Mesolithic Adaptations on the Lower Danube: Vlasac and the Iron Gates Gorge 9780860544241, 9781407346021

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Figures
Preface
1. Introduction
2. History of Research at Vlsac
3. Excavation Methods
4. Stratigraphy
5. Architectural Remains and Population Size
6. Chronology and Dating
7. Prehistoric Faunal Remains
8. Prehistoric Floral Remains
9. Prehistoric Human Remains
10. Non-Chipped Stone Artifacts: A Synopsis
11. The Chipped Stone Industry
12. The Chipped Stone Industry in Context: Utilization of Chipped Stone at Vlasac
13. Conclusions: Terminology and Perspective
Appendix
Bibliography

Citation preview

Mesolithic Adaptations on the Lower Danube Vlasac and the Iron Gates Gorge

Beth Prinz

BAR International Series 330 1987

B.A.R. 5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

B_,___A_,_R. -S330, 1987: 'Mesolithic Adaptations on the Lower Danube'

©

Beth Prinz, 1987.

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860544241 paperback ISBN 9781407346021 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860544241 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

T ABLE O F C ONTENTS

P age 1 .

I NTRODUCTION

1

P urpose o f R esearch

1

L ocation o f The S ite

2

G eological H istory

4

B edrock G eology a nd L ithic R esources

5

L ocal T opography

5

C limate

7

S oils

7

M odern F lora

8

M odern F auna

8

2 .

H ISTORY O F R ESEARCH A T V LASAC

1 6

3 .

E XCAVATION M ETHODS

1 7

4 .

S TRATIGRAPHY

1 9

5 . ARCHITECTURAL R EMAINS A ND P OPULATION S IZE

6 .

A rchitectural R emains

2 2

P opulation S ize

2 8

I nterpretation

3 0

C HRONOLOGY AND DATING

3 2

T he I ron G ates S ites

3 2

C hronologies B ased o n L ithic A ssemblages C hronological R elations

7 .

8 .

4 3

t o Areas O utside

T he I ron G ates R egion

4 6

P REHISTORIC F AUNAL R EMAINS

5 6

O bservations o n S ample B ias

6 0

Overview a nd C omparisons

6 3

E uropean R ed D eer E conomies?

7 0

P REHISTORIC

F LORAL R EMAINS

O verview a nd C omparisons

9 .

2 2

7 5 7 7

P lants A s F ood

7 7

D iet a nd N utrition

8 1

P REHISTORIC H UMAN R EMAINS E vidence F or P opulation R eplacement L ongevity, F ertility a nd D ifferential B urial S keletal P athologies a nd Nutrition

8 3 8 3 8 4

1 0.

N ON-CHIPPED S TONE A RTIFACTS:

A S YNOPSIS

8 7

B one a nd Antler T ools

1. 1

8 7

G round a nd P ecked S tone T ools

9 5

Objets

9 7

d 'Art

T HE C HIPPED S TONE I NDUSTRY O F V LASAC Nature

o f

D ata S et

1 01

t he D ata 1 :

1 01

T he P rimary D ata S et

1 03

D ESCRIPTION O F A TTRIBUTES

1 03

M ETHODOLOGY O F C LASSIFICATION

1 05

U SE W EAR A NALYSIS

1 06

D ESCRIPTIVE C LASSIFICATION O F A RTIFACTS

11 1

V lasac I V lasac I I

11 1 1 22

V lasac I II

1 36

V lasac I V V lasac 0

1 51 1 54

T he C hipped S tone I ndustry o f D ata S et:

t he P rimary

C omparison a nd S ynthesis

T ECHNOLOGICAL A NALYSIS

1 58 1 60

Explaining A rtifact V ariation

1 60

T echnological A ttributes

1 63

G eneral T echnological C haracteristics o f t he C hipped S tone a t V lasac D ata S et 2 :

S quare 5 23

2 05

D ESCRIPTION O F A TTRIBUTES

2 05

A NALYSIS O F D ATA

2 06

D ata S et 3 :

S ummary D ata S et

2 15

D ESCRIPTION O F A TTRIBUTES

2 15

A NALYSIS O F D ATA

2 15

S ummary a nd I ntegration o f t he 3 D ata S ets: T he C hipped S tone I ndustry a t V lasac 1 2.

1 99

T HE C HIPPED S TONE

I NDUSTRY I N C ONTEXT

22 2 27 2

U tilization o f C hipped S tone a t V lasac

27 2

C hange Through T ime

28 2

11

1 3.

C ONCLUSIONS

2 31

T erminology a nd P erspective T he I ron G ates S ites

2 31 2 34

D irections

2 37

A PPENDIX:

f or F uture R esearch

C ATALOGUE O F A RCHEOLOGICAL S ITES

I N

T HE I RON G ATES G ORGE

2 39

B IBLIOGRAPHY

2 41

111

L IST O F T ABLES P age T able T able T able T able .T able T able T able T able T able

1 . 2. 3 . 4. 5. 6 . 7. 8. 9 .

T able 1 0. T able 1 1. T able 1 2. T able 1 3. 4. T able 1 T able 1 5. 6. T able 1 7. T able 1 8. T able 1 T able

1 9. 0. T able 2 1. T able 2 T able 2 2. T able 2 3. 4. T able 2 5. T able 2 6. T able 2 7. T able 2 8. T able 2 T able 2 9. T able 3 0. 1. T able 3 T able 3 2. 3. T able 3 4. T able 3 5. T able 3 T able 3 6. 7. T able 3 8. T able 3 9. T able 3 0. T able 4 1. T able 4 2. T able 4 4 3 . T able 4 4 . T able 5. T able 4 6. T able 4 7. T able 4

M odern F lora o f

t he I ron G ates G orge

M odern F ish F auna o f t he I ron G ates G orge M odern Amphibians o f t he I ron G ates G orge M odern R eptiles o f t he I ron G ates G orge M odern S maller M ammals o f t he I ron G ates G orge U ncorrected-Conventional D ates f or V lasac U ncorrected D ates f or L epenski V ir

9 1 1 1 3 1 4 1 5 3 3 3 4

C hronology a nd D ating o f t he I ron G ates S ites A ccording t rejovi . o L etica a nd S C, . 1 978 C hronology a nd D ating o f t he I ron G ates S ites A ccording t o B oroneant, ( 1968, 1 973, 1 980)

3 8

C arbon-14 D ates o f B one f rom P adina

4 1

N itrogen-Fluorine D ates f rom V lasac, U ncorrected R evised a nd U pdated C hronology f or t he I ron

4 2

G ates R egion U tilization o f R aw M aterials a t V arious R omanian S ites U tilization o f R aw M aterials a t V lasac

4 4 4 5 4 5

C arbon-14 D ates f or F ranchthi C ave R adiocarbon D ates f rom O dmut C ave, O dmut I

4 9 5 2

O dmut I I

5 2 5 7

R adiocarbon D ates f rom O dmut C ave, P rehistoric F auna f rom V lasac

3 6

H abitats o f V lasac F auna P rehistoric F auna F rom L epenski V ir P rehistoric F auna F rom P adina

5 9 6 4 6 7

C uina T urcului M ammals C uina T urcului P reliminary F ish F auna M ammal S pecies a t I coana N eolithic C uina T urcului M ammals

6 8 6 9 7 1 7 2

F ish F auna f rom O strovul B anului P ollen Analysis, L epenski V ir P ollen A nalysis, Bile H erculane

7 2 7 8 7 9

P ollen A nalysis, G ura C heii B one, A ntler a nd T usk T ools A ntler P oints

7 9 8 8 8 8

( Semi ) cylindrical A rtifacts w ith C utting E dges P erforated Antler A rtifacts F lat B one T ools

8 9 8 9 9 1

P ointed B one A rtifacts W orked B oar T usk G round a nd P ecked S tone T ools

9 2 9 3 9 6

E ngraved T ools V lasac I C hipped S tone C ategories V lasac I A rtifact C ategories a nd P atterns o f U se V lasac I I C hipped S tone C ategories V lasac I I A rtifact C ategories a nd P atterns o f U se V lasac I I I ntensity o f A rtifact U tilization V lasac I II C hipped S tone C ategories V lasac I II A rtifact C ategories a nd P atterns I V lasac II F requency o f R etouch I ntensity o f A rtifact U tilization

i v

9 8 1 20 1 21 1 35 •• 1 37 1 37 1 48

o f U se

▪• 1 49 1 50 1 50

P age T able 4 8. T able 4 9. T able 5 0.

V lasac T V C hipped S tone C ategories

1 55

T echnological A ttributes, P rimary D ata S et O ccurrence o f C ortex o n D ifferent M aterials, P rimary D ata S et

1 64 1 68

T able 5 1. 2. T able 5 T able 5 3. 4. T able 5

O ccurrence o f C ortex i n F inal D ata S et, F lint O nly. U tilization o f R aw M aterials--Primary D ata S et S triking P latform M eans F lake L ength, W idth a nd T hickness M eans

T able 5 5. T able 5 6. 7. T able 5

P latform W idth a nd F lake T hickness P latform L ength v s. P latform W idth R egression L ines f or P latform W idth ( Vertical Axis) b y P latform L ength

1 93 1 94

( Horizontal Axis) M ean V alues f or P latform L ength a nd W idth P latform L ength v s. F lake T hickness S imple C orrelations w ith F lake W idth

1 94 1 94 1 96 1 96

P artial C orrelations w ith F lake W idth S imple C orrelations w ith L ength P artial C orrelations w ith L ength L ength v s. W idth ( Horizontal) T hickness v s. L ength ( Horizontal)

1 96 1 97 1 97 1 98 1 98

T hickness ( Horizontal) v s. W idth C omparison o f M eans D isposition o f S quare 5 23 C hipped S tone S quare 5 23: F requencies o f T echnological A ttributes S quare 5 23: M ean V alues f or C ontinuous V ariables P redicted O ccurrence o f R etouched/Used A rtifacts

1 98 2 00 2 07 2 08 2 13 2 13

D istribution o f R aw M aterials b y L evels a t V lasac B reakdown o f K napping P roducts

2 16 2 17

B reakdown o f K napping P roducts f or D ifferent R aw M aterials T otal C ounts o f C hipped S tone: A ll D ata

2 19

S ets C ombined

23 2

T able 5 8. T able 5 9. T able 6 0. 1. T able 6 2. T able 6 3. T able 6 T able 6 4. T able 6 5. 6. T able 6 T able T able T able T able

6 7. 6 8.

6 9. 7 0. 1. T able 7 T able 7 2. 3. T able 7 4. T able 7 T able 7 5.

1 88 8 7 6 02 2

L IST O F F IGURES

P age F igure

1 .

T he I ron G ates G orge, A rcheological s ites

T ributaries a nd

T opography

3

F igure

2 .

T he I ron G ates G orge,

F igure

3 .

P lan o f E xcavation Units a t V lasac

1 8

F igure

4 .

S tratigraphic P rofile o f V lasac

2 0

F igure

5 .

A rchitectural F eatures,

V lasac I

2 3

F igure

6 .

A rchitectural F eatures,

V lasac I I

2 5

F igure

7 .

A rchitectural F eatures, V lasac I II

F igure

8 .

S haped T ools f rom V lasac I

14 1

F igure

9 .

S haped T ools

1 24

f rom V lasac I I

6

2 6

F igure 1 0.

S haped T ools f rom V lasac I II

1 39

F igure 1 1.

S haped T ools

1 53

F igure 1 2.

U nprovenienced V lasac S haped T ools

1 56

F igure 1 3.

H istograms

o f E dge Angles

1 73

F igure 1 4.

H istograms

o f P latform L ength a nd W idth

1 80

F igure 1 5.

H istograms

o f F lake L ength, W idth a nd T hickness

1 83

F igure 1 6.

S cattergrams

o f P latform W idth b y F lake T hickness....

1 88

F igure 1 7.

D eterminants

o f F lake S ize a nd P roportion

2 02

F igure

T he I ron G ates V iewed a s

1 8.

f rom V lasac I V

v i

t he C enter o f t he W orld

2 36

P REFACE T he

f ollowing

s tudy

i s

a c ontribution

t o

t he

o ngoing e xpansion o f

knowledge a nd r evision o f v iews r egarding t he Mesolithic a nd t he Mesolithic-Neolithic t ransition o n t he E uropean c ontinent . I t p resents y et a nother c ase where h unter-gatherer-fishers were c ertainly n ot l iving i n s mall , h ighly m obile g roups w ith m inimal m aterial g oods, a nd where t he a ppearance o f s heep/goats, c attle a nd

t he N eolithic c omplex o f g rains , d omesticated p igs a nd c eramics a nd p olished s tone d oes n ot

a ppear t o h ave r epresented a n i nvasion o f p eople a nd d isappearance o f t he p receding M esolithic p opulation.

t he

s imultaneous

The s tudy p resented h erein o f u se p atterns a nd manufacturing s tyles o f t he c hipped s tone i ndustry o f V lasac, a s ite w ith 3 Mesolithic a nd 1 Neolithic l evels, s uggests c ultural c ontinuity t hroughout t he o ccupations o f t he s ite. C ritical e xamination o f t he s tone a nd b one t ools, a rt, h uman s keletal r emains, a rchitectural e vidence, f aunal a nd f loral r emains f urther s uggest t hat: 1 .

Continuity i n p opulation and c ulture are i ndicated a t V lasac f or a t ime s pan which i ncludes t he t ransition t o a N eolithic e conomy.

2 .

Sedentis m characterized o ccupation o f V lasac.

3 .

Domestication o f t he d og, a nd i nitial s teps t owards t he d omestication o f p igs a nd s ome c ereals p receded t he a ppearance o f t he N eolithic

t he

c omplex---ceramics, polished d omesticates w ith u ltimate o rigins

Mesolithic

s tone a nd i n t he N ear

E ast. 4 .

P opulation a nd c ultural c ontinuity, s edentism , and i ndependent do mestication in fact c haracterized t he whole c omplex o f Mesolithic s ites

i n

t he I ron G ates G orge ,

a nd

w as

p robably

n ot r are i n M esolithic E urope i n g eneral. The r esearch f or t his v olume was o riginally s upported b y t he F ulbright-Hayes p rogram a nd I REX ( International R esearch Exchange) . F igures 3 -7 a re f rom t he o riginal s ite r eport o n V lasac, a nd a re r eproduced h ere c ourtesy o f t he a uthors a nd e xcavators o f V lasac, D rs. D .

S rejovi

a nd Z . L etica.

v ii

I NTRODUCTION P urpose o f R esearch The i ntroduction o f methods o f f ood p roduction i nto E urope i s g enerally a ccepted t o h ave o riginated f rom what i s n ow T urkey, v ia G reece a nd t he B alkan P eninsula, a nd t hence i nto t he r est o f E urope. T he p rocess b y which E urope was t ransformed f rom a c ontinent i nhabited b y f oragers i nto o ne i nhabited b y f armers i s s till i nadequately u nderstood . T his s tudy i s d irected t o t he f urther e lucidation o f t hat p rocess. When t he f irst f armers m oved i nto t he B alkan P eninsula t here w ere p opulations o f f oragers a lready l iving t here . I n s ome a reas, s uch a s t he I ron Gates G orge, t he f irst a ppearance o f p ottery, g round s tone t ools, a nd d omesticated s heep/goats, c attle a nd p igs o n s ome s ites s eems t o h ave c oincided with t he d isappearance o f e vidence o f t raditional f oragers who l acked p ottery, e tc. B ut what a ctually h appened? D id t he r esident f oragers " evaporate" i n a c ultural/ethnic s ense? Were t hey e radicated a s a p opulation b y t he f armers? D id t hey immediately r ecognize t he s uperiority o f f ood p roduction o ver d ependence o n wild r esources, a nd t ransform t hemselves v irtually " overnight"? D id t hey c oexist a nd b ecome t rading p artners with t he f armers , o nly g radually a dopting f ood p roduction a s t heir f undamental m eans o f s ubsistence? What, i f a nything , d id t he f armers l earn/adopt f rom t he f oragers? How d id t he p rior e xistence o f t he f oragers c ontribute t o t he p rocess o f f ormulation o f t he N eolithic i n E urope? T he t endency , i n m ost s tudies o f E uropean p rehistory , h as b een t o write o ff t he s ignificance o f r esident M esolithic p opulations i n t he d evelopment o f t he E uropean N eolithic . T his d erives f rom t he n otion t hat c ultures b ased o n f ood p roduction a re " higher" o n s ome q ualitative s cale a nd t hat u ltimately, c ulture f lows " downhill" ( i.e. t o t he l ess " sophisticated"). F ood p roduction d oes, e ventually, s upport m uch d enser p opulations t han d oes f oraging , a nd t he f ood s upply i s u sually more d ependable. H owever, d uring t he s pread o f f arming i nto Europe, f ood p roducing t echnology was i n i ts i nfancy , a nd t he s ocial m echanisms f ound i n horticultural s ocieties which a ssure s upply ( e.g., r edistribution s ystems) m ust a lso h ave b een i ncomplete , i f t hey h ad i n f act t aken s hape a t a ll. Under t hese c onditions i t i s l ikely t hat g athering , f ishing a nd h unting were a t l east a s p roductive a nd r eliable a s f arming . I n a ddition, t he Mesolithic p opulations o f E urope were l ongtime i nhabitants w ith a daptations b ased o n a n e xcellent k nowledge o f s easonal r esource a vailability . T he f irst f armers w ere m oving n orth i nto e ssentially unknown h abitats, a nd p rogressively more marginal c limatic c onditions f or

t he p roduction o f t heir n ewly d omesticated

p lants. F or t hese r easons i t s eems u nlikely t hat t he " neolithicization" o f Europe c ould h ave p roceeded a s swiftly a s i t d id without s ome i nvolvement o f p reviously e xisting Mesolithic p opulations i n t he p rocess. C hipped s tone t ools a re t he c entral p rimary, d urable t echnology i n b oth a daptations a nd t hus p resent a n o bvious a rtifact c ategory f or s tudying c ontinuity a nd Formal s tone

t ool

c hange

b etween

t he

t wo p eriods.

t ypes s hould c hange f rom o ne p eriod t o t he o ther,

1

s ince

t he

t echnological n eeds o f e ach a daptation would b e a t l east

p artly d ifferent . T he s ame t echnology--based i n a c ultural t radition-c an h owever p roduce d ifferent t ools t o m eet n ew n eeds. T o a ssess whether t here i s c ontinuity f rom M eso- to N eolithic we must a sk whether t he s tone t ools h ave b een m ade i n t he s ame t echnological s tyle, o r w ith t he s ame r eduction s trategy, n ot whether t hey a re f ormally t he s ame t ools a s t hose o f t he e arlier p eriod. T he f ollowing t echnological a nalysis o f t he c hipped s tone f rom a m ulti-occupation s ite s panning t he p eriod i n q uestion i s a n a ttempt t o l ook a t t he d ata i n t his w ay . T he h ypothesis t o b e t ested i s: t hat t here i s c ultural c ontinuity f rom Mesolithic t o N eolithic i n t he s ite s elected f or s tudy a s r eflected i n t he f laked s tone a ssemblage. I t will t echnological s tyles ( reduction s trategies)

b e a ssumed t hat i f t he a re d ifferent, t here i s n o

c ontinuity . T he r esult o f s uch a n i nquiry w ill b e a n ew b ase o n which t o b egin r eassessing o ur understanding o f t he p rocess o f c ultural c hange. L ocation o f t he S ite T he s ite o f V lasac i s l ocated o n t he Yugoslav , o r s outhern s hore o f t he D anube R iver i n t he western, o r u pstream t hird o f t he 1 45 k ilometer l ong I ron Gates G orge ( Figure 1 ). The e xact l ocation i s 4 4°32 n orth l atitude, 2 2 °3 ' e ast l ongitude . I t a nd a n umber o f o ther s ites were d iscovered a nd s ubsequently e xcavated a s p art o f i ntensive s urvey a nd s alvage p rojects l aunched b y Yugoslavia a nd R omania , e ach o n i ts own s ide o f t he r iver, i n t he 1 960's. These e fforts were i n r esponse t o t he c ooperative d am j ointly u nder c onstruction a t t he e astern e nd o f t he Gorge. The d am was c ompleted i n 1 971, a nd a s a r esult, V lasac a nd m ost o f t he o ther s ites d iscussed i n t his p aper a re n ow u nderwater ( see H ISTORY O F R ESEARCH). B ecause o f t he c onstruction o f t he d am , a nd t he d estruction t o b e c aused b y i ts b ack-up l ake, i ntensive e fforts were made t o s tudy t he f lora, f auna, g eology, h ydrology, e tc., o f t he I ron Gates G orge, a nd m uch

o f

t his

f orm , a nd n umber o f p eriod

i nformation h as

b ecome

a vailable ,

a lbeit

i n

a bbreviated

i s e xtremely u seful t o s tudies o f p rehistory . A v ery l arge s ites f rom t he l ate P leistocene a nd e arly p ost-Pleistocene

( see A ppendix) h ave b een l ocated,

a nd m any h ave b een e xcavated.

T he i nformation available f rom t he e xcavation o f t hese s ites i s p articularly v aluable s ince t he e arly p ost-glacial g atherer-hunters o f t he B alkan P eninsula a re v ery p oorly u nderstood . F ew s ites h ave b een excavated o r e ven l ocated, a nd e ven f ewer t horoughly s tudied a nd p ublished . T his s ituation i s d ue i n l arge p art t o a l ack o f e nthusiasm among a rcheologists f or t he M esolithic p eriod . T he M esolithic l acks o n t he o ne h and t he e legantly r etouched t ools a nd mobiliary a rt o f t he U pper Paleolithic a nd, o n t he o ther h and, t he o ften a esthetically a ppealing c eramics o f t he s ubsequent N eolithic . T he Mesolithic h as i n f act f requently b een v iewed a s a c ultural r egression f rom t he U pper P aleolithic , a t l east b y s ome E uropean s cholars . When o ne s urveys t he e vidence, h owever , i t b ecomes c lear t hat a ny " view" o f t he M esolithic i n t his a rea i s l argely f antasy, b ecause w e h ave a lmost n o d ata o n i t. This understand

l ack t he

o f

d ata

o f

t ransition

c ourse f rom

a lso

f rustrates

Mesolithic

2

t o

a ny

a ttempt

Neolithic.

I t

t o i s

H ,

w 4 ' 0

C , , W.0

,

,, m 4 — i

c v

4 . 1 6 1 (4 ,J

4 . ) ,, , i ,s i w cm o

1 , 1 11 M M O U P . >

,

1 , , >

, X

W W / 4 -1 4, 0 C C

0 , G

W >

>

• c l i w m, , - E E' - 4 1 • . 4 . . ,

0 , l A 0 1 H M

, W 0 11 M

M

r i

, C M

e

w m o

M M O s e

, 1 ( 1 , 1 ,4,,

m 1 >J 2 w , c ol ,L , / M IJ O 01 1 : 1 6 1 0 1 4 ,

X

M Z

/

t r, m m e m m o ii - it . , m»o m >m › . > 4 : 4 : 1 46 1 4 10 )0 )0 ) 4 4 m$ 4,a c c o . w m o.o 4 , ) ,, >T i m41 , w g ‘t ,

, m , 0 0 0 m ww w w w m m u m m o w o . . 1 0. 4 0 0 0 a a > u a a ac , a m . m Oca 0 0

F igure 1 :

T he I ron G ates G orge -T ributaries a nd A rchaeological S ites

3

i mpossible t o t ruly a ssess t he c ontribution o f Mesolithic c ultures t o t he d evelopment o f t he European Neolithic until o ur knowledge o f M esolithic c ultures h as b een g reatly i ncreased . T he I ron G ates G orge o ffers a n i deal p lace i n which t o s tudy Mesolithic a daptations a nd M esolithic-Neolithic d evelopments . I t c onstitutes a r emarkably w elld efined g eographical s pace w ith u nique c limate, f lora, a nd f auna. G eological H istory

c uts

The I ron Gates Gorge i s t hat p art o f t he Danube's c ourse which t hrough t he S outhern C arpathians. I t i s 1 45 k ilometers l ong . T o

u nderstand t he h istory o f t his r egion i t i s n ecessary t o g o b ack t o t he l ate Mesozoic . A t t hat t ime t he i nland T ethys S ea c overed western N orth A frica, t he s outhern h alf o f Europe, a nd western A sia. The e nd o f t he Mesozoic was marked b y a g reat r egression o f t he s eas f rom E urope , b ut without a ny m ajor o rogenies . I n t he C enozoic , t he T ethys S ea was r educed and b roken u p, f irst i n t he Oligocene b y t he d evelopment o f s ome o f t he p rincipal f olds o f t he S outhern A lps , t hen i n t he M iocene b y o rogenic m ovements i n t he A lps a nd C arpathians, a nd f inally b y e peirogenic m ovements i n t he P liocene . T he l ate C enozoic d escendent o f t he T ethys S ea i n E urope was a west t o e ast s tring o f h uge i nland l akes ( called c ollectively t he S armatian S ea) , n amely : T he P annonian Lake, The Dacian B asin, A ralo-Caspian ( Kummel, 1 970).

E uxine

B asin,

B lack S ea a nd

t he

B y t he e nd o f t he M iocene t he S armatian S ea h ad b een c ut o ff f rom t he M editerranean . S outhern G ermany was b eing d rained b y t he D anube i nto t he P annonian B asin . T he l atter i s t hought t o h ave o verflowed t he C arpathians i nto t he D acian B asin, a nd t he p oint i n s pace a nd t ime where t his o verflow b egan m arked t he b eginning o f t he f ormation o f t he I ron Gates Gorge ( Linton a nd Moseley, 1 970, p . 2 5). The p ath o f t his d eveloping water c ourse, i ncluding t he I ron G ates G orge, f ollowed a d epression which i n t he O ligocene a nd e arly M iocene f ormed a s alt water s trait c onnecting t he s ame b asins ( Pannonian a nd D acian , which w as a t t hat t ime s till c onnected t o t he P onto-Caspian B asin). • A l ong p rocess o f r egression a nd u plift l ed t o t he s eparation o f t he Aral S ea f rom t he P onto-Caspian i n t he P liocene a nd i n t he e arly P leistocene t he B lack f rom t he C aspian. A s t he S armatian S ea a nd i ts s uccessors r etreated a nd d ivided , t he f unction o f c ollecting w ater f rom n orth a nd e ast o f t he Alps, a nd f rom s outh , e ast a nd west o f t he C arpathians a nd f rom t he N orthern B alkans 1 967).

was

t aken

o ver

b y

t he

P aleo-Danube .

( Banu ,

A s eries o f e ight t erraces h ave b een i dentified i n t he l ower tself o nly s ix may b e s een . The Danube, a lthough i n t he I ron Gates - i h ighest i ntact t errace , n umber V III, 2 10-250 m eters a bove m odern w ater l evel, h as b een i dentified a s U pper P liocene ( Gr. Posea, e t a l, 1 972). Above t his t errace a re t races o f L ower P liocene ( 260-370 meters) a nd p re-Miocene v alleys ( 400 m eters) ( Bu v iita e t a l , 1 970) . T erraces V II, 2 00-210 m eters, I ron G ates G orge

a nd V I, i tself .

1 50-160 m eters, T errace V ,

4

c annot b e i dentified w ithin t he

9 0-115

m eters,

m arked a p eriod

o f

s trong e rosion i n t he d epth o f

t he r iver b ed ,

d ated t o t he b eginning o f

t he P leistocene , which p roduced t he m odern c ontours a nd p rofile o f t he D anube ( ibid, p .24). L ower t erraces a re n ot d ated, b ut T errace I , 4 -8 meters, may b e d ated a t l east t o t he R iss g laciation o n t he b asis o f t he s tudy o f t he V lasac t errace. f illed i n b y 1 978, p .26).

l oess

d ated

t o

t he

A meander c ut i nto t hat t errace was R iss

g laciation

( Markovi -Marjanovi ,

B ed R ock G eology a nd L ithic R esources The g eological s tructure o f t he C arpathians, l ike t hat o f t he A lps, i s e xtremely c omplex a nd i ncludes t he p resence o f a N appe . T he main s trata a re o riented s outheast-northwest, a nd r epresent t he Q uaternary, T ertiary , C retaceous, J urassic, P ermian a nd C arboniferous. " A w ide r ange o f s edimentary , m etamorphic a nd magmatic r ocks" a re f ound i n t he Gorge ( MutihaC, 1 972, p . 1 46). Exposed b eds i n t he G orge a t water's e dge c onsist o f: g abbros, s erpentines, r hyolite, g ranites, c rystalline s chists, l imestones, m arls a nd l ime m arls, c lay a nd l imy s hales, c onglomerates, s andstones, l imy s andstones, s chists , p orphyry , p yroclastite a nd q uartz-rich p orphyry . ( Cartogram V , p . 2 3, I ron G ates A tlas, 1 972) . I n t he immediate a rea o f V lasac , l imestone c onglomerate , s chist, p orphyry, p redominate.

p yroclastite

a nd q uartz-rich p orphyry e xposures

Q uartz a nd c hert were t he t wo m ain r aw m aterials u tilized i n t he c hipped s tone i ndustry a t V lasac . M ost o f t he q uartz h ad t he c ortex o f s tream r olled p ebbles, and p robably o riginated b y e rosion o f c onglomerate i n t he a rea ( J. Donahue, p .c.) . C herts h ad e ither water worn c ortex o r l imestone m atrix a ttached a nd were d erived f rom l ocal l imestone s trata . A f ew p ieces o f s iltstone , l imestone , s andstone a nd v arious v olcanics, a ll a lso l ocally e vident, were a lso u tilized f or c hipped s tone t ools. A small n umber o f r ocks, c alled " silica r ocks" ( Karamata, G eological Institute, B elgrade, p .c.) were a lso u tilized. T hese were p robably d erived f rom c herty l imestone f rom t he J urassic a nd C retaceous s trata l ocally e xposed, s ome o f which were p artially metamorphosed b y l ocal v olcanism. The o nly s tone u sed a t a ny o f t he s ites d iscussed h ere w hich was n ot o f l ocal o rigin was a f ew p ieces o f o bsidian f rom t he e arly N eolithic l evel a t L epenski V ir l ocated s ome t hree k m t o t he n orthwest, o r u pstream , f rom V lasac. L ocal T opography The t opography i n t he v icinity o f t he s ite o f V lasac i s q uite r ugged ( see F igure 2 ) . I n p laces t he m ountains f orm v ertical c liffs u p f rom t he water, a nd p assage a long t he r iverbank i s i mpossible. T he h ills d irectly b ehind V lasac r ise 3 00-440 meters t o t he r im o f t he G orge . B eyond t he r im l ie s teep h ills 4 00-600 meters h igh. B etween V lasac a nd Lepenski V ir l ies a r iver, t he L epena o r B oljetinska, t he c anyon o f which f orms a n atural p assage o ver t he r im o f t he I ron G ates G orge ( ibid,

p .145).

The Gorge c an b e d ivided i nto t hree d istinct z ones: p roper ,

c overing a bout

t en p ercent

o f

i tself;

a s eries o f e ight t erraces,

5

t he a rea a nd

t he v alley

i ncluding

t he

r iver

c overing 2 5 p ercent o f t he a rea;

F igure 2 :

T he I ron G ates G orge -T opography

6

and the mountain slopes which include a dense system of secondary rivers and valleys running into the Danube (Iancu 1972, p.149). The. density of tributary streams on the Romanian side is greater, exceeding 20 �ermanent streams. Fewer major tributaries (5) are mapped for the Yugoslav side (see Figure 2). Tributaries in this part of the Danube are generally small relative to those outside of the Gorge (Banu 1972, p.157). The altitude of the Carpathian Mountains decreases from north to south where the Danube cuts through them, and the mountains in back of the Romanian banks are more rugged, regularly to 700 and even to 1,000 meters, whereas on the Yugoslav side, an altitude of 700 meters is attained in only one small area. Much of the drai�age of the Yugoslav side is south into the Danube where it meanders back towards the west after leaving the gorge before swinging back east to the Black Sea (Iancu, 1972, p.22). The depth and width of the river channel is extremely variable in the gorge. Where the river cuts thro ugh soft (limestone) rocks it is wide and shallow (widest point 2, 150 meters; shallowest bottom 6.5 meters). Where it cuts through hard rocks (granite and crystalline schists) it is narrow and deep (narrowest point is 150 meters; greatest depth: 70 meters). Where the river is narrow and deep the valley usually has vertical sides, and the speed of the water is greatest (5.7 meters/second in the most dangerous section of the river). (Sencu and Zavoianu, 1972, p.151). Climate The Danube gorge as a whole lies in a region of moderate temperate continental climate. Differences in altitude and position within the gorge interact to produce a series of microclimatic zones with measurable differences: the first zone of the river bank is modified (warmed) by its closeness to the water. Annual mean temperature is ll.6 ° C, whereas the mean annual temperature of the lowest terrace is 11.2 ° C. The medium-high terraces get more sunshine than the low terrace, and mean annual temperature is equal to or greater than 11.7 ° C. The high terraces are more exposed to winds and therefore colder and receive the heaviest rainfall. Within these four microzones frirther differences in sunshine depend on the �ompass direction of slopes (Dumitrescu, 1972, p.153). In addition, narrow sections of the Gorge are colder than wide sections, but have less extreme temperature fluctuation, and more rainfall (Milic et al, 1972, p.173). Th� only month Qf the year which has had an average monthly temperature below freezing since 1896 is January. October through .April a rare frost has been recorded (Brezeanu, 1970, p.33) . Soils Soils in the gorge attest to tqe great diversity of microclimatic conditions and underlying geology. Slightly leached ch�rnozems, brown podsol soils, brown soils, brown acid soils, ferric illuvial podsols, Rendzina, Terra rosa, Erubasemes, alluvial soils and regosoils are some of the dominant types found in this highly varied region (G lavan and Geanana, 1972, p.154) .

7

Soils p odsolized,

i n

t he

b rown ,

immediate b rown a cid,

v icinity

o f

V lasac

c onsist

o f

b rown

r endzina a nd s urface r ocks.

M odern F lora The e ast-west o rientation o f t he G orge h as c aused i t t o b uffer c limate c hanges t aking p lace , a nd d ampen t emperature f luctuations . T he Gorge i s t hus a r efuge a rea f or p lant c ommunities which a re n ow o therwise a bsent l ocally , t hough a nalogous c ommunities d o e xist f urther s outh . T he v ariety o f p lants i s a lso e nhanced b y t he g reat v ariety o f s oils a nd m icroclimates w ithin t he G orge . G reat d ensity o f v egetation i s r elated t o t he m ists a nd g eneral h umidity p roduced b y t he r iver , a s well a s t he r ainfall which r anges f rom a l ow o f 4 0 mm i n J uly t o a h igh o f 1 10 m m i n M ay. The p resent d ay p lant c ommunities i n t he a rea o f L epenski V ir, t hree k ilometers f rom V lasac , a re w ell d escribed ( Mi n e t a l , 1 972) . R elict m ixed o ak f orests s urvive a nd c ontain s pecies e numerated i n T able I . T he s teepest a nd m ost e xposed s lopes a re c overed w ith l ilac ( Syringa v ulgaris), m ixed w ith o ther s crub a nd b ushes. Low

s loping

c haracterized s pecies

m ixed

b y

s helves,

s urviving

i n w ith

c lose

t o

c ommunities

t hese

t wo

t he o f

i nclude :

water

and

s haded,

b eech a nd w alnut. l inden ,

h ornbeam ,

are

S econdary s ycamore

a nd e lm. B etween t he l ower b eech-walnut a nd h igher m ixed o ak s tands i s a s urviving mixed c ommunity o f walnut a nd h ackberry. H ackberry g rows e xtremely v igorously h ere , w ith i ndividual t runks a s l arge a s 8 0 cm i n d iameter , a nd t housands o f s hoots a nd s aplings e verywhere ( Migi e t a l , 1 972). A s n oted a bove, t he modern a typical o f t he s urrounding a rea .

f lora o f t he I ron G ates G orge a re S ome s pecies f ound i n t he G orge a re

t ypical o f a warmer l atitude, g enerally M editerranean i n d istribution , a nd a re a ctually r elics o f a w armer c limatic p eriod i n t he p ast . T hese s pecies

s urvive

i n

t he G orge

b ecause

t he

e ast-west

o rientation

o f

t he

r iver's v alley walls b uffer p revailing winds a nd h old i n warmth a nd h umidity, p roducing a w armer , w etter a nd l ess v ariable c limatic r egime . T he G orge i s a lso c haracterized b y a d iversity o f p lants a typical f or t he s urrounding a rea . T he g reat v ariety o f s oils a nd m icro-climates w ithin t he G orge,

d etailed a bove,

a re l argely r esponsible f or t his.

M odern F auna Though i t i s t raditional i n t he a rchaeological l iterature t o t abulate t he t errestrial v ertebrate f aunas b efore t he f luvial o r m arine e lements, f ish s pecies f ound i n t he I ron G ates r egion o f t he D anube h ave b een more i ntensively s tudied a nd d ocumented, a nd a re o f c onsiderable c ommercial i mportance t oday. The

I ron

Gates

Complex

Atlas

( 1972,

p .

1 79)

r eports

t he

i dentification o f 6 2 f ish s pecies, b ut n ames n one. I n a l ater p ublication ( Banarescu e t a l., 1 978), t he m ost important s pecies a re d iscussed . B efore c onstruction o f t he d am B arbus b arbus ( Barbel) was

8

T ABLE

1

M ODERN F LORA O F T HE I RON G ATES G ORGE

T axon

C ommon N ame

Q uercetum m ixtum

O ak

Q uercus p ubescens A ppenine Q uercus s essilia

O ak S essile O ak T urkey O ak L inden L inden L inden

Q uercus c erris T ilia g randifolia T ilia a rgentea T ilia p arvifolia C arpinus o rientalis C ornus m as. C rataegus n igra C rataegus m onogyna F raxinus o rnus B erberis v ulgaris V igernun l antana C otinus c ozzygria C lematis v italba P runus m ahaleb E unonymus v errucosa A cer m onspessulanum S orbus t orminalis S orbus d omestica P irus c ommunis R osa s pp. F raxinum e xcelsior R uscus a culeatus C eterach o fficinarum E uphorbia c yparissios L ithospermum p urpurescoeruleum D actylis g lomerate H edera h elix T hymus g labrescens G eum u rbanum S edum m aximum V iola s ilvestris F estuca o vinz

H ornbeam C ornelian C herry H awthorn H awthorn M anna a sh B erberis W ayfaring t ree S mokewood T raveler's j oy S t. L ucie C herry S pindle-tree M ontpelier M aple W ild s ervice S ervice W ild p ear R ose C ommon a sh B utcher's b room F inger f ern C ypress s purge P urple g romwell C ock's f oot g rass C ommon i vy T hyme C ommon a vens S tonecrop W ood v iolet S heep's f escue

t he most a bundant f ish, c omprising b etween 1 6.5 a nd 5 8.8% o f t he f ish s tock i n v arious p laces a nd a t v arious s easons . T his f ish o ccurred i n t he-1940's g enerally u p t o f our k ilos, a nd r arely u p.to 1 0 k ilos. r oe a re p oisonous ( Berg, v ol. 2 , 1 964, p . 2 32). T he

f ish

s econd

i n a bundance

was

t he

s terlet,

I ts

A cipenser r uthenus,

c omprising b etween 2 .3 a nd 1 0.7% o f t he f ish s tock ( Banarescu e t a l, 1 978 , 1 75) . T his f ish a verages 6 -6.5 k ilograms, b ut c an " weigh u p t o 1 6 k ilograms ( Berg, v ol. 1 , 1 962, p .67). A bramis b rama ( bream) a nd V imba v imba ( Black S ea v imba) a re a lso d escribed a s r elatively important ( Banarescu , 1 978, p .175) . T he f ormer a verages t hree k ilos a nd i s r arely f ound t o w eigh u p t o s ix k ilos . A t t he p rehistoric s ite o f C uina T urcului D ubova , h owever , b ream r eached a weight o f 1 0-12 k ilos ( Nalbant, 1 970, p . 4 2). T he v imba i s s maller, averaging . 2 — . 4 k ilos, a nd o ccurring u p t o . 8 k ilos. v ol. 2 , p p. 3 22 a nd 3 46).

( Berg,

1 964,

C arp ( Cyprinus c arpio) which i s t he d ominant f ish i n m ost p arts o f t he Danube, i s i n t his part only . 1 t o 8 .8% o f t he f ish s tock ( Banarescu, 1 978, p .175). I n t he 1 940's C arp were s till f ound u p t o a nd over 1 6 k ilos ( Berg, v ol. 2 ,

1 964,

p .391).

O ther i mportant f ish r eported b y B anarescu f or t he p re—dammed I ron G ates R egion a re l isted i n T able 2 . B anarescu e t a l t hus d iscuss a t otal o f 2 7 o f t he p reviously r eported 6 2 f ishes i n t he r egion . B erg ( 1965, p p. 2 84-302) l ists a t otal o f 8 3 c ertain a nd 5 s uspected s pecies f or t he D anube a s a w hole, b ased o n d ata f rom t he 1 940's. The h eavy, a nd e ver—increasing i ndustrial—commercial u se o f t he D anube, p articularly u pstream, h as u ndoubtedly a ffected t he b iotic c ommunity which i t s upports . B ut t he u se a nd p ollution o f t he D anube i s much l ess i n t he I ron G ates Gorge t han i t i s f urther u pstream. I t i s c ertain t hat t he a verage a nd m aximum weights a ttained b y a ll o f t he l arger s pecies o f f ish h ave b een g reatly r educed i n t he l ast 4 0 y ears. O ther r iverine f auna i nclude 1 4 s pecies o f a mphibians ( see T able 3 ) a nd 1 6 s pecies o f r eptiles ( see T able 4 ) which were i dentified i n t he I ron G ates p rior t o t he c ompletion o f t he d am . The o nly p ublished d ocumentation o f modern l and mammals o f t he I ron Gates G orge d eals o nly with s maller m ammals ( see T able 5 ). Smaller m ammals, s uch a s t he m ice a nd o ther c reatures l isted i n T able 5 , a re l ess l ikely t o b e t otally d isplaced b y e xpansion o f h uman s ettlements t han a re l arge wild a nimals s uch a s b ear, wild p ig, a nd wolf . I n a ddition t o t he d omesticated l arge m ammals ( dog , s heep, g oat, p ig, c ow, h orse, d onkey a nd c at), wild l arge mammals u ndoubtedly d o s till i nhabit t he a rea i n r educed n umbers, b ut h ave n ot b een r eported.

1 0

T ABLE 2 M ODERN F ISH F AUNA O F T HE I RON G ATES G ORGE** -T axon

C ommon N ame

A v. W t./Lgth.

B lue b ream

1 00 g r.

A bramis s apa

W hite-eye b ream

. 8 k g.

B licca b joerkna

S ilver b ream

1 .25 k g.

R utilus r utilus

R oach

2 00 g r.

T ench

1 .2-1.6 k g. r arely t o 7 .5kg

C rucian c arp

t o 4 -5 k g.

P russian c arp

. 5-1.1 k g.

* Abramis b allerus

* Tinca t inca

C arassius c arassius * Carassius a ratus g ibelio * Scardinius e rythro-

R udd

p hthalmus L epomis g ibbosus ( eats e ggs a nd y oung o f o ther f ish)

1 00-400 g . r arely t o 2 k g.

P umpkinseed

I ntroduced f rom N orth America

* Leuciscus i dus

I de

. 8-2.4kg. r arely t o 8 k g.

* Alburnus a lburnus

B leak

l ength t o 1 70 mm.

* Chalcalburnus

D anube s hemaya

2 2-25 c m.

L euciscus c ephalus

C hub

t o 4 k g. r arely t o 8 k g.

* Chondrostoma n asus

. N ase

C halcoides m ento

t o 2 .5 k g.

C ymnocephalus s chraetser

S triped r uff

? t o 2 002 40 m m.

Z ingel.zingel

Z ingel

? t o 4 80 mm .

A spius a spius

.A sp

2 -4 k g. r are

P elecus c ultratus

C hekhon

1 1

t o 1 2 k g.

2 00-500 g . r are t o 3 .5 k g.

T ABLE

2 ( CONT'D)

C ommon N ame

Av. W t./Lgth.

* Siluris g lanis

C atfish

t o 3 00 k g.

* Stizostedion l ucioperca

P ike p erch

T axon

8 -12 k g. r are t o 1 8 k g.

E sox l ucius

P ike

1 6-24 k g. 6 5 k g.

P erca f luviatilis

F reshwater p erch

. 8-1.2 k g. r are t o 4k g.

* = a fter B erg, 1 962 * * =C ommercial, i n 1 940's

1 2

t o

T ABLE 3 M ODERN A MPHIBIANS O F T HE I RON G ATES G ORGE*

T axon

C ommon N ame

S alamandra s .

s alamandra

S potted s alamander

T rituris v . v ulgaris

S mooth n ewt

T rituris c .

C rested n ewt

c ristatus

T rituris c . d obrogicus

N ewt

B ombina b ombina

F ire-bellied t oad

B ombina v . v ariegata

O range-speckled t oad

B ufo b .

b ufo

C ommon t oad

B ufo v .

v iridis

G reen t oad

H yla a .

a rborea

G reen t ree f rog

P elobates f .

f uscus

S padefoot

t oad

P elobates s yriacus b alcanicus

B alkan t oad

R ana r .

M arsh f rog

r idibunda

R ana e sculenta

E dible f rog

R ana d almatina

F rog

*

I ron G ates C omplex A tlas,

p .

6 0;

G raf,

1 968.

T ABLE 4 M ODERN R EPTILES O F T HE I RON G ATES G ORGE*

T axon

C ommon N ame

Emys o rbicularis

P ond t ortoise

T estudo h . h ermanni

T ortoise

A blepharus K itaibelii s tepaneki L acerta a . a gilis

S and

L acerta v .

v iridis

G reen l izard

L acerta t .

t aurica

B ull l izard

L acerta m . m uralis

W all l izard

L acerta v ivipara

C ommon l izard

L acerta p racticola p ontica

L izard

A nguisfragilis c olchicus

S low w orm

N atrix n .

G rass

n atrix

l izard

s nake

N atrix t esselata

T essellated s nake

C oronella a .

S mooth s nake

a ustriaca

E laphe 1 .

l ongissima

A esculapian s nake

V ipera a .

a mmolytes

V iper

V ipera b enus b enus

*I ron G ates C omplex A tlas,

A dder

p .

6 0.

1 4

T ABLE 5 M ODERN S MALLER MAMMALS O F T HE I RON G ATES G ORGE*

T axon

C ommon N ame

T alpa e uropea

c ommon m ole

N eomys a nomalus

s outhern w ater s hrew

S orex a raneus

c ommon s hrew

C rocidura s uareolens

s hrew

S ciurus v ulgaris

r ed s quirrel

C rocidura l eucodon

f ield s hrew

M icromys m inutus

h arvest m ouse

M us m usculus

h ouse m ouse

R attus r attus

b lack r at

A podemus a grarius

s triped m ouse

A podemus m icrops

m ouse

A podemus s ylvaticus

l ong-tailed f ield m ouse

A podemus f lavicollis

y ellow-necked m ouse

C ricetus c ricetus

c ommon h amster

A rvicola t errestris

w ater v ole

M icrotus a rvalis

c ommon v ole

*I ron G ates C omplex A tlas,

1 972,

p .

6 1;

G raf,

1 968.

H ISTORY O F R ESEARCH A T V LASAC In 1 961 t he g overnments o f t he Federated S ocialist R epublics o f Y ugoslavia a nd R omania s igned a j oint a d am a cross

t he Danube R iver

f or

a greement f or t he c onstruction o f t he

p urpose

o f

e lectrical

p ower

g eneration. The d am was t o b e l ocated a t t he d ownstream, o r e astern e nd, o f t he Iron Gates Gorge a nd would c ause a r ise i n water l evel i n t he

g orge

o f

up

t o

1 2

meters.

A s econd

a nticipated

e ffect

o f

t he

r aised water l evel was improved n avigation c onditions i n t he Gorge. T he p re-dam Gorge 's waters were c haracterized b y d angerous c urrents a nd w hirlpools. T he e ventual f looding o f

t he G orge a lso m eant p ermanent a lteration

i n p lant and animal c ommunities d estruction o f h uman s ettlements

b oth o n l and and i n t he water,

o n b oth b anks.

a rcheological s ites h ad n ever b een d one o n e ither b ank, s ites

k nown were a f ew c ave s ites h igh u p o n

t he p rojected water l evel . s alvage a s p ossible

b efore

a nd t he o nly

t he R omanian s ide -a bove

F unds were a llocated b y b oth g overnments

much i nformation o n p lants a nd a nimals,

p rojected f or

c ompletion

o f

t he

d am

and

S ystematic s urveys f or

a nd

i ncluding h umans,

f looding

o f

t he

t o a s

Gorge,

1 971.

The s urvey methods u sed b y a rcheologists o n t he Romanian a nd o n t he

Yugoslav

s hores

a re

n ot

d escribed

c haracterized a s " systematic" ( Nandris,

i n

p rint,

1 972).

e xcept

b y

b eing

On t he Yugoslav s ide

o nly t hree p re-Neolithic s ites, P adina , L epinski V ir , a nd V lasac , were d iscovered, and a ll l ay a t water's e dge. T he excavation o f V lasac, c arried

o ut

B elgrade

under

u nder

P hilosophical

t he

t he

F aculty,

c ontinued f or o ne

a uspices

d irection

U niversity

m ore s eason :

o f

o f

The

Drs. o f

1 971.

Archeological D .

S rejovi6

B elgrade , A fter t he

was

I nstitute

a nd

b egun

Z . i n

c ompletion o f

o f

L etica, 1 970 ,

a nd

t he 1 971

s ummer s eason t he waters b egan t o r ise, a nd t he s ite was s oon c overed . N o a ttempts a t f urther r ecovery f rom t he s ubmerged s ite h ave b een m ade s ince

t hat

t ime.

1 6

E XCAVATION M ETHODS T he s ite o f V lasac i s . 57 ( 65 -

meters

above

l ocated

s ea

l evel)

o n

t he

a t

l owest

a p lace

t errace

where

o f

t hat

t he D anube t errace

i s

c ircumscribed b y s teep s lopes t o a l ength o f 1 00 m eters a nd a w idth o f 4 0 meters. The l ong axis o f t he t errace p arallels t he r iver, which f lows

WNW—ESE

a t

t his

p oint.

The

e xcavation

g rid

o f

t he

s ite

was

a ccordingly l aid o ut WNW—ESE b y S SW—NNE, a nd t he s ite was d ug i n 4x4 m eter s quares. The b rief was

e xcavation

s easons,

a nd

s ubdivided

o f

V lasac

e nded

b y

was

t he

a s alvage

o peration ,

r ising waters

i nto 3 s ectors:

W estern ,

o f

l imited

t he D anube .

C entral,

s ystem

f or

m ay b e

i gnored i n a nalyzing t he s ite .

t he

s quares

F igure

3 s hows

t he

i s

c ontinuous,

l ayout

o f

s o

t hat

i n

e ach

The n umbering

t he 3 s ector s ubdivision

A t otal o f

e xcavated

t wo s ite

a nd E astern ,

o f which a variable n umber o f s quares was e xcavated.

t o

T he

s quares

6 40m

w ith

were e xcavated .

2

1 76

s quare

m eters

f alling i n t he Western s ector, 2 24 i n t he C entral s ector, a nd 2 40 i n t he Eastern s ector. The p rovenience o f V ertical

c ontrol

S TRATIGRAPHY) c ontrol

was

l evels.

T he

t o

b e

r elated

t o

t hickness

s ubdivide

t he o f

l ocating t hese

v ertical

c oncentrations

s ifting was d one. s oil

d istinguished

j udgment

Excavation was

d etailed

s ystematic .

r ecorded b y 4x4 F our

o f

l evels

c ultural

t he

materials v aried

meter s quare.

o ccupations

s ite,

within

a cross

t he

( see

a nd v ertical t hese

n atural

s ite ,

r anging

o f v arying t hickness were

u nits,

more

o r

l ess

f inely,

t he e xcavators.

c arried o ut u sing h and o f

m aterial ,

a nd

s hovels

t rowels i n

i n s quares

l ess

r ich

a reas.

with N o

F eatures were d rawn a nd p hotographed i n s itu, and

p rofiles

S rejovi6 a nd L etica,

o f

d istinct

t hroughout

a nd a rbitrary v ertical l evels

a ccording t o t he

h eavy

a ll f inds was

l ess

c ould

u p t o 2 m eters, u sed

was

were

d rawn

1 978).

1 7

f or

a ll

a reas

o f

t he

s ite

( see

1

6 650

,

6 4 50 .,

6 ,00 —

-6 351 —

•6 1

• b

. 1

—

456 , 24

• ••• •• • •• ••

d eDa n ub e

F igure 3 :

P lan V iew o f E xcavation U nits a t V lasac * F rom S rejoviC a nd L etica, 1 8

1 978,

*

F igure 1

S TRATIGRAPHY _N ine s trata, i ncluding t he b asement r ock, a re d escribed f or t he V lasac t errace, b eginning w ith t he o ldest, n umber 1 . F igure 4 p rovides av ertical p rofile o f t he r elations b etween t hese s trata ( MarkoviC 'M arjanovi , 1 978; S rejovi a nd L etica, 1 978). S tratum I S tratum I c onsists o f s teeply t ilted l imestone b edrock which m akes u p t he B oljetin H ill which l ies d irectly b ehind t he s ite . T his s tratum i s e xposed i n s ome p laces a bove t he s ite, a nd i s t he s ource o f s cree a nd b oulders which o ccur i n l ater s trata . A meander, 2 32 meters a cross, w as c ut i nto t his s tratum b y t he D anube. S tratum I I During t he e arly R iss g laciation t he m eander c ut i nto S tratum I b egan t o f ill w ith s cree a nd l oess a nd f ormed S tratum I I. T his S tratum i s b right y ellow i n c olor. During t he Würm Interstadial, t he water l evel i n t he D anube r ose , a nd t he r iver c ut i nto S tratum I I, f orming a n ew d epression 2 0 m eters d eep a nd o ver 1 00 m eters w ide . What r emains o f S tratum I I v aries i n t hickness m eters l ong b y 1 0 m eters d eep.

f rom

. 5

t o

1 5

meters

a nd

i s

1 00

S tratum I II

with

I n t he e arly Würm t he d epression c ut i nto S tratum I I b egan t o f ill l arge p olygonal b locks o f J urassic l imestone a nd s maller s cree ,

a ll with s harp e dges, i n a matrix o f l oess a nd f ormed S tratum I II. S tratum I II i s m ottled y ellow i n c olor . D uring t he n ext i nterstadial, t he D anube o nce a gain r ose a nd c ut a nother d epression , t his t ime i nto S tratum I II. T his d epression i s a bout 1 00 m eters l ong . What r emains o f S tratum I II v aries i n t hickness l ong b y 2 0 m eters d eep.

f rom

1 -15

m eters

a nd

i s

1 82

m eters

S tratum I V S tratum I V i s t he f irst s tratum c ontaining c ultural r emains,

t hose

a ssigned t o V lasac I a . T rapezoidal h ouse f loors w ith a r ed l imestone p avement, e xcavated f ireplaces, b one a nd s tone a re mixed with s cree. T he s tratum h as t he m ottled y ellow c olor o f t he s cree . S tratum I V i s o nly f ound i n t he l owest d epressions o f t he c ut-out b ase o n which i t l ies. I t i s n ot f ound i n t he m iddle a rea o f t he t errace, a nd o ccurs r arely

i n t he SW p eriphery.

I t v aries

i n t hickness

f rom

. 0

t o

. 70

m eters. ' Stratum V S tratum V c ontains t he c ultural r emains o f Vlasac l b. These i nclude r ed t rapezoidal h ouse f loors, s tone h earths , a nd a g reat a mount o f f ish b one . T hese c ultural r emains a re m ixed w ith s cree a nd h ardened l oess i n a b rown matrix . I t i s f ound i n t he s ame a reas o f t he s ite where S tratum I V i s f ound, a nd v aries i n t hickness f rom . 10 t o 1 .80 m eters.

1 9

4

I N , • _ e #4. 4 r lP ó • 4 . „ . A ee , L >

e

•

44 , ,

. ..

, ,

c :

, , .t ,

, ,

c

: / .

a :7

e 2,,,

p, .

c . c .,: › J , , . ., 2 . ‘ , .

' ' "

F igure 4 :

. 1 .' ' '

'

e

, , :,Z

‘ ,

« ,

.'

7 j e

!

"

" 1 " 1 111

>

11 1 1 1 1 11 1 :

: ;;

2: 2 ,,t, " :: , . ,: '% -:.2( 7)%, ,

. , : j . , -c .. . r: r : . . . . , . scv . . ;, . c . c, . „ . , . . . , %, . . , . . . ,. . . . . ,. . . . . .. . . . . . , .. . , .. .. . . :.. . . . . . . .. .

anub .e

. . . ..* .e 1 2 . 44,1

S tratigraphic P rofile o f V lasac* * F rom M arkovid-Marjanovid , 2 0

1 978,

F igure 3

S tratum V I S tratum V I c ontains t he c ultural r emains o f V lasac I I, which i nclude c ircular s tone r ings ( tent r ings?), h ouses, h earths made o f p laque-like s tones, s tone a nd b one. I t i s a d ark b rown , r ich h umus l ayer f illed with l arge b locks a nd s cree a nd v arying f rom . 10 t o 1 .40 meters i n t hickness. I t i s much more e xtensive t han S trata I V a nd V , o ccupying p art o f t he middle a rea o f t he t errace, a nd more o f t he p eriphery,

a nd i s t he o verall t hickest c ulture-bearing l evel. S tratum V II

S tratum V II o ccurred i n e very s quare which was e xcavated , a nd i s t hus t he m ost e xtensive c ulture-bearing l evel . I t i s t hickest i n t he w estern a nd c entral s ectors. T he c ultural r emains i nclude s tone r ings, h earths made o f c rude b locks, b ones a nd s tones, b elonging t o V lasac I II. This l evel i s a d ark b rown s oil c ontaining o ccasional l arge l imestone b locks . I n s ome p laces i t h as b een d amaged o r d estroyed b y l ater

( Neolithic) i nhabitants .

I t v aries

i n t hickness

f rom . 20

t o

1 .00

m eters. S tratum V III S tratum V III i s a d ark y ellowish l evel with s cattered l enses o f N eolithic a nd l ater c ultures. I t v aries i n t hickness f rom . 15 t o . 80 m eters. S tratum I X S tratum I X i s p ieces o f

s cree.

a d ark

I ts

r ed o r

b rown

t op

s oil

c ontaining

t hickness v aries f rom . 20 t o

2 1

o ccasional

. 30 m eters.

ARCHITECTURAL REMAINS AND POPULATION SIZE Architectural Remains The two main kinds of structural features at Vlasac were hearths and houses. In the first settlement, parts of 7 house floors, 9 hearths with stone walls, two open fireplaces, tw6 storie platforms, and a retaining wall around a central open platform were excavated ( see Figure 5). The first settlement has been sub-divided into 2 phases, to the earlier of which (la) have been assigned 4 houses and 2 hearths. Two of the Vlasac la houses were deeply dug into the terrace and had reportedly straight-sided walls. Both were only partially excavated but one is sufficiently exposed so as to strongly· suggest the trapezoidal shape (expanding toward the entrance, narrowing toward the end dug most deeply into the hillside) characteristic of later Vlasac houses, as well as houses at other settlements in the Iron Gates• Neither house contained a hearth, but less than half of the projected floor space of each was excavated. Both were filled with fish and other bone, and bone, antler, and stone tools in a matrix of red earth. Two other houses in the earliest .stratum were only partially dug into the hill, and had floors leveled with a mixture of crushed limestone, sand and clay. This flooring followed the contours of the house walls, but was inward from the walls by .5 to .6 meters, all the way around. Assuming the floor material indicated the actual living space, except for the stepped platform running the length of the northwest side, the dimensions of house 1 are 2 and 3 meters on the p arallel sides, and 2.7 and 2.56 m .. (;n the converging sides. The dimensions of the outer walls are 2 and 4 meters for the parallel sides, by 3.20 meters each for the converging sides. There are a number of probable postholes (14), all but two outside the limestone pavement, which may have supported a roof structure. There are also some groupings of large rock which might have supported roof beams. The depth to which the walls were cut into the then-existing land surface was .82 m. at the back and .1 m. at the front. In the north corner of the house an ellipsoidal hearth was cut into the raised bank which runs the rest of the length of the long (north- west) wall. The short (rear) wall is cut almost vertically; the long south-east wall is cut away from the house, making an ��gle of about 120 ° with the floor of the house. On this bas�s, the larger dimension of the house, measured to the walls cut into the hillside, should probably be taken as the living area. House 2 was larger, having parallel sides 4.5 and .8 m. long and converging sides 4.60 and 4.40 m. in length. The roof and wall construction of this house must have differed from House 1 as one of the converging sides was not dug in, but on level ground, and no post holes were reported. Two fireplaces, dug intn the earth and round to oval in plan view, were also associated with the earlier stage of Vlasac I (la). Like the hearths in Houses 1 and 2, both had burials close by . The later stage (Ib) of Vlasac I has houses which �re built on much flatter terrain, as the natural hollows of the terrace had already 22

c ia 02 3I Ii e b 4e V i

e v

4 v

in

I

2

3

. 4

5

6

7 8

1 0 1

b 3

1 3 1 4

b 2

c2

1 5 "

6

me m x

0 24 4 -

1 9

e r0

F igure 5 :

I

1 1

I

P lan o f F eatures A ssociated w ith V lasac I * *F rom S rejoviC a nd L etica, 1 978 2 3

0

5

1 0m

b een f illed b y V lasac I a h ouses. T he e xcavators b elieve t he l b h ouses a re l ater t han I a h ouses b ecause t here i s c ultural d ebris u nder t hem and y et n one o f t hem o verlap I a h ouses, s o i t i s a ssumed t hat t he I a houses were s till s tanding. l b h ouses a lso h ave r ectangular h earths with s tone walls f raming t hem , a nd t he h earths i n t he t wo h ouses w hich a re s ubstantially p reserved ( Houses 3 a nd 4 ) a re i n t he f ront-center o f t he h ouse i nstead o f a gainst o ne l ong wall a s i n I a h ouses. A ll I b h ouses a re o riented t owards t he r iver. T he e stimated d imensions o f House 3 ( which was i ncompletely e xcavated) a re: 4 .8 b y 1 .2 meters f or t he p arallel s ides, b y 4 meters f or t he t wo c onverging s ides. T he e stimates o f H ouse 4 d imensions a re 2 .50 a nd . 70 meters b y 3 .20 a nd 3 .50 meters. House 5 , o f which o nly t he h earth i s c learly p reserved, i s e stimated t o h ave h ad d imensions o f 4 i n . a nd 1 .2 m . f or t he p arallel s ides a nd 4 .05 a nd 5 meters f or t he c onverging s ides. The h earth i n t his h ouse i s wall a round

e llipsoid i n p lan a nd h as

t he t ypical Vlasac I b s tone

i t .

There i s o ne o pen f ireplace, e lliptical i n s hape a nd w ithout a s tone wall a round i t, which i s s tratigraphically p art o f l b . I t i s a lso a ssociated with a g rave. N ine o ther f ireplaces a ttributed t o s tage l b h ad s tone b orders a round t hem a nd were r ectangular o r e llipsoidal . I nasmuch a s t hese h earths a re i dentical t o h earths f ound i n h ouses, t hey a re a ssumed t o r epresent a ll t hat r emains o f h ouses, g iving a t otal o f 4 h ouses f or V lasac I a a nd 1 2 h ouses f or I b. A l imestone b lock wall, e stimated t o h ave b een a bout o ne meter h igh, may h ave s urrounded t he c enter o f t he s ettlement, p roducing a o h ouses w ere f ound b uilt o n t his p latform f lat p latform o f 1 000 m 2 . N d uring a ny was

o f

t he o ccupation p hases,

a lthough v ery

l ittle

o f

t his

a rea

e xcavated .

The s econd o ccupation, V lasac I I, ( see F igure 6 ) i ncluded t en h earth s tructures s imilar t o t he r ectangular h earths o f V lasac I . F our o f t hese were s urrounded b y t races o f d wellings s imilar t o t hose o f V lasac I , while s ix were n ot . T hese h earths r epresent l ess p ermanent s tructures o r d etached f eatures " out i n t he o pen" . T here were a lso e ight s tone g roupings . F our o r p ossibly 5 o f t hese were i nterpreted b y t he e xcavators a s s tone r ings t o s ecure t he e dges o f t ents with a verage d iameters o f 5 m eters . I nside a re s mall r ound a nd r ectangular p latforms o f r ock , i nterpreted a s w ork s paces a nd s leeping p latforms, r espectively . I t s eems u nlikely t hat p eople would c hoose t o s leep o n r ocks. T here a re n o f ireplaces w ithin t hese s tone r ings . T hree o ther s tone g roupings a re s mall c ircular s tone c lusters . ( There were a lso 2 o f t hese i n Vlasac l b which h ave b een i nterpreted a s o utdoor work a reas). V lasac I II

( see F igure 7 ) h ad s even r ectangular s tone-bordered

h earths, t hree o f which were a ssociated w ith t races o f s olid d wellings a s i n V lasac I a nd I I, a nd f our o f which were n ot. Three were a ssociated w ith s tone c oncentrations i nterpreted a s s tone r ings with i nterior r ectangular a nd c ircular s tone p avements i n t he i nterior o f two ( the t hird i s v ery f ragmentary), a s were f ound i n V lasac I I. Two o ther s tone s catters a re p ossibly r elated t o t riangular t ents o r a re o utdoor work a reas, a nd a f inal s tone s catter s uggests a 4 meter s quare t ent o r work a rea. T here a re n o h earths i nside a ny o f t hese s tone

2 4

e

7 4 '

d

2 0

V I

1 4 7,

V I

2

I V I

4

5

6

7 8

1 0 1

9

g e« v

I V

0 4 I

1 2

1 *1

3 1 4 2

8 A

4 -

1

3

N

f P G

1

1 8

6 . 1 r 7 1 4

1 2 .h .10 . -n- I X

m 1

l I

Fi gure

6:

Plan

I( I

I

of

* From

Features Srejovi d

Associated and

2 5

Letica,

with 1978

t5 9 , t,

Vlasac

II*

i o rn

-25 —

x l v

f — E ) 16

3

D I 4 1 , +Ä -lee

1 L

6

5

7

8 ( XV

19

19

1

2

1 3 1 4 1 50

A

9

X V I I . J -

t

I

4

1 3»

I n I. f

I : II

F igure 7 : P lan o f F eatures A ssociated w ith V lasac I II* *F rom S rejoviC a nd L etica, 2 6

1 978

0

5

1 0m t .

p avements.

( SrejoviC a nd L etica,

1 978).

Overview a nd C omparisons A t Lepenski V ir a v ery l arge n umber o f h ouse f loors a nd h earths were p reserved. h ad v ery c lear

P roto-Lepenski V ir i s r epresented b y 8 d wellings which r ectangular s tone-bordered h earths b ut n o e vidence o f

cut-in walls, t ent s tones, post holes o r o ther c onstruction o f t he dwellings. V ery l ittle o f t his excavated.

Lepenski

Vir

I ,

which

has

b een

t races o f s ettlement

subdivided

t he was

into 5

o ccupations, I a-Ie, h ad 8 5 excavated h ouses. Houses were c onstantly b eing r enewed, a nd n ew h ouses b uilt, s ometimes o n t op o f o lder o nes-p roviding i ncludes

t he

2 2

d estruction c ontained

b asis

h ouses o f

s ome

u p

t rapezoidal .

f or

a nd ,

t o

a s ubdivision

o n

e arly

3 0

t he

h ouses

h ouses

H ouse f loors

b asis

o f

b y

i nto

f ive

s tages.

u nexcavated a reas

l ater

P hase

b uilding a ctivity ,

o riginally.

House

I a

a nd p robable

f loor

m ay h ave

s hapes

a re

w ere p oured f rom a h eated m ixture o f c rushed

l imestone, water, s and and g ravel which h ardened when i t c ooled, a nd c overed t he whole f loor a rea a nd h earth . t he 2 c onvergent s ides a nd t he s hort e nd , t hem

t o

f orm

t he

s loping

r oof

w hich

S teeper t renches s urrounded a nd p ost h oles were d ug i nto

b egan a t

o f many h ouses were d ug i nto t he h illside. t he

r iver.

l argest

F loor

( 28

s q.

a rea

v aried

meters)

f rom

h ouse

was

5 .50

g round All b ut

t o

2 8

l ocated

l evel .

s quare

i n

T he

b acks

two h ouses f aced

t he

meters.

middle

T he

o f

t he

s ettlement f acing a c entral s pace f ree o f h ouses, which was l eveled w ith a r etaining w all. Phase Ib i nvolved

t he r enovation o f 4 h ouses,

i ncluding

t he 2 8

s quare m eter o ne , a nd t he c onstruction o f 2 2 n ew h ouses, m ostly o n t op o f o ld o nes a nd t aking a dvantage o f t he f lat f oundation t hey p rovided , s ometimes

i ncreasing t he s ize o f

s eventeen h ouses

r emained i n u se,

t he

f loor-area.

During Phase

a nd t en n ew h ouses were b uilt .

I c,

Among

t hem were t wo n ew h ouses a s l arge a s t he o riginal l arge c entral o ne a nd two " miniature" h ouses with f loor a reas o f 1 .4 a nd 1 .9 s quare meters. These

l atter houses had n o d ebris

s eventeen n ew h ouses houses was r ebuilt.

o n t heir f loors.

During p hase I d

were b uilt, a nd o ne o f t he n ewer ( from I c) l arge The d istribution o f h ouse f loors s uggests a

s plitting o f t he s ettlement, with o ne l arger h ouse i n e ach h alf. D uring t his s tage, h earths b egan t o b e s urrounded, o n o ne o r b oth s ides,

b y

t riangles

o r

A 's,

made

f rom

with t he p oint t oward t he h earth. h ouses

i n s tage I c,

P hase l e s quare

s labs

o f

r ock,

a nd i n a ll I d h ouses.

i ncluded

meters) a s

v ertically s et

This a rrangement was f ound i n t wo

t he c onstruction o f a h uge n ew

well

a s

a n umber

o f

o ther

n ew

c entral h ouse

h ouses

o f

( 36

smaller

p roportions. Phase

I I

was

built

o n

t he

d eposits

o f

Phase

I --and

a ll

c onstruction was n ew. One l arge c entral h ouse a nd f ive smaller o nes h ave b een p reserved , a nd t here a re t races o f 3 8 o ther s tructures which were l argely d estroyed b y t he L epenski V ir t riangles o r A 's a round t he h earths s till o ccur, i s

g one.

2 7

I II o ccupation. The t he l imestone f looring

P hase I II a t L epenski V ir f eatured f ood p roduction a nd r adically a ltered h abitations--vaguely d escribed a s s emi-subterranean o val o r r ound h ouses . I t i s i mpossible t o a ssess t hese d escriptions ( Srejovi , . 1 972 ) T he s ite o f P adina c alled e arly N eolithic t he b asis o f p ottery b elieve Padina B t o b e

i s l ocated o n a l ong n arrow b each . P adina B i s b y t he e xcavator ( JovanoviC , 1 968) , l argely o n f ound o n h ouse f loors. O ther a rcheologists Mesolithic ( Srejovi a nd L etica, p .c.) . H ouse

f loors were l eveled with a y ellow c lay m ixture, r ectangular h earths with v ertical s tone s lab b orders s urrounded b y v ertical s tone s lab t riangles o r A 's, a nd a g reat mass o f f ish b ones c overed t he a reas around most hearths. Where preserved, the ground p lans are t rapezoidal . P adina A , w hich u nderlies B , i s d escribed a s h aving t he s ame a rchitectural c haracter ( Jovanovi , 1 969).

a nd

D escriptions o f a rchitectural r emains o n t he R omanian s ide a re f ew f ar b etween . V eterani T erasa, I coana I a a nd R azvrata I a a re

r eported t o h ave o val f loor p lans w ith c entral p ost h oles a nd c ircular h earths without b orders. S chela C ladovei I , I coana I b, Razvrata I b, a nd O strovul B anului I IIa h ave c ircular o r o val h earths w ith s tone b orders. R azvrata I I, S chela C ladovei I I, O strovul B anului I IIb, O strovu Mare I and I coana I I h ave s quare o r r ectangular h earths with s tone b orders i nside h ouses. P aved f loors o f r ed e arth , s and a nd c lay a re r eported f rom O strovul B anului . T here a re a lso c ircular u nbordered h earths o utside i n t he o pen a t t hese s ites. The v ery l ate s ite o f A libeg a lso h ad a r ectangular r ock-bordered h earth , b ut t he r ocks s how evidence o f s haping a nd t he whole s tructure h as b een p lastered o ver with s ome s ort o f c oating . T hese h earths a re i nside d wellings, a nd o ther s impler h earths a re i n t he o pen . A t O strovu Mare t he u pper l evel,

which i s d escribed a s h aving " baked c lay" h earths, m ay b e t he

s ame a s t hat d escribed f or C räciunescu, S tinga, 1 979).

Alibeg

( BoronealI,

1 973;

B oronearq,

The t emporal r elation b etween r ound o r o val a nd r ectangular h earths i s well-documented a t V lasac a nd h as b een u sed a s c entral evidence i n e stablishing t he r elative c hronology o f t he I ron Gates s ites. This c hronology i s e vidence a vailable, i t s eems

d iscussed c lear t hat

b elow. On t he b asis o f t he t he w hole s equence o f s ites i n

t he I ron Gates a rchitecturally l ooks l ike t he work o f a s ingle p opulation which c ontinued t hrough s everal t housand y ears t o o ccupy t his

r egion. P opulation S ize S ix h undred a nd

f orty

s quare

m eters

w ere

e xcavated

o n

t he V lasac

T errace, a nd t he e xcavators s tate t hat e ach s ettlement o ccupied a bout 2 ,000 s quare m eters . T he t errace i tself i s d escribed a s m easuring 3 00 b y 2 0 meters, which would p rovide 6 000 s quare m eters o f u tilizable s pace . A ccording t o s everal p ublished g round p lans, h owever , t he w idth o f t he t errace f rom t he r iver 's e dge i s a t l east 4 0 meters i n t he c entral a rea o f t he s ite. N o r eason i s g iven f or a ssuming t hat t he i nhabitants o f V lasac n ever u sed m ore t han o ne t hird o f t heir g ently s loping r iver t errace. I t s hould b e r emembered t hat water l evels a t t he t ime o f t he Vlasac o ccupations were l ower t han a t p resent, which

2 8

w ould h ave w idened t he t errace f urther. I f we t ake 6 000 s quare meters a s a c onservative f igure f or t he l and a vailable f or s ettlement, t hen i t i s p ossible t hat o nly s lightly more t han t en p ercent o f t he s ite h as b een e xcavated, i f e ach h abitation u tilized t he whole t errace . I f we t ake t he e xcavator 's f igure o f 2 000 s quare m eters, t hen t hirty-two p ercent o f t he s ite h as b een e xcavated.

S ince p rovenience was r ecorded i n 4 meter s quares,

r ecorded a rtifact d istributions a re n ot v ery s ensitive t o r elations b etween h ouse f loors a nd a rtifact d ensity . E stimating t he p opulation o f V lasac r eally b ecomes g uesswork when a ll o f t hese v ariables a re a dded t o t he a lready q uestionable m ethods o f e stimating p opulation s ize f rom a rcheological r emains. H assan ( 1981, p .67) h as n oted t hat o ften o bserved i n walled s ettlements .

h igher p opulation d ensities a re A lthough V lasac i s n ot walled ,

i ts l ocation o n a r iver t errace walled i n n aturally b y s teep s lopes would p lace t he s ame c onstraints o n h ouse s pacing, a lthough i n t his c ase t he t errace m ight w ell h ave b een l arge e nough f or t he s ize o f t he g roup s o t hat i t would h ave p osed n o s uch s tricture . We c an make s everal e stimates o f p opulation s ize b ased o n d ifferent e stimates o f t he t otal n umber o f h ouses which were s imultaneously o ccupied. Most o f t he work o n e stimating p opulation s ize f rom h abitation a rea h as b een d one i n t he American S outhwest where t here i s h istoric c ontinuity t o modern p opulations, o r o n o ther p opulations which p racticed f arming a nd a nimal b reeding ( Hill, 1 970; L ongacre, 1 976; H assan, 1 981; P log, 1 975). T hese c ases a re n ot o f o bvious r elevance h ere . O thers h ave a ttempted t o g et m ore g enerally a pplicable e stimates o f h abitation s pace p er p erson b y d eveloping a verages o f w idespread e thnographic s amples ( Naroll, 1 962; Wiessner, 1 974; C ook a nd H eizer 1 965, 1 968; C ook, 1 972). L e B lanc ( 1971) h as s hown t hat t he r elationship b etween f loor a rea a nd f amily units i s a v ery l oose a nd v ariable o ne. In V lasac I a 4 house f loors were e xcavated. The f loor a reas o f Houses 1 a nd 2 were 9 m' a nd 1 0.4m', r espectively. House l a was t oo f ragmentary f or a ny s ize e stimate, a s was House 2 a, a lthough 2 a was e xcavated s ufficiently t o s uggest a h ouse s ubstantially l arger t han er H ouse 2 . F rom t his i t s eems r easonable t o a ccept a f igure o f 1 0m 2 p h ouse f or V lasac I a . V lasac l b c onsisted o f 3 h ouse f loors , h ouse 3 , 4 a nd 5 with f loor a reas o f 1 1.8m 2 , 4 .96m 2 a nd 1 0.4m 2 , r espectively. T here were a lso n ine h earths which t he e xcavators i nterpret a s h aving o nce b een i nside d wellings, f or a t otal o f 1 2 h ouses i n l b . I t d oes n ot c larify t he p recise s ituation t o a verage t he s mall H ouse 4 i n w ith t he o ther t wo . T his w as c learly a d welling f or a s maller f amily o r a n i ndividual,

o n a d ifferent s cale t han t he o thers.

T he h ouses r iver . e ach,

o f V lasac I a

I f V lasac I a

i ndeed

& b a re m ore o r l ess o riented t owards t he c onsisted

o f

o nly

4 h ouses

a veraging

1 0m

2

t hen u sing C ook 's ( 1972) f ormula we would p redict 4 t o 5p eople

p er h ouse, f or a maximum o f a bout 2 0 p eople.

T his s eems a b it small,

b elow t he magic n umber f or s urvival ( Wobst, 1 974), a nd a lso s mall i n c onsideration o f t he v ery r ich r iverine r esources available . V lasac I b , with 1 2 houses, would h ave c ontained 5 0 t o 6 0 p eople. I f t he

2 9

e xcavators

a re

c orrect

t hat

t he h ouses

o f I a w ere s till i n u se w hen I b

h ouses were b uilt, we h ave a s ettlement o f b etween 6 0 a nd 8 0 p eople. l b h ouses were n ever b uilt o verlapping I a h ouses. H owever , t his c ould e asily b e b ecause I a h ouses were i n a s tate o f c ollapse a nd were a bandoned , b ut were n ot y et c onsolidated a dequately e nough t o b e b uilt u pon . I t s eems m ore l ikely t hat a t l east a f ew m ore I a h ouses e xisted a nd t hat I b r epresented a n i mmediately s ubsequent b uilding p hase o f a g rowing s ettlement. I nterpretation V lasac

I I

r epresents

s ome

s ort

o f

s hift,

p ossibly

f rom p ermanent

t o s easonal o ccupation , o r p erhaps a m ore c omplicated c ombination o f s easonal u se s hifts a nd c ultural c hanges. T he 1 0 h earths l ike t hose a ssociated w ith h ouses i n V lasac I c ould b e c onverted i nto a p opulation o f 4 0 t o 5 0 p eople . T his l eaves u naccounted f or t he 5 m . d iameter s tone " tent" r ings, w ith n o e vidence o f f ire t o s upport t heir i dentification a s d wellings. T he e xcavators b elieve t he " tent" r ings i ndicate a s hift t o s easonal u tilization o f t he s ite . H owever , t he n umber o f a rtifacts , s tone a nd b one t ools, e tc . m ore t han d oubles f rom V lasac I t o I I . T he s tone " tent" r ings more l ikely r epresent s ome n ew c onstruction t echnique f or y ear—round h abitations. T he f act t hat t hey l ack f ireplaces i s p roblematic. A s hift f rom n uclear f amily t o e xtended f amily—focused f ood p reparation would n ot e xplain t his c ompletely, s ince f ires would s till b e d esirable f or warmth d uring t he winter. Another p ossibility i s t hat t hose s tone r ings r epresent t he r emains o f s torage f acilities--perhaps s moked f ish s tored a nd c overed c arefully with r ocks t o k eep t he d ogs away. T he r elatively s mall n umber o f h ouses c ould a lso b e d ue t o t he l ocation o f t he b ulk o f t he V lasac I I s ettlement o n p arts o f t he t errace which were n ot e xcavated. I t i s i nteresting t hat t he f loor a rea o f t he 5 meter d iameter s tone " tent" s r ight i n t he m iddle o f t he s ize r ings c omes o ut t o 1 0.71 m 2 which i r ange o f t he t rapezoidal h ouse f loors . I f t hese a re d wellings l ike t he housefloors with h earths, t hen s ome f ifteen " households" a re r epresented w ith a t otal o f 6 0 t o 7 5 i nhabitants. • V lasac I II, l ike Vlasac I I, i s a mixture o f r ectangular s tone b ordered h earths s uggesting h ouses ( there a re 7 ), 3 " tent" r ings, 2 p ossible t riangular t ent b ases a nd a p ossible 4 m eter s quare t ent b ase , a ll without h earths . I f t hese a re a ll h abitations, i t would s uggest a p opulation o f 5 0-60 p eople. • This s light d ecline i s i n l ine w ith t he c reased a mount o f o ccupational d ebris a ssociated w ith V lasac I II. d e-

t he

I t i s n ot p ossible t o b e c onclusive a bout t he s ize o r n ature o f t hree o ccupations a t V lasac. T he l imits o f t he s ite were n ot

d etermined, a nd t he f aunal a nalysis, which d id n ot s eparate t he m aterial i nto t he t hree o ccupational p eriods , a lso d id n ot r eport a ge d istributions o r o ther i nformation which c an t hrow l ight o n t he q uestion o f s easonality. A r eanalysis o f t he f aunal material with t hese q uestions i n m ind would b e e xtremely v aluable . T he m ain r eason f or i nterpreting V lasac I a s a p ermanent s ettlement i s t he s olidity a nd e laborateness

o f

t he h ouses--which

i s

i ndeed

c onvincing .

O n t he

o ther

h and , e qually o r more s olid c onstructions , b uilt e ntirely o f w ood , o r wood a nd s od , c ould l eave n o t race,--though t hey h ad h oused a g rowing , p ermanently r esident p opulation.

3 0

B ased o n t he s heer m ass o f c ultural d ebris, i t i s u nreasonable t o i nterpret V lasac I I a s a t emporary s ite which f it i nto a s easonal r ound -i t was a much m ore i ntensive o ccupation t han V lasac I . T he s tone " tent" r ings p robably d o r epresent a n ew t ype o f h ouse--but a y ear r ound h ouse, n ot a s ummer t ent. I f s o, t hen we h ave e vidence f or a 3 s tage o ccupation which g rew t o ap eak i n Vlasac I I, with p erhaps 1 00 o ccupants ( assuming s ome h ouse r emains e xisted u nder t he 6 7-90% o f t he s ite which was n ot e xcavated) a nd w as s omewhat s maller d uring t he f inal o ccupation. T his i nterpretation i gnores t he q uestion o f c ontinuous, r epeated o r i solated o ccupations ( Hassan , 1 981). I t i s u nlikely t hat s uch s ubstantial s helters would b e b uilt f or r epeated t emporary v isits. F urther , p opulation c oncentrations a re well d ocumented f or c oastal a nd r iverine s ettings ( ibid , 1 80) , a nd h unting g roups i n s uch s ettings i s N orthwest

s edentism f or f ishing-gathering a nd well k nown-as m ost f amously o n t he

C oast-the Kwakiutl , H aida ,

T lingit,

e tc .

A nother p ossibility

i s t hat e ach s tage i n f act i s a n a ccumulation o f a n umber o f smaller and b riefer o ccupations which o ccurred o ver a s hort t ime p eriod . I f t his were t he c ase o ne would e xpect o verlap o f h ousefloors a nd r e-use o f h earth b order s tones t o h ave o ccurred, b ut t here i s n o e vidence o f t his. I nterpretation o f t he s ite a s 3 d istinct a nd d iscrete l arge, p ermanent o ccupations t hus s eems m ost r easonable . E vidence f or y earr ound o ccupation o f Mesolithic s ites i n o ther p arts o f E urope , s uch a s Mount S andel i n N orthern I reland, a nd a t Ertebdlle s ites i n S outhern S candinavia ( Price, 1 983) make t his interpretation s eem more a cceptable . C lasen ( 1980, p .171) h as i ndicated t hat t he f aunal r emains f rom P adina i ndicate y ear-round o ccupation , a nd B olomey a rgues t he s ame i nterpretation f or t he s ite o f I coana ( Bolomey 1 973, p .51). R ecent l iterature

( cf. P rice a nd B rown,

1 985) h as

i ncreasingly a rgued f or

g reater d iversity a nd c omplexity o f h unter-gather i ncluding s edentism , o n a world-wide s cale .

3 1

a daptations,

C HRONOLOGY A ND D ATING T he I ron G ates S ites R elative d ates a nd a n a bsolute t ime f rame f or t he Mesolithic i n Europe a re unevenly d eveloped . Locally, c hronological o rderings o f s ites b ased o n t ype c omparisons o f a rtifacts a re f requently b ounded o r c entered a round a f ew r adio-carbon d ates . F requently s ites h ave b een d ated b y only one o r two s amples, g reatly d iminishing t heir r eliability . I n t his r espect, V lasac i s a n e xception , h aving a s eries o f 1 5 d ates f or l evels I -III o n s tratigraphically s ecure m aterial ( see T able 6 ). C omparison with t he d ates f or L epenski V ir i s i nteresting ( see T able 7 ) . A s t he a uthors p oint o ut, a ll o f t he d ates f or V lasac I a re i nconsistently r ecent; t he V lasac I I s eries a nd t he o ne V lasac I II d ate f orm a c onvincing s eries . A dditionally , t he p roblematic V lasac I d ates, r anging f rom 4 800 t o 5 800 B .C. ( uncorrected) c over t he t ime r ange o f t he Lepenski V ir d ates 4 600-5400 B .C. T he e xcavators h ave s uggested t hat t he l owest l evels a t b oth s ites h ave b een r epeatedly c ontaminated w ith g round water , t hus y ielding m isleadingly r ecent CI' d ates ( Srejovi a nd Letica, 1 978) . On t hat b asis, t he a uthors t hrow o ut

t he V lasac I and a ll

o f

t he L epenski V ir d ates,

a nd a ttempt t o

f inish t he d iscussion o f d ating V lasac b y c omparing a rcheological a ssemblages f rom e arly V lasac w ith o ther d ated m aterial. S tuckenrath ( p .c . , 1 982) a sserts t hat g roundwater c ontamination i s n ot a p ossible e xplanation f or t he u nacceptably r ecent d ates y ielded b y V lasac I a nd b y L epenski V ir . T he m ost r ecent r adiocarbon c alibration . . ( Klein e t a l , 1 982, p . 1 10) r eports t he " .maximum d eviations b etween u ncalibrated c onventional r adiocarbon d ates a nd c alendric d ates o ccur c a 5 200 B .C." . This maximum d eviation o ccurs i n t he m iddle o f t he r ange o f d ates i n q uestion , a nd s uggests t he p ossibility o f a major p hysical e vent t emporarily a ltering t he a mount o f r adioactive c arbon d uring t he t ime s pan . S ince L epenski V ir i s widely b elieved t o c orrespond

t emporally

t o V lasac

I I

a nd I II,

h owever ,

t his

e xplanation

i s a lso i nadequate. I f

t he V lasac I d ates

w ere

c orrect,

t hen t he V lasac I I d ates,

a nd

t he o ne d ate f rom V lasac I II would h ave t o b e i ncorrect , s ince t here i s c lear , u ndisturbed s uper-positioning o f t hese t hree l evels o ver m ost o f t he s ite . T hat would p lace t he whole s equence a t V lasac within t he t ime s pan o f t he N eolithic i n t his a rea . A lthough i t i s n ot d ifficult t o imagine t he p ersistence o f a c ollecting a nd h unting a dapted p eople s urrounded b y f armers ( as f or e xample, t he M buti o f t he I turi F orest) , o ne would e xpect s ome e vidence o f c ontact

t o a ppear a fter a n o ccupation

a nd c o-residence ( at V lasac) o f m ore t han 1 000 y ears . T here i s n o s uch evidence, n ot a s heep b one, n ot a s herd . F urthermore, t he s kimpy r emains o f V lasac I V r est o n t op o f V lasac I II, a nd a re e arly N eolithic ( Star nvo) . Ground-water c ontamination i s n ot t he a nswer, h ut i t i s n evertheless

c lear o n l ogical g rounds

t hat

i t

i s t he V lasac I d ates

w hich m ust b e r ejected. V lasac I a

a nd

b a re

d ated b y S rejovi

a nd Letica ( 1978) o n t he

b asis o f c omparison with d ated R omanian s ites . I coana I a w ith a d ate o f 6 315 ± 1 00 B .C. i s e quated a rcheologically t o Vlasac a , a nd O strovul B anului

I II,

w ith

t wo d ates

3 2

o f

6 090

+ 1 60 B .C .

a nd 5 615

± 1 00

T ABLE 6 U NCORRECTED-CONVENTIONAL D ATES F OR V LASAC

A ge

Q uadrant

V lasac I II

L ab N o.

R esult

A /II

B ln-1954

5 490

± 6 0 B .C.

b /g

B ln-1168

5 525

± 6 0 B .C.

I I

b /18

B ln-1052

5 660

± 6 0 B .C.

I I

b /9

Z -267

5 609

± 9 3 B .C.

I I

c /9

B ln-1169

5 715

± 6 0 B .C.

I I

c /III

B ln-1050

5 985

± 6 0 B .C.

I I

c /III

L j-2047a

5 975

± 7 7 B .C.

V lasac I I

( end)

I I

( beginning)

A /II

L j-2047b

5 980

± 7 7 B .C.

l b

( end)

d /5

B ln-1171

5 880

± 1 00 B .C.

B C/V

B ln-1170

5 890

± 1 00 B .C.

B ln-1053

4 915

± 1 00 B .C.

B ln-1014

4 855

± 1 00 B .C.

B ln-1951

4 955

± 1 00 B .C.

. 4840

+ 1 00 B .C.

l b l b

l b

a /18

C /III

B ln-1051a l b

C /III

Z -262

( Srejovi

&L etica,

3 3

5 050

1 978,

± 9 0 B .C.

p .129).

.

P I

P c 1

P = 1

A c t

0 r 4 ' . 0 . 2-

0 00 / 4 1 . 0 4-

0 N . CO . , 1-

0 N. VO . I.

0 N. CO

t f ) C T \ CO

s e

CD P 1 C T \

s e

C

C D 0 4 -

C C

0 0 r 4

0 0 4 I

C C

+ 1

+ 1

0 CN OD / 4 1 0

V 1 .. . CO V i D

VD

L f 1 N. L t 1

CT 4% . 0 1

r I P C 1

H P I

7 4 1 4

0 0 , 1 + 1

• O Z

L i j

4

1 • 1

P Z I

•

C . )

C C

0 C V CO ' . 0

se L t ) vD 1

ri P Z

•

CZ )

C

H

0 , I 01 r,

0 VD 01 r . . .

cn Ln VD 1

C d 0 4N . 1

C ) . 0 4N. I

r I P I C I

H P I

T 1 P C 1

C

C O

C O

C O

c o

C l )

c o Z (. ) 4

c o Z C . )

C O

c o

C O

C O

C l )

a )

a )

a)

C l ) Z C . ) 4

a)

C . ) 3 1

C . ) 4

C . ) 4 .

0'

0'

0'

0'

0'

/ 4 1 0 -

r -,

/ 4 1 0 / 4 1 0 -

. r•/ 4 1 0 . .

N/ 4 1 0 "• -

a)

C l )

T • • • •

/ 4 1 0 . . / 4 1 0

4/43 House 3

0

-H

c o

•

C O

f4

+ 1

c o

H H

•

( : ) 4

E , i

N.

, . 0

•

C ) 4

CO N. VD 1

0 0 4 1

c o

•

C . ) W

4 4

C

0 0 P 1

, I P C 1

U /4

/ 4 1 0 0

C

C C

r I P : 1

c o

N.

C

C C

r I • P C 3

C l )

N.

Ö

C C

, 4 • P I

c o

/ 4 1 0 . . . . H

C C

L E I

VD 1

C l )

a)

s e

N. . 1 " v Z, 1

C O

a )

. , U .

r s .

C O

C . ) > 4

. C ) . .

Ln

vD 1

C S )

.

L n

C O

L ocation

UNCORRECTED

r x )

L. r 1 L n vD 1

H

H ouse I X

F OR L EPENSKI V IR*

0 VD L . r 1 \ O

.

( 5360 B .C.)

. P i l

.

0 .

( 4950 B .C.)

. U

. P O

. 0

( 4850 B .C.)

. C . )

a )

( . ) t• 1

P 0'

0'

0'

N/ 4 1 0 -

0 3 / 4 1 0 .

CO /0 4 1 .

N. C.)

. 1 .IA

VD C I )

a ) C O Z 0 =

a ) C O

\ I D 4 4

C T %

. 4 4

N . CI

C ) C l ) Z O =

c 1 ) C l ) Z 0 =

C ) c o Z 0 =

1 ) c o

c 1 ) C O

C ) C l )

0 =

0 =

0 =

• H

( i ) H

" c 1 H

H

1 : 1 H

1 . 1 1

a)

•

a)

, i L n

In

•

a )

/ 4 1 0 c • A

e 4

Z P C )

•

/ 4 1 0 . . ". C O

Cn

01 N. cn I

CT

C c ) . 1

0 =

Cn 14

i c h 0 c • 1 .

a .

. C N r s • ( 7 1 r f e T O 4 ) . 1 ) 4 1 C Y i c

B .C.,

i s

e quated

with

Vlasac

l b.

T hese

t hree

d ates

a re

n ot

i nconsistent with t he V lasac I I d ates, e xcept t hat t he y ounger d ate f rom O strovul B anului I II o verlaps V lasac I I b y a s ubstantial m argin ( c. 3 00 y ears). T he o ther l imit o f V lasac, t he e nd o f Vlasac I II a nd t he Mesolithic, i s t aken a s b eing l imited b y t he well-established b eginning o f t he N eolithic i n t he a rea ( Proto-StarC/e vo) a t 5 200-5000 B. C. S rejovi a nd L etica ( 1978) s ee t he o verall c ultural d evelopment i n t he I ron G ates Gorge i n t he c ontext o f European p rehistory i n f ive s tages : 1 ) t he l ate P aleolithic i n t he I ron G ates, e xemplified b y C uina T urcului I , which was t he d irect b ase f rom which t he L epenski V ir c ulture s prang; 2 )a t wo-stage t ransitional p hase, o ccurring i n t he i nitial p ost-pleistocene a nd e xemplified b y C uina Turcului I I i n t he e arlier p hase, a nd V eterani T erasa i n t he s econd p hase ; 3 ) t he L epenski V ir c ulture proper , which c an b e s ubdivided i nto f our p hases o n t he b asis o f t he s tratigraphy o f V lasac; 4 ) s econd t ransitional p hase, s howing e vidence o f c ontact with t he f irst f armers, i llustrated b y A libeg; 5 ) e arly N eolithic o r p roto-StarC 'evo, f ound a t L epenski V ir. F urther d etails o f t his c hronology m ay b e s een i n T able 8 . The

evidence

f or

T able

8 i s

q uite

m ixed--some

o f

i t

s eems

e xtremely r eliable , f or e xample , t he s uper-positi md l ayers a t V lasac , d ates. w hich a re a dditionally s upported b y a s eries o f CI S tages 4 a nd 5 , a t l east i n t heir r elative o rdering , a lso s eem u nequivocal, d istinguished a s t hey a re b y s poradic, a nd t hen c lear e vidence o f a N eolithic e conomy . T he r elative p ositioning o f s ites i n ates f or t his s tage S tage 3 i s l ess o bvious, t here a re v ery f ew C14 d 4 d ates , a nd s everal e xcept f or V lasac I I . Most o f t he s ites h ave n o C1 h ave

o nly

o ne

o r

t wo .

T he

c hronological

o rdering h ere h as

b een b ased

o n c omparisons o f a rcheological m aterials, a s f or e xample i n e quating I coana I a with V lasac I a ( Srejovi6 a nd L etica, 1 978, p .130) . T he s ame method h as y ielded a s lightly d ifferent o rdering f or B oroneant T able

( see

9 b elow) .

• T hough t he b roader o utlines o f t his c hronology a re n ot d isputed , m any d etails a re . P Xunescu ( 1970) i nterprets b oth C uina T urcului I a nd I a s p ost-glacial , whereas S rejovi -Letica a rgue t hat C uina T urcului I I i s aP leistocene s ite. T here i s a s terile l ayer b etween l evels I a nd I which a verages a bout o ne meter i n t hickness ( Pgunescu 1 970, p .5). I P ollen d iagrams f rom t he t wo l evels a re q uite d ifferent a nd a re a menable t o d ifferent i nterpretations ( see P REHISTORIC F LORAL R EMAINS) . T here a re o nly t wo C1 4

d ates

f or t he d isputed l evel :

S tratum I I

P inus s p.

B ln-802 = 8 175 ± 2 00 B .C.

S tratum I S tratum I

P inus s p. P inus s p.

B ln-803 = 1 0650 ± 1 20 B .C. B ln-804 = 1 0100 + 1 20 B .C. ( Päunescu,

F aunal

e vidence

c hanges

f rom

l evel

1 970,

I t o

p .29)

l evel I I

( see PREHISTORIC

FAUNAL R EMAINS); t he s ame s pecies a re p resent, b ut t heir p ercentage i mportance s hifts . F ish s eem t o i ncrease , a s d o i bex , c hamois, wolf , a nd B os

s p.

Swine, b eaver, e lk, marten , a nd b ear d ecrease.

3 5

Only t he

T ABLE 8 C HRONOLOGY A ND D ATING O F T HE I RON G ATES S ITES A CCORDING T O L ETICA A ND S REJOVI6, 1 978

S tage 5

Uncorrected C 14 D ates B .C.

S ites V lasac I V; L epenski V ir I II; C uina T urcului l ila;

5 495

± 1 80

E xternal C hronological C onnections E arly N eolithic i n a rea c . 5 2005 000 B .C.

L jubcova;

G ornea;

S tubica

4

A libeg

3

V lasac I II; L epenski V ir I I;

5 490-5200

C rvena S tijena I V; O dmut l b

5 980-5525

F ranchthi L ate M esolithic

V lasac I b; O strovul B anului Ina; P adina A

6 090-5615

E ger

V lasac I a; I coana I a; S chela C ladovei I

6 315

S chela C ladovei I I; I coana I I; O strovul B anului I IIb V lasac I I; L epenski V ir I ; P adina B ; H ajdu ` Cka V odenica

B oreal 2 b

V eterani T erasa; O strovul B anului I a nd I I

2 a

. 2 00 8 1751-

C uina T urcului ha & b ; Bile

C rvena S tijena V II-V O dmut l a F ranchthi E arly

H erculane I I

M esolithic P leistocene 1

C uina T urcului I

1 0,650

3 6

± 1 20

T ABLE 8 ( CONT'D)

S tage

A ller d o sc.

S ites

U ncorrected C 14 D ates B .C.

D anube G ravettian ( Medit.) G ravettian , U pper D anube f inal M agdalenian, S . R ussian S teppes U . P aleo.

3 7

E xternal C hronological C onnections

T ABLE

9

C HRONOLOGY AND DATING O F T HE I RON GATES S ITES ACCORDING T O B ORONEANT

S tage

( 1968,

1 973,

1 980)

D ates Uncorrected,

S ites

I V

A libeg, O strovul M are I II

5 245

±

II I

V lasac I II; O strovul M are I I; S chela C ladovei I I;

6 090 ±

B .C. 1 00

1 60 B .C.

I coana I I; O strovul B anului I IIb; R azvrata I I V lasac I I; Mare I ;

O strovul

O strovul

5 649 B .C. 5 908 B .C.

C orbului I II I I

V lasac I ;

I coana I ;

655 ± 6

2 50

8 175

2 00

O strovul B anului IIa; R azvrata I ; I V eterani T erasa; S chela C ladovei I ; P eetera V eterani V eterani T erasa C uina T urcului I I;

±

B ile Herculane I I P leistocene

1 0,650 ±

C limente I I; O strovul B anului I a nd I I;

C uina

T urcului I ; I ;

C limente

B ile H erculane I

38

1 20

d ecrease

i n

swine,

1 7.7%

t o

2 .3%,

a nd

i ncrease

i n

B os

s p.

2 .2%

t o

1 4.2%, a re d ramatic. A s an atural r esult o f d isagreement o n whether C uina T urcului I i s P leistocene o r p ost-Pleistocene ( Pre-Boreal) , C uina T urcului I I i s s een a s e arlier ( Pre-Boreal) b y S rejovi a nd L etica , a nd l ater ( Boreal) b y PNunescu a nd V iers ( Pop e t a l, 1 970, p . 3 2). B ased o n t he i nformation available, C d ates, p ollen a nalysis, a nd f aunal e vidence , B oronea r4 ( 1980, p .292) h as m ore r ecently c ome t o a gree t hat C uina T urcului I i s t erminal P leistocene a nd C uina T urcului I I i s p ostP leistocene. I t i s most important t o r ealize t hat t he r elative p osition o f C uina T urcului i n t he I ron C ates s equence i s u ndisputed, a nd t hat w ithin t his v ery m uch d ampened a nyway . B oroneant

( 1973,

s heltered e nvironment,

p .26)

f eels

t hat

c limatic

p roto-Lepenski V ir

s hifts w ere

s hould

b e

a t

a bout t he s ame t ime a s t he e nd o f h is S tage 3 i n t he e volution o f t he " Schela" C ulture. This s tage i ncludes I coana I I, S chela C ladovei I I, R azvrata I I, a nd O strovul B anului I IIb . O ne o f t he c haracteristics f or t his s tage i s r ectangular h earths with s tone b orders, which c haracteristic h e p oints t o i n a ssigning p roto-Lepenski V ir t o t his s tage ( Boroneant 1 973, p .26) . R azvrata I I, h owever , h as a n o val h earth ( ibid, p . 1 7) . B oronean Vs

s tages

( see

T able

9 )

a re

a s

f ollows:

t he

f irst

s tage

i ncludes o nly Veterani T erasa; t he s econd s tage i ncludes I coana I , Razvrata I , S chela C ladovei I , a nd O strovul B anului l ila; t he t hird s tage , a s g iven a bove , i ncludes I coana I I, S chela C ladovei I I, R azvrata I, a nd O strovul B anului Il lb ; t he f ourth s tage i ncludes A libeg ( ibid, I p .19) . C omparison with F igure 7 s hows n o p rofound d isagreements i n t he t wo s chemes . Jovanovig ( 1969) d isagrees c ritically o n t he i nterpretation o f P adina , which h e e xcavated . S rejovi a nd L etica e quate P adina A w ith e arly S tage 3 , V lasac I b, O strovul B anului I IIa, a nd Padina B with V lasac I I a nd L epenski V ir I . J ovanovi6 ( ibid , p . 3 6) d ivides t he I ron G ates e pipaleolithic s ites much l ess f inely i nto o nly t wo p hases: p hase I -C uina T urcului I -II, C limente I I, V eterani, O strovul B anului I ;

and

p hase

I I

-I coana

I -II,

R azvrata,

O strovul

B anului

I I-III,

S chela C ladovei I -II, a nd P adina A . J ovanovi6 's p hase I c onsists mostly o f s ites c alled C lisura R omanellian b y B oroneanp a nd s een b y b oth h im a nd S rejovi 6a nd L etica a s n ot p art o f t he S chela C ladovei c ulture p roper, b ut d efinitely a ntecedent a nd d eveloping i nto i t. J ovanovig 's s econd p hase c onsists o f m ost s ites o f what h as b een c alled t he S chela-Lepenski C ulture p roper . B oroneanI s ubdivides t hese s ites m ore f inely i nto h is s econd a nd t hird s tages, a nd S rejovi 6a nd L etica i nclude t hem a ll i n o ne s tage b ut a ttempt t o a ssign a p recise r elative c hronological p osition t o e ach s ite. C uina Turcului I i s g enerally a greed t o b elong i n t he P leistocene, a p oint made c lear b y e vidence a cquired l onA a fter J ovanovi Ps c hronology was p ublished. G iven t he p aucity

o f

c r4

d ates,

t he

m ore

g eneralized

o rderings

o f J ovanoviC

a nd

B oroneant a re p referable. Jovanovi6's

c hronology

i s

s omewhat

o ut

o f

d ate,

b ut

h is

i nterpretation o f P adina B a s e arly N eolithic i s o ne t o which h e s till a dheres ( p.c., 1 976). S rejovi6 , L etica, a nd B oronearq a ll i nterpret P adina B a s a S chela C ladovei-Lepenski V ir C ulture o ccupation .

3 9

The

.

e arly N eolithic p ottery p resent i n t his l evel i s i nterpreted b y t hem a s escribes P adina A a s c ontamination f rom h igher l evels. J ovanoviC- d h aving r ectangular f ireplaces b ordered b y s tones a nd d ug-in t rapezoidal h ouses. He g oes o n t o s ay t hat t he b one a nd a ntler t ools a nd a rchitecture o f h earths a nd h ouses a re c ontinued i n P adina B . T he b asis f or i nterpreting P adina B a s Neolithic s eems t o b e o nly t he p resence o f c eramics . J ovanovi6 f urther a rgues t hat L epenski V ir I a nd I a re c eramic Neolithic l evels, o n t he b asis o f s imilarities i n I h earth, h ouses, e tc., b etween Padina B a nd Lepenski V ir I a nd I I. A nalysis o f t he a nimal b one f rom L epenski V ir ( see P REHISTORIC F AUNAL R EMAINS, b elow) p uts t his i dea t o r est. Analysis o f t he a nimal b one f rom P adina , t he J ovanovi

while s omewhat l ess c onclusive , p osition ( see b elow).

d oes n ot s trongly s upport

li vanovi6 ( 1979, p .805) h as m ore r ecently p ublished a s eries o f 2 d ates f or P adina , r un o n b one ( mostly h uman) a nd u nfortunately n ot i dentified a s b elonging t o e ither Phase A o r B . T he method o f s ample p reparation i s n ot d escribed. The r esults a re p resented i n T able 1 0.

c1 4

S rejovic a nd L etica ( 1978, p .130) a rgue t hat t hese d ates a re u nreliable b ecause o f t he d ifficulties o f d ating b one b y t he C14 m ethod . Without k nowing which d ates a re a ssociated w ith l evel A , a nd which w ith l evel B , i t i s impossible t o a ssess t hem . G iven t he r elatively l ong s eries o f i nternally c onsistent d ates s hown i n T able 8 , a nd t he r ecognized d ifficulties o f d ating c ollagen , i t d oes s eem t hat a ll b ut t he f irst a nd l ast d ates i n t his l ist may b e t oo o ld, r egardless o f t he l evel w ith which t hey a re a ssociated . Additional d ates f or V lasac h ave b een o btained b y s tudying t he n itrogen/flourine c ontents o f h uman b ones ( Buszko e t a l , 1 978, p . 7 6) . Unfortunately, o nly t hree o f t he d ated s amples c ame f rom g raves u nambiguously a ssociated w ith a s tratigraphic l evel . T hese d ates a re p resented i n Table 1 1. C omparison o f t hese d ates with c alibrated c arbon 1 4 d ates ( see b elow) s uggests t hat o nly t he d ate o n g rave 3 1 i s " good" , t he o ther d ates a re t oo r ecent. T wenty-five a dditional d ated b one s amples a re l isted, most o f which h ave t wo d ates g iven . These b ones a re d escribed a s b eing o f u nknown a ge, a nd y et most o f t hem a re f rom g raves which h ave b een a ssigned t o a " probable" s tratigraphic l evel

b y

6 700,

6 800,

t he

e xcavators.

g rave

( grave 2 3)

T hree p robable V lasac I g raves

a nd 7 000 B .C "

a ll r easonable .

g ave

d ates

o f

One p robable V lasac I II

g ave a r easonable d ate o f 5 900 B .C.

- T he a uthors s uggest t hat t he ambiguity o f t his t echnique s tems f rom t he f act t hat t he n itrogen c ontent o f b one i ncreases with i ncreasing a tmospheric t emperatures. c ooling b etween 7 000-6000 B .C . ,

Evidence e xists f or c limatic

f ollowed b y q uick w arming u p f rom 5 900-

5 000 B .C. T hese

d ates

a re n ot

c onsistent

o r

r eliable

e nough

t o

a dd a nything

t o t he u nderstanding o f t he c hronology o f V lasac , o ther t han c onfirming t he s tratigraphic a ssignment o f a f ew g raves. T he d ating o f V lasac b one i s more v aluable a s a n a ttempt t o d evelop a d ating t echnique t han a s a s ource o f a dded i nsight a bout V lasac. T he g eneral c hronological o utlines o f t he I ron G ates S chela C ladovei-Lepenski Vir c ulture a re c lear. T here i s s till a l ot o f

4 0

T ABLE

1 0

C ARBON-14 D ATES O N B ONE F ROM P ADINA* S ample

S ite

N umber

N umber

( Grave?) I dentification

D ate

( Uncorrected)

B M-1143

2

m ature m ale

7 738

±5 1 B P

( 5788 B .C.)

B M-1144

7

s enile f emale

8 797

±8 3 B P

( 6847 B .C.) ( 7381 B .C.)

B M-1146

1 2

m ature m ale

9 331

±5 8 B P

B M-1147

1 4

a dult m ale

9 198

± 1 02 B P

( 7248 B .C.)

B M-1404

3 9

i nfant 1

9 292

±1 48 B P

( 7342 B .C.)

B M-1403

U rsus

* f rom n vanovi ,

8 138 ± 1 21

1 979.

4 1

B P

( 6188 B .C.)

T ABLE N ITROGEN—FLUORINE

1 1

' DATES' F ROM V LASAC, U NCORRECTED*

S tratigraphic A ssociation

G rave N umber

V lasac I I

2 7

5 650 ± 5 0 B .C.

V lasac I

3 2

6 250 ± 2 5 B .C.

V lasac I

3 1

6 850 ± 1 50 B .C.

*f rom B uszko e t a l,

1 978.

. .,

4 2

D ate

u ncertainty many o f

a bout

t he

t he s ites.

p recise

r elative

F or t his

c hronological

r eason,

o nly

r elationships

g eneralized

g roupings

o f o f

s ites a re a dvisable . T he n umber o f d ates a vailable i s s till s mall b ut i s a dequate t o g ive c onfidence i n t he g eneral l ocation o f t hese s ites i n

t he

b road

p icture

T able 8 would put B .C. a nd 1 978).

i ts

Table

o f

a n

a bsolute

c hronology .

t he b eginning o f

t he

d ates

f rom

o ccupation o f V lasac a t

C alibrated

7 000

a bandonment a round 6 000-5800 B .C.

1 2

presents

a c hronology

a nd

( Srejovic T a nd Letica,

d ating

i nformation a vailable f rom v arious s ources, a nd o f Table 8 , a nd t his a uthor's r eservations a ttempting precise r elative c hro2ologies o f hearths which a ppear

t his

t o b e c hronologically

a nd O strovul C orbului

t o

r eflect

p oint.

Ordering

o f

d ates, d ata o n a rchitectural s tyles

s ites i n Table 1 2 i s b ased o n Cl V lasac

a t

r evised

s ince t he p ublication a bout t he v alue o f

t here

a re

l evels

s ignificant

w ith

( at

b oth

r ectangular h earths

s tratigraphically a bove h earths which are oval or e lliptical; Boroneanl, p .c.); p resence o r a bsence o f c eramics, a nd s tratigraphic s uper—positioning. C hronologies b ased o n L ithic A ssemblages T he c lassic m ethod o f d eveloping p re—ceramic c hronologies f rom t he d ays p rior t o t he d evelopment o f c arbon d ating i s o f c ourse b ased o n c hipped s tone t ool o n t he b asis

o f

t ypologies

a nd

t he

c omparing t heir s tone

n ot u sefully o r meaningfully b e f ailure

t o

a rtifacts, m any

s ieve

d uring

c omparison a nd

o rdering

t ool c ontents.

T his

a pplied h ere.

e xcavations

a nd V lasac i s a s ite which o ne m ight

s mall

t ools.

E xamination

o f

t he

make

m issed , any

a nd

l eft with t he

assumptions

r epresentative

o f

w hat

d ebitage .

about

was

the

I t

main

r ecovered

e xpect

b y

o f

m ost

s hown t hat 2 1% t o

t herefore

s tudy

a nd t he

i mpossible

collection

e xcavation ,

s mall

t o h ave p roduced

were s orted o ut,

i s

s ites

d iscussed a bove,

r ecovery

" debitage" h as

6 5% o f t he r etouched/heavily u se—damaged t ools r est

A s

e liminates

o f

m ethod c ould

m uch

l ess

t o

b eing o f

what

t he s ite a ctually c ontained. Other

s ites

i n

t he

t ypologies

d eveloped o n

analyzed

b y

t he

t ype

R adovanovi , 1 981). a ccepts t he n otion o f

I ron

t he

Gates

b asis

o f

frequency

Gorge

h ave

materials method

b een

d uring t he e arly p ost—pleistocene o f

i nvolved

a n

1 970,

a nd

1 978;

The a ppropriation o f t his method implicitly a u nified T ardenoisian " culture" s tretching o ver

f urther h ave

u sing

i n F rance

( P gunescu,

ontinent a -whole c d iscussion

s tudied

e xcavated

t his

i nitial

i ssue) .

A ll

s eparation

a nalyses

a nd

d one

d iscarding

( see o n

( at

b elow

c hipped

l east

f or

s tone

f rom

t he

a nalysis) o f " debitage" f rom u sed p ieces. I t i s c lear f rom t his a nd o ther m icroscopic i nvestigations t hat s uch a s eparation, without t he a id o f m agnification , I t

i s

t hus

o nly

i s u nreliable. p ossible

t o

m ake

s ome

v ery

g eneral

r emarks

a bout

t he c hipped s tone a ssemblage o f Vlasac i n c omparison t o o ther I ron G ates s ites. I n t he f irst p lace, t here a re g eneral s imilarities i n t he u tilization o f r aw materials.

B oroneant ( 1981a, p .15) p rovides s ome

i nformation o n r aw material u se, s ummarized i n T able 1 3.

A t Vlasac,

t he p ercent u tilization o f f lint, a veraged f or t he t hree o ccupations, was 4 1% , a nd f or q uartz 5 5% . T here was n o q uartzite ( see T able 1 4).

4 3

T ABLE

1 2

R EVISED A ND U PDATED C HRONOLOGY F OR T HE

S tages

I RON G ATES R EGION

S ites

Uncorrected D ates

L jubcova;

5 495 ± 8 0 B .C.

Early

V lasac I V;

N eolithic

G ornea; S tubica; L epenski V ir I II; C uina T urcului I II

T ransitional

A libeg;

M eso-Neo

M are I II

O strovul

5 245 ± 1 00 B .C.

M esolithic

V lasac I I a nd I II;

Later

L epenski V ir I a nd I I;

5 980-5200 B .C.

P adina A a nd B ; O strovul C orbului I II; R azvrata I I;

S chela

C ladovei I I;

O strovul

B anului I IIb; M are I ; M esolithic E arlier

O strovul

I coana I I 6 315-6000 B .C.

V lasac I ; O strovul B anului I IIa; I coana I a a nd b ; V eterani T erasa; R azvrata I a a nd b ; S chela C ladovei I

I nitial P ost-

C uina T urcului I I

.

8 175 + 2 00 B .C.

B ile Herculane I I

P leistocene T erminal

C uina T urcului I

P leistocene

4 4

1 0,650 + 1 20 B .C.

T ABLE

1 3

U TILIZATION O F R AW MATERIALS A T V ARIOUS R OMANIAN S ITES*

S ite e arly

% f lint

% q uartz

37.76

1 3.16

4 9.00

1 3.69

4 3.55

42.74

1 .48

6 6.00

32.51

0.57

7 4.42

25.00

S chela C ladovei

4 .18

7 0.10

25.71

A libeg

5 .15

8 4.10

10.74

V eterani T erasa O strovul B anului I coana R azvrata

l ate

*a fter B oroneant, ,

1 981a.

T ABLE

1 4

U TILIZATION O F R AW MATERIALS A T V LASAC

O ccupation

% f lint

% q uartz

V lasac I

49.6

45.7

V lasac I I

4 1.1

56.0

V lasac I II

3 4.7

64.1

4 5

% q uartzite

T he c hipped s tone f rom P adina c ontains v irtually n o q uartz , b ut a h igh p ercentage o f s iltstone, s ilica r ock, v olcanics a nd o ther n onf lint r ocks ( see h owever , R adovanoviC , 1 981, p .100) . A t L epenski V ir , a g reat d eal o f q uartz was e xcavated, b ut was n ot s aved, s o t hat t he museum c ollection f or Lepenski Vir ( only 1 236 p ieces) i s a lmost a ll f lint ( Srejovig, p .c.) . Mogoyanu ( 1972, p .19), i n a r eview a rticle o n t he Paleolithic o f t he .Banat--the s outhwestern p rovince o f R omania which i ncludes t he I ron G ates R egion--defines a q uartzitic P aleolithic f or t hat r egion , p oorly d efined a nd s tudied , b ut whose e xistence s uggests a n a ntecedent f or t he heavy u tilization o f q uartz i n t he e arly p ost-Pleistocene p eriod. S ince m ost o f t he q uartz i s white , a nd t hus m ore e asily s een , a nd s ince n o s creening was d one o n a ny o f t hese e xcavations, i t s eems c ertain t hat f lint i s under-represented. This would n ot a ffect t he r elative i ncrease i n t he i mportance o f q uartz/quartzite t hrough t ime , w hich m ay well b e a ssociated with an i ncrease i n a ctivities r equiring q uartz t ools. The t ool t ypes d escribed a nd i llustrated f or v arious I ron Gates s ites a re l ike t hose d escribed h ere f or V lasac. A t C uina T urcului I t here a re m icrolithic r ound s crapers, a nd l arger o nes i n C uina T urcului I I ( Päunescu, 1 970, f ig. 6 ). D enticulates, b urins ( gravers), b acked b lades, t rapezes, a nd p ieces e squillees a re r eported f rom b oth l evels, a long with o ther t ools ( ibid, p .12, p .13; P äunescu, 1 980, f ig. 8 ). Microlithic s crapers, r etouched b ladelets, p ieces e squillees, a nd b urins ( gravers) a re r eported f rom t he more r ecent s ites o f V eterani T erasa, Razvrata, S chela C ladovei, a nd O strovul B anului ( Boroneank, 1 973, p .11, p .12) . Microcores a re r eported f rom I coana a nd S chela C ladovei ( ibid, p .12), which i s unlike V lasac, b ut o therwise a ny a nd a ll r eports c ould f it i n with t he V lasac m aterial . I nsofar a s p ublished a ccounts a nd v arying o r u nstated e xcavation t echniques a nd a nalytic a pproaches a llow c omparison , which i s n ot v ery f ar , t he c hipped s tone o f t he I ron G ates s ites l ooks s imilar e nough t o m aintain t he h ypothesis o f t emporal a nd s patial c ultural c ontinuity. D ifferences b etween s ites, a s o r e xample t he a bsence o f u tilization o f q uartzite a t V lasac , o r q uartz a t P adina , m ay r eflect d istinctions a t a l ower l evel, p erhaps o n t he o rder o f t he p hratry i n c ontemporary s ocieties . S ampling a nd r eliability p roblems w ith t he d ata , a s well a s f ailure t o p ublish t hese s ites a dequately , r ules o ut t he p ossibility o f u sing c hipped s tone a s a n a id i n o rdering t hese s ites c hronologically ( although s ee R adovanovi C ,

1 981,

p p.114-115).

C hronological R elations T o A reas O utside T he I ron G ates R egion T he a re,

b asis

a nd

o rigins

o f

a ccording t o B oroneant,

t he

S chela C ladovei-Lepenski V ir

c learly u nderstood .

c ulture

W ithin t he I ron G ates

t here i s a s equence s tarting w ith t he E pigravettian f ound a t C limente I which i s a ncestral t o t he " clisura" R omanellian a t C uina T urcului I I, C limente I I, V eterani , a nd O strovul B anului I I . T he S chela C ladovei L epenski V ir c ulture c an b e s een i n m any r espects a s a c ontinuation o f, o r d evelopment f rom , t his " clisura" R omanellian ( Boronearq , 1 979b , p . 2 8). S tarting i n t he p rotoromanellian a r eduction i n m obility

4 6

i ncreasing t hrough t he " clisura" R omanellian a nd i nto t he S chela C ladovei c ulture l ed t o l ess a nd l ess u se o f r esources o utside t he. gorge, and t hus more and more u se o f quartz and quartzite. M anufacturing t echniques c hanged t o s uit n ew materials a nd B oroneanF c laims q uartz was worked b y s triking c obbles t ogether a nd s electing a ppropriate p ieces o f s hatter f or r etouch ( ibid , p . 3 0) . T he wealth o f b one t ools i n t he S chela c ulture i s a lso a c arryover f rom t he " clisura" R omanellian ( ibid, p . 3 2) . T he main s timulus f or t his g radual t ransformation, which l ed t o t he b eginning o f f ood p roduction i n t he a rea , i s f elt b y B oronearq ( 1979b) t o h ave b een t he g radual w arming u p a fter t he W ürm , w hich h e b elieves l ed t o s edentism i n t he a rea.

a lso

T he d evelopment o f a f ood p roducing e conomy i n t he I ron G ates i s s een a s a d evelopment a t l east i n part o ut o f t he l ocal

E pipaleolithic b ase . C ontinuity i s c laimed i n s tone , b one , a nd a ntler t ools a nd t he i ncised d ecorative motifs f ound o n b one, a ntler, a nd s tone i n t he P aleolithic a re c laimed t o b e f ound o n c eramics, e xpressed t hrough i ncision a nd p ainting ( ibid, p .39), i n t he Neolithic. F aunal r emains a nd p ollen e vidence ( see b elow) h ave a lso b een u sed t o s upport t he i dea o f a d eveloping i ndigenous p attern o f c ontrolling c ertain r esources, i .e., a t rend t owards f ood p roduction, o n s ome R omanian s ites. F rom B oronean ys p erspective, f ood p roduction i s s omething which would h ave h appened a nyway . T his d oes n ot m ean t hat t he s udden a ppearance o f d omesticated p lants a nd a nimals, a long w ith c eramics, d id n ot i nvolve p opulation movement, o r p ossibly r eplacement, a lthough t here i s On

e vidence t he

t o

b asis

c hronologically

o f

b ased

s uggest

t hat s uch d id n ot o ccur .

e xisting C14 c omparison

d ates

w ith

f or

o ther

t he

I ron

G ates

p ost-Pleistocene

s ites,

f oraging

c ultures c an b e m ade. The v ery l ong a nd well-dated E pipaleolithic s equence f rom F ranchthi c ave ( Jacobsen 1 973, 1 974, P ayne , 1 975b) c oincides c ompletely with t he I ron Gates.

F ranchthi C ave f aces t he b ay o f Koilada o n t he

western c oast o f t he Argolid i n G reece. T he e arliest Mesolithic a t F ranchthi i s d ated t o a bout 8 500 b .c. ( uncorrected) a nd l inked t o a s hift i n p atterns o f a nimal e xploitation which r eflect p ost-Pleistocene s hifts i n c limate i nvolving r ising t emperatures, ' increasing r ainfall , t he r esultant r eplacement b y f orest a nimals ( Payne,

o f o pen b y wooded c onditions, a nd t hus o pen 1 975b , p .122) . T his f irst M esolithic p eriod

a t

t emporally

Franchthi

would

b e

e quivalent

t o

t he

" clisura"

R omanellian i n t he I ron G ates. T he l ater M esolithic a t F ranchthi, w ith d ates r anging f rom 6 250-7350 B .C . w ould b e c hronogically e quivalent t o t he S chela C ladovei-Lepenski V ir c ulture, e nding a l ittle e arlier b ecause o f t he e arlier e stablishment o f f ood p roduction i n G reece t han i n t he Danube a rea. A t F ranchthi t he a ppearance o f f ood p roduction i nvolves a d ramatic c hange i n s ubsistence f rom a h eavy d ependence o n r ed d eer ( over 8 0% o f a ll n on-fish b one) a nd s econdarily o n p ig , a nd o n l arge ( marine) f ish , p istachios a nd a lmonds, t o s heep-goat ( 90% o f a ll n on-fish b one), n o f ish, s carce p ig b ones a nd n o n ut p p .128-129) . Mesolithic d omestication o f l entils, o ats F ranchthi

a re,

h owever,

n ow

c onsidered

( Jacobsen, 1 981, p .308).

4 7

l ikely

t o

s hells ( ibid, a nd b arley a t h ave

o ccurred

There

a re

a lso

c lear

s hifts

i n

s ubsistence

p atterns

e arlier t o t he l ater Mesolithic l evels a t F ranchthi.

f rom

t he

I n t he e arlier

l evel, f ish b ones a re s carce, i n t he l ater l evel t hey c ome t o r epresent 2 0-40% o f t he t otal b ulk o f b one . T he e xploitation o f r ed d eer , which a t

t he b eginning o f

t he M esolithic r epresents 7 0% o f a ll n on-fish b one,

i ncreases t hroughout t he Mesolithic, a nd e xploitation o f p ig, 3 0% a t t he b eginning , d ecreases. C hanges i n e xploitation o f r ed d eer a nd p ig a re g radual ,

b ut

l arge f ish e xploitation a ppears a bruptly ,

a nd h as b een

l inked t o t he e stablishment

o f o bsidian t rade w ith t he i sland o f Melos,

1 30 k ilometers

F ranchthi

V an Horn,

s outheast

o f

( ibid,

p .122,

p .128 ;

J acobsen

a nd

1 974).

Published C14

d ates

f or F ranchthi i nclude t wo s eries,

l isted i n

T able 1 5. The

c hipped

P aleolithic t ypes

o f

r aw

d ecreased

s tone

a nd

f rom

m aterial

were

u sed ,

o f

b lades

p ercentage

manufacturing

t echnology,

c ortex

p latforms,

c overed

percentage

F ranchthi

Mesolithic p eriods

d ebitage

f or

d oes

kna pp e d

o f

s hows

a nd

n ot

b reak

1 973,

l ooks

t he

b ladelets,

example

t he

c hange .

p ieces

n o

( Perl s,

which

A c lear

T he

t he s ame

s ame

e xcept

a nd

evidence

d ominance

were

b etween

p .76).

o f

f or a o f

u nfaceted,

d ifference

r etouched,

i s

t he

1 9-24%

i n

P aleolithic l evels, 2 -4.7% i n Mesolithic l evels.

Among P aleolithic

r etouched

d ominate

t ools,

b acked

b ladelets,

p ointed

o r

n ot,

( and

5 7.7%

have d irect r etouch) f ollowed b y e nd-scrapers, u sually o n f lakes, t he

l owest

l evel.

The

l ast

u pper Paleolithic

c ontains

i n

a s maller

p ercentage o f r etouched p ieces . Many o f t hese a re m icroliths . T hirtyf ive p ercent o f t he r etouched p ieces a re b acked b ladelets, g eometrics ( triangles a nd r ectangles) c onstitute 1 2% , a nd n on-geometric m icroliths account

f or

n otches,

a nd

t ypes

1 0%.

d ominate

t rench

o f

d ifferent,

O ther a rtifacts

m arginally t he

t he a nd

r etouched

s ite. t his

r etouched

t ools

Material

e nigma

i s

i nclude g rattoirs,

f lakes. f rom

i mportant,

m ore

t he

s ame

l ower

a nother

d enticulates, t hree

r etouched

Mesolithic

t rench

i s

o f

o ne

r adically

p resently u nsolved .

I n t he l ater Mesolithic l evel, b ecomes

o f

T hese

s elective

t he u se

u se

o f

o f

o bsidian f rom Melos

h igher

q uality

l ocal

f lints

o ccurs, a nd t hese p ractices a re c arried t hrough t he e arly N eolithic . The p ercentage o f r etouched p ieces b ecomes much h igher i n t he N eolithic, 1 0-30%. Long f lakes a re r emoved b y p ressure r etouch . Marginally r etouched b lades, e nd s crapers, n otched p ieces, a nd a wls a re c ommon ( Per Us, 1 973, p p .80-82) . T here a re t rapezes i n b oth l ate Meso a nd e arly N eolithic, b ut t he l ate M esolithic d ebitage i s d ominated b y f lakes,

a nd

o f

r etouched

t he

Only

t he

5 % a re

e arly N eolithic

t rue

p ieces

a re

g eometrics

b y

b lades .

I n

t he

e ither microliths ( all

t rapezes).

l ate

Mesolithic

4 0%

o r b acked b ladelets. F lakes

with

marginal

r etouch a nd d enticulates e ach a ccount f or m ore t han 1 1% , f lakes a c oche % , and g rattoirs 5 % . The f lint f rom t he e arly r etouchge a ccount f or 9 Neolithic l evels i s " poor" , a nd n o f igures a re g iven ( Perlgs, 1 976, p . 8 ) .

O n t he b asis

a ny

o pinion a bout

o r Neolithic a bout

1 000 There

o f

t he

i nformation p rovided

c ontinuity

l evels

o r

l ack

a t F ranchthi.

o f

i t

i s

i mpossible

c optinuity f rom

The CI4

d ates

t o

f orm

t he M esolithic

s uggest a b reak o f

y ears. i s

n o

s pecific

l ink

t o

4 8

t he

I ron Gates

i n

t he

s eries

o f

T ABLE 1 5 C ARBON-14 D ATES F OR F RANCHTHI C AVE

J acobsen,

1 973

P -1536

6 250 ± 7 5

P -1398

7 190 + 1 25

J acobsen,

u pper M esolithic

1 974

P -2096

6 758 + 1 00

P -2106

6 785 + 9 3

P -1517

7 100 ± 1 00

P -1518

7 000 ± 1 00

P -2107

6 580 ± 8 7

P -1518A

5 775 ± 1 00

P -2097

7 202 + 9 7

P -1664

7 000 + 10

P -2108

7 297

P -1666

6 775 + 1 50

P -2102

7 341 ± 9 8

P -2103

7 351 ± 9 9

P -2104

7 319 ± 1 11

P -1665

7 025 ± 1 50

P -1519

7 300 + 1 50

P -1522

7 350 ± 1 50

1 -6139

8 510 ± 2 10

l ower M esolithic

4 9

4. 15

c hanges i n p atterns o f r esource e xploitation s een a t F ranchthi. T he o utlines o f t he p attern , h owever , a re s imilar . B oth a t F ranchthi , a nd a t C uina T urcului I , c old w eather s pecies w ere e xploited a t t he e nd o f t he P leistocene, a nd a s hift a t b oth s ites, which c an b e l inked t o c hanges i n r esource a vailability, b egins w ith t he p ost-Pleistocene. C hanges i n r esource u tilization , n ot d ue e xclusively t o f urther c limate s hifts ( e .g . , t he e xploitation o f l arge f ish l inked t o d eep s ea t ravel f or o bsidian t rade a t F ranchthi) , c ontinue a t F ranchthi a nd i n t he I ron G ates, u p t o t he a ppearance o f f ood p roduction t echniques. I n t he I ron G ates a nd a t F ranchthi s ome o f t hese c hanges m ay well h ave b een l eading i n t he d irection o f f ood p roduction a nyway . Odmut c onfluence Mesolithic e xcavators T he s eries

c ave ( actually a small r ock s helter) o n t he b anks o f t he o f t wo r ivers i n t he Karst Mountains o f Montenegro, h as d eposits a veraging 1 .5 meters t hick, d ivided b y t he i nto t wo l evels ( 1.1 and . 4 meters t hick, r espectively). ates f it t he c hronology o f t he I ron G ates i f o ne o f C14 d

s elects t he " right" d ates, c onsistent ( see T able 1 6).

b ut

t he

d ates

a re

n ot

v ery

i nternally

F aunal a nalysis f or Odmut h as n ot b een f ormally p ublished, b ut b oth l evels a re r eported t o c ontain h igh p ercentages ( 65%) o f i bex a nd s econdarily r ed d eer ( 25%). Wild p ig, b ear, r oe d eer, wild g oat, a nd wild c at were a lso p resent i n b oth l evels . B eaver , wolf , f ox , a nd l ynx o ccurred o nly i n t he l ower l evel , a nd a urochs o nly i n t he u pper l evel . F ish o ccurred i n b oth l evels i n unspecified p roportions, b ut t he d iscovery o f 5 6 antler h arpoons ( from b oth f ishing w as q uite i mportant ( Srejovi6, 1 975).

l evels)

s uggests

t hat

Odmut I I a a nd b a re c haracterized a s e arly N eolithic with c eramics b earing s ome s imilarity t o t he e arly Impresso ware o f t he Mediterranean , b ut m ore t o t he i nland e arly N eolithic S ta/levo ware , f ound t hroughout S erbia a nd a lso i n t he I ron Gates r egion . What i s d escribed a s a " larger q uantity o f a nimal b ones" ( presumably t han O dmut I ) i ncluded l arge n umbers o f i bex a nd r ed d eer, a s well a s wild p ig, weasel, a nd b ear . Domestj _cated s heep-goat a nd c ow were a lso f ound ( Markovi L 1 975, p .8). C1 ' d ates f or Odmut I I a re g iven i n T able 1 7. T hese d ates f it w ell w ith t he d ates f or t he p receding Mesolithic l ayer . T he l ack o f d etailed f aunal a nalysis, f ine t emporal c ontrol , p ollen o r o ther

v egetation d ata p revent

t he

c onstruction o f

a m eaningful p icture

o f s ubsistence a t O dmut, o r s ubsistence c hanges t hrough t ime. T he s hort a nd i nconsistent l ist o f d ates f or t he M esolithic l evel m ake i t u nclear f or h ow was

l ong ,

o r e ven d uring what c limatic e pisodes,

t he

s ite

o ccupied . Further away,

i n s outhern I taly,

t wo C14

d ates f or G rotta d ella

M adonna 5 605 B .C. ( corrected) a nd C oppa N evigata 6 200 B .C . ( corrected) were r eported f or l evels which c ontained M editerranean I mpresso e arly N eolithic p ottery a long w ith s hellfish mounds a nd o ther e vidence o f a g athering a nd h unting e conomy . W hitehouse ( 1978 , p .78) c alls t his t he c eramic Mesolithic a nd a rgues f or a n i nterpretation o f t hese a nd o ther western M editerranean s ixth m illenium s ites a s r epresenting a c omplex o f Mesolithic c ultures , with o ccasional e vidence f or s heep b reeding, which m ade a nd u sed , o r t raded f or , t he Impresso w are c ommon t hroughout t he

European

a nd

E ast

Mediterranean

5 0

s hores,

and

t raditionally

T ABLE

1 6

R ADIOCARBON D ATES F ROM O DMUT C AVE,

O DMUT I *

L ab N o.

S ite L evel

D ate

S i-2220

O dmut l b

5 200 ± 1 00 B .C.

S i-2221

O dmut I b

5 770 ± 8 5 B .C.

S i-2224

O dmut l b/Ia

640 ± 1 00 B .C. 6

S i-2225

O dmut I a

8 095 ± 8 5 B .C.

S i-2226

O dmut I a

5 840 ± 7 0 B .C.

S i-2227

O dmut I a

5 130 ± 8 5 B .C.

S i-2228

O dmut I a

7 185 ±

* f rom S rejovic,

1 975,

p .5.

5 1

( Uncorrected)

3 0 B .C.

T ABLE

1 7

R ADIOCARBON D ATES F ROM O DMUT C AVE,

O DMUT I I

L ab N o.

D ates

S i-2217

5 035 ± 1 00 B .C.

S i-2219

5 005 ± 1 00 B .C.

S i-2222

4 950 ± 1 10 B .C.

* f rom S rejovic,

1 975

5 2

( Uncorrected)*

a ssociated h as

with

p resented

s ettled

v illage

e xtensive

f arming .

e vidence

f or

E lsewhere

t he

s ide

b y

Whitehouse

( 1971)

xistence c o-e

s ide

o f•

e arly f armers a nd g atherers h eavily d ependent o n s hellfish c ollecting , a nd a g radual a bsorption, c omplete with t emporary r eversals, o f t he g atherer-hunters

into

s tratigraphically P razziche ,

t he

d istinct

G rotta d e F ico ,

B ietti

( 1981,

p .47)

f ood-producing

p hases

a t

t he

C oppa N evigata,

l ists

a d ozen

e conomy,

s ites

o f

i n

Grotta

f our d elle

a nd G rotta d elle Mura .

s ites

i n

I taly

where

h e

a sserts

t he i ndustry ( stone) o f t he Neolithic a nd underlying Mesolithic " is v ery s imilar" a nd where t here i s a lso " abundant" e vidence o f a c ontinuation

o f

d omesticated

h unting,

a nimals.

p ottery, b ut i ndicates, i n

a long with

n o e vidence o f m y o pinion , t he

t he Mesolithic h uman g roups p .47). C rvena

S tijena ,

t he

a ppearance

A t R omagnano I IIAA ,

a nd t he

a d eeply

a nd N eolithic

p ottery

a nd

t here

i s

f ood p roduction . " This c ircumstance s ubstantial c ultural c ontinuity b etween e arly N eolithic o nes,..." ( ibid,

s tratified

( over

2 0

meters

r ock s helter o verlooking a r iver v alley i n Montenegro , Mesolithic ,

o f

i n N orthern I taly,

d eposits.

T here

a re

n o

o f

d eposits)

h as P aleolithic,

d ates

f or

t his

s ite

a nd n o p ollen o r o ther v egetation d ata . F aunal r emains a re d escribed a s v ery r ich, b ut f or l evel V , t he l ast Pleistocene l evel, minimum n umbers

o f

e ach

h are

o f

i ndividual a nimals

r eported i nclude o nly t hree mammals,

( Lepus t imidus) ,

p ig ,

t he g astropods H elix p omatia, ( aegopiis) c roaticus

( Malez,

a nd

Z onites 1 967,

d eer

( sp)

( Rakovec,

( aegopic) v erticilus,

t able

1 ) .

L evel I V,

1 958) ,

o ne p lus

a nd Z onites

s ubdivided

i nto

I Va, I Vb a nd I Vb2 i s t he Mesolithic l ayer. T here i s n o s terile l ayer s eparating l evels I V a nd V . Level I Va h ad t he f ollowing f auna: r ed d eer,

p ig,

B rodar,

aurochs,

1 958,

c hamois,

p .25).

I t

f ox ,

a lso h as

wild c ats,

and

n o e vidence

b adger

( Benac

o f h earths.

I n

a nd

s harp

c ontrast, l evel I Vb1 h ad a " remarkable n umber o f h earths" a nd was a lso " rich i n a nimal b ones" , a bout 5 000 c oming f rom a s ingle t rench ( I )) . I n t heir o rder o f r elative importance , f auna were : r ed d eer , p ig , a urochs, c hamois, r oe d eer, b adger, h are, f ox, wild c at, a nd b ear. This l evel i s

a lso

" rich" n umber

d escribed a s

i n o f

r ed d eer,

b one

t ools

h earths, p ig,

h aving a g reat q uantity a s

a nd

well f ewer

a nd c hamois.

w ere f ar f ewer ,

a s

s tone

b ones,

t ools.

o f

s nail

s hells,

L evel I Vb2 h ad

i ncluding

t he

a nd

was

a s maller

f ollowing

a nimals:

The s nails were a ll b ut g one, b one t ools

b ut t here were

s till a l ot

L evel I II a t C rvena S tijena

i s

o f

s tone

t ools.

d escribed a s N eolithic o n t he b asis

o f t he p resence o f Impress° c eramics. F auna, h owever, i nclude o nly w ild f orms: r ed d eer , p ig , c hamois, l ynx , a urochs, a nd f ox . T here a re a lso n o p olished s tone t ools. L evel I I, which o ccurs a bove l evel I II a nd a lso c ontains e arly N eolithic c eramics a lso c ontains o nly w ild f auna,

and

no

" Neolithic" i t c omparison o f c ultural

polished

i s

s tone.

Although

e lsewhere a rgued t hat

b one t ools

c ontinuity

l evel I V t hrough I I I I

a t

l east

b ack

with h ollowed o ut c oncavities,

l evel I V.

I n l evel I I

d isappeared .

B lades,

l evel o f

i .e .,

t he v ery s mall

u nretouched

a nd

5 3

( Benac,

t hrough

s tone i llustrated a lso s hows c ontinuity. f lakes

t his b asis

( there a re v ery f ew) a nd s tone

f rom

p oints o ccur f rom l evel

o n t he

i s

c alled

f aunal r emains, t ools,

1 957,

l evel V .

t here i s

p .27) . T he

B one

c hipped

Levels I I-V h ad b lades a nd n otches,

t ools

r eported c ommon i n

o f p revious

r etouched

i n v arious

l evels h ave ways,

o ccur

I n a ll l evels--some a re d escribed a s p oints. I rregular f orms a lso o ccur i n a ll l evels, a nd i n t he b rief d iscussion o f c hipped s tone a nalysis, t he d ifficulty o f a pplying " typology" t o t his material i s m entioned s everal t imes . O ne g ets a n o verall i mpression o f a l argely amorphous f lint c ollection ( Benac , 1 957) . I t would b e much e asier t o a ccept t he a rgument f or c ultural ates b acked u p t he a pparent l ack o f a n o ccupational c ontinuity i f C14 d h iatus b etween l evel I V a nd I II a t C rvena S tijena . I t i s i mpossible t o e valuate t he a rguments b ased o n c ontinuity i n c hipped s tone a nd b one t ools, s ince o nly e xamples o f e ach h ave b een p ublished. C ontinuity b etween l evels V a nd I V a lso s eems w orth i nvestigating , b ut t his i ssue h as n ot b een c onsidered b y t he a uthors, a nd t he p ublished d ata d o n ot a llow i t . T he m ost c onvincing e vidence i s t he f aunal r emains, a lthough t hese a re a lso d ifficult s ince p resence/absence i s t he o nly i nformation c onsistently available. The f auna l isted a re a lso a ll l arge, s uggesting s ize s kewing o f t he s ample. A lthough i t i s b y n o means c ertain , C rvena S tijena I I a nd I II l ook l ike a nother c ase o f g athererh unters r etaining t heir s ubsistence s ystem o ver t ime while i n c ontact- p ossibly t rading--with e arly f armers. O ther

e vidence

o f

t he

c o-existence

o f

l ong-resident

f oragers

a nd

i ntrusive ( or l ocally c onverted?) f armers i s a bundant. Northern E urope, s pecifically N orway , D enmark a nd F inland , e vidences u p t o 1 000 y ears o f c ontact b etween f oragers a nd f armers b efore " substitution" o f f ood p roduction f or f oraging b ecomes s ignificant ( Mikkelsen a nd J ohansen, 1 985; Zvelebil a nd R owley -C onwy, 1 984). V irtually u p t o t he p resent d ay t he N ordic a rea s till e xhibits a m ixture o f M esolithic a nd N eolithic e conomies The

s o-called

( Broadbent,

1 985).

" forest-Neolithic" ,

c onsisting

o f

s ites

which

e vidence f ishing, g athering, a nd h unting a s p rimary s ubsistence a ctivity, a long with e vidence o f c utact with f ood-producers, m ost o ften i n t he f orm o f c eramics, a nd C d ates w ithin t he f ood-producing p eriod, a re r eported f rom t he B ug-Dniestr C ultures o f Moldavia, t he D nepr-Donets c ultures o f t he U kraine , t he E ast L atvian s ite o f O sa ( C1 4 6 040-5630 B .P.) a nd t he s ite o f Z acen'e i n C entral B yelorussia ( Dolukhanov, 1 973, p .335). S oroki I o n t he Dniestr d oes have s ubstantial e vidence o f s ome f ood p roduction , e ven t hough r eliance o n f ish ( 1,166 f ish b ones o f l arge f ish-roach , w els, c atfish a nd p ike) a nd wild m ammals ( 66%) was g reater t han o n t he d omesticated c attle a nd p igs a lso i n e vidence i n t he u pper l evel . Emmer , e inkorn , a nd s pelt wheat impressions a lso o ccur o n s herds. I n t he l ower l evel o f S oroki I t he m ammal b ones were 9 0% wild . S oroki I I " Neolithic" a lso h as t wo l evels, b ut h ere b oth l evels a re a ceramic. I n t he l ower l evel 8 3% a nd i n t he u pper l evel 8 1% o f t he b ones a re o f wild a nimals. Almost a ll o f t he d omesticated a nimal b one i s p ig . " Forest N eolithic" s ites a long t he S outhern B ug R iver a lso t ypically h ave 9 0+% wild a nimal b ones, a nd e vidence o f c ollecting s hellfish a nd o f f ishing ( Dolukhanov , 1 977) . According t o T ringham ( 1971, p .47) t here i s a lso a p ristine M esolithic l evel a t S oroki I I where t he o nly d omesticated a nimal i s d og a nd where t here i s p ossible e vidence o f w inter o ccupations, f eaturing s emi-subterranean h ouses w ith h earths i n t hem , a nd s ummer s urface - l evel h earths which a re s urrounded b y m ussel s hells a nd c arp a nd r oach b ones

5 4

( Rutilus f risii)

( but

s ee

Whittle ,

1 985,

p .119) .

I n t he C rimea , d omesticated p igs a re c laimed a t t he s ites o f Z amil K oba a nd Tas A yir a nd t o t he n orth a t t he s ite o f K amennaya Mogila d omesticated c attle h ave b een c laimed . T hese s ites a ppear i n e very o ther r espect t o f it i n with t he Mesolithic o f t he a rea ( ibid, p .50). A t La Adam, j ust s outh o f t he D anube d elta i n Romania, a rcheologists h ave i dentified d omesticated s heep i n a n o therwise M esolithic a ppearing s ite. T he a uthors p oint t o s keletal c hanges i n t he s heep i n a ddition t o HI P m ore c ompelling c hanges i n t he a ge d istributions o f s laughtered s heep a nd t he i ncreasing d ominance o f s heep t hrough t ime ( Radulesco a nd S amson , 1 962) . T he a ccuracy o f t his c laim i s n ot w idely a ccepted . I n F rance , M esolithic s ites p ersist o n p oor s oils amidst N eolithic s ites. L arge a reas o f Western F rance r emained uninfluenced b y N eolithic a daptations f or a t housand y ears a fter t he N eolithic b egan i n o 3 000 B .C., t here F rance. A t t he s ite o f Roucadour, d ated b y C14 t e xisted a n e conomy p rimarily d ependent o n h unting , b ut a lso o n c ereals . A t o ther Mesolithic s ites p opulations r emained t otally d ependent o n w ild p lant r esources,

b ut b egan t o h erd s heep/goats

( Bailloud,

1 974).

I n t he western Languedoc -e astern P yrenees r egion d omesticated s heep/goats a re f ound i n o therwise Mesolithic l evels o f a n umber o f s ites, a nd wild f auna c ontinue t o b e important, i n l ater, o therwise, N eolithic l evels . C hipped s tone t ools f rom t he Mesolithic a nd E arly N eolithic s ites o f t he r egion s how " striking o verall s imilarity" ( Vaughan , 1 982, p .10) . S hell o rnaments f rom Mesolithic a nd E arly N eolithic s ites

a re

a lso v ery

s imilar

( Mills,

1 983,

p .109) .

R ecent s tudies c onsider t he d evelopment o f t he N eolithic t his r egion i n t erms o f a p rocess o f ' neolithisation '

i n i n

which i ndigenous l ocal p opulations g radually t ook u p s tock r aising, c ereal c ultivation , a nd t he u se o f p ottery ( ibid, p .110). T he

s ame

p rocess

o f

c hange

h as

b een d escribed

f or West-Central F rance

( Scarre, 1 983, p .228) . I n t he F rench P yrenees, t oo, c ontinuity o f material c ulture, a long with a s low t ransformation t o d ependence o n d omesticated a nimals a nd t he u se o f c eramics c haracterized t he Mesolithic-Neolithic t ransition ( Bahn , 1 983) . I n B rittany , t he s ites o f T gviec a nd H oedic r epresent . b asically Mesolithic a daptations with t he a ddition

o f

a f ew

d omesticates

( Hibbs,

1 983,

p .279) .

A g reat d eal o f r egional v ariation i s t hus d ocumented f or E urope i n t he n ature o f t he r esponse o f r esident p opulations t o t he f irst f armers . T hese d ata p rovide a c ontext i n which t o a ssess what , i f a ny, n ew u nderstanding o f a daptation a nd c hange i n e arly p ost-glacial E urope c an b e g ained b y t he s tudy o f t he I ron G ates S ites.

5 5

P REHISTORIC F AUNAL R EMAINS T he F aunal r emains f rom V lasac were a nalyzed b y S . B ökönyi ( 1978) . B ökönyi c haracterizes t he m aterial a s a ' kitchen m idden" , m eaning t hat t he b ones were v irtually a ll b roken ( only 2 1 u nbroken l ong b ones--all c arnivores--out o f 3 0,000 i dentifiable b ones) a nd t hat n o whole s keletons were f ound ( 1978, a re g iven i n T able 1 8 . T he

m ost

i nteresting

p .35) .

a spect

The i dentifications

o f

t he

f aunal

a ssemblage

( 1978,

p .36)

f or B ökönyi

i s t he e vidence f or i n s itu d omestication o f t he d og . H e d escribes t he " Vlasac-type" d og a s h aving a s kull which i s morphologically q uite d istinct f rom t he " palustris" d omesticated d og o f t he e arliest N eolithic s ites ( 1975, p p.174-175) a nd a rgues a t s ome l ength f or a c ontinuum o f " transitional f orms" f rom wolf t o d og i n t he V lasac material ( 1978, p p.38-42). T he f act t hat o nly 3 p ercent o f t he d og b one was f rom immature a nimals i s u sed t o a rgue t hat d ogs were n ot p rimarily k ept f or t heir m eat ( 1975, p .50) . A ccording t o B ökönyi , t he f aunal a ssemblage r epresents a n umber o f d istinct h abitats within t he Gorge. ( See T able 1 9). O f a ll t he i dentified mammals, a urochs a lone m ust h ave c ome f rom o utside t he G orge ( 1975, p .37). Another a rrangement o f t he f auna c onsiders whether t he p rimary u se i s f or meat o r f ur . Animals t aken p rimarily o r e xclusively f or meat will b e t aken a s j uveniles, a dults, a nd s enile a nimals, a s i s t rue o f r ed d eer , r oe d eer, a nd p ig a t V lasac. Animals t aken p rimarily f or t heir f ur w ill u sually b e t aken a s s ubadults a nd a dults . I t w ould a lso b e t rue t hat t hey would o nly b e t aken a t c ertain s easons, b ut B ökönyi d id n ot s tudy s easonality. Wild c at, p ine marten, b adger, wolf, r ed f ox , and b eaver However, b adger,

a ll f ollow t his r ed f ox , b eaver,

p attern a t V lasac ( 1975, p .50) . a nd w ild c at were a lso e aten, a s

e videnced b y b utchering marks a nd b one b reakage . B rown b ear a ge d istributions f ollow t he p attern o f a nimals p rimarily k illed f or m eat. ( 1975,

p p.46-48) .

S quirrels

a re

r epresented

b y o nly

t hree i hdividuals a nd B ökönyi

s uggests t hat t hey were p erhaps t oo small t o b other p ursuing ( 1975, p .48). I t i s l ikely t hat t heir small b ones were m issed w ith much g reater f requency t han t hose o f l arger a nimals . T he s ame e xplanation i s offered for the scarce representation of Brown hare ( four i ndividuals) which B ökönyi c laims a re s carce i n s ites u p u ntil t he Middle Ages, b y which t ime a ll b ig g ame h ad b een k illed o ff ( 1975, p .49). R abbit was, h owever, t he d ominant ( 94%) s pecies i n t he M esolithic l evel a t C hateauneuf-lez-Martigues, a nd w as a lso i mportant ( in u nspecified I nterest

p roportion) i n

p ursuing

a t

S oubeyras

s everal

( Jarman ,

s pecies

was

1 972,

p .130) .

h eightened

b y

t he

u sefulness o f t heir a ntler a nd b one i n t ool m anufacture . R ed a nd r oe d eer a nd w ild s wine w ere t he p rimary s pecies i nvolved . A g reat d eal o f s hed r ed d eer a ntler was

c ollected

f or t ool

manufacturing .

( 1975,

p .44). Fish

r epresent

6 0%

o f

a ll

5 6

b one

c ollected,

o ne-half

o f

i t

T ABLE

1 8

P REHISTORIC F AUNA F ROM V LASAC N o.

D OMESTIC C anis f amiliaris

( dog)

1 914

M NI

6 .58

1 60

54

0 .19

4/ 5

2 2 6 732

0.07 2 3.13

4 90

W ILD U NGULATES B os p rimigenius

( aurochs)

R upicapra r upicapra ( chamois) C ervus e laphus ( red d eer) C apreolus c apreolus S us s crofa

( roe d eer)

( wild s wine)

5 10

1 .75

19

1 185

4 .07

28

C ARNIVORES F elis s ilvestris L ynx l ynx ( lynx) M ustelidae

( wild c at)

( weasel)

7 /8 2

8 )

M artes m artes ( pine m arten) M eles m eles ( badger) U rsus a rctos ( brown b ear) C anis l upus ( wolf) V ulpes v ulpes ( red f ox) S mall c arnivore R ODENTS

4 5) 5 ) 248) 5 8) 1 68) 1 03) 3 0) 1 3)

2.33

38 8 10 10 6

& I NSECTIVORES

C astor f iber

( beaver)

7 1)

S ciurus v ulgaris ( squirrel) L epus e uropaeus ( brown h are) E rinaceus e uropaeus ( hedgehog)

5 ) 2 2) 1 )

9 0 .34

B IRDS P elecans c f. o nocratalus

( white p elican)

3 )

P halacrocorax c arbo ( cormorant) E greta a lba ( great w hite e gret) A nas p latyrhyncho ( mallard) A nas c reca ( teal)

3) 2) 2) 2)

A ythya n yroca ( ferruginous d uck) M ilvus m igrans ( black k ite)

1) 5)

A quila h eliaca ( imperial e agle) H aliaetos a lbicilla ( white t ailed e agle)

6)

S trix a luco ( tawny o wl) C arrulus g landuarius ( jay) P ica p ica

27) 2) 1)

( magpie)

4)

C orvus c orax ( raven) u nidentified b irds

4) 87)

5 7

0 .50

3 4 1

T ABLE

1 8

( Cont'd)

R EPTILE Emys o rbicularis

( pond t ortoise)*

3 17

1 .09

F ISH C yprinus c arpio C yprinidae

*A t

( carp)

1 552) 5 230)

E sox l ucius ( pike) S ilurus g lanis ( catfish)

1) 1 283) 2

o ther f ishes

8 372)

( unidentified)

l east s ome s howed b urning a nd b utchering m arks

5 8

5 9.95

( 1975,

p .49)

T ABLE

1 9

H ABITATS O F V LASAC F AUNA H abitat

F auna

R iverine

f ish, w aterfowl, p ond t ortoise

D ense f orest

n on-riverine b irds, a ll m ammals e xcept c hamois a nd a urochs

O pen f orest o r h igh t o m edium m ountains

c hamois,

P lains,

a urochs

f orest s teppe

( outside G orge)

5 9

e agle

b eaver,

u nidentified.

N o

a ttempt

t o

e stimate

t he

t otal

n umber

o f

f ish

o r

t he

weight o f f ood t hat t his mass o f b ones r epresent i s r eported , b ut we d o l earn t hat s ome c atfish weighed o ver 1 00 k ilograms a nd l arge s pecimens o f c arp weighed 1 5-20 k ilograms s tates l ater

t hat

u ngulates

p ublication h e

p rovided i s

( 1975,

m ore

e quivocal

o n

O bservations

p .50) .

m eat

Bökönyi n evertheless

t han

t his

f ish

p oint

( 1975,

( 1978 ,

p .37) .

I n a

p .168) .

o n S ample B ias

F ish F auna A n umber

o f

a re

r elevant

t o

t he

f ish f auna .

i ssues t he

C asteel

t he g reat p otential

i n

r ecent

c ollection ,

l iterature

o n f aunal a nalysis

p articularly

w ith

r eference

t o

( 1976) h as a rgued a nd a ttempted t o d emonstrate

i n a nalyses

s ubsistence s ystems. n umbers,

r aised

V lasac

o f

f ish

He d iscusses

r emains

f or

t echniques

r econstruction

o f

f or e stimating s ize,

a nd s easonality f rom f ish s cales a nd g ives s everal e xamples

inferential c limate c hange r econstruction b ased o n c hanges s pecies' f requencies a t

s everal C rimean s ites .

I t

i s

a rgued

o f

i n f ish

b y B ökönyi

( 1978) and most o thers writing o n t he I ron G ates Gorge ( see t he I ron G ates C omplex A tlas) t hat c limatic f luctuation within t he G orge was a lways l ess p ronounced t han i n t he s urrounding e nvironment b ecause o f t he

n atural

s heltering

e ffect

humidity and warmth o f

o f

c anyon walls

t he r iver,

b ut

i t

i s

and

t he

s tabilizing

l ikely t hat a dditional

i nsights c ould b e g ained b y a r e-analysis o f t he f ish b one. importantly, r ecovery t echniques, ( as d iscussed b y Payne, p robably h ad a p articularly p owerful b iasing e ffect a t V lasac . ( 1975)

and Limp

a nd Reidhead

( 1979)

b oth

More 1 975) P ayne

s pecifically m ention b ias

against t he r ecovery o f f ish b ones when water s ieving i s n ot u sed. L imp a nd R eidhead ( ibid, p .75) f urther c laim t hat s ome f ish b one s imply d oes

n ot

p reserve

n ormally

e aten

f or e xample ,

u nder

whole

most

b y

c onditions,

m any

a nd

p eoples.

I n

a p opular workers' f ood i s

t he

t hat

s ome

N orthern s mall

small

f ish

Y ugoslavia

f ish ,

Smaris

a re

t oday, smaris,

which i s e aten whole ( fried) . ( Pollen a nalysis w as d one o n c oprolites ( human?) f rom Vlasac, b ut n o mention i s made i n t hat r eport o f o ther kinds

o f

i nclusions

( Cärciumaru,

1 978).

G arson

( 1980,

p .566)

h as

c oncluded t hrough a rcheological t esting t hat even with u se o f a 1 /8" mesh s creen , u p t o 9 9.7% o f s mall r emains a re m issed . T his c onclusion was b ased o n a c omparison b etween 1 /8" s creen r ecovery a nd f lotation r ecovery

r ates.

C onsidering a ll

t hese d our f orecasts,

i t

i s

r emarkable

t hat 6 0% o f a ll b one r ecovered a t Vlasac was f ish, s ince n o s creening was

d one . L imp

c hannel

a nd Reidhead

f ishing ,

a s

( 1979,

a t V lasac ,

p .70) h ave s uggested i nvolves

more e laborate t echnology t han d oes b ackwater l akes where s pawning a nd

a m uch

t hat

h igher

major r iver

l abor

i nput

a nd

t he f ishing o f s till o xbows a nd s easonal

f looding c ause f ish t o

mass. T hey a lso s uggest ( ibid , p .76) t hat t he r elative p roportions o f g iven k inds o f f ish i n t he t otal r iver b iomass c an b e u sed t o s uggest t he a rcheological b ias : c ompletely

absent

f or e xample

f rom

t he

i f

o ne v ery s mall s pecies

a rcheological

r ecord

o f

o f

f isher

f ish , f olk,

r epresents, s ay, 5 0% o f t he t otal b iomass o f t he r iver, t his i s s uggestive o f an under-representation o f f ish among t he f auna and o f s mall f ish among t he

f ish .

6 0

Only

t hree

s pecies,

c arp,

c atfish a nd p ike a re

r epresented a t

V lasac--the t hird, a nd b y f ar smallest o f t he t hree, p ike, b y o nly 1 1. b ones. C arp a nd c atfish a re b oth l arge f ish, a nd t his p articular s ample c ontains e xtremely l arge i ndividuals , a lthough B ökönyi d oes n ot i ndicate w hat p ercentage o f t he b ones f ell i nto t he l argest s ize r ange . T his p art o f t he D anube t oday c ontains a t l east 6 2 s pecies o f f ish , 1 4 s pecies o f amphibians a nd 1 6 r eptiles . ( The I ron G ate C omplex A tlas, p .179) . I t i s o f c ourse d angerous t o a ssume modern f aunal l ists r epresent t he r eality o f 8 000 y ears a go . T hey a re l ikely t o b e a m uch r educed v ersion o f what was a vailable f or t he V lasac i nhabitants . F rom t he amphibians l isted, n one a re i n e vidence a t V lasac. O f t he 1 6 r eptiles, o nly t he p ond t ortoise ( Emys o rbicularis) i s f ound a mong t he f ood d ebris a t V lasac. Many o f

t he f ish a re e aten t oday i n a ddition t o t he c atfish ,

c arp ,

a nd p ike e videnced a t V lasac. O f t he f our most c ommon modern f ish , n one h ave b een i dentified f rom V lasac o r Lepenski V ir. A ll f our a re q uite s mall c ompared t o t he t hree s pecies which h ave b een i dentified . A much more v aried l ist h as b een p ublished f or C uina T urcului, i ncluding n ine s pecies, t wo o f which , b ream a nd s terlet , a re among t he f our most a bundant f ish t oday. T he most c ommon f ish o f a ll, t he b arbel,

i s s till m issing,

a s i s

t he s mall B lack S ea v imba.

L ooking a lso a t t he f aunal l ist f or O strovul B anului ( see b elow) , ac lear p attern b egins t o emerge. O f t he 2 7 f ish c ommon e nough t o b e worth m entioning i n t he m odern D anube, m ost o f t he l argest o nes h ave b een i dentified a t o ne o r a nother s ite . T he n otable e xception t o t his i s t he B arbel, ( Barbus b arbus), which a lthough i t i s n ot v ery b ig ( up t o 4k ilos a nd r arely t o 1 0 k ilos) i s a s b ig a s s ome o ther f ish which d o o ccur a rchaeologically . O ne would e xpect t his f ish t o o ccur b ecause i t i s t he most a bundant s pecies i n t his p art o f t he D anube. The f act t hat t he r oe a re p oisonous c annot b e r uled o ut a s a n e xplanation, b ut i t s eems u nlikely. An e xamination o f t he d ata a vailable o n m odern f ish s pecies a nd t heir r elative importance s uggests t hat: d iminished i n r ecent t ime , w hich would o f

s pecies v ariety may h ave c ourse a ffect t he r elative

i mportance o f r emaining s pecies; t he p resence a nd a bsence o f v arious s pecies a rcheologically , c ompared t o m odern s pecies l ists s eems t o b e r ather s traightforwardly d etermined b y s ize . The l atter o bservation a dds m ore w eight t o t he a rgument f or u nder-estimation o f t he i mportance o f f ish i n t he o verall s ubsistence s ystem i n t he Mesolithic i n t he r egion , a nd a t V lasac i n p articular. The

l isting o f

modern

s pecies

i nhabiting t he D anube,

a lthough

c rude , i s t he b est a pproximation o f t he a ncient p otential r esource b ase t hat was a vailable. A side f rom t wo b arbed h arpoons ( Srejovi6 a nd L etica, 1 978, p . 86), t here i s n o d irect e vidence o f t he t echnology o f f ishing. One c an o nly i magine n ets with s inkers, wooden s pears with s tone p oints a nd p robably b oats--for a ll o f which t here i s n ot a t race o f g enuine e vidence . N albant ( 1970, p .43) i n d iscussing t he f ish f rom C uina Turcului, c omments o n t he d iversity o f s izes o f f ish mixed t ogether a t t hat s ite a nd s uggests t hat b ackwaters a nd v alleys were a rtificially f looded, t hen b locked o ff a nd d rained, a llowing l arge

6 1

s cale c ollecting o f a ll s hapes a nd s izes o f f ish , w ith n o s pecialized t echnology f or d ifferent f ish s pecies . T he D anube was e verywhere i n . t he

G orge

a swift-flowing,

d eep

a nd

d angerous

r iver

u ntil

c ompletion o f t he n ew d am , a nd f ishing i t b y whatever m eans, r equired c omplex s olutions.

t he

m ust h ave

S ample b ias c ausing u nder-representation o f f ish a nd o ther a quatic f auna a t V lasac i s s uggested b y t he p resence o f o nly a f ew v ery l arge s pecies o f f ish a nd b y t he l ack o f water s ieving . T he n ecessity f or h eavy t echnological i nvestment t o p erform e ven a moderate amount o f f ishing m ay s uggest t hat o nce t hat i nvestment h ad b een m ade , t he m ost e fficient a ction would h ave b een t o m aximize f ishing i ntensity . I t i s s uggested , t hen , b ut n ot d emonstrated , t hat t he i mportance o f f ishing r elative t o h unting was m uch g reater t han h as i n a nalyses o f t he e conomy o f V lasac.

b een g enerally

s ugge3ted

M ammalian F auna R eturning t o t he m ammals, P ayne ( 1975, p p . 1 8 a nd 9 ) h as t ested t he r ecovery b ias with t hree a nimals b y c omparing r ecovery without s creening t o r ecovery u sing 3mm s creen . T wo s eparate p atterns e merged : 1 ) r ecovery r ates v ary widely, f rom 5 % t o 3 4% ; and 2 ) r ecovery r ates without s creening s howed c onsistent b ias t owards l arger a nimals - 4 4% o f t he p resumed t otal c ow, 6 % o f t he s heep/goat, a nd 0 % o f t he r abbit were r ecovered i n t he t est b y t rench-sorting . A s econd k ind o f s ample b ias p roduced a b ias t owards l arger b ones o f t he s ame a nimal ( Payne, 1 975, p.11), s o t hat s amples s carce i n c arpals, t arsals a nd p halanges r elative t o l imb b ones, a nd s carce i n s ingle t eeth m ay b e s uspected o f b eing e specially b adly b iased . I t i s n ot p ossible t o a ssess t hese v ariables f rom B ökönyi's p ublished r eport. The f act

t hat o f

t he modern smaller mammals o nly

t he s quirrel

( Sciurus v ulgaris) was i dentified f rom V lasac ( by 5 b ones) s uggests s ample b ias . Whether t hey w ere u tilized o r o ccurred n aturally , t here c ertainly o ught t o h ave b een a n a bundance o f small r odents a round t he s ite . C omparisons b etween a rcheological a nd m odern l arger m ammals a re l ess i nformative, b ecause l arger a nimals a re i f anything o verr epresented i n b iased s amples, a nd b ecause h unting a nd i ntroduction o f d omesticated a nimals h as p robably h ad a b igger impact o n l arge wild a nimals t han o n o ther f auna. Numerous a uthors ( S mith, 1 975, 1 979, Lyman,

1 979,

Grayson,

1 979) h ave d iscussed t he p roblems

o f

b ias

i n

u sing m inimum n umbers o f i ndividuals r ather t han b one c ounts, a nd o f e xtrapolating t o a ctual meat y ields. Meat y ield, f or e xample, c an n ever b e p recisely f igured, b ecause i n a ddition t o v ariables s uch a s s eason , v egetational m aturity , c limate , a ge a nd s ex which a ffect a nimal l ive

w eight,

t he

d efinition

o f

what

c onstitute

t he

e dible p ortions

o f

t he a nimal i s c ultural, a nd known e thnographically t o v ary widely ( Lyman , 1 979, p .536; S mith , 1 979, p .158) . S mith s uggests ( 1979, p .157) l isting a ll s pecies i n t he h abitat, c alculating t he p ercent o f c ontribution o f e ach t o t he t otal b iomass a nd t hen c omparing t hat w ith t he p ercent c ontribution

o f e ach t o

t he

t otal

m eat

w eight

c aptured

i n

t he a rcheological r ecord . P ercents w hich a re q uite d ifferent f or t he s ame s pecies would i ndicate e ither p ositive o r n egative s electivity. This

method

o f

c ourse

i gnores

d ifferences

6 2

i n

t he

amount

o f

e ffort

r equired t o h unt d ifferent a nimals . A t V lasac , a lthough h igh i nitial l abor i nvestment was p robably r equired f or f ishing , t he r eturn p er u nit o f w ork was p robably c onsistently h igher t han t hat f rom s talking t he s olitary r ed d eer i n a h eavily f orested v alley , e ven i f t he d ensity o f t he r ed d eer p opulation i tself was v ery h igh. One m ight t hus a rgue t hat t he l arge q uantity o f r ed d eer h one a nd a ntler r eflect a g reater s electivity t han i ts s traight p erc-ntage r ank i n t he t otal b iomass m ight i ndicate . Grayson ( 1979, p .210) p oints o ut t hat when e stimating m inimum n umbers o f i ndividuals, t hat n umber i s m aximized b y d ividing t he s ample i nto t he g reatest n umber o f u nits. B ökönyi 's m inimum n umbers t herefore a re t ruly m inimal , a s h e t akes t he e ntire s ite a s t he u nit o f a nalysis . This a pproach o f c ourse o bliterates a ny c hange t hrough t ime i n t he t hree major o ccupations o f Vlasac . The r ank o rder importance o f f auna--fish, r ed d eer, p ig , o thers,--is l ess s ubject t o e rror, a s t he d ifferences i n p ercent a re s o l arge b etween t hem: t han 2 % . ( Dog i s m ore b ecause B ökönyi a rgues f or e ating) .

6 0%, 2 3%, 4 %, l ess

i mportant t han w ild p ig , b ut I h ave l eft i t o ut c onvincingly t hat d ogs were n ot k ept p rimarily

Overview a nd C omparisons T urning t o o ther s ites i n t he s ame a rea , L epenski V ir 's f auna were a lso a nalyzed b y B ökönyi. T he r esults a re p resented i n T able 2 0. A much smaller s ample, 3 000 t otal, was c ollected, a nd i s a nalyzed i n t hree u nits a ccording t o t he t wo M esolithic a nd o ne N eolithic l evels i nto which t he s ite h as b een d ivided b y t he e xcavator . T he p ercentage c ontribution o f f ish i n l evel I , a bout 5 7%, i s s imilar t o t hat a t V lasac a s a re r ed d eer, 2 7%, a nd p ig, 2 %, ( Bökönyi, 1 970, p . 1 703). D omesticated d og , a bout 5 % o f t he b one , i s a lso c omparably c ommon , b ut i t i s n ot t he s ame v ariety a s t he V lasac t ype -rather t he " palustris" d og n ormally a ssociated with t he e arliest N eolithic i s r epresented ( Bökönyi , 1 975) . A urochs i s m uch m ore f requent ( 3.30%) t han a t V lasac , a nd i s more f requent h ere t han wild p ig. R oe d eer, marten, b adger, b eaver , a nd b irds w ere a lso p resent i n v ery s mall n umbers . ( Bökönyi , 1 970, p . 1 703). I n P hase I I, d omestic d og i ncreased t o 1 1% and r ed d eer t o 5 4%,

while f ish f all d ramatically t o 2 6% .

I n P hase I II,

t he

e arly N eolithic, r elative p roportions o f d omestic a nimals a re u nlike H ungarian p lain s ites i n t he h igh p ercentage o f c attle ( 16%) a nd d og ( 6%) a nd l ow p ercent o f s heep/goat ( 3+%) -f or a t otal o f j ust 2 5% d omestic a nimals. Red d eer ( 36+%) a urochs ( 7+%) wild s wine ( 9%) a nd f ish ( 15%) make u p t he b ulk o f t he r emaining 7 5%. A lthough t he r elative p roportions o f important a nimals i n L epenski V ir I a re q uite s imilar t o V lasac, t he f aunal l ist i s a g reat d eal s horter a nd t he b one s ample i s v ery small ( total: 4 24). D ata o n which p arts o f s keletons a re r epresented a re n ot a vailable. B irds, s o v aried a t V lasac, a lthough t hey r epresent o nly .5% o f t he t otal, a re r elatively more a bundant a t L epenski V ir ( 1.4%) b ut r epresented b y o nly s ix b ones . T he s mallest o f t he t hree f ish a t V lasac , t he p ike , i s m issing a t L epenski V ir, a s a re t he s mall s quirrel a nd h edgehog. T he l east f requently o ccurring

s pecies

a re

m uch m ore

l ikely

t o

b e

m issed

c ompletely

b y

t he

m ost h urried e xcavation t echniques, a nd t he s mallest a nd m ost d elicate b ones a re a lso d ifferentially a ffected . A lthough i t s eems r easonable t o a ccept t hat f ish d ecreased r elative t o r ed d eer f rom p hase I t o

6 3

P hase I II

4- 0 0 c h H L r l C V 0 4- 0 0 c V N C r )- 0 0 C r ) L r t O N C r ) 0 C V r • f C r ) 0 ,i cY 1 ,4" • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • % . 0 C O 0 0 0 C 0 0 0 0 0

V C V V : ), 4- C

h -

Cr ) N •

C O

0 C T % 0 0 s t 0 • • • c 1 0 C V

) C r

P REHISTORIC FAUNA F ROM L EPENSKI

u

I f ) e • •

0

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N . 0

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C r )

v . ) 0 % e l • • c • I

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r — I • r I

c n

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S us s crofa

9 4

D OMESTIC

T ABLE

2 0

0 4 ' • C r )

^ f

C N

0

C O 4 3 " 0 C O 0 4 & C . ) C O c o

0

X 0 4 4

C O C D

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1 : 5 Q ) $ . 4 C O' 11 0 1'—'

VD CI

I ON I • 0 C f l C • J

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I / 10 4 I 0 I c ' s 4

P hase I I

C • 1 c • I

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4 ) 0 0

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p c 1 0

4 4

p hase 2 , a nd d ecreased f urther f rom p hase 2 t o 3 , t he a ctual e xtent o f t he s hift i s s uspect , a s a re t he h igh f requencies o f a urochs a nd c attle r elative t o s heep/goat a nd f ish, a s t he l atter t wo a re m uch smaller, a nd f ish e specially h as a ll t he p roblems o f p reservation , e tc. d iscussed a bove. L epenski Vir p hase I may b e t he b eginning o f t he s hift i n f ish/red d eer r atios away f rom t he f ish h igh V lasac, b ut d ifferences i n e xcavation t echniques Lepenski V ir d ifferentially a ffecting t he r ecovery o ther s mall f auna may mean t hat t he a pparent s hift s ample b ias .

l ike

p oint a ttained a t a t V lasac a nd a t r ate o f f ish a nd i s a n a rtifact o f

F aunal r emains f rom Padina ( see T able 2 1) a re i n s ome r espects t hose f rom V lasac a nd Lepenski V ir . S everal h ouse f loors a t

P adina

h ave

b een

d escribed

a s

h aving

f loors

" covered

b y

a h eaped

m ass

o f f ishbone" . 3 t o . 4 meters t hick ( Jovanovig , 1 969, p .29). T he presence o f b ones o f d omesticated c ow, s heep/goats, a nd p ig ( in a ddition t o t he unsurprising d og) i n P adina A , t he l evel which a ll a rcheologists a gree i s Mesolithic, m ay b e e xplained b y m ixing o f a rtifacts o n t his multi-component s ite, p articularly b ecause o f t he s teep n atural s lope o n which t he s ite i s l ocated ( Clason , 1 980, p .144) . T he p resence o f d omesticated p ig i n P adina A m ight a lso b e i nterpreted a s e vidence o f l ocal d omestication, a s h as b een s uggested b y B olomey ( 1973) f or t he s ite o f I coana ( Clason , 1 980 , p .157 a nd s ee b elow) . I n P adina B ,

t he

l evel

which

s ome h ave a rgued i s e arly N eolithic,

o thers Mesolithic, i t s hould b e n oted t hat t he o nly well r epresented d omesticate i s t he d og, while 8 0% o f a ll b one i s f ish ( Clason, 1 980, p .171) .

T here i s n o o bvious r eason why r ecovery o f f ish r emains a t

P adina s hould h ave b een m ore e fficient t han a t V lasac a nd L epenski V ir . There were n o v ery small f ish o r mammals r ecovered a t a ll . A f aunal a ssemblage which i s 8 0% f ish , a nd where t he m ost i mportant m ammal i s r ed d eer , d oes n ot i ndicate a n e conomy b ased o n f ood p roduction , e ven i f t he s mall n umber o f b ones o f d omesticated c ows, s heep/goats, a nd pigs r eally b elong t o Padina B , r ather t han r epresenting " contamination" f rom h igher l evels o f t he s ite . T he p resence o f t hese b ones, a nd t he s mall n umber o f s herds a lso r eported f or P adina B , m ay i ndicate c ontact w ith n eighboring f ood p roducers-but h ardly j ustifies c alling t his o ccupation N eolithic. Whether t he s herds a nd b one o f d omesticates " belong" i n P adina B i s o f i mportance i n t he c hronological ordering o f t he Iron Gates s ites, but d oes not c hange t he i nterpretation o f t he p rimary, economic o rientation o f P adina B . S ince d ecreased importance o f f ish i s t ypical o f t he e arliest N eolithic s ites c ompared t o l atest Mesolithic s ites i n t he Gorge, t he importance o f f ish r emains a t P adina B a rgues s trongly f or t he i nterpretation o f t his s ite

a s

a t ruly M esolithic o ne .

n t he R omanian s ide , h as C uina T urcului, t he n earest o f t he s ites o t V lasac ( see C HRONOLOGY t wo l evels, b oth o lder t han t he o ldest l evel a ave a l ot o f b ird b ones, AND DATING). T he o lder l evel i s r eported t o h ather i ntense f ishing t he younger l evel b ones s uggesting " ..a r . art o f t he d iet." a ctivity. Tortoises, mussels a nd s nails were p s l isted i n T able 2 2. ( Bolomey, 1 973b , p . 1 97) . Mammals were a P reliminary work o n t he f ish h as

i dentified

2 3.

6 6

t he s pecies l isted i n T able

T ABLE 2 1 P REHISTORIC F AUNA F ROM P ADINA* L ate M esolithic

E arly N eolithic

D OMESTIC B os t aurus

( cattle)

Ovis/Capra ( sheep/goat) S us d omesticus ( pig) C anis f amiliaris ( dog)

7

2 1

6 1 2 4 2

6 5 179

W ILD E rinaceus e uropaeus

( hedgehog)

L epus c apensis ( brown h are) C astor f iber ( beaver)

4 37

V ulpes v ulpes ( fox) C anis/lupus ( dog/wolf)

6

C anis l upus ( wolf) M artes m artes ( pine m arten) M artes s p. ( marten) F elix s ylvestris ( wild c at) L ynx l ynx ( lynx) M eles m eles ( badger)

6 3 3 4 2 1

U rsus a rctos ( brown b ear) E quus s p. ( horse)

30 1

S us s crofa ( pig) S us s p. ( pig) C apreolus c apreolus ( roe d eer) C ervus e lephus ( red d eer) B os/cervus B os p rimigenius ( aurochs) B os s p. R upicapra r upicapra ( chamois) Ayes

( birds)

Emys o rbicularis

5 5 23 37 763+114 4 1 28 1 7 3

3 3 2 4 5 2 1 5 5 0 1 0 9 2 63+50 1 2 8 2 0

1 6

4

1

1

( European p ond

t errapin)

1 1 1 0

F ISH H ucho h ucho

1 5

( Danube s almon)

8 A cipenser s p./Huso h uso ( sturgeon) 201(24) S iluris g lanis ( cat f ish) C yprinus c arpio C yprinidae

80

( carp)

u nidentified T OTAL * f rom C lason ,

1 980,

p .148

6 7

4 1 5 5 1298 32 29 2

63

620

1 653

2 959

T ABLE 2 2 C UINA T URCULUI M AMMALS*

T axon

C ommon N ame

S us s crofa

w ild s wine

C astor f iber

L evel I ( earlier) N o/MNI M NI%

L evel I I N o/MNI

M NI%

18/7

1 7.7

6 /1

2 .3

b eaver

7 2/7

1 7.7

5 2/4

9 .5

C apra i bex

i bex

7 4/5

1 2.2

11/8

1 9.4

R upicapra r upicapra

c hamois

6 2/3

7 .3

4 9/5

1 2.0

C anis l upus

w olf

3 5/3

7 .3

4 9/5

1 2.0

M artes s p.

m arten

2 9/3

7 .3

1 0/2

4 .7

C apreolus c apreolus

r oe d eer

1 6/3

7 .3

1 /1

2 .3

A lces a lces

E uropean e lk

1 4/3

7 .3

5 /1

2 .3

U rsus a rctos

b rown b ear

2 3/2

5 .0

2 /1

2 .3

B os/Bison

b ison

5 /1

2 .2

6 8/6

1 4.2

L epus e uropeaus

b rown h are

1 /1

1 .0

2 7/2

4 .7

V ulpes v ulpes

f ox

14 /1

2 .2

1 5/2

4 .7

E quus c aballus

h orse

2 /1

2 .2

3 /1

2 .3

F elix s ilvestris

w ild c at

1 /1

2 .2

1 /1

2 .3

C ervus e laphus

r ed d eer.

-

0

2 1/1

2 .3

P utorius p utorius

E uropean p olecat

-

0

1 /1

2 .3

4 66/41 *f rom A olomey,

1 973a ,

p .42

6 8

4 20/42

T ABLE 2 3 C UINA T URCULUI P RELIMINARY F ISH F AUNA*

T axon

C ommon N ame

A bramis b rama

b ream

C yprinus c arpio

c arp

L evel

I N o .

1 33

L evel

I I

4 3

2

C yprinidae s p.

7

L euciscus c ephalus

c hub

4

S iluris g lanis

c atfish

3

E sox l ucius

p ike

S tizostedion l ucioperca

p ike-perch

P erca f luviatilis

p erch

A cipenser r uthenus

s terlet

4

A cipenser g uldenstaedti

R ussian s turgeon

7

* f rom N albant,

1 970,

p . 4 1-42;

1 1 0

2 5

1

G raf,

6 9

1 968

N o .

V eterani Terasa,

I coana,

a nd R azvrata,

P eptera C limente I I a nd

P estera V eterani , a ll d ownstream f rom C uina T urcului , a ll a ppear t o b e. r oughly c ontemporary b oth o n o steological a nd o ther g rounds, a nd t o b e more r ecent t han C uina T urcului I I a nd s lightly o lder t han V lasac I . Only t he b one s ample f rom I coana ( level I ) i s v iewed a s r eliable b ecause b oth R azvrata a nd V eterani T erasa h ad b een h eavily e roded b y t he D anube b efore e xcavation . V eterani T erasa p roduced o nly 3 54 b ones, R azvrata 1 94 b ones, a nd P eetera V eterani a nd P eetera C limente p roduced n one. Mussels, s nails, t ortoise a nd f ish a re a ll r eported t o b e important a t I coana ( level I ) ( Bolomey , 1 973a , p .200) . Mammals w ere a s l isted i n T able 2 4 . L ess t han 1 0% o f t he b one c ould n ot b e i dentified , p erhaps a n i ndication o f h ighly b iased

r ecovery

r ates .

S ome o f t he C anis s p. b ones s uggest d omestication a nd t he p igs s how a c lear p attern o f c ulling s pecific a ge g roups a nd s ome o ther m orphological f eatures t hat m ight s uggest d omestication ( Bolomey , 1 973, p .200) . M ixed o ak f orests with marshy a reas p robably p revalent i n t hat t ime would h ave p rovided a n i deal h abitat f or p igs . F urthermore , t he a ge g roups o f p igs s laughtered i ndicates k illing a t a ll t imes o f t he y ear e xcept A pril-July, s uggesting t hat I coana was o ccupied y ear r ound . ( Bolomey, 1 973a, p .51) . Red d eer a ges a t d eath p ossibly i ndicate winter a nd s pring k illing -N ovember-April a nd A pril-July , p erhaps when r ed d eer d escended t o l ower a ltitude f or w inter f eeding . T hree e arly N eolithic ( Cri ) l evels a t C uina T urcului p roduced m ammals a s l isted i n T able 2 5 . T he whole q uestion o f what d omestication i s h ighly r elevant h ere.

c onstitutes

A t O strovul B anului, which i s a t t he v ery e nd o f t he G orge, f ish s pecies a s l isted i n T able 2 6 were i dentified . I n a g eneral c omment o n " the s ites" o f what i s c alled i n R omania " The S chela C ladovei C ulture" a nd

i n Y ugoslavia

a re

a bundant

a t

" The L epenski V ir

a ll

s ites

b ut

t hat

C ulture" B oroneant i t

i s

i mpossible

s ays

t hat

t o q uantify

f ish t heir

r emains b ecause , w ith t he e xception o f v ery l arge b ones, t he f ish b ones a re f ound i n l arge c alcified b locks, a nd n o a ttempt h as y et b een m ade t o s tudy t hem . ( Boroneant, 1 973, p .16). E uropean R ed D eer E conomies? P robably t he s ingle m ost i nfluential a rticle o n p ost-Pleistocene European e conomies i s Jarman 's, i n which h e a rgues t hat " From t he b eginning o f t he p ostglacial p eriod u ntil t he a ppearance o f t he Neolithic, most o f E urope s outh o f t he B altic was o ccupied b y h uman g roups which e xploited i n p articular r ed d eer a nd p igs, w ith c attle a nd r oe d eer a s c ommon s ubsidiaries." ( Jarman, 1 972, p .125). A c lose i nspection o f t he d ata, h owever, d o n ot s upport t his g eneralization . F aunal d ata o n 1 65 s ites a re p resented b y Jarman b ut 1 13 h ave d ata p resented o nly a s p resence/absence o f s pecies. n othing a bout t he r elative importance o f r ed

T his d eer

o f c ourse s ays a nd s wine, o r

anything e lse. The o ther 5 2 s ites h ave b one c ounts, a nd J arman g ives t he p ercentages f or t hese f or h erbivore s pecies o nly ( ibid, A ppendix 2 ) . This l imited p resentation g ives a f alse impression o f l ack o f s pecies d iversity- - o r c onversely, c oncentration o n a s mall n umber o f s pecies, which J arman i s a lso a rguing . O f t he 5 2 s ites p resented , o nly 3 2

have

t he

p rescribed

d ominance

7 0

o f

r ed

d eer,

a nd

o nly

1 1

h ave

a

T ABLE 2 4 M AMMAL S PECIES A T I COANA*

C ommon N ame

T axon

N o. o f S pecimens

M inimum N o. o f I ndividuals

7 0 MNI

S us s p.

p ig

2 ,038

4 0

3 1.0

C ervus e laphus

r ed d eer

1 ,474

2 6

2 0.2

C apreolus c apreolus

r oe d eer

2 37

1 4

1 0.9

C anis s p.

d og/wolf

2 36

1 2

9 .3

C astor f iber

b eaver

3 4

M artes s p.

m arten

4 4

R upicapra r upicapra

c hamois

2 2

F ells s ilvestris

w ild c at

M eles m eles

b adger

C anis l upus

w olf

U rsus a rctos

b rown b ear

L epus e uropaeus

9 8

7 .0 6 .2

4

3 .1

3

2 .3

3

2 .3

2

1 .5

1 6

2

1 .5

b rown h are

1 1

2

1 .5

B os/Bison

b ison

2 1

2

1 .5

L utra l utra

o tter

2

1

0 .8

L ynx l ynx

l ynx

2

1

0 .8

7 1 3 9

T otal * .from B olomey,

1 973a,

p p.

4 5,

4 ,056 4 6

7 1

1 29

T ABLE 2 5 N EOLITHIC C UINA T URCULUI M AMMALS

T axon

C ommon N ame

I %M NI

C arnivora

I I %M NI

I II % M NI

2 2

2 2

1 8

C anis f amiliaris

d og

2 4+

1 2+

1 2

C ervus e laphus

r ed d eer

1 3

1 2+

1 2

S us s p.

p ig

1 5

1 6

1 2

B ovids

9

1 9

1 8

C aprovines

7 +

9

1 2

C aproelus s p.

r oe d eer

5

6

6

C astor s p.

b eaver

2

4

6

L epus s p.

h are

2

4

T ABLE 2 6 F ISH F AUNA F ROM O STROVUL B ANULUI*

T axon

C ommon N ame

A cipenser r uthenus L innaeus

s terlet

H us h us

b eluga

( Linnaeus?)

L euciscus

c ephalus

A bramis b rama C iprinuS

( Linnaeus)

c hub

( Linnaeus)

c arpio

S h un s g lanis

b ream

( Linnaeus)

c arp

( Linnaeus)

c atfish

S tizostedion l ucioperca L innaeus *B oroneant, )

1 973,

p .16;

G raf,

p erch-pike

1 968

7 2

d ominance o f r ed d eer f ollowed b y s wine. T his i s c ertainly n ot i ndicative o f a ny c lear p attern. P art o f t he p roblem l ies i n p oorly g athered d ata, a s a bout 2 /3 o f t he s ites h ave o nly p resence/absence f aunal d ata . T here i s n o v alid way t o u se t his k ind o f d ata t o l ook a t r elative i mportance o f s pecies. R ecent r eassessments o f t he o riginal r ed d eer s ite , S tar C arr , h ave a rgued t hat m iscalculations o f n umbers o f a nimals, b ased o n c ounting s hed a ntler a s a nimals h unted , a nd f alse e stimates o f m eat y ield , h ave l ed t o t he f alse c onclusion t hat r ed d eer was t he m ost i mportant m eat a nimal ( Anderson e t a l ., 1 981, p .41) . R ed d eer would b e expected t o b e o ver-represented i n u nsieved s amples, which most o f t hese undoubtedly a re, a s i ts b ones a re among t he l argest. On t he o ther h and, i ts v ery l arge s ize would mean t hat a small MNI r abbits o r I n

r epresented i bex .

a l arge

t he I ron G ates G orge

q uantity

r ed

d eer a nd

o f

meat

s wine

r elative,

b ecome

m ore

t o

s ay,

i mportant

t hrough t ime, a nd t hey a re t he most important u ngulates a t V lasac. They a re much o vershadowed i n importance, h owever, b y f ish, which l atter J arman b asically i gnores i n h is o ft-quoted a rticle. E vidence f rom s ome s ites

s uggests t hat c oncentration o n p articular

s pecies m ay h ave b een t ypical i n t he Mesolithic , a lthough t here i s n ot m uch e vidence t o s upport t he i dea t hat r ed d eer , a nd s econdarily p igs, were m ost c ommonly t he s pecies s elected . I n t he I ron G ates G orge t here i s c lear e vidence f or s pecialization o n f ish. I n C uina T urcului I I, t he m ost i mportant m ammal i s i bex , f ollowed b y c ow, wolf, a nd c hamois ( Bolomey, 1 973a, p .42). A t t he l ater s ite o f I coana, p igs d ominate, f ollowed b y r ed d eer ( Bolomey 1 973a, C hateauneuf-lez-Martigues i n F rance

p.45, 4 6). I n s ome l evels a t p t he a nimal i s r abbit ( 95% o f a ll

b one), a t Grotto Mangiapane i n S icily i t i s wild h orse ( Equus h ydruntinus) ( 50% o f a ll b one) ( Jarman , 1 972, p .130). A t O dmut i n M ontenegro i bex a ccounts f or 6 5% o f a ll b one ( Srejovi , 1 975, p .3) , a nd r ed d eer f or 2 5% i n b oth Mesolithic l evels. A t F ranchthi C ave i n t he s outhern P eloponnese r ed d eer a ccounts f or 7 0% a nd p ig f or a lmost o f t he c ounted b one i n t he l owest M esolithic l evel ( fish b one was c ounted) , a nd f ish was s carce . T owards t he e nd o f t he Mesolithic ,

3 0% n ot r ed

d eer was e ven m ore d ominant ( over 8 0% o f t he c ounted b one) a nd p ig h ad d eclined , b ut f ish r epresented f rom 2 0-40% o f t he t otal b ulk o f a nimal b ones

i n v arious units

( Payne,

1 975b,

p .122;

and Payne,

1 973,

p p.60-

6 1). C lark ( 1952, p p.42-47) p oints o ut t hat t here i s w idely s cattered e vidence f or g reat i mportance o f f ishing i n t he Mesolithic , a nd f or a s ophisticated t echnology o f f ishing. F ishhooks a ppear i n t he Maglemosian a nd N atufian , b oats, f ish t raps, s eine n ets, weirs, a nd rong s pears a ppear i n D enmark d uring t he e arly A tlantic l eister , p p eriod . Whales w ere t aken b y t he i nhabitants o f T eviec ( Tardenoisian) C urran Point ( Larnian), Oronsay ( Obanian), a nd Denmark ( Ertebdlle). S eals a re f ound i n Obanian, Kunda, a nd Ertebdlle s ites. D eep s ea f ishing f rom b oats i s i n e vidence a ll a long t he N orth A tlantic C oast o f F rance, t he B ritish I sles, a nd D enmark, a nd a t T eviec a nd Hoedic i n B rittany,

f ish

were

m ore

i mportant

t han

h unted

a nimals .

( Clark

1 952,

p.69-85). p I n

t rying

t o

r econstruct

a p icture

7 3

o f

t he

t otal

a daptation o f

M esolithic p opulations, t he c ontribution o f p lant r esources h as o ften b een i gnored . A lthough m ost m odern s ubsistence d ata o n f oragers c ome f rom n oncomparable a reas l ike t he Kalihari o r t he t ropics, w ith t he e xception o f E skimos, t he d iets o f a ll f oragers a re p redominantly v egetable. F inal i nterpretation o f t he f aunal d ata, t hen, c annot i gnore a vailable i nformation o n p lants.

7 4

P REHISTORIC F LORAL R EMAINS P ollen a nalysis was p erformed o n c oprolites

( of unknown o rigin)

r ecovered a t Vlasac ( Cärciumaru 1 978). C ärciumaru a sserts t hat t he p aleoclimatic a nd p aleofloral e volution o n b oth s ides o f t he D anube i s i dentical , a nd t hat t his e volution c orresponds w ith t he g eneral 5 p hase Holocene e volution f or R omania worked o ut b y Emil P op ( 1929, 1 942). P op's s cheme, f ollows:

d eveloped b efore t he e ra o f R adiocarbon d ating,

1 .

p ine p hase

2 .

t ransitional p ine -larch p hase

3 .

l arch, a .

i s a s

( younger D ryas) ( Pre B oreal)

h azel a nd m ixed o ak p hase

F irst m aximum o f o ak f orest a nd l arch. L arch o n h igh e levations, e lm f requently a t l ow a ltitudes.

( Boreal)

b .

H azel m aximum a nd d ominance o f m ixed o ak o ver l arch. O ak r ecedes i n f avor o f l inden. H azelnut s uddenly s preads, i ndicating t emperature m aximum. ( Atlantic)

c .

L arch m aximum c ombined w ith a m ore m oderate m ixed o ak a nd h azel s pread o n h igh a reas. O ak d ominates t he m ixed o ak f orest. T his s ub-phase a nd p hase a re e nded b y t he a ppearance o f h ornbeam a nd b eech. ( Atlantic)

4 .

l arch a nd h ornbeam p hase

5 .

b eech p hase.

( sub-Boreal)

( sub-Atlantic)

C ärciumaru ( 1978) f its t he V lasac c oprolite p ollen r esults i nto p hase I II o f P op's s cheme . With o nly o ne e xception, n one o f t he c oprolites w ere f ound s uperposed i n t he s ame e xcavation u nit, s o t hat C ärciumaru 's i nterpretations a re t entative c oncerning s equencing o f t he s amples. What C ärciumaru i dentifies a s t he o ldest s ample, f rom s ection A /17, 1 8, l evel X I, which S rejovi " C a nd Letica ( p.c.) i ndicate a s b elonging t o V lasac I o r I I, i ndicates a f orested e nvironment , w ith 8 2.9% a rboreal p ollen . E lm d ominates ( 89.3% o f A .P.) , f ollowed b y h azel, 5 .4% , l inden 1 .4% and o ak 1 .3%. C ärciumaru a ssigns t his s ample t o s ub-phase 3 a o f P op's s cheme, c orresponding t o t he B oreal. S ample 2 , f rom b /17, l evel X VI, b elongs a ccording t o S rejovic a nd L etica t o V lasac I . Cärciumaru a ssigns i t t o P op's 3 b . I t c ontains o nly 2 9 .6% a rboreal p ollen ,

c onsisting o f

l inden 2 0% ,

h azel 4 0% a nd e lm

1 6% and s hows a d oubling i n t he importance o f C henopodiaceae a nd A rtemesia o ver t he p revious s ample . C ärciumaru s uggests t hat t he s hift i n i mportance o f N .A .P . was c aused b y h uman e nvironmental m anipulation r elated t o a nimal m anagement . H e a ssigns t his s ample t o t he p eriod o f t ransition t o t he p ost-glacial c limatic o ptimum.

7 5

Samples 3 a nd 4 f rom d /9 l evels X II a nd XXIV a re t he o nly s tratigraphically s uperposed o nes . L evel X XIV , b elonging t o V lasac I ( Srejovi a nd Letica, p .c .), h as 5 5.2% a rboreal p ollen . L evel X II, b elonging t o V lasac I I ( ibid, p .c.) h as 3 8.4% , s uggesting t he d ecline o f a rboreal p ollen t hru t ime. Aboreal p ollen i n t he o lder l evel i s d ominated b y h azel 6 1.4% , e lm 1 8% , o ak 9 .5% a nd b eech 9 .2% a nd b y h azel 4 1% , e lm 2 4 .9% a nd o ak 1 2.6% i n t he y ounger l evel . T he p redominance o f h azel i n t he e arlier l evel s uggests t he p ostglacial c limate o ptimum. The two s amples p robably a re B oreal i n a ge a lthough t hey c ould a lso e xtend i nto t he A tlantic. The e arlier s ample i ndicates a f orested e nvironment, t he l ater o ne a wooded-steppe. C erealia a re p resent i n b oth o f t hese l evels, ( they a re a bsolutely a bsent i n S amples 1 a nd 2 ) . They a re more c ommon i n t he o lder l evel ( 2.6% o f N .A.P.) t han i n t he y ounger ( .6% o f N .A .P.) a nd a re e xtremely l arge, a pproaching o r s urpassing t he d iameter l imit o f wild C erealia. C henopodiaceae a re a lso q uite a bundant i n t he e arlier l evel ( 22.3% o f r educed i n t he l ater l evel ( 2.6% o f N .A .P.) .

N .A .P.)

b ut

much

S ample 5 , f rom t rench A , l evel V III b elonging t o V lasac I I, h as 4 4% arboreal p ollen , d ominated b y h azel 3 6.7%, l inden 2 0.2%, e lm 1 1% a nd o ak 7 % . V alues f or a lder 8 .4%, p ine 7 .1% a nd l arch 5 % a long with t he a ppearance o f f ir 1 .2% , a ccompanied b y b eech i ndicate c learly t hat t his s ample b elongs t o t he A tlantic p eriod . C ereals a re p resent ( 2.6% o f N .A .P.) a nd more t han h alf o f t hem a re b igger i n d iameter t han t he l imit v alues f or w ild c ereals. C henopodiaceae a ccount f or 1 7.5% o f t he N .A .P. T here a re a lso a f ew g rains ( 1.5%) o f L eguminosae a s t here w ere i n s ample 3 ( .6% o f N .A .P.). A t I coana ( Cärciumaru, 1 973, p .59) t he c ereal g raminae a re a lso a bove t he s ize r ange f or w ild c ereals . S mall p ercentages o f L eguminosae a re a lso p resent i n 6 o f t he 8 s amples f rom I coana . C henepodiaceae r ange b etween 1 6 a nd 5 3 p ercent o f t he N .A .P. S ample 6 c ame f rom S ection a /16,

l evel I V ( Vlasac I II?) .

The

p ollen s pectrum l ooks b asically s imilar t o t hose f rom I coana, a ccording t o Cärciumaru ( 1973, p .57). Arboreal p ollen i s q uite l ow, 2 0.8%. H azel ( 41.2%) d ominates, f ollowed b y o ak 1 8.0%, e lm 1 1.0% and l inden 1 0 .5% . C henopodiaceae d ominate t he N .A .P. s trongly--65.6%, s uggesting h uman i ntervention i n t he C erealia a re p resent ( 1.4%) . i nto

P op 's

3 c

e nvironment i n f avor o f g razing s pace. T his p ollen s pectrum i s A tlantic a nd f its

s ubphase .

S ample 7 c ame f rom 6 /13, l evel X V. I t c ontains 5 8% a rboreal p öllen b ut i n p roportions not c haracteristic o f any c limatic c onditions.

C ontamination i s

I t i s d ifficult

t herefore s uspected b y C ärciumaru

t o r econcile C ärciumaru 's r esults w ith i nformation

a nd i nterpretation p rovided b y S rejovic a nd L etica. s ettlement

w as

s amples

2 a nd 4 t o t he s ame t ime p eriod?

1 ,

o ne

( 1973).

c ontinuous

o ccupation ,

i s

i t

I f t he V lasac I

p ossible

t o

a ttribute

C ärciumaru p uts s amples 1

a nd 4 i n t he B oreal , b ut s ees 3 a s b eing t ransitional B oreal-Atlantic. S amples 3 a nd 5 , b oth s tratigraphically a ssigned t o V lasac I I, a re m ore s imilar i n t erms o f p ollen s pectra, a nd a re b oth a ttributable t o t he A tlantic. S ample 6 i s a lso a ssigned t o t he A tlantic b ut i s d istinct f rom s amples 3 a nd 5 , f or e xample i n h aving a m uch l ower p ercentage o f a rboreal p ollen, a nd a much h igher p ercentage o f C henopodiaceae. I t c ould,

t herefore,

b e s een a s l ater,

7 6

a nd a ssigned t o V lasac I II.

Although t he r elationship b et ween t he pollen d ata and s tratigraphic i nformation a nd i nterpretation a re n ot c ompletely c lear ,. t hese d ata s eem t o i ndicate t hat V lasac was i nitially o ccupied d uring t he B oreal a nd o ccupied s ubsequently t wo more t imes d uring t he A tlantic. A r esolution o f t he r elationship b etween p ollen d ata a nd s tratigraphy m ight b e p ossible i f t he s pecies o rigin o f t he c oprolites were k nown ( J. A dovasio, p .c.). We d o n ot e ven k now i f a ll c oprolites d erived f rom t he s ame s pecies. [ Raikes ( 1978) h owever h as r ecently a rgued t hat t he e vidence i n E urope f or c limatic p eriods i n t he H olocene i s s o weak a nd i nconsistent t hat i t s hould b e d iscarded]. I n t he c ourse o f t hese t hree o ccupations t he v egetation a round t he s ite c hanged f rom h eavily f orested, t o q uite o pen , with n on-arboreal d omination o f C henopodiaceae. T he h eavy d ominance o f C henopodiacae , a nd t he p resence o f c ereals i n s amples 3 , 5 a nd 6 which a re l arger t han t he e stablished s ize l imit f or wild p ollen g rains, a re s uggestive o f d eliberate h uman m anipulation o f t he p lant c ommunity. Overview a nd C omparisons P ollen a nalyses f rom o ther s ites i n t he a rea a nd t ime s pan i n q uestion h ave a lso b een p ublished . P ollen a nalysis d one f or L epenski V ir s howed t ree p ollens s imilar t o t he t rees f ound t oday, with t he a ddition o f b irch , f ir a nd p ine i n t he e arliest M esolithic l evel , a nd p ine a nd w illow i n t he e arly N eolithic l evel.

( See T able 2 7).

The p ollen s pectra f rom B ile Herculane ( see T able 2 8) a nd Gura C heii ( see T able 2 9) a re s imilar t o e ach o ther i n h aving l ots o f h azel and a v ery h igh r atio o f a rboreal t o n on-arboreal p ollen . I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t he p resence o f c ereals i n t hese t wo s ites . Bile H erculane I I i s g enerally i nterpreted a s b eing P re-Boreal ( NicolgescuP lop pr a nd Pgunescu,

1 961).

A t C uina T urcului t he amount o f l inden a nd o ak i ncrease a nd t he amount o f p ine d ecreases f rom l evel I t o l evel I I. S pruce f ir a nd a lder a lso a ppear i n l evel I I. B olomey ( 1973b , p .198) i nterprets t hese c hanges a s r eflecting i ncreased p recipitation . T his i s n ot i n c onflict with t he g enerally a ccepted i nterpretation o f C uina T urcului I a s a t erminal P leistocene P leistocene.

o ccupation,

and

l evel

I I

a s

e arly

post-

P lants A s F ood P ollen s pectra a re u seful a s a n a id i n r elative d ating a nd

t he

d evelopment o f c hronologies, a nd i n t he r econstruction o f c limatic c onditions. They a lso o ffer d irect e vidence o f available p lant f ood r esources . E vidence f or a ctual r eliance o n p lant f oods b y p rehistoric p opulations i s s poradic a nd v ague e xcept u nder u nusual c onditions o f p reservation. I n t he P ost-Pleistocene p eriod i n E urope t he u sual s poradic e vidence may b e f ound. A t T eviec i n F rance t here i s e vidence f or t he e xploitation o f w ild p ear , D enmark o f y ellow water

a nd a t t he M aglemosian s ite o f H olmegaard i n l ily ( Clark, 1 952, p .48). F rom S tar C arr

( Clark , 1 954, 1 971) c omes e vidence a gain o f y ellow w ater l ilies, r ead a nd b og b eans. C henopodium ( Chenopodium s p.), s orrel, a g reen l eafy

7 7

T ABLE 2 7 P OLLEN A NALYSIS,

A rboreal p ollen ,

L epenski V ir I ( c.

T axon

L EPENSKI V IR*

5 900 B .C. u ncalibrated)

C ommon N ame

Amount

B etula s p.

b irch

J uniperus s p.

j uniper

2 0 g rams

T suga s p.

t suga

1 0 g rams

C eltis s p.

h ackberry

5 g rams

P inus

p ine

5 g rams

Abies s p.

f ir

3 g rams

F agus s p.

b eech

2 g rams

s p.

A rboreal p ollen ,

4 00 g rams

L epenski V ir I IIb

T axon

C ommon N ame

( c.

5 400 B .C.

%

Q uercus s p.

o ak

4 4

C arpinus s p.

h ornbeam

1 5

F agus s p.

b eech

1 5

P inus s p.

p ine

1 0

U lmus s p.

e lm

4

C orylus s p.

h azel

4

Abies s p.

f ir

3

S alix s p.

w illow

3

* f rom G igov,

1 972,

p .185

7 8

u ncalibrated)

T ABLE 2 8 P OLLEN A NALYSIS, ( c.

a rboreal p ollen :

8 100 B .C.

B XILE H ERCULANE* u ncalibrated)

8 2%

T axon

C ommon N ame

P inus s p. Q uercus s p.

p ine o ak

U lmus s p. T ilia s p.

e lm l inden

C arpinus s p. A lnus s p. F agus s p.

h ornbeam a lder b eech

1 5 1

B etula s p.

b irch

1

S alix s p. C orylus s p.

w illow h azel

n on-arboreal p ollen :

1 8%

2 d ecreasing 5 4 2 0

1 4 8

( decreasing)

G raminae C erealia C ompositae * f rom C ärciumaru,

5 1 .2 4 1 980,

p .93

' TABLE 2 9* P OLLEN A NALYSIS, ( c. a rboreal p ollen :

8 100 B .C.,

G URA C HEII

u ncalibrated)

9 4.85%

T axon

C ommon N ame

%

P inus s p. P icea s p.

p ine s pruce

1 -2 1

Q uercus s p. U lmus s p.

o ak e lm

1 5 -10 i ncreasing

C arpinus s p. B etula s p. A lnus s p. C orYlus s p.

h ornbeam b irch a lder h azel

n on-arboreal p ollen :

5 .15%,

G ramineae C erealia C henopodiaceae * f rom C ärciumaru, 1 980,

1 1 -2 1 -0 d ecreasing 5 0-80 i ncreasing u nevenly

d ecreasing i rregularly 2 0 .4 2

F ig.34

7 9

v egetable ( Galeopsis t etrahet), c hickweed ( bamex , s p .) , a g reen l eafy v egetable ( Stellaria media) , a nd t wo g reens ( Polygonum a viculare a nd P . p ersicaria) were i dentified f rom t he i ntestines o f t he T olland b urial . N ettle ( Urtica d ioica) , mountain a shberries ( Sorbus a ucriparia) a nd t he l eaves a nd y oung s hoots o f w illow a re a lso e dible a nd were a vailable a t S tar C arr . J ägerhaus C ave a nd F alkenstein C ave i n t he D anube V alley i n s outhwest G ermany h ad e xtensive a mounts o f h azel n ut s hells i n t heir d eposits ( Jochim , 1 976 , p .145) . At

F ranchthi

C ave

i n Greece

e arly

p lant

r emains

r ecovered b y

s ieving and f lotation r evealed o nly p istachio a nd a lmond s hells, i n g reat q uantity, p lus a v ery f ew t races o f p ea a nd v etch ( Vicia s p.). The o nly e arly c ultigen o f t he Neolithic l evel which a ppeared i n a n e arlier l evel was l entil. L entils may h ave b een c ultivated i n t he Mesolithic ( Jacobsen, 1 981, p .308). The d omesticates o f t he e arly N eolithic l evel -E mmer w heat, 6 r ow b arley, b arley a nd l entil -w ere a ccompanied b y much smaller q uantities o f p istachio and a lmond t han were f ound i n t he Mesolithic ( Renfrew, 1 973, p .68). E arly p ollen a nalysis f rom F ranchthi y ielded n o u seful i nformation ( Sheehan a nd Whitehead , 1 973) . M ore r ecently , f urther b otanical s tudy b ased o n t he u se o f water s ieving ( as well a s p ollen a nalysis) p roduced a l arge s eries o f p lant r emains ( Hansen a nd R enfrew , 1 978 , p .351) . T hree g reen l eafy B oraginaeae ( Lithospermum a rvense, Alkana o rientalis a nd Anchusa s p.), v etch, a l egume, ( Vicia s p .), p istachio ( Pistacia s p.), a nd

a lmond

( Prunus

amygdalus

B atch)

a re

p resent

f rom

t he

l ate

P aleolithic t hrough t he f inal Neolithic a t F ranchthi. B oraginaceae d ominate t hroughout t he P aleolithic, a nd t hey d ecrease a s p istachio i ncreases, t o b ecome t he d ominant s pecies i n t he Mesolithic. Wild b arley ( Hordeum s pontaneum C . K och), wild o ats ( Avena s p.) a nd wild l entils ( Lens a ll t hree m ay

s p.) a ppear i n t he l ate P aleolithic a nd Mesolithic a nd h ave b een c ultivated i n t he M esolithic ( Jacobsen , 1 981,

p .308) . T hey a re r eplaced b y d omesticated w heat, b arley a nd l entil i n t he e arly Neolithic. Wild p eas a nd p ear a re e videnced d uring t he M esolithic. A ccording t o M i i e t a l ( 1972, p .181) , o f t he m odern w ild p lants found a t L epenski Vir t oday, 1 65 a re e aten b y p eople, 1 07 a re u sed a s medicines, a nd 2 20 are e aten b y g ame a nd l ivestock. T hose e aten b y humans i nclude: h ackberry, h azel n ut, walnut, wild c herry, a pple, p ear , p lum , a nd h awthorn . M aiC e t a l ( ibid) s uggest t hat f arming a nd d omesticated a nimals, p opulation i ncrease a nd p ollution c aused b y c ommercial u se o f t he r iver h ave a ll t aken t heir t oll, a nd t hat t he v egetation was p robably much r icher i n Mesolithic t imes. We s hall n ever k now which o f t he p lant r esources w ere u tilized b y t he M esolithic i nhabitants, o r h ow important e ach o ne was. S uch i nformation would p ermit t he d rawing o f i nferences a bout p ast p opulation d ensities. O ak , f or e xample, was a nd s till i s p resent i n s ubstantial n umbers a round V lasac . S ome o f t he h ighest g atherer-hunter p opulation d ensities k nown a re r eported f or a boriginal C alifornia--where a corns

( Hassan ,

• Hazel,

s ubsistence

f ocused

o n

1 981) .

whose

n uts

d o

s pecies t hroughout V lasac's

n ot

r equire

t hree

p rocessing,

o ccupations.

was

C ereals,

a d ominant c henopodia,

a nd l egumes were a lso a vailable. C henopodia v ary h ere f rom 2 .6 t o 6 5.6% o f t he N .A .P. B oth t he g reen l eaves and t he s eeds a re widely

8 0

u sed a s f ood . M any o f t he p lant r esources p resent t oday w ere p robably a lso a vailable t hen , s uch a s h ackberry , v arious w ild f ruits, walnut a nd willow . E vidence f or c onsumption o f n ettle ( Urtica s p .) was f ound i n 4 o f t he 7 c oprolites f rom V lasac , a s well a s i n t he i ntestines o f T olland m an . P olygonaceae a re i mportant i n t he N .A .P . o f a ll s amples, v arying f rom 7 .3 t o 2 4% . A m ember o f t his f amily , s orrel ( Rumex s p .), was a lso f ound i n t he i ntestines o f T olland m an . C hickweed ( Stellaria media), a lso f ound i n Tolland man , i s a C aryophyllacea, a f amily p resent a t l ow l evels i n 5 o f t he 7 V lasac s amples. W illow ( salix s p .) i s p resent i n a ll l evels a t V lasac . B uckthorn ( Rhamnus s p .) i s p resent i n a ll b ut o ne s ample and i s q uite i mportant i n s ample 3 ( 28.1% o f N .A .P.) I t i s 9 .3% o f t he N .A .P. i n s ample 1 . Buckthorn v arieties o ccur i n b oth t he N ew a nd t he O ld World a s b ushes p roducing s weet e dible f ruit

( Hedrick,

1 919,

p .489).

A rtemisia a re p resent i n a ll V lasac s amples, v arying f rom 3 .0 t o 1 7.2% o f t he N .A .P. All v ariants r eported b y H edrick ( 1919, p .66) a re u sed a s f lavorings, p articularly i n a lcoholic b everages ( absinthe a nd b eer)

o r

i n

c ooking

L inaceae

( tarragon) .

( Flax

F amily)

a re

p resent

a nd

i mportant

i n a ll

s amples,

v arying f rom 5 .4 t o 3 1.0% o f t he N .A.P. I f

o ne

l ooks

a t

t hese

s amples

a nd a ssumes

t hat

t he c oprolites a re

h uman , a nd t hat t he p ercentage o f p ollen r eflects t he d ietary importance o f e ach p lant g roup, s ome s ort o f p attern emerges. T he r elative importance o f d ifferent c ategories v aries widely, b ut t he N .A .P. a lways h as a t l east f our , a nd a s m any a s s even , d ifferent g roups s trongly r epresented, ( more t han 4 .9% o f N .A.P.). Extreme c oncentrations o f o ne g roup o ccur o nly i n t he l ast l evel, where 6 5.6% o f a ll N .A .P. a re C henopodiaceae. T his c oncentration , a long with t he a ppearance a nd p ersistence o f o ver-sized c ereals i n V lasac I I t hrough I II, o nce a gain h ints a t h uman m anipulation o f p lant c ommunities. Overall,

t he e vidence s uggests a b road s pectrum u tilization o f

b erries, f ruits, n uts, g reen l eafy v egetables a nd s eeds b y t he V lasac s ettlers. The f inal o ccupation may r epresent t he b eginning o f a s pecialization o n s eed p lants : c henopodia , c ereals a nd g raminae , a nd i nitial d omestication, a s a t F ranchthi C ave. D iet a nd N utrition E vidence d iscussed h ere f or t he u se o f v egetable f ood r esources a t V lasac i s r elevant t o a n u nderstanding o f t he n utritional s tatus o f t he p opulation . T he o nly major d isease i n t he s keletal p opulation i s r ickets , o r o steomalacia. T his i s i nterpreted a s e vidence o f D d eficiency, which i s i ncorrect, a s d iscussed b elow ( see P REHISTORIC H UMAN R EMAINS) . T he p redominance o f f ish i n t he d iet r ules o ut t his p ossibility . D d eficiency s unshine)

R ickets i n m odern p opulations i s u sually a ssociated w ith b ecause D i s n aturally a vailable i n f ew p laces ( fish a nd

whereas

c alcium

i s

e verywhere

( dairy

p roducts,

g reen

v egetables, n uts, g rains a nd l egumes) . M ost o f t he d ietary c alcium i n o ur s ociety c omes f rom d airy p roducts, w hich w ere u navailable i n t he M esolithic . A t V lasac n uts a nd s eeds would h ave b een a vailable i n l ate s ummer

a nd

f all,

a nd

c ould

h ave

8 1

b een

s tored

t hrough

t he

w inter.

Legumes a nd g reen l eafy v egetables c ould n ot h ave b een s tored, a nd would have b een available i n l ate s pring and s ummer. The C henopodiaceae, which a re important i n a ll b ut o ne s ample, a re a n e xception t o t he r ule t hat g reen l eafy v egetables p rovide g ood s ources o f c alcium. C henopodiaceae, members o f t he g oosefoot f amily l ike s pinach,

c ontain

o xalic

a cid,

which

b inds

c alcium

a nd

makes

i t

u navailable f or a bsorption . P robably t he V lasac p opulations s uffered s easonal c alcium d eficiencies i n t he l ate w inter a nd e arly s pring when s tored n uts h ad r un o ut a nd f resh g reens h ad n ot y et b ecome a vailable . T his d eficiency would h ave b een a ggravated b y h eavier r eliance o n c henopodia . I n f act, t he e xtensive e vidence f or c alcium d eficiency a t V lasac

s trengthens

t he

h ypothesis

t hat

i mportant.

8 2

c henopodia

w ere

p robably

q uite

P REHISTORIC H UMAN R EMAINS E ighty-four g raves a t V lasac p roduced s keletal m aterial i ndividuals. S cattered f inds o f a nother 6 5 i ndividuals c ame o ver

t he

o ccupied

a rea

( Nemeskeri,

1 978,

p p.97-98) .

The

f rom f rom

1 17 a ll

g eneral

c haracter o f t hese r emains, r epresenting a t all ( females 1 63.32, a nd m ales 1 70 .53 c m) , r obust, C ro-Magnon-type p opulation , w ith a t endency t oward s ome g racilization a s t he Mesolithic p eriod d rew t o ac lose, ( Nemeskgri and S zathmary, 1 978, p p.178, 1 79) i s c onsonant with t he r eports o f t he 3 7 i ndividuals r ecovered f rom 3 0 g raves a t Padina ( iivanovi , S ., 1 974, p .153), and t he 8 5 s keletons f rom Lepenski V ir ( Nemesk6ri, 1 972, p .200). Gracilization, p articularly o f males, i s a g eneral t rend t hroughout Europe M esolithic ( Frayer , 1 978) .

i n

t he

l ate Upper P aleolithic

a nd

A n o dd f eature o f t he V lasac s keletal p opulation i s t he c ondition o f t he c lavicles . C lavicles a re t ypically r obust f or b oth s exes . " It i s p eculiar t hat t he r obustness o f t he l eft s ide i s m ore m arked i n b oth m ales a nd f emales." ( Nemeskgri a nd S zathmary , 1 978 , 1 972) . What t ask n ecessitates t he h eavier u se o f t he l eft o ver t he r ight a rm f or b oth l eft a nd r ight-handed p eople? P robably t he t ask o r t asks i nvolved were t he s ame f or b oth s exes, a nd r egularly a nd f requently p erformed o nes. F ishing, t ypically d one b y b oth s exes, a nd c ertainly a r egular a nd f requent a ctivity a t V lasac, c omes t o m ind, t hough t here p robably w ere o ther " options" t o a ccount f or t his c ondition. Lengyel ( 1978, p . 2 75) has a nalyzed t he V lasac b one f or A BO b lood g roups, a nd c oncluded t hat males a nd f emales, o n t he b asis o f t he A BO s ystem , a ppear t o b e f rom d ifferent p opulations. T he f emales a t V lasac f it r ight i n w ith t he L epenski V ir Mesolithic p opulation , whereas t he p ercentages o f A B f or t he m ales a re q uite d istinct . b lood t ype A B w ere b uried o utside t he s ettlement .

P erhaps m ales w ith S chwartz ( personal

c ommunication) h as p ointed o ut t hat c ollapsing t he 1 ,000-year t ime s pan i nto a s ingle s ample c ompletely i nvalidates a ll c onclusions a bout e volutionary c hanges t han o ne g ene p ool.

i n g enetic

f requencies o r t he e xistence o f m ore

E vidence f or P opulation R eplacement Human s keletal material o ffers d irect e vidence r elevant t o t he q uestion o f p opulation r eplacement o r c ontinuity f rom t he M esolithic t o N eolithic p eriods. O nly L epenski V ir p rovided e arly N eolithic s keletal m aterial which c ould b e c ompared w ith t he a bundant e arlier d ata . S tarcevo s keletons a re " moderately t all" a nd t end t o b e m ore g racile t han s keletons f rom t he p receding p eriod, a lthough g racile a nd r obust v ariants a re d escribed f or t his p eriod ( l iemeskeri, 1 972, p .201, p .202) . N o a rgument i s made o r s uggested f or e vidence o f p opulation a dmixture o f a f ormerly d istinct g ene p ool . 5 0Edynak N eolithic

a nd

F leish

m aterial f rom

( 1983)

h ave

a ssessed

d isplacement

t he

Mesolithic

t he I ron G ates a nd c ompared i t

m aterial , with r esults which a re h ighly r elevant o f t he t ransformation o f s ubsistence s ystems:

8 3

t o

o r

a nd

t o N ear E astern

t he

u nderstanding

Minor m icroevolutionary c hanges s eemed t o h ave o ccurred i n t he I ron G ates b etween 6 ,300 a nd 4 ,500 B .C. However , t he t axonomic c hanges were m inor a nd i n a d irection o pposite t o t he t axonomic t raits o f t he N ear E astern S amples. ( 1983, p .286). C hanges d escribed i nclude r eduction o f t he o cclusal a rea, o verall s ize r eduction a nd t he a ddition o f c usps o n molars. A ll c hanges c an b e u nderstood i n r elation t o d ietary c hanges , t o t he s omewhat s ofter f ish--heavy d iet o f

f rom t he U pper P aleolithic t he Mesolithic a nd t hen t o

t he m uch s ofter c ooked g rains a nd d omesticated m eats o f t he N eolithic . V lasac I material h as a h igh i ncidence o f c rowded a nd r otated t eeth which i ndicates i nitial r eduction i n j aw s ize -r eflective o f l ess heavy u se o f masticatory a pparatus. ( y'Edynak, 1 978a, p .17). Mesolithic m andibles o verall w ere a ssessed t o b e 2 7% m ore p owerful t han N eolithic o nes. F urther e vidence t hat j aw u se was s till v ery h eavy, a lthough r educed f rom t he U ner P aleolithic, c omes f rom t he P adina Mesolithic p opulation where Z ivanovi ( 1975, p .4) d escribes t ypical " heavy a brasion" o f m olars a nd f ractures o f t eeth . R educed u se o f j aws l eads t o a ttainment o f l ess t han maximum p henotypic s ize . This r eduction will p roduce c rowding a nd d ental d isease i n l arge t oothed i ndividuals a nd t hus s election f or smaller t eeth . The c hanges i n V lasac t eeth a nd j aws a re t he s ame a s t hose s een i n t he wolf-dogs d omesticated a t t hat s ite ( y'Edynak a nd F leish, 1 983, p .290) . The c onclusion o f t he a uthors i s t hat t he d ental d ata d o n ot s upport t he h ypothesis o f a n i mmigration o f t axonomically d istinct p eople w ith t he i ntroduction o f N eolithic e conomy ( pottery,

d omesticates,

p olished

s tone). L ongevity, Large

s keletal

F ertility a nd D ifferential B urial

p opulations

s uch

a s

t he

V lasac

o ne

a lso

o ffer

i nformation o n d emographic a nd s ociocultural q uestions. M ortality a nd f ertility r ates a re o f c ourse o nly i ndirectly a nd i mprecisely r eflected b y e xcavation r esults. N emeskgri ( 1978, p .102) a ssumes t hat m ost i nfants who d ied were t hrown i nto t he D anube o r o therwise d isposed o f , s imply b ecause i nfant m ortality a ppears v ery l ow . H e s imilarly a rgues t hat t he i nfant/child mortality a t L epenski V ir ( 14/87) i s t oo l ow a nd g oes o n t o e stimate t hat 1 00 t o 1 50 i nfant s keletons s hould h ave b een f ound. ( Nemeskgri, 1 972, p .193) . T he a ssumptions o n which t his e stimate i s b ased a re worth a b rief i nspection,

a s t hey a re l argely

f älse. H e b egins t he f ertile p eriod f or women a t 1 5 y ears which i s p robably t oo y oung , a nd a lso i gnores a dolescent s terility . H e a ssumes " total f ertility" t hat i s, n o c onscious e ffort t o c ontrol f ertility, a nd e stimates o ne b irth p er woman e very t wo a nd o ne h alf y ears. R ecent g atherer-hunter g roups o f c ourse h ave many f ertility-reducing a nd b irth-preventive t echniques which t hey p ractice with g ood s uccess. L actation o ften c ontinues f or 5 o r 6 y ears, a nd i s a well known s uppressor

o f

o vulation .

A n e xtremely h igh b irth r ate ( average n umber o f b irths p er w oman e stimated a t 8 ) i s t hen h ypothesized a nd b alanced o ff a gainst a n h ypothesized e xtremely h igh i nfant mortality r ate. R ecent r eported i nfant mortality r ates u p t o 5 0% i n 3 rd world c ountries among p opulations which h ave n o medical s ervices a re p robably b ehind t he

8 4

a ssumption H owever,

t hat

p rehistoric

i nfant

mortality

was

a lso

v ery

h igh.

t he s ocial c ontexts a re t otally d ifferent.

N emeskgri a nd L engyel ( 1978, p .246) c haracterize t he p opulation o f V lasac a s h aving o verall g ood h ealth s tatus. Many i nfectious d iseases which r equire f airly h igh p opulation d ensity w ould p resumably h ave b een a bsent. T he l arge s tature o f t he p opulation must b e weighed a gainst t he e vidences o f n utritional d iseases which h ave b een f ound i n t he s keletal m aterial i n e stimating t he o verall n utritional s tatus o f t he p opulation . O ther c ontradictory e vidence o f e ither a cute s easonal f ood s hortage o r i llness, i ndicated b y p resence o f e namel h ypoplasia i s r eported t o d ecrease t hrough t ime a t V lasac. T he f requency o f o ccurrence o f t his e vidence i s , h owever , n ot r eported f or a ny l evel o f t he s ite ( y'Edynak, 1 978b , p .616). Furthermore, t he 1 17 i ndividuals r epresented b y

t he s keletal material

must

b e a small

s ample

o f

a n

o ccupation s pan o f a bout 1 000 y ears. Whatever t he s ocial c riteria were f or b urial within t he s ettlement, i ll c hildren o r women o f c hild b earing a ge a nd p roven f ertility ( female mortality i s a t a maximum b etween 3 0-39 y ears a ccording t o t he s ample) c ould e asily h ave b een s elected f or e ither d eliberately o r t hrough f ortuitous c orrelation w ith s ome o ther v ariable . I t i s d angerous t o g eneralize t o t he p opulation when

we

h ave

n o u nderstanding

o f

t he

way

i n which

t he

s ample was

c reated. Another s tartling " fact" i s t hat l ife e xpectancy i s h igher f or m ales t han f or f emales b oth a t V lasac a nd a t L epenski V ir ( Nemeskgri, 1 978, p p .102-106 ; N emeskgri, 1 972, p .194) . A ccording t o r ecent U nited N ations S urvey D ata o n 1 44 c ountries f or which d ata w ere a vailable , i n o nly 3 3 i s l ife e xpectancy g reater f or m en t han f or w omen , a nd i n o nly 1 0 o f t hose 3 3 i s t he d ifference e qual t o o r g reater t han 1 y ear. ( Boulding , 1 976) . I t d oes n ot s eem l ikely t hat p owerful s ocial f actors o perating s electively a gainst t he s urvival o f women would h ave e xisted i n what must h ave b een b asically a n e galitarian s ociety. R ather, s elective b urial w ithin t he s ettlement m ust h ave b een p artly d etermined b y s ex a nd a ge s tatus, o r b y o ther c riteria which t ended t o c orrelate w ith

t hose . S keletons

o f

f emales

a nd

o lder

i ndividuals

a lso

t ended

t o b e l ess

w ell-preserved , ( Nemeskgri . 1 978 , p .99) s uggesting d ifferential b urial p ractices v arying with s ex a nd a ge. B oth s exes a nd a ll a ges were b uried i n e xtended p ositions ( 34 c ases) , 6 s econdary b urials o f whole s keletons w ere a ll a dult m ales, t en c remations i n V lasac I w ere a ll o f a dults, a gain s howing a p attern o f s ex a nd a ge b eing important i n d etermining t he where a nd h ow o f b urial ( Srejovi a nd Letica, 1 978, p .149) . S econdary b urials i n a bandoned h ouses w ere r eserved f or o lder a dults o f b oth s exes a t L epenski V ir ( Srejovi6, 1 972, p .119). R are s eated b urials, a nd s econdary b urials o f s kulls o nly w ere r eserved f or o lder males, a nd s econdary b urials o f mandibles f or a dult f emales ( Letica,

1 974,

p .57) . S keletal P athologies a nd N utrition

The p athology i n V lasac s keletons ( Nemeskgri a nd Lengyel,

1 978)

r aises s ome i nteresting i ssues. Eleven o f t he 2 5 c hild s keletons s howed e vidence o f r ickets , s ix o f t hese o nly i n t he m ildest d egree ( on

8 5

a s cale o f o ne t o f our). I t i s s urprising t o f ind a V itamin D d eficiency d isease i n a p opulation a s h eavily d ependent o n f ish a s t hese p eople were. D d eficiency i s a lso d escribed f or t he Padina p opulations a nd a ttributed t o t he l ack o f s un a fforded a s ettlement i n , 1 973-74, p .149). F urther p resumed e vidence o f a g orge (ivanovi6 v itamin D d eficiency a t V lasac i s f ound i n 1 5% o f t he male a nd 2 5.7% o f t he f emale s keletal p opulation 's e xhibiting o steomalacia , a s oftening a nd b ending o f t he b ones which c an e specially b egin i n p regnancy t hrough a l ack o f v itamin D , w hich d isrupts t he m etabolism o f c alcium ( ibid, p .241) . S ix o f t he c hildren with r ickets were l ess t han s ix months o ld, a t which a ge t hey would c ertainly h ave s till b een wholly b reast-fed. This i s p robably c onnected t o t he h igh o ccurrence o f o steomalacia i n w omen . S chwartz ( personal c ommunication) h as s uggested t hat a c alcium d eficiency m ight b e c ausative o f t he d isease s pectrum d escribed a bove . V itamin D f acilitates t he a bsorption o f c alcium a nd a D d eficiency m ay p roduce a c alcium d eficiency , b ut a s traight f orward c alcium d eficient d iet i s much more p lausible t han a D-deficient d iet f or a p opulation which r elied extremely h eavily o n f ish . Major s ources o f c alcium i nclude m ilk a nd m ilk p roducts u navailable i n t he M esolithic , a nd g reen l eafy v egetables. L egumes a re a " fair" s ource, a nd meats, n uts, a nd g rain a re d escribed a s p oor s ources ( Wilson e t a l, 1 975, p .156). W irtschafter ( 1942, p p .72, 7 3), h owever , g ives h azelnuts 2 87mg c alcium p er 1 00 g rams o f n uts, a nd a lmonds 2 30mg o f c alcium p er 1 00 g rams. S ince t he d aily a llowance o f d ietary c alcium f or a dults who a re n either p regnant n or l actating m ay b e n o h igher t han 4 00-500mg , o r p ossibly a s h igh a s 8 00mg ( Wilson e t a l , 1 975, p .156) , i t would s eem r easonable t o c all a t l east t hese n uts--both o f which were a vailable i n t he I ron G ates d uring t he Mesolithic--r a t her g ood s ources o f c alcium. E specially d uring t he l ate winter, c alcium may h ave b een i n s hort s upply, when s tores o f n uts were u sed u p, a nd g reen l eafy v egetables n ot y et a vailable. T he h eavily f orested a nd s teep r iver b ank would a lso h ave a fforded a s hady e nvironment, e specially i n t he winter, d uring which s eason t here might a lso h ave b een a s hift f rom f ish t o l and mammal e xploitation , r educing d ietary v itamin D . A f inal c ontributing f actor m ay h ave b een h eavy c onsumption o f c henopodia i n e arly

s pring .

A s

d iscussed

a bove ,

c henopodia

b lock

t he

a bsorption

o f

c alcium. O verall , h uman s keletal r emains i ndicate a p opulation w hich w as w ell-nourished e xcept f or c hronic s easonal c alcium d eficiencies.

8 6

N ON-CHIPPED S TONE A RTIFACTS: A S YNOPSIS B one a nd A ntler T ools S rejovi a nd L etica ( 1978) r eport a lmost 4 ,000 b one, a ntler a nd t usk t ools r ecovered f rom Vlasac I , I I a nd I II. T able 3 0 s ummarizes t hese f indings. A ntler T ools. deer, and

T he a ntler t ools a re m ost have been classified

r ed by

d eer , the

" exceptionally" r oe authors into 4

f unctional/technomorphic g roups: p ointed a rtifacts, c ylindrical a nd s emi-cylindrical a rtifacts with a c utting e dge, p erforated a rtifacts a nd b arbed a rtifacts, o r h arpoons. P ointed a rtifacts a re s ubdivided i nto p oints, d aggers a nd p rojectile h eads. P oints, m ade m ostly o n t ine t ips, a re s ubdivided i nto s ymmetrical , a symmetrical a nd c ogs, o ccurring a s i ndicated i n T able 3 1. Daggers f rom 1 6-22 cm l ong were a lso made o ut o f t ines with p olished p oints s moothed o ff where t hey h ad b een c ut f rom t he c rown o f t he a ntler . F our e xamples c ame f rom e ach o f t he t hree o ccupations. P rojectile p oints, 4 .5 t o 7 cm l ong, i nvolving a p oint a nd a o ne-sided e xtension f or h afting, were f ound i n two s ettlements: V lasac I I: 1 8; V lasac I II: 1 6. C ylindrical t o s emi-cylindrical a rtifacts with a c utting e dge were a lso s ubdivided i nto 4 f unctional/technomorphic g roups : b urnishers, h oes , a xes a nd a xe-hammers . B urnishers were u sually m ade o f t he l owest a nd t hickest p art o f t he s haft o f t he a ntler , s plit l ongitudinally , s o t hat t he a rtifact t apered i n c ross-section a nd h ad a r ounded , s patula l ike e nd. Hoes were s i milar t o burnishers except t hat t he l ongitudinal c ut o nly which was t riangular F rom i llustrations, t hose o f b urnishers, l engths.

i nvolved o ne e nd , g iving t he a rtifact a work e dge i n c ross-section , a ttached t o a r ectangular s haft. t he c utting e dges o f h oes l ook l ess a cute t han which a re l ongitudinally s plit f or t heir whole

Axes a re made o n f orked s egments,

o ne e nd o f which was c ut

d iagonally t o f orm a c utting e dge. Axe-hammers, made o n b asal s egments, h ad a l ongitudinally c ut a nd p olished e dge o n o ne e nd a nd a f lat p olished e nd o n t he o ther. C ylindrical a nd s emi-cylindrical a rtifacts with c utting e dges were d istributed a s

i ndicated i n T able 3 2.

P erforated a ntler a rtifacts were r eported a s f ragmentary

f or

c lassification .

T hirty-six which

b eing m ostly t oo

c ould

b e

c lassified

were d ivided i nto m attocks ( blade i s p arallel t o h andle, a s with a n a xe) a nd p icks ( blade i s p erpendicular t o t he h andle a s with a n a dze) . M ost f requently

t hese t ools w ere m ade o n f ork s egments

Two h arpoons w ere f ound i n V lasac I , a nd o ne o n a r ed d eer s capula.

o ne

( Table 3 3).

m ade o n r ed

d eer a ntler ,

B oth a re b arbed o n o ne s ide o nly.

B one Tools. B one t ools h ave b een d ivided i nto f lat a rtifacts a nd p ointed a rtifacts. The f lat b one t ools a re m ade mostly o n t he metapodials, and e specially t he metatarsals o f r ed d eer a nd a urochs. T hey h ave b een s ubdivided i nto c hisels, b urnishers-points, k nives a nd a xes. The c hisels a re made o n metatarsals o f a urochs. The j oint e nd i s i ntact a nd t he o pposite e nd i s c ut d iagonally a nd p olished t o f orm a

8 7

T ABLE 3 0 B ONE, A NTLER A ND T USK T OOLS*

A ntler

B one

B oar's T usk

T otal

V lasac I

4 62

1 59

4 1

6 62

V lasac I I

189 1

3 88

9 0

1 667

V lasac I II

1 076

3 77

9 9

1 552

T otal

2 727

9 24

2 30

3 881

*F rom S rejovi

a nd L etica,

1 978,

p .83

T ABLE 3 1 A NTLER P OINTS

S ymmetrical P oints ( 4.5-6 c m)

V lasac I

A symmetrical P oints ( 4-7 c m)

C ogs ( 5-9 c m)

2 5

8

V lasac I I

2 6

4 1

3

V lasac I II

2 4

4 9

6

8 8

T ABLE 3 2 ( SEMI ) CYLINDRICAL ARTIFACTS W ITH C UTTING E DGES

V lasac I V lasac I I V lasac I II

B urnishers ( 5-17 c m)

H oes (6-17 c m)

6 3

5 8

15 1

1 83

7 5

1 62

A xes (12-17 c m)

5 1 0 2

T ABLE 3 3 P ERFORATED A NTLER A RTIFACTS

M attocks

P icks

( 15-20 c m)

(16-35 c m)

8

V lasac I I V lasac I

6

II V lasac I

5

1 2 5

8 9

Axe-Hammers (8.5-10.5 c m)

( 2) 1 0 6

c hisel-like e nd . T he j oint e nds a re t rimmed s mooth . B urnisher-points a re m ade o n u ngulate m etapodials, m ost f requently r ed d eer . T he j oint• e nd i s t rimmed d own t o m ake i t f lat. F rom i llustrations t he w ork e nds l ook l ike t hose o f t he c hisels , e xcept t hat t hey a re n arrower b ecause t he t ool i s c ut o ff f ar f rom t he j oint, where t he b one i s t hinner. K nives d iffer f rom b urnisher-points p rimarily i n t hat t he j oint e nds a re e ither t rimmed away c ompletely o r much t hinned d own . Axes a re e ither p arallel-sided o r e xpanding t o t he c utting e dge. I t i s n ot c lear whether t hey a re b eveled f rom b oth s ides, o r j ust o ne. T he d istribution o f f lat b one t ools i s i ndicated i n T able 3 4. P ointed b one t ools h ave b een c lassified b y t he e xcavators a s a wls, b orers, p ins a nd p rojectile p oints. Awls with t he j oint l eft o n o ne e nd were

made

o f a urochs,

r ed a nd r oe d eer metacarpals o r t arsals.

Awls w ith t he j oint r emoved were m ade o f m etatarsals, c arpals o r u lnae o f a urochs o r r ed d eer. Awls with r ound c ross-sections a re n ot v ery d istinct

f rom

what

a re

c lassified

a s

p rojectile

p oints,

a nd

a re

m ade

f rom l arge mammals. D ouble-ended awls, with a p oint o n e ither e nd, w ere a lso m ade f rom l arge mammal b ones, a nd were t echnically t he m ost f inely m ade o f a ll b one t ools a t V lasac. B orers were m ade f rom m etatarsals o f l arge u ngulates . T he s hafts widen r apidly a bove t he t ip , which i s f lat o n t he e nd . P ins, m ade f rom l arge m ammal b one , a re c haracterized b y t hin , s harp p oints a nd t hinned b ases.

P rojectile p oints,

f rom

l arge

m ammal b one,

a re p ointed a t

o ne

e nd, with a r ound c ross-section, a nd f lattened o n o ne o r t wo f aces a t t he o pposite e nd, f or h afting. T he majority a re i ncised o n t he b ase with l ong a nd s hort l ines f orming a n et d esign . P ointed b one a rtifacts a re d istributed a s i ndicated i n T able 3 5. B oar's Tusk . O f t he 2 30 p ieces o f worked t usk, 1 12 were j udged t oo f ragmentary f or c lassification . T he r emainder h ave b een c lassified i nto f ive g roups : p unchers , p uncher-scrapers, s crapers, c hisel-axes and p endants. P unchers h ave s hort r ectangular o r o val b odies a nd s traight o r c urved, l ong t hin p oints. P uncher-scrapers a re l ike s crapers, e xcept t hat t he b ody o r h andle i s a dapted f or s craping . T he s hapes a nd s izes o f p uncher-scrapers c an b e u sed t o s ubdivide t hem i nto :

r ectangular

o r

t rapezoidal

b ody ,

c rescent

s haped ,

a nd

c rescent-

s haped with a h ollow c ut o ut o f t he c urve t o d emarcate t he t wo e nds. There were f our s crapers, r ectangular a nd c ut t o s hape o n a ll f our s ides. C hisel-axes h ave t rapezoidal o r t riangular p lan v iew s hapes. T hree r oughly r ectangular p endants h ad c ontracted n ecks, p resumably f or s uspending f rom a s tring . T he d istribution o f w orked b oar 's t usks a t V lasac i s i ndicated i n T able 3 6 . R ed d eer c anine i s a lso m entioned a s b eing u sed,

b ut n o d etails a re p rovided. C omparisons

N o o ther s ite i n t he I ron G ates r egion h as a p ublished d escription o f b one t ools which c an b e c ompared with Vlasac. G ates, p ictures a nd p assing r eferences i ndicate t he t ools

s imilar

t o

t hose

f ound

i nformation a bout t he k inds

a t

V lasac,

b ut

Within t he I ron e xistence o f b one

t here

o f b one a nd a ntler u sed ,

o r

u sually

n o

t he n umbers

i s

o f

a rtifacts f ound. A t L epenski V ir ( Srejovi , 1 972) a ntler b orers, p olishers, s crapers a nd s calpels ( sic!?) a re r eported f or l evel I a nd

9 0

T ABLE 3 4 F LAT B ONE T OOLS

C hisels ( 8-10 c m) V lasac I V lasac I I V lasac I II

2 1 1 8

B urnisher P oints (12-24 c m) 5

K nives (12-18 c m) 2

A xes (4.5-9.5 c m) 8

2 5

1 5

6

2 4

1 9

9

9 1

C 1 ) r I . r 1 CO 4 ) 4 ) C ) r I C 1 ) • " , ) 0 0 ra4

$ 4 PI

, . E C . ) 4 . i I l . r )

4 , — I

,1 . . t

1 , , 1 "

‘ . 0

C N I C . 1

, . 0

4

r . .

, L )

0 r— f

1 . ' . C • I

Ch C N 1

, i -

r .

C I

. . 1 , . .. .,

C . )

c o

0

• r i C 1 4

I 1 1

, 4

r -4 • % .0 . . . ."

. • •• ••

e

r I • C V O I • f • . " . .

c n E

C I D C . ) C V r I C O 4 I r 4 • I • , 1 I A

. i C' , 1

( , ) V Z )

Cg

CN

C O

p — I

I A

o • . , ), £ ) . .

C l . ) 4 1 C \ 1 I r l O L • r ) • t n % . . . . )

. i

L n

0 )

V lasac I II

r -I

V lasac I I

•

4 1

V lasac I

P OINTED B ONE ARTIFACTS

c o I 9 ' ) , . . ,

c o 4 . )

,. e C J

c L i " 0

se I C, )

0 )

L r ) I L n •

. 4 -

e n

L (

( " 1

• • ••

e

$ . 1

C V g t .

C. )

c L i $ 4

c n I

C . ) C / 3

. 1 -

1

I

CV ,. . . ,

4 J e •. c u c uu ) C V u4 C l ) C I ) ( 1

0 , i I C Y N '—

C l ) $ 4 a )

P uncher—Scra

C V

., s -

C l )

i

0 0

V D

O D

1• • • •

o •-•

4 ) C . ) ( 1 ) C . ) . 1-

e l

P — I

I P 0 O

C . ) . i , . . . . ,

0 . 4

, 4 , . 1

i n 1 4

r 1

V lasac I II

I

V lasac I I

E

• C ) 4 ) C . ) L A C 1 ) • • 0 0 I . 1-

P unchers

W ORKED B OAR

1 4

. . . ,

C hisel Axes

a ,

I

• ••

C . ) v 0

I

vD

0

Zr . . . .,

I I ( the p re-ceramic l evels). P ictures s uggest t he p resence o f b urnisher-polishers , k nives, a xes, c hisels, a wls a nd p endants, a lthough i t i s v ery d ifficult t o j udge, a s t he d rawings l ack b oth s cales a nd c ross-sections. At Padina ( Jovanovi , 1 971a, 197l b) c asual i llustrations s uggest t he p resence o f r ed d eer a ntler p oints, a nd b urnishers, a nd p erhaps b one b orers.

" daggers"

T he i dentification o f c ertain b one a rtifacts a s p rojectile p oints i s s upported b y t he d iscovery o f t wo s keletons a t S chela C ladovei w ith b one p oints d eeply i mbedded i n a r ib a nd i n a f emur o f o ne, a nd i n t he s kull o f t he o ther ( Nicholäescu -P lo uor , 1 976) . N o d etails a re g iven o n t hese p oints b ut f rom t he p ictures t hey l ook i ndistinguishable f rom V lasac b one p oints. S uch d eep p enetration i nto b one c ould p robably o nly b e e xplained b y t he u se o f b ow a nd a rrow. I n a g eneral a rticle o n t he S chela C ladovei C ulture, B oronearq ( 1973) d escribes a ntler h oes a nd d igging s ticks with s haft h oles i n t hem, p endants, s crapers, b urnishers a nd awls o f b oar's t usk, awls, s patulas, d aggers a nd p oints o f b oar b one. I n a m ore r ecent a rticle ( Boronearq, 1 981) , h e s pecifically l ists t he u se o f t he t hree m ain r aw m aterials f ound a t V lasac : r ed d eer a ntler , b one a nd w ild b oar 's t usk -as b eing t he p redominant r aw m aterials u sed i n t he S chela C ladovei c ulture. O n t he b asis o f i llustrations, t he b one p rojectile p oints l ook t he s ame a s t hose f rom V lasac. A s hafthole a ntler t ool f rom I coana a lso l ooks l ike t hose f rom V lasac ( Boronean;, 1 980, p .291). A r ectangular b one p endant f rom t he p ost-Pleistocene l evel a t C uina T urcului l ooks i dentical t o s everal f rom V lasac ( Päunescu , 1 970, p .21) . O ne h arpoon f ragment a lso c ame f rom t his l evel which i s d escribed a s h aving " a l ot o f b one" . R ed d eer a ntler t ools f rom O strovu Mare l ook l ike t he p oints a nd a xes f rom V lasac ( Boroneanr, 1 979b , p .38) a s d o t he b one p rojectile p oints, p ins a nd a wls f rom O strovu Mare . A s haft-hole a ntler t ool f rom A libeg , a nd s hort a ntler t ools w ith c utting e dges f rom O strovu C orbului i llustrated b y Päunescu ( 1980, p .542) would a lso f it i nto

t he V lasac

c ollection .

O n t he b asis o f a vailable i nformation , t hen , t he a ntler , b one a nd t ooth i ndustry o f t he I ron G ates r egion l ooks t he s ame o ver a s pan o f s everal t housand y ears, f rom t he e arly p ost P leistocene l ayer a t C uina T urcului t o t he t ransitional s ite o f A libeg , where g atherer-hunters m ay h ave b een t rading w ith f armers . B oronea r4 ( 1976b , p .39) a sserts t hat b one a nd a ntler t ools c ontinue r ight t hrough t he N eolithic a nd B ronze a ge. B one a nd a ntler t ools f rom t he m iddle-late N eolithic s ite o f D ivostin l ook l ike V lasac t ools, a lthough t here a re n o s haft-hole a ntler t ools f rom t he e arly N eolithic i n S erbia , s o s traight-forward c ontinuity, a t l east t o t he s outh o f t he I ron G ates, i s n ot c lear ( A. McPherron , p .c .) . E arly N eolithic s ites k nown i n t he I ron G ates r egion h ave n ot b een p ublished , a lthough B oronean Vs a ssertion o f c ontinuity c ertainly t akes a ccount o f e xcavated m aterials f rom s everal o f t hese s ites. T he r eporting o f b one t ools f rom c ontemporaneous s ites o utside t he I ron G ates r egion i s a lso q uite p oor. A t F ranchthi c ave o nly 2 2 b one t ools were f ound i n t otal, a nd s even o f t hese were d escribed " scraps" ( Jacobsen 1 973a). T he c ontrast with t he s heer v olume V lasac

material

i s

s triking.

T he

9 4

small

s ite

o f O dmut

a s o f

p roduced 5 6

h arpoons -p erhaps t his s ite was a s pecial a ctivity, t emporary f ishing c amp. An u nspecified number o f awls made o n t he metatarsals a nd . c arpals o f r ed d eer a nd a urochs, o ne b one c hisel a nd s ome b oar t usk p endants were a lso r eported . ( SrejoviC , 1 975) . A lthough O dmut i s v ery f ar away f rom t he I ron Gates, i ts b one t ool a ssemblage c ould b e a s pecially s elected ( and n on-representative) s ample o f t he t otal b one t ool k it f rom V lasac . S o l ittle i nformation i s a vailable o n b one t ools t hat i t i s n ot even p ossible t o s ay whether t he v olume o f b one t ools a t V lasac i s u nusual . S ince f ishing was a n e xtremely i mportant s ubsistence a ctivity i t i s s urprising t o f ind o nly t wo h arpoons . T he f unctions o f m ost b one t ools c an o nly b e p resumed, b ut most workers a ssume t hat s ome o f t he l arger , p articularly a ntler , t ools f unctioned a s d igging s ticks o r h oes i n t he e arly a gricultural s tage . B oronean a nd o thers h ave p ointed t o t he abundance o f h eavy b one a nd a ntler t ools a s o ne p iece o f e vidence f or t he b eginning o f p lant c ultivation b efore t he a ppearance o f t he f armers f rom t he s outh with t heir p ottery , t o t his p oint l ater.

s heep ,

e tc .

I will

r eturn

G round a nd P ecked S tone T ools O ne h undred a nd t hirty-one g round s tone t ools w ere f ound a t V lasac and h ave b een c lassified b y t he e xcavators i nto f ive more o r l ess " functional" g roups : c lubs, a xe-boulders , p olishers , p ercussion t ools a nd s ling b alls. T hey a re d istributed a s i ndicated i n T able 3 7.

m ade

" Clubs" a re e longated " baseball-bat" s haped o bjects which were f rom a v ariety o f s edimentary a nd v olcanic r ocks, a nd f rom s late ,

i n a v ariety o f e longated s hapes .

A ll o f t hem a re l eft r ough o ver p art

o f t heir s urface . T he s ize r ange i s 1 8-25 c entimeters, b ut s ome b roken o nes s uggest t hat t here w ere b oth smaller ( 12-15 c m) a nd l arger ( circa 5 0 cm) s pecimens. S ome c ould c onceivably h ave b een u sed a s p estles. Two, o ne f rom V lasac I and o ne f rom V lasac I II, a re d ecorated with b ands o f z ig z ag l ines r unning t he l ength o f t he t ool ( ibid, p .99). S imilar a rtifacts f ound a t L epenski V ir h ave b een i nterpreted a s c lubs f or

k illing

f ish

( SrejoviS ,

1 972,

p .132) .

Axe-boulders l ook l ike t he g round s tone a xes o f t he e arly N eolithic, b ut t he t hree r ecovered a re n ot a s well-proportioned o r f inely f inished a s a re N eolithic o nes .

B ased o n t he i llustrations,

t wo

o f t hem l ook l ike t hey were r oughed-out b y f laking , a nd t hen f inished b y g rinding d own t he f lake s cars--the s ame m anufacturing t echnique a s w as u sed i n t he N eolithic

a nd

( Prinz,

i n p ress).

P olishers were m ade o f h ard m aterials s uch a s g ranite a nd g abbro, h ad a U-shaped o r V-shaped c hannel. O n whole s pecimens, t he

c hannel was 3 .5 t o 6 .5 cm l ong t o 1 t o 2 cm d eep. ( Srejovi6 a nd Let c a, 1 978, p .99). These p olishers were p robably u sed i n manufacturing b one implements a nd p erhaps a rrow s hafts. The small n umber s eems s urprising . P ercussion t ools a re e gg-shaped o r d iscoidal s tones with o ne o r m ore r ound o r e llipsoidal d epressions . T hey r ange b etween 8 a nd 1 5 c m i n t he l argest d imension . ( ibid, 9, p .100). T here i s n o r eal 9

9 5

o c . 1

L n i n

A ND P ECKED S TONE T OOLS*

I

n z

c N i

% . o t r )

. 1-

c e )

C O C U , • C C O • r i , 1 0 ni

, 1

c V

c q

o r : c _ D

V lasac I II

V lasac I I

V lasac I

I

evidence that they were used as percussors. They could be unfinished aet weights - with the hole for net attachment uncompleted. Finished. net weights might well have all ended up in the river. Weights left on nets mi ght have been stored away from the houses and thus not discovered during excavation. Sli ng balls had a diameter of 2.5 to 5 cm, (i bi d, p.1OO). might also have been used as net weights.

They

It is important to note the absence of any clear seed-gri ndi ng equipment, as evidence for the exploitation of grasses, and later true cereals, in sites on the Rom anian si de as well as at Vlasac (see below). Objets d 'Art "About one hund red" non-utilitarian decorated objects, and 44 decorated utilitarian tools were reported recovered from levels I-III of Vlasac. The non-utilitarian objects were so labeled based on their lack of resemblance to any utilitarian tool types/classes and to their apparently total absence of functional attri butes or signs of use. Twenty-eight of these were roughly spherical (8-14 cm) boulders which had been pecked and/or polished and painted with red ochre. Nine were recovered from Vlasac I and from Vlasac II, and ten were recovered from Vlasac III. O ne from Vlasac II had been extensively engraved with geometric designs and with a possible stylized human figure. Other non-utilitarian decorated artifacts were engraved, primarily w ith geometric designs, and i ncluded two antler "staff-septres" from Vlasac I, three "cult- k ni ves" from Vlasac I (1) and III (2), and four "ritual spatulas" made from the shoulder blades of wi ld pig and red deer from Vlasac I (1), III (1), and II (2). The remainder of non­ utilitarian decorated artifacts were described as too fragmentary for classification. There were forty-four engraved objects which had the shapes of o�dinary utilitarian tools. These tools' distributions are summarized in Table 38. Comparisons The study of the art from Vlasac has been di rected towards two goals: Deciphering the meanings of the engravings, that is, what they "represent", and searching for histori cal and spatial connections to other cultures throug h si milarities in the art. These two goals are inter-related. Marshak (1981), for example,· first argues for the historical derivation of the meaning and form of all European mobilary Mesolithic art from a general European late Paleolithic tradition, and then goes on to argue the interpretation of particular geometric forms on Vlasac material on the basis of late Magdalenian material from France. Publi shed di scussions of this art are few. All authors draw basically the same conclusions. The art from the entire Iron Gates region (Vlasac, Lepenski Vir, Cuina T'urcului, Icoana, Ostrovul Banului, 97

T ABLE 3 8 E NGRAVED T OOLS*

V lasac I

B one

A ntler

B oar T usk

1 4

4

-

S tone 1

V lasac I I

8

3

1

-

V lasac I II

8

2

1

2

*F rom S rejovi6 a nd L etica,

1 978,

p p.105,

9 8

1 52

Sc ela Cladovei) is seen as essentially united, with some allowance made for chronological development (Marshak, 1981; PXune�cu, 1968; Boronean5, 1969; Srejovi�-Letica, 1978; Srejovi�, 1972). At Cuina Turcului, described as "Romanello-Azilien", all art objects are ornamented with geometric incisions. There is one geometrically incised horse phalange which is generally interpreted as a headless female torso, the breasts being expressed by the condyles of the phalange (Plunescu, 1968, p.348). The use of red ochre with burials is documented at Schela Cladovei, Icoana (Boroneanf, 1969, p.285 ), and Climente II, and is found in many upper Paleolithic sites in Europe (Boronean�, 1970). Geometric incised decorations on bone and antler are also described for Icoana I and II, S chela Cladovei II, 0 strovul Banului III, and Climente. Some of the wall painting from Gaura Chindiei II may also belong to this period (Boroneanf, 1979). The Geometric ornamentation found at Vlasac and other Iron Gates sites is neither rare nor particularly remarkable in Mesolithic Europe (Loze, 1973) . The only remarkable artistic development in the Iron Gates appears at Lepenski Vir at the very end of the Mesolithic just before the appearance of Neolithic pottery and bones of domesticated cattle, sheep-goats and pigs. This development consists of the appearance of representational, life-size or bigger, sculptured stone human/fish-like heads pecked and chiseled out of sandstone boulders up to 60 cm in height. These sculptures were located on house floors in specific positions. Other boulders of similar size, located in similar p ositions on house floors, were decorated with geometric and/or curvilinear designs, had circular depressions in them, or were undecorated. A total of 82 boulders were found. Srejovic (1972, pp.112-11 6) stresses the uniqueness of these "heads" and the i r interpretation as the final flowering of the Paleolithic tradition of Europe in the Iron Gates. Marshak points out that the curvilinear ornamentations of the backs of some of the representational heads, and the whole of some ornamented boulders, are basically the same as the ornamentations seen at Vlasac and in the Romanian sites and are also evidenced on bone and stone tools at Lepenski Vir. Marshak integrates t�e Lepenski Vir representational fish heads into the rest of the Iron Gates art by his interpretations of the meaning of that ·art as basically connected to water, fish, fish nets, and seasonal symbols (19.81, p.32 ). There is nothing even remotely like the Lepenski Vir heads anywhere else at that time period (Srejovic, 1972, p.114). They are generally accepted as an entirely local development out of a base of much less impressive engraving on stone and bone (largely limited to utilitarian objects). The Lepenski Vir heads share direct historical ° c ontinui ty back to the. terminal Pleistocene sites of the Iron Gates several thousand years earlier. There is, however, a "fairly large boulder" from Odmut, the contemporaneous site in Montenegro, which was coloured.with red ochre (Srejovic, 1975, P• 4). More far-flung connections_ to the Art of the Iron Gates Mesolithic are made and agreed on by most authors. Boroneanf (1969) originally linked this art with that of the Italian Romanellian, specifically the sites of Polesini, Romito, Grotta Maritza and Grimaldi. Letica and Srejovif (1978, p.107) drew attention to the similarity between a piece of flint from Vlasac which has a "net" design -on cortex, and a similar piece from an epi-Gravettian grave in Southern Italy. More generally, Boroneant (1969), Marshak (1981, P• 14) Srejovic (1972) and Srejovic 99

a nd Letica ( 1978) h ave s een t his a rt a s f itting i nto a p an-European t radition d eveloped o ut o f t he P aleolithic a rt o f t he F ranco-Cantabrian he Magdalenian and the s ubsequent Az i1ia n, c oalescing . with t R omanellian , a nd m ade u nique b y t he i nfluence o f t he C entral E uropean E ast-Gravettian. I t i s d ifficult t o i magine what t hese c omparisons a nd p roposed h istorical c onnections m ight mean i n t erms o f c ultures, a nd t he m ovement ( migration?) o f p eoples o r i deas. I t i s worth n oting t hat t he d istance f rom t he F ranco-Cantabrian h eartland o f t he l ate M agdalenian a nd A zilian t o t he I ron G ates i s t he s ame a s t he d istance f rom t he I ron G ates t o S oviet G eorgia . M oldavia , t he K rimea , U kraine , White R ussia , L ithuania, L atvia, P oland, R ussia a nd m ost o f T urkey a re c loser t han t he Pyrenees. I n a ddition , t he Alps l ie b etween t he P yrenees a nd t he I ron Gates, whereas t he Danube p rovides a n atural h ighway b oth North a nd S outh o f t he r elatively o pen a reas o n b oth s hores o f t he B lack S ea . T he f ailure t o c onsider h istorical c onnections t o t he e ast i s p robably l argely d ue t o modern l anguage b arriers, a s well a s t he o bviously g reater a mount o f r esearch d one i n W estern E urope t han a nywhere e lse i n t he w orld. ( See b elow f or f urther d iscussion o f t hese i ssues). R eturning t o t he s econd f ocus o f a ttention i n t he s tudy o f t he a rt o f t he I ron G ates, M arshak a nd o thers h ave b ased t heir i nterpretations o n t he a ssumed h istorical c onnections d iscussed a bove. d iscussed s ymbolic r epresentations a re o f water a nd

Two wellf ish . The

d evelopment f rom h ighly r ealistic t o t otally a bstracted f ish , w hich i s u sed t o a rgue t he i nterpretation o f c ertain g eometric s hapes a s f ish o n V lasac , L epenski V ir , a nd R omanian m aterials, s tarts w ith t he s ite o f L a V ache i n F rance ( Marshak , G ermany ( site o f P eterfels),

1 981, p .19) a nd t ravels a cross E urope f rom t o O lby L yng a nd R yemerksgaard i n D enmark

t o P olesini a nd o ther s ites i n I taly . I t s eems u nrealistic t hat t hese h ighly d iverse a nd g eographically a nd c hronologically r emoved s ites c ould b e s aid t o r epresent t he s ame " culture" e ven i n t he o f t hat t erm . T here i s n o r eason t o s uppose, t herefore ,

l oosest s ense t hat t he s ame

g eometric d ecorations o n materials f rom t wo o f t hese s ites w ill " mean" t he s ame t hing. G iven o ur v ery p oor u nderstanding o f t he E uropean Mesolithic i n t erms o f " culture(s)" , t he s imilarities s een i n a rt s tyles o f f ar-flung s ites c an b e n o m ore m eaningful t han t he o bserved s imilarities b etween t he p yramids o f E gypt a nd Mexico .

1 00

T HE C HIPPED S TONE T he N ature o f T he

c hipped

s tone

m aterial

I NDUSTRY

t he D ata

f rom

V lasac

h ad

b een

s orted

a nd

c lassified b y S rejovi6 a nd L etica ( 1978) b efore t his s tudy b egan . C ores a nd t ools, f ollowing F rench p ractice, were s orted o ut, a nd t he r emainder o f t he a ssemblage, d escribed a s f lint c hipping d ebris a nd c hipped q uartz, was c ounted a nd l eft i n o riginal f ield b ags. T he s orted c ores a nd t ools i ncluded s ome 2 070 p ieces which were d ivided int o the follo wi ng twe nt y-t wo s tratigraphic/cultural " stage" : 1 . 2 . 3 .

p ieces e squillees P er v 3irs B urins

4 . 5 .

R acloir G ratoir c irculaire

6 . 7 . 8 . 9 .

G ratoir u nguiforme G ratoir s ur E clat G ratoir c arene a tipique M icrolithes

1 0. 1. 1 1 2. 1 3.

L ames G rattoir s ur b out d e l ame P ointe a tipique N ucleus

1 4. 1 5.

L ame a e ncoche G rattoir s ur b out d e l ame a tipique

1 6.

S ilikatne S tene -L istoliki nliji

1 7.

categories

sorted

by

( silica s tone r esembling p oints) S ilikatne S tene -lepezaste s trugalice ( silica s tones -f an-like s crapers)

1 8.

S ilikatne S tene -poligonalni s truga n ( silica s tones p olygonal s crapers)

1 9. 2 0. 2 1. 2 2.

q uartz s truga n ( quartz s crapers) q uartz s trugalice ( quartz m icro-scrapers) q uartz i ljci ( quartz p oints) q uartz r eza n ( quartz k nives)

The u nsorted, b agged material i ncluded a pproximately 2 2,000 p ieces . A s t he s orted m aterial p resumably i ncluded a ll o f t he " tools" a nd

r etouched

p ieces,

which

a re

t he

s tandard

s egment

o f

c hipped

s tone

s tudied b y a rcheologists, t his material was c hosen f or t he most d etailed s tudy, i ncluding m icroscopic i nspection f or e vidence o f u se wear . When t he u nsorted material was c ounted a nd s orted, a ny s haped t ools o r r etouched p ieces t hat were f ound were a dded t o t he p rimary d ata s et

f or i ntensive s tudy.

Microscopic s tudy o f t he s orted " tools" p roduced r esults which u pset t he i mplicit a ssumptions u pon which t he s election o f m aterials f or i ntensive a nalysis h ad b een b ased. Many o f t he " tools" h ad n ot b een u sed a t a ll , o r s howed n o e dge d amage i ndicative o f u se . M any o f t he a rtifacts c lassified a s f ormal t ools were i n f act u nretouched f lakes o r b lades which h ad b een u sed c asually i n ways u nrelated t o t he c ategory i nto w hich t hey h ad b een p laced . A v ery l arge p ercentage o f

1 01

u sed a rtifacts were unretouched. R etrospectively, i t w as c lear t hat t he a ppropriate a pproach t o t his m aterial w ould h ave b een a n i ntensive s tudy o f s tratified r andom s amples o f t he t otal a ssemblage . T he l ack o f r elationship b etween t he a rtifacts which h ad b een s orted a nd c lassified a nd t he c ategories i n which t hey w ere p laced , s uggested t he h ypothesis t hat i n f act t he s ample o n which d ata h ad b een c ollected w as r epresentative o f t he material. T o t est t his, o ne 4 x4 metre s quare ( square 5 23) which h ad s everal l evels f or e ach o ccupational s tage was s elected . I ntensive s tudy o f a ll n on-quartz m aterial f rom s quare 5 23, a lthough n ot m icroscopic s tudy , was c arried o ut t o p rovide a b asis c omparison w ith t he r esults o f t he a nalysis o f t he p rimary d ata s et.

o f

A fter s ome e xperiments w ith v iewing q uartz u nder t he m icroscope , i t was d ecided t o l argely i gnore t his material, a nd c oncentrate o n f lint, which i s t he s econd m ost important s tone m aterial a t t he s ite . Most quartz was impossible t o s tudy microscopically a t l ow m agnification without p re-treatment b ecause o f i ts t ranslucency. A t t he t ime t his s tudy was c onducted e xperimental k nowledge a bout t he r elationship b etween e dge d amage a nd u se c ould n ot b e a ssumed t o a pply t o q uartz s ince i t h ad n ot b een u sed i n t hese e xperiments ( but s ee S ussman , 1 985) . T echnological a ttributes, s uch a s t he p resence a nd d imensions o f t he s triking p latform, c ould n ot b e o bserved o n m ost p ieces . T he f ew p ieces f ound amongst t he s orted m aterial w hich w ere p atterned l ike f lint w ere a typical o f t he q uartz. I n s ome c ases, e dge d amage c ould b e s een , s o t hese p ieces were s tudied i ntensively. T he p resence o f t hese p ieces i n t he s orted m aterial was c ertainly n onr andom , a rguing a gainst t he h ypothesis t hat t he s orted a nd c lassified m aterial was r epresentative . B oroneanr ( 1979b , p .42) h as a sserted t hat t he p redominant m ethod o f w orking q uartz was b y s mashing c obbles a nd p icking o ut f ortuitously u sefully s haped p ieces. T hough t his s eems u nlikely , m ost o f t he V lasac q uartz d id l ook a s i f t his m ethod h ad b een u sed. I n t his s ection, e ach o f t he t hree d ata s ets a re d escribed a nd a nalyzed s eparately , b eginning with a n e xplanation o f t he a ttributes which were r ecorded f or e ach . T hen, t he t hree a re c ombined f or a n e xamination

o f

h ow

t he

i nformation

p rovided

b y

e ach

s et

f its

i n

ther t wo. t he . o T o r eiterate, 1 .

t he t hree d ata s ets a re :

D etailed i nformation, i ncluding microscopic s tudy, o n 2 070 r etouched and unretouched p ieces a nd c ores, r epresenting t he o riginal s tudy c ollection s orted b y t he e xcavators.

2 .

D etailed s quare,

3 .

s tudy

o f

a ll

material

f rom

o ne 4 x 4 metre

s quare 5 23.

S ummary i nformation o n a bout 2 2,000 p ieces u nretouched f lakes a nd b lades, a nd c ores.

102

o f

s hatter ,

w ith

D ata S et 1 :

T he P rimary D ata S et

D ESCRIPTION O F A TTRIBUTES T he f ollowing c hipped s tone:

a ttributes

w ere

r ecorded

f or

t he p rimary

s ample

A GE - u sing a k ey p rovided b y t he e xcavator, D r. Z . L etica, t he v ertical a nd h orizontal p rovenience o f e ach a rtifact was i nterpreted a s p art o f O ccupation I , I I, II, I I. D.

I V

-t he

( StarC 'evo),

h orizontal

o r u ndetermined.

( 4

x 4 metre

s quare)

a nd

p rovenience ( natural s tratigraphic l evels w here l evels w ere t oo d eep).

v ertical

o r a rbitrary

MATERIAL -the m aterial o f which t he a rtifact was m ade , a s f ollows: 0 :

c an't t ell

4 :

s iltstone

1 : 2 :

q uartz f lint

5 : 6 :

v olcanics s ilicas

3 :

o bsidian

( For

f urther

c oded

d iscussion

o f

t hese r ock t ypes, e specially v olcanics a nd s ilicas, s ee: " Bedrock Geology a nd L ithic R esources",

a bove).

B ULB -p resence o r a bsence o f a b ulb o f p ercussion. P LATFORM -p resence o r a bsence o f a s triking p latform. T RUNCATED -presence o r a bsence o f a t runcation o f t he d istal e nd o f t he a rtifact. D ELIBERATE -deliberate ,

o r n ot d eliberate ,

t runcation o f

t he

d istal e nd. C ORTEX -p resence o r a bsence o f c ortex. H EATED -e vidence o f h eat t reatment: n one; s palls; c racking a nd d iscoloration.

g lossy;

h eat

L IP - p resence o r a bsence o f a l ip o n t he s triking p latform. P LATFORM C RUSHING -p resence o r a bsence o f a brading o f t he e dge o f t he s triking p latform, a s i n p reparation f or k napping. PLATFORM F ACETS -n umber o f r etouch s cars o r f acets o n t he s triking p latform , c ode

o f

z ero

a s

h ere

i n p reparation f or k napping . i ndicates

e ntirely b y c ortex.

1 03

a

p latform

A

c overed

o f

NUMBER O F

S URFACES

a rtifact . 3 o r 4 .

f aces,

o n a n

F lakes a nd b lades would h ave 2 f aces,

-T he

n umber

o f

s urfaces,

o r

c ores

NUMBER OF R EMOVALS -T he n umber o f n egative r emoval s cars c ounted o n t he e xterior f ace o f

t he a rtifact.

C UTTING EDGE ANGLE R IGHT -T he a ngle o f t he c utting e dge o n t he r ight e dge ( with p latform u p,

v entral s urface u p) ,

a t t he midpoint o f t hat e dge, o r a s c lose t o t hat p oint a s p ossible, while a voiding m easuring a h ighly i rregular p oint. C UTTING E DGE A NGLE L EFT -T he a ngle o f P LATFORM L ENGTH -M aximum l ength o f P LATFORM W IDTH -M aximum w idth o f T HICKNESS

-M aximum t hickness

C URVE/TWIST -D oes

t he l eft

c utting e dge.

t he s triking p latform.

t he

s triking p latform.

o f a rtifact.

t he a rtifact

c urve b ack t owards t he d orsal

f ace a t t he d istal e nd? I s i t t wisted o ut o f a two d imensional p lane? Are b oth c urving a nd twisting p resent? P OLAR COORDINATES t ransparent t racing,

-E ach p olar

with

artifact

c oordinate

t he

p oint

was

t raced,

g rid was

o f

impact

p laced

o f

t hen t aken e very 1 0 d egrees, e ach

a rtifact,

s imultaneously .

d egree

i ts

i ntervals

t he b asis o f a t rial s ample a t 2 0 i ntervals.

o rigin a t t he A r eading was

t o p roduce 3 6 d ata p oints

e xpressing

T en

a

t he

t he p ercussor

l ocated o n t he 1 80 ° r adian, a nd t he approximate c enter o f t he a rtifact. f or

t hen o ver

R eadings e very 2 0

°

s ize

a nd

were

s hape

c hosen

o n

i ntervals a nd 1 0

°

p roduced a v ery r ough

°

a pproximation o f t he e dge, with much l oss o f d etail. T en d egree r eadings p roduced g ood a pproximations t o t he a ctual a rtifact U SE

1 -T he

e dge

o f

s hape.

e very

a rtifact

was

e xamined

with

a

m icroscope a nd c haracterized a ccording t o i ts e vidence o f u se o r o ther b roken;

C ORTEX

f eatures

p latform;

n o

p recluding u se :

u se;

v ery

s harp

c an 't b ut

u sed; v ery s harp t o s harp, b ut c learly u sed ; s harp t o d ull ; d ull ;

u sed; s harp, b ut p olished ; p olished

a nd v ery s harp;

p olished a nd d ull;

1 -O n

t he

p olished a nd s harp;

g iven

s egment

o f

e dge

u se i n t he p receding a ttribute,

c haracterized b y

1 -O n t he

s ame

e dge s egment,

1 04

i s

t he

i s c ortex p resent o r

a bsent? R ETOUCH

t ell;

p robably

t here r etouch?

R ETOUCH L OCATION 1 -I s o n b oth f aces? F LAKE

t he r etouch o n t he d orsal,

v entral o r

1 -A re t here f lakes knocked o ff t his e dge s egment w hich d o n ot s eem t o b e r elated t o a ny r etouch?

F LAKE EDGES

1 -A re t he t erminations o f t hese f lakes o n t he

s urface

o f

t he

a rtifact

s harp

a nd

c lear ,

i ll-defined

o r r ounded o ff? Or a re t here f lakes which a re c lear a nd o thers w hich a re r ounded? F LAKE L OCATION 1 -A re t hese f lakes v entral, o r b oth f aces? S TEP S CARS 1 -A re s egment? LOCATION S TEP

t here

S CARS

d orsal,

s tep

1 -A re

r emoved

s cars

t he

f rom

p resent

s tep

s cars

t he

o n

d orsal,

t his

e dge

l ocated o n t he

v entral o r b oth f aces?

P OLAR C OORDINATE AREA 1 A -T he p olar c oordinate a rea i n which t he e dge c haracterized a bove b egins. P OLAR C OORDINATE AREA

1 B -T he p olar c oordinate a rea i n which

t he e dge c haracterized a bove e nds. The p receding e leven a ttributes were r epeated a s many t imes a s n ecessary t o c ompletely c haracterize t he e dge o f e ach a rtifact.

M ETHODOLOGY O F C LASSIFICATION T he h ierarchical c lassification o f b elow,

t he p rimary d ata s et,

was r eached i n t he f ollowing f ashion .

a ccording

t o

c ores

c ore

a nd

t he

o ccupational

f ragments

were

l evel

t o

w hich

s eparated

p resented

T he a rtifacts were s orted

o ut

t hey a nd

b elonged .

S econdly ,

d escribed .

T hey

were

a lso e xamined m icroscopically a nd e vidence o f u se s ubsequent t o s ervice a s c ores was s eparately n oted and d escribed. s tone

was

t hen

s orted

o n t he

f ollowing c ategories :

b asis

u nused;

o f

The r emaining c hipped

m icroscopic e xamination i nto t he

p robably u sed;

u sed;

p robably r etouched,

--- 1 unused; probably r etouched, p robably u sed; probably r et ,

1

r etouched, unused; r etouched, p robably u sed; r etouched, u sed; t ools,

s haped

b y

r etouch .

T hese

c ategories

t o t echnological c haracteristics: f lake/blades

w ere

s hatter;

t hen

s orted

p robable

f ormal

a ccording

f lakes;

f lakes;

[ Flake/blades h ave l ongitudinal r idges a nd p arallel t o

s ubparallel l ateral s ides, b ut a re n ot a t l east twice a s l ong a s t hey a re

wide];

b lades.

s haped b y r etouch , t hey

were

f ew,

A rtifacts

i n

t he

a nd

t heir

o n

t he

a ttributes, r etouched

b asis

o f

p roduced b lades,

u se,

and

c ategories

e tc.

u se

Within

s uch

o n

a s :

t hey

h ad

and

whether

t he

b asis

u nused

c ategories u se

1 05

t ools,

o f

d amage

s orting

t echnological

s hatter ;

u sed

where u se was was

a s

f requently

T he c ombination o f t he

a rtifacts were g rouped a ccording t o h ow many d ifferent e dge

f ormal

a ttributes were

r etouch . t hen

c ategory :

i llustrated a nd d escribed ,

t echnological

o bscured o r d estroyed b y e xtensive f irst

l ast

h ave b een i ndividually

s ections

l imited

t o

f lakes;

o bserved, o f u sed

t he

e dge

I tself, o r i nvolved t he d orsal o r v entral o r b oth d orsal a nd v entral f aces o f t he t ool . T ools w ith u se d amage w hich was l imited t o e ither d orsal o r v entral ( unilateral) f aces, o r t o b ilateral d amage, a re c alled h ere s imple t ools , t he implicit a ssumption b eing t hat t hey w ere u sed f or o nly o ne m ode ( cutting o r s craping) o f w ork . T ools w ith p art o f t heir e dges u nilaterally d amaged, a nd o ther p arts b ilaterally d amaged , a re c alled c omplex t ools i n t hat t hey a ppear t o h ave b een u sed i n a t l east t wo d istinct w ays. B efore p roceeding t o t he r esults o f t he d escriptive a nalysis o f t he p rimary d ata s et, a r eview o f t he s tate o f u se w ear a nalysis s eems c alled f or, a s t his a pproach i s n ot u niversally u sed, u nderstood, o r v alued. U SE W EAR A NALYSIS A s Tringham e t a l ( 1974) h ave p ointed o ut, i nterest i n t he s tudy o f u se wear i s n ot n ew a nd, i n f act, e xtends b ack t o t he m id-19th c entury , when a n a ssortment o f p ublications d ealing w ith u se w ear o n s tone t ools a ppeared . T he m ost r ecent wave o f i nterest among E uropean and American p rehistorians d ates t o 1 964, t he y ear S emenov's P rehistoric T echnology w as p ublished i n English . I n t hat v olume t he r esults o f y ears o f e xperiments a nd s tudy o f p rehistoric s tone t ools were p resented . S emenov h ad f ound r egular r elationships b etween t he m ode o f u se o f t he t ool ( scraping , c utting , e tc .) , t he k ind o f m aterial t he t ool was u sed o n ( meat, b one, wood, e tc.) a nd t he e dge d amage a nd s cratches m icroscopically v isible. I n a l ater p ublication ( 1970), S emenov c larified e arlier s tatements a bout u se a nd u se wear b y s pecifying t hat m any t ools o n which o ne c annot s ee m icro-scopic u sewear were p robably u sed, a nd t hat, a s a n e xample o f t his, N eolithic t ools m ore o ften h ad s triations t han P aleolithic o nes . R elationships b etween t he l ocation a nd d irection o f m icro-striations a nd t he u se m ade o f t he t ool were a lso r eported a s b eing q uite s traightforward, when t hey

c ould

b e

s een .

D rilling ,

f or

a t a r ight a ngle t o t he a xis o f s traight s cratches p arallel t o

e xample , t he t he

l eaves

d rill, t ool's

c ircular

while a xis.

s cratches

p iercing S awing

l eaves l eaves

b ilateral s cratches p arallel t o t he e dge a nd , m eat k nives h ave b ilateral, p arallel a nd d iagonal s cratches. Whittling p roduces unilateral s cratches p erpendicular t o t he e dge ( ibid p . 7 -8). A n i nteresting o bservation made b y S emenov , a nd a lso f ound i n t his a nalysis, i s t hat s ome f ormal b urins w ere n ot u sed a s b urins, a lthough o thers w ere

( ibid,

p .5).

F urther r esults o f u se wear e xperiments a nd a ttempts t o a nalyze s tone t ool a ssemblages i n t erms o f u se-wear b egan t o t rickle i n a fter 1 964. K eller ( 1966) p ointed t o t he s pecific m aterial f rom which t he a rtifact was m ade , a nd t o t he c ross-section o f t he c utting e dge , a s t wo a dditional

f actors

i nfluencing

t he

f ormation

o f

e dge

d amage

f rom

u se .

H ester e t a l ( 1973) l ater a rgued, without p resenting t he d etails o f t heir w ork , t hat q uartzite s crapers s tay s harp m uch l onger t han c hert s crapers, e xplaining a p reference f or q uartzite e ven t hough i t i s h arder t o work. K eller ( 1966) a lso s uggested t hat s ince s crapers l asted l onger t han c utting t ools

i n e xperimental s ituations ,

a s craping

t ool f ound i n t he a rcheological r ecord e qualed m ore s craping w ork t han a c utting t ool . F inally , t he f irst o f a l ong s equence o f c ontradictory

1 06

r esults,

K eller r eported

t hat

c arving o r

p aring h ard w ood p roduced b i-

f acial d amage , whereas S emenov h ad f ound a brasions o n o f t he c utting e dge o nly ( Semenov , 1 964, p .109).

t he

v entral

f ace

MacDonald a nd S anger ( 1968) r eported t hat m icroscopic wear t races c ould n ot b e s een o n c halcedony , a nd s uggested t hat t his m aterial w as t oo h ard f or t he f ormation o f s uch t races t o o ccur . D onnan a nd Moseley ( 1968) r eported t hat t hin p rimary f lakes w ere i deal f or b ut d id n ot r eport h ow t hey u sed t he f lakes, o r what,

s caling f ish , i f a ny, e dge

d amage d eveloped . This i s c ertainly a u se f or c hipped s tone which would b e expected t o h ave o ccurred i n t he I ron G ates. C rabtree a nd D avis ( 1968) e xperimented with m aking i mplements o f h ard a nd s oft w ood with s tone t ools - a nother u se r elevant t o t he I ron G ates, a nd p robably v irtually a ll s tone a ge a ssemblages. u nifacial c hoppers a re m ore e ffective t han b ifaces t hat w orking w ood q uickly F rison

( 1968)

T hey r eported t hat f or woodworking , a nd

c onsumes s tone t ools.

made

s ome

v ery

i nciteful

o bservations

a bout

f unctional a nalysis. H e i nitially p ointed o ut t hat t he m otor h abits n ecessary f or u sing s tone and metal t ools a re d ifferent, a nd t hat a ttempts t o s tudy u se d amage b y p roducing i t e xperimentally i n t he l aboratory s hould c onsider t his a s a c onfounding v ariable,(see a lso Vaughan , 1 985, p .15). H e t hen p resented a s tudy o f t he e ffects o f r esharpening o n t he a ppearance o f f unctionally i dentical t ools a nd c oncluded t hat t ools were c onsistently d ulled t o t he s ame p oint, r esharpened and t hen a bandoned when t hey r eached a c ertain r educed s ize. A t v arious p oints o n t his p ath, t ools l ooked q uite d ifferent. T he h istory o f t ools c an b e t raced t hrough t heir r esharpening f lakes . I n a n e xcavation w here n o s ieving i s d one , t he r ecovery o f r esharpening f lakes, o r a ny v ery small d ebris i s r are, s o t hat t his i dea c annot b e a pplied t o t he m aterial i n q uestion . Allen ( 1970) m ade o ne o f t he e arliest a ttempts t o u se m icrowear a nalysis r esults a s t he b asis f or a c ritical e xamination o f a morphologically b ased t ypology. He f irst d id an " intuitive" c lassification o f p rojectile p oints, t hen s ubjected i t t o a n a ttribute b ased m ulti-variate s tatistical a nalysis a nd f ound t hat t he i ntuitive t ypology was n ot u pheld. Microscopic s tudy f urther c onfused t he p icture. S ome t ypologically s imilar p oints b elonged t o d ifferent f unctional c lasses , b ut o ther t ypologically g rouped p oints b elonged t o t he s ame f unctional c lasses. T he f unctional i nterpretations which A llen made were b ased o n e xperiments h e p erformed p rior t o t he a nalysis. g rounds

T hese

b y K eeley

Nance

( 1971)

e xperiments were

l ater c riticized o n m ethodological

( 1980). e xamined

1 0

o bsidian S tockton

p oints,

a nd

f ound

a ttrition f lakes a nd s triations, b oth p arallel a nd p erpendicular t o t he e dge, which h e i nterpreted a s wear r esulting f rom u se i n c utting a nd whittling . H ester a nd H eizer ( 1973) a ssailed N ance 's r esult , r eporting t hat o f 8 7 p oints t hey e xamined n o w ear t races a t a ll w ere f ound o n 6 4, a nd 3 h ad b een f ound i mbedded i n h uman b ones , d ocumenting t heir u se a s p rojectile

p oints.

H ester

a nd H eizer

d id

n ot

r eport

what

t races

t hey

d id s ee o n t he 2 3 p oints which h ad t hem , o r a ny d etails o f m ethodology ( including magnification) which c ould p rovide t he f ramework f or a m eaningful c omparison with N ance's r esults. K eeley ( 1974) s uggested

1 07

t hat t he s triations o bserved b y N ance w ere p roduced b y " scrubbing" o f t he e dge i n p reparation f or r etouch . More i mportantly K eeley a rgued t hat i nterpretation o f u se w ear t races s hould b e d one i n t he c ontext o f a s m any o ther k inds o f i nformation a s p ossible , s uch a s : t he c ontext o f t he s ite , i nformation f rom e thnographic a nalogy, a nd e xperimentation with s tone t ool m anufacture a nd u se . S heets ( 1973) h ad a lso p reviously r eported t he p ossibility o f m isinterpreting e dge d amage p roduced d uring p reparation f or r etouch. G ould,

Koster a nd S ontz

( 1971) e xplored o ne o f

t hese a ngles

i n

e xamining A ustralian A borigine u se o f c hipped s tone . Western D esert a borigines h ave a 2 c lass c lassification o f t ools which i s b asically f unctional : 1 ) t hick f lakes which h ave s teep e dges g ood f or t he a dzing a nd s craping o f w ood , a nd 2 ) t hin s harp e dged f lakes, g ood f or c utting a nd s licing. T he mean e dge a ngle f or 1 ) was 6 7.0 ° a nd f or 2 ) 3 9.52 ° . This c lassification i s c onsonant w ith W ilmsen 's g uess a bout t ool f unctions. Wilmsen ( 1968) d iscovered a b imodal

c oncentrated o n e dge a ngle a nd f unction, d istribution i n a n a rcheological c ollection .

a nd H e

t hen w ent o n , n ot v ery u sefully, t o g uess w hat t he r elationship b etween e dge a ngle a nd f unction might b e. Wylie ( 1975, p .23) f ound a v ery l arge o verlap o f e dge a ngle d istributions f or h is f ive f unctional g roups o f t ools f or H ogup c ave e stablished b y m icroscopic a nalysis o f e dge

d amage,

a nd

a v ery b road d istribution o f

e dge a ngle with e ach

g roup , which l ed h im t o q uestion t he m eaningfulness o f e dge a ngles f or f unctional i nterpretation. Hayden ( 1979b) r emeasured t he a rtifacts s tudied b y Wilmsen a nd g ot a mean v alue 1 7.4 ° h igher t han Wilmsen 's. E dge a ngle h as a lso b een e xamined e xperimentally b y C rabtree ( 1973b) . an b e u sed t o work C rabtree f ound t hat o btuse e dge a ngles o f 9 0-130 ° c v ery h ard m aterials s uch a s d ry b one ( which K eeley ( 1977) d escribes a s u nworkable) which would q uickly d ull o r b reak a n a cute e dge. Acute a ngle t ools w ill c ut s ofter m aterials, w hich a re a ll t hat G ould e t a l r eport

f or

t he A borigines .

G ould , K oster a nd S ontz ( 1971, p p .160, c asual u se a nd d iscarding o f " rocks" ,

1 63) a nd

a lso o bserved f requent f lake p roduction b y

" smashing" n odules w ith r ocks a nd t hen s electing a s f ew a s 1 o ut o f 2 00 o f t he r esultant f lakes. This k ind o f c asual p roduction and u tilization i s c ertainly e videnced a s o ne c omponent o f b ehavior s urrounding s tone t ool u se a t V lasac . D esirable f lakes, o n t he o ther h and, were r egularly r etouched-which was a lso t rue a t V lasac. D ifferent r aw m aterials were v alued b y i ndividual u sers o n t he b asis o f t heir t otemic a ttachments -- p eople wanted r aw m aterials f rom t heir t otemic a reas--a c hoice r eflected b y t he c olors o f m aterial . C olor i s echnologically m eaningless ( see , h owever , C rabtree, 1 967a) o f course t a nd h as l ong b een i gnored a s a v ariable f or t hat r eason . I ts p otential u se a s a s ocial m arker p oints t o f or p atterning i n a ny a ssemblage . f requency o f d ifferent c olors o f

t he v alue o f e xamining t his v ariable O sborne ( 1965 , p .35) f ound t hat t he s tone v aried t hru t ime a t W etherill

M esa. G ould, m icroscopic c ompared

K oster a nd S ontz a lso r eported e dge d amage c aused b y working wood

t hese

t races,

a nd

t he

e dge

1 08

a ngles

o f

so me

( 1971, t he

o bservations o f p .159 , 1 66) a nd p

e dges

o n w hich

t hey

o ccurred,

t o m iddle P aleolithic Quina s crapers.

H ayden a nd K aminga

( 1973a) l ater q uestioned t he d ependability o f t hese r esults o n m ethodological g rounds, c alling a ttention t o t he i mpreciseness o f t heir c lassification o f k inds o f e dge d amage, f ailure t o a ccount f or v ariables s uch a s b ag wear, a nd t he k ind o f wood e dges w ere u sed o n, e tc . I n t heir r ejoinder t o G ould 's r ejoinder ( Gould , 1 973) , H ayden a nd K aminga

( 1973b) a cknowledge s ome o f

t he s hortcomings

a nd e nd b y c alling f or a c onference o n u se-wear ,

i n t heir o wn w ork

" with t he o bjective o f

d etermining m eaningful d efinitions a nd p rocedures ." T his c onference . . u ltimately t ook p lace a nd t he p apers a nd d iscussion w ere p ublished i n 1 979 ( B. H ayden, e d., 1 979). A s econd e thnographic s tudy, c arried o ut b y H ayden ( 1979a) o n A ustralian A borigine s tone t ool u se , d ocumented t he u se o f d enticulates a nd n otches a s w ood s having t ools, a nd r eported t hat t he v ast m ajority o f f lakes u sed a s h and-held t ools were u nretouched a nd t hat e dge modification was p rimarily t o g et r id o f e dge i rregularities o r t o r esharpen . t he V lasac

T hese o bservations p roved t o b e o f p articular r elevance t o m aterial . A t hird e thnographic s tudy , d one i n N ew G uinea,

p roduced r esults n ot p articularly c omparable t o t he p revious t wo ( White a nd Thomas, 1 972). I n t his s tudy, p eople m ade n o u se o f r etouch a nd d id n ot d istinguish l inguistically b etween c ores a nd f lakes. T ools were s elected which h ad s uitable e dges, a nd o ne a rtifact c ould b e u sed f or m ore t han o ne t ask i f i t h ad s everal s uitable e dges . I ndividuals h ad

t heir

o wn

c lassification

o f

s tone

t ools

b ased

o n

e dge

m orphology ,

s ize, a nd n on-functional v ariables, a nd t hese c lassifications more-or-less s hared b y p eople who l ived i n t he s ame v illage.

were T he

a uthors s uggest, o n t he b asis o f t hese r esults, t hat t he u sed e dge, r ather t han t he a rtifact, i s t he a ppropriate u nit o f a nalysis i n s tone t ool s tudies. B efore t he c onference r eferred t o a bove t ook p lace, a n umber o f o ther a ttempts t o d evelop u se wear a nalysis were m ade . T ringham e t a l p ublished

t he

r esults

o f

e xtensive

e xperimentation

( 1974) .

U sing

l ow

m agnification ( less t han 1 00x) t he a uthors s tudied t he d evelopment o f m icro-flake d amage t o e dges, a rguing t hat i t was a s s ensitive t o c hanges i n t he material worked a nd t he a ction ( scraping, c utting, e tc.) a s were t he s triations a nd p olishes o nly v isible a t h igher m agnification . H ard m aterials -bone , a ntler , a nd h ardwoods -produced s tep s cars, a nd s oft m aterials o nly s imple ( scalar) f lake d amage . W ood working a braded t he e dges o f d amage f lakes. T he s imple mechanical r elationship b etween t he m ode o f u tilization ( scraping , c utting , e tc .) a nd t he l ocation o f e dge d amage n oted b y s everal a uthors w as a lso n oted b y T ringham e t a l. T hey c onclude b y a rguing t hat t he m ost i mportant i ssue i n m icrowear a nalysis i s b eing a ble t o i dentify t he e xact a rea o f u tilization o f t he e dge i n o rder t o r elate t hat t o t he m acromorphology o f t he t ool-ie., t o u se i n s tudying t he r elation b etween f orm a nd f unction . Wylie ( 1975) i ndependently r eported t he s ame r esults o n t he l ocation a nd c haracter o f e dge d amage e xcept f or h is f ailure t o f ind s tep s cars c aused b y c utting h ard m aterial. K eeley ( 1980, p .51) r eports t he f ormation o f s tep s cars i n h ide s craping, which i s n ot r eported b y o thers, b ut o therwise a lso c oncurs w ith t he r esults o f o ther i nvestigators . L awrence ( 1979) h as c oncurred w ith a nd f urther r efined t hese r esults b y a dding t he t hickness o f t he w ork e dge a s

a s ignificant

v ariable .

1 09

In 1 974, 1 977, a nd 1 978 K eeley p ublished r eviews o f p rogress i n m icrowear s tudies. H e c riticized t he u se o f l ow magnification , c laiming t hat c ritical d etails a re l ost i n t his w ay , a nd a ttacked t he weak

m ethodology

o f

e xperimental

s tudies

( they d on 't

p rove

t he k ind

o f

u se-only s how t hat s uch a n i nterpretation i s p ossible) a nd t he f ailure t o c ontrol f or t he m aterials f rom which t ools a re m ade , a nd u rged t he c onsideration o f s ite s pecific v ariables s uch a s c limate , i n s tone t ool s tudies. K eeley c laims t o b e a ble t o d istinguish u se o n wood, b one, meat, a nd h ide a nd materials a s h ard o r h arder t han f lint w ith m agnifications b etween 1 00x-200x ( Newcomer a nd K eeley , 1 979) . V aughan ( 1985) h as a lso a rgued t hat l ow m agnification r esults a re m uch m ore s ubject t o d istortion b y e xtraneous v ariables s uch a s b ag wear, a nd p articular c haracteristics o f t he s tone, s uch a s g rain s ize, t han a re h igh m agnification r esults . D ifferent m ethods o f t ool m anufacture m ay a lso c ause e dge d amage which c an b e m istaken f or u se w ith l ow magnification ( Plew a nd Woods, 1 985) . O dell ( 1975) r esponded, i n d efense o f l ow magnification work,

t hat s triations s ometimes n ever

d evelop o n u sed t ools a nd w ent o n t o r eiterate p revious r eports o f t he k inds o f e vidence o btainable w ith l ow m agnification . R esults o f o ther r esearchers u sing h igh magnification h ave n ot K eeley's r esults ( Büller , 1 983). L ynott

( 1975)

s tudied

m icrowear

p roduced

a lways

b y

g raving

c orroborated

a nd

d rilling

a nd f ound t hat i n d rilling t he t ip i tself w as f requently u ndamaged , o r i t d eveloped p olish . T he v entral e dges n ear t he t ip f laked a nd p olish d eveloped o n t he d orsal median r idges. N o d ifferences i n wear were o bserved b etween d rilling l eather, wood a nd b one. G raving p roduced p olish o n t he v entral s urface , i nverse e dge f laking a t t he t ip a nd s tep s carring a nd g rinding o f t he d orsal s urface a t t he t ip. Hayden's ( 1979b) s tudy o f s kin s crapers p ointed o ut t he " pronounced r ounding o f e dge p rominences a nd u sually e dge a rcs" , i ndicative o f t he working o f a s emi-plastic m aterial . H e a lso o bserved a lmost n o v entral a brasion, a nd a r ange o f e dge a ngles f rom 5 5-100 d egrees

( mean = 7 6.40).

C entral c oncerns i n m icrowear a nalysis c urrently i nclude t he l ow m agnification -h igh m agnification d ebate ( Odell , 1 983) , t he n eed f or r efinement o f s tudy m ethodology ( including d evelopment o f a c onsistent, u niversally a ccepted, t erminology), a nd t he n eed t o u nderstand t he r elationships b etween macro-morphology, o r f orm, a nd f unction ( Schiffer, m inor

1 979).

i mportance

S chiffer i n

t he

u se

( ibid p .20) f eels

t hat

o f u nretouched f lakes.

s hape o ften i s

o f

H ayden a nd K aminga

f eel ( 1979, p .5) t hat while t here i s n o o ne t o o ne r elationship , t here i s a c orrelation b etween f orm a nd f unction ( see a lso V aughan, 1 985, p .100 ; M oss, 1 983) . O thers h ave f ound i nconsistent o r n o r elationship b etween f orm a nd f unction ( Büller, 1 983). K eeley ( 1980, p .112) r eports a n empirically o bserved ( used

f lakes

a re

McConaughy

c orrelation b etween

b igger) a nd

b etween s pecific

( 1978)

p ointed

h as

o ut

f lake

s ize a nd u se

s izes a nd s pecific u ses .

t hat

i n

S emenov 's

o riginal

( 1964) v olume m ost o f t he p hotographs a re a t l ow m agnification , o nly 5 p ictures o ut o f 1 89 a re a t m agnifications g reater t han 1 00 , a nd 1 74 a re a t

5 0x o r l ess.

And y et i t i s t o S emenov t hat o ne c an t race b ack t he

i nsistence o n t he n eed f or h igh magnification .

1 10

Ahler ( 1979) r eports

experimental results relevant to the magnification controversy: Pronounced use w ear is visible with the naked eye, moderate w ear is detectable at !Ox, light wear at 35-70x and if no wear can be seen at 70x it is safe to assume that there is no use wear on the edge. Keeley's reported ability to identify use in a blind experiment (Newcomer and Keeley, 1979) is i mpressive, and depends on the use of high magni fication (over lOOx). These results, however, have been questioned (Holley and Del Bene, 1981). With lower magnifications (80 or less), one is not likely to miss use wear altogether, but less likely to be able to identi fy it with the surety and precision which Keeley had achieved. High magnification is much more time consuming and requires more expensive equipment. Whether it is worth the higher i nformation return depends on the goals of the research being done (assuming that choosing the more time consuming and expensive route is an available choice at all) . In this study, high magnification was not an available option. Low magnification analysis (up to lOOx) was used to produce a picture of the varying kinds and frequencies of edge damage. These results can then be examined against other direct and indirect evidence for stone t ool use from the site. A final future step mi ght be the testi ng of i nterpretations by high magnification study of a sample of these artifacts . DESCRIPTIVE CLASSIFICATION OF ARTIFACTS The descriptive classification of the chipped stone in the primary data set is presented here, occupational stage by stage, starting with the first occupation of the site, Vlasac I. Following the description and discussion of all stages i ndividually is a comparison of the different stages and discussion of the site as a whole. Vlasac I Cores and Core Fragments (137) . The primary data set contained 18 whole cores and 7 core fragments attributable to Vlasac I. Five of the 7 flint core fragments were struck flakes with bulbs of percussion which had carried an end of the One of these was used inversely as a scraper core with them. (indicated by unilateral edge -damage) until quite dulled and covered with step scars. The other 4 struck flake/core fragments were not used after being struck. One_ of the other two core fragments had also been used as a scraper on two edges. The sizes of these fragments suggest that the parent cores were approaching the mini mum size of ·a worked core for efficient, well-controlled knapping. One fragment is actually a flake �hich detached a striking plat form , - a core rejuvenation flake. Comparison of the dimen�ions of the core fragments with whole cores shows that they are as small as the smaller range of whole cores, suggesti ng that these fragments broke off because the cores were getti ng too small to work with much control. Both flakes and blades were. detached f ro m 4 core fragment s, and b 1 ades on 1 y from the f if t h. The plan view of the 5 unused core fragments is rectangular to square. One of the eighteen whole cores is limestone; two are quartz and 111

t he r est a re f lint. One c ore i s c hisel-ended, a nd f ive h ave p ointed, k eel-shaped e nds . N ine f lint c ores a re m ore amorphous, l arger , o ften h ave t races o f t he p roduction o f f lakes, b ut n ot b lades, a nd a re more l ikely t o b ear r emnants o f c ortex t han t he r emaining 6 . T he d ata s uggest t hat c ores were i nitially b eing worked f or f lakes i n a h aphazard f ashion . A fter s ignificant r eduction , s ome w ere t hen worked f urther, b lades.

i n a more s ystematic a nd r egular way, f or t he p roduction o f

O nly o ne a dditional f lint c ore , a nd o ne f lint c ore f ragment w ere f ound I n s quare 5 23 i n t he V lasac I l evels . T he c ore h ad c ortex o n i t, was a f lake c ore with o ne p latform, a nd 6 f lake s car r emovals. T he c ore f ragment was t he d istal e nd o f a k eel-ended b lade c ore, with n o c ortex. I n t he unsorted

b agged

r emainder

o f

t he V lasac

c hipped s tone,

t here were s eventeen c ores d efinitely a ssociated with V lasac I . T hirteen o f t hese w ere f lake c ores, t hree w ere b lade c ores, a nd o ne h ad b oth f lake a nd b lade r emovals. T he l ast , f lake/blade , c ore h ad c ortex o n i t. F ive o f t he t hirteen f lake c ores a lso h ad c ortex o n t hem . T wo m ore c ores h ad c ortex o n t hem a lso ,

b ut

t he d ata

r ecording

s ystem

d oes

n ot d ifferentiate i n t hese t wo c ases b etween f lake a nd b lade c ores. T here were a lso 9 4 c ore f ragments a ssociated with V lasac I . This b rings t he g rand t otal d efinitely a ssociated w ith V lasac I t o 3 6 c ores a nd 1 01 c ore f ragments . A ssuming t hat t wo c ore f ragments r epresent , o n a verage , o ne d istinct c ore , t his w ould g ive a r atio o f c ores t o f lakes, b lades, f lake-blade f ragments, a nd c ore r ejuvenation f lakes o f 1 :18 which i s c ompatible with i n s itu knapping o f c ores f rom t he p oint o f i nitial p reparation. U nretouched, T he

U sed F lakes

u nretouched,

( 137)

u sed

f lakes

f rom V lasac

I c onsisted

o f:

5 3

4 f lakes u sed o nly f or c utting, 4 u sed o nly f or s craping, 2 f or d rilling, 6 f or r eaming, o ne a s a wedge, a nd 3 1 c omplex t ools u sed i n a t l east two p laces f or b oth c utting a nd s craping o r d rilling a nd c utting a nd/or s craping. U nretouched,

U sed B lades

( 46)

T he 4 6 unretouched u sed b lades f rom V lasac I c onsisted o f: 1 8 u sed o nly f or c utting, 1 4 u sed o nly f or s craping, 1 f or d rilling, a nd 1 3 c omplex t ools u sed i n a t l east t wo s ections o f t he e dge f or a c ombination o f c utting a nd s craping. U nretouched,

U sed F lake/Blades

( 28)

T he f lake/blades which w ere u nretouched i ncluded 1 2 u sed o nly f or c utting a nd 7 u sed o nly f or s craping . O ne o f t he t wo c omplex t ools w as u sed a s a d rill a nd f or c utting . e dge r ounding o n o ne e dge w ithout

T wo o ther f lake/blades h ad a ny f lake r emovals .

1 12

d istinct

R etouched,

U sed,

S haped T ools

( 24)

Twenty-four p ieces f rom V lasac I h ave b een c lassified h ere a s f ormally s haped t ools . O nly a f ew o f t hese a re c lassical g eometrics . S ince

s o

m uch

a ttention a nd

i mportance h as

i n t raditional r esearch i n E urope , a nd i llustrated s eparately.

e ach o ne

b een g iven o f

t hese

t o

f ormal

w ill

b e

t ools

d escribed

No. 2 34 ( Figure 8 a). B lade w ith p latform a nd b ulb d eliberately t rimmed o ff; t op r etouch a nd s tep s cars o n p roximal a nd d istal e nd a nd t op r etouch a nd s tep s cars c overing u pper o ne-half o f r ight l ateral e dge . L eft l ateral e dge h as b ilateral f lakes k nocked o ff a nd s ome e dge d ulling. N o .

2 77

( Figure

8 b) .

U nmodified

p latform

e dge b ilaterally f lake d amaged a nd u sed ; s tep s cars; d istal u nused ; m icroblade.

l eft

p resent, l ateral

r ight

t op

l ateral

r etouch

a nd

No. 1 869 ( Figure 8 c). P latform i ntact; whole r ight l ateral e dge u nilaterally r etouched , s tep s carred a nd d ull ; l ower l eft l ateral e dge p ossibly i nversely r etouched , s lightly p olished , e dge f resh ; m iddle a nd u pper l eft l ateral e dge b ilaterally f laked, e dge f resh; G rave 7 2. No. 2 80 ( Figure 8 d). P roximal e nd b roken o ff, d istal ; b oth l ateral e dges unilaterally r etouched ( edge a ngle = 5 5 °) b ilateral f lake r emovals a nd a re d ulled. No. 2 95 ( Figure 8 e). r etouch) , t races.

e nd h ave

P latform a nd b ulb r etouched away ( inverse

r etouch e xtends d own m ost o f

r ight l ateral e dge ;

n o c lear u se

No. 3 07 ( Figure 8 0. D istal a nd p roximal e nds r emoved a nd r etouched o n t op f ace, e dge o f r etouch a ppears p olished; t he d ulled l eft l ateral e dge h as b ilateral f lake r emovals with r ounded e dges; nd 7 5 °. a ngles o f r etouched e dges a re 7 0° a N o. 3 08 ( Figure 8 g). Moderately d ulled p roximal a nd d istal e nds s haped with t op r etouch a nd c overed with t op f lake r emovals with r ounded e dges; t he m oderately d ull r ight l ateral e dge h as a lternately t op ( upper 1 /2) a nd i nverse ( lower 1 /2) f lake r emovals with r ounded e dges; t he m oderately d ull l eft l ateral e dge h as b ilateral s harp-edged f lake r emovals. No. 3 30 ( Figure 8 h). Two s ides a re b roken, i mpossible t o t ell i f t his was d eliberate -a nd t here i s n o e vidence o f s ubsequent d amage; t op r etouched e dge i s m oderately

d ulled.

N o . 3 35 ( Figure 8 j) . U nmodified p latform w ith b ulb f orms o ne l ong e dge o f t his a rtifact; r ight l ateral e dge a nd d istal e nd a re c overed b y t op r etouch a nd t op s tep s cars a nd a re m oderately d ulled; l eft l ateral e dge h as b ilateral f lakes w ith s harp e dges a nd i s m oderately d ulled.

f orms

No. 9 94 ( Figure 8 k). Unmodified p latform with q uadruple b ulb p roximal e nd . U nmodified e dge a nd s ome c ortex o n r ight l ateral ;

d istal

e nd

h as

b ilateral

f lakes

13 1

with

s harp

e dges

a nd

s ome

e dge

a . n o.234

b . n o .277

C . n o.1869

d . n o.280

e . n o.295

f . n o.307

h . n o.330

g . n o.308

0

F igure 8 :

cm

1 1

S haped T ools 1 14

2

f rom V lasac I

j . n o.335

k . n o.994

1 . n o .1950

m . n o .1951

p . n o.2055

n . n o .1967

r . n o.2063

s . n o.1859

F igure 8 ( cont'd) 1 15

t . n o.1974

V . n o.2048

w . n o.2062

x . n o.

y . n o.253

z . n o.938

a a . n o.1895

b b . n o.264

F igure 8 ( cont'd) 1 16

d ulling; l eft l ateral m oderate d ulling. N o .

1 950

e dge

( Figure 8 1) .

h as

t op

P roximal

r etouch

e nd

a nd

t op

s tep

s cars

i s u nmodified p latform ;

a nd

r ight

l ateral, d istal and l ower h alf o f l eft l ateral s haped b y i nverse r etouch a nd i nverse s tep s cars a nd e dges a re d ulled , w ith h eaviest w ear o n d istal-left l ateral r ounded e nd ; t he s hape a nd wear o n t his p iece r esembles n umbers 2 041, 2 049, 2 28 a nd 2 040 d escribed a bove . i n b eing m uch m ore e laborately s haped b y r etouch. No.

1 951

( Figure

8m).

Proximal

end

b roken

I t d iffers

o ff,

probably

d eliberately; r ight l ateral e dge h as t op r etouch a nd i s q uite s harp. The d ulled p rojecting p iece o f t he l eft l ateral e dge h as t op f lake r emovals w ith s harp e dges. N o . 1 967 ( Figure 8 n) . l ateral e dge s haped b y t op l ateral e dges u nmodified.

U nmodified p latform p resent; d ulled r ight r etouch a nd t op s tep s cars; d istal a nd l eft

N o . 2 055 ( Figure 80 . U nmodified p latform p resent; r ight l ateral unmodified and c overed with c ortex ; s harp l ower l eft l ateral i s i nversely r etouched. No . 2 063

( Figure 8 r).

Unmodified p latform p resent; f resh r ight

l ateral e dge i nversely r etouched f or o ne-fourth o f i ts l ength i n t he c enter a nd w ith s ome t op f lake r emovals f rom i ts l ower o ne-half; d istal e nd i s u nmodified ; d ulled l eft l ateral e dge t op r etouched a nd t op s tep s carred. No. 1 859 ( Figure 8 s). P latform i ntact, d istal e nd i nversely r etouched a nd s tep s carred t o f orm a p oint, e dges d ull; g raver. N o . 1 974 ( Figure 80 . P latform I ntact. D istal p oint a nd a djacent r ight l ateral e dge p olished; a djacent l eft l ateral e dge s lightly f laked, m id l eft l ateral e dge i nversely r etouched, q uite f resh; d rill. • No .

2 048

( Figure

8 v) .

P latform

i ntact;

r ight

l ateral

e dge

i nversely r etouched; point a nd a djacent l eft e dge t ip r etouched a nd p olished; l eft d istal e dge b ilaterally f laked; d rill. No. 2 062 ( Figure 8w). P latform c annot b e p ositively i dentified. R ight a nd l eft l ateral e dges a djacent t o d istal p oint a re u nilaterally r etouched, s tep s carred a nd d ulled; p oint i s r etouched with t op s tep s cars a nd i s q uite d ull;

g raver.

No., 241 ( Figure 8 x). d istal t op r etouched , s tep

P latform b roken s carred a nd d ulled

o ff; b oth l aterals a nd i n a s mooth h alf-circle ;

s craper. No. d istal,

2 53

h alf-circle; No.

( Figure

8 y).

a nd 2 /3 o f l eft

9 38

P latform

l ateral

i ntact;

l ower

r ight

t op r etouched a nd u sed,

l ateral,

i n a smooth

s craper. ( Figure

s carred and d ull;

8 z).

l eft

P latform

d istal and

i ntact;

l eft

117

r ight

l ateral

t op

l ateral

t op

s tep

r etouched,

s tep

s carred,

a nd u sed;

No.

1 895

s mooth h alf-circle,

( Figure 8 aa).

P latform

s craper. i ntact;

l ower

r ight

l ateral,

d istal and l eft l ateral t op r etouched a nd f laked, u sed; smooth h alfc ircle,

s craper.

No . 2 64 ( Figure 8 bb). P latform i ntact; whole r ight l ateral, d istal a nd l ower l eft l ateral t op r etouched, s tep s carred a nd u sed; s hredder?

1 18

S ummary o f R etouched P ieces T hree

p ieces

which w ere r etouched i n t he p rimary s ample o f V lasac

I were p robably n ot s ubsequently u sed. Twenty-one u sed p ieces were p robably r etouched . T hirty-two f lakes a nd 2 9 b lades, i n a ddition t o 2 4 s haped t ools, w ere c learly r etouched a nd u sed . Twenty-two f lakes w ere u sed o nly f or s craping , p rimarily o n t he e dge where t hey were r etouched . O ne f lake was u sed a s a r eamer , a nd n ine f lakes h ad t wo o r t hree s eparate e dge a reas u sed f or a ( complex) m ixture o f s craping a nd c utting . O f t he 2 9 r etouched b lades, 1 2 were u sed f or s craping where t hey w ere r etouched , t wo f or c utting , a nd t here w as o ne d enticulate a nd o ne

g raver .

E leven

c utting and s crapers.

c omplex b lades

s craping,

a nd

were u sed

t wo were u sed

f or

i n

s everal

a reas

c utting a nd a s

f or

n otch-

Among t he f ormal t ools a re f our c ircular s crapers, t wo g ravers, t wo d rills, a nd s everal g eometrics a nd m icroblades. S ummary O f T he V lasac I C hipped S tone T he c hipped s tone

f rom V lasac I b reaks

d own a s s hown i n T able 3 9.

T he b ulk o f t he 8 5 r etouched p ieces a re n ot f ormally s haped t ools t hey w ere p robably r etouched t o r esharpen t he w orking e dge w hile t hey w ere b eing u sed . T he s mall n umber o f f ormal t ools s haped b y r etouching o ffer b y t hemselves l ittle u nderstanding o f s tone t ool t echnology a nd t ool u tilization a t Vlasac I . Most o f t he r etouched p ieces s how s craper u tilization i n t he a rea where t hey a re r etouched; o nly 2 2 p ieces h ave c utting d amage. The p rimary u se o f r etouch i n V laspc I s tone t echnology was t o p repare or r epair e dges f or s craper u tilization . S econdarily r etouch was u sed t o s hape f ormal t ools. T wenty-nine p ercent,

o r 8 5 o ut o f 2 96 u sed a rtifacts,

w ere r etouched.

T urning t o u nretouched , u sed f lakes, b lades , a nd f lake/blades , w e f ind a f ew a rtifacts whose n atural s hapes h ave b een e xploited f or u se a s s pecialized t ools: r eamers ( 12) a nd d rills ( 8) . Most p ieces h ave b een u sed o n a c onvenient e dge f or o ne o peration , c utting o r s craping , a nd t hen d iscarded . T he i ntensity v ersus t he c asualness o f u tilization c an b e e stimated b y l ooking a t t he n umber o f a reas o f e dge u sed o n e ach p iece a s well a s whether o ne o r more s orts ( scraping, c utting, d rilling, e tc.) o f u tilization a re f ound o n t he s ame p ieces. P ieces with more t han o ne s ort o f u tilization h ave b een c alled c omplex t hroughout

t his d iscussion.

4 1.3% o f

t he u sed b lades a nd 5 1.8% o f

t he u sed f lakes were u sed

o nce a nd t hen d iscarded. B lades were more f requently c omplex t ools ( 28 .2%) t han were f lakes ( 23.3%) . B lade u tilization w as m ore i ntensive t han f lake u tilization . A h igher p ercentage o f u sed b lades ( 38 .6%) a s c ompared t o f lakes ( 18.9%) were r etouched, n ot i ncluding f ormally s haped t ools. Not all o f t his r etouch was f or t he s ake o f ( re)sharpening, b ut e ven i f i t were, i t c ould b e s aid t hat o nly o ne t ime o ut o f t hree d id a worker c hoose t o r esharpen a worn b lade, a nd o ne t ime o ut i n T able 4 0. I t

i s

o f

f ive a w orn f lake .

i nteresting

t o

n ote

1 19

T hese d istributions a re s ummarized

t hat

t here

were

n o

r etouched

T ABLE 3 9 V LASAC I C HIPPED S TONE C ATEGORIES

C ategory

N umber

U nused s hatter

1 7

3 .4

)

U nused p robably s truck f lakes

2 6

5 .2

) )

1 .4

) )

P roximally t runcated u nused f lakes

7

U nused b lades

1 1

2 .2

) )

U nused f lake/blades

1 0

2 .0

) )

U nused w hole f lakes

8 3

1 6.6

) )

lakes P ossibly u se-d f

1 6

3 .2

P ossibly u sed b lades

6 1

1 2.2

P ossibly u sed f läke/blades

4

0 .8

U sed b lades

4 6

9 .2

U sed f lake/blades

2 8

5 .6

1 37

2 7.4

1 1

2 .2

1 0

2 .0

U sed f lakes

1 54 u nused 3 0.8%

) ) ) ) )

2 11 u sed 4 2.2%

P robably r etouched u sed f lakes P robably r etouched u sed b lades R etouched,

u nused p ieces

3

0 .6

R etouched a nd u sed f lakes

3 2

6 .4

) )

R etouched a nd u sed b lades

2 9

5 .8

) )

F ormally s haped t ools

2 4

4 .8

)

T otal

5 00

1 20

8 5 r etouched 1 7%

>2 I

CO •

-1 .•

vl -

0

CV CO

I A c o a ) , . 2 c o ✓ 1 . r I ,

ä

1

1N. 1

N. •

N. •

r i

0

c h

CV

0

t il

1 .1

1 `. . NI

. . .1

v4 -

•

CV

O •

1 , •

74

F lake/Blades

TABLE 4 0

o

. I

X

•

0

,. t .

•

•

CD

, i -

L r 1

CV

I f) •

1 . 4 •

CO •

C f)

N.

1 , 14

1 .1

I

C\ I

ZI

1

. t ie 1

C r) •

.1 •

1 1) •

N. •

.i .. .t .

o CV

o

P4 N1

ON 14

C\I v1

(1 Z

c n

I

i n

i

L . r )

0 , i

c C ' )

(N I

0 )

I

1: 1 a ) U )

U )

0

c v

_

vI

(N J

(r )

e

. . , , . . , . . , . . , . . , . . , . . . ,

g 4 < W

> 4 W

E 0

C Z

C I)

i n

. . , . . , . . , , ., . _,

C . )

e o

C .)

f lake/blades. F lake/blades were most f requently d iscarded a fter o ne u tilization , l ike f lakes . B ut a s urprising n umber ( 28 .4%) were c omplex t ools . O ne h ypothesis c oncerning f lake/blades i s t hat t he c ategory a s u sed h ere c ontains a m ixture o f a rtifacts which , while n ot f itting t he a rcheologist's d efinition o f b lades, f it t he u sers' d efinition , a nd were s o u sed a s b lades ( the c omplex t ools) , a nd a s econd g roup which were u sed a s f lakes s ince t hey l acked t he s alient c haracteristics o f b lades for t he u sers, although t hey p ossessed s ome o f t he a rcheologist's f ormal c haracteristics o f b lades ( the s imple u sed, f lake/blades). T hese d ata c ertainly s uggest t hat t he c ategory, " flake/blades ' " , u sed with microscopic u se-wear d ata, c ould l ead t o i nsights i nto t he r elationship b etween f orm a nd f unction.

2 11,

O ut o f 3 91 u nretouched f lakes, b lades, f lake/blades, a nd s hatter , o r 5 3.9% were u sed . N one o f t he s hatter o r p robably s truck f lakes

c ould b e j udged t o b e u sed, a lthough s ome o f t his c ould b e d ue t o t he h igh f requency o f c oarse-grained r ocks i n t hese c ategories. O f t he t otal o f 1 02 b lades, o nly e leven s howed a bsolutely n o s igns o f u se, whereas 9 0 o ut o f 2 86 f lakes, a lmost o ne-third, s howed a bsolutely n o s igns o f u se. This i s i n a ccord with o ther i ndications c ited a bove t hat b lades w ere m ore i ntensively u sed t han w ere f lakes. B ilateral a nd u nilateral e dge d amage a re a bout e qually r epresented o n u sed f lakes a nd b lades. O n r etouched f lakes a nd b lades h owever, unilateral d amage p redominates. s ee P rinz, 1 982, p p.187-206).

( For d etailed a rtifact d escriptions,

V lasac I I C ores

( 200)

The main d ata s et c ontained 3 5 c ores a nd 1 6 c ore f ragments b elonging t o V lasac I I . T hirty-three c ores a nd f ifteen c ore f ragments were f lint, o ne c ore was q uartz, o ne v olcanic, a nd o ne c ore f ragment was s ilica. T hree o f t he c ore f ragments were a ctually s truck f lakes which h ad d etached a l arge c hunk o f c ore, a nd t wo o f t hese h ad a lso b een u nilaterally r etouched a nd u sed f or s craping. E ight o ther f ragments were a lso u sed. F ive were u sed o n o ne t o t hree e dges a s s crapers. One was a n otch, o ne was r etouched, t hree were p ossibly r etouched, o ne was u sed f or c utting, a nd o ne f or b oth c utting a nd s craping. Three

o f

t he whole

c ores

h ad

u nretouched b urin e dge a nd t wo a s

b een u sed,

o ne

a s

a g raver

o n a n

s crapers.

A s i n V lasac I , t he c ore f ragments i n V lasac I I a re c onsistently smaller i n t heir l argest d imension t han t he c ores, a gain s uggesting t hat c ores f ragmented a s t hey d iminished i n l ength t o t he v icinity o f 2 0 mm . O nly 9 o f t he 3 5 c ores s howed n o e vidence o f b lade p roduction , and t hese n ine c ortex o n t hem .

were n ot p articularly l arge o r m ore l ikely t o h ave Most c ores were u sed f or t he p roduction o f b oth b lades

a nd f lakes. T hirteen l evels

o f

c ores

a nd

n ine

c ore

f ragments

s quare 5 23.

122

w ere

f ound

i n

t he

z one I I

I n t he u nsorted b agged r emainder o f Vlasac c hipped s tone t here w ere 2 9 c ores a nd 9 8 c ore f ragments a ssociated w ith V lasac I I . Twenty o f t he c ores w ere f lake c ores ( 13 h ad c ortex) , t hree w ere f lake/blade c ores

( 2 h ad c ortex),

a nd 6 w ere b lade c ores

( 3 h ad c ortex).

C ores f rom V lasac I I t hus t otal 7 7, a nd c ore f ragments t otal 1 23. A ssuming t hat 2 c ore f ragments r epresent o ne c ore g ives a c ore t otal o f f ragments

a nd

c ore r ejuvenation f lakes o f 1 :24, c onsistent w ith i n s itu k napping , i ncreasingly c areful e xploitation o f f lint r esources.

1 38

a nd

a r atio

o f

c ores

a nd

U nretouched U sed B lades T here

w ere 3 7

t o

f lakes,

b lades ,

f lake-blade

( 81)

s imple

b lades

w ith b ilateral

c utting u se

d amage ,

4

b lades with e dge d ulling b ut n o f lake o r s tep s car d amage, a nd 4 1 b lades with c omplex e dges. A ll o f t he s craping d amage with t he e xception o f t hree r eamers, was o n s ections o f s traight e dge . U nretouched ,

U sed F lake/Blades

( 53)

T here w ere 5 3 u sed f lake/blades . S eventeen h ad b een u sed o nly f or c utting , e ighteen o nly f or s craping , i ncluding t wo r eamer-shaped p ieces a nd o ne n otch , o ne f or a n u nidentified a ction which d ulled t he e dge b ut d id n ot p roduce d amage f lakes, a nd s eventeen were c omplex t ools i ncluding t wo g raver-piercers o ne o f w hich a lso h ad a n otch o n i t. U nretouched, U sed F lakes

( 219)

There were 2 19 u sed f lakes

i n V lasac I I.

F ifty-seven h ad o nly

b ilateral, c utting/piercing d amage. O f t hese, t hree f it t he d escription o f p ieces e squillees a nd t wo a ppear t o h ave b een u sed a s p iercers . Two f lakes h ad d ulled e dges w ithout l ateral r emovals , n inety f lakes h ad o nly u nilateral, s craper u se, d amage. T en o f t hese h ad d amaged e dges whose s hapes were c onsistent with u se a s r eamers, a nd t hree were n otches. T here were 6 5 c omplex t ools, o f which f ive h ad u nilateral d amage o n r eamer-shaped e dges, o ne a g raver, a nd t wo w ere d rills. R etouched,

U sed S haped T ools

F orty-three p ieces s haped t ools. No.

8 05

o ne was

e squillees,

( 43)

f rom V lasac I I h ave b een c lassified a s f ormally

T heir i ndividual d escriptions ( Figure

a p ieces

9 a).

B lade

with

f ollow.

p latform

a nd

b ulb

r emoved,

u nilaterally r etouched a nd s tep s carred o n b oth l ateral e dges; p ointed ( proximal) e nd i s b ilaterally f lake d amaged a nd s tep s carred a nd d ull a s

f rom

u se

a s

a p iercer

o r

d rill;

d istal

e nd

u nused;

c lassical

g ravette p oint. No.

8 08

( Figure

9 b).

P latform a nd

b ulb

r emoved,

u nilaterally

r etouched, s tep s carred a nd d ulled o n whole o f l eft l ateral a nd 1 /2 o f r ight l ateral, a nd p rojecting v entral medial s pine. P roximal e nd u nused;

d istal e nd d ulled b urin f acet with u nilateral s tep s carring

( graver).

1 23

a . n o .805

b .

C . n o .924

d . n o.927

0

f . n o .1964

e . n o.1962

0 j

F igure 9 :

c r n

1

,

n o .808

2

1

S haped T ools f rom V lasac I I

1 24

g .

n o.2010

h . n o.)/ 11

j . n o.889

F igure

9 ( cont'd) 1 25

k .

n o.930

1 .

n o.932

m . n o.1935

F igure 9 ( cont'd) 1 26

n . -r fö .1956

p . n o.1120

t . n o.2008

V . n o.2030

w . n o.2072

x .

F igure 9 ( cont'd)

1 27

n o.2013

CC.

n o. 1 975

d d. n o.1971

f f. n o.1824

e e. n o.1825

. n o.1866 h i-i

g. n o.2027 g

F igure 9 ( cont'd)

1 28

j. n o.1923 j

k. n o.56 k

1 1 . n o.990

m m . n o.1007

n n . n o.2028

p p . n o.2038

r r . n o.886

F igure 9 ( cont 'd) 1 29

t t. n o .829

v v . n o.754

w w . n o .2069

F igure 9 ( cont'd)

1 30

N o . 9 24 ( Figure 9 c) . P latform a nd b ulb g one, t op r etouch a nd s tep s cars c over a ll b ut u nused, d istal e nd; t humbnail s craper. No. 9 27 ( Figure 9 d). P latform p resent, s urrounded b y small a rea o f u nused e dge o n b oth s ides . R emainder o f e dge u nilaterally r etouched w ith s ome s tep s cars; t humbnail s craper. No. 1 962 ( Figure 9 e). Area o f e ither p latform o r u nused b reak, s urrounded b y u nused e dge o n e ither s ide ; r est o f e dge i s u nilaterally r etouched,

s tep s carred,

a nd r ather d ull;

t humbnail s craper.

No. 1 964 ( Figure 9 f). Area o f platform o r unused b reak; r emainder o f e dge i s unilaterally r etouched a nd s tep s carred, a nd d ull ; t humbnail s craper . N o.

2 010

( Figure 9 g).

S ame a s N o.

9 27;

t humbnail s craper.

N o . 4 41 ( Figure 9 h) . P latform p resent; l eft l ateral e dge u nused ; r ight l ateral a nd d istal u nilaterally r etouched a nd s tep s carred a nd q uite d ull;

b ig s craper.

No. 8 89 ( Figure 9 j) . P latform p resent; most o f l ateral e dges unused; l ower l aterals a nd d istal unilaterally r etouched a nd s tep s carred; b ig s craper. No. 9 30 ( Figure 9 k). P latform a nd b ulb p resent; u pper l ateral unused; r emainder o f e dge unilaterally r etouched a nd s carred; N o .

l eft s tep

b ig s craper. 9 32

( Figure

9 1) .

P latform p resent ;

l eft

l ateral u nused ;

r ight

l ateral a nd d istal u nilaterally r etouched with s ome s tep s cars;

b ig

s craper. No. 1 935 ( Figure 9m). r ight

l ateral

a nd

d istal

P roximal e nd b roken; l eft l ateral u nused;

u nilaterally

r etouched

a nd

s tep

s carred ;

p resent,

b ut

c rushed;

b ig

s craper. No.

1 956

( Figure

9 n).

P latform

l ateral

e dges t o e ither s ide o f p latform u nilaterally ( one i nverse, o ne t op) r etouched, s tep s carred a nd d ulled; l ower l eft l ateral a nd d istal u nused ; p iercer? No. 1 120

( Figure 9 p).

P latform b roken o ff;

l eft p oint

d ull a nd

c rushed; e dges o n e ither s ide unilaterally ( one t op, o ne i nverse) r etouched, s tep s carred a nd d ulled; r ight p oint q uite s harp b ut with s ome

i nverse

f lake

d amage

b ilaterally d amaged a nd u sed; N o .

4 50

( Figure

9 r) .

a nd

s tep

P latform p resent;

l eft l ateral t op r etouch a nd s tep l ateral i nverse r etouch a nd s tep r etouch; No. p ointed

s carring;

l ower

r ight

l ateral

p iercer?

s cars, s cars;

p ointed d istal

e nd u nused ;

d ulled e dge; l ower r ight u pper r ight l ateral, t op

u nused p iercer? 7 66

( Figure

d istal

9 s).

e nd u nused;

D ecortication r ight

1 31

l ateral

f lake; i nverse

p latform r etouch

p resent; a nd

s tep

s cars, d ull; l ower l eft l ateral t op r etouch a nd s tep s cars, l eft l ateral i nverse s tep s cars, d ull; u nused p iercer? No.

2 008

( Figure

9 t).

l ower l eft l ateral t op r etouched a nd s tep s cars; p iercer?

P latform

p resent;

d istal

d ull ;

p oint

u pper

u nused;

s tep s cars; l ower r ight l ateral i nverse u pper r ight l ateral t op f lake d amage ; u nused

No. 2 030 ( Figure 9 v). P latform p resent; d istal p oint u nused; l ower l eft l ateral t op r etouch a nd s tep s cars, e dge d ulled ; l ower r ight i nverse r etouch a nd s tep s cars, e dge d ulled; u nused p iercer? No. 2 072 ( Figure 9 w).

P latform p resent;

U pper l eft

l ateral t op

r etouch a nd s tep s cars; l ower l eft l ateral t o p oint r etouch a nd s tep s cars; m iddle r ight l ateral t op r etouch a nd s tep s cars; p oint? N o. 2 013 ( Figure 9 x). P latform p resent, u pper l eft l ateral t op d amage f lakes r emoved, e dge f resh; l ower l eft l ateral t o p oint t op r etouch a nd t op s tep s cars, d ull e dge ; l ower r ight l ateral t op r etouch ; p oint? No.

9 77

( Figure

9 y).

p oint i nverse f lake d amage ; d ull e dge ; p oint? No.

4 35

( Figure

9 z).

P latform p resent;

l ower

l eft

l ateral

t o

l ower r ight l ateral r etouch a nd s tep s cars,

P latform

p resent;

u pper

r ight

l ateral

( notch) b ilateral s tep s cars, d ulled e dge; d istal e dge , t op s tep s cars, d ulled e dge ; b oth s ides o f l eft r ounded p oint, i nverse r etouch , p oint i s unused; r eamer? N o .

middle

1 999

l eft

( Figure

l ateral,

9 aa) .

t op

s tep

N o p latform ;

s cars,

d ull

e dge;

u nused

t op r etouch a nd s tep s cars o n

l eft p roximal e dge, r ight p roximal e dge i nverse s tep s cars; r etouch s urrounding l ower r ight p oint, which h as s ome f lake r emovals b ut a f resh e dge, l eft p rotrusion u nused; u nused r eamer? No . l ateral,

1 976 ( Figure 9 bb). P roximal e nd t runcated(?), l ower icrolith. r etouched s tep s carred a nd d ull; g eometric .m

N o .

1 975

b roken ; u nused.

most

( Figure o f

9 cc) .

r ight

P roximal a nd d istal

l ateral

r etouched,

e nds

e dge

u nused ,

f resh;

l eft

l eft

p ossibly l ateral

No. 1 971 ( Figure 9 dd). P roximal e nd c urved, u pper r ight l ateral r etouched a nd s tep s carred , with d ull e dge ; l eft l ateral a nd l eft s ide o f d istal,

e dge w orn ,

n o f lake d amage;

No. 1 825 ( Figure 9 ee).

m icrolith.

P latform p resent;

r etouched with s tep s cars a nd u sed e dge; u se;

r ight l ateral s teeply

d orsal a nd l eft l ateral n o

m icrolith.

. No. 1 824 ( Figure 9 ff). P latform p resent; l eft l ateral s teeply r etouched a nd s tep s carred w ith u sed e dge; d orsal u nused; m icrolith. .

1 32

N o . 2 027 ( Figure 9 gg) . P latform p resent; m iddle s ection o f r ight l ateral a nd d orsal a re r etouched w ith s tep s cars o n a u sed e dge ; l eft l ateral e dge i s f resh w ith a f ew b ilateral f lakes r emoved; m icrolith. No. 1 866 ( Figure 9 hh). P latform p resent; b oth l ateral e dges r etouched b ut e dge q uite f resh; d orsal e dge u nused; s imilar t o 2 027. N o . 1 923 ( Figure 9 jj) . P latform p resent; b oth l ateral u sed e dges a re r etouched a nd s tep s carred ; d istal e dge u nused ; s imilar t o 2 027 a nd 1 866. No. 5 60 ( Figure 9 kk). P latform p resent; l eft l ateral r etouched, s tep s carred a nd d ull; r ight l ateral u sed, with b ilateral f lakes r emoved; g eometric. N o . 9 90 ( Figure 9 11) . P roximal e nd b roken ; d istal e nd r etouched , s tep s carred a nd d ull ; b oth l ateral e dges u sed , l eft l ateral with b il ateral f lake d amage, r ight l ateral w ithout f lake d amage; g eometric. No.

1 007

( Figure

9mm) .

P roximal

e nd

b roken ;

r etouched, s tep s carred a nd d ull; d istal r etouched, u sed; l eft l ateral u nused; g eometric.

r ight

l ateral

s tep s carred a nd

N o. 2 028 ( Figure 9 nn). F ragment; b roken o n l eft l ateral a nd d istal e nds; c ortex o n p roximal e nd ; r ight l ateral i s r etouched , f resh e dge; u nclear where f lake was s truck f rom, o r whether t his i s a d eliberately s napped g eometric o r a f ragment. N o . 2 038 ( Figure 9 pp) . R ight l ateral r etouched a nd s tep s carred ; h eavier w ear o n u pper e nd , s ome p olish ; f ragment -a ll o ther e dges a re b roken. N o .

8 86

b oth l ateral f resh.

( Figure 9 rr) . e dges;

P latform p resent;

l ateral

e dges

d ull;

r etouch a nd s tep s cars o n

d istal

e dge

r etouched

a nd

No. 9 02 ( Figure 9 ss). P latform p resent; d ull e dge a nd s tep s car o n u pper l eft a nd r ight l ateral a nd e dge o f p latform; r est o f e dge i s r etouched, s tep s carred a nd d ull.

a re

No. 8 29 ( Figure 9 tt). P latform p resent; l eft l ateral a nd d istal r etouched a nd s tep s carred a nd u sed-dull; r ight l ateral i s

r etouched w ith p olished. N o, 7 54

e dges

o f

( Figure

r etouch

9 vv).

s cars

a braded ;

s tep

P latform p resent;

s carred ,

l ower

l eft

a nd

a nd

d ull-

r ight

l aterals a nd d istal a re r etouched, s tep s carred a nd u sed; u pper l eft l ateral i s d ull a nd i nversely s tep-scarred; u pper r ight l ateral i s b ilaterally f laked a nd u sed; N o. 2 069

s hredder.

( Figure 9ww).

l ateral a nd d istal a re o f e dge a re d ulled;

P latform p resent;

r etouched ,

l ower r ight a nd l eft

s tep-scarred a nd p rojecting

l ike 7 54.

1 33

p ortions

S ummary o f R etouched P ieces T hirteen b lades, f lakes

w ere u sed a nd

7 f lake/blades, p robably

3 3 f lakes,

r etouched .

a nd 1 5 p robably s truck

F ourteen p robable

f lakes,

3 2

b lades, 1 9 f lake/blades, 5 0 f lakes, a nd 4 3 s haped t ools w ere b oth r etouched a nd u sed . B oth r etouch a nd u se d amage o n a ll 1 7 s imple b lades w as u nilateral . A ll o f t he c omplex b lades h ad o nly u nilateral u se o f t he ( unilaterally) r etouched e dge a reas. T here were f our n otches among t he b lades . F lake/blades i ncluded o ne p ieces e squillees, two n otches, a nd a g raver . R etouch a nd u se-damage o f r etouched e dge was a ll u nilateral f or t hese p ieces, w ith t he e xception o f t he p ieces e squillees. Two o f t he r etouched p robable f lakes were b i -l aterally r etouched a nd h ad b ilateral u se d amage o n t he r etouched e dge . O ther p robable f lakes h ad o nly s craper-use o f r etouched e dges. O ne r etouched f lake was a lso b ilaterally r etouched a nd u se-damaged , -a nother p ieces e squillees .

O ther s imple f lakes

were

a ll u nilaterally

r etouched a nd

d amaged, a nd i ncluded t wo r eamers a nd o ne u nused p oint, which would h ave b een s uitable f or a g raver o r p iercer . C omplex f lakes i ncluded 2 r eamers, 1 n otch , a nd a u sed p iercer w hich h ad a lso b een r etouched a nd u sed a s a s craper o n a s traight e dge. T he f ormally s haped t ools i ncluded o nly f our a rtifacts with b il ateral d amage--four o f t he micro t ools h ad b ilateral d amage o n a n e dge which was n ot r etouched . A ll o ther u se d amage a nd r etouch was u nilateral , e xcept f or t he d amage t o t he e nd o f t he o ne p iercer . T here was o ne g raver , n ine u nused p iercer/drill/points?, f our t humbnail a nd f ive b ig s crapers, o ne u nused r eamer , o ne c ombination r eamer a nd n otch a nd t en m icroliths. S ummary O f T he V lasac I I C hipped S tone T he c hipped s tone f rom V lasac I I b reaks d own a s T he p rimary u se o f r etouch i n V lasac I I

was

s hown i n T able 4 1.

t o r epair a nd p repare

e dges f or s craper u tilization . 2 5.6% o f a ll u sed a rtifacts were r etouched. R etouch was s econdarily u sed t o s hape f ormal t ools. Twenty-seven p ercent o f a ll r etouched p ieces were f ormally s haped t ools. Out

o f

t he

6 29

unretouched

f lakes,

b lades,

f lake/blades,

a nd

s hatter , 3 71, o r 5 8 .9% , w ere u sed . A n umber o f u nretouched f lakes a nd b lades h ad n atural s hapes w hich w ere e xploited f or s pecial u ses: f our p ieces e squillees, f our p iercers, t hirteen r eamers , t hree n otches, a nd two gravers were u sed without r etouch. The general i ntensity/casualness o f u tilization c an b e g auged b y l ooking a t t he n umber o f e dge a reas u sed b efore a t ool w as d iscarded , a nd t he n umber o f p ieces u sed f or more t han o ne s ort o f t ask ( cutting, s craping, d rilling, e tc.), w hich h ave b een c alled c omplex t ools. T hirty-three p ercent o f t he u sed b lades, 4 5% o f t he f lake/blades, a nd 4 6% o f t he f lakes were u sed o nce a nd t hen d iscarded. B lades were more f requently c omplex t ools ( 41%) a s o pposed t o f lake/blades ( 32%) a nd f lakes ( 31.2%) . D iscounting t he f ormally s haped p ieces, 2 4% o f a ll u sed b lades were r etouched. 2 6.3% o f a ll u sed f lake/blades were r etouched,

a nd

1 8.6%

o f

a ll

u sed

1 34

f lakes

were

r etouched.

T hese

T ABLE 4 1 V LASAC I I C HIPPED S TONE C ATEGORIES

U nused s hatter

N o. 2 5

27 9)

U nused p robable f lakes

3 8

) 4 .4) ) )

P roximally t runcated u nused f lakes

1

0 .1)

U nused f lakes

8 8

) 1 0.3)

U nused b lades

3 4

) 3 .9)

U nused f lake/blades

3 6

) 4 .2)

P ossibly u sed f lakes

1 3

1 .5

P ossibly u sed f lake/blades

1 3

1 .5

P ossibly u sed b lades

7

0 .8

P ossibly u sed p robable f lakes

3

0 .3

U sed b lades

9 8

U sed f lake/blades

5 3

U sed s hatter

1

U sed f lakes

2 19

P robably r etouched,

u sed b lades

P robably r etouched, p robable f lakes

u sed,

P robably r etouched, f lake/blades

u sed

1.4) 1 ) 6 .2) ) 0 .1) ) 2 5.6) )

1 3

1 .5)

1 5

) ) 1 .7)

7 3 3

) 3 .8)

R etouched, f lakes

1 4

1 .6)

R etouched u sed b lades

3 3

) 3 .8) )

R etouched u sed f lake/blades

1 9

2 .2)

5 1

) 5 .9)

( 51.4%)

4 3 8 53

) 5 .0) 1 00.0

p robable

R etouched u sed f lakes R etouched,

4 39 u sed

) ) 0 .8)

P robably r etouched u sed f lakes u sed,

22 u nused 2 ( 26.0%)

u sed s hape t ools T otal

135

1 60 r etouched ( 18.7%)

d istributions a re s ummarized

i n T able 4 2.

T aking a s till b roader v iew, o ne u tilization b y i ncluding u nused p ieces,

c an l ook a t t he i ntensity o f a s s hown i n T able 4 3 . B lades

c an b e s een t o b e c onsistently h eavily e xploited: 8 0% o f a ll b lades p roduced were u sed, a nd o f t hose which were u sed b ut n ot r etouched, o nly 3 3% were u sed o nly o nce a nd d iscarded. F lake/blades were most f requently d iscarded without b eing u sed ( 1/3). H owever, o f t hose f lake/blades s elected f or u se , a h igher p ercentage w ere r etouched t han b lades ( 26.3% a s o pposed t o 2 4%). O n t he o ther h and, 4 5.3% o f t he u sed f lake/blades were d iscarded a fter b eing u sed o nly o nce. U sed f lakes a re s imilar t o f lake/blades i n b eing m ost f requently d iscarded a fter o ne

u se

( 46.5%) .

U nlike

b lades

o f u sed f lakes w ere r etouched

a nd

f lake/blades ,

a s maller

p ercentage

( 18.6%).

F lake/blades a re u tilized l ike f lakes i n s ome r espects ( percentage o f u sed p ieces d iscarded a fter o ne u se) , a nd l ike b lades i n o ther r espects ( percentage o f u sed p ieces which were r etouched). T he p ercentage o f f lake/blades d iscarded w ithout b eing u sed d istinguishes f lake/blades f rom b oth b lades a nd f lakes . T his l ater c haracteristic i s p robably d ue t o t he f act t hat a n umber o f f lake/blades w ere n ot " true" b lades b ecause o f i rregularities i n t he r aw m aterial which c aused t he f racture t o g o a stray a nd p roduce a n o dd-shaped a rtifact. I f a ll r etouch ( discounting t he 4 3 " formally s haped t ools" ) w ere f or ( re)sharpening, i t c ould b e s aid t hat o nly o ne o f f our b lades a nd f lake/blades a nd o ne o ut o f 5 1 /2 f lakes w ere r esharpened r ather t han b eing d iscarded b y a w orker . s ee P rinz, 1 982, p p.218-244).

( For

d etailed

d escriptions

o f

a rtifaCts,

V lasac I II C ores Twenty-three c ores a nd e ight c ore f ragments a ssociated w ith V lasac I II were f ound i n t he p rimary d ata s et. A ll 3 1 p ieces were f lint. F our o f t he f ragments w ere a ctually s truck f lakes w hich h ad d etached a l arge c hunk o f c ore. T hree f ragments were s ubsequently u sed f or s craping a nd h ad o ne o r t wo u sed e dges . O ne f ragment w as u nilaterally r etouched o n i ts u sed e dge. F our

o f

t he

c ores

h ad

b een u sed,

a ll

f or

s craping ,

a nd

o ne

o f

t hese was p ossibly r etouched. T he p ossibly r etouched a nd u sed p iece was a v ery r educed p encil-shaped b lade c ore w ith b lades s truck f rom o pposite e nds . T he t hree o ther u sed o nes w ere a morphous f lake c ores, o ne o r t wo s craping.

c onvenient

e dges

o f

e ach

o f

which

h ad

b een

u sed

f or

I n V lasac I II t he t endency f or c ore f ragments t o b e s maller i n a ll d imensions t han whole c ores a ppears t o b e g one . Among t he w hole c ores, n ine w ere b lade c ores, e ight w ere f lake c ores, a nd f our s howed e vidence o f h aving y ielded b oth b lades a nd f lakes . B lade c ores a re n ot s maller t han f lake c ores. T he u nsorted b agged m aterial f or V lasac I II y ielded 6 whole c ores a nd 8 0 f ragments. F ive o f t he whole c ores were f lake c ores ( 3 h ad c ortex) a nd t he s ixth c ore w as a f lake/blade c ore ( with n o

136

T ABLE 4 2 V LASAC I I A RTIFACT C ATEGORIES A ND P ATTERNS O F U SE N o. e dge a reas u sed

S imple

C omplex

F lakes ( 219) n o.

B lades ( 99) %

F lake/Blades ( 53)

n o.

%

n o.

%

( 1 (

1 02

4 6.5

3 3

3 3.0

2 4

4 5.3

( 2

4 0

1 8.2

2 0

2 0.0

1 8

3 3.9

( ( 3

9

4 .1

( ( 4

1

0 .4

4

4 .0

( 2

3 9

1 7.8

1 9

1 9.0

( ( 3

1 8

8 .0

1 6

1 6.0

( ( 4

1 1

5 .0

( ( 5 ( ( 6

1

0 .4

2

2 .0

3

3 .0

1

1 .0

2

3 .8

1 1

2 0.7

5

9 .4

1

1 .9

T ABLE 4 3 V LASAC I I I NTENSITY O F A RTIFACT U TILIZATION

B lades

F lake/Blades

F lakes

n o. U nused

3 4

2 0.6

3 6

3 3.3

8 8

2 4.6

U sed

9 9

6 0.0

5 3

4 9.0

2 19

6 1.3

R etouched u sed

3 3

1 9.3

1 9

1 7.6

5 1

1 4.0

T otal

1 65

1 08

1 37

3 58

c ortex). S quare 5 23, which p roved t o b e p oor i n V lasac I II c hipped s tone, c ontained e ight c ores a nd f ive c ore f ragments, a ll f lint. V lasac I II

c hipped

s tone

t hus

p roduced a t otal

o f

3 7

c ores a nd 9 2

c ore f ragments, which y ields a r atio o f c ores t o f lakes o f 1 :28. T he r atio o f c ores a nd c ore f ragments t o f lakes, b lades a nd o ther p roducts o f knapping t hus s hows smooth i ncrease t hrough t ime a t V lasac, f rom 1 :18 t o 1 :24 t o 1 :28. U nretouched,

U sed F lakes

( 93)

T here were 9 3 u sed f lakes i n t he V lasac I II material. t hese h ad b ilateral , c utting-use d amage o n o ne o r t wo e dges .

T hirty o f F orty-two

f lakes h ad u nilateral, s craper-type d amage o n o ne ( 24), t wo ( 14) o r more ( 2) e dges, i ncluding o ne n otch a nd o ne g raver . There were 2 1 c omplex t ools, i ncluding o ne n otch . U nretouched,

U sed B lades

( 61)

There were s ixty-one u sed b lades i n t he V lasac I II material. N ineteen b lades h ad b ilateral , c utting u se d amage o n o ne o r t wo e dges . F ourteen b lades h ad u nilateral , s craper-type d amage o n o ne ( 9) , t wo ( 4) o r t hree ( 1) e dges. T here w ere t wenty-seven c omplex o ne d rill, w hich h ad t en d istinct a reas o f e dge w ear. U nretouched,

U sed F lake/Blades

t ools,

i ncluding

( 21)

Twenty-one u nretouched u sed f lake/blades were p resent i n t he V lasac I II m aterial . E leven h ad b ilateral , c utting-use d amage o n o ne o r t wo e dges. F ive a rtifacts h ad u nilateral s craper t ype d amage o n o ne , t wo o r t hree e dges, i ncluding o ne a rtifact which h ad t wo h eavily u sed s hallow n otches. T here w ere f ive c omplex t ools w hich e ach h ad t wo u sed e dges. R etouched S haped T ools N o.

1 872

( 36)

( Figure

1 0a).

P latform

u niformly r etouched a nd s tep s carred; d amaged a nd e dge p olished. N o .

1 444

r etouched a nd d istal e nd,

( Figure

1 0b) .

P latform

i ntact,

r ight

l ateral

e dge

l eft l ateral e dge b ilaterally

i ntact,

r ight

l ateral

e dge

e venly

s tep s carred ; b ilateral r etouch a nd u se d amage t o r ight i nverse d amage t o l eft d istal-left l ateral c urving

j uncture. N o. 1 185 ( Figure 1 0c). P latform i ntact; l ower l ateral e dges a nd d istal e nd r etouched i nto a s mooth a rc a nd d ulled w ith s tep s carring ; m id-right l ateral h as i nverse s craper d amage, m id-left l ateral h ad b ilateral u se-damage. N o. d istal

1 180 e nd

( Figure

r etouched

1 0d). i nto

P latform i ntact; a smooth

s craper d amage.

1 38

a rc;

l eft

u pper

l ateral e dge a nd

r ight

l ateral

e dge

a . n o .1872

/ 1 ) 1 b . n o. 14

c . n o .1185

d . n o.1180

e .

f . n o.1539

n o.946

0 j

F igure 1 0:

c r n

1

2

S haped T ools f rom V lasac I II 1 39

g . n o.1941

h . n o.1981

j . n o.1235

k . n o.1850

1 . n o.1855

m . n o.1403

F igure 1 0

( cont'd)

1 40

n . n o.1259

r . n o.1296

S . n o.1665

g

V . n o.1978

w . n o.1933

x . n o.1251

y . n o.2070

z . n o.1876

F igure

1 0

( cont'd)

1 41

n o.2029

b b. n o.1278

c c. n o.1241

d d. n o.1977

e e.

f f. n o.2023

1 003

g g. n o.2035

. n o.1877 h i-i

j j. n o.1276

k. n o.2001 k

F igure 1 0

( cont'd)

1 42

1 1 . n o .2 005

m m . n o.1388

n n . n o.1884

p p. n o.1292

F igure

1 0

( cont'd)

1 43

No. 9 46 ( Figure 1 0e). P latform i ntact; r ight l ateral e dge a nd d istal e nd r etouched i nto a s mooth a rc -edge p olished ; n o o ther u se d amage. No.

1 539

( Figure

1 0f).

Uncertain

p latform

u nilateral u se d amage a nd s potty r etouch t o p roduce

i dentification;

" shredder" e dge.

N o. 1 941 ( Figure 1 0 0 . P latform i ntact; u pper 2 /3 o f r ight l ateral e dge r etouched a nd s tep s carred ; m ost o f l eft l ateral e dge h as s craper d amage. No.

1 981

( Figure 1 0h).

P latform i ntact;

r etouched o n u pper a nd

l ower a reas o f b oth l ateral e dges a nd o n t he n osed p rojection o f t he l eft l ateral-distal c orner; a ll o f t he r etouched a reas a re u sed amaged. N o . e dges

l ateral s carred, N o . i s

1 235

( Figure

a nd d istal

1 0j) .

e nd ;

t he

P latform c oncave

i ntact;

r etouched

i rregular

e dge

o n b oth l ateral

s ection o n t he

e dge i s i nversely r etouched; b oth l ateral t he d istal e nd i s n ot; a ll e dges a re d ull. 1 850

r etouched

( Figure 1 0k) . a nd

s tep

P latform r etouched a way ;

s carred

a nd

d ull,

t he

e dges

l eft

r ight

r ight

a re

s tep

l ateral e dge

l ateral

e dge

i s

b ilaterally d amaged a nd u sed. N o . 1 855 ( Figure 1 01) . P latform i ntact ; l ower 2 /3 o f l eft l ateral e dge i s i nversely r etouched a nd a ppears u sed; u pper 2 /3 o f t he r ight l ateral e dge i s No.

1 403

r etouched,

b ilaterally d amaged a nd u sed. ( Figure

s tep

1 0m).

s carred

P latform

a nd

d ulled;

i ntact; d istal

b oth p oint

b ilaterally s tep s carred w ith u nilateral d amage f lakes

l ateral i s

e dges

d ulled

a nd

( graver?).

No. 1 259 ( Figure 1 0n). P latform b roken o ff; b oth l ateral e dges b ilaterally r etouched and s tep s carred and d ulled o n t op and u nilaterally r etouched a nd s tep s carred a nd d ulled l ower d own. N o .

1 402

( Figure

1 0p) .

P latform

b ilaterally r etouched a nd d ulled;

i ntact ;

whole

r ight

l ateral

e dge

whole l eft l ateral e dge i nversely

r etouched a nd d ulled. N o. 1 296 ( Figure 1 0r).

P latform b roken o ff; whole r ight l ateral

a nd u pper l eft l ateral e dges u nilaterally r etouched , s tep-scarred a nd d ull ; d istal e nd u nilaterally d amaged a nd d ulled ; l ower l eft l ateral e dge u nilaterally d amaged a nd d ull. ( Figure

1 0s).

c ompletely

No .

1 665

r etouched,

s tep

P latform

b ilaterally

s tep-scarred a nd d ulled.

s carred,

i ntact;

a nd

b oth

d ulled;

l ateral

l eft

d istal

e dges e dge

N o . 1 269 ( Figure 1 00 . C annot d efinitely i dentify p latform ; r ight l ateral u nilaterally r etouched , s tep s carred a nd d ull ; b roken d istal i s b ilaterally d amaged,

e dge f resh.

1 44

No.

1 978

( Figure

1 0v).

P latform b roken o ff;

l ow

r ight

r etouched , s tep s carred a nd d ull; p oint f resh ; l ower l eft a djacent t o p oint i s b ilaterally s tep s carred a nd d ulled.

l ateral

l ateral

e dge

No. 1 933 ( Figure 1 0w) . C annot i dentify p latform; d istal e nd a nd l ateral e dge a re b oth unilaterally r etouched, s tep s carred a nd

l eft

d ulled. No. 1 251 ( Figure 1 0x). P latform i ntact; r ight l ateral e dge i s u nilaterally r etouched a nd v ery s harp ; l ower l eft l ateral-distal c orner h as u nilateral s tep s cars a nd i s d ulled ( graver). N o . 2 070 ( Figure 1 0y) . C annot i dentify p latform ; t hree s ides a re i nversely r etouched, s tep s carred a nd d ulled; l eft l ateral-proximal c orner h as u nilateral s tep s cars a nd r etouch, a nd i s p olished-dull. No.

1 876

( Figure 1 0z) .

P latform i ntact;

whole

l eft

l ateral i s

u nilaterally r etouched a nd s tep s carred a nd u sed. No .

2 029

( Figure 1 0aa).

r etouched a nd s tep s carred,

P latform a nd d istal e nds u nilaterally

d ull.

No . 1 278 ( Figure l Obb).

P latform a nd d istal e nd r etouched away;

d istal e nd i s s tep s carred a nd d ulled; d amaged ; t he s horter o ne i s v ery s harp; No. 1 241 ( Figure l Occ).

l ateral e dges a re b ilaterally t he l onger i s u sed-dulled.

P latform a nd d istal e nd r etouched away;

s tep s carred a nd d ulled; l onger l ateral e dge i s b ilaterally d amaged, u sed. No.

1 977

r etouched; No.

1 003

r etouched,

a nd

( Figure

l Odd).

P latform

i ntact;

a ll

t hree

s ides

P latform

i ntact;

a ll

t hree

s ides

v ery s harp e dges. ( Figure

1 0ee).

s tep s carred a nd u se-dulled.

No. 2 023 ( Figure 1 0ff). C annot i dentify p latform; r ight l ateral d istal u nilaterally r etouched , a nd u sed-polished ; l eft l ateral i s

b ilaterally s tep-scarred a nd u sed. No. 2 035 ( Figure l Ogg). i s s tep s carred , b ilaterally d amaged a nd u sed. N o .

1 877

r etouched,

( Figure

s tep

1 0hh) .

s carred

a nd

C annot i dentify p latform; r ight l ateral r etouched a nd u se-dulled ;

P latform

i ntact,

u se-dulled;

r ight

l eft

l eft

l ateral i s

l ateral

l ateral

i nversely

p rojection

u nilaterally u se-damaged. No .

1 276

( Figure 1 0jj).

P latform r etouched a way;

l eft l ateral e dge u nilaterally r etouched, r ight

s tep

p latform a nd

s carred

a nd d ulled;

l ateral e dge p rojection s craper d amaged.

No. 2 001 ( Figure 1 0kk). P latform i ntact; r ight l ateral e dge a nd d istal e nd unilaterally ( from o pposite d irections) r etouched, p oint ( broken)

u nused ;

l eft

l ateral

u nilaterally

1 45

r etouched

a nd

s craper

u se-

dulled. No. 2005 (Fig ure 1011) . Cannot ident if y platform; right lateral edge and distal end step scarred and retouched, use-dulled; point unused. No. 1388 (Fig ure 10mm). Platform broken off; right lateral and distal unilaterally retouched and edges used; medial spine rounded and worn; point broken; left lateral edge is laterally damaged and used. No. 1884 (Figure lOnn). Platform intact; distal end unilaterally retouched - point and right lateral edge indeterminate beca use of cortex; left lateral unilaterally retouched, edge fresh . No. 1292 (Figure !Opp). Platform intact, unilateral retouch, edges used, point is unused.

146

all left lateral

S ummary o f R etouched P ieces, V lasac I II There were 5 2 u sed a rtifacts which were p ossibly, b ut n ot d efinitely, r etouched . Among t hese, o ne p robable f lake was a p ieces e squillges, a nd o ne b lade was u sed a s a r eamer . O nly t wo a rtifacts h ad s imple , b ilaterally d amaged e dges . Twenty-one h ad s imple u nilateral d amage, a nd t he r est were u nilateral e dge d amage.

c omplex

t ools

with

b oth

b ilateral

a nd

T he t hree r etouched p ieces o f u sed s hatter i ncluded t wo s crapers a nd a g raver . T he s ix r etouched p robable f lakes i ncluded s craper d amage , t wo r eamers, a n otch , a nd o ne a rtifact w ith t wo n otches a nd a r eamer . T here w ere 4 6 r etouched u sed f lakes . T hirty-one o f t hese h ad o nly s imple unilateral u se d amage, a nd i ncluded t wo r eamers, f our n otches, a c omposite r eamer-graver, a nd o ne d rill/graver. The 1 3 c omplex t ools i ncluded o ne n otch , o ne p iercer , a nd o ne c omposite n otchs hredder. The 2 1 r etouched u sed b lades i ncluded s even with s imple u nilateral u se-damage. O ne e dge o f o ne o f t hese w as a r eamer . Among t he 1 4 c omplex t ools t here were t wo n otches. N ine r etouched u sed f lake/blades i ncluded f ive with j ust s imple u nilateral u se-damage, i ncluding t wo n otches. T he f ormally s haped t ools i ncluded f ive m icrotools, s ix p ossible m icrotools, a s hredder, f our r ound s crapers, t hree p ossible p oints, s even d rill/graver/piercers, a nd f ive e xtensively r etouched b lades, o ne o f which h as b ilateral e dge d amage t o a n unretouched e dge, and c ould e asily h ave b een p art

o f a c omposite t ool.

S ummary o f T he V lasac I II C hipped S tone The b reakdown o f c ategories s ummarized i n T able 4 4.

o f

c hipped s tone f or V lasac I II i s

The p rimary p urpose o f r etouch i n V lasac I II r emained t he p reparing a nd r epairing o f e dges f or s craper u tilization . 3 0 .8% o f a ll u sed a rtifacts were r etouched. R etouch was s econdarily u sed i n t he s haping o f f ormal s haped t ools. O f 2 11,

t he 3 61

o r 5 8 .4% ,

t ools .

2 9 .7%

u nretouched w ere u sed .

o f

a ll

f lakes, Amongst

r etouched

b lades,

p ieces

w ere

f lake/blades,

t he u nretouched b ut

a nd

u sed

f ormally

s hatter ,

a rtifacts,

t he n atural s hapes o f a n umber o f a rtifacts w ere e xploited f or s pecial u ses: t hree p ieces e squillees, f ive n otches, f our g ravers, t hree d rills and o ne d enticulate. The i ntensity o f u tilization o f unretouched p ieces i s r eflected i n t he n umber o f e dges o n a p iece u tilized b efore d iscard, a nd a lso b y t he u se o f t he t ool f or j ust o ne ( simple) o r m ore t han o ne ( complex) t ask--cutting , s craping , d rilling , e tc. A lmost h alf ( 48.3%) o f a ll u sed f lakes were u sed j ust o nce a nd t hen d iscarded . A bout a t hird ( 32.7%) o f t he b lades w ere u tilized o nce t hen d iscarded.

F lake/blades

f all i n b etween ( 38%).

A much h igher

p ercentage o f t he b lades were c omplex t ools ( 44.0%) t han was t he c ase with f lakes ( 23.5%) o r f lake/blades ( 23.8%) ( See T able 4 5) . T here w ere a t otal o f 9 5 u sed b lades, e xclusive o f f ormally s haped t ools, a nd 2 1 o f t hese ( 22.1%) were r etouched, whereas 2 9.1% o f a ll u sed f lakes a nd 2 2.5% o f f lake/blades w ere r etouched ( See T able 4 6).

1 47

T ABLE 4 4 V LASAC I II C HIPPED S TONE C ATEGORIES C ategory

n o.

U nused s hatter

1 3

2 .3)

U nused p robable f lakes

2 9

) 5 .3)

U nused f lakes

3 3

) 6 .0)

Unused b lades

2 1

) 3 .8)

U nused f lake/blades

2 2

) 4 .0)

P ossibly u sed s hatter

8

P ossibly u sed f lakes

1 2

2 .2

5

0 .9

P ossibly u sed f lake/blades

7

1 .2

U sed s hatter

1 4

2 .5)

U sed p robable f lakes

2 2

) 4 .0)

U sed f lakes

9 3

) 1 7.0)

U sed b lades

6 1

) 1 1.2)

U sed f lake/blades

2 1

P ossibly r etouched u sed p robable f lakes

1 0

1 .8) )

P ossibly r etouched u sed f lakes

1 9

3 .4)

P ossibly r etouched u sed b lades

1 3

) 2 .3)

P ossibly r etouched u sed f lake/blades

1 0

) 1 .8)

R etouched u sed p robable f lakes

0 .5)

6

) 1 .1)

4 6

R etouched u sed b lades

2 1

R etouched u sed f lake/blades

9

R etouched s haped t ools

3 6 T otal

1 48

) 3 .8) )

3

R etouched u sed f lakes

5 43

( 21.7%)

1 .4

P ossibly u sed b lades

R etouched u sed s hatter

1 18 u nused

) ? ) ) 3 .8) ) 1 .6) ) 6 .6)

2 63 u sed ( 48.4%)

1 21 r etouched ( 22.2%)

T ABLE 4 5 V LASAC I II A RTIFACT C ATEGORIES A ND P ATTERNS O F U SE

N o.

o f E dge A reas

F lakes ( 93)

B lades (61)

U sed

n o.

%

( 1

4 5

4 8.3

( 2

2 5

2 6.8

n o.

F lake/Blades (21) %

n o.

%

2 0

3 2.7

8

3 8.0

1 3

2 1.3

6

2 8.5

1

1 .6

2

9.5

9

1 4.7

5

2 3.8

S imple ( 3

1

1 .0

( 4

1

1 .0

( 2

C omplex

1 7

1 9.3

( 3

2

2 .1

( 4

2

2 .1

( 6

1 49

1 5

2 4.5

1

1 .6

1

1 .6

T ABLE

4 6

V LASAC I II F REQUENCY O F R ETOUCH

U sed F lakes ( 158)

U sed B lades ( 95)

J ust U sed

9 3

5 8.8

6 1

6 4.2

2 1

5 2.5

P ossibly R etouched

1 9

1 2.0

1 3

1 3.6

1 0

2 5.0

R etouched

4 6

2 9.1

2 1

2 2.1

1 58

U sed F lake/Blades ( 40) % _

2 2.5

9

9 5

4 0

T ABLE 4 7 V LASAC I II I NTENSITY O F A RTIFACT U TILIZATION

F lakes N o.

B lades N o.

U nused

3 3

1 9.1

2 1

2 0.3

2 2

4 2.3

U sed

9 3

5 4.0

6 1

5 9.2

2 1

4 0.3

R etouched a nd U sed

4 6

2 6.7

2 1

2 0.3

1 72

1 03

F lake/Blades N o.

9 5 2

1 50

1 7.3

This

i s a r eversal o f t he p attern o f g reater i ntensity o f b lade

u se n oted a bove . A h igher p ercentage o f f lakes t han b lades i s b eing s econdarily w orked . I f w e e xpand t his c onsideration t o l ook a t u nused f lakes, b lades, a nd f lake/blades, i t c an b e s een t hat a bout t he s ame p ercentage o f f lakes a nd b lades a re b eing u sed ( 80%) , b ut t hat a h igher p ercentage

o f

f lakes

a re

r etouched .

T he

f lake/blades

s tand

o ut

w ith a

v ery h igh p ercentage n ot u sed a t a ll ( 42.3%) ( See T able 4 7). d etailed d escription o f a rtifacts, s ee P rinz, 1 982, p p.256-278).

( For

V lasac I V V lasac I V material c ontained f our p ieces o f u nused s hatter, t wo u nused f lakes, t hree u nused b lades, a nd o ne u nused f lake/blade . Two o f t he n ine u sed f lakes h ad b ilateral c utting-use d amage o n o ne o r t wo u sed e dges . T hree f lakes h ad u nilateral s craper d amage o n e dges. T here w ere f our c omplex t ools, i ncluding o ne n otch.

o ne

o r

t wo

T here were s ix u sed b lades i n t he V lasac I V materials. F ive h ad b ilateral c utting-use d amage t o o ne e dge, t he s ixth w as a c omplex t ool. Two f lakes a nd t hree b lades were r etouched a nd b ore u nilateral s craper-use d amage. R etouched,

S haped T ools

( 6)

S ix a rtifacts, t wo f lakes a nd f our b lades, w ere r etouched e xtensively f or p urposes b eyond ( re)sharpening a nd e dge s trengthening. No. 9 28 ( Figure 1 1a). T he s triking p latform a nd c urving r ight l ateral h ave b een r etouched i nto a s mooth a rc ; t his s emi-circular e dge i s a lso u nilaterally s tep-scarred a nd q uite d ull; t he c urving l eft l ateral h as a lso b een r etouched f rom t he o pposite f ace a nd i s a lso s tep s carred a nd q uite d ulled. No. 1 639 ( Figure 1 1b). T he p latform i s p resent a nd u nmodified; b ilateral e dges a nd d istal e nd c ontinuously u nilaterally r etouched a nd s tep s carred a nd v ery d ull. No.

( Figure 1 1c).

1 645

P latform h as b een b roken o ff,

r ight l ateral e dge i s u nilaterally r etouched a nd s tep l eft l ateral e dge i s a lso u nilaterally u se -d amaged. N o .

1 646

( Figure

1 1d) .

T he

p latform

i s

p resent;

t he whole

s carred

t he

a nd

e ntire

t he

r ight

l ateral e dge a nd

d istal e nd a re u nilaterally

r etouched a nd s tep s carred

a nd

d ulled ;

l ower

a lso

b ut

i s q uite s harp. No.

t he

1 652

( Figure

l eft

1 1e).

l ateral

T he

e dge

i s

p latform

h as

r etouched

b een

( inversely)

b roken o ff,

t he

d istal t ip i s s lightly u nilaterally d amaged a nd t he u pper 2 /3 o f t he l eft

l ateral N o .

t he

1 643

r ight

i s

i nversely

r etouched a nd u sed.

( Figure 1 1 0 .

l ateral

e dge

T he p latform i s p resent;

i s u nilaterally r etouched,

u sed.

1 51

t he m iddle 3 /4

o f

s tep s carred a nd

T he f our r etouched b lades a re a ll l ikely u se i n c omposite t ools.

1 52

t o h ave b een i ntended f or

a . n o .928

b .

n o.1639

c . n o .1645

d .

n o.1646

f .

n o.1643

e9 e . n o .1652

0

jcm

F igure 1 1:

1

S haped T ools 1 53

2

f rom V lasac I V

S ummary o f V lasac I V C hipped S tone T he b reakdown o f t he V lasac I V c hipped s tone i nto c ategories i s s ummarized i n T able 4 8. R egrettably t hese s ubtotals a re t oo s mall f or c omparisons t o b e m ade b etween t he u tilization a nd r etouching o f f lakes a nd b lades o r t he i ntensity o f u tilization o f i ndividual p ieces . ( For d etailed a rtifact d escriptions, s ee P rinz, 1 982, p p.288-291). V LASAC 0 Twenty-nine p ieces o f c hipped s tone, 5 c ores a nd 3 1 c ore f ragments, c ould n ot b e r eliably a ssigned t o a ny o f t he f our p hases o f t he s ite . T here w as o ne u nused l imestone f lake . O ne q uartz f lake m ay h ave b een u sed. T here were f ive u sed f lakes, f our o f which h ad b een u sed f or c utting t ools ( bilateral e dge d amage). T he f ifth h ad t hree unilaterally d amaged e dges a nd a b ilateral d amaged p oint ( drill). T here w ere t hree f lake/blades, t wo o f w hich h ad o nly u nilateral d amage . T he t hird h ad b oth u nilaterally a nd b ilaterally d amaged e dges ( complex t ool). There was o ne b ilaterally d amaged u sed b lade and o ne b ilaterally a nd u nilaterally d amaged u sed b lade. Two a rtifacts, a b lade r etouched, a nd w ere u sed.

a nd

a b roken

f lake,

may

h ave

b een

F ive f lakes a nd o ne b lade were u sed a nd r etouched. F our o f t he f lakes h ad o nly unilateral d amage, t he f ifth f lake h ad b ilateral a s w ell a s u nilateral d amage, a s d id t he b lade. E ight p ieces w ere f ormally s haped t ools,

a s f ollows:

N o. 1 979 ( Figure 1 2a). P latform i ntact; t op r etouch a long l ower 3 /4 o f r ight l ateral e dge; g rave 3 3-34, p robably V lasac I . N o.

1 948 ( Figure 1 2b).

P latform b roken o ff;

i nverse r etouch o n

u pper 2 /3 o f r ight l ateral , t op r etouched o n r emainder ; p oint u nused ; b ilateral f lake d amage t o l eft d istal-lower l eft l ateral; a ll l eft l ateral t op r etouched; f rom t he b ank o f h earth 2 ; p robably V lasac I I. N o. 1 871 f laked ,

( Figure 1 2c).

p ossibly

P latform i ntact; u pper r ight l ateral t op

r etouched a nd

s tep

s carred

a nd

d ull ;

r ight

d istal

( to

p oint) i s i nversely r etouched a nd s tep s carred a nd l eft d istal ( to p oint) i s t op r etouched a nd s tep s carred a nd d ull -p olished; l ower p rotruding a rea o f l eft l ateral i s i nversely s tep s carred a nd d ull. No. 1 904 ( Figure 1 2d). P latform i ntact; l ower r ight l ateral i s b ilaterally f lake d amaged ; p oint u nused ; w hole d istal ( point t o p oint) i s t op r etouched , s tep s carred a nd d ull ; l eft l ateral i s i nversely s tep s carred,

e dge u sed.

No . 1 969 ( Figure 1 2e). l aterals a re t op r etouched; a djacent

t o p oint a re d uller

P latform i ntact; l ower r ight a nd l eft p oint i s p olished, e dges immediately ( graver);

1 54

g rave 1 4,

p robably V lasac I II.

T ABLE 4 8 V LASAC I V C HIPPED S TONE C ATEGORIES

U nused s hatter

4 )

U nused f lakes

) 2 )

U nused b lades

) 3 )

U nused f lake/blades

) 1 )

P ossibly u sed p ieces

2

U sed b lades

6 )

U sed f lakes

) 9 )

R etouched u sed f lakes

2 )

R etouched u sed b lades

) 3 )

R etouched s haped t ools

) 6 )

T otal

1 55

3 8

1 0 u nused

1 5 u sed

1 1

r etouched

a . n o .1979

b . n o.1948

d . n o.1904

e . n o.1969

h . n o .1936

g . n o.1966

0 j

F igure 1 2:

c m

S haped T ools

1

2

1

f rom V lasac 1 56

( unprovenanced)

No. 1 905 ( Figure 1 2 0. t op f lake d amaged a nd u sed ; a nd u sed.

P latform i ntact; l ower r ight l ateral i s u pper l eft l ateral i s i nversely r etouched

No. 1 966 ( Figure 1 2g). P latform i ntact, whole r ight l ateral p ossibly t op r etouched, s tep s carred a nd u sed -d ull; l ower l eft l ateral i s i nversely r etouched, s tep s carred a nd p olished; g rave 1 4, p robably V lasac I II. N o .

1 936

( Figure

1 2h) .

N o p latform c an b e

i dentified;

u pper r ight

l ateral i s i nversely r etouched, s tep s carred a nd d ull; r emainder o f r ight l ateral i s t op r etouched, s tep s carred a nd u sed; s craper.

1 57

T he C hipped S tone I ndustry O f T he P rimary D ata S et: C omparison a nd S ynthesis T hrough t ime t he p ercentage o f p ieces w hich s howed n o u se d amage a t a ll d ecreases f rom 3 0.8% i n V lasac I t o 2 6.0% i n V lasac I I a nd 2 1.7% i n V lasac I II. A t t he s ame t ime, t he p ercentage o f p ieces r etouched i ncreases f rom 1 7% i n V lasac I t o 1 8.7% i n V lasac I I a nd 2 2.2% i n V lasac I II. r epresent t otal o f a nalysis o f h ad r emoved a ll

I t must b e r emembered t hat t hese f igures d o n ot c hipped s tone u tilization a t t he s ite , b ut t he r esults m aterials f rom w hich t he e xcavators b elieved t hat t hey d ebitage . A ssuming t hat t he s ame a ttention t o s orting

was a pplied t hroughout, we c an s ay f or t he whole s ite t hat t he u se o f r etouch o n f lint i ncreased t hrough t ime , a nd p robably a lso t hat t he u se o f u nmodified f lakes i ncreased i n i ntensity t hrough t ime. T his o ccurred o f c ourse, i n t he c ontext o f a g rowing r atio o f q uartz t o f lint t hrough t ime ( see b elow). I n a ll t hree o ccupations t he s ame f ormal t ool s hapes h ave b een f ound i n s mall n umbers : n otches, r eamers, g ravers, d rills, p iercers, p ieces e squillees, p oints, d enticulates, s crapers, a nd g eometric m icroliths . A f ew o f t hese were s haped f rom b lanks b y r etouching , b ut t he m ajority s imply e xploited t he n atural s hapes o f f lakes a nd b lades. T he p ercentage o f f ormally s haped t ools, a s d istinguished f rom e dges r einforced o r s harpened b y r etouch i n t he p rimary d ata s et w as l ow i n a ll t hree o ccupations: 4 .8%, 5 .0% , a nd 6 .6% i n V lasac I , I I, a nd I II, r espectively . T he s light i ncrease t hrough t ime i n t hese t ools f its p attern o f i ncreased u se o f r etouching i n g eneral t hrough t ime.

t he

I n V lasac I a nd I I t he e xploitation o f b lades i s m uch m ore i ntense t han t hat o f f lakes. B lades a re l ess l ikely t o b e u sed o nly o nce, o n o ne e dge , a nd t hen d iscarded , t han a re f lakes, a nd t hey a re m ore l ikely t o h ave b een c omplex t ools. A h igher p ercentage o f b lades t han f lakes were u sed , a nd r etouched. I n V lasac I II, b lades c ontinued t o b e m ore i ntensively u sed i n s ome, b ut n ot a ll, r espects. B lades were l ess l ikely t o b e u sed j ust o nce a nd t hen d iscarded , a nd m uch m ore l ikely t o b e c omplex t ools. I n t erms o f o verall u se, a nd r etouch, h owever, t he p attern h as c hanged. About 8 0% o f a ll b lades a nd f lakes were u sed a nd/or r etouched , a nd a h igher p ercentage o f f lakes ( 26.7%) t han b lades ( 20.3%) were r etouched. S ince m ost r etouch i s a ssociated with p reparing/repairing a n e dge f or s craper u tilization, t his s hift p robably r eflects a s hift a way f rom t he u se o f b lades a s s crapers. T he s uggested s hift i n t he p reference f or b lades o r f lakes f or u se i n c ertain t asks may b e l inked t o s hifts i n s ubsistence--different i tems t o b e s craped--or t o s tylistic d rift. E ither way, i t s uggests a nother a venue t o p ursue i n t he s tudy o f t he r elation b etween f orm a nd f unction . T he e xperimental c reation o f a n ew c ategory, " flake/blades" , i s a lso s uggestive . A ny s tone t ool a nalyst w ill i mmediately r ecognize t he r eality o f s uch a c ategory : a h ybrid f lake-blade . T he d istinctive b ehavior o f t his s ub-population o n a n umber o f m easures h as b een i nteresting i n i tself. A dditionally, i t s hould b e o bvious t hat t he d ifferences i n u tilization b etween f lakes a nd b lades w ould h ave b een m uch

l ess

i nclusion

c lear o f

i f

t hey were

f lake/blades

n ot

t otally

with

f lakes,

1 58

o bliterated which

i s

b y

t he

what

a rbitrary

t hey

" are"

a ccording t o c urrent u sage . d istinctive p atterns.

I n a ll t hree o ccupations

t his c ategory h ad

A ll t hree o ccupations a t V lasac were c haracterized b y ac hipped s tone i ndustry which made h eavy u se o f u nmodified f lakes, b lades, f lake/blades , a nd e ven s hatter , f or s pecialized t ools s uch a s n otches, a s well a s more g eneralized c utting a nd s craping f unctions. T he p rimary p urpose o f r etouch was t o s harpen , s trengthen , a nd r esharpen e dges f or u se . A v ery s mall n umber o f p ieces w ere f ormally s haped b y r etouching . I n V lasac I , 2 4, i n V lasac I I, 4 3, a nd i n V lasac I II, 3 6 s uch f ormally s haped t ools w ere f ound . A n a ttempt w as m ade t o s ort o ut a nd i nclude a ll r etouched p ieces i n t he p rimary d ata s et, b ut i n s orting a nd c ounting a bout 2 5,000 p ieces o f c hipped s tone , s ome p ieces were u ndoubtedly m issed . S till, f ormally s haped t ools, u sually e xtensively r etouched , were m issed l ess f requently t han p ieces r etouched o n o ne s hort e dge s ection f or r esharpening. T his l eaves a bout 1 00 s uch f ormal t ools o ut o f 2 5,000 p ieces, c ertainly a s trong c ase f or r ejecting t he a nalysis a nd c ategorization o f whole i ndustries o n t he b asis o f r etouched p ieces a lone ( see a lso V aughan 's ( 1985) a nalysis o f a Magdalenian a ssemblage w here a s ignificant p ercentage o f u nmodified f lakes w ere a lso f ound t o h ave b een u sed).

1 59

T ECHNICAL A NALYSIS Explaining A rtifact V ariation " Artifacts m ay b e i dentical m orphologically, b ut m ade b y e ntirely d ifferent t echniques." ( Crabtree, 1 972, p .3) . I f t his i s t rue, t hen o ne c an e liminate, a t l east t heoretically, i ntended f unction a s a n explanation for t he observed variability i n t echniques o f manufacturing. I n l ooking a t t he c hipped s tone f rom V lasac, t his s ituation o f i deal c ontrol f or i ntended f unction i s r uled o ut, b ecause t he v ast b ulk o f t he c hipped s tone c onsists o f u nretouched b ut u sed f lakes, which a re n ever g oing t o b e " identical m orphologically ." F ish ( n.d., p . 7 ) has s uggested t hat i n t he r eal world o f a rtifact a nalysis i t i s impossible t o i solate f unctional, s tylistic o r t echnological a ttributes, q uoting S okal a nd S neath 's ( 1963) n exus h ypothesis: " every m orphological t rait i s i nfluenced b y m ore t han o ne c ausal f actor a nd l ikewise m ost c ausal f actors a ffect m ore t han o ne m orphological t rait ." S ackett ( 1977, 1 982) , i n d iscussing s tyle i n a rtifact a nalysis , a rgues t hat " style i s t he p erfect c omplement o f f unction" ( p. 3 70), t hat t he t wo t ogether d etermine v ariability among a rtifacts . H e r ecognizes b oth u tilitarian ( container) a nd n on-utilitarian ( badge o f o ffice) f unctions ( ibid, p . 3 72) a nd f urther s uggests t hat a rtifacts h ave p rimary d omains, e ither f unctional o r s tylistic , a nd s econdary d omains ( ibid , p . 3 73) : t he p rimary d omain o f ap ot i s f unctional, u tilitarian , i ts a djunct f orm , o r s econdary d omain , i s i ts o rnamentation , which i s n onu tilitarian. T here a re a n umber o f p roblems w ith S ackett 's m odel . I n t he f irst p lace , t here a re o ther s ources o f v ariation i n a ddition t o f unction a nd s tyle. S peth ( 1972, p .34) s uggests a m inimum o f f our: f unction, s tyle, t echnology, i ntended f unction, t raditional ( stylistic) p reference , i deological c onsiderations a nd r andom v ariability . N either a uthor b others t o d efine " technology" , which m ight b e t aken t o i nclude available r aw material, known t echnological s olutions t o a g iven t echnological p roblem ( i.e" t he r ange o f c hoices available), o r t he g iven ( traditional) means o f p roducing t he " blank" which i s t hen e mbellished w ith f unctional a nd s tylistic a ttributes : t he b lank f lake which i s

r etouched

i nto a s pecific

t ype o f p oint,

o r t he b lank p ot

which i s t hen p ainted t o " look p retty" , i ndicate what i t i s t o c ontain , who o wns i t, w ho m ade i t . E ven a s eemingly s traightforward i ssue l ike r aw m aterial c an b e v iewed i n s everal w ays a nd i nfluenced b y s everal f actors. The r aw material u sed t o m ake a p ot c onstrains i ts f orm, l imiting t he t hinness o f t he walls, f or e xample. B ut which r aw material i s u sed t o make a g iven p ot c an b e r elated t o i ts f unction : s torage j ars n eed t o b e s trong , s o c oarse t emper a nd c lay w ith l ots o f i nclusions i s s elected . C hoice o f r aw m aterial c an a lso b e a m atter o f t radition ( style) : p otters i n a c ertain f amily a lways u se c lay f rom a s pecific s ource b ecause i t " feels" b etter t o t hem, u nless t hey a re making d rinking c ups, f or which t hey p refer a much f iner c lay f or t hinner w alls a nd s moother s urfaces ( the i ntrusion o f f unction) . T here may a lso b e o nly o ne s ource o f c lay, i n which s implest c ase t he p roperties o f t he c lay w ill h ave c ertain d irect l imiting e ffects o n t he f inal f orm o f

t he

Technology

p ot . i s

an

important,

1 60

l egiti mate

a nd

t heoretically

i ndependent

s ource

o f

v ariation i n a rtifacts.

I t

p robably n eeds

t o

b e

d efined f or e very a nalysis i n which i t i s c onsidered . A t t he c ultural l evel t echnology may b e s een a s ac onstant, a nd i nterculturally a s a s ignificant s ource o f v ariation . I t h as b een a rgued t hat m anufacturing t echnology i s m ore u seful t han t ypology ( shape) o r f unction ( use) a s a means f or i dentifying c ulture g roups ( Young a nd B onnichsen , 1 985, p .111) . A t V lasac , f or e xample, t he c hoice o f r aw m aterial f or m aking s tone t ools p robably i nvolved b oth f unctional c onsiderations a nd t raditional o nes ( see , f or e xample, v ariation i n c olor o f c hipped s tone d iscussed b elow: S quare 5 23). T hese s ources o f v ariation s hould b e c onsidered s eparately f rom t he i ssue o f t he c onstraints s ubsequently p laced o n k napping b y t he m aterials which were c hosen ( a t echnological a ttribute). C lose a lso s uggests " ideological c onsiderations" a s a n i ndependent s ource o f v ariation . T o c onsider t his s uggestion , i t i s f irst n ecessary t o d efine what i s meant b y " style" . C lose h erself s ays ( 1978, p .223) t hat t he n otion o f s tyle i s b ased o n t he i dea t hat t here a re s everal m ethods o f a rriving a t a d esired e nd p oint . T he c hoice o f method c onstitutes t he s tyle, where c hoice i s a ssumed t o b e l argely d etermined b y t he s ocio-cultural c ontext, o r t radition . Implicit i n t his d efinition i s t he a ssumption t hat f unction i s p rimary, a nd t hat s tyle o perates o nly within t he c onstraints s et b y f unctional r equirements. B ut t o t he e xtent t hat s ubsistence s ystems a re i nfluenced b y t radition a nd p reference, r equirements a re i n f act d efined b y " style" .

i .e.

" style" ,

f unctional

S ackett's ( 1977, 1 982) c haracterization o f s tyle i s l ess p recise a nd l ess i nclusive t han C lose's. F or S ackett, s tyle . . " concerns a h ighly s pecific a nd c haracteristic manner o f d oing s omething, which manner i s a lways p eculiar t o a s pecific t ime a nd p lace" . B inford ( 1973, p .243) a nd W ilmsen ( 1974, p .108) e xpect m ore s ocial o r s tylistic i nput i n more h ighly v alued a nd/or e laborately s haped ( retouched) t ools.

T his

c ould

b e

b ecause

" curated"

t ools

a re

c onsciously

( or

u nconsciously) u sed a s s ymbols o f s ocial i dentity , b ecause m ore s teps i n t he m anufacturing p rocess l ogically p rovide m ore o pportunities f or " choices" o f method t o b e made, o r p erhaps b ecause r etouch a nd e laborate s haping a re s omehow m ore a ppropriate t o t he n otion o f s tyle t han i s s triking p latform p reparation . The f irst i dea, t hat c urated t ools a re u sed a s s ymbols o f s ocial i dentity, o f c ourse o nce a gain c onfounds s tyle a nd f unction . T he s econd s uggestion , t hat m ore s teps p rövide m ore o pportunities f or " choices" o r e xpressions o f s tyle , s eems l ogical, b ut d oes n ot r educe t he e xpectation t hat e xpressions o f t radition-based " choices" o r s tyle, t hough f ewer i n n umber p er i ndividual a rtifact, will a lso b e f ound i n s impler a nd c ommoner artifacts. The t hird i dea, t hat " style" s omehow s eems more a ppropriately a pplicable t o e laborate r e-shaping a nd e sthetically p leasing a rtifacts, a nd , s imilarly , t hat s triking p latform p reparation i s s imply a n a spect o f t echnology, i s s imply e thnocentric. T he d ichotomizing o f a rt a nd l ife c an b e s een i n t he W estern n otion o f t he f ine a rts v s . c rafts , o r t hose a rt works which h ave p otential p ractical u se s uch a s c eramics, r ugs, q uilts, v s. p ainting a nd s culpture. B ut t here i s n o r eason t o s uspect t hat t his d ichotomy i s r elevant c ross c ulturally.

1 61

I t s hould b e c lear b y n ow t hat c onfusion , i mplicit a nd e xplicit, p ervades t he writings o f a rcheologists o n t he n otion o f s tyle. T he solution i s t o r eturn t o t he b eginning: what questions d o a rcheologists h ope t o a nswer b y i dentifying s tyles i n p rehistoric a rtifacts? I f t he a nswer i s g enerally, a s i t i s with C lose, ( 1978, 1 979) t he i dentification o f s ocial-cultural e ntities, o r t heir b oundaries i n p rehistory, t hen t hat p urpose c an b e u sed t o s ort o ut a n umber o f t he p roblems w hich h ave b een r aised h ere. C lose 's " ideological c onsiderations" , i n t he l ight o f a nalysis f or t he s ake o f i dentification o f c ultural b oundaries, a re n ot a rguably s eparate f rom o ther a spects o f s tyle . I deological c onsiderations, o r b eliefs a nd p ractices b ased o n r eligion , a re c ertainly p art o f t he t radition , o r s ocio-cultural p ackage w hich e ach i ndividual m ore o r l ess a bsorbs a nd p erpetuates. I s i t n ecessary o r c orrect t o a ssume t hat f unction t akes p rimacy o ver s tyle? F or s tyle, o ne c ould s ubstitute h istory, a nd t hen i t b ecomes e asier t o s ee t hat t he p rimary r esponse o f a ny s ociety t o e nvironmental s tress will n ot d epend o n t he n ature o f t he s tress t o t he exclusion o f t he n ature o f t he s ociety. T he t wo a re a lways i nterr elated, b ut t his s hould n ot d efeat t he p urpose o f s tyle a nalysis i f s tyle=culture . I f s tyle i s a p ackage o f t raditions c haracteristic o f a s ingle c ulture t he s ame c ulture will m eet v arying f unctional n eeds w ith t he s ame s tyle o f s olutions, a nd t wo d ifferent c ultures w ill m eet t he s ame f unctional n eeds with t heir d ifferent s tyles o f s olutions. A t l east t heoretically , t hen , i f s tyles c an b e i dentified , v ariations i n f unction s hould n ot o bscure t heir r ecognition. G oing b ack t o t he l evel o f d ata, a nd d ata a nalysis, C lose ( 19781 979) p resents a m ethod o f a nalysis which s eems q uite r easonable . A t t he a ttribute l evel , s he m akes s ome a ssumptions a bout what a ttributes a re p rimarily f unctional : f or e xample , r etouching o ne e nd o f a b lade t o a p oint, a nd b lunting t he o pposite e nd w ith s teep r etouch w ould b e a ssumed t o b e p rimarily f unctional a lterations. T he c hoice a s t o whether t he d istal o r p roximal e nd i s t o b e p ointed m ight well b e s tylistic . I f t he e nd c hosen f or p ointing c orrelates h ighly w ith s ome o ther a ttribute a ssumed t o b e p rimarily f unctional , t hen C lose s uggests t hat t he c hoice o f e nd i s p rimarily f unctional t oo. F or e xample, i f a ll o f t he r etouched p ieces with p ointed p roximal e nds were o ver 1 .5 cms. l ong , a nd t he p ieces with p ointed d istal e nds were l ess t han 1 .5 ems. l ong, a p rimarily f unctional i nterpretation i s s uggested. I f t here a re n o s ignificant c orrelations b etween e nd c hosen f or p ointing and p resumed f unctional a ttributes, t hen t he c ase f or t he i nterpretation o f t his a ttribute a s a p rimarily s tylistic o ne i s s trengthened. C lose

( 1979,

p .9,

q uoting L ubell ,

1 971)

s uggests

t hat

r esemblances

i n p rimary t echnology p robably r esult f rom s ocio-cultural a ffinities, . ."since p rimary t echnology i ncludes p atterns o f b ehavior l earned i n a s ocial c ontext, i t i s v ery u nlikely t hat i t s hould n ot h ave s tylistic a spects..." S tothert's r esearch a ffirms t his o pinion : " technolog i cally s imple s toneworking i s c ulturally p atterned" ( 1974, p .303). T raditional

t ypological

a nalysis

w ould

n ot

b e

v ery

f ruitful

o n a s ite

l ike V lasac which h as a t iny n umber o f f ormal " tools" ( 103) amidst a

1 62

v ery l arge q uantity o f c hipped s tone ( 25,000 p ieces). B esides, a s C lose a sks ( 1979, p .232) : What d oes t ypology mean? A s s he s ays, t he r esults o f t ypological a nalysis " are n ot r eadily i nterpretable" ( see also S ackett, 1 978). Meltzer ( 1981, p .313) s uggests: ••• morphological t ypes a llow u s t o a ssume o nly t hat s ome f orm o f s elective b ehavior i s t aking p lace. They s elective b ehavior m ight b e" .

make

n o

a llowance

f or

what

t hat

I n t he a nalysis w hich f ollows, t he d ata w ill b e e xamined i n t erms o f a ttributes which r eflect t echnology. They h ave b een e xamined i n f ormal a nd f unctional t erms a bove. This d ivision i s a s much a n a rtifact o f t he s ystem o f d ata c ollection a s i t i s a r eflection o f models o f t he e xplanation o f v ariability i n c hipped s tone . S tyle w ill b e c onsidered h ere i n c onjunction with t echnology , a s i t was w ith f orm and f unction, r eflecting t he o peration o f t he n exus h ypothesis. Any s ystem o f p artitioning t he a nalysis i mposes a rbitrary s tructure o n t he d ata, b ut i t i s i mpossible t o d eal with a ll s ources o f v ariation s imultaneously i n a ny m eaningful ,

o rganized o r i ntelligent way .

T echnological A ttributes T he a ttributes d iscussed h ere a re : r aw m aterial, t runcation ( deliberate), c ortex , h eat t reatment,

b ulb , l ip,

p latform , p latform

c rushing , p latform f acets, n umber o f s urfaces, n umber o f r emovals, t he e dge a ngles, p latform l ength a nd width , twisting a nd t hickness -a s e xplained i n t he a ttribute l ist a bove . L ength a nd w idth o f f lakes i s a lso d iscussed : t hese were c alculated f rom t he p olar c oordinate d ata . L ength was d efined a s t he p olar c oordinate r eading a t 1 80 ° p lus . the nd width was d efined a s t he r eading a t 9 0° p lus t he r eading o f 3 60 ° , a r eading a t 2 70 ° . R aw 4 9 a nd i n F igure 1 5. T he

f requency

d ata

o n t hese a ttributes a re s ummarized i n T able

d istributions

o f

3 o f

t he a ttributes

i n T able 4 9 d o

n ot c hange t hrough t ime ( but a ssociation with o ther v ariables may). The f irst o f t hese i s t he n umber o f r emovals ( or f lake s cars) o n t he e xterior s urface . T he r ange o f v alues f or t his a ttribute was z ero t o n ineteen . A n a rtifact with a z ero c ode f or t he a ttribute would b e c ompletely c overed w ith c ortex o n i ts v entral s urface . T he m ean v alue f or t he a ttribute was r oughly t he s ame f or V lasac I , I I a nd I II: 4 .1 t o 4 .3 r emovals . F or t he s mall S tarcevo s ample t he m ean d rops t o 3 .5. B ecause o f t he s mall s ample s ize, i t i s d ifficult t o c laim t hat t his d rop r eflects a s ignificant c hange i n manufacturing t echniques o r s tyle . F or a ll t hree o f t he M esolithic o ccupations, f lakes with t wo o r l ess n egative r emoval s cars o n t heir v entral s urfaces a ccount f or 1 6 t o 1 8 p ercent o f a ll m aterial . F or t he S tarcevo m aterial , t his f igure i s 2 3% .

I n a ddition ,

3 0-35% o f a ll f lakes h ave s ome c ortex o n t hem .

( 26%

f or S tarcevo). This i ndicates t hat p rimary f laking o f n odules, t he f irst s tep i n t he k napping p rocess, was g oing o n i n t he l iving s ite i n a ll o ccupation p hases. The n umber o f f lake s cars o r f acets c ounted o n t he r emnant o f s triking p latform a ttached t o t he f lake s hows n o v ariation t hrough t ime.

T he mean n umber o f f acets p er a rtifact

l evels o f V lasac

( see T able 4 9).

1 63

i s

1 .3 t o 1 .4 f or a ll

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oo

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c 9

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i n

v O N . ON c N 1 I n i n H C r ) H i CT I n C V HI

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H i 0

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1 1

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t 3 ,2

C o C O

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( N cN cJ c • J

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T he p ercentage o f p ieces w ith t runcated d istal e nds i s u nchanging t hroughout a ll f our o ccupations, b ut n ot t he p ercentage o f t hose t runcations

which w ere

j udged

t o

b e

d eliberate

r ather

t han a ccidental

b reaks. Only 1 2 t o 1 5% o f a ll f lakes i n e ach p hase were d istally t runcated , a nd o n a verage, a bout h alf o f t hose l ooked d eliberate . T he p ercentage v aries q uite widely f rom 4 8 t o 6 1 p ercent j udged t o b e d eliberately t runcated i n V lasac I , I I, a nd I II, r espectively ( see T able

4 9) .

S imilar

v ariation

i n

t he

p ercentages

o f

r etouched ,

f ormal

t ool t ypes was n ot f ound f or t he t hree p eriods. P urdy ( 1975, p .134) h as d escribed " lateral s nap" o r t he b reaking o ff o f t he d istal e nd d uring k napping . S he h as f ound e xperimentally t hat t his c an b e c aused b y f ailing t o a dequately s upport t he d istal e nd o f t he c ore while k napping . I nadequate s upport h as a lso b een l inked e xperimentally t o c urved b lades ( Crabtree, 1 972, p .12; B ordes a nd C rabtree, 1 969, p .8). An i ncreasing p ercentage o f c urved f lake-blades i s f ound a t V lasac t hrough t ime: 1 0-13-15-28%. Another t hree t o f our p ercent o f t he a rtifacts f rom t he t hree m ain o ccupations a re b oth c urved a nd t wisted o ut o f t he l ength-width p lane . S ix t o e ight p ercent o f t he a rtifacts a re t wisted ( but n ot c urved) . T here a re n o p ublished e xperimental d ata r elating t his a ttribute t o a ny a spect o f t echnology o r material. T wisting a nd c urving a re l ess l ikely t o b e f ound o n f lakes w hich a lso h ave l ips, a lthough t his t rend i s n ot s tatistically s ignificant . T he n egative a ssociation i s l ogical, s ince c urving i s a ssociated with i nadequate d istal s upport o f t he c ore, a nd l ips a re a ssociated with k napping t echniques w hich a re p recise , c ontrolled , a nd n ormally i nvolve d istal b racing ( punch t echnique) o r a t l east imply a n i nterest i n a h igh d egree o f c ontrol o ver t he k napping p rocess, a s i n t he u se o f s oft h ammers . C ontrol o ver t he o utcome i n s oft h ammer p ercussion would a lso b e improved with t he u se o f a d istal b race. T aken t ogether, t hese a ttributes m ight s uggest i ncreasing c asualness o r c areless p roduction o f m uch c hipped s tone . T hese a ttributes a re i mportant c haracteristics o f t he a ssemblage a s a whole , r eflecting what c an b e c alled i ts p rimary c haracter: s haping , t hinning a nd r etouching o f " tools" i n t his a ssemblage a re m inimal . t hen d iscarded . About

o ne-third o f

M ost

f lakes w ere u sed a s

t hey w ere s truck a nd

a ll p ieces h ave c ortex o n t hem i n a ll t hree

M esolithic l evels, w ith a p ossible d ecreasing t rend t hrough t ime ( from 3 5 t o 3 0%) i n u tilization o f p ieces with c ortex ( this will b ecome c learer when t he s econd d ata s et, S quare 5 23, i s a nalyzed a nd we s ee what p ercentage o f u nretouched p ieces a re i n f act u sed). T he p ercentage o f p ieces w ith c ortex v aries f or d ifferent m aterials , a s c an b e s een i n T able 5 0. T here i s a c lear t rend t hrough t ime f or f lint a rtifacts f or a s maller p ercentage t o h ave c ortex . T he p ercentage w ith c ortex f or q uartz p ieces a nd o ther t ypes o f s tone i s e rratic. T he p ercentage o f f lint h aving c ortex f rom t he f inal d ata s et v aries l ittle ( see b elow, a nd T able 5 1) . E ither t hrough t ime t here was a s election a gainst p ieces with c ortex f or u se/retouch a s t ools, o r t he p rimary d ata

s et

d oesn't

r eally

r epresent

what

was

i n

f act

o pposed t o m anufacturing d ebris . T his q uestion w ill a fter e xamination o f t he s econd d ata s et: S quare 5 23. T he h igh p ercentage o f p rimary f laking o f u ntrimmed 1 ) a vailability o f

s mall

t ruly u sed, b e

r aised

a s

a gain

f lakes with c ortex c ertainly r eflects c ores o n t he s ite -a nd m ay a lso r eflect:

n odules;

2 ) g ood

1 67

a vailability

o f

r aw

m aterial

T ABLE 5 0 O CCURRENCE O F C ORTEX O N D IFFERENT M ATERIALS,

P RIMARY D ATA S ET

Q uartz

F lint

V olcanics

S ilicas

%

%

%

%

y es c ortex

y es c ortex

y es c ortex

y es c ortex

V lasac I

2 3.9

3 8.4

2 0.0

2 8.6

V lasac I I

3 9.1

3 7.8

-

14.9

V lasac I II

3 1.7

3 0.6

1 6.7

2 1.7

-

29.4

-

S tarcevo

T ABLE 5 1 O CCURRENCE O F C ORTEX I N F INAL D ATA S ET,

n o.

o f pieces

n o. w ith c ortex

F LINT O NLY

%w ith c ortex

V lasac I

1 391

5 05

3 6.6

V lasac I I

2 764

1 066

3 8.5

V lasac I II

2 301

8 18

3 5.5

2 0

1 0

5 0.0

S tarcevo

1 68

s o t hat f ew c ores were u sed t o e xhaustion; 3 ) p reference f or p ieces with c ortex ( as f or e xample t o s erve a s n atural b acking); 4 ) a c ombination o f t hese f actors. T he v ariation i n q uantities o f m aterial u sed l esson i n d ata manipulation a nd i nterpretation .

o ffers a c autionary I n t his s ample o f

c hipped s tone, which i s s upposed t o r epresent t ools, u sed p ieces a nd c ores, o ne c an s ee t hat t he p ercentage o f q uartz r emains s teady t hrough t ime , a nd t he r elative i mportance o f f lint i ncreases ( Table 5 2) . When o ne c onsiders a ll o f t he c hipped s tone h owever , i t b ecomes c lear t hat q uartz b ecomes m uch more i mportant t hrough t ime, a nd f lint l ess i mportant ( see b elow) . T he n on-representative n ature o f t he s ample i s d ue t o t he g reat d ifficulty f ormal s hape o n q uartz.

i n

s eeing

e ither r etouch,

u se,

o r e ven

O n t he o ther h and , t he d ecreased u tilization t hrough t ime o f o dd m aterials s uch a s l imestone, s ilica a nd v olcanics f ound i n t he e xamination o f t he s ummary d ata s et, i s a lso r eflected i n t he p rimary d ata s et. The

p ercentage

o f

a rtifacts

with

n o

s triking

p latforms,

o r

e specially with q uestionable p latforms, i ncreases t hrough t he f our l evels o f V lasac. T here i s a j ump f rom V lasac I I t o V lasac I II, f rom 2 6% t o 3 4% o f t he a rtifacts l acking p latforms o r c oded a s u ndecided. This g roup o f amorphous artifacts s hows u p i n t he f requency d istribution f or s everal o ther v ariables. P resence o f a l ip o n t he e dge o f t he s triking p latform i s uncoded f or a h igher p ercentage o f V lasac I II t han V lasac I I o r I a rtifacts, b ecause t he i dentification o f a s triking p latform w as u ncertain . O therwise , t he o ccurrence o f l ips v o , where o nly i s q uite u niform i n V lasac I -III, b ut i ncreases i n S tarcg. 5 9% o f t he a rtifacts h ave p latforms a t a ll, b ut 2 6% o f a ll a rtifacts, o r c lose t o 1 /2 o f a ll a rtifacts with p latforms, a lso h ave l ips ( see T able 4 9). P latform e dge

c rushing

i ncreased

f rom 4 4

t o 5 1% t hrough V lasac I -

II ( Table 4 9) . T he i ncidence o f t his a ttribute d rops s harply , t o 2 6% , I i n t he S tar‘ Cevo material ( see Table 4 9). O ne s tylistic e lement o f t echnology , t hen , k napping s o a s t o p roduce a l ip o n t he p latform e dge a nd n ot t rimming i t o ff b efore s triking a nother f lake, s hows n o v ariation t hroughout t he t hree p hases o f t he M esolithic o ccupation , b ut a ppears t o b ecome d ramatically l ess f requent i n S tarCie vo t echnology . Another e lement, p latform e dge c rushing, o ne among s everal ways t o p repare a p latform e dge f or a b low t o d etach a f lake, s hows i ncreasing p opularity t hrough t he t hree M esolithic p eriods, t han a bruptly d rops o ff

i n t he S tarC 'evo m aterial.

T he c ertain p resence o f a b ulb o f p ercussion d ecreases s teadily t hrough t he t hree Mesolithic o ccupations o f V lasac, t hen i ncreases a gain i n t he S tarlevo m aterial. A s was p ointed o ut a bove, t he c lear p resence o f a s triking p latform o n f lakes a lso d ecreases, f rom 7 6 t o 6% i n t he Mesolithic o ccupation, a nd t o 5 9% i n t he S tarCevo. T he 6 a bsence o f p latforms m ay b e c aused b y: n odules b eing s hattered b y h eat; a b low o f v ery g reat f orce a s w hen a n odule i s s mashed a gainst a n a nvil; s napping o ff o f t he p roximal e nd a fter k napping, whether a ccidentally

o r

d eliberately;

t he

1 69

a pparent

a bsence

o f

a p latform

N. cc

C r )

S tarcevo

0 • • t

• -I

V lasac I I

0

N -

0

I

C g

v r . )

D C N 1 N -

I

N .

O N

0 0 0

C D

C N I

o

0

C N J

o o C O

• L r l

l imestone

0

s iltstone

u nidentified

CN

MATERIAL

0

b ecause t here i s n o b ulb , c lear p latform r etouch o r e dge c rushing , o ther d istinguishing a ttributes t o a llow c ertain i dentification.

o r

S ince t he p resence o f a b ulb o f p ercussion i s o ne o f t he a ttributes which h elps t o i dentify a s triking p latform, a k napping t echnique which p roduces n o i dentifiable b ulb o n s ome f lakes will c ontribute t o t he n umber o f p latforms which c annot b e p ositively i dentified , j ust a s a f lake w ith a t ruly a bsent ( detached) p latform i s l ikely a lso t o h ave t he b ulb r emoved . T he s ize a nd c larity o f t he b ulb i s m aximized b y d irect p ercussion w ith a h ammerstone , a nd m inimized b y s ofter ( bone, a ntler , wood) h ammers. ( Crabtree, 1 967b , p .60; 1 970, p .148; 1 972, p .9) . C rabtree ( 1970, p .150) a lso r eports t hat f lakes s truck w ith w ooden b illets h ave v ery l ittle d efinition o f t he b ulb , a nd o ften p roduce a l ip. L ips a re a lso p roduced w ith p unch t echnique ( 1972, p .13) . S peth ( 1972, p .39) h as r elated t he p rominence o f t he b ulb t o t he o bliquity o f t he a ngle o f i mpact o f t he h ammer, t he r oughness o f t he p latform a nd t he m agnitude o f a pplied f orce . S ince t he f requency o f o ccurrence o f l ips o n f lakes d oes n ot c hange s ignificantly i n V lasac I -III , t he i ntroduction o r i ncreased u se o f wooden b illets o r p unch t echnique i s n ot s upported . I ncreased u se o f o ther s oft h ammers, s uch a s a ntler o r b one, c annot b e r uled o ut. I ncreased u se o f q uartz f or c hipped s tone a rtifacts m ay h ave i nfluenced t he s tyle o f knapping f lint, a s, f or e xample, u sing g reater f orce o r m ore o blique s triking a ngle i n k napping . T here a re n o e xperiments i n k napping q uartz w hich c ould g uide t his s peculation . C rabtree 's ( 1967a , p .11) o nly c omment o n q uartz-knapping i s t hat i t r equires m uch s kill t o k nap a nything f rom t his d ifficult m aterial , a nd t hat t he e dges p roduced a re t ypically q uite d ull . T his i s a n i mportant p oint, a s t he m ostly a morphous , u nretouched f lint m aterial f rom a ll l evels o f V lasac d oes n ot s uggest p articularly s killed f lint-working . C rabtree a nd B utler ( 1964) , P urdy ( 1974 , 1 975) , a nd m ore r ecently B leed a nd Meier ( 1980) h ave a ll a ttempted t o t est t he e ffect o f h eat t reatment o n f lint, a nd a ll h ave c oncluded t hat t he " knapability" o f f lint i s i mproved when t he h eat t reatment i s p roperly d one. P urdy ( 1975, p .135) r eports t hat p ot l id f ractures, a small n umber o f which a re f ound i n a ll l evels a t V lasac ( see T able 4 9) ' a nd b locky, a ngular f lakes with n o b ulbs o f f orce, o f which t here a re a l arge n umber a t V lasac, a re p roduced r egularly b y h eating s tone t oo r apidly, o r b y h eating i t t o t oo h igh a t emperature . C razing , o r f ire c racking , f our e xamples o f which o ccurred i n V lasac I I, i s a lso c aused b y o verheating . C rabtree a nd B utler ( 1964, p .1) a lso r eport t hat h eat t reatment c hanges t he t exture , l ustre a nd s ometimes t he c olor o f p ieces, t hat i t i s m ore a pt t o b e s uccessful o n t hin p ieces, o r b lanks, t han o n t hick c hunks ( cores), which a re m ore a pt t o f racture, a nd t hat t he g reasy l ustre p roduced b y h eat t reating d oesn 't n ecessarily s how u nless f urther f laking a fter t reatment r eveals a f resh s urface. T he l ast p oint r elates t o t he d ifficulty, g enerally r ecognized, o f c ertain i dentification o f h eat t reatment i n t he a rcheological r ecord . With t his c aveat i n mind , i t c an b e p ointed o ut t hat t he p ercentage o f p ieces which a ppear h eat-treated j umps f rom 5 4% t o 7 3% f rom V lasac I t o I I, a nd r emains s teady t hereafter . V lasac I I a lso h as t he g reatest n umber o f " overheated" p ieces, a lthough t he n umbers a re v ery s mall ( 2% ,

1 71

o r 1 0 p ieces) . o f f orce" , o r

T he p ercentage o f " blocky , a ngular f lakes w ith n o b ulbs what I h ave c alled " shatter" , " blocky s hatter" , a nd

" can 't t ell" d oesn't v ary f rom o ccupation t o o ccupation, e xcept f or a d ecrease i n b locky s hatter f rom V lasac I t o I I, f rom 9 .16 t o 5 .03% ( see Table 7 3) i n t he S ummary d ata. T he c hanges i n p ercentages o f a pparently h eat-treated p ieces, s uggest t hat h eat t reatment w as e ither i ntroduced i n V lasac I I, o r b ecame a bruptly m uch m ore i mportant a t t hat t ime . Much o f t he l ustre i dentified a s h eat t reating l ustre m ay h ave b een a n i nherent q uality o f t he f lint-so t hat t he u se o f h eat t reating i n V lasac I i s n ot c ertain . T he s econd d ata s et, S quare 5 23, i s c oded f or h eating, c olor a nd " type" o f a rtifact ( shatter, b locky s hatter, f lake , e tc .) , a ll v ariables r elevant t o h eat t reatment . More l ight m ay b e t hrown o n t his i ssue b y t he a nalysis o f t hose d ata ( see b elow) . F igure 1 3 s hows t he d istribution o f l eft a nd r ight e dge a ngles f or a ll f our o ccupations. T here i s n o v ariation f rom o ne d istribution t o t he n ext, t he mean i s s teadily 5 7 °, a nd t he s kewness v alues a re a ll v ery l ow [ Skewness i s a m easure o f d eviation s ymmetrical b ell-shaped c urve ( Nie e t a l, 1 975, d istribution . I f a d istribution i s i ndicating a n ormal d istribution . F igure

1 4

s hows

t he

p erfectly

d istribution

o f

f rom a p erfectly p .184), o r n ormal

n ormal ,

s triking

s kewness

p latform

=

l ength a nd

w idth f or a ll o ccupations . S kewness i s h igher o n t hese d istributions, v arying b etween + 1 and 1 .7, r eflecting a c lustering o f c ases t o t he l eft o f t he mean with most e xtreme v alues t o t he r ight o f t he mean. A ll o f t he d istributions m eet t his d escription , w ith t he m ajority o f p ieces h aving v ery small p latforms i n a ll o ccupations., T he wean l ength a nd w idth o f t he s triking p latform d ecreased t hrough t ime f or t he M esolithic p hases F igure

1 5

s hows

( Table 5 3). t he

d istributions

t hickness o f f lakes f or e ach p hase. s imilar t o t hose s hown i n F igure 1 4 .

o f

m aximum

l ength ,

w idth ,

a nd

T hese d istributions a re q uite T he s kewness v alues f or s everal

d istributions a re q uite h igh b ecause o f t he wildly a berrant p iece i n e ach c ase . T he m ean v alues o nce a gain s how a s teady d ecrease t hrough t ime

( Table 5 4).

Maximum f lake s ize i s o f c ourse l imited b y t he s ize o f c ores available, b ut within t hat l imitation f lake s ize c an b e c ontrolled d eliberately i n t he k napping p rocess. A ccording t o S wanson ( 1968, p .52) t he w idth o f t he s triking p latform

C rabtree a nd i s d etermined

b y t he a mount o f p latform s urface c ontacted b y t he h ammerstone . T he width o f t he p latform i n t urn p artially d etermines t he t hickness o f t he f lake , w ith c rushed o r a braded p latforms a lso p roducing t hicker f lakes. ( Crabtree, 1 972, p .12) . T hese a re v ariables which a re c onsciously c ontrolled b y t he k napper . S peth 's ( 1975) m ore c ontrolled e xperimental work h as s hown t hat t he a ngle o f impact o f t he h ammerstone i s a lso a s ignificant

v ariable.

F or

a g iven

m aximum

p latform

t hickness,

a

v ertical i mpact w ill p roduce a s lightly t hicker a nd l onger f lake t han mpact . S peth ( 1974, pp.'', 1 2) h as a lso r elated w ill a n o blique ( 45 ° ) i f lake s ize a nd s hape t o t he h ammerstone v elocity , t he s trength o f t he m aterial ,

a nd

i ts

e lastic

p roperties

1 72

( 1972,

p .34) .

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44 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 * 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

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1 75

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DEGREES

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V LASAC I II

DEGREES IN LEFT,

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M ean :

5 .3

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— 1.1

V LASAC I V

F igure 1 3 1 79

( cont'd)

S kewness:

0 .3

• • • • • •

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4 14 14 1 4 1•4 1 *

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V LASAC I I

F igure 1 4: H istograms o f P latform L ength a nd W idth 1 80

U I

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C Vmg rLf l NO e i

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P LATFORM W IDTH ( t 1M )

P LATFORM L ENG TH ( t e l )

V LASAC I V

F igure 1 4 ( cont'd) 1 81

T ABLE 5 3 S TRIKING P LATFORM M EANS

L evel

M ean p latform w idth

M ean p latform l ength

V lasac I

9 .497

3 .413

V lasac I I

9 .431

3 .349

V lasac I II

8 .107

2 .937

v S tarcevo

8 .783

3 .087

T ABLE 5 4 F LAKE L ENGTH, L evel

W IDTH A ND T HICKNESS M EANS

M ean L ength

M ean W idth

V lasac I

2 2.818

1 6.608

6 .048

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2 2.710

1 6.198

5 .891

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2 2.328

1 4.675

5 .670

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1 4.873

5 .487

1 82

M ean T hickness

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M ean : 9 .1 K urtosis: 2 .9 S kewness: 1 .3

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F igure 1 5: H istograms o f F lake L ength, 1 83

6 .7 1 .8 1 .0

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M ean : 6 .5 K urtosis : 3 .0 S kewness : 1 .3

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• • •

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• • * « • • • • • •

( 44 )

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

••

•

• • • • •

• • •

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

• • • • •

•

•

8 .4

M ean :

K urtosis: • •• 41• • •• • •« S k : •••• • ewness ••••

5 .1 2 .2

•

• • • • • • • • • • • • • •

• • • • • • • • • • • •

• • • • • • • • • • •

• • • •

• • • e •

• • • 4. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 4 • • ' • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

i n

r -co m e mo :D.I

F LAKE LE t i Ci l l i

N

N N

( ) F L A E K W I D 1 7 4

g o r

n m r o i 0 I 3 n O y C 0 g i C i h 4 r s -

4 1 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

( MK )

• • • • • 4 1 • • 4 1

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

• • • • • • • • «

M ean : 5 .5 K u r t o s i s : 4 .6 • • •• • •• • • Skewness: 2.0 •• •

• • • • • •

• • • • • •

4 . • • • • • • • •

• • • • • •

« • • • • •

• • • • • • • • • • • • •

• • • • •

• • • • • • •

• • • • • • •

• • • • • • •

• • • • •

• • • • •

* * * * * 4 1 4 1 4 4 14 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 1 • 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 • • 4 1 4 1 • • • 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 • 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 • 4 1 • 1 • • • • • • • • • 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 e • • • • •

• •

. 4N m

i n

r s c oe t N m Nrm

F L A K ET H IC K N ES S m e

V LASAC I V

F igure 1 5 ( cont'd) 1 36

I n t he V lasac m aterial t he r elationship b etween s triking p latform w idth a nd f lake t hickness i s h ighly p atterned : a g iven p latform w idth d efines a m inimum v alue f or f lake t hickness . M any c ases f all r ight o n t he d iagonal c reated b y t his m inimum t hickness f or e ach p latform w idth v alue a nd m any h ave v alues a bove t he m inimum t hickness. T he a ngle a nd v elocity o f impact, a nd p roperties o f t he material may e xplain t his v ariation, b ut d ata t o e xamine t hese v ariables were n ot c ollected. F igure 1 6 s hows t he r elation b etween p latform w idth a nd f lake t hickness f or a s ample o f a ll m aterial ( Figure 1 6a) a nd f or e ach o ccupation l evel s eparately ( Figure 1 6b-e) . T he r elatively l ow v alues f or R a re p robably c aused b y t he f act t hat t he d istributions f or t hese v ariables a re a symmetrical , which S peth & J ohnson ( 1976, p .40) h ave n oted c ontracts t he

p ossible

r ange

o f

t he

c orrelation

c oefficient,

w hich

" may

b ecome

s ubstantially l ess t han 1 .0" . T he l ine d efining t he l imiting v alue o f x f or e ach v alue o f yd oes n ot c hange a t a ll t hrough t ime, s uggesting t hat i t i s d efined b y i nvariable p hysical p rinciples . T he d istribution o f p oints b elow t hat l ine d oes c hange t hrough t ime. T he s lope o f t he r egression l ine d ecreases a nd t he i ntercept o f t hat l ine o n y i ncreases s teadily t hrough t ime ( see T able 5 5) . I n t erms o f t he d istribution o f c ases t his means t hat a bove t he m inimum l imiting v alues f or t he t hickness o f a f lake w ith a g iven s triking p latform w idth , t he a verage f lake i s g etting t hicker t hrough t ime r elative t o p latform width . F igures 1 4 and 1 5 a bove s howed t hat m ean p latform width a nd f lake t hickness d ecrease t hrough t ime . T herefore, f lake t hickness i s d ecreasing a bsolutely, b ut i ncreasing r elative t o p latform width, t hrough t ime. C hange f rom o blique t o v ertical impact with t he h ammerstone would e xplain t he t hicker f lakes r elative t o p latform a nd s hould a lso p roduce s horter f lakes . F lake l ength d oes d ecrease t hrpugh t ime. P latform e dge c rushing o r a brading , which p roduces t hicker f lakes, i ncreases f rom 4 4% t o 4 7% t o 5 0% i n V lasac I -III, which i s t he r everse o f t he o bserved a bsolute t rend i n t hickness, b ut which c ould a ccount f or s ome o f t he i ncrease r elative t o p latform w idths . S trength a nd e lastic p roperties o f t he m aterial c ould n ot r easonably h ave c hanged , p eriods,

a s t here was n o c hange i n t he r aw material s tudied f or a ll m ostly a ll l ocally a vailable n odule f lint. T he o nly o ther

v ariable which c ould a ccount f or t he o bserved t rends i s h ammerstone v elocity . T here m ay b e o ther v ariables w hich i nfluence f lake t hickness which h ave n ot y et b een i dentified b y t he s mall n umber o f r esearchers working o n t his a spect o f l ithic t echnology. O therwise, a n i ndirect m ethod o f i dentifying s everal p robable c hanges i n d etails o f k napping , a verage h ammerstone v elocity a nd a ngle o f i mpact h as b een p resented . T he

l ength o f

t he

s triking

p latform

i s

l argely

d etermined

b y

t he

c ontour o f t he e dge o f t he c ore c hosen a s t he p lace t o s trike a f lake , p reparation o f t hat e dge b efore s triking, a nd t he d istance o f t he i mpact f rom t he e dge, o r t he e ventual width o f t he p latform. R ather h igh c orrelations ( Pearson : R ) a re n ot s urprising f or p latform l ength w ith p latform w idth ( see T able 5 6). T he t o

c hange

r elative t hrough

v alues

o f

p latform

t ime when o ne

w idth a nd

i nspects

t he

p latform

s lopes

a nd

l ength

a ppear

i ntercepts

o f

t he r egression l ine f or e ach p hase ( see T able 5 7). P latform l ength s eems t o i ncrease r elative t o p latform w idth . H owever , u sing t he m ean v alues, t he r elative l ength a nd w idth o f t he s triking p latform c an b e s een n ot

t o c hange

( Table 5 8).

1 87

• ,

1 9.00

+

1 7.00

+

1 5.00

+

1 3.00

+

1.00 1

+

9 .00

+

2

3

3

4

9

a a a

• 7 .00 +

9

•

• 5 .00 +

9

• 3 .00

+

1 .00

+ 9 1 .00

9

3 2

9

5

7

*

9

7

7

2

3

9

6

4

5

*

9

9

9

9

5

3

3

9

9

9

9

9

8

4

3

2

9

9

9

9

9

7

6

4

3

6

7

*

2

*

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

5

5 .80

8 .20

4

•

2

2

9

9

•

2

2

9

9

3 .40

2 4

*

•

*

4 *

*

*

2

10.60 1 3.00 15.40 F LAKE T HICKNESS (0 1)

1 7.80

2 0.20

R : 0 .58874 S ig: 0.00000

V LASAC I a ll a ges ( random s ample)

F igure 1 6:

S cattergrams o f P latform W idth b y F lake T hickness 1 88

•

2.60 2

' 1 9

0 0

1 7

0 0

+

1 5.00

+

1 3.00

+

= E . 0

5

2

*

9 .00

+

7 .00

+

N

0 w 5 . < 4 a

2

5 .00

+

5

*

4

*

*

9

3

3

2

*

2

7

9

8

3

3

2

2

9

8

8

8

7

3

9

9

9

8

5

7

3

*

:

9

9

9

9

9

6

2

4

2

100

+ 6

9

9

9

9

6

4

2

*

3

5 .80

8 .20

*

.

+

3 .40

*

*

a

*

*

4

3 00

1 .00

*

*

2

*

*

2

1 0.60 1 3.00 FLAKE T HICKNESS ( MM )

R : 0 .66681 S ig : 0 .00000

V LASAC I

F igure 1 6 ( cont'd) 1 89

1 5.40

1 7.80

2 0.20

2 2.60

1 9.00

*

1 7.00

+

1 5.00

;

1 3.00

;

2

1.00 1

5

4

* 9 .00

5

7 .00

+

5 .00

+

3 .00

+

1 .00

+ 4 1 .00

9

7

*

9

6

4

9

5

2

2

*

*

9 9

9

9

9

6

4

3

*

*

9

9

9

6

7

2

2

3

2

2

4

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

5 .80

3 a

9

3 8

2

5 5

9

9

3 .40

2

2

*

*

3 *

*

*

8 .20

2 1 0.60 1 3.00 F LA JM E THI O N EMS ( t4 )

R : 0 .59317 S ig: 0.00000

V LASAC I I

F igure 1 6

1 90

( cont'd)

15.40

1 7.80

2 0.20

2 2.60

1 9.00

+

1 7

0 0

+

1 5.00

+

1 3.00

;

El • l AO

+

= 0

5 9 .00

+

2

0

•

E d c • k 7 .00

;

5 .00

+

3 .00

1 .00

7

1 .00

*

2

2

*

2

6

2

3

2

3

9

6

2

3

2

•

7

*

8

*

3

2

3

9

9

9

6

3

4

2

4

9

9

9

9

5

9

5

4

2

*

*

9

9

9

9

4

6

3

2

*

2

*

+

+ 6

3

3 .40

5 .80

8 .20

2

2

1 0.60 1 3.00 F LAKE T HICKNESS

a

1 5.40 ( MM)

R : 0 .47778 S ig : 0 .00000

V LASAC I II

F igure 1 6 ( cont'd) 1 91

1 7.80

2 0.20

2 2.60

10.00

+

9.00

+

8.00

+

7.00

+

!, 6.00

+

*

e-,

I

5.00

+

4.00

+

3.00

+

2.00

+

4

1.00

+5

*

e-,

*

*

*

* •

2

*

. +----+----+----+----+----+----+----+---- +----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+---

1.00

3.40

5.80

8.20

10.60 13.00 15.40 FLAKE THICKNESS (MM)

R: 0.64083 Sig: 0.00049

VLASAC IV

Figure 16 (cont'd) 192

17.80

20.20

22.60

T ABLE 5 5 P LATFORM W IDTH A ND F LAKE T HICKNESS L evel

S lope o f R egression L ine

I ntercept

V lasac I

. 55296

. 18638

V lasac I I

. 46824

. 65542

V lasac I II

. 34163

1 .05396

S tar c v evo

. 26475

1 .60204

1 93

T ABLE 5 6 P LATFORM L ENGTH V S. P LATFORM W IDTH L evel

R

S ignificance

V lasac I

. 71655

0 .00000

V lasac I I

. 71605

0 .00000

V lasac I II

. 65160

0 .00000

S tarCevo

. 81273

0 .00000

T ABLE 5 7 R EGRESSION L INES F OR P LATFORM W IDTH ( VERTICAL A XIS) B Y P LATFORM L ENGTH ( HORIZONTAL AXIS)

L evel

S lope

I ntercept

V lasac I

. 28121

. 74196

V lasac I I

. 27453

. 75973

V lasac I II

. 24626

. 94085

S tarCevo

. 25685

. 83112

T ABLE 5 8 M EAN V ALUES F OR P LATFORM L ENGTH A ND W IDTH

M ean L evel

M ean

P latform L ength

P latform W idth

L ength/Width

V lasac I

9 .497

3 .413

2 .782

V lasac I I

9 .431

3 .349

2 .816

V lasac I II

8 .107

2 .937

2 .760

V S tarcevo

8 .783

3 .087

2 .845

1 94

The relationship between platform length and flake thickness is similar to, but weaker than, that between platform width and flake thickness. Values -0f R are lower, and the pattern of a minim�m value of thickness for a value of platform length is weakly expressed compared to the crystal clear pattern with platform width. Calculation of partial correlation coefficients for platform length with flake thickness while controlling for the intervening effects of platform width, show that the correlation between platform length and flake thickness is largely a spurious one (see Table 59) . Flake width is largely controlled by a combination of two v a r i a b les: platform length and flake thickness. The partial correlations make it clear that the correlation between flake width and platform width is a spurious one (see Tables 60 and 61 ). Flake width is most strongly affected by platform length, and secondarily by flake thickness. There is no change through time in the relative mean values of platform length or flake thickness compared to flake width (see below) . Turning finally to length, we find the least patterned of all the technological size variables (see Tables 62 and 63). The weak correlations of flake length with platform length and width are spurious, and the only slightly higher correlation with flake thickness and flake width are quite weak, although still generally significant, when p latform length and w idth a r e contro lled. T he p r im ar y determinants of flake length are none of these variables, although flake thickness and width do have a measurable influence. Speth (1981, p.17) has recently reported that platform angle (measured between •the striking platform and the exterior surface of the flake or core) is positively related to flake length. Others have reported the same res ult (Stothert, 1974, p.158; Dibble and Whittaker, 1981). Platform angle may also be related to flake width. This angle was unfortunately not measured in the present study. _ Crabtree (1972, p.12) reports that flakes are longer if the force of the blow has a central ridge or ridges to follow. Information on this was not collected, but it would be interesting to look at knapper's utilization of this effect (see discussion· of blades, above). Speth (1972, p.47) reports that flake length should depend on thickness and concludes that the " ••• attributes of flake size are highly redundant" (ibid, p.5 7). All of the attributes of flake size dealt with in this analysis are interrelated - some quite weakly. It would be inaccurate to say that they are all ''highly redundant". There is some change through time in the relative values of length, width and thickness. The mean of all three decreases through tim e. Inspection of the slopes of the regression lines and the intercepts of the seattergrams of length vs. width (horizontal) shows slope decreasing through the Mes ol ithic phas es, and inter cept increasing (Table 64). What these changing values mean is that the narrowest pieces are getting longer and the widest pieces are getting shorter through time. The range of variation in length is contracting. Slopes and intercepts for thickness versus length (horizontal) show decreasing slopes and increasing interce�ts (Table 65), meaning 195

T ABLE 5 9 P LATFORM L ENGTH V S. F LAKE T HICKNESS C orrelation B etween p latform l ength a nd f lake t hickness

P artial C orrelation C ontrolling f or p latform w idth

V lasac I

. 3476

. 0289

V lasac I I

. 50953

. 1509

V lasac I II

. 3215

. 1357

S tarCevo

. 7740

. 5661

T ABLE 6 0 S IMPLE C ORRELATIONS W ITH F LAKE W IDTH

P latform L ength

F lake T hickness

P latform W idth

V lasac I

. 57163

. 39457

. 45554

V lasac I I

. 59273

. 63335

. 44132

V lasac I II

. 58506

. 41439

. 36388

S tarcevo

. 84344

. 87847

. 73015

T ABLE 6 1 P ARTIAL C ORRELATIONS W ITH F LAKE W IDTH

L evel

P latform l ength c ontrolled f or t hickness a nd p latform w idth

F lake t hickness c ontrolled f or p latform l ength a nd w idth

P latform w idth c ontrolled f or p latform l ength a nd t hickness

V lasac I

. 3994

. 2424

0.0021

V lasac I I

. 4296

. 5048

0.1867

V lasac I II

. 4787

. 3056

0.0894

S tarcevo

. 3605

. 6659

0 .1625

1 96

T ABLE 6 2 S IMPLE C ORRELATIONS W ITH L ENGTH

L evel

T hickness

W idth

V lasac I

. 37760

. 43719

. 30364

. 37828

V lasac I I

. 50824

. 43501

. 33567

. 32532

V lasac I II

. 25734

. 18156

. 17000

. 14260

S tarCevo

. 76379

. 69322

. 73894

. 60300

P latform L ength

P latform W idth

T ABLE 6 3 P ARTIAL C ORRELATIONS W ITH L ENGTH

L evel

T hickness; c ontrol f or

W idth; c ontrol f or t hickness,

P latform l ength ;

P latform w idth;

w idth , p latform w idth a nd l ength

p latform w idth a nd p latform l ength

c ontrol f or t hickn ess,

c ontrol f or t hickn ess, w idth a nd p latform l ength

w idth a nd p latform w idth

A ll S p eriods

. 2222

. 1743

. 0074

. 0615

V lasac I

. 1822

. 2859

0.0761

. 1666

V ia -sac I I

. 2968

. 1366

. 0356

.0084

V lasac I II

. 1915

. 0418

. 0459

. 0053

S tarcevo

. 4376

.1577

. 3228

. 0169

197

T ABLE 6 4 L ENGTH V S. W IDTH

L evel

( HORIZONTAL)

S lope o f R egression L ine

Y I ntercept

V lasac I

. 46207

1 4.93919

V lasac I I

. 42926

1 6.01319

V lasac I II

. 21583

1 9.28874

vo S tarCie

. 61425

1.88056 1

T ABLE 6 5 T HICKNESS V S. L ENGTH

L evel

( HORIZONTAL)

S lope o f R egression L ine

Y I ntercept

V lasac I

. 18690

1 .80100

V lasac I I

. 17724

1 .81068

V lasac I II

. 10672

3 .27899

v S tarcevo

. 34316

1.68389

T ABLE 6 6 T HICKNESS

L evel

V lasac I V lasac I I V lasac I II v S tarcevo

( HORIZONTAL) V S. W IDTH

S lope o f R egression L ine

( VERTICAL)

YI ntercept

. 72633

1 2.50041

1 .56742

6 .97915

. 64486

1 0.94711

1 .85056

4 .52514

1 98

t hat t he r ange o f v ariation i n w idth i s c ontracting t hrough t ime . T he s hortest p ieces a re t hickening a nd t he l ongest p ieces a re g etting t hinner t hrough t ime. L ooking b ack a t m ean v alues f or t hickness a nd l ength f or e ach p eriod, mean l ength o verall d ecreases a v ery small amount t hrough t ime r elative t o mean t hickness. T he s lopes a nd i ntercepts f or t hickness v ersus width d o n ot ( Table 6 6).

s how a c onsistent p attern

T here a re n o s ubstantial c hanges t hrough t ime i n r elative mean v alues f or w idth a nd t hickness ( Table 6 7). A t t his p oint i t m ay b e u seful t o s ummarize what c an n ow b e s aid a bout t he c haracter o f t he main s ample o f c hipped s tone a t V lasac , a nd t he e vidence f or c hange t hrough t ime i n t he a ssemblage. G eneral T echnological C haracteristics O f T he C hipped S tone a t V lasac T he b ulk o f t he c hipped s tone d escribed i n t his s ection was o f f lint, 8 0% i n t he f irst two p hases, 8 7% i n p hases 3 a nd 4 , t he r emainder was q uartz,

7 -10% i n a ll p eriods a nd o ccasional p ieces o f

s iltstone , v olcanics a nd s ilicates . T he p ercentage o f material o ther t han f lint a nd q uartz d ecreases t hrough t ime . T he a pparent i ncrease i n f lint i s n ot r epresentative o f t he t otal s ample o f c hipped s tone f rom t he s ite, which i s 4 5.7% q uartz i n Vlasac I , a nd i ncreases t hrough t ime. A bout o ne-third o f a ll p ieces h ave s ome c ortex o n t hem , a nd 1 6-18% o f a ll f lakes h ave s cars o f t wo o r l ess p revious r emovals. T he mean n umber o f r emoval s cars i s 4 .1-4.3. The mean n umber o f s triking p latform f acets i s 1 .3-1.4 : 7 -11% o f a ll f lake p latform r emnants a re t otally c overed b y c ortex, a nd 6 0-64% h ave o nly o ne S tarlevo material i s a b it d ifferent i n t his r espect:

f acet. 1 7% o f

The t he

f lakes h ave p latforms t otally c overed with c ortex , 4 8% h ave o nly o ne f acet ( see T able 4 9) . A ll o f t hese a ttributes s uggest i n s itu f lint working o f p reviously u nmodified c ores a nd a bsence o f e laborate e fforts t o c ontrol t he o utcome o f k napping. F ourteen

t o

1 8% o f

a ll

f lakes

h ave

a l ip

p rotruding

f rom

t he

v entral f ace o f t he p latform. T his p ercentage j umps t o 4 3% i n S tärCevo . C oncommittently, t he p ercentage o ccurrence o f p latform e dge c rushing , o r a brading, which would r emove a l ip p rior t o d etaching a n ew f lake, i s c ommon i n Mesolithic V lasac, 4 4-51%, b ut d rops o ff i n S tar4 'evo t o 2 6%.

b ut

Twelve t o f ifteen p ercent o f a ll f lakes a re t runcated d istally, t he p ercentage o f t runcations which a ppear t o b e d eliberate j umps

f rom 3 7% i n V lasac I I t o 6 1% i n V lasac I II. Lateral e dge a ngles h ave u nimodal, n ormal d istributions with a triking p latform l ength a nd width, a nd o verall mean v alue o f 5 7 °. S f lake l ength, width a nd t hickness, a lso • h ave unimodal, n ormal d istributions. The m ean v alues f or a ll o f t hese measures d ecrease t hrough t ime. Relative mean v alues o f width/thickness a nd s triking

1 99

c n •

C V 0

. i . .

. . . 1 C9

e • • • 1

• • 1

r -1

L ( •

. 1. •

( 2 % 4.N .

C1 4. / 1

C1 41 /

CV

C9

C • 1 N. N. • C r l

/ 4 1 0 U CO • C r )

N. CI C 7 1 • C . 1

C r ) 4 '

CO . I 0 • /0 4 1

0 • 1 CO • 1 .-)

N. / 4 1 . 0 •

I n

0

L t 1 C1 / 4 . 1

40 / 1

CO •

i n r • •

0

t n 4C / 1 )

•

C Y 1 •

I A

0 o

c o • C1 /1 4 C N 1

h. • C1 /1 4 C1 /1 4

C1 4. / 1 C r ) • CV C1 / 4 1

V lasac I II

40 / 1

L n

V lasac I I

4. / 1 0

0 0 c o L t •

CO . 1

I A 4N •

V lasac I

C OMPARISON O F M EANS

C r ) N.

c o cq I J

•

c

• C Y ' )

r 1 / 4 . . . CO • t r

• 1 1 C1 / 4 1

0 C U

4 J C / D

p latform l ength/thickness a re c onstant. T he m ean v alue o f l ength r elative t o width a nd t o t hickness d oes c hange, i t i ncreases t hrough t ime. T here i s c learly n o s eparate m icro i ndustry, employing s mall c ores, o r e ven a s eparate b lade t echnology , a lthough t here a re c ertainly b oth m icroliths a nd b lades p resent. P latform l ength i s h ighly c orrelated with p latform width ( Pearson 's r = . 65 -.8 1) . T here i s n o p atterned c hange t hrough t ime i n s trength o f t his c orrelation . F lake width i s r elated t o p latform l ength a nd f lake t hickness. F lake w idth i s n ot c orrelated w ith p latform w idth . F lake l ength i s i nfluenced ( weak c orrelation) b y f lake width a nd t hickness. I t i s l argely d etermined b y o ther f actors n ot e xamined h ere. T he m ost i nteresting p attern t o e merge f rom t hese t echnological a ttributes i s t hat b etween s triking p latform w idth a nd f lake t hickness . T he v alue o f s triking p latform w idth d efines a m inimum v alue f or f lake t hickness which d oes n ot v ary t hrough t ime , a nd m ay r eflect a p hysical o r m echanical p rinciple . R elative t o p latform w idth , h owever , a verage f lake t hickness d oes i ncrease t hrough t ime. T he k ey s ize d imension a ppears t o b e p latform w idth, a v ariable l argely c ontrolled b y t he knapper . A model o f f lake s ize a nd p roportion i s s uggested b y t hese d ata, a nd s hown h ere a s F igure 1 7. A n umber o f v ariables s how c hange t hrough t ime i n t he V lasac m aterial i n a ddition t o t hose a lready m entioned . S everal v ariables s uggest i ncreasing c arelessness i n k napping t echnique . T he p ercentage o f c urved a nd t wisted f lakes i ncrease t hrough t ime ( % c urved a nd t wisted, V lasac I -IV : 1 0-13-15-28%) a lthough c ore s ize d oes n ot d ecrease . T he p ercentage o f p ieces where t he s triking p latform i s u nidentifiable b ecause i t h as b een d etached , o r p erhaps b ecause t here n ever w as o ne , i ncreases ( Platform a bsent o r c an 't t ell : 2 4-26-34-41%) . I n t he M esolithic p eriod b ulbs o f p ercussion a re a bsent o n f lakes which d o h ave p latforms i ncreasingly-frequently . I n t he S tarcevo m aterial t he b ulbs i ncrease a gain ( Presence o f b ulb o f p ercussion , V lasac I -IV : 4 4%-38%-36%-41%) . I t s hould b e e mphasized t hat l ack o f o r d ecreasing s kill i n f lint working i s n ot a n i ssue h ere . A lmost h alf o f t he c hipped s tone i n V lasac I , i s q uartz, a nd t his i ncreases t o 6 4% i n V lasac I II . A ccording t o C rabtree ( 1967a , p .11) m uch s kill i s r equired t o m ake a nything f rom t his m aterial . T he p ercentage o f p ieces which s uggest t he l ustre o f h eat t reatment j umps f rom 5 3 t o 7 1% f rom V lasac I t o I I , t hen g oes t o 6 9% i n V lasac I II a nd 6 4% i n V lasac I V . I t i s l ikely t hat m uch o f t his l ustre i s a n i nherent q uality o f t he f lint, b ut t he j ump i n f requency f rom V lasac I t o I I m ay m ark t he b eginning o f h eat t reatment. U tilization o f h eat t reatment w ould m ark a n e ffort t o g ain g reater p recision i n t he knapping process, i n c ontrast t o t he e vidence o f i ncreasing c arelessness m entioned a bove . P latform e dge a brasion o r c rushing a lso i s e vidence o f c areful k napping , a nd i ncreases i n t he M esolithic , t hen d rops o ff i n S tarCevo ( 44-48-51-26%) . Another p ossible s ign o f c arefulness i s t he d ecreased n umber o f p ieces w ith c ortex t hrough t ime, w hich m ay i ndicate i nitial t rimming o f n odules b efore r eturning t o the s ite t o k nap t hem . T he d ecrease i n t he M esolithic i s s light ( 35-34-30-

2 01

C D

m l

C D

t C D 0 r f l ) C D 0

rt

C D

t 1 3 0 9

5 H.

a )

r t

( ITT IOMINOD AT IVLLdVd

a Du e liodmi

I I I I

X C A •

: NOLL2 10c IOUd G I \ IV

1 1 1PT I A

1 11 0

P

2I d

d s a l a o T a d r e e t a

S N O S N I A D a

/ C 1

I d

G ä r lIO UNOD

T IHM

s a uavä

u oTsuaqv t a iojquId

A LI 0 J

2 6%), b ut when o ne i solates t he f lint, t he c hange i n p ercentage o f p ieces w ith c ortex i s i ncreased: 3 8.4-37.8-30.6-29.4%. The g reatest c hange i n p ercentage o f p ieces with c ortex c omes b etween V lasac I I a nd I II. S everal o ther v ariables c hange most d ramatically a t t his j uncture: p latform a bsent o r c an't t ell, mean p latform l ength a nd width, a nd f lake width d ecrease, d eliberate t runcation o f d istal e nd i ncreases. I n a ddition, f or many o f t he c orrelations b etween v arious d imensions o f f lakes, t he c orrelations f or V lasac I II m aterial a re w eaker t han f or t he o ther p eriods . P erhaps t he o ccupational h iatus i s g reater b etween V lasac I I a nd I II t han b etween V lasac I a nd I I, i f t here w as o ne b etween I a nd I I. T he m ean v alues o f a ll d imensions o f f lakes, p latform a nd o verall s ize d ecreases t hrough t ime r ather s moothly. A lso t he mean l ength t o m ean width r atio d ecreases t hrough t ime:

f lakes a re g etting s quarer.

The i nadequate s ample s ize f or S tarCevo h as b een r epeatedly m entioned h ere . L ooking a t a ll o f t hese a ttributes a nd t heir c hanging v alues t hrough t ime, 1 )

An

t hree o bservations

i nteresting avenue

t o

c an b e m ade:

e xplore

would

b e

t he

p ossible

l ink

b etween t he n ature ( variables i nvolved) a nd d irection o f c hanges f rom V lasac I t hrough I II a nd t he i ncreased u tilization o f q uartz d uring t hat t ime , f rom 4 6 t o 6 4% o f a ll c hipped s tone . A s q uartz b ecame m ore a nd more d ominant, i ts physical properties may have r equired m odifications o f k napping s tyle which w ere t hen c arried o ver i nto t he w orking o f

f lint .

C rabtree

( 1973a) h as

o bserved

i n a s tudy

o f H ohokam

p oints t hat d ifferent p oint s tyles were m ade o ut o f d ifferent m aterials a nd s peculated t hat t he s pecial t echniques r equired t o f inish d ifferent p oints m ight b e m ore e asily a pplied t o s ome m aterials t han t o o thers. T he f irst s tep would b e e xperimentation i n k napping a nd h eat t reating , a nd s ubsequently u sing q uartz a rtifacts. V irtually n othing i s k nown a bout t he p roperties o f t his material. C rabtree ( 1972, p .5) h as s aid t hat " crude" t ools m ay b e m ade w ith g reat s kill o n p oor m aterial . B ut a c rude-looking t ool m ay b e a v ery e ffective o ne . T he g reat p opularity o f q uartz s uggests t hat i t m ust h ave m ade e ffective , e fficient t ools. T he g reat p roperty o f q uartz i s i ts e dge d urability ( J. Adovasio, p .c.). 2 ) Without d iscussing t he r elative i mportance o f t echnology, s tyle a nd f unction i n t hese a ttributes , o ne c an p oint t o t he g eneral l ack o f a brupt a nd d rastic c hanges. 3 ) T here a re o nly t wo p laces i n a ll t hese d ata w here t here a re s harp c hanges -p resence o f l ip c hanges f rom 1 6% t o 4 3% a nd p latform e dge a brasion c hanges f rom 5 1% t o 2 6% b etween V lasac I II a nd S tar evo. S ince t hese t wo a ttributes a re l ogically i nversely r elated, t hey c ould r eally b e v iewed a s o nly a s ingle a brupt e vidence f or c hange -b e i t t echnological, We k now

f unctional, t hat

t his

was

o r s tylistic. a p eriod

o f

s ome

c hange

i n

t he

s ubsistence

b ase. I f c hipped s tone was g enerally d irectly u sed i n s ubsistence t asks, t he amount o f a brupt c hange s o f ar i solated i s s urprisingly l ittle . p erhaps

T his t he

small amount

i ntial

d egree

o f o f

t echnological s ubsistence

2 03

s tyle

c hange

s uggests

t ransformation h as

a lso

t hat b een

o ver-rated. Although

i t

s tone s uggests V lasac, i t i s s uggesting

an

i s

c ertainly

p remature

t o a ssess

what

t he c hipped

about t he h istory o f t he f our-phase h abitation n ot i nappropriate t o i nterpret t hese r esults h ypothesis

o f

n o

d iscontinuity

o r

r eplacement

o f a s o r

i ntroduction o f f oreign s tone-working t echnology t hroughout t he V lasae s equence . T his h ypothesis would b e i ndependent o f a ny a ssumption o f a d irect

f unctional

l ink b etween c hipped s tone a nd

s ubsistence.

T he

i nitial h ypothesis o f c ultural c ontinuity i n t he I ron Gates f rom t he middle

p ost-Pleistocene

d omesticated

c attle,

d omesticated g rains

i s

u p

p igs

t o and

a nd

t hrough

sheep/goats

s upported.

204

t he and

i ntroduction

o f

inferentially,

S quare 5 23 D ESCRIPTION O F A TTRIBUTES The

f ollowing

a ttributes

were

r ecorded

f or

t he

s econd

c hipped s tone, r epresenting all t he material f rom o ne, metre

s quare,

c hosen

b ecause

i t

c ontained

material

s ample

o f

c entral 4 x 4 f rom

a ll

f our

o ccupations. A GE -A ssignment s ite , t his

o f e ach a rtifact

o n t he b asis o f

t o o ne o f

t he e xcavator 's

t he f our o ccupations o f t he

i nterpretation o f

s tratigraphy

i n

s quare.

P ROVENIENCE -V ertical p rovenience, MATERIAL -T he t ype o f a dditional t ype,

s tone was

l imestone,

w as

b y

l evels,

r ecorded ,

a s

f or s quare. f or p revious

s amples .

An

f ound h ere.

H EATED -A s a bove. C ORTEX -A s c rumbly, C OLOR

a bove ,

e xcept

t hat

r olled s urfaces

r ough m atrix a dhering t o n odules

-A

t otal

o f

1 5

c olors

were

were d istinguished f rom

r emoved f rom o utcrops.

r ecognized:

white;

" StarCevo"

b eige--a vp ale b eige f lint with whitish d apples i n i t, widely u sed i n t he S tarcevo p eriod; " StarCevo" g rey; grey; d ark g rey; g rey-black; mottled b rown ; mottled g rey; r ed; b eige-brown ; d ark b rown ; o ver-heated b rown-white--a b rown f lint e venly d iscolored t o white a round t he e dges, which l ooked l ike h eat-treatment d iscoloration ; g reen ;

t ransluscent-clear.

P LATFORM -A s a bove. B ULB -A s

a bove.

L IP -A s a bove. P LATFORM C RUSHING -A s

a bove.

P LATFORM FACETS -A s a bove. P LATFORM L ENGTH -A s a bove. P LATFORM W IDTH -A s a bove. MAXIMUM L ENGTH -A s a bove. MAXIMUM W IDTH -A s a bove. T HICKNESS -A s a bove. TRUNCATED -A s a bove. D ELIBERATE -A s

a bove.

2 05

o ver-heated g rey-white;

P ROXIMAL T RUNCATION -P roximal e nd r emoved o r n ot. D ELIBERATE P ROXIMAL T RUNCATION -Y es o r n o. N UMBER O F R EMOVALS -A s a bove. TYPE -T ypes r ecognized were: c an't t ell; s hatter; b locky s hatter; c ore; f lake; b lade; c ore f ragment; f lake o r b lade f ragment; c ore r ejuvenation f lake. C URVED -D oes

t he d istal e nd c urve b ack t owards

t he v entral s urface?

TWISTED -Is t he a rtifact t wisted o ff t he 2 -dimensional p lane f ormed b y i ts l ong a xis a nd a l ine d rawn p erpendicular t o t hat a xis a cross t he e dge o f t he s triking p latform? R ETOUCH/USE -Is a rtifact r etouched/used? I n a ddition , m anufacturing

t he n umber o f f lint c hips, p ieces c onsidered t o b e d ebris, was c ounted f or e ach l evel . Q uartz w as c ounted

s eparately i n t he S ummary d ata s et. A NALYSIS O F D ATA S quare 5 23 o riginally c ontained 7 15 p ieces o f c hipped s tone, d isposed a s s hown i n T able 6 8. T he materials l eft i n t he f ield b ags a re t he s ubject o f t his p art o f t he a nalysis. T he o ther m aterials f rom S quare 5 23 h ave b een p reviously d escribed i n t he a nalysis o f t he P rimary d ata s et. T he t echnological v ariables e xamined f or t he p rimary d ata s et will b e r ecalculated f or t hese d ata a s a t est o f t he r epresentativeness o f t he P rimary d ata s et. T hen , a n a ttempt w ill b e m ade t o e stimate t he p ercentage o f t ools w hich were r etouched a nd/or u sed b y c omparing what was s orted o ut i nto t he P rimary d ata s et with w hat w as l eft b ehind i n t he f ield b ags. T able 6 9 c ontains t he f requencies f or v arious t echnological a ttributes p reviously c alculated f or t he P rimary d ata s et. The p atterns o f s everal v ariables, i ncluding d istal b reak, c ortex , b ulb, p latform e dge c rushing , c urving/twisting , a nd l ip a re t he s ame a s was f ound f or t he Primary d ata s et ( compare t hese d ata with T able 4 9). A n umber o f v ariables p attern d ifferently i n S quare 5 23 t han t hey d id i n t he P rimary d ata. A s maller p ercentage o f t he material l ooks h eatt reated

i n S quare

5 23,

t he

p latform

i s

m ore

f requently

a bsent ,

d istal

t runcations l ess f requently a ppeared d eliberate, t he m ean n umber o f p latform f acets i s l ess, a nd t he mean n umber o f p revious r emovals i s l ess. S ome o f t hese d ifferences may r eflect d irect s electivity o f s orters--glossy a rtifacts " look l ike s omething" a s d o a rtifacts w ith a l arger n umber o f r emoval s cars. I t i s u nlikely t hat t he n umber o f p latform f acets w ould b e s elected f or d irectly--this a ttribute i s t oo d ifficult

t o

s ee .

M ore

l ikely

i t

l ike t he o ccurrence o f r etouch,

i s

a ssociated w ith

a nd was

o ther a ttributes,

s elected f or a s a s econdary

e ffect. E ach

a rtifact

was

c oded

d ifferent c olors were r ecognized .

f or

c olor,

Many o f

2 06

a nd

a t otal

o f

f ifteen

t hese o ccurred o nly i n s mall

T ABLE 6 8 D ISPOSITION O F S QUARE 5 23 C HIPPED S TONE

D isposition

V lasac I

V lasac I I

V lasac I II

V lasac 0

M aterial s orted o ut b y e xcavators

7

2 5

2 1

c hipped s tone

2

1 1

c ores & c ore f ragments

2

2 7

1 3

7 3

3 33

1 98

8 4

3 96

2 32

1

S orted o ut b y a uthor:

R emaining i n f ield b ags T otal

2 07

2

3

T ABLE 6 9 S QUARE 5 23:

F REQUENCIES O F T ECHNOLOGICAL A TTRIBUTES

V lasac I ( 73) n o. %

V lasac I I n o. %

( 333)

V lasac I II n o.

%

1 0

5

M aterial c an't

t ell

f lint

4 6 9

s iltstone

-

5

1 3

9 5

3 19

-

1

4 9 6

1 88

9 5

0

H eated n one

3 1

4 2

1 70

5 1

9 8

4 9

g lossy

4 2

5 8

1 58

4 7

9 7

4 9

-

5

5 9

20 2

7

1 0

2 1

6

1 5

8

1 1

2 7

8

2 0

1 6

5 3

s palls

-

2

3

2

C ortex a bsent

4 3

c an't k ind

t ell

c an't

t ell

p ebble d eposit

1 2 3

4

w hite

2

3

v S tarcevo b eige

4

5

v S tarcevo g rey

2

3 .

1 2

6 6

1 22

1 6 4

1 4 .

2 7

6 2

8 1 0 7 1 4

C olor

g rey d ark g rey g rey-black

1 7 9 2 2

6

2

4

2

1 2

4

3

2

1 4

4

5

3

2 3

8 7

2 6

7 2

3 6

1 2

8 8

2 6

4 4

2 2

3 0

3 9

1 2

1 0

2 08

5

( 198)

T ABLE 6 9 V lasac I ( 73) n o. %

( Cont'd)

V lasac I I n o. %

( 333)

V lasac I II n o. %

C olor m ottled b rown

4

5

1 2

m ottled g rey

4

5

3 3

r ed

-

b eige-brown

6

8

d ark b rown

1

1

o verheated b rown-white

1

1

o verheated g rey-white

1

1

-

4 1 0

6 2 1

3 1

4

1

2

1

1

3

8

4

8

2

2

1

3

1

4

2

1 0

3

g reen

3

1

t ranslucent c lear

3

1

1 6 1

8 1

P latform a bsent

5

7

5 7

1 7

3 4

1 7

u ncertain

4 3

5 9

1 69

5 1

1 03

5 2

p resent

2 5

3 4

1 07

3 2

6 1

3 1

a bsent

4 0

5 5

2 50

7 5

1 43

7 3

p resent

3 3

4 5

8 3

2 5

5 2

2 7

3 6

8 4

1 53

9 1

9 3

8 8

1 6

1 6

1 3

1 2

4 4

8 9

6 1

5 8

B ulb

L ip a bsent p resent

7

9

C rush a bsent

1 9

2 09

5 3

( 198)

T ABLE 6 9 V lasac I ( 73) n o. %

( Cont'd)

V lasac I I n o. %

( 333)

V lasac I II (198) no. %

C rush p resent

2 4

5 6

8 0

4 7

4 5

4 2

1 4

2 3

1 4

1 6

1 5

5 6

1 20

7 1

6 5

6 2

2 1

2 0

1 2

1 5

1 4

F acets 0

6

1

2 4

2

9

3

4

4

-

9 -

M ean = 1 .256

3 3

2

6

6

2

3

3

M ean = 1 .071

M ean = 1 .190

D istal B reak a bsent

5 0

6 9

2 5.6

7 8

1 57

p resent

1 5

2 1

3 9

1 2

1 7

7

1 0

3 5

1

2 4

1 2

n o

9

6 4

2 8

7 2

1 4

8 2

y es

4

2 9

1 0

2 6

c an't t ell

1

7

1

1

1

-

s hatter

4

5

2 0

c hunks

2

1

3 1

c an't t ell

7 9 9

D eliberate

3

1 8

3

T ype c an't

t ell

f lakes

5 3

-

6

3

6

1 4

7

9

2 8

1 4

7 3

2 18

6 5

9 8

4 9

1 1

3 9

1 2

3 9

2 0

b lades

8

f lake/blade f ragment

4

5

1 5

5

c ore r ejuvena tion f lake

2

3

1 0

3

210

1 2

1

6

1

T ABLE 6 9 V lasac I ( 73) n o. %

( Cont'd)

V lasac I I n o. %

( 333)

V lasac I II n o.

%

1

1

P revious R emovals 0

-

1

2

-

3

1

3

1 7

5

1

6

2

1 5

2 1

5 6

1 7

3 4

1 7

3

2 0

2 7

1 18

3 5

5 3

2 7

4

1 8

2 5

7 4

2 2

5 0

2 5

1 2

3 1

9

2 8

1 4

1 9

6

1 2

5

9

6

3

4

7

4

5

8

-

9

2

1 0

-

3 -

M ean = 3 .740

7 6 2 -

6

2

8

2

-

-

1

-

-

-

M ean = 3 .492

1

4

1

M ean = 3 .616

C urved a bsent

5 6

8 5

24 2

8 1

1 41

8 2

p resent

1 0

1 0

5 2

1 9

3 0

1 8

5 9

8 9

2 41

8 7

1 50

8 8

1

3 5

1 3

2 1

1 2

8 8

2 80

8 4

1 89

1 2

5 3

1 6

1 6.6

8 2

2 0.7

T wist a bsent p resent

7

R etouched/ U sed a bsent p resent c orrected p resent

6 4 9

1 4

2 11

9

2 6

9 5.5 4 .5

1.2

( 198)

numbers in all three occupations, but four varieties of grey: grey, d a rk gre y, gre y -black, and mottled gre y, accounted for larg e percentages of the materials, and their frequencies changed through time. Possible change through time in color preferences of local materials is suggested by these data. It is a question which could easily be studied in the Iron Gates sites. The two colors most common V V in the Starcevo period--Starcevo grey and beige--occurred but were not common in all three occupations at Vlasac. Mean values for several continuous variables are shown in Table 70. All mean values for all periods are lower for Square 523 than for the Primary data set. In the Primary data set, the mean values for all of these variables decrease through time. In Square 523 the mean values decrease from Vlasac I to II, but then increase again in Vlasac III, although not up to the mean values of Vlasac I. The explanation for these differences may lie in the percentage of artifacts judged to have been used or retouched in Square 523 (see Table 69). In Vlasac I 16.6%, in Vlasac II, 20.7%, and in Vlasac III, 11.2% of the artifacts could be seen to have been used or retouched without the aid of a microscope. If retouched/used artifacts were larger than other artifacts, this could account for the differences in continuous variables noticed above. We will return to this question below. The original sort of the material pulled seven artifacts from Vlasac I in Square 523, none of which were retouched, three of which were used. My search turned up 11 retouched/used pieces. (Retouch and use were not distinguished here because it was felt that they could not be reliably distinguished without the use of the microscope. I have assumed that these pieces are essentially equal to those classified as retouched or possibly retouched in the Primary analysis). Twenty-five artifacts were pulled for Vlasac II, of which ten were used and eight were retouched. I identified a further 64 used/retouched artifacts. For Vlasac III, 21 artifacts were sorted out for the Primary data set. Sixteen were used and one was retouched. I identified nine additional retouched/used artifacts. Assuming that I did not miss any retouched artifacts, or artifacts used heavily enough to show use without a microscope, than the original sorters found 3/14, 18/82, and 17/26 of the.· "tools" in Vlasac I, II, and III respectivelr, or 21%, 21%, and 65%. It had been hoped that these figures could be used to estimate the percentage of retouched/used artifacts in the total assemblage. They are too wildly variable to be of much use. The anomalous value for Vlasac III may be partly explained by the fact that a lower p ercentage of Vlasac III material was used/retouched in Square 523 (11.2%) than in the Vlasac I (16.6%) or Vlasac II (20.7%) levels of that square. As artifacts were sorted, a run of "debitage" would cause iorters to look more carefully at each piece and thereby recover a higher percentage of the retouched pieces. Recovery was probably consistently better in areas of the site where the density of "tools" was lowest, and the reverse. This bias, if it operated, would tend to smooth out differences in the density distribution of "tools". An average of the three recovery rates, 35.66%, is the best estimate available. Using this figure, we derive the predictions for total numbers of used/retouched pieces shown in Table 71. Whatever the actual recovery rate was, it can be seen that the percentage of retouched and probably retouched pieces recovered covaries very tightly 212

T ABLE 7 0 M EAN V ALUES F OR C ONTINUOUS V ARIABLES

V lasac I

V lasac I I

7 .302

6 .663

6 .829

. 411

1 .138

1 .776

2 .837

2 .604

2 .743

. 787

1 .135

1 .836

1 9.658

1 8.231

1 8.833

1 .276

. 946

1 .081

1 4.356

1 2.640

1 3.258

. 599

. 981

1 .462

5 .164

4 .940

5 .061

. 493

. 729

1 .014

V lasac I II

P latform l ength M ean S kewness P latform w idth M ean S kewness L ength M ean S kewness W idth M ean S kewness T hickness M ean S kewness

T ABLE 7 1 P REDICTED O CCURRENCE O F R ETOUCHED/USED A RTIFACTS

N o. S quare 5 23

r etouched/

u sed p ieces f ound -

3 5.66% r ecovery r ate: n o. p redicted

% o f t otal n on-quartz

V lasac I

1 09

3 08

1 4.7

V lasac I I

28 2

6 45

1 5.7

V lasac I II

1 73

4 89

1 5.7

213

with t he t otal n umber o f a rtifacts t hroughout t he s equence. T hese e stimates c ould b e r elatively e asily c hecked b y a r e-examination o f t he d ata.

2 14

S ummary D ata S et D ESCRIPTION O F A TTRIBUTES T he f ollowing v ariables w ere r ecorded f or t he S ummary d ata s et: 1 .

A GE:

2 .

P ROVENIENCE:

3 .

F LAT Q UARTZ : N umber o f f lat, p ossibly s truck , q uartz w ith u sable c utting e dges, p er p rovenience u nit.

4 .

A s a bove.

B LOCKY

A s a bove.

Q UARTZ:

N umber

o f

q uartz

c hunks

o r

u nusable

p ieces

s hatter

p er p rovenience u nit. 5 .

C HIPS:

N umber o f f lint

c hips p er p rovenience u nit.

6 .

M ATERIAL:

7 .

C ORTEX:

8 .

T YPE: C an't t ell; s hatter; b locky s hatter; c ore; c ore f ragment; f lake-blade f ragment; f lake, b lade, r ejuvenation f lake.

9 .

A SSOCIATED A RCHAEOLOGICAL F EATURE : N umber o f g rave , h earth , o r h ouse f loor w ith which a rtifact i s a ssociated, i f a ny.

A s a bove. P resent o r a bsent.

A NALYSIS O F D ATA T he S ummary d ata s et i ncludes a ll o f t he c hipped s tone r ecovered f rom t he s ite , m inus t he 6 04 n on-quartz p ieces o f m aterial f rom S quare 5 23 and t he 2 042 p ieces i n t he P rimary d ata s et. T here a re 2 2,201 a rtifacts c hips

i n

( tiny

t he S ummary d ata f ragments

o f

s et .

f lint

T here w ere p roduced

i n

a lso a s mall n umber o f t he

knapping

p rocess)

a ssociated with e ach o ccupation : V lasac I , 3 3 c hips; V lasac I I, 4 5 c hips; a nd V lasac I II, 6 2 c hips. T able 7 2 s hows , t he r aw t otals o f d ifferent k inds o f materials u sed f or c hipping d uring t he d ifferent o ccupations . S everal t hings a re o bvious f rom t hese d ata . F irst, t he t otal amount o f c hipped s tone more t han d oubles f rom Vlasac I t o I I, a nd t hen s tays a bout t he s ame f or V lasac I II. T he u tilization o f q uartz i ncreases t hrough t he t hree l evels, f rom a l ow o f 5 4 t o a h igh o f 7 1 p ercent. The r emainder o f u nidentifiable, a nd o ther o dd m aterials, s uch a s s iltstone, a nd s ilicious r ocks, a lso d ecrease t hrough t ime. T his m ight b e s een a s e vidence f or a c ontinuous e xperimentation with l ocally a vailable s tone o ther t han f lint f or c hipping , d ecreasing t hrough t ime a s t he c hoice n on-flint r aw m aterial b ecame m ore e ntrenched. I n s pite o f

t he s teady a nd s ignificant

o f

q uartz

a s

t he

m ain

r elative d ecline i n t he u se

o f f lint t hrough t ime, i ts u tilization a s r eflected b y t he d ebris o f manufacture a nd t he p roducts o f m anufacture d oes n ot s eem t o h ave c hanged a t a ll . T able 7 3 s hows t he b reakdown o f k napping p roducts f or e ach

l evel

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L EVELS A T V LASAC

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p ercentage o utput o f f lakes, b lades, o r a ny o ther t ype o f d ebris. T able 7 4 s hows t his b reakdown b y o ccupation f or e ach t ype o f m aterial. C ORTEX About 1 /3 o f a ll p ieces i n a ll t hree l evels h ad c ortex a ttached ( Table 7 3). S lopes o f s cattergrams o f c ortex b y e ach c ategory o f c hipping p roduct g ive a p retty a ccurate m easure o f t he p ercentages o f e ach c ategory o f c hipped s tone with c ortex . V lasac I h as a h igh p ercentage o f c ores ( 75) with c ortex , a nd a bout 1 /3 o f t he c ore f ragments h ave c ortex . A t hird o f t he f lakes, b ut o nly a q uarter o f t he b lades h ave c ortex . A ll o f t hese r elationships with c ortex h ave s ignificant P earson's r . T his c ould p ossibly b e a r eflection o f a manufacturing s tyle, b ased o n a g reat a bundance, a nd e asy a ccess t o, r aw m aterial , where m any c ores were d iscarded without b eing e xhausted , and/or where t he t endency was t o e xploit a ll c ores i nitially f or f lakes, a nd o nly when t hey h ad g otten r ather small t o e xploit t hem f or b lades. T his would b e r eflected i n t he smaller p ercentage o f b lades which h ave c ortex , a s o pposed t o f lakes. I f t his was t he c ase, t hen t he a verage s ize o f b lades s hould b e l ess t han t hat o f f lakes, a nd f urther , b lade s cars s hould b e f ound mostly o n t he s maller c ores . T he c orrelation b etween c ore r ejuvenation f lakes a nd c ortex i s n egative, b ut i t i s a lso n ot s ignificant. The s lope i s a lso s lightly n egative. T his m akes s ense , h owever , s ince o nly t he h eavily w orked c ore w ould b e r ejuvenated , a nd o ne w ould n ot o ften e xpect t o f ind c ortex o n a h eavily worked c ore. A small p ercentage o f t he f lake-blade f ragments h ave c ortex ( slope = . 2) b ut t his i s a lso n ot a s ignificant c orrelation ( sample s ize = 1 7). P erhaps t hese f ragments were p roduced i n t he p reparation o f microliths, t he b lanks f or which might b e s elected d eliberately without c ortex? R ather h igh p ercentages ( 46 a nd 3 4, r espectively), o f t he f lat s hatter a nd b locky s hatter h ave c ortex . T his m ay r eflect t he a ccuracy o f c lassifying t hese p ieces a s s hatter , a s o ne would e xpect r ather h igh p ercentages o f c ortex o n p ieces p roduced b y s mashing u p l arge n odules t o g et s maller , w orkable p ieces. R andom smashing o f c hunks t o g et f ortuitous p latforms, a nd c omfortable s ized c ores, w ould a lso b e a r eflection o f a n i ndustry i n w hich t here was n o c oncern d isplayed f or e fficient e xploitation o f r aw m aterial . The c ortex p ercentages o f c hipped s tone c ategories v ary i n t he s ame d irection i n V lasac I I, t he m ain d ifference i s t hat t he v alues a re more e xtreme. More o f t he two t ypes o f s hatter h ave c ortex ( .60 a nd . 40) ,

a nd

t he d ifference b etween f lakes a nd

b lades

i s

m ore

e xtreme

( . 48

v s. . 15). T he o nly r eal d ifference i s t hat a lmost 1 /2 o f t he c ore f ragments h ave c ortex . T he n umber o f c ores i s t oo small t o g ive meaningful r esults. I n a ccordance with t he c ore f ragments h aving c ortex , • the p ercentage o f r ejuvenation f lakes which h ave c ortex h as g one t o . 21, f rom t he p revious n egative r elationship, a lthough t he n umber o f c ases i s s till t oo s mall f or r eliability . T his m ight r eflect a g reater w illingness t o m ake u se o f f lakes w ith c ortex o n t hem , i n t he n ame o f more e fficient u se o f r aw material. I f t his i s t he c ase, t he p ercentage o f t he t otal c hipped s tone w hich i s s hatter s hould d ecrease f rom i ts v alue i n V lasac I . B locky s hatter d oes d ecrease , f rom 9 t o 5 % ( see Table 7 3).

2 18

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s hatter w ith c ortex d rops

b y

m ore t han h alf, t o . 24 . T he o ther m ajor c hange i s t hat l ess t han o ne t hird o f t he f lakes ( 30%) have c ortex , ad rop o f 1 8%, a nd n ow t he s ame p ercentage o f b lades h ave c ortex, 3 0%. F lake-blade f ragments h ave a s ignificant c orrelation w ith c ortex f or t he o nly t ime i n t his a nalysis, b ased o n l arger s amples t han f or p revious l evels : R = . 34 . L ooking a t t he s ignificant a nd i nsignificant r esults t ogether , i t b ecomes o bvious t hat t he p ercentage o f f lake-blade f ragments with c ortex f ollow t he p ercentages o f b lades w ith c ortex q uite c losely . T his i s p robably t he e asiest e xplanation o f t his v ariation -that m ost o f t hese f lake-blade f ragments a re i n f act p ieces o f b lades. D uring V lasac I II t imes, p eople may h ave b egun making s eparate f lake a nd b lade c ores, a nd s topped u sing u sed f lake c ores a s b lade c ores. I f t his w ere t he c ase, t hen t he c ores s hould r eflect t his, a s l arge c ores h aving b lade a s f lake s cars, a nd t he a verage s ize o f b lades s hould b e a s b ig a s t hat o f f lakes. T he o nly c ategory o f c hipped s tone i n S tarC 'evo f or which t here were e nough c ases t o c alculate s tatistics was t he f lakes. S eventy s even p ercent o f t he f lakes h ave c ortex i n t he S tarCevo m aterial , w hich s eems v ery h igh c ompared t o t he I t hrough I II m aterial , b ut o f c ourse t he t otal s ample s ize o f V lasac I V i s v ery s mall. T he d ata were r eorganized ( aggregated) s o t hat e ach p rovenience u nit h ad o ne r ecord . P earson's c orrelations were t hen d one, t wice, f irst d eleting a nd t hen i ncluding c ases w ith o ne o r b oth o f t he v alues e qual t o z ero. A n a lmost p erfect c orrelation was f ound b etween t he o ccurrence o f c ortex a nd t he n umber o f p ieces o f f lint f ound i n a s quare: p ieces

r = 0 .9581; s = . 001. T his s imply r eflects t he f act t hat r etaining c ortex were l imited pretty much t o p ri mary

m anufacturing

d ebris ,

w hich

o ccurs

p ieces.

21 2

o nly

i n q uantity,

n ot

a s

i solated

S ummary A nd I ntegration o f T he 3 D ata S ets: T he C hipped S tone I ndustry a t V lasac When t he t hree d ata s ets a re c ombined, t he t otals f or e ach o ccupation , a nd t he r elative i mportance o f v arious r aw m aterials a re r evealed. Table 7 5 c onfirms t he p revious o bservations t hat f lint d ecreases t hrough t ime r elative t o q uartz, a lthough t he p roportions d o n ot c hange q uite a s d ramatically a s was p reviously r eported . T his i s b ecause t he s orting o f t he " tools" i nto t he Primary d ata s et l argely i gnored n on-flint m aterials, t hus s kewing t he p roportions o f m aterials i n a ll d ata s ets. T he d ecrease t hrough t ime i n u tilization o f materials which a re n either q uartz n or f lint i s a lso c onfirmed h ere. I t was p reviously s uggested t hat t his p attern m ay r eflect a p eriod o f e xperimentation w ith l ocally a vailable r esources, g radually d ecreasing a s t he t echnology a dapted i tself m ore c ompletely t o t he e xploitation o f q uartz a nd f lint.

I I,

E xamination o f n on-quartz c ores a nd c ore f ragments f rom V lasac I , a nd I II, s hows a g radual i ncrease i n t he n umber o f f lakes , b lades,

f lake-blade f ragments a nd c ore r ejuvenation f lakes p er c ore t hrough t ime. C ounting two c ore f ragments e qual t o o ne c ore, we f ind t hat V lasac I h as 1 8 f lakes p er c ore, V lasac I I h as 2 4 f lakes p er c ore, a nd V lasac I II h as 2 8 f lakes p er c ore . ( Two c ore f ragments e qualling o ne c ore i s a rbitrary , b ut t he t rend t o h igher r atio o f f lakes t o c ores i s u naffected b y t his a ssumption) . T here were a lso t wo q uartz c ores i n V lasac I and o ne i n V lasac I I i ndicating t hat q uartz was a t l east s ometimes k napped , a nd n ot j ust s mashed u p s hapely p ieces b eing r etrieved f or u se.

r andomly w ith f ortuitously

I n V lasac I , e xamination o f c ores s uggests t hat t hey i nitially e xploited f or f lakes, a nd a fter b eing s omewhat r educed ,

were w ere

c onverted t o b lade c ores. T his i s s uggested b y t he o ccurrence o f n egative b lade s cars o n s maller c ores without c ortex . I n V lasac I I a nd I II t his p attern i s n ot e vident. B lade s cars a re a s l ikely a s f lake s cars t o b e f ound o n l arge c ores with c ortex . Overall, a bout o net hird o f a ll

c hipped p ieces h ave

c ortex .

I n t he S ummary d ata s et,

h owever, i t was f ound t hat f or V lasac I f ewer b lades ( c. 2 5%) t han f lakes ( c. 3 3%) h ad c ortex , a nd t hat i n V lasac I I t his d ifference b ecame m ore e xtreme w ith a lmost h alf ( 48%) o f t he f lakes a nd o nly 1 5% o f t he b lades h aving c ortex. I n V lasac I II a bout o ne-third o f b oth f lakes a nd b lades h ave c ortex . I t s eems c lear t hen t hat i n V lasac I b lades were p roduced o n c ores r educed, a nd f requently c leared o f c ortex , b y p rior f laking . I n V lasac I I t imes g reater c are w as t aken t o p roduce b lades w ithout c ortex with a n ew s trategy which i nvolved s triking f lakes a nd b lades o ff t he s ame c ore, b ut i n s uch a way t hat t he f lakes c arried o ff a ll t he c ortex . I n V lasac I II t imes f lakes a nd b lades were p roduced o n s eparate c ores, a s i s r eflected b y t he b alancing o ut o f t he p ercentage o f e ach w hich b ears c ortex. T here i s a d ecrease t hrough t ime i n t he p ercentage o f p ieces w ith c ortex , p articularly i f o nly f lint i s c onsidered a s f ollows: V lasac I , 3 8.4% ;

V lasac I I,

3 7.8%;

a nd V lasac I II,

3 0.6% .

T his

c orresponds

t o

t he i ncreasing r atio t hrough t ime o f f lakes f rom 1 8 t o 2 4 t o 2 8 p er c ore . T he h igh p ercentage o f p ieces w ith c ortex , t aken t ogether w ith t he h igh a nd i ncreasing r atios o f f lakes

22 2

t o c ores,

c learly i ndicates

i n

x

C ) in C,1

4-

• 0

CO

•

c '• 1

-

I

I

I

I

0 0

— 4

I

03

V)

I

V . " )

. . 1 .-

•

•

CO

, — .4

-4 '

L rl

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

N -

I

I

• ,1 -

I

, I

r-) — 1 L i ' )

c \ I

I

C . ) C 3 C l )

C j

c ;I

r 4

r • .

X I

4C r )

cn N. Le 1

, 1

0

, — I 4-

C ) c d

c\ I

0 . 1 Cr )

•

I

C I

I

1 : >

L r )

. 1 • 0

( " 4 • 0

I

r — i — 1

1 r )

Cr )

c , 1 • 0

C T % • 0

0

c r N

0

cN

, I -

I

I H 4 I ,1 I . -

v 0 •

0

I 0 i n 1 C I I C > 1 0 0

c O

V : . ) • ' • 2 I

C 7N

. 1 .-

Cr )

01 C . 7 1 , 1

i -

o

r --

o

c\ I

c o

, . ,

1

.t .

in

1-• . I A . t .

N.,

r0 1

1

r -I

Cr ) 0 0 , i

, : . 1

. " . )

, • 4

0 0 .

1 . /-1 C r )

c z n

C V I

I

I

0

•

Cr )

Cr )

, 1

c 4

a \

I C\ I

. 1 1 I

Unidentified

O' N C r )

L imestone

, . 0

S iltstone

• , 0

F lint/Chert

C OUNTS O F

0

H • . 4VD

I

0 1-

s itu knapping, with n o p reliminary t rimming a t a ll o utside t he s ite. T he e xtremely h igh c orrelation b etween t otal n umber o f p ieces p er s quare a nd n umber o f p ieces w ith c ortex ( r = . 9581, s = xel) f ound f or t he S ummary d ata i s a f urther r eflection o f i n s itu manufacturing, i ncluding p rimary t rimming o f c ores. P ieces w ith c ortex a re f ound w ith p rimary manufacturing d ebris, which a re f ound i n q uantity, n ot a s i solated p ieces. A s

r evealed

i n

t he

Primary

d ata

s et

a nalysis,

i n

a ll

t hree

o ccupations t he s ame t ool s hapes were f ound i n small n umbers : n otches, r eamers, g ravers, d rills, p iercers, p ieces e squillees, p oints, d enticulates, c ircular s crapers, a nd m icroliths, which w ere p robably u sed i n c omposite t ools. S ome o f t hese t ools w ere s haped f rom b lanks b y r etouching, b ut t he majority employed t he f ortuitous s hapes o f unretouched f lakes a nd b lades. T he p rimary u se o f r etouching i n a ll t hree o ccupations was t o p repare a nd u se. The

p ercentage

o f

r epair e dges ,

m ostly

f or s craping

p ieces which were r etouched i ncreases t hrough

t ime i n t he P rimary d ata s et f rom 1 7% i n V lasac I , I I, a nd 2 2.2% i n Vlasac I II. Examination o f t he

t o 1 8.7% i n Vlasac r ecovery r ates o f

r etouched/used p ieces f rom S quare 5 23 s uggest, h owever , t hat a s l ittle a s 3 5% o f t he t otal r etouched p ieces were r ecovered. Whatever t he r ecovery r ate was, i f w e c an a ssume t hat i t was t he s ame f or a ll t hree o ccupations, t hen i t c an b e s een t hat t he p ercentage o f r etouched p ieces r elative t o t he t otal n umber o f p ieces o f c hipped s tone d oes n ot v ary t hrough t ime . A r ecovery r ate o f 3 5.67% would i ndicate t hat a bout 1 5% o f a ll c hipped m aterial w as r etouched i n a ll t hree o ccupations. B lades w ere m ore f requently r etouched , m ore i ntensively u sed ( more e dges u sed, a nd more l ikely t o h ave b een u sed f or a d iversity o f t asks), a nd more l ikely t o h ave b een u sed a t a ll t han f lakes i n b oth V lasac I a nd I I. I n V lasac I II, t he p reference f or b lades v anishes. An e qual p ercentage ( 20%) o f b oth f lakes a nd b lades were u nused, a nd more f lakes ( 26.7%) t han b lades ( 20.3%) were r etouched.

S ome s hatter

was a lso u sed a nd r etouched i n V lasac I II, w hereas i t h ad n ot b een u sed i n p revious p eriods . T hese c hanges c orrespond t o t he c hanges d iscussed a bove i n t he p ercentages o f f lakes a nd b lades having c ortex , a nd i n t he c hanging ways b lades a nd f lakes were manufactured i n o rder t o d istribute t he c ortex i n a c ertain w ay . I n t he f irst t wo o ccupations, b lades were p referred a nd v alued o ver f lakes i n a way which d isappeared d uring t he t hird o ccupation . E vidence f or i ncreasing c arelessness i n k napping t echniques t hrough t ime c orresponds t o t he willingness t o u se s hatter a nd t o t he l oss o f i nterest i n b lades. C arelessness i s s uggested b y i ncreased p ercentages

o f

t wisted a nd

c urved

f lakes,

f ewer

r ecognizable p latforms a nd b ulbs o f p ercussion. T he p ercentage o f u nretouched a rtifacts which e videnced u se—damage u nder t he m icroscope a lso i ncreased t hrough t ime: V lasac I , 5 3.9% ; V lasac I I, 5 8.9%; a nd V lasac I II, All

o f

5 8.4%. t hese

c hanges

t aken

t ogether

s uggest

t hat

t hrough t ime

f lint a rtifacts were b eing u sed more i ntensively, a nd t hat t o a id i n i ncreasing t he e fficiency o f u tilization , s ome l owering o f s tandards o f q uality o ccurred.

2 24

The r ecording o f c olor f or a rtifacts i n S quare 5 23 d id p roduce p atterned c hanges t hrough t ime . T his i s a s tudy which c ould e asily b e e xtended t o t he materials o f t he whole c omplex o f s ites i n t he I ron G ates R egion . C ombined with d etailed d ata o n f lint d eposits within t he Gorge i t c ould p otentially y ield i nformation o n l ocal p rocurement, e xchange a nd i nteraction p atterns. The c reation o f a n ew a rtifact c ategory, " flake/blade" , f or t he P rimary d ata a nalysis , p roved worthwhile . F lake/blades h ave s ome , b ut n ot a ll o f t he c haracteristics n ormally u sed b y a rcheologists t o d efine b lades. A v ery h igh p ercentage were n ot u sed a t a ll, i ndicating t hat t hey were " failed" b lades b ecause, f or e xample, o f f laws i n t he r aw m aterial which p roduced o dd , a nd u seless, s hapes . Among t hose which were u sed , t he o verall p attern o f u tilization w as d istinct f rom t hat o f b oth b lades a nd f lakes, a nd s hared s ome c haracteristics o f b oth . F urther a nalysis o f u se p atterns o n f lakes a nd b lades, i nvolving t he i ndividual v ariables which c ombined t o c haracterize b lades, o ught t o l ead t o n ew i nsights i nto t he r elations o f f orm a nd f unction i n s tone t ools. A s t his d istinction was u sed h ere, i t c ertainly s erved t o r eveal d istinctions b etween f lake a nd b lade u tilization which would h ave b een c hanged , weakened , o r o bliterated b y t he l umping o f f lake/blades w ith f lakes -w hich i s w here t hey " technically" b elong. S tudy o f t he c orrelations b etween v arious metric d imensions o f a rtifacts i n t he P rimary d ata s et s uggest t hat t he k ey d imension i n f lake p roduction i s p latform width . A model o f t he d eterminants o f f lake

s ize and p roportion

i n f lint knapping h as b een d eveloped a nd

p resented a s F igure 1 7. T he m ajor r eason f or t he a nalysis o f a rtifacts f rom S quare 5 23 was t o c onfirm t he r esults o f t he a nalysis o f t he P rimary d ata s et. T he r espects i n which S quare 5 23 d id c onfirm t hose r esults h ave a lready b een d iscussed . T here a re s everal p oints o f d isagreement b etween t he two s ets o f d ata. T he a rtifacts o f S quare 5 23 were l ess l ikely t o h ave b een h eat t reated o r h ave a s triking p latform, and t hey h ad a l ower mean n umber o f p latform f acets, a nd a l ower mean n umber o f p revious r emoval s cars . T he d ifferences i n h eat t reatment , p latform , and r emoval s cars c an p robably b e e xplained b y t heir e ye-catching q uality. Artifacts which were g lossy, h ad p latforms, a nd l ots o f r emoval s cars " looked l ike s omething" a nd t herefore e njoyed a h igher p robability o f b eing s elected b y t hose who s orted o ut t he P rimary d ata s et. I t s eems u nlikely t hat p latform f acets c an b e e xplained t his way--they a re t oo s mall t o i s c lear f rom t his i s t hat

b e c redited w ith e ye-catching p ower . What t he p ercentage d istributions o f a ll f our o f

t hese v ariables a re " off" i n t he P rimary d ata s et, t hat i s, h igher t han w ould b e e xpected f or t he s ite a s a w hole.

t hey a re

T he s econd a rea o f n on-correspondence b etween t he P rimary d ata s et a nd S quare 5 23 i s i n t he m ean v alues f or s everal c ontinuous v ariables, a nd i n t he p attern o f c hange o f t hese v ariables v alues

o f

p latform

l ength

a nd

width,

a nd

t hrough t ime .

f lake

l ength,

T he m ean

width,

a nd

t hickness a re c onsistently l ower f or S quare 5 23 a rtifacts t han f or t he P rimary d ata s et a rtifacts. A dditionally, m ean v alues d ecrease t hrough t ime f rom V lasac I t o I I t o I II t he

m eans

d ecrease

i n t he P rimary d ata s et .

f rom V lasac I t o V lasac I I,

2 25

b ut

I n S quare 5 23

t hen i ncrease a gain

i n V lasac I II,

t hough n ot

b ack

t o t he o riginal v alues

s eparate b iasing f actors a re i n o peration h ere. were t he

b iased m eans

t owards

o f

artifacts,

l arger

s orted V lasac

a rtifacts . I II

T he

a rtifacts

whereas i n S quare 5 23,

t o

t he

b ias,

w hich

s econd b e

o f V lasac I .

F irst,

b elow

Two

s orters c aused

s orted V lasac

I I

V lasac I II means were h igher t han

V lasac I I, i s more d ifficult t o e xplain . T he p ercentages o f r etouched/ heavily u sed a rtifacts f or V lasac I ( 16.6%), V lasac I I ( 20.7%), a nd V lasac I II ( 11.2%), r etouched a rtifacts

f ound i n S quare 5 23 may p rovide t he a nswer. w ere s maller t han u nretouched a rtifacts, t hen

smaller p ercentage o f

r etouched

and

would

I f or S quare

V lasac I II .

5 23

a rtifacts

i nflate

I n t he P rimary d ata s et,

i n V lasac

t he

m ean

s ize

I II

r elative

I f t he

t o I I

measurements f or

t he p ercentage o f a rtifacts which

are r etouched i s more n early t he s ame f or e ach o f t he t hree l evels. T he p ercentage o f a ll a rtifacts which a re r etouched a ppears t o b e a bout t he s ame f or a ll t hree o ccupations. S quare 5 23 i s anomalous.

The l ow v alue f or V lasac I II i n

This s uggests t hat t he o riginal f inding o f

o verall d ecrease i n a rtifact

s ize

t hrough t ime i s

a v alid o ne.

V ery l ittle material was r ecovered f rom Vlasac I V, t he S tar evo o ccupation . I I and I II s uggested

A nalysis o f t his material, a nd c omparison with V lasac I , materials i n t erms o f t echnology o f manufacture h as

a n h ypothesis

o f

c ontinuity

t he e arly a gricultural p eriod. explored more a dequately o n t he s ites

o f c ulture a nd p opulation i nto

This h ypothesis c an c ertainly b e c hipped s tone a ssemblages o f o ther

i n t he G orge w ith m ore s ubstantial N eolithic d eposits. A

t otal

k napping , a bove,

o f

were

1 62

f lint

c hips,

r ecovered a t V lasac .

t hat v irtually a ll o f

v ery

s mall

I n v iew

t he 1 0,001

p ieces

o f o f

b yproducts t he

e vidence

o f

f lint

p resented

f lint w ere k napped i n

s itu, 1 62 c hips i ndicates a n a lmost t otal f ailure t o r ecover s uch s mall a rtifacts. P ayne ( 1972, p p .53-54) h as r eported t he r esults o f t renchr ecovery ( no s creening) c ompared with water s ieving a t t hree s ites. Trench r ecovery v aries wildly f rom 0 % t o 8 2% o f t he a ctual c hipped s tone present. R ecovery o f smaller a rtifacts i s c onsistently worse t han f or l arger o nes. P ayne p oints o ut t hat u sing wet-sieving, F rancois l arger

B ordes

t ools,

r ecovered b etween 1 85

whereas

P eyrony ,

u sing

a nd

3 75

o nly

m icroblade

t ools

t rench-recovery

o n

p er t he

1 00 s ame

s ite ( La C are d e C ouze) , r ecovered o nly f our m icroblades p er 1 00 l arger t ools. A t V lasac o nly t rench-recovery w as u sed . O ne c an o nly m arvel t hat

t he

f ew

m icroblades

a nd

g eometrics

r ecovered were

r ecovered ,

wonder whether t hey r epresent h undreds m ore w hich were u ndetected.

26 2

a nd

T HE C HIPPED S TONE I NDUSTRY I N C ONTEXT U tilization o f C hipped S tone a t V lasac A l ong l ist o f u ses

t o which c hipped s tone w as p ut m ay b e d rawn u p

f or V lasac , m ostly b y way o f i nference o n t he b asis o f a rtifactual a nd o ther m aterials r ecovered f rom t he s ite , a nd d iscussed a bove . C hipped s tones u ndoubtedly s erved b oth a s p rimary t ools a nd a s s econdary t ools, t ools t o make t ools. T hey may h ave b een u sed t o b utcher a nd t o s cale f ish . F ish m ay w ell h ave b een p reserved , p erhaps b y s moking o ver t he r ectangular h earths f ound i n m any h ouses . S torage i s s uggested j ust o n t he b asis o f t he v olume o f b one f ound , a s d iscussed a bove . I t i s a lso n ecessary t o s cale f ish, p erhaps with s tone t ools. T he l ack o f e xperimental d ata o n s caling f ish w ith s tone t ools s hould b e r emedied . I t would c ertainly b e i nteresting t o t est q uartz i n t his r espect, a s t he n ot p articularly s harp , b ut e xtremely t ough , e dges o f q uartz m ight b e b etter s uited t o t his t ask t han w ould f lint. K amminga a nd V an N oten ( 1979, p .299) h ave b oth r eported , h owever , t hat q uartz d oes n ot s eem t o d evelop s triations w ith u se , a nd t hat o ne c annot s ee m uch b eyond b eing a ble t o i dentify s ome e dges a s " worn" . T he p rominence o f q uartz i n t he c hipped s tone i ndustry would a lso f it w ith t he i mportance o f f ishing i n t he s ubsistence s ystem , m aking t he r elationship b etween q uartz a nd f ish p rocessing s eem a l ikely h ypothesis. [ Adovasio, h owever, ( p.c.) h as p ointed o ut t hat e thnographic f ish s calers d urable m aterials].

w ere

r arely

i f

e ver m ade

o f

T he b utchering o f t he many g ame a nimals f or which t here i s e vidence a t V lasac would a lso h ave r equired t he u se o f c hipped s tone t ools. A r elated u se would h ave b een a s p rojectile t ips i n h unting, a nd p ossibly i n f ishing a s well . P rojectile p oints were a lso m ade w ith b one ( see a bove), b ut a f ew u nambiguous s tone e xamples were a lso r ecovered ( see a bove) . A l ikely , a lthough u ntestable , e xplanation f or t he d earth o f p rojectile h eads a t V lasac i s t hat t he majority were c omposite t ools m ade with m icroliths . T here i s g ood r eason t o b elieve , a s h as b een d iscussed , t hat r ecovery o f m icroliths a t V lasac w as c lose t o z ero. T he r ecovery a nd p reparation o f p lant f oods m ay n ot h ave d irectly i nvolved a ny s tone t ools a t a 'l ( Hayden, 1 978, p .184). E thnographic d escriptions o f g atherers i ro olve t he u se o f wooden implements i n g athering , a lthough i t would s eem o n l og L cal g rounds t hat k nives would b e - desirable i n c ollecting many p lant p roducts. S tone t ools would c ertainly b e i nvolved s econdarily i n t he s haping o f wooden t ools which were d irectly u sed. The f lcral e vidence i ndicates a p ossible s hift t owards g rasses, c ereals, g raminae , a nd c henopodia i n V lasac I II, b ut t here a re n o s ickle g lossed b lades t o b ack u p t his s uggestion . Once a gain i t i s c lear t hat b ladelets u sed i n t he c onstruction o f c omposite s ickles would n ot h ave b een r ecovered w ith t he e xcavation t echniques u sed. A nother

s econdary

u se

o f

c hipped

s tone

w hich w e

c an o nly

s uppose

o ccurred was i n t he p reparation o f h ides a nd p ossibly s inew a nd o ther animal p roducts f or c lothing and o ther u ses. Other k inds o f manufacturing which p robably went o n , a nd i nvolved t he u se o f s tone t ools, were t he m aking o f wooden t ools s uch .a s b ows, a rrow s hafts,

2 27

wooden b owls,

a rticles o f f urniture,

b oats,

p addles,

f ish w eirs,

a nd/or

o ther t ypes o f f ishing e quipment . S ofter p lant p roducts m ay h ave b een u sed t o make f ish n ets, b askets, e tc. House c onstruction a lso u nquestionably i nvolved t he u se o f wood , which h ad t o b e c ut , t rimmed a nd s haped. The n umerically most a bundant a rtifact c ategory a fter c hipped s tone a t V lasac was worked b one . T ools m ade o f b one , a ntler a nd t usk , n umbering c lose t o 4 ,000, w ere p resumably m ade u sing s tone t ools . I n a ddition , 1 44 b one a nd s tone o bjects were d ecorated-engraved , a nd t he e ngraving t ools m ust h ave b een s tone. C hange T hrough T ime A nalysis

o f

t he

c hipped

s tone

i ndustry

f rom

t he

f our o ccupational

l evels a t V lasac h as p rovided a p icture o f g radual , r ather t han a brupt, c hange t hrough t ime. T he e xistence o f a l arge n umber o f s ites f rom r oughly t he s ame t ime p eriod i n t his r egion , a nd t he f act t hat a ll s ites s hare a g reat n umber o f s imilarities w ith e ach o ther , h as l ed t o t he g eneral a cceptance o f t he i dea o f p opulation a nd c ultural c ontinuity t hroughout t he p ost-Pleistocene-pre-Neolithic p eriod . T hese s ites a nd s imilarities were d iscussed i n s ome d etail a bove w ith r espect t o c hronology a nd d ating. A more

i nteresting

q uestion

i s

t he

c hange

r epresented

b y

t he

ri9 s ites i n t his a rea . a ppearance o f e arly N eolithic , S tarC 'evo-Körös - C vo o ccupation, V lasac I V, i s t oo p oorly r epresented i n t he The S tarCie c hipped s tone c ollection t o m ake c onclusive s tatements a bout whether t his s tone working t echnology r epresents a c ontinuation o f t he V lasac s tyle d irected t o meeting t he d emands o f n ew s ubsistence t asks o r a b reak--an i ntroduction o f a n u nrelated t echnological t radition o r s tyle f rom o utside . S tudy a nd c omparison o f V lasac I V m aterial w ith t hat o f V lasac I , I I, a nd I II h as s uggested a n h ypothesis o f c ontinuity. Analyses o f s keletal materials f rom t he I ron Gates R egion ( y'Edynak, 1 978a ; y 'Edynak a nd F leisch , 1 983 ; Z ivanovi , 1 975) h ave a lso s upported t he i dea t hat n o i mmigration o f t axonomically d istinct p eople o ccurred w ith t he i ntroduction o f N eolithic e conomy.

t he

Marshak ( 1981, b asis o f h is

M esolithic ,

p .36-37) h as a lso s uggested c ultural p s tudies o f t he a rt o f t he u pper

c ontinuity o n P aleolithic,

a nd e arly N eolithic i n E urope :

t here i s f or

i n t he a rcheological r ecord c lear e vidence

a widespread

u pper

Paleolithic

c ultural

s ymbolic d evelopment c omprising e ast, west, a nd Mediterranean Europe. T here i s e vidence f or t he p ersistence o f t hat c ultural , s ymbolic d evelopment i n

t he

d ispersed

s uggestion

t hat

s tructural,

E pipaleolithic

c ultures

a nd

a

i t p layed a r ole a s a c ognitive,

i ntegrative

e lement

i n

t he

e arly

N eolithic c ultures. T he

s mall amount

e arliest N eolithic

o f

i nformation a vailable o n t he f auna o f

o ccupations

i n

t he G orge a lso

d eparture f rom t hose o f t he Mesolithic s ites.

28 2

r epresents n o

t he

r adical

T he d omesticated d og

e xisted

i n

t his

a rea

b y V lasac I t imes,

a nd

may h ave b een p resent

s lightly e arlier a t I coana I . I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat C anis l upus i s 7 .3% o f t he MNI a t C uina Turcului I which i s v ery e arly ( c. 1 0,000 B .C.

uncalibrated),

a nd

1 2% o f

t he MNI

a t

C uina Turcului

I I

( about 8 000 B .C., uncalibrated) . T his may r epresent a n i nitial i ntensification o f i nterest i n wolves, which u ltimately l ed t o d omestication . A t Lepenski Vir, t he s econd l evel o f which i s l ater t han V lasac, a d ifferent v ariety o f d og t han t hat s een a t Vlasac h as b een i dentified . I t i s t his l ater v ariety which i s a lso f ound o n N eolithic s ites. The e arliest s ite f or which f aunal d ata a re a vailable i s C uina T urcului . T he m ost important m ammals i n l evel I were wild p ig , b eaver , a nd i bex . I n l evel I I i bex b ecame m ost i mportant, f ollowed b y a urochs, c hamois, a nd wolf.

B eaver t railed i n f ifth p lace.

A t t he l ater s ite

o f I coana, t he m ost important mammals were p igs, r ed d eer, a nd r oe d eer . B oth d og a nd p igs s howed s ome i ndications o f d omestication a t I coana a nd P adina A . I t i s a g reat l oss t hat t he f aunal m aterial f rom a ll l evels a t V lasac were a nalyzed a s a s ingle u nit , o bliterating a ny c hanges t hrough t ime . R ed d eer , d og , a nd p ig w ere t he m ost i mportant m ammals i n t his c ollection . A t L epenski V ir , i n b oth Mesolithic l evels a nd i n t he N eolithic l evel, r ed d eer was t he m ost important mammal, f ollowed b y d og a nd a urochs o n l evels I a nd I I, a nd b y c ow, wild p ig, a nd a urochs i n l evel I II, t he Neolithic l evel. C arnivores a re among t he most important mammals i n a ll t hree N eolithic l evels a t C uina T urcului, a s a re d og , r ed d eer, a nd p igs a nd b ovids ( wild a nd d omestic n ot d ifferentiated) . R ed d eer a s a n important a nimal r uns t hrough t his e ntire

s equence,

a s

d o

d ogs,

p igs,

a nd c ows

( wild

o r

t ame) .

T he

t hree

e arly important d omesticates, d og, p ig, a nd c ow, c an a ll b e s een t o h ave b een i mportant e xploited m ammals p rior t o d omestication i n t his a rea . A nd i n l evel I II a t L epenski V ir--the o nly N eolithic s ite i n t he G orge f or which u nambiguous b one c ounts h ave b een p ublished--only 2 0% o f t he b ones a re o f d omesticated a nimals ( discounting d og, a s t his r epresented n o c hange f rom t he p revious p eriod) . A rguments f or i n s itu d omestication h ave b een r eferred t o a bove . Whether t hese a rguments c an b e s upported o r n ot, t he c hanges i ndicated b y t he m ammalian f auna c an h ardly b e d escribed a s r evolutionary. T hroughout t he l iterature o n t hese s ites o ne f inds r eferences t o m asses o f f ish b ones c overing h ouse f loors, o r t o c alcified b locks o f f ish b ones f ound n ear h earths. The p roblems with a ssessing t he a bsolute a nd r elative importance o f f ish h ave b een d iscussed a bove , a nd will

j ust

b e

l isted h ere:

much f ish b one,

p articularly o f smaller

f ish , r arely p reserves a rcheologically u nder a ny c onditions; f ish b one i s r ecovered i n s ubstantial n umbers a nd r eliably o nly w hen s ieving i s u sed i n e xcavation ; s ince t he b alance o f s pecies i n t he D anube t oday i s m uch a ltered f rom 8 000 y ears a go--as w e c an s ee i n t he s ize r ange f or s ome s pecies--it i s n ot p ossible t o r eliably r econstruct e ven t he o tt _ntial r esource 1 , a se which was a vi'lablc. V lasac, P adiva a nd L epenski V ir a re t he o nly s ites f or which f ish b one h as b een c ounted a nd i ncluded with mammals, b irds, e tc., i n t he c alculation o f p ercentage r epresentation o f d ifferent s pecies . A t L epenski V ir f ish d oes d ecrease i n i mportance h rough t ime , f rom 5 7% i n l evel I , t o 2 5% i n l evel I I, a nd 1 7% i n l evel I II. O nce a gain , t he c hange t hrough t ime i s s teep, b ut t he N eolithic s hows n o d iscontinuity f rom e arlier p hases.

2 29

Analysis mystery

o f

o f f ossil t he

p ollens

p recise

p rovides a f inal

r elationship

i ntriguing c lue t o t he

b etween

t he

Mesolithic

a nd

s ubsequent e arly Neolithic i nhabitants o f t he I ron Gates R egion.

A s

d iscussed a bove, C arciumaru ( 1978) h as r eported t he p resence o f c ereal p ollen f rom V lasac I I a nd I II which i s o utside t he s ize r ange f or w ild c ereals . p icture

H igh p ercentages s uggesting

i ncipient p lant The

o f

h uman

c henopodia

w ere

manipulation

o f

f ound,

p lant

l eading

t o

a

c ommunity —or

d omestication.

a ccumulated

e vidence

s ummarized

d ichotomy b etween Mesolithic a nd N eolithic i s o f

a lso t he

t he Neolithic

a re

n ot

know,

b ut

i t

i s

h ere

s uggests

a f alse

c lear

o ne.

t hat

t hat T he

t he

c auses

t hey were

f elt

world w ide , a s t he n umber o f u narguably p ristine d evelopments p roves. The p eople o f t he I ron Cates h ad l ong s ince d omesticated t heir f irst animal,

t he d og, s o t he i dea o f d omestication was n ot n ew.

well h ave a lso

b een c ontrolling o r

i nfluencing t he

They may

r eproduction o f

c ereals c ontact

a nd p igs when t he f irst f armers f rom t he s outh c ame i nto with t hem ( Boronearq, 1 981). T he l ack o f e vidence o f major

impact

o f

p opulation ,

s uch i f

d evelopments

t hey

i n

f act

o n

t he

o ccurred,

c ulture

m ay h ave

o f

t he

a p recedent

I ron

Gates

i n s outhern

Egypt, where d omesticated b arley may h ave b een a n i mportant e conomic r esource , without h aving t riggered a ny p articular c ultural c hanges, a s e arly a s b een

1 8000 B .P.

e stablished

c ows, known

( Wendorf

b ased

o n

s heep, g oats, and p igs, a bout

p opulation,

t his

p eriod,

o r i ndeed,

e t a l,

f ish

i n

1 979) .

e xchange

a nd wheat.

t here

i s

n o

might

c eramics,

e asily

h ave

d omesticated

O n t he b asis o f what i s n ow

s upport

c ultural r eplacement.

2 30

Trade f or

f or

a n

h ypothesis

o f

C ONCLUSIONS T erminology A nd P erspective A u seful way t o e xamine p ast a nd p resent u nderstanding o f t he p eriod u nder d iscussion i s t o c onsider t he t erminology which i s, a nd h as b een , u sed . I nitial i nterest a nd r esearch i n E uropean p rehistory r esulted i n a f irst c rude d ichotomized r econstruction o f t wo p hases: t he P aleolithic, s ignaled b y h uman a ssociation with e xtinct f auna, g athering , f ishing , a nd h unting a s t he e xclusive s ubsistence m eans, a nd t he a bsence o f t he t echnological m arkers o f t he s econd p eriod , p ottery a nd p olished s tone; a nd, t he N eolithic, marked b y a ssociation with e xclusively m odern f auna , f ood p roduction , p ottery , a nd p olished s tone ( Lubbock, 1 865). I n b etween t hese two p eriods was a g ap. Excavation i n t he c ave o f M as d 'Azil p roduced m aterial n eatly s tratified b etween P aleolithic a nd N eolithic l evels ( Piette , 1 889) , a nd b y 1 918 t extbooks i n European p rehistory b egan t o mention t he e xistence o f material i ntermediate b etween P aleo-a nd N eolithic ( Clark ,

1 980 ,

p .3) .

T he

t erm

Mesolithic b egan t o b e u sed i n t he n ineteen t hirties a nd f orties b y s ome p rehistorians, b ut n ot b y o thers, a nd o ther t erms, s uch a s E pipaleolithic, a lso b egan t o b e u sed, a s t he e vidence f or c ultures i ntermediate i n t ime b etween P aleolithic a nd N eolithic a nd d raw more a ttention .

b egan

t o

m ount

" The p roper u se a nd s ignificance o f t erms l ike ' Epipaleolithic' a nd ' Mesolithic' i s s till a matter o f d iscussion amongst European p rehistorians" . ( Bietti, 1 981, p .33) . T he t erm E pipaleolithic c onveys t he i dea o f h istorical c ontinuity b etween t he l ate P aleolithic a nd t he e nsuing p ost-glacial i nhabitants. T his t erm s ays t hat t he e arly p ost P leistocene p eople w ere t he g enetic a nd c ultural d escendants o f U pper P aleolithic E uropeans, a nd t hat t heir n ew a daptations t o t he c hanged c onditions o f p ost-glacial E urope s hould b e u nderstood a s h istorically c ontinuous w ith t he P aleolithic . " Epipaleolithic" d erives f rom t he o ld d ichotomized t wo-stage m odel o f E uropean p rehistory : t he e arly p ost g lacial p eople were s urvivors who e ked o ut a n e xistence i n t he n ew c limatic c onditions--without r eindeer and without art. The i nappropriate i mplication o f t he t erm E pipaleolithic , a side f rom i ts h istorical l ink with t he i dea o f t he Mesolithic a s a p eriod o f d evolution , i s t hat i t s uggests n o c ontinuity b etween E pipaleolithic a nd N eolithic . T his t erm f its t he m odel o f n ear e astern f armers moving i nto a E urope e mpty o f a ny s ignificant h uman p opulation . I t b iases u s a gainst c onsidering impartially t he p rocess o f Neolithicization i n E urope a nd t he r ole o f r esident f oragers i n t hat p rocess. B oroneant ( 1981, p .5) s ays, t he t erm E pipaleolithic i s t o i ts

e xpression

o f

h istorical

c ontinuity

b e r ejected b ecause i t e xpresses a f alse a nd f ood p roducing p opulations i n E urope .

w ith

A lthough , a s b e v alued f or

t he P leistocene,

d ichotomy

b etween

i t

m ust

c ollecting

The t erm " Mesolithic" h as b een u sed b y s ome r esearchers i n a p urely c hronological s ense, t o m ean a ll p opulations a nd c ultures which e xisted i n t he H olocene b efore t he s pread o f a N eolithic e conomy b ased o n d omesticated wheat, c attle, s heep/goats, a nd p igs ( cf . P rice, 1 983, p .762).

One

o f

t he

c onfusing

a spects

o f

t his

u sage

i s

t hat

t he

c limatic c hanges o f t he i nitial H olocene w ere f ar m ore s ignificant i n s ome a reas t han i n o thers ( quite mild f or e xample i n S outheastern

2 31

Europe) ( Tringham, 1 973, p .552), a nd t he b eginning o f c limate amelioration o ccurred l ater f urther n orth . Implicit i n t his u se o f t he t erm i s t he i dea t hat t hese c limatic c hanges t riggered r apid m ajor a daptive s hifts, and t hus t he p eriod s hould b e s een a s a d istinctive o ne .

I f c limate c hange was

m ild i n s ome a reas,

l ike D olukhanov 's ( 1977, p .190) , t han m ost, b ecomes p roblematic :

h owever ,

which i s a dmittedly

m ore

a f ormulation d eterministic

The Mesolithic was a r esponse t o d ramatic e nvironmental c hange. R egional v ariations i n i t were a d irect r esult o f r egional r esource v ariation. A t t he o ther e nd o f t he t ime s cale, Mesolithic s ites c an b e f ound c oe xisting a nd o verlapping with N eolithic o nes i n s ome a reas o f E urope f or a t l east 1 000 y ears ( see a bove) . I f w e u se t he t erm Mesolithic i n a p urely

c hronological

splitting s ites s imilarities.

way,

without

we

will

r eference

f ind t o

o urselves artifactual

c ombining o r

o r

e conomic

A b arely s eparable way i n which t he t erm Mesolithic h as b een d efined i s e conomic. H ere, Mesolithic c ultures a re s een a s b eing t ransitional b etween t he Paleolithic h unters, a nd t he N eolithic f ood p roducers , i n t hat t he main s ubsistence a ctivity b ecame c ollecting o f p lants a nd m ollusks i n s ome a reas, a nd f ishing o r h unting o f b irds a nd m icro mammals i n o thers ( Bietti , 1 981, p .33) . T his s ubsistence s hift away f rom l arge m ammals i s a ssumed t o h ave l ed t o g reater s edentism , a c ombination s ettling-in a nd b road s pectrum a daptation which was a n e ssential p relude [ in C lark's words ( 1980)] t o t he s hift t o f ull f ood p roduction . A r igid a pplication o f t he e conomic d efinition o f Mesolithic l eads t o a s m uch c onfusion a s d oes t he t emporal d efinition . I n f act, i n b oth a pplications o f t he t erm , t he a lternative d efinition u sually l urks i mplicitly i n t he s hadows. I f, a s C lark i nsists, t he c rucial c haracteristic o f t he M esolithic i s t hat i t was a " prelude" t o t he N eolithic, t hen we must a dmit a c hronological meaning t o t he u se o f t he t erm, t hough i t n eed n ot b e d efined a s s trictly p ost-glacial. T ringham ( 1973) , h as s uggested t hat Mesolithic c ultures c ontinued t o f lourish i n s ome a reas without f undamental c hanges f or l ong a fter f ood p roducers h ad a rrived f rom t he s outh , b ecause t heir s ubsistence s trategies w ere e qually d ependable a nd p roductive . H er h ypothesis i s b ased o n m ore r ecent m odels o f p lant a nd a nimal d omestication which r edefine d omestication a s a g radual p rocess, i nitially i nvolving h uman b ehavior which i mproves r eproductive c hances f or d esirable p lants o r a nimals without a ny d irect manipulation o f t heir r eproduction . T his m eans t hat t here w ould b e n o m orphological e vidence o f e arly d omestication a lthough i n s ome s ense d omestication , o r c ontrol o f a f ood s ource t o make i t m ore r eliable a nd p roductive, was i n f act o ccurring ( Higgs a nd J arman , 1 972; B ailey, 1 981) . T ringham ( 1973) i s r eferring t o r ed d eer a nd p ig e xploitation i n Mesolithic E urope , a nd s uggesting t hat t hese s pecies, a long w ith s ome p lants, a nd p erhaps f ish i n t he I ron G ates, w ere c ontrolled a nd e ncouraged i n s ome i ntermediate t ype o f r esource m anipulation ,

t hus p utting t he M esolithic

c ulture o f E urope o n a p ar w ith t he i ntrusive f ood p roducers i n t erms o f s ubsistence s ystems. S ome r eports p ublished s ince T ringham's 1 973

2 32

a rticle h ave

l ent

s upport

t o h er h ypothesis.

I n

t he I ron G ates R egion

t he Mesolithic b otanical e vidence ( reviewed a bove) s trongly s uggests manipulation o f t he e nvironment t o p romote t he g rowth o f c ertain p lants, a nd h as e ven p roduced c ereals with morphological c hanges s uggesting d omestication . O ther e vidence s uggests m anagement o f w ild p igs. Most c onvincing o f a ll i s t he i ndirect p roof o f s edentism p rovided b y t he a rchitectural r emains. S edentism i s a c ritical i ndicator o f r esource d ependability. A s

C lark

( 1980,

p .14) h as

n oted ,

t he e xistence o f d istinct f oci o f

d omestication i n Meso America, S outh America, e tc. " —. c onfirms t hat t his w as a n o utcome o f i ntensified r elationships b etween m en ( sic) a nd p lants r ather t han o f a ny d ramatic d iscovery o r i nvention , s omething f ully

u nderstandable

i n

t he

l ight

p ossessed b y r ecent f oragers And f urther ( ibid, p .24):

a nd

o f

t he

a ccurate

r ecorded

b y

k nowledge

m odern

o f

p lants

a nthropologists ."

T he i nhabitants o f s outhwest I ran, l ike t hose o f K urdistan , P alestine , o r f or t hat m atter , o f Mexico o r P eru, c an b e s een t o h ave modified b oth t heir e nvironment a nd t heir b iological a nd t echnical r esources g radually a nd a lmost i nsensibly, a nd c ertainly m anner. The

b ottom

n ot

l ayer

i n

o f

a ny

t he

s udden

t el

o f

o r

r evolutionary

Abu H ureyra

i n

S yria

h as

b een

d escribed a s Mesolithic. U ncalibrated c arbon d ates p lace i t a round 9 000 B .C. a nd o ther r esults o f e xcavation s uggest t hat t here was a p ermanent s ettlement whose o ccupants s ubsisted o n h unting, f ishing, c ollecting, a nd c ultivating c ereal g rains ( Moore, 1 979). I f we f ind a ll over t he world i ndependent evidence f or a t ransition t o more c ontrolled a nd i ndirect e xploitation s trategies ( Bailey, 1 981, p .7) i n A frica a t 1 8,000 B .C. ( Wendorf e t a l, 1 979), i n A sia ( Thailand), C entral a nd S outh A merica , a nd t he N ear E ast, t hen i t s eems r easonable t o s upppose t hat t he s ame s hifts would h ave b een u nderway i n Europe . C hanging r elationships b etween p eople a nd t he p lants/animals u pon w hich t hey d epended c an b e o bserved worldwide i n r oughly t he s ame t ime p eriod. T he e xplanations we s eek f or t his p rocess must t herefore b e g lobal. A s a c orollary t o t hat, i t s hould n ot b e s urprising t o f ind t he s ame s hift t aking p lace i n M esolithic E urope, p erhaps t o t he p oint o f

" genuine"

d omestication ,

c hanges i n t he d omesticate, I ron G ates G orge . F urther

s tudy

o f

t he

a s o f

t raditionally s ome s pecies,

M esolithic

d efined s uch a s

b y t he

m orphological c ereals

i n t he

i n E urope w ill b e r equired b efore

i t b ecomes c lear j ust where o n t he c ontinuum f rom o pportunistic e xploitation t o p roduction c haracterized b y a g reat d eal o f i nvestment i n f uture r eturns ( Bailey, 1 981, p .7), v arious Mesolithic manifestations b elong. A t t his p oint t oo l ittle i s k nown a bout t he E uropean M esolithic t o d istinguish e ven m ajor r egional d ifferences i n s ubsistence s trategies, a lthough s uch m ust c ertainly h ave e xisted i n a n a rea a s

l arge

a nd d iverse

Returning

t o

t he

a s E urope . t erm

Mesolithic,

t hen,

o ne

c hronological a nd e conomic s ignificance t o t his t erm.

2 33

c an

s ee

F urther,

b oth t he

d istinctness o f t his p eriod b oth f rom w hat f ollowed a nd w hat p receded i t, a s well a s t he h istorical c ontinuity o f a ll t hree, i s c lear n ot j ust f or E urope, b ut g lobally. C lassification o f c ultures, s pecies, evolutionary s eries, g eological p hases, e tc., a lways r equires b y i ts nature t he d ividing o f c ontinuous d ata i nto d iscrete c ategories. We c an r ecognize t he a rbitrariness a nd i mprecision o f t he t erm M esolithic , a nd i n t hat way d eal w ith t he d istortion s uch c lassification i nvolves . A t t his s tage i t s eems r easonable t o d efine t he M esolithic i n E urope a s a p eriod r oughly b eginning w ith t he a melioration o f g lacial c onditions, a nd c haracterized e verywhere b y s ubsistence s trategy c hanges which i nvolved i ncreasingly c ontrolled e xploitation o f i ndigenous p lants, f ish , b irds, m ollusks , a nd m ammals, which a t l east i n s ome a reas, s uch a s t he I ron G ates G orge, p ermitted s edentism. T he n ature o f t hese s ubsistence c hanges a ppears t o h ave b een t he s ame a s c hanges s ome a reas o f t he w orld l ed t o c lasssical f ood p roduction.

which

i n

T he I ron G ates S ites T hroughout t his d iscussion t he t erm I ron G ates S ites h as b een u sed i n p reference t o e ither t he S chela C ladovei o r L epenski V ir C ulture. The t erm " culture" h as b een a bused a nd misused i n a rcheology, i nhibiting o ur a ttempts t o u nderstand a nd r econstruct t he p ast a nd p ast d evelopments. A rcheological s tudies a re n ormally b lessed w ith a m uch g reater

t ime

v ariation , a s a rcheological

p erspective well a s s tudies,

a nd

a much

l ess

r ich

p icture

o f

s patial

t he m ore u sually o bserved s hortcomings o f when c ompared t o e thnographic o nes. T he

a rcheological a buse o f t he t erm " culture" h as b een p articularly c lear i n s tudies o f M esolithic E urope , where s ites f rom S pain t o E ngland a nd Poland ( and Eastern E urope) h ave b een l abeled T ardenoisian c ulture. T he t endency t o c reate s patially e normous c ultures f rom l ack o f i nformation ( and o ne would t hus

i n a rcheology s tems e xpect t his t o b e

p articularly a pparent i n Mesolithic r esearch) a nd f rom t he k ind o f d irect i nformation a vailable . W ould o ne b e l ikely t o d ecide t hat Z uni r epresented a d istinct c ulture f rom H opi o n t he b asis o f n onperishable • r emains, a nd w ith v ery l imited ( or n o) u nderstanding o f t he s urrounding N avaho , A pache , e tc .? U ltimately , a rcheological a nd c ultural r esearch s hould h ave t he s ame p roblem o rientation , b ut t he u se o f c oncepts a nd t he d evelopment o f h ypotheses h ave t o b e g uided b y a s ense o f t he l imitations T he

o f

I ron

t he d ata . Gates

S ites

s eem

t o

f orm

a c onsistent

p icture

o f

a

s ubsistence s ystem d eveloped a round f ishing a nd i ncreasingly c ontrolled e xploitation o f i ndigenous p lants, a nd p erhaps p igs. O ther e vidence , s uch a s s tyles o f i nterment, a rt, b one a nd a ntler a nd s tone t ools, a lso s uggest a s ingle " style" o f d oing t hings, p erhaps w hat m ight b e c alled a s ingle t radition, o r c ulture, which we c an s ee ( or p erhaps f antasize), e volving o ver a f ew t housand y ears f rom t he b its a nd p ieces o f a rcheological d ata a vailable. T he c losed a nd u nique e nvironment o f t he G orge l ends c onviction t o t his f antasy, b ut more r ecently two s ites-Ostrovul C orbului a nd O strovul Mare-- h ave b een r eported o n t he R omanian s ide o f t he r iver d ownstream f rom t he d am , a nd o ut o f t he G orge o n t he f lood p lain ( BoronearI, 1 979b). T hese s ites " fit i n" with t he o thers, e ven t hough t hey a re i n a d istinctly d ifferent s etting. Another b it o f i nformation which h ighlights h ow l imited o ur u nderstanding i s, i s t he r eport o f M editerranean g astropods

2 34

( Dentalium s p. a nd N assa ( cyclope) n eritea) f rom C uina T urcului ( Grossu, 1 970). T his i s t he o nly e vidence f or e xternal t rade c onnections f or t he e ntire s eries o f s ites which o therwise s how ' u tilization o f l ocal r esources o nly . What i s t he s ignificance o f t hese s hells? T he f ocus o f E uropean a rcheological r esearch h as l ong b een F rance, even s outhern F rance. A lthough i nterest a nd e ffort i n t he r est o f E urope a nd i n Western A sia h as a ccelerated m ore r ecently , t he d ominance o f F rench methods a nd p erspectives p ersists. This p attern i s e ncouraged a nd c omplicated b y m odern p olitical d ivisions a nd l anguage b arriers . P rimary r esearch i s u sually p ublished i n t he n ative l anguage o f t he r esearcher, a nd t hat c ould b e R omanian, S erbo-Croatian, B ulgarian , U krainian , R ussian , H ungarian , P olish , C zech , t o n ame s ome o f t he o nes more c ommonly e ncountered i n t his r esearch. F ew i f a ny r esearchers c an r ead a ll o f t hese l anguages. F or a mixture o f p ractical, h istorical, a nd p olitical r easons, most E ast E uropean r esearchers l earn F rench , G erman , a nd E nglish , r ather t han R ussian o r U krainian a s p art o f t heir t raining . l earn l anguages o ther t han F rench,

W estern r esearchers a lso r arely G erman, English, a nd I talian.

P apers a t i nternational c onferences a nd i n s ome j ournals, which a re n ot i n t he n ative l anguage , a re i n F rench , G erman , o r E nglish . T he a ccess o f r esearchers

i n Eastern E urope,

a nd t he v ery l anguage(s) i n which

t hey a re f orced t o f ormulate t heir t houghts, o n E uropean p rehistoric s tudies. T he

m ap

s hown a s

F igure

1 8

s hows

t hus

c oncentric

f ixes a western b ias

r ings

d rawn

o n a m ap

o f E urope a nd Western A sia with t he I ron G ates G orge a s t he c enter . I t i s d isconcerting t o s ee t hat S oviet E stonia, f or e xample, i s c loser t o t he I ron Gates t han S outhern F rance o r England, o r t hat t he C rimea i s much c loser t han a ny o f t hese, a nd a lso much more a ccessible, s ince s everal h igh mountain r anges l ie b etween W estern F rance a nd England a nd t he I ron Gates, while f lood p lain i s mostly what l ies b etween i t a nd t he C rimea . A f ew a rcheologists , n otably T ringham a nd D olukhanov , h ave i ncluded c onsideration o f t he Moldavian s ites a long t he B ug-Dniestr R ivers i n t heir d iscussions o f S outheast Europe. Tringham ( 1971) m entions t he C rimea a lso i n a d iscussion o f t he M esolithic p eriod , b ut a las, even i n t he C rimea we h ear a bout " the C rimean T ardenosian" , a s t he S oviet l iterature T ringham r eferences a pparently l abels t his m aterial. T he t raditional v iew o f t he M esolithic i n E urope w as t hat i t was a d evolution f rom t he g lories o f b ig g ame h unting. I t was s een a s r epresenting t he g rubby a nd i nglorious s truggles o f t he d escendants t he b ig g ame h unters t o e ke o ut a l iving m uch m ore h eavily d ependent p lants

a nd

o ther

g athered

i tems,

s uch a s

s hellfish .

Small a nd

o f o n

m obile

b ands h uddled a round f ires o n c hilly n ights u ntil t he c ivilized f armers a ppeared f rom t he s outh . A t t his p oint t he s avages, o f w hom t here w ere i n any c ase v ery f ew, v anished, a nd t he f orward march o f " progress" o nce a gain b egan . T he r esearch e fforts i n t he I ron G ates G orge d uring t he p ast f ifteen y ears h ave s hown t hat , e ven i n t he t raditional t erms o f " progress" , which p oint o f v iew i s c ertainly n ot s upported h ere, t his r econstruction i s a f alse o ne , a t l east f or s ome a reas o f E urope . T he m onumental s tone s culptures f ound a t L epenski V ir m omentarily d rew t he

world's

a ttention

t o

t he

I ron

2 35

G ates

S ites.

They

r emain

a s

a

F igure 1 8:

T he I ron G ates G orge a s t he C enter o f 2 36

t he W orld

p ersistent r epudiation t o a ny i dea o f r efuge p opulations " eking" o ut a l iving . T he d ensity o f s ites f ound t o d ate i s a lso a c ontradiction t o. t he t raditional n otion o f a Europe s carcely i nhabited, awaiting t he f irst f armers. F inally, t he s edentism , r eminds u s t hat t he u sed f or a nalogies i nhabit o nly t he c ase f or t he f oragers o f t he

a rchitectural e vidence, i ndicating e thnographic g atherer—hunters we h ave a reas u nsuitable f or a griculture , n ot I ron G ates.

The Mesolithic a nd t he Mesolithic—Neolithic t ransformation o f E urope c annot b e r eassessed o n t he b asis o f t he I ron G ates s ites a lone . T his a rea i s u niquely r ich i n t erms o f r esources . B ut t he i ntensity o f Mesolithic

o ccupation

h ere

may

a lso

b e

i ndicative

o f

a g enerally

g reater p opulation d ensity f or Mesolithic Europe t han h as p reviously b een a ssumed. I f t his p roves t o b e t he c ase, t hen i t s uggests a n ew a ngle f rom which t o c onsider t he q uick s pread o f N eolithic f armers t hroughout E urope. F arming may h ave s pread s o f ar ( north) s o f ast i n E urope p artly b ecause l arge a reas were a lready o ccupied ( filled u p) b y g atherer—hunters, a nd n ot a vailable f or s ettlement b y i ntrusive ( food— p roducing) p opulations. D irections F or F uture R esearch A lthough t he u ltimate v alue a nd u tility o f m icrowear s tudies i s d isputed, i t i s c lear f rom t he r esults o f t hese s tudies t hat t he t raditional n otions o f r espectively , a re f alse .

what c onstitute " tools" and " debitage" I n t his s tudy, t he a cceptance o f t he ' Primary

d ata s et" o f 2 000 p lus p ieces a s a ctually r epresenting t he " tools" was a mistake. A s Nance ( 1979, p .352) h as p ointed o ut, i t would a lso b e a mistake t o a nalyze t he t otal c ollection f rom a s ite a nd a ssume t hat t his r epresented t he t otal s ite . I t would n ot n ecessarily, h owever , b e a m istake t o a nalyze a t otal c ollection . A s tratified r andom s ample o f excavation u nits s hould h ave b een t aken, f or e ach u nit o f which, a ll c hipped s tone was examined with t he s ame c are. The t radition o f i nitially s orting c hipped s tone, a nd s etting a side what h as b een c onsidered d ebitage , w ill s kew d ifferent a ssemblages i n d ifferent ways , s o t hat

i t i s d ifficult,

e ffects

o f

i f n ot i mpossible,

t o a llow f or o r c orrect

t he

s uch a p ractice .

A g reat

h andicap

i n

t his

r esearch was

t he

f ailure

R omanian m aterial, w hich i s o nly p artially p ublished,

t o e xamine

t he

i n a ny d etail.

- T he a pproach t o a nalyzing t he " style" o f s tone t ool p roduction p resented h ere c ould b e u seful i n e lucidating t he c onnections b etween t he i nhabitants o f M esolithic a nd N eolithic s ites, a nd u ltimately t he p rocesses o f c ulture c hange i nvolved . U se—wear a nalysis h as s erved t o d emonstrate

s ome

weaknesses

a nd

f alse

a ssumptions

u nderlying

t raditional t ypological s tudies o f c hipped s tone ( see a lso F lenniken , 1 985) , a nd p ursuit o f t his a pproach c ould u ltimately l ead t o a b etter u nderstanding o f s ubsistence a nd t echnology i n t he Mesolithic o r e lsewhere . F urther r esearch s hould i deally r epeat t his w ork o n a m ore r eliable s ample a nd e xtend t he a pplication o f t he t echnological a nalysis t o e arly N eolithic material within, a nd without, t he G orge. A nd whether t he t raditional t ypological a nalyses o f l ithics p ersist o r n ot, i t i s c ertainly t ime f or u s t o s ee t he universal u se o f f ine s creens a nd w et—sieving o n s ites o f t his,

2 37

a nd o ther,

p eriods.

A PPENDIX C ATALOGUE O F A RCHAEOLOGICAL S ITES I N T HE I RON G ATES G ORGE

A dgpostul L ui C limente -I ron A ge , 1 7 -18th c entury ( Boroneant,

B ronze A ge . 1 4 1 979, p .166).

-15th

c entury

a nd

A libeg -O ne o ccupational l evel -S chela C ladovei c ulture material with i ntrusive ( traded?) S tarcevo c eramics; r ectangular h earths w ith p lastered s tone b orders. Bile H erculane -T wo l evels : L ower l evel A urignacian ; p ollen d iagram t hrough H olocene ( Cärciumaru , 1 980 , p p .94, 9 5) ; u pper l evel e arly H olocene , " Azilian" ( Nicolhescu -P lop9or e i A l . P hunescu , 1 961) . B arcacila d e D robeta -u nexcavated s ite i n R omania. C limente I -C ave, 3 e arly o ccupational l evels: Aurignacian, P rotoM agdalenian a nd e arly N eolithic ( Cri ) ; t he A urignacian l evel h as l ots o f c hipped q uartz; l ater l evels : L ate N eolithic , B ronze A ge , 1 5 -17th c enturies ( Boroneant, 1 979, p .169). C limente I I -C ave , 4 o ccupational l evels : I ron A ge, M edieval ( Boroneant, 1 979,

R omanellian , p.175-176). p

C uina Turcului -D ubova - T hree l evels: C ladovei C ulture, e arly N eolithic. G aura C hindiei I - I ron A ge

a nd

Medieval

l ate N eolithic ,

L ate P leistocene,

o ccupations

( Boroneant,

S chela

1 979 ,

p .144). G aura C hindiei I I -E pipaleolithic , I ron A ge a nd M edieval l evels; wall p aintings, p robably f rom s everal t ime p eriods ( Boroneant , 1 979, p .1 . 51). G ornea C auni a -Upper P aleolithic l evel

( Boronea TI,

G ornea P azariete -U pper P aleolithic l evel G ornea V odneac

-Upper P aleolithic

a l 1 978,

1 981).

( ibid).

( Gravettian?) l evel

( ibid ;

C omori e t

p .24).

G ura C heii -P ost P leistocene l evel

( Cärciumaru,

1 980).

H ajduCka V odenica -E xcavated b ut u npublished s ite o n Y ugoslav b anks o f D anube; I coana

m aterials

-T wo

h earths,

S chela

b adly m ixed; M esolithic

C ladovei

s econd with

t hird l evel,

C ulture

l evels,

( ?),

l ater m aterials.

f irst

with

c ircular

r ectangular h earths with s tone b orders;

e arly N eolithic

( Cris).

2 39

L epenski V ir -A t l east 3 d istinct o ccupations, e arly N eolithic ( StarC 'evo). O rnitz -E arly N eolithic

( Cri )

l evel

t wo M esolithic ,

( Comori....,

1 978,

a nd o ne

p .68).

eolithic l evels a nd O strovul B anului -F our p ost P leistocene, p re - N e arly N eolithic l evel ( Comori...., 1 978, p p.24, 2 5). O strovul C orbului -T wo S chela C ladovei C ulture l evels ( Boroneant, 1 979b). O strovul Mare -T hree S chela C ladovei C ulture l evels; m ost r ecent h as s ome C ris -Star s C evo c eramics i n i t ( Boroneant, e t a l, 1 979). P adina -A t l east t wo d istinct o ccupations, o ne o f w hich i s M esolithic ; l ater l evel m ay b e N eolithic ( some c eramics) ; ( Jovanovig , 1 971a , b ). P eftera d e l a G ura P onicovei - C ri f a nd l ater l ater l evels; l ots o f q uartz ( Boroneant,

N eolithic , I ron A ge 1 979, p p.177-178).

P eftera L ivaditei -M ousterian, Upper P aleolithic, M edieval l evels ( Boroneant, 1 979, p .181). P e9tera Veterani

-M esolithic,

M edieval l evels

( Boroneant,

R azvrata -T wo S chela C ladovei

N eolithic, 1 979,

l evels ;

B ronze

I ron

Age,

Age

I ron

a nd

a nd

Age,

p .180). f irst

h as

o val h uts,

s econd h as

o val h earths. S chela C ladovei

- On D anubian

l evels I II a nd I V a re

p lain

-levels

I a nd I I

S chela C ulture,

e arly N eolithic .

V eterani T erasa -T wo l evels o f S chela C ladovei C ulture. V lasac -T hree M esolithic l evels a nd o ne e arly N eolithic l evel.

2 40

B IBLIOGRAPHY

A bbreviation u sed : S CIV,

S CIVA:

2 41

S tudii s i C ercetari d e I storie v eche ( si A rheologie) )

B IBLIOGRAPHY A hler, 1 970

S .

P rojectile P oint F orm a nd F unction a t R odgers t er, M issouri - M issouri A rchaeological R esearch S eries N o.8, C olumbia.

S helS ociety .

" Functional A nalysis o f N on o bsidian C hipped S tone A rtifacts: -T erms, V ariables a nd Q uantification",

1 979

B . H ayden , 3 28. A ndersen , B yrd, B .

J .

e d.,

p p.301-

L ithic U se-Wear A nalysis

" The d eer h unters: S tarr C arr r econsidered", W orld A rchaeology 1 3, 1 : 3 1-46.

E lson , M . M cGuire, R . M endoze, R . S taski, E . W hite, J . P . 1 981 B ahn , P . 1 983

" The N eolithic o f t he F rench P yrenees", i n A ncient F rance 6 000-2000 B .C. C . S carre, e d., T he U nivers i ty P ress,

B ailey, 1 981

G .N.

B ailloud, 1 974

B anarescu, e t a l 1 978

G .

" Concepts o f r esource e xploitation: c ontinuity a nd d iscontinuity i n p aleo-economy", W orld A rchaeology, 1 3, 1 : 1 -15. " The

F irst A griculturists:

4 000-1800 B .C." i n

S .

P iggot, D aniel a nd M cBurney, e ds., F rance B efore t he R omans, N oyes P ress, N ew J ersey, p p. 1 02-150. P .

B anu, A . 1 967 1 972 B arnes, 1 947

E dinburgh, ' pp.184 - 2 22.

" Einfluss d er D ämmung d er D onau i m G ebiet E isernen T ores A uf d ie F isch F auna", T ravaux-Museum D H istoire N aturelle G rigore A ntipa - T echnique D e L 'Institut F ra lwais d e D ondichery X IX ,

p.175 -178, p

A s q uoted i n B ufnila e t a l,

1 970.

d es

B ucuresti.

" Hydrology" i n I ron G ates C omplex A tlas p p.

1 56-161.

" The T echnique o f B lade P roduction i n M esolithic a nd

A .

N eolithic

T imes",

P roc. P rehistoric S ociety,

1 3:

1 01-113. B enac, 1 957

A .

B enac,

A .

B rodar, 1 958

" Crvena S tijena -1955", S arajevu,

M .

&

N .S.

X II:

" Crvena S tijena -1956", S arajevu,

N .S. X II:

2 42

G lasnik Z emaljskog M uzeja u

1 9 -50. G lasnik Z emaljskog M uzeja u

1 9 -50.

B erg, L . 1 948

F reshwater F ishes o f t he U SSR a nd A djacent C ountries p ublished f or t he N ational S cience F oundation, W ashington, D .C. b y S cientific T ranslations,

B ietti, 1 981

A.

V ol.

1 : 1 962

V ol. V ol.

2: 3:

P rogram

f or '

1 964 1 965

" The M esolithic C ultures i n I taly:

N ew

A ctivities

i n C onnection w ith U pper P aleolithic C ultural T raditions" i n M esolithikum i n E uropa, B . G ramsch, e d., V EB D eutscher V erlag d er W issenschaften B erlin, p p. 3 3-50.

B inford, L. 1 973

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