Megiddo V: The 2004–2008 Seasons 9781646022007

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MEGIDDO V THE 2004-2008 SEASONS

VOLUME I

TEL AVIV UNIVERSITY SONIA AND MARCO NADLER INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY

MONOGRAPH SERIES NUMBER 31

Executive Editor Editorial Board Managing Editor

Israel Finkelstein Moshe Fischer Avi Gopher Raphael Greenberg Oded Lipschits Myrna Pollak

MEGIDDO   V

THE 2004-2008 SEASONS VOLUME I EDITORS: ISRAEL FINKELSTEIN, DAVID USSISHKIN, ERIC H. CLINE MATTHEW J. ADAMS, ERAN ARIE, ERIC H. CLINE, ISRAEL FINKELSTEIN, NORMA FRANKLIN, MARIO A.S. MARTIN, DAVID USSISHKIN Contributions by Matthew J. Adams, Yaniv Agmon, Eran Arie, Carolina Aznar, David Ben-Shlomo, Julye Bidmead, Noga Blockman, Elisabetta Boaretto, James M. Bos, Baruch Brandl, Eric H. Cline, Margaret E. Cohen, Adi Eliyahu-Behar, Julie Ellis, Lev Eppelbaum, Israel Finkelstein, Norma Franklin, David Friesem, Yuval Gadot, Mor Gafri, Boaz Gattenio, Ayelet Gilboa, Philippe Guillaume, Christian Herrmann, Sonia Itkis, Othmar Keel, Adi Keinan, Inbar Ktalav, Nili Liphschitz, Shmuel Marco, Mario A.S. Martin, Assaf Nativ, Alexander Pechuro, Rachel Pelta, Laura A. Peri, Daniel Rosenberg, Galit Sameora, Inbal Samet, Benjamin Sass, Aharon Sasson, Ruth Shahack-Gross, Ilan Sharon, David Ussishkin, Lior Weissbrod, Naama Yahalom-Mack, Assaf Yasur-Landau

Project coordinator Sivan Einhorn

EMERY AND CLAIRE YASS PUBLICATIONS IN ARCHAEOLOGY TEL AVIV UNIVERSITY

WINONA LAKE, INDIANA EISENBRAUNS 2013

Monograph Series under the auspices of the Friends of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University Graphics by Michal Semo-Kovetz, TAU Graphic Design Studio

www.eisenbrauns.com Printed in the U.S.A. © Copyright 2013 by the Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University All rights reserved. Published for the Emery and Claire Yass Publications in Archaeology (Bequeathed by the Yass Estate, Sydney, Australia)

of the Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University by Eisenbrauns Winona Lake, Indiana, U.S.A.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Adams, Matthew J. (Matthew Joel) Megiddo V : the 2004–2008 seasons / Matthew J. Adams, Eran Arie, Eric H. Cline, Israel Finkelstein, Norma Franklin, Mario A. S. Martin, David Ussishkin ; editors, Israel Finkelstein, David Ussishkin, Eric H. Cline ; contributions by Matthew J. Adams, Yaniv Agmon, Eran Arie, Carolina Aznar, David Ben-Shlomo, Julye Bidmead, Noga Blockman, Elisabetta Boaretto, James M. Bos, Baruch Brandl, Eric H. Cline, Margaret E. Cohen, Adi Eliyahu-Behar, Julie Ellis, Lev Eppelbaum, Israel Finkelstein, Norma Franklin, David Friesem, Yuval Gadot, Mor Gafri, Boaz Gattenio, Ayelet Gilboa, Philippe Guillaume, Christian Herrmann, Sonia Itkis, Othmar Keel, Adi Keinan, Inbar Ktalav, Nili Liphschitz, Shmuel Marco, Mario A. S. Martin, Assaf Nativ, Alexander Pechuro, Rachel Pelta, Laura A. Peri, Daniel Rosenberg, Galit Sameora, Inbal Samet, Benjamin Sass, Aharon Sasson, Ruth Shahack-Gross, Ilan Sharon, David Ussishkin, Lior Weissbrod, Naama Yahalom-Mack, Assaf Yasur-Landau ; project coordinator, Sivan Einhorn.      volume  cm. — (Monograph series (Tel Aviv University. Sonia and Marco Nadler Institute        of Archaeology) ; number 31) “Published . . . for the Emery and Claire Yass Publications in Archaeology”—Title page verso. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-57506-273-0 (volume 1 : hardback : alkaline paper) — ISBN 978-1-57506-274-7 (volume 2 : hardback : alkaline paper) — ISBN 978-1-57506-275-4 (volume 3 : hardback : alkaline paper) — ISBN 978-1-57506-276-1 (set, 3 volumes : hardback : alkaline paper) 1. Megiddo (Extinct city) 2. Excavations (Archaeology)—Israel—Megiddo (Extinct city) 3. Bronze age—Israel—Megiddo (Extinct city) 4. Iron age—Israel—Megiddo (Extinct city) 5. Israel— Antiquities. I. Finkelstein, Israel. II. Einhorn, Sivan. III. Emery and Claire Yass Publications in Archaeology. IV. Title. V. Title: Megiddo 5. VI. Title: Megiddo Five. DS110.M4A33 2013 933′.46—dc23 2013011695 The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1984. ♾™

In the 2004-2008 seasons the Megiddo Expedition was carried out under the auspices of Tel Aviv University, with George Washington University as the senior American partner. Consortium Institutions: George Washington University, Chapman University, Loyola Marymount University and Vanderbilt University. Supporting Institutions: Israel Nature and National Parks Authority and the Israel Exploration Society.

The excavations of 2004-2008, the processing of the finds and the publication of this report were Sponsored by

Chaim Katzman Vivian and Norman Belmonte Eugene M. Grant Frederick L. Simmons Sonia Weindling and Supported by

The Jacob M. Alkow Chair for the Archaeology of Israel in the Bronze and Iron Ages The Austria Chair for the Archaeology of the Land of Israel in the Biblical Period The Fritz Thyssen Foundation (Germany) Under the patronage of Viscount Allenby of Megiddo

CONTENTS

VOLUME I SECTION ONE: INTrODuCTION Chapter 1

THE 2004-2008 SEASONS Israel Finkelstein, David Ussishkin and Eric H. Cline

3

SECTION TwO: STraTIGraphy aND arChITECTurE Chapter 2

Chapter 3

Chapter 4

AREA J

21

Part I: Introduction Matthew J. Adams

21

Part II: Sub-Area Lower J Adi Keinan

28

Part III: The Main Sector of Area J Matthew J. Adams

47

Part IV: Sub-Area Upper J Matthew J. Adams and James M. Bos

119

Part V: Analyses of Sediments from the Level J-4 Temple Floor David Friesem and Ruth Shahack-Gross

143

AREA K

153

Part I: Levels K-8 and K-7 Mario A.S. Martin, Noga Blockman and Julye Bidmead

153

Part II: Level K-6 Eran Arie and Assaf Nativ

165

AREA M

178

Part I: The Excavation Norma Franklin

178

Part II: An Architectural Study of Chamber F Alexander Pechuro

215

Part III: Another Interpretation of the Remains – The Nordburg and Chamber F Israel Finkelstein

228

vii

Chapter 5

AREA H: LEVELS H-9 TO H-5 Eran Arie

247

Chapter 6

AREA L Eric H. Cline and Inbal Samet

275

Chapter 7

AREA P Norma Franklin

286

VOLUME II SECTION ThrEE: pOTTEry Chapter 8

THE EARLY BRONzE AGE POTTERY FROM AREA J Matthew J. Adams

295

Chapter 9

ExPERIMENTAL ARCHAEOLOGY: INVESTIGATING A UNIqUE BURNISHING TECHNIqUE ON AN EARLY BRONzE III JUG Rachel Pelta

335

Chapter 10

THE LATE BRONzE IIB POTTERY FROM LEVELS K-8 AND K-7 Mario A.S. Martin

343

Chapter 11

CYPRIOT, MYCENAEAN AND DERIVATIVE FORMS FROM LEVELS K-8 AND K-7 Assaf Yasur-Landau

458

Chapter 12

THE LATE BRONzE III AND IRON I POTTERY: LEVELS K-6, M-6, M-5, M-4 AND H-9 Eran Arie

475

Chapter 13

THE IRON IIA POTTERY Eran Arie

668

VOLUME III SECTION fOur: OThEr fINDS Chapter 14

THE CHIPPED STONE ASSEMBLAGE Julie Ellis

829

Chapter 15

THE SMALL FINDS Noga Blockman and Benjamin Sass

866

viii

Chapter 16

THE GROUNDSTONE ASSEMBLAGE Daniel Rosenberg

930

Chapter 17

STAMP-SEAL AMULETS Othmar Keel

977

Chapter 18

CYLINDER SEALS Baruch Brandl

993

Chapter 19

THE AMULETS Christian Herrmann

1011

Chapter 20

FIGURATIVE CLAY ARTEFACTS Laura Peri

1017

Chapter 21

A LATE BRONzE AGE GOLD PENDANT FROM AREA K Margaret E. Cohen

1086

Chapter 22

A DOUBLE AxE FROM LEVEL H-9 Assaf Yasur-Landau

1091

Chapter 23

TExTILE PRODUCTION Julye Bidmead

1094

Chapter 24

GAMES Philippe Guillaume

1106

SECTION fIVE: ENVIrONMENTal aND phySICal STuDIES Chapter 25

RADIOCARBON DATING OF THE IRON AGE LEVELS Ayelet Gilboa, Ilan Sharon and Elisabetta Boaretto

1117

Chapter 26

THE HUMAN REMAINS Galit Sameora

1128

Chapter 27

FAUNAL REMAINS FROM THE IRON AGE LEVELS Aharon Sasson

1131

Chapter 28

THE MICROMAMMALIAN REMAINS Lior Weissbrod

1210

Chapter 29

MOLLUSC SHELLS Inbar Ktalav

1215

Chapter 30

WOOD REMAINS Nili Liphschitz

1220

ix

Chapter 31

PETROGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF IRON AGE VESSELS Carolina Aznar

1237

Chapter 32

PETROGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF LATE BRONzE III, LATE IRON I AND IRON IIA POTTERY David Ben-Shlomo

1274

Chapter 33

MICROMORPHOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN AREA K: IMPLICATIONS FOR TRASH DISPOSAL BEHAVIOUR Ruth Shahack-Gross

1255

Chapter 34

GEOARCHAEOLOGICAL STUDY IN AREA K: THRESHING FLOOR OR MIDDEN? Mor Gafri and Ruth Shahack-Gross

1262

Chapter 35

METALWORKING IN AREA K: A REEVALUATION Adi Eliyahu-Behar, Naama Yahalom-Mack, Yuval Gadot and Israel Finkelstein

1271

Chapter 36

IN SEARCH OF THE MIDDLE BRONzE AGE CITY-GATE: INTRODUCTION TO THE GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYS Israel Finkelstein and David Ussishkin

1285

Chapter 37

ELECTROMAGNETIC SURVEY IN THE VICINITY OF AREA F Boaz Gattenio and Shmuel Marco

1288

Chapter 38

MAGNETIC PROSPECTING TO THE NORTH OF THE LATE BRONzE CITY GATE Sonia Itkis and Lev Eppelbaum

1295

SECTION SIX: SuMMary aND CONCluSIONS Chapter 39

COMMENTS ON THE EARLY BRONzE CULTIC COMPOUND, 1992-2010 David Ussishkin

1317

Chapter 40

ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL CONCLUSIONS Israel Finkelstein

1329

Indices of Loci Yaniv Agmon

x

1341

Field Loci

1342

Final Loci

1395

SECTION ONE INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 1

THE 2004–2008 SEASONS Israel Finkelstein, David Ussishkin and Eric H. Cline

This is the third report of the Megiddo Expedition’s work. The first reports presented the results of the excavations in the 1992–1996 and the 1998–2002 seasons (Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Halpern 2000, 2006, respectively). This report deals with the result of the excavations in the 2004, 2006 and 2008 seasons.1

ThE EXpEDITION The excavations at Megiddo have been carried out under the auspices of Tel Aviv University, with George Washington University as the senior American partner. Consortium institutions are Chapman University, Loyola Marymount University and Vanderbilt University. The Expedition directors are Israel Finkelstein and David Ussishkin (Tel Aviv University) with Eric H. Cline (George Washington University) serving as associate director (USA). The Expedition is endorsed by the Israel Exploration Society, Israel’s Nature and National Parks Authority (which maintains the site as a national park) and Viscount Allenby of Megiddo. In the three seasons under discussion, the Megiddo Expedition was generously supported by Chaim Katzman, Vivian and Norman Belmonte, Eugene M. Grant, Fredrick L. Simmons and Sonia Weindling.

arEaS Of EXCaVaTION Five areas were excavated in the 1992–1996 seasons: F on the lower mound; G in the Late Bronze gate; H on the northwestern edge of the mound; J in the Early Bronze Age temples compound; and K on the southeastern edge of the mound (Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Halpern 2000: Figs. 1.2–1.4). Seven areas were excavated in the 1998–2002 seasons: four of the ‘old’ areas – F, H, J and K – and two new ones: L in the northeastern sector of the mound and M in and around the Schumacher trench in the centre (Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Halpern 2006: Figs. 1.1–1.3). Seven areas were excavated in the 2004–2008 seasons: five of the ‘old’ areas – H, J, K, L and M – and two new ones: P on the lower terrace, at the foot of Stairway 2153 unearthed by the University of Chicago team, and q in the southeastern sector of the mound, between our Area K and Area CC of the University of Chicago dig (Figs. 1.1–1.2). Over 100 team members, paid workers and staff participated in each of the three seven-week seasons reported here. The Expedition’s camp was set at Kibbutz Megiddo (2004) and at Kibbutz Ramat Hashofet (2006–2008). In 2007 a short two-week inter-season excavation of Areas L and P was funded by the Nature and National Parks Authority as preparation for the presentation of several Megiddo monuments to the public. The following is a short account of the excavation in each of the seven areas dug in 2004–2008: 1

Because the 2010 season was the final one in Area J, the results of that season are also included here.

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Fig. 1.1: Map of areas excavated in 2004–2008.

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Fig. 1.2: Areas excavated in 2004-2008.

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Area H

Area J

Area K

Area L Area M

Area P

Area Q

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Excavation continued in the sectional trench (Squares E–F/6–8; with the deepening of the dig, an additional strip of Squares [E–F/9] was added near the slope of the mound) under the remains of Levels H-5 and H-6 (University of Chicago’s Stratum VA-IVB, late Iron IIA). Early Iron IIA and Iron I remains were exposed. City Wall 96/H/19 of Level H-3 (University of Chicago’s Wall 325) has now been removed. Work in the main part of Area J continued in Squares F–L/7–8 and E–F/9, where additional remains of Levels J-6 and J-5 and the entire western half of the Level J-4 monumental temple have now been exposed. In the seasons of 2006 and 2008, two squares (S–T/20) were excavated in ‘Upper Area J’, located to the west of the main area, in an attempt to clarify the stratigraphy of the later phases of the Early Bronze and the early stages of the Middle Bronze in the vicinity of the Megiddo temples compound. In the season of 2008 ‘Lower Area J’, located in the eastern part of the University of Chicago’s Area BB, was excavated, in order to reinvestigate the ‘Picture Pavement,’ which had first been unearthed by the University of Chicago team in the 1930s. Excavation continued in this area, exposing remains of Levels K-6 to K-9 – all dating to the Late Bronze Age – and the mudbrick core of a Middle Bronze rampart. An additional line of squares (q/9–11) was added in the direction of the slope, while the excavation in the western line of squares (M/9–11) was stopped.2 Work in this area continued in 2006 and in a short season in 2007, with the aim of clarifying architectural problems and preparing the area for presentation to the public. Excavation continued in 2004 and 2006 in Eastern Area M (Squares AV–AW/27–30) with the aim of resolving problems related to ‘Chamber f’ and the Nordburg, which had been excavated by Gottlieb Schumacher in the early twentieth century. Much of the area was excavated down to Level M-6 (LB III), and in a few spots remains of earlier periods have also been reached. Work in this area was conducted in 2007, on the initiative of the Nature and National Parks Authority, with the goal of clarifying whether Stairway 2153 uncovered by the University of Chicago team leads to a water system. Funding was terminated before this question was resolved. This area was opened in 2008 in the southeastern sector of the mound in order to reinvestigate the stratigraphy of the Iron II. Work was conducted in a large area of 17 squares.

ThE EXpEDITION TEaM The staff of the 2004 season consisted of (Fig. 1.3): Matthew J. Adams, supervisor of Area J; Eran Arie, cosupervisor of Area K; Guy Avivi, administrator; Noga Blockman, registrar; Gilad Cinamon, artefacts analyst; Eric H. Cline, co-supervisor of Area L; Margaret E. Cohen, co-supervisor of Area L; Israel Finkelstein, codirector; Norma Franklin, coordinator of the Expedition and supervisor of Area M; Jane Grutz and Robert Grutz, assistant supervisors of Area M; Judith Hadley, assistant registrar; Brian Hesse, archaeozoologist; Gilad Jaffe, assistant supervisor of Area L; Assaf Nativ, co-supervisor of Area K; Alexander Pechuro, surveyor; Pavel Shrago, photographer; Ruslan Shvartsman, assistant supervisor of Area J; Eyal Tamir, surveyor; David Ussishkin, co-director; Shaul Urovsky, surveyor; Israel Vatkin, surveyor; Elena zapassky, 2

6

Squares M/9–11 have been abandoned because of the special nature of Area K: in all periods houses were constructed on the ‘rim’ of the mound, with open areas to their west. As the excavation deepened, the houses were found more and more to the east, and Squares M/9–11 constituted part of their backyards.

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computer analyst. Square supervisors were Deborah Cantrell, Geoffrey Cowling, Deirdre Fulton, Philippe Guillaume, Brooke Shelman and Sarah Werren. The staff of the 2006 season consisted of (Fig. 1.4): Matthew J. Adams, supervisor of Area J; Eran Arie, supervisor of Area H; Hai Ashkenazi, assistant supervisor of Area J; Guy Avivi, administrator; Julye Bidmead, assistant supervisor of Area K; Noga Blockman, co-supervisor of Area K; Eric H. Cline, associate director (USA) and supervisor of Area L; Margaret E. Cohen, registrar; Israel Finkelstein, codirector; Norma Franklin, coordinator of the Expedition and supervisor of Area M; Jane Grutz and Robert Grutz, assistant supervisors of Area M; Philippe Guillaume, assistant supervisor of Area M; Dana Katz, assistant supervisor of Area K; Leigh Savage, assistant supervisor of Area H; Mario A.S. Martin, cosupervisor of Area K; Alexander Pechuro, surveyor; Inbal Samet, assistant supervisor of Area L; Aharon Sasson, archaeozoologist; Brooke Shelman, assistant supervisor of Area H; Pavel Shrago, photographer; David Ussishkin, co-director; Shaul Urovsky, surveyor; Israel Vatkin, surveyor; Elena zapassky, computer analyst. Square supervisors were Colby Bestgen, James Bos, Deborah Cantrell, Robert Homsher, Kristine Merriman and Leigh Savage. The staff of the 2008 season consisted of (Fig. 1.5): Matthew J. Adams, supervisor of Area J; Eran Arie, supervisor of Area H; Michael Ben-Shushan, administrator; Julye Bidmead, assistant supervisor of Area K; Noga Blockman, co-supervisor of Area K; James M. Bos, assistant supervisor of Area J; Eric H. Cline, associate director (USA); Margaret E. Cohen, registrar; Sivan Einhorn, assistant registrar; Julie Ellis, assistant supervisor of Area J; Israel Finkelstein, co-director; Norma Franklin, coordinator of the Expedition and supervisor of Area q; Philippe Guillaume, assistant supervisor of Area q; Jane Grutz and Robert Grutz, assistant supervisors of Area q; Robert Homsher, assistant supervisor of Area K; Adi Keinan, assistant supervisor of Area J; Mario A.S. Martin, co-supervisor of Area K; Kristine Merriman, registrar of Area K; Alexander Pechuro, surveyor; Inbal Samet, assistant supervisor of Area H; Aharon Sasson, archaeozoologist; Brooke Shelman, assistant supervisor of Area H; Pavel Shrago, photographer; David Ussishkin, co-director; Shaul Urovsky, surveyor; Israel Vatkin, surveyor; Elena zapassky, computer analyst. Square supervisors were Deborah Cantrell, Jonathan David, Ian Cipin, Adam Prins, Katia CharbitNataf, Matthew Schaeffer and Georgia Sadler. The excavation of Areas L and P in 2007 was supervised by Inbal Samet and Norma Franklin, respectively. In the months between the seasons reported in this volume, the directors of the Expedition were assisted almost daily by Eran Arie, Noga Blockman, Norma Franklin and Mario A.S. Martin, who were involved in many decisions regarding the work of the Expedition and helped in the processing of the finds. In the last phase of the preparation of this report the directors were also assisted by Yaniv Agmon and Sivan Einhorn. Many in the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University helped in the analysis of the finds and preparation of this report: Yuri Smertenko and Ami Brauner drew the plans; Yulia Gottlieb and Rodica Penchas drew the artefacts and the pottery; Pavel Shrago prepared the photographs; Rachel Paletta and Yafit Wiener restored the pottery; Benjamin Sass helped in analyzing the artefacts; Noam Dishon and Adi Keinan managed the Megiddo website (http://megiddo.tau.ac.il) and Elena zapassky managed the Megiddo Database system. Myrna Pollak directed the publication process. The directors of the Expedition are indebted to the following individuals, who assisted the work at Megiddo: Eli Amitai, director of Israel’s Nature and National Parks Authority; Ahmed Agrabiah and

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Fig. 1.3: The Megiddo staff, 2004 (from left). Standing: Deirdre Fulton, Eran Arie, Gilad Jaffe, Margaret E. Cohen, Philippe Guillaume, Matthew J. Adams, Geoffery Cowling, Robert Grutz, Jane Grutz, Eyal Tamir, Ruslan Shvartsman, Sarah Werren, Brooke Shelman and Assaf Nativ. Seated: Eric H. Cline, Noga Blockman, David Ussishkin, Israel Finkelstein, Norma Franklin and Judith Hadley.

Fig. 1.4: The Megiddo staff, 2006 (from left). Standing: unknown, Kristine Merriman, Robert Homsher, Julie Ellis, Brooke Shelman, James M. Bos, Aharon Sasson, Philippe Guillaume, Jane Grutz, Julye Bidmead, Robert Grutz, Matthew J. Adams, Margaret E. Cohen, Colby Bestgen, Leigh Savage, Dana Katz, Hai Ashkenazi and Alexander Pechuro. Seated: Inbal Samet, Norma Franklin, David Ussishkin, Israel Finkelstein, Eric H. Cline, Eran Arie and Mario A.S. Martin.

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Fig. 1.5: The Megiddo staff, 2008 (from left). Standing: Sivan Einhorn, Adi Keinan, Matthew Schaeffer, Kristine Merriman, Adam Prins, Julye Bidmead, Ian Cipin, Philippe Guillaume, Robert Homsher, James M. Bos, Inbal Samet, Brooke Shelman, Julie Ellis, Alexander Pechuro, Michael Ben-Shushan and Georgia Adrianne Ramirez. Seated: Aharon Sasson, Margaret E. Cohen, Mario A.S. Martin, Norma Franklin, Eric H. Cline, Israel Finkelstein, David Ussishkin, Noga Blockman, Eran Arie, Matthew J. Adams and Jonathan David.

zeev Margalit of the Nature and National Parks Authority; zehava Merhav of the Government Tourism Corporation; and Uri Flash of Kibbutz Ramat Hashofet.

prESErVaTION aND prESENTaTION As mentioned in our first and second reports, the Expedition is involved in promoting preservation and restoration work at Megiddo, as well as presentation of the site to the public. During the period reported here, the following steps were taken by the Nature and National Parks Authority and the Government Tourism Corporation in cooperation with the Expedition: 1. Plans were drawn by architect Daniel Abuhatzira to partially reconstruct Palace 6000 and the overlying Stable 98/L/96 and present them to the public. 2. Plans were drawn by architect Daniel Abuhatzira to reconstruct the missing (west) wing of Iron Age II Gate 2156, unearthed by the University of Chicago team. 3. Initial steps were taken to build a new entrance complex to the Megiddo National Park. 4. The two pillar bases in the main hall of Temple 5269 (Area J) were re-placed in their original position. 5. The standing stone (‘massebah’) uncovered by Schumacher in his central trench not far from ‘Chamber f’ was restored to its original position on its base. An additional project involved the reconstruction of Stable 1612 of the southern stables complex, which had been excavated by the University of Chicago team in the 1920s. The directors of the Expedition

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expressed strong reservations regarding this undertaking: the level of the stable’s floor was ca. 2 m higher than the ground level of the area before reconstruction work began (excavations in this area by the University of Chicago team reached remains of Strata V and VIA), hence the latter involved the creation of a thick fill that elevated the reconstructed stable above its surroundings. As a result of the disagreement, the late Prof. Ehud Netzer of the Hebrew University was nominated as an arbitrator. Netzer accepted the reconstruction plans of architect Daniel Abuhatzira, but at the same time endorsed the directors’ demand that the entire southern stables compound be dealt with. We regret to report that the latter stipulation has not been fulfilled. Two major problems face the excavator of a Near Eastern mound: how to preserve the baulks of the dig and to prevent them from collapsing and how to prevent erosion from undermining the stability of the ancient monuments. These issues are especially crucial at Megiddo, where deep trenches and sections were cut by Gottlieb Schumacher at the beginning of the twentieth century and by the University of Chicago team in the 1920s and 1930s. One means of protecting the mound is to backfill those places that are not essential for future excavation or for presentation of the monuments to the public. The Expedition is involved in the backfilling of both areas dug in the past and some of its own squares. In each case, modern materials: plastic sheets, plastic buckets, glass bottles, etc., were put in the bottom of the dig before it was backfilled. The following is a list of places backfilled by the Expedition in 2004–2008 (Fig. 1.6): 1. The University of Chicago team dug a deep and narrow trench from Area AA to the south (their Square L–M/8 in Loud 1948: Fig. 377). The side baulks of the trench began collapsing, endangering the area around it. We therefore started backfilling the trench in 2000 and continued to do so in the seasons reported in this volume. Work has not yet been completed and backfilling will continue in future seasons. 2. Squares L–M/1–2, which had been excavated in Area L in the season of 2000, were backfilled in the 2004 season. 3. The deeply excavated squares in front of Palace 6000 in Area L (Levels G-6, H-6 and J-6) have been backfilled to the level of the stables upon the request of the Nature and National Parks Authority. 4. The entire area of excavation in ‘Lower Area M’, which was dug in 1998–2000 – Squares AU– AT/29, AT/30–31, AU/30–31 – has been backfilled. Also backfilled was Room K of the Schumacher excavations in the Mittelburg. 5. Danger to the stability of the three ‘Megaron Temples’ in Area J required some backfilling operations (see also Fig. 2.1). Squares D–F/10–11 (the inside of Temple 4040), were backfilled in order to protect the foundations of the building. All squares dug to the south of the Level J-4 temple complex (see Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Peersmann 2006: Figs. 3.24–3.25), except for Squares J–H/10, were also backfilled in order to avoid damage to Temples 5192 and Altar 4017. 6. The squares of Area F west were filled with earth excavated in Area P.

MEGIDDO EVENTS The following major events related to the work of the Megiddo Expedition took place since the 2002 season: LORD AND LADY ALLENBY VISIT MEGIDDO Michael, 3rd Viscount Allenby of Megiddo, former Deputy Speaker of the House of Lords, and his wife, Lady Sara, have been friends of the Megiddo Expedition from its inception. Michael and Sara visited the

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Fig. 1.6: Map of areas backfilled by the expedition in 2004–2008 (numbers corresponding to the text; see also Fig. 2.1).

excavation several times – in 1996, 2000 and 2006 – each time for a few days. During their visit they toured the different areas of excavation, spoke to team members and took part in the dig (Figs. 1.7–1.8). In 2000, Lord Allenby, who was a lieutenant colonel in the Royal Hussars, a cavalry division in the British army, helped interpret the structure and function of the Megiddo Stables. Lord Allenby chaired the Megiddo session in the annual meeting of the Society of Biblical Literature in Toronto, 2002 (see below). MARTIN STOLL, GRANDSON OF GOTTLIEB SCHUMACHER, VISITS MEGIDDO As part of the preparations for the Megiddo Centennial in April 2003, expedition curator at that time, Joëlle Cohen-Finkelstein, contacted Martin Stoll and Liese-Lore Spring-Schumacher of Australia, the grandson and granddaughter of Gottlieb Schumacher, the first excavator of Megiddo. Both became involved in preparations for the event but were unable to attend it. One year after the Centennial, Martin Stoll’s family decided to take him on a tour of Israel for his 80th birthday. Martin was born in a Templar community in Palestine to Elfriede Theodora Elisabeth, the youngest daughter of Gottlieb Schumacher, and the engineer Ernst-Wilhelm Stoll. The family informed the directors of the Expedition that Martin and Liese-Lore had

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Fig. 1.7: Viscount Allenby of Megiddo (centre) with Directors Ussishkin and Finkelstein (right), 1996.

Fig. 1.8: Viscount Allenby of Megiddo in Area L, 2004.

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decided to return to Israel three ancient seals that Schumacher had brought from Palestine and that have since been in the family’s possession. Joëlle Cohen-Finkelstein contacted the Israel Antiquities Authority and arranged for an official transfer of the seals. And it was decided to celebrate the event in a modest ceremony at Megiddo. The Stoll family – Martin, his wife Heather, his son and daughter-in-law Timothy and Supit, together with his sister-in-law Lori Stoll and her son Paul (also the great grandson of Gottlieb Schumacher) – arrived in Israel and on April 22, 2004 visited Megiddo. There they were greeted by officials of the Nature and Parks Authority and the Israel Antiquities Authority and by members of the Megiddo Expedition (Fig. 1.9). In a friendly and emotional atmosphere, the Stolls handed over the three seals to the Expedition and the Israel Antiquities Authority. Martin Stoll spoke on behalf of the family, saying: "We have come with great enthusiasm and we have traveled a very long distance ... to have the joy to make your acquaintance and to bring as a token of our friendship a small, but very ancient gift, which we ask you to accept ... on behalf of the People of Israel". The Stoll family was then shown around the site and visited the different areas excavated by Schumacher, especially the spot in the southeast sector of the mound, where he began his excavations on April 1, 1903 (Fig. 1.10). Martin Stoll passed away in 2006. MEGIDDO VISITS TORONTO AND WASHINGTON Over the years the directors of the Expedition organized several special Megiddo sessions at scholarly conferences. The first session took place at the Annual Meeting of the American Schools of Oriental Research in Philadelphia in November 1995. It celebrated the renewal of excavations at Megiddo and reported the results of the 1992–1994 excavations and the 1995 survey. Two special Megiddo sessions were held in conferences in Toronto in November 2002. The first, at the Annual Meeting of the American Schools of

Fig. 1.9: Martin Stoll (centre) with Directors Finkelstein (left) and Ussishkin at Megiddo. The theodolite on the table is the one that was used by Gottlieb Schumacher at Megiddo in the early twentieth century.

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Fig. 1.10: The Stoll family and the directors of the Expedition near the spot where Gottlieb Schumacher began his excavations on April 1, 1903.

Oriental Research, was entitled ‘Ten Years of Renewed Excavations at Megiddo’, and was chaired by Baruch Halpern. The idea was to celebrate the Expedition’s first ten years in the field (1992–2002). The hall was fully packed with a crowd of several hundred people. Yuval Gadot presented the results of his survey along the ‘Aruna Pass to the west of Megiddo. Norma Franklin described the results of the Megiddo Bedrock Project she conducted together with Jennifer Peersmann – an attempt to delineate the original hill and to follow the site’s formation through history. Benjamin Sass talked about the finds that shed light on the Megiddo-Egypt relationship in the EB I and Noga Blockman described the exciting, rich Iron I finds from Area K. Ann Killebrew and Eric H. Cline presented results from Area L – the Iron IIB pillared buildings (the ‘Megiddo Stables’) and the Iron IIA Palace 6000, which had first been explored by Yigael Yadin in the 1960s. These presentations were followed by two summary papers: David Ussishkin described the main highlights of the first ten years of the excavations of the Bronze Age settlements, especially the Early Bronze temples compound, and Israel Finkelstein emphasized the importance of the Megiddo excavations for the archaeology of the Iron Age in the Levant and beyond. The second Toronto 2002 session took place at the Annual Meeting of the Society of Biblical Literature. It was titled ‘Mounts on the Mound: The Megiddo Horses Revisited’. The session, which dealt with the Megiddo Stables, a topic that has been at the core of archaeological research for the past 80 years, attracted a large crowd of over 200 people. The session was chaired, with his usual charm and enthusiasm, by the Friend of the Expedition, Viscount Allenby of Megiddo. Lord Allenby, who participated in the 2000 dig of the pillared buildings in Area L, opened the session with a short talk on his personal impressions as a cavalry officer in the Royal Hussars. This was followed by David Ussishkin’s presentation of the history of research of the Megiddo pillared buildings and the results of the Megiddo Expedition dig in Area L in the 1998 and 2000 seasons. The next paper, entitled ‘Straight from the Horse’s Mouth’, was by Deborah Cantrell, who showed how every

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detail in the buildings can be explained as belonging to stables. Israel Finkelstein followed with a paper entitled, ‘A Kingdom for a Horse’. He proposed that Megiddo was a centre for one of the most lucrative ‘cash-crop’ industries of the Northern Kingdom. In his and Deborah Cantrell’s opinion, in the 8th century BCE, Israel was the intermediary between the famed Egyptian (or rather, Nubian) horses and Assyria, and Megiddo was the major installation for the breeding and training of these horses. In her talk entitled ‘Fair or Foal’, Norma Franklin raised the possibility that Megiddo served as a periodic market for horses. She suggested that the Megiddo fairground included the large courtyard located next to the ‘southern stables’ complex, which replaced southern Palace 1723 of the previous stratum. Baruch Halpern’s paper, titled ‘Destabilizing Megiddo’, described the difficulties regarding the stables theory. Ann Killebrew, the last to speak, discussed questions related to the presentation of the Megiddo pillared buildings to the public. A special session in the 2006 Annual Meeting of the American Schools of Oriental Research, which took place in Washington DC, was devoted to the dig at Megiddo. The lectures were attended by ca. 200 scholars and students (Fig. 1.11). The session, entitled ‘The Transition from the Late Bronze to the Iron Age at Megiddo and the North’, was chaired by Eric H. Cline and Israel Finkelstein. It comprised the following lectures: David Ussishkin, ‘The Destruction of Late Bronze Megiddo and the Invasion of the Sea Peoples’; Eran Arie, ‘From Old Canaan to New: The Domestic Evidence from Area K at Megiddo’; Norma Franklin, ‘Continuity and Change in Area M at Megiddo: The Nordburg and the Mycenaean Tomb’; Ayelet Gilboa, ‘Megiddo and the “Northern Sea People” Phenomenon’; Eric H. Cline, ‘A Preliminary Analysis of the Rediscovered Skeletal Material in the Smithsonian from LB and IA Tombs at Megiddo’; Israel Finkelstein, ‘New Canaan: An Update’.

NOTES ON ThE fOrMaT Of MEGIDDO V In what follows we repeat some of our notes in the introduction to Megiddo III and Megiddo IV (Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Halpern 2000; 2006, Chapter 1, respectively). The policy of the Megiddo Expedition is

Fig. 1.11: The special Megiddo session at the Annual Meeting of the American Schools of Oriental Research, Washington, DC, 2006.

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to publish a full report after every three seasons of excavation. This decision was taken in order to avoid delay in publication, which may stem, among other reasons, from an accumulation of an immense quantity of data over a period of many years. The fast-track publication system has some obvious shortcomings, especially in regard to conclusions, which may change as the excavation advances. In order to minimize this risk, it has been the practice of the Expedition to finish a manuscript on, e.g., Seasons A through C before season D, to enter notes in the manuscript in view of the results of Season D (which are not described in the text) and to publish the report before season E. Accordingly, the manuscript of Megiddo V was updated according to the results of the 2010 season. Another decision is that the introductory chapter of each final report will include a list of issues that were described in the previous report that require updating. Accordingly, three issues treated in Megiddo IV call for updating in view of the results of the 2004–2008 seasons: 1. In the description of Area J in Megiddo IV, Level J-4 was divided into two phases: Phase J-4b – the main phase, when the big EB IB temple was in use; and Phase J-4a – an attempt to reoccupy building after its destruction in an earthquake. The next layers, dating to the EB III were labelled Levels J-5, Early J-6 and Late J-6. New observations in the 2006–2008 seasons have led us to a somewhat different phasing: Level J-4 represents the construction and occupation of the big EB IB temple; the current Level J-5 represents ephemeral activity in the deserted temple during the EB IB (according to Adams possibly also in the EB II), and hence is, in fact, equivalent to the previous Phase J-4a (though the interpretation of the remains is different); the previous Level J-5 is now labelled Phase J-6c; the previous Early and Late Level J-6 are now labelled Phases J-6b and J-6a (see Chapter 2, Part III). 2. The results of the current seasons call for a reevaluation of the architectural elements and stratigraphy of Levels H-5 and H-6. This has been done in Chapter 5. 3. Some of our previous interpretation of Levels M-6, M-5 and M-4 in Western Area M are changed here in light of the excavation of Eastern Area M. The policy of the Expedition is to publish remains of levels that have been fully exposed. The publication of other remains is postponed until they have been completely excavated. Accordingly, this report presents the results of the excavation of the following levels:3 Area H: Levels H-7, H-8 of the early Iron IIA and Level H-9 of the late Iron I, with a reevaluation of Levels H-5 and H-6 of the late Iron IIA. The remains of Levels H-10 and H-11, which date to earlier phases of the Iron I, will be published in the future. Area J: Full publication of the remains unearthed in the 2004–2010 seasons.4 Area K: Levels K-6 (LB III), K-7 and K-8 (LB II). The remains of Level K-9 have not been fully exposed yet and will therefore be reported in the next Megiddo volume, together with an account on the exposure of the brick core of the Middle Bronze rampart. Area L: Full publication of the remains. Area M: Full publication of the remains. Area P: Full publication of the remains unearthed so far. Area Q: The results will be reported in the next Megiddo volume. Table 1.1 summarizes the stratigraphy of Megiddo, updated to the end of the 2008 season.

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A gold pendant from Level K-9, a level which is not discussed in this volume, is published in Chapter 21. The 2010 season was the last in this area and is reported here to provide a full and final account of the excavation.

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TABLE 1.1: SUMMARY OF THE MEGIDDO STRATIGRAPHY, UPDATED TO 2008 Area F

Area H

F-12

Area J*

Area K

Area L

Area M**

Area N

University of Chicago Strata

Period

J-1

xx

EBI

J-2

Phase in xIx; not identified as a separate level

EBIb

J-3

xIx

EBIb

J-4

xVIII

EBIb

J-4a

Not detected

EBIb

J-5, J-6b

xVII

EBIII

J-6a

xVI

EBIII

J-7

xV

EBIII/IBA***

J-8

xIV

MBI

J-9

xIV

MBI

J-10

xIII

MBI

J-11

M-11

xII

MBII

J-12

M-10, 9

xI

MBII

F-11

J-13

M-8

N-2, 3, 4

x (x-Ix)

MBIII/LBI

F-10

J-14, 15, 16

M-7

N-1

Ix

LBI

F-9

J-17?

K-9?

VIII

LBII

F-8

K-8, 7

VIIB

LBII

F-7

K-6

M-6

VIIA?

LBIII

M-5

VIB

Early IAI

F-6

H-10

K-5

F-5

H-9

K-4

L-5

M-4

VIA

Late IAI

H-8, 7, 6

K-3

L-4

VB

Early IAIIA

H-5

K-2

L-3

M-3, 2, 1

VA-IVB

Late IAIIA

H-4, 3

K-1

L-2

IVA

IAIIB

Not detected

IAIIB

III

IAIIB

II

IAIIC

F-4b

H-2 F-4a F-3

H-1

L-1

F-2

Late Roman

F-1

20th cent. CE

* The stratigraphic affiliation of Levels J-8 to J-19 is tentative, pending further excavations. ** For a somewhat different stratigraphic affiliation of the Area M levels, see Franklin in Chapter 4. *** Finkelstein, following Kempinski, dates the ‘Megaron Temples’ of Level J-7 (Stratum xV) to EB III, while Ussishkin and Adams, following Loud, are inclined to date them to IBA.

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The registration method of the Megiddo Expedition is based on a three-tier hierarchy, from the locus through the pottery bucket (PT, considered a ‘find’) to four categories of other finds that are related to the pottery bucket, i.e., artefact (AR), vessel (VS), laboratory item (LB) and flint item (FL). Walls are registered separately and are given locus numbers when excavated (see Benenson and Finkelstein 2000). The locus number consists of three components: season, area and sequential number. For instance, 06/K/12 means the season of 2006, Area K, locus number 12. Finds are registered in the same way. Their number includes the locus number with the addition of two letters indicating the type of find (PT, AR, VS, LB or FL) and its sequential number within the locus. For instance, 06/K/12/ar3 represents artefact number 3 in Locus 06/K/12. Walls are registered in a somewhat similar way: 06/K/wl11 signifies Wall 11 in Area K, season of 2006. Loci are marked on the plans in regular font, walls in italics, and groups of loci taken together as a unit are given a unit designation, which is underlined. The term level is used in this report for the stratigraphy of the renewed excavations and stratum for that of the University of Chicago Expedition. Levels are counted locally, per area. For instance, Level h-9 means Level 9 in Area h. Levels are counted from top to bottom in all areas except for Area J. Because of the nature of excavation in Area J – investigation of the buildings unearthed by the Oriental Institute excavators, beginning with Shrine 4050 of Stratum xIx and continuing with later temples – levels have been counted from bottom to top. In many places in this report the local levels are compared to those of the Oriental Institute strata for the entire site. The general grid of the renewed excavations follows the grid of the University of Chicago Expedition, with two alterations: 1) every square of 25 × 25 m was divided into squares of 5 × 5 m; the 5 × 5 m grid utilizes a new set of numbers and letters; 2) in several places the topography or orientation of monumental remains from previous excavations required the setting of a local grid oriented differently from the general grid of the excavations. The general grid was used in Area M, while local grids were used in Areas H, J, K, L and P.

REFERENCES Benenson, I. and Finkelstein, I. 2000. The Megiddo Excavation Data Management System. In: Finkelstein, I., Ussishkin, D. and Halpern, B., eds. Megiddo III: The 1992–1996 Seasons (Monograph Series of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University 18). Tel Aviv: 14–24. Finkelstein, I., Ussishkin, D. and Halpern, B., eds. 2000. Megiddo III: The 1992–1996 Seasons (Monograph Series of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University 18). Tel Aviv. Finkelstein, I., Ussishkin, D. and Halpern, B., eds. 2006. Megiddo IV: The 1992–1996 Seasons (Monograph Series of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University 24). Tel Aviv.

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SECTION TWO STRATIGRAPHY AND ARCHITECTURE

CHAPTER 2

AREA J PART I: INTRODUCTION Matthew J. Adams

GOalS aND prOGrESS Of wOrK Excavation in Area J from 2004 to 2010 was supervised by Matthew J. Adams.1 The large excavation area was, in fact, divided into three sub-areas (Fig. 2.1; Table 2.1). The work was carried out with the help of assistant area supervisors Ruslan Shvartsman (2004), Hai Ashkenazi (2006), James M. Bos, Adi Keinan and Julie Ellis (2008, Sub-Area Upper J, Sub-Area Lower J and registration, respectively), and Katia Charbit Nataf and Julie Ellis (2010). In the main part of Area J work continued in the Level J-4 temple sanctuary, that is, in the squares north of Wall 96/J/07 (Fig. 2.24). Upper Area J (2006–2010) featured two squares located at the northwest edge (and outside) of the University of Chicago’s Area BB. In Lower Area J (2008) excavation was initiated in three squares on the slope, east of Temple 4050, in order to answer questions regarding the Picture Pavement (University of Chicago Stratum XIX). This report includes a description of the finds in these areas and a stratigraphic reassessment of some previous seasons’ work in all of Area J in light of the newly excavated material. The presentation of the results is composed of three sub-chapters devoted to the sub-areas of Area J. The 2010 season proved to be the final season for Area J. Therefore those results have been included herein. The Early Bronze Age remains have been added as Appendix to Part III: The Main Sector of Area J and Part IV: Sub-Area Upper J has been completely revised to include the 2010 results there. Several goals dictated the progress of our work in the 2004–2008 seasons. 1. The exposure of the Level J-4 temple. In the 1998 and 2000 seasons the interior of the sanctuary was found to be on the north side of Area J (Finkelstein and Ussishkin 2000a). Because of the boundaries of the University of Chicago’s deep cut (Area BB), the area available for excavation of this massive temple-hall was limited to twelve squares (or part thereof). With a hypothesis regarding the size and shape of the Level J-4 temple in hand (Finkelstein and Ussishkin 2003), excavation began in 2004 in six squares (G/7, G/8, H/7, H/8, J/7, J/8) in order to expose the plan of the temple west of the building’s altar, which was exposed in the 1998 season. In 2006, work continued in these units and also expanded to include Square F/7 as well as the following baulks: H/7-H/8, H/8-H/9, G/7-G/8, G/7-F/7, G/8-F/8 and F/7-F/8. In 2008, some of these units continued to expose the plan of the temple, but primarily a number of key-hole incisions were made to answer specific architectural questions related to the edifice. 1

The author would like to express his gratitude to the W.F. Albright Institute of Archaeological Research, the Educational and Cultural Affairs division of the U.S. Department of State and the Dr. M. Aylwin Cotton Foundation for support during the preparation of this report.

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Fig. 2.1: Plan of areas excavated, squares backfilled, locations of dumps, and locations where dump was used to stabilize existing monuments and facilitate drainage (2004–2008).

2. The exposure of more information on Levels J-5 and J-6. The seasons reported here have more than doubled the exposure of these levels, which date to the EB III, providing a much clearer picture of their stratification and layout. 3. The chronological and stratigraphic positions of the three ‘megara’-style temples of Level J-7 (the University of Chicago Stratum xV) have been under some debate. Fortunately, there remained three opportunities to shed light on this problem:

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AREA J, PART I: INTODUCTION

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Fig. 2.2: Aerial view of Area J, end of the 2008 season, looking east.

a. exposure of Level J-4 required the removal of the western porch pillar-base of Temple 4040. This base had extensive stone foundations and we were interested in the ceramic material sealed beneath this stone. b. the threshold of Temple 4040 had never been excavated. In the 2008 season we removed the temple floor (still preserved, though exposed by Chicago) and excavated beneath it. c. the University of Chicago team left the northwestern corner of the westernmost temple (5269) unexcavated. Here in 2006, two new squares were opened: Squares S/20 and T/20.2 4. We were interested in tying together the stratigraphy of Area J with that of other areas on the site, thus providing the renewed excavations’ first continuous stratigraphic picture of the tell from the Early Bronze Age through the Late Bronze Age. The revised and augmented stratification of Area J presented below now covers that sequence (Table 2.2). 5. Adi Keinan (2007) raised some stratigraphic and contextual questions regarding the Stratum xIx Picture Pavement. In the 2008 season we opened several units in Lower Area J to re-expose the pavement and 2

The designations for these squares do not match the Area J local grid. Rather, their designations were chosen at the extreme end of the grid lettering so that they will not be confused with units in Area J proper. Their orientation, while similar to that of the regular Area J grid, was chosen based on local topography (see below).

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excavate a portion of the University of Chicago’s northern baulk of the deep trench in Area BB in order to shed light on some of these problems. To these ends, excavation in 2004 was concentrated in six squares (G/7–J/8) exposing primarily Level J-7 and Level J-5/J-6 architecture (Table 2.1). Work continued in these squares in 2006 and also resumed the 2000 excavation in Squares F/7 and F/8. The 2006 season also saw the initiation of work in Sub-Area Upper J, Squares S/20 and T/20. In 2008, a number of small incisions were made in order to answer key questions about the plan of the Level J-4 temple. In Square J/7 a 1.5 m incision was made into the western baulk, extending all the way to tomb Structure 5239 in order to locate the sanctuary’s western closing wall. A 1.5 × 3 m incision removed a portion of the F/7-E/7 baulk and Square E/7 in order to expose the entrance through the northern sanctuary wall. A 1.5 × 2 m incision was made in the south baulk of Square E/9 down through the threshold of Temple 4040 to test for the southern wall of the sanctuary. The E/8-E/9 baulk was removed to better expose one of the basalt tables in the corner of Square E/9. The F/8-F/9 baulk was removed with Temple 4040’s western porch pillar base to expose the central axis of the Level J-4 temple. Work also continued in Sub-Area Upper J and new excavation was initiated in Sub-Area Lower J (Squares 1 and 2 and Incision A) to re-expose the University of Chicago’s Picture Pavement (Level J-2). TABLE 2.1: SUB-AREAS AND SqUARES ExCAVATED, 2004-2008 Season

Lower J

Main J

Upper J

2004

G/7; G/8; H/7; H/8; J/7; J/8

2006

F/7; G/7; G/8; H/7; H/8; J/7; J/8

S/20; T/20

E/7; E/9; F/7; F/8; F/9; G/7; H/9; J/7

S/20; T/20; S/21

2008

1; 2; Incision A

STraTIGraphIC SuMMary To date, we have identified 19 levels in Area J, from Level J-1 (earliest) through Level J-19 (latest), covering the Early EB I through the Iron Age. Table 2.2 summarizes these levels with a brief description and the corresponding Oriental Institute strata. Note that unlike the other areas under investigation by the renewed excavations, Area J’s stratigraphic numbering system begins from the earliest occupation (see Finkelstein and Ussishkin 2000a: 34).

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TABLE 2.2: REVISED AND AUGMENTED STRATIGRAPHY OF AREA J* Level/ Phase

U of Chicago Sub-area** stratum

Description

Period

J-1

-xx, xx

LJ

Carved bedrock and associated structures

EB I

J-2

xIx

LJ

Temple beneath 4050 and Picture Pavement

EB IB

J-3

xIx

LJ

Temple 4050 with curved Wall 08/J/21

EB IB

J-4

xVIII

MJ

Great Temple, terrace Walls 4045 and 4114, Gate 4113

EB IB

J-4a

Not detected

MJ

Sporadic activity within the temple. No (or reduced) settlement

EB IB–II

J-5

xVII

MJ

Palace Compound and Palace 3177 Original

EB III

J-6b

xVII

MJ

Palace Compound and Palace 3177 Original

EB III

J-6a

xVI

MJ

Palace Compound and Palace 3177 Rebuilt

EB III

J-7

xV

MJ

Temples 4040, 5192 and 5269

EB III-IBA

J-8

xIVB

UJ

House with burials

MB I

J-9

xIVA

UJ

House rebuilt with chalk-paste coated basins and burials

MB I

MJ

Stone-lined Silo 06/J/140, Temple 4040 reuse

J-10

xIIIA/B

UJ MJ

Fill 08/J/157, Tombs 06/J/107 and 04/J/056

MB I-II

J-11

xII

UJ

Walls 08/J/13 and 08/J/05

MB II

MJ

Stone-lined Pit 04/J/48

J-12

xI

UJ

Walls 08/J/08 and 08/J/19

MB II

J-13

x

UJ

Walls 06/J/16 and 06/J/18

MB III-LBI (?)

J-14

Ix (B)

UJ

Wall 08/J/14

LB I

J-15

Ix (B)

UJ

Pebble Floor 08/J/30 and lime Pavement 08/J/54

LB I

J-16

Ix (A?)

UJ

Upper lime pavement

LB I (?)

J-17

Ix/VIII (?)

MJ

Tomb structure 5239

LB II (?)

J-18

VIII-VIB (?)

UJ

Deep Wall 08/J/01

LB – IA (?)

J-19

V?

UJ

Wall 08/J/02

IA II

* The stratigraphic attributions herein supersede those offered in Megiddo III and Megiddo IV and other earlier reports. ** Key to Abbreviations: MJ = Main J; UJ = Upper J; LJ = Lower J.

MEGIDDO III aND MEGIDDO IV COrrIGENDa Megiddo III: Fig. 24.4 – This photograph is of the southeastern corner, not western. Megiddo IV: 38 – The earlier floor of the Level J-4 temple was erroneously reported as being thinly plastered (Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Peersmann 2006: 38). The report of a plastered floor was a conflation of the

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thin compact ash from Square F/9 interpreted as a floor in 1998 and the discovery of this surface in 2000. Note also that our interpretation of what was a floor here and what was not has changed. Megiddo IV: 165 – "and four jars (Fig. 10.1: 2–5)" should read "and four jars (Fig. 10.9: 2–5)". A few plans in Megiddo III showed a mislettered grid: Megiddo III: Fig. 14.1 – Grid letters should shift one square to the west; grid number should shift one square to the south. Megiddo III: Fig. 14.2 – Grid letters should shift one square to the west; grid number should shift one square to the south. Megiddo III: Fig. 14.5 – Grid letters should shift one square to the west; grid number should shift one square to the south.

NOTES ON ThE NOrTh arrOwS IN MEGIDDO III aND MEGIDDO IV 1. The Megiddo Expedition utilizes a combination of a site-wide grid and local grids depending on the strategy of excavation at a particular location. The site-wide grid is a subdivision of the University of Chicago’s 25 m by 25 m grid (see Megiddo III: Fig. 1.2), which is aligned to the north as determined by the Chicago expedition. This grid has been used in the Area J excavation of Temple 4050 (Stratum xIx; Levels J-2 and J-3), Area M, Area F, the original grid of Area H and Area G. 2. The north arrow shown on the plans for Levels J-2 and J-3 in Megiddo III (Figs. 3.10–3.11) is in line with the orientation of the grid used for the excavation of the Levels J-2 and J-3 temples, i.e., the main site-wide grid. The north arrow here, therefore, is correct vis-à-vis the University of Chicago plans. 3. The local grid of the main sector of Area J is aligned with the orientation of Temple 4040. The temple’s orientation is of 20° east of University of Chicago north. Thus, the north arrow on plans of the main Area J grid should point 20° differently than the main Area J grid. 4. The north arrow on most plans in Megiddo III and Megiddo IV is, in fact, pointing 30°. Any attempt to correlate these plans with the University of Chicago plans will result in misaligned architecture. 5. These north arrows should be rotated 10° clockwise to match both the University of Chicago grid and the primary Megiddo Expedition site-wide grid. 6. The following figures are affected by this discrepancy: Megiddo III: Figs. 3.26, 3.43, 3.46; Megiddo IV: Figs. 3.4, 3.7, 3.10, 3.14, 3.16a, 3.20, 3.22, 3.24–3.25, 3.28. 7. This problem has been corrected on plans.

CONSErVaTION, DuMpS aND BaCKfIllING As the preservation of the existing monuments is one of the primary tenets of the Megiddo Expedition (Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Halpern 2000: 10), a number of squares in and around Temples 4040 and 5192 were backfilled to the temples’ floor level. Additionally, it was found that rain water was beginning to undercut the foundations of these temples, as well as Altar 4017. These walls were shored up with excavation dump where needed. An effort was made to direct runoff water away from these structures. Figure 2.1 shows the location of all backfilling and dumping operations since 2004. In the 2008 season, it was decided that the western porch Pillar Base 08/J/214 of Temple 4040 (Loud 1948: Figs. 179, 186) needed to be removed in order to properly investigate the Level J-4 altar and its

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spatial relationship to the rest of the sanctuary. Our concern in this venture was the preservation of the pillar base for future conservation, reconstruction and display. Our plan was to remove the stone and place it temporarily on top of the eastern base until such a time as a restoration scheme could be established. To do this, we enlisted the help of Yehoshua Dray, a restoration expert who specializes in moving and restoring heavy stone (Fig. 2.3).3 The operation was successful. The University of Chicago Expedition excavated well beneath the floor level of Stratum XV Temple 5269 (though no floor was found), but left in place the temple’s pillar base foundations with the bases precariously balanced on top (Loud 1948: Fig. 185). Over the last several decades, these bases have fallen from their perch and the foundations themselves accumulated a number of foreign stones. At the end of the 2008 season we cleaned away the brush and stones that were not part of the original foundations and replaced the two pillar bases in their original positions.

Fig. 2.3: Removal of Temple 4040’s western portico pillar base (Phase J-7b; Stratum xV), facing northeast.

3

http://www.yeshuat.com

27

AREA J, PART II: SUB-AREA LOWER J PART II: SUB-AREA LOWER J Adi Keinan

The paved courtyard of the cultic complex of Levels J-2 and J-3 was first excavated by the University of Chicago in the late 1930s (Fig. 2.4). The pavement was preserved in three segments: Locus 4118 in the central part of the complex, Locus 4064 in the southern part, and Locus 4008 in the northeast. Locus 4008 (Pavement 08/J/200 in the renewed excavations) – the most elaborate pavement segment – included 44 incised stone slabs depicting human and animal figures and signs and symbols. It was thus named the Picture Pavement. Following the renewed excavations in Area J, the pavement and the ‘curving wall’, supposedly enclosing the courtyard, were attributed to Level J-2 (Finkelstein and Ussishkin 2000a: 52). Pavement 4008 had two phases (Loud 1948: 61), which were termed ‘upper pavement’, associated with the curving stone wall, and ‘lower pavement’, attributed to an earlier phase. The upper pavement was removed by Loud, revealing a stepped-like pavement similar to a staircase. The removal of this upper pavement was recorded in Loud’s report with only one photograph (Fig. 2.5). At the end of the University of Chicago excavation, a high baulk was left along the northern edge of the excavated trench (Fig. 2.6). During the 70 years that passed since Loud’s excavation, the pavement’s condition deteriorated. About half of it was covered with earth and stone debris collapsed from the section created along the northern edge of Area BB. Other parts of the exposed pavement, especially those on its edges, were washed away. The impetus for the renewed excavations in Lower Area J was my study of the Picture Pavement (Keinan 2007), in which the relation between the various scenes incised on the slabs, the temple complex and the people who visited the temple were reexamined. Based on stylistic and conceptual considerations I attributed the pavement’s incisions to the domain of Egyptian art. questions regarding the function of the pavement within the earliest EB IB cultic complex and the significance of the engravings incised on many of its slabs arose from this study. Thus, the goals of the 2008 season in Lower Area J were: 1. To re-expose the Picture Pavement, record its remains to the maximal extent, check if some of the incised slabs are still in situ and look for new or unnoticed incisions; 2. To reassess the relationship between the pavement and the University of Chicago’s ‘curving wall’ (Loud 1948: 61, Fig. 390); 3. To check whether the lower pavement extends farther to the north.

prOGrESS Of wOrK The first part of the excavation was dedicated to the removal of the collapsed debris from the northern edge of Area BB upon the pavement.1 This was done in two adjoining squares, labelled Squares 1 and 2 (Loci 08/J/010 and 08/J/041 accordingly; Figs. 2.7–11).2 In both squares the collapse layer sloped steeply from west to east and from north to south.

1 2

28

The dump zone was set at about 25 m east of the excavated area, at the eastern edge of the tell (see Fig. 2.1). Lower Area J used a local grid, specifically laid for the excavation of the Picture Pavement, referred to here as Square 1, Square 2 and Incision A.

rera as

h: r sar aI ars II: Isr Ar sar e

Fig. 2.4: Plan of the Stratum xIx Temple (Loud 1948: Fig. 390).

eas

a

29

r rI r aIsrs

Fig. 2.5: The stepped-like pavement. Note the curving wall at the bottom right and the northern baulk at the bottom, looking south (Loud 1948: Fig. 146).

Fig. 2.6: Picture Pavement 4008; photograph taken during excavation, looking northwest (courtesy of the Oriental Institute, the University of Chicago).

30

rera

as

h: r sar aI ars II: Isr Ar sar e

eas

a

Fig. 2.7: Lower Area J, showing Square 1 on the right, Square 2 on the left and Incision A, looking north.

Square 1 was located directly to the north of the exposed pavement segment. The original eastern edge of the pavement was traced in the western part of the square; the eastern part of the square had no finds at the elevation of the pavement. By comparing the slabs that were found with the University of Chicago’s original excavation photos, we determined that the original northern baulk of Area BB was located just a few cm to the north of Square 1’s northern section. In Square 2 the pavement was revealed in almost the entire area. In its northwestern part some roughly rectangular slabs were found. This part of the pavement, which seemed to have been laid as a staircase, was the segment discovered under the upper pavement removed by Loud. He also removed some of these lower slabs – probably an indication that they were incised. This slab removal was not recorded by the University of Chicago team; therefore, if these slabs were incised, the depicted scenes remain unknown. After excavating these two squares, the southern half of the baulk between them was removed, revealing additional pavement slabs. In both squares the incised slabs had been removed during the University of Chicago excavation, hence the ‘negatives’ of the removed slabs could be traced (Fig. 2.8). Most of those ‘negatives’ match known slabs that were removed and published (see Appendix to Part II), but in some cases, unexpected ‘negatives’ of unknown slabs were found. Some slabs were found broken, probably due to the destruction caused by the collapsing stones of the northern baulk. Twelve slabs included some incisions and decoration patterns not known thus far; one of them is of particular interest. The second part of the excavation in Sub-Area Lower J comprised a 3 × 2 m Incision (A) into the line of the University of Chicago’s baulk at the northern edge of Area BB. It was cut at the western half of Square 2’s northern baulk.

31

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Fig. 2.8: Pavement 4008 after exposure and removal of slabs and before the removal of the upper pavement, looking south (courtesy of the Oriental Institute, the University of Chicago).

While removing the collapsed debris in this incision, we found part of the University of Chicago’s ‘curving wall’ (Wall 08/J/21). This is the southeastern edge of the segment that had been uncovered by Loud (see Fig. 2.5, bottom right). The contour of the original northern baulk left by the Chicago Expedition was detected just to the north of the wall. Continuing the excavation in this incision revealed Pavement 08/J/200 – part of the lower pavement unearthed by Loud. The wall was built later than the pavement, as the pavement slabs continued under it, at least a few cm northwards (Fig. 2.9), and as an earth layer of a few cm separated the pavement from the wall. This was also the case with Pavement 4064 and the wall on top of it, which were re-examined in 1994 (Finkelstein and Ussishkin 2000a: 52, where the pavement was assigned to Level J-2 and the later wall to Level J-3). After reaching the pavement’s level in the 2 × 2 m test incision, the latter was extended another metre to the north in order to excavate a larger portion of the original University of Chicago’s baulk and achieve a better picture of the stratigraphy (Fig. 2.10).

ThE STraTIGraphy LEVEL J-2 The earliest remains in the incision included a number of stones that appeared to be laid as a wall (08/J/30, Fig. 2.12). This possible earlier wall was five rows wide (1.24 m) and had one course of stones. A collapsed layer of medium-sized stones (08/J/176) to its east may have originated from this wall. A layer of dark

32

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Fig. 2.9: Stepped-like Pavement 08/J/200 and Wall 08/J/21 (on the left), looking north.

as

h: r sar aI ars II: Isr Ar sar e

eas

a

Fig. 2.10: Northern section of Incision A.

brown compact soil (08/J/161) was found above Wall 08/J/30 and its collapse layer. Level J-2 Pavement 08/J/200 did not extend northwards in this area. The revealed edge of Pavement 08/J/200 in this square is exactly the edge that was uncovered by the University of Chicago’s excavation. Compact mudbrick material (08/J/215) unearthed under one of the pavement’s slabs (see Slab D below) is part of the make-up laid prior to the construction of the courtyard’s pavement. LEVEL J-3 This level included Wall 08/J/21 – the University of Chicago’s enclosure wall of Stratum xIx – and some collapsed debris to its east. The exposed part of Wall 08/J/21 was actually its original eastern edge. It had one course on its northern part and two courses on the southern part. This part of the wall is wider than was previously thought. Loud did not uncover this wall to its entire width in this area, hence the University of Chicago’s Stratum xIx plan depicted it as getting narrower as it goes eastwards (see Fig. 2.4). It is now clear that the eastern edge of Wall 08/J/21 has exactly the same width as its western part that was unearthed by the University of Chicago team. Therefore, Wall 08/J/21 can be reconstructed as 1.5-m-wide throughout its length (Fig. 2.13). The relationship between this wall and the upper pavement remains unclear, since the latter had been fully removed by Loud. It is assumed that they were contemporaneous (Finkelstein and Ussishkin 2000a: 52). The remains of Wall 08/J/21 could have served as a stone foundation for a mudbrick superstructure, or more likely, there could have been additional stone courses, as hinted by some large and medium-sized

33

r rI r aIsrs

Fig. 2.11: Plan of Lower Area J. The incised slabs are marked by the letters A to I.

stones found to its east, which may have collapsed from it. The latest collapse layer of this level is Locus 08/J/140, which included some plaster patches and a mud ‘surface’ to the east. The plaster may have originated from Wall 08/J/21. The lighter brown ‘surface’ may be interpreted as brick collapse. LEVEL J-4(?) The elements described below, all found above Wall 08/J/21, seem to belong to Level J-4, though no physical connection with the monumental construction of this level farther west could be established. This level consisted of a series of light brown/pink clayish surfaces (08/J/134) laid over mudbrick material (08/J/134). Laid in a shallow pit beneath the clay surfaces were the fully articulated remains of a fetus/infant of either a sheep or a goat (08/J/135). Above the clayish surface was a thin layer of phytolith and an occupational layer above it – a horizontal ashy accumulation (08/J/116) containing a large quantity of charcoal.

34

rera

as

h: r sar aI ars II: Isr Ar sar e

eas

a

Fig. 2.12: Wall 08/J/21 and Wall 08/J/30 just below it on the left, looking north.

Fig. 2.13: Suggested reconstruction of Wall 08/J/21 (in black), after Loud 1948: Fig. 390 (in grey).

35

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INCISED SlaBS Some incisions and decoration patterns that have not been observed (or at least not published) thus far were found on 12 of the exposed slabs of Pavement 08/J/200 (see Figs. 2.11, 2.14a–b; Table 2.3). TABLE 2.3. INCISED SLABS FOUND DURING THE 2008 SEASON Slab

Square

Measurements (cm)

Elevation (m)

A

1

20 × 19

150.94

B

1 and to its south

46 × 28

150.78

C

2

55 × 20

151.55

D

2

43 × 25

151.60

E

2

32 × 22

151.91

F

2

40 × 32

151.86

G

2

63 × 21

151.98

H

Incision A

48 × 25

152.00

I

2

42 × 32

151.68

J

2

28 × 16

151.71

K

2

38 × 21

151.59

L

2

46 × 33

151.84

Slab A was not fully exposed since it continued into the square’s western baulk. It has two parallel lines incised at its bottom right, and a circular depression that may or may not be natural to its left. Slab B has two parallel lines at its left part. A natural crack is located to its right. Slab C has three sets of two parallel short lines: one on the left, one in the centre and one on the right part of the slab. The two lines on the right are only roughly parallel, the bottom line being much shorter than the top line. This slab was also part of the pavement below the upper pavement. Slab D includes the most elaborate and significant incisions (Fig. 2.15). It was part of the stepped-like pavement found by Loud below the upper pavement. The main element, incised at its centre, is a human male figure holding a spear. The figure is facing right, holding the spear in his left hand. Three circles in relief represent the eyes and mouth. In addition, the figure has a pointed beard. His breast is emphasized by two circles in relief. He is wearing a short skirt and a belt with a dagger; the belt has two bulges at its centre, and the skirt has three bulges on its right side, all in relief. The right hand was destroyed by what seems to be an intentional strike made at a later stage. Additional blows include a semicircle of strikes on the left half of the slab, a diagonal line of strikes on the right half of the slab and a few strikes on the top edge of the slab. Another incision on the slab seems to depict a bird above a net pattern, on the right half of the slab. A few incisions around it and around the human figure remain unidentified. Four groups of parallel short lines are incised on the right edge of the slab.

36

rera

as

h: r sar aI ars II: Isr Ar sar e

eas

a

Slab E constituted part of the stepped-like pavement. The two hind legs of an animal (note the emphasized calcaneus), maybe depicting a bull, are incised at the bottom left. Parts of the animal’s belly and tail are also preserved. The top right area of the slab includes incisions that seem to be part of a larger, worn depiction: one is a soft wavy line that forms a pointed hat-like shape. There are additional incisions on its top and bottom, including four short parallel lines. Slab F was also part of the stepped-like pavement segment found under the upper pavement. It has nine incised lines at its southeastern corner. They are arranged in two groups, one of five parallel lines (top) and the other of four parallel lines (bottom). In the first group the lines are longer than those in the second group, except for the top-most line, which is very short and may have originally been longer. Slab G was also part of the lower pavement. The large crack at its centre is natural. It has many incised lines on its surface. Four lines are incised above the large crack: two of them are horizontal, and the other two lines, incised closer to the left horizontal line, are diagonal. Two parallel lines with four short parallel lines between them are also incised above the crack, on the right. Additional lines are incised below the large crack: six short parallel lines close to the slab’s bottom left edge, and another line to their top right; another line in the centre; two horizontal parallel lines on the right side of the slab, with a net pattern between them. Slab H was also part of the step-like pavement segment found under the upper pavement. It is located one slab away from Wall 08/J/21. This slab has many incised lines, arranged in three main groups. The first group at the top part of the slab has three long horizontal parallel lines, and another line, not as straight as the others and not exactly parallel to them. The second group is at the bottom of the slab; it has one long horizontal line, and at least three other short lines, parallel to it. Another short line is incised to the right of these lines. The third group of lines is located on the right part of the slab. It is a design of three horizontal parallel lines, and a vertical line that intersects them in the middle. Slab I was already exposed prior to the excavation in this square. It is located at the southern edge of the preserved pavement. It has a circle of at least 19 small depressions, probably made by blows of a stone. Those depressions look like small ‘cup-marks’. The four depressions in the eastern part of the slab are deeper and clearer than the other depressions. A few other lines are incised on the surface of this slab; some of them may be natural cracks: three parallel lines are incised at the centre; another line is incised on the western part of the slab; another line is incised on its eastern part. Slab J was part of the step-like pavement segment found under the upper pavement. It includes a few incisions to the right: two parallel lines, ending in one short vertical line, and another line branching twice to additional short lines to their bottom. Slab K has numerous incisions, especially of straight lines and geometrical shapes. In the upper left are four straight lines extending from a single point. A quadrangle and two parallel lines are incised below them. A human-like shape (stick figure) appears at the centre of the slab, with a few incised lines extending from its top, bottom and sides. A rectangle with two lines incised in it can be seen nearby. A triangle with a line dividing it and two parallel lines extending from it are in the top right. A worn portion of a larger incision is located at the bottom: a triangle-like shape is incised next to two curving lines. There are additional incisions inside the shape: a line parallel to its top side, and two short parallel lines on the left. Many other lines are incised on the slab’s surface.

37

r rI r aIsrs

Fig. 2.14: Incised slabs.

38

rera

as

h: r sar aI ars II: Isr Ar sar e

eas

a

39

r rI r aIsrs

Fig. 2.15: Photograph and drawing (reconstructed) of Slab D.

40

rera

as

h: r sar aI ars II: Isr Ar sar e

eas

a

Fig. 2.16: Human figures incised on the Picture Pavement slabs (Loud 1948: Pl. 273: 5–6).

Slab L was part of the step-like pavement segment found under the upper pavement. At its centre are two curving lines ending at a single point, with eight short parallel lines between them; one of the short lines continues to curve upwards. The incision as a whole reminds one of a depiction of a scorpion, with its narrowing body and two semicircular claws.

DISCuSSION The excavation of Incision A showed that the Level J-2 Picture Pavement 08/J/200 did not extend farther to the north. Most of the incisions on the slabs of this pavement seem random and are very difficult to interpret. One motif (the pattern of two parallel lines) seems to repeat itself on at least nine of our 12 slabs. This motif was also incised on some of the slabs discovered by Loud (1948: Pl. 281: 31–33). The motif of the net pattern, appearing on two slabs (D and G), is also familiar from the previously found slabs (ibid.: Pls. 271: 1, 272: 4, 280: 26–29, 282: 34) and so is the motif of the short parallel lines between two long parallel lines (Slabs G and L; ibid.: Pl. 282: 36). The incised decoration on the edges of Slabs D, F and G (a group of four to six short parallel lines) is similar to a pattern on one of the slabs discovered by Loud – five parallel lines on the edge of a slab (Loud 1948: Pl. 277: 16). Slab H has an incision identical to an Egyptian potter’s mark (van den Brink 1992: 283, group xLI; example on p. 290, Fig. 11, Group xV No.

41

r rI r aIsrs

19-13). Another affinity with contemporary Egyptian motifs may be found in the scorpion incised on Slab L (assuming that the identification is correct).3 The animal incision on Slab E, represented by its hind legs, is a very typical depiction on the Picture Pavement; characteristic is the emphasized calcaneus on the back of the left leg (e.g., Loud 1948: Pls. 275: 10–11, 277: 14–16). Slab D deserves special attention. Similar to other human figures incised on slabs from Megiddo, the figure incised on this slab is one of the very few examples of human depictions in EB I in the southern Levant. Its general form and motifs are typical of the Megiddo incisions: the body’s position – upper part en façe, head and legs in profile, the beard and the belt, are common to almost all human figures incised on the pavement’s slabs. The spear is similar to another spear incised on a different slab (see Fig. 2.16: 7, right): a triangle-shaped spearhead placed on a long vertical staff. The figure on Slab D shows clear resemblance to the harpist depicted on another slab (see Fig. 2.16, 5, left); both share the same attributes: the eyes and mouth, the prominent breast, the belt and the dagger. However, whereas the face and breast of the harpist are incised, those of the figure on Slab D are raised in relief. Another interesting incision is a possible bird depiction, facing right, on the right part of the slab. Schematically incised, the bird is depicted only by the outline contour of its body, which is not complete at the tail area. The bird depiction lacks legs; instead there is a net pattern incised just below it. If the bird identification is correct, it is possible that this bird represents the Egyptian Horus falcon, symbolizing the contemporary pre-dynastic Egyptian king and attesting to his connection to Megiddo. The net pattern, the blows around the slab and on its surface and the groups of short parallel lines incised on the right edge of the slab are all common motifs on the Picture Pavement’s slabs. Their meaning remains vague – they could either convey magical symbolism, or they could be mere decoration on the slab. It is interesting to note that as most of the other incised slabs found at Megiddo by the University of Chicago expedition (Keinan 2007: 34–36), the scene incised on this slab is also oriented to the east. It is most probable that the scenes were deliberately oriented towards the entrance to the cultic complex, and were meant to be seen by people ascending towards the temple. Slab I was decorated with a circular pattern of depressions. This slab has at least three equivalents in Area J: 1. According to Ussishkin, this decoration is very similar to the spiral decoration on a slab uncovered in Locus 4064 (Finkelstein and Ussishkin 2000a: 52). We tried to locate this slab, which remained in situ after excavation, but with no success. 2. A very similar slab was found in the 2008 excavations season inside the Level J-4 monumental temple (Fig. 2.17; see Adams in Part III of this chapter). 3. A slab with the same spiral or circular decoration was found in the University of Chicago excavations (Fig. 2.18). This slab depicted four decapitated figures with a net pattern incised on top. The circular decoration, made by blows of a stone, was created on top of these incisions. The net pattern and the circle of stones were interpreted as magical symbols of the capturing or killing of these figures (Kempinski 1989: 173; Schroer and Keel 2005: 240). A similar decoration of incised lines around the edges of a slab was observed on another slab discovered by Loud (1948: Pl. 274: 8). According to Guillaume, these slabs could be used as game boards (Chapter 25).

3

42

The pre-dynastic King Scorpion is contemporary with the EB IB in the southern Levant. However, there is no clear synchronism between the early Egyptian kings and the EB IB strata at Megiddo.

rera

as

h: r sar aI ars II: Isr Ar sar e

eas

a

The Level J-3 Wall 08/J/21 was built above Wall 08/J/30, and enclosed the courtyard at a later stage. It is clear that this wall was later than the Level J-2 08/J/200 Picture Pavement, as it was separated from it by a few cm of earth debris. The eastern edge of Wall 08/J/21 was very clear, and no continuation of this wall was found either by us or by the University of Chicago’s team. Therefore, it is possible that this was a north-south entrance to the cultic complex of Level J-3. It is also possible that the face of the wall was plastered, according to the plaster bits that were found to its east. The layers above Wall 08/J/21 may have belonged to Level J-4; however there was no architecture with which to relate them, so their actual affiliation remains unclear. It is possible that the series of clay surfaces (08/J/134) represents multiple resurfacing of an exterior courtyard, maybe serving the same function as the earlier Picture Pavement. It is interesting to note that the earliest phase of the 08/J/134 clay surfaces was laid in a slope, whereas the latest phase of this locus was more or less horizontal – as if some sort of levelling was needed. This change could be related to the construction of massive Wall 4045,

Fig. 2.17: Slab with a circle of depressions, found in the Level J-4 temple, looking south.

Fig. 2.18: Incised slab with a circle of depressions (Loud 1948: Pl. 272: 4).

43

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unearthed by the University of Chicago team farther to the east. If this wall was used as a terrace wall, it would explain the levelling of the whole area of the cultic complex of this phase. This levelling phase can be observed in the latest clay surface of 08/J/134, as well as the layers above it – the phytolith layer with the occupational level on top (08/J/116) – both are horizontal. It is also possible that all these clay surfaces represent a single levelling event, carried out in a few stages. If this were the case, the clay surfaces would have been contemporary with the phytolith and ashy layers above them.

CONCluSIONS Considering the new information, the stratigraphy of Lower Area J can be refined as follows: 1. The lower pavement (08/J/200) and its foundation (08/J/215) represent the earliest phase of the complex. Following the renewed excavations it was concluded that the Picture Pavement is contemporary with the Level J-2 temple that underlies Level J-3 Temple 4050. 2. The upper pavement and Wall 08/J/21 belong to the next phase, which seems to be contemporary with the Level J-3 Temple 4050. 3. Clay Surfaces 08/J/134, uncovered above Wall 08/J/21, may suggest a later courtyard, contemporary with the monumental temple of Level J-4. 4. The ashy, horizontal layer (08/J/116) above the phytolith layer, representing the occupational debris above the clay surfaces, may also be attributed to Level J-4.

44

rera

as

h: r sar aI ars II: Isr Ar sar e

eas

a

APPENDIx: TABLE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO’S INCISED SLABS No.

Plate No. in Megiddo II

Field No. Slab location

Approx. slab meas. (cm)

Approx. incision meas. (cm)

Upper/ Lower Pavement

1

271: 1

c 307

Oriental Institute, Chicago

48 × 34

23 × 19

L

2

271: 2

d 282

Oriental Institute, Chicago

57 × 28

8×7

L

3

271: 3

c 322

Oriental Institute, Chicago

45.5 × 28

9.5 × 8; 11 × 10

L

4

272: 4

c 334

Oriental Institute, Chicago

50 × 30

40 × 22

L

5

273: 5

c 308

Israel Museum, Jerusalem

42 × 21.5

14 × 13

L

6

273: 6

c 309

Oriental Institute, Chicago

61 × 24

32 × 14

L

7

273: 7

c 311

Unknown

-

17 × 10

L

8

274: 8

c 320

Oriental Institute, Chicago

48 × 32

32 × 25

L

9

275: 9

d 283

Oriental Institute, Chicago

35.5 × 30.5

13 × 9

L

10

275: 10

c 312

Oriental Institute, Chicago

58.5 × 32

33 × 17

L

11

275: 11

c 336

Rockefeller Museum, Jerusalem 64 × 19.5

26 × 13

L

12

276: 12

c 98

Oriental Institute, Chicago

60 × 26

36 × 18

L

13

276: 13

c 314

Oriental Institute, Chicago

48 × 30.5

19 × 12

L

14

277: 14

d 280

Oriental Institute, Chicago

57 × 35.5

16 × 9

L

15

277: 15

c 313

Oriental Institute, Chicago

48 × 33

22 × 15

L

16

277: 16

d 284

Rockefeller Museum, Jerusalem 42 × 29

18 × 11

L

17

278: 17

c 319

Unknown

-

13 × 8

L

18

278: 18

d 281

Oriental Institute, Chicago

51 × 45.5

14 × 14

L

19

278: 19

c 315

Oriental Institute, Chicago

48 × 27

15 × 11

L

20

278: 20

c 321

Rockefeller Museum, Jerusalem 45 × 20.5

26 × 16

L

21

279: 21

d 279

Rockefeller Museum, Jerusalem 45 × 20.5

20 × 19

L

22

279: 22

c 344

Rockefeller Museum, Jerusalem 59 × 25.5

6×6

L

23

279: 23

d 285 (A, B)

Oriental Institute, Chicago

61 × 48

12 × 6; 8 × 5; 12 × 5.5; 11.5 × 6

L

24

280: 24

c 323

Unknown

-

16 × 8

L

25

280: 25

d 278

Oriental Institute, Chicago

47 × 25.5

9.5 × 8

L

26

280: 26

c 332

Unknown

-

16.5 × 11

U

27

280: 27

c 310

Oriental Institute, Chicago

23 × 12.5

7×4

L

28

280: 28

c 335

Unknown

-

8×7

L

45

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APPENDIx: TABLE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO’S INCISED SLABS (cont.) No.

Plate No. in Megiddo II

Field No. Slab location

Approx. slab meas. (cm)

Approx. incision meas. (cm)

Upper/ Lower Pavement

29

280: 29

c 333

Unknown

-

18 × 16

U

30

281: 30

c 325

Unknown

-

16 × 11

L

31

281: 31

c 331

Unknown

-

10 × 10; 6.5 × 4.5

U

32

281: 32

c 316

Unknown

-

15 × 14

L

33

281: 33

c 330

Unknown

-

15 × 14

L

34

282: 34

c 318

Unknown

-

26 × 22

L

35

282: 35

c 328

Unknown

-

15 × 7; 15 × 12

U

36

282: 36

c 329

Unknown

-

23 × 18

U

37

Unpublished c 324

Unknown

-

-

L

38

Unpublished c 326

Unknown

-

-

L

39

Unpublished c 327

Unknown

-

-

L

40

Unpublished c 317

Unknown

-

-

L

41

Unpublished -

Unknown

-

-

-

42

Unpublished -

Unknown

-

-

-

43

Unpublished -

Unknown

-

-

-

44

Unpublished -

Unknown

-

-

-

46

AREA J, PART III: THE MAIN SECTOR OF AREA J Matthew J. Adams

PART III: THE MAIN SECTOR OF AREA J Matthew J. Adams

This sub-chapter presents new information relating to Levels J-4, J-5, J-6 and J-7 (see Tables 2.2 and 2.4) with an appendix on the 2010 season. The Area J Middle and Late Bronze stratigraphy is discussed in Part IV of this chapter. The Middle Bronze Age ceramic sequence and tombs will be presented in future reports. While the basic stratigraphic results of the 2008 operation in Sub-Area Lower J are discussed by Adi Keinan in Part II of this chapter, the current sub-chapter discusses the larger stratigraphic implications of that work relating to the overall stratigraphic sequence of the Early Bronze Age. Table 2.4 summarizes the current stratigraphic attributions of the Early Bronze Age levels in relation to those previously published. Note that unlike the other areas under investigation by the renewed excavations, Area J’s stratigraphic numbering system begins from the earliest occupation (see Finkelstein and Ussishkin 2000a: 34). TABLE 2.4: COMPARISON OF EARLY BRONzE LEVEL ATTRIBUTIONS, 1994–PRESENT Megiddo III

Megiddo IV

Current (Megiddo V)

Level

Period

Level

Period

Level/Phase

Period

J-4

EB IB

J-4

EB IB

J-4

EB IB

Gap

EB IB

J-4a

EB IB

J-4a

EB IB–II*

Gap

EB II

J-5

EB III

J-5

EB III

J-5

EB III

J-6

EB III

J-6b

EB III

J-6b

EB III

J-6a

EB III

J-6a

EB III

J-7

EB III+

J-7

EB III-IBA**

J-7

EB III+

* EB IB according to Finkelstein and Ussishkin. ** EB III according to Finkelstein (Chapter 40), IBA according to Adams (this chapter) and Ussishkin (Chapter 39).

lEVEl J-2 During the 2004–2008 seasons, remains of Level J-2 were encountered only in the re-exposure of the University of Chicago’s Stratum xIx Picture Pavement 4008 in Lower Area J (08/J/200; for new incised slabs see Keinan in Part II of this chapter). This pavement was linked in Megiddo III with the temple found directly beneath the Level J-3 (Stratum xIx) Temple 4050 (Finkelstein and Ussishkin 2000: 38, 55, Fig. 3.10).

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Fig. 2.19: Remains of Level J-2 on the eastern slope.

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Fig. 2.20: Remains of Level J-3 on the eastern slope.

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The curved northern wall appearing on the Stratum xIx plan, our Wall 08/J/21, was interpreted by the University of Chicago’s excavators as contemporary with this picture pavement. This was accepted in Megiddo III (Finkelstein and Ussishkin 2000: 52, Fig. 3.10; see also Level J-3 plan, below, Fig. 2.20). The 2008 season demonstrated that Wall 08/J/21 is later than the picture pavement (Fig. 2.9). This wall has therefore been assigned to Level J-3 (Fig. 2.20). Level J-2, then, is composed of the temple below Temple 4050, its paved ascending courtyard, Picture Pavement 08/J/200 and Wall 08/J/30 (Fig. 2.19).

lEVEl J-3 Level J-3 is defined by Temple 4050, which had been exposed by the University of Chicago and reinvestigated by us in 1994 (Loud 1948: Fig. 390; Finkelstein and Ussishkin 2000: 50–52). The 2008 season demonstrated that curved Wall 08/J/21 dates later than Picture Pavement 08/J/200 of Level J-2, resting on some 10 cm of fill (see above, Fig. 2.9; Keinan, Part II of this chapter). This is identical to the situation found in the southeast corner of the Level J-3 courtyard where the ‘right-angled’ wall was found to be resting on a 10+ cm fill over Pavement 4064 (Finkelstein and Ussishkin 2000: 52), indicating that both walls are part of the same construction and both later than the picture pavement (Fig. 2.20).

Fig. 2.21: Schematic section through Area BB showing the location of Incision A (facing north; after Loud 1948: Fig. 416). Level J-4 is in grey. For clarity, the upper pavement of Level J-3 and Wall 08/J/21 are not indicated.

lEVEl J-4: ThE GrEaT TEMplE Level J-4 is defined by the massive monumental temple, the Great Temple, on the summit of the EB IB acropolis (Figs. 2.22–2.25; see also Adams, Finkelstein and Ussishkin forthcoming). From 1996 to 2000, excavation revealed three monumental mudbrick-on-stone-socle walls extending some 50 m east to west across Area J and a portion of a broad-room-style sanctuary on their northern side (Finkelstein and Ussishkin 2000a; Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Peersmann 2006). The 2004–2008 seasons’ primary goal was to continue to expose the plan of the Level J-4 sanctuary. From 2004 to 2006, work proceeded in eight squares (F–J/7–8) down to the temple floor, and the 2008 season was dedicated to small key-hole incisions aimed at answering specific architectural and stratigraphic questions. We have now exposed the maximum area of the sanctuary accessible within the University of Chicago’s Area BB (Figs. 2.2, 2.24). With approximately 60% of the structure exposed, it is clear that the temple was

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Fig. 2.22: Aerial photograph of the Great Temple of Level J-4 after the 2008 season, facing south.

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Fig. 2.23: Remains of Level J-4 in the sanctuary of the Great Temple (basalt slabs marked in black).

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Fig. 2.24: Remains of Level J-4 (basalt slabs marked in black).

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Fig. 2.25: Suggested reconstruction of the J-4 temple based on a central axis through the entrance and Altar 08/J/204 (basalt slabs marked in black).

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a broad-room-style building in the tradition of the ‘Ein Gedi shrine (Ussishkin 1980; Kempinski 1992). This tradition has a history at Megiddo reaching back to the Level J-3 temple and possibly to the underlying Level J-2 temple (Figs. 2.19–2.20). The reconstructed sanctuary is a broad hall entered from the centre of the northern long wall (Figs. 2.24–2.25). Opposite the entrance is a mudbrick and stone altar. The roof was supported by a row of 12 columns established on roughly hewn stone bases (six excavated, six others reconstructed). The column row is flanked by six pairs (12 altogether) of large basalt tables (seven tables excavated, five others reconstructed). The structure also has a set of three corridors that apparently acted as favissae for the bones of sacrifices (Fig. 2.24). THE TEMPLE WALLS The sanctuary is bounded on the south by Wall 96/J/7 and on the north by Wall 00/J/21, forming a consistent interior width of 8.90 m. In Megiddo IV, we reported the thickness of the northern sanctuary wall as 2.6 m (Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Peersmann 2006: 38). Excavation of the northern baulk of Square F/7 has proved this incorrect, demonstrating its thickness as 3.45 m, exactly that of southern sanctuary Wall 96/J/7 and corridor Wall 96/J/1 (Fig. 2.23). The inner face of western sanctuary Wall 08/J/25 was completely robbed (in Level J-5, see below); it was identifiable in the baulk of Squares J/7–K/7 by the remains of the eastern chalk-paste coating left in situ by the robbers (Fig. 2.26), as was the case in other portions of the robbed sanctuary walls in Squares H/7 through F/7 (Figs. 2.27–2.28; see Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Peersmann 2006: 38). The plaster is in perfect alignment with the eastern face of Wall 98/J/33 (Square K/9; Fig. 2.24; see Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Peersmann 2006: 36–37). The western face of Wall 08/J/25, then, can be reconstructed in line with the western face of Wall 98/J/33 with a thickness of 3.45 m – in agreement with the other walls of the sanctuary. The interior of the sanctuary walls were all coated with a thin mud preparation coat followed by a finishing coat of white chalk paste. The paste was not cooked to create a formal plaster but was simply composed of local chalk mixed with water with a straw binder (Friesem and Shahack-Gross, Part V of this report, RME-25–26). In places where we could section this plaster and the floor of the temple (e.g., Fig. 2.28), it was clear that the bottom of this coating was at the approximate level of the floor but did not curve into a floor coating as is common in plastered floor buildings. The floor was left with an earthen finish (see below). In Megiddo IV we reconstructed a continuation of Wall 96/J/1 to meet Wall 00/J/19, forming an entrance to the rear corridors (blocked by Wall 98/J/33) by way of a narrow plastered corridor (00/J/185 and 00/J/201; Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Peersmann 2006: Fig. 3.14). We now consider Walls 08/J/25 and 98/J/33 to comprise the exterior structural wall of the main temple edifice. Plastered Corridor 00/J/201, then, must form an alley that allowed access from the front courtyard of the temple (north of Wall 00/J/21) to the area south of Wall 96/J/23. It is assumed that from this period through the Middle Bronze Age, a series of terrace walls were built successively farther west of this point to support the expanding acropolis (see below, and Adams and Bos in Part IV of this chapter). It is likely that Wall 00/J/19 is the earliest example of this practice, forming the western edge of the acropolis terrace. The temple had no subterranean foundations (Figs. 2.28–2.29). The structure was constructed upon a levelled surface. This surprising feature was tested by small sondages excavated at the interior face of Wall 00/J/21 in Square H/7 (Fig. 2.28) and within the robber trench of the same wall in Square G/7. The latter revealed the bottom of the wall at elevation 155.95 m. Both test trenches revealed that the wall rested

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Fig. 2.26: Robber trench of Wall 08/J/25 (arrow 1) with chalk-paste coating in situ (arrow 2), facing northwest. Note the subterranean Level J-17 stone Structure 5239 (left, arrow 3).

Fig. 2.27: Level J-4 northern sanctuary Wall 00/J/21, facing northwest. Note remains of chalk-paste coating at points where the wall was robbed.

Fig. 2.28: Square H/7 east section. Striated remains near the base of the section are Level J-4a squatter’s debris and temple collapse (see also Fig. 2.38). At left, Probe 06/J/099/PT003 reveals the bottom of Wall 00/J/21. Note phytolith level 08/J/185 in low baulk at right.

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Fig. 2.29: North-south architectural section through Area J. The Great Temple of Level J4 is at bottom and Temple 4040 of Level J-7 at top (see Fig. 2.3).

Fig. 2.30: Level J-4 temple entrance, facing northeast.

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on a thin dense compact fill (08/J/202), characterized by high concentration of flint debitage and bladelets (see Chapter 15), which in turn covered a thick construction fill (06/J/91). The surface of this thin layer also acted as the temple floor (see below). The lack of subterranean wall foundations was also recognized in the southern corridors in previous seasons (Finkelstein and Ussishkin 2000: 60–63). This observation provides an important datum for the reconstruction of the acropolis. From the later location of round Altar 4017, the general slope of the tell was down to the north, west and east (Franklin and Peersmann, personal communication; see Fig. 2.29). Had the Level J-4 temple been constructed on this slope without preparation, deep foundations would have been required, deeper for each wall north of another. As this is not the case, it is clear that a massive filling and terracing operation had been carried out here in preparation for the construction of the temple (Figs. 2.21, 2.29, 2.42, 2.48). This fill, consisting of dense mudbrick debris of a characteristically greenish colour, 06/J/91 (Fig. 2.37), was detected in Squares H/8 through F/8. Mudbrick lines were apparent but did not form a coherent pattern, leading us to the conclusion that it is construction fill for the temple support terrace. The fill must have been laid behind a large terrace wall extending along the northern slope (but see Appendix to Part III). THE ENTRANCE In 2008, excavation of the baulk between Squares E/7–F/7 revealed the western half of the entrance to the sanctuary through Wall 00/J/21 (Figs. 2.30–2.31). The entrance (directly opposite the altar as in the Level J-3 temple) was paved with basalt slabs (Fig. 2.30). The pavement was cracked, but appears to have been

Fig. 2.31: Level J-4 entrance door socket and orthostat plinth (plinth stone is original; orthostat is reconstructed).

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composed of at least one large slab at least 1 m long and 0.40 m wide (which continues into the eastern and northern baulks). Several thin broken basalt slabs were found lying haphazardly upon the pavement, the collapse of which seems to be responsible for the broken pavement. These thin slabs are separated by a very thin layer of wind-blown dust and may have fallen onto the pavement early in the process of collapse of the temple. These collapsed slabs may be all that remain of a basalt orthostat dado that may have lined the entrance of the building (Fig. 2.31). The basalt-paved entrance is separated from the western jamb of Wall 00/J/21 by approximately 0.75 m. The remains of well laid stones in this gap in the southern portion of the entrance are arranged around a cavity that may have been a door socket (Fig. 2.31). Immediately northwest of this possible socket, in a narrow channel between the end of (and parallel to) Wall 00/J/21 and the socket reinforcement stones, is a smooth flat-topped piece of basalt that may have formed a plinth for the entrance orthostats. THE COLUMN BASES AND ROOFING The roof of the temple was held up by a row of column bases down the centre of the longitudinal axis of the building, bisecting the sanctuary into north and south (Figs. 2.23–2.25). Six bases were found west of the altar, five made from roughly hewn limestone, the sixth from basalt. The five westernmost bases were equidistant from one another and from the western sanctuary wall (an intercolumnar space of ca. 2.50 m; or ca. 3.20–3.30 m on-centre). A sixth column base, the one farthest east, is off-centre and much closer to its neighbour than the others. Had this base been placed at the next calculated distance, it would have obscured the view of and interrupted access to the altar from the doorway. It is evident in other examples of the broad-room temple that access from door to altar is preferrably unobstructed (e.g., Fig. 2.20). Simply omitting the next base to leave space was inadvisable from an engineering point of view. Therefore, this off-centre base with a presumed counterpart to the east was intended to help span the extra-long gap with an additional architrave beam and leave the axis of the temple clear (Fig. 2.32).1 We were only able to excavate beneath one of these column bases, that in Square J/8 where it is located in the northern section. The base was placed upon a stone foundation that assisted in distributing the weight of the column. The minimum surface area of these column bases is approximately 0.123 m2, indicating a maximum diameter of a column at around 0.40 m. Local trees growing in forests covering Mount Carmel and the Menashe Hills would have been more than adequate for the needs of this temple, whether a second storey was needed or not. Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis)2 and Mt. Tabor oak (Quercus ithaburensis) certainly could have provided timber for columns and roofing beams in the 5 m range (or even the full 9+ m of the hall width with above-average specimens of each species).3 Olive (Olea europaea) too, could theoretically provide adequate 5 m straight timber as evidenced, for example, by numerous examples with several-metre-tall trunks seen by the author and Lev-Yadun in the region of Beit Lehem HaGlilit. All three 1

2

3

There may have been a less functional desire on the part of the architect to have six column bases on either side of the central axis of the temple. There were six column bases and six basalt tables for a reconstructed total of 12. This number may have played an important symbolic role in the Megiddo cult. See Weinstein-Evron and Lev-Yadun (2000) for the discussion of Pinus halepensis as part of the natural landscape before the Late Bronze Age. Remains are now well attested in the archaeological record for the Early Bronze age, particularly at Megiddo (Lev-Yadun and Weinstein-Evron 2002; Liphschitz 2006; contra Liphschitz, Chapter 30 in this volume). I wish to thank Professor Simcha Lev-Yadun of Haifa University for hours of conversation about the potential of local timber in the construction of this temple and for supplying the arboreal information herein.

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Fig. 2.32: Level J-4 Great Temple sanctuary, facing south. Note alternate alignment of easternmost column base (left) in relation to entrance and altar.

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species grew locally in the Early Bronze Age and are well attested in the wood assemblage of Megiddo and other sites in the Jezreel Valley (Liphschitz 2007: 38, Table 2.6; Lev-Yadun and Weinstein-Evron 2002). Specifically for Level J-4, Olea europaea dominates the wood assemblage (Liphschitz 2000; 2006; this volume).4 Thus, there is no need to hypothesize the importation of Cedrus libani (Cedar of Lebanon), which, in any case, is not attested in the wood assemblages of the Jezreel Valley until the Late Bronze Age (Liphschitz 2007: 38, Table 2.6). Given forests in the proximity of the site, the potential to yield timber of the sizes needed (Lev-Yadun and Weinstein-Evron 2002) and the known wood samples from Level J-4 (Liphschitz 2006 and this volume), the most likely candidates for beams and columns within the Level J-4 temple are the local Pinus halepensis (see note 3 above), Quercus ithaburensis and Olea europaea. An extensive lens of grass phytoliths among the collapse within the temple (see below) suggests the possibility of a thatched roof (see Friesem and Shahack-Gross, Part V of this chapter). Whatever the height of the building, the amount of collapsed debris within the temple suggests only a single storey. This, however, does not rule out the possibility of useable space on the roof for storage, or perhaps, astronomical observation. THE BASALT RITUAL TABLES Perhaps the most striking feature of the whole temple is the system of massive basalt ritual tables set in two rows flanking the longitudinal axis of the sanctuary (Figs. 2.23–2.32). There were at least eight of these massive basalt ritual tables,5 six rectangular and two circular. A convergence of metrological data that will be presented below demands a reconstruction of the temple with the latitudinal axis centred upon the altar and entrance, and forces a reconstruction of 12 total basalt tables. This mirrored reconstruction jibes well with the fact that the altar is flanked by rectangular ritual tables rather than alternating rectangular and circular. The rectangular slabs are approximately 1 m by 1.5 m and the circular are approximately 1.5 m in diameter (see specific measurements below, Table 2.5). The only slab whose bottom was reached was 08/J/207, where we measured its thickness at 20.5 cm. We tentatively assume that the others are similar, with an average weight near one ton each. The centre of each of these slabs is equidistant from its neighbour in the same row, and the centre line of the ritual table in each row is parallel to the other. In Megiddo IV, it was hypothesized that these basalt slabs were the column bases supporting the temple roof (Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Peersmann 2006: 38 and Fig. 3.29). At the time, however, we had only revealed two of the centre limestone slabs (those in Square F/8), which appeared to have no relationship to the rest of the architecture. With further exposure of the central row of limestone bases, the large basalt slabs must be interpreted differently. The only evidence for their function is the presence of a beautifully carved holemouth bowl in circular Table 08/J/207 (Figs. 2.32–2.33). The cavity, off-centre in favour of the north, is 12 cm deep with a rim diameter of 23 cm. Presumably this was a receptacle for a liquid that played a role in the cult. The very existence of the cavity, which must have had a functional purpose, eliminates the possibility that the slabs themselves were objects of veneration (as in massebot). The fact that the cavity is off-centre suggests that something else held the centre position, perhaps a cult statue or 4

5

Most of the wood remains reported by Liphschitz (2000; 2006) do not come from the sanctuary itself. Those that come from the squatter’s debris (Phase J-4a) include the following species: Olea europaea, Pistacia palaestina, Cupressus sempervirens and Quercus calliprinos (Liphschitz 2006: Table 26.1). Unfortunately, it is impossible to tell what species were reused during the squatter’s phase from the wooden construction in the original temple. While not exposed, the counterpart to 08/J/211 is virtually assured.

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other fetish. In this light, the term ‘ritual table’ seems apt. Receptacles of an architectural nature related to temple sanctuaries and ritual are known from both Mesopotamia and Egypt in the late fourth and third millennia. The ED III Ishtar Temple H at Assur contained several oval hemispherical bowls embedded in the floor near the edge of the internal sanctuary podium (Andrae 1922: 39, Abb. 11–12; Ellis 1968: 127). The contemporary Ishtar temple cella at Mari also had numerous similar oval bowls sunk near architectural features such as benches and pedestals (cf. our ‘tables’) (Parrot 1956: passim, see especially Fig. 30a–d and Pl. xI, 2–4; Ellis 1968: 127). Something similar may have had a parallel use in the late Pre-Dynastic/ Early Dynastic sacred area at the site of Mendes in Egypt (Adams 2009). I would like to further suggest the possibility that this receptacle served a function similar to the holemouth jar imbedded in the floor near a basalt slab in the Level J-3 temple (Finkelstein and Ussishkin 2000a: Fig 3.24, the bones from within being secondary; Wapnish and Hesse 2000: 444). The characteristically green colour of the terrace Fill 06/J/91 beneath the temple floor (see below) proved advantageous because we could easily trace the outlines of the foundation trenches for the basalt ritual tables (Fig. 2.34). It was clear, most obviously in the case of the circular ritual tables, that foundation trenches only slightly larger than the size and shape of the tables were dug and filled with medium-sized field stones; the basalt ritual tables were then lowered down into the foundation trench. This allowed the table tops to be only a few cm above the floor of the temple. A sondage (08/J/108) into a portion of the foundation trench for ritual Table 08/J/207 afforded us an opportunity to verify the foundation trench and to ascertain the thickness of one of the tables; ritual Table 08/J/207 proved to be 20.5 cm thick. While we exposed some of the foundation stones beneath the table, we were not able to determine the depth of these foundations. With the thickness of the ritual table, we were able to approximate the weight of this particular table and to estimate the weight of the others (Table 2.5). TABLE 2.5: BASALT RITUAL TABLES DATA6 Ritual Table Shape

Length

Width

Heighta

Volume

Weightb

08/J/205

Rectangular

1.65 m*

0.83 m

0.205 m

0.2807 m3*

0.7691 tons

08/J/206

Rectangular

1.65 m*

0.85 m

0.205 m

0.2875 m3*

0.7878 tons

3

1.1435 tons

08/J/207

Circular

1.61m

1.61 m

0.205 m

0.4174 m

08/J/208

Circular

Areac =

1.45 m2

0.205 m

0.2973 m3

0.8146 tons

3

1.0313 tons 0.8500 tons

08/J/209

Rectangular

1.80 m

1.02 m

0.205 m

0.3764 m

08/J/210

Rectangular

1.70 m

0.89 m

0.205 m

0.3102 m3

08/J/211

6

62

Rectangular

1.60 m*

0.80 m

0.205 m

0.2624 m

3*

0.7190 tons

An asterisk indicates that the measurement has been estimated. a. Since only one of the slabs was excavated to its base, its thickness is assumed for the purpose of this table. b. Based on a standard of 2.74 tons per cubic m of basalt. c. Calculated by chord (0.9 m) and segment height (0.17 m) since most of the table is within the baulk.

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Fig. 2.33: Cavity within Table 08/J/207, facing north. Collapsed chalk wall coating was found inside the cavity (08/J/101). Note collapsed chalk in section, beneath which was the phytolith layer (08/J/185), both sealing the cavity and table.

Fig. 2.34: Level J-4 Tables 08/J/207 and 08/J/208, in 2006. Note foundation trenches of tables cut into lighter greenish fill (06/J/091). Squares G/7 and G/8, facing northwest.

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BENCHES On the north side of the sanctuary abutting the southern chalk-paste coated face of Wall 00/J/21 and flanking the western side of the entrance, we found evidence of a mudbrick Bench 08/J/24 coated with chalk paste (Square F/7; Fig. 2.35).7 In Megiddo IV, the presence of ‘two well-plastered steps’ (here, ‘chalk coating’8) flanking the western side of the altar and running parallel to and abutting the southern sanctuary Wall 96/J/7 was indicated (Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Peersmann 2006: 38). In the 2006 and 2008 seasons, we identified the continuation of the upper ‘step’ in the baulk between Squares H/8–H/9 extending 65 cm from Wall 96/J/7 (Fig. 2.23). Here, there was not a second, lower step. We were thus prompted to re-examine the lower ‘step’ in Square F/9 (in 2008) and determined that the coating was wall collapse and that there was no sign of a mudbrick substructure. There was indeed only one mudbrick bench along the southern wall. In several places in the Squares H/8–H/9 baulk, the putative chalk coating of the bench was found lying over the northern edge of the step, clearly having fallen onto the edge and broken. Also, in places on top of the bench, chalk coating was present lying at a slanted angle away from the wall, and, while it is clearly the same material as the wall coating, its consistency is more puddle-like and sorted, suggesting that it washed down off of the wall onto the bench. The presence of other chalk ‘puddles’ and water-erosion channels in the post-abandonment phase (Phase J-4a) of the temple attests to the effect of exposure to the elements (see below and Fig. 2.36). Additionally, it appeared in some places that this ‘puddle’ coating lay over already denuded portions of the bench, suggesting that it accumulated after the abandonment of the temple. Unlike the northern bench, in no place along the southern bench was there any evidence of chalk-paste vertically coating it; all chalk was found on top of it. Thus, in contrast to the bench on the north side of the hall, there is no indication of chalk coating on the southern bench. This bench may have continued all the way to the western sanctuary wall from the altar along Wall 96/J/7 or have stopped short of the western wall (as in the ‘Ein Gedi shrine, Ussishkin 1980: Fig. 3). We found no indication of a comparable bench on the east side of the altar in Square E/9, nor was there evidence of a bench against the western Wall 08/J/25. It should also be noted that the bench clearly was not constructed until the second ‘phase’ of the altar (see below). THE FLOOR The first encounters with floors relating to this building outside the sanctuary were in the rear corridors where they were made of clay with a thin layer of ash topped with an accumulation of bones (Finkelstein and Ussishkin 2000: 60). Within the sanctuary, the ‘floor’ was first encountered in 1998 in Square F/9. There, west of the altar, the two ‘steps’ (above) stepped down onto a whitish surface (Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Peersmann 2006: 38), which was originally interpreted as a plastered floor (ibid.). However, re-exposure in 2008 revealed that it was, in fact, a very compacted thin lens of ash that was present 1 to 1.5 m around the altar.

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Because of the mirrored reconstruction mentioned above and elaborated below, we assume that a second bench flanked the eastern side of the doorway. This ‘plaster’ has been identified technically as a chalk paste (i.e., it was not cooked; see below and Part V).

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Fig. 2.35: Level J-4 Bench 08/J/024 against Wall 00/J/21. Square F/7 facing northeast.

Fig. 2.36: Square H/8-H/9 baulk, facing southeast. Note Phase J-4a water erosion channels and chalk Puddle 08/J/177. Note also the brick edge of the Level J-4 bench against Wall 96/J/07.

Work in the 2000 season revealed the inside of the temple in Squares F/7–8 and indicated that there were two floors. The earliest was a mud-packed ‘floor’ with a greenish hue (06/J/91).9 According to the interpretation offered in Megiddo IV, a brief period of abandonment as the result of an earthquake followed this ‘floor’ and ca. 15 cm of mudbrick debris accumulated before renewed habitation at the site saw the construction of a new floor (00/J/166) (Finkelstein and Ussishkin 2003; Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Peersmann 2006).

9

This was not found thinly plastered as reported in Megiddo IV (Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Peersmann 2006: 38). This report was a conflation of the thin compact ash from Square F/9 interpreted as a floor in 1998 and the discovery of this surface in 2000.

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In 2006, in Squares H/8 and G/8 we excavated down through the ‘upper floor’ and eventually reached the greenish mud surface seen in 2000. The ‘upper floor’ turned out to be a thin phytolith lens found in most parts of the temple (08/J/185; see Friesem and Shahack-Gross, Part V: Table 2.7, RME-30) and overlying a few of the basalt ritual tables and pillar bases (i.e., the pillars had been removed before the phytolith deposition); it thus post-dates the abandonment of the temple and is related to later collapse and sporadic activity within the temple (see Phase J-4a, below). In Square G/8 it was clear that the greenish mud was not a floor but rather mudbrick debris (06/J/91) that predated the construction of the temple. Lines of bricks were readily identifiable. Additionally, it was clear that the circular basalt ritual tables were cut down into this greenish debris (see above and Fig. 2.34). In 2006 and 2008 we found that this greenish debris is overlaid by a 2–3-cm-thick dense compact mud (08/J/202; Fig. 2.37). This mud was laid in order to level irregularities in the construction fill before building and was found in several squares beneath collapse and Phase J-4a debris and also in every sondage beneath the northern sanctuary wall. In summary, the greenish mudbrick debris encountered in several squares is representative of part of the massive terracing fill upon which the temple was constructed (but see Appendix to Part III). This rough surface was coated with the thin dense mud that smoothed out this platform to prepare for the temple construction. The surface of this smoothing coat served as the floor of the temple (08/J/202). Contrary to what we reported in Megiddo IV, there exists only one floor of the Level J-4 temple – the surface of the surface-smoothing construction layer, 08/J/202. THE ALTAR Altar 08/J/204 is a rectangular installation placed against the northern face of Wall 96/J/7. It is constructed of mudbricks and stone (Fig. 2.38), similar to the second altar in the Level J-3 temple (Loud 1948: Figs. 139, 142). The upper portion of the altar is not preserved and most sides of the installation are denuded. There is evidence that at least the northern face was coated with a thin chalk paste. It is unclear how much of the upper portion of the altar is missing. The stone elements appear to have been topped by mudbrick and thus should be considered part of the internal structure. As reported in Megiddo IV, one component of the altar appears to have been a plastered basin (having undergone multiple re-plastering) in the south central portion (Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Peersmann 2006: 39). The podium in the cella of the ED III Ishtar temple at Mari contained several large oblong ceramic basins embedded in the feature that may be parallel to the plastered element here (Parrot 1956: passim, especially Figs. 12, 15, 30, 43 and Pl. xIV). A thin ash layer (08/J/213) was traced on the floor from around the northwest corner of the altar to the rectangular basalt ritual Table 08/J/210 where it hit approximately 1–2 cm below the surface of the table. It petered out farther to the west, but probably represents ash-yielding activity within the vicinity of the altar. In tracing the ash lens around the altar, it became clear that it went beneath the front of the altar and beneath the lower ‘step’, now understood as collapse (see above). Removing a small section of the northwestern corner of the altar, an earlier phase of the installation was exposed. The ash went beneath the addition and met this earlier altar. There are, thus, at least two phases of this altar (Fig. 2.38). The bench along the southern sanctuary wall abutted the later altar, but clearly did not touch the earlier, suggesting that the bench and the later altar were constructed together. This situation is similar to that in Level J-3 Sanctuary 4050 (Loud 1948: Fig. 143). In the temples of both levels, there was no evidence of a site-wide rebuild that would warrant a separation into two sub-levels. The altar was the main focal point of cultic activity within the sanctuary. As great ritual was required in the

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Fig. 2.37: Squares H–G/7–8, eastern section.

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Fig. 2.38: Level J-4 Altar 08/J/204 and Table 08/J/210, facing southeast. Note earlier incarnation of altar and ash lens beneath metre.

Fig. 2.39: Level J-4 Table 08/J/210 and foundation deposit, facing south. Small section reflects thickness of floor makeup 08/J/190 at this location.

construction of sacred buildings (foundation ceremonies, deposits, etc.), it is possible that the altar within an altar that we find in Levels J-3 and J-4 is a reflection of construction ritual rather than an actual rebuild and the ash lens a product of that ritual. In both Levels J-3 and J-4, the underlying structure is in excellent shape and completely intact, with no sign of dismantlement whatsoever. Evidence for ritual practices in the construction of temple altars is known from Mesopotamia (Ellis 1968: 32–33). By late into the 2008 season we understood the basic configuration of the altar, but one very important question remained outstanding: how did the altar relate to the southern wall of the temple? To better understand this an incision was laid out extending 2 m from Square E/9 and positioned 1.5 m wide, centred within the Level J-7 Temple 4040 threshold. The southeastern corner of the altar was found, but the continuation of the rear wall of the sanctuary was not. As of now, the idea presented in Megiddo IV that there was a niche behind the altar remains a possible scenario. If so, that niche is at least as deep as

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Fig. 2.40: Level J-4 foundation deposit.

the southern extent of our Square E/9 incision. The possibility of robbing cannot be ruled out, however, and the corner of a stone in the southern section of Square E/9 may be all that remains of the rear, southern wall at this point. This incision also demonstrated that the mudbrick superstructure of the altar was preserved as high as elevation 157.50 m in the southeastern corner, some 50 cm higher than was detected in the excavation of the rest of the altar. A STONE SLAB WITH INCISED MARKS Late in the 2008 season, we decided to remove a portion of the dense floor makeup in Square F/8 between basalt ritual Table 08/J/210 and the nearest limestone column base in order to tidy a section for final photography. The removal of this floor makeup, 08/J/202, down to the greenish mudbrick Material 06/J/91 revealed a lone piece of limestone pavement with drill-marks around the outer edges (Figs. 2.39–2.40). This stone was placed into the surface of the greenish brick-material terrace fill and covered over by the dense mud of the final temple floor. A small patch of grey ash with small bits of charcoal was detected about 10 cm away from the stone, also sandwiched between the construction fill and smoothing coat. Similar slabs are known from Lower Area J Picture Pavement 08/J/200. The first was discovered by the University of Chicago (Loud 1948: Pl. 272: 4; Keinan 2007: 41); here the marks around the edge appear chipped out. The second was observed in Lower Area J by Ussishkin during the excavation of the courtyard of the Level J-3 temple (Finkelstein and Ussishkin 2000: 52). And the third was recovered by us in Lower Area J (Slab I; see Keinan in Part II of this chapter); the marks on this slab, too, are chipped rather than drilled as in the Level J-4 example. To this category of slabs with perimeter markings I would also add Loud’s Slab 8 (Loud 1948: Pl. 274), which is marked around the perimeter with incised lines. As a corpus, they are coherent in their perimeter markings, but their original meanings are not readily apparent (for suggestions, see Adams forthcoming a). While the significance of the pattern is not clear (see Keinan 2007 and Keinan in Part II of this chapter for hypotheses and references),10 its presence within the floor makeup of the temple must be significant. 10 Guillaume’s suggestion of a game board (Chapter 24) strikes me as highly doubtful.

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The planning, construction and dedication of sacred buildings are processes bounteous with sacred meaning. Textual material and archaeological evidence from Egypt and the Near East detail rituals and traditions associated with the erection of important buildings from palaces to temples and tombs. The attention given to these often elaborate rituals and the expense waged on precious deposits speaks to the vital nature of such acts to the ultimate success of the structure, its occupants and the community. With this dedication to the sacred space and building, it is not surprising that similar importance was placed on desacralizing such structures once they had served their purpose or ceased to function. These acts can be called ‘Termination Rituals’, a phrase recently introduced to Mesoamerican archaeology by S. zuckerman (2007). Such was also the case when a sacred space was to be built anew. The old structure would be desacralized and the new structure would go through the foundation rituals. Both actions were required in order to transfer the sanctity to the new building. Theoretically, there should be archaeological signs of such acts in the transitions between the temples of Megiddo from Level J-2 through J-7, and perhaps beyond. These issues in relation to the finds at Megiddo are explored in more detail elsewhere (Adams forthcoming a; Adams, Finkelstein and Ussishkin forthcoming). Given the similarity between the foundation slab beneath the floor of the Great Temple and those from Levels J-2 and J-3, it is likely that it did in fact originate in one or both of the earlier temples. Two needs would have confronted the architect of the Great Temple: 1) to legitimately desacralize the earlier Level J-3 temple and 2) to transfer the sanctity to the new construction. While a number of activities may be involved in satisfying these needs, one appears common in both Mesopotamia and Egypt. The Mesopotamian kalû ritual prescribes the removal of one brick of the old temple to be placed in a special location where special foundation offerings for the new temple would take place (Ellis 1968: 13, 184). At the site of Mendes, Egypt, the construction of a new temple pylon by Ramesses II required the dismantling of an earlier structure by Thutmose III. Over one hundred bricks stamped with Thutmose’s cartouche were laid carefully within the sand foundation of the new pylon. In the case of the Great Temple at Megiddo, the slab from the earlier temple was placed beneath the dense packed layer 08/J/202 that served as both floor of the temple and the surface upon which the temple walls were built. That is, it was probably laid during the physical laying out of the building. To the Egyptians, this ritual was known as the pḏ-šs (‘stretching of the cord’)-ritual where the king himself was required to fix the four corners of the new building (Weinstein 1973: 9). This foundation ritual is known from as early as the 1st Dynasty reign of Den (Wilkinson 1999). It therefore seems prudent to interpret the slab within the Great Temple as a foundation deposit laid during the early ceremonies for the construction of the temple. Since the slab appears to come from the earlier Level J-2 or J-3 temple, its function may have been to transfer the sanctity of the earlier building to the new temple. The ash found near the slab may be the physical remains of the associated ritual. It should be noted that the floor makeup was not removed everywhere within the sanctuary and other such slabs or deposits may yet be found. ACTIVITY WITHIN THE SANCTUARY Virtually no non-architectural evidence for activity within the temple was found. The floor was completely clean and emptied of any contents. A thin ashy layer was detected around Altar 08/J/213 (Fig. 2.38), where it had been compacted into a thin laminate, perhaps as a result of being walked on. Since this thin laminate goes under the renovated portion of the altar, this ash presumably belongs to activity within the temple (as opposed to Phase J-4a activity). No evidence of in situ burning was found anywhere nearby. It is probable

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that this ash, since it goes beneath the second ‘phase’ of the altar, belongs to the founding ritual of the altar itself (see above). In the northwestern corner of the temple (Square J/7) a thicker deposit of ash was found (06/J/62, 06/J/82, 08/J/145). It was not possible to establish whether it belongs to the occupation of the temple or to the later Phase J-4a activity (I prefer the latter possibility). The ashes from the burnt sacrifices (the burning of which would have taken place outside the sanctuary) were undoubtedly charged with sacred power and perhaps utilized and/or stored within the sanctuary.11 The remains of these ash deposits perhaps allude to such activity. THE CORRIDORS It was argued above that western Alley 00/J/201 runs between the sanctuary edifice and Terrace Wall 00/J/19 rather than leads into the rear corridors. This frees us from the interpretation of these rear ‘corridors’ as walkways. Better, they can be seen as compartments for the storage of animal bones from the sacrifice. That is, they were used as locations for favissae for the charred remains of the sacrificed animals. This conforms well to the faunal assemblage discovered within the compartments. Wapnish and Hesse (2000) determined that different locations within the favissae were reserved for different debris from different stages of the carcass processing. The structured deposition and segregation of this material according to locations within the favissae lends support to the sanctity of the process as well as suggests ritual in the discard process (idem. 449). Note also that tabular scrapers sometimes associated with ritual butchering were found within the favissae (Blockman and Groman-Yeroslavski 2006: 321; see McConaughy 2003: 511). EXCURSUS: WALL 4114 AND BUILDING 4113 Two additional architectural elements should be affiliated with Level J-4. They are University of Chicago Wall 4114 (Loud 1948: Figs. 392–394) and University of Chicago Building 4113 (Loud 1948: Fig. 391). Effectively, Wall 4114 is a southern extension of the eastern wall of the Level J-4 temple, and acts as a terrace wall revetting the upper terrace (Fig. 2.41). This wall connects to Building 4113, which serves as the gateway from the lower terrace to the upper terrace. This spatial relationship is preserved in all of the later Early Bronze Age strata, xVII–xVI (Level J-6) and xV (Level J-7) where the location of Building 4113 served as a contact point from east to west, allowing access to the area behind the temple complexes. In Strata xVII–xVI, this access was by staircase controlled by Building 3177 and by the plastered path along the south side of the same building (Fig. 2.55; Loud 1948: Fig. 392). In Stratum xV a monumental staircase replaced Building 3177 (Loud 1948: Fig. 394). Wall 4114 abutted Building 4113, which appears to have been a monumental gate to the sacrificial courtyard behind the sanctuary, the same courtyard that had access to the bone favissae corridors of the Great Temple.12 It should also be noted that Building 4113 was constructed on a slope of ca. 4° down to the east (Loud 1948: Fig. 149), a fact consistent with the Level J-4 activity on the lower terrace (see below).

11 Compare Numbers 19:1–10. David Ussishkin also reminds me of the later but parallel example of Schumacher’s ‘Masseboth Temple’ (University of Chicago Building 338). There the ashes from burnt offerings were stored in a large heap in the corner (Ussishkin 1989: 156). 12 This is contra Golani (1999: 126–127), who interprets Building 4113 as a house with rounded corners and Ben-Tor (1973: 94–96) and Herzog (1997: 67), both of whom interpreted this structure as the Stratum xVIII incarnation of the Stratum xIx temple, well before our Great Temple of Level J-4 was known.

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The placement of Wall 4114 on the Level J-4 plan (above) completes the length of the temple whereby the altar and entrance are the axis of symmetry (Figs. 2.25, 2.41). In this reconstruction, the length of the temple from the east face of Wall 4114 to the west face of Wall 08/J/25 is ca. 49 m,13 where the central latitudinal axis is exactly through the centre of the altar and the entrance to the temple. Therefore, we reconstruct this axis of symmetry through the entrance of the building allowing for 12 pillar bases (including two out of alignment that support the axis-spanning beam) and 12 basalt ritual tables (eight rectangular and four circular) in six pairs (Figs. 2.25, 2.41).This is additionally supported by the fact that in such a restoration the fragment of a corner found on the far eastern end of Wall 96/J/1 comes into line perfectly with the inner face of the hypothesized east wall of the sanctuary (Figs. 2.24–2.25). THE LOWER TERRACE The massive temple was only one aspect of an ambitious construction project undertaken in Level J-4. As is well known, the large 3–4-m-thick stone Wall 4045 was constructed some 40 m down the slope (Loud 1948: 391). This wall has been the subject of much debate, variously interpreted as a city wall and a terrace wall and dated from the EB I to the EB III (Kenyon 1958; Brandfon 1977; Dunayevsky and Kempinski 1973; Esse 1991; Finkelstein and Ussishkin 2000b: 580–583). There is no need to rehash the arguments here as new data from our excavations renders them obsolete.14 The Great Temple of Level J-4 is a new discovery; its presence was only hinted at by the small portion of Wall 96/J/1 on the western edge of the University of Chicago’s Stratum xVIII. Its sheer size and monumentality at the top of the acropolis comprise an unprecedented engineering venture that certainly would have needed significant terracing of the original mound to support it (especially considering the fact that none of the temple walls had subterranean foundations). Evidence for the attribution Wall 4045 to Level J-4 and its interpretation as a terrace wall comes from our 2008 excavations in Sub-Area Lower J (see Keinan, Part II in this Chapter). Revealed in Incision A was an ashy accumulation laying on a mud and phytolith lens (08/J/116; 08/J/124) that accumulated on the surface of a thick clay Floor 08/J/134. These loci yielded only EB IB pottery. From the section, it was clear that this thick clay surface was actually a series of laminated clay surfaces probably belonging to a pavement. The clay laminations may represent resurfacing over time, but their ‘clean’ nature suggests that they actually represent stages in the construction process of a thick levelling clay fill (Figs. 2.9–2.10, 2.12, 2.21). The clay was laid over a regular earthen and bricky fill (08/J/137), which overlaid the Level J-3 remains.

13 Being more specific with measurements is difficult considering the resolution of accuracy on the University of Chicago’s published plans. 14 Esse’s assessment of this wall should be addressed here, because his conclusions have become widely accepted. He concluded that the fill behind and at the base of the wall contained EB III pottery (Esse 1991: 81; University of Chicago photographic archive negative B-4347). This led him to conclude that the wall dated to the EB III. The only information given by the University of Chicago is that this pottery comes from west of Wall 4045 (W=4045) and therefore could have come from any EB III disturbance at any depth below the floor surfaces of Building 3177. It should be borne in mind that the construction of Building 3177 was a major undertaking that certainly brought in fills and cut into earlier strata. In this case, as in many others, the University of Chicago’s loci are simply not useful in this type of situation. Until the renewed excavation, for example, Chicago pottery loci have been used to wrongly date Stratum xVIII to the EB II and/or III (e.g., Kenyon 1958; Dunayevsky and Kempinski 1973; Esse 1991).

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Fig. 2.41: Level J-4 Great Temple and environs reconstructed (walls marked in grey were unearthed by the University of Chicago team).

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This clay fill marks an important transition on this portion of the site. The bottom of this fill is at a different angle than the top, suggesting that the clay laminate was intended to change the angle of the slope. The bottom of the laminate is 12° while the finished angle is only 3°, effectively levelling the eastern slope.15 As this level lies overtop of the Level J-3 Wall 08/J/W21 and beneath the fill for EB III Building 3177 and as it yields only EB IB pottery, it must be attributed to Level J-4. When the north section of Incision A is placed on Chicago’s northern section drawing, it becomes apparent that this clay levelling belongs to the construction of Wall 4045 (Figs. 2.21, 2.42). It should also be noted that the new angle of the lower terrace is the same as the slope of Structure 4113, interpreted above as a gateway. The importance to the builders of this new levelling construction and the new clay pavement is evidenced by the burial of a fully articulated fetus/infant sheep/goat (08/J/135) immediately beneath the clay surface, evidentially laid as a foundation offering.

phaSE J-4a: a pErIOD Of CrISIS A few years ago Finkelstein and Ussishkin (2003, 2006) offered a reinterpretation of the stratigraphy of the Level J-4 temple and the transition to the EB III based on the then-current understanding of two floors within the temple. As described above, however, what was previously identified as the lower floor is actually the construction fill for the temple platform. The later floor turned out to be a phytolith lens representing collapse and sporadic Phase J-4a activity within the temple. There is evidence for only one phase of primary use of the temple – Level J-4. This phase was followed by a crisis period during which the temple was allowed to deteriorate. Within the corridors, Square D/10 showed evidence of water-washed mudbrick and other sorted debris over the Level J-4 bone accumulation in the corridors (96/J/096; Finkelstein and Ussishkin 2000b: 585). Within the sanctuary, there is evidence for numerous ephemeral hearths attesting to the temple’s continued sporadic use during this period. OWL PELLETS A total of five owl pellets were discovered in Area J. The first two come from the corridors behind the temple sanctuary, which were used as bone favissae (94/J/81 and 96/J/21). Wapnish and Hesse indicated that owl pellets are typically found in areas where owls were nesting and that these roosts are typically found in spaces little used or deserted by humans (Wapnish and Hesse 2000: 444–445; see also Chapter 30). Three additional owl pellets were identified within the temple sanctuary itself (in Loci 98/J/122, 08/J/142) in the 1998 and 2008 seasons Locus 98/J/122 yielded two pellets directly on the floor immediately west of the altar. Both were identified in situ. The fifth pellet came from the surface of the monumental basalt threshold (08/J/142). The entrance pellet was identified by the numerous small fauna bones recovered during sifting of earth within 5 cm of the basalt threshold 08/J/144 (identified in the field by Aharon Sasson). While the owl pellets found within the corridors were not conclusive evidence of the abandonment of the temple, those within the sanctuary demonstrate unequivocally that owls roosted within the building where they regurgitated the bones of their prey, and that no one returned to clean up after them. Their location directly on the floor demonstrates that the building remained rarely visited as it began to collapse.

15 The range of angles of the slope in Levels J-2 and J-3 is 12° to 15° (see sections in Loud 1948: Figs. 149, 416).

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Fig. 2.42: Schematic section west-east through the Great Temple and lower terrace.

THE CRISIS AND SPORADIC OCCUPATION: ASSESSING THE SEQUENCE In an effort to better understand the sequence of activity during the ‘crisis phase’, a portion of the 2008 season was dedicated to a detailed study of the 10–20 cm accumulation (Figs. 2.28, 2.37) in the Squares H/8–9 baulk, the Squares G–H/7+G–H/8 baulk and the Square J/7 western incision. To complement this approach, a sampling strategy was coordinated with Ruth Shahack-Gross. (The results of the micromorphological analysis of these samples appear in Part V of this chapter; RME numbers refer to these samples, see Table 2.8.) The simplest of the sequences was excavated in the Square J/7 western incision. Here, the distinct Level J-5 construction Fill 08/J/212 overlaid the robbed Wall 08/J/25, the preserved plaster face of that wall and a 2–3-cm-thick grey-white ash accumulation that also exhibited traces of fired mudbrick fragments (08/J/145). The ash layer overlaid a mud-packed surface with clear signs of heating (low temperature firing of mud surface). Within the ash and clearly upon the floor were a scattering of bones, including an articulation of a young bos primogenius PH2 and 3 (preliminary field identification; notably the species and carcass part itself is statistically rare in the corridor assemblage, Wapnish and Hesse 2000). These bones were not singed; it would appear that the ash, then, was swept away from the primary fire location. The presence of a distinct and contiguous phytolith layer (08/J/185, RME-30) provided a link between the sequences excavated across the sanctuary and supplied important stratigraphic data regarding this period (Phase J-4a; Figs. 2.43–2.44; see also Fig. 2.28): 1. The phytolith layer clearly overlays the circular basalt tables. It is evidenced in the Square G/8 southern baulk and was detected on top of Tables 08/J/207, 08/J/208 and 08/J/205. This phytolith layer was interpreted in Square F/8 in previous seasons as the ‘upper floor’ and also overlaid portions of the rectangular basalt Table 08/J/210. The cavity within Table 08/J/207 was filled with collapsed brick and plaster (Fig. 2.33), and was perfectly sealed by the phytolith layer, demonstrating that the phytolith was deposited after the temple had begun to crumble. 2. The phytolith layer completely overlaid the basalt pillar base near the circular tables (Figs. 2.37, 2.44). Certainly the wooden pillars had to have been removed before the deposition of the phytolith layer. 3. The phytolith is clearly overlaid by the super compacted and dense clayish-earth mixed with chunky white chalk fragments excavated in Square G/7 and the Squares G/7–8 baulk (08/J/18=08/J/193/LB01; RME-36), where it was confined. These chalk fragments are whiter than the wall plaster of the temple and may not belong to the Level J-4 architecture as we understand it. 4. The phytolith layer is clearly overlaid by ca. 15 cm of mudbrick debris and lots of bones. This is the bone layer found in 2000 in Square F/8 (the ‘upper floor’; Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Peersmann 2006: 38). An archaeozoological comparison of this assemblage to that in the bone favissae (corridors) has

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not yet been made. In what may be a contrast with the corridor favissae,16 the final deposition of the bones in the sanctuary occurred after the Level J-4 temple began to collapse, i.e., in Phase J-4a. 5. The phytolith layer is overlaid and underlaid by ephemeral hearths scattered around the sanctuary (Figs. 2.43–2.44). Several of these hearths, particularly in the Squares G–H/7 baulk, are superimposed as a result of multiple visits. Fragments of collapsed chalk paste from the temple walls were found under, over and between all of these hearths. 6. Most noticeably on the northern end of the Squares G–H/7 baulk (Fig. 2.28; but evidenced throughout), the phytolith layer clearly overlies and underlies collapsed plaster debris identical with the plaster preserved on the walls of the Level J-4 temple. This demonstrates that the phytolith layer is but one episode in the slow collapse of the Level J-4 temple after its abandonment. The stratigraphic sequence that resulted from the detailed study is presented from bottom to top in Table 2.6. TABLE 2.6: SCHEMATIC STRATIGRAPHIC SEqUENCE OF THE LEVEL J-4 FLOOR AND THE PHASE J-4A ACTIVITY Main Locus

Description

Sample

06/J/91

Green brick material

none taken

08/J/190=08/J/202

Level J-4 floor makeup

08/J/190/LB02 a

08/J/190

Sandy sorted washed-in debris

08/J/101

Minor chalk-paste collapse within 08/J/207 cavity

none taken

08/J/185=06/J/65

Phytolith layer and hearths

08/J/185/LB01b

08/J/193=08/J/18

Dense chalky deposit against north Wall 00/J/21

08/J/193/LB01

08/J/188

Ephemeral earthen surface onto which 08/J/184 washed

08/J/188/LB04

08/J/184

Natural washed-in debrisc

08/J/184/LB04

08/J/187

Ashy hearths

08/J/187/LB01

08/J/177

Earth beneath plaster ‘puddle’ (bottom of locus)

08/J/177=178

Chalk puddle (top of locus) and late hearths

08/J/129=212

Level J-5 fill over Level J-4 templef

08/J/190/LB06

d

08/J/177/LB02 08/J/177/LB01e 08/J/129/LB01

a. Found primarily on the north side of the H/7-G-7 baulk. b. 08/J/185/LB001 is from the phytolith, not the hearth. c. Located in a 1–2 m2 patch on the north side of the G/7-H-8 baulk. d. The plaster puddle was found in the southern portions of G/8 and the H/8-H-9 baulk. e. 08/J/177/LB001 is from the plaster ‛puddle’, not the hearth. f. This level covers the entire temple and other strata (=08/J/212).

16 It should be noted that because of our new understanding that the deposition of the bones within the sanctuary belong to Phase J-4a, the interpretation that the bones in the corridors belong to Level J-4 is called into question. This issue cannot be resolved at this time.

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Fig. 2.43: Square H/8, facing north, showing Level J-5 phytolith layer 08/J/185 (foreground) and post-phytolith hearth (background).

INTERPRETATION OF THE SEQUENCE The Phase J-4a crisis period can be said to have begun with the first deterioration of the temple. This is most plain in the chalky wall and ceiling collapse within the cavity in basalt ritual Table 08/J/207. Since we assume that this cavity had a function related to the primary use of the temple, its filling with collapse marks the end of the temple use as it was previously known and the physical incarnation of the beginning of Phase J-4a. The earliest disintegration occurred in the cavity and doorway, either naturally or intentionally, as the basalt orthostats collapsed onto the pavement. Over time, owls roosted in the sanctuary and the corridors. The temple began to deteriorate. As rain water began to seep into cracks in the roof, sorted sandy, silty and clay ‘puddles’ formed (08/J/190; see also Fig. 2.36). Water began to percolate between the mudbrick and stone walls and their plaster. The weakened plaster collapsed slowly in places and is evident in small collapses around the sanctuary throughout the abandonment phase. Hearths among the early accumulation with the temple suggest sporadic usage throughout this period. At some point, the wooden columns were pilfered, causing the roof to collapse into the sanctuary. It overlaid several of the basalt ritual tables and column bases and eventually rotted away leaving behind phytolith Layer 08/J/185. After the collapse of the roof, the deterioration intensified. On the north side of the sanctuary, isolated to Square G/7, a dense and thick deposition of clay and chalky chunks accumulated (08/J/18=08/J/193/ LB01; RME-36). On the south side of the temple, the collapsed roof left the walls more susceptible to rain damage. Rain water dissolved plaster from the walls and collected in pools at the base of Wall 96/J/7 (most evident in the Squares H/8–9 baulk; Fig. 2.36) where the chalk precipitated in ‘puddles’ (08/J/177). Bone stuck within the matrix of the puddle supports this hypothesis. Among this post-phytolith collapse, someone continued to make use of the structure as evident from several hearths (e.g., 08/J/185, 08/J/187).

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Fig. 2.44: Square G–H/7–8 baulk, facing north, showing Phase J-4a phytolith Layer 08/J/185 (foreground) and Hearth 08/J/177 (background). Note the foundation stones of Table 08/J/207, right.

The doorway was relatively free of debris from this period. Because of the fact that occupational debris was found inside the temple, it stands to reason that the entrance remained accessible through most of this period. When the site was reinhabited on a large scale in Level J-5, the new inhabitants would have encountered a structure with its roof caved in, its plastered walls worn from the weather, and 20 to 50 cm of occupational debris, water- and windborne soil and structural collapse within the sanctuary. The main structure was still standing, however, and this fact is critical to how they reused the site (see below). THE QUESTION OF THE SANCTUARY BONES There are two basic deposits of bones in the temple complex. The first to be identified came from the corridors behind the temple (Wapnish and Hesse 2000) and was a favissa of spent animal bones from sacrifice and/or sacred feasting at the temple. The second deposit came from inside the temple sanctuary. Here, bones were encountered within the ca. 30 cm of Phase J-4a occupation, both below and above the phytolith layer. Few, if any, bones can be associated with the main usage of the temple in Level J-4. The bones belonged either to the Phase J-4a accumulation as primary deposition, or they were secondarily deposited through the action of the Phase J-4a users of the temple during the process of collapse and weathering. The presence of articulations, however, argues for the former, and it appears most likely that

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the bone deposits within the sanctuary are to be connected to the continuation of cultic activity during Phase J-4a (albeit in a significantly altered manner).

aN EB IB EarThQuaKE: EVIDENCE fOr aND aGaINST The process described above of the Phase J-4a crisis of the Great Temple is opposed to the earthquake hypothesis proffered in Megiddo IV for the ‘destruction’ and abandonment of the site at the end of the EB IB (Finkelstein and Ussishkin 2003; 2006; Marco et al. 2006). Let us briefly review the evidence previously presented: 1. Monumental walls of the Level J-4 temple are fractured along their strike. It is noted (erroneously, see below) that the overlying walls of Temple 4040 are not fractured, suggesting that the shockwave that caused the fractures occurred between the construction of the Level J-4 temple and the Level J-7 temples (Marco et al. 2006: Table 31.1, No. 1; Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Peersmann 2006: 49). If the upper temple were fractured, it would suggest either: a) that if there had been an earthquake it happened later, affecting both strata, or b) the damage is related to something else (see suggestion below). 2. The sequence of two floors within the temple sanctuary separated by ca. 15 cm of collapsed mudbrick debris was interpreted as abandonment of the temple, collapse from the walls and reoccupation of the temple (Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Peersmann 2006: 38). 3. The north face of Wall 96/J/1, in Square D/10, has a vertical crack, and the wall east of the crack has sunk slightly toward the slope (Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Peersmann 2006: 49). Likewise, the north face of Wall 96/J/7 in Square H/9 displays a pulling-apart of the wall and a sinking of the wall west of the separated interstices (Fig. 2.45; Marco and Finkelstein, observations in the field, 2008). 4. When the inhabitants returned to the temple after the earthquake (Phase J-4a) they attempted to shore-up some of the crumbling walls within the corridors (Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Peersmann 2006: 50–51). This included the construction of two flimsy mudbrick Walls 96/J/11 and 98/J/12, perpendicularly across the corridors, presumably to keep the towering 3.5-m-thick walls from collapsing (ibid.: Fig. 3.20). 5. Basalt ritual Table 08/J/205 has clearly sunk. The western section of Square H/7 that runs through the table shows that this sinking caused a vertical fracture in the strata above (Fig. 2.46; Marco and Finkelstein, observations in the field, 2008). 6. Wall 96/J/1 (Squares B–C/11) was ‘repaired’ by laying flat stone slabs atop the stone foundation to receive new mudbricks (ibid. 2006: 51). The 2004–2006 excavations in Area J provided new material that forces us to reconsider the evidence above. I offer the following data to refute the interpretation of the evidence above (numbers below correspond to the numbers above): 1. Level J-7 Temple 4040 above the Level J-4 temple does display numerous examples of fractures along wall strikes. I observed and photographed no fewer than eight separate examples of fracture lines across numerous stones along their strike in Walls 08/J/37, 08/J/38, 08/J/39 and 08/J/40 (Fig. 2.56). For the sake of brevity, one example is provided in Fig. 2.47.17 The strike fractures in the Level J-4 temple, therefore, provide no evidence for an earthquake at the end of the EB IB. 17 I further suggest that strike fractures are a common feature of hewn-limestone walls. The builder’s choice of where to strike the stone to create the desired shape directly relates to how the stone is then placed within the wall. If a relatively smooth face is desired for a wall, the builder will naturally place the stone in the wall such that the lines of fracture are

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2. The evidence for two floors within the sanctuary has been corrected above. There was one floor, followed by slow collapse and irregular activity. 3. The vertical cracking and sinking of wall segments should be expected at these locations. These points are closer to the east and west edges of the upper terrace. The Level J-4 construction would have required enormous fills to support the temple, which would have been weakest along the deeper edges, thus more prone to natural sinking.18 4. The shoring up of the corridor walls is a very important component of Phase J-4a as presented in Megiddo IV. As we shall see in more detail below, these two ‘walls’ are artefacts of excavation, and are, in fact, part of a laid-mudbrick fill placed between and along the entire length of the corridors that was excavated through. This fill was laid in Level J-5 as part of the dismantling of the Level J-4 temple and the preparation of the site for construction at that time. 5. The fracturing of the accumulation near basalt ritual Table 08/J/205 is clear. There certainly was settling. As in number 3 of my refutations, above, this settling is expected. However, this settling occurred after the deposition of the Phase J-4a activity, which is represented in the striations in the section (Fig. 2.46). While much later settling is my preferred explanation, if one must hypothesize an earthquake, it will have to have taken place after the accumulation of Phase J-4a debris and the collapse of the Level J-4 roof, and therefore cannot be responsible for the abandonment of the site in the EB IB. 6. The technique of laying flat stones at the top of the socle was almost certainly part of the construction technique for the Level J-4 temple. It is an attested EB architectural feature at qiryat Ata, for example (Golani 2003: 75). Additionally, the flat stones in Wall 96/J/1 can be none other than those robbed from the Levels J-2 and J-3 Picture Pavement. These stones are distinct in their size, shape and thickness, and a good portion of stones at the top of the wall are identical.19 As Level J-3 was almost certainly covered in the course of construction of Wall 4045 and the terrace fill, it is most likely that these stones were robbed and used in the Level J-4 construction project. The proximity of this end of the wall to the location of the earlier pavement explains why it is only here that the builders used these particular stones. Note also the foundation deposit stone within the Level J-4 sanctuary, which almost certainly comes from the Picture Pavement as well (see above). In conclusion, all of the evidence for an earthquake in the EB IB at Megiddo has been refuted by new data. Socio-economic and political factors must underlie the Phase J-4a crisis of the Level J-4 Great Temple, just as they underlie the striking change in settlement patterns throughout the Jezreel Valley at this time (Finkelstein et al. 2006: 763; Finkelstein and Ussishkin 2000b: 585–588; Adams, Finkelstein and Ussishkin forthcoming). While activity continued at the site irregularly, the site was nearly vacant during the succeeding EB II period (Finkelstein and Ussishkin 2000b: 585–586; Greenberg 2003). When the site was reoccupied in the EB III (Level J-5/J-6), the roof had caved in, but the mudbrick walls, although weathered by years of exposure, were probably standing to at least half if not most of their original height. The Level J-5/J-6 inhabitants of the site dismantled portions of the temple, robbed stone from the walls and filled in the sanctuary to create space for their construction activity.

parallel to the face of the wall, because he will have just hewn along that line to create a smooth façade. These lines of fracture dictate that fractures along strikes are statistically more probable in any roughly hewn limestone wall. 18 Incidentally, it is not clear when this sinking occurred – during the life of the temple, in the period of abandonment, or much later, after the building up of the mound. 19 Some of these flat stones also appear within the wall itself, not just on top.

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Fig. 2.45: North face of Level J-4 Wall 96/J/07 in Square H/9, facing south. Note chalk puddle overlying Level J-4 bench below.

Fig. 2.46: Square H/7 western section showing sunken basalt Table 08/J/205. Note Phase J-4a squatter’s remains (striations in section) broken as a result of sinking (i.e., the sinking occurred after the deposition of the squatter’s remains).

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Fig. 2.47: Strike fractures in Temple 4040 Wall 08/J/38.

lEVEl J-5/J-6 UPDATED STRATIGRAPHIC TERMINOLOGY AND INTRODUCTION Up through the 2000 season our work concentrated in locations where the Level J-7 temples and later burials and pits had obliterated most of the EB III remains below, down to Level J-4. Our picture, therefore, of Level J-5/J-6 was patchy at best. Originally, two levels were identified between Levels J-4 and J-7. Level J-5 was assigned to squatter activity on the ruins of the Level J-4 temple, representing the reoccupation of the site in the EB III (Finkelstein and Ussishkin 2000a: 65–67). Level J-5/J-6 represented the permanent habitation on the site following this squatting activity. Partially on this basis of the presence of EB IB material in Level J-5 loci, in a 2003 article, Finkelstein and Ussishkin reinterpreted some of the Level J-5 loci, specifically the locus containing the Egyptianized Pottery, into a Level J-4 late phase that was a (nonsquatter) reoccupation of the temple in the late EB IB after its destruction by an earthquake (Joffe 2000: 170–174; Finkelstein and Ussishkin 2003; Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Peersmann 2006a). The rest of the Level J-5 loci remained in the EB III (Finkelstein and Ussishkin 2003: 28, 37). The remains of Level J-5

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were scanty enough before the relocation of some loci to Level J-4, so this new interpretation left Level J-5 virtually non-existent. Since the 2000 season, it has been a primary goal to further understand the nature of the Levels J-5 and J-5/J-6 material. The seeming abandonment of the temple and its later sporadic use has been described above. The reoccupation of the site is clearly marked by the laying of a thick fill of well-levigated mudbrick material to prepare for a paved street and building complex. The building endured three main phases of renovation before the construction of Level J-7 Temple 4040. Since the buildings represent continuous usage, they are considered to have belonged to a single level (J-5/J-6). As described above, Phase J-4a has been assigned to the period of sporadic use after the primary use of the Level J-4 temple. Level J-5/J-6 marks the return to the site in the EB III after a period of abandonment (Phase J-4a). Excavation since 2004 in Main Area J has almost doubled the exposure of Level J-5/J-6 and done so in a sizable area, providing a much clearer picture of the levels sandwiched between the Level J-4 Great Temple and the triple temple complex of Level J-7. The Level J-5/J-6 architecture on this northern portion of Area J belongs to a large complex that underwent three major renovations, labelled here Level J-5 (early), Phase J-6b (middle) and Phase J-6a (late). Though these three layers should be considered a single level with subphases, we retain the numbering scheme presented in Megiddo IV. The architecture is defined by an east-west running paved street with three buildings appended to its northern side (Figs. 2.51–2.53). On the basis of both layout and stratigraphy, Level J-5/J-6 can be equated with Strata xVII and xVI (Loud 1948: Figs. 392–393). All of the exposed architecture from this level was rebuilt two to three times, attesting to the longevity of this layer. See also the appendix on the 2010 season at the end of Part III. LEVEL J-5 assrs sMIsg

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While the exact length of the period of the Phase J-4a sporadic activity is unknown, it seems to have occurred for most, if not all of the EB II period (Joffe 2000; Halpern 2000; Finkelstein and Ussishkin 2000b: 585–591; Greenberg 2003, 2006; Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Halpern 2006; and see already Kenyon 1958; see also Adams, Chapter 8 in this volume). When the newcomers arrived at the site, they found a town in ruins but with the Level J-4 artificial topography still intact. The lower terrace revetted by Wall 4045 and the upper terrace revetted by Wall 4114 were still distinct spaces and the Level J-5/J-6 occupants maintained them. The lower terrace was levelled and Building 3177 was constructed (Stratum xVII; Loud 1948: 70–78). On the upper terrace, the old temple’s walls, though ruined, were still standing. The Level J-5 inhabitants opted for transforming the site. The lower terrace was essentially used as found with some minor filling and cutting to prepare for Building 3177. Preparing the upper terrace for reoccupation involved much more work, including the dismantling of the remaining superstructure of the Level J-4 temple and the filling in of spaces around the temple. Three different levels rising from north to south were conceptualized for the upper terrace, consisting of a lower northward sloping level bounded on the south by a street (north of Wall 96/J/7), a mudbrick podium slightly higher than the lower architecture also bounded on the south by a street and a third level, south of this street (Figs. 2.29, 2.48). For the central level, the thick walls of the Level J-4 temple provided a suitable foundation and the standing ruins were renovated accordingly to create a podium. The mudbrick upper portions of Walls 96/J/7 and 96/J/1 were systematically dismantled (not destroyed). The bricks were used to fill the corridors up to the desired elevation. Evidence for this platform emerged during recent excavation seasons, in

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reinterpreting older strata and in cleaning older sections. The reconsideration of Megiddo III and IV’s Level J-5 required the reattribution of those loci to other phases. Loci (and architectural elements) that were clearly EB III have been retained in Level J-5. Those loci that Finkelstein and Ussishkin had moved to Phase J-4a (2003; 2006a), however, had to be looked at afresh. In particular, Walls 98/J/11 and 98/J/12 were problematic (Finkelstein and Ussishkin 2006a: Fig. 3.20). First, the walls’ raison d’être depended on the interpretation of a post-earthquake repair of the Level J-4 temple. With the earthquake hypothesis controverted, these walls needed to be reassigned stratigraphically. Second, it was highly suspicious that these walls were known only from sections, recognized only after excavation (Figs. 2.49–2.50; see also Finkelstein and Ussishkin 2000: Fig. 3.43–3.45; Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Peersmann 2006: Fig. 3.13). Suspicions heightened in 2006 when, after several seasons of weathering, the east and west sections of Square H/10 revealed two new ‘walls’ (Fig. 2.50) and then after a hard rain in winter 2008, the southern section of the same square revealed contiguous laid mudbrick. Rather than a number of cross-walls through the northern corridor, all coincidentally only found later in sections, we actually have a laid-mudbrick fill within the corridor.20 Additional support is found in the fact that the temple corridor walls (Walls 96/J/1 and 96/J/7) were not robbed,21 mudbrick was found in situ upon these walls in some places and the brick superstructure was clearly excavated through in others (Fig. 2.49; Finkelstein and Ussishkin 2000a: 60–61 and Figs. 3.28–3.39; Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Peersmann 2006: Fig. 3.13). The bottom level of the newly observed mudbrick fill in the corridor of Square H/10 was at elevation 157.14 m. This is the same height as the reported ‘upper floor’ within the corridor (see Finkelstein and Ussishkin 2000: Fig. 3.26; Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Peersmann 2006: Fig. 3.14). This ‘upper floor’ should be considered the surface upon which the mudbrick fill was laid, i.e., a surface that represents the end of the natural and/or anthropogenic accumulation of Phase J-4a. Especially when considering the Phase J-4a accumulation within the Level J-4 sanctuary, these observations throw into high relief the problem of dating the bone deposition within the corridors (above, passim). This can only be solved with a reinvestigation of the corridor deposits. Whereas the corridors were filled with an organized mudbrick fill at the outset of Level J-5/J-6, the space north of Wall 96/J/7 received a different treatment. Walls 00/J/21 and 08/J/25 were completely dismantled. The stone socle was almost completely robbed and the stones were evidently used for the construction of the Level J-5 building above as is indicated by the reuse of at least one of these stones in the construction of Wall 06/J/17. Bricks from the walls were crushed and levigated to create a very distinct fill (08/J/212 = 08/J/129), which was laid in the sanctuary and over the robbed walls. This is demonstrated unequivocally by the fact that no robber trenches were found above the walls; the fill lays continuously over them and the sanctuary. Fill 08/J/212 was laid by the Level J-5 contractors directly on top of the Phase J-4a remains within the Level J-4 sanctuary. This debris had accumulated only 10 to 70 cm above the floor of the temple. Only in the immediate vicinity of the altar was there evidence of major wall collapse. This may be due to the fact that the initial robbing of the columns during early Phase J-4a would have brought immediate structural 20 The difficulty in discovering this lies in the fact that these bricks came from the upper portions of the Level J-4 walls themselves, and thus had been quite weathered by the time they were dismantled, making their appearance to the excavators little different than mudbrick collapse. The recognition that these ‘walls’ are actually a Level J-5 fill has significant bearing on the interpretation of the Egyptianizing pottery cache. I deal with this elsewhere. 21 The robbing of Wall 96/J/7 in Square H/9 was done in the Middle Bronze Age. See Adams and Bos in Part IV of this chapter.

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weakness to the centre where the additional offset columns and support beam had been. Whatever the case, the distinct Level J-5 fill was easily identifiable by its very well crushed mudbrick debris and small fragments of the chalk paste coating (i.e., bricks and chalk coating from the Level J-4 walls themselves). It became so identifiable that it was known as the ‘Snickers’ fill during excavation. It could be easily distinguished from the Phase J-4a debris below and the collapse on top of the altar. ea

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The levigated mudbrick Fill 08/J/212 within the sanctuary was laid on a slope that extended from approximately the top of the socle of Wall 96/J/7 down to the north and west (see Figs. 2.37, 2.48). This slope changes 0.83 m over a distance of 16 m (from the southeast corner of Square F/7 to Square J/7). The reason for the slope was probably related to how the architects designed the area farther to the north (beyond Area BB’s northern baulk, i.e., beneath Area AA) – whether it was terraced down or was allowed to slope all the way to the bottom of the tell. The architecture above the Level J-4 sanctuary consisted of an east-west street paved with fist sized cobbles (00/J/9), approximately 3.5 m north of and parallel to Wall 96/J/7 (again demonstrating a foreknowledge of the earlier temple). North of the street were three buildings labelled A, B and C (from west to east, each separated by a narrow alley; Fig. 2.51). The street was bound on its southern edge by Wall 98/J/2, which stretches at least 20 m from Square E/8 to Square H/7. The space between Wall 98/J/2 and Level J-4 Wall 97/J/7 was all part of the levigated Fill 08/J/212. There is no construction abutting the south side of the street. Wall 96/J/7 was probably preserved higher than the street, forming a terrace to the south and Wall 98/J/2 may have served to revet the fill between it and Wall 98/J/7, effectively extending the central terrace northwards some 4 m. Building A in Square J/7 is the least known. Only a small corner has been excavated in which was found a large storage jar (Fig. 8.4: 1). This storage jar apparently remained in use through Phase J-6b (and Phase J-6a?) at which time it had become partially subterranean with the raising of floors. Building B was the most exposed of the three structures, with its entire east-west dimension revealed. It is 11 m long and over 5.7 m wide. Unfortunately, its central space is poorly preserved, destroyed by later intrusions and rebuildings. The corner of the room preserved in Square J/7 yielded two installations that belong either to this phase or to Phase J-6b: one made from the upper portion of a holemouth jar held in place by stones (04/J/114; Fig. 8.9: 7), and another just north of it, made of thin standing stones formed into a square (04/J/113). One entrance to the building appears to have been on the east side from the alley.

Fig. 2.48: Level J-5 terraformation project showing three levels of the upper acropolis. See also Fig. 2.29.

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Fig. 2.49: Square F/10 west section showing Level J-5 laid brick fill between Level J-4 walls. Note bricks on top of Wall 06/J/01.

Fig. 2.50: Square H/10 east section showing Level J-5 laid brick fill between Level J-4 walls.

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Fig. 2.51: Remains of Level J-5.

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Here, a row of three larger stones (probably robbed from the Level J-4 temple below) may have served as a threshold. Building C consists of four rooms separated by interior Walls 98/J/29 and 08/J/20. In Square F/7, a step descended from the southern room to the northern room in accordance with the general slope of the terrace. Nothing is known about the eastern rooms. The north-south measurements of the Building A room and the Building C southwestern rooms are identical, perhaps suggesting similar plans. PHASE J-6B It is most likely that the three-phase remodelling of the structures in the main sector of Area J is schematic. It is doubtful that all three buildings were dismantled and rebuilt at the same time. Rather, each building was probably repaired or rebuilt in its own time frame. Phase J-6b, then, is an artificial snapshot sometime in the middle of this long process (Fig. 2.52). Buildings A and C remained basically unchanged in terms of their overall plan. Building A’s eastern wall was rebuilt as Wall 04/J/6, consciously wider than it was previously, perhaps indicating the addition of a second storey. Within the building, the floor was raised ca. 30 cm and the large store-jar that originally sat on the Level J-5 surface became partially subterranean. Building C underwent an adjustment to its southwestern corner. The southern continuation of Wall 06/J/11 was removed and the southern room’s Floor 98/J/144 was raised and extended out into the western alley. While the later Middle Bronze intrusion (Pit 06/J/140) makes it difficult to confirm, Wall 96/J/1 appears to have been extended to meet the eastern Wall 04/J/29 of Building B. This change appears to have made Buildings B and C into one structure, or at least changed the entry of each so that they had a shared entrance. That new entrance from the former alley came from the north. One arrived at a small pebble Pavement 06/J/97, which acted as a common threshold for both buildings. To turn to the west would be to enter Building B (as it was in Level J-5), but to continue south would be to enter the southwestern room of Building C. Within Building C plastered Bench 00/J/116 was built against Wall 96/J/31. In the northern room the only sign of activity consists of phytolith surfaces and 20-cm-deep ash Pit 00/J/160. While it had a number of superimposed floor surfaces, the general plan of Building B changed only slightly in Phase J-6b. It shifted to a more eastern diagonal (relative to the southern) street. The nature of activity of the westernmost room appears to have been maintained and Level J-5 Installations 04/J/114 and 04/J/113 either continued in use or were built subterranean in this level. Partition Wall 04/J/14 was built to separate these from new Installation 06/J/119 – an ashy hearth. From Phase J-6b through Phase J-6a, the architecture in this room remains the same, but a substantial number of floor raisings attests to its longevity and intense usage (Fig. 2.54). A new addition to the complex appears in Phase J-6b. On the eastern end of the street a building was constructed, extending southwards. Two walls were found abutting southern street Wall 96/J/2: Walls 08/J/22 and 08/J/26, the southern portion of which were discovered in Square F/9 in previous seasons. West of Wall 08/J/22, only distinct Level J-5 Fill 08/J/212 material was found, suggesting that the corner formed by the street and this southern room circumvallated a space south of the street. This space was the central locus of the mudbrick podium created in Level J-5 by filling in the Level J-4 walls.

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Fig. 2.52: Remains of Phase J-6b.

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Fig. 2.53: Remains of Phase J-6a (University of Chicago-exposed walls marked in black).

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Fig. 2.54: Square H/7-8 west section indicating the thick floor buildup of Phases J-6b and J-6a. Note Level J-4 basalt table (bottom left), and Phase J-4a accumulation broken by sinking of table (see also Fig. 2.46).

PHASE J-6A Phase J-6a marks the most significant change to Building C, which has been so completely altered that it will now be referred to as Building D (Fig. 2.53). Building B also underwent significant alterations, but to its eastern rooms only. Building A appears to have continued unchanged save for a floor raising that may or may not have resulted in the cutting off of the upper portion of the storage vessel and paving over it. The western rooms of Building B retain the character that they had attained in Phase J-6b with the addition of two ashy Installations 06/J/108 and 06/J/115. Installation 06/J/108 was a corner of the room cordoned off by large stones. It had a mud and pebble packed surface with some flat-laying pottery with areas of patchy ash. Partition Wall 04/J/14 separated this installation from Installation 06/J/115 (which replaced 06/J/109) cordoned off by a row of mudbricks. Continuing from Phase J-6b, this space witnesses several floor raisings throughout the period (Fig. 2.54). It is from this room that the most striking evidence comes for the nature of these buildings: a cylinder seal (04/J/095/AR1; see Brandl, Chapter 18, this volume) and a pear-shaped macehead (04/J/072/AR1) (Blockman and Sass, Chapter 15, this volume, Fig. 15.3: 4). The eastern exterior wall of Building B (Wall 04/J/26) was moved about 1.5 m to the west and where there were originally two rooms in Level J-5 and Phase J-6b, there was now one large room. Building C was replaced by Building D, little of which is preserved. Wall 98/J/9 was constructed as the western wall of the building. Almost nothing can be said about the interior of the building to the east, as it is heavily disturbed by Middle Bronze pits. The University of Chicago uncovered one wall east of and parallel to Wall 98/J/9 in our Square E/7 (in black in Fig. 2.53; Loud 1948: Fig. 393, Square N/13). The long east-west street and the space between Buildings B and D received more dramatic upgrades. The Level J-5 and Phase J-6b cobbled Street 00/J/9 was repaved with larger flagstones (98/J/136) that raised the level of the street to the elevation of ca. 157.60 m. This new surface height became a benchmark for

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Fig. 2.55: Schematic reconstruction of Level J-6 (University of Chicago-exposed architecture in black).

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the space between Buildings B and D, to where the flagstone pavement was partially extended. There, the out-of-use walls of Phase J-6b (part of Walls 06/J/29 and 04/J/27) were removed down to the same height as the street and integrated into the street pavement. The result seems to have been a one-metre northern tongue of flagstone pavement. It is unclear how much of Wall 04/J/29 to the north continued this pavement or was buried beneath a surface. On the west side of this northern extension, there was a gap of about one metre before the western edge of Building B. The gap seems to have had an earthen surface, 04/J/27, and was separated from the street by fence Wall 04/J/5. Within this space was a curious feature, 04/J/62, in which four flat-topped stones were neatly arranged around a smaller flat-topped stone, creating a round flat table. The feature had a foundation of small pebbles approximately 20 cm deep, suggesting that it was designed to support some amount of weight. However, it does not seem logical to interpret it as a column base since it is built up against Wall 04/J/26. The best explanation at this time is that this is some sort of minor cult installation. In this scenario, Installation 04/J/62 is a table supporting some sort of statue, other icon, or fetish (a heavy one?), and fence Wall 04/J/5 delineates the sacred space. Two additional features support this conclusion. First is the discovery of a clay animal figurine on the earthen floor of the delineated space (06/J/050/AR1).22 Second is the elaborately paved ‘red-sherd’ Floor 98/J/76 adjacent to this installation (Fig. 2.53; Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Peersmann 2006: Fig. 3.27; see also Adams, Chapter 8 in this volume, for further ceramic and stratigraphic discussion). Floor 98/J/76 is bounded on the east by Wall 98/J/9, on the south by Wall 96/J/31, and continues into the northern baulk (Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Peersmann 2006: Fig. 3.27). On the west, the floor comes to an abrupt end even with the western terminus of Wall 96/J/31 (Fig. 2.53, but see Chapter 8). This is also the location of the eastern edge of the northern tongue of the flagstone paved street. It is possible, though not demonstrable, that this street continued to the north but has been completely robbed away. Floor 98/J/76 was originally uncovered in 1998 and the removal of the baulks in 2006 exposed the continuation of the floor to the boundaries described above. The floor occupies two levels of surface separated by a step down from south to north (this step occurs at the precise location of Phase J-6b Wall 98/J/29), from elevation 157.55 m to 157.36 m. The floor itself is composed of a pavement of sherds from more than 18 vessels (most of them red-burnished; Figs. 8.12–8.14), four of which may have been imported from the Jordan Valley and the Lebanese coast (Greenberg 2006: 165). This contrasts sharply with the rest of the ceramics recovered from the Level J-6 phases (Greenberg 2006; Adams, Chapter 8 in this volume). These elements within the new Phase J-6a space between Buildings B and D should be interpreted as a unit. An entrance on the south leads from the street into a space that is partially segregated by a fence on the west and beautifully paved with extravagant imported pottery on the east. The segregated space is oriented towards a single rounded installation that may have been a plinth for a special object.

22 For animal figurines as EB III assemblages, see Getzov 2006: 94–95. He concludes that while these types of figurines may be present in EB II contexts, they do not become widespread until the EB III. Additionally, while cattle figurines are an important part of Early Bronze art and cult, most figurines represent caprines and donkeys. The identification of the animal in this figurine, however, is difficult to determine.

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LEVEL J-5/J-6 AND ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS UNCOVERED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO Level J-5/J-6 is contemporary with the University of Chicago’s Strata xVII–xVI (Fig. 2.55; Loud 1948: Figs. 392–393). Several problems occur in any attempt to correlate the Level J-5/J-6 phases of the main sector of Area J with those identified by the University of Chicago (see also comments in Chapter 8). First, there can be no direct stratigraphic connection between architecture on the upper terrace and the lower terrace. The lower terrace contains Palace 3177 for which the University of Chicago team identified two major Strata, xVII and xVI, with some minor sub-phases evident in Stratum xVI (e.g., Loud 1948: Fig. 170). One connection between Area J North and the lower terrace is in the style of pavement in Building 3177, Room 1. In Stratum xVII, this room is paved with pebbles (Loud 1948: Fig. 162) while in Stratum XVI, the room is repaved with larger flag-stones (Loud 1948: Fig. 163). This is comparable to the new pavement that the Phase J-6a street received. It is upon this meagre evidence that we generally associate Level J-5 and Phase J-6b with Stratum xVII and Phase J-6a with Stratum xVI. At the base of and against terrace Wall 4045 the University of Chicago uncovered a number of rooms that probably date to the Level J-5 reoccupation of the site (Loud 1948: Fig. 391; Esse 1991: 76). At some point during Level J-6, Wall 4045 was thickened, covering these structures. It seems logical to assign this thickening to the transition between Phases J-6b and J-6a, when Palace 3177 was completely rebuilt (Loud 1948: 70–78). There is less difficulty in connecting our Level J-5/J-6 phases with the XVII and XVI strata on the upper terrace, but again, no direct connection exists. Our street is parallel to another paved street located some 30 m to the south (Locus 5215 in Loud 1948: Fig. 393). The University of Chicago street runs from approximately the location of Altar 4017 westwards for more than 50 m. Along the way numerous rooms flank either side of the street. It appears, then, that these streets are contemporary throughout Level J-5/J-6 (Fig. 2.55).23 For the 2010 excavation of this J-5/J-6 architecture, see the appendix to this section below. THE LOCATION OF THE J-5/J-6 TEMPLE The location of the Level J-7 Temple 4040 directly over the Level J-4 Great Temple and the fact that no Level J-5/J-6 (Strata XVII–XVI) temple has yet been identified raises the question: where is the Level J-5/J-6 temple? Two pieces of evidence shed light on this problem. First, the continuity of cultic tradition on this portion of the mound from the EB I through the Late Bronze Age strongly suggests that a Level J-5/J-6 temple existed in the vicinity. It is reasonable to suggest (though there is no outright proof) that the temple should be sought very close to the location of the Level J-4 sanctuary, especially since that was the location chosen for the Level J-7 Temple 4040. The second piece of evidence lies in the observations that the street and building in the north of Main Area J were constructed with an awareness of the earlier Level J-4 temple walls and that the corridors between these walls were filled to create a platform. The overall plan as we have it suggests that the Level J-5/J-6 temple was located more or less around the central axis of the Level J-4 temple above the mudbrick filled corridors of Squares G–J/10–12 (Fig. 2.48). If this is the case, it seems likely that all traces of it have been destroyed in the construction of the Level J-7 temples, leaving round Altar 4017 the only testament to the Level J-5/J-6 cult activity (but see Appendix: The 2010 Season, below). 23 It should also be noted that the University of Chicago’s southern street is at a higher elevation. This is why we reconstruct a terrace system creating ‘platforms’ of occupation. Our street and buildings make one terrace and the mudbrick podium is the next terrace up, with the Chicago street as its southern limit. The rooms south of the Chicago street are at a higher elevation and make up a third higher terrace.

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lEVEl J-7 The transition from Level J-5/J-6 to Level J-7 marks a significant change in the occupation at the site. This transition has been generally underappreciated. All architecture on the site was levelled to make way for a completely new type of construction. Palace 3177 was abandoned and replaced with a monumental staircase (Loud 1948: 78–84; Fig. 394). On the upper terrace, the Level J-5/J-6 Street 98/J/136 and Buildings A, B and D in Main Area J were completely dismantled in preparation for the construction of Temple 4040 (Fig. 2.56). Levelling fills were laid around the area, several loci of which contained restorable EB IB pottery, attesting to a major earthmoving operation. The Level J-5/J-6 street in the southern portion of Main Area J was also dismantled and cut by the construction of the dual western temples. The architectural chronology suggests that the transition was abrupt and total (even if the dual-temples were technically later in construction, contra Dunayevsky and Kempinski 1973: Figs. 7–8; Esse 1991: Fig. 16). The transition is not one of gradual evolution of the town during the EB III. Rather, it is a sign of a complete reorganization of political and religious structure and a major cultural transition. Whereas the nature of the Level J-5/J-6 plan reveals a city engaged in a multiplicity of functions, Level J-7 is monolithic in its attention to the sacred. The University of Chicago excavated the Stratum xV ‘megaron-style’ temples almost completely. In Temple 4040, they excavated down to the original plastered floor of the temple, leaving it intact. In Temple 5192, the patchy floor was found as was a severely denuded (or unfinished?) mudbrick altar. Temple 5269 did not produce a floor or an altar leading to our speculation that it was never completed (see Loud 1948: 78–84). Data relating to Level J-7 was obtained in Main Area J over the course of the 2004 through 2008 seasons. A number of levelling fills and foundation trenches were excavated relating to Temple 4040 (Level J-7). In 2010, we exposed the western wall of Temple 5269 in Sub-Area Upper J (see Part IV). RELATIVE CHRONOLOGY OF THE LEVEL J-7 MEGARON-STYLE TEMPLES Loud (1948) published no statement indicating that he and other members of the team thought anything other than that all three temples were constructed simultaneously. The fact that the twin temples were constructed separately (physically, though not necessarily temporally) from Temple 4040 is clear enough from both their orientations and their slightly different construction techniques. Temple 5192 has a continuous stone foundation within the threshold24 whereas Temple 4040 does not (see below). The altar of Temple 4040 was made of fieldstones, whereas that in Temple 5192 was made of mudbrick. The size, proportions and construction grids of the structures are different (Loud 1948: 78; de Miroschedji 2001: 483). Additionally, the pillar bases in Temple 4040 have an average diameter of 53 cm (one 5.25-cm cubit) at the bevel whereas those of the twin temples have an average diameter of 63 cm.25 Kenyon (1958) suggested that the twin temples were built first and that Temple 4040 cut a portion of the earlier construction. To test this hypothesis, Dunayevsky and Kempinski excavated a few sondages at the site (1966; 1973). They concluded that Temple 4040 was built before the other two on the basis of a wall (“A”) appended to Temple 4040, which Temple 5192 clearly put out of use (Dunayevsky and Kempinski 1973: 162–167; Esse 1991). The 24 My observation in the field. 25 Incidentally, this would also suggest that these bases were made for the respective temples at the time of construction, rather than having been robbed from earlier structures, such as Building 3177 (contra Ussishkin in Finkelstein and Ussishkin 2000b: 590–591).

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renewed excavations checked afresh “Wall A” in 1994 and determined that it was not bonded to Temple 4040 and therefore does not by itself provide the stratigraphic evidence that Dunayevsky and Kempinski claimed (Finkelstein and Ussishkin 2000: 70–71). To this we can add that with our latest exposure of Level J-6, we now have a good understanding of the general orientation of its architecture, and it would appear that “Wall A” is better oriented with Level J-5/J-6 than with Temple 4040, and is cut by the construction of Temple 4040 in the same way the rear wall of Temple 5192 cuts into the Level J-5/J-6 architecture to its south (Fig. 2.72). Dunayevsky and Kempinski used their interpretation of “Wall A” to push back the construction of Temple 4040 to Stratum xVII (Dunayevsky and Kempinski 1973: Fig. 7), contemporary with Palace 3177. This was followed by Nigro (1995: 16–23). Based on his metrological analysis, de Miroschedji suggested that the palace and temple were built as a single operation (de Miroschedji 2001: 485 and n. 10).26 This can now be disputed based on the three phases of Level J-6, which match well the full chronology in the rest of the site. Palace 3177 is contemporary with the buildings attached to streets, both of which were put out of commission by the construction of the Level J-7 temples; Level J-5/J-6 ended at the same time everywhere on the site and Level J-7 marks a completely new era at Megiddo. Ultimately, there is no basis for believing that there was any significant temporal distinction between Temple 4040 and the other two temples (see also Appendix: The 2010 Season). TEMPLE 4040 New evidence relating to Temple 4040 (Figs. 2.56, 2.59) from the renewed excavations between 2004 and 2008 consists of three separate entities: 1) fills over the Level J-5/J-6 architecture, much of which has been contaminated by Middle Bronze Age pits and modern mixing (encountered in most squares); 2) the excavation of the foundation stones (08/J/73) of western portico Pillar Base 08/J/214; and 3) the excavation of the clearly delineated foundation trench beneath the threshold of Temple 4040 in the southern incision of Square E/9. The removal of the western porch Pillar Base 08/J/214 of Temple 4040 revealed the stone foundations (08/J/73) supporting the massive stone (see Part I of this chapter). The foundation penetrated 0.66 m beneath the bottom of the base and was constructed with a boulder core with additional medium- to large-sized stones for support (Fig. 2.3). The foundation column did not have a diameter larger than the base itself; all of these stones were carefully laid and not simply dumped into the foundation trench, providing a solid foundation for the ca. 2.5 ton column base. The foundation penetrated down through a corner of one room of a Level J-5/J-6 building and into the Level J-5 fill over the Level J-4 temple, but did not reach the latter temple itself. In preparing to remove the Temple 4040 pillar base, the space between the western base and the eastern base was cleaned to re-expose and plan the stone ‘wall’ that linked the two porch pillar-bases (seen and partially planned by the University of Chicago team; Loud 1948: Figs. 186, 394), to which we assigned the designation Wall 08/J/12 (Fig. 2.56; Loud 1948: Fig. 394). Loud does not discuss these stones, but the plan

26 It should be noted that Building 3177’s orientation is 18° east of Chicago’s north while Temple 4040’s orientation is 21° east of north. The similarity of orientation is not exact enough to have been a product of contemporary planning and must be a coincidence. Rather, the orientations of both structures were determined more or less by the underlying Level J-4 architecture, particularly Wall 4114 (see above).

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and photograph suggest that they were at least partially covered by the lime floor of Temple 4040 (Loud 1948: Figs. 186, 394). The wall consists of three rows of parallel stones (Fig. 2.56). Visual inspection in the field and of the plans indicates that the southernmost of these rows lines up perfectly with the northern face of the porch pillar-bases which, despite their differences in size and shape, have their northern faces in alignment (this line is also shared by the northern terminal ends of the western and eastern walls of the temple).27 The second row north is only partially preserved. The southernmost and middle rows are composed of medium-sized fieldstones. The northernmost row is made from much larger flagstones. All of the stones have approximately the same elevation of ca. 158.32 m. One possible explanation is that these stones represent a stone paved street leading to the temple. This paved street perhaps terminated in the north (near the end of the fence Wall 06/J/2) at the top of a staircase that ascended the slope of the tell from the north to Temple 4040 (compare Staircase 5263 in Stratum xII, Loud 1948: Fig. 398; see also Fig 2.69 in this chapter). This would be congruous to the monumental Staircase 3160 on the eastern slope (Loud 1948: Fig. 394). Near the end of the 2008 season, some questions remained about the relationship between the Level J-4 sanctuary altar and the rear wall of the sanctuary (see above). To address this issue, an incision was made through the threshold of Temple 4040 down to the Level J-4 temple (see also above). This probe extended 2 m south from the southern edge of the shortened Square E/9, positioned 1.5 m wide, centred within the Level J-7 Megaron 4040 threshold (Fig. 2.56). This incision cut through the Level J-7 temple Floor 08/J/133 and revealed the foundation trench for the Temple Wall 08/J/40 (Figs. 2.56–2.58). The foundation trench (08/J/147) is 1.25 m deep (from the plaster floor) and is ca. 0.90 m wider than the thickness of Wall 08/J/40.28 While this certainly represents a continuous foundation trench, the continuation of Wall 08/J/40 was not therein. Rather, the wall foundations appear to have stopped at the jams and this portion of the unused trench was simply back-filled in preparation for the tan/brown plaster floor. The sealed ceramics from the wall foundation and the portico pillar base foundation provide a terminus post quem for the date of construction of Temple 4040 in the terminal EB III or perhaps the onset of the Intermediate Bronze Age. New information relating to Temple 5269 is reported in the Appendix to Part III and in Part IV of this chapter.

27 The possibility that these stones comprise a stylobate for the column bases was checked in the field. These stones were not connected to the actual foundation of the bases. It is also not clear if a similar row of stones was present in Temple 5192. 28 This is an estimate since the entire width of the foundation was not exposed. The north side of the foundation trench extends 0.45 m beyond the face of the wall.

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Fig. 2.56: Remains of Level J-7 (in black elements uncovered by the University of Chicago team but not drawn by us).

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Fig. 2.57: Square E/9 southern incision eastern section. Note lighter coloured plaster floor of Temple 4040 at surface.

Fig. 2.58: Square E/9 southern incision eastern section.

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Fig. 2.59: Aerial photograph of the Level J-7 temples at the end of the 2008 season, facing south. Note Upper Area J Squares T–S/20 at right.

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appENDIX TO parT III: ThE 2010 SEaSON The 2010 season in Area J was initiated with four major goals. The first was to assess the levels underlying the Level J-4 Great Temple. To accomplish this, we reopened Squares H/7 and H/8 to provide a section through the floor of the temple. Second, we wished to sample the Level J-4 activity south of the Great Temple to assess the prospects for future work in this sector of Area J; two squares were selected in the southern portion of Area J, behind the twin Level J-7 temples in antis. Third, previous seasons demonstrated that Level J-5/J-6 was a significant elite compound (see Part III of this chapter), and we wished to explore it further by cleaning and examining those levels exposed by the University of Chicago in the southern portion of the area. Fourth, we wished to finish our excavations in the upper part of Area J in order to complete our stratification of the Early and Middle Bronze Ages (see Part IV of this chapter). The results of the first three endeavors of the 2010 excavations are reported here, while the 2010 excavations in the upper portion of Area J have been incorporated into the report in Part IV of this chapter. Midway through the 2010 season, the directors and I consulted about the future prospects of excavation in Area J. Since many of our major goals for this part of the mound had been satisfied (see Finkelstein and Ussishkin 2000a: 30–34), a decision was taken that the 2010 season would be our last in Area J.

SONDaGE BENEaTh ThE lEVEl J-4 TEMplE As one of three foci of investigation in the 2010 season, we continued excavation in Squares H/7 and H/8 and the H/8–H/9 baulk down beneath the floor of the Level J-4 Great Temple in order to clarify the underlying stratigraphy. We established that the Great Temple was not built on a large fill at this point. Rather, the underlying stratigraphy had been cut flat to prepare for the construction of the temple. Beneath we revealed four phases of construction and occupation dating to the EB I. It is now abundantly clear that the pre-J-4 levels on the mound are not insignificant, and, while the Great Temple represents a leap forward in monumental construction, it is perhaps not as punctuated as we once thought. No stratigraphic link can be made between the stratigraphy beneath the Great Temple and Levels J-1 to J-3 on the eastern slope. Therefore, we have numbered the stratigraphy here from youngest to oldest relative to J-4: i.e., the phase beneath is -1, then -2, and so on (Table 2.7). While bedrock was not reached in these squares, it appears that pre-J-4 activity was more intense here than on the eastern slope. At the end of the 2010 season, the squares of this sondage were backfilled in order to prevent erosion and preserve the integrity of the Level J-4 and Level J-7 temples. We have marked the bottom of the backfill with imperishable material.

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Fig. 2.60: Composite plan of the remains of Level -4 Phases d through a beneath the Great Temple.

TABLE 2.7: STRATIGRAPHIC SEqUENCE BENEATH THE LEVEL J-4 TEMPLE Level/ Phase

Description

Period

J-4

Great Temple, Terrace Walls 4045 and 4114

EB IB late*

-1

Wall 10/J/56 with French Drain 10/J/168

EB IB late

-2

Greenish Fill 10/J/23 = 06/J/91 with Stone Pillar Base (?)

EB IB late

-3

Greenish-clay-coated Circular Platform 10/J/152; Wall 10/J/29; Floor 10/J/58

EB IB late

-4 a

Rounded revetment Wall 10/J/53; Wall 10/J/55, Ash and Bone Accumulation 10/J/151

EB IB early

-4 b

Rounded revetment Wall 10/J/53; Hearth 10/J/188; Accumulation 10/J/191, 10/J/183

EB IB early

-4 c

Rounded revetment Wall 10/J/53; Hearth 10/J/188

EB IB early

-4 d

Rounded revetment Wall 10/J/53

EB IB early

* The ceramics from this sondage will be published in a future report. Suffice it to say at this time that the sequence presented here appears to stretch from the middle of the EB I through the end of the EB I. The use of the terms ‘early’ and ‘late’ here is intended only for relative purposes, and not intended to favour any particular EB I ceramic chronology. Further study is required to determine what contribution this assemblage can make to the internal chronology of the EB I.

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Fig. 2.61: Phase -4 b Surface 10/J/183 facing east. Phase -4 d/c Hearth 10/J/188, at left; Wall 10/J/53 at bottom. Compare eastern section with Fig. 2.37.

LEVEL -4 (FIG. 2.60) The earliest architecture and occupational debris reached in the sondage consisted of a slightly curving revetment wall (10/J/53) that remained a feature of this area through four sub-phases, Phase -4 d through a. The single-row wall was constructed with its eastern face neatly arranged sloping lightly to the west against the debris (10/J/175) that it was intended to support. The back side of the wall was left jagged. It is not clear if this revetment was intended to separate two levels on the northern slope, or formed part of a mound-like installation. The bottom of this wall was not reached, but it stands at least 0.81-m-high. The hearthy deposits at the lowest portions of excavation in Square H/7 (see Fig. 2.37) perhaps represent the earliest occupational material associated with this feature. If this is the case, the revetment feature stood over 1.14 m above its original occupation, Phase -4 d. In Phase -4 c, a stony fill (10/J/196) supported the construction of a large stone hearth (10/J/188), consisting of a stone superstructure enclosing a circular pit 59 cm in diameter. Within the pit there was evidence of in situ fire and a 15 cm accumulation of large charcoal pieces (Fig. 2.61). Charcoal was also evident across a surface south of the hearth (10/J/194; Fig. 2.37). Phase -4 b witnessed the continued accumulation of occupational debris south of Hearth 10/J/188 and east of Revetment 10/J/53. Wall 10/J/54 was added in this phase, perhaps to segregate the area of Hearth 10/J/188 from the area to the south. The surface Accumulation 10/J/191 culminates in thick ashy hearth deposits (10/J/183; Fig. 2.61). Finally, in the last phase of revetment Wall 10/J/53, Phase -4 a, Wall 10/J/55 was added and ash and bone (10/J/151) accumulated directly to its south. This ash and bone accumulation is consistent with cultic activity through all periods of the site where the temple area continually witnessed the accumulation of sacred garbage (Loud 1948: passim; Epstein 1965: 208–213; Wapnish and Hesse 2000; Finkelstein and

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Ussishkin 2000a: 55–65; see also Level J-4, below). This accumulation partially overlays Wall 10/J/53, suggesting that the preserved height of 155.62 m ASL represents the approximate original height of the revetment feature. East of the ash and bone deposit, an amorphously preserved group of exceptionally dense mudbricks (10/J/170) suggested itself as some sort of installation. Further support came from patchy evidence of a pinkish clay coating extending westward beneath Ash 10/J/151. A curious vertical hole in the northern side was found, 3–4 cm in diameter and over 10-cm-deep, filled with a light gray ash (Fig. 2.60). Hearth 10/J/188 appears to have gone out of use (based on levels), but this could not be verified by stratigraphic connection to the other elements of this phase. LEVEL -3 (FIG. 2.62) This phase witnessed a refreshment of the architectural scheme of the preceding levels. Wall 10/J/53 was rebuilt as Wall 10/J/46 over ash deposit 10/J/151. To the east, a new large curvilinear feature was constructed consisting of curving, stone-based ‘Wall’ 10/J/29 (one course high) that acted as a step up to stone Platform 10/J/152 (one course high) (Fig. 2.63). Wall 10/J/29 and Platform 10/J/152 were both coated with a thick mud mortar (10/J/42, 10/J/83, respectively). Surface 10/J/58 extended north and west of Wall 10/J/29. The floor, wall and platform were all coated with a greenish coating (see especially Fig. 2.37) to create a circular stepped structure. A group of stones in the southeast corner of Square H/7 may be the remains of a wall that bound the greenish sloping floor 10/J/58 (Figs. 2.37, 2.62). The calcareous greenish coating is similar to mudbricks found on the site in the Early Bronze and Middle Bronze (Levels J-8, J-9; apparently also rampart bricks in Area K). The source for this material appears to be a major calcareous marl deposit of the Mount Scopus Group (Senonian/Paleocene; Sneh et al. 19981) surrounding the spring at ‘Ain el-qubbi on the northeastern edge of the mound (Adams, David and Homsher forthcoming) and stretching around to the south side of Megiddo.2 The greenish coating over the circular platform was applied wet in one complete coating, not built with bricks. However, there is some evidence that elsewhere in the building, perhaps at the top of the circular structure beyond the southern section, there existed a structure built with bricks composed of the same calcareous material. These bricks were used as a levelling fill in the succeeding phase. LEVEL -2 (FIG. 2.64) This layer is almost completely obliterated by the level-cutting operation of Level J-4 (see below). Evidence of it can be identified by two features. The first is a thick greenish fill (10/J/23) that covers most elements of the preceding phase (see Fig. 2.37). This fill is made of bricks composed of the greenish calcareous material discussed above. This fill was also noted in Square G/7 as the greenish Fill 06/J/91 (see discussion of the Level J-4 floor above). In several places, brick lines were clearly identifiable in this fill, suggesting that it was composed of bricks dismantled from the Level -3 architecture associated with the circular stepped structure. The western portion of this fill was mixed with a pile of small- to medium-sized fieldstones (10/J/49), perhaps from the dismantling of Wall 10/J/46 or another Level -3 structure. The second element of this phase is a large flat stone in the northeast corner of Square H/8, which appears to be coexistent 1 2

http://www.gsi.gov.il/Eng/Index.asp?ArticleID=172&CategoryID=119&Page=1 This same deposit was also the source of the Late Bronze Amarna letters from Megiddo (Goren et al. 2004: 246). Note that there it is identified as the Maastrichtian Ghareb formation. The material closer to the spring is probably part of the Taqiye formation of the same Mount Scopus Group (Y. Goren, personal communication).

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Fig. 2.62: Remains of Level -3 beneath the Great Temple.

Fig. 2.63: Level -3 Wall 10/J/29 and Podium 10/J/152, facing east. Note Floor 10/J/58 in section at right (compare with Fig. 2.37). Level -4 architecture appears beneath.

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Fig. 2.64: Remains of Level -2 beneath the Great Temple.

with greenish fill deposit. As most of this building has been cut away by Level J-4 activity, one can only speculate that this new architecture represents a shift from the preceding circular structures/installation to a larger building with a pillar(?), more in keeping with the later Level J-4 architecture. LEVEL -1 (FIG. 2.65) This phase is defined by wide foundation Trench 10/J/168 constructed to receive Wall 10/J/56 (Figs. 2.37, 2.65–2.66). Chalk paste was preserved on the northern face of the brick-on-stone-socle wall, indicating that the interior of the building to which it belonged was to the north. South of the wall, the oversized foundation trench was lined with a clean silty mud. The side of the wall within the trench was coated with a mud-withstraw-binder coating (no chalk paste). The trench was then backfilled with small- to medium-sized stones and a sandy earthen fill (10/J/168). Given these preparations, it appears that the purpose of the foundation trench was to facilitate drainage from up-slope to the south; this is one of the earliest examples of a ‘French drain’, a common drainage solution for retaining walls. A similar retaining wall drainage technique may have been in use behind Wall 94/J/2 of the Level J-3 temple on the eastern slope, which also served as a terrace for material up-slope (Fig. 2.20; Finkelstein and Ussishkin 2000a: 40–42, Fig. 3.15). This would be a tenuous link, at best, for the contemporaneity of Level J-3 on the eastern slope and Level -1 here. Because of the later Level J-4 construction activity, it is difficult to determine if the foundation Trench 10/J/168 cut through Level -2 green fill, and is therefore later, or if the poorly preserved structure of Level -2 was intended to be the building terraced by Wall 10/J/56, and is thus contemporary. I prefer the former. The last two phases, Levels -2 and -1, before the construction of the Great Temple with their thick linear walls and the possible pillar base, perhaps represent the beginning of broad-room-style temple architecture at the site and may be contemporary with Level J-3 on the eastern slope. 106

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Fig. 2.65: Remains of Level -1 beneath the Great Temple (University of Chicago-exposed walls in grey).

Fig. 2.66: Level -1 Wall 10/J/56 and French Drain 10/J/168, facing east. Note Level J-4 temple Wall 00/J/21 at left with bricks of Wall 10/J/56 below and chalk coating of northern face of Wall 10/J/56 at far left. Stone socle of Wall 10/J/56 is evident beneath the string marking the southern face of the wall. French Drain 10/J/168 is evident in the east section (compare Fig. 2.63). Stones at base of the wall are the lower portions of the stone fill of the drain.

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Fig. 2.67: Remains of pre-Level J-4 curvilinear Wall 10/J/62 in M/15. Note bedrock level indicated beneath wall.

LEVEL J-4 (FIGS. 2.22–2.41) Very little new material was added regarding Level J-4. The Great Temple was constructed by cutting the previous occupation down to a level construction surface rather than building it up with terraces (Fig. 2.37). Our assessment of the Level J-4 floor (above) was confirmed with the discovery of the Levels -1 to -3 architecture beneath. In that assessment we concluded that the floor of the temple (08/J/202) was simply thin compact mud laid to smooth the irregularities in the underlying cutting. Logically, this also confirmed that the foundation deposit slab (Figs. 2.39–2.40), which was found above the green fill but beneath the temple floor, was laid during the construction process of the Great Temple, i.e., after the area had been cut flat to prepare for construction of the temple. This cutting procedure eliminated many aspects of the underlying strata, and it is not possible to determine how many strata have been completely eradicated on this portion of the mound. Similarly, it is difficult to determine if the Level J-3 temple on the eastern slope immediately preceded the Level J-4 temple or simply represents the elevation to which Level J-4 cut down.

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EXCaVaTIONS SOuTh Of ThE lEVEl J-7 TEMplES Work commenced in Squares O/13 through J/16: Squares M/15 and M/14 were tasked with reaching Level J-4 while work in the other squares served to clarify architectural details of Level J-5 and J-6 (Figs. 2.68–2.72). BEDROCK Bedrock was reached in Square M/15 at 155.23 m ASL (Figs. 2.67–2.68). This complements our two adjacent bedrock level data: 1) Schumacher reached bedrock at ca. 153.00 m ASL in approximately Square P/15 on our grid; 2) we reached bedrock at 155.24 m ASL in Square J/13 in the 2000 season (Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Peersmann 2000: 36). Overall, these data indicate relatively level underlying bedrock in the vicinity of Level J-7 Temple 5192. At some point between Squares M/15 and P/15, the bedrock begins to descend more steeply. In Square M/15, no evidence of human activity on the bedrock was present. PRE-LEVEL J-4 In Square M/15, Debris 10/J/193 overlaid the bedrock, yielding EB IB pottery (Fig. 2.68). Above this was an occupational level (10/J/181 = 10/J/187) with restorable EB I pottery not associated with any architecture. This occupational debris was built over by curvilinear Wall 10/J/62 with no clearly preserved occupational surfaces (Figs. 2.67–2.68). How these elements correspond to other levels (Level J-4 and earlier) around the site is unclear. LEVEL/PHASE J-4/J-4a Squares M/15 and M/14 both reached what we assume to be Level J-4 material in the form of extensive bone (with many articulations in each locus) and ash deposits (10/J/160; Fig. 2.68). No architecture could be associated with these bone deposits, but in Square M/15, the bones appeared to be part of a rubbish pile that included ash and stones. The tip lines of this deposit suggested that the material had been thrown from the east/southeast. Without stratigraphic linkage to other sectors of the site, and given the fact that some bone deposits or the disturbance of these deposits may come from Phase J-4a (see above), we cannot conclusively associate this material with Level J-4. However, the fact that a Level J-5 fill overlays the ash and bone deposits directly narrows the attribution to one of the two. Perhaps significantly, none of the pre-Level J-4 intense stratification known from the eastern slope and from beneath the Great Temple is to be found here. This matches the results from previous seasons in, for example, Square J/13 (Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Peersmann 2000: Fig. 3.14). The emerging picture (though far from complete) is that in the EB IB (Levels J-3 and J-4, in particular) the area south of the Level J-4 Great Temple and west of the Level J-3 temple was an open space with a variety of installations (e.g., Wall 00/J/01, plaster Feature 00/J/121, the burial of the complete bos primigenius; Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Peersmann 2000: Fig. 3.14) and significant bone deposits (e.g., 98/J/21 and 98/J/28 in Squares C–D/13–14, Fig. 2.24; 10/J/138, 10/J/160, 10/J/189 in Squares M/14–15, Fig. 2.68). In both Levels J-3 and J-4, this area was bounded by a terrace wall on at least one side: Wall 94/J/02 (Fig. 2.20) and Wall 98/J/23 (Fig. 2.24), respectively. Given this evidence and the significant number of bones associated with these levels, it is tempting to identify this open area as the EB I communal feasting area.

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Fig. 2.68: Eastern section drawing of Squares M/14–15 showing stratification from Level J-6 to bedrock.

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Fig. 2.69: Remains of Level J-5 south of the Level J-7 temples.

LEVEL J-5 FILL (FIG. 2.68) Characteristically, everywhere in Area J where Level J-4 was encountered, it was covered by a thick bricky fill defined by small sherds and occasional chunks of plaster (e.g., 08/J/129 = 08/J/212 in the sanctuary, Figs. 2.37, 2.48; see “Level J-5”, below). This is also the case in Squares M/14–15, where the ash and bone deposits are covered by a dense bricky deposit over 1-m-thick (Fig. 2.68). As elsewhere, this fill comes from the dismantling of Level J-4 and the levelling operations carried out at the beginning of the Level J-5 reinhabitation of the site. Within this fill, Square M/14 produced a thick deposit of brick material and larger pieces of EB IB ceramic material, some restorable, in large quantities (08/J/133–10/J/171; Fig. 2.68). As part of the Level J-5 levelling operation, this material represents J-4 occupational debris removed from elsewhere on the mound and redeposited with the bricky fill, and may represent the best Level J-4 ceramic assemblage to date. LEVEL J-5/J-6 (FIGS. 2.69–2.72) The nature of Level J-5/J-6 to the south of the Level J-7 temples is similar to that excavated to the north (see Level J-5/J-6, above). Here, too, at least three major phases were identified – Level J-5, Phase J-6b and Phase J-6a – which appear to correspond roughly to the three phases identified elsewhere (Figs. 2.69–2.72).

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Fig. 2.70: Remains of Phase J-6b (basalt slabs in black) south of the Level J-7 temples (in light grey).

Similar to the area north of Temple 5192, this phase is defined by an east-west street that also acted as a terracing feature: the buildings to the north of the street are lower than those to the south (see Figs. 2.29, 2.48). The street was originally unpaved, and through the course of Level J-5 and Phase J-6b, there was significant refuse build-up within it (Fig. 2.68). At some point in Phase J-6b, this street (like the one to the north) was paved with flagstones (10/J/24). The street slopes down to the west (the slope occasionally demanding a step) where we traced it as far as the edge of the University of Chicago’s Area BB. The EB III city, therefore, extends at least some distance in that direction, perhaps as far as the boundaries of the mound. To the east, the street passes south of Altar 4017 (see Fig. 2.48), leading to the entrance of the altar enclosure and the buildings on the eastern edge of the upper terrace. Primarily, the Level J-5/J-6 architecture exposed by the University of Chicago was cleaned to prepare a new plan. Only in Squares M/14, M/15 and L/15 were the phases dissected. For the most part, the results of this season’s operation can be deduced from the plans presented here (Figs. 2.68–2.72). Otherwise, the following observations can be made: Level J-5: The area slopes down to the north and west. Many of the living spaces were terraced from room to room. In some cases different levels in rooms could be identified by the presence of terrace architecture, e.g., in Fig. 2.69, Wall 10/J/13: the parts of the wall that were subterranean on one side were constructed with irregular faces. A doorway through Wall 10/J/30 was identified by its door socket, giving some idea of the internal layout. While we have little preserved architecture from Level J-5, 20–30 cm of occupational material remained in several places.

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Phase J-6b: This level is the best exposed (Figs. 2.70, 2.73). To the north of the street a large, fine building was constructed (which apparently existed into Phase J-6a). Its walls are thicker than most of the other walls of this level, suggesting either a second story or superior construction procedures. Compared to the other Level J-5/J-6 architecture, this building is certainly of higher quality (cf. Figs. 2.51–2.53). Unfortunately, the northern portions of the building have been cut away with the construction of the Level J-7 temples. This building was already exposed by the University of Chicago and only cleaned by us. Room 5221 appears to be the focal point of the building – its walls and floors are well plastered (as was Room 5222), and a pillar base (no longer in situ since its exposure) stands in the east-west centre of the room. Room 5199 in the southwestern corner of the building contains a drain through Wall 10/J/23 into the street. To the south of the paved street is another large building (Fig. 2.70). The layout is fairly clear as excavated by the University of Chicago team (that removed most of the floors), but we revealed new features in Squares L/15 east of Wall 10/J/02 (Figs. 2.70–2.71). This room featured a series of floor levels. With the earliest floors (10/J/120, 10/J/74) the room featured at least two basalt slabs, whose purpose is unknown. The room was entered through two doorways: from the west through Wall 10/J/02 and from the north through Wall 10/J/22. The walls were coated in a fine plaster. With the raising of the floor to Floor 10/J/51, the basalt slabs were covered. The floor in the adjacent western room was not raised, and a basalt step and door socket were added to the west entrance. The north entrance also received a step (Wall 10/J/24) and a socket. The northern step led to newly constructed stone and plaster Pavement 10/J/82. A basalt grinding stone installation was established on the south side of the room. In all three floor levels, ashy deposits characterized the floor remains. Phase J-6a: This phase is characterized by the continuation of the flagstone pavement and the remodelling of several portions of the Phase J-6b buildings (Fig. 2.72). The far western portion of the street was expanded and Wall 10/J/60 gives evidence for an additional building. A yellowish clay-like plaster was found to line both the street pavement and Wall 10/J/60, but it is unclear if this was a feature of the entire street or just this location. The basalt-slab room in Square L/15 was apparently filled with a thick bricky fill, which raised the floor level significantly. The room was eventually paved with fist-sized river pebbles (10/J/04), a feature known also from Palace 3177 on the eastern terrace. The addition of blocking Wall 10/J/28 over former Pavement 10/J/82 suggests a redirection of the flow of traffic though the building. Much of the rest of the building south of the street was destroyed by later construction (including a deep stone drain that cut through pavement 10/J/04 – Stratum xII?). In Square H/13, a brief probe revealed a holemouth jar installation (10/J/69) containing a lamp type characteristic of Level J-5/J-6 (see Chapter 8, Fig. 8.6: 1–11) and a juglet. Elevation suggests that it belongs to Phase J-6a.

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Fig. 2.71: Square L/15 northern and eastern section drawings.

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Fig. 2.72: Remains of Phase J-6a (basalt slabs in black) south of the Level J-7 temples (in light grey).

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Fig. 2.73: Plan of the EB III city in Phase J-6b/a with suggested reconstruction of Level J-6 Temple 5221. Dark grey indicates walls seen by the University of Chicago team as Stratum xVI, but not re-excavated by us. Lightest grey indicates underlying Stratum xVII or our Phase J-6b walls which complete the overall picture. Note also in light grey Walls 4114 and 4045 which continued in use as terrace walls from Level J-4.

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LEVEL J-5/J-6 SUMMARY The ceramic assemblage from this portion of Level J-5/J-6 was similar to that in other sectors of the area. Specifically, pattern burnished platters are common and Fine Pinkish Fabric (see Chapter 8) bowls/lamps abound (Figs. 8.4–8.16). The Level J-5/J-6 assemblage presented in Chapter 8 should be considered representative of the material recovered in the 2010 season. Overall, Level J-5/J-6 appears to represent a large, well-planned city. The eastern terrace supported a palatial building (3177) while the western portion was constructed on an orthogonal grid with streets. The buildings here were probably a mixture of public edifices (e.g., Altar 4017; Temple 5221, see below) and elite residences. In addition to the original planning in Level J-5, the universal paving of the streets with flagstones indicates centralized organization of public works projects. THE LEVEL J-6 TEMPLE (FIG. 2.73) A long-standing question regarding Level J-5/J-6 (Strata xVII–xVI) has been the location of the contemporary temple(s) (see above; Finkelstein and Ussishkin 2000b: 588). Given the earlier and later use of space in this sector of the mound and the location of Altar 4017, it is likely that a Level J-5/J-6 cultic edifice is to be found within the current limits of Area J (though a location south of the altar beyond the southern section cannot be ruled out). Building 5221 (Loud 1948: Fig. 393, northwest of Square N/12) presents us with the best candidate for such a building. Figure 2.73 provides a reconstruction of the EB III city at its most prosperous moment, with Palace 3177 on the eastern slope and the reconstructed Temple 5221 in Squares L–M/12–14. The overall design of this building is typologically similar to the later Level J-7 temples in antis, not following the tradition of the Level J-2 through Level J-4 broad-room temples with ritual tables (for this typological distinction, see Adams, Finkelstein and Ussishkin forthcoming). Therefore, our reconstruction of the width of the building is based on the general metrology of the later Level J-7 temples, where the intercolumnar space is twice the length from the exterior wall to the column. The main sanctuary, then, has internal dimensions of 7.5 m by 7 m with two columns. The floor and walls are plastered and a stubby partition wall (10/J/18) juts into the room. The sanctuary is fronted by an anteroom. The overall dimensions of the reconstruction are 11.3 m by 8.5 m. The contemporary Khirbet ezzeraqon temple provides parallels for the basic structure and for the general spatial relationship to a round altar (Ibrahim and Mittmann 1994). We have, therefore, borrowed the concept of pillars on a continuous foundation flanking the anteroom entrance for this reconstruction. Between reconstructed Temple 5221 and Altar 4017 there is much evidence for cultic activity. Locus 98/J/152 in Square J/13 (Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Peersmann 2000: 42, Fig. 3.22) consisted of a highly burnt ash and bone accumulation on a floor just before the entrance of the temple. The accumulation included such pottery as a cult-stand (Greenburg 2006: Fig. 10.2: 12, erroneously attributed to Level J-4). In adjacent Square G/13, a large amorphous plaster installation with grooves was also surrounded by ash and bone deposits (Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Peersmann 2000: 42, Fig. 3.22). The overall impression of this material is of an open cultic activity space. LEVEL J-7 (FIG. 2.56) Portions of the thick wall (10/J/11) behind the twin temples in antis were planned and removed as part of our exposure of Level J-5/J-6. We confirmed what appeared to be the case in the University of Chicago’s

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plan: that this wall is thicker behind Temple 5192 and thinner behind Temple 5269 (Fig. 2.56, Square M/14); the reason for this is not clear, but it may be related to the fact that the rear wall of Temple 5269 was thicker than the rear wall of Temple 5192. We also recognized that Temple 5269’s back wall is supported by a rough wall (10/J/65) leaning against the building (previously assigned by the University of Chicago team to Stratum xVI). The same feature occurs on the temple’s west side (10/J/61). This is the only one of the three temples with such a feature. It might be related to the fact that the temples were built on a slope down to the west and that this temple was constructed on a steeper sector of the slope and required sturdier foundations (note also that the rear wall of Temple 5269 is thicker than any of the other walls of the three temples). The slope is also evident from the bottom levels of the temple walls proper, where Wall 10/J/44 (down slope) of Temple 5269 is founded over 1 metre deeper than the western wall of Temple 5192. While Temple 4040 has fairly consistent foundations, each of the four north-south walls of the twin temples had to be progressively stepped down westward. It is possible that the support walls along the southern and western walls of Temple 5269 were a last-ditch attempt by the builders to support an unstable construction – other evidence suggests that this temple was never completed (see above; Loud 1948: 78). The stratigraphy of these three temples has been called into question by other investigators (Dunayevsky and Kempinski 1973; Kempinski 1989; de Miroschedji 2001; see also Level J-7, above). Essentially, these attempts at re-stratification have tried to place Stratum XV Temple 4040 back into Strata XVII–XVI, contemporary with Building 3177. In our excavations all three temples cut into and overlay Level J-5/J-6 (Stratum xVII-xVI) architecture everywhere investigated (above; Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Halpern 2006: 846–847). De Miroschedji’s argument (2001: 483–485) that Building 3177 and Temple 4040 were laid out according to the same orientation and metrological module, was rechecked. We found that their orientations actually differ by 3 to 5 degrees depending on which walls in Building 3177 were chosen. The orientation of Building 3177 is dictated by the preexisting terrace Wall 4045. As for his argument of the metrological module, while the 52.5-cm cubit does appear to have been in use during the layout of these buildings, we could not replicate any satisfactory results with his 11-cubit module on Stratum xV Temple 4040 or on Building 3177. Thus, de Miroschedji’s arguments do not stand and there is no connection between Building 3177 and Temple 4040. Ultimately, the renewed excavations have demonstrated that the three Level J-7 temples in antis comprise a single stratum constructed after the total clearing of Level J-5/J-6, as already indicated by the original excavators.

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AREA J, PART IV: SUB-AREA UPPER J

PART IV: SUB-AREA UPPER J Matthew J. Adams and James M. Bos

Since the University of Chicago completely excavated most portions of the Level J-7 temples, the northwestern corner of Temple 5269 was the only area in which their stratigraphy could be rechecked (Finkelstein and Ussishkin 2000: 71). Another advantage of excavating this sector was the possibility of rechecking the University of Chicago’s post Early Bronze Age stratigraphy in Area BB. In 2006 we undertook this project in two squares directly over this corner of the temple, in Upper Area J, Squares S/20 and T/20 (Figs. 2.1–2.2).1 This work was completed in 2010. As a result, the stratigraphic sequence of Area J now extends from the Early Bronze Age through the Late Bronze Age (see Table 2.1). This section reports on the Middle and Late Bronze Age architecture and stratigraphy beginning with the Level J-7 Temples. Sub-Area Upper J is situated in a stratigraphically and topographically precarious position straddling the University of Chicago’s Areas BB and DD (Fig. 2.1). Area DD was intended to connect the stratigraphy of Area AA with that of Area BB (Fig. 2.1; Loud 1948: 113–114). This was attempted with broad exposure of Square K/11 (of the University of Chicago expedition grid) and its surroundings. Later, a southern trench was extended from Area DD’s southeastern corner to connect to Area BB, more or less along the line of Schumacher’s north-south trench. This was never completed and Loud (1948: 116) reports that excavation reached no deeper than Stratum VIA. The southernmost limit of the Area DD as indicated on the Stratum VIA plan is an east-west wall in Square M/12 (of the University of Chicago expedition grid – see Loud 1948: Fig. 413). The horizontal position matches perfectly our Walls 08/J/1 and 08/J/2 (Wall 08/J/2 being built directly on top of Wall 08/J/1; Fig. 2.85) which form the northern baulk of Squares S/20 and T/20 (Fig. 2.80). The upper wall (08/J/1) could be seen on the surface prior to our excavations and extends eastwards towards the location of Tomb 5239 (see below). The architecture within ca. 5 m north of this wall seen on the Stratum VIA plan lies beneath the modern tourist path. The stratification of Walls 08/J/1 and 08/J/2 relative to University of Chicago’s numbering is not perfectly clear, but some suggestions will be presented below. More certain is the so-called Deep Wall on the Stratum VIA plan. It is still preserved north of the tourist path and comes into Sub-Area Upper J as Wall 08/J/18. As we shall see below, this wall is earlier than Stratum VIA.2 The University of Chicago plan suggests that there was no excavation south of our Wall 08/J/2 (compare Loud 1948: Figs. 413, 394–399; Harrison 2004: Fig. 6). It is clear, however, that they had indeed excavated the full length of this trench into Area BB, fully exposing ‘Stratum VIA’ as well as earlier walls (see, for example, the photographs in Harrison 2004: Fig. 121; Loud 1948: Fig. 183). This was clear during our excavation as most of Squares S/20 and T/20 were filled with modern debris down to Level J-12. The architecture of Levels J-12 through J-19 remained intact as the University of Chicago team often exposed several levels of architecture at once, leaving later ones pedestalled for some time (see, for example, Loud 1 2

These squares appear on a newly oriented Upper J local grid that is distinct from that used in Main Area J. See Part I of this chapter. The architecture in the Area DD southern extension was so cursorily studied by the University of Chicago that its stratigraphic attribution of much of the architecture therein is questionable.

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1948: Fig. 148; Harrison 2004: Fig. 6), removing only floors and occupational debris. Unfortunately, the Level J-12 and later architecture and the occupational debris within were not presented by Loud (1948), presumably because it was only excavated very near to the cessation of work in 1939. In any case, the preserved remains appear to be only the deepest foundations beneath any floor levels. Schumacher, too, before the University of Chicago had excavated some of this material as his long north-south trench, went partially through this location (see Harrison 2004: Fig. 3; Schumacher 1908: Taf. II; plan accessible in Kempinski 1989: Plan 1). Sub-Area Upper J features a noticeable change in elevation from the higher east to the lower west. Excavation in Area J and the bedrock topography study conducted by N. Franklin and J. Peersmann (unpublished) has shown that throughout the history of the formation of the site, this was the general point at which the higher acropolis met the lower portion of the western town. From very early on, perhaps as early as Level J-4 (see Part III of this chapter), terrace walls revetted the western edge of the acropolis. Through the Early and Middle Bronze Ages, new terraces were constructed farther and farther west, to extend the acropolis surface (more below, Fig. 2.82). For example, the strata are so drastically terraced and sloping that Area BB’s Stratum xII shared similar levels as Area DD’s Stratum VIA farther north (see Loud 1948: Fig. 416). Note that Upper Area J continues the Level-numbering sequence employed in the rest of Area J; thus the lower numbers represent earlier occupation than the higher numbers (Tables 2.2–2.3; see Finkelstein and Ussishkin 2000a: 34).

lEVEl J-8 Stratum xIV is one of the most problematic phases in the Megiddo sequence. It was completely removed in Area BB by the University of Chicago wherever they encountered it. As presented by Loud, it is a very poorly preserved stratum with two superimposed building phases, marked by the reuse of Temple 4040 (Figs. 2.56, 2.74–2.75; Loud 1948: 84, Fig. 395). The poor preservation of the stratum can be attributed to the Stratum xIII and later cutting of burial, storage and refuse pits deeply into the underlying strata (see Hallote 2001).3 Loud already admitted that two stages were apparent in this stratum but that the poor preservation of the walls did not allow them to be separated, and thus, he included them together on the same plan. There are also major problems with the finds. The pottery presented from this stratum is an amalgamation of pottery that we now recognize as Intermediate Bronze, MB I and MB II (Loud 1948: Pls. 10–15). Secondary scholarship has not reached an agreement on the date of Stratum xIV with ranges from the IBA to the MB II (e.g., Kenyon 1958; 1969; Gerstenblith 1983; Aharoni 1993; Hallote 2001). The northern continuation of the Stratum xIV structure in Squares M/11–M/12 (University of Chicago expedition grid; Fig. 2.61) was uncovered in Sub-Area Upper J in 2008. It is a well constructed building that dates to the MB I (on the basis of occupational and tomb ceramics). Beneath this building we found the earlier remains of a similar structure constructed directly on top of the ruins of the Level J-7 Temple 5269 (Fig. 2.74). Together these two architectural levels have been assigned to Levels J-8 and J-9 (equivalent

3

This phenomenon has not only affected Stratum xIV, but also our Levels J-7, J-5/J-6, and, to a limited extent, Level J-4; take the extreme example of the massive burial pit in Square J/8 that completely cut through Stratum xIV down to Level J-4, penetrating beneath the Level J-4 temple floor.

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Fig. 2.74: Remains of Level J-8 in Sub-Area Upper J. Note underlining Level J-7 walls in grey.

to the two phases of Stratum xIV; Loud 1948: 84), and represent the earliest Middle Bronze occupation at the site after the Level J-7 Temples.

lEVEl J-9 In Sub-Area Upper J, Level J-9 is characterized by the northern continuation of Stratum xIV architecture in the University of Chicago’s Squares M/11–12 (Figs. 2.74–2.75). The building is at least partially a rebuild of Level J-8 (cf. Figs. 2.74–2.75). Wall 08/J/23 enters Sub-Area Upper J obliquely from the south. This wall was originally revealed by the University of Chicago straddling Squares M/11 and M/12 (Figs. 2.75, 2.77). It crosses the southeastern corner of Square S/20 and continues into the east baulk, where it probably runs for at least 2–3 m, enough to accommodate at least one more room to the north. Wall 08/J/23 is intersected perpendicularly by Wall 08/J/28, an interior stone-socle wall upon which some mudbrick was still preserved. This wall meets Wall 08/J/29 some 3 m to the west. The southern portion of Wall 08/J/29 was also excavated by the University of Chicago (Fig. 2.75).

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In the northeastern corner of this room was a square plastered bin. The bin was constructed using the pre-existing walls as two sides and constructing abutting thin mudbrick (or just mud?) walls for the other two sides (Walls 08/J/31 and 08/J/32). The inside of the bin was completely coated with a chalk paste – walls and floor (Fig. 2.77). As concluded by Ruth Shahack-Gross, the chalky paste is composed of local chalk bedrock crushed and mixed with water and straw, and is not ‘cooked’ like a proper plaster. This point is particularly important because ‘uncooked’ paste would have been unsuitable for containing liquid. Thus, whatever was kept in this bin and its counterpart to the north of Wall 08/J/28 (see below) was certainly dry. Nothing was found within the bin aside from the later fill (the northern bin has not yet been completely excavated). The outside of the bin was also coated, as was Wall 08/J/28 (seamlessly with the exterior of the bin). A rough calculation of the minimum volume based on the preserved height is ca. 0.63 m3. Significantly, at elevation 157.62 m, the coating on the western face of this installation curved outwards, probably suggesting an otherwise undetected floor level. Wall 08/J/28 continued down, so this floor probably represented a later addition to the room. The inside bottom of the installation was found at 157.73 m, approximately the same height at this outward curving coating outside. This suggests that the installation was inserted into the building in a second phase. The earlier occupational accumulation 08/J/201, below the plaster curve, contained a whole vessel among other occupational debris (ash, etc.) suggesting an MB I date. West of Wall 08/J/29, in what must have been an exterior space, fence Wall 08/J/35 perpendicularly abutted Wall 08/J/29 and Tabun 08/J/203, nestled into their corner. The base of the tabun, though not completely excavated, was at approximately 157.50 m. Just to the west and north of this we observed several different ash and phytolith layers that correspond to occupational debris (08/J/198) contemporary with the tabun. Another bin, slightly larger, was found on the north side of Wall 08/J/28. It does not seem likely that these rooms were connected by a doorway, but the later cutting of a pit has destroyed the location where one might be expected. This bin was also constructed in the corner of a room, in this case in the southeast corner at the meeting of Walls 08/J/28 and 08/J/23. It was slightly larger and its two thin walls were constructed of stone rather than mudbrick (Walls 08/J/33 and 08/J/34). It too was coated with chalk paste. Six burials were uncovered in Upper J belonging to the Level J-8 and Level J-9 buildings. Burials 10/J/126 and 10/J/190, both infants, almost certainly belong to Level J-8 (Fig. 2.74). Burials 10/J/100 and 10/J/113, both infants, almost certainly belong to Level J-9. The two shaft and crypt burials 10/J/136 and 10/J/171, may belong to either level, but may have been in use in both (compare large shaft and crypt burial in Squares J–H/8–9, below; Fig. 2.92). These tombs will be fully published in a future report. In the main sector of Area J, Pit 06/J/140 belongs to Level J-9 (Fig. 2.94). It is located exactly beneath and within the Stratum xIV building removed by the University of Chicago team from Square M/13 (Fig. 2.92; Loud 1948: Fig. 395). It is a stone-lined pit more than 2-m-deep. It appears to have been located in a room within the building. It was probably used for subterranean storage, perhaps of grain. Its location near the cultic heart of the acropolis suggests that it may have been part of an administrative unit related to the cult-place. Compare the similar stone-lined Pit 06/J/055 from Level J-11, which we suggest had a similar function vis-à-vis the cult-centre. Pit 06/J/140 was filled with refuse at the end of its life, probably in the transition to Level J-10 (Stratum xIII), when the building in which it was located was rebuilt. Therefore, it was in use in Level J-9, though

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Fig. 2.75: Remains of Level J-9 in Sub Area Upper J reconstructed with the University of Chicago’s Stratum xIV architecture in black (after Loud 1948: Fig. 395). Note Level J-8 in grey.

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Fig. 2.76: Level J-9 facing east. Note the relative level of the Level J-7 temples.

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Fig. 2.77: Level J-9 chalk-paste coated bins, facing east. Note the termination of the paste on the southern bin; this is the projected location of the upper floor.

it may have been constructed earlier. The contents from this fill are comparable to the Level J-10 Fill 08/J/157 discussed below. There we suggest that the fill is debris from a dismantled Level J-9 building. Two other pits (08/J/086 and 98/J/012) clearly pre-date Level J-10, but they are too isolated to connect to Level J-8 or Level J-9 (Fig. 2.94).

lEVEl J-10 Level J-10 corresponds to Stratum xIII. Though the University of Chicago team determined two sub-strata, xIIIA and xIIIB, no such distinction could be made in our encounter with this level in Sub-Area Upper J. Here, the Level J-10 architecture was truncated by a later Level J-11 building and is represented only by the thick Fill 08/J/157 (Fig. 2.78). As noted above, a slope down to the north and west existed in Level J-9. Fill 08/J/157 appears to have been part of an attempt to raise this portion of the site, which would have required a terrace wall somewhere to the west beyond our excavation area. This created a platform upon which the Stratum xIII architecture was constructed. The earlier structures of Level J-9 were vacated, the terrace wall was constructed and the fill was placed immediately thereafter. The chalk coating of both Level J-9 bins remained in excellent condition, suggesting that a significant amount of time had not passed between the end of Level J-9 and the laying of the massive construction fill over top in Level J-10.

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Fig. 2.78: Level J-10 brick fill over Level J-9, facing north. Note Wall 08/J/23 at right.

On top of this new terrace, Level J-10 saw the construction of a large building covering well over 500 m (Loud 1948: Figs. 396–397). The location of this building near the cultic centre attests to its importance, as does the fact that in the succeeding Level J-11 it is replaced by a palace (see below). The plaster-paved rooms and columned rooms unearthed by the University of Chicago team are all features associated with palatial architecture at Megiddo (Loud 1948: Fig. 397). The owner of this structure apparently had the power to commandeer structures such as that in Level J-9 and transform a portion of the tell to accommodate his new construction. To a late phase of Level J-10 must go Tombs 04/J/056, 06/J/107 and 06/J/143, which are built over by Stratum xII architecture (Fig. 2.94; the tomb assemblages will be dealt with in a future report). 2

FILL 08/J/157 Fill 08/J/157 was composed of unlevigated building materials. Typical fills in other strata around the site consist of crushed and mixed mudbrick debris. In this fill, greenish yellow bricks were tossed over the Level J-9 architecture. These mudbricks were evident in the north baulk of Square S/21 (Fig. 2.78). Large quantities of animal bones and pottery (primarily pithoi) were also present. We were able to determine two basic discrete portions of the fill: the mudbricks (plaster still on many of them) were in one deposition and the pottery and bones were in another. Though only excavated in the limited area of Sub-Area Upper J, it appeared as though most of the mudbricks were thrown in first and then the pottery and bones with additional mudbrick thrown in on top. Tip lines were evident down towards the west, suggesting that the dumping occurred from the east (Fig. 2.78). Mixed in with the bones was a bronze censer (08/J/195/ AR1; see Blockman, Chapter 15, Fig. 15.2). It is clear that a building was dismantled during the terrace construction process, and its constituent architectural parts, as well as its contents, were thrown here behind the terracing retaining wall.

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Fig. 2.79: Remains of Level J-11 in Sub-Area Upper J.

This piece of information offers some important data to our discussion of the Level J-10 transformation of the site. First, the pottery is all MB I. Since this dismantled building material undoubtedly comes from Level J-9, it gives us an additional datum for that level. Additionally, the contents themselves have much to say. While thorough analysis of the bones is yet to be conducted, the parts are consistent with animal sacrifice. The bronze censer is an indication of an assemblage not consonant with everyday refuse. It is tempting to connect this with the dismantling of a Level J-9 cultic building. Two options for the location of this building stand out. It may have stood where the large house of Stratum xIII was built. It would thus be represented both by this fill and by, perhaps, some of the foundations preserved on the University of Chicago plan west of Temple 4040. Alternatively (and preferred by the authors of this chapter), these remains may have come from Temple 4040 itself. Thus, if the remodelled and reused interior of Temple 4040 can be attributed to the Levels J-8 and J-9 occupation at the site, the Level J-10 fill may represent the dismantling of that cult-space to make way for a new cult space consonant with the Level J-10 remodelling of the city. While it is difficult to accept Epstein’s suggestion to assign the Migdol Temple 2048 to this stratum (Epstein 1965; Adams forthcoming b), we must conclude that some aspect of cultic worship continued in the area in Stratum xIII. At the opposite end of the spectrum, Hallote’s analysis concluding that no central cultic space was needed for cultural reasons fails to account for the fact that a central cult space was, indeed, needed in Level J-9 when Temple 4040 was clearly reused. Ultimately, Hallote does not argue convincingly that no temple existed in the MB (Hallote 2001). The going out of use of Temple 4040 while maintaining

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the boundaries of the space architecturally and temporally strongly supports the reconstruction of a cultic structure above the Temple 4040. We suggest the hypothesis that Fill 08/J/157 represents the dismantling of Temple 4040 to make way for the new cultic structure (the issue of an MB temple is further explored in Adams forthcoming b). Contemporary to this filling in Sub-Area Upper J is the filling of the Level J-9 stone-lined Pit 06/J/140 in main Area J (see above). This fill appears to have a similar composition to that in Sub-Area Upper J.

lEVEl J-11 Level J-11 (Stratum xII) inaugurates a period of more monumental palatial buildings on this portion of the mound. Near the end of Stratum xIII a city wall was built, and shortly thereafter, the Level J-10 large structure was replaced by a new, well-planned palace (Loud 1948: 84–92, Fig. 398). In Sub-Area Upper J, the new palace is represented by the construction of Walls 08/J/5 and 08/J/13 (Fig. 2.79). These walls form a northwestern interior corner of the building seen on the Stratum xII plan (Fig. 2.80; Loud 1948: Fig. 398) which in turn is further exposed in Schumacher’s Nordburg (a conglomeration of MB and LB strata; Schumacher 1908). No floor was found associated with these walls as only the deep foundations survived. We also encountered Level J-11 in the main sector of Area J by way of an Middle Bronze intrusion found in the northwestern corner of Square H/7 (straddling the baulk with Square J/7; Figs. 2.54, 2.81). This stone-lined pit (06/J/5) was seen by the University of Chicago and appears on their Area BB Stratum xII plan (Loud 1948: 398); it can also be seen in the distance in one of the photos (Loud 1948: Fig. 183). Based on their elevations and the silty wash that we found inside, it appears that they excavated the contents all the way down to the bottom (the pit cuts into the Level J-4 temple) – over 3.5-m-deep. We did discover that the foundation trench for this pit was quite wide, up to 0.5 m wider than the stone lining (at the radius). Our excavations revealed no additional clues as to the purpose of this stone-lined pit, but the plan of the building in which it was found seems to suggest that the building itself was located at the top of a staircase leading to the acropolis. The structure itself appears to be a gateway with a drain beneath the threshold. The volume of the pit can be calculated at 4.84 m3. If we use wheat as an example (785 kg per m3; Kemp 2006: 178), this amounts to 3,800 kg of cereal. According to New Kingdom Egyptian documents, this is the equivalent of more than 6,000 one-day individual rations (Kemp 2006: 177–179).4 The presence of such a large storage pit near the entrance of the sacred precinct may have been connected to the distribution of grain controlled by the cult.

lEVEl J-12 In Sub-Area Upper J, we witness the transition from the University of Chicago’s Stratum xII palace to the Stratum xI palace with the construction of Walls 08/J/8 and 08/J/19, which form a northwestern corner (Figs. 2.82–2.83). Some additional smaller walls were part of this level. Walls 08/J/4 and 08/J/3 create a square room with the corner formed by Walls 08/J/8 and 08/J/19 (Figs. 2.82–2.83). These two walls are 4

Note that the daily ration in these documents is a unit of exchange, not necessarily an indication of the daily caloric intake of a single individual. One must assume that these grain rations were supplemented with other foods as part of the regular diet.

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Fig. 2.80: Level J-11 reconstructed, with University of Chicago Stratum xII architecture in black (after Loud 1948: Figs. 398 and 415).

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Fig. 2.81: Remains of Level J-11 in the main sector of Area J (06/J/55) with Stratum xII architecture in black (after Loud 1948: Fig. 398).

Fig. 2.82: Remains of Level J-12 in Sub-Area Upper J. Note the cutting of the northwest portion of these walls by Level J-18 Walls 08/08 and 10/37 (Fig. 2.91).

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Fig. 2.83: Level J-12 reconstructed with University of Chicago Stratum xI architecture in black (after Loud 1948: Figs. 399 and 415).

thinner and must be interior walls. The same is true of Walls 08/J/7 and 08/J/6. A couple of large flat stones in Wall 08/J/3 may indicate a threshold to the room. A glance at the Stratum xI plan will demonstrate that our Wall 08/J/8 is in perfect alignment with a wall in the western portion of Square M/12, and Wall 08/J/19 is in perfect alignment with a wall straddling the Square N/11-12 line (Fig. 2.83). Thus, this forms part of the Stratum xI palatial complex. It is tempting to reconstruct the eastern face of Wall 08/J/8 as the western jamb of the entrance to the building, or at least the jamb of the entrance to the large lime-paved courtyard. The small room, then, could possibly be interpreted as a gate house.

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Fig. 2.84: Remains of Level J-13 in Sub-Area Upper J.

One important piece of evidence for the dating of this level is a scarab that was found sealed by Wall 08/J/19 and clearly above Level J-11’s Wall 08/J/13 (08/J/97/AR1; see Keel, Chapter 17, Fig. 17.2). The patterns and hieroglyphs on the scarab conform well with the Middle Kingdom scarabs of Strata xII–xI as treated by Tufnell (1973).

lEVEl J-13 Level J-13 heralds the construction of yet another palace, that of Stratum x. In Sub-Area Upper J this transition sees the levelling down of the Level J-12 palace and the construction of new walls directly over the old: Wall 06/J/16 and its perpendicular Crosswalls 08/J/9 and 06/J/18 (Figs. 2.84–2.86). There was also some evidence of a robbed wall parallel to Wall 06/J/18. Between Wall 06/J/18 and the robbed wall is a stone-lined pit that penetrated down to Level J-7. It has parallels elsewhere in Stratum x, in the westernmost portion of the palace. These bins seem isolated from the western chambers of the palace and perhaps represent the storage area, while the nice plastered rooms to the east are living and reception rooms. Overall, Level J-13 reflects the continuation from Levels J-12 and J-11. The most significant architectural change will come in Level J-14 where this portion of the mound is no longer used for the palace grounds. 132

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Fig. 2.85: Level J-13 superimposed over Level J-12 in Sub-Area Upper J, facing east. Note Walls 08/J/1 and 08/J/2 of Levels J-18 and J-19 in left section.

lEVEl J-14 Level J-14 is only represented by a single wall running north-south along the eastern edge of Sub-Area Upper J (Fig. 2.87). Its foundations were dug down where the builders discovered a portion of Wall 06/J/18. Instead of removing the stones in the way, they simply used them in the construction of their wall. No surfaces were associated with this wall and almost nothing can be said about it. The wall itself is at a completely different alignment and scale from that which came before, indicating a major change in the architectural use of this portion of the mound. After Level J-13, the space west of the sacred area is devoid of architecture. This is certainly due to later construction on the site,5 but it appears that this sector of the mound is no longer used for the construction of palaces. We are inclined to follow Kempinski in recognizing the relocation of the palace to Area AA (1989). The architecture here of Levels J-14 and J-15 is simply different and less ambitious than that which came before it. While it is regrettable that we could not add new ceramic data from these levels, there is agreement that the change from Level J-13 (Stratum x) to Level J-14 (Stratum Ix) marks the ceramic transition between the MB III and the LB I, with changes already beginning in Level J-13 (Stratum x) (Hallote 2001; Gadot, 5

It seems reasonable to assign this denudation to Stratum VA-IVB and/or the IVA ‘stables’, but of this we cannot be certain. Area BB seems to have been cut down (especially in its western portion) in such a way as to leave all levels between IX and VB poorly represented in this area. It is difficult to estimate the damage done by Schumacher and the University of Chicago, either of which may be responsible for the dearth of material at this point.

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Fig. 2.86: Level J-13 remains, reconstructed with University of Chicago Stratum x architecture in black (after Loud 1948: Fig. 400). Note the circular subterranean stone-lined bins.

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Fig. 2.87: Remains of Level J-14 in Sub-Area Upper J.

Fig. 2.88: Remains of Level J-15 in Sub-Area Upper J.

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Fig. 2.89: Level J-15 in Sub-Area Upper J, facing east.

Yasur-Landau and Ilan 2006). This transition is considered to be difficult to isolate because of the high degree of cultural continuity between the MB and LB. However, the transition from the palatial space of Level J-13 to the decidedly unpalatial space of Level J-14 represents a major transformation in the spatial organization of the acropolis.6

lEVEl J-15 At the extreme eastern edge of the square almost directly above Level J-14’s Wall 08/J/14 (but at a slightly different orientation7) sit Walls 08/J/10 and 08/J/11, which form the corner of a room that goes into the eastern baulk. The room is paved with small cobbles and an entrance at the walls’ junction is evident (Figs. 2.88–2.89). Around the north side of this structure was a plastered surface seen only in the section (see the plaster in the distant section in Fig. 2.85). The east section shows that the cobbled surface extended south only so far before it was replaced by a plastered surface. The extensive use of plaster is consonant with the Stratum Ix plan. Wall 08/J/10 does seem to align perfectly with a wall from the University of Chicago’s plan. If these can be drawn together, something more coherent comes out of the Stratum Ix plan (Fig. 2.90).

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This has been evident since the University of Chicago’s publication. It is therefore difficult to understand why Hallote does not acknowledge any major changes until Stratum VIII (Hallote 2001: 203), other than to support the problematic thesis that there are no temples in the Middle Bronze Age (Adams forthcoming b). During the excavation, Wall 08/J/14 was originally thought to have been the foundation for Wall 08/J/10, but it became clear in the dismantling of the Level J-15 architecture that they are oriented differently. Still, they may represent two phases of the same building, but this cannot be determined with the information at hand.

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Fig. 2.90: Level J-15 reconstructed with University of Chicago Stratum Ix architecture in black (after Loud 1948: Fig. 401).

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Fig. 2.91: Remains of Level J-18 in Upper J (University of Chicago-exposed walls in black; after Loud 1949: Fig. 413).

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Fig. 2.92: Sub-Area Upper J, northern section drawing after the 2010 excavation season.

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Fig. 2.93: Sub-Area Upper J, north and east sections.

lEVEl J-16 In the early phase of our excavation in Sub-Area Upper J we noticed a number of features that could be seen in the north and east sections (Fig. 2.93). Above the Level J-15 architecture in the east section is a thick plaster floor. It extends north and south through the entire section. In the north section it continues from the east section westward for about one metre. Its elevation is generally around 160.15 m, which would match well with the plaster of Stratum Ix. Until additional excavation can add data, we tentatively assign this plaster to a late phase of Stratum Ix. Note also that plaster is a notable feature of Level J-15.

lEVEl J-17 To Level J-17 we assign the University of Chicago’s Structure 5239, which appears on their Stratum Ix plan (Loud 1948: Fig. 401). Following a hypothesis by D. Ilan (2001), we concur that it likely belongs to Stratum Ix or VIII. A sondage against the eastern face of the substructure and the foundation trench was excavated in the Square J/7-K/7 incision down to the level of the Level J-4 temple (Fig. 2.26). Structure 5239 penetrated the already robbed (in Level J-5) western sanctuary wall. The foundation trench was not larger than the structure itself at this point. Unfortunately, no ceramics were found that could add any new data to the dating. The outer face of the structure exposed here was much rougher than the well-cut inner face, demonstrating (with the foundation trench) that at least the surviving part of the structure was, indeed, subterranean.

lEVEl J-18 Level J-18 is characterized by a large subterranean stone structure (Figs. 2.91–2.92). Wall 08/J/18 is preserved as high as 2.5 metres. It cuts through Level J-17 down through the Level J-9 tabun-courtyard

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Fig. 2.94: Middle Bronze Age tombs and pits in the main sector of Sub-Area Upper J (vessels marked in black).

into Level J-8. This wall is apparently the same as the ‘Deep Wall’ on the University of Chicago’s Stratum VIA plan (Loud 1948: Fig. 413), which continues northwards from Sub-Area Upper J for about 13 m before it makes a 90° turn towards the west (see Loud 1948: Fig. 413; Harrison 2004: Figs. 120–121). The structure was constructed by excavating a large rectangular foundation and then facing the exposed sections with large fieldstones (a few reused large ashlars were also used), which acted as a revetment. The interior of the structure was paved with fist-sized cobbles. Generally, the construction is reminiscent of the construction of Structure 5239, some 10 metres to the east. It is difficult to date the original construction, but it certainly post-dates the Middle Bronze Age. At some point, the large structure was backfilled with over 2 m of fine ash (see Fig. 2.92). A couple of fragments of IA IIB pottery suggest that this backfilling event happened late in the Iron Age, perhaps with the construction of the Stratum IVA stables complex. East of Wall 08/J/18 are two walls, which are probably contemporary with the subterranean building. East-west Wall 08/J/1 forms the boundary of the northern baulk of Sub-Area Upper J. Wall 08/J/15 is a perpendicular wall a few centimetres east of Wall 08/J/2. Both can only be seen in the northern section (Figs. 2.91–2.93). The location of Wall 08/J/1 is exactly where we expected to encounter the wall that appears on the University of Chicago’s Area DD plan of Stratum VIA in the northwest corner of Square M/12 (Loud 1948: Fig. 413). The attached architecture on the immediate north side of this wall on the plan by Chicago is no longer visible and lies beneath the tourist path leading up to Palace 6000 (Area L) and the northern observation platform. However, it should be noted that our levels for this wall do not match those of the

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University of Chicago team – our bottom levels being ca. 50 cm lower. It is not clear if this is a coincidence, an earlier version of the Stratum VIA wall, or a mistake in levels on Chicago’s plan. What is clear is that it is stratigraphically later than the Level J-16 plaster surface, and therefore dates later than Stratum Ix.

lEVEl J-198 Wall 08/J/2 is the only element that may be attributed to this phase (Figs. 2.85, 2.92–2.93). It was built over Wall 08/J/1, but continues the entire length of Sub-Area Upper J’s northern section and can be seen on the surface east of Sub-Area Upper J as far as the location of Tomb 5239. The wall may date to the University of Chicago’s Stratum V.

uNSTraTIfIaBlE MB pITS aND BurIalS The subterranean burial complex of Squares H–J/8–9 cannot yet be stratified (Fig. 2.94). This complex appears to be a unified crypt accessed by a shaft located at approximately the location of the Squares H–J/8–9 grid marker. This shaft penetrated down to the Level J-4 Wall 96/J/7. Some of the stones from this wall were removed at the base of this shaft (see Figs. 2.22–2.23, and especially 2.32 and 2.45). From this shaft, horizontal shafts and burial niches were hollowed out to receive internments (Fig. 2.94). Once the bodies were placed, the niches were blocked with stone walls (see Burials 04/J/75 and 06/J/75). Several individuals were found in Tomb 06/J/37. Stratigraphically and ceramically, we tentatively date the tomb to the MB III. The osteological data is presented by G. Samaora in this volume. Detailed stratigraphic and ceramic discussion of this interesting tomb complex will be presented in a future report.

SuMMary Our excavations in Sub-Area Upper J have established a new sequence through the Middle Bronze Age parallel to that of the University of Chicago. We have confirmed an MB I date for Stratum XIV (Levels J-8 and J-9). This suggests that much of the architecture appearing in Chicago’s Stratum xIV (and the reuse of Temple 4040) belong to the original MB I reoccupation of the site. An Intermediate Bronze Age level has not been identified. The true nature of the site during this first Middle Bronze reoccupation remains obscure, but it is clear that Level J-10 (Stratum XIII) shows significant signs of town planning and major construction efforts. We have also suggested that a new ritual space was established over the buried remains of Temple 4040 in this phase. Levels J-11 through J-13 yielded portions of the Strata xII–x MB palaces, confirming the basic stratigraphy on this portion of the mound as established by the University of Chicago. Unfortunately, little new data has been added regarding the post-palatial character of this area. As others have recognized, with Stratum Ix, the palace is relocated to Area AA. Because of later reshaping of the mound at this point, the Late Bronze occupation here is poorly represented, and while we have some uncertain evidence for Stratum VI architecture nearby (southern extension of Area DD), it is not until Stratum VA-IVB and the construction of the northern ‘stable’ complex in Stratum IVA that any coherent plan can be established for this portion of the site. 8

Level J-19 is the next logical level designation, but since the Stratum IVA northern stable construction removed large portions of Strata V and VI (see Loud 1948; Harrison 2004), several University of Chicago strata are not accounted for in the Area J numbering scheme.

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AREA J, PART V:

ANALYSES OF SEDIMENTS FROM THE LEVEL J-4

PART V: ANALYSES OF SEDIMENTS FROM THE LEVEL J-4 TEMPLE FLOOR David Friesem and Ruth Shahack-Gross

Sediment samples were collected during the 2008 excavation season from within the Level J-4 temple (EB IB) in Area J for the purpose of material-identification. Specifically, we aimed at identifying the composition of the following features: 1. The white coating of the interior faces of the temple’s walls 2. The thin white layers found above the temple’s floor (Phase J-4a) 3. The dark grey sediment patches found above the temple’s floor (Phase J-4a) 4. The brown sediments identified as the temple’s floor

METhODS Sediments were collected in the field as bulk samples, based on differences in colour and texture. Analyses were conducted at the Kimmel Center for Archaeological Science, Weizmann Institute of Science, Israel. Analyses included Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR; Nicolet 380, Thermo Electron Corp.). Minerals and organic materials were identified using a reference library as well as additional available literature. Samples were prepared using the KBr method and spectra collected between 4000 and 400 cm-1 at 4 cm-1 resolution. Samples were also prepared as grain mounts on microscope slides for observation using a petrographic microscope (Nikon 50POL). The analyses performed are complementary and allow for accurate identifications of phytoliths, wood ash, animal dung and plaster. For samples that contained the mineral calcite in their FTIR spectrum, the heights of the í2 vibration of calcite at 875 cm-1 and the í4 vibration at 713 cm-1 were measured relative to a baseline, and the ratio between them (í2/í4) , termed í ratio, was calculated. According to Chu et al. (2008) this ratio changes due to heating of calcite in the process of transforming limestone into lime plaster. They showed that the ratio is ca. 3.0 for geological unheated limestone, and close to 7.0 when lime plaster has been settled out of heated and slaked limestone. Additionally, they showed that the ratio for wood ash (i.e., calcite that forms after heating biogenic calcium-oxalate in trees) is around 4.0. By conducting this measurement we intended to determine whether calcite in the studied sediments was geogenic or a result of anthropogenic burning activities. For samples that contained clay minerals, we used criteria set forward by Berna et al. (2007) to infer whether clay minerals have been exposed to high temperatures. Berna et al.’s study showed that although various clay minerals respond differently to heating, a general pattern of thermal changes can be detected using infrared spectroscopy. The major changes occur at ca. 500ºC when structural water is lost and the water absorptions at 3650 and 3695cm-1 disappear from the infrared spectrum, and at 800ºC when the silicate component undergoes structural changes evident in the infrared spectrum by a shift of the main absorption from ca. 1035cm-1 to ca. 1080cm-1 and a decrease in the height of the absorption at 530cm-1. By conducting these observations on the infrared spectra of clay minerals we intended to determine whether heated clays are present in the studied sediments, for example, as a byproduct of preparation of lime plaster.

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rESulTS The results are presented in Table 2.7. Most studied sediments are composed of clay and calcite. The clay minerals were not exposed to temperatures higher than 500ºC based on the presence of structural water in the infrared spectra (Berna et al. 2007). There is no evidence for intensive burning within the temple, supporting the interpretation that the temple was abandoned rather than destroyed. None of the identified calcite had been heated to temperatures at which calcination occurs (i.e., minimum of 700ºC; Chu et al. 2008) indicating that lime plaster and/or ash are either absent or present in minor amounts. For the latter, microscopic observations enabled us to identify wood ash, but these crystals were quite infrequent, except for sample RME-31, which represents the remains of a hearth (see below). quartz occurs in all samples as grains in the size range of fine sand (50–200 µm). Due to its low concentrations in the studied sediments, quartz was identified microscopically but not using the FTIR. Its source is probably from blown dust or soil material (if for example mud bricks had decayed in the studied area). Dahllite, a phosphate-bearing mineral, is present in many sediments. Based on the study of Gafri and Shahack-Gross (Chapter 34, also Shahack-Gross and Mor Gafri), as well as on preliminary analysis of sediments from Area H (Einhorn 2011), dahllite in Megiddo sediments is abundant, originating from microscopic bone fragments and nodules that formed from phosphate-rich solutions after organic matter degradation. Dahllite nodules are usually found associated with phytoliths, thus it is reasonable to assume that in many cases the source of phosphate was from decomposing vegetal matter. Specific feature identifications largely support M.J. Adams’s field interpretations of materials above the temple floor (Phase J-4a): 1) the thin white layers are indeed composed of opaline phytoliths; 2) the “ashy features” include wood ash crystals (i.e., pseudomorphs of calcite after calcium-oxalate biogenic crystals) and abundant microscopic charcoal fragments. The phytolith patches do not seem to originate from livestock dung based on the absence of dung spherulites and dahllite (cf. Shahack-Gross et al. 2003; 2005). The phytoliths in these patches can be generally assigned to the grass family, but in the absence of quantitative analyses their diversity was not studied and they cannot be assigned a genus and/or species. The samples of white coating on the inner surface of the temple’s walls provide no evidence that it was prepared through calcination at high temperatures. The evidence for lack of heating includes the low í ratio as well as the presence of foraminifera microfossils typical of chalk. Had the chalk been heated to produce lime plaster, these microfossils would have disintegrated. In a few samples (especially from Wall 96/J/07), macroscopic elongated voids occur in random orientations in the white mass, and some voids include grass phytoliths. This observation indicates that the coating on the temple’s walls was prepared from crushed or powdered chalk (abundant in the vicinity of Megiddo) tempered with grass stems (i.e., straw). Brown sediments studied here are composed of a mixture of all mineral types, i.e., clay, calcite, quartz, opal and dahllite, and include phytoliths and sometimes wood ash and microscopic fragments of bones and charcoal. The large variety of materials included in these sediments, with no specific domination of one specific material, might reflect a yet unstudied aspect of the origin of ‘fill sediments’. Crystal masses of low interference colours were identified in several samples during the microscopic examination. Because the sediments were prepared as grain mounts and not at fixed 30 µm thickness, the identification of these crystal masses as gypsum is still uncertain. Future micromorphological analyses might aid in resolving this observation.

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DISCuSSION aND CONCluSIONS The study performed here was done on a small sample of sediments and did not use all available quantitative methods. It should thus be regarded as a pilot study. The initial results support M.J. Adams’s field interpretations regarding the white and grey patches above the temple’s floor originating from phytoliths and wood ash respectively. If the identification of the floor level (08/J/190) is correct, then these remains accumulated after the abandonment of the temple (Phase J-4a). The phytolith patches do not seem to originate from livestock dung, thus other possible sources for phytoliths should be considered – for example a collapsed thatch roof, sporadic storage of straw, or remains of grass matting. The localized patches of wood ash may be representative of ephemeral hearths. The white plaster on the inner surfaces of the temple’s walls was prepared from crushed/powdered chalk tempered with grass stalks. In a recent study at the site of Neot Kedumim, where traditional agricultural practices are demonstrated to the general public, the practice of preparation of crushed/powdered chalk surfaces was recorded (Gafri and Shahack-Gross, this volume). According to local Arab villagers the surface of a threshing floor at Neot Kedumim was prepared from crushed chalk tempered with straw by pounding the mixture using stone rollers, a practice they have used for generations. It is possible that this practice was also conducted at Megiddo in the Bronze Age. TABLE 2.8: RESULTS OF FTIR AND GRAIN MOUNT ANALYSES Identified minerals ν2/ν4 (FTIR analysis)** ratio*** Opal, Calcite n.d.

Sample registration No.*

Field description

RME-23

Square H/8, east sectionthin white layer (=08/J/185)

RME-24

Square F/9, surface thin white layer (=08/J/185)

Opal, Calcite, n.d. Dahllite, Clay (n/a)

RME-25

Square F/9 white coating on face of 96/J/W07

Calcite, Clay, Dahllite?

3.3

RME-26

Square G/7 white coating on face of 00/J/W21

Calcite, Clay, Dahllite

3.4

RME-27

G/7-G/8 baulk white material on surface of round stone ‘table’

Calcite, Clay, Dahllite

3.5

Microscopic identifications Grass phytoliths, microsparitic chalk fragments/powder, foraminifera microfossils, quartz (as fine sand grains) Grass phytoliths, microsparitic chalk fragments/powder, foraminifera microfossils, quartz (as fine sand grains), microscopic charcoal fragments Microsparitic chalk fragments/ powder, foraminifera microfossils, quartz (as fine sand grains), few phytoliths Microsparitic chalk fragments/ powder, foraminifera microfossils, quartz (as fine sand grains) Microsparitic chalk fragments/ powder, foraminifera microfossils, quartz (as fine sand grains), gypsum crystals?

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TABLE 2.8: RESULTS OF FTIR AND GRAIN MOUNT ANALYSES (cont.) Sample registration No.*

Field description

RME-30 (08/J/185/LB01) Phytolith layer and hearths a: white sediment

Identified minerals ν2/ν4 (FTIR analysis)** ratio***

Microscopic identifications

Opal, Calcite

Many phytoliths, few microsparitic chalk fragments/ powder Microsparitic chalk fragments/ powder, foraminifera microfossils, quartz (as fine sand grains). Microsparitic chalk fragments/ powder, foraminifera microfossils, quartz (as fine sand grains), tree and grass phytoliths, microscopic charcoal fragments, wood ash, gypsum crystals?

n.d.

b: yellow sediment

Clay (n/a), Calcite 3.6

c: grey sediment

Clay (n/a), Calcite, 3.2 Dahllite

RME-31 (08/J/187/LB01) Ashy Hearths dark grey sediment

RME-32 (08/J/129/LB01) Level J-5 fill over Level J-4 temple brown sediment

RME-33 (08/J/177/LB01) Plaster ‘puddle’ and late hearths a: white sediment

b: dark grey sediment

RME-34 (08/J/184/LB04) Natural washed-in debris brown sediment

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Calcite, Clay (n/a?), Dahllite?

3.1

Wood ash, abundant microscopic charcoal fragments, microscopic bone fragments, microsparitic chalk fragments/powder, foraminifera microfossils, quartz (as fine sand grains), few phytoliths

Clay, Calcite, Dahllite? quartz?

2.4

Quartz (as fine sand grains), sparitic limestone fragments, foraminifera microfossils, few phytoliths

Calcite, Clay (n/a) 2.9

Microsparitic chalk fragments/ powder, foraminifera microfossils Microsparitic chalk fragments/ powder, foraminifera microfossils, quartz (as fine sand grains), few phytoliths

Calcite, Clay (n/a), 2.6 Dahllite?

Clay (n/a), Calcite, 2.6 Dahllite?

Microsparitic chalk fragments/ powder, foraminifera microfossils, quartz (as fine sand grains), few phytoliths, microscopic charcoal fragments, wood ash, gypsum crystals?

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TABLE 2.8: RESULTS OF FTIR AND GRAIN MOUNT ANALYSES (cont.) Identified minerals ν2/ν4 (FTIR analysis)** ratio***

Microscopic identifications

Calcite, Clay (n/a), 2.6 Dahllite?

Microsparitic chalk fragments/ powder, foraminifera microfossils, quartz (as fine sand grains), phytoliths, microscopic charcoal fragments, wood ash

a: white sediment

Calcite, Clay (n/a), 2.9 quartz

b: brown-grey sediment

Clay (n/a), Calcite, 2.4 Dahllite?

Microsparitic chalk fragments/ powder, foraminifera microfossils, quartz (as fine sand grains), gypsum crystals? Microsparitic chalk fragments/ powder, foraminifera microfossils, quartz (as fine sand grains), phytoliths, microscopic charcoal fragments, gypsum crystals?

Sample registration No.*

Field description

RME-35 (08/J/188/LB04) Ephemeral earthen surface brown sediment

RME-36 (08/J/193/LB01) Dense chalk deposit

RME-37 (08/J/190/LB02) Floor makeup under sandy sorted debris and phytoliths a: white sediment

b: brown-grey sediment

RME-38 (08/J/190/LB06) Sandy sorted washedin debris brown sediment

Calcite, Clay (n/a), 2.9 Opal, Dahllite?

Clay (n/a), Calcite, 2.4 Opal? Dahllite?

Clay (n/a), Calcite, 2.2 Dahllite? Opal?

Phytoliths, microsparitic chalk, fine sand quartz, foraminifera fossils, microscopic bone fragments, dung spherulites? gypsum crystals? Microsparitic chalk fragments/ powder, foraminifera microfossils, quartz (as fine sand grains), wood ash, phytoliths, microscopic bone fragments? gypsum crystals?

Microsparitic chalk fragments/ powder, foraminifera microfossils, quartz (as fine sand grains), few phytoliths, microscopic charcoal fragments

*

RME designations refer to laboratory analyses. Parenthetical designations refer to the Megiddo Expedition registration system (see Table 2.5). ** (n/a): clay not altered due to heating (i.e., not exposed to temperatures higher than 500ºC). *** The ν2/ν4 ratio was calculated based on Chu et al. (2008). n.d.: not determined (because calcite was present in very small amounts which affects the ability to accurately determine the baseline for calculation of the ratio).

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Prent, M. 2003. Glories of the Past in the Past: Ritual Activities at Palatial Ruins in Early Iron Age Crete. In: van Dyke, R.M. and Alcock, S.E., eds. Archaeologies of Memory. Oxford: 81–103. Schroer, S. and Keel, O. 2005. Die Ikonographie Palästinas/Israels und der Alte Orient: Eine Religionsgeschichte in Bildern, Band 1: Vom ausgehenden Mesolithikum bis zur Frühbronzezeit. Freiburg. Schumacher, G. 1908. Tell el-Mutesellim. Leipzig. Shahack-Gross, R., Marshall, F. and Weiner, S. 2003. Geo-ethnoarchaeology of Pastoral Sites: The Identification of Livestock Enclosures in Abandoned Massai Settlements. Journal of Archaeological Science 30: 439–459. Shahack-Gross, R., Albert, R.M., Gilboa, A., Nagar-Hilman, O., Sharon, I. and Weiner, S. 2005. Geoarchaeology in an Urban Context: The Uses of Space in a Phoenician Monumental Building at Tel Dor (Israel). Journal of Archaeological Science 32: 1417–1431. Shahack-Gross, R., Gafri, M. and Finkelstein, I. 2009. Identifying Threshing Floors in the Archaeological Record: A Test Case at Iron Age Tel Megiddo, Israel. Journal of Field Archaeology 34: 171–184. Shipton, G.M. 1939. Notes on the Megiddo Pottery of Strata VI–XX (Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 17). Chicago. Sneh, A., Bartov, Y., Weissbrod, T. and Rosensaft, M. 1998. Geological Map of Israel, 1:1200,000. Israel Geological Survey. (4 sheets). http://www.gsi.gov.il/Eng/Index.asp?ArticleID=172&CategoryID=119&Pa ge=1 Thompson, T.L. 1970. The Dating of the Megiddo Temples in Strata xV–xIV. Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins 86: 38–49. Tufnell, O. 1973. The Middle Bronze Age Scarab-seals from Burials on the Mound at Megiddo. Levant 5: 69–82. Ussishkin, D. 1980. The Ghassulian Shrine at En-Gedi. Tel Aviv 7: 1–44. Ussishkin, D. 1989. Schumacher’s Shrine in Building 338 at Megiddo. Israel Exploration Journal 39: 149–172. Van der Steen, E.J. 2001. Megiddo in the Early Bronze Age. Bibliotheca Orientalis 58: 202–211. Van der Steen, E.J. 2005. The Sanctuaries of Early Bronze IB Megiddo: Evidence of a Tribal Polity? American Journal of Archaeology 109: 1–20. Wapnish, P. and Hesse, B. 2000. Mammal Remains from the Early Bronze Sacred Compound. In: Finkelstein, I., Ussishkin, D. and Halpern, B., eds. Megiddo III: The 1992–1996 Seasons (Monograph Series of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University 18). Tel Aviv: 429–462. Weinstein, J. 1973. Foundation Deposits in Ancient Egypt (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania). Philadelphia. Weinstein-Evron, M. and Lev-Yadun, S. 2000. Palaeoecology of Pinus halepensis in Israel in the Light of Archaeobotanical Data. In: Ne’eman, G. and Trabaud, L., eds. Ecology, Biogeography and Management of Pinus Halepensis and Pinus Brutia Forest Ecosystems in the Mediterranean Basin. Leiden: 119–130. Wilkinson, T.A.H. 1999. Royal Annals of Ancient Egypt, The Palermo Stone and Its Associated Fragments. London. zuckerman, S. 2007. Anatomy of a Destruction: Crisis Architecture, Termination Rituals and the Fall of Canaanite Hazor. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 20: 3–32.

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AREA K, PART I: LEVELS K-8 AND K-7

CHAPTER 3

AREA K PART I: LEVELS K-8 AND K-7 Mario A.S. Martin, Noga Blockman and Julye Bidmead

In the 2004 season, Area K was supervised by Eran Arie and Assaf Nativ, accompanied by square supervisors Sarah Werren, Leigh Savage and registration coordinator Brooke Shelman. In the 2006 season, the area was supervised by Mario A.S. Martin and Noga Blockman with the assistance of Julye Bidmead, who coordinated the registration, Dana Katz and Robert Homsher. Square supervisors included Kristine Merriman, Douglas Simmons, Sevinc Duvarci, Max van de Wiel, Ian Cipin, Julie Ellis, Natan Ben-Ari, Ana Propintzko and Georgia Sadler. In 2008 the area was supervised by Mario A.S. Martin, Noga Blockman and Julye Bidmead (first four weeks) with the assistance of Robert Homsher and Kristine Merriman. Square supervisors included Katia Charbit-Nataf, Jonathan David, Britt Ehrich, Justine Kivlin, Kyle Leonard, Adam Prins, Georgia Sadler and Matthew Schaeffer. Levels K-8 and K-7, which date to the LB II, were unearthed in the seasons of 2004 and 2006 and are described in this report.1 Remains of Level K-9, which dates to an earlier phase of the LB II, were uncovered in the season of 2008. This layer will be discussed in the next Megiddo volume.

lEVEl K-8 (fIGS. 3.1–3.3)2 A well-defined domestic unit (Building 06/K/4) was uncovered in Squares O–P/10–11 at the edge of the slope. It comprised a courtyard with a set of two rooms to its east. While it is possible that this building continued eastward, virtually all potential evidence was lost due to erosion of the mound as well as the construction of a railway terrace by the University of Chicago expedition. Remains of an additional unit (06/K/7) were unearthed in Squares N–O/9. Wherever encountered, the Level K-8 floor elevations were fairly consistent over most of the area, namely around 163.80–163.70 m. A slightly higher elevation was encountered only in Square N/10. BUILDING 06/K/4 The remains in Squares O–P/10–11 formed a coherent architectural plan. The layout of the building was roughly square, measuring ca. 9 × 9 m – i.e., 81 m2 including walls. The floor space of this house amounted to ca. 47 m2. The western two thirds of the structure were occupied by a large, 8 × 4.5-mwide unit that evidently functioned as an inner courtyard (06/K/4). The eastern end was characterized by 1 2

Note that the 2010 season yielded additional evidence for architectural elements of Level K-8 in Squares N/9–11. An updated plan of Level K-8 will be published in the next Megiddo report. While the grid of Area K is oriented northwest-southeast, throughout this chapter northwest is referred to as west, southeast as east and so on.

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Fig. 3.1: Plan of Level K-8.

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Fig. 3.2: Level K-8 (2008). General view, looking southeast.

Fig. 3.3: Level K-8 (2008). General view, looking northeast.

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two roughly 3 × 2-m-wide rectangular rooms aligned north-south (04/K/79b3 in Square P/10 and 04/K/121 in Square P/11). The walls of this building were partly preserved to a height of more than 1 metre. The bottom elevation of their foundations differ at various spots, as they were built sloping (Walls 06/K/4, 08/K/9) or stepped (Wall 04/K/20). The tops of the stone foundations of the northern and eastern portions of the building were preserved at least 0.5 m higher than the remaining parts. The remarkable width of Wall 04/K/12 in the northeastern corner of the building is misleading, as its western part is tilted westward. Wall 06/K/11 in the southwestern part of the building was also found slightly tilted westward. This is due to the fact that its eastern half was sitting on a (narrower) Level K-9 wall, while its western half was left unsupported. This tilt might have caused the partial collapse of the Level K-8 building and, consequently, its repair in Level K-7 (see below). Note that the top course of this wall was characterized by rather small fieldstones, a technique probably meant to create a flat make-up for the brickwork on top.4 The northern wall of the building, Wall 04/K/20, continued westward beyond the line of Wall 06/K/4, probably marking the southern border of an adjacent building to the north of Area K. Several entrances were encountered in Building 06/K/4. The northern of the two rooms (04/K/79b) had entrances at its southern end in the east and west; the eastern one appeared to be paved with stones, possibly forming the top course of an earlier wall. The southern room (04/K/121) had an entrance to the courtyard in its northwestern portion; a flight of three steps (see below) led to a small, ca. 0.45-m-wide, window-like opening in the east. An additional (main?) entrance may have led into the courtyard from the west, between Walls 06/K/11 and 06/K/4. In the northwestern part of the courtyard a stone pavement (06/K/4) was revealed that was considerably sunken in its central portion. In the northeast the floor was indicated by thin, striated living surfaces. The southern part of the courtyard (06/K/57) was characterized by a series of superimposed living surfaces that featured thickly packed variegated ashy and phytolith layers (Fig. 3.4), including a plastered area. Repeated evidence of the use of fire – ashes, charcoal and at least one fireplace – found there may be related to various food preparation activities. An accumulation of restorable pottery was uncovered in the southwest (Fig. 3.5). A storage bin with plastered sidewalls and a partly stone-paved base was built into the southeastern corner of the courtyard. This installation, which was preserved to a height of ca. 35 cm, was for the most part sunk into the floor. Near the centre of the southern half of the courtyard a roughly rectangular, flat-topped large stone with a 9-cm-wide and 10-cm-deep carvedout circular depression was exposed. Upon discovery this depression was neatly covered with a worked disc-shaped stone (Fig. 3.5). The large stone, which was stuck into the ground, rested on a fieldstone bench of Level K-9, using it as foundation. The stone probably functioned as some kind of installation, or, judging from its central location, at some stage might have served as a base for a wooden post. If so, we have to consider the possibility that the southern half of the courtyard was once roofed. The more southerly of the two small rooms east of the courtyard (04/K/121, Fig. 3.6) is of special interest. Encountered in its southern portion was a small unit that was bordered by a narrow partition or retaining wall to its north. In the eastern part of this unit a stone pavement that sloped slightly down to the west was preserved. This pavement was ca. 0.5 m lower than the surrounding Level K-8 floor levels. It is assumed that this unit

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For the subdivision of loci into ‘a’ and ‘b’ see Chapter 10. For this method cf. Mazar 1997: 355.

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Fig. 3.4: Level K-8, east-section of Square O/10, courtyard striations in Building 06/K/4 (bottom part of section).

Fig. 3.5: Level K-8, Square O/10. Pottery accumulation in the courtyard of Building 06/K/4, looking northeast.

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Fig. 3.6: Level K-8, Square P/10, Room 04/K/121, looking east. Staircase and ‘window’.

functioned as a semi-basement, maybe a lowered storage area or some kind of installation.5 The partition wall was built of one row of small fieldstones and standing to a height of ca. 0.7 m above the stone-paved floor. To its north it retained a flight of three steps built of fieldstones leading up to the narrow window-like entrance in the east of the room. These steps were bordered by another narrow wall to their north, built only one course high. Leading down from the general Level K-8 floor level, they must have served to conveniently reach the semi-basement. Unfortunately, no clear floor was detected in the northern part of the room. NORTH, EAST AND SOUTH OF BUILDING 06/K/4

Iqsrsa a/hh A Level K-8 floor of what was probably a room in an adjacent building to the north of Building 06/K/4 was indicated by an accumulation of restorable pottery (Locus 06/K/12; Fig. 3.7). Remains of a north-south running Wall 08/K/7 were also attributed to this level. Iqsrsa q/he While the above-mentioned erosion activity and University of Chicago terrace construction destroyed almost all stratified remains in Squares Q/9–11 down to the Middle Bronze Age, an east-west wall stump (06/K/8) in the southwestern corner of Square q/10 joined with the southeastern corner of Building 06/K/4. 5

Possibly this pavement had first been built in the days of Level K-9 and then reused in Level K-8.

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Fig. 3.7: Square P/11, north section. Floor levels of Level K-6 (burnt bricks, black line and basalt bowl on upper third of photo) and Level K-8 (pottery accumulation below centre of photo; Locus 06/K/12).

This wall stump is either the last remaining evidence of an eastern extension of the building or a buttress wall to strengthen the building at the edge of the mound. IqsrsaI 0a/9 The eastern, outer wall of Building 06/K/4 originally extended southwards. This is indicated by a wall stump at the southeastern corner of the building, and probably, by Wall 08/K/10 (i.e., the western face of a wall stuck in the baulk). Although this wall, which seems to have been originally built in Level K-9, is preserved ca. 1 m lower than the remains to its north, it was arguably the southern continuation of Wall 02/K/9. This southern extension can be regarded as the boundary of the ca. 5.5 × at least 4.5 m space to its east (Locus 06/K/44). In the west, this space was delineated by Wall 06/K/9 – the eastern wall of Building 06/K/7 (see below). It was characterized by striated living surfaces and can probably be interpreted as an open courtyard (likely) belonging to Building 06/K/7. Similar to the southern half of Courtyard 06/K/4 variegated ashy layers were encountered here; at the western end of this courtyard (next to Wall 06/K/9), clay material indicated the presence of a tabun. WEST OF BUILDING 06/K/4 The area west of Building 06/K/4 and north of Building 06/K/7 (Squares N/9–11) most probably served as an open space, possibly a kind of piazza (04/K/81b). In the north, this area was probably bordered by the western extension of Wall 04/K/20 (see above).

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With the exception of the southern half of Square N/10, this area was devoid of architectural features. In this part of Square N/10 a stone-paved area (08/K/58) was exposed. A flat-topped, pillar-shaped stone at its northern edge stood slightly above the floor level (164.07 m) and probably served as an installation. To the southeast of the stone-paved area remains of a tabun and a semicircular stone-lined installation were encountered. The latter was built against the southwestern corner of Building 06/K/4. To the west, three stones were arranged in a triangle, seemingly also some kind of an installation. A wall stump to the immediate south (08/K/11) is of unclear function. A small refuse pit (06/K/14) was encountered farther north. Accumulations of restorable pottery were unearthed immediately west of the western wall of Building 06/K/4, in Loci 06/K/90 and 06/K/91. They can securely be affiliated with Level K-8. The Level K-8 affiliation of the other contexts in this open area (i.e., Loci 04/K/81b, 06/K/108 and 06/K/129) is somewhat less secure. BUILDING 06/K/7 To the southwest of Building 06/K/4 remains of an additional building were exposed in Squares O–N/9. Portions of the northern and eastern border walls of this building were excavated. While the eastern half of the northern border wall (06/K/2) was well-defined, its alleged western continuation (08/K/6) was badly preserved and poorly understood. The eastern border wall had a nicely built entrance into the building, the threshold of which was paved with two flat stone slabs. Two narrow partition (?) walls were exposed within the space defined by the above-mentioned walls, one running roughly north-south (Wall 08/K/3) and one northwest-southeast (Wall 08/K/4). Both were preserved to a height of one course only and do not seem to have had any supporting function in the building. In fact, the identification of Wall 08/K/3 – a row of medium-sized roughly rectangular stones – as an actual wall is questionable. Hence, the layout of the excavated part of this building is open to interpretation. A Level K-8 living horizon, characterized by possible phytolith surfaces, was encountered within the building at a consistent (and usual) level.

lEVEl K-7 (fIGS. 3.8–3.11) Sandwiched between the substantial and architecturally coherent Levels K-8 and K-6, Level K-7 appears as a rather lean and ephemeral phase within the occupational sequence of Area K, and probably had only a short lifespan. The courtyard building of the previous layer underwent partial repair and floor raising (04/K/124). The building in the southwest (now labelled 06/K/139) was altered. Level K-7 living surfaces were often somewhat patchy in their nature and encountered at different levels in various parts of the area. At least in one place there is evidence of two stages within Level K-7 (see below). BUILDING 04/K/124

Many of the walls of the Level K-8 courtyard building were reused. The stone foundations of the eastern portion of the building (Squares P/10–11) were still standing above surface and could readily be reutilized. Although preserved to a lesser height, it is assumed that the northern wall of the courtyard (04/K/20), as well as the northern portion of its western wall (06/K/4), were also reused in the Level K-7 building. The southern and southwestern borders of the courtyard, on the other hand, were altered. Both Walls 08/K/9 and 06/K/11 went out of use. A new wall (08/K/1) was built on top of the southern courtyard wall of Level

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Fig. 3.9: General view of Area K (2006), looking northeast. The picture includes remains of Levels K-8 and K-7.

Fig. 3.10: General view of Area K (2006), looking east. The picture includes remains of Levels K-8 and K-7.

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Fig. 3.11: Tabun 04/102: evidence of an additional, late stage in Level K-7.

K-8, roughly following the outline of the old wall. At its western end, this wall turned northward (06/K/6), stopping after ca. 1.5 m. Its northward continuation was apparently robbed. In respect to Wall 06/K/11 of Level K-8 beneath it, the line of this north-south wall section was slightly shifted to the east. Also, it was not directly built on top of the stone foundation of the old wall but on the remains of its mudbrick superstructure. Note that Wall 06/K/6 was tilted eastwards, possibly to counteract the westward slide of the underlying wall, which may have caused the collapse of this portion of the building (see above). Farther northwards, a small paved patch was encountered in the line of Wall 06/K/6 that might mark the existence of an entrance into the courtyard. Evidence for Level K-7 occupational surfaces within the building is somewhat problematic. Surfaces in the southern half of the courtyard (04/K/124, 04/K/96) were probably disturbed, and the ceramic material retrieved there may be mixed with pottery that originated from a pit probably belonging to Level K-6. Additional features in this part of the courtyard include a roughly rectangular stone structure that must have served as some kind of bench or work surface. Immediately to its southwest, a small area paved with small fieldstones was encountered just beneath the above-mentioned surfaces. In the northeastern part of the courtyard, a possible phytolith surface (06/K/82) and an associated pit (06/K/95) can be safely attributed to Level K-7, while the stone pavement of Level K-8 in the northwestern part had gone out of use. No evidence of Level K-7 occupational surfaces was preserved in the two rooms to the east of the courtyard. One can assume that the stairs and the semi-basement of the southern room had already gone out of use. Part of Tabun 04/K/102 was built over Wall 06/K/6 (Fig. 3.11), which must have gone out of use by this time. Hence, this tabun is evidence of an additional, late phase in the lifetime of Level K-7, which post-dated its main building stage. It is possible that at least some of the ceramic material of the building – especially from Surfaces 04/K/96 – belongs to this later stage.6

6

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SOUTHEAST OF BUILDING 04/K/124 While it seems that both the southern extension of the eastern outer Wall 08/K/10 of the Level K-8 building, as well as Wall 06/K/8 in the southeastern corner of the building went out of use, a new north-south orientated wall was erected in Level K-7 farther westward (04/K/26). This wall was built against what seems to be a partial repair or southward slide of Wall 02/K/10 of Level K-8. No clear living surface was detected either east or west of this wall. BUILDING 06/K/139 (FIG. 3.9) The architectural remains southwest of Building 04/K/124 only partially form a coherent layout. In Square O/9 only a single wall section was encountered (04/K/23), built directly on top of the eastern border wall of the Level K-8 Building 06/K/7. In Square N/9, a new wall – 04/K/16 – was erected right on top of Wall 08/K/6 of Level K-8. This wall was well built and preserved to over a metre. It was abutted by less well constructed and lower preserved perpendicular walls in the north (06/K/7) and south (06/K/10). Farther northward, Walls 04/K/18 and 04/K/19 ran parallel to Wall 04/K/16. These were separated by an entrance. Another entrance may possibly be reconstructed between Walls 04/K/19 and 06/K/7. To the east of Wall 04/K/18 a very well preserved tabun (06/K/85) was unearthed. The above-referred-to walls roughly define four separate spaces – Spaces 06/K/139 and 04/K/82b in the east and two mostly unexcavated spaces in the west. In both eastern spaces Level K-7 living horizons were encountered. An accumulation of thin, striated layers of mainly ashy material (almost devoid of finds) up to 50 cm thick to the southwest and south of Tabun 06/K/85 can probably be identified as its cleanout over the period of its use (see Shahack-Gross, Chapter 33). Note, however, that the lower part of these layers may well still originate from the earlier Level K-8 tabun (see above) that was encountered almost exactly beneath the one of Level K-7. These layers were sloping down towards the east. Right on top an accumulation of restorable pottery was encountered (06/K/139). Like the striated layers beneath, this accumulation is high in level in the west (164.35 m) and slopes down towards the tabun (164.05 m). Tabun 06/K/85 would make Wall 04/K/18 a freestanding wall, and it is questionable if this was the original layout of this part of Building 06/K/139. Possibly the tabun, and with it Accumulation 06/K/139, also belong to a later stage of Level K-7 (see above). WEST OF BUILDING 04/K/124 Like in Level K-8, the area west of Building 04/K/124 and north of Building 06/K/139 probably served as an open space (Squares N/10–11). Apart from a stone-paved strip consisting of rather large fieldstones (06/K/89), an oval-shaped ashy pit (04/K/126) was encountered in the southern end of Square N/11. No other context from this area could be attributed to Level K-7.

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AREA K, PART II: LEVEL K-6 Eran Arie and Assaf Nativ

PART II: LEVEL K-6 Eran Arie and Assaf Nativ

Remains of Level K-6 were unearthed during the seasons of 2000 and 2002, but mainly during the season of 2004. In the 2004 season the excavation of Area K was supervised by Eran Arie and Assaf Nativ, accompanied by registration coordinator Brooke Shelman and square supervisors Sarah Werren and Leigh Savage. The first half of the season was aimed at concluding the exposure of Level K-6, and especially the removal of baulks. During the second part of the season, the first remains of Levels K-7 and K-8 were exposed; they are dealt with above by Martin et al. Level K-6 (Figs. 3.12–3.13) comprises a well-preserved building that presents a clear layout in the eastern part of the area (Building 04/K/44), an open area (Courtyard 04/K/43a) with several installations to its west, and a single room of another building in the northwest (Room 02/K/74). The stratigraphy in Area K is exceptionally dense – the difference in elevation between walls of Levels K-6 and K-5 in Square O/10 is less than 10 cm (Wall 02/K/4 of Level K-5 on top of Wall 04/K/7 of Level K-6). Furthermore, due to the poor preservation of Level K-5 (Gadot et al. 2006: Fig. 7.6), in two cases, walls of Level K-4 were built immediately on top of walls of Level K-6 (Wall 00/K/1 on Wall 02/K/7; Wall 98/K/9 on Wall 02/K/8 – Figs. 3.14–3.15).

BuIlDING 04/K/44 Building 04/K/44 (Fig. 3.16) covers an area of at least 130 m2, its main part constituting three units (04/K/42, 04/K/44 and 02/K/84). Walls 04/K/8 (Square P/11), 04/K/2 (Square O/9) and the southern continuation of Wall 02/K/7 (Square P/9) indicate that the building had at least two additional units – to the east and south. CENTRAL COURTYARD 04/K/44 The floor of Courtyard 04/K/44 (Fig. 3.17) was made of beaten earth and was raised in the course of the life of the building by 35 cm (elevations 164.60 m to 164.95 m). The fact that the northern walls of the courtyard (Walls 00/K/17 and 02/K/8) do not join, raises a question about their reconstruction. Since Wall 02/K/8 probably made a corner with Wall 04/K/30 in the northern section of Square 0/11, it is possible that the continuation of the latter abutted Wall 00/K/17 and thereby closed Building 04/K/44 in the north. Two installations were located in Courtyard 04/K/44: Tabun 04/K/20, 50 cm in diameter, was found in the corner of Walls 02/K/7 and 02/K/8, with its wall resting on small flat stones; it contained small bones and smashed pottery. A worked limestone Bowl 04/K/84/AR1 was found in the southern part of the courtyard. It had a deep circular cavity in the centre, surrounded by four cup-like oval shallow depressions; it probably served for crushing and grinding. Somewhat similar stone bowls were found in the courtyard of Building 00/K/10 of Level K-4 (Gadot et al. 2006: Fig. 7.7) and in the courtyard of Building 08/H/38 of Level H-9 (Chapter 5). This unit was interpreted as a courtyard for three reasons: it is the biggest unit in Building 04/K/44; it is surrounded by rooms; and it contained two installations that would better be explained as being located

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Fig. 3.14: North baulk of Square P/10.

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Fig. 3.15: East baulk of Square O/11.

Fig. 3.16: General view of Building 04/K/44 of Level K-6, looking south.

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Fig. 3.17: The northeastern part of Courtyard 04/K/44 (note the accumulation of raised floors in the small section at the bottom of the picture), looking east.

in a courtyard. If this is indeed the case, Building 04/K/44 may be reconstructed as an irregular courtyard building. ROOM 04/K/42 Stone-paved Room 04/K/42, which opened into courtyard 04/K/44 in the east, is the clearest feature of the Building 04/K/44. An entrance to this room, which may have served as an entrance into the entire building, was unearthed in its northern wall, with an extension of the pavement beyond it. Two small rounded installations (04/K/98 and 04/K/101), both of which seem to have served as postholes, have been found on the eastern edge of the paved floor. An accumulation of beaten earth floors (ca. 30 cm thick) was detected on top of the pavement. The fact that Walls 00/K/17 and 02/K/6 seem to end in line with the pavement, in addition to the location of the two postholes approximately at the same line, confirm the separation of Room 04/K/42 from Courtyard 04/K/44. ROOM 02/K/84 Room 02/K/84 is the only unit in the building that is defined by walls on all its sides; yet, its floor has not been encountered. It is worth mentioning that the rounded corner made by Walls 04/K/7 and 04/K/5 is exceptional in the architecture of this period, and in the layout of the buildings in this area in both the Late Bronze and the Iron I.

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UNIT 04/K/68 In Unit 04/K/68 remains of living surfaces made of ca. 15 cm of accumulation of thin layers of phytoliths were encountered (at elevations 164.84–164.97 m). A flat stone situated in the centre of this unit probably served as a pillar base. Stone-lined Pit 04/K/67, which had been uncovered within Unit 04/K/68, was published in the past as a remnant of an early phase of Level K-5 (Gadot et al. 2006: 92). After reaching a better understanding of the stratigraphy of its vicinity, it would better be treated as a late phase of Level K-6 (see below). The pit contained loose pale brown soil as well as small number of seeds. It was elliptical in shape (65 × 45 cm) and was lined by seven courses of stones. The pottery derived from the pit consisted of a complete bowl (Fig. 12.65: 5 in Chapter 12) and four storage jar bases (not illustrated); all probably functioned as scoops. Its morphology and content imply that the pit served as a silo. UNIT 04/K/75 The floor of Unit 04/K/75 was recognizable only in its southern part. The main feature in this unit was a circular stone-lined Installation 02/K/60, which was built against Wall 02/K/7 (Frankel 2006: Fig. 35.2). Although the floor was not distinguished in this area, it is reasonable to assume that at least part of the installation was sunk into the ground. The installation was plastered inside and paved with several large flat stones (Fig. 3.18). A large boulder was found in the centre of the installation, resting on a layer of debris containing a considerable number of olive stones (ibid.: Fig. 35.3). The pavement inside the installation shows a slight decline (from elevation 164.66 m in the north to 164.60 m in the south) towards a carved-out basalt Bowl 04/K/80/AR1, which was an integral part of the pavement and apparently intended to catch liquids. This installation was interpreted as an olive oil press (ibid.: 619). Complete pottery vessels on the floors of Building 04/K/44 were restricted to its northern part, in stone-paved Room 04/K/42, as well as on the beaten earth floors to the east (Courtyard 04/K/44). These vessels represent the final phase of activity in the building, below which a successive raising of the floor level could be detected, accumulating to a thickness of ca. 30 cm (Figs. 3.15, 3.17). In addition to this raising of the floors, other developments in Building 04/K/44 may be suggested as follows:

Fig. 3.18: Olive Oil Press 02/K/60 of Level K-6, looking east. Fig. 3.19: Wall 00/K/17 of Level K-6, looking south (note the sealing of the main entrance to Building 04/K/44 with large fieldstones in the west).

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1. Tabun 04/K/20 should be seen as a later addition, as its bottom elevation (164.77 m) can only be correlated with the higher floors of Level K-6. 2. The worked stone bowl with a circular cavity in the centre (04/K/84/AR1) was found on top of the latest floor level (elevation 164.83 m). 3. Silo 04/K/67 was constructed in the late phase of Level K-6, since it cuts earlier beaten earth surfaces in Room 04/K/68. 4. The entrance between Walls 00/K/17 and 04/K/7 was intentionally sealed with large fieldstones, perhaps during the last days of the building (Fig. 3.19). These stones were clearly positioned on the stone pavement and were distinct in nature from the earlier walls. This may be compared to the blocking of the main gate of the city and to the blocking of an entrance in Level M-6 (Chapter 4) – see Appendix III in Chapter 12.

uNIT 04/K/57 Unit 04/K/57, which was attached to Building 04/K/44 from the north, was destroyed in a big conflagration (Fig. 3.15). The destruction debris, more than 0.5 m thick, rested on a beaten earth floor covered by an ashy layer. It can be seen along the northern section of Area K from its eastern end up to Wall 04/K/30. The latter seems to have formed a corner with Wall 02/K/8 (Fig. 3.12). Due to its limited area, the nature of this unit is difficult to understand.

rOOM 02/K/74 Room 02/K/74 in Square M/11 seems to have been part of a building, most of which lies outside the excavation area. Its plaster floor, which was delineated by east-west Wall 02/K/1 (Fig. 3.20), was nearly devoid of finds. At its eastern edge, the plaster floor ends in a straight line (Gadot et al. 2006: Fig. 7.14). In accordance with this line, a robber trench filled with yellowish and reddish crumbly mud brick material is visible in the northern section (Gadot et al. 2006: Fig. 7.15). Two pieces of evidence indicate that the walls of Level K-6 were robbed after Level K-4 and before Level K-3, that is, some 200 years after the desertion of Room 02/K/74 (Gadot et al. 2006: 101): A) The robber trench was sealed by a floor of Level K-3; B) The robber trench was filled with material that probably originated in the destruction debris of Level K-4.

COurTyarD 04/K/43a Although several fragments of walls were found between Building 04/K/44 and Room 02/K/74, it seems that an open area, probably a courtyard, was located in this place (Fig. 3.21). While the northern part of it was paved with fieldstones, the southern area consisted of beaten earth floor and several installations. In its central and northern parts, the floor of the courtyard was raised during the life of Level K-6 by up to 35 cm (elevation 164.51 m to 164.86 m). Tabun 04/K/33, 70 cm in diameter, which was built against Wall 04/K/7, contained within it a collarrim pithos set upside down (Fig. 3.22) and filled with seeds and organic material. While Nativ thinks that the pithos (Fig. 12.68: 9 in Chapter 12) was inserted into the installation after it stopped functioning as an oven and began functioning as some kind of silo, Arie would argue that the pithos functioned as part of the oven; black lines seen in the inner part of the pithos and its crumbly fabric attest to repeating burnings. The use of upper parts of pithoi in tabuns is a well-known phenomenon in the late second millennium

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Fig. 3.20: Room 02/K/74 of Level K-6, looking west.

Fig. 3.21: General view of Level K-6, looking east.

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Fig. 3.22: Tabun 04/K/33, looking east.

Fig. 3.23: Installation 02/K/92, looking east.

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BCE, e.g., at Tel Harashim (Aharoni 1957: 20), Hazor xII (Yadin et al. 1961: Pl. xVII: 2, 4) and Tell el‘Umeiri (Lawlor 2000: Fig. 3.20). A circular, plastered Installation 02/K/91, dropping off toward the northwest (elevation 165.15 m to 164.74 m), was found in the southern part of the courtyard. Another plastered installation (02/K/92) was unearthed in Square M/9, sloping at its edges (Fig. 3.23). Probably connected to the latter are two large, rounded and roughly flat-topped stones. These remains could have been associated with Installation 02/K/91. These plastered installations have a close parallel in Locus 2022 in the University of Chicago’s Area AA (affiliated with Stratum VIA [Loud 1948: Figs. 87, 386]). The interpretation of the latter as an olive oil press (Frankel 2006: 619) may imply the function of the installations found in Area K. Two pits were found in Courtyard 04/K/43a. A stone-lined pit (02/K/64) was found to the north of the entrance to Building 04/K/44. It was only partially excavated since half of it is located in the northern section of Area K. Another pit (02/K/77) was unearthed in the centre of the courtyard. It contained a large number of pottery sherds and bones and can therefore be identified as a refuse pit. The pottery retrieved from the pit is a mixture of LB II and LB III material; two Cypriot vessels – a milk bowl and a base ring bowl – are worth mentioning (not illustrated). These vessels were probably dug out from earlier strata while the pit was being hollowed and reburied.

CONCluSIONS The construction, layout, and finds of Level K-6 reveal its domestic nature. Building 04/K/44 shows evidence for cooking, food consumption, storage and household industry. Based on the stratigraphy (between Levels K-7 of the LB II and Level K-5 of the early Iron I) and pottery assemblage (see Chapter 12), Level K-6 should be correlated with the University of Chicago’s Stratum VIIA. This stratum is one of the most accurately dated at Megiddo due to a few Egyptian finds that put it in the beginning of the 12th century BCE, with its destruction at ca. 1130 BCE (Ussishkin 1995: 258–265). The domestic architecture and urban planning of Area K during the transition period from the Late Bronze to the Iron I demonstrate a continuous building tradition, with only minor architectural changes, from Level K-6 to Level K-4 (for the description of Levels K-5 and K-4 see Gadot et al. 2006). In each of these three strata one main building was erected in the eastern part of the area near the slope of the mound, while an open area, which was used for daily activities, was located in the western sector. In Levels K-6 and K-4, which were better preserved, the plan of the house can be reconstructed as a courtyard building – a typical second millennium BCE layout (Gadot and Yasur-Landau 2006: 585 with further references). The ongoing construction of courtyard buildings and the stability in the architectural planning of the area seems to point out to continuity in the family structure and identity of the population. The destruction of Stratum VIIA brought about the end of Egyptian rule at Megiddo. While the main structure that was affiliated with this stratum – Palace 2041, located in the northern part of the city (the University of Chicago’s Area AA) – was violently destroyed by fire (Loud 1948: 29–31, Fig. 384; Ussishkin 1995: 240–246), courtyard Building 04/K/44 of Level K-6 was not burned down. Yet, complete vessels found on its floors indicate that it was hastily abandoned. It is also noteworthy that Unit 04/K/57, adjacent to Building 04/K/44 in the north, was violently destroyed by fire. It seems therefore that though the conflagration that brought about the end of Stratum VIIA did not set the entire city on fire, its immediate consequence was the desertion of the city.

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REFERENCES Aharoni, Y. 1957. The Settlement of the Israelite Tribes in Upper Galilee. Jerusalem (Hebrew). Frankel, R. 2006. Two Installations for the Production of Olive Oil. In: Finkelstein, I., Ussishkin, D. and Halpern, B., eds. Megiddo IV: The 1998–2002 Seasons (Monograph Series of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University 24). Tel Aviv: 618–629. Gadot, Y., Martin, M., Blockman, N. and Arie, E. 2006. Area K (Levels K-5 and K-4, the 1998–2002 Seasons). In: Finkelstein, I., Ussishkin, D. and Halpern, B., eds. Megiddo IV: The 1998–2002 Seasons (Monograph Series of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University 24). Tel Aviv: 87–103. Gadot, Y. and Yasur-Landau, A. 2006. Beyond Finds: Reconstructing Life in the Courtyard Building of Level K-4. In: Finkelstein, I., Ussishkin, D. and Halpern, B., eds. Megiddo IV: The 1998–2002 Seasons (Monograph Series of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University 24). Tel Aviv: 583–600. Lawlor, J.I. 2000. Field A: The Administrative Complex. In: Herr, L.G. et al. eds., Madaba Plains Project: The 1992 Season at Tall al-‘Umayri and Subsequent Studies. Berrien Springs: 21–58. Loud, G. 1948. Megiddo II: Seasons of 1935–1939 (Oriental Institute Publications 62). Chicago. Mazar, A. 1997. Area P. In: Ben-Tor, A., Bonfil, R., Garfinkel, Y., Greenberg, R., Maeir, A. and Mazar, A. Hazor V. An Account of the Fifth Season of Excavations 1968. Jerusalem: 353–386. Ussishkin, D. 1995. The Destruction of Megiddo at the End of the Late Bronze Age and Its Historical Significance. Tel Aviv 22: 240–267. Yadin, Y., Aharoni, Y., Amiran, R., Dothan, T., et al. 1961. Hazor III–IV, Plates. An Account of the Third and Fourth Seasons of Excavations, 1957–1958. Jerusalem.

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Fig. 3.24: Area K, north section (prepared by E. Arie and M.A.S. Martin).

Fig. 3.25: Area K, south section (prepared by E. Arie and M.A.S. Martin).

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AREA M, PART I: THE ExCAVATION

CHAPTER 4

AREA M PART I: THE ExCAVATION Norma Franklin

This chapter describes the results of the 2000–2006 seasons in the eastern squares of Area M (AV/27– 29 and AW/27–29) and ties them to the finds in the western sector of the area, which were reported in Megiddo IV (Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Deutsch 2006; Fig. 4.1).1 Due to the fact that large parts of Area M had already been excavated in the past (Schumacher 1904; 1905; 1906; 1908; Lamon and Shipton 1939: Fig. 3), in some cases it was difficult to reach a clear stratigraphic affiliation of the remains. As a result, there are several stratigraphic and architectonic interpretations for the remains unearthed in Area M, both in the eastern and the western parts of this area. Different interpretations than mine by A. Pechuro and I. Finkelstein appear in Part II and Part III of this chapter. My interpretation of the remains, which appears in Part I of this chapter and its appendix, also takes into account my interpretation of the results of past excavations in this area, mainly Schumacher’s. The excavation of the eastern sector of Area M calls for adjustments in the stratigraphy of the western squares, as reported in Megiddo IV. Table 4.1 provides this information according to my interpretation. TABLE 4.1: THE STRATIGRAPHY OF AREA M This report

Megiddo IV

Period

U of C stratum

-

M-10

MB I

xIII

M-8

M-9

MB II

xII-xI

M-7b

M-8?

MB III

x

M-7a

M-7?

MB III/LB I

x-Ix

M-6c

Not reported

LB II

VIII-VIIB

M-6b

M-6

LB III

VIIA

M-6a

M-5

End of LB III

End of VIIA

M-5

Not reported

Early Iron I

VIB

M-4

Not reported

Late Iron I

VIA

M-3, M-2, M-1

Not reported

Iron IIA

V

1

The initial two and a half squares of Area M were opened in the latter half of the 2000 season and excavation was supervised by R. Deutsch. During the short study season of 2002 a further two squares were opened under the joint supervision of R. Deutsch and N. Franklin. During the seasons of 2004 and 2006 the area was supervised by N. Franklin.

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Fig. 4.1: Aerial view of Area M taken in 2008 (two years after the termination of work), showing the main elements mentioned in this chapter.

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Fig. 4.2: The Level M-8 semicircular Shaft 06/M/14 in Square AW/2728, looking northwest. To the east one can see the Phase M-7b Plaster Floor 06/M/76 and the remnant of Wall (or Bench) 06/M/WL8. Two Phase M-6c walls are located on either side of the Level M-8 semicircle – 06/M/WL7 (south) and 06/M/ WL9 (north). Also visible are two of the Phase M-6c blocking Walls 06/M/WL10, 06/M/WL2. Note the robbed-out area in the northwest.

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Fig. 4.3: The Level M-8 semicircular Shaft 06/M/14 in Square AW/27-28, looking southwest. To the east one can see the Phase M-7b Plaster Floor 06/M/76. Note the Phase M-6c Wall 06/M/7 located on the south side of the Level M-8 semicircle. Also visible are two of the Phase M-6c blocking walls – W06/M/10, W06/M/2.

Fig. 4.4: North-south section A’-A, showing the Level M-8 semicircular shaft and its relationship to the Level M-7 plaster floor. Above one can see elements of Levels M-6, M-5 and M-4.

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Fig. 4.5: Plan of Level M-7.

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lEVEl M-8: ThE MIDDlE BrONZE aGE II The earliest structure in the area of Schumacher’s Chamber f is the stone-built semicircular Shaft 06/M/14 in Square AW/27–28 (Figs. 4.2–4.3). Only the eastern part of the shaft was visible; its western side was concealed behind Level M-6 walls that block the original entrance to Chamber f. The bottom of Shaft 06/M/14 was not reached due to safety considerations; the lowest elevation (Locus 06/M/74) was 160.39 m (Fig. 4.4). The latest pottery there dates to the MB I. The interior wall of the shaft was originally lined with greyish, soft, thick plaster, some of which could still be seen during the excavation. The configuration of the stone-built semicircular Shaft 06/M/14 and the square, stone-built Chamber f resemble Grabkammern I and II excavated by Schumacher (1906 Ix: 17–21; 1908: 13–15). Locus 06/M/70 (in the shaft) and Locus 06/M/65 (above it) both contained mudbrick debris mixed with broken pieces of plaster (the latter originated from the Level M-7 Floor 06/M/76), large fragments of MB III pottery and some LB I sherds. Due east of Chamber f, there was an earthy debris containing Middle Bronze and earlier pottery. This material was excavated in Square AV/27-28 as Locus 06/M/67, elevation 161.76–162.44 m, and in Square AW/27 as Locus 06/M/72, elevation 161.88–162.25 m.

phaSE M-7B: ThE MIDDlE BrONZE aGE III THE EASTERN SQUARES The dominant feature in Level M-7 is the long north-south terrace Wall 06/M/3,2 running through three eastern Squares AW/27–29. Plaster Floor 06/M/66, at elevation 162.65 m, abuts the east face of this wall in Square AW/27 and in part of Square AW/28 (Figs. 4.5–4.7). In the extreme east of Square AW/27 a small, ca. 40-cm-deep probe (Locus 06/M/75, lower elevation 162.24 m) which was cut through the Level M-7 plaster Floor 06/M/66, revealed the latter’s foundations – a layer of pebbles covered by an earthy matrix. The pottery was MB I and earlier. Set on plaster Floor 06/M/66 in the east of Square AW/27 (and visible in the east baulk) was a poorly preserved installation (Locus 06/M/44). It was partly built of stone with dense patches of grey plaster and mudbrick; large pottery sherds, including slabs of handmade, baked, tabun-like pottery with impressions left by the craftsman once formed part of this installation.3 In Square AW/28 the floor was less well preserved, and two parallel east-west wall stubs, 06/M/11 and 06/M/12, separated it from another poorly preserved plaster surface at a slightly lower elevation (Fig. 4.8). (No plaster surface was detected in Square AW/29. The lowest elevation reached there was 161.92 m of Phase M-7a). NEAR CHAMBER F Plaster Floor 06/M/76 (elevation 161.76 m) was revealed east of Chamber f. It appears to have once covered the stone-built semicircular Shaft 06/M/14 of Level M-8, but was only preserved east and north of it. This plaster surface reached and rose up the side of north-south Wall (or Bench) 06/M/8, which ran parallel to the main Level M-7 feature – Terrace Wall 06/M/3. Only the rubble interior of this element 2 3

Wall 06/M/3 may have been constructed prior to Level M-7 and continued in use for a long period of time. Identical slabs were found in secondary use in the eastern section of the Level M-5 Wall 06/M/1.

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Fig. 4.6: Square AW/27, the Phase M-7b terrace Wall 06/M/3 and Plaster Floor 06/M/66, looking north. Note the Phase M-7a loaf-shaped stones set into mudbrick debris. In the foreground, still existent Level M-4 Wall 04/M/3. Also visible in the far baulk is the remnant of Level M-4 below-floor Installation 06/43.

was preserved (Figs. 4.2a, 4.5). To the immediate north and at a similar elevation to the plaster floor, two rows of stone steps (or possibly part of a threshold) were noted. These steps (partly hidden in the baulk created below the Level M-4 Wall 00/M/27) may signify an undetected bent-axis entrance to Chamber f that existed during the time of Level M-7.

phaSE M-7a: MIDDlE BrONZE III/laTE BrONZE I EAST OF CHAMBER F This level is marked by a number of successive burials (Fig. 4.5). The earliest was Burial 06/M/73 at elevation 162.55–162.66 m, which was cut into the Phase M-7b plaster floor in Square AW/27. This burial was only partly excavated (most of the skeleton and presumably any pottery were trapped below the baulk created by the still existent Level M-4 Wall 04/M/4). A slightly later burial – 06/M/56 at elevation 162.64–162.89 m – was found nearly intact. The skeleton was ringed by large pottery sherds and two vessels (06/M/056/VS1 and 06/M/048/VS14) found near the skull, which faced north. Small fragments of gold ornamentation found nearby (Loci 06/M/11/PT25 and 06/M/26/AR16-20) should probably be associated 4

One of the vessels was excavated the day before the burial was discerned, hence the different locus number; however, there is no doubt that it belongs to Burial 06/M/56.

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Fig. 4.7: West-east section B-E across Area M, showing the relationship of Chamber f to the Level M-8 circular-shaft and three of the four Level M-6 north-south blocking walls (Wall 06/6 not shown). Note the higher elevation in the east of Level M-7 terrace Wall 06/3 and the location of the Level M-4 floors.

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Fig. 4.8: Square AW/28, looking west. The Phase M-7b Walls 06/M/3 and Stubs 06/M/11 and 06/M/12. In the background, the rear of Level M-6 Wall 04/M/8 which held back debris fill. Note the Level M-4 pillar base ‘floating’ on top of the dumped debris.

with these burials. Over the area of the burials, and probably connected with them, were a number of randomly laid flat stones (Locus 06/M/48 at elevation 163.10 m). A row of large, loaf-shaped stones laid in an east-west line ran from Square AW/27 into Squares AV/27–28 west of Level M-7 Terrace Wall 06/M/3 (Figs. 4.6–4.7). They appear to be covering stones and may well signify another unexcavated burial set into the Level M-8 earth debris of Locus 06/M/72 (elevation 161.88–162.25 m). A silver pendant retrieved at the western end of this row of flat stones (06/M/067/AR1) may belong to this supposed burial. It is noteworthy that this supposed burial (and Burials 06/M/56 and 06/M/73 in Square AW/27) align with the entrance to Chamber f. SQUARE AW/29 A number of successive beaten earth floors, located north of the long east-west Wall 04/M/1, were excavated as Loci 06/M/38, 06/M/28 and 06/M/14. The earliest floor was composed of large, flat mudbricks at ca. elevation 161.92 m. The next, slightly later beaten earth floor (06/M/38), was associated with a small, crude pillar base and a small circular, roughly built, stone installation (Locus 06/M/46), resting on it at elevation 162.07 m. Also detected were a single course north-south wall (06/M/4) and a thick, presumably phytolith layer at elevation 162.50 m, possibly signifying roof-fall; the presence of a large number of hand grindstones may represent material that was once located on the roof (Fig. 4.5). This

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material (at a topographically higher elevation that the Level M-6 Room 04/M/83 to the immediate south) predates the main phase of Level M-6 and should be attributed to a Level M-6/M-7 transitional phase.

lEVEl M-6: laTE BrONZE II-III Level M-6 features several construction phases (Fig. 4.9). These include two phases in the Nordburg and its vicinity (Phases M-6c–b) and the burying of these structures (Phase M-6a). PHASE M-6C: LATE BRONZE II IqsrsaI rsArs/ha Two east-west parallel walls, 06/M/7 (south) and 06/M/9 (north), were built over the Level M-7 plaster Floor 06/M/76 and the north-south rubble Wall 06/M/8. The two east-west walls rested on the Level M-7 plaster floor, on either side of the rim of the Level M-8 stone-built semicircular Shaft 06/M/14. The west end of Wall 06/M/7 was covered by thick plaster. A small section of the plaster was removed as Locus 06/M/49, and it was eventually recognized to have been a strengthening element that integrated the wall with the main structure of Chamber f. Wall 06/M/9 was less well preserved. Both walls post-date Chamber f and were integrated into its original framework, bonding the structure with the higher elevation levels to its east. They were linked by three north-south walls that prevented entry into Chamber f: the most western was Wall 06/M/2; immediately east of it were Wall 06/M/10 and the single row of Wall 06/M/15. A fourth wall, running north-south, Wall 06/M/6, stretched across the central area of the semicircular shaft5 and its northern end rested on Wall 06/M/9 (Figs. 4.2–4.4, 4.7, 4.9). The debris found against the west face of Wall 06/M/6 (Loci 06/M/57, 06/M/61, 06/M/62), and the material on removal of Wall 06/M/6 (Locus 06/M/63), date to the LB I. This series of four northsouth walls – 06/M/2, 06/M/10, 06/M/15 and 06/M/6 – effectively sealed stone-built semicircular Shaft 06/M/14 from above (Fig. 4.9). According to my interpretation, this series of six interconnecting walls (06/M/2, 06/M/10, 06/M/15, 06/M/7, 06/M/9 and 06/M/06) post-date Chamber f. Based on the latest pottery associated with them, this system of walls was built no later than the LB II. Wall 06/M/6 was possibly built some time after the five other walls but still within the Late Bronze horizon. This means that Chamber f may have remained sealed throughout the LB II or there may have been access via a yet unrecognized entrance from the north (the area of the later Room 04/M/75, see below). Iqsrsa re/h2 East of (the later) Room 04/M/75 there were no architectural features, occupational surfaces or clean loci that could be attributed to Level M-6. This was particularly true of Square AW/28, which featured a ca. 2-metre-thick pottery-rich mudbrick debris (the pottery, excavated as Locus 06/M/8, dates mainly to the Late Bronze Age [Fig. 4.8]). On removal of the west baulk of Square AW/28 (Locus 06/M/40) it was observed that this pottery-rich mudbrick debris was deposited against Wall 04/M/8 (the eastern wall of Room 04/M/75) and may signify that it served as a retaining wall for the debris. In the south of Square AW/29, Wall 04/M/1 served as the northern limit of the debris.

5

Wall 06/M/6 presumably caused the break-up of the earlier plaster floor.

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Fig. 4.9: Plan Level M-6.

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The main feature of Phase M-6b is a rectangular room or courtyard referred to here as Room 04/M/75 (Figs. 4.9–4.11, 4.12). Some remains of its south wall (06/M/13) can be discerned in the baulk below the Level M-4 Wall 00/M/27 (Fig. 4.7). A large stone basin was found in situ on Floor 98/M/12 immediately outside the room adjoining Entrance 06/M/45 (Fig. 4.13) (see already Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Deutsch 2006: 68, Fig. 5.3). Room 04/M/75 had a fine plaster floor; in some places it was possible to define two distinct layers of plaster, possibly signifying a long period of use. Thirteen vessels (see Figs. 12.70–12.71) and a number of artefacts, including a scaraboid seal, were retrieved from this room. The larger vessels stood on the floor, but others were possibly stored on shelves integrated into the walls. These vessels, which date to the LB III, must be associated with the final use of the room. s

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Wall 04/M/1 separates Rooms 04/M/83 and 04/M/75. An opening between Wall 98/M/10 and Wall 04/M/2 may have served as an entrance from Courtyard 98/M/12. In the north of Room 04/M/83 there was a circular stone installation, excavated by Schumacher (he designated it a grube and the bottom level given is ca. 1 m lower than the adjacent floor of Level M-6). It was not clear if what had been identified as the floor of Room 04/M/83 was a badly-preserved plaster floor or patches of phytolith accumulation. A small fragment of plaster fresco was found here (04/M/83/AR6); it is possible that all the plaster patches were originally associated with the mudbrick superstructure.

phaSE M-6a: END Of laTE BrONZE III Entrance 06/M/45 to Room 04/M/75 had been intentionally blocked. A stone door jamb and pivot were found displaced on top of the adjacent wall stub and the entranceway was found filled with mudbrick debris – Locus 04/M/58 (Fig. 4.13). The blocking of the entrance was part of the intentional burying of Room 04/M/75 with Fill 04/M/49 – a deep, ca. 80 cm, layer of mudbrick tumble with occasional patches of plaster (probably remnants of plaster wall coating). The mudbrick superstructure of Wall 04/M/2 was preserved, as it was also buried. This deliberate fill should be equated with elements attributed to Level M-5 in the western squares of Area M – Wall 98/M/1, Fill 98/M/37 and Wall 98/M/23 (Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Deutsch 2006: 78). Room 04/M/83 appears to have also been purposely buried by Fill 04/M/53. However the blocking/burying of Rooms 04/M/75 and 04/M/83 was done prior to the onset of Level M-5.

lEVEl M-5: Early IrON I Meagre remains of Level M-5, sandwiched between the Late Bronze Level M-6 and the late Iron Age I Level M-4, were present in a number of places (Fig. 4.15). In the main, the Level M-5 architecture appears to be a rebuilding and reuse of Level M-6 architectural elements, possibly signifying that Level M-5 is similar in nature to the early Iron I phases exposed by Loud (1948: 33, 105, 113–114, Figs. 385, 405, 410) and the Level F-7 occupation in Area F on the lower terrace (Ilan et al. 2000: 93–95).

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Fig. 4.10: North-south section C-A across Area M, showing the relationship of the Level M-7 elements adjacent to the Level M-8 semi-circular shaft and the Level M-6 elements to the north. Also shown is the location of the Level M-4 floors.

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Fig. 4.11: Square AV/28. The Phase M-6b Room 04/M/75, with Walls Fig. 4.12: Square AV/28. The Phase M-6b Room 04/M/1 and 04/M/8, looking northeast. 04/M/75 and Entrance 06/M/45, looking south.

SQUARE AW/29 A number of elements that can be attributed to Level M-5 were observed north of Wall 04/M/1, all poorly preserved. The Level M-5 surfaces here are at a lower elevation than the Level M-5 floors south and west of Wall 04/M/1. Wall 02/M/11 (the Level M-5 re-build of the Level M-6 Wall 04/M/1) marks a sharp division between two very different areas, notably the absence north of Wall 02/M/11 of a deep post-Level M-6 fill similar to that found in Rooms 04/M/83 and 04/M/75. In addition, the ground is higher east of Wall 02/M/9, and the three Level M-5 Walls 02/M/9, 02/M/10 and 02/M/11 apparently functioned as terrace walls. The earliest element in Level M-5 is a large tabun, Locus 06/M/13 (elevation 162.42–162.58 m), located in the corner formed by Walls 02/M/9 and 02/M/10. The latest possible Level M-5 habitation level was Locus 02/M/52 at elevation 163.12–163.41 m. SQUARES AV–AW/27–29 In Square AV/29, Level M-5 floors were recognized south of Wall 02/M/11. A small ash-filled installation, Locus 04/M/32 (elevation 162.97–163.20 m), created a fine ash layer, which was clearly visible in the south baulk at elevation 163.03 m and in the east baulk at elevation 163.08 m. It was deposited on top of Fill 04/M/39. Wall 98/M/26 is located between Squares AV/29 and AW/29; the surfaces east of the wall are all at a higher elevation. The best preserved section of a Level M-5 floor (06/M/31a, PTs 1–4) was revealed in Baulk AV/28–29. A basalt base, supporting a basalt basin, rested on a beaten earth and ash-laden floor. The floor was not

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Fig. 4.13: Squares AV-AU/28. Entrance 06/M/45. Note deliberate blocking and displaced basalt door pivot, looking east.

preserved over a wide area, but it was noted as a layer of fine ash in the south and east baulks of Square AV/29 (elevations 163.03 m and 163.08 m respectively). A small ash-filled installation (04/M/32) was apparently the cause of this deposit (Fig. 4.15). Further evidence of a Level M-5 floor was revealed in the centre-north of Square AV/28, where there was flat-lying pottery and a small remnant of plaster floor (Locus 02/M/61) at elevation 163.06 m. In the same square, Level M-5 was also represented by an ash layer in the east and south baulks (elevations 163.05 m and 163.08 m respectively). The Level M-5 surfaces were laid over Fill 04/M/80 (Figs. 4.16–4.17). In Square AV/27, Level M-5 was observed in only one place, as an ash layer at elevation 162.88 m. This slightly lower elevation reflects the ancient slope from east down to west. Also in Square AV/27, a large east-west wall composed of boulders (06/M/5) aligned with the opening of Chamber f. The purpose of this wall is an enigma as it serves no obvious architectural function. Stratigraphically it is pre-Level M-4 but it may have been built on top of the Level M-5 living surfaces by the Level M-4 builders; in other words, it may belong to the construction phase of Level M-4. A probable continuation of Wall 06/M/5 is the remains of the roughly built wall, 06/M/1 (Figs. 4.13, 4.15, 4.18–4.19), which crossed Square AW/27 from east to west (built into Wall 06/M/1 was the M-4 Installation 06/M/43). Wall 06/M/1 was dismantled as Locus 06/M/39; the lower courses, which partly destroyed the Level M-7 Installation 06/M/44, contained Middle Bronze Age pottery, while the upper courses contained some Late Bronze material (06/M/51/VS1). South of Wall 06/M/1 there was mixed earthy debris with striations of plaster (Locus 06/M/11). The lower levels contained pottery only from the Late Bronze and earlier. The pottery north of Wall 06/M/1 was also Late Bronze (Locus 06/M/19).

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Fig. 4.14: North-south section D’-D across Area M, showing the relationship of Chamber f to the Levels M-7, M-6 and M-4 elements. Blocking Wall 06/2 is shown from the inside of Chamber f.

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Fig. 4.15: Plan of Level M-5.

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CHAMBER F’S DISTURBANCE/ROBBERY A major disturbance, which included the partial robbery of two Level M-6 walls (the west section of Wall 06/M/9 and the north section of Wall 06/M/10) and part of the Level M-7 plaster Floor 06/M/76, occurred at some point during the time of Level M-5. It was observed in Locus 06/M/68, and was also visible in the adjacent baulk formed below Level M-4 Wall 00/M/27 (Fig 4.2). The intrusive material consisted of mudbrick debris with a heavy concentration of small- and medium-size stones and Late Bronze pottery sherds. In front of north-south blocking Wall 06/M/02, the material was also disturbed (Locus 06/M/57); this softer material also contained fragments of Late Bronze Age pottery. The locus that, in effect, sealed the disturbance (06/M/52) from above contained a few Iron I sherds6 mixed with the Late Bronze Age material. The area of the robbed-out eastern section of Level M-6 Wall 06/M/9 was excavated as Locus 06/M/58. There were small pieces of the churned-up Level M-7 plaster floor and at elevation 161.74 m small fragments of Iron I pottery, a further clue that the disturbance occurred during the Iron I. Overlying most of the disturbed area near Chamber f was a series of what appeared to be phytolith layers that were attributed to Level M-5 (Locus 06/M/41, elevation 162.46–162.83 m).

lEVEl M-4: IrON I (fIG. 4.20) DESCRIPTION OF THE REMAINS The main feature of Level M-4 is Building 04/M/44 in Square AV/27 and part of Square AV/28 (for the pottery, see Figs. 12.74–12.75). Entry into this room was via an opening situated midway along its east wall – 04/M/5. Long, well preserved Wall 00/M/27 bordered Building 04/M/44 on the north and Wall 04/M/4 bordered it on the south. An earth (probably phytolith-covered) floor sloped down from east to west (elevation 163.53 m to 163.35 m). The floor rested on a make-up of pottery sherd and pebble soling, which also extended below Wall 00/M/27. In the west of the room there was an opening to a vertical shaft that gave access to Chamber f. The opening was located directly over the top, interior step of Chamber f and west of blocking Wall 06/M/2. The lower courses of this wall originated in Level M-6, but its upper courses appear to have been added to and/or repaired, presumably during the life of Level M-4 (Figs. 4.20–4.22). Located immediately east of the opening were two crude limestone pillar bases. The floor of Building 04/M/44 – including the area of the pillar bases but excluding a narrow strip adjacent to Wall 00/M/27 – was covered with a thick burnt layer composed of ash and charcoal remains of what seem to have been collapsed carbonized beams. A number of vessels were found resting on this layer signifying that they must have originally been stored on a wooden platform or shelf that extended over most of the room (Figs. 4.23–4.24). Two collared-rim jars7 were found in the aisle adjacent to Wall 00/M/27 (Vessels 00/M/35/VS1, 00/M/35/VS2). This aisle, which had a beaten earth floor, ran to a second entrance at the west end of Wall 00/M/27. Two flat stones, exposed in Locus 02/M/28, were laid at a ca. 50 cm lower elevation than the top of the stone-built section of the wall and a third, flat platter stone served as a step down onto the floor of the aisle of Building 04/M/44. The third stone, the largest, resembled the roof stones of Chamber f. Although it is impossible to prove that there is a connection between the large flat ‘step’ stone platter and the roofing 6 7

These few Iron Age sherds may indicate activity near the entrance to Chamber f during the time of Level M-4, e.g., the strengthening of Level M-6 Wall 06/M/2 that was reused in Level M-4. Other finds included a pair of bronze cymbals (shown in Chapter 15).

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Fig. 4.16: Square AW/29, looking southeast, showing Level M-5 Wall 02/M/11, being the rebuilding of a Level M-6 wall. In the baulk note the fragmentary Level M-5 floor and the Level M-4 floor with burnt mudbrick accumulation.

Fig. 4.17: Phase M-6b Wall 04/M/8; on either side of the measuring rod, a remnant of the Level M-5 floor and the Level M-4 floor with burnt mudbrick accumulation, looking east.

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Fig. 4.18: West-east section E’-E across Area M, showing the relationship of Level M-8 semicircular Shaft 06/M/14 and three of the four Level M-6 north-south blocking walls (Wall 06/6 seen in background only). Note Level M-5 Walls 06/5 and 06/1 which eliminated all earlier elements and helped support the Level M-4 floor.

stones, in my view it is clear that during the time of Level M-4 a new entrance was made to Chamber f that necessitated removing two or three of the roof stones. This entrance is a ‘shaft’ that provides access directly over the Chamber’s flight of steps and is due west of blocking Wall 06/M/2 (Fig. 4.14). The north wall of Building 04/M/44, Wall 00/M/27, comprised of large boulders and fieldstones, aligns with the north face of Chamber f’s northern wall, 98/M/2, but is not integrated with it. The builders of the Level M-4 wall were obviously familiar with Chamber f and for structural and functional reasons incorporated their wall into the existing architectural plan (Fig. 4.20). The same configuration was true for the southern wall of Building 04/M/44 – Wall 04/M/4. The latter had been partially robbed-out post-Level M-4 and pre-Level M-3. There was no occupational accumulation or other evidence to signify that there was another room south of Building 04/M/44. East of Building 04/M/44 and at a ca. 0.50 higher elevation, was Room 04/M/55. It was bordered on the north by the eastern extension of Wall 00/M/27. A small segment of this wall’s mudbrick superstructure was preserved (Fig. 4.26). The mudbricks were coated with mud plaster and lime was used as a fill between the lowest mudbricks and the stone base. The south side of the room was bordered by the eastern extension of Wall 04/M/4. The upper section of Wall 04/M/4 had been robbed, presumably post-Level M-4, but prior to Level M-3. A gap in Wall 04/M/5 and an in situ stone door pivot – Locus 04/M/77 – signified the location

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Fig. 4.19: Square AW/27, looking north, Level M-5 Wall 06/M/1. In the foreground, the still existent Level M-4 Wall 04/M/4.

of the connecting doorway between Building 04/M/44 and Room 04/M/55. No eastern boundary wall of Room 04/M/55 was revealed, but one may exist beyond our excavation area. Room 04/M/55 had an uneven plaster floor with a marked depression on either side of a central ridge (caused by the underlying Level M-5 Wall 06/M/1). A circular stone-built, below-floor Installation 06/M/43 was partially exposed, with its northern half left in Baulk AW/27–28. The south wall of the installation was built into the earlier Level M-5 Wall 06/M/1. The interior of the installation was excavated as Locus 06/M/50 (Fig. 4.6). North of Wall 00/M/27 there was a large area that may have functioned as an open area (Locus 02/M/40). The floor (elevation ca. 163.55 m) was of beaten earth, and the whole area was covered with a dense layer of ash and broken pottery (Fig. 4.25). The ashy surface was not always well preserved, especially in the west and north of the area.8 In Square AV/29 only a short stretch of the northern boundary wall (02/M/12) of Open Area 02/M/40 was barely preserved, probably due to its proximity to Schumacher’s excavation area. A similar problem was noted in Square AW/29, where only a single row of stones (Wall 02/M/1) remained of what might have been the continuation of Wall 02/M/12. Only a few stones of a much disturbed west boundary wall were noted – Wall 98/M/03. Three large, partially worked stones may represent part of the Level M-4 wall; they were contained in a robber trench noted on the removal of Baulks AU/29 and AV/29. Nearby, a basalt orthostat lay at an angle on the Level M-4 surface, with one end stuck 8

The west side of Squares AV/28 and AV/29 and the north side of Square AV/29 bordered the Schumacher excavation area – part of his main north-south-running trench.

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Fig. 4.20: Plan Level M-4.

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Fig. 4.21: West-east section F’-F across Area M, showing relationship of Chamber f to the Level M-4 entry shaft (three of the four Level M-6 north-south blocking walls are shown). Note the sloping floors of Level M-4 which lead to the new entry shaft.

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Fig. 4.22: The entrance to Chamber f, view looking east from inside. Note the interior face of blocking Wall 06/2 resting on the top (visible) step.

Fig. 4.23: Square AV/27, looking west, showing the Level M-4 Room 04/44, flanked by Walls 00/M/27 and 04/M/3. Note the entry shaft to Chamber f, exposed since the Schumacher excavations.

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Fig. 4.24: Square AV/27, looking east, showing the Level M-4 Room 04/M/44; in the foreground the two limestone pillar bases. Note carbonized beams in baulk.

below the surface. It may have originally been positioned upright as a stone set into the Level M-4 floor.9 Also on Floor 02/M/40 was a small, ash filled installation – Locus 02/M/39. In the centre of this open area there was a shallow basalt basin that rested on a basalt slab. The latter stood on a Level M-5 floor and continued in use through to Level M-4. Directly east, there was a small basalt pillar base that rested on the Level M-4 Floor 06/M/25. A large, roughly circular basalt slab, possibly another pillar base, was situated close to Wall 00/M/27 on the ashy floor surface, but was thought not to be in its original location. THE DEMISE OF LEVEL M-4 Level M-4 came to an end in a dramatic destruction, with heavy conflagration. This destruction is the contemporary of Level K-4 (Gadot et al. 2006: 94–101) and Level H-9 (Chapter 5). There was a marked difference between the burnt mudbrick material deposited over Rooms 04/M/44 and 04/M/55 in Squares AV–AW/27 and the material deposited over the open area in Squares AV/28–29 and AW/28–29. The former featured a thick concentration of (unburnt) mudbrick debris. In Square AW/27 (Locus 04/M/24) there was disturbed mudbrick debris, rock tumble, pottery sherds, and broken fragments of worked basalt, and the Level M-4 walls had been partially robbed of their stones. Square AV/27 featured a similar picture: a north-south robber trench traversed the east side of the square (Locus 04/M/14); it was located over Level M-4 Wall 04/M/5, and possibly represents the robbing of part of the wall’s superstructure.

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The orthostat could have originally been a Late Bronze Age element placed here in a secondary context.

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Fig. 4.25: Square AV/29, looking south, showing the northern part of the Level M-4 Open Area 02/M/40. Also visible are remnant of Walls 02/M/12 and 02/M/1.

The other squares were covered with a thick layer of burnt mudbrick. For example Loci 00/M/31 and 00/M/33 north and south of Wall 00/M/27, respectively, contained burnt mudbrick debris that appeared to have been deposited, after burning, on the ashy surfaces of Level M-4. Only a few of the burnt mudbricks were in situ, e.g., part of the mudbrick superstructure of Wall 00/M/27. The most dramatic picture of the conflagration that marked the end of Level M-4 was seen in Square AW/28. The best preserved and most colourful selection of burnt mudbrick debris was revealed here, including whole mudbricks measuring 46 × 30 × 12 cm. Some were black due to carbonized organic material, others ranged from yellow ochre, through burnt sienna to burnt umber. The pile was at its highest in the southeast corner of the square and sloped down to the west and north; on excavation it resembled a veritable cascade of mudbrick (Fig. 4.26). However the ‘cascade’ was in fact a post-occupation level deposit that contained Level M-4 material (see below). The lowest point of the ‘cascade’ cut through the original Level M-4 surface (02/M/71), but the bulk of the burnt material rested on the floor and covered Wall 00/M/27.

lEVElS M-3, M-2 aND M-1: IrON aGE IIa (fIG. 4.27) It appears that after the Level M-4 destruction and prior to the construction of Level M-3 there was a large scale levelling operation. Some of the walls were robbed-out while others were retained and served to hold the debris that had been partially dispersed in order to even out the topography (see also the description of the ‘cascade’ above). In Square AW/29 Level M-5 Wall 02/M/11 and the underlying, earlier Level

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Fig. 4.26: Square AW/28, showing the Level M-4 mudbrick debris. Note the in situ burnt mudbrick superstructure of Wall 00/M/27 and in the foreground the burnt mudbrick ‘cascade’. Looking west.

M-6 Wall 04/M/1 were partially robbed and burnt debris from Level M-4 was dumped in the resultant pit (Locus 04/M/82). In the north of Square AW/29 and in the east of Square AV/28 the surfaces with the in situ pottery were sealed below a tumble of mixed debris, including burnt mudbrick (Locus 00/M/19). The earliest Level M-3 remains in the extreme west of Square AW/28 was a well-preserved tabun (02/M/13) at elevation 164.60 m (located directly over the Level M-4 Wall 00/M/27). In the northwest of Square AW/28 there were two north-south walls, 02/M/4 and 02/M/5, built directly on top of the mudbrick debris and adjacent to the burnt mudbrick ‘cascade’ (see above). Two (architecturally) later elements connected to them are a round stone-installation, consisting of small rough-hewn stones (Locus 02/M/32) and Wall 02/M/3. North of Wall 02/M/3 there was occupational accumulation but no recognizable surface; however, a number of artefacts were retrieved in Locus 02/M/11. In Square AV/28, east of the Level M-3 north-south Wall 00/M/18, there was an east-west wall stub (00/M/1) and another possible wall remnant (00/M/12). The earliest Level M-3 remains in Square AV/27 was a ‘robbers trench’ (Locus 02/M/69, see also Level M-4), which was filled with small stones and fragments of pottery. Coexisting was an unclassifiable stone installation that rested on a poor surface exposed at the close of Locus 02/M/46 at elevation 164.61 m. The pottery was mainly Iron I and earlier and a number of artefacts were found, including an Egyptian amulet. This earliest phase of Level M-3 marks the robbery of Level M-4 elements. In the south baulk there was a revetment or terrace wall (00/M/31) and built over it was a later stone surface at elevation 165.30 m. In the east baulk there was a stub of a wall (00/M/30) that co-existed with the stone surface, which

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was stepped down (following the local topography) to the west. A wall stub (00/M/29) was apparently a fragment of a wall originally excavated by the University of Chicago team in 1925/26. In Square AW/27 no actual surface was recognized, but at elevation ca. 166.40 m there was a quantity of flat-lying pottery. In the northwest of the square, at elevation 165.78 m, a stone surface was exposed that should probably go with the stone surface in Square AV/27. Also associated with this phase is the space formed by Walls 02/M/2, 02/M/7 and 02/M/8. Wall 02/M/2 was a remnant of a wall originally excavated by the University of Chicago in their Grid Square O/12. Flat-lying pottery at ca. 166.00 m (Locus 02/M/21) was probably the only remnant of a floor.

CONCluSIONS rEGarDING ChaMBEr f As mentioned above, the raison d’être for the excavation in Area M was to elucidate the stratigraphic affiliation and date of Chamber f. This has to a great extent been achieved even though there are still differences of opinion regarding both questions (see this chapter, Part II and Part III). One of the major factors that influenced the occupation of the area in question was the ancient topography. The bedrock in the vicinity is relatively high, ca. elevation 153.20 m about 25 m north of Chamber f (farther east in Area J the bedrock rises up to ca. elevation 157.00 m). At some point during the Middle Bronze Age, and possibly due to the massive walls and glacis that encircled the mound, the ground due east of Chamber f and the Mittelburg area became elevated (the resultant slope was contained by large Terrace Wall 06/M/3). Although intramural burial is a common phenomenon during the Middle and Late Bronze Ages at Megiddo, here the now lower-level ground to the west virtually became a cemetery. Some of the tombs were simple cist burials while others were elaborate vaulted tomb chambers. There were at least three vaulted tomb chambers here. Two of them, Grabkammern I and II, were family tombs and were in use for a relatively long period (MB III with some vessels possibly dating to the MB II and to the early phase of the LB I). I propose that Chamber f is a third such tomb, albeit built on a larger scale than the others. Because Chamber f’s ground plan is larger than the other tombs, its ceiling by necessity is much higher. Possibly due to this unusually high ceiling, and in contrast to the other two vaulted tombs next to it, Chamber f was never built over. It is this unusual height that helped spark the debate regarding the chamber’s affiliation. The original construction of Chamber f included the Level M-8 stone built semicircular Shaft 06/M/14, which facilitated access to the monument. Possibly at this time or during Level M-7, the interior flight of steps was added; the steps may have originally extended upwards to reach the Level M-7 plaster floor that surrounded stone-built semicircular Shaft 06/M/14. This was the first of a series of architectonic changes that occurred in connection with the entrance to Chamber f. There may have been an entrance from the direction of the earlier Nordburg building (Phase M-6c, see Table 4.1 above) and the few ‘steps’ revealed (in the baulk below Wall 00/M/27) may be part of a threshold that now led to Chamber f from the north. Due east of Chamber f, the other burials were inserted at this time, perhaps signifying the need for a new bent-axis approach to Chamber f from the north. During Level M-6 there was no occupation east of Chamber f. The entrance to Chamber f was blocked by a series of walls that also cancelled the Phase M-7b plaster Floor 06/M/76. Due north, Room 04/M/75 was built in Phase M-6b (see Table 4.1 above). The creation of this room involved the building of two new walls within the older complex. The room’s east wall (04/M/8) also served as a retaining wall for debris

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Fig. 4.27: Plan of Levels M-3, M-2 and M-1.

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Fig. 4.28: General View of Area M in 2002, looking north. Levels M-1, M-2 and M-3 can be seen in the square on the right foreground. Partial exposure of the Level M-4 remains in the rest of the area. Note the entry shaft to Chamber f, exposed since the Schumacher excavations.

Fig. 4.29: General view of Area M in 2006, looking north. Levels M-8 and M-7 are exposed, with still existent Level M-4 architecture.

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that was deposited behind it (for similar occurrences see Epstein 1965: 208). The south wall (06/M/13) appears to have severed any connection that Room 04/M/75 may have had with Chamber f. Room 04/M/75 was abandoned, the entranceway was blocked and a deep fill was deliberately laid down in Phase M-6a. The laying down of the fill – possibly for cultic reasons – resulted in Chamber f becoming a totally subterranean structure. It was now no longer possible to access Chamber f and it ceased to function as a tomb chamber. The major disturbance in the vicinity of Chamber f that is attributed to Level M-5 must signify that at that time it had no cultural or social significance. In Level M-4 Chamber f was reused and a new entrance was created on the west side of Level M-6 Wall 06/M/2. The Level M-4 entrance was a straight shaft located over the interior steps of Chamber f. Two new Level M-4 east-west long walls, 00/M/27 and 04/M/04, were built in rough alignment with Chamber f (Figs. 4.20–4.23). The two rooms contained between the two long walls (Rooms 04/M/44 and 04/M/55) had direct access to Chamber f until the demise of Level M-4. It is not possible to ascertain when the forced aperture in Chamber f’s roof was made, but it is presumed to have occurred sometime during or after the demise of Level M-4, when Chamber f had finally been abandoned. The area east of Chamber f was built-up in the Iron II, but the area over the chamber was never substantially built over. The area west of Chamber f contains architectural elements of the Stratum III city, yet the elevations there are similar to Level M-4; this must signify that certain strata are ‘missing’ there and that the east to west downward slope continued west of Chamber f (Figs. 4.28–4.29).

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appENDIX I: ThE SChuMaChEr EXCaVaTION Of ChaMBEr f aND ThE aDJaCENT NOrDBurG aND MITTElBurG The excavation in Area M calls for a reassessment of the Gottlieb Schumacher excavations in 1903–1905. In order to achieve this, both the final excavation report (Schumacher 1908) and the numerous preliminary reports published in the Mittheilungen und Nachrichten des Deutschen Palaestina-Vereins (Schumacher 1904; 1905; 1906) must be examined. I have also incorporated information from preliminary reports sent by Schumacher to the Palestine Exploration Society. In the preliminary reports Schumacher numbered the strata from the top down, and it was only in the final report that the strata were numbered from the bottom up.10 Schumacher started excavating what he referred to as a large Canaanite fortress (‘eine grosse Burganlager’) on February 25, 1904. The upper levels represented the last incarnation of a multi-phased building complex that has become known as the Nordburg, compared by Schumacher at the time to the hilani building excavated by Koldeway in zincgirli. The Nordburg (which, confusingly, was also occasionally called the ‘Tempelburg’ in the preliminary report), was initially allocated to the 3rd (preliminary) level counting from the topsoil down (Schumacher 1906 VIII: 1–11 and Figs. 4–5). In the final report, the stratigraphic order was reversed and the earliest phase of the Nordburg was allocated to the Third Stratum, elevation ca. 159.00–161.00 m,11 counting from the bedrock up (Schumacher 1908: 45). A 38 m2 patch of bedrock, at elevation 153.20 m, below Room t of the Nordburg (in Grid Square L-M. 22),12 was exposed and the earliest remains attributed to the First Stratum at ca. elevation 153.20 m. This earliest stratum was a 1.30- to 1.50-m-thick layer of debris, located ca. 8.50 m below the modern tell surface (Schumacher 1908: 10). The Second Stratum was built on top of this leveled-out debris at elevation 154.79 m (Schumacher 1908: 13). On April 15, 1904, three months after exposing the Nordburg, Schumacher moved his attention ca. 8 m to the south and discovered a room 5.15 m below the tell surface. The room had (a still existent) 3-m-high ceiling. This was Chamber f, found partly empty and partly filled with debris (Fig. 4.30). Schumacher initially identified Chamber f as a treasury (Schatzkammer) based on a comparison with the then recently discovered (so-called) ‘Treasury of Atreus’ at Mycenae (Schumacher 1905 VII: 3–9 and Figs. 3–7; and the PEF archives). The exploration of Chamber f (the Schatzkammer) continued during the autumn excavation season (Schumacher 1906: VIII, 1–11 and Figs. 2–4). In 1905 the spring season of excavation commenced on March 15, and anxious to explore the area south of Chamber f, Schumacher dug a shaft, 6 m2 and ca. 10 m deep. This was in the area that became known as the Mittelburg. The Mittelburg area was the highest point on the mound at the time of excavation, and Schumacher identified there six layers of civilization. Fortuitously he discovered an intact burial chamber, a Totenkammer (later re-named Grabkammer II). In the preliminary report Schumacher states that this is the second burial chamber, calling it Totenkammer II (i.e., the first burial chamber was Chamber f). He then explicitly states that Chamber f and Totenkammer II (i.e., Grabkammer II) both date to the same cultural period which is the 6th (preliminary) level below the modern tell surface (Schumacher 1906: Ix, 17–21). Very soon afterwards a third tomb chamber, Totenkammer III (later known as Grabkammer I), was discovered, and in a letter to Charles Warren of the PEF dated June 5, 1905 Schumacher relates how he has 10 The strata that appear in the final report (Schumacher 1908) are named here in full, e.g., First Stratum, Fourth Stratum, etc. 11 The elevations given by Schumacher have been corrected by 18 m throughout this paper (see Loud 1948: 4). 12 When discussing the Schumacher excavations the grid referred to is his grid.

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three vaulted tomb chambers (PEF archives, London, unpublished), that is, two sealed vaulted chamber tombs, currently known as Grabkammer I and Grabkammer II, and the third tomb, Chamber f (Fig. 4.31). Due to safety concerns, Schumacher could not reach bedrock in the area of the Mittelburg, despite a deep probe in Grid Square P.21, and the lowest level reached was elevation 157.24 m (Schumacher 1908: 13). Schumacher therefore attempted to estimate the depth of the bedrock. This he calculated to be at ca. elevation 156.50 m, some 12.50 metres below the modern tell surface, which was then at ca. 168 metres. Accordingly some scanty remains exposed within the area of the probe, at elevation 157.24 m to 157.80 m, were attributed to the First Stratum on the basis of their elevation alone. The stratum above, namely the vaulted chamber tombs, Grabkammer I (floor) elevation 158.06 m and Grabkammer II (floor) elevation 157.51 m, were accordingly attributed to the Second Stratum (Schumacher 1908: 13–15). The Third Stratum, elevation ca. 159.81–160.66 m, was the Mittelburg building (sometimes also referred to as the Egyptian fortress due to a hoard of ‘Egyptian’ scarabs found there).13 Although there were some walls that appeared to rest on the walls of the Grabkammern, it cannot be stated with any certainty that this was a separate building belonging to a Third Stratum. Although, as mentioned above, Schumacher initially stated that Chamber f and the other two vaulted burial chambers (Grabkammern I and II) belonged to the same cultural strata, he changed his mind in the final report, and attributed Chamber f to the Fourth Stratum. He did so because debris adjacent to Chamber f was thought by him to be material displaced from the supposed Mittelburg building and deposited on the remains of the Third Stratum when Chamber f was built. In other words, in the final report Schumacher hypothesized that Chamber f was built on top of the ruins of the Third Stratum (Schumacher 1908: 75). This conception should be re-examined. The floor of Chamber f was at elevation 158.98 m. Schumacher excavated within the interior of the chamber and recognized two earlier strata below its floor, consisting of a wall fragment at elevation 158.80 m and earlier remains at elevation 157.60 m. It must be reiterated that nowhere in the area of the Mittelburg or below Chamber f did Schumacher reach bedrock. However, he presumed that the unexcavated material below the fragmentary walls beneath Chamber f rested on bedrock and therefore must be equated with the First Stratum. Therefore the fragmentary remains at elevation 157.60 m were consigned to the Second Stratum, and the wall at elevation 158.80 m allocated to the Third Stratum. This meant that, as the floor of Chamber f was at elevation 158.98 m, Chamber f must belong to the Fourth Stratum (Schumacher 1908: 75). It is clear that there is no solid basis for this attribution, and it must also be noted that the same stratigraphic criteria was not applied to either of the two vaulted chamber tombs (Grabkammern I and II), that is, the stratigraphy below their floors was not examined (contra Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Deutsch 2006: 80). This may have been due to the fact that the Grabkammern were preserved intact and both contained a rich variety of pottery and grave goods, while Chamber f had been robbed in antiquity and was virtually empty. Another point has to do with the debris found west of Chamber f and below or amongst the remains (Schumacher’s description is not clear here) of the Fifth Stratum. This debris was, according to Schumacher, identical to the debris still existent within Chamber f (Schumacher 1908: 76). However, the debris that allegedly originated from inside Chamber f can equally be connected to its final period of use and not its period of construction.

13 The hoard of scarabs was actually found in the burnt debris of the Fourth Stratum at elevation 164.30 m, over the stone pavement in Grid Square q.21 (Schumacher 1908: 88–89).

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Fig. 4.30: The interior of Chamber f as discovered by Schumacher (1908: Abb. 101). Note the light source, indicating the presence of the roof aperture.

North of Grabkammer I and abutting the south wall of Chamber f there is a small chamber, just 35 cm wide (marked l on the plan – reproduced here, Fig. 4.32; Schumacher 1908: Fig. 11), partitioned into a number of small burial chambers and attributed by Schumacher to the Second Stratum in accord with the two Grabkammern (Figs. 4.31–4.33). The floors of these chambers have the same elevation as the floor of Chamber f, ca. elevation 159.00 m (idem). In Schumacher’s photograph they appear undisturbed, signifying that they were built at the same time or just after the construction of Chamber f’s south wall.14 A north-south wall, upper elevation 160.72 m,15 originally excavated by Schumacher, bordered these small chambers on the west and abutted the south wall of Chamber f (idem). This element too was attributed by Schumacher to his Second Stratum, as were the wall stubs below the floor of Chamber f at elevation 157.60 m. Yet there is a discrepancy of ca. 2 m between these two otherwise adjacent elements (over an otherwise topographically level area), signifying that they cannot both belong to the same stratum. Clearly Schumacher’s stratigraphic allocation is awry and his allocation of Chamber f to the Fourth Stratum does not make any stratigraphic sense. Furthermore, if the Mittelburg area is viewed from the topsoil down, as was originally done in the preliminary reports, a very different picture emerges. A burnt layer, attributed to the Fourth Stratum, up to 1 m thick, covered the entire Mittelburg area, including the two Grabkammern (Schumacher 1908: 69). The same burnt layer also covered the small partitioned burial units

14 This area was partially re-exposed by the Megiddo Expedition, Locus 00/M/18 in Squares AT/26–27 and

attributed to Level M-7. However, the lowest level reached was elevation 160.29 m, i.e., ca. 1 m above the levels reached by Schumacher (Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Deutsch 2006: 69 Figs. 5.5, 71). 15 The lower elevation is unknown but it must be lower than 159 m – the level reached by Schumacher.

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Fig. 4.31: Tafel IV and Tafel xVI (Schumacher 1908) combined, showing the relationship of Chamber f to Grabkammer I.

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between Grabkammer I and Chamber f (ibid.: 16–17, 21) and, of importance here, there was a 1-m-deep burnt layer over Chamber f at ca. elevation 162.50–163.50 m (ibid.: 75). The editor of the final Schumacher report, Prof. C. Steuernagel, was aware of the evident discrepancies regarding Schumacher’s stratigraphic allocations and wrote an important, but often overlooked, two-page appendix to the final report (Schumacher 1908: 191–192). Although not specifically referring to Chamber f, Steuernagel realized that the phasing in the Mittelburg area was incorrect and that there were more strata still lying untouched below, signifying that the Grabkammern would eventually have to be attributed to a much later stratum, possibly to a Fifth Stratum counting from the bedrock up. In other words, Steurnagel cautioned against the use of Schumacher’s stratigraphic system as it needed drastic readjustment. Watzinger also avoided using Schumacher’s stratigraphic numbering system and preferred to use relative stratigraphy terminology, i.e., older, younger, etc. Watzinger (1929) also pointed out that the two Grabkammen were family tombs used over a number of generations, which would account for the wide range of pottery types retrieved. Finally, the University of Chicago team in 1925 and 1926, under the directorship of Clarence Fisher, excavated (in their Grid Square O/12) an area that in July 2000 formed the six squares of eastern Area M. Fisher (1929) recognized just three strata there, all phases of the Iron Age – Stratum I, II and III – but the final stratigraphy of the area was eventually published as part of Chicago’s Area C and the earliest remains reached were recognized as belonging to Stratum V (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 8).

appENDIX II: ThE STONE TaBlE (stEIntIsCH) aND MAssEBAH EXCaVaTED By SChuMaChEr A round stone ‘table’ (called steintisch by Schumacher – 1908: Fig. 12) and a massebah were found by Schumacher in Room r of the Nordburg and were attributed to the Third Stratum (Schumacher 1908: 43–44). During the course of our excavation of eastern Area M we attempted to affiliate this element with our Area M stratigraphy. This could not be achieved with any degree of certainty. To the immediate south of the stone ‘table’ are remains of Level M-7, which are followed by remains of Level M-4. To the west is the multi-phased Nordburg. The massebah is not centred on the stone table; rather, it is orientated to face north. To the northeast at a distance of ca. 35 m is Late Bronze Age Temple 2080 at elevation 162.40 m. Temple 2080 continued in use until the Iron Age I (Mazar 1985: 97) and it seems that so did the stone ‘table’. Therefore it is possible that here, at the extreme northeastern boundary of Area M, the focus was towards the cultic area and Temple 2080. The massebah was found in situ, but when the earth holding it upright was excavated, it was left lying on the ground by the side of the stone ‘table’. It was restored to its original location by the National Parks Authority in 2007.

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Fig. 4.32: The south (external) wall of Chamber f as exposed by Schumacher. Abutting on Chamber f are the chambers (I) at elevation ca. 159.00 m and a long northsouth wall. The remains of Grabkammer I can be seen in the foreground, floor elevation ca. 158.06 m (Schumacher 1908: Abb. 11).

Fig. 4.33: The south (external) wall of Chamber f as exposed in the 2000 season. In the foreground, re-exposure of the upper section (elevation 160.72 m) of the northsouth wall excavated by Schumacher; elevation 160.29 m was the lowest level reached and attributed to Level M-7 (Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Deutsch 2006: 69). This is ca. 1 m above the levels reached by Schumacher.

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AREA M, PART II: AN ARCHITECTURAL STUDY OF CHAMBER F

PART II: AN ARCHITECTURAL STUDY OF CHAMBER F Alexander Pechuro

This paper presents an architectural analysis of Chamber f.1 As the monument went through several building stages, I will specify the changes in every stage, with special attention to the original construction stage. Though Chamber f was found empty, and its initial function as a tomb remains unproven (for arguments in support of the interpretation of the building of a tomb see Wright 1985: 330; Mazar 1990: 278; Ussishkin 1992: 670), its design indeed belongs to tomb architecture and I will treat it as such. Some relevant architectural parallels may be found at Megiddo, at other sites in the region and beyond; this includes the comparison of rock-cut tombs and built tombs. My discussion will be based on my recent observations and measurements. This data will be compared with that of Schumacher (1908: 75–77). Unfortunately, Schumacher’s records are the only source of information on several architectural elements that have either not survived or have remained covered since the beginning of the last century. The location of the monument may explain its function and some of its architectural characteristics. Chamber f is situated between two complexes: the Mittelburg, a necropolis complex, and the Nordburg, a palace (Schumacher 1908: Pls. 12A, 16). The renewed excavations in this area were aimed at clarifying the relationship between Chamber f and these structures (Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Deutsch 2006; Chapter 4, Parts I and III). In the final stage of its history, the late Iron I Building (04/M/44) was built over Chamber f and the two were connected by a shaft. While there is general agreement concerning the dating and architectural arrangement of this late Iron I stage (Level M-4), the conclusions of the excavators differ considerably with regard to the early stages in the history of the monument. I accept the interpretation of the last stage of Chamber f as presented by the excavators (Chapter 4, Parts I and III) and will therefore concentrate on the early stages. The commonly accepted name of the monument, Chamber f, which was introduced by Schumacher, defines the whole monument by its main unit – the big rectangular chamber. Below I will refer to the building as Structure f and the word chamber will be reserved for the inner unit. Other terms used by Schumacher, such as Grabkammern I–II, the Mittelburg, the Nordburg and Forecourt g, will be maintained.

arChITECTONIC fEaTurES GENERAL DESCRIPTION (FIGS. 4.7, 4.14, 4.34, 4.38) Structure f, built on a gentle slope running east to west, is east-west oriented. It is symmetrically set on the longitudinal axis. It consists of a rectangular chamber with a vaulted roof and a doorway in its eastern wall; the well-preserved internal square of the chamber is about 20 square metres. A stepped dromos leads down to the doorway of the chamber from the east. Only the western part of the dromos is well-preserved; the preserved part of the eastern side is obstructed by three north-south walls, which are adjacent to one 1

I wish to thank Israel Finkelstein, Norma Franklin and David Ussishkin for discussing with me the issues dealt with in this paper.

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another. East of these blocking walls, little remains of the dromos, except for a continuation of the dromos’ southern wall and a few stones that likely belong to the eastward continuation of its northern wall. THE CHAMBER (FIGS. 4.7, 4.14, 4.30, 4.34) The chamber is approximately 5.5 m long and 3.6 m wide. The walls consist of large unhewn or slightly hewn limestone blocks, roughly arranged in courses. The lower portions of the walls are vertical and are composed of four courses. The gaps between the stones are filled with rubble. The stones in the lower courses are better cut and better laid. Schumacher (1908: 76) reported that the interior was plastered, but no traces of plaster were found during the recent excavations. In 2004 the chamber was cleared of debris (Fig. 4.34), but the beaten earth floor reported by Schumacher (1908: 75) was not reached. Schumacher’s drawings (1908: Pl. 20) show that the floor was connected to the bottom of the walls of the chamber. He describes the floor as being located 1.45 m below the vault spring; according to the Tel Aviv University excavations, this translates to elevation of ca. 169.55 m. The height of the chamber, measured from the estimated level of the Schumacher floor, is ca. 2.75 m. This measurement does not correspond to the height reported by Schumacher (1908: 75) – 3.10 m. The roof of the chamber is constructed as a corbelled vault and is built of unhewn slabs (4.30; Schumacher 1908: Fig. 101). The corbelling runs along all the walls, though the projection of the corbelling is greater on the long ones. The facial sides of the corbels were not dressed and thus the surface of the vault appears rough. The ceiling of the chamber was partly ruined by an ancient plundering hole that has grown larger over the course of time.

Fig. 4.34. Inside Structure f, looking east. Visible are the eastern wall of the chamber, the doorway, the staircase and the western face of blocking Wall 06/M/2.

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THE DOORWAY (FIGS. 4.14, 4.34) The monumental arched doorway is placed precisely in the centre of the eastern wall. It is 1.50 m wide and about 2.65 m high (this calculation is based on the estimated elevation of the Schumacher floor). The jambs of the doorway are built of finely dressed ashlars. The corbelled arch is constructed in the same manner as the chamber’s ceiling (Fig. 4.34; Schumacher 1908: Fig. 102). The arch spring on the southern jamb is built as a splay. Schumacher reported a threshold that rose 0.4 m above floor level (1908: 75, Pl. 20). THE PRESERVED, WESTERN PART OF THE DROMOS (FIGS. 4.7, 4.21–4.22, 4.41) From the doorway to the western blocking wall (06/M/2), the dromos is preserved for a length of 2.70– 2.75 m. The width of this section is 1.5 m. The dromos features stairs, seven of which are preserved and exposed. Schumacher describes only six stairs (1908: 76, Pl. xx), ignoring the one that is visible beneath the blocking wall (1908: Fig. 102). The part of the staircase that is preserved measures 1.8 m long and approximately 1.25 m high (from the level of the threshold). The average width of the steps is 27 cm, and the average height is 15 cm. The finely built corbelled roof covers only the western part of the preserved section of the dromos; the roof in the eastern part is of inferior quality. Beneath the corbelling in the western section, the walls are comprised of courses. The same is true of the lower pars of the eastern walls; the upper parts of this section, however, are not as well constructed, and are built of small stones without courses (Figs. 4.21, 4.41). The masonry of the southern wall is more difficult to interpret; partial rebuilding cannot be ruled out. Thus, the elements of the preserved section of the dromos that were rebuilt seem to be of lesser quality than those that were there originally. The section of the dromos above the staircase may have been roofed already at the first stage of Structure f, but the part that has been preserved could be a later repair. THE NICHE IN THE NORTHERN WALL OF THE DROMOS (FIGS. 4.21–4.22) Above the staircase there is an opening in the northern wall. The width of the opening is 0.8 m; on the east it is flanked by Blocking Wall 06/M/2. The bottom of the opening is located three courses above the uppermost of the exposed steps. Safety considerations prevented the exposing of the opening’s inner space during recent excavations. Schumacher refers to this element as Niche w (1908: 76, Pls. 12b, 16); his plans indicate that the rear of the opening is sealed with a wall. The niche reaches the top of the northern wall of the dromos and it has a slab for a roof. On the eastern side, this slab leans on Blocking Wall 06/M/2, which means that the niche was built either at the same time as at least part of the wall, or at a later date. Niche w features a small step, placed against the northern wall (Fig. 4.22). One of the stones from which this step is comprised obviously originated in the lost part of the staircase. Schumacher’s Niche v, shown in his report in the southern wall of the dromos, opposite Niche w (1908: 76, Pl. 16), could not be located. THE WALLS BLOCKING THE DROMOS (FIGS. 4.3, 4.7, 4.35) The blocking of the dromos is made up of three walls. The western blocking wall (06/M/2) is built on the uppermost exposed step (Schumacher 1908: Fig. 102). The eastern face of this wall clearly abuts the inner face of the southern wall (06/M/7), which continues farther to the east. However, when viewed from the west, the southern wall seems to abut Blocking Wall 06/M/2. Wall 06/M/2 was possibly inserted at the point

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Fig. 4.35. The blocked entrance into Chamber f, looking west. The Late Iron I elements can be seen in the foreground and on the right. Note east-west oriented Wall 06/M/7 and the eastern faces of blocking Walls 06/M/2 (above) and 06/M/10 (below). Also note the portions of masonry of different quality on the face of Wall 06/M/2.

at which the dromos narrows and its southern face jogs to the north. Wall 06/M/2 is not homogeneous in its masonry. Most of its eastern face is built of large stones, arranged in courses, while the southern portion of this face is of poorer quality (Fig. 4.35). The western face of the wall also features different types of masonry; its northern upper part differs from the rest of the wall. Perhaps the southern upper portion of the wall was built during the original construction, while the high quality northern upper portion is a repair. A second blocking wall (06/M/10) is adjacent to Wall 06/M/2 on the east (Fig. 4.3). It is lower than Wall 06/M/2. Like the latter, Wall 06/M/10 abuts the inner face of Wall 06/M/7. The foundation of the preserved section of Wall 06/M/10 was laid inside the earlier semicircular Shaft 06/M/14, which predates Structure f (see below). The third and easternmost blocking wall (06/M/15) consists of one course and is located inside of the earlier Shaft 06/M/14. WALLS OF THE DROMOS TO THE EAST OF THE BLOCKAGE WALLS (FIGS. 4.2–4.3) Schumacher considered Wall 06/M/2 to be the eastern outer wall of the monument. However, during the renewed excavations, it became apparent that the southern wall (06/M/7) continued east, and Wall 06/M/2 blocked the dromos (Fig. 4.3). Also exposed were the remains of another wall (06/M/9), which

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was probably part of the original northern wall (Fig. 4.2). The distance between Walls 06/M/7 and 06/M/9 is 1.5 m, which is equal to the width of the preserved western part of the dromos. THE LATE IRON I SHAFT (FIG. 4.21) The shaft connecting Structure f with late Iron I Building 04/M/44 is known to us from the architectural drawings published by Schumacher (1908: Pl. 20). His records indicate that it was built above Niches w and v and its eastern side leaned on Blocking Wall 06/M/2. Schumacher published two drawings: one of them (1908: Pl. 20b) depicts the excavated evidence and the other (Pl. xx; A) seems to be a proposed reconstruction. In Schumacher’s drawings the shaft is approximately 0.6 m wide and 1 m long. This corresponds with the size of the opening in the roof of the dromos near Wall 06/M/2 that was found in the current excavations. While most of the shaft’s courses did not survive, according Schumacher’s records, the shaft was about 0.4 m high and consisted of two courses.

STaGES IN STruCTurE f The architectural history of the monument can be divided into three stages: 1. The original construction of the monument: the rectangular chamber belongs to this first stage and seems to have been preserved without significant alterations. During this phase the stepped dromos ran farther to the east for at least 5.5 m. 2. Construction of the blocking walls in the dromos (06/M/2, 06/M/10 and 06/M/15) and the niche,2 and repairs to the northern wall and the roof to the west of the blocking walls.3 The new entrance to Structure f was through a vertical shaft. The walls of the monument that remained to the east of the blocking walls went out of use and were mostly removed. Two hypotheses regarding these changes may be suggested: A) if Structure f was a tomb, the blockage could have been built after the first phase of burials (for an example of the abandonment of a dromos after the first phase see Petrie 1933: 5 on the Governor’s Grave at Tell el-‘Ajjul). B) considering changes made in the preserved part of the dromos, the rebuilding could have taken place during a renovation of the structure, after it had been damaged. This damage could have been the result of the same event/s that led to the destruction of the Nordburg at the end of the University of Chicago’s Stratum VIIA (Finkelstein, Chapter 4, Part III). In my opinion, the second hypothesis is more likely. 3. The construction of Building 04/M/44 in the late Iron I: this building was connected to Structure f by a shaft. Repairs in Wall 06/M/2 (i.e., the blocking of the opening in the wall and the filling of the area to its east) could have been made either at this stage or earlier, in the beginning of the Iron I. 2 3

A niche configured similarly to Niche w in a building of a similar design may be found in Tombs 1 and 8 at Ugarit (Schaeffer 1939: Fig. 80 for Tomb 1, Fig. 78 for Tomb 8). I prefer to relate these modified elements, located west of Blocking Wall 06/M/2, to this building stage, though there is no archaeological evidence that precludes them from being assigned to the third stage. However, the latter possibility does not apply to the blocking walls. The building activity in the abandoned, eastern part of the dromos that took place at the second stage must have been accompanied by the construction of the new eastern termination for Structure f; however, there is no indication for any such eastern end except for Walls 06/M/2, 06/M/10 and 06/M/15. Also, there is disagreement among the excavators regarding the identification of the blocking walls’ foundation trench (Franklin and Finkelstein, Chapter 4, Parts I and III respectively), and the foundation trench cannot be relied on as a clear archaeological indicator. Thus I cannot agree with the association of the blocking walls with the last building stage in the late Iron I (Finkelstein, Chapter 4, Part III); in my opinion they must have been constructed earlier.

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STruCTurE f aND ITS SurrOuNDINGS ABOVE THE CHAMBER AND TO ITS WEST Schumacher mentioned the removal of a wall located above the enclosing walls of Structure f. In his opinion (1908: 75), this wall and the monuments were contemporaneous. It is impossible to identify this wall in Schumacher’s plans; therefore his conclusion regarding its date cannot be verified. According to Schumacher, Structure f was built into the earlier Room e, which belonged to the Mittelburg (1908: 68, Pl. 16). This assumption, too, cannot be verified. TO THE SOUTH OF THE CHAMBER (FIGS. 4.32–4.33) A wall, or rather a combination of two adjacent, parallel walls – Schumacher’s Wall m – separated Structure f from the tombs of the Mittelburg (Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Deutsch 2006: 71–72, Fig. 5.5; Franklin, Chapter 4, Part I; Finkelstein, Chapter 4, Part III, Figs. 4.32–4.33). According to Schumacher, the elevation of the tombs’ floor was approximately the same as that of the floor of Structure f (1908: 17). The western wall of the chamber in Structure f is aligned with Schumacher’s Wall f, which delineates the Mittelburg tombs on its west (1908: Pl. 16 and Fig. 11). TO THE NORTH OF THE CHAMBER (FIGS. 4.11, 4.38, 4.39) The excavations of 1998–2000 revealed “a building of a domestic nature” beneath Schumacher’s Forecourt g. Despite the limited number of finds, the excavators could date the building to the MB III/LB I. They suggested that the walls found by Schumacher and cleared during the recent excavations of the area south of Structure f belong to the same layer and are contemporary with Schumacher’s Grabkammern I–II (Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Deutsch 2006: 71–72, Figs. 5.10–5.11). The excavators also argued that Structure f was connected to (and contemporary with) the palatial complex of the Nordburg (Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Deutsch 2006: 76, 80, Fig. 5.12; Finkelstein, Chapter 4, Part III, Fig. 4.38). Their suggestion is based on the assumption that Structure f was connected to Forecourt g and that the latter was an integral part of the Nordburg. In this they followed ideas expressed by Schumacher (1908: 48, 50). Technically, the claim that Structure f and the Nordburg are connected (and were built at the same time) is grounded in the assumption that Wall 00/M/44 represents the lower courses of the original northern wall of Structure f. The excavators raised the possibility that Structure f could have been added to Wall 00/M/44, but concluded that they were contemporaneous (Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Deutsch 2006: 76). The dating of Structure f was based on the analysis of finds from Forecourt g, which were attributed to the LB II. Walls 00/M/44 and 98/M/2 were considered to have belonged to different periods. Wall 98/M/2 was dated to the early Iron I and was seen as a repair made following the destruction of the Nordburg (Finkelstein, Chapter 4, Part III, Fig. 4.39). Alternatively, this wall could have been the original upper part of the northern wall of Structure f (Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Deutsch 2006: 78). The new data gathered during the seasons reported in this volume allow us to reevaluate these conclusions. First, Wall 00/M/44 may not have been the original northern wall of Structure f. Its outer face is not parallel to the inner face of the northern wall of the chamber (Fig. 4.38). The wall’s width near the northwestern corner of the chamber is ca. 1.9 m and, near the northeastern corner, 1.6–1.7 m. Thus it appears to be wider than the other walls in the area, particularly the chamber’s southern wall. It is likely

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that Wall 00/M/44 is a combination of two walls, of which one (00/M/44) was added to the other (the northern, inner wall of the chamber). Second, the first stage of Structure f demonstrates only a general alignment with the plans of the Nordburg and Forecourt g and seems to correspond better with the plan of the Mittelburg (see Fig. 4.38 for the alignment with the plan of the Nordburg; see Schumacher 1908: Pl. 16 for the alignment with the plan of the Mittelburg). However, from the evidence available now, it is apparent that the construction of Structure f should not be connected to either of the complexes; instead, it seems that the building could have been inserted in the interval left between the earlier walls. Additionally, as mentioned above, it is possible that Wall 00/M/44 was added to the original northern wall of Structure f, which could have been built earlier.4 While the orientation of Wall 00/M/44 is similar to the earlier walls in the area, this may have been determined by the earlier MB III/LB I elements that predate Structure f (Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Deutsch 2006: Fig. 5.10). Third, Walls 98/M/2 and 00/M/44 could have been part of the same wall, dated to the LB II or earlier. Wall 98/M/2 has been affiliated with the early Iron I level, which is characterized by Fill 98/M/37, which was laid over the ruins of the Nordburg (Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Deutsch 2006: 78, Fig. 5.3). However, the straight face of Wall 98/M/2 indicates that it was intended to rise above ground level. Furthermore, its masonry (Schumacher 1908: Fig. 103) is similar to that of the walls of Late Bronze Room 04/M/75, e.g., Wall 04/M/08 (Fig. 4.11). SQUARE AV/27-28 (FIGS. 4.12, 4.36) The reason for the eastern termination of Wall 98/M/2 is not clear; either the part that continued to the east was destroyed, which led to the erection of Wall 06/M/165 (Figs. 4.12, 4.36), or the wall turned south following the inner configuration of Structure f. It is impossible to clarify the question without dismantling the Late Iron I Wall 00/M/027 and undertaking additional excavations. Despite the poor preservation of Wall 06/M/16, one possibly significant feature is apparent: the wall’s eastern face seems to be aligned with the eastern face of Blocking Wall 06/M/2. Unlike Wall 98/M/2, at least one course of Wall 00/M/44 appears to run beneath Wall 06/M/16. Wall 06/M/17 (Fig. 4.12) is probably the latest among the walls that were exposed in the western part of Square AV/28. Wall 06/M/17, which passes above the remains of Wall 06/M/16, may have been part of the late LB III–early Iron I repairs that were carried out after the destruction of the Nordburg. This wall was built almost as a continuation of Wall 98/M/2, but with a slight jogging to the south. EAST OF THE BLOCKING WALLS (FIGS. 4.2, 4.4, 4.7, 4.10) East of the preserved part of the dromos, the picture is clearer. If the steps belong to the first construction stage, then Shaft 06/M/70, discovered immediately behind and under Blocking Walls 06/M/2 and 06/M/10, should be assigned a date earlier than that of Structure f. Additionally, the fact that the dromos walls (06/M/9 and 06/M/7) were built on Floor 06/M/76 and in some places cut through it (Figs. 4.2, 4.7, 4.10), indicates 4 This assumption was originally made by Norma Franklin (Chapter 4, Part I). 5 This interpretation is grounded in the assumption that both walls – 00/M/44 and 98/M/2 – predate the construction of Wall 06/M/16, and that both date to the LB II. A different view has been expressed by Finkelstein (Chapter 4, Part III). His hypothesis, according to which Wall 98/M/2 was built as part of the early Iron I renovations, is equally possible.

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Fig. 4.36. Squares AU-AV/28, looking east. Walls 00/M/44 and 98/M/2 are visible on the right. Wall 06/M/16 is seen behind the stone basin. Room 04/M/75 is in the background. Note the termination of Wall 98/M/2 in front of Wall 06/M/16.

that plaster Floor 06/M/76 (which seals Shaft 06/M/70) and the foundation of Wall 06/M/8 (to which the plaster connects) are from an earlier phase than Structure f. Franklin dates Shaft 06/M/70, Floor 06/M/76 and Wall 06/M/8 to the MB II–III, while Finkelstein assigns them to the LB I or the early LB II (Chapter 4, Parts I and III, respectively). The north-south oriented Late Bronze III–early Iron I Wall 06/M/66 seals not only the aforementioned late MB–early LB elements, but also Wall 06/M/9, which seems to be part of the northern wall of the dromos (Fig. 4.4). Thus, by the time Wall 06/M/6 was erected, the eastern part of the dromos was obviously out of use.

SuMMary: STruCTurE f aND CONSTruCTION TO ITS NOrTh aND EaST In order to summarize this discussion, I will establish the correlation between the early stages of Structure f and the building activity that took place to the north and east of it. I propose that, in its original form, Structure f predated Forecourt g. At a certain stage Walls 00/M/44 and 98/M/2 were attached to the northern wall of the chamber, either simultaneously, or separately (Figs. 6

This wall is dated by Franklin to the Late Bronze III and by Finkelstein to the early Iron I (Chapter 4, Parts I and III, respectively).

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4.14, 4.38, 4.39). The entrance to Structure f was directly from the east through a long dromos. At first Forecourt g, with the rooms relating to it to the east, had no connection to this entrance. Plaster Floor 06/M/76, on which the eastern ends of the walls of the dromos were set, was possibly reused as a floor in the eastern part of the dromos. Perhaps the truncating of the dromos and the building of Walls 06/M/2, 06/M/10 and 06/M/15 (which functioned as a blockage) were carried out at the same time a passage to Structure f from Forecourt g through Room 04/M/75 was constructed.7 This passage ran along blocking Wall 06/M/2 and Wall 06/M/16. Later the passage from Room 04/M/75 was abandoned and the opening was blocked by Wall 06/M/17. Thus, the first phase of construction in Structure f must post-date the MB II–LB I elements that currently surround it, and must predate the LB II building. The fact that the alignment of the first phase of Structure f is more similar to that of the Mittelburg than that of the Nordburg may be an indicator of its date, i.e., it is chronologically closer to the MB III/LB I Mittelburg than to the LB II/ LB III Nordburg.

ThE MONuMENT aND ITS arChITECTural CONTEXT At Megiddo, close architectural parallels to Structure f can be seen it its immediate proximity. I refer to Grabkammern I–II (the two built tombs belonging to the Mittelburg complex [Schumacher 1908: 14–16, 19–20; Gonen 1992a: 154–155]). They are dated to a late phase of the Middle Bronze Age, with continuity of usage into the LB I (Gonen 1992b: 139; Finkelstein, Chapter 4, Part III). Similar to Structure f, these tombs are designed as rectangular chambers with corbelled vaults that were entered via passageways. However, they are smaller than Structure f, and unlike Structure f, their chambers and entrances are not set on a central axis. Additionally, while Structure f’s chamber is shaped as a long rectangle, the rooms within the tombs are squarish and their passageways are reached through vertical shafts. For our discussion, it is worth mentioning some other late Middle Bronze parallels from Megiddo. Tomb 4098 in area AA (Loud 1948: 15, Figs. 29–31; Gonen 1992a: 154; 1992b: 139) and Tomb 51 on the east slope of the mound (Guy 1938: 55, Figs. 53–56) are much more similar to Structure f than they are to the built tombs of the Mittelburg. Tomb 4098 was likely roofed with corbelling and has an arched doorway.8 Both Tombs 4098 and 51 are set on a central axis and the internal proportions of their burial chamber are the same as that of Structure f. There is no dromos in Tomb 4098, and the doorway was reached through a shaft. A short horizontal dromos was preserved in Tomb 51 (Guy 1938: Figs. 53–54). The MB II Tomb 8096 at Tel Dan (Ilan 1996: 195–200, Figs. 4.47–4.51) is roofed with corbelling. It has much in common with Schumacher’s Grabkammern I–II, but is different from Structure f. Its chamber is squarish and is smaller in size than Structure f; the entrance to the chamber is off the central axis. There are two architectural features that distinguish Structure f from its Megiddo parallels and from Tomb 8096 at Tel Dan: its size and the use of the stepped dromos. The most striking resemblance between them is the similarity of their chambers’ corbelled vaulting. It is clear that in this regard Structure f is closer 7 8

The arrangement of such a passage is suggested above by Franklin. The vaulted entrance to Loculi Cave 77 at Megiddo is another parallel to the doorway of Structure f. This tomb is dated to the LB I (Guy 1938: Fig. 96).

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to Tomb 4098 (though in Tomb 4098 the corbelled vault was not preserved) than to Grabkammern I–II or Tomb 8096 at Tel Dan; in the latter two examples, the general form of the vault resembles a dome, while in Structure f the ceiling is more like a gable. Gonen argued that the construction of built chambers did not continue into the Late Bronze Age (Gonen 1992b: 100). Although her claim was questioned by Ilan, who identified Structure 5239 in Area BB as a Late Bronze tomb (University of Chicago Stratum Ix or VIII – Ilan 2001: 308, 310–311), clear examples remain exceedingly rare.9 Another semi-subterranean building at Megiddo, Unit 3073 (Adler 1994: 149), was also connected to a palace – Building 2041 in Area AA. It is assigned to the University of Chicago Stratum VII B (Loud 1948: 31, Figs. 74, 384; Dothan 1982: 70–76). The discussion of the function of these buildings is beyond the scope of this chapter; I would, however, note the dissimilarity of their architectural design to that of Structure f. The only common feature is the subterranean character seen in both Structure 5239 and Structure f. Unit 3073 in Building 2041 is set on a central longitudinal axis; its plan exhibits a traditional scheme, though it is different from the one employed in Structure f. The entrance to Unit 3073 also had the addition of steps; unlike Structure f, the doorway is not aligned with the central axis. I am not aware of any corbelled chamber tomb in Canaan that can be reliably dated to the Late Bronze Age, but corbelled vaulting is known to have been used in the region at that time, for example, in the tunnel leading to the water reservoir in Area A at Hazor (Yadin et al. 1989: 18–21, Plan 5, Pl. xV 1–2; Wright 1985: 463).10 Stepped dromoi are known in Canaan from the MB II. In this period they can be found in Cemeteries 500 and 1000 at Tell el-Far‘ah (S) (Petrie 1930: 5, Pls. 17–18; Price Williams 1977: 147–148, Figs. 111–113) and in a single tomb at Tell el-‘Ajjul (Petrie 1934: 4; Pls. 59, 61). In Tell el-Far‘ah (S) the chamber tombs are hewn into the rock; their dromoi are either steep and narrow (Type 4 of Price Williams 1977: 147–148, Fig. 112), or steep and slightly wider, and lead to a narrow doorway (Type 5 of Price Williams 1977: 148, Fig. 113); the upper steps are always very high. These dromoi, which are not roofed, seem to be an early development of the stepped form. The dromoi and the chambers at Tell el-Far‘ah (S) are usually set symmetrically on the axis. When the chambers are undivided or bilobate, they are usually irregularly shaped. Roughly shaped rectangular forms appear in tombs with double chambers. The planimetric proportions of double chambers at Tell el-Far‘ah (S) are often similar to those of Structure f, but their sizes are considerably smaller. The Tell el-‘Ajjul tomb shares certain features with some tombs at Tell el- Far‘ah (S). The stepped dromos was better known in Canaan in the Late Bronze than in the late Middle Bronze, even though during the former period it still remained relatively rare. It continued to be used at Tell el-Far‘ah (S) in the tombs that followed the Middle Bronze examples, but with a greater architectural elaboration (Petrie 1930: 8–9, Pl. 19; Starkey and Harding 1932: 22–26, Pls. 59–60; Gonen 1992b: 127–128; on the development of the chamber tombs at Tell el-Far‘ah see Loffreda 1968: 284–286). The stepped dromos also appeared in cist-and-dromos tombs at Tell el-‘Ajjul (Petrie 1932: 15, Pl. 53; 1933: 5, Pls. 6–7, 12–13; 1934: 18, Pl. 58; Gonen 1992b: 80–82). These tombs date from mid-15th century BCE (Gonen 1992a: 152; 1992b: 80).11 9

Ilan’s proposal seems to be supported by the similarity of Structure 5239 to the so called ‘Shatzhaus’ at Kamid elLoz (Adler 1994: 126–128). They have similar plans and both are located in proximity to palaces. The burials in the ‘Shatzhaus’ were dated by a scarab of Tuthmosis III. 10 My thanks are due to Dalit Weinblatt Krauss for drawing my attention to this example. 11 I should point to the gabled form of the roof of the ‘Governor’s Grave’ at Tell el-‘Ajjul, which was assigned by Petrie to the last phase of burials in this tomb, dated by the name of Ramesses II on a scarab (Petrie 1933: 5, Pls. 6, 12).

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The stepped dromos was also used in Burial Cave 8144-5 at Hazor, dated to the 14th century BCE (Yadin et al. 1960: 140–141, Pls. 50, 210; Gonen 1992b: 144–146) and in Burial Cave 9 at Gezer, for which Gonen proposed a similar date (Macalister 1912a: 308; 1912b: Pl. 71; Gonen 1992b: 126). Other architectural features of these tombs do not exhibit parallels to Structure f. At Megiddo, dromoi, though not stepped, appear in two LB I loculi burial caves (Guy 1938: 82–85, 137; Gonen 1992b: 24). In certain cases, such as Tomb 1 at Tel Dothan, the steps lead to the chamber from a vertical shaft. The size of the chamber in Structure f is unparalleled among the Canaanite built chambers, but not among chambers in burial caves. The chamber in Structure f can be compared to some chambers of loculi tombs from the end of MB II and the Late Bronze. The shaft-chamber of Tomb 407 at Tell el-‘Ajjul is of comparable size; in Tomb 263 at Tell el-‘Ajjul and Tomb 1 at Tel Dothan the chambers are much bigger (for the tombs at Tell el-‘Ajjul see Petrie 1931: 4, Pl. 57; for Tomb 407 at Tell el-‘Ajjul see also Gonen 1992b: 131; for the Tomb 1 at Tel Dothan see Cooley and Pratico 1995: 151–152). But the chamber of Loculi Cave 77 at Megiddo (Guy 1938: Fig. 98) is considerably smaller than that of Structure f. Thus, in Canaanite architectural context Structure f remains a unique monument, connected to the end of MB II by the design of the rectangular corbelled-vault chamber, and to the developments of the Late Bronze Age by the entrance formed as a stepped dromos, and by the size of the chamber. The combination of these factors seems to point to the relatively early date of the monument, which is likely to be in the middle-to-second half of LB I to the beginning of LB II. The lack of structures in Canaan comparable to Structure f indicates that Structure f’s design could have foreign origins. Borrowing forms of tombs seems to have been a common phenomenon in Canaan. Indeed, Gonen considered the structural chambers, loculi tombs or other types of tombs that are relevant to this discussion to be among foreign types of burials (1992b: 21). Stepped dromoi can be found in Late Bronze loculi tombs in Cyprus and their main chambers sometimes reach a size close to that of the chamber of Structure f (for the Cypriot origin of the Canaanite loculi tombs see Gonen 1992b: 134). A comparable underground built chamber with stepped dromos, which was likely a royal tomb, was found in the so-called Yarim-lim Palace at Alalakh, dated to the MB II (Woolley 1955: 95–97, Figs. 35–36, Pls. 20–21). It consists of a rectangular chamber smaller than that of the Structure f and a long narrow stairway; the plan is not aligned with the central axis. In the burial caves of the Western Palace at Tell Mardikh (Matthiae 1984: 23–24, plan on p. 22) the stepped dromos belongs to the tomb considered the oldest, while two other tombs have vertical entrance shafts. This demonstrates that, at least in Middle Bronze Age Syria, tombs with stepped dromoi were built at the same time as tombs with vertical shafts. The same seems to be true in Late Bronze Canaan, although here the spread of stepped dromoi probably occurred later. In Structure f, like in the Tell Mardikh royal tombs, the vertical shaft was used in a later period than the stepped dromos. The similarity between Grabkammern I–II and corbelled tombs of Ugarit (Gonen 1992a: 155) is also important for the discussion of Structure f. In Ugarit, corbelled vaults appeared in the MB II and continued through the Late Bronze (ibid.). At that time Ugarit had a major influence on the material culture of Canaan (Mazar 1990: 246). Gonen points to the difference in the corbelling method used in the Ugarit tombs and in the late Middle Bronze tombs at Megiddo (1992b: 27), and argues that the corbelling at Megiddo was a local development (1992a: 155). The typical Ugarit corbelling method consists of corbelling only along the long walls of a chamber, while the narrow walls are left vertical. There are exceptions, however: in Tombs 13 and 50 all walls of the chambers show corbelling (Schaeffer 1939: Figs. 75, 79). Stepped

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dromoi and arched doorways are also frequently found in the Ugarit tombs. The symmetrical plan, set on the longitudinal axis, is widespread. According to the typology suggested by Salles (1987: 178–180; he discusses a limited number of tombs), a stepped dromos appears in Tomb 1068 at Ugarit, which is assigned to the LB II. Tomb 101, dated to the end of LB II (beginning of LB III according to Salles) is characterized by the placement of the dromos on the central axis of the chamber, ashlar masonry and developed corbelled vaulting. The chamber of Structure f is much bigger than the chambers found in ordinary Ugaritic tombs; however, one of the large tombs located within the Royal Palace (Schaeffer 1951: Fig. 8) exceeds the size of the chamber at Megiddo. The palace was built in several stages starting in the 15th century and it functioned until the early 12th century BCE (Yon 2006: 36). The tombs likely belong to this period.

SuMMary Based on my stratigraphic and architectural observations I propose that Structure f was built in three stages (Table 4.2). STAGE 1 Excavations conducted to the east of the monument showed that the elements belonging to this stage (Walls 06/M/7, 06/M/9 and the staircase) are later than certain nearby architectural remains (Shaft 06/M/14, Floor 06/M/76 and Wall 06/M/8) dated by the excavators to the MB II–III (Franklin), or the LB I (Finkelstein), and are earlier than Wall 06/M/15, assigned to the end of the LB III (Franklin) and to the beginning of Iron I (Finkelstein). Analysis of the relationship between Structure f and the Mittelburg and the southern part of the Nordburg leads me to the assumption that the monument does not belong to any of these structures; it is later than the Mittelburg, assigned to the MB III–LB I, and earlier than Forecourt g, dated to the LB II (there is no indication that at their initial stage Forecourt g and the rooms adjacent to it were connected to the entrance of Structure f). In my opinion, the first stage of Structure f should be dated closer to the former than to the latter. The possibility that Structure f is contemporary to the earlier parts of the Nordburg, located farther north cannot be excluded. The analysis of the architectural forms employed in Structure f leads me to date it roughly from the middle-to-end of the LB I to the middle of the LB II. Structure f continues the tradition represented at Megiddo by the tomb architecture of Grabkammern I–II. The features inherited from earlier structures at Megiddo are the corbelled vaulting (Grabkammern I–II), the entrance to the chamber through a passageway (Grabkammern I–II, Tomb 51), the arched doorway (Tomb 4098) and the plan characterized by placement on the central axis (Tombs 4098, 51). The monument also reveals features that correspond to the development of architectural forms in Canaan during the Late Bronze Age, such as the size of the monument, particularly the chamber, as well as the use of an elaborate stepped dromos. There are subterranean and half-subterranean structures uncovered at Megiddo that date to the middle-to-end of the Late Bronze Age: Structure 5239 in Area BB and Unit 3073 adjoining Building 2041 in Area AA. Their dissimilarity to Structure f may also serve as evidence of their dates. Changes in the masonry and the ceiling construction in the dromos may mean that at the end of the first stage, Structure f suffered a partial destruction, which could have coincided with the

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destruction of the Nordburg.12 All this means that the construction of Structure f should be assigned to an undetected LB I–II level that followed the one introduced by Finkelstein (Chapter 4, Part III); it should be positioned between Levels M-7 and M-6. STAGE 2 This stage had two phases. Stage 2b followed the abandonment and elimination of the eastern part of the dromos. It comprised the construction of Blocking Walls 06/M/2, 06/M/10 and 06/M/15, the repair of the northern wall in the preserved part of the dromos, and the construction of Niche w. A passageway from Room 04/M/75 to Structure f may have been constructed at this point. In Stage 2a, at the end of the Late Bronze or early Iron I, this passage, if it indeed existed, was abandoned. The modifications of that time evidently aimed at disconnecting these structures: the renovation of Room 04/M/75 included the construction of Wall 06/M/17. The modification in the upper part of Wall 06/M/2 probably belongs to this stage.13 STAGE 3 The use of Structure f continued for a long period of time, probably with little or no interruption until the last phase of the Iron I. In this stage the monument was transformed from a half-subterranean into a fully subterranean structure and was incorporated into the late Iron I Building 04/M/44. This building was designed in accordance with the plan of Structure f. Technically, the incorporation of Structure f into the new building, which was constructed on top of it, demanded only certain modifications to the shaft, which had already been built in Stage 2 following the abandonment of the eastern part of the dromos. Now, in Stage 3, two courses were added to the shaft in order to provide the elevation necessary to reach the floor level of the new building (04/M/44). A stone pavement along the eastern border of the shaft opening was added (Figs. 4.21, 4.40). With the destruction of the late Iron I building, Structure f ceased to function. TABLE 4.2: STAGES OF CONSTRUCTION IN STRUCTURE F Stage

Construction elements

Level

U of C stratum

Period

Before Structure F

Shaft 06/M/14, belonging to a tomb similar to Grabkammer I

M-7

Ix (or VIII?)

LB I (or early LB II?)

Stage 1

Construction of Structure f

Undetected

(VIII?)

LB I-II

Stage 2b

Abandonment of the eastern part of the dromos; construction of the blockage in the dromos; repair works in the preserved western part of the dromos

M-6

(VIII-) VII

LB II-III

Stage 2a

Blockage of the entrance opening in Wall 06/M/2; filling the area east of the blockage

M-5

VIB

Early Iron I

Stage 3

Incorporation of Structure f into Building 04/M/44

M-4

VIA

Late Iron I

12 I agree with the possibility of assigning the modifications located west of Blocking Wall 06/M/2 to the late Iron I, as suggested by Finkelstein (Chapter 4, Part III). 13 Neither can the possibility that it was made during the third (late Iron I) stage be ruled out.

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AREA M, PART III: ANOTHER INTERPRETATION OF THE REMAINS – THE NORDBURG AND CHAMBER F PART III: ANOTHER INTERPRETATION OF THE REMAINS – THE NORDBURG AND CHAMBER F Israel Finkelstein

Deciphering the stratigraphy of Area M and dating the different elements unearthed there, both in the past and in the course of our excavations (Figs. 4.1, 4.41), are difficult challenges. This is so because: A. Much of the area was excavated by Gottlieb Schumacher and many, if not most of the stratigraphic connections, have been severed or lost altogether. B. The need to preserve the monuments prevents a thorough study of some of the crucial spots, as upper architectural elements cannot be removed. C. The intensive activity around Chamber f in antiquity involved many architectural changes, including the construction of a large number of walls, which introduced later pottery into early contexts. In fact, most loci in this part of Area M yielded mixed pottery. This phenomenon characterizes fills, make-up debris, foundation trenches and robber trenches. There were very few clean loci around Chamber f. D. The original structures were built on a slope that runs from southeast (the highest point of the mound) to northwest (the lowest point, near the gates). Therefore, construction here necessitated a certain amount of terracing. E. Some of the monuments unearthed in this area were originally sub- or semi-subterranean. Consequently my interpretation of the finds in Area M is based on the following points: 1. Gottlieb Schumacher was an architect and hence made insightful observations regarding relationships between buildings in general and between walls in particular. 2. If one wishes to use Schumacher’s description of the remains, it is better to rely on the final report. As is also the case in archaeology today, preliminary reports written immediately after a given season may provide a somewhat narrow point of view, thus the final report is preferable because at the time it is written the excavator has already assembled all data related to the dig. Incidentally, this is also true for our excavations in Area M. 3. Because of the difficulties specified above, a few elements uncovered by us around Chamber f – mainly to its east – and many of the walls unearthed by Schumacher in the Mittelburg, are difficult to affiliate stratigraphically. Therefore a general architectural/stratigraphic logic must be found – a logic that deals with the main elements; there is no way to understand every single stub of a wall. 4. The discussion must be based on the only two good stratigraphic and chronological anchors in this area: A) the floor of Room 04/M/75 of the Nordburg, which produced a fine assemblage of LB III vessels; B) Building 04/M/44 with an assemblage of late Iron I pottery on its floor, buried under thick destruction debris. 5. Two additional elements should be taken into account: A) a few walls and a clear floor (of an open space) were found between these two layers; B) Grabkammern I–II, excavated by Schumacher (1908: 13–18, Taf. IV–VI), produced a rich assemblage of MB II–III/LB I pottery (Watzinger 1929: 2–6).1 1

These tombs must have been in use for a long period of time. Some of the items seen in Watzinger’s pictures (1929: 2–6) – mainly storage jars – seem to date to the Middle Bronze II, while the bulk of the material dates to the Middle Bronze III and a few items seem to date to the Late Bronze I – probably early in this period.

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6. All the above means that elements found over the destruction of the late Iron I layer date to the Iron II, while all elements below the floor of the Nordburg predate the LB III (or LB II–III – see below). Admittedly, due to the difficulties described above, a few items in my discussion below are hypothetical; yet, I believe that this is a sound reconstruction that fits all available data and is not contradicted by any piece of evidence.2 Table 4.3 summarizes my understanding of the stratigraphy, architecture and chronology of Area M. My new reconstruction calls for some adjustments in the stratigraphy of Area M as presented in Megiddo IV (Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Deutsch 2006: 80, Table 5.1).

lEVEl M-11 TO M-9 (MIDDlE BrONZE aGE) To the elements described in Megiddo IV should be added the massive north-south Wall 06/M/3 running on the eastern side of Squares AW/27–29 (Figs. 4.1, 4.37, marked 1, 4.1). This wall seems to have served as a terrace that was built in order to accommodate the slope, that is, support a building farther to the east, beyond our area of excavation. Plaster Floor 06/M/66, which produced Middle Bronze pottery, was found abutting the east face of this wall in Square AW/27 (Fig. 4.37, marked 2, 4.41). The elevation of this Middle Bronze floor (162.65 m) is about a metre higher than the LB III floor in Room 06/M/76 a few metres to its west; this is due to terracing, which created a higher construction platform to the southeast. Because of the limited exposure of this floor, it is impossible to assign it with accuracy to any of the Middle Bronze phases unearthed in Western Area M (Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Deutsch 2006). In any event, Wall 06/M/3 – if indeed a terrace – could have served in more than one layer.

lEVEl M-8 (MIDDlE BrONZE II–III/laTE BrONZE I) This layer consists of two main elements: 1. The walls and floors (elevation ca. 160.65 m) unearthed in Squares AT–AU/28–30 (Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Deutsch 2006: Fig. 5.10); 2. Grabkammern I–II dug by Schumacher (1908; probable elevations of Grabkammer I: floor ca. 158.50 m, top ca. 160.50 m – see Note 6 below); In the north, the remains in Squares AT–AU/28–30 are covered by the lower courses of the northern wall of Chamber f, which date to Level M-6. In the south, the south-north wall, which delineates Grabkammer I on the west, seems to be incorporated with the lower courses of the southern, outer wall of Chamber f (Fig. 4.33). The latter could have belonged to another tomb of the same type, which was destroyed by later construction. The two elements of Level M-8 produced MB III/LB I pottery – a collection of sherds in the structures unearthed in Squares AT–AU/28–30 and a rich assemblage of pottery in Grabkammern I–II (Watzinger 1929: 2–6; see note 1 above).3

2

3

Many of the observations in this chapter are the result of thorough discussions with Norma Franklin, Alexander Pechuro and David Ussishkin in the field. I thank all of them for the fruitful exchange of ideas, in many cases without reaching an agreement. Two burials in Square AW/27 also produced Middle Bronze III/Late Bronze I material and should therefore probably be affiliated with this layer (see Chapter 4, Part I).

229

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TABLE 4.3: UPDATED STRATIGRAPHY OF AREA M (REPLACING FINKELSTEIN, USSISHKIN AND DEUTSCH 2006: 80, TABLE 5.1) Level

Megiddo IV level

U of C stratum

Period

Elements unearthed in the TAU dig

M-11

M-10

xII?

MB I

Pottery in probe in Square AT/30*

159.40

M-10

M-9

xI?

MB II

Part of a building in Square AU/31*

159.52-59

M-9

M-8

xI?

MB II

1. Fragmentary remains in Squares ATAU/28-29, AT/30 and Au/31* 2. N-S Massive (terrace?) Wall 06/M/3 in Squares AW/27-29 (it could have served in several layers)

160.15

M-8

M-7

x-Ix

MB II-III/ LB I

Structures in Squares AT-AU/28-29*

M-7

Undetected

Ix (or VIII?)

LB I (or early LB II?)

Semicircular Shaft 06/M/14, belonging to a tomb similar to Grabkammer I

Top of preserved course: ca. 167.55

M-6

M-6

(VIII-) VII

LB II-III

Rooms 04/M/75, 83 and Nordburg. Original Open Space 98/M/12 in Chamber f the Nordburg

161.40-70 ca. 159.60b

M-5

M-5

VIB

Early Iron I

Fragmentary remains

Undetected

ca. 163.05

M-4

VIA

Late Iron I

Building 04/M/44 and other remains in an open area to its north

Walls blocking original entrance to Chamber f + new entrance through shaft

163.35

M-3, 2, 1

V

IA IIA

Fragmentary remains

* a. b.

Elements described in Megiddo IV. See b below. Ca. 60 cm higher than figure given by Schumacher (1908: Taf. XVI, XX).

230

Elements unearthed Floor level (m) by Schumacher

Grabkammer I–II

160.65 ca. 158.50?a Top: ca. 160.50

Lowest:164.60

rera

as

2: r sar MI ars III: r s

eas I s asasa r I s

s

ea

s aMrIsI 0

ea

s

srrssg rsr

rerMras s

Fig. 4.37: General view of Area M 2006, looking north: 1 – Wall 06/M/3, dating to the Middle Bronze; 2 – Floor 06/M/66 dating to the Middle Bronze; 3 – semicircular Shaft 06/M/14 of Level M-7; 4 – baulk under Level M-4 Wall 00/M/27 with no wall of Level M-6; 5 – earth debris between Wall 04/M/4 of Level M-4 and Wall 06/M/13 of Level M-5; 6 – Iron I walls (Level M-4) blocking the entrance into the corridor which led into Chamber f; 7 – Wall 06/M/9 of Level M-5.

lEVEl M-7 (laTE BrONZE I Or Early laTE BrONZE II) The only element that can safely be assigned to this layer is stone-built semicircular Shaft 06/M/14 uncovered in the course of the current dig in Square AV/27 (Figs. 4.2–4.3, 4.37, marked 3, 4.41). The semicircular shaft resembles the shaft in Grabkammer I (Schumacher 1908: Taf. 4–5) and therefore seems to have belonged to a similar tomb. While the entrance to Grabkammer I was from west to east, the entrance here was from east to west. But the tomb to which semicircular Shaft 06/M/14 must have belonged and Grabkammern I–II (with the structures in Squares AT–AU/28–30) cannot be placed in the same layer: The top of Grabkammer I, at elevation ca. 160.50 (see Note 6 below), fits the floor level of the structures in Square AT–AU/28–30, at elevation 160.65, while the top preserved course of semicircular Shaft 06/M/14, at elevation ca. 161.55 m, is about a metre higher. It seems therefore that Grabkammern I–II and the structures in Squares AT– AU/28–30 belong to one layer (Level M-8, above), while semicircular Shaft 06/M/14 belonged to a tomb that was constructed somewhat later. Secure pottery evidence for dating this tomb is lacking,4 but the stratigraphic/chronological logic would put it between the early LB I (see Note 1 for the latest pottery in 4

A Middle Bronze I jar found at the bottom of the semicircular Shaft 06/M/14 may have belonged to a layer that had been penetrated by the shaft or to a fill in the shaft. The upper part of semicircular Shaft 06/M/14 produced big pieces of Middle Bronze III pottery; this pottery too must have entered the shaft with fill material put there in preparation for the construction of Chamber f.

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Grabkammern I–II) and the LB II–III (the Nordburg and Chamber f – see below), that is, in a later phase of the LB I or in the early LB II. The semicircular shaft is close in orientation to Chamber f; if a rectangular chamber similar to that of Grabkammer I is added to the shaft, it creates the same orientation and (almost?) same line of walls as those of Chamber f. This means that the rest of the tomb was either completely destroyed when Chamber f was built, or was incorporated into Chamber f; according to the latter case, at least some of the lowest elements in Chamber f originally belonged to this tomb. This cannot be verified without removing some of the walls around Chamber f. The semicircular shaft was damaged and sealed when Chamber f was built: it was covered by Wall 06/M/7, which is part of the Chamber f construction, and by plaster Floor 06/M/76 of the antechamber to Chamber f (Fig. 4.38; pieces of plaster belonging to this floor were found in the upper debris inside the shaft).5

lEVEl M-6 (laTE BrONZE II–III) Level M-6 comprises two main, integrated elements: the Nordburg in the north and Chamber f to its south (Figs. 4.38, 4.41). THE NORDBURG Elements of the southern part of the Nordburg were uncovered in Squares AU–AV/28–30. They consist of: 1. In the north, stone-paved Room d of the Schumacher excavation with olive-oil Press 00/M/7 sunk into its floor (Schumacher 1908 Taf. XII; Frankel 2006). 2. To the south of Room d, Open Space 98/M/12. It had first been uncovered by Schumacher (1908: Taf. xII – his Courtyard g) and reinvestigated by us (Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Deutsch 2006). 3. To the east of these units, Rooms 04/M/75 and 04/M/83. 4. This part of the Nordburg seems to be closed in the east by Wall 04/M/8 and in the south by Wall 00/M/44 – the northern wall of Chamber f. Room 04/M/75 produced a relatively rich pottery assemblage that dates to the LB III (the University of Chicago’s Stratum VIIA). The pottery represents the last phase of activity in the Nordburg, but the building could have been constructed earlier and served for a long period of time. Several arguments seem to support this assumption: A) possible repairs were detected in the walls of the Nordburg (see Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Deutsch 2006); B) some of the Nordburg’s walls have deep foundations while others virtually rest on its floors; C) no LB II element was found under the floors of the Nordburg in the three places where they had been penetrated (Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Deutsch 2006); had the Nordburg been built in the LB III, it would have meant that the main phase of the LB I and the entire LB II (the University of Chicago’s Strata Ix, VIII and VIIB) are missing in this part of the mound. Due to the topography of the mound, the southeastern sector of the Nordburg had to be ‘inserted’ into Middle Bronze remains. Indeed, the floor of the Nordburg is ca. 1 m lower here than the patch of Middle Bronze floor detected in the east of Square AW/27 (see above).

5

The original plaster floor could have belonged to a structure that was built above the shaft in Level M-7 (observation of Alexander Pechuro – see Chapter 4, Part II); it was then repaved and used in Level M-6.

232

rera

as

2: r sar MI ars III: r s

eas I s asasa r I s

s

ea

s aMrIsI 0

ea

s

srrssg rsr

rerMras s

Fig. 4.38: Plan of Level M-6 according to author.

233

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Two finds indicate that the Nordburg came to an end in a violent destruction (at the end of the University of Chicago’s Stratum VIIA): crushed vessels were found on the floor of Room 04/M/75 and 1-m-thick debris of un-burnt brick collapse was unearthed in Rooms 04/M/75 and 04/M/83. CHAMBER F Chamber f was a semi-subterranean structure – its floor is ca. 2 m lower than that of the Nordburg.6 The difference in levels was bridged by a corridor, or dromos, with steps that led into the chamber. The original, Level M-6 structure included the inner walls of the chamber, the courses with big stones in the lower part of the outer walls (seen mainly in the north wall), the corridor with its steps and the corbelled roof over the chamber and the corridor. Later repairs (probably dating to the time of Level M-4), introduced after the structure suffered man-inflicted or earthquake damage (for the latter possibility see Marco et al. 2006) at the end-days of Level M-6, can be seen in several spots (see below). There are several indications that Chamber f and the Nordburg were contemporaries: A) the two are built in a similar orientation; B) the two structures share Wall 00/M/44 (the lower courses, which make the southern wall of Open Space 98/M/12, and the northern wall of Chamber f); C) the floor of Room 04/M/75 and the room leading into Chamber f (Antechamber 06/M/76) are at exactly the same elevation; they seem to have been connected by an entryway (see below); D) an LB III date of the original Chamber f is hinted at by the similarity of the structure to ‘Treasury’ 3073 of Stratum VIIA uncovered in Area AA (Loud 1948: Figs. 75–76, 384): both have thick walls, both have steps leading down into a semi-subterranean structure (the steps of the treasury are reconstructed), and both are located near large public edifices; E) the corbelling is reminiscent of Late Bronze structures in Ugarit and elsewhere. It is not clear whether Chamber f was added to an existing Nordburg, or was built together with it from the outset. The entrance to Chamber f was probably as follows (Fig. 4.38): one approached the monument via Open Space 98/M/12, where Schumacher had unearthed several basalt basins possibly related to the complex. From there one went east through an entrance in Wall 04/M/2 (with a large limestone basin) into Room 04/M/75, and then turned south, over a threshold, into an antechamber (06/M/76); there is no wall under the relevant sector of Level M-4 Wall 00/M/27 (Fig. 4.37, marked 4). As mentioned above, the floor of Room 04/M/75 and the remains of the plaster floor in Antechamber 06/M/76 are at the same level (161.72 m and 161.76 m respectively). In the south, the antechamber was closed by Wall 06/M/07. In the east, it seems that Wall 04/M/8 continued to the south, under the baulk.7 From the antechamber one turned west into the stepped corridor that led into Chamber f. The upper steps of the corridor are now missing – they were probably removed when the original entrance was blocked and changes were introduced here in the Iron I (below). Two walls run from the southern, outer wall of Chamber f to the south – one in Square AU/27 and the other, which had been unearthed by Schumacher, makes a corner with the southwest corner of Chamber f (Square AT/27). These walls seem to have functioned as revetments to support a fill to the south of Chamber f. This seems to show that Chamber f was partially buried (on the south and west) already at

6 7

The floor of Chamber f is more than half a metre higher than the elevation given by Schumacher after it has been adjusted by the formula provided by Loud (1948). A step-like line in the plaster floor of Room 06/M/76 is a leftover from the Level M-7 floor – observation of Alexander Pechuro.

234

rera

as

2: r sar MI ars III: r s

eas I s asasa r I s

s

ea

s aMrIsI 0

ea

s

srrssg rsr

rerMras s

the time of Level M-6 (and definitely later – see below), which explains the excellent preservation of the corbelling until today. The function of Chamber f remains a riddle.

lEVEl M-5 (Early IrON I) The Level M-5 remains, which are sandwiched between the brick debris of the Level M-6 destruction and the Level M-4 floors, are relatively meagre. They constitute the following elements (Fig. 4.39): 1. An open space floor above the Level M-6 collapsed brick debris in Squares AU–AV/28–29 (elevation ca. 163.05 m). In some spots these surfaces feature black ashy lines (Fig. 4.16); this may have been a midden, similar to the late Iron I midden identified by Shahak-Gross and Gafri in Area K (Chapter 34). 2. Several walls and a tabun related to these surfaces. Some of the walls are built over Level M-6 walls, and in one or two cases they block Level M-6 entryways (e.g., in Wall 04/M/1). 3. Judging from the elevations, the stone tisch found by Schumacher (our Square AW/30 could have belonged to Level M-5, though an affiliation with Level M-4 seems more reasonable (see below). 4. Changes introduced in the vicinity of Chamber f, mainly in the area of its antechamber. Several postLevel M-6 and pre-Level M-4 walls were detected there. One of them – east-west Wall 06/M/9 – was built immediately over the plaster floor of the antechamber (Figs. 4.37, marked 7, 4.41); it is aligned with the northern wall of the Chamber f corridor. This means that the entrance to Chamber f was changed, as Wall 06/M/9 blocks the entrance from the Level M-6 Chamber 04/M/75 to the antechamber; at the same time, Wall 06/M/9 hints that the corridor was still in use. The entrance may have been from the east. Other, somewhat higher walls, could be seen in the east and north baulks of Square AV/27. These elements seem to represent several phases of activity during the life of Level M-5. 5. Walls 98/M/1 and 98/M/23, built to the north of Chamber f, enclosed the brick debris of the collapsed Level M-6 and a fill laid over open Space 98/M/12 (Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Deutsch 2006: Figs. 5.3, 5.16); this fill, and the collapse debris in the Level M-6 Room 04/M/75, buried Chamber f also from the north. 6. East-west Wall 06/M/13 was found exactly under southern Wall 04/M/4 of the Level M-4 Building 04/M/44 (Fig. 4.41). The two walls are not built one on top of the other; a half metre of debris separates them (Fig. 4.37, marked 5). The lower wall (06/M/13) is aligned with the outer southern wall of Chamber f. It cannot be dated to Level M-6 because the elevation of its foundation course is much higher than Floor 06/M/76.

lEVEl M-4 (laTE IrON I) The following elements belong to Level M-4 (Fig. 4.40): 1. Building 04/M/44 in the southern part of the area. 2. An open space with two basalt bases and one basalt basin to the north of Building 04/M/44, plus the large stone tisch uncovered by Schumacher in Square AW/30 (1908: Taf. xII). The tisch is not connected to the rest of the area stratigraphically. The elevation of the floor next to it is a bit lower than the elevation of the floor in Building 04/M/44, but this could have been caused by the slope toward the north. 3. Changes introduced in the entrance to Chamber f.

235

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Fig. 4.39: Plan of Level M-5 according to author.

236

rera

as

2: r sar MI ars III: r s

eas I s asasa r I s

s

ea

s aMrIsI 0

ea

s

srrssg rsr

rerMras s

There are several indications that the people who constructed Building 04/M/44 knew Chamber f, aligned their building with it and incorporated it into their plan: A) The side walls of Building 04/M/44 are aligned with the side walls of Chamber f; this is especially clear in the case of the building’s southern Wall 04/M/4 and the upper line of construction in the southern wall of Chamber f. B) The entryway at the western end of Wall 00/M/27 leads to the shaft that provides the Level M-4 entrance into Chamber f. C) The shaft is located in the back side of Building 04/M/44 behind its two pillars (note the large black stone between the two pillars). It is possible that the building, with the plastered installation to its east and the basalt stones to its north (which could have served as offering tables), served some sort of a cult related to the now completely subterranean structure. Several changes were introduced to Chamber f in Level M-4. The corridor went out of use, as the entrance was blocked by a massive wall (06/M/2) which was supported by two smaller retaining walls (06/M/10 and 06/M/15; Fig. 4.37, marked 6). The latest pottery in the foundation trenches of these walls dates to the Iron I. The main blocking wall rests directly on one of the corridor’s steps (Fig. 4.22). A new entrance into Chamber f was now provided by a shaft that was opened in its roof, behind the two column bases of Building 04/M/44 and near the entryway in the northern wall of the building (00/M/27). The monument, which had probably been damaged at the end of the Late Bronze, was now repaired. The outer, north Wall 98/M/2 was repaired with small stones, poorly set in comparison to the big stones in the lower, Level M-6 courses of this wall.8 Inside Chamber f repairs were needed in the walls of the corridor; here too the lower, original courses of the side walls are large and well-set in their place, with the steps incorporated into them, while here and there the upper part, mainly near the shaft, is poorly built with small stones, not even in courses (Fig. 4.22). The latter look similar to the mode of construction of the shaft. Burnt brick material and remains of bricks were detected on top of Chamber f and below the door in Wall 00/M/27. They may represent: 1) the original, Level M-6 fill debris intentionally put on the roof; 2) a fill of Level M-5; 3) a fill put there by the Level M-4 builders as preparation for the construction of Building 04/M/44. The latter possibility seems to me the preferable one. During the time of Level M-4 the structure was buried on all sides (only in the south and east in Level M-6; on all sides, except the area of Room 06/M/76 in Level M-5). This means that the structure was never free standing and this is the reason for its excellent preservation.

8

The repair of this wall could have been executed in Level M-5, before Chamber f was buried by a fill on its north.

237

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Fig. 4.40: Plan of Level M-4 according to author.

238

rera

as

2: r sar MI ars III: r s

eas I s asasa r I s

s

ea

s aMrIsI 0

ea

s

srrssg rsr

rerMras s

Fig. 4.41: Aerial view of main part of Area M at the end of the 2008 season (two years after termination of work in this area) with main elements discussed by author.

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appENDIX III: SElECTED pOTTEry frOM arEa M The following pages present a few small pottery groups from the earliest layers in Area M reported in this chapter. The far richer pottery assemblages from Levels M-6 and M-4 are presented and discussed in Chapter 12.

FIG. 4.42: SEMICIRCULAR SHAFT, LOCUS 06/M/74 (1–4); SEMICIRCULAR SHAFT, LOCUS 06/M/70 (5–9); SEMICIRCULAR SHAFT, LOCUS 06/M/65 (10–12) No. Reg. No.

Vessel type

Bucket elevation (m) Comments

C.v.*

1

06/M/74/VS1

Bowl

160.55-160.69

Reddish-brown clay

*

2

06/M/74/VS7

Bowl

160.55-160.69

Yellowish clay; red slip and dense burnishing

-

3

06/M/74/VS2

Jug

160.39-160.55

Reddish-brown clay; red slip

-

4

06/M/74/VS3

Storage jar

160.39-160.55

Reddish clay

*

5

06/M/70/VS6

Bowl

161.15-161.34

Buff clay

-

6

06/M/70/VS5

Bowl

161.15-161.34

Light brown clay

-

7

06/M/70/VS4

Bowl

161.15-161.34

Buff clay

-

8

06/M/70/VS3

Jug

161.15-161.34

Buff clay

-

9

06/M/70/VS2

Jar/ jug

161.15-161.34

Cypriot; hand made; brownish-orange clay; yellowish slip; dark brown decoration

-

10

06/M/65/VS1

Bowl

161.34-161.74

Buff clay

-

11

06/M/65/VS3

Bowl

161.34-161.74

Reddish-brown clay

-

12

06/M/65/VS2

Body sherd of closed vessel

161.74-161.82

Brown clay; White slip and brown decoration (‘chocolate on white’)

-

* Complete vessel.

240

rera

as

2: r sar MI ars III: r s

eas I s asasa r I s

s

ea

s aMrIsI 0

ea

s

srrssg rsr

rerMras s

Fig. 4.42: Semicircular shaft, Locus 06/M/74 (1–4); Semicircular shaft, Locus 06/M/70 (5–9); Semicircular shaft, Locus 06/M/65 (10–12).

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Fig. 4.43: Burial 06/M/56 (1–5).

FIG. 4.43: BURIAL 06/M/56 (1–5). No. Reg. No.

Vessel type

Bucket elevation (m) Comments

C.v.*

1

06/M/48/VS4

Bowl

162.68-162.78

Buff clay; red decoration; wheel burnish

*

2

06/M/48/VS3

Bowl

162.25-162.29

Reddish-brown clay

*

3

06/M/56/VS1

Jug

162.74-162.80

Brown clay; red decoration

*

4

06/M/48/VS1

Jug

162.89

Buff clay; hand burnish

*

5

06/M/48/VS2

Cup and saucer

162.62-162.68

Brown clay

*

* Complete vessel.

242

rera

as

2: r sar MI ars III: r s

eas I s asasa r I s

s

ea

s aMrIsI 0

ea

s

srrssg rsr

rerMras s

Fig. 4.44: Phase M-7.

FIG. 4.44: PHASE M-7 No. Reg. No.

Vessel type

Bucket elevation (m) Comments

C.v.*

1

06/M/38/VS3

Bowl

162.46-162.50

Reddish-brown clay

*

2

06/M/38/VS2

Krater

162.50-162.78

Greyish-brown clay

*

3

06/M/38/VS4

Cooking pot

162.06-162.15

Dark brown clay

-

4

06/M/38/VS1

Storage jar

161.80

Reddish-brown clay; cut base

-

* Complete vessel.

243

AREA M IIsrae s IsraeI

aIs

Fig. 4.45: Material east of the three blocking walls (1–6); Material on floor north of Wall 04/M/1 (7–8)

FIG. 4.45: MATERIAL EAST OF THE THREE BLOCKING WALLS (1-6); MATERIAL ON FLOOR NORTH OF WALL 04/M/1 (7–8) No. Reg. No.

Vessel type

Bucket elevation (m) Comments

C.v.*

1

06/M/61/VS3

Bowl

162.46

Reddish-brown clay

-

2

06/M/61/VS2

Bowl

162.46

Cypriot; hand made; brown clay; reddish- brown slip

3

06/M/57/VS1

Jug

161.90-162.09

Cypriot; hand made; greyish-brown clay; reddish-brown slip and irregular burnish

4

06/M/61/VS4

Jar/ jug

162.46

Light brown clay; red and black decoration

-

5

06/M/62/VS1

Jar/ jug

161.92-162.09

Reddish-brown clay; red and black decoration

-

6

06/M/61/VS1

Oil lamp

162.61-164.46

Light brown clay; soot remains on rim

*

7

06/M/51/VS1

Jug

162.66

Buff clay

*

8

06/M/39/VS1

Oil lamp

163.18-163.29

Light brown clay; soot remains on rim

*

* Complete vessel.

244

rera

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2: r sar M

REFERENCES Adler, W. 1994. Kamid el-Loz, 11. Das ‘Shatzhaus’ im Palastbereich. Die Befunde des Königsgrabes (Saarbrücker Beiträge zur Altertumskunde 47). Bonn. Cooley, R.E. and Pratico, G.D. 1995. Tell Dothan: The Western Cemetery, with Comments on Joseph Free’s Excavations, 1953 to 1964. In: Dever, W.G., ed. Preliminary Excavation Reports: Sardis, Bir Umm Fawakhir, Tell el-‘Umeiri, the Combined Caesarea Expedition, and Tell Dothan (Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research 52). Boston. 147–190. Dothan, T. 1982. The Philistines and Their Material Culture. Jerusalem. Epstein, C. 1965. An Interpretation of the Megiddo Sacred Area During Middle Bronze II. Israel Exploration Journal 15: 204–220. Finkelstein, I., Ussishkin, D. and Deutsch, R. 2006. Western Area M (the 1998–2000 seasons). In: Finkelstein, I., Ussishkin, D. and Halpern, B., eds. Megiddo IV: The 1998–2002 Seasons (Monograph Series of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University 24). Tel Aviv: 66–88. Fisher, C. 1929. The Excavation of Armageddon. Chicago. Gadot, Y., Martin, M., Blockman, N. and Arie, E. 2006. Area K (Levels K-5 and K-4, the 1998–2002 Seasons). In: Finkelstein, I., Ussishkin, D. and Halpern, B., eds. Megiddo IV: The 1998–2002 Seasons (Monograph Series of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University 24). Tel Aviv: 87–103. Gonen, R. 1992a. Structural Tombs in the Second Millennium B.C. In: Kempinski, A. and Reich, R., eds. The Architecture of Ancient Israel. From the Prehistoric to the Persian Periods. Jerusalem: 151–160. Gonen, R. 1992b. Burial Patterns and Cultural Diversity in Late Bronze Age Canaan (American Schools of Oriental Research Series 7). Winona Lake. Guy, P.L.O. 1938. Megiddo Tombs. (Oriental Institute Publications 33). Chicago. Ilan, D. 1996. The Middle Bronze Age Tombs. In: Biran, A., Ilan, D. and Greenberg, R. Dan I: A Chronicle of the Excavations: The Pottery Neolithic, the Early Bronze Age and the Middle Bronze Age Tombs. Jerusalem: 161-269. Ilan, D. 2001. The Riddle of Structure 5239 at Megiddo, Stratum Ix. In: Wolff, S.R., ed. Studies in the Archaeology of Israel and Neighboring Lands in Memory of Douglas L. Esse. Chicago: 307–315. Ilan, D., Franklin, N. and Hallote, R.S. 2000. Area F. In: Finkelstein, I., Ussishkin, D. and Halpern, B., eds. Megiddo III: The 1992–1996 Seasons (Monograph Series of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University 18). Tel Aviv: 75–103. Lamon, R.S. and Shipton, G.M. 1939. Megiddo I: Seasons 1925–34 Strata I–V (Oriental Institute Publications 42). Chicago. Loffreda, S. 1968. Typological Sequence of Iron Age Rock-Cut Tombs in Palestine. Liber Annuus, Studium Biblicum Franciscanum 18: 244–287. Loud, G. 1948. Megiddo II: Seasons 1935–39 (Oriental Institute Publications 62). Chicago. Loud, G. 1948. Megiddo II: Seasons of 1925–34 Strata I–V (Oriental Institute Publications 42). Chicago. Macalister, R.A.S. 1912a. The Excavation of Gezer 1902–1905 and 1907–1909. Vol. 1. London. Macalister, R.A.S. 1912b. The Excavation of Gezer 1902–1905 and 1907–1909. Vol. 3. London. Matthiae, P. 1984. New Discoveries at Ebla: The Excavation of the Western Palace and the Royal Necropolis of the Amorite Period. The Biblical Archaeologist 47: 18–32. Mazar, A. 1985. The Emergence of the Philistine Material Culture. Israel Exploration Journal 35: 95–107.

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Mazar, A. 1990. Archaeology of the Land of the Bible. New York. Petrie, W.M.F. 1930. Beth-Pelet I. London. Petrie, W.M.F. 1931. Ancient Gaza 1. London. Petrie, W.M.F. 1932. Ancient Gaza 2. London. Petrie, W.M.F. 1933. Ancient Gaza 3. London. Petrie, W.M.F. 1934. Ancient Gaza 4. London. Price Williams, D. 1977. The Tombs of the Middle Bronze Age II Period from the ‘500’ Cemetery at Tell Fara (South). London. Salles, J.-F. 1987. Deux nouvelles tombes de Ras-Shamra. In: Yon, M., ed. Ras-Shamra Ougarit III: Le centre de la ville, 38e-44e campagnes (1978–1984). Paris: 187–95. Schaeffer, C.F.A. 1939. Ugaritica I. Paris. Schaeffer, C.F.A. 1951. Reprise des recherches archéologiques à Ras Shamra-Ugarit. Sondages de 1948 et 1949 et campagne de 1950. Syria 28: 14–17. Schumacher, G. 1904. Die Ausgrabungen auf dem Tell el-Mutesellim I, II. Mittheilungen und Nachrichten des Deutschen Palaestina-Vereins 27: 14–20, 33–56. Schumacher, G. 1905. Die Ausgrabungen auf dem Tell el-Mutesellim VII, VIII. Mittheilungen und Nachrichten des Deutschen Palaestina-Vereins 28: 1–29, 81–82. Schumacher, G. 1906. Die Ausgrabungen auf dem Tell el-Mutesellim VIII (cont.), Ix, x. Mittheilungen und Nachrichten des Deutschen Palaestina-Vereins 29: 1–30, 35–70. Schumacher, G., 1908. Tell el Mutesellim I. Leipzig. Starkey, J.L. and Harding, G.L. 1932. Beth-Pelet Cemetery. In: Beth-Pelet II: Prehistoric Fara [and] BethPelet Cemetery (Publications of the Egyptian Research Account and British School of Archaeology in Egypt 52). London. Ussishkin, D. 1992. Megiddo. In: Freedman, D. N., ed. The Anchor Bible Dictionary 4: 666–679. Watzinger, C. 1929. Tell el-Mutesellim II. Die Funde. Leipzig. Wright, G.R.H. 1985. Ancient Building in South Syria and Palestine. Leiden. Woolley, L.C. 1955. Alalakh: An Account of the Excavations at Tell Atchana in Hatay, 1937–1949. Oxford. Yadin, Y., Aharoni, Y., Amiran, R., Dothan, T. et al. 1960. Hazor II. Jerusalem. Yadin, Y., Aharoni, Y., Amiran, R., Dothan, T. et al. 1989. Hazor III-IV. Jerusalem. Yon, M. 2006. The City of Ugarit at Tell Ras Shamra. Winona Lake.

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CHAPTER 5

AREA H: LEVELS H-9 TO H-5 Eran Arie

Previous publications of the 1994–1998 seasons in Area H (Joffe et al. 2000; Petit 2006) focused on the remains from Level H-1 to Level H-4, dated to the Iron Age IIB–IIC. The elements uncovered in the 2000 season (mainly Levels H-5 and H-6) were published by Knauf (2006), but his stratigraphy was challenged by Finkelstein and Ussishkin (2006). After six years, during which Area H had not been excavated, it was reopened in the 2006 season. The excavation was supervised by Eran Arie, with the assistance of Leigh Savage and Brooke Shelman. The removal of City Wall 325 (96/H/19) enabled us to add two more squares on the northern side of the trench1 at the edge of the slope, turning Area H into a 2 × 3 squares sectional trench perpendicular to the edge of the mound. In the 2008 season the excavation was directed by Eran Arie, with the assistance of Inbal Samet and Brooke Shelman. During this season two more squares were added on the north, making Area H a 2 × 4 squares sectional trench. The current report begins with a brief reference to Level H-10, which will be fully published in the next Megiddo report, and then focuses on five levels: • Level H-9, which was completely exposed during the 2006–2008 seasons; • Levels H-8 and H-7, which were mainly unearthed during the 2006 season, though some elements associated with them were first uncovered in the 2000 season; • Levels H-6 and H-5, which had mainly been excavated during the 2000 season, but a better understanding of their stratigraphy was reached in the course of wall and baulk removal during the 2006 season. • Several features of City Wall 325 (96/H/19) affiliated with Levels H-4 and H-3 (Joffe et al. 2000: 149–150; Petit 2006: 132–136), which were removed during the 2006 season, are discussed at the end of this report.

lEVEl h-10 (fIG. 5.1) Level H-10 is dated to the early phase of the Iron Age I (Chicago Stratum VIB). It shows clear architectural continuity that ends with the destruction of Level H-9. This may be seen especially in the northern architectural unit of Area H, in which several walls were built one on top of the other during Levels H-10 to H-9. The architectural elements of Level H-10 reveal its domestic nature. Unfortunately, its state of preservation, reflected by the small amount of finds, will probably prevent its being fully understood.

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The squares of Area H were laid perpendicular to the slope and therefore are not aligned to the north. In order to make reading easy, we refer to the north as the edge of the mound and to all other directions accordingly.

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Fig. 5.1: Aerial view of Area H at the end of the 2008 season (architectural elements affiliated to Levels H-9, H-10 and H-11) looking south.

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Fig. 5.2: Plan of Level H-9.

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Fig. 5.3: Southern section of Area H, looking south. The figure is standing on the floor of Level H-9. From bottom: the thick accumulation debris of Level H-9, the floors of Level H-7 and the destruction of Level H-5. (Note the differences in the nature of destruction between Levels H-9 and H-5.)

Fig. 5.4: South section of Area H (Squares E–F/6).

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Fig. 5.5: East section of Area H (Squares F/6–9).

Fig. 5.6: West section of Area H (Squares E/6–9).

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Fig. 5.8: General view of Level H-9, looking north.

lEVEl h-9 Level H-9 (Fig. 5.2) was violently destroyed by a fierce fire leaving a thick accumulation of red burnt mudbrick debris. In some places the collapse debris reached over 1 m in height (Figs. 5.3–5.5). This red brick debris and the typical pottery retrieved from this phase leave no doubt regarding the correlation between Level H-9 and Stratum VIA of the University of Chicago expedition, dated to the late Iron I. The excellent state of preservation of Level H-9 is manifested by a large number of pottery vessels and small finds. Due to the narrow dimensions of Area H, the architecture assigned to Level H-9 does not provide a clear layout of a building. It comprises architectural elements that were reconstructed in this report as one unit called Building 08/H/38 (Fig. 5.8). CENTRAL COURTYARD 08/H/38 Due to its large expanse it is logical to assume that this architectural unit served as a courtyard. Still, two flat stones that probably served as pillar bases, which were found in the western side of this unit, may suggest that it was partly roofed. Several carbonized beams that were found here could have originated from this roof or from the pillars themselves (Fig. 5.9). While the floor of most of the courtyard was made of beaten earth, two parts of it were paved with fieldstones. The first (06/H/55) located in the southeastern corner of the courtyard, was probably constructed in order to support the weight of Basin 08/H/30 (see below). Above this pavement, a thick phytolith layer was found, identified by Ruth Shahack-Gross (personal communication) as some kind of a mat. The second paved area (06/H/51), which was found in the northwestern part of the courtyard, slopes down toward the south probably due to sinking (Fig. 5.10). It originally abutted Wall 06/H/13 and probably represents a larger floor that was not preserved.

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Fig. 5.9: Smashed storage jar lying on the floor of Courtyard 08/H/38 of Level H-9 (note charred beam between mudbricks), looking east.

Fig. 5.10: A complete storage jar on Paved Floor 06/H/51 in the northwestern part of Courtyard 08/H/38 of Level H-9 (note the depth of City Wall 325), looking east.

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Fig. 5.11: Smashed pottery vessels in the eastern part of Courtyard 08/H/38 with Partition wall 06/H/8, Level H-9, looking east.

Courtyard 08/H/38 yielded the largest accumulation of finds retrieved from Level H-9. The thick debris of red-fired mudbricks spread all over the courtyard contained dozens of pottery vessels (Fig. 5.11). It is worth mentioning that the southwestern part of the courtyard can be distinguished from its western sector by the character of its finds: a significant number of small vessels in the former versus mostly big storage vessels in the latter (see Chapter 12). Several features were located in the courtyard: a large limestone basin (08/H/30) positioned on top of a pavement floor was found in the southeastern part of the courtyard (on the left side of Fig. 5.14). Limestone basins (‘bathtubs’) are a characteristic feature of Stratum VIA (Mazar 2007: 84–85). In the adjacent Area AA four similar basins were found (Loud 1948: Fig. 386). The closest basin to Area H unearthed in Area AA (in the southwestern part of Square K/7) is situated on a beaten earth floor almost at the same elevation as Basin 08/H/30. All the basins excavated in Area AA were placed along walls. Moreover, most of these basins were located in corners made by two perpendicular walls. Hence, it is likely that the continuation of Wall 08/H/1 created a corner with a south-north wall now in the eastern section of Area H, which closed off Courtyard 08/H/38 on the east. Mudbrick Wall 06/H/8 was defined as a partition wall since it had no stone foundation and because it is only 0.32 m thick (Fig. 5.11). Many storage vessels were found leaning on it on both its sides. It may have originally functioned as a sort of bench. Wall 06/H/8 probably abutted the eastern wall of the courtyard. A circular installation (08/H/22) made of standing-stones was found on the north of Wall 06/H/8; its function is unknown. Tabun 08/H/40, located in the southern area of the courtyard, was built of mud above small flat stones and was encircled by pottery sherds. Its interior consisted of a layer of loose ash on top of which lay red mudbrick debris. Inside the ash layer remains of cooking-pots were found (Fig. 12.84: 2 in Chapter 12). A large limestone bowl was situated to the west of Tabun 08/H/40. It had a deep circular cavity in the centre, surrounded by several cup-like oval shallow depressions (Fig. 5.14). Comparable bowls were found in the courtyards of Building 00/K/10 of Level K-4 (Gadot et al. 2006: Fig. 7.7) and Building 04/K/44

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of Level K-6 (Chapter 3). It seems that they all served as immovable mortars, probably used for crushing and pounding. It is worth mentioning that below the floors dated to the last destruction of Level H-9 an accumulation of beaten earth floors (ca. 0.20 m thick) was excavated all over the courtyard. These represent the life span of Level H-9. This phenomenon was recognized only in this unit, seemingly also testifying to its function as a courtyard. ROOM 08/H/36 Room 08/H/36 is the only space in Building 08/H/38 that was found bounded by its four walls and was entirely excavated. There was no clear floor in this room, but thanks to the vessels that were found here, the floor level can be deduced to be ca. 158.55 m. It shows that this room was somewhat sunken in relation to the southern units of the building. A stone threshold in the western entrance to the room is actually the upper course of a lower wall that belongs to Level H-10. Another entrance to this room may have been located in its southern wall leading to the courtyard. A concentration of several pithoi was found in the western part of the room, whereas smaller vessels, in addition to grinding and pounding stones, were found in its eastern sector. It is clear that some of the walls of Room 08/H/36 (Walls 08/H/3 and 08/H/5) had already been built during Levels H-11 and H-10 or were on partially-standing earlier walls. (This will be clarified during the upcoming seasons.) ROOM 08/H/34 Due to its location next to the eastern baulk of the area, only a small portion of Room 08/H/34 was excavated. Most of Tabun 08/H/10 is still hidden in this baulk. Large pottery sherds of pithoi encircled the tabun (Fig. 5.12), which was probably located in the southeastern corner of the room. The floor of Room 08/H/34 is best seen in the eastern baulk (Fig. 5.5). Room 08/H/34 with Tabun 08/H/10 can be compared to a similar small room excavated in Area AA in Squares L/6–7 (Loud 1948: Fig. 386). Both were most probably used as kitchens. ROOM 08/H/35 The continuation towards the north of Walls 06/H/12 and 08/H/5 form a unit to the north of Room 08/H/36. The dimensions of this room are unknown since its northern wall, located along the edge of the mound, was eroded. ROOM 08/H/13 The character of Level H-9 in this room was hard to determine due to the fact that no traces of conflagration, which normally characterize Level H-9, were found here (Fig. 5.13). A storage jar (Fig. 12.90: 4, Chapter 12) found in the southern part of the room represents the accumulation on its beaten earth floor. ROOM 08/H/37 Wall 08/H/1 separates Room 08/H/37 from the rest of Building 08/H/38 (Fig. 5.14). The eastern part of this wall was robbed and it can be reconstructed as continuing toward Basin 08/H/30. Among the finds

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Fig. 5.12: Tabun 08/H/10 in Room 08/H/34 of Level H-9, looking east.

retrieved from this room are two concentrations of lentil seeds, one of which was found surrounded by sherds of a collared rim pithos. A few carbonized beams were unearthed in the debris and on the floor, implying that this was a roofed unit. Later disturbances, which were not identified during the excavation, can be seen in the southern and eastern sections of the area. These were dug into the destruction debris of Level H-9, probably in order to look for precious objects. A similar phenomenon was detected in Area K after the destruction of contemporary Level K-4 (Gadot et al. 2006: 101–102). Pit 08/H/52 was found beneath the floor of Level H-9, cutting the floor of Level H-10. It contained a dense concentration of pottery sherds and bones and can be identified as a refuse pit. An area of 2 × 2 m at the southwestern corner of Room 08/H/37 was allocated to a geo-archaeology project conducted by Einhorn and Shahack-Gross (to be published in the next Megiddo report). CONCLUSION It is tempting to reconstruct Building 08/H/38 as a courtyard building in which Courtyard 08/H/38 is surrounded by rooms. Yet, in light of the finds from the nearby Area AA (Loud 1948: Fig. 386), it seems that the architectural finds in Area H can also reflect part of a more complex structure such as adjacent Building 3021. In any event, the finds from Building 08/H/38 are different from contemporaneous courtyard Building 00/K/10 (Arie 2006; Gadot and Yasur-Landau 2006; Gadot et al. 2006) in many aspects such as types, decorations, etc. This evidence reflects clear intrasite variation (see Chapter 12).

lEVEl h-8 Level H-8 (Fig. 5.15) contains one well-preserved structure situated at the centre of the area (Building 06/H/39); only scarce remains were found elsewhere. Overall the remains of this phase are fragmentary and do not make a coherent plan.

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Fig. 5.13: Room 08/H/13, the western parts of Room 08/H/37 and Courtyard 08/H/38 of Level H-9, looking west.

Fig. 5.14: Room 08/H/37 and the southern part of Courtyard 08/H/38 of Level H-9, looking south.

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BUILDING 06/H/39 Walls 00/H/122 and 06/H/4, bonded to each other, form the most significant remnant of Level H-8 (Fig. 5.16). Although both walls are well preserved, only scanty floors are associated with them. Wall 06/H/10 has to be related to this structure too, since it runs below the floor of the courtyard of Level H-7 (Fig. 5.7, see below), and its bottom level is above the floor and one of the pillar bases of Level H-9. Still, the wall’s orientation and its proximity to Wall 06/H/4 make it difficult to understand the plan of Level H-8 (alternatively, it might be related to post Stratum VIA phase, which is earlier than the Iron IIA). The only real floor of the building was found in Room 06/H/39. It is less than 1 square metre in size and is made of beaten earth and phytoliths. No more than a number of sherds were found on it. South of Floor 06/H/39, Tabun 08/H/26 was uncovered. It was encircled by pottery sherds and its inner part contained horizontal layers (approximately 15 cm thick) of loose grey ash (Fig. 5.17). The floor of Room 06/H/24 was not identified. A greyish line in the western baulk of Square E/7 probably attests to its elevation (159.45 m). A pit (08/H/28) filled with small stones devoid of earth and almost any other find was uncovered below the southern part of Room 06/H/24 (Fig. 5.17). Flat stones – only one of which was found in situ – may have covered it. The function of this pit, which penetrated the Level H-9 floor, is unclear. OTHER LEVEL H-8 REMAINS The meagre remains of Level H-8 outside of Squares E–F/7 include: 1) a small patch of floor in the western part of Square E/6 (06/H/53a), on top of which part of a horned skull and body sherds of a storage jar (not illustrated) were found; 2) another patch of a floor east of Wall 06/H/10; 3) an ashy line (elevation 159.54 m) in the western section of Square F/8 just beneath Wall 06/H/15 of Level H-7. CONCLUSION Level H-8 represents the renewal of activity after the complete destruction of the late Iron I settlement (Stratum VIA). It is the earliest Iron IIA phase at the site as attested by its pottery (Chapter 13). The patchy nature of the remains may testify to the short duration of this level.

lEVEl h-7 Level H-7 features two architectural units (00/H/66; 06/H/26), domestic in nature, built around an open space (06/H/34; Fig. 5.18). The living surfaces of this phase are characterized by a thick accumulation (ca. 20–25 cm) of beaten earth and phytolith floors. During its existence several elements were constructed in the courtyard and are dated only to its later days (see below). BUILDING 00/H/66 Building 00/H/66 is the major structure of Level H-7. Walls 06/H/1 and 00/H/11 are partition walls that separate three rooms inside this building. Only two floors were detected inside the building (00/H/66 2

For the stratigraphic relations between Wall 00/H/12 and the Level H-7 remains see Fig. 5.20.

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Fig. 5.15: Plan of Level H-8.

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Fig. 5.16: Remains of Levels H-8 and H-7, from south to north: pavement in Courtyard 06/H/34 (H-7), Building 06/H/39 (H-8), and Building 06/H/26 (H-7), looking north.

Fig. 5.17: Southern baulk of Square E7 with Pit 08/H/28 and Tabun 08/H/26 of Level H-8 (note Level H-7 floor accumulation above Level H-8 remains), looking south.

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Fig. 5.18: Plan of Level H-7.

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and 00/H/65), probably as a result of the poor state of preservation of Wall 06/H/1 below floor level. A stone threshold comprises the main entrance to the building through Room 06/H/22. Two other possible entrances may be identified along Wall 00/H/1b. The eastern wing of Building 00/H/66 may be identified in Square L6 of the University of Chicago expedition (Loud 1948: Fig. 387). This building, which was assigned to Stratum VB (without a given number), has a threshold extending at the same elevation as that of Level H-7 (159.95 m). BUILDING 06/H/26 Building 06/H/26 comprises a single room, part of which is located outside of the excavated area (Fig. 5.16). Due to the dry earth and many roots in its vicinity, which is near the slope, no real floor was found in this unit. Its northern wall (06/H/6) is considerably wider than the other two walls forming the room. This was necessary because of its location near the edge of the slope of the mound. The elevation of Building 06/H/26 is significantly lower that those of adjacent Building 00/H/66 and Courtyard 06/H/34 (see below). Two reasonable explanations can be offered for this situation. The first is that the slope of the mound dictated the lower elevation of the building. The other is that Building 06/H/26 was a subterranean structure that had a superstructure that was completely destroyed when City Wall 325 was built (in Level H-4). An option in which Building 06/H/26 is affiliated with Level H-8 has to be ruled out in light of the proximity between Wall 00/H/12 (of Level H-8) and the southern entrance of Building 06/H/26. This would have prevented access to the building.

Fig. 5.19: Upper floor of Courtyard 06/H/34 of Level H-7; at the back City Wall 325 of Levels H-4 and H-3, looking northeast.

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Fig. 5.20: Western baulk of Squares F/7–8 showing the stratigraphy of Levels H-9 to H-7.

Fig. 5.21: Upper floor of Courtyard 06/H/34 of Level H-7 (note Installation 06/H/9 in the centre), looking southeast.

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COURTYARD 06/H/34 To the west of Building 00/H/66 and to the south of Building 06/H/26 extends an open space (06/H/34) – probably a courtyard (Fig. 5.19). A thick accumulation of beaten earth floors was found in this area. The floor level of the courtyard is sloping down towards the north. The original courtyard included several features: in its southern part, Pavement 06/H/34 (Fig. 5.16), which slopes down towards the north, was probably connected to the threshold of Building 00/H/66. Tabun 06/H/73 was sunk into this floor. The tabun rested on a small stone foundation and was coated with pottery sherds on its outer side. The interior of the tabun contained ash layers ca. 10 cm thick. Wall 00/H/9, which was unearthed to the north of the tabun, seems to be related to it; together they may represent a semi-roofed area designated for cooking. The floor of Courtyard 06/H/34 runs from the southern section of the area to Wall 06/H/15 (Fig. 5.20). A pillar base, which was unearthed in the northeastern part of the courtyard, carried a pillar, which probably roofed a small area in the northeastern part of the courtyard, relating to Wall 06/H/15. Two small installations, which were sunk into the floor of the courtyard, can only fit the last days of Level H-7: 1) a small stone lined pit (06/H/9) packed with small pebbles and pottery sherds was unearthed in the southern part of Square E/7 (Fig. 5.21); 2) a circular stone feature (06/H/28) was found in the northeastern part of Square E/6. Both installations are situated approximately along the same line and may represent postholes; hence it seems that a larger part of the courtyard may have been roofed in its last days. CONCLUSION Level H-7 seems to represent the growth of Iron IIA Megiddo into a real city. In contrast to Level H-8, it contains a variety of architectural features and is better organized. The thick accumulation of floors and the changes in the courtyard may suggest that the time span of this level was quite significant. There are no clues as to the reasons for change in the layout of Area H from Level H-7 to Level H-6.

lEVEl h-6 Level H-6 (Fig. 5.22) features one building in the eastern part of the area (00/H/44) and another corner of a building to the west (00/H/29). An open courtyard (06/H/75) was located between these units. BUILDING 00/H/44 The western side of Building 00/H/44 is made of Wall 00/H/1a, which was added to Wall 00/H/1b of Level H-7 (Fig. 5.23). Evidence of this process was best seen in the blocking of the stone-paved threshold of Building 00/H/66 of Level H-7. While the construction of the earlier wall (00/H/1b) is meticulous, Wall 00/H/1a was laid without care; it was built of large boulders probably meant to support the weight of Wall 00/H/1b. Wall 00/H/1a continues to the north, where it probably formed another room that was cut by City Wall 325 (of Levels H-4 and H-3). No clear entrances to Building 00/H/44 were found, but it can be suggested that an entrance was placed where Wall 00/H/1a is partially robbed (Square F/7). Only scanty remains of a floor were found in the northern sector of Building 00/H/44.

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Fig. 5.22: Plan of Level H-6.

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Fig. 5.23: General view of Level H-6 (note the different nature of Walls 00/H/1a and 00/H/1b in the left part of the photo), looking south.

Fig. 5.24: General view of Level H-6 (note Building 00/H/29 at the back of the photo), looking west.

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Fig. 5.25: Plan of Level H-5.

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Fig. 5.26: General view of Level H-5, looking north.

Fig. 5.27: The southern section of Area H with Level H-5 destruction in the centre of the picture (note the sloping down of the Level H-5 floor toward Installation 06/H/14 in the right) and Level H-7 floors, looking south.

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Fig. 5.28: Destruction debris on Floor 98/H/62 of Level H-5, looking west.

BUILDING 00/H/29 AND COURTYARD 06/H/75 To the west of Building 00/H/44 another corner of a house was unearthed (Fig. 5.24). No floor was found; only Tabun 00/H/29 hints to its existence. Courtyard 06/H/75 extends between Buildings 00/H/44 and 00/H/29. Only small patches of floors were excavated in it. CONCLUSION As first suggested by Knauf (2006: 137), Level H-6 is probably a squatters’ phase that represents the decay of the Level H-7 city. The poorly preserved floors and the nature of the architectural remains may suggest that the time span of Level H-6 was relatively short. Another indicator of this assumption is the fact that no installations were unearthed in Courtyard 06/H/75, as opposed to other courtyards dating to the Iron IIA in Area H (Levels H-7 and H-5).

lEVEl h-5 Level H-5 (Figs. 5.25–5.26), which is reported here, is equivalent to Knauf’s Level H-5a (Knauf 2006: 142). As far as I can judge, there is no evidence for his earlier phases (his Levels H-5b and H-5c). The

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reconstruction of Finkelstein and Ussishkin (2006: 145) is also inaccurate, as it combined remains of both Levels H-6 and H-5. During Level H-5, Area H served as an open space devoid of any architectural remains. A plaster floor set with pebbles covered most of the area. Some of the highest stones of Level H-6 walls could be seen on top of this. The level of the floor was 161.00±15 all over the area. The floor was damaged by three large pits. While two pits (98/H/22 and 98/H/63) are related to an intermediate phase between Levels H-4 and H-3 (Petit 2006: 136), the third (00/H/14) was probably dug during the time of Level H-4. Installation 00/H/4 was probably used for cooking. It was made of three stones; the central one was crumbling since it was exposed to fire. A semicircular installation (00/H/9) was located in the southwestern part of this open space. It is stone-lined and could have been used as a posthole. Another installation (06/H/14) is located in the southwestern part of the area. It was dug to a depth of ca. 70 cm below the floor of Level H-5 and it therefore cuts a Level H-6 floor (this is seen in the southern and western sections of the area). The floor of this installation was paved; it was laid at almost the same elevation as that of the highest floor of the Level H-7 courtyard (Fig. 5.27). Because only a limited part of this installation was uncovered, its function is unknown. It is important to emphasize that in the past this installation was wrongly interpreted as related to either Level H-7 (Knauf 2006: 137) or to Level H-6 (Finkelstein and Ussishkin 2006: 145); this led to a misunderstanding of the relationship between the University of Chicago strata and the Megiddo Expedition levels. Level H-5 came to its end in a violent destruction. This is best seen in the southern part of the area, where a collapse of big stones, burnt mudbricks, large chunks of charcoal and restorable pottery vessels were found (Fig. 5.28). Evidence for this destruction was also found on the floor of Installation 06/H/14. CONCLUSION Level H-5 represents a complete change in the architectural planning of Area H. After many years in which the area comprised domestic buildings surrounded by open courtyards, Area H became an open space that probably functioned as a public area. The gap in elevation between the floors of Level H-6 (ca. 160.40 m) and Level H-5 (ca. 161.00 m) can be explained as a result of the clearing and flattening of the debris originating from the architecture of Level H-6 and the preparation of the area for plastering. It is logical to assume that this plaster floor and the plaster floor reported by Loud (1948: Fig. 380) in the adjacent Square L6, which are at the same elevation (161.00±15 m), were connected to each other. Loud affiliated this floor with Stratum IVA and according to his plan it abuts City Wall 325. Yet, it seems that Loud’s floor could not have abutted the city wall, because today it is clear that Addition 1055, which was reported in Megiddo I (and was affiliated with Stratum III [Lamon and Shipton 1939: Fig. 89]), must have cut this floor from the city wall. Consequently, Loud’s floor has to be understood as the continuation of the Level H-5 floor; both are earlier than the construction of City Wall 325. This assumption is strengthened by the fact that Loud (1948: Fig. 388) did not associate any architectural elements with Stratum VA (the equivalent to Level H-5) in Square L6. The large size of this plaster floor (all of Area H and the floor reported by Loud) placed in a public area, may hint that a central government was involved in its construction. The fact that the most significant evidence for collapse and destruction is located in the southern parts of the area may testify that a building stood right to the south of Area H. A wood sample from this area was recognized as Cedar of Lebanon, hinting at the probable wealth of this building’s inhabitants (Liphschitz 2006: 515). The nature of destruction of Level H-5, together with its stratigraphic position and

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its characteristic pottery, enable its correlation with Stratum VA-IVB. The destruction of this city was not complete and certain parts of the mound did not show evidence of destruction by fire (Finkelstein 2009: 117).

CITy wall 325 (lEVElS h-4 aND h-3) Although Level H-4 was mostly excavated during the 1998 season (Petit 2006), its main remnant – City Wall 325 (Wall 96/H/19) – was removed only during the 2006 season. While removing the wall its construction techniques were studied. The city wall was built in the finest method in order to support its heavy weight. First, the foundations of the wall (elevation ca. 159.60–159.90 m) were laid to a depth of ca. 1.50 m below the floors of Level H-4 (elevation ca. 161.25 m). In addition, ashlars were used in the corners of the offsets and insets in order to strengthen these sensitive points. The lower course of the wall was built of flat stones that were placed in the bottom of the foundation trench. The outer part of the city wall was built of large boulders that were intended to hold the massive pressure of the weight towards the slope of the mound. Red burnt mudbricks, which were combined between the stones of the wall, most likely originated from the massive destruction debris of the Chicago’s Stratum VIA (Level H-9) and were found and used by the builders of the city wall while digging the deep foundation trench. Intact Juglet 06/H/19/VS1, which was found between the stones of the City Wall 325, may represent a local foundation deposit (not illustrated).

SuMMary aND GENEral CONCluSIONS Three architectural phases, domestic in character, are attested between two destructions – those of Levels H-9 and H-5 (Levels H-8 to H-6). The massive destruction of Level H-9 can surely be identified with Stratum VIA – the latest Canaanite city of Megiddo – according to the red mudbrick debris that seals the floors and its typical pottery. After the destruction of Building 08/H/38 of Level H-9 the urban planning of the area entirely changes. Not a single level until Level H-1 features such a large building. Judging from the pottery, Levels H-8 to H-5 correspond to the University of Chicago’s Stratum V. Therefore, Level H-8 should represent the earliest phase of the Iron IIA, whereas the destruction of Level H-5 is identified with the violent destruction of Stratum VA-IVB. The history of Megiddo during the Iron IIA as manifested in Area H can be summarized as follows: after a hiatus of unknown duration, a poor settlement (Level H-8) was built on top of the massive destruction debris of Level H-9. This settlement grew into a city (Level H-7), which was abandoned for unknown reasons. Some of its inhabitants tried to survive in the ruins of this city after its desertion (Level H-6). After a short period settlers came back to the mound and built the city of Stratum VA-IVB (Level H-5). In Area H the construction of this phase changes the architectural planning of the early Iron IIA levels. This city was violently destroyed. Our discovery that four Iron IIA architectural phases exist in Area H changes the accepted view that only two strata (VB and VA-IVB) were affiliated with this period. The fact that all four phases are represented in Area H by architectural elements (and not only by floor-raising) is significant for the reconstruction of the early history of the northern kingdom of Israel (see Chapter 13). Table 5.1 summarizes the relation between the Area H levels and the University of Chicago’s strata:

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TABLE 5.1: UPDATED STRATIGRAPHY OF AREA H Area H

U of C Stratum

Period

Comments

H-10

VIB

Early Iron I

Domestic occupation

H-9

VIA

Late Iron I

Destruction in great conflagration

H-8

VB

Early Iron IIA

Domestic occupation with patches of floors

H-7

Domestic occupation with massive floor accumulation

H-6

Squatters phase

H-5

VA-IVB

Late Iron IIA

Open area with brick collapse in its south

H-4

Early IVA

Iron IIB

Construction of City Wall 325

H-3

IVA

H-2

Early III

Iron IIB-C

Large building

H-1

III

Iron IIC

Assyrian palaces

Destruction layer of 732 BCE; City Wall 325

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REFERENCES Finkelstein, I. 2009. Destructions: Megiddo as a Case Study. In: Schloen, D.J., ed. Exploring the Longue Durée, Essays in Honor of Lawrence E. Stager. Winona Lake: 113–126. Finkelstein, I. and Ussishkin, D. 2006. A Different Interpretation of the 2000 Season Stratigraphy (Levels H-6 and H-5). In: Finkelstein, I., Ussishkin, D. and Halpern, B., eds. Megiddo IV: The 1998–2002 Seasons (Monograph Series of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University 24). Tel Aviv: 143–146. Gadot, Y., Martin, M., Blockman, N. and Arie, E. 2006. Area K (Levels K-5 and K-4, the 1998–2002 Seasons). In: Finkelstein, I., Ussishkin, D. and Halpern, B., eds. Megiddo IV: The 1998–2002 Seasons (Monograph Series of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University 24). Tel Aviv: 87–103. Joffe, A.H., Cline, E.H. and Lipschitz, O. 2000. Area H. In: Finkelstein, I., Ussishkin, D. and Halpern, B., eds. Megiddo III: The 1992–1996 Seasons (Monograph Series of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University 18). Tel Aviv: 140–160. Knauf, A.E. 2006. The 2000 Season (Levels H-7, H-6 and H-5). In: Finkelstein, I., Ussishkin, D. and Halpern, B., eds. Megiddo IV: The 1998–2002 Seasons (Monograph Series of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University 24). Tel Aviv: 137–142. Lamon, R.S. and Shipton, G.M. 1939. Megiddo I: Seasons of 1925–34, Strata I–V (Oriental Institute Publications 42). Chicago. Liphschitz, N. 2006. Wood Remains. In: Finkelstein, I., Ussishkin, D. and Halpern, B., eds. Megiddo IV: The 1998–2002 Seasons (Monograph Series of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University 24). Tel Aviv: 505–518. Loud, G. 1948. Megiddo II: Seasons of 1935–1939 (Oriental Institute Publications 62). Chicago. Mazar, A. 2007. Review of Harrison, T.P. Megiddo 3: Final Report of the Stratum VI Excavations (Oriental Institute Publications 127). Chicago, 2004. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 345: 83–87. Petit, L. 2006. The 1998 season (Level H-4). In: Finkelstein, I., Ussishkin, D. and Halpern, B., eds. Megiddo IV: The 1998–2002 Seasons (Monograph Series of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University 24). Tel Aviv: 130–136.

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CHAPTER 6

AREA L Eric H. Cline and Inbal Samet

In the 2006 season and in May 2007 additional excavations were undertaken in Area L, immediately to the south of the area investigated during the 1998–2004 seasons (see Cline 2006; Cline and Cohen 2006). The continued excavation of Area L was funded by the Israel Nature and National Parks Authority. In 2006, the excavation team consisted of Eric H. Cline, Inbal Samet, Sasha Redlener and Deborah Cantrell. The 2007 excavation was carried out under the supervision of Inbal Samet, assisted by Boaz Gross and Shatil Emanuelov. The primary goal of the 2006–2007 work was to prepare the area for a planned reconstruction by the National Parks Authority. The original intention was to bring the entire area down to the presumed elevation of the Palace 6000 courtyard. However, the excavations in 2006 revealed remains of the southern façade of the Northern Stables, complete with entrances into two of the stables, and the courtyard in front of the stables. A new working plan was therefore devised, according to which the remains of both Palace 6000 and the southern half of the Northern Stables would be conserved and reconstructed. Nine squares were initially laid out, placed across the tourist path and southwards to the artificial cliff edge between Area L and Area J. The southernmost part of the artificial cliff edge overhanging Area J was left in place during the 2006 season in order to protect workers in both areas. This remaining strip of unexcavated earth, measuring 13 m in length and varying in width from ca. 1.5 to 3 m, was subsequently removed during the 2007 season. The soil from the 2007 excavations was used to backfill Squares G/6, H/6 and J/6, and was also used as bedding for the redirected tourist path. It was evident, both from Yadin’s 1970 report and from several mixed loci reached during the 2006 season, that part of the area excavated during the 2006 and 2007 seasons had been previously uncovered. Moreover, much of Area L had been extensively robbed for building materials in antiquity. These circumstances leave us with meagre architectural and ceramic remains as the only tools for interpreting the 2006–2007 finds. The same stratigraphical system as used previously in this area was employed during the 2006–2007 seasons. Thus, Levels L-5 to L-0 correspond to Strata VIA–II of the University of Chicago excavations.

lEVEl l-5 Level L-5, correlated with the University of Chicago Stratum VIA, is comprised of a deep destruction layer readily distinguishable by burnt red mudbricks similar to those seen in Area K and elsewhere at Megiddo. It was reached during the 2006 season only in a small probe in the northwest corner of Square H/6, and possibly in Squares H/7 and J/7 as well, beneath a thin layer of unclassified debris lying immediately under the Stables’ southern wall and courtyard. It can also be seen in the southern baulk of Square G/5, which was excavated during the 2004 season.

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lEVEl l-4 Level L-4, featuring a series of walls seen elsewhere in Area L and attributed to the University of Chicago Stratum VB, was reached during the 2006–2007 seasons only in Squares G/6 and H/6. Here a phytolith surface was uncovered, most likely representing the remains of a beaten earth floor dating to shortly before the construction of Palace 6000. This surface can also be seen in the southern baulk of Square G/5, which was excavated during the 2004 season.

lEVEl l-3 Level L-3 corresponds to the University of Chicago Strata VA–IVB. In previous seasons, excavation of this level focused primarily on the large monumental building known as Palace 6000. During the 2006 season, remains of what seems to have been a courtyard in front of the palace were found in Square G/6. A 3-cm-thick brown line corresponding to this courtyard level can also be seen in the southern baulk of Square G/5, which was excavated during the 2004 season. During the 2007 season, various baulks that had been left after digging during previous excavation seasons were trimmed and reexamined. Once again a surface of reddish mudbricks at the presumed level of the courtyard (elevation 162.08 m) could be seen and lines several mm wide, dividing one brick from another, could be clearly distinguished. These observations would seem to support the interpretation of these remains as the courtyard of Palace 6000, which would have been originally paved with square mudbrick tiles – a practice known from northern/Assyrian palaces.

lEVEl l-2 Level L-2 includes well-preserved remains of the Northern Stables and corresponds to the University of Chicago Stratum IVA (Figs. 6.1–6.4). Excavations during the 2006 season revealed the southern closing wall of the stables. This consists of a large east-west wall (06/L/01) in Squares E–H/7, with its top level at elevation 163.35 m. It has been robbed out in most places all the way down to what appears to be the bottom of the wall, i.e., the foundation course, consisting in some spots of large ashlars. In Square J/7, these bottom-most ashlars were robbed as well, thereby exposing the makeup of the wall, which was composed of crushed limestone (Fig. 6.5). It should be noted that in Squares E–F/7 this closing wall was located immediately beneath a Neo-Assyrian flagstone paving dating to Level L-1 (the University of Chicago Stratum III – Fig. 6.6). The front entrance into Stable 3 was uncovered in Square E/7, directly underneath the Neo-Assyrian flagstone paving just mentioned. Some rock tumble and one (perhaps two) restorable vessel(s) were found on the threshold of this entrance. The plaster floor of the central aisle of this stable (98/L/120) runs south through the threshold, overlying several stones put in place to form the threshold itself. Entrances into both the western and eastern side aisles can also be seen in Square E/7; one could have turned into either of these immediately after coming through the front entrance of the stable. The entrance into the eastern side aisle is paved with plaster and runs over large ashlars set below ground level before meeting the cobble pebbles of the eastern side Aisle 98/L/39 (Figs. 6.2–6.3). The entrance into the western side aisle has been robbed out. Just to the south of the southern closing Wall 06/L/1 of the stable in Square E/7, a plaster surface was discovered. This layer, which appears to be a continuation of the plastered central aisle of the stables, was overlain by a layer of cobblestones, with a layer of earth between the two. It is possible that these represent

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Fig. 6.1: An updated plan of Level L-2, including the remains exposed in the 2006–2007 seasons.

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Fig. 6.2: General picture of the Level L-2 remains (mainly Stable 3), looking north (the 2006 season).

Fig. 6.3. General picture of the Level L-2 remains (Stable 3 in the centre), looking east (the 2006 season).

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Fig. 6.4: East-west architectural section through Palace 6000 and the Northern Stables.

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Fig. 6.5: Easternmost remains of the front wall of the stables in Squares H–J/7.

two phases in the life of what would have been the courtyard immediately to the south of the stables. This, however, is not certain, for the layer of cobblestones was cut by robber trenches on both north and south and there is not enough left to determine what purpose it served and to which phase it belonged. The robber trenches discovered immediately to the south of Wall 06/L/1 in Square E/7 cut through the layer of NeoAssyrian flagstones, as well as the layer of cobblestones just mentioned plus the underlying earth and the plaster surface below, all lying immediately to the south of the stables. Elsewhere, in Squares F/6–7, the cobblestones of the eastern side aisle and a portion of the northsouth exterior Wall 98/L/25 were found. However, the eastern interior wall of Stable 3 (98/L/28), which should have been located at the western edge of Square F/6, was completely robbed out. A robber trench

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(06/L/72) can be seen instead, which also cut the plaster floor of the central aisle of this stable, leaving in place only a single line of stones immediately next to the main eastern interior wall. This single line of stones (Figs. 6.2–6.3) had apparently been added as a renovation to the stables at some point during their existence, since the stones were placed on the plaster floor itself with only a very thin layer of mud between them. A similar line of unexplained stones lying immediately alongside a major interior wall was seen previously farther to the north and west, during the excavation of Stable 2 (see Megiddo IV). Also in Square F/6, several large whole mudbricks were observed, lying within a layer of presumed collapse/ destruction and probably coming originally from the upper part of the building. Particularly interesting were several thin mudbricks seen in section in the southern baulk; they appear to be roof-tiles rather than the usual mudbricks. It is conceivable that these are fragments of the stable roof, noticed and recorded for the first time. To the west, in Square D/6, another detail that had been overlooked in previous seasons was noticed. Here, in the cobbled aisle of the stable, an area of small cobbles was laid vertically and at a slight slant, rather than horizontally. This must have been functional, and done for a specific reason, since this would have required more cobblestones and labor than usual, but the reason for doing so is not clear. Finally, in Square G/7, a plaster floor complete with a later resurfacing was uncovered to the south of the southern closing wall of the stables. This presumably formed part of the courtyard in front of the stables. On the upper (i.e., later) of the two plaster floors was a relatively large quantity of flat-lying pottery.

lEVEl l-1 Level L-1 corresponds to the University of Chicago Stratum III. Excavations during the 2006 season revealed small portions of a pebble pavement in Square F/6, similar to those found in previous seasons (Fig. 6.7). More importantly, a larger area of pebble pavement from this layer was uncovered in Squares E–F/7 (Fig. 6.6). This pavement connects on the west with the Level L-1 cobble Paving 00/L/44 found during the 2000 season in Square D/7. The flagstone surface slopes down from south to north at a fairly steep angle, ending in the northern section of Square F/7 at the same approximate level (163.03 m) as the top of the ashlar stones forming Wall 06/L/1 of Level L-2 in the adjacent Squares G–H/7. A partially preserved plaster surface was also found at elevation 163.19 m in Square J/7 (Fig. 6.5). In this area, foundation material for the continuation of Wall 06/L/1 of Level L-2 and the stables’ courtyard was also discovered, at elevation 163.07 m.

lEVEl l-0 Level L-0 corresponds to the University of Chicago Stratum II. Two gigantic pits dating to this period were detected during the 1998–2004 excavation seasons (Fig. 6.7). Another such presumed gigantic pit (or the continuation of Pit 98/L/132) was uncovered in the season of 2006, in Squares G–H/6. This pit removed virtually all of the material from Levels L-3 and L-2 in these two squares, which were found almost completely empty with the exception of numerous seashells in two separate locations within Square G/6. At, or near, the bottom of this suspected pit in Square G/6 were found flat-lying pottery, bones and an Egyptian scarab, presumably associated with a layer of mudbrick material possibly belonging to the courtyard in front of Palace 6000.

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282 Fig. 6.6: An updated plan of Level L-1, including the remains exposed in the 2006–2007 seasons.

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Fig. 6.7: Level L-1 pavement in Squares E–F/7.

SQUARE STRUCTURE 04/L/13 During the 2006 season, a probe was opened to examine the possible association between the remains in Area L and Square Structure 04/L/13, which had been previously unearthed to the south of the stables during Yadin’s excavations. Wightman (1984) ascribed this structure to Building 434, which he placed in the same level as the stables (his Phase IVAii; our Level L-2); Yadin affiliated it with Strata VA–IVB/ Level L-3, suggesting that it served as a staircase in a building to the south of Palace 6000 (Yadin 1970: 76, Figs. 5, 8); and Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Halpern (2006: 852) interpreted it as part of a gatehouse in an enclosing wall surrounding Palace 6000. Layers of a plaster floor found at the bottom of the 2006 probe appear similar to the floors of the courtyard of the Northern Stables and were thus thought to be a continuation of this courtyard. During the 2007 season, however, a similar patch of floor – made of plaster mixed with many small sherds – was unearthed in Squares F–G/8, but was cut from the north by a robber trench. While it was also considered at first to be a part of the floor of the stables’ courtyard, it seemed odd that the slope of this floor towards the south was considerably more moderate than that of the courtyard floor. As more of the floor was uncovered, it became clear that it abuts the remains of an impressive wall (07/L/1) conserved to a height of one course. The floor also seems to be associated with Square Structure 04/L/13, almost embracing it on its northern and eastern sides – stopping, in several places, just a few millimeters away from the square

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Fig. 6.8: The 2007 season looking north, showing Square Structure 04/L/13 on the right and Wall 07/L/1 on top right. The plaster floor connecting them was cut by a robber trench. The floor of the courtyard of Level L-2 can be seen in the background (behind the figure), sloping under the former floor.

structure (Fig. 6.8). It therefore seems likely that this floor (07/L/22) once abutted Structure 04/L/13, but was eroded away through the course of time. Moreover, judging from the orientation, level, and character of Wall 07/L/1 and Floor 07/L/22, it seems likely that they belonged to the poorly preserved Building 434. The robber trench that cuts the floor on the north was probably meant to extract the stones of the northern wall of this building. Such an assignation supports Wightman’s attribution of Square Structure 04/L/13 to Building 434. The archaeological and historical comments and the plan suggested by Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Halpern (2006: 852 and Fig. 43.1) must therefore be adjusted accordingly. However, while examining the baulk between Areas L and J, the floor of the stables’ courtyard was noted at an elevation of 162.16 m, ca. 25 cm below the plaster floor just mentioned (07/L/22). This means that Building 434 was built later than (and above) the Northern Stables, that is, in Level L-1. Finally, on the last day of the 2007 excavation season, an additional floor was discovered east of and above the southeastern corner of Wall 07/L/1. This meticulously laid plaster floor was embedded with closely fitting tiny sherds. Although it could not be linked to any other contemporary architectural feature, and has not yet been entirely unearthed, it seems to date later than Building 434.

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CONCluSION The excavations conducted during the 2006 and 2007 seasons shed light on several aspects of Levels L-3, L-2 and L-1. Regarding Level L-3, it has now become clear that the courtyard of Palace 6000 was paved with mudbricks that left a pattern still visible today. In regard to Level L-2, the excavation revealed the elaborate nature of the entrance into Stable 3, featuring ashlar blocks (perhaps door jambs) on either side of the entry way. Upon entering Stable 3 via this main entrance, smaller secondary entrances were immediately available to the right or left (east or west), providing access into the cobbled side aisles of the stable. The remains of the entrance into Stable 4 were discovered farther east; its door jambs, although now robbed out down to the foundations, were considerably less massive and not nearly as impressive as those in Stable 3. One may point to an additional observation, that the cobble stone floors of Stable 3 seem to have been better executed than those of Stable 2, uncovered during previous excavation seasons. All this may indicate that the middle stable (i.e., Stable 3) was built more luxuriously than the others, thereby accentuating the symmetrical aspect of the Northern Stable compound. Finally, the related discovery of Wall 07/L/1 and Floor 07/L/22 at the southernmost edge of Area L, both probably belonging to Building 434, indicates a plausible association of Square Structure 04/L/13 with this building, which probably belongs to Level L-1.

REFERENCES Cline, E.H. 2006. Area L (The 1998–2000 Seasons). In: Finkelstein, I., Ussishkin, D. and Halpern, B., eds. Megiddo IV: The 1998–2002 Seasons (Monograph Series of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University 24). Tel Aviv: 104–123. Cline, E.H. and Cohen, M.E. 2006. Appendix: The 2006 Season. In: Finkelstein, I., Ussishkin, D. and Halpern, B., eds. Megiddo IV: The 1998–2002 Seasons (Monograph Series of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University 24). Tel Aviv: 124–129. Finkelstein, I., Ussishkin, D. and Halpern, B. 2006. Archaeological and Historical Conclusions. In: Finkelstein, I., Ussishkin, D. and Halpern, B., eds. Megiddo IV: The 1998–2002 Seasons (Monograph Series of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University 24). Tel Aviv: 843–859. Wightman, G.J. 1984. Building 434 and Other Public Buildings in the Northeastern Sector of Megiddo. Tel Aviv 11: 132–145. Yadin, Y. 1970. Megiddo of the Kings of Israel. Biblical Archaeologist 33: 66–96.

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CHAPTER 7

AREA P Norma Franklin

In May 2007 a two-week excavation was conducted in Area P in conjunction with the Israel National Parks Authority. The dig was carried out by Norma Franklin with the assistance of Roy Liran and David Friesem, Tel Aviv University graduate students, and by workers provided by the National Parks Authority. The area is located in Grid Square H/11 of the University of Chicago excavations, west and below the Iron Age entrance road and east of the visitors’ path that leads to the upper mound. The University of Chicago excavation was terminated in 1939 due to the outbreak of World War II and investigations were never completed. At the close of excavation a depression was left at the base of Stairway 2153, and it was postulated that the stairway may lead to a well dug into the bedrock (Loud 1948: 57). This low-level area was often water logged, giving rise to speculation that a water system may be located here. In May 1967 Yigael Yadin of the Hebrew University renewed excavation here in order to investigate this theory, but the results were never fully published (Yadin 1967; 1970). Stairway 2153 and the possible water system were dated by Yadin to the 9th century BCE. However this assumption was based primarily on the concept that all water systems should be dated to the Iron Age II, that is, to the building exploits of the Kings of Israel (Yadin 1970: 93). The current Megiddo Expedition returned here in order to re-evaluate the Yadin results and to supervise the construction of a drainage system that could effectively deal with the run-off rain water from the upper mound.

ThE EXCaVaTION (fIGS. 7.2–7.3) The Yadin excavation of 1967 at the base of the upper tell created a deep depression at the base of Stairway 2153, and local drainage was poor due to the nearby bedrock and the plaster (see below) that covered the area. Soil was washed down, and at some juncture black ashy debris was also deposited (later observed in the east and west baulks of Area P). Eventually the whole area was filled with topsoil wash, and the area achieved the present-day surface elevation. In order to avoid further damage to the mound, drainage work was undertaken by the National Parks Authority under the direction of architect Daniel Abuhaseira. A long north-south trench was made by a JCB cutting through the visitors’ path and the area to its west. Various electrical cables were exposed, but there was no pottery or any material that suggested that the trench cut into the archaeological strata, and the sterile soil resembled the featureless soil exposed in Area F (west) in 1994 (Ilan et al. 2000: 76).1 Our excavation commenced with a north-south, ca. 6-m-long and ca. 2.30-m-wide trench that cut through a thick muddy pottery-free matrix that signified that this was simply surface-soil wash from higher up the slope. At the northern end of the trench, a narrow flight of modern stone steps, with a sloping stone balustrade, was exposed just below the surface. According to a representative of the National Parks Authority, 1

The material from the Area P excavation was used to back-fill the Area F-west squares.

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Fig. 7.1: General view of the excavation, looking south.

287

s

sMr

s srsreIs

Fig. 7.2: Plan of the remains.

these steps were built in the 1950s and thus pre-date the Yadin excavation. Our trench was accordingly reduced in length in order to leave these steps outside the excavation area. Once the base of the modern steps was reached it was realized that the surface at the time of the Yadin excavations corresponded with the base of the modern steps. The latter also dictated the extent of Yadin’s excavation area as their descent started at the point where the east-west ‘Closing Wall’ of the area is marked on both the University of Chicago and Yadin plans. The ‘Closing Wall’ has an upper elevation of between 138.53 m (west) and 138.40 m (east); however its lowest course was not reached. Excavation continued in the south of the trench, exposing the lower treads of Stairway 2153 and part of a sloping plaster-covered area (Locus 07/P/2). The much higher area surrounding the trench and the main excavation area were also cleared and levelled in an attempt to remove modern debris (Locus 07/P/3). Once the extent of the modern wash-in debris was ascertained, mechanical equipment was brought in to remove the modern detritus. A JCB removed the debris within the trench down to elevation 137.70 m.

288

rera

as

a: r sar a

Fig. 7.3: A Cypriot amphoriskos of the white painted group (Iron IIB) and a black juglet (Iron IIB). (Another Iron II black juglet was also found, but is not shown here.)

There was no pottery or other signs of ancient habitation, and the soil was sterile except for modern items, one of which (a soft-drink bottle) was very likely placed there by Yadin as a marker. Manual excavation was resumed down to elevation 137.54 m, which equalled the upper spot of the lowest stair tread. With the aid of Yadin’s original plans, it soon became apparent where he had exposed the plastered bedrock and where he had left two small unexcavated areas. One of these unexcavated areas was adjacent to the centre of our east baulk. Flat-lying pottery was collected, including a small intact black juglet (Locus 07/P/6) at elevation 138.05 m. The other area was smaller and adjacent to our west baulk at the base of the modern steps. A small amount of pottery was collected (Locus 07/P/7). These two pottery caches appear to have once been part of a layer of pottery that covered the area at elevation 138.05 m to 137.63 m. It seems that Yadin must have excavated the central part of this pottery layer, even though there is no record of him having done so. East of Stairway 2153 a sterile muddy matrix covered the sloping plastered area (Locus 07/P/9). This was the area described in Yadin’s unpublished notes as ‘tunnels’, but in reality they were shallow channels.2 The area was cleared with difficulty due to the continuous seepage of water from within the mound. This was the lowest spot excavated and moisture collected on the impervious plaster surface. Yadin’s (unpublished) plan showed a pebble floor at ca. elevation 137.65 m. We did not observe a surface at that elevation, and it is possible that the surface observed in 1967 was in fact the layer of flat-lying 2

A disturbance was noted in the south baulk directly above the area with the plastered channels. Yadin’s notes described a pit containing Persian period pottery that had cut into one of the ‘tunnels’ dating the final period of use of this water system to the Persian period (Yadin 1967: 21). The disturbance probably represents either a part of the pit in the baulk (cleared out by Yadin but refilled with tell wash) or (less likely) it may represent a tunnel cut by Yadin into the south baulk in order to trace the channel that emerges from under the mound.

289

s

sMr

s srsreIs

pottery that corresponded to the pottery that we retrieved at elevation 137.63 m. Below elevation 137.63 m there was ca. 8 cm of fine silt, presumably seasonal wash material (Locus 07/P/8 elevation 137.42–137.63 m), which in turn rested on the fragmentary remains of a flat plaster surface at ca. 137.57 m (i.e., below the pottery layer). We concluded that the plaster surface was covered with silt before the pottery was laid down, either purposely or washed in as debris. That is, the pottery layer must mark the period of final use of this water system. The flat plaster surface, at elevation 137.57 m, was bordered in the north by the eastwest ‘Closing Wall’ (see Fig. 7.3) originally excavated by the University of Chicago. It was separated from the area of the sloping plastered channels at ca. 136.85 m by a low east-west wall. The plaster covering the channels had originally also covered the face of the low wall, signifying that the latter3 and the flat plaster surface were later additions to this still enigmatic drainage/water system.

CONCluSION It appears that the plastered channels more likely represent a drainage system than a water system. Water from below the mound or from within the natural bedrock hill ran to this point via the plastered channels and then collected in a reservoir (the plastered area probably represents part of it) or was allowed to drain off the lower tell. This drainage and collection system could have preceded the building of Stairway 2153 or alternatively, both elements could have been constructed at the same time. At a later date, and after Stairway 2153 was built, the possible reservoir appears to have been reduced in size by the addition of a low plaster-covered east-west wall. The date of the original construction of the drainage channels and Stairway 2153 cannot be decided with any certainty. However, the level of the flat plaster surface corresponds with the elevation of the lowest tread of Stairway 2153. The plaster-covered drainage channels and the flat plaster surface were covered by a ca. 8 cm layer of sterile soil which in turn was covered with a layer of pottery. The pottery (Fig. 7.4) dates to the Iron Age II, signifying that this ancient drainage/water system was no longer in use by that time. This means that the construction of the drainage/water system and Stairway 2153 must pre-date the pottery (see below).

aDDENDuM: a prOpOSal rEGarDING STaIrway 2153 During the 1935/36 University of Chicago excavation season Robert Lamon supervised the excavation of Stratum IV City Gate 2156. Lamon noted that Stairway 2153 was not bonded into the Stratum IV elements, notably Wall 969 and the approach road that led to the Outer Gate, and this alerted him to the fact that these elements were not built at the same time (Loud 1948: 54–55, Fig. 121). Later it was seen that the Stratum IV approach road (un-numbered) was built over the earlier Stratum VA one (Locus 2150), and that the stairway was in use with both the Stratum IV and the Stratum V approach roads, which were (at that point) at ca. elevation 149.00 m and 146.00 m respectively (Loud 1948: 46–49 Figs. 91, 105, 106 Section O–P, Figs. 388–389).4 3 4

At the extreme eastern exposed end of this wall, lowest elevation 137.31 m, there was a remnant of plaster still covering its exposed face at elevation 137.42 m. The elevation of the roadway within the area of the Outer Gate, Locus 1855, was ca. 50 cm higher. The Stratum V approach was at ca. 148.50 m and the Stratum IV approach was at ca. 149.50 m (Loud 1948: 48–49, Figs. 105–106 Section M-N and Fig. 389).

290

rera

as

a: r sar a

Stairway 2153 (Loud 1948: 56, Figs. 123–124) was built from the bottom up with each upper tread overlapping the lower one. The stairway was dug into the mound, or rather the upper glacis that encircles the upper mound, and dictates its gradient. It was thought to have originally been roofed (ibid.: 57). The upper section of the stairway changed direction and became narrower and steeper, showing signs of constructional changes. This change in direction and gradient occurred after a landing at elevation 145.15 m, i.e., 2.25 m before the final landing (Loud 1948: 57). These facts, together with our excavation results at the base of the stairway, raise the possibility that Stairway 2153 was built prior to the series of Strata V–IV approach roads. That is, it is more logical that the stairway was later adapted to ensure that it connected with the later surfaces. The point where the upper part of the stairway is jogged and changes direction and gradient is in the University of Chicago Grid Square J10/11 at elevation 145.15 m (see Loud 1948: Fig. 389). Opposite, on the other side of the approach road, the higher levels of the mound are contained by Retaining Wall 1857 (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 83; Loud 1948: 48–49, Fig. 105). This retaining wall had to have been built when the original approach road was cut into the mound when the first of the city gate complexes was built, possibly in Stratum VI or Stratum V, i.e., after the Late Bronze Age gate and the lower approach road went out of use, an event that probably coincided with the final occupation of the lower mound in Level F-5 (Ilan et al. 2000: 98). If Stairway 2153 had continued in a straight line, with no landing, jogging, change of direction or change of gradient along its length, and if the Iron Age approach-road and Wall 1857 had not yet been constructed, then Stairway 2153 would have connected with the Late Bronze Age levels at ca. elevation 156.00 m. A series of Late Bronze Age remains were excavated by the University of Chicago in Area DD Grid Square J10/11, e.g., Courtyard Building 5020 at elevation 156.20–156.35 m, a Stratum VIIB floor at ca. elevation 156.00 m and a Stratum IX floor at ca. elevation 155.60–155.80 m (Loud 1948: 112, Figs. 268, 269, 411). These remains co-existed with the monumental building excavated by the current expedition in Level F-9 (Ilan et al. 2000: 86) and Stairway 2153 would have provided a very necessary link between these two nearby complexes separated by a 20 m difference in elevation. The presence of a near identical, once covered stairway leading down the side of a mound, possibly as part of a drainage system or leading to an extra-mural pool, is also found at Tell es-Sa‘idiyeh (Pritchard 1985: 57–59).

REFERENCES Lamon, R. And Shipton, G.M. 1939. Megiddo I: Seasons of 1925–1934, Strata I–V (Oriental Institute Publications 42). Chicago. Loud, G. 1948. Megiddo II: Seasons of 1935–39 (Oriental Institute Publications 62). Chicago. Ilan D., Franklin N. and Hallote, R. 2000. Area F. In: Finkelstein I., Ussishkin, D. and Halpern, B., eds. Megiddo III: The 1992–1996 Seasons (Monograph Series of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University 18). Tel Aviv: 75–103. Pritchard, J.B. 1985. Tell Es-Sa‘idiyeh: Excavations of the Tell, 1964–1966 (University Museum Monograph 60). Philadelphia. Yadin, Y. 1967. Notes and News – Megiddo. Israel Exploration Journal 17: 119–121. Yadin, Y. 1970. Megiddo of the Kings of Israel. Biblical Archaeologist 33: 66–96.

291

MEGIDDO V THE 2004-2008 SEASONS

VOLUME II

TEL AVIV UNIVERSITY SONIA AND MARCO NADLER INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY

MONOGRAPH SERIES NUMBER 31

Executive Editor Editorial Board Managing Editor

Israel Finkelstein Moshe Fischer Avi Gopher Raphael Greenberg Oded Lipschits Myrna Pollak

MEGIDDO   V

THE 2004-2008 SEASONS VOLUME II EDITORS: ISRAEL FINKELSTEIN, DAVID USSISHKIN, ERIC H. CLINE MATTHEW J. ADAMS, ERAN ARIE, ERIC H. CLINE, ISRAEL FINKELSTEIN, NORMA FRANKLIN, MARIO A.S. MARTIN, DAVID USSISHKIN Contributions by Matthew J. Adams, Yaniv Agmon, Eran Arie, Carolina Aznar, David Ben-Shlomo, Julye Bidmead, Noga Blockman, Elisabetta Boaretto, James M. Bos, Baruch Brandl, Eric H. Cline, Margaret E. Cohen, Adi Eliyahu-Behar, Julie Ellis, Lev Eppelbaum, Israel Finkelstein, Norma Franklin, David Friesem, Yuval Gadot, Mor Gafri, Boaz Gattenio, Ayelet Gilboa, Philippe Guillaume, Christian Herrmann, Sonia Itkis, Othmar Keel, Adi Keinan, Inbar Ktalav, Nili Liphschitz, Shmuel Marco, Mario A.S. Martin, Assaf Nativ, Alexander Pechuro, Rachel Pelta, Laura A. Peri, Daniel Rosenberg, Galit Sameora, Inbal Samet, Benjamin Sass, Aharon Sasson, Ruth Shahack-Gross, Ilan Sharon, David Ussishkin, Lior Weissbrod, Naama Yahalom-Mack, Assaf Yasur-Landau

Project coordinator Sivan Einhorn

EMERY AND CLAIRE YASS PUBLICATIONS IN ARCHAEOLOGY TEL AVIV UNIVERSITY

WINONA LAKE, INDIANA EISENBRAUNS 2013

Monograph Series under the auspices of the Friends of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University Graphics by Michal Semo-Kovetz, TAU Graphic Design Studio

www.eisenbrauns.com Printed in the U.S.A. © Copyright 2013 by the Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University All rights reserved. Published for the Emery and Claire Yass Publications in Archaeology (Bequeathed by the Yass Estate, Sydney, Australia)

of the Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University by Eisenbrauns Winona Lake, Indiana, U.S.A.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Adams, Matthew J. (Matthew Joel) Megiddo V : the 2004–2008 seasons / Matthew J. Adams, Eran Arie, Eric H. Cline, Israel Finkelstein, Norma Franklin, Mario A. S. Martin, David Ussishkin ; editors, Israel Finkelstein, David Ussishkin, Eric H. Cline ; contributions by Matthew J. Adams, Yaniv Agmon, Eran Arie, Carolina Aznar, David Ben-Shlomo, Julye Bidmead, Noga Blockman, Elisabetta Boaretto, James M. Bos, Baruch Brandl, Eric H. Cline, Margaret E. Cohen, Adi Eliyahu-Behar, Julie Ellis, Lev Eppelbaum, Israel Finkelstein, Norma Franklin, David Friesem, Yuval Gadot, Mor Gafri, Boaz Gattenio, Ayelet Gilboa, Philippe Guillaume, Christian Herrmann, Sonia Itkis, Othmar Keel, Adi Keinan, Inbar Ktalav, Nili Liphschitz, Shmuel Marco, Mario A. S. Martin, Assaf Nativ, Alexander Pechuro, Rachel Pelta, Laura A. Peri, Daniel Rosenberg, Galit Sameora, Inbal Samet, Benjamin Sass, Aharon Sasson, Ruth Shahack-Gross, Ilan Sharon, David Ussishkin, Lior Weissbrod, Naama Yahalom-Mack, Assaf Yasur-Landau ; project coordinator, Sivan Einhorn.      volume  cm. — (Monograph series (Tel Aviv University. Sonia and Marco Nadler Institute        of Archaeology) ; number 31) “Published . . . for the Emery and Claire Yass Publications in Archaeology”—Title page verso. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-57506-273-0 (volume 1 : hardback : alkaline paper) — ISBN 978-1-57506-274-7 (volume 2 : hardback : alkaline paper) — ISBN 978-1-57506-275-4 (volume 3 : hardback : alkaline paper) — ISBN 978-1-57506-276-1 (set, 3 volumes : hardback : alkaline paper) 1. Megiddo (Extinct city) 2. Excavations (Archaeology)—Israel—Megiddo (Extinct city) 3. Bronze age—Israel—Megiddo (Extinct city) 4. Iron age—Israel—Megiddo (Extinct city) 5. Israel— Antiquities. I. Finkelstein, Israel. II. Einhorn, Sivan. III. Emery and Claire Yass Publications in Archaeology. IV. Title. V. Title: Megiddo 5. VI. Title: Megiddo Five. DS110.M4A33 2013 933′.46—dc23 2013011695 The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1984. ♾™

In the 2004-2008 seasons the Megiddo Expedition was carried out under the auspices of Tel Aviv University, with George Washington University as the senior American partner. Consortium Institutions: George Washington University, Chapman University, Loyola Marymount University and Vanderbilt University. Supporting Institutions: Israel Nature and National Parks Authority and the Israel Exploration Society.

The excavations of 2004-2008, the processing of the finds and the publication of this report were Sponsored by

Chaim Katzman Vivian and Norman Belmonte Eugene M. Grant Frederick L. Simmons Sonia Weindling and Supported by

The Jacob M. Alkow Chair for the Archaeology of Israel in the Bronze and Iron Ages The Austria Chair for the Archaeology of the Land of Israel in the Biblical Period The Fritz Thyssen Foundation (Germany) Under the patronage of Viscount Allenby of Megiddo

CONTENTS

VOLUME I SECTION ONE: INTrODuCTION Chapter 1

THE 2004-2008 SEASONS Israel Finkelstein, David Ussishkin and Eric H. Cline

3

SECTION TwO: STraTIGraphy aND arChITECTurE Chapter 2

Chapter 3

Chapter 4

AREA J

21

Part I: Introduction Matthew J. Adams

21

Part II: Sub-Area Lower J Adi Keinan

28

Part III: The Main Sector of Area J Matthew J. Adams

47

Part IV: Sub-Area Upper J Matthew J. Adams and James M. Bos

119

Part V: Analyses of Sediments from the Level J-4 Temple Floor David Friesem and Ruth Shahack-Gross

143

AREA K

153

Part I: Levels K-8 and K-7 Mario A.S. Martin, Noga Blockman and Julye Bidmead

153

Part II: Level K-6 Eran Arie and Assaf Nativ

165

AREA M

178

Part I: The Excavation Norma Franklin

178

Part II: An Architectural Study of Chamber F Alexander Pechuro

215

Part III: Another Interpretation of the Remains – The Nordburg and Chamber F Israel Finkelstein

228

vii

Chapter 5

AREA H: LEVELS H-9 TO H-5 Eran Arie

247

Chapter 6

AREA L Eric H. Cline and Inbal Samet

275

Chapter 7

AREA P Norma Franklin

286

VOLUME II SECTION ThrEE: pOTTEry Chapter 8

THE EARLY BRONzE AGE POTTERY FROM AREA J Matthew J. Adams

295

Chapter 9

ExPERIMENTAL ARCHAEOLOGY: INVESTIGATING A UNIqUE BURNISHING TECHNIqUE ON AN EARLY BRONzE III JUG Rachel Pelta

335

Chapter 10

THE LATE BRONzE IIB POTTERY FROM LEVELS K-8 AND K-7 Mario A.S. Martin

343

Chapter 11

CYPRIOT, MYCENAEAN AND DERIVATIVE FORMS FROM LEVELS K-8 AND K-7 Assaf Yasur-Landau

458

Chapter 12

THE LATE BRONzE III AND IRON I POTTERY: LEVELS K-6, M-6, M-5, M-4 AND H-9 Eran Arie

475

Chapter 13

THE IRON IIA POTTERY Eran Arie

668

VOLUME III SECTION fOur: OThEr fINDS Chapter 14

THE CHIPPED STONE ASSEMBLAGE Julie Ellis

829

Chapter 15

THE SMALL FINDS Noga Blockman and Benjamin Sass

866

viii

Chapter 16

THE GROUNDSTONE ASSEMBLAGE Daniel Rosenberg

930

Chapter 17

STAMP-SEAL AMULETS Othmar Keel

977

Chapter 18

CYLINDER SEALS Baruch Brandl

993

Chapter 19

THE AMULETS Christian Herrmann

1011

Chapter 20

FIGURATIVE CLAY ARTEFACTS Laura Peri

1017

Chapter 21

A LATE BRONzE AGE GOLD PENDANT FROM AREA K Margaret E. Cohen

1086

Chapter 22

A DOUBLE AxE FROM LEVEL H-9 Assaf Yasur-Landau

1091

Chapter 23

TExTILE PRODUCTION Julye Bidmead

1094

Chapter 24

GAMES Philippe Guillaume

1106

SECTION fIVE: ENVIrONMENTal aND phySICal STuDIES Chapter 25

RADIOCARBON DATING OF THE IRON AGE LEVELS Ayelet Gilboa, Ilan Sharon and Elisabetta Boaretto

1117

Chapter 26

THE HUMAN REMAINS Galit Sameora

1128

Chapter 27

FAUNAL REMAINS FROM THE IRON AGE LEVELS Aharon Sasson

1131

Chapter 28

THE MICROMAMMALIAN REMAINS Lior Weissbrod

1210

Chapter 29

MOLLUSC SHELLS Inbar Ktalav

1215

Chapter 30

WOOD REMAINS Nili Liphschitz

1220

ix

Chapter 31

PETROGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF IRON AGE VESSELS Carolina Aznar

1237

Chapter 32

PETROGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF LATE BRONzE III, LATE IRON I AND IRON IIA POTTERY David Ben-Shlomo

1274

Chapter 33

MICROMORPHOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN AREA K: IMPLICATIONS FOR TRASH DISPOSAL BEHAVIOUR Ruth Shahack-Gross

1255

Chapter 34

GEOARCHAEOLOGICAL STUDY IN AREA K: THRESHING FLOOR OR MIDDEN? Mor Gafri and Ruth Shahack-Gross

1262

Chapter 35

METALWORKING IN AREA K: A REEVALUATION Adi Eliyahu-Behar, Naama Yahalom-Mack, Yuval Gadot and Israel Finkelstein

1271

Chapter 36

IN SEARCH OF THE MIDDLE BRONzE AGE CITY-GATE: INTRODUCTION TO THE GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYS Israel Finkelstein and David Ussishkin

1285

Chapter 37

ELECTROMAGNETIC SURVEY IN THE VICINITY OF AREA F Boaz Gattenio and Shmuel Marco

1288

Chapter 38

MAGNETIC PROSPECTING TO THE NORTH OF THE LATE BRONzE CITY GATE Sonia Itkis and Lev Eppelbaum

1295

SECTION SIX: SuMMary aND CONCluSIONS Chapter 39

COMMENTS ON THE EARLY BRONzE CULTIC COMPOUND, 1992-2010 David Ussishkin

1317

Chapter 40

ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL CONCLUSIONS Israel Finkelstein

1329

Indices of Loci Yaniv Agmon

x

1341

Field Loci

1342

Final Loci

1395

SECTION THREE POTTERY

CHAPTER 8

THE EARLY BRONzE AGE POTTERY FROM AREA J Matthew J. Adams

This chapter complements previous publications of the Early Bronze pottery in Megiddo III and Megiddo IV (Joffe 2000; Greenberg 2006), and includes ceramic material from the 2004–2008 seasons (ceramics from the 2010 season will be published elsewhere). While the construction of a typology of Early Bronze Age pottery from Area J would be ideal, we still lack meaningful assemblages of vessels (rather than sherds). The small quantity of data added for Levels J-2 and J-3 contributes little new to that which has already been published. Frustratingly, the Great Temple of Level J-4 has divulged little ceramic data. That which has been found derives mainly from the corridors (ibid.). The sanctuary-hall has yielded nothing that can be confidently associated with the main phase of use of the temple. Phase J-4a comprises the remains of intermittent activity within the sanctuary after the abandonment of the building (Tables 2.2, 2.4). This layer has yielded precious little ceramic material, but enough to make some chronological statements. The reoccupation of the site in Level J-5/J-6 has yielded more material than before, including some room assemblages, but the quantity of remains still leaves much to be desired. Level J-7 has yielded interesting new dating material but no occupational remains. This report takes a regional approach in our assessment of the Megiddo pottery. The Jezreel Valley and its immediate vicinity in the Early Bronze are now well represented by newly published material: Tel qashish (zuckerman 2003a; 2003b; 2003c; 2003d), Yoqne‘am (zuckerman 2005), qiryat Ata (Fantalkin 2000; Golani 2003), ‘En Esur (Yannai 2006), ‘En Shadud (Braun 1985), Ta‘anach (ziese 2002), and Dothan (Master et al. 2005). Material is also worth consulting from sites that are not as well stratified, such as Afula (Sukenik 1948; Gal and Covello-Paran 1996), Tell Jenin (Salem 2006), Jezreel (Gophna and Shlomi 1997), and Hazorea (Anati et al. 1973; Meyerhof 1989). Farther away, material from Beth-Shean, Hazor, Tel Dan and Tell El-Far‘ah (N) remains useful, but the recent excavation and the publication of older material from Bet Yeraḥ is perhaps the most valuable resource beyond the Jezreel Valley (Greenberg and Paz 2004; Greenberg et al. 2006; Gezov 2006). Terminology used for technological and decorative techniques in the Early Bronze Age lacks consensus (Dessel and Joffe 2000). Note the following clarifications of terminology used in this report. The most common mode of decoration on the Early Bronze pottery at Megiddo is a reddish coating. While there are more technical uses of the terms (Rice 1987: 149), I employ ‘wash’ to indicate a coating that is transparent and ‘slip’ to indicate an opaque coating. Generally, the majority of fabric groups present in the Early Bronze Age levels have been fired to a buff, pink or grey section and have medium- to coarse-sized non-plastic inclusions (often limestone). In some cases, a fabric may stand in stark contrast to this average and, as such, will be noted here. For these fabric descriptions, I will primarily make note of inclusions.1 For these notes, the following terminology will describe size (as inspected with a 10× hand lens): ‘fine-sized’ (1mm). The following will describe quantity: ‘scattered’ (scarce and scattered through fabric), ‘conspicuous’ (conspicuous and common throughout), ‘abundant’ (so abundant as to be touching each other) and ‘dominant’ (completely overshadows all other inclusions and the rest of the matrix). Colour is affected by firing conditions, temper and clay; it is therefore not particularly relevant, but it is occasionally noted.

ThE ChrONOlOGy Of ThE EB I Levels J-2 through J-4 represent the EB I occupation on the tell.2 These levels also represent the establishment and development of broadroom temples and cultic activity on the acropolis. Establishing a specific date for the beginning of this process is vital to our understanding of the rise of monumental temple building in this period. Unfortunately, little can be said based on the information provided by the renewed excavations thus far. The banded-slip sherds found sporadically throughout Levels J-2 through J-4 indicate that the grain wash phase of the EB I had already commenced by the time of Level J-2.3 The chronology of the EB I in the northern portion of the southern Levant has been divided into two periods, originally on the basis of excavations at Yiftahel and ‛En-Shadud (Braun 1985; 1991), where Yiftahel II represents the earlier phase and ‛En-Shadud the later. Generally, the later phase is marked by the appearance of banded-slip decoration (for a concise overview, see zuckerman 2003: 57–60). This general progression has since been confirmed in excavation at ‘Ein Asawir (Yannai 1999; 2006) and Bet Yeraḥ (Greenberg and Paz 2004). We can say on the basis of the pottery from architectural fills that while the Yiftahel II phase is attested, Levels J-2 through J-4 fall neatly into the ‘En-Shadud phase, commonly known as the northern EB IB. This makes these levels roughly contemporary with Megiddo stages VII–III, ‘En Shadud II, Tel Qashish XVB/A (Zuckerman 2003: 50), Bet Yeraḥ Getzov-V (Getzov 2006: 24–25), Bet Yeraḥ Area SA local phase 8-6 (Greenberg et al. 2006: 89), Bet Yeraḥ Area BS local phase 15-14 (Greenberg et al. 2006: 123), Bet Yeraḥ Area UN local phase 5 (Greenberg et al. 2006: 280), Bet Yeraḥ Area EY local phase 11-10 (Greenberg et al. 2006: 346), qiryat Ata Stratum II (Golani 2003: 148), Afula Ix (Sukenik 1948; Gal and Carello-Poran 1996) and it is present at Jezreel (unstratified; Gophna and Shlomi 1997: 74).4

lEVEl J-2 Ceramic material from Level J-2 was recovered only in the architectural fill (08/J/215) beneath Pavement 08/J/200 (Picture Pavement) and the remains of the courtyard’s northern boundary wall (08/J/176). Most of the sherds were decorated with a red smeared wash typical of the later EB I, including a holemouth rim with squared lip (cf. Joffe 2000: Fig. 8.1). Grey burnish ware is present, but the single-band-slip decorated body sherd points towards a later EB I (EB IB) date for the construction of Level J-2 (see already Joffe 2000: 163; Greenberg 2006).

2

3 4

The renewed excavations have not yet provided any new sealed loci relating to Level J-1, which is a catch-all term for the activity on the bedrock that Chicago excavated as xx+. Certainly this level represents multiple phases of activity on the site. No absolute dates for the beginning of the grain wash phase are yet available. For comparison of Bet Yeraḥ Getzov-V assemblages to other sites, and therefore strata possibly contemporary with Megiddo Levels J-2 through J-4 further afield, see Getzov 2006: 33.

296

CtMaahe h: a th hMee hehe

h

MTh ahaahe

TehM

M ehM a

lEVEl J-3 (fIG. 8.1) Level J-3 yielded pottery from the collapse of Wall 08/J/21 (08/J/156) and the construction fill beneath the level of the wall (08/J/161). Because the terminus post quem for Level J-2 was already established as EB IB, the material from these loci adds little. A fragment of line-group painted ware appears in Locus 08/J/161. Red smeared wash is still present, represented by the thickened lip holemouth. A date later in the EB I (EB IB) is sustained.

lEVEl J-4: ThE GrEaT TEMplE aND ENVIrONS As the temple was clearly abandoned, pottery from Level J-4 is almost completely from architectural loci (that is, loci that may include earlier material) comprising the makeup of the sanctuary floor and the underlying construction fill (06/J/077, 06/J/091, 06/J/099, 08/J/108 and 08/J/202). In Area Lower J, occupational debris was encountered in the Level J-4 laminated clay surface (08/J/134) and the ashy deposit upon it (08/J/116 and 08/J/124). ArChItECturAl loCI (FIgS. 8.2: 2–3, 5–7) As much of this material originated from bricks, it includes sherds earlier than the EB I. As a decoration, red smeared wash is the most common, but banded-slip, line-group painted ware, grey burnished ware and crackled ware are all present in various quantities. Approximately 10% of the sherds from these architectural loci were from cornets (rims, bases and body fragments). All of these fragments were extremely small, slightly larger than a fingernail in the case of body and rim sherds, and no longer than 2 cm in the case of the pointed bases. As much as half of these were decorated with a red/brown wash, normally associated with the EB I. Joffe (2000: 165) hypothesized that these forms may have continued in use at Megiddo from the Chalcolithic into the later EB I. No cornet sherd of significant size has been found in an occupational context. Considering the quantity of these very small sherds and their clear association with brick material, it seems prudent to leave the form in the late Chalcolithic period. The Megiddo Hinterland Project survey revealed a Chalcolithic presence near the spring (‘Ein el-Kubbi), and it is reasonable to assume that Chalcolithic sherds in the vicinity were incorporated into the bricks. The red wash, then, appears to be an old tradition in the Megiddo area, predating the EB I. Overall, not a single sherd dating later than the EB IB was recovered from any of the architectural loci. oCCuPAtIonAl loCI (FIgS. 8.2: 1, 4, 8–10) Ceramics from occupational debris comes exclusively from Area Lower J associated with the ashy debris (08/J/116) and surface accumulation (08/J/124) above the clay surface (08/J/134). The lower surface probably represents the latest material deposited on it. The forms, including the simple platter (Fig. 8.2: 4), point to a very late date, a terminal EB I or transitional EB I/II phase. This, in combination with the ceramic evidence produced previously (Joffe 2000; Greenberg 2006) and the two radiocarbon samples (3090–2910 BCE; Boaretto 2006), support a date very near the end of the EB IB for the final occupational deposition in Level J-4.

297

M Maathe at M MMMt

1

4

2

5

3

6

Fig. 8.1: Level J-3 pottery.

FIGURE 8.1: LEVEL J-3 POTTERY no. reg. no.

Vessel

Basket elevation (m) Comments

1

08/J/156/VS3

Krater/Bowl

152.25-152.42

Full red slip

2

08/J/161/VS2

Storage jar

151.80-152.25

External brown-red slip

3

08/J/161/VS5

Storage jar

151.80-152.25

Dominant coarse angular grey inclusions (chert?), full red slip

4

08/J/161/VS3

Bowl

151.80-152.25

Buff section, conspicuous medium-sized subangular basalt-like inclusions

5

08/J/161/VS1

Platter

151.80-152.25

Full red slip

6

08/J/156/VS2

Krater

152.25-152.42

Full red slip

298

CtMaahe h: a th hMee hehe

1

h

MTh ahaahe

TehM

M ehM a

2

4

3

5

6

7

8

9

10

Fig. 8.2: Level J-4 pottery.

FIGURE 8.2: LEVEL J-4 POTTERY no. reg. no.

Vessel

Basket elevation (m) Comments

1

08/J/124/VS1

Jar

152.75-152.97

2

06/J/99/VS5

Jar

156.02-156.06

External red slip

3

06/J/99/VS1

Bowl

155.97-156.06

Internal red slip, external red slip on rim only, scraped base

4

08/J/124/VS10

Bowl

152.75-152.97

5

06/J/77/VS9

Bowl

156.03-156.08

Internal red slip, scraped base

6

06/J/91/VS1

Bowl

156.03-156.10

External red slip and burnish

7

06/J/77/VS10

Bowl

156.03-156.08

8

08/J/124/VS11

Cooking-pot

152.75-152.97

External smeared wash, internal smeared wash on rim only

9

08/J/124/VS4

Bowl

152.75-152.97

Full red slip/wash

10

08/J/124/VS9

Bowl

152.75-152.97

Internal red slip/wash, external red slip/wash on lip only, some dripping from external slip (accidental?)

299

M Maathe at M MMMt

phaSE J-4a Phase J-4a is the occupational accumulation from within the Level J-4 temple after it went out of primary use. This period is marked by the slow deterioration of the temple and intermittent activity (see Chapter 2, Part III). At some point, part way through the process of collapse, a layer of grasses was deposited in the temple. These grasses deteriorated into a distinct phytolith layer that was present almost everywhere in the sanctuary. It covered the basalt tables and the pillar bases, therefore indicating that the roof supports had been removed at some point prior to its deposition. A build-up of hearths, both before and after the phytolith deposition, comprises the Phase J-4a activity. The material from Phase J-4a can be divided into four basic contexts vis-à-vis the process of deterioration: the phytolith layer itself, beneath the phytolith layer, above the phytolith layer and material from a part of the sanctuary in which the phytolith layer was not detected. For the most part, most of the ceramic material from all of these contexts is small brick material of an EB I or earlier date that comes from the deteriorating temple bricks. BEnEAth thE PhytolIth lAyEr (FIg. 8.3: 1, 4, 8, 11) In addition to the EB IB and earlier brick material, inverted rim bowls constitute the bulk of the assemblage (Fig. 8.3: 8, 11). Notable is Fig. 8.3: 1, which shows the rim of a metallic ware jar comparable to one found at Bet Yeraḥ dating to EB II (Getzov 2006: Fig 3.43: 14). Fig. 8.3: 4 is out of place in the southern Levantine repertoire of the EB I and II, but bears a striking resemblance to a contemporary Egyptian form common in the Naqada IIIC–D at Mendes (cf. Adams 2007: Pl. 8.4; see also Adams 2009). This comparison is reinforced by the unusual fabric, which appears to be composed of local clay but which is tempered with chaff, perhaps in an attempt to appear Egyptian. thE PhytolIth lAyEr In Square F/8, the fine grid excavation of the phytolith layer (00/J/166; reported as the ‘upper floor’ in Megiddo IV) yielded a fragment of an illegible seal impression (too small to be drawn), a thick-red-band decorated sherd and a fragment of a red-slipped and burnished juglet base (‘Abydos ware’-style). Each of these is associated with post-EB IB assemblages. Also notable are three small straw-tempered body sherds from Locus 06/J/65, which may be fragments of Egyptianizing vessels. However, straw-tempered sherds are infrequent but present in all Early Bronze levels at Megiddo, and may represent an occasional local technology. ABoVE thE PhytolIth lAyEr (FIg. 8.3: 2, 7, 9, 12) From here comes a small votive jar (Fig. 8.3: 2). Inverted rim metallic ware platters/bowls were also present (Fig. 8.3: 7, 9), and also attested in body sherds that preserved fragments of the inverted rim carination and the red slip and burnishing (as in Fig. 8.3: 9). Finally, the large shallow bowl (Fig. 8.3: 12) is paralleled by only four unique vessels from qiryat Ata (Fantalkin 2000: Figs. 9, 39). Their stratigraphic attribution is not entirely clear, and could be EB IB or EB II.

300

CtMaahe h: a th hMee hehe

h

MTh ahaahe

TehM

M ehM a

no PhytolIth lAyEr DEtECtED (FIg. 8.3: 3, 5, 6, 10) In areas where no phytolith level was detected, the Phase J-4a activity was still apparent in the form of ephemeral hearths interspersed with collapsed plaster from the temple walls. Here too, inverted rim and upturned rim bowls/platters are present (Fig. 8.3: 5, 6, 10; cf. Golani 2003: Figs. 4.24–4.25). Locus 06/J/082 also provided a body sherd of a combed metallic-ware jar. PhASE J-4A ConCluSIonS Well represented in the Phase J-4a assemblage is the inverted-rim bowl and platter family of the EB II, well known in the region at Tel qashish xII (zuckerman 2003c: 130–131, 142–143), Ta‘anach Stratum II (ziese 2002) and qiryat Ata (Golani 2003: Figs. 4.24–4.26). In combination with the fragments of metallic ware found alongside these bowls and platters, an EB II date seems likely. This does not conflict with the conclusions of Joffe (2000) and Greenberg (2003; 2006) that Megiddo was not occupied in the EB II. Here it is clearly in context of ephemeral activity within the abandoned and deteriorating Level J-4 temple.

lEVEl J-5/J-6 With the further exposure of Levels J-5 and J-6, it has become clear that these levels are one major stratum with multiple rebuilds and together they are contemporary with palace-like Building 3177 on the lower terrace (Loud 1948: Figs. 392–394) and are best understood as a continuation of the same architectural complex. This chronologically long-lived level represents a sprawling multi-tiered palace complex that underwent two or three remodellings (see Chapter 2). The ceramic assemblage presented here supports this conclusion. Level J-5/J-6 is divided into three architectural phases on the basis of the stratigraphy from the 2004–2008 seasons on the northern side of Area J (Level J-5, Phase J-6b and Phase J-6a). Other parts of the area, however, reveal only two phases (such as Building 3177), so it is clear that over its long history the entire building underwent differential remodelling. The ceramic material presented here covers all three phases of Level J-5/J-6 in the northern portion of Area J from the rooms attached to the east-west corridor (see Fig. 8.4). Previous assessments agree on an EB III date for Level J-5/J-6 (Joffe 2000: 183; Greenberg 2006: 153). While the occasional presence of Khirbet Kerak ware assists in this date, it should be noted that it is fairly rare at Megiddo: only one sherd was found in the 2004–2006 seasons, seasons that had a heavy concentration in this particular level. Why a major site such as Megiddo would yield so little of this style is not exactly clear, especially when sites as close as Afula (Esse 1991: 137, Table 4) and Jezreel (Gophna and Shlomi 1997: 74, Fig. 6) have a relatively high percentage. While there may be chronological implications to this observation (i.e., the EB III occupation at Megiddo begins after the heyday of Khirbet Kerak ware; see below), a cultural phenomenon cannot yet be ruled out.5 Regardless, a general EB III date is assured by the rest of the Level J-5/J-6 assemblage, which abounds with pattern-burnished platters and has a general rarity of metallic-ware (where it occurs only on store jars; see Greenberg 2000: 184–191; 2006).

5

See zuckerman 2005: 355 for a discussion of the absence of Khirbet Kerak ware from Tel qashish and its presence at contemporary Yokne‘am.

301

M Maathe at M MMMt

FIGURE 8.3: PHASE J-4A POTTERY no. reg. no.

Vessel

Basket elevation (m) Comments

1

06/J/52/VS1

Jar

156.22-156.25

Metallic ware

2

08/J/117/VS1

Jar

156.15-156.16

External red slip and scraped, internal neck red slip,

3

06/J/62/VS1

Cult stand

156.18-156.23

External red slip

4

06/J/84/VS1

Bowl

156.10-156.18

Abundant straw and conspicuous medium-sized inclusions, external red slip

5

08/J/142/VS2

Bowl

156.17-156.18

Internal red/brown slip

6

06/J/62/VS2

Bowl

156.14-156.23

7

06/J/127/VS1

Bowl

156.06-156.10

Full red/brown slip, metallic ware (?)

8

06/J/81/VS2

Bowl

156.08-156.21

Soft loessy fabric, external red slip and full burnish

9

06/J/59/VS1

Bowl

156.25-156.34

External red slip, horizontal burnish on lip, traces of internal red slip (?)

10

08/J/142/VS1

Platter/bowl

156.17-156.18

11

06/J/81/VS1

Platter/bowl

156.01-156.21

Internal red/brown slip, external partial red/ brown slip, ledge handle

12

06/J/127/VS2

Platter

155.98-156.06

Full red/brown slip/wash

302

CtMaahe h: a th hMee hehe

h

MTh ahaahe

TehM

M ehM a

1 2

4

3

5

6

7

9

8

10

11

12

Fig. 8.3: Phase J-4a pottery.

303

M Maathe at M MMMt

304 Fig. 8.4: Plan of Phase J-6b with room designations.

CtMaahe h: a th hMee hehe

h

MTh ahaahe

TehM

M ehM a

lEVEl J-5 ArChItECturAl loCI By looking at the architectural loci related to the construction of Level J-5, we had hoped to narrow down the date of the very beginning of the Level J-5/J-6 re-inhabitation of the site. Not surprisingly, most of these architectural loci contained EB I material derived from earlier levels. Architectural loci beneath the corridor pavement, however, contained a few fragments of platters with lattice burnishing, indicating that the EB III had already commenced when Level J-5 was established. Unfortunately, our coarse-grained understanding of the internal EB III chronology does not allow us to be more specific. lEVEl J-5 oCCuPAtIonAl rEMAInS (FIg. 8.5: 1–6) The occupational debris from Level J-5 is relatively sparse, consisting primarily of the large pithos, a few inverted rim bowls and small jars. There was not enough material preserved to distinguish assemblages from rooms. Already present in deposits from this level are small white bowls with a fine pinkish fabric and string-cut bases, which are a dominant feature of the Level J-6 assemblage of the upper and lower terraces (more below). PhASE J-6B oCCuPAtIonAl rEMAInS (FIgS. 8.6–8.11) Phase J-6b has given us the largest group of Level J-5/J-6 assemblages. Occupational remains from Phase J-6b fall into two major assemblages: the collection from Room 2 and the collection from Room 7 (see Fig. 8.4). Additional forms from other rooms are reproduced in Fig. 8.11. Room 2 had repeated floor raisings throughout Phases J-6b and J-6a; it was one of the only rooms that was not architecturally remodelled in the transition between these layers. Consequently, it is difficult to say with which floor raising Phase J-6b ends and Phase J-6a begins. The Room 2 assemblage is dominated by fine small bowls (Fig. 8.6), which may have been used as drinking cups. Soot on the rims of several examples indicates that they were used as lamps. The soot is infrequent in the whole assemblage, suggesting that the lamp usage was secondary. The bowls can be divided into two basic types: undecorated and decorated. The undecorated forms usually have a flat string-cut base, distinct turning marks on the exterior and remarkably smooth interiors. The decorated examples usually have rounded bases and can have profiled rims. Their decoration is usually restricted to a red, orange or brown wash (however, see Fig. 8.6: 20). Most of the bowls have a very distinct fabric, which we will refer to as Fine Pinkish Fabric (FPF). FPF fabric is defined by conspicuous coarse rounded grey limestone (some greyer and more deteriorated looking than others), scattered medium to coarse rounded reddish mineral (grog?) and scattered coarse rounded blackish basalt-like inclusions. All three of these inclusions are apparent on the surface and give the vessel an attractive speckled appearance, particularly on the interior of the bowl. The exterior of the undecorated bowls is often a greenish hue of white. The firing is carefully controlled and the core is usually fired to a distinct khaki colour. The bowls shown in Fig. 8.6: 1–11, 17–18 are all made with FPF and are nearly identical. Those shown in Fig. 8.6: 12–16, 20 have a very similar fabric, which gives a similar external speckled effect, but have a perceptibly different ratio of the same inclusions under 10× magnification. The bowl depicted in Fig. 8.6: 14, for example, has a notably higher concentration (conspicuous-to-abundant), medium-tocoarse subangular black basalt-like inclusions; that which is depicted in Fig. 8.6: 16 has a notably higher

305

M Maathe at M MMMt

FIGURE 8.5: LEVEL J-5 POTTERY no. reg. no.

Vessel

Basket elevation (m) Comments

1

08/J/82/VS1

Pithos

156.85-157.08

External orange irregular wash

2

06/J/146/VS1

Jar/juglet

156.82-157.39

External red slip with vertical burnishing, metallic ware (?)

3

04/J/85/VS4

Jar

156.66-156.72

4

04/J/69/VS1

Jar/juglet

156.66-156.84

5

06/J/92/VS1

Bowl

157.10-157.36

6

06/J/74/VS1

Bowl

156.74-156.99

External thick deep red slip

7

06/J/146/VS2

Bowl

156.82-157.39

External orange/red with dense horizontal burnishing

306

External full red slip

CtMaahe h: a th hMee hehe

h

MTh ahaahe

TehM

M ehM a

2

3

4

5

6

1

7

Fig. 8.5: Level J-5 pottery.

307

M Maathe at M MMMt

FIGURE 8.6: PHASE J-6B POTTERY FROM ROOM 2 – BOWLS no. reg. no.

Vessel

Basket elevation (m) Comments

1

04/J/50/VS6

Bowl

157.30-157.34

Fine Pinkish Fabric

2

06/J/119/VS4

Bowl

157.00-157.29

Fine Pinkish Fabric

3

04/J/50/VS16

Bowl

157.15-157.20

Fine Pinkish Fabric

4

04/J/50/VS7

Bowl

157.30-157.34

Fine Pinkish Fabric

5

04/J/51/VS4

Bowl

157.15-157.30

Fine Pinkish Fabric

6

04/J/72/VS3

Bowl

157.03-157.06

Fine Pinkish Fabric

7

04/J/50/VS14

Bowl/lamp

157.15-157.20

Fine Pinkish Fabric, soot on rim

8

04/J/51/VS1

Bowl

157.30-157.32

Fine Pinkish Fabric

9

04/J/114/VS4

Bowl/lamp

156.54-156.94

Fine Pinkish Fabric, soot on rim

10

04/J/50/VS10

Bowl

157.30-157.34

Fine Pinkish Fabric

11

04/J/114/VS8

Bowl/lamp

156.54-156.94

Fine Pinkish Fabric, soot on rim

12

04/J/50/VS12

Bowl

157.20-157.30

Fine Pinkish Fabric+

13

04/J/39/VS3

Bowl

157.38-157.41

Fine Pinkish Fabric+, external red slip on rim, internal red slip

14

04/J/50/VS15

Bowl

157.15-157.20

Fine Pinkish Fabric+, external red slip on rim, internal red slip

15

04/J/50/VS8

Bowl

157.30-157.34

Fine Pinkish Fabric+, external red slip on rim, internal red slip

16

04/J/51/VS5

Bowl

157.15-157.20

Fine Pinkish Fabric+, internal red slip

17

04/J/92/VS4

Bowl

156.97-157.01

Fine Pinkish Fabric+, internal orange slip

18

04/J/73/VS2

Bowl

157.03-157.15

Sandy (quartz) inclusions, internal brown wash

19

04/J/114/VS1

Bowl

156.54-156.94

Fine Pinkish Fabric, traces of internal and external red slip on rim

20

04/J/50/VS3

Bowl

157.30-157.34

Fine Pinkish Fabric+, external red slip on rim, internal red slip with vertical burnishing

+ Indicates variant fabric.

308

CtMaahe h: a th hMee hehe

1

11

12 13

16

15

18

M ehM a

9

8

10

TehM

6

5

7

MTh ahaahe

3

2

4

h

19

14

17

20

Fig. 8.6: Phase J-6b pottery from Room 2 – bowls.

309

M Maathe at M MMMt

FIGURE 8.7: PHASE J-6B POTTERY FROM ROOM 2 – LARGE BOWLS no. reg. no.

Vessel

Basket elevation (m) Comments

1

04/J/72/VS4

bowl

157.01-157.03

2

04/J/72/VS5

bowl

157.01-157.03

External red wash on rim, internal red wash, scraped bottom

3

04/J/72/VS1

bowl

157.06-157.13

Internal red slip

4

04/J/114/VS15

Jar

156.54-156.94

Fine Pinkish Fabric+, external white/pinkish wash

5

04/J/50/VS4

bowl

157.20-157.30

Red slip on rim, internal traces of red slip (?)

6

04/J/114/VS3

bowl

156.54-156.94

Internal red wash

7

04/J/95/VS2

bowl

156.94-157.00

Fine Pinkish Fabric+, external red slip on rim, internal red slip

+ Indicates variant fabric.

310

CtMaahe h: a th hMee hehe

h

MTh ahaahe

TehM

M ehM a

1

2

4 3

5

6

7

Fig. 8.7: Phase J-6b pottery from Room 2 – large bowls.

311

M Maathe at M MMMt

FIGURE 8.8: PHASE J-6B POTTERY FROM ROOM 2 – PLATTERS no. reg. no.

Vessel

Basket elevation (m) Comments

1

04/J/51/VS2

Platter

157.15-157.30

Fine Pinkish Fabric+, external orange wash on rim, internal orange wash

2

04/J/50/VS2

Platter

157.20-157.30

External red wash on lip, internal red wash

3

04/J/50/VS22

Platter

157.30-157.34

External orange wash on rim, internal orange wash

4

04/J/114/VS10

Platter

156.54-156.94

Internal orange slip, scraped base

5

04/J/108/VS1

Platter

156.93-156.95

External orange slip on rim, internal orange slip with lattice burnishing

6

04/J/50/VS21

Platter

157.30-157.34

Fine Pinkish Fabric, external red slip on rim, internal slip

7

04/J/55/VS1

Platter

156.98-157.25

Fine Pinkish Fabric, internal thick white slip (?)

8

04/J/108/VS2

Platter

156.93-156.95

Scraped base, internal traces of red slip

+ Indicates variant fabric.

312

CtMaahe h: a th hMee hehe

h

MTh ahaahe

TehM

M ehM a

MEG04J512 VS2 1:5

1

2

3

4

5

6 7 8

Fig. 8.8: Phase J-6b pottery from Room 2 – platters.

313

M Maathe at M MMMt

FIGURE 8.9: PHASE J-6B POTTERY FROM ROOM 2 – CLOSED FORMS no. reg. no.

Vessel

Basket elevation (m) Comments

1

04/J/114/VS13

Jar

156.54-156.94

Fine Pinkish Fabric

2

04/J/50/VS24

Jar

157.20-157.30

Fine Pinkish Fabric

3

04/J/72/VS6

Jar

157.06-157.13

Traces of external lime wash(?)

4

04/J/72/VS2

Jar

157.06-157.13

Fine Pinkish Fabric; potmark

5

04/J/50/VS1

Juglet

157.20-157.30

External red slip with vertical burnishing

6

04/J/50/VS20

Cooking-pot

157.30-157.34

7

04/J/114/VS14

Cooking/storage jar (?)

156.54-156.94

314

CtMaahe h: a th hMee hehe

h

MTh ahaahe

TehM

M ehM a

3 1

2 4

5

6

7

Fig. 8.9: Phase J-6b pottery from Room 2 – closed forms.

315

M Maathe at M MMMt

MEG06J571 VS5 1:5 R7

2

1

3

4

MEG06J571 VS4 1:5 R7

5 MEG06J53 VS3 1:5

6

Fig. 8.10: Phase J-6b pottery from Room 7.

FIGURE 8.10: PHASE J-6B POTTERY FROM ROOM 7 no. reg. no.

Vessel

Basket elevation (m) Comments

1

06/J/57/VS5

Bowl

157.03-157.37

External red slip on rim, internal red slip, scraped base

2

06/J/5/VS5

Juglet (lid?)

157.07-157.09

External red slip with vertical burnishing

3

06/J/57/VS6

Bowl

157.03-157.37

External bands of orange slip on rim, internal orange slip

4

06/J/57/VS1

Bowl

156.52-157.03

External bands of thick orange wash applied with brush

5

06/J/57/VS4

Platter

157.03-157.37

External orange/brown slip, internal orange/ brown slip with lattice burnishing

6

06/J/5/VS3

Platter

157.07-157.09

External thick red slip on rim, internal thick red slip with traces of horizontal burnishing

316

CtMaahe h: a th hMee hehe

h

MTh ahaahe

TehM

M ehM a

1

2

3

5

4

Fig. 8.11: Phase J-6b pottery from Rooms 3, 8 and 9.

FIGURE 8.11: PHASE J-6B POTTERY FROM ROOMS 3, 8 AND 9 no. reg. no.

Vessel

Basket elevation (m) Comments

1

04/J/96/VS1

Storage jar

156.98-157.05

External red wash

2

04/J/96/VS3

Storage jar

156.98-157.05

External red wash

3

04/J/96/VS2

Platter

156.98-157.05

External partial red slip, internal red slip with possible traces of horizontal burnishing

4

08/J/163/VS1

Krater

156.37-157.61

External thick bands of red wash applied with a brush, internal upper band or red wash applied with a brush

5

08/J/168/VS1

Storage jar

157.52-157.90

External criss-crossing thick bands of orange/red wash applied with a brush

317

M Maathe at M MMMt

FIGURE 8.12: PHASE J-6A POTTERY – OPEN FORMS no. reg. no.

Vessel

Basket elevation (m) Comments

1

06/J/33/VS1

Bowl

157.38-157.40

Fine Pinkish Fabric+, external red slip stripes on rim, internal red slip (Room 4)

2

04/J/18/VS2

Platter

157.49-157.52

Fine Pinkish Fabric, full white slip(?)

3

06/J/108/VS5

Bowl

157.44-157.51

Fine Pinkish Fabric

4

06/J/108/VS9

Bowl

157.44-157.51

Fine Pinkish Fabric

5

06/J/13/VS3

Bowl

156.85-157.54

Fine Pinkish Fabric, external red wash on rim, internal red wash

6

06/J/108/VS1

Deep bowl

157.14-157.44

Internal red slip

7

06/J/108/VS4

Deep bowl

157.44-157.51

Internal red slip/wash, scraped base

8

04/J/18/VS1

Bowl/platter

9

06/J/108/VS2

Bowl/platter

157.44-157.51

Internal red slip with diagonal burnishing

10

04/J/39/VS6

Deep bowl

157.38-157.41

External orange slip on rim, internal orange slip with lattice burnishing

11

06/J/108/VS3

Platter

157.44-157.51

External red slip on rim, internal red slip

+ Indicates variant fabric.

318

External red wash on rim, internal red slip

CtMaahe h: a th hMee hehe

h

MTh ahaahe

TehM

M ehM a

3 1

4 2 5

6

7

8

9

10

11

Figure 8.12: Phase J-6a pottery – open forms.

319

M Maathe at M MMMt

FIGURE 8.13: PHASE J-6A – RED-SHERD FLOOR no. reg. no.

Vessel

Basket elevation (m) Comments

1

06/J/110/VS2

Jar

157.50-157.74

External white lime slip

2

06/J/60/VS2

Jar?

157.47-157.55

External red lattice band slip

3

06/J/66/VS3

Jar

157.45-157.68

External brown lattice band slip

4

06/J/60/VS1

Jar

157.61-157.66

External yellow slip with red lattice band slip, internal yellow slip

5

06/J/66/VS2

Jar/krater?

157.45-157.68

External yellow slip with red lattice band slip, internal yellow slip

6

06/J/128/VS1

Jug

157.13-157.54

Fine red fabric with abundant medium- to coarsesized angular red mineral (grog?) and basalt-like inclusions, external red slip with burnishing on the neck

320

CtMaahe h: a th hMee hehe

h

MTh ahaahe

TehM

M ehM a

1

4

2

3

5

6

Fig. 8.13: Phase J-6a pottery – red-sherd floor.

321

M Maathe at M MMMt

FIGURE 8.14: PHASE J-6A POTTERY – RED-SHERD FLOOR (CONT.) no. reg. no.

Vessel

Basket elevation (m) Comments

1

06/J/110/VS1

Jug

157.50-157.74

Fine tan/brown fabric with conspicuous coarse- to medium-sized basalt-like inclusions, conspicuous medium-coarse reddish sub-rounded inclusions (grog?), scattered fine- to mediumsized inclusions; overall ‘coarser’ than VS12, i.e., coarser inclusions in denser concentrations

2

98/J/76/VS12

Jug

157.36-157.56

Fine brown/red fabric with scattered mediumto fine-sized rounded limestone, conspicuous medium-sized sub-rounded basalt-like inclusions, other occasional fine-sized indeterminable particles

3

98/J/76/VS11

Jug

157.36-157.58

Fine tan/brown fabric, sort of ‘metallic’; scattered fine-sized red and black inclusions; higher firing temp than others? Accidentally? Seems that there are some voids where limestone may have burned out

322

CtMaahe h: a th hMee hehe

h

MTh ahaahe

TehM

M ehM a

2

1

3

Figure 8.14: Phase J-6a pottery – red-sherd floor (cont.).

323

M Maathe at M MMMt

Fig. 8.15: Two sides of 98/J/76/VS12 (Fig. 8.14: 2).

ratio of limestone inclusions. The fabric of the pottery shown in Fig. 8.6: 12, 15 is nearly identical to FPF, but has notably coarser inclusions. This could reflect different clay sources, different workshops or have some other meaning. Perhaps significantly, it is the red-slipped bowls, for the most part, which have these variant fabrics. These apparent variations on the FPF fabric are designated with a +. Bowls are not the only forms that are made of this fabric. The jars of Fig. 8.9: 1, 2, 4 have fabric identical to the FPF bowls, as if they were a set. Figure 8.8: 7 shows a platter made with FPF and Fig. 8.8: 1, 6 shows pottery that uses a coarser version of FPF(+). Vessels from Phase J-6a, as depicted in Fig. 8.12: 2–5 and Fig. 8.7: 7, are also composed of FPF. Descriptions of bowls in Joffe (2000) and Greenberg (2006) also demonstrate that these FPF (and FPF+) bowls are common in other parts of the Level J-5/J-6 architectural complex, and that they also appear in Building 3177 on the lower terrace (Loud 1948: Pl. 6.10; Type: Bowl 19). Finally, the pot mark in Fig. 8.9: 4 is paralleled by an identical mark on an identical vessel found in the Megiddo stages (now in the Rockefeller Museum). PhASE J-6A ArChItECturAl loCI – thE rED ShErD Floor ASSEMBlAgE In Megiddo IV, we reported the particularly special Locus 98/J/76 (Greenberg 2006: 165, Figs. 10.9–10.10). This locus yielded several vessels, some of which were decorated with a fabulous ‘reserved burnish’ decoration (for a discussion of this burnishing technique see Pelta, Chapter 9) as well as several other

324

CtMaahe h: a th hMee hehe

h

MTh ahaahe

TehM

M ehM a

notable forms. These vessels were found broken and recycled into a sherd pavement belonging to Phase J-6a (see Chapter 2). The room in which this pavement was found was exceptional, not only for the pavement, but for the enigmatic stone plinth along its western edge. Since the publication of Megiddo IV, we have expanded our excavation of this floor. Figures 8.13 and 8.14, and Table 8.1 present the extent of the current assemblage of vessels comprising it. The sherd floor extends northwards into the baulk and its extent cannot be ascertained (see Chapter 2: Fig. 2.53). This floor extended westwards from Wall 98/J/09 for about 1.5 m before coming to an apparent end in the middle of the larger room. The western half of this room, all the way to Wall 04/J/26 and the stone plinth, did not appear (during excavation) to have a sherd floor. However, during the processing of the pottery from this western portion of the room, many red slip and burnish sherds, as well as other restorable portions of kraters, were found. A number of these sherds were restored with the red-burnished and other vessels from the red-sherd pavement (98/J/76). It now appears that the red-sherd pavement continued all the way to the west (where it was not as well preserved) and presumably interacted with the rounded plinth construction. The pottery from the western half of this room is combined with the red floor in the discussion below to complete the assemblage of pottery comprising it. It should also be noted that there is no evidence that the vessels represented an assemblage during their life (contra Greenberg 2006: 165). The fact that these are storage vessels, which are otherwise rare in the Level J-5/J-6 assemblage, does not appear to be relevant. Storage vessels break into sherds ideal for pavement and their exquisiteness perhaps dictated their use in this unique room. As early as Level J-4, this part of the mound marked the northern entrance to the sacred compound, and this functional role as gateway continues through to the Late Bronze Age. In Strata xV (Level J-7) and xIV (Level J-9), it is from here that the Temple 4040 complex is accessed (Loud 1948: Figs. 394–395); in xII (J-11) (and xIII [Level J-10]?; Loud 1948: Figs. 396–398) this is the location of a stone pavement and drain leading to the temple area; and up through Stratum VII this location is on the axis of Temple 2048 (Loud 1948: Figs. 402–404). It seems reasonable to thus conclude that the red-sherd pavement marked the entrance hall for those ascending from the north, and therefore, the reception point for those entering the palatial acropolis in Level J-5/J-6. For the small jugs, 98/J/76/VS5 and 98/J/76/VS6, Greenberg (2006: Fig. 10.9: 6–7) rightly pointed to the cross-hatched burnished jug from Hazor (Greenberg 1997: 21, Fig. II.3: 12), with its parallels from the Lebanese coast. These jugs have a long history at Byblos (Saghieh 1983: Pls. 35–36, 50–51) in the Early Bronze Age. They begin in Period KI/II (EB II) but only start appearing with the cross-hatch decoration in KIII (EB III). Developmentally, their mouths grow wider and more flaring with time (compare the narrowmouth forms A3 and A4 with the wide-mouth forms A10 and A14; Saghieh 1983: Pls. 35–36). While the Hazor example strongly resembles the narrow form, the two Megiddo examples are certainly of the widemouth variety of Period KIII/IV (Saghieh 1983: Pl. 36; forms A10, A14). In particular, these forms are characteristic of the Baalat-Gebal temple of KIV. The presence of inscribed material of the Egyptian King Unas in this temple indicates a date at the end of the 5th Dynasty/beginning of the 6th Dynasty (late 23rd century) for the beginning of the KIV. Inscriptional material from Pepi II (end of the 6th Dynasty; early 21st century) constitutes the latest material in KIV (for the general dating of forms A10 and A14 vis-à-vis Egyptian synchronisms at Byblos, see Saghieh 1983: 106). Byblos KIV, roughly coeval with the Egyptian 6th Dynasty, is the Syrian EB IV that begins very late in the EB III sequence of the southern Levant (see

325

M Maathe at M MMMt

1

2

3

4

Fig. 8.16: Phase J-6a pottery – closed forms.

FIGURE 8.16: PHASE J-6A POTTERY – CLOSED FORMS no. reg. no.

Vessel

Basket elevation (m) Comments

1

06/J/115/VS5

Jar

157.27-157.47

2

06/J/115/VS6

Jar

157.27-157.47

Fine Pinkish Fabric+, external red wash (applied by brush in stripes?), internal red wash on inner rim

3

04/J/39/VS2

Jar

157.29-157.52

Fine Pinkish Fabric, external pinkish slip with red band decoration

4

04/J/39/VS1

Cooking/storage 157.48-157.52 jar (?)

+ Indicates variant fabric.

326

Potmark

CtMaahe h: a th hMee hehe

h

MTh ahaahe

TehM

M ehM a

Saghieh 1983: Table 9). I would tentatively, therefore, place the transition from Phase J-6b to Phase J-6a (i.e., the time of the laying of the red-sherd floor) to a relatively very late phase of the EB III. TABLE 8.1: ACCOUNTING OF VESSELS COMPRISING THE PHASE J-6A RED-SHERD FLOOR reg. no.

Comments

98/J/76/VS2

Greenberg 2006: Fig. 10.9: 3

98/J/76/VS3

Greenberg 2006: Fig. 10.9: 1

98/J/76/VS4

Greenberg 2006: Fig. 10.9: 5

98/J/76/VS5

Greenberg 2006: Fig. 10.9: 6; new sherds from Locus 06/J/66

98/J/76/VS6

Greenberg 2006: Fig. 10.9: 7

98/J/76/VS9

Greenberg 2006: Fig. 10.9: 2

98/J/76/VS10

Greenberg 2006: Fig. 10.9: 4

98/J/76/VS11

Greenberg 2006: Fig. 10.10: 2; redrawn here as Fig 8.14: 3

98/J/76/VS12

Greenberg 2006: Fig. 10.10: 1; redrawn here as Fig. 8.14: 2 with photo Fig. 8.15

06/J/60/VS1

Fig. 8.13: 4

06/J/60/VS2

Fig. 8.13: 2

06/J/66/VS2

Fig. 8.13: 5

06/J/66/VS3

Fig. 8.13: 3

06/J/110/VS1

Fig. 8.14: 1; base and vestigial handles reconstructed on basis of throw lines and comparison with 98/J/76/VS12

06/J/110/VS2

Fig. 8.13: 1

06/J/128/VS1

Fig. 8.13: 6

06/J/110

Fragments of another vessel; not drawn; external red slip and dense polish/burn, soft and loessy fabric

06/J/110

Fragments of another vessel; not drawn; very similar to 98/J/76/VS12; fabric and hue of slip is different enough to distinguish; grey fabric with conspicuous to abundant coarse-sized basalt-like inclusions

PhASE J-6A oCCuPAtIonAl rEMAInS (FIgS. 8.12, 8.16) Material from Phase J-6a is sparse. Again, Room 2 produces the most material and represents continued use from Phase J-6b (see above). Platters and deep bowls are present, but small fine bowls (FPF/FPF+) continue to dominate the assemblage. The overall pattern is continued from earlier phases of Level J-5/J-6 in which food-consumption vessels govern the assemblage. lEVEl J-5/J-6 ConCluSIonS As Greenberg (2006: 153) has already pointed out, there is a marked bias towards types associated with food serving and consumption: bowls, platters, etc. This trend is supported and amplified by the new material presented here. This emphasis on consumption at the expense of storage suggests a highly specialized function for the excavated rooms on the north end of Area J. Since this trend is also apparent in other contemporary areas on the tell (see the assemblages presented by Loud 1948: Pls. 5–6; Greenberg 2006:

327

M Maathe at M MMMt

Figs. 10.4–10.12), one sees a homogenous use of space across Level J-5/J-6 (xVI–xVII) in the entirety of Chicago’s Area BB. This supports the argument that the buildings on the upper terrace were a physical extension of the palace (Building 3177) on the lower terrace, and that none of the areas of this architectural complex should be considered simply domestic (Adams, Chapter 2). Where, then, is the domestic habitation at Megiddo during the EB III? Given the fact that almost no EB III pottery was found in the surface survey of the lower town (Finkelstein et al. 2006) and the fact that a fairly large exposure of the EB III on the tell itself has left no trace of domestic structures, we should probably look for them elsewhere. The Megiddo Hinterland Survey (Finkelstein et al. 2006: Fig. 40.20) revealed a unique settlement distribution for the EB III, in which all known occupied sites are located at the key entrance/exit points of the valley. It is tempting to reconstruct Megiddo as a palatial centre with its constituent population spread throughout these other gateway towns. Finally, the Level J-5/J-6 assemblage presented here is generally EB III in date. The Byblian parallels to the vessels in the Phase J-6a floor suggest a relatively late date in the EB III for their manufacture. Additionally, the lack of Khirbet Kerak ware in this level may support this late date. I put forward the hypothesis for future testing that Level J-5/J-6 belongs to Yadin’s proposed post-Khirbet Kerak phase of the EB III (Yadin 1972).

lEVEl J-7 (fIG. 8.17) Pottery belonging to Level J-7 comes from architectural loci: 1) beneath the threshold of Temple 4040 from the foundation trench of the north wall, sealed by the plaster floor of the temple, and 2) within the sealed stone foundations of the western porch pillar base of Temple 4040 (see Chapter 2). The ceramics, therefore, have potential to assist in the dating of the temple. Most of these loci yielded assorted EB I–III material, but several sherds stand out in the assemblage. Figure 8.17 shows the latest material from the foundations of the Level J-7 temple. The two ledge-handles (Fig. 8.17: 1–2) are of the flattened ‘envelope’ type, which are characteristic of the Intermediate Bronze Age (=EB IVB, Guy 1938: 148; Richard 1980: 13, Fig. 1: 2, 3, 7; Prag 1974, 1986; Wightman 1988; Helms 1989: 19–20, Fig. 7: a–d; Palumbo and Peterman 1993: Figs. 1–2; Palumbo 1997: Fig. 47; Covello-Paran 2009: Fig. 9). The sherd in Fig. 8.17: 2 is composed of a fabric fired to a lime green with basalt-like inclusions, a fabric unattested in earlier levels at Megiddo. Several other sherds with a fabric not known from earlier levels appear in the architectural loci. These examples have a whitish fabric with conspicuous medium- to coarse- to super-coarse-sized rounded limestone inclusions, and an exterior fired to a lime green colour. The fabric is light weight, perhaps because some of the limestone has been burned away during the firing process (ca. 825° C). The thin flaring rim (Fig. 8.17: 3) and the thick flaring rim with interior ridge at the joint of neck and shoulder (Fig. 8.17: 4) are characteristic of the bag-shaped jars and amphoriskoi of the Intermediate Bronze Age (Guy 1938: eg., Pls. 20, 21; Amiran 1970: Pls. 22–23; Schaub 1973: Fig. 6.2). The holemouth cooking-pot with a thickened rim and ridged lip (Fig. 8.17: 5) has Intermediate Bronze Age parallels at Jebel qa‘aqir (Gitin 1975: Figs. 2.3–2.4). The spouted vat with flattened lip (Fig. 8.17: 6) finds parallels with Bet Yeraḥ BS local phase 6 (Greenberg et al. 2006: Fig. 5.96: 7 [Period E]). The open bowl with the exterior grooved rim (Fig. 8.17: 7), has its best parallels from the Intermediate Bronze Age single-period site of Ḥorvat Qishron near the Golani

328

CtMaahe h: a th hMee hehe

h

MTh ahaahe

TehM

M ehM a

3 1 4

2

5

6

7

Fig. 8.17: Phase J-7b pottery from foundations of Temple 4040.

FIGURE 8.17: PHASE J-7B POTTERY FROM FOUNDATIONS OF TEMPLE 4040 no. reg. no.

Vessel

Basket elevation (m) Comments

1

08/J/182/VS1

Cooking-pot(?) ledge-handle

157.13-157.20

2

08/J/133/VS3

Jar ledge-handle 157.95-158.25

Lime-green coloured fabric, abundant mediumsized sub-angular red/black basalt-like inclusions, conspicuous medium-sized angular white inclusions (calcite?), handmade

3

08/J/133/VS2

Amphoriskos(?) 157.95-158.25

Fabric has abundant medium- to coarse-sized limestone inclusions, sandpaper-like texture

4

08/J/133/VS1

Jar

157.95-158.25

External red slip

5

08/J/155/VS1

Storage jar

157.90-157.94

Fabric has abundant medium- to coarse-sized angular white/grey inclusions (calcite?)

6

08/J/183/VS1

Vat

157.00-157.13

7

08/J/73/VS2

Bowl

158.02-158.13

External grey/black firing in reduction atmosphere, internal not reduced, handmade

Abundant medium- to coarse-sized inclusions: grey and white rounded limestone, angular basalt-like inclusions, external wheel marks and soot. Sherd is particularly flat, making stancing difficult. It is drawn at its most open, but perhaps should be drawn slightly more vertical

329

M Maathe at M MMMt

junction, where there are several permutations of this style of bowls and ‘cooking bowls’, characterized by the grooved exterior rim, wheel finish and sooted exteriors associated with cooking (Smithline 2002: Figs. 10.8, 13.4–13.5, 13.7; see especially his discussion of cooking bowls and parallels, p. 30).6 Examples with affinities to this open bowl can also be found at Bet Yeraḥ BS local phase 5 (Period F [MB I]) (Greenberg et al. 2006: Fig. 5.100, especially No. 2), and may represent the continuation of the form into the MB I. It is also possible that the bowls from Ḥorvat Qishron and the sherd from Megiddo anticipate the traditional MB I open bowl forms with profiled rims (see, for example, Amiran 1970: Pl. 25). Finally, several fragments of pithoi (not shown) have a rope decoration directly at the meeting of the shoulder and neck. This is a well-known EB III/IB transitional type. See, for example, pithoi from Bet Yeraḥ BS local phase 6 and MS local phase 3 (Greenberg et al. 2006: Fig. 5.99, 156–157, Fig. 2.41: 7, 49). These local phases belong to Greenberg et al.’s Period E, which they designate the ‘final EB’ phase (Greenberg et al. 2006: 156–157). This ‘final EB’ is characterized as a transitional phase from an urban to post-urban culture that follows the disintegration of the EB III economic infrastructure and is marked by a new domestic and economic arrangement (ibid.: 151, 157). It should be noted that this ‘final EB’ phase at Bet Yeraḥ follows the last of the proper EB III phases at the site (late Period D; Area BS local phase 8-7), itself characterized as a post-Khirbet Kerak ware phase (ibid.: 149–151; cf. Level J-5/J-6 above). The evidence provided here from the sealed foundations of Temple 4040 compels us to consider that the dating of the Level J-7 temples to the EB III is less than secure. The several parallels to material from Bet Yeraḥ Period E indicate Bet Yeraḥ’s ‘final EB’ as terminus post quem for the construction of the Temple 4040. However, the two flattened ‘envelope’ ledge handles are widely agreed to be the latest in the handle sequence, characteristic of IBA sites throughout the southern Levant (Engberg and Shipton 1934; Amiran 1970: 37; see also Tuffnell 1958: 154, Form 11). Flattened ‘envelope’ ledge handles are not known (published) from Early Bronze levels at any sites in the region (see list at the beginning of the chapter) including the ‘final EB’ at Bet Yeraḥ. Shipton and Loud originally attributed Stratum xV (Level J-7) to the IBA (i.e., ‘MB I’; Shipton 1939; Loud 1948) based on ceramic comparison with Tell Beit Mirsim Strata ‘I’–‘H’ (Shipton 1939: 33). The preceding Stratum ‘J’ has been identified as a transitional EB/IB phase comparable to Bet Yeraḥ’s ‘final EB’ phase (Dever and Richard 1977). Significantly, no ‘envelope’ style ledge handles are present in Stratum ‘J’, but become typical of Stratum ‘I’ (ibid.: 13), where they have long been recognized as hallmarks of this intermediate period (Engberg and Shipton 1934: chart). That is, the sequence of ceramic development vis-à-vis the material in question is demonstrated at Tell Beit Mirsim: the ‘final EB’ phase (‘J’) is followed by the flattened ‘envelope’ ledge handle phase (‘I’). If types indicative of both of these phases occur in the sealed foundations of Temple 4040, the IBA (Tell Beit Mirsim ‘I’) must be the terminus post quem for its construction, as argued long ago by Shipton (1939: 35; see also Adams forthcoming). In sum, while several examples seem to fit Bet Yeraḥ’s ‘final EB’ phase or the IBA, the flattened ‘envelope’ ledge handles are not known before the IBA and I am forced to recognize them as the latest material in the assemblage. I therefore suggest that the original attribution by the University of Chicago’s excavators and David Ussishkin’s hypothesis that these buildings properly belong to the IBA (Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Halpern 2006: 847) be reconsidered in light of these finds.

6

Parallels are also to be found at ‘Ein el-Hilu in the Intermediate Bronze Age (K. Covello-Paran, personal communication).

330

CtMaahe h: a th hMee hehe

h

MTh ahaahe

TehM

M ehM a

REFERENCES Adams, M.J. 2007. The Early Dynastic through Old Kingdom Stratification at Tell Er-Rub’a, Mendes (Ph.D. dissertation, Pennsylvania State University). University Park. Adams, M.J. 2009. An Interim Report on the Naqada III – First Intermediate Period Stratification at Mendes. Delta reports 1: 121–206. Adams, M.J. Forthcoming. The Egyptianizing Pottery from Megiddo Area J Revisited: Stratigraphy, Form, Function, and Implications for the Three Temples in Antis. Amiran, R. 1970. Ancient Pottery of the holy land. New York. Anati, E., Avnimelech, M., Haas, N. and Meyerhof, E. 1973. hazorea I (Archiv, 5). Brescia, Italy. Ben-Tor, A., Bonfil, R. and Zuckerman, S. 2003. tel Qashish. A Village in the Jezreel Valley. Final report of the Archaeological Excavations (1978–1987) (qedem 5). Jerusalem. Boaretto, E. 2006. Radiocarbon Dates. In: Finkelstein, I., Ussishkin, D. and Halpern, B., eds. Megiddo IV: the 1998–2000 Seasons (Monograph Series of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University 24). Tel Aviv: 550–557. Braun, E. 1985. En Shadud, Salvage Excavations at a Farming Community in the Jezreel Valley, Israel (British Archaeological Reports International Series 249). Oxford. Braun, E. 1996. Cultural Diversity and Change in the Early Bronze I of Israel and Jordan (Ph.D. dissertation, Tel Aviv University). Tel Aviv. Braun, E. 2004. Early Beth Shean (Strata XIX–XIII): G. M. FitzGerald’s Deep Cut on the Tell (University Museum Monograph 121). Philadelphia. Covello-Paran, K. 2009. Socio-economic Aspects of an Intermediate Bronze Age Village in the Jezreel Valley. In: Parr, P.J., ed. the levant in transition (Palestine Exploration Fund Annual Ix). Leeds. Dessel, J.P. and Joffe, A. 2000. Alternative Approaches to Early Bronze Age Pottery. In: Philip, G. and Baird, D., eds. Ceramics and Change in the Early Bronze Age of the Southern levant. Sheffield: 31–58. Dever, W.G. and Richard, S. 1977. A Reevaluation of Tell Beit Mirsim Stratum ‘J’. Bulletin of the American Schools of oriental research 226: 1–14. Engberg, R.M. and Shipton, G.M. 1934. Notes on the Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age Pottery of Megiddo (Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 10). Chicago. Esse, D. 1984. A Chronological Mirage: Reflections of Early Bronze IC in Palestine. Journal of near Eastern Studies 43.4: 315–330. Esse, D. 1991. Subsistence, trade and Social Change in the Early Bronze Age Palestine (Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 50). Chicago. Fantalkin, A. 2000. A Salvage Excavation at an Early Bronze Age Settlement on Ha-Shophtim Street, qiryat ‘Ata. tel Aviv 27.1: 28–56. Finkelstein, I., Halpern, B., Lehmann, G. and Niemann, H.M. 2006. The Megiddo Hinterland Project. In: Finkelstein, I., Ussishkin, D., and Halpern, B., eds. Megiddo IV: the 1998–2000 Seasons (Monograph Series of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University 24). Tel Aviv: 705–776. Finkelstein, I. and Ussishkin, D. 2000a. Area J. In: Finkelstein, I., Ussishkin, D. and Halpern, B., eds. Megiddo III: the 1992–1996 Seasons (Monograph Series of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University 18). Tel Aviv: 25–74.

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Finkelstein, I. and Ussishkin, D. 2000b. Archaeological and Historical Conclusions. In: Finkelstein, I., Ussishkin, D. and Halpern, B., eds. Megiddo III: the 1992–1996 Seasons (Monograph Series of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University 18). Tel Aviv: 576–605. Finkelstein, I., Ussishkin, D. and Halpern, B. 2000. Introduction: The Megiddo Expedition. In: Finkelstein, I., Ussishkin, D. and Halpern, B., eds. Megiddo III: the 1992–1996 Seasons (Monograph Series of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University 18). Tel Aviv: 1–13. Finkelstein, I., Ussishkin, D. and Halpern, B. 2006. Archaeological and Historical Conclusions. In: Finkelstein, I., Ussishkin, D. and Halpern, B., eds. Megiddo IV: the 1998–2000 Seasons (Monograph Series of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University 24). Tel Aviv: 1–13. Finkelstein, I., Ussishkin, D. and Peersmann, J. 2006. Area J (The 1998–2000 Seasons). In: Finkelstein, I., Ussishkin, D. and Halpern, B., eds. Megiddo IV: the 1998–2000 Seasons (Monograph Series of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University 24). Tel Aviv: 29–53. Gal, z. and Covello-Paran, K. 1996. Excavations at ‘Afula, 1989. ‘Atiqot 30: 25–67. Genz, H. 2002. Die frühbronzezeitliche Keramik von hirbet ez-Zeraqon mit Studien zur Chronologie und funktionalen Deutung frühbronzezeitlicher Keramik in der südlichen levante (Deutsche Jordanische Ausgrabungen in Hirbet Ez-zeraqon 1984–1994. Endberichte: Band V; Abahandlungen des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins, vol. 27.2). Wiesbaden. Getzov, N. 2006. the tel Bet Yeraḥ excavations 1994–1995 (Israel Antiquities Authority Reports 28). Jerusalem. Gitin, S. 1975. Middle Bronze I ‘Domestic’ Pottery at Jebel qa‘aqir: A Ceramic Inventory of Cave G23. EretzIsrael 12: 46*–62*. Golani, A. 2003. Salvage Excavations at the Early Bronze Age Site of Qiryat Ata (Israel Antiquities Authority Reports 18). Jerusalem. Gophna, R. and Shlomi, V. 1997. Some Notes on Early Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age Material from the Sites of ‘En Jezreel and Tel Jezreel. tel Aviv 24: 73–82. Goren, Y. and zuckerman, S. 2000. An Overview of the Typology, Provenance and Technology of the Early Bronze Age I ‘Grey Burnished Ware’. In: Philip, G. and Baird, D., eds. Ceramics and Change in the Early Bronze Age of the Southern levant. Sheffield: 165–182. Greenberg, T. 1997. Area A: The Early Bronze Age; The Early Bronze Age Phases in Area L. In: Ben-Tor, A. and Bonfil, R., eds. hazor V: An Account of the Fifth Season of Excavation, 1968. Jerusalem: 17–24, 183–193. Greenberg, R. 2000. Changes in Ceramic Production Between Early Bronze Age II and III in Northern Israel, Based on the Pottery of Tel Hazor and Tel Dan. In: Philip, G. and Baird, D., eds. Ceramics and Change in the Early Bronze Age of the Southern levant. Sheffield: 183–200. Greenberg, R. 2002. Early urbanizations in the levant, a regional narrative. London. Greenberg, R. 2003. What Happened to Megiddo in the Early Bronze Age II? Eretz-Israel 27: 66–72 (Hebrew). Greenberg, R. 2006. Notes on the Early Bronze Age Pottery (The 1998–2000 Seasons). In: Finkelstein, I., Ussishkin, D. and Halpern, B., eds. Megiddo IV: the 1998–2000 Seasons (Monograph Series of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University 24). Tel Aviv: 149–165. Greenberg, R., Eisenberg, E., Paz, S. and Paz, Y. 2006. Bet Yeraḥ: the Early Bronze Age Mound. Volume I: Excavation reports, 1933–1986 (Israel Antiquities Authority Reports 30). Jerusalem. Greenberg, R. and Paz, S. 2004. An EB IA–EB III Stratigraphic Sequence from the 1946 Excavations at Tel Beth Yeraḥ. Israel Exploration Journal 54: 1–23.

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Guy, P.L.O. 1938. Megiddo tombs. Chicago. Helms, S. 1989. An EB IV Pottery Repertoire at Amman, Jordan. Bulletin of the American Schools of oriental research 273: 17–36. Joffe, A. 1993. Settlement and Society in the Early Bronze Age I and II, Southern levant (Monographs in Mediterranean Archaeology 1). Sheffield. Joffe, A. 2000. The Early Bronze Age Pottery from Area J. In: Finkelstein, I., Ussishkin, D. and Halpern, B., eds. Megiddo III: the 1992–1996 Seasons (Monograph Series of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University 18). Tel Aviv: 161–185. Joffe, A. 2004. Review of H. Genz, Die Frübronzezeitliche keramik von hirbet ez-Zeraqon mit studien zur chronologie und funktionalen deutung frühbronzezeitlicher keramik in der südlichen levante. Journal of the American oriental Society 124, no. 2: 369–371. Keinan, A. 2007. The Megiddo Picture Pavement: Evidence for Egyptian Presence in Northern Israel during Early Bronze Age I (Unpublished M.A. thesis, Tel Aviv University). Tel Aviv. Kempinski, A. 1989. Megiddo, A City-State and royal Centre in north Israel. Munich. Loud, G. 1948. Megiddo II: Seasons of 1935–39. Chicago. Master, D.M., Monson, J.M., Lass, E.H.E. and Pierce, G. 2005. Dothan I. remains from the tell (1953–1964). Winona Lake. Meyerhof, E.L. 1989. the Bronze Age necropolis at Kibbutz hazorea, Israel (British Archaeological Reports International Series 534). Oxford. de Miroschedji, P. 1988. yarmouth I. rapport sur les trios premières campagnes de fouilles à tel yarmouth (Israël) (1980–1982). Paris. Nordström, H.-Å. and Bourriau, J. Ceramic Technology: Clays and Fabrics. In Arnold, D. and Bourriau, J., eds. An introduction to Ancient Egyptian Pottery. Mainz. Palumbo, G. 1990. the Early Bronze Age IV in the Southern levant: Settlement Patterns, Economy, and Material Culture of a ‘Dark Age’ (Contributi E Materiali di Archeologia Orientale 3). Roma. Palumbo, G. and Peterman, G. 1993. Early Bronze Age IV Ceramic Regionalism in Central Jordan. Bulletin of the American Schools of oriental research 289: 23–32. Philip, G. and Baird. D. 2000. Early Bronze Age Ceramics in the Southern Levant: An Overview. In: Philip, G. and Baird, D., eds. Ceramics and Change in the Early Bronze Age of the Southern levant. Sheffield: 3–30. Portugali, J. and Gophna, R. 1993. Crisis, Progress and Urbanization: The Transition from the Early Bronze I to Early Bronze II in Palestine. tel Aviv 20: 164–186. Prag, K. 1971. A Study of the Intermediate Early Bronze-Middle Bronze Age in transjordan, Syria and lebanon (Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Oxford University). Oxford. Prag, K. 1974. The Intermediate Early Bronze-Middle Bronze Age: An Interpretation of the Evidence from Transjordan, Syria and Lebanon. levant 6: 69–116. Prag, K. 1986. The Intermediate Early Bronze-Middle Bronze Age Sequences at Jericho and Tell Iktanu Reviewed. Bulletin of the American Schools of oriental research 264: 61–72. Rice, P. M. 1987. Pottery Analysis: A Sourcebook. Chicago. Richard, S. 1980. Toward a Consensus of Opinion on the End of the Early Bronze Age in Palestine-Transjordan. Bulletin of the American Schools of oriental research 237: 5–34. Saghieh, M. 1983. Byblos in the third Millennium B.C. Warminster.

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Salem, H.J. 2006. Early Bronze Age Settlement System and Villagellife in the Jenin region/Palestine. A Study of tell Jenin Stratigraphy and Pottery traditions (Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Leiden University). Leiden. Schaub, T. 1973. An Early Bronze IV Tomb from Bâb Edh-dhrâ. Bulletin of the American Schools of oriental research 210: 2–19. Shipton, G. M. 1939. Notes on the Megiddo Pottery of Strata VI–xx (Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 17). Chicago. Smithline, H. 2002. An Intermediate Bronze Age Site at Horbat qishron. In: Gal, z., ed. Eretz Zafon: Studies in galilean Archaeology. Jerusalem: *20–*46. Sukenik, E.L. 1948. Archaeological Investigations at ‘Affula. Journal of the Palestine oriental Society: 21: 1–79. Tuffnell, O. 1958. lachish IV: the Bronze Age. London. Wightman, G.J. 1988. An EB IV Cemetery in the North Jordan Valley. levant 20: 139–159. Wright, G.E. 1958. The Problem of the Transition between the Chalcolithic and Bronze Ages. Eretz-Israel 5: 37–45*. Yadin, Y. 1972. hazor (Schweich lectures). London. Yannai, E. 1999. New Typological and Technological Aspects of Grey Burnished Bowls in Light of the Excavation at ‘Ain Assawir. tel Aviv 26: 208–224. Yannai, E. 2006. ‘En Esur (‘Ein Asawir) I. Excavations at a Protohistoric Site in the Coastal Plain of Israel (Israel Antiquities Authority Reports 31). Jerusalem. ziese, M.S. 2002. The Early Bronze Age Ceramic Assemblage from Tell Ta’annek, Palestine (Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Andrews University Seventh-day Adventist Theological Seminary). Berrien Springs, MI. Zuckerman, S. 2003a. The Early Bronze Age I pottery. In: Ben-Tor, A., Bonfil, R. and Zuckerman, S. tel Qashish. A Village in the Jezreel Valley (qedem 5). Jerusalem: 35–56. Zuckerman, S. 2003b. Tel Qashish in the Early Bronze Age I. In: Ben-Tor, A., Bonfil, R. and Zuckerman, S. tel Qashish. A Village in the Jezreel Valley (qedem 5). Jerusalem: 57–60. Zuckerman, S. 2003c. The Early Bronze Age II–III Pottery. In: Ben-Tor, A., Bonfil, R. and Zuckerman, S. tel Qashish. A Village in the Jezreel Valley (qedem 5). Jerusalem: 130–160. Zuckerman, S. 2003d. Tel Qashish in the Early Bronze Age. In: Ben-Tor, A., Bonfil, R. and Zuckerman, S. tel Qashish. A Village in the Jezreel Valley (qedem 5). Jerusalem: 178–184. zuckerman, S. 2005. The Early Bronze Remains. In: Ben-Tor, A., Ben-Ami, D. and Livneh, A. yoqne‘am III: the Middle and late Bronze Ages (qedem 7). Jerusalem: 351–360.

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CHAPTER 9

ExPERIMENTAL ARCHAEOLOGY: INVESTIGATING A UNIqUE BURNISHING TECHNIqUE ON AN EARLY BRONzE III JUG Rachel Pelta

During the 1998 excavation season, sherds of three red-slipped and highly burnished jugs were uncovered in Area J (Phase J-6a, EB III, 06/J/110/VS1, 98/J/76/VS11–12). The fragments of these vessels were found in secondary use, together with sherds of an additional, third jug, embedded in the floor make-up of a domestic structure (Locus 98/J/76; see Finkelstein et al. 2006: Fig. 3.27). Two of the vessels have been published by Greenberg in the previous Megiddo report (2006: 165, Fig. 10.10: 1–2). On their shoulder appeared a strip of unique decoration. Greenberg argued that vessels were decorated using a technique called reserved burnish. In the 2006 excavation season, following the removal of baulks, additional fragments of these vessels were recovered, which enabled a better understanding of their shape and method of decoration. The present study will deal only with the decoration on the larger of the jugs (Greenberg 2006: Fig. 10.10: 1; Chapter 8) although the conclusions also apply to the second vessel. From the third vessel (Chapter 8) no sherds from the shoulder – the location of the decoration – were recovered (see below). Three experiments were conducted in an attempt to understand the technique and chaîne opératoire undertaken by the potter to achieve the unique decoration.

Fig. 9.1: Burnished and decorated EB III Jug 98/J/76/VS12 (see Figs. 8.13–8.14). On right, enlargement of the original strip of decoration. The diagonals are burnished along their length and overlap the horizontal burnish above and below the strip, while the short diagonals overlap the widest diagonal.

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The body of the Megiddo jug (98/J/76/VS12) was formed with coils of light-coloured clay, which took on a yellowish tinge after firing. When the body of the vessel was leather hard, a large coil of clay was added and from it the neck and rim were shaped with a slow rotary motion. The handle of the jug extended from the rim to the shoulder. Most of the rim and base are missing. The jug was red-slipped on the exterior and then densely burnished in several directions. All the recovered sherds of the vessel were red-burnished except for the base fragment (indicating that the lower part of the base remained unslipped), and the strip of decoration on the shoulder, measuring ca. 3 to 3.5 cm wide (Fig. 9.11). Two small plastic decorations were incorporated into this strip. The dominant direction of the burnishing was vertical, although two 5 cm bands above and below the strip of decoration were horizontally burnished. The geometric play between the light red, unburnished lines and the dark red burnished lines – as well as the overall burnish of the vessel – creates a special decorative effect. The pattern of the decoration is composed of groups of diagonal lines slanting alternately from left to right at an angle of ca. 45o (six groups are preserved on half the circumference of the shoulder). Each group contains 14–17 burnished lines and between them, matte lines, i.e., alternating burnished and matte diagonal lines. The burnished diagonal lines measure 1.5–7 mm in width, with the short lines narrower than the long ones. The final diagonal in each group is the widest. It is important to note that there is a clear transition between the two textures (matte and burnished). The matte lines comprise closed shapes resembling long narrow parallelograms that form ‘islands’ within the burnished surface of the jug. Several terms should be defined before describing my experiments and the conclusions derived from them: 1. Burnishing lines: the narrow lines created when the burnishing tool is rubbed over the surface of the vessel, in various directions and degrees of pressure, prior to the firing of the vessel. 2. Diagonal lines: the diagonal lines that are intermittently matte and burnished. 3. Decorated strip: the strip of decoration on the shoulder of the vessel composed of diagonal lines.

aTTEMpTS TO aChIEVE a SIMIlar DECOraTIVE EffECT Since the experiments described here attempted only to reproduce the methods used to create the decorated strip on the shoulder of the jug, the entire vessel was not reconstructed. The width of the decorated strip in the modern vessel corresponds to that of the jug from Megiddo (ca. 3 cm). To burnish the larger surrounding areas of the rings I used a polished stone, while the pointed end of a polished stone and a small pointed glass light bulb were used for burnishing the diagonal lines. The three experiments were conducted on leatherhard vessels, which were then fired in an electric kiln at a temperature of either 800ºC or 850ºC (Table 9.1). ExPErIMEnt 1 The vessel was first red-slipped and the entire surface densely burnished, including the area of the decorated strip. In order to attain the diagonal matte lines, I drew diagonal lines on the burnish with the same red slip used to slip the vessel, but this time the slip was diluted with water. This use of diluted slip cancelled the burnish and created matte lines that cut through the burnished lines. The result was groups of diagonal matte lines that were slightly longer than desired. In the final stage of this experiment, I burnished the areas above and below the decorated strip (ca. 5 cm in each direction) in a horizontal direction. This action 1

Pictures of the experiments were taken by the author.

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straightened the unfinished ends of the matte lines and determined the final appearance of the decoration (Fig. 9.2). This method of decoration is common in American Indian pottery (Bunzel 1972: 46; Peterson 1989: 91–104, 149–160, 174–178, 197–268; the vessels are black because of the reduction firing). ExPErIMEnt 2 The Wax Resist Method (Leach 1945: 282; Hamilton 1974: 110) is used in ceramic decoration as a protective measure to reserve a certain effect, such as shape, colour or texture, from the following stage, and once the ‘resistor’ is applied it cannot be reversed. In this experiment I used solid beeswax and paraffin which were melted by heating.2 The vessel was red-slipped and completely burnished with vertical burnish, except for the 13 cm strip on the shoulder, which was horizontally burnished. The purpose was to create a band that would resemble the one on the shoulder of the jug from Megiddo, i.e., a decorated strip 3 cm wide with two horizontally burnished strips, each 5 cm in width, above and below it (13 cm in total). In the following stage, I used a brush dipped in wax to mark where the burnished diagonal lines should be, with reference to the decoration on the Megiddo jug. Finally, I painted over the decorated strip with diluted slip while turning the vessel on a tournette. This action erased the burnish from the surface that was not covered with wax. During the firing of the vessel, the wax remaining on the burnished diagonals melted, and thus a pattern of intermittent matte and burnished lines was achieved. This experiment was conducted in order to test a stage in the work process of the Reserve Slip Ware method (Krishnan et al. 2005: 691–703, Fig. 9.3). ExPErIMEnt 3 In the first stage, I slipped the vessel, then horizontally burnished two areas, leaving an unburnished matte strip 3 cm wide between them (representing the decorated strip). Next, I burnished diagonal lines that resembled those of the Megiddo jug in number, width and distance from each other (each diagonal line was created by a number of burnishing lines). The spaces between the burnished diagonal lines formed closed, light-coloured matte shapes representing the diagonal matte lines of the pattern, while the burnished diagonals blended with the overall burnish of the jug (Fig. 9.4).

2

I conducted experiments with other materials as resistors, such as cold potters’ wax, tree resin (gum arabicum), liquid fats and almond glue, and I also tried a variety of instruments to spread the wax.

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Fig. 9.2: Experiment 1: painting with diluted slip on a burnished area cancelled the burnish and created matte diagonals longer than required. Additional horizontal burnishing trimmed the ends of the painted diagonals and determined the final appearance of the decorated pattern.

Fig. 9.3: Experiment 2: horizontally burnished area as a background. Diagonal lines were covered with melted wax to preserve the burnish. A band painted with diluted slip created the matte diagonals and established the width of the decorated strip.

Fig. 9.4: Experiment 3: the diagonals are burnished along their length, and their ends overlap both the horizontal burnish on either side of the strip as well as the wide burnished diagonals.

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TABLE 9.1: THE STAGES OF THE THREE ExPERIMENTS Stage 1

Stage 2

Stage 3

Experiment 1

Red slip over the entire vessel

Burnishing the entire vessel

Removal of the burnish from the matte diagonal lines with diluted slip; burnishing of the ends of the matte lines (final firing)

Experiment 2

Red slip over the entire vessel

Burnishing the entire vessel in three sections (from bottom to top: vertical, horizontal, vertical)

Covering the burnished diagonal lines with wax; painting the decorated strip with diluted slip (final firing)

Experiment 3

Red slip over the entire vessel

Horizontal burnishing Burnishing the diagonal lines, leaving the in two areas, leaving the matte lines between them (final firing) decorated strip on the shoulder unburnished

rESulTS At first glance, it appears that the three experiments all produced similar results to that of the original Megiddo jug, with the matte lines forming light-coloured ‘islands’ in the overall burnished surface of the vessel. However, only one method perfectly reproduced the original decoration. Experiment 1 failed. Since the burnishing of the strip was carried out in the first stage of the experiment, the matte lines cut through the burnishing lines in different directions. This did not match the burnishing lines on the diagonals of the Megiddo jug, which followed the direction of the diagonal lines. It would be impossible to plan in advance the exact direction of the burnishing lines along all the burnished diagonals of each group. In addition, the final action of cutting the ends of the matte diagonals with horizontal burnishing to define the width of the decorated strip did not leave traces of the burnishing lines, as seen on the Megiddo jug, which overlap the horizontal burnish on either side of the strip and the wide burnished line. Experiment 2 was attempted several times, since I was unable to achieve sufficient control to reserve the burnished diagonal lines as they appear on the Megiddo jug.3 The results were relatively crude. This experiment also failed to produce an exact reproduction for the same reasons as in Experiment 1: the burnishing lines on the diagonals were horizontal; they were carried out in the second stage of the overall burnishing of the vessel. It seems, therefore, that the only way to achieve the exact form of decoration as it appears on the Megiddo jug is by creating the diagonals at the same time they are burnished, as was done in the final stage of Experiment 3. In this way they overlap the horizontal burnish on either side of the strip and the wide diagonal line (Fig. 9.4; compare with the fragment of the decorated strip of the Megiddo vessel in Fig. 9.1). It is noteworthy that the method utilized in Experiment 3 is the most direct of the three; while it requires knowledge and expertise in the techniques of slipping, burnishing and firing, it does not necessitate erasing burnishing with diluted slip or the use of wax.

3

Attempts using other materials as resistors failed because they damaged the burnish, since they were dissolved in water.

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Fig. 9.5: Horizontal burnishing over body of the vessel with a strip left unburnished.

Fig. 9.6: Geometric division of the unburnished band.

ThE prOCESS Of DECOraTING ThE MEGIDDO JuG After the vessel was formed, and while it was leather hard, its exterior was smoothed, then red-slipped with a solution rich in iron oxide. Several minutes are required for the slip to be absorbed into the body of the vessel, and then the potter can begin the burnishing process, which compacts the upper layer of slip.4 Burnishing was carried out with a very smooth tool (e.g., a stream pebble or bone) so as not to damage the area being burnished, using a back and forth movement, over and over in the chosen direction and with appropriate pressure. In addition to lending a high polish, the burnishing also deepens the hue of the 4

Regarding slip, see Leach 1945: 53; Bunzel 1972: 11; Hamilton 1974: 105; Peterson 1989: Figs. 201–203; Sinopoli 1991: 26. On burnish see Bunzel 1972: 2; Concentino 1985: 135; Rice 1987: 30–140; Peterson 1989: Figs. 204–207.

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burnished area in relation to the remaining unburnished spaces. It can be assumed that the high shine on the vessel was created by repeated burnishing, and indeed, despite the fact that at first glance the vessel surface appears smooth and consistent, closer examination reveals the layers that comprise it. Burnishing on the leather-hard surface achieves a shine and the characteristic burnishing lines even prior to firing. The shine will remain up to a firing temperature of 800–850ºC, above which it becomes dull. Therefore, the firing temperature of the Megiddo jug must have been relatively low. The burnishing of the vessel involved a number of stages. First, vertical burnishing was applied on the lower and upper parts of the vessel: from the base to below the shoulder and above the shoulder to the rim. In the second stage, the horizontal burnishing began with a line encircling the vessel (made on a tournette), which sharply defined the border of the (unburnished) decorated strip and the narrow ends of the closed matte shapes. The horizontal burnishing continued upwards and downwards, to merge with the vertical burnish, so that the entire vessel, apart from the decorated strip, was burnished (Fig. 9.5). In the following stage, the initial division of the decorated strip was made by first burnishing the wide diagonals to establish the distance between each of the groups and their direction (Fig. 9.6). These wide burnished diagonals facilitated the completion of the shorter, narrower diagonals in each group in the following stage. When the burnishing process was finished, the vessel was left to dry and was then fired.

SuMMary aND CONCluSIONS The Megiddo jug was decorated with a unique technique that exploited the contrast between slipped, burnished surfaces and unburnished matte surfaces. As mentioned above, an additional jug decorated in a similar technique was recovered at Megiddo. However, the burnishing in the decorated strip of the second vessel was of poorer quality (Greenberg 2006: Fig. 10.10: 2): the width of the strip was narrower (only 2 cm), the spaces between the burnished diagonal lines was larger and the slant of the groups was greater. As only isolated sherds of the third jug were retrieved (see above), which did not include parts of the shoulder where the decoration was located, this vessel has not been published. To the best of my knowledge, there is only a single parallel to this unique decoration technique in Israel, on a vessel displayed in the Israel Museum in Jerusalem (No. IMJ 71.9.295). Unfortunately, the vessel did not originate in a scientific excavation and therefore its source is unknown, although its strong resemblance to the vessels from Megiddo suggests that it may have been produced in the same workshop. Its similarity to the Megiddo vessels is evident in the shape of the vessel, the decorative technique and also in the plastic decorations applied to it. In the publication of the excavations at Beth-Shean (FitzGerald 1935: Pls. 12–14, 18), an additional vessel appears to resemble the Megiddo examples. However, examination of this vessel in the Rockefeller Museum in Jerusalem revealed that it was actually decorated by a different method. Thus, the decorative technique of the three jugs from Megiddo and that in the Israel Museum is extremely rare, and it is therefore important to determine their origin and establish if these four vessels were indeed all made in the same workshop.

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REFERENCES Bunzel, R.L. 1972. the Pueblo Potter. New York. Concentino, P. 1985. Creative Pottery. London. Finkelstein, I., Ussishkin, D. and Peersmann, J. 2006. Area J (The 1998–2000 Seasons). In: Finkelstein, I., Ussishkin, D. and Halpern, B., eds. Megiddo IV: the 1998–2002 Seasons (Monograph Series of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University 24). Tel Aviv: 29–53. FitzGerald, G.M. 1935. The Earliest Pottery of Beth-Shan. the Museum Journal 24: 5–22. Greenberg, R. 2006. Notes on the Early Bronze Age Pottery (The 1998–2000 Seasons). In: Finkelstein, I., Ussishkin, D. and Halpern, B., eds. Megiddo IV: the 1998–2002 Seasons (Monograph Series of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University 24). Tel Aviv: 149–165. Hamilton, D. 1974. the thames and hudson Manual of Pottery and Ceramics. London Krishnan, K., Freestone, I.C. and Middleton, A.P. 2005. The Technology of ‘Glazed’ Reserved Slip Ware – A Fine Ceramic of the Harappan Period. Archaeometry 47: 691–703. Leach, B. 1945. A Potter’s Book. London. Peterson, S. 1989. the living tradition of Maria Martinez. Tokyo and New York. Rice, M. 1987. Pottery Analysis: A Sourcebook. Chicago. Sinopoli, C.M. 1991. Approaches to Archaeological Ceramics. New York.

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CHAPTER 10

THE LATE BRONzE IIB POTTERY FROM LEVELS K-8 AND K-7 Mario A.S. Martin

This chapter presents the pottery assemblage of Levels K-8 and K-7 in Area K, an area of domestic character at the southeastern edge of the mound.1 Both strata belong to the LB IIB and can be dated to the 13th and, arguably, early 12th centuries BCE.2 They can be correlated with Stratum VIIB of the University of Chicago excavations. Contemporaneous material also comes from the cemetery on the eastern slope of the mound (Table 10.1). TABLE 10.1: CORRELATION OF STRATA AND BURIALS AT LB IIA–LB III MEGIDDO

Period

Megiddo Expedition (1992-2006) Areas

u of C Excavations (loud 1948; guy and Engberg 1938)

K

Strata

Safe u of C loci (Finkelstein and Zimhoni 2000)

Eastern cemetery (mainly after gonen 1992)

VIIIi

W=3091, N=3099, S=3099, 3102, 3161, 4081, 4084, N=4084, 5028

T4, T24, T25, T26, T28, T217A&C, T921, T1145B, T989A&B&D

VIIB

W=2041, E=2041?, 2086?, 3101, 3102, 3103, W=3103, S=3103, E=5006, W=5023

T40, T877A&B, T911A-C, T912A&B&D, T989Cii

VIIA

3043, 3061, n=3061?, E=3061, T1101A Upper 3073, N=3073, S=3073?, 3098, 5009, 5017, 5022?, 5277, W=5277iii; moved from VIIB: 2039, 2041, 3091, 2131

g

LB IIA -

LB IIB

K-8 K-7

LB III

K-6

F

M

F-9?

G

F-7

M-6

i. While Stratum VIII was attributed to the LB IIA, it seems to extend both into the 15th and 13th centuries BCE. For intramural burials from early in the lifespan of this stratum, see Gonen 1992: 113–118. ii. Several of these tombs seem to show continuation into the LB III. iii. Mazar negated the reliability of Loci N=3061, S=3073 and 5022 (1985a: 97 n. 6; 2002: 266). For his somewhat differing list of reliable Stratum VIIA loci, see Mazar 1985a: 97 n. 6. Furthermore, the reassignation of Locus 2131 to Stratum VIIA might also be an issue of debate (see n. 51). 1

2

The ceramic material presented here was restored by Rachel Pelta and drawn by Yulia Gottlieb at Tel Aviv University. Yulia Gottlieb also arranged the figures. Photos were taken by Pavel Shrago. Invaluable help was offered by Eran Arie. Petrographic analyses were conducted by Nissim Golding-Meir (Golding-Meir 2010). However, only the results of Canaanite commercial jars are presented in this chapter. More extensive fabric analyses, as well as the study of vessel formation techniques, are planned once more material of the LB-sequence in Area K becomes available to us. Since domestic phases are dynamic, including frequent minor changes (e.g., repairs, repeated raising of floors) and disturbances (e.g., pits), the separation between these phases and the correct attribution of the ceramic material of a given locus are not always easy. Often, the ceramic restoration process allows for the reconstruction of a finer stratification (i.e., ceramic joints between loci and/or baskets).

343

M Merh Mttt M Meare

Both Levels K-8 and K-7 produced restorable assemblages; the bulk of the material under review belongs, however, to Level K-8. Only the material from the stratigraphically most reliable contexts was included in the analysis (mainly floor loci, i.e., loci designated as ‘F’ in the locus index at the end of Volume III). Some contexts were only partially safe and were subdivided into ‘a’ and ‘b’.3 Baskets that were not clean were excluded.4 A type-series was built encompassing both levels under review (Figs. 10.1–10.3; for photos see Figs. 10.4–10.6).5 It includes local as well as imported Cypriot, Aegean and Egyptian types (the Cypriot and Aegean assemblage is discussed in Chapter 11). Note that type codes start with the number ‘60’. The material from the most reliable contexts was included in a vessel and rim count presented in the appendix to this chapter. All vessels and rims to be counted were classified typologically and entered into an Access database. A vessel was defined as ‘complete’ when it either retained a complete profile or at least half of it was preserved (Arie 2006: 192). A total of 747 vessels and rims were counted (including both drawn and un-drawn items) – 598 originating from Level K-8 and 149 from Level K-7. Among these, 65 (9%) were complete vessels – 49 (8%) in Level K-8 and 16 (11%) in Level K-7. The ceramic assemblage of Levels K-8 and K-7 is illustrated in Figs. 10.11–10.25 (for assemblage photos see Figs. 10.7–10.8). Included are all complete vessels and a selection of fragments. Arrangement is by unit and within each unit follows the order of the type-series as presented in the type discussion below (an exception are storage jars, which due to their frequent illustration in a 1:10 scale, are presented last). Ceramic material that safely belongs to Level K-8 is presented in Figs. 10.11–10.20 and includes pottery from Buildings 06/K/4, 06/K/7 and the surrounding areas. Figures 10.21–10.22 (Level K-8?) include material from various ‘open-area’ loci west of Building 06/K/4 in Square N/10. These loci are not directly related to any architecture and cannot be regarded as completely safe (the material from these loci was not included in the vessel and rim count). Although Level K-7 is clearly an architectural phase, it is somewhat ill-defined in terms of ceramic evidence. This stratum had a main building stage and, at least in one spot, an additional, late stage (Chapter 3). It was impossible to relate the ceramic material to either of them alone and we had to content ourselves with a general Level K-7 affiliation. Most of the reliable ceramic material from Level K-7 originated from Building 06/K/139 and is presented in Figs. 10.23–10.24 and 10.25: 1–4. Building 04/K/124, the rebuild of Building 06/K/4 of Level K-8, produced almost no ceramic material that can be regarded as clean with certainty – clean material is shown in Fig. 10.25: 5–6. Figure 10.25: 7–11 (Level K-7?) illustrates the pottery of Loci 04/K/96 and 04/K/124 in the courtyard of this building. These loci seem to be partly contaminated with later material (the material from these loci too was not included in the vessel and rim count). Figure 10.26 shows pottery from mixed contexts. Comparative material for the various ceramic types was mostly taken from sites in the northern valleys, i.e., the Jezreel, Beth-Shean, Central Jordan and Huleh Valleys. These include mainly Yoqne‘am, Tel qashish, Beth-Shean, Tell es-Sa‘idiyeh, Tell Deir ‘Alla, Hazor and Tel Dan. A comparative stratigraphy of the main sites is presented in Fig. 10.10. Special emphasis was given to the comparison with Beth-Shean. 3

4 5

Divided (clean) loci of Level K-8: 04/K/79b (=PT4–13), 04/K/132b (=PT4), 06/K/3b (=PT8), 06/K/16b (=PT6), 06/K/24b (=PT2–4), 06/K/30b (=PT3, 5–6), 06/K/42a (=PT1–4), 08/K/40a (=PT1); Level K-8?: 04/K/81b (=PT12– 17); Level K-7: 04/K/82b (=PT12–14), 04/K/83b (=PT11–13), 06/K/10a (=PT1–4). Level K-8: 04/K/99 (not clean: PT1, 3, 11); Level K-8?: 04/K/119 (not clean: PT5). In the descriptive tables of Figs. 10.1–10.3 the corresponding types in the LB III/Iron I typology of Chapter 12 were noted.

344

CtMaahe ha: a th eMah hehe

h

rrh ahaahe

TehM

ehxhet heh MeM he

Regarding comparanda from Megiddo itself, strata indicated by Roman numerals (mainly Strata Ix–VIIA) refer to the University of Chicago Excavations. The following periodical division is used for the 14th–12th centuries BCE: LB IIA (14th century) and LB IIB (13th–early 12th centuries), with the designation LB II covering both those periods. Following the methodological approach of the Megiddo Expedition, for the lowlands, the term LB III was chosen over the traditional designation ‘Iron IA’ (Mazar 1990: 287–291) for the period of the 20th Dynasty until the end of the Egyptian hegemony over Canaan (ca. 1130 BCE).6 Iron I is used to define strata of the late 12th–10th centuries BCE. For the highlands, on the other hand, the traditional term Iron IA is retained for strata that may belong to the first half of the 12th century. Dates of Egyptian pharaohs follow Kitchen’s (2000: 49) chronology. In the tables, percentages of the distribution of types and classes are given to one decimal point (accordingly, they do not add up to exactly 100% in all cases), while for convenience sake, they are rounded to the next integer in the text. Capacities were measured with Pot utility Version 1.05, a computer program kindly provided by J.P. Thalmann (Arcane Project; cf. Thalmann 2007). ABBREVIATIONS OF VESSEL CLASSES: AM

Amphoriskos

EG

Egyptian import

MV

Miniature vessel

BL

Bowl

FL

Flask

MYC

Aegean import

CH

Chalice

GB

Goblet

PT

Pithos

CP

Cooking-pot

JG

Jug

Px

Pyxis

CS

Cup-and-saucer

JT

Juglet

SJ

Storage jar

CV

Closed vessel

KR

Krater

ST

Stand

CYP

Cypriot import

LP

Lamp

VA

Varia

6

The term LB III is based on the reasoning that the true end of the Late Bronze Age came about only with the end of the Egyptian hegemony over Canaan and with the destruction of important Canaanite cities and sites such as Megiddo VIIA, Lachish VI and Tel Sera‘ Ix (Ussishkin 2004: 74–75). Based on marked changes and innovations of various material culture elements, alongside the continuation of the Late Bronze Age tradition, the author would prefer the introduction of a new term expressing the transitional character of this period – such as ‘Transitional (Late) Bronze and Iron Ages’ (TBI).

345

M Merh Mttt M Meare

FIGURE 10.1: LEVELS K-8 AND K-7 CERAMIC TYPES: BOWLS (BL), CHALICES (CH), GOBLETS (GB), CUP-AND-SAUCERS (CS), KRATERS (KR), COOKING-POTS (CP) type

reg. no.

reference

Corresponding type in lB III/Iron I (Chapter 12)

BL60a

06/K/87/VS8

Fig. 10.18: 2

BL1, BL16

BL60a1

06/K/128/VS1

Fig. 10.23: 3

BL60b

06/K/131/VS2

Fig. 10.16: 3

BL60c

04/K/81b/VS2

Fig. 10.21: 3

BL61

04/K/79b/VS1

Fig. 10.14: 2

BL80

06/K/131/VS1

Fig. 10.16: 4

BL81

04/K/83b/VS10

Fig. 10.23: 6

BL82

06/K/135/VS3

Fig. 10.11: 11

BL13 ~BL4

BL83

04/K/127/VS1

Fig. 10.26: 1

CH60

04/K/130/VS1

Fig. 10.11: 14

GB60

06/K/91/VS2

Fig. 10.20: 3

CS60

06/K/124/VS2

Fig. 10.26: 3

CS1 K1

KR60

06/K/87/VS6

Fig. 10.18: 7

KR61

04/K/86/VS1

Fig. 10.26: 5

KR70

04/K/130/VS2

Fig. 10.11: 19

KR71

06/K/60/VS1

Fig. 10.16: 7

KR80

06/K/139/VS6

Fig. 10.23: 9

CP60a

04/K/116/VS8

Fig. 10.12: 2

CP60b

06/K/7/VS1

Fig. 10.17: 10

346

BL3

~K2

CtMaahe ha: a th eMah hehe

BL60a

BL60a1

BL60b

BL80

BL81

BL82

GB60

CS60

KR60

h

rrh ahaahe

TehM

ehxhet heh MeM he

BL60c

BL61

BL83

CH60

KR61

CP60a KR70

KR71

KR80

CP60b

Fig. 10.1: Levels K-8 and K-7 ceramic types: bowls (BL), chalices (CH), goblets (GB), cup-and-saucers (CS), kraters (KR), cooking-pots (CP).

347

M Merh Mttt M Meare

FIGURE 10.2: LEVELS K-8 AND K-7 CERAMIC TYPES: STORAGE JARS (SJ), PITHOI (PT), JUGS (JG), JUGLETS (JT), FLASKS (FL) type

reg. no.

reference

Corresponding type in lB III/Iron I (Chapter 12)

SJ60a

06/K/90/VS3

Fig. 10.19: 5

SJ1b

SJ60b

06/K/20/VS1

Fig. 10.13: 11

SJ1b

SJ60c

06/K/93/VS4

Fig. 10.24: 9

SJ2

SJ61

06/K/139/VS2

Fig. 10.24: 12

SJ1a

SJ70

06/K/12/VS2

Fig. 10.15: 4

SJ80

06/K/12/VS6

Fig. 10.15: 5

PT60

06/K/42a/VS6

Fig. 10.17: 16

P1

JG60

06/K/139/VS4

Fig. 10.24: 1

~J11

JG70

06/K/43/VS6

Fig. 10.12: 5

J10

JG71

06/K/82/VS2

Fig. 10.25: 5

J12 ~JT1

JT60

04/K/99/VS2

Fig. 10.12: 7

FL60

06/K/57/VS7

Fig. 10.12: 8

348

CtMaahe ha: a th eMah hehe

h

rrh ahaahe

TehM

ehxhet heh MeM he

SJ60c

SJ61 SJ60a

SJ60b

PT60

JG60

SJ80 SJ70

JG70

JG71

JT60 FL60

Fig. 10.2: Levels K-8 and K-7 ceramic types: storage jars (SJ), pithoi (PT), jugs (JG), juglets (JT), flasks (FL).

349

M Merh Mttt M Meare

FIGURE 10.3: LEVELS K-8 AND K-7 CERAMIC TYPES: LAMPS (LP), STANDS (ST), MINIATURE VESSELS (MV), CYPRIOT IMPORTS (CYP), AEGEAN IMPORTS (MYC), EGYPTIAN IMPORTS (EG) type

reg. no.

reference

Corresponding type in lB III/Iron I (Chapter 12)

LP60

06/K/96/VS4

Fig. 10.18: 9

L1

ST60

04/K/81b/VS1

Fig. 10.21: 10

MV60

08/K/3/VS1

Fig. 10.14: 9

MV61

06/K/42a/VS1

Fig. 10.17: 13

MV62

06/K/97/VS2

Fig. 10.18: 10

CYP60

06/K/99/VS4

Fig. 10.24: 5

CYP61

06/K/25/VS1

Fig. 10.16: 12

CYP62

06/K/68/VS1

Fig. 10.16: 13

CYP63

04/K/83b/VS2

Fig. 10.24: 4

CYP64

06/K/90/VS1

Fig. 10.18: 14

MYC60

06/K/91/VS3

Fig. 10.20: 4

MYC61

06/K/87/VS2

Fig. 10.18: 12

EG60

06/K/87/VS4

Fig. 10.19: 1

EG61

04/K/82b/VS5

Fig. 10.25: 2

350

CtMaahe ha: a th eMah hehe

LP60

ST60

MV60

CYP60

CYP61

CYP62

h

rrh ahaahe

MV61

TehM

ehxhet heh MeM he

MV62

CYP63

CYP64

MYC60

MYC61

EG60

EG61

Fig. 10.3: Levels K-8 and K-7 ceramic types: lamps (LP), stands (ST), miniature vessels (MV), Cypriot imports (CYP), Aegean imports (MYC), Egyptian imports (EG).

351

M Merh Mttt M Meare

FIGURE 10.4: CERAMIC VESSELS FROM THE LEVELS K-8 AND K-7 ASSEMBLAGE no.

reg. no.

type

Drawing

1

06/K/97/VS3

BL60a

Fig. 10.18: 4

2

04/K/79b/VS1

BL61

Fig. 10.14: 2

3

06/K/131/VS1

BL80

Fig. 10.16: 4

4

06/K/135/VS3

BL82

Fig. 10.11: 11

5

04/K/127/VS1

BL83

Fig. 10.26: 1

6

06/K/91/VS7

GB60

Fig. 10.20: 2

7

06/K/91/VS2

GB60

Fig. 10.20: 3

8

06/K/87/VS6

KR60

Fig. 10.18: 7

9

04/K/86/VS1

KR61

Fig. 10.26: 5

10

06/K/139/VS6

KR80

Fig. 10.23: 9

352

CtMaahe ha: a th eMah hehe

1

h

rrh ahaahe

TehM

ehxhet heh MeM he

2

3

5

4

6

7

8

10

9

Fig. 10.4: Ceramic vessels from the Levels K-8 and K-7 assemblage.

353

M Merh Mttt M Meare

FIGURE 10.5: CERAMIC VESSELS FROM THE LEVELS K-8 AND K-7 ASSEMBLAGE (CONT.) no.

reg. no.

type

Drawing

1

06/K/139/VS3

SJ60a

Fig. 10.24: 8

2

06/K/90/VS3

SJ60a

Fig. 10.19: 5

3

06/K/139/VS2

SJ61

Fig. 10.24: 12

4

06/K/12/VS2

SJ70

Fig. 10.15: 4

5

06/K/91/VS4

SJ70

Fig. 10.20: 9

6

06/K/12/VS6

SJ80

Fig. 10.15: 5

7

06/K/13/VS2

SJ

Fig. 10.26: 9

8

06/K/43/VS6

JG70

Fig. 10.12: 5

9

06/K/82/VS2

JG71

Fig. 10.25: 5

10

06/K/87/VS1

FL60

Fig. 10.18: 8

11

06/K/96/VS4

LP60

Fig. 10.18: 9

12

04/K/81b/VS1

ST60

Fig. 10.21: 10

354

CtMaahe ha: a th eMah hehe

1

h

rrh ahaahe

TehM

ehxhet heh MeM he

3

2

6

7

5

4

9

10 8

11

12

Fig. 10.5: Ceramic vessels from the Levels K-8 and K-7 assemblage (cont.).

355

M Merh Mttt M Meare

FIGURE 10.6: CERAMIC VESSELS FROM THE LEVELS K-8 AND K-7 ASSEMBLAGE (CONT.) no.

reg. no.

type

Drawing

1

04/K/105/VS2

MV60

Fig. 10.26: 4

2

08/K/3/VS1

MV60

Fig. 10.14: 9

3

06/K/42a/VS1

MV61

Fig. 10.17: 13

4

06/K/97/VS2

MV62

Fig. 10.18: 10

5

06/K/47/VS1

VA

Fig. 10.17: 12

6

06/K/68/VS1

CYP62

Fig. 10.16: 13

7

06/K/91/VS3

MYC60

Fig. 10.20: 4

8

04/K/119/VS1

CYP63

Fig. 10.22: 5

9

06/K/90/VS1

CYP64

Fig. 10.18: 14

10

06/K/60/VS1

KR71

Fig. 10.16: 7

356

CtMaahe ha: a th eMah hehe

h

rrh ahaahe

TehM

ehxhet heh MeM he

4

1

5

2

3

6

7

9

8

10

Fig. 10.6: Ceramic vessels from the Levels K-8 and K-7 assemblage (cont.).

357

M Merh Mttt M Meare

Fig. 10.7: The Level K-8 assemblage.

Fig. 10.8: The Level K-7 assemblage.

358

CtMaahe ha: a th eMah hehe

h

rrh ahaahe

TehM

ehxhet heh MeM he

TypOlOGy BoWlS (Bl) Bowls are the most common class in the assemblage under review, forming 43% in Level K-8 and 41% in Level K-7.7 Among the complete vessels, they comprise 43% in Level K-8 and 31% in Level K-7. The prevailing bowl type is a simple bowl with rounded side-walls and a plain rim (BL60), forming 71% of the bowls in Level K-8 and 74% in Level K-7. Type BL60 bowls are also the most common vessel type within the entire assemblage (30% in both Levels K-8 and K-7). The various bowl types predominantly stand on flat bases. Among the complete vessels, flat bases appear in 86% of the bowls in Level K-8, while in Level K-7 all bowls have flat bases. The predominance of flat-based bowls is a typical feature of an advanced part of the Late Bronze Age (Gonen 1992: 47, 49, 51). In general, one can observe that in the southern Levant flat bases on bowls become gradually more common over time in the course of the Late Bronze Age (zuckerman 2003: 113).8 ehxeM MeM taeMrTtaetrMhM hahe hheet: he6a (M–C), he6h Bl60 (Bl60a–c, Bl60a1): small- to medium-sized round-sided bowl with plain rim BL60a: Level K-8: Figs. 10.11: 1–8;9 10.14: 1; 10.16: 1; 10.17: 1; 10.18: 1–4 Level K-8?: Fig. 10.21: 1–2 Level K-7: Fig. 10.23: 1–2 BL60a1: Level K-8: Fig. 10.11: 9 Level K-7: Fig. 10.23: 3 BL60b: Level K-8: Fig. 10.16: 2–3 BL60c: Level K-8?: Fig. 10.21: 3 Small- to medium-sized simple, hemispherical bowl with rounded walls and a plain, generally roundprofiled rim; as noted above, this is the most common bowl type and the most common vessel type in general. These serving vessels are ubiquitous in the southern Levant throughout the entire Late Bronze Age and may stand on flat (BL60a), disc (BL60b) or ring bases (BL60c); rim fragments were classified as BL60, as they theoretically may belong to any of the three subtypes. However, judging from complete vessels, the flat-based variant, BL60a, seems almost exclusive in the assemblage of Levels K-8 and K-7. The specimens in Figs. 10.11: 9 and 10.23: 3 were classified as BL60a1, as they distinguish themselves from BL60a not only by their red slip but also by several morphological traits (see below).

7 8

9

Unless stated differently, one should assume that throughout the typology discussion the quantitative information of a class or a type is based on the combined vessel and rim count. A count of fragmentary bases of small- to medium-size (5 kg

Fig. 16.3

NI

Oval, plano-convex, cobble Fig. grinding surface, slightly convex, 16.3 smoothing on dorsal and ventral, broken Plano-convex, convex grinding stone, broken

L=7.8; Round, plano-convex, flat w=7.5; grinding surface (smooth), T=2.7; pecking on dorsal and laterals M=255 g.

NI Fig. 16.3

CChapie h6: p Ci pehJehiphei hiii

no. reg. no.

Level/ Phase

a/F Elevation (m)

Material Size, weight

Cuhpi

Description

Image

Bi-plano, two opposed convex and smooth grinding surface, broken

NI

Oval, flat, polished grinding surface, cavity on dorsal (cavity H-max: 29 mm, w-max: 6 mm), anvil?

Fig. 16.3

NI

190 06/k/106/AR1 k-8?

F?

163.79-163.98 BP

191 06/k/109/AR5 k-8

F

163.67-163.80 BCF

192 06/k/117/AR7 k-8

A

163.93-164.19 BP

Plano-convex, smoothing on dorsal and grinding surface, broken

193 06/k/140/AR2 k-8

F

163.86-164.08 BCF

Oval, plano-convex, grinding NI surface flat and smooth, pecking and smoothing on dorsal, broken

194 08/k/7/AR2

k-8

A

163.87

BCF

195 08/k/58/AR3 k-8

A

163.7

BCF

196 06/k/93/AR3 k-7

F

164.36-164.54 BP

197 06/k/139/AR4 k-7

F

164.00-164.18 LS

198 08/k/29/AR2 k-7

A

163.88

BP

199 08/k/29/AR5 k-7

A

163.88

BP

200 02/k/65/AR10 k-6

F

164.80-164.84 BP

201 02/k/76/AR2 k-6

F

165.15

202 04/k/41/AR5 k-6

F

164.79-164.85 BCF

BP

L=7.3; w=6.3; T=4.5; M=400 g.

L=11.7; w=8.1; T=4.3; M=797 g.

Small, rectangular, plano-convex Fig. in cross-section, pecking and 16.3 smoothing on dorsal; flat grinding surface covered by polish; a small cavity in the centre of the ventral face – 8 mm diameter; 3 mm deep Flat grinding surface, pecking, transversally broken but may have been in use post breakage

NI

Medial fragment, plano-convex, smoothing on grinding surfaces

NI

L=8; A square grinding stone, probably NI w=8; a reused larger grinding stone T=6.3; M=820 g. Flat grinding surface, transverse grinding surface, broken

NI

L=8.3; Oval plano-convex, flat H=6.4; w=18.2

NI

H=14.4; Plan-convex, rectangular, w=7.6; smoothing on ventral and dorsal T=5.6 faces; convex grinding surface, rounded laterals

NI

Flat grinding surface, broken L=13.7; Oval, bi-convex, 1-2 grinding w=9.4; surfaces (polished) T=6.6; M=1.645 kg

NI NI

941

hheliu ehiieCiep

no. reg. no.

Level/ Phase

a/F Elevation (m)

Material Size, weight

Description

Image

203 06/k/94/AR4 k-6

A

164.56-164.69 BP

Flat plano-convex, end fragment, NI flat grinding surface, smoothing on grinding surface and dorsa, broken

204 04/k/29/AR1 k-5

F

165.07-165.22 BP

Elongated, plano-convex, convex NI grinding surface and dorsal (both smooth), transversely broken, two fragments

205 04/k/31/AR1 k-4

F

165.50-165.66 BP

Plano-convex, flat grinding surface (smooth), broken

NI

206 02/M/61/AR2 M-5

F?

163.11

BP

Plano-convex, sloping dorsal face, broken

NI

207 06/H/51/AR2 H-9

F

158.97

LS

A broken plano-convex, upper grinding stone, one grinding surface, smoothing and pecking on dorsal

NI

208 08/H/2/AR3

H-9

F

159.32

SS

L=8.6; Oval, red, two depressions on w=7.8; both faces, grinding surface T=3.7 convex

NI

209 08/H/12/AR8 H-9

F

158.49

BCF

L=14.2; Oval, plano-convex w=9.5; T=6.3; M=1.35kg

NI

210 04/L/6/AR3

L-2

A

162.44

BP

Plano-convex (wide loafshaped)), flat grinding surface, transversely broken

NI

211 06/L/40/AR1 L-1

A

162.96-163.11 BP

Two grinding surfaces (one on dorsal face), broken

NI

Description

Image

1.3 UnIDEnTIFIED grInDIng STonES no. reg. no.

Level/ Phase

F/a Elevation (m)

212 06/J/82/AR1

J-4a

F?

156.08-156.14 BCF

Flat fragment

NI

213 06/J/82/AR3

J-4a

F?

156.08-156.14 BP

Fragment

NI

F

Flat fragment

NI

214 04/J/39/AR2

J-6a

215 06/J/13/AR2

J-6b, a A

156.85-157.00 BP

A single grinding surface, broken NI

216 06/J/44/AR2

J-6b

F?

156.93-157.09 BP

Oval, plano-convex, broken

NI

217 06/J/57/AR5

J-6b

F?

156.52-157.03 BCF

Possibly a fragment of a lower grinding stone

NI

218 06/J/57/AR6

J-6b

F?

156.52-157.03 BCF

One, flat grinding surface, broken NI

219 06/J/61/AR2

J-6b

A

157.42-157.56 BCF

Possibly a fragment of a lower grinding stone

942

157.52

Material Size

BCF

NI

CChapie h6: p Ci pehJehiphei hiii

no. reg. no.

Level/ Phase

F/a Elevation (m)

Cuhpi

Material Size

Description

Image

BP

Plano-convex, smoothing on ventral and dorsal faces, thin, broken

NI

220 08/J/113/AR1 J-5/J-6 A

157.36

221 04/J/10/AR2

A

157.36-157.49 BCF

Single grinding surface, broken

NI

222 08/J/198/AR1 J-9

F?

157.63

Convex-concave, smooth grinding surface, broken

NI

223 06/J/35/AR2

MB tomb

F?

156.27-156.35 BCF

A fragment of a lower grinding stone

NI

224 06/J/37/AR6

MB tomb

F?

155.52-155.77 BCF

Oval, plano-convex, flat concave, NI grinding surface, broken

225 04/k/79b/AR7 k-8

F

163.66-163.69 BP

A single grinding surface, broken NI

226 04/k/105/AR1 k-8?

F?

163.76-163.83 BCF

Flat cobble, a single grinding surface, broken

NI

227 04/k/105/ AR13

k-8?

F?

164.04-164.14 BP

Plano-convex, flat grinding surface (polished), broken

NI

228 06/k/19/AR1 k-8?

A

164.12

Small fragment, flat grinding surface

NI

J-7b

BP

BP

229 06/k/27/AR1 k-8?

F?

163.87-163.97 BP

Fragment

NI

230 06/k/43/AR6 k-8

F

163.91-163.98 LS

Fragment, bearing flat, smooth grinding surface

NI

231 06/k/44/AR5 k-8

F

163.78-163.85 BP

Flat grinding stone, broken

NI

232 06/k/91/AR1 k-8

A

163.84-163.96 BP

Plano-convex, flat smooth grinding stone, broken

NI

233 06/k/117/AR3 k-8

A

163.93-164.19 BCF

A fragment bearing smoothing marks

NI

234 06/k/117/AR8 k-8

A

163.93-164.19 BP

Flat polished grinding surface, broken

NI

235 06/k/117/AR9 k-8

A

163.93-164.19 BCF

Flat grinding stone, broken

NI

236 06/k/123/AR4 k-8

F

163.93

BCF

Flat grinding stone (massive), broken

NI

237 08/k/5/AR1

k-8?

A?

164.27

BP

Damaged

NI

238 04/k/96/AR3 k-7?

F?

164.41-164.51 BP

Flat, possibly lower grinding stone, broken

NI

239 06/k/93/AR2 k-7

F

164.36-164.54 BP

Flat grinding surface, broken

NI

240 06/k/93/AR6 k-7

F

164.36

BP

Fragmented

NI

241 08/k/29/AR1 k-7

A

164.61

BP

Flat grinding stone, broken

NI

242 04/k/19/AR5 k-6

F

164.86

BP

Single grinding surface, possibly NI lower grinding stone, broken

243 04/k/41/AR1 k-6

F

164.79-164.86 BP

Fragment

NI

244 04/k/42/AR5 k-6

F

164.83

Fragment

NI

BP

943

hheliu ehiieCiep

no. reg. no.

Level/ Phase

F/a Elevation (m)

Material Size

Description

Image NI

245 06/k/75/AR1 k-6

A

164.36-164.75 BP

Flat grinding stone, flat grinding surface, broken

246 98/M/34/AR1 M-6

A

161.27

Oval, two flat faces, one of which NI has a drill mark at its center, broken

247 06/M/34/AR1 M-5

A

162.88-163.73 BCF

Fragment

NI

248 08/H/8/AR3

F

158.67

BP

Probably lower grinding stone, broken

NI

F?

158.54

BP

Probably lower grinding stone, broken

NI

Material Size, weight

Description

Image

LS

Fragment, grinding marks

NI

H-9

249 08/H/34/AR2 H-9

BP

1.4 BUrnIShErS no. reg. no.

Level/ Phase

250 08/J/84/AR1

J-6/J/5 F

157.14

251 04/J/66/AR1

J-5

A?

157.11-157.27 BCF

L=8.7; w=6.5; T=5.8; M=645 g.

252 04/k/79b/AR2 k-8

F

163.79-163.90 BP

L=7; Oblate, convex polished grinding Fig. 16.4 w=5.8; surface, broken T=6.5; M=390 g.

253 04/k/79b/AR8 k-8

F

163.66-163.69 BCF

L=5.8; Irregular, oval pebble, 2 main w=4.9; grinding surfaces (polished), T=5.2; polishing on circumferences M=295 g.

254 04/k/79b/ AR13

k-8

F

163.59-163.66 BCF

L=7.8; Round, bi-plano, two flat polished Fig. w=7.7; grinding surfaces 16.4 T=3.5; M=460 g.

255 04/k/79b/ AR15

k-8

F

163.59-163.66 BCF

L=10.2; Oval, two polished grinding w=9.1; surfaces (one flat), bi-faceted T=4.7; M=900 g.

F?

163.73-163.76 Scoria

256 04/k/105/AR3 k-8?

944

a/F Elevation (m)

Oval, plano-convex, single NI convex grinding surface, smoothing and battering on dorsal and laterals

Fragment

NI

NI

NI

CChapie h6: p Ci pehJehiphei hiii

no. reg. no.

Level/ Phase

a/F Elevation (m)

Material Size, weight

Description

Cuhpi

Image

257 04/k/105/AR4 k-8?

F?

163.73-163.76 BCF

L=9.8; Plano-convex, oval, single convex Fig. w=7.9; grinding surface (polished), 16.4 T=4.7; smoothing on dorsal M=700 g.

258 04/k/121/AR5 k-8

F

163.13-163.17 BP

L=10; w=6.8; T=4.9; M=410k g.

Plano-convex, high, convex grinding surface (polished), pecked depression on grinding surface

NI

259 06/k/4/AR6

k-8

F

163.78-163.89 LS

L=8.4; Oval, flat convex laterals, two w=6.4; grinding surface T=3.4; M=327 g.

NI

260 06/k/6/AR3

k-8?

A

163.92-164.02 LS

261 06/k/6/AR7

k-8?

A

163.94-163.95 LS

L=9; Oval pebble w=6.4; T=4.9; M=410g.

262 06/k/27/AR8 k-8?

F?

163.78

L=8.9; Roundish two flat, polished faces NI w=8.3; T=2.9; M=380 g.

263 06/k/42a/AR2 k-8

F

163.68-163.69 BCF

264 06/k/59/AR2 k-8?

F?

163.83

265 06/k/59/AR3 k-8?

F?

266 06/k/59/AR4 k-8?

267 06/k/59/AR5 k-8?

URM

Oval pebble, 1-2 grinding surfaces, broken

Oval pebble, ‘multi-faceted’, damaged

NI NI

NI

L=11; Oval, flat and polished pebble, w=9.2; single flat, active surface T=4.7; M=690 g.

NI

163.81-163.83 LS

L=6.2; Oval-oblate pebble, smooth w=4.5; T=4.5; M=240 g.

NI

F?

163.81-163.83 LS

L=7.8; Oval squat smooth pebble w=7.5; T=5.8; M=740 g.

NI

F?

163.81-163.83 BCF

LS

Oval pebble, bearing a single NI polished grinding surface, broken

945

hheliu ehiieCiep

no. reg. no.

Level/ Phase

a/F Elevation (m)

Material Size, weight

Description

Image

Elongated pebble, triangular cross-section, broken

NI

268 06/k/59/AR6 k-8?

F?

163.64-163.69 LS

269 06/k/60/AR1 k-8

F

163.83-163.84 BCF

L=8.2; Oval, squat, polished flat grinding NI w=7.2; surface, flat dorsal, pecking on T=4.3; dorsal and laterals M=490 g.

270 06/k/60/AR3 k-8

F

163.83-163.84 BCF

Oval pebble, bearing convex smooth grinding surface

NI

271 06/k/96/AR2 k-8

F

163.57-163.72 BCF

Oval squat pebble, a single polished grinding surface

NI

272 06/k/100/AR7 k-8

F

163.67-163.70 LS

273 06/k/109/AR8 k-8

F

163.67-163.80 BCF

Oval pebble, bearing convex, smooth grinding surface

274 06/k/138/AR1 k-8

F

163.73-163.89 BCF

L=10.2; A pebble bearing grinding marks NI w=8.5; T=3.4; M=480 g.

275 06/k/138/AR2 k-8

F

163.70-163.73 BCF

L=5.5; Amorphous pebble, bearing w=5.1; grinding marks T=4.5; M=190 g.

NI

276 06/k/140/AR4 k-8

F

163.86-164.08 BCF

L=9.1; Round, bi-plano, 2 flat grinding w=8.9; surfaces T=6.1; M=895 g.

Fig. 16.4

277 08/k/5/AR3

A?

163.75

LS

Triangular, polished, at both flat faces, damaged

Fig. 16.4

278 08/k/58/AR2 k-8

A

163.7

LS

279 08/k/60/AR3 k-8

F

163.59

BCF

Irregular polished active surface, NI broken

280 08/k/122/AR3 k-8

A

163.95

LS

Oval, three polished, active surfaces

946

k-8?

L=9.1; Amorphous, flat w=6.2; T=2.2; M=200 g.

L=4.1; Unshaped pebble, oval and flat w=9.2; T=5.3 ; M=1 kg

NI

NI

NI

NI

CChapie h6: p Ci pehJehiphei hiii

no. reg. no.

Level/ Phase

a/F Elevation (m)

Material Size, weight

281 00/k/28/AR6 k-6

A

164.94

URM

L=12.1; Oval pebble w=9.2; T=5.7; M=1 kg

NI

282 00/k/107/AR1 k-6?

A

165.09

LS

L=13.1 Amorphous, polished pebble w=7.9; T=6.8; M=733 g.

NI

283 00/k/111/AR1 k-6

A

164.82

URM

L=8.5; Small oval pebble, polished all w=5.4; around, one flat surface T=2.9; M=223 g.

NI

284 02/k/76/AR1 k-6

F

165.36

LS

L=5.9; Oval, plano-convex, single active Fig. w=5.6; face, small. red-white limestone 16.4 T=2.9; M=123 g.

285 02/k/76/AR6 k-6

F

165.15

BCF

L=5.7; Plano-convex; smooth, single, w=5.2; polished active face T=3.6; M=176 g.

NI

286 02/k/82/AR1 k-6

F

164.62

URM

Amorphous pebble,

Fig. 16.4

287 02/k/82/AR5 k-6

F

164.4

LS

L=6.7; One flat, polished face, and one w=6.1; dent on the opposite face T=5.1; M=323 g.

NI

288 02/k/83/AR2 k-6

F

164.76

URM

L=8.6; Amorphous pebble, natural w=4.6; T=4.7; M=224 g.

Fig. 16.4

289 04/k/42/AR2 k-6

F

164.83-165.05 BCF

290 04/k/42/AR7 k-6

F

164.83

LS

Description

Cuhpi

Image

A single convex polished grinding NI surface (pebble), broken L=7.4; Oval, irregular pebble, 1-2 w=6.6; grinding surfaces T=5.4; M=310 g.

NI

947

hheliu ehiieCiep

no. reg. no.

Level/ Phase

a/F Elevation (m)

Material Size, weight

Description

Image

291 04/k/44/AR2 k-6

F

164.92-165.15 BCF

L=6.6; Irregular pebble, 3 faceted, flat w=5.6; grinding surface T=4.8; M=340 g.

NI

292 04/k/108/AR3 k-6

A

164.11-165.05 BCF

L=9.6; Rectangular, 4 grinding surfaces w=6.7; (flat and smooth), laterals are T=5.5; convex. M=820 g.

NI

293 98/M/9/AR1

F

161.47

L=9.1; Amorphous; spongy raw material Fig. w=7.2; 16.4 T=7; M=526 g.

294 06/M/14/AR3 M-6?

F?

162.34-162.50 BCF

L=5.8; Pebble, 1 grinding surface w=5.5; T=4.8; M=280 g.

295 06/M/14/AR4 M-6?

F?

162.34-162.50 BCF

L=7.3; w=6; T=4.7; M=300 g.

296 06/M/14/AR8 M-6?

F?

162.34-162.50 BCF

L=7.4; One grinding surface, round high Fig. w=7.2; plano-convex, pecking all over 16.4 T=5.81; M=520 g.

297 06/M/29/AR2 M-6?

F?

162.05

L=5.7; Oblate, flat grinding surface, w=5.4; convex dorsal T=4.1; M=200g

Fig. 16.4

298 06/M/29/AR5 M-6?

F?

161.93-162.05 LS

L=9.3; Flat smooth pebble, bearing w=5.8; battering marks T=3.6; M=300 g.

NI

299 06/M/31b/ AR7

F

161.80-161.93 LS

F?

161.89-162.03 LS

M-6

M-6

300 06/M/38/AR8 M-6?

948

LS

BCF

NI

Shaped pebble, bearing 1 grinding Fig. surface; 1 polished grinding 16.4 surface with a depression set on its center (made by pecking)

A flat pebble, damaged by a Fig. single large scar, patinated; 16.4 polished grinding surface, broken L=9.3; Elongated pebble, bearing 1-3 w=3.3; grinding surfaces T=2.7; M=110 g.

NI

CChapie h6: p Ci pehJehiphei hiii

no. reg. no.

Level/ Phase

Cuhpi

a/F Elevation (m)

Material Size, weight

Description

Image

LS

Oval pebble, polished, damaged

NI

301 02/M/65/AR5 M-5

A

163.36

302 04/L/47/AR1 L-5

F

161.38-161.47 LS

L=8.5; Plano-convex, small, polished all NI w=7.8; around T=4.8; M=600 g.

303 06/H/53b/AR1 H-9

F

159.52-159.74 URM

L=6.9; Round, bi-plano, polished w=6.7; grinding surface T=3.9; M=350 g.

Fig. 16.4

304 06/H/56/AR7 H-9

F

159.01-159.18 LS

L=7.9; Amorphous pebble, bearing one w=6.5; grinding surface T=4.8; M=390 g.

NI

305 08/H/12/AR5 H-9

F

158.53

L=5.2; Small, squarish, 2 flat and T=4.1; polished grinding surfaces M=185 g.

Fig. 16.4

LS

306 08/H/12/AR6 H-9

F

158.56

LS

Oval

NI

307 08/H/36/AR7 H-9

F

158.48

LS

Polished or patinated flat pebble

NI

308 08/H/59/AR1 H-9

A

159.11

BCF

Single polished active surface, broken

NI

309 06/H/13/AR5 H-7

F?

159.77-159.78 BCF

L=5; Plano-convex, squat, smooth w=4.7; polished all over, active end, T=3.4; slightly convex M=120 g.

NI

1.5 BUrnIShErS/haMMErSTonES no. reg. no.

Level/ Phase

F/a Elevation (m)

Material Size, weight Description

310 06/J/7/AR1

J-6b

A

156.86-156.93 LS

311 06/k/6/AR6

k-8?

A

163.92-163.95 LS

312 06/k/129/AR4 k-8?

F

163.98-164.08 LS

Image

Flaking and battering marks, broken

NI

L=7.6; w=6.7; T=4.4; M=340 g.

Smooth pebble (natural?)

NI

L=8.7; w=8.1; T=5.2; M=615 g.

Oval pebble, bearing NI smoothing and flaking marks

949

hheliu ehiieCiep

no. reg. no.

Level/ Phase

F/a Elevation (m)

Material Size, weight Description

Image

313 06/H/51/AR3 H-9

F

158.72-158.88 LS

A pebble, bearing grinding and smoothing marks

NI

314 06/H/13/AR10 H-7

F?

159.62-159.66 URM

Squarish stone, 5-6 grinding surfaces

NI

315 06/H/52/AR1 H-7

A

159.37-160.11 BCF

Oval, pebble, bearing smoothing and battering marks, broken

NI

1.6 CrUShErS no. reg. no.

Level/ Phase

F/a Elevation (m)

Material Size, weight Description

Image

316 04/k/105/AR5 k-8?

F?

163.73-163.76 LS

L=6.7; w=6.7; T=5.8; M=465 g.

Oblate, conical, a single flat polished grinding surface, battering on dorsal, convex opposite end

317 06/k/15/AR2 k-8?

A

163.26-163.47 BCF

L=5.8; w=5.8; T=4.8; M=300 g.

Fig. Squat, conical, flat grinding surface (smoothed), round 16.5 cross-section, smoothing and pecking on dorsal, smoothing on laterals

318 06/k/109/AR1 k-8

F

163.80-163.92 BCF

L=6.3; w=5.7; T=4.9; M=300 g.

Oval, squat, conical, flat Fig. convex grinding surface 16.5 (polished), smoothing and pecking on dorsal and laterals

319 06/k/122/AR1 k-8?

F?

164.01-164.22 BCF

L=5.6; Oval, squat, conical, flat Fig. w=5.5; T=6; convex grinding surface 16.5 M=365 g. (polished), smoothing and pecking on dorsal and laterals

320 06/k/129/AR3 k-8?

F

163.98-164.08 BCF

L=7.2; Oval, plano-convex, polished Fig. w=7.1; T=5; concave grinding surface 16.5 M=500 g. and smooth dorsal, pecking appears on grinding surface

321 08/k/21/AR1 k-8

F

163.73

H=8.5; Conical, short, convex active Fig. active end end, rounded and narrowing 16.5 (across)=6.1; opposite end body dia.=5.3; opposite end (across)=3.1; M=376 g.

322 04/k/83b/ AR13

F

164.43-164.54 BCF

950

k-7

BCF

L=5.6; w=4.6; T=5.7; M=290 g.

Oblate, a single flat polished grinding surface, smoothing and polishing on dorsal and grinding surface

Fig. 16.5

Fig. 16.5

CChapie h6: p Ci pehJehiphei hiii

no. reg. no.

Level/ Phase

Cuhpi

F/a Elevation (m)

Material Size, weight Description

Image

323 08/J/152/AR1 J-18

F?

159.37

BCF

L=5.4; w=5.6 T=2.9cm; M=215 g.

Dome shaped, single active face

NI

324 02/k/16/AR1 k-6

F?

164.75

BCF

L=5.9; w=5.4; T=4.6; M=232 g.

Dome shaped, single active face

Fig. 16.5

325 04/k/42/AR8 k-6

F

164.83

LS

L=5.6; Oblate, conical, one flat w=5.4; T=4; smooth grinding surface, M=300 g. convex opposite end

326 04/k/43a/AR2 k-6

F

164.92

LS

L=4.8; w=4; Oblate, dome shaped, pecking Fig. M=133 g. marks, polished 16.5

327 06/H/49/AR8 H-9

F

159.32

BCF

L=5.8; w=5.8; T=5.2; M=300 g.

328 08/H/5/AR4

H-9

F

158.74

BCF

329 08/H/20/AR4 H-9

F

158.73

BCF

L=6.4; D=5; Four-five facets used in 6M=302 g. grinding including one-two poles; small and squat

330 08/H/36/AR1 H-9

F

158.87

BCF

L=4.7; D=4.2; M=120 g.

Miniature, conical, knob/ Fig. bell-like, probably used in 16.5 grinding as well as pounding

331 06/H/78/AR3 H-7

F

159.79-160.32 BCF

L=10.1; w=6.8; T=6.5; M=690 g.

Drop like, elongated conical, Fig. polished grinding surface 16.5

NI

Oblate, smooth grinding surface; dorsal face bears battering marks

Fig. 16.5

Squat, two grinding/crushing poles

NI Fig. 16.5

2. VESSElS 2.1 VarIoUS VESSELS no. reg. no.

Level/ Phase

F/a Elevation (m)

Material Size, weight remarks

Image

332 08/J/176/ AR1 J-2

A

151.97

BCF

NI

333 06/J/72/AR1

J-6a

F

157.38-157.48 BCF

Round, flat inside base, slightly NI concave outside base, pecking and smoothing, broken

334 06/J/61/AR1

J-6b

A

157.56-157.77 BCF

Shallow with flared walls, rounded rim, flat inside and outside bases

NI

A

156.3

wall fragments

NI

335 08/J/181/ AR1 J-5

BCF

Flat rim fragment

951

hheliu ehiieCiep

no. reg. no.

Level/ Phase

F/a Elevation (m)

Material Size, weight remarks

Image

336 06/J/141/ AR1 J-6

A

157.15-157.77 BCF

Fragment, possibly vessel wall NI

337 04/J/9/AR1

J-10a

F?

157.64-157.68 URM

Polished green surface, unknown vessel, broken

338 04/J/11/AR2

MB tomb

157.42-157.54 BCF

Large fragment of a massive NI vessel, smoothing and pecking on walls and exterior bases

339 06/J/22/AR5

MB tomb

F?

155.95-156.06 BCF

Vessel/mortars-massive vessel, NI broken

340 04/k/81b/ AR29

k-8?

F?

164.00-164.02 BCF

Platter, shallow, rounded rim, flared wall, flat inside and outside bases, polishing on inside base, pecking and smoothing on outside walls, broken

Fig. 16.6

341 04/k/105/ AR16

k-8?

F?

163.53-163.72 BCF

Fragment of a bowl on legs, polished interiors, leg crosssection triangular

Fig. 16.6

342 04/k/123/AR1 k-8?

A

164.00-164.14 BCF

Large disc base (flat), polished NI inside, smooth outside, broken

343 06/k/12/AR1 k-8

F

163.70-163.91 BCF

Squarish, massive, badly NI executed, polish on inside base, broken

344 06/k/13/AR5 k-8?

F?

163.77-163.79 BCF

Razed laterals, smooth interiors NI (possibly shallow bowl or platter), broken

345 08/k/7/AR1

k-8

A

163.92

BCF

Flat base fragment, polished interiors

346 08/k/21/AR2 k-8

F

163.73

BCF

Rim diameter= 31.8

347 08/k/122/AR4 k-8

A

163.95

LS

Rim=3 cm Rounded, polished interiors, thick pecked exteriors, rounded rim and base, probably pierced through base, broken

348 04/k/124/AR2 k-7?

F?

164.40-164.41 LS

349 06/k/2/AR1

A

164.22-164.39 BCF

952

k-7

NI

NI

Large bowl, concave interiors, Fig. rounded rim, raised disc base 16.6 (height=2.8; thickness=1.2; diameter=19.2), broken Fig. 16.6

Oval, bowl on cobble, chiseling Fig. and battering marks inside, 16.6 damaged H bowl=6.8; the rimbase is 2.8 cm in height and 1.4 cm wide

Shallow, pecking and NI smoothing, pecking and polished interiors, rounded rim, concave interiors, broken

CChapie h6: p Ci pehJehiphei hiii

Material Size, weight remarks

Cuhpi

no. reg. no.

Level/ Phase

F/a Elevation (m)

350 06/k/2/AR3

k-7

A

164.21-164.22 BCF

Base fragment, polished interior

351 08/k/29/AR3 k-7

A

163.88

Rectangular, concave inside Fig. base, flat outside base, smooth 16.6 inside, broken

352 02/k/65/AR4 k-6

F

164.97-165.01 BP

353 04/k/43a/AR3 k-6

F

354 04/k/57/AR2 k-6

BCF

NI

A small, oval bowl, with upright, slightly in-curving walls, flat outside base and rounded rim, smooth interior

Fig. 16.6

164.64-164.73 BCF

Disk, base wall, flared walls, flat rim and outside base, polished interiors, pecking on outside wall, broken

NI

F

164.60-164.79 BCF

Base fragment of a pedestal NI (or a razed-base bowl), flat base, flaking on circumferences removed the walls, pecking and smoothing on outside walls

355 04/k/57/AR3 k-6

F

164.60-164.79 BCF

Base fragment, possibly of a ring-shaped bowl, pecking on the outside, polished inside base, flaking on the circumferences removed all traces of the walls

NI

356 04/k/57/AR6 k-6

F

164.60-164.79 BCF

Ring-base bowl, flared

Fig. 16.6

357 98/M/12/AR6 M-6

F?

161.32

BCF

Shallow bowl fragment

NI

358 04/M/83/AR7 M-6

F?

161.64

BCF

Ring-base bowl, flared, rounded Fig. rim, concave polished interior, 16.6 smooth exterior, flat outside base, pecking and smoothing on outside walls, broken

359 06/M/14/AR1 M-6?

F?

162.48-162.61 BCF

360 06/M/8/AR7

F?

162.62-162.75 BCF

M-6

L=15.5; w=14; T=7.7

Image

H=7.6; D=36.5

H bowl=10.6; rim-base is 4.8 cm in height, 2.2 cm wide

Flat rim, pecking and smoothing on interiors, smoothing outside, broken

NI

Deep ring-base, concave interiors, flat rim, pecking inside and outside, polish, broken

NI

953

hheliu ehiieCiep

no. reg. no.

F/a Elevation (m)

Material Size, weight remarks

361 06/M/38/AR5 M-6?

F?

162.46

BCF

362 02/M/52/AR1 M-5

F?

163.12-163.25 LS

363 04/k/67/AR1 k-5

F?

164.64-165.25 BCF

364 04/k/46/AR1 k-4

F

165.37-165.44 BP

365 04/M/45 AR1 M-4

F

163.61

366 06/M/50 AR3 M-4

A

163.15-163.81 LS

367 06/H/60/AR3 H-9

F?

159.09-159.26 LS

368 08/H/6/AR3

Level/ Phase

H bowl=11.4; rim-base is 3.5 cm in height, 2.4 cm wide

Image

Ring-concave base pecking Fig. and smoothing on the concave 16.7 interiors, pecking and polish, round-flat base, broken

Fragmented, vessel, or door socket?

Fig. 16.7

H=14.3; D=23

Large oval/round, broken in half, concave interiors, smoothing and pecking on inside and outside wall and base, inside depth=6.5 cm

Fig. 16.7

L=19.6; w=19.6; T=10; M=3.5 kg

Round, concave inside base, slightly smooth interior

Fig. 16.7

Base fragment, smooth, flat interiors

NI

Massive fragment of a large unidentified vessel

NI

BCF

L=13.7; w=13.8; T=3.3

Shallow bowl or platter bearing Fig. numerous scratching and 16.7 striation marks inside; a single cavity on one face

H-9

F

158.81

Rounded rim fragment

NI

369 00/H/66/AR1 H-7

F

160.06-160.10 BP

H=8.2

Concave shallow bowl, polished interiors, broken

Fig. 16.7

370 06/H/13/AR8 H-7

F?

159.62-159.66 BCF

H=5.4

Oval/rectangular, irregular, tapering rim, flat outside base, flat/concave interiors, pecking and smoothing, broken

NI

371 06/H/15/AR1 H-7

F

159.91-160.13 BCF

Oval, shallow, pecking and smoothing, rounded rim, broken

Fig. 16.7

372 04/L/62/AR1 L-4?

F?

162.65-162.76 BCF

Round, shallow, flat base, globular walls, polishing and pecking inside and outside, rounded rim, flat, slightly concave inside base, broken

Fig. 16.7

954

BCF

CChapie h6: p Ci pehJehiphei hiii

Cuhpi

2.2 FEnESTraTED PEDESTaL FragMEnTS (ChaLCoLIThIC) no. reg. no.

Level/ Phase

F/a Elevation (m)

373 06/J/11/AR1

J-6b, a

A

157.00-157.46 BCF

Chalcolithic, fenestrated bowl, base of a leg fragment, leg cross-section: triangular, smoothed

Fig. 16.8

374 06/J/61/AR4

J-6b

A

157.36-157.42 BCF

Chalcolithic, fenestrated pedestal, base leg fragment, leg cross-section: trapezoid, pecking and smoothing

Fig. 16.8

375 04/J/7/AR1

J-7b

A

157.66

BCF

Base of a Chalcolithic fenestrated NI bowl, flaking removed walls, pecking and smoothing on outside walls

376 08/J/172/AR3 J-10

A

BCF

Base of a Chalcolithic fenestrated bowl

NI

377 06/J/22/AR7

F?

155.95-156.06 BCF

Chalcolithic fenestrated pedestal, base-leg fragment, leg cross-section: rectangular, pecking

Fig. 16.8

MB tomb

Material Size Description

Image

3. STONES wITh Cup-MarKS/DENTED ITEMS no. reg. no.

Level/ Phase

F/ a

Elevation (m)

Material Size, weight Description

378 04/J/68/AR2

J-6a

A

156.87-157.23 LS

379 04/J/17/AR1

J-7b

A? 157.54-157.59 LS

380 04/J/21/AR2

MB tomb

Image

Sub-rectangular boulder, Fig. bearing 2 rounded cup-marks, 16.8 rotation marks inside cupmarks, probably door socket, broken H=6.5; w=6.3; T=2.3

LS L=28; w=18; T=9.8

A cup-mark on amorphous boulder

NI

Small cup mark or shallow dent

NI

381 04/k/105/AR9 k-8?

F?

163.85-164.04 LS

Trapezoid, bowl size: H=10.6; Fig. D=8.4; T=2.8 (oval) 16.8

382 06/k/35/AR2 k-8?

F?

163.72

LS

383 08/k/34/AR3 k-8

A

163.45

Chalk

L=7.7; w=16.6; T=7.5

Oval, cavity: L=10.2; w=8.2; NI Depth=2.8

384 04/k/86/AR3 k-7?

F?

164.46

LS

L=11.3; w=9.6; T=5.1

Oval, small drilling 3.6 cm across and 1.3 cm deep, flaking on base, damaged

Small cup-mark or shallow dent, conical shape to the blank, broken

NI

NI

955

hheliu ehiieCiep

no. reg. no.

Level/ Phase

F/ a

Elevation (m)

Material Size, weight Description

385 04/k/14/AR3 k-5

F?

165.54-165.56 BP

386 06/M/50/AR1 M-4

A

163.15-163.81 BP

Lower grinding stone NI secondary, probably reused as a door socket, broken

387 08/H/36/AR13 H-9

F

158.48

LS

Drill cup?

Fig. 16.8

Material Size

Description

Image

Groove on vessel fragment, polish on groove

NI

Probably Neolithic, shaft straightener, polish on the face where the groove is; the groove is shallow, U shaped. L=1.3; w=0.4

NI

L=9.4; w=7.5; T=6.2; M=920g

Rectangular, possibly 4 grinding facets, 2 opposed facets bearing dents; dents, size - first: H=0.4; D=3.7; second: H=0.5; D=3.9

Image Fig. 16.8

4. GrOOVED ITEMS no. reg. no.

Level/ Phase

F/a Elevation (m)

388 06/J/30/AR3

J-5

A

156.34-156.58 BCF

389 08/J/76/AR1

J-13

A

159.13

390 06/k/93/AR1 k-7

F

164.36-164.54 LS

391 08/H/12/AR3 H-9

F

392 06/H/30/AR1 H-6

A

BCF

BCF

L=7.9

A fragment bearing; Fig. Engraving over a smooth, 16.9 flat surface; flaking marks on dorsal Groove w=1.6; depth= 0.9

159.69-160.29 LS

Grooved pebble ‘shaft straightener’; on pebble

Fig. 16.9

A fragment bearing engraving Fig. of crossed lines; dorsal face 16.9 and laterals bear multiple flaking scars

5. pErfOraTED ITEMS no. reg. no.

Level/ Phase

393 04/k/99/AR12 k-8

956

F/a Elevation (m) F

material Size, weight Description

163.62-163.73 LS

L=7.5; w=6.1; T=4.4

Oval, flaked, soft limestone, hole D=1.6 (smoothed), damaged

Image Fig. 16.9

CChapie h6: p Ci pehJehiphei hiii

no. reg. no.

Level/ Phase

F/a Elevation (m)

material Size, weight Description

Cuhpi

Image

394 04/k/121/AR4 k-8

F

163.36-163.96 BCF

395 08/k/7/AR4

A

163.87

LS

396 06/k/136/AR2 k-7?

A

164.03

LS

397 04/k/80/AR3 k-6

A

165.2

BCF

398 06/M/33/AR1 M-5

A

162.70-163.80 Chalk

A large weight broken in two, NI broken across the hole

399 04/k/40/AR1 k-4

F

165.42-165.80 BCF

Broken in half, round, biconical hole (polished)

NI

400 06/H/41/AR1 H-9

F

159.23-159.37 LS

Blank unknown; hole min. D=1.3, hole max D=3.4, broken

NI

k-8

L=10.3; Bi-plano, smooth, hole biFig. w=10.1; conical, d max=3.1; d min=2; 16.9 T=6.5; polishing in hole M=1.085 kg Broken weight, flaking scars – NI possibly reused L=11.7;w=6.5; Elongated, hole D=1.4 cm T=4.5; M=380 g. Oval smoothed bi-conical drillings min D=3.1, broken

NI Fig. 16.9

6. pOTTEr’S whEElS no. reg. no.

Level/ Phase

F/a Elevation (m)

401 06/J/28/AR1

J-10a

F

156.61-156.77 BCF

F

163.45-163.57 BCF

402 04/k/121/AR1 k-8

material Size, weight remarks

Image

Round, broken in half, lower Fig. bi-conical drilling, smoothing 16.9 on both upper and lower surfaces L=21.3; w=17.5; T=12.6; M=4.52 kg

Blank-oval pebble cut in half, Fig. bearing a central protrusion 16.9 (knob-like, round crosssection); upper surface bears smoothing and polishing marks; blank bearing flaking marks, protrusion in conical max-size (near base). The aperture maximum diameter is 7.4 cm and its minimum diameter is 3.6 cm

7. haMMErSTONES no.

reg. no.

Level/ Phase

F/a Elevation (m)

403

04/J/43/AR3

J-6b

F?

Material Size; weight

156.81-157.01 Flint

Description

Image

Battered, broken

NI

957

hheliu ehiieCiep

no.

reg. no.

Level/ Phase

F/a Elevation (m)

404

06/J/144/AR3 J-6b

405

04/J/21/AR6

406

00/M/17/AR1 M-9

F

159.7

407

04/k/79b/AR6 k-8

F

F

Material Size; weight

Description

Image

L=5.1; w=5.1; T=4.3; M=210g

Oval, battering marks, broken

NI

LS

L=5.2; w=4.6; M=181g

Oval

NI

Flint

L=6.1; w=5.7; M=280g

Oval

Fig. 16.10

163.66-163.69 Flint

L=5.9; w=5.6; T=5; M=290g

Battered

NI

157.08-157.37 LS

MB Tomb

408

04/k/130/AR3 k-8

F

163.77

LS

L=4.8; M=105g

Oval

NI

409

04/k/130/AR4 k-8

F

163.85

LS

L=4.8; w=4.5; M=116g

Oval

NI

410

06/k/24a/AR8 k-8?

A

164.00-164.20 LS

L=9.2; w=5.8; T=4.4; M=200g

Oval pebble bearing battering marks

NI

411

06/k/32/AR1 k-8?

A? 163.80-163.85 Flint

L=6; w=5.8; T=5.3; M=300g

Round and squat, NI covered by battering and smoothing marks

412

06/k/47/AR1 k-8

F

163.79-163.98 Flint

413

06/k/123/ AR10

k-8

F

163.74-163.78 Flint

414

06/k/142/AR3 k-8

F

163.72-163.90 LS

415

08/k/6/AR5

k-8?

A? 163.75

Flint

D=6.1; M=207g Round

416

08/k/7/AR6

k-8

F

163.66

BCF

L=11.8; w=9.6; M=1.8kg

417

08/k/76/AR1 k-8

A

163.82

LS

L=5.9; w=5.4; Hemispheric, onion T=4.7; M=277 g. shaped, heavy raw material

NI

418

04/k/83b/ AR14

F

164.43

Flint

L=6.3; M=272g

Oval

NI

419

04/k/96/AR7 k-7?

F?

164.22-164.35 LS

L=6.3; w=5.3; T=5.1; M=310g

Irregular pebble, oval, battered

NI

420

04/k/96/AR8 k-7?

F?

164.22-164.35 BCF

L=5.8; w=5.3; T=5.2; M=250g

Battered, brawn flint

NI

421

00/k/107/AR2 k-6?

A

165.02

LS

L=4.7; M=111g

Oval

NI

422

04/k/43a/AR7 k-6

F

164.58

LS

Broken in half

NI

423

04/k/36/AR2 k-4

F

165.17-165.48 LS

L=6.5; w=6.3; T=4.7; M=495g

Round, oblate, heavy limestone

NI

424

04/k/36/AR4 k-4

F

165.48

LS

L=4.8; w=4.6; M=128g

Oval pebble, heavy limestone

NI

425

04/k/45/AR3 k-4

F

165.54

LS

Oval, broken

NI

958

k-7

Squat

NI

L=6.6; w=6.5; T=5.4; M=345g

Amorphous, bearing flaking and battering marks

Fig. 16.10

L=5.7; w=5.2; T=4.7; M=220g

Oval-Rectangular, bearing smoothing and battering

NI

NI

Round, battering markes NI all over

CChapie h6: p Ci pehJehiphei hiii

Level/ Phase

F/a Elevation (m)

Material Size; weight

no.

reg. no.

426

04/k/45/AR4 k-4

F

165.40-165.48 Flint

L=11.8; w=11.8; Battered, few flaking T=10.9; scars M=2.47kg

Fig. 16.10

427

06/M/50/AR2 M-4

A

163.15-163.81 LS

L=15.1; w=5.8; Elongated pebble, T=5.2; M=900g battering on both poles

Fig. 16.10

428

06/H/48/AR2 H-9

F

159.98

5.1 cm across; M=164g

Round pebble

NI

429

06/H/49/AR4 H-9

F

159.32-159.48 Flint

L=7.2; w=5.2; T=4.3; M=260g

Smooth, battering on two Fig. ends 16.10

430

08/H/12/ AR1.1

H-9

F

158.68

BCF

431

08/H/38/AR4 H-9

F

159.2

Flint

432

06/H/13/AR7 H-7

F?

159.66-159.78 Flint

L=6.2; w=5.7; Pebble bearing battering NI T=4.3; M=220 g. marks on two side

433

06/H/13/AR9 H-7

F?

159.62-159.66 Flint

L=6.6; w=6.5; Amorphous T=5.7; M=415 g.

URM

Description

Cuhpi

Pebble bearing ochre stains D=6.3; M=329g Globular

Image

NI NI

NI

8. VarIa no. reg. no.

Level/ Phase

F/a Elevation (m)

Material Size, weight

Description

Image

434 08/J/179/AR1 J-10

A

157.85

LS

Dripstone? Heavy limestone piece, broken

NI

435 06/M/48/AR5 M-7?

F?

162.53-162.58 LS

Broken column pole segment (21 cm in diameter)

NI

436 06/M/14/AR6 M-6?

F?

162.34-162.50 LS

Shaped limestone chunk, NI broken

437 06/M/38/AR6 M-6?

F?

162.26

Basalt fragment, bearing NI modification marks

438 06/M/38/ AR10

M-6?

F?

161.84-161.89 BP

439 04/k/81b/ AR30

k-8?

F?

164.00-164.02 BCF

440 04/k/111/AR1 k-8?

A

164.37-164.42 LS

441 04/k/121/AR3 k-8

F

163.36-163.96 BCF

442 06/k/4/AR1

F

163.7

k-8

BCF

SS

L=22; w=22; T=12

A shaped basalt chunk or NI a stand Leg fragment, hoofshaped, smoothing on ventral

L=9.1; w=7.6; T=5.4

Fig. 16.10

Elongated pebble, bearing Fig. 1 concave grinding 16.10 surface Oval, flat pebble (anvil?) NI

L=8.7; w=5.9; Squat amorphous T=4.2; M=285 g. (Burnisher?)

NI

959

hheliu ehiieCiep

no. reg. no.

Level/ Phase

F/a Elevation (m)

Material Size, weight

Description

Image

443 06/k/54/AR10 k-8

A

163.9

LS

Broken battered pebble (Hammerstone?)

NI

444 06/k/61/AR2 k-8?

A? 163.8

LS

445 06/k/68/AR1 k-8

F

163.62-163.72 BP

446 06/k/131/AR3 k-8

F

163.75-163.80 LS

Small pebble, broken in half, bear polish

NI

447 06/k/131/AR4 k-8

F

163.75-163.80 LS

Elongated piece, patinated

NI

448 06/k/135/AR1 k-8

F

163.89-163.97 LS

449 06/k/140/AR3 k-8

F

163.86-164.08 URM

450 06/k/142/AR1 k-8

F

163.72-163.90 BCF

451 08/k/58/AR1 k-8

A

163.7

452 04/k/96/AR6 k-7?

F?

164.22-164.35 BCF

L=32; w=10; T=7

Elongated stone, bearing NI flaking and battering marks

L=5.8; w=5.5; Four-six polished T=5.4; M=340 g. surfaces

L=4.2; w=4.1; Bi-plano, fragment T=2.5; M=100 g.

Fig. 16.10

NI

Possibly an opposite end Fig. of celt, black polished, 16.10 broken L=5.8; w=5.9; Square stone, square, T=5.5; M=310 g. battering and smoothing on all facets

NI

large conical ring, two shaped ends, smoothed, broken

NI

LS

L=5;w=5.4; Slingstone (?), battered T=5.4; M=290 g. all around, 1 polished facet

Fig. 16.10

453 06/k/10a/AR3 k-7

F

164.08-164.17 LS

Patinated flaked pebble

454 02/k/65/AR7 k-6

F

164.97

URM

Square stone, one flaked Fig. facet, smooth, broken 16.10

455 02/k/76/AR3 k-6

F

165.15

LS

Natural pebble made of the “heavy” limstone

456 02/k/82/AR3 k-6

F

164.62

LS

457 04/k/57/AR1 k-6

F

458 06/k/63/AR1 k-6

459 04/k/59/AR1 k-4

960

NI

Fig. 16.10

L=5.8; w=3.7/3.2; M=65 g.

“Blank” for a bead or Fig. macehead, oval with two 16.10 opposed drillings; drilling 1 is 1.5 cm across and 0.7 cm deep, while drilling 2 is 1.3 cm across and 0.8 cm deep

164.60-164.79 BP

L=38; w=22

Round basalt pillar, broken

NI

A

164.85-165.05 LS

L=3.8; w=3.7; T=2.9; M=85 g.

Round pebble, bearing two opposed cavities (1.3x0.3 cm)

NI

A

164.86-165.32 LS

Pillar fragment

NI

CChapie h6: p Ci pehJehiphei hiii

no. reg. no.

Level/ Phase

Cuhpi

F/a Elevation (m)

Material Size, weight

Description

Image

460 08/H/31/AR2 H-9

F

158.95

LS

Flat smooth pebble, probably burnt

NI

461 08/H/31/AR3 H-9

F

158.95

LS

w=104; across=4.3

Square stone, white small, spongy raw material

Fig. 16.10

462 08/H/35/AR2 H-9

F?

158.68

LS

w=199; across=4.8

Dark grey raw material, polish on one concave facet

Fig. 16.10

463 08/H/35/AR3 H-9

F?

158.34

LS

L=3.2; w=2; M=63 g.

Small round pebble

NI

464 08/H/35/AR4 H-9

F?

158.23

LS

Round, smooth

NI

465 08/H/38/AR2 H-9

F

159.42

LS

Round, small and “heavy” pebble

NI

466 06/H/78/AR6 H-7

F

159.79-160.32 BCF

L=4.9; w=4.7; Square stone, multiple T=4.6; M=205 g. surfaces (pounder/upper grinding stone)

Fig. 16.10

9. VarIOuS fraGMENTS no. reg. no.

Level/ Phase

F/a Elevation (m)

Material Description

Image

467 06/J/77/AR3

J-4

A

156.03-156.08 BCF

Flat fragment

NI

468 06/J/99/AR2

J-4

A

155.97-156.06 BCF

Flat fragment

NI

469 06/J/99/AR3

J-4

A

155.97-156.06 BCF

Elongated, blade, pointed

NI

470 06/J/99/AR4

J-4

A

155.86-156.02 BCF

Flat fragment (of a vessel), smooth

NI

471 08/J/101/AR1 J-4

A

156.15

Single flat surface

NI

472 06/J/84/AR3

J-4a

F?

156.10-156.18 BCF

Small fragment

NI

473 06/J/127/AR2 J-4a

F?

156.06-156.10 BCF

Small fragment of a large basin

NI

BCF

474 08/J/98/AR41 J-4a

F?

156.23

BCF

Fragment, two flat surfaces

NI

475 08/J/120/AR1 J-4a

F?

156.17

BCF

Fragment

NI

476 08/J/142/AR3 J-4a

F?

156.18

BCF

Flaked, fragment

NI

477 08/J/175/AR1 J-4a

F?

156.38

BCF

Amorphous fragment, 1 of 5 fragments

NI

478 08/J/175/AR2 J-4a

F?

156.38

BCF

Amorphous fragment, 1 of 5 fragments

NI

479 08/J/175/AR3 J-4a

F?

156.38

BCF

Amorphous fragment, 1 of 5 fragments

NI

480 08/J/175/AR4 J-4a

F?

156.38

BCF

Amorphous fragment, 1 of 5 fragments

NI

481 08/J/175/AR5 J-4a

F?

156.38

BCF

Amorphous fragment, 1 of 5 fragments

NI

482 08/J/175/AR6 J-4a

F?

156.38

BCF

Flat fragment

NI

483 04/J/27/AR1

J-6a

F?

157.28-157.30 BCF

Unidentified fragment

NI

484 06/J/53/AR1

J-6a

A

157.12-157.77 BCF

Flat fragment

NI

961

hheliu ehiieCiep

no. reg. no.

Level/ Phase

F/a Elevation (m)

Material Description

Image

485 06/J/53/AR2

J-6a

A

157.12-157.77 BCF

Large fragment (of a vessel?)

NI

486 06/J/72/AR2

J-6a

F

157.38-157.48 BCF

Thick flat fragment

NI

487 06/J/76/AR1

J-6a

F

157.45-157.53 BCF

Flat

NI

488 06/J/110/AR1 J-6a

F

157.50-157.74 BCF

Flat fragment

NI

489 06/J/110/AR2 J-6a

F

157.50-157.74 BCF

Flat

NI

490 06/J/138/AR1 J-6a

F

157.37-157.40 BCF

Fragment

NI

491 08/J/52/AR1

J-6a

F

157.28

BCF

Amorphous fragment

NI

492 08/J/57/AR1

J-6a

F

157.51

BCF

Flat fragment, 2 flat surfaces, covered by soot at its upper face

NI

493 08/J/57/AR2

J-6a

F

157.51

BCF

Flat fragment

NI

494 08/J/57/AR4

J-6a

F

157.47

BCF

Fragment

NI

495 08/J/82/AR1

J-6a

A

157.08

BCF

Flat fragment

NI

496 06/J/13/AR3

J-6b, a

A

156.85-157.00 BCF

Flat, smooth fragment

NI

497 04/J/52/AE2

J-6b

F?

157.2

BCF

Flat, thick fragment

NI

498 04/J/55/AR1

J-6b

F?

156.80-156.98 BCF

Flat, thick fragment

NI

499 04/J/95/AR1

J-6b

F

156.94-157.00 BCF

Unidentified fragment

NI

500 06/J/43/AR1

J-6b

A

157.07-157.13 BCF

Two flat surfaces

NI

501 06/J/57/AR2

J-6b

F?

157.03-157.37 BP

Chunk

NI

502 06/J/57/AR4

J-6b

F?

156.52-157.03 BCF

Massive fragment

NI

503 06/J/57/AR7

J-6b

F?

156.52-157.03 BP

Flat fragment

NI

504 06/J/97/AR1

J-6b

A

157.24-157.37 BCF

Fragment

NI

505 06/J/144/AR4 J-6b

F

157.08-157.37 BCF

One flat and polished grinding surface

NI

506 06/J/144/AR5 J-6b

F

157.08-157.37 BCF

Possibly a lower grinding stone

NI

507 06/J/144/AR6 J-6b

F

157.08-157.37 BCF

Fragment Flat

NI

Unidentified smooth fragment

NI

508 04/J/91/AR1

J-5/J-6b A

-

509 06/J/39/AR1

J-5/J6a, b

A

157.32-157.73 BCF

Flat, possibly lower grinding stone

NI

510 06/J/88/AR1

J-5/J-6b A

156.75-157.42 BCF

Flat smooth fragment

NI

511 06/J/89/AR2

J-5/J-6b A

156.71-157.36 BCF

Flat fragment

NI

157.15-157.77 BCF

Possibly LGS

NI

512 06/J/141/AR3 J-5/J6a, b

A

LS

513 04/J/31/AR2

J-5

A

157.20-157.44 BCF

Flat, thick fragment

NI

514 04/J/32/AR1

J-5

A

157.27-157.42 BCF

Flat, thin fragment

NI

515 04/J/76/AR1

J-5

F?

156.57-156.66 BCF

Unidentified fragment

NI

516 06/J/30/AR1

J-5

A

156.58-156.68 BCF

Fragment

NI

517 06/J/30/AR2

J-5

A

156.34-156.58 BCF

Elongated fragment (natural)

NI

518 06/J/30/AR4

J-5

A

156.34-156.58 BCF

One flat and polished grinding surface, broken

NI

962

CChapie h6: p Ci pehJehiphei hiii

no. reg. no.

Level/ Phase

F/a Elevation (m)

Material Description

Cuhpi

Image

519 06/J/31/AR9

J-5

A

157.32-157.50 BCF

Fragment, one side is thinning

NI

520 06/J/64/AR1

J-5

F

156.65-156.77 BCF

Small fragment

NI

521 06/J/64/AR3

J-5

F

156.65-156.77 BCF

Flat Fragment

NI

522 06/J/74/AR1

J-5

F

156.99-157.05 BCF

Fragment

NI

523 06/J/112/AR1 J-5

A

156.51-156.54 BCF

Fragment

NI

524 08/J/39/AR3

J-5

A

156.37

URM

Unidentified fragment

NI

525 08/J/39/AR4

J-5

A

156.37

BCF

Fragment

NI

526 08/J/115/AR1 J-5

F?

157.03

BCF

Probably small burnisher

NI

527 08/J/130/AR2 J-5

A

157.67

BCF

Fragment

NI

528 06/J/21/AR2

J-7b

A

157.46-157.77 BCF

Fragment, possibly of lower grinding stone NI

529 06/J/21/AR5

J-7b

A

157.46-157.77 BCF

Small fragment

NI

530 06/J/21/AR6

J-7b

A

157.46-157.77 BCF

Fragment

NI

531 06/J/21/AR8

J-7b

A

157.46-157.77 BCF

Fragment

NI

532 06/J/21/AR9

J-7b

A

157.46-157.77 BCF

Small fragment

NI

533 06/J/21/AR10 J-7b

A

157.46-157.77 BCF

Small fragment

NI

534 06/J/21/AR11 J-7b

A

157.46-157.77 BCF

Large fragment

NI

535 06/J/95/AR1

J-9a

A

157.36-157.68 BCF

One, flat grinding surface

NI

536 06/J/126/AR1 J-9a

F?

157.00-157.30 BCF

Fragment

NI

537 06/J/126/AR2 J-9a

F?

156.69-157.00 BCF

Flat, thick

NI

538 08/J/47/AR1

J-9b

F?

157.24

Fragment, two flat surfaces

NI

539 04/J/56/AR1

J-10a

F

157.26-157.45 BCF

Flat, thick fragment

NI

540 06/J/107/AR1 J-10a

F

157.21-157.44 BP

Flat fragment

NI

BCF

541 06/J/134/AR1 J-10a

F?

157.58-156.69 BCF

Flat fragment

NI

542 08/J/172/AR1 J-10

A

158.2

BCF

Flat fragment

NI

543 08/J/172/AR2 J-10

A

158.2

BCF

Thick fragment

NI

544 08/J/172/AR4 J-10

A

158.2

BCF

Flat fragment

NI

545 06/J/56/AR1

J-11

A

155.97-156.02 BP

Flat fragment

NI

546 08/J/97/AR2

J-12

A

158.79

BCF

Flat fragment

NI

547 04/J/45/AR1

MB tomb

157.12-157.14 BCF

Flat fragment

NI

548 06/J/14/AR1

MB tomb

F?

156.13-156.40 BCF

Flat fragment

NI

549 06/J/22/AR2

MB tomb

F?

156.04-156.16 BCF

Flat, thin fragment

NI

550 06/J/22/AR9

MB tomb

F?

155.85-156.06 BCF

Flat fragment

NI

551 06/J/22/AR10 MB tomb

F?

155.85-156.06

Small fragment

NI

963

hheliu ehiieCiep

no. reg. no.

Level/ Phase

F/a Elevation (m)

552 06/J/37/AR4

MB tomb

F?

155.89-155.94 BCF

Flat fragment

NI

553 06/J/37/AR11 MB tomb

F?

155.52-155.77 BCF

Flat fragment

NI

554 06/J/37/AR12 MB tomb

F?

155.52-155.77 BCF

One, flat grinding surface

NI

555 08/J/6/AR1

J-13

A? 159.13

BCF

Flat Fragment

NI

556 08/J/21/AR1

J-13

A

BCF

Amorphous fragment

NI

159.03

Material Description

Image

557 08/J/21/AR3

J-13

A

159.03

BCF

Amorphous fragment

NI

558 08/J/21/AR5

J-13

A

159.03

BCF

Flat fragment

NI

559 08/J/49/AR1

J-13

A

157.47

BCF

Fragment, two flat surfaces

NI

560 08/J/76/AR2

J-13

A

159.13

BCF

Flat fragment

NI

561 08/J/90/AR1

J-14/15?

159.48

BCF

Fragment, a single flat surface

NI

562 08/J/42/AR1

J-17

A

157.04

BCF

Flat fragment

NI

563 06/M/14/AR2 M-6?

F?

162.48

BCF

Flat fragment

NI

564 06/M/8/AR1

M-6

F?

163.27-163.30 BCF

Flat fragment

NI

565 06/M/8/AR17 M-6

F?

163.10-163.17 BCF

Flat fragment

NI

566 06/M/18/AR1 M-6

F?

162.34-162.71 LS

Large flake

NI

567 06/M/29/AR4 M-6?

F?

161.93-162.05 BCF

Fragment

NI

568 06/M/38/AR2 M-6?

F?

162.50-162.78 BCF

Fragment

NI

569 04/k/116/AR2 k-8

A

163.90-164.13 BCF

Flat, thick fragment (1 polished surface)

NI

570 04/k/116/AR3 k-8

A

163.90-164.13 BCF

Flat, thin fragment

NI

571 06/k/24a/AR1 k-8?

A

164.00-164.20 BCF

One rounded side

NI

572 06/k/24b/AR4 k-8

F

163.84-163.87 BP

Massive fragment

NI

573 06/k/35/AR1 k-8?

F?

163.68-163.74 BCF

Flat fragment

NI

574 06/k/35/AR12 k-8?

F?

163.56-163.58 BCF

Flat smooth fragment

NI

575 06/k/43/AR1 k-8

F

163.91-163.98 BCF

Amorphous fragment

NI

576 06/k/44/AR1 k-8

F

163.85-163.95 LS

Fragment, bearing, flaking scars

NI

577 06/k/44/AR4 k-8

F

163.78-163.85 BCF

Flat fragment

NI

578 06/k/97/AR4 k-8

F

163.84-163.86 BP

Unidentified fragment

NI

579 06/k/100/AR1 k-8

F

163.76-163.87 LS

Flat-concave cobble, flaking marks; mano? NI

580 06/k/100/AR9 k-8

F

163.76-163.87 LS

Grinding stone(?), small flat pebble, flaking NI scars, flat polished active surface

581 06/k/117/AR1 k-8

A

163.93-164.19 BCF

Small elongated pebble, bearing modifications marks

NI

582 06/k/123/AR1 k-8

F

163.93

BCF

Flat

NI

583 08/k/5/AR2

k-8?

A? 164.27

BCF

Flat Fragment

NI

584 08/k/6/AR1

k-8?

A? 164.32

BCF

Flat fragment

NI

964

CChapie h6: p Ci pehJehiphei hiii

Cuhpi

no. reg. no.

Level/ Phase

F/a Elevation (m)

Material Description

Image

585 08/k/6/AR4

k-8?

A? 164.32

BP

Small fragment

NI

586 08/k/59/AR1 k-8

A

164.26

BCF

Amorphous fragment

NI

587 08/k/101/AR1 k-8

A

163.71

BCF

Large fargment

NI

588 08/k/122/AR5 k-8

A

163.95

BCF

Probably broken lower grinding stone; two flat surfaces

NI

589 04/k/96/AR4 k-7?

F?

164.31-164.41 BCF

Flat, thick fragment

NI

590 04/k/96/AR5 k-7?

F?

164.51

Unidentified smooth fragment

NI

591 04/k/112/AR1 k-7?

F?

164.40-164.45 BCF

Flat fragment, possibly part of a lower grinding stone

NI

592 06/k/111/AR1 k-7?

F?

164.33-164.36 BCF

Unidentified fragment

NI

593 06/k/128/AR1 k-7

F

164.45-164.57 BCF

Fragment, bearing battering marks (hammerstone?)

NI

BCF

594 08/k/24/AR1 k-7

A

164.38

BCF

Fragment

NI

595 04/k/42/AR2 k-6

F

164.83

BCF

Possibly part of a grinding stone

NI

596 04/k/42/AR9 k-6

F

164.83

BCF

Unidentified fragment

NI

597 04/k/85/AR1 k-6

A

164.45-164.50 BP

Unidentified fragment

NI

598 04/k/94/AR1 k-6

A

164.25-164.40 BCF

Flat, polished

NI

599 04/k/61/AR1 k-5

A

164.76-165.23 BCF

Unidentified fragment

NI

600 04/k/40/AR2 k-4

F

165.42-165.80 BCF

Flat, thick fragment

NI

601 04/k/49/AR2 k-4

A

165.25-165.46 BCF

Flat, thick fragment

NI

602 04/M/8/AR1

A

164.61-165.02 BCF

Flat fragment

NI

M-4

603 08/H/2/AR7

H-9

F

159.07

BCF

Single flat surface, fragment

NI

604 08/H/12/ AR1.2

H-9

F

158.68

BCF

Unidentified fragment

NI

605 08/H/20/AR3 H-9

F

158.73

BCF

Amorphous fragment

NI

606 08/H/36/AR4 H-9

F

158.87

LS

Flat fragment

NI

607 08/H/36/AR12 H-9

F

158.48

BCF

Flat fragment

NI

608 08/H/37/AR4 H-9

F

159.56

BCF

Flat fragment

NI

609 08/H/43/AR1 H-9

F?

159.15

BCF

Fragment

NI

610 06/H/2/AR4

H-7

F

160.10-160.18 BCF

Unidentified flat fragment

NI

611 06/H/5/AR1

H-7

F

159.96-160.02 BCF

Unidentified flat fragment

NI

612 06/H/13/AR3 H-7

F?

159.77-159.78 BP

Unidentified flat fragment

NI

613 06/H/13/AR4 H-7

F?

159.77-159.78 BP

Unidentified flat fragment

NI

614 06/H/70/AR1 H-5

A

160.96-161.30 BCF

Flat fragment

NI

965

hheliu ehiieCiep

46

67

97

105

120

Figure 16.1: Lower grinding elements.

966

CChapie h6: p Ci pehJehiphei hiii

Cuhpi

130

142

Figure 16.2: Upper grinding elements.

967

hheliu ehiieCiep

165

162

171

172

170

183

185

187

191

194

200 199

Figure 16.3: Other grinding elements.

968

CChapie h6: p Ci pehJehiphei hiii

252

257

254

Cuhpi

276

277

284

296

286

297

288

299

293

303

295

305

Figure 16.4: Burnishers.

969

hheliu ehiieCiep

317

316

322

324

Figure 16.5: Crushers.

970

318

326

319

327

320

329

321

330

331

CChapie h6: p Ci pehJehiphei hiii

340

Cuhpi

341

346

347

348

351

356

352

358

Figure 16.6: Vessels.

971

hheliu ehiieCiep

361

362

363

364

369

371

Figure 16.7: Vessels.

972

367

372

CChapie h6: p Ci pehJehiphei hiii

Cuhpi

377

373

374

381

378

385

387

Figure 16.8: Pedestal fragments and stones with cup-marks.

973

hheliu ehiieCiep

390

392

391

393

394

397

401

Figure 16.9: Grooved or perforated items and potter’s wheels.

974

402

CChapie h6: p Ci pehJehiphei hiii

406

413

456

429

440

439

449

427

426

452

445

455

454

461

Cuhpi

462

466

Figure 16.10: Hammerstones and varia.

975

hheliu ehiieCiep

REFERENCES Sass, B. 2000. The Small Finds. In: Finkelstein, I., Ussishkin, D. and Halpern, B., eds. Megiddo III: The 1992−1996 Seasons (Monograph Series of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University 18). Tel

Aviv: 349−387. Sass, B. and Cinamon, G. 2006. The Small Finds. In: Finkelstein, I., Ussishkin, D. and Halpern, B., eds. Megiddo IV: The 1998–2002 Seasons (Monograph Series of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University 24). Tel Aviv: 353–425.

976

CHAPTER 17

STAMP-SEAL AMULETS Othmar keel

INTrODuCTOry rEMarKS The description of head, back and side of the scarabs (for example: B2/0/e9) follows the classification system of Tufnell 1984: 31–38; keel 1995: § 74–114, and in a more developed version, Eggler and keel 2006: xVI Abb. 1. The sign § + number (for example: § 128) refers to the relevant paragraph in keel 1995. Place name + number (for example: Aphek No. 45) refers to the corresponding entry in keel 1997 and Keel 2009. Letter + number (for example: M16) refers to the “List of Hieroglyphic Signs” in Gardiner 1957: 438–548.1 The scarabs are presented according to their date, from earliest to latest.

ThE fINDS 04/J/75/ar3 (FIg. 17.1: 1; ChaPTEr 15, no. 620) Scarab, B2/0/e9, rim of the base slightly damaged, linear engraving with hatching, enstatite, whitish on the back, yellowish on the side, 14.3 × 9.2 × 5.2 mm. Provenance: Middle Bronze burial. Base: the base is crowded with awkwardly drawn hieroglyphs. From top to bottom: nb (§ 458) depicted upside down, k3‘soul, spirit’ (§ 456; D28) flanked by two ma>at-feathers (§ 456, 462), and a second k3 flanked by two uraei linked at the tails (§ 523). For this set of signs compare Jericho: Kirkbride 1965: Fig. 292.15. To the left of the second k3 is a t (§ 463), and beneath it is the angle and falcon motif, which is very popular on the B2-head type scarabs (Ben-Tor 2007: Pls. 64–66); it may represent a degenerated form of ‘Hathor’ (cf. keel 2004a: 86–90; Goldwasser 2006: 121–129, both with many parallels). D. BenTor has reasons to remain skeptical about this identification (2007: 126–127). To the right of the falcon is a nfr (§ 459) and below the falcon is an unclear sign. This scarab is a typical representative of the early locally produced B-head group with the features B2/0/e9 (see keel 2004a: 81–93; Ben-Tor 2007: 151 and Pls. 64.1–67.11). Date: MB II (ca. 1700–1640 BCE). 08/J/97/ar1 (FIg. 17.1: 2; ChaPTEr 15, no. 618) Scarab, B2/0/e9, linear engraving, enstatite, 13.2 × 8.6 × 5.4 mm. Provenance: Level J-12 construction fill. Base: similar to No. 1 above (04/J/75/AR3), the base of this scarab is also crowded with awkwardly drawn hieroglyphs. The main motif is a falcon with an angular sign behind it. For parallels and a discussion of the 1

I wish to thank Daphna Ben-Tor for proofreading the manuscript, improving my English and providing me with several helpful remarks.

977

hpC

he

k iiu

meaning of these two signs see No. 1 above. Above the falcon is an imitation of the hieroglyphic sign ∆ ‘sun rising over mountain’ (§ 453; N28). Behind the head of the falcon and below it is the sign k3‘soul, spirit’ (§ 456; D28). In front of the falcon is a twig (§ 433) – an element that is very common on seal-amulets from the southern Levant of all periods (see No. 3 below and Staubli 2005). The lower k3 is flanked by two circles with a dot in the centre. The circles are unusual for this type of scarab. At the bottom is a nb (§ 458) formed by a horizontal line and the framing line of the plinth. The nb is hatched. Date: MB II (ca. 1700–1640 BCE). 04/J/75/ar2 (FIg. 17.1: 3; ChaPTEr 15, no. 619) Scarab, B2/S/between e9 and e10, rim damaged, linear engraving with hatching, enstatite, remains of bluish-grey glaze, 13.3 × 8.8 × 6 mm. Provenance: Middle Bronze burial. Base: at the centre is an >n∆-sign (§ 449) flanked by two reversed ḥm (§ 453) or w3ḏ signs (§ 463), with a nb sign (§ 458) above and below; the twig on the back is typical of Canaanite scarabs (§ 433; Staubli 2005). For the arrangement of two nb signs and the three signs in between cf. Megiddo: Loud 1948: Pl. 149.34; Jericho: kirkbride 1965: Fig. 282.17. The scarab displays similarity to the B2-head-group of the Early Series (keel 2004a: 81–93; Ben-Tor 2007: 151, Pls. 64.1–67.11), though it is not a classical representative. The scarab was locally produced. Date: MB II–III (ca. 1700–1600 BCE). 04/M/75/ar6 (FIg. 17.1: 4; ChaPTEr 15, no. 629) Scarab, B6/0, brown-red stripe on the back (§ 98)/d5, rim of the base slightly damaged, enstatite, 17 × 12.3 × 8 mm. Provenance: Level M-6 (LB III, 12th century BCE). Base: in a horizontal arrangement a ‘woven’ pattern (§ 496) above a gold-sign (nbw, § 458). A similar combination is found on Tell el->Ajjul No. 1100; Lachish: Tufnell 1958: Pl. 32.102 = Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 60.7. The Megiddo scarab depicts the design flanked by two red crowns (§ 452) in a tête bêche position; see Tell el->Ajjul No. 167 = Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 60.10. The scarab was locally produced. Date: MB III (ca.1650–1500 BCE). 06/K/109/ar2 (FIg. 17.1: 5; ChaPTEr 15, no. 623) Scarab, B4/vIv/d9, back slightly damaged, hollowed-out engraving, probably enstatite with remains of glaze, 17.7 × 12.7 × 8.6 mm. Provenance: Level k-8 (LB IIB, 13th century BCE). Base: a cartouche (§ 462) enclosing the throne name of Amenophis II: >3-∆prw-r> (§ 634, 663). There are about 30 seal-amulets with the name of this king from excavations in Israel and the Palestinian Authority. Below the cartouche and to its left is the epithet mry Ônsw “beloved by Khonsu”. Khonsu is the moongod; the epithet is very rare for kings of the 18th Dynasty. For an example with the name of Amenophis III see Petrie 1917: Pl. xxxIII, 41. Date: 18th Dynasty, time of Amenophis II (1426–1400 BCE).

978

CChapie h7: iph

a-iihu

h

Juipi

04/K/72/ar1 (FIg. 17.2: 1; ChaPTEr 15, no. 626) Scarab, B10/vIv/e11, hollowed-out engraving, enstatite, remains of blue-green glaze, 16.8 × 8.5 × 7.7 mm. Provenance: not a clean locus, but probably dating to either Level k-5 (early Iron I) or k-6 (LB III, 12th century BCE). Base: on the right is the throne name of Amenophis III: nb-m3>t-r> (§ 634, 650, 663). There are about 125 seal-amulets with the name of this king from excavations in Israel and the Palestinian Authority. To the left of the name is the Horus falcon (§ 442, 450, 454, 467 and 556–557) and above its back: ḏt “eternity”. The combination possibly reads: “Amenophis III, is Horus in eternity”; it is an extremely rare epithet (cf. Jaeger 1982: 56 § 78; 144 § 1092 with illustration 399 and note 429); see further Akko No. 66. Date: 18th Dynasty, time of Amenophis III (1390–1353 BCE). 04/K/81B/ar25 (FIg. 17.2: 2; ChaPTEr 15, no. 622) Scarab, D10/0/e11, part of the base is broken, the back is damaged, hollowed-out engraving, enstatite with white glaze, 19.5 × 8.5 × 7.7 mm. Provenance: probably Level k-8 (LB IIB, 13th century BCE). Base: enclosed in a serekh-like rectangular frame (O33) is the throne name of Ramesses II: Wsr-m3>t-r> stp-n-r> (§ 634, 664). The r> is written just once and thus has a double function. There are about 100 sealamulets with the name of this king from excavations in Israel and the Palestinian Authority. The name is flanked by two j (§ 455) or more, probably ma>at-feathers (§ 462). Comparable is Tell el-Far>ah (S) No. 649; flanked by two ma>at-feathers is also the birthname “Ramses” on Aphek No. 17; Shechem – Horn 1966: 50 Fig. 1.55. Above the rectangular frame is an unusual linear pattern. Date: 19th Dynasty, from Ramses II onward (1279–1190 BCE). 08/h/6/ar1 (FIg. 17:2: 3; ChaPTEr 15, no. 630) Rectangular plaque with domed top, group a (§ 229–231), only a fragment of the left upper angle is preserved, the engraving is in sunken relief except for the ma>at-feather, which appears in raised relief, composition (§ 392–401), white; preserved dimensions: 11.7 × 9.3 × 7 mm. Provenance: Level H-9 of the late Iron I. Base: the upper side must have shown a well-known type of decoration consisting of a somewhat squarish oval (§ 462) flanked by two ma>at-feathers (§ 462). The upper and lower borders are formed by a kind of ladder motif. In several cases the throne-name of Thutmose III, Mn-ḫpr-r> appears in the oval (§ 634, 647, 650, 663). That was probably the case with the present piece. Only the r> in a central position and maybe parts of the mn are preserved. Almost exact parallels are Azekah No. 30; Tell el-Far>ah (S) Nos. 237, 461 (with a similarly squarish oval). Some similar pieces have the throne-name of Amenophis III, as Tell el>Ajjul No. 255, Lachish – Tufnell 1958: Pl. 38.314 and Shechem – Clamer 1981: 34. Yet, the latter items do not have the ladder motif. This motif is also found on plaques with the throne-name of Ramses II, as at Beth-Shean No. 85, Tell el-Far>ah (S) No. 647 and Tel Harasim – karon 1985: No. 11. It is thus reasonable to assume that the present piece, though carrying the throne-name of Thutmose III, is of a later date. Too little is left on the base of this item to allow a reasonably safe reconstruction. Date: 19th Dynasty (1292–1190 BCE).

979

hpC

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k iiu

06/K/91/ar2 (FIg. 17.3: 1; ChaPTEr 15, no. 624) Three impressions of an oval seal, most probably a scarab, on the rim of a vessel (§ 314–316). Only one impression is complete; the second is carelessly done and just half of the impression is clear, and the third is partially broken. The impressions were made by a seal with hollowed-out engraving. Baked clay; the impression measures about 17 × 12.5 mm. Provenance: Level k-8 (LB IIB, 13th century BCE). Base: three upraised uraei (§ 522) with sun discs on their heads topped by two strokes that probably represent feathers. Beneath the tail of the third uraeus is a sun disc; a nb sign is depicted at the bottom (§ 458). Very similar are Ashkelon No. 64; Tell el-Far>ah (S) Nos. 166, 202, 261, 505, 527, 632, 737–738; Tell Ridan IAA 74.2003 unpublished; Tel Batash: kelm and Mazar 1995: 71 Fig. 4.38, Eggler and keel 2006: Tall Deir >Alla No. 5. Date: 19th–20th Dynasties (1292–1076/1070 BCE). 04/K/105/ar7 (FIg. 17.3: 2; ChaPTEr 15, no. 621) Scarab, D10/I/e11, mounted on a swivel ring (§ 264–265), the lower end of the base is broken, hollowedout engraving with hatching, enstatite, remains of white glaze, 20.5 × 14.4 × 8 mm. Provenance: probably a Level k-8 locus (LB IIB, 13th century BCE). Base: ram’s head crowned with a pair of horizontal ram’s horns topped by two feathers and two uraei turned outwards. This symbol of the god Amun (§ 552, 585) is quite common on Ramesside scarabs; see for example Ashkelon No. 45; Beth-Shean No. 183 with parallels; Der el-Balah No. 119; Tell el-Far>ah (S) No. 618–619, 765, 798. Date: 19th–20th Dynasties (1292–1076/1070 BCE). 04/K/127/ar7 (FIg. 17.4: 1; ChaPTEr 15, no. 625) Scarab, A1/vIv/d5, hollowed-out engraving, composition § 392–401, 18.9 × 13.7 × 10.1 mm. Provenance: Level k-8, but locus is not completely clean. Base: two figures standing on a base-line (Standlinie) and facing each other: on the left is the striding pharaoh facing right, wearing the blue crown (S7; ḫprš) and an ankle-length apron; his right hand holds a horizontal object, perhaps a kind of sceptre, and his left hand grasps a vertical staff that is also being held by a falcon-headed deity who faces the pharaoh, and like him, is depicted in a striding pose. If the element in front of the king's head is part of the staff, it may represent a w3s-sceptre. The deity is crowned with a sun disc. Below the scene is a nb (§ 458). The same scene appears on a scarab from Gezer: Macalister 1912: III Pl. 208.6. The pharaoh grasping the staff of Amun is seen on Tell el-Far>ah (S) Nos. 551 and 570. A less likely interpretation is to identify the deity as the ibis-headed Thoth crowned with the lunar disk and crescent (cf. Eggler and keel 2006: Saham No. 1; wiese 1990: 161 No. 1289, Pl. xV, 1289). Date: 19th–20th Dynasties (1292–1076/1070 BCE), most probably 19th Dynasty (1292–1190 BCE). 04/K/83a/ar4 (FIg. 17.4: 2; ChaPTEr 15, no. 627) Scarab ?/I/d5, head broken, coarse linear engraving, composition § 392–401, blue, 16.62 × 13.2 × 8.7 mm. 2

Because the object is broken, the measurements are incomplete.

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Provenance: basket is not clean, Level k-7 (late LB IIB, 13th century BCE) or k-6 (LB III, 12th century BCE). Base: a very schematic depiction of a squatting anthropomorphic figure with the head of the Seth-animal. Very similar, though somewhat less schematic, is an item from Lachish: Rowe 1936: No. 713. An item with an additional element is Petrie 1925: Pl. xV, 1025. Together with another squatting deity, Seth is probably represented on Tell el-Far>ah (S) No. 853. Date: 19th–20th Dynasties (1292–1076/1070 BCE). 06/K/118/ar1 (FIg. 17.4: 3; ChaPTEr 15, no. 628) Scaraboid. A striding child whose left hand ends in a scorpion, and whose right hand ends in a uraeus. The figure most probably represents Horus the child (Ḥr p3-ẖrd) ‘Harpocrates’ as master of dangerous animals. This subject is extremely rare on the back of design amulets. Stoof (1992: 150–151, 322–323), who lists 1,350 scaraboids in animal or human shapes, notes only two items of this type: a published one from the Louvre in Paris (Leclant 1979: 231 Abb. 222; his dating to the Hyksos period is certainly wrong), and a second, unpublished one in the Ägyptisches Museum in Berlin (1036/73). The subject is well known from the Horus-stelae (Sternberg-El Hotabi 1999, particularly II 117 Taf. I). The back of the Megiddo item is in raised relief (cameo), the base is in hollowed-out engraving, composition (§ 392–401). 18 × 14.6 × 7.8 mm. Provenance: baulk removal, according to the elevation probably Level k-6 (LB III, 12th century BCE). Base: a scorpion and a uraeus in tête-bêche position. Two scorpions in this position are common: Akko No. 215; Beth-Shean No. 28; Beth-Shemesh No. 53 (konoid); Ekron No. 15; Tell el-Far>ah (S) No. 729; Tell Ǧemmeh – Petrie 1934: Pl. 4.194 = Rowe 1936: No. 739; Yavne IAA 60–954 unpublished; Timna – Schulman 1988: Fig. 46.11. The combination of scorpion and uraeus is rather uncommon. One example is Beth-Shean No. 238, from A. Mazar’s excavation, which is a typical Beth-Shean Level VI scarab (see No. 14 below). The same design is found on an Udjateye-scaraboid from Tell Retabeh in the Eastern Niledelta (Petrie 1906: Pl. 33: 29A). A scorpion and a uraeus are also found on an item from Lachish (Tufnell 1953: Pl. 43/43A.57), though not in a tête-bêche position. Date: 19th–20th Dynasties (1292–1076/1070 BCE). SUrFaCE FInD (FIg. 17.4: 4; ChaPTEr 15, no. 632) Scarab, A1/0/d5, hollowed-out engraving, composition § 392–401, light-blue, 18.3 × 14 × 9.4 mm. Provenance: surface find. Base: horizontal arrangement; a schematic crouching sphinx with a beard, a short tail and one front paw in the form of a human hand raised in a gesture of adoration. Above the sphinx is a sun disc, below it is the sign nb (§ 458), with no framing line. For Middle and Late Bronze Age forerunners see § 544–547, though these lack the paw raised in adoration. Two Megiddo ivories show a female sphinx presenting a vessel (Loud 1939: No. 21); they imitate a type of winged female sphinx with two human hands raised in adoration. This type appears in the 18th Dynasty and is also well represented in the 19th Dynasty (Dessenne 1957: 103–105 and Pl. xxI, 272–279). Of particular interest is a relief of Ramses II at karnak, which exhibits a Syrian vessel crowned by a wingless female sphinx quite similar to the one on the present scarab (Dessenne 1957: 105 No. 208; Pl. xxI, 280). An unpublished scarab from Schumacher's excavations, now in Berlin, displays a crouching sphinx with a raised front-paw (Vorderasiatisches Museum VA 15090a); the features date the object to the 11/10th centuries BCE. The present Megiddo scarab should be assigned to a group called the “Beth-Shean Level VI group”, which is characterized by the features A1/0/d5, by

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the material “composition”, and usually by simplified Ramesside iconography. Beth-Shean No. 131 also belongs to this group, and like the Megiddo scarabs, it shows a crouching sphinx. The group was most likely produced at Beth-Shean, considering the conclusive evidence for silicate manufacture at the site in the Late Bronze Age (McGovern, Fleming and Swann 1993).3 Date: 19th–20th Dynasties (1292–1076/1070 BCE). 06/K/26/ar2 (FIg. 17.5: 1; ChaPTEr 15, no. 636) Human face scaraboid (§ 169–171), fairly worn, engraving in the shape of drill holes, bone (§ 404), 15.7 × 13.8 × 8.9 mm. Provenance: cleaning, the elevation is about a metre below the Late Iron I Level k-4; an intrusion, for example a pit, cannot be excluded. Base: six drill holes, some of them connected by straight lines. Drill holes play an important role on seals made of quartz, haematite and other hard materials in the late Iron I and early Iron IIA (cf. keel, Shuval and Uehlinger 1990: 367–377 and Taf. xVIII–xxII). Very close to the Megiddo seal is Tell Beit Mirsim No. 105. In that group the holes are combined to represent very schematic animal-figures; this does not seem to be the case with the Megiddo piece. Date: Late Iron I to the first phase of the Iron IIA (ca. 1050–900 BCE). Human face scaraboids of this type appear already in the 19th Dynasty (§ 170), but the type of engraving on the base better fits the Iron I or even the beginning of the Iron II. SUrFaCE FInD (FIg. 17.5: 2; ChaPTEr 15, no. 633) Scarab, E2/I/e11, linear engraving, yellowish enstatite, 17.1 × 11.6 × 7 mm. Provenance: surface find. Base: cross pattern in the shape of two ‘ladders’; in each of the four sections thus formed are two linear angles. O. Tufnell dated this pattern to the Middle Bronze Age (1984: Pl. 1.1018). It is, however, typical of the post Ramesside mass production: see Tell el->Ajjul No. 872; Akko No. 161.276; Ashkelon No. 81; Betaniën No. 1; Beth-Shean No. 253; Ekron No. 26; Tell el-Far>ah (S) No. 861; Megiddo – keel 1994: 36–37, Taf. 9, 18 (for the post-Ramesside mass production in general see keel and Uehlinger 2001: 483–484; Münger 2003; 2005a; 2005b; keel and Mazar 2009: 64–65*). Date: end of Iron I to beginning of Iron IIA, 21st Dynasty to beginning of 22nd (ca. 1070–900 BCE). 06/L/59/ar1 (FIg. 17.5: 3; ChaPTEr 15, no. 631) Tiny scarab, probably A1/I/d5, part of the base is damaged, coarse linear engraving, bluish composition (§ 400–401f). In addition to the items mentioned in § 400–401 compare Achzib Nos. 3, 64; Akko No. 74; Ashdod No. 17; Tell el-Far>ah (S) No. 331; 6.8 × 5 × 4 mm. Provenance: not a clean locus, though it comes from an area with Iron IIA-B remains. Base: only a nb (§ 458) at the bottom and two horizontal lines can be clearly distinguished. A similar scarab of bluish composition from Megiddo shows three plants (Lamon and Shipton 1939: Pl. 67.24). Date: most probably Iron Age IIA-B (ca. 980–700 BCE according to the traditional chronology). 3

There is another group from the beginning of the Late Bronze Age, most probably produced at Beth-Shean, which I have labelled Beth-Shean-Level-Ix group (cf. keel 2004b: 51f; Ben-Tor and keel forthcoming).

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SUrFaCE FInD (FIg. 17.6.1; ChaPTEr 15, no. 635) Scaraboid of Type IV (§ 133 and 138), which is typical of Iron Age IIC (ca. 700–550). According to Boardman (1970: 191–192, Fig. 200A), this type “can be regarded as the normal Greek form [of a scaraboid] and it remains popular throughout the [classical] period” (5th and 4th centuries BCE). The engraving is in sunken, vivid and plastic relief; the material hard grey speckled stone, maybe a kind of granite or diorite; 16.7 × 13.5 × 9.8 mm. Provenance: surface find. Base: bovine with inward bent legs and a remarkable hump; it is probably a cow because the animal seems to be giving birth to a calf with two rather impressive horns. Above the back of the cow is a triangle with several crossing lines, perhaps a Phrygian trigonon harp (cf. Boardman 1970: Pl. 600; zazoff 1983: Taf. 32.5). A cow or bull as either the central, or only, motif is found on classical Greek gems (Richter 1956: Nos. 103A, 104, 190–191; Boardman 1970: Pls. 460, 498–499, 573, 701); still, the position, the birth scene, the crescent shape of the horns and the harp above (if this indeed appears here) are unusual. Date: probably 5th–4th centuries BCE.

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1 (620)

2 (618)

3 (619)

4 (629)

5 (623)

Figure 17.1: Scarabs.

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h

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1 (626)

2 (622)

3 (630)

Figure 17.2: Scarabs.

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0

1 (624)

2 (621)

Figure 17.3: Scarabs.

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h

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1 (625)

2 (627)

3 (628)

4 (632)

Figure 17.4: Scarabs.

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1 (636)

2 (633)

3 (631)

Figure 17.5: Scarabs.

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1 (635)

Figure 17.6: Scarabs.

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REFERENCES Ben-Tor, D. 2007. Scarabs, Chronology, and Interconnections. Egypt and Palestine in the Second Intermediate Period (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis, Series Archaeologica 27). Fribourg and Göttingen. Ben-Tor, D. and keel, O. Forthcoming. Scarabs of the Beth-Shean Ix group. Boardman, J. 1970. greek gems and Finger rings: Early Bronze age to Late Classical. London. Clamer, Ch. 1981. A Late Bronze Age burial cave near Shechem. Qadmoniot 14, Nos.1–2: 30–34 (Hebrew). Dessenne, A. 1957. Le sphinx. Étude iconographique I. Des origines à la fin du second Millénaire (Bibliothèque des Écoles Françaises d'Athènes et de Rome 86). Paris. Eggler, J. and keel, O. 2006. Corpus der Siegel-amulette aus Jordanien. Vom neolithikum bis zur Perserzeit (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis, Series Archaeologica 25). Fribourg and Göttingen. Gardiner, A.H. 1957. Egyptian grammar. Oxford. Goldwasser, O. 2006. Canaanites Reading Hieroglyphs. Ägypten & Levante 16: 121–160. Horn, S.H. 1966. Scarab and Scarab-impressions from Shechem – II. Journal of near Eastern Studies 25: 48–56. Jaeger, B. 1982. Essai de classification et datation des scarabées Menkhéperrê (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis, Series Archaeologica 2). Fribourg and Göttingen. Karon, E. 1985. Scarabs from Kh. Abū el-Quḥūf (Tel ha-Ḥarasim) from the Collection of the Shephela Museum, kefar-Menahem (unpublished manuscript). keel, O. 1994. Studien zu den Stempelsiegeln aus Palästina/Israel, Band 4 (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis 135). Fribourg and Göttingen. keel, O. 1995. Corpus der Stempelsiegel-amulette aus Palästina, Israel. Einleitung (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis, Series Archaeologica 10). Fribourg and Göttingen. keel, O. 1997. Corpus der Stempelsiegel-amulette aus Palästina/Israel. Von den anfängen bis zur Perserzeit. Katalog-Band I. Von Tell Abu-Farağ bis >atlit (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis, Series Archaeologica 13). Fribourg and Göttingen. keel, O. 2004a. Some of the Earliest Groups of Locally Produced Scarabs from Palestine. In: Bietak, M. and Czerny, E., eds. Scarabs of the Second Millennium BC from Egypt, nubia, Crete and the Levant: Chronological and historical Implications. Papers of a Symposium, Vienna, 10th–13th of January 2002 (Österreichische Akademie der wissenschaften, Denkschriften der Gesamtakademie, Band xxxV). Vienna: 73–101. keel, O. 2004b. The Glyptic Finds: Stamp-seal Amulets. In: Maeir, A.M. Bronze and Iron age Tombs at Tel gezer, Israel. Finds from raymond-Charles Weill’s Excavations in 1914 and 1921 (British Archaeological Reports International Series 1206). Oxford: 51–54. keel, O. 2010a. Corpus der Stempelsiegel-amulette aus Palästina/Israel. Von den anfängen bis zur Perserzeit. Katalog Band II: Von Bahan bis Tel Eton (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis, Series Archaeologica 29). Fribourg and Göttingen. keel, O. 2010b. Corpus der Stempelsiegel-amulette aus Palästina/Israel. Von den anfängen bis zur Perserzeit. Katalog Band III: Von Tell el-Far'a-nord bis Tell el-Fir (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis, Series Archaeologica 31). Fribourg and Göttingen. Keel, O. and Mazar, A. 2009. Iron Age Seals and Seal Impressions from Tel Reḥov. Eretz Israel 28 (Ephraim Stern Volume): 57*–69*.

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keel, O., Shuval, M. and Uehlinger, Ch. 1990. Studien zu den Stempelsiegeln aus Palästina/Israel III. Die Frühe Eisenzeit. Ein Workshop (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis 100). Fribourg and Göttingen. keel, O. and Uehlinger, Ch. 2001. göttinnen, götter und gottessymbole. neue Erkenntnisse zur religionsgeschichte Kanaans und Israels aufgrund bislang unerschlossener Quellen (quaestiones Disputatae 134). Fribourg. kelm, G.L. and Mazar, A. 1995. Timnah: a Biblical City in the Sorek Valley. winona Lake. kirkbride, D. 1965. Scarabs. In: kenyon, k. Excavations at Jericho II. The Tombs Excavated in 1955–1958. London: 580–661. Lamon, R.S. and Shipton, G.M. 1939. Megiddo I: Seasons of 1925–1934, Strata I–V (Oriental Institute Publications 42). Chicago. Leclant, J. 1979. Ägypten I. Das alte und das Mittlere reich. Munich. Loud, G. 1939. The Megiddo Ivories (Oriental Institute Publications 52). Chicago. Loud, G. 1948. Megiddo II: Seasons of 1935–1939 (Oriental Institute Publications 62). Chicago. Macalister, R.A.S. 1912. The Excavation of gezer 1902–1905 and 1907–1909. London. McGovern, P.E., Fleming, St. J. and Swann, C.P. 1993. The Late Bronze Age Garrison at Beth Shan: Glass and Faience Production and Importation in the Late New kingdom. Bulletin of the american Schools of oriental research 290/291: 1–27. Münger, S. 2003. Egyptian Stamp-seal Amulets and Their Implications for the Chronology of the Early Iron Age. Tel aviv 30: 66–82. Münger, S. 2005a. Stamp-seal Amulets and Early Iron Age Chronology: An Update. In: Levy, T.E. and Higham, T. eds., The Bible and radiocarbon Dating. archaeology, Text and Science. London: 381–404. Münger, S. 2005b. Medien und Ethnizität. Das Beispiel einer tanitischen Stempelsiegel-Gruppe der frühen Eisenzeit. In: Frevel, C. ed., Medien im antiken Palästina. Materielle Kommunikation und Medialität als Thema der Palästinaarchäologie, Forschungen zum alten Testament II, 10. Tübingen: 85–107. Petrie, w.M.F. 1906. hyksos and Israelite Cities (British School of Archaeology in Egypt 129). London. Petrie, w.M.F. 1917. Scarabs and Cylinders with names. Illustrated by the Egyptian Collection in University College, London (Publications of the British School of Archaeology in Egypt 29). London. Petrie, w.M.F. 1925. Buttons and Design Scarabs Illustrated by the Egyptian Collection in University College (Publications of the British School of Archaeology in Egypt 38). London. Petrie, w.M.F. 1934. ancient gaza IV (Publications of the British School of Archaeology in Egypt 56). London. Richter, G.M.A. 1956. Catalogue of Engraved gems: greek, Etruscan and roman. New York. Rothenberg, B. 1988. The Egyptian Mining Temple at Timna. London. Rowe, A. 1936. a Catalogue of Egyptian Scarabs, Scaraboids, Seals and amulets in the Palestine archeological Museum. Cairo. Schulman, A.R. 1988. Catalogue of the Egyptian Finds. In: Rothenberg, B. The Egyptian Mining Temple at Timna. London: 114–147. Staubli, Th. 2005. Land der spriessenden zweige. Bibel und Kirche 60, no. 1: 16–22. Sternberg-El Hotabi, H. 1999. Untersuchungen zur Überlieferungsgeschichte der horusstelen. Ein Beitrag zur religionsgeschichte Ägyptens im 1. Jahrtausend v. Chr (Ägyptologische Abhandlungen 62). wiesbaden. Stoof, M. 1992. Ägyptische Siegelamulette in menschlicher und tierischer gestalt. Eine archäologische und motivgeschichtliche Studie (Europäische Hochschulschriften Reihe xxxVIII Archäologie 41). Frankfurt. Tufnell, O. 1953. Lachish III. The Iron age. London.

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Tufnell, O. 1958. Lachish IV. The Bronze age. London. Tufnell, O. 1984. Studies on Scarab Seals. Vol. II: Scarab Seals and Their Contribution to history in the Early Second Millennium B.C. With Contributions by g.T. Martin and W.a. Ward. warminster. wiese, A. 1990. zum Bild des Königs auf ägyptischen Siegelamuletten (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis, Series Archaeologica 96). Fribourg and Göttingen. zazoff, P. 1983. Die antiken gemmen. München.

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CHAPTER 18

CYLINDER SEALS Baruch Brandl

This chapter deals with two unique cylinder seals, one made of ivory and the other of glass. The two objects were made of fragile materials and hence were found in a bad state of preservation. The ivory object lost part of its carved surface, while the glass object was broken into many small fragments. In the case of the ivory seal, it is only on the basis of the modern impression that the central motif – an elephant standing on a three-peaked-mountain – could be identified. In the case of the glass item, it was impossible to produce a modern impression or to make a continuous-exposure image by putting it on a rotating disc.1 Therefore, the eight separate photographs that were taken by the restorer – without the aid of a tripod – were used as an alternative.2 Consequently, the images differ in their angles and in their distortions. The dimensions used in this publication are: C = circumference (or length of the impression); D = diameter; H = height. Egyptian hieroglyphic signs are referred to as they appear in Gardiner’s Sign-list (1973: 438–548) with additional identifications given later by Allen (2000: 423–452). In general, only excavated parallels with known provenance are referred to in this work; the few parallels from collections are referred to only when they are essential to the discussion. At the end of the description and discussion devoted to each of the two cylinder seals an additional discussion is added in order to provide more detailed observations, which in my opinion need to be separated from what was written previously, rather than be incorporated into it.

DESCrIpTION aND DISCuSSION CyLInDEr SEaL 04/J/95/ar1 (FIg. 18.1; ChaPTEr 15, no. 637) pieiehu leFhe

hplhe

Level/Phase: J-6, Phase J-6a. Material: ivory,3 hippopotamus, large lower incisor,4 yellowish colour.5 Dimensions: the seal: H = 13.5 mm, D = 10.25 mm, C = 33.5 mm. The perforation: D (top) = 3.75 mm, D (bottom) = 3.25 mm (Fig. 18.2). 1 2

3 4 5

This technique was used by B. zuckerman on a haematite Syrian cylinder seal from Moza ‘Illit that was produced in “Workshop A” at Ugarit (Brandl 1996: 11, Fig. 5, n. 1). This solution was used, e.g., with a red-painted Neo-Assyrian cylinder seal from Tell Abu el-kharaz in Jordan, where six separate photographs were taken, most probably before producing the modern impression (Fischer et al. 2009: 143–144, Figs. 6–7; keller and Tuttle 2010: 513, Fig. 5). For the extended usage of the term ‘ivory’ in addition to the dentine of elephant’s tusk, see krzyskowska and Morkot 2000: 320. For the morphology and structure of hippopotamus’ incisors, see krzyszkowska 1990: 38–42, Figs. 14–16, Pls. 9–11. Despite the general statement that hippopotamus ivory retains its whiteness over time (Reese 1985: 392; kolska Horwitz and Tchernov 1990: 67).

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Fig. 18.1: Four views of Cylinder Seal 04/J/95/AR1 (Chapter 15, No. 637).

Method of Manufacture: sawing, abrading, drilling, incising and carving. Workmanship: good to excellent (see Additional Discussion below). Technical Details: perforated off centre and drilled from top to bottom. Linear engraving or incising and carving in low relief. Preservation: the seal is almost complete, but lost part of its decoration, as evident by several scars on the carved surface. Sometime between its exposure and study, it split into three pieces which were then glued together. hiilpe The seal, shown in Fig. 18.1 in four views, comprises a single scene in one horizontal register, with border lines on the top and bottom. The scene (Fig. 18.2) includes pictorial or rather ‘written’ elements that can be divided into three parts: On the right are two men dressed only in girdles,6 apparently wearing daggers on their distant side, of which only the tips are visible.7 Both men have short beards. The first figure has a pigtail and seems 6 7

Compare with the figures drawn on the mural in the Naqada IIC Tomb 100 at Hierakonpolis (Quibell and Green 1902: Pls. 75, 76, 79). Compare with: 1) two men incised on the upper side of an ivory object (kept in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo) quibell

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Fig. 18.2: One view and the modern impression of Cylinder Seal 04/J/95/AR1. Additional drawings and photos of the top and bottom of the cylinder seal show its inside morphology (Chapter 15, No. 637).

to be holding something that is now lost in the right hand, while the left hand hangs down, with an open palm and four fingers. The second figure has an eye indicated, and raises the right hand towards his mouth, while the left hand hangs down. Both hands of this figure are shown in side view, with their thumbs separated. In the centre – and facing the two figures on the right – an elephant with its trunk hanging down is depicted in low relief; it is standing on three triangles that were elsewhere identified as a three-peakedmountain.8

8

1904–1905: 310 [14708], Pl. 64 [14708]) that is carved in the shape of an elephant’s trunk (Quibell 1900: 7, Pl. 13: 2); 2) two men on a limestone cylinder seal (in the same museum; Quibell 1904–1905: 279 [14518], Pl. 59 [14518]); 3) a man on a steatite cylinder seal found near Tomb 40 at Helwan (Saad 1947: 165–166, Fig. 14; williams 1988: 39, Figs. 3b, 44; köhler 1999; 2004: 307–310, Fig. 7: A – lower right corner). Elephants and three-peaked-mountains appear separately on ‘standards of ships’ drawn on Egyptian ‘D-ware’ Predynastic vessels dated to Naqada IID1 (Petrie and Quibell 1896: 48–49, Pl. 67: 13–14; Petrie 1901: Pl. 4 [standards of ships]; Baumgartel 1947: 81–82, Pl. 11; Crowfoot Payne 1993: Nos. 865–866). Recently they were found together (but with four-peaked-mountains) – once even on a ‘standard of ship’ – on a rock carving in wadi Magar in the Theban western Desert (Darnell 2009: 96–97, Fig. 18). This carving was dated stylistically to the Naqada IID period. Together they appear in four contexts that are related to Narmer or the Naqada IIIA2 period: 1) on the Cairo Museum’s Coptos colossal statue of Min (Petrie 1896: 7–9, Pl. 3: 3, 4; williams 1988: 43, Fig. 2d; kemp 1991: 79–82, Fig. 28: c;

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On the left is a third human male figure, resembling the other two, facing the elephant’s back, with an unidentified element located under his raised arm. His other hand is missing. A narrow vertical strip of the seal between that figure and the elephant has been completely erased (Fig. 18.2). On the basis of the references given above it seems that the three elements seen on the Megiddo cylinder seal – bearded men dressed in girdles and wearing daggers, an elephant and a three-peaked- mountain – appear on Egyptian art that dates to the period between Naqada IIC to Naqada IIIA2. This time span can be shortened thanks to the re-excavation of Cemetery U at Umm el-qaab (Abydos). There, in Tomb U-j of the Naqada IIIA1 period, ivory and bone labels (or tags) were discovered that contain parallels to all the elements incised on the Megiddo item: * Labels 45–47 show bearded male figures with pigtails wearing daggers (Dreyer 1998: 118–119, Nos. 45–47, Pl. 29: 45–47).9 * Label 51 shows a bearded man dressed in a girdle (ibid.: 118–119, No. 51, Pl. 29: 51). * Labels 52 and 58 show standing elephants, each with a square space between its front and hind legs (ibid.: 118–120 Nos. 52, 58, Pl. 29: 52, 58), as seen on the Megiddo cylinder seal. * Labels 54–56 and 59–60 show elephants standing on three-peaked-mountains (ibid.: 119–120, Nos. 54–56, 59–60, Pl. 29: 54–56, 59–6). lChehpehaCy The parallels of the Megiddo pictorial elements from Tomb U-j and other labels as well were interpreted as representing various stages in the development of the early Egyptian writing system: * The bearded men – especially the one with the pigtail – were interpreted as sti = “Nubians” (Kahl 2003: 125, Fig. 7), “Lower Nubia” or “The first Upper Egypt nome” (Jiménez-Serrano 2008: 1129–1130, Fig. 6 [middle]). * The combination of an elephant and a three-peaked-mountain was interpreted as a toponym due to its appearance in the later traditional hieroglyphic writing. The elephant image is known as determinative in the word Abw = elephant, or as an ideogram for Abw = Elephantine [Gardiner E 26]. The three triangles are known as an ideogram for xAst = ‘desert cliffs’ and ‘foreign land’, or a determinative in ‘desert’ and ‘foreign land’ [Gardiner N 25]. The appearance of both together is identified as a short way of writing the toponym Abw “Elephantine”. Dreyer, the publisher of those labels (Dreyer 1998: 178; Kahl 2003: 116–118) identified the image of the isolated elephant as reference to ‘king Elephant’ – an early ruler (for a rejection of this suggestion, see Regulski 2008: 990 with bibliography). The three-peaked-mountain has been identified by Dreyer (1998: 143) as the ideogram Dw = mountain, or the phonogram Dw [Gardiner N 26]. The connection of these icons was proposed by Dreyer (1998: 140–141; Anselin 2004: 554–562) in accordance with phonetic writing. He combined Ab and Dw into AbDw, that is, the toponym Abydos. This

9

Dreyer 1998: 175–178, ill. 104, Pl. 44: c; Kemp 2000: 215–218, Fig. 7; Jiménez-Serrano 2004: Fig. 1; Wengrow 2006: 195–198, Fig. 9.10); 2) on an ivory panel from the ‘Main Deposit’ at Hierakonpolis (quibell 1900: 6, Pls. 6: 6, 16: 4; Quibell and Green 1902: 36, Pl. 6: 6; Adams 1974: 69–70 [No. 359], Pls. 44–45 [No. 359]; Jiménez-Serrano 2004: Fig. 2; Wengrow 2006: 179, 182–187, 200, Fig. 9.2 left); 3–4) on two graffiti from Gebel Tjauti (Darnell 2002: 19–24 [Inscription 2], Pls. 12–13; 72 [Inscription 28], Pl. 17: a, c; Jiménez-Serrano 2008: 1130–1132, Figs. 7–8). In his description of Label 45, Dreyer questioned the possibility that the man is wearing a penis sheath, while Piquette (2004: 939–942, Figs. 20–21) added the possibility that this may be the phallus.

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suggestion – if correct – should be considered the earliest manifestation of phonetic writing in Egypt (for a rejection of this theory see Baines 2004: 163–164. For alternative reading as “Abydos” see Wegner 2007). However, most of the scholars dealing with that issue identify this combination as the toponym Abw = Elephantine. (Breyer 2002: 56–57, Fig. 4; Jiménez-Serrano 2008: 1130, Fig. 6 left). In spite of the wide consensus (in which the author is included) that this pair of icons should be interpreted as a toponym, and therefore as hieroglyphs, some doubts have been expressed.10 The Megiddo cylinder seal – which combines Nubians with the toponym of Elephantine – perhaps commemorates their first conquest by the Naqada IIIA1 period Abydene ruler who was buried in Tomb U-j (see also Goedicke 2002: 253 and n. 42; Jiménez-Serrano 2004: 854, 856). It was only later that Elephantine was annexed to Egypt and became the administrative capital of the first Upper Egypt nome.11 pyahuhpy The Megiddo cylinder seal belongs to the relatively rare group of Egyptian Predynastic cylinder seals. It follows the separation of the Egyptian cylinder seals from the Middle Uruk repertoire that started already during Naqada IID (Honoré 2007: 43), and should be considered an excellent example of the independent local Egyptian school of the Naqada IIIA1 period.12 helple This cylinder seal should be interpreted as an Egyptian export to Canaan. It seems that the ivory workshop that started functioning at Abydos during the Naqada IID period – earlier than the period of Tomb U-j – (Honoré 2007: 36) is the ‘natural’ candidate for the production centre of the U-j labels as well as the Megiddo cylinder seal. hhpi On the basis of the above-mentioned finds from Tomb U-j at Umm el-Qaab (Abydos), the Megiddo ivory cylinder seal should be dated to the Naqada IIIA1 period (ca. 3380–3330 BCE13 or shortly thereafter14), which is contemporary with the earlier part of the EB IB in Canaan. heCChihuhplChu Chepixp Locus 04/J/95 belongs to Phase J-6a of the EB III. Therefore, the cylinder seal discussed here could be considered to have been found in secondary context. There are at least two options concerning the period during which the cylinder seal arrived at Megiddo:

10 See whithouse 2004: 1125–1127; Friedman 2004: 162. The author suggests, however, that the hills on the ivory plaque from the ‘Main Deposit’ at Hierakonpolis (whithouse 2004: 1119–1121, Figs. 4–5) that are the reason for those doubts, are actually separated from the bovid on top and are connected with the register below. 11 For the rich corpus of more than 1,600 Egyptian Old kingdom sealings excavated at Elephantine that point to its administrative importance during the Dynatic period, see Pätznick 2005. 12 Another Egyptian ivory cylinder seal dated to Naqada IIIA1 period was found in Tomb 1035 at Abusir el-Meleq; see Boehmer 1974: 499–500, No. 9. 13 See Görsdorf, Dreyer and Hartung 1998: 171 (sample Hd-12954), 174, Fig. 2 (kaiser’s Naqada stufe IIIa2 = Hendrickx’ Naqada IIIA1). 14 For a later date, ca. 3200 BCE, see Baines 2004: 153, and for ca. 3300 BCE see wengrow 2006: 276.

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1) It was imported to the site close to the period of its manufacture, during the EB I, and should therefore be considered residual in the EB III context. 2) It was exported by the Egyptians to Megiddo as an antique during the EB III,15 after having been robbed from its original funerary context in Egypt.16 The author has already suggested the same explanation for the appearance of Predynastic simple cosmetic palettes in EB III Canaanite contexts – see in Sowada 2000: 1527, in contrast with the view expressed in Jacobs 1996: 127–131. Two additional finds support the latter option: 1) The incised ivory dagger (or knife) handle from the Phase VIII (EB IIIB) Room 116 in Sanctuary A at Ai (et-Tell) (Marquet-krause 1949: 196, No. 1533, Pls. 54: 1533, 66: 1533; kantor 1956: 157; Hennessy 1967: 71 [10], Pl. 57: 4; Callaway 1972: 313, 315, Fig. 72: 1; Sowada 2009: 116–117 [144], Fig. 24 [144]), has a new Naqada III parallel at Tell el-Farkha in the Eastern Delta (Cialowicz 2008: 505–507, Fig. 3; 2012: 241–242, Fig. 55). This parallel is clearly earlier than the date kantor (1956: 157, n. 14; see comment by Sowada 2009: 117) attributes to the Ai handle. 2) A fragment of a carved Predynastic (Dynasty 0) cosmetic palette was found in an EB IIIA context during the recent excavations at Tel Bet Yerah (Greenberg, wengrow and Paz 2010; wengrow 2010: 32–33, Fig. 3). The author prefers the second option, since no such ‘objects of art’ were found in Canaanite contexts contemporary to their production period Moreover, the earliest temple at Megiddo, from Level J-3 of the EB IB (Finkelstein, Ussishkin and Peersmann 2006: 52), yielded Egyptian graffiti on its courtyard pavement slabs, which have recently been related to the period of Narmer (Yekutieli 2008). As such, they clearly postdate the period of Tomb U-j at Umm el-qaab. hhhlplhehu hliCJiilhe The following observations demonstrate that the engraver of the Megiddo cylinder seal was a highly skilled and sophisticated artisan: 1) Selection of the appropriate raw material: the engraver was clearly acquainted with the morphology of hippopotamus dentition. The thick outer strip of the discontinuous lamellae in the large lower incisor was preferred over the thin outer strip in the lower canine (Fig. 18.3, lower).17 2) Strategy in the cutting of the blank: the way the elongated square blank was cut from the lower incisor (an exact quarter) increased the part of the discontinuous outer lamellae strip on the seal’s surface into a full half (Fig. 18.3, middle).18 This method of cutting also avoided the appearance of the ‘heartline’ on the seal’s surface, as seen on some early Cretan seals (krzyszkowska 1990: 41–42, Fig. 16).

15 For a map with suggested Egyptian routes in Canaan during the EB III, see Sowada 2009: Fig. 48. 16 The plundering of Predynastic tombs in Egypt in later periods is attested, for example, by a carving added during the 18th Dynasty on the back of a Naqada III commemorative slate palette (see Bothmer 1969–1970; Needler 1984: 332–334, No. 266; Hartwig 2008). 17 Compare the transverse sections of the hippopotamus’ incisor and lower canine in krzyszkowska 1990: Pls. 9b, 13a. 18 Compare with the way inlay strips were cut in Crete (see krzyszkowska 1988: 216–221, Figs. 1: a, 2.

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Fig. 18.3: The segment of a hippopotamus incisor from which Cylinder Seal 04/J/95/AR1 was cut out (after krzyszkowska 1990: Fig. 14), with location of the seal blank.

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3) Different engraving techniques on the same seal: the engraver reserved the discontinuous outer lamellae strip for the carving of the elephant and the three-peaked-mountain in low relief technique (Fig. 18.3, upper), while the three men depicted on the surface with the dense vertical lamellae lines were only incised (Fig. 18.2). CyLInDEr SEaL 02/K/52/ar8 (FIg. 18.4; ChaPTEr 15, no. 638) pieiehu leFhe

hplhe

Material: glass, light blue core, off white crust or patina (see more in Additional Discussion below). Dimensions: the seal: H = 13+ (restored 26) mm, D = 12–12.5 mm, C = 38.5 mm. The perforation: D = 4.5–5.5 mm. (Fig. 18.6). Method of Manufacture: rod forming (see Stern 1994: 128–129), incising (of the border-lines [Fig. 18.5, the arrows]) and impressing (of the fish motifs). Workmanship: good. Technical Details: perforated off centre, incised by a metallic stylus19 and impressed by at least two different tools. Preservation: broken twice, once in antiquity (Fig. 18.6 – patina) and a second time while being excavated. It was only partially restored. hiilpe Four horizontal lines, the uppermost of which has been restored (Fig. 18.6), create three parallel registers. A continuous chain of five fish, all swimming in the same direction, is depicted in each register. The fish are not arranged directly above one another, but rather in a diagonal, step-like order (Fig. 18.4, upper row).20 The fish on the Megiddo cylinder seal also feature the pectoral fin below (Brewer and Friedman 1989: 47, Fig. 3.1), which is not depicted on most other Mitannian Common Style seals. One of the previously excavated cylinder seals from Megiddo and another seal from Gezer show fish with pectoral fins, but these fish are more schematic (Parker 1949: Nos. 97 and 187 respectively). The Megiddo item is the only known seal with three rows of fish separated by a border-line. It is unlikely that the Megiddo seal originally contained a fourth register of fish, although cylinder seals from Beth-Shean (Parker 1949: No. 144 = Dabney 1993: 234, No. 42, Pl. 62: c) and kamid el-Loz (kühne H. and Salje B. 1996: 60–61, No. 20, ill. 6: 20, Pl. 5: 20, plan 9) feature a column of four fish, and a seal from Ugarit features a column of four fish integrated with three lines of fish (Schaeffer-Forrer 1983: 152 [R.S. 25.257]). pyahuhpy Due to its motif – three registers of five swimming fish in each, arranged in a diagonal order – the seal is attributed to the Mitannian ‘Common Style’ (Porada 1947: 11–13), which corresponds to the simpler part of Frankfort’s ‘Popular Style’ (1939: 279–280), or to a Syro-Palestinian or Levantine subgroup of the Mitannian Common Style (Salje 1990: 11–12, 14, 237–336). More specifically, the Megiddo cylinder seal and its parallels are related to a subdivision of Group II of Porada’s Mitannian Common Style, which presents rows of animals depicted in plain outlines (Porada 1947: 15–16, Pl. 5: 78–84), and to Salje’s 19 This could be deduced from the border lines on a cylinder seal from Alalakh (Collon 1982: 61–62, No. 29). 20 Such an arrangement for three rows of fish can be seen on a cylinder seal from the Chiha Collection that was assembled in Lebanon (Doumet 1992: No. 41) and on the cylinder seal from Alalakh mentioned in the previous footnote.

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2.2.1 (F) Rein zoomorphe Darstellungen (Fische) (1990: 66, Pl. 7: 136–138). A general discussion on the fish motif in the Mitannian Common Style group of cylinder seals could be found in several publications (Beck 1967: 105–107, Figs. 184–186; Salje 1990: 66–68; kinston 1994: 12–14). This new glass Mitanni Common Style cylinder seal joins the 19 already found at Megiddo (Salje 1990: 182–183; kinston 1994: 90, 140–146). It also joins the (at least) 16 Canaanite cylinder seals decorated with fish (Kinston 1994: 12–14), two of which were unearthed at Megiddo. helple This seal should be interpreted as a local product of a Megiddo jewellery workshop (see Additional Discussion below). 1) According to both the typology and the raw material of the item, it is safe to assume that this object was produced in a Canaanite workshop. 2) The three concave scars found coated with patina (Fig. 18.6, a, b, c), were most probably created during the decoration process of the cylinder seal. It would be hard to accept that a cylinder seal with such damage was brought to Megiddo from elsewhere. 3) This observation is supported by Lilyquist (1993: 52–53, Figs. 17, 26, 28), who notes the exceptional concentration of glass products at Megiddo. Some of the plain glass cylinders described by her were cut and incorporated into various types of jewellery as beads (ibid.: Figs. 17: b, 28: a [lower left]), while the large cylinders (ibid.: Fig. 17: a [most on the left]) may have served as blanks for the manufacture of decorated cylinder seals (see Stern 1994: 128–129). hhpi The Megiddo workshop to which the cylinder seal is attributed was active in the LB I, during the 16th–15th centuries BCE. The cylinder seal discussed here, which due to its rarity can be understood to have preceded the mass production of the 14th–13th century BCE Mitannian Common Style faience and composition cylinder seals, fits well this chronological scheme. heCChihuhplChu Chepixp Locus 02/K/52 is an unstratified mixed locus with LB III/Iron I pottery. Therefore, the cylinder seal discussed here can be considered to have been found in a secondary context. If our suggestion above – that the cylinder was damaged during its decoration process – is correct, it would be logical to assume that it was kept in the workshop in which is was manufactured so that it could be recycled, and later found its way to the horizon where it was retrieved. hhhlplhehu hliCJiilhe The attribution of this cylinder seal, which was certainly made of glass, to the Mitannian Common Style group, deserves special consideration. Material: Salje identified 916 cylinder seals and 67 seal impressions from 118 sites (and 57 cylinder seals and two seal impressions from collections) as Mitannian, and 1,402 cylinder seals from 62 sites as Levantine (Salje 1990: 23 and 143 respectively). Among the Mitannian group no glass cylinder seals were described, while among the Levantine group, which includes 99 examples from Canaan, only 11 glass cylinder seals were described (ibid.: 137, 140, 142). However, the actual number of glass Mitannian and Levantine Common Style cylinder seals is probably larger than what is reflected in Salje’s catalogue. This

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f

f

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1

2

3

Fig. 18.4: Eight views of Cylinder Seal 02/k/52/AR8 (Chapter 15, No. 638).

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5

6

7

8

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5

8

Fig. 18.5: Two points where the register lines on Cylinder Seal 02/k/52/AR8 have been started (Chapter 15, No. 638. See Fig. 18.4).

is because their patinas are very similar to those of faience items and therefore they could easily have been miscategorized. origin: nine out of the 11 glass items mentioned above were found in excavations: Tell Rimah, Iraq – 2 (Salje 1990: 254, 293); Aghia Paraskevi and Ankastina (Vounus), Cyprus – 2 (ibid.: 280, 331, and 281, 325 respectively); and 5 from 5 Canaanite sites – Tell Abu Hawam, Tell el->Ajjul, Beth-Shean, Gezer and Lachish (ibid.: 255, 301 [Tell Abu Hawam], 255, 335 [Tell el->Ajjul], 256, 310 [Beth-Shean], 256, 318 [Gezer] and 257, 304 [Lachish]). There is a high probability that the latter five were produced in a Canaanite workshop (see already, with some caution, Spaer 2001: 215). Date of production of the glass items: none of the Canaanite cylinder seals has a clear archaeological context. Only one item from Iraq and one from Cyprus were dated between the 16th and 14th century BCE. The cylinder seal made in Tell Rimah, although related to the Levantine rather than to the Mitannian Common Style group, raises the possibility that the early Megiddo workshop (Lilyquist 1993: 52–53, Figs. 17, 26, 28) was inspired by artisans who came from Mitanni.

CONCluSIONS The two new Megiddo cylinder seals – although of different origins, date of manufacture and raw material – share some common qualities: 1) Both are unique and the first of their type to be found in Canaan. 2) Both are related to workshops of known sites: the ivory item to Abydos and the glass item to Megiddo. 3) Both were produced by skilled artisans who did not hesitate to experiment and to exploit the precious raw materials during the decoration process.

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c

c

b

b

a a 1

8

Fig. 18.6: Two views indicating the three old scars on Cylinder Seal 02/k/52/AR8 that received a patina (Chapter 15, No. 638. See Fig. 18.4).

The ivory cylinder seal joins the growing group of Predynastic objects of art that was plundered from their funerary contexts and sent to Canaan during the EB III. The glass cylinder seal is the ‘smoking gun’ that was needed to confirm the existence of a glass workshop at Megiddo during the LB I. The ivory cylinder seal – if it indeed commemorates a historical event connected to the Egyptian conquest of Elephantine during the Naqada IIIA1 period – may be considered a historical document.

aCKNOwlEDGMENTS I wish to thank Dr. Liora kolska Horowitz for discussing with me the hippopotamus’ dentine and the identification of the Megiddo cylinder seal raw material as a large lower incisor. Special thanks go to Osnat Misch-Brandl for her assistance in this research. The modern impression of the ivory cylinder seal was made by Andre weiner, Head of the Israel Museum Laboratory for Restoration of Antiquities. The superb restoration of the glass cylinder seal was carried out by Olga Negnevitsky (in the early stages) and Yoav Bezaleli (in the final stages), both from the Israel Museum Laboratories for Restoration of Antiquities. The ivory cylinder seal was photographed by Peter Lanyi, Head of the Israel Museum Photography Laboratory, supplemented by a view of the elephant by Carmen Hersch, while the glass cylinder seal was photographed

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by its restorer, Yoav Bezaleli. Drawings and restoration drawings were done by Carmen Hersch under the author’s guidance.

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Jiménez-Serrano, A. 2008. The Origin of the State and the Unification: Two Different Concepts in the Same Context. In: Midant-Reynes, B. and Tristant, Y., eds. Egypt at Its origin 2. Proceedings of the International Conference “origin of the State. Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt”, Toulouse (France), 5th–8th September 2005 (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 172). Leuven: 1119–1137. kahl, J. 2003. Die frühen Schriftzeugnisse aus dem Grab U-j in Umm el-qaab. Chronique d’ Égypte 78: 112–135. kantor, H.J. 1956. Syro-Palestinian Ivories. Journal of near Eastern Studies 15: 153–174. keller, D.R. and Tuttle, C.A. 2010. Archaeology in Jordan, 2008 and 2009 Seasons. american Journal of archaeology 114: 505–545. kemp, B.J. 1991. ancient Egypt: anatomy of a Civilization. London and New York. kemp, B.J. 2000. The Colossi from the Early Shrine at Coptos in Egypt. Cambridge archaeological Journal 10, Issue 2: 211–242. kinston, M. 1994. Palestinian Mitannian Cylinder Seals (M.A. thesis, Melbourne University). Melbourne. köhler, E.C. 1999. Re-assessment of a Cylinder Seal from Helwan. göttinger Miszellen 168: 49–56. köhler, E.C. 2004. On the Origins of Memphis – The New Excavations in the Early Dynastic Necropolis at Helwan. In: Hendrickx, S., Friedman, R.F., Ciałowicz, K.M. and Chłodnicki, M., eds. Egypt at Its origin: Studies in Memory of Barbara adams. Proceedings of the International Conference “origin of the State. Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt”, Kraków, 28th august–1st September 2002 (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 138). Leuven: 295–315. kolska Horwitz, L. and Tchernov, E. 1990. Cultural and Environmental Implications of Hippopotamus Bone Remains in Archaeological Contexts in the Levant. Bulletin of the american Schools of oriental research 280: 67–76. krzyszkowska, O.H. 1988. Ivory in the Aegean Bronze Age: Elephant Tusk or Hippopotamus Ivory? The annual of the British School at athens 83: 209–234. krzyszkowska, O.H. 1990. Ivory and related Materials: an Illustrated guide (Institute of Classical Studies Bulletin Supplement 59). London. krzyszkowska, O.H. and Morkot, R. 2000. Chapter 13: Ivory and Related Materials. In: Nicholson, P.T. and Shaw, I., eds. ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology. Cambridge, England: 320–331. kühne, H. and Salje, B. 1996. Kamid el-Loz 15: Die glyptik (Saarbrüker Beiträge zur Altertumskunde 56). Bonn. Lilyquist, C. 1993. Granulation and Glass: Chronological and Stylistic Investigations at Selected Sites, ca. 2500–1400 B.C.E. Bulletin of the american Schools of oriental research 290-291: 29–94. Marquet-krause, J. 1949. Les Fouilles de ‘ay (Et-Tell) 1933–1935. Paris. Needler, w. 1984. Predynastic and archaic Egypt in the Brooklyn Museum (wilbour Monographs 9). New York. Parker, B. 1949. Cylinder Seals from Palestine. Iraq 11: 1–43. Pätznick, J.-P. 2005. Die Siegelabrollungen und rollsiegel der Stadt Elephantine im 3. Jahrtausend v. Chr.: Spurensicherung eines archäologischen artefaktes (British Archaeological Reports, International Series 1339). Oxford. Petrie, w.M.F. 1896. Koptos. London. Petrie, w.M.F. 1901. Diospolis Parva. The Cemeteries of abadiyeh and hu 1898–9. London. Petrie, w.M.F. and quibell, J.E. 1896. naqada and Ballas (BSAE 1). London.

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Piquette, k.E. 2004. Representing the Human Body on Late Predynastic and Early Dynastic Labels. In: Hendrickx, S., Friedman, R.F., Ciałowicz, K.M. and Chłodnicki, M., eds. Egypt at Its origin: Studies in Memory of Barbara adams. Proceedings of the International Conference “origin of the State. Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt”, Kraków, 28th august–1st September 2002 (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 138). Leuven: 923–947. Porada, E. 1947. Seal Impressions of Nuzi. The annual of the american Schools of oriental research 24: 1–138. quibell, J.E. 1900. hierakonpolis. Part I. London. quibell, J.E. 1904–1905. archaic objects (Catalogue Général des Antiquités Égyptiennes du Musée du Caire. Nos. 11001–12000 et 14001–14754). Cairo. quibell, J.E. and Green, F.w. 1902. hierakonpolis. Part II. London. Reese, D.S. 1985. Appendix VIII (D): Hippopotamus and Elephant Teeth from kition. In: karageorghis, V., ed. Excavations at Kition V: ii. Nicosia: 391–409. Regulski, I. 2008. The Origin of writing in Relation to the Emergence of the Egyptian State. In: Midant-Reynes, B. and Tristant, Y., eds. Egypt at Its origin 2. Proceedings of the International Conference “origin of the State. Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt”, Toulouse (France), 5th–8th September 2005 (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 172). Leuven: 985–1009. Saad, z.Y. 1947. Preliminary Report on the Royal Excavations at Helwan 1944–1945. In: Saad, z.Y., ed. royal Excavations at Saqqara and helwan (1941–1945) (Annales du Service des Antiquités de L’Égypte, Supplément 3). Cairo. Salje, B. 1990. Der ‘Common Style’ der Mitanni-glyptik und die glyptik der Levante und zyperns in der Späten Bronzezeit (Deutches Archäologisches Institut, Abteilung Baghdad, Baghdader Forschungen 11). Mainz am Rhein. Schaeffer-Forrer, C.F.-A. 1983. Corpus des cylindres-sceaux de ras Shamra-Ugarit et d’Enkomi-alasia. Tome I (Recherches sur les civilisations, “synthèse” 13). Paris. Sowada, k. 2000. Egyptian Palettes in EB II and EB III Canaan. In: Matthiae, P., Enea, A., Peyronel, L. and Pinnock, F., eds. Proceedings of the First International Congress on the archaeology of the ancient near East. rome, May 18th–23rd 1998. Rome: 1527–1539. Sowada, k.N. 2009. Egypt in the Eastern Mediterranean during the old Kingdom: an archaeological Perspective With a contribution by Peter grave (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis 237). Fribourg. Spaer, M. 2001. ancient glass in the Israel Museum: Beads and other Small objects (Israel Museum Jerusalem Catalogue 447). Jerusalem. Stern, E.M. 1994. Catalogue Entries 3–4. In: Stern, E.M. and Schlick-Nolte, B., eds. Early glass of the ancient World 1600 B.C –a.D. 50. Ernesto Wolf Collection. Ostfildern: 126–129. wegner, J. 2007. From Elephant-Mountain to Anubis-Mountain? Theory on the Origins and Development of the Name Abdju. In: The archaeology and art of ancient Egypt. Essays in honor of David B. o’Connor (Annales du Service des Antiquités de l’Egypte) Cairo 36: 459–476. wengrow, D. 2006. The archaeology of Early Egypt: Social Transformations in north-East africa, 10,000 to 2,650 BC. Cambridge, England. Wengrow, D. 2010. Exploring connections: a new fieldwork collaboration at Tel Bet Yerah (Khirbet el-Kerak). archaeology International 12, 2008/2009: 31-35.

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whitehouse, H. 2004. Further Excavation Amongst the Hierakonpolis Ivories. In: Hendrickx, S., Friedman, R.F., Ciałowicz, K.M. and Chłodnicki, M., eds. Egypt at Its origin: Studies in Memory of Barbara adams. Proceedings of the International Conference “origin of the State. Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt”, Kraków, 28th august–1st September 2002 (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 138). Leuven: 1115–1128. williams, B.B. 1988. Narmer and the Coptos Colossi. Journal of the american research Centre in Egypt 25: 35–59. Yekutieli, Y. 2008. Symbols in Action – the Megiddo Graffiti Reassessed. In: Midant-Reynes, B. and Tristant, Y., eds. Egypt at Its origin 2. Proceedings of the International Conference “origin of the State. Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt”, Toulouse (France), 5th–8th September 2005 (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 172). Leuven: 807–837.

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CHAPTER 19

THE AMULETS Christian Herrmann

The four items described here are made of compact white composite material with white-blue glaze. They were formed in a mould, then dipped into a glazing bath and finally fired. In ancient Egypt, the craftsmen who produced these faience artifacts were called bcbc, derived from the root bcbc (dipping; ward 1977: 276). Between forming and glazing, a small loop was set on the amulet and merged with it during baking. The added loop suggests that the objects were used as charms on a necklace. All four objects are made of identical material. Their inferior quality indicates that they were the outcome of mass production. On account of the consistency of the material, style, size and the manufacturing method, a material connection between the four objects must be assumed. Therefore they are all very likely to have come from the same factory. Their similarity to the faience objects from the Nile delta capital of Pi-Ramesse (qantir) (Hermann 1985) suggests that this is where they were produced. They were then likely exported to Megiddo via the usual channels of trade – ship or land. The depiction of the god Ptah-Tatenen (Object 06/k/109/AR7), who gained importance in the time of the Ramessides (LÄ VI: 237–238), gives further support to the notion that the Ramesside Nile delta capital of Pi-Ramesse was their place of manufacture. The faience factory in qantir was active from the founding of the new Egyptian capital in the Nile Delta under Ramses II (xIxth Dynasty) until the end of the xxth Dynasty (Herrmann 2007: 18). A similar group of amulets, also originating from the Delta capital (Mimusops fruit and palmettes; dating to the LB IIB–Iron IA), is known from Tel Sera‘ (Herrmann 2007: Catalogue Nos. 470–476).1

ThE OBJECTS 04/K/10/ar2: UDJaT EyE (FIg. 19.1; ChaPTEr 15, no. 417) Dimensions: 16 × 10 × 8 mm. Stratigraphic affiliation: unstratified locus. Preservation: right half broken off. Description: Udjat eye, facing right; brow depicted with wedge-shaped feathers; make-up line is striped and spiral bow is undecorated. There is no horizontal channel for threading the object on a necklace, so the pendant device would have been a small loop on the upper rim of the brow. This object represents a special form of the Udjat eye, very seldom found in Israel (of the 536 Udjat eyes found in Israel, only five have belonged to this category). Parallels: in Israel (as amulets; Fig. 19.2) – Beth-Shemesh, Tomb I (Iron IIA–B; Mackenzie 1912–1913: 60, Pl. xxVIII: B.28; Herrmann 1994: Cat. No. 921); Megiddo (Loud 1948: 155, Pl. 205: 21, Herrmann 1994: Cat. No. 917); Megiddo from the Schumacher excavation (Vorderasiatisches Museum Berlin, Reg.

1

For more details regarding the definition, interpretation, use and production procedure see Cerrmann 2003: 2–5.

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Fig. 19.1: Amulet 04/k/10/AR2 (Chapter 15, No. 417).

No. VA 15131a–b, Herrmann 1994: Cat. No. 1125–1126); Tel Rehov Stratum V of the Iron IIA (Herrmann 2007: Cat. No. 24). In Egypt (as form) – qantir (Herrmann 1985: Cat. No. 220–221; Fig. 19.3). Discussion: The Udjat eye, meaning ‘safe’ eye, was the most popular Egyptian amulet in the southern Levant, and is represented by 536 examples (Herrmann 2006). Like the Bes and Patekos amulets, it reached its peak of popularity in the Iron IIA–B. Although it belongs to the class of human body part amulets, the Udjat eye amulet differs in that the it was believed to have possessed divine powers and to have functioned apotropaically as a divine eye (Müller-winkler 1987: 93–94). More often, however, the Udjat eye was associated with regeneration. In this respect, it is closely related to the Horus eye, which like the moon, represents restoration and the renewal of health (Bonnet 1971: 854–856; LÄ VI: 824–826). Iconographically, the Udjat eye is represented by a plain or decorated eyebrow, eyelid, lid edges, eyeball, pupil, plain or decorated make-up line, spiral bow, wedge area, and plain or decorated vertical projection. The projection suggests an association with the falcon-headed god of the heavens (for the terminology see Müller-winkler 1987: 94).

Megiddo

Beth-Shemesh

Megiddo

Megiddo

Tel Rehov Fig. 19.2: Parallels to Amulet 04/k/10/AR2 (Israel).

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Fig. 19.3: Parallels to Amulet 04/k/10/AR2 (Egypt).

06/K/109/ar7: PTah-TaTEnEn (FIg. 19.4; ChaPTEr 15, no. 416) Dimensions: 15 × 5 × 2 mm. Stratigraphic affiliation: Level k-8 (LB IIB). Preservation: broken in two parts. Description: standing figure on a base-line, walking to the right, with double feather headdress and sun disk on projecting ram’s horns. A small loop blends into the headdress. The figure can be identified as male by a short loincloth, held by a belt, a beard and a Uas (w3s) sceptre. A tripartite wig and the sign of ankh? in the right hand are easily discernible. Discussion: this amulet, found at Megiddo in 2006, is the first depiction of Ptah-Tatenen in Israel. Tatenen was known as a primordial god since the Middle kingdom. In texts on steles from Sinai and wadi Gawasis (Gasus), he appears as bestower of ores and minerals. His involvement in the founding of temples is documented since the time of the 19th Dynasty. He can be merged with the sun god Re, with Horus, Ptah, Osiris, Amun and Nun. During the New kingdom (the time of the Ramessides) the combination of Ptah and Tatenen gave rise to a specific iconographic type: a standing anthropomorphic figure wearing

Fig. 19.4: Amulet 06/k/109/AR7 (Chapter 15, No. 416).

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a short loincloth and a projecting double feather headdress with a sun disc above a pair of projecting ram’s horns (LÄ VI: 237–238). Depictions of Ptah-Tatenen on amulets were used for regeneration and to provide eternal life (cf. Schoske/wildung 1992: 178, Cat. No. 117). 04/K/83a/ar11: CoW-hEaDED (?) FIgUrE (FIg. 19.5; ChaPTEr 15, no. 418) Dimensions: 14.5 × 5 × 2 mm. Stratigraphic affiliation: Level k-7 (LB IIB). Preservation: excellent. Description: side view. Figure facing right, its arm extended and holding a rod. The wide bulge below the loop has no iconographic relevance; it merely served as a platform for the loop. In the head area a cow’s head is very vaguely discernible. Other features cannot be identified. This has nothing to do with the preservation. Rather, since the mould had been used several times, it was already in bad condition when the amulet was produced. When glaze was applied, the outlines of the figure were completely blurred. 06/h/2/ar8: PaTEKoS (FragMEnT oF LEg) (FIg. 19.6; ChaPTEr 15, no. 419) Dimensions: 16 × 11 × 9 mm. Stratigraphic affiliation: Level H-9 (late Iron I). Preservation: fragmentary. Production: formed in a mould. Description: left leg on base; remnants of back-pillar. Typological dating: Iron IIA, based on material and form. Discussion: the fragment can be identified with reasonable certainty as a Patekos. The Patekos with backpillar is typical for Iron I–IIA, and is well documented at Megiddo (Herrmann 1994: Cat. Nos. 598, 600,

Fig. 19.5: Amulet 04/k/83a/AR11 (Chaper 15, No. 418).

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Fig. 19.6: Amulet 06/H/2/AR8 (Chapter 15, No. 419).

604, 606, 607, 625, 628). On the other hand, the similar Bes is not documented with a back-pillar in Iron I–IIB; it is found, in stylized form, only from the Iron IIC (see Herrmann 1994; 2006).

CONCluSION This small group of objects is evidence of the religious and economic relations between Megiddo and the Delta capital of Pi-Ramesse (qantir). Most notable is the amulet featuring the god, Ptah-Tatenen, the depiction of whom has, to my knowledge, not been archaeologically documented in Israel. This discovery sheds further light on the religious history of Megiddo in LB IIB–Iron IIA.

REFERENCES Bonnet, H. 1971. reallexikon der ägyptischen religionsgeschichte (2nd edition). Berlin. Herrmann, C. 1985. Formen für ägyptische Fayencen: Katalog der Sammlung des Biblischen Instituts der Universität Freiburg Schweiz und einer Privatsammlung (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis 60). Fribourg. Herrmann, C. 1989. Fünf phönizische Formen für ägyptische Fayence. zeitschrift des Deutschen PalästinaVereins 105: 27–41. Herrmann, C. 1990. weitere Formen für ägyptische Fayencen aus der Ramsesstadt. Ägypten und Levante 1: 17–74. Herrmann, C. 1994. Ägyptische amulette aus Palästina/Israel mit einem ausblick auf ihre rezeption durch das alte Testament (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis 138). Fribourg. Herrmann, C. 2002. Ägyptische amulette aus Palästina/Israel II (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis 184). Fribourg. Herrmann, C. 2003. Die ägyptischen amulette der Sammlungen Bibel + orient der Universität Freiburg/ Schweiz: anthropomorphe gestalten und Tiere (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis Series Archaeologica 22). Fribourg. Herrmann, C. 2006. Ägyptische amulette aus Palästina/Israel III (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis Series Archaeologica 24). Fribourg. Herrmann, C. 2007. Formen für ägyptische Fayencen II (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis Series Archaeologica 225). Freiburg. LÄ = Helck, w. and westendorf, w., eds. 1977. Lexikon der Ägyptologie. wiesbaden. Loud, G. 1948. Megiddo II: Seasons of 1935–1939 (Oriental Institute Publications 62). Chicago. Mackenzie, D. 1912–1913. Excavations at ain Shems (Bet-Shemesh) (Palestine Exploration Fund Annual 2). London: 1–100.

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Müller-winkler, C. 1987. Die ägyptischen objekt-amulette: Mit Publikation der Sammlung des Biblischen Instituts der Universität Freiburg Schweiz, ehemals Sammlung Fouad S. Matouk (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis Series Archaeologica 5). Fribourg. Schoske, S. and wildung, D. 1993. gott und götter im alten Ägypten. Mainz am Rhein. ward, w.A. 1977. Lexicographical miscellanies. Studien zur altägyptischen Kultur 5: 265–292.

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CHAPTER 20

FIGURATIVE CLAY ARTEFACTS 1 Laura A. Peri

This chapter presents 21 objects found during the 2000–2008 excavation seasons. The assemblage can be divided as follows: • seventeen figurative clay artefacts, which include fragments of six anthropomorphic female figurines (Nos. 1–6), six animal figurines (Nos. 7–12), two zoomorphic vessels (Nos. 13–14) and three legs of zoomorphic figurines or vessels (Nos. 15–17). • two objects presumed to represent human heads, one of which is intact (Nos. 18–19). • two unclassified fragments that feature decorative designs (Nos. 20–21). The artefacts are most probably local products, except for an imported Mycenaean female figurine (No. 1) – the first example of its type so far unearthed at Megiddo. Almost half of the finds come from unstratified contexts, while the rest cover a time span from the EB III to the Iron II. The new artefacts are discussed mainly against past Megiddo finds (see Appendix).2 Megiddo has yielded one of the largest assemblages of clay figurative artefacts found in Israel.3 Especially numerous are the mould-made figurines depicting various images of women, mostly nude (59 items), as well as the hand-made animal figurines (93 items) and the zoomorphic vessels (76 items). The fragmentary state of the latter two groups makes it difficult to classify the animal figurines according to a proper typology and 1

2

3

I am grateful to Eran Arie, who first raised my interest in the Megiddo terracottas, for his encouragement and unwavering willingness to help. This study could not have been carried out without the constant assistance of Noga Blockman and Sivan Einhorn. To Irit ziffer I am sincerely indebted for having read this chapter before publication, and for sharing her knowledgeable observations with me. Many thanks to Assaf Yasur-Landau, Daphna Ben-Tor, Lilly Gershuny, Othmar keel and Tallay Ornan for their support and insightful remarks. Many of the ideas developed in this article were presented in May 2010 in a lecture given at Mount Scopus, Jerusalem, as part of a study day organized by the Institute of Archaeology of the Hebrew University and the Israel Antiquities Authority: The Clay women of Megiddo (Studies in Archaeology and Ancient Art: Past and Present – Old Theories and New Finds). I am indebted to Professor Ornan for inviting me to participate in that conference. Miriam Tadmor, who deserves much gratitude for her suggestions, passed away a day before this article was submitted. She discussed the present assemblage with me a short time before her health began to deteriorate. I suppose that these were the last clay artefacts she saw, handled and about which she shared her knowledge. This study is dedicated to her. With the exception of May’s chapter on figurines in Material remains of the Megiddo Cult (May 1935: 27–34), no study has yet dealt with the Megiddo terracottas as a whole. A general presentation of the clay figurative artefacts unearthed at Megiddo in the Iron Age levels is provided by Holland (1975: 135–138; 1977: 126, Fig. 1); on the assemblage of zoomorphic figurines and vessels found at Megiddo in the late Late Bronze–Iron Age strata, see Ben-Shlomo 1999: 123–124; on a few Bronze Age examples of zoomorphic vessels from Megiddo, see Gershuny 1991: 99–107. According to Holland (1977: 126–127, Fig. 1), of some 90 sites, Megiddo comes in third, with an assemblage of 200 figurative artefacts that date to the Late Bronze and Iron Ages (see also Gilbert-Peretz 1996: 32). On the coroplastic production in Canaan/Israel/Judah/southern Levant during these periods in the context of Ancient Near Eastern terracottas, see Moorey 2003; 2005: 183–218.

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interpret their ancient function.4 In contrast, the female figurines provide examples of some long-discussed LB–Iron II types of clay mould-made figurines, from the southern Levant5 which are also well illustrated by the present assemblage.

CATALOGUE aNThrOpOMOrphIC fIGurINES 04/K/82a/ar5: FragMEnT oF a MyCEnaEan FEMaLE PSI FIgUrInE (FIg. 20.1: 1); ChaPTEr 15, no. 589 Dimensions:6 H 4.2 cm; w 5.1 cm; Th 1.3 cm. Description: torso and upper stem of a hand-made female figurine of the Mycenaean Psi-type, missing the head, raised arms and lower part and base of a cylindrical stem (French 1971: 109, Fig. 1; 128–131). It features plastic breasts, applied plait on the back, a single waistline and three vertical lines on the stem’s front, back and left side. Ware: fine, buff clay, buff lustrous slip, red-brown paint, partially faded. Context: Area k, found in mud-brick material and occupational debris presumably belonging to Level k-7 (LB II). Date: typologically, Late Helladic IIIB. Discussion: Very few Mycenaean figurines were unearthed at Megiddo, considering the quantity of the excavated Aegean imported pottery (ca. 90 items; Leonard and Cline 1998; Cline and Ilan 2000: 215–216, Figs. 9.13: 7, 21, from Area F, Level F-9, dated to LB II; Gadot, Y. et al. 2006: 185–187, Fig. 12.10: 6, from Area N, likely from an unstratified context). Only two bovine figurines have already been published: an almost intact ‘tail/handle’ type from Area AA, Stratum VIIB (Loud 1948: Pl. 246: 25; Leonard and Cline 1998: 23, No. 19, Fig. A12) and a ‘linear’ type fragment from Area BB, Stratum VII (Loud 1948: Pl. 246: 26; Leonard and Cline 1998: 23, No. 52). The latter figurine, according to Mazar (2002: 265–268, 277), should also be attributed to Stratum VIIB. The fragment discussed here is thus the first imported Mycenaean human figurine excavated at Megiddo. Even though it was found in an unstratified context, it enriches the relatively small corpus of Aegean figurines unearthed in Israel (Leonard 1994: 137–141; Pilali-Papasteriou 1998: 34–36; Wijngaarden 2002: 121; Darcque 2004: 49).

4

5

6

For a general study of Middle Bronze Age and Late Bronze Age zoomorphic vessels found in modern Israel, see Gershuny 1991. On zoomorphic figurines and vessels from Philistia, see Ben-Shlomo 1999; 2008. For a distinct group of animal clay figurines displaying anatomical deformities and their function in divination rituals at Ebla, see Marchetti 2009. On ancient Palestinian clay female figurines, see also Pritchard 1943; Cornelius 2004; 2007a; 2009: 83–86. On Late Bronze–Iron I female clay figurines from Canaan/the southern Levant, see Tadmor 1981; 1982a; 1982b; Keel and Uehlinger 1998: 54, 66, 72, 74, 84, 97–108. The Palestinian plaque-figurines in their ancient Near Eastern context are briefly discussed in Ziffer et al. 2009: 334–335. On Iron Age mould-made figurines in the southern Levant, see Kletter 1996: 34–35; Keel and Uehlinger 1998: 163–167, 202–203, 333. On mould-made drummer figurines, see Beck 2002; Paz 2007: 12–38, 52–60; Sugimoto 2008: 17–26. H=height; w=width; Th=thickness; L=length.

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In his index of LB Aegean pottery from Syria-Palestine, Leonard assembled 20 fragments of various types of Mycenaean female figurines7 and eight bovine figurines from nine sites in Israel (Leonard 1994: 137–141). About half of the female figurines consist of Psi-type examples. The rest are mostly fragments that could not be typologically classified. Additional figurines of Aegean origin excavated in Israel have been published after Leonard’s 1994 corpus.8 Yet, the assemblage of figurines is minor in comparison to the significantly larger quantity of imported Mycenaean vessels found in Israel.9 This situation mirrors both the Mycenaean assemblage at Megiddo, which comprises only three figurines, as well as the general data from the Levant (Darcque 2004: 49, n. 32). Dated typologically to Late Helladic IIIB and probably produced in the Peloponnesus (as was most of the Aegean pottery from the Levant in general and Megiddo in particular, cf. wijngaarden 2005: 405; Leonard and Cline 1998: 5), the figurine discussed here should be related to the bulk of imported Mycenaean pottery found at Megiddo mainly in the context of Stratum VIIB (Leonard and Cline 1998; Mazar 2002). In their homeland, these figurines were related to cult (French 1971: 107–108). It has been assumed that in the Levant they were either prestige items whose status was a result of their foreign origin, (Pilali-Papasteriou 1998: 29–31; Darcque 2004: 49), or merely souvenirs (French 1971: 175; wijngaarden 2005). This could be the reason that, despite their small number, they are widely distributed geographically and have been found in a variety of contexts – most of them domestic and funerary. 06/M/56/ar3: FragMEnTary BaCK-MoDELLED FIgUrInE oF a nUDE FEMaLE hoLDIng hEr BrEaSTS (aB.I.1; FIg. 20.1: 2; ChaPTEr 15, no. 584) Dimensions: H 3.5 cm; w 3.6 cm; Th 1.2 cm. Description: upper part of the genitalia, abdomen, and part of the left upraised arm of a frontal, single-face moulded figurine depicting a woman holding her breasts. Remnants of a hand-modelled plait-like element can be distinguished on the back. Some clay remnants of the moulding process, perhaps pressed by hand, can be seen on the figurine’s left. Impressions of a textile can be observed on the right side of the hip. Ware: buff. Context: Level M-7, MB III–LB I or LB I burial. Date: LB I or earlier. Discussion: The incised triangular delineation of the pudendum with its central groove, the vertical line running from between the breasts to the navel, and the rear plait-like element imply that the figurine belongs to the same type as the complete example found at Megiddo in Tomb 26B (AB.I.4; see Tadmor 2003 and kletter et al. 2010 for an extended discussion of this figurine type). Two complete, unprovenanced examples of the same type (the first, formerly found at the R. Brown Collection, 7 8

9

In general there are two distinct types of Mycenaean clay statuettes: small handmade figurines and larger figures with coil or wheel-made stems/bodies (French 1981). Leonard assembled only figurines. A fragmentary zoomorphic figurine from the ‘Mycenaean’ tomb at Tell Dan (Biran 1994: 119, No. 9) and eight figurines (two female, six animal) from the renewed excavations at Lachish (Hankey et al. 2004: 1377, 1396–1397, Figs. 22.7: 6–13, 22.16: 2, 4–7 (compiled by E. French). To these should be added a not-yet published bull figurine from Tell Anafa (Adi Erlich, personal communication). For example, Tell Abu Hawam yielded ca. 700 imported pieces of Aegean pottery, but only 12 figurines (Wijngaarden 2002: 121)

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Jerusalem, present location unknown [Tadmor 1982b, illustration on p. 9]; and the second, found at the Bible+Orient Museum, Fribourg [Kletter et al. 2010: 22, Table 1, No. 42, p. 28, Figs. 10–11]) show that the rear element runs from the head down to the buttocks, a fact that may suggest its identification as a plait.10 Seventeen examples of this figurine type have thus far been unearthed at Megiddo. These are mostly torso-and-hips fragments, but also headless and footless bodies, heads, a head mould and one complete figurine (AB.I.1–17). Two additional figurines of an unknown provenance were also attributed to Megiddo: the aforementioned complete figurine, housed at Bible+Orient Museum, Fribourg (not included in our catalogue) and a previous ‘intact’ figurine, which belongs to the Reifenberg Collection and is presently stored in The Israel Museum, Jerusalem (IMJ 69.67/2). The latter, which was in fact restored by attaching a head to a headless, footless body belonging to a different figurine (Fig. 20.1: 1; AB.I.18–19), was presumably found at Megiddo during Schumacher’s excavations (Sass 2000: 396, n. 3; Tadmor 2003: 388; kletter et al. 2010: 22, Table 1, No. 41).11 Megiddo is a primary source for this group of figurines, along with Ta‘anach, and as such, Miriam Tadmor has termed it, the ‘Megiddo-Ta‘anach group’.12 Though it is distinctive to the Jezreel Valley, 10 Instead of a plait, a figurine of this type unearthed at Ta‛anach (Lisella 2008: 375, Pl. 4, Fig. 3) has a necklace counterweight (see also Moorey 2003: 36; on the attestation and use of necklace counterpoises in Mesopotamia and Egypt, see Spycket 1948, esp. p. 97). 11 I am grateful to Osnat Misch-Brandl, Curator of the Chalcolithic and Canaanite Periods at The Israel Museum, Jerusalem, for enabling me to study the figurine. The figurine was brought complete, except for missing feet, to the Objects Conservation Laboratory of the Israel Museum in 2010. Visual examination revealed that the head had been attached to the body at an unknown stage in the past, using a plaster-like material that had been adhered to the edges of both pieces, thus obscuring some of the original material. This fill material was removed and the head and body separated, revealing clearly that the two elements were not originally part of the same figurine. Moreover, the colour of both the outer part and the core of the figurine’s two sections are different; the outer part of the head tends towards a light beige colour, whereas that of the body is more ochre in tone; the core of the head is blackish, whereas the body’s core is somewhat lighter, tending more towards brown. Significantly, the head’s core and its outer layer are sharply distinct from one another, with the outer, lighter layers approximately 1 mm thick. In contrast, the cross-section of the break at the body’s neck reveals a more gradual contrast between the colour of the outer layer and core, with the outer layer approximately 2–3 mm thick. At the point on the bottom of the figurine where the feet have broken off, the crosssection is nearly identical to that of the break at the top of the piece, both in tone and thickness of the inner and outer areas, and in the graduated relationship between them. This similarity accentuates the contrast to the characteristics of the head. However, it is essential that the figurine be sent for material analysis and compared with other similar figurines, in order to establish the accuracy of these observations. Many thanks are owed to the staff of the Objects Conservation Laboratory of The Israel Museum for their careful analysis of the figurine and insightful remarks about its presumed manufacture. 12 The Ta‛anach assemblage of this figurine type was recently estimated at ca. 75 examples (Kletter et al. 2010: 22), but I presume that this number is overestimated. In sharp contrast to the Megiddo homogeneous assemblage of this figurine type, Lisella (2008: 364–365) has distinguished several subtypes among the Ta‛anach figurines that she classifies as “double-moulded clay plaques”: two different arm positions (‘shovel-shaped’ and ‘pincer-shaped’; ibid. 365, 375, Pl. 4, Figs. 1–2); two rear hairstyles (a braid and a ‘ponytail’, the latter of which is more likely a necklace counterpoise, rather than a ‘ponytail-shaped braid’, see footnote 10 above); and a distinctive ‘pomegranate-shaped’ neck pendant (ibid. 365, 375, Pl. 4, Fig. 2). The Ta‛anach assemblage of clay plaque-figurines were further classified into three groups (ibid. 365): a) figurines featuring a ‘hathoric hairstyle’ (not illustrated, perhaps ordinary plaque-figurines); b) figurines typified by a high crown with vertical grooves (similar to our back-modelled type); c) figurines depicting a woman wearing a headdress decorated with a symbol (similar to our AB.III.4.8). worth noting is that at Megiddo, both fragmentary figurines of the last group were found in relatively late contexts: AB.III. 8/VIA=late Iron I; AB.III.4, which kletter (1996: 5.V.6.2.) attributed to Level VII, was assigned in the excavation report to a context dating to a longer time span, namely Strata VII–V (Loud 1948: Pl. 243: 18).

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it had a broader distribution, mainly in northern Israel (Tadmor 2003: 388–389, 391; Lisella 2008: 365; kletter et al. 2010: 23). No figurines of this type are known to me outside Israel (see also kletter et al. 2010: 23). Regarding the nomenclature and manufacture of the ‘Megiddo-Ta‛anach’ figurines, termed here ‘back-modelled (moulded) figurines’, there are two main issues requiring further discussion. First, since the moulded figures do not emerge in relief out of a background, I prefer not to define them as two-dimensional plaques (e.g., kletter et al. 2010) such as other Late Bronze–Iron Age Levantine coroplastic products (ziffer et al. 2009: 334–335; and see below), but as three-dimensional figurines (cf. Tadmor 2003: 334–335). This nomenclature is corroborated also by the modelling of the figurines’ backsides, a characteristic unattested on plaques. However, these back-modelled figurines were not intended to be free-standing, but held in one’s fist (see below).13 Second, contrary to the previous assumptions that defined these figurines as ‘double-moulded’ (e.g., May 1935: Pl. 31; Pritchard 1943: 43; Tadmor 2003: 389; Lisella 2008: 364) or ‘twice-moulded’ (kletter et al. 2010), both our fragment as well as Reifenberg/Schumacher fragments were produced using a single, frontal, shallow mould, while their backs were slightly modelled by hand and using a stylus.14 Their obverse, especially that of the latter head and headless body, is clearly rich in realistically rendered moulded features, both raised and incised. The incisions could have been made using the mould (cf. Spycket 1986, esp. Figs. 1b–c and 2), added after the figurine was removed from the mould (May 1935: Pl. 31; kletter et al. 2010: 20), or, more likely, they were made using the mould and accentuated with a sharp stylus after the figurine was removed. Following the removal of the figurine, the background was cut away around the figure’s contour and the clay that remained on the sides, which is still visible today, was pressed along the edges with the thumb; the prints from this can still be seen. worth noting is that these prints are more likely impressions from textile, rather than fingerprints, as indicated by their checkered or straight and elongated shape. Indeed, a common technique during a modern moulding process is pressing the clay into the mould with a sheet of fabric or organic material; this prevents the clay from sticking to the potter’s fingers. In contrast to the figurines’ obverse, their reverse does not show any obvious moulded detail, but instead, a slight and sloppy modelling of the braid, attained by etching the clay from both sides. The figures’ buttocks are not realistically delineated, but rendered as a thickened lump of clay most probably attained by pushing up the still damp clay with the index finger, while the potter grasped the figurine in his hand. Indeed, the shape of the Reifenberg/Schumacher headless body, when held, ergonomically fits a human fist.

13 Three-dimensional figurines are not always intended to be free-standing, e.g., metal statuettes such as the well-known Sumerian foundation peg-figurines (see, for example, Peri 2010: 241, Fig. 8), or those intended to be inserted in stands made of other materials (ibid. 240, Fig. 7). In contrast, moulded plaques can be self-supporting, e.g., a free-standing Old Babylonian plaque fitted with a hand-modelled rectangular base (ibid. 246, Fig. 13). 14 Holland (1975: 217) also included these in his C.II.b group of plaques that were “single-moulded without a … background”. He adds: “In some cases, more clay has been added to the back of the figurine plaques during the mould making process, thereby making the figures more roundish”. For a brief history of single-face moulded figurines and the difference between these and hand-modelled figurines see Spycket 1992b: 184. Many thanks are owed to Rachel Pelta, ceramist at the Pottery Restoration Lab of the Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University, to the staff of the Objects Conservation Laboratory of The Israel Museum, Jerusalem and to Ohad Hoffman, ceramic artist, for discussing the presumed manufacture process of back-modelled figurines with me.

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Accordingly, although this study is based on the examination of only three fragmentary figurines while the other examples were only available to me via their publications, I propose that, until their manufacture is better understood, this group of figurines, like other types of moulded figurines made locally in the inland southern Levant (see below), were manufactured using a single mould only for their front, whereas their unmoulded backside was slightly hand-modelled. As already pointed out (Caubet 2009: 47; kletter et al. 2010: 24), the double mould that normally produces hollow figurines appeared in the Levant towards the 7th century BCE and became popular only in the Hellenistic period (e.g., Barrelet 1968: 130). Thus, as kletter et al. (2010: 24), have already argued, a double-moulded technique of manufacture for these distinctive figurines from the southern Levant would have been a “revolution…that antedates by more than 700 years the appearance of double moulding according to accepted views”. However, Kletter et al. (2010: 24–28) suggest a double use of the same mould for rendering both the front and the backside of these figurines, and defined them as ‘twice-moulded’. But such a presumption, based mainly on the argument that the back of some examples show moulded details (ibid.: 20–21, Figs. 4, 8) is no less ‘revolutionary’ than the double-moulding technique, since neither procedure is attested before the late 8th century anywhere in the ancient Near East (ibid.: 23).15 Actually, if both sides of the figurine had been moulded with an identical mould, we would expect either a similar shape or a similar contour of the figurines’ obverse and reverse, and this is not the case either among the examples presented in kletter et al. 2010, or among the figurines studied here. For instance, looking at photos of the front and back of AB.I.4 (ibid.: 27, Figs. 12–13) and AB.I.19 (our Fig. 20.1: 2) one can clearly see that the front is slightly bent to the (viewer’s) left, while the back turns to the (viewer’s) right. If the back had been moulded with the same mould as the front, we would expect a similar deviation to the left also for the back, which would confer a misshaping to the backside. Moreover, the silhouette of the figurines’ backside clearly differs from the silhouette of their front (our Fig. 20.1: 2; kletter et al. 2010: 19, Fig. 2; 20, Fig. 6), a fact that may also argue against a ‘twice-moulding’ using the same mould. And finally, if the ancient ‘Megiddo-Ta>anach’ coroplasts were indeed aware of the technical advantages of using a mould for both the front and back sides of a figurine, why did they not use a proper back mould (cf. footnote 15) instead of a more complicated twice-moulding procedure, which required the removal of the mould’s frontal features from the back (kletter et al. 2010: 25) and remodelling of the backside by hand? Not only does the manufacture of these figurines call for further discussion, but so does their date of production. Although their find contexts have been dated to a relatively wide time span – from late MB to Iron II – Tadmor (2003: 391–392) claimed an LB date for this type of figurine. Recently, according to the (not yet properly published) finds from Ta‘anach, Kletter et al. (2010L 231–23) argued for a longue durée, dating to LB–Iron IIA, for the figurines of this type. Yet, Keel and Uehlinger (1998: 54) stressed the fact that, taking pottery into consideration, the burials that yielded such figurines should be dated to late MB–LB I (as in the case of the present example), and suggested dating the clay figurines to LB I as well. Moreover, Keel and Uehlinger (1998: 54; Lisella 2008: 365) pointed to their affinity with metal figurines depicting high-crowned females holding their breasts found at Megiddo in the cultic area of the late MB strata.16 An even better stylistic parallel may be, however, 15 For an unsuccessfully made double-mould figurine and another example with only the back moulded, both from preHellenistic Susa, see Spycket 1992a: 118, 234. 16 Loud 1948: Pls. 234: 18–19, 235: 20. Another lead figurine of the same type was found at Megiddo in an unstratified

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a nude, 16-cm-high MB female figurine from Gezer, cut from sheet-gold (Keel and Uehlinger 1998: 33, Fig. 24). Although the arms do not hold the breasts but are positioned straight along the body, the figurine does feature stylistic elements similar to the clay back-modelled figurines of Megiddo. These include a high headdress decorated with vertical grooves, a necklace of multiple strands and a line running from between the breast through the pubic triangle. Stylistically, northern roots may be traced to an even earlier period by comparing the type discussed here, from the southern Levant, with hand-made figurines of nude women holding their breasts dating to the 3rd to 2nd millennium, excavated in Syria (Badre 1980: Pls. 4: 47 from Hama, and 30: 4 from Tell Braq) and at Assur, some of which (klengel-Brandt 1978: Tafs. 1: 3, 2: 43) display an analogous incised delineation of the pudendum, a multiple-strand necklace, and back modelling of buttocks, particularly the plait. Thus, the figurine type under discussion, the present example of which is dated by its context to MB III/LB I, is most probably a mid-2nd millennium product, rooted in an earlier northern tradition, from a workshop in the southern Levant, which manufactured clay single-face mould-made figurines of naked females widely distributed in Canaan during the Late Bronze Age, as keel and Uehlinger have advocated.17 Accordingly, the two examples found at Megiddo in Iron II contexts (AB.I.13/Level V and AB.I.14/Levels VA-1VB) should probably be seen as intrusive or LB heirlooms.18 02/M/8/ar2: FragMEnTary PLaQUE-FIgUrInE oF a nUDE FEMaLE hoLDIng hEr BrEaSTS (?) (aa.7; FIg. 20.1: 3; ChaPTEr 15, no. 585) Dimensions: H 4.3 cm; w 4.4 cm; Th 1.9 cm. Description: pubic area and upper part of the legs of a single-face moulded plaque-figurine. The plaque has a narrow, trapezoidal background, the sides of which were straightened, probably with a sharp tool. Ware: reddish-brown clay. Context: Level M-4 (late Iron I), from a thick layer of burnt mudbrick destruction. Discussion: Given that no remnants of arms or hands can be distinguished along the hips or on the genitalia, the plaque’s and figure’s features, especially the swollen pudendum, associate it with a better preserved example found at Megiddo in Stratum VIIA (AA.6). The comparable figure has an emphasized navel. Still visible is the right elbow of the (probably) elevated arms. Nude females with elevated arms (rather than arms positioned straight along the body) appear on plaque-figurines depicting figures either grasping their breasts or holding plants. Since figures holding plants usually have bent arms that extend away from the body (Cornelius 2004, Pls. 5.31–5.61), Stratum VIIA’s plaque, as well as the present fragment may have portrayed a woman holding her breasts much like a plaque from Tel zeror (Ohata 1967: 28, Pl. 47: 1, domestic and/or industrial location, Stratum 15 – the third of the four LB levels). Though the swollen pudendum and the emphasized navel are also featured on the Tel zeror plaque, the technique of straightening the plaque’s back and sides, and the context during the renewed excavations (Sass 2000: 396, 397, Fig. 12.34: 3). 17 For an MB II-III/mid-2nd millennium date for the first clay moulded figurines from the southern Levant, see Moorey 2005: 185; Lisella 2008: 365 (based on finds from Tell Beit Mirsim and Tell el-Ajjul); Ziffer et al. 2009: 334. 18 See also a recently published head of a back-modelled figurine found at Aphek-Antipatris in an early Iron IIA unlined pit that was used to store jars of grain (Guzowska and Yassur-Landau 2009: 391, No. F7, Fig. 11.7; Gadot 2009: 4, 100–101, 103–104 for stratigraphy and context; kletter et al. 2010: 22, Table 1:1, wrongly attributed to the Late Bronze Age). One may wonder if this item was not deliberately deposited in the storage pit for its heirloom, amuletic value (see also Paz 2007: 119).

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narrowness of its background characterizes only the Megiddo examples. These features, as well as the late LB–Iron I date of both Megiddo fragments, may fit with the typological development noticed by keel and Uehlinger (1998: 163) and kletter (1996: 35, n. 8; Moorey 2003: 43; 2005: 185), according to whom the plaques’ background narrows with time from their Late Bronze Age prototypes to their final disappearance in the Iron Age. 04/M/87/ar1: FragMEnTary FIgUrInE oF a nUDE FEMaLE hoLDIng a DrUM (aB.II.2; FIg. 20.1: 4; ChaPTEr 15, no. 586) Dimensions: H 6.1 cm; w 4.9 cm; Th 3.3 cm. Description: torso and swollen belly of a single-face moulded figurine depicting a nude female holding a round object, most often identified as a hand frame drum (Tadmor 2006). Ware: reddish-brown clay; remains of burning on the back. Context: surface find, washed out from baulk, lying on surface of locus 04/M/86. Date: typologically, late Iron I–Iron IIA. Discussion: According to the typologies of Paz (2007: 12–38, 52–60) and Sugimoto (2008: 17–26), this fragment belongs to the type of ‘plaque-figurines’.19 I, however, prefer the term ‘mould-made’ figurine, since it is not a plaque from which the figurine emerges in relief out of a background, but a solid object whose front was pressed into a mould, the sides rounded, and the back flattened and left unprocessed (see also Beck 2002: 437). Nine examples of mould-made figurines depicting females holding round objects have already been uncovered at Megiddo. with the present additional examples (see also No. 6 below/AB.II.3), Megiddo has produced the largest number of figurines of this type found in Israel and Jordan to date (AB.II.1–11).20 Yet, this assemblage does not form a homogenous stylistic group, as it contains both nude and clothed representations. Moreover, while two pairs of figurines were most probably made using the same mould, the rest are distinct.21 The closest parallel to the present fragment is a surface find retrieved at Khirbet Umm el-Butm in Samaria (Paz 2007: 17–18, A.13). Both figurines feature similar swollen bellies, marked-out navels and arms holding a drum (especially similar are the rounded arm articulations). A figurine found at Megiddo Stratum VI (AB.II.1), which unfortunately I was only able to study via a low quality photo, seems to be characterized by rounded arms and a trapezoidal torso. If this is the case, the present example may be dated to the same period, that is, late Iron I. To early Iron IIA is dated the fragmentary figurine discussed below (No. 6/AB.II.3). Three more nude examples were attributed to Stratum V (AB.II.4–6). The other examples found at Megiddo in Strata V–III are clothed or partially-clothed (AB.II.8–11). The clothed example found in a multiple burial ascribed to the Late Bronze Age (AB. II.7, Schumacher’s Level II; May 1935: 30, n. 40), is in fact an Iron Age product. This is so in view 19 See also Holland 1975: 221 (Type C.VI.) and kletter 1996: 34. 20 The Megiddo drummers were also assembled by: Pritchard (1943: 19–21); Holland (1975, C.VI.a.15–21; seven figurines); Beck (2002: 440, nos. 9–15; seven figurines); and Kletter (1996: 269, 5.V.1.13–19; seven examples). In listing the figurines holding ‘tambourines’ found in modern Israel and Jordan, Beck included two more examples from Megiddo, which in my view are not drummers (Beck 2002: 440, Nos. 14–15; May 1935: Pl. 28: M5376; Pl. 24: M2653); neither were included in Paz and Sugimoto catalogues. 21 AB.II.4–5 and AB.II.10–11 may have been produced from the same mould (Paz 2007: 18–21, A.16–17 and A.14–15, respectively).

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of the stylistic similarity of the dress and decoration of both the body and drum with an example from Tel Rehov which is securely dated to the Iron IIB (Paz 2007: 23–24, A.27; Sugimoto 2008: 119, N22). It seems, therefore, that the chronological distribution of the Megiddo assemblage corroborates the assumption that the nude figurines preceded the clothed examples (Keel and Uehlinger 1998: 164; Sugimoto 2008: 25; see also No. 6 below/AB.II.3; contra Paz 2007: 53). The 11 mould-made figurines found at Megiddo portraying nude and clothed or partially-clothed females holding a round object most often identified as a drum, belong to a group of about 65 examples discovered in Iron Age layers in the southern Levant (Paz 2007; Sugimoto 2008). In Israel, they first appeared in the northern part of the country (the territory of the ancient kingdom of Israel) at the end of Iron I–beginning of Iron IIA. Distribution gradually expanded southwards and eastwards until their disappearance in the early Iron IIC (first half of the 7th century BCE). Yet, the bulk of these figurines are from Iron IIA–B, and their numbers decrease towards the end of the 8th century. Their geographical distribution is concentrated in northern Israel and Transjordan; no items of this type were found in Judah (Paz 2007: 55). Images of women holding round objects (discs) appeared frequently on Mesopotamian clay mould-made plaques and figurines of the first half of the 2nd millennium. These appeared alongside a plentitude of other motifs depicting mainly deities, humans, animals, furniture and chariots. Being related to other images of musicians, such as lute and lyre players, also popular at that time, the interpretation of these female disc-holders as drummers is widely accepted (Tadmor 2006: 325). However, although in the Levant the mould-made figurines became popular as early as the second half of the 2nd millennium, their repertoire, almost completely restricted to various images of nude women, did not include drummers (ziffer et al. 2009: 334–335).22 The image of disc-holders/drummers is attested in the Levantine coroplastic only from the beginning of the 1st millennium onwards, mostly in the form of moulded figurines. It is not clear if the drummer moulded figurines were a local phenomenon in the southern Levant or a type broadly distributed over other parts of the Fertile Crescent during the first part of the 1st millennium. Moorey (2005: 145) mentioned some Neo-Babylonian examples of moulded figurines depicting disc-holders identified as drummers. However, the ostensible lack of evidence of mould-made figurines of this type dating to Iron II layers in the northern Levant (neither Beck nor Paz or Sugimoto dealt with the distribution of mould-made drummer figurines outside modern Israel and Jordan) seems to be a result of the lack of publications, rather than the absence of the type (Moorey 2005: 222).23 Free-standing hollow figurines depicting clothed females holding discs identified as hand frame drums were also popular at that time in the regions of Phoenician 22 Images of lute players were, however, part of the Levantine Late Bronze plaques’ iconography, e.g., a plaque depicting a dancing male lute-player found at Tel Dan in a context dated to the 14th century BCE (Tadmor 2006: 330, Fig. 5). Late Bronze plaques depicting lute players, not yet published, are also attested at Emar (Sakal 2009). with regard to plaques depicting male figurines other than musicians and dancers, there are a very few. Examples that do exist include an unpublished rendering a male warrior dressed in a short skirt, which was recently unearthed at Tall zira’a, Jordan, south of Lake Kinneret; a second example from Beth-Shemesh shows a male figure, nude except for a short, belted skirt, which has been interpreted as a depiction of a female (ziffer et al. 2009). 23 See an undated example from the necropolis of Neirab, northern Syria, depicting a nude female holding a disc (Abel and Barrois 1928: 309, Fig. 12h, Pl. 71a, 313). The moulded figurine standing in a niche is attached to an ambiguouslyshaped clay artefact. Given the fact that no drummer figurines have been attested to the LBA, and no nude drummers are securely attested after the appearance of clothed drummers, which only appear in Level V, we can assume that this example must be dated to the Iron Age and no later.

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expansion along the Mediterranean coast and in Cyprus (Tadmor 2006: 323, n. 5). In Syria, compact statuettes made in single moulds were preferred, and it is there that parallels may be found in the future (Moorey 2005: 222). Be that as it may, moulded figurines depicting clothed females holding discs identified as drums, recalling the earlier prototypes from the southern Levant, are also part of the coroplastic repertoire of later periods in the northern Levant (Abel and Barrois 1928: 311, Fig. 14j, Pl. 71e; Moorey 2005: 233, No. 377; Rossi 2007: 58, Fig. 9a–c).24 00/h/74/ar1: LEgS oF a FIgUrInE oF a nUDE FEMaLE hoLDIng a DrUM(?) (aB.II.3; FIg. 20.1: 5; ChaPTEr 15, no. 587) Dimensions: H 6.1 cm; w 3.6 cm; Th 3 cm. Description: in light of the similarity of its double anklets with those adorning complete examples found at Megiddo (AB.II.4–5) and elsewhere,25 the upper part of this fragmentary figurine most probably depicted a nude female holding a drum. Ware: light brown clay, remains of red slip. Context: Level H-7 (early Iron IIA); found on a trodden mud surface, probably floor of a street or Plaza/ Courtyard 06/H/34. Discussion: The closest parallel, especially for the incised delineation of the fingers, is the broken legs fragment found at Beth-Shean in Lower Level V (James 1966: Fig. 111: 7), which in Beck’s view (2002: 441, Fig. 5; Paz 2007: 14, A.4) was originally attached to a drummer torso found in a locus dated to the same level (James 1966: Fig. 111: 4).26 The fact that the lower body of the Megiddo clothed examples do not feature bare legs adorned with anklets (AB.II.7–8) may indeed support the identification of this fragment as part of a nude figurine. 08/h/1/ar2: FragMEnTary FIgUrInE oF a SEaTED, CLoThED FEMaLE (FIg. 20.1: 6; ChaPTEr 15, no. 588) Dimensions: H 4.7 cm; w 4.2 cm; Th 6 cm. Description: this fragment may belong to a seated female figurine, originally about 15 cm high, of the type published in May 1935 (Pl. 30: M 1906; Stratum III),27 and Loud 1948: Pl. 242: 15 (M6221, Stratum VIIA).28 Accordingly, the present fragment may depict part of the lower body of a figure that wears a long skirt decorated with incised horizontal strips and sits on a chair rendered diagonally as a wide, rectangular peg.

24 Figurines of female drummers, among other musicians, are attested also in Babylon during the Achaemenid, Seleucid and Parthian periods (Klengel-Brandt and Cholidis 2006: 307–34, Tafs. 87–99; drummer figurines: 334–337, Taf. 97). But see a nude female drummer found at Nippur in an unclear context dated to the 1st millennium, see McMahon 2006: 33, Pl. 180: 4. 25 See, for example, Beck 2002: Figs. 1 (Tel ‘Ira), 2 (unprovenanced), 3.1 (a mould from Ta‘anach); Paz 2007: 37, Fig. 2.2.1 (Rehov). Holland (1975: 227, C.xIII.a), however, associated the fragments of legs with well-delineated feet adorned with anklets to a wider iconographical range of figurines. 26 Since the legs and the torso have not been found in nearby loci, it is possible that the fragments do not belong to the same figurine. Other fragments of legs decorated with anklets were found at Deir ‘Alla (Holland 1975: Fig. 20: 10–11) 27 Holland 1975: C.XIV.b.2; Kletter 1996: 5.V.7.34. Holland classified it as a plaque figurine, although he specified this type as figurines moulded in relief. kletter mentions that the hands hold an object. 28 Holland 1975: C.xIV.b.3; kletter 1996: 5.V.7.35 (‘similar’ to the previous).

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1 (589)

2 (584)

3 (585)

4 (586)

5 (587)

6 (588)

Figure 20.1: Anthropomorphic figurines.

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Ware: dark reddish-brown clay. Technique: moulded? (Holland 1975: 227, C.xIV.b); originally free-standing. Context: Area H, unstratified locus. Date: typologically, late LB–Iron II. Discussion: May’s better preserved example (1935, Pl. 30: M 1906) depicts a female figurine with exposed breasts, right hand with delineated fingers placed on the abdomen, wearing a long skirt decorated with incised horizontal lines. The figure sits on a schematic seat modelled as a diagonal peg-like support extending from the figurine’s back. The head and the lower part of the skirt are missing. The upper left part of the body is badly damaged, making it difficult to distinguish the position of the left arm. Seated females clothed or partially-clothed, with exposed breasts, pregnant and clasping their hands on their abdomen or nursing an infant are rare among the repertoire of late LB–Iron II clay figurines excavated in Israel, apart from the Philistine ‘Ashdoda’ figurines, which first appear in Iron I (keel and Uehlinger 1998: 122–124; Yasur-Landau 2001; Ben-Shlomo and Press 2009), and the Phoenician figurines attested from the 8th century onwards (Moorey 2005: 219–220; Kletter 1996: 280–281). The very few Iron II examples of seated women uncovered at inland sites29 always depict breastfeeding figures.30 Clothed and nude females sitting on chairs or depicted in a seated position were common in ancient Near Eastern coroplastics, especially during the late 3rd–first half of the 2nd millennium BCE in Mesopotamia (e.g., Barrelet 1968: 78; klengel-Brandt 1978: 41–42, 50–52). The seated posture usually denoted a higher status than the standing one, especially in the imagery of the late 3rd–beginning of the 2nd millennium. Hence the small clay figurines of seated women, some depicting breastfeeding a child (Opificius 1961: 77–80; Klengel-Brandt 1978: 51–52; Bahrani 2001: 8131), probably portrayed 29 Some scholars mentioned a few supposed parallels to the Megiddo figurines, which, in fact, are not similar at all. The two examples from Deir ‘Alla and Shechem of female figures holding front-facing, sitting children in their laps, which Holland (1975: C.XIV.b.2–3, Fig. 20: 14) relates to the Megiddo seated figurines, are in fact not free-standing figurines “with a projecting clay stand or support in the rear” (ibid.), but attachments to cult stands (Beck 2002: 442, Fig. 4). In contrast to our examples these seem to depict standing women. The example from the necropolis of Neirab, northern Syria, mentioned by May (1935: Pl. 30: M 1906; see also Holland 1975: 228, n. 1) represents, according to Abel and Barrois (1928: 309, Fig. 12: k, Pl. 71: b, 313), a female (rider?) holding a small bird. The excavators dated it to the later, Persian period. There are no stylistic similarities between these and the seated figurines discussed here. 30 A fragmentary and badly damaged clay figurine, which may have depicted a seated female nursing a child, was uncovered at Tell el-Far‘ah (N) (Chambon 1984: 74, Pls. 63: 4, 84: 63.4; Holland 1975: C.VII.a.3; kletter 1996: 5.V.7.37; keel and Uehlinger 1998: 163, Fig. 189) in the courtyard of an Iron II house (Chambon 1984: 136–137). It was discovered along with a broken clay figurine depicting a torso of a female holding a disc/drum, a head of a clay figurine depicting a harnessed horse, a weight, an arrowhead, a bronze knife, an alabaster pendant and six beads. The female wears a skirt richly decorated with horizontal rows, while the upper part of her body seems to be exposed. Dated to the late 8th century BCE are a mould and four impressions depicting clothed, seated, nursing females, unearthed at Samaria in Trench E 207 (Crowfoot and Sukenik 1957: 76–77, 79–80, Nos. 7–11, Pl. 12: 6–8; Holland 1975: C.xV.a.3; kletter 1996: 5.V.7.36; keel and Uehlinger 1998: 333–334, Fig. 327a–b). One of the these, a rectangular impression ca. 7-cmhigh, which is housed in the Hebrew University’s Institute of Archaeology in Jerusalem, is not an independent figurine, but a framed image stamped on a cylindrical section of an ambiguous clay artefact (I am sincerely grateful to Daphna Tsoran, Curator of the Collections, for allowing me to examine this yet unpublished object). Unfortunately, despite the seated posture, the figurines from Far‘ah (N) and Samaria do not provide any stylistic affinity to the Megiddo figurines, especially with regard to the peg-like seat. 31 Although the seated position seems to have predominated in Mesopotamian coroplastic imagery of breastfeeding women during the late 3rd–first half of the 2nd millennium BCE (Opificius 1961: 77–80), clothed, standing figures also occur (e.g., woolley and Mallowan 1976: Pl. 69: 50, 53). Interestingly, standing nude women nursing a child were more

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goddesses, priestesses, or royal or high ranking women, much like the larger prototypes rendered in stone, or those depicted on cylinder seals and other media (Barellet 1968: 276; Suter 2008: 2). Since the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods, clay figurines depicting seated females are hardly attested in the inland Levant prior to Iron I.32 In contrast, male figurines seated on one-legged stools were common during the first half of the 2nd millennium BCE in northern Syria (Badre 1980: 122; Marchetti 2000; Pruss 2002: 538). Seated figurines, male or female, were not (so it seems) part of the Levantine LB coroplastic repertoire. In contrast, seated females were commonly attested westwards: in Cyprus, shown nude (karageorghis 1993: 13–14, Pl. x), and in the Aegean, shown clothed (French 1971: 167–172; Rehak 1995). The latter have been identified mainly as images of Aegean goddesses, probably of Anatolian origin (Singer 1992: 447).33 This western tradition of clay figurines depicting seated women, occasionally cradling a child (French 1971: 169; karageorghis 1993: 13–14, Pl. x), permeated into the southern Levant during the Iron Age in the form of the highly stylized Philistine clay figurines of the so-called ‘Ashdoda’ type. Yet, the possible source of inspiration for the very few Iron Age representations of seated, clothed or partially-clothed, women nursing children attested in the inland southern Levant was suggested to be related to the representations of the Egyptian goddess Isis – clothed, seated and nursing child Horus – which became common in the 1st millennium BCE (keel and Uehlinger 1998: 163, 333; Chambon 1984: 74, Crowfoot and Sukenik 1957: 77).34 Thus, considering their stratigraphic range (encompassing Strata VIIA–III/late Iron II), as well as their stylistic distinctiveness from the other Iron I–II seated female figurines, the identification of the Megiddo seated, partially clothed female figurines, which may have represented figures breastfeeding or cradling infants, remains uncertain until more examples of this type are found.

frequent in the Neo-Babylonian period (Barrelet 1968: 120; klengel-Brandt and Cholidis 2006: 93–104, Taf. 19–21) as were nude or clothed women sitting cross-legged and nursing – a breastfeeding figurine type distinctive to the 1st millennium (Moorey 2005: 141, No. 202; see also klengel-Brandt and Cholidis 2006: 103–104, Taf. 21). 32 In her corpus on Syrian Bronze Age anthropomorphic clay figurines, Badre (1980: 375, No. 62, Pl. 56, see also 116, n. 1) mentions only a single, late Early Bronze example from Byblos depicting a nude, seated woman nursing a child. 33 For an example reminiscent of an Ashdoda, found in Assur and dated to the second half of the 3rd millennium, see klengel-Brandt 1978: Taf. 6: 173 VS. 34 Most of the Egyptian sintered quartz amulets depicting seated Isis breastfeeding Horus excavated in Israel belong to the Iron II, although Hermann mentions some earlier examples dated to the late Iron I (Herrmann 1994: 111). In contrast to the apparent absence from the Late Bronze coroplastic tradition of the southern Levant, which features seated, clothed or partially-clothed female figurines cradling and/or nursing infants, standing nude females cradling suckling babies do occasionally appear from the LB II onwards (Moorey 2005: 187). This is true also for other parts of the Near East in the same period (klengel-Brandt and Cholidis 2006). At Megiddo, a standing, nude female holding a (suckling) child is attested in Stratum II (AB.III.15). Other examples are the figurine also holding a round object identified as a drum (Beck 2002: 441, Fig. 3: 7) found at Beth-Shean, Lower Level V (James 1966, Fig. 111: 6), as well as two examples from Shechem and Deir ‘Alla (Beck 2002: 443, Fig. 4). keel and Uehlinger (1998: 84) interpreted the Iron Age images of nude females nursing or cradling children as indigenous motifs, contrary to the clothed figures, which may have been related to the Egyptian Iris-Horus theme (Moorey 2005: 187).

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ZOOMOrphIC fIGurINES 06/J/50/ar1: FragMEnTary BoDy oF a QUaDrUPED (B.34; FIg. 20.2: 1; ChaPTEr 15, no. 590) Dimensions: L 7.1 cm; H 4.2 cm; w 3 cm. Ware: grayish clay, remains of burning. Context: Level J-6 dated to EB III; found on a late floor in occupational debris. 04/J/57/ar9: FragMEnTary FIgUrInE oF a QUaDrUPED MoUnTED By a rIDEr (?) (B.44; FIg. 20.2: 2; ChaPTEr 15, no. 591) Dimensions: L 4.5 cm; H 3.6 cm; w 2.5 cm. Ware: buff clay. Context: an MB backfilled burial. 02/K/81/ar2: hEaD oF a horSE (B.54; FIg. 20.2: 3; ChaPTEr 15, no. 592) Dimensions: L 5.3 cm; H 3 cm; w 2 cm. Description: solid head of a horse, the ears, eyes and mane of which can be discerned. Ware: reddish clay. Context: Area K; part of an unstratified refuse pit (02/K/77), which contains a mixture of LB II–LB III pottery. Date: LB II–III. 06/M/49/ar1: FragMEnTary rEar BoDy oF a QUaDrUPED (B.50; FIg. 20.2: 4; ChaPTEr 15, no. 595) Dimensions: L 9 cm; H 4 cm; w 6 cm. Ware: brown clay. Context: Area M; unstratified mixed debris. Date: presumably Late Bronze or earlier. 06/K/124/ar6: FragMEnTary rEar BoDy anD LEgS oF a BULL (B.57; FIg. 20.2: 5; ChaPTEr 15, no. 594) Dimensions: L 5 cm; H 4.8 cm; w 3 cm. Description: anal orifice; applied testicles on which fingerprints can be discerned. Ware: brown clay. Context: unstratified pit. Date: presumably LB II–III. 06/M/72/ar3: hEaD anD nECK oF a raM (B.45; ChaPTEr 15, no. 597) Dimensions: H 3.1 cm; w 3.1 cm; Th 3.3 cm. Description: solid head and neck of a ram, probably originally attached to a vessel. Ware: buff clay, red slip, many basalt inclusions.

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1 (590)

2 (591)

3 (592)

4 (595)

5 (594)

6 (593)

Figure 20.2: Zoomorphic figurines.

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Context: Level M-8?; earth debris on either side of large stones presumed to be an unexcavated burial, probably from the MB II or MB III–LB I. Date: MB II–LB I.

ZOOMOrphIC VESSElS 04/K/127/ar4: SPoUT In ThE ShaPE oF a horSE hEaD (C.12; FIg. 20.2: 6; ChaPTEr 15, no. 593) Dimensions: L 7.1 cm; H 5 cm; w 3.5 cm. Description: ears, eyes, mane, interior orifice for pouring liquids. Ware: reddish clay. Context: unstratified debris in Area K. Date: LB III? 04/K/65/ar1: rEar LEg oF a CyLInDrICaL WhEEL-MaDE zooMorPhIC VESSEL (C.10; FIg. 20.3: 1; ChaPTEr 15, no. 596) Dimensions: H 6.9 cm; w 8.2 cm; Th 4 cm. Ware: light brown clay. Context: Level k-6, found in the central courtyard of Building 04/k/44 in an occupational accumulation below Floor 04/k/19. Date: LB III. Parallel: Sass and Cinamon 2006: 409, Fig. 18.39: 802.

1 (596)

Figure 20.3: zoomorphic vessel.

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lEGS Of ZOOMOrphIC fIGurINES Or VESSElS 04/K/43/ar9 (B.60; ChaPTEr 15, no. 600) No photo, no drawing. Dimensions: H 3.9 cm; w 1.7 cm. Description: pointed end broken. Ware: light grayish clay. Context: Level k-6 occupational accumulation. Date: LB III? 06/K/55/ar6 (B.55; ChaPTEr 15, no. 601) Dimensions: H 4.1 cm; w 1.9 cm. Description: pointed and flattened. Ware: light brown. Context: Area K, unstratified mud-brick material. Date: LB II–III? 06/K/116/ar14 (B.56; ChaPTEr 15, no. 602) Dimensions: H 3.8 cm; w 2.2 cm. Description: pointed. Ware: reddish-brown. Context: Area K, unstratified debris. Date: LB II–III?

uNClaSSIfIED ITEMS 04/K/43a/ar1: PEnDanT In ThE ShaPE oF a MaSK-LIKE hUMan hEaD (?) (FIg. 20.4: 1; ChaPTEr 15, no. 657) Dimensions: H 2.9 cm; w 1.7 cm; Th 1.8 cm. Description: hand-made, perforated from one side to the other; a second perforation was made perpendicular to the first one, but does not go all the way through. Ware: light brown, remains of burning. Context: Level k-6; occupational accumulation. Date: LB III. no. 04/J/48/ar2: FragMEnTary hUMan FaCE(?) (FIg. 20.4: 2; ChaPTEr 15, no. 604) Dimensions: L 7.3 cm; w 6.1 cm; Th 3 cm. Description: hand-made; flattened on back. Ware: light brown clay, many basalt inclusions. Context: Level J-11; unclassifiable stone-lined pit. Date: MB II context.

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1 (657)

2 (604)

3 (603)

4 (615)

Figure 20.4: Figural fragments, baked clay.

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08/J/20h/he2: Fehp

iephey

iChFp hF h ipheh(?) (Flp. 20.a: 3; CChapie ha, eh. 603)

Dimensions: H 8.7 cm; D 3.8 cm. Description: hand-made, engraved and pinpricked with a rectangular-headed device. Ware: reddish-brown clay. Context: Level J-9; occupational debris. Date: MB I. Discussion: Another object featuring a similar technique of piercing with a rectangular utensil, supposed to belong to a female figurine, was discovered at Megiddo in Phase F-10a, which dates to LB I (Sass and Cinamon 2006: 407, Fig. 18.37.791). This kind of pinprick decoration is widely attested in northern Syria (Badre 1980) and northern Mesopotamia (klengel-Brandt 1978) as early as the 3rd millennium BCE. Although the ware and the pinprick decoration do not resemble those of the Tell el-Yahudiyeh ware (kaplan 1980), the present example may, however, be related to this family. Even the knowledge of the deeper sub-surface is an essential prerequisite for the interpretation of archaeological sites or settlements with regard to the environment and its changes throughout history. Geoelectrical methods can be applied in different areas of archaeological and geoarchaeological research (off-site and on-site). The use of the geoelectrical tomography is very well suited to differentiate within different loose sediments and to identify archaeological structures. The strength of ‘real’ 3D geoelectric tomographies is that it affords possibility of slicing the entire data set in any desired direction. Furthermore, 3D measurements can obtain a clear layout of archaeological structures, whereas 2D tomographies, especially in case of dipole–dipole arrays, generally provide more detailed data along a line; this is due to the higher spatial resolution. 04/K/127/ar6: arChITECTUraL (?) DECoraTIon (FIg. 20.4: 4; ChaPTEr 15, no. 615)35 Dimensions: L 8.2 cm; w 5.2 cm; Th 5.6 cm. Description: hand-made. Ware: dark reddish-brown clay. Context: unstratified debris in Area K. No. 13 (above) found in the same location. Date: LB III? Parallels: other clay artefacts found at Megiddo, in the shape of a twisted-rope or featuring an applied twisted-rope decoration include: a fragment of a twisted pottery handle (?), water shaft, room 952 (Lamon 1935: Pl. 5: 3; a ‘wall bracket’, Level VI (Loud 1948: Pl. 250: 6); and an unclassified object, Level VA (ibid.: Pl. 288: 8).

SpaTIal aND STraTIGraphICal DISTrIBuTION Of ThE prESENT aSSEMBlaGE Ten artefacts were uncovered in Area k, which is located in the southeastern edge of the mound and which consists of domestic buildings dating to the LB–Iron Age. The present objects come mainly from LB II– III layers (Levels K-7, K-6). These comprise mostly zoomorphic figurines and vessels: two zoomorphic figurines (Nos. 9/B.54, 11/B.57); both of the fragmentary zoomorphic vessels (Nos. 13/C.12, 14/C.10); the legs of zoomorphic figurines or vessels (Nos. 15/B.60, 16/B.55, 17/B.56); the Mycenaean female figurine, found in mudbrick material and occupational debris dating to the LB II–III (No. 1); and two 35 This interpretation was suggested by Miriam Tadmor (personal communication).

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of the unclassified objects: the pendant in the shape of a mask-like human head(?) found in a Level K-6 context dated to LB III (No. 18) and the architectural(?) decoration in the shape of a twisted rope (No. 21). Area K yielded a rich assemblage of figurative artefacts, mostly fragmentary zoomorphic vessels or figurines; this was also the case in previous excavations, which uncovered mainly the Iron Age I–II Levels k-5(?)–k-2/VIB–VA-IVB (Sass 2000: 396–404; Sass and Cinamon 2006: 407–410). Also uncovered there are fragments of an abstractly hand-made figurine—a mould-made drummer figurine (AB.II.6) from Level k-2/VA-IVB), and a wall bracket from Level k-4/VIA) (ibid.). Five figurines were found in Area M, which is situated in the centre of the mound. Two figurines were found in late MB–LB Age burials, and one was found near a tomb opening. In the MB–LB transitional burials were uncovered the back-modelled figurine depicting a nude woman holding her breasts (No. 2/ AB.I.1), and the ram’s head, which may have originally been attached to a vessel (No. 12/B.45). From unstratified debris located near a tomb opening comes the short-tailed quadruped figurine (No. 10/B.50). The plaque-figurine depicting a nude woman, probably holding her breasts (No. 3/AA.7), was found in a thick layer of burnt mudbrick destruction in Level M-4, dating to the late Iron I, and the figurine of a nude woman holding a drum is a surface find (No. 4/AB.II.2). Two more female figurines were unearthed in Area H on the northwestern edge of the mound, which consists of residential buildings close to the palatial Area AA: the legs of a figurine portraying a nude female drummer from Level H-7, dated to the early Iron II (No. 5/AB.II.3), and the figurine from an unstratified context, which presumably depicts a seated, clothed woman breastfeeding or cradling a child (No. 6). In past excavations, the Iron II levels in Area H yielded a plaque-figurine (AA.3; an LB heirloom found in Level H-1/III), two zoomorphic vessels (C.13, an LB heirloom found in Level H-1, and C.50 from Level H-3), and a wall bracket from Level H-5 (Sass 2000: 396–404; Sass and Cinamon 2006: 407–410). Four artefacts were unearthed in Area J, which is part of the formerly excavated sacred Area BB: two zoomorphic figurines, one of which was uncovered in a Level J-6 context dated to EB III and the other of which was found in an MB burial (Nos. 7/B.34, 8/B.44); and two unclassified objects dating to MB IIA (Level J-9) and MB IIB (Level J-11), respectively: the hand-made cylinder, which may be part of a stand’s shaft, that is decorated with a pattern of superposed diagonal lines rendered by pricking with a rectangular-headed instrument (No. 20); and the fragmentary flat object that may represent a human head (No. 19). It is worth noting that no figurines that can securely be identified as anthropomorphic have yet been found in Area J (Sass 2000: 396–404; Sass and Cinamon 2006: 407–410). In previous excavations, fragmentary zoomorphic figurines were also the most common type of clay artefact unearthed in Area J (21 fragments, ibid.).

DISCuSSION In the following are discussed the two main groups of clay figurines excavated at Megiddo: the anthropomorphic mould-made female figurines and the zoomorphic figurines. The examples of both groups are listed in an index to the clay figurines (A, B) and zoomorphic vessels (C) found at Megiddo past and present (see Appendix). The mould-made female figurines (A) are divided here into two main subgroups: plaque-figurines (AA) and figurines (AB). The latter include back-modelled figurines (AB.I), drummer figurines (AB.II) and miscellaneous figurines (AB.III).

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ThE MEgIDDo MoULD-MaDE FEMaLE FIgUrInES Clay figurines made with a single, frontal mould appeared at Megiddo, as elsewhere in the southern Levant, towards the beginning of the Late Bronze Age, and their manufacture continued into the Iron Age. All the Megiddo moulded figurines depict varied images of females, mostly nude.36 According to their shape and method of manufacture, these mould-made female figurines – commonly, yet incorrectly labelled ‘plaquefigurines’ or, some of them, ‘plaque-figurines without background’37 – are divided here into two main groups: AA. Plaque-figurines: two-dimensional plaques from which the figures emerge in relief out of a background. The plaque-figurines form only 25% of the Megiddo assemblage. AB. Figurines whose front was pressed into a mould, whose side remnants (the background) were cut along the figures’ contour, and whose back was smoothed and left plain, or was slightly hand-modelled. The latter are termed here back-modelled figurines. The figurines account for ca. 75% of the Megiddo mould-made assemblage. Chronologically, the plaques and the back-modelled figurines come mainly from LB–Iron I levels, like the fragments discussed above (Nos. 2/AB.I.1, 3/AA.7). Both types depict nude females. The rest of figurines have been recorded from Strata VIIA–II, dating from the end of LB to Iron II. The plaque-figurines form a heterogeneous typological assemblage, both stylistically and thematically. The majority of plaques depict figures with arms positioned straight along the body (AA.2–5, 12–14). A few examples are depicted holding their breasts (AA.6–7, 10), holding plants (AA.9), or with raised arms and perhaps standing in a niche (AA.1, 11). Regarding their find contexts, it seems that domestic settings prevail (AA.2–3, 5, 11). Over 25% of the moulded terracottas found at Megiddo are a stylistically and thematically homogenous group of back-modelled figurines, an example of which is presented here (No. 2 above/AB.I.1). This distinctive type of figurine depicts in shallow relief a nude woman holding her breasts. The figures feature similar characteristics, such as a high headdress rendered with grooves; emphasized eyes and ears; a long hand-modelled rear plait; multiple-strand necklace, and bracelets; a vertical line running from between the breasts to the navel; and genitalia rendered as an incised triangle with a central groove. According to the stylistic and thematic uniformity of the known examples, the largest number of which were excavated at Megiddo and Ta‛anach, this group of figurines was most probably produced locally in a regional workshop indigenous to the Jezreel Valley, perhaps at Megiddo, at Ta’anach, or both (Tadmor 2003; Lisella 2008). At Megiddo, the back-modelled figurines predominate during LB/Iron I, though a few examples, most probably heirlooms, were found in Iron II levels. The back-modelled figurines were found mainly in tombs (AB.I.1, 3–5, 11), although fragments were also found dispersed throughout domestic (AB.I.6–8, 14), palatial (AB.10) and sacred areas (AB.I.9). The most numerous examples of mould-made terracottas excavated at Megiddo, comprising ca. 50% of the whole assemblage, are female figurines made with a deeper mould, having rounded sides and undecorated, flattened backs. Their thematic repertoire partially recalls that of the earlier plaques and back-modelled figurines: nude women holding their breasts (AB.III.4, 12, 14) or with their hands placed on their pudendum (AB.III.13). However, some figurines reflect thematic novelties, such as the one dated to the latest Iron II layer, which depicts a standing nude woman probably breastfeeding a child (AB.III.15). 36 See footnote 22, above. 37 See mainly Holland 1975: 217; kletter 1996: 34–35; Cornelius 2004; Tadmor 2005: 355–356; Moorey 2005: 201; Paz 2007: 12–38, 52–60; Sugimoto 2008: 17–26; Lisella 2008: 363, 366, 368, 372, Pl. 1: Fig. 2)

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A figurine type particular to the Iron Age, two examples of which are listed above (Nos. 4, 5/AB.II.2–3), is that of a woman holding a round object, most often identified as a hand drum (Beck 2002; Paz 2007; Sugimoto 2008). At Megiddo these female drummers first appeared in late Iron I. Earlier examples are nude (AB.II.1–6), while later examples are clothed or partially-clothed (AB.II.7–11). The examples of the earlier, nude figurines were found mainly in residential contexts, whereas the later, clothed examples come mostly from the sacred Area BB. Single figurines were uncovered either in burial or palatial contexts. Figurines unearthed in domestic locations were found among household tools and personal items (AB.II.1, 6, 8–11). At Megiddo, no additional anthropomorphic or zoomorphic figurines were found with the drummer figurines. With regard to the imagery of the Late Bronze–Iron Age clay figurines depicting nude women from the southern Levant, some remarks should be made. The depiction of nude females on Late Bronze–Iron Age coroplastics from the southern Levant is derived from local MB variants of the ‘naked woman’ icon, which, especially during the 2nd millennium BCE (Pruss 2002: 540), was portrayed all over the Fertile Crescent, mostly on seals, clay plaques, solid and sheet metal and clay figurines (Uehlinger 1998). The nature and meaning of the ‘naked woman’ icon, so widely attested, is not yet fully understood or unanimously accepted among modern scholars, who perceive it either an image of the most revered and popular highranked goddesses epitomizing love and sexual attraction (e.g., keel and Uehlinger 1998: 53–55; Pruss 2002; Moorey 2005: 154) in their full feminine nakedness as a symbol of the erotic power equated with women in ancient Western Asia (Bahrani 2002); as lesser divinities, protective spirits or personifications of conceptual entities (wiggermann 1998); or as representing mortal mediators between humans and major goddesses (Tadmor 2003: 391, Moorey 2003: 40, 2005: 186).38 Concerning the function of the Canaanite/Levantine artefacts depicting the ‘naked woman’ icon, two main classification criteria have been suggested (Moorey and Fleming 1984: 77–78): their find context, and their material and dimensions. Accordingly, metal figurines were used mostly in public worship in and around temples, as attested by their costly material and archaeological contexts. Conversely, artefacts made in other media – clay in particular – functioned mainly in the private sphere, for domestic and funerary cult or magic purposes, as indicated by their tiny dimensions and form (handheld or pendant39), cheap material and find contexts (mostly urban debris, domestic settings and burials) (Keel and Uehlinger 1998: 100; Pruss 2002; Moorey 2003: 40; 2005: 185–186, 188). At Megiddo, the female mould-made figurines were usually found with personal items such as jewellery and amulets, bronze items (pins, blades and arrow or spearheads) and domestic devices such as pottery (including ‘offering’ stands, see AB.III.8), bronze vessels, and various household tools. The LB figurines were occasionally uncovered in Megiddo tombs in pairs of two different types (AB.I.4/AB.III.1, AB.I.5/AA.1). A hand-made human head, a figurine of an elephant (?) and a zoomorphic vessel are attested with later examples depicting women holding their breasts (AB.III.4, 9, 11). It is worth noting that some back-modelled figurines were found at Megiddo together with objects precious for their material and status. For example, a broken-headed figurine was found in a Stratum VIII house (AB.I.7) alongside remnants of a bronze statuette of a seated god wearing a high and richly decorated headdress, most probably having a religious, cultic nature,40 and Mycenaean sherds, probably 38 For an interpretation of the iconography and function of a distinct subgroup of the Canaanite Late Bronze clay figurines depicting ‘naked women’, see Ornan 2007. 39 Cf. a head from Ta‛anach with two holes on its top for suspension (Tadmor 2003: 389; Lisella 2008: 375, Pl. 4: Fig. 8) 40 Ornan 2011: 270-271, n. 71, Fig. 18.

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highly valued due to their foreignness.41 A broken figurine (AB.I.11) was recovered in a burial with an imported, and probably very prized, lapis lazuli kassite cylinder seal (Guy and Engberg 1938: Pl. 90: 8),42 among three beads, a metal jug and other metal objects.43 The presence of foreign, highly valuable objects, and especially the metal statuette of a seated god, side by side with nude female clay figurines may also attest to the important meaning and high value also of the latter, despite their cheap material, small size, and perhaps also in spite of being broken and fragmentary. ThE MEgIDDo zooMorPhIC FIgUrInES The zoomorphic figurines unearthed at Megiddo number over 90 hand-made examples that cover a wide time span; they were retrieved from strata dating from the EB I to late Iron II.44 Their fragmentary state makes it difficult to identify the animals portrayed, but it seems that quadrupeds (bovines, sheep and equids) prevail. Small birds are also occasionally attested almost throughout the Bronze and Iron Ages. According to Holland (1977: 126, Fig. 1), horses associated with riders comprise the majority of the zoomorphic figurines found at the site during the Iron Age.45 The fragmentary figurines of the present assemblage depict quadrupeds’ bodies (Nos. 7/B.34, 10/B.50, 11/B.57) and heads (Nos. 9/B.54, 12/B.45). The only MB example may be part of a quadruped mounted by a rider (No. 8/B.44). Some examples have detailed anatomical elements, such as a short tail (No. 10/ B.50), or an anal orifice and testicles (No. 11/ B.57), the latter identifying the figure as a male.46 A fragmentary head displays the ears, the eyes and the mane of a horse (No. 9/ B.54).47 Animal heads, either with or without an orifice, may have been applied devices (No. 12/ B.45) or spouts (No. 13/C.12) of zoomorphic vessels. Similarly, broken horns and legs (Nos. 15/B.60, 16/B.55, 17/B.56) may belong to zoomorphic figurines or vessels. At Megiddo, the animal figurines predominate especially in the Early Bronze Age (about 40 examples) and in the Iron Age (about 30 examples). The earliest stratified animal figurines (Levels XIX–IX and J3–J7) were uncovered mainly in the sacred areas BB and J (B.2–17, 19–27, 29–39, 41) and tombs (B.1, 18, 40, 45, 49), while the later figurines, from the LB II onwards (Strata VIII–II), were found mostly in residential settings (B.51–93). In almost all periods, their archaeological context – be it sacred, funerary or domestic – includes a similar assemblage of additional finds, mainly personal and domestic objects such as jewellery (especially beads of different materials), bronze items (pins, blades and arrow or spearheads and vessels) and pottery (including ‘offering’ stands, see B.46). From the MB II onwards, clay animals

41 See above No. 1. 42 Of the northern/Nuzi First kassite style, dated mainly between 1430 and 1380 BCE (Matthews 1990: No. 82, pp. 70, 78–80, 87; Stein 1997: 79–80). 43 Guy and Engberg 1938: 31 mentions: “the finding of all the objects together suggests that they form a group”. 44 The late Late Bronze–Iron Age zoomorphic figurines from Megiddo were also assembled and classified by Holland (1975; 1977: 126, Fig. 1). 45 Holland associated most of the fragmentary horse figurines with horse-and-riders (group D; Holland 1977: 122–123, 125–127). However, compare, for instance, the corpus of clay figurines from Iron II Jerusalem/Judah (ca. 2000 examples; Gilbert-Peretz 1996: 39), which comprises 73% animal representation (of which 82% are horses), but only a few horseback riders (the City of David excavations yielded only 15 horse-and-rider examples out of 1,309 figurines; ibid. 50–51). 46 For another figurine displaying the male reproductive organs, see B.38 47 On Palestinian terracotta horse figurines, see Cornelius 2007b.

1039

uhJeh h. aiel

are occasionally found with single female figurines made of bronze (B.41–42) or moulded clay (B.74, 76). Two or more animal figurines are rarely found together (B.5–11; B.46/47; B.78/81).

appENDIX: a CaTalOGuE Of ThE MEGIDDO Clay fIGurINES The following catalogue comprises complete lists of the Megiddo clay anthropomorphic mould-made figurines (A), zoomorphic figurines (B) and zoomorphic vessels (C). The anthropomorphic mould-made figurines – all depicting females, mostly nude – are divided according to their layout/manufacture into plaque-figurines (AA) and figurines (AB). The figurines are partly stylistically, partly iconographically divided into back-modelled figurines (AB.I), drummer figurines (AB.II) and miscellaneous figurines (AB.III). The objects are listed in chronological order from the earliest examples attributed to late Chalcolithic/ EBI to those recorded from layers belonging to the Iron Age (see Table 1.1). For dating the figurines/ vessels, two criteria have been used: the date of their recorded archaeological context and the date of their presumed type/manufacture. Although the recorded stratigraphical affiliation of the figurines/vessels was the basis for the proposed inventory, some typological grounds have also been considered. Thus, items dated earlier than their context, based on securely dated parallels, are catalogued according to their presumed typological date. Similarly, items found in unstratified settings are assigned a presumed typological date based on parallels. There are, however, a significant number of items, especially zoomorphic figurines and vessels, for which further research is required in order to establish their precise date and the precise stratum with which they should be associated. Each entry consists of a short description of the figurine/vessel fragment; its context and associated finds; Stratum/Level of the context; the date of the context/object type; and references. The references include the Megiddo excavation reports (Schumacher 1908; watzinger 1929; Engberg and Shipton 1934; Lamon 1935; May 1935; Guy and Engberg 1938; Lamon and Shipton 1939; Loud 1948), the chapters in the renewed excavation reports dealing with clay artefacts (Sass 2000; Sass and Cinamon 2006), as well as the main catalogued publications of human and animal clay figurines and vessels that include Megiddo examples (Pritchard 1949; Holland 1975; Gershuni 1991; kletter 1996; Beck 2002; Paz 2007; Sugimoto 2008). Additional references, if relevant, were also included. Other relevant data, partly found in the former publications, such as the ware’s colour or the present location of the figurines/vessels, are not mentioned in the index. Not included in the present index are other types of clay human figurines, such as hand-made figurines, figurines made of a combination of manufacturing techniques comprising hand-made/wheel-made bodies and moulded heads, or undistinguishable fragments.

1040

a: aNThrOpOMOrphIC MOulD-MaDE fIGurINES

aa: PLaQUE FIgUrInES no.

Figurine fragment

Context

Upper part of body; naked woman with raised arms, encircled in a niche?

Tomb 989 B1; found with a back-modelled figurine (AB.I.5); associated finds: LBI/II pottery and an unclassified metal object

AA.2

Footless body; naked woman with arms along hips

AA.3

Footless body; naked woman with arms along hips, similar to AA.2

AA.4

Headless and Footless body Unstratified; SE slope, Area and side background; naked F, Square V16, Locus 1124 woman with arms along hips (Lamon and Shipton 1939)

AA.5

Upper part of body; naked woman with hands on the pudendum, or arms along hips?

Domestic setting; Area CC, east of Locus 1827, a courtyard(?) with ovens; single find

AA.6

Footless lower part of body; raised arms; breast holder?

AA.7

Genitalia and upper part of legs; similar to AA.6; breast holder?

k-9 Room with the U of Chicago H-1/III excavations’ backfill; Area H, Locus 94/H/68; single find

Date Context

references Type

LB I/II

May 1935: Pl. 30: M2884; Guy and Engberg 1938, Pl. 99: 1; Pritchard 1943: I(B).191

LB II

Unpublished

Iron II

LBII?

Sass 2000: 396, 398, Fig. 12.35: 1

LB II

May 1935: Pl. 30: M3444; Pritchard 1943: VI(A).1782

VIIA

LB III

Loud 1948: Pl. 242: 14; Holland 1975: C.IV.a.16; kletter 1996: 5.V.4.63

Pit or installation; Area BB, Locus 5151

VIIA

LB III

Loud 1948: Pl. 242: 13; Holland 1975: C.x.b.1; kletter 1996: 5.V.10.174

Destruction layer; Area M

M-4/VIA

Late Iron I

Late LB

Present publication, No. 3

1041

CChapie 20: F lpJehplvi Cuhy h epiFhCpi

AA.1

Stratum/ Level/Phase

Figurine fragment

Context

AA.8

Legs and genitalia, feet turned outward

Cave on SE slope; Area F, Square U17, Locus 218; found with a Mitannian Common-Style cylinder seal (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 216, Pl. 66: 4); associated finds: pottery (Str. V types bowls), bronze stamp seal, Egyptian/ized faience amulet, bone handle, limestone weight, and Roman coin (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 157)

AA.9

Upper part (head and torso) of a naked woman with raised arms; plant holder

Schumacher’s Nordburg

AA.10

Head and torso; breast holder

Shaft of the water system; Square P4, Locus 9257

AA.11

Legs and pelvis; woman with raised arms, encircled in a niche?

Room in a large building; Area C, Square R11, Locus 285; associated finds: weights, grinders, whorls (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 123); see also B.76

AA.12

Headless and Footless body; naked woman with arms along hips

Building 1723 (Schumacher’s palace)

Stratum/ Level/Phase

Date Context

references Type

LB

May 1935: Pl. 30: M648; Pritchard 1943: III.1335

LB

Schumacher 1908: 65, Abb. 86; watzinger 1929: 22, No.1 below; May 1935: 31, Note 47; Pritchard 1943: I(A).1; Holland 1975: C.V.a.16; kletter 1996: 5.V.2.276

LB/Iron

May 1935: Pl. 29: M2717; Pritchard 1943: II(A).418

III

Iron II

May 1935: Pl. 30: M878; Pritchard 1943: VI(A).180; Holland 1975: C.xIII.a.10; kletter 1996: 5.V.8.259

Schumacher’s V/III?

Iron II

Schumacher 1908: 100, Abb. 149b; watzinger 1929: 60, No. 1; Holland 1975: C.IV.a.17; kletter 1996: 5.V.10.2010

Schumacher’s III

uhJeh h. aiel

1042

no.

no.

Figurine fragment

AA.13

Headless and footless body; naked woman with arms along hips

AA.14

Footless lower part of body; naked woman with arms along hips

Context

Stratum/ Level/Phase Schumacher’s VII

Date Context

references Type

Iron II

Schumacher 1908: 149, Taf. 48i; watzinger 1929: 88, No. 8; Pritchard 1943: III.149; Holland 1975: C.IV.a.18; kletter 1996: 5.V.10.2211

Topsoil; Area N, Locus 99/N/32; associated finds: two basalt pestles

Sass and Cinnamon 2006: 407, Fig.18.37: 792

aB: fIGurINES

aB.I: BaCK-MoDELLED FIgUrInES no.

Figurine fragment

Context

Stratum/ Level/Phase

Date

M-7/x

MB III-LB I

Present publication, No.2

Context

references Type

Torso and hips

Tomb 06/M/56

AB.I.2

Torso and hips

SE slope; Area F, Square S16; found with MB/LB pottery (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 157)

MB/LB

May 1935, Pl. 31: M394; Pritchard 1943: II(B).65; kletter et al. 2010: 22, Table 1: no. 1612

AB.I.3

Torso and hips

Tomb 38; associated finds: mostly LBI pottery

LB I

May 1935: Pl. 31: 634; Guy and Engberg 1938: 82, Pl. 139: 25, Tomb 38; Pritchard 1943: II(B).66; kletter et al. 2010: 22, Table 1: no. 13

1043

CChapie 20: F lpJehplvi Cuhy h epiFhCpi

AB.I.1

Figurine fragment

Context

Stratum/ Level/Phase

Date Context

references Type

AB.I.4

Complete

Tomb 26B; associated finds: LBI pottery (lamps, bowls, jugs and a chalice), bronze arrowhead and pin, fragmentary mould-made clay figurine of a naked woman (AB.III.1)

LB I?

May 1935: Pl. 31: 598; Guy and Engberg 1938: 103, Pl. 155: 9; Pritchard 1943: II(B).62. Cornelius 2007: 245, Pl. 25: 1 (back photo); kletter et al. 2010: 22, Table 1: no. 10

AB.I.5

Torso and hips

Tomb 989 B1; associated finds: fragmentary clay plaque-figurine (AA.1), LBI/ II pottery and an unclassified metal object

LB I/II

May 1935: Pl. 31: M3189; Guy and Engberg 1938: 40, Pl. 99: 2; Pritchard 1943: II(B).69; kletter et al. 2010: 22, Table 1: no. 17

AB.I.6

Torso and hips

Area CC, west of Locus 2007; associated finds: clay jar and a paste scarab

VIII

LB II

Loud 1948: Pl. 242: 9; kletter et al. 2010: 22, Table 1: no. 23

AB.I.7

Headless body

Area CC, Square S10; associated finds: Mycenaean sherds13; bronze seated male figurine with high decorated headdress14; bronze chisel

VIII

LB II

Loud 1948: Pl. 242: 10; kletter et al. 2010: 22, Table 1: no. 21 (wrongly attributed to Level VII)

AB.I.8

Head

Area DD, Locus 4080

VIII

LB II

Loud 1948: Pl. 241: 7; kletter et al. 2010: 22, Table 1: no. 19 (wrongly attributed to Level VII)

AB.I.9

Headless, footless body

Area BB, west of Locus 204; associated finds: a clay lamp

VIII

LB II

Loud 1948: Pl. 242: 8 kletter et al. 2010: 22, Table 1: no. 20 (wrongly attributed to Level VII)

AB.I.10

Torso and hips

Room in palace treasury; Area AA, south of Locus 3073; associated finds: two clay bowls

VIIA

LB III

Loud 194: Pl. 243: 16 Holland 1975: C.II.b.14; kletter 1996: 5.V.10.5; kletter et al. 2010: 22, Table 1: no. 2215

uhJeh h. aiel

1044

no.

no.

Figurine fragment

Context

Stratum/ Level/Phase

Date Context

references Type

Torso and hips

Tomb 217 A; associated finds: inscribed lapis lazuli kassite cylinder seal (Guy and Engberg 1938: Pl. 90: 8)16, a bronze jug, various metal utensils and arrows, two flint items, two faience beads, and a clay (gaming?) piece

LB

May 1935: Pl. 31: 594; Guy and Engberg 1938: 31, Pl. 89: 11; Pritchard 1943: II(B).67; kletter et al. 2010: 22, Table 1: no. 14

AB.I.12

Torso and hips

Cistern

LB

May 1935: Pl. 31: M3436; Pritchard 1943: II(B).63; kletter et al. 2010: 22, Table 1: no. 12

AB.I.13

Hips and upper part of legs

Shaft of the water system17

LB/Iron

Lamon 1935: Pl. 8: 39; May 1935: Pl. 31: M2642; Pritchard 1943: II(B).68; kletter et al. 2010: 22, Table 1: no. 15

AB.I.14

Head

Room in a building, Area C, Square P14, Locus 591; associated finds: bronze ring, carnelian and faience beads, bone spatula18

V

Iron II

May 1935: Pl. 31: M227; Pritchard 1943: II(B).64; Holland 1975: C.Ix.a.1; kletter 1996: 5.V.5.2; kletter et al. 2010: 22, Table 1: no. 11 (attributed to Iron I)19

AB.I.15

Head mould

Building 1723 (Schumacher’s palace)

Schumacher’s V/III?

Iron II

Schumacher 1908: 102, 103: 158a; watzinger 1929: 61, No. 4; May 1935: Pl. 31: Note 1 (not illustrated); Pritchard 1943: II(B).94; Holland 1975: C.VIII.a.2; kletter 1996: 5.V.5.1; kletter et al. 2010: 22, Table 1: no. 920

1045

CChapie 20: F lpJehplvi Cuhy h epiFhCpi

AB.I.11

Figurine fragment

Context

Stratum/ Level/Phase

Date Context

references Type

AB.I.16

Torso and hips

Surface find; Area C, Square q12 (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 110); associated finds: faience scarab and mouldmade head perhaps of a figurine with hollow, wheelmade body (Schumacher 1908: 102, Abb. 156; Paz 2007: C.2)

May 1935: Pl. 31: 1477; Pritchard 1943: II(B).70; Holland 1975: C.II.b.15; kletter 1996: 5.V.10.6; kletter et al. 2010: 22, Table 1: no. 1821

AB.I.17

Head

Surface find; 92/Surface/37

Sass 2000: 396, 398, Fig. 12.35.2; kletter et al. 2010: 22, Table 1: no. 24

AB.I.18

Head, formerly part of AB.I.19

Unknown (presumably from Schumacher excavations)

Reifenberg 1937: Taf.3 (right); 1950: 42, Fig.3; kahane 1968: 70–71, Pl. 56: center; Sass 2000: 396, n. 3; Tadmor 2003: 388; Cornelius 2007a: 245, n. 10; kletter et al. 2010: 22, Table 1: no. 41

AB.I.19

Headless, footless body

Unknown (presumably from Schumacher excavations)

See above, AB.I.18

uhJeh h. aiel

1046

no.

aB.II: DrUMMEr FIgUrInES no.

Figurine fragment

Context

Stratum/ Level/Phase

Date

VI

Late Iron I (see AB.III.6–7)

Headless body; naked

A paved open area, Area CC, south of Locus1760 (unclean); associated finds: clay flask; around: bronze arrowheads, three carnelian beads, basalt rubber, bone awl, clay bowl, alabaster whorl

AB.II.2

Headless torso; naked

Unstratified; Area M

AB.II.3

Legs; naked

Courtyard of a building; Area H, Locus 06/H/34

AB.II.4

Headless body; naked

The paved courtyard 1720 V below palace 1723; Area B, Square R10, under Locus 1693; associated finds: limestone scaraboid, two carnelian and steatite beads; bone spatula; iron arrowhead (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 154)

AB.II.5

Complete; naked; perhaps same mould with M5418 (AB.II.4)

Unstratified; Schumacher‘s trench; Square N12 (for a list of artefacts from Schumacher’s excavations, including two more clay figurines, see Lamon and Shipton 1939: 158)

Type Loud 1948: Pl. 243:20; Holland 1975: C.VI.a.15; kletter 1996: 5.V.1.37; Paz 2007: A.19; Sugimoto 2008: N1722

Late Iron I H-7/VB

V?

Present publication, No. 4

Iron II

Present publication, No. 5

Iron II

May 1935: Pl. 28: M5418; Pritchard 1943: V.168; Holland 1975: C.VI.a.21; kletter 1996: 5.V.1.16; Beck 2002: 13; Paz 2007: A.16; Sugimoto 2008: N9

Iron IIA

May 1935: Pl. 27: M810; Pritchard 1943: V.169; Holland 1975: C.VI.a.18; kletter 1996: 5.V.1.17; Beck 2002: 11; Paz 2007: A.17; Sugimoto 2008: N10

1047

CChapie 20: F lpJehplvi Cuhy h epiFhCpi

AB.II.1

Context

references

Figurine fragment

Context

Stratum/ Level/Phase

Date Context

references Type

AB.II.6

Torso; naked

Occupational debris; Area k, k-2/VA-IVB Locus 96/k/105; associated finds: iron arrowhead, bronze stand fragment, flint and basalt sling-stones, flint scale weight, basalt millstone, bone spatula

Iron II A

AB.II.7

Headless body; dressed

Multiple burial in Schumacher’s Nordburg

LB?

AB.II.8

Complete; dressed

Room in a private dwelling; V Area C, Square P13, north of Locus 37; associated finds: faience bead, bone whorl (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 149); see also context of AB.I.14 and AB.III.10

Iron IIA

May 1935: Pl. 27: M65; Pritchard 1943: V.164; Holland 1975: C.VI.a.20; kletter 1996: 5.V.1.14; Beck 2002: 10; Paz 2007: A.22; Sugimoto 2008: N7

AB.II.9

Head and torso; dressed

Around north of Building 338, Area C, Square O14; associated finds: glass bead, faience ‘sacred eye’ amulet, iron arrowhead (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 141)

Iron II

May 1935: Pl. 27: M1138; Pritchard 1943: V.165; Holland 1975: C.VI.a.19; kletter 1996: 5.V.1.15; Beck 2002: 12; Paz 2007: A.21; Sugimoto 2008: N823

Schumacher’s II?

IV

Sass 2000: 399–400, Fig. 12.36: 1; Paz 2007: A.20; Sugimoto 2008: N20

Iron II

Schumacher 1908: 61, Abb. 71; watzinger 1929: 20; Pritchard 1943: V.159; Holland 1975: C.VI.a.17; kletter 1996: 5.V.1.13; Beck 2002: 9; Paz 2007: A.18; Sugimoto 2008: N6

uhJeh h. aiel

1048

no.

no.

Figurine fragment

Context

Stratum/ Level/Phase

Date Context

references Type

AB.II.10

Head and torso; dressed

Area C, Square O13 (originating from Str. IV, Building 338?, cf. Paz 2007); associated finds: glass bead, faience scarab, bronze fibula, iron arrowhead, bone whorl (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 122)

III (IV?)

Iron II

May 1935: Pl. 27: M787; Pritchard 1943: V.162; kletter 1996: 5.V.1.19; Beck 2002: 12; Paz 2007: A.15; Sugimoto 2008: N1224

AB.II.11

Head and torso; dressed; perhaps same mould with AB.II.9

Room in a private dwelling; Area A, Square q7, near Locus 1004; associated finds: bronze needle, iron ring, bronze bracelet, bone whorl, limestone palettes (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 117–118)

II (III?)

Iron II

May 1935: Pl. 27: M4365; Pritchard 1943: V.166; Holland 1975: C.VI.a.16; kletter 1996: 5.V.1.18; Beck 2002: 12; Paz 2007: A.14; Sugimoto 2008: N11

Stratum/ Level/Phase

Date

aB.III: MISCELLanEoUS FIgUrInES

ABIII.1

Figurine fragment Legs and genitalia

Context Tomb 26B; found with a back-modelled figurine (AB.I.4); associated finds: LBI pottery (lamps, bowls, jugs and a chalice), bronze arrowhead and pin

Context LB I

references Type May 1935: Pl. 30: 599; Guy and Engberg 1938: 103, Pl. 155: 8

1049

CChapie 20: F lpJehplvi Cuhy h epiFhCpi

no.

Figurine fragment

Context

Stratum/ Level/Phase

Date Context

references Type

AB.III.2

Head

Tomb 3 in Square R18, found with a mixed assemblage of LBI/ II pottery and bronze objects (jewellery and an arrowhead)

LB I/II

May 1935: Pl. 29:619; Guy and Engberg 1938: Pl. 135: 11; Holland 1975: C.Ix.g.8; kletter 1996: 5.V.7.2325

AB.III.3

Legs; traces of dark red wash; incised toes

Tomb 24B; single find; belonging to a shaft tomb, with finds dating to MBII/LBII, including Tell el-Yehudiyeh jugs, duck-shaped ivory box, 28 scarabs26 (Guy and Engberg 1938: 48–50)

LB II

May 1935: Pl. 30: 772; Guy and Engberg 1938: Pl.107: 1; Holland 1975: C.xIII.a.1127

AB.III.4

Head and torso; hairdress with symbol; breast holder28

Residential Area? under the later stables; Area CC, Square M12, under Locus 368 of Str. IV; associated finds: clay zoomorphic vessel (C.9)

AB.III.5

Head

Surface find; Square P10; single find (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 110)

AB.III.6

Head

Area CC, west of Locus 1727

VI

Iron I (see AB.II.1)

Loud 1948: Pl. 243: 21

AB.III.7

Head

Area AA, Square k7

VI

Iron I

Loud 1948: Pl. 243: 22

AB.III.8

Head; hairdress with symbol; made perhaps with the same mould as AB.III.4

Public building?; Area AA, Locus 2071; associated finds: two offering stands, three bronze needles, finger ring and armor scale, alabaster whorl

VIA

Late Iron I

Loud 1948: Pl. 243: 23; Holland 1975: C.Ix.b.1; kletter 1996: 5.V.6.330

VII–V (VII, cf. kletter 1996)

LB II/III?

LB/Iron

Loud 1948, Pl. 243: 18; Holland 1975: C.II.b.13; kletter 1996: 5.V.6.229

LB/Iron

May 1935: Pl. 29: M 1387

uhJeh h. aiel

1050

no.

no.

Figurine fragment

Context

Stratum/ Level/Phase

Date Context

references Type

AB.III.9

Head and armless torso; very rude; traces of light red wash; punched headdress; hands perhaps placed above and under the chest

Room in a building; Area A, Square R7, Locus 1653; associated finds: clay bowl and hand-made human head (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 152)

V

Iron II

May 1935: Pl. 28: M5402; Holland 1975: C.I.d.1; kletter 1996: 5.V.7.24; Uehlinger 1997: 109, fig. 16 (drawing)31

AB.III.10

Head and torso; long braid terminating in coil above each breast; pinhole eyes; pendant between breasts; no traces of arms

Room in a building; Area C, Square P14, Locus 590; single find32

V

Iron II

May 1935: Pl. 26: M1454; Holland 1975: C.Ix.e.1; kletter 1996: 5.V.7.22

AB.III.11

Complete; dressed; clasped hands on chest?

Room in building; Area B, Square R8, around Locus 1482; associated finds: animal figurine (elephant?, B.74), blue paste scarab; agate bead; steatite whorl (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 143)

IV

Iron II

May 1935: Pl. 27: M4495; Pritchard 1943: V.170; Holland 1975: C.II.b.16; kletter 1996: 5.V.7.2534

AB.III.12

Head and torso; breast holder

Lime-paved courtyard of Palace 1723; Area B, Squares R9-10, Locus 1693; single find (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 145)

IVB

Iron II

May 1935: Pl. 28: M5376; Pritchard 1943: VII.193; Holland 1975: C.II.b.17 ; kletter 1996: 5.V.7.2135

AB.III.13

Footless body; arms on abdomen/pudendum

Below street of Str. III; Area C, Square N13 below Locus 282; associated finds: folded bronze blade, limestone whorl, two bone spatulas (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 141)

IV

Iron II

May 1935: Pl. 29: M967; Pritchard 1943: VI(A). 179; Holland 1975: C.III.b.336

33

CChapie 20: F lpJehplvi Cuhy h epiFhCpi

1051

Figurine fragment

Context

Stratum/ Level/Phase

Date Context

references Type

AB.III.14

Mould of a breast holder figurine

Building 1723 (Schumacher’s palace)

Schumacher’s V/III?

Iron II

Schumacher 1908: 103, Abb. 158b, Taf. 32d; watzinger 1929: 60, no.3; Pritchard 1943: II(A).58; Holland 1975: N.I.a.4; kletter 1996: 5.VIII.1937

AB.III.15

Nude, holding or nursing a child

Private dwelling? east of fort; Square N10; single find (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 115)

II

Iron II

May 1935: Pl. 24: M2653; Pritchard 1943: VI(B).184; Holland 1975: C.VII.a.4; kletter 1996: 5.V.7.20; Beck 2002: 1538

Context

Stratum/ Level/Phase

Date

references

B: ZOOMOrphIC fIGurINES no.

Figurine fragment

B.1

Bovine head

Tomb 903 upper; associated finds: unclassified copper object, flint, two basalt mace heads or loom weights

B.2

Leg?

Earth/stone debris; Area J, Locus 96/J/91; single find

B.3

Body of a quadruped

B.4

Headless tailed quadruped

Context

Type

Chalcolithic/ EBI, Stages IV-V

Engberg and Shipton 1934: 55, Fig. 15: 10; May 1935: Pl. 37: M 2520; Guy and Engberg 1938: Pl. 76: 7

J-3/xIx

EB IB

Sass 2000: 402–403, Fig. 12.38: 7

Temple room, Area BB, east of Locus 4049; associated finds: bone awl

xVIII

EB IB

Loud 1948: Pl. 244: 2

Temple room; Area BB, Square O15, Locus 4057; associated finds: clay spoon

xVIII

EB IB

Loud 1948: Pl. 244: 3

uhJeh h. aiel

1052

no.

no.

Figurine fragment

Context

B.5

Headless tailed quadruped

B.6

Schematic? tailed quadruped Area BB, east of Locus 4033, see B.5 for detailed context

B.7

Headless tailed quadruped

B.8

Stratum/ Level/Phase

Temple room; Area BB, xVIII Square O15, east of Locus 4033; associated finds: seven animal figurines (B.5-11), bone handle, finger ring, incised bone and faience (?) objects

Date Context

references Type Loud 1948: Pl. 244: 4

xVIII

EB IB

Loud 1948: Pl. 244: 5

Area BB, east of Locus 4033, see B.5 for detailed context

xVIII

EB IB

Loud 1948: Pl. 244: 6

Headless tailed quadruped

Area BB, east of Locus 4033, see B.5 for detailed context

xVIII

EB IB

Loud 1948: Pl. 244: 7

B.9

Headless tailed quadruped

Area BB, east of Locus 4033, see B.5 for detailed context

xVIII

EB IB

Loud 1948: Pl. 244: 8

B.10

Tailed quadruped

Area BB, east of Locus 4033, see B.5 for detailed context

xVIII

EB IB

Loud 1948: Pl.244: 9

B.11

Undistinguishable

Area BB, east of Locus 4033, see B.5 for detailed context

xVIII

EB IB

Loud 1948: Pl.244: 10

B.12

Head and neck of a ram

Temple room; Area BB, Square O16, Locus 4049; associated finds: clay jug, flint sickle blade, bone awl, hairpin, stone pendant, clay spoon, alabaster pedestal

xVIII

EB IB

Loud 1948: Pl. 244:1

1053

CChapie 20: F lpJehplvi Cuhy h epiFhCpi

EB IB

Figurine fragment

Context

Stratum/ Level/Phase

Date Context

references Type

B.13

Head and neck of a ram (similar to B.12)

Unstratified pit; Area J, Locus 98/J/53

B.14

Bird; traces of brown bands

Fill; Area J, Locus 96/J/80; found with a leg of an animal figurine (B.15)

J-4/xVIII

EB IB

Sass 2000: 399, 401, Fig. 12.37: 4

B.15

Leg?

Fill; Area J, Locus 96/J/80; found with a bird figurine (B.14)

J-4/xVIII

EB IB

Sass 2000: 402–403, Fig. 12.38: 6

B.16

Horn?

Bone accumulation; Area J, Locus 98/J/21; associated finds: backed clay flywheel; bronze lump; bone spatula and point

J-4/xVIII

EB IB

Sass and Cinamon 2006: 410, No. 806 (not illustrated)

B.17

Leg?

Unstratified eroded debris; Area J, Locus 96/J/96; single find

EB IB?

Sass 2000: 399, 403, Fig. 12.39: 2

B.18

Tailed quadruped; complete, yellow ware

Tomb 52; associated finds: three jugs, two bowls, jar, limestone whorl, clay star (?) and a painted clay wheel of a chariot model?

EB, Stages I–III (?)

May 1935: Pl. 37: 1898; Guy and Engberg 1938: 20, 22, Pl. 85: 8

B.19

Leg?

Fill; Area J, Locus 96/J/14; associated finds: another clay leg of an animal figurine (B.20)

J-6/xVI

EB IB/EB III

EB I?

Sass 2000: 403, Fig. 12.39: 1

B.20

Leg?

Fill; Area J, Locus 96/J/14; associated finds: another clay leg of an animal figurine (B.19)

J-6/xVI

EB IB/EB III

EB I?

Sass 2000: 403, Fig. 12.38: 9

B.21

Leg?

Fill? Area J, Locus 96/J/87; associated finds: a bone/ ivory pin?

J-6/xVI

EB IB/EB III

EB I?

Sass 2000: 402, 404, Fig. 12.38: 10

EB IB?

Sass and Cinamon 2006: 409, Fig. 18.38: 793 (similar to Loud 1948: Pl. 244: 1)

uhJeh h. aiel

1054

no.

no.

Figurine fragment

Context

Stratum/ Level/Phase

Date

references

Context

Type

Leg?

Topsoil/fill; Area J, Locus J-7?/xV 96/J/5/AR7; unstratified/J-7; associated finds: another clay leg of a figurine (B.23); gold capping?; limestone suspended weight; three clay and basalt flywheels/whorls

EB IB/EB III

EB I?

Sass 2000: 402, 404, Fig. 12.38: 11

B.23

Leg?

Topsoil/fill; Area J, J-7?/xV Locus 96/J/5/AR13; unstratified/J-7; found with another clay leg of a figurine (B.22); see above for context details

EB IB/EB III

EB I?

Sass 2000: 402, 404, Fig. 12.38: 12

B.24

Leg?

Brick material; Area J, Locus 96/J/4; unstratified/J-7; associated finds: backed clay stand?

J-7?/xV

EB IB/EB III

EB I?

Sass 2000: 402, 404, Fig. 12.38: 13

B.25

Tailed quadruped

Steps of the round Platform 4017, Area BB; single find

xVII

EB III

Loud 1948: Pl. 244: 13

B.26

Headless and footless tailed quadruped

west of the round Platform 4017; Area BB, around Locus 5210; associated finds: a jug, a clay wheel (of a chariot model?) two limestone maceheads

xVII

EB III

Loud 1948: Pl. 244: 12

B.27

Tailed quadruped with collar (trappings or rope)

west of the round Platform 4017; Area BB, Square N13

xVII

EB III

Loud 1948: Pl. 244: 11

B.28

Long-necked quadruped with collar

Fill; Area N, Locus 99/N/29

N-2

LB I

B.29

Leg?

Stone-lined pit; Area J, Locus 96/J/41; single find

J-5/xVII

EB III

EB III?

Sass and Cinamon 2006: 408– 409, Fig. 18.38: 795 (cf. Loud 1948: Pl. 244: 11/B.27) Sass 2000: 402–403, Fig. 12.38: 8

1055

CChapie 20: F lpJehplvi Cuhy h epiFhCpi

B.22

Figurine fragment

Context

Stratum/ Level/Phase

Date Context

references Type

B.30

Horn or leg?

Occupational debris; Area J, Locus 98/J/100; found with a bone point?

J-5/xVII

EB III

Sass and Cinamon 2006: 410, No. 807 (not illustrated)

B.31

Horn?

Occupational debris; Area J, Locus 96/J/92; associated finds: basalt potter’s wheel?

J-5/J-6

EB III

Sass 2000: 402- 403, Fig. 12.38: 3

B.32

Tailed long-muzzled quadruped

Area BB, south of the round Platform 4017; associated finds: bronze miniature bowl

xVI

EB III

Loud 1948: Pl. 245: 14

B.33

Hind of a quadruped

Removal of wall; Area J, Locus 96/J/72; single find

J-6/xVI

EB III

Sass 2000: 399, 401, Fig. 12.37: 1 (left)

B.34

Body of a quadruped

Occupational debris on a late floor; Area J, Locus 06/J/50

J-6/xVI

EB III

Present publication, No. 7

B.35

Horn?

Occupational debris; Area J, Locus 98/J/60; associated finds: bronze lump, basalt flywheel

J-6/xVI

EB III

Sass and Cinamon 2006: 410, No. 808 (not illustrated)

B.36

Forepart of a quadruped

Unstratified; South of Shrine 4050, Chicago excavations’ railway ramp; Area J, Locus 93/J/73/185

EB III?

Sass 2000: 399, Fig. 12.37: 1 (right)

B.37

Headless quadruped

Unstratified; cleaning section of Chicago excavations’s Area B; Area J, Locus 94/J/12

EB?

Sass 2000: 399, 401, Fig. 12.37: 2

B.38

Hind of a quadruped

Unstratified; topsoil; Area J, Locus 00/J/94

EB?

Sass and Cinamon 2006: 408– 409, Fig. 18.38: 794

B.39

Tailed quadruped

Room east of temple; Area BB, east of Locus 3154

xIV or lower

Transition EB/MB

Loud 1948: Pl. 245: 15

uhJeh h. aiel

1056

no.

no.

Figurine fragment

Context

Sheep

Tomb 1101B lower; associated finds: basalt drill socket, two clay bowls, two clay jars; copper/bronze: two spear heads, toggle pin, dagger blade, kohl-stick, ring

B.41

Headless body of a quadruped

Area BB, Square N13, near Locus 4006, a stone wall; associated finds: bronze human figurine with high pointed headgear (probably a female deity; Loud 1948: Pl. 233: 11), bronze toggle pin

B.42

Bovine? head; eyes and ears

B.43

Date Context

references Type

Transition EB/MB

Engberg and Shipton 1934: 55, Fig. 15: M3534; May 1935: Pl.37: M3534; Guy and Engberg 1938: Pl. 86: 7

xII

MB II

Loud 1948: Pl. 245: 16

Room in a construction north of Area BB; Square M13, Rm. of T.5232; associated finds: bronze nude female figurine (Loud 1948: Pl. 233: 10)

xII

MB II

Loud 1948: Pl. 245: 17

Leg

Under floor debris; Area F, Locus 00/F/95; associated finds: faience bead; bronze lumps, wire, pointed fragment; silver wire; bone point; tiny limestone pebble

F-11/xI

MB II

Sass and Cinamon 2006: 410, No. 809 (not illustrated)

B.44

Body of a quadruped mounted by a rider?

Burial; Area J, Locus 04/J/57

MB

Present publication, no. 8

B.45

Head and neck of a ram

Burial? debris; Area M, Locus 06/M/72

MB III/LB I

Present publication, No. 12

M-8?/xI?

1057

CChapie 20: F lpJehplvi Cuhy h epiFhCpi

B.40

Stratum/ Level/Phase

Figurine fragment

Context

Stratum/ Level/Phase

Date Context

references Type

B.46

Bird

wall; Area BB, Square N14, north of Locus 2032; associated finds: six bowls, a jar, a chalice, an ‘offering’ stand (Loud 1948: Pl. 47: 16) and bird B.47

x

MB III/LB I

Loud 1948: Pl. 245: 18

B.47

Bird

wall; Area BB, Square N14, north of Locus 2032; found with bird B.46; see above for context

x

MB III/LB I

Loud 1948: Pl. 245: 19

B.48

Bovine? head and neck

Room; Area BB, Square N14, east of Locus 2091; associated finds: clay bowl, steatite scarab, bronze spearor arrow-head, faience bead, bone object

Ix

LB I

Loud 1948: Pl. 245: 20

B.49

Bovine? head

Tomb 877 CI; associated finds: two clay bowls, seven clay jugs, steatite scarab, carnelian pendant, four glass beads, bronze toggle pin, loom weight

LB I?

May 1935: Pl. 35: M2707; Guy and Engberg 1938: Pl. 96: 20

B.50

Hind of a quadruped

Unstratified mixed debris; Area M, Locus 06/M/49

LB or earlier

Present publication, No. 10

B.51

Equid? head

Room in a large court building Area DD, Locus 5047; associated finds: basalt mortar (?)

VIII

LB II

Loud 1948: Pl. 245: 21

B.52

Headless quadruped

Small room in Palace 2041, Area AA, north of Locus 4005; associated finds: bronze chisel

VIII

LB II

Loud 1948: Pl. 245: 22

B.53

Cypriot bull

SE Slope; Area F, Square w17, Locus 900

LB II?

May 1935: Pl. 37: M3649

uhJeh h. aiel

1058

no.

no.

Figurine fragment

Context

Stratum/ Level/Phase

Date Context

references Type

Head of an equid (horse?); ears, eyes, mane

Area k, Locus 02/k/81; found with LB pottery

LB II-III?

Present publication, No. 9

B.55

Leg?

Unstratified mud-brick material; Area k, Locus 06/k/55

LB II/III

Present publication, No. 16

B.56

Leg?

Unstratified debris; Area K, Locus 06/k/116

LB II/III

Present publication, No. 17

B.57

Rear body and legs of a bull; Unstratified pit; Area K, anal orifice and testicles Locus 06/k/124

LB II/III

Present publication, No 11

B.58

Horse head with incised and applied trappings

Domestic setting; Area CC, north of Locus 1835; associated finds: clay jug, chalice and stand (Loud 1948: Pl. 70: 13); faience scarab; bone and steatite whorls; bronze needle, borer and ring; bone spindles; pinhead(?); beads; clay disc; limestone and two bone objects

VIIA

LB III

Loud 1948: Pl. 246: 27; Holland 1975: D.V.b.439

B.59

Sheep? head and neck

Domestic setting; Area CC, north of Locus 1779; associated finds: clay zoomorphic vessel fragment or kernos ring spout (C.12); horn; ivory funnel(?); rubbers; iron ring; two beads; ax?; bronze blade; clay whorl (?)

VIIA

LB III

Loud 1948: Pl. 246: 28; Holland 1975: G.II.a.1440

B.60

Leg?

Contaminated occupational accumulation; Area k, Locus 04/k/43

k-6?/VIIA or slightly later

LB III?

Present publication, No. 15

B.61

Hind of a tailed quadruped

Shaft of water system, Square P4, Locus 92541

LB/Iron

May 1935: Pl. 37: M2638; Holland 1975: G.III.c.1442

CChapie 20: F lpJehplvi Cuhy h epiFhCpi

1059

B.54

Figurine fragment

Context

Stratum/ Level/Phase

Date Context

references Type

B.62

Hind of a quadruped; traces of red painting over white wash

SE slope; Area F, S17

B.63

Head of a sheep?

SE slope; Area F, Square w18

Surface

B.64

Leg? (tiny, worn)

Occupational debris rich in finds; Area K, Locus 02/k/47

k-6/k-5

LB III/Iron I

Sass and Cinamon 2006: 410, No. 810 (not illustrated), 455 (associated finds)

B.65

Bird, on pillar?

Collapse of burnt bricks; Area k, Locus 96/k/77; associated finds: flint scale weight, limestone suspended weight, baked clay flywheel/ whorl

k-4/VIA

Late Iron I

Sass 2000: 399, 401, Fig. 12.37: 5

B.66

Leg?

Occupational debris; Area k, Locus 96/k/73

k-4/VIA

Late Iron I

Sass and Cinamon 2006: 410, No. 811 (not illustrated)

B.67

Leg?

Installations; Area k, Locus 98/K/21; associated finds: calcite collectible, bone fragment

k-3/VB

Early Iron IIA

Sass and Cinamon 2006: 410, No. 812 (not illustrated)

B.68

Horn?

Occupational debris; Area k, Locus 96/k/9 associated finds: two Egyptian blue and glass beads

k-3/VB

Iron IIA

Sass 2000: 399, 402, Fig. 12.38:4 (cf. ware, perhaps MBII or earlier)

B.69

Horse head with applied trappings

Domestic setting; Area BB, Locus 2050: associated finds: bone fragment

VB

Early Iron IIA

Loud 1948: Pl. 246: 29; Holland 1975: D.IV.a.3045

B.70

Horse head and neck

Stairway close to the city wall, in outer gate’s vicinity; Area AA, Locus 2153; single find

IV

Iron II

Loud 1948: Pl.246: 31; Holland 1975: D.IV.a.2946

LB/Iron?

May 1935: Pl. 35: M414; Holland 1975: G.III.b.1343

LB/Iron?

May 1935: Pl. 37: M1700; Holland 1975: G.II.b.644

uhJeh h. aiel

1060

no.

no.

Figurine fragment

Context

Stratum/ Level/Phase

Date

Schumacher’s V/III?

Iron II

Schumacher 1908: 109, Abb. 165: upper left 1; watzinger 1929: 70, No. 7, Abb. 65; Holland 1975: D.IV.a.2847 May 1935: Pl. 36: M786; Holland 1975: D.I.b.548

Context

references Type

B.71

Horse; painted

Schumacher’s ‘Raum mit Masseben’

B.72

Horse head

Storerooms; Square O13; IV associated finds: Mitannian Common-Style cylinder seal (Lamon and Lipton 1939: Pl. 66: 10); bone pendants; glass object; bronze bowl decorated with a cultic scene (Lamon and Lipton 1939: Pl. 115: 15)

Iron II

B.73

Horse, almost complete

Room in a dwelling; Area A, Square q6, Locus 631; associated finds: clay jug and jar, bronze arrowhead, limestone drill-socket (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 112)

I

Persian

B.74

Elephant?

Room in a building; Area B, Square R8, around Locus 1482; associated finds: clay mould-made female figurine M4495 (AB.III.11), a blue paste scarab; agate bead; steatite whorl (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 143)

IV

Iron II

May 1935: Pl. 35: M4557; Holland 1975: G.I.d.2

B.75

Horse head; inlay in one eye (horse and rider?)

Room in Area C, Square R10, Locus 1584; associated finds: bone handle (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 138)

III

Iron II

May 1935: Pl. 36: M5035; Holland 1975: D.VIII.a.150

Iron II?

May 1935: Pl. 37: M2096; Holland 1975: D.I.b.449

CChapie 20: F lpJehplvi Cuhy h epiFhCpi

1061

Figurine fragment

Context

Stratum/ Level/Phase

Date Context

references Type

B.76

Body of a quadruped; traces of red painting

Area C, Square R11; associated finds: bronze tweezers, bone spatula; see also Locus 285 in the same square: room in a large building – there was found the fragmentary plaquefigurine AA.11

III

Iron II

May 1935: Pl. 35: 5250; Holland 1975: G.IV.c.9051

B.77

Body of a quadruped

Room in Area C, Square R10, near Locus 1445; associated finds: seven faience beads; basalt whorl; limestone drill-socket (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 131)

III

Iron II

May 1935: Pl. 37: M4563; Holland 1975: G.IV.c.8852

B.78

Headless quadruped; tail partly broken

Tomb 47; associated finds: ivory floral inlay; fragmentary animal figurine (B.81); miniature jar of Egyptian alabaster

Iron II

May 1935: Pl. 37: 1340 (not illustrated, see B.79); Guy and Engberg 1938: Pl. 172: 2

B.79

Headless quadruped

SE slope; Area F, Square T19

B.80

Body of a quadruped

Area C, Square L13; single find (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 109)

B.81

Head and torso of quadruped Tomb 47; found with a fragmentary animal figurine (see B.78); see above for detailed context

Surface

Iron II

Iron II?

May 1935: Pl. 37: 1671 (similar with 1340/B.78); Holland 1975: G.IV.c.8953

Iron II?

May 1935: Pl. 37: M1002; Holland 1975: G.IV.c.8754 May 1935: Pl. 37: 1760; Guy and Engberg 1938: Pl. 172: 3; Holland 1975: G.I.e.1355

uhJeh h. aiel

1062

no.

no.

Figurine fragment

Context

Stratum/ Level/Phase

Date Context

references Type

B.82

Head of a goat or a gazelle (?)

SE slope; Area F, Square W16; associated finds: three steatite scarabs; sandstone seal; steatite jewelry mould (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 157)

Surface

B.83

Bird

Building 1723 (Schumacher’s palace)

Schumacher’s V/III?

Iron II

Schumacher 1908: 100, Abb. 149f; watzinger 1929: 61, No. 11; Holland 1975: E.I.b.357

B.84

Bird

Building 1723 (Schumacher’s palace)

Schumacher’s V/III?

Iron II

Schumacher 1908: 100, Abb. 149e; watzinger 1929: 61, No. 12; Holland 1975: E.I.a.1458

B.85

Horse and rider?

Building 1723 (Schumacher’s palace)

Schumacher’s V/III?

Iron II

watzinger 1929: 61, No. 10 (not illustrated); Holland 1975: D.xII.d.1059

B.86

Headless body and legs; tail; horse and rider?

Schumacher’s ‘Raum mit Masseben’

Schumacher’s V/III?

Iron II

Schumacher 1908: 109, Abb. 165: below left 2; watzinger 1929; 70, No. 9; Holland 1975: D.xII.d.1160

B.87

Bovine head

Schumacher’s ‘Raum mit Masseben’

Schumacher’s V/III?

Iron II

Schumacher 1908: 109, Abb. 165: below left 1; watzinger 1929: 70 No. 8; Holland 1975: F.III.a.31

B.88

Body and head of a quadruped; non-conjoinable fragments; horns?, ears?, tail curls under right leg (horse and rider?)

Room in Area A, Square q7, near Locus 784; associated finds: carnelian bead (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 117)

II

Iron II

May 1935: Pl. 35: M4552; Holland 1975: D.VII.b.761

Iron II?

May 1935: Pl. 37: M2582; Holland 1975: G.I.e.1456

CChapie 20: F lpJehplvi Cuhy h epiFhCpi

1063

Figurine fragment

Context

Stratum/ Level/Phase

Date Context

B.89

Head of a horse?

Stone paved courtyard of II a dwelling; between Areas A/F, Square q5, Locus 1002; associated finds: carnelian bead; bronze fibula (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 117)

Iron II

B.90

Snoutless and footless forepart of a horse?; red painting

Stone floor of a dwelling; Area A, Square P10, near Locus 1415; associated finds: limestone weight; basalt ring (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 114)

I

Persian

B.91

Tailed quadruped (horse and rider?)

Room in a private dwelling, Area B, Square q10, Locus 435; associated finds: carnelian beads; limestone whorl; chert hammer? (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 115)

II

Iron II

B.92

Horse and rider?

B.93

Head of a quadruped

Unstratified; Area F, Locus 94/F/3

references Type May 1935: Pl. 35: M2913 (similar to M4552/B.88); Holland 1975: D.II.a.962

Iron II?

May 1935: Pl. 35: M4435; Holland 1975: D.II.a.863

May 1935: Pl. 37: M1403; Holland 1975: D.Ix.b.364

Iron?

Holland 1975: D.xV.b.165

Iron?

Sass 2000: 399, 401, Fig. 12.37:3

C. ZOOMOrphIC VESSElS no. C.1

Figurine fragment Bird-shaped complete vessel with incised decoration

Context Burial T.5137, Area BB; associated finds: steatite scarab

Stratum/ Level/Phase

Date

xII

MB II

Context

references Type Loud 1948: Pl. 247: 1; Gershuny 1991: 101, cat. No. 1

uhJeh h. aiel

1064

no.

no.

Figurine fragment

Context

Stratum/ Level/Phase

Date

xI

MB II

Loud 1948: Pl. 247: 2

MB II?

May 1935: 34, Pl. 38: 2962

Context

references Type

Spout in the shape of a quadrupedhead

Room or courtyard in a building; Area BB, Locus 3071

C.3

Bird?-shaped spouted jug, unique? at Megiddo

Tomb 49; associated finds: disturbed MBII pottery (Guy and Engberg 1938: 54, Pls. 25: 5–12; 112: 4–11)

C.4

quadruped; handle on back, non-zoomorphic stylized spout, painted

Burial T.3004, Area BB; associated finds: faience beads, bronze crescent pendant

Ix/VIII

LB I/II

Loud 1948: Pl. 247: 5; Gershuny 1991: 105–106, cat. No. 42

C.5

Spout in the shape of a quadruped head

Outside of a building; Area CC, Square S9, under Locus 1837

VIII

LB II

Loud 1948: Pl. 247: 3

C.6

Cypriot rhyton in the shape of a bull

Floor in Palace 2041; Area AA, Locus 3161; associated finds: small clay jug; gold rosette

VIII

LB II

Loud 1948: Pl. 247: 4; Gershuny 1991: 106–107, cat. No. 63

C.7

Rhyton in the shape of a wild boar

Area CC, Square R10; associated finds: bone spear- or arrowhead, bone pinhead?, ivory cover and a glass bead

VII

LB II/III

Loud 1948: Pl. 247: 6; Holland 1975: J.III.a.18; Gershuny 1991: 101–-102, cat. No. 1766

C.8

wall bracket, protruding head and forelegs of a bull

Paved floor of a room; Area AA, Locus 3043; a clay lamp, two clay jugs, two clay bowls, a clay zoomorphic vessel (C.9) and a bronze bowl

VIIA

LB III

Loud 1948: Pl. 249: 3

C.9

Donkey? with saddle jars

Paved floor of a room; Area AA, Locus 3043; for additional finds, see above (C.8)

VIIA

LB III

Loud 1948: Pl. 247: 8; Holland 1975: J.III.c.8; Gershuny 1991: 99–101, cat. no. 1367

CChapie 20: F lpJehplvi Cuhy h epiFhCpi

1065

C.2

Figurine fragment

Context

Stratum/ Level/Phase

Date

references

Context

Type LB?

C.10

Headless quadruped with saddle jars

Area CC, Square M12, VII-V under Locus 368 of Str. IV; associated finds: clay mouldmade figurine (AB.III.4)

LB/Iron

C.11

Hind leg of a cylindrical wheel-made vessel

Occupational accumulation in central courtyard of Building 04/k/44, below Floor 04/k/19; Area k, Locus 04/k/65

k-6/VIIA or slightly later

LB III

Present publication, No. 14

C.12

Spout in the shape of a horse Room in Area CC, north head and neck, painted with of Locus 1779; associated warrior figures finds: clay whorl?, bronze blade, ax?, two beads, iron ring, clay animal figurine (B.59), horn, two rubbers, ivory funnel and an unclassified clay fragment

VIIA

LB III

Loud 1948: Pl. 247: 7; Holland 1975: J.II.b.669

C.13

Spout in the shape of a horse Unstratified debris; Area K, head Locus 04/k/127

LB III?

Present publication, No. 13

C.14

Snout and one eye of a spout Make-up of wall; Area H, in the shape of a bovine? Locus 96/H/37; associated head finds: quartz bead

H-1/III

Iron II

C.15

Neck of a bull-shaped vessel

k-5?/VIB

Iron I

Sass and Cinamon 2006: 408– 409, Fig. 18.38: 796, 455

C.16

kernos with a gazelle? head, Square R4, Locus 626 two headless doves?, two pomegranates, two jars and a cup; traces of red and sepia lines

VI

Iron I

May 1935: 18, Pl. 16: P2282; Holland 1975: J.I.a.4

Occupational debris?; Area k, Locus 02/k/38; associated finds: bronze shaft fragment

LB?

Loud 1948: Pl. 248: 9; Holland 1975: J.III.c.968

Sass 2000: 399, 402, Fig. 12.38: 2

uhJeh h. aiel

1066

no.

no.

Figurine fragment

Context

Stratum/ Level/Phase

Date

VI

Iron I

Context

references Type

C.17

kernos with a bird and a cup Area DD, Square L7; associated finds: quartz stamp seal, bronze blade, pair of bronze cymbals and bone bead?

C.18

kernos?

Unstratified mixed debris; Area L, Locus 04/L/65;

C.19

Animal head of a kernos

Schumacher’s ‘Raum mit Masseben’

Schumacher’s V

C.20

Spout in the shape of a calf? head, probably belonging to a kernos

Area B, Square S8; associated finds: bone scaraboid, bronze fibula, Roman Syrian coin (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 110)

Surface

C.21

Spout in the shape of a bovine head, painted

Domestic setting; Area CC, Locus 1737; associated finds: three jugs, ivory pendant, paste bead

VI

Iron I

Loud 1948: Pl. 248: 12; Holland 1975: J.VII.b.3171

C.22

Spout in the shape of a bovine head, painted

Room in Building 2072; Area AA, Locus 2070; bronze spear- or arrowhead; bronze chisel and needles in bone case; clay disc

VIA

Late Iron I

Loud 1948: Pl. 248: 13; Holland 1975: J.VII.b.3072

C.23

quadruped with handle and cup on back

Room in a dwelling; Area CC, Locus 1732; associated finds: limestone leg, bronze ring and stone rubber

VI

Iron I

Loud 1948: Pl. 248: 10; Holland 1975: J.III.b.6; Gershuny 1991: 102–103, cat. No. 2973

Iron II

Loud 1948: Pl. 145: 16; Holland 1975: L.VII.a.6

Iron I?

Sass and Cinamon 2006: 423, No. 1019 (not illustrated)

Iron I?

Schumacher 1908: Abb. 165: below right 2; watzinger 1929: 70, No. 14 (similar with Schumacher 1908: Taf. 31q/C.62); Holland 1975: J.I.b.56

Iron I?

May 1935: Pl. 36: P1499; Holland 1975: J.I.b.5570

CChapie 20: F lpJehplvi Cuhy h epiFhCpi

1067

Figurine fragment

Context

Stratum/ Level/Phase

Date Context

references Type

C.24

quadruped with handle and cup on back, and looped legs74

Residential quarter in Area AA, Nw corner of Square L8, SE room of building 3021; associated finds: fragmentary bronze fitting, faience Egyptian/ized amulet, basalt hammer

VIA

Late Iron I

Loud 1948: Pl. 248: 11; Holland 1975: J.III.b.7; Gershuny 1991: 103–104, cat. No. 3075

C.25

quadruped with handle and cup

Small room in Palace 2072, Locus 2068; associated finds: bronze finger ring; clay rattle

VIA

Late Iron I

Loud 1948: Pl. 248: 14; Holland 1975; J.III.b.9; Gershuny 1991: 104–105, cat. No. 3176

C.26

Bull horn of a Base Ring ware

Occupational debris rich in finds; Area K, Locus 98/k/41

k-4/VIA

Late Iron I

Sass and Cinamon 2006: 408– 409, No. 798 (not illustrated), 450 (associated finds)

C.27

Bull horn or leg of a Base Ring ware

Brick collapse rich in finds; Area k, Locus 98/k/42

k-4/VIA

Late Iron I

Sass and Cinamon 2006: 408– 409, No. 799 (not illustrated), 450 (associated finds)

C.28

Bull horn of a Base Ring ware

Unstratified brown debris; Area k, Locus 98/k/47; bronze toggle pin and needle; two basalt millstones; faience bead

C.29

Spouted neck? of a bull; paint traces

Occupational debris; Area k, Locus 98/k/72

k-4/VIA

Late Iron I

Sass and Cinamon 2006: 408– 409, No. 800 (not illustrated; see there for parallel outside Megiddo)

C.30

Spouted horned quadruped

Floor accumulation; Area K, Locus 00/K/64; flywheel sherd, limestone bowl, reworked pottery handle

k-4/VIA

Late Iron I

Sass and Cinamon 2006: 408– 409, Fig. 18.38: 801

Iron I?

Sass and Cinamon 2006: 408– 409, No. 803 (not illustrated)

uhJeh h. aiel

1068

no.

no.

Figurine fragment

Context

Stratum/ Level/Phase

Date

Schumacher’s IV/ VIA?

Late Iron I?

Context

references Type

C.31

Tailed hind body of a spouted cylindrical wheelmade quadruped; probably with hole type ‘filler’ on the back

Schumacher’s Nordburg

C.32

Hind of a cylindrical wheelmade quadruped

Unstratified fill; Area K, Locus 98/k/25; associated finds: baked clay loom weight; basalt millstone; bone drill cap

C.33

Spout in the shape of a horse Brick collapse; Area k, head with applied trappings Locus 98/k/36

C.34

Spout in the shape of a horse Unstratified robber trench; head with applied trappings Area L, Locus 04/L/6;

C.35

Ape; vessel attachment?

Area C, Square M13, below 368, a street of Str. IV; single find (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 151)

V or earlier

Iron IIA

May 1935: Pl. 37: M2652; Holland 1975: L.II.c.378

C.36

Almost intact bovine?, with handle and cup

Storeroom in Storehouse 10; Area C, Square q13, Locus 7; associated finds: ‘sacred eye’ amulet, faience? bead, serpentine weight and a clay animal head (C.37) (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 149)

V

Iron IIA

May 1935: Pl. 38: 3016; Holland 1975: J.III.b.879

C.37

Spouted jug in the shape of a Storeroom in Storehouse 10; bird (?); handle on back Area C, Square q13, Locus 7; associated finds: see C.36

V

Iron IIA

May 1935: Pl. 38: 3015; Holland 1975: J.V.a.580

Schumacher 1908: Taf. 25c; watzinger 1929: 49, no.5; Holland 1975: J.III.a.1977

Iron I?

k-4/VIA

Late Iron I

Sass and Cinamon 2006: 409, Fig. 18.39: 802

Sass and Cinamon 2006: 408– 409, Fig. 18.38: 797 Late Iron I?

Sass and Cinamon 2006: 423, Fig. 18.46: 1017

CChapie 20: F lpJehplvi Cuhy h epiFhCpi

1069

Figurine fragment

Context

Stratum/ Level/Phase

Date

V

Iron IIA

Context

references Type

C.38

Headless spouted quadruped

Dwelling; Area C, Square Q12; associated finds: another clay animal figurine (C.40); glazed steatite scarab, two serpentine and astragalus amulets; bone pendant, whorl, stick-head; limestone and alabaster whorls; iron arrowhead; animal horn (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 148)

C.39

Hollow body of a quadruped; tiny hole (filler?) on back

SE slope; Area F, w17 under Locus 882

C.40

Cylindrical wheel-made spouted quadruped

Dwelling; Area C, Square q12; found with another animal figurine (C.38); see above for detailed context

V

Iron IIA

May 1935: Pl. 35: M406 (similar to M4587/C.57); Holland 1975: J.III.d.1083

C.41

Left half of a spout in the shape of a bovine? head; traces of black and red stripes

Floor; Area k, Locus 96/K/82; single find

k-3/VB

Early Iron IIA

Sass 2000: 399, 402, Fig. 12.38: 1

C.42

Spout in the shape of a horse Occupational debris?; Area head; incised trappings L, Locus 04/L/62

L-4?/VB

Early Iron IIA

Sass and Cinamon 2006: 423424, Fig. 18.46: 1016

May 1935: Pl. 35: M405 (similar to M4587/C.57); Holland 1975: J.IV.e.281

Iron II?

May 1935: Pl. 35: M3654; Holland 1975: J.IV.e.182

uhJeh h. aiel

1070

no.

no.

Figurine fragment

Context

Stratum/ Level/Phase

Date

V/IV

Iron II

May 1935: Pl.36: M188 (similar to C.44); Holland 1975: J.VII.c.3985

Context

references Type

Spout in the shape of a horse-head; incised trappings

C.44

Spout in the shape of a horse SE slope; Area F, Square head; incised trappings S17, below wall 220 stratified as Str. IV (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 216)

V/IV?

Iron II

May 1935: Pl.36: M772; Holland 1975: J.VII.c.4086

C.45

Spout in the shape of a horse head and neck; incised trappings

Floor make-up; Area L, Locus 00/L/26; single find

L-3/VA-IVB

Iron II

Sass and Cinamon 2006: 409, Fig. 18.39: 804

C.46

Leg

Area L, Locus 04/L/43

L-3/VA-IVB

Iron II

Sass and Cinamon 2006: 423, No. 1018 (not illustrated)

C.47

Spout in the shape of a ram head

Room in building 1482; Area B, Square q8, Locus 1631; found with a bone pendant; associated finds: bronze arrowhead and bone rod (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 144)

IVB

Iron II

May 1935: Pl. 37: M4565; Holland 1975: J.II.b.487

C.48

Spout in the shape of a reclining water buffalo

w of mound; Square N5; found with coins (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 109)

Surface

Area C, Square q13; associated finds: hematite scarab, weight and button seals, ivory scaraboid, faience Egyptian/ized amulets, iron arrowhead, bronze armor scale, carnelian bead, two limestone and pottery whorls, two bone spatula and pendant, two animal horns, ivory inlays, bone handle (dagger pommel?) and pottery disc (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 148)84

Iron II?

May 1935: Pl. 36: M1666; Holland 1975: J.II.b.788

CChapie 20: F lpJehplvi Cuhy h epiFhCpi

1071

C.43

Figurine fragment

Context

Stratum/ Level/Phase

Date Context

references Type

C.49

Spout in the shape of a ram head

Area C, Square N14, below IV Locus 283, a court of Str. III; associated finds: iron knife blade, two faience beads, two limestone and pottery whorls, bone spatula, pendant and rod, limestone weight and calcite stopper (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 141)

Iron II

May 1935: Pl. 37: M1014; Holland 1975: J.VII.d.489

C.50

Spout in the shape of a gazelle head

Area C, Square N14; associated finds: carnelian bead and an ivory toggle (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 141)

IV

Iron II

May 1935: Pl. 36: M1089; Holland 1975: J.VII.d.590

C.51

Belly of a cylindrical wheelmade quadruped; stumps of a pair of legs; traces of red-brown paint? and white wash

Collapse and occupational debris; Area H, Locus 94/H/57; associated finds: limestone bowl; faience? scaraboid; limestone ‘ring’; antler polished fragment

H-3

Iron II

Sass 2000: 399, 402, Fig.12.38: 5

C.52

Spout in the shape of a horse Area B, Square R10, under head; harness decorated with Locus 1462, a stone floor circles (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 121)

III

Iron II

May 1935: Pl. 36: M4558; Holland 1975: J.VII.c.4191

C.53

Spout in the shape of a horse head; elaborated harness and anatomical details, perhaps inlaid eyes

Lime floor in Building 1601; III Area A, Square q6, Locus 1503; intrusive (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 134)

Iron II

May 1935: Pl. 36: M4550; Holland 1975: J.VII.c.4292

uhJeh h. aiel

1072

no.

no.

Figurine fragment

Context

Stratum/ Level/Phase

Date Context

references Type

C.54

Spout in the shape of a horse Storage pit; Area B, Square head P10, Locus 1414; associated finds: glazed steatite scaraboid; faience ‘sacred eye’; bronze fibula; two limestone and faience beads; bone rod, handle, pendant and spatulas, two bone and glass inlays, limestone phallus?, two bronze and limonite weights (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 129)

III

Iron II

May 1935: Pl. 36: M4524; Holland 1975: J.VII.c.3693

C.55

Bowl with spout in the shape Open area; Area D, Square of a calf head L7, Locus 1374; single find (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 129)

III

Iron II

May 1935: Pl. 36: P5399; Holland 1975: J.II.a.494

C.56

Spout in the shape of a bovine head attached to a vessel

Sw of Area D, Square N6; associated finds: bronze fibula and a Roman coin (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 109)

Surface

C.57

Head and neck of a ram (cf. Holland) bovine

Dwelling; Area B, Square R10, near Locus 1616; associated finds: carnelian bead and a bronze arrowhead (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 139)

III

Iron II

May 1935: Pl. 37: M4564; Holland 1975: J.II.a.596

C.58

Headless tailed quadruped; hole on neck and back; traces of red painting (harness and trappings?)

Room in a dwelling; Area A, Square q6, near Locus 1468; associated finds: basalt ring (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 131)

III

Iron II

May 1935: Pl. 35: M4587; Holland 1975: J.IV.a.597

Iron II?

May 1935: Pl. 36: P1942 (cf. P5399/C.55 of Str. III); Holland 1975: J.II.a.395

CChapie 20: F lpJehplvi Cuhy h epiFhCpi

1073

Figurine fragment

Context

Stratum/ Level/Phase

Date Context

references Type

C.59

Headless quadruped; holes on neck and back

Dwelling; Area A, Square P6 below 556 (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 115)

II

Iron II

May 1935: Pl. 35: M1944 (similar to M4587/C.58); Holland 1975: J.IV.a.498

C.60

Spout in the shape of a bovine? head

Area B, Square q8, near Locus 1480, a stone floor; associated finds: basalt rubber (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 133)

III

Iron II

May 1935: Pl. 35: M4556 (similar to M406/C.40); Holland 1975: J.VII.e.2499

C.61

Headless and footless tailed quadruped; holes on neck and right backside; traces of red wash

Room in a dwelling; Area B, Square R9, Locus 1599; associated finds: clay jug, a glass and two faience beads; limestone drill-socket (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 139)

III

Iron II

May 1935: Pl. 35: M5043; Holland 1975: J.IV.c.2100

C.62

Spout in the shape of a bovine head

Building 1723 (Schumacher’s palace)

Schumacher’s V/III?

Iron II

Schumacher 1908: Abb. 149a; watzinger 1929: 61, No.9; Holland 1975: J.VII.b.26101

C.63

Spout in the shape of a bovine head

Building 1723 (Schumacher’s palace)

Schumacher’s V/III?

Iron II

Schumacher 1908: Taf. 31q; watzinger 1929: 61, No.13; Holland 1975: J.VII.b.32102

C.64

Spout in the shape of a bovine head

Schumacher’s ‘Raum mit Masseben’

Schumacher’s V/III?

Iron II

Schumacher 1908: Abb. 165: below 5; watzinger 1929: 70, No. 15; Holland 1975: J.VII.b.28103

C.65

Spout in the shape of a bovine head

Schumacher’s ‘Raum mit Masseben’

Schumacher’s V/III?

Iron II

Schumacher 1908: Abb. 165: below 3; watzinger 1929: 70, No. 13; Holland 1975: J.VII.b.29104

C.66

Spout in the shape of a bovine head

Schumacher’s ‘Raum mit Masseben’

Schumacher’s V/III?

Iron II

Schumacher 1908: Abb. 165: above right 2; watzinger 1929: 70, No. 11, Abb.66; Holland 1975: J.VII.b.33105

uhJeh h. aiel

1074

no.

no.

Figurine fragment

Context

Stratum/ Level/Phase

Date Context

references Type

Spout in the shape of a bovine head and neck

Schumacher’s ‘Raum mit Masseben’

Schumacher’s V/III?

Iron II

Schumacher 1908: Abb. 165: above right 1; watzinger 1929: 70, No. 12; Holland 1975: J.VII.b.34106

C.68

Spout in the shape of a bovine head

Area C, Square q11; associated finds: two glass and serpentine beads, ivory inlay, steatite whorl and basalt jar (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 115)

II

Iron II

May 1935: Pl. 36: M831; Holland 1975: J.VII.b.27107

C.69

Spout in the shape of a bovine head

Area C, Square N12; associated finds: limestone weight and a Seljuk coin (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 109)

Surface

Iron II?

May 1935: Pl.36: M806; Holland 1975: J.VII.b.24108

C.70

Spout in the shape of a bovine head

Outside Nw city wall; Square M3 outside Locus 325 of Str. IV; single find (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 109)

Surface

Iron II?

May 1935: Pl. 36: M1866; Holland 1975: J.VII.b.25109

C.71

Spout in the shape of a horse Schumacher’s Nordburg head; incised trappings

Schumacher’s V/III?

Iron II?

Schumacher 1908: Abb. 85; watzinger 1929: 53, no. 3 below; Holland 1975: J.VII.c.38110

C.72

Spout in the shape of a horse Schumacher’s ‘Raum mit head; incised trappings on Masseben’ neck and muzzle

Schumacher’s V/III?

Iron II

Schumacher 1908: Abb. 165: above left 2; watzinger 1929: 70, no. 10, Abb.64 Holland 1975: J.VII.c.37111

C.73

Equine head, red wash, pierced mouth unconnected with hollow neck, anatomical details and harness in relief (moulded?)

II

Iron II

May 1935: Pl. 36: M4823; Holland 1975: J.VII.c.43112

Dwelling; Area A, Square P8, Locus 1259; associated finds: iron armor scale; steatite whorl; limestone weight (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 118)

CChapie 20: F lpJehplvi Cuhy h epiFhCpi

1075

C.67

Figurine fragment

Context

Stratum/ Level/Phase

C.74

Head and body of a bull; non- conjoinable

Pit; Area L, Locus 00/L/37

L-0

C.75

Ram; probably part of a vessel

Area B, Square q10; found with a carnelian bead (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 111)

I

C.76

Undistinguishable

Open area; Area A, Square O8, Locus 1025; found with a clay mould-made woman’s head of a hollow figurine (M3284; May 1935: Pl. 26; Lamon and Shipton 1939: 113)

I

Date Context

references Type Iron II?

Sass and Cinamon 2006: 409, No. 805 (not illustrated)

Persian

Iron II?

May 1935: Pl. 37: M1468; Holland 1975: L.III.b.2

Persian

Iron II?

May 1935: Pl. 37: M3285

ehpii ph pCi phCuii

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Pritchard: qadesh type; arms extended to the sides; see also AA.9. Pritchard: mother figurine; figure of pregnant woman; see also AA.11, AB.III.13. Holland: plaque figurine on plain clay ‘tablet’ background, with arms hanging straight down; see also AA.12-13. Kletter: plaque figurine with “crescent hairdress”, hands lying along the body? Holland: mid-torso fragment of a plaque figurine on plain clay ‘tablet’ background, with enlarged genital area. Kletter: body of a plaque figurine with clay background. Pritchard: nude female figure with arms hanging down to sides; see also AA.13. Pritchard: see note 1 (AA.1). Two more clay figurines have been uncovered in the water system’s shaft: a mould-made back-modelled female figurine (AB.I.13) and a hand-made animal figurine (B.60). For other associated finds unearthed in the water shaft, see Lamon 1935; Lamon and Shipton 1939: 159. Pritchard: a nude female figure with hands holding breasts; see also AB.III.14. Pritchard: see note 2 (AA.4). Holland: lower torso fragment of a plaque figurine on plain clay ‘tablet’ background, with feet facing forwards, probably clutching both breasts; see also AB.III.3. Kletter: body of a plaque figurine with clay background; feet turned to front. Holland: see note 3 (AA.5). Kletter: body of a plaque figurine; hands lie along body. Pritchard: see note 5 (AA.8). Holland: see note 3 (AA.5). Pritchard: figurine made in double mould; crowned figure with both hands holding breasts; see also AB.I.3-5, 11–16. See text note 41. See text note 40. Holland: plaque figurine without clay ‘tablet’ background; see also AB.I.16, AB.III.4,11,12. Kletter: body of a plaque figurine without clay background. See text note 42.

uhJeh h. aiel

1076

no.

17 18

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

32 33 34 35 36 37

1077

38

CChapie 20: F lpJehplvi Cuhy h epiFhCpi

31

See note 7. The quarter comprising buildings 1A and 10 in Area C was “particularly prolific in finds [with cultic significance], and therefore has been referred to as ‘sacred area’ (Lamon and Shipton 1939: 3–5, 151). Apart from pottery (jugs and bowls), the nearby loci 586–595 yielded a clay ‘offering-stand’, many beads of various materials; Egyptian/ized faience amulets and scarabs; metal ring, knife blade, chisel, needle and arrowheads; bone rod, handle and spatulas; limestone and basalt drill-sockets, a limestone weight and a basalt footed vessel; a few animal horns; two more naked woman figurines – a mould-made head and torso (AB.III.10) and a hand-made headless figurine (May 1935: Pl. 29: M135; Pritchard 1943: VI (A).181; Holland 1975: C.XIII.a.9; Kletter 1996: 5.V.10.21). The fragmentary zoomorphic vessels C.37–38 also come from that setting. Holland: head of a plaque figurine without clay ‘tablet’ background, with a high-fluted ‘fez-like’ headdress; see also heads AB.III.2, 8, and head-and-torso AB.III.10. Kletter: plaque figurine’s head with “feather hats”, without clay background. Holland: head of a plaque figurine with plain (undecorated) clay ‘tablet’ background. Kletter: see note 19 (AB.I.14). Holland: see note 15 (AB.I.10). Holland defined this type as plaque-figurines ‘with both hands holding an object’. Apart from figures who hold a drum (C.VI.a.), he included in this category also two female figurines whose figures hold a double-flute (a plaque-figurine from Beth-Shean; James 1966: Fig. 115:2; Holland 1975: C.VI.b.) and a scepter? (a figurine from Amman; Holland 1975: C.VI.c.1). Beck: three figurines under the same number (AB.II.9–11). kletter: see there the ‘note’. Holland: head of a plaque figurine without clay ‘tablet’ background, with a headdress of a unique kind; see also heads AB.I.14, AB.III.8, and head-and-torso AB.III.10. Kletter: head of a plaque figurine with unique features; long side-locks and representation of ears. The scarab assemblage includes isolated late Middle kingdom imports and a majority of MB Canaanite scarabs assigned by D. Ben-Tor to the Early Palestinian series (Ben-Tor 2007: 120–121); on Tomb 24 see also Ben-Tor and Bonfil 2002: 36–37. Holland: fragment of a plaque figurine without clay ‘tablet’ background, with feet facing forwards, probably clutching both breasts; see also AA.11. According to Ornan (2011: 270 and n. 72), the divine symbol rendered on the headdress consists of “up-and-down-turning spirals, probably an abbreviated form of the date-palm tree”. For other interpretations, see below notes 29–30 and Lisella 2008: 365. Holland: see note 15 (AB.I.10). Kletter: plaque figurine with ‘Ureus” symbol, without clay background; see also AB.III.8. Holland: head of a plaque figurine without clay ‘tablet’ background, with a ‘double-anchor’ symbol on the forehead; see also heads AB.I.14, AB.III.2, and headand-torso AB.III.10. kletter: see note 29 (AB.III.4). May: figurine in the round (p. 31). Holland: plaque figurine, right hand under breast, left hand above breast. Kletter: head and upper body of a plaque figurine with unique features; long, pointed chin and large ears; rows of small indentations on hairdress; arms placed on the chest, one above the other. See note 18 (AB.I.14). Holland: head of a plaque figurine without clay ‘tablet’ background, with two breast-length locks of hair with ‘rope pattern’; see also heads AB.I.14, AB.III.2, 8. Kletter: head and upper body of a plaque figurine with unique features; ‘Hathor’ hairdress without clay-background; pendant hangs between the breasts? Pritchard: drum holder. Holland: breast-holder; see note 15 (AB.I.10). Kletter: a plaque figurine with unique features; hairdress (veil?) reaches the shoulders; the figure wears a dress reaching her ankles; arms folded on chest. Pritchard: pillar figurine; hands before the breasts. Holland: see note 15 (AB.I.10), and AB.III.4, 11. Kletter: head and upper body of a plaque figurine with unique features; long side-locks of hair, bracelets and perhaps a neck-pendant. Pritchard: see note 2 (AA.4) and AA.11. Holland: plaque figurine without clay ‘tablet’ background, with both hands pointing to or touching the genital area. Pritchard: plaque of the type of AA.10; Kletter: mould of a plaque figurine; marked hand fingers; anklets. Belt or short skirt in the shape of a row of dotted downward triangles. Pritchard: mother figurine, female figure with child. Holland: plaque figurine depicting a woman nursing a child. Kletter: body of a plaque figurine with unique feature; it shows a woman, probably pregnant, and carrying a child. Beck: drummer figurine.

68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76

Holland: solid hand-modelled figurine of a horse featuring a combination of incised and applied trappings. Holland: forequarter of a solid hand-modelled figurine of an unidentified short-muzzled animal. See note 7. Holland: hindquarter of a solid hand-modelled figurine of an unidentified animal with tail sloping downward. Holland: hindquarter of a solid hand-modelled figurine of an unidentified animal with an horizontal tail. Holland: solid hand-modelled figurine of a long-muzzled animal, the forequarters of which are not identified. Holland: solid hand-modelled figurine of a horse with applied harness; see also B.70–71. See note 45 (B.69). See note 45 (B.69). Holland: solid hand-modelled figurine of a horse with incised features on muzzle, without trappings; see also B.73. See note 48 (B.72). Holland: solid hand-modelled horse and rider figurine, the horse featuring incised lines on muzzle (trappings). Holland: torso of a solid hand-modelled figurine of an unidentified animal with short muzzle and short curved tail; see also B.77–80. See note 51 (B.76). See note 51 (B.76). See note 51 (B.76). Holland: solid hand-modelled figurine of an animal of the wild hoofed family; see also B.82. See note 55 (B.81). Holland: solid hand-made figurine of a bird with folded wings, on a pillar stand. Holland: solid hand-made figurine of a bird with extended wings, on a pillar stand. Holland: fragment of a solid hand-modelled figurine of a horse and rider; see also B.86. See note 59 (B.85). Holland: solid hand-modelled horse and rider figurine, the horse has painted bands on body (trappings). Holland: solid hand-modelled figurine of a horse with painted bands on muzzle (trappings); see also B.90. See note 62 (B.89). Holland: solid hand-modelled horse and rider figurine, the horse has an applied harness on the back. Holland: solid hand-modelled figurine of a rider standing on a horse, featuring a pinched type face with incised features. Holland: cylindrical wheel-made spouted jug with hole type ‘filler’ on the back; see also C.31. Holland: cylindrical wheel-made spouted jug with miniature jar or panier type ‘filler’ on each side of back; see also C.9. Gershuny: belongs to the LB cultural horizon. See note 67 (C.9). Holland: spout attached to inside of rim of a hollow-rimmed bowl, facing outward; see also C.47–48. Holland: animal head of a kernos ring. Holland: bovine fragment of a vessel; see also C.22, C.62–70. See note 71 (C.21). Holland: cylindrical wheel-made spouted jug with one-handled juglet type ‘filler’ on center of back; see also C.24–25, C.36. Gershuny: typologically it has strong roots in LB pottery. The looped legs are reminiscent of those of a Philistine vessel found in the same locus. See note 73 (C.23). See note 73 (C.23).

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39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67

See note 66 (C.7). Holland: head applied to wall (handle) of an unidentified vessel. See note 73 (C.23). Holland: handled-neck spout of a jug. Holland: spouted cylindrical hand-made jug without a ‘filler’; see also C.39. See note 81 (C.38). Holland: fragment of a cylindrical wheel-made jug. See also note 18. Holland: horse head belonging to a vessel; see also C.44, C.52–54, C.71–73. See note 85 (C. 43). See note 69 (C.12). See note 69 (C.12). Holland: head of an animal of the horned family, belonging to a vessel; see also C.50. See note 89 (C.49). See note 85 (C.43). See note 85 (C.43). See note 85 (C.43). Holland: Spout attached to top of rim of a hollow-rimmed bowl, facing inward; see also C.56–57. See note 94 (C.54). See note 94 (C.54). Holland: cylindrical hand-made jug with hole type ‘filler’ on back; see also C.59. Holland: see note 97 (C.58). Holland: head of un unidentified animal, belonging to a vessel. Holland: cylindrical hand-made jar with a miniature jar or pannier type ‘filler’ on centre of back. See note 71 (C.21). See note 71 (C.21). See note 71 (C.21). See note 71 (C.21). See note 71 (C.21). See note 71 (C.21). See note 71 (C.21). See note 71 (C.21). See note 71 (C.21). See note 85 (C.43). See note 85 (C.43). See note 85 (C.43).

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77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112

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A LATE BRONzE AGE GOLD PENDANT FROM AREA k Margaret E. Cohen

During the 2008 excavation season, a decorated gold pendant (08/k/32/AR5) was recovered from the debris below a floor belonging to Level K-8, and should most likely be attributed to Level K-9, which probably dates to the LB IIA (see below; Fig. 21.1, Chapter 15, No. 780).1 The pendant survived in a good state of preservation; two small tears that occurred in antiquity do not significantly impair the visualization of the image. The distinctive shape and decoration of this find identify the object as a sheet metal pendant depicting a female figure of the ‘representational’ class, as first categorized by Maxwell-Hyslop (1971: 138–139).2

phySICal DESCrIpTION aND COMparaNDa The 53-mm-long gold plaque is piriform in shape, 22 mm at its widest point, and has a rolled suspension loop at its top. The image depicts a female figure en face with pronounced facial features and hairstyle, projecting breasts and navel and an incised pubic triangle. Small decorative elements in repoussé and chase work embellish the border of the pendant, the area of the torso and outline the area of the headdress. It appears that the artist sketched the features of the lady before beginning to create the relief. Incised guide lines surround the outline of the hair, the pubic triangle and decorative elements indicating where the artist should punch the metal sheet. Incisions on the obverse of the pendant outlining the hair indicate where chase work punches should go, while incisions on the reverse of the pendant, such as along the decoration at the neck line, indicate where repoussé punches would be applied. It is unclear whether this technique of manufacture is unique to a ‘Megiddo’ artist, or whether similar guide lines exist on comparable pendants but have not been discussed in the literature. The head and facial features are prominent, as is characteristic of this pendant type. This lady wears her hair in the style of a Hathor coiffeur, topped with a small disc. A number of other pendants of this type have comparable hair styles, and this Megiddo lady’s hair is closest to two examples from Tell el-‛Ajjul (Petrie 1934: Pl. 14.9; 1952: Pl. 6.12). The Hathoric wig, which becomes popular in the Middle kingdom, is characterized by its two curling side locks, and is closely connected with the goddess, despite the rarity of the wig’s depiction in Egyptian two- and three-dimensional images (Green 2001: 73–76). In addition to her hairstyle, Hathor imagery includes various combinations of horns, uraeus and sun disc (Vischak 2001: 82–85). Other deities who are depicted wearing a Hathoric style headdress may be adorned not only

1 2

The pendant discussed here is the only Level K-9 find published in this volume. The description of the Level K-9 remains, pottery and other finds is scheduled for the next Megiddo report. For a detailed discussion of typology and history of the class, see Negbi 1976 and McGovern 1985. Maxwell-Hyslop’s ‘representational class’ appears as McGovern’s Type II.B.2.b (1985: 31–2) and Negbi’s ‘Female Figurines and Plaques’, Type VI.B.a (1976: 98–9).

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CChapie 2h: h uhpi Cehezi hpi p huh aiehhep Feh h eih k

Fig. 21.1: Gold pendant 08/k/32/AR5 (Chapter 15, No. 780).

with the two curled side locks, but also with a centrally positioned sun disc.3 McGovern describes the round element sitting on the forehead and in between the two locks of hair in the Tell el-‛Ajjul pendant, his catalogue number 71, as a “top-knob” (McGovern 1985: 31).4 The round element on this Megiddo example is similar, but sits slightly higher above the hair than the Tell el-‛Ajjul example.5 Based on this placement, and also because it is consonant with Hathor imagery, what McGovern refers to as a “topknob”, should instead be understood as a sun disc, at least on this Megiddo pendant and possibly on the Tell el-‛Ajjul pendant as well. The facial features of this pendant are reminiscent of several other pendants of this type and most closely resemble the same Tell el-‛Ajjul example mentioned above, as well as pendants from Ras Shamra, which also depict the long nose and squared-off chin (Schaeffer 1938: Fig. 49.3, 5, 6). The projecting 3 4 5

See, for example, the spectacular ivory Anat panel from Ugarit (most recently Gachet-Bizollon 2001; but also, generally, Cornelius 2004: 73–74). McGovern’s number 71 is equal to Petrie’s (1934) Pl. 13.9, 14.9. This is especially apparent when viewing the pendant from the reverse side.

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tear-drop cheeks that are so clearly visible in the Megiddo example are best paralleled by the work of the Tell el-‛Ajjul artist. No ears are depicted on the Megiddo lady, which may make her a unique specimen in this regard.6 I have seen no other example of the representational type of sheet metal pendant, with Hathor style hair, in which the ears are not depicted, except possibly the badly preserved Megiddo pendant 101 (Loud 1948: Pl. 214.101) where the rendering of the image is unclear. On the torso of the Megiddo lady protruding breasts are depicted, each with three repoussé punches, perhaps representing nipples or perhaps merely further adorning the work. Her navel protrudes slightly less and is also adorned with a repoussé punch. In between her breasts and navel, and around and just below her navel, there is a chase-work design. The two inward curving lines of chase work just above her navel seem to mimic the palm frond that appears on many comparable pendants, especially those from Ugarit.7 The bottom quarter of the pendant depicts a pubic triangle, outlined by straight lines in strong relief, which are decorated with repoussé punches. Inside the triangle, hair is represented by a group of incised lines, closely paralleling pendants from Ugarit (Schaeffer 1938: Fig. 49.5, 6, 8, 10) in contrast to the use of repoussé work to depict pubic hair on the many pendants from Tell el-‛Ajjul. A pendant of this type from the University of Chicago’s Area BB, Stratum VIII at Megiddo (Loud 1948: Pl. 213.68) does not depict any pubic triangle or hair.8 The bottom of the Area k pendant is truncated and almost squared-off. In this characteristic, it may be compared to the Area BB example and contrasted with the more pointed and rounded bottom of, for example, the Tell el-‛Ajjul pendant from Hoard 1299 (Petrie 1934: Pl. 14.8). The border of the Area K pendant is adorned with repoussé punches. Though repoussé borders are found on this type of plaque jewelry, the execution of this Megiddo example is poorer than comparanda from Tell el-‛Ajjul and Ugarit. The spacing between the punches is irregular and wide, and may be contrasted with the tight, uniform repoussé work of the Hoard 1299 pendant mentioned above (Petrie 1934: Pl. 14.8). The border of this Megiddo example is actually more akin to the cut-out, stylized pendant from Ugarit (Schaeffer 1937: Pl. 18) or even the otherwise blank gold pendant with repoussé border from Beth-Shean Level VIII (McGovern 1985: 132, No. 316). A piriform pendant from kamid el-Loz, depicting a lady with similar features, also provides a strong comparison to the border work on the Area k pendant (Hachmann 1970: Pl. 1.3). At just over 5 cm in length, the Megiddo Area k pendant is smaller than the examples from the Tell el-‛Ajjul hoards, and is more akin in size to the Megiddo Area BB example, the standing figure pendant from Beth-Shean (Rowe 1940: Pl. 68A.5) and the lady from kamid el-Loz.9 This new example from Area K exhibits strong affinities to both the gold-work of Tell el-‛Ajjul as well as the pendant examples from Ugarit, which together comprise the majority of the corpus. The sun disc, long nose, squared chin, tear drop cheeks, and torso decoration all have parallels in the Tell el-‛Ajjul material. Similarly, the long nose, chin, torso decoration, incised pubic hair, and border design can be seen in comparanda from Ugarit. The Area k pendant shares qualities of shape and size with the other Megiddo 6 7

8 9

In the New kingdom, a new hair fashion, the ‘enveloping’ wig, becomes popular and is distinguished from the Hathoric style wig in part by the fact that it covers the ears rather than tucks behind them (Green 2001: 73–76). See the many examples from Ugarit (Schaeffer 1938: Fig. 49) as well as an example from Tell el-‛Ajjul (Petrie1952: Pl. 6.12). See also additional pendants from Ugarit, though cut out and not piriform (Schaeffer 1937: Pl. 18; Schaeffer 1938: Fig. 48.10–11), all with branches, and note that Negbi (1976: 96–97) includes pendant 10 in her list of pendants with branches, though this particular branch is minimally depicted through the use of a line of stylized circles or punches. Negbi dates these pendants from the mid-15th to the late 14th century BCE. Compare also Loud 1948: Pl. 214.101. The Beth-Shean pendant is not properly of the same type as this because of its pictorial depiction of a standing figure, but it is often discussed together with the representational pendants.

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CChapie 2h: h uhpi Cehezi hpi p huh aiehhep Feh h eih k

examples (Loud 1948: Pls. 214.86, 214.101), but it differs significantly with regard to the lady’s headdress (although there is similarity to the pendant 101), the depiction of her pubic triangle and overall decoration.

DISCuSSION Megiddo, Tell el-‛Ajjul, Lachish, Kamid el-Loz, Ugarit and Minet el-Beida have all produced examples of representational piriform pendants, primarily in gold, but also in silver and electrum, some of which have been referred to already above. The images found on these pendants are generally thought to have evolved from figurine images, and examples of related female divine images in various media, including stone sculpture, relief in stone, carved ivory and terracotta figurines, are numerous (Cornelius 2004). The pictorial style of pendants evolved earlier and the more abbreviated representational style arose out of the pictorial style (Maxwell-Hyslop 1971: 140; Platt 1976: 107–108). Though there is debate over specific identification of the female image on representational pendants, it seems likely that the image does indeed depict a female deity of the Levantine pantheon or an attribute, such as divinely sanctioned fertility (Cornelius 2004: 1–19; Platt 1976: 20).10 To date, all representational pendants come from Late Bronze Age contexts: Megiddo – LB II (Stratum VIII-VI; Loud 1948: Figs. 213.68, 214.86, 214.101); Lachish – LB IIA (Fosse Temple II; Tufnell 1940: 65; McGovern 1985: 32); Tell el-‛Ajjul – MB III/LB I (City II; Petrie 1952: 8–9; Negbi 1970: 11–21, 93; McGovern 1985: 35, n. 19; Tufnell 1993); Ras Shamra/Minet el-Beida – LB IIA (Schaeffer 1937: 145, Schaeffer 1938: 319, Negbi 1970: 34). The newest pendant from Area K was unearthed in debris beneath a floor belonging to Level K-8 (probably the University of Chicago Stratum VIIB), and should likely be attributed to Level k-9. while the excavation of Level k-9 remains ongoing at this time, its preliminary correlation is to the University of Chicago Stratum VIII (Martin, et al., this volume; Mario A.S. Martin, personal communication). It is unclear whether the pendant comes from inside a building, as the architectural layout of Level k-9 has not been completely revealed. These representational style pendants follow the overall trend in pendants of the period with regard to provenance: residential contexts in the LB IA; residential, burial and temple contexts by the LB IIB (McGovern 1985: 34, Chart 14). Thus, if the domestic nature of Area k continues into Level K-9, as expected, the residential context would be a fitting findspot for this piriform pendant. The addition of another, good quality Megiddo example to the repertoire of artefacts may warrant consideration of the presence of an atelier at Megiddo or in its environs, in contrast to McGovern’s suggestion (1985: 33) that pendants from Megiddo and Lachish originated in Tell el-‛Ajjul. The cities of Megiddo Strata VIII and VII were wealthy, cosmopolitan Amarna and Ramesside Age centres, as evidenced by the architecture of their palaces and temples, as well as the many luxury items in various expensive materials (Loud 1948). The presence of this lovely gold pendant featuring both Levantine and Egyptian characteristics is another testament to the internationally oriented zeitgeist of Late Bronze Age Megiddo.

10 Platt (1976) suggests that these pendants and related triangular jewelry are pieces from a “pubic garment”, a metal girdle decorated with triangular metal plaques and pendants such as these. She makes a connection to Ezekiel 16:36 for possible textual evidence of such a garment, though obviously this text significantly postdates the artefacts. Her textual connection is creative, but, at least in the case of this pendant, there are no archaeological findings to support her theory.

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REFERENCES Cornelius, I. 2004. The Many Faces of the goddess (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis Series 204). Fribourg. Feldman, M. H. 2002. Luxurious Forms: Redefining a Mediterranean “International Style,” 1400–1200 B.C.E. The art Bulletin 84: 6–29. Gachet-Bizollon, J. 2001. Le panneau de lit en ivoire de la cour III du palais royal d’Ougarit. Syria 78: 19–82. Green, L. 2001. Hairstyles. In: Redford. D., ed. The oxford Encyclopedia of ancient Egypt. Oxford: 73–76. Hachmann, R. 1970. Kamid el-Loz: 1966/67. Bonn. Loud, G. 1948. Megiddo II: Seasons of 1935–39 (Oriental Institute Publications 62). Chicago. Maxwell-Hyslop, k.R. 1971. Western asiatic Jewellery c. 3000–612 B.C. London. McGovern, P.E. 1985. Late Bronze Palestinian Pendants (Journal for the Study of the Old Testament/American Schools of Oriental Research Monograph Series 1). Sheffield. Negbi, O. 1970. The Hoards of Goldwork from Tell el-‛Ajjul (Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology No. 25). Lund. Negbi, O. 1976. Canaanite gods in Metal. Tel Aviv. Petrie, w.M.F. 1934. ancient gaza IV. London. Petrie, w.M.F., Mackay, J.H., and Murray, M.A. 1952. City of Shepherd Kings and ancient gaza V. London. Platt, E.E. 1976. Triangular Jewelry Plaques. Bulletin of the american Schools of oriental research 221: 103–111. Rowe, A. 1940. The Four Canaanite Temples of Beth-shan. Philadelphia. Schaeffer, C. 1937. Les Fouilles de Ras Shamra-Ugarit. Syria 18: 125–154. Schaeffer, C. 1938. Les Fouilles de Ras Shamra-Ugarit, Syria 19: 313–334. Tufnell, O. 1993. Ajjul, Tell el-. In: The Encyclopedia of archaeological Excavations in the holy Land Volume 1. Jerusalem: 49–53. Tufnell, O., Inge, C.H. and Harding, L. 1940. Lachish II: The Fosse Temple. London. Vischak, D. 2001. Hathor. In: Redford, D., ed. The oxford Enclyclopedia of ancient Egypt. Oxford: 82–85.

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CHAPTER 22

A DOUBLE AxE FROM LEVEL H-9 Assaf Yasur-Landau

A copper-alloy double axe (08/H/36/AR3; Fig. 22.1; Chapter 15, No. 413) was found in Level H-9 (University of Chicago Stratum VIA). Its dimensions are as follows: length: 21.8 cm; maximum width: 7.8 cm; minimum width: 4.8 cm; thickness at the shaft hole: 3.8 cm; shaft dimentions: 4.8 × 2.5 cm; weight: 1.664 kg. The arms are of similar size, widening from the socket to the arched edges of the axe. It has an elliptic shaft hole and two grooves inside it, possibly for a metal stud used to secure the wooden shaft to the blade. Copper-alloy double axes have a general Aegean ancestry, going back to the Early and Middle Bronze Ages. In the Late Bronze Age heavy copper-alloy axes were rather common, and are found in both Crete and on the mainland. A double axe found in the Uluburun shipwreck of the late 14th century BCE and a plethora of tools, including axe-adzes retrieved from the late 13th century BCE Cape Gelidonya shipwreck (Cline 1994: 224, Nos. 809, 811), were no doubt used by the crews of these ships. They may hint at the mechanism for the transmission of this tool to non-Aegean populations through direct contact between ship crews and coastal inhabitants. Indeed, double axes are seen in Enkomi in two LC IIIA, 12th century BCE hoards (Catling 1964: 88–89, Fig. 9: 1, 2; Dikaios 1969: Pl. 163: 50). The first appearance of such axes in the southern Levant occurred only after the renewal of international maritime trade in the 11th century BCE. They appear together with other forms of metal tools and weapons, such as the axe-adze and the socketed spear-head, as well as violin-bow fibulae (Mazar 1994: 49). The point of entry was in the harbours of the central and northern coast, as indicated, for example, by the find of a double axe, a socketed spear-head and a violin-bow fibula in Tomb 1029 at Achziv (Miron 1992: 80, No. 309; Prausnitz 1997). The Achziv axe, though considerably shorter than the Megiddo Level H-9 axe (only 15-cm-long), has a similar elliptical shaft. Accompanying vessels, mainly bichrome and black on white small flasks, suggest an 11th century BCE date for this tomb. Another very similar axe, though shorter (18-cm-long), was found in the Jatt hoard (Artzy 2006: 40, 62), which most likely originated from a rich tomb. The circumstances of this find, not coming from a legitimate excavation, however, hinder its value in establishing chronology. An additional axe comes from Macalister’s excavations at Gezer, without clear stratigraphic context (Miron 1992: 81, No. 314). The only parallels to the Megiddo axe that came from secure stratigraphic contexts are two axes from Megiddo itself. One came from Stratum VIB (Loud 1948: Pl. 183: 14, Locus 5235*, Area DD, field number d 678; cf. Miron 1992: 80, No. 312; Paice 2004: 83), and still contained remains of its wooden shaft. The other originated in the Stratum VIA large metal hoard, which also included shouldered axes and a variety of copper-alloy drinking and serving vessels (Loud 1948: Pl. 183: 15, Locus 1739, Area DD, field number M6257; cf. Miron 1992, No. 311; Paice 2004: 83; Artzy 2006: 73–75). Both axes are shorter than the Level H-9 axe (only little longer than 15.4 cm). An additional axe was found in Schumacher’s excavations, in what may be an Iron I context (Miron 1992: 80, No. 313).

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hiihF yhiJe-uhehhJ

Fig. 22.1: Cypriot axe 08/H/36/AR3 (Chapter 15, No. 413).

REFERENCES Artzy, M. 2006. The Jatt Metal hoard in northern Canaanite/Phoenician and Cypriote Context. Barcelona. Catling, H.w. 1964. Cypriot Bronzework in the Mycenaean World. Oxford. Cline, E.H. 1994. Sailing the Wine-Dark Sea: International Trade and the Late Bronze age aegean. Oxford. Dikaios, P. 1969. Enkomi: Excavations 1948–1958. Mainz am Rhein. Loud, G. 1948. Megiddo II: Seasons of 1935–39 (Oriental Institute Publications 62). Chicago.

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uiviu C-9

Mazar, A. 1991. Comment on the Nature of the Relations between Cyprus and Palestine during the 12th–11th Centuries B.C. In: karageorghis, V., ed. Proceedings of an International Symposium: The Civilizations of the aegean and Their Diffusion in Cyprus and the Eastern Mediterranean, 2000–600 B.C. Larnaca: 94–104. Miron, E. 1992. axes and adzes from Canaan (Prähistorische Bronzefund Ix, 19). Stuttgart. Paice, P. 2004. The Small Finds. In: Harrison, T. Megiddo 3: The Final report on the Stratum VI Excavations (Oriental Institute Publications 127). Chicago: 59–104. Prausnitz, M.w. 1997. The Stratigraphy and Ceramic Typology of the Early Iron Age Tombs at Achziv. Michmanim 11: 17–30 (Hebrew).

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CHAPTER 23

TExTILE PRODUCTION Julye Bidmead

Second only to agriculture and food preparation, textile production was crucial to survival in ancient Israel (king and Stager 2001: 146). Textile production included several disparate tasks – spinning, weaving, sewing and embroidery – each requiring a different skill and a different tool. while physical evidence such as textile remains and wooden looms do not survive well in the archaeological record, many of the implements employed for textile manufacture are abundant in most excavations. Analysis of recovered spindle whorls (flywheels), loom weights and needles, objects mostly made of clay, bone, stone or metal, combined with textual references and ethnographic parallels provide insight into ancient weaving practices. weaving and cloth manufacturing in ancient Israel was likely a women’s domestic chore conducted alongside cooking and food preparation. Citing a 1973 comparative ethnographic study of human labour patterns in 185 communities, C. Meyers showed that in these societies 87% of the spinning and 84% of the weaving was done by women, leading her to posit a similarly gendered task in ancient Israel (Meyers 2003: 431–433). Even if textile production was more industrial, it was still a women’s occupation (idem: 433). Numerous ancient Near Eastern literary sources strengthen this position. Biblical texts (Exodus 35:25–26; Judges 16:13–14; 2 kings 23:7; Proverbs 31:13, 19, 22, 24) indicate that women were the prominent textile producers. The worship of the ancient Near Eastern weaving goddesses, such as the Mesopotamian Uttu and the Ugaritic Athirat, also imply that textile production was rooted firmly in the woman’s domain. while the majority of textile weaving carried out in the household was for domestic or local consumption, some evidence, especially from the late Iron II, reveals that large-scale weaving guilds or industries may have existed, either for commercial trade or to pay tribute. At khirbat al-Mudaybi, an Iron II Moabite fort in Jordan, a weaving installation was discovered in the domestic quarter (wade 2003: 73). An eighth century domestic dwelling at Tel Halif revealed a room with a cache of approximately 100 fired and unfired burnt loom weights, suggesting a large-scale weaving workshop (Borowski 2008). At both sites, grinding stones, oil lamps, cooking-pots and other tools were recovered in the same room, indicating that other domestic activities were conducted alongside textile production. The task of producing a garment required extensive skill and some technical knowledge, beginning with the collection of the raw materials. Flax (linum usitatissimum) along with sheep and goat wool were the most common sources for textiles throughout the ancient Near East and the eastern Mediterranean. Flax was used to produce linen, which was often used for making clothes, whereas animal wool could be used for more coarse garments and products such as tents, rugs and ropes. Once the raw material was collected and cleansed it was ready for spinning, that is, the twisting of strands of fibres into continuous thread. The fibres were pulled together into a very loose strand, held twisted by a distaff – a long stick upon which the thread is drawn. Use of the distaff allowed a hands-free maneuver for the drawing out of the fibres. Another thin stick or rod, the spindle, could be held in the free hand, or even placed upright in

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the ground. The spindle was fitted with a small pierced weight – the spindle whorl – in order to assist the rotation of the spindle. Spindle whorls vary in size and composition, the majority made from fired clay, stone or bone. Fibres pulled from the distaff were then wrapped or twisted around the spindle. This process of hand-spinning employing a spindle and distaff was extremely mobile and could be managed anywhere in the household. The portable nature of the task is verified by the widespread distribution of spindle whorls found throughout a site, quite often with a noted absence of other weaving implements. Once the raw fibres were spun, if desired, the threads could be dyed with a plant or animal based dye to produce colour and designs in the woven cloth; or the finished cloth could be dyed at the end of the weaving process. weaving, the process of vertical or lengthwise strands of yarn (warp) interlaced with crosswise or horizontal strands (weft) to create fabric, was normally conducted on a wooden loom. Loom weaving in ancient Israel is documented as early as the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods, with evidence of horizontal looms found at Nahal Mishmar and Nahal Hemar (king and Stager 2001: 148), and continues today in Bedouin communities. There were two types of looms employed in the ancient Near East, the vertical loom and the horizontal loom. The small and portable horizontal ground loom was likely the earliest, with its width the equivalent of a woman’s arm span. On a horizontal loom, the warp threads were stretched between beams that were secured to the ground. Most horizontal loom weaving was conducted while sitting. The second type, the vertical warp weighted loom, was more widespread in ancient Israel. A large number of excavated loom weights found in situ in straight rows, as if they had been dropped from the warp threads, at sites such as khirbat al-Mudaybi or Tel Halif, suggest this style of loom. A vertical warp weighted loom consists of warp threads hung vertically from an upper bar. The upper bar was supported by two upright bars placed on a slight slant. The ends of the warp threads were attached with objects (loom weights) to create tension in the threads (Burnham 1980: 177). Depending upon the size and texture of the threads, several strands could be fastened to a single weight. Loom weights were usually terracotta or stone and vary in size, shape and weight. Early and Middle Bronze weights were conical shaped with a flat base, whereas the Late Bronze and Iron Ages feature round ‘donut-shaped’ weights. From the top down, the weft was passed horizontally through the warp weighted threads. After each weft thread was passed, it was compressed against the previous thread with a beater, a comb-shaped tool, to keep the textile compact. The beater, usually made of wood or animal bone, was often attached with a string to the top or the side of the loom bars. This process was then repeated from left to right and then back again until the cloth was completed. The weaver could either sit or stand depending upon the size of the cloth being produced. During the weaving process, spatulas and/or bone points were used to tighten threads on the loom. Patterns and designs were created by the interweaving of differently coloured dyed threads. After the weaving, needles of bronze or bone were used to join together the separate pieces of fabric to create garments and other items. For a final decorative touch the cloth could be embroidered with dyed threads using small needles.

ThE FInDS SPInDLE WhorLS Fifty-six objects classified as spindle whorls (or flywheels) were found in clean loci at Megiddo in 2004– 2008 (see Chapter 15). whorls were found in all excavated areas (H, J, k, L, and M) and in most strata,

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ihh

with the majority concentrated in LB II and LB III loci (Table 23.1). Spindle whorls can be made from stone such as basalt or limestone but are more commonly made from baked clay. The most common shape was a circular flat disk with a perforation in the centre. Often whorls were made from reworked sherds or lids. Twenty of the baked clay objects with unperforated centres, classified as whorls or whorl blanks, may alternatively be lids. Seventeen whorls made of bone or ivory have been found; in some cases, these bone objects may have also functioned as buttons. One whorl made of alabaster was found in an early Iron I context in Area k. TABLE 23.1: SPINDLE wHORLS BY DATE Period

number

EB III

4

LB II

15

LB III

16

Early Iron I

2

Late Iron I

10

Early Iron IIA

2

Late Iron IIA

1

nEEDLES anD PoInTS Needles had many functions in the household. In textile production, needles were used for sewing or repairing clothing and other goods such as tents and sacks. Points were used to separate and tighten the threads on the loom, or may have had some function unrelated to textile manufacturing. A total of sixteen needles and points made from metal, bone and clay were found at Megiddo. Among the bronze needles and points, five were whole needles and one was the eye of a needle fragment. Six needles and points made of bone and one constructed of baked clay were also found. The baked clay point may have been a reworked pottery sherd. TABLE 23.2. NEEDLES AND POINTS BY MATERIAL AND DATE Period

Bronze

Clay

EB III

Bone 2

LB II

4

LB III

2

Late Iron I

3

1

3 1

oThEr WEaVIng IMPLEMEnTS Very few loom weights or other weaving instruments have been found to date. Though not all items listed below have been found in clean loci they will be mentioned due to their limited quantity. Most loom weights from the second millennium were hand-moulded, dome-shaped, with a flat base and a small hole at the top (Fig. 23.6). One loom weight of this style was found in a Middle Bronze grave

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in Area J; the dating of the other four is uncertain. The design of the loom weight changed so that by the Late Bronze Age and later they were more circular, doughnut-shaped weights with larger holes in the centre. Two-first-millennium style loom weights were found in Area L and Area M (Fig. 23.7) but could not be dated. In addition to weights, other tools used in tandem with the loom were spatulas and beaters. The beater was used to compress the threads together. A late Iron worked antler bone beater was found in Area M (Fig. 23.8: 3). The beater has a hole at the top to allow it to be secured to the loom. The discovery of a beater strongly suggests a loom in the near vicinity. Spatulas were employed in a similar manner as points to separate and strengthen the threads on the loom. Bone spatulas were used in loom weaving as well as in basket making. Two bone spatulas, both made from sheep/goat or cow ribs have been found, one from the MB I in Area J and the other in Area H from the early Iron IIA period. One spindle was found out of context in Area M. In several instances, weaving tools are found together, giving greater indication of locations of textiles. The LB II and LB III layers contained the largest concentration of weaving tools, particularly in Area k, where several loci contained spindle whorls found together with points or needles (04/k/19, 04/k/75, 06/k/87), suggesting that textile production took place in the household. In Area M, the LB III layer (Level M-6) also yielded some indication of a weaving and spinning location. So far not enough has been found to posit the existence of any looms or large scale weaving at Megiddo. Still, the presence of spindle whorls, weights, needles and other weaving implements, dispersed throughout many strata and areas, attests to the domestic textile production in almost all occupation levels at Megiddo.

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ihh

1 (246)

2 (247)

3 (248)

4 (249) 5 (250)

6 (251)

7 (252)

13 (258)

12 (257)

16 (261)

Figure 23.1: Flywheels.

1098

8 (253)

9 (254)

10 (255)

11 (256)

15 (260)

14 (259)

17 (262)

CChapie 23: p ixplui aehhJCplhe

1 (263)

5 (267)

4 (266)

3 (265)

2 (264)

6 (268)

7 (269)

10 (272)

8 (270)

12 (274)

11 (273)

9 (271)

13 (275)

14 (276)

15 (277)

16 (278)

17 (279)

Figure 23.2: Flywheels.

1099

J Juyi Clh

ihh

1 (282)

2 (283)

5 (286)

6 (287)

Figure 23.3: Flywheels.

1100

3 (284)

7 (288)

4 (285)

8 (289)

9 (290)

CChapie 23: p ixplui aehhJCplhe

1 (291)

2 (292)

6 (296)

10 (300)

14 (304)

3 (293)

7 (297)

11 (301)

15 (305)

4 (294)

8 (298)

12 (302)

16 (306)

5 (295)

9 (299)

13 (303)

17 (307)

Figure 23.4: Flywheels.

1101

J Juyi Clh

ihh

6 (358)

2 (353) 4 (355)

3 (354)

5 (357)

7 (360)

11 (365)

9 (362)

8 (361)

10 (363)

1 (352)

12 (366)

13 (369)

14 (370)

15 (371)

16 (372)

17 (373)

21 (377)

22 (378)

20 (376) 18 (374)

19 (375)

Figure 23.5: Spits, needles and points.

1102

CChapie 23: p ixplui aehhJCplhe

1 (379)

3 (381)

2 (380)

4 (382)

5 (383)

6 (384)

Figure 23.6: weaving implements.

1103

J Juyi Clh

ihh

1 (385)

Figure 23.7: weaving implements.

1104

2 (386)

CChapie 23: p ixplui aehhJCplhe

1 (387)

2 (388)

3 (389)

4 (390)

Figure 23.8: weaving implements.

REFERENCES Barber, E.J.w. 1997. Textiles. In: Meyers, E., ed. The oxford Encyclopedia of archaeology in the near East. New York: 190–195. Bier, C. 1995. Textile Arts in Ancient western Asia. In: Sasson, J., ed. Civilizations of the ancient near East. New York: 1567–1588. Borowski, O. 2008. Tel Halif, 2007. hadashot arkheologiot – Excavations and Surveys in Israel 120. Burnham, D. 1980. Warp and Weft: a Textile Terminology. Toronto. king, P. and Stager, L. 2001. Life in Biblical Israel. Louisville. Meyers, C. 2003. Material Remains and Social Relations: women’s Culture in Agrarian Households of the Iron Age. In: Dever, w.G. and Gitin, S., eds., Symbiosis, Symbolism, and Power of the Past: Canaan, ancient Israel, and Their neighbors from the Late Bronze age through roman Palaestina. winona Lake: 425–444. wade, J. and Mattingly, G. 2003. Ancient weavers at Iron Age Mudaybi. near Eastern archaeology 66: 73–75.

1105

CHAPTER 24

GAMES Philippe Guillaume

Excavations at Tel Megiddo have unearthed some of the finest senet boards ever found (Loud 1939: Pls. 47–50). As ancient games become better understood, excavators interpret many unusual stones as different types of game boards. Presented here are six such stones, some of which were uncovered by past expeditions but never published, and others were discovered in the course of the renewed excavations.

ThE fINDS1 a STonE FroM SUB-arEa UPPEr J During the dismantling of a wall in Sub-Area J, a stone was removed and its significance was not immediately apparent. As a result, its exact provenance was not recorded and remains unknown. The piece of white limestone is 30-cm-long, 18-cm-wide at its midsection, 10-cm-wide at either end and 10 to 12-cm-thick. Due to its uneven shape, in order to keep it steady, it would have had to be sunk into the ground (Fig. 24.1). The upper surface features three rows of indentations, each of which measures roughly 1 cm in diameter and 1 cm in depth (Fig. 24.2). There are two rows of nine indentations (the one on the edge slightly longer than the one running down the centre) and one row of seven indentations (the remaining two indentations in this row are likely not present due to damage on either side of the stone).

Fig. 24.1: A stone from Upper Area J. 1

I thank Norma Franklin and Adi keinan for showing me these stones and supplying the necessary information for the writing of this chapter.

1106

CChapie 2a: ph

Fig. 24.2: A stone from Upper Area J.

ii

Fig. 24.3: A board from Lachish (Tufnell 1953: Pl. 37, 17).

These depressions are too small and shallow to have held several playing pieces, therefore the board could not have been used for a game like Mancala (Russ 2007). It seems more likely, then, that it was used to play a type of senet, an Egyptian game known to have been popular in ancient Canaan (Piccione 2007). It should be noted, however, that a senet board usually has three rows of 10 squares, while the indentations in this board seem to be configured as three rows of nine. This 3 × 9 arrangement can be seen in two grids (the dates of which cannot be determined) that were scratched into the windowsills of the harem building at Persepolis (Curtis and Finkel 1999). It is also seen in an Iron Age ivory board from Lachish (Fig. 24.3). EarLy BronzE I STonES FroM arEa J The clearing of the EB I Picture Pavement (Loud 1948: Pls. 271–282; Van der Steen 2005; keinan 2007) in Lower Area J (Locus 08/J/200) revealed a stone not recorded by the University of Chicago team, perhaps because it does not feature a ‘picture’. This white piece of limestone (Slab I, Fig. 24.4) was found in situ as part of the pavement 4.2 metres south of the step-like pavement cleared during the 2008 season. Its irregular, ovoid shape is roughly 32 cm × 42 cm. It is 10 cm deep and its surface is uneven. It features an off-centre depression 1 cm deep that appears to be natural. This depression is encircled by 19 or 20 small chiseled indentations. Two breaks along the edges of the stone prevent us from knowing exactly how many of these indentations originally appeared on the slab, but it is likely that there were an additional three to five. During the 2008 season, a similar stone was found directly beneath the floor of the EB I Level J-4 temple (Fig. 24.5; see Chapter 2, Figs. 2.17 and 2.40). In the same pavement, another slab featuring this pattern of indentations (but in this case 26 instead of 19 or 20) was found by the University of Chicago team (Loud 1948: Pl. 272: 4, Fig. 24.6). In this case, however, the depressions surround an incised depiction of four figures without heads; at least two of these are also missing their arms. These figures are very similar to those seen on the Narmer Palette, with which it is contemporaneous (keinan 2007: 40–41, 87). In a second phase of activity, a net pattern was incised on top of the figures and in a third phase of activity, a spiral decoration was made by pounding the stone’s surface. The net pattern and the ring of indentations have been interpreted as magical symbols associated with the capturing or killing of the figures (Schroer and Keel 2005: 240). with so few holes, these stones could not have been used to play Hounds and Jackals, the board for which typically contains about 58 impressions, each of which are small and deep enough to insert a peg. The Megiddo slabs also lack markings that differentiate between the indentations, which are a typical characteristic of Hounds and Jackals boards (Hoerth 2007).

1107

aClulaai pJluuhJ

i

Fig. 24.4: Slab I found immediately under the floor of the Level J-4 temple (also in Chapter 2, Table 2.3 and Fig. 2.14).

10

Fig. 24.5: Slab found under the Level J-4 temple (also in Chapter 2, Figs. 2.17 and 2.40).

1108

CChapie 2a: ph

ii

Similar to the Megiddo slabs are markings found on pavements and seats in Graeco-Roman and Byzantine cities. Given the fact that these are not fully understood, they are often overlooked and left unpublished. In order to ameliorate this, Bell and Roueché (2007) have published a simple typology of designs. However, the Megiddo slabs do not fit in any of the suggested types. while the Megiddo and Graeco-Roman stones show different numbers of indentations, and they are dated millennia apart, their placement as pavements in public areas, as well as their interpretation as game boards (Bell and Roueché 2007: 106) justifies their comparison. a STonE In WaLL 00/M/27 The lower course of wall 00/M/027 of Level M-4 (the University of Chicago’s Stratum VIA, late Iron I), located in Square AV/28 (Fig. 24.8) contains an irregularly shaped white piece of limestone, measuring 32 cm × 35 cm. Roughly incised into its surface are three rows of 10 squares – the same configuration used to play senet. The stone was oriented vertically, as it was found in secondary use, having been employed as building material for the wall. It can be given a terminus post quem of the early Iron I. The grid itself is 17 cm × 4 cm, about half the size of a similar grid found on a step of the gatehouse at Lachish (Sebbane 2004), and twice the size of a grid found incised on a reversible stone in Hazor (Yadin 1960: Figs. 78: 6; 164: 13). The squares are irregular, measuring between 1.5 cm and 2 cm each. The incisions are crude and the frame is composed of several parallel lines, seemingly carved several times over in order to straighten the border. Unlike the slabs mentioned above, this board does not feature depressions for holding the playing pieces. Fig. 24.6: Slab found by University of Chicago (Loud 1948: Pl. 272: 4).

The similarity between the Megiddo stone and Egyptian models reinforces Sebbane’s assumption that in Canaan this game was played according to the rules of senet (2004: 692). In Egypt, senet was played during tomb rituals and was an essential element of the migration of the soul (kendall 1978; Piccione 2007). The stone board is small enough to be carried around with ease, so that the game could be played wherever funerary rituals were performed. It is possible, therefore, that the Area M stone was originally related to the MB III/LB I or LB II burials in this part of the mound (see Chapter 4). Box kL 78: 536bis from Kāmid el-Lōz (Meyer 1986) and the graffito board from Megiddo both have marked squares. Thus, Sebbane’s claim (2004: 692), that the Lachish board (which features marks at Squares 15 and 20) “is the only game board of the 3 × 10 type with marked squares found outside Egypt”, should be revised accordingly. Two more boards should be mentioned in this discussion, although their significance is less clear. The remains of a burnt ivory board from Tell el-‘Ajjul (Dynasty xV) has only 12 squares left on it (arranged in a 3 × 4 pattern), so it is impossible to conclude whether it was originally a senet board with 20 or 30 squares. In any case, it does not feature any special markings (Petrie 1933: xxVIII, 364). The ivory board from Tell el-Far‘ah South (which the excavator interpreted as a calendar), with its three rows of 10 indentations, could also be a senet board (Petrie and Tufnell 1930: Table xL, 481). A similar ivory board found in Tomb 521 at Lachish has been interpreted as either a game board or a calendar (Tufnell 1953: 222, Pl. 37: 3).

1109

aClulaai pJluuhJ

i

10

Fig. 24.7: Scapula from Tell en-Nasbeh (8 x 9 cm).

Fig. 24.9: The basalt stone from Area CC.

1110

Fig. 24.8: Senet grid in secondary use in a Level M-4 wall.

Fig. 24.10: A selection of basalt basins from Megiddo.

CChapie 2a: ph

ii

TWo STonES In ThE UnIVErSITy oF ChICago’S arEa CC The last items are not games per se, but are perhaps related to games. Twenty-one metres west of the western baulk of Square G/4 of the 2008 excavated Area q, a large triangular basalt stone (Boulder 1; Fig. 24.9) sits in a depression that was dug by Schumacher and was later included within the University of Chicago’s Area CC. It is not certain whether the stone’s current location is where it was originally found. The stone is 110 cm × 70 cm and can be seen to a maximum thickness of 30 cm above ground. Drilled into the surface is a perfectly circular inverted cone with a diameter of 40 cm at the top and 20 cm at the base. Unlike the basalt basins found by Schumacher in the southern part of the Nordburg (Fig. 24.10), this stone is not suitable as a container, as the central hole is not evenly carved out. On the northern side, the depth of the depression reaches 10 cm while on the southern side the depth is only 2 cm, meaning that the entire feature can hold only one litre of liquid. The presence of 15 to 16 indentations of varying sizes (from 2 cm to 10 cm in diameter and from 1 cm to 5 cm in depth) surrounding the depression indicates that this stone was used as some kind of game; specifically, these small depressions could have been used to hold small objects used to tally points. A second stone (Boulder 2) lies 15 metres northeast of Boulder 1 at about the same level. It is more circular, ca. 60 cm diameter, but has the same distinctive one sided depression that differenciates it from containers. Like Boulder 1, the rim has a number of depressions, in particular one large one ca. 20 cm long. As the depressions in these boulders are far deeper than what is usually seen in game boards, I attempted to use the stone as a device for rolling astragali. when tossed into the depression, the astragali roll over several times until they reach the shallow side, where the two-centimetre lip at the edge prevents them from rolling out and sends them back towards the centre (Fig. 24.11). The experiment was carried out with bovid and caprid astragali. Fresh caprid astragali were taken from animals recently hunted in the Alps and ancient astragali were those found in Iron Age levels in the nearby Area q. The bovid astragali were ancient samples found at Megiddo during the course of the excavation. The results show that the astragali must roll from their own weight from a hand resting on the depression’s upper lip. If thrown from a higher point, the impact is greater and the astragali roll out onto the ground. This may be why the flattest part of the stone does not feature any indentations, i.e., this is the location where the thrower’s hand would rest. In order to ensure fairness, each player would have to place his throwing hand on the same spot. Through experimentation I was also able to conclude that, due to their weight, bovid astragali have a tendency to bounce out of the depression (it should be noted, however, that the ancient bovid astragali I used had lost some of their mass and were thus lighter than fresh ones). This would suggest that the stone

Fig. 24.11: Using the cut boulder as a rolling device.

1111

aClulaai pJluuhJ

i

Fig. 24.12: Pyrgus a) bronze, Rheinisches Landesmuseum Bonn; b) wood with silver fittings, Qustul Nubia, late 4th century CE (Emery 1938: 345) now in the Cairo Museum; c) section of b).

was designed to exclusively be used with small astragali. This contrasts with later senet games used for divination, which were played with one sheep and one bovine astragalus (Finkel 2007: 19; Guillaume 2009). If my interpretation is correct, this stone should be understood as an apparatus used to prevent cheating and enhance rolling when throwing astragali. Similar devices include the simple fritillus ([φιμός] which features ribs on the inner surface used to make the astragali roll around more) and elaborate dice towers ([turricula, pyrgus] which were used to ensure fairness; Fig. 24.12). In the case of the latter, dice or astragali were dropped in through an opening in the top, bounced off a series of steps and were finally deposited through an opening at the bottom. Isidore of Seville (origins 18 § 60–612) and Martial (Epigrams xIV 16) testify to the towers having been used for the board game alea; they are also depicted on a mosaic from Daphne, south of Antioch (450 CE) and on a Roman calendar (Fittà 1998: 116–118). The use of fritilli and pyrgi demonstrate how important it was to the ancients that atragali and dice be thrown fairly. Since astragali, dice and throw sticks were used as media for receiving messages from the gods, the prevention of human tampering was as crucial. Astragali in particular were imbued with special significance (Dandoy 2006; Gilmour 1997; Brody 1998: 84). In some cases they were placed as foundation deposits (Venturi 2006). At Megiddo, in area AA, locus 2081, Stratum VA, a clay bowl with up to one hundred sheep or goat astragali (uncounted in the report) was found among cultic stands, limestone altars, amulets, seals and six clay play-pieces (Loud 1948 Pl. 285: 5 and in restored state, Fig. 101). A clear connection to divination can be seen in an astragalus found at the Hellenistic site of Sha‘arHa‘amakim in the Lower Galilee, which is inscribed with a dedication to Hermes, the messenger of the gods (Bar-Oz 2001).

2

60 De tabula. Alea, id est lusus tabulae, inventa a Graecis in otio Troiani belli a quodam milite Alea nomine, a quo et ars nomen accepit. Tabula luditur pyrgo, calculis tesserisque. 61 De pyrgis. Pyrgus dictus quod per eum tesserae pergant, sive quod turris speciem habeat. Nam Graeci turrem πύργον vocant.

1112

CChapie 2a: ph

ii

REFERENCES Bar-Oz, G. 2001. An Inscribed Astragalus with Dedication to Hermes. near Eastern archaeology 64: 211−213. Bell, R.C. and Roueché, C.M. 2007. Graeco-Roman Pavement Signs and Game Boards. In: Finkel, I.L., ed. ancient Board games in Perspective. London: 106–109. Brody, A. 1998. “Each Man Cried out to his god”: The Specialized religion of Canaanite and Phoenician Seafarers. Atlanta. Curtis, J. and Finkel, I. 1999. Game Boards and Other Incised Graffiti at Persepolis. Iran 37: 45–48. Dandoy, J.R. 2006. Astragali Through Time. In: Maltby, J.M., ed., Integrating zooarchaeology. Oxford: 131−137. Emery, w.B. 1938. The Royal Tombs of Ballana and Qustul, Mission Archéologique de Nubie 1929-1934. Cairo. Finkel, I.L. 2007. On the Rules for the Royal Game of Ur. In: Finkel, I.L., ed. ancient Board games in Perspective. London: 16–32. Fittà, M. 1998. Spiele und Spielzeug in der antike: Unterhaltung und Vergnügen im altertum. Stuttgart. Gilmour, G.H. 1997. The Nature and Function of Astragalus Bones from Archaeological Contexts in the Levant and Eastern Mediterranean. oxford Journal of archaeology 16: 167–175. Greenberg, R. 2003. Early Bronze Age Megiddo and Bet Shean: Discontinuous Settlement in Sociopolitical Context. Journal of Mediterranean archaeology 16: 17–32. Guillaume, P. 2009. Nahum 1: Prophet, Senet and Divination. In: Ben zvi, E., Edelman, D.V. and Polak, F., eds. a Palimpsest: rhetoric, Ideology, Stylistics and Language relating to Persian Israel. Piscataway, NJ: 129–159. Hoerth, A.J. 2007. The Game of Hounds and Jackals. In: Finkel, I.L., ed. ancient Board games in Perspective. London: 64–68. keinan, A. 2007. The Megiddo Picture Pavement: Evidence for Egyptian Presence in northern Israel during Early Bronze age I (M.A. thesis, Tel Aviv University). Tel Aviv (Hebrew). kendall, T. 1978. Passing Through the netherworld. The Meaning and Play of Senet. Boston. Loud, G. 1939. Megiddo Ivories. Chicago. Loud, G. 1948. Megiddo 2. Chicago. Meyer, J.w. 1986. Die Spielbretter kL 78:534 und kL 78:536bis. In: Hachmann, R., ed. Kāmid el-Lōz 1977– 81. Bonn: 123–126. Petrie, w.M.F. 1933. ancient gaza 3. London. Petrie, w.M.F. and Tufnell, O.1930. Bet Pelet 1. London. Piccione, P.A. 2007. The Egyptian Game of Senet and the Migration of the Soul. In: Finkel, I.L., ed. ancient Board games in Perspective. London: 54–63. Russ, L. 2007. An Overview of Mancala Rules and Variations. In: Finkel, I.L., ed., ancient Board games in Perspective. London: 242–244. Schroer, S. and keel 2005. Die Ikonographie Palästinas/Israels und der alte orient : eine religionsgeschichte in Bildern. Fribourg. Sebbane, M. 2001. Board Games from Canaan and the Origin of the Egyptian Senet Game. Tel aviv 28: 213–230.

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Sebbane, M. 2004. An Incised Senet Board Game. In: Ussishkin, D. The renewed archaeological Excavations at Lachish (1973–1994). Tel Aviv: 690–694. Tufnell, O. 1953. Lachish III. London. Van der Steen, E.J. 2005. The Sanctuaries of Early Bronze IB Megiddo: Evidence of a Tribal Polity? american Journal of archaeology 109: 1–20. Venturi, F. 2006. Deux dépôts de fondation d’astragales à Tell Afis (Syrie). orient Express 1: 27–29. Yadin, Y. Aharoni, Y., Amiran, R., Dothan, T., Dunayevsky, I., Perrot, J. and Angress, S. 1960. hazor II: an account of the Second Season of Excavations. Jerusalem.

1114

Section Five environmental and PhySical StudieS

chaPter 25

radiocarbon dating oF the iron age levelS ayelet gilboa, ilan Sharon and elisabetta boaretto

this chapter reports almost all dates produced from short-lived organics from the late bronze iii and iron age levels at megiddo.1 the dating was carried out in the framework of the iron age dating Project (Sharon et al. 2005; 2007). all dates are listed in table 25.1; samples marked with an asterisk have already been published (boaretto et al. 2005; Sharon et al. 2007). the rest are new dates. dates produced in the past from charcoal (boaretto 2006) have not been included. it should be noted that in retrospect, after the samples were measured, three of them (Samples 5084, 5499 and 5077) were considered by the excavators problematic, that is, originating from unclean or unsafe loci. this was due to new evaluation of the loci after stratigraphic study and restoration of the pottery (i. Finkelstein, personal communication). We decided to leave these dates in the report, following our dictum that all determinations produced by samples selected with excavators (after contextual scrutiny) are published, but the excavator’s reservations should, of course, be heeded. as it turns out (see below) omitting these three dates will not affect the sequence obtained in any significant measure. in table 25.1 and Fig. 25.1 the samples are listed in stratigraphical order, from early to late. When possible, samples are listed stratigraphically also within each level, and otherwise according to their radiocarbon age – early to late: For Level K-6: Sample 5083 appears first, as it was deemed the earliest surface in this level; Sample 5082 followed by Sample 4499 are last, the former because the locus had in situ pottery and thus seemingly belongs to the end of the level K-6 accumulation, and the latter because it is a cluster of olives around an installation that apparently functioned till the end of this level. the rest are placed in-between, according to radiocarbon age. For level K-5 the samples appear according to their radiometric dates, early to late. levels K-4, m-4 and h-9 are combined, as they represent the same horizon, and were destroyed concurrently: Samples 3946 and 3945 first, as they clearly originated from pre-destruction deposits (Phase K-4b); Samples 5496 and 5497 last, as they are clusters of olive pits in the destruction, and thus are equivalent to finds in articulation, with a miniscule chance of being either residual or intrusive. Among the late iron i samples these should be the closest to the destruction event. the rest are listed in-between, according to their radiocarbon age. For level h-5, Sample 3949 is listed second because it is in a clear destruction context.

1

comment of the editors: one date, for a sample from level m-6 (lb iii), will be published in the future with the dates for levels K-8 and K-7.

1117

AAyeye yAeelAA A eAe yAAele Aee yeAyAeyeeA elAeyeel

SAMPLE PREPARATION Samples were all olive pits, either whole or fragments. the samples were prepared using the procedure explained by boaretto et al. (2005), yizhaq et al. (2005) and Sharon et al. (2007). charred material was treated for the removal of the inorganic carbon and humic substances following the acid-alkali-acid procedure. Purified samples were then oxidized to CO2 by combustion to 900ºC and finally were graphitized. Samples were all measured by accelerator mass Spectrometry. all samples were measured more than once by the Weizmann institute radiocarbon laboratory. in many cases the same material was independently prepared and measured in three other laboratories: the nSF-arizona amS Facility (tucson), the centre for isotope research (groningen, the netherlands) and the amS 14c dating laboratory at aarhus (denmark). this was part of the inter-comparison exercise between radiocarbon laboratories for the iron age dating Project. in table 25.1 and Fig. 25.1 only the weighted averages are presented and plotted.

RESULTS the 14c determinations were all obtained from multiple independent measurements of the same materials. the small standard deviation (mostly around ±20) indicates an excellent agreement between the different laboratories and measurements. therefore we can exclude both systematic and random errors in the measurements. all the samples are short-lived and therefore old wood effect does not apply here. calibrated ages were obtained using the software oxcal 3.10 by bronk-ramsey (1995, 2001) employing the 2004 atmospheric calibration set of data (reimer et al. 2004). calibrated ages are provided for ±1σ and for ±2σ corresponding to 68.2% and 94.5% probability. When distinct intervals are possible the relative probability is indicated between the limit of the range. unless stated explicitly, the olive pits, though originating in the same locus, cannot be demonstrated to belong to a cluster. the relative chronology (‘Period’ column) in this table is that employed in the current report. to correlate with the terminology of the iron age dating Project: lbiii=lb|ir; early iron i=ir1a or ir1a|b; late iron i=ir1b; early iron iia=ir1|2; late iron iia=ir2a; see gilboa and Sharon 2003. table 25.1: all megiddo lb iii and iron age radiocarbon dateS Lab 14C Age ±1σ Calibrated age for RTT # year BP ±1σ year BCE

Calibrated age for ±2σ year BCE

Level/Phase Period and Locus

Contextual Details

5083 2973 ± 16

1260 (54.2%) 1190 1270 (95.4%) 1120 K-6 1180 ( 5.4%) 1160 (viia?) 1150 ( 8.5%) 1130 04/K/41

5084 2990 + 14

1290 ( 0.9%) 1280 1310 (95.4%) 1130 K-6 (viia?) lb iii 1270 (65.8%) 1200 04/K/43a 1140 ( 1.5%) 1130

on pavement with large quantities of pottery (according to excavator locus is not clean)

5080 2982 ± 14

1270 (63.6%) 1190 1300 (95.4%) 1120 K-6 (viia?) lb iii 1140 ( 4.6%) 1130 02/K/65

occupational layers – several plaster & phytolith surfaces

1118

lb iii

ash & surface near tabun (below the destruction itself), probably earliest level K-6 surface

CAAaeye ha: e AeAlCAeele eAeAey la eAy A ele Ayy eyayey

Lab 14C Age ±1σ Calibrated age for RTT # year BP ±1σ year BCE

Calibrated age for ±2σ year BCE

Level/Phase Period and Locus

Contextual Details

5081 2961 ± 20

1260 (14.1%) 1230 1270 (95.4%) 1110 K-6 1220 (54.1%) 1120 (viia?) 02/K/65

4500* 2933 ±18

1210 (65.9%) 1110 1260 ( 3.2%) 1230 K-6 (viia?) lb iii 1100 ( 2.3%) 1090 1220 (92.2%) 1050 02/K/60

4501* 2775± 25

980 (64.0%) 890 870 ( 4.2%) 850

K-6 (viia?) 02/K/60

lb iii

5082 2970 ±15

1260 (48.3%) 1190 1270 (95.4%) 1120 K-6 1180 (10.0%) 1160 (viia?) 1150 ( 9.9%) 1130 04/K/44

lb iii

cluster of olive pits on living surface of level K-6, with in situ pottery

4499* 2892±18

1120 (68.2%) 1040 1130 (95.4%) 1000 K-6 (viia?) 02/K/60

lb iii

cluster of olive pits in olive oil installation, probably end-phase of level K-6

5499 2965 ± 26

1260 (18.0%) 1230 1300 (94.2%) 1110 K-5 (vib) 1220 (50.2%) 1120 1100 ( 1.2%) 1080

early iron i

taken from the baulk. according to excavator stratigraphic affiliation unsafe

5078 2894 ± 14

1120 (68.2%) 1045 1130 (95.4%) 1010 K-5 (vib) 04/K/13

early iron i

From stone pavement 20 cm under level K-4 destruction, not 100% sealed

3946* 2907 ± 26

1190 ( 1.7%) 1180 1210 (95.4%) 1000 K-4 (via) 1160 ( 3.0%) 1140 00/K/34 1130 (63.5%) 1030

late iron i Phase K-4b (predestruction) packed earth with organic material (floor)

3945* 2882 ± 30

1120 (68.2%) 1010 1200 (93.6%) 970 960 ( 1.8%) 940

late iron i Phase K-4b (predestruction) packed earth with organic material (fill)

5077 2940 ± 20

1210 (68.2%) 1115 1260 ( 7.9%) 1230 m-4 (via) late iron i From inside jar on floor 1220 (87.5%) 1050 04/m/055 in destruction level. Affiliation not safe

3944* 2920 ± 25

1200 ( 7.8%) 1170 1250 ( 1.2%) 1240 K-4 (via) 1160 (60.4%) 1050 1220 (94.2%) 1010 98/K/32

5089 2900 ±16

1120 (68.2%) 1050 1190 ( 1.5%) 1180 m-4 (via) late iron i Floor with in situ 1160 ( 1.7%) 1140 04/m/46 pottery 1130 (92.2%) 1010

3943* 2853 ± 28

1060 (60.4%) 970 960 ( 7.8%) 940

1000 (95.4%) 840

1120 (95.4%) 920

K-4 (via) 00/K/8

K-4 (via) 98/K/31

lb iii

occupational layers – several plaster & phytolith surfaces

late iron i destruction, collapse, pottery for restoration

late iron i Phase K-4a, destruction, collapse on floor

1119

AAyeye yAeelAA A eAe yAAele Aee yeAyAeyeeA elAeyeel

Lab 14C Age ±1σ Calibrated age for RTT # year BP ±1σ year BCE

Calibrated age for ±2σ year BCE

Level/Phase Period and Locus

3942* 2846 ±20

1045 (63.9%) 975 955 ( 4.3%) 945

1090 (95.4%) 920

K-4 (via) 98/K/43

late iron i Phase K-4a, destruction over floor with pottery for restoration

3939* 2804 ± 24

995 ( 6.8%) 985 980 (61.4%) 915

1020 (95.4%) 890

K-4 (via) 98/K/36

late iron i Phase K-4a, destruction debris on floor with pottery for restoration

3940* 2767 ± 25

970 ( 7.5%) 950 940 (41.6%) 890 880 (19.1%) 840

1000 (95.4%) 830

K-4 (via) 98/K/37

late iron i Phase K-4a, destruction debris on floor with pottery for restoration

5496 2837 ± 16

1015 (50.7%) 970 960 (17.5%) 940

1050 (95.4%) 920

h-9 06/h/50

late iron i cluster of olive pits in situ in destruction

5497 2835 ± 16

1015 (51.3%) 970 960 (16.9%) 940

1050 (95.4%) 920

h-9 (via) 06/h/56

late iron i cluster of olive pits in situ in destruction

5498 2808 ±26

1000 (68.2%) 920

1040 (95.4%) 890

h-7 06/h/78

early iron iia (vb?)

3948* 2695 ± 50

895 (68.2%) 805

980 ( 1.6%) 950 940 (93.8%) 790

h-5 (vaivb?) 98/h/79

late iron iia

va-ivb destruction? Collapse on floor, bones, potsherds

3949* 2817 ± 23

1005 (68.2%) 930

1040 (95.4%) 900

h-5 (vaivb?) 98/h/62

late iron iia

va-ivb destruction? destruction debris on floor

Contextual Details

COMMENTARY LEvEL K-6 though this level is equated by the excavators with the university of chicago Stratum viia on both stratigraphic and ceramic considerations, certain vagueness seems to linger regarding its correlation with the oriental institute sequence (chapter 3). megiddo viia is usually perceived as a relatively short swan song of Stratum vii, with a general consensus attributing it to the time of the 20th egyptian dynasty. the date assigned to it in the current report is ca. 1200–1130 bce, ending with ramesses vi (see also Finkelstein 1996: 171–121). other suggestions allow for a somewhat earlier end for this occupation, ca. 1150/1140 bce (mazar 1990: 301, table 6; gilboa and Sharon 2003: table 21). the eight determinations from this level were taken from different depositional units that cannot be demonstrated to represent the same event and thus the dates cannot be combined. they may represent the entire duration of this level. Of these, five determinations (5083, 5084, 5080, 5081, 5082) are highly compatible. they include one sample (5083) that we deemed stratigraphically the earliest and one (5082) that stratigraphically may be one of the latest. most of the distributions of these samples fall between 1260–1100 BCE, with significant distributions in the 13th century. If Level K-6 indeed equals Stratum

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Fig. 25.1: Weighted average distributions of all megiddo iron age dates, in the same order as in table 25.1.

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viia, these dates are higher than expected and may indicate that a higher date for the end of megiddo viib/beginning of viia should be considered. of the two remaining dates of level K-6, one (4501) is clearly an outlier (see more on this below). Sample 4499 was taken from a cluster of olives associated with an olive oil installation that apparently functioned until the end of level K-6 and therefore is, stratigraphically, one of the latest, if not the latest sample in the Level K-6 series. Its date is significantly later than the rest, with both 2σ and 1σ distributions (1130–1000 and 1120–1040, respectively) falling later than the latest proposed date for the end of megiddo viia (ca. 1130 bce), though not by much. (For a recent summary of the disputes regarding the date of this stratum, see mazar 2002.) LEvEL K-5 based on stratigraphic and ceramic considerations, the excavators equate level K-5 with the university of chicago Stratum vib. in the relative terminology of the iron age dating Project it should fall anywhere between ir1a early and ir1a|b. Stratum vib, though commonly viewed as the budding of Stratum via, has received little chronological consideration, due to the paucity of well-stratified ceramics. It is also unknown whether it follows Stratum viia directly or after some occupational hiatus. Following the conventional/ high chronology hypothesis it could fall anywhere between 1150 and 1050 (see above), and by Finkelstein’s low chronology it could have lasted as late as the second half of the 11th century bce. the two dates from this level hardly overlap. as mentioned, the earlier, Sample 5499, is considered by the excavators unsafe contextually. its entire distribution falls within the 13th–12th centuries and it is indeed too high, on any chronology. the second date, Sample 5078, would be more compatible with the high chronology hypothesis but is not conclusive. LEvELs K-4, M-4, H-9 the excavators equate these levels with the university of chicago Stratum via. they all came to an end in a heavy conflagration that represents one event. Following the high chronology this occupation dates to ca. 1050–1000/980 and by the low chronology it dates to ca. 1000–920/900 bce. it is obvious that the radiocarbon dates for this horizon have a very wide spread. When a more nuanced sequence is considered, the following insights may be offered: the two samples of Phase K-4b (3945, 3946), which are the stratigraphically earliest in this group, are very similar to each other and largely fall in the 11th century bce, alongside one sample from level m-4 (5089). these dates are compatible with the high chronology, unless one is willing to allocate two centuries for megiddo vi. two dates (Sample 5077 from level m-4 and Sample 3944 from Phase K-4a) are even higher than these, with distributions largely falling in the 12th century (Sample 5077), which is too high for any chronology, or also encompassing the early part of the 11th century (Sample 3944), which could fit a high chronology framework. the dates associated with the Stratum via destruction (all the level m-4 and h-9 and Phase K-4a dates) must sound an alarm regarding our ability to date an event with the current resolution of field work: even after disregarding the highest date (Sample 5077, considered by the excavators contextually unsafe), the dates are spread over 120 radiocarbon years (2920–2804). among this lot, perhaps the most relevant samples for determining the date of the destruction event are 5496 and 5497 from level h-9, both olive pit clusters sealed under destruction debris. these two dates, originating from two different loci, are identical, which corroborates their accuracy with regard to

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the destruction event. they fall in the 10th century, with their main distribution in the early part of the century, but there is another, secondary, albeit significant, peak around 950 BCE. two samples produced dates that are somewhat later than these two stratigraphically latest clusters. rtt 3939 (Phase K-4a) is not very enlightening either in its 2σ or 1σ distributions, though the latter would be more compatible with a low to ‘moderately low’ chronology (61% between 980–915 BCE). RTT 3940 is even later (1σ, 60% between 940–840 BCE, with most of the rest of the distribution still later. It could be claimed that this, the latest Stratum via date, is the decisive one – the one providing the terminus post quem for the Stratum via calamity. but in view of the higher dates produced by olive clusters (Samples 5496, 5497), this is not straightforward. if we must assume that all the above are indeed datable to the same event, than the only ‘common ground’ is ca. 950 bce, midway between the high and low proposals. LEvEL H-7 by its stratigraphic position and pottery this level can be dated to the early iron iia, though it is not the first Iron IIA level in Area H. The one sample, RTT 5498, falls largely in the 10th century. It is much more compatible with the high chronology. LEvEL H-5 ceramically, this level should be attributed to a late horizon within the iron iia (chapter 13), which should place it, according to both contesting chronologies, in the last third of the 9th century bce. the excavators correlate it with Stratum va-ivb of the university of chicago excavations. the two dates from this phase (Samples 3948, 3949) hardly overlap, the former encompassing mostly the 9th century and the latter the 10th. this is problematic for a level that cannot have been of very long duration (it is one of four iron iia layers in area h). the younger sample (3948) is compatible with both chronologies. the older sample (3949) is much too high for both.

MODELLING We were reluctant to model the transitions between stratigraphic phases at megiddo, mainly because the number of samples is not balanced – there are numerous determinations for the late iron i and very few dates for the iron iia, with only one positioned early in the iron iia sequence. indeed, a simple model (Fig. 25.2), which includes all the samples, produced a very low agreement index (5.7%) and is de facto meaningless. removal of the three samples considered by the excavators to be stratigraphically problematic (5084, 5499 and 5077) did not change the outcome in any significant way (11.6% agreement, with 4501 an outlier). An agreement index of 59.1%, which is just about acceptable, is reached only after sample 4501 was also omitted (Fig. 25.3). according to this (the second) model, the levels K6|K5 boundary peaks around 1120 bce – similar to our conclusion above; the levels K5|K4 boundary peaks about 1070 bce and the transition between level K-4 and its contemporaries and the iron iia layers peaks ca. 970 bce (Fig 25.4). the spreads – ca. half-century at the 68% confidence level and about a century at the 95% level are quite wide (150 years in the case of the levels K6|K5 transition).

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Fig. 25.2: bayesian modelling of boundaries calculated with oxcal 3.10 (2005) (bronk-ramsey 1995; bronk-ramsey 2001): between levels K-6 and K-5; levels K-5 and K-4/m-4/h9; levels K-4/m-4/h9 and h-7. the modelling is based on all 24 dates in table 25.1; poor agreement.

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Fig. 25.3: bayesian modelling of boundaries calculated with oxcal 3.10 (2005) (bronk-ramsey 1995; bronk-ramsey 2001): between levels K-6 and K-5; levels K-5 and K-4/m-4/h9; levels K-4/m-4/h9 and h-7 and h-5. the modelling is based on 20 dates (excluding Samples 5084, 5499 and 5077, determined unsafe by the excavators, and Sample 4501).

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Fig 25.4: age distribution of the late iron i/iron iia boundary as calculated with oxcal 3.10 (2005) (bronk-ramsey 1995; bronk-ramsey 2001), based on 20 dates (excluding Samples 5084, 5499, 5077 determined unsafe by the excavators, and Sample 4501).

both the present study and earlier ones conducted in the framework of the iron age dating Project established that it is possible to exclude bias in the analytical measurement, since there is a very good agreement between laboratories dating the same material, with standard deviation in the order of 20–25 years. this is the same order of magnitude as the measurement error itself. in this light, the fact that such a sequence of short-lived samples, from a meticulous stratigraphic excavation, produces such a fuzzy chronological picture means that the solution lies in a more precise consideration of contextual issues, such as residuality or intrusiveness, and of other aspects of site formation processes (boaretto 2007; 2009), which we are presently trying to tackle. We should also note that a consideration of the problem of iron age absolute chronology must take into account the entire body of dates obtained, from many sites, for which we refer the reader to Sharon et al. 2007 and the studies cited therein.

ACkNOwLEDGMENTS this research is being carried out with the support of the israel Science Foundation (grants nos. 778/00; 141/04), the Kimmel center of archaeological Sciences at the Weizmann institute of Science, the research

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authority at the hebrew university, the research authority at the university of haifa, and the uS national Science Foundation (grant ear01–15488). We thank the megiddo excavators for their cooperation.

reFerenceS boaretto, e. 2006. radiometric dates. in: Finkelstein, i., ussishkin, d. and halpern b., eds. Megiddo Iv: The 1998–2002 seasons (monograph Series of the institute of archaeology of tel aviv university 24). tel aviv: 548–555. boaretto, e. 2007. determining the chronology of an archaeological Site using radiocarbon: minimizing uncertainty. Israel Journal of Earth science 56: 207–216. boaretto, e. 2009. dating material in good archaeological contexts: the next challenge for radiocarbon. Radiocarbon 51, no. 1: 275–282. boaretto, e., Jull, a.J.t., gilboa, a. and Sharon, i. 2005. dating the iron age i/ii transition in israel: First intercomparison results. Radiocarbon 47, no. 1: 39–55. bronk-ramsey, c. 1995. radiocarbon calibration and analysis of Stratigraphy: the oxcal Program. Radiocarbon 37, no. 2: 425–430. bronk-ramsey, c. 2001. development of the radiocarbon Program oxcal. Radiocarbon 43, no. 2a: 355–363. Finkelstein, i. 1996. the Stratigraphy and chronology of megiddo and beth-Shean in the 12th–11th centuries bce. Tel Aviv 23: 170–184. gilboa, a. and Sharon, i. 2003. an archaeological contribution to the early iron age chronological debate: alternative chronologies for Phoenicia and their effects on the levant, cyprus and greece. Bulletin of the American schools of Oriental Research 332: 7–80. mazar, a. 1990. Archaeology of the Land of the Bible 10,000–586 B.C.E. new york. mazar, a. 2002. megiddo in the tthirteenth-eleventh centuries bce: a review of Some recent Studies. in: oren, e.d. and ahituv, S., eds. Aharon Kempinski Memorial volume: studies in Archaeology and Related Disciplines. beer Sheva: 264–282. reimer, P.J., baillie, m.g.l., bard, e., et al. 2004. intcal04: calibration issue. Radiocarbon 46, no. 3: 1029– 1058. Sharon, i., gilboa, a., Jull, a.J.t. and boaretto, e. 2007. report on the First Stage of the iron age dating Project in israel: Supporting a low chronology. Radiocarbon 49, no. 1: 1–46. yizhaq, m., mintz, g., cohen, i., et al. 2005. Quality controlled radiocarbon dating of bones and charcoal from the early Pre-Pottery neolithic b (PPnb) of motza (israel). Radiocarbon 47: 193–206.

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chaPter 26

the human remainS galit Sameora

this report discusses the human remains found at megiddo during the 1998, 2004 and 2006 excavation seasons. the majority of the remains were uncovered in area J, some were uncovered in area K and a few were retrieved from area m. one random bone fragment was found in area h. these human remains pertain to different periods – the early bronze age through the iron age. most of the remains were uncovered in domestic contexts. While many of the remains were found in full or partial anatomical articulation, indicative of primary burial, many of the findings constituted singular bone fragments. Eight burials aligned next to each other were found in area J. their skeletal remains were partially or fully articulated. a substantial portion of the remains was fragmentary and many of the findings were poorly preserved. The information that could be obtained from these remains is therefore limited. This report provides a list of skeletal findings by area, locus and basket (Table 26.1). Sex and age were determined when possible. the minimum number of individuals (mni) is also provided for each locus. Pathological findings are listed in the remarks section of Table 26.1. The analyses were carried out by period and the findings are presented in chronological order.

METHODS Sex was determined in the adult human remains using morphological parameters as described in bass (1995). metrical parameters could not be used due to the fragmentary nature of the material. age estimation was based on epiphyseal fusion, dental eruption and dental wear as described by bass (1995). the age groups assigned are as follows: 0–10 yrs: sub-adult; 10–20 yrs: young adult; 20–30 yrs: adult; above 30 yrs: older adult. mni was estimated by locus, and was based on the most common bone as well as age and sex considerations. Skeletal and dental pathology was visually observed using low scale magnification.

RESULTS DEMOgRAPHy Early Bronze Age III: skeletal remains for this period were scarce and consist of two teeth and fragmentary bone remains age could be assessed estimated for one bone, determined as belonging to an adult individual. Middle Bronze Age: most of the findings from this period were retrieved from Area J. The calculated mni was 14, with even distribution of young (eight) and older (seven) individuals (Figure 26.1). Sex could be determined in only eight of the individuals – five females and three males. Late Bronze Age: skeletal remains representing three sub-adult individuals were excavated in area M, pertaining to the MB II–LB I. The LB III period is represented in two loci from Area K. The findings consisted of isolated bone fragments and therefore the age and the sex could not be determined.

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Fig. 26.1: age distribution in the middle bronze age human remains.

Iron Age IA: the Iron Age findings were retrieved from Area K; one individual was found in Area H. The calculated MNI was five for the Iron Age IA period. (Material from unclassified loci is not included in the counting.) most of the remains represent sub-adult individuals. Unassigned period: in locus 04/K/24 a skeleton of a three-year-old child was found. it is not clear if the bones were fully or partially articulated. sKELETAL PATHOLOgy (TABLE 26.1) Periostitis: periostitis is the inflammatory reaction of the outer periosteal membrane (periosteum) of the bone to infection and/or trauma (ortner and Putschar 1981). Periostitis involves only the outer (cortical) bone, without involvement of the marrow cavity, and is manifested as large or small pits. The inflammatory periosteal reaction tends to be unevenly distributed, not affecting the entire bone. the surface is often irregular and the thickness may be variable. local infection, such as ulcers on the skin and trauma, produce a reactive, local, ossifying periostitis in the form of a plaque-like deposition or a shallow cyst. Widespread periostitis was found on the lower limb bones of an adult individual from area J (04/J/56) and on the femur, tibia, humerus, radius, ribs and ulna of a child from the same area (04/J/86). the nature of the distribution in these two individuals indicates that they suffered from systematic infection. other periostitic lesions found are indicative of localized infection and/or trauma. Degenerative joint disease: arthritis is the inflammation of a joint as a result of trauma or bone and joint infections. osteoarthritis, the most common form of arthritis, is characterized by the destruction of the articular cartilage in a joint and the formation of the adjacent bone, in the form of bony lipping and the formation of spurs (osteophytes) around the edges of the joint. the causes of this disease are, for the most part, mechanical. the disease occurs mostly in load-bearing joints, particularly in the spine, the hip and the knee. osteoarthritis is an inherent part of the aging process (White 1991). degenerative changes were

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found in one case on the vertebrae and lower limb bones of an older adult male (04/J/37). Slight periostitis was also found on the sacrum of this individual. Cribra Orbitalia is a pathological condition that affects the roof of the orbital cavity. cribra orbitalia is characterized by a widening of the diploe, which is caused by an increase in trabeculation, thinning and often a complete destruction of the outer table of the orbital roof (mensforth 1991). this condition exhibits lesions that display a coral, cribriform, or sieve-like porosity. the described bony changes are most likely due to over-activity of the bone marrow in the clavarium in response to certain types of hematological defects such as iron deficiency anemia or hemolitytic and megaloblastic anemias (Walker et al. 2009). Slight cribra orbitalia was noted in an adult female and a child (8–9 yrs) who were buried together (04/J/75). two other cases of slight and medium severity were found in an infant (2–3 yrs) and a young adult,respectively. DEnTAL PATHOLOgy

Dental Hypoplasia is a condition that is characterized by transverse lines, pits, and grooves on the surface of tooth crowns. these abnomalities are defects in enamel development. Several different factors can cause dental hypoplasias, all of which are the result of metabolic insult to the organism. these developmental defects can give insight into patterns of dietary and disease trauma in a population (White 1991). in general, hypoplasia is the most common dental pathology found in this assemblage. hypoplasia was noted in nine individuals, eight of whom were found in middle bronze age tombs (see table 26.1). this indicates that these individuals suffered from chronic stress in childhood. however, while some of the individuals may have died due to the physiological trauma, others survived to adulthood. reFerenceS bass, W.m. 1995. Human Osteology: A Laboratory and Field Manual. columbia. mensforth, r.P. 1991. Paleoepidemiology of Porotic hyperostosis in libben and bt-5 Skeletal Populations. Kirtlandia 46: 1–47. ortner, d.J. and Putschar, W.g.J. 1981. Identification of Pathological Condition in Human Skeletal Remains. Washington and london. Walker, P.l., bathurst, r.r., richman, r., gjerdrum, t. and andrushko, v.a. 2009. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 139: 109–125. White, t.d. and Folkens, P.a. 1991. Human Osteology. london.

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Faunal remainS From the iron age levelS aharon Sasson

this paper is dedicated to the memory of brian hesse who generously discussed zooarchaeology with me during the first seasons of Tel Megiddo excavations. over 30,000 animal bones from the iron age layers at megiddo, retrieved during the 1994–2008 excavation seasons, were studied. this report therefore covers the entire faunal assemblage from iron age megiddo recovered thus far. The faunal remains were retrieved from five excavation areas; they represent five chronological horizons and eight levels (table 27.1). the faunal data is presented in a comparative manner under different categories of the faunal analysis (e.g., taphonomy/cut marks; sheep and goats ratio; rare species/swine). table 27.1: origin oF the material PreSented in thiS chaPter Area Period

F

H

early iron i late iron i

K

L

M

l-5

m-4

K-5 F-5

h-9

K-4

early iron iia

h-8 h -7

K-3

late iron iia

h-6 h -5

K-2

early iron iib

h-4

late iron iib

h-3

l-3

l-2

METHOD DATA RECORDIng The Iron Age faunal remains were divided into two major groups based on their archaeological affiliation: bones that were found in clean, ‘F’ loci with clear stratigraphical affiliation (e.g., floor accumulation), and bones from ‘a’ loci, that is, from loci that are related to architectural elements and therefore have a stratigraphic affiliation, but may include earlier material (e.g., brick material – for both see Chapter 1; Blockman and Finkelstein 2006). Faunal remains from the ‘A’ loci were examined briefly in order to determine the presence of special finds and unique species. The ‘A’ bones were sorted into three animal size-groups (small, medium and large; see below). due to limited storage space (with the exception of special finds) these bones were not stored after their examination.

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the faunal remains from the clean loci were examined thoroughly and the following recording procedure was applied to this group: Specimens were identified to species, skeletal element and side (left or right). Fragments of limb bones were assigned to an articular end (distal or proximal) or shaft. in order to allow a larger sample size for analysis, some specimens were assigned to a particular skeletal element but were grouped at a later stage into a more general body part category. For instance, ischium, illium and pubis fragments were grouped into a pelvis category. Evidence of the modification of bones, such as burn, perforation, cut (or chopping) and gnawing marks were inspected using a magnifying lens (×5). Fresh breaks (fractures) occurring during the archaeological excavation or during transport and storage were also recorded. cracked bones or fresh splinters were not recorded as fresh breaks. the relative frequency of fresh breaks per skeletal element was calculated as a percentage of the total identified elements. Three types of cut and chop marks were recorded: cut marks that occurred during a butchery process, chopping marks that occurred during a butchery process, and chopping or sawing that may be related to bone working (see discussion below). the latter group consists, for the most part, of chop marks found parallel to the long axis of the bone. The preservation percentage for each identified specimen was recorded. For instance, one fragment of one-half distal humerus received a value of one niSP and a preservation value of 50 percent. Each identified specimen was labelled using a permanent marker (Meadow 1980: 73). The labelling denotes the archaeological level and an identification number, ordered sequentially (e.g., H5/1, H5/2). The identification numbers were compiled into a computer database (using Microsoft Excel and Access programs) that included all the information of each identified specimen. Specimens that matched the protocol proposed by von den driesch (1976) were measured. abbreviations of the measured parts follow her method.1 Partially identified specimens are those that could not be identified to a body part or species. These were assigned to animal size-groups: small, medium or large (table 27.2). the ‘small’ class represents rodents or birds. the ‘medium’ class is the most common class, representing caprines, gazelles or dogs. the ‘large’ size class represents cattle, equines or pigs. bone scrap and bone splinters that could not be assigned to animal size-group were not recorded. eAxlelhAC AeyeeAaACAeAle the taxonomic determination was carried out using the bone reference collection located at the institute of archaeology at tel aviv university and at the department of evolution, Systematics and ecology at the hebrew university, Jerusalem. anatomical atlases of various species were also used (Parker et al. 1951; Schmid 1972; Sisson 1953; helmer and rocheteau 1994). Sheep bones were distinguished from those of goats using criteria proposed by boessneck (1969), Prummel and Frisch (1986), halstead, collins and Isaakidou (2002) and Balasse and Ambros (2005). Equid bones (donkey or horse) were identified based on criteria proposed by davis (1980).

1

i wish to thank Sivan einhorn for diligently carrying out the measurements.

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MORTALITy PROFILEs age at death of caprines and cattle was determined based on indices of epiphysial fusion (bullock and rackham 1982; Silver 1969) and teeth eruption and wear (deniz and Payne 1982; grant 1982; hillson 1986; Payne 1973; Greenfield and Arnold 2008). In the analysis of the dental data, a mandibula containing a single tooth or a number of teeth were treated as one specimen. In order to generate a mortality profile based on fusion, skeletal elements were grouped into four age categories: skeletal elements that fuse at the age of 6–10 months (scapula, distal humerus, proximal radius and pelvis); 13–16 months (phalanx i and ii); 18–28 months (distal metapodials and distal tibia); and 30–42 months (calcaneus, ulna, distal femur, proximal femur, proximal humerus, distal radius and proximal tibia). For a better comparison with the dental data, the first two age categories (6–10 and 13–16 months) were combined into one category (6–16 months). consequently, both sets of data allowed the analysis of mortality profiles that were based on three primary age groups: juvenile animals (up to one year of age), sub-adults (1–3 years of age) and adults older than three years (marom and bar-oz 2009; Payne 1973; Sasson 2008). Foetal bones were identified and age was estimated based on data provided by Prummel (1987a; Prummel 1987b; 1988). QTAeeAaACAeAle Various quantification methods were used in this research. The NISP (Number of Identified Specimens) is the most common quantification method used in zooarchaeological studies (Grayson 1984: 17–34; Reitz and Wing 1999: 191–202). It represents the total number of identified skeletal elements (e.g., distal tibia) and their side in a skeleton, if applicable (i.e., right or left). mni (minimum number of individuals) represents a firm minimum number of animals that can be derived from a bone assemblage based on the most frequent skeletal element (and siding) per taxon (ringrose 1993: 126–127; lyman 1994a). mau (minimum animal units) values are derived from the niSP values. they are calculated by dividing the observed bone count for a given identification unit by the total number of this skeletal element in the anatomy of a complete animal (Binford 1978: 70). The %MAU is a standardized MAU value (Binford 1978: 69–72; lyman 1994a: 57). it is calculated by dividing all observed mau values by the greatest observed mau value and multiplying it by 100 to scale the values between 0 and 100 (e.g., table 27.17). the mne (minimum number of elements) denotes the minimum number of a particular skeletal element within a taxon. it is derived by tallying the percentage of preservation (see above) for each measured portion of a skeletal element and then dividing it by 100 (bunn and Kroll 1986; marean 1991; reitz and Wing 1999: 215–216; Klein and cruz-uribe 1984: 108). For instance, four distal femora that have preservation values of 30, 50, 70 and 80 percent, equate to an mne value of 2.3 (230/100) and niSP of 4. TAPHOnOMIC InvEsTIgATIOn the purpose of the taphonomic analysis is to investigate a sequence of agents that altered the bone assemblage from the phase in which animals were slaughtered to the phase in which their remains reached the zooarchaeological lab. the taphonomic study was carried out on the primary species found at megiddo – caprines and cattle. various taphonomic indices and were applied in this study.

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For the cut mark analysis, the frequency of cut marks (by percentage) was calculated by dividing the number of specimens bearing cut marks by the total number of specimens (niSP) in each anatomical category.2 in order to study the relationship between body-part representation and its food utility, i used the Modified General Utility Index (MGUI; Binford 1978: 72–74) and the Standardized Food Utility Index (SFui; metcalfe and Jones 1988). mgui relates to particular fragments (e.g., distal femur) and SFui relates to complete bones (e.g., femur). the mgui and SFui values were standardized on a scale of 1–100 and were converted to %MGUI and %SFUI. The values for complete bones were calculated by tallying the total niSP per complete skeletal unit. For instance, the niSP for the complete femora was reconstructed from the number of distal femora, proximal femora and femur shafts. binford (1981: 218) measured the Survival Percentage (SP) for sheep skeletal elements after dog ravaging. this index was used in order to test the possible destruction of the megiddo bone assemblage by dogs. behrensmeyer (1975: 572) constructed a Saturated Weight index (SWi) for complete skeletal elements of sheep (see also todd and Frison 1986: 67–68). the SWi values were standardized on a scale of 1–100 and were used to test the effect of fluvial transport processes on the bone assemblage. the effect of density-mediated attrition on the faunal remains was tested using the Structural density index composed by binford and bertram (1977). this index measures the ratio of bone mass to its volume and is normally displayed in gram/cubic centimeter (see also behrensmeyer 1975; brain 1969). the advantage of this index is that it covers most skeletal elements commonly found at tell sites. Fragmentation ratios were computed by dividing niSP by mne. a higher niSP:mne ratio indicates a higher fragmentation. the percentage of freshly broken skeletal elements was derived from the total niSP per skeletal element (sometimes called an mne). the relationship between bone size and its representation in the zooarchaeological record was studied. each cattle skeletal element was divided by the total niSP of caprines and cattle per skeletal element. the results are presented as the percentage of cattle of the total caprines and cattle per skeletal element. yxCAaAeAle AeyAy Aee yeeAeAyeAaAA all iron age layers reported here, except for level l-3 (Palace 6000), level l-2 and probably level m-4 are domestic. the analysis of the faunal remains focuses on periods rather than archaeological areas. each level is analyzed separately even when the size (niSP) of the bone assemblage in some levels was relatively small and did not allow a thorough analysis (early iron iib and late iron iib for instance). combining data from different layers of the same phase of the iron age (iron i, iron ii) would have generated a larger sample size for statistical analysis. however, treating animal bones that were ‘produced’ by people from different periods and perhaps different cultures as one analytical unit does not make sense and would fail to provide anthropological insight. however, in order to draw an economic and cultural picture of a particular horizon it is reasonable to combine data from various excavation areas (e.g., levels h-9, K-4, m-4) while recognizing that these originated from different structures and parts of the mound that could have been inhabited by people of different socio-economic backgrounds. considering that the

2

the statistical analysis was carried out using the PaSt statistical software (hammer 2001).

1134

CAAaeye ha: aATeAe e yhAAey aelh eAy A ele Ayy eyayey

archaeological horizon is homogeneous (e.g., domestic), combining data from various excavation areas would allow a large sample for analysis. ABBREvIATIOns in charts presenting skeletal elements, d refers to distal (e.g., tibia d=distal tibia) and P refers to proximal (e.g., Tibia P=proximal tibia). In charts presenting mortality profiles, UF refers to unfused bones. In tables presenting cut and chop marks, P chop refers to parallel chopping. in tables where the sample size was too small for analysis, the data were replaced by the term n/a (not applicable). other abbreviations discussed above are listed here again for the reader’s convenience: NISP=Number of Identified Specimens; mni=minimum number of individuals; mau=minimum animal units; mne=minimum number of Elements; MGUI=Modified General Utility Index; SFUI=Standardized Food Utility Index; SP=Survival Percentage; SWi=Saturated Weight index.

RESULTS OvERvIEW the iron age faunal assemblage of tel megiddo comprises 30,060 specimens. area h, with 13,995 bones and area K, with 9,231 bones contributed the largest number of bones. level l-2 contributed only four identified specimens to the analysis, while the largest number was retrieved from Level K-4 – 1,552 identified bones (table 27.2). the study of the ‘a’ loci from area K revealed the remains of 29 small animals, 3,021 medium mammals and 256 large mammals. two pig bones, two donkey bones and three dog teeth were also recovered from these loci. Primary bone modification is presented in Fig. 27.1. Cut and chop marks, as well as gnaw marks will be discussed with regard to period. the relative frequency of fresh breaks accruing during excavation ranges between 39% (Level H-6) and 63% (Level L-5) with a mean of 50%. measurable bones for all species appear in appendix 27.1, based on the area in which they were found. table 27.2: number oF Studied boneS, loci and baSKetS by area Level/Phase

ID

small animal

Medium mammal

Large mammal

Partly id

grand Total

h-3

137

1

219

47

267

404

h-4

156

1

307

51

359

515

h-5

799

16

986

271

1,273

2,072

h-6

350

11

473

74

558

908

h-7

513

14

601

132

747

1,260

h-8

124

1

167

44

212

336

h-9

686

33

1,868

298

2,199

2,885

h a’s

0

77

4,621

917

5,615

5,615

h total

2,765

154

9,242

1,834

11,230

13,995

m-4

334

4

429

103

536

870

m a’s

0

1

109

13

123

123

1135

A AAele yAyyle

Level/Phase

ID

small animal

Medium mammal

Large mammal

Partly id

grand Total

m total

334

5

538

116

659

993

K-2

6

0

0

0

0

6

K-3

253

2

413

94

509

762

K-4

1,552

20

2,014

439

2,473

4,025

K-5

414

2

556

160

718

1,132

K a’s

0

29

3,021

256

3,306

3,306

K total

2,225

53

6,004

949

7,006

9,231

F5

95

11

160

26

197

292

F a’s

0

26

1,430

166

1,622

1,622

F total

95

37

1,590

192

1,819

1,914

l-2

4

0

0

0

0

4

l-3

95

0

184

50

234

329

l-5

85

2

134

47

183

268

l a’s

0

53

2,556

717

3,326

3,326

l total

184

55

2,874

814

3,743

3,927

grand Total

5,603

304

20,248

3,905

24,457

30,060

The clean loci of the Iron Age strata (n=336) yielded over 5,600 identified bones and over 10,500 partlyidentified bones for analysis (Table 27.3). The Late Iron I stratum was excavated in five areas and contains the richest zooarchaeological assemblage (niSP=2742). other periods were apparent in fewer strata, and within these strata fewer bones were recovered. the early iron iib, for instance, is represented only in level h-4 and contributed a relatively small number of bones (niSP=141). as in most zooarchaeological assemblages from historical periods, caprines (sheep and goats; 69% on average) and cattle (22% on average) predominate (hesse and Wapnish 2002; Sasson 2005). the remains of birds (various species; n=72), pig (Sus scrofa; n=79), donkey (equus assinus; n=50) and dog (canis familiaris; n=57) are also present in all iron age levels, yet in negligible numbers (Fig. 27.2). other species such as rodents, reptiles and turtles are presented in table 27.4. table 27.3: number oF Studied boneS, loci and baSKetS by Period Period

ID

small animal

Medium mammal

Large mammal

Total of partly id

early iron i

416

2

556

160

718

late iron i

2,742

70

4,605

913

5,588

early iron iia

900

17

1,181

270

1,468

late iron iia

1,247

27

1,643

395

2,065

early iron iib

157

1

307

51

359

late iron iib

141

1

219

47

267

Total

5,603

118

8,511

1,836

10,465

1136

CAAaeye ha: aATeAe e yhAAey aelh eAy A ele Ayy eyayey

Fig. 27.1: Relative frequency of bone modification per stratum. Fresh=fresh breaks; cut=cut and chop marks; P chop= parallel chopping.

Fig. 27.2: relative frequency of the main species at iron age megiddo.

1137

A AAele yAyyle

table 27.4: number oF identiFied SPecimenS (niSP) by Period (For elaborate taXonomy, See teXt) Early Iron I Late Iron I Early Iron Late Iron IIA IIA

Early Iron Late Iron IIB IIB

Total

Sheep (Ovis aries)

29

229

113

132

10

18

531

goat (Capra hircus)

35

170

77

135

13

16

446

Sheep/goat (Ovis/ Capra)

195

1,407

478

694

85

56

2,915

Period species

caprines total

195

1,407

478

694

85

56

2,915

cattle (Bos taurus)

128

693

166

230

31

28

1,276

donkey (Equus assinus) 9

22

6

6

1

6

50

2

34

15

16

6

3

76

birds (Aves) dog (Canis familiaris)

3

36

9

4

1

4

57

deer (Dama mesopotamica)

0

10

7

6

0

4

27

Swine (sus scrofa)

10

37

9

10

9

4

79

hare (Lepus sp.)

0

9

1

0

0

0

10

reptiles (Reptilia)

0

1

0

0

0

0

1

black rat (Rattus rattus)

0

3

3

6

0

1

13

house mouse (Mus musculus)

0

3

2

3

0

1

9

greek tortoise (Testudo 2 graeca)

5

5

1

0

0

13

gazelle (gazella gazella)

0

18

3

1

1

0

23

camel (Camelus dromedaries)

0

2

1

1

0

0

4

amphibians (Amphibia) 1

0

0

0

0

0

1

Fish

1

63

5

2

0

0

71

Total ID

350

2,280

705

978

134

107

4,554

CAPRInE/CATTLE RATIO the caprine/cattle ratio is discussed here as the percentage of cattle of the total number of caprine and cattle bones. The cattle proportion per period ranges between 20% (early Iron IIA and late Iron IIA) and 33% (early Iron I; Fig. 27.3). The cattle proportion, as reflected in the MNI count, does not correlate with the niSP count per period, yet points to a similar pattern. based on the mni count, the cattle proportion ranges between 19% (late Iron I) and 33% (early Iron I and late Iron IIB; Table 27.5). Cattle proportion in most areas (excluding Levels H-8 and L-3) also ranges between 20% and 33% (Fig. 27.4).

1138

CAAaeye ha: aATeAe e yhAAey aelh eAy A ele Ayy eyayey

Fig. 27.3: the relative frequency of cattle and sheep by level.

Fig. 27.4: the relative frequency of cattle and sheep by period.

sHEEP/gOAT RATIO the sheep/goat ratio is discussed here as the percentage of sheep of the total number of discernible sheep and goat bones. Some of the strata provided a relatively small sample size for analysis. the early iron iib provided only 23 specimens that could be separated into either sheep or goats and the late iron iib provided only 34 specimens. Nevertheless, the sheep/goat ratio obtained from these strata is not significantly different from that of the other Iron Age strata. The sheep percentage ranges between 43% (early Iron IIB) and 59% (early Iron IIA; Fig. 27.3). The percentage of sheep is also presented based on period (Fig. 27.4).

1139

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table 27.5: minimum number oF individualS (mni) For caPrineS and cattle by Period Period

Caprine MnI

Cattle MnI

% cattle

early iron i

6

3

33

late iron i

38

9

19

early iron iia

15

4

21

late iron iia

13

5

28

early iron iib

3

1

25

late iron iib

4

2

33

MORTALITy PROFILEs The mortality profile based on epiphysial fusion is presented here as the percentage of unfused bones out of the total number of bones that could be inspected for epiphysial fusion (tables 27.6, 27.10). CAaeAeyy the common pattern that arises from the mortality curves per period is striking (Fig. 27.5). in all iron age strata, the percentage of unfused bones in the 30–42 month age category is considerably high and ranges between 46% in the early Iron IIA and 70% in the early Iron I and the late Iron IIB. This means that a large number of caprines did not survive past 3.5 years, indicating culling of sub-adults and juveniles. a high ratio of adult sheep compared to goats may point to specialization in wool production (Sasson 2010: 65–66). While most strata did not provide sufficient data for comparing mortality profiles of sheep and goats, the late iron i stratum provided 234 bones of either sheep or goats and was the only stratum suitable for analysis (Table 27.7). Comparison of sheep and goats mortality profiles in this period shows similar culling rates of sheep and goats in three of four age categories, including the adult age category (Fig. 27.6). A separation of the mortality profiles for sheep and goats may in fact indicate that mortality profiles of the two species combined, particularly in the adult age group, should not necessarily point to specialization in wool production. the proportions of unfused bones in the juvenile age category (6–10 months) are relatively consistent in most periods and ranges between 18% and 26%. In the late Iron IIA, however, 43% of the bones were found unfused, and in the late iron iib none of the bones were found unfused. in the sub-adult age category (13–28 months), the proportion of the unfused bones ranges between 23% and 38% in most periods, with 54% of the unfused bones appearing in the early Iron II. To summarize, most epiphysial fusion data in all periods point to intensive culling of sub-adults (Fig. 27.5). the dental data per period is presented in table 27.8. it should be noted that the early iron iib (n=12) and late iron iib (n=11) were excluded from the analysis due to their small sample size. a clear parity between the dental and the epiphysial fusion data can be observed in the adult age category. based on the dental data, the adult age group is the smallest among all age categories and ranges between 16% (late Iron IIA) and 34% (early Iron IIA; Fig. 27.7). The dental data support the notion that only a small number of caprines was culled in adulthood. the proportions of the juvenile age category, according dental data, are similar to the epiphysial fusion data and range between 22% and 35%. According to the dental data

1140

CAAaeye ha: aATeAe e yhAAey aelh eAy A ele Ayy eyayey

the proportions of the sub-adult age category are fairly consistent and range between 42% and 49% (Fig. 27.7), and they coincide with the epiphysial fusion data. To conclude, both epiphysial fusion and dental data indicate a culling rate of 18% to 35% for juvenile caprines and 31% to 54% for sub-adults. A relatively small component of the herd was retained to an age of beyond 3.5 years. a substantial number of newborn (late foetal or neonatal) caprine bones were recovered in the late iron i (n=22), early iron iia (n=23) and the late iron iia (n=60; table 27.9). according to Prummel (1987a; 1987b; 1988), most of these bones came from fetuses that were 134–142 days old, and were thus in the last phase before birth. it is possible therefore that these bones actually came from neonatal caprines, 0–2 months old. due to our assumption that these caprines died of natural causes, and not as a result of culling, these specimens were excluded from the mortality profiles. The MNI for the foetal caprines in the early Iron I is one; two in the late Iron I; three in the early Iron IIA; and five in the late Iron IIA.

Fig. 27.5: Mortality profile of caprines based on epiphysial fusion. Ages are in months. Note that the age groups 13–16 and 18–28 months (table 27.6) were combined into one age group –13–28 months.

table 27.6: age at death oF caPrineS baSed on ePiPhySial FuSion Age in months

Total inspected bones

6-10

13-16

18-28

30-42

n. of uF bones

4

5

10

21

total bones

22

22

18

30

%UF early Iron I

18.2

22.7

55.6

70.0

n. of uF bones

42

39

48

150

total bones

161

169

113

229

%UF late Iron I

26.1

23.1

42.5

65.5

92

672

1141

A AAele yAyyle

Age in months

Total inspected bones

6-10

13-16

18-28

30-42

n. of uF bones

16

6

17

39

total bones

75

27

39

84

%UF early Iron IIA

21.3

22.2

43.6

46.4

n. of uF bones

26

6

11

35

total bones

61

49

24

66

%UF late Iron IIA

42.6

12.2

45.8

53.0

n. of uF bones

2

4

3

5

total bones

9

7

6

8

%UF early Iron IIB

22.2

57.1

50.0

62.5

n. of uF bones

0

2

2

7

total bones

6

11

6

10

%UF late Iron IIB

0.0

18.2

33.3

70.0

225

200

30

33

table 27.7: age at death oF SheeP verSuS goatS in the late iron i Age (in months)

n. of inspected goat bones

% of unfused goat bones

n. of inspected sheep % of unfused sheep bones bones

6–10

22

0

21

5

13–16

51

12

64

14

18–28

24

33

29

34

30–42

17

29

16

31

table 27.8: age at death oF caPrineS baSed on dental data (FolloWing greenField and arnold 2008; Payne 1973) stage and age in A (0-2) months

B (2-6)

C (6-12) D (12-24) E (24-36) F (36-48) g (8-72) H (72-96) I (96-120) Total

early iron i

2

1

5

6

4

4

2

0

0

24

late iron i

3

6

24

38

14

15

13

5

4

122

early iron iia

2

3

2

9

5

6

3

0

2

32

late iron iia

6

6

16

34

5

6

1

2

4

80

early iron iib

3

2

6

0

1

0

0

0

0

12

late iron iib

0

0

2

9

0

0

0

0

0

11

1142

CAAaeye ha: aATeAe e yhAAey aelh eAy A ele Ayy eyayey

Fig. 27.6: Mortality profile of sheep versus goats in the late Iron I.

Fig. 27.7: Mortality profiles of caprines based on dental data.

1143

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table 27.9: Foetal caPrine boneS in variouS Strata skeletal element

Early Iron I

Late Iron I

Early Iron IIA

Late Iron IIA

astragalus

0

0

0

1

calcaneus

0

2

0

2

Femur

0

2

3

2

humerus

0

3

6

6

mandibula

0

0

0

5

metapodial

1

7

7

14

Pelvis

0

2

2

5

Phalanx i

0

1

1

1

radius

0

2

3

13

Scapula

0

1

1

9

tibia

0

2

0

0

occipitial

1

0

0

2

total

2

22

23

60

CAeeey The dental data did not provide large enough samples for generating a mortality profile. Hence, the cattle mortality profile is based on epiphysial fusion data. While mortality profiles were generated for all periods, the early Iron IIB and late Iron IIB did not provide sufficient data for analysis (Table 27.10). Cattle bones were grouped into two age categories: 7–18 months and 24–42 months, which allowed a larger sample for analysis in each category. Furthermore, a mortality profile based on these age groups provides a good indication of the primary use of cattle. While cattle at the age of 7–18 months were normally slaughtered for meat consumption, cattle older than 42 months were commonly used for labor and milk production (Sasson 2005; Sherratt 1983; vigne and helmer 2007). Figure 27.8 shows that in all periods only small component of the cattle herd was culled at a young age. in early iron i, early iron iia and late iron iib, most cattle were retained to adulthood while in late Iron I and late Iron IIA only 50% of the adult age category survived beyond 3.5 years (Fig. 27.8). the data from late iron i and late iron iia in quite uncommon and may indicate an increased focus on meat production and less use of cattle for agricultural purposes (for discussion on the use of cattle and comparison with other sites see Sasson 2005). table 27.10: age at death oF cattle baSed on ePiPhySial FuSion Age (in months)

Total inspected bones

7-18

24-42

n. of uF bones

5

6

total bones

24

23

%UF early Iron I

21

26

n. of uF bones

15

53

total bones

146

106

1144

47

252

CAAaeye ha: aATeAe e yhAAey aelh eAy A ele Ayy eyayey

Age (in months) 7-18

Total inspected bones 24-42

%UF late Iron I

11.5

50

n. of uF bones

4

7

total bones

27

26

%UF early Iron IIA

15

27

n. of uF bones

2

13

total bones

45

25

%UF late Iron IIA

4

52

n. of uF bones

0

0

total bones

0

0

%UF early Iron IIB

0

0

n. of uF bones

0

1

total bones

1

9

%UF late Iron IIB

0

13

53

70

0

10

Fig. 27.8: Mortality profile of cattle based on epiphysial fusion.

TAPHOnOMIC InvEsTIgATIOn the taphonomic investigation of the iron age faunal remains follows a model suggested by me elsewhere (Sasson 2010: 93–107) and examines four phases and a sequence of agents that may have altered the bone assemblage from the time the animals were slaughtered to the time their remains reached the zooarchaeological laboratory. In the first phase, the death assemblage (Klein and Cruz-Uribe 1984: 3), the representation of body parts and their food utility was examined. in addition, a quantitative analysis of cut marks produced during butchery was carried out. these methods provide us with a good indication of the

1145

A AAele yAyyle

utilization of caprines and cattle and of the effect of the human factor (the tel megiddo inhabitants) on the bone assemblage. the subsequent phase examined pre-depositional agents such as dog ravaging and fluvial transportation processes that may have affected the bone assemblage. In the third phase, the fossil assemblage, the relationship between post-depositional processes (i.e., site formation) and bone attrition and fragmentation was studied. In the fourth and final phase, two factors related to the archaeological excavation were studied: fresh breaks (of bones) caused during the archaeological process and the relationship between bone size and the retrieval of bones during the archaeological dig. the analysis of body part representation is based on the niSP per skeletal element and is presented in table 27.11. in most periods, a strong correlation was found between the niSP per skeletal element of caprines and cattle (table 27.12, column 1).

1146

table 27.11: niSP Per SKeletal element oF caPrineS and cattle Early Iron I

Late Iron I

Early Iron IIA

Late Iron IIA

Early Iron IIB

Late Iron IIB

Caprine Cattle

% cattle Caprine Cattle of total

% cattle Caprine Cattle of total

% cattle Caprine Cattle of total

% cattle Caprine Cattle of total

% cattle Caprine Cattle of total

% cattle of total

astragalus

8

4

33

65

18

22

24

4

14

20

1

5

6

0

0

7

2

22

atlas+axis

5

4

44

34

8

19

10

1

9

9

4

31

1

1

50

1

0

0

calcaneum

6

7

54

56

12

18

4

5

56

11

5

31

1

0

0

3

2

40

Femur d

4

4

50

51

11

18

17

4

19

15

3

17

1

0

0

2

0

0

Femur P

9

1

10

42

20

32

18

2

10

17

3

15

3

0

0

5

0

0

humerus d

10

5

33

70

16

19

31

6

16

29

6

17

3

1

25

2

0

0

humerus P

6

1

14

16

2

11

10

1

9

5

1

17

2

1

33

0

0

0

mandibula

14

8

36

68

39

36

20

6

23

66

7

10

5

1

17

2

0

0

metacarpal d 5

4

44

45

15

25

9

4

31

5

7

58

3

0

0

1

1

50

metacarpal P 2

1

33

45

15

25

6

5

45

16

3

16

2

0

0

4

2

33

metatersal d 4

3

43

35

14

29

16

4

20

5

7

58

4

0

0

2

2

50

metatarsal P 3

4

57

29

16

36

12

3

20

13

5

28

4

0

0

0

0

0

Pelvis

12

4

25

105

25

19

42

4

9

35

12

26

6

0

0

1

0

0

Phalanx i

17

7

29

124

63

34

27

7

21

29

21

42

8

0

0

8

0

0

Phalanx ii

5

7

58

60

44

42

4

8

67

24

12

33

0

0

0

3

1

25

Phalanx iii

2

5

71

34

31

48

5

0

0

5

5

50

0

2

100

2

0

0

radius d

2

1

33

29

12

29

18

3

14

16

1

6

2

0

0

0

1

100

radius P

11

1

8

28

16

36

24

2

8

20

3

13

1

2

67

0

0

0

Scapula

9

8

47

76

17

18

27

3

10

37

9

20

6

0

0

5

1

17

tibia d

10

2

17

47

14

23

16

5

24

15

2

12

2

0

0

4

2

33

tibia P

5

4

44

38

14

27

10

1

9

6

3

33

1

0

0

0

1

100

tarsal

5

2

29

35

14

29

6

6

50

10

7

41

4

0

0

3

0

0

caudal

1

0

0

10

11

52

5

0

0

3

2

40

1

0

0

0

0

0

cervical

3

0

0

19

3

14

5

2

29

5

4

44

0

2

100

0

0

0

CAAaeye ha: aATeAe e yhAAey aelh eAy A ele Ayy eyayey

1147

skeletal Element

Early Iron I

Late Iron I

Caprine Cattle

% cattle Caprine Cattle of total

% cattle Caprine Cattle of total

% cattle Caprine Cattle of total

% cattle Caprine Cattle of total

% cattle Caprine Cattle of total

% cattle of total

lumbar

3

2

40

29

18

38

12

6

33

17

13

43

1

3

75

1

1

50

thorasic

1

2

67

25

13

34

9

2

18

17

6

26

5

0

0

0

1

100

cranium

11

3

21

54

16

23

22

6

21

40

6

13

4

1

20

2

0

0

teeth

53

17

24

257

108

30

173

39

18

293

32

10

20

4

17

19

5

21

Sesamoid

1

1

50

10

1

9

1

0

0

1

0

0

0

1

100

0

0

0

Patella

1

2

67

12

1

8

5

3

38

5

1

17

0

0

0

0

0

0

rib

2

3

60

36

18

33

10

11

52

26

13

33

3

4

57

1

0

0

carpal

2

4

67

27

21

44

1

9

90

9

5

36

0

2

100

2

2

50

ulna

1

0

0

35

10

22

21

1

5

14

0

0

0

2

100

0

1

100

total

233

121

1646

656

620

163

838

209

99

27

80

25

37

Early Iron IIA

27

Late Iron IIA

24

Early Iron IIB

25

Late Iron IIB

26

24

A AAele yAyyle

1148

skeletal Element

CAAaeye ha: aATeAe e yhAAey aelh eAy A ele Ayy eyayey

PHAsE OnE: THE DEATH AssEMBLAgE CTe hAek AeAeAyAy The relative frequency of cut marks in most periods (apart from the late Iron IIB) ranges between 18% and 24% (Table 27.13; Figs. 27.9–27.10). TABLE 27.13: RELATIVE FREQUENCY (IN %) OF MODIFICATION MARKS BY PERIOD Fresh Break

Cut Marks

Parallel Chop

gnaw/Teeth

early iron i

57

19

2

4

late iron i

45

19

2

5

early iron iia

48

24

2

6

late iron iia

43

18

4

11

early iron iib

53

20

4

17

late iron iib

52

4

1

1

Cut marks were found on most skeletal elements, reflecting all principal phases of butchery: slaughter, skinning, dismemberment and filleting (Table 27.14; Binford 1981: 98–147; Lyman 1994b: 294–315). Some skeletal elements (such as the distal and proximal metatarsal of caprines in the early iron i and the late iron iib) do not show any cut marks. this is most likely the result of their small number in the bone assemblages (domínguez-rodrigo and yravedra 2009). domínguez-rodrigo and yravedra (2009) suggest that the total frequency of cut marks is initially determined by the percentage of cut marks on long bones. Their conclusion does not find support when testing the relationship between the relative frequencies of cut marks on long bone shafts of caprines and the total relative frequency of cut marks (table 27.14). no correlation was found between the two variants (r=0.3, p=0.623). on the other hand, the cattle data strongly support their conclusion (r=0.9, p=0.037). domínguez-rodrigo and yravedra also suggest a negative correlation between the number of carnivore tooth marks and the number of cut marks in the bone assemblage. this observation was not supported by the megiddo data (r=0.46, p=0.351). a moderate correlation was found between the relative frequency of cut marks per skeletal element of caprines and of cattle, indicating similar butchery patterns for both species (table 27.12, column 2). Skeletal elements were grouped into primary skeletal joints (table 27.14, lower section). a high frequency of cut marks was found on all joints in most periods, clearly reflecting skinning (cut marks on the wrist and ankle) and dismemberment. The finding of cut marks on all major regions of the skeleton, together with the fact that most skeletal elements are represented in the assemblage (see below the analysis of body-part representation) clearly indicates that caprines and cattle were butchered and consumed at the site in all iron age strata. aAeAeeye CAlaaAey chop marks were divided into two groups: those that during the initial inspection seem to be related to carcass disarticulation and those that did not seem to be related to the dismemberment process. The first group was included in the cut mark analysis. the second group of chop marks shows parallel chopping, i.e., chopping that is parallel to the long axis of the bone (Figs. 27.11–27.14). all iron age strata consist of specimens bearing parallel chopping (table 27.13). a total of 124 parallel chop marks were recorded.

1149

A AAele yAyyle

Most of them (56%) were found on cattle bones and the rest were found on sheep and goats (Table 27.15). ashby (2005; see also horwitz et al. 2006) suggests three stages of bone-tool production. the primary stage involved the initial chopping or sawing of complete bones into small, workable pieces. the secondary stage involved shaping the smaller pieces for the production of the final object, and the tertiary stage involved the shaping of the final bone-tool. While some of the cattle bones are likely related to the primary stage of production (Figs. 27.11, 27.13 – astragal and metatarsal), most of the parallel chopped bones of caprines and cattle should be related to the disarticulation of the skeleton (Figs. 27.12, 27.14–27.15). two facts rule out the existence of a bone workshop at tel megiddo: chopped bones were found spread over all of the excavated areas and in various loci (Fig. 27.1), and no substantial evidence for the secondary and tertiary stages was found. Parallel and longitudinal chopping was used for marrow extraction (bourdillon and coy 1980; martin 1998; rixson 1988) and for the disjointing of body parts such as the elbow (distal humerus and proximal radius and ulna) or the pelvis (proximal femur). the evidence of parallel chopping should therefore be related to isolated bone-tool production and to butchery (see above discussion on cut marks) and bone marrow processing. table 27.15: number oF Parallel choPPing marKS Per SPecieS sheep

goat

Caprine

Cattle

early iron i

0

0

1

8

late iron i

1

1

18

27

early iron iia

0

1

9

10

late iron iia

0

0

22

20

early iron iib

0

0

2

3

late iron iib

0

0

0

1

total

1

2

52

69

eleA-aAee eyaeyyyeeAeAle Aee alle TeAeAeA In order to study the body-part representation, NISP values were converted to %MAU of complete long bones (e.g., femur; table 27.16) and particular skeletal elements (e.g., distal femur; table 27.17). Following a model proposed by Binford (1978: 77–83), the %MAU values of complete bones of caprines and cattle were plotted against their %SFUI values, and the %MAU values for skeletal elements were plotted against their %MGUI values. This method allowed us to test the relationship between the relative frequency of skeletal elements and their utility index. the relationship between the two groups of variants is represented in a family of curves. the ‘gourmet’ curve represents preference for select body parts while the bulk curve represents consumption of high-utility body parts as well as body parts of moderate food utility. in most periods, a positive and statistically significant correlation was found between the MAU values for caprines and cattle and the SFui and mgui indices (table 27.12, columns 3–6). in strata where the correlation between %MAU and %MGUI or %SFUI was positive and significant, the scatter plots point to a bulk strategy and certainly negates a ‘gourmet’ strategy (due to the large number of scatter plots, they could not be presented here; see for instance Fig. 27.16).

1150

CAAaeye ha: aATeAe e yhAAey aelh eAy A ele Ayy eyayey

Fig. 27.9: cut-marked bones from the late iron i (level K-4).

1151

A AAele yAyyle

Fig. 27.10: cut-marked caprine bones from the late iron iia (level h-5).

Fig. 27.11: Parallel chopping of cattle distal humerus from the late iron i (level m-4).

1152

CAAaeye ha: aATeAe e yhAAey aelh eAy A ele Ayy eyayey

Fig. 27.12: chopped cattle bones from the late iron i (level K-4).

1153

A AAele yAyyle

Fig. 27.13: chopped cattle bones from the early iron i (level K-5).

1154

CAAaeye ha: aATeAe e yhAAey aelh eAy A ele Ayy eyayey

Fig. 27.14: chopped caprine bones from the late iron iia (level h-5).

Fig. 27.15: cleaved goat horncore from the early iron iia (level h-8).

1155

Anatomical Category (Complete bones)

Early Iron I

Late Iron I Early Iron Late Iron Early Iron Late Iron Early IIA IIA IIB IIB Iron I

Late Iron I Early Iron Late Iron Early Iron Late Iron IIA IIA IIB IIB

% MAU Caprine

% MAU Caprine

% MAU Caprine

% MAU Caprine

% MAU Caprine

% MAU Caprine

% MAU Cattle

% MAU Cattle

% MAU Cattle

% MAU Cattle

% MAU Cattle

% MAU Cattle

astragalus

38

49

35

30

75

88

33

44

44

6

0

n/a

axis + atlas

48

51

29

27

25

25

67

39

22

47

40

n/a

calcaneus

29

42

6

16

13

38

58

29

56

29

0

n/a

Femur

81

86

62

76

75

100

42

100

78

41

0

n/a

humerus

100

82

75

81

75

25

50

59

89

71

100

n/a

mandibula

67

51

29

99

63

25

67

95

67

41

20

n/a

metacarpal

38

70

25

57

63

88

42

73

100

53

20

n/a

metatarsal

33

70

49

45

88

38

100

88

100

100

40

n/a

Pelvis

57

78

61

52

75

13

33

61

44

71

0

n/a

Phalanx i

20

23

10

11

25

25

15

38

19

31

0

n/a

Phalanx ii

6

11

1

9

0

9

15

27

22

18

0

n/a

Phalanx iii

2

12

2

2

0

6

10

20

0

7

10

n/a

radius

90

100

100

100

38

38

17

98

67

35

40

n/a

Scapula

43

57

39

55

75

63

67

41

33

53

0

n/a

tibia

81

79

45

64

100

63

50

93

78

59

0

n/a

horn

19

19

12

16

0

13

8

12

11

18

0

n/a

occipitial

48

21

0

18

0

0

17

5

0

12

0

n/a

A AAele yAyyle

1156

TABLE 27.16: %MAU VALUES FOR COMPLETE SKELETAL ELEMENTS OF CAPRINES AND CATTLE

TABLE 27.17: %MAU VALUES FOR SKELETAL ELEMENTS OF CAPRINES AND CATTLE Anatomical Category

Early Iron I

Late Iron I Early Iron Late Iron Early Iron Late Iron Early IIA IIA IIB IIB Iron I

Late Iron I Early Iron Late Iron Early Iron Late Iron IIA IIA IIB IIB

% MAU Caprine

% MAU Caprine

% MAU Caprine

% MAU Caprine

% MAU Caprine

% MAU Caprine

% MAU Cattle

% MAU Cattle

% MAU Cattle

% MAU Cattle

% MAU Cattle

% MAU Cattle

astragal

47

62

52

30

100

100

50

46

67

8

n/a

n/a

atlas+axis

59

65

43

27

33

29

100

41

33

67

n/a

n/a

calcaneum

35

53

9

17

17

43

88

31

83

42

n/a

n/a

Femur d

35

59

46

38

33

43

50

41

67

33

n/a

n/a

humerus d

76

82

85

71

67

29

63

54

100

83

n/a

n/a

metacarpal d

35

45

22

18

50

86

50

38

67

58

n/a

n/a

metatersal d

24

45

43

15

50

29

75

44

83

50

n/a

n/a

12

43

50

35

17

14

13

33

50

17

n/a

n/a

65

55

41

47

67

57

25

49

83

42

n/a

n/a

mandibula

82

65

43

100

83

29

100

100

100

58

n/a

n/a

Pelvis

71

100

91

53

100

14

50

64

67

100

n/a

n/a

Phalanx i

25

30

15

11

33

29

22

40

29

44

n/a

n/a

Phalanx ii

7

14

2

9

0

11

22

28

33

25

n/a

n/a

Phalanx iii

3

16

3

2

0

7

16

21

0

10

n/a

n/a

Femur P

65

50

48

39

67

71

13

64

50

25

n/a

n/a

humerus P

47

23

28

11

33

0

13

8

33

17

n/a

n/a

metacarpal P

12

45

15

39

33

14

13

38

83

17

n/a

n/a

metatarsal P

18

45

30

30

67

14

75

49

67

92

n/a

n/a

radius+ulna P

100

85

100

67

33

29

13

69

50

33

n/a

n/a

tibia P

35

46

26

18

67

14

50

49

33

42

n/a

n/a

Scapula

53

72

59

56

100

71

100

44

50

75

n/a

n/a

1157

CAAaeye ha: aATeAe e yhAAey aelh eAy A ele Ayy eyayey

radius d tibia d

A AAele yAyyle

a

b

c

d

Fig. 27.16: late iron i: relative frequency of skeletal elements of caprines and cattle against their food utility. Scatter plots point to a bulk strategy and negate a gourmet strategy.

yeATyAeye laaAe Aee CleyThaeAle eyaTyy caprine and cattle skeletal elements were grouped into two categories: slaughter offal and consumption refuse (hellwing and gophna 1984; hesse and Wapnish 1985: 100–101). both categories are well represented in the bone assemblage (Table 27.18). The proportion of the slaughter offal ranges between 34% (early Iron IIA) and 56% (late Iron IIB) for caprines and between 32% (early Iron IIB) and 61% (early Iron I) for cattle. these facts clearly indicate that the primary food resources were slaughtered and consumed at the site as was concluded in the analysis of body-part representation and food utility. table 27.18: relative ProPortionS oF Slaughter oFFal and conSumPtion reFuSe For caPrineS and cattle % slaughter offal Caprine

% Consumption refuse Cattle

Caprine

Cattle

early iron i

43

61

57

39

late iron i

46

55

54

45

early iron iia

34

53

66

47

late iron iia

40

47

60

53

early iron iib

43

32

57

68

late iron iib

56

46

44

54

1158

CAAaeye ha: aATeAe e yhAAey aelh eAy A ele Ayy eyayey

PHAsE TWO: PRE-DEPOsITIOnAL AgEnTs ely eAaAyAey dog remains were recovered in all iron age strata (table 27.4). evidence of teeth or gnaw marks made by dogs were found on skeletal elements from all periods (table 27.13; Figs. 27.17–27.21). the relative frequency of skeletal elements of caprines and cattle in the iron age strata was tested against the survival percentage (SP) index generated by Binford (1981). A significant positive correlation was found between the two variants in all periods (table 27.12, columns 7–8). this clearly indicates that dogs were a key attritional agent and most likely had an impact on bone fragmentation (domínguez-rodrigo and yravedra 2009).

Fig. 27.17: gnawing marks on a pig humerus from the early iron iib (level h-4).

Fig. 27.18: teeth and gnawing marks on a pig metacarpal from the late iron iia (level h-5).

aeTaAAe eeAeyalee aelCyyyyy It is possible that the faunal remains were exposed to fluvial transport processes between the time in which they were discarded and the post-depositional phase. the relationship between the weight of a skeletal element and its representation in the bone assemblage was tested. the caprine bones, which are generally lighter compared to cattle, show in most periods a strong positive correlation between the saturated weight index (SWI) and %MAU (Table 27.12, column 9). The cattle bone assemblage shows a significant positive correlation between the two variants, yet not as profound (table 27.12, column 10). this analysis supports the idea that lighter skeletal elements were washed away from the residential (and excavated) area. cattle bones, which are heavier, were less affected by fluvial transport processes.

1159

A AAele yAyyle

Fig. 27.19: teeth marks on a distal and proximal femora from the late iron i (level K-4).

Fig. 27.20: teeth and gnawing marks on various caprine and cattle bones from the early iron iia (level K-3).

1160

CAAaeye ha: aATeAe e yhAAey aelh eAy A ele Ayy eyayey

Fig. 27.21: teeth and gnawing marks on various caprine and cattle bones from the late iron iia (level h-5).

PHAsE THREE: POsT-DEPOsITIOnAL AgEnTs eyeyAeA-hyeAAeye AeeeAeAle density-mediated attrition may be related to pre-depositional agents (such as dog ravaging). nonetheless, it is commonly attributed to post-depositional processes. the caprines and cattle bone assemblages show a strong positive correlation between bone density and the relative frequency of skeletal elements in most periods (table 27.12, columns 11–12). in other words, density-mediated attrition played a major role in altering the bone assemblage and generating an over-representation of dense skeletal elements. considering the major role of density-mediated attrition, it was studied in three areas that produced the largest numbers of faunal remains – areas h, K and m. in this study, caprine and cattle remains were treated as a single group and their %MAU was tested against the bone density index (Table 27.19). All areas show significant positive correlation between the two variants. It is apparent that density-mediated attrition was more effective in area h (r=0.77, p< 0.05) and in area K (r=0.77, p< 0.05) than in area m (r=0.54, p< 0.05).

1161

A AAele yAyyle

TABLE 27.19: RELATIVE FREQUENCY OF SKELETAL ELEMENTS (%MAU) OF CAPRINES and cattle in three eXcavation areaS skeletal Element

Area H %MAU

Area K %MAU

Area M %MAU

Bone density

astragalus

60.5

58.5

80.0

1.5

atlas+axis

54.8

71.7

26.7

1.5

calcaneum

36.3

50.9

33.3

1.6

Femur d

45.2

41.5

33.3

1.4

Femur P

42.7

56.6

26.7

1.5

humerus d

71.8

68.9

53.3

1.7

humerus P

19.4

17.9

0.0

0.9

mandibula

100.0

81.1

86.7

1.8

metacarpal d

29.0

47.2

53.3

1.4

metacarpal P

37.1

38.7

20.0

1.3

metatersal d

34.7

34.9

46.7

1.3

metatarsal P

36.3

32.1

33.3

1.4

Pelvis

91.1

100.0

100.0

1.7

Phalanx i

27.2

31.6

45.0

0.8

Phalanx ii

12.5

20.3

18.3

0.8

Phalanx iii

6.0

11.8

13.3

0.8

radius d

26.6

32.1

40.0

1.5

radius+ulna P

43.5

34.9

40.0

1.7

Scapula

76.6

74.5

93.3

1.7

tibia d

50.0

49.1

6.7

1.7

tibia P

17.7

50.9

33.3

1.4

eley aeAyhyeeAeAle bone fragmentation was measured as the ratio between niSP and mne of eight long bones (table 27.20). the results are not consistent within the iron age strata. in the late iron i, late iron iia and the late iron iib, the average fragmentation ratio of cattle is larger than that of caprines, while in the early iron i it is smaller. it should be noted that the early iron i produced a relatively small number of bones for analysis. the late iron i and early iron iia show a strong positive correlation between fragmentation ratios of caprines and cattle. the early iron i, on the other hand, shows a strong negative correlation and the late iron iia shows a non-significant correlation (Table 27.12, column 13). It is possible that the early Iron I differs in fragmentation patterns due to taphonomic agents. however, the study of density-mediated attrition and dog ravaging (which may be a factor in bone fragmentation) does not indicate significant differences between the early iron i and other strata.

1162

CAAaeye ha: aATeAe e yhAAey aelh eAy A ele Ayy eyayey

table 27.20: Fragmentation ratioS (miSP:mne) oF caPrineS and cattle long boneS skeletal Element

Early Iron I

Late Iron I

Early Iron IIA

Late Iron IIA

Early Iron IIB

Late Iron IIB

Caprine Cattle

Caprine Cattle

Caprine Cattle

Caprine Cattle

Caprine Cattle

Caprine Cattle

humerus P

2.4

1

2.4

3.8

2.1

7

2.5

4

1.7

7

n/a

n/a

humerus d 1.9

2

1.7

2.4

1.3

2

2.0

3

1.3

4

n/a

n/a

radius P

2.3

1

1.9

1.8

1.3

2

1.5

4

2.0

2

n/a

n/a

radius d

2.0

1

1.6

1.3

1.3

1

1.6

2

1.0

n/a

n/a

n/a

Femur P

2.3

3

2.1

2.5

1.6

4.3

2.3

1

2.4

n/a

n/a

n/a

Femur d

1.8

3

1.7

2.9

1.6

1.2

2.1

3

4.0

n/a

n/a

n/a

tibia P

2.2

2

1.8

2.5

1.8

5

3.8

3

4.4

n/a

n/a

n/a

tibia d

1.5

2

1.5

1.8

1.4

1.4

2.5

3

2.7

n/a

n/a

n/a

average

2.1

1.9

1.8

2.4

1.5

3

2.3

2.9

2.4

n/a

n/a

n/a

PHAsE FOUR: THE ARCHAEOLOgICAL ExCAvATIOn aeyyA eeyAky bone breakage during the archaeological dig and subsequent stages (e.g., transportation, storing) is widespread yet seldom studied (Sasson 2010: 103–105). the proportion of fresh breaks ranges between 43% in the late Iron IIA and 57% in early Iron I (Table 27.13; see also Fig. 27.1 for data per excavation area and level). all strata (that allowed adequate analysis) show that cattle bones suffered from fresh breaks more than caprines (table 27.21). a higher propensity of cattle bones to breakage was also observed in the analysis of bone fragmentation. obviously, some skeletal elements have a higher propensity to breakage than others. a comparison between the proportions of fresh breaks per skeletal element of caprines and cattle shows a strong positive correlation and suggests a pattern in breakage propensity (table 27.12, column 14). table 27.21: average oF FreSh breaKS on caPrineS and cattle boneS Per Period Fresh breaks average (%) Caprine

Cattle

early iron i

68

76

late iron i

55

62

early iron iia

58

62

late iron iia

50

61

early iron iib

n/a

n/a

late iron iib

n/a

n/a

ykyeyeAe yeyhyee yAzy the proportion of skeletal elements of cattle (by percentage) was computed by dividing the niSP of cattle by the total niSP of caprines and cattle for each skeletal element (table 27.11). the bone assemblages

1163

A AAele yAyyle

from all strata show an apparent pattern. Small skeletal elements of cattle, such as carpals, tarsals, caudal vertebrae, phalanx ii and phalanx iii are profoundly over-represented. For example, while cattle proportion per stratum ranges between 20% and 33%, the representation of the following small skeletal elements of cattle is considerably higher: 67% for cattle carpals in the early Iron I; 52% for caudal vertebrae in the late Iron I; 67% for phalanx II in the early Iron IIA; 50% for phalanx III in the late Iron IIA; 100% for carpals in the early Iron IIB and 50% for carpals in the late Iron IIB. Over-representation of small skeletal elements of cattle in excavations where sieving is not commonly practiced is well known (see for instance raban-gerstel et al. 2008: 15; crabtree 1996; Zeder 1991: 103, grigson 2006: 216, 234). RARE sPECIEs as mentioned above, caprines and cattle predominate in all iron age bone assemblage. the general distribution of the rare species per stratum is presented in table 27.4. additional information is presented below. measurable bones of these species appear in appendix 27.1. ywAey (yTy yCelaA) the discrimination of wild and domestic pig is normally based on morphometric parameters. most of the swine bones were not measurable (appendix 27.1). Skeletal elements that could be measured did not match the criteria for distinguishing wild from domestic pig (Payne and bull 1988). nonetheless, it would be safe to assume that if pigs were bred for consumption at tel megiddo, the relative frequency of their remains would be higher than one percent (for similar observation see raban-gerstel et al. 2008). this assumption is supported by evidence from sites with a high frequency of pig bones (e.g., horwitz 1989; lev-tov 2000; russell and buitenhuis 2008). due to the small sample size, it was not possible to produce a mortality profile of swine per period. However, it is worth noting that of 43 specimens that could be inspected for epiphysial fusion, 23 were found unfused. this fact indicates that most individuals were hunted before reaching 3 years of age (bull and Payne 1982). evidence of dog gnawing was found on eight pig bones (see, for example, Figs. 27.17–27.18). Dogs are normally attracted to bones within the first eight hours after the bones are discarded (munson and garniewicz 2003). this may suggest that these bones belonged to swine that were consumed at the site. on the other hand, a very small number of cut marks (n=5) was found on swine bones, which indicates that swine butchery was uncommon. the mni for swine was determined as two in the late iron i (based on left proximal ulnae) and one in all other periods. ely (CAeAy aAhAeAAeAy) the mni for dog was determined as four in the late iron i (based on right distal humeri) and one in all other periods. two of the canine bones from the late iron i may belong to a wolf (Canis lupus). despite the small number of dog remains, they left a prominent signature (represented by teeth and gnaw marks) on many bones and in all strata (Figs. 27.1, 27.17–27.21, table 27.13). of the 36 canine bones from the late Iron I, 11 were found unfused, indicating death in the first year of life (Silver 1969). Two proximal ulnae from the late iron i (levels K-4 and h-9) were found with cut marks. cut marks were also found on a distal humerus and distal femur from the early iron iia (level h-7). these bones were found in a single locus and may belong to the same individual (Fig. 27.22). While the appearance of cut marks on dog bones is intriguing, no viable conclusions can be drawn based on four specimens.

1164

CAAaeye ha: aATeAe e yhAAey aelh eAy A ele Ayy eyayey

Fig. 27.22: dog’s distal humerus and distal femur from the early iron iia (level h-7). note the cut marks on both specimens.

elekyA (yQTTy AyyAeTy) Aee CAhye (CAhyeTy eelhyeAeAyy) camel remains were found in three iron age strata and donkey remains were found in all iron age strata. both species are represented in very small numbers (table 27.4). most of the remains of these species comprise teeth and toes (phalanx bones; see for example Fig. 27.23). the mni for donkey and camel in all strata is one. donkeys and camels are normally represented in small numbers in iron age (hesse and Wapnish 2002). Since these species were not exploited for food, their small number should not indicate the intensity of their use.

Fig. 27.23: Phalanx i of a donkey from the late iron iib (level h-3).

yAzyeey (yAzyeeA yAzyeeA) Aee eyye (CyeaAeAy ya.) deer and gazelle remains were found in most strata. their mni was determined as one for each layer. most of deer remains were identified as the Persian fallow deer (Dama mesopotamica). two specimens from the late Iron I and another two from the late Iron IIA were identified as red deer (Cervus elaphus; Fig. 27.24). cut marks were found on some of the gazelle and deer bones indicating they were butchered and consumed.

1165

A AAele yAyyle

Fig. 27.24: red deer antler from the early iron iia (level h-7).

yhAee aATeA the general representation of amphibians, birds, reptiles and small mammals is shown in table 27.4 and Fig. 27.2. additional taxonomic details are provided below. A radius and ulna of a fire salamander (salamandra salamandra) were recovered from early iron i strata. a mandible (with intact teeth) of a common (mediterranean) chameleon (Chamaeleo chamaeleon) was found from the late iron i (level K-4). greek tortoise (Testudo graeca) remains were found mostly in the iron i and iron iia strata. the remains include mainly tortoise shells (Fig. 27.25). bird bones were found in all iron age strata. From the early iron i, one bone (distal humerus) was identified as goose (Anser sp.) and another was identified as black kite (Milvus migrans). From the late Iron I, ten bones were identified as partridge (Alectoris sp.); three as goose (Anser sp.); three as white stork (Ciconia ciconia); three as common crane (grus grus) and two as common raven (Corvus corax). Other specimens could not be identified as to species. From the early Iron IIA, five bones were identified as partridge (Alectoris sp.); two as goose (Anser sp.); two as white stork (Ciconia ciconia) and one as lapwing (vanellus sp.). Four (partridge-size) specimens could not be identified as to species. From the late Iron IIA, four bones were identified as white stork (Ciconia ciconia); three as partridge (Alectoris sp.) and two as goose (Anser sp.). Six specimens (three partridge-size and three dove-size) could not be identified as to species. From the early Iron IIB, two bones were identified as partridge (Alectoris sp.). Four specimens (two partridge-size and two dove-size) could not be identified as to species. From the late Iron IIB, two bones were identified as white stork (Ciconia ciconia) and one (partridge-size) specimen could not be identified as to species. remains of black rat (Rattus rattus) and house mouse (Mus musculus) were found in most iron age strata (table 27.4). nine bones of a common (brown) hare (Lepus capensis) were found from the late iron i and one bone of this species was found from the late iron iia. BOnE TOOLs the faunal remains from iron age megiddo exhibit evidence for bone tool production (see discussion on parallel chopping). Two specimens from the late Iron Age strata represent the final product, a decorated proximal metacarpal that probably was used as a handle (Fig. 27.26) and sheep metacarpal, which may have been used as a measuring tool with carved lines on the lateral and medial sides (Fig. 27.27).

1166

CAAaeye ha: aATeAe e yhAAey aelh eAy A ele Ayy eyayey

Fig. 27.25: greek tortoise (Testudo graeca) shell from the late iron i (level K-4).

Fig. 27.26: decorated caprine metacarpal from the late iron i (level K-4).

Fig. 27.27: distal metacarpal of sheep from the late iron i (level h-9) punctured by a dog tooth. note the sequence of marks on the shaft, indicating it might have been used for measuring.

1167

A AAele yAyyle

DISCUSSION: THE ECONOMY OF IRON AGE MEGIDDO CATTLE HUsBAnDRy the relative frequency of cattle in all iron age strata of tel megiddo (table 27.5; Fig. 27.3) coincides with the model proposed by Sasson (2005; 2010: 42–60). according to this model, the survival subsistence strategy was prevalent in the iron age. it is characterized by striving to preserve subsistence resources and minimize risks. cattle were the primary plow beasts and were vital in maintaining dry farming. however, cattle husbandry was a complicated and precarious investment because of their demand for abundant pasturage and water (dahl and hjort 1976: 239–243; ayoub and alward 1996; rosen 1994). consequently, in order to preserve subsistence resources, the relative frequency of cattle in most regions of the southern Levant (including the Central Hill Country) do not normally exceed 15%. A cattle proportion of 20% or more can be observed on the coastal Plain, the Shephelah and the northern valleys (which includes the Jezreel valley). the carrying capacity for rearing cattle in these regions is considerably larger than in other regions (Seligman et al. 1959; Sasson 2005), which allows cattle breeding in larger numbers without endangering subsistence resources. additional support for this model can be found in a recent study by raban-gerstel et al. (2008), which shows 24% cattle in Iron Age Tel Dor, located on the Coastal Plain. cattle were put to work at around the age of four (heimpel 1995: 134–135; Sherratt 1981; Sasson 2005 and see more references there). thus, if cattle were retained to an age older than 42 months it points to their use for plowing. Cattle mortality profiles in the early Iron I, early Iron IIA and the late Iron IIB coincide with this model. in the late iron i and the late iron iia, however, high culling rates of cattle younger than 42 months can be observed (50% and 52%, respectively). This fact does not negate the use of cattle for plowing, but it may suggest a greater focus on meat production. another idea should also be considered: the late iron iia shows a high rate of culling of young caprine and a large number of foetal bones. a relatively high number of foetal bones can be observed in the late iron i as well. the calving season for caprines and cattle is normally in the spring and both species are characterized by high mortality of yearlings (cribb 1991: 29; dahl and hjort 1976: 33–37). the late iron i and late iron iia ended in destruction (Finkelstein, ussishkin, and halpern 2006). it is thus reasonable to assume that the large proportion of young caprines and cattle bones reflects the season of the destruction. In other words, the season with the high morality rates of juveniles indicates when the cities represented by these strata were destroyed. The taphonomic study shows that bone fragmentation, fresh breaks, fluvial transport and bone retrieval during the archaeological dig affected the cattle and the caprine bone assemblages differently. in some strata, all taphonomic agents were involved, and in others, only some agents were effective. hence, it would be safe to conclude that taphonomic processes generated an over-representation of cattle in all periods. this fact provides additional support to the idea that cattle were bred in small numbers in order to maintain the survival subsistence strategy (Sasson 2010: 102–107). CAPRInE HUsBAnDRy the caprine data from iron age megiddo underlines the complexity of the zooarchaeological analysis. the sheep/goat ratio shows relatively small proportions of sheep in all periods. in some periods goats outnumber sheep (table 27.4). in the equilibrium between production (of meat, milk or wool) and herd security (i.e., survival), goats represent the focus on survival due to their greater resistance to harsh climates (redding 1984; Sasson 2008). We may conclude, therefore, that in all iron age strata, the inhabitants of megiddo

1168

CAAaeye ha: aATeAe e yhAAey aelh eAy A ele Ayy eyayey

maintained a survival subsistence strategy (Sasson 2010: 119–123). However, the mortality profiles based on epiphysial fusion data may point to a different picture. Mortality profiles of caprines were discussed recently by marom and bar-oz (2009) and by me (Sasson 2008). according to my view, mortality curves should be interpreted in light of herd management, rather than specialization in primary or secondary products (e.g., meat, milk or wool). according to marom and bar-oz (2009: 1185 and see also cribb 1984), “an archaeozoological analyst may derive a survivorship curve from his age-at-death data which he may alternatively interpret as specialized production of meat, milk, wool, or the promotion of herd security – all within the statistical error margin of 0.05”. In other words, mortality curves should show a significantly higher proportion of one or more of the age groups in order to indicate specialization in food production. Most zooarchaeological reports do not provide us with such profiles (Sasson 2008). The epiphysial fusion data from Megiddo, however, show 66%–70% unfused bones in the adult age category in most periods, indicating that only a small component of the herd survived beyond 3.5 years (Fig. 27.5; see also marom and Bar-Oz 2009: 1186). It should be noted that ethnographic sources show a life cycle of five years for caprines. the maximum age for caprines usually corresponds with the end of productive life, around 5 years of age (cribb 1991: 29; Sasson 2006 and see more references there). it is possible that the life cycle for caprines in iron age megiddo was shorter. based on the combined dental and epiphysial fusion data (Figs. 27.5, 27.7) we may conclude that around 20%–30% of the caprines died or were culled in their first year, a large component of the herd (40%–50%) was culled at sub-adult age and 20%–30% were culled at the end of their productive life, around 3.5 years of age. This mortality profile reflects optimal utilization of caprine products (e.g., meat, milk and wool) and regulation of herd size in order to ensure herd security and long-term survival (Sasson 2008). FOOD COnsUMPTIOn models of food consumption show that faunal assemblages recovered at sites that were provisioned with animal products from outside sources would comprise a limited range of species, ages and skeletal elements (Wapnish and hesse 1988; Zeder 1991: 33–34; Stokes 2000). based on the analysis of body-part representation (tables 27.16–27.17), the ratios between slaughter offal and consumption refuse (table 27.18) and the analysis of the food utility curves (see for instance, Fig. 27.16), it is safe to conclude that caprines and cattle were slaughtered and consumed at the site. the analysis of cut marks and mortality profiles provides additional support for this inference (Table 27.14). Meat and milk were the main source for high-value protein in the Iron Age (Rosen 1994; Sasson 1998). Self-sufficient economy that produced these significant foodstuffs indicates a survival subsistence strategy rather than a market-oriented strategy.

CONCLUSION the species recovered in six iron age layers at tel megiddo (including the presence of deer, gazelle, donkey, dog and swine) are common finds at other Iron Age sites (Hesse and Wapnish 2002). This is also true in regard to the caprine/cattle ratio and the sheep/goat ratio within the geographical context of tel megiddo (Sasson 2005; 2008). most components of the zooarchaeological investigation, such as the caprine/cattle ratio, the sheep/goat ratio, the mortality profiles based on dental data and the study of food consumption at Tel Megiddo, indicate a self-sufficient economy in all periods. If we assume that the mortality profile based on epiphysial fusion points to a life cycle of around 3.5 years for caprines, we would find additional support

1169

A AAele yAyyle

for the herd security notion. A self-sufficient economy and herd security clearly indicate that Iron Age megiddo, as represented by all strata, maintained a survival subsistence strategy (Sasson 2010: 119–123). it is apparent that taphonomic analysis is essential for understanding faunal remains from tell sites. this can be demonstrated by the various taphonomic studies discussed above. the taphonomic investigation of iron age megiddo provided insights on food consumption patterns and the ratio between caprines and cattle. the study of post-depositional processes showed that density-mediated attrition similarly affected the bone assemblages from the different excavation areas at megiddo. Fresh breaks, occurring during the archaeological dig, can be found in every bone assemblage. this study of the tel megiddo bones revealed an average of 50% fresh breaks. Fresh breaks, especially at tell sites, alter the bone assemblage and may affect the relative frequency of species (Sasson 2010: 103–105). creating a statistical model for estimating the over-representation rates of cattle in bone assemblages is necessary for our understanding of the role of cattle in the iron age economy. however, comparative data from other iron age sites is scarce.

APPENDIX: MEASURABLE BONES FOR ALL SPECIES ABBREvIATIOns: b – breadth of m3 (at biting surface) bd – breadth of the distal end bp – breadth of the proximal end comPl – a complete bone dd – depth of the distal end diS – distal dl – greatest depth of the lateral half dm – greatest depth of the medial half dp – depth of the proximal end et – breadh of outer trochlear condyle F/uF – fused/unfused gb – greatest breadth gl – greatest length gll – greatest length of the lateral half glm – greatest length of the medial half glP – greatest length of the processus articularis it – breadth of inner trochlear condyle

l – length of m3 (at biting surface) ld – length of the dorsal surface lo – length of the olecranon na – not available Phl – phalanx ProX – proximal ramuS – perpendicular portion of a mandible r/l – right left Sd – smallest breadth of diaphysis ShaF – shaft 7 – length of cheektooth row 8 – length of molar row 9 – length of premolar row 13 – middle height of the vertical ramus 15b – height of the mandible in front of m1 15c – height of the mandible in front of P1

COMMEnTs: 1. in each number in the left-hand column the last item refers to the bone number. 2. LB0 in the left-hand column means that the laboratory number could not be verified.

1170

aPPendiX table 27.1: meaSurementS oF humeruS, radiuS, ulna, tibia and Femur oF caPrineS and cattle REgIsTRATIOn nUMBER

LEvEL/ PHAsE

BOnE

PART

% PREsERv R / L

F / UF

sPECIEs

FREsH BP BREAK

BD

98/K/20/lb10/141

K-3

humerus

diS

100

F

capra

n

29.17

l

98/K/20/lb10/140

K-3

humerus

diS

100

r

F

ovis

n

31.85

98/K/20/lb24/213

K-3

humerus

diS

100

r

fusion line

ovis

y

31.6

98/K/20/lb24/214

K-3

humerus

diS

90

r

fusion line

ovis

y

30.54

96/F/2/lb1/23

F-5

humerus

diS

ovis

DD

sD

LO

gLP

33.18

06/h/6/lb8/104

h-3

humerus

diS

ovi/capra

37.49

98/h/26/lb1/3

h-4

humerus

diS

ovi/capra

30.43

98/h/40/lb5/124

h-4

humerus

diS

ovis

29.26

98/h/29/lb1/38

h-4

humerus

diS

ovis

32.2

h-6

humerus

diS

ovis

29.55

h-6

humerus

diS

ovis

32.63

06/h/10/lb5/7

h-7

humerus

diS

capra

29.77

06/h/78/lb3/78

h-7

humerus

diS

capra

32.99

06/h/67/lb1/164

h-7

humerus

diS

ovis

32.74

06/h/78/lb4/174

h-7

humerus

diS

ovis

36.03

06/h/78/lb4/185

h-7

humerus

diS

ovis

31.61

06/h/15/lb1/367

h-7

humerus

diS

ovis

30.48

06/h/15/lb1/368

h-7

humerus

diS

ovis

35.72

06/h/67/lb4/388

h-7

humerus

diS

ovis

32.31

06/h/67/lb4/389

h-7

humerus

diS

ovis

35.48

00/h/48/lb3/495

h-7

humerus

diS

capra

29.98

1171

06/h/13/lb4/6

h-8

humerus

diS

ovis

32.3

06/h/6/lb9/59

h-9

humerus

diS

ovis

31.95

06/h/60/lb6/69

h-9

humerus

diS

ovis

35.62

CAAaeye ha: aATeAe e yhAAey aelh eAy A ele Ayy eyayey

98/h/71/lb2/301 00/h/64/lb1/168

LEvEL/ PHAsE

BOnE

PART

% PREsERv R / L

F / UF

sPECIEs

FREsH BP BREAK

BD

06/h/48/lb2/118

h-9

humerus

diS

ovis

34.8

08/h/4/lb1/340

h-9

humerus

diS

capra

35.52

98/K/42/lb1/240

K-4

humerus

diS

100

r

F

capra

n

29.74

98/K/31/lb71/298

K-4

humerus

diS

100

r

F

capra

y

31.81

98/K/42/lb4/352

K-4

humerus

diS

100

l

F

capra

n

26.21

98/K/23/lb6/393

K-4

humerus

diS

100

l

F

capra

n

32.12

00/K/21/lb1/676

K-4

humerus

diS

100

r

F

capra

y

28.72

98/K/33/lb21/735

K-4

humerus

diS

100

r

F

capra

n

32.93

00/K/64/lb2/904

K-4

humerus

diS

100

r

F

capra

y

33.82

00/K/8/lb8/1258

K-4

humerus

diS

100

r

fusion line

capra

n

33.63

98/K/46/lb5/118

K-4

humerus

diS

100

r

fusion line

ovi/capra

y

28.99

00/K/61/lb14/1382

K-4

humerus

diS

80

l

F

ovi/capra

y

35.46

98/K/45/lb21/151

K-4

humerus

diS

100

l

F

ovis

n

33.66

98/K/93/lb2/517

K-4

humerus

diS

100

r

F

ovis

y

29.13

00/K/124/lb1/623

K-4

humerus

diS

100

r

F

ovis

y

33.42

04/K/14/lb1/184

K-5

humerus

diS

100

r

F

ovi/capra

y

32.82

02/K/24/lb3/305

K-5

humerus

diS

100

l

F

ovis

y

29.85

00/l/142/lb2/13

l-3

humerus

diS

ovis

30.09

04/l/37/lb1/71

l-3

humerus

diS

ovi/capra

30.29

00/K/29/lb100/896

K-4

humerus

diS

80

l

F

bos

06/h/15/lb1/366

h-7

humerus

diS

bos

98/h/3/lb2/6

h-2

radius

ProX

ovis

98/h/53/lb9/616

h-5

radius

ProX

100

r

F

100

r

F

n

54.99 68.73 28.1

capra

n

30.42

ovis

y

37.08

00/h/13/lb2/486

h-5

radius

ProX

06/h/66/lb2/54

h-6

radius

ProX

capra

30.31

06/h/78/lb3/81

h-7

radius

ProX

ovis

37.2

DD

sD

LO

gLP

A AAele yAyyle

1172

REgIsTRATIOn nUMBER

REgIsTRATIOn nUMBER

LEvEL/ PHAsE

BOnE

PART

% PREsERv R / L

F / UF

sPECIEs

FREsH BP BREAK

06/h/78/lb4/200

h-7

radius

ProX

capra

30.8

06/h/67/lb4/392

h-7

radius

ProX

capra

31.44

06/h/13/lb4/19

h-8

radius

ProX

ovis

35.83

06/h/47/lb2/96

h-9

radius

ProX

ovis

30.67

06/h/6/lb11/157

h-9

radius

ProX

capra

32.56

02/K/88/lb1/269

K-5

radius

ProX

100

r

F

capra

y

98/K/21/lb1/71

K-3

radius

ProX

100

l

F

capra

n

30.07

K-3

radius

ProX

100

r

F

ovis

y

34.8

98/K/33/lb54/42

K-4

radius

ProX

100

r

F

ovi/capra

y

31.15

98/K/33/lb25/758

K-4 (F?) radius

ProX

100

r

F

ovi/capra

n

28.33

00/K/67/lb1/893

K-4

radius

ProX

100

r

F

ovi/capra

y

35.9

00/K/41/lb4/897

K-4

radius

ProX

100

l

F

ovis

n

32.42

sD

LO

gLP

K-4

radius

ProX

100

r

F

bos

n

72.04

K-4

radius

ProX

100

r

F

bos

y

68.29

98/h/33/lb2/25

h-4

radius

diS

29.1

06/h/78/lb4/173

h-7

radius

diS

ovis

31.15

06/h/2/lb16/451

h-7

radius

diS

capra

30.5

06/h/50/lb1/81

h-9

radius

diS

ovis

29.49

04/m/73/lb2/177

m-4

radius

diS

96/K/8/lb2/3

K-3

radius

diS

100

l

F

ovis

y

31.83

31.13

98/K/21/lb3/23

K-3

radius

diS

100

l

F

ovis

y

28.78

98/K/20/lb35/167

K-3

radius

diS

100

r

F

ovis

y

30.57

98/K/110/lb1/69

K-4

radius

diS

100

r

F

ovi/capra

n

29.87

98/K/110/lb1/70

K-4

radius

diS

100

r

F

ovi/capra

n

30.49

98/K/124/lb3/202

K-4

radius

diS

100

l

F

ovi/capra

y

31.52

1173

98/K/93/lb2/518

K-4

radius

diS

100

l

F

ovis

y

28.83

00/K/87/lb8/967

K-4

radius

diS

100

r

F

ovis

y

31.5

CAAaeye ha: aATeAe e yhAAey aelh eAy A ele Ayy eyayey

98/K/124/lb3/201 98/K/124/lb2/474

ovi/capra

DD

30.32

98/K/20/lb3/181

capra

BD

LEvEL/ PHAsE

BOnE

PART

% PREsERv R / L

F / UF

sPECIEs

FREsH BP BREAK

BD

96/h/34/lb0/89

h-3

radius

diS

00/K/58/lb6/870

K-4

radius

diS ePi

100

r

uF

bos

bos y

55.71

98/K/42/lb5/345

K-4

radius

comPl

100

r

na

bos

n

31.55

98/l/110/lb1/23

l-5

rad+uln

ProX

ovis

02/m/33/lb16/305

m-4

rad+uln

ProX

capra

98/K/31/lb71/299

K-4

rad+uln

ProX

90

l

F

capra

DD

sD

LO

gLP

65.33

36.2 31.92 y

29.58 32.59

98/K/123/lb1/480

K-4

rad+uln

ProX

60

l

F

ovis

y

02/K/24/lb11/322

K-5

rad+uln

ProX

80

l

F

capra

y

98/K/126/lb2/560

K-4

rad+uln

ProX

80

r

F

bos

y

41.9 85.29

06/h/13/lb1/99

h-8

ulna

ProX

ovi/capra

39.6

06/h/6/lb11/158

h-9

ulna

ProX

capra

33.9

96/h/34/lb0/27

h-3

tibia

diS

ovi/capra

27.2

20.81

96/h/33/lb?/35

h-3

tibia

diS

ovis

27.66

21.34

98/h/26/lb1/4

h-4

tibia

diS

ovi/capra

28.36

21.73

00/h/48/lb3/33

h-5

tibia

diS

100

l

F

ovis

n

27.94

22.17

00/h/37/lb44/242

h-5

tibia

diS

100

l

F

ovis

n

27.8

26.98

00/h/7/lb2/460

h-5

tibia

diS

100

l

F

ovis

y

26.57

20.89

98/h/71/lb6/318

h-6

tibia

diS

ovis

27.57

21.93 13.36

06/h/2/lb12/22

h-7

tibia

diS

capra

26.42

21.39

06/h/78/lb10/270

h-7

tibia

diS

capra

26.51

22.22

06/h/15/lb1/337

h-7

tibia

diS

ovis

24.93

20.01

08/h/24/lb7/514

h-9

tibia

diS

ovi/capra

25.9

08/h/36/lb4/567

h-9

tibia

diS

ovi/capra

26.99

12.83 20.02

08/h/25/lb3/685

h-9

tibia

diS

ovi/capra

26.83

19.96

02/K/24/lb7/325

K-5

tibia

diS

100

r

F

ovis

y

27.37

98/K/21/lb7/49

K-3

tibia

diS

100

r

F

ovi/capra

y

27.47

98/K/33/lb93/765

K-4 (F?) tibia

diS

100

r

F

ovi/capra

n

24.7

20.13

30.6 19.79

A AAele yAyyle

1174

REgIsTRATIOn nUMBER

LEvEL/ PHAsE

BOnE

PART

% PREsERv R / L

F / UF

sPECIEs

FREsH BP BREAK

BD

DD

00/K/58/lb6/821

K-4

tibia

diS

100

l

F

ovi/capra

y

28.56

21.84

00/K/34/lb15/836

K-4

tibia

diS

100

l

F

ovi/capra

n

27.74

20.11

98/K/33/lb32/1007

K-4

tibia

diS

100

r

F

ovi/capra

y

25.53

20.89

98/K/33/lb29/1061

K-4

tibia

diS

100

l

fusion line

ovi/capra

y

32.79

23.5

98/K/32/lb48/152

K-4

tibia

diS

100

r

ovi/capra

n

28.64

24.09

04/K/45/lb2/1140

K-4

tibia

diS

100

r

F

ovi/capra

n

26.5

21.1

00/K/31/lb8/1259

K-4

tibia

diS

100

r

F

ovi/capra

y

27.97

21.55

98/K/32/lb30/360

K-4

tibia

diS

90

l

F

ovi/capra

y

29.69

23.21

98/K/121/lb3/539

K-4

tibia

diS

100

l

F

ovi/capra

y

27.54

22.28

98/K/104/lb1/588

K-4

tibia

diS

100

r

F

ovi/capra

n

28.36

21.35

96/h/22/lb0/34

h-3

tibia

diS

bos

59.36

46.5

96/h/60/lb0/57

h-3

tibia

diS

bos

53.9

43.95

08/h/2/lb12/404

h-9

tibia

diS

bos

51.06

40.94

08/h/2/lb12/406

h-9

tibia

diS

bos

53.85

98/K/31/lb71/296

K-4

tibia

diS

90

l

F

bos

y

60.71

43.82

98/K/33/lb49/1014

K-4

tibia

diS

100

l

F

bos

y

49.22

40.43

98/K/41/lb21/1024

K-4

tibia

diS

100

l

F

bos

y

53.47

39.04

04/K/62/lb1/170

K-5

tibia

ShaF

70

l

na

ovi/capra

n

28.95

00/l/36/lb1/2

l-2

tibia

ShaF

00/h/37/lb44/243

h-5

tibia

ShaF

100

l

F

ovis

n

98/K/20/lb20/110

K-3

tibia

ProX

100

r

F

ovi/capra

y

39.63

98/K/43/lb136/1112 K-4

tibia

ProX

100

r

F

capra

y

41.11

00/h/37/lb32/110

h-5

tibia

ProX

100

r

F

bos

n

95.12

98/K/31/lb71/295

K-4

tibia

ProX

90

l

F

bos

y

64.44

ovi/capra

sD

14.58 15.49 14.22

1175

06/h/6/lb8/103

h-3

Femur

diS

ovi/capra

35.68

00/h/65/lb11/243

h-6

Femur

diS

ovi/capra

36.65

00/h/69/lb7/250

h-6

Femur

diS

ovi/capra

38.86

17.72

LO

gLP

CAAaeye ha: aATeAe e yhAAey aelh eAy A ele Ayy eyayey

REgIsTRATIOn nUMBER

LEvEL/ PHAsE

BOnE

PART

% PREsERv R / L

F / UF

sPECIEs

06/h/26/lb1/108

h-7

Femur

diS

ovi/capra

06/h/15/lb1/370

h-7

Femur

diS

ovi/capra

08/h/37/lb3/343

h-9

Femur

diS

ovi/capra

FREsH BP BREAK

BD

DD

12.89 37.63

02/K/21/lb3/408

K-5

Femur

diS

100

l

F

ovi/capra

y

K-4

Femur

diS

100

l

F

ovi/capra

n

39.25

98/K/124/lb2/475

K-4

Femur

diS

80

l

F

ovi/capra

y

35.48

37.1

90

r

uF

ovi/capra

n

98/K/31/lb51/367

K-4

Femur

diS ePi

06/h/13/lb11/100

h-8

Femur

diS

bos

59.24

06/h/67/lb4/398

h-7

Femur

ProX

ovis

43.88

02/K/47/lb9/409

K-5

Femur

ProX

l

F

capra

LO

43.5 28.89

98/K/41/lb1/247

100

sD

36.69

n

42.85

aPPendiX table 27.2: meaSurementS oF carPal, tarSal, calcaneuS, Patella and ScaPula oF caPrineS and cattle REgIsTRATIOn nUMBER

LEvEL/ PHAsE

BOnE

PART

% PREsERv R / L

F / UF

sPECIEs

FREsH gL BREAK

gB

98/h/49/lb6/93

h-3

carpal

comPl

ovi/capra

06/h/75/lb7/65

h-6

carpal

comPl

ovi/capra

12.58

16

00/h/67/lb2/238

h-6

carpal

comPl

ovi/capra

13.97

16.63

06/h/2/lb16/444

h-7

carpal

comPl

bos

16.84

39.47

06/h/26/lb1/330

h-7

carpal

comPl

bos

32.03

04/l/37/lb2/60

l-3

carpal

comPl

bos

32.01

04/l/29/lb1/81

l-3

carpal

comPl

bos

32.3

98/K/110/lb1/75

K-4

carpal

comPl

100

na

F

bos

n

29.89

00/K/5/Pt5/1464

K-4

carpal

comPl

100

na

F

bos

n

30.25

96/h/73/lb0/26

h-3

carpal

comPl

bos

33.97

06/h/11/lb2/101

h-3

carpal

comPl

bos

30.01

gLP

gLP

A AAele yAyyle

1176

REgIsTRATIOn nUMBER

LEvEL/ PHAsE

BOnE

PART

% PREsERv R / L

F / UF

sPECIEs

00/h/69/lb1/94

h-6

carpal

comPl

bos

32.38

98/h/71/lb2/299

h-6

carpal

comPl

bos

31.53

06/h/41/lb7/43

h-9

tarsal

comPl

ovi/capra

20.31

24.7

06/h/33/lb3/215

h-9

tarsal

comPl

ovi/capra

18.61

21.91

08/h/8/lb16/574

h-9

tarsal

comPl

ovi/capra

22.41

25.15

08/h/32/lb1/675

h-9

tarsal

comPl

ovi/capra

21.48

25.65

06/h/13/lb13/112

h-8

tarsal

comPl

ovi/capra

20.61

23.34

06/h/13/lb4/25

h-8

tarsal

comPl

ovi/capra

18.66

21.36

06/h/13/lb4/37

h-8

tarsal

comPl

ovi/capra

18.77

22.24

06/h/78/lb4/193

h-7

tarsal

comPl

ovi/capra

21.7

23.69

00/h/69/lb7/231

h-6

tarsal

comPl

ovi/capra

19.06

24.3

00/h/66/lb19/286

h-6

tarsal

comPl

ovi/capra

23.37

26.76

20.62

96/h/22/lb0/3

h-3

tarsal

comPl

ovi/capra

06/h/6/lb9/117

h-3

tarsal

comPl

ovi/capra

98/h/29/lb5/130

h-4

tarsal

comPl

ovi/capra

FREsH gL BREAK

gB

23.33 15.72

18.74

23

00/h/51/lb1/95

h-5

tarsal

comPl

100

na

F

ovi/capra

n

19.35

22.73

00/h/19/lb5/557

h-5

tarsal

comPl

100

na

F

ovi/capra

n

21.1

24.01

00/h/51/lb1/95

h-5

tarsal

comPl

100

na

F

ovi/capra

n

19.35

22.73

98/K/43/lb42/373

K-4

tarsal

comPl

100

na

na

ovi/capra

n

20.56

24.44

98/K/91/lb1/494

K-4

tarsal

comPl

100

na

F

ovi/capra

n

25.74

26.84

00/K/58/lb4/882

K-4

tarsal

comPl

100

na

F

ovi/capra

n

00/K/35/lb1/930

K-4

tarsal

comPl

100

l

F

ovi/capra

n

22.58

24.67

100

na

F

ovi/capra

n

21.63

24.03

41.43

47.2

40.61

46.38

00/K/29/lb8/971

K-4

tarsal

comPl

00/h/69/lb1/93

h-6

tarsal

comPl

98/K/20/lb20/109

K-3

tarsal

comPl

bos 100

na

F

bos

n

15.79

1177

00/K/95/lb2/632

K-4

tarsal

comPl

100

na

F

bos

n

50.62

51.23

98/K/24/lb12/427

K-4

tarsal

comPl

100

l

F

bos

n

51.3

56.56

gLP

CAAaeye ha: aATeAe e yhAAey aelh eAy A ele Ayy eyayey

REgIsTRATIOn nUMBER

LEvEL/ PHAsE

BOnE

PART

% PREsERv R / L

F / UF

100

F

na

sPECIEs

FREsH gL BREAK

ovi/capra

n

00/K/31/lb5/1250

K-4

tarsal

bod

00/m/19/lb7/246

m-4

calcaneus

diS

capra

96/h/32/lb0/16

h-3

calcaneus

comPl

capra

23.6

gB 25.8 18.15

63.23

19.21

00/h/30/lb1/349

h-5

calcaneus

comPl

100

r

F

capra

n

53.93

16.4

00/h/19/lb1/570

h-5

calcaneus

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

55.52

18.34

06/h/67/lb1/160

h-7

calcaneus

comPl

capra

52.39

17.86

06/h/26/lb1/322

h-7

calcaneus

comPl

capra

59.71

20.29

06/h/60/lb5/73

h-9

calcaneus

comPl

ovis

61.95

21.07

06/m/48/lb14/110

m-4

calcaneus

comPl

capra

17.84

06/m/26/lb4/119

m-4

calcaneus

comPl

capra

18.05

04/m/47/lb0/23

m-4

calcaneus

comPl

ovi/capra

17.38

00/h/30/lb1/349

h-5

calcaneus

comPl

100

r

F

capra

n

53.93

16.4

00/h/19/lb1/570

h-5

calcaneus

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

55.52

18.34

00/K/64/lb2/902

K-4

calcaneus

comPl

100

l

F

capra

y

59.93

20.23

00/K/48/lb4/1450

K-4

calcaneus

comPl

100

r

F

capra

n

57.96

19.04

98/K/45/lb87/163

K-4

calcaneus

comPl

100

r

ovi/capra

y

63.7

19.22

98/K/4/lb21/384

K-4

calcaneus

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

60.65

21.62

98/K/121/lb4/579

K-4

calcaneus

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

59.51

20.97

00/K/64/lb3/851

K-4

calcaneus

comPl

100

r

F

ovis

n

60.03

21.33

96/F/51/lb3/49

F-5

calcaneus

comPl

bos

31.1

96/F/71/lb7/69

F-5

calcaneus

comPl

bos

29.09

98/h/3/lb2/7

h-2

calcaneus

comPl

bos

40.14

06/h/11/lb2/100

h-3

calcaneus

comPl

bos

122.65 33.29

06/h/6/lb8/102

h-3

calcaneus

comPl

bos

121.2

98/h/52/lb3/110

h-4

calcaneus

comPl

bos

115.86 32.07

06/h/67/lb4/387

h-7

calcaneus

comPl

bos

130.25 41.12

06/h/13/lb4/4

h-8

calcaneus

comPl

bos

43.05

42.78

gLP

A AAele yAyyle

1178

REgIsTRATIOn nUMBER

REgIsTRATIOn nUMBER

LEvEL/ PHAsE

BOnE

PART

% PREsERv R / L

F / UF

sPECIEs

FREsH gL BREAK

08/h/2/lb12/403

h-9

calcaneus

comPl

02/K/36/lb9/156

K-5

calcaneus

comPl

00/h/58/lb1/265

h-6

Patella

comPl

ovi/capra

28.31

19.98

00/h/58/lb1/266

h-6

Patella

comPl

ovi/capra

29.24

23.9

06/h/15/lb3/295

h-7

Patella

comPl

ovi/capra

24.57

19.23

00/K/10/lb16/1332

K-4

Patella

comPl

100

na

F

100

na

F

bos 70

r

F

bos

gB

gLP

45.56 y

33.09

ovi/capra

y

32.24

22.81

ovi/capra

n

32.25

21.66

46.35

36.45

K-4

Patella

comPl

h-6

Patella

comPl

bos

96/F/50/lb17/64

F-5

Scapula

necK

ovis

21.36

33.93

96/F/48/lb14/82

F-5

Scapula

necK

ovis

21.88

32.31

96/h/60/lb0/30

h-3

Scapula

necK

ovis

21.08

35.79

96/h/33/lb0/40

h-3

Scapula

necK

ovis

22.25

33.61

96/h/60/lb0/49

h-3

Scapula

necK

ovis

18.39

30.08

98/h/33/lb3/20

h-4

Scapula

necK

ovis

22.88

36.61

98/K/23/lb15/228

K-4

Scapula

necK

100

l

F

ovis

n

26.3

41.51

98/K/93/lb2/519

K-4

Scapula

necK

100

r

F

ovis

y

25.37

38.82

98/K/104/lb1/589

K-4

Scapula

necK

100

r

F

ovis

n

25.6

37.23

98/h/71/lb1/336

h-6

Scapula

necK

21.83

38.97

08/h/35/lb2/621

h-9

Scapula

necK

20.04

24.29

98/K/21/lb12/33

K-3

Scapula

necK

100

r

F

ovis

n

98/K/92/lb3/416

K-4

Scapula

necK

100

l

F

capra

n

22.88

33.87

98/K/33/lb75/698

K-4

Scapula

necK

100

r

F

capra

y

25.03

39.02

00/K/21/lb1/680

K-4

Scapula

necK

80

l

uF

ovi/capra

n

06/h/78/lb3/467

h-7

Scapula

necK

00/K/10/lb1/965

K-4

Scapula

bod+necK

30

l

F

ovi/capra

y

21.71

34.27

98/K/31/lb71/302

K-4

Scapula

bod+necK

30

r

uF

ovis

y

20.99

33.94

98/K/33/lb14/742

K-4

Scapula

bod+necK

70

l

F

ovis

y

24.01

35.72

ovis ovi/capra

30.31

bos

CAAaeye ha: aATeAe e yhAAey aelh eAy A ele Ayy eyayey

1179

00/K/11/lb1/1338 00/h/64/lb1/6

LEvEL/ PHAsE

BOnE

PART

% PREsERv R / L

98/h/24/lb6/109

h-4

Scapula

bod+necK

98/h/35/lb3/126

h-4

Scapula

bod+necK

98/h/61/lb1/621

h-5

Scapula

bod+necK

06/h/10/lb5/9

h-7

Scapula

bod+necK

capra

21.99

33.09

06/h/67/lb1/161

h-7

Scapula

bod+necK

ovi/capra

23.77

37.14

06/h/5/lb5/340

h-7

Scapula

bod+necK

ovi/capra

21.82

06/h/13/lb1/97

h-8

Scapula

bod+necK

98/K/20/lb6/203

K-3

Scapula

bod+necK

100

r

F

ovi/capra

y

98/K/20/lb26/189

K-3

Scapula

bod+necK

70

l

F

ovis

y

98/K/20/lb26/191

K-3

Scapula

bod+necK

70

l

F

ovis

y

00/h/7/lb2/456

h-5

Scapula

bod+necK

30

l

F

bos

y

60

r

F / UF

F

sPECIEs

gB

gLP

ovis

24.83

37.54

ovi/capra

23.26

35.34

ovis

FREsH gL BREAK

y

A AAele yAyyle

1180

REgIsTRATIOn nUMBER

41.24

ovi/capra

22.84

33.97

41.14

59.99

aPPendiX table 27.3 meaSurementS oF third loWer molar and mandible oF caPrineS and cattle REgIsTRATIOn nUMBER

LEvEL/ BOnE PHAsE

PART

% R / L F / UF sPECIEs PREsERv

FREsH B BREAK

L

96/h/24/lb6/132

h-3

m /3

comPl

capra

7.18

25.59

98/h/33/lb2/26

h-4

m /3

comPl

ovis

8.98

23.92

00/h/48/lb3/31

h-5

m /3

comPl 100

r

na

capra

n

8.95

24.01

00/h/37/lb32/120

h-5

m /3

comPl 100

r

na

capra

n

8.7

23.44

00/h/30/lb6/164

h-5

m /3

comPl 100

r

na

capra

n

8.37

23.25

00/h/39/lb6/155

h-5

m /3

comPl 100

l

na

ovi/capra n

7.64

22.11

00/h/69/lb7/227

h-6

m /3

comPl

capra

8.56

22.79

00/h/66/lb6/206

h-6

m /3

comPl

capra

8.82

24.9

06/h/2/lb12/24

h-7

m /3

comPl

ovis

9.23

25.55

06/h/26/lb1/115

h-7

m /3

comPl

capra

8.83

22.74

06/h/78/lb4/233

h-7

m /3

comPl

capra

8.37

22.75

7

8

9

13

15b

15c

LEvEL/ BOnE PHAsE

PART

% R / L F / UF sPECIEs PREsERv

06/h/67/lb4/413

h-7

m /3

comPl

ovis

9.19

28.23

00/h/48/lb33/490

h-7

m /3

comPl

capra

8.98

24.1

06/h/13/lb4/35

h-8

m /3

comPl

ovis

9.65

25.44

06/h/41/lb7/45

h-9

m /3

comPl

ovis

8.26

22.46

08/h/36/lb6/471

h-9

m /3

comPl

ovis

8.04

23.92

00/K/101/lb13/31

K-5

m /3

comPl 100

8.9

24.29

98/l/71/lb2/6

l-5

m /3

comPl

ovis

8.25

23.13

00/m/39/lb1/231

m-4

m /3

comPl

capra

8.17

23.37

00/m/39/lb1/232

m-4

m /3

comPl

ovis

9.66

23.76

98/K/20/lb29/128

K-3

m /3

comPl 100

l

na

capra

n

9.29

23.62

00/K/76/lb1/1327

K-4

m /3

comPl 100

r

na

capra

n

9.11

24.43

98/K/46/lb5/115

K-4

m /3

comPl 100

l

na

ovi/capra n

9.23

24.63

98/K/42/lb1/242

K-4

m /3

comPl 100

l

na

ovi/capra n

10.2

24.47

98/K/91/lb3/554

K-4

m /3

comPl 100

r

na

ovi/capra n

8.77

98/K/33/lb14/740

K-4

m /3

comPl 100

l

na

ovi/capra n

8.14

23.72

00/K/58/lb4/881

K-4

m /3

comPl 100

r

na

ovi/capra n

8.38

22.62

00/K/35/lb3/935

K-4

m /3

comPl 100

l

F

ovi/capra y

9.61

23.6

96/K/92/lb1/1503

K-4

m /3

comPl 100

l

na

ovi/capra n

8.14

22.63

00/K/61/lb14/1386

K-4

m /3

comPl 100

l

na

9.37

24.05

08/h/2/lb12/544

h-9

m /3

comPl

00/K/27/lb3/13

K-5

m /3

comPl 100

l

98/K/126/lb1/128

K-4

m /3

comPl 100

l

98/K/41/lb1/248

K-4

m /3

comPl 100

l

na

bos

n

14.01 37.07

98/K/41/lb5/570

K-4

m /3

comPl 100

r

na

bos

n

12.74 36.98

00/K/48/lb10/1371

K-4

m /3

comPl 100

r

na

bos

n

14.11 34.91

98/K/60/lb5/757

K-4

m /3

bod

100

r

na

ovi/capra n

7.41

00/K/15/lb9/970

K-4

m /3

bod

70

l

na

ovi/capra y

9.48

l

na

capra

ovis

FREsH B BREAK

y

n

bos na

L

12.05 31.44

bos

y

12.43 36.4

bos

n

12.51 36.01

21.44

7

8

9

13

15b

15c

CAAaeye ha: aATeAe e yhAAey aelh eAy A ele Ayy eyayey

1181

REgIsTRATIOn nUMBER

LEvEL/ BOnE PHAsE

PART

% R / L F / UF sPECIEs PREsERv

FREsH B BREAK

98/K/20/lb19/123

K-3

m /3

bod

100

r

na

bos

y

14.02 37.14

98/K/124/lb3/204

K-4

m /3

bod

100

r

na

bos

n

14.28 35.92

00/K/31/lb5/1247

K-4

m /3

bod

100

l

na

bos

n

13.48 35.65

00/h/30/lb6/158

h-5

mand. with bod teeth

80

r

na

ovi/capra y

73.37 38.4

28.01

23.16 14.32

00/h/48/lb3/25

h-5

mand. with bod teeth

80

r

na

capra

72.26 49.53 23.56

14.16

00/h/37/lb44/235

h-5

mand. with bod teeth

80

r

na

ovi/capra y

74.3

98/h/30/lb5/694

h-5

mand. with bod teeth

80

l

na

ovi/capra y

73.95 43.84 28.23

06/h/26/lb1/111

h-7

mand. with bod teeth

capra

06/h/15/lb6/347

h-7

mand. with bod teeth

ovis

00/h/48/lb33/484

h-7

mand. with bod teeth

capra

00/K/101/lb13/26

K-5

mand. with bod teeth

70

l

na

ovi/capra y

24.15 16.3

04/K/62/lb1/171

K-5

mand. with bod teeth

70

r

na

ovis

20.79 15.8

98/K/20/lb6/5

K-3

mand. with bod teeth

100

l

na

ovi/capra y

61.02 46.19 14.48 55.4

20.91 13.93

98/K/33/lb53/1002

K-4

mand. with bod teeth

90

r

na

ovi/capra y

66.36 43.78 23.49

21.42 14.97

00/K/48/lb10/1363

K-4

mand. with bod teeth

80

l

na

bos

99.95 64.83 38.45

37.38 28.51

00/h/30/lb4/13

h-6

mand. with comPl teeth

ovis

06/h/75/lb1/23

h-6

mand. with comPl teeth

ovis

y

L

7

8

9

13

49.64 24.71

15b

15c

20.7 25.57 25.09

76.58 51.1

23.41

23.59 17.81

24.34

19.66 16.08

y

y

73.17 45.05 27.16 58.38 24.93 15.62 43.96

20.48 15.61

A AAele yAyyle

1182

REgIsTRATIOn nUMBER

REgIsTRATIOn nUMBER

LEvEL/ BOnE PHAsE

PART

% R / L F / UF sPECIEs PREsERv

00/h/72/lb1/121

h-6

mand. with comPl teeth

capra

65.45 36.09 29.5

00/h/64/lb1/156

h-6

mand. with comPl teeth

capra

74.23 50.31 23.04 51.67 23.34 14.32

00/h/69/lb7/221

h-6

mand. with comPl teeth

capra

20.86 16.03

98/K/24/lb12/425

K-4

mand. w/o ramuS 40 teeth

r

F

bos

FREsH B BREAK

L

7

8

9

13

n

15b

15c

51.16 20.77

117.17

aPPendiX table 27.4: meaSurementS oF aStragaluS oF caPrineS and cattle REgIsTRATIOn nUMBER

LEvEL/ PHAsE

BOnE

PART

% R/L PREsERv

F / UF

sPECIEs FREsH BD BREAK

DL

DM

gLL

gLM

F-5

astragal

comPl

capra

19.21

16.24

28.37

26.6

F-5

astragal

comPl

capra

17.06

14.75

14.03

27.39

25.96

96/h/34/lb0/9

h-3

astragal

comPl

ovis

19

16.5

15.42

30.21

27.6

96/h/22/lb0/18

h-3

astragal

comPl

ovis

18.98

17.51

17.61

30.85

29.42

96/h/32/lb0/19

h-3

astragal

comPl

capra

19.57

16.48

17.75

31.63

29.43

96/h/72/lb0/20

h-3

astragal

comPl

ovis

18.96

16.24

17.08

30.35

29.02

96/h/34/lb0/24

h-3

astragal

comPl

ovis

22.03

18.9

20.32

35.11

32.69

98/h/29/lb5/65

h-4

astragal

comPl

ovis

20.21

16.72

16.11

30.43

28.62

98/h/29/lb5/129

h-4

astragal

comPl

capra

17.4

14.93

15.82

29.69

28.25

98/h/75/lb2/50

h-4

astragal

comPl

capra

19.46

17.31

30.57

27.86

00/h/48/lb3/34

h-5

astragal

comPl

100

r

F

capra

n

18.12

15.35

15.82

29.08

26.53

00/h/36/lb3/562

h-5

astragal

comPl

100

r

F

capra

n

17.87

15.68

15.22

28.97

27.46

00/h/23/lb1/583

h-5

astragal

comPl

100

l

F

ovi/capra n

21.57

18.67

17.7

32.56

29.38

1183

00/h/37/lb17

h-5

astragal

comPl

100

r

F

ovis

n

19.97

17.55

17.79

32.28

29.74

00/h/30/lb6/157

h-5

astragal

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

20.88

16.86

18.41

32.18

30.29

00/h/37/lb44/244

h-5

astragal

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

20.12

16.36

17.72

31.56

29.51

CAAaeye ha: aATeAe e yhAAey aelh eAy A ele Ayy eyayey

96/F/50/lb10/57 96/F/50/lb21/71

LEvEL/ PHAsE

BOnE

PART

% R/L PREsERv

F / UF

sPECIEs FREsH BD BREAK

DL

DM

gLL

gLM

00/h/48/lb27/314

h-5

astragal

comPl

100

r

F

ovis

n

19.19

15.14

16.85

29.29

27.61

00/h/7/lb9/349

h-5

astragal

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

18.62

16.4

16.81

30.78

28.61

00/h/36/lb3/563

h-5

astragal

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

17.18

15.99

16.9

29.47

27.87

98/h/53/lb5/593

h-5

astragal

comPl

100

r

F

ovis

n

18.64

16.8

18.22

29.49

27.38

98/h/53/lb8/641

h-5

astragal

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

18.64

15.07

16.12

28.97

26.62

98/h/62/lb6/648

h-5

astragal

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

22.79

19.18

19.88

34.82

33.27

06/h/75/lb1/30

h-6

astragal

comPl

ovis

17.61

14.36

16.32

28.6

27.59

00/h/72/lb1/130

h-6

astragal

comPl

ovis

18.85

17.92

16.71

30.25

28.05

00/h/64/lb1/167

h-6

astragal

comPl

ovi/capra

19.54

15.58

15.91

30.78

00/h/66/lb1/208

h-6

astragal

comPl

capra

19

14.79

15.38

28.35

27.13

98/h/71/lb2/302

h-6

astragal

comPl

ovis

18.64

14.69

16.21

27.68

25.19

06/h/10/lb5/2

h-7

astragal

comPl

ovis

19.26

17.18

16.07

31.46

29.46

06/h/2/lb12/18

h-7

astragal

comPl

capra

19.51

14.6

15.77

30.34

27.11

06/h/78/lb3/83

h-7

astragal

comPl

ovis

18.54

16.6

15.85

29.29

27.64

06/h/26/lb1/109

h-7

astragal

comPl

ovis

21.24

17.62

18.05

31.48

30.25

06/h/26/lb1/110

h-7

astragal

comPl

ovis

20.69

17.24

16.13

29.38

27.96

06/h/78/lb4/189

h-7

astragal

comPl

ovis

21.59

17.38

18.52

32.79

31.87

06/h/78/lb4/198

h-7

astragal

comPl

capra

18.13

15.49

16.81

29.13

27.58

06/h/78/lb4/199

h-7

astragal

comPl

ovis

18.06

14.47

13.84

27.67

25.51 27.39

06/h/78/lb10/258

h-7

astragal

comPl

ovis

18.34

16.53

17.53

28.45

06/h/78/lb10/259

h-7

astragal

comPl

capra

18.54

14.52

15.66

27.8

06/h/78/lb10/260

h-7

astragal

comPl

capra

18.49

14.85

15.45

28.86

26.56

28.33

26.74

06/h/2/lb2/314

h-7

astragal

comPl

ovis

19.31

16.48

17.39

06/h/67/lb4/396

h-7

astragal

comPl

capra

18.46

15.15

14.92

06/h/67/lb4/397

h-7

astragal

comPl

ovis

18.56

15.63 16.7

00/h/74/lb3/503

h-7

astragal

comPl

ovis

17.52

00/h/58/lb3/511

h-7

astragal

comPl

ovis

19.53

28.98 29.2

15.46 16.48

30.19

27.93 27.27

A AAele yAyyle

1184

REgIsTRATIOn nUMBER

REgIsTRATIOn nUMBER

LEvEL/ PHAsE

BOnE

PART

06/h/13/lb13/113

h-8

astragal

06/h/39/lb7/119

h-8

astragal

% R/L PREsERv

F / UF

sPECIEs FREsH BD BREAK

DL

DM

gLL

gLM

comPl

ovi/capra

16.8

15.27

24.95

26.18

14.08

comPl

ovi/capra

17.68

15.35

15.6

28.67

27.27

06/h/13/lb4/28

h-8

astragal

comPl

capra

15.94

16.46

31.42

29.41

08/h/20/lb1/480

h-9

astragal

comPl

ovis

19.94

17.56

16.71

31.6

28.92

08/h/31/lb2/608

h-9

astragal

comPl

ovis

19.57

16.57

16.84

29.8

28.48

08/h/35/lb4/617

h-9

astragal

comPl

ovis

20.34

17.21

17.19

31.28

30.84

08/h/20/lb2/636

h-9

astragal

comPl

ovis

19.1

17.05

17.19

06/h/27/lb2/250

h-9

astragal

comPl

ovis

19.02

17.8

17.31

30.92

29.43

28.29

08/h/3/lb1/260

h-9

astragal

comPl

ovis

17.87

13.88

15.06

28.91

27.1

08/h/37/lb3/348

h-9

astragal

comPl

ovis

21.29

17.98

18.42

31.23

29.64

08/h/37/lb3/349

h-9

astragal

comPl

ovis

19.11

15.86

14.69

27.39

26.21

06/h/62/lb7/169

h-9

astragal

comPl

ovis

22.28

18.69

19.76

31.87

h-9

astragal

comPl

capra

19.54

15.3

17.14

29.28

27.49

l-3

astragal

comPl

ovis

20.06

17.1

18.28

31

28.63

98/l/78/lb10/32

l-5

astragal

comPl

capra

16.42

13.87

15.63

27.02

25.38

17.83

00/l/141/lb2/57

l-5

astragal

comPl

capra

19.69

16.05

04/m/47/lb0/9

m-4

astragal

comPl

ovis

21.6

18.55

06/m/73/lb2/80

m-4

astragal

comPl

ovis

18.3

16.89

33.34 20.14

29.74

31.76

06/m/73/lb2/81

m-4

astragal

comPl

ovis

19.54

16.98

15.94

29.86

28.65

06/m/73/lb2/82

m-4

astragal

comPl

ovis

18.36

16.78

16.79

30.02

28.19

06/m/73/lb2/83

m-4

astragal

comPl

capra

19.23

16.13

15.78

31.02

27.76

06/m/73/lb2/84

m-4

astragal

comPl

capra

8.59

17.17

29.34

04/m/72/lb1/153

m-4

astragal

comPl

capra

22.5

19.38

02/m/33/lb4/301

m-4

astragal

comPl

ovis

17.74

16.76

20.46

29.45

35.47 33.66

02/m/33/lb10/304

m-4

astragal

comPl

capra

19.47

16.78

16.4

30.25

28.01

1185

98/K/21/lb7/61

K-3

astragal

comPl

100

r

na

capra

n

28.87

27.02

98/K/20/lb20/111

K-3

astragal

comPl

100

l

na

capra

n

27.6

25.96

CAAaeye ha: aATeAe e yhAAey aelh eAy A ele Ayy eyayey

06/h/54/lb11/199 00/l/74/lb0/40

LEvEL/ PHAsE

BOnE

PART

% R/L PREsERv

F / UF

sPECIEs FREsH BD BREAK

DL

DM

gLL

gLM

98/K/41/lb1/312

K-4

astragal

comPl

100

r

F

capra

n

19.07

17.28

17.41

30.79

29.29

98/K/41/lb70/424

K-4

astragal

comPl

100

r

F

capra

n

18.54

15.28

15.88

29.38

27.67

98/K/121/lb4/578

K-4

astragal

comPl

100

l

F

capra

n

18.21

14.99

15.92

28.41

26.02

00/K/89/lb1/663

K-4

astragal

comPl

100

r

F

capra

n

20.93

17.63

18.71

32.58

30.2

00/K/31/lb1/684

K-4

astragal

comPl

100

r

F

capra

n

21.03

16.79

18.77

31.75

31.18

00/K/78/lb1/888

K-4

astragal

comPl

100

l

F

capra

y

18.54

14.61

15.62

29.42

27.3

00/K/67/lb1/892

K-4

astragal

comPl

100

r

F

capra

n

20.52

16.42

17.9

31.59

28.68

98/K/41/lb35/1019

K-4

astragal

comPl

100

r

F

capra

n

20.43

16.59

16.82

31

28.01

04/K/31/lb1/1196

K-4

astragal

comPl

90

l

F

capra

y

17.84

14.58

16.43

19.51

98/K/46/lb5/117

K-4

astragal

comPl

100

r

F

ovi/capra n

98/K/100/lb4/224

K-4

astragal

comPl

100

r

na

ovi/capra n

98/K/23/lb10/567

K-4

astragal

comPl

100

r

F

ovi/capra n

16

18.45

17.49

13.31

14.76

14.13

13.45

26.61 33.1

31.72 25.18

24.88

23.68

98/K/43/lb159/45

K-4

astragal

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

18.8

16.78

16.59

29.28

29.25

98/K/45/lb26/96

K-4

astragal

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

20.63

16.34

16.03

29.46

27.8

98/K/92/lb6/234

K-4

astragal

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

18.49

16.03

16.39

28.77

26.5

F

98/K/42/lb1/245

K-4

astragal

comPl

100

l

98/K/93/lb2/516

K-4

astragal

comPl

100

r

00/K/124/lb6/653

K-4

astragal

comPl

100

l

98/K/33/lb10/705

K-4

astragal

comPl

100

r

ovis

n

17.66

14.68

15.02

28.63

25.98

ovis

n

15.44

14.06

13.12

24.42

23.85

F

ovis

n

20.02

16.55

17.26

31.37

29.66

F

ovis

n

20.11

17.3

17.01

32.23

31.13

00/K/55/lb9/849

K-4

astragal

comPl

100

r

F

ovis

n

20.7

17.28

17.34

31.46

29.64

00/K/103/lb1/932

K-4

astragal

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

21.24

17.37

18.75

31.61

30.38

00/K/22/lb10/1000

K-4

astragal

comPl

90

r

F

ovis

n

20.19

17.02

16.56

30.96

29.88

98/K/41/lb35/1018

K-4

astragal

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

y

20.54

14.67

16.91

30.35

28.35

98/K/41/lb23/1032

K-4

astragal

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

22.15

19.3

18.87

34.22

32.28

04/K/36/lb2/1222

K-4

astragal

comPl

100

r

F

ovis

n

20.11

18.01

18.27

31.84

30.97

04/K/60/lb1/1228

K-4

astragal

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

19.36

16.53

16.35

30.08

29.03

00/K/31/lb8/1260

K-4

astragal

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

18.21

16.37

17.82

30.02

27.96

A AAele yAyyle

1186

REgIsTRATIOn nUMBER

REgIsTRATIOn nUMBER

LEvEL/ PHAsE

BOnE

PART

% R/L PREsERv

F / UF

sPECIEs FREsH BD BREAK

DL

DM

gLL

gLM

00/K/48/lb16/1431

K-4

astragal

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

21.64

18.36

17.69

31.84

30.66

98/K/33/lb67/34

K-4

astragal

comPl

100

l

bos

n

37.39

34.23

33.66

61.89

58.51

29.5

98/K/91/lb1/492

K-4

astragal

comPl

100

r

F

bos

y

37.93

32.87

00/K/85/lb10/862

K-4

astragal

comPl

100

l

F

bos

n

37.06

31.8

04/m/45/lb0/8

m-4

astragal

comPl

40.2

35.68

98/K/20/lb20/108

K-3

astragal

comPl

bos 100

l

F

bos

34.07

n

08/h/2/lb12/407

h-9

astragal

comPl

00/K/27/lb6/65

K-5

astragal

comPl

50

r

F

bos

bos n

42.24

43.64

04/K/29/lb4/206

K-5

astragal

comPl

100

r

F

bos

n

38.06

35.57 31.76

37.62 28.68

61.56

57.61

60.51

53.38

64.86

58.92

59.04

54.73

68.18

60.93

62.29

58.76

59.18

54.95

02/K/47/lb4/242

K-5

astragal

comPl

100

r

F

bos

n

31.76

27.79

27.22

49.69

45.39

02/K/34/lb13/302

K-5

astragal

comPl

100

l

F

bos

n

40.47

35.27

35.12

65.57

58.79

06/h/13/lb4/5

h-8

astragal

comPl

38.86

32.2

29.23

59.27

53.55

bos

h-7

astragal

comPl

bos

38.98

31.79

30.75

59.23

54.39

h-7

astragal

comPl

bos

30.09

25.61

25.9

46.1

43.97

00/h/37/lb17/2

h-5

astragal

comPl

35.37

32.79

31.59

61.22

55.97

56.85

100

l

F

bos

n

96/F/48/lb4/45

F-5

astragal

comPl

bos

30.8

25.92

96/F/48/lb4/47

F-5

astragal

comPl

bos

39.96

33.64

34.76

96/h/24/lb0/62a

h-3

astragal

comPl

bos

37.67

31.78

32.56

17.13

14.83

27.68

57.25

98/K/20/lb35/166

K-3

astragal

bod

90

r

F

capra

y

98/K/33/lb93/764

K-4

astragal

bod

90

r

F

capra

y

28.34

98/K/110/lb1/76

K-4

astragal

bod

50

r

F

ovi/capra y

17.33

31.13

98/K/24/lb4/457

K-4

astragal

bod

70

r

F

ovi/capra y

15.71

28.88

26.07

98/K/91/lb1/504

K-4

astragal

bod

80

l

F

ovi/capra y

20.93

15.53

17.15

30.62

00/K/55/lb11/912

K-4

astragal

bod

80

l

F

ovis

y

19.94

18

17.67

29.37

98/K/41/lb24/383

K-4

astragal

bod

70

l

F

bos

y

35.58

32.09

98/l/78/lb9/27

l-5

astragal

bod

bos

37.41

55.81

1187

CAAaeye ha: aATeAe e yhAAey aelh eAy A ele Ayy eyayey

06/h/2/lb13/430 00/h/72/lb1/497

REgIsTRATIOn nUMBER

LEvEL/ PHAsE

BOnE

PART

% R/L PREsERv

06/h/2/lb16/447

h-7

metatarsal ProX

ovi/capra

21.97

08/h/2/lb29/505

h-9

metatarsal ProX

ovi/capra

20.21

08/h/36/lb1/558

h-9

metatarsal ProX

ovi/capra

21.51

08/h/36/lb2/561

h-9

metatarsal ProX

ovi/capra

20.77

08/h/34/lb4/590a

h-9

metatarsal ProX

ovi/capra

22.47

04/l/3/lb1/47

l-3

metatarsal ProX

ovi/capra

22.38

04/m/46/lb1/210

m-4

metatarsal ProX

ovi/capra

22.7

98/h/30/lb5/688

h-5

metatarsal ProX

00/m/33/lb1/249

m-4

metatarsal ProX

100

l

F / UF

F

sPECIEs FREsH BP BREAK

bos

y

bos

BD

K-5

metatarsal ProX

100

l

F

bos

y

46.05

K-4

metatarsal ProX

100

l

F

bos

n

49.32

98/K/33/lb71/723

K-4

metatarsal ProX

50

l

F

bos

y

98/K/33/lb11/747

K-4

metatarsal ProX

100

r

F

bos

y

56.36

04/K/46/lb3/1147

K-4

metatarsal ProX

100

r

F

bos

n

50.24

06/h/5/lb5/336

h-7

metatarsal ProX

bos

42.74

00/h/39/lb3/4

h-6

metatarsal ProX

bos

46

00/h/69/lb1/92

h-6

metatarsal ProX

bos

40.68

98/h/30/lb5/688

h-5

metatarsal ProX

96/F/72/lb2/30

F-5

metatarsal ProX

bos

96/h/60/lb0/72

h-3

metatarsal diS

ovis

06/h/2/lb10/69

h-7

metatarsal diS

ovis

25.62 25.49

F

bos

06/h/34/lb1/276

h-7

metatarsal diS

ovis

06/h/2/lb13/432

h-7

metatarsal diS

capra

06/h/15/lb5/299

h-7

metatarsal diS

capra

ET

17.04

11.37

17.76

11.73

36.74

02/K/47/lb14/415

l

IT

43.27

98/K/24/lb12/426

100

gL

y

43.27 49.89

26.48

16.71

10.61

16.62

10.59

15.54

9.89

06/h/2/lb2/313

h-7

metatarsal diS

capra

23.27

14.22

9.36

08/h/38/lb4/446

h-9

metatarsal diS

ovis

24.03

13.97

10.22

A AAele yAyyle

1188

aPPendiX table 27.5: meaSurementS oF metaPodial boneS oF caPrineS and cattle

REgIsTRATIOn nUMBER

LEvEL/ PHAsE

BOnE

PART

% R/L PREsERv

F / UF

sPECIEs FREsH BP BREAK

08/h/20/lb1/481

h-9

metatarsal diS

capra

08/h/2/lb29/508

h-9

metatarsal diS

ovis

BD

gL

IT

ET

18.74

13.02

02/m/71/lb1/333

m-4

metatarsal diS

ovis

26.92

18.12

12.34

00/K/55/lb9/848

K-4

metatarsal diS

100

na

uF

capra

26.98

18.21

12.58

98/K/94/lb2/341

K-4

metatarsal diS

100

na

F

ovis

24.53

16.66

10.02

00/K/120/lb4/636

K-4

metatarsal diS

100

na

F

ovis

26.6

16.52

10.7

00/K/55/lb8/816

K-4

metatarsal diS

60

na

F

ovis

16.55

10.55

00/K/5/lb9/1425

K-4

metatarsal diS

100

na

F

ovis

23.97

15.85

10.42

98/K/91/lb1/83

K-4

metatarsal diS

100

na

ovis

22.53

16.93

12.69

l-3

metatarsal diS

27.67

21.69

K-5

metatarsal diS

100

na

F

bos

bos y

47.57

27.15

19.34

98/K/110/lb2/207

K-4

metatarsal diS

60

na

F

bos

y

30.56

23.47

60

na

F

bos

y

04/K/40/lb4/1173

K-4

metatarsal diS

27.74

20.88

06/h/48/lb2/117

h-9

metatarsal diS

bos

47.53

29.21

20.86

08/h/38/lb10/421

h-9

metatarsal diS

bos

52.44

29.46

21.93

06/h/67/lb1/156

h-7

metatarsal diS

bos

52.23

28.38

20.11

96/h/34/lb0/59

h-3

metatarsal diS

bos

46.61

29.21

21.82

94/h/78/lb0/5

h-2

metatarsal diS

bos

39.6

25.66

17.14

04/K/46/lb3/1544

K-4

metatarsal comPl

100

l

F

bos

y

98/K/110/lb2/208

K-4

metacarpal diS

100

na

F

capra

n

98/K/35/lb17/363

K-4

metacarpal diS

70

na

F

capra

y

41.91

225

29.52

22.44

26.25

16.84

10.72

14.39

9.04

00/K/22/lb31/845

K-4

metacarpal diS

100

na

F

capra

y

26.66

14.93

10.16

00/K/58/lb4/880

K-4

metacarpal diS

100

na

uF

capra

y

25.75

17.09

11.26

00/K/29/Pt1/910

K-4

metacarpal diS

50

r

F

capra

y

13.56

8.4

00/K/58/lb27/953

K-4

metacarpal diS

100

l

F

capra

y

15.88

9.78

23.95

1189

98/K/35/lb18/1085

K-4

metacarpal diS

100

na

F

capra

y

25.38

15.48

9.65

04/K/45/lb2/1142

K-4

metacarpal diS

90

na

F

capra

n

29.07

16.42

10.35

98/K/46/lb27/290

K-4

metacarpal diS

100

na

F

ovis

y

25.52

16.93

9.69

CAAaeye ha: aATeAe e yhAAey aelh eAy A ele Ayy eyayey

00/l/142/lb4/2 02/K/24/lb7/315

LEvEL/ PHAsE

BOnE

08/h/38/lb4/445

h-9

08/h/35/lb2/620 06/h/26/lb1/319

PART

sPECIEs FREsH BP BREAK

BD

metacarpal diS

ovis

h-9

metacarpal diS

h-7

metacarpal diS

98/h/30/lb5/690

h-5

metacarpal diS

96/h/80/lb1/154

h-4

metacarpal diS

00/K/120/lb6/617

K-4

metacarpal diS

% R/L PREsERv

100

na

F / UF

F

IT

ET

27.77

17.37

9.92

ovis

30.03

18.24

13.53

ovis

28.17

17.54

10.76

ovis

y

capra 100

na

F

ovis

25.87

15.34

11.42

27.25

16.08

9.09

25.46

15.41

12.45

28.41

17.43

y

00/K/124/lb1/624

K-4

metacarpal diS

100

na

F

ovi/capra n

04/K/131/lb4/225

K-5

metacarpal diS

100

na

F

ovis

04/m/77/lb1/125

m-4

metacarpal diS

n

gL

27.43

bos

47.76

29.25

22.6

29.78

23.18

28.07

21.72

00/K/108/lb2/34

K-5

metacarpal diS

100

na

F

bos

y

59.32

00/K/97/lb10/137

K-5

metacarpal diS

90

na

F

bos

y

66.97

02/K/36/lb9/379

K-5

metacarpal diS

100

na

F

bos

y

bos

12.58 13.15

94/h/76/lb0/76

h-3

metacarpal diS

49.85

27.78

22.38

98/h/53/lb1/680

h-5

metacarpal diS

100

na

F

bos

y

49.34

28.73

21.71

98/h/30/lb4/722

h-5

metacarpal diS

100

na

F

bos

y

50.46

28.04

22.14

06/h/5/lb11/38

h-7

metacarpal diS

bos

46.54

27.27

20.96

06/h/26/lb1/318

h-7

metacarpal diS

bos

46.06

27.22

19.58

98/K/121/lb1/531

K-4

metacarpal diS

100

na

F

bos

y

51.47

30.5

23.62

00/K/75/lb2/884

K-4

metacarpal diS

100

na

F

bos

n

56.03

31.76

24.58

30.19

23.9

04/K/45/lb1/1161

K-4

metacarpal diS

100

na

F

bos

y

53.73

98/K/31/lb71/301

K-4

metacarpal ProX

100

r

F

ovi/capra n

21.35

00/K/43/lb15/651

K-4

metacarpal ProX

100

r

F

ovi/capra n

24.6

98/K/33/lb2/778

K-4

metacarpal ProX

100

r

F

ovi/capra y

24.24

00/K/56/lb1/890

K-4

metacarpal ProX

100

r

F

ovi/capra n

22.25

00/K/99/lb1/939

K-4

metacarpal ProX

100

l

F

ovi/capra y

22.79

100

r

F

98/K/33/lb29/1062

K-4

metacarpal ProX

00/l/142/lb4/3

l-3

metacarpal ProX

ovi/capra

ovi/capra y 24.35

24.26

00/l/134/lb1/70

l-5

metacarpal ProX

ovi/capra

27.2

A AAele yAyyle

1190

REgIsTRATIOn nUMBER

REgIsTRATIOn nUMBER

LEvEL/ PHAsE

BOnE

PART

98/h/38/lb7/97

h-4

metacarpal ProX

98/h/30/lb2/765

h-5

metacarpal ProX

% R/L PREsERv

F / UF

sPECIEs FREsH BP BREAK ovi/capra

100

na

F

ovis

y

31.53

98/h/53/lb5/592

h-5

metacarpal ProX

100

r

F

ovi/capra n

26.43

h-5

metacarpal ProX

100

l

F

ovis

24.57

06/h/5/lb5/339

h-7

metacarpal ProX

ovi/capra

25.43

08/h/2/lb1/293

h-9

metacarpal ProX

ovi/capra

28.08

08/h/38/lb4/443

h-9

metacarpal ProX

ovi/capra

24.54

08/h/12/lb4/456

h-9

metacarpal ProX

ovi/capra

28.85

98/K/21/lb7/51

K-3

metacarpal ProX

ovi/capra n

24.48

l

F

gL

IT

ET

18.8

10.56

16.15

11.53

24.81

00/h/37/lb32/125

100

BD

n

00/K/31/lb5/1252

K-4

metacarpal ProX

100

l

F

bos

y

52.97

98/h/46/lb1/788

h-5

metacarpal ProX

100

l

F

bos

y

50.79

06/h/26/lb1/317

h-7

metacarpal ProX

bos

45.95

K-4

metacarpal ProX

100

l

F

bos

y

48.82

K-4

metacarpal ProX

80

l

F

bos

y

51.1

98/K/21/lb41/42

K-3

metacarpal comPl

90

l

F

ovis

y

23.77

98/K/93/lb2/512

K-4

metacarpal comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

00/h/30/lb6/171

h-5

metacarpal comPl

100

l

F

capra

n

00/h/39/lb3/2

h-6

metacarpal comPl

23.89 24.74

bos

56.7 48.07

27.87

16.43

29.09 32.74

00/h/39/lb3/3

h-6

metacarpal comPl

bos

28.01

20.39

F-5

metapodial diS

capra

16.35

9.66

06/h/6/lb4/113

h-3

metapodial diS

ovi/capra

16.04

11.02

08/h/8/lb15/585

h-9

metapodial diS

K-3

metapodial diS

100

na

F

ovis

capra n

98/K/34/lb24/216

K-4

metapodial diS

50

na

na

capra

y

00/K/58/lb16/1278

K-4

metapodial diS

100

na

F

capra

n

27.16 27.32

179

27.29

96/F/50/lb4/36

98/K/21/lb7/53

47.65

9.94 11

15.91

10.95

16.33

11.21

14.78

8.93

14.95

9.73

1191

98/K/42/lb26/179

K-4

metapodial diS

50

na

uF

ovi/capra y

17.43

98/K/33/lb10/710

K-4

metapodial diS

40

na

na

ovi/capra y

14.34

9.51

00/K/13/lb12/1312

K-4

metapodial diS ePi

70

na

uF

ovi/capra y

16.76

9.86

CAAaeye ha: aATeAe e yhAAey aelh eAy A ele Ayy eyayey

98/K/121/lb4/575 98/K/33/lb2/777

LEvEL/ PHAsE

BOnE

98/K/71/lb3/753

K-4

00/K/10/lb24/1350 00/K/101/lb15/48

PART

% R/L PREsERv

F / UF

sPECIEs FREsH BP BREAK

BD

metapodial diS

100

na

F

ovis

y

27.88

K-4

metapodial diS ePi

40

na

uF

ovis

K-5

metapodial diS ePi

50

na

uF

50

na

uF

02/K/2/lb3/403

K-5

metapodial diS ePi

04/m/44/lb0/19

m-4

metapodial diS

IT

ET

17.75

11.87

n

17.37

10.73

capra

n

17

10.58

capra

n

bos

gL

47.64

17.43

9.44

27.76

20.97

aPPendiX table 27.6: meaSurementS oF FirSt and Second PhalanX oF caPrineS and cattle REgIsTRATIOn nUMBER

LEvEL/ PHAsE

BOnE

PART

% R/L PREsERv

F / UF

96/F/4/lb1/13

F-5

Phl 1

comPl

96/F/2/lb1/24

F-5

Phl 1

comPl

96/F/50/lb10/58

F-5

Phl 1

comPl

96/h/33/lb0/22

h-3

Phl 1

comPl

100

r

F

96/h/34/lb0/25

h-3

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

96/h/26/lb0/31

h-3

Phl 1

comPl

100

96/h/22/lb0/61

h-3

Phl 1

comPl

98/h/49/lb6/92

h-3

Phl 1

comPl

98/h/35/lb1/10

h-4

Phl 1

98/h/26/lb3/33

h4

98/h/29/lb5/64

h-4

00/h/48/lb27/315

sPECIEs

FREsH BREAK

BP

BD

gL

DP

ovis

11.22

12.05

37.32

15.14

ovis

12.73

14.87

40.06

17.2

capra

11.84

11.11

34.59

13.53

capra

11.75

11.24

35.53

13.8

F

ovi/capra

14.28

13.29

39.54

16.88

l

F

capra

13.03

11.83

35.54

15.14

100

r

F

ovi/capra

12.09

11.41

40.31

15.52

100

l

F

ovis

13.05

12.39

36.12

15.51

comPl

capra

13.97

13.33

38.94

16.99

Phl 1

comPl

ovi/capra

13.6

12.92

40.69

16.7

Phl 1

comPl

ovis

12.68

11.64

40.07

18.14

h-5

Phl 1

comPl

100

r

F

capra

n

12.29

11.6

39.49

14.58

00/h/51/lb1/346

h-5

Phl 1

comPl

100

r

F

capra

n

13.23

12.52

38.12

14.54

00/h/39/lb3/74

h-5

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

14.52

13.92

41.66

17.39

00/h/39/lb6/152

h-5

Phl 1

comPl

100

r

F

ovis

n

12.89

12.06

35.58

14.48

00/h/13/lb1/476

h-5

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

13.28

12.38

37.74

15.23

00/h/13/lb2/490

h-5

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

13.59

13.18

44.07

17.02

00/h/19/lb1/569

h-5

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

13.67

11.94

41.9

20.06

A AAele yAyyle

1192

REgIsTRATIOn nUMBER

LEvEL/ PHAsE

BOnE

PART

% R/L PREsERv

F / UF

sPECIEs

FREsH BREAK

BP

BD

gL

DP

98/h/62/lb10/614

h-5

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

13.67

13.57

43.48

16.93

98/h/30/lb3/766

h-5

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

14.06

11.67

39.25

15.8

06/h/66/lb2/49

h-6

Phl 1

comPl

ovis

12.72

11.3

35.41

15.12

00/h/66/lb15/252

h-6

Phl 1

comPl

capra

14.33

13

40.13

16.9

00/h/58/lb3/257

h-6

Phl 1

comPl

ovis

13.26

12.87

38.29

16.93

06/h/2/lb12/19

h-7

Phl 1

comPl

ovis

14.41

12.36

36.62

15.78

06/h/2/lb12/20

h-7

Phl 1

comPl

ovis

12.44

11.77

32.72

14.33

06/h/5/lb11/35

h-7

Phl 1

comPl

capra

12.41

11.71

36.57

14.33

06/h/78/lb4/197

h-7

Phl 1

comPl

ovis

14.13

13.07

37.52

17.67

06/h/78/lb3/465

h-7

Phl 1

comPl

ovis

12.54

12.23

37.42

15.1

06/h/34/lb1/278

h-7

Phl 1

comPl

ovis

14.34

06/h/34/lb2/481

h-7

Phl 1

comPl

capra

12.73

12.86

39.3

16.52

06/h/26/lb8/482

h-7

Phl 1

comPl

capra

12.58

12.2

37.61

13.98

06/h/13/lb7/61

h-8

Phl 1

comPl

capra

10.92

14.94

36.24

11.59

06/h/13/lb7/62

h-8

Phl 1

comPl

capra

12.34

15.17

33.66

11.12

06/h/13/lb4/9

h-8

Phl 1

comPl

capra

13.56

16.29

38.64

13.74

06/h/39/lb7/118

h-8

Phl 1

comPl

capra

14

16.01

38.61

14.26

06/h/13/lb14/123

h-8

Phl 1

comPl

capra

13.78

15.78

39.77

13.67

00/K/101/lb15/45

K-5

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

F

capra

n

14.69

13.85

42.04

15.07

00/K/120/lb1/143

K-5

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

F

capra

n

14.49

11.36

41.53

17.09

04/K/131/lb4/221

K-5

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

F

capra

n

12.31

12.11

37.11

15.73

02/K/24/lb7/328

K-5

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

12.81

11.79

36.8

14.18

02/K/47/lb9/329

K-5

Phl 1

comPl

100

r

F

capra

n

10.96

11.15

37.75

14.42

04/l/24/lb1/63

l-3

Phl 1

comPl

ovis

11.17

10.46

33.83

12.94

00/m/38/lb4/244

m-4

Phl 1

comPl

ovis

13.15

11.52

34.59

15.19

00/m/35/lb1/276

m-4

Phl 1

comPl

ovis

12.95

13.85

37.71

14.75

00/m/31/lb3/279

m-4

Phl 1

comPl

ovis

13

11.7

31.28

15.36

16.26

CAAaeye ha: aATeAe e yhAAey aelh eAy A ele Ayy eyayey

1193

REgIsTRATIOn nUMBER

LEvEL/ PHAsE

BOnE

PART

04/m/47/lb0/16

m-4

Phl 1

comPl

06/m/48/lb3/85

m-4

Phl 1

comPl

06/m/48/lb18/94

m-4

Phl 1

06/m/48/lb9/100

m-4

00/m/38/lb4/243

m-4

98/K/21/lb26/103

% R/L PREsERv

F / UF

sPECIEs

FREsH BREAK

BP

BD

gL

DP

capra

13.31

12.22

37.02

15.39

ovis

11.74

11.79

33.75

14.89

comPl

ovis

13.86

13.2

38.33

18.35

Phl 1

comPl

capra

13.66

13.65

36.73

15.84

Phl 1

comPl

capra

13.08

12.87

38.3

15.41

K-3

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

F

capra

n

13.35

11.67

35.04

15.13

98/K/21/lb12/32

K-3

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

12.64

11.11

35.55

14.7

98/K/20/lb29/124

K-3

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

13.6

12.68

38.64

15.61

98/K/45/lb4/334

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

r

F

capra

n

10.85

10.57

37.06

14.51

98/K/126/lb2/563

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

r

F

capra

n

13.69

12.7

40.03

15.51

00/K/120/lb6/619

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

r

F

capra

n

10.32

8.96

32.64

11.8

98/K/56/lb2/775

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

r

F

capra

y

14.39

13.98

43.23

18.23

98/K/33/lb2/781

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

F

capra

n

12.39

11.26

36.43

14.99

00/K/29/lb101/867

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

F

capra

n

11.53

11.2

36.54

14.62

00/K/87/lb3/942

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

F

capra

n

11.54

11.16

40.41

15.13

00/K/87/lb3/943

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

F

capra

n

15.01

14.42

45.08

17.26

00/K/11/lb2/972

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

r

F

capra

n

14.27

13.45

42.07

17.39

00/K/86/lb3/973

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

r

F

capra

n

11.77

11.79

40.22

14.2

00/K/86/lb3/974

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

r

F

capra

n

11.92

12.3

38.9

13.97

00/K/77/lb11/1397

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

r

F

capra

n

14.12

13.97

42.3

16.18

00/K/22/lb33/1518

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

uF

capra

n

13.77

13.66

39.63

15.83

98/K/41/lb59/134

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

uF

ovi/capra

n

13.9

14.04

45.29

17.18

00/K/37/lb15/673

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

F

ovi/capra

n

16.19

16.17

46.87

17.06

00/K/55/lb7/831

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

F

ovi/capra

n

12.74

00/K/35/lb1/929

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

F

ovi/capra

n

11.89

10.94

34.86

15.8

00/K/77/lb20/1470

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

90

l

F

ovi/capra

y

12.42

10.99

37.01

14.69

98/K/45/lb26/99

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

r

ovis

n

14.41

12.92

39.38

16.51

15.34

A AAele yAyyle

1194

REgIsTRATIOn nUMBER

LEvEL/ PHAsE

BOnE

PART

% R/L PREsERv

F / UF

sPECIEs

FREsH BREAK

BP

BD

gL

DP

98/K/45/Pt60/285

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

r

F

ovis

n

14.18

12.25

41.52

15.98

98/K/37/lb4/399

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

r

F

ovis

n

13.75

11.64

39.11

16.66

98/K/93/lb2/514

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

r

F

ovis

n

10.63

9.61

34.46

13.46

98/K/93/lb2/515

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

r

F

ovis

n

12.11

11.55

36.68

15.31

98/K/104/lb1/592

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

12.62

11.24

38.07

15.67

00/K/24/lb17/659

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

14.36

12.74

40.43

16.52

98/K/33/lb10/704

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

r

F

ovis

n

12.31

12.36

39.39

14.75

98/K/33/lb55/750

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

11.47

10.68

34.49

12.93

00/K/55/lb7/830

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

r

F

ovis

n

12.91

12.46

34.27

15.31

00/K/64/lb3/854

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

12.83

38.94

15.82

00/K/42/lb1/994

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

r

F

ovis

n

13.27

11.74

37.28

16.26

98/K/33/lb33/1036

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

12.1

12.96

36.73

12.29

98/K/32/lb97/1087

1195

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

r

F

ovis

n

13.21

13.15

39.81

14.91

98/K/43/lb144/1096 K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

r

F

ovis

n

14.72

13.34

42.24

18.58

98/K/32/lb136/1116 K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

r

F

ovis

n

12.33

12.16

37.6

15.02

00/K/11/lb1/1337

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

r

F

ovis

n

12.2

11.19

33.9

14.36

96/F/48/lb4/39

F-5

Phl 1

comPl

24.92

28.89

54.2

30.33

00/h/30/lb4/349

h-5

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

F

bos

n

25.35

23.13

58.79

30.14

98/h/61/lb1/620

h-5

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

F

bos

y

29.65

25.41

60.2

32.22

98/h/77/lb3/337

h-6

Phl 1

comPl

bos

23.92

21.9

53.9

28.98

00/h/65/lb8/246

h-6

Phl 1

comPl

bos

23.48

22.18

53.12

27.98

98/h/71/lb2/292

h-6

Phl 1

comPl

bos

27.32

24.77

52.9

27.59

98/h/71/lb2/293

h-6

Phl 1

comPl

bos

26.76

23.5

53.24

27.23

06/h/26/lb10/477

h-7

Phl 1

comPl

bos

25.18

24.04

55.62

30.2

06/h/13/lb4/48

h-8

Phl 1

comPl

bos

31.02

48.91

00/K/27/lb7/66

K-5

Phl 1

comPl

100

r

F

bos

n

24.87

60.32

00/K/97/lb2/107

K-5

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

uF

bos

n

bos

25.97

20.6

30.16 50.73

CAAaeye ha: aATeAe e yhAAey aelh eAy A ele Ayy eyayey

REgIsTRATIOn nUMBER

LEvEL/ PHAsE

BOnE

PART

% R/L PREsERv

F / UF

sPECIEs

FREsH BREAK

BP

BD

gL

00/K/97/lb10/136

K-5

Phl 1

comPl

100

F

bos

y

25.39

23.88

57.76

00/l/22/lb2/16

l-3

Phl 1

comPl

bos

23.85

21.73

52.66

27.38

04/l/15/lb2/49

l-3

Phl 1

comPl

bos

23.4

20.81

46.9

26.91

00/l/141/lb2/47

l-5

Phl 1

comPl

bos

24.3

23.2

45.97

26.82

00/l/134/lb6/78

l-5

Phl 1

comPl

bos

25.36

24.7

50.94

30.86

00/m/31/lb3/278

m-4

Phl 1

comPl

bos

24.51

22.95

47.86

26.7

00/h/30/lb4/349

h-5

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

F

bos

n

25.35

23.13

58.79

30.14

98/K/21/lb12/30

K-3

Phl 1

comPl

100

r

F

bos

n

32.7

29.1

62.25

36.01

98/K/41/lb59/133

K4

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

F

bos

n

26.71

23.81

54.36

28.5

98/K/45/lb87/162

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

r

bos

n

23.55

23.32

55.98

28.78

98/K/32/lb77/198

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

80

l

F

bos

y

98/K/92/lb6/233

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

F

bos

n

22.77

21

51.18

26.25

98/K/31/lb71/297

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

F

bos

n

23.89

21.98

59.66

28.22

98/K/24/lb12/429

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

r

F

bos

n

29.6

28.18

60.87

32.04

00/K/124/lb4/672

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

F

bos

n

25.77

26.31

61.25

34.37

00/K/21/lb1/675

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

na

F

bos

n

25.51

24.23

61.79

30.48

00/K/58/lb1/793

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

F

bos

n

29.75

27.95

56.02

31.15

00/K/58/lb6/822

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

F

bos

n

12.19

11.18

37.98

15.45

00/K/87/lb3/944

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

r

F

bos

y

26.17

24.72

58.84

broken

98/K/33/lb45/1010

r

DP

20.81

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

F

bos

n

24.06

22.52

59.43

28.23

98/K/32/lb122/1125 K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

r

F

bos

n

32.11

28.68

57.29

35.86

04/K/45/lb2/1139

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

F

bos

n

23.87

21.73

55.48

26.75

04/K/46/lb3/1148

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

F

bos

n

31.19

29.54

68.32

34.28

04/K/46/lb3/1149

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

F

bos

n

25.6

23.4

54.16

27.42

04/K/31/lb5/1208

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

90

r

F

bos

n

29.21

25.78

58.03

30.76

00/K/58/lb16/1279

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

F

bos

n

25.46

24.6

58.87

30.29

00/K/48/lb4/1449

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

r

F

bos

n

28.33

27.77

53

30.69

A AAele yAyyle

1196

REgIsTRATIOn nUMBER

REgIsTRATIOn nUMBER

LEvEL/ PHAsE

BOnE

PART

% R/L PREsERv

F / UF

sPECIEs

FREsH BREAK

BP

00/K/72/lb1/1461

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

F

bos

n

28.4

00/K/77/lb11/1505

K-4

Phl 1

comPl

100

l

F

bos

n

31.01

ovis

BD

gL

DP

52.75

29.76

27.84

59.58

32.86

98/h/31/lb1/23

h-4

Phl 1

bod

98/K/32/lb124/188

K-4

Phl 1

bod

100

l

F

bos

n

23.31

15.43 21.28

47.74

17.52 24.26

98/K/60/lb9/766

K-4

Phl 1

bod

80

r

uF

bos

y

27.86

26.7

58.79

34.53

98/K/45/lb22/140

K-4

Phl 1

bod

90

r

F

bos

y

26.17

27.58

55.26

30.48

98/K/42/lb31/10

K-4

Phl 1

bod

80

r

F

bos

y

22.81

56.33

02/K/36/lb9/331

K-5

Phl 1

ProX

100

r

F

ovi/capra

n

12.67

98/h/71/lb6/321

h-6

Phl 1

ProX

ovi/capra

98/h/71/lb2/294

h-6

Phl 1

ProX

capra

98/h/71/lb2/295

h-6

Phl 1

ProX

capra

98/h/71/lb2/296

h-6

Phl 1

ProX

capra

00/K/99/lb1/938

K-4

Phl 1

ProX

100

r

uF

capra

98/K/43/lb159/46

K-4

Phl 1

ProX

50

l

F

ovi/capra

98/K/46/lb5/119

K-4

Phl 1

ProX

100

r

F

ovi/capra

y

30.4 14.53

37.65

14.91

12.45

11.9

33.94

14.43

12.85

13.01

38.79

13.69

11.67

10.27

34.05

13.9

n

11.87

11.61

36.67

13.64

y

12.88

15.29 13.84

98/K/45/lb58/175

K-4

Phl 1

ProX

60

r

uF

ovi/capra

y

00/K/22/lb24/847

K-4

Phl 1

ProX

100

r

F

ovi/capra

y

12.5

12.86 15.31

00/K/22/lb18/889

K-4

Phl 1

ProX

100

l

F

ovi/capra

n

13.19

15.83

00/K/46/lb1/900

K-4

Phl 1

ProX

100

l

F

ovi/capra

y

15.73

17.39

00/K/103/lb1/933

K-4

Phl 1

ProX

100

l

F

ovi/capra

y

12.19

15.09

00/K/103/lb1/934

K-4

Phl 1

ProX

100

r

F

ovi/capra

y

12.78

98/K/33/lb34/1067

K-4

Phl 1

ProX

100

l

F

ovi/capra

y

12.78 12.11

11.15

38.37

15.6 15.74

1197

00/K/76/lb1/1323

K-4

Phl 1

ProX

100

r

F

ovi/capra

n

98/K/33/lb15/1031

K-4

Phl 1

ProX

100

r

F

bos

y

14.2

98/K/121/lb2/319

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

r

fusion line

capra

n

13.7

10.81

23.6

14.47

98/K/43/lb57/411

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

r

F

capra

n

12.28

9.47

22.5

13.56

00/K/58/lb6/872

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

r

F

capra

n

14.06

10.51

25.62

13.09

27.84

CAAaeye ha: aATeAe e yhAAey aelh eAy A ele Ayy eyayey

11.14

LEvEL/ PHAsE

BOnE

PART

% R/L PREsERv

F / UF

sPECIEs

FREsH BREAK

BP

BD

gL

DP

00/K/46/lb1/899

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

r

F

capra

n

12.81

10.12

24.65

12.92

98/K/32/lb95/1121

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

r

F

capra

n

12.11

10.47

24.18

13.27

98/K/43/lb168/1123 K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

r

F

capra

n

11.14

9.57

24.41

11.57

00/K/76/lb2/925

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

r

F

ovi/capra

n

14.58

11.45

25.59

13.54

00/K/76/lb2/926

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

r

F

ovi/capra

n

11.04

8.44

21.96

12.44

98/K/41/lb22/1052

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

r

F

ovi/capra

y

12.31

10.4

24.72

11.53

98/K/41/lb22/1053

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

l

F

ovi/capra

y

13.15

11.15

25.98

13.47

00/K/63/lb9/1295

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

r

F

ovi/capra

y

13.02

9.1

21.24

13.15

00/K/25/lb45/1358

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

r

fusion line

ovi/capra

y

11.8

8.64

24.32

11.83

98/K/110/lb1/78

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

r

ovis

n

12.4

10.05

26.55

12.51

98/K/110/lb1/79

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

l

ovis

n

9.61

8.28

23.03

12.63

98/K/43/lb34/148

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

r

F

ovis

n

13.78

9.6

22.4

14.02

98/K/43/lb109/226

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

r

F

ovis

n

14.47

11.73

22.01

14.88

98/K/121/lb2/320

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

12.32

9.94

23.13

13.6

98/K/43/lb48/397

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

10.66

8.81

21.55

11.21

98/K/104/lb1/593

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

12.04

9.41

22.55

12.24

98/K/33/lb10/706

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

r

F

ovis

n

12.23

10.19

20.49

13.45

00/K/58/lb29/918

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

10.58

8.66

21.77

12.12

98/K/41/lb21/1025

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

r

F

ovis

y

13.05

10.43

25.83

13.6

98/K/70/lb1/1081

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

r

F

ovis

n

11.21

9.73

23.12

12.84

04/K/45/lb2/1143

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

r

F

ovis

n

11.6

9.04

22.92

12.8

04/K/45/lb2/1144

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

11.42

8.49

21.09

12.33

04/K/40/lb4/1180

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

11.03

8.54

21.34

12.07

04/K/60/lb2/1225

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

11.61

8.79

20.69

12.01

00/h/7/lb4/349

h-5

Phl 2

comPl

100

l

F

capra

n

11.6

10.73

26.84

12.74

06/m/48/lb1/106

m-4

Phl 2

comPl

ovis

13.34

10.47

24.41

13.82

04/m/73/lb4/173

m-4

Phl 2

comPl

ovis

11.97

9.03

22.08

12.37

A AAele yAyyle

1198

REgIsTRATIOn nUMBER

REgIsTRATIOn nUMBER

LEvEL/ PHAsE

BOnE

PART

% R/L PREsERv

F / UF

sPECIEs

04/m/45/lb1/193

m-4

Phl 2

comPl

00/m/31/lb3/267

m-4

Phl 2

comPl

02/K/47/lb1/334

K-5

Phl 2

comPl

100

r

F

ovi/capra

02/K/35/lb1/335

K-5

Phl 2

comPl

100

r

F

capra

04/K/14/lb4/187

K-5

Phl 2

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

06/h/67/lb6/159

h-7

Phl 2

comPl

00/h/69/lb1/96

h-6

Phl 2

00/h/64/lb1/164

h-6

Phl 2

00/h/64/lb1/171

h-6

06/h/75/lb9/37 00/h/66/lb8/241

FREsH BREAK

BD

gL

DP

ovis

13.04

10.96

23.09

14.8

ovis

11.51

9.33

23.23

11.95

n

12.4

9.33

21.25

13.25

n

9.13

13.32

27.15

14.41

n

13.69

10.94

24.27

13.43

capra

11.49

8.49

23.56

11.53

comPl

capra

11.99

9.35

25.54

11.24

comPl

ovis

13.53

10.27

23.79

15.07

Phl 2

comPl

ovis

12.17

9.83

22.38

13.6

h-6

Phl 2

comPl

capra

12.02

10.15

23.67

12.21

h-6

Phl 2

comPl

ovis

14.48

11.29

26.46

14.02

00/h/65/lb8/247

h-6

Phl 2

comPl

ovis

11.79

9.22

20.92

12.66

00/h/65/lb15/248

h-6

Phl 2

comPl

ovis

11.63

9.14

24.52

11.17

00/h/66/lb1/253

h-6

Phl 2

comPl

capra

13.12

9.83

25.7

13.96

00/h/72/lb1/140

h-6

Phl 2

comPl

capra

12.73

10.1

22.26

12.22

00/h/72/lb1/141

h-6

Phl 2

comPl

ovis

10.78

8.74

23.87

11.39

00/h/62/lb1/198

h-6

Phl 2

comPl

capra

14.22

10.77

24.49

14.31

00/h/7/lb1/349

h-5

Phl 2

comPl

100

l

F

capra

n

11.6

10.73

26.84

12.74

00/h/30/lb1/426

h-5

Phl 2

comPl

100

r

F

capra

n

13.01

9.62

25.89

12.45

00/h/1/lb2/482

h-5

Phl 2

comPl

100

l

F

capra

n

14.57

12.7

26.31

13.89

00/h/19/lb1/534

h-5

Phl 2

comPl

100

l

F

capra

y

13.62

10.8

22.78

12.01

98/h/37/lb17/800

h-5

Phl 2

comPl

100

r

F

capra

n

14.08

11.3

28.22

13.88

98/h/64/lb4/636

h-5

Phl 2

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

14.12

10.73

24.89

14.67

98/h/30/lb4/720

h-5

Phl 2

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

11.81

9.26

23.16

13.13

98/h/30/lb1/767

h-5

Phl 2

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

12.19

9.32

23.28

12.73

96/h/22/lb0/65

h-3

Phl 2

comPl

100

l

F

ovi/capra

12.33

9.52

22.32

12.78

96/h/48/lb1/75

h-3

Phl 2

comPl

100

l

F

ovi/capra

12.11

8.6

21.42

12.67

CAAaeye ha: aATeAe e yhAAey aelh eAy A ele Ayy eyayey

1199

BP

LEvEL/ PHAsE

BOnE

PART

% R/L PREsERv

F / UF

sPECIEs

FREsH BREAK

BP

BD

gL

DP

96/F/50/lb0/59

F-5

Phl 2

comPl

98/K/45/lb56/44

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

l

bos

n

9.39

12.05

23.29

12.17

24.25

21.43

36.76

28.56

98/K/91/lb1/81

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

l

bos

n

29.68

27.02

54.56

33.92

98/K/41/lb59/135

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

l

98/K/46/lb33/269

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

l

F

bos

n

28.33

26.41

37.91

bos

n

25.83

21.56

37.23

26.18

98/K/24/lb20/288

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

l

F

bos

n

29.74

27.26

43.27

34.3

98/K/41/lb3/338

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

98/K/41/lb77/600

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

l

F

bos

n

26.3

22.65

35.37

30.21

l

F

bos

n

28.72

24.55

39.3

31.55

98/K/120/lb3/609

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

r

F

bos

n

25.62

22.24

38.27

28.48

00/K/120/lb8/639

K-4

Phl 2

00/K/42/lb58/649

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

r

F

bos

n

26.84

22.91

35.47

31.44

comPl

100

l

F

bos

n

23.39

20.56

32.5

27.06

00/K/89/lb1/662

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

l

F

bos

n

23.38

19.82

38.5

27.8

00/K/58/lb6/820 00/K/34/lb15/835

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

r

F

bos

y

26.56

23.4

36.76

27.76

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

r

F

bos

n

28.56

23.72

42.12

32.8

00/K/87/lb6/921

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

l

F

bos

y

31.43

25.41

47.06

33.7

00/K/35/lb1/928

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

l

F

bos

n

27.16

24.59

39.74

27.84

00/K/58/lb27/951

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

r

F

bos

n

30.89

25.82

42.89

32

00/K/17/lb2/992

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

r

na

bos

n

24.99

21.92

36.92

24.37

04/K/46/lb3/1150

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

l

F

bos

n

30.53

25.04

42.24

32.85

00/K/77/lb1/1440

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

l

F

bos

n

26.07

22.17

39.12

29.57

00/K/48/lb3/1462

K-4

Phl 2

comPl

100

l

F

bos

n

27.91

23.83

43.11

30.99

98/K/20/lb10/142

K-3

Phl 2

comPl

100

r

F

bos

y

26.41

22.74

31.62

29.86

98/K/20/lb24/143

K-3

Phl 2

comPl

100

r

F

bos

y

26.88

23.96

36.37

31.5

98/K/20/lb13/215

K-3

Phl 2

comPl

100

l

F

bos

n

25.59

98/K/20/lb9/247

K-3

Phl 2

comPl

100

r

F

bos

n

24.54

00/m/31/lb2/292

m-4

Phl 2

comPl

bos

23.98

02/m/55/lb25/302

m-4

Phl 2

comPl

bos

25.85

capra

25.57 37.28

27.65

21.09

33.49

26.97

21.84

33.99

27.29

A AAele yAyyle

1200

REgIsTRATIOn nUMBER

REgIsTRATIOn nUMBER

LEvEL/ PHAsE

BOnE

PART

02/m/52/lb2/303

m-4

Phl 2

comPl

98/l/71/lb2/5

l-5

Phl 2

04/l/47/lb1/38

l-5

04/l/20/lb2/41

l-3

04/l/15/lb1/48 04/l/37/lb3/87

% R/L PREsERv

F / UF

sPECIEs

FREsH BREAK

BP

BD

gL

DP

bos

26.23

20.78

35.13

29.33

comPl

bos

31.38

28.49

43.16

35.15

Phl 2

comPl

bos

29.75

25.36

37.32

34.52

Phl 2

comPl

bos

24.39

20.21

29.73

25.54

l-3

Phl 2

comPl

bos

25.53

21.75

32.65

29.6

l-3

Phl 2

comPl

bos

31.74

25.3

37.26

32.89

00/K/131/lb2/118

K-5

Phl 2

comPl

100

r

F

bos

n

04/K/62/lb4/162

K-5

Phl 2

comPl

100

l

F

bos

n

26.19

21.33

35

31.03

04/K/29/lb6/207

K-5

Phl 2

comPl

100

l

F

bos

n

27.66

23.42

35.21

30.52

K-5

Phl 2

comPl

80

r

F

bos

y

15.32

K-5

Phl 2

comPl

100

r

F

bos

n

24.85

39.37

29.42

06/h/13/lb1/20

h-8

Phl 2

comPl

bos

29.58

32.41

34.14

26.76

06/h/15/lb1/346

h-7

Phl 2

comPl

bos

28.14

21.7

37.61

29.32

98/h/71/lb8/335

h-6

Phl 2

comPl

bos

26.45

22.21

32.97

27.92

00/h/69/lb3/279

h-6

Phl 2

comPl

bos

23.25

19.7

32.76

26.76

98/h/77/lb9/338

h-6

Phl 2

comPl

23.6

19.87

34.35

26.81

00/h/19/lb4/568

h-5

Phl 2

comPl

100

r

F

bos

n

24.36

20.04

36.97

27.67

98/h/64/lb1/635

h-5

Phl 2

comPl

100

r

F

bos

n

23.14

20.9

33.7

23.58

96/h/32/lb0/121

h-3

Phl 2

comPl

100

r

na

bos

27.09

24.55

42.83

30.76

96/F/2/lb10/25

F-5

Phl 2

comPl

bos

24.54

28.03

41.11

32.91

98/K/42/lb31/15

K-4

Phl 2

ProX

13.91

10.65

24.81

14.46

00/K/5/lb2/1468

K-4

Phl 2

ProX

60

na

98/K/37/lb4/400

K-4

Phl 2

bod

80

00/h/37/lb4/13

h-5

Phl 2

bod

100

98/K/91/lb4/487

K-4

Phl 2

bod

98/K/45/lb29/464

K-4

Phl 2

diS

bos

r

23.77

capra

y

uF

ovi/capra

y

l

F

capra

y

13.52

11.24

27.06

12.9

r

F

ovis

n

10.8

8.54

22.66

11.3

100

l

F

bos

n

25.05

21.64

38.63

26.41

100

r

na

ovis

y

10.25

10.56

1201

CAAaeye ha: aATeAe e yhAAey aelh eAy A ele Ayy eyayey

02/K/47/lb1/243 02/K/24/lb4/274

REgIsTRATIOn nUMBER

LEvEL/PHAsE

BOnE

PART

% R/L PREsERv

F / UF

sPECIEs FREsH BREAK

gL

96/h/34/lb0/6

h-3

Phl 3

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

29.45

00/h/30/lb1/427

h-5

Phl 3

comPl

100

r

F

ovis

n

30.52

24.29

06/h/66/lb2/51

h-6

Phl 3

comPl

ovis

34.87

27.62

00/h/66/lb1/209

h-6

Phl 3

comPl

capra

33.13

27.16

06/h/13/lb7/63

h-8

Phl 3

comPl

capra

29.52

23.98

08/h/31/lb2/611

h-9

Phl 3

comPl

capra

32.37

26.16

06/h/41/lb7/37

h-9

Phl 3

comPl

capra

30.02

22.93

06/h/6/lb3/53

h-9

Phl 3

comPl

ovi/capra

34.22

25.49

06/h/49/lb4/142

h-9

Phl 3

comPl

ovis

36.32

29.02

06/h/6/lb11/159

h-9

Phl 3

comPl

ovis

27.33

21.91

06/h/7/lb1/239

h-9

Phl 3

comPl

ovis

28.4

22.31

08/h/3/lb6/278

h-9

Phl 3

comPl

ovis

28.52

24.55

98/K/33/lb14/743

K-4 (F?)

Phl 3

comPl

29.76

21.34

100

r

F

capra

n

DP

LD

98/K/33/lb37/1035 K-4

Phl 3

comPl

100

l

F

ovi/capra n

31.46

21.32

98/K/92/lb3/419

K-4

Phl 3

comPl

100

r

F

ovis

n

33.61

24.99

00/K/24/lb17/660

K-4

Phl 3

comPl

100

r

F

ovis

n

32.18

21.71

00/K/61/lb16/894

K-4

Phl 3

comPl

100

l

F

ovis

n

28.53

19.39

F

ovis

n

ovi/capra y

33.22

26.13

bos

59.11

04/K/40/lb4/1186

K-4

Phl 3

comPl

100

r

00/K/33/lb40/789

K-4

Phl 3

comPl

100

l

04/K/62/lb3/195

K-5

Phl 3

comPl

100

r

96/F/50/lb12/83

F-5

Phl 3

comPl

98/h/38/lb7/93

h-4

Phl 3

comPl

00/h/18/lb1/498

h-5

Phl 3

comPl

06/h/51/lb7/108

h-9

Phl 3

comPl

06/h/62/lb7/172

h-9

Phl 3

08/h/37/lb1/377

h-9

Phl 3

F

n

bos

18.52

57.97

bos

45.09

69.38

51.57

59.95

45.62

bos

57.76

46.29

comPl

bos

69.31

50.44

comPl

bos

70.2

57.64

100

r

F

bos

n

A AAele yAyyle

1202

aPPendiX table 27.7: meaSurementS oF third PhalanX oF caPrineS and cattle

LEvEL/PHAsE

BOnE

PART

04/l/20/lb1/43

l-3

Phl 3

04/m/44/lb0/10

m-4

Phl 3

06/m/48/lb15/116

m-4

98/K/35/lb24/38

K-4

REgIsTRATIOn nUMBER

% R/L PREsERv

sPECIEs FREsH BREAK

gL

comPl

bos

41.76

33.82

comPl

bos

51.91

40.92

Phl 3

comPl

bos

69.31

56.27

Phl 3

comPl

72.14

51.68

100

F / UF

l

bos

n

DP

LD

98/K/39/lb63/110

K-4

Phl 3

comPl

100

l

F

bos

n

56.86

47.28

98/K/45/lb22/139

K-4

Phl 3

comPl

100

r

F

bos

n

64.64

55.05

98/K/41/lb79/158

K-4

Phl 3

comPl

100

l

bos

n

58.36

44.76

98/K/100/lb4/223

K-4

Phl 3

comPl

100

l

bos

n

61.01

48.23

F

98/K/24/lb10/467

K-4

Phl 3

comPl

100

l

F

bos

n

00/K/124/lb6/654

K-4

Phl 3

comPl

100

r

F

bos

n

51.33

43.07

47.04

04/K/40/lb4/1178

K-4

Phl 3

comPl

100

na

F

bos

n

61.88

46.33

04/K/31/lb1/1195

K-4

Phl 3

comPl

90

r

F

bos

y

66.17

50.33

00/K/5/lb11/1398

K-4

Phl 3

comPl

100

r

F

bos

n

58.54

44.8

00/K/77/lb7/1414

K-4

Phl 3

comPl

100

l

F

bos

n

57.81

44.95

00/K/31/lb5/1249

K-4

Phl 3

bod

100

r

F

bos

n

58.9

49.2

aPPendiX table 27.8: meaSurable boneS oF rare SPecieS (SWine, birdS, dog, deer, gaZelle, rodentS and eQuineS)* REgIsT. LEvEL/ BOnE BOnE nUMBER PHAsE #

PART

00/m/33/ lb1/250

08/h/20/ lb2/637

% R/L PREsERv

F / UF sPECIEs FREsH B BREAK

L

BP

BD

DD

sD

gL

DP

LD

1203

m-4

250

Phl 1

comPl

Sus Scrofa

28.41 25.92

54.47 29.8

h-6

64

Phl 1

comPl

Sus Scrofa

17.96 16.52

38.84 17.42

h-9

637

Phl 3

comPl

Sus Scrofa

49.89

34.61

m-4

59

Phl 3

comPl

Sus Scrofa

24.5

23.26

* Some of the data are missing.

gB

gLP DL

DM

gLL gLM IT

ET

1204

REgIsT. LEvEL/ BOnE BOnE nUMBER PHAsE # l-3

98/l/78/ lb7/2

06/h/6/ lb9/118

% R/L PREsERv

F / UF sPECIEs FREsH B BREAK

comPl

L

BP

BD

73

Phl 3

1409

calcaneus ProX ePi

h-7

89

metacarpal comPl

Sus Scrofa

20.97

F-5

2

metacarpal comPl

Sus Scrofa

17.27 23.81

h-7

507

metapodial diS

Sus Scrofa

18.77

h-9

647

mand w/o bod teeth

Sus Scrofa

20.21

h-7

153

Femur

diS

anser

13.28

F-5

5

Femur

distal

canis

19.54

00/ K/77/ K-4 lb17/1409

08/h/4/ lb7/647

PART

DD

sD

Sus Scrofa 90

na

uF

Sus Scrofa

gL

DP

25..05 y

LD

82.55 15.96 15.62 16.92 31.62 29.3

434

Scapula

bod+necK

canis

tibia

comPl

canis

m-4

204

Femur

distal

canis

17.74

l-5

2

humerus

diS

canis

25.58

h-7

321

Phl 1

comPl

cervus

16.98 16.06

51.26 21.18

h-8

36

Phl 2

comPl

cervus

17.49 14.34

32.67 22.4

h-9

23

Phl 3

comPl

cervus

63.03

48.92

h-9

472

Phl 3

comPl

cervus

48.18

39.1

5

50.37

40.77

14.14 17.4

h-7

58

Phl 1

diS

h-3

118

Phl 3

comPl 100

F-5

4

Femur

prox

dama

44.48

370

Phl 1

comPl

eq asinus

35.68 32.65

38

carpal

comPl

eq asinus

h-3

gLL gLM IT

92.8

68

dama dama

DM

38.5

h-7

F

gLP DL

19.8

m-4

l

gB

25.85 7.11 128.91 37.03

20.09 n

27.27 66.75 25.86

ET

REgIsT. LEvEL/ BOnE BOnE nUMBER PHAsE #

00/K/58/ lb6/824

PART

% R/L PREsERv

F / UF sPECIEs FREsH B BREAK eq asinus

L

BP

BD

DD

sD

gL

DP

m-4

60

m /2

m-4

172

tibia

distal

eq asinus

h-3

37

Phl 1

comPl

eq cab

57.45 43.25

83.18 36.53

F-5

7

metatarsal comPl

Felis

23.47 26.2

109.9

m-4

95

Phl 1

comPl

gazella

11.59 9.74

16.16 40.98

h-7

192

Phl 1

comPl

gazella

10.8 10.16

34.84 12.76

F-5

65

Phl 2

comPl

gazella

10.22 7.43

21.28 10.45

m-4

268

calcaneus comPl

gazella

h-9

243

metacarpal ProX

K-4

824

humerus

diS

F-5

6

carpal

comPl

equus

h-9

197

humerus

comPl

alectoris

80

l

na

LD

gB

gLP DL

DM

gLL gLM IT

ET

12.2 27.62 54.98 35.61

56.21

gazella

22.39

rodentia n

11.82 9.37

16.21 9.37

15.06

13.59

43.15 7.85

4.07 34.62

1205

A AAele yAyyle

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deniz, e. and Payne, S. 1982. eruption and Wear in the mandibular dentition as a guide to ageing turkish angora goats. in: Wilson, b., grisgon, c. and Payne, S., eds. Ageing and sexing Animal Bones from Archaeological sites (british archaeological reports international Series 109). oxford: 155–206. domínguez-rodrigo, m. and yravedra, J. 2009. Why are cut mark Frequencies in archaeofaunal assemblages So variable? a multivariate analysis. Journal of Archaeological science 36: 884–894. driesch, a. 1976. a guide to the measurements of animal bones from archaeological Sites. Bulletin of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology 1: 1–136. Finkelstein, i., ussishkin, d. and halpern, b. 2006. archaeological and historical conclusions. in: Finkelstein, i., ussishkin, d. and halpern, b., eds. Megiddo Iv: The 1998–2002 seasons (monograph Series of the institute of archaeology of tel aviv university 24). tel aviv: 843–859. grant, a. 1982. the use of tooth Wear as a guide to the age of domestic animals. in: Wilson, b., grisgon, c. and Payne, S., eds. Ageing and sexing Animal Bones from Archaeological sites (british archaeological reports international Series 109). oxford: 91–108. grayson, d.K. 1984. Quantitative Zooarchaeology: Topics in the Analysis of Archaeological Faunas. orlando. Greenfield, H. J. and Arnold, E.R. 2008. Absolute Age and Tooth Eruption and Wear Sequences in Sheep and goat: determining age-at-death in Zooarchaeology using a modern control Sample. Journal of Archaeological science 35: 836–849. grigson, c. 2006. Farming? Feasting? herding? large mammals from the chalcolithic of gilat. in: levy, t.e., ed. Archaeology, Anthropology and Cult: The sanctuary at gilat, Israel. london: 215–319. halstead, P., collins, P. and isaakidou, v. 2002. Sorting the Sheep from the goats: morphological distinctions between the mandibles and mandibular teeth of adult ovis and capra. Journal of Archaeological science 29: 545–553. hammer, Ø., harper, d.a.t. and ryan, P.d. 2001. PaSt: Paleontological Statistics Software Package for education and data analysis. Palaeontologia Electronica 4. heimpel, W. 1995. Plow animal inspection records from ur iii girsu and umma. Bulletin on sumerian Agriculture 8: 71–171. hellwing, S., and gophna, r. 1984. the animal remains from the early and middle bronze ages at tel aphek and tel dalit: a comparative Study. Tel Aviv 11: 48–58. helmer, d. and rocheteau, m. 1994. Atlas du squellette appendiculaire des principaux genres Holocenes de petits ruminants du nord de la Méditerranée et du Proche-Orient. Juan les Pins. hesse, b. and Wapnish, P. 1985. Animal Bone Archaeology from Objectives to Analysis. Washington. hesse, b. and Wapnish, P. 2002. an archaeozoological Perspective on the cultural use of mammals in the levant. in: collins, b.J., ed. A History of the Animal World in the Ancient near East. leiden: 457–491. hillson, S. 1986. Teeth. cambridge. horwitz, l. 1989. diachronic changes in rural husbandry Practices in bronze age Settlements from the refaim valley, israel. Palestine Exploration Quarterly 121: 44–54. horwitz, l., lev-tov, J., chadwick, J., Wimmer, S. and maeir, a. 2006. Working bones: a unique iron age IIA Bone Workshop from Tell es-Safi/Gath. near Eastern Archaeology 66: 169–73. King, P.J. and Stager, l.e. 2001. Life in Biblical Israel. louisville. Klein, r.g. and cruz-uribe, K. 1984. The Analysis of Animal Bones from Archaeological sites. chicago. lev-tov, J.S.e. 2000. Pigs, Philistines and the Ancient Animal Economy of Ekron from the Late Bronze to the Iron Age II (Ph.d. thesis. the university of tennessee). Knoxville.

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lyman, r.l. 1994a. Quantitative units and terminology in Zooarchaeology. American Antiquity 59: 36–71. lyman, r.l. 1994b. vertebrate Taphonomy (cambridge manuals in archaeology). cambridge, england. marean, c.W. 1991. measuring the Post-expositional destruction of bone in archaeological assemblages. Journal of Archaeological science 18: 677–694. Marom, N. and Bar-Oz, G. 2009. Culling Profiles: The Indeterminacy of Archaeozoological Data to Survivorship curve modelling of Sheep and goat herd maintenance Strategies. Journal of Archaeological science 36: 1184–1187. martin, l. 1998. the animal bones. in: betts, a.v.g., ed. The Harra and the Hamad: Excavations and surveys in Eastern Jordan (Sheffield Archaeological Monographs 9). Sheffield: 159–184. meadow, r.h. 1980. animal bones: Problems for the archaeologist together with Some Possible Solutions. Paléorient 6: 65–77. metcalfe, d. and Jones, K.t. 1988. a reconsideration of animal body Part utility indices. American Antiquity 53: 486–504. munson, P.J. and garniewicz, r.c. 2003. age-mediated Survivorship of ungulate mandibles and teeth in canid-ravaged Faunal assemblages. Journal of Archaeological science 30: 405–416. Parker, t.J., haswell, W.a., lang, W.d. and cooper, c.F. 1951. A Text-Book of Zoology. london. Payne, S. 1973. Kill-off Patterns in Sheep and goats: mandibles from asvan Kale. Anatolian studies 23: 281–303. Payne, S. and bull, g. 1988. components of variation in measurements of Pig bones and teeth, and the use of measurements to distinguish Wild from domestic Pig remains. Archaeozoologia 2: 27–65. Prummel, W. 1987a. Atlas for the Identification of Foetal Skeletal Elements of Cattle, Horse, Sheep and Pig. Part 1. Archaeozoologia 1: 23–30. Prummel, W. 1987b. Atlas for the Identification of Foetal Skeletal Elements of Cattle, Horse, Sheep and Pig. Part 2. Archaeozoologia 1, no. 2: 11–52. Prummel, W. 1988. Atlas for the Identification of Foetal Skeletal Elements of Cattle, Horse, Sheep and Pig. Part 3. Archaeozoologia 2: 13–26. Prummel, W. and Frisch, h.J. 1986. a guide for the distinction of Species, Sex and body Side in bones of Sheep and goat. Journal of Archaeological science 13: 567–577. raban-gerstel, n., bar-oz, g., Zohar, i., Sharon, i. and gilboa, a. 2008. early iron age dor (israel): a Faunal Perspective. Bulletin of the American schools of Oriental Research 349: 25–59. redding, r.W. 1984. theoretical determinations of a herder’s decisions: modeling variation in the Sheep/ goat ratio. in: clutton-brock, J. and grigson, c., ed. Animals in Archaeology: 3. Early Herders and their Flocks (british archaeological reports international Series 202). oxford: 223–241. reitz, e. J. and Wing, e.S. 1999. Archaeozoology. cambridge. ringrose, t.J. 1993. bone counts and Statistics: a critique. Journal of Archaeological science 20: 121–157. rixson, d. 1988. butchery evidence on animal bones. Circaea: Bulletin of the Association for Environmental Archaeology 6: 49–62. rosen, b. 1994. Subsistence economy in iron age i. in: Finkelstein, i. and na’aman, n., eds. From nomadism to Monarchy: Archaeological and Historical Aspects of Early Israel. Jerusalem: 339–351. russell, a. and buitenhuis, h. 2008. tell damishliyya Faunal bone report. Anatolica 34: 315–338. Sasson, a. 1998. the Pastoral component in the economy of hill country Sites in the intermediate bronze and iron ages: archaeo-ethnographic case Studies. Tel Aviv 25: 3–51.

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Sasson, a. 2005. economic Strategies and the role of cattle in the Southern levant in the bronze and iron ages. in: buitenhuis, h., choyke, a.m., martin, l., bartosiewicz, l. and mashkour, m., eds. Archaeozoology of the near East vI. Proceedings of the sixth International symposium on the Archaeozoology of southwestern Asia and Adjacent Areas, volume 123. groningen: 208–221. Sasson, a. 2006. animal husbandry and diet in Pre-modern villages in mandatory Palestine, according to ethnographic data. in: maltby, J.m., ed. Integrating Zooarchaeology. oxford: 33–40. Sasson, a. 2008. reassessing the bronze and iron age economy: Sheep and goat husbandry in the Southern levant as a model case Study. in: Fantalkin, a. and yasur-landau, a., eds. Bene Israel: studies in the Archaeology of Israel and the Levant during the Bronze and Iron Ages in Honour of Israel Finkelstein. boston: 113–134. Sasson, a. 2010. Animal Husbandry in Ancient Israel: A Zooarchaeological Perspective on Livestock Exploitation, Herd Management and Economic strategies. london. Schmid, e. 1972. Atlas of Animal Bones. amsterdam. Seligman, n., rosensaft, Z., tadmor, n., Katzenelson, J. and naveh Z. 1959. natural Pasture of Israel, vegetation, Carrying Capacity and Improvement. tel-aviv (hebrew with english abstract). Sherratt, a. 1981. Plough and Pastoralism: aspects of the Secondary Product revolution. in: hodder, i., isaac, g. and hammond n., eds. Pattern of the Past. cambridge: 261–305. Sherratt, a. 1983. the Secondary exploitation of animals in the old World. World Archaeology 15: 90–104. Silver, i.a. 1969. the ageing of domesticated animals. in: brothwell, d.r. and higgs, e., eds. science in Archaeology. london: 283–302. Sisson, S. 1953. The Anatomy of the Domestic Animals. Philadelphia. Stokes, P. 2000. A Cut Above the Rest? Officers and Men at South Shields Roman Fort. In: Rowley-Conwy, P., ed. Animal Bones, Human societies. oxford: 145–152. todd, l.c. and Frison, g.c. 1986. taphonomic Study of the colby Site mammoth bones. in: Frison, g.c. and todd, l.c., eds. The Colby Mammoth site: Taphonomy and Archaeology of a Clovis Kill in northern Wyoming. albuquerque: 27–90. vigne, J.-d. and helmer, d. 2007. Was milk a “Secondary Product” in the old World neolithisation Process? its role in the domestication of cattle, Sheep and goats. Anthropozoologica 42: 9–40. Wapnish, P. and hesse, b. 1988. urbanization and the organization of animal Production at tell Jemmeh in the middle bronze age levant. Journal of near Eastern studies 47: 81–94. Zeder, m. 1991. Feeding Cities. Washington.

1209

chaPter 28

micromammalian remainS lior Weissbrod

remains of micromammals (small rodents and insectivores) from ancient city sites can provide a wealth of information on aspects of urban ecology and the intensity of human settlement (armitage and West 1985; o’connor 2000; 2003; Piper and o’connor 2001). research on this important category of archaeological finds has been largely lacking in the Near East due to little if any systematic recovery of the small remains (but see Weissbrod and bar-oz 2004). at tel megiddo, an assemblage containing 170 specimens of micromammals was collected during the 1996 season from three areas of the excavation (h, J and K). the majority of the remains (n=136) came from area J, where they were found scattered mainly in levels J-4/5 and J-6 loci (eb ib and eb iii respectively):1 house floors, brick debris and removed walls. table 28.1 provides the contexts from which the micromammalian remains derive. only six specimens from this sample came from unclassified contexts that could not be securely associated with stratigraphic units. Level J-4/5 contained most of the securely affiliated material (N=127) and the remainder (N=3) originated from level J-6. Wapnish and hesse (2000) reported on two large concentrations of microvertebrate remains, including numerous specimens from small rodents and shrews in the same part of level J-4/5. the relative proximity of many of the scattered remains from level J-4/5 (