utu 171-72; see atso mulbibbu gu4.utu

mulsalbatanu

mu ! l ûhun.gâ 170-71, 174

u sar.ur-ušar.gaz

mul sag.me.gar 159, 166 mulsim.mah 156, 171, 176 mul sipa.zi.en.na 156, 160, 166, 171, 17577, 253 mul sipa.an.na 179-81 mulsuhur.mâš 171, 176, 191 156, 160, 162, 171-72

176 160; see also mul sipa.zi.an.na mul šu.gi 15, 156, 161, 171, 174, 177, 198-99 mulšukûdu 160; see also mulkak.sisâ d šul.pa.è 171-72 mul šul.pa.è 156 dšullat-dhaniš 176 muI šu.pa 156, 176, 180-81 mu l sitadallu

muliku 151-52, 156, 160, 163, 169, 17576; see also mutikû mulikû 160; see atso mnliku midis te 157, 160 mulka 5a 156, 159

kajamanu; see dbibbu kajamanu, Mercury mul kak.si.sâ 156, 160, 174, 176, 188 mul kak.tag.ga 180-81 mu! katitum 156, 160 mul kà-ma-tù 160 mulku g 116, 156, 159-60, 162, 174, 176, 198-99

muIte8mugen 156, 160, 176 mul ud.ka.duh.a 156 mul uga 156 mulu amušen 175-77 mut U-ge-e 176

398

Indexes

mul urbar.ra 6 mulur.gu.la 15, 156, 171, 176 mulur.idim 156, 160 mulùz 15, 156, 176

mu! zappu mu I zibanitu mu I zibbatu

160; see atso mul.mul 156-57, 171, 176 171, 176

English/Classical Star Names Anzu-star 35 Aquarius see mulgu.la Aries see mu! luhun,gâ Arrow see mulkak.si,sâ Auriga see mulgàm Bootes see mul šu.pa Bow-star 124; see atso mulpan Bull of Heaven 160; see also mulgu4.an.na Cancer see mulal.lu5, mulalluttu Capricorn see mulsuhur.mâš Centaurus see mulen.te.na.bar.hum Chariot 253 Corvus see mulugamusen Field see muliku Fish see mulku6 Fox see mulkasa Harness 186 Horse-star 35 Hyades see mulis lê Hydra see mu! rimuš Jupiter 153, 159, 161-62, 166, 169, 17172, 252-53, 257; see also mul sag.me.gar, dšul.pa.è Leo see mulurgu.la Libra see mu! zibanitum Mars 153,161-62,169,171-72,252-53, 257

Mercury 153, 159, 169, 171-72, 252, 257; see also mulbibbu gu4.utu North Star

see Polaris

Orion 164, 166; see also mnlsipa.zi.an.na Perseus see mul su.gi Pisces see mu!anunitu, muIsim.mah Piscis Austrinus 259; see also mulku6 Pleiades 160, 163-64, 177, 259; see atso mul.mul. 'mil/di-ma-tit

Plough see mulapin Polaris 195, 198 Sagittarius see mul pa.bil.sag Saturn 153, 169, 171-72, 252, 257 Seorpio 259; see also mulgir.tab Sirius 263 Tails

see zibbatu

Ursa Major 177, 259; see atso muI mar.gid.da Ursa Minor 177, 278; see also mulmar.gid.da.an.na Venus 153, 156-57, 161-62, 169, 171-72, 175-76, 227, 235-36, 239, 251-54, 257, 259-60, 266, 353 Virgo see muIab.sin Yoke 186

Plates

Plates

401

Plate 1

KAR 307:30-38

402

Plates

Plate 2

71

l/ll l 14

TT^^ , < t`&'i

if

r^

ll1I/ 17/

/

J-

4'