Medieval Lazio: Studies in architecture, painting and ceramics 9780860541554, 9781407326771
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English Pages [392] Year 1982
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Table of contents :
Cover Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
List of Illustrations
Foreword
Acknowledgements
ARCHITECTURE AND ARCHAEOLOGY
1. MEDIEVAL DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE IN NORTHERN LAZIO
2. UNDERGROUND GRAIN STORAGE IN CENTRAL ITALY
3. THE WALLS OF TUSCANIA: A STUDY IN MEDIEVAL URBAN TOPOGRAPHY AND DEFENCE
WALL PAINTINGS
4. THE CHRISTOLOGICAL SCENES IN THE NAVE OF THE LOWER CHURCH OF SAN CLEMENTE, ROME
5. NOTES ON EARLY MEDIEVAL WALL-PAINTING IN LAZIO
POTTERY
6. MEDIEVAL POTTERY FROM SOUTH ETRURIA
7. THE BACINI OF SS GIOVANNI E PAOLO, ROME
8. BACINI AT GAETA
RIASSUNTI
Citation preview
Medieval Lazio Studies in architecture, painting and ceramics
David Andrews, John Osborne and David Whitehouse
Papers in Italian Archaeology III BAR International Seri es I 2 5 1982
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
B.A.R.,
B.A.R.
122
Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England
GENERAL EDITORS A. R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil.
D. R. Walker, M.A.
B.A.R.-S125, 1982: 'Medieval Lazio'. ©The Individual Aut hors, 1982. The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860541554 paperback ISBN 9781407326771 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
CONTENTS
P age
L ist o f i l lustra tions F oreword A cknow ledgements ARCHITECTURE AND ARCHAEOLOGY by Dav id Andrews 1 . 2 . 3 .
Med ieva l d omestic a rch i tecture i n Northern L az io Underground g ra in s torage i n Centra l I ta ly The wa l ls o f Tuscania. A s tudy i n med ieva l u rban t opography a nd d efence
1 1 23 1 37
WALL PAINTINGS by J ohn Osborne 4 . 5 .
The Chr isto log ica l s cenes i n t he n ave o f t he l ower church o f S an C lemente, Rome Notes o n e ar ly med ieva l wa l l p a intings i n L azio 1 . 2 .
2 37 2 87
The Catacomb o f S an S enatore a t A lbano Z agaro lo
POTTERY by Dav id Wh i tehouse 6 . 7 . 8 .
Med ieva l p ottery f rom S outh E trur ia The bacin i o f S S G iovanni e P ao lo, Rome Bacini a t Gaeta
I ta l ian s ummar ies
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
2 99 3 46 3 62
3 73
L IST OF I LLUSTRATIONS P age F ig . 1 .1
P lan a nd s ect ion o f ar ound s hepherd 's h u t n ear Ro me ( f ro m C lose-Brooks a nd G ibson 1 966 ) .
F ig . 1 .2.
4
V i terbo , h ouses i n P iano S carano ( nos . 5 -11 v ia d e lla S a l i tä ;
n os . 4 1-43 v ia Caprarecce ;
a nd h ouse a t t he
e nd o fv ia d e l la S a l i tä ) . F ig . 1 .3.
V i terbo , h ouses i n P iano S carano ( nos . 1 -7 v ia S . C ar lo ) .
F ig . 1 .4 .
7
1 1
V itorch iano , h ouses i n v ia d e l B elvedere , v ia S . Mar ia a nd v ia S in iba ldesco .
1 4
F ig . 1 .5.
Tarqu in ia , Pa lazzo V i tel lesch i ( af ter C u l trera 1 921).
1 7
F ig . 1 .6.
Tuscan ia , t he Pa lazzo V escov i le .
1 9
F ig . 1 .7.
Tuscan ia , t he P a l ,azzo G iovanne t t i .
2 1
F ig . 1 .8.
A . S ketch o f r oof t russ ( capr ia te ) i nt he Pa lazzo Mac8abei , Tuscan ia .
2 3
B . Ro manesque d oorway , v ia S . P e l legr ino , V iterbo . C . S ketches o f t owers a nd p a laces f ro m t he Margar ita C ornetana ( f . LV I Iv , LVI I Iv ) . D . The p odes tä a nd c onsu ls o f G enoa ( f ro m t he Genoese c hron ic les , s ee n ote 1 1) . E . V i terbo , p iazza S . P e l legr ino ( a f ter Cucu 1 938, f ig . 3 ) . F . Deta i l f ro m Ambrog io L orenze t t i 's Ef fet t i d el Buon G overno n e lla c it tä i n t he P a lazzo Pubb l ico a t S iena . F ig . 1 .9.
C orneto-Tarqu in ia , t owers a nd p a laces i n v ia S . P ancrazio ( nos. 5 -9) a nd t o t he E . o f t he c hurch o f S . P ancrazio .
F ig . 1 .10 .
2 5
C orne to-Tarqu in ia , h ouses i n v ia d eg l i Arch i ( nos.495 7) , v ia d eg l i Or t i ( no . 2 9) , a nd t he h osp i ta l o f S . S p ir i to i n v ia d ei G ranar i .
2 7
F ig . 1 .11.
V i terbo , t he p or t ico o f S . To m maso .
2 9
F ig . 1 .12.
Tuscan ia , h ouses i n v ia d el C o mune a nd a t S ette
F ig . 1 .13.
C annel le .
3 1
Tuscan ia , h ouses i n . v ia d e l la Pace .
3 3
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
P age F ig . 1 .14.
Tuscan ia , t he Pa lazzo C ig l ion i .
3 4
F ig . 1 .15.
Tuscan ia , p or t icos i n v ia Oberdän .
3 6
F ig . 1 .16 .
B i fore i n t he P a lazzo G iovanne t t i a nd t he Pa lazzo V escovi le a t Tuscan ia ; a t V i torch iano .
F ig . 1 .17 .
a nd i n ah ouse i nv ico lo S . Rosa 3 9
V i terbo , t he Casa d i Va len t ino d e l la P ignot ta , a nd wa l l i n v ia S . P el legr ino .
4 3
F ig . 1 .18.
V i torch iano , t he Pa lazzo d el V escovo .
4 7
F ig . 1 .19.
V i terbo , t he Pa lazzo S acch i .
4 9
F ig . 1 .20 .
Tuscan ia , t he Pa lazzo S pagno l i .
5 1
F ig . 1 .21.
Tuscan ia , h ouses i n v ia d e l Turco a nd v ia d el la Lupa , V i terbo , v ia F at tungher i n o. 7 ;
V i torch iano , h ouse
d a ted t o 1 531.
5 3
F ig . 1 .22.
Tuscan ia , v ia d e l la Rocca n os. 2 4-26 .
5 7
F ig . 1 .23.
Orv ie to , h ouses i n v ia d e l la Co m menda , v ia R ipa S erancia , a nd v ia L ogg ia d e i Mercan t i .
6 1
F ig . 1 .24.
Orv ie to , h ouses i n v ia d e l Popo lo a nd v ia F ranca lanc ia .
6 3
F ig . 1 .25.
Tuscan ia , t he Pa lazzo Maccabe i .
6 9
F ig . 1 .26.
Tuscan ia , t he Pa lazzo d i Tar tag l ia .
7 2
F ig . 1 .27 .
Tuscan ia , t he Pa lazzo d i Tar tag lia .
7 3
F ig . 1 .28.
C orne to-Tarqu in ia , t he Pa lazzo d e l Marchese .
7 5
F ig . 1 .29.
Tuscan ia , c our tyard o fv ia Torre d i Lavel lo n os . 1 -7 .
8 1
F ig . 1 .30.
Tuscan ia , t he Pa lazzo Fan i .
8 7
P la te 1 .1
V i terbo , v ia C aprarecce n os . 4 1-43.
P la te 1 .2.
S . G im ignano , p a lace i n s quare t o t he S . o ft he
1 05
c a thedra l .
1 05
P la te 1 .3.
V iterbo , 1 2th-cen tury b u i ld ings i n v ia S . An ton io .
1 06
P la te 1 .4.
T od i , Pa lazzo d ei Pr ior i .
1 06
P la te 1 .5.
Narn i , l ogg ia o ft he Pa lazzo d e i Pr ior i .
1 07
P la te 1 .6.
V iterbo , T orre d i Messer Bra i mondo .
1 07
P la te 1 .7.
V iterbo , p iazza S . Pel legr ino.
1 08
P la te 1 .8.
V i terbo , t he p apa l p a lace .
1 08
P la te 1 .9.
S . Mar t ino a l C im ino , d oorway .
1 09
P la te 1 .10.
V i terbo , P a lazzo Capocci .
1 09
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
P age P la te 1 .11.
V i terbo , t he Pa lazzo Gat t i .
1 10
P la te 1 .12.
V iterbo , t he Casa Posc ia .
1 10
P la te 1 .13.
Gubb io , L argo S . Marzia le .
1 11
P la te 1 .14.
Vo lterra , t he h ouse o f G iovann i Toscano .
1 11
P la te 1 .15.
V o lterra , t he E . s ide o f p iazza d e i P r ior i .
1 12
P la te 1 .16 .
V o l terra , t he E . s ide o f p iazza d e i P r ior i .
1 12
P la te 1 .17.
V i terbo , p iazza d el Gesü .
1 13
P la te 1 .18.
B o lsena , t he p a lace o f Card ina l T eodor ico Ran ieri .
1 13
P la te 1 .19.
Orvie to , E . s ide o f t he E . b u i ld ing o ft he a bbey o f S S . S evero e Mar t ir io .
1 14
Orvie to , W. s ide o f t he E . b u i ld ing o f t he a bbey o f S S . S evero e Mar t ir io .
1 14
Orvie to , Pa lazzo d el Cap i tano d e l P opo lo .
1 15
P la te 1 .20.
P la te 1 .21. P la te 1 .22.
Orv ieto , d if feren t p hases o f wha t was o r ig ina l ly t he p apa l p a lace , t ha t t o t he l ef t b e ing t he e ar l ier .
1 15
P la te 1 .23.
S er moneta c as t le , r esiden t ia l b u i ld ing w i th s tone g u t ter .
1 16
P la te 1 .24.
B orghet to c as t le ( v ia F la m in ia ) , l a tr ine .
1 16
P la te 1 .25.
Tuscania , w indow o f t he Pa lazzo d i Tar tag l ia .
1 17
P la te 1 .26 .
C orneto-Tarqu in ia , t he Pa lazzo V i te l lesch i .
1 17
P la te 1 .27.
Tuscan ia , v ia Torre d i Lave l lo n os . 1 -7.
1 18
P la te 1 .28.
V i terbo , w indow w ith t erraco t ta s urround i n v ia C ard ina le L a F on ta ine .
P late 1 .29.
1 18
V i terbo , w indow w i th wooden t racery i n c orso I ta l ia , n os. 2 -8.
1 19
P la te 1 .30.
Fabr ica d i Ro ma , h ouse i n v ia d el la F on tane l la .
1 19
P la te 1 .31.
Tuscan ia , w indow o f n o.21 , v ia 2 0 ( S e t te mbre.
1 20
P la te 1 .32.
V i terbo , Casa d el la Pace , p iazza d e l le Erbe.
1 20
P la te 1 .33.
Tuscan ia , Pa lazzo G iannot t i .
1 21
F ig . 2 .1.
S ec t ion t hrough a p ozzo a t Tuscan ia .
1 25
F ig . 2 .2.
G ra in s torage p i ts a s r epresen ted i n ac abreo o f 1 611 ( see n ote 1 0 ) .
1 25
Gu idoccio Cozzarel l i , La misurazione d e l g rano .
1 34
P la te 2 .1. P la te 2 .2.
B orghet to c ast le ( v ia F la m in ia ) , r ecess c u t i n to t he s ide o f t he d i tch a bove a p ozzo , t he mou th o f wh ich i s j us t v isib le a t t he b ot to m o f t he p ho tograph .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
The s hape o f
P age t h is r ecess , a nd t he g roove r ound t he e dge o f i t , s uggest t ha t t he p ozzo h ad a d o med c over .
( The s ca le i s g radu-
a ted i n 1 0 cm i n terva ls.) F ig . 3 .1.
1 35
Tuscan ia , r e ma ins o f t he l ost c ircu i t o f wa l ls o n t he W. s ide o f t he h il l o f S . P ie tro.
1 45
Tuscan ia , wa l ls o n t he E . s ide o f t he monastery o f S . Pao lo .
1 49
F ig . 3 .3.
Tuscan ia , wa l ls f ro m T 4 t o T7.
1 51
F ig . 3 .4.
Tuscan ia , t owers T 7 a nd T 10.
1 53
F ig . 3 .5.
T uscan ia , w a l ls f ro m T 7 t o T 9 .
1 55
F ig . 3 .6.
Tuscan ia , wa l ls f ro m T 9 t o t he p or ta d i Mon tasc ide .
1 56
F ig . 3 .7.
Tuscan ia , t he p or ta d i Mon tasc ide .
1 57
F ig . 3 .8.
Tuscan ia , wa l ls f ro m T 12 t o T 13.
1 58
F ig . 3 .9.
Tuscan ia , t ower T 12.
1 59
Tuscan ia , wa l ls f ro m T 14 t o T 17.
1 61
F ig . 3 .11.
Tuscan ia , wa l ls f ro m T 18-T21.
1 63
F ig . 3 .12.
Tuscan ia , wa l ls f ro m T 21-T23.
1 65
F ig . 3 .13.
Tuscan ia , c hu te a nd c ondu i t a t S et te Cannel le.
1 66
F ig . 3 .14 .
Tuscan ia , t ower T 24 a nd t he R ive ll ino .
1 68
F ig . 3 .15.
Tuscan ia , t he R ive l l ino .
1 69
F ig . 3 .16 .
Tuscan ia , t he R ive l l ino ( t ower a t e nd o f e nclosure ) .
1 70
F ig . 3 .17.
Tuscan ia , wa l ls f ro m T 26 t o T 28.
1 74
F ig . 3 .18.
Tuscan ia , wa l ls a d jacen t t o t he monastery o f S .
F ig . 3 .2.
3 .10.
F rancesco .
1 76
.19. F ig . 3
Tuscan ia , wa l ls f ro m T 29 t o t he c onven t o f S . Pao lo .
1 78
.20. F ig . 3
Tuscan ia , p lan o f t he c en tro s tor ico .
2 08
F ig . 3 .21.
Map o f Tuscan ia s how ing t he t own wa l ls.
2 09
.22. F ig . 3
S ke tch p lan o f med ieva l f or t if ied s i te t o t he E . o f Tuscan ia .
P la te 3 .1.
V iew l ook ing S . f ro m t he c en tro s tor ico o f Tuscan ia t o t he R ive l l ino a nd S . P ie tro .
P la te 3 .2.
2 12
2 30
Tuscan ia , r e ma ins o f t he l os t c ircu i t o f s ai ls j ust t o t he S . o f t he l os s o d i S e tte C anne lle .
2 30
P la te 3 .3.
Tuscan ia , t ower CA3 o n t he l ost c ircu i t o f wa lls.
2 31
P la te 3 .4.
Tuscan ia , Ro man r oad o n t he W. s ide o f t he h i ll o f S . P ie tro , l ook ing N . t owards t ower CA5.
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
2 31
P age P late 3 .5
T uscan ia , t ower T 5.
2 32
P late 3 .6
T uscan ia , t owers T 15 a nd T 16.
2 32
P late 3 .7
Tuscan ia , t owers T 19 t o T 21.
2 33
P late 3 .8
Tuscan ia , t ower T 23.
2 33
P late 3 .9
An o ld p ho tograph o f T uscan ia f ro m t he a rch ive o f t he Br it ish S choo l a t Ro me .
I ts hows t he R ive l l ino
b efore t he p alace b u i ld ing c o l lapsed .
T o t he r ight o f
i ta re t he t ower o f t he c o m muna l p a lace a nd t he p or ta 2 34
S . L eonardo , b oth n ow d e mo l ished . P late 3 .10
T uscan ia , t he R ive l l ino a f ter r estorat ion c arr ied o ut c . 1 973-75.
2 35
P late 3 .11
T uscan ia , t owers T 27 a nd T 28 .
2 35
P late 4 .1
S an C le men te , t he A scens ion .
2 8 1
P late 4 .1 1
S an C le men te , t he A scension ( de ta i l ) .
2 81
P late 4 .I I
S an C le men te , t he A scens ion ( John H . P arker c o l lect ion , The Br it ish S choo l a t Ro me ).
2 82
P late 4 .IV
S an C le men te , t he A scension ( de ta i l ).
2 83
P late 4 .V
S Prassede , Ro me .
2 83
P late 4 .V I
S an C le men te , C hr isto log ica l s cenes o n t he p ier
S cenes o f mar tyrdo m ( 817-24 ) .
( John H . P arker c o l lect ion , T he B r it ish S choo l a t 2 84
Ro me ). P late 4 .V I I
S S Quat tro Coronat i , Ro me .
SB arbara c hape l
( Gab inet to F otograf ico N aziona le , Ro me ). P late 5 .1
C ataco mb o f S an S enatore , A lbano ( Pon t if ic ia 2 96
C omm iss ione d i Archeo log ia S acra ) . P late 5 .1 1
C h iesa d e l l 'Annunz ia ta , Z agaro lo .
SA lb ina
( Gab inet to F otograf ico N az iona le , Ro me ). F ig . 6 .1
2 97
The S outh E trur ia s urvey , s how ing t he a reas c overed b y 1 :2 5 ,000 s heets o f t he C ar ta & Ita l ia .
F ig . 6 .2
2 85
3 00
T he S outh E trur ia s urvey , s how ing t he d istr ibut ion o f s i tes w ith med ieva l a nd p ost- med ieva l p o t tery .
3 02
F ig . 6 .3
Open f or ms ( 1 :4 ).
3 14
F ig . 6 .4
C ook ing p ots ( 1 :4 ) .
3 16
F ig . 6 .5
J ars a nd J ugs ( 1 ;4) .
3 18
F ig . 6 .6
Amphorae ( 1 :4) .
3 20
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
P age F ig . 6 .7
M isce l laneous f or ms a nd u ng lazed p o t tery w ith c o mbed a nd p ain ted d ecorat ion ( 1 :4 ).
F ig . 6 .8
3 22
T he d istr ibut ion o fu ng lazed p ot tery w ith p a in ted d ecorat ion .
F ig . 6 .9
3 24
F oru m ware ( 25-30 ) a nd p ot tery w ith s parse g laze ( 31) ( 1 :4 ) .
3 26
F ig . 6 .10
T he d istr ibu t ion o f F oru m ware .
3 31
F ig . 6 .11
The d istr ibut ion o f p ot tery w ith s parse g laze .
3 32
F ig . 6 .12
C era m ica l az ia le ( 32 ) a nd Archa ic ma io l ica ( 1 :4) .
3 34
F ig . 6 .13
The d istr ibut ion o f c era m ica l azia le a nd a rcha ic ma io l ica .
F ig . 6 .14
3 36
Po t tery f ro m P ietra P ertusa , B e l Mon te a nd Torre Busson ( 1 :4 ).
P late 7 .I
3 40
Ro me , S s G iovann i e t P ao lo .
The c a mpan i le f ro m
t he s ou th .
3 46
F ig . 7 .1
The c a mpan i le o f S s G iovann i eP ao lo , Ro me .
3 48
F ig . 7 .2
P ot tery f ro m t he c a mpan i le o f S s G iovann ie P ao lo , Ro me .
P late 7 .11
3 50
Ro me , S s G iovann i eP ao lo .
C ata logue n os. 2
( upper ) a nd 6 . P late 7 .11 1
3 52
Ro me , S s . G iovann i eP ao lo .
C ata logue n os. 4
( upper ) a nd 5 . P late 7 .IV
3 53
Ro me , S s G iovann i eP ao lo .
C ata logue n os. 1 0
( l ower ) a nd 1 1. P late 7 . V
3 54
Ro me , S s G iovann i eP ao lo ,
C ata logue n os . 1 2
( l ower ) a nd 1 3 . P late 7 . V I
F ig . 8 .1 F ig . 8 .2
3 56
Ro me , S s G iovann ie P ao lo .
C ata logue n os .1 4
( upper ) a nd 1 5,
3 57
G aeta , SG iovann i a Mare ( F iengo ( 1971 :66 ).
3 62
Gaeta , t he D uo mo :
t he f our th o rder a nd t he b e lfrey
o f t he c a mpan i le , c o mp leted i n 1 279 ( F iengo 1 971 : 8 3 ) .
3 64
P late r 3 .I
G aeta , t he c a mpan i le o f t he Duo mo .
3 65
P late 8 .I
Gaeta , t he c a mpan i le o f t he D uo mo : ( Photograph :
b aci l l i n os . 2 -3
S opr in tendenza p er iB en i Arch itet ton ic i ,
e tc ., o f L az io , n eg . 1 7 .710 ) .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
3 66
P late 8 .1 1 1
G aeta , t he c a mpan i le o f t he D uo mo : ( Pho tographs :
b ac in i n os . 4 -6
S opr in tendenza p er iB en i Arch itetton ic i ,
e tc ., o f L az io , n egs . 1 7.699 ( l ower ) a nd 1 7.703 ( upper ) 3 68 P late 8 .I V
Gaeta , Upper : Lower :
S Annunz ia ta :
t he b e lfrey , C . 1 525
SG iovann i a Mare .
3 70
Map o f t he r eg ion o f L az io , s how ing t he a rea o f t he S outh E trur ia S urvey a nd p laces men t ioned i n t he t ex t .
3 76
Map o f Northern L az io a nd a d jacen t a reas o f Tuscany a nd Umbr ia .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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FOREWORD
The modern r eg ion o f L azio, c orrespond ing a pproximate ly t o t he a ncient L at ium a nd i n t he M idd le Ages f orm ing p art o f t he P apa l S tate, h as a lways b een, f or o bv ious g eograph ica l r easons, t he f ocus o f t he w ork c arr ied out a t t he Bri t ish S choo l a t Rome. Rather t han a l imi ta t i on, t h is h as a vo ided a d iss ipat ion o f i t s e nerg ies, f or g enerations o f s cho lars h ave c oncentrated upon t he s tudy o f a spects o f t he r eg ion 's h istory a nd a rchaeo logy. I n t he ma in, over t he l ast 3 0 y ears, t heir w ork has t aken p lace w i th in t he f ramework o f t he S outh E trur ia Survey i n i tiated by t he l a te J ohn Ward P erk ins, D irector o f t he S choo l f rom 1 946 t o 1 974. H is v is ion a nd d r ive c rea ted what h as b een o ne o f t he l argest a nd most d eta i led f i e ld s urveys e ver undertaken, i ts a ch ievements b eing noth ing l ess t han t he r econs truct ion o f a n a ncient l andscape. Most o f t he work o f t he Survey h as n ow b een pub l ished i n t he P apers o f t he Br i t ish S choo l a t Rome, a nd i ts r esu lts s ummar ized by T . W . P otter. 1 I t h as b een t he i nspirat ion o f a nd mode l f or t he s urveys wh ich t oday h ave b ecome t he s ine qua n on o f much o f t he a rchaeo log ica l r esearch n ow b eing c arr ied o ut i n I ta ly . 2 The Survey was n ot c oncerned w ith S outh E trur ia i n p rehistor ic a nd Roman t imes t o t he e xc lus ion o f i t s med ieva l a rchaeo logy a nd h istory. I ndeed, Ward P erk ins, who h ad p rev ious ly worked o n numerous med ieva l t opics, i nc lud ing t he s t i l l much-used Med ieva l Ca ta logue o f t he L ondon Museum a nd a s tudy o f t he med ieva l d omestic a rch i tecture o f Ma lta, 3 was one o f t he f i rst p ract i tioners o f a modern med ieva l a rchaeo logy i n I ta ly. The d iscovery a nd r ecord ing o f med ieva l s i tes i n t he c ourse o f t he S outh E trur ia S urvey l ed t o e xcavat ions a t S . Corne lia,S. Ruf ina a nd Caste l P orc iano . These were c oncerned p articu lar ly w ith t he c hanges t hat t ook p lace i n t he s ett lement p attern a nd l andscape w i th t he t rans it i on f rom L ate Ant iqui ty t o t he M idd le Ages. He a lso i nstigated p ioneeri ng r esearch by h is tor ians a nd a rchaeo log ists o n l a ter med ieva l s ett lement a nd on med ieva l p o ttery. When f or i nstance Tuscan ia was d evastated by a n e arthquake i n 1 971, h e a t o nce s aw h ow t h is unfortunate c ircumst ance prov ided a un ique o pportun i ty f or t he s tudy o f a med ieva l t own, a nd a rranged f or e xcavat ions a nd a ccompany ing r esearch p ro jects t o b e c arr ied out. Both t hrough h is e xamp le a nd t hrough e ncouragement o f o thers, Ward P erk ins p layed a n i mportant r o le i n s timu lating t he v ery c ons iderab le a ct iv i ty n ow g o ing o n i n med ieva l I ta l ian a rchaeo logy. This v o lume i s n ot a s ynthet ic work, but c ons ists o f s pecia l ized s tud ies o f p articu lar s ubjects. Dav id Wh i tehouse 's a ssessment o f t he med ieva l p ottery f rom t he S outh E trur ia Survey e ffect ive ly marks t he f ina l s tage i n t he publ icat ion o f t he med ieva l d ata c o l lected dur ing t he c ourse o f i t , t he o ther i nformat ion h av ing b een t he o b ject o f r ecent a rt ic les by C . J . W ickham. 4 Dav id Andrews ' s tudy o f Tuscan ia a nd o f med ieva l g ra in s torage t ies t ogether much o f t he r esearch t hat has b een c arr ied out o n t he t own over t he p ast d ecade. H is a rt icle on d omestic a rchi tecture a nd t hose by " J ohn Osborne l i e o uts ide t he s cope o f t he S outh E trur ia Survey, but c ombine w it h t he o thers t o make t his v o lume r epresent a u sefu l i f modest c ontr ibut ion t o t he s tudy o f med ieva l L az io. The a uthors wou ld l i ke t o d ed icate i t t o t he memory o f J ohn Ward P erk ins w h o s e d e a th w a s a n n oun c ed a s t h e t ex t w a s b e i ng p r ep a r ed f o r t h e p r e ss. Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
NOTES 1. See especially J. B. Ward Perkins, Etruscan towns, roman roads and medieval villages: the historical geography of Southern Etruria, Geographical Journal, CXXVIII, 389--405; J. B. Ward Perkins, Landscape and History in Central Italy, Oxford, 1964 ( 2nd J. L . Myres Memorial Lecture); A. Kahane, L. Murray Threipland, and J. B. Ward Perkins, 'The Ager Veientanus north and east of Rome', Papers of the British School at Rome, XXXVI, 1-218; and T. W. Potter, The changing landscape of South Etruria London, 1979. 2. Too numerous to mention in detail, but for reports see G. Barker, R. Hodges eds. Archaeology and Italian society. Prehistoric, roman and medieval studies, Oxford, 1981 (BAR S102). 3. The Medieval Catalogue, London, 1940 (London Museum Catalogues no. 7, 5th impression 1975; Medieval and early renaissance archi tecture in Malta, Antiquaries Journal, XXII, 1942, 167-75, reprinted in A. T. Luttrell ed., Medieval Malta, London, 1975, 217-23. 4. C. J. Wickham, Historical and topographical notes on early medieval South Etruria, parts I and II, Papers of the British School at Rome, XLVI-XLVII, 1978-79, pp. 132-79, 66-95 respectively.
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS
Dav id Andrews ' s tud ies o f t he T uscan ia wa l ls a nd o f d o mest ic a rch itect ure a nd g ra in s torage i n n or thern L az io a l l d eve loped f ro m t he r esearch p rogra m me o n t he med ieva l t own o f T uscan ia s et u p b y D r J . B . Ward P erk ins , t he f or mer D irector o f t he Br it ish S choo l a t R o me , a f ter t he t own c en tre was d a maged b y a n e ar thquake a nd e vacuated i n 1 971 .
T he s urvey o f
t he t own wa l ls was c arr ied o ut i n t he s u m mer o f 1 972 w i th t he a ss istance o f S he i la G ibson a nd V anessa C arden . T he e n t ire c ircu i t was measured u s ing a3 0 m t ape a nd a t heodo l i te . T he d raw ings p ub l ished h ere a re t he work o f S he i la G ibson .
T hey c onst itute a r ecord o f t he wa l ls a s t hey w ere im med iate ly
a f ter t he e ar thquake , o n ly t ak ing i n to a ccoun t t he s ubsequen t r estorat ion where o r ig ina l e le men ts h ad b een d iscovered o r r econstructed .
A t t he b eg inn ing o f
t he work a t T uscan ia , D r An thony L u t tre l l , f or mer ly A ss istan t D irector o f t he Br it ish S choo l , w as h e lpfu l i n many ways , e spec ia l ly w ith a dv ice o n t he s ources f or t he h istory o f t he t own .
Andrews wou ld l ike t o t hank t he C o mune
a nd t he t hen S opr in tendenza a l le An t ich i tä p er l 'E trur ia Mer id iona le f or p er m iss ion t o work i n t he t own a f ter t he e ar thquake , a nd t he many p eop le o f T uscan ia w ho a ss is ted h im i n h is work t here , e spec ia l ly t hose who h ave a l lowed h im o n t he ir p roper ty t o g a in a ccess t o t he wa l ls .
H e i s p ar t icu lar ly
g ratefu l t o g eo metra L anc ion i , who p rov ided maps o f t he t own ;
D on L idano
P asqua l i a nd P rofessore G iuseppe G ion te l la , who r endered i nva luab le a ss istance w i th t he l oca t ion o f d ocu men tary mater ia l ;
a nd Arch itet to E l io
C ardare l l i , w ith who m h e u nder took t he s urvey o f t he f or mer c ircu it o f t own wa l ls t o t he s outh o f t he p resen t t own .
I n i t ia l ly t he s tudy was f i nanced b y t he
Br it ish S choo l a t T o me , a nd was a lso a ss isted b y t he C en tra l R esearch F und o f L ondon Un ivers i ty . D ur ing t he 1 973 e xcavat ions a t T uscan ia , t he measur ing o f t he more n o tab le med ieva l b u i ld ings i n t he t own was b egun b y S he i la G ibson a nd D anny Andrews i n t he ir s pare t ime .
T hey were h e lped b y R o lfe K en t ish a nd K a t ie F ie lden .
T he work h as s ince b een a ss isted b y t wo g enerous g ran ts f ro m t he B r it ish S choo l wh ich made i tp oss ib le t o e x tend i t s s cope a nd make d raw ings o f b u i ld ings a t C orneto-Tarqu in ia , V iterbo , V i torch iano , a nd O rv ieto .
Andrews
wou ld l ike t o a cknow ledge t he c ooperat ion a nd f orbearance o f t hose who a l lowed t he ir h ouses t o b e s urveyed .
He i s g ratefu l t o S he i la G ibson a nd D anny Andrews
f or t he ir h ard work b o th i n measur ing t he b u i ld ings a nd p repar ing t he d raw ings f or p ub l icat ion . T he a r t ic le o n t he p ozz i , o r s torage p its , an u mber o f wh ich were e xcav ated b y t he B r it ish S choo l a t Tuscan ia , i s b ased o n i nfor mat ion d iscovered d ur ing Andrews ' work o n o ther s ub jects .
T he s tudy h as b een a ss isted b y t he
C en tra l Research F und o f L ondon Un ivers ity . J ohn Osborne w ishes t o a cknow ledge t he v a luab le a ss istance o f D r R ob in C or mack a nd P rof .
J u l ian G ardner who s uperv ised h is r esearch o n t he l ower
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
c hurch o f S an C le men te , a nd L uke De mpsey 0 . P ., p r ior o f t he Do m in ican c o l leg io , who p rov ided g enerous a ccess t o t he s ite .
T he work was s uppor ted
f or t hree y ears b y af e l lowsh ip f ro m t he S oc ia l S c iences a nd Hu man it ies R esearch C ounc i l o f C anada . T he n o tes o n A lbano a nd
Z agaro lo f or m p ar t o f al arger s tudy o f e ar ly
med ieva l wa l l-pa in t ing i n Ro me a nd L az io wh ich i s c urren t ly i n p reparat ion . T he r esearch was made p oss ib le b y aS cho larsh ip f ro m t he Br it ish S choo l a t Ro me f or t he y ear 1 978-1979 . D av id Wh i tehouse w ishes t o t hank t he F acu lty o f Archaeo logy , H istory a nd L et ters o f t he B r it ish S choo l a t R o me f or p er m it t ing h im t o p ub l ish t he med ieva l p o t tery f ro m t he S urvey o f S outh E trur ia , much o f wh ich was c o l lected u nder t he s uperv is ion o f t he f ormer D irec tor o f t he S choo l , D r J ohn Ward-Perk ins . Wh itehouse ' so r ig ina l s tudy o f t he mater ia l was c arr ied o ut i n 1 963-5 , wh i le h e h e ld a R o me S cho larsh ip .
I t was r ev ised i n 1 979-80 .
Dr Hans S t iesda l
g enerous ly p er m it ted p ub l icat ion o fh is mater ia l f ro m Torre Busson , Be l Mon te a nd P ietraper tusa . The F a ther S uper ior o f t he c onven t o f S s G iovann i eP ao lo g ave p er m iss ion t o s tudy t he b ac in i k ep t i n t he museu m u nder t he c hurch .
The S opr in tendenza p er iB en i Amb ien ta l i e Arch i tet ton ic i d e l L az io
k ind ly p rov ided t he p ho tographs o f G aeta c athedra l , p ub l ished i n c hap ter 8 . T he d istr ibut ion maps i n c hap ter 6 were p repared b y Michae l O l iphan t . F a ir c op ies o f t hese a nd t he o ther i l lustrat ions i n c hap ter 6 were d rawn f or p ub l ic at ion b y S arah M ichae l ides .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 .
MED IEVAL DO MEST IC ARCHITECTURE I N NORTHERN LAZIO b y Dav id Andrews, w i th i l lustra t ions b y S he ila G ibson a nd Danny Andrews.
I NTRODUCT ION Benea th l a ter f acades a nd modern p laster , much o f t he f abr ic o ft he h ist or ic c en tres o f many I t a l ian t owns i s med ieva l . The d a te o f t hese b u ild ings d epends o n t he t opograph ical d evelopmen t a nd p art icu lar c ircums tances o f e ach t own . I n as urpris ingly l arge n umber o f c ases , t hey a re o ft he 1 2th a nd 1 3th c en turies , at ime o f e cono m ic a nd d e mograph ic g rowth , a nd c onsequen t u rban d evelopmen t. A t A ss isi , h owever , p lanned e xpans ion o f t he t own t ook p lace i n t he e ar ly 1 4th c en tury ( De G iovann i 1 975 ), a nd F lorence e xper ienced ab u ild ing b oo m i n t he l a ter 1 4th a nd 1 5th c en tur ies. I n t he 1 5th a nd 1 6th c en turies, t here was i ng eneral ag rea t d eal o f r ebu ild ing , o f l ower-c lass h ousing a s w el l a s o ft he p alaces o f t he weal thy .
T ha t s o much o f t h is med ie-
v al a rch i tec ture s urv ives i s t he r esu l t o f an u mber o f f actors :
t he h ouses
a re s ol id ly c onstruc ted i n s tone , a nd o f ten b ecame d iv ided b e tween v ar ious b ranches o f af am ily o r d if feren t owners , who r arely h ad s u f f ic ien t c ap i ta l t o a cqu ire t he e n t ire p roper ty a nd r edevelop i t . Even t hough , o r p erhaps b ecause , s o much s urv ives , I t a l ian med ieva l d o mest ic a rch i tec ture h as b een r e la t ively n eglec ted b y s cho lars , whe ther a rch i tec ts , h istor ians o r a rchaeolog ists.
Wi th t he e xcep t ion o f s ome g ood
s tud ies o f p ar t icu lar t owns a nd b u i ld ings , u sual ly d a t ing f ro m t he e nd o f t he 19 th a nd e ar ly 2 0 th c en tur ies, I much o f wha t h as b een w r i t ten o n t he s ub jec t i s o f i nd if feren t q ua l i ty . T h is may b e e xcused b y t he c ons iderable d if f icul t ies p resen ted b y t he s tudy o f med ieva l d o mest ic a rch i tec ture.
I t was o f ten
e x tre mely c onserva t ive , d evelop ing s lowly o ver a l ong p er iod o f t ime a nd d isp lay ing s trong r eg iona l c haracter ist ics. Moreover , v ery f ew b u i ld ings c an b e d a ted p rec isely b y h istor ica l means. Th is a r t ic le i s ag enera l s urvey o f d o mest ic a rch i tec ture i n N . L az io f rom a bou t t he 1 2th c en tury t o 1 500 , i l lustra t ing s o me o ft he b e t ter p reserved b u i ld ings a t C orneto-Tarqu in ia , T uscan ia , Vi t erbo , V i torch iano a nd Orv ie to, a nd d rawing o n a na logous ma teria l f or o ther p ar ts o f I t a ly , p ar t icu larly Tuscany.
E spec ial emphas is w il lb e l a id o n t ry ing t o e stabl ish more a ccura te
d a t ing c ri teria. I n n o w ay c an wha t f o l lows b e r egarded a s as yste ma t ic a na lys is o f t he med ieva l a rch i tec ture o f t hese t owns. I to n ly a pproaches b e ing t horough i n t he c ase o f T uscan ia , where t he e vacua t ion o f t he c en tro s tor ico a f ter t he e arthquake o f 19 71 p resen ted a u n ique o ppor tun i ty t o r ecord t he med ieva l h ouses.
T he h is tor ical d ocumen ta t ion , c i ted i n p art icu lar f or
Tuscan ia a nd V i terbo a nd a lso t o s how t he i n f luence o f med ieval t own p lann ing o n h ousing , i s n ot a s f u l l a s i tm igh t b e. Much more e x tens ive u se c ou ld b e made o f l oca l a rch ives.
Af urther l im i ta t ion i s t ha t i to f ten h appens t ha t
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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o n ly t he f acade o f ab u ild ing i s w el l-preserved. p oss ible t o s upp ly a p lan a s wel l a s a n e leva t ion .
On ly r arely h as i tb een I ns ide , h ouses h ave b een
r ad ica l ly a l tered . Even a t Tuscan ia , where i t was p oss ible t o e xa m ine most o f t he ir i n ter iors , l i t t le e v idence was f ound t o s how h ow t hey w ere o r ig ina l ly d iv ided. Thus t here i s l i t t le a va i lable d a ta t o a ssess h ow ab u i ld ing was u sed , a n a spec t q u i te a s i n terest ing a s i t s e x ternal a ppearance. BU ILD ING I N WOOD I ti s ac o m monp lace t o o bserve t ha t i nI ta ly i n t he Midd le Ages many h ouses were b u i l t o f wood . T he f requency o f d estruc t ive f i res a t t owns s uch a s F lorence a nd Genoa i s o f ten c i ted t o i nd ica te t ha t w ooden b u i ld ings w ere c o m mon , e ven i n t he l arger c i t ies , u n t il t he 1 3th c en tury a nd l a ter ( c f . S ch iaparel l i 1 908 , 1 2-13 ; Herl ihy 1 958 , 2 5 ). I th as b een a sserted t ha t a t Bologna i n t he e arly 1 5th c en tury t he ma jor i ty o fo rd inary h ouses were o f wood ( De Angel is a nd N annel l i 1 975, 9 6-7 ).
However , t he e v idence t ha t h as
b een a sse mbled f or wooden c onstruc t ion i n med ieva l I t aly i s f ar f ro m a bundan t , a nd o ne h istor ian h as a rgued t ha t , f ro m a n e arly d a te , s tone was p referred t o w ood , " con trary t o an o t ion s o met imes a ccep ted b y a rchaeolog ists w ithou t as erious e xa m ina t ion o f t he s ources" ( Touber t 1 973, 3 34 s eq., 6 60-63 ). Touber t 's v iew i s u ndoubtedly c orrec t f or t he a rea wh ich h e was s tudy ing , t he S ab ina t o t he E . o f Ro me , a nd p arts o f S .L az io. The e x ten t t o wh ich wood was u sed a t d if feren t t imes a nd i n d if feren t p laces i s t hus s ometh ing o fa n o pen q uest ion . Wha t i s c lear i s , f i rs t , t ha t p ract ices d if fered f ro m r eg ion t o r eg ion , a nd d epended u pon p art icu lar c ircums tances, s uch a s t he a va ilabili t y o fb u i ld ing ma ter ials, t he f unc t ion o f t he b u i ld ing a nd t he weal th o f i t s owner ;
a nd , s econd , t ha t t he n umber o f wooden b u i ld ings e x ist ing a s l a te
a s t he 1 3th-15th c en turies h as o f ten b een o veres t i ma ted.
Th is c onc lus ion i s
t o s o me e x ten t r ein forced b y t he a bsence o f a ny e v idence f or a s oph is t ica ted c arpen try t rad i t ion i n s uch med ieva l woodwork a s s urv ives t oday .
I fo ne
e x isted , t hen i ts ee ms e arly t o h ave g one i n to d ecl ine. There i s , t o my k now ledge , o n ly o ne t ype o f r oof t russ t ob e f ound i nI ta ly. Th is i s t he c apr ia te , c ons ist ing o f at i e b ea m , r af ters , k ing-pos t , a nd a p a ir o f s tru ts. D raw ings o f m inor v ar ia t ions o n t h is t ype o f t russ , a nd o f s evera l k inds o f s carf j o in t , a re t o b e f ound i n t he n o tebooks o f t he 1 5th -cen tury S ienese e ng ineer , Mar iano Taccola ( Prager a nd S cagl ia 1 972, 1 48-49 ). Beams a re o f ten o n ly r ough ly s haped , a nd a re g enera l ly l a id o n t op o f o ne a no ther w i th n o a t te mp t a t j o in t ing. L it tle i s k nown s o f ar o f e arly med ieva l h ouses i n I t a ly , b u t 6 th-cen tury o nes b u i l t o ver t he Ro man f oru m a t L un i i n L igur ia h ad s tone f oo t ings o n wh ich t here was p resumably a t imber s uperstruc ture , a nd p ostholes b o th i ns ide a nd o u t t o h elp s upport t he r oof . 2 Houses o f as im i lar d a te w i th s tone f oot ings h ave a lso b een f ound a t Castelsepr io i n L o mbardy ( Kurna towsk i e t a l ., 1 968 ). T here a re wha t a re r eferred t o a s c a tene l i gnee i n t he e arly med ieval b ap t istery a t L o mel lo i n L o mbardy , a nd i n t he 9 th-cen tury c a mpan i le d e i Monac i a t S . Ambrog io a t Milan ( Arslan 1 954, 5 10 , 5 73 ). t here e x is t h ouses w ith t imber 4ram ing a nd b r ick i n-f i l l .
A t C omo ,
I ti s p oss ible t ha t
s im i lar b u ild ing t echn iques were u sed a t P isa ( c f . L up i 1 903, 3 82 ) a nd a t Bologna ( Gozzad in i 1 877 ) i n t he 1 2th a nd 1 3th c en tur ies. The p or t icos o f s o me Bolognese h ouses, s uch a s t he c asa I solan i a nd t he p a lazzo G rass i , Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
2
a re t he b est-known s urv iv ing e xamp les o f t he u se o f wood i n med ieval d omest ic a rch itec ture. I n s o me a reas, i t was c om moner t han i s a pparen t t oday f or p arts o ft he med ieva lh ouse t ob e c onstruc ted o f wood. Wooden p ort icos a re a lso t o b e f ound i n s o me t owns i nP ied mon t , where wood i s a lso e x tens ively u sed i n r ural a rch i tec ture, a nd h ouse f acades a t l east p ar t ly i n wood a re r ecorded a t L ucca l a te i n t he 1 5th c en tury ( Pierot t i 1 960 , 1 90-92 ).
E xcava t ion
i n t he c hurch o f S . G iorg io i n P ogg ia le i n Bologna u ncovered t he r ema ins o f a smal l c our tyard d a t ing f ro m t he b eg inn ing o f t he 1 6th c en tury w h ich h ad b een s urrounded b y awooden c olonnade. 3 I n L az io , t here i s n o s urv iv ing e v idence f or b u i ld ing i n wood , a nd l i t t le t o s uggest t ha t i t was w idespread i n t he Midd le Ages. Whereas a reas s uch a s Tuscany e xpor ted w ood i n t he 1th a nd 1 2th c en tur ies ( Her l ihy 1 958 , 2 3-25 ) , L az io must h ave b een e x tens ively d eforested b y t he e nd o f t he Ro man e ra. I n t he 6 th c en tury , P ope Gregory o rdered r oof t imbers f or t he b as i l ica o f S . P ie tro f ro m t he Abruzz i ( Por ter , 1 917 , 1 35 a nd n otes ). As e lsewhere i n I t a ly , t he woods g enera l ly u sed f or c onstruc t ion were o ak a nd more c o mmon ly c hes tnu t ( c f . A leandr i 1 911, 1 6; a ppend ix , d ocu men t I ) . T oday f u l l-grown o ak t rees a re r are i n N . L az io, b u t s o me ma ture c hestnu t f orest s urv ives i n t he Mon t i C im in i t o t he S . o fV iterbo. Wood f ro m t he p u t log h oles o ft he c ast le a t S . G iovena le h as b een i den t if ied a s a cer o r h ornbeam t ype ( Thorde mann 1 967 , 3 5 , n ote 2 5 ). A t Tuscan ia , i n t he c ourse o f e xcava t ions n ear t he c hurch o f S . P ie tro , an u mber o f e arly med ieva l p ost h o les were d iscovered , b u t t hey p resen ted n o o bv ious p a t tern . A t s o me d eser ted s i tes , where t he s o i l c over i s t h in , smal l p os t o r s take h oles c an b e s een c u t i n to t he r ock .
These were p robably a ssoc ia ted w i th f enced e nclosures , o r e lse
h u t d wel l ings ( capanne ) o f at ype wh ich s urvived u n t il r ecen t ly.
Whole
v i l l ages o f h u ts were t ob e f ound i n L az io a s l a te a s t he e arly y ears o f t h is c en tury ( Cervesa to 1 913, 1 76 s eg.). T hey were o ccup ied b y t he g u i t t i , a gr icu l tural workers w ho c ame d own f ro m t he moun ta inous a reas t o t he E ., a nd w orked i nt he p la ins f or much o f t he y ear.
As t he e s ta te c en tres d id
n o t h ave s uf f ic ien tb u ild ings t o a ccom moda te t he m , t hey b u i l t h u ts o fb ranches , r eeds a nd s traw. T hese were v ery v ar iable i n s hape , d epend ing o n t he s k il l o f t he b u ilder a nd h ow p er manen t t hey w ere i n tended t o b e. T here s ee m t o h ave b een t wo ma in t ypes , r ound a nd r ec tangu lar , t he l a t ter b e ing t he more c o mmon . Both t ypes g eneral ly h ad l ow s ide wa l ls , t hough s o met imes t r iang u lar ly-set r af ters r ose d irec t ly f ro m t he g round . T he h u ts w ere o f ten l arge , t he r ec tangu lar o nes b e ing u p t o 2 0 metres l ong, a nd t he e n trances were i nvar iably s et i n t he g able e nd . Af i re was l a id a t t he c en tre , a nd t here w as n o o u t let f or t he smoke.
Hu ts were a lso b u i l tb y t he m igran t w orkers who
c a me d own f ro m t he h ills a t h arvest t ime , b y s hepherds a nd b y c harcoa l b urners. A f ew smal l c on ica l h u ts o nce u sed b y c harcoa lb urners c an s t il l b e s een i n t he Mon t i C im in i , a nd r eed s hel ters a re s o met i mes t o b e f ound o n t he p lots o f l and worked b y t he c on tad in i. A d eta iled s urvey o f a modern c ircu lar s hepherd 's h u t was p ubl ished i n 1 966 b y C lose-Brooks a nd G ibson ( f ig . 1.1). Whether t hese h u ts b elong t o at rad i t ion d a t ing b ack t o t he e ar ly Midd le Ages i s , o f c ourse , u nproven , b u t i ti s n ot a n u nreasonable a ssumpt ion .
C erta in ly t hey c losely r ese mble t he c apanne d ep ic ted b y t he 1 4th -cen tury
a rt ist Ambrog io L orenzet t i i n h is E f fe t t i d e l Buon Governo n el la c ampagna i n t he P a lazzo Pubbl ico a t S iena . Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
3
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1 .1
P lan a nd s ec t ion o f a r ound s hepherd 's hut near Rome ( from C lose-Brooks a nd G ibson 1 966).
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. 4 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
Another f or m o f p r im i t ive dwe l l ing u sed b y t he g-u i t t i ( Cervesato 19 13, 1 89 ) a nd u ndoubted ly c o mmon i n t he Midd le Ages , i s t he c ave . Many o f t hese a re t o b e f ound a t d eser ted s ites , a nd a t s o me v il lages a s ign if ican t p ropor t ion o ft he p opu la t ion l i ved i n t he m u n t il t he e nd o f t he Middle Ages a nd l a ter. O f Grot te d i Cas tro t o t he N . o f L ake Bolsena , P ius I ( 1454-64 ) wrote : Opp idan i s pehu icas e f foderun t , i nq u ibus magna p ars h ab i ta t. 4 To wha t e x ten t p eop le l i ved i n t he m i n t owns i s a no ther ma tter. A l though c aves f i gure i n d eeds o f s a le a nd p urchase ( e .g. V i terbo , a n .1205, E g id i 1 906, 9 4 ) , t hey s ee m most ly t o h ave s erved a s s tore-rooms a nd f or a n i mals. However, i n t he p oorer p arts o f t he t own , t hey w ere n o d oubt i nhabi ted , a nd t h is c er ta in ly s ee ms t o h ave b een t he c ase a t S iena ( De Vecch i 19 49 , 6 ; N ep i e t a l . 19 76 ). S im i larly , when e xam in ing c aves , i ti s d iff icu l t t o b e c er ta in whe ther t hey w ere u sed a s dwell ings, o r f or o ther p urposes. O f ten , o f c ourse , t he f ormer h ave c o me t o h ave s econdary f unc t ions.
S o me c aves a re d iv ided i n to t wo c o mpart-
men ts b y ap ar t i t ion wa l l . O thers a re l arge , w i th a r oughly c en tral c olu mn c u t o u t o f t he s ol id r ock . Ev idence f or o ccupa t ion u sua lly c ons is ts o f smokeb lacken ing , a nd f ea tures s uch a s n iches , o r ar ebate f or a d oor. I ti s q u i te c o m mon f or t here t ob e at r iangu lar i nc is ion a bove t he d oorway , a s i ft o r ece ive t he g able e nd o f a n a d jacen t s tructure o r p orch i n wood o r masonry. BU ILDING I N STONE I n L az io t here i s a n a bundance o fg ood f reestones, most ly o fv o lcan ic o r ig in . The most p len t iful a re t he b rown l i tho id t u fas, b u t l oca l ly o ther t ypes o f s tone were i mpor tan t f or b u i ld ing , s uch a s t he p urp le n en fro o f Tuscan ia , t he d u l l g rey p eper ino o fV i terbo , a nd t he b lack o cch io d i p esce o f O rv ie to. A t C orneto-Tarqu in ia , t he p r inc ipa lb u i ld ing-s tone i s a mar ine s ed i men tary l imestone k nown a s macco , wh ilst t o t he E„ i n t he v ic in ity o f Or te a nd t he T iber , t here a re d epos i ts o ft raver t ine. I ti s n ot s urpr is ing , t herefore , t ha t h ouses were b u i l t o f s tone f ro m q u i te e ar ly i n t he Midd le Ages. A h ouse a t V i terbo i n 8 08 h ad a nu pper s torey a nd a t i led r oof , a nd may h ave b een o f s tone. 5 Excava t ions n ear S . P ietro a t T uscan ia h ave s hown t ha t t he t own c en tre was d ensely b u i l t-up w ith masonry h ouses i n t he 1 1th a nd 1 2th c en tur ies. A h ouse a t V i terbo was d escr ibed i n 1 073 a s mura ta a tque t egu la ta ( Eg id i 19 06, 4 1), a nd a nother i n 1 073 a s mura ta , t egu la ta , a tque s o lara ta ( ACV, p erg. 9 28 ). p erg. 2 516 ).
A ma is tru mura tore d oc t iss imo i s r ecorded t here i n 1 088 ( ACV, T i les o fR o man p a t tern , f l a t t egu lae w i th o f fsets a t t he ir e dges
o ver wh ich were l a id s em i-cy l indr ica l i mbr ices o r c oppe , h ad p robably b een made c on t inuously s ince L a te An t iqu i ty , t hough i n s o me a reas s uch a s t he S abina , wooden s h ingles were i n u se u n t il a t l east t he 1 1th c en tury ( c f . Reg. Farf . V , p . 1 07 , 2 34; T ouber t 19 73 , 3 34, n ote 1 ). Fro m a t l eas t t he 9 th c en tury , a sh lar masonry was b eing u sed i n t he a rea , t he h e igh ts o f t he c ourses v ary ing i n d if feren t p er iods a nd a ccord ing t o l oca l u sage. Ih ave d escr ibed e lsewhere d evelopmen ts i n masonry t echn ique a nd t heir v alue f or d a t ing ( see Andrews 1 978a , a nd p . 1 40 o f t h is v o lu me ) .
I ti s s uf f ic ien t a t t h is p o in t
t o r eca l l t ha t wha t Ih ave t er med V iterbo p eriod I masonry was i nu se f ro m t he 1 2th c en tury , i fn o tb efore , u n t i l a bout 1 250 , when t here was a c hange t o p er iod I I masonry c harac terized b y n arrow b locks o r h eaders. T he r ole o fb u ild ing-stone i n d o mest ic a rch itec ture was a n importan t o ne. I t s a va i labili t y , a nd t he e ase w i th w h ich i tc ould b e c u t , must h ave afec ted b u ild ing c osts. Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
5
The d egree o f d ecora t ion p resen t o n ah ouse d epended p ar t ly o n whe ther t he l ocal s tones were s u i table f or c arv ing , o r whe ther d i f feren t t ypes o f s tone c ou ld b e u sed t o p roduce c on trasts o f c o lour. T o q u i te a n i mportan t e x ten t , r eg iona l s ty les h ave t he ir o r ig ins i n t he p o ten t ial o f l oca lb u ild ing ma terials.
P IANO S CARANO , V ITERBO There was n o s et t le men t o f i mportance a t V i terbo i n Ro man t imes. I ns tead , t he t own h as i t s o r ig ins a s ac astru m , p robably o f L o mbard f ounda t ion , s i tua ted a t t he e nd o f as pur , where t he c a thedral o f S . L orenzo a nd t he p apa l p a lace a re s i tua ted.
For a bou t 2 00 y ears , f ro m c . 1 095-1290 , i tg rew r ap id ly ,
a s s uburbs which h ad g rown u p a round t he o ri g ina l n uc leus were e nc losed w i th n ew c ircu i ts o f wal l.
One o f t hese s uburbs , P iano S carano , p reserves s o me
r e markable med ieval h ouses.
The V i terbo c hron icles s ay t ha t i n 1 187 , Fu
c resc iu to V iterbo, e f a t to P iano d i S car lano ( Ciamp i 1 872, 8 ) . Th is i s a n o versi mp l if ica t ion . P iano S carano i s r ecorded a s av icus f ro m t he e arly 9 th c en tury ( Reg. Farf . I , 1 71, 1 96 ), t hough t h is h ad p resu mably f al len i n to d ecay a nd may h ave b een d eser ted . T he r eset t le men t o f t he a rea h ad b een p ro jec ted f ro m 148 , when t he C o m mune l eased i tf ro m t he c hurch o f S . Mar ia d el la C e l la ,
i n a n t ic ipa t ion t ha t p eop le wou ld g o a nd l i ve t here.
was a n e le men t o f r isk .
There
The a gree men t was made i n t he h ope t hat D eus j am
d ic ta m t erra m c onstructa m a tque h ab i ta ta m a b h om in ibus n obis c oncesser it , a nd p rov is ion was made f or wha t was t o h appen i ft he p lan f a iled.
I n a dd i t ion ,
t he Co m mune s tood t o l ose t he money t ha t i th ad p a id t o r edee m a mortgage t aken o u t b y t he c hurch o n t he l and ( Cia mp i 1 872, 3 19-20 ). o f f .
T he s ign if icance o f t he 1 187 n o t ice i s u ncer ta in .
The g a mble p a id
P erhaps i tt ook 5 0
y ears f or t he a rea t o b e b u il t u p , o r i t may r efer t o t he e nc los ing o f i tw ith wa l ls.
P iano S carano i s r ough ly e l l ip t ical i n s hape , a nd h as a s er ies o f
p ara l lel s tree ts r unn ing a long i t s l ong a x is.
There c an b e n o d oub t t ha t i t
was r egu larly l a id o u t l ike a nother s uburb , P iano d i S . Faust ino , wh ich was e nclosed w i th wa lls i n c .1208 , a nd i n wh ich , a ccord ing t o t he c hron ic les , f urono o rd ina te l e s trage c on l e c orde ( Cia mp i 1 872, 1 4). S o me o f t he b et ter p reserved h ouses i n P iano S carano a re i l lustra ted i n f i gs. 1 .2-3.
N os. 4 1-43 v ia C aprarecce a re a r ec tangu lar b lock w i th t he
g able e nd f ac ing t he s tree t ( f ig. 1 .2; p la te 1 .1). The f ea tures o f t he f acade a re a rranged s y m metrical ly e i ther s ide o f al i ne d rawn v er t ical ly t hrough t he a pex o f t he g able.
A t t he g round f l oor t here i s ap a ir o f l arge , a d jacen t ,
r ound-arched d oors.
T o e i ther s ide o f t he m i s ar ec tangu lar w indow w i th a
c ha mfered s urround , a nd a r ound-arched t y mpanu m i n l ow r el ief .
A t t he
f i rst f l oor t here i s ap a ir o f r ound-arched d oors , a lso s et c losely t ogether. T hey a re f lanked b y t r iangu lar n iches , s e t i n to t he wa l l t h ickness.
T here
a re a lso t wo r ound-arched d oors a t t he s econd f l oor , b u t s e t wel l a part f ro m e ach o ther , a bove t he n iches o f t he l ower s torey . T he d oors a nd n iches o f t he t wo u pper f loors a re t o b e e xp la ined b y t he e x istence o fb alcon ies , t he b ea m h oles f or wh ich a re s t il l c learly v is ible.
T he d oorways s erved a lso
a s w indows , o f wh ich t here a re " n one , e xcep t a t t he g round f loor , a nd t hese l ook l ike l a ter i nsert ions.
The n iches w ere u sed a s c upboards.
Bea m h oles
a nd a s tr ing c ourse a bove t he s econd f l oor d oors i nd ica te t ha t t here was a p en t-roof c orbel led o u t a t t h is l evel t o p rotec t t he b alcon ies f ro m t he wea ther. Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 6
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Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. 7 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
A t t he t op o f t he g ab le , ap a ir o f s l i t w indows s uggest t hat t here may h ave b een a n a t t ic s torey u sed f or s torage o r a s s leep ing q uarters . The b u i ld ing was n ot e n tered , b ut l ook ing t hrough t he l e f t-hand g round-f loor d oor , i t was p oss ib le t o s ee t hat i tw as b arre l-vau l ted , t he v au l t b e ing s upported b y a d iaphrag m a rch , a nd b raced b y r e l iev ing a rches i n t he s ide w a l ls . I n n earby v ia d el la S a l i ta , n os. 5 -7 h ave a s ymme tr ica l ly a rranged g ablee nd f acade ( f ig. 1 .2 ). I n t h is c ase, h owever, t he g round f l oor d oors a re s egmen ta l-arched , a nd i m med ia tely a bove t he m a re l arge r ound-arched w indows. S o c lose a re t hey t o t he d oorway a rches t ha t t hey c annot h ave s erved t he f i rs t f l oor, t hough t here m igh t h ave b een s o me f or m o f mezzan ine. More p robably , t hey w ere s i mp ly i n tended t o l i gh t t he g round f l oor , a bove wh ich t here s ee ms t o h ave b een o n ly o ne f urther s torey , r epresen ted b y ap a ir o f d oorways s et h igh u p n ear t he t op o ft he g able. T o e i ther s ide o f t he m a re n iches wh ich , e xcep t iona l ly , a re r ound-arched. Below t hese , t here was ab alcony , t hough o n ly t hree b ea m h oles s urvive t o i nd ica te i t s p resence. N o. 9 v ia d el la S a l i ta was b u il t s epara tely t o n os. 5 -7 , a nd i s o n ly a bou t h a l f a s w ide a s i t . To j udge f ro m t he p oor q ual i ty o f i t s q uo in ing a t t he j o in t b etween t he t wo , i ti s t he l a ter b u ild ing ( f ig. 1 .2 ). I tp reserves f ew o f i t s med ieva l f eatures , b u t s ee ms t o h ave h ad a l arge r ound-arched d oor a t t he g round f l oor , a bove w h ich a t t he f i rs t f l oor t here w as a sma l ler d oor , p res umably w i th ab a lcony b elow i t .
The f i rst f l oor w as a lso p rov ided w i th a
s l i t w indow. N o. 1 i s l a ter t han n o. 9 , f or i th as n o t rue q uo in ing a t t he j o in tb e tween t he m. I td if fers i n s evera l r espec ts f ro m t he b u ild ings a lready c ons idered. I th as a d oor, t he l i n tel o f w h ich r es ts o n c orbels, a t ah e igh t o f more t han 2 m a bove t he s treet. T h is d id n o t h ave ab a lcony b elow i t , b u t must i nstead h ave b een r eached b y a n e x terna l s ta ircase, whe ther i n masonry o r wood .
T here was , t herefore , n o d irec t a ccess f ro m t he g round t o t he
f i rst f l oor. The f i rst f l oor was l i tb y at rue w indow w ith a s eg men ta l-arch a nd a s l igh t ly p ro jec t ing s i l l . T he c en tra l ly-p laced d oor a t t he s econd f l oor a lso h ad a s eg men tal-arch.
T here was a b a lcony b elow i t , wh ilst t wo b eam
h oles o n e i ther s ide o f t he t op o f i tp robably i nd ica te t ha t t here was a p en tr oof a t t h is l evel . A t t he E . e nd o f v ia d el la S a l i ta , where a n a rch h as b een b u il t a cross t he s treet , t here i s ab u i ld ing w h ich a f or mer g able l i ne s hows t o h ave b een r a ised i n h eigh t ( f ig. 1 .2 ). A t t he g round f l oor t here w ere t wo l arge r ounda rched d oors. T he s eg men ta l-arched w indow a bove t he l e f t-hand d oor , a nd t he t wo sma l l r ec tangu lar o nes w ith c hamfered s urrounds, h ave a l l b een i nserted.
They p robably p rov ide e x tra l i gh t f or t he g round f l oor, t hough a
mezzan ine may h ave b een c rea ted when t he b u i ld ing was h e igh tened.
Or ig i-
n al ly , t he g round f l oor was p resu mably o pen t o t he r oof b eams , t hough t he p oss ibi l i ty o f a n a t t ic s torey c annot b e e xcluded. T he t op s torey wh ich was a dded l a ter h as t wo d oors , o ne w i th a s eg men ta l-arch , a nd t he o ther w ith a c orbel led l i n tel .
O r ig ina l ly t here was ab alcony a tt h is l evel .
A t t he j unc t ion o fv ia S . C arlo w i th v ia P ian S carano , t here a re t wo q u i te wel l-preserved med ieva lb u ild ings ( f ig. 1 .3 ) . The E . b lock ( nos. 1 -3 , v ia S . Carlo ) h as t wo g round f l oor d oors s e t c lose t ogether. B o th h ave s eg men ta l a rches w ith r ound r el iev ing a rches a bove t he m.
The d oor w ith
as ta ircase l ead ing t o i t , a nd t he e x is t ing w indows , a re a l l modern , b u t h igh Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
8
i n t he f acade t here i s ac en tra l ly-p laced r ound-arched d oor , n ow b locked , w i th a sma l l s l i t w indow a bove i t .
A s hort s car l e f tb y ag able e nd t o t he
r ight o f t he d oorway s ugges ts t ha t h ere t oo t he t op s torey i s al a ter a dd i t ion. I n ternal ly , t he g round f l oor h as f our b ays o fb arrel-vau l t ing s uppor ted b y d iaphrag m a rches w h ich s pr ing f ro m a c en tra l p ier. To j udge f ro m t heir masonry , mos t o f t he s urv iv ing med ieva l h ouses i n P iano S carano d a te f ro m t he l a te 1 2th o r e arly 1 3th c en tury . T he r e la t ive s carc ity o f l a te p er iod I o r p er iod I I masonry s hows t ha t t he a rea was b u il t u p w el lb efore 1 250 . The b u i ld ings i nd ica te t ha t t h is was a p iecemea l p rocess. Many o f t he h ouses w ere b u il t a s s epara te s em i-de tached p a irs , a nd t here i s e v idence f or i nf il l ing b etween p re-ex ist ing u n i ts.
By a na logy w i th o ther
t owns where s ta tu tes r egu la t ing t he d evelopmen t o fb orgh i s urv ive , i ti s f a ir t o s ur m ise t ha t t he C o mmune s old p lots o f as pec if ic s ize w i th f ron tages o n ap re-deter m ined s treet p lan , o n t he c ond i t ion t ha t ah ouse b e b u i l t w ith in ac er tain p er iod o f t ime ( see b e low p . 6 5 ) . N o t o n ly a re t he P iano S carano h ouses e ar ly i n d ate , t hey a re a lso r e markab le i nas much a s t he ir owners w ere b y n o means t he most p rosperous among t he p opu la t ion o f V i terbo . A l though t here i s l i t t le e v idence , t he i nhabi tan ts o f t he a rea w ere p robably sma l lholders a nd a rt isans. The 1 251 s ta tu tes o rdered t ha t t he c alderar i i , o r metal-workers , s hould work i n P iano S carano , a nd i ti s f a ir t o a ssume t ha t t hey l i ved t here t oo ( Cia mp i 1 872, 5 76 ). C er ta in ly i n l a te med ieva l a nd modern t imes, i th as a lways b een o ne o f t he p oorer a reas o f t he t own , b eing t oo f ar f ro m i t s c en tre t o b e f ash ionable. T h is e xp la ins why i t s h ouses h ave f or t he most p art e scaped l a ter r ebu ild ing. Many o f t he h ouses i n P iano S carano , more t han i s a pparen t t oday , must h ave b een o fo n ly o ne s torey . A s w el l a s t he h ouse a t t he e nd o f v ia S a l i ta , a nd n os. 1 -3 v ia S . C arlo , t he g able e nds o f s uch h ouses , n ow d e mol ished , c an b e s een c u t i n to p ar ts o f t he wal ls r ound P iano S carano. Where t here a re t wo r oof l i nes , o ne a bove t he o ther, t hey s ee m c learly t o h ave b een r a ised i nh e igh t.
I n t he wr i t ten s ources , t hese a re r eferred t o a s d omus t erranee ,
a nd d ocu men tary e v idence s uggests t hey were q u i te c om mon i nt he sma l l t owns a nd v il lages o f L az io u n t il t he 1 5th c en tury , when t hey w ere e i ther d e mol ished , o r e lse r a ised i n h e igh t. Wha t i s r e markable a bou t many o f t he o ne-storey h ouses i n P iano S carano i s t ha t t hey were r a ised i n h e igh t s oon a f ter t hey w ere b u il t , t he masonry o ft he u pper s torey b e ing i den t ica l i n t ype t o t ha t o f t he l ower. The P iano S carano h ouses h ave l arge d oorways a t t he g round f l oor , w h ich i n med ieval t imes , a s t oday , g enera l ly s erved a s a work ing o r s torage a rea . T he d oorways a re b ig e nough f or a l oaded d onkey t o p ass t hrough t he m . Mos t o f t he h ouses h ad b a lcon ies a t t he ir u pper s toreys , t he ir e x istence b e ing c lear ly i nd ica ted b yb eam h oles. T here a re n o w indows , o n ly d oors g iv ing a ccess t o t he b a lcony .
A bove t he m t here was u sua l ly a p en t-roof t o p rovide
p ro tec t ion f ro m t he w ea ther.
For a l i fe-sty le i n wh ich more t ime w as s pen t
o u t o fd oors t han i s c us to mary t oday a nd h ouses , l ack ing i n modern c om for ts , were r egarded e ssen t ia l ly a s s hel ters , t he b a lcony h ad many a dvan tages : p eop le c ould s i t t here , w a tch t he s treet a nd c onverse w i th n eighbours; c lo thes c ould b e d ried , a nd p roduce a nd f ru i t s tored t here.
For t hese s or ts
o f a c t iv i ty , t he o n ly e v idence s urv iving t oday a re t he n iches o r c upboards, Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
9
wh ich , r ecessed i n to i n terna l wal ls , a re a c o m mon f ea ture o f med ieval d omest ic a rch itec ture ( c f . f i g. 1 .18 ). Houses w i th b a lcon ies o r b a l lato i ( c f . L up i 1 901, 2 83-94) w ere v ery c o m mon i n med ieva lI t aly , a nd a re g enera l ly t he o ldest t ype s urv iv ing i n I t a l ian t owns t oday . t o q u i te e arly i n t he Midd le Ages.
T heir o r ig ins must g o b ack
T hey w ere c harac ter ist ic o f 1 2th -cen tury
a rch i tec ture , a nd c on t inued t o b e b u i l t u n t i l t he l a te 1 3th c en tury, t hough r arely i fa t a l l a f ter t ha t t ime. They a re s t il l r ela t ively c o mmon i n s o me Tuscan t owns, s uch a s Vol terra , b u t , a par t f ro m P iano S carano , f ew a re n ow t o b e s een i n N . L az io. 6 On ly e xcep t iona l ly d o s uch h ouses p reserve g able-end f acades w ith t he s a me s ort o f s y m metrica l a rrange men t a s t hose o f P iano S carano.
H owever, a nother b u ild ing o f t h is t ype i s t o b e f ound i n t he
s quare o n t he S . s ide o f t he c a thedra l a t S . G im ignano ( p late 1 .2 ). I th as c en tra l ly p laced g round- a nd f i rst-f loor d oors. The l a t ter g ave a ccess t o a b a lcony , a nd i s f l anked b y t w in-l igh t w indows o r b ifore w hich a re p robably l a ter i nser t ions. Bo th t he l e f t-hand h ouse o f n os. 4 1-43 v ia Caprarecce, a nd t he h ouse a t n os. 1 -3 v ia S . C ar lo , h ave b arrel-vau l ts , p robab ly o r ig ina l , a t t he ir g round f l oors. B ecause o f i t s v au l ts, t he h ouse i n v ia S . C arlo i s t hough t l oca l ly t o h ave b een a n e cc les ias t ical b u i ld ing. However , v au l ts a t t h is l evel may n ot h ave b een u nco mmon i n t he 1 2th a nd e ar ly 1 3th c en tur ies.
Houses o f t ha t
p er iod a t t he d eserted t own o f N infa n ear L a t ina t o t he S . o f Ro me h ave g ro in v au l ts a t t he ir g round a nd u pper s toreys. A r u ined p a lace a t C en toce l le t o t he S . o f C orne to-Tarqu in ia , a lso a d eserted t own , h ad a g ro in-vau l ted g round f l oor.
P ara l lels f or t he f our b ays o fb arrel-vaul t ing s uppor ted b y a rches
s pr ing ing f ro m a c en tra l p ier c an b e f ound i nb u ild ings a t S . Min ia to a l T edesco i n Tuscany ( Cr ist ian i T est i 1 967 , 6 8 , 9 7 ), i n s o me C rusader c astles ( e .g. S aone , C hastel-Rouge ) , a nd p robably i n t he c astles a t S oriano n el C im ino a nd Borghet to o nt he v ia F la m in ia . .
The p r inc ip le o fu s ing a rches l ong i tud i-
n a l ly b e tween t wo v au l ts was o f s o me a n t iqu ity , o ccurr ing i n t he f i rs t t hree f l oors o f an ow d estroyed t ower b u il t i n t he e ar ly 1 0 th c en tury a t t he mou th o ft he r iver Gar igl iano n o t f ar f ro m Gae ta ( c f . C h ier ic i 1 934 ). T he a rch i tec ture o f t he o lder P iano S carano h ouses i s r o manesque , t he d oors a nd w indows g eneral ly b e ing r ound-arched . I n t he c ase o f n os. 5 -7 v ia S a l i ta , e ven t he n iches a re r ound-arched , a s o pposed t o b e ing t r iangu larh eaded a s i su sua l i n N . L az io. S o me d oorways h ave s eg men tal a rches w i th r el iev ing a rches a bove t he m. T hese t oo b elong t o t he r o manesque b u i ld ing t rad i t ion , wh ich f avoured t he u se o f r el iev ing-arches , p art icu larly a bove l i n tels. A n u mber o f a rches b u il t i n t h is way s urv ive i n P iano S carano a nd i n t he S . P el legr ino a rea o fV i terbo ( c f . f i g. 1 .8B ).
A l terna t ively , sma l l
d oorways s o me t i mes h ave f l a t l i n tels s upported o n c orbels , t he t op o f t he l i n te lb e ing s l igh tly t r iangu lar i n s hape t o h elp d ischarge t he l oad a bove i t . I n f ac t , t he l i n tel d oes n o tb ear t he f u l l w e igh t o ft he wal l , f or i td oes n o t g o r igh t t hrough t he f u l l wa l l t h ickness , t here b e ing a h igher r ound o r s eg men tala rch b eh ind i tc rea t ing a r eba te , a n i nvar iable f ea ture o f med ieval d oors a nd w indows.
A l though o ccurring i n t he s torey a dded o n t o ah ouse a t t he e nd o f
v ia d el la S a l i ta , a nd i n n o. 1 v ia d el la S a l ita , ar ela t ively l a te h ouse i n t he P iano S carano s equence , c orbel led l in tels o f t h is t ype a re c haracter ist ic o f 1 2th c en tury a rch i tec ture , more c o m mon t oday i n s o me T uscan t owns s uch a s S . G im ignano a nd V icop isano t han i n N . L az io. T hey d oubt less r epresen ted Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 1 1
a n e cono m ic s ubst i tu te f or t he l i n tel a nd r el iev ing a rch.
I n t he 1 3th c en tury ,
t hey t ended t ob eco me much l ess c om mon , b u t c on t inued i n u se r igh t u n t i l t he e nd o f t he Middle Ages. However , P iano S carano was s et t led a t at ime when n ew a rch i tec tura l f ash ions w ere b eg inn ing t o s upersede t he r o manesque , a nd r e la t ively f ew h ouses man ifest q u i te t he p ur i ty o f s ty le o f , s ay , n os. 4 1-43 v ia Caprarecce , o r n os. 5 -7 v ia d el la S a l i ta . N o. 1 v ia d el la S al i ta h as a f acade i n w hich a l arge g round-f loor d oor i s c o mbined w ith a smal ler o ne t o t he u pper s toreys. Th is i s a n a rrange men t t ha t was t o b e v ery c o m mon t hroughou t t he 1 3 th c en tury a nd i ndeed i n to modern t imes.
O f ten t he sma l ler d oor i s s l igh t ly
r a ised a bove s tree t l evel , t hough n ot s o much a s i n t h is p art icu lar i n stance. T he s egmen ta l a rch , u sed i n t h is h ouse f or t he w indow a nd t he d oor o f t he t op s torey , was a lso t o b eco me a s tandard f ea ture o f med ieval a rch i tec ture , e ven tual ly a l mos t t o t he e xc lus ion o f o ther t ypes o f a rch. T hose wh ich o ccur i n t he P ian S carano h ouses a re s o me o f t he e arl iest d a table e xa mp les o f t h is t ype o f a rch i n N . L az io.
Qu ite why t h is a rch b ecame s o p opu lar i sn o t e n t irely
c lear, b u t i t may b e t ha t i t was r ela t ively s i mp le t ob u ild , n ot r equ ir ing v ery e labora te c en tr ing , a nd t ha t i tp resen ted a n a l mos t r ec tangu lar a per ture t ha t c ou ld e asi ly b e c losed w i th d oors o r s hu t ters. T he h ouse a t n os. 5 -7 v ia S . C arlo i s l a ter t han n os. 1 -3 t o t he E . o f i t ( f ig . 1 .3 ). I t s masonry i s t rans i t iona lb etween p er iods I a nd I I , t he b locks s how ing a p ronounced t endency t o b e s quare o r h eaders , s uggest ing t ha t i t d a tes f ro m t he f i rst h al fo f t he 1 3th c en tury. A n u mber o f f ea tures i den t ify i ta s a more d eveloped t ype o f h ouse w hen c o mpared t o t he o thers t aken i n to c ons idera t ion .
The g round f l oor i s l i t b y t wo r ec tangu lar w indows w i th c ham-
f ered s urrounds wh ich s ee m t o b e o r ig ina l .
Windows t o p rovide e x tra l i gh t
f or t he g round f l oor , of ten s i tua ted a t al evel a bove t he d oorway , w ere c o m mon f ro m t he 1 3th t o t he 1 5th c en tur ies. C ha mfered j ambs a re a lso t yp ica l o f sma l l w indows o f t he 1 3th a nd 1 4th c en turies.
I t i s more c om mon f or t hese
w indows t o b e a rched , o f ten w i th a t y mpanu m , t han r ec tangu lar.
O r ig inal ly
t he h ouse h ad a l arge d oorway , p robably r ound-arched , t o t he g round f l oor , a nd a no ther s l igh tly l ess w ide a nd r a ised a bove s treet l evel , wh ich l ed t o s ta irs t o t he f i rst f l oor.
Here t here was n ot a b a lcony , b ut i nstead t wo s eg-
men ta l-arched w indows w i th p ro jec t ing s i l ls. a lso t wo s eg men tal-arched a pertures.
A t t he s econd f l oor , t here w ere
Because o ft he ir p oor s ta te o f p reser-
v a t ion , i ti s i mposs ible t o b e c er ta in whether t hey w ere w indows o r d oors , e xpec ia l ly a s b eam h oles b elow t he m migh t h ave b een f or ab a lcony . I nside , t he g round f l oor measures a bou t 1 m b y 8 m, a nd i s s panned b y t wo d iaphrag m a rches wh ich s uppor t t he b ea ms o ft he f l oor a bove.
S uch a rches r ese mble
t o s o me e x ten t t hose u sed t o d iv ide u p v au l ted a reas, a nd o ccur i n c hurches f ro m t he 1th c en tury ( Por ter 1 9 17 , 9 4 ).
The n ave o f t he c hurch o f S . Mar ia
d i Fa l len ib u i l t b y t he C isterc ians p robably i n t he 180s may h ave b een s panned i n t h is way ( c f . Va l le 1 915 ). A t t he C is terc ian a bbey o f F ossanova n ot f ar f ro m Terrac ina , r ebu i l t f ro m 170 , p oin ted a rches s uppor t t he r oofs o ft he i n f ir mary a nd t he r efec tory.
D iaphrag m a rches, r a ther t han v aul ts ,
w ere much t he most c o m mon means u sed t o s uppor t f l oors i n t he d omest ic a rch i tec ture o f L az io f ro m t he e arly 1 3th c en tury u n t il t he e nd o f t he Midd le Ages a nd l a ter. One r eason why t hey w ere p re ferred was t hat t hey made i t p oss ible t o e cono m ise o n w ood. Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 2
V ITORCHIANO Modest h ous ing o f t he 1 2th a nd 1 3th c en turies a lso s urv ives a t t he l arge v il l age o fV i torch iano a bou t 8 km t o t he NE . o fV i terbo.
The masonry t rad i-
t i on i s h ere i den t ica l t o V i terbo, t he b u ild ing s tone a lso b eing p eper ino. ma in p hases o f d evelop men t may b e i den t if ied w i th in t he v i l lage :
Two
a n e arl ier
o ne a t t he e nd o ft he s pur o n wh ich i ti s s i tua ted , wh ich s t il l p reserves p arts o f i t s o rig ina l wa l ls ;
a nd l ater e xpans ion b eyond t h is l i ne o f d efence c on ta ined
w i th in wa l ls b u il t i n t he 1 220s a nd 1 230s ( c f . C ia mp i 1 872, 1 8 ). I n t he o lder p ar t o f t he v il lage , t here i s much a rch i tec ture d a table t o t he l a ter 1 2th c en tury , w ith f ea tures i den t ica l t o t hose o f t he P iano S carano h ouses. Ah ouse i n v ia Marz io , f or e xa mp le , h as a l arge g round f l oor d oor w i th a s eg men ta l a rch b elow a r ound r el iev ing a rch , a nd a sma l ler d oor w ith a c orbel led l i n tel r a ised s o mewha t a bove s tree t l evel .
Af ine b a lcony h ouse
e x ists a t n o. 8 2 v ia d el Belvedere , t he b ea m h oles o f i t s f acade s t i l l h av ing w ood i n t he m ( f ig. 1 ,4).
N os. 6 6-68 v ia S . Mar ia , a sma l l h ouse w i th a
l arge g round f l oor d oor, a smal ler o ne a bove s treet l evel , a nd a s eg men ta la rched w indow ( f ig. 1 .4 ) r ese mbles s o me o f t he l a ter h ouses i n P iano S carano. I n t he n ewer p art o fV itorch iano , t erraces o f s uch h ouses c an b e f ound i n t he p ara l lel s tree ts , o f wh ich v ia S in iba ldesco ( f ig. 1 .4 ) i s a n e xa mp le , s e t a t r ight a ngles t o t he l ong a x is o f t he s pur.
With t he ir c on t inuous f acades o f
t h is t ype , i n wh ich t he s eg men tal a rch i s u sed e xc lus ively , t hese h ouses s ee m t o r epresen t ad evelop men t o n t hose o f P iano S carano. TO WERS AND PALACES OF THE 1 2th AND 1 3th CENTURIES. These b u ild ings i n P iano S carano a nd V i torch iano a re r are s urv iv ing e xa mp les o f modes t h ousing o f t he 1 2th a nd e ar ly 1 3th c en tur ies.
More i s
k nown a bou t t he h ouses o f t he wea l thy a t t h is p er iod , t hough t he s ources f or t h is i n for ma t ion a re g eneral ly d ocu men ts r a ther t han t he b u i ld ings t he ms elves.
One o f t he most s tr ik ing f ea tures o f t he dwel l ings o f t he u pper c lasses
w as t he way t hey r ef lected c on te mporary s oc ial o rgan iza t ion wh ich was c harac ter ized b y k insh ip g roups o r a ssoc ia t ions o f u nre la ted f am il ies w hich a re g enera l ly k nown a s c onsorter ie , o r s o met i mes i n F lorence a s t ower s oc iet ies ( soc ieta tes t urr iu m ).
These g roups l i ved i n c lose p rox im i ty t o
e ach o ther a nd h eld p roperty i n c o m mon , wh ich most t yp ica l ly c onsis ted o f ap a la t iu m o r d o mus magna , at ower , al oggia , s o me t i mes a c hapel , a nd o ther r esiden t ia l a nd a nc il lary b u ild ings, o f ten s i tua ted r ound a p iazza.
7
T hese c o mp lexes w ere r arely c onstruc ted e x n ovo , b u t were a cqu ired g radua l ly , a nd h ad n ew b u ild ings a dded t o t he m .
Where t he b u ild ings w ere c lus tered
r ound a p iazza , o r b eca me e nc losed b y a wa l l , t hey a ssu med a f or t if ied a spec t.
S ince warfare b etween t he g rea t magna te f am il ies a nd c onsorter ie
was a n e nde m ic f ea ture o f t own l i fe i n t he 1 2th a nd 1 3th c en tur ies , t h is w as n o a cc iden t.
A t S iena , t he dwel l ings o f t he n oble o r magna te c lass w ere
k nown a s c astel lar i , a nd r eferences t o u rban c astra a re t o b e f ound a t o ther t owns ( e .g. F lorence a nd Ro me ). D u -r ing ' t he 1 3th c en tury , w ith t he r ise o f t he p opular r eg i mes , many o f t hese o lder b u i ld ings were d estroyed , g eneral ly e i ther o n t he o rders o f t he c o m mune a s ap un ish men t f or a c ts o f v iolence a nd r ebel l ion , o r i n t he c ourse o f f act iona l s tr ife i t sel f , o r a s ar esu l t o f t he p assage o f l egisla t ion wh ich d iscouraged t he c ons truc t ion o f f ortress-l ike
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. 1 3 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 1 4
b u ild ings.
A t O rv ie to , f or e xa mp le , t here i s d ocu men ta t ion f or n u merous
l arge-sca le d e mol i t ion s a t a bou t t he midd le o f t he 1 3th c en tury ( Fu m i 1 884, 7 56-57 ). C onsequen t ly , r ela t ively f ew p alaces o ft he n obi l i ty d a table t o t he 1 2th c en tury h ave s urv ived. S o me l arge , t al l r a ther f ea tureless b arn-l ike b u i ld ings wh ich f l ank t he E . s ide o f o ne o f t he d i tches a cross t he s pur o f S . L orenzo a t V iterbo , a nd wh ich t he ir masonry i nd ica tes t o b e 1 2th-cen tury , may g ive s o me i dea o f wha t t hese e arly c o mp lexes were l i ke ( p la te 1 .3 ).
One t ype o f
u pper-c lass d wel l ing o f t h is p er iod t ha t c an s t il l b e s een t oday i s t he t owerh ouse o r c asa torre.
Th is i s at er m wh ich h as b een u sed s o mewha t i nd iscr i m-
i na tely t o d escr ibe v ar ious k inds o fb u ild ing , i n p art icu lar t he t al l n arrow h ouses s o c harac ter ist ic o f t he h istor ic c en tres o f s o me I ta l ian t owns ( see b e low , p . 5 6 ) .
C asa turr is i s a med ieva l word , o ccurr ing i n 1 3th-cen tury
d ocu men ts f ro m B ologna , Verona a nd Padua ( Gozzad in i 1 875, 2 9 n ote 4 , 6 30 ), a nd 1 4th-cen tury d ocu men ts f ro m Orv ieto ( Fu m i 1 884, 4 14 ).
I t was
n o t , h owever , av ery c o m mon word , a nd s ee ms t o h ave b een u sed much more b y modern t han b y med ieva l w ri ters.
O f 2 40 Bolognese d ocu men ts c oncern ing
t owers a nd p a laces p ubl ished b y Gozzad in i ( 1875 ), o n ly f our men t ion c asa turres. Ib el ieve t ha t at rue c asa turris was a t a l l , l arge, r ec tangu lar b u i ld ing , i t s l ong s ide a bou t 1-20 m l ong a nd i t s h e ight a bou t 2 0-30 m , i n p ropor t ions s o mewha t r ese mbl ing a N . E uropean k eep ( c f . S topan i 1 977 ).
These f u l f il t he
r equ ire men ts o f ac asa torre, b e ing a s t a l l a s med ieval t owers , y e t c lear ly d es igned t o b e d wel l ings b ecause o f t he ir l arger s ize a nd b ecause t hey u sua l ly h ad b alcon ies a t t he u pper s toreys.
Tha t t hey a re t o b e f ound i n d eserted
c as tel l i , s uch a s D onora t ico n ear C ec ina a nd Mon tecch io Vespon i t o t he N . o f C ortona , b o th i n T uscany , i nd ica te t ha t t hey w ere s e igneur ia lb u i ld ings , a nd were b u il t t o ag rea t h eigh t f or r easons o ther t han s hor tage o f s pace. U rban e xa mp les a re t he t orre d el D iavo lo i n p iazza d el la C isterna , S . G im ign ano , t he s o-cal led c asa torre o f Arnol fo d i Ca mbio a t C ol le Va l d 'Elsa , a nd o ne wh ich h as b een i ncorpora ted i n to t he Palazzo d e i P r ior i a t T od i ( p la te 1 .4 ).
The c asa torre d el Buonparen t i i n v ia R icc iarel l i a t Vol terra measures
a bou t 9m b y 1 6 m , a nd i s a bou t 2 0 m h igh.
Wel l d ocu men ted i n t he f i rst
t wo d ecades o f t he 1 3th c en tury ( Fiu m i 1 951, 1 4-15 ), i t s c onstruc t ion mus t d a te f ro m t he s econd h a lf o f t he 1 2th.
N one s ee m t o s urv ive i n N . L az io ,
w i th t he p oss ible e xcep t ion o f al ow a nd p ronounced ly r ec tangu lar t ower o n t he W. s ide o f p iazza S . Pel legr ino a t V i terbo , wh ich may h ave b een a s truc ture o f t h is t ype.
T hese t ower-houses mos tly d a te f ro m t he 1 2th o r
e ar ly 1 3th c en tury , t hough i n t he c oun tryside o f T uscany , Umbria a nd t he Ro magna ( c f . Fan t in i 1 972 ) t hey c on t inued t o b e b u il t a s as ort o f s em i-fort if i ed f ar mhouse u n t i l q u i te l a te i n t he Midd le Ages. The o ne e le men t o f t he a rch i tec ture o f t he 1 2th a nd e ar ly 1 3th c en tury c onsorter ie t ha t r e ma ins a c onsp icuous f eature o f many I ta l ian t owns i s t he t ower.
8
Mos t s urv iv ing t owers d a te f ro m t ha t p er iod .
F ew w ere b u i l t a f ter
t he m iddle o f t he 1 3th c en tury , f or t hey w ere n o t r egarded w ith f avour b y t he p opu lar r eg i mes a nd l eg isla t ion was p assed r estric t ing t heir c ons truc t ion . A l though t he r igh t t o b u i ld a t ower must o rig inal ly h ave b een r eserved t o t he p r inc ipal l ay o r e cc lesiast ica l a uthor it ies , w ith t he f ragmen tat ion o f p o l i t ica l p ower a nd u nstable c ond i t ions o f t he 1th a nd 1 2th c en tur ies , i tc a me t o b e u surped by t he p e tty n ob i l ity a nd i ndeed a ny o ne w i th s uf f ic ien t money c ould Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 5
b u i ld o ne. Thus e ven i n P iano S carano t here were a t l eas t t hree t owers. C onsequen t ly t owers w ere v ery n umerous. T he c hron ic ler V il lan i 's a ssert ion t ha t t here w ere a s many a s 1 50 a t F lorence was p robably b y n o means e xagg era ted.
I n t he 1 9 th c en tury , t here w ere 5 2 a t B ologna .
A bou t 3 0 s t i l l s urv ive
a tV i terbo , wh i lst a t T uscan ia t here a re 2 3, a nd a t C orne to-Tarqu in ia a bout 2 0. On ly a f ew s t il l s tand a t Orv ieto , where t he ir d estruc t ion s eems t o h ave b een more c o mp lete t han e lsewhere. T he p a lace w ith a t ower i s o ne o f t he o ldest t ypes o f med ieval h ouse s t il l t o b e f ound t oday . There a re , h owever , g rounds f or b el iev ing t ha t o r ig inal ly t owers w ere g enera l ly f ree-stand ing. T hey a re i n mos t c ases o lder t han t he b u i ld ings a d jo in ing t he m. 9 A t s o me d eser ted s e t t le men ts , t here a re t owers wh ich s ee m a lways t o h ave s tood i n i sola t ion . t he s a me c onc lus ion .
D ocumen tary e vidence s ugges ts
An a gree men t o f 1 244 t o b u i ld a t ower a t S . Mar t ino
d i C amp i ( Tuscany ) s pec if ied t ha t n o b u i ld ing b e e rec ted n earer t han s ix b raccia ( abou t 3m ) t o i t( San t in i 1 887 , 1 93 ). T he t er ms o f aF loren t ine t ower s oc iety a gree men t made i n 1 209 r evea l t ha t t he t hree p ar t ies t o i te ach h ad p roper ty o n o ne s ide o f ap re-ex ist ing t ower ( San t in i 1 895, 5 30-35 ). Whether a ny o f t hese b u ild ings w ere a d jacen t t o i ti s u ncerta in t hough s o me may h ave b een . However, t he a gree men t s pec if ica l ly p er m i t ted e ach p ar ty s ubsequen tly t ob u i ld u p a ga inst i t . I n-f i l l ing o ft h is t ype was p robably a c o mmon o ccurrence a round u rban t owers wh ich h ad p rev iously s tood i n i solat i on .
I n a dd i t ion , when b u ild ings were d e mol ished , t owers s ee m of ten t o
h ave b een s pared , a lbe i t much r educed i n h e igh t , p resu mably b ecause o f t he s o l idar i ty o ft he ir c onstruct ion , a nd t hen d irec t ly i ncorpora ted i n to n ew p a laces. However , l a ter t ypes o f t ower were d es igned t o f i t i n to a t errace o f h ouses a long a s tree t. A c haracterist ic f ea ture o f many t owers i n N . L az io i s t ha t t he ir b ases a re b u il t o f ad if feren t , h arder s tone t o t he r es t o f t he s tructure, t he b locks u sual ly b e ing r ust ica ted ( c f . Andrews 1 978a ) . When , a s s o me t i mes h appens , t he r us t ica t ion i s p resen t o n o n ly t wo o r t hree s ides o f t he t ower , t h is may h ave b een b ecause i t was p lanned f ro m t he f i rst t ha t t here s hou ld b e b u i ld ings a d jacen t t o t hose s ides o n w h ich i ti s l ack ing.
I n
Tuscan ia , t here a re s evera l t owers t ha t h ave g round-f loor f acades, o n t he s tree t s ide a lone , o f v ery f i ne n enfro a sh lar. T he r est o f t he f abr ic i s o f t u fa . I n t hese c ases, i ti s q u i te o bv ious t ha t t he t owers w ere i n tended t o b e s urrounded b y o ther b u i ld ings, a nd t o f orm p ar t o f ac on t inuous s treet f ron ta ge. T he ir r ela t ively l a te d a te i s i nd ica ted b y t he q ual i ty o f t heir a shlar masonry , a nd t he ir l arge p o in ted-arched g round-f loor d oorways. T he t hree P iano S carano t owers, wh ich must h ave b een d es igned t o f i t i n to t he p rede term ined s treet p lan , h ave s im i lar d oorways. On t h is e v idence , i ts ee ms f a ir t o p ostu la te a t ransi t ion f rom t he s em if ort if ied c o mp lexes o ft he c onsor ter ie , g rouped s omewha t h aphazardly r ound at ower o r t owers, t o more r egu lar s treet p lans w ith a s er ies o f c on t iguous b u i ld ings c onst itu t ing n ea t t erraces ( see b elow , p . 5 2 ) . There i s f ar l ess r egu lar ity amongst t he b u i ld ings e xcava ted n ear S . P ietro , T uscan ia , i n 1 974, where t hree t owers were f ound a t ad istance o fo n ly a f ew metres f ro m e ach o ther, t han e x ists i n t he Pogg io d is tr ic t o f t he s a me t own , a nd i n P iano S carano a tV i terbo , b oth o f wh ich w ere p lanned med ieval b orgh i.
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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T A R Q UI NI A , PAL AZZ O ( after
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V I TELL ES C H1
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Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. 1 7 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
A t C orne to-Tarqu in ia , i ti s a pparen t t ha t o ne w ay i n wh ich t owers w ere i ncorpora ted i n to p alace c o mp lexes w as b y c rea t ing ag able-ended f acade s y mmetr ica l ly t o e i ther s ide o f t he t ower , b eh ind w h ich e x tended t he p a lace. T he med ieva lb u ild ings w h ich f orm p ar t o f t he 1 5th -cen tury P a lazzo V i tel lesch i p resen t j ust s uch a n a spec t ( f ig. 1 .5 ). T ha t t h is w as q u i te a c o m mon a rrangemen t i s s uggested b y s ke tches i n t he c ol lec t ion o f d ocumen ts s tored i nt he Pa lazzo C o muna le k nown a s t he Margar i ta C ornetana .
T ransac t ions c oncern-
i ng t owers a nd p a laces d a t ing f ro m t he l a te 1 3th c en tury ( e .g. q uodam t urn i e t q u ibusda m p a la t i is s eu a ccasamen t is c on iunc t is q uadam t urn ip os i t is i n c on tra ta s anc t i N icola i , a n . 1 294, f . L VI I Iv ) a re a ccompan ied b y s chema t ic d raw ings s how ing t he t ower a t t he c en tre o f t he f acade o f t he p a lace , t he r oof o f w h ich i s s o met i mes c renel la ted ( f ig. 1 .8c ).
N ex t t o at ower i n v ia S .
Pancraz io ( no. 9 ) a nd a nother n ear t he a pse o f t he c hurch o f S . Pancraz io ( f ig. 1 .9 ), a re t he r e ma ins o f p a laces t ha t e x tended a t r igh t a ngles b eh ind t he m. I nb o th t hese c ases , t he t ower was p robab ly a t t he c orner o f t he p a lace r a ther t han i nt he m iddle o f t he f acade. Two n otable p a laces a t Tuscan ia wh ich b oth i ncorpora ted t owers a re t he P a lazzo V escov i le o r b ishop ' sp a lace a nd t he Pa lazzo G iovanne t t i. Tuscan ia , t he Pa lazzo Vescov i le ( f ig. 1 .6 ). The Pa lazzo Vescov ile , s i tua ted a t t he S .F . c orner o f t he c hurch o f S . P ietro, i s p robably t he o ldest med ieval p a lace a t T uscan ia. I tc ons is ts o f ar ec tangu lar b lock o ver 3 0 m l ong a nd 9 m w ide , b u il t o f t u fa b locks 0 .30 m h igh a nd g enera l ly a bou t 0 .40 -0.50 m l ong. Or ig ina l ly i te x tended f ur ther t o t he S ., b u t t h is e nd h as b een d estroyed , a nd i t s a ngles r e in forced w ith b u t tresses. T owards t he N . e nd o f t he E . wa l l , s cars i n t he masonry i nd ica te t ha t t here w ere t wo wa l ls a t r igh t a ngles t o t he p alace , o ne o f wh ich s t il l p reserves t he r eba ted j a mb o f af i rst f l oor d oor , b elow w h ich c an b e s een t he s pring ing o f ab arrel v au l t. T he w id th o f t h is f or mer b u ild ing ( a bou t 6m ) , i t s r ela t ively t h ick wa l ls ( a bou t 1 .20 m ) , t he b arrel v aul t a nd f irs t f l oor d oor, a nd t he f ac t t ha t t here was a s tra igh t j o in tb e tween i ta nd t he p a lace , a l l e stabl ish c onvinc ingly t ha t i t was a t ower. T he g round f l oor i s s o mewha t c o mp lex i n p lan , a nd n ot t he l ess s o s ince i tp roved i mposs ible t o e xam ine i t s i n ter ior , wh ich i s n ow u sed a s as tore b y t he S opr in tendenza Archeolog ica d el l 'Etrur ia Merid iona le. I ts eems t ha t t he ma in p ar t o f t he b u i ld ing i s o ccup ied b y al arge r oo m , w h ilst a t t he N . e nd , t here a re sma l ler c hambers a nd p assages. A ccess t o t hese w as t hrough t he l arge r ound a rches wh ich e x ist i n e ach wal l , t ha t i n t he N . wa l lb e ing a l most c o mp letely o bscured b y al a ter s ta ircase.
D oubt less c orrespond ing
a rrange men ts e x isted a t t he S . e nd , a nd t he b u i ld ing was p robably s ym me tr ic a l w i th t hese a rches f or m ing a sma l l p or t icoed a rea where p eop le c ou ld g a ther t o d iscuss b usiness. I n t he 1 3th c en tury , b oth e cc les iast ica l a nd c o m muna l a f fa irs w ere t ransac ted i n t he p a lace ( c f . C ampanari 1 856 , I , 1 65, 1 73 ). The g round f l oor was l i t o n ly b y s l i t w indows , a nd s hou ld t heref ore b e r egarded a s h av ing h ad s o me e ssen t ial ly u t i l i tar ian f unc t ion . The r ec tangular w indows , b oth a t t h is l evel a nd t he f i rst f l oor , a re a l l l a te- o r p ost- med ieva l . The f i rst f l oor s eems t o h ave c onsisted o f as ingle l arge h al l .
I n i t s E . a nd W, wa l ls , i ti s p oss ible t o s ee t ha t t here i s b l ind a rcad ing.
T h is r a ther u nusua l f ea ture , p ara l leled a t Tuscan ia i n t he c hurch o f t he Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 8
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Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 1 9
O speda le d i S . C roce , s ee ms i n t he c ase o f s o me c hurches t o o ccur i n c onj unc t ion w i th b arrel-vau l ts wh ich i t was p erhaps i n tended t o b race a nd r e inf orce. 1 ° However , n o s uch v aul t e x ists a t S . C roce , a nd w i thou t a ccess t o i t s i n ter ior, i tc anno t b e s a id whe ther t here was o ne i n t he p a lace. I n t he E . wal l t here a re t wo r ound-arched w indows , wh ils t t he W. a nd N . wa l ls h ave b e tween t he m f i ve h andso me t w in-l igh t w indows o r b ifore i n n en fro , l i nked b y as tr ing c ourse wh ich f or ms t he ir s i l ls. T he e x istence o f t he p alace i s d ocu men ted b y 1 260 ( Ca mpanari 1 856, I , 1 65 ), b u t o therwise t he ma in e v idence f or i t s d a t ing c onsists o f i t s r e la t ions h ip t o S . P ie tro , w h ich i s , u nfortuna tely , ambiguous. Wh ils t t he p a lace o bscures p ar t o f t he b l ind a rcad ing i n t he E . wa l l o f t he c hurch a nd s eems t herefore t o b e l a ter t han i t , t he c hurch i sb u i l t a cross t he j amb o f t he N . d oor i n t he W. s ide o f t he p a lace , s uggest ing t he o ppos i te.
Whereas t he
p a lace i s o f o ne b u ild , w i th t he p oss ible e xcep t ion o f t he d e mo l ished t ower w h ich c ou ld b e e arl ier , t he f abric o f t he c hurch i nd ica tes v ery c learly t ha t i th as b een l eng thened , i t s f acade h av ing b een r ebu il t a bou t 6m t o t he S . o f i t s o r ig ina l p osi t ion .
On t he p re m iss t ha t t he o verlap b etween c hurch a nd
p a lace i s t he r esu l t o f a cc iden t r a ther t han d esign , t hen t he p a lace mus t a n teda te t he e x tension o f t he c hurch , f or i ti s u nl ikely t ha t a ny n ew b u i ld ing wou ld h ave b een a l lowed t o i n terfere w ith t he e labora tely d ecora ted f acade. T h is c annot b e d a ted v ery a ccura tely , b u t t he c onsensus o f o p in ion i s t ha t i t must h ave b een b u i l t i n t he l a te 1 2th o r e arly 1 3th c en tury , a nd t ha t i ti s p oss ibly t o b e a ssoc ia ted w i th a c onsecra t ion r ecorded i n 1 206.
I f i tb e
a ssu med t ha t t he p alace wou ld n ot h ave b een b u il t a f ter t he s ee was t ransferred f ro m Tuscan ia t o Vi t erbo i n 192, t hen t h is c ould b e c i ted a s c ircu ms tan t ia l e vidence f or a t er m inus a n te q ue m.
S uch a d a t ing w ou ld f i t v ery wel l w i th
t he a rch i tec ture o f t he p a lace , w ith t he e xcep t ion o f t he b ifore.
A l though t he
masonry s urround ing t he m d oes n ot d e monstra te i tc onc lus ively , Ib el ieve t ha t t hese w indows, wh ich w il lb e d iscussed i n d e ta il b elow, a re p robably l a ter i nser t ions r ep lac ing s i mp le r ound-arched o nes l i ke t hose i n t he E . wa l l . Tuscan ia , t he Palazzo G iovannet t i ( f ig. 1 .7 ). Accord ing t o Ca mpanar i ( 1856, I , 1 84), t he G iovanne t t i were o ne o f t he mos t p ro m inen t g h ibel l ine f am il ies i n t he t own .
Un fortuna tely t here s ee m t o
b e n o s urv iv ing h istor ical r ecords t o a u then t ica te t h is t rad i t ion , b u t t ha t t hey were p robably t he owners o f t he p a lace i s s uggested b y a n a c t o f s a le o f 1 377 ( AST , p erg. 1 59 ).
The v endors o f af ar m o u tside T uscan ia were C ecco Bucc i
G iovanne t t i a nd h is w ife d onna Con tessa , who w as r ela ted t o t he Farnese, a nd i t was e nac ted i n c on tra ta Turcloru m i n d o mo d ic torum v end itorum , o r , i n o ther words, i n v ia d el Turco , wh ich i s o ne o f t he s treets a t t he e nd o f wh ich t he p a lace i s s i tua ted.
T he e agle c arved o n as tone a bove t he b ifora i n
t he W. wa l l c ou ld b e t aken t o s ymbol ize g h ibel l ine s y mpa th ies.
Wi th i t s
o u tstre tched w ings, i tc er ta in ly r ese mbles t ha t o ft he c oa t o f a r ms o f t he g h ibel l ine D i V ico f am ily , a nd o f wh ich a f i ne e xamp le h as b een f ound a t t he ir s tronghold o f S . G iovena le ( Thorde mann 1 967 , 5 0 ) , a nd o f wh ich o thers c an b e s een o n t he Papa l Pa lace a t Vi t erbo.
Apart f ro m t he b u t tressed E . wa l l ,
t he p a lace i s wel l p reserved , a nd a d raw ing p ubl ished b y C a mpanar i ( I , t ay. XVI I Ib ) s hows t ha t i th as r e ma ined e ssen t ial ly u nchanged s ince 1 856.
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
2 1
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G rNOUND F LO M . P LAN
0
T he t ower a nd t he L -shaped p a lace a d jo in ing i t s S . a nd E . s ides a re l i nked b y a n a rch t o ar ec tangular b u ild ing , n ow much r estored , o n t he o ther s ide o fv ia d el la T orret ta . I n t he o uter f ace o f t he E . w a l l o f t h is b u i ld ing , a b locked-up r ound-arched d oor a nd a n iche a t f i rst s torey l evel s how t ha t i t was o rig ina l ly a h ouse o f t he t ype w i th b alcon ies r unn ing a long i t s f acade , wh ich was l a ter i ncorpora ted i n to t he p a lace. I n terna l ly , i th as b een much a l tered a nd p reserves l ess o f i t s o r ig ina l c harac ter t han t he r est o f t he p a lace. T he t ower h as i t s b ase o f n en fro o n t he N . a nd E . s ides , b u t p robably n o t o n t he W., w h i ls t t he S . wa l l c ou ld n o t b e e xam ined.
A t t he N .W . a nd N .E .
c orners , t here i s al i t t le r ust ica t ion , p robably r e-quo in ing , t ha t o n t he l a t ter c on t inu ing r ound t he c orner i ns ide t he p alace wh ich h as b een b u il t u p a ga inst i t . The g round f l oor r oo ms t o S . a nd E . o f t he t ower a re b oth b arrel-vau l ted . However , t he d iv id ing wa l lb e tween t he m h as c ol lapsed t o r eveal a f i ne n en fro a rch. T h is d e monstra tes t ha t t he v aul ts a re l a ter i nsert ions. The r ooms t hus o r ig inal ly f or med a n i n ter-co mmun ica t ing g round f l oor a rea , t hough t he ir e ven tua l s epara t ion s ee ms t o h ave b een a n t ic ipa ted s ince t hey a re b o th p rovided w ith e x ternal p o in ted-arched d oors, t ha t o f t he N . o ne n ow b e ing l argely c onc ealed b enea th l a ter b u t tressing. T he S . r oo m c on ta ins t wo p ozz i o r g ra in s torage p i ts , a nd i n i t s S .E . c orner t here a re t he r ema ins o f al a te- o r p ostmed ieva l f i rep lace. One c orbel s urv ives o f i t s l arge c anopy . The f l ue o f t he c h imney i s c u t i n to t he masonry , a nd i s e v iden t ly n o t o rig inal . I ta lso s hows s igns o f t wo p hases , f or s et i n to t he wa l l , a nd a pparen t ly e ar l ier t han t he c anop ied f i rep lace , t here i s a n e nclosed b r ick f l ue w h ich c on t inues d own a lmos t t o t he l evel o f t he f l oor. T he e n t ire r oo m i s v ery b lackened b y smoke. The p rox im i ty o f o ne o f t he p ozz i t o t he f i rep lace s uggests t ha t i th ad b een f i l led i nb y t he t ime t he l a t ter was b u il t . The o n ly s urv iv ing f or m o f i l lum in a t ion f or t he r oo m i s as l i t w indow j us t a bove a nd t o t he l e f t o f t he e n trance. I n t he i n trados o f t he s eg men ta l-arch w h ich f or ms t he r eba te b eh ind t he p o in ted o ne o f t he e n trance, t here a re t wo r ec tangu lar h oles f or t he p oles o n wh ich t he t w inleaf d oors were h ung. I ft here w ere a ny d irec t a ccess f ro m t he g round t o t he f i rs t f l oor i n t ha t p art o f t he p a lace a d jo in ing t he t ower , i tn o l onger e x is ts.
T here may h ave
b een a wooden s ta ir, b u t i ti s e qua l ly p oss ible t ha t t hey were s epara te e n t i t ies , t he g round f l oor b e ing r en ted o u t . B ecause t he p a lace i sb u i l t o n as l ope , t he f i rst f l oor c ou ld o r ig ina l ly b e e n tered b y ad oor, n ow b locked , i n i t s W. wa l l . T oday i ti s r eached b y a n e x ternal s ta ir wh ich l eads t o t he r a ised d oor i n t he W. wal l o f t he b lock o nt he o ther s ide o f v ia d el la T orre t ta.
I nside t he r oo m
wh ich o ccup ies t h is e n t ire f l oor, t here i s aw ooden s ta ir t o ad oor t o t he r oom s uppor ted o n t he a rch o ver t he s treet , wh ich c ommun ica tes w i th t he f i rst f l oor r oo m o n t he E . s ide o f t he t ower.
A l though t he w ooden s ta ir i s modern ,
i td oubt less r ese mbles t hose w h ich must h ave e x is ted i ns ide med ieva l h ouses , f or o r ig ina l o nes i n masonry a re n ever f ound. i s n otable f or i t s f ine b ifore.
T he u pper s torey o f t he p a lace
There i s n o v ery p rec ise d a t ing e v idence f or t he p alace. The e ar l ier b u ild ing wh ich f or ms i t s N . w ing p rov ides s o me th ing o f at er minus p ost q ue m , f or i ti s u n l ikely t o h ave b een b u il t much a f ter t he b eg inn ing o f t he 1 3th c en tury . I tc ou ld wel lb e o lder t han t he t ower wh ich , w i th i t s b ase o f f ine n en fro a sh lar a nd p o in ted-arched d oors a t t he l ower s toreys , i s o f al a te t ype , p oss ibly b u i l t e arly i n t he 1 3th c en tury .
T he p alace i s u ndoubted ly l a ter t han i t , t hough
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2M
B
0
p iazza S . P ellegrino
F ig . 1 .8 A .
Sketch o f r oof t russ ( capr ia te) i n t he P a lazzo Maccabe i, Tuscan ia
B .
Romanesque d oorway,
C .
Draw ings o f t owers a nd p a laces f rom t he Margar i ta Cornetana
D .
The p odestä a nd c onsu ls o f Genoa ( from t he Genoese c hron ic les, s ee n o te 1 1 )
E .
V iterbo, p iazza S . P e l legr ino ( af ter Cucu 1 938)
F .
Deta i l f rom Ambrog io L orenzetti 's E ffetti d e l Buon Governo n e l la
v ia S .
P e l legr ino, V i terbo
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and c i tt ä David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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b y h ow much i s d if f icu l t t o s ay . ( p . 3 8
The b ifore , wh ich a re d iscussed b elow
) , may b e d a ted a pprox i ma tely t o t he m id-13th c en tury .
Tha t t hey
o ccur t hroughou t t he e n t ire c o mp lex s ugges ts t ha t t he N . p ar t o n t he o ther s ide o f v ia d el la T orret ta was i nc luded i n i tf ro m t he f irst . ARCHES , PORT ICOS AND LOGGIE The u se o f a rches , whether t o f or m a p or t ico o r a n a rcaded a rea o r a l ogg ia a t ag round o r u pper s torey was a w idespread f ea ture o f I tal ian h ouses f ro m a t l east t he 1th c en tury , a nd was p robably a p rac t ice i nher i ted f ro m l a te Ro man a rch itec ture. 9 th-cen tury h ouses a t R im in i , Os i mo ( Marche ) a nd e lsewhere a re r ecorded a s h av ing h ad p or t icos ( Cod. Ravenna p . 4 3, 7 0 ; Cod . D ip . Am ia t inus p . 1 63 ).
These p ort icos a nd l ogg ie s erved a s mee t ing-
p laces f or d iscuss ion a nd b us iness.
T hey were e spec ial ly a f ea ture o f t he
b u ild ings o f t he g rea t magna te f am il ies a nd c onsor terie , a nd o f t hose a reas o f t he med ieva l t own wh ich w ere wha t may b e t er med t he ma in s hopp ing c en tres.
I n many c ases, e arly p ort icos must h ave b een o fw ood.
A t G enoa ,
t he wooden o nes s urround ing t he med ieva l wa terfron tb egan t o b e r ep laced i n s tone o n t he o rders o f t he Co m mune f ro m 133 ( Cod. D ip . Genoa , p . 8 18 2 ).
Their s uccessors c an s t il lb e s een t oday.
I th as b een s een t ha t t here
was a n a rched a rea a t e ach e nd o f t he Palazzo Vescov i le a t Tuscan ia .
T he
p r inc ip le i s more h ighly d eveloped i n a no ther e p iscopa l p a lace o f c o mparable d a te , t ha t a t Venosa i n Basi l ica ta , where most o f t he g round f l oor i s a n o pen b arrel-vau l ted a rea.
The g round f l oors o ft he Palazzo d el la Rag ione
a t Milan , a nd t he P alazzo d el C ap i tano d el Popolo a t Orv ieto , were c o mp letely o pen a nd v aul ted .
The V i terbo c hron ic les r ecord h ow i n 1 255 t here w ere
b u il t n el la s trada r o mana u na q uan t i ta d i a rch i ep or t ic i a ssa i , t u t te a f are i l macel lo d el b est ia me ( Cia mp i 1 872, 3 1).
I t i s s tr ik ing h ow a t Barbarano
Ro mano t he s urv iv ing p or t icos a re c oncen tra ted a long t he c orso V i t tor io Emanuele , t he ma in s treet t hrough t he v il lage ( Du t to 1 975, 3 9 ). . p or t icos
T he u se o f
f or t he t ransact ion o f p ubl ic b us iness i s i l lustra ted b y t wo d raw ings
i n t he Genoese c hron ic les wh ich s how t he p odes tü a nd t he c onsu ls a sse mbled o n s tone b enches b enea th t he a rches o f ap or t ico , wh ich i n o ne c ase i s t refo i l i n s hape ( f ig. 1 .8 D ).
I n a nother d raw ing
i n t he s a me c hron icles s how ing
t he d estruct ion o f t he p roper ty o f ac i t izen g u il ty o f murder , h is h ouse i s r epresen ted s i mp ly b y t hree a rches
1
.Por t icos a re o f ten r eferred t o meton-
ymously a s v ol tae i n c on te mporary d ocu men ts. h ad t he s urna me Del la Vol ta .
A l ead ing Genoese f am ily
T he F loren t ine t ower s oc ie ty a gree men t o f
1 209 a lready c i ted a bove ( p . 1 6 )made p rov is ion f or t he e rec t ion o f av au l t n ex t t o t he t ower.
Th is s ee ms t o h ave h ad n o u pper s torey , a nd l i ke t he
Palazzo d el Cap i tano a t Orv ie to o r t he Pa lazzo d el la Rag ione a t Mi lan , t o h ave b een a n o pen-vau l ted a rea i n tended s pec if ica l ly a s a meet ing p lace. Th is t ype o f c onstruc t ion was p robably q u i te c o mmon .
Ag ood e xamp le ,
a lbe i t n o t v aul ted , i s t he Port ico d i S . To m maso a t Vi t erbo ( f ig. 1 .11). L a te med ieval l ogg ie o f t h is t ype were u sua l ly b u i l t b y c iv ic i nst i tu t ions r a ther t han f am il ies.
Exa mp les a re t he L ogg ia d el la Mercanz ia , b egun i n
1 382, a t Bologna , o r t he 1 4th c en tury L ogg ia o f t he Pa lazzo d e i P r ior i a t Narn i ( p la te 1 .5 ), wh ich c ons is ts o f f our b ays o f r ibbed v au l t ing s pr ing ing f ro m a c en tra l p ier.
An e xcep t iona l i ns tance o f o ne b u i l t b y af am ily i s t ha t
o f t he Rucel la i a t F lorence ( 1 463 ). Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
2 4
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5P ANCNAZ 10 5 -9
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Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
2 5
One o f t he more e x traord inary f ea tures o f I t al ian med ieva l a rch i tec ture i s v ery t al l a rches w h ich r ise t o t he l evel o f t he f i rs t a nd s econd s toreys. These o ccur i n n arrow t owerl ike b u i ld ings, a nd a lso i n l arge h ouses a nd p a laces.
T he f or mer a re p ar t icu larly c harac ter is t ic o f t he 1 2th- a nd e arly
1 3th-cen tury a rch itec ture o fP isa ( c f . L up i 1 901, 2 65 s eq.; 6 25-26 ), a nd may b e t er med t he P isan t ype o f t ower-house.
T oesca 1 927 , Av ery i mpress ive
r ow o f t he m f l ank t he S . b ank o f t he A rno , where t he ir s i tua t ion s ugges ts t hey were u sed a s f ondach i o r warehouses. T owards t he t op o f t hese a rches t here a re of ten c orbels, wh ich i n s o me c ases s upport s tone l i n tels a nd a re c omb ined w ith b ea m h oles f or b a lcon ies ( c f . T oesca 1 927 , f i g. 4 06 ). Thus t he a rches were n o t c o mp letely o pen , b u t h ad f l oor l evels c arr ied a cross t he m. E i ther t hey w ere p art ia l ly f i l led w i th w ooden p anel l ing , f or w h ich t here i s l a te med ieval d ocumen tary e v idence i n t he c ase o f s im i lar s truc tures a t L ucca ( Pierot t i 1 960 ), o r t hey h ad a l ogg ia a t t he t op o f t hem. Th is method o fc ons truc t ion h as b een e xp la ined b y t he i ns tab il ity o f t he s ub-so i l a t P isa , mak ing i tn ecessary t o s ink mass ive p iers t o ac ons iderable d ep th ( Toesca 1 927 , l oc.c it .). However, s im il ar a rches a nd b u ild ings a re t ob e f ound e lsewhere i n Tuscany where t here a re n o s uch g eolog ica l p roble ms.
T he Torre d el
D iavolo a t S . G im ignano , f or i ns tance, h as av ery t a l l p o in ted a rch i nt ha t s ide wh ich f aces o n t o p iazza d el la C isterna. T oday t here a re v ery f ew b u ild ings o f t h is t ype i n N . L az io.
Two a re t o
b e f ound a t C orneto-Tarqu in ia , o ne i n v ia S . Pancraz io ( f ig.- 1 .9 ) a nd a nother i n v ia d el la T orre ( no. 3 3 ). I ti s t e mp t ing t o t h ink t ha t a rch i tec tura l i n f luences were b e ing t rans m i t ted d own t he c oast , b u t i n s o me r espec ts t hey d i f fer f ro m t he P isan e xamp les.
Both a re t owers w i th b ases i n r ust ica ted masonry s im i-
l ar t o t he o ther t owers i nt he t own e xcep t i nh av ing n arrow p o in ted a rches 8 9m h igh f acing t he s treet. T he v ousso irs o f t he a rches a re mou lded a nd made o f ad ark v olcan ic s tone wh ich d oes n o t o ccur e lsewhere i n t he t owers. S ince t hese a rches a re i l l-su i ted t o ab u i ld ing t ha t m ight h ave t o s erve f or d efence , i ti s n ot imposs ible t ha t t hey w ere l a ter i nsert ions , b u t t here i s n o o bv ious s truc tura l e v idence f or t h is.
T he b lock ing o ft he a rches i s i nb o th
c ases i n a sh lar a nd t herefore t ook p lace d ur ing t he Middle A ges.
As im i lar
b u ild ing n ow v ery h eav ily r estored i nv ia d el C omune a t Tuscan ia ( f ig. 1 .12 ) h as s o mehow c o me t o b e k nown t oday a s t he c hurch o f S . L eonardo.
I ti s
s l igh tly l arger t han t hose a t C orneto-Tarqu in ia , a nd b u i l t e n t irely o f n en fro. I t , t oo , h as h ad most o f t he a rch b locked u p , as egmen tal o ne b eing i nser ted a t t he g round f l oor w i th a g o th ic b ifora a bove i t . I n v ia d el Turco ( n o. 2 6, f i g. 1 .21) a t t he s a me t own , t here i s as p l i t-level t ower-l ike b u i ld ing , t he r ear o f wh ich , where t he g round d rops a way , i s o ccup ied b y ah igh r ound a rch .
T he T orre d i Messer Bra i mondo i n v ia S . An ton io a t Vi t erbo ( p la te
1 .6 ) a lso h as a h igh r ound a rch i n t he b ack o f i t .
I n t h is c ase, t oo th ing a t
t he e dges o f t he s ide wa l ls i nd ica tes t ha t t he b u i ld ing e x tended t o t he W., a nd t ha t t h is a rch c o m mun ica ted w i th a p ar t o f i tn ow d e mol ished . The b u i ld ing i n v ia d el Turco may a lso h ave f or med p art o f al arger c omp lex . Very t al l a rches a re a lso t ob e f ound i n l arger h ouses a nd p alaces , o f ten i n p a irs. Aga in , t hese a re n ot v ery c o mmon i n N . L az io , t hough t hey a re a f ea ture o f t he Palazzo C igl ion i a t T uscan ia , a nd o f s o me h ouses a t Orv ieto ( f ig. 1 .23 ). N one o f t hese b u ild ings w i th a rches c an b e p rec isely d a ted , b u t i n most c ases t hey a re p robably o f t he 1 2th a nd e arly 1 3th c en tur ies , a nd t hey s ee m r arely t o h ave b een b u il t a f ter t he m iddle o f t he l a t ter c en tury . Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 2 6
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Houses w ith p ort icos a t t he ir g round f l oors a re t oday much more n umero us a t C orneto-Tarqu in ia t han a t Tuscan ia a nd V i terbo.
I fn ot a n a cc iden t o f
s urv iva l , t h is c ould w el l r ef lec t t he i mportance o f C orne to a s ab usy p ort where t rade o f a l l t ypes was c onduc ted , o n as cale u nequal led a t t he o ther t wo t owns. They o ccur n o t o n ly i n t he o lder p art o f t he t own e nclosed b y t he l i ne o f wa l ls t ha t r an f or merly a long t he a x is o f t he c orso V i t tor io Emanuele, b u t a re a lso a f ea ture o f t he h umbler t ype o fh ous ing i n t he S . p ar t o f t he t own wh ich s ee ms t o h ave b een ab orgo n uovo e nc losed b y wa l ls i n t he 1 3th c entury , p robably i n t he f i rst h al f o f t ha t c en tury .
T he p or t icos a re r ound-
a rched a nd s pr ing f ro m p iers i n r us t ica ted masonry , o r o ccas iona l ly f ro m r e-used a n t ique c olumns.
S o me o ft he b est p reserved a re t ob e f ound i n t he
a p t ly n a med v ia d egl i Arch i ( f ig. 1 .10 ). A t i t s N . e nd t he s treet i s s panned b y ab u ild ing s uppor ted o n a rches , at yp ica l e xamp le o f med ieval i n-f i l l ing. N os. 5 5-57 s ee m t o h ave b een b u i l t a s as epara te u n i t , w ith r ust ica ted p iers a t e ach c orner. T he g able-end f acade was s ymme tr ica l , w i th ab ifora t o e i ther s ide o f ar ound-arched w indow. Beam h oles a bove t he w indows may h ave b een f or a p en t-roof .
The p lastered , r ubble-bu il t h ouse, w ith i t s f i rst
f l oor l oggia , i s p os t- med ieva l . The f acade o f n os. 4 9-51 a lso h as a n a ir o f s y m metry a bou t i t , t he t wo b ifore b e ing f l anked b y as eg men ta l-arched w indow a nd a r ound-arched o ne. T he b i fore h ave s l igh tly p ro jec t ing s i l ls w i th c arved d ecora t ion o n t he m. I t was p oss ible t o s ee s u f f ic ien t o f t he i n ter ior o ft h is b u ild ing t o a scer ta in t ha t i t s s truc tura l h istory i sv ery c o mp lex . Withou t h av ing b een a ble t o e xa m ine i ti n d eta il , i tc an b e s a id t ha t t he p ort icos h ave p robably b een b u i l t o n t o t he f ron t o f ap re-ex ist ing b u ild ing wh ich p oss ibly h ad ab alcony a t i t s f i rs t f l oor. S im ilarly , i n t he 'c ase o f a sma l l h ouse a t N o. 2 9 v ia d egl i Or t i ( f ig. 1 .1 0 ) i nt he S . p ar t o ft he t own , t here a re s tra ight j o in ts b e tween t he p or t ico a nd t he ma in p ar t o f t he h ouse , s uggest ing i ti s a l a ter a dd it ion .
I n t he wa l l s e tb ack b eh ind t he r igh t-hand a rch o f t he p ort ico ,
t here was t he t yp ica l a rrange men t o f al arge r ound-arched g round-f loor d oor , a nd a sma l ler o ne , s l igh t ly r a ised a nd n ow b locked , t o t he u pper s torey. The h ouse w i th a p ort ico s ee ms t o r epresen t a n a dvance u pon t ha t w ith ab a lcony. The t wo f ea tures d o n o t o ccur t oge ther a t C orne to , t hough t hey d o o ccas iona l ly e lsewhere , a nd t he p ort icos s eem o f ten t o h ave b een a dded t o t he f acades o f e arl ier b u ild ings wh ich may o r ig ina l ly h ave h ad b a lcon ies. T o s o me e x ten t , t he p ort ico r ep laces t he b alcony , o ne o ft he f unc t ions o f wh ich was t o p rov ide s hel ter t o t he a rea b elow i t . F irst f l oor b a lcon ies may h ave o f ten b een s uppor ted o n t imber u pr igh ts w h ich i n e f fec t c onst itu ted a p or t ico. I n t he c ase o ft wo t owers a nd a d jacen t p a laces ( v ia S . Pancrazio n os. 5 -9 , a nd t ha tb eh ind t he c hurch o f S . Pancraz io, f i g. 1 .9 ), p or t icos a lso a ppear a s s econdary f ea tures , t acked o n l a ter t o t he ir n arrow s treet f ron tages. I nb oth c ases , t he p alace a lready h ad q u i te a l arge r ound-arch i n i t s f acade , b u t n ot s o w ide a s t hose o f t he p or t icos.
P ort icos s eem t o
h ave b eco me w idespread , e ven f ash ionable , a t ap art icu lar mo men t i n t he d evelopmen t o f C orne to-Tarqu in ia.
T hey o ccur i n c on junc t ion w i th p la in
r ound-arched w indows a nd b ifore a nd w i th r us t ica ted masonry . T hese r ela t ively p r im i t ive f ea tures , a nd t he f act t ha t r ust ica t ion s ee ms t o h ave g one o u t o fu se i n t he s econd h a l f o f t he 1 3th c en tury , s uggest t ha t mos t o f t he p ort icos a t t h is t own d a te f ro m t he f i rs t h a l f o f t ha t c en tury , a nd t he e nd o f t he 1 2th. S ince t he s pace b e tween t he a rch a nd t he wa l lb eh ind i t was Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
2 9
r a ther n arrow, n o more t han 2 -3 m ( c f . v ia d eg l i O rt i n o. 2 9 ), t hese p ort icos s ee m n ot t o h ave f or med a c on t inuous a nd s pac ious wa lkthrough a rcade l i ke t he l a te a nd p ost- med ieva l o nes p reserved a t B ologna a nd o ther t owns i n N , I t aly . A t V iterbo , t here a re v ery f ew h ouses w ith p or t icos i n P iano S carano , s o me th ing wh ich i s p robably t he r esu l t o f i t s d is tance f rom t he c en tre o f t he t own , a nd t he f ac t t hat i t s i nhabi tan ts w ere n ot f or t he most p art e ngaged i n t rade. However , t ha t p ort icos a re r ela t ively r are t oday e lsewhere i n t he t own must b e t he r esu l t o f a n a cc iden t o f s urv iva l , f or t hey were s urely c o mmon , a t l east i n t he c en tre.
Accord ing t o S cr ia t tol i ( 1915, 1 .7 ) t hree b locked a rches
a t t he c orner o fv ia S . L orenzo a nd p iazza d el G esü a re a l l t ha t r ema in o f t he p ort ico where t he p odestä h eld c our t i n t he 1 3 th c en tury . One o f t he o ldest p ort icos i nV i terbo i s t ha t a t tached t o t he N . s ide o f t he c hurch o f S . T o m moso , i n v ia S . L orenzo , j ust t o t he W. o f p iazza d el la Mor te ( f ig. 1 .11).
Th is i s , more s trict ly s peak ing , ac o mp letely o pen g round
f l oor l ogg ia o f t he t ype d es igned a s ap lace f or p eop le t o a sse mble. T he b ot to m o f t he b u i ld ing , b enea th a s i mp le s tring c ourse , i sb u i l t o f f i ne p eper ino a shlar. Above t h is l evel , i ti s o f r ough-f in ished p er iod I masonry . T here a re t wo u pper s toreys, t he s econd o f wh ich h as b een r ebu il t a nd r es tored i n t he Midd le Ages a nd s ubsequen t ly . b ifore.
B oth a re l i tb y as er ies o fh andsome
A s er ies o fb eam h oles a bove t he a rches o f t he p ort ico o nce s uppor ted
ap en t-roof . On t he i n trados o f t he m idd le a rch i n t he N . wa l l t here i s a p oor ly p reserved f resco o f as a in t , wear ing a r ed c loak a nd h old ing a s crol l , t he f i rst t hree words o f wh ich r ead E cce Agnus D e i.
T he t wo d iaphragm
a rches wh ich s uppor t t he f i rs t f l oor a re l a ter i nsert ions , t hough med ieva l i n d a te.
The c hurch o f S . To mmaso i s f i rs t r ecorded i n 1 099 ( S ignorel l i
1 907 , 11 n ote 1 0 ). The e x ist ing c hurch i sb u il t o fV iterbo p eriod Imasonry , d a table t o t he 1 1th o r e ar ly 1 2th c en tury . The masonry o f t he p ort ico s uggests ad a te f or i ta t t he e nd o ft he 1 2th o r i n t he e arly 1 3th c en tur ies. I ti s r eferred t o i n ad ocumen t o f 1 259 e nac ted s ub p ort icu e cc les iae s anc t i T ho mae ( ACV, p erg. 1 37 ). I t c ou ld wel l h ave b een b u i l t 5 0-60 y ears o r more b eforehand . T he b ifore i n p ar t icu lar a re d ist inc t ly r omanesque i n c harac ter. A l lb u t t wo o f t he m h ave c lustered f our-ste mmed c olu mns , a nd o ne h as i n terlace d ecorat i on .
T he r ound p ier a t t he N .W . c orner h as a v ery s i mp le , l ow-rel ief
c rocket c ap i ta l , wh ich may b e l i kened t o more r ef ined o nes t ha t o ccur a t t he n earby C is tercian a bbey o f S . Mart ino a l C im ino , b u i l t f ro m c . 1 207 , a nd i n t he a rch i tec ture o f t he Emperor F reder ick I ( 1 220-50 ), i n , f or i nstance , t he Capua g a teway a nd C astel d el Mon te. An o ak l ea f o n t he E . s ide o f t h is c ap i ta l h as p ara l lels a t F reder ick 's c as tle o f L agopesole. On t he W. s ide o f t he c ap i ta l t here a re f l eurs-de-l is w h ich a re s a id t o h ave b een t he s ymbol o f t he T ignosi , ap owerfu lg h ibel l ine f am ily who a re t hough t t o h ave b een t he o wners o f t he b u i ld ing ( Scr ia t tol i 1 9 15, 1 24-25 ).
S ince t he 1 259 d ocumen t c oncerned
t he T ignos i , t h is t rad i t ion i s p robably c orrec t. Another f i ne p ort ico a tV i terbo i s t ha t o f t he much r estored s o-ca l led c asa d i Va len t ino d el la P ignot ta .on t he S . s ide o f p iazza S . L orenzo ( f ig. 1 .17 ). I n i t s p resen t f or m , t h is s ee ms t o b e ar e mnan t o f al arger p a lace wh ich p robably e x tended f urther t o t he E . S ince i n t he wa l lb eh ind t he t wo a rches t here i s al arge r ound a rch n ow b locked , a nd a bove t h is a t f i rs t-f loor l evel Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
3 1
t wo b locked w indows , i ts ee ms t ha t t he p ort ico i s al a ter a dd i t ion t o a n e arl ier b u i ld ing. Th is i s a lso e v iden tb ecause t he s ides o f t he h ouse a re b u i l t o f p er iod I masonry , whereas t he p or t ico c an b e d a ted b y i t s t wo g o th ic b ifore t o a bou t t he middle o f t he 1 3th c en tury o r l a ter s t i l l ( below , p . 4 0 ) . The p or t ico i s e ssen t ia l ly o rna men ta l . I t s a rches a re e xcep t iona l ly h igh , a nd b elow t he c orbel t able a t f i rst -f loor l evel , i ti sb u i l t o f c areful ly d ressed a sh lar wh ich b elow t he s pring ing o ft he a rches i s l a id i n e xcep t iona l ly h igh c ourses ( 4 5-50 cm ).
I ti s e asy t o s ee h ow i tw ou ld h ave r endered a n o lder
a nd more s evere b u ild ing v ery much more e legan t . The c orbels a nd b eam h oles a t t he l evel o f t he b ifore s upported a p en t-roof . T he h ouse i s n a med a f ter a p rominen t l oca l f i gure w ho w a ,s o ne o f t he p r iors i n 1 458, a nd w ho l i ved a ppresso l a f on tana d i S . L orenzo ( Ciamp i 1 872, 6 7 ). Another i nstance o f ap or t ico a dded t o ap re-ex ist ing b u ild ing i s t ha t o n t he W. s ide o f p iazza S . Pel legr ino ( p la te 1 .7 ). Humbler t ypes o f d wel l ing w i th a rches a re a lso t o b e f ound a tV i terbo. N o. 7 v ia S . P ie tro a nd n o. 7v ia Fa t tungher i ( f ig . 1 .21 ) b o th h ave t he ir g round f l oors f ra med b y aw ide r ound a rch , o n ly a bou t 1m b eh ind w h ich i s t he ma in f acade, w ith a d oor t o t he g round f l oor a nd a nother t o t he u pper s torey .
I nt h is r espec t , t hey r ese mble v ia d egl i O r t i n o. 2 9 a t C orne to-
Tarqu in ia , e xcep t t hat h ere t he a rch c onst i tu tes n o more t han a r ecess, r a ther t han a t rue p ort ico o r a rcade.
N e ither h ouse i s w el l-preserved.
Tha t i n
v ia Fa t tungher i i s h eav ily p lastered , a nd h as h ad t wo r ena issance w indows i nserted a t t he f i rs t f l oor. A t T uscan ia , h ouses w i th p or t icos a re f or t he most p ar t c onf ined t o t he S . p art o f t he c en tro s tor ico , t he most n otable e xamp les b e ing i n v ia O berdan , v ia d el C o mune , v ia d el la Pace a nd a t S et te Cannel le ( f igs. 1 .12, 1 .13 , 1 .15 ); i n o ther w ords , i n a reas c lose t o t he h eart o f t he t own a nd t he s ea t o fg overnmen t , w here t he marke ts were , a nd where t he p r inc ipa lb us iness o f t he d ay would h ave b een c onduc ted. Genera l ly s peak ing , t he p ort icos s eem t ob e l a ter t han t hose a t C orneto-Tarqu in ia . T hey a re u sua l ly a ssoc ia ted w i th f ine n en fro a sh lar , a nd a n umber o f t he m , s uch a s t hose i n v ia d el Co mune ( f ig. 1. 12 ) , h ave p o in ted a rches.
Furthermore, t he v ousso irs o f t hose a t
S et te Cannel le a nd i n v ia d el le Pace h ave e labora tely c arved p rof iles. This c hronolog ical d if ference i s wha t m igh t b e e xpec ted i nv iew o f t he f ac t t ha t t he c en tro s tor ico a t Tuscan ia b ecame d ensely s e t t led r e la t ively l a te i n t he h istory o f t he t own ( c f . p . 1 81 o f t h is v o lu me ) . An e xamp le o f a sma l l h ouse w i th a n a rch i n i t s f acade i s n o. 1 0 v ia d el la P ace ( f ig. 1 .13 ). I tr ese mbles n o. 2 9 v ia d eg l i Or t i a t Corneto-Tarqu in ia , a nd n o. 7 v ia Fa t tungher i a t Vi t erbo. T he g round f l oor i s f aced i n n en fro a sh lar. S et b ack a bou t 2m b eh ind t he a rch , t here i s a wal l i n wh ich a d oor o n t he r igh t-hand s ide , o r ig ina l ly r ound-arched , l eads t o t he g round f l oor, wh ilst t o t he l e f t s teps l ead t o a sma l ler d oor t o t he u pper s torey. T he p ort ico may h ave b een a dded t o a n e arl ier b u i ld ing , a s n o ted e lsewhere , b u t t here i s n o o bv ious e v idence f or t h is t oday .
T he b arrel-vau l t a t t he g round
f l oor i s al a ter i nsert ion , f or ofsets i n t he N . a nd E . wa l ls s how t ha t o r ig ina l ly t here was a wooden c e il ing. T he r ectangu lar d oorway o n t he l e f t-hand s ide i s s et i n t he b lock ing o f al arger o ne. Tha t t here was a d oor y e t e arl ier t han t h is i s s uggested b y t he f ac t t ha t t he s ta irs h ad t o b e w idened t o c orrep o ndOsborne, t o i t sandw i d th . Andrews, David, John David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 3 2
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Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
3 4
One p a lace t ha th ad a p ar t icu larly s tr ik ing p ort ico i s t ha t o f t he C igl ion i , w ho , a ccord ing t o C ampanar i , w ere o ne o f t he l ead ing g uel f f am il ies i n t he t own .
The ir t ower s tands a t t he j unc t ion o f v ia C avagl ion i a nd v ia d el R ivel l ino.
A modern p laque r ecords t he miracu lous c ure o f t he o n ly s on o f t he f am ily b y S t . Franc is i n 1 222 . T he p alace b u il t o n t o t he W. a nd N . s ides o f t he t ower h as b een c o mp le tely t ransfor med t hrough u se a s s hops a nd a par tmen ts . H owever , r ecen t r estora t ion h as r evea led t he t ops o f t hree v ery l arge a rches, t wo r ound o nes s epara ted b y ap o in ted o ne , i n t he W. wa l l ( f ig. 1 .14 ). The ir p resence o n t h is s ide o f t he p a lace i s t o b e e xp la ined b y t he f ac t t ha t t hey f l anked t he C orso , t he ma in s treet t hrough t he t own . L ike t he smal ler o nes d escribed a bove , t hese a rches p robably a lso h ad a wal l o n ly a f ew me tres b eh ind t he m w hich f or med t he ma in f acade o f t he h ouse.
Ab a lcony c ou ld
w el lh ave b een e rec ted b e tween t h is wa l l a nd t he t op o f t he a rches t o f or m as pac ious f i rs t f l oor l oggia. T oday a ccess t o t he t ower i sb y ar a ised d oor i n i t s E . wa l l . Or ig inal ly , h owever , most u rban t owers h ad g round f l oor e n trances.
T he e x istence, t herefore , o f a n a pparen tly med ieval d oorway a t
t he g round f l oor i n t he W. s ide o f t he t ower i nd ica tes t ha t t he p a lace h as b een b u i l t o n to i t , n o d oubt e ncroach ing o n t he s tree t i n t he p rocess. Though n ot i mpossible t ha t t he p a lace was a lready s tand ing i n t he t ime o f S t. F rancis , i ti s more p robable t ha t i t s c ons truc t ion d a tes f ro m l a ter i n t he 1 3th c en tury . The most i mpress ive s er ies o f a rches s urv iv ing a t T uscan ia a re t hose i n v ia Oberdan , a l l o fw h ich a re n ow b locked ( f ig. 1 .15). The c en tra l p a ir, w h ich i s b u i l t i n n en fro a shlar , i s t he l argest , a nd i s a pparen t ly o lder t han t he o thers w h ich h ave b een b u il t o n t o t he m.
T he o u ter r ows o f v ousso irs
o fb oth a rches a re d ecora ted w i th t r iangu lar s h ields w ith h or izon tal l i nes o n t he m. S im ilar s h ields a lso o ccur t o e i ther s ide o f t he l arge n enfro a rch a t S et te Cannel le. Restora t ion h as r evea led t races o f f rescoed g eo metr ic p a t tern ing i n wh i te , b lack , g reen , y el low a nd r ed o n t he r ecessed i nner v oussoirs o f t he l e f t-hand a rch .
T h is i n terest ing s urv ival , t ogether w i th t he
f resco o n t he p or t ico o f S . To m maso a t V i terbo , a re r em inders o f t he e x tens ive u se made o f p a in ted d ecora t ion i n med ieva l a rch i tec ture , s o me th ing o verl ooked i n t he c ourse o f modern r estora t ion wh ich h as l ef t med ieva l h ouses l ook ing much more s evere a nd f orebod ing t han was o r ig ina l ly t he c ase ( c f . D e Angel is a nd N annel l i 1 975, 1 05 ).
Beh ind t h is a rch , e le men ts o f t he med i-
e val i n terior h ave s urv ived t he v ar ious mod if ica t ions w h ich t he b u i ld ing h as u ndergone. A l igned a t r ight-angles t o t he p ier , a nd s et b ack a bou t 2m f ro m i t , t here i s ap a ir o f d iaphrag m a rches , t he f i rst o f wh ich i s n ow b locked , w h ich e x tend t he f u l l l eng th o f t he b u ild ing. T he h ouse g ives t he i mpress ion o fh av ing c ons isted o f af ramework o f a rches. However , t hough i t may s ee m t oday t ha t t he i n terior was o pen t o t he s treet , i ti s more p robable t ha t , l i ke t he o ther p ort icos w e h ave e xa m ined , t here was a wa l l p ara l lel t o t he f acade , a nd s et b ack a l i t t le b eh ind i t . Th is wou ld e xp la in why t he f i rst d iaphrag m a rch d oes n o tb eg in a t t he f acade ; a nd t he r emova l o f s uch a wal l w ou ld a ccoun t f or t he d amaged s ta te o f t he masonry o f t he a rch a nd o f t he p ier f rom wh ich i ts prings. T he r ow o f n en fro c orbels a bove t he a rches o f t he f acade a re p uzzl ing s ince t here a re n o b eam h o les a bove t he m , a nd t hey a re v ery c lose t o t he a rches.
P oss ibly t hey s upported a h or izon ta lb ea m a ga ins t wh ich
r ested t he r af ters o f al eanto r oof .
There s ee ms t o h ave b een a s im i lar
a rrange men t a t S e t te Cannel le ( f ig. 1 .12 ), where smal l d iagona l ly i nc l ined Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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3 6
h oles b elow t he c orbels must h ave s erved f or s tru ts.
There a re a lso s cars
l e f tb y ap en t-roof i n t he masonry a bove t he a rches i n v ia d el C o mune ( f ig. 1 .12 ). I ft hese r oofs w ere s upported o n t imber u pr igh ts , t hen t he p or t ico a rea would h ave b een much e n larged. T he a rches i n v ia Oberdan a nd a t S et te C annel le , w ith t he ir f i ne a shlar masonry a nd d ecora t ive u se o f s h ields a nd , o n t he c orbels , o f mot ifs s uch a s a can thus l eaves a nd f l eurs-de-l is , a re i n t he s tyle o f t he h igh ly d ecora ted a rch i tec ture f ound a t V i terbo f rom t he m iddle o ft he 1 3th c en tury ( b e low , p . 4 2 ) .
I ndeed , t he s h ie lds c lose ly r ese mb le
t hose o f t he Ga tt i f am i ly a bove t he l ogg ia o f t he p apa l p a lace , o ne o f t he most n o table e xamp les o f t h is t ype o f a rch i tec ture. On t hese g rounds, t he a rches may b e a pprox i ma tely d a ted t o t he s econd h a l f o f t he 1 3th c en tury , o r e ven s o mewha t l a ter. One f ea ture o f more l uxur ious med ieval h ouses t ha t was p robably more c o m mon t han i s a pparen t t oday was t he a rched l ogg ia a t a n u pper s torey. " T h is h ad a l l t he a dvan tages o f ab alcony , a nd i n a dd i t ion was a p ermanen t f i x ture , a nd d id n ot c rea te a f i re h azard o r an u isance b y p ro jec t ing o u t i nto t he s treet. A f ine e xamp le i s t ha t o f ah ouse o n t he N . s ide o f p iazza S . Pel legr ino a tV i terbo. Th is i s s eg men ta l-arched a nd h as a s l igh tly p ro jec t ing p arapet ( p la te 1 .7 ).
As im i lar l ogg ia , n ot s o wel l-preserved , i s t o b e f ound
a t t he W. e nd o f v ia Marcon i i n v ia Dobic i , wh ilst a nother e x is ts i n t he C ae tan i p a lace b u il t c . 1 300 a t t he t o mb o f C ec i l ia Metel la o n t he v ia App ia t o t he S . o f Ro me.
I fi t was n ot s i mp ly a r el iev ing a rch , t hen t he l arge a rch
r evealed a f ter t he r emova l o f p laster f ro m t he s torey a bove t he p or t icos i n v ia Oberdan a t Tuscan ia ( f ig. 1 .15 ) p robably b elonged t o al ogg ia o f t h is t ype. A much more e legan t l ogg ia i s t ha t o f t he p apa l p a lace a t V i terbo , wh ich c ons ists o f as er ies o f s even i n terlaced a rches w ith e labora te g oth ic t racery ( p la te 1 .8 ).
I tr ese mbles t he p ol ifore c harac ter ist ic o f t he a rch i tec ture o f
N . I taly , e spec ia l ly o ft he Veneto.
Th is l ogg ia , a nd t he magn if icen t s ta ir-
c ase u p t o i t , were a lmost c er ta in ly d es igned f or t he p urpose o f p apa l c eremon ial. To s ummar ize , t here a re t hree ma in t ypes o f p or t ico a nd l ogg ia :
t ha t
wh ich o ccup ies mos t o ft he g round f l oor o f ab u ild ing a nd wh ich was o f ten v aul ted ; t ha t wh ich c ons ists o f a n a rch o r a rches o n ly a f ew metres i n a dvance o f a wal l wh ich f or ms t he ma in f acade o f t he h ouse; a nd t ha t a t a n u pper s torey. To t hese m igh tb e a dded t he w ide walkthrough p or t icos s o c haracter is t ic o fB ologna a nd s o me o ther N . I tal ian t owns, wh ich may h ave b een a l a te- med ieva l d evelop men t o f t he s econd t ype.
T he l a t ter p robably
i nc ludes t he l arge a rches o f t he P a lazzo C ig l ion i a nd s o me h ouses a t -O rv ieto , a nd p erhaps e ven t hose t o b e f ound a t P isa , a nd were i n many c ases a dded t o p re-ex ist ing b u ild ings wh ich h ad h ad b a lcon ies. L ogg ie w ere most c o m mon i n t he 1 2th a nd 1 3th c en tur ies , b u t f e l l o u t o f f ash ion we l l b efore t he e nd o f t he Middle Ages.
T hey h ave o f ten b een b locked i n med ieva l a shlar a nd b een r e-
p laced b y smal ler d oorways. T h is was p oss ibly a r esu l t o f r egu la t ions i ssued b y t he c o mmunes. A t Ro me i n t he 1 5th c en tury , ap roh ib i t ion o n t he c on struct i on o f n ew p ort icos w as f o l lowed b y t he c losure o f e x ist ing o nes ( Magnuson , 1 958, 3 7 , 3 9 ).
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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B IFORE Tw in-l igh t w indows o r b ifore h ave a lready b een e ncoun tered i n an umber o fb u i ld ings. The o r ig ins o ft h is t ype o f w indow a re r emo te , p robably g o ing b ack t o Byzan t ine a nd L a te An t ique a rch i tec ture. T he o ldest b u ild ings , i n wh ich t hey a re t o b e f ound a re c o mpan i l i , s uch a s t he 8 th-cen tury c ampan i le d e i Monac i a t Mi lan , a nd t he 9 th-cen tury o ne a t t he S S. Qua t tro I ncorona t i a t Ro me.
A t V i terbo , t hey o ccur i n t he c a mpan i l i o f S . Maria d el la C el la a nd
o f S . S isto , b oth b u il t i n t he 1th o r e ar ly 1 2th c en tury .
T hough t here i s n o
r eason t o s uppose t ha t i n t hese p er iods b i fore w ere e xc lus ive t o c a mpan i l i , t he e ar l iest s urv iv ing i ns tances o f t he m i n d o mes t ic a rch i tec ture a re p robably o ft he s econd h a lf o f t he 1 2th c en tury , wh ilst i ts eems f a irly c erta in t ha t t hey b eca me much c o m moner i nh ouses f ro m t he 1 3th c en tury . I n s o me p arts o f I t a ly mu l t ip le l i gh t w indows ( t r ifore , p ol ifore , e tc .) were c o m mon , b u t t h is was n ever t he c ase i n N . L az io. The s i mp lest s ort o fb ifora migh t c ons ist o f t wo r ec tangular a per tures s epara ted b y at h ick mu l l ion . S cria t tol i ( 1915, f i g. 19 7 ) i l lustrates o ne i n v ia d el la C arbonara a t V i terbo w i th f l a t t r iangu lar-headed l i n tels l i ke t hose o f s o me o f t he d oors o f t he P iano " S carano h ouses.
Ap r im i t ive o ne i n v icolo
S . Rosa a t Vi t orch iano h as a t h ick mu l l ion w ith c hamfered e dges, a nd a l i n tel t he u nderneath o f w h ich h as b een c arved t o f or m t wo s l ight ly s egmen ta l a rches ( F ig .1 .16 ) . T he e ar l iest o nes a t V iterbo , d a tab le b ecause t hey o ccur i n p er iod I masonry , a re sma l l , p la in a nd r e lat ive ly s quat i n p ropor t ions . I fa rched , t hen t he a rch i s r ound a nd u sua l ly made o f as ing le b lock o f s tone ; i fr ec tangu lar , t hey h ave l i n te ls w ith a b l ind a rch a nd t y mpanu m , o n wh ich t here i s c arved d ecorat ion . B ifore o f t h is t ype c an b e s een i n ap a lace b u i lt u p a ga inst t he w a l l o n t he E . s ide o f t he t own , j ust b y t he n ow c losed p or ta F ior ita ( Scr iat to l i 1 915 , f i g. 4 5 ), a nd f urther t o t he S . where t he c hurch o f S . F ortuna to a r id a p a lace n ex t t o i tw ere i ncorpora ted i n to t he wa l led c ircu i t .
S ince S . Fortuna to was
c onsecra ted i n 180 ( S ignorel l i 19 07 , 1 35 ), t h is may b e t aken a s a n a pprox ima te i nd ica t ion o f t he d a te o ft he b ifore o f t he p a lace. S o me o f t he f i nest e arly b ifore a tV i terbo a re t hose o f t he p or t ico o f S . T o mmaso ( f ig. 1 .11). With t he ir c ap i ta ls a nd c arved d ecora t ion r ound t he i n trados o f t he a rches , t hey r ef lec t t he t endency f or t hese w indows t o b ecome i ncreas ingly d ecora t ive. The b i fore o ft he h ouses w i th p or t icos a t C orne to-Tarqu in ia a re a lso sma l l a nd p la in , a nd r ela t ively p r im i t ive i n t ype , t hough p robably s l igh tly l a ter i n d a te. The f ac t t ha t t heir a rches a re b u i l t w ith v ousso irs , w h ich a re w ide i n p ropor t ion t o t he s ize o f t he w indows , g ive t hem a t op-heavy a ppearance. E arly b ifore w i th t y mpana w ere p robably q u i te a s c o mmon i n N . L az io a s t hose wh ich w ere a rched. T hey h ad t he a dvan tages o fb e ing s i mp ler t o make a nd e as ier t o p rov ide w i th a r eba te a nd s hu t ter e f fec t ively. The a ppeara nce o f r el ief d ecora t ion , u sua l ly i n t he f or m o f at refo i l , o n t he t y mpana o f s uch w indows, a nd t he ir e nclosure w i th in h ood-mou lds , a re t wo o f t he mos t n o table d evelopmen ts i n t he e volu t ion o f t he b ifora i nt he l a te 1 2th a nd e arly 1 3th c en turies.
A t t he C is terc ian a bbey o f S . Mar t ino a t C im ino t o t he S .
o fV iterbo t here i s ad oorway w i th a l arge t refo il i n r el ief o n i t s t y mpanu m , . _ _ a nd d og too th d ecorat ion r ound t he o uter e dge o f t he a rch a bove ( p late 1 . ). I t must d ate f ro m t he f i rst h a lf o f t he 1 3th c en tury , p oss ib ly b etween 1 207 w hen r econstruct ion o f t he a bbey p robab ly b egan , a nd 1 225 w hen t he c hurch was Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 3 8
J p
TUSGAN IA
I L
L A . 3 2 I NT EN I OR , ELEVAT ION
c . 1
V ITONCH IANO , V ICOLO
0
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0 1
c onsecrated .
Two w indows w ith t refo i ls o n t he ir t y mpana o ccur i n t he P alazzo
C apocc i i n v ia S . P ie tro a t V iterbo ( p la te 1 .10 ) . I ft h is r ea l ly was b u i l t b y C ard ina l R an iero C apocc i , t hen i t must d ate f rom c .1220-40 . C apocc i w as a C isterc ian w ho h ad t rave l led w ide ly i n E urope . H e w as made a c ard ina l i n 1 212 o r 1 213 , a nd h ad a l ong a nd a c t ive c areer , wh ich i nc luded l ead ing t he r es istance t o t he Emperor Freder ick I 's s iege o fV i terbo i n 1 243 ( S ignorell i 1 907 , 1 72 s eq. ). T ha t t he r e ma ins o f t he p a lace a re i n p er iod I masonry t ends t o c onf i rm t h is d a t ing. I th as a w ide r ound a rch a t i t s g round f l oor. T he w indows a re i m med ia tely a bove i ta nd a re e xcep t iona l ly l arge. T he mul l ions a re t h ick w i th c ha mfered e dges a nd d o n ot h ave c ap i ta ls. E ach w indow i s f ramed b y a h ood mou ld , a nd b etween t he t refo i ls t here i s a smal l o cu lus , t he s i mp lest f or m o f p la te t racery. A s im ilar b ifora w i th t refo ils i n r el ief o n i t s t ympana , a n o cu lus w i th in a h oodmould , a nd s e t i n p er iod I masonry , o ccurs a bove a n a rch b u il t o ver v ia S . P el legrino.
T he w indows o f t he Casa d i Valen t ino d el la
P ignot ta a re more h ighly d eveloped ( f ig. 1 .17 ). T he mu l l ions h ave c ap i ta ls, a nd t here a re e ngaged c olu mns a t e ach s ide o f t he w indows. T he t y mpana h ave b een d one a way w i th , a nd t he p la te t racery c omprises a q ua trefo i l w i th a no cu lus t o e ach s ide o f i t . Fro m t h is s or t o f w indow , i ti sb u t as hor t s tep t o t hose o f t he p apa l p a lace b u il t o n t he i n i t ia t ive o f Ran iero Ga t t i f rom 1 266, a nd p a id f or b y t he C o mmune t o e ncourage t he p apa l c ourt t o s pend i t s t ime a nd money a t V i terbo ( Cia mp i 1 872, 3 1, 3 62 ).
T hese h ave t racery c ompris ing
t refo ils a t t he t op o f e ach l i gh t , a nd q ua trefo ils a nd o cu l i b e tween t he t op o f t he w indows a nd t he h ood- mou ld , wh ich r uns c on t inuously b e tween t he m ( p la te 1 .8 ). S im ilarly t he s i l ls f or m a n u n in terrup ted s tr ing c ourse , whereas i n e arl ier b u ild ings , s uch a s t he p ort ico o f S . To mmaso a nd t he h ouses w i th p ort icos a t C orne to-Tarqu in ia , t hey a re l im i ted t o t he w id th o f t he w indow. The w indows o f t he Ga t t i p a lace i n v ia C ard ina le L a F on ta ine a re a lmos t i den t ica l ( p la te 1 .8 ). They , t oo, a re l i nked b y c on t inuous h ood- mou lds , wh ich t er m ina te r a ther u nusua l ly i n c ircu lar s tops , a nd b y s tr ing c ourses wh ich f or m t he ir s i l ls.
Wha t i s t oday k nown a s t he P alazzo Ga t t i i s l i t t le more
t han a f acade t acked o n t o a n e ar l ier b u i ld ing , e n larg ing i ta nd g iving i ta more e legan t a spec t.
I th as t wo l arge p o in ted-arched d oors o f e qua l h e igh t
a t t he g round f l oor, w i th a w indow a bove e ach o f t hem a t t he t wo u pper s toreys.
T h is a dd it ion may a n tedate t he p apa l p a lace :
i ti sb u il t o f wha t
l ooks l i ke a n e arly t ype o f p er iod I I masonry , a nd l acks t he d ecorat ion s o c harac ter ist ic o fV i terbese a rch i tec ture o f t he l a ter 1 3th c en tury. A l though t he d evelopmen t o ft hese w indows i s c l ear a nd w el l-del inea ted , b y n o means a l lb ifore f i t i n to t h is u n i l inear e volu t ionary s equence. T racery , f or e xa mp le , b eca me q u i te c o mmon i n t he 1 4th a nd 1 5th c en tur ies, b u t e ven t he b ifore o f i mportan t b u ild ings o f ten r ever ted t o s imp ler f or ms. Those o f t he Caetan i c astles a t t he t o mb o f C ec i l ia Metel la o nt he v ia App ia a nd a t S er moneta a nd N in fa n ear L a t ina t o t he S . o f Ro me , a l l d a t ing f ro m C . 1 300 , a re sma l l a nd t refo i l-headed , a nd s et i n marble o r t raver t ine s urrounds w i thou t h ood- mou lds o r d ecora t ion o f a ny s ort.
F or t h is r eason , t he d a t ing
o fb ifore i s o f ten f ar f ro m e asy , a s c an b e s een f rom a n e xam ina t ion o ft hose o f t he Pa lazzo Vescov i le a nd t he Pa lazzo G iovanne t t i a t Tuscan ia. The f or mer, wh ich t oday a re v ery h eav ily r estored , h ave p o in ted b l ind a rches , a nd a re f ra med b y s i mp le h ood- mou lds , t hree o f w h ich h ave z ig-zag a nd d og too th o rna men t ( f igs. 1 .6, 1.1 6 ) . The h ood- mou lds a re n o t l i nked t ogether , b u t Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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ac on t inuous s tring-course f or ms t he s i l ls o f t he w indows.
The t y mpana o f
t hree o f t he b ifore h ave s im ilar d ecora t ion c omprising a f l oral b oss o n t he l e f t-hand s ide a nd a t refo i l l eaf o n t he o ther. S im i lar, s t if f , b oss-l ike mo t ifs a re c o m mon ly t o b e f ound o n t he t y mpana o f med ieval w indows, a nd a re a f ea ture o f r o manesque d ecora t ion , o ccurr ing , f or i ns tance , i n t he c hurch o f S . P ietro a t Tuscan ia . O f t he o ther t wo b ifore , o ne h as v aria t ions o n t he v ine s crol l mot if o n i t s t y mpanu m ( f ig. 1 .16 ), a nd t he o ther h as a n i n ter lace p a t tern a nd a c rude p a lma te d evice. Three o f t he b ifore h ave u nusual , l ow r e l ief c arv ing i n t he s pandrel b e tween t he b l ind a rches i nclud ing, i n o ne c ase , ag ro tesque h ead ( f ig . 1 .16). A l though t he w indows a re g oth ic iz ing , s o me o f t he ir d ecora t ion i s r omanesque i n c harac ter , a nd s im i lar i n s p irit t o t he e xt ravagan t c arv ing o f t he n earby f acade o f S . P ietro. P erhaps t hey were i n serted i n to t he p a lace t ob ring i t s a ppearance more i n to l ine w i th t ha t o f t he c hurch. I f ad a te o f C . 1 206 i s a ccep ted f or t he r ebu ild ing o f t he l a t ter , t hen t he b ifore c ou ld w el lh ave b een a dded s oon a f terwards. The d og tooth o rnamen t i s u ndercu t , at echn ique u nco mmon b efore t h is t ime, p robably f i rs t o ccurring i nt h is a rea i n t he c hurches o f S . S isto a t V i terbo a nd S . Maria Magg iore a t Tuscan ia , n e i ther o f wh ich c an b e d a ted much more a ccura tely t han t o t he e nd o f t he 1 2th o r t he b eg inn ing o f t he 1 3th c en tury , a nd t hen a t t he a bbey o f S . Mar t ino a l C im ino . E xac t p ara l lels f or t he w indows a re f ew , b u t s im ilar o nes a re t ob e f ound a t V iterbo i n t he T orre d i messer Bra i mondo i nv ia S . An ton io , a nd i n a sma l l t ower i n t he p iazza d i S . Pel legr ino.
Those
o ft he f or mer ( p la te 1 .6 ) h ave wel l-developed h ood- moulds wh ich t er m ina te i n c ircu lar s tops , a nd h ave sma l l f l ora l b osses o n t he ir t y mpana . T hree b eam h oles a bove t he h ood- mou lds s erved f or a sma l l p en t-roof . The b ifore o f t he S . P el legr ino t ower a re r ound-arched. v ery p robably l a ter i n ser t ions. v ery r ebu i l t a t t he t op .
I nb o th t owers, t he b ifore a re
Tha t a t S . Pel legr ino h as i n p art icu lar b een
1 2
T he b ifore o f t he Pa lazzo G iovanne t t i a l l h ave t y mpana o n wh ich a re c arved t refo i l-headed a rches i n l ow r el ief .
Three o f t he m h ave a c ur ious
o va l o r p ear-shaped mot if i n t he s pandrel b e tween t he t refo ils, wh ilst t wo h ave s i mp le s tar-shaped b osses o n t he ir t ympana. T he p ro jec t ing s i l l o f t he b ifore i n t he W. wa l l h as d ogtoo th o rna men t o n i t .
The mu l l ions a re r ounded
o r p olygona l e x ternal ly , a nd r ec tangu lar i n terna l ly , s o t ha t t he w indow emb rasures c ou ld b e t i gh tly s hu t tered.
Most b ifore , i n f act , h ave s im ilar
mu l l ions. I n t he j a mbs o fo ne o f t he b ifore t here a re h oles wh ich s erved t o f i x a n i ron g r il l a cross i t . T h is i s u n l ikely t o h ave b een a n o riginal f ea ture. G r i l ls f or w indows a re r ecorded f ro m t he 1 3th c en tury , a nd a re d ep ic ted o n t he c astle i n Ambrog io L orenzet t i 's C i t tä . s u l mare.
T hey o n ly b eca me c o m mon
i nh ouses i n t he 1 4th a nd 1 5th c en tur ies , g eneral ly b e ing u sed f or g round f l oor w indows.
T he c ap i ta ls o f t he b ifore a re most ly o f as i mp le c rocke t
t ype , v aria t ions o f wh ich were v ery w idely u sed f or w indows t hroughou t I t aly , b u t o ne h as a p a ir o f c arved h eads o n i t . I nside , t he w indow embrasures a re s eg men tal-arched a nd r eba ted , a nd h ave a p a ir o f s ea ts b elow t he m .
The
b es t p aral lels f or t hese b ifore a re t hose o f t he Palazzo Capocc i , a nd t ha t a bove t he a rch o ver v ia S . P el legrino , b o th d a table t ob efore c . 1 250 b ecause t hey o ccur i n p er iod I masonry . Wi th h ood- mou lds a nd p la te t racery , t hey a re more h ighly d eve loped t han t hose o ft he Palazzo G iovannet t i. However, t h is n eed n o t s ign ify t ha t t he l a t ter a re t he e arl ier.
S ingle-l igh t w indows,
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
4 1
f or i nstance , w i th t refo i l-headed a rches, e i ther o pen o r c arved o n t ympana , were c o m mon t hroughou t t he 1 3th a nd 1 4th c en tur ies.
They o ccur i nS .
Francesco, Tuscan ia , p robably b u il t f ro m 1 281; i nt he l a te 1 3th c en tury c ast le a t Mon tef iascone , a nd i n t he l a te 1 4th c en tury o ne a t P ieve d e l Vescovo n ear Perugia. THE H IGHLY DECORATED ARCHITECTURE OF THE V ITERBESE Fro m a bou t t he m iddle o f t he 1 3th c en tury , t here d eveloped a t V i terbo at ype o f a rch i tec ture d ist ingu ished b y e legance o f d es ign a nd o f ten a p rofusion o f c arved d ecora t ion . To s o me e x ten t t hese f ea tures w ere t he r esu l t o f g oth ic iz ing i n f luences, b u t t hey a re a lso p art ly t ob e a ccoun ted f or b y t he f acil ity w i th wh ich p eper ino c an b e c u t.
Th is was a p eriod o fg rea t b u i ld ing
a c t iv i ty , p art icu lar1 3 ;in t he f i eld o f p ubl ic works.
T he Ga t t i f am i ly , w ho
d om ina ted l ocal p ol i t ics i n t he s econd h a l f o f t he 1 3th c en tu ry , p layed a l ead ing r ole i n t hese b u ild ing p rogra mmes.
T hey were r espons ible f or t he c onstruc t ion
o f p arts o f t he t own wa l ls , o f t he p or ta S . B iele , a n a queduc t a nd a h osp ital . As h as b een s een , t he p apa l p a lace was b u il t l arge ly o n t he i nst iga t ion o f Ran iero Ga t t i , a nd t he ir f am ily p alace must h ave b een e n larged a t a bou t much t he s a me t ime.
S o r e markable a re b u ild ings l i ke t he p orta S . B iele a nd t he
p apa l p alace t ha t i ts ee ms r easonable t o c onc lude t ha t s o me me mbers o f t he f am ily t ook a n i n terest i n t he a r ts , a nd were wel lin for med a bout d evelopmen ts i n c on te mporary a rch i tec ture. S o me o f t hem h ad e xperience w h ich was more t han j ust l ocal . V iscon te Ga t t i , f or i ns tance , was t w ice p odestä o f Arezzo, a nd o nce o fF ol igno.
Ran iero d i Ran iero Ga t t i was b r ief ly p odestä
o f Par ma. The p r inc ipal f ea tures o f t h is t ype o f a rch i tec ture a re e x terna l s ta ircases : s tring c ourses w i th d ecora t ive c orbel t ables , o f ten u sed b elow t he w indows t o d el ineate t he f l oor l evels;
b ifore w i th t racery a nd c on t inuous h ood-mou lds ,
t hough p la in s eg men ta l-arched w indows a re q u i te a s c om mon i fn ot more s o; a nd t he u se o f c arved d ecora t ion wherever p oss ible , p art icu larly r ound t he e dges o f a rches. T he most c o m mon d ecora t ive mo t ifs , d og tooth a nd a t ype o f o rna men tal n a ilhead ( c f . Cucu 1 938 , 1 00 , f i g. 19 ) a re c haracter is t ic o f e arly g othic a rch i tec ture , i n E ngland n o tably o f t he E arly E ng l ish s ty le , a nd were w idely u sed t hroughou t I t a ly i n t he 1 3th c en tury . T hough a shlar may b e u sed f or e x ternal s ta ircases a nd t he l ower h a l f o f f acades, t he masonry i s o therwise o f t he p eriod I l l t ype. I t must b e more t han c o inc idence t ha t t he l a t ter a ppears a t at ime o f i ncreased b u ild ing a c t iv i ty a nd t he d evelopmen t o f ad ist inc t ive l ocal s ty le o f a rch i tec ture.
The c rude a ppearance o f t h is
masonry c on tras ts s o u n favourably w i th t he a sh lar a nd d ecora t ive d eta i l t ha t i t must s urely h ave b een c oncealed b enea th p laster , t hough t here i s n o p roof t ha t t h is was s o. I n n o b uild ing i s t h is c on trast more s tr ik ing t han i nt he p apal p a lace ( p la te 1 .8 ). Wh ilst t he monu men tal s ta ircase a nd much o f t he l ogg ia a re o f a shlar , t he ma in r ec tangular p a lace b lock t o t he W. p resen ts a l arge e xpanse o f r ough-f in ished masonry r el ieved o n ly b y t he b ifore w h ich l i ght t he f i rs tf l oor h a l l where, o n o ccas ion , c onc laves were h eld . I ts ee ms c erta in t ha t t h is masonry was p las tered , a nd t ha t t he p laster was i nt urn p a in ted , a s n o d oubt were t he r ows o f s h ields a nd o ther d ev ices a bove t he l ogg ia , j ust a s Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 4 2
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4 3
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h as b een f ound t o b e s o i nt he c ase o f t he a rches i n v ia Oberdan a t T uscan ia ( p . 3 5 ).
The p apa l p a lace h as a c er ta in n otor ie ty n o t j ust a s t he s cene o f
t he 1 27 1 c onc lave when t he V i terbes i r emoved t he r oof t o f orce t he i ndec is ive c ard ina ls t o s elec t an ew p ope , b u t a lso a s t he p lace where J ohn XX I d ied i n 1 277.
He was a s leep i n h is p r ivate a ppart men ts a t t he W. e nd o f t he p a lace
when t he c e il ing , wh ich s o me c hron ic lers s ay w as v aul ted , c ol lapsed , a p ar t icu larly u n fortuna te i ns tance o f med ieva l j erry-bu ild ing. 1 3 A t t he h ead o f t he s ta ircase o f t he p apa l p alace , t here i s ar ound-arched d oor , t he o u ter e dge o f t he v ousso irs o f wh ich f or m t he c ircu mference o f a c ircle wh ich h as i t s c en tre a bove t ha t o f t he a rch i t sel f ( p la te 1 .8 ). C onseq uen t ly t he e ousso irs a re n o t p ara l lel-s ided , b u t i nstead a re s horter a t t he s pr ing ing o f t he a rch t han a t t he t op o f i t .
Arches b u il t i n t h is way a re a
p ecu l iar f ea ture o f I t a l ian med ieva l a rch i tec ture , a nd were c o m mon i nt he 1 3th a nd 1 4th c en turies.
They f i rst a ppear a t t he e nd o f t he 1 2th c en tury ,
o ccurring i n s o me t ower-houses o f t he P isan t ype a t P isa a nd S iena ( De Vecch i 19 49 , 5 ). A r ound-arched d oor , w ith v ousso irs w h ich s how a v ery p ronounced t endency t o i ncrease i n s ize t owards t he c rown o f t he a rch , i s t o b e f ound i n ah ouse b u il t o f p er iod I masonry i n v ia Val le P iat ta ( no. 1 9 ) a t V i terbo. A v ar ian t o n t h is p rac t ice was t o c o mb ine a r ound-arch w i th v oussoirs t ha t h ave a p o in ted e x trados.
S o me o ft he e arl ies t e xamp les o f
t h is a re t o b e f ound o n s o me o ft he t owers a t C orne to-Tarqu in ia a nd T uscan ia ( c f . P ringle 19 74, 2 11). T o t he r igh t o f t h is d oorway , a nother , n ow b locked , l ed t o t he l ogg ia o f t he p apa l p alace. T h is h as a s ort o f j oggled o r c rosseted v ousso irs ( p la te 1 .8 ).
N ever v ery c o m mon i n med ieva l a rch i tec ture , t hese v ousso irs a re t o
b e f ound i n an u mber o ft he b u ild ings o f t he Emperor Freder ick I , a nd h ave b een c onsidered a n a spec t o fh is a n t iquarian i n terest i n r ev iv ing Roman a rch i tec tura l p ract ices ( Shearer 19 35 , 1 66 ).
Whether o r n ot t h is i s s o , t hey
o ccur i n I taly b efore Freder ick 's t ime , i n , f or i nstance, t he 1th c en tury c hurch a t Abbad ia S . S a lva tore i n Tuscany , a nd a re a lso q u i te c o mmon i n I sla m ic a rchi tec ture. T hey may a lso b e r egarded a s s o meth ing o f af eature o f t he d ecora ted a rch i tec ture o fV i terbo , b e ing p resen t a bove a d oorway i n a wa l l i n v ia S . Pel legr ino ( nos. 3 1-33;
f i g. 1 .17 ).
S ince F reder ick h ad
ac ast le a tV i terbo, b u il t a nd d e mol ished i n t he 1 24 O s b u t d oubt less a n i n f lue n t ia lb u ild ing d esp i te i t s s hort e X istence. t hey may p oss ibly h ave b een c op ied f ro m i t .
The wa l l i n v ia S . P el legr ino i s b u il t o fc arefu l ly d ressed a sh lar ,
a nd h as t wo o ther d oors, b o th w i th v ousso irs t ha t i ncrease i n s ize t owards t he t op o f t he a rches.
The b u ild ings o f wh ich t h is w a l l f or med a p ar t h ave
b een d e mol ished , a nd t oday i te ncloses o ne s ide o f ac ourtyard. The c orbelledo u t p arapet a t t he t op o f i tp resumably i nd ica tes t ha t t here w as a f i rs t f l oor l ogg ia l i ke t hat a t S . Pel legr ino. T he g rea test c oncen tra t ion o fh igh ly d ecora ted a rch i tec ture i n V i terbo i s t o b e f ound i n p iazza S . Pel legr ino ( p la te 1 .7 ), w h ich was s tud ied i nd eta il b y Cucu ( 19 38 ), whose l e t ter ing o f t he v arious b u i ld ings s urround ing i t Is ha l l f ol low ( f ig. 1 .8 E ). S o wel l-known i s S . Pel legr ino t ha t t here h as b een a t endency t o s ee t he med ieval a rch i tec ture o fV i terbo s i mp ly i n t erms o f i t . Cucu c erta in ly o ver-es t i ma ted i t s i mpor tance when h e d escr ibed i ta s I l g ruppo d i c ase e he s enza d ubb io h a s erv i to d i p ro tot ipo a t u t ta Parch i te t tura Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
4 4
p r iva ta v i terbese. On t he E . s ide o f t he p iazza , t here i s t he c hurch o f S . P el legr ino , wh i lst t he h ouses o n i t s S . s ide h ave b een r ad ical ly a l tered a nd r estored.
T o t he W. i ti s f l anked b y ap or t ico i n a sh lar a bove wh ich a t t he
f i rst f l oor t here a re t hree s eg men tal-arched w indows.
T h is f orms a s ingle
f ron tage t o t wo s epara te b u i ld ings ( T a nd A ), a nd i s l i nked b y a n a rch o ver v ia S . Pel legr ino t o t hose o n t he N . s ide o ft he p iazza , wh ich c o mpr ise a h ouse w ith a n e x terna l s ta ir ( B ) a nd a nother w ith t he f i rst f l oor l ogg ia a lready men t ioned ( C ). T he u se o fh igh q ua l i ty a sh lar , t he mou ld ings o f t he a rches a nd t he p resence o fc arved d ecorat ion , n otably d og tooth a nd n a i lhead , g ive t hese t hree b u ild ings , s een i nd iv idua l ly , a n a ir o f c ons iderable r ef ine men t. V iewed c ol lec t ively , t hey a ppear a s ar a ther i l l-assor ted g roup c ra mmed t oge ther. Th is i sb ecause t hey were n o t l a id o u t a t o ne p er iod , b u t i n most c ases r epresen t t he f i na l p hase o f e arl ier b u ild ings. The p ort ico s eems t o h ave r ep laced a n e ar l ier o ne wh ich was v au l ted ( Cucu 19 38 , 9 10 ) . Bu i ld ing Cc an b e s hown t o h ave b een i nser ted b e tween B a nd a n e arl ier h ouse t o t he E . o f i t wh ich s ee ms t o h ave h ad a f i rst f l oor d oor a nd t herefore t o h ave b een o f t he t ype w i th b a lcon ies. On t he S . s ide o f t he p iazza , b u i ld ing E h as h ad b oth a p ort ico a nd a n e x terna l s ta ircase a dded t o i t . P iazza S . P el legr ino r eveals v ery c learly t he way med ieva l b u i ld ings w ere n o t r ep laced b y n ew o nes , b u t i nstead u nderwen t c on t inua l mod if ica t ion a nd p ar t ia l r econstruct ion .
I ta lso i l lustrates a no ther p rocess t hat w as a
c o m mon f ea ture o f med ieval t owns , e xcep t when c hecked b y e f fec t ive l eg islat i on , t ha t o fe n larg ing h ouses t hrough e ncroach ing o n s tree ts a nd o pen s paces . A s ar esul t o f f acades h av ing b een b rough t f orward , a nd t he a dd i t ion o f p or t ic os a nd s ta irs, t he p iazza h as b een r educed i n a rea. A s uburb i s r ecorded a t S . P el legrino f rom t he e nd o f t he 1th c en tury ( Ciamp i 18 72, 4 ). T he o lder b u ild ings i n t he p iazza a re o f p er iod I masonry , a nd d a te f ro m t he 1 2th o r e arly 1 3th c en tury.
T hey c ons ist o f a pprox ima tely
r ec tangu lar o r t rapezo id u n its w i th t he ir g able e nds o n t he p iazza , a nd t he ir f i rst f l oors, a nd s ome t i mes t he ir u pper s toreys , s uppor ted o n d iaphrag m a rches.
Most o ft he m p robably h ad b a lcon ies b efore t he ir f ron tages were
r ebu i l t. Bu ild ing T , t he t op o f wh ich i s much a l tered , may h ave b een a t ower-house. By t he 1 3th c entury , t he p iazza h ad c o me t ob e o ne o f t hose wh ich was t he e xclus ive p reserve o f af am i ly o r c onsor teria , i n t h is c ase t he A lessandr i , whose c oa t o f a r ms , aS t. Andrew 's c ross , i s t o b e f ound amongst t he c arved o rna men t o f t he b u ild ings , a nd a lso p a in ted i n t he b ase men t o f b u ild ing C . V irtua l ly n oth ing i s k nown o f h ow o r when t he A lessandr i o bta ined p ossession o f t he p iazza. When t hey a nd o ther l ead ing me mbers o f t he g uel f c o m mun i ty w ere f orced i n to e x ile b y t he g h ibel l ines i n 1 251, I nnocen t I V i n tervened t he f ol low ing y ear , o rder ing t ha t t he ir p a lace a nd t ower a t S . P el legr ino s hou ld b e p reserved i n tac t. T h is h as g enera l ly b een i n terpre ted a s mean ing t ha t t he p iazza e x isted s ubstan t ia l ly i n i t s p resen t f or m b y t ha t d a te ( c f . S cr ia t tol i 19 15, 19 8 ). However , b ecause t he t op o f t he p or t ico i n f ron t o f Ta nd A , t he u pper h a lf o f t he f acade o f C , a nd s o me o f t he b u i ld ings o n t he S . s ide o ft he p iazza , a re b u il t o f p er iod I I masonry , i ti s more p robable t ha t i t was f i na l ly l a id o u t i n t he s econd h al f o ft he 1 3th c en tury. D esp i te t he ir a rch i tec tura l p retens ions, t he h ouses i n t he p iazza a re u n ifor mly e qu ipped w i th p la in s eg men ta l-arched w indows. T he o n ly b ifora Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
4 5
i s i nb u ild ing T . On q u i te wha t g rounds t he c hoice was made b etween b ifore a nd s eg men ta l-arched w indows i s f ar f ro m c lear , b u t t he l a t ter mus t h ave b een c heaper , a nd were p ossibly s i mp ler t o s hu t ter.
Fro m t he s econd h al f
o f t he 1 3th c en tury t hey b eca me t he most c o mmon t ype o f w indow i nu se t hrougho u t much o f C en tra l I t a ly . T he p or t ico o n t he W. s ide o f t he p iazza r esembles t ha t o f t he Casa d i Va len t ino d el la P igno t ta. The t op o fb oth b u ild ings B a nd Ct er m ina te i n ar ec tangu lar s creen wal l wh ich c onceals t he g able e nd o f t he r oof .
Th is a rrange men t , k nown a s af ron t isp i t ium
( below , p . 7 8
) , was
c o m mon o n h ouses f ro m t he 1 3th c en tury , a nd i s k nown e arl ier o n c hurches. T he t op o f t h is w a l l was s o me t i mes c renel la ted , merlons b e ing a f ea ture o f more i mpor tan t p a laces, s uch a s t he p apa l o ne a tV i terbo. Bu ild ing C i s a lso r e markable f or h av ing ab ase men t r oo m e xcava ted i n t he r ock , t he s ides o f wh ich h ave b een p lastered a nd p a in ted i n i m i ta t ion o f a sh lar. T he s o-ca l led Pa lazzo d el Vescovo a t V i torch iano ( v ia S . Mar ia , n o . 3 7 ) , t he most n o table med ieva l p a lace i n t he v il lage , b elongs t o t h is h ighly d ecor a ted t ype o f a rch i tec ture ( f ig. 1 .18 ). The e n trance t o t he g round f l oor i s b elow t he a rch w h ich s upports t he b alcony a t t he h ead o f t he e x terna l s ta irc ase t o t he f i rst f l oor. The g round f l oor i s d iv ided i n to t wo b y ap art i t ion wa l l , a nd i s l i t o n ly b y an arrow w indow w i th ab l ind t refo i l-headed a rch , a nd , i n t he o ther s ide o f t he b u ild ing , b y as eg men ta l-arched w indow.
N ex t
t o t he f i rst f l oor d oorway , t here i s ab locked r ound-arched w indow w i th a h ood- mou ld .
T h is i s s o l arge t hat w ith in i tt here may wel l h ave b een ab ifora.
A t t he s econd f l oor t here w ere s eg men ta l-arched w indows o f which o n ly o ne s urv ives, t he o thers h aving b een r ep laced b y r ena issance w indows.
T he
p alace i s a pparen t ly u ndocu men ted , a nd i ti s u ncer ta in whe ther a ny s ign if icance s hou ld b e a t tached t o i t s n a me. A leandr i ( 1911, 1 5, n ote I )d a ted i tt o t he l a te 1 3th o r e arly 1 4th c en tury . S ince i ti sb u il t o f l a te p er iod I masonry , i t must e i ther b e c ons idered a n e arly e xamp le o f t h is t ype o f a rch i tec ture , o r e lse t he t rans it ion t o p eriod I I masonry was s o mewhat d e layed a tV i torc h iano.
Ad a te i n t he t h ird q uarter o f t he 1 3th c en tury s ee ms q u i te p robab le
' f or i t s c onstruc t ion . Though t he t op o f t he p alace i s i n p oor c ond i t ion , a s i s t he s ta ircase , t he b u i ld ing s ee ms o r ig ina l ly t o h ave b een o f o ne p er iod , n one o f i t s f ea tures b e ing o bv iously l a ter a dd i t ions.
D og too thtype o rnamen t
o ccurs o n t he s tr ing-course b elow t he f i rst- a nd s econd-f loor w indows , a nd o n t he s ta ircase. The d isposi t ion o ft he f acade o f t he Pa lazzo d el Vescovo , w ith t he g round f l oor e n trance b enea th t he s ta ir , a nd t he w indow a nd d oorway a t t he f i rs t f l oor , r ese mbles Cucu 's r econstruc t ion o fb u i ld ing B i n p iazza S . P el legr ino ( 1938 , f i g. 3 2 ).
U s ing e x tre me ly c ircumstan t ial e v idence, h e t ried t o a rgue
t ha t t h is h ouse was i n e x istence b y 196 ( op . c i t., p . 8 6 ).
S ince i ti so f
p er iod I masonry , t h is i s q u ite p oss ible , t hough i tc ou ld a lso b e l a ter. Howe ver , f ro m a bou t t h is p er iod , t h is t ype o f f acade b ecame q u i te w idespread . I tr epresen ted t he most o bv ious a nd e f f ic ien t way o f i ncorpora t ing a n e x ternal s ta ircase i n to t he d es ign o f ah ouse.
Ano ther b u i ld ing w i th a s im i lar f acade
i s t he Casa P osc ia a tV i terbo ( v ia S a ff i n o. 1 02; p la te 1 .12 ). Th is i sb u il t o fa sh lar t o i t s f i rs t s torey a bove wh ich i ti s o f p eriod I I masonry . T he g round f l oor i s e n tered b enea th t he e x terna l s ta ircase , a nd l i tb y an arrow t refo il-headed w indow s i tua ted j ust a bove t he l eve l o f t he s teps. The b a lcony a t t he t op o f t he s ta ir h as a n e legan t c orbel led o u t p arape t. Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
4 6
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Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 4 7
o ft he f i rst-f loor d oor t er m ina tes i n c ircu lar s tops. To t he r ight o f i ti s a s eg men ta l-arched w indow , a nd t o t he l e f t , a bove i t , i s a smal l w indow w i th ac orbel led l i n tel .
The Poscia f am ily were o ne o f t he more r ecen t o wners
o f t he h ouse , a nd i ti s n ot k nown who b u il t i to r t ow ho m i tb elonged i nt he Midd le Ages. Cucu ( 1938 , 6 2) t hough t t he h ouse t ob e l a te , a nd i tc er ta inly h as a n a ir o f s oph is t ica t ion t o i t wh ich makes a d a te a t t he e nd o f t he 1 3th c en tury , o r a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he 1 4th , s ee m p oss ible. The f oca l p o in t o f t hese h ouses i s t heir e x terna l s ta ircases. T hey d om ina te t he f acades a nd more d ecora t ion h as b een l av ished u pon t hem t han a ny o ther p ar t o f t he b u ild ing. T hese s ta ircases a re k nown a s p rofer l i a nd h ave a lways b een r egarded a s o ne o f t he c harac ter ist ic f ea tures o ft he a rch it ec ture o f t he V i t erbese. However, t hough V i t erbo may h ave more s urv iv ing e x ternal s ta ircases t han a ny o ther t own , t hey were o nce q u i te w idely d is tr ib u ted.
As wel l a s b e ing c o m mon i n N . L az io , Ih ave s een t he m a t A rc idosso
( Tuscany ), S pel lo ( U mbr ia ), a t T ivol i t o t he S . o f Ro me, a nd t hey a re t o b e f ound i n France a s w el l ( Cucu 1 938 , 8 6).
P rofer lo may n ow b e r educed a l-
most t o t he s ta tus o f ad ialec t word , b u t i n t he Midd le Ages i t was q u i te w idely u sed , b e ing f ound i n d ocumen ts f ro m Umbr ia a nd t he Marche ( Sel la 1 944, 4 61). To h ave a s ta ircase o u ts ide r a ther t han i ns ide a h ouse r epresen ted a n o bv ious s av ing o f s pace.
Further more , i nb u ild ings i n wh ich t he g round
f l oor was a work ing a rea , a nd was o f ten r en ted o u t , t here w ere o bv ious a dv an tages t o h av ing a ccess t o t he l i v ing q uarters v ia a n e x ternal s ta ir. The b a lcony a t t he t op o f i t was u sefu l a s a n a rea t o c arry o u t a ny n umber o f t asks , o r s i mp ly t o p ass t he t ime o f d ay. T hese r easons e xp la in why s ta irs a re s o c o m mon a f ea ture o f c o m muna l a nd o ther i mportan t p a laces. T he ir g round f l oors were u sual ly r en ted o u t a s b o t teghe o r s hops, 1 4 a nd a monu ment a l s ta ircase was a more f i t t ing e n trance t han a f l igh t o f s teps l ead ing f ro m ad oorway amongs t t he s hop f ron ts. f or p ubl ic mee t ings.
The t op o f t he s ta ircase was a lso u sed
The p roble m w ith p roferl i w as t ha t t hey o bstruc ted t he
s treet a nd d id n o t f i t n ea t ly i n to a t errace o f h ouses. I t i s a measure o f t he i nef fec t iveness o f med ieval t own-p lann ing l eg isla t ion a t V i terbo t ha t i ts t il l h as s o many p roferl i.
I ti s a lso s ign if ican t t ha t e x ternal s ta ircases a re
t oday more c o m mon i n r ural h ous ing , where t here i s p len ty o f s pace , t han i n t owns.
A l though t he p roferl i o ft he b u ild ings e xam ined a bove s eem t ob e
c on te mporary w i th t he ir i n i t ial c onstruc t ion , p robably t he ma jori ty o f t hose s urv iv ing a tV i terbo , Tuscan ia a nd Corneto-Tarqu in ia a re l a te o r p os t- med iev al , o f ten b e ing r ubble-bu il t a nd r endered , a nd w ere c learly a dded t o p ree x ist ing h ouses t o e cono m ise o n i n ternal s pace. I th as a lready b een n o ted t ha t t he p roferlo o fb u ild ing E i n p iazza S . P el legr ino i s al a ter a dd i t ion . A t C orneto-Tarqu in ia a h ouse i n v ia d el le Torn i( n o . 4 2 ) h as a p la in l a te med ieva l s ta ircase b u il t a cross ab locked p or t ico . I ti s q u ite p oss ible t ha t e laborate ly d ecorated s ta ircases l ike t hose o f t he P a lazzo d e l V escovo a nd t he C asa P osc ia were b rought a s p refabr icated u n i ts a t a workshop s pec ia l is ing i n a rch itectura l o rna men t a nd d e ta i ls s uch a s s tr ing c ourses , c orbe ls a nd w indow s urrounds. One o f t he mos t magn if icen t p roferl i a t V iterbo i s t ha t o f t he P a lazzo S acch i , s i tua ted a t t he c orner o f v ia d el l 'Orolog io Vecch io a nd p iazza d e l le Erbe ( f ig. 1 .19 ). I t s b a lcony e x tends f or more t han h a lf o f t he l eng th o f t he S . wa l l o f t he p a lace , a nd i s s uppor ted b y t wo r ound a rches wh ich s pr ing Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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f ro m a c olu mn w i th a s t if f-leaved c ap ita l .
The p arapet o f t he b alcony i s
d ecora ted a t t he t op w ith a r ow o fb l ind a rcad ing a bove a r ope-tw ist mou ld ing. T he p rof ile o f t he s teps i s i nd ica ted i n t he s ide o f t he s ta ircase b y ah eavy mou ld ing , ac o m mon f ea ture o fg rander p roferl i .
A t t he t op o f t he s ta ir,
t here i s t he u sua l c o mbina t ion o f ad oor , i n t h is c ase r ebu il t i n t he 1 5th o r 1 6th c en tury , a nd a w indow. f i rst f l oor i n t he W. wa l l .
T h is i s s eg men ta l-arched , a s a re t hose a t t he
A t t he b ot to m o f t h is w a l l , t here i s av ery l arge
r ound a rch , n ow b locked a nd s uperseded b y ap os t- med ieva l d oorway . The a rch i s d ecora ted w i th t wo r ows o f d og tooth s epara ted b y ab il let mou ld ing. D og tooth a lso o ccurs o n t he p roferlo.
The p a lace r epresen ts a n e x tens ion
o f a n e arl ier o ne made a t t he e xpense o f t he p iazza. b u ild ing a re c learly v is ible i n t he S . w a l l .
T he q uoins o f t he o lder
I t was a t a l l n arrow h ouse b u il t
o f p er iod I masonry , a nd h ad a r ound-arched d oor a t i t s g round f l oor. Though b locked t oday , i ti s n o t imposs ible t ha t t h is c on t inued i n u se a f ter t he s ta ircase was b u il t.
The l a ter p ar t o f t he p alace i s o f p eriod I I masonry .
The p resence o ft h is a t t he s econd s torey where 1 5th o r 1 6th c en tury w indows h ave b een i nserted , a nd t he p a lace much r ebu il t , s hows t ha t i to rig ina l ly s tood t o t h is h e igh t . T he Cae tan i c oa t o f a r ms i n t he S . wa l l i s p robably t ob e a ssoc ia ted w i th G iovann i G iaco mo S acch i , who was s en t b y Bon iface V I I I t o V i terbo a s t reasurer o f t he P a tr i mony i n 1 296 ( Ciamp i 1 872, XLVI ) , ad a te wh ich may b e t aken a s a n a pprox i ma te i nd ica t ion o f when t he p alace w as b u il t . A l though e xamp les o f t h is h ighly d ecora ted a rch i tec ture a re n o t c o m mon o u ts ide V i terbo , af act w hich may r ef lec t t he p ersona l wea l th o f i t s u pper c lasses a s w el l a s t he l oca l c haracter o f med ieva ld o mes t ic a rch i tecture , t he Pa lazzo S pagnol i a t Tuscan ia i s a l mos t i den t ical i n i t s l ay-ou t t o t he Pa lazzo S acch i ( f ig. 1 .20 ). I t , t oo , i s s i tua ted a t ac orner , a t t he j unc t ion o f v ia d egl i Arch i a nd v ia Va l le d el l ' Oro , a nd h as a p roferlo a long o ne wal l a nd a n a rch , i n t h is c ase p o in ted , i n a nother.
The a rch , t he p roferlo , t he
h andso me b ifora i n t he E . wa l l a nd o ther d e ta ils a re i n n en fro , wh ils t t he r est o f t he p a lace i sb u i l t o f t ufa b locks l a id i n c ourses a bou t 2 8 cm h igh. S et b ack a bou t 3m b eh ind t he a rch i n t he S . wa l l , t here a re t wo p oin teda rched d oors , o ne l arge a nd t he o ther sma l l , t h is n ow b e ing b locked .
Traces
o f ab locked a per ture i n t he W. wal l s ugges t t here was a nother a rch h ere , c rea t ing a n o pen p or t ico a rea i n f ron t o f t he p alace.
The b a lcony o ft he
p rofer lo i s s uppor ted o n t wo a rches s epara ted b y ac olu mn w i th a n e legan t c ap i ta l . A t t he t op o ft he s ta irs t here i s ar ec tangu lar d oor-fra me i nn en fro b arr ing a ccess t o t he b alcony . T here i s as im i lar d oorway i n much t he s ame p osi t ion o n t he s ta ircase o f t he C asa P osc ia a t V iterbo . Bo th l ook 1 6thc en tury i n d a te , a nd a re l a ter a dd i t ions , b u t c ou ld r ep lace e arl ier med ieval d oorways , w h ich may h ave b een a s tandard f ea ture o f p roferl i .
The p arapet
o f t he b a lcony i s c orbel led o u t , t he c orbels b e ing d ecora ted w i th s ty l ized mo t i fs s uch a s r ose t tes a nd a can thus a nd o ak l eaves. T he t wo s eg men ta la rched d oors a t t he t op o f t he s ta ir mus t o r ig ina l ly h ave h ad t he a ppearance o f a n o pen l ogg ia , a l though t hey l ed t o s epara te r ooms.
The i l lustra t ion o f
t he p alace p ubl ished b y Ca mpanari ( 1856, I , p la te 1 8a ) s hows t ha t a t t he s econd f l oor were sma l l w indows w i th c orbel led l i n tels.
These h ave d isap-
p eared a s ar esu l t o f t he t op o f t he p a lace b e ing r ebu i l t i n r ubble.
C orbel led
l i n tels a re a f ea ture o f t he b u ild ing. A d oor a nd a w indow i n t he W. s ide o f t he b u ild ing b o th h ave t he m , a s d oes a w indow p art o f t he way u p t he s ta ircase. Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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T h is i s i n as im i lar p os it ion t o t ha t o f t he Pa lazzo S acch i a nd , l i ke i t , was d es igned t o h elp l i gh t t he g round f l oor. T he i n terior o f t he p alace h as b een e x tens ively modern ized a nd d iv ided u pb y p ar t i t ion wa l ls. One med ieval f ea ture p reserved i ns ide i s at r iangu lar-headed n iche w i th i t s s urround r eb a ted f or t he a t tach men t o f ad oor. L a ter mod i f ica t ions t o t he p a lace i nc lude t he i nsert ion i n t he S . wa l l o f ap ret ty r ena issance w indow , r ound-arched w i th in a r ec tangu lar s urround w i th c herubs i n t he s pandrels. T he s im i lar i ty o f t he Palazzo S pagnol i t o t he P a lazzo S acch i a r ises p art ly f ro m t he f ac t t ha t i tt oo s ee ms t o r epresen t t he e n large men t o f a n e arl ier b u i ld ing t hrough t he a dd i t ion o f ap roferlo a nd a n a rch.
T h is i s s ugges-
t ed b y t he g round p lan a nd b y c er ta in f ea tures o f t he p a lace , t hough a dm i t tedly t here i s n o o bv ious e v idence f or s tra igh t j o in ts i n i t s s ide wal ls a s t here i s i n t he c ase o f t he Pa lazzo S acch i . T he f o l low ing i n terpre ta t ion o f t he s truc tura l h istory o ft he p a lace i s t herefore s omewha t h ypothet ical , b u t b y n o means improbab le .
T he t wo p o in ted-arched d oors b eh ind t he p or t ico b e long t o t he
o r ig ina lb u ild ing.
When i t was e x tended , t he l e f t-hand o ne was r ep laced b y
t he d oor a nd w indow w i th c orbel led l i n tels i n t he W. wa l l . Another w indow w i th a c orbel led l i n tel was i nserted i n t he E . wa l l , a nd t he b ifora t oo p robably d a tes f ro m t h is p er iod. The r a ther u nusual a rrange men t o f h aving t wo d oors a t t he t op o f t he s ta ircase was n ecessary b ecause o ne l ed i n to t he o r ig inal b u ild ing , a nd t he o ther i n to a n ew r oo m c rea ted t o t he S . o f t he f ormer f acade. The u se o ft he c orbel led l i n tel , t he p redo m inance o f a can thus l ea f ( on t he b alcony , t he c orbels o f t he w indow i n t he E . wa l l , a nd t he t er m ina ls o f t he h ood- mou ld o f t he b ifora ) a nd o ther n a tural ist ic mot i fs r a ther t han d ogtooth a nd n a i lhead , a nd t he e legance o f t he c ap i ta l o f t he s ta ircase a ll p o in t t o t he Pa lazzo S pagnol i b e ing l a ter t han t he Pa lazzo S acch i .
The b ifora i s a lso
i den t ica l t o o ne i n t he Pa lazzo T ar tagl ia a t Tuscan ia wh ich was l a id o ut e ar ly i n t he 1 5th c en tury , t hough i ti s n o t i mposs ible t ha t t he w indow was e arl ier ( below , p p . 7 0_73 ) . Thus t he p alace may b e d a ted t o t he 1 4th c en tury , p erhaps t o t he e nd o f t ha t c en tury o r e ven t he b eg inn ing o f t he f ol low ing o ne. I fs o , t hen i ts hows h ow c onserva t ive d o mes t ic a rch i tec ture c ou ld b e. TERRACED HOUS ING T he e legance a nd r ef ine men t o f t he p a laces d escribed a bove a re t o b e e xp la ined b y t he w eal th o f t he ir o wners , a nd a lso i n s o me c ases b y t he ir p os it ion a t c orners, where t here was s pace t o c onstruc t ah ouse o f s o me a rch i tec tura l p retens ions.
Genera l ly , h owever , t own h ouses were much
s i mp ler , p resen t ing a c o ter m inous f acade t ha t f ron ted d irec tly o n t o t he s treet a nd f or med a c on t inuous t errace , e ven t hough e ach was n or ma l ly b u i l t s epara tely , mak ing s tra igh t j o in ts w i th t ha t n ex t t o i t . A t t he g round f l oor , t here a re e i ther a sma l l a nd a l arge d oorway , o r e lse t wo l arge d oors, d irec t ly a bove w h ich t here i su sual ly a p a ir o f w indows a t e ach f l oor.
A lready
e ncoun tered i n l a te 1 2th a nd e arly 1 3th c en tury b u i ld ings i n P iano S carano a nd V itorch iano , h ouses w ith f acades o f t h is s or t w ere b y f ar t he most c o m mon t ype i nI t a l ian t owns t hroughou t t he Midd le Ages a nd i n to t he 1 7th a nd 1 8 th c entur ies.
T h is u n ifor m i ty was a l mos t c er ta in ly t he r esu l t o f t own-
p lann ing l eg isla t ion p assed b y t he c o mmunes ( b e low , p . 6 4-67 ) . I n N . L az io i n t he 1 2th a nd 1 3 th c en tur ies , i t was a c o mmon p rac t ice t o i n troduce a n e le men t o fv arie ty i n to t hese f acades b y u s ing a h arder a nd d i f feren t Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 5 3
c oloured s tone f or t he g round f l oor, t he b locks o f ten b e ing r ust ica ted . The e arl ies t a pprox ima tely d a ted b u i ld ings i n wh ich t h is o ccurs a re t owers. A t t he u pper s toreys, t he f acades may w el l h ave b een p lastered a nd p a in ted , e ven g audy i n c on tras t w i th t he ir p resen t p la inness , t hough a s h as b een s een t here i s l i t t le e v idence f or t h is. Ag ood e xa mp le o f a med ieva l t errace i s t ob e f ound i n v ia d el la L upa , Tuscan ia ( f ig. 1 .21) , where a wa l lb order ing a g arden i s made u p o f t he g round f l oor f acades o ft hree f ormer h ouses , t o t he W. o f wh ich t here i s a t ower. T he E . h ouse h ad t hree g round f l oor d oors o f a lmos t e qua l s ize , a nd t ha t n ex t t o i th ad t wo , o ne o f wh ich i s n ow b locked.
Both b u i ld ings h ad
t he ir f acades o f v ery c arefu l ly d ressed n en fro a sh lar. Tha t n ex t t o t he t ower h owever , i s o f t u fa , a nd h ad aw ide s eg men ta l-arch a t i t s g round f l oor, i n t he b lock ing o f w h ich t here i s ad oor w i th a c orbel led l i n tel , d a table t o t he 1 5th o r 1 6th c en tury. Th is b u i ld ing may w el l h ave b een l a ter t han t he o thers , f i l l ing t he s pace b etween t he m a nd t he t ower.
H owever , t here c an b e l i t t le
d oub t t ha t t hey a nd t he t ower were a pprox i ma tely c on te mporary , f or t he l a t ter a lso h ad a p o in ted-arched d oorway , a nd i t s f acade i sb u il t o f n enfro a sh lar. I tt oo was c learly i n tended t o f i t i n to a r ow o fb u ild ings a l igned d own v ia d el la L upa , t hough i t s f ron tage i s i n f ac t a bou t 1m i n a dvance o f t hose o f t he h ouses. I n i t s S . wa l l t here i s a lso a p oin ted-arched g roundf l oor d oor, a nd i n i t s i n ter ior t here i s ap ozzo o r g ra in s torage p i t . S im ilar wa l ls made u p o f t he f acades o f h ouses wh ich n o l onger e x ist a re q u i te c o mmon i n I t a l ian t owns. A t C orne to-Tarqu in ia i n v ia Mon tana , t here were c learly as er ies o f r ec tangu lar h ouses w ith o ne g able e nd f ac ing t he s tree t , a nd t he o ther c u t i n to t he t own wa l ls.
They h ad r ound-arched d oorways o fv ary ing
s izes , a nd r ound-arched w indows a t t he f i rs t f l oor.
I n a wal l i n L argo S .
Marz ia le a t G ubb io ( p la te 1 .13 ) t he d oorways a re , a s i n v ia d el la L upa , much t he s a me s ize a nd p o in ted-arched.
T he d if ference i n f unc t ion b etween t he m
i s v ery c learly marked i no ne b u ild ing , f or t he d oor t o t he u pper f l oors i s r a ised w el l a bove s treet l evel . A c o mb ina t ion o f al arge a nd smal l d oor c an b e s een i n t he W. w al l o f t he s p l i t-level t ower-l ike b u ild ing i n v ia d el Turco a t Tuscan ia ( f ig. 1 .21). T he sma l ler p robably l ed t o t he l ower f l oors , t he l arger t o t he u pper o nes. The t wo d oorways o f n o. 4 v ia d el la Pace a t Tuscan ia h ave b een r ep laced b y ap os t- med ieval o ne w i th a s eg men ta l-arch ( f ig. 1 .13 ).
The sma l ler d oor
was s l igh t ly r a ised a bove t he o rig ina l s tree t l evel . The h ouse i s a modest o ne , sma l l , w i th t he e n t ire f acade o f t ufa. I ts t i l l p reserves i t s g able-ended f ron tage.
T he b ea m h oles a bove t he d oorways w ere p robably f or a p en t-roof ,
b u t may a lso h ave b een f or ab a lcony a t t he f i rs t f l oor, where t here i s as egmen ta l-arched a perture , e ither a w indow o r ad oor , b u t n ow much e n larged . Above i ta re t he r e ma ins o f a n a t tachmen t f or a p u l ley.
T h is f l oor s ee ms ,
i n modern t imes a t l east , t o h ave b een u sed a s ah ay-lof t o r p erhap s a g ranary ( c f . p . 1 29 o f t h is v olu me ). The h ouse e x tends b ack a bou t 1 2 m b eh ind t he f acade. T yp ica l ly , t he g round f l oor c onsis ts o f as ing le l a rge r oo m , s panned i n t h is c ase b y t wo d iaphrag m a rches, a nd w i th a p ozzo o r g ra in s torage p i t a t o ne e nd o f i t . T he d oorways i n v ia d el la L upa h ave p o in ted a rches. I n N . L az io t here i s n o s i mp le t rans it ion f rom r o manesque r ound a rches t o g oth ic p o in ted o nes. Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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P o in ted a rches were a l legedly u sed i n t he l a te 1th c en tury b as il ica o f Mon tec assino , a nd s t il l s urv ive i n t he p or t ico o f S . Angelo i n F or m is , s upposedly o f a bou t t he s a me d a te , b o th i n S . L az io. T hese a re s o me o f t he e arl iest k nown e xa mp les o f i ti n W. Europe , a nd p robably r ef lec t I s lam ic i n f luences. 1 2th-cen tury o nes o ccur a t P isa , where t hey a re a lso t hough t t ob e t he r esul t o f I sla m ic i nf luence . N or th E uropean g oth ic i n f luences c an b e s een i n t he C isterc ian a bbeys a t F ossanova , S . Mar t ino a l C im ino , a nd e lsewhere, i n w h ich t hese a rches w ere u sed s yste ma t ica l ly . However , i n N . L az io a nd much o f C . I t a ly , p o in ted a rches d id n ot b eco me a t a l l w idespread u n t i l t he e nd o f t he 1 2th o r t he b eg inn ing o f t he 1 3th c en tury. I n much e cc les iast ica l a rch i tec ture o f t h is p er iod t hey were s hunned , r a ther l i ke t he way i n wh ich r ust ica ted masonry , c o m mon i nh ouses a nd t owers , was v ir tua l ly u nknown i n c hurches b efore t he Rena issance. I n t he t owers o f N . L az io i ti s p oss ible t o s ee a t rans it ion f ro m r ound t o p o in ted a rches , a t l east f or t he g round f l oor d oorways ( c f . P ringle 1 974 ). P o in ted a rches a re t ob e f ound i n c on junc t ion w i th V i terbo p er iod I masonry , a nd a re p resen t i n t he g round f l oor o f t he Pa lazzo Ga t t i a nd t he p apa l p a lace a tV iterbo.
A l though c o m mon b y t he m idd le o f t he 1 3th c en tury , t hey n ever
s uperseded o ther t ypes o f a rches. Round a rches w ith w ide v ousso irs f ramed w ith in a h ood-mou ld were a f ea ture o f t he h ighly d ecora ted a rch i tecture o f V i terbo. The p or ta S . B iele a t V i terbo ( 1 270 ) i s p o in ted-arched , b u t h as b l ind r ound a rches i n i t s s ides.
A t Tuscan ia , t he h ouse a t v ia d el la Pace 4 ,
a nd t he t ower-l ike b u i ld ing i nv ia d el Turco , h ave b o th p o in ted- a nd r ounda rched d oors a t t he ir g round f l oors. Thus i ti s i mposs ible t o a rgue t ha t p o in ted a rches a re p er s e l a ter t han r ound o nes, t ha t , f or i nstance , t he h ouses i n v ia Mon tana a t C orne to-Tarqu in ia a re n ecessar ily l a ter t han t hose i n v ia d ella L upa , t hough i nv ia d i S . Pancraz io a t C orneto a p o in ted a rch r epresen ts t he l a tes t p hase i n ab u i ld ing s equence ( f ig. 1 .9 ). I n t he c ase o f t he h ouses i n v ia d e l la L upa , i tc an t herefore o n ly b e s a id t ha t h ouses w i th n en fro f acades a nd p oin ted a rches s ee m mos t c haracter is t ic o f t he p er iod f ro m t he e nd o f t he 1 2th c en tury u n t il a bou t t he t h ird q uar ter o f t he 1 3 th. Ap o in ted -arched d oor was i nser ted i n to t he b lock ing o f t he p ort ico a t S e t te C ann .el le a t Tuscan ia ( f ig. 1 .12). I ft he p ort ico d a tes f ro m a bou t t he s econd h a l f o ft he 1 3th c en tury , t hen t he d oor must b e 1 4th-cen tury . T he p o in ted a rch o f t he Pa lazzo S pagnol i i s 1 4th -or 1 5th -cen tury. However , t here was a t endency f or t he p o in ted a rch t o g o o u t o f f ash ion a t t h is p er iod . T hey a re , f or i nstance , v ir tua l ly a bsen t f ro m t he work o f t he f a mous a rch i tec t Ma t teo Ga t tapon i d a Gubb io , a c t ive a bou t t he m idd le o f t he 1 4th c en tury . A c haract er ist ic f ea ture o f t he p o in ted a rches o f Tuscan i a nd V i terbo i s t ha t i n many c ases t hey l ack k eys tones. T he v ousso irs a re g enera l ly much t he s ame s ize , a nd t hey l ook a s i ft hey may h ave b een b ough t d ressed o r r ough ly s haped , r eady t o p u t t oge ther w i thou t much f ur ther p repara t ion t o make a t wo-cen tred a rch o f v ir tua l ly a ny s ize. The o n ly h ouse a t Tuscan ia w i th p o in ted-arched d oors a nd a g round f loor f acade i n n en fro t ha t p reserves i t s u pper s toreys v irtual ly i n tac t i s i n v ia d el la Rocca ( nos. 2 4-26; f ig . 1 .22 ). The l e f t-hand d oorway h as b een r ep laced b y o ne o ft he 1 6th c en tury o r l a ter. I ns ide , t he g round f l oor i s a bou t 6 .50 m s quare , a nd i s d iv ided i n to t wo b arrel-vau l ted c hambers. S ince t he v au l ts s pr ing f rom a r ubble-bu il t wa l l wh ich b u t ts a ga inst t he f acade , t hey Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
5 5
a re e v iden tly l a te o r p ost- med ieval . O f med ieva l p art it ions, t here i s n o t race , t hough t he t wo d oorways make i tc lear t ha t t hey o nce e x isted. A t t he s econd f l oor, t here i s ap o in ted-arched d oor. A bove i t , ar ow o f c orbels marks t he p os i t ion o f ap en t-roof , a nd b elow i t , t here a re b ea m h oles f or a b a lcony . I ti s p ossible t o d iscern t he o u t l ine o f a nother p o in ted-arched d oor a t t he f i rst f l oor. Three v er t ica l s cars b elow i t mark t he p os it ion o f e ither ap en t-roof o r ab alcony. I ti s p robable t ha t t here w ere many h ouses o ft h is t ype i n t he P ogg io d istr ic t o f Tuscan ia , wh ich s ee ms t o h ave h ad i t s o r ig ins a s ap lanned b orgo ( c f . p . 1 82 o ft h is v olu me ). T he h ouse t o t he r ight o f t h is o ne i s o f s im ilar w id th , a nd i s a lso b u i l t o f med ieva l a sh lar. Ano ther a t t he S . e nd o f v ia d el la Rocca wh ich was i ncorpora ted i n to t he 1 5th-cen tury Palazzo T artagl ia ( f ig. 1 .26 ) h as ag round-p lan o f c o mparable d i mensions.
L ike n os.
2 4-26,
i tt oo h as wa l ls a bout 1 m t h ick , s uggest ing i tw as t wo t o t hree s toreys h igh . T a l l , n arrow h ouses o ft h is t ype a re o f ten c a l led t ower-houses o r c asa torr i ( c f . P r ing le 1 974, 2 19 ).
As e xp la ined a bove ( p . 1 5
) , Iw ou ld p refer a
n arrower d ef in i t ion o ft h is t er m , l im i t ing i t s u se t o ap art icular t ype o f s truc ture. The c ons iderable e leva t ion o f much t erraced u rban h ous ing was a l mos t c er ta in ly t he r esu l t o f s hortage o f s pace i n t own c en tres. I f , a s a t S . G im ignano ( b elow , p .
6 5
) , a nd n o d oubt a lso i n P ogg io , t he s ize o f
b u ild ing p lo ts was f i xed b y t he C o mmune , t he o n ly way t o make a h ouse l arge e nough t o s u i t t he owner 's r equ ire men ts was t o b u i ld u pwards. b lance t o at ower was , t herefore , a cc iden tal .
Any r ese m-
N os. 2 4-26 v ia d el la Rocca may b e c o mpared t o t he s o-cal led c asa torre d i G iovann i T oscano i n p iazze t ta S . Michele a t V ol terra ( p la te 1 .14 ).
Th is
i sb u i l t r ound t wo s ides o fa n e arl ier t ower wh ich s tands a t as tree t c orner. T he t wo v isible s ides o f t he h ouse a re a s n arrow a s t he t ower i t sel f .
The
h ouse d oes n ot s ee m t o h ave h ad a ny w indows, w ith t he e xcep t ion o f as ingle s eg men ta l-arched o ne a t t he t op s torey o f t he N . wa l l i n v ia d ei S ar t i , b u t o n ly d oorways w h ich g ave a ccess t o b a lcon ies , t he l evels o f wh ich w ere d eterm ined b y t hose e x ist ing o n t he t ower. T he s uper ior q ual ity o f t he masonry , a nd t he g rac ious p roport ions o f t he p o in ted-arched d oorways , r eveal t he h ouse a s b elong ing t o a more h ighly e volved s ty le o f a rch i tec ture t han t he t ower. Ra ther e xcep t iona l ly , i ti s wel l d a ted , a n i nscrip t ion r ecord ing i t s c ons truc t ion i n 1 250 b y aL o mbard mason , I acopo d a L ugano , f or G iovann i Toscano , t reasurer o f Enzo , k ing o f S ard in ia a nd s on o ft he Emperor Freder ick I ( Fiu m i 1 951, 8 -9 , 1 8 ). Though b alcon ies were most t yp ica l o f wha t may b e t ermed r omanesque h ouses, s uch a s t hose o f P iano S carano , t hey r e ma ined a f eature o f d o mest ic a rch i tec ture w el l i n to t he 1 3th c en tury , a s n os. 2 4-26 v ia d el la Rocca a nd t he h ouse o fG iovann i T oscano s how. However , t here c an b e n o d oub t t hat t hey f e l lb u t o f f avour a nd b eca me s o mewha t a nachron ist ic d uring t h is p er iod. Fro m t he p o in t o fv iew o f t he c o mmunal a u thor i t ies , b a lcon ies were a p otent i a l n u isance , o bs truc t ing n arrow s tree ts a nd p resen t ing a f i re r isk . They c ou ld a lso b e u nsigh tly a nd w indows w ere t o b e p referred t o t he m. I n 1 297 t he C o m mune o f S iena o rdered t ha t a ny n ew h ouses b u il t i n t he Campo s hou ld h ave b ifore o r t r ifore i ns tead o fb a lcon ies. 1 5
T h is measure , wh ich
was i n tended t o make n ew b u ild ings c on for m i n a ppearance Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
5 6
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2 4 a2 6 V I A DELLA ROCCA.
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
5 7
c ons truc ted Palazzo P ubbl ico , s ee ms t o h ave b een a l i t t le e xcep t ional , b u t i s n evertheless a n a ccura te r ef lec t ion o f ag enera l a rch i tec tural t rend. A long t he E . s ide o f p iazza d e i Pr iori a t Vol terra ( p la tes 1 .15-16 ), i ti s p oss ible t o t race a v ery c lear d evelopmen t f ro m h ouses w i th b a lcon ies t o t hose w ith b ifore. A t t he S . E.corner, t he P alazzo d el Pre tor io c o mpr ises a t ower f l anked b y n arrow h ouse f ron tages, r esembl ing s o me o f t he t owers a nd p a laces a t C orneto-Tarqu in ia. The t wo f i rst f l oor b ifore a re p robably l a ter i nser t ions. Th is p roper ty , d escr ibed a s ad omum c um t urn io r ac asamen to r a ther t han a s at ower-house , was p urchased b y t he C ommune i n 1 224 ( Fi um i 1 951, 2 3 ). The l arge b u ild ing t o t he N ., t he P a lazzo Ma lcr iazz i, s ee ms t o h ave h ad b o th b a lcon ies a nd b ifore a t i t s u pper s toreys. T h is p rac t ice was n ot u nco mmon i n t he 1 3th c en tury a lso o ccurring , f or i ns tance , i n t he s oc al led C asa d e i R inucc in i a t S iena ( Ch ier ic i 1 921, t ay.I ll ) a nd i n t he a bbey o f S . Fru t tuoso o n t he L igur ian c oast t o t he E . o fG enoa .
The n ex t p a lace
h as n o b a lcon ies b u t o n ly g oth ic b ifore , w h ilst t ha t a d jacen t t o i th as s eg ment a l-arched w indows. Throughou t much o f C en tal I t a ly , i t was t he s eg men ta l-arch t ha tb eca me t he t ype most c o m mon ly u sed i n t erraced h ous ing f ro m t he l a ter 1 3th c en tury . S eg men ta l-arched w indows h ave a lready b een e ncoun tered , i n s o me o f t he l a ter h ouses i n P iano S carano a nd i n t he h ighly d ecora ted a rch itec ture o f V i terbo , i n s o me o f t he l a ter e xamp les o f w h ich t hey s ee m t o h ave r ep laced t he b ifora .
T ha t t h is p rocess d id t ake p lace c an b e s een i n a wa l l a bove a n a rch
o ver v ia S . Pel legr ino , where ab ifora h as b een b locked a nd a s egmen ta la rched w indow i nser ted. I n s o me t owns, t h is t ype o f w indow efec t ively s uperseded t he b ifora e ven i n i mpor tan tb u ild ings.
T hey w ere u sed t hrough-
o u t t he h ouse o f t he wea l thy merchan t F rancesco d i Marco Dat in i a t P ra to , ar a ther g rand p a lace b u i l t i n t he f ina l d ecade o f t he 1 4th c en tury .
H owever ,
t he w indows o f t h is b u i ld ing w ere g iven e labora tely d ecora ted s urrounds , i nc lud ing s p ira l l ing , a lmost b aroque , c olumns b elow t he s pr ing ing o f t he a rches. S ince p a in ted d ecora t ion must h ave b een c o mmon , s eg men ta l-arched w indows p robably d id n o t l ook a s p la in a nd s tark a s t hey d o t oday. S eg men ta l a rches a lso c ame t o b e w idely u sed f or g round-f loor d oorways. Two s uch d oors w ere i nser ted i n t he b locked p or t ico o f t he Pa lazzo C apocc i ( p la te 1 .10 ). Doorways a nd w indows w i th t hese a rches o ccur i n ah ouse b u i l t o f l a te p er iod I masonry i n v ia d el l 'Ol imetro ( no. 2 ) a t V i terbo.
A r ow o f
v ery h eav i ly r estored h ouses i n p iazza d el Gesü ( p la te 1 .17 ) h ave l arge s egmen ta l-arched d oors w i th s im ilar w indows i m med ia tely a bove t he m . They a re b u i l t o f p er iod I I masonry wh ich may d a te f rom t he 1 4th c en tury.
Un iform
f acades o f t h is t ype w ith l arge d oorways a nd w ide , h igh w indows c onnec ted b y s tring-courses a nd p os i t ioned a t r egu lar i n terva ls, o ne a bove t he o ther , a re c harac ter is t ic o f 1 4th- a nd e ar ly 1 5th-cen tury h ous ing .
They a re more
c o m mon i n Tuscany t han N . L az io , p erhaps b ecause t he f ormer was more p rosperous a t t h is p er iod a nd was t he s cene o fg rea ter b u ild ing a c t iv i ty. E ven i mportan t p a laces c ou ld h ave f acades o f t h is t ype. A g rand e xamp le i s t he Pa lazzo Davanza t i a t F lorence , a t tribu ted t o t he 1 4th c en tury , w h ich h as t hree l arge s eg men tal-arched g round f l oor d oorways, a nd b ig s eg men ta la rched w indows a t t he f i rst , s econd a nd t h ird s toreys. T h is f or ma t c ou ld a lso b e u sed f or p ubl ic b u i ld ings, s uch a s t he P a lazzo Pre tor io a t Arezzo.
The
o n ly c o mparable b u ild ing Ik now o f i n N . L az io i st he p a lace o f Card inal Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
5 8
T eodorico Ran ier i i np iazza S . C r ist ina a t B olsena ( p la te 1 .18 ), w hich was b egun i n 1 299 a nd f i n ished i n 1 304 ( Dot tarel l i 1 928 , 1 67 ). The p la in s ymmetr ic a l f acade i s i n n en fro a sh lar , a nd t he f i ve g round -f loor d oors h ave p o in ted , n o t s eg men tal , a rches. T he s tr ing-course l i nk ing t he s i l ls o f t he f i rst f l oor w indows h as d og too th o rna men t . The r ec tangu lar w indows a t t he s econd f l oor a l most c er ta in ly r ep lace sma l l s egmen ta l-arched o nes , w h ich a re c o m monly t ob e f ound a t t he t op o f p a laces o f t h is p er iod. T hey s erved t o l i gh t a n a t t ic s torey w h ich was p resumably u sed a s b edroo ms o r a s s ervan ts ' q uar ters. ORVIETO Today O rv ie to i s i n Umbr ia , b u t i n t he Midd le Ages i tf el l w ith in t he c on f ines o ft he Pa tr imony o f S t . P e ter i n T usc ia , t he a dmin istra t ive u n it t ha t embraced N . L az io. I ti s a bou t4 0 km f rom V i terbo , a nd t hough t he h i l ly c oun trys ide b e tween t he m i s n o t t he e as iest o ft erra in , t here a re n o ma jor n a tural b arr iers t ha t s epara te t he m. S ince t he l oca lb u i ld ing s tone i s t u fa , i t s s urv iv ing med ieva lh ouses , o f w h ich t here a re many , t hough f ew t ha t a re i n av ery g ood s ta te o f p reserva t ion , may t herefore b e c o mpared t o t hose o f N . L az io. The most c harac ter ist ic t ype o f s urv iv ing med ieval h ouse a t Orv ie to h as i t s g round f l oor b u i l t o f r ust ica ted b locks o f o cch io d i p esce , a nd b ifore w ith d ecora ted s urrounds a t t he u pper s toreys. T he i nd iv idua lb u i ld ings a re l arge , g eneral ly w i th t wo o r t hree w idely s epara ted d oorways.
T hese a re u sua l ly
a bou t t he s ame s ize , l arger t han a n ormal d oor l ead ing t o as ta ircase , a deq ua te t o s erve a s as hop-fron t o r a s a n e n trance t o a workshop o r s tore-room . The g round f l oor i n teriors a re c avernous , t he c ons iderable h e igh t o ft he ir c e i l ings b e ing i nd ica ted b y t he l evel o f t he f i rst f l oor w indows. They a re l i t b y smal l w indows u sua l ly s i tua ted a bove t he d oorways. The b u ild ing a t n o. 3 5 v ia d el P opolo ( f ig. 1 .24 ) h as a n arrow l i gh t , n ow w idened , w i th a t y mpanum a nd a b l ind a rch , b u t sma l lw indows w ith s eg men ta l a rches a re p robably more c o m mon i n t h is p os i t ion . T he i n ter ior o f n os. 3 7-39 v ia d el la L ogg ia d e i Mercan t i ( f ig. 1 .23 ) i s d iv ided i n to t wo b y ad iaphrag m a rch a t r igh t a ngles t o t he f acade , wh ich s uppor ts t wo b arrel v au l ts , p oss ibly l a ter a dd i t ions. A t t he u pper s toreys, t here w ere s egmen ta l-arched b ifore
n ow r ep laced b y
p os t- med ieva l w indows. T he i n tac t o ne o f n o. 3 5 v ia d el Popolo ( f ig. 1 .24 ) h as a wh ite marble o r t ravert ine c olumn , a n e legan t c rocke t c ap i ta l , a nd a s i mp le r ho mbo id mo t i f d ecora t ing i t s j a mbs a nd v ousso irs. However , wha t makes t he b ifore o fO rv ie to s o d is t inc t ive i s t ha t t hey a re g enera l ly f ramed b y c on t inuous h ood- mou lds, w i th in wh ich t here i s az one o fc arved d ecora t ion , t he most t yp ica lb e ing a c hequerboard o r b il let p a t tern i n r el ief , t hough o ther c o m mon mot ifs a re z ig-zag , c hevron , a rrowhead , r hombo ids, r oundels a nd as i mp le l eaf s crol l . Windows may a lso b e s eg men ta l-arched . E ven t hese , n or mal ly s o p la in , a re s o me t i mes s urrounded b y c hequerboard d ecora t ion . Many w indows a t Orv ieto p reserve s tone r ings o r h ooked c orbels t o e i ther s ide o f t he t op o f t he m . ( e .g . t ha t a bove t he a rch a cross v ia R ipa S eranc ia , f i g. 1 .23 ). These must a lso h ave b een c ommon a t C orneto-Tarqu in ia , Tuscan ia a nd V i terbo , t hough f ew s urv ive t oday .
I n Tuscany , t hey were
k nown a s e rr i ( Sch iaparel l i 1 908 , 5 5-58 , 1 30-133 ), a nd b etween t he m were Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
5 9
s uspended p oles, o n wh ich c ur ta ins m igh t b e h ung , o r b edd ing a ired o r wash ing d r ied . T hey a re o f ten r epresen ted w i th t hese f unc t ions i n med ieva l p a in t ings .1 6 p os it ion :
T he e xac t u se t o wh ich t hey w ere p u t p robably d epends o n t he ir
t hose wh ich a re h al fway u p aw indow s urround , a s i s o f ten t he c ase ,
wou ld h ave b een u nsu i table f or h ang ing c ur ta ins.
I n t he 1 4th a nd 1 5th c en turies,
i ron b racke ts were c o m mon ly u sed i ns tead o f s tone h ooks , b ut t o ag rea ter e x ten t i n Tuscany a nd Umbr ia where t he l ocal b u ild ing s tones were n ot s o e asy t o work a s t hose o f L az io.
A t t he t op o f s ome h ouses a t Orv ieto , t here
a re s tone r ings w i th c orbels b elow t hem t ha t s eem d es igned f or t he a t tach men t o f av er t ica l p ole. T hese f i t t ings a re more d if f icu l t t o e xp la in , b u t p robably t hey were i n tended t o s uppor t b anners a nd f l ags. F ium i ( 1 951 , 1 1 ) t hough t t ha t a t Vol terra t hey w ere u sed f or t he c onstruc t ion o f w ooden l ogg ie a t t he t ops o fb u ild ings. On s o me b u i ld ings a t Vol terra , s uch a s t he Torre Gu id i i n v ia Ma t teot t i , t hey o ccur o n o ne s ide o n ly o f t he w indows, i n wh ich c ase t hey must h ave s uppor ted a p ivoted b racket w h ich may h ave b een f or c urta ins o r h ang ing o u t wash ing , a s d ep ic ted i n af resco b y G io t to i n t he Cappel la d egl i S crovegn i a t Padua ( c f . S ch iaparel l i 1 908 , f i g. 9 9 ). S o me h ouses a t Orv ieto h ad v ery l arge a rches i n t he ir f acades , c omparab le t o t hose o f t he p a lazzo C igl ion i a t Tuscan ia .
B oth n o. 2 a nd n o. 1 9 v ia
d el la C o mmenda ( f ig. 1 .23 ) a re r ec tangu lar u n its w i th t he ir g able e nds f ac ing t he s treet . The a rches o ccupy t he f u l l w id th o f t he b u i ld ing , a nd i nt he c ase o f n o. 2 e x tend t o t he l evel o f w here t he f i rs t f l oor w ou ld n or mal ly b e e xpec ted t ob e.
These t wo a rches a re p la in , b u t o ne b u il t a cross v ia R ipa S eranc ia
( f ig. 1 .23 ) h ad mou lded v ousso irs d ecora ted w i th a z ig-zag mo t if .
T he r oo m
o ver t he s treet i s s uppor ted b y t hree r ound a rches , b etween wh ich t here a re t wo b arrel v au l ts. I n t he s ides o f t he v ousso irs o f t he a rches, i ti s p ossible t o s ee h oles f or t he s ol id c en tering wh ich was s uspended b e tween t he m f or t he e rec t ion o f t he v au l ts.
The b ifora a bove t he o u ter a rch h as a s urround
w i th d og tooth d ecora t ion . These b u ild ings s how v ery l i t tle e v idence f or c hanges i n a rch i tec tural s tyle.
T here i s l i t t le t race o fo lder t ypes o f h ousing i n t he t own t oday , b u t
i n t he v ic in i ty o fv ia d el la C ava t here a re h ouses w h ich s ee m t o h ave n iches i n t he ir e x ternal wa l ls , a nd wh ich t herefore p robably o r ig inal ly h ad b alcon ies. The e arl ier b u ild ings f ro m wh ich t he a rch o ver v ia R ipa S eranc ia s prings h ad r ound-arched d oors a nd w indows , a nd s ee m t o h ave b een e ssen t ia l ly r o manesque i n c harac ter. O therw ise many o f t he med ieval b u ild ings i n t he t own s ee m t o b e o f much t he s a me d a te. F ea tures s uch a s d if feren t t ypes o f a rch a nd w indow , r us t ica ted masonry a nd d ecora t ive mo t ifs o ccur i n a ssoc iat i on w ith o ne a no ther , w i th n o v ery c lear s ign o f a ny o f t he m b eing e l im ina ted i n a n e volu t ionary s equence. T he b ifore o f n o. 2 v ia d el la C o m menda may b e s o mewha t more p r im i t ive t han t hose o f t he o ther h ouses.
They a re e nclosed
b y ah ood- mou ld more r obus t t han t he r e markably u n iform t ype p resen t o n mos t w indows , wh ich i s i nv ery l ow r el ief a nd f rames a s ha l low c oncave r ecess. T he c arv ing o f t he ir s urrounds i s a lso e xcep t iona l ly v igorous, t he z ig-zag a nd a rrowhead b e ing l arger t han t he d iscree t mo t ifs u sua l o n o ther w indows. Most o f t he d oorways i n t he h ouses t aken i n to c onsidera t ion a re p o in ted-arched , b u t t hose o f n os. 3 7-39 v ia d el la L ogg ia d e i Mercan t i a re r ound-arched , a nd a ssoc ia ted w i th s eg men ta l-arched w indows.
However ,
n os. 5 6-58 v ia Franca lanc ia ( f ig. 1 .24 ) h ave p o in ted-arched d oors a nd s egAndrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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men tal-arched w indows w i th c hequerboard d ecora t ion .
T he g enera l i mpres-
s ion g iven b y t he med ieva lb u i ld ings i n t he t own i s t ha t t he b ifore w i th t heir e labora tely d ecora ted s urrounds w ere e ven tua l ly s uperseded f or t he most p art b y p la in s eg men ta l-arched w indows. These h ouses a re a l most c er ta in ly 1 3 th c en tury , b u t i ti s d if f icu l t t o d a te t he m a ny more p rec isely t han t ha t. The c arved w indow s urrounds, l i nked b y c on t inuous h ood-mou lds, a nd u sua l ly i n c on junc t ion w ith p o in teda rched d oors, may b e l i kened t o t he d ecora ted a rch i tec ture o fV i terbo , t o t he Palazzo Ga t t i o r t he ma in p art o f t he p apa l p a lace.
H owever , t he Orv ie to
w indows a re much l ess g oth ic i n s ty le, s how ing n o t endency t o t he d evelopmen t o f t racery. T he f u l l v ocabu lary o f c arved o rnamen t p resen t i n t he O rv ieto h ouses i s t o b e f ound a t t he a bbey o f S S. S evero a nd Mart ir io a bou t 2 km t o t he S . o f t he t own . T hose p ar ts o f i t wh ich a re n o t i n r u ins a re n ow a h otel . Reduced t o i t s s i mp lest , t he c o mp lex c onsis ts o f t wo p ara l lel r ec tangu lar b u i ld ings a l igned E .-W., b etween wh ich t here a re t hree o ther b locks a l igned N .-S. O f t hese , t ha t a long t he E . s ide i s o ne o f t he o ldes t ( p la tes 1 .19-20 ). T here a re b ea m h oles a nd r ound-arched d oorways f or a f i rstf loor b a lcony i n i t s E . w a l l . A t t he s ame l evel , t here a re f our b ifore w h ich , t o j udge f ro m t he w ay t hey i n terrup t as tr ing-course wh ich p robably marks a f or mer r oof l evel , h ave b een i nserted a t al a ter d a te. On t he W. s ide o f t he b u ild ing t here i s ap ort ico a bove wh ich t here i s ar ow o f s im ilar b ifore.
T he ir d eco-
r a t ion i s t he s a me a s t ha t t o b e f ound i n l ocal d omest ic a rch itec ture , c o mpr is ing z ig-zag , d ogtoo th , a rrowhead , r hombo id a nd l ea f s crol l mo t ifs , a nd a lso a s ort o f r oset te.
Those o n t he W. wa l l a re a lso c onnected b y at yp ica l
l ow r el ief h ood- mou ld . T he b l ind a rcad ing b elow t hese w indows i se xcep t iona l i n d o mes t ic a rch i tec ture i n N . L az io a t t h is p er iod , a nd i s more t yp ica l o f N . I t aly .
T he p or t ico i s a l mos t c er ta in ly a n a dd i t ion , r ep lac ing ab a lcony
a rrange men t l i ke t ha t o f t he E . wa l l . B eh ind i t s a rches, t here a re v au l ts , a nd d oorways i n t he b u t tresses f rom wh ich t hey s pr ing c rea te a t rue c overed walkthrough a rea.
T he b u ild ings t o t he W. o f t h is o ne a re r u ined , b u t a re
c learly i n as o mewha t d if feren t a rch i tec tura l s ty le.
T he ir g round a nd f i rst
f l oors c ons ist o f s ingle v ast r oo ms , t he f or mer b e ing r oofed b y p o in ted b arrelv au l ts w ith t ransverse a rches a t r egu lar i n terva ls , a nd t he l a t ter h av ing e i ther s im ilar v au l ts o r w ooden c e i l ings s uppor ted b y d iaphrag m a rches. T he f i rst f l oor w indows o ft he c en tra lb u ild ing w ere p o in ted-arched , a nd t hose o f t he W. o ne w ere r ec tangu lar. Had i te ver b een s tud ied , t he monas tery w ou ld b e o fg rea t impor tance f or t he a rch i tec ture o f t he a rea. As i ti s , i tc anno tb e e xac t ly d a ted . The o n ly f act t ha t s ee ms t ob e k nown a bou t i ti s t ha t i n 1 226 Honorius I I g ran ted i tt o t he P re monstratens ians , b ecause t he B ened ic t ine monks t o w hom i t o rig ina l ly b elonged h ad f a iled t o o bserve t he ir r u le ( Fu m i 1 884, XL I ).
The
W. a nd c en tra lb locks were p robably b u il t b y t he P re monstra tens ians a f ter t he ir a rriva l . T he E . b lock i n i t s o r ig ina l f orm must a n teda te t hem . T he p roble m i s w hether t he b ifore a re p re-1226 o r w he ther t hey r epresen t o ne o f t he f i rs t a l tera t ions t ha t t he P re monstra tens ians c arr ied o u t .
T he l a tter
i s t he more p robable , b u t t h is i s s tretch ing t he i n terpre ta t ion o f c ircumstant ia l e v idence t o i t s l im i ts. E i ther way , t he p or t ico a nd w indows mus t a l most c erta in ly d a te f ro m t he f i rst h a l f o f t he 1 3th c en tury.
T hough i t may b e t e mp-
t i ng t o r egard t he a bbey a s as em ina l w ork wh ich e xerc ised a s ign i f ican t Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 6 2
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infl�ence on local domestic architecture, it is more likely that the windows were made to traditional patterns and acquired from workshops in the town. Three important palaces, that of the Capitano del Popolo, the pope and the bishop also serve to provide a context for the dating of the Orvieto houses. The first (plate 1.21) is a massive building with a first floor hall above vaults which originally traversed its full width, linking two piazzas (Fumi 1902, 45 seg.). These were later closed so that the ground floor could be used for shops. The palace is thought to have been built soon after 1250. The existing external staircase dates from the e.nd of the century, and replaces an earlier one. It has three-light windows (trifore) with chequerboard decoration round them. However, they differ from those of the houses described above in having strongly projecting hood-moulds with dogtooth decoration, and plate tracery comprising a pair of quatrefoils. The trifore are separated by twinned columns, and have a rope moulding round their jambs and voussoirs. The windows of the bishop's palace next to the cathedral (plate 1.22) are practically identical, except that their hood-moulds are pointed-arched, and undecorated, as are their jambs and voussoirs. Originally this palace was built as a papal residence. Fumi (1902, 54) thought it dated from the time of Martin IV (12 81-85). To the E. of it there is a later palace (plate 1 • 22). This has a ground-floor loggia, and, at the first floor, bifore separated by buttresses, an unusual feature in the architecture of the area. The windows are trefoil-headed, with a quatrefoil and coats of arms in the spandrels. They are otherwise undecorated, apart from a cyma moulding round the frame and the hood-mould. This type of window was quite common from the end of the 13th century (cf. plate 3. 9). At right angles to this is another palace building, erected from 1297 on the orders of Boniface VIII and now the museum. This has plain pointed-arched trifore within pointed-arched hood moulds. There i_s no tracery, and ornament is reduced to small motifs carved in low relief on the spandrels. If a development can be discerned here, it is to strongly projecting hood-moulds and simpler gothic forms, suggesting that the houses under consideration were probably built before the last quarter of the 13th century. LEGISIATION, TOWN-PLANNING AND DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE One very important factor in ·determining the appearance of the medieval house was the legislation and statutes passed by the communes. The statutes of Viterbo, dating from 1251, and those of Tuscania, which in their present form date from a codification of about 1420, do not in fact make many stipu lations about what form houses should take, and therefore I shall refer to the statutes of some Tuscan towns, especially S. Gimignano and Volterra. The absence of such regulations does not mean that they did not exist. Not every resolution passed by the councils found their way into the statutes, nor has every statute been preserved today. However, the lesser degree of uniformity amongst the medieval houses of Tuscania and V iterbo than is sometimes the case elsewhere may be an indication that their communal governments were not very energetic in the field of town-planning. The urban growth o{ the 12th and 13th centuries came about largely through immigration from the countryside. This was encouraged by the Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
64
g ran t ing o fv ar ious p riv ileges, s uch a s e xemp t ion f ro m t axes a nd c iv ic d u t ies. H owever , t he n ew c i t izen a lso u nder took c er ta in o bl iga t ions.
He was r equ ired
t o l i ve i n t he t own f or most o f t he y ear , a nd t o b eco me a p roperty-owner. A t Vi t erbo , h e h ad t ob uy o r b u ild a h ouse ( Ciamp i 1 872, 5 23 ). E lsewhere , t here were o f ten s pec if ic i nstruc t ions t o b u i ld o ne , t o make a c on tr ibu t ion t o t he p hys ica l g row th o f t he c i ty. T ha t whole a reas b ecame s et t led w i th in a r elat ively s hort p er iod o f t ime , a nd t hat t he p rocess was g eneral ly s tr ic t ly c on trol led b y t he C o m munes , p ar t ly e xp la ins t he u n iform i ty o f much med ieval h ousing.
A t S . G im ignano t he 1 255 s ta tu tes a u thor ized t ha t e very n ew c i t izen
w as t o b e g iven ab u i ld ing p lo t i n t he n ewer p ar ts o f t he t own measuring 2 4 b y 1 2 b racch ia ( ab racc io was e qu iva len t t o a bou t 5 0-60 cm ). He i n t urn s wore t ob u ild a h ouse u pon i t . Wh ilst t hese s ta tu tes p er m i t ted t he n ew c i t izen t o r efuse t he b u i ld ing p lo t a nd a f i ve y ear t ax e xemp t ion i fh e p referred t o b uy p roperty e lsewhere i n t he t own , t he 1 314 c od if ica t ion was v ery much s tr ic ter. N o o ne c ou ld b eco me a c i t izen u n less h e f i rst a greed t o b uy l and i n t he t own a nd b u i ld a h ouse o n i t , o n wh ich h e was t o s pend a m in imum o f 2 00 l i bre ( Pecori 1 853 , 7 22-23 a nd n o te ). T he 1 327 s ta tu tes o f Arezzo r equ ired a n ew c i t izen t o b u ild a h ouse wor th 3 00 l i bbre w i thin a y ear.
I fh e c a me f ro m t he
t err itory o f Arezzo , t he h ouse was t o measure a t l east 1 5 b y 2 5 f eet e x ternal ly , a nd i fh e d id n o t , i ts ee ms t ha t i th ad t o b e o f as pec if ic v alue.
He h ad t o
p urchase a p lo tb etween t he o ld a nd t he n ew wal ls , where t he s tree t p lan was t ob e l a id o u tb y s urveyors.
T hose t o w ho m t he l and b elonged were t o b e
c o mpel led t o s el l i ta t af a ir p r ice.
T ha t t he s ta tu tes i ns isted t ha t t he h ouses
b eb u il t w i th mortar s uggests t ha t d ry-s tone c ons truc t ion , o r t he b ond ing o f s tones w ith mud , w ere p ract ices c urren t i n t he a rea a t t he t ime ( S ta t . Arezzo ,
p . 1 02-05 ). S im i lar a rrange men ts p reva i led i n r ura l s et tle men ts. The o wners o f c as tra o r f ort if ied v i l lages o f ten s pec if ied t he s ize o fb u ild ing p lots. I n 1 038 t he a bbo t o fS ubiaco g ran ted t he c astrum o f S . Angelo t o ag roup o f f am il ies who w ere t ob u ild h ouses measur ing 1 2 b y 2 0 f ee t ( Reg. S ub., p . 7 2-73 ). H ouses b u i l t a t t he c astel lo o f S . V incenzo f ounded b y P isa i n 1 305 w ere t o measure 1 0b y 2 0 b racc ia ( Lup i 1 902, 2 13 , n ote 2 ). I tw i l lb e a pparen t t ha t t h is p rocess o f e xpans ion , w i th i mm igran ts e ncouraged t o l i ve i n p ar t icu lar p ar ts o ft he t own , s o met imes a s a t Arezzo c orrespond ing t o t ha t p ar t o f i t s t err i tory f ro m wh ich t hey c ame , t ended t o c oncen tra te p eop le o f ap art icu lar c lass , o r o f ap ar t icu lar g eograph ica l o r igin , i n to t he s ame a rea. T h is t oo mus t h ave c on tr ibu ted t o t he u n ifor m i ty o fu rban h ous ing. T here were , o f c ourse, e xcep t ions. A t S . G im ignano , t hough t he r igh t d id e x ist t o l i ve where o ne wan ted , t he s ta tu tes p rov ided t ha t e ven a m iles o r an oble s hou ld b e g iven ab u i ld ing p lo t. For t he most p art , h owever , t he n oble o r i mpor tan t f am i l ies o ccup ied t he o r ig ina l n ucleus o f t he t own . A t V i terbo , as im i lar c on trast m igh t b e made b etween t he s pur where t he c a thedra l i s , wh ich was t he c as trum f rom wh ich t he t own g rew a nd where a ccord ing t o t he c hron icles t here were 1 6 t owers a nd many f i ne p a laces ( Cia mp i 1 872, 2 5 ), a nd P iano S carano. I n t hese p ar ts o f t he med ieval t own , w i th t he r ise o f t he p opu lar r eg imes , t he c o mmunes s ough t t o c heck t he t endency o f t he n obles t o b u ild t owers a nd s em i-fort if ied s truc tures w h ich w ere s uch a f ea ture o ft he c iv il s tr ife o f t he p er iod. Restr ic t ions o n h e igh t , e spec ia l ly o f t owers , were u b iqu i tous, whe ther f or s afely o r s i mp ly t o d eter u rban warfare.
A t Vi t erbo , n o t ower was t o b e h igher t han t ha t o f Bra i mandus
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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( Cia mp i 1 872, 5 28 ), p oss ibly t he s ame a s t he s o-ca l led t ower o f messer Bra imondo , a nd a t S . G im ignano , t he l im it was f i xed b y t he T orre R ognosa ( Pecor i 18 53 , 7 21-22 ).
The t owers o f Vol terra w ere l im i ted t o 3 0 b racc ia i n
h eigh t i n 1 20 7 ( S ta t. Vol terra , p . 1 53-54 ). T he s ame r ubr ic e stabl ished a s er ies o f h e igh t r es tric t ions i n t he p iazza d e i P r iori a nd i n o ther p ar ts o f t he t own , t he l evels b e ing d e ter m ined b y p re-ex ist ing b u i ld ings. T h is c learly r ef lec ts a c oncern f or t he a ppearance o f t he t own , a s wel l a s s i mp ly a d es ire t o r estric t t he m il i tary p oten t ia l o fb u i ld ings. A t t he s ame t ime , f reedo m t o b u i ld was a r igh t e xp l ic i ty a sser ted i n s ome s ta tu tes. A t S . G im ignano , a nyone c ou ld b u ild a t ower, p a lace o r h ouse o n h is o wn p roperty s o l ong a s h e o bserved t he r egu la t ions l a id d own f or h is p ar t o f t he t own .
Am in i mu m wa l l t h ickness o f 3p a lm i ( o r a bou t 7 5-80 cm )
was f i xed f or t he more c en tral p ar t o f t he t own , a nd i t was f orbidden t o b u ild a bove a h e igh t o f 1 2 b racc ia ( Pecori 18 53, 6 94, 7 19 -20 ). The s ta tu tes o f b oth S . G im ignano a nd Vol terra a ss is ted a nyone w ho wan ted t o b u i ld a n ew h ouse b y c o mpel l ing t hose w i th l and f ree f or d evelopmen t t o s el l i tf or a f a ir p r ice i fa sked t o d o s o ( Pecor i 18 53, 7 34-35; S ta t . Vol t ., 18 0-81 ). The o b jec t o f t h is was t o e ncourage t he r enewa l o f t he u rban f abr ic a nd t he s et tlemen t o fd eser ted p ar ts o f t he t own . T he c lause i nt he Vol terra s ta tutes , wh ich a re o f 1 224, make f urther p rov isions wh ich a re o f i n terest. A l l n ewly b u i l t h ouses were h enceforth t ob e a l igned n ex t t o t he s t ree ts.
Balcon ies o r
p or t icos w ere t o s tand 6b racc ia a bove t he s treet , a nd n o t t o p ro jec t more t han 2 1 b racc ia. T he l im i t e stabl ished f or t heir p ro jec t ion may a lso h ave a pp l ied t o t he r oof , f or w ide o verhang ing e aves w ere t yp ica l o f med ieval h ouses , a s c an b e s een i n c on te mporary p ic tures a nd i n s ome b u i ld ings wh ich h ave b een r es tored .
A t Vol terra i t was a lso p erm i t ted t o h ave a s tone b ench o u t-
s ide t he h ouse t hree-quar ters o f ab racc io w ide. T hese w ere a u n iversal f ea ture o f med ieval h ouses, b u t o n ly r arely s urv ive t oday ( c f . S ch iaparel l i 19 08 , 3 9-40 ). •
The b u lk o f med ieval l eg isla t ion c oncern ing h ousing was o f t h is l a t ter
s ort , d esigned t o p reven t p eop le e ncroach ing o n t he s tree ts a nd c aus ing a n u isance t o t he ir n e ighbours. I n mos t t owns o f f ic ia ls were a ppo in ted t o ma in ta in t he s treets a nd p reven t t he m b e ing o bstruc ted ( c f. C ia mp i 1 872, 4 54, 4 65-66 ).
A t T uscan ia , t here w ere t hree v iar i i , o ne f or e ach t erz iere ,
who were t o i nspec t t he r oads a nd h ave t he m r epa ired where n ecessary a t t he e xpense o f t hose whose p roper ty f aced o n t o t he m ( AST, S ta tu t i , V , 7 0 ). I f as treet h ad b een i l lega l ly o ccup ied , i n a ny way , i t was i m med ia tely t o b e r estored t o i t s o r ig ina l c ond i t ion , a nd a ny b ea m , s ta l l , o r o ther s truc ture e rec ted i n i t was t ob e r e moved , t hough i n t he ma in s treets , n otably t he Corso a nd t he v ia Magg iore , t hese w ere p erm i t ted s o l ong a s t hey d id n ot p ro jec t more t han f our f ee t ( AST , S ta tu t i I I , 12; V , 4 9 , 7 3, 7 4; C ia mp i 1 872, 5 07 , 5 62 ).
S uch c lauses were n ecessary b ecause s hopkeepers w ere
a lways t ry ing t o s e t u p s ta l ls t o d isp lay t he ir wares .1 7
One o f t he a dvantages
o fh av ing a l arge a rch o r a rches a t t he g round f l oor was t ha t i t was p oss ible t o d o t h is a dequa tely . Another c on t inua l p roble m was t he d isposa l o f r a inwa ter , s ewage a nd r efuse. A tV iterbo t he s ta tu tes f orbade t ha t r a inwa ter s hou ld f l ow u ncon trol led i n to t he s treets , a nd s ugges t t he e x istence o f s o me f or m o fg u t ter ing a nd Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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d ra inp ipes , wh ich i n c er ta in p ar ts o f t he t own s ee m t o h ave b een l i nked t o u nderground d ra inage ( Ciamp i 1 872, 5 27 , 5 66 ). B ecause t he g able e nds o f most h ouses f l anked t he s treet , t here mus t o r ig ina l ly h ave b een v al ley g u t ters b e tween t he m. Ra in t ha t f al ls o n t he r oof o f Orv ie to c a thedral i s c hannel led i n to p ipes s et i n t he wa l l t h ickness w h ich t hen emp ty i n to g u t ters a t t he b ase o ft he wa l ls. S uch s oph ist ica t ion may n ot h ave b een t yp ical o f o rd inary h ouses, b u tb y t he e nd o ft he Middle Ages t erraco t ta p ip ing s e t i nt he wa l l t h ickness was q u ite c o mmon ly b e ing u sed f or d ra inage i n s o me p ar ts o f I t aly ( c f . C h ier ic i 19 21, 3 64-65 ).
Wha t t oday s ee ms a r a ther u nusua l a rrange men t c an
b e s een a t t he c astle o f S er moneta , where o ne o f t he ma in r es iden t ia lb u ild ings h as a n i nc l ined s tone g u t ter t ha t r uns t he f ul l l eng th o f o ne w a l l ( p late 1 .23 ). The s ta tu tes o f T uscan ia f orbade t ha t a ny l a trine o r d ra in s e t i n a wal l s hould emp ty i n to a s tree t o r g ive o f fence t o o ther c i t izens .1 8 Wha t i s o f ten t hough t o f a s at yp ica l med ieval l a tr ine , ac hamber c orbel led o u t f ro m t he s ide o f ab u ild ing , w as i n f ac t r are i n C en tral I t a ly , a t l east b efore t he e nd o f t he Midd le Ages. I nstead , l a tr ines u sua l ly c ons isted o f ac lose t r ecessed i n to a wa l l , f ro m w h ich a c hu te i n t he wa l l t h ickness l ed d own t o t he b ot to m o ft he wa l l w here t here was a n i nc l ined a per ture. One o f t he h ouses e xcava ted o nt he h i l l o f S . P ie tro a t Tuscan ia a nd d a table t o t he 1th o r 1 2th c en tury h ad j ust s uch a c hu te.
I t emp t ied i n to a r ock-cu t c un icu lus o f E truscan o r
R oman o r ig in wh ich was c learly r eused a s p art o f ad ra inage s ys te m. N ex t t o o ne o ft he t owers c lose t o t he c hurch o f S . P ietro , al a tr ine , c o mpris ing al arge t r iangu lar-headed n iche w i th a c hu te b elow i t , c an b e s een i n ar u ined med ieval wa l l . A t t he c astle o f Borghe t to i n t he v ia F la m in ia , b u i l t p robably i nt he l a te 1 3th a nd 1 4th c en turies , t here i s al a trine wh ich c ou ld b e c losed b y t wo d oors s et i n ar eba ted s urround a nd h ung o n p osts s e t i n t raver t ine r ings, a nd wh ich was a lso l i tb y at iny w indow ( p la te 1 .24 ). A t d eserted s i tes i n L az io, s uch a s C en tocel le , i ti s c o m mon t o f i nd l a trines s et i n t he c ur ta in wa l l , s o t ha t t hey d ischarged d own t he h i l ls ide o r i n to a d i tch.
T he Tuscan ia
s ta tu tes make i tc lear t ha t t he p roble m o f f i nd ing s o mewhere f or t hem t o emp ty c ou ld n o t a lways b e s o r ead i ly r esolved i n at own , a nd i ti s p robable t ha t many o ft he sma l ler h ouses d id n ot h ave t he ir o wn l a tr ines.
There i s
n o e v idence a t Tuscan ia a nd V i terbo f or p ubl ic o nes s uch a s e x isted a t Vol terra ( S ta t . Vol terra p . 9 8-99 , 2 23 ). I n many t owns i t was p erm i t ted t o t hrow r efuse o u t o fw indows i n to t he s tree t s o l ong a s i t was d one a f ter n igh tfal l a nd a cco mpan ied b y awarn ing s uch a s c ave te v ob is ( c f . AST , S ta tu t iV , 8 8 : P ecori 18 53 , 7 16 ). A t S . G im ignano , t here s ee m t o h ave b een d i tches o r d ra ins a long t he s treets ( Pecor i 18 53, 6 76 ) , a nd t hese may h ave b een c o m mon . I ft he s anc t ion ing o f s uch a p rac t ice s ee ms i ncons is ten t w i th t he g enera l p reo ccupat ion f or t he a ppearance o f t he t own e v iden t i n t he l eg is la t ion d escr ibed a bove , i t mus tb e a dded t ha t a t Tuscan ia t he h ouseholders h ad t o c lean t he s tree t o u tside t he ir h ouses e very S a turday , t ha t e achd is tr ic to f t he t own h ad a no f f ic ia l r ubb ish d u mp ( AST , S ta tu t i I I ,10 4; V . 8 2 ), a nd t ha t s uch r egul a t ions were n ot e xcep t iona l e lsewhere 1 9 S OME EARLY 1 5th-CENTURY PALACES The 1 4th c en tury was a t ime o f e cono m ic d epress ion wh ich , i n t he Papa l S ta te , was a ggrava ted b y t he a bsence o ft he p opes a t Av ignon , a nd i ncessan t l oca l warfare. U rban e xpansion c a me t o ah a l t , a nd t here s ee ms c onsequen t ly Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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t o h ave b een l i t t le b u ild ing a c t iv i ty i n t he f i eld o f d o mest ic a rch i tec ture. Apar t f ro m t he f ew h ouses a lready r eferred t o , t he Casa Posc ia a nd t he h ouses i n p iazza d el Gesü a tV i terbo a nd t he p a lazzo S pagnol i a t T uscan ia , wh ich m igh t b e 1 4th c en tury , t here a re n o wel l-preserved b u ild ings t ha t I k now o f i n N . L az io t ha t c an b e s hown o ng ood e v idence t o d ate f ro m t ha t p er iod.
Th is may s ee m v ery d is m iss ive, b u t i s p robably n o t a n e n t irely i n -
a ccura te a ssess men t.
A t Vi t erbo , where d a t ing c an b e a ss isted b y t he t ype
o f masonry u sed , most b u i ld ings i n p er iod I I masonry s ee m t o d a te f ro m t he s econd h a l f o f t he 1 3th o r t he e arly 1 4th c en tury , o r f rom t he 1 5th c en tury. One t h ing a t l eas t i s c lear , a nd t ha t i s t ha t h owever many h ouses may o r may n ot h ave b een c ons truc ted i n t he 1 4th c en tury , t here w ere a t l eas t n o v ery s ign if ican t d evelopmen ts i n t he c harac ter o r s ty le o f d omes t ic a rch i tec ture. Th is, o f c ourse, i s n ot t rue o f t he 1 5th c en tury , w hen t here were t ob e many c hanges , t hough n o t s o many a s t o r epresen t ac omp lete d eparture f rom t he b u i ld ing t rad i t ions o f t he p ast. S o me a spec ts o ft hese t he mes o f c on t inu ity a nd c hange w il lb e a pparen t f ro m t he f o l low ing d escrip t ions o f s evera l p a laces d a table t o a bou t t he f i rs t h al fo f t he 1 5th c en tury. Tuscan ia , t he Pa lazzo Maccabe i ( f ig . 1 .25 ) Th is h ouse i n v ia Ca mpanar i ( nos. 2 6-28 ) c an , i n f ac t , b e d a ted w i th l i t t le p rec is ion , a nd t oday a ppears a s s ometh ing o f a n o dd i ty. I ti sa n a pprox ima tely r ec tangu lar b u i ld ing f or med t hrough t he ama lgama t ion o f t wo e arl ier s tructures.
T h is i s made c lear b y as l igh t c hange i n o r ien ta t ion o f t he E .
a nd W. wa l ls , b y t he t h icker wa l ls o f t he l arger S . p ar t , a nd t he p resence o f ab locked r ound-arched d oor o r w indow h igh u p , wel l a bove t he f i rst f l oor , i nt he E .- W. p ar t i t ion wa l l .
T h is l ooks l i ke a f ea ture i n a n e x terna l wa ll ,
a nd t hough i tc ou ld merely h ave a f forded c ommun ica t ion b e tween t he r oo ms o f as econd s torey , i td oes s uggest t ha t t he N . p ar t was e arl ier a nd was o r ig ina l ly f ree o fa d jacen t s truc tures o n t h is s ide. T he p alace was r es tored i m med ia tely a f ter t he e arthquake.
T he W.
f acade i n p ar t icu lar h as b een f reed f rom l a ter a ccre t ions , i nc lud ing a n e x terna l s ta ircase ( c f . Fusco 19 71, 4 4 ) , a nd t he w hole o f t he e x ter ior h as b een p lastered.
T he g round f l oor c ou ld n ot b e e xam ined , b u t i t was p oss ible
t o s ee t ha t t he s ou thern o ft he t wo r oo ms i n to wh ich i ti s d iv ided h as w al ls a bou t 2m t h ick a nd h as ab arrel v au l t w ith t ransverse a rches. S ince t he a rches s pr ing d irec t ly f ro m t he wa l ls a nd l ack i mposts o rb u t tresses , a nd t he wa l ls t he mselves a re e xcep t iona l ly mass ive , ag ood d ea l t h icker t han t hose o f many med ieva l c ast les a nd t owers, i ti s p robable t ha t t he v au l ts were l a ter i nsert ions.
They were p robably b u i l t r ound p re-ex ist ing d iaphrag m
a rches , a nd t he s ide wal ls w ere c learly r e in forced t hrough t he a dd i t ion o f a n e x tra s k in o f masonry . Because o f t he d if ference o f l evel b e tween i ta nd v ia C a mpanar i , t he e n trance i nv ia L unga i s a t t he f i rst f l oor. Th is i sd iv ided i n to t wo r oo ms , t he S . o ne b e ing a l most t w ice a s l arge a s t he N ., wh ich a re o pen t o t he c apr iate t russes o f t he r oof ( f ig. 1 .8A ).
Th is h as b een l owered b y a bout
1 .20 m a nd a n a t t ic s torey r e moved d ur ing t he c ourse o f r estorat ion ( Fusco 19 71, 4 0-41 ).
The t russes h ave c arved c orbels a nd o ther d e ta ils , a nd a re
c lear ly o ld , d a table t o t he 1 5th-17 th c en tur ies. i n t he W. wal l a re l a te o r p ost- med ieva l .
T he r ec tangular w indows
T he embrasures o f t he p o in ted-
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 6 9
a rched w indows i nt he E . wa l l h ave s eg men ta l a rches t o make a r eba te. T hey e x tend d own t o t he f l oor , b ut o r ig inal ly , n o d oub t , t here w ere w indow s ea ts. The d oor b e tween t he t wo r oo ms h as a f l a t l i n tel s upported o n c orbels. I n t he N . r oo m t here a re f our n iches , t wo o f wh ich a re r ound-arched a nd t wo s eg men ta l-arched . The a ppearance o f t he E . f acade i s t oday v ery u nbalanced , ar esu l t o f t he r a is ing o ft he l evel o fv ia Campanar i i nt he 1 9 th c en tury ( Fusco 1 971, 4 0-41 ), o r ig inal ly a h o l low way o r v ia c ava s epara t ing t he h i l ls o f S . P el leg r ino a nd Mon tasc ide. T h is c aused t he t wo g round -f loor d oors t o b e r a ised i nh e igh t , c u t t ing i n to t he r ow o f c orbels a long t h is wa l l a bove wh ich t he b u ild ing i s s l igh t ly j e t t ied o u t. The t wo sma l l w indows a t t h is l evel a re a lso l a ter i nser t ions. I ti s t he p oin ted-arched w indows a nd t he c orbels o f t h is s ide o f t he p a lace t ha t make i ts o u nusua l ab u ild ing . T he l arge j a mbs o f t he w indows a re a lso q u i te d if feren t f ro m t he u sua l o nes o f med ieval w indows wh ich ma tch t he c ours ing o f t he s urround ing masonry . P o in ted-arched w indows a re e xcep t iona l i n N . L az io a nd a re more t yp ica l o f N . I t a ly , o f , f or e xamp le , t he t owns o f Em il ia-Ro magna , s uch a s Bologna a nd F errara , where s uch w indows w ith p la in t erracot ta s urrounds a re q u i te a c o mmon f ea ture o f l a te med ieval h ouses. They o ccur , f or i ns tance , i n t he 1 5thc en tury C asa d e i Ro me i a t F errara. S im ilarly , j e t t ied u pper s toreys , u sua l ly s upported a bove a rches s pring ing f ro m l arge c orbels i n masonry o rb rick , a re much more c harac ter ist ic o f l a te med ieval h ouses i n Tuscany a nd Em i l iaR omagna t hen L az io ( c f . Mosche l la 1 942 ) . T he o n ly b u i ld ing Ik now o f l oca l ly w ith a nd u pper s torey p ro jec ted o u t a bove c orbels i s ah ouse i n v ia Umber to Ia t C orne to-Tarqu in ia , wh ich , b ecause o f i t s r ena issance s ty le w indows a nd t he p oor q ua l i ty o f i t s masonry , must d a te f ro m t he l a te 1 5th o r e ar ly 1 6th c en tury .
The c orbels a nd t he p o in ted-arched w indows a re , t herefore , f ea tures
t ha t s uggest t ha t t he Pa lazzo Maccabe i was l a id o u t i n i t s p resen t f orm a t s o me t ime i n t he 1 5th c en tury . Tuscan ia , t he Palazzo d i Tar tag l ia ( f igs. 1 .26-27 ) Th is p a lace was t he r es idence o f t he c ondot t iere Angelo Brogl io d i L avel lo , b et ter k nown a s Tar tagl ia , who h eld T uscan ia i n v icar ia te f ro m 1 413-21.
I tc ons ists o f ab u ild ing w i th a f acade o n l argo T orre d i L ave l lo
a nd a na d jacen t r oo m t o t he W. c arr ied o ver v ia d el la Rocca o n a rches.
T he
c o mp lex d oub tless i nc luded f ur ther h ouses t o t he W. a nd E ., b u t t hese w ere amongs t t he f i rs t t o b e r estored a f ter t he e arthquake , a nd p reserve f ew med ieval f eatures. Typ ica l ly , t he p a lace was n o t an ew b u i ld ing b u t i ncorpor a ted o lder o nes wh ich T ar tagl ia e xpropr ia ted f rom t he ir o wners 20 T he b u i ld ing a bou t 1 5 m l ong b eh ind t he f acade o n l argo T orre d i L avel lo , a nd t he r oo m o ver t he s tree ta d jacen t t o i t , a re p robably t o b e a t tr ibu ted t o h im , wh ilst t he t wo u n i ts t o t he N . o n t he E . s ide o f v ia d el la Rocca a re a lmos t c erta in ly o lder. One o ft he m c losely r esembles n os. 2 4-26 v ia d el la R occa ( f ig. 1 .22 ) i nt he d i mens ions o f i t s g round-p lan . T oday t he f acade o n t he l argo T orre d i L avel lo i sh ard ly v ery i mpos ing. T he e x is t ing d oorway r ep laced a n e arl ier o ne w ith a s eg men ta l a rch , af ew v ousso irs o f wh ich c an b e s een a bove i t . The s l i t w indow w i th c hamfered j a mbs t o t he r igh t o f t he d oorway migh tb e o r ig ina l , b u t t he t hree o ther r ec tangu lar w indows i n t he f acade a re modern . An i l lustra t ion p ubl ished b y Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
7 0
C a mpanar i ( 1856 , I , t ay. XVI I ) s uggests t ha t o r ig ina l ly t he f acade h ad r ect angu lar w indows w i th r e markable , d ecora ted n en fro s urrounds. Fortuna tely aw indow o f t h is t ype s urv ives i n ac our tyard t o t he E . o f t he ma in p alace b u i ld ing ( p la te 1 .25 ) .
I th as a l i n tel w i th f i ve d ecora ted p anels, a nd a lso a
c arved s i l l . T he mot ifs i nclude t he s ame s h ield a nd t assels a s a re t o b e f ound o n Tar tagl ia ts c oa t o f a r ms wh ich c an b e s een i n t he W. wa l l o f t h is b u ild ing , a s wel l a s t he l e t ters ' t a nd ' a ' i ng o th ic s cr ip t . The t op o f t he f acade i s r ec tangu lar , f orm ing a f ron t isp i t ium ( c f . b elow p . 7 8 )c oncea l ing t he g able. I th as b een r ebu i l t , b u t may wel lb e a n o r ig ina l f ea ture. I f s o , t hen i t may h ave b een c renel la ted. The s tone c orbels a nd b eam h oles a t t he t op o f t he f acade were p robably f or a p en t-roof . T hree v ert ica l s cars t hree c ourses h igh i n o ne o f wh ich t here i s as awn-of fb eam , i nd ica te a no ther p en t-roof j us t a bove t he g round-f loor d oorway . A t t he g round f l oor , t he l arge r oom b eh ind t he f acade i s d iv ided l ong i tud inal ly b y t hree s egmen ta l d iaphrag m a rches s pring ing f ro m n en fro p iers w i th p la in c ap i ta ls.
S im ilar a rches a nd p iers e x ist i n t he t h ird b u ild ing a long
v ia d el la Rocca , wh ich was c learly i ncorpora ted i n t he p a lace, i t s u pper s torey f or m ing p art o f t he e nor mous h al l s panned b y d iaphrag m a rches wh ich o ccup ies t he e n t ire f i rst f l oor. The r oo m o ver v ia d el la Rocca was c omp le tely d is man tled a nd r estored a f ter t he e ar thquake. Access t o i ti sb y a n e x ternal s ta ir wh ich p ar t ial ly o bscured s o me b locked d oorways , p robably o f 1 3th-cen tury d a te, o n t he W. s ide o f t he s tree t.
U n for tuna tely , n o th ing s urv ives o f t hese b u i ld ings.
t he h ead o f t he s ta ir t here i s ad oorframe w i th a c orbel led l i n tel .
A t
Th is h as
as l igh t r eba te f or a t w in l eaf d oor, f or wh ich t here a re s t i l l i ron h inges. I t o pened o u twards, t he r everse p rocedure t o most med ieval d oors. T o t he l e f t o f t he d oor t here i s aw ide s eg men ta l-arched a per ture. f or med a s or t o f l ogg ia , o r h ad t racery w ith in i t .
T h is m ight h ave
The r e ma ins o f t racery
d o s urv ive i n al arge r ound-arched w indow i n t he S . wa l l o f t he r oo m. a bove t h is , t here i s ab ifora s im i lar t o t ha t i n t he Pa lazzo S pagnol i.
J ust
The
p os i t ion o ft h is w indow i s n o t h igh e nough f or i tt o h ave s erved a n u pper s torey , a nd i ts ee ms p oss ible t ha t t h is r oom h as b een a l tered , a nd e le men ts f rom e lsewhere i nser ted i n i t .
C er ta in ly t he smal l r ound w indow w i th d og tooth
c arv ing r ound i ti s v ery l i kely t o b e r e-used. I ti s p robably n ot a l oophole ( c f . P ringle 1 974, 2 21) f or t here i s n o embrasure b eh ind i t . However , t he b ifora i s s hown o nC ampanar i 's i l lustra t ion o f t he p a lace , t hough a pparen t ly s et i n t he b lock ing o fa n e ar l ier a per ture. Apart f ro m t he w indow , t h is s truc ture a lso r ese mbles t he Pa lazzo S pagnol i i n h av ing a d oor w i th a c orb el led l in tel , a nd i s a l together i n t he t rad i t ion o ft he h ighly d ecora ted a rch it ec ture o fV i terbo. A f ter t he e xecu t ion o f T ar tagl ia i n 1 421, t he p a lace b ecame t he p roperty o ft he Ca mera Aposto l ica . I n 1 450 i t was i n ad i lap ida ted c ond i t ion a nd t he C o mmune a ppo in ted aman a s c aretaker o fb o th i ta nd t he P alazzo d el Podestä ( AST , Cons igl i I , 1 21v ). I n 1 597 C le men tV I I I s tayed i n t he p a lace , a nd i n t he 1 7 th c en tury t he C a mera Aposto l ica u sed i ta s ac usto ms p ost . T oday i t s s tark a ppearance b el ies i t s p resen t u se a s ad isco theque.
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 7 1
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Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. 7 3 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
S .G .
Corne to-Tarqu in ia , t he Pa lazzo d el Marchese , t he Pa lazzo V i tel lesch i a nd t he Ospeda le d i S . S p ir i to ( f igs. 1 .5, 1 .10 , 1 .28 ). T he Pa lazzo d el Marchese i n v ia S . L eonardo i s n ot v isible f ro m t he s treet , b u t i s c oncealed b eh ind a s er ies o f med ieval h ouse f ron tages w h ich , t yp ical ly o f C orneto-Tarqu in ia , c ons isted o f as er ies o f l arge a rches s pr ing ing f ro m p iers o fr ust ica ted masonry . T hese h ave b een b locked a nd t he b u i ld ing b eh ind t he m d e mol ished , t he wal lb e ing p reserved t o s erve a s o ne s ide o f a c our tyard. I n to i t was i nser ted a d oorway w ith a n icely p roport ioned r ound a rch o f as or t t ha tb eca me c o m mon i n t he 1 5th c en tury. On t he W. s ide o f t he c ourtyard , as ta ircase l eads u p t o af i rst-f loor l ogg ia , t he a rches o f wh ich s pr ing f ro m i on ic c ap i ta ls. The p arape t o f t he l ogg ia i s d ecora ted w i th a r ow o f sma l lb l ind t refo il-headed a rches. Bo th l ogg ia a nd s ta ircase a re s uppor ted o n v au l ts a nd b u t tresses wh ich h ave p robably b een a dded t o p re-ex is t ing b u i ldn gs D esp i te i t s p oor s tate o f p reserva t ion , t he P a lazzo d el Marchese s t il l h as a n a ir o f r ef ine men t wh ich , t ogether w i th i t s l ay-ou t a nd d ecora t ive f ea tures , s ets i ta par t f ro m many o f t he b u ild ings d escr ibed a bove. I ts ee ms l ess e xcep t ional , h owever , i fc ompared w i th t he P a lazzo V i tel lesch i , o ne o f t he most f a mous med ieva lb u ild ings i n t he t own ( f ig. 1 .5; p la te 1 .26; s ee Cu l trera 1 921).
Th is was b u i l t c . 1 436-39 b y C ard inal G iovann i V i tel lesch i ,
who c ame f ro m a n oble f am ily o iCorneto , was s ecretary t o Tar tagl ia a nd t hen l a ter i n e f fec t g overned much o f t he Papa l S ta te f or E ugen ius I V f rom 1 434 u n t i l h e was murdered i n 1 440. T he p a lace i ncorpora tes o lder b u ild ings, t hough t h is i s l ess a pparen t t han i n t he c ase o f t he Pa lazzo d el Marchese o r t he Pa lazzo T ar tagl ia. T o t he N . W. t here i s t he t ower a nd p alace t o wh ich r eference h as a lready b een made , wh i lst t he E . w ing c o mpr ises t wo med ieva l b u i ld ings ( Cu l trera 1 921 ).
The f acade o f t he p a lace c an j ust ly b e d escr ibed
a s e x traord inary . T he d oorway i s r ectangu lar w ith a p ed i men t a bove i t . The g round f l oor i sb u il t o f a sh lar , b u t t he u pper s toreys , a bove a s tr ing c ourse, a re o f p rec isely r ust ica ted b locks o f as tone s im i lar t o n en fro , t he r everse o f wha t h ad b een t he n or ma l p ract ice i n med ieval b u ild ings. l evel t he f acade may b e d iv ided i n to t hree p arts .
A t t h is
T o t he E . t here a re t hree
e nor mous w indows w ith g o th ic t racery w h ich l i gh t t he l arge f irst a nd s econd f l oor h a l ls wh ich o ccupy t he E . w ing o f t he p a lace. I n t he m iddle o f t he f acade, t he s tr ing c ourse a nd t he r ust ica ted masonry d ip , a nd t here a re t hree t i ers o f sma l lb ifore, a l l d i f feren t , w i th marble s urrounds. T hese l ight w ha t i n e f fec t c onst itu tes a s ta ircase t ower wh ich s erves a l l t he f l oors i n t he b u i ld ing. The s tr ing c ourse r eturns t o i t s p rev ious l evel i n t he W. e nd o f t he f acade , where t here i s al arge w indow wh ich h as l ost i t s t racery a bove t he d oorway , a nd a t t he t op s torey t here i s al ogg ia w ith a p a ir o f t hree-l ight w indows. Desp ite t he a pparen t d ivers i ty o f t hese e le men ts , t here i s n o r eason f or t h ink ing t ha t t hey a re n o t o f s ubstan t ial ly t he s ame d a te.
I nside t he p a lace ,
t here i s ac ourtyard s urrounded o n t wo s ides b y t wo s toreys o f a rcad ing. Po in ted a rches w i th a l terna t ing b lack a nd wh i te v ousso irs s pring f rom marble c olumns w i th c rocke t c ap ita ls. a re g ro in v au l ts.
B eh ind t he a rches o f t he g round f l oor t here
The p arape t ä t t he f i rst f l oor i sd ecora ted w i th sma l l ,
b l ind , t refo i l-headed a rches.
A t t he s econd f l oor , o n t he E . s ide, t here i s
al ogg ia w i th marble c olu mns a t f requen t i n tervals s upport ing a n a rch i trave.
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
7 4
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Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
7 5
T he p a lace i s ah ybr id b u ild ing , i n wh ich a n umber o f s tyl ist ic i n f luences h ave b een i den t i f ied. The ma in d oorway , w ith i t s p ed i men t a nd e legan t marble f rame, h as b een s een a s ap roduct o f t he Tuscan r ena issance, t he g o th ic w indows a nd t he a rcades o ft he c ourtyard a s Vene t ian , a nd s o me o f t he i n tern a l d oorways w ith t he ir w ide s urrounds w ith l ow r el ief d ecora t ion a s S . I t a l ian ( Cu l trera 1 921, 2 82 ). The marble f or i t was p lundered f ro m a nc ien t monu men ts a t R o me a nd t ransported t o Corneto-Tarqu in ia. S o me a t l east o f i t was w orked b y Ro man mar morar i i ( Corbo 1 969 , 9 8102, 1 99-200 , 2 07 ). The p alace u ndoubtedly s erved a s a model f or t he Pa lazzo d el Marchese. More s ign if ican t t han t he c our tyard w i th c istern a nd l ogg ia a re t wo o ther p o in ts o f s im i lar i ty , t he sma l lb l ind a rches o f t he p arapet o f t he l ogg ia , a nd ad oorway w ith in t he l ogg ia o f t he Pa lazzo d el Marchese w h ich r ese mbles t he h igh ly d is t inc t ive o nes i n t he V i t el lesch i p a lace. These a re b oth f ea tures wh ich n ever b eca me w ide ly d if fused i n t he d o mes t ic a rch itecture o f t he a rea. D ecorat ive f r iezes o fb l ind a rches h ad b een a c o mmbn f eature o f N . I t a l ian h ouses f rom t he 1 3th c entury a nd p robab ly b efore , b ut a re r e lat ive ly r are i n L az io. E xamp les c an b e s een a t Barbarano Romano , C ampagnano a nd T ivo l i. I n most c ases t hey a re 1 4th- o r e ar ly 1 5th-cen tury i n d ate . Another f i ne 1 5th-century b u i ld ing a t C orneto-Tarqu in ia i s t he h osp ita l o f S . S p ir ito i n v ia d e i G ranar i ( f ig.1 .10 ). I n 1 440, E ugen ius I V a uthor ized t he r e locat ion o f t he h osp ita l f ro m o uts ide t he t own t o i t s p resent s i te w ith in t he wa l ls.
Above t he e ntrance , t here i s t he c oat o f a r ms o fN icho las V a nd
a n i nscr ipt ion d a ted t o 1 447. 2 1 L ike t he Pa lazzo V i te l lesch i , t h is b u i ld ing c o mb ines g oth ic b ifore a nd a r ectangu lar d oor w ith a n e legant r ena issance s urround i n marb le. a rches.
I ns ide , t he g round f l oor i s s panned b y t hree d iaphrag m
DOCU MENTARY EVIDENCE FOR 1 5th-CENTURY DO MEST IC ARCH ITECTURE I n t he 1 5th c en tury t here i s f or t he f i rst t ime a r ela t ive a bundance o f d ocumen tary e vidence f or t he d o mest ic a rchitec ture o f t owns l ike Tuscan ia a nd V i terbo. T h is i s o ft wo s orts : d eta iled r ecords o f t he imple men ta t ion o f t own-p lann ing l egisla t ion , a nd b u ild ing c on trac ts. By t he 1 5th c en tury t hese t owns w ere v ery d ecayed. The r e turn o ft he p opes t o Ro me i n 1 420 d id n ot b ring t he m a ny i m med ia te r esp i te. I ndeed , t he warfare o f t he p apacy o f Eugen ius I V o n ly i mpoverished t he m f urther. H owever , f ro m a bou t t he
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. 7 6 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
midd le o f t he c en tury , t here was a g rea t d ea l o fb u i lding a c tiv ity, on a s cale p robably u npreceden ted s ince t he 1 3th c en tury .
Much o f t his c onsisted o f
p ubl ic w orks a nd i mprove men ts t o t he a ppearance o f t he t owns.
These were
o f ten c arr ied o u t o n t he i n i t ia t ive o f v isi t ing p opes a nd o ff icials, who were s hocked b y t he ir s qua l id c ond it ion , t hough t here i s e v idence o f a gro w ing l oca l awareness i n t h is r espect . V iterbo was r ebu i l t .
F ro m 1 448 t he P a lazzo d el Pr ior i a t
The p iazza i n f ron t o f i t was p aved i n 1 466, and a
f oun ta in r e moved , p arendo a l l i c i t tad in i d esse i mped i men to a lla v ista d i e ssa p iazza ( Cia mp i 1 872, 9 0 ).
I n 1 460 a nd 1 462 P ius I o rdered t he de mol ition
o f e x terna l s ta irs i n c erta in s tree ts ( Cia mp i 1 872, 8 2 , 8 4).
I n 1 465 t he r ec tor
o f t he Pa tr i mony made c er ta in mod if ica t ions t o t he s treet p attern , c rea te more d irec t r ou tes t hrough t he t own c en tre ( Cia mp i 187 2,
s o a s t o
89 -9 0 ).
Encroach men t u pon t he s treets a nd t he ir o bstruc t ion were c on tinual p roble ms a ga ins t w h ich s uccess ive a c ts o f l eg isla t ion t ended t o p rove i nef fect ual p ar t ly b ecause , a s h as b een s een , much p r iva te b u ild ing activity i nvolved t he r econstruc t ion a nd a dap ta t ion o f e x ist ing b u ild ings a nd n eeded t o t ake a dvan tage o f wha tever s pace was a va ilable. I n 1 47 4 t he c o m mittee o f f our men a ppo in ted s uper d ecore m e t c onserva t ione m o rna men t i c ivitatis Viterbi i p er s tra tas p ubbl icas, n e o ccupen ter p er p rofer ios c ap i tascalaru m e t host ia s ive i n tro i tus c el lar ioru m q ue s olen t -et s oleban t f i eri p er v ias were r el ieved o f t he ir d u t ies b ecause t hey h ad p roved t oo l ax , a nd t he ir r esponsibilit ies t ransferred t o t he p riors ( ACV, R ifor me 1 9 , f . 5 4 ).
Twen ty y ears l ater t he
g overnor o f t he t own i ssued a c o mprehens ive o rd inance f orbidding t he c ons truct ion o f s ta irs, a rches , c h i mneybreasts o r a ny th ing t ha t might obstruct t he r oads, a nd o rder ing h ouseholders i n t he c en tre o ft he t own t o sweep t heir f ron tages t hr ice w eek ly ( ACV, R ifor me 2 5, f . 9 4v , 9 5 ).
A t a bout t h is t i me
t he t own-p lann ing r egula t ions i ssued b y S ix tus I V f or Ro me ( cf. Magnuson 19 58 , 3 8-39 ) w ere e x tended t o V iterbo ( S ignorel l i 1 938 , 1 86 ). Tuscan ia was p robably a g ood d ea l more b ackward i n t hese m atters. Desp ite t he p rov is ions i n t he s ta tu tes , v iar i i were n o t a lways r egularly a ppo in ted t o e nsure t ha t t he s treets were i ng ood o rder ( c f. AST, f .232;
2 , f . 17 3v ).
Consigl i 1 ,
There i s , h owever , e v idence t o s how t ha t e ffect ive
measures were s o met i mes t aken t o c on trol e ncroach men ts upon t he s treets. Thus i n 1 455 C igl ionus Oddon is was o rdered t o r e move c er ta in s tructures ( coss ie ) w h ich h e h ad h ad e rec ted i n f ron t o f t he s hop ( apoteca ) o f h is brother , a nd a n a t te mp t was b e ing made t o make a no ther p ro m inen t c it izen , J ohannes I u t i i G ia i , t o r es tore p art o f as treet wh ich h e h ad o ccup ied.
Yet n o s ubstan-
t i a l p rogress s ee ms t o h ave b een made i n improv ing t he a ppearance o f t he t own , a nd i n 1 49 2 t he l i eu tenan t o f t he Pa tr i mony , who was v isiting Tuscan ia , c o mp la ined t o t he c om munal a u thor i t ies a bout t he c ond it ion o f t he s treets, a nd o rdered t he d e mol i t ion o f omnes s ca las, p roferia , p or t ical ia, arcal ia. T h is was s o d rast ic ameasure a nd c aused s uch embarrass men t t hat t he g eneral c ounc il r eso lved t ha t t he l i eu tenan t s hou ld h i msel f d ec ide what was t ob e d estroyed.
He h ad t o t ransfer t he r esponsib il i ty t o t he anziani and a
s pec ial ly a ppo in ted c omm i t tee, t hereby e nsur ing t ha t l i t t le would be changed ( AST , Cons igl i 4 , f .170 , 17 4v -1 7 5v , 1 82v ).
The b us iness o f t he c ouncil
meet ing a lso r evea ls t ha t r ubbish was b e ing d u mped i nd iscr i minately i n t he t own , a nd t ha t l a tr ines were b e ing a l lowed t o emp ty i n to t he s treet, evidence f or t he i nef f icacy o f t he s ta tu tes.
However , ac er ta in c onsc iousness o f t he
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 7 7
bad impression g iven b y s o me o f t he more u nsavoury a spec ts o f t he u rban environ men t d oes s ee m t o h ave d eveloped.
I n 1 493 , t he g enera l c ounc i l
decided t ha t i ft he t own was t o b e c ons idered a s " noble a nd magn if icen t a s i t r eally i s", t hen t he mea t marke t s hou ld b e r e moved f ro m t he g round f l oor o f t he c o m muna l p a lace • 22 T here i s a lso e v idence t ha t t he l i eu tenan t 's i nstruct ions were t o s o me e x ten t a c ted u pon . A c ase i n wh ich a man t ried t ob u ild ar oo m s upported o n a rches o ver a s treet w as r eferred t o h im i n 1 49 4 ( AST , Consign 4 , f .507 ). A h ouseholder who i n 1 493 w an ted t o b u ild a l a tr ine , apparen tly c orbel led o u t f ro m t he s ide o fh is h ouse a bove a n arrow s tree t , was p reven ted f ro m d o ing s o w hen h is n eighbour o n t he o ther s ide o f t he s treet c o mp la ined ( AST , C onsigl i 4 , f . 2 81v ). Building c on trac ts a re t o b e f ound c op ied amongst t he m inu tes o f c ounc il meet ings, a nd i n n o taria l r eg isters. I n t he f ormer c ase t hey u sua l ly c oncern p ubl ic works , w h ils t i n t he s econd t hey a re f or w ork c arried o u t o n p r iva te i n itiat ive.
Two c on trac ts f ro m t he n otar ia l r eg isters o f T uscan ia a nd d a t ing
f ro m 1 459 a nd 1 460 a re t ranscr ibed i n t he a ppend ix .
As i s o f ten t he c ase ,
d isappoin t ingly l i t tle c an b e u nderstood o f t he a ppearance o f t he h ouses a nd t heir i n ternal a rrange men ts.
The f i rst c on trac t was f or t he a dd i t ion o f a n
extra s torey t o ah ouse wh ich a lready c ons isted o f ag round a nd f i rs t f l oor. The f acade was t ob e p las tered a nd h ave merlons, a nd t he n ew s torey was t o have w indows ma tch ing t hose o f t he r ecen t ly b u i l t h ouse a d jacen t t o i t . I ron hooks were t o b e p laced t o e i ther s ide o f t he w indows f ro m wh ich c urta ins or wash ing c ou ld b e h ung. T he i n ter ior a s wel l a s t he e x terior was t ob e c o mpletely p lastered a nd wh i te-washed. The s econd c on trac t i s f or wha t amoun ted t o t he c onstruct ion o f an ew house, t hough i ti ncorpora ted s o me o lder wal ls. s ituated a t ac orner.
T he h ouse was p robably
I t was r ec tangu l ar w ith s creen wa l ls ( f ron t isp i t ia )
c onceal ing t he g ables a t e ach e nd .
A v al ley g u t ter ( i n s um i ta te d ic te c roste
m uri f acere u nu m c ana le m ) was t o c arry o f f r a in w a ter t ha t c ol lec ted between i t s r oof a nd t ha t o f a n a d jacen t h ouse.
O n t he ma in f acade , a n
external s ta ircase b u i l t o f n en fro l ed t o af i rstf loor d oorway.
Benea th t he
arch o f t he s ta ircase t here was a d oorway t o t he g round f l oor. Another en trance t o t h is was l oca ted i n t he s ide o f t he h ouse. I n t he midd le o f t he ground f loor , t here was a p ier o f n en fro f ro m wh ich s prang f our d iaphrag m arches. Above t hese a rches r ose t he p ar t i t ion w a l ls o f t he u pper s toreys, which c o mpr ised t hree r oo ms a nd a k i tchen . A l though n o t e n t irely c l ear, i t i s p robable t ha t t here were t wo s toreys a bove t he g round f l oor, w i th t he k itchen a nd t he ma in l i v ing r oo m ( pr i ma c amera , s a la ) a t t he f irs t f l oor and t he t wo o ther r oo ms, p resumably b edroo ms , a t t he s econd. The k i tchen s ee ms t o h ave b een l oca ted a t t he t op o f t he e x terna l s ta ircase. I th ad a n enfro w indow a nd s o me s or t o f d ra in ( scanc ia ) , p erhaps b u il t i n to t he wal l t hickness.
T he ma in l i v ing r oo m was t o h ave af i rep lace, a nd t he e n t ire
i nterior was t o b e p lastered. FEA TURES OF 1 5th-CENTURY DOMEST IC ARCH ITECTURE One o f t he most s tr ik ing d evelopmen ts t o t ake p lace i n t he 1 5th c en tury and apparen t f rom s o me o f t he p alaces d escr ibed a bove i s t he a ppearance o f an ew h ouse t ype , t ha t l a id o u t r ound a c ourtyard . C our tyards h ad l ong b een
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. 7 8 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
o ne o f t he f oca l p o in ts o f c er ta in t ypes o fb u ilding,
such as m onastic co m-
p lexes, c as tles f rom t he t ime o f t he Emperor Frederick I I,
and occasionally
o fg rander u rban p a laces l i ke t he Pa lazzo Vecchio a t Florence .23 The ordin ary t own h ouse , h owever , h ad g enera l ly b een . as i mple rectangular building. Many o f t he m h ad a d jo in ing l and wh ich s erved a s a yard or garden and which i s c o m mon ly d enoted b y t he word c asal inus.
This t er m can have a nu mber
o f mean ings, b u t g enera l ly i nd ica tes a n e nclosed space or ruined building w h ich m igh tb e p u t t o av arie ty o fu ses ( c f . Lup i 1902 , 211 -14;
S ignorelli
1 907 , 1 96 n ote 2 3 ). As e ar ly a s 8 43 w e f ind a r eference to ipsu ortu , quod e st c hasa l inu ( Cod. D ip. Am ia t inus , p . 2 61). Records of pro perty t ransact ions a t Vi t erbo make i tc lear t ha t i t was n or ma l f or a house t o have a casal inus b ehind i t .
Ad eed o f s ale o f 1 250 c on ta ins t he f ollo wing description :
una m
d o mu m c um t o ta p la tea e x isten t i a n te d icta m do mu m et cu m t oto c asa l ino c ons is ten t i p ost i psa m d o mum ( Eg idi 19 06 , 165-66; cf. A C V, perg. 6 7 ). Tha t ar u ined h ouse m igh t b e U sed a s ay ard and called a casal inus c an b e s een f ro m r eferences a t T uscan ia t o q ua mda m do mu m reducta m ad c asalenum o r q uamda m d o mu m d e q ua n unc d ue partes sunt reducte ad c asal enu m ( AST , p erg. 1 64, a n . 1 380 ). Docu men ts s ho w t hat i t w as quite usual f or l arger h ouses a tP isa a nd F lorence t o h ave yards and gardens with wells o r c isterns , f ru i t t rees a nd o u tbu ild ings s uch a s s tables (Lupi 1902, 211 notes; S ch iaparel l i 1 908. 2 -3, 5 -6, 9a nd n otes ).
Bu t e ven i f described as a curtis
o r c laus tru m , i ti s p robable t ha t o n ly v ery f ew o f t hese,
and certainly no
c asal inus , were o rna men ta l c ourtyards s urrounded by l oggie .24 I n t he 1 4th c en tury s uch c our tyards s ee m t o h ave b eco me r elatively co m mon in grander h ouses i n l arge t owns.
S o me p alaces a t S iena h ad t he m (De V ecchi 19 49 , 46-
4 8 ) , a s d id t he P a lazzo Davanza t i a t F lorence.
I n N.
Lazio,
t he earliest
d a table e xample i s p robably t ha t o f t he Pa lazzo Vitelleschi, though i t i s i nt erest ing t o n ote t ha t i n 1 436 t he d o mus p ucc i i f ane a t ' T uscania, obviously ab u ild ing o f s o me p retens ions f or i tb elonged t o a noble fa mily,
w as recorded
a s h av ing a c laustro ( AST, p erg. 2 15 ). There c an be no doubt that i t was o n ly f ro m a bou t t h is t ime t ha t o rna men ta l c ourtyards beca me a widespread f ea ture o fd o mes t ic a rch itec ture i n t he a rea.
Their d iffusion see ms t o have
b een r ap id , a nd t hey a re t o b e f ound i n mos t o f t he l arger 15th-century palaces a tV i terbo. The c hron icler N iccolö d el la Tucc ia, a pro minent f igure i n t he c om muna lg overnmen t a nd p ossessed o f ag ood p ractical kno wledge of building a nd a rch i tec ture , was o ne p erson who c on for med t o t he ge neral fashion , f or h e wrote i n 1 458 t ha th e l i ved i nu na c asa o ve s ta un chiostro e una f ontanella; i lq uale c h ios tro e f on tanel la e c aposca le s opra d etta f onte feel fare d i nuovo i o N icola s opradet to ( Ciamp i 1 872, 6 7 ). One o ft he b et ter p reserved a nd mos t c har m ing s mall courtyards of t he p er iod i s t ob e f ound i nt he Pogg io d istr ic t o f Tuscania, in v ia Tartaglia d i L avel lo ( nos. 1 -7 , f i g. 1 .29 ; p la te 1 .27 ). H igh a shlar w alls revealed i n r estora t ion a f ter t he e arthquake s howed t ha t t h is palace w as for med t hrough t he ama lga ma t ion o f s evera l med ieva lb u i ld ings, i n to which the courtyard w as i nserted , s o me th ing wh ich a ccoun ts f or i t s r ather cra mped proportions. T he wal l o n i t s N . s ide i s d ef in i tely med ieval .
The m ain door way of t he
p a lace, wh ich i s r ound-arched w ith a r ust ica ted s urround, l eads directly i n to t he g ro in-vau l ted l ogg ia o nt he E . s ide o f t he c ourtyard. The l oggia e x tends o n t o i t s S . s ide, where i ti s a lso p resent a t f irst-floor l evel. t here a re p os t- med ieval f rescoes , n ow i n ap oor s tate of preservation. Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
Here The
arcades have f inely moulded n en fro v ousso irs, a nd c olu mns w ith i on ic c ap i ta ls , t he s ides of which a re d ecora ted w i th a f ol ia te p a t tern.
T he s ta ircase a long
the W . w all t o t he f irstf loor l ogg ia was n ot p ar t o f t he o r ig inal l ay-ou t , f or i t partially blocks o ne o f t he a rches o f t he g round f loor a rcade.
O r ig inal ly
i t m ust have been i nside t he b u ild ing, b u t was l a ter moved i n to t he c our tyard t o econo mise on i n terna l s pace.
I n t he e arl ier 1 5th c en tury , s ta ircases were
ge ner ally s ituated i n t he c ourtyard , c l i mb ing r ound o ne o r t wo s ides o f i ta nd supported on arches, i n c onstruct ion a nd d ecora t ion s im ilar t o p roferl i .
I t
w as exce ptional t o l oca te i tw i th in t he p a lace , a s i n t he Pa lazzo V i te l lesch i . Other f eatures o f t h is p a lace a re r ec tangu lar d oorways a nd w indows w i th cor nices and f ra mes w i th a c y ma mou ld ing t ha t t urns i n a t t he b o t to m .
I t
m ay be dated t o t he s econd h a lf o f t he 1 5th c en tury . Leaving aside t he g rander p alaces a nd t he ir c ourtyards, t he t wo b u i ld ing co ntr acts exa mined a bove s how t ha t h ouses b e ing b u il t a s l a te a s 1 460 were s till funda mentally med ieva l i n a ppearance , a nd h ad c hanged l i t tle s ince t he 13 th ce ntury.
The e x ternal s ta ircase o f t he s econd h ouse , w ith i t s b alcony
and door way beneath i tt o t he g round f l oor, must h ave b een v ir tua l ly i den t ica l t o those of t he Palazzo S acch i a t V i terbo a nd t he Pa lazzo d el Vescovo a t V i torchiano. s ides,
Houses were s t i l l r ec tangu lar, t he ir f acades s et i n t he ir s hor t
the gables being c oncealed b y s creen wa l ls.
The f i rst c on trac t s pec i-
f ied that these were t o b e c renel la ted , s o me th ing r a ther s urpris ing f or a n ordinar y house, e spec ia l ly a s i n s o me t owns, l i ke S . Ana tol ia i n t he Marche , m erlons on private h ouses were f orbidden b y t he s ta tu tes ( Luzza t to 1 909 , 6 8 ). Diaphrag m arches were u sed t o s upport t he j o ists a nd p ar t i t ion w a l ls o f t he upper f loors, j ust a s t hey h ad b een s ince t he e nd o f t he 1 2th c en tury .
They
co nti nued i n use i n r ural a rch i tec ture i n to t he 1 6 th a nd 1 7 th c en tur ies. Y et there i s a lso e v idence t ha t c hanges were t ak ing p lace. w ere being enlarged a nd modern ized.
Many h ouses
N ew b u i ld ings were r are , n o t e ven
the palace of Cardinal V i tel lesch i b e ing s tarted c o mp le tely f ro m s cra tch. H ouses w hich had h ither to c ons isted o f o n ly a g round f l oor must o f ten h ave had an upper one added a t t h is t ime.
O thers, l i ke t h a t i n t he f i rs t c on trac t ,
w ere enlarged t hrough t he a dd i t ion o f a n e x tra s torey .
T he h ouse i n t he
second contract was t o h ave a f i rep lace a nd c h i mney i n i t s l i v ing r oo m .
T he
co nstr uction o f ch i mneys was o ne i mpor tan t i mprove men t c o m mon ly made to houses i n t he 1 5th c en tury , o f ten t o t he d e tr i men t o f t he s tree ts , a s l eg islatio n t o prevent t heir o bstruct ion s hows ( c f . ACV, R ifor me 2 5, f . 9 4v ).
A
good i llustration o f t his p rocess i s t o b e f ound i n .a d ocu men t o f 1 458 i n wh ich a priest agreed t o t he c ons truc t ion o f ac h i mney .a ga inst t he wa l l o f ah ouse next to h is i n v ia S . Pel legr ino , Tuscan ia , s o l ong a s h e r eceived n o d a mage or inco nvenience i n t he p rocess ( ANT , 2 6, f . 8 0v ).
The h ouses may h ave
been se parated by a n a l ley , b u t more p robably t hey s hared a p ar ty wa l l i n to w hich the builders n o d oubt p roposed t o c u t af l ue l i ke t ha t i nser ted i n to o ne of the roo ms o f t he Palazzo G iovanne t t i.
The c hronology o f t he d i f fus ion
of f ire places and c h i mneys i n med ieva l I t aly h as b een t he s ub jec t o f s o me discussion ( cf.
Lup i 1 901, 6 5-75;
S ch iaparel l i 1 908 , 8 8-113 ).
S u f f ice i tt o
say that i mportant bu ild ings h ad t he m f ro m a t l east t he e ar ly 1 3th c en tury f or they occur i n most o f t he c astles o f Freder ick I , a nd t ha t t hey w ere quite co m mon i n t he l arger t owns b y t he 1 4th c en tury , b u t d id n o t b eco me w idespread in ordinary h ouses i n L azio u n t il t he 1 5th c entury .2 5 Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. 8 0 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
Be forehand ,
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F IG . 1 . 29 Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
8 1
5 .G .
o pen h ear ths must h ave b een t he n or m.
I ti s p oss ible t ha t t he s l i t w indows
a t t he t op o f s o me h ouses s uch a s t hose i n P iano S carano may h ave b een smoke v en ts. I nb o th c on trac ts d iscussed a bove , t he b u ilders w ere men f rom C o mo. Ih ave c o m men ted e lsewhere ( c f . Andrews 1 978a a nd p p . 1 94-95 o f t h is v olu me ) o n t he d om ina t ion o f t he b u ild ing i ndustry b y L o mbards, a nd h ave s ugges ted t ha t amongst o ther t h ings t hey may h ave p layed a ma jor r o le i n t he c hange t o b u i ld ing i n c oursed r ubble i nstead o f a sh lar t ha t t ook p lace f ro m a bou t t he m idd le o f t he 1 5th c en tury . I n t he s econd c on trac t , i ti s e nv isaged t ha t t he b u ilders might w ork i n e i ther r ubble ( boc t i is ) o r a shlar ( l ap ides d e f i b). The i ncreas ing u se o f r ubble h ad s evera l s ubt le e f fec ts o nb u i ld ing p rac t ice. Because i t was u ns igh tly , i t made p las ter ing n ecessary. Ih ave a lready a rgued t ha t p lastered e x ter iors w ere a more c o mmon f ea ture o f med ieva l h ouses t han o f ten s ee ms t he c ase t oday . F ro m a bou t t h is t ime , t hey mus t h ave b eco me u n iversa l . T he c on tract s t ipu la ted t ha t i ft he h ouse were b u il t o f r ubble i t was t o b e p lastered b oth o u ts ide a nd i nside. Rubble c ons truc t ion may a lso h ave e ncouraged t he u se o f r ec tangu lar f rames f or d oors a nd w indows.
Prev iously t hese h ad b een b u i l t w i th i nd iv idua lj ambs
t ha t ma tched t he c ours ing. N ow t ha t t h is was n o l onger p oss ible, i tw as p robably s i mp ler t o work w ith monol i th ic j a mbs a nd l i n tels. These L o mbard masons a lso i mported t he ir o wn d ecora t ive v ocabu lary , l ead ing t o s o meth ing o f al a te g o th ic r ev iva l i n a n a rea where g o th ic f or ms h ad n ever a ch ieved p redo m inance. A t erraco t ta w indow i n v ia C ard ina le L a Fon ta ine a tV i terbo ( p la te 1 .28 ) i s t oday p robably u n ique i n N . L az io , b u t wou ld b e q u i te u nexcep t ional i n Milan .
I t was e i ther i mpor ted f rom N . I ta ly
o r e lse made w i th mou lds wh ich a L o mbard h ad b rough t w i th h i m. D oorways a nd w indows a t C iv ita Castel lana a nd Fabrica d iR o me ( e .g. v ia d el la F on tane l la, p la te 1 .30 ) w i th o gee a rches r em in iscen t o f t hose o f t he a rch i tec ture o f t he Vene to must a lso h ave b een t he work o f L o mbards. L ombards w ere a lso d oub tless r espons ible f or t he o ccas iona l u se o fb r ick i nh ouses f rom t he l a ter 1 5th c en tury , a nd t hey a lso h ad t he t echnolog ica l e xper t ise a nd e xper ience o f r efrac tory ma ter ials n ecessary f or t he c onstruc t ion o f f i rep laces a nd c h i mneys. I n t he f i rst h a l fo f t he 1 5th c en tury t here was ag ood d eal o f v ar ie ty t o d oorway a nd w indow s hapes. T he e n trance t o Tar tag l ia 's p a lace was s eg ment a l-arched , a nd t hese a rches c on t inued t o b e u sed f or l arger d oorways, s uch a s t hose o f s hops, i n to t he 1 6th c en tury.
T o al a rge e x ten t , h owever, t he
s eg men tal was s uperseded b y t he r ound a rch. I n t he h igher p art o f t he t own o f B olsena , t here i s an umber o f r ubble,bu il t h ouses d a table t o t he 1 5th c ent ury wh ich h ave sma l l r ound-arched w indows w i th h ooked c orbels a bove t he m. More e legan t w indows a re l arger , w i th p rec isely c u t s urrounds w i th a c y ma mou ld ing t ha t t urns i n a t t he b o t to m . They o ccur a t t he t op s torey o f t he Palazzo d e i P r ior i a tV iterbo r ebu i l t f rom 1 448. T hese w indows s omet i mes h ad g o th ic iz ing t racery i n w ood a t t he t op o f t hem , a s c an b e s een i n o ne i n t he c orso I t a l ia ( nos. 2 -8 ) a t V i terbo ( p la te 1 .29 ). T he o ther f our w indows i nt h is f acade , w h ich t oday l ack .t h is t racery , h ave t he ir s urrounds d ecora ted w i th ab ead mo t if p opu lar i n t he s econd h a lf o f t he 1 5th c en tury.
I ft he
w indows a re c on te mporary w ith t he l a te p er iod I I masonry o f t he p a lace, t hen t hey c anno t d a te f ro m l ong a f ter c . 1 450 , s ince f rom t hat t ime r ubb le masonry Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
8 2
b eca me a l most u n iversal .
T he s tr ing c ourse a bove t hese w indows i s r e mark-
a ble f or h av ing a c orbel t able wh ich i s r emarkably med ieva l i na ppearance. L ater i n t he c en tury , f ro m a t l east t he t ime o f t he Cance l ler ia ( 1 486-98 ) a t Ro me , r ound-arched w indows were o f ten s et w i th in a r ec tangu lar f rame , s pandrels b eing d ecora ted w i th r oset tes o r o ther mot ifs s uch a s c herubs , a s i n t he w indow i nserted i n to t he Pa lazzo S pagnol i a t Tuscan ia . Windows o f t h is t ype r e ma ined p opu lar u n t il a t l east t he m id-16th c en tury , o ccurr ing i n t he h ouse o f t he b arber o f P au l I I d ated 1 540 a t V i terbo ( v ia d el l ' Orolog io Vecch io n o. 4 4). B ifore c on t inued t o b e f ash ionable i n t he f i rst h al f o f t he 1 5th c en tury , s o meth ing wh ich m igh t a lso p oss ibly b e a t tr ibu ted t o t he i n f luence o f L ombard masons. T hey may h ave e labora te g oth ic t racery , l i ke t he l arge o nes o f t he Palazzo V i tel lesch i , b u t i ti s more u sua l f or t he m a t t h is p eriod t o b e i n a r estra ined g o th ic s ty le , l i ke t hose o f t he Pa lazzo S pagnol i a nd t he Palazzo T artagl ia . I n t he E . wa l l o f t he Pa lazzo V i tel lesch i , t here a re s evera l p la in p o in ted-arched o nes wh ich m igh t h ave b een b u il t a t a ny t ime f ro m t he e nd o f t he 1 3th c en tury. S o meth ing o f t he d urab il i ty o f t he b ifora a s a n a rch i tec tural f or m c an b e s een f ro m t wo w indows, o ne i n ab u i ld ing i n p iazza Ma t teot t i a t C iv i ta Cas tel lana , a nd a nother a t Fabrica d i Ro ma (p la te 1 .30 ).
The f or mer
h as a d oorway w i th a r ust ica ted s urround d a ted 1 497 . A l though t he t ops o f b oth w indows r ese mble a ny o rd inary b ifora , t he l ower p ar ts o ft hem a re c rossmu ll ioned. They t herefore b elong t o t he t ype o fw indow k nown a s g uel f , c o m mon b y t he m id-15th c en tury , o ccurr ing i n t he P a lazzo d e i Pr ior i a t V i terbo, a nd c on t inu ing i nu se i n to t he f i rst d ecades o f t he 1 6th c en tury . Guel f w indows may r epresen t at ransla t ion i n to s tone o f t he wooden f i t t ings o f e arl ier w indows. A t Arezzo , t here a re s eg men ta l-arched w indows w ith w ooden c ase men ts , a dm i t ted ly modern , wh ich a re r ec tangu lar a nd d iv ided i n to f our p ar ts. The l i n tel s upported b y c orbels , wh ich h ad p robably b een u sed t hrougho u t t he Midd le Ages , u nderwen t s o me th ing o f ar ev ival i n t he 1 5th c en tury , t hough b e ing more c o m mon i n d oorways t hen w indows. T he ma in d oors o f F rancesco d i Marco Da t in i 's h ouse a t Prato , b u i l t a t t he e nd o f t he 1 4th c en tury , h ave c orbels a s d o t he d oors a nd w indows o f t he P a lazzo S pagnol i , wh ich may b e o fc o mparable d a te.
S o d oes a d oorway i nserted i n ab locked
s eg men ta l-arch i nv ia d el la L upa a t Tuscan ia ( f ig. 1 .21 )a nd a nother a t t he g round f l oor o f t he P alazzo Pocc i i n t he s a me t own b u i l t p robably a t t he e nd o f t he 1 5th c en tury. T hese d oorways a re u sua l ly w ider t han e arl ier e xamp les , a nd h ave c arved d ecora t ion o n t he ir c orbels. However, more c o m mon s t il l f or b o th d oors a nd w indows i n t he l a ter 1 5th c en tury was t he s i mp le r ec tangu lar f ra me.
Though h ard ly a c harac terist ic
f ea ture o f med ieva l a rch i tec ture , w indows o f t h is t ype o ccur f rom t he 1 2th a nd 1 3th c en turies. T hey a re t o b e f ound a t t he t op o f s o me med ieva l t owers , t he a bbey o f S S . S evero a nd Mart irio n ear Orv ieto , a nd i n t he l a te 1 3 th c ent ury c ast le a t S . G iovena le ( Thordemann 1 967 ).
The t wo w indows w i th c ham-
f ered s urrounds a t t he g round f l oor o f n os. 5 -7 v ia S . C arlo i n P iano S carano ( f ig. 1 .3 ) a re p robably o r ig ina l . Rec tangular w indows w ere p robably f i rst u sed most f requen t ly t o l i gh t t he g round f l oors o fh ouses, i n wh ich c ase t hey g eneral ly h ad i ron g r i l ls.
They a re r epresen ted t hus i n med ieva l p a in t ings ,
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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s uch a s Fra Angel ico 's e p isodes i n t he l i fe o f S . N icola d a Bar i i n t he Va t ican P inaco teca. I n 1 455 f our w indows measur ing 3b y 2 f ee t w ere b u i l t i n t he a po teca where t he mea t marke t was b elow t he a ud ience c hamber a nd t he k i tchen o f t he c o m muna l p a lace a t Tuscan ia ( AST , C onsigl i I , f .356v ). These w indows w ere u t il itarian i n c harac ter. T hose o f Tar tagl ia 's p a lace ( p la te 1 .25 ) were e labora tely d ecora ted , a nd s ee m t o b e a n u nusua l ly e ar ly i nstance o f t he c ho ice o f t he r ec tangu lar f rame f or a n u pper s torey . They d if fer f rom l a ter w indows i n n o t h av ing monol i th ic j a mbs.
F ro m a bou t t he m idd le o f t he
1 5th c en tury , r ec tangular d oors a nd w indows b ecame i ncreas ingly c o mmon i n o rd inary h ous ing. A r ubble-bu il t h ouse i n v ia U gol in i a t V itorch iano h as r ec tangu lar w indows a nd t he d a te 1 47 7 i nscr ibed o n t he l i n tel o f i t s d oorway . L ike r ound-arched o nes, r ectangu lar f rames w ere a lso c o m mon ly d ecora ted w i th a c y ma mou ld ing t ha t t urns i n a t t he b o t to m , i n wh ich c ase t hey g eneral ly h ave a s trongly p ro jec t ing c orn ice a t t he t op .
T he f l a t s urfaces o f t he ir
j ambs a nd l i n tels w ere a lso s o me t i mes c arved w i th r ena issance mo t ifs i n l ow r el ief ( c f . p la te 1 .31).
Th is d ecora t ion i s p robably t o b e a t tr ibu ted t o
L o mbards a nd T uscans, f or i ti s u n l ikely t ha t many l oca l workmen p ossessed t he r equ is ite e xpert ise. ' An e xcep t iona l f orm o f d ecora t ion i n a med ieva l t rad i t ion i s t o b e f ound a t V i torch iano , where ah ouse i n v ia Ugol in i h as p olyc hro me ma iol ica b owls p a in ted w i th c oa ts o f a rms s et i n t he l in te ls o f i t s w indows.
Another h ouse i n t he s ame s tree t h as p olychro me ma iol ica b owls
f i xed i n o ne wa l l . Af ea ture o f s o me l a te-15th c en tury h ouses i s al ogg ia a t a n u pper s torey i n a n e x terna l wa l l .
A l though a n i nnova t ion , i ti s i n t he t rad it ion o f med ieva l
b a lcon ies , a nd a lso h as p receden ts i n t he l ogg ie o f t he t ype i n p iazza S . Pel legr ino. Un l ike t hose w ith c olumns s uppor t ing a rch i traves wh ich a re c harac terist ic o f 1 5th -cen tury a rch i tec ture e lsewhere, most s urv iv ing e xamp les i n N . L az io a re a rched , a nd a t Tuscan ia t hey were b u il t t o ar e markably u n ifor m p a t tern.
T hey c ons ist o f t wo o r t hree e legan t ly p ropor t ioned r ound
a rches , w h ich a re d ecora ted w ith a c yma mou ld ing a nd s pring f rom c olumns w i th i on ic c ap i ta ls.
S uch l ogg ie a re t o b e f ound a t Tuscan ia a t t he c orner o f
t he h ouse w ith t he c ourtyard i n v ia T orre d i L avel lo , i n ap alace n ear t he c a thedral , i n t h is c ase a lso o rig inal ly s i tua ted a t ac orner a nd b ear ing a s te mma wh ich may b e t ha t o f S ix tus I V ( 1 47 1-84) , a nd i n t he Pa lazzo Pocc i i n v ia 1 2 s e t te mbre.
The l ogg ia b u il t i n t he c o mmunal p a lace a t T uscan ia
i n 1 49 2 was p robably o f t his t ype ( AST , C ons ig l i 4 , f . 19 7 ).
Ag ood e xamp le
a t V i terbo i s t ha t o ft he Casa Pace a t t he c orner o f p iazza d el le E rbe ( p la te 1 .32 ).
Th is h as t wo f our-arch l ogg ie a t t he t op f l oor i n.e ach wa l l .
T he
a rches a re n arrower t han t hose a t T uscan ia , a nd n ot s o wel l-proport ioned . Ag ueN w indow w i thou t a mu l l ion i n i t s l ower h al fb ears t he d a te 1 503. The h ouse i s p lastered a nd h as f aded p a in ted d ecora t ion i m i ta t ing r us t ica ted masonry . T he i on ic c ap i tal , c o mmon t o a l l t hese l ogg ie , was o ne d ecora t ive e le men t o f a n t ique a rch i tecture t ha t b eca me w idely a dop ted i n N . L az io. I t h ad b een u sed b y Michelozzo i n , f or i ns tance , t he f r iary o f S . Marco a t F lorence d a t ing f ro m t he 1 430 's, a nd t he c o mmuna l p a lace a t Mon tepu lc iano b u il t i n t he 1 440s ( c f . S aa l man 19 65 ). F ew e xamp les o f i ti n N . L azio a re wel l-da ted , t hough most a re o f a bou t t he s econd h al f o f t he 1 5th c en tury. T hey o ccur a t t he f i rst f l oor o f t he c lo is ter o f S . Mar ia d el la Querc ia j us t o u ts ide V i terbo.
T he g round f l oor o f t h is i s c o mp letely med ieva l i n s tyle ,
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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a nd t here i s o bv iously s o me c hronolog ica l i n terval b e tween t he c onstruc t ion o f t he t wo s toreys .
The c hurch was b egun i n 1 470 , a nd i n 1 481 t here was a
d ispu te a s t o h ow w ork s hould p roceed o n t he c lo ister.
I t may b e t ha t t he
d ivergen t s tyle o ft he f irst f loor was t he r esu l t o f t h is d if ference o f o p in ion b etween t he master masons ( Pinzi 1 890 ). By t he e nd o ft he 1 5th c en tury , t he b reak w i th med ieva l t rad i t ions h ad b eco me more marked w i th r egard t o s truc tura l t echn iques a s w el l a s d ecora ti ve d eta il . Ground f l oors were u sual ly b arrel-vau l ted , a nd s uch v au l ts were o f ten i nser ted i n to e ar l ier b u ild ings, s uch a s t he Pa lazzo G iovanne t t i o r t he h ouse a t n os. 2 4-26 v ia d el la Rocca a t Tuscan ia. T h is p rac t ice , t hough n ot an ew d evelopmen t , h ad n ever b een s o w idespread b efore , a nd e x tended e ven t o q u i te smal l h ouses.
More i nnova tory was t he a dop t ion o fg ro in o r l unet te
v aul ts s pr ing ing f ro m d ecora ted c onsoles.
T hese o ccur i n t he Pa lazzo
Vi t el lesch i a nd a re p robably o r ig inal ( Cul trera 1 921, 2 89 ), a nd a re t o b e f ound e ar l ier i n T uscan a rch itec ture, b e ing p resen t i n t he Da t in i p alace a t Prato ( March in i 1 961). Few e xa mp les a re wel l-da ted i n N . L az io , b u t o nce a ga in i ti s c lear t hey b eca me c o m mon d ur ing t he s econd h al f o f t he 1 5th c en tury .
The v au l ted p assage l ead ing f ro m t he ma in d oorway , o r t he t unnel-
v aul ted s ta ircase w i th g ro in v aul ts a t t he l and ings, c rea te a n a ir o f s oph ist ica t ion t ha t c anno t h ave e x isted i n mos t med ieva l h ouses.
A m inor s tructura l
i nnova t ion was t he a dop t ion o f s p layed i nstead o f p ara l lel-s ided s urrounds f or w indows a nd d oorways.
These o f ten h ave a wooden l i n tel i nstead o f a
s eg men ta l a rch b eh ind t he ir o u ter f ra me. The way t he d evelop men ts o u tl ined a bove w ere c o mb ined w i th t rad i t ions o f med ieval o rig in c an b e i l lustra ted b y l ook ing a t t hree b u i ld ings o f t he f i rs t h a l f o f t he 1 6th c en tury.
The Pa lazzo Fan i a t Tuscan ia ( v ia d el la Rocca ;
f i g. 1 .30 ) i s al arge r ec tangu lar b lock b eh ind wh ich t here i s a smal l c ourty ard. L i t t le s urv ives o f t he b u i ld ings t ha t o nce s urrounded t he b ack o f t h is a nd , i ndeed , t ha t p art o f t he p alace f ac ing o n t o t he s tree t i s i n ap oor s ta te o f p reserva t ion .
I n p laces, i t s masonry c an b e s een t o c ons ist o f a sh lar w i th
r ubble p ack ing , s uggest ing t hat i t was b u il t w i th ma teria l f ro m t he d emol i t ion o f med ieva l h ouses.
I ta l most c er ta in ly i ncorpora tes e arl ier s tructures a s
w el l . The f i rs t f l oor w indows a re r ound-arched w i th in r ec tangu lar f rames , a nd b ear i nscr ip t ions wh ich d a te t he c ons truc t ion o ft he p alace f rom c .15143 0. 2 6 The r ecen t ly r estored Palazzo G iannot t i i n L argo d i I ndepende-n za n ear t he c a thedra l m ight b e al i tt le l a ter i n d a te ( p la te 1 .33 ). A r ound-arched med ieval d oorway a t t he f i rst f l oor s hows t ha t i t s f abric i nc ludes t he r e ma ins o fb u ild ings d a t ing b ack t o t he 1 3th c en tury .
T he G iannot t i were a f am ily
p ro m inen t i n t he t own f ro m a t l east t he e arly 1 5th c en tury.
The t h ird b u i ld ing
i s a much smal ler h ouse a t V i torch iano d a ted b y a n i nscr ip t ion t o 1 531 ( f ig. 1 .21). The f ea tures o f t hese b u ild ings wh ich b elong t o med ieva l a rch i tec tura l t rad i t ions may b e e nu mera ted a s f ol lows :
t he a sh lar f ac ing o ft he g round
f l oor o f t he V i torch iano h ouse; t he e x is tence o f s hops a t t he g round f l oor , e xcep t i n t he Pa lazzo Fan i ; t he s y m metrical f acades a rt icu la ted b y s tring c ourses t ha t f orm t he s il ls o ft he w indows , w i th a r ow o f smal ler w indows a t t he t op s torey ; a nd t he r a ised smal ler d oorway l ead ing t o t he u pper f l oors o f t he V i torch iano h ouse. Even ,t he l arge c en tral e n trances t o t he Fan i a nd G iannot t i p alaces h ave med ieval p receden ts. They l ead t o p assageways , g ro in-vau l ted i n t he f or mer , b arrel-vau l ted i n t he l a t ter , a t t he e nd o f wh ich Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. . 85 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
t here a re t unnel- a nd g ro in-vau l ted s ta ircases t o t he u pper f l oors.
The s ta irs
a re e nclosed a nd f l ank o ne s ide o f ac ourtyard , w h ich i n n e i ther c ase s eems t o h ave b een l a id o u t a s e legan tly a s, f or i nstance , t ha t o f t he h ouse i n v ia Torre d i L avel lo ( f ig. 1 .29 ). The s ta irs o f t he P a lazzo Fan i a re l i t o n t he c ourtyard s ide b y r ound-arched a pertures w ith b a lustrades.
T he g round
f l oor r oo ms o f t h is p a lace a re g ro in-vaul ted a nd d im ly l i tb y sma l l s quare w indows. f unc t ion .
I n e ach t here i s ag ra in s torage p i t , i nd ica t ive o f t heir u t il itar ian
HOUSE I NTERIORS AND THEIR FUNCTION T he Fan i a nd G iannot t i p a laces a re t he p rov inc ia l e qu ivalen t o f f a mous o nes l i ke t hose o f t he Med ic i , Rucella i a nd P i t t i a t F lorence. N o t s ince t he 1 2th a nd e arly 1 3th c en tur ies h ad s uch l arge p a laces b een r egularly b u i l t i n t owns.
The t rans it ion f ro m t he l arge c o mp lexes o f t he c onsor ter ie a nd f am ily
g roups o ft ha t p er iod t o t he smal ler, more r egu lar t erraced h ous ing o ft he 1 3th c en tury , b ack t o l arge f am ily p alaces i n t he 1 5th , h as a t trac ted a c er ta in amoun t o f d eba te , a nd h as l ed t o t he c onclus ion t ha t f am ily u n i ts g rew sma l ler a nd t hen l arger a ga in ( c f . Herl ihy 1 972 ).
E st i ma tes o f u rban h ousehold s ize
f ro m c . 1250-1500 d o n o t o n a verage e xceed s ix p ersons, t he n umber f l uctua ti ng a ccord ing t o b road d e mograph ic t rends, d im in ish ing t o j ust b elow f our w ith t he p opu la t ion d ecrease o f t he 1 4th c en tury , a nd i ncreas ing i n t he 1 5th c en tury ( 212 . . c i t.).
I ts hou ld , h owever , b e n oted t ha t t he l a te 1 4th-cen tury
c hron ic ler G iovann i d e Mussis o f P iacenza made a n e st i ma te o f h ousehold e xpen ses o n t he b as is o f n ine p ersons t o t he f am ily ( RIS , XVI , 5 84 ). Househ olds were a lso g enera l ly c on f ined t o as ingle l i ne o fd escen t , a nd r arely s panned more t han t wo g enera t ions.
Ken t ( 1977 ) h as emphasised h ow t he
f am i ly c on t inua l ly c hanged i n s ize a ccord ing t o i t s d evelopmen t c ycle , a nd , t oge ther w ith Heers ( 1 ,969 ), h as a rgued t ha t a l though t he a ggress ive f eud ing o f t ower s oc iet ies a nd c onsor ter ie may h ave b een v ir tua l ly e l im ina ted b y t he p opu lar r eg i mes i n t he 1 3th c en tury , f am ily c lans a nd k insh ip g roups r e ma ined ap er manen t f ea ture o fu rban s oc ial o rgan iza t ion . I fh ouseholds w ere n ot e xcep t iona l ly l arge , f am il ies l i ved i n c lose p rox im i ty w i th t he ir r e la t ives , ma in ta ined c on tac t w i th t he m , a nd s o met i mes l i ved i n t he s a me b u ild ing a s t he m , a lbe i t i n s epara te s el f-con ta ined u n i ts. T he e x istence o f a t l eas t a f ew l arge 1 4th -cen tury f am ily p alaces, s uch a s t hose o f t he Pepol i a t Bologna a nd t he Gu in ig i a t L ucca , s ee ms t o h ave b een o verlooked .
They t oo t end t o
s how t ha t t he s oc ia l p a t terns o f t he p revious a ge r e ma ined u nchanged . One f actor i nb ind ing f am il ies t ogether was t he a bsence o f a ny r igh t o f p r i mogen i ture , s o t ha t t here was a t endency t o p rotec t t he p a tr i mony b y h old ing i ti n c o mmon , t hough e ventual ly i tu sua l ly c a me t o b e d iv ided u p a t o ne o r o ther s tage i nt he d evelop men t c ycle o f t he f am ily ( c f . Gold thwa i te 1 972, 9 98-1002 ). The p ar t ies t o t he t wo b u ild ing c on tracts p ubl ished i n t he a ppend ix w ere i n o ne c ase t hree men , p resu mably r e la ted , a nd i nt he o ther t wo b ro thers. The p riest who p ro tested a bout t he c onstruct ion o f ac h i mney d id s o o nb eha l f o fh i msel f a nd h is t wo b rothers ( a bove p .8 0 ) . Ra ther t han a c tual ly l i v ing t ogether , t hese p eop le p robably h eld t hese p ropert ies j o in tly , a n a rrange men t t ha t wou ld l ast u n t il s uch a t ime a s o ne o f t he m , f or wha te ver r eason , d iv ided h is s hare f ro m t ha t o f h is r ela t ions ( c f . ANT , 2 6, f . 1 45v-147v ). Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 8 6
t ,
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FA N I TUSCAN I A
u . )
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ELEVAT ION
4
( 2
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
8 7
Pa laces l i ke t hose o f t he Fan i w ere n o t s imp ly t he r esul t o f a n i ncrease i n f am i ly s ize. T hey a lso r ef lec t c urren t i dea l iza t ion o f f a mily s ol idar i ty a nd d o mest ic l i fe , a nd t he n o t ion t ha t magn if icen t b u i ld ings c on ferred h onour a nd p rest ige o n t hose who b u i l t t he m , whereas p rev iously b u ild ing p urely f or s how h ad n o t b een r egarded w i th f avour ( Gold thwa i te 19 72, 9 90 ; K en t 19 77 , 5 3 ). 27 K en t ( 19 77 , 3 8-39 ) h as a lso emphas ised t ha t t hey were b u il t a t a p ar t icu lar s tage i n t he d evelopmen t c ycle o f t he f am ily w hen , f or i nstance , ap rosperous f a ther f ound h i msel f s urrounded b y s ons f or who m h e w ished t o p rovide. There a re t hus a n umber o f c o mp l ica t ing f ac tors i n a ny a ssess men t o f h ow t he i n ter iors o fh ouses were u sed.
I n a dd i t ion , t h is i s as ub jec t o n wh ich
t here h as b een v ery l i t t le r esearch ( c f . Gold thwa i te 19 72, 10 05 ), a nd f or wh ich t he a va ilable p ubl ished d ocu men tary e v idence i s n o t v ery i n for ma t ive , t hough a s yste mat ic s tudy o f b u i ld ing c on tracts a nd i nven tor ies m igh t y ie ld i n terest ing r esu l ts. 28 A t d if feren t t imes a h ouse migh t h ave b een o ccup ied b y f am ily u n i ts t ha t v ar ied g rea t ly i n s ize, o r h ave b een h eld i n c ommon , o r s ubd iv ided i n a ny n umber o f ways.
Wh ilst i ti s p robable t ha t t he t erraced
h ouses b u i l t a t t imes o fu rban g row th w ere o ccup ied b y r ela t ively sma l l f am ily u n i ts , s ince t he ir o wners were most ly i mm igran ts t o t he t own , t hey may wel l h ave b een l a ter ama lga ma ted a nd t hen s p l it u p a ga in. Ano ther p roble m i s t ha t many s uch h ouses were b u il t a s s em i-de tached u n i ts.
Th is
i s most a pparen t a t P iano S carano , V i terbo , b u t much o f t he t erraced h ous ing o f Tuscan t owns o f ten c ons ists o fu n i ts i den t if iable b y s tra igh t j oin ts w i th p a irs o f w indows a nd d oors a t e ach f l oor, a nd s eems t o h ave b een s im i lar. I ti s u ncer ta in whether t hese b u i ld ings were c ons truc ted a s as ing le h ouse t ha t c ou ld b e s p l i t i n to t wo , o r a s ap a ir o f h ouses.
I ft he l a t ter , w ere t hey
b u i l tb y f am ily g roups o r b y u nrela ted i nd iv idua ls a c t ing t ogether ? I n N . L az io h ouses s ee m r arely t o h ave b een s p l it i n to t i ny f rac t ions s uch a s h app ened i n s o me Tuscan t owns, b u t d eeds o f s ale a nd p urchase o f ten c oncern h a l f ah ouse o r p a lace.
I nt he c ase o f h a l f ah ouse s old a tV iterbo i n 1 202,
i t was s t ipu la ted t ha t Murus, q u i med ius , e s t c o mun is u tr iusque p ar t is e t l i cet u n icu ique p art i s ua p onere e d if ic ia e t a l t ius e levare s ecundu m p os ibi l it a te m mur i e t a l ten ip ar t i n on l i ce t p onere e d if ic ia n isi r es t i tu t is e xpens is ( Eg id i 19 06, 9 0-91).
Th is c learly r efers n o t t o ah ouse s p l it i n to t wo a s a
r esu l t o f ap roper ty d iv is ion b etween t wo me mbers o f af am i ly , b u t t o a b u ild ing o f t he P iano S carano t ype d iv ided i n to t wo b y ap arty wal l . Houses t hat c onsisted o f as ingle s torey o n ly w ere d oubt less s ub jec t t o o vercrowd ing.
S ince t he g round f l oor i n most b u i ld ings was g eneral ly a
s ingle l arge r oo m ( c f. f i gs. 1 .3, 1 .13 ) wh ich s erved a s a n a poteca ( c f . L up i 19 01, 3 05-06 ), w hich m igh tb e as toreroo m , an o tary 's o f f ice o r ab u tcher 's s hop , i ti s d if f icu l t t o k now h ow s uch h ouses f unc t ioned.
Fur ther s pace
c ou ld h ave b een o bta ined b y i nser t ing a n a t t ic s torey o r mezzan ine b e low t he r af ters , o r t hrough e xcava t ing c el lars. I n L az io, a nd most p arts o f I t a ly where t he g eology i s s u itable , h ouses h ave r ock-cu t c el lars a nd c an t ine. Many s how s igns o fh av ing b een d ug , o r a t l eas t e n larged , a t t he e nd o f t he Midd le Ages a nd i n t he p ost- med ieval p er iod.
A tV i terbo t here i s h istorica l
e v idence t ha t ag rea t many c an t ine were e xcava ted i n t he 1 5th c en tury ( C ia mp i 1 872, 1 02 ). However , t hey must h ave b een c o mmon b y t he 1 3th c en tury , f or t he 1 251 . s ta tu tes e nabled a nyone w hose p roperty was e ndangered Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BARa Publishing, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. b y c el lar1982, u nd ernea th i tt o a cqu ire i tt hrough c ompu lsory Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 872, 5 54 ).
8 8
p urchase ( Ciamp i
T he h ouse i n t he 1 460 b u i ld ing c on tract h ad f our r ooms a t t he u pper s toreys , c o mpris ing a k i tchen , l i v ing a nd d in ing r oo m ( sa la ) a nd o ther r oo ms ( ca mere ), p resumably b edroo ms. O ther d ocumen ts f ro m Tuscan ia s uggest t ha t i n t h is i t was q u i te t yp ica l . Ah ouse i n v ia S . Pel legrino , f or i nstance, was d escr ibed i n 1 420 a s ad o mu m s olara ta m c um s a la c a mer is c oqu ine e t c el lario , q uod c el lar iu m n unc e st a po teca f abroru m ( AST , p erg. 1 97 ). T he t er m c el lar iu m h ere i nd ica tes t he g round f l oor , wh ich mus t h ave b een r en ted o u t. The f i rs t f l oor o ft he Pa lazzo Maccabe i , w i th i t s o ne l arge a nd o ne sma l ler r oo m , d oes s ee m t o p reserve t he med ieval a rrange men t o f as a la a nd c a mera .
I n sma l l t erraced h ouses w i th t wo o r t hree u pper s toreys t here
c ould n ot h ave b een much more t han f our t o s ix r oo ms. I fh ouseholds r eal ly o n ly n u mbered f our t o f i ve p ersons , t hen l i v ing c ond it ion s must h ave b een q u i te c o m mod ious. A l arge h ouse o r p alace wou ld o bv iously h ave h ad many more r oo ms a nd b een more c o mp lex i n i t s l ay-ou t , t hough o ne s tr ik ing f ea ture o f many l arge p a laces l i ke t ha t o fV i tel lesch i o r t he Casa d e i Ro me i a t F errara i s h ow l i t t le l i v ing s pace t here was i n t he m , much o f t heir a rea b e ing o ccup ied b y c ourty ards, l oggie , h a l ls a nd s ta ircases. K i tchens m igh tb e s i tua ted a l most a nyw here i n t he h ouse ( c f . L up i 1 901, 3 11-12;
S ch iaparel l i 1 908 , 7 ) .
Genera l ly
t hey were o n a n u pper f l oor, a nd i n sma l l h ouses t hey were of ten a t t he t op s torey where i t was e asier f or t he smoke t o e scape. T he h ouse o f Francesco d i Mar ie D a t in i a t P ra to h ad o ne o n t he g round f l oor a nd a nother o n a n u pper s torey ( Or igo 1 963 , 2 30 ). A l terna t ively t hey migh t , l i ke t ha t o f t he b ishop o f Genoa , b e i n a n o u thouse i n t he y ard.
Here t here mus t o f ten h ave b een
o ther a nc i l lary b u ild ings , t hough when we f i nd a r eference t o as tabu lu m a t Tuscan ia ( ANT , 2 6, f .146v ), i ti s d if f icu l t t o k now whether t h is r efers t o a s epara te s truc ture o r ag round f l oor u sed i n t h is way . I ts ee ms n ot t o h ave b een u ncom mon a t T uscan ia f or l arger h ouses t o h ave o vens ( c f . AST , p erg. 6 8 , 1 64;
ANT , 2 6 , f .146, 1 46v ) , b u t g enera l ly i n med ieva l t owns p eop le
t ook t he ir l oaves t o ab aker. The ma in r oo m o f a ny p a lace was t he s ala magna o r h a l l , o f ten s panned b y d iaphrag m a rches , l i ke t hose o ft he l a te 1 3th- a nd e ar ly 1 4th-cen tury c ast les a t S . G iovenale ( Thoir de mann 1 967 ) a nd S ermoneta. The Pa lazzo T ar tag l ia h as a n i m mense h a l l , a nd t he Pa lazzo V i tel lesch i h as o ne a t t he f i rst f l oor a nd a nother l arger s t i l l a t t he s econd f l oor a bove i t .
Wh i lst s o me h a l ls a nd
u psta irs r oo ms w ere o pen t o t he r oo f , i n t he ma jor ity o f c ases , a t l east f ro m t he 1 5th c en tury t hey h ad c of fered wooden c e il ings w i th p a in ted d ecora t ion . L arge r oo ms a nd h a l ls may w el l h ave b een d iv ided u p t o s o me e x ten tb y p art i t ions. T he S ala d el t inel lo , o ne o ft he l argest r oo ms i n t he Angev in Castel N uovo a t N ap les, was p art ial ly d iv ided u p w i th t avola t i ( Filang ier i 19 36 ,2 848 5 ).
An i nven tory made i n 1 436 o f t he E ste p a laces a t Ferrara ( Ber ton i a nd
V ic in i 1 907 , 4 2, 4 3-45, 6 6, 6 8 , 13 ) s ee ms t o i nd ica te t h is was a c o m mon p rac t ice.
Th is i n terest ing d ocu men t s hows v ery c learly h ow a ppar tmen ts
w i th in a g rand p a lace c ons is ted o f s epara te e a t ing a nd l i v ing r oo ms , a n teroo ms, a ud ience c ha mbers, b edroo ms a nd o f f ices, t he ma in r oo ms b e ing n a med a f ter t he p a in ted d ecora t ion o n t he ir wa l ls.
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
8 9
D ISCUSS ION F inal ly , i t may b e a ppropr ia te t o p u t t he a rch i tec ture d escr ibed a bove i n aw ider c on tex t. E x terna l s ta irs, p ort icos , b ifore, r ows o ft a l l n arrow h ouses a nd t ower-houses were a l l o f r e mo te o r ig in , a nd w ere t o b e f ound t hroughou t much o f E urope a nd t he Med i terranean d ur ing t he Midd le Ages. The r ese mblance i n l ay-ou tb e tween med ieval a nd Ro man h ouses, f or i nstance t hose o f O s t ia , h as b een n oted b y s o me s cholars , t hough c onvinc ing e v idence f or c on t inu i ty h as y et t o b e f orthco m ing ( Paa tz 1 939 ; 3 49 ).
Magnuson 1 958 , 4 7-8 ,
J ust h ow a nc ien t a re s o me o f t he f ea tures o f med ieva l d o mest ic a rch i-
t ec ture i s s hown b y a1 0 th -or 1th -cen tury b u ild ing i n t he o ld c en tre o f Genoa. N ow i ncorpora ted i n to l a ter b u ild ings , i t s N . wa l l was e xposed d ur ing t he c ourse o f e xcava t ions c arr ied o u t 1 971-77 ( Andrews a nd Pr ingle 1 977 a nd 1 978 ; Andrews 1 978b ). Abou t 1 1 m s quare , i t s N . w a l l h as a n arrow e x terna l s ta irc ase l ead ing t o ar ound-arched f i rst-f loor d oor . T he b a lcony a t t he t op o f t he s ta ircase was c orbel led o u t a nd d ecora ted w i th smal lb l ind a rches. I n i t s W. wa l l , t here a re t wo l arge r ound-arched d oorways o f e qua l s ize w h ich f aced o n t o t he s treet.
I ns ide t he g round f l oor t here i s ar ow o f n iches o r
c upboards i n t he N . w al l . T he b u ild ing i s n o t p reserved a bove t he f i rs t f l oor. Any r econs truct ion i s o f c ourse s pecu la t ive , b u t i ti s n o t u nreasonable t o s uggest t ha t i t was a t ower-house w ith d oorways a nd wooden b alcon ies a t t he u pper s toreys. o r b ifore.
I fi th ad w indows , t hen t hey wou ld h ave b een r ound-arched
D esp i te a pparen t ly h av ing c o m mon o r ig ins a nd s har ing many o f t he s ame f ea tures, t he med ieva l h ouses o f d if feren t t owns a re g enera l ly b y n o means a l ike. T o s o me e x ten t , t he p o in ts o f d ivergence b e tween t heir a rch i tec ture i s s i mp ly a n a cc iden t o f s urv ival , o r t he r esu l t o fu rban e xpans ion a nd r en ewa l t ak ing p lace a t d if feren t t imes, s o t ha t c onsequen t ly t here i s o ne d om in an t a rch i tec tura l s ty le i n e ach t own .
A t C orne to -Tarqu in ia t h is c ons is ts o f
h ouses w ith p ort icos, a t Tuscan ia o f h ouses w i th n en fro f acades a nd p o in teda rched d oorways , a nd s o f orth . However , t here w ere a lso c lear ly l oca l a rch i tec tura l t rad i t ions w h ich e volved s epara te ly e ven a t c en tres wh ich w ere n ot v ery d istan t f ro m e ach o ther , s uch a s Orv ie to a nd V i terbo. t i on o f t he w indows o f t he O rv ie to h ouses i s q u i te i nd iv idual .
The d ecora-
I ti s c erta in ly
n o t Umbr ian , a nd t hough d og too th m ight b e a n a lmost u n iversal mo t if , a nd a rrowhead a nd r ho mbo ids c o m mon i n t erracot ta o rnamen t i n N . I t aly , I k now o f n o g ood p ara l lel f or s uch e x tens ive u se o f c hequerboard p a t tern ing , t hough t h is m igh t h ave b een w idely u sed i n p a in ted d ecora t ion . One f ac tor i n t he d evelopmen t o f t hese l ocal s tyles was t he t ypes o fb u ild ing s tone a va ilable , t he ir p oten t ial f or c arv ing a nd c rea t ing a n a l terna t ion o f d i f feren t c olours. I t may b e u sefu l t o s u mmarize s o me o f t hese r eg iona l d if ferences.
I n
many p arts o f Cen tra l a nd N . I ta ly , b ea m h oles f or b a lcon ies h ave s tone c orbels b elow t he m, s o met imes k nown a s men ian i ( c f . Gozzad in i 1 875, 2 84 ). A t s o me t owns s uch a s Vol terra , s tone f i t t ings f or b a lcon ies , p en t-roofs a nd s o f orth c o mp le tely d om ina te t he a ppearance o f h ouses .
Tower-houses ,
i n t he s tr ic t s ense o f t he t er m o r o f t he P isan t ype w i th a rches , a re r are i n N . L az io , b u t w idely d is tr ibu ted , i fn o t c o mmon , i n much o f C en tra l I t aly . Houses a t C orneto-Tarqu in ia , Tuscan ia a nd V i terbo a re r arely a s t a l l a s i n Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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Tuscan t owns.
T he t ype o fh ouse w ith a p la in f acade w ith a s y m metrical
a rrangemen t o f s eg men ta l a rches i s c o mmoner i n Tuscany a nd U mbria t han i n L az io. T he s eg men tal-arched w indows o f t he f ormer r eg ions a re generally w ider a nd t al ler. Windows a nd d oors w i th v ousso irs t ha t i ncrease i n s ize t owards t he t op o ft he a rch a re a lso more t yp ica l o f t hese r eg ions t han o f L az io. T he u se o f ad if feren tb u ild ing ma terial , o r r ust ica ted masonry, f or t he b ase o f as truc ture was b y n o means c on f ined t o L az io. I n a reas, f or i nstance , where b r ick was u sed f rom e arly i n t he Middle Ages , i t was c o m mon i n t he 1 3th c en tury t o emp loy i tf or t he u pper s toreys o f ah ouse o r t ower, a nd s tone f or t he g round f l oor. I n Tuscany , f ro m t he l a te 1 3th c en tury and i n t he 1 4th c entury , h ouses o ccas iona l ly h ad t he ir e n t ire f acades o f quite p rec isely r ust ica ted masonry ( c f . p la te 1 .16 ) , ap rac t ice t ha t c ont inued t hrough i n to r ena issance a rch i tec ture.
One t ype o f d ist inc t ive 1 3th c entury
Tuscan p a lace c ons ists o f al arge , t a l l , u nco mprom is ing r ec tangular b lock, s o met i mes w i th a t ower. Exa mp les a re t he P a lazzo Vecch io a t F lorence, t he c ast le o f t he C on t i Gu id i a t P opp i , a nd t he p a laces o f t he Tolome i a nd Sali m— b en i a t S iena.
T hey p robably h ad t he ir p rototypes i n t ower-houses and 1 2th—
c en tury magna te p a laces. T he o n ly c o mparable b u ild ing Ik now o f i n N. L az io i s t he n ucleus o ft he c ast le a t B orghe t to o n t he v ia F lam in ia. The a rch i tec ture o f S iena a nd i t s c on tado c onst itu tes a v ery i nd iv idual r egional s tyle. I t s ma in c harac ter ist ics a re t erraces o f n arrow h ouses w ith t all d oorways w ith a s eg men ta l a rch s et w i th in a p o in ted o ne , wha t h as been c a l led t he a rco s enese ( Canes trel l i 1 904, 14 ); a re u sua l ly t hree-l igh t w indows;
t wo o r t hree s toreys o f what
a n a t t ic s torey w i th sma l l w indows;
and
ac renel lated r oof-l ine a bove d ecora t ive b l ind a rches wh ich r ese mble machi— c olat ions. By e xa m in ing med ieval d o mest ic a rch i tec ture, i ti s p oss ible t o s ee t he d evelopmen ts o ft he R ena issance i n p erspec t ive. Too many s tud ies o f t he l a t ter h ave b een i gnoran t o f i t s a rch i tec tura l a n teceden ts. Many h ouses built a t t h is p er iod were s im i lar t o med ieva l o nes , a nd t he Rena issance was charac— t er ized e ssen t ia l ly b y t he s uperi mpos it ion o f ad ecora t ive s tyle d erived f ro m i n tel lec tua l i deas. I ti s , i n f ac t , o n ly t oo e asy t o emphas ise t he med ieval c haracter o f much r ena issance a rch i tec ture.
I f more was k nown a bout t he
p a in ted d ecora t ion o f med ieva l h ouses, o f wh ich t ha t o f t he Da t in i p alace a t P ra to p rov ides a t an ta l iz ing e xa mp le , t hen t hese s im ilar it ies, o r a l ternatively c on trasts, migh t b e more a ccen tua ted. To t ake a more b a lanced v iew, i t i s p erhaps p referable t o s ee t he 1 5th c en tury a s at ime o f c hange , i n which h u man ist t hought was o n ly a n e le men t , a lbe i t a n impor tan t o ne.
I tc ertainly
e f fec ted ab reak w i th o ne d eter m in ing f act i n t he a ppearance o f e arl ier h ouses, c om muna l l eg is la t ion a nd t he u n ifor m i ty i t imposed. T he i d iosyncra tic e le men t i n a rch i tec ture was e ncouraged b y aw idespread b oo m i n t he build ing i ndustry , a nd t he move men t o fb u ild ing-workers f rom o ne r eg ion t o a nother o n wha t was p erhaps a n u npreceden ted s ca le.
One o f t he p r inc ipa l i nnovations
i n d o mest ic a rch i tec ture , t he c ourtyard s urrounded whol ly o r i n p art by l ogg ie , i s n o t n or ma l ly r egarded a s a n e ssen t ial ly r ena issance f ea ture, and s ee ms f irs t t o h ave emerged -as a n i mportan t e le men t i n s ecu lar a rch itecture i n l arge r es iden t ial c astles o ft he 1 3th a nd 1 4th c en tur ies.
I n t h is d evelop—
men t , t he p alace t urned b ack i no n i t sel f , a way f ro m t he s tree t w here i t had b een f ash ionable t o h ave b a lcon ies a nd p or t icos , c rea t ing a n ew p r ivate world 9 1
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
( cf . G old thwa i te 1 972, 9 97-98 ). importan t a s i n d ecora t ive s ty le.
C hanges i nb u i ld ing t echn ique were q u i te a s I th as b een s ugges ted a bove t ha t t he s w i tch
t o r ubble c ons truc t ion may p art ia l ly a ccoun t f or t he w idespread a dop t ion o f r ec tangu lar w indows a nd d oorways w ith monol ith ic j a mbs a nd l in tels , a nd c erta in ly made i tn ecessary t o p laster h ouse e x ter iors. On ly t hrough s tud ies based s ecurely o n s truc tura l , d ocumen tary a nd h istor ica l e v idence f or h ous ing o f a l l t ypes b oth b efore a nd d ur ing t he 1 5th c en tury w il l i tb e p oss ible t o e va lua te more a ccura tely t he t rans it ion f ro m med ieva l t o r ena issance a rch i tec ture.
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. 9 2 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
AP P E N D IX BUI LD ING CONTRACTS 1 .
Ma t teo d i G iovann i d i P ietro and two o thers g ive a c on trac t f or t he r econ-
s truct ion a nd e n large men t o f t he ir house t o Agostino d i Nardo d a Co mo ( ANT , 2 6, f .121-22 Coct i mu m d a tum p er Ma theu m I ohann is P e tr i mag istro August in i N ard i. Actu m i n d o mo i n frascr ip t i Ma thei, d ie XI j un ii 1 459 , p resen t ibus p resb i tro Angelo b arberoc t i , e t Angelo J acobi de Chie t estibus e tc. Mag istro I ohanne p etri L o mbardo t es t ibus d e C u mo.
M atheus I ohann is p etri p ro s e Andrea e t
I ohanne d ed i t i n c o t t i mu m August ino Nard l o mbardo d e Cu mo d o mu m s ua m v etere m s ue h ab i ta t ion is s i ta i n l oco suo.
Qua m d ebeat e x tol lere e t a lzare
a d p ar d o mus n ove c u m meru l is i n p ariete an teriore v ersus v ia m e t i n ton icare e o modo q uo e s t d o mus I ohann is Francisci -Petri n ov iter f ac ta , v idel ice t i l la p an es v ersus p la tea m em inens.
E t debeat f acere -omn ia f unda men ta i n ter-
med ioru m n ova a f unda men t is u sque ad t ectu m, e t r e mi t tere muros i n i l l is l oc is u b i e sset n ecessar iu m , e t f acere unu m s olariu m s uper i l lud q uod e s t , e t f acere q uod d uo n erva q ue s in t i n d icta do mo f aciat q uod s ervian t c a mer is i n fer ior ibus e t s uper ior ibus e tc., e t f acere duas f enestras i n d ic to p ar ie te a l to s icu t f enestra d o mus n ove c um f erreis ad p onendu m p annos.
E t d ebea t
f acere u nu m i oncel lar s uper ius c u m duobus l apid ibus magn is q u inque p edu m p ro q uol ibet , e t a p tare i oncel lar d o mus i nferioris j i b modo q uo i l lud s uper ius , e t f acere u nu m p ar s ca laru m s icu t s cale do mus nove i n tun ica te. E t d ebea t p onere omnes t rabes d e l i gneo q uod voIet d ictus magister e t omn ia a l ia l i gn m in ia s in t d e c as taneo, omn ibus su mpt ibus e t expensis d ic t i Mag istri c u m omn ibus f enestr is q u _e s un t n unc i n ca mer is p ret io o ctuag in ta d uca toru m a uri d e c a mera e t t r iu m s almaru m g ran i.
Et i ntunicare s uperius e t i n fer ius
i n tus, e t f acere h os t ia c a meraru m e t f enestraru m su i l aboreri i e tc., e t l evare e t p onere t ec tu m e t s i d ef icerent l igna ., debeat p onere i de m mag ister i n d ic to t ec to. E t Ma theus d a t s ibi c annas pro conf iciendo d ic to t ec to a d c annas s tr ic tas . 2 9
E t d ebea t d ic tus magister aptare d icta m d o mu m b ene e t
d i l igen ter , omn ibus s u is s u mp t ibus d e rebus necessari is. e tc.
Obl igan te e tc.
Ma the i.
I ura .n te e tc.
Ad p ena m d up le
E t q uod d ebea t c laves e t f eras p onere i n man ibus d ic t i E t d ebeat d ic tu m c octi mu m p er t otu m mense m d ece m-
b r is p erfec isse e tc . e t u b i e sse t i n tunicatu m debeat t otu m d ea lbare e tc. E t p ro m isi t Ma theus s o lvere d ic tos o c tuaginta ducatos aur * e ide m August ino p ret iu m r a ta f abr ice c ons truende p er d ictu m M agistru m August inu m. v erun t p red ic ta o bservare e tc.
d uca toru m e t ia m p ro m iserun t e tc. 2 .
I ura-
Ad p ena m dupli d icte quan t i ta t is o c tuag in ta Obl igaverunt e tc.
Mar t ino d i An ton io d a Go mo a nd Alberto d i S tefano
Rogaverun t me e tc.
d a C omo a gree
t o
b u i ld a h ouse o n t he s i te o f t he c asalenus o f Antonio and Francesco d i Men ico Mac tu t i i i n v ia Magg iore ( ANT , 2 6, f .1 7 0-72). Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. 9 3 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
C oc t i mu m d a tu m p er anton iu m e t F ranc iscu m Men ici M antutii Mag istris Martino e t Alberto. Actu m i n c ivi tate Tuscana, i n c on tra ta V ie Ma ior is , d ie X Mar t i i 1 460 , p resen t ibus d o mino J acob° de Rube l 's , I ohanne S er G abr iel is e t I ohanne r iga t i c iv ibus t uscan is t estibus e tc.
An ton ius e t Franc iscus Men ic i Mac tu t i i d e
t uscan ia f ra tres ger mani sponte d ederun t e t t rad iderun t Mag istr is Mar t ino mag istr i An ton ii d e Cu mo e t Alberto S tephan i d e C umo l ap ic id is p resen t ibus a ud ien t ibus e t i n tell igen tibus c oct i mum i n frascr ip tum , i nq uoda m c asa leno d ic toru m An toni i e t Francisci s ita i n d ic ta c on trada i ux ta r em J acob i e t S tephan i Angel i bologn ini r e m Men ic i d e Mon tef lascono a l ias Cacac iera v ia m p ubl ica m e t a l ios c onf ines.
Videl ice t q uod d ebean t i n a l tum e levare p r imu m
p ar iete m d ict i c asaleni versus d o mum F ranc isc i p etr i n ard i magh i t r ibus f i l is s upra t ectu m J acobi Angel l p red ic t i ;
i n q uo p ariete d ebean t f acere b ona
f unda men ta u bi opus est e t ubi n on , e d if icare s upra v eteri p ar iete e t i b ide m c onstruere u nu m hostiu m p rope d o mum I acobi A nge ll b o logn in i d e o nempharo , e t a n te d ic tu m p ariete m f acere u num p ar s ca larum d e o ne mpharo c um p arap ec to s i mil iter d e one mpharo c um h ost io d e t hopho s ubtus s ubtus d ic tas s ca las, q ue h ost ia vadant i n sala m i n fer iore m h oc e st i n c el larium d e s ubtus. I t em f acere u nu m hostiu m i n c ap i te d ic taru m s ca larum q uo v ada t i n s a lam s uper iore m, q uod hostiu m s it d e ompharo. I t em p ro m iserun t f acere e t c onstruere e t i n a ltu m e levare a l terum p ar ie tem v ersus d o mum L ancel loc t i f l oren t in i a d p ar d icti p ri mi p ariet is e t d ebean t f und itus e t af undamen t° p art e rn p ar iet is v eteris i bi existen t is p rope q ua mdam d o muncu lu m p red ic toru m e t f acere i n d icto pariete unu m h ost io lu m q uod v ada t i n c el lar iu m d ic te d o mus d e t hofo.
I te m s i mil iter p rorniserun t f acere u nam c rostam mur i c on t igua
d o mu i I acobi bologn in i ad par d ic torum p arietum u bi p oss it a ppor tare e t i n s um i ta te d iCte c roste m uri f acere u num c ana lem p er q ue m p ossi t f l uere a qua e tc . I te m p ro mise runt f acere q uartum p ar ie te m a d p ar p red ic torum p rope d o mu m Men ic i d e M ontef lascono a t v en ian t e sse q ua tuor p ar ietes p ares p red ic t i d irectu ad i l iu m pri mu m p arie te m;
e t f acere f ron t isp i t ia d eb i ta i n
p r i mo p ariete e t u lti mo i ta quod a gue d ilabun tur v ersum d o mu m I acob i b ologn in i e t v ia m publica m versus d omu m L anc il loc t i f l oren t in i . I t em p rom is erun t f acere i n medio d ictoru m q ua t tuor p ar ie tu m e t e d if icare c um b on is f unda men tis una m edurna m d e e nompharo , e t a b u na p ar te v ersus d o mu m I acobi b ologn in i edif icare que mdam a rcu m , e t a b a l tera v ersus v iam p ubl icam a l teru m a rcu m e t t ertiu m edif icare e t a ppod iare c u ida m v eter i p ar ie t i v ersus d o mu m Men ici d e M ontef lascono.
Qu i a rcus d ebean t f i eri d e t ofo e t a b i l lo
p ar iete v eteri usque ad pariete m c on t iguu m d omu i Men ici d e Mon tef lascono e d if icare a l iu m arcu m p ro f iendis s upra i n ter med i is s upra q u ibus omn ibus a rcubus d ebeant i nter med lu m mur i e levar i a d p ar d ic toru m q ua t tuor p arie tum c um d ebitis f rontispitiis, i ta q uod t ec tum h abea t d ebi ta p enden t ia. E t s upra a rcu m s eu i n ter mediu m arcus p rope d o mum J acobi b ologn in i f ac ia tur h ost iol um q uodda m d e t hofo quod vada t i n p r i ma c amera. E t f aciant a l iud h ost ium e t ia m d e t ofo i n i nter med io a rcus p rope v el v ersus v iam p ubl icam q uod v ada t i n c oqu ina m, i n qua c oquina a n ted ic ta v ersus s tra t um p ubl icam f ac ian t u na m f enestra m d e one mpharo e t una m s canc iar iam.
E t e levare i n a l tum q ue mdam
v etere m p ariete m a lterius i nter med i i d e q uadrat e a d p ar d ic torum p ar ie tum. Qu i p an es s it f inis carnere p red ic te e t c oqu ina i n ter q uas c a meram e t c oqu in am v en it e sse i n ter mediu m u t d ic tu m e st s upra , e t i n s ue s upra i n ter med io Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. 9 4 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
c oqu ine f ac ian t u nu m h ost iolu m d e t opho q uod v ada t i nu na m c ameram e t a l terum h ost ium d e t hofo q uod v ada t i n a l tera c o mmod ius q uam f uor is p oterun t , e t i n omn ibus i l l is c a mer is f acere d uas f enestru las , u na m v ersus s tra ta m p ubl ica m e t d o mu m S er Gabriel is C ole e t a l terum v ersus d o mum Men ic i d e Mon tef lascono. E t p ro m iserun t f acere t ec tu m i n omn ibus d ict is mans ion ibus , e t c oper ire p r imus c um p lanel l is f i c t il ibus e t s upra p onere t egu las q ue s uf f ic ian t , e t q uod v ersus v iam e t d o mu m l ancel loc t i d ic tus t ec tus p orr iga t u nu m p ede m f oras v el e x tra p ar iete m , e t s im il i ter f acere s o lar ium e t i mponere omn ia l i gna n ecessar ia i n d ic t is omn ibus mansion ibus , v idel ice t i n s a la c oqu ina e t d ic t is t r ibus c a mer is e t d ebean t f acere c am inu m d e o nempharo i n s a la i n l oco c o m mod iore e t mag is n ecessar io.
E t p ro m iserun t i n c onstru-
e ndo t ec to s im i l i ter o pponere b u l lonos e t f erra men ta omn ia n ecessar ia. Que s uprad ic ta omn ia l aborer ia s eu f abr icam t o ta m p red ic tam p red ic t i l ap ic id i p ro m iserun t c onstruere omn ibus e orum s ump t ibus , v idel icet c a lc is, p etrarum , a rena e t a gue l i gnorum e t s canc iarum e t a l iorum n ecessar iorum a d t ec ta ;
e t o nm ia a l ia f acere i n d ic ta d o mo q ue e runt o ppor tuna d ic te
f abr ice p raeterque h ost ia e t f enestras d e l i gno. c are s a la m c oqu ina m e t d ic tas t res c a meras.
E t e t iam p ro m iserun t i n ton iE t s i f aceren t s eu e d if icaren t
c um b oc t i is p ro m iserun t t o ta m i l lam f abr icam a rr ic iare i n tus e t f or i s .
S ive
a ute m c onstrue r en t a d l ap ides d e f i lo more a l iorum e tc., p ro p re t io e t f in i ta s olu t ione c en tum v ig in t i d ucatoru m a ur i d e c a mera , a d r a tam D ai lb onon in i p ro d uca to , q ua tuor s a lm is g ran i u na s a lma o rde i e t d uabus s a lm is v in i . Quod t otum p re t ium s a l mas g ran t o rde i e t v in i p ro m iserun t p red ic t i An ton ius e t Franc iscus d are e t s olvere p red ic t is mag is tris i n tegre q uandocumque d ic ta m f abr icam p erfecer in t e t i n terum p ro r a ta p ar te d ic te f abr ice e tc. i t a i uraverun t u traque p red icta o bservare.
E t
E t p ro m iserun t p red ic t i mag istr i
c onfec isse t o tam d ic ta m f abr icam i n tegre a d f es tum omn ium s anc torum p rox i me s ecu turum q uod e r i t d ie p r imo n ovembr is. Obl igaverun t e tc .
E t i t a i uraverun t e tc.
Renun t iaverun t e tc. p ro m iserun t e tc .
r ogaverun t e tc .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
9 5
E t me T ho mam
NOTES 1 .
S ee i n p ar t icu lar Gozzad in i 1 877 o n Bologna ; S ch iaparel l i 1 908 o n F lorence ; De Vecch i 1 94 9o n S iena ;
L up i 1 901-03 o n P isa ;
Canestrel l i 1 904,
C h ieric i 1 921 a nd
a nd S cr ia t tol i 1 915-20 a nd Cucu 1 938 o n
V iterbo. T he b est r ecen t a ccoun t o f med ieval a rch i tec ture i n N . L az io i s Rasp i S erra 19 72. 2 .
F or L un i , s ee Ward Perk ins 1 977 , a nd t he i n terim d up l ica ted r eports c ircu la ted a nnua l ly b y t he C en tro d i S tud i L unens i. For d ocumen tary e v idence f or e arly med ieval h ouses, s ee Cag iano d e Azevedo 1 972. I t i s q u ite p ossible t ha t h ouses b u il t o f as ort o f c ob c ons truct ion w h ich s urv ive i n p arts o f L o mbardy , t he Marche, a nd T uscany b elong t o a t rad i t ion wh ich g oes b ack t o t he e arly Midd le A ges
3 .
( Castel lan i 1 974-76 ).
Th is e xcava t ion was c arr ied o u t i n 19 76 f or t he Cassa d i R isparm io i n Bologna a nd t he S opr in tendenza a l le An t ich i tä , a nd d irec ted b y S erg io N epo t i , Bryan Ward P erk ins a nd mysel f . s hor tly .
I t s p ubl ica t ion i s a n t ic ipa ted
4 .
A eneas S i lv ius P iccolo m in i , C om rnen tar i i r eru m mirab il iu m , l i b. V I I I.
5 .
c asam q uae p os i ta e st i n tro c astrum V iterb i....quae e st i n c ircu i tu p ert icaru m V e t p edum V I II e t s em isse , a d l eg i t i mam p ert icam p edu m X I I , u na c u m omn ibus f i c t i l ibus e t s olo u b i i psa c asa s uper p osi ta e st , q ua m s up tus s olare m q uam e t iam s uper... ( Reg. F arf . I , p . 1 56 ).
6 .
Bu t s ee t he Pa lazzo G iovanne t t i a nd n o. 2 4 v ia d el la Rocca a t Tuscan ia ( below , P . 5 5-56 ) . A t C orneto-Tarqu in ia Ik now o f o n ly o ne s urv iv ing h ouse w ith ab a lcony , n os. 1 3-16 p iazza d el Duo mo. I th as r ound-arched d oorways a nd b eam h oles a t t he f i rst a nd s econd s toreys , t he f or mer n ow b e ing r eached b y al a ter e x terna l s ta ircase.
7 .
T he p roperty o f t he Embr iac i f am ily a t G enoa i n C . 186 c ons isted o fa d o mus magna , ac ur ia , at ower a nd a d jacen t v ol ta — ,a nd a v acuum o r v ir idar iu m ( Polegg i 1 965 ).
8 .
Ii n tend h ere o n ly t o d iscuss t owers i nasmuch a s t hey f or m a n e lemen t o f s urv iv ing d o mest ic a rch i tec ture. Ih ave made a much f u l ler s tudy o f t he m i n my P h.D. t hesis o n med ieva l f or t if ica t ions i n Cen tra l I t a ly d ue t ob e s ub m i t ted t o L ondon Un ivers ity .
Two o f t he b est a ccoun ts o f
t owers, t ower s oc ie t ies a nd c onsorterie a re s t i l l Gozzad in i 1 875 a nd S an t in i 1 887 , b u t s ee a lso Polegg i 19 66 a nd Heers 1 969 .
For a d eta i led
a ssess men t o f t he t owers a t T uscan ia , s ee P r ingle 1 974. 9 .
There a re i nvar iab ly s tra igh t j o in ts b e tween t owers a nd t he b u i ld ings n ex t t o t he m.
T h is n eed n ot i nd ica te t he g rea ter a n t iqu ity o f t he t ower ,
b u t s ee ms t o h ave b een a w idely a dop ted p rac t ice t o a vo id t he s truc tura l p roble ms p resen ted b y d if feren t ia l s e t tlemen t , o f wh ich t he c ampan ile a t P i sa a nd t he t or re d el la Gar iArchitecture, senda Painting a t B ol og na were Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 9 6
v iv id r em inders.
T hose t owers a t Tuscan ia b u il t o nd eposits o f s of t s tra t if ied t u fa h ave d eep c oncre te f ounda t ions. 1 0.
F or t wo Umbr ian c hurches w i th t hese f eatures, s ee Andrews 19 75. T he v au l ted g round f l oor o f t he l e f t-hand h ouse o f nos. 4 1-43 v ia Caprarecce a lso h as b l ind a rches i n i t s s ide wal ls.
1.
For t hese d raw ings s ee L .T . B e lgrano and C. Imperiale d i S an t ' Angelo e ds., Anna l i G enovesi d i Caf faro e d e 'suoi c ontinua tori d al MC L )0 ( IV a l MCCXX IV, v ol . I , Genoa , 1 901, f i gs. XXV, X XXVI-VI I.
1 2.
Ra ther s im i lar b ifore f ro m a h ouse a t Tr ie-Château n ear G isors i n N . F rance c an b e s een i n t he V ic tor ia a nd A lbert Museu m, L ondon . They a re a t tr ibu ted t o t he l ast q uarter o f t he 1 2th c en tury.
1 3.
G iovann i V il lan i , C ron ica , l i b. V I I , c ap. 5 0, e n on v ivette p apa c he o t to mes i ed i : c he d or mendo i n s ua c amera i n Vi terbo g l i c adde l a v ol ta d i s opra a ddosso , e mon o ( Ciamp i 1 872, 3 63).
1 4.
A t V i terbo , t he l eas ing o f p ar ts o f t he c o m munal palace i n t he 1 5th c en tury i s w el l-documented . C f . ACV, L iber I nstru men toru m , I , f . 1 31 ( 1 457 ) l ocaverun t e t t rad iderun t n om ine d ict i c o mun is i n emphy teos in i s ive a d l i vel lum....qua mdam d o muncu la m s ive mansione m s ub tus v o l ta m p a la t i i d e im inoru m p r iorum c on iunc ta m i n c elLario d ict i p a la t t i.
1 5.
The s ta tu te o rdered Che i n c iascuna c asa, l a quale s i f acesse d i n uovo d 'in torno a l C ampo d e l Merca to , t u t te l e f inestre s i f acc iano a c olonnel l i , a nd c on t inued , s e ma i av erra c he a lcunà c asa o vero c asamen to d 'in torno a l C a mpo d el Merca to s' e d if icassero d i n uovo, c he t utte e c iascune f inestre d i c o ta le c asamen to e c asa , l e q ual i a vessero a spet to n el Ca mpo d el Merca to , s id ebbano f are a c olonnell i es enza a lcun i b a la toi f are ( Borghesi a nd Banch i 1 898 , 1 ) . F or o ther s t ipulations c oncern ing t he a rch i tec ture o ft he h ouses b u il t i n t he Ca mpo a t S iena , s ee L usin i 19 21, 2 91.
1 6.
Many a re d ep ic ted i n Ambrog io L orenzett i 's Effett i d el Buon Governo n el la c i t tà i n t he Pa lazzo P ubbl ico a t S iena. All o f t he m c ons ist o f i ron h ooks f i xed a bou t o ne-quarter o f t he way up t he window a pertures i n a p os it ion u nsu i table f or c urta ins ( s ee f i g. 1 .8F ; and p la tes 1 .29 a nd 2 .1 ).
1 7 .
The d eta i ls o fo ne o ft hese r ubr ics ( AST , S tatuti II, 11 2 ) make t h is q u i te c lear : S ta tu i mus e t o rd ina mus q uod n u l lus ortola .nus n ul laque p ersona v endens p o ma v e l a l iam r em q uamcu mque, s eu c o m morans i n c on tra ta s eu v ia c ursus, e t i n s ta ta ( s ic ) v ie ma ioris.... t eneat v el t ener i f ac ia t a n te d o mu m v el a poteca m s uam d iscu m i nf ixu m u l tra q uatuor p edes, i n q u ibus q uatuor p ed ibus c onpu te tur l arg itudo s cann i e t l ocus s edend i a n te d ic tam d o mu m v e l a ppotega m s ed t ar nen i n tra duos c ossias e t t rabes v el e xtra d ic tas c oss ias e t f urcas p er u nu m p ede m
S ee a lso C ia mp i
1 872, 5 07 , 5 62. 1 8 .
S ta tu i mus q uod q uecu mqu ,e p ersona h abe t a l iquod s ciaqua toriu m v el f ora men i n a l iqua d o mo a u t h ed if i t io p er q uod s ciaquatoriu m v el f oramen a qua v el l ordura p rogrederAtur i n v ias p ubl icas out v icinales v el v ersus d o mum s eu h ed if i t iu m c onv ic in i s u i v el o rtos p ositos i n tus c iv ita te m
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. 9 7 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
t uscana m vel ex d ic to s c iaqua tor io v el f oram ine f etor v el p utredo a l iqua r esul taret, ad p et it iones c u iuscu mque d ebea t i l lud t a l i ter c laudere e t a c tare quod ex inde t a l ia n on p rocedan t....
•A ST ,
S ta tu t i V , 8 8.
Another
r ubric ( I II, 10 5 ) i s t o much t he s a me e f fect . 1 9.
Whereas r ubbish a nd c essp its a re a c o m mon f ea ture o fu rban e xcava t ions i n England, t hey a re , t o my k nowledge , r are i n I ta ly .
Th is i s p oss ibly
t o b e expla ined by o rgan ized r ubbish d u mp ing i n s pec if ic p arts o ft he t own , s o mething wh ich was d ef in i tely c arr ied o u t a t Tuscan ia ( c f. A ST , C ons ig l i I , f . 398, 399v ).
The p ozzi o r p i ts a t Tuscan ia a nd e lsewhere w h ich
a re t oday f ound f i l led u p w i th r efuse were n ot d ug f or t h is p urpose b u t were originally u sed f or g ra in s torage ( c f . p . 1 23 o f t h is v olume ). 2 0.
A mongst t he r equests s en t t o P ope Mar t in V i n 1 422 a f ter t he e xecu t ion o f Tartagl ia was t he f ol low ing :
I t em q uod o h m Tar ta l l ia t enuer i t e t
o ccupaverit a liquas d o mos n onnu l loru m c iv ium c iv i ta t is Tuscanens is e d if icaveritque a l iqua e d if ic ia e t d o mos i n d ic ta c iv i ta te, q uae e t q uas a dhaesit do mibus p red ic toru m c iv iu m , q uod p rov idea tur q uod c ives i ps i p ossint e t e is l icea t e oru m d om ibus u t i e t f ru i e t t ota l i ter e as r ehabere e t s eparare a d o mibus e d if ic i is p red ic t i o h m Tartal l ie ( Ca mpanar i 1 856 , I , 2 40 ). 2 1.
M CCCC XLVII PETRUS M AHEUS ROMANUS HOC HOSPITA LE CU IUS TUM PRIOR ERA T PRI MU M CHOAN DU M DEIDE PRECEPTOR GENE
R
RA L IS TO TIUS ORD IN IS S ANCT I SPIRITUS A N ICOLA° V PO NTIFICE M ASI MO I NST IT UTUS PERFICIENDUM CURAVIT
2 2.
Pala tiu m residen t ie d om inoru m p r ioru m s olet e sse i n l oco h onor ior i q u i s it i n c ivitate
e t n ostra c iv i tas h abetur e t r epu ta tur n obi l is e t
magnif ica p rou t v ere e st ... q uod m 'acel lu m magnu m n ostri c o mun is s i t p ositu m s ubtus p a la t ium d om ino-r u m Gon faloner i i e t An t ianorum ;
aq uo
e t p reserti m t e mpore e st ivo s olen t r everberare a l iqu i f etores p rop ter q uos i nf icitur a er
v idere tur e is e sse b onu m d ic tu m macel lu m f i er i
d ebere ad f onte m b u t inal is.... ( AST , Cons igl i 4 , f . 3 55 ). 2 3.
9 th-cen tury h ouses a t R im in i a nd Osi mo h ad c urtes a nd c ur t icel lae ( Codex Ravenna p . 4 0 , 4 1-42, 4 5, 7 0 , 7 2 ).
These were p robably e ssen-
t ially f unctional a reas o r g ardens, a s t he c urt is o f a n e arly 1th c en tury Ro man house s ee ms t o h ave b een ( do mum u na m s olara ta m ....e t c urte m c irca s e e x u traque p ar te , i n q ua e st p u teus a quae v ivae c um c aeteris a rboribus p o moru m q u i i b idena s tare v iden tur ( Reg. F arf . I V, p .54-56, 6 8-69 ). 2 4.
A n o doubt t yp ical e xa mp le o f a med ieva l c our tyard was t ha t o f t he e p iscopal p alace o n t he h il l o f Castel lo a t Genoa .
E xcava t ion h ere r e-
v ealed t hat i t was a u t il i tar ian a rea w i th a g arden a nd f lanked o n o ne s ide by an ou tbu ild ing wh ich h oused a k i tchen ( c f . Andrews a nd Pr ingle 19 77 and 19 78 ). Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
9 8
2 5.
The l a te 1 4th c en tury P iacen t ine c hron icler G iovann i d e Muss is g ives ag raph ic d escr ip t ion o f o pen h ear ths.
He c o m men ts o n h ow l i v ing c on-
d i t ions h ave improved i n t he t own , s ay ing : e t f u mo i n u na d o mo; e sse c am inum :
s un t p lures c am in i a b i gne
i n q u ibus d om ibus d ic to t e mpore n ul lu m s oleba t
q u ia t une f ac ieban t u nu m i gne m t an tu m i n med io d o mus
s ub c up is t ec t i , e t omnes d e d ic ta d o mo s taban t c ircu m d ic tu m i gne m , e t i b i f i eba t c oqu ina.
E t v id i meo t e mpore i n p luribus d om ibus....
( R IS XVI , 5 82 ). 2 6.
F ro m l ef t t o r igh t , t he i nscr ip t ions o n t he w indows a re a s f ol lows : P . V ICTORIUS FAN I MDXI I I I ( ? ); MCCCCCXXVI ;
SEBAST IANUS FAN I ANNO I UB ILEI ;
FAN I MCCCC W00 (; 2 7.
S EBAST IANUS FAN I S EBAST IANUS
DO MUS FAN I MCCCCCXXX.
T hese s en t i men ts a re r ef lec ted i n t he De Reg im ine Pr inc ipu m o f E g id io Colonna where h e s ays t ha t a l though i tb ehoves t he p rince t o h ave a f ine p a lace , Magn i tudo e n im a ed if ic iorum l i ce t n on s i t f i enda a d o sten ta t ione m e t i nane m g lor ia m ( L ib. I , p ars. I I , c ap .I I I ). o rd inary c i t izens , h e s ays :
O f t he h ouses o f t he
Ah v ero e lves t ales h abi ta t iones h abere
d eben t mag is e t minus m irabiles , u t c o mpet it p ropr iae f acu l ta t i ( l oc. c it ). 2 8.
Very f u l l a nno ta ted d escr ip t ions o f a spec ts o f t he i n ter iors o f med ieva l h ouses a nd t he ir d ecora t ion h ave b een p ubl ished b y L up i ( 1901-03 ) a nd S ch iaparel l i ( 1908 ).
However , t hey g ive l i t t le i n for ma t ion a s t o h ow
many r oo ms a h ouse may h ave h ad , o r h ow t hey were u sed. 2 9 .
Cann .as s tr ic tas s hou ld a l mos t c er ta in ly n o tb e i n terpreted t o mean t ha tch . I ns tead , i tp robably r efers t o al ayer o f r eeds wh ich was a t tached t o t he r af ters b enea th t he t i les. Arch. Fab iano Buch icch io o f Bolsena t el ls me t ha t t h is p rac t ice i s n ot u nknown i n o lder h ouses, a nd L up i ( 1903, 3 87 ) n oted i ti n h ouses i n t he c oun tryside r ound P isa.
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
9 9
B IBL IOGRAPHY Unpubl ished p r i mary s ources c i ted i n a bbrev ia ted f or m :ACV
( perg/a mena )
Arch ivio C o muna le d i V iterbo ( held i n t he B ib l io teca C o munale d egl i Arden t i ).
ANT
Arch iv io N o tar ile e G iud iz iar io d i Tuscan ia ( held i n t he Arch iv io d i S ta to , V i terbo ).
AST
Arch iv io S tor ica d i Tuscan ia ( s ince 1 971, i n t he Arch ivio d i S ta to, V i terbo ).
A leandr i , V . E ., 1 911. Ar t ist i ea r t ier i l o rnbard i av itorch iano n e i s ecol i XV XVI , Arch iv io S torico L o mbardo , XXXVI I I , 1 02-32. Andrews, D . D ., 1 975. The v il la o f S . Manno : a Hosp ita l ler p roper ty n ear Perug ia , Anna les d e POrdre S ouvera in Mi l ita ire d e Mal te , XXX I I I , 7 1 9. Andrews, D . D . a nd Pr ingle , R . D ., 1 977 .
L o s cavo n elParea s ud d el
c onven to d i S an S i lvestro a Genova ( 1971-76 ), Archeolog ia Med ieva le , I V, 4 7-99 . Andrews, D . D ., 1 978a.
T he med ieval masonry o f N or thern L az io :
i t s
d evelopmen t a nd u ses f or d a t ing , i n H . McK . B lake , T . W. P ot ter , D . B . Wh i tehouse e ds., Papers i n I ta l ian A rchaeology I : S em inar
t he L ancas ter
BAR S 41, Ox ford , 3 91-422.
Andrews , D . D ., 19 78b. L o s cavo d el l 'area s ud d el c h iostro d i S an S ilves tro a Genova , 1 977 , Archeolog ia Med ieva le , V , 4 15-29 . Andrews, D . D . a nd P r ingle , R . D ., 19 78. 1 971-76:
E xcava t ions i n med ieva l Genoa ,
t he p a lace a nd c onven t o f S . S i lvestro , i n H . McK . B lake ,
T . W. Pot ter , D . B . Wh i tehouse e ds., P apers i nI tal ian Archaeology I : t he L ancaster S em inar , Ox ford ( BAR S 41), 3 39-72. Arslan , E ., 19 54.
L 'arch itet tura d al 5 68 a l Mil le , S tor ia d i Mi lano , I , 5 01-
6 08. Ber ton i, G . a nd V ic in i , E . P ., 1 907.
I lc as tel lo d i Ferrara a i t e mp i d i
N iccolö I I , Bologna. Borghes i, S . a nd Banch i , L ., 1 898. a r te s enese , S iena. Cag iano d e Azevedo , M., 1 972.
N uov i d ocu men t i p er l a s tor ia d el l '
L e c ase d escri t te d al Codex T rad it ionum
Eccles iae Ravenna t is , Rend icon t i d el l ' A ccade m ia N aziona le d e i L ince i. C lasse d i S c ienze Mora l i , S tor iche e F ilolog iche , s er ie 8 , XXVI I , 1 59-81.
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 00
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Ro man i , XXI I I ,3 3-46. E g id i , P ., 1 906. L 'Arch iv io d el la Ca t tedra le d i V iterbo , Bu l le t t ino d el l ' I st itu to S tor ico I t al iano , ,XXVI I , 7 -382. Fan t in i , L ., 19 72.
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Nuovo , Arch iv io S tor ico p er l e Prov inc ie Napole tane , LX I-LXIV. Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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C od ice d ip lo ma t ic° d el la c i ttä d i Orv ieto , d ocu men t i e
r egest i d a l s ecolo X I a l XV, e l a c ar ta d el p opolo , F lorence ( Depu taz ione T oscana d i S tor ia Pa tr ia , Docu men t i v ol . 8 ) . Fu m i , L ., 19 02.
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Bergamo ( Col lez ione d i monograf ie i l lus tra te.
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d i Genova —Facol ta d i Arch i tet tura :
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1 tude s ur l es s truc tures
p ol it iques e t s oc ia les d es mil ieux u rba ins , P aris. Her l ihy , D ., 19 58.
P isa i n t he e arly r ena issance :
as tudy o fu rban g row th ,
N ew Haven . Her l ihy , D ., 19 74.
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a Castelspr io n el 19 63, Rassegna Gal lara tese d i S tor ia e d 'Arte , XXVI I , 6 1-92. L up i , G ., 19 01-1 9 03. I ta l ian°
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s tud io d el la " fac ies" r upestre d el la c i t tä d i S iena , Archeolog ia Med ieva le , 4 13-28. Or igo , I . , 19 63.
T he merchan t o f Pra to.
Francesco d i Marco D a t in i?
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. ar mon1982, dsw orth. E-book, Oxford, UK: BARH Publishing, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 1 04
P la te 1 .1
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P la te 1 .2
S . G im ignano , p a lace i n s quare t o t he S . o f t he c a thedra l .
1 0 5 Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
P la te 1 .3
V i terbo , 1 2th-cen tury b u i ldings i n v ia S . An ton io .
P la te 1 .4
Todi , P a lazzo d e i P r ior i .
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P la te 1 .5
N arn i , l ogg ia o f t he P a lazzo d e l P rior i .
P l .
1 .6
V i terbo , t orre d i Messer B ra i mondo .
1 07
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
P la te 1 .7
P la te 1 .8
V i terbo , p iazza S . P e l legr ino .
V i terbo , t he p apa l p a lace .
1 08 Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
P la te 1 .9 S . Mart ino a l C im ino , d oorway .
P la te 1 .1 0
V i terbo , P a lazzo C apocc i .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
P la te 1 .11
V i terbo , t he P a lazzo Ga t t i .
P la te 1 .12
V i terbo , t he C asa P osc ia .
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P la te 1 .13
P la te 1 .14
G ubb io , L argo S . Marz ia le .
V o lterra , t he h ouse o f G iovann i T oscano .
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P la te 1 .1 5
V o lterra , t he E . s ide o fp iazza d e i P r ior i .
P la te 1 .16
V o lterra , t he E . s ide o fp iazza d e i Pr ior i .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554.12 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
P la te 1 .17
P la te 1 .18
V i terbo , p iazza d e l Gesü .
B o lsena , t he p a lace o f C ardina l Teodor ico Ran ier i .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, 1 13 Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
P la te 1 .19
O rv ie to , E . s ide o f t he E . b u i lding o f t he a bbey o f S S . S evero e Mar t ir io .
P la te 1 .20
O rv ie to , W . s ide o ft he E . b u i lding o f t he a bbey o f S S . S evero e Mar t ir io .
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P la te 1 .2 1
O rv ie to , P a lazzo d e l C ap i tano d e l P opo lo .
P la te 1 .2 2
O rv ie to , d if feren t p hases o f wha t was o r ig ina l ly t he p apa l p a lace , t ha t t o t he l ef t b e ing t he e ar l ier .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. 15 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
P la te 1 _2 3
S er mone ta c as t le , r es ident ia l b ui lding w i th s tone g u t ter .
P la te 1 .24
B orghe t to c ast le ( v ia F la m in ia ) , l a tr ine .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. 1 16 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
P la te 1 .2 5 Tuscan ia , w indow o f t he P a lazzo d i Tartag l ia .
P la te 1 .26 C orneto-Tarqu inia , t he P a lazzo V i te llesch i .
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P la te 1 .27 T uscan ia , v ia T orre d i L ave l lo n os . 1 -7 .
P la te 1 .28
V i terbo , w indow
w i th t erraco t ta s urround i n v ia C ard ina le L a F on ta ine .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. 18 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
P la te 1 .29 V i terbo , w indow w i th wooden t racery i n c orso I t a l ia , n os . 2 -8 .
P la te 1 .30
F abr ica d i
Ro ma , h ouse i n v ia d e l la F on tane l la
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. 19 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
P la te 1 .31 T uscan ia , w indow o f n o . 2 1, v ia XX S e tte mbre .
P la te 1 .32
V i terbo , C asa d e l la
P ace , p iazza d e l le E rbe .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. 1 20 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
P la te 1 .33
T useania , Pa lazzo G iannot t i .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. 1 21 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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2 .
UNDERGROUND GRAIN S TORAGE I N CENTRAL I TALY b y Dav id Andrews
When s urveys w ere c arr ied o u t a t Tuscan ia af ter t he 1 971 e ar thquake t o a ssess t he d amage a nd p roble ms o f r ebu ild ing, o ne o f t he d iscover ies was t he r e markable e x ten t t o w h ich t he t ufa b edrock h ad b een t unnel led i n to a t a l l p er iods i n t he t own 's h istory.
Rock-cu t f ea tures c o mpr ise E truscan t o mbs
a nd c un icu l i , p assages a nd r oo ms o fu ncerta in f unc t ion , c el lars, a nd t he p i ts k nown a s p ozz i. E xcava t ion o f t he l a t ter h as p roduced s o me o ft he mos t i mpress ive r ecen t f i nds o f med ieva l p ot tery i n I t aly . D esp ite t he c ons iderable i n terest i n t he ir c on ten ts , t he p i ts t he mselves h ave r e ma ined a n eglec ted a nd u nstud ied p heno menon . The t yp ica l T uscan ia p ozzo i s ab arrel- o r f l ask-shaped p i t 2 -3 m d eep ( f ig. 2 .1 ), t hough s o me a re much l arger. I th as a n arrow mou th , s quare o r a l most s o a nd i s s ome t i mes l i ned w i th a sh lar b locks , b elow wh ich i th as b een h ol lowed o u t t o f or m a c av i ty wh ich i s s o meth ing b etween s pherica l a nd c y l indr ical i n s hape.
S o me s how t races o fh av ing b een p lastered.
T hey a re
f i l led w ith e ar th , b u i ld ing d ebr is a nd r ubble , a sh a nd k i tchen r efuse. T he ir s tra t igraphy p resen ts a s er ies o f t ip l i nes w h ich i nd ica te t ha t i n mos t c ases t hey were f i l led r ap id ly. The f inds, t oo , a re g eneral ly o f much t he s a me p er iod , e xcep t where t he mou th h as b een d isturbed a nd c on ta m ina ted b y l a ter ma ter ia l . Over t h ir ty p ozz i a t Tuscan ia h ave n ow b een e xcava ted b y t he S opr in tendenza Archeolog ica p er l 'Etrur ia Mer id iona le a nd t he Br it ish S chool a t Ro me , a nd v ery many more h ave b een d ug c landest inely.
T here must b e
l i teral ly h undreds i n t he c en tro s tor ico. 2 A l though p i ts a re a c o m mon f ea ture o f a rchaeolog ica l e xcava t ions , i ti s r ela t ively u nusua l t ha t i ti s p ossible t o e stabl ish t he ir e xac t f unc t ions , a nd t he p ozz i o f T uscan ia h ave g iven r ise t o much s pecu la t ion . There i s n o o bv ious a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f or t he ir u se. T he c on ten ts o ft wo wh ich w ere s ieved p roduced l i t t le more t han a f ew g rape p ips. 3 L oca l ly t hey a re d is m issed a s p ozz i n eri , t ha t i s r ubb ish o r c ess p i ts. Th is e xp lanat ion i su naccep table , f or t he s ta tu tes o f T uscan ia p rov ide f or t he d ump ing o f r ubb ish i n f i xed p laces ( AST, S ta tu t i V , 8 2;
a nd s ee p . 6 7 o f t h is v olu me ), a nd t here a re n o r ecords
o ft he d igg ing o f p i ts f or t h is p urpose. There i s , h owever , a n a bundance o f d ocu men tary e v idence t o s how t ha t t he g rea t ma jori ty o f t he p ozz i were s torage p i ts f or g ra in . The e arl iest r eference Ih ave f ound t o t he ir u se i n t h is way d a tes f ro m 1 334. I n t ha t y ear , t he t reasurer o f t he Pa tr i mony o f S t . P eter i n Tusc ia r ecorded t ha t , " as t he c us to m i s" , g ra in f ro m t he p apa l d emesne h ad b een s tored i nt he p ozz i ( pu te is ) o ft he c ast le k nown a s t he Rocca a l P on te d el la Bad ia n ear t o t he E truscan s i te o f Vulc i.
Because o f t he e xcep t iona l ly we t
wea ther , much o f i t was s po iled , a nd wha t was s t il l g ood h e h ad t ransferred Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 23
t o t he n earby p ort o f Mon ta l to d i C astro. 4
F or t he 1 5th c en tury , t here a re
many r eferences i n t he Tuscan ia a rch ives t o p ozz i b e ing u sed f or g ra in s torage. T hey a re men t ioned i n w il ls, i nven tor ies a nd d eeds o f s a le a nd p urchase.
I n aw il l made i n 1 458 , J oanna , w idow o f Marco d a R ispa mpan i ,
o rdered t ha t ap ozzo o fg ra in s hou ld b e s old a nd t he p roceeds p u t t owards t he s um o f 1 00 f l or ins wh ich was t o f inance t he b u i ld ing o f ac han try c hapel i n t he c hurch o f S . Francesco. 5 T here i s a lso 1 5th-cen tury d ocu men ta t ion f or t he s torage o f g ra in i n p ozz i a t Corne to-Tarqu in ia ( c f . S up ino 1 969 , 4 32-33 ). P ozz i a re c o m mon a t C orneto-Tarqu in ia a nd V i terbo , 6 where t hey h ave r ece ived much a t ten t ion f ro m c landest in i b u t l i t t le f ro m a rchaeolog ists , a nd w ere c learly w idespread t hroughou t much o fI ta ly i n t he Middle A ges.
I tw as
i n p ozz i r inch ius i t ha t l arge q uan t i t ies o f a rcha ic ma iol ica were f ound a t Orv ie to e arly i n t h is c en tury ( Imber t 1 909 ).
Twelve p ozz i were d iscovered
i n t he c ourse o f e xcava t ions a t t he d eser ted med ieva l s e t t le men t o f C astel Porc iano n ear N ep i ( Ma l let t a nd Wh i tehouse 1 967 ,127 a nd p la te XXX I I Ib ). They a re t o b e f ound a t mos t d eserted s e t t le men ts , a nd b y i n ference a t mos t i nhabi ted o nes, i n N or thern L az io.
T hey a re d ocu men ted a t S iena ( Cost itu to
S iena , I , p . 1 36 ) a nd a t S . G im ignano , where t he Co m mune 's g ra in was s tored i n t wo u nderground s i los ( Rohau l t d e F leury 1 874, I , 4 01 a nd n ote 6 ) . A p a in t ing b y t he 1 5th -cen tury a r t ist Gu idocc io C ozzarel l i , e n t i tled L a misuraz ione d el g rano a nd s e t i n a Tuscan t own , v iv id ly i l lustra tes t he u nderg round s torage o f g ra in ( p la te 2 .1 ; c f . E lder , 1 932 ). I n S . I ta ly f i f teen p i ts were f ound d ur ing e xcava t ions a t t he d eser ted s i te o f Mon te d 'Irs i i n Bas il ica ta ( Cherry 1 971, 1 43-44 ), a nd f osse d a g rano were c o m mon i n Apu l ia.
P i ts
d iscovered a t Mot ta d el la Reg ina , ad eserted s i te n ear F ogg ia , were b el ls haped , a bou t 1 .50 m w ide a t t he mou th , 3m w ide a t t he b ase , a nd 3 m o r more d eep ( Russ i 1 973 ). Varro , C olu mel la a nd P l iny a l l c o m men t o n t he u se o f p i ts f or s tor ing g ra in i n As ia Minor , Greece a nd S pa in . f or t he m.
7
Varro a ctua l ly u ses t he w ord p uteus
C olu mel la t hough t c ond it ions i n I ta ly t o b e t oo d a mp f or t he me thod
t o b e s uccessfu l , a nd i ti s i n terest ing t ha t n one o f t hese w r i ters i nd ica tes t ha t p i ts were a c tual ly u sed t here. f i ed ( c f . Min to 1 936 ).
However , Ro man p ozz i h ave b een i den t i-
I n c on trast w ith med ieval o nes , t hey s ee m t o h ave b een
c on ica l w i th f l a t b ot to ms.
Doubt less t he p rac t ice o f s tor ing g ra in u nderground
c on t inued i n t he e arly Midd le Ages.
The e ar l iest d a table p ozzo k nown s o
f ar i s p robably t ha t f ound i n 1 974 b enea th o ne o f t he 1 2th-cen tury t owers o n t he h il l o f S . P ietro a t Tuscan ia , a nd wh ich mus t h ave b een i n u se i n t he 1th c en tury o r e ar l ier ( Gian fro t ta a nd P o t ter f or thco m ing ).
Ano ther p ozzo i n a
d a table c on tex t i s t ha t t o b e f ound amongs t t he s can ty r e ma ins o ft he p a lace b u i l tb y t he Emperor F reder ick I ( 1 220-50 ) j ust o u ts ide t he wal ls o n t he E . s ide o fV iterbo.
P iero De C rescenzi , whose t rea t ise o n a gr icu l ture w as
w r i t ten C . 1 300 , men t ioned u nderground g ra in s torage , b u t h e v irtua l ly r epea ted Varro o n t he s ub jec t , i nc lud ing h is p o in t t ha t t hey s hou ld b e l i ned w i th s traw, a nd d id n o t e spec ia l ly a dvoca te t he me thod ( l ib.3, c ap . 2 ) .
He
c a me f ro m Bologna , a nd i ti s i mprobable t ha t i t was a p rac t ice s u i ted t o t he l owly ing l and o f t he Po p la in .
The s torage o fg ra in i n p ozz i c on t inued i n to
modern t imes, b e ing d ocu men ted a t Mus ignano a nd C an ino i n t he 1 7th c en tury , a nd n ear V ignanel lo i n 1 791.
8
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 24
F IG . 2 . 1
TUSC A NI A ,
S ECTI O N POZZO
THROUGH
C2
I N V IA
CO NSAL VI
3M l a m •
TRAN I
F ig . 2 . 2 i n
G ra in
a c abreo o f
M EZOD I
s torage 1 611
p i ts a s
( see
r epresen ted
n ote 1 0 )
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. 1 25 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
A s ac avea t , i t must b e n o ted t ha t p robab ly n o t a l l p i ts s erved f or g ra in s torage. S o me may wel l h ave b een c isterns. T owns s uch a s Tuscan ia a nd V i terbo r el ied ma in ly o n f oun ta ins f ed b y s pr ings , s treams a nd a queduc ts f or t he ir wa ter s upp ly , t hough a c istern i s r ecorded a t t he f or mer n ear t he p or ta d i Pogg io ( AST, C ons igl i 3 , f . 1 47v ). T here s eem t o h ave b een v ery f ew wel ls. 9 I n h i l l top v il lages, t he n earest wa ter s upp ly was u sua l ly i n t he v al ley b elow, a nd t herefore c isterns w ou ld h ave b een a g rea t c onven ience , a nd a bsolu tely e ssen t ia l i n t ime o f s iege. A rrangemen ts w ere made i n 1 259 f or t he e xcavat ion o f ac istern a t A l teto , al ow h i l l top s i te n ear Veiano ( ACV, Margar i ta I . f . 1 8 ). Thus s o me p i ts wh ich a re e xcep t iona l ly l arge a nd p lastered , b u t wh ich o therw ise s ee m t o r esemble n or ma l p ozz i i n s hape , s uch a s t ha t n ear t he c hurch o f S . G iovann i a t Rocca R ispampan i , o r t ha t w ith in t he c ast le e nc losure a t N orch ia , w ere p robably i n tended f or wa ter .
T hough
p art ly f i l led w i th r ubble , t he l a t ter i s n evertheless 3 .5 m d eep . A t t he s i te k nown a s I lF or t ino t o t he E . o fB olsena , t here a re t he r e ma ins o f r ec tangul ar c isterns b u i l t o f masonry w ith v aul ts a nd t h ick p laster l i n ings. T hese s ee m t o b e r a ther e xcep t ional , a nd a re p oss ibly t ob e e xp la ined b y t he f act t ha t t he b edrock h ere i s n o t a s e asy t o c u t i n to a s t u fa.
A l though t he f i l l ing
o f p ozz i w i th r ubbish was i n most c ases a s econdary f unc t ion , s o me may o r ig ina l ly h ave s erved a s c ess p i ts. Th is i s l i kely t o h ave b een t rue w here t hey a re l oca ted b elow l a tr ine c hu tes s e t i n t he wa l l t h ickness o f ab u i ld ing , a s o ccas ional ly h appens a t Tuscan ia .
A t t he a bandoned s i te o f P ian F asc iano
i n t he Marta v al ley , where a c hu te i n t he c as t le w al l emp t ies i n to a p ozzo, i ti s more p robable t ha t t he l a t ter was d ug f or t h is p urpose t han t ha t t he wa l l was d el ibera tely s i ted s o t ha t i tr an o ver a p re-ex ist ing p ozzo. P l iny t hough t t ha t p i ts were o ne o f t he mos t e f fec t ive w ays o f s tor ing g ra in , a nd Varro a sser ted t ha t i n w el l s ealed o nes , i tc ou ld b e k ep t f or u p t o f i f ty y ears.
F or s uccessfu l s torage, p i ts must b e t i gh tly s ealed , s o t ha t
a ir a nd mo isture a re e xcluded a nd t he g ra in c anno t g er m ina te o r s po i l ( c f . Bowen a nd Wood 1 967 ). The mou ths o f t he p ozz i o f N . L az io g enera l ly h ave a n o f fse t , e i ther c u t i n to t he r ock o r b u il t i n a sh lar masonry , t ha t s erved a s as ea t ing f or a l i d.
Ac abreo o r l and r eg is ter d a ted 1 611 o f t he c o mmenda
o f S . Magno d i G rad°l i i l lus tra tes a s er ies o f p ozz i o n t he t enu ta o f S ugarel la n ear C an ino b y r epresen t ing t he ir l i ds ( f ig. 2 .2 ). 1 0 T hese s ee m t o h ave b een o f wood w ith i ron h andles, a nd must h ave b een c aulked i n s o me w ay . A t t he d eserted s i te o f Borghe t to n ear Ga l lese o n t he v ia F lam in ia , t here a re t wo p ozz i c u t i n to t he s ide o ft he d i tch a cross t he s pur. E ach i s s e t b ack w ith in a r ough ly t r iangu lar n iche o r r ecess e xcava ted i n t he r ock , r ound wh ich t here i s as ha l low g roove o r s lo t s uggest ing t ha t ac anopy o r c over was b u il t o ver t he m ( p la te 2 .2 ). I ts ee ms t ha t t hey h ad a d o me-shaped c over, s o meth ing f or wh ich t here a re g ood e thnograph ic p aral lels ( Bowen a nd Wood 1 967 , 4 ). I ft h is were s o , t hen t he mou ths o f t he p ozz i , wh ich a re a bou t 6 0 cm s quare , w ould h ave b een v ery w el l p ro tec ted a ga inst r a infal l . B ands o f l ime-r ich c e men t a dher ing t o t he s ide o f t he n iches s how t ha t t h is w as u sed t o h elp s ea l t he m. T he i n teriors o f t hese p ozz i w ere a lso p las tered w ith a f i ne c e men t r ender. A l though s a me p ozz i a re p las tered , s uch a s t hose a t Torre Busson n ear R ignano F la m in io ( S t iesdal 1 962, 9 1), a t C astel P a terno n ear C iv i ta C astel iana , o r af ew a t Tuscan ia ( e .g. o ne o u ts ide v ia d el la T orret ta n o. 1 0 ), o thers a re n o t.
N o l i n ing was n o ted i n t hose e xa m ined a t
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 26
C astel P orc iano ( Mal lett a nd Wh itehouse 19 67 , 1 27 ) , a nd most o f t hose wh ich h ave b een e xcavated a t Tuscan ia s ee m n o t t o h ave b een p lastered.
I t may b e
t ha t , af ter much u se , t he l in ing h as d eter iora ted o r b ecome d iscoloured , s o t ha t i t s e x istence i s n o l onger o bv ious. However , i fi ti s n o t i l lusory , t h is i ncons istency p resen ts c er ta in p roble ms. T he n eed f or a l i n ing - m ay d epend o nt he t ype o fb edrock , b eing n ecessary i n t he c ase o f as tra t if ied t u faceous d epos it b u t n o t i n t he c ase o f ah ard l i tho id t u fa. A l terna t ively , t he o n ly p oss ible c onc lus ion i s t ha t p rac t ice v ar ied. Th is m igh t d epend u pon whether g ra in was d r ied p r ior t o s torage , wh ich i n t urn m igh t d epend u pon whether i t was s eed-gra in o r i n tended f or c onsu mp t ion . The f ormer c anno t b e d ried a s o therw ise i tw ould n ot g er m ina te.
Undr ied g ra in c an b e s tored s a t isfac-
t or ily i n a n a irt ight p i t s o l ong a s i ti s l i ned t o p reven t mo isture s eep ing i n f ro m t he s ides ( Bowen a nd Wood 1 967 , 4 ).
To d a te , h owever , Ik now o f
n o e v idence , a rchaeolog ical o r d ocu men tary , f or c orn-dry ing o vens i n med ie va lI ta ly . A t d eser ted s i tes, p ozz i a re c o m mon i n c lear ings o r p iazze.
A t C astel
Porc iano , t here i s ac luster o f n ine i n t he f ron t o f t he c hurch a nd n e ighbour ing h ouses ( Mal le t t a nd Wh itehouse 1 967 , f i g. 5 ) , a nd a t A l te to t here a re more t han t wen ty , g rouped ma in ly i n t he c en tre o f t he h il ltop where t here s ee ms t ob e ap iazza . T hey a re a lso o f ten t ob e f ound i n c lose p rox im i ty t o t owers, a s a t T orre Busson n ear R ignano F la m in io ( S t iesdal 1 962 ), R ignano F la m in io i t se lf , a nd a t T orr ionacc io i n t he Marta v a l ley . a t Tuscan ia h as ap ozzo i nside i t .
A t ower i n v ia d el la L upa
A t Tuscan ia , t hey o ccur b o th i ns ide b u ild-
i ngs a nd a lso o u tside t he m i n t he s tree t.
There i s much e v idence t o s uggest
t ha t many h ouses h ad a p ozzo j ust o u ts ide t he f ron t d oor. I n v ia d el Turco , w h ich i s r ecorded f ro m t he f i rst h al f o f t he 1 4th c en tury , a nd wh ich s t il l p reserves a s er ies o f med ieval h ouse f ron tages , t here a re r ows o f p ozz i d own e ach s ide o ft he s treet , a nd t here a re a lso f requen t r eferences t o t he m i n s im i lar l oca t ions i n 1 5th-cen tury d ocu men ts .1 1 I t s ee ms , t herefore, t hat e ach f am ily h ad o ne o r more p ozz i. I n a n a gricu l tural t own , t hese wou ld u sual ly h ave s erved t o s tore h o me-grown p roduce.
T hose who e ngaged i n t rade a nd c o mmerce, o r who were a r t isans,
a lso g enera l ly owned l and , o n wh ich t hey w ou ld h ave g rown s o me whea t . The i nna te d es ire o fI t a l ian smal lholders t o b e r ela t ively s el f-suff ic ien t i n whea t p roduc t ion h as b een o ne o f t he o bstac les t o modern a gr icu l tura l i mprove men ts. I nt he c on tado o f F lorence i n t he 1 4th c en tury , whea t was b y f ar t he most i mpor tan t c rop , e ven b e ing c ul t iva ted i n o r t i ( La Ronc iere 19 76, 7 83-85 ). I f af am ily d id n ot h ave t he means t o g row i t s own whea t o r t o p roduce e nough f or i t s own n eeds , mos t s tored i ti n c ons iderable q uan t i t ies. Two s urveys c arr ied o u t a t Pra to i n 1 298 a nd 1 339 s how t ha t t he ma jor i ty o fh ouseholds h ad a s tockp ile o fg ra in , wh ich i n a l most h al f t he c ases was s uf f ic ien t t o s ee t hem t hrough t he y ear ( La Ronc iere 19 76, 4 57-59 ;
c f. F ium i 19 68 , 4 6 , 7 1-3 ).
I fi ti s a ssu med t ha t t he c on ten ts o ft he p ozz i were g rown l oca l ly , p robably b y t he owners o ft he h ouses w ith wh ich t hey a re a ssoc ia ted , t hen t hese p i ts h ave aw ider s ign if icance when r ela ted t o t he o vera l l q uest ion o f g ra in p rod uc t ion. I n h is p ioneer s tudy o f t he I ron Age s e t t le men t a t L it t le Woodbury , Bersu ( 19 40 ) u sed t he n umber a nd c apac i ty o f t he s torage p i ts t o make e st ima tes o f t he p opula t ion a nd a creage u nder c ul t iva t ion. T he p ozz i o f L az io h ave t he p oten t ia l t o s upp ly d ata f or s im il ar s tud ies. One l i ke C 2 ( f ig .2 .1 ) . 1 27 Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
wh ich i s p robably s l ight ly sma l ler t han a verage, h as a v olume o f a bou t 1 .2 c u m ( 1 .5 c u y ds.) , a nd c ou ld h ave c on ta ined a bou t 1 160 l i tres ( 3 2 b ushe ls ) , o r r a ther l ess t han 1 016 k i los ( 1t on ), o fg ra in. Th is q uan t ity would , h owever , b e sma l ler i fi t were s tored i n t he e ar, which P l iny s ays was c usto mary when u s ing p i ts.
On t he b as is o ft he e st i ma tes u sed by B ersu , a nd c orrec ted b y
Bowen a nd Wood , wh ich a re n o t , o f c ourse, s tr ic t ly a pp l icable t o L az io , t h is w ou ld r epresen t t he y ield o f a bou t 1h ectare ( 2 -3 a cres ), o r at o ta l o f a bou t 3h ectares a l low ing f or a t wothirds f allow s ys tem s uch a s s eems t o h ave b een u sed a t Tuscan ia ( Cerasa 19 11 ,27 -2 8 ) , a nd w ou ld h ave c ons t i tu ted ay ear 's s upp ly o fg ra in f or t wo t o t hree p ersons .1 2 I n a n u rban c on tex t , where i ti s i mposs ible t o k now h ow many p ozz i were o pen a t o ne t ime , o r b elonged t o a n i nd iv idual h ousehold , i tc annot b e h oped t ha t s uch c a lcu la t ions w i l l l ead t o v ery mean ingfu l c onclus ions. A t ad eserted s i te , h owever , where i tm igh tb e p oss ible t o g ive more a ccura te a nswers t o t hese q uest ions , a nd e ven d iv ide t he p ozz i a ccord ing t o p hases o f o ccupa t ion , more u sefu l r esu l ts m igh tb e o bta ined. Ano ther f actor t ha t must b e t aken i n to a ccoun t i n s tud ies o f t h is k ind i s t ha t g ra in was b e ing g rown f or e xpor t.
N . Lazio was wel l-known a s a n a rea
o f c erea l p roduc t ion i n t he 1 3th c en tury , when C orne to-Tarqu in ia a nd T uscan ia s en t i tt o Genoa a nd e lsewhere ( Ferret to 19 01, p ar t I , p . 3 59 , 3 64; p art 2 , p . 1 00 ; A bulaf ia 1 974, 2 25 ). I n 1 49 2 Card inal Raf faele R iario w ro te o f C orneto , i psa c iv i tas n on modo p rov inc ie Pa tr imon i i u bi s i ta e st , s ed e t a lme u rbis e t Ro mane Cur ie h orreu m f ru men torum e sse c onsuev i t ( Guerr i 1 908 , v i i ).
S ince t he p roh ibit ions o n g ra in e xport wh ich were a c harac ter ist ic
f ea ture o f med ieva l e cono m ic p ol icy were c aus ing t he p eop le o f C ornet° t o s el lg ra in a t al ow p rice, i n 1 49 9 A lexander V I a l lowed t he m t o e xport o net h ird o fa ny s urp lus. O f t he r e ma inder, oneth ird was t o b e s tored u n t il D ece mber when , i fn ot wan ted b y t he Apostol ic C amera t o s upp ly t he n eeds o f e i ther t he p rov ince , Ro me o r t he Cur ia , i t c ou ld b e s o ld f reely . T he s a me c ond it ions a pp l ied t o t he o ther t h ird wh ich w as t o b e k ep t u n t i l t he ' f ol low ing March ( Sup ino 19 69 , 4 32-33 ). That a s urp lus o fg ra in w as a n t ic ip a ted u nder n or ma l c ond it ions a t Tuscan ia i s s hown b y ad ecree i ssued b y t he C o m mune i n 1 49 7 o rder ing t hat t hose who h ad more t han t hey n eeded f or t he ir own p urposes were t o s tore o ne-quarter o f t he e xcess i n t he p ubl ic g ranary , s o t ha t i tm igh tb e a va ilable f or d istr ibut ion t o t he p oor ( AST , C onsigl i 5 , f .2 9 ) .
Gra in was a lso of ten u sed f or p ay men ts i n k ind , a nd i t
may b e a ssu med t ha t i t was g eneral ly i n r ela t ive a bundance. Af urther p roble m i n a ssess ing p ozzi i s t he v ar ia t ion i n s ize b e tween t he m . C 2 a s i l lus tra ted i n f i g. 1 may b e t yp ica l o f t hose e xcava ted s o f ar a t T uscan ia , b u t s o me a re v ery much l arger. T he p ozz i A , B , C , D i n f i g .2 . 2c ou ld h o ld 2 70 , 5 0 , 2 00 a nd 1 50 s o me o f g ra in r espect ive ly . Ih ave n o tb een a ble t o f ind a ny e st i ma te o f t he c apac ity o f t he s o ma a s ad ry measure f or N . L az io.
Accord ing t o t he Encicloped ia I t al iana , i n L o mbardy i t was
e qu ivalen t t o 1 45-171 l i bbre.
I ft h is i s a ny i nd ica t ion t o g o o n , t hen a p ozzo
w ith a c apac i ty o f 5 0 s o me c ould h old a bou t 2 450 k g o r a bou t 2 1 -- t ons o f g ra in , t w ice a s much a s C 2. A p ozzo o n t he p roperty o f t he c ommenda o f S . Mar ia i n C arbonara a tV i terbo i s r ecorded i n 1 613 a s h av ing a c apac i ty o f 1 00 r ubbia ( Ma l ta , c odex 5 659 , f . 1 07v ) S ince a r ubbio i n t he p rov ince o f Ro me was e qu iva len t t o 6 40 l i bbre, t hen t h is c ou ld h ave c on ta ined a bou t Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 28
2 1,700 k g o r 2 0 t ons o fg ra in. S even p ozz i a t Castel S avel lo t o t he S . o f Ro me w ere s a id b y T o masset t i ( 1894, 3 7 ) t o h ave a c apac ity o f a bou t 1 50 q u in ta l i.
S ince t he E nc ic loped ia I t a l iana s ays a q u in ta le c orresponded t o
1 00 k g , t hey c ou ld h old 1 5,000 k g o r a bou t 1 5 t ons o fg ra in . T hese v ery l arge p ozz i o bv iously p o in t t o t he e x istence o f v ery c ons iderable e cono m ic r esources, f ar i n e xcess o ft hose o f t he p eop le t o who m t he sma l l o nes b elonged , a nd a s yste ma t ic s tudy o f p ozzo s ize migh t p roduce i n teres t ing r esu l ts. O f 2 5 p ozz i a t ' T uscan ia f or wh ich d a t ing e vidence h as b een r ecorded, o ne was f i l led i n i nt he 1 3th c en tury , t hree i n t he 1 4th c en tury , 1 i n t he 1 5th c en tury , a nd t he r es t i n t he 1 6th-18 th c en tur ies. Th is p a t tern s ee ms t o b e t rue f or o ther t owns, a nd c an b e e xp la ined i n f our ways. F irst , s o me p ozzi must h ave g one o u t o fu se b ecause t hey h ad g one s our a nd w ere n o l onger s u itable f or s torage.
S econd , many o f t he p ozz i i n t he s treets w ere p robably
f i l led u pb ecause t he ir p resence was i nco mpa t ible w i th t he i mprove men ts t o t he u rban e nv ironmen t c arr ied o u t f ro m t he 1 5th c en tury. T he Pa lazzo Fan i a t Tuscan ia , wh ich was b u il t i n t he f i rst h al f o f t he 1 6th c en tury , h as t wo p ozz i i ns ide i t , n o t i n t he s tree t.
Ap ozzo o u ts ide a h ouse i n v ia Verd i ( no.
6 ) was f i l led i n p robably a t much t he s ame t ime t ha t i tw as r ebu il t i n a bou t t he s econd h a l f o ft he 1 6th c en tury. A masonry a rch was b u il t o ver i t s mouth t o p reven t t he r oad s urface s agg ing a s t he f i l l s et t led. T h ird , wh i lst t here i s a bundan t e v idence t ha t u nderground g ra in s torage c on t inued i n t he p ostmed ieva l p er iod , i ti s p ossible t ha t t here was a n i ncreas ing t endency t o s tore g ra in a t f i rst f l oor l evel , i n o u t-bu ild ings o r e ven i n h ouses. I n D e Crescenzi 's o p in ion Ig rana i s id ebbon f are n el p iü a l to d el la c asa ( L ib 3 , c ap . 2 ) , where t here was l ess r isk f rom v er m in a nd d amp . On t wo Hosp ita l ler p ropert ies o f t he V i terbese, g ra in was s tored i n t he 17 th c en tury a t t he f i rs t f l oor o f t wo l arge magazz in i ( Mal ta , c odex 5 642, f . 1 2v , 1 3 , 3 3-34 ).
Adm it ted ly ,
t hese w ere s i tua ted a t t he c en tres o f t wo l arge e sta tes , a nd a re t herefore n ot p erhaps v ery r epresen ta t ive , b u t t here e x ist i n t owns l a te a nd p ost- med ieval b u ild ings wh ich h ave f i rst-f loor d oors w ith a p u l ley a bove t he m i nd ica t ing t hat h ay , a nd p erhaps p roduce , was s tored a t t h is l evel ( c f . Mal ta c odex 5 659 , f . 2 3v , 2 5;
s ee a lso f i g. 1 .13 i n t h is v o lu me ).
Before t he 1 5th c en tury , i th ad
n ot a lways b een p oss ible t o s tore a t t he f i rst f l oor b ecause many o f t he p oorer h ouses c ons isted o fo n ly a g round f l oor a nd p erhaps a c el lar. F ina l ly , a nd most i mportan t , t he f i l l ing u p o ft he p ozzi a l mos t c er ta in ly r ef lec ts c hanges i n a gricu l tura l p rac t ice t ha t t ook p lace f ro m t he e nd o f t he M iddle Ages.
T here was p robably a d ecl ine i n g ra in p roduc t ion , a rable l and
b e ing g iven o ver t o p asture , p art icu larly t o t he d e mands o f t he p apa l d ogana ( c f . Cerasa 1 911, 3 0 ; J ones 1 966, 3 92; L u t trel l 19 71, 1 7 ) . There was d ef in itely a c hange i nt he p a t tern o f a gr icu ltura l l and-hold ing. F ium i ( 19 61, 2 09-23 ) n o ted a r educ t ion i n t he s hare o f t he c on tado o f S . G im ignano p oss essed b y sma l lholders d a t ing b ack t o t he 1 4th c en tury , a nd a c o mparab le t rend a t P ra to f ro m a t l eas t t he 1 5th c en tury ( id . 1 968 , 1 68-77 ). S im ilar d evelopmen ts must a lso h ave b een t ak ing p lace i n N . L az io. By t he 1 8 th c en tury , most o f t he t err i tory o f Tuscan ia was c oncen tra ted i n t he h ands o f e cc les iast ica l i nst i tu t ions a nd a f ew wea l thy a bsen tee l andlords. Pr iva te i nd iv iduals h e ld o n ly a bou t o neten th o f i t( Cerasa 1 911, 4 -8 , 1 2 ). The v ery l arge p ozz i d iscussed a bove a l l s ee m t o h ave b een a ssoc ia ted w ith p ostmed ieva l l a t ifond i , a nd t here may h ave b een a t endency f or p ozz i t o i ncrease Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 29
i n s ize a t t h is p er iod.
Furthermore, t he l ands a round t he t owns wh ich h ad
b elonged t o t he c o m munes a nd were a dm in istered a s c o m mon f i elds, a t Tusean ia k nown a s t he b and i te , were t o al arge e x ten t d iv ided u p i n to f ar ms i n t he 1 6th c en tury. T hese were g enera l ly c u l t iva ted b y p eop le who l i ved n ot i n t he t owns b u t i n n ewly-bu il t c ase c olon iche i n t he c oun trys ide ( Pinz i 1 893, 2 47 -4 9 ; 1 913, 4 91-95; C erasa 19 11, 2 7-29 ). T here was t hus l ess o pport un ity f or t he o rd inary c i t izen t o g row h is o wn g ra in , a nd a t endency f or t he h arvest t o b e s tored i n t he c oun try r a ther t han t he t own .
T he p ozz i a re t here-
f ore a s tr ik ing t est i mony t o t he o nce t hr iv ing a gr icu l ture o f t he a rea a nd t o t he c hanges t ha t t ook p lace i n i tf ro m t he e nd o f t he Midd le Ages.
NOTES 1 .
I n I t al ian , p ozzo means a wel l , b u t i s a lso u sed c ol loqu ial ly f or a ny d eep h ole. T he L a t in p u teus ( = w el l ), f ro m wh ich i ti s d er ived , a lso c ame t o h ave t h is s econdary mean ing. b u t t i
P its a re s ome t i mes a lso k nown a s
d umps ) , a nd i n o ther p arts o f I t a ly a s f osse.
2 .
Ih ave r ecorded t he l oca t ion o f more t han s ix ty o f t he m ( see f i g. 3 .20 ) .
3 .
The work o n t hese t wo p ozz i , B 1 a nd B 2 o u ts ide v ia d el Pel legr ino n o. 8a nd v ia d el le S a mbueare n o. 3 3 r espec t ively , was o rgan ized b y J ohn Ward Perk ins, f or merly D irec tor o ft he Br i t ish S chool a t Rome , a nd c arr ied o u tb y myself t oge ther w i th S a l ly a nd S tan ley G aywood , a nd Mary P ickard , who m Is hou ld l i ke t o t hank f or t he ir a ss istance i n t h is r esearch .
4 .
E go S tephanus T hesaurar ius
f ee i i psum g ranum r epon i i np u te is
d ic t i c astr i Abba t iae u t e s t moris , i n q u ibus p u te is s te t i t p er max i mum t e mpus, e t p rop ter n im ias p luv ias e t i nunda t iones a quaru m , q uae f uerun t d ic to a nno , a qua i n trav i t i n d ic t is p u te is , e tg ranum p red ic tum f u i t i n magna q uan t i ta te p u trefactu m , e t p ostea f ee i g ranum b onu m p or tar i a pud Mon te m a l tu m e t i b i r epon i ( Arch iv io S egreto Va t icano , I n tro i tus e t E x i tus v ol . 15, f . 6 4, c i ted b y S eraf in i 19 20, 8 8-89 ). 5 .
I t em r el iqu i t Quod u nus p u teus g ran i q uem h abea t v enda tur e t d istr ibua tur u sque a d q uan t ita te m C f l orenoru m d ic te d o t is p ro e ius c apel la e t e tc. ( ANT , 2 6, f .52v ).
6 .
A tV iterbo , p ozz i a re s a id t o b e e spec ia l ly n u merous i n t he P iano S carano a nd S . Faust ino a reas o ft he t own . I ti s e ven a l leged t ha t t hey h ave a marke t v a lue b ased o n t he c eram ic f i nds a n t ic ipa ted f ro m t hem .
7 .
Varro , Rerum r ust icaru m , I , 5 7 ;
C olumel l a . , D e r e r ust ica , I , 6 ;
P l iny , N a tura l is h istor ia , XVI I I , 3 06. 8 .
F or Musignano , s ee S eraf in i 19 20 , 1 54. F or C an ino , s ee n o te 1O . A e abreo d a ted 17 91 f or t he c om menda o f S . Mar ia i n Carbonara , V i terbo , c on ta ins a d escr ip t ion o f ap iece o f l and n ear V ignanel lo w i th a c an t ina a nd ag ro t ta , a nd r ecords t ha t e n tro l a C an t ina e s is te i lP ozzo p er r iporre i lg rano ( Ma l ta , c odex 5 621, f .45 ).
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, 1 30 Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
9 .
The o n ly r eference Ik now t o o ne i s i n ap roperty d iv is ion o f 1 460 wh ich men t ions ah ouse a t Tuscan ia c um e el lar io s ubtus i n q uo e s t c isterna s eu p u teus a gue v ive ( ANT , 2 6, f . 2 58 ). Even t h is s ee ms n ot t oh ave b een a t rue w el lb u t r a ther a c istern f ed e i ther b y r a inwa ter b u t more l i kely b y as pr ing.
1 0.
T hey a re d escr ibed a s Qua t tro p ozz i c ava t i i n Terra n e l t ufo d a r iporv i ig ran i d el la C o m menda , e iö è u no a l la l e t tera A n el la T erra d i Can ino i np iazza p ubl ica , d et ta l a p iazza d el C o m mune , d i c apu ta d i s o me d ugen to s e t tan ta i n c irca , eg l i a l tr i t re s egna t i B , C , D , s ono f uor i d el la p or ta d i d e t ta T erra d et ta d el la Rocca , i lp r i mo a l la l e t tera B ä d i c apu ta s o me c inquan ta , i ls econdo a l la l e t tera C è d i c apu ta d i s o me d ugen to , ei lt erzo a l la l e t tera D e d i c apu ta d i s o me c inquan ta.... ( Mal ta c odex 5 460 , 1 . 2 16v ).
The mou th o f ap ozzo i s v ery c learly
i l lustra ted i n Ma l let t a nd Wh i tehouse 1 967 , p la te 2 00C I I Ib . 1 1.
e .g. a n i nven tory o f 1 458 wh ich men t ions u no p uteo a n te d o mum d ic tam a bsque f rumen t i a l iquo g enere ( ANT , 2 6, f . 9 0v );
as a le o f 1 460 o fu na m
d o mu m....terrenea m c um q uoda m p u teo s i to a nte d ic ta m d o mum ( ANT , 2 6, f . 1 63 ). 1 2.
Bersu r eckoned o n ay ield o f a bou t 1 b ushels p er a cre , a nd o n a n a nnua l c onsu mp t ion p er p erson o f4 1 b ushels ( 1940 , 1 04 a nd n otes ). Bowen a nd Wood ( 1967 , 1 2 n o te 4 0 ) p o in t o u t t ha t i n Ro man t imes p er c ap ita a nnua l c onsu mp t ion was c .
b ushels.
On t he t heore t ica l a spec ts o f p i t
s tud ies , s ee a lso C o manescu a nd Ma tcescu 1 971; a nd J ef fer ies 1 979 . 1 3.
Coles 1 973, 3 9-45;
Accord ing t o Ca l indr i ( 1829 , 5 48 ) a nd t he Enc ie loped ia I ta l iana , al i bbra i n t he p rov ince o f Ro me a nd i n Tuscany we ighed a bou t 3 39 g .
T hus 1 45
l i bbre would b e e qu ivalen t t o a pprox i ma tely 1 08 i mperia l I b . o r 4 9 k g.
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 31
B IBL IOGRAPHY Unpubl ished s ources c i ted i n a bbrev ia ted f or m :ACV
Arch iv io Co muna le d i V i terbo ( held i n t he B ibl ioteca C o muna le d egl i Arden t i ).
ANT
Arch iv io N o tar ile e G iud iz iario d i Tuscan ia ( held i n t he Arch iv io d i S ta to , V iterbo ).
AST
Arch iv io S tor ico d i Tuscan ia ( s ince 19 71, i n t he Arch iv io d i S ta to , Vi t erbo ).
Ma l ta
Roya l Mal ta L ibrary , Valet ta , Arch ives o f t he Order o f S t. J ohn .
Bersu , G ., 19 40.
E xcava t ions a t L i t t le Woodbury , Wi l tsh ire.
Par t 1 :
The
s et t le men t a s r evealed b y e xcava t ion , Proceed ings o f t he Preh is tor ic S oc iety , V I , 3 0-Ill. Bowen , H . C . a nd Wood , P . D ., 19 67 .
Exper imen ta l s torage o f c orn u nder-
g round a nd i t s i mp l ica t ions f or I ron Age s e t t le men ts , Bu l let in o f t he I ns t itu te o f Archaeology , Un iversi ty o f L ondon , 7 , 1 -14. C al indr i , G ., 1 829 . C erasa , G„ 1 911.
S agg io s ta t ist ico s torico d el P on t if ic io S ta to , P erug ia. L 'agro t uscan iense e id ir i t t i c iv ic i .
I ;
Ip ascol i ,
Vi t erbo . C herry , J . F ., 1 971.
A t r ia l e xcava t ion a t Mon te d 'Irs i , Bas il ica ta , Papers
o f t he Br i t ish S chool a t Ro me , XXXD ( , 1 38-70. C oles , J ., 19 73. C ost itu to S iena .
Archaeology b y e xper i men t , L ondon . R . Arch iv io d i S ta to i n S iena ,
I lC ost i tu to d el C o mune d i
S iena v o lgar izza to n el MCCCD (-MCCCX , S iena , 19 03 ( 2 v ols ). De ' Crescenz i , P iero.
T ra t ta to d el la a gr icol tura , Milan , 18 05 ( Col lez ione
d e i C lass ic i I ta l ian i, v ols. 2 2-24 ). E lder , I . V ., 19 32.
Un q uadro p oco c onosc iu to d i Gu idocc io Cozzarel l i ,
L a D iana , V I I , 1 09-11 O . Ferre t to , A ., 19 01.
C od ice d ip lo ma t ico d el le r elaz ion i f ra l a L igur ia , l a
Toscana e l a L un ig iana a i t e mp i d i Dan te ( 1 265-1321 ), A t t i d el la S oc ietä L igure d i S tor ia Pa tr ia , XXX I ( 2 p arts ). F iu m i , E ., 19 61,
S tor ia e xono m ica e s oc ia le d i S an G im ignano , F lorence
( Bibl ioteca S tor ica T oscana v ol . X I ). F iu m i , E ., 1 96 8 .
De mograf ia , mov i men to u rban ist ico e c lass i s oc ia l i i n
P ra to d a l l 'etä c o muna le a i t e mp i modern i , F lorence ( B ibl ioteca S tor ica Toscana v ol . X IV ). Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 32
G ian fro t ta , P . a nd Pot ter , T . W., Forthco m ing. 19 74.
Excavat ions a t Tuscan ia ,
Guerr i , F ., 1 908. Regestu m C ler i C orne tan i, Corneto-Tarqu in ia ( Fon t i d i S tor ia C ornetana , I ) . Imber t , A ., 19 09 . J ones , P ., 19 66.
C eram iche o rv ietane d e i s ecol i X II I eX IV, Ro me. Med ieva l a grar ian s oc iety i n i t s p r i me.
I ta ly , i n M. M.
Postan e d., The Cambr idge e cono m ic h istory o f Europe , v ol , I , 3 40-431. L a Ronc iere , C . M. d e., 19 76. F lorence , C en tre e cono m ique r eg iona l a u X IVe s ièc le , A ix-en-Provence. L u t trel l , A ., 1 971.
Two Te mp lar-Hosp i ta l ler Precep tor ies n or th o f Tuscan ia ,
Papers o f t he Br i t ish S chool a t Ro me , XXX IX , 9 0-124. Ma l le t t , M. a nd Wh i tehouse, D ., 19 67 .
Castel Porc iano :
a n a bandoned
med ieva l v i l lage o ft he Ro man Ca mpagna , Papers o ft he Br i t ish S chool a t Ro me
) 0 (V, 1 13-46.
Min to , A ., 1 936.
C in ig iano ( Grosseto ).
S coperto d i d ue p ozz i g ranari i n
l oca l i tä " Cava a l la r ena" p resso S . L azzaro , N o t iz ie d egl i S cav i, 4 070 8. P inz i , C ., 1 887-1913. v ol . I 1 889 ; P inz i , C ., 18 93.
S toria d el la c i tü . d i V i terbo , Ro me ( vol . I . 1 887 ;
v ol . I I 1 899 ;
v ol . I V 19 13 ).
G l i o sp iz i med ioeva l i e POspedal-Grande d i V iterbo.
Me mor ie s tor iche , V iterbo. Rohau l t d e F leury , G ., 1 874,
L a T oscane a u Moyen Age. L et tres s ur
l ' arch i tec ture c iv ile e t mil i ta ire e n 1 400 , Par is ( 2 v ols.). Russ i , V ., 19 73. 7 , p . 8 -10.
L a Mot tadel laReg ina , N ot iziar io d i Archeolog ia Med ieva le ,
S era f in i , A ., 19 20.
Mus ignano e l a r occa a l Pon te d el la Bad ia , Ro me.
S t iesda l , H ., 1 962. Three d eserted v il lages i n t he Ro man Campagna , Ana lec ta Ro mana I nst i tu t i Dan ic i , I , 6 3-1 0 0. S up ino , P ., 19 69 .
L a ' Margar i ta Cornetana".
T o masset t i , G ., 1 894.
Regesto d i d ocu men t i , Ro me.
Castel S avel lo , Bu l let t ino d el la Co mm iss ione Archeo-
l og ica Co muna le d i Ro ma , 2 2, p . 5 -38.
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 33
P la te 2 .1
G uidocc io C ozzare l li , L a misuraz ione d e l g rano ( by c ourtesy o f t he \ N,i t t L ibrary ) .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. 34 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. 1 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
P la te 2 .2
Borghe t to c as t le ( v ia F lam inia ) , r ecess c ut i n to t he s ide o f t he d i tch a bove ap ozzo , t he mouth o f wh ich i s j us t v is ib le a t t he b ot to m o ft he p hotograph .
T he s hape o f t h is r ecess , a nd t he
g roove r ound t he e dge o f i t , s ugges t t ha t t he p ozzo h ad ad o med c over .
( The s ca le i s g radua ted i n 1 0 cm i n terva ls . )
3 5 Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In1 Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
3 .
THE WALLS OF TUSCAN IA
A STUDY I N MED IEVAL URBAN TOP OGRAPHY AND DEFENCE b y Dav id Andrews, w i th i l lustra t ions by S heila G ibson .
I NTRODUCT ION T uscan ia i s a sma l l t own n ear L ake Bolsena i n t he n orth o f t he r eg ion o f L az io.
I n E truscan a nd Ro man t imes i tf el l w ithin t he a ger Tarqu in iens is,
a nd i n t he Middle Ages i tb elonged t o t ha t p art o f t he Papa l S ta te k nown a s t he Pa tr i mony o f S t . Pe ter i n Tusc ia.
The t own i s b est k nown t oday f or i t s
E truscan t o mbs, t he r o manesque b as il icas o f S . P ietro a nd S . Mar ia Magg iore, a nd more r ecen tly t he e arthquake o f February 1 971 wh ich u nder t rag ic c ircu ms tances b rough t i tt o t he h eadl ines, a nd awakened i n terest i n i t s h istory .
1
Bu t d esp ite r ecent r esearch , a spects o f Tuscan ia ts h istory ,
a nd i n p art icu lar i t s t opograph ical d evelop men t , r e ma in o bscure.
Dur ing
t he Midd le Ages, t he t own a bandoned i t s t rad it iona l c en tre f or t he p resen t p os it ion , b eco m ing s ubstan t ia l ly r educed i n a rea. i gnore t h is d rama t ic s h if t i n s et t le men t .
The h istorical s ources
I t i s s hrouded i n mystery a nd wou ld
s ee m i ncred ible w ere i tn o t f or a rchaeolog ical e vidence a nd a f ew s urv iv ing monu men ts . T h is s tudy a t te mp ts t o t race t h is p rocess , t o s how h ow i ti s r ef lected i n t he c hang ing o u t l ine o f t he t own wa l ls a nd h ow , u nder t he i n f luence o f t he d efens ive r equ ire men ts o f t he 1 5th c en tury , t he t own a ssu med i t s p resen t f or m . Tuscan ia i s s i tua ted a t ap o in t w here t wo s trea ms, t he d im inu t ive F ossacc io t o t he W. a nd t he l arger Masch iolo t o t he E ., j o in t he r iver Marta w h ich f l ows f ro m L ake Bolsena t o t he s ea a t Tarqu in ia ( f ig. 3 .21 ).
The
s trea ms h ave c u t an eck o f l and wh ich p ro jects i n to t he Mar ta v al ley , wh ich a t t h is p o in t i s e xcep t iona l ly w ide b ecause o f t he c on f luence w ith t hese t r ibut ar ies.
The s pur c ons ists o f t wo l ow h i l ls;
o n t he more s ou therly i s t he
b as il ica o f S . P ie tro , wh i lst t he n orthern o ne i s o ccup ied b y t he f ort if ied p alace k nown a s t he R ivel l ino.
The p resen t t own s tands f urther t o t he N . W.
o n t he e dge o f t he v o lcan ic p la teau t hrough which t he Mar ta h as c u t i t s v al ley , a nd i ti s t o t he N . a nd W. t ha t modern e xpansion , a ccelera ted by t he e arthq uake, h as t aken p lace.
Geological ly , t he t own may b e d ivided i n to t wo z ones,
t he western c o mpris ing t he d istric t o fP ogg io, b eing b u il t o n ah ard g rey b asa l t k nown a s l ava d i Tuscan ia , wh i ls t t he e astern p art , i nclud ing t he s pur i t self , c ons ists o f s tra t if ied t ufaceous d epos its ( Bar tolucc i e t a l ., 1 972 ). T hese a re s andl ike o r g r it ty i n c ons istency , o n ly weak ly c oheren t a nd r ead ily e roded. The t own owes i t s impor tance t o t he s tra teg ic p osit ion o f t h is s pur wh ich d om ina tes t he c ross-roads b etween t he Marta v al ley , a ma jor r ou te u n t i l r ecen t t imes , a nd t he a nc ien t E truscan r oad wh ich u nder t he Ro mans b eca me Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 37
t he v ia C lod ia.
These t horough fares t raverse wha t i s f or t he most p ar t e x-
c ep t ional ly d iff icul t c oun trys ide , c onsis t ing o f t ufa p la teau i n terrup ted b y d eep r av ines. I n c onsequence, Tuscan ia was, a nd t o s o me e x ten t s t il l i s , ar a ther r e mote t own . A l though im med ia tely t o t he N . t here i s an umber o f sma l l v il lages, t o t he E ., S . a nd W. t here a re n o s izeable s et tle men ts b e tween Tuscan ia a nd t he t owns o fV i terbo , Tarqu in ia a nd Mon tal to , ar ad ius o f a l most t h irty k ilo metres. I t s ee ms t ha t t he p la teau h as a lways l en t i t sel f t o ap a ttern o f s et tle men t c haracter ized b y sma l l s ca t tered f ar ms teads. I n E truscan t imes, Tuscan ia was p robably t he a dm in istrat ive a nd r el igious c en tre o f a n u mber o f s uch s et tle men ts. The t own i t sel f s ee-ms n o t t o h ave b een v ery e x tens ive, a nd a l though t he a cropol is was c lear ly o n t he h i l l o f S . P ietro , v ery l i t tle s tructural e v idence h as b een f ound f or t h is p er iod ( Qu i l ic i G igl i 19 70 , 1 4-15; G ianfrot ta a nd P ot ter f orthco m ing ). I ti s u n l ikely t ha t t he E truscan t own o verlapped w i th i t s modern s uccessor, s ince a n umber o f t o mbs h ave b een f ound i nside t he c en tro s tor ico. I n t he Ro man e ra , Tuscan ia p robably c on t inued t o b e a modes t marke t t own , a t t he c en tre o f a n a gr icu l tura l c o m mun i ty c onsist ing o f n umerous s ca t tered smal lhold ings. T here w ere s o me l arge v il las , b u t t hese s how f ew s igns o f weal th o r l uxury ( Qu i l ic i G igl i 19 70 , 2 2-23 ). O f t he Ro man t own , t here i s more e v idence t han o f t he E truscan , e spec ia l ly o n t he h i l l o f S . P ietro. I nside t he b as il ica i t sel f , t here i s a wa l l i n o pus r e t icu la tum i ncorp ora ted i n to t he c ryp t , wh i ls t t o t he W. o f i tt here i s a lso a s er ies o f t errace wal ls.
Restora t ion work i n 19 74 u ncovered a c omp lex o f h ouses t ot he E . o f
t he b as il ica ( Pot ter a nd G ian fro t ta f orthco m ing ).
T hese d iscover ies s howed
t ha t t he t own f lourished d ur ing t he f i rst a nd s econd c en tur ies A .D ., b u t was p robably i n d ecl ine b y t he e nd o f t he I mper ia l e ra . Wh i ls t t he h i l l top was d ensely b u il t u p , t he e x ten t o f o ccupat ion i s u ndef ined , a nd n o t race h as b een f ound o f a ny Ro man t own wa l ls. The v a l ley o f S . Mar ia Maggiore was c ert a in ly o ccup ied. Restora t ion i n 19 68 r evealed t wo wa l ls i n o pus r e t icu la tum i nside t ha t c hurch, a nd n ot f ar t o t he west o f i tt here a re t wo t errace wal ls i n s im ilar masonry ( Qu il ic i G ig l i 19 70 , 1 61-63 ).
I ft h is e v idence may b e
t aken a s i nd ica t ing t ha t t he s e t t le men t was b ounded o n t h is s ide b y t he Fossacc io, i t i s r easonable t o s uppose t ha t i te x tended a s f ar a s t he Mar ta a nd t he Masch iolo t o t he S . a nd E .
I t s n orthward l im i t i s l ess c lear.
Ab a th-
h ouse was f ound when t he r oad was c u t a cross t he s add le b etween t he h il l o f S . P ietro a nd t he R ivel l ino , b u t e xcava t ions o n t he t op o f t he h i l l i n 19 73, wh ilst p roduc ing much Ro man p ot tery , r evea led n o s truc tures. An i nhu ma t ion c on tain ing b lack-glaze p o t tery was f ound ( Andrews 19 75 ) , a nd t he S opr in tend enza h ave e xcava ted o ther g raves o n t he h il l . I ts ee ms , t herefore , n ever t o h ave b een e xtensively b u i l t-up , a t l east n o t i n Republ ican t imes , a nd t ha t t he Ro man a nd modern t owns d o n ot o verlap , o r a t l eas t n ot s ubs tan t ial ly s o. Th is was t o s o me e x ten t c onf ir med i n 19 73 w hen a t rench d ug i nv ia Verd i r evea led med ieva l o ccupa t ion o f t he e arly 1 5th c en tury d irec tly o ver ly ing Ro man l ayers.
The l a t ter c ons isted o f at h ick d epos i t o fb rown e arth c on ta in ing
o n ly a l i t tle p ottery , s ugges t ive o f a gr icu l ture r a ther t han s e t t lemen t ( Andrews 19 75 ). I n t he e ar ly Middle Ages, T uscan ia was t he s ea t o f ab ishop f i rst r ecorded i n 5 95, who e xerc ised a u thor ity o ver a v ast d iocese e x tend ing f ro m t he c oas t i n land t o V iterbo. 2 By t he e nd o f t he 1th c en tury t h is h ad a bsorbed t he n e ighAndrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 1 38
b our ing d ioceses o fB lera a nd C en tocel le t o t he S . a nd W. ( Turriozz i 1 778 , 4 6). F ro m t he l a te 6 th c en tury T uscan ia was i n t ha t p ar t o f Tusc ia s ub jec t t o t he L o mbards , a n a dm in istra t ive o f f ic ial k nown a s a gastaldus b e ing b ased t here. 3 A l though i t was amongs t t he t owns r ecovered f or t he p opes i n 7 87 , t here i s much l a ter e v idence t ha t L ombard c us to ms a nd ways e ndured i n t he a rea l ong a f ter t h is d a te. Docu men ts o f t he 8 th a nd 9 th c en tur ies s how t ha t t here were many c hurches a nd sma l l s e t t le men ts i n t he s urround ing c oun trys ide , b o th i n t he v ic in i ty o ft he t own a nd a long t he f osso Capecch io t o t he N ., t he Arrone t o t he W., a nd i n t he a rea o ver t owards Montal to d i Castro . 4 The g rea t ma jor i ty o ft hese h ad b een a bandoned b y t he e nd o f t he Midd le Ages. T he h istor ica l s ources f or t he 1th a nd 1 2th c en tur ies a re p oor. 5 A t t i mes, T uscan ia w as p robably s ub jec t t o t he c oun ts o f Angu il lara a nd t he A ldobrandesch i.
T he f i ne r o manesque b as il icas o f S . P ietro a nd S . Mar ia
Magg iore , a nd t he c o mp lex o f s tone-bu i l t h ouses f ound n ear t he f or mer i n 19 74, a re e v idence t ha t i ts hared i n t he p rosper ity a nd u rban g row th g eneral ly e xper ienced a t t h is p er iod .
Yet a t t he s ame t ime , Tuscan ia s uf fered r ela t ive
d ecl ine , f or i t was t he n e ighbour ing t own o fV i terbo , s ituated t o t he E . n ear t he v ia Cassia , w h ich p rof ited mos t f ro m t he c on test b etween t he p opes a nd t he emperors. Rasp i S erra ( 1971 ) h as a rgued t ha t t he f usion o f a rt ist ic i n f luences p resen t i n t he b as il icas a t Tuscan ia may h ave b een t he r esul t o f i t s s itua t ion o n t he p i lgr i mage r ou te t o Ro me.
C erta inly t he v ia C lod ia was
p robably p referred t o t he Aurel ia a t at ime when t he Mare m ma was ma lar ia l a nd s ub jec t t o r a ids f ro m t he s ea , b u t t he v ia Cass ia was t he r ou te u sual ly t aken b y t hose t ravel l ing t o Ro me. V i terbo 's p os it ion o n t h is r oad a t a s tra teg ic d istance f ro m t he Holy C i ty c o m mended i tt o p opes a nd emperors a l ike a s ab ase d ur ing t he warfare o f t he p er iod. T he o r igins o f t he t own were modest . T here h ad b een n o Ro man s e tt le men t o f a ny importance a t V i terbo. Fro m t he 8 th c en tury i t was t he s i te o f aI . D mbard c astru m wh ich w ou ld h ave b een c on f ined i n a rea t o t he s pur where t he c a thedral o f S . L orenzo s tands. By t he 1th c en tury i th ad g rown i n s ize, a nd i n 1 095 i tb egan t o b u ild a much l arger c ircu i t o f w a l ls ( Cia mp i 1 872, 5 ). The Emperor Henry V p assed t hrough V i terbo o n h is way t o Ro me i n 110 , a nd l a ter h eld Urban I p risoner t here.
E ugen ius I I s tayed t here i n 146-47 , t he f i rs t o f many p opes t o d o s o ,
a nd u sed t he t own a s ab ase i n h is s truggle a ga ins t Ro me.
Fro m a bout 1 160 ,
V i terbo s ee ms t o h ave c ons isten tly a dop ted a p roi mper ial p ol icy , as er ies o f a n t i-popes b e ing e stabl ished t here. B ishop Genso o f Tuscan ia , h owever , was l oya l t o Pope A lexander I I ( S ignorel l i 1 907 , 1 31). S o me d egree o f c onf l ic tb etween t he t wo t owns i s n o d oubt t ob e d etec ted b eh ind t hese d ifferen t l oyal t ies. V i terbo d er ived c ons iderable b enef i ts f ro m i t s p ol icy . The Emperor F reder ick Ic on f ir med i t s p r iv i leges a nd g ran ted n ew o nes.
He
may e ven h ave made V i terbo t he s ea t o f ab ishopr ic ( Cia mp i 18 72, 6 ; S ignorel l i 1 907 , 1 33, n ote 1 7 ).
H is s on , Henry V I , a lso g ranted t he t own
p r iv ileges. The i nev i table c onclus ion o fV iterbo 's p rosper i ty was t ha t i n 192 Celest ine I l l t ransferred t he b ishopr ic t here f ro m Tuscan ia. The c astru m h ad t hus e c l ipsed t he c iv i tas , u surp ing i t s r ank . Tuscan ia a lso f ound i t sel f c augh tb e tween t he r iva l amb i t ions o f Ro me a nd V iterbo, b etween w h ich t here was c on t inual war fare f ro m t he l a ter 1 2th c en tury a nd t hroughou t much o f t he 1 3th a s t hey b oth t r ied t o a sser t c on trol o ver t he n orthern Pa tr imony. Ro man a rm ies b es ieged T uscan ia i n 19 6 a nd 1 207 ( Cia mp i 18 72, 1 1 2 ). I n 1 213, 1 228 a nd 1 230 t he t own s uf fered d efea ts a t t he h ands o fV i terbes i Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. C iaPublishing, mp i 1 87 2,https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. 1 2, 1 7 , 1 8 ). E-book, Oxford, UK:( BAR 1982, Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 39
I f i n p ol it ica l d ecl ine , Tuscan ia must s t il l h ave e n joyed c ons iderable e cono m ic impor tance. I t was a t t he c en tre o f a n a rea o f a gr icu l tura l w ea l th , a nd i ts p osit ion o nt he r ou te t o t he s ea mus t h ave g iven i t ad egree o f c on trol o ver t he c ons iderable e xport t rade i n g ra in f ro m t he h in terland v ia C ornetoTarqu in ia. Possess ion o f a n o u t let o n t he c oast w as h igh ly p r ized b y t owns s uch a s Vi t erbo , w h ich i n 169 i n f l ic ted a d efea t o n C orneto , a nd i n 176 e x tracted a s ub m iss ion f ro m t he c onsu ls o f t he p or t o f Mon ta lto ( P inz i 1 887 , 17 3, 19 0 ) . Bu t i n 1 230 Tuscan ia a lso e n joyed r igh ts a nd p r iv ileges a t Mon tal to , a nd i n 1 243 t he Emperor Freder ick I c on f ir med t he r igh ts o f t he Tuscanes i t o u nload g ra in a t t he n earby p or t o f L e Murel le . 6 Gra in was e xported a t l east a s f ar a s Genoa , where merchan ts f ro m Tuscan ia a re r ecorded i n t he 1 2th a nd 1 3th c en tur ies ( Vi tale 1 955, I , 1 20 ). The d evelopmen t o f c o m muna l g overnmen t a t T uscan ia i s v ery i l l-documented , a nd i ti s n ot u n t il t he 1 3th c en tury t ha t t here i s a ny i n forma t ion a s t o wha t f or m t he c onst i tu t ion t ook .
At ruce w ith V i terbo i n 1 229 was made
b y t he i udex Co mmun is a nd f our r epresen ta t ives e x v olun ta te e t c onsensu c onsil iar ioru m C o m mun is T uscane ( ACV, Marg. I V, f . 9 5 ).
The s ub m iss ion
o f Mon tal to i n t he f o l low ing y ear was w i tnessed b y t he p odestä Andrea Ra f fred i a nd by me mbers o f t he g eneral a nd s pec ia l c ounc i ls ( Turr iozz i 17 78 , 17 ). I n 1 259 t he sma l l t own o f C an ino made a s ub m ission i n t he p resence o f t he p odestä , t he p r ior, t he r ectors o f t he a rt i o r g u i lds, t we lve a n t ian i , me mbers o f t he g eneral a nd s pec ia l c ounc i ls, a nd o ther b on i h om ines ( Turr iozz i 1 778 , 1 21). By 1 263 t here was a c ap itano d el p opolo a s w el l a s ap odes tä ( Turr iozz i 17 79 , 1 26 ).
Andrea Raf fred i was d escr ibed a s r o manorum p roconsu le , a nd
had a l most c er ta in ly b een a ppo in ted b y Ro me.
T he t erms o f t he 1 229 t ruce
make i t c lear t ha t Tuscan ia h ad b een a l l ied w i th R o me a ga inst V iterbo.
I t
s ee ms, t herefore , t ha t t he t own h ad f a l len p rey t o t he p ol it ical ambi t ions o f Ro me, t hough a t t he s a me t ime g a in ing s o me p ro tec t ion a ga inst i t s o verbear ing n eighbour V iterbo. Tuscan ia was p robably s ub jec t t o Ro me f or much o f t he 1 3th c en tury , o ther Ro man p odes tà b e ing r ecorded i n t he 1 260s a nd 1 270s . ( Ca
mpanari 1 856, I , 3 1314 ).
M EDIEVAL MASONRY AT TUSCAN IA I n c o mmon w i th t he o ther med ieva lb u i ld ings a t Tuscan ia , t he w a l ls a re bu il t o f ab rown l i tho id t ufa , as of t v olcan ic s tone wh ich i s e asy t o w ork b u t h ardens o n e xposure t o a ir. Occas iona l ly , f or d eta ils s uch a s q uo in ing a nd l oopholes, a s econd v o lcan ic s tone c a l led n en fro h as b een u sed.
T h is i s
s o mewha t h arder t han t u fa , a nd i n c olour i s u sua l ly a s tr ik ing s hade o f p urp le. There i s a n a bundance o f l i tho id t ufa i n t he v ic in i ty o f Tuscan ia , a nd f ro m a n e arly d a te most h ouses i n t he t own were p robably s tone-bu i l t. Any c i t izen was a llowed t o q uarry b u i ld ing s tone i n Honefarar ia , ap lace wh ich c annot n ow b e i den t if ied ( AST, S ta t . I V , 1 3 ).
There a re e x tens ive d isused t ufa
q uarr ies t o t he S . o f t he Marta , o ppos i te t he b r idge o ver t he r iver , s o me o f wh ich may b e med ieval i n o r ig in . N enfro o ccurs o n ly l ocal ly , a nd a t g rea ter d istances f ro m t he t own . I t was , t herefore , o n ly u sed f or d ecora t ive p urposes. Tufa i s n ot b edded a nd , i fu sed a s a sh lar a s was n orma l i n t he Midd le Ages, h as t o b e c u t t o as pec if ic modu le. Var ia t ions i n t he s ize o f t he b locks c an b e u seful f or d a t ing ( c f . Andrews 1 978 ). S ince t he wa l ls o f T uscan ia Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 40
p resen t r ela t ively f ew wel l-da table f ea tures, a nd a re v ery p oorly d ocu men ted b efore t he 1 5th c en tury , t he ir masonry w il lb e c o m men ted u pon i n s o me d e ta il . I ti s n ecessary , t here fore, t o make s o me g enera l o bserva t ions o n h ow med ie val masonry c hanged a nd d eveloped.
Un t il t he e nd o f t he 1th c en tury , t he
modu le u sed t hroughou t much o f N . L az io was a f oo t a bou t 3 6-40 cm l ong wh ich d a ted f ro m t he t ime o f t he L o mbard k ing L iu tprand ( 7 12-44 ).
7
Thus
t he c ryp t o f t he n earby a bbey c hurch o f S . G iusto , wh ich p robably d a tes f ro m t he 1 1th c en tury , i sb u i l t o fb locks l a id i n c ourses 3 6 cm h igh.
S . P ietro
a t Tuscan ia was r ebu i l t p robably t owards t he e nd o f t he 1th c en tury ( Rasp i S erra 1 971, 1 28 ).
T he b locks i n t he s ubstruc ture o f t he a pse a re a bou t 4 0 cm
h igh , wh i lst t hose i n t he r est o f t he b as il ica a re 1 8-20 cm , o r a bou t h a l f a L o mbard f oot , i n h e ight .
Fro m t he s econd h a l f o f t he 1 1th c en tury , i fn o t
b efore, t he L o mbard f oot was g radual ly s uperseded b y t he Ro man o ne a bou t 3 0 cm l ong. I n f act , a t l east t hree o ther modules o f a pprox i ma tely t ha t l eng th w ere a lso u sed ; o ne a bou t 3 1-32 cm , a nother a bou t 2 5-27 cm , a nd a nother much smal ler o f a bou t 2 3-24 cm wh ich was p robably b ased o n ap a lm r a ther t han a f oo t . The b as ic t rend t hroughou t t he Midd le Ages i s f or t he a sh lars t o g et sma l ler i n s ize , b oth i n h e igh t a nd l eng th .
I t i s b est i l lustra ted a t
V i terbo , wh ich h as t he most wel l-developed masonry t ypology o f a ny o f t he t owns i n t he a rea .
F ro m t he m id-13th c en tury t he masonry u sed a t V i terbo
i s d ist ingu ished b y ac ons isten t u se o f h eaders a bou t 1 4-22 cm l ong a nd l a id i n c ourses 2 6-27 cm h igh .
T h is p rac t ice may h ave b een p art ial ly c aused b y
ac hange i n t he way t he wa l l c ore was made.
H ither to i th ad b een p roperly
b u il t o f r ough ly s haped s tones wh ich r epea ted t he e x terna l c ours ing. h owever , i tt ended t o c ons ist s i mp ly o f mortared r ubble.
N ow ,
F ina l ly , i n t he
s econd h al f o f t he 1 5th c en tury, t he med ieval t rad it ion o fb u i ld ing i n a shlar was e verywhere g radua l ly a bandoned , t he f ac ing b locks b eco m ing l ess p rec isely s quared , a nd b e ing r ep laced b y r ubble b locks w ith o n ly a m in i mu m o f d ress ing.
T he c ore was o f ten n o more t han s to r ies l oosely t ipped b e tween
t he f ac ing b locks.
The c onsequen t s truc tura l weakness e xp la ins w hy t he
med ieval b u ild ings g en eral ly s urv ived t he 1 971 e arthquake b e t ter t han t he p ost- med ieva l o nes ( c f . Bar tolucc i e t a l . 1 972 ). The l a ter med ieva l masonry o f T uscan ia i s n o t s o h igh ly e vo lved a s t ha t o fV i terbo, a nd u n fortuna tely , t herefore , l ess e asy t o d a te.
Mos t b u i ld ings
a re o f a shlar l a id i n c ourses 2 7-30 cm h igh , a nd t hroughou t t he e n t ire c ircu i t o f t he wa l ls , t he modu le i s g eneral ly a f oot o f a bou t 3 0 cm i n l eng th , e ven i n t hose p ar ts r ebu il t i n t he m id-15th c en tury.
N or i s t here a ny a brup t c hange
t o h eader masonry , t hough t here i s as im ilar d evelop men t i nas much a s f ro m t he l a ter 1 3th c en tury , t he b locks t end t o g e t s hor ter a nd b eco me s quare r a ther t han r ec tangular i n s hape.
I n af ew p laces, t he masonry o f t he wal ls
i ncludes a h igh p ropor t ion o f h eaders, a nd r ese mbles t ha t o fV i terbo. THE LOST C IRCUIT OF WALLS S o a brup t i s t he d iv is ion b e tween t he p resen t t own a nd t he u n inhab i ted a rea t o t he S . o f i tt ha t i ti s d if f icul t t o imag ine t he l a t ter a s b e ing d ensely c overed w i th u rban o ccupa t ion w ith i t s c en tre a t S . P ie tro ( p la te 3 .1 ).
Were
i tn o t f or maps p ubl ished b y Ca mpanar i ( 1856 ) a nd Turriozz i ( 1778 ), i t wou ld s ee m f anc ifu l t o r econs truc t al i ne o f wa l ls i nclud ing a whole o r p art o f t he modern t own a nd a n a rea t o t he S . o f i ta s f ar a s t he r iver Mar ta , e spec ia l ly Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 41
a s n e i ther a u thor d iscusses o r r efers t o t h is l ost c ircu i t . The maps t he ms elves , b ecause o f t he ir i mprec is ion a nd b ecause t hey a re a t v ar iance w ith o ne a no ther , o n ly f urther e ncourage i ncredu l i ty. Ca mpanar i r epresen ted t he wa l ls w ith a t h in l ine a r t icu la ted i n s tra igh t s ect ions b e tween o ne p o in t o f r eference a nd a no ther.
T urr iozz i a t te mp ted g rea ter e xac t i tude , a t l east u n t i l
t he S . s ide o f t he h il l o f S an P ietro a f ter wh ich h is wal lb ends r ound a nd c urves b ack b y way o f a n e x traord inary r e-en tran t.
Ca mpanar i d ep ic ted o n ly
t wo t owers o n t he whole c ircu i t , Turr iozz i more t han a d ozen.
T he most
i mportan t p o in t o f d isagree men t i s where t he wal ls j o ined u p w i th t he p resen t c ircu it o n t he E . s ide o f t he t own .
Turr iozz i o p ted f or t he S . E . a ng le o f t he
g arden o f S . Francesco , wh i lst Ca mpanar i p referred t he c onven t o f S . Paolo f ur ther t o t he N .E ( f ig. 3 .21). t hese maps were d rawn.
C learly t he wa l ls w ere a lready r u inous when
I ti s e v iden t t ha t Turr iozz i c ou ld s ee r a ther more
o f t he m t han C a mpanar i , whereas i n t he t ime o f t he e arly 1 7 th c en tury a n t iq uar ian a nd c hron ic ler , Francesco G iannot t i , t hey s ee m s t il l t o h ave b een a n otable l and mark. I n c on trast w ith t he ir s i lence o n t h is d ra ma t ic t opograph ic a l s h if t , h e was v ery s ens ible o f t he d im in ished s ize o f T uscan ia , a nd d rew a t ten t ion t o t he e x istence o f af or mer c ircu i t ( G ianno t t i , 6 ) . F ieldwork c arr ied o u t i n 1 974 e stabl ished t ha t t he l ost wa lls a re f ar f ro m i mag inary , t hough n e i ther Turr iozz i n or C a mpanar i p lot t he m v ery a ccura tely . Amp le e v idence f or a s ou thward e x tens ion o f t he wa l ls was f ound i n t he f i elds b elow t ower T 21.
L u mps o f t he wal l c ore f ro m wh ich t he f ac ing s tones h ad
b een s tr ipped , were f ound a long a r idge wh ich l ower d own b eco mes a t errace , a nd i s a lso a p roper ty b oundary .
T h is u ndoubted ly r epresen ts t he l i ne o f
t he f or mer c ircu i t p reserved a s af oss il ized e le men t i n t he modern l andscape. Abou t 1 10 m f ro m t he r oad , t here i s at ower ( CA1 ), r educed t o a masonry s tu mp f ro m wh ich a l l t he a sh lar b locks e xcep t af ew h eaders h ave b een r obbed. I t was a bou t 6 .70 m w ide , a nd i nsofar a s i ti s p oss ible t o measure i t s p roj ec t ion , t h is was a t l east 3 .15 m.
T o t he S . o f i tt here s t i l l s tands a s tre tch
o f wal l 1.50 m l ong, a lso r obbed o f i t s f ac ing s tones.
A l arge c ol lapsed
f rag men t o f wa l l i s t o b e f ound a t t he j unc t ion o f t he f osso d i S et te Cannel le w i th t he Fossacc io , b eyond wh ich , c oncea led i n t he u ndergrow th , t here i s a f ine s tretch o f wa l l a bou t 1 4 m l ong a nd 1 .50 m w ide , s t il l s tand ing t o a h e igh t o fu p t o 5m ( p la te 3 .2 ).
I ta d jo ins t he b ase o f as quare t ower ( CA2 )
7 .00 m w ide w ith a p ro jec t ion o f a bou t 4 .20 m.
T he f i rst 6 .00 m o f t h is
wa l lh as b een r efaced i n r ubble b u t t he r est s t il l p reserves i t s f ac in g o f p rec isely s quared b locks l a id i n 0 .30 m c ourses. u p t he wal l t here i s ah or izon tal b u i ld ing j o in t .
Ra ther more t han h a l fway
T h is i s n ot v is ible i n t he
masonry o f t he t ower , a nd s ince t he l a t ter i nc ludes a h igher p roport ion o f s quar ish b locks a nd h eaders t han t he wa l l , a nd t he c ourses o ft he wa l l a nd t ower d o n o t s ee m t o ma tch , i ti s f a ir t o c onc lude t ha t t he t ower was a l a ter a dd i t ion . I n t he v al ley b elow S . Mar ia Magg iore , t here i s as tre tch o f wa l l j ust b efore t he t iny p ost- med ieval c hapel o f t he Madonna d el l ' E dera. To a rr ive h ere , t he wa l l must h ave f o l lowed r ough ly t he l i ne o f t he e x ist ing t errace wh ich may c oncea l i t s f ounda t ions.
The wa l l n ow b eg ins t o d iverge f rom t he
c ourse o f t he Fossacc io , l eav ing i tt o t he W. t he c hapel , t he s t rea m i s 6 0-80 m away.
s o t ha t b y t he t ime i tr eaches
T he c hape l was s i mp ly b u i l t a ga inst
t he t own wa l l , t he masonry o f wh ich i s v isible where a f resco o f t he Madonna Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 42
i n t he s anc tuary i s b eg inn ing t o wear t h in .
A l arge s ocke t s tone i n n en fro
f or t he t op o f ad oor p ost , a nd t he o u tl ine o f ab locked a rch , i nd ica te t ha t t he c hapel c o inc ides w i th t he p os it ion o f af or mer g a te , wh ich must h ave b een v ery s i mp le , n o more t han a n o pen ing a bou t 3m w ide i n t he wa l l .
T he s unken
t rack wh ich l ed t hrough i ti s o bv iously o f s o me a n t iqu ity , b u t t h is was p robably n ever o ne o f t he ma in e n trances t o t he t own , merely p rov id ing a ccess t o t he a gr icul tura l h old ings o u ts ide t he wa l ls a nd p resu mably a way o u t t o t he C orneto r oad f ur ther S .
P ierdo men ico ( 1972, 6 4, n o te ) i den t if ies t h is g a te w i th t he
p or ta Perur ia , f ro m w h ich a p a l io was r un t o S an P ie tro o n t he f east d ay o f t he p a tron s a in ts o f Tuscan ia ( AST, S ta t . I . 10 6 ).
On t he o ther s ide o f t he
t rack , t he wa l l i s b ur ied b enea th a t errace , t hough f ac ing s tones a nd p ar ts o f i t s c ore a re o ccas ional ly v is ible.
J ust o ver 2 5 m t o t he S . t here a re a
s eries o f mass ive b locks o f o pus r e t icu la tum masonry , t he r e ma ins o f a r e ta in ing wa l l wh ich h as c ol lapsed a nd c racked i n to a bou t e igh t p ieces. Fro m i t s p os i t ion , i ts ee ms p oss ible t ha t t h is was i ncorpora ted i n to t he l i ne o f t he med ieva l t own wa l l . c oncrete.
T he n ex t t ower ( CA3 ) b u t ts o n t o ab lock o f Ro man
I ti s ap oor a f fa ir, i n i mm inen t d anger o f c ol lapse ( p la te 3 .3 ).
I t s tands t o ah e igh t o f 1 8 c ourses , i s 5 .05 m w ide a nd p ro jec ts a t l east 2 .50 m.
I t i s sma l ler t han t he o ther t owers a nd would s ee m t o r epresen t ad if fer-
e n t p hase o f c ons truct ion .
H idden amongst r eeds, a nother t ower ( CA4 ) i s t o
b e f ound a bou t 4 0 m t o t he S . o f S . Mar ia Magg iore b y t he r oad w h ich l eads u p t o t he t own f ro m t he r iver Mar ta .
I tn ow f or ms p ar t o f t he embankmen t
f or t he r oad a nd t he b ack o f i ti s b ur ied.
I ti s i n tac t t o ah e igh t o f 1 c ourses ,
i s 6 .60 m w ide a nd p ro jec ts 4 m o n i t s N . s ide. F ro m t h is p o in t , t he wa l l c l i mbed a bou t o neth ird o ft he way u p t he h il l o f S . P ietro t o at ower ( CA5 ) wh ich i s c learly v is ible f ro m t he r oad. i n f ac t t he o n ly c onsp icuous r e mnan t o f t he l ost c ircu i t. af arm b u ild ing, b u t was r estored i n 19 74,
I t i s
I th ad b een u sed a s
Re moval o ft he e ar th wh ich h ad
a ccumu la ted b eh ind a nd t o t he N . o f i tu ncovered p ar t o f a sma l l c hurch , t he a pse o f wh ich h ad b een i ncorpora ted i n to t he l ine o f wa l ls ( f ig. 3 .1 ).
The
t ower i t sel f i s s i mp ly b u i l t a ga inst t he t own wa l l a nd masks a r ound a rched g a te , t he b lock ing o f wh ich was r e moved d ur ing r estora t ion .
When t he g a te
b eca me o bsole te , t he t ower was b u il t i n f ron t o f i t , t he a rch f or m ing a c onv en t ional o pen g orge.
T he b lock ing o f t he a rch was i n r ubble , a nd t herefore
p ost- med ieva l. Dur ing i t s u se a s as toreroo m a nd a s ta l l , t he S .W . a ngle o f t he t ower was p a tched a nd b u t tressed , a nd a d oor o pened i n t he S . s ide. A s l i t i n t he W. wa l l , t wo c ourses h igh w i th a t riangu lar-headed embrasure , h as b een s o mewha t mod if ied b u t i s o r ig ina l .
T here i s n o t race o f ar oad
p ass ing t hrough t he g a te , wh ich c an o nly h ave b een o f m inor i mportance.
I n
t heory , t he j ux tapos it ion o f g a te a nd c hurch s hou ld make i tp oss ible t o a t tach an a me t o t hese r u ins.
There a re a n u mber o f l ost c hurches a t Tuscan ia
men t ioned i n t he d ocu men ts whose s i tes a re n o l onger i den t if iable. t hese, S . C le men te a nd S . Dona to , h ave g a tes n a med a f ter t he m.
Two o f However,
t he f or mer was s o mewhere n ear t he c en tre o ft he l a ter med ieval t own , p robably n ear t he p a lazzo c o muna le , wh ilst Ca mpanar i i den t if ied S . D ona to w i th S . Mar ia d el R iposo s i tuated a l i tt le way t o t he N .E . o f t he p resen t t own . On ly a bou t 9 0 m t o t he S ., t here a re t he r e ma ins o f a no ther g a te ( CA6 ). I n c on trast w ith t he p rev ious o ne , t h is g a te was o f c ons iderable i mpor tance Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 43
f or i ts traddles a Ro man r oad wh ich r an u p t he s ide o f t he h il l o f S . P ie tro. Th is was a c on t inua t ion o f t he a nc ien t r oute , s t il l p reserved i np ar t a s a s trada b ianca , wh ich f ol lowed t he c ourse o f t he Mar ta t o Tarqu in ia.
I t p robably
f or med a d ivert icu lu m l ead ing o f f t he v ia C lod ia wh ich i s t hough t t o h ave c rossed t he Mar ta t o t he W. o f t he modern b r idge ( Qu i l ic i G ig l i 19 70 , 2 2 ). With t ime t he t rack h as s unk b elow i t s o rig ina l l evel a nd o n ly a f ew s elce p av ing b locks embedded h igh u p i n i t s b anks g ave a ny i dea o f i t s a n t iqu ity. Bu t i n 19 74 a wel l-paved s tre tch o f r oad was f ound s l igh t ly a bove t he p oin t a t w h ich t he t rack t urns a nd b eg ins t o r un n orthwards r ound t he h i l ls ide ( p la te 3 .4 ).
An a t te mp t t o t race t h is r oad u s ing a b u l ldozer f a iled t o d iscover a ny
more o f i t , b u t d id r eveal t he f ounda t ions o f t he g a te. a ssoc ia t ions h ad , o f c ourse , b een d estroyed.
Any a rchaeolog ical
The g a te ( f ig. 3 .1) w as r ec-
t angu lar i n p lan w i th t wo p ro jec t ing b u t tresses a t t he f ron t.
These make a
s tra igh t j o in t w i th t he ma in f abr ic , a s d oes a n o u ter s k in o f masonry o n t he S . wal l .
T he N . s ide o f t he g a te i s s t i l l p ar t ia l ly b uried , b u t i tl ooks a s i f
t here i s as tra igh t j o in t h ere t oo.
T hese b u t tresses may b e e xp la ined a s
e i ther t he f ounda t ions o f ah igh o u ter a rch t ha t f ra med t he g a te o r e lse , l ess p robably , a s t he r e ma ins o f ab a t ter t ha t was a dded t o t he b ot to m o f i t .
There
a re s t il l s o me s elce p av ing b locks w ith in t he g a te p assage , i nclud ing o ne i n t he N .W . c orner wh ich h as a r ound h ole c u t i n i to n wh ich t he d oorpos t p ivoted.
Wal ls s ee m t o h ave l ed o f f t he b ack o f t he g a te f l ank ing b o th s ides
o f t he t rack .
The p osi t ion o f t h is g a te o n t he r oad t o Tarqu in ia s ugges ts t ha t
i t was t he p orta S . G iusto , n a med a f ter t he a bbey w h ich s tands c lose t o t ha t r oad a bou t t wo m iles t o t he S . o f T uscan ia .
Between t h is g a te a nd S . Mar ia
d el la Rosa , ap a l io was r un o n t he f east d ay o f t ha t c hurch ( AST , S ta t . I . , 10 6 ). B eyond t h is g a te t here a re n o f ur ther r e ma ins o f t he wa l ls.
Turr iozz i
a nd Ca mpanar i d if fer marked ly i n t heir r econstruc t ions o f t he ir s ubsequen t c ourse , t he f or mer s how ing t he m a s f ol low ing r ound t he b ase o f t he h il l w h ilst t he l a t ter h as t he m d escend t o t he Mar ta ( f ig. 3 .21).
S ince t he S . s lope o f
t he h il l i s s trewn w ith b locks o f t u fa , i nclud ing s o me l u mps o f mortared r ubble , i ti s p oss ible t ha t Turr iozz i i s c orrec t.
A t t he s a me t ime , i ti s
d i f f icul t t o imag ine t ha t t he l ine o f t he r iver was u ndefended , i fo n ly b y a dvance works.
A c auseway , n ow c overed b y g rass b u t c learly r ecogn izable , l eads
t o ar u ined s truc ture d own b y t he r iver.
Th is marks t he p os it ion o f t he b r idge
o ver t he Mar ta wh ich o r ig ina l ly s tood t o t he E . o f i t s modern s i te.
I ti nc ludes
s o me med ieva l masonry a nd c ou ld b e t he r e ma ins o f ap ier o r a bu t men t , o r p oss ibly a t ower.
On t he E . s ide o f t he d eserted t own , t errac ing a nd i rr i-
g a t ion works h ave r ad ica l ly a l tered t he l andscape.
T h is a ccoun ts f or t he
d ivergence b e tween Turr iozz i 's a nd Ca mpanari 's maps , f or e ven i n t he ir t ime t h is p art o f t he wa l ls must a lready h ave c o mp letely d isappeared.
C on-
s equen t ly t here i s n o r eason f or p referr ing e i ther C ampanar i 's r econstruc t ion a long t he Masch iolo , o r Turr iozz i 's wh ich h ugs t he h i l ls ide a t a bou t t he l evel o f t he 1 40 m a nd 1 30 m c on tours.
However , i ts ee ms c erta in t ha t Turr iozz i
was wrong t o j o in t he c ircu i t w i th t he monastery o f S . Francesco ( see b elow , p .
1 85
) , a nd Ca mpanar i 's r econstruc t ion c onnec t ing i tt o S . Paolo i s more
c onv inc ing , f or i tf o l lows a n o bv ious d efens ive l i ne , ad eep g u l ley c u t b y a t r ibu tary o f t he Masch iolo.
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 44
T O WER
CA5
0
1 5M .
F O U N D ATI ONS O F
F ig .
3 .1
Tuscania, re m ai ns of the lost o f t he h i ll of S. Pietro.
145
G A T E WA Y
c ircu it o f wa l ls o n t he W .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
s ide
Th is c ircuit of w alls i s
co m pletely undocumen ted a nd p reserves n o s truc-
t ural f eatures t hat can be ver y precisely da ted . o ne p er iod o f construction,
I ts hows s igns o f more t han
and of having been ma in ta ined o ver a c onsiderable
p er iod o f t i me. I ts m asonry, co nsisting o fb locks a bou t 3 0 cm h igh , c an b e t aken t o i nd icate t hat i t i s not early m edieva l , a nd i s p robably l a ter t han t he 1 1th c en tury.
S ince t he courses are usually a f u l l 3 0 cm o r s l igh t ly more
i nh e igh t , a nd t he ashlars are ge nerally r ectangu lar , a bou t 3 0-50 cm l ong , Iwou ld b e i ncl ined t o date the co nstruct ion o f t he wa l ls t o t he p er iod c .11501 250 , a nd p robably t o t he 12th ce ntury rather t han t he 1 3 th.
Th is was a
p er iod when many t o wns w ere g ro wi ng rap idly . V i terbo , f or i nstance , d oubled i n s ize d ur ing t he 12th ce ntury and the f irst t wo d ecades o f t he 1 3 th , e ach a rea i ncorpora ted i nto t he to wn being surrounded b y an ew l ine o f wal ls. e arly wa l ls a t Viterbo,
8
The
and als o at C o rneto-Tarqu in ia , were b u il t w i thou t
t owers , t hese only being added at a l ater date , p resu mably f or r easons o f e cono my.
Th is see ms also to have been t he c ase a t Tuscan ia.
a re 6 .60-7.00 m wide, a t V i terbo.
The t owers
co mparable t o m any o f t he 1 2th -cen tury s quare o nes
The wall i s 1 .50 m
thick,
l ike t hose s ect ions o f t he c ircu it a t
V i terbo b u il t i n t he l ater 12th and early 13 th c en tur ies, wh ich a re 0 .30 m t h inner t han t he earliest parts.
T he m ost i nteres t ing f ea ture o f t he l ost
wa l ls a t Tuscan ia i s the gate to wer P ietro.
(C A6) on t he W. s ide o f t he h il l o f S .
T he r econstruction of the two buttresses a s ab a t tered b ase i s i m-
p robable b ecause i t i s unlikely that such a f eature w ould h ave b een a dded b efore t he 1 4th c entury, by w hich t i me, a bandoned.
However,
as s hal lb e s een , t he c ircu i t w as
i f t hey w ere indeed f or a h igh o uter a rch , t he g a te
wou ld h ave b een s i milar to t he porta . del Car m ine a nd t he p or ta d i Va l le a t V i terbo , wh ich were both probably b uilt c . 1187 , a nd c erta in ly n o l a ter t han a bou t 1 220.
The re mains of t he gate m ay a lso b e c o mpared t o o ne a t Mon t le-
c h iel lo n ear Mon tepulciano in T us cany,
w hich preserves t wo l arge t runca ted
b ut tresses t o e ither s ide of i t w hi ch m ust unquest ionably h ave s uppor ted a t a l l a rch. The walls of M o nticchiello date f ro m 1 249-56 ( Mannucc i 1 921). I t i s d if f icul t t o reconstruct the to pographical d evelop men t o f t he t own p r ior t o t he c onstruction of these w alls. R o man T uscan ia , a s h as b een s een , e x tended f ro m t he M arta a t l east as far N. as t he S . p art o f t he h il l o f t he R ivel l ino.
That p art,
a t l east,
of this sa me area was s t il l o ccup ied i n t he
e ar ly Midd le Ages i s i ndicated by a b ull of Leo I V o f 8 52 c onf ir m ing t he t err itory a nd r ights o f Virbuonus, Bis ho p of Tuscan ia . Th is s ta tes t ha t S . Mar ia Magg iore h ad once bee n the cathedral church , b u t h ad b een s uperseded b y S . P ietro. 9 S ince i t had beco me a pieve or par ish c hurch , a nd a pparen t ly h ad r igh ts o ver a market-place ne ar a gate, t here mus t h ave b een s o me s et tle men t i n t he v icinity of t he ch ur ch, t he wal ls.
and i t was p resu mably s i tua ted w i th in
Whether t hese w ere early m edieval o r ap a tched-up Ro man c ircu i t
i s u ncer ta in a s, o f c ourse,
i s their l oc ation.
The t ransfer o ft he c a thedra l
t o S . P ietro must have been i n res po nse to the p ol it ica l i nstab i l i ty b rough t a bou t b y t he Arab r a ids,
t he s ite with good natural d efences b e ing p referred
t o al ow-ly ing o ne. The h illtop w as no doubt s t ill s urrounded b y t he wa l ls o f t he p re-Ro man a cropolis, w hich w ould have been much more massive t han a ny l a ter o nes e nclosing S. M aria M a ggiore and t he a d jacen t a rea. p os it ion o f S . P ietro a t t he N.
The
edge of the h illside, i t s a pse s tand ing a bove
a massive r ec tangular substructure in m asonry buil t i n to t he s lope , s ugges ts
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. 146 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
t ha t l ike many o ther c hurches a t o ther s i tes i n N . L az io, i t was i ncorpora ted i n to t he wa l ls. " On t he W. s ide o f t h is s ubstruc ture, t here a re t he r e ma ins o f wha t was p oss ibly a d efens ive wa l l l ead ing o f ft o t he W.
T he b u l l a lso
c on ta ins e v idence t o s uggest t ha t t he a rea o f t he p resen t t own was n o t y e t b u il t u p. I t men t ions a f undus w i th t he n a me o f Mon tasc inum , wh ich Ca mpanar i c red ibly i den t if ies w ith t he N .E . p ar t o f t he t own s t il l k nown a s Mon tasc ide. I t i s i mposs ible t o k now whe ther t he c ho ice o f S . P ietro a s t he c a thedral was a cco mpan ied b y ac on trac t ion o f s et t lemen t t o t he h i l l top . The 1 974 e xc ava t ions t here s how t hat i n t he 1th a nd 1 2th c en tur ies i tw as d ense ly b u il t u p a nd c erta in ly o ne o f t he most i mpor tan t p ar ts o f t he t own . However , b y t ha t t ime s et t le men t h ad s pread t o t he N .
S urface s herd ing h as r ecovered
p ieces o f n arrow-band r ed-pa in ted p o t tery , w hich was f ound a ssoc ia ted w ith t he med ieva l o ccupa t ion a t S . P ietro a nd wh ich a t T uscan ia s ee ms f or t he most p ar t t o h ave b een i nu se b efore t he i n troduc t ion o f a rcha ic ma iol ica i n t he 1 3th c en tury , f ro m t he a rea o f t he Ro man b a th h ouse o n t he S . s lope o f t he h il l o ft he R ive l l ino, a nd i n t he f i elds t o t he S . o f S . F rancesco. T here a re t he r e ma ins o f med ieva l wa l ls s uper i mposed o n t he b a th c o mp lex , wh ilst al andsl ip a bove i ti n 1 976 e xposed a med ieval wal l i n s ec t ion . T he t wo e arly t owers i ncorpora ted i n to t he R ivel l ino ( see p .171) a re s im ilar t o t hose a t S . P ietro.
Any o ther t races o f med ieva l o ccupa t ion o n t he h il l h ave b een r e-
moved b y l evel l ing , a nd b y t errac ing i t s s ides w ith a mechan ical e xcavator. The N . l im i t o f t he l ost c ircu it o f wa l ls i s u ncer ta in , b u t Ca mpanar i 's map s hows t he m t o i nc lude a bou t o neth ird o f t he p resen t t own . F ro m S . Paolo, t he wa l ls c u t a cross t o r oughly w here t he p a lazzo S pagnol i i s n ow , a nd p roceeded t hence t o S e t te Cannel le , f o l low ing t he l i ne o f t he s tream wh ich l eaves t he t own a t t ha t p o in t t o j o in u p w i th t he F ossacc io i n t he v a l ley b elow. A l though s uch a r econstruc t ion s o f ar l acks a rchaeolog ica l o r d ocumen tary p roof , a n o verlap b e tween t he e x ist ing a nd f or mer wa l led t owns i s n ot i l log ical . T he a rea e nc losed i s u ndoubted ly t he o ldest p ar t o ft he modern t own . The l i ne o f t he v ia Val le d el le S e t te C annel le l i nks u p w el l w ith t he f osso d i S et te Cannel le , an a tura l d efence wh ich p resen ted a n o bv ious r ou te f or t he wa l ls t o f ol low.
The f an-shaped g roup o f s treets, c o mpr ising v ia d egl i Arch i , v ia
L unga , v ia C avour a nd v ia Oberdan , wh ich r ad ia te f ro m r ough ly w here t he p alazzo S pagno l i i s s i tua ted , f or m a p a t tern o f ten t o b e f ound o u ts ide a t own g ate , a nd i nd ica te t ha t t here was p robably o ne a t a bou t t h is p o in t . Tha t t h is was v ery l i kely t he c ase i s c orrobora ted b y t he f act t ha t t hese s treets c onverge o n t he l i ne o f aR o man r oad wh ich was c learly a ma jor a x is i n t he s treet p lan o f t he e arly a nd l a ter med ieval t owns. Part o ft h is r oad j ust o u ts ide t he wa l ls, c lose t o t he s i te o f t he n ow d e mol ished p or ta S . L eonardo , was u ncovered i n 1 976 a nd h as b een l e f t e xposed t o v iew.
I ti s o n ly a bou t 1m
b elow t he modern s tree t l evel a nd was a pparen t ly s t il l i nu se w ith in l i v ing me mory .
S ince i t s f u l l w id th h as n ot b een r evea led , i ti s i mposs ible t o b e
c er ta in o ft he r oad 's e xac t o r ien ta t ion . To t he S . i tw en t i n i t ial ly t owards t he h il l o f S . P ietro. I ti s t e mp t ing t o t h ink t ha t i ti s t he v ia C lod ia , t he r ou te o f wh ich i n t he v ic in i ty o f Tuscan ia i s t he s ub jec t o f much c on troversy ( c f . Qu i l ic i G igl i 1 970 , 2 1 s eg.; P oulsen e t a l . 1 977 ). I fs o , t hen i tp robably c rossed t he s add le b etween t he R ivel l ino a nd S . P ie tro a nd l ed d own t o t he Marta t o ab ridge s i tua ted t o t he W. o f t he modern o ne. T o t he N ., h owever , i t must h ave r un t hrough t he t own f o l low ing t he l i ne o f t he v ia d el C o mune, Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 47
v ia d el R ivel l ino, a nd v ia Cavour t o t he p orta Mon tasc ide. Tha t t h is was a ma in t horoughfare i s s hown b y i t s s tra ightness , i t s w id th a nd b y t he p resence o f med ieva l h ouses a long much o f i t s c ourse , t here b e ing p ort icoes i n v ia d el C o mune a nd v ia d el R ivel l ino , a nd t he r e ma ins o f med ieva l f acades a t t he N . e nd o f v ia C avour. The f abr ic o f t he b locks o f h ouses b e tween v ia Cavour a nd v ia L unga s ee ms t o i nclude n o med ieva l masonry , a nd t hey c ould wel l r epresen t l a ter i n f i l l ing.
Fro m a t l east t he 1 4th c en tury , t he r oad was k nown
a s t he s tra ta c ursus o r c orso. 1 I ts ee ms v ery p robable , t herefore , t ha t t he N . p art o f t he e x ist ing t own h ad i t s o rig ins a s s tr ip d evelopmen t a long t h is r oad a nd t he o ther t racks l ead ing f ro m a g a te s o mewhere n ear t he p a lazzo S pagnol i . THE TOWN WALLS AS THEY ARE TODAY The f ol low ing d escr ip t ion o ft he wa l ls b eg ins o n t he E . s ide o f t he t own a t t he monastery o f S . Paolo a nd p roceeds i n a n a n t i-c lockw ise d irect ion .1 2 Fro m t he monastery t o t he c hurch o f S . S i lves tro , t he wa l l i s p oorly p reserved ; b e tween t owers T 2 a nd T 3 i th as b een c o mp lete ly r ebu il t , wh ilst b eyond T 3 i t was e x tensively b u t tressed i n 1 972-73 ( f ig. 3 .2 ). I t s r u inous c ond i t ion i s p ar t ly t ob e e xp la ined b y t he o ver-en thus iast ic s carp ing i n t he m id-15th c en tury o f t he l ow c l if f o n wh ich t he wal l s tands ( s ee b elow , p .217 ).
The
s of t s tra t if ied t u fa was c u tb ack i mmed ia tely b e low t he wa l l a nd a s t he f ormer weathered , s o t he l a t ter c ol lapsed.
I n t he p rocess, i ts ee ms t ha t t wo t owers
h ave d isappeared , f or T urr iozzi o n h is map o f 1 778 s hows a s quare t ower b etween T 1 a nd T 2, a nd a no ther b e tween T3 a nd T 4, n e ither o f wh ich e x ists t oday . T he a ngle i n t he wa l ls b y t ower T 1 i s much b u t tressed a nd r ebu i l t , a nd t oo i naccess ible t o a na lyse p roper ly . T 1 i s u nusual i n p ro jec t ing more b eh ind t he wal l t han i n f ron t o f i t . At ower i tc erta in ly was , f or i th ad a n o pen-gorge w i th a r ound a rch a bove i t , n ow b locked u p w ith r ubble. A r a ther s im ilar s quare t ower a t t he S .E . c orner o f C orne to-Tarqu in ia s traddles a d ouble l i ne o f t own wa l ls.
T here i s n o e v idence t o s ugges t t ha t t h is was t he c ase
w ith T 1, t hough a l i t t le t o t he NE. a t S . Mar ia d el la Rosa t here may h ave b een a d ouble c ircu i t ( s ee b elow , p .152). On ly t he c en tra l p or t ion o f t he wa l lb etween T 1 a nd T 2 i s o r ig ina l ; t he r est h as b een r ebu i l t. Where t he f ac ing s tones h ave f al len a way , i tc an b e s een t ha t t he wa l l c ore i s c rudely made , c on ta in ing much b asa l t o r s elce a s wel l a s t u fa . T h is i s t rue, i n f ac t , o f mos t o f t he r est o f t he c ircu i t . Both h ere a nd wherever e lse med ieva l masonry s urv ives t o t he S . o f t he c hurch o f S . S i lvestro , i ti s g rey ish i n c olour , d i f feren t f ro m t he b rown t ufa o f t owers T 2 a nd T 3. These t owers a re o f al a ter b u ild t han t he wa l l , a nd T 3 c an b e s een t o make a s tra igh t j o in t w i th i t .
T 2 i s r ound , w i th a b a t ter
d el inea ted b y ar ol l mou ld ing , a bove w h ich t here i s ar ow o f t hree l oopholes. T 3, wh ich i s c oncea led b y ac ascade o f i vy , i s s quare w i th a s carp wh ich was a dded l a ter. There i s n o mou ld ing. T he t ower , w h ich s urv ives t o t he h e igh t o f t he s pr ing ing o f t he a rch a bove t he o pen g orge , i s e qu ipped w i th t r iangularh eaded embrasures wh ich t er m ina te i n s l its t wo c ourses h igh . h ave b een r ep laced b y r ound g un h oles.
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 48
S o me o f t hese
T i
T3
T2 II
0
25 M
C O NV EN T C O U RS E D R _UE 5BLE C OR-E
ORJG I
AL
AS HL AR,
CR _OU ND L EVE BU T T RESS ING
RE5U 1 LT ARCH
-7 , 7 7r 777 :7 7-
W AL L WAL K
1 T i
* /4 1 N ICHE, P LA5TE KED . ALTEKE L AKRO W .5L IT
T2
T3
ST RA IGkT
T3
T2
I N NER -
GR _OU N D LEVE
A T2
T3
S D .A .
F ig .
3 .2
Tuscan ia, wa l ls o n t he E .
s ide o f t he monastery o f S .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 1 49
P ao lo .
I n t he monastery g arden , t he b ack o f t he w al l i s l i t t le b et ter p reserved. H ere , a nd i ndeed f or most o f t he c ircu it , t he w a l l i s s treng thened b y at errap ieno o r e arth embankmen t , p i led u pb eh ind i t . The b o t to ms o f a l most a l l t he t owers a re n ow f i l led w i th e ar th , b u t t he e x istence o f l oopholes o r s l its s hows t ha t t hey were o r ig ina l ly h ol low a nd d efendable. J us t t o t he N . o f T 1 t here i s ap lastered s hr ine , f o l lowed b y a sma l l n iche made t hrough t he e nl arge men t o f t he embrasure o f a n a rrow s l i t , a nd t hen a p ost- med ieva l a rch. T here i s a nother s l it , a bou t 3m a bove i n terna l g round l evel j ust t o t he N . o f T 3, w here t he wal l i s 1 .60 m t h ick . I n p laces , t he wa l l walk s t il l s urv ives. Af ew me tres t o t he S . o f S . S i lvestro , t he t op o f a n a rch c an b e s een j ust a bove t he l evel o f s o il i n t he g arden. T h is h as t he a ppearance o f ap os tern b ur ied b y al a ter r ise i n g round l evel . T 4 i s ap la in s quare t ower n ow u sed b y ENEL ( t he n a t iona l e lec tr ic i ty c o mpany ) a nd h as b een modern ized a ccord ingly . T he e x istence o f o lder masonry a t i t s b ase , a nd i t s a ppearance o n Turr iozz i 's p lan , l eave n o d oubt t ha t i t was a t ower. I n i t s o u ter f ace, t here i s as l i t t wo c ourses h igh t o t he r igh t o f c en tre.
By t he c hurch o f S . S i lves tro, t he wa l l h as b een b reached
f or a r oad l ead ing t o a modern s uburb. T he n ex t t ower, T 5 , i s s quare w ith ab a t ter a nd r ol l mou ld ing ( f ig. 3 .3; p la te 3 .5 ). L ike t owers T 2 a nd T 3, i t i sb u il t o f l i gh ter-coloured t u fa t han t ha t o f s uch a reas o f med ieval masonry a s s urv ive i n t he e x tens ively r ebu il t wa l ls a d jacen t t o i t . s l igh t ly sma l ler t han t hose o f wh ich t he wa l ls a re b u il t .
The a shlars a re a lso The b ack a nd S .
s ide o ft he t ower h ave b een r estored. I ts tood a t l east 6 m a bove t he p arapet o f t he wa l l , t he o r ig inal l evel o fw h ich i s i nd ica ted b y as car i n i t s E . s ide , where t here i s a lso a d oorway c o m mun ica t ing w i th t he wa l l wa lk .
T here
w ere a t l east t hree f l oors i n t he t ower, e ach p rov ided w ith t hree c ross-shaped l oopholes. T o t he W. o f T 5 t he l ower p ar t o f t he wa l l i sb a t tered a nd h eavily r es tored. T 6 i s as quare t ower w ith a v ery a cute ly a ng led b a t ter wh ich l acks a mou ld ing a nd was c lear ly a dded l a ter. The wa l l walk was c arr ied a cross t he b ack o f t he t ower o n a n a rch , o f wh ich o n ly t he s pr ing ing s urv ives. T he t ower h as s l its t wo c ourses h igh , most o f t he m w i th t r iangul ar-headed embrasures. T he r igh t h and o ne o f t he p a ir i n t he f ace o f t he t ower i s s p layed t o t he W. F ro m a bou t t h is p o in t , t he g round l evel b eg ins t o d rop t owards t he v al ley o f t he R iuscel lo , t he sma l l s tream t he c ourse o f w h ich , n ow c hannel led u nderg round , f or ms a d epress ion wh ich d iv ides t he d is tr ic t o f P ogg io f ro m t he E . h a l f o f t he t own . Beyond T 6 t here i s ar e-en tran t , t he wa l lb e ing s tepped i nwards a s f ar a s t he a pse o f t he c hurch o f S . Maria d el la Rosa . Or iginal ly , h owever , i tr an d irec t ly b etween T 6 a nd t he n ex t t ower , T 7.
Th is c an b e
d educed f ro m t he f ac t t ha t t he wal l i n t he r e-en tran t i sb u il t o f c oursed r ubble , a nd f ro m t he o r ien ta t ion o f as urv iv ing s tre tch o f med ieva l masonry j us t t o t he E . o f T7.
Recen t r estora t ion i nside S . Mar ia d el la Rosa r evealed s truc-
t ures i n t he c hancel wh ich h ave b een i den t if ied a s af ormer t own g a te. These d iscover ies a re b u t o ne o f t he most c o mp lex a spec ts o f a n a lready p roble ma t ic c hurch. 1 3
B eh ind t he e x ist ing a pse wh ich o n ly p ro jec ts s l ight ly f ro m t he
b ack o ft he c hurch , a n o lder , l arger o ne h as b een f ound . Th is s ee ms t o h ave h ad a r a ised f l oor , b enea th wh ich t here was a f rescoed c ryp t. T he a rch o f t h is a pse i s c rude ly b u il t a nd c u t t hrough a p re-ex is t ing wa l l 1 .20 m t h ick . Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 50
T 4 T5 T4
T6
OP Ek tt r 4G R
UI LD
R ESTOR _ED
T7
r d
2 5M
0
OPEN -WOG
T5
T6
I A L
C OUR _SE D R _UbBLE CO RE ,
A S ECT iO
"WELL .? BE D ROCK _
1
1
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RESTORED
T6
OR IG I N AL MAS O N R _Y OF G REY ISH C OL OU RE D BL -0 g . EBU ILD
y .
HOLE. C UT T H R - OU G WA LL ( es T H icw -)
T6
SA NTA M A I k _ IA DELLA
T7
ROSA
2 5m
0
5 .G . D .A .
F ig .
3 .3
Tuscan ia, wa l ls f rom T4 t o T7 .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 51
When t he a pse was b locked a nd t he f l oor l evel l owered , a n e qual ly c rude a rch was i nser ted b enea th t h is a rch , p resu mably t ob race i t . The wa l l 1 .20 m t h ick i s c learly t he e ar l iest e le men t i n t h is s truc tural s equence. I ti s t oo mass ive f or a n or ma l c hurch wa l l , a nd was q u i te l ong , f or i tc an a lso b e t raced i n t he s acr isty o n t he W. s ide o f t he c hurch.
T he a rches b ear n o
r ese mblance t o ag a te , h av ing n o o bv ious p ara l lels a nd t here b e ing n o t race o f ar eba te, b u t t he w a l l c ou ld w el lo nce h ave f ormed p ar t o f t he u rban d efences. T h is l eads t o t wo h ypo theses; e i ther t he l i ne o f t he t own wal l h as b een a dvanced a bou t 1 5 m t o t he N . t o i t s p resen t p os it ion , o r e lse a t o ne t ime t here was a d ouble c ircu i t , t he a pse h av ing b een b u il t a stride t he i nner wa l l wh ich was s ubsequen tly a bandoned.
At w in l i ne o f w a l ls wou ld h ave b een
a n o bv ious e xped ien t t o s trengthen t he t own o n i t s N . s ide where t here a re n o n a tural d efences.
D ouble l i nes o f d efence w ere more u sual t han t he s urv iv ing
e v idence s uggests, f or t he i nner wa l l h as o f ten b een t orn d own o r i ncorpora ted i n to l a ter s tructures.
P ar ts o fa n o u ter l i ne o fw a l ls wh ich i n d ocu men ts a re
r eferred t o a s b arbacan i s urv ive a t V i terbo.
T hey c an a lso s t ill b e s een a t
C orc iano n ear P erug ia , a nd a s men t ioned a bove ( p .148 ) , t he S . s ide o f t he t own o f C orneto-Tarqu in ia s ee ms t o h ave b een r e in forced i n t h is manner. T he s im ilar i ty b etween a t ower o n t h is p art o f t he c ircu i t a nd T 1 makes i t s ee m p oss ible t ha t t here was a s econd l i ne o f wa l ls i n t he monastery g arden . However , w ith t he l im i ted e v idence a va ilable , t he a rgumen ts f or a d ouble c ircu i t a round t h is p ar t o f T uscan ia mus t r e ma in i nconc lus ive. T7 ( f igs. 3 .3, 3 .4 ) i s o ne o f t wo p en tagona l t owers a t Tuscan ia ( see a lso T 19 , f i g. 3 .11).
I ti s wel l p reserved , s tand ing t o ah e igh t o f a bou t 1 6 m.
I t s
b ase i s b a t tered a nd h as a r ol l mou ld ing. The o u ter a ng le o f t he t ower h as n en fro q uo in ing, a nd n en fro b locks h ave a lso b een u sed f or t he l ower h a l f o f t he c ross-shaped l oopholes wh ich a re p laced r egu larly i n e ach f ace o f t he t ower.
The embrasures o f t hese l oopholes a re s eg men ta l ly a rched e x ternal ly ,
b u t t r iangu lar-headed w i th in t he wa l l t h ickness.
T he t h ickness o f t he t ower
wa l l i s 1 .30 m, wh ilst t ha t o f t he t own wa l l i s 1 .60 m. I ts ee ms p robable , t herefore , t ha t t he t ower h as b een a dded t o t he w a l l , t hough t he l a t ter h as b een t oo r ebu il t f or t here t ob e c lear s truc tural e v idence o f t h is. Doorways i n t he s ides o f t he t ower g ive a ccess t o t he wa l l w a lk , wh ich was c arr ied a cross t he b ack o f i to n a n a rch . I ns ide t he t ower , t here a re r ows o f p u tlog h oles a t v ert ical i n tervals o fa bou t 1 .50 m w h ich s erved f or t he s caf fold ing u sed d ur ing i t s c onstruc t ion , a nd l arger b eam h o les w h ich s uppor ted t he wooden f l oors. A c u t i n t he masonry a nd a r ow o fb eam h oles i nd ica te t ha t t here was a f l oor i m med ia tely b elow t he t opmost r ow o f embrasures , s uggesti ng t ha t t hese w ere u sed b y a man i n ac rouch ing o r p rone p os it ion .
Tha t t he
v au l t wh ich r oofs t he o pen g orge i s s i tua ted j us t a bove t he t op r ow o f p u t logs a nd t he wa l l wa lk d oor i nd ica tes t ha t t he t ower h as b een l owered i n h e igh t. I n t he v aul t , t here i s a sma l l r ec tangu lar h o le t hrough w h ich i t was p oss ible t o r each t he t op o f t he t ower b y c l i mb ing a w ooden l adder. Be tween T 7 a nd T 8 t he wa l l h as b een r e in forced w i th mass ive b u t tress ing. T 8 i s al arge s quare t ower ( f ig. 3 .5 ). I t s b ase i s s p layed r a ther t han s carped , a mod if ica t ion o f p rof ile p robably c arr ied o u t o n t he o ccas ion o f ar efac ing o r r epa ir.
I n t he f ace o ft he t ower, t here a re t wo p a irs o f s l i ts, b e tween
e ach o f wh ich a r ound g un h ole h as b een i nserted .
The s l its h ave f l a tl in tel led
mbr asure sDavid 3 6 Whitehouse. cm w ide b y Lazio: 7 0 c m h iIn gh ; t hos e o fandt hCeramics. e g un h o les a re t r iangu larAndrews, David,e John Osborne, and Medieval Studies Architecture, Painting E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 52
T 7
REFACED , WI TH N EN F QU O IN IN
RE F ACE ,D , REA R WITH k l FR O ELE VAT ION QUO IN I NG
PLA N AT GROU N D LEVE L . I N3 1 DE THE TO W N
PL A N AT UPPER FL O OR-
0
10
1 5m
EAR .
ELEVATI ON
HOLE G IV I NG ACCESS TO ROOF
W ALL W AL K _ OR _ IG NALLY CAR _R _ IED ACR JOSS SACK OF TO WER . _ ON AN AR _CH
SECT I ON ]
P LAN ] 5 .G D .A .
F ig .
3 .4
Tuscania, t owers T 7a nd T10 .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. 1 53 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
h eaded a nd a bou t 2 0 cm w ider. S l i ts a nd g un h oles a lso o ccur i n t he s ides o f t he t ower. On ly t he s pr ing ing o f t he v au l t a bove t he o pen g orge s urv ives. A f ter T 8 t he t own wa l l c hanges o r ien ta t ion t o t he S .W . I tr eta ins l i t tle o f i t s o r ig ina l c harac ter , a nd i s r e markable o n ly f or a s l i t t hree c ourses h igh , t he b locked embrasure o f w h ich i s v is ible o n t he i ns ide. The r ound t ower T9 h as b een e n t irely r estored , a l l t he l oopholes d isappear ing i n t h is p rocess. On ly a l i t t le med ieval masonry s urv ives f rom T 9 t o T 10 ( f ig. 3 .6 ). T h is i s c on f ined t o t he t op o f t he wa l l , a nd , l i ke t ha t i n t he wa l l r ound t he g arden o f t he monastery o f S . Paolo , i ti s o f ar a ther d ark , g rey ish s tone .
The wa l l
h as b een b a t tered f or much o f i t s h e igh t , a nd t owards T 10 , where t he masonry o ft h is i s q u ite g ood , i fi s f a ir t o c onclude t ha t t he b a t ter i s med ieva l , t hough o bv iously a n a dd it ion s ince i ti sb u il t r ound a nd p ar t ia l ly h ides a t urret.
T h is
i s j us t o ver 6 .00 m w ide , a nd p ro jects a bou t 0 .50 m f ro m t he l i ne o ft he wa l l . On t he i ns ide i ti s a rched , a nd h ad s ide wa l ls n ow d e mol ished.
S ince t he w a l l
wa lk p assed o ver t he a rch , i ti s u n l ikely t ha t , i n i t s f i na l f or m a t l east , t he t urre t s tood a ny h igher t han t he wa l l . I n s o me r espec ts i tr ese mbles T ower T I. Bu tb ecause i t s o r ig inal h e igh t a nd t he l eng th o ft he s ide wal ls a re u nk nown , t he a na logy i s n ot r ea l ly c onv inc ing , a nd i ti s p erhaps b et ter t o r egard i ta s at urre t , s im i lar i n f unct ion i fn ot f or m , t o t ha t i n t he g arden o f S . Francesco ( f ig. 3 .18 , p .177 ) . I n t he c en tre o f i t , t here i s al arge s l it l i ke t ha tb etween T 8 a nd T 9. The l a t ter i s i n v ery p oor c ond it ion a nd o n t he i ns ide most o f t he f ac ing s tones h ave b een s tripped f rom a round i t . I ti s p oss ible t ha t i tt oo h ad r e turn wa l ls a nd was s et i n as l ight p ro jec t ion , n ow c oncea led b y t he b u t tress ing. T 10 i s o ne o f t he b es t-preserved r ound t owers ( f igs. 3 .4, 3 .6 ). Bu il t o fn ea t , s quar ish b locks o fb rown t u fa , i ti s a l most 1 6.00 m h igh , 6 .00 m o f w h ich a re b a t tered , a nd s tood a bou t 3 .50 m a bove t he wa l ls. t ower h as a d omed v au l t w i th a n a ccess h ole. c o m mun ica t ing w i th t he wa l l wa lk .
T he t op o f t he
I n i t s s ides t here a re d oors
T he a rch , wh ich c arr ied t he wa l l wa lk
b e tween t hese d oors, h as c ol lapsed , t hough t he c u ts made f or t he s pr ing ing o f i ta re p la in ly t o b e s een .
A t t he t op f l oor l evel , t here i s ar ow o f t hree
c ross-shaped l oopholes w ith s tepped t r iangular-headed embrasures.
Below
t h is , t here a re t wo l oopholes w ith l arger s eg men tal-arched embrasures. I t i s s trange t ha t t hese d o n o t c orrespond i n n u mber o r p os i t ion w ith t hose a bove , a nd t ha t t he embrasures a re d if feren t , e spec ia l ly a s t here a re n o o bv ious s igns o f r ebu ild ing. T he p orta d i Mon tasc ide ( T11) i s t he o n ly s urv iv ing med ieval g a te a t Tuscan ia ( f igs. 3 .6-7 ). I th as b een s ub jec ted t o ag rea t many a l tera t ions a nd p resen ts a n u mber o fu nusua l f ea tures. A t b ack a nd f ron t , t here a re p o in ted a rches w ith n en fro v ousso irs a nd j a mbs , b elow wh ich a re s egmen tal a rches. Bo th t hese a rches c ou ld b e b arred a nd c losed , f or t hey h ave i ron h inges a nd t he i nner o ne p reserves ab ol t s lot . I n t he o pen g orge , t here a re t wo f l oors w i th embrasures f or l oopholes. T he embrasures h ave a l lb een e n larged , a nd t he l oopholes s ee m t o h ave b een made b y a l ter ing p re-ex ist ing s l i ts. On e i ther s ide o f t he b ack o f t he i nner a rch , t here a re n enfro c orbels wh ich f or med p art o f ac anopy t o p ro tec t t he f rescoes , t races o f wh ich s urv ive o n t he t y mpanu m b e tween t he p o in ted a nd s egmen ta l a rches. I t was ac o mmon p rac t ice t o h ave p a in t ings o f t he V irg in Mary a nd s a in ts o n med ieva l Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 54
T7
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F ig .
3 .5
Tuscan ia wa l ls f rom T 7t o T9 .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 55
T1 0
T9
T 11
i mr 8s i
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OR _ IG K I AL M AS OK 1R _Y OF CR _E Y- BR -O W N ST O N E
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BATTER ED P ART OF WALL , BU ILT AR _OU N D TUR R E T
ELEVAT ION
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I NS I DE TO W N
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PO RTA D I MO N T AS C I DE
RUBBLE
F ILL
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T11 0
ELE V . I NS I DE TO W N
F ig .
3 .6
2 5m
SE C T ION
Tuscan ia, wa l ls f rom T9 t o t he p orta d i Montasc ide .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 1 56
5 . G D . A .
EM I5KASUR A LTE RED
TR .ACES OF . F RESCOES
O U TS ID E
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F I RS T
— SE CT ION
0
FL O OR_
l om 5 .G . D .A .
F ig .
3 . 7 Tuscan ia, t he p orta d i Montasc ide .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 1 57
12
m _ru st r t_m_m _ _ , 7
A
0
25 M
T 12
ASH LA R ,NOT bO NDE -D WITH TO WE R
POST - M ED IE VAL M AS O N R _Y ,
T h
FOU N TA I N-,
2 5M
T 12 T 13 ASH LA R _ , VE RT IC AL . BL O C
C O URSED RUBBLE
— COUR _SE .D , ROU GH LY SQUAR .ED T UFA , SO ME QU I TE . SMA LL . BL O CK -5
A -5H LAR - BU T UNEVE N CO U R _S E3
3 .6. D .A . F ig .
3 .8
Tuscan ia, wa l ls f rom T12 t o T13 .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 58
AC ,CE .55 TO ROOF
ROOF PL A N
,,
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•
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•
SECT ION
IB ASE OF TO WERI F IL L .ED WI TH EA RTH
/ 1 0 M
5 . G D .A .
F ig .
3 .9
Tuscan ia, t ower T12 .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 59
g a tes , a nd t he s ta tu tes o f Tuscan ia o rdered t he p odestä t o s ee t ha t t he V irg in a nd C h i ld , a nd S t . C hristopher, w ere d ep ic ted o n a l l t he g a tes i n t he t own ( AST, S ta tu t i W, 5 6 ). I n t he E . s ide o f t he g a te, t here i s ad oorway l ead ing t o t he w a l l wa lk . I t s r a ther c rude a ppearance c ou ld b e t he r esul t e i ther o f w ear o r o f i t s h av ing b een o pened a t al a ter d a te. T here a re t wo ma jor p hases t o t he g a te. The t op l ooks r ebu il t f or i ti s made o f ar a ther l i gh ter-coloured s tone. T h is masonry b eg ins a bove a s l igh t o f fset i n t he b ack o f t he t own wa l l , a bove w hich t he wa l l a nd g ate a re o f t he s ame b u ild , a nd c learly c on te mporary . T hus t o t he o r ig ina l g a te b elong t he t wo p o in ted a rches , w h ils t t he v aul ted o pen g orge b elongs t o ar ebu i ld c arr ied o u t a t t he s ame t ime a s ar estora t ion o f t he w a l ls. T he b a t ter a nd mou ld ing a re a lso l a ter a dd it ions , a nd c ou ld b e c on te mporary w i th t he o pen g orge.
I n
t he g a te p assage , i ti s p oss ible t o s ee a s tra igh t j o in t o n a pprox i ma tely t he s ame a l ignmen t a s t he wa l l . T h is c ou ld i nd ica te t ha t t he t ower was a dded t o s h ield a n e ar l ier g a te wh ich was n o more t han a d oorway s et i n t he wa l l . Bu t t he s im i lar i ty o f t he t wo p o in ted a rches makes t h is u n l ikely , a nd t he j o in t c ou ld w e l lb e t he r esu l t o f as tructural p rocedure. T he e x istence o f t he s eg men tal a rches b elow t he p o in ted o nes i s s omewha t u nusua l ; a more t yp ica l a rrange men t w ou ld b e h igher s eg men tal a rches b eh ind t he p o in ted o nes t o c rea te a r eba te f or t he w ooden d oors o f t he g a te. h ave , i n f act , b een i nserted w i th in t he p o in ted o nes.
The s eg men tal a rches Wi thou t t he m , t he
p assageway w ou ld b e h igher a nd t he g a te w ou ld h ave a much g rander a ppearance , t hough s t il lb e ing r a ther n arrow. The i nner s eg men tal a rch was a lso o r ig ina l ly l ower t han i t s p resen th e igh t. , One p roble m , t he e x tens ion o f t he r ol l mou ld ing i n to t he g a te p assage where t he masonry b elow i ti s i nse t , i s r ead ily e xp la ined . On o ld p hotographs i ts i mp ly d oes n o t e x ist. I t i st he r esul t o f ar efacing. Above t he mou ld ing , t here i s ap or tcu l l is s lot p laced , r a ther u nusua l ly , a bou t h a l fway a long t he g a te p assage.
I t , t oo , must h ave b een a l a ter a dd it ion .
Fro m o ld p ho tographs , i tc an a lso b e s een t ha t t he b ack o f t he g a te was o nce b locked .
Th is was d one i n r ubble , a nd p robably d a ted f ro m t he 1 6th c en tury.
T he sma l l s l i ts wh ich e x isted i n t he b lock ing a re t yp ica l o f t hose u sed f or f i rear ms a t t ha t p eriod. On b o th s ides o f t he p orta d i Mon tasc ide , t he t own wa l l i sb a t tered f or o ver h a l f i t s h e igh t. Where i th as n ot b een r epa ired , t he masonry o ft he b a t ter l ooks med ieva l . However , i ti s a n a dd it ion t o t he w al l , a nd l a ter t han t he b a t ter o f t he g a te t ower , a ga ins t w h ich i th as b een b u i l t u p . T o t he W. o f t he g a te , t he wa l ls h ave b een i n terrup ted t o c rea te p iazza I ta l ia , o ne o f t he f oca l p o in ts o f t he modern t own . I t was h ere t ha t t he R iusc el lo f l owed i n to t he t own , c aus ing t he wa l ls t o c urve i nwards s l igh tly f o l low ing t he c on tours o f i t s v a l ley , wh ich h as b een f i l led i n a nd l evel led f or t he p iazza . T h is i s f l anked t o t he W. b y T 12, o ne o f t he b est p reserved a nd most impos ing o f t he s quare t owers a t Tuscan ia ( f igs. 3 .8-9 ).
I t i sb u il t o f n ea t s quar ish
a sh lars a nd s tands 1 7 m h igh , d om ina t ing t he w a l ls , w h ich s t i l l s tand t o a l most t he ir o r ig ina l h e igh t ,b y a bou t 8 m. The t op o f t he t ower i s c renella ted w ith f orked merlons o f t he s o-ca l led g h ibel l ine t ype , e ach w ith a p a ir o f s tone h ooks t o s uppor t s hu t ter ing t o p ro tec t t he embrasures.
The t ower h as t wo
r ows o f l oopho les , t he l ower o ne b e ing b elow p resen t i n terna lg round l evel . A l l t he a per tures o f t he u pper o ne a re d amaged : t he ir embrasures h ave b een e n larged , a nd g iven s egmen ta l a rches. T he l oopho les l ook a s i ft hey h ave Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 60
T14
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F ig .
3 .10 Tuscan ia, wa l ls f rom T14 t o T17.
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 61
b een made b y mod ify ing p re-ex ist ing s l i ts. I n t he p arape t , t here a re a lso t wo c ross-shaped l oopholes. There s ee ms t o h ave b een n o c o mmun ica t ion b e tween t he t ower a nd t he wal ls ,
On i t s W. s ide , t he t ower a nd t he t op o f
t he wa l l a re b onded. I ts ee ms t ha t a s b y t he p or ta d i Mon tasc ide , t he u pper p art o ft he wa l l h as b een r ebu il t , a nd t ha t t he t ower i s c on te mporary w ith t h is r econstruct ion . The b a t ter w hich e x ists o n t he wa l l t o t he W. o f t he t ower i s c learly a l a ter a dd i t ion s ince i ti sb u i l t o ver t ha t o f t he t ower. T he n ex t t ower , T 13, i s r ound. I t s e xcel len t masonry , c ons ist ing o f w el l-dressed s quar ish b locks l a id i n c ourses a bou t 2 9 cm h igh , a nd n eat p o in t ing , c on trasts w ith i t s r a ther s orry c ond i t ion . The t op h as b een p a tched , a nd f ew o f t he l oopholes h ave s urv ived i n tac t. I t s wa l l t h ickness , a bove t he l evel o ft he b a t ter , i sj ust o ver 1 m. On e i ther s ide o f i t , t he t own wa l ls h ave b een p a tched a nd r e-po in ted , b u t i ts ee ms t ha t t he t op o f t he t ower i s b onded w i th t he wa l ls , t hough t he l ower p art i s n ot . The wal ls p roceed t hence i n as tra igh t l i ne t o t he p or ta d i Pogg io, a s i mp le b u t e legan t g a te w h ich b ears t he d a te 17 74.
T urr iozz i 's map o f 17 76 s hows ab r idge j us t o u tside t he g a te ,
s pann ing t he t own d i tch , wh ich o nce r an a long t he N . s ide o f t he t own , b ut h as n ow b een f i l led i n . N o t f ar t o t he W. o f t he g a te , t here i s a wel l-preserved s tre tch o f wa l l w ithou t ab a t ter , i n wh ich t here a re t hree s l its t wo c ourses h igh a l i t tle a bove e x terna l g round l evel , b u t n ow wel lb enea th t he t errap ieno a ga inst t he i ns ide f ace o f t he wa l l ( f ig. 3 .1 0 ) .
One o f t hese i s s et i n t he s hort s ide o f a
s l igh t s al ien t i n t he wa l l a nd p rov ided f l ank ing f i re a long i t s f ace.
T he wa l l
h ere h as a nu nusual t ype o f merlon wh ich may b es t b e d escr ibed a s ' s hou ldered '. S ince t h is f orm i s r are i n I t a ly , t hey a re p robably t he work o f t he r es torer. T owards T 14, t he wa l l h as b een e x tens ively r epa ired a nd b ut tressed i n r ecen t t imes. T 14 i t self i s al arge s quare t ower wh ich h as b een c o mp letely r ebu il t . To t he S . o f i t , t he wa l ls r ecover s o me th ing o f t he ir med ieval a ppearance; t hey s tand a bove a s teep s lope wh ich f or ms o ne s ide o ft he g u l ley c u tb y t he Fossacc io , t he c ourse o f wh ich i s n o l onger c oncealed . Ye t o f t he o r ig ina l masonry t here s urv ive o n ly t he p or t ions a d jacen t t o T 14 a nd T 15;
t he c en tral
p ar t o f t h is s tretch h as b een r ebu il t . T he b ot to m f our c ourses o f t he wa l l a re b a t tered. I ti s p oss ible t ha t t he r ock o n wh ich t he wa l l i sb u il t was c u t t o f or m a c on t inua t ion o f t h is b a t ter s lop ing d own t o t he s tream.
Th is was
d one a t Corne to-Tarqu in ia where a t o ne p o in t o n t he S . s ide o ft he t own , t he e dge o f t he r ock-cu t d i tch was s o i nc l ined a s t o c ons t itu te a t a lus o r s carp a t t he b ase o ft he wa l l .
T ower T 15 ( p la te 3 .6 ) s tands o n ly a bou t 3m a bove
t he wa l l , wh ich i s h ere a l most i tf u l l h e ight , l ack ing o n ly t he p arape t a nd mer lons. T h is r ound t ower h as b een r efaced , a nd i t s merlons h ave b een r estored.
I tc an b e d a ted t o t he y ears 1 452-54 ( see b e low , p . 1 89
) .
I t was b u il t u p a ga inst t he t own wa l l , w h ich was b reached t o p rov ide a n o pen g orge f or i t . On i t s S . s ide , i ti sb onded w ith t he wa l l , wh ich must t herefore h ave b een r ebu il t o r a t l east r efaced. T he t ower d oes n o t p ro jec tb ack i n to t he f u l l t h ickness o ft he wa l l , a nd t he wa l l wa lk i s s imp ly e x tended a cross t he b ack o f i to n a n a rch . I th as t wo r ows o f t hree c ross-shaped l oopholes, o ne o f w hich r e ta ins a n i n tac t s eg men tal a rched embrasure. Apar t f ro m a s hor t s tre tch o f o rig inal masonry w ith ab locked a rrow s l it i m med ia tely a d jacen t t o t he t ower , much o f t he w a l l t o t he S . o f T 15 o n Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 62
T2 1
T19
T20
T18
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W ALL ,
T 19
T18
T 19 FAC I N G G ONE. COU RSED RUBBLE CO RE .
T18
RUBBLE R -E- BU IL D WITH M U CH LAVA R _E- USE D ASH LA R . BL O CK5 -
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T2 1 — — —
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3 . GIBS ON D . A N DR _E WS .
F ig .
3 .11 Tuscan ia, wa l ls f rom T 18-T 2 1 .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 1 63
t he W. s ide o f t he t own was c o mp letely r ebu i l t n o t many y ears b efore t he e arthquake ( p la te 3 .6 ).
E ros ion o f t he s ide o f t he Fossacc io v a l ley h ad c aused
t he wa l ls a nd t owers t o c ol lapse.
I f , a s s uggested a bove , t he E . s ide o f t he
v a l ley h ad b een s carped , t hen t h is d oubt less a ccelera ted t he p rocess.
Towers
T 16 a nd T 17 w ere n o t r econstruc ted , t he ir p osi t ion b e ing r ecorded b y t ooth ing. Where t he wa l l r esu mes a f ter T 17 , i t s r u inous c ond i t ion i s as tr ik ing i l lus tra t ion o f t he e f fec ts o f wea ther ing a nd e rosion , a nd wel l e xp la ins why t he more n or therly s tretch h ad t o b e r ebu il t ( f ig. 3 .11). S hort ly b efore T 18 , t here i s as l i t t wo c ourses h igh i n t he wa l l a ccess ible f ro m t he o r ig inal i n terna l g round l evel . T 18 , wh ich s tands a bove a s heer c l if f , was e x tens ively r estored i n 1 973-74. I th ad p rev iously b een v ery d elap ida ted . I ti s ap la in s quare t ower w i th a s ingle r estored s l i t i n i t s o u ter f ace. I t s ee ms t o h ave b een b onded w i th t he wa l l t o e i ther s ide o f i t .
T 19 ( p la te 3 .7 ) i s t he s econd p en tag-
o na l t ower a t Tuscan ia a nd r ese mbles T 7 , e xcep t t ha t t here i s n o a rch a cross t he b ack o f i tf or t he wa l l wa lk . O f t he l a t ter t here i s n o t race ; t he wal l s tood a t l east 2 -3 m a bove i t s p resen t h e igh t , a nd n e i ther T 19 n or T 21 were v ery much h igher t han i t .
B etween t hese t owers , t here i s at h ird , T 20 , n ow
r educed t o as tu mp a nd c oncealed b y av ine.
I t s f ron t a nd S . s ides h ave b een
r ebu il t. I n f ac t , t he r e ma ins wou ld h ardly make a v ery c onv inc ing t ower were i tn o t f or t he e x istence o f a n embrasure i n i t s o ne o r ig inal s ide , a nd t he f ac t t ha t i ti s i nd ica ted o n T urr iozz i 's map o f 1 778.
T 21 i s as quare
t ower s et a t ar igh t-angle b end where t he wa l l t urns t o t he E . a nd r uns a long t he S . s ide o f t he t own .
Th is g ives i tf our d efendable s ides , p rov id ing
f l ank ing f i re t o t he N . a nd E .
I ti s t he o n ly t ower a t Tuscan ia t he g round
f l oor o f wh ich h as n o tb een b ack f il led w i th e arth. A k ink i n t he wa l lj ust t o t he S . o f T 20 i nd ica tes a l a te med ieval r ebu ild , w i th wh ich T 21 i s c on te mp orary , t he t ower a nd wa l lb e ing b onded w i th L -shaped b locks wh ich p ass f ro m t he wa l l t o t he t ower.
Be tween T 19 a nd t h is r ebu i ld , t here a re t hree
s l its w i th f l a t-l in tel led embrasures s et i n t he wa l l a t i n terna l g round l evel . I n r estora t ion c arried o u t s ince t he e arthquake, b o th T 19 a nd T 21 h ave b een e qu ipped w i th c ross-shaped l oopholes. " On i t s S . s ide , T 21 h as a most d rama t ic a spec t , f or i ti s p erched a bove ab asal t e scarpmen t wh ich h as w ea thered t o f or m a mass o f r ounded b ou lders ( f ig. 3 .12 ). T h is c l if f i s a rt if ic ia l ; t he b asa l t i s n o t u sual ly e xposed i n t h is f ash ion e xcep t when c u t i n to b y as tream. T he f i elds b elow a re f u l l o f p ieces o fb asal t , d ebr is c rea ted when t he s carp ing w as o r ig ina l ly c arr ied o u t , p robably e arly i n t he 1 5th c en tury ( see b elow p p . 1 86-87). T o t he E . t he wa l l h as b een b u t tressed t hrough t he a dd it ion o f as econd wa l l o f r ubble l ess t han a me tre t h ick b u il t u p a ga ins t i t .
Th is i s o bv iously p os t- med ieva l
i n d a te , a nd d id v ery l i t tle t o s trengthen t he o r ig ina l w al l . T 22, a r ound t ower , i s e x traord inar ily w ea thered , b e ing r educed t o as tump o f masonry wh ich more c losely r ese mbles t he n a tura l r ock t han i td oes a s tructure. I t h as ab a t ter a nd a r ol l mou ld ing , a nd p robably h ad r ows o f t hree l oopholes l i ke t he o ther r ound t owers. T o t he E . a nd S . o f T 22, l i t t le r e ma ins o f t he t own w a l l a par t f rom a r u inous s tretch a d jacen t t o t ha t t ower , a nd a nother j us t b efore T 24. Or ig ina l ly , t he wal l e nc losed t he r e-en tran t b elow t he l argo d i S ette Cannel le. T 23 ( p la te 3 .8 ) s tands b eh ind i t s f or mer a l ignmen t , a nd b elongs t o al a te o r Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. 1 64 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
T2 1
T22 POST- M E D I EVA L BU T T R . ESS ING W AL L
ART IF IC IAL ES CARP M E N T
T23
COUR SED
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CAVE
T23
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C ON D U IT
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T23
ROUGHLY 5QUAR _ED COUR _SED BL OC KS
1 5M D A
F ig .
3 .12 Tuscan ia , wa l ls f rom T 2 1 -T 2 3 .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. 1 65 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
! H er r
W ATE R-
SE C T I ON 0
AA 5 n 4
5G D A.
F ig .
3 .13 Tuscan ia, c hute a nd c ondu it a t S e tte C anne l le.
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. 1 66 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
p ost- med ieva l r econs truc t ion , a s d o t he wal ls r ound t he s ides o f t he r ee n tran t r evet t ing t he h igher g round i ns ide t he t own . They a nd t he t ower a re a l lb u il t o f r ubble , f or t he mos t p art r ough ly s quared b locks l a id i n c ourses made r egu lar w i th t he h elp o f a bundan t p ack ing. T 23 i s ap la in s quare t ower o f r elat ively s l igh t p ro jec t ion w i th a p a ir o f s l its i n i t s o u ter f ace. I tt apers s l igh tly t owards i t s t op where o n t he N . s ide t here a re t wo s tone c orbels, t he r e ma ins o f mach icola t ions, t he o n ly o nes t o b e f ound a t Tuscan ia . T he t ower h ad a v aul ted r oof , o n ly t he s pr ing ing o f wh ich s urv ives. I n 19 72 r e mova l o f e ar th b eh ind a n a rch s e t i n t he mos t n or therly p ar t o ft he r e-en tran t r evealed a med ieval wa l l w ith a sma l l d oorway , s e t a t r igh t a ngles t o t he t own w a l l .
I n i t ial ly , t h is h ad t he a ppearance o f , a nd was c on-
s trued a s, a p ostern . More e x tens ive c learance d emonstra ted t hat i tf or med p ar t o f s truc tures a ssoc ia ted w ith t he c hannel l ing o f t he s pr ing wh ich f eeds t he f oun ta in o f S e t te Cannel le a nd t hen f l ows o u t o f t he t own t o j o in t he F ossacc io i n t he v a l ley b elow T 21. T he wa ter f l owed d own a masonry c hu te a nd emerged b enea th a h igh p o in ted a rch where a c ondu i t l ed o f f t o t he S . Th is was a pparen t ly c overed , f or t here a re p u t log h oles f or p lank ing i n i t s s ides ( f ig. 3 .13 ). These d iscoveries a re n ot e asy t o i n terpre t. T ha t t he s tream w as c oncea led s uggests t h is was a work ing a rea u sefu lb ecause o f t he a bundan t s upp ly o f w a ter.
I tw as p robably s urrounded b y b u i ld ings, o r e ven i n t he
b ase men t o f as p l i t l evel s tructure w i th a f ron tage o n t he p iazza a bove where t he f oun ta in i s s i tua ted. T he d oor wh ich h ad b een f ound o r ig ina l ly l eads t o a smal l c ave w h ich c ou ld h ave b een u sed f or s torage.
T he c hu te i s p oss ibly
t he s a me a s t ha t men t ioned i n ac on trac t g iven t o Do men ico d a L ugano i n 1 455 ( see a ppend ix 2 ) .
S trea ms i nev i tably c rea te w eak p o in ts i n t own wa l ls.
1 5
T h is f ac t , a nd t he e x tra s treng th t ob e d er ived f ro m b u i ld ing a r eve tmen t w a l l f ol low ing t he h igher g round i ns ide t he t own , e xp la in why t he wa l ls w ere r e-al igned s o t ha t t hey f o l low t he s ides o f t he r e-en tran t. The n ex t t ower , T 24, p rotec ts a n a ngle where t he wa l l t urns t hrough n inety d egrees a nd b eg ins t o r un u p t he h i l ls ide t owards t he f or t if ied p a lace k nown a s t he R ive l l ino ( f ig. 3 .14 ). T 24 s ee ms t o b e l a ter t han t he wa l l f or i tp ro jec ts s l igh t ly b eh ind i ta nd , a s f ar a s i ti s p oss ible t o t el l , i ti s n o t b onded w i th i t .
I ti s ar ound t ower wh ich s uf fered much d amage i n t he e ar th-
q uake , a nd n ow s tands o n ly t o t he l evel o f t he s pr ing ing o f i t s v au l ted r oof . Ap hotograph p ubl ished b y P ierdo men ico ( 19 72 ) s hows t he t ower p reserved t o i t s f u l l h e igh t . I th ad t hree r ows o f t hree l oopholes w i th t r iangu lar-headed embrasures, t he l owest r ow b e ing i n t he b a t ter b elow t he r ol l mou ld ing. t he p arape t , t here was a s er ies o f p u t log h oles.
I n
The embrasures b e tween
t he mer lons h ad b een f i l led i n , a nd t he t op a dap ted a s ap a lombar ia , o r d ovec ote , w ith a p ro jec t ing t i le c ourse , a bove wh ich t here were t r iangu lar a pert ures made o f t i le f or t he p igeons t o e n ter a nd l eave b y . Med ieva l t owers w ere o f ten l a ter a dap ted i n t h is way , b u t t h is s ee ms t o h ave b een t he o n ly e xa mp le a t Tuscan ia. T o t he E . o f t he t ower, t he wa l l s hows e v idence o f a n u mber o fb u ild ing p hases. Ad jacen t t o i t , t here i s ar ubble p a tch . T here i s t hen ab locked p ostern w i th a s eg men ta l a rch , b eyond wh ich t here i s a s tra igh t j o in t . B e tween t h is ä nd t he p os tern , t here i s as l i t t wo c ourses h igh w i th a f l a t-l in tel led embrasure. P ierdo men ico 's p hotograph s hows t ha t h ere , t oo , t he w a l l was b u t tressed b y ar ubble s k in l i ke t ha t b etween T 21 a nd T 22.
T he l ast s ec t ion o f wa l l wh ich a bu t ted t he R ivel l ino h as c ol lapsed.
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 67
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Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 68
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Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 69
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3 .16 Tuscan ia, t he R ive l l ino ( tower a t e nd o f e nc losure).
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 70
t he p o in t where i tn ow t er m inates , t he f oo t ings o f a med ieva l wal l wh ich l ed o f f t o t he S . h ave r ecen t ly b een u ncovered.
Th is migh t b e a l l t ha t r e ma ins
o f a n e x tra l i ne o f d efences f or t he R ivel l ino , b u t s ince i ti s o n ly 0 .80 m t h ick , i tm igh t e qua l ly w el l h ave b een a t errace wa l l . The r u ins o f t he R ivel l ino ( f igs. 3 .14-16 ) a re o ne o f t he most s tr ik ing e le men ts i n t he med ieval p anora ma p resen ted .by t he c hurches a nd t owers t o t he S . o f t he modern t own .
T he h il l o f Mon te o n wh ich i ts tands was t he s i te
o f t he e arl ies t c o mmuna l p a lace f i rst men t ioned i n ad ocu men t o f 1 263 ( Ca mpanar i 1 856, I,1 72 )
I n t he 1 5th c en tury , h owever , t he p a lace h ere
w as t ha t o f t he p odes tä , w h ilst t he p a lazzo c o muna le o ccup ied i t s p resen t p osit ion f ur ther t o t he N . ( c f . ANT 2 6, f . 2 6v , 4 1).
By t he e nd o f t he 1 5th
c en tury t he R ivel l ino was k nown a s t he p a lazzo v ecch io a nd was c lear ly i n a p oor s ta te o f r epa ir. f or h im t o l i ve i n .
I n 1 49 3, t he p odestà p rotes ted t hat i t was u nsu i table
Th is c o mp la in t c aused t he C o m mune s o me embarrass men t .
The a l terna t ive a ccom moda t ion o f fered h im i ncluded t he o ld g abel la o r t axo f f ice, p art o f wh ich was u sed b y t he b u tchers a s a mea t s tore a t n igh t. F inal ly , h owever , h e was t ransferred t o ah ouse i n t he p iazza d el la c olonna n ear t he p a lazzo c o muna le ( AST , C ons igl i 4 , f . 2 61-262 ). Thereaf ter t he f abric o f t he p a lace b egan t o d eter iora te r ap id ly.
I n 1 49 2 i t was c ons idered
s o d angerous t ha t ad ec ision was t aken t o d is man t le t he r oof ( Cons igl i 5 , 1 81v, 1 84 ).
A l arge p ar t o f i tc ol lapsed i n 1 587 , a nd i ts u f fered s evere
d a mage i n a ne arthquake i n 17 03 ( Ca mpanari 1 856, I , 2 67 , 2 79 ).
T oday i t
h as b een e n t irely d estroyed a part f ro m i t s S . wa l l . The R ive l l ino was a c o mp lex b u i ld ing , a nd o ne o f s o me a rch i tec tural n o te.
I to nce o ccup ied a n e x tens ive a rea t o t he N . where t here a re n ow a
v ineyard a nd g ardens.
I tc ons isted o f t wo ma in p arts , ap a lace t o t he E . a nd
af ort if ied e nc losure t o t he W.
The l a t ter was b u i l t o ver t he f ounda t ions o f
t wo l arge t owers w i th w a l ls a bou t 2m t h ick , a nd t he ir b ases f aced w i th n enfro ( A &B , f i g. 3 .14;
s ee Andrews 19 75 ).
They must d a te f ro m t he 1 2th
o r e ar ly 1 3th c en tury , a nd a re a l l t ha t r e ma ins o f t he t owers a nd p a laces , o r ig ina l ly p riva tely owned , wh ich s erved a s t he s ea t o f t he c o mmuna l g overnment i n t he 1 3th c en tury .
T h is e arly p a lace may b e c o mpared t o t he p a lazzo
d e i Pr iori a t Tarqu in ia , wh ich i ncorpora ted a t l east s even p re-ex ist ing bu ild ings , o f wh ich t hree were t owers, o r t he p alazzo d e i Pr ior i a t N arn i , wh ich c o mprised t hree e ar l ier p a laces.
The f ac t t ha t t here a re t he r e ma ins
o f ap a lace t o t he W. o f t he t owers i nd ica te t ha t e ither i t was e x tended o r e lse p ar t ial ly r ebu i l t.
The p a lace i s s e t b ack f ro m t he f ort if ied e nc losure.
On ly i t s S . wa l l i s s t il l s tand ing.
T h is i s u nusua l i nas much a s i tr ises
v ert ical ly f ro m t he g round f or a h e igh t o f a bou t 2m , i s t hen b a t tered a nd f inal ly r eturns t o t he v er t ica l .
Wh ilst t h is c ou ld b e t he r esu l t o f al a ter
bu t tress ing , wa l ls s im ilar i n p rof ile c an b e f ound a t t he p a lace o f Freder ick I a t L ucera , t he n earby p apa l c as tle a t Mon tef iascone , a nd t he p apa l p a lace a t Av ignon .
I n t he l as t t wo i ns tances, b u t tresses s upport ing b l ind a rches
r ise f ro m t he b a t ter.
A t t he b ack o f t he wa l l t here s urv ive s tubs o fo thers
a t r igh t a ngles t o i t , a nd a masonry p ier. i ts W. e nd e nc losed a s p ira l s ta ir.
A r ound t urret c orbel led o u t a t
Ik now o f n o c on te mporary p ara l lels f or
t h is e x traord inary f ea ture i n C en tra l I ta ly .
Rese mbl ing a b ar t izan ( p la te 3 .
10 ) , i ti s more t yp ica l o f t he l a te med ieva l a rch itec ture o f N . E urope.
O ld
p ho tographs ( e .g. p la te 3 .9 ) s how t ha t a t t he t op o f t h is wal l t here was a Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 71
b ifora w ith a p a ir o f t refo il-headed l i gh ts w i th aq ua trefo il a bove t hem. T here was a w indow s ea t i n t he embrasure. T he s ta ircase t urre t s ee ms t o h ave p rov ided a ccess f ro m t he r oo m l i t b y t h is w indow t o t he c rene l la ted p arapet a bove a t r oof l evel . D ocumen tary e v idence f or t he r econs truct ion o f t he p a lace i s s l igh t. I th ad a t ower, a r oo m i n wh ich was s o met imes u sed f or mee t ings,
T here a re many r eferences t o c ounc il meet ings a nd o ther
b usiness t ak ing p lace i n c laustro a n te p ortas p a la t i i s ol ite r es iden t ie d om in i p otesta t is w here t here w ere s tone s ea ts ( e .g. A ST , C ons igl i I , f .222 ). Th is may b e i n terpre ted a s e i ther a c our tyard p robably w i th a rches o n o ne o r more s ides, o r e lse a p ort ico a t tached t o t he f acade. was a p iazza ( AST , p erg. 4 6 ).
I n f ron t o f t he p a lace , t here
T he p a lace may b e t he s ame a s t ha t f i rst r ecorded i n 1 263, b u t t h is r eference was p robably t o t ha t c ons is t ing o f e arl ier b u ild ings p urchased b y t he C o m mune , t o wh ich i ts ee ms t o h ave b een a l a ter a dd i t ion . I t h as n o v ery p rec isely d a table a rch i tec tura l f ea tures. T he p aral lels c i tes f or t he p rof ile o f t he S . w a l l d a te f ro m a bou t t he m id-13 th t o t he m id14th c en tur ies.
T he
b ifora i s a lso t yp ical o f t he s a me p er iod . I den t ica l o nes o ccur i n p ar t o f t he p apa l p a lace a t O rv ieto b u i l t i n t he l as t t wo d ecades o f t he 1 3th c en tury . S ince t he c ourt o f t he r ec tor o f t he P a tr i mony was a ccus to med t o s pend t he w in ter a t T uscan ia a t t he e nd o f t he 1 3 th c en tury ( An tonel l i 1 895, 4 53-54 ), t he p a lace may h ave b een b u il t b y o r f or t he p apa l g overnmen t. A l terna t ively , i tc ou ld h ave b een b u il t b y t he Ro mans w ho e xerc ised p ol i t ical c on tro l o ver Tuscan ia f ro m 1 300, r egu lar ly a ppo in t ing t he p odesta. I n 1 310 we h ave a r eference t o a Pa la t io Urbis p osi to i n Mon te C iv i ta t is T uscane ( Campanar i 1 856, I , 2 03 ).
T he u se o f t he w ord u rbs s hows t ha t t he p a lace was c ons idered t he
p roperty o f Ro me.
I ti fh ad b een n ewly b u i l t b y t he c i ty , t hen p resu mab ly i t
s erved a s ar es idence f or t he p odestä . T he f ort if ied e nclosure s ee ms t o b e l a ter t han t he p a lace, f or i t s E . s ide i sb u i l t u p a ga inst t he s ta ir t urret. The e nclosure t oo i s r educed t o l i t t le more t han i t s S . wa l l . T he b ase o f t h is i s s l igh tly b a t tered . I n t he b o t to m o f i t , t here i s as er ies o f s l i ts t wo c ourses h igh w i th t r iangu lar-headed embrasures. merlons.
A t t he t op t here i s a wa l l wa lk w i th a p arapet a nd g h ibel l ine
At urre t wh ich p ro jec ts o n ly v ery s l igh t ly c onst i tu ted a s trong
p o in t o n t he wa l l wa lk .
As em i-c ircu lar a per ture a t t he t op o f t he t urre t
wou ld h ave b een s u itable f or t he u se o f al arge c rossbow o r s ome o ther e ng ine, e xcep t t ha t t here i s v ery l i t t le r oo m f or manoeuvre. T h is i s a r a ther e xcep t iona l f ea ture , b u t p ara l lels d o e x ist i n t he p or ta d i Va l le a t Vi t erbo , a nd i n t he p or ta Amer ina a nd t he p or ta R o mana a t T od i.
Tha t p art
o f t he f ort if ied e nclosure t o t he W. o f t he t urret i s al a ter a dd i t ion .
I ts S .
wa l l i s l ower a nd t h inner ( 0 .88 m a s o pposed t o 1 .25 m ) t han t ha t t o t he E ., a nd i t s c oursing d oes n ot c orrespond w i th t ha t o f t he t urret.
S ince t here i s
ac hange i n o r ien ta t ion a nd t he o u t l ine o f t oo th ing l e f tb y af or mer j o in t i n t he b ack o ft he t urre t , i ti s p robable t ha t ar eturn wa l l l ed o f f f ro m i tc on t iguous w i th t he E . wa l l o f t ower B . The l a t ter s ubsequen t ly e i ther c ol lapsed o r w as d e mol ished , a nd t he d efens ive wa l l was e x tended r ound i t s S . a nd W. s ides. T h is e nclosure h as n one o f t he c harac ter ist ics o f ac om muna l p alace. I t i s i ns tead t o b e i den t if ied w ith t he r occa o r c as t le b u il t b y t he p apa l g overnmen t a f ter i th ad r ecovered Tuscan ia f ro m G iovann i d iV ico i n 1 348 ( An tonel l i Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 72 .
1 903, 3 18 n ote I ) . T h is was d amaged i n t he e arthquake o f t he f o l low ing y ear , a nd 4 00 f l or ins h ad t ob e s pen t o n r epa irs. 1 6 T ower A a nd t he a d jacen t s tructures o f t he c ommuna l p a lace w ere d emol ished t o make way f or t he c ast le. T ha t i t was b u il t o ver t he b ase o f t ower A was v ery c learly d e mons tra ted b y e xcava t ions i n 1 973. Med ieval p ot tery , i nc lud ing a rcha ic ma iol ica , f ound a ssoc ia ted w ith i t s c ons truc t ion c ou ld n ot , h owever , b e more p rec isely d a ted t han t o t he 1 3th o r 1 4th c en tury ( Andrews 19 75 ). As a n e xamp le o f m il i tary a rch itec ture , t he c ast le may n o t s ee m v ery s trong.
Y et i ti s n o l ess
s o t han many o f t he sma l l med ieval c ast les o f C en tra lI taly w h ich g enera l ly o n ly h oused a sma l lg arr ison , a nd may b e c o mpared t o t he r occa a t t he n earb y d eser ted s i te o f N orch ia , r ebu i l t o n t he o rders o f C ard ina lA lbornoz i n 1 354 ( Fabre 1 887 , 1 45 ).
Th is t oo c ons isted o f ar ec tangu lar e nc losure w ith
wa l ls a bou t 1m t h ick w i th a rrow s l i ts a t t he b ot to m o f t he m.
I t was p resumably
n o t l ong a f ter t h is t ime t ha t t he c o m muna l p alace was t ransferred t o i t s p resen t s i te f urther t o t he N ., h av ing p robably b een o us ted f ro m t he h i l l o f Mon te b y t he c ons truc t ion o ft he c ast le a nd t he monopol iza t ion o f t he s urv iv ing p a lace b y t he p odestä. To t he S . o f t he p a lace , t he t op o f t he h il l was l evel led o f f a nd i t s s ides c u tb ack v er t ica l ly a nd r eve t ted w i th a n e nc losure wa l l . T he r esu l t was a t r iangu lar-shaped c o mpound o r b a iley , af or m idable s pur p ro jec t ing s ou thwards b eyond t he t own 's d efences ( f ig. 3 .16 ).
I t i s t o t h is b a i ley t ha t , s tr ic t ly
s peak ing , t he n ame R ivel l ino r efers, s ince i t means r avel in o r o u twork . S ince t he s pur c ons ists o f s tra t if ied t u fa , t he d rast ic s carp ing h as l ed t o e ros ion a nd mos t o f t he o r ig inal b a i ley wa l l h as c ol lapsed. i th as b een e x tens ively r ebu il t i n r ubble.
On t he W. s ide
However , a s t o i t s r ela t ionsh ip
w i th t he ma in b u i ld ings a t t he R ivel l ino , i ti s e v iden t t ha t i t was i nserted i n to t he f ace o ft he t urre t , a nd b onded w ith t he l a ter W. h a lf o ft he f or t if ied e nclosure , w i th wh ich i t must b e c on te mporary. A t t he S . e nd o f t he c o mpound , t here i s al arge med ieva l t ower, n ow b arely r ecogn izable s ince i th as c ol lapsed a nd i s masked b y t he r ema ins o f a d jacen t b u ild ings o n i t s S . a nd W. s ides. I n ternal ly , t he t ower measures 3 .30 m x 2 .10 m. I t s wa l ls w ere a bou t 1 .50 m t h ick , a nd i t s g round f l oor was b arrel v aul ted.
Th is t ower mus t o rig ina l ly h ave f or med p ar t o f ap a lace c omp lex
d a t ing p robably f ro m t he 1 2th o r e arly 1 3th c en tury a nd r ough ly c on te mporary w ith t he t wo t owers, o ver t he f ounda t ions o f wh ich t he d efens ive e nc losures t o t he N . w as b u il t .
Un t i l q u i te r ecen t ly , i ts tood t o ac ons iderable h e ight .
I t i s p oss ibly t ob e i den t if ied w ith t he t orr ione o f t he p a lace o f t he p odestä , t he g round f l oor o f wh ich was f i l led u p w i th r ubble f ro m t he d emol ished c hurch o f S . S a lva tore i n 1 49 7 ( AST , C onsigl i 2 , f .67 ). Th is s ee ms t o h ave b een a n ot u nco mmon p ract ice. : a nd p resumably s erved t o s trengthen med ieva l s tructures a ga ins t a rt il lery .1 . T he t r iangu lar-headed n iches i n t he s truc tures a d jo in ing t he t ower a re a t yp ica l f ea ture o f med ieva l h ouse i n teriors, a nd were u sed a s c upboards. T hese b u ild ings may h ave j o ined u p w i th wha t was p oss ibly as econd o u ter e nce in te wa l l , t he f ounda t ions o f wh ich e x ist t o t he W. s ide o f t he h i l l ( see f i g .3.14 ).
J ust t o t he N . o ft he t ower, t here i s ap ozzo o r
f lask-shaped s torage p i t f or g ra in . On t he E . s ide o f t he p a lace where t he g round b eg ins t o d rop s teep ly t o t he r oad b elow , t here i s as quare t ower ( T25 ) o f s l ight p ro ject ion ( f ig. 3 .15 ). Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. 1 73 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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wa l ls f rom T26 t o T28.
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 74
I th as n en fro q uo ins , p oss ibly t he r esu l t o f r estorat ion , and makes a s tra ight j o in t w i th t he r est o ft he f abr ic o f t he p a lace, t hough i t s base h as t he s a me p rof ile. I n i t s o u ter f ace , t here was a sma l l r ec tangu lar w indow, s ince b locked a nd a dap ted a s an iche o r c upboard. I n i t s W. s ide t here i s ah ole w h ich f or ms t he mou th o f ac hu te c ons is t ing o f at erracotta p ipe embedded i n t he wal l t h ickness. S uch c hu tes a re u sua l ly l a tr ines, i n wh ich c ase t hey g enera l ly emp ty o u ts ide t he b u ild ing.
The c hu te must h ave b elonged , t here-
f ore, t o t he p a lace a nd i s a no ther p roof , t ogether w ith t he s tra igh t j o in t , t hat t he t ower i s l a ter t han i t . The s tructura l p hases o f t he R ivel l ino may b e s u m mar ized a s f o l lows : 1 .
T owers A a nd B , a nd t ha t a t t he e nd o f t he s pur d at ing p robably f ro m t he 1 2th c en tury . n a l p a lace.
I n t he 1 3th c entury , Aa nd B f or med p art o f t he c o m mu-
2 .
The p a lace i n t he E . h al f o f t he c o mp lex , p robably bu il t c . 1 300.
3 .
The f ort if ied e nc losure o r r occa t o t he W. o f t he p alace, b u il t f ro m 1 348.
4 .
The c ol lapse o r d e mol i t ion o f t ower B , a bove wh ich t he W. p art o f t he f or t if ied e nc losure was b u il t , t he s pur b e ing s urrounded w i th a wal l a t t he s a me t ime.
Th is mus t h ave b een c arr ied o ut i n t he s econd h al f o f
t he 1 4th c en tury , p robably n o t l ong a f ter t he i n it ial c onstruct ion o f t he r occa. Tower T 25 c an o n ly b e r ela ted t o t he p a lace, t o which i t i s l a ter. The E . s ide o ft he h i l l o f Mon te i s much t he s teepest , a nd h ere t he R ivel l ino c o m manded t he r oad wh ich l ed u p t o t he p orta d i S . L eonardo, t he ma in g a te o nt he S . s ide o f t he t own . T h is was d e mol ished i n 1 938, a nd t o j udge f ro m o ld p ho tographs, h ad b een r ebu il t i n t he 1 6th o r 1 7 th c en tury ( p la te 3 .9 ).
Beyond i t , t he c ur ta in wa l l t urned s harp ly t o t he S .E . a nd t hen
r an d ue E . a long t he S . l im i t o f t he g ardens b elong ing t o t he monastery o f S . Francesco. H ere t here a re t hree r ound t owers, T26-28 ( f ig. 3 .17 ; p la te 3 .11). One a t l eas t o f t hese was b u il t i n 1 455, a nd t hey a re s o a l ike t ha t t he o thers must b e o f much t he s a me d a te ( see below p .190).
O f t wo
sma l l s quare t owers s hown b y T urriozz i , t here i s n o l onger a ny t race. T he wal ls o f t he r ound t owers a re a bou t 1 .30 m t h ick . They h ave b a t tered b ases, a nd r ows o f t hree c ross-shaped l oopholes w ith t riangular-headed embrasures. They a l l s t il lh ave t he ir v au l ted r oofs w ith a ccess h oles a nd a re t herefore a lmost t he ir f u l lh e igh t . Th is was l i t t le i n e xcess o f t he h e igh t o ft he t own wal l , t oday i nd ica ted b y t he s car l ef t b y t he p arapet i n t he s ides o ft he t owers. T27 a nd T 28 s eem t o h ave h ad o n ly t wo f l oor l evels, t ha t a t e x ternal g round l evel w ith in t he b a t tered b ase, a nd t ha t a t t he l evel o f t he t errap ieno i ns ide t he t own . T 26 i s r a ther d if feren t , b e ing a t al ler t ower w ith t hree f l oors. Below t he t op r ow o f embrasures , t here i s a n o ffset , a nd t he s pr ing ing o f a n a rch wh ich e x tended a cross t he b ack o f t he t ower bu t wh ich i s n ow b roken t hrough . T hese f ea tures a re p uzzl ing. T hey migh t h ave s upported a f l oor, o r a l terna t ively c ou ld i nd ica te t he i n ten t ion t o e rect a v aul t a t t h is l evel . I n most c ases a t Tuscan ia , t he a rch a cross t he t op o f t he o pen g orge i s s truc tural ly s epara te t o t he v au l t wh ich r oofs t he t ower. To t he N ., T26 makes a s tra igh t j o in t w i th t he t own wa l l wh ich s ee ms t o b e e arl ier t han t he Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. 1 75 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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Tuscan ia, wa l ls a d jacent t o t he monastery o f S . Francesco .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 1 76
t ower, a nd wh ich i s a t p resen t h igher t han i t . The wa l lb etween t hese t hree t owers i s v ery b ad ly w ea thered , l argely b ecause o f t he e ar th b anked b eh ind i t . A s tream a lso s eeps o u t f ro m t he b ase o f i t , b etween T 27 a nd T 28. Wha t l i t t le r e ma ins o f i ti sd raped i n i vy . T o t he E . o f T 26, t he wa l l h as b een r e in forced b y ar ubble s k in l i ke t ha tb e tween T 21 a nd T 22.
Every y ear , a
l i t tle more o f t he s tretch b etween T 27 a nd T 28 c ol lapses. As f ar a s i ti s p oss ible t o t e l l , t he t owers were b onded a nd c on te mporary w i th t he w al l b etween t he m , a nd s ince t here a re s tra igh t j o in ts b oth t o t he N . o f T 26 a nd t o t he E . o f T 28 , i ts ee ms t ha t t hey r epresen t ar ebu ild ing o f a n e arl ier s tretch o f w al l . A t t he E . e nd o f t he monas tery g arden , t he c ur ta in wal l c urves r ound t o t he N . a nd b eg ins t he a scen t u p t o t he h i l l where t he c onven t o f S . Paolo i s s i tua ted.
Today , t h is a ngle i s u nprotec ted , b u t ap a tch marks t he p os i t ion
o f af or mer s quare t ower s hown b y T urr iozz i o n h is map o f 1 778. C lose t o t h is, t here i s a n u nusua l t urre t p erched o n t he wa l l wa lk ( f ig. 3 .18 ). Th is i s f lush w ith t he wa l l e x ternal ly , o pen a t t he b ack , a nd h as s ides w h ich a re p ro jec ted o u t o n n en fro c orbels. Doors l ed o n t o t he wa l l walk , a t t he l evel o f wh ich t here i s ap a ir o f s l i ts o ne c ourse h igh. A d iagona l s er ies o f p u t log h oles mark t he p os i t ion o f w ooden s teps u p t o t he t op where t here must h ave b een a p arapet a nd a no ther f l oor. S tructura l ly i t must h ave b een v ery p rec ar ious. I tg ave n o c over f or t he wal l , a nd i t s o n ly a dvan tage was t ha t o f h eigh t , t hough t h is was p art ia l ly e l im ina ted when t he wa l l t o t he N . w as l a ter r a ised i n t wo s tages t o t he l evel o f t he t op o f t he t urret. I t must t herefore h ave s erved p ri mar i ly f or o bserva t ion , a nd t o g ive t he d efenders o n t he wal l wa lk a r a ther more s ecure b ase f rom wh ich t o o perate t han t ha t o f fered b y t he p arapet a lone. I n t he wa l l o n t he E . s ide o f t he monastery g arden , a h igh p ropor t ion o ft he t ufa b locks a re h eaders a bou t 1 7-25 cm l ong . T o t he N . t he h eav ily b u t tressed s ide o f t he monastery o f S . F rancesco i s i ncorpora ted i n to t he wa l l ( f ig. 3 .18 ). I ti s d oubt fu l i fi to rig ina l ly f or med p art o ft he c ircu i t , a nd t here i s e v idence t o s uggest t ha t t he wa l l s k ir ted r ound t he monastery . I t makes a s tra igh t j o in t w i th t he wal l a t r ight a ngles t o i t c onnec t ing i tt o t he monastery b u ild ings , a nd t hough a f rag men t o f o r ig ina l wal l s urv iv ing t o t he W. o f t ower T 29 s ee ms t o r un i n to t he s ide o f t he mona stery , i n f ac t t here i s n o i nd ica t ion i n t he f abr ic o f t he l a t ter t ha t i te ver d id s o. T 29 ( f ig . 3 .19 ) i s at yp ica l r ound t ower wh ich c losely r ese mbles t hose i n t he g arden o f S . Francesco. I tt oo was l i tt le h igher t han t he wa l l , o n ly a bout 4 m , a nd a pparen t ly h ad n o c o mmun ica t ion w i th t he wa l l wa lk . I t i s n ow u sed a s as toreroo m ; t he o pen g orge h as b een b locked , a nd t he b ack a nd i n ter ior a re wh itewashed.
On i t s N . s ide i ti sb onded w i th t he
v ery t op o ft he w a l l a nd must t herefore b e l a ter t han i t . N o t f ar f ro m T 29 , t here i s ap a ir o f s l its t wo c ourses h igh i nt he wa l l s et 2 -3 m a bove g round l evel . i n t h is way ;
Most o f t h is s ide o f t he t own c ou ld b e d efended
t here a re f our o ther s l i ts b etween S . F rancesco a nd t he t urret
t o t he S . o f i t . T o t he N . o fT 29 t he masonry o f t he wa l l h as a p ronounced t endency t o c ons ist o f h eaders. B efore t he g round b eg ins t o r ise s teep ly u p t o t he c onven to f S . Paolo , t here i s ab locked g a teway o r p ostern ( f ig. 3 .19 ). Th is was q u ite l arge a nd wel l- made , w i th a r ound a rch a nd n en fro v ousso irs a nd j ambs.
I t s p os it ion i ns ide t he t own i s n ow o bscured b y ap ost- med ieva l
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 77
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Tuscan ia, wa l ls f rom T29 t o t he c onvent o f S . P ao lo .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 1 78
c hurch wh ich h as b een b u il t a ga ins t t he wal l . T he g a te was r educed i n s ize , a sma l ler s eg men ta l-arched o ne b e ing b u il t w ith in i t , a nd t hen e ven tua l ly b locked , p robably b efore t he e nd o f t he Midd le Ages. T he p ostern p resu mably o ccurs a t t h is p o in t t o g ive a ccess t o sma l lhold ings o u ts ide t he t own , a nd a lso t o am i l l n o t f ar a way o n t he Masch iolo.
Because o f i t s n atura l ly p rec ip i tous
p osi t ion a nd t he e xcessive s carp ing o f t he s of t s tra t if ied t u fa , t he wa l l o n t he S . s ide o f t he c onven t h as b een r epea ted ly b u t tressed a nd r ebu il t. A l i t t le o rig ina l masonry s urv ived i n t he a ngle o f t he r e-en tran t , b u t t h is h as d isapp eared d ur ing r ecen tr estora t ion. T he i nstab i l i ty o f t he wa l l , wh ich i s s urely i nadequa te f or t he q uan t ity o f e arth r eta ined b eh ind i t , was d e monstra ted d rama t ical ly i n 1 972 w hen a l arge s ec t ion o f i tc o l lapsed .
THE PRINCIPAL FEATURES
OF THE
EX IST ING WALL S
N o a t te mp t h as e ver b een made t o d a te t he e x ist ing wal ls , o r r econstruc t t he c ircu mstances i n which t hey c ame t o r ep lace t he e arl ier c ircu i t. i s n o h is tor ical d ocumen ta t ion f or t he m b efore t he 1 5th c en tury .
T here
T hey h ave
f ew p rec isely d a tab le a rch i tec tura l f ea tures, a nd a l though i n tac t f or most o f t he ir l eng th o f a bou t 2 .5 km , t he wa l ls a re s o p a tched , r epa ired a nd r ebu i l t t ha t a ny s tructura l a nalys is o f t he m i s f ar f rom s i mp le. Tu fa a sh lar i s s o e asy a ma ter ial t o w ork w i th t ha t s tructura l a l tera t ions a re o f ten a l most c o mp le tely i nv is ible. A r efac ing , f or i ns tance , c an b e v ery d i f f icu l t t o d etec t , e xcep t where , a s o n T 15, i th as p ar t ia l ly f a l len a way. Those r epa irs a nd r econstruc t ions t ha t a re o bv ious a re s o many a s t o b e b ew ildering. T he ma jor i ty o f t he m a re p ost- med ieva l .
The s urv iv ing med ieval masonry i s
f a irly h o mogenous. However , s o me a reas o f i t may b e i sola ted a s r epresen t ing p ar t icu lar b u ild ing p er iods.
On t he E . a nd N . s ides o f t he t own , f ro m T i-
T 10 , t he t ype o f s tone u sed i s e xcep t iona l ly d ark a nd g rey , a nd t he a sh lar b locks a re a lso r a ther l onger t han i s u sua l e lsewhere.
S tre tches o f wa l l
wh ich i nc lude a h igh p roport ion o f h eaders, c omparable w ith t he masonry u sed a tV i terbo i n t he l a te 1 3th a nd 1 4th c en tur ies , o ccur b etween T 19 a nd T 20 , a t t he S . E. c orner o f t he o r to o f S . F rancesco , a nd t o t he N . o f T 29 . T he t h ickness o f t he wa l l v aries , f ro m 1 .60 m o n t he E . a nd N . s ides o ft he t own , t o 1 .30 m o n t he S . s ide , a nd i s a s l i t tle a s 1 .00 m a t s o me p o in ts o n i t s W. f l ank . Th is must b e a n i nd ica t ion o f d if feren t b u ild ing p er iods. A t V i terbo a nd e lsewhere , t here i s e vidence t o s uggest t ha t wal ls b ecame s o mewha t t h inner d ur ing t he 1 3th a nd 1 4th c entur ies. I n many p ar ts o f t he c ircu i t t here a re a rrow s l i ts i n t he b ody o f t he wa l l . S o me o f t hese w ere a ccess ible f rom g round l evel , i n wh ich c ase t hey a re n ow b locked t hrough t he c rea t ion o f at errap ieno o r e arth embankmen t i ns ide t he t own . O thers , s uch a s t hose t o t he N . o f T 29 , s ee m t o h ave b een r a ised a bove g round l evel , i n wh ich c ase t here must h ave b een a p la tfor m o r l adder b enea th t he m. T he W. a nd S . s ides o f t he t own s ee m t o h ave b een s yste ma t ic a l ly e qu ipped w ith s l i ts a t r egu lar i n terva ls , t hough r ela t ively f ew h ave s urv ived s uccess ive r ebu ild ings a nd r epa irs.
They a re a l l t wo c ourses h igh ,
w i th f l a t l i n tel led embrasures. T he o n ly t hree s urv iv ing s l i ts o n t he E . s ide o f t he t own s ee m t o h ave b een t hree c ourses h igh , w i th t r iangu lar h eaded embrasures.
I n t he med ieva l f or t if ica t ions o f N . L az io , s l i ts a nd t heir
embrasures a re g eneral ly sma l l , b u t b ecause o f t he r e la t ive t h inness o f t he Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 79
wal ls, t hey d id n o t c ra mp t he move men ts o f t he a rchers , a nd p rov ided a n a dequa te a ngle o f f i re.
T hey d id n o t c hange much i n s ize d ur ing t he Midd le
Ages a nd a c as tle , s uch a s t ha t a t N orch ia , may h ave s l i ts o f v ary ing s ize. However , t he n or mal way o f mak ing t he t op o f t he embrasure was b y p lac ing t wo a sh lars t oge ther t r iangu lar ly . T h is p rac t ice g oes b ack a t l east t o t he t rad it ions o f r o manesque a rch i tec ture , i n wh ich t r iangu larly s e t s tones w ere q u ite of ten u sed a s r el iev ing a rches a bove l i n tels. s ee m t o h ave b een a r ela t ively l a te i nnova t ion .
F la ttopped embrasures
A t V i terbo , f or i ns tance ,
t hey f i rst a ppear i n t he p or ta Bove b u il t i n 1 255, a nd i n t he t orre d e l la Ga l l iana a nd o ther p ar ts o f t he wal ls b u i l t i n t he 1 290 's. T ha t t h is t ype o f embrasure n ever b eca me s tandard i s s hown b y t he f ac t t ha t t hose i n t he R ivel l ino a re t r iangu lar-headed. S l i ts i n d efens ive wa l ls a re k nown f ro m a t l east t he 1 2th c en tury , b u t a re a t yp ica l f ea ture o f c ircu i ts d a t ing f ro m t he l a te 1 3th a nd e arly 1 4th c en turies, s uch a s t hose a t Gubb io, A ss isi a nd S poleto. I n c ases where t hey a re r a ised a bove g round l evel , t he embrasures s o me t i mes p res erve b ea m h oles b elow t he m f or a p la tfor m. I n many p laces a t Tuscan ia , a wal l walk s t il l s urv ives. Or ig ina l ly i t wou ld h ave e x tended f or t he f u l l l ength o f t he c ircu i t. F or t he most p art , i t was n ot i n terrupted b y t he t owers, u sua l ly b e ing c arr ied b eh ind t he o pen g orges o n a rches. I n t he c ase o f t hose t owers a dded t o t he wa l ls i n s uch a way t ha t t he ir s ides p ro jec t b ack f or t he f u l l w id th t o t he t own wa l l , d oors h ave b een p rov ided f or t he t own wa l l t o p ass t hrough t he m. T he o n ly p o in t w here t he wa l l walk was c learly n o t c on t inuous was a t t he p orta d i Mon tasc ide , wh ich h as a d oor o n ly i n i t s E . s ide. T he wal l walk was p rotec ted b y ap arape t a nd merlons, b o th o f wh ich were a bou t f our c ourses h igh. Mos t o ft he merlons h ave b een r es tored , b u t t he f orked o nes o f t he t ype k nown a s g h ibel l ine o n t he f ort if ied e nc losure o ft he R ivel l ino , a nd p erhaps a lso t hose o ft ower T 12, may b e o r ig ina l .
The o r ig in a nd s ign if icance o fg h ibel l ine merlons i s o bscure.
They w ere c o m mon f ro m t he 1 3th c en tury . The ir o ccurrence o n f or t if ica t ions e i ther b u il tb y t he p apacy o r i t s s upporters s hows t ha t t hey d id n o t a ccura tely r ef lec t p ol i t ica l l oya l t ies. T he g h ibel l ine merlons o n t he f ort if ied e nc losure o f t he R ivel l ino h ave s tone h ooks i n t he midd le o ft he m. T hese s upported wooden f l aps o r s hu t ters w h ich p rotected t he embrasures b e tween t he mer lons. E lsewhere , s uch a s o nT 12, t he merlons h ave p a irs o f s tone h ooks w h ich s erved t he s a me p urpose.
The merlons o n t he l a ter W. p ar t o f t he R ive l l ino
e nclosure h ave s l its i n t he m , a s d o s o me o f t hose o n t he wal ls o n t he N . s ide o ft he t own .
C renel la t ions r e ta ined t hese f ea tures r igh t u n t i l t he e nd
o f t he Midd le Ages.
T he f ew s urv iv ing merlons o n t he p orta B ove a tV i terbo ,
a nd many o f t hose o n t he E . s ide o f t hat t own , a l l o f wh ich w ere r estored i n t he m id-15th c en tury ( Ciamp i 1 872, 6 6 ), h ave s l i ts w i th p a irs o f h ooks a bove t he m . A t t he b ot to m o f t he p arape t o n t he R ivel l ino , t here i s ar ow o fb eam h oles w h ich p ass t hrough i t s e n t ire t h ickness. S uch h oles a re a n a l mos t u n iversa l f ea ture o f t he p arapets o f t he med ieval f or t if ica t ions o f L az io.
I t
i s d if f icu l t t o k now j ust h ow t hey w ere u sed. They m igh t h ave b een f or t he a t tach men t o f wooden h oard ing p ro jec t ing 'f ro m t he b a t t le men ts t o p rov ide a v an tage p o in t f ro m wh ich t he b o tto m o f t he wal l c ou ld b e d efended ;
o r e lse
b ea ms i nserted i n to t he m may h ave s upported a p la tform wh ich s erved t o w iden t he wa l l wa lk .
T h is w ou ld o therw ise h ave o n ly b een a bou t 0 .60-1.20 m
w ide , q u i te s u f f ic ien t t o wa lk a long ,. bu t h ard ly e nough t o p erfor m a ny c o mp l ica ted manoeuvres. Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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The wa l ls o f Tuscan ia h ad a t l east 2 9 t owers, o f wh ich t hree ( T16, T 17 a nd T 20 ) a re n o l onger r epresen ted b y a ny v ery c onsp icuous r e ma ins , a nd a no ther t hree ( T2, T 9 a nd T 14 ) h ave r ecen t ly b een c o mp letely r ebu il t. T hey a re a l l o pen g orge, a s i s t rue o f most o f t he t owers o n t he wal ls o f I t al ian t owns f ro m t he f i rst h a lf o ft he 1 3th c en tury.
The d is tance b e tween t he
t owers v ary f ro m 2 3-56 m i n l ength , a verag ing a bou t 4 0 m. The ir o ccurrence a t s uch f requen t i n terva ls was a l a ter d evelopmen t , f or mos t o f t he m c an b e s hown t o h ave b een a dded t o t he wal ls. I n many c ases, t h is i s q u i te u nders tandable. A l l t he e leven r ound t owers, f or i nstance , w ere b u il t i nt he 1 5th c en tury , a s s hal lb e s een ( p . 1 88-94 ) , a nd s o v ery p robably were t he t wo p en tagona l o nes a nd s o me o ft he s quare o nes. T he s quare t owers may b e d iv ided i n to t wo ma in t ypes, e arly a nd l a te. The e arly o nes a re p la in , 6 .50-7 .50 m w ide a nd h ave s l its t wo c ourses h igh , u sua l ly a p a ir o ft he m i nt heir o u ter f ace. I n t hese r espec ts , t hey r esemble t he 1 2th a nd 1 3th c en tury t owers a t V iterbo. T he l a ter o nes a re sma l ler, 5 -6 m w ide.
T hey a re a lso c learly r ecogn izable b y f ea tures s uch a s b a t ters
w i th r o l l mou ld ings a bove t he m , a nd l oopholes, d a table t o t he l a te 1 4th o r 1 5th c en turies. 1 8 T he wa l ls were a lso e qu ipped w ith s evera l t urre ts , n amely t ha t c orbel led o u t f ro m t he b ack o f t he m n ear S . F rancesco , a nd t he t owerl ike p ro jec t ions a t t he R ivel l ino a nd b etween T9 a nd T 10. T hey a re n oteworthy , f or f ew s urv ive e lsewhere i n I ta ly , t hough e xa mp les s im ilar t o t ha t a t S . Francesco c an b e s een o n t he wa l ls o f L a S pez ia , Ass is i a nd G ubb io. There i s v ery l i t t le d ocu men ta t ion f or t he e x istence o fo u ter d efences a t Tuscan ia , whether d i tches, wal ls o r p al isades. There was a n a r t if ic ia l d i tch a long t he N . s ide o ft he t own , wh ilst t he E . a nd W. s ides w ere f l anked b y s trea ms. However , e xcep t p oss ibly i n t he v ic in i ty o f S . Mar ia d el la Rosa , t here s ee ms n o t t o h ave b een a no uter l i ne o f wa l ls o r b arbacan i s uch a s e x isted a t V i terbo f ro m a t l east t he e arly 1 3th c en tury ( Ciamp i 1 872, 1 7 , 5 22, 5 48;
ACV, p erg.
1 088 ).
The s urv iv ing t own wa l ls may n ot s ee m v ery
massive , b u t w i th r egard t o t he ir t h ickness a nd o ther f ea tures , t hey a re t yp ica l o f I t al ian med ieva l f or t if ica t ions. A l though i t was p oss ible t o p rov ide f i re f ro m t he s l i ts i n t he b ody o ft he wa l ls, t he d efence s ee ms t o h ave b een c oncen tra ted a t t he l evel o f t he wa l l wa lk a nd t he t ops o f t he t owers . 1 9 On ly f ro m h ere was i tp oss ible t o o bta in a f ul l f i eld o f v iew o f wha t was g o ing o no u tside t he t own , a nd p rov ide c over ing f i re i n a l l d irec t ions. The t urrets w h ich were n ot i n t he mselves r obust e nough t o a dd g rea tly t o t he s treng th o f t he wal ls , p rov ided e x tra p ro tec t ion f or t hose o n t he wal l wa lk a nd t hose d o ing g uard d u ty. T he t owers were t he o n ly p o in ts where f i repower c ou ld b e c oncen tra ted a nd f l ank ing f i re p rov ided a long t he f ace o f t he wal l , a nd o n ly a t t heir s umm i ts c ou ld e ng ines s uch a s mangonels o r l arge c rossbows b e moun ted. THE TOPOGRAPHY OF THE LATER MED IEVAL TO WN T he c hronology o f t he c ons truc t ion o f t he t own wa l ls i s i nseparable f ro m t he p roble m o f w hen a nd w hy t he S . p ar t o f t he t own w i th i t s c en tre a t S . P ie tro was a bandoned , a nd t he p resen t s i te c a me t o b e b u il t u p . T here i s l i t t le e v idence t ha t t he e x ist ing c en tro s tor ico was i nhabi ted i n t he 1 2th c ent ury o r e arl ier.
N o o ccupa t ion d eposi ts o f t ha t p er iod h ave b een d iscovered
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 81
i nt he c ourse o f e xcava t ions , a nd o n ly a v ery l i t t le r ed-pa in ted p o t tery h as b een f ound ( Andrews 1 975;
J ohns 1 973 , 5 5 ) .
S o me o f t he t owers might d a te
f ro m t he 1 2th c en tury , b u t t he ma jori ty o f t he m a re o f al a te t ype w ith p o in ted a rched d oors a nd o f ten w i th f acades i n n en fro a sh lar d es igned t o f i t i n to a s tree t f ron tage. " They p robably d ate t o t he f i rs t h a l f o f t he 1 3th c en tury , a nd a re c er ta in ly n ot a s o ld a s t he t owers a t S . P ietro a nd t he R ivel l ino. However , t here a re many s urv iv ing 1 3th c en tury b u ild ings . 2 1
T he g rea tes t
c oncen tra t ion o ft hese i s t o b e f ound o n t he S . s ide o ft he t own i n t he v ic in i ty o ft he p a lazzo c o munale a nd S ette Carnel le. They i nd ica te n a tura l e xpans ion t o t he N . f ro m t he h il l o f t he R ive l l ino i n to what b eca me t he most impor tan t p ar t o f t he l a ter med ieva l t own , t he c en tre o f t he c o mmuna l a dm in istra t ion a nd t he h ub o f i t s c o m merc ial l i fe , most o f t he markets b e ing s i tua ted t here. Tha t s o much med ieva l a rch itec ture i s p reserved t here i s a lso t he r esu l t o f t he a rea b eco m ing u nfash ionable a f ter t he e nd o f t he Midd le Ages , s o t ha t i t e scaped r ebu i ld ing. Further t o t he N ., 1 3th -cen tury h ouses a re t o b e f ound i n v ia d el la L upa , v ia d el Turco, v ia d el la Rocca , v ia O berdan a nd a t t he f ar e nd o f v ia Cavour n ear t he p orta d i Mon tasc ide. I ti s c lear t ha t t he d istr ict o f Pogg io , c o mpr ising t he W. h a l f o f t he t own where t he f inest e xamp les o f 1 6th- a nd 1 7th-cen tury a rch itecture a re s i tuated , a nd w h ich b ecause o fi t s r ect i l inear s treet p at tern i s s o met i mes t hought t o h ave b een l a id o u t i n t he R ena issance ( P ierdo men ico 1 972 , 6 9 ) , was i n f act e x tens ive ly b u i lt u p b y t he e nd o f t he 1 3th c en tury . T here a re n o r ecogn izab le h ouses o f t he s a me p er iod i n t he E . p ar t o f t he t own , t hough b eneath t he modern p laster i tc an b e s een t hat t he f abr ic o f many b u i ld ings i s med ieva l .
T h is i s p robab ly b ecause i ts ee ms
t o h ave b een a r e lat ively p oor a rea i nhab i ted ma in ly b y c on tad in i o r sma l lh olders , w hose r ela t ively modest d wel l ings h ave s ince b een much r ebu il t a nd a l tered .
However , t he monaster ies o f S . Paölo a nd S . F rancesco b oth d a te
b ack t o t he s econd h a l f o f t he 1 3th c en tury. c onstruc t ion i n 1 268 ( ACV, p erg. 4 047 ).
T he f i rst was a pparen t ly u nder
S . F rancesco was i n it ial ly s i tua ted
o u ts ide t he t own , b u t i n 1 281 t he monks moved t o t he p resen t s ide b ecause o f t he u nhea l th iness o f t he o rig ina l l oca l ity ( Turr iozz i 1 778 , 1 4 ).
Ano ther
f ac t i nd ica t ive o f when t he c en tro s tor ico c ame t ob e i nhabi ted i s t ha t t he p ar ish c hurches o f S . Mar ia , S . S i lvestro a nd S . B iag io d a te f ro m t he e nd o f t he 1 3th o r t he f i rst h al fo ft he 1 4th c en tury.
T hey a re a l l o ft he s ame
t ype, w i th a s ingle n ave u sual ly s panned b y p o in ted d iaphrag m a rches s uppor ti ng t he r oof . T here i s i nsuf f ic ien t h istor ical d ocumen ta t ion t o make i tp oss ible t o c hron icle i n d eta il t he d evelopmen t o f t he t own o n i t s p resen t s i te. The Arch iv io s tor ico o f Tuscan ia c on ta ins j ust u nder 2 00 p arch men ts f or t he p er iod 1 223-1400 , t he ma jor ity o f t he m f or t he 1 4th c en tury , a nd t hey a re n ot r ich i n t opograph ical i n for ma t ion . T hey d o , h owever, make i tc lear t ha t b y t he l a te 1 3th a nd e arly 1 4th c en tur ies, t he e x ist ing c en tro s tor ico h ad a ssumed s ubstan t ial ly i t s p resen t f or m. Fro m 1 280 t here a re r eferences t o t he c on tra te o f Mon tasc in i , C ava l l ion is a nd R iusce l l i ( Turriozz i 1 778 , 1 3 ). V ia S . Pel legr ino a ppears i n ad ocumen t o f 1 326, a nd v ia d el T urco a nd v ia S . B iag io i n P ogg io a re men t ioned i n o thers o f 1 331 a nd 1 340 r espec t ively . Ah ighly t an ta l iz ing d ocu men t a lso o f 1 340 r ecords t he s a le o f a n o rto s i tua ted c lose t o t he t own wa l ls i n c on tra ta b urg i n ov i ( AST , p erg. 8 0 ).
N o i nd ica t ion
i s g iven a s t o where t he s tree t was, b u t i tw as v ery p robably i n P ogg io. Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 . 82
T he
s ale was e nac ted n ear t he c hurch o f S . B iag io , wh ich i s i n Pogg io n ex t t o t he t own wa l ls , t hough t h is f ac t n eed n o t o f c ourse b e o f a ny s ign if icance.
I f
Pogg io was i ndeed t he b orgo n uovo , t hen t h is may e xp la in i t s r egu lar s treet p a t tern , f or a t V i terbo t he s uburbs o f P ian S carano a nd P iano S . Faust ino were l a id o u t i n t he l a te 1 2th a nd e arly 1 3th c en tur ies o n ag r id p lan ( c f . C ia mp i 1 872, 8 , 1 4 ). b y 1 340.
I t wou ld a lso s how t ha t Pogg io was e nc losed b y wa l ls
On ly c ircums tan t ia l e v idence c an b e a dduced t o e xp la in a nd d a te t he d eser t ion o f t he S . p ar t o f t he t own . I tt ook p lace a ga inst ab ackground o f a cu te e cono m ic a nd p ol i t ical d ec l ine. By t he l a ter 1 3th c en tury i ts ee ms t o h ave b een w idely a cknowledged t ha t Tuscan ia was i mpover ished. T hus w hen i n 1 265 C le men t I V a polog ized t o Charles o f An jou f or t he f a ilure o f t he t owns o f t he P a tr i mony t o c on tr ibu te t o h is S ic il ian e xped i t ion , h e e xcused Tuscan ia b y r eason o f i t s p overty .2 2
I n 1 297 Tuscan ia , l i ke many o ther t owns i n t he
p apa l s ta te , h ad made Bon iface V I I I i t s p odestä . Three y ears l a ter, h owever, i tf el l v ic t im t o t he ambi t ion o f t he c i ty o f Ro me , wh ich Bon iface was e ager t o a ppease t o f urther h is c o mp lex d ip lo macy . I t was c ap tured b y t he Ro man a r my a nd h ad t o s ub m i t t o h arsh c ond it ions r ecorded i n a n i nscrip t ion a t t he Ca mp idogl io ( Turr iozz i 1 778 , 1 4-15;
An tonel l i 1 895, 4 54 ).
T he t own l ost
a l l s elf-governmen t , a nd was t o b e r uled f ro m Ro me, t o wh ich i t was t o p ay a n a nnua l t r ibu te o f2 000 r ubb ia o fg ra in . E qua l ly h um il ia t ing was t he r e mova l t o Ro me o f t he b el lo f t he p a lazzo c o muna le a nd t he g a tes o f t he t own , a nd t he o bl iga t ion t o s end e igh teen men ay ear t o t ake p ar t i n t he g a mes h eld a t T estacc io. Ano ther p robable s y mp to m o f t he t own 's d ec l ine was t ha t f ro m a bou t t h is t ime i tb egan t o b e k nown b y t he d im inu t ive Toscanel la . A l though Ca mpanar i s a id t ha tt h is was o ne o f t he t er ms i mposed u pon i tb y Ro me, t he t own b e ing g iven t h is n a me i n t he c on te mporary i nscr ip t ion , t here a re s evera l i nstances o f i tb e ing r eferred t o i n t h is way i n d ocu men ts o f t he f i nal d ecades o f t he 1 3th c en tury ( e .g. P inz i 1 899 , 4 1 ). Throughou t E urope , t he 1 4th c en tury was a t ime o f e cono m ic d epress ion wh ich i n t he Papa l S ta te was a ggrava ted b y t he a narchy wh ich p reva i led a s a r esul t o ft he a bsence o ft he p opes a t Av ignon .
I n 1 339 t here were s tor ms a nd
f l ood ing i n N . L az io , a nd p r ices r ose b ecause o f p oor h arvests ( Campanari 1 856, I , 2 21 ), T o t he p lague o f 1 348 , i n wh ich a ccord ing t o ac on te mpory V i terbese t woth irds o f t he p opu la t ion d ied ( S ignorel l i 1 907 , 3 64, n o tes ), was a dded t he f urther d isaster o f as er ious e ar thquake i n 1 349 ( Ciamp i 1 872, 3 4 ). T ax r eturns o f t he f i rst h al fo f t he c en tury s how t ha t Tuscan ia was a ssessed f or h alf a s much a s V i terbo a nd C orneto-Tarqu in ia ( S ignorel l i 1 907 , 3 04 n ote 2 8 , 3 53 n o te 3 4 ).
When i n 1 357 t he b ishop o fV i terbo t r ied t o r ev ise t he a l l i-
b ra to o r a ssess men t o n t he b as is o f wh ich t he c lergy p a id t axes t o t he Apostol ic Ca mera , t he c lergy o f T uscan ia d e manded a r eba te b ecause wha t t hey were r equ ired t o p ay d id n o t c orrespond t o t he ir c hanged c ircu mstances.
I n t he
t err i tory o f t he f or mer d iocese , t here w ere 2 1 c hurches wh ich n o l onger y ielded a ny i nco me e i ther b ecause o fd epopula t ion o r b ecause t hey h ad b een u surped b y l ocal s ignor i. 23 Th is s hows t ha t a gr icu l ture , t he ma ins tay o f t he l oca l e cono my , c an h ard ly h ave b een f l our ish ing , a s i s o n ly t o b e e xpec ted i n ap er iod when warfare was e ndem ic. T he Roman d om inance o ver T uscan ia was d ispu ted b y t he p opes.
T owards t he m idd le o f t he c en tury , t he t own f el l
i n to t he h and o fv ar ious s ignor i , d esp i te t he e f forts o f t he p apacy t o r eta in Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 83
c on trol o f i t .
I n 1 354 Ar oornoz r ecovered Tuscan ia f ro m G iovann i d i V ico ,
b u t t he d i V ico f am ily l a ter r ecap tured i ta nd h eld i tc on t inuously f ro m 1 3869 6. T he a rch ives o f T uscan ia p rov ide s o me c lues a s t o t he c hronology o f t he a bandonmen t o ft he S . p ar t o f t he t own .
I n t wo s urv iv ing f rag men ts o f r ecords
o f c ounc i l mee t ings f or 1 278 a nd 1 297 , t he t own i s s a id t o b e d ivided i n to q uar t ier i ( AST , p erg. 2 9 ;
Ca mpanar i 1 856, I , 1 81-86 ).
h owever , t he t own was d iv ided i n to t erz ier i , n amely Pod i i l oru m .
B y t he 1 5th c en tury Val l is a nd C astel-
Pod i i i s p la in ly t o b e e qua ted w i th Pogg io a nd Va l l is w i th t he S e t te
Cannel le d istric t a nd t he a rea b elow t he R ive' l ino .
Castel loru m wh ich i n
t he m iddle o f t he c en tury was s o met i mes a lso k nown a s Mon tass id i o r Mon t iu m ( e .g. AST , C ons igl i 1 , f .113, 1 62 ) may b e i den t i f ied w ith t he h igher E . p art o f t he t own c o mpr is ing w ha t G iannot t i c a l ls t he h i l ls o f Mon tasc ide , S an Pel legr ino, Cava l ione a nd G iove.
Another t erz iere n a me s o met i mes t o b e
f ound i s Med i i , wh ich i s p robably t he s ame a s Va l l is ( c f . AST , S ta tu t i I V, f . 2 4 ).
Tha t t he m iss ing q uar t iere was k nown a s C iv i ta a nd c orresponds w ith
t he S . p ar t o f t he t own i s d e monstra ted b y ar ubr ic i n t he S ta tu tes g ran t ing c o m merc ia lb enef its t o t hose l i v ing a f on te l eon is ( j ust o u ts ide t he p or ta S . L eonardo ) U l tra s icu t j am a n t iqu i tus f u i t q uar t ier ius c iv ite ( AST, S ta tu t i W, f .35 ).
I t must h ave b een d eser ted b y t he e arly 1 5th c en tury :
t he S ta tu tes
a re f i rs t r ecorded i n t he l a te 1 3th c en tury , b u t t he e x ist ing c ol lec t ion was made i n a bou t 1 422, t hough c on ta in ing r ubr ics t ha t d a te f ro m b efore t ha t t ime. 2 4 I t c on ta ins much e v idence f or d ec l in ing p opu la t ion a nd a c on tract ing a rea o f s e t tle men t .
E xe mp t ions f ro m t axes a nd f ro m c er ta in c iv ic d u t ies were o f fered
t o e ncourage p eop le t o g o a nd l i ve i n p lano c iv i te ( AST, S ta tu t i I V, f .68 ). Tha t t h is a rea was f ar f ro m f l our ish ing i s s hown b y as ta tu te a l low ing t he g raz ing o f p igs i n p iano c iv i ta te e t a d muru m r up tu m ( AST , S ta tu t i I V, f .30 ), t hough l a ter i n 1 453 t h is was p roh ibi ted. 2 5
Pr iv ileges were a lso e x tended
t o p eop le l i v ing i n o ther d epressed p ar ts o f t he t own , n a mely c on tra ta merca t i , c on tra ta v a l l is s anc t i c le men t is, a nd c on tra ta p layaru m ( AST , S ta tu t i I V, f . 6 7-69 ).
These s tree ts c anno t b e i den t if ied w ith p rec ision , b ut c on tra ta
merca t i a nd c on tra ta v a l l is s anc t i C le men t is w ere t o t he S . o f t he p a lazzo c o munale, p erhaps i n t he n ow l argely u noccup ied a rea b e tween i ta nd t he R ivel l ino , o r o u ts ide t he modern t own a l together . 2 6 A t er m inus a n te q ue m f or t he r educ t ion o f Tuscan ia t o t hree t erz ieri i s p rov ided b y ad eed o f s a le o f 1 334 c oncern ing p roperty i n v ia d el Turco i n c iv ita te t uscana i n t erziero p od i i ( AST , p erg. 6 8 ).
The l a t ter was p resu mably
Pogg io , t hough t he q ua l if ica t ion i s a n e xcep t iona l o ne.
The f or ma l a bandon-
men t o f t he S . p ar t o f t he t own may t herefore b e d a ted b e tween 1 297 , t he l ast k nown r eference t o q uar t ier i i , a nd 1 354.
By t he m id-15th c en tury t here c an
b e n o d oubt t ha t t h is a rea was n o t merely d epressed , b u t a l most c o mp letely a bandoned.
There a re e xp l ic i t r eferences i n n otar ia l d ocu men ts o ft h is
p er iod t o t he e x istence o f ac iv i tas d es tructa ( c f . L u t trel l 1 973 ).
For i nstance ,
a n i nven tory o f 1 460 l i s ts, amongst o ther i t e ms o f p roperty , ap ect iu m c anec t i s i tu m i n v a l le s anc te Mar ie Ma ioris i ux ta r em e cc les ie s anc te Mar ie , r ivu m b u t inal is e t i ux ta men ia c iv ita t is d estruc ta ( ANT 2 6, f . 2 45v ).
Th is c learly
a l ludes t o t he s urv iv ing s tretch o f t he o ld wa l ls a t t he c onf luence o f t he f ossa d i S et te Cannel le w ith t he F ossacc io , a n a rea wh ich i n t he 1 6th c en tury was k nown s uggest ively a s Murrot to ( Giannot t i 1 969 , 2 4 ), a nd wh ich t oday s t il l o v erDavid grow n w ithMedieval r eedLazio: s. Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. Andrews, David, i John s Osborne, and Whitehouse. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 1 84
THE CHANG ING PERIMETER OF THE TOWN WALLS T he wa l ls s ee m t o h ave r esponded t o t he t opograph ical c hanges d escr ibed a bove w i th r emarkable e last ic i ty. T he wal l ing o f at own c ou ld b e a most p iece meal a f fa ir . A tV i terbo , f or i nstance, t here a re f our ma in p hases o f wa l lb u ild ing o ver a p er iod c . 100-1300 . T he wa l ls o f Tuscan ia a re n o t s o e asy t o a na lyse.
However , d esp ite t he p overty o f t he h istor ica l s ources a nd
t he d i f f icu l ty o f s truc tura l a nalys is , as er ies o f s tages i n t he d evelopmen t o f t he p resen t c ircu i t may b e p roposed. A ssu m ing C a mpanar i t o b e c orrec t , a nd t ha t t he e ar ly wa l ls i nc luded t he S . p ar t o f t he c en tro s torico , t hen t he n ex t d evelopmen t wou ld h ave b een t he e nclos ing o ft he E . s ide o f t he t own . The masonry i n t he s tretch f ro m T 1 t o t he p orta d i Mon tasc ide l ooks a s i fi ti s t he o ldes t i n t he e n t ire c ircu i t , t he b locks b e ing l arge a nd r ec tangu lar , a nd t he s tone u nusual ly d ark a nd g rey ish.
T h is p ar t o f t he wal ls i s a lso t he t h ickest , a nd i s p rov ided w ith a t
l east f our o ft he e arly t ype o f s quare t owers.
A t t he p or ta d i Mon tasc ide , i t
i s j ust p oss ible t ha t t hey t urned a nd f o l lowed t he l i ne o f as tream wh ich j o ins u p w ith t he f ossa d i S et te Cannel le. I t s c ourse i s marked t oday b y t he v ia d el R iuscel lo , a nd i s s t il l r ecogn izable a s q u i te a d eep v a l ley c u t t hrough t he midd le o f t he t own . These wal ls must h ave b een b u i l tb y t he s econd h alf o f t he 1 3th c en tury when , a s h as b een s een , t here i s much e v idence t ha t t h is p art o f t he t own was i nhabi ted. T hey a re e arl ier t han 1 281, when t he monastery o f S . F rancesco was moved f ro m o u ts ide t he t own t o i t s p resen t s i te. I n 1 283 a nd 1 284 t he c hurch o f S . Dona to a cqu ired s evera l p ieces o f l and o u ts ide t he t own a d jacen t t o t he wal ls a nd c lose t o t he c hurch i t sel f ( Turriozz i 1 778 , 6 ). S . Dona to h as d isappeared , b u t Campanar i ( 1856, I , 8 9 ) t hough t i t was s i tua ted o n t he s ame s i te a s S . Mar ia d el R iposo. I fs o , t hen t h is i s f urther p roof t ha t t he wal ls r ound t he E . p ar t o f t he t own e x isted b efore t ha t t ime. Assu m ing t he i den t if ica t ion o f Pogg io a s t he b orgo n uovo t o b e c orrec t , t hen i t s w a l ls mus tb e l a ter t han t hose r ound t he E . h al f o f t he t own , t hough , a s h as b een s een , t hey e x isted b y 1 340 . A l though t hey t oo a re e qu ipped w ith e arly s quare t owers ( T14, T 19 a nd T 20 ), t hese c ou ld j ust a s e as ily d a te f ro m t he f i rs t h a l fo ft he 1 4th c en tury a s f ro m t he 1 3th.
The wal ls h ere a re
t h inner , a nd s eem t o h ave b een e qu ipped a t r egu lar i n terva ls w i th a rrow s l its t wo c ourses h igh w i th f l a t-l in tel led embrasures. T he ir masonry d oes n ot l ook a s o ld a nd a t l eas t o ne p o in t , b e tween T 19 a nd T 20 , i ti s o f t he h eader t ype, c urren t a t Vi t erbo f ro m t he l a ter 1 3th c en tury a nd t hroughou t t he 1 4th. E xcava t ion h ere i n 1 972 r evea led t ha t when t he wa l l was b u il t , p re-ex ist ing s tructures w ere c u t t hrough. T he mou th o f ap ozzo o r s torage p i t wh ich h ad b een f i l led u p w i th e ar th a nd o ther d ebr is was a l mos t s ealed b y t he wa l l . T he p ot tery f ro m i th as b een d a ted t o a bou t t he m id-14th c en tury ( Johns 1 973 , 7 2 ). However , i ts hou ld b e b orne i n mind t ha t t he e x ist ing wa l l may b e a r ebu ild o f a n e arl ier o ne , made n ecessary b y t he e ros ion o f t he c l if fs. The f rag men ts o f masonry i n t he f i elds b elow T 21 s uggest t hat t he wa l ls o n t he E ., N . a nd W. s ides o f t he t own were o nce c on t inuous w i th t he o ld c ircu i t , s o t ha t , i fo n ly b rief ly , t he t own e x tended f ro m i t s p resen t p os it ion d own t o t he Mar ta .
On ly a p art o f t h is n eed h ave b een b u il t u p .
Med ieva l
t owns c o mmon ly o ver-ex tended t he mselves, a nd t oday a t Vi t erbo , Tarqu in ia , S iena a nd e lsewhere, t here a re s t il l smal lhold ings a nd waste l and w ith in t he Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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wa l ls. The r easons f or t h is a re v ar ious. I t was c onven ien t t o h ave v ege table g ardens a nd g raz ing c lose t o h and a nd s ecure f ro m e ne my a t tack . S o me t imes a s w ith P iano S carano a t V i terbo ( Ciamp i 1 872, 3 18-20 ), a reas w ere a cqu ired f or i nclus ion w ith in t he t own i n a n t ic ipa t ion t ha t p eop le w ou ld c o me a nd l i ve t here.
F ur ther more , t he i n it ia l e xpans ion n or thwards b eyond t he h il l o ft he
R ivel l ino n eed n o t h ave b een b rough t a bout s i mp ly b y o vercrowd ing a nd s hortage o f s pace i n t he ma in p art o f t he t own . There c ould h ave b een p ol it ica l a nd s oc ia l f ac tors a t w ork t oo. The b ishop may w el l h ave a cqu ired much o f t he s um m i t o f t he h i l l o f S . P ie tro , s o t ha t i tc eased t ob e a n i mportan t r es iden t ial a rea. A f ter t he t ransfer o f t he s ee t o V i terbo , t here were o f ten p er iods when r ela t ions b e tween h im a nd t he t own w ere h ost ile. I t i s p robable t ha t s o me o f t he f eud ing c onsorter ie o r f am ily g roups e stabl ished s el f-con ta ined , s em i-fort if ied q uar ters f or t he mselves a t t he p er iphery o f t he t own w here t i ler t here was p len ty o f s pace, c aus ing i tt o s pread n orthwards. E xa mp les o f t hese a re t he t owers a nd p a laces o f t he C igl ion i i nv ia d el R ivel l ino, a nd o f t he G iovannet t i i n P ogg io. The t orre d i L avel lo i n o r ig in i s a med ieva l t ower , a nd must a lso h ave b een s urrounded b y t he p a laces o f ac onsor ter ia . Thus t he a pparen t ly v ery l arge a rea o f t he t own n eed n ot b e a n a ccura te r ef lec t ion o fd e mograph ic p ressure , o r h ave b een d ensely i nhabited. A t T uscan ia , t he l ess p opu lous a reas w ith in t he wa l ls w ere a bandoned , a nd t here was a w ithdrawa l t o t he l i ne o f o p t i mum d efence.
T h is was a ch ieved
s i mp ly b y d raw ing a l i ne a cross t he m idd le o f t he t own , e xc lud ing t he S . h a lf . Tha t t he R ivel l ino s hou ld h ave b een c hosen a s t he s i te f or a c astle i n 1 348 p rov ides s ome d a t ing e vidence f or t h is p rocess, t hough i ti su nclear w he ther t he c ircu it h ad a lready b een r educed i n s ize, o r w he ther t h is t ook p lace a t t he s me t ime a s t he c astle was b u il t. Urban c ast les were g eneral ly s i tua ted a t ap o in t o n t he e dge o f t he t own where t hey c ou ld b o th d om ina te i ta nd h ave a ccess t o t he c oun try o u ts ide. I n i t ia l ly , t he wa l ls o n t he S . s ide o f t he t own d id n o t f ol low t he ir p resen t c ourse.
The r e-en tran t a t t he S .W . c orner o f
t he t own s ee ms n ot t o h ave e x isted , f or t he wa l l r ound i td a tes f ro m t he e arly 1 5th c en tury o r l a ter ( see p . 1 87 , 1 93 ) . I nstead , t he wa l l p robably r an f ro m CA2 d irec t ly t o t he R ivel l ino , a l igned o n a pprox ima tely t he o r ien ta t ion o f t ha tb e tween t he c ast le a nd T 24. Un l ike t he wa l l r ound t he r e-en tran t , t h is s tretch l ooks med ieva l , b e ing a p la in c ur ta in w i th n o e arth b anked b eh ind i t , s l i ts a t t he b o t to m o f i t , a nd a p ostern. The t he E . o f t he R ivell ino , t he wa l l r an i n a dvance o f t owers T 26-T28 , wh ich were b u il t i n t he m id-15th c en tury. T he o r ien ta t ion o f as tre tch o fh eader masonry a t t he S .F . c orner o ft he o r to o f S . F rancesco s uggests t ha t t he wal l may h ave p roceeded t hence t ot ower T i.
I f s o , h owever , t hen t he c ircu i t was s oon a l tered , f or t he r e-en tran t
b e tween t he monaster ies o f S . Francesco a nd S . P aolo h ad b een c rea ted b efore t he 1 5th c en tury. The t urret a t t he E . s ide o f t he o r to o f S . F rancesco c annot b e a s l a te a s t ha t i n d a te, wh i lst t he wa l l t o t he N . o f T 29 i s o f h eader masonry w i th s l its a nd a p ostern . THE RECONSTRUCT ION OF THE WALLS ATTRIBUTABLE TO TARTAGL IA T he r e-en tran t a t t he S .W . 'c orner o f t he t own was p robably t he w ork o f t he c ondo t t iere Angelo Brogl io d a L avel lo , k nown a s T ar tagl ia . H e r uled Tuscan ia f ro m 1 414 u n t i l h is d ea th i n 1 421 ( S trnad 1 972 ). He bu il t al arge p a lace i n Pogg io , a nd a dded ab a t tered b ase t o t h e med ieva l t ower n amed Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 1 86
a f ter h i m wh ich s tands o ppos ite i t . 27 A r eference o f 1 453 t o a muru m n ovum q ue m c ons tru i f ec it q uonda m t arta l ia d e a vel lo ( appendix 2 , d oe . 3 ) s hows t ha t h e r ebu il t p art o f t he w a l ls, a l most c erta in ly r ound Pogg io where h e h ad e stabl ished a s tronghold. T he s tretch o f wa l l i mmed ia tely t o t he N . o f t ower T 21 i s av ery c lear r econs truc t ion .
I ti sb onded w i th T 21.
S ince t h is was
d es igned a s a n a ngle t ower , t hen t he wa l l t o t he E . o f i ta long t he S . s ide o f P ogg io must b e c on te mporary w i th t he r econstruct ion , wh ich may t en ta t ively b e i den t if ied a s t ha t c arr ied o u tb y T ar tagl ia . T he c onstruct ion o f a wa l l l i ke t h is w i th a n e ar th r a mpart o r t errap ieno b anked b eh ind i t wou ld h ave b een i n a ccordance w i th t he b es t c urren t t heory o f f ort if ica t ion .
I ti s p oss ible
t ha t a t Tuscan ia T ar tagl ia b egan t h is p rocess wh ich was s ubsequen t ly e x tended t o o ther p arts o ft he e nce in te, a nd w h ich h as g iven t he t own i t s p resen t a ppeara nce. I t i nvo lved a dop t ing t he s teepes t g round a s t he l i ne o f d efence , a nd w here n a ture d id n o t p rov ide a s lope , t he b edrock was c u t b ack t o c rea te o ne ( c f. a ppend ix 2 , p .
2 17
) . A s ar esu l t , t he t own wa l l r eve t ted a n e arth
b ank o r t he b edrock a nd g a ined t hereby i n s trength. I n p art icu lar , i t would h ave b een more r es istan t t o a r t il lery , a nd a s i mp le b reach c ou ld n o t b e made i n i t ; t here wou ld a lways b e t he s lope, t he c ol lapsed masonry , a nd t he p i le o f e arth r eleased f rom b eh ind t o a c t a s a n o bstac le. The c l if fb elow t ower T 21 i s c learly a r t if ic ial ; t here i s n o s tream wh ich c ou ld e ver h ave c u t i t . I n at rench e xcava ted i n 1 972 b eh ind t he wa l lb e tween t owers T 21 a nd T 22, a wal l p ara l lel t o t he t own wa l l was d iscovered. I t was b u il t o f s elce c h ips , at echn ique e xcep t iona l a t T uscan ia i n t he Midd le Ages.
T hese p ieces o f
s tone must h ave b een d ebr is wh ich was a t h and a f ter t he c l if f h ad b een s carped. T hey were a ccep table f or b u ild ing t h is wa l l s ince i t merely s erved a s a t e mporary r evetmen t f or t he e ar th o n t he i ns ide whi lst t he ma in o u ter wa l l was b e ing b u i l t , t he g ap b etween t he m b e ing f i l led w i th e ar th when t he l a t ter was c o mp le te. I fT artagl ia b u il t t he wal l , t hen h e must a lso h ave b u il t t ower T 21, a nd p robably a lso T 19 .
Two e ssen t ia l f eatures wh ich i den t ify t he m a s l a te
med ieval , a s t he p roduc t o f at ime when f i rearms a nd a rt il lery w ere b e ing i ncreas ingly u sed , a re t he b a t ter s ur moun ted b y ar ol l mou ld ing , a nd l ooph oles. Ba t tered w al ls a re k nown i n I t aly f ro m a t l east t he 1 3th c en tury, b eco m ing c o m mon i nt he 1 4th a nd a l mos t u n iversa l i n t he 1 5th.
S o me 1 4th -
c en tury e xa mp les h ave r ol l mou ld ings, b u t a ga in i t was n ot u n t i l t he 1 5th c ent ury t ha t t h is b ecame a s tandard f ea ture.
E arly mou ld ings a re o f ten r a ther
t h in a nd u nobtrusive. 1 5th c en tury o nes a re l arger a nd more p ronounced. T he mou ld ing o n t he t orre d i L avel lo i s o ft h is l a te t ype , a nd i s s im i lar t o t hose o f T 19 a nd T 21, a nd i ndeed a l l t he t owers w ith b a t tered b ases a t Tusc an ia .
I ti s t he e arl iest w el l-da ted e xamp le o f t h is f u l ly d eveloped mou ld ing
i n N . L az io. L oopholes c ons ist o f ar ound h ole w i th a s l i t a bove i tt o s igh t t hrough. G enera l ly a t Tuscan ia t he h ole i s s et i n ab lock o fn enfro a nd t he s l i t i s c ross-shaped . I n s o me c ases , i ti s n ot c onnec ted w ith t he h ole. T he l ooph ole r epresen ts a n a dvance o n t he s imp le med ieval a rrow s l it , a l most c erta in ly i n r esponse t o t he more w idespread u se o f f i rear ms.
I ti s u ncer ta in
j ust when I ta l ian f or t if ica t ions b egan t ob e e qu ipped w ith l oopholes. There s ee m t o b e n o e xamp les o f t he m b efore a bou t 1 400, a nd t hey o n ly b ecame c o m mon f ro m a bou t t he m id-15th c en tury. 28
T hus i fT 21 a nd T 19 were b u il t
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b y Tar tagl ia , t hen t he l oopholes would b e u nusua l ly e arly. However , o ne p roble m i n s tudy ing l oopholes i s t o a ssess w hether t hey h ave b een i nserted a t al a ter d a te. I ti s q u i te e asy t o mod i fy a n a rrow s l it , s o t ha t i tb ecomes al oophole. I n t ufa c onstruc t ion , t h is s or t o f a l tera t ion i s d if f icu l t t o d e tec t. T hose i n t hese t wo t owers s eem t o b e o r ig ina l . T he p en tagonal t ower T 19 i s i n terest ing b ecause i ti s o f at ype p opu lar i n C en tra lI ta ly i n t he l a te 1 4th a nd e arly 1 5th c en tur ies. I n L az io , t hese t owers must b e d ist ingu ished f ro m a n e ar l ier g roup wh ich d a te f rom t he 1 2th a nd 1 3th c en tur ies. I n t ha t p er iod , p en tagona l t owers were a dded t o t he wa l ls o fV i terbo , wh ilst a t ype o f r ura l c astrum , o f wh ich C ol le Casa le t o t he E . o fV iterbo , i s a n o u tstand ing e xa mp le , c ons isted o f a wa l l a cross t he e nd o f as pur d efended b y as ingle t a l l p en tagona l t ower. L a te med ieval p en tagona l t owers c an b ee s een i n L az io a t t he c ast le o f C erveter i , a nd o n t he w a l ls o f Acquapenden te. Many were b u il tb y t he t yran ts a nd p et ty s ignor i o f Umbr ia a nd Ro magna , a nd T ar tagl ia—w i th h is e xper ience o f warfare e lsewhere i n I ta ly a nd h is c lose a ssoc ia t ion w i th t he g rea t c ondo t t iere Bracc io d a Mon tone— may wel l h ave f o l lowed t he ir e xamp le. T hese t owers a re u sual ly e qu ipped w ith l oopholes, a nd were p robably f avoured b ecause t he ir p row-shape was wel l a dap ted t o d ef lect a r t il lery f i re. Tar tagl ia may h ave s treng thened o ther p arts o f t he t own wa l ls. T7 i s ap en tagona l t ower i den t ica l t o T 19 . I tt oo h as n en fro q uo ins, t hough t h is d eta il n eed n ot b e s ign if ican t. T he s quare t owers T 5 a nd T 12, a nd t he p or ta d i Mon tasc ide , a l l h ave b a t tered b ases w ith r o l l mou ld ings . The l oopho les o f T 5 a nd T 7 s ee m t o b e o r igina l , b u t t hose o f T 12 a nd t he p or ta d i Mon tasc ide l ook a s i ft hey h ave b een i nser ted , t hough t he embrasures a re s o a l tered t ha t i ti s d if f icu l t t o b e c erta in.
T 12 a nd t he t op o f t he p orta d i Mon tasc ide , i fn ot
t he e n t ire g a te , a re c on te mporary w i th a ma jor r econstruc t ion o f t he u pper h a l f o ft he wa l ls o n t he N . s ide o f t he t own e x tend ing a t l east f ro m t he g a te t o T 13.
These t owers, a nd t he r econstruc t ion , must b e e arl ier t han t he r e-
b u ild ing c arr ied o u t i n t he 1 440s a nd 1 450s , b y wh ich t ime , a s s ha l lb e s een , r ound t owers were b e ing b u il t t o t he e xclus ion o fo ther t ypes. They c an o n ly , t herefore, d a te f ro m t he f i nal d ecades o f t he 1 4th c en tury o r t he f i rs t h a l f o f t he 1 5th. T he e v idence i s n o t c onclusive , b u t T ar tagl ia may b e r egarded a s h av ing b egun a p rogra m me o f r efor t if ica t ion a t Tuscan ia , o ne wh ich h e n ever h ad t he o pportun ity t o f in ish b efore h e was b etrayed b y h is Mona ldesch i b rotherinl aw a nd e xecu ted b y Francesco S forza i n 1 421.
He p robably a lso c arr ied o u t
b u i ld ing work a t t he d eser ted s i te o f C astel Card ina le t o t he E . o f Tuscan ia . Th is was o ne o f t he c ast les o f h is v icar ia te , a nd was r efort if ied i n t he 1 5th c en tury.
Ab a t ter was a dded t o a med ieval p en tagona l t ower a nd t o o ne s ide
o f t he c ast le i t sel f , a nd c ase ma tes c u t i n t he c l if f p robably d a te f ro m t he s ame p eriod. He m igh t wel lh ave a lso b u il t t he r u ined p a lace s i tua ted b eh ind t he d efens ive wal l wh ich c o mmands t he d i tch a cross t he s pur. THE MID-15th CENTURY RECONSTRUCT ION OF THE WALLS I f Tar tagl ia h ad f ound t he w a l ls o f T uscan ia i n n eed o f s trengthen ing , t hey c an o n ly h ave d eter iora ted f urther w i th t he f i gh t ing o f t he y ears f o l low ing h is d ea th .
On t he a ccess ion o f E ugen ius I V ( 1 431-47 ), t he t err i tory was
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r avaged b y Paolo C olonna a nd G iaco mo d i Vi co.
The t own was a t tacked b y
Ang iolo d a Roccone , o ne o fB racc io 's c ap ta ins , a nd t hen i n 1 434 i t was g iven i n v icar ia te t o F rancesco S forza . I n t he s truggle b e tween S forza a nd P icc in ino i nt he 1 440s , T uscan ia was h eld b y C iarpel lone f or t he f ormer. I t was b es ieged b y P icc in ino i n 1 443 a nd t hen s urrendered t o p apa l f orces l a ter t ha t y ear. T he m idd le y ears o f t he c en tury , h owever , w ere a s o mewha t more s et tled t ime i n t he Pa tr i mony , a nd g ave a n o pportun i ty f or r ebu ild ing. I n 1 423 , T uscan ia h ad o bta ined f ro m Mar t in V a g ran t f or t he ma in tenance a nd r epa ir o f t he t own wa l ls , a nd t h is h ad b een r enewed b y s uccess ive p opes ( see b elow , p . 1 97 ) . Fro m 1 449 o nwards, t he s urv iv ing v olu mes o ft he C onsigl i wh ich c on ta in r ecords o f C ounc i l meet ings a nd o ther a dm in istra t ive b usiness s how t ha t t he money wh ich t he C o m mune s ucceeded i n o bta in ing f ro m t he Ca mera was u sed t o f i nance a ma jor s treng then ing a nd r ebu ild ing o ft he u rban d efences ( see a ppend ix 2 ). The f i rst e v idence f or s uch a ct iv i ty d a tes f ro m March 1 452 when Ambrox ino a nd Gu ido d a Varese c on trac ted t o r ebu ild ar u ined s tretch o f w a l l a pud t urr im d om ine t urrach i i e t c onverso d o mu m f are mi ( append ix 2 , d oc. 1 ) .
Th is i nvolved r az ing t he e x ist ing d ecrep it wa l l
a s f ar a s an ewly b u i l t s tretch b y t he t urns d om ine , a nd r ebu ild ing i tt o t he s a me t h ickness a s t he wal l t owards t he p orta d i Pogg io. To t h is wa l l t hey were t hen t o a dd a r ound t ower r ese mbl ing t ha tb y S . Agost ino. e asy t o l oca te t h is b u i ld ing work .
I ti s r ela t ively
T he d om ina t urrach i i i s p robably t he smal l
c hurch o f t he Madonna d el la N eve , wh ich a d jo ined a v ery t a l l , r u inous t ower wh ich c ol lapsed i n r ecen t t imes a nd whose p os it ion i s i nd ica ted b y t ooth ing o n t he r ebu il t s tre tch o f wa l l o n t he W. s ide o ft he t own ( T16, f i g. 3 .10 ). The n ew t ower wh ich was t ob e b u i l t must b e T 15, wh ich i s t he o n ly r ound t ower b e tween t he p or ta d i Pogg io a nd t h is c hurch. wh ich s erved a s i t s p ro totype was T 13.
T he r ound t ower b y S . Agost ino
These t owers a re e ssen t ial ly s im i lar,
b oth b e ing b a t tered a nd h av ing r ows o f t hree l oopholes.
T 15 a lso s hows t races
o f h av ing b een b onded w i th t he wa l l t o t he S . o f i t , a nd i s t herefore o f t he s a me b u i ld. I n Dece mber , Ambrox ino a nd Gu ido a ppeared b efore t he g on fa lon iere a nd a nz ian i a nd a nnounced t he ir i n ten t ion t o r e turn t o t he ir h o mes i n N . I t aly . As t heir c omm i t men t t o r ebu ild t h is s tretch o f wa l l r e ma ined u n fu l f il led , p artly b ecause o f t he C o m mune 's i nab il i ty t o p ay t he m , t hey h anded o ver t he ir c on trac t t o t he p riest I acobo L o mbardo ( append ix 2 , d oc. 2 ). Bu t c onstruc t ion p roceeded i n at yp ica l ly d i la tory f ash ion , a nd i n Apr i l 1 454, d issa t isfact ion w ith t he p rogress made l ed t o ap roposa l t ha t t he work b e f i n ished i n s o me o ther way t han b y c on trac t ing i to u t ( AST , C ons igl i 1 , f .330 ). Th is s ee ms n ot t o h ave b een a c ted u pon , f or i n J une a c on trac t was g iven t o An ton io d a Co mo who was t o f i n ish t he wa l l a nd t ower, f urn ish ing t he l a t ter w ith a n a rch , wh ich s t il l e x ists t hough b roken t hrough , t o c arry t he wa l l walk a cross i t s o pen g orge ( AST , C ons igl i , 1 , f . 3 13 ). I n S ep te mber , An ton io r ece ived a f ur ther c on trac t t o c o mp lete t he work b y j o in ing u p t he r ebu i l t wa l l a nd t he wal l a lready e x ist ing o n t he N . s ide o f t he t ower ( AST , C ons igl i 1 , f . 3 40 ). S ince t here i s n o f ur ther r eference t o work o n t h is p ar t o f t he c ircu i t , i t may b e a ssu med t ha t a l l was f i n ished b y t he e nd o f 1 454, h av ing t aken o ver t wo a nd a h a l fy ears t o c o mp lete.
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 1 89
Meanwh i le , i n S ep te mber 1 453 a c on trac t h ad b een g iven t o Ma t teo d i G iovann i d a C o mo f or t he r econstruc t ion o f ap ar t ial ly r u ined s tre tch o f wal l a pud t urri m p orte p osteru le a d d o mum g erard i ( append ix 2 , d oc. 3 ) . Th is r ebu ild c anno tb e i den t if ied w i th p rec is ion . I ft he p orta p osteru le was c lose t o t he f ons p osterle , t hen t he wa l l c oncerned must b e i n Pogg io , f or a t a c ounc il mee t ing i n 1 454 i t was o bserved t ha t t he r eed b eds i n t he t own d i tches n ear t h is f oun ta in n o t o n ly p resen ted t he w o men o f Pogg io w i th t he o ppor tun i ty f or s canda lous b ehav iour , b u t a lso c ons t itu ted a d anger i n wart i me s ince t hey c ou ld p rov ide c over f or a h ost ile a rmy ( Cons ign 1 , f . 3 23v ). The c on tract g ives a f ur ther c lue , f or i ts ays t he s tre tch o f w a l l was t o j o in u p w i th t ha t b u i l tb y Tar tagl ia , wh ich s uggests i t was o n t he S . s ide o f Pogg io , b e tween T 21 a nd t he f osso d i S et te C ann .el le. I ti s t he wa l ls a round t he monaster ies o f S . F rancesco a nd S . Paolo wh ich a re n ex t r ecorded a s r ece iv ing a t ten t ion . I n F ebruary 1 455 Gu ido d a Varese u nder took t o r ebu i ld a s tretch o f wa l l a pud g uard iolam S anc t i Pau l i , a nd t o f urn ish i tw i th a s carp ( append ix 2 , d oc. 4 ). Th is r epa ir was o bv iously n ear t he monas tery o f S . Paolo , p robably o n t he S . s ide o f i t .
The word g uard iola
c learly h as t he s ense o f t he s en try o r l ook-ou t p ost . T here were a n u mber o f t he m t o b e f ound o n t he wa l ls, a nd t hey a re a lmos t c er ta inly t he s ame a s t he c ustod iole wh ich t he g on falon iere a nd a nz ian i o rdered t ob e r epa ired i n D ece mber 1 449 s o t ha t t he wa tch men s hou ld n o t s h irk t he ir d u t ies w hen i t r a ined ( AST , C ons igl i 1 , f . 3 6v ).
T hey were c learly s hel ters d es igned t o
p ro tec t t he wa tch men f ro m b o th t he wea ther a nd e ne my a t tack , b u t t here a re f ew c lues a s t o t he f or m wh ich t hey t ook . I n a no ther c on trac t , t he mason h ad t o make a n o pen ing i nt he t ower t o g ive a ccess t o ag uard iola ( append ix 2 , d oc . 7 ) . Th is c ou ld wel l mean t ha t h e was t o make a h ole i n t he v au l t , i n wh ich c ase t he g uard iola was o n t he r oof o f t he t ower. I ti s i n terest ing t ha t o n t he t op o f T 12, t he o n ly t ower t he t op o fw h ich c ou ld b e e xam ined , t here a re wha t l ook l i ke t he f ounda t ions o f a sma l l r ec tangu lar s truc ture ( f ig. 3 .9 ). 29 I n J u ly Ambrosino d a Varese was i nstruc ted t o d e mol ish p ar t o f at ower i n t he g arden o f t he s a me monastery , a nd t o e rec t av au l t o ver t he t op o f i t w i th a p arape t a nd merlons ( append ix 2 , d oc .7 ) . T o t he N . o f t he t ower , h e h ad t o r epa ir t he wa l l wa lk b e tween a p re-ex ist ing g uard iola a nd a n ew g a te made i n t he wa l l .
T h is m igh t p ossibly r efer t o t he a rch , t he t op o f w h ich i s
j ust v is ible a bove g round l evel n ear t he c hurch o f S . S i lvestro. S ince t he c on trac t i s f or t he p ar t ia l d e mol i t ion o f ap re-ex is t ing t ower , t h is c anno t h ave b een T 2, wh ich l i ke t he o ther r ound t owers was b u il t a t a bou t t h is t ime , a nd must t herefore b e i den t if ied w i th T 3 o r o ne o f t he s quare t owers marked b y Turr iozz ib u t n o l onger e x tan t. T 3 h as i n f act s u f fered t he s ame mod if ica t ion a s t he t ower i n t he c on trac t , h av ing b een r educed i n h eigh t s o t ha t i tb arely s ur moun ts t he wa l l . The f ina l s tage t o t he s treng then ing o ft he f or t if ica t ions h ere was t he s carp ing o f t he c l if fb elow t he wa l l o nb o th t he S . a nd E . s ides o ft he monastery , at ask a greed t o b y D o men ico d a L ugano i n Oc tober 1 455 ( append ix 2 , d oc .8 ) .
T he e f f ic iency w ith wh ich h e c arr ied o u t t h is j ob
p robably e xp la ins t he c ol lapse o f t he wa l lb etween T 2 a nd T 3, a nd t o t he S . o f t he monastery . I n t he g arden , h e h ad a lso t o r ebu i ld a l eng th o f wa l l , e qu ipp ing i tw ith a n a rch , a nd r a ising t he wal l i n h e igh t b yb lock ing u p t he embrasures b e tween t he merlons a nd b u i ld ing a n ew s e t o fb a t t le men ts. The Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 1 90
e xac t mean ing o f t h is p assage i s o bscure; t he r eference t o a n a rch s uggests af ea ture l i ke t he t urre tb etween t owers T9 a nd T 10. Meanwh ile , t he wa l ls w ere b e ing r e in forced a t S . F rancesco.
Two r ound
t owers were b u il t , c on trac ts b e ing g iven i n J une 1 455 t o P ietro d i Mar t ino d e T r ibus F lu m in ibus C om ita tus Med iolan i , a nd An ton io d i An ton io d a Bel l inz ona ( append ix 2 , d oc. 5 a nd 6 ) . N e ither t ower c an b e i den t if ied w ith c on f id ence, b u t t he s econd w as s a id t obe o n ' t he u pper s ide t owards Mon tef iascone ' a nd must p resu mably b e T 28 o r T 29 .
T he c lose s im ilar ity o ft owers T 26-
T 29 i nd ica tes t ha t t hey must a l l h ave b een b u il t a t much t he s ame t ime , e ven i fr ecords h ave s urv ived f or o n ly t wo o f t he m. Repa irs t o t he w a l ls w ere a lso c arr ied o u t i n ap ar t o ft he t own c a l led C i trangu lus. T h is n a me h as n o t s urv ived b u t s ince i t was c lose t o S et te C annel le a nd t he h ouse o fJ ohannes I u t i i G ia i i, who h ad p roperty n o t f ar f ro m t he p a lazzo c o muna le ( ANT 2 6, f . 1 46v ), i t must h ave b een t o t he N . a nd W. o f t he R ivel l ino , a nd p robably b e tween T 23 a nd T 24.
I n Oc tober 1 455,
D o men ico d a L ugano a greed t o r ebu ild t he wal l ad o mo J ohann is I u t i i G ia i u sque a d g uard io la m C i trangu l i , a nd t ob u i ld t ufa s teps n ex t t o t he g uard iola u p t o t he t op o f t he w al l ( append ix 2 , d oc . 9 ) . The s a me c on trac t a lso c on ta ins p rov is ions f or mod if ica t ions t ob e made t o t he c hu te t hrough w h ich t he wa ter f ro m t he f oun ta in o f S e t te Cannel le was c hannel led a s i td escended f ro m t he h igher g round i ns ide t he t own t o t he l ower l evel b elow.
These i nvolved
b u ild ing t wo b u t tresses ( coss ie ) u p a ga inst t he c hu te w ith a v aul t b e tween t he m , a nd a dd ing a n enfro g rat ing t o t he t op o f t he c hu te , a nd o thers t o t he wall b elow, t hrough wh ich t he c ondu i t p assed.
S im ilar g ra t ings w ere a lso t o
b e p rov ided f or t he a rches b u il t f or t he s trea m i n t he t own wal l .
F ro m t he
c on trac t i ts ee ms t ha t t he l a t ter s tood s o me l i t t le way t o t he S . o f t he c hute , ad eta il wh ich r e in forces t he i n terpreta t ion p roposed e lsehwere ( p .164) t ha t t h is o r ig inal ly r an a cross t he r e-en tran t a t S e t te Cannel le.
The a rch itec tura l
d eta ils a re f ar f ro m c lear , b u t t he v au l t c ou ld wel lb e t he s ame a s t he a rch d iscovered d ur ing r ecen t r estora t ion ( see f i g. 3 .13 ).
N o c lue i sg iven a s t o
t he u se o r a ppearance o ft he a rea , b u t t he i nd ica t ion t ha t t here was a wal l c lose t o t he a rch d oes t end t o s uggest t ha t t h is was ab ase ment o r e nclosed s pace. Further w ork i n c on tra ta c i trangul i was d one i n 1 467 when Bel tra mo d a Varese a greed t o c arry o u t r epa irs wh ich c ons isted o fb u ild ing a s carped wal l t o r eve t t he t errap ieno wh ich e x isted o n t he i ns ide o f t he wal ls ( AST , Cons igl i 2 , f . 17v ). A f ter 1 455, t here i s n o f ur ther e v idence f or a ny ma jor b u ild ing work o n t he wal ls i n t he C onsigl i , wh ich , w i th t he e xcep t ion o f af ew weeks i n 1 463, d o n ot r esu me a ga in i nd e ta il u n t il 1 466. By t h is t ime , t he p rogram me o f r efor t if ica t ion o f t he t wo p rev ious d ecades mus t h ave b een s ubstan t ia l ly c o mp lete. Part o f t he wa l ls r ound Pogg io were b e ing r econstruc ted i n 1 467 ( AST , C ons igl i 2 , f . 1 02 ), b ut t he o n ly s urv iv ing d eta iled r ecords o f work b e ing d one o n t he wa l ls i s i n c onnec t ion w ith t he c onstruc t ion o f ac hape l a t t he c hurch o f S . Maria d el la Rosa d ed ica ted t o t he p a tron s a in ts o f Tuscan ia , t he mar tyrs V ir id ianus , S ecund ianus a nd Marce l l ianus .
T he h istory o f t h is
p ro ject i s l eng thy a nd t or tuous , a nd much t ime p assed b efore i t was a ctua l ly r ea l ised .
A ma jor p rob le m w as t he c ho ice o f wh ich c hurch t he c hape l
s hou ld b e b u i l t i n .
T h is r ef lects t he d egree o f c onfus ion c aused b y t he
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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a bandonmen t o f t he S . p art o f t he t own , f or S . P ie tro c ould n o l onger f unc t ion e f fec t ively a s t he c en tre o f t he t own 's r el ig ious l i fe. T he p ro jec t i s f i rs t men t ioned i n ac ounc il mee t ing o f F ebruary 1 467 , when i t was s a id t o h ave b een l ong s ince p roposed , b u t n o t y et a c ted u pon. On October 1 9 th , ac on trac t was s igned w ith S tefano d i G iovann i d a C o mo a nd G iovann i d i A gos t ino d e Goadu l is ( AST , Cons igl i 2 , f . 15v ).
T he c hapel , t ob e b u i lt u p a ga inst t he
E . s ide o f S . Mar ia d el la Rosa , w as t ob e 2 0f t w ide b y 3 0 f tl ong a nd v au l ted. I ts urvives t oday p ret ty much i n i t s o r ig ina l f orm , w i th t wo b ays o f r ibbed c ross v au l t ing. Bu t t he w ork was f ar f ro m t rouble f ree. There w ere t wo ma jor d if f icu l t ies b o th r ecogn ized b efore t he p ro jec t was a c tual ly embarked u pon ;
t he t own wa l l h ad t o b e b reached , a nd t he e arth b eh ind i tr emoved .
I n i t ia l ly , t he C o mmune u nder took t o d o t he l a t ter. T yp ica l ly , h owever , t hey w ere s low t o a c t a nd i n Dece mber t he masons r eported t ha t u n less i t was c arr ied o u t t hey c ould n o t b u ild t he c hapel o n s ecure f ounda t ions ( AST , C ons igl i 2 , f . 1 23 ). Approva l was s ought f ro m t he g enera l c ounc il f or t he e ar th t o b e d u mped i n t he t own d i tch , b u t n oth ing f urther s ee ms t o h ave b een d one u n t il f i nal ly i n May t hey r esor ted t o t he e xped ien t o f mak ing a r ev ised c on tract whereby t he masons u ndertook t o r e move t he b ank o n c ond i t ion o f p ay men t o f af urther 5 0 d uca ts ( AST , C ons igl i 3 , f . 1 86 ).
N ot u nna tura l ly ,
t he masons n ow r equested p art o f t h is money , o n ly f or i tt o b e r evea led t ha t Francesco Farnese, w ith who m i th ad b een d epos ited , h ad s pen t i to nh is o wn n eeds ( Consigl i 3 , 1 87v ).
T he d e mol i t ion o f t he t own w a l l was a c on tro-
v ers ia l s tep , e spec ia l ly b ecause o f t he t hrea t o f p lague , a nd a t p opu lar i ns is tence L uch ino d a Varese was e ngaged i n Augus t t o r ebu ild i t ( append ix 2 , d oc. 1 0 ).
He t oo h ad d if f icu l ty o bta in ing h is s a lary , a nd e ven a pp l ied t o
t he g overnor o f t he P a tr i mony a bou t i t( AST , C ons igl i 2 , f . 1 87v ). T he wal l a t S . Mar ia d el la Rosa i sb oth c o mp lex a nd d i f f icu l t o f a ccess, a nd t he d ocumen ts a re n o t s u f f ic ien t ly r ich i n d eta il f or i tt o b e c lear e xac tly wha t h appened .
The b reach ing o f t he wa l l c ou ld h ave b een t o c rea te a ccess
a nd t o f acil i ta te work ing c ond i t ions f or t he masons , r a ther t han a n i nd ica t ion t ha t t he c hapel a c tua l ly p ro jec ted b eyond t he o rig ina l l i ne o f t he wal l . T he l a t ter s ee ms i mprobab le b ecause t ower T 6 l ooks l i ke a n e arly s quare t ower , t hough a ppearances c ou ld b e d ecep t ive. Bu t i ft he t ower e x is ted a lready , t hen t he h ole was p robably made j ust t o t he E . o f i t , where t he c hapel a nd t he wa l l a re a l most c on t iguous. T hese c on trac ts i l lustra te t he n or ms o f f or t if ica t ion i n t he m id-15th c en tury. T he most s tr ik ing f ea ture i s t he p reference f or r ound t owers. A l l t he n ew t owers f or wh ich c on tracts e x ist a re r ound , a nd f al l i n to t he s ame p a t tern , b e ing b a t tered w i th r ol l mou ld ings , a nd r ows o f t hree l oopholes a t e ach s torey .
S ince s o me o f t he c on tracts s pec ify t ha t t hey were t o h ave
b al l ister i i a s wel l a s b o mbarder ie , i t must b e c oncluded t ha t t he t wo words were u sed i nd iscr im ina tely. The l oopholes h ave t r iangu lar-headed embrasures wh ich a re s l igh t ly w ider t hal ithose o f t he e arl ier a rrow s l i ts.
I n t ower T 8 ,
where t hey h ave b een i nserted b e tween t he o rig ina l p a irs o f a rrow s l its, t he ir embrasures a re 5 6 cm w ide, wh i lst t hose o f t he s l i ts a re 3 6 cm .
S ome-
t imes l oophole embrasures were made w ider s t il lb y g iv ing t hem s eg men ta l a rches ( e .g. T 7 , T 10 ). These s ee m g enera l ly t o b e l a ter mod if ica t ions. A s f ar a s i ti s p oss ible t o t e l l , a l l t he r ound t owers s eem o rig ina l ly t o h ave h ad l oopholes w ith c ross-shaped s l its.
The p os it ion o f t he l oopholes i n r e-
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 1 92
l a t ion t o t he b ea m h oles a nd o f fsets wh ich i nd ica te t he f or mer f l oor l evels s hows t ha t t hey were u sed i n ac rouch ing o r p rone p os it ion ( e .g. T7 , T 10 , T 26 ). Th is i s a lso a pparen t where l oopholes h ave b een i nser ted i n to t he p arapets o f t he t owers ( e .g. T 12 ). A t errap ieno a lready e x isted i n s o me p laces b eh ind t he wa l ls, y et t he g round f l oors o f t he t owers were n o t f i l led u p.
A l though t h is w ou ld h ave s treng thened t he t owers, s ince e arly f i rear ms
c ou ld n o t b e p o in ted d ownwards w ithou t t he s hot f a l l ing o u t , i t was o n ly t hrough h av ing l oopholes i n t he b ot to m o f t he m t ha t c over ing f i re c ou ld b e p rov ided f or t he a rea i m med ia tely i n f ron t o f t he wa l ls. A t c er ta in p o in ts, i t was p oss ible t o a scend f ro m g round l evel t o t he t op o f t he wa l lb y s tone s teps, n one o f wh ich h ave s urv ived t oday ( append ix 2 , d oc. 9 ) .
I n s o me p laces, t he wa l l was b a t tered ( append ix 2 , d oe. 4 ).
T he
s tandard s pec if ica t ions were t ha t i ts hou ld b e 3f tt h ick w ith a b at ter o f 2f t ( c f . a lso AST , C ons igl i 2 , f . 1 02, 17v ).
S im ilarly t he wa l ls o f t he t owers
w ere t o b e 3 f t t h ick ( append ix 2 , d oe . 5 ) , t hough i n f ac t many o f t he m a re a bou t 4f t . T he r ound t owers were a l l a bou t 1 5 m h igh , a bou t 4 -5 m h igher t han t he wa l ls.
I n t h is, t hey d if fer f ro m e arl ier t owers.
V iterbo , f or i nstance , a re s t il l a lmost 3 0 m h igh .
S o me o f t hose a t
By t he 1 5th c en tury s uch
t owers w ere much t oo v u lnerable t o a rt il lery , a nd i fd es troyed c ou ld c ause a n e normous amoun t o f d a mage.
A t Tuscan ia , t he e arly t owers h ave a l l
b een r educed i n h e ight , much a s s ee ms t o h ave h appened t o t ha t i n t he o r to o f S . Paolo ( append ix 2 , d oe . 6 ).
The l a te t ype o f s quare t owers s ee m t o
h ave b een s l igh t ly t al ler t han t he r ound o nes , a nd t o h ave s tood s o mewha t h igher a bove t he wa l ls. t he p arape t o ft he wal ls.
T 12, f or i ns tance , i s a bou t 1 7 m h igh , 8m a bove T 5 l ooks a s i fi t may h ave b een l owered , a nd t he
p en tagonal t ower T 7 d ef in i tely h as b een ( c f . p .152 ) . The r ound t owers b elong t o as ys te m o f d efence wh ich r el ied o n ah igh wa l l , w ith t owers l i tt le t a l ler t han i t , a nd a t errap ieno.
T hese p r inc ip les a re w el l i l lustra ted a t t he
c ast les o f T ivo l i ( 1 461-64 ) a nd B racc iano
1 470-80 ).
I ft here a re n o r ecords o f a ny l arge s ca le b u ild ing w ork a f ter t he m id1 5th c en tury , t he wa l ls t he mselves b ear e v idence o f t wo i mportan t p hases o f c onstruc t ion t ha t must d a te f ro m t he e nd o f t ha t c en tury o r t he b eg inn ing o f t he f ol low ing. On t he N . s ide o f t he t own , ah igh b a t ter was a dded t o t he wa l l f ro m T 9-T13. I t i s b u il t o ver t he b a t tered b ases o f t he t owers, a nd i t s masonry s ugges ts i ti s l a te 1 5th c en tury . The masonry o f t ower T 23 a nd t he wa l ls i n t he r e-en tran tb elow S et te C annel le i s a lso o f c oursed r ough ly s haped b locks.
J ust t o t he N . o f t he t ower , t here i s ac ave , p robably i n o r igin a n
E truscan t o mb , t he e n trance t o wh ich was s ea led b y t he t own wa l l wh ich r eve t ted t he c l if f i n to wh ich i ti s c ut .
I t was f i l led w ith e ar th a nd r ubble
wh ich i ncluded p olychro me ma jol ica d a table t o t he e nd o f t he 1 5th c en tury o r t he b eg inn ing o f t he 1 6th.
Th is p rov ides a rchaeolog ica l e v idence f or t he
d a te o f t he wa l l , s ince t he c ave c ou ld n o t h ave b een f i l led p rior t o i t s c ons truc t ion .
T 23 i s p erhaps t o b e i den t if ied w ith a t urr ione m c o mun is wh ich
e x is ted a t S e t te Cannel le b y 1 493 ( AST , C ons igl i 4 , f .355 ). d a te, i ti s s quare.
Desp ite i t s l a te
Qu i te why t h is t ype o f t ower was r everted t o i s n o t c lear.
I ta lso h as s l its i nstead o f l oopholes. Th is i s l ess c ur ious, f or i n t he 1 6th c en tury t here was a r e turn t o t he u se o f s l i ts , p resu mably b ecause t hey w ere f ound t ob e q u i te a dequa te f or h andguns. T hey o ccur i n as tretch o f t he wa l ls o f Ro me r ebu il t b y P ius I V, i n t he 1 8th-cen tury f or te D ia man te a t Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 93
Genoa , a nd a t Tuscan ia w ere t o b e f ound i n t he b lock ing o f t he o pen g orge o f t he p orta d i Mon tasc ide. LOMBARD MASONS AND ROUND TOWERS One r e markable a spec t o ft h is r ebu ild ing i s t ha t i t was a l l e n trusted t o masons f ro m L o mbardy . I t ineran t L ombard masons a nd o ther c raf ts men were t o b e f ound t hroughou t I t aly a t a l l p er iods i n t he Middle A ges.
However ,
i n t he 1 5th c en tury a g rea t many o f t he m em igra ted t o t he Papa l S tate. Qu i te when t h is p rocess b egan s ee ms n o t t o h ave b een e stabl ished , b u tb y t he 1 440s t hey were a lready p resen t i n l arge n umbers. T here s eems t o b e n o s ingle o bv ious e xp lana t ion f or t h is m igra t ion . Unemp loymen t i n t he moun ta in v il lages f ro m wh ich t hey c a me mus t h ave b een a s trong i ncen t ive t o em igra te , j ust a s i ti s t oday . Warfare i n N . I t a ly m ight h ave d r iven t he m f ro m t he ir h o mes , a nd c rea ted u n favourable e cono m ic c ond it ions ( Ba t t ist i 1 959 , 4 34 ) , s o t ha t t he Papa l S tate o f fered a t trac t ive p rospec ts i n c ompar ison . The p resence o f L o mbards a t Ro me i n t h is p er iod work ing i nt he s erv ice o f t he p opes o n t he Va t ican p a laces a nd o ther b u ild ing p ro jec ts i s wel l-known ( Mun tz 1 879 , 1 04, 2 32; Ber tolot t i 1 881; Ba t t ist i 1 959 ). They w ere a lso t o b e f ound i n t he sma l les t v il lages o f L az io. A t V i torch iano , L o mbards a re r ecorded work ing a s w eavers , b arbers a nd h os iers ( Aleandr i 1 911), Many s e t t led , b ough t p roper ty, i n termarr ied a nd b ecame i n tegra ted i n t he c o mmun i ty . O thers , h owever , ma in ta ined c lose l i nks w ith t he ir h o mes i n t he n or th , r et urn ing p er iod ical ly a s d id Gu ido a nd Ambrox ino d a Varese. T he way t hey d om ina ted t he l ocal b u i ld ing c raf ts a t t owns l i ke T uscan ia , e stabl ish ing a v irtua l monopoly , s ugges ts t ha t t hey were i n p ossess ion o f s k il ls n ot t ob e f ound l oca l ly . Th is i s c orrobora ted b y t he e xp l ic i t s tate men t i n t he C ons igl i f or 1 455 ( I , f . 2 56v ) t ha t t here was a s hortage o fb u i ld ing w orkers ( qu ia i n h ac c iv i ta te e s t max i ma p enur ia c arpen tar ioru m e t l a to morum ), l ead ing t o t he p roposa l t ha t t he p ay men t r equ ired f ro m f ore igners b y t he s tatutes o f t he a rte o f t he masons a nd c arpen ters b e wa ived , s ince c raf ts men were b e ing d iscouraged f ro m c om ing t o w ork i n t he t own . S im i larly , a tV i terbo , t he 1 469 s tatu te o ft he maestri d i P ie tra o f fered a t wo-year e xe mp t ion f rom a l l t axa t ion t o f ore ign workers Ad r epara t ione m c iv i ta t is V i terbi i q uae p rop ter g uerraru m d iscr im ina , a r t if ic ibus mag istr isque u t i l ibus d es t i tu ta... ( Eg id i 1 962 ). These L o mbards o f ten w orked o n m i l i tary a rch i tec ture , i nc lud ing , f or i nstance, t he wa l ls o fV iterbo ( C iamp i 1 872, 7 2, 7 7 ) , many f or t if ica t ions b elonging t o t he r epubl ic o f S iena ( Cecch in i 1 959 ), a nd C astel N uovo i n N ap les. T hey e ven b u il t t he d efences o f t he Kre ml in f or I van I I o f Russ ia . T here c an b e n o d oubt t ha t t hey h ad a c ons iderable i n f luence o n b u ild ing p rac t ice i n C . I t a ly , b e ing p ar t ial ly r espons ible i n L az io f or t he c hange t o u s ing r ubble i nstead o f a shlar masonry , a nd t he r ein troduc t ion o fb r ick manufacture a nd c onstruc t ion . 3 ° The ir p resence c o inc ides r ough ly w i th t he a ppearance o f r ound t owers i n l arge n umbers, a nd i ti st e mp t ing t o t h ink t hey may h ave b een r espons ible f or t he d if fus ion o f t h is t ype o f t ower wh ich h ad h i therto b een l ess c o m mon ' in t h is a rea t han i n N . I t a ly a nd N . E urope. I n L az io , t he e arl iest r ound t owers —w ith t he e xcep t ion o f o ne o n t he wal ls o r Ro me b u il t p ossibly i n t he 1 2th c en tury , a nd s o me i sola ted o nes i n t he Ro man Ca mpagna o fu ncer ta in d a te —are p robably t hose o f t he wa l ls o fR iet i Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 94
( Colasan t i 1 910 ) a nd t he c ast le a t Pon te d el la Bad ia ( Seraf in i 1 920 ), wh ich d a te f ro m t he s econd h a l fo f t he 1 3th c en tury . These a re v ir tual ly t he o n ly s urv iv ing e xa mp les o f s uch t owers b u il tb efore t he 1 5th c en tury . J ust when t he l a te t ype o f r ound t ower f i rst a ppears i s u ncerta in . I n Umbr ia , ar ound t ower a t Pe tr ignano d i A ss is i was p robably b u il t b y N icola d a C o mo i n 1 415 ( Br izi 1 895, 6 ) .
I fi th ad ab a t tered b ase, i ti s n ow b ur ied b y t he r ise i n
g round l evel o u tside t he t own . Av ery f i ne r ound t ower w ith ab a t ter a nd r ol l mould ing a t C orneto-Tarqu in ia n ear S . Maria d i Castel lo was b u i l t i n t he 1 430s ( Pol idori 1 977 , 2 35 ) ,p oss ibly o n t he i n i t ia t ive o f C ard ina l V itel lesch i , who h ad b een s ecre tary t o T artagl ia . A t S er moneta t o t he S . o f Ro me , r ound t owers w ere b u il t c . 1 448-50 b y Onora to Cae tan i. I n 1 453, Michele d i Pra to wrote t o Onora to t e l l ing h im h ow h e h ad d escr ibed t o N icholas V t he f or t if ic a t ions a t S er moneta : d issigl i d el le mura f aceva l a S .V. d i n uovo e t max i me d el g ross issimo muro e d egl i t orr ic iel l j t ond j e t s carpa t j, a e xe mp lo d i q uegl i c he a f a t t i l a S . t a S ua ( Cae tan i 1 927 , I , p art 2 , p . 8 8 ). A l though N icholas V b u i l t r ound t owers a t C astel S . Angelo a nd t he Va t ican , a nd may h ave b een i n f luen t ia l i n p opu lar izing t owers o f t h is t ype , i ti s c ur ious t ha t a t t he Camp idogl io a nd o nt he wa l ls o f Ro me h e b u il t o r r ebu il t s quare t owers t ha t a re r e markably p r im it ive-look ing , a nd d o n ot e ven h ave l oopholes ( Mun tz 1 879 , 1 47-50 , 1 58-60 ). Three r ound t owers s urv ive o n t he wa l ls o f Vi t erbo . One was p robably b u il t i n t he 1 450s , a nd a no ther i n 1 473 ( Cia mp i 1 872, 6 6, 1 06 ).
Ag ood i l lustra t ion o f t he r espec t a ccorded t o t he r ound
t ower i s al arge o ne a t N ep i wh ich i n f act e ncases a n e arl ier s quare o ne.
I t
b ears t he a r ms o f C al ix tus I I ( 1 455-58 ). T he b est i nstance i n t he v ic in i ty o f Tuscan ia o f r ound t owers b e ing s yste ma t ica l ly a pp l ied t o t own wa l ls i s Magl iano i n T oscana . T he wa l ls h ave l arge, i mposing t owers wh ich d if fer f rom t hose a t Tuscan ia o n ly i n t he ir g rea ter s ize a nd i nb e ing mach icola ted .
I n most c ases, h owever , i t was t oo
e xpens ive t ob r ing t own wa l ls u pto-da te i n t h is way .
I nstead , o ne o r more
r ound t owers w ou ld b e b u il t a t t he mos t s tra teg ic p o in ts t o s erve a s a mast i c ). Most o f t he h i l l v i l lages o f L az io h ave s uch t owers , u sua l ly d a t ing f ro m q u i te l a te i n t he 1 5th c en tury .
One a t Ga l lese was b u il t i n 1 484, a nd t wo a t V i tor-
c h iano w ere b u i l t i n t he 1 490s. 3 1 T he r ound t owers o f t he t ype b u i l t a t Tuscan ia were t he d irec t p recursors o f t he r ound b as t ions wh ich were c o m mon ly b u i l t a t t he e nd o f t he 1 5th c en tury a nd i n t he e ar ly 1 6th b efore t he i n troduc t ion o f t he t r iangu lar-shaped a ngle b ast ion . These t owers i n s o me r espec ts r ese mble b ast ions , e spec ial ly a s t hey a re a lmos t i nvar iably a ssoc iated w i th a t errap ieno , b u t a re t o b e d ist i ngu ished f rom t he m b y t he ir sma l ler s ize, t he t h inness o f t heir wa l ls , t he l owness o f t he b a t tered b ase p ropor t iona l t o t he ir h e ight , a nd t he f ac t t ha t t he b ody o f t he t ower i s f ree-stand ing a bove t he t errap ieno , e ven t hough n o t t a l lb y c o mpar ison w ith e arl ier med ieval t owers. THE MAINTENANCE OF THE WALLS , AND THE F INANCING OF THE M RECONSTRUCT ION The t own wa l ls r epresen ted a n impor tan t i t em o f c o mmunal b us iness. Ac ircu i t 2 .5 km l ong was a c ons iderable r espons ib il i ty a nd a dm in istra t ive b urden. T he C ons igl i g ive t he i mpression t ha t a l though t here was u sua l ly ag enera l-purposes b u ild ing f und a ss igned f or t he wal ls a nd t he c hurches , Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. 1 95 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
a nyth ing e xcep t t he mos t ma jor r epa irs w as n eglec ted u n t il t he l as t mo men t. I n p ar t icular, t he p arape ts a nd t he wooden f i t t ings o ft he t owers s ee m t o h ave b een i n c onstan t n eed o f a t ten t ion . Th is p o l icy was p robably l ess i nef f ic ien t t han i t migh t s ee m , f or i tw ou ld h ave b een p roh ib it ively e xpensive , a nd e ven wastefu l , t o k eep t he wa l ls p repared f or a t tack e ven w hen t here was n o t hrea t o f war. T he o a th o f t he p odest ä . , t he p r inc ipa l e xecu t ive of ic ia l o f t he C o mmune , p ledged h im t o ag enera l c are f or t he d efence o f t he t own , wh ilst c lauses o f t he S tatu tes r eferring s pec if ica l ly t o t he wa l ls a nd s ecur ity e n joined h im t o s ee t ha t t hey w ere e n forced. I n t he 1 5th c en tury s pec if ic r espons ib i l i ty f or t he wa l ls a nd t he s uperv ision o f a ny b u ild ing w ork b e ing c arried o u t o n t he m s ee ms t o h ave r ested w ith a p er manen t c o mm i t tee o f t wo l ead ing c i t izens ( c f. a ppend ix 2 , p assim ). T he p rov ision made b y t he S ta tu tes f or t he w a l ls was o f t he most g eneral k ind , a nd d es igned n o t s o much t o ma in ta in t he m a s t o p rotect t he m a ga inst v anda l is m o n t he p ar t o f t he c i t izens.
Thus f i nes w ere
imposed f or mak ing h oles o r d oorways i n t he w a l ls , a nd a l low ing c a t t le t o s tray i n t he t own d i tches. A l l t rees g row ing o n o r a d jacen t t o t he wa l ls w ere t o b e f e l led , a nd t he c ha ins o f t he C o m mune were t ob e k ep t i n g ood o rder ( AST , S ta tu t i I I , 2 4;
V , 1 9 , 3 9 ;
I V, 6 5 ).
The l a t ter p robably s erved t o
s hu t o f f s tree ts a nd t o b ar t he g a teways. Rarely d id t he C o m mune n eglec t a n o pportun ity t o make a p rof it f rom p ubl ic p roper ty , a nd o ne way i n wh ich t he wa l ls c ou ld b eco me d i lap ida ted w as a s ar es ul t o f t he p ol icy o f l eas ing o u t t he t owers. I n 1 468, b ecause o f t he ir p oor c ond i t ion , t he Genera l C ounc il d ec ided t ha t t he C o mmune s hould r ecover p ossess ion o f t he t owers f ro m t hose who w ere k eep ing a n i ma ls i n t he m a nd t ha t i n f u ture t owers s hou ld n o tb e l eased ( AST, C ons igl i 3 , f .200v-201). The S ta tu tes ( I I I , 2 5 ) f orbade t he u se o f t he t owers f or n on- m i l i tary p urposes , y et i n t he s a me b rea th made n u merous e xcep t ions , i nc lud ing t hose t owers wh ich h ad b een b u il tb y p r iva te i nd iv idua ls, a nd c ondoned t he p ract ice o f l easing, f i x in g ar en t o f 5s old i ay ear , a nd i ns ist ing t ha t t he t owers b e k ep t i ng ood o rder.
T hose who h ad b u il t t owers h ad p robably d one s o i n r eturn
f or t he r ight t o l and a d jacen t t o t he wa l ls.
A l though l eas ing c ou ld l ead t o
a buse, i th ad t he t heore t ical a dvan tage t ha t r espons ib i l i ty f or t he ma in tenance o f t he wal ls, a nd e ven t he ir c onstruct ion , d evo lved u pon t hose who h e ld p roperty n ex t t o t he m.
T here i s l i t tle e v idence f or t h is s ide o f t he b arg in
a t Tuscan ia , t hough i n 1 468 a l essee h ad t o p rov ide a l adder f or a n earby t ower, a s wel l a s p ay ing a c ash r en t. A t V i terbo , h owever, t here i s a bundan t d ocumen ta t ion f or t he l eas ing o f t he d efences o n s uch c ond it ions f ro m t he f i rst h al f o ft he 1 3th c en tury , a nd i ti s e ven p oss ible t ha t t he p rac t ice o rigina ted a s means o f c ons truct ing p ar ts o ft he u rban f or t if ica t ions. I t was f requen tly s t ipu la ted t ha t a ccess t o t he wa l ls s hou ld n o tb e o bs tructed i n a ny way . Un i mpeded c ircu la t ion b eh ind t he m was o bv iously e ssen t ia l f or t he m t o b e u sed e f fect ively. T o ma in ta in i t , a wa l l wh ich b locked o f f t he r oad b eh ind t he m was d e mol ished i n 1 451, a nd i n 1 454 a n i nqu iry was o pened r egard ing t he u surpa t ion o f t he l and b eh ind t he wa l ls o n t he N . s ide o f t he t own ( AST , C onsigl i 1 , f .156, 3 23v ).
T he e f fec t iveness o f t h is p ol icy
i s t o b e s een i n t he f ac t t ha t e ven t oday t here a re v ery f ew h ouses b u i l t u p a ga inst t he wal ls , a nd t hese a re a l l p ost-med ieva l . I n t he 1 2th a nd 1 3th Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. 1 96 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
c entur ies, h owever , i tw as n or ma l f or h ouses t o b e b u il tu p a ga inst t own w a lls, p erhaps a ga in b ecause t heir ma in tenance was made t he r esponsib il i ty o f t he h ouseholders.
A tV i terbo t here i s amp le e v idence t ha t l ong s tre tches
o f t he c ircu i t w ere a bu t ted b y h ouses.
L a ter i n t he Midd le Ages, t h is p rac t ice
s ee ms g enera l ly t o h ave b een a bandoned i n f avour o f h av ing r oads b eh ind t he wal ls a l low ing f reedo m o f move men t a nd a ccess f or t he d efenders. Mos t c ircu its b u i l t f ro m t he e nd o f t he 1 3 th c en tury , s uch a s t hose a t Ass isi , Gubbio, T od i a nd S iena a re u nencumbered b y a d jacen tb u ild ings. A t Vi t erbo, h ouses i n P lan S carano may h ave b een d e mol ished t o a l low a ccess t o t he walls, a nd t h is m igh t a lso h ave b een d one a long s o me o f t he o lder p ar ts o f t he c ircu i t a t Tuscan ia . When t he C o mmunes b egan t ob u ild n ew t own wa l ls t o a cco mmoda te t he u rban e xpans ion o f t he 1th a nd 1 2th c en tur ies, t hese p ubl ic works were u sual ly p erfor med b y t he c i t izens t he mselves, o r d irec tly f i nanced a nd o rgan ized b y t he m .
A t Tuscan ia mos t o ft he 1 5th -cen tury r econstruct ion was
f inanced i nd irec t ly b y t he p apa lg overnmen t a nd c on trac ted o u t , b u t t here a re s o me r el ics o f t he e ar l ier s yste m . T he C o mmune c ould e xac t l abour f ro m a l l t he b u ild ing workers i nt he t own when i tn eeded a j ob d one u rgen t ly. When i n 1 467 t he b r idge o ver t he Capecch io o n t he r oad t o C orneto n eeded r epa ir ing , i t was p roposed t ha t a l l t he masons w ork ing i n t he C o mmune 's q uarr ies a t Honepharar ia s hou ld b e c o mpel led t o work o n i t , wh ilst t he f ol low ing y ear a c ounc il lor a dv ised t ha t a l lb u i lders ( omn ibus q u i f ac iun t l abor it iu m ) s hou ld s tockp ile b eams a nd wood f or f i t t ing o u t t he t owers o n t he wa l l a t S . Mar ia d el la Rosa ( AST , C ons igl i 3 , f .132v , 2 01v ).
S im ilarly ,
i n J anuary 1 497 t he b u ilders h ad t o s pend t he who le o f o ne Monday w ork ing o n s uch p ar ts o f t he wa l l a s n eeded r epa ir . 3 2
S ince t hey were p a id , t h is
d u ty was n o t q u i te e qu iva len t t o ac orvee. I n a n emergency , h owever , t he Co m mune c ould c o mpel t he c i t izens t o c arry o u t f orced l abour , f or l a ter i n t he mon th o ne c ounc il lor r eco m mended t ha t a l l t he i nhabi tan ts o f t he t own s pend t he f o l low ing d ay w ork ing o n t he wa l ls a nd d e mol ish ing t he c hurch o f S . S a lva tore t o p rov ide s tone t o r e in force t he t ower o f t he p a lazzo d el P odestä. 3 3 The b ands o f 3 0 men w h ich c arr ied o u t g uard d u t ies ( see b elow , p . 2 01 c ou ld a lso b e c a l led u pon t o d o ma in tenance w ork . I n Augus t o f 1 453, f or
)
i nstance, i n a ccordance w i th t he i nstruc t ions o f t he g overnor o f t he Pa tr i mony t hey h ad t o c lean o u t t he t own d i tches, a d u ty w h ich s ee ms n or ma l ly t o h ave f a l len o n t hose w ith p roperty a d jacen t t o t he m ( AST , C onsigl i 1 , f . 2 75, 3 86 ). T he r a is ing o f l oans t o f i nance t he r epa ir o f t he wa l ls i s e nv isaged b y t he S tatu tes ( I V, 4 6 ), b u t i n t he 1 5th c en tury , a t l east , t h is s ee ms t o h ave b een a s o mewha t e xcep t ional p rocedure.
A t t he b eg inn ing o f 1 497 , h owever ,
when a n a t tack o n t he t own was a n t ic ipa ted , al oan was r a ised ( AST , Consigl i 2 , f . 5 2, 8 9v ), a nd t hen i n t he s ummer t he C o mmune r esorted t o e x traord inary t axa t ion , d i f feren t r a tes t o b e p a id b y t he t hree g rades o f c i t izens ( AST , C ons igl i 5 , f . 1 43v ). When ma in tenance w ork was n ecessary , t he C o m mune c ou ld t herefore u nder take i ti n av ar iety o f w ays , e n joy ing a d egree o f f l ex ib il ity wh ich mus t h ave b een a g rea t a dvan tage i n t imes o f c risis. Bu t f or t he most p art , t he f inanc ing o ft he 1 5th-cen tury-b u i ld ing p rogra mme f ol lowed a p a t tern s e t b y a n a gree men t made w ith Mart in V i n 1 423 whereby t hey w ere p er m i t ted t o Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 97
e xport 2 00 mod ia o fg ra in w i thou t p ay ing t he t ax k nown a s t rac ta g ran i ( Ca mpanar i 1 856, I , 2 47 ).
Wi th t he r e-es tabl ish men t o f e ffec t ive g overnmen t
i n t he Papa l S ta te , t he P opes h ad n o t o n ly g a ined c on trol o f u rban f i nances , b u t a lso a ssumed r espons ib il i ty f or t he ma in tenance o f d efences a nd p ubl ic b u i ld ings , b eing f orced t o g ive w ith o ne h and wha t t hey h ad t aken w i th t he o ther.
At own was t hus a ble t ob ar ter i t s p o ten t ia l a bi l i ty t o d efend i t sel f ,
a nd h ence i t s a l leg iance, f or a c ons iderable d egree o ft ax r el ief .
One r esu l t
o f t h is was t o l i gh ten t he h and o f p apa l g overnmen t , wh ich c ould w el l i ncrease t he w il l ingness o f t he c i t izens t o r e ma in l oya l , af ac tor q u ite a s i mportan t a s t he c ond i t ion o f t he d efences o n t he a pproach o f ah ost i le a r my. T hese c oncess ions c ame t o b e r egarded a s ac o m muna l p r iv i lege , a nd were d e manded , u sua l ly w i th s uccess, f ro m e ach n ew p ope o n h is a ccess ion .
As a r esu l t ,
Tuscan ia s ee ms t o h ave h ad , o n p aper a t l eas t , ap er manen t b u ild ing f und f ed l argely b y r eba tes o n p apa l t axa t ion . T h is p rac t ice was n or mal t hrougho u t t he P apa l S ta te f ro m t he t ime o f Mart in V . A tV iterbo , f or i nstance , t ha t p ope a l lowed a s um o f 1 0 d uca ts p er mon th t ob e u sed f or t he u pkeep o f p ubl ic works , a nd t h is was r a ised b y E ugen ius I V t o 2 0 d uca ts. I n 1 443, h al f t he s ubs idy was r em i t ted f or f i ve y ears f or t he r epa ir o f t he wa l ls , a nd h a lf t he t ax o n t he c lergy f or t he f abr ic o f t he c hurches . 3 4 Four y ears l a ter , t he n ew p ope , N icholas V , g ran ted t he t own 1 00 d uca ts a nnua l ly f or f i ve y ears f ro m t he money o wed t o t he d oganer ius o f t he Pa tr i mony f or p asture r igh ts t o p rov ide f or t he wa l ls a nd t he c hurches.
Both t hese
g ran ts were h a lf t he o r ig ina l amoun t r equested i n t he p e t i t ions p resen ted b y t he c i t izens, a nd t he s econd c on ta ined a n o rder t ha t t he Rec tor o f t he P a tr imony s hould p ay wha t was s t i l l o wing f ro m t he r em ission o f t he s ubs idy. Bu t i ft he p eop le o f Tuscan ia h ad d if f icu l ty o bta in ing t hat money , i t mus t h ave b een t r if l ing i n c o mpar ison w i th t he ir e f forts t o r ecover t he 5 00 d uca ts d ue f ro m t he d oganer ius.
By J anuary 1 451, t hey h ad r ece ived o n ly 1 00 d uca ts ,
a nd t he r est was d espera tely n eeded s o t ha t w ork c ou ld p roceed o n t ower T 15 ( AST , C ons igl i I , f . 1 28v ).
Throughou t t he f ol low ing y ear , t hey were t o
l a men t t he n on-pay men t o f t he money . C o mm it tees w ere a ppo in ted a nd embassies s en t t o Ro me, b u t t o n o a va il ( AST , C onsigl i I , f . 2 33v , 2 42 ). By March 1 453 i t was a ma t ter o fu rgency.
T he g onfa lon iere d el p opolo w en t
t o Ro me w ith a u thority t o b r ibe a ny me mber o f t he C ur ia u p t o t he s um o f 2 5 d uca ts t o p ro mo te t he ir c ause ,( AST , C ons igl i I , f .242, 2 59 v ). The v en ia l i ty o f p apa l o f f ic ials a nd t he i mpossib il i ty o fg e t t ing a nyth ing d one w i tho u t r esor t ing t o s uch me thods s ee ms t o h ave b een w idely r ecogn ized , f or i t was a t p opu lar i nsistence t ha t i n August t he C o mmune s et a bou t f i nd ing a f or ma l s ponsor o r p ro tec tor , l ead ing t o t he c ho ice o f L udov ico S cara mp i i n Dece mber ( AST , C onsigl i I , f . 2 75, 2 90 ).
Represen ta t ives f rom t he t own
were t o v is it h im t w ice a y ear , p resen t ing h im w i th 2 5 s a lme o fb arley i n s u m mer , a nd i n w in ter ab ag o f wha tever t he l ocal c acc ia tor i c ou ld k il l i n ad ay 's h un t ing.
As c hamberla in , S caramp i was t he most p owerfu l man i n
t he p apa l a dm in istra t ion ( c f . Pasch in i 1 939 ). N o b et ter p rotector o f t he Co mmune 's i n terests c ou ld h ave b een f ound , b u t i ts ee ms a p resump tous c ho ice. He was n o t al oca l man , f or h e c ame f ro m Padua , t hough b y t h is t ime h e d id h ave l oca l i n teres ts. E ugen ius I V h ad g ran ted h im C iv i tavecch ia i n v icar ia te w i th t he i n ten t ion t ha t h e s hou ld c arry o u t t he r econstruct ion n ecessary a f ter t he d evasta t ion wrough t t here b y F rancesco S forza 's c ap ta in Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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C iarpel lone i n 1 442-43. He m igh t t herefore h ave b een e n thus iast ic f or p ubl ic w orks a nd i nc l ined t o f avour ab u i ld ing p rogra mme a t a no ther t own— though i ron ical ly T uscan ia h ad b een C iarpel lone 's b ase d ur ing h is h arry ing o f t he P a tr i mony. I th ad a lso b een S caramp i who d eal t w i th t he C o mmune 's p et it ions i n 1 443 a nd r em i t ted h a l f t he s ubs idy. I n t he e ven t , h e s erved Tuscan ia w el l , f or t he Co mmune r ece ived a nother 3 00 d uca ts d ur ing t he n ex t t hree y ears, a f ter wh ich r ecords c ease u n t il 1 467 , when B erardus Eru l i , Card ina l B ishop o f S poleto , was c hosen a s p ro tec tor ( AST, C onsigl i I , f . 8 1v ).
He i s t he
o n ly o ther p ro tec tor f or who m t here i s e v idence i n t he 1 5th c en tury , t hough d oubt less a ppo in t men ts c on t inued t o b e made. I nnocen t V I I I , A lexander V I a nd J u l ius I I a l l g ave s im ilar i nd irec t s upport f or t he ma in tenance o ft he wa l ls. T he f i rst r em i t ted t he h a l f o f a l l t axa t ion f or a t wo-year p er iod , e st i ma ted a t 2 08 d uca ts a y ear ( Campanar i 1 856, I , 2 69 ). Amongs t t he p e t it ions s ub m i t ted t o A lexander V I o n h is e lec t ion i n 1 492 was t he r eques t t ha t t he s ubsidy b e u sed f or t hree y ears t o r epa ir t he walls ( AST , C ons igl i , 4 , f . 8 5 ).
H is r esponse i s n o t r ecorded , b u t t hree
y ears l a ter t he C o mmune was p ress ing f or a h a lv ing o ft he s ubs idy o ver a t en-year p er iod t o r epa ir t he wa l ls a nd t he R ivel l ino s o t ha t i tm ight h ave t he means t o r e ma in l oya l t o t he Church i fa t tacked. 3 5
T he s yste m c on t inued
i n to t he 1 6th c en tury f or i n 1 553 p roceeds f ro m c r im in a l c ases t o t he v a lue o f 3 0 s cud i ay ear w ere a l lowed t o b e s pen t o n t he wa l ls a nd p av ing t he r oads ( Ca mpanar i 1 856, I , d oe. 9 4 ). I tw i l lh ave b een o bv ious t ha t t he r esu l t o f t h is s yste m was t ha t t he u pk eep o ft he t own w a l ls was p a id f or d irec t ly o u t o f t he C o mmune 's r evenue. Th is c ons isted l argely o ft he g abel le o r t axes o n m i l l ing , p as ture, t he s a le o fw ine , mea t a nd o ther a r t ic les wh ich w ere n or mal ly f ar med o u t .
The way
t he i nco me f rom t hese was s pen t was n o t d eter m ined b y a ny f i xed r u les , b u t r a ther d epended u pon wha t was most u rgen t , t he p rof itabi l i ty o f t he t axes, a nd w h ich c ou ld most r ead ily b e r ea l ised a s c ash.
The r egu lar e xpend iture
o f t he C o m mune w as ma in ly o n t he s a lar ies o fo ff icers a nd emp loyees , i nc ludi ng a s choo l mas ter a nd , i n t ime o f p lague , ad oc tor. Publ ic works, t he ma in tenance o f t he wa l ls a nd c hurches , were b y t he ir n a ture e xcep t iona l ma t ters wh ich c ould n ot b e b udgeted f or p rec isely b u t wh ich were c on t inua l ly i n n eed o f a t ten t ion , o f ten a t s hor t n ot ice.
T o p rov ide f or t he m , t he C o m mune
s ee ms a t t imes t o h ave ma in ta ined a f und d ependen t u pon s pec if ied r evenues a nd d es igna ted f or p ar t icu lar b u ild ings , t hough i n f act i tc ou ld b e u sed f a irly f l ex ibly . I n 1 449 N icholas V h ad a pproved a t ax o n mea t a nd w ine t o b e s pen to n t he monastery o f S . Agost ino. I n J une 1 453 t h is was e x tended f or a nother f our y ears, b u t t he C o m mune a t o nce ( w i th t he c onsen t o f t he August in ians ) s iphoned of h al f o fi tf or S . Mar ia Magg iore, a nd t he c hurch a nd h osp ita l o f S . Mar ia d el la Rosa. The f ol low ing y ear , t h is h al f-share o f t he t ax was d iver ted t o t he wa l ls , s ince t he p rebends o ft he c anons o f S . Mar ia Magg iore w ere s u f f ic ien t f or t he u pkeep o f t ha t c hurch , w h ilst S . Mar ia d el la Rosa was t ob e s upported b y af i f th p art o f t he g abel la mac ina tus, t ogether w ith l ev ies o n e xports a nd t he s a lar ies o f o f f ic ials, t he c ombined i nco me f ro m wh ich h ad b een u sed o ver t he l ast n ine y ears t o c arry o u t r epa irs a t S . P ie tro ( AST, C ons ig l i I , f . 2 65v , 3 23 ). , T he mos t impor tan t o f t he g abel le was t ha t o n t he s ale o f mea t .
I t s o r-
g an iza t ion a nd a dm in istra t ion f or m o ne o f t he l argest e le men ts o f c o mmuna l Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 99
b us iness , p art ly b ecause i t was n ecessary t o a ssure a r egu lar s upp ly f or t he c i t izens , a nd p ar t ly b ecause i ts ee ms t o h ave b een more p rof itable t han a ny o f t he o ther t axes. I n 1 453 t he f ar m o f t he macel lu m was s old f or 1 50 d uca ts , a nd u sual ly i t must h ave b een wor th more , s ince i n t ha t y ear t hey h ad h ad d if f icul ty o bta in ing a n a ccep table o f fer f or i t( AST, C ons igl i I , f .244-45). S ince a ny ma jor b u ild ing work o n t he wa l ls w as e xpens ive , i t was u sual ly t he p roceeds o f t he macel lum t ha t w ere u sed t o p ay f or i t . I ti s s ure ly n o t a c o inc idence t ha t t hey w ere a lso r egularly a ss igned f or t he p aymen t o f t he s ubs idy , ar eba te o n w h ich , a s h as b een s een , was o f ten a l lowed f or t he r epair o f t he wa l ls. I t i s d if f icu l t t o a ssess j ust h ow g rea t as tra in t he r ebu ild ing o ft he wal ls p laced u pon t he Co mmune 's f inances. T he e leven r ound t owers were p robably a l lb u il t i n t he t wo d ecades 1 440-60. T he l abour f or e ach t ower c os t 5 0 d uca ts. T he ma ter ials were e x tra. L i me , f or i nstance , was a f urther f i ve d uca ts p er t ower.
I ft he t o tal c ost o f at ower was a bou t 7 5 d ucats , t he Co mmune
wou ld h ave s pen t o ver 8 00 d uca ts o n t owers a lone. I n a dd i t ion , t here w ere n u merous o ther r epa irs. T he c on trac ts i n a ppend ix 2 f or r econstruc t ing s ec t ions o f wa l l i n t he p er iod 1 449-55 amoun t t o a bou t 2 50 d ucats.
Thus ,
o ver 2 0 y ears , e xpend iture o n t he wa l ls must h ave b een i n e xcess o f 1 000 d uca ts, a nd p erhaps a s much a s 1 500 o r more.
A l though i n ab ad y ear t he
f arm o f t he macel lu m m igh tb r ing i n e nough t o p ay f or a l mos t t wo t owers , t h is r evenue was a lready c omm i t ted t o o ther t h ings. A t V i terbo i n t he 1 430s t he mon th ly r evenue was i n t he r ange o f4 5-66 d uca ts , wh ich was c la imed t o b e l ow. Ou tgo ings a t 2 50 d uca ts m igh t h ave b een e xcep t iona l ly h igh b ecause o f warfare ( ACV, LR V , f .31, 1 34v ). I fV i terbo 's a nnua l r evenue was a bou t 8 00-1000 d uca ts, t hen t ha t o f Tuscan ia , wh ich f or t ax p urposes was a ssessed a t ar a te l ess t han h a lf i t s n e ighbour ( ACV, LB I V, f . 1 22v123 ), must h ave b een much l ess , wh ich s uggests t ha t o ver t he t wo d ecades e xpend iture o n t he wa l ls was e qu iva len t t o a bou t 2 -3 y ears ' r evenue o r more. THE ORGAN IZAT ION OF THE DEFENCES I n t heory , p er manen t wa tch was k ep t o ver t he t own wal ls.
Guard d u ty
was a nu npa id o bl iga t ion i ncumben t u pon a l l c i t izens , t hough t hose o ver s ix ty y ears o f a ge were e xc luded • 36
Accord ing t o t he S ta tu tes, t he c ounc il was
t o e lect e very s ix mon ths a t rustworthy man f ro m e ach t erz iere t o s uperv ise t he wa tches ( AST , S ta tu t i I V, 1 07 ). He was t o b e p a id 3 l i bre e very t wo mon ths, a nd a p ound o f c and les e very mon th , a nd h is i n s truct ions w ere c arr ied o u tb y t he c as ta ld i o f t he c o m mune. T he m iles o f t he p odes tà was a lso r espons ible f or s ee ing t ha t g uard d u ty was c arr ied o u t ( AST , C onsigl i I , f . 1 49 ). Wa tches were t o b e k ep t a t t he g a tes a nd i n o ther s pec if ied p laces b y n igh t a nd d ay . T he g a tes were s ingled o u t f or s pec ia l a t ten t ion , a nd e lsewhere t he S ta tu tes made s pec if ic p rov is ion f or g uard ing t he m ( AST , S ta tu t i I V, 4 7 ). Th is i s n ot t ob e wondered a t , e spec ia l ly a s t he ir f unct ion was e cono m ic a s w el l a s d efens ive, f or a t t he p or ta d i Mon tasc ide a nd t he p orta d i S . L eonardo , d u ty was p a id o n g oods e n ter ing o r l eav ing t he t own ( AST, S ta tu t i I V, 1 5 ).
C on trol o f t he g a tes was a lso e ssen t ia l t o k eep s trangers
o u t o f t he t own d ur ing o u tbreaks o f p lague. T hese g enera l ly c aused q u i te a s much a lar m a s t he t hrea t o f war , a nd l ed t o t he e n force men t o f r igorous s ecur ity measures, t he wa l ls s erv ing a s as an i tary c ordon ( c f . AST , C ons igl i 4 , f .345, 5 04v ).
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. 2 00 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
I ti s d if f icu l t t o a ssess h ow wel l imp le men ted o r e f fect ive t he g uard was, a nd n o d eta iled i n for ma t ion e x ists o n i t s o rgan iza t ion . Appoin t men ts o f j an i tors , g enera l ly w ith a s a lary o f o ne d uca t a mon th, t o t he gates o f Mon tas c ide a nd P ogg io , a nd l e ss f requen t ly t ha t o f S . L eonardo, a re t o b e f ound i nt he Cons igl i . They a re r ecorded most f requen t ly i n t i mes o f c r isis — they a re p art icu lar ly r egu lar i n 1 497 —and a re o f ten a cco mpan ied by t he c o m men t t ha t t here was n o o ne p resen t a t t he g a te ( AST, C onsigl i I , f .148;
4 , f .522;
5 , f .132 ). S o met i mes t he j an i tors w ere t o w ork a t t wo g ates, o r wherever m ight b e n ecessary , s ugges t ing t ha t o ne was n o t g uarded o r was a t l east u nder manned , a nd t ha t r egu lar wa tches w ere n o t b e ing k ept e lsewhere o n t he wal ls ( AST, C ons ig l i 4 , f .352v ; 6 , f .144 ). A ma jor p roble m s ee ms t o h ave b een t he r ecru i tmen t o f s u itable p eop le w il l ing t o d o what was d oubt less at ed ious a nd t ime-consu m ing j ob, a nd i ti s c lear t hat t he maintenance o f t he w a tch a t t he g a tes w as a t roubleso me i t em o f c o m munal business. Most j an itors s ee m t o h ave h eld t he ir p osts f or o n ly a f ew mon ths, a nd i n 1 492 o ne h ad t o b e s acked b ecause o f t he s canda lous c onduc t o f h i mself , h is w ife a nd d augh ter. 37 H is s ubst itu te d eparted a f ter o n ly f our months b ecause t he j ob was ' no t c onven ien t f or h im ' ( AST, Cons igl i 4 , f .135 ).
I n J uly 1 494, i n e xas-
p era t ion w ith t he u nsa t isfactory s erv ice r endered by t he men a t t he g a tes, t he Co mmune d is m issed a l l o f t he m a nd t he r esponsibil ity was t ransferred t o t he c i t izens , t hough r ecords d o n ot s urv ive t o s how e ither h ow t h is worked o r h ow s uccessfu l i t was ( AST , C ons igl i 4 , f . 5 74 ). Wi th t he e xcep t ion o f t he g a tes, t here i s l i t tle e vidence t o s how h ow t he measures f or g uard ing t he t own a s e nv isaged b y t he S tatutes were p u t i n to e ffec t . T ha t g uard d u ty was p erfor med o f ten e nough t o beco me i rkso me i s i nd ica ted b y t he s tr ingen t p ena l t ies i ncurred b y t he o ff ic ials a nd c astald i i f t hey a ccep ted b r ibes f ro m t hose t ry ing t o a vo id i t ; and by t he g rant ing o f e xe mp t ion f ro m i tt o t hose who l i ved i n t he l ess p rosperous a reas o f t he t own a nd t o f ore igners who c a me a nd l i ved i n T uscan ia. The Cons igl i o n ly b eco me i n for ma t ive when t here was i mm inen t d anger, a nd s ecur ity was a t o nce t i gh te ned , o f ten o n t he o rders o f t he r ec tor o f t he Patr i mony o r a nother p apa l o ff ic ia l .
S o me o f t he more n otable i nstances o f s uch d irect i n terven t ion b y
t he c en tra l g overn men t were i n May a nd J u ly, 1 453, when a n emergency was o ccas ioned b y t he p resence o f Aragonese t roops, a nd t he g overnor o f t he Pa tr i mony o rdered t he t own t o ma in ta in a s trict guard by d ay a nd b y n igh t ( AST , C ons igl iI , f . 2 58 , 2 70 ); o n t he d ea th o f I nnocen t VI I I i n J u ly 1 492 when t he l ocum tenens p a tr i mon i i e xhor ted t he c o m mune t o r e ma in l oyal t o t he C hurch ( AST , C ons igl i 4 , f . 6 5 ); a nd when Vitel lozzo t hrea tened t o i nvade t he Pa tr i mony i n Apr il 1 499 ( AST , Cons igl i 6 , f .212 ) I n t hese c irc ums tances , ac ounc il meet ing wou ld b e h eld ,a nd a c omm it tee e lec ted t o make t he n ecessary a rrange men ts i n c on junct ion with t he g on falon iere a nd a nz ian i. Bands o f 3 0 men , o r o n o ne o ccas ion 1 0, would b e s ta t ioned a t v ar ious p o in ts a round t he t own . I ts ee ms t ha t t hese had b een i nst i tu ted b y ad ecree o f t he g overnor o f t he Pa tr i mony ( AST, Consign I , f . 2 75 ), a nd w ere p erhaps t herefore a ssoc ia ted w ith t he l evies wh ich t he t own h ad t o s upp ly t o t he p apa l g overn men t when r equ ired. They were p robably o rgan ized b y t erz ier i , a nd d o n o t s ee m t o h ave b een a p er manen t f orce f or i n J u ly 1 492 a t l east , t hey h ad t ob e r ecru ited e spec ial ly f or t he emergency ( AST , Consigl i 4 , f . 6 5 ).
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. 2 01 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
I n a dd i tion t o t he g a tes, s pec ia l g uards w ere g enera l ly moun ted a t S . Paolo, S . Francesco , t he R ivel l ino , t he t urns manc ian i , a nd t h e p la tea c o mun is ( AST, Cons igl i 5 , f .144, 1 47v ). C onsiderable s trateg ic i mpor tance was c learly a ttached t o t he t wo monasteries , a nd i t must b e f or t h is r eason t hat t hey were s o w el l e qu ipped w ith g uard io le. The n umber o f men p osted i n t hese p laces c ou ld b e v ery smal l , a s f ew a s t hree o n o ne o ccas ion ( AST , Consign . 5 , f .144 ). A t t he f irst s ign o f d anger, a t urrer ius was a l so u sua l ly s ent t o k eep a l ook-ou t a t t he t orre d i L ave l lo w here , a s i n t he t ower o f t he p alazzo c ornunale , t here was ab el l t o s ound t he a larm . Wi th t he c on tract ion o f t he t own t o i ts p resen t s i te , t h is t ower , a s t he c ondo t t iere was q u ick t o a pprec ia te, was t he b es t v an tage p o in t f or s urvey ing t he c ountrys ide t o t he S . a nd W. The med ieva l t owers w ere s t il l o f v a lue f or d efence , a nd t hose who s urv ived t he s laugh ter c arr ied o u t b y t he F rench t roops i n 1 49 5 d id s o b y t ak ing r efuge i n t he m. 3 8 T he c ampan il i o f S an ta Mar ia d el la Rosa a nd S . S ilvestro were n o d oub t a lso u t il ized f or d efence , f or b oth a re c onven ien t ly c lose t o t he walls. When a c a mpan ile was b u il t f or S . Mar ia d el R iposo i n 1 498-99 , i t was f urn ished w i th a b a lestr iera ( AST , C ons igl i 6 , f . 1 57v ).
I n
t he 1 5th c en tury most b u i ld ings o u tside t owns w ere f or t if ied , a nd t hese w ere o f ten e xp lo ited a s a dvance d efence works.
Wh i ls t a tV iterbo t here w ere a
n u mber o f o utly ing f ort if icat ions wh ich c ou ld b e u sed t o g uard t he a pproaches t o t he t own ( Pinzi 19 13 , 3 9 , n o te 3 ) , t here i s l i t t le e v idence t o s ugges t t ha t Tuscan ia was s urrounded b y as im ilar s eries o f o u tposts. However, t h e r e ma ins o f a sma ll f ort , d a t ing p robably f ro m t he 1 3th c en tury , a re t ob e f ound j ust t o t he S . o f t he Mar ta b es ide t he r oad t oV i terbo ( see a ppend ix 1 ) . The Consigl i a re f ul l o f c on t inua l e xhorta t ions t ha t t he t own b e p roperly g uarded. Fa ilure t o p erfor m g uard d u ty was a c ommon o f fence, a nd i n May 1 451 t he f ine f or s uch a bsen tee is m was d oubled t o 1 0 s old i ( AST , C ons ig l i I , f .149 ).
At t he s a me t i me , i t was s t ipu la ted t ha t t he m iles o f t he p odes tà
s hould s uf fer a r educ t ion i n s a lary i fh e n eglec ted t o i nspec t t he g uards a t n igh t. Rarely d id t he Co m mune emp loy p rofess iona l s old iers. I n Augus t 1 497 , Mariano d a S iena was a ppo in ted C onestab il is g eneral is w i th e x tens ive p owers o ver s ecurity a nd d efence , i nc lud ing a u thori ty t o f i ne t hose who d id n ot p erfor m g uard du ty ( AST , C onsigl i 5 , f . 1 47 ).
I n t he s ummer o f 1 49 8
t hey h ired a smal l f orce o f e qu ites b a les ter i i e t g annectar i i u nder An ton io d i L uca ( AST , Consigl i 6 , f . 2 9 , 4 9v , 5 1 ). C ons idering t he d ef ic ienc ies o f t he c iv ic mil it ia , i t i s s urprising t ha t t hey d id n ot more o f ten r esor t t o mercena r ies. Bu t i t i s c lear t ha t t he n or mal r evenues o f t he C o mmune d id n o t s uf f ice f or s uch e xcep t iona l e xpense , a nd t o p ay An ton io a nd h is men , a s pec ia l t ax was l evied o n a l l o f f ic ials p ast a nd p resen t o ft he C o mmune, a nd a t al ower r ate ( 2 c arl in i ) o n a l l t he c i t izens ( AST , Cons igl i 6 , f . 2 8 ). Genera l ly , h owever, t hey s ee m t o h ave s ucceeded i n c onduc t ing t he d efence o f t he t own w ithou t r esort ing t o s uch e x traord inary f inanc ia l measures. One a dvan tage o f mercenar ies o ver t he c iv ic m il it ia i s t ha t t hey w ould h ave b een v ery much b etter e qu ipped. T he C o mmune , i ts ee ms , h ad t he r esponsibi l i ty o f a r ming a nd e qu ipp ing t he c i t izenry , a nd h ad i t s own a rsena l , t he mun it io c om .un is. This h ad b een s e ized b y Tartagl ia , b u t was r estored u nder t he t er ms o f t he a gree men t made b y t he t own w i th Mart in V i n 1 422 ( Ca . mpanar i 18 56, I , 2 40 ).
I t was s tored i n t he p a lazzo c omuna le , a nd a t
t he e nd o f t he c en tury i t was k ep t i n t he c lock t ower a nd e n trusted t o t he c are Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. 2 02 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
o ft he modera tor o f t he c lock ( AST , C ons igl i 4 , f . 183, 4 74v ).
However , i t
w as n ot a lways wel l l ooked a f ter a nd i n 1 452 a man h ad b een a ppo in ted t o t ake c harge o f t he mun it io a nd t o c lean i t , r e mov ing t he r ust f ro m t he weapons , a f ter wha t was a dm i t ted t o b e al ong p er iod o f n eglec t ( AST , C onsigl i 1 , f . 2 30v ).
Th is p robably b ecame a r egu lar a ppo in t men t , a nd i n J u ly 1 455 w e
f i nd An ton ius d e Venus io e lec ted massar iu m mun i t ion is c o mun is ( AST , C onsigl i I , f . 3 82 ). Accord ing t o a n i nven tory o f 1 426, t here were 4 5 c rossbows k ep t i n t he p a lazzo c o munale , o ne o f wh ich was made o f s teel ( AST, p erg. 2 02 ).
T he
c rossbow was n o t s uch a c o m mon i t em o f p roper ty a s m igh t b e s upposed .
I t
w as n ot e spec ial ly c heap , c ost ing o ver a d uca t e ach , n or , i ts ee ms , was t here al oca l s ource o f s upp ly .
I n S ep te mber 1 454 i t was p roposed t o t he C ounc il
t hat t he o pportun i ty s hould b e t aken o f t he p resence i n t he t own o f t wo c rossb ow- makers , o ne w ork ing i n w ood a nd t he o ther i n i ron , t o p urchase s o me more a s t here were b u t f ew i n t he a rsenal ( AST , Consigl i 1 , f . 3 34v ). S im ilar ly , i n 1 468 i t was s uggested t ha t t he d ef ic ienc ies o f t he mun i t io b e r e med ied t hrough t he a cqu isi t ion o f c rossbows , s h ields ( c l ipea ) , a nd b reastp la tes ( t oraces ) f or 1 00 men , t he c ost t o b e f ound f rom t he r es idue o f t he money a ss igned f or t he wa l ls.
T h is, i nc iden tal ly , w ou ld e nsure t ha t t here
was s uf f ic ien t e qu ipmen t f or t hree b ands o f 3 0 men.
One p reoccupa t ion o f
t he C o m mune was t ha t t he t ownspeop le s hou ld b e s k il led i n t he u se o f t he c rossbow.
To t h is e nd , ac o mpe t it ion was h eld a t E aster i n 1 463 f or t hose
own ing c rossbows ( AST , C ons igl i 2 , f . 8 v ), a nd t h is s ee ms t o h ave b eco me a n a nnua l e ven t .
I n 1 468 i t was a rranged t ha t t he p r ize, a s teel b ow worth
t wo d uca ts, s hou ld b e d ona ted b y t he J ew ish money lenders r es iden t i n t he t own ( AST , C ons igl i 3 , f . 2 07v ). a t t he e nd o f t he c en tury.
T hese c o mpet i t ions w ere s t i l l b e ing h eld
T here w ere 2 7 e n tran ts f or o ne i n t he p iazza o f
S an Francesco i n F ebruary 1 499 , when t he p r ize was a c rossbow c o m mun is v a lor is t resdec im c ar l inoru m ( AST , C ons igl i 6 , f . 1 80v ). I n t he o rgan iza t ion o f i t s d efences , Tuscan ia was p robably f a irly t yp ica l o f t he sma l l t owns o f t he Pa tr i mony.
T he o n ly a na loguous e v idence Ic an c i te
i s f or V i terbo , f ro m t he f i rst f i ve v olu mes o f t he L ibr i R ifor ma t ionu m c overi ng, w i th l acunae, t he p er iod 1 403-36.
The c o mpar ison i s n ot i dea l ;
t he
p er iod i s d if feren t , a nd V i terbo was a l arger a nd more i mportant t own .
The
o veral l i mpress ion i s t ha t a l though i t was b et ter g uarded t han Tuscan ia , a rrange men ts w ere s t il l f ar f ro m b e ing v ery e ff ic ien t.
T here were c onstan t
c omp la in ts t ha t t he t own was p oorly g uarded , a nd i n emergenc ies t he wa tches h ad t o b e t i gh tened u p i n a way t ha t s uggests t hey w ere n or ma l ly r a ther l ax . Guards a t t he g a tes w ou ld b e i ncreased f ro m a n a verage o f o ne o r t wo t o f our o r f i ve.
The a ppo in t men ts were o f ten b r ief , a nd t here s ee ms t o h ave b een
t he s ame p roble m o f g e t t ing g a te-keepers who w ou ld s tay i n t he ir j obs f or a ny l ength o f t ime. As a t Tuscan ia , c o mm i t tees were a ppo in ted t o s uperv ise p rov isions made f or s ecur ity i n t imes o f c ris is. However , t h is was g enera l ly t he r espons ib i l i ty o f af ul lt i me o f f ic ial , t he g uard ianus , f or who m t here i s n o e v idence a t T uscan ia .
He i s r ecorded a t d if feren t t imes a s h av ing b een
a ppo in ted b y t he t reasurer o ft he Pa tr i mony a nd t he p r iori ( ACV, L R I , f . 2 0 ;
I V, f . 13 , 2 1 ).
H is t er m o f o f f ice l as ted s ix mon ths , a nd h is d u t ies w ere
t wofold , t o d ea l w i th c r im ina l c ases , p resu mably w i th a g enera l p ol ic ing f unc t ion , a nd t o s uperv ise t he wa tches b y d ay a nd n igh t ( ACV, LR I , f . 9 9v ; Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
2 03
f . 2 0 ;
I V, f . 2 1).
He h ad a f am i l ia o f f our men , i nclud ing t wo n o tar ies
( ACV. L B W, 1 .22 ). He n eeded t he m , a s h is work l oad s ee ms t oh ave b eco me e xcessive. B ecause t he o rgan iza t ion o f t he wa tches was i nadequa te , h e w as r el ieved i n 1 434 o f h is r espons ib il i ty f or t he s ecur ity o f t he t own , t hough r e ta in ing h is p ol ice d u t ies, a nd was r ep laced i n t h is c apac ity b y t wo men ( ACV, LB V , f . 6 0 ). There s ee ms t o b e l i t t le e v idence i n t he 1 5th c en tury f or a c i t izen m il i t ia a t V i terbo e qu iva len t t o t he b ands o f t h irty a t T uscan ia . A s ingle r eference d a t ing f ro m 1 404 t o ag abel la c ustod ie s uggests t ha t t he o bl iga t ion t o p erfor m g uard d u ty , wh ich i s r ecorded i n t he s ta tu tes o f 1 251 ( Cia mp i 1 872, 5 95 ), may g enera l ly h ave b een c o mmu ted i n to a t ax ( ACV, L B I , f .90v ). I n t imes o fd anger , c ap i tane i w i th b ands o f a rmed men w ere s omet imes emp loyed t o p atrol i nside a nd o u tside t he wa l ls ( ACV, LR I V, f . 5 6; V , f . 5 3 ). Vi t erbo h ad a n a rsena l , f i rst r ecorded i n t he s tatu tes o f 1 251. N o f u l l i nven tory o fi ta t a ny t ime s ee ms t o h ave s urv ived . There s eems t o h ave b een a p ermanen t o f f ic ia l i n c harge o f i t( c f . ACV, LB I I , f . 2 1-21v , 1 52 ), a nd t he a r ms i n i t were d ispensed t o t he c i t izens b y t he g uard ianus ( ACV, LB I V, f .111 ). I t was c usto mary f or c ommuna l o f f ic ials t o make a d ona t ion o f ac rossbow a t t he e nd o f t he ir t erm o f o f f ice , ap ract ice t ha t n o d oubt e nsured t ha t i t was wel l s tocked. TUSCAN IA I N WARTIME T he y ears s ubsequen t t o t he i nvas ion o f I t a ly b y Char les V I II o f F rance i n 1 494 s aw a r evolu t ion i n t he t echn iques o f warfare i n I taly . One o f t he most i mpor tan t d evelopmen ts was t he n ew p r i macy a ssu med b y a r t il lery. For a sma l l t own s uch a s Tuscan ia , t h is mean t t ha t i t s d efences h ad b eco me o bsolete o vern ight.
T h is l esson was b rough t h o me f orc ibly a t a n e arly s tage
i n t he war when i n 1 495 t he t own was b es ieged a nd t aken b y t he F rench t roops t o who m i th ad r efused e n try ( c f . n ote 3 8 ).
As w e l l a s massacr ing a l arge
n umber o ft he c i t izens —est i ma tes r ange f ro m 6 00 t o 3 ,000— the French a re w ith d o ing a n e nor mous amoun t o f d a mage t o t he t own , e spec ia l ly
• c red i ted
o n i t s s ou thern f l ank , a nd i nclud ing b u ild ings o n t he h i l l o f S . P ietro a nd t he h osp ita l o f S . Mar ia d el la Rosa .
T he d evasta t ion h as b een t hough t b y s o me
t o h ave b een s uf f ic ien t ly c a tastroph ic t o e xp la in t he a bandonmen t o f t he S . p art o f t he t own ( c f . Z occa 1 943 ).
A l though t he e x is tence o f at errap ieno
b eh ind much o f t he c ircu i t o f t he t own wal ls mean t t ha t t hey h ad a c erta in c apac i ty t o w ithstand b o mbard men t , t he wa l ls t he mselves w ere much t oo t h in t o o f fer p rolonged r es is tance. There were a lso many weak s po ts a nd f ew s u i table p laces t o moun t a rt i l lery. I ndeed , t he u se o f f i rearms f or d efence s ee ms t o h ave b een l im i ted s i mp ly t o h and g uns d ep loyed f ro m t he l oopholes o ft he t owers. More i mpor tan t , t he Co mmune 's s tock o f a r t il lery was v ery r ud i men tary . The p roble ms w i th wh ich t he C o m mune h ad t o c ope , a nd t he measures t aken t o mee t t he n ew m il i tary c ircu mstances, c an b e i l lus tra ted b y ac ons idera t ion o f t he e ven ts o f 1 497. 39 Th is was a r ela t ively q u ie t y ear , a nd t he f i gh t ing was m .a in ly c on f ined t o N or th I t a ly. w ar n ever b eca me more t han i r nm inen t.
A t Tuscan ia , t he t hrea t o f
N ever theless , t he t own s uf fered
t he h i l l r epercuss ions o f t he f i gh t ing i n t he Pa tr i mony o ccas ioned b y A lexander V I 's a t tack o n t he Ors in i, a nd t here were c onstan t d e mands f or money , men a nd p rov is ions, a nd f or t he b il le t ing o f t roops.
Moreover, i t was a t ime
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
2 04
w hen g rain was s carce , p robably b ecause o f t he e f fect o f c on t inual warfare o n a gr icu l ture , a nd p lague was r ife. 4°
I ti s n o t s urpr ising t ha t t he C ons igl i
a re f ul l o f r eferences t o t he ir c a la m i ta tes , a nd t he l a men t t ha t t he t own was p auper e t m iserr i ma was c er ta in ly more t han mere r hetor ic.
A t t he b eg inn ing
o f t he y ear , Tuscan ia w as r equ ired t o s end 2 5 men t o t he s iege o f Bracc iano. H owever , Bar tolo meo d a A lv iano h eld o u t s uccessfu l ly a t Bracc iano , a nd was r el ieved b y C arlo Ors in i a nd V i tel lozzo, who d efea ted t he p apa l f orces n ear S or iano n e l C im ino.
T he ir c o m mander Gu idobaldo d a Mon tefel tro t ook r efuge
i n Tuscan ia , a nd a n a t tack b y V i tel lozzo was f eared i n February ( AST , C onsigl i 2 , f .9 2 ). T he e x ten t o f t he C o m mune 's f inanc ia l d istress c an b e s een i n i t s f a ilure t o p ay b o th t he r egu lar t axes a nd t he e x tra d e mands made u pon i tb y t he Papacy t o f inance i t s war e f fort.
I n J u ly , t he T reasurer o f t he Patr i mony
s eized t he c a t t le o f L ivera tus S anctus i n r eco mpense f or t he d ebt ow ing f ro m t he u npa id s ubs idy a nd t he s al t t ax ( AST , Cons igl i 5 , f . 1 37 ).
E ar l ier i n t he
y ear, t he Marsha l o f t he Pa tr i mony h ad a lso s e ized c a t t le a nd c arr ied t he m o f f t o Mon tal to d i Castro b ecause Tuscan ia h ad n o t c on tribu ted t owards t he e xpenses i ncurred b y t he s t ipendar i i o ft he Duke o f Cand ia a t V i terbo ( AST , Cons ign 5 , f . 3 4 ).
I n August , t he C o m mune r ece ived a p apa lb rief a nnounc-
i ng t he g ran t o f ac ondo t ta t o E rcole Ben t ivogl io a nd h is f orce o f o ver 1 00 men , a nd o bl ig ing t he t owns o f t he Papa l S ta te t o b i l let a nd s upp ly t he m when r equ ired ( AST , C ons igl i 5 , f . 1 76 ).
Ben t ivogl io s ee ms n ot t o h ave c o me t o
Tuscan ia u n t il May o f t he n ex t y ear when t he s t ipendar i i c arr ied o f f l arge q uan t i t ies o f h ay a nd r equ isi t ioned t he e p iscopa l p a lace much t o t he c hagrin o f t he b ishop ( AST , Cons igl i 6 , f . 3 0 s eq.).
Bu t e ven i f , a s s ee ms p oss ible,
Tuscan ia a vo ided t he b il let ing o f t roops i n 1 49 7 , mercenary f orces w ere n ever v ery f ar a way, a nd i t was w i th j us t if ica t ion t ha t o ne c ounc il lor c ou ld c o mp la in t ha t t he t own c on t inue f u it v exa ta e tg rava ta t oto h oc a nno d e g en t ibus a rm igeris ( AST , Cons igl i 2 , f . 2 08 ). D esp i te t he d a mage d one b y t he French , t here i s n o d e ta i led e vidence f or a ny r ebui ld ing o f t he wa l ls b eyond v ague a nd r epea ted r eferences t o h ow b adly t hey n eeded r epa ir.
On 6 th J anuary , a l lb u i ld ing workers were r equ ired
t o s pend t he n ex t Monday r epa ir ing t he wa l ls , a nd o n t he 2 6th i t was p roposed t ha t t h is o rder b e e x tended t o a l l t he c i t izens ( AST , C onsigl i 2 , f . 3 7v , 6 7 ). I t was n o t t he wa l ls, h owever , t ha t n eeded u rgen t a t ten t ion s o much a s t he g a tes , t he wooden d oors o f wh ich n eeded t o b e r ep laced ( AST , C onsigl i , 2 , f . 4 9 , 6 4v , 8 2, 19 9v ).
These r epa irs were t o b e f inanced b y t he f ar m o f t he
magnu m mace l lu m , which was a lso a ss igned f or t he p ay men t o f t he s ubs idy. These w ere minor ma t ters i n c o mpar ison w i th t he t own 's d espera te n eed o f m il itary e qu ipmen t , e spec ia l ly a rt i l lery.
T here was n o a rt il lery i n t he
p a lazzo c o munale i n 1 426 ( AST , p erg. 2 02 ) , a nd a t V iterbo sma l l f i rear ms ( bo mbardel le a nd s copp iet t i ) s ee m t o h ave b een u nknown b efore 1 433 ( Cia mp i 1 872, 5 5, n o te 3 ).
Tuscan ia h ad s o me a rt il lery b y 1 454, 4 1
s p ingard h ad b een u sed t o d efen O rs in i ( Pinz i 19 13, 3 14 ).
a nd i n 1 48 6 a
t he t own when i t was b es ieged b y V irg in io
An i nven tory o f t he c lock t ower made i n 1 49 2 makes
i tp oss ible t o e xa m ine t he t own 's m i l itary p reparedness a l mos t o n t he e ve o f t he F rench i nvas ion • ( AST , ' C ons igl i 4 , f . 1 83 ).
There were t welve c ross-
b ows, t wo o f wh ich were o f i ron , a nd s ix l arge b ows.
T hey were , h owever ,
o u tnu mbered b y t he a r t il lery , o f wh ich t here were 3 2 p ieces , c o mpris ing 1 4 s p ingards , e igh t a rquebuses a nd t en s copp ie t t i.
T here was a lso s o me s a l t-
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2 05
p etre, ab arrel o f s u lphur , 2 1 s tone b al ls a nd v ar ious a ccessor ies.
Art il lery
was a ma jor p re-occupa t ion , a s i ts ee ms t o h ave c augh t t he p opu lar imag ina t ion a nd h ave b een r egarded a s ap oten t d e terren t i fn o t ar e medy f or a l l d angers.
I n t he c ounc il meet ings , t here w ere many r eferences t o i ta nd
p ressure t ha t more b e o b ta ined.
On 6 th J anuary , when i th ad b een a rranged
t ha t t he f ar m o f t he mea t market b e u sed t o p ay t he s ubs idy a nd t o f i nance t he r epa ir o f t he wa l ls , i t was s t ipu la ted t ha t a ny s urp lus l ef t o ver f ro m t he l a t ter s hou ld b e u sed t o p urchase a rt il lery , p owder a nd b a l ls ( AST , C onsigl i 2 , f . 4 0v ).
A c omm i t tee s et u p o n t he 1 7 th t o s ee t o t he r epa ir o f t he g a tes
a nd t he mak ing o f s tone b al ls was a lso a u thor ized t o p urchase a r ms a nd a r mour a nd d ispense t he m t o t he c i t izens , a nd t wo d ays l a ter a l arge o rder was p laced w i th t he merchan t L orenzo d i An ton io d a Berga mo f or m il itary e qu ip men t ( AST , C ons igl i 2 , f .48 , 5 1).
Th is i nc luded 1 50 s h ields , 1 0 c ross-
b ows , 2 5 l ances, 1 000 a rrows, 5 a rquebuses a nd i t e ms o fb ody a r mour.
A t
t he e nd o f t he mon th , i tw as v o iced amongs t t he c i t izens t hat t he g uns k ep t i n t he p a lazzo c o muna le s hou ld b e moun ted o n t he wal ls, t hough o thers t hough t t hey s hou ld r e ma in i n t he p a lace u n t i l r equ ired . q uest ion o f s tra tegy ;
T h is was e ssen t ia l ly a
whe ther t he g uns s hou ld b e p er manen t ly s et u p w here
t hey wou ld p robably b e n eeded , a t t he r isk o f t he ir r ust ing a nd d e ter iora t ing ; o r k ep t u nder c over i n t he p a lace , wh ich mean t t ha t t here w ou ld b e ad e lay b efore t hey c ould b e b rough t i n to a c t ion .
The p roble m was o ne o f n ew w ine
i n o ld b o t t les , f or t he wa l ls a nd t owers h ad n o f aci l i t ies f or t he p er manen t i nsta l la t ion o f a r t il lery .
G iaco mo d e Rube is s ee ms t o h ave f ound a c o mpro m ise
w hen h e s uggested t hat a g un b e s et a t e ach g a te , b u t t ha t t he r est o f t he a r t il lery b e k ept i n t he p alace , w el l ma in ta ined a nd r eady t o b e d espa tched t o t he wa l ls w hen t he o ccas ion a rose ( AST , Cons igl i 2 , f .66 ). The t echnology a nd e xper t ise f or mak ing g uns was n ot t o b e f ound a t T uscan ia a nd t hey were d ependen t f or t he ir s upp ly u pon merchan ts l ike L orenzo d i An ton io d a Berga mo , a nd o n i t ineran t c raf ts men. 4 2
On 5 th
F ebruary , ac er ta in Ber tono d a Bresc ia , mag ister a r t igl iarie , o f fered h is s erv ices t o t he C o m mune ( AST , Consigl i 2 , f .74v ).
H e i s p resu mably t o b e
i den t if ied w i th Bertol ino d a B resc ia , who t hree d ays l a ter , t oge ther w ith Bernard ino d i Bon ifaz io a nd Bar tolo meo d i G iovann in i , b o th a lso f ro m Bresc ia , a greed t o make 4 0 a rquebuses f or t he C o m mune a t ac os t o f 1 4 q ua trin i p er p ound w e ight ( AST, C ons igl i 2 , f , 7 9v ).
On c o mp let ion o f t he w ork , t hey
were t he mselves t o p ubl ic ly d e mons tra te e ach g un t hree o r f our t imes a t t he ir o wn r isk .
Th is s t ipu la t ion was n o t u nreasonable , a s i s t o b e s een f ro m
as tory t o ld b y C a mpanar i.
Dur ing t he N apoleon ic Wars , Tuscan ia b ough t
ag un f ro m V iterbo a nd t es ted i tu p a t S . P ietro , a im ing i ta t o ne o f t he med ieva l t owers.
F ired w ith o n ly h al f i t s c harge , i ts urv ived r ela t ively i n tac t
b u t when , e ncouraged b y t h is, t hey l oaded i tp roperly , i t was r educed t o sm ithereens. I n t he s u m mer, a mag ister a r t igl iarie f ro m Cast i le was a lso p resen t a t Tuscan ia , a nd t he C o m mune wen t t o s o me l eng ths t o c our t h is s erv ices.
He was p ardoned a f ine t o wh ich h e h ad b een s en tenced o n ac harge
o f a ssau l t a nd t hen , when h e l e f t t he t own , l e t ters were s en t a f ter h im d es ir ing t ha t h e r eturn t o t he ir emp loy men t ( AST , C ons igl i 5 , f . 8 9v , 1 45v , 1 47v ) . The g uns i n t he p ossess ion o ft he C o m mune were a l l smal l .
A s copp iet to
was 2 -3 f tl ong a nd a n a rquebus , o f wh ich b y t he e nd o f 1 497 t hey must h ave h ad a bou t o ne h undred , 3 -4 f t .
T hey f ired smal l l ead s ho t ( Pro m is 1 841, 1 26 ).
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T he ir l argest g un was t he s p ingard, wh ich was 8 f tl ong a nd f i red a s tone b al l w e igh ing 10 -15 l bs ( Pro m is l oc . c i t .). I t must h ave b een t oo b ig t o b e u sed f rom t he l oopholes o f t he t owers a nd p resu mably was s e t u p o n t op o f t he m. The s p ingard was p robably o ne o f t he l arges t g uns t ha t c ou ld b e u sed f ro m u nmod if ied med ieva l f ort if ica t ions.
The e arly 1 4th-cen tury c ast le a t C it ta
d e l la P ieve i n Umbr ia was e qu ipped w ith s ix o f t he m i n 1 47 1 ( Canu t i 19 26, 7 5 ), a nd t here were t wo i n t he mast io o f t he r occa o f Bo lsena i n t he 1 6th c en tury ( Buch icch io 19 74 ). s urprising.
The a bsence o f h eavy g uns a t T uscan ia i s n ot
T hey n eeded t eams o f o xen t o p u l l t he m a nd c ranes t o l i f t t he m ,
e ven h ad t here b een a nywhere o n t he d efences where t hey c ou ld b e s a t isfact or ily moun ted.
S k i l led men w ere r equ ired t o f i re t he m , a nd i n t he s econd
h a l f o f t he 1 5th c en tury , ab o mbard ier m igh t b e p a id 7 -10 f l or ins p er mon th ( Pasqua l i L asagn i a nd S tefanel l i 19 37 , 1 64 ).
I n t he s a me p eriod , al arge
b o mbard c ou ld e as ily c ost more t han 1 00 f l or ins -( Pasqua l i L asagn i a nd S tefanel l i 19 37 , 1 59 , 1 61 ). As i t was, t he C o m mune h ad d if f icul ty meet ing t h is e x traord inary e xpend i ture o n a rquebuses a nd o ther e qu ip men t. T he f ar m o f t he mea t marke t d id n o t s uf f ice f or t he p ay men t o f t he s ubs idy ( see a bove ), p erhaps b ecause t oo much o f t he money was d iver ted t o t he wa l ls , wh ilst t he c os t o f t he a r ms a nd t he r epa ir o f t he g a tes h ad t o b e met b y l oans r a ised f ro m p r iva te c i t izens, a nd f ro m 5 0 s alme o fg ra in wh ich t he C o mmune b ough t a pparen t ly a s as pecula t ive v en ture ( AST , C onsigl i 2 , f . 5 2-53 ).
By
t he e nd o f February , h owever , t he worst o f t he c r is is was o ver , a nd t he r ep ay men t o f t he l oans made t e mpore b el l i was a u thor ized f ro m t he money r a ised f ro m t he g ra in . The a dven t o f a r t il lery warfare merely r e-af f ir med t he c on trac t ion o f s et tle men t a t Tuscan ia . a t S . P ietro.
T he French a r my i s s a id t o h ave d estroyed b u ild ings
I t i s d oubtfu l , i n f ac t , i ft here was much s et t le men t o n o r i n
t he v ic in ity o f t he h il l , b u t a f ter t h is t ime a ny f cr m o f dwel l ing o u ts ide t he t own b eca me t oo v u lnerable t o b e v iable. h ad b eco me u n th inkable.
Undefended e x tramura l s e t tle men t
O ther t owns i n L az io, s uch a s Or te a nd S u tr i ,
s hrank b ack i n t he 1 5th c entury t o t he ir o r ig ina l h il l top s i tes , a bandon ing wa l led b orgh i o n l ower g round.
A l though i t wou ld b e t enden t ious t o a rgue
t ha t a rt il lery m igh t h ave b een more t han j ust o ne o f many f actors i n t h is p rocess , n a tura l d efences were t he c heapest a nd most e f fec t ive way o f w iths tand ing b o mbard men t .
I n a dd it ion , t he f or t if ica t ion o f s parsely s et tled a reas
h ad b eco me i mposs ible w i thou t u ndertak ing c ost ly m i l i tary e ng ineer ing.
A t
Tuscan ia , t he o p t i mu m l i ne o f d efence h ad a lready b een a ssu med b y t he midd le o f t he 1 5 th c en tury .
The o n ly s ubsequen t mod if ica t ion t o i t s c ourse
was a t S et te C annel le where t he e x ist ing r e-en tran t was f or med , t he wal l b e ing moved b ack s o t ha t i tr evetted a l ow c l if f .
The wa l ls c on t inued t o b e
u sed f or d efence i n to modern t imes, s ee ing a c t ion a t l east a s l a te a s t he N apoleon ic Wars , b u t were n ever modern ized.
On ly i n t he 2O th c entury h as,
t he t own b egun t o s pread o u tside t he m , b u t t his n ew s et tle men t h as s hunned t he s i te o f t he o nce f l our ish ing med ieval c i ty , p referr ing i ns tead t he h igher g round t o t he N .
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2 07
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Tuscan ia, p lan o f t he c entro s tor ico .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. 2 08 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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Map o f Tuscan ia s how ing t he t own wa l ls.
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
300 m
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
APPEND IX 1 A MED IEVAL FORTIF IED S ITE OUTS IDE TUSCA N IA L ess t han 2 km t o t he E . o f Tuscan ia , o n t he o pposi te b ank o f t he r iver Mar ta , t he r e ma ins o f a sma l l med ieva l f or t if ied s i te a re t o b e f ound o n a n arrow r idge s i tuated j ust t o t he W. o f ah a irp in b end i n t he r oad t o V iterbo . T he r idge i s s teep-s ided a nd e x tre me ly i naccess ib le . I ti s s eparated f ro m t he modern r oad b y ag u l ley u p t o 1 2 m d eep wh ich i s i n f act a n E truscan h o l low way o r v ia c ava , f l anked b y t o mbs a nd k nown a s L e S ca let te ( Qu i l ic i G ig l i 1 970 , 6 7 , 7 4 ).
The f or t c ons isted o f ap o lygona l e nc losure measur ing
n o more t han a bou t 3 0 m b y 2 0 m a t t he N . e nd o f t he r idge .
I t s g round p lan
a nd a p i le o f f a l len masonry s uggest t here was a t ower o r s im i lar s tructure o n i t s N . s ide .
T he c ur ta in wa l l i s 1 .20 m t h ick a nd s tands t o a max i mu m
h e ight o f b etween 1 -2 m . 3 0-40 cm l ong .
I ti s b u i lt o f a sh lar b locks 3 0 cm h igh a nd g enera l ly
T he w a l l c ore i s we l l made , r epeat ing t he e x terna l f ac ing .
O n t he W. s ide o f t he e nc losure , t here i s ac ur ious d eep , n arrow c ut i n t he t ufa , i n o ne s ide o f wh ich t here a re t hree r ound-arched r ecesses .
J ust t o
t he S . o f t he f or t t here i s ad eep h o le c ut i n t he r ock , wh ich may h ave b een ac istern .
I t s mou th s ee ms t oo w ide f or i tt o h ave b een a g ra in s torage p i t .
T he S . e nd o f t he r idge i s v ery n arrow a nd r idd led w ith t o mbs a nd r ock c ut t ings . T h is s i te s ee ms t o b e c o mp lete ly u ndocu men ted , o r a t l east c anno t y et b e i den t if ied w ith a ny o f t he med ieva l p lace-na mes k nown f or t he im med iate e nv irons o f T uscan ia .
I n af ragmen t o f t he C ons ig l i d at ing f ro m 1 278 ( AST
p erg .2 9 ) , t here i s ac ur ious a nd u n ique a l lus ion t o t he c astru m c o mun is . Q u ite what t h is r efers t o i s u ncer ta in , b ut t h is f or t was u ndoub ted ly a c astru m , h av ing t he e ssen t ia l f eatures o f ac ur ta in wal l a nd p robab ly a t ower . masonry s uggests i tw as b u i lt i n t he 1 2th o r 1 3th c en tury .
T he
I tm igh t h ave b een
a ssoc iated w i th a u n i t o f l and-ho ld ing , o r sma l l e state , a nd c ou ld e ven h ave b een t he c en tre o f a smal l s e t t le men t , t he i nhab i tan ts l iv ing i n t he c aves a nd p erhaps c apanne o r h u ts .
A l ternat ively , i t migh t h ave b een b u i l t b y t he
C o m mune t o g uard t he a pproaches t o t he t own .
Whatever i t s o r ig ins , i tv ery
l i ke ly c a me t o h ave t h is f unct ion b y t he e nd o f t he M idd le Ages .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. 2 11 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
AR C H E D RE C E S S E S
0 ?CI S T E R N
F IG .3 .2 2 SKETCH PLAN OF FORT IF IED S ITE
30 m 0
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2 12
50 M
7 ; 1 . • sk .
APPEND IX 2 BU ILD ING CONTRACTS The d ocu men ts p r in ted h ere a re t he most impor tan t o f t he c on tracts i n t he Cons igl i r ela t ing t o t he r ebu ild ing o f t he t own w a l ls i n t he mid-15th c ent ury.
S ix C onsigl i v olu mes s urv ive f or t ha t c en tury .
They c on tain i nfor-
ma t ion o n o n ly 2 0 y ears , a nd n ot f or a l l o f t hese i n t he ir e n t irety : 1 463, 1 466-68 , 1 488-89 , 1 492-94, 1 497-99 .
1 449-56,
I n t he m w ere c op ied t he minutes
o f c ounc il meet ings , p apa lb r iefs a nd o ther c orrespondence, and t he d eta ils o f much g eneral a dm in is tra t ive b us iness. On o ne o ccas ion , i t was p roposed t ha t as epara te b ook b e k ep t f or r ecord ing c on trac ts a nd t he sales o f t he g abel le ( AST, C ons igl i I , f . 3 50 ).
However , n o s uch v olu me has s urv ived
a nd when e x tens ive i n for ma t ion o n ab u i ld ing p ro jec t e x ists, most o f t he ma jor c on tracts s ee m t o h ave b een c op ied i n to t he C onsigl i.
The Consigl i
f or m p ar t o f t he Arch iv io S tor ico o f t he C o m mune o f T uscan ia , wh ich was r e moved t o t he Arch iv io d i S ta to a t V i terbo a f ter t he e arthquake.
1 .
Ambros ino a nd Gu ido d a Varese a gree t o d e mo l ish a l ength o f wall a nd
t o r ebu ild i tw ith a r ound t ower ( probably T 15 ).
C onsigl i I , f . 1 42v.
C op t i mu m d a tu m mag is tr is
D ie x x i mar t i i ( 1451)
Ambrox ino e t Gu idon i
C onven ien tes i n u nu m c larissi mi
mura toribus.
d om in i Confa loner ius e t Antiani S er N icolaus S er Angel l e t J ohannes
I u t ii G ia i s uperst i tes s upra f abr ica m muroru m c iv ita t is i n s alla palat ii e oru m s ol ite r es iden t ie, p ar i e oru m c onsensu e t p r ius matura h abita del iberat ione i n ter i psos s t ipu lan tes n om ine c o mun is, d ederun t a d c oc tu mu m magistris Ambrox ino e t Gu idon i d e Vares io mura tor ibus, p resen t ibus, s t ipulan tibus e t r ec ip ien t ibus i n s ol idu m p ro s e e t h ered ibus s u is a d f abr icandu m una m p ar iete m mur i r u ina ta m i n muris c o mun is i n l oco a pud t urr i m do mine t urrach i i , e t c onverso d o mu m f are m i ;
v idel icet a d f ac iendu m muru m
r u inatu m i n d ic to l oco g ross i tud in is mur i s tan t is i n p ed i a pud d icta m r u ina m f abr icandam v ersus p orta m p od ii ;
e t r u inare t o tu m muru m antiquu m u sque
a d murum n ovu m v ersus d ic ta m t urri m d om ine u sque a d f unda men ta.
E t i n
med io d ic t i l aborer i i t enean tur c onstru ire u na m t urr im r otunda m grossa m s ecundu m mur i g ross itud ine m e t l arg i tud ine m t urns r otunde Sanct i Augustin i c um b a l l ister i is e tb o mbarder i is n ecessar i is s icu t s un t c onstructe a l ie t urres. E t d ictu m muru m e t t urns s in t a l t i tud in is g ross i tud in is a d e quar merul i n ov i v ersus t urr im s uprad ic ta m t urrach i i .
E t d ic t i d o min i e t e lves s uper-
s t ites p ro m iserun t n om ine q uo s upra d are d ic t is mag istr is p ro eoru m merced is s olu t ione d uca tos q u inquag in tä . d uos a ur i, e t c alce m e t l ap ides n ecessarios p ro d ic to l aborer io c onduc tos e xpens is c o mun is a d l ocu m d icti l aborer ii , n ecnon l i gna m ina n ecessar ia p ro p on t ibus, v asa e t ia m p ro t enenda a qua e t omn ia n ecessar ia p ro f i end is p on t ibus , e t s im il i ter i psis mutuare ad e xpensas Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. 2 13 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
c o mun is b est ias p ro c areg iando a renam e t a quam p ro d ic to l aborer io.
E t
d icti magis tr i t enean tur e t d ebean t f abr icare d ic tum muru m i n tus d e b o t i is. Qui d om in i p refa t i e t c ives o bl igaverun t omn ia b ona d ic t i c o mun is.
E t d ic t i
magistr i o bl igaverun t s e e t omn ia s ua b ona p resen t ia e t f u tura mob i l ia e t im mobil ia p ro m i t ten tes e tc. I uran tes e tc . E t n on p oss in t r el inquere d ic tum l aborer iu m h abendo modu m a c omun i l aborand i . Presen t ibus F ranc isco Farnexan i Cristoforo Vanu t i i P r inc ival l is Tho ma Franc isc i
omn ibus c iv ibus e t h ab itor ibus c iv ita t is Tuscane t est ibus e tc.
At t he f oo t o f t he s ame p age t here i s ar ecord o f ap urchase o f l ime b y t he Co m mune f or t h is b u i ld ing work . E mp tio c a lc is p ro
D ic to d ie .
suprad ic to c oc tu mo.
Prefa t i d om in i C on faloner ius e t An t ian i e t S er N ico laus a bsen te I ohanne I u t t i v olen tes o peram d are q uo s uprad ic tum
l aborer iu m f i a t , u na m in iter n om ine c o mun is emerun t aG iorg io Andree sal inas c en tum c a lc is, a d r a t ione m s a lmaru m d ece m p ro q uoque d uca to a ur i , quas d ic tus G iorg ius p ro m is i t d are i n tegre c omun i ad ie s ecundo Apr il is i n antea a d omne m v olun ta te m e t r equ isi t ione m p refa toru m d om inorum e t c iv ium . Presen t ibus Angelo Man fred i Cecho Petr i C urt i
omn ibus c iv ibus e t h ab ita tor ibus
S tefano Nard i Merl in i
c iv i ta t is T uscane t es t ibus e tc .
2 . A mbros ino a nd Gu ido d a Varese a nnounce t ha t t hey a re r eturn ing t o t he ir ho mes i n N . I t a ly , a nd a ppo in t t he p r ies t , I acobo L ombardo , t o c omp lete t he work on t ower T 15 a nd t he a d jacen t wa l l . , Obl igat io p resbi tri I acobi L o mbard i d e c o mplendo t urre m e t
Cons igl i I , f . 2 36.
D ie x i i d ece mbr is ( 1 452 ) Mag ister Ambros inus e t
l ombard i l a to m i ,
Mag ister Gu ido
s ive mura tores ,
muru m i ux ta p or ta m c o mparuerun t c oram s uprad ic t is d om in is p odii. Confa loner io e t An t ian i e xponen tes e t a sseren tes s ese t ener i e t o bl iga tos f ore c o mun i h u ius c iv ita t is f abr icare f acere e t c o mplere t urre m e t murum c o mun is p ro p ar te f ac tos i ux ta p ort a .m p od i i e t c um a l iqu ibus p ac t is f i r ma t is i n ter i psos e t c omune.
E t c um a d p resens
i n tendan t a d p ropr ios h ires r e meare v el in t q ue p ro e oru m p arte p rom issa actend i e t o bservare. Rel iquerun t e t p osuerun t i ne oru m l ocu m a d f ac iendum e t ad implendu m q ue i ps i f acere e t a d imp lere t enen tur p resb itrum I acobu m l o mbardu m mura tore m p resen te m e t a ccep tan te m . Qu i p ro m isit p refat is do min is Gon fa loner io e t An t ian is p resen t ibus e t r ec ip ien t ibus v ice e t n om ine c o mun ita t is e t s uoru m s uccessoru m d ic tum muru m e t t urre m a d f i nem deducere e t c omp lere e t omn ia o bservanda a d q ue p refa t i mag istr i t enen tur du m modo s ibi s erven tur p ac ta e t p ro m issiones f ac tas d ic t is mag is tr is A mbrosino e t Gu idon i e t e i d e d eb ito s a lar io e t mercede p rov idea tur p rou t i psis magistr is e sset p er c o mune p rov idendum e t r espondendu m s i i p se d ic tum opus c o mp lever i t e tc.
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. 2 14 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
Ac tu m i n s a la magna p a la t i i r es iden t ie s uprad ic toru m d om inoru m C onfa loner i i e t An t ianoru m p resen t ibus An ton io C ecch i Gope ( ? ) d e Tuscana e t Mag istro An ton io d e Mart in i d e Co mo t est ibus a d p ac ta e tc.
3 .
Ma tteo d i G iovann i d a Co mo i s g iven a c on tract t o r ebu ild a s tretch o f
wa l l b etween t he p or ta Posterle a nd t he n ew wal lb u il t b y Tartagl ia . C ons igl i I , f . 2 80. C oct i mu m d a tu m Ma t theo I ohann is d e Cu mo
D ie x v i i i s ep te mbr is ( 1 453 ) C onven ien tes i n u nu m c lar iss im i d om in i C on faloner ius Popu l i e t
An t ian i c o mun is a c S er N icola S er Angel l u nus e x s uprastan t ibus s upra f abr ica muroru m c iv i ta t is , a bsen te I ohanne I u t i i a l tero e x i l l is s upras tan t ibus q u i p rou t p refa t i d om in i e t S er N icola a sseruerun t a d p ac iscandu m c um i nfrascr ip to mag is tro i n terfu it.
I n
s a la p a la t i i e oru m s ol ite r es iden t ie p ari e oru m c onsensu ma tura p r ius h ab i ta i n ter e os d el ibera t ione s t ipu lan te n om ine d ic t i c o mun is c oc t i maverun t e t i n c oct i mu m d ederun t mag istro Ma t theo I ohann is d e Cu mo p resen t i r ec ip ien t i e t l eg it i me s t ipu lan te p ro s e e t s u is h ered ibus e t s uccessor ibus a d f undandu m , f abr icandu m e t p erf iciendu m q ua mda m p er iete m muri i n p arte r u ina m m ina ta m i n mur is c o mun is a pud t urr im p orte p oster le a d d o mu m Gerard i :
v idel icet
ad ic ta t urn ip or te p osterle u sque a d muru m n ovu m q ue m c ons tru i f ec it q uonda m t artal ia d e a vel lo.
Qu i mag ister Ma t theus p ro m is it d iscarcare
d ic tu m muru m m ina tu m r u ina m e t i psu m p ostmodu m f undare i n l oco s ol ido e t f ir mo , e t d ic tu m muru m f abricare g ross itud in is a d e quar i nstan t is mur i n ov i p red ic t i a l t i tud in is p rou t p r ius e ra t c um b a l ister i is n ecessar i is.
E t
p refat i d om in i e t S er N icola p red ic tus p ro m iserun t q uo s upra d are e t s olvere d ic to mag istro Ma t theo p ro e ius merced is s olu t ione d uca tos v ig in t i s ex a ur i e t u na m s a lma m g ran i e t u na m v in i p ro e ius mag isterio;
e t d are c a lce m ,
a rena m e t l ap ides n ecessar ios e t s uf f ic ien tes p ro d ic to l aborer io c onduc tos e xpens is c o mun is a d l ocum d ic t i l aborer i i , a cco modare l i gna m in ia n ecessar ia p ro p on t ibus e t v asa p ro a qua r et inenda e t a l ias massari t ias n ecessar ias a d murandu m ;
a c e t ia m d o mu m p ro e ius e t s uoru m manua l ium h ab i ta t ione d um
i bide m l aborabun t e xpens is c o mun is. Qu i mag is ter Ma t theus p ro m is i t d ic tu m muru m b ene e t l ega l iter f undare e t c onstruere, e t o p t i me i psu m i n tegru m d e b ot iis r ep lere e t e x d ic to l aborer io n on e x ire n ec murare d ef icere d onee i psu m c o mp lever it s ibi n on d ef ic ien t ibus n ecessar i is a d murandu m .
Qu i
d om in i e t S er N ico la p ro o bserva t ione p red ic toru m o bl igaverun t omn ia b ona d ic t i c o mun is.
E t d ic tus mag ister Ma t theus o bl igav i t o rnn ia b ona s ua mob il ia
e t im mobi l ia p resen t ia e t f u tura e tc. p resen t ibus Bar tholo meo f an ter i i e t L auren t io d i S pu le to t est ibus a d p ac ta v oca t is e tc.
4 .
Gu ido d a Varese u ndertakes t o r ebu ild a l eng th o f wal l w i th a s carp o n
t he s ou thern s ide o f t he c onven t o f S . Paolo. C octu mu m d a tu m Mag is tro
C onsigl i I , f . 3 53-353v .
D ie v i i i i f ebruar ii 1 455.
Gu idon i d e muro a pud
S pec tan t iss im i v ir i C on fa loner ius e t
g uard iola m S anc t i Pau l i.
An t ian i e t c um e is S er N icola S er Angel l e t I ohannes I u t i i G ia i ,
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
2 15
c ives d epu ta t i s upra c oc tu m is d and is p er c o mune, c oncord i ter n om ine i ps ius c o mun is d ederun t a d c oc tu mum Mag istro Gu idon i d e Vares io mura tor i p resen t i s t ipu lan t i e t r ec ip ien t i p ro s e e t s u is h ered ibus a d f abr icandu m d e n ovo q uoddam p ec t iu m mur i r u inat i i n mur is c o mun is a pud g uard iolam S anct i Pau l i.
Que m murum i nc ipere d ebea t a
f unda men to i nc ip iendo i n d ic to f unda men t° s carpam g rossa m d uobus p ed ibus e t i psu m muru m c onducere a d e quar mur i c as tel lar is c on t ig-u i. E t as carpa s upra , d ic tus murus d ebea t e sse g rossus t r ibus p ed ibus. Que q u idem s carpa c apere d ebea t d uos p edes muri c astel lar is q u i e s t i n p ede v ersus c onven tu m S anct i F ranc isc i.
Qu i p refa t i d om in i e t c ives n om ine p refa t i c o mun is
p ro m iserun t d are e t s olvere s eu d ar e t s olvi f acere p ro e ius merced is s olu t ione p ro d ic to c oc tu mo d uca tos a ur i d ece m s ep te m e t omn ia a l ia n ecess ar ia p ro d ic to c oc tu mo d ic to mag istro Gu idon i e xpens is d ic t i c o mun is s a lvo q uod d ic tus mag is ter Gu ido t enetur s u is s u mp t ibus p onere i n o pere l a .p ides mur i r u ina t i. P ro q uoru m p red ic toru m o bserva t ione p refa t i d om in i e t c ives o bl igaverun t omn ia b ona d ic t i c o mun is. E t v ersa v ice d ic tus Mag ister Gu ido o bl igav i t s e e t omn ia s ua b ona , mobi l ia e t i m mob i l ia p resen t ia e t f u tura. Renun t ians e tc. P ro m i t tens e tc. I urav i t e tc. Actu m i n p a la t io r es iden t ie d om inoru m Gonfaloner i i e t An t ianorum , e t i n s a la d ic t i p ala t i i p resen t ibus n ob il i v iro l ucha d e C olmed io , e t p etro men ic i martuc i i c iv ibus t uscan is t est ibus a d p red ic ta v oca t is h ab it is e t r oga t is.
5 . T he C o m mune g ives a c on trac t t o P ietro d i Mart ino f ro m t he d istr ict o f Milan t o b u ild a t ower a t S . F rancesco , i den t if iable w i th e i ther T 26 o r T 27. C ons igl i I , f . 3 75. Coc tu mu m d a tu m Mag is tro Pe tro a d f abr icandu m u na m t urr im i n p ar iete S anc t i
D icto d ie ( 2 8 J une , 1 455 ) Prestan t iss im i v ir i S er Colel la L aur i C on fa loner ius Popul i ,
Franc isc i.
I ohannes C hr istopher i S er S i mon is , G regor ius P ichar i , S er S ecund ianus Do m in ic i An t ian i
c o mun is c iv ita t is Thuscane , n ecnon S er N ico la S er Angel i ,S er J ohannes I u t i i G ia i c ives d epu ta t i s upra d and is c oc tu m is p ro c omun i , e t omnes i ps i c oncord iter s t ipu lan tes n om ine e t v ice c o mun is e th om inum p refa te c iv ita t is e t p ro s ese e t s uos i n o f f ic io mag is tra tus s uccessores d ederun t a d c oc tumum Magis tro P etro Mart in i d e T r ibus F lu m in ibus c om i ta tus Med iolan i mura tor i p resen t i, s t ipu lan t i e t r ec ip ien t i p ro s e e t h ered ibus s u is a d f abricandum u na m t urr im i n mur is c o mun is p osi t is a pud S anctum F ranc iscu m ; q ue t urn s s i t r otunda c um c on fessu d ebi t° e t f tmda ta b ono f undamen t° e t s uf f ic ien te. E t v acuu m d ic te t urns s i t amp lu m p rou t e st i l lud t urn s d o mus z a mpe , e t a c on fessu s upra murus s i t l argus t r ibus p ed ibus u sque a d p lanu m v ol te.
E t
i n d ic ta t urn id ebea t f acere h ost ia p er q ua m p oss i t c omode i n p er c urr i tor iu m ; e t p lanum v ol te d ebea t e sse a l tu m q uan tu m t enen t meru l i t urricel le v ersus p or ta m S anc t i L eonard i ;
e t a b i nde s upra , p arapec tum c u m merul is.
Que
t urns h abeat t res b o mbarder iaä , v idel icet i n f und° t urns e t a l ias i n med io t urns , u na p ro q uoque l a tere e t a l ia i n f ron te. E t h oc p ro p re t io d uca toru m a ur i q u inquag in ta p ro e ius mercede p ro mag is ter io d ic te t urns s u is e xpens is e t s u mp t ibus. E t p ro m iserun t d ic t i d om in i e t c ives d are d ic to magis tro P etro Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
2 16
omn ia n ecessar ia p ro d ic to l aborer io e xcep ta a qua , e t p ro o bserva t ione p red ictoru m p refa t i d om in i e t c ives o bl igaverun t d enar ios c o mun is d epos i ta tos a pud S er Ba ldassare m S er F i l ipp i , e t d uca tos q u inquagin ta a ur i d e d uca t is c en tu m s olvend is p er macel lar ios p ro p ens ione d o mus e t a potecharu m macel l i . E t v ersa v ice d ic tus Mag is ter Petrus p ro o bserva t ione p ro m issoru m p er e um o bl igavi t s e e t omn ia s ua b ona mob il ia e t im mobil ia p resen t ia e t f u tura i n f or ma p lenar ia e tc. Ac tu m i n s a l la p a la t i i s ol ite r es iden t ie d om inoru m C on faloner i i e t An t ianoru m . Presen t ibus Michaele p e tr i l inc i i , Pau lo melec t i, e t Bar tholo meo Fa mored i ( ? ) omn ibus c iv ibus t uscan is t est ibus e t e tc. On t he s a me d ay , ac on tract f or a no ther t ower a t S an Francesco ( T28 o r T 29 ) was g iven t o An ton io d i An ton io d a Bel l inzona , who s old t he Co m mune 1 00 s al me o f l ime f or t he b u ild ing o f t hese t owers.
I b id., f . 3 75v .
Coctu mu m d a tu m Mag is tro
Prefa t i d om in i C onfa loner ius e t
An ton io d e Bel inzona a d
An t ian i , n ecnon S er N icola S er
f abr icandu m u na m t urr im
Angel i e t I ohannes I u t i i G ia i
i n p ar ie te S anc t i F ranc isc i.
s t ipu lan tes n om ine c o mun is p ro s upra , d ederun t a d c octu mu m Mag is tro
An ton io An ton i i d e B el inzona mura tor i, c iv i Tuscane p resen t i , s t ipu lan t i e t r ec ip ien t i p ro s e e t s u is h ered ibus u t s upra a d f abr icandum u na m t urri m i n p ar iete S anc t i Franc isc i ap ar te s uper ior i v ersus Mon te m F lascone m c um i l l is p ropr iis p ac t is e t c ond it ion ibus omn ibus c um q u ibus s e o bl igav i t Magister Petrus d e T r ibus F lu m in ibus Co m i ta tus Med iolan i a d f abricandu m a l ia m t urr im i n d ic ta p ar iete S anct i Franc isc i e t p ro j i b d uca toru m q u inquag in ta a ur i e tc.
p ret io , v idel ice t
Qu i Mag is ter An ton ius p ro o bserva t ione
omn iu m e t s ingu loru m p er e um p ro m issoru m c irca f abr ica t ione m d ic te t urns s e o bl igav i t i n e ade m v al ida f orma c um q ua s e o bl igav it d ictus Mag ister Petrus e t p resen t ibus d ic t is t est ibus. Emp t io c en tu m s a l maru m
E ode m d ie e t h ora.
c alc is a d ic to Mag istro
Preno m ina t i d om in i e t S er N ichola
An ton io.
e t J ohannes I u t i i n om ine c o mun is emerun t as uprascr ip to Mag istro An ton io d e Bel inzona
mura tore s a lmas c en tu m c a lc is l i ga te p ro f abr ica d ic taru m t urr iu m a d r at ione m d ece m s a lmaru m d ic te c a lc is p ro d ucato a ur i. 6 .
Ambros ino d a Varese a grees t o r educe t he h e igh t o f at ower i n t he
g arden o f t he c onven t o f S . Paolo.
Cons igl i I , f . 3 77.
Coc tu mu m d a tum Mag is tro
D ie v i i i j u l i i ( 1 455 ).
A mbrox ino a d s carchandu m
Prefat i d om in i Con fa loner ius
t urr im p os ita m i n o r to mon ia l iu m
e t An t ian i e t c um e is S er
S anc t i Pau l i.
N icola S er Angel i u nus e x c iv ibus d epu ta t is s upra c octu m is d and is p er c o mune c oncord i ter
d ederun t a d c oc tu mu m Mag istro Ambrox ino .d e Vares io Mag istr i I acobi mura tor i p resen t i , s t ipu lan t i e t 'rec ip ien t i p ro s e e t s u is h ered ibus a d s charchandu m t urr im p os i ta m i n mur is c o mun is a pud o r tu m Mon ia l iu m Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
2 17
S anc t i Pau l i u sque a d c ap ita f i gurarum i n e a p ic tarum ; e t d ic te t urn if ac iend i v ol ta m , c u ius p lanu m v en ia t a d c ap i ta d ic tarum f i g-u rarum ; e t f ac iend i meru la a n tepectus , b o mbarder ias e tb al l ister ias n ecessarias s upra d ic ta t urn, e t i n f undo d ic te t urns ; e t i n d ic ta t urn if ac iend i u nu m h ost iu m q uo e a tur a d g uard io la m p er e um i n h oc c oc tu mo f abr icanda m a pud d ic ta m t urr im v ersus v a l le m a uri e t r ef ic iend i c urr i tor iu m ag uard iola q ue n unc e s t i n mur is c o mun is o bv ia m h ost io n ovo f ac to i n muro d ic tarum mon ia l ium v ersus d om ina m d e R osa q u inque f i l l is , i psu m c ohequando q uod p oss it c omode i n a d d ic ta m t urr im p er d ictu m c urr i tor iu m , e t e x t urn ia d g uard iolam ; e t i n d ic to muro s eu c urr i tor io r ef ic iendo f ac iend i meru las e t a n tepec tum i n modum q uod b ene s te t , omn ibus s u is e xpens is p ro v ic tu p ro p ret io e t n om ine p re t i i d uca tos d ece m o c to a ur i. E t p refa t i d om in i e t S er N icola p ro m iserun t d are omn ia s ibi n ecessar ia e xpens is c o mun is p ro d ic to c oc tu mo e ide m Mag istro Ambrox ino. Obl igan tes d ic t i d om in i e t S er N icola omn ia b ona d ic t i c o mun is , e t c onverso s e o bl igav it d ic tus mag ister Ambrox inus, e t omn ia s ua b ona mobil ia e t i m mobil ia p resen t ia e t f u tura , p ro p red ic torum o bserva t ion i i n f or ma v a l ida e tc. Presen t ibus v enerab il ibus p resb itr is I ohanne p lac t i e t p resb itro I acobo s el ic is p riori S anct i q u ir ic i , C ola f ranc isc i , e t Angelo marin i omn ibus c iv ibus t uscan is t es t ibus e tc .
7 .
Do men ico d a L ugano a grees t o s carp t he c l i f f t o t he S . a nd E . o ft he
c onven t o f S . Paolo.
C onsigl i I , f . 4 11v.
C oc tu mum d a tu m Mag is tro Do m in ico d e L ugano.
D ie x x o c tobr is ( 1 455 ) Pres tan t iss im i d om in i Confa loner ius e t An t ian i n ecnon S e N icola s er Ange la e t I ohannes I u t i i c ives d epu ta t i s upra d and is c oc tu m is p er
c o mune c oncord iter s t ipukn tes p refa t i d om in i n om ine s uo e t s uoru m i n o f f i t io s uccessorum a c v ice e t n om ine c o mun is e t h om inu m c iv i ta t is T uscane d ederun t a d c oc tu mu m Mag istro Do m in ico d e L ugano d ioces is Cu marum mura tor i p resen t i s t ipuLan t i e t r ec ip ien t i p ro s e e t s u is h ered ibus e t s uccessori bus a d s carpel landu m c erta m g reppam s eu r ippam p osi ta m a pud muros c iv i ta t is a d S anc tu m Pau lu m :
v idel icet a muro n ov i ter f abr ica to i b ide m p er
mag is tru m Gu idone m d e Vares io u sque a d a ngu lum mur i c astel lar is v ersus p la tea m S anc t i Franc isc i , q ua m g reppam e t r upe m d ebea t s carpel lare u sque a d f unda men tum ; i t em s carpel land i a l ia m g reppam s ive r upe m q ue e s t a pud muros c o mun is i ux ta g uard iolam p os ita m i n o n to mon ia lu m a pud t urr im s im i l i modo q uo t enetur p red ic ta m p rima m s carpe l lare; i t em f abricand i c er tu m p ec t iu m mur i i n s uprad ic to l oco s ubtus d ic tam g uard io la m e x tra muru m f ac iendo a d c onfessu m e t a ugere muru m c astel lare m a d ic ta g uard iola n ova u sque q uenda m c an tone m mur i f rac t i , f ac iendo t r ia f i l la g rossa e t r eimp lere meru los p ro p arapec to e t d e inde f acere meru los i n modum q uod murus v en ia t e qua l is i l l i a ngu lo f racto. E t d ic t i d om in i e t c ives p ro m iserun t d ic to mag istro p ro e ius mercede p ro d ic t is l aborer i is d uca tos n ove m a ur i e t omn ia n ecessar ia p ro d ic t is l aborer i is e xpens is c o mun is e t e xpens is p ro v ic tu s u is p ropr i is e t n on c o mun ii . Pro q uorum p rom issorum o bserva t ione p refa t i d om in i e t c ives n om ine q uo s upra s t ipu lan tes o bl igaverun t omn ia b ona Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
2 18
d ic t i c o mun is p resen t ia e t f u tura.
E t v ersa v ice d ic tus mag ister Do m in icus
o bl igav i t p refa t is d om in is e t c iv ibus e t m ih i Cancel lar io n om ine q uo s upra s t ipu lan t ibus e t r ec ip ien t ibus s e e t omn ia b ona s ua mobil ia e t i m mob il ia , p resen t ia e t f u tura e tc. Renun t ians e tc. I urans e tc. A ctu m i n c ivi ta te Tuscana i n s a l la p a la t i i s ol i te r es iden t ie d om inoru m C onfaloner ii e t An t ianorum . Presen t ibus Angelo S er J ohann is Cole e t An ton io S er p etri c iv ibus t uscan is t est ibus e tc.
8 .
The C o mmune g ives D o men ico d a L ugano a c on tract f or b u ild ing a
s tretch o f wa l l a t C i trangu lus a nd c arry ing o u t work a t t he c hute b e low t he f oun ta in o f S e t te C annel le. D ie
XXX
C ons igl i I , f . 4 18.
o c tobr is ( 1 455 ).
C lar iss im i d om in i S er Bar tholo meus S er J ohann is Con faloner ius p opu l i , Bar tholo meus C ia ldon is , Gaspar Ray mond i e t N icola Christofor i An t ian i c o mun is c iv i ta t is Tuscane , n ec n on e greg i i v ir i S er N icola S er Angel l e t I ohannes I u t i i G ia i , c ives e lec t i e t d epu ta t i s upra c oc tu m is d and is p er c o mune s t ipu lan tes d ic t i d om in i p ro s ese e t s uorum i n o f f ic io s uccessores, a c v ice c o mun is e t h om inum e iusdam C iv i ta t is , d ederun t a d c oc tu mu m Mag istro D om in ico d e L ugano a l ias Mar thana p resen t i , s t ipulan t i e t r ec ip ien t i p ro s e e t s uos h eredes e t s uccessores a d f abr icandu m p rope muros c o mun is a d C i trangu lu m , i nc ip iendo a d o mo I ohann is I u t i i G ia i u sque a d g uard iola m C i trangu l i u num muru m f und itus g rossu m q uan tu m e st murus q ue n unc e st , c on iunc tu m d ic to muro v e ter i , e t q uando t ale m muru m f abr icandum d uxer it a d e quar d ic to muro q u i n unc e st , t enea tur f acere s upra d ic t is mur is i unc t is e t a degua t is t r ia f i l la mur i e t a binde s upra p arapec tu m e t meru las n ecessar ias. E t i n d ic to muro i ux ta g uard io la m c i trangu l i t enea tur f acere s ca lonos d e t u f fo s upra q u ibus p oss i t a scend i d ic tum muru m . I t em a d f abr icandu m a d c ad i tor iu m Bu t t ina l is d uas c oss ias d istan tes u na m a b a l ia q uantu m e st amp lu m d ic tu m c ad itor iu m e t l ongas v ersus p ar ietes I ohann is T utu e t Ghe t i i d uobus p ed ibus c um d im id ia p ro q ua l ibet , e t l argas t r ibus p ed ibus v ersus f l u men Mart i.
I n f undamen to q uaru m c oss iaru m d ebea t v olvere u nu m a rchu m s ub
q uo p oss i t f l uere a qua c ad i tor i i . E t s upra p lano d ic t i a rchet i d ebea t f acere g ra t tas c um l ap id ibus n e mphor i , s upra q u ibus g ra t t is p oss it c adere a qua. E t e t ia m i n muro a n ter iori v ersus c i trangu lu m o bv ia m f ora m in i c onduc tus d ebea t f acere a l ias g ra t tas q ua ttuor l ap idu m u t s upra n e mphor i, e t p ostea c onducere muru m s odu m s upra , e t q uando e r it o bvia m a rchet t is u nde e x it a qua b u t t inal is d ebea t f acere a l ias g ra t tas i n f ac ie v ersus c i trangu lu m , e t d e inde s equ i muru m s upra i n modu m q uod meru l i s un t a l t i a d e quar d o muncu le i n q ua v endun tur p isces. E t t enea tur i nven ire f unda men ta e xpens is s u is e t f odere e t f abr icare l ap ides n e mphor i n ecessar ios p ro d ic to l abor it io. E t c o mune t enea tur c onduc i f acere d ic tos l ap ides a d d ic ta d aborer ia f i enda , e t d are d ic to mag istro omn ia n ecessaria p ro d ic t is l aborer i is. E t p ro e ius merced is s olu t ione p ro f abr ica d ic toru m amboru m l aborerioru rn p refa t i d om in i e t c ives p ro m iserun t n om ine q uo s upra d are d uca tos a ur i Vene tos v ig in t i. Pro q uoru m omn iu m o bservä t ione d ic t i d om in i e t c ives o bl igaverun t omn ia b ona i psius c o mun is e t c onverso d ic tus mag ister Do m in ico o bl igav i t s e e t omn ia s ua b ona e tc. Renun t ian tes e tc. I uran tes e tc. Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
2 19
Actu m i n p a la t ic c o mun is r es iden t ie s ol i te p refa toru m d om inorum e t i n c a mera p os ita v ersus v ia m c ursus. P resen t ibus L ucha p etr i, e t F rancesco I u l ian i b arber io c iv ibus t uscan is a d p red ic ta v oca t is h ab i t is e t r oga t is e t e tc.
9 .
L uch ino d a Varese i s g iven a c on tract t o r ebu ild t he t own wa l lw here i t
h as b een b reached d ur ing t he c onstruc t ion o f t he c hapel o f t he Martyrs a ttached t o S . Mar ia d el la Rosa . Cop t i mu m d a tu m mag istro L uch ino
C ons igl i 3 , f . 2 02-202v. D ie 2 3 a ugust i , 1 468. C lar iss im i v ir i S tephanus Bap t iste C on faloner ius p opu l i , S er Vannes Men ic i , S ec tmd ianus
Do m in ic i N ald i , Pau lus Mingo t i i , An t ian i C o mun is C iv ita t is Thuscane , n ecnon I ohannes I u t i i G ia i i , S er Christophorus mag istr i J acob i e t An ton ius C alzan i h aben tes v ices s er G abr iel is C ole e t Ange l l s er S i mon is , v ir i e lec t i e t d eput a t i i n Consil io Genera l i s upra f abr ica mur i c iv ita t is T huscane i ux ta D om inam d e Rosa i ncep t i e t f unda t i , u t a d p resens a ppare t a d f ort if ica t ionem C iv ita t is v igore a rbi tri i C onsil i i Genera l is d ic to d ie c elebra t i i ps is c oncess i v ice e t n om ine c o mun is, l ocaverun t c onven t ionem f acerun t e t a d c op t i mum d ederun t i n frascr ip tu m c op t i mu m a d c annas Mag istro L uch ino I ohann is d e Vares io p resen t i s t ipu lan t i e t r ec ip ien t i p ro s e e t s u is h ered ibus, v idel icet muru m c o mun is i am f unda tu m i ux ta d om inam d e Rosa a l a tere e x terno ( ? ) c um i n frascr ip t is p ac t is , c ap i tul is e t a d i t ion ibus :
e t p r i mo q uod d ic tus mag ister
L uch inus h abere d ebea t p ro e ius mercede b ononenos q u inquagin ta p ro q ual ibe t c anna ;
e t c anna i n tel l iga tur a d r a t ione m d uorum p edu m p er g ross i tud ine m
mur i , v idel icet q uod murus s i t g rossus a d i s ta m r a t ione m e t e sse d ebea t p er d uos p edes. E t c anna d ic t i muri s i t e t e sse d ebe t p er l ong i tud ine m s ep te m p edu m v idel icet a d mensura m f ac tam i n p a la t io c omun is i ux ta f enestram e t c am inu m p a la t i i c o mun is s a le ma ior is d ic t i Pa la th.
I t em q uod d ic tus mag ister
L uch inus t enea tur e t d ebea t s equ i muru m p er g ross i tud ine m u t i e s t i ncep tu m , e ' t t an tu m q uan tu m e r i t v olun t a .s d om inorum e t v iroru m e lec toru m . I t em q uod d ic tus mag ister L uch inus t enea tur e t d ebea t d are c a lce m q ue e r it o pus p ro d ic to muro q ue m i pse f aciet v el f i er i f ac ie t .
I t em q uod c omun i tas p or tare
d ebea t s eu p ortar i f acere c a lce m p ro d icto muro s ump t ibus i ps ius c omun is . I t em q uod d ic tus magister L uch inus t enea tur e t d ebea t c avare a u t c avar i f acere l ap ides p ro d ic to muro.
I t em q uod c o mun i tas t enea tur e t d ebea t
p ortare a u t p or tar i f acere l ap ides p ro d ic to muro a d i psu m l ocu m i nq uo f i et murus d ic tus s u mp t ibus c o mun is. I t em q uod c o mun i tas t enea tur e t d ebea t r e movere t errap lenu m q uod e st s upra d ic tu m muru m e t d are muru m t er ju m. I t em q uod d ic tus mag ister L uch inus t enea tur e t d ebea t f acere v el f i er i f acere d ic tu m muru m a d p ruzu lanu m. I t em q uod d ic tus mag is ter L uch inus t enea tur e t d ebea t f acere d ic tu m muru m b ene e t d il igen ter a d u sum b on i mag is tr i , e t omn ia a l ia f acere q ue e run t n ecessar ia i n f abr ica d ic t i mur i s u is s ump t ibus e tc .
P ro m it ten tes p refa t i d om in i e t v iri v ice e t n om ine d ic t i c o mun is e tc.
Obl igan tes e tc. Versa v ice d ic tus mag ister L uch inus p ro m is i t e tc . o b l iga .v it e tc. j urav i t e tc. p resen t ibus I ohanne Ra i mund i e t P au lo Petr i B runo t i t est ibus e tc. E t p ro m iserun t p refa t i d om in i e t v ir i d are e t s olvere d ic to mag istro L uch ino d uca tos d ece m a uri d e Ca mera a d e oru m l i ber ta tem e t v olun ta te m p ro p arte Andrews, David, e John Osborne, and David Lazio: In ius merc ed is Whitehouse. e t f abr iMedieval ce d ic t i Studies mur i .Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
2 20
NOTES
1 .
Two i mpor tan t w orks p ubl ished o n t he t own j ust a f ter t he e ar thquake a re Rasp i S erra 1 971 a nd P ierdo men ico 19 72. For t he Bri t ish S chool a t Ro me 's s ubsequen t work t here , s ee Wh itehouse 19 73, Andrews a nd G ibson 1 973 ( a p rel im inary r epor t o n t he wal ls s uperseded b y t he p resen t s tudy ), J ohns 1 974 a nd Andrews 1 975.
2 .
For a d escr ip t ion o f t he t err i tory i ncluded i n t he d iocese, s ee t he b u l l o f L eo I V o f 8 52 t o t he b ishop o f T uscan ia , p reserved i n ac opy o f 1 207 , a nd p ubl ished i n J -P. Migne , Pa trolog iae Cursus Co mp le tus, CCXV, I nnocen t i i I I Opera O mn ia ( Par is , 1 891), 1 236-42.
3 .
S ee L . Duchesne, L e L iber Pon t if ical is ? ( Par is , 19 55 ), v ol . I , 4 28.
4 .
S ee e spec ia l ly s o me o f t he d ocu men ts c on ta ined i n t he a rch ives o f t he monas tery o f S . S a lva tore o n Mon te A m ia ta , r ecen t ly e d ited b y W. Kurze ( Codex D ip lo ma t icus Am ia t inus , v ol . I , Tub ingen , 19 74 ).
5 .
The most d e ta iled s ource f or t h is p er iod s ee ms t o b e t he h ighly u nrel iable Orv ietan c hron ic ler C ipr iano Manen te ( Historie , Ven ice , 1 561).
He
r ecords amongs t o ther t h ings t ha t i n 1 077 a p apa l a r my c ap tured a nd s acked Tuscan ia , r az ing i t s wa l ls ( p . 2 8 ). 6 .
S ee Ca mpanar i 1 856 , v ol . I , p . 1 57 ; a nd J . L . A . H u i l lard-Breho l les , H istor ia D ip lo ma t ica Fr ider ic i S ecund i ( Par is , 1 852-61 ), v ol . V I , p art I , p . 1 40.
7 .
There a re many r eferences i n e ar ly med ieva l d ocu ments t o t he p es l i u tprand i , a lso k nown a s t he p es c ub ita l is b ecause o f i t s l eng th. f or e xa mp le, t he b u l l o f L eo I V c i ted i n n ote 2 ;
S ee,
I . G iorgi a nd U . Ba lzan i,
Reges to d i Farfa ( Ro me , 1 879-1 9 14 ), v ol . 3 , p . 1 32, v ol . 4p . 8 4, v ol . 5p . 2 44;
C . Cal isse , Docu men t i d el monastero d i S an S a lva tore
s u l Mon te Am ia ta r iguardan t i i lt erri torio r o mano ( sec. V I I I-X EI ), Arch iv io d el la S oc ietä Ro mana d i S tor ia Pa tr ia , XVI I , 1 894, p . 1 05, 1 09 , 11, 13. 8 .
These a nd o ther r e marks o n t he wal ls o fV iterbo a re b ased o n as tudy wh ich Ih ope t o p ubl ish s hor tly .
9 .
S ee n ote 2 .
T he r elevan t p assage i s a s f ol lows :
Con f ir ma mus e t ia m
t i bi i n e ade m c iv i ta te e cc les ia m S anctae Dei Gen i tric is s e mperque v irg in is Mar iae Do m inae n ostrae, q uae o h m c apu t e p iscop ii e xst it it , e t n unc p lebs f ac ta e st c um d om ibus, c el l is, v ine is, p ra t is , s i lv is , a tque merca tu m u sque i n p or ta e jusde m c ivi ta t is c u m omn ibus e t p ert inen t ibus... 1 0.
Churches d a table a pprox i ma tely f ro m t he 1 0 th-12th c en tury e i ther s urv ive o r o nce e x is ted i n t he wa l ls r ound t he e arly n ucle i o f t he s e t t le men ts a t V i terbo , C orne to-Tarqu in ia , Vasanel lo, Cord igl iano a nd C aste l lo d i S a lce.
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
2 21
I.
S ee e lsewhere i n t h is v olu me ( p .
3 2 )f or t he med ieval b u ild ings i n v ia
d el Co mune a nd v ia d el R ivel l ino.
A d ocu men t o f 1 460 e nac ted i n s tra ta
c ursus a n te d o mu m C igl ion i Oddon is ( ANT , 2 6, f . 1 55v ) s hows t ha t t he p a lazzo C igl ion i, wh ich f aces o n t o v ia d e l R ivel l ino , was i n t he c orso. T here i sa lso e v idence t ha t t he c orso r an i n to t he p iazza i n f ron t o f t he p a lazzo d el Co mune, a nd t ha t t he c hurch o f S . Mar ia N ova , n ow S . G iovann i , was s itua ted o n i t ( AST, C onsigl i 1 , f . 2 36v , 2 37v , 2 38v , 2 56; ANT , 2 6, f .22v ; G iannot t i 1 969 , 2 1, 2 3 ). 1 2.
The n u mber ing o f t he t owers u sed i n t h is a r t icle i s d if feren t f ro m t ha t i n o ur p rel im inary n o te o n t he wa l ls ( Andrews & G ibson , 19 72 ), a nd i s i n tended t o b e s i mp ler .
1 3.
S . Mar ia d el la Rosa s ee ms o r ig inal ly t o h ave b een a smal l r ec tangu lar c hurch e n larged t hrough t he a dd it ion o f a is les , t he a rcad ing a nd r oof l i ne o f wh ich c u t a cross a nd o bscure t he o r ig ina l s ingle l i gh t w indows i n t he s ide wal ls.
A t t he s a me t ime, i t was p robably l eng thened , t he a pse
f ound d ur ing t he r estora t ion b e ing b u i l t .
F or a p lan o f t he s truc tures
wh ich h ave b een f ound , a nd t he ir i n terpre ta t ion a s ag a te , s ee Rasp i S erra 19 71, 18 1-83, a nd f ig. 2 37. 1 4.
For a more d eta iled d escr ip t ion o f t h is S .W . a ngle o f t he t own , f ro m T 18-T22, s ee Andrews & G ibson 19 72.
T h is r eport c on ta ins t he f ol low ing
e rrors :1 .
The wa l lb etween T 19 a nd T 21 i s n o t o f as ingle b u ild .
The r az ing
o f t he s truc tures a nd t he f i l l ing i n o f t he p ozzo f ound i n t rench T 2 mus t b e a ssoc ia ted w i th t he c on truc t ion o f t he wa l lj ust t o t he N . o f T 20 , a nd n ot t he v ery c lear 1 5th -cen tury r ebu ild t o t he S . o f wh ich T 21 f or ms p art. 2 .
T he p o t tery f rom t he p ozzo i s 1 4th -cen tury .
The s elce-bu il t wa l l f ound i n t rench T 4 was n o t a n e arl ier t own wa l l , b u t ar evet men t wa l l a ssoc ia ted w i th t he c onstruc t ion o f at errap ieno b eh ind t he e x ist ing wa l l .
1 5.
A t V iterbo , f or i nstance, t he e x ile Monaldo Mona ldesch i was a b le t o e n ter a nd l eave t he t own i n 1 457 when a l l t he g a tes w ere c losed v ia t he c ondu i t wh ich e x isted f or t he f osso Urc ion io o n t he S . s ide o f t he v al le d i Fau l ( Cia mp i 18 72, 2 50 ).
1 6.
C le men t V I wrote t o t he t reasurer o f t he Pa tr i mony i n 1 34 9 q uod r occa c iv i ta t is Tuscanel le f essa e st p rop ter t erra motu m , q u i p artes i l las g rav iter c onquassav it ....et r occha c iv i ta t is T uscanel le p red ic te p ro q ua tr igen t is f l oren is a uri p ossen t r eparar i ( Fu m i 19 01, 1 23 ).
1 7.
Recen t e xcava t ions h ave s hown t ha t t he b ot to m o f t he mas t i i o r p r inc ipal t owers o f t he c ast les o f Bolsena a nd t he Rocca a l Pon te d el la Bad ia were f i l led w i th r ubble a nd o ther d ebr is, i nclud ing p o t tery d a table t o t he 1 5th c en tury ( see Buch icch io 19 74 a nd Mazzuca to 1 974 ) .
1 8.
There a re t wo e xcep t ions t o t h is b as ic t ypology :
T 6 wh ich , a l though
i tl ooks l ike a n e arly t ower, i s o n ly 5 m w ide , a nd T 23 wh ich i s a s o mewha t r etrograde t ower d a t ing f ro m t he l a te 1 5th o r e arly 1 6th c en tury ( see p . 1 93 ) .
For t he d a t ing o fb a t tered b ases a nd l oopholes,
s ee p . 1 87 • Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
2 22
1 9 .
For t he u se o f mangonels o n t he t ops o f p r iva te u rban t owers, s ee C ia mp i 1 872, 1 6.
2 0 .
For a f u l l d escr ip t ion o f t he t owers a t Tuscan ia , s ee Pr ingle 19 74.
2 1.
For d escrip t ions o f many o f t hese b u ild ings, s ee e lsewhere i n t h is v o lu me , p p . 2 0-24 , 3 2-37 , 5 4-55 .
2 2.
C le men t wrote t o t he r ec tor o ft he Pa tr i mony :
Reg i s cr ib i mus u t
a n i mos ita t is s uae p rogressu m f reno r a t ion is r epr i mat a pud e u mde m
Tuscanens iu m p auper ta te m....
a l ioru m t ep idoru m s ubterfug ia 4 ). 2 3.
S ee S ignorel l i 1 907 , 3 76 s eq. f ol lows :
E xcusa mus
V i terb iens iu m e t
( c i ted b y S ignorel l i 19 07 , 2 46, n ote
T he c lergy o f Tuscan ia p u t t he ir c ase a s
c um c iv i tas t uscana e t C en tu m c el lensis e t B ledana s in t p ro
ma ior i p ar te d estructae e t e cc lesiae i n e is s i tae p rop ter h oc v a lde d im inu tae e t s ic d e a l i is c as tr is.
I t em q uod n on s olu m E ccles iae
D ioeces is T uscanens is, c en tu m c el lens is e t B ledanae , v eru m e t ia m a l iqua c as tra e t a l ia l oca , i n q u ibus i psae E cc les iae s itae e ran t , s in t a deo d estruc tae , q uod q uas i n on e st me mor ia q uod t al ia Castra , e cc les iae , s ive l oca n unqua m e x t i ter in t ( 22 • c i t. p . 3 84, n o te 1 ) . 2 4.
The e x is t ing v o lu me o f S ta tu tes m igh t d a te f ro m 1 454 when i t was p roposed t ha t as econd c opy b e made s ince many c i t izens c ou ld r ead a nd wan ted t o c onsul t t he m ( AST, C onsigl i I , f .345 ).
2 5.
P igs c ou ld n o t b e g razed
i ng r ip t is i ux ta c ivi ta te m a v ia p er q ue m i t ur
a d e cc les iam s anc te mar ie ma ioris c i tra v el s upra c iv i ta te m n on p oss in t d ic t i p orc i i n trare n eque p ascuare i n p iano c iv i te a d s uprad ic ta m p ena m , p oss in t t ar nen i re e t r ed ite p er v ias r ec tas, v idel ice t v ia m p on t is e t v ia m s anc t i s tefan i a bsque a l iqua p ena ( AST , Consigl i I , f . 2 53v ). 2 6.
The i den t if ica t ion p roposed b y P ierdo men ico ( 19 72, 6 9 ) o f v ia Oberdan w ith c on tra ta merca t i , a nd t he a rea a round S . Francesco a nd p iazza Bas i le w i th p iano c iv i te , i s i mprobable.
Con tra ta merca t i was n ear t he
v ol ta c ons il ioraru m , s urely p ar t o f t he p a lazzo c o muna le ( AST , S ta tu t i I V, f . 6 7 ).
T he o pen s pace a t S . F rancesco was t he p la tea S anct i
F rancesc i ( AST , S tatu t i I V, 3 0 ).
Ih ave f ound n o o ther r eference t o
c on tra ta p layaru m . 2 7.
S ee G ianno t t i , 1 6, f or T artagl ia 's a l tera t ions t o t h is t ower.
H is c oa t
o f a r ms a re i nser ted i n i t s N . wal l , a nd a lso o ccur i n S . Mar ia d el la Rosa , where h e may h ave c arr ied o u t o ther b u ild ing work .
A l though h e
h ad h is b ase i n Pogg io , t here i s n o e v idence t ha t h e s urrounded i tw ith wa l ls a nd t owers a s P ierdo men ico ( 19 72, 1 7 , 2 3 n ote ) makes o u t. 2 8.
N o l oopholes o ccur , f or i nstance , i n t he l a te 1 4th -cen tury work a t t he c as t le o fA ss isi .
There a re n one i n t he t owers o n t he wal ls o f Ro me
r ebu il t b y N icholas V ( Mun tz 1 878 , 1 58-60 ), t hough t hey d o o ccur i n s o me o fh is o ther f ort if ica t ions.
I ti s p oss ible t ha t t he c on ten t ion
p roposed b y O 'Ne il ( 19 60 ) t ha t l oopholes a ppear i n Eng land b y t he l ast q uarter o f t he 1 4th c en tury i s m istaken , a nd t ha t many o ft he e xa mp les c i ted b y h im a re mod if ied a rrow s l i ts. Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
2 23
29 .
Guard iole a re a lso r ecorded o n t he wa l ls o fV i terbo , s ix o f t he m b eing b u il t i n 1 459 p er s tarv i l e g uard ie d i n ot te ( Cia mp i 1 872, 7 7 ).
Most o f
t hese were s i tua ted o n t he t owers, b u t o ne was o n t he wal ls , i n wh ich c ase i t may h ave r ese mbled a t urre t. 3 0.
For t he p ossible i n f luence o f L o mbards o n r ubble a nd b rick c onstruc t ion s ee Andrews 19 78 , 4 03-04, 4 05.
Br ick was n ever w idely u sed i n N .
L az io , b u t aL o mbard h ad ab r ick k iln a t V i torch iano i n 1 540 ( Aleandr i 1 911, 2 7 ). 3 1.
A l arge r ound t ower o n t he wa l ls o f Ga l lese i s p robably t he s ame a s a q ue mda m t urr ione m i n Rupe t erre g a l les i i b u il t i n 1 485 by Mart ino d i S i mone d a Bel l inzona a nd G iovann i d i Do men ico d a D o modosso la ( Arch iv io N otar ile d i Bolsena , v ol . 2 1, f . 2 15v ).
Two r ubble-bu il t r ound t owers
a t V itorch iano were p robably b u il t b y L o mbards i n t he 1 49 0s ( c f . A leandr i 19 11, 17 ) . The word t urr io o r t orr ione w as c o m mon ly u sed t o r efer t o t hese l a te 1 5th-cen tury r ound t owers. 3 2.
Cu m e ss en t omn ia moen ia c iv i ta t is t hus c ane q ue a b omn i p arte d iru ta e t r u ina m minant ia v isu m e st d ic t is d om in is Gon falon iere e t a n t ian is e t c omm issari is p red ic ta i l la r esarc ire e t r e f icere...adeo q uod s ta t im mandaverun t omn ibus mag is tr is i n a rte m l a to moru m i n d icta c iv i ta te Tuscana u t i l l i p er t o tu m d ie m L une p rox i mum f u turu m u t r esarc ian t e t r ef ic ian t u bi o pus e st....
3 3.
( AST , C ons igl i 2 , f . 3 7v ).
....quod d ie c rast ino omnes c ives e t i ncole d ic te c iv ita t is l aboren t c ircu m men ia d ic t i c iv i ta t is e t q uod d irua tur e cc les ia s anct i S a lva toris q ue e s t i ux ta men ia d ic te c iv i ta t is;
e t l ap ides i ps ius m it tan tur s ub
v ol ta t urr ion is p a la t i i v e ter is p otesta t is c iv i ta t is t huscane p ro f or t itud ine d ic t i t urr ion is e t men iu m ( AST , C onsigl i 2 , f . 6 7 ). 3 4.
S ee AST , p erg. 2 21.
T h is c oncess ion was o ne o f t he c lauses o f a n
a gree men t made b etween Tuscan ia a nd Eugen ius I V a f ter t he t own h ad b een r ecovered f ro m Francesco S forza. b een b es ieged b y N iccolo P icc in ino.
I n t he c ourse o f t h is s truggle , i th ad The s ubs id iu m o r s ubsidy w as
o rig ina lly k nown a s t he t a l l ia mil i tu m.
By t h is p eriod , i th ad b eco me
i nst itu t ional ized a s ar egu lar t ax a nd was o ne o f t he p r inc ipa l s ources o f p apa l i nco me ( Partner 19 58 , 1 12-13 ). 3 5.
a t ten to q uod men ia c iv i ta t is Thuscane e t p ala t iu m r esiden t ie d om in i p otesta t is....s in t p en itus d iru ta e t p ros tra ta e t c on t inuo m inan tur r u ina m p rop ter v etusta te m , p lacea t V .S . c oncedere d ic te c iv i ta t i d im id ium s ubs id iu m a d minus p er d ecenn iu m p ro r epara t ione d ic toru m men ium e t p ala t i i u t a dven ien te c asu p oss it d ic ta c iv i tas a b h ost ibus c onservar i s e mper a d S ta tu m Ma tr is e cc les ie a t ten to q uod d ic tu m p a la t iu m e s t i n l oco q uod q uando c apere tur a b h ost ibus d e f ac ile t o ta c iv itas c apere tur e t a dm i t tere tur ( AST , C ons igl i 4 , f . 4 49v-50 ).
3 6.
AST , S ta tu t i I V, 6 6.
Quod s exagenari i s in t e xcep t i ac us tod ibus.
I t
s ee ms t ha t t here was a lso a l ower a ge l im i t o f2 0 y ears ( AST , Cons igl i I , f . 4 29 ). 3 7.
On 2 1st May Angelo d i N ero was r ep laced a s j an i tor o f t he p orta d i Mon tasc ide b y P ie tro d i I acobo
p rop ter mu l ta ....scanda la i n ter c ives
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
2 24
h uc u sque o r ta s un t e t i n d ies o r ian tur i ps ius v el e ins f l ue c ausa e t e ins u xor is o b ma lam l i ngua m e t f i l ie i nhonestate m e t ma lam v i tam. ( AST , Consigl i 4 , f . 1 4v ). 3 8 .
ACV, Marg. I , f . 19 5:
p ars c op iarum s ub d uc tu Magn i Bastard i
Tuscanel la m p erven it u bi d enega to a b o pp idan is C o m mea tu d a to p er Duce m s igno g en tes i l le a rm igere s ubiec to p orte i gne o pp idum e xpugnaver un t f ac taque i rrup t ione t ruc idaverun t q uo tquo t h om ines p otuerunt s a lv is mul ier ibus e t p arvu l is p auc isque a l l is q u i s pa t ium h abuerun t i n T urres e t l oca e d i t iora C onfug iend i.... 3 9 .
The C ons igl i s urv ive f or t he f i rs t t en mon ths o f 1 49 7 ( vols. 2 & 5 ) . T he f ol low ing i s i n n o way i n tended t o b e af u l l a ccoun t o f t he e ven ts o f t ha t y ear , b ut merely t o h igh l igh t t he i mpac t o f warfare , a nd more e spec ia l ly t he n ew d evelopmen ts i n a rt il lery , o n a sma l l c o mmun i ty.
4 0.
q uod i n f oro e t p la tea c iv i ta t is t hus c ane n on i nven i tur p an is n ec i n d ic ta c iv i ta te i nven itur g ranu m a d emendum e t q uod p auperes t am c ives q ua m i ncole
n on i nven iun tg ranu m n ec p ane m a d emendu m c um e oru m
p ecun i is ( AST , C ons igl i 5 , 1 .22v ). 4 1.
For I st J u ly , 1 454, t here i s ar ubric r ecord ing t he a cqu is i t ion o f s a l tp etre b y t he C o mmune, t hough n o e n try w as e ver made o u t a ga inst i t ( AST , C ons igl iI , f .
7 ) .
I n t he Papa l S ta te , t he f i rst r ecorded u se o f
c annon o n al arge s cale d a tes f ro m t he t ime o fA lbornoz i n t he m id-14th c en tury , b u t i ts ee ms t o h ave b rough t a bou t o n ly s l igh t mod if ica t ions i n m il i tary a rch itec ture. 4 2.
The s a me was t o al arge e x ten t t rue o fV i terbo.
I n 1 433, a sm i th
r eturned a b ombard t o t he C o mmune wh ich h e h ad f a iled t o r epa ir ( ACV, LR V . f .2). I n 1 486, t he Co mmune o rdered l ances f rom P iancasta .gna io a nd c rossbow q uarrels f ro m Abbad ia S . S a lva tore. A c on trac t f or f our c erbot tane, a t ype o fg un s o mewha t l arger t han a n a rquebus, was g iven i n t he s a me y ear t o al ocal man S an te d i Angelo , w ho was r eal ly ab el lf ounder ( Pinz i 19 13, 3 09-10 a nd n otes ). Another was s oon a f ter g iven t o Bernard ino d i Ambrog io d a Mi lano f or f our s p ingards. S ince t he t er m ino logy u sed f or e arly a rt il lery was o f ten i ncons isten t , t h is may h ave r epresen ted t he s ame o rder a s t ha t g iven t o S an te , i n wh ich c ase h e h ad f a iled t o make t he g uns. T he s upre macy o f N . I ta l ian t owns s uch a s Mi lan a nd Bresc ia i n t he manu fac ture o f a rms i s w el l-known ( c f . Gel l i & Moret t i 1 903 ). 4 3.
Map r eference 1 GM 1 :25000 s eries , L a Rocca s hee t,
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
2 25
QN 3 79003.
B IBL IOGRAPHY
Unpubl ished p r i mary s ources c i ted i n a bbrev ia ted f or m : AST
Arch iv io S tor ico d i Tuscan ia ( s ince 19 71, i n t he Arch iv io d i S ta to, V i t erbo ).
AST , p erg (a mena ) AST, C onsigl i
L ibr i d e i C ons igl i , a lso known a s L ibr i R i for ma t ionu m .
AST , S ta tu t i ANT
Arch iv io N otar ile e Gu id iziar io d i Tusc an ia ( held i n t he Arch iv io d i S ta to , Vi t erbo ).
ACV
Arch iv io C o munale d i V i terbo ( held i n t he B ibl ioteca C o muna le d egl i Arden t i ).
ACV , p erg ( a mena ) ACV , Marg(ar i ta ) ACV , L ( ibr i ) R( i for ma t ionu m ) A leandr i , V . E ., 19 11,
Ar t ist i ea r t ieri l o mbard i aV i torch iano n e i s ecol i
XV-XVI , Arch iv io S torico L ombardo , ) (XXVI I I , 10 2-32. Andrews, D . D . a nd G ibson , S ., 19 73. Tuscan ia : t he med ieval c ur ta in wa l l , Papers o f t he Br i t ish S chool a t Ro me , XL , 1 99-209 . Andrews , D . D ., 19 75. I , 3 52-59.
G l i s cav i aT uscan ia , 1 973, Archeologia Med ieva le ,
. Andrews, D . D ., 19 78.
The med ieva l masonry o f N or thern L az io :
i t s d e-
v elop men t a nd u ses f or d a t ing , i nH . McK . B lake , T . W. Pot ter , D . B . Wh itehouse e ds., Papers i n I tal ian A rchaeology I : t he L ancaster S em inar , BAR S 41, Ox ford , 3 91-422. An tonel l i , M„ 1 895.
Una r elaz ione d el v icar io d el Pa tr i mon io a G iovann i
XXI I i n Av ignone , Arch iv io d el la R . S oc iet ä . Ro mana d i S toria Pa tr ia , XVI I I , 4 47 -6 7 . An tone l l i , M ., 1 903 .
V icende d e l la d om inaz ione p on t if ic ia n e l Patr i mon io d i
S . P ie tro i n Tusc ia d a l la t ras laz ione d e l la s ede a l la r estaurazione d e l l, A lbornoz ( par t 2 ) , Arch iv io d e l la R . S oc ieth . R o mana d i S tor ia Pa tr ia , ) CXV I , 2 49-341 . Bar tolucc i , G„ Ca mponesch i , B ., a nd S onagl ia , A ., 19 72.
It erre moto d i
Tuscan ia , Rassegna d e i L avor i P ubbl ic i , 5 , p . 3 -43. Ba t t ist i , E ., 19 59 .
Ic o masch i a Ro ma n el p ri mo R inasc i men to, i n E . Arslan
e d., Ar te e a rt ist i d e i T agh i L on abard i , I .
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Qua t trocen to , C o mo, 3 -61. Bertolo t t i , A ., 1 881.
Ar t ist i l o mbard i a Ro ma n e i s eco l i XV , XV I , e XV I I .
S tud i er icerche n egl i a rch iv i r o man i , Milan . Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
2 26
B r iz i, A ., 1 895.
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Mazzuca to , 0 ., 19 74.
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Ward Perk ins , J . B ., e t .a l ., 19 72.
Excava t ion a nd s urvey a t Tuscan ia , 19 72.
A p rel im inary r eport , Papers o ft he B r it ish S chool a t Ro me, XL , 1 962 38. Ward Perk ins , J . B ., e t .a l ., 1 973. E xcava t ions a t Tuscan ia 19 73: a r eport o n t he f i nds f ro m s ix p i ts , Papers o f t he Br it ish S chool a t Roand me , XL I , 4 5154.Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. Andrews, David, John Osborne, David Whitehouse. Medieval E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 2 28
Z occa , M., 1 943.
S iste mazion i u rban ist iche d el R inasc i men to n el L az io ,
P al lad io , V I I , 4 0-50.
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2 29
P la te 3 .1
V iew l ook ing S . f ro m t he c en tro s tor ico o f Tuscan ia t o t he R ive l lino a nd S . P ie tro .
P la te 3 .2
T uscan ia , r e ma ins o f t he l os t c ircu i t o f wa l ls j ust t o t he S . o f t he f osso d i S e t te C anne l le .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. 2 30 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
P la te 3 .3
P la te 3 .4
T uscan ia , t ower CA3 o n t he l os t c ircu i t o f wa l ls .
T uscan ia , R o man r oad o n t he W . s ide o f t he h i l l o f S .P ie tro , l ook ing N . t owards t ower CA5 .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. 2 31 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
P la te 3 .5
P la te 3 .6
Tuscan ia , t ower T5 .
Tuscan ia , t owers T 15 a nd T 16 .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. 32 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. 2 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
P la te 3 .7
Tuscan ia , t owers T 19 t o T 21 .
P la te 3 .8
Tuscania , t ower T23 .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. 2 33 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
a re t he t ower o ft he d emo l ished .
( 1 . )
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, 2 34 Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
P la te 3 .10
T uscania , t he R ive I lino a f ter r estora t ion c arr ied o ut c . 1 973 =-75 .
P la te 3 .11
T uscan ia , t owers T 27 a nd T 28 .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. 2 35 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
4 .
THE CHR ISTOLOG ICAL S CENES I N THE NAVE OF THE LO WER CHURCH OF S AN CLE MENTE, ROME J ohn O sborne
Th is p aper w i l l e xam ine t he g roup o f C hr isto log ica l s cenes wh ich a re p a in ted o n t hree f aces o f a masonry p ier a nd a n a d jo in ing b r ick wa l l i n t he n ave o f t he l ower c hurch o f S an C le men te i n R o me .' A .
THE ASCENSION
i ) Loca t ion :
I n t he f our th-century c hurch o f S an C le men te i n R ome t he
n ar thex was s epara ted f ro m t he n ave b y ac o lonnade o f f our c o lumns. These w ere s paced a t a pprox i ma te ly e qua l i n terva ls b etween t he t wo c orner p iers , a l though t he c en tra l a rch was s l ight ly w ider t han t he o ther f our i n o rder t o s tress i t s f unct ion a s t he , ma in e n trance t o t he b asi l ica ( 3 25 cm a s o pposed t o 2 60 cm ) .
A t s o me s tage i n t he h istory o ft he b u i ld ing , t he s pace b e tween t he
l ef t-ais le p ier a nd t he f i rs t c o lu mn was f i l led i n w ith a b r ick wa ll .
Exac t ly
when t h is was d one , a nd f or wha t r eason , h as n ot y et b een d eterm ined w i th a ny p rec is ion , a l though t he b r ickwork s ugges ts ad a te i n t he n in th c en tury .2 A s ecure t er m inus a nte q ue m i s p rov ided b y t he p ic ture o f t he A scension wh ich i s p a inted o n t he n ave s ide o f t he wa l l a nd wh ich c an b e d a ted t o t he p on t i f ica te o f p ope L eo I V ( 8 47-855) .
T he a dd i t ion o f t h is s o-cal led " shor ing wa l l" h as
b een i n terpreted b y s o me a s t he r esu l t o f s truc tura l d amage t o t he c hurch c aused b yt he e ar thquake wh ich i s k nown t o h ave s haken t he c i ty o f Ro me i n . 8 47 , o n ly a f ew mon ths a f ter L eo 's e lec t ion .3 T h is c a tastrophe i s a lso b el i eved t o h ave b een r esponsib le f or t he e x tensive d amage t o t he c hurch o f S . Maria An t igua i n t he Ro man F oru m , wh ich r esu l ted i n i t s p ar t ia l a bandon men t a nd t he s h i f t ing o f i t s d iacona l f unct ions t o t he n ew c hurch o f S . Mar ia Nova ( now S . F rancesca R o mana ) .4 The h ypo thesis i s a n i ngen ious o ne , b u t i t must r e ma in a c on jecture s ince t he L iber P on t i f ica l is makes n o men t ion o f a ny d amage t o S an C le men te o r , f or t ha t mat ter , t o a ny o ther b u i ld ing i n Ro me . F ur ther more , i ts ee ms most u n l ike ly t ha t t h is s hor t s tretch o f wa l l c an h ave p layed a ny s ign if ican t r ole i n r edress ing a s truc tura l i mba lance , a nd i td oes n o t s ee m t o h ave b een ap ar t o f a ny l arger r e-bu i ld ing p rogra mme i n t he c hurch .
The o n ly o ther
b r ickwork wh ich may b e c onsidered c on te mporary i s a nother s hor t s tre tch o f wa l l b e tween t he n ar thex a nd t he a tr iu m . An a l terna t ive p roposa l was made b y Edoardo J unyen t , who s uggested t ha t t he wa l l was e rected i nt he e ighth c en tury b yp ope H adr ian I( 7 72-795 ) .
5
However , t h is was a pparen t ly b ased u pon n o th ing more t han a p assage i n t he L iber P on t if ica l is wh ich s ta tes t ha t Hadr ian r epa ired t he r oo f o ft he c hurch : " Tectum v ero t i tu l i b ea t i C le men t is q uae i am c asuru m e ra t e t i n r u in is Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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p os i tum , r eg ion is t er t iae , an ov i ter r es taurav i t" ( L iber P on t if ica l is , i ,5 05) , a nd J unyen t l a ter d iscarded t h is o p in ion i nf avour o ft he e ar thquake t heory .6 A much s imp ler s o lu t ion , a nd o ne wh ich h as b een h i ther to o ver looked , i s t ha t t he wal l was e rec ted f or t he s pec i f ic p urpose o f s erv ing a s as e t t ing f or t he p a in t ing a nd i t s r e la ted f urn ish ings . T he v a l id i ty o ft h is s uggest ion w i l l b ecome more a pparen t when t he p resence o ft he l arge marb le b lock w i th a n o va l c av i ty i s e xa m ined . i ) D escr ip t ion ; T he A scension mura l ( p 1 .4 .I ) , most o f w h ich s urv ives i n a r easonab ly g ood s ta te o fp reserva t ion , i sd amaged a round i t s u pper e dges w here t he p laster h as f a l len a way . A s ar esu l t i ti s d i f f icu l t t o make a n a ccura te a ssessmen t o f i t s o r ig ina l e x ten t . T here a re , h owever , t races o f b order l i nes a tv ar ious p o in ts wh ich i nd ica te t ha t t he o r ig ina l p ane l w as s omew ha t i rregu lar i n s hape . B r ief ly , t he w ork d ep ic ts C hr ist s eated i n a mandor la b orne b yf our a nge ls . B enea th a re r epresen ted Mary , t we lve a pos t les , a nd f i gures i den t i f ied a s p ope L eo I V a nd S t . V i tus. T he c en tra l s ec t ion o f t he c o mpos i t ion c ons ists o f ar ec tangu lar p ane l w h ich i s2 06 cm ( 7R oman f eet ) i nw id th . I t s h e igh t , i fo ne i nc ludes t he i nsc r ip t ion w h ich r uns b eneath , i s 8 8 cm ( 3R o man f ee t ) .
I n t he c en tre o ft h is
p ane l i s al arge b lock o f marb le c on ta in ing a n o va l c av i ty 5 5.5 cm i n h e igh t , 3 7 cm i n w id th , a nd 5 cm d eep . T h is h as b een me t icu lously c arved a nd i s p ar t ia l ly f i l led w ith p las ter . O n e i ther s ide o ft h is marb le b lock a re r epresen ted t he f i gures o ft he a pos t les , s ix o n e ach s ide4 who a re s hown mak ing v ar ious g es tures o f s urpr ise , f ear a nd amaze men t .' T he ir a rrange men t i s a l mos t e xac t ly s ymme tr ica l a bou t t he c en tra l a x is , w ith t he r esu l tt ha t o ne s ide o f t he p a in t ing a ppears t o b e t he m irror r ef lec t ion o ft he o ther . O f t he t we lve , o n ly t wo c an b e i den t i f ied a s c lear ly r ecogn izab le p or tra i t t ypes . These a re P au l , i mmed ia te ly t o t he l ef t o ft he marb le b lock , w i th a s hor t b lack b eard a nd b a ld f orehead , a nd P e ter , h is c oun terpar t t o t he r igh t o f c en tre , w i th w h i te h a ir a nd a s hor t wh i te b eard . T hese t ypes w ere wel l-es tab lished i n R o man a r t , a nd may h ave h ad t he ir s ource i np hys ica l d escr ip t ions o f t he t wo a pos t les f ound i n s uch e ar ly C hr is t ian w r i t ings a s t he A cts o f P au l a nd T hee la o r t he D ia logue o f P h i lopa trus .8 Ac o mpar ison wh ich i s a l most c on te mporary w i th S an C le men te may b e f ound i n t he mosa ics o nt he t r iumpha l a rch o f S an Marco i n R ome , e rec ted u nder p ope G regory I V ( 8 27-844) . T he r e ma in ing t en f igures may b e d iv ided i n to t wo g roups . I nt he f oreground o n e ach s ide i s a h a l f-crouch ing f i gure , h is b ody f ac ing a way f ro m t he c en tre b u th is h ead t urned b ack t o l ook u pwards o ver h is s hou lder . B o th f igures a re d rawn f rom t he s ame , p robab ly B yzan t ine , mode l . T hey h ave e longa ted h eads a nd l ong p o in ted wh i te b eards . I n a dd i t ion t o t he f u l lleng th w h ite t un ica d a l ma t ica w i th v er t ica l r ed s tr ipes , wh ich i s worn b y a l l t we lve a pos t les , t hese t wo a lone a re f ur ther d ist ingu ished b y a n o chre c loak o ver t he ir b acks a nd s hou lders . T h is b r igh t ly c o loured g armen t w i th i t s r ed o u t l ines s erves e f fec t ively t o emphasize t he c on tours o ft he ir d rama t ica l ly p os it ioned b od ies. B eh ind e ach o ft hese t wo o lderlook ing a pos t les i s ag roup c ons ist ing o f f our o thers who a re c ons iderab ly y ounger i n a ppearance . A l l e igh t a re i den t ica l i n t erms o ff ac ia l t ype a l though c o mp le te ly d i f feren t f rom t he f i rst f our . T he ir h eads a re r ounded , t hey h ave s hor t d ark h a ir a nd a l l a re c lean s haven .
T he t wo c loses t t o t he c en tre b o th f ace o u t o ft he p ane l t owards t he
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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s pec ta tor a nd h ave o ne a rm r a ised h igh a bove t heir h eads i n o rder t o i nd ica te t he s cene wh ich i st ak ing p lace a bove . T he n ex t t wo , o f whom l i t t le i sv isib le a par tf ro m t he ir h eads , l ook u pwards .
T he t h ird p a ir o nce a ga in f ace t he
s pec ta tor , a nd t he a post le i n t he l ef th a l f o f t h e c omposi t ion h as h is r igh th and r a ised , p a lm o u twards , t humb e x tended , i n ag es ture o f e xc lama t ion . O ft he o u ter most p a ir , t he a pos t le i nt he l ef t i s s hown w i th h is e yes d owncast , a nd h is h ead i s s uppor ted w i th b oth h ands , wh i le h is c ounterpar t o n t he r igh t c overs h is mou th w i th o ne h and a nd h o lds a sma l l s cro l l i n t he o ther . T he b ackground i s c o mposed o ft wo c o lours . T he u pper p or t ion b eh ind t he ir h eads i s r ed , t he l ower p or t ion b enea th t he ir f ee t i s o chre . T here i sn o i nd ica t ion o f a ny s e t t ing o r l andscape . The u ppermos t z one o ft he w ork a ppears t o h ave b een s em i-e l l ip t ica l i n s hape , g iven t he o ne f ragmen t o f b order l i ne wh ich i s s t i l lv isib le i nt he u pper r igh t , a nd i tp ro jec ts u pwards a bove t he c en tre o f t he ma in r ec tangu lar p ane l . T h is a rea i s a l most e n t ire ly o ccup ied b yt he f igure o f C hr ist wear ing a n o chre h a lo a nd s ea ted u pon a s ing le wh i te a rc i n ab lue mandor la . H is r igh th and i s e x tended w i th t he p a lm o pen . T he mandor la i s s uppor ted b yf our a nge ls who h ave o chre h a ir a nd r ed h a loes. O n ly t he h eads a nd w ings o f t he t wo u pper most a ngels a re v is ib le o n e i ther s ide where t hey emerge f ro m b eh ind t he b ack o f t he mandor la , b u tt he b od ies o f t he l ower t wo a re d ep ic ted i n f u l l a nd a re h or izon ta l ly f oreshor tened . C hr is t i sd ressed i n w h i te g ar ments w i th o chre o u t l ines a nd f o lds . T he a nge ls a re s im i lar ly a t t ired i n wh ite w i th b o th o chre a nd r ed l i nes . T he b ackground c o lour o ft h is s ec t ion i s p a le g reen , a nd i ti s d ecora ted w i th wh i te r oset tes f ormed b y c lusters o f e igh td o ts a round a c en tra l d o t . P resumab ly t hese a re mean t t o r epresen t s tars . S epara t ing h eaven f ro m e ar th i s az one o fb lue p a in t 1 2 cm i n h e igh t wh ich e x tends a cross t he f u l ll eng th o f t he c en tra l p ane l . I t s t op b order , h owever , i s r a ised af ur ther 1 3 cm , i nt he m idd le o f t he p ane l a long a l eng th o f 1 04 cm ( 3 .5 R o man f ee t ) . I ti s o n t h is r a ised b ase t ha t t he h a l f-e ll ipse i s s e t . I t s hou ld p erhaps b e n o ted t ha t t h is e leva ted p or t ion i s s l igh t ly o f f-cen tre t o t he r ight , a s i n f ac t i st he v er t ica l a x is o ft he e n t ire c omposi t ion . A s ar esu l t o f t h is s l igh t i mba lance , t he a pos t les t o t he r igh t o f t he o va l c av i ty h ave b een c rowded i n to a sma ller s pace t han t hose t o t he l ef t . P laced d irec t ly o n t h is c en tra l a x is , a l though e x tend ing v er t ica l ly b o th a bove a nd b e low t he b lue z one , i st he s tand ing f i gure o f t he Madonna , h er h ands r a ised a bove h er s hou lders a nd h er h ead a ng led s o t ha t s he l ooks u pwards t o h er r igh t . S he i s d ressed i n r ed , w i th a b rown man t le o ver h er s hou lders , a nd h as a n o chre h a lo . T h is f i gure i s b ad ly f aded , a nd i ti sn o l onger p oss ib le t o d ist ingu ish f ac ia l d e ta i ls o r g armen t f o lds . B y way o f c on tras t , t he p or tra i t o fp ope L eo I V a t t he e x tre me l e f t o ft he c en tra l p ane l i s o ne o f t he b est p reserved f igures i n t he c o mpos i t ion ( p 1 .4 .I ) . He i s s hown f ac ing f ron ta l ly , a nd i s d ressed i n af u l lleng th wh i te u nderg armen t o r ' a lb ' wh ich i s d ecorated w i th v er t ica l g reen a nd r ed l i nes. O ver t h is h e w ears a n o chre k neeleng th g ar men t whose o u t l ines a nd f o lds a re i nd ica ted i n r ed . T h is o vergar men t i sn o t p rec ise ly a c ler ica l c hasub le s ince i th as c lear ly d ef ined s leeves , b u t t here was a pparen t ly s o me c on fus ion o n t he a r t ist 's p ar t s ince t he h ands a ppear t o b e j o ined t ogether u nder af o ld a tt he f ron t i n a manner wh ich d ef ies r a t iona l e xp lan t ion . A round h is n eck t he p ope Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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wears t he s ymbo l o fh igh e cclesiast ica l r ank , t he p al l iu m , a nd a t t he p o in t where i tc rosses h is v e i led h ands h e h o lds a l arge b ound c odex . T h is h as a n o chre c over a nd i s d ecora ted i n as ymme tr ica l p a t tern w i th j ewe ls i nd ica ted b y r ed o u t l ines .
T he p a l l iu m i t sel f i s wh i te , a nd i ti s d ecora ted w i th a s ing le
r ed c ross i n t he l ower p or t ion . at h in moustache.
L eo i s p or trayed w ith t onsured o chre h a ir a nd
T he f ac ia l d e ta i ls a re i nd ica ted i n g reen .
Beh ind h is h ead
i s ar ectangu lar g reen ' ha lo ' w i th d ark r ed s idepane ls. I ti s s ur moun ted b y a sma ll wh i te c ross. I n t he e ar ly med ieva l p er iod , t he s o-ca l led s quare ' ha lo ' was u sed i n R o me t o i nd ica te t ha t t he h ead o f t he p erson i n q uest ion r e f lec ted ar easonab le p or tra i t l i keness .9 T he p lac ing o f a sma l l c ross o n t op may a lso b e s een i n t he f igure o fp ope P ascha l If rom t he a pse mosa ic i n S . Mar ia i n Do mn ica .
I n S an C le men te t he ' ha lo ' i s f l anked o n b oth s ides b y a n i nscr ip t ion
wr it ten i n wh i te l et ters. T h is s erves t o i den t i fy t he f igure : DO M LEO QRT PP RO MANVS
+ SANCTISS I MVS
A t t he o pposi te e nd o ft he p anel i s t he f igure o f as tand ing s ain t w i th a r ound h a lo a nd t onsure who i s i den t i f ied b y av er t ica l i nscr ip t ion a s S CS V ITVS ( S t . V i tus) . H e i s d ressed i n a n o chre a lb a nd a n a pparen t ly s leeve less r ed c hasub le.
I n h is r igh t h and h e h o lds a sma l l c ross .
The t wo e nd f igures o f
L eo a nd V i tus a re b o th v iewed f ron tal ly a nd h ave n o o bv ious r e la t ionsh ip t o t he r es t o ft he s cene . They a re a lso c ons iderab ly l arger t han t he o thers i nt he c o mpos it ion . T he c o mpara t ive h e igh ts a re a s f o l lows : P ope L eo I V-73 cm , S t . V i tus -71 cm , s tand ing a post les —average a bou t 5 4 cm , Mary-44 cm , a nd C hr ist-40 cm . The p ane l h as b een s e t i n a n e labora te s yste m o fp a in ted b orders.
I t s
immed ia te f ra me i s c o mposed o f ac o mb ina t ion o f b lue a nd g reen p ig men ts , t he t h ickness o f wh ich v ar ies : 3 cm o n t he r ight , 2 .5 cm o n t he l ef t , a nd 2 cm b enea th .
B e low t h is a t t he b ot to m o f t he p ane l i s as tr ip o f r ed , 5 cm i n w idth ,
wh ich b ears a n i nscr ipt ion wr i t ten i n wh ite l et ters :
QVOD HAEC PR-AECVNCTIS
SPLENDET P ICTVRA DECORE CO MPONERE HANC S TVDV IT PRAESBYTER ECCE LEO ( " in o rder t ha t t h is p icture may o utsh ine t he o thers i n b eauty , b eho ld t he p resby ter L eo worked t o c o mpose i t ." ) . The l et ters t he mse lves a re s imp le c ap i ta ls w i thou t a ny d ist ingu ish ing c harac ter is t ics.
T here a re n o a bbrev ia t ions.
The l ower p or t ions o f t he l as t f our l e t ters a re m iss ing where t he p laster h as f al len away .
T owards t he c en tre o ft he i nscr ip t ion t he l e t ters ' ura ' o f t he w ord
i p ic tura ', a s wel l a s ap or t ion o f t he f o l low ing l et ter ' d ', were n ot p resen t when t he work was f i rst d iscovered b u t h ave s ubsequen t ly b een r epa in ted o n ar ed b ackground wh ich i s l i ghter t han t he o r ig ina l . T he s ta te o ft he e n t ire i nscr ip t ion a t t he mo men t o f i t s d iscovery i s r ecorded i n ap hotograph t aken b y J ohn H . Parker s hor t ly a f ter t he e xcava t ion o f t he l ower c hurch ( p 1 .4 .I I ) . There a re a lso o ther s porad ic a reas i n t he p anel where t he b ackground c o lours h ave b een r etouched a t s o me u nknown modern d a te . The e n t ire e nse mb le i s n ex t e nc losed i n a n o chre b order , a ga in o f v ary ing w id th : t o t he r igh t-5 cm , t o t he l e f t-4 .5 cm , a nd b enea th-5.5 cm .
A t t he
l ef t e dge o f t he work , t he s pace b etween t h is o chre b and a nd t he c o lumn wh ich marks t he t er m ina t ion o f t he wa l l i s f i l led i nw i th a r ed b order 3 cm i n w idth . T o t he r ight o ft he p a in t ing , t he ' o chre b and s erves t o s epara te t he A scens ion f ro m t he s cenes o n t he a d jo in ing p ier .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
2 40
T he s i tua t ion i n t he s pace b enea th t he p ane l i s s l igh t ly more c on fused d ue t o t he f aded n a ture o f t he p igmen ts a nd l arge l acunae w here t he p las ter h as f a l len f rom t he w a l l . I tw ou ld a ppear , h owever , t ha t t he p a in t ing c on t inued d own t o t he f l oor a t b o th e x tre m i t ies a l though n o t i n t he c en tre . D irec t ly b enea th t he w ide o chre b and i s an arrower s tr ip o f b lack ( 2 .5 cm ) . B e low t h is a re t wo p ane ls , a nd o n e ach s ide o ft he c ompos i t ion , e ach s urrounded b y b orders o f r ed a nd b lack . T he p ane l o n t he l e f t i s t he l arger o f t he t wo , 7 3 cm i nw id th , a nd o f i nde term ina te h e igh t a l though t he p laster c on t inues r igh t t o t he f l oor .
I tc on ta ins p a in ted d ecora t ion c ons is t ing o f af l ora l mo t i f i n r ed a nd
o range s e t a ga ins t ap a le o chre b ackground . T he p ane l o n t he r igh t i s sma l ler a nd l ess i n tac t , b u t t he p or t ion w h ich d oes r e ma in i s b et ter p reserved ( p 1 .4 .I V ) . I td ep icts a s im i lar d es ign c ompr ised o f ab lack s te m a nd b ranches u pon w h ich a re g row ing r ed a nd o range b uds . B etween t he t wo , n oth ing i sv isib le a par t f rom t he b r ick o ft he wa l l . I ti su n l ike ly t ha t t h is a rea was e ver p a in ted o r e ven c overed i np laster s ince t he r ed b order wh ich r uns a long t he t op o ft he t wo p ane ls i s c lear ly d iscon t inued i nt he c en tre . I n a dd i t ion , a t t h is p o in t t he e dge o f t he p laster f o l lows a h igh ly r egu lar s tra igh t l i ne , i n d irec t c on trast t o o ther a reas where t he p las ter h as f a l len a way . T here , t he h aphazard n a ture o ft h is p rocess h as l e f t av ery u neven e dge . T he r eason f or t h is l arge g ap i n t he c en tre o ft he p ane l i sn o t d if icu l t t o f i nd . I t may b e e xp la ined b y s ugges ti ng t he p resence h ere o f a sma l l a l tar s e t a ga ins t t he w a l l .1 0 As im i lar a l tar s t i l l e x ists i nt he c hurch o ft he S S . Mar t in ia t C im i t i le . Anot her may b e s een l y ing i n t he f i e ld o u ts ide t he c hurch o f S . U rbano a la C af farel la o n t he o u ts k ir ts o f R ome . I ti s i mpor tan tt o r ea l ize t ha t t he e n t ire p ic ture was e xecu ted a tt he s ame t ime a nd o n t he s ame l eve l o f p laster . T he s ugges t ion made b y Wi lper t ( "P i t ture" , 2 99-300 ) t ha t t he c en tra l b lock o f marb le a nd t he f igures o fp ope L eo I V a nd S t . V itus w ere a dded a t as ubsequen t d a te must b e c ons idered e rroneous i nv iew o ft he p hys ica l , s ty l is t ic a nd c omposi t iona l c on t inu i ty o f t he e n t ire p ane l . T he f ac t t ha t t he ma in a x is o ft he work l i es s l igh t ly t o t he r igh t o f c en tre , t hus c rea t ing t he a dd i t iona l s pace t ha t i sn ecessary f or t he i nscr ip t ion wh ich f l ank s t he h ead o f t he p ope , d e monstra tes t ha t a l lt he f i gures w ere i nc luded i nt he p lann ing o ft he o r ig ina l c o mpos it ion . Apar t f ro m t h is t here i sn o e v idence o f a ny l a ter a pp l ica t ions o fp las ter t o t he wa l l . T he b e l ief t ha t t he s tone was a l a ter a dd i t ion h as a lso b een e spoused b y J unyen t ( T i to lo d i S an C le men te , 1 66 ) , b u t t h is i s e qua lly i mposs ib le i nv iew o f t he p hysica l r e la t ions h ip b etween t he t hree e le men ts : t he s tone , t he p a in t ing , a nd t he wa l l . T he b lock i s s et s ecure ly w i th in t he f ra mework o ft he b r ick wa l l , a nd i ti s o verl apped o n a l l s ides b y t he p laster o ft he mura l . T he p oss ib i l i ty t ha t t h is c ou ld h ave b een d one a t al a ter d a te c anno t b e a ccep ted . T he c en tra l s ec t ion o ft he wal l w ou ld h ave h ad t o b e e n t ire ly d is man t led a nd r ebu i l t , a nd e ven i ft he p icture h ad s o mehow managed t o s urv ive t h is o pera t ion i n tac t t here i sn o c once ivab le way i n wh ich t he s tone c ou ld h ave b een p laced b eh ind t he p laster . T he d if icu l t ies i nheren t i n s uch ap rocedure c onst i tu te a s trong a rgument i n f avour o ft he h ypo thes is t ha t t he b lock o f marb le was s et i nt he wa l l d ur ing i t s o r ig ina l c onstruc t ion . T h is , i nt urn , g ives c redence t o t he b e l ie f t ha t t he wa l l was b u i l t f or t he s pec i f ic p urpose o f d isp lay ing t he s tone a nd i t s s urround ing mura l . T he c oncep t was a n o r ig ina l o ne , a nd t he i nscr ip t ion d oes n ot e x aggera te when i ts ta tes t ha t L eo " hanc c o mponere s tudu i t" . Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. 2 41 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
i i ) G raf f i t i :
T he o ccurrence o f g raf f i t i o n t he s ur face o f t he p a in t ing was
f i rst c o m men ted o n b y J oseph Mu l loo ly i n 1 869 ( S a int C le men t P ope a nd Mar tyr , 1 95) , a l though h is r ender ing o f t he l e tters was n ot e n t ire ly a ccurate a nd t here a re an u mber o f om issions. T he g ra f f i t i d e mons tra te c onsiderab le v ar iety i n t he ir c a l l igraphy , a nd t hey r ange f ro m t he e as i ly l eg ib le t o t he b are ly d ec iphera b le . T he l e t ters wh ich c an b e d ist ingu ished a nd t heir l oca t ions a re l i sted b elow . 1 .
o n t he o chre b order t o t he l ef t o f p ope L eo I V : i ) LEO I ND IGNVS PRB
2 .
o n t he l e f t l ower p ane l : i ) . R.S BE]NO PR i ) i i )
.. DE T ITV M ILAN I ( v er t ica l ly a nd s ideways )
i v ) FLORVS PRB S THEODR I v ) + ET EGO MERCV ... EGO MERCV .• • 3 )
o n t he b lue-green b order a bove t he ma in i nscr ip t ion : i ) MERCURIVS PR i ) +S ALB IO PRB PECCATORI i i )
.••ARIVS PBR
i v ) VRSVS PBR V ) XXX K ... NOV OBI IT KALOLEO 4 .
o n t he b lack b order b e low t he i nscr ip t ion : i ) + ET ... I OAYNNES i ) LEO PRIORE DE T ITV PETRUS LVR ISSA i i )
FLORV
I ti s i n terest ing t o n ote t ha t t he a bbrev ia t ions PR , PRB a nd PBR w ere a ppare nt ly i n u se i n terchangeab ly f or ' presby ter '. Th is i sn o t t he o n ly l oca t ion i n t he c hurch i n wh ich g raf f i t i h ave b een d iscovered s cra tched i n t he p laster , a nd t he n a mes o ft he p r iests J ohn a nd S a lb ius a re a lso t o b e f ound o n t he p a in t ing o f t he Madonna a nd C h i ld i n t he n iche i nt he r igh t a isle .
T he c usto m
o fp r iests a nd o thers i n t he e ar ly M idd le Ages t o s ign t heir n ames , a pparen t ly a s ar ecord o f av isi t t o ap ar t icu lar s i te o fv enera t ion , h as b een o bserved e lsewhere i n an u mber o fl oca t ions i n t he c a taco mb o f S t . C a l ix tus ,1 1 a nd s erves t o c on f ir m t he p resence h ere o f a n a l tar o r s hr ine . S im i lar s igna tures h ave a lso b een f ound o n t he p a in t ings i n t he T heodotus c hapel i n S . Mar ia Ant iqua .1 2 E lsewhere i n S an C le men te , g raf f i t i a re v isib le o n t he l a tee leven th-cen tury mura ls i n t he n ar thex d ep ic t ing t he M irac le o f C le men t 's To mb a nd t he Transla t ion o fh is Re l ics , n e i ther o f wh ich was c onnec ted w i th a n a l tar , b u t h ere t hey c onsist f or t he most p ar t o f a bstrac t o r f igura l d raw ing s a nd n o t words o r s igna tures . i v ) Da t ing : Ever s ince t he f irst d iscovery o ft he C hr isto log ica l c yc le i n Nove mber 1 862 , d ur ing t he f irs t s er ies o f e xcava t ions i n t he l ower c hurch , i t h as b een a ssu med t ha t t he i nc lusion o ft he s quare ' ni mbus ' a round t he h ead o f p ope L eo I V s hou ld b e t aken t o i nd ica te t ha t i t was p a in ted d ur ing h is p on t i f ic a te , b etween 8 47 a nd 8 55 A .D.
The u se o ft h is mo t i f i nd ica tes t ha t t he h ead
i s a n a ctua l p or tra i t , a nd t he c arefu l a t tent ion t o d eta i l , a s c o mpared t o t he Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. 2 42 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
s ketchy t rea t men t o ft he o ther h eads i n t he p ane l , l eads o ne t o s uppose t ha t t o ar easonab le d egree i tr ef lects a n a ccura te l ikeness .
T he p ract ice o f p lac ing
p apa l p or tra i ts o n works o f a r t was b y n o means l im i ted t o monu menta l p a ir i ti ng , a nd t he L iber P on t if ica l is a ccoun t o f L eo 's r e ign c i tes t en e xa mp les o fh is p or tra i t a ppear ing o n me ta lwork o r v estments. 1 3 U n fortunate ly , n one o f t hese h as s urv ived a nd s o i ti s n ot p ossib le t o c o mpare t he f ac ia l f eatures . I fa dd i t iona l p roof b e r equ ired f or d a t ing t he work t o h is p ont i f ica te , t hen p erhaps t h is may b e f ound i n t he f unc t ion o f t he p ortra i t w ith in t he o vera l l c o mpos it ion .
Unl ike most o f t he o ther R o man e xamp les which emp loy t he
s quare ' ha lo ' mot i f ( f or e xa mp le , t he p or traya ls o f p ope Pasca l Ii n t he a pse mosa ics o f S . P rassede , S . C ec i l ia , a nd S . Mar ia i n Do mn ica ) , L eo i s n ot d ep icted h ere a s t he d onor o f t he p ane l . A lthough t he i nscr ip t ion b eneath t he p a int ing n a mes a " praesby ter ... L eo" , t h is s hou ld n ot b e i nterpreted a s r ef err ing t o t he p ope .1 4 Nor ma l ly a d onor wou ld c arry a model o f t he c hurch , e ven i fh is d onat ion h ad b een l im i ted t o p a in ted d ecora t ions ( as f or e xa mp le T heodotus i n S . Mar ia An t igua ) . L eo I V 's g if ts t o v arious c hurches i n Ro me a re d escr ibed a t l eng th i n t he L iber P on t if ica l is , a nd a lthough S an C le men te i s i ncluded i n t h is l i st t here i s n o men t ion o f a ny wal l-pa in t ings. H is d onat ions t o t he c hurch were a pparen t ly l im i ted t o l i turg ica l o b jects ( L iber P on t if ica l is , i , 1 22, 1 25 , 1 31) . I n t he e ar ly M idd le Ages t he t er m ' presby ter ' d id n ot h ave t he s ame g eneric c onno ta t ions a s t he w ord p r iest ' d oes t oday . T he e cc les iast ica l h ierarchy a t t h is t ime c o mpr ised n o l ess t han e igh t c arefu l ly d ef ined r anks , o f wh ich ' presb y ter ' was t he s econd h ighest , o ne s tep a bove a d eacon a nd a g rade l ower t han ab ishop .1 5 L eo i s k nown t o h ave h eld t h is r ank a t a n e ar l ier s tage i n h is c areer . T he L iber P on t if ica l is ( i , 1 06) r ela tes t ha th e h ad b een o rda ined a s as ubd eacon b yp ope Gregory I V , a nd t ha t l a ter S erg ius I h ad r a ised h im t o t he p osit i on o f " presby ter" o f S S . Qua t tro C orona t i . However , a f ter h is e lec t ion t o t he p apel t hrone , w i th i t s a u to ma t ic e leva t ion i n r ank t o I e p iscopus ' ,i t wou ld h ave b een most i rregu lar f or h im t o h ave c on t inued t o u se t he i nfer ior t i t le o f ' presby ter '. T h is wou ld s ee m p ar t icu lar ly o u t o f p lace a t at i me when t he p apa cy was mak ing s trong efor ts t o a sser t i t s o wn a u thor i ty a nd i ndependence f ro m t he e n feeb led C aro l ing ian d ynas ty . The L iber P on t if ica l is ( i, 1 07) makes ap o int o f t he f ac t t ha t f or t he f irs t t ime t he emperor 's r epresen ta t ives were n o t c onsu l ted i n t he p apa l e lec t ion . The F ranks , weakened i nternal ly b y c ivi l s tr ife a nd t hrea tened b y t he s pec tre o f V ik ing a t tacks , h ad b een u nab le t o d efend c en tra l I t a ly f ro m S aracen i ncursions , a nd t he r eorgan iza tion o f t he Ro man d efences o nce a ga in f e l l t o t he p ope h i msel f . L eo , i t may b e s a id t o h is c redi t , r ose a dm irab ly t o t he o ccasion .
H is b u i ld ing c a mpa igns , made
n ecessary t o al arge d egree b yt he S aracen s ack o f S t . P eter 's i n 8 46 , were u npara lleled i nh is c en tury .
H is d ona t ions o fv est men ts a nd p la te t o Rö man
c hurches were e qua l ly g enerous , a nd t he words wh ich h e p laced o n t he wa ll o fh is ' Leon ine ' c i ty were n ot w i thou t s o me j ust if ica t ion ; s p lendor s pes a urea R oma" .
" Ro ma c apu t o rb is
I nt he b iograph ies o ft he n inth-cen tury p opes , t he L iber Pon t if ica l is r efers t o t he m w i th t he t er ms " pon t ifex" , " papa" , a nd " praesu l" .
A more
r e levan t s ource o f p apa l a ppe lat ions may b e f ound o n t he i nscr ipt ions e rected b y t he p opes t he mselves , a nd a n u mber o ft hese h ave s urv ived f ro m t he f irst h a l f o ft he n in th c en tury . I n t he a pse mosa ics o f S . Mar ia i n Do mnica a nd Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. 2 43 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
S . C eci l ia , a s we l l a s i n t he i nscr ip t ion o ver t he d oorway t o t he S an Z eno c hapel i n S . Prassede , P ascha l I( 8 17-824) r eferred t o h imse lf a s " praesu l" . Th is t er m i s a lso u sed b y Gregory I V ( 8 27-844) i n t he a pse mosa ic o f S an Marco , a nd o n t he e p i taph o fp ope S erg ius I ( 8 44-847 ) f or mer ly i n S t . P eter 's . 16 The a pse mosa ic wh ich L eo I V e rec ted i n S an Mar t ino a t Mon t i r eferred t o h i msel f a s " praesu l" a nd t o h is p redecessor a s " papa" .
1 7
T he
o nly o ther k nown i nscrip t ions o f L eo a re t hose wh ich h e p laced o ver t he g a tes o f t he L eon ine c ity , a nd t hese a lso u se b o th " papa" a nd " praesu l" . 18 Ano ther i nd ica t ion i s p rov ided b yt he t ex ts o fh is s urviv ing l e t ters , i n wh ich h e i nvar ia b ly r efers t o h i msel f a s " Leo e p iscopus , s ervus s ervorum D ei" .1 9 I n n o i nstance , h owever , i s t here a ny e vidence o f ap ope r ef fer ing t o h i mse lf b y t he t er m ' presby ter '. This t er m i s g enera l ly u sed t o d escr ibe t he p r iests i n c harge o f e ach o f t he Ro man c hurches , a nd i ti s n ot u nreasonab le t o s uppose t ha t t he ' presby ter ' o f S an C le mente who d ona ted t he A scension p ane l c ou ld a lso h ave b een n amed L eo . P ossib ly h e i s t he " Leo i nd ignus p rb" ( Leo t he u nworthy p resby ter" ) n a med i n t he g raf f i t i . T he l i st o f c ler ics who s igned t he a c ts o f t he R oman s ynod o f 8 53 i ncludes o ne " Serg ius , p resby ter S . C le men t is" ,2 0 b ut h is d ates a re u nknown , a s a lso a re t he n a mes o f a l l o ther p r iests o f t he c hurch i nt he n in th c entury . The " presby ter ... Leo" o f t he Ascension p a in t ing may h ave b een S erg ius ' sp redecessor , o r e ven p oss ib ly a c on te mporary s ince i ti s n o t c lear f ro m t he s ources h ow many p resby ters a c hurch c ould h ave a t o ne t ime .
S erg ius
i s t he o n ly s igna tory f or S an C le mente i n 8 53 , b u t t hree p resby ters f rom t he c hurch a re among t hose s igning t he s ynodo f 4 99. 2 1 Ra ther t han i nd ica t ing t he s ource o f ad ona t ion , t he p resence o ft he p ope i n t he Ascens ion c o mposit ion was p robab ly i n tended t o f u lf i l l ar ole s im i lar t o t ha t o f p ope Z achar ias i n t he T heodo tus c hape l o f S . Mar ia An t igua , n a me ly t o s erve a s ac onven ien t c hrono log ica l y ardst ick i nd ica t ing t he d ate o ft he p a in tm • g . 22 There c an b e n o d oub t t ha t t h is t ook p lace b etween t he y ears 8 47 a nd 8 55. Th is d a t ing i s o f c ruc ia l impor tance a s as tar t ing p o int i n a ny a t te mp t t o e stabl ish a r ela t ive c hrono logy f or t he d ecora t ions o ft he l ower c hurch . v )
I conography ;
T he most c ontroversia l a spect o f t he mura l i s i t s s ub jec t
mat ter . B o th t he e xcavator , J oseph Mu l loo ly ,2 3 a nd h is c o l league G iovann i B . De Rossi24 b e l ieved t ha t i tp or trayed t he Assu mp t ion o f Mary i n to h eaven a f ter h er d eath , an on-canonica l e ven t b ased o n ag roup o f a pocrypha l t ex ts k nown c o llect ively a s t he Transitus Mar iae . 25
Th is i n terpre ta t ion h as s ubsequent ly
b een a ccep ted b yv on E i telberger , Marucch i ,
N o lan , L ec lercq , N ieto a nd
L ieba l l . 26 The o ppos ing v iew , t ha t t he s cene r epresen ts t he Ascens ion o f Chr ist a s d escr ibed i n t hree B ib l ica l p assages ( Mark 1 6 :19 , Luke 2 4 :50-51 , Acts 1 :9-12) , was f i rs t p roposed b y Ra fae le G arrucc i .2 7 I th as b een a ccep ted b y aw ide v ar ie ty o f s cho lars i nc lud ing Wi lper t , v an Mar le , C ecche l l i , J unyen t , Toesca , Ma t th iae , Her man in , Anthony , G rabar a nd C roqu ison. 2 8 l i t t le d oub t t ha t t h is s econd i n terpre tat ion i s t he c orrect o ne .
T here i s
The i conography o ft he A scension may b e d iv ided i n to t wo ma jor t radi t ions , wh ich h ave b een c a l led b y E rnest ' Dewa ld t he ' He l len ist ic ' a nd t he ' orien ta l ' t ypes. 29
I nt he f i rst o f t hese , C hrist i s d ep ic ted o n t he t op o f a moun ta in ,
p resu mab ly t he Moun t o f O l ives where t he A scension i s s a id t o h ave t aken p lace . He i s o n t he p o in t o f s tepp ing f ro m t he moun ta in i n to h eaven , a nd r eaches u p Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. 2 44 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
t o g rasp t he h and o f G od which has descended t o assist h im .
Below t he d isc ip les
a re d ep icted i n a t t i tudes o f f ear and a maze ment . This i conograph ica l t ype was p opu lar i n t he e ar ly C hr ist ian world, particularly i n western Europe. L a ter i t s erved a s t he p ro to type f or t he portrayal o f t he Ascension i n Carol ing ian a r t . T he s econd t ype , i n which Christ i s usual ly depicted e nthroned i n a mandor la b orne b y f ly ing a ngels, i s o f greater importance f or t he p resen t e nqu iry . I n h is l ef th and h e holds a book , and with h is r ight h and h e makes t he g esture o f b ened ic t ion . Beneath, M ary i s s hown i n t he o ran t p osi t ion f l anked b y t welve a post les i ncluding t he easily recognizab le f igure o f P au l . C lear ly t hen , t he i conography i s based on dog matic c onsidera t ions r a ther t han s tr ict a dherence t o t he B ib lical t ext. T he s ource o f t h is s econd t radition i s not known , but t he c oncen tra t ion i n t he e ast o f t he s urv iv ing e xa mples o f i ts use s uggests S yr ia o r P a lest ine a s t he most l i kely p lace o f o r ig in .
The s trongest early ev idence f or t h is t ype may
b e f ound o n t he d ecora ted ampullae,
generally dated t o t he s ix th c en tury , wh ich
may h ave b een s ouven irs b rought back t o t he west by p ilgr i ms r e turning f ro m t he H oly Land .
Al arge n u mber o f t hese are now preserved i n I ta ly a t B obb io
a nd Monza .3 ° The s cene o f t he Ascension occurs f requently o n t hese ampu l lae , a nd i th as b een s uggested b y De wald ( p. 284) t hat t he i conography r ef lec ts a mosa ic f ro m t he C hurch o f t he Ascension on t he Mount o f O l ives.
I n o pposi t ion
t o t h is p roposa l , Andre Grabar has pointed out t hat t he p osit ion o f t he V irg in i s n o t u n i form t hroughou t . S he i s a l ways depicted wi th h er a r ms r a ised i n t he o ran t p os it ion a nd i s u sua l ly v ie wed f ro m t he f ront , but t here a re s o me ampu l lae o n w h ich s he i s s een i np rof i le. 31 A f urther exa mple o f t his s a me v ar ia t ion h as b een d iscovered b y K ur t Weitz mann i n h is s tudy o f t he p ain ted i cons f ro m Moun t S ina i .3 2 I n a dd i t ion t o t he varying position o f Mary , t he f igure o f C hr ist i s s o met i mes s hown w i th l ong hair and a beard , while o n o ther o ccasions h e i s c lean-shaven .
Th is w ou ld a ppear t o i ndicate t hat t he s ource f or t he ampu l lae
d es igns was n o t o ne s ing le monu ment ,
such a s t he Church o f t he Ascens ion i n
J erusa le m , a l though i ti s s t ill quite possible —indeed, l ikely—tha t t he s cene wou ld h ave b een r epresented t here. Unfortunately , l i ttle i s k nown a bou t t he c hurch a nd n o d escr ip t ion o f i ts decorations has survived. 33 The s uggest ion r ecen t ly a dvanced b y J oseph Enge m a nn t hat t here may have b een more t han o ne monu men ta l d ep ic t ion o f such scenes a t t he shrines a ssoc ia ted w i th B ib l ica l e vents d eserves c onsideration. This would a ccount f or t he s l igh t v ar ia t ions i nt he d es igns o f a nu mber o f a mpullae s cenes, a s t he a r t ists wou ld h ave h ad more t han o ne model a t t heir im mediate d isposa 1 . 34 I ti s k nown t ha t t he A scens ion was a s ub ject which was depicted i n monu men ta l a r t a t t his t ime , f or i to ccurs among t he scenes m entioned by Choric ius i n h is d escr ip t ion o f t he c hurch o f S t . S erg ius a t Gaza.
35
There a re a lso o ther a nd more substantial d epartures f ro m t he ampu l lae s che me t o b e c onsidered . I n t he Ascension miniature f ro m t he Rabu la g ospe ls ( F lorence , B ib . L aurenziana ,
Plut. I , 56, f ol. 1 3b) a nd t he a pse o f c hape l XV II
o ft he Cop t ic monastery a t Ba w it i n Egypt , 36 t he s cene h as b een c o mb ined w i th t he O ld Testamen t v ision o f Ezechial by t he a ddition o f t he t etra morph . I n t he F lorence manuscr ip t , Christ i s sho wn s tanding i n t he mandor la , a nd h e h o lds a n o pen s cro l l r ather t han a book.
The mandorla i t se lf i s s upported
b y o n ly t wo a nge ls i ns tead o f t he usual f our. T wo o thers a re d ep icted o f fer ing c rowns , a nd a n a dd i t iona l pair are sho wn f lank ing Mary where t hey s erve t o Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. 245 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
d irect t he a t tent ion o f t he apostles up wards t o h eaven . T he e n t ire s cene i s e nclosed i n ad ecorative border which imitates mosa ic t esserae , af ac t wh ich h as p ro mp ted Kur t Weitz mann t o suggest t ha t a n A scension mosa ic s erved a s t he mode l f or t he i l lu minator.
A s i milar b order e ncloses t he s cenes o f
37
t he C ruc if ix ion and Resurrection. I n t he Baw it mural t he m andorla i s unsuppor ted , a lthough t here a re t wo f ly ing a ngels who o ffer cro wns.
The f igure o f C hr ist , e nthroned a nd h o ld ing
a n o pen b ook , f ol lows t he s o-called 'Palestin ian ' t ype e xe mp l i f ied b y t he ampu l lae , b ut Mary i s f lanked by t hirteen a post les i nstead o f t he u sua l t welve . The i n troduction o f t he Ascension i nto t he v ocabu lary o f Ro man a r t was ar e la t ive ly l a te d evelop ment , and t he scene h as n o t b een f ound i n c a taco mb p a in t ings .
I n i t s ear liest Ro man exa mple , t he p ane l f ro m t he wooden d oors
o f S an ta S abina , t he i conography f ollo ws t he ' He l len ist ic ' t radi t ion a nd d ep icts C hr ist s tepp ing i nto heaven assisted by two a nge ls . B e low h im i n al andscape s et t ing a re f our a postles who l ook up wards w ith e xpress ions o f wonder a nd d isbel ief .3 8
I ti s l ikely t hat t his 'Hel lenist ic ' t rad i t ion r e ma ined i n u se u nt i l
a t l east t he s eventh c entury.
An epigra m o f p ope Honor ius I( 6 25-638) , " De
Aposto l is i n Christi a d coelos Ascensione o bstupescent ibus" , wh ich d escr ibes t he Ascension s cene, na mes only t he orig ina l d isc ip les i n s tr ict a dherence t o t he B ib lical t ex ts. No mention i s m ade o f t he p resence o f Mary o r o f a ny a ccla im ing a ngels.
3 9
The epigra m described i n d eta i l t he v arious a t t i tudes
o f f ear a nd amaze ment s ho wn by t he apostles , wh ich s erves t o d e monstra te t ha t t he g estures a nd awe-stricken poses o f t he f igures i n t he S an C le men te p a in t ing r ef lect a t radition a lready well-estab l ished i n Ro me .
They were n o t
b orrowed f ro m Carolingian art as De wald has s uggested ( p . 2 86) .
S im i lar
g estures , a nd n otably t he two apost les who h ave o ne a rm r a ised h igh i n t he a ir , a lso may b e f ound i n t he Rabula gospels i l lum ina t ion . The l arge i nf lux o f eastern c lergy i nto Ro me i nt he s econd h a lf o f t he s eventh a nd t he e arly y ears o f t he e ighth c entury r esu l ted i n t he i n troduc t ion i n to Ro man a rt o f ac onsiderable nu mber o f n ew i conograph ic p at terns. Wh i le i ts ee ms l ikely t hat t he ' oriental ' t radition o f t he A scension h ad a lready b een k nown i n t he west f or so me t i me,
g iven t he impor ta t ion o f o b jects s uch a s t he
P a lest in ian ampul lae , i t was probably only a t t h is l a ter j uncture t ha t i tb eca me f ir m ly e stab l ished a s t he s tandard t ype.
Unfortuna te ly i ti s n ot p oss ib le t o
a scer ta in more precisely t he nature o f t his t rans i t ion s ince t here a re n o s urv iv ing e xa mp les f ro m t he m onu mental art o f t h is p er iod . n ot f igure among t he s cenes painted i n S .
T he Ascension d oes
Mar ia A n t igua u nder p ope J ohn V II
( 7 05-707) d espite t he f act t hat a nu mber o f o ther p ost-Resurrec t ion e ven ts a re d ep icted , a nd t he o nly early exa mple which d oes s urv ive i n R o me , t he p a in ted p anel f ro m t he S ancta Sanctoru m ( no w
i n t he Va t ican Museu m ) , i s p rob le ma-
t i ca l f ro m t he p oint o f v ie w both o f dating and o f p lace o f o r ig in . The s cenes p or trayed o n t h is panel c losely rese mble t he Monza a nd B obb io ampu l lae , a nd C har les Morey has postulated a co m mon orig in f or b o th .4° A P a lest in ian o r ig in wou ld c ertain ly be i n keeping with t he c on ten ts o f t he b ox f or wh ich t he p anel s erves a s ac over.
I t contains b its o f s tone , wood a nd c lo th , s e t i n
p aste a nd i dent if ied a s having co me f ro m var ious p i lgr i mage s i tes i n t he Ho ly L and. The L iber Pont if icalis provides evidence t ha t t he A scension was o f ten p or trayed o n a ltar hang ings and o ther church t ex t i les i n t he n inth c en tury , f or Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 246
e xamp le t he " ves te a lba c um c hr isoc labo , h aben te m s tor iam d om in icae R esurrec t ion is s eu A scension is" ( i , 3 2) wh ich was p resen ted t o S an C le men te b y L eo I I , b u t n o i nd ica t ion i s g iven o ft he i conography . T o f i nd c on te mpora ry e xa mp les f or c ompar ison t o S an C le men te , i ti s n ecessary t o t urn t o p osti conoclast ic Byzan t ine a r t . Ah om i ly o f t he emperor L eo V I o n al a te-nin thc en tury mosa ic o ft he A scension i n C onstan t inop le p aral le ls H onor ius 's e p igram i n t ha t i tc oncen tra tes o n t he a ct ions o f t he a post les who , L eo s ays , h ave b een " fash ioned w ith s uch l i fe l ike c harac ter b y t he p a in ter , t ha t t hey s ee m i ndeed t o b e s e ized w i th t he v ar ious emot ions o f l i v ing p ersons. O ne o f t he m g ives t he i mpress ion o f f olow ing t he a scend ing [ Chr ist ] w i th h is e yes ; a no ther i s s een t o b e a l l e ars ...;
a no ther i s p ensive b ecause o f h is a s ton ish-
ment ; a no ther i s f i l led w i th wonder men t a nd f ear . ' 4 1 A l though t h is p ar t icu lar e xa mp le h as n o t s urv ived , t he A scens ion mosa ic i n t he d o me o f S t . S oph ia i n S a lon ica , wh ich may b e d a ted c . 8 85, p resents a l argely s im i lar s cheme .
T he
mandor la i s c arr ied b y t wo a ngels , a nd o n t he g round b enea th a re d ep icted t he f igures o f Mary , t we lve a post les i nclud ing P au l , a nd t wo a nge ls who d irect t he ir g aze u pwards .
F our a ngels h o ld t he m a ndor la i n t he e ar ly-ten th-cen tury
p a in t ing f ro m Ayva l i k i l ise i n C appadoc ia . 42
T here i s a ma jor d epar ture f ro m
t he ampu l lae i conography i nt he manner i n wh ich C hr ist i s p ortrayed .
I n t he
B yzan t ine e xa mp les a nd t he S an C le mente mura l h e i s s hown s i t t ing o n a n a rc o f ac irc le o r r a inbow , whereas o n t he ampu l lae h e h ad b een s ea ted o n at hrone . However , t here s ee ms t o h ave b een p len ty o f r oo m f or v ar ia t ion i n t h is r egard . I n t he t wo A scension i cons f ro m Mount S ina i , C hr ist i s c lear ly i n as ea ted p os it ion b u t t here i s n o i nd ica t ion o f t he o b jec t h e i s s i t t ing o n . 43
D ewa ld ( p . 2 94 )
s aw t he c hange f ro m t hrone t o r a inbow a s ap ecu l iar i ty o f t he B yzan t ine t rad i t ion o f t he Ascens ion , b u t t h is s ee ms t o b e b ased s o lely o n t he f ac t t ha t n o s ecure e xa mp les h ave s urv ived f ro m b efore t he n in th c en tury . I ti s a pparen t f ro m t h is b r ief s urvey t ha t w i th in t he c on tex t o ft he ' or ien ta l ' t ype t here was c onsiderab le r oo m f or v ar ia t ion o n t he p ar t o f t he i nd iv idua l a r t ist .
T here w ere , h owever , c er ta in f unda men ta l a t tr ibu tes wh ich were
a lways i nc luded a nd wh ich s erve t o d ist ingu ish t he t ype :
C hr is t i n a mandor la
b orne b y a ngels , a nd b enea th t he V irg in o rans w i th t we lve a pos t les .
T here c an
b e n o d oub t t hat t he S an C le men te A scension f a l ls i n to t h is a lready we l le stab l ished c on tex t . Whether t he p a in ter o f t h is work d rew u pon c on te mporary Byzan t ine models o r u pon e ar l ier e xa mp les p resen t i n Ro me c annot b e d et er m ined . T h is i s l arge ly d ue t o t he l ack i n b o th r eg ions o f s urv iv ing e v idence f ro m t he p reced ing c entury .
T here wou ld h ave b een n o n eed , h owever , f or t he
a rt ist t o l ook b eyond h is l oca l ' m i l ieu ', a nd i n S an C le men te h e n eed n o t h ave g one a ny f ur ther t han t he a l tar h ang ing d ona ted b y L eo I I . T he o rig ina l a nd o pposing i n terpreta t ion o f t he mura l ma inta ins t ha t t he s cene r epresen ts t he A ssu mp t ion o f t he V irg in .
T h is i s b ased p r i mar i ly o n
t he e leva ted p osi t ion o f Mary w i th in t he c ompos it ion .
S he i s l oca ted a bove t he
marb le b lock , h a l fway b e tween h eaven a nd e ar th , a nd i n t h is v iew i ti s s he , n ot C hr is t , who i s i n t he a c t o f a scens ion . A ccord ing t o t he a pocrypha l a ccoun ts wh ich p rov ide t he o n ly t ex tua l s ource f or t h is e ven t , t he a post les were m iracu lously t ranspor ted f ro m t he ir s ca t tered m iss ions t o b e p resen t a t Mary 's b eds ide i n o rder t o w i tness h er d eath .
C hr ist , who w as a lso p resen t , r ece ived h is mo ther ' ss ou l a nd r eturned
w ith i tt o h eaven .
A ccord ing t o h is i nstruc t ions , h er c orpse w as b ur ied b y
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
2 47
t he a post les i n t he G arden o f G ethse mane , where i tw as t he s ource o f a n u mber o f m irac les .
A f ter s o me t ime h ad e lapsed , r ang ing f rom t hree d ays
i n t he G reek v ers ions t o 2 06 d ays i n o ne C op t ic t ex t , C hr ist r eturned t o r esurrect Mary ' sb ody a nd s he was t hen r a ised i n g lory t o h eaven . T he f i rst s cene d escr ibed b ecame t he t rad i t iona l r ender ing i n B yzan t ine a r t , t he k o i mes is o r ' Dor m i t ion ', wh i le t he s econd , o r ' Assump t ion ', e n joyed a w ider p opu lar i ty i n t he a r t o f wes tern Europe. I ti s n o t k nown when t he T ransi tus Mar iae t ex ts w ere wr i t ten , n or i ndeed when t he s ub ject was f irs t r epresented i n ap ictor ia l manner .
T he i nd ica t ions
a re , h owever , t ha t i t was a r ela t ive ly l a te d eve lopmen t , p ossib ly o r ig ina t ing i n f i f th c en tury S yr ia o r Egyp t . T here i s n o men t ion o f t he e ven t i n t he e ar l iest p a tr is t ic t ex ts .4 4 I n t he w est , i tw as k nown t o G regory o f T ours i n t he s ix th c en tury , 45 a nd t he ' Dor m i t ion ' was o ne o f t he f our Mar ian f easts r ecorded b y t he L iber P on t i f ica l is ( i , 3 76 ) a s h av ing b een i n troduced i n to t he R o man l i turg ic a l c a lendar b yP ope S erg ius I( 6 87-701 ).
I ti s i mpor tant t o d is t ingu ish t he
' Dor m i t ion ' f ro m t he ' Assump t ion ', s ince t he l a t ter i mp l ies t he r esurrec t ion o ft he b ody i n a dd i t ion t o t he s ou l . T he p rec ise momen t o f t h is s hi f t i n t heol og ica l emphas is h as n o t b een d e ter m ined . O ne o f t he e ar l iest k nown r epresenta t ions o f t he A ssu mp t ion i n a r t i s p rov ided b y at ex t i le f ro m t he c a thedra l t reasury a t S ens , wh ich h as b een d a ted t o t he s even th o r e igh th c en tury . 46 T he s cene i s r endered i n a manner wh ich c lose ly r ese mb les t he e stab l ished A scension i conography .
Mary i s p or trayed
i n t he o ran t p osi t ion a nd i s a cco mpan ied b y t we lve a pos t les a nd t wo a nge ls , b u t t he s ub ject i s c lear ly i nd ica ted b yt he i nscr ip t ion " cum t rans isse t Mar ia ma ter d om ino d e a postol is" . T h is s im i lar i ty i s n o t s urpr is ing g iven t he o bv ious p ara l le ls b etween t he t ex tua l a ccoun ts o f t he t wo e ven ts. T he i conography mus t h ave b een k nown i n Ro me a t l eas t b y t he e nd o f t he e igh th c entury when t he s cene i s s a id t o h ave a ppeared o n t ex t i les d onated b y v ar ious p opes b eg inn ing w i th Hadr ian 1 .47 T he v iew o f C roqu ison t ha t t hese wou ld h ave p or trayed t he Dor m i t ion a nd n o t t he A ssump t ion i s n ot s uppor ted b y a n e xa m ina t ion o f t he t er m ino logy u sed i n t he L iber P on t i f ica l is . 48 P resumab ly t h is e ven t was a lso i nc luded i n t he c yc le o f wa l l-pa in t ings n arra t ing t he d eath o f Mary p a in ted o n t he wa l ls o f S . Mar ia d e G radel l is d ur ing t he p on t i f ica te o f J ohn V I I I ( 8 72-882) , a l though t he A ssumpt ion i t se lf i s n o t among t hose s cenes wh ich h ave s urv ived . B ecause t he e ven t i s n on-canon ica l , i t s a ccep tance a s a ma jor f eas t was s low , a nd t hroughou t t he e arly med ieva l p er iod i ta ppears t o h ave b een a s ubj ec t o f i nd iv idua l d evo t ion o n t he p ar t o f v ar ious p on t if f s r a ther t han a mat ter o fw idespread p opu lar i ty . One o f t hese p opes w as L eo I V , a nd t he p assage i n t he L iber P on t i f ica l is 1 12) wh ich r ecords h is p ar t icu lar a t tach ment t o t h is f eas t p rov ides o ne o f t he s trongest a rgu men ts i n f avour o f t hose who i n terpret t he S an C le men te p a int ing a s a n A ssu mp t ion : Na m o ctava m A dsu mp t ion is b ea tae D ei g enetr icis d ie m , q uae m in i me R o ma m a n tea c o lebatur ,v ig i l i is s acr is ma tu t in isque c um omn i c lero p ernoc tans l aud ibus i n b asi l icam e iusdem s e mper v irg in is d om inae n ostrae ,
q uae f or is muros , i ux ta b as i l icam s anc t i L auren t i i mar ty ri s
s i ta e s t , c e lebrare p raecep i t .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 2 48
T h is a t t i tude i s c onf irmed b y ap assage f ro m t he L iber d e V i t is P on t i f icum Romanoru m o f P seudo-L iu tprand :
" Hic o c tava m Adsump t ion is s anctae De i
g ene tr ic is Mar iae d evo t issi me p r i mum c e lebrav it , e t s e mper c e lebranda m e sse f i r ma i nst i tu t ione mandav i t" . 49 D esp i te t h is h istor ica l c on tex t , t he o ther a rgu men ts f or a n A ssu mp t ion r e ma in weak . The c la im t ha t t he s cene c annot b e a n Ascens ion b ecause t we lve a pos t les a re d ep icted , a s o pposed t o t he e leven p resen t i n t he B ib l ica l a ccoun t , i s c lear ly i n e rror .5 0 I n f ac t , t he s a me o b jec t ion c ou ld b e u sed t o a rgue a ga inst a n A ssu mp t ion . No t a l l o f t he a pocrypha l a ccoun ts men t ion t he n umber o f a pos t les who w itnessed t h is e vent , b u t o f t hose t ha t d o , t he G reek r ecension l i sts t h ir teen , a nd t he l a ter L a t in Narra t ive o f J oseph o f Ar ima thea n ames f i f teen . U n like t he ' He l len ist ic ' t ype , t o u se D ewa ld 's t erm ino logy , t he ' or ienta l ' i conography o ft he A scension was c lear ly n o t c oncerned w i th s tr ict h is tor ica l a ccuracy .
I ndeed , i ft h is h ad b een t he c ase , t he f igure o f Mary h erse lf
c ou ld n ot h ave b een i nc luded s ince s he was n ot among t he g roup o n t he Moun t o f O l ives. 51 O ne i n terest ing c o mb ina t ion o ft he t wo t rad i t ions o ccurs i n C aro l ing ian a rt where Mary h as b een a dded t o wha t i s o therw ise a s tr ic t ly ' He l len ist ic ' c o mposi t ion u sua l ly c on ta in ing o n ly e leven a pos t les . S im i lar ly , wh i le t we lve w i tnesses a re n or ma l ly p resen t i n t he S yro-Pa lest in ian i conog raphy , t here i s n o a t te mp t t o r e la te t he m t o t he o r ig ina l t we lve d iscip les n a med i n t he N ew T es ta men t ( Ma t thew 1 0 :2-4 , Mark 3 :16-19 , L uke 6 :13-16 , a nd A cts 1 :13) . Th is was n o t a lways t he c ase i n R o man a r t , s ince t he e p ig ram o fp ope Honor ius n a mes t he c anon ica l t we lve i nc lud ing J udas , a l though a lready i n t he s ix th c en tury Mark , L uke , B ar tho lo mew , a nd P au l h ad b een i nc luded among t he t we lve n a med o n t he Mausoleum o f Theodor ic i n Ravenna .5 2 The n umber t welve was c lear ly more impor tan t t han t he n ames o f t he i nd iv idu a ls t he mse lves , a nd i nt hose i ns tances i n wh ich t hey a re i den t i f ied b yn ame , t he b asis f or t he s elec t ion may p ossib ly d epend o n t he s treng th o f t heir l oca l p opu lar ity . One i n teres t ing s olu t ion t o t he p rob le m i s ofered b y t he a pse mosa ic i n t he monastery o f S t . C a ther ine o n Moun t S ina i . Here t he d if icu lty o f c o mpress ing s o me f i f teen n a mes i n to t we lve meda l l ions was c lever ly a vo ided b y t he om iss ion o f P e ter , J a mes , a nd J ohn , t he t hree a post les a lready p resen t e lsewhere i n t he a pse i n t he c en tra l s cene o f t he Transf igura t ion .
A s
f ar a s t he A scension i conography i s c oncerned , t he most g lar ing i ncons istency i s t he p resence o f P au l , who h ad n ot y et b een c over ted when t he e ven t t ook p lace y et i s o ne o ft he t wo i nd ividua l ized f igures p ro m inen t i n t he S an C le mente mura l a nd o ther e xamp les . 53 Once a ga in , t he s e lect ion i s b ased o n d ogma t ic a nd n ot h istor ica l c ons idera t ions . Another o b jec t ion , r a ised b y L ieba l l , i s t he om iss ion o f t he a cc la im ing a nge ls who a re men t ioned i n Acts 1 :10 . 54
I n s o me A scension s cenes , f or
e xamp le t he Rabu la g ospels m in iature o r t he mosa ic o f S t . S oph ia i n S a lon ica , t wo a ngels f lank t he V irg in a nd d irec t t he a t ten t ion o f t he a post les t owards h eaven .
However , t he ir om iss ion i s b y n o means a n i nnova t ion o ft he S an
C lemente a r t ist , a nd merely s erves t o u nder l ine h is d ependence o n mode ls o fD ewa ld 's ' Pa les t in ian ' g roup . T hese a nge ls d o n o t a ppear i n a ny o f t he Monza ampu l lae n or o nt he S ina i i cons .
2 49 Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
The crux of the argument lies in the elevated position of Mary. If she were not shown raised above the level of the apostles, it is unlikely that there would ever have been any controversy concerning the identification of the mural. However, it is reasonable to think that in this instance her upward displacement was quite simply a natural consequence of the addition to the composition of the marble block. Since this now occupied her normal position in the centre of the apostles, it was necessary either to modify the usual iconography and place Mary on a slightly higher level or not to include her at all. The addition of this block is a highly unusual feature and merits a closer examination. It has been frequently considered to represent the empty tomb, either of Mary or of Christ, a supposition first put forward by von Eitelberger and which has subsequently received considerable support. 55 An alternative theory was proposed by Garrucci, who raised the possibility that the oval cavity may have been used as a receptacle to contain some valued object or relic, possibly even a stone brought from the site of the Ascension on the Mount of Olives. 56 This second interpretation is partially confirmed by an examination of the stone itself. The existence of a considerable quantity of paste within the cavity indicates that it was used as the setting for some other object and not as an iconographical element in its own right. What this object might have been must remain a matter for speculation, since no trace of it remained when the painting was discovered. Possibly it was considered of sufficient value to have warranted its removal when the lower church was abandoned circa 1100 A.D. This was the case with many of the church furnish ings, for example the marble panels of the schola cantorum, which were salvaged for use in the new basilica. Garrucci' s interesting suggestion that the object was a stone or relic from the Mount of Olives is certainly worthy of consideration. The popularity in the west of such souvenirs from the pilgrimage ·sites in Palestine is attested t? by the contents of the Sancta Sanctorum box. In addition to the box, a number of stones from sites in the Holy Land were also kept in the Oratory of St. Lawrence (=Sancta Sanctorum) in the Lateran Palace, and they are enum erated in the twelfth century by Johannes Diaconus in his Liber de E cclesia Lateranensi. 5 7 There is an established historical context for links bet:ween Jerusalem and Rome in the first half of the ninth century, since a community of western monks is known to have been living on the Mount of Olives at this time. Their correspondence with pope Leo ID, asking guidance on a number of matters of the faith and in particular concerning the 'filioque' procession, has survived. 58 Additional evidence for contacts with Jerusalem is provided by a western text, The Commemoratorium, written in the first decade of the ninth century, which gives a detailed account of all the churches in the Holy Land and the numbers of their clergy. 59 The inclusion of an object in the depiction of an Ascension, or indeed of any other scene, is highly unusual. A remarkably similar and possibly even contemporary occurrence is described by Orazio Marucchi in the apse of the oratory beneath the church of Sah Saba in Rome. This underground chamber was re-discovered in 1900. Although the painting in the apse was too frag mentary to permit any positive identification, it appeared that in the centre Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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o ft he c o mposi t ion was ah o le o r n iche wh ich h ad o r ig ina l ly h e ld " quelque o b je t v enere , p eu t4 tre u ne p ierre d e l a Montagne d e l 'Ascension" , a n i dea f i rs t s ugges ted b yH . G r isar i n al ecture a t t he I s t i tu to Mass i mo o n 2 3 May 1 901 .
6 0
I n t he e ar ly M idd le Ages t he r el ig ious c o m mun ity o f S an S aba c ons-
i sted o f Greek-speak ing monks who h ad c o me t o Ro me , p robab ly i n t he s even th c en tury , f ro m t he ir h omonymous monastery i n J erusa le m .6 1 I ti s c er ta in ly p oss ib le t ha t t hey ma in ta ined s o me s or t o fl i nk w i th t heir ' mo ther .house ' ,a nd t hus i t wou ld n ot h ave b een d if f icu l t f or t he m t o o b ta in a r el ic o f t h is s or t . T h is p ara l le l h as b een s tressed i n t he s tudy o f S an C le men te b y C ar lo C ecche l l i , a l though h is i den t if ica t ion o f t he S an S aba work a lso a s a n A scens ion r e ma ins u nsubstan t ia ted .8 2 Wha tever i t s c on ten ts may h ave b een , t he b lock o f s tone p layed a n i mpor tan t r o le i nt he c o mpos i t ion . I th as a lready b een d e mons tra ted t ha t i t s p resence mus th ave b een p lanned r igh t f ro m t he momen t o f t he c onstruc t ion o f t he wa l l . I ti s u nl ikely t ha t i t s p os i t ion was d eterm ined b y c hance , s ince t he e xact c orr espondence o f t he v er t ica l a x is o f t he o va l c av i ty t o t he a x is o f t he o va l-shaped mandor la d irect ly a bove i ts ee ms more t han a mere c o inc idence . I ndeed , i f t h is was a f unda men ta l c o mponen t o f t he mura l , i ti s n o t s urpr ising t ha t t he p resby ter L eo p laced i ti n t he c entra l p osi t ion u sua l ly r eserved f or t he f i gure o f Mary . Af ina l c on f ir ma t ion o f t he i den t i f ica t ion o f t he p anel a s a n A scension may b e f ound i n i t s r e la t ion t o t he o ther p a in t ings i n t he s a me g roup , a l l o f wh ich d ep ic t e p isodes f ro m t he l i fe o f C hr ist . The p resence i n t h is c yc le o f a n A scension d oes n o t s ee m o u t o f p lace , whereas a n e ven t f ro m t he l i fe o f Mary wou ld p resent a r a ther u nna tura l i ncongru i ty i n t h is c on tex t . v i ) S t . V i tus :
O ne a dd i t iona l p rob le m wh ich r equ ires a b r ief e xam ina t ion i s
t he i den t i f ica t ion o f t he s a in t who a c ts a s ac oun terba lance t o p ope L eo I V , n amed b y a n i nscr ip t ion f l ank ing h is h ead a s S t . V i tus . Mu l loo ly s uggested t ha th e migh t b e t he b ishop o f V ienne ( 2..4 90-c . 5 18) who was a s taunch o pponent o f t he Ar ian h eresy a nd a s uppor ter o f t he c oncep t o f p apa l s upre mac y o ver t he o ther w estern b ishops . The r eason f or h is i nc lus ion i n t he S an C lemen te p a in t ing m igh t l i e i n t he f ac t t ha t S t . Ado , who a lso c ame f ro m V ienne a nd who was t o b eco me b ishop o f t ha t c i ty i n 8 60 , i s t hough tt o h ave b een p resen t i n Ro me a bou t t h is t ime .6 3 Th is i den t i f ica t ion h as b een a ccep ted b y L ec lercq , a l though h e was c lear ly m istaken i n h is b el ief t ha t t he f igure o ft he s a int was "v etu d es o rne men ts e p iscopaux" .64 The c onnect ion w i th V ienne h as b een f ur ther e xpanded b y L ieba l l who c red i ts p ope L eo I V w i th a B urgundian b ackground a nd s uggests t ha t t he o va l c av i ty may h ave h e ld r e l ics o ft he b ishop .6 5 T he ma jor o b jec t ion t o t h is t heory i s t ha t t he n a me o f t he f a mous b ishop o f V ienne i s n ot V i tus b u t A v i tus. F ur ther more , i ti s n o t n ecessary t o l ook b eyond I ta ly f or a s a in t n a med V i tus. T here may e ven h ave b een more t han o ne I t a l ian s a int o ft h is n a me . T he S t . V i tus who i s b est k nown was t he y oung s on o f aS ici l ian n ob leman who was mar tyred i n L ucan ia w i th Modes tus a nd C rescent ia d ur ing t he r e ign o f t he emperor D ioc let ian . A ccord ing t o t he l egend , h e h ad miracu lous ly c ured D ioc le t ian 's s on , who was o n h is d ea thbed . However , t he f igure d ep icted i n S an C le men te i s n o t ab oy , b u t r a ther a n Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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a du l t man .
I ti s p ossib le t ha t t here was s econd V i tus , a Ro man t o whom a
monas tery a nd a d iacona te o n t he E squ i l ine h i l l were d ed ica ted .
6 6
I nt he
e igh th c en tury Fu lrad , a bbot o f S t . Den is , b rough t t he r el ics o f aS t . V i tus f ro m R o me t o P ar is , a nd i n 8 36 t hese were t ransla ted o nce a ga in t o C orvey i n L ower S axony where t hey s oon a cqu ired a r epu ta t ion f or work ing m iracles . I th as b een s ugges ted b y J oseph Dav id t ha t b y t he n in th c entury t he t wo I t a l ian s a ints n amed V i tus h ad b eco me f used i n to o ne : t he h ea l ing q ua li t ies o ft he y oung b oy f ro m s ou thern I t a ly h ad b eco me a ssoc ia ted w i th t he r elics o ft he a du l t R o man . 67 B .
THE CRUCIF IX ION T o t he r ight o f t he wa l l wh ich c on ta ins t he A scension p anel t here i s a
l arge T -shaped p ier , t hree s ides o f wh ich a re c overed w i th p a in t ing t ha t may b e c ons idered c on te mporary w i th t he A scens ion a nd t hus a lso d ated t o t he p on t if ica te o f L eo I V . Apar t f ro m t he c on t inu i ty i nt he s ty le o f t he p a in t ing , t he c on te mporane i ty o f t he p ier s cenes i s d e mons trated b y t he ir c o mmon l ayer o f p laster wh ich c on t inues i n tact a nd u nbroken a cross t he j unc t ion o f p ier a nd a d jacen t wa l l . On t he f ace o f t he p ier wh ich im med ia te ly a d jo ins t he A scension t here were o r ig ina l ly a t l east t wo p a in ted s cenes . B ecause t he p laster h as n o t s urv ived i n t he l ower s ec t ion , o n ly o ne o f t hese r ema ins. I td ep icts t he C ruc i f ix ion . C hr ist i s s hown o n t he c ross , f l anked b yh is mo ther a nd S t . J ohn t he E vange l is t , a nd i n t he b ackground t here i s ar ocky l andscape , wh ich r ises s harp ly o n b oth s ides . The p ane l i s f ramed w ith a b lack b order . The t ransv erse a rm o f t he c ross e x tends t he f u l l w id th o f t he p ane l , a nd t he v er t ica l a rm t he f u l l l eng th . Across t he t op i s as econd a nd s hor ter a rm , t he t abu la a nsa ta . I th as d ecora t ive k nobs a t b o th e nds , a l though t hey a re n ot s ymmetr ic a l , a nd t here i s n o e v idence o f a ny i nscr ipt ion . T he b ody o f Chr ist , c lad o n ly i n al o in-c loth o rp erizo ma , h angs e rec t .
The h ead i s t i l ted t o o ne s ide
b u t i ti s i mposs ib le t o d eter m ine whether t he e yes a re o pen o r c losed s ince a l l t races o ft he f ac ia l d eta i ls h ave d isappeared . C hr ist 's h a lo i s o chre w i th ar ed b order , a nd a p ho tograph o ft he p ier t aken b yJ . H . P arker s hor t ly a f ter t he d iscovery r evea ls t ha t i t was o r ig ina l ly c ruc i for m ( p 1 .4. V I ) .
The
Parker p hotograph a lso c onf irms Garrucci 's s ta temen t ( S tor ia d el la A r te C r ist iana , i i , 8 7) t ha t b lood was s hown f l ow ing f rom t he wounds i n t he h ands , ad e ta i l wh ich i s n o l onger v is ib le .
C hr is t 's b ody i s o u t l ined i n b lue , a nd
t here i s s o me i nd icat ion o f musc les a nd o ther s k in f ea tures i n t he l eg s a nd c hes t .
T he c ross i t se lf i s o chre w i th r ed o u t l ines .
The r ocky l andscape wh ich a scends a way f ro m t he c en tre o n e i ther s ide s erves a s ab ackdrop f or t he t wo s tand ing f igures w ho a re p laced i n t he r ecta ngu lar c o mpar t ments c rea ted b y t he t wo a rms o f t he c ross . s ide t he mounta ins a re o chre , o n t he r igh t t hey a re r ed .
On t he l ef t
The f igure o n t he
l ef t , p resu mab ly Mary , r a ises b o th a r ms t owards t he c ross. i n af u l lleng th r ed g ar men t o ver wh ich s he wears aman t le.
S he i s d ressed Th is a lso
c overs h er h ead . The p ig men t o ft he man t le h as e n t ire ly d isappeared . T he ma le f igure who s tands t o t he r igh t o f t he c ross i s p resu mab ly S t . J ohn t he E vange l is t . C hr is t .
He h o lds a s crol l i nh is l e f t h and a nd r a ised h is r igh t t owards
L ike t he c rouch ing a post les i n t he A scens ion , h e i s d ressed i n a
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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wh i te t un ica d ecora ted w i th v ert ica l r ed c lav i a nd o ver t h is h e wears a n o chre p aenu la . B o th f igures h ave o chre h a loes wh ich a re o u t l ined i n r ed . T he s urf ace o ft he p las ter i sv ery u neven , f u l l o fh o les , a nd b ad ly c racked . Desp ite t he p opu lar i ty a nd w idespread u se o f t he s ymbo l o f t he c ross , t he C ruc i f ix ion i t sel f was n o t d ep ic ted i n e ar ly C hr ist ian a r t .6 8 The o ldes t k nown r epresen ta t ion i s t he g raf f i to d iscovered i n 1 857 among t he r u ins o f t he P aedogog iu m o n t he P a lat ine . However , t h is c rudely-drawn s ketch mocks t he r e l ig ion b y s how ing t he c ruc if ix ion n o t o f ah u man f i gure b u t o f ad onkey . O ne o f t he e ar l ies t d ep ic t ions o ft he e vent k nown t o h ave e x isted i n monumen ta l a r t was t he s ix th-cen tury p a in t ing i n t he c hurch o f S t . S erg ius a t G aza , b u t C hor icius y sd escr ip t ion p rov ides l i t t le i n for ma t ion c oncern ing t he i conography .6 9 A l though t hese d ecora t ions h ave n ot s urv ived , c on te mporary e xa mp les i l lust ra t ing t he C ruc i f ix ion may b e f ound i n t he m inor a r ts.
T rad i t ional ly , t hese
h ave b een v iewed a s f a l l ing i n to t wo g enera l c a tegor ies : t he s ymbo l ic a nd t he h is tor ica l .7 0 T he s y mbo l ic t ype c onsists o f ab ust o f C hr ist s e t i n a medal l ion wh ich i s u sua l ly p laced a t t he t op o f a n o rna men ted c ross. I ti s k nown p r i mar i ly f ro m i t s f requen t u se o n t he ampu l lae o f Monza a nd B obb io , a nd i ta lso o ccurs i n t he s eventh-cen tury a pse mosa ic o f S . S tefano R otondo i n R o me .
The i conography
h as b een l inked b y A ndre G rabar t o r epresen ta t ions o f t he e ven t a ssoc ia ted w ith t he c u l t o ft he Ho ly C ross i n J erusa le m .7 1 The C ruc i f ix ion i s t he most f requent ly r epresen ted o f a l l t he s ub jects d ep icted o n t he ampu l lae , a nd t here i s ad epar ture f ro m t h is t ype i n o n ly t hree i nstances . T hese d ep ic t t he e n t ire b ody o f C hr ist w i th h is a r ms e x tended i n t he manner o f ac ruc i f ied f igure , b u t t here i s n o i nd ica t ion o ft he c ross i t se lf . As im i lar me thod o f p or tray ing t he e ven t may b e f ound o nt he wooden d oors o f S . S ab ina i n Ro me . T he h istor ica l t ype , wh ich may a lso h ave o r ig ina ted i n t he e as t , s hows t he e n t ire b ody o f C hr is th ang ing o n t he c ross . H e i s d ressed i n al bng s leeve less t un ic o r c olob ium wh ich i s u sua l ly c o loured p urp le .
I ft he n umber o f s urv iv ing
e xamp les a re av a l id i nd ica t ion , t h is was t he more w idespread o f t he t wo t rad i t ions.
I t may b e f ound i n am in iature f rom t he Rabu la g ospe ls , o n t he
p a in ted p ane l f ro m t he S ancta S anctorum , o n an umber o f r e l iquary c rosses s uch a s t he F iesch i- Morgan s tauro thek ( Metropo l itan Museu m o f Ar t , N ew Y ork ) , a nd among t he e ar l ies t i cons f ro m t he monastery o f S t . C a ther ine o n Moun t S ina i . I n Ro me i to ccurs i n t he d ecora t ions o f t he Theodo tus c hapel i n S . Mar ia An t igua , i n t he u nderground o ra tory b enea th t he c hurch o f S S . G iovann i eP ao lo , a nd a lso i n t he c a taco mb o f S an Va len t ino . T he Cruci f ix ion p a in t ing i n S an C le men te f o l lows n e i ther o f t hese t rad i t ions s ince i tp or trays C hr ist c lad o n ly i n ap er izo ma a nd n ot t he more modes t c o lob iu m .
V an Mar ie a nd Mat th iae h ave s ugges ted t ha t t h is d e mons tra tes t he
d ependence o f t he a r t ist o n C aro l ing ian mode ls ,
7 2
where t he s o-ca l led " nude"
C hr ist, may f requen t ly b e f ound i n i vory c arv ings a nd manuscr ip t i lu m inat i ons. 73 I ti s n ot n ecessary , h owever , t o s eek t he o r ig ins o f t h is t ype i n n or thern Europe.
T here i s c ons iderab le e v idence t o s uppor t t he v iew t ha t
s o me o f t he e ar l ies t r epresen ta t ions o f t he " h istor ica l" C ruc i f ix ion d id n o t u se t he c olob iu m .
C hr is t i s d ressed o n ly i n t he p er izo ma o n t he d oors o f
S . S ab ina , i n a n i vory p laque i n t he B r i t ish Museum , a nd i n al os t p a in t ing f ro m t he c hurch o f S t . G enesius i n Narbonne d escr ibed b y G regory o f T ours .7 4 Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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I n o ther r espects , h owever , t hese b ear l i t t le r ese mb lance t o t he i conography o f t he l a ter e xamp les . T he d ep ict ion o f C hr is t i n al o in-clo th a lso b ecame s tandard i n p osti conoc las t ic Byzan t ine a r t a nd may b e f ound , f or e xamp le , i n t he Cappadocian c hurches o f T oka l i K i l ise a nd K i l i9lar .7 5 Ano ther i mpor tan t monumen t wh ich mus t b e t aken i n to c ons idera t ion i s t he C hurch o f t he H o ly Apost les i n C onst an t inop le . C ons tan t inus Rhod ius , i n h is t en th-cen tury e kphrasis o n t he mosa ic d ecora t ions o f t he c hurch , d escr ibes C hr ist a s " naked , s tretched o u t o n t he c ross" .7 6 A l though t he d a te o f t he mosa ic i s a ma t ter o f s o me d ispu te , i t s ee ms l ikely t ha t t he d ecora t ions f or med p ar t o f t he l arge p rogra m me o f r es tora t ions t o t he c hurch k nown t o h ave b een u nder taken b yt he emperor B asi l 1 .7 7 I ti s impor tan t t o d e ter m ine whe ther t h is n ew i conography was an inthc entury i nnova t ion i n Byzan t ine a r t , o r whe ther i t marked a r e turn t o t he i conography wh ich was i n u se i n t he e ar ly e ighth c en tury b efore t he o nse t o f t he c on troversy o ver i mages. The c on fus ion i n s ome i l lu m ina ted manuscr ip ts , f or e xa mp le t he C h ludov P sa l ter ( Moscow , S ta te H istor ica l Museu m , ms. Add . g r . 1 29) wh ich s hows b o th t ypes o f C hr is t ( f o ls . 4 5v a nd 7 2v ) , d e mons tra tes t ha t i n t he n inth c en tury t he p er iod o f e vo lu t ion h ad n o t y e t b een c o mp le ted .
A
more p uzz l ing e xa mp le i s t he C ruc if ix ion m in iature i n t he H om i l ies o f G regory o f Naz ianzus ( Par is , B ib . Na t iona le , c od . g r . 5 10 , f o l . 3 0v ) . A lthough i t p or trays C hr is t d ressed i n ac o lob iu m , t he p a in t h as f l aked o f f t o r evea l t hat h e was o r ig ina l ly d ep icted n ude . T he s a me c hange h as b een d iscovered b y Kur t Wei tz mann i n aC ruci f ix ion i con f ro m Moun t S ina i f or wh ich h e p roposes ad a te i n t he s even th o r e igh th c ent ury .7 8 A s econd i con , wh ich h e d a tes t o t he e igh th c en tury p r i mar i ly o n t he b asis o f i t s c lose s im i lar i ty t o t he T heod otus c hapel p a in t ing , a lso d ep icts C hr ist i n ac o lob ium ( I cons , p l . x xv ) , b u t t wo s l igh t ly l a ter e xa mp les s how t he s w i tch t o t he l o in-c lo th ( I cons , p ls . x xx i i , c v i i ) . The c hange i n t he manner o f c lo th ing t he c ruci f ied f igure h as b een l i nked b y J ohn Mar t in t o a c orrespond ing s h if t f rom d ep ict ing C hr ist a l ive o n t he c ross ( wh ich i s t o s ay , w i th h is e yes o pen ) t o d ep ic t ing h im d ead ( w i th e yes c losed) . Mar t in s aw t h is n ew i conography a s p ossib ly t he r esu l t o f ad esire t o r efute I conoclast ic d oc tr ine f o l low ing t he r estora t ion o f i mages i n 8 43. 79 Th is t heory must b e r e-exa m ined i n t he l igh t o f t he S ina i i con wh ich s hows C hr ist i n ac o lob iu m b u tw i th h is e yes c lear ly c losed ( We i tz mann , I cons 6 3) . I t wou ld a ppear f ro m t h is e v idence t ha t t he c hange f rom a l ive t o d ead t ook p lace b efore t he n in th c en tury , a nd t ha t i t was n ot r e la ted t o t he c hange f ro m c o lob ium t o p er izo ma . T he p oss ib i l ity t hat t h is s h if t i n t heo log ica l emphasis b egan b efore I conoc las m i s g iven s uppor t b y t he d iscussion o f t he C ruc i f ix ion i n as eventhc en tury t ex t , t he Hodegos o f Anastas ius S ina i tes . 80 The e vidence o f t he Byzan t ine e xa mp les i s i nconc lus ive , a nd t here s ee ms t o h ave b een s o me u ncer ta in ty a s t o whether C hr ist s hou ld b e s hown c lo thed o r u nc lothed . The p oss ib i l i ty t ha t b o th t ypes w ere i n s imu l taneous u se f or a c onsiderab le t ime f i nds a s trong c onf ir ma t ion i n t he s urv iv ing Ro man e xa mp les . I n t he T heodotus c hapel o f S . Mar ia Ant igua , wh ich may b e d a ted s ecure ly t o t he r e ign o fp ope Z achar ias ( 7 41-752) , t he c o lob ium-type may b e f ound . Howe ver , when t he t r iumpha l a rch o ver t he a pse o f t he c hurch h ad b een p a in ted a Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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g enera t ion e ar l ier , C hr ist was s hown n aked .8 1 Apart f ro m t he wooden d oors o f S . S ab ina wh ich a re i n many r espec ts a s pec ia l c ase , t h is i s t he e ar l iest u se o ft he l o in-clo th t ype wh ich h as s urv ived i n I t aly , a nd i ti s p ossib le t ha t i tr e f lects c onte mporary d eve lop men ts i n C ons tan t inop le .8 2
T h is t heory i s
s uppor ted b y a n o vera l lv iew o f t he J ohn V I I work i n S . Mar ia An t igua wh ich r evea ls a s trong d ependence o n e astern i conography a nd l i t t le c onnect ion w ith i nd igenous R o man a r t o ft he s even th c en tury .
Ano ther C ruci f ix ion
a scr ibed t o t he t ime o f J ohn V I I , t he mosa ic i n h is O ratory i n S t . P eter ' s , a pparen t ly r eta ins t he t rad i t iona l c o lob ium . 83 T he l ink b etween R o me a nd C onstan t inop le i s a lso a t tes ted t o b y t he t er m inology o ft he L iber P on t if ica l is .
The l i fe o fp ope L eo I V d escr ibes a
" % Test is c hr isoc laba" wh ich h e d ona ted t o t he L a teran a s b e ing d ecora ted w i th t he " stor ia v iv if icae a tque a dorandae d om in icae c ruc is" ( i , 2 5) . C roqu ison h as o bserved t ha t t he word " v iv i f ica" i sn o t o f L a t in o r ig in , b u t i nstead a d irec t t rans la t ion o f t he G reek " zoopo ios" , at erm u sed i n t he B yzan t ine l i turgy f or t he f eas t o f t he Exa l ta t ion o ft he C ross. 84 T here i s e very i nd ica t ion , t herefore , t ha t t he C ruc i f ix ion i conography i n I t a ly was b ased p r i mar i ly o n Byzan t ine models . I f ad ate c . 8 00 A .D. i s c orrec t f or t he p a in t ing b enea th S S . G iovann i e Pao lo i n Ro me , t hen i t may we l lh ave b een t he l ast c o lob ium-type C ruc if ix ion t o h ave b een p roduced i n c en tra l I t a ly .
O ther n inth a nd t en th-century e xa mp les
i n O ld S t . P e ter 's , a t S an V incenzo a l V o l turno , a t C im i t i le , i n t he C a taco mb o f S an G e rmaro a t N ap les , a nd i n t he G rot ta d e l S a lva tore a t Va l lerano , a l l s how C hr ist i n t he p er izo ma . T hese p rov ide t he c ontex t i n to wh ich t he S an C lemen te C ruc i f ix ion s hou ld b e p laced .
The l i fe-sized s i lver c ruc i f ix d ona ted
b y L eo I V t o S t . P eter 's , i n o rder t o r ep lace t he g i f t o f L eo I I wh ich h ad b een l oo ted i n t he S aracen s ack o f 8 46 , was a lso o f t h is t ype .8 5 The s ources f or t he C aro l ing ian r epresen ta t ioAs o ft he s ub jec t may a lso h ave c o me , d irect ly o r i nd irec t ly , f ro m t he e as t .
Th is v iew f i nds s uppor t i n
a n e xa m ina t ion o ft he e igh th-century manuscr ip t e xa mp le i n t he S acramen tary o f G e l lone ( Par is , B ib . Na t iona le , c od . l a t . 1 2048, f o l . 1 43v ) wh ich a lso d ep icts t he c ruc if ied C hr is t i n al o in-c lo th . I n t h is m in ia ture t he u l t i ma te d ependence o f t he i conography u pon Byzan t ine mode ls i s p erhaps i ndica ted b y s uch d eta i ls a s t he t wo f ly ing a nge ls a bove t he c rossbar a nd t he b lood i ssu ing f ro m t he wound i n C hr ist 's s ide . Th is i s a lso c onf ir med b y s uch s ty l ist ic f ea tures a s t he r oset te d ecora t ions o n t he c ross a nd t he G reek l et ters u sed i n t he i nscr ip t ion . The o ppos ing v iew , t ha t i tr epresen ts a l oca l t rad it ion , h as b een p resen ted b y B ernard T eyssedre .
8 6
However , t he f re-
q uen t ly q uo ted p assage f ro m G regory o f T ours ( v . n ote 7 4 ) c an h ard ly b e t aken a s e vidence f or t he e x is tence o f s uch at rad i t ion i n G aul . I n f ac t , t he c on trary i s t rue. T he l egend a ssoc ia ted w i th t he S t . G enes ius p a in t ing , a s n arrated b y G regory , s ta tes t ha t t he i mage o f C hr is t s poke o u t a nd d e manded t ha th is n ud i ty b e c overed . T eyssedre a dm i ts t he p resence o f al arge S yr ian mercan t i le c o m mun i ty i n Narbonne , a nd i ts hou ld a lso b e r e me mbered t ha t t he p r iest i n t he t a le h as t he G reek n a me B asi l . T he a ccoun tp robab ly r ef lec ts t he r e ject ion b yt he l oca l p opu lace o f af oreign i nnova t ion wh ich t hey f ound d istastefu l .
Th is t endency i n wes tern t h ink ing f inds f ur ther c on f ir ma t ion i n
t he many e xa mp les o fp ass ion c ycles wh ich d el ibera te ly r efra in f ro m d ep ict ing Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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t he C ruc if ix ion .
Among t he f ore mos t o f t hese i s t he mosa ic c ycle i n S . Apo l-
l i nare Nuovo , R avenna . T he u se o ft he l o in-c loth t ype i n C aro l ing ian r epresen ta t ions o f t he C ruc if i x ion i s more l i ke ly t o h ave b een t he r esu lt o f ag enera l d i f fus ion o f t h is t ype t hroughou t wes tern Europe i n t h is t rans m iss ion . An umber o f l oin-c lo th Cruci f ix ions may b e f ound i n t he S tu t tgar t P sa l ter ( Wür t . L andesb ib l io thek , B ib . f o l . 2 3 , f o ls. 2 5v , 2 7r , 8 0v , 1 02v ) , t he mode l f or wh ich i s c onsidered b yA ndre G rabar a nd o thers t o h ave c o me f ro m a n I t a l ian s cr ip tor ium .8 7 T he C ruci f ix ion a t C im i t i le s hows a r e markab le s im i lar i ty t o t he S an C le men te mura l i n an u mber o f r espects. Apar t f ro m t he u se o f t he p er izo ma , t he g es tures o f b o th Mary a nd J ohn a re t he s ame i n b o th monumen ts , a nd i n e ach c ase t here a re moun ta ins r is ing i n t he b ackground o n b o th s ides . B ecause o f t he d a mage d one t o t he t op o f t he mura l a t C im i t i le i ti s impossib le t o d et er m ine whe ther t he c ross a lso h ad a t abu la a nsa ta . I n S an C le men te , t he s econd s cene o n t h is f ace o ft he p ier , l oca ted b enea th t he C ruc if ix ion , was a lready l ost when t he p a in t ings i n t he l ower c hurch were r e-d iscovered . N o th ing r e ma ins e xcep t a sma l l f ragmen t o f t he u pper l e f t h and c orner , where t here i s ar epresen ta t ion o f ab u i ld ing , o u t l ined i n b lue , w i th a r ed r oof .
G arrucc i ( S tor ia d e l la Ar te C r ist ia na , i i , 8 6 ) b e lieved t ha t
t he m iss ing s cene p ortrayed t he Ra ising o f L azarus , s ince t he c orrespond ing s cene o n t he n ex t f ace o f t he p ier i s t he M irac le a t C ana . T hus , t he f i rst mirac le o f C hr ist wou ld c oun terba lance t he l ast . As econd p oss ib i l ity , t he L ast S upper , h as b een p roposed b y J oseph Wi lpert ( R MM , 5 28) f or wha t o ne migh t a ssu me t o b e s im i lar r easons .
I ts ee ms u n l ike ly , h owever , t ha t t he
i conography o ft he l at ter w ou ld h ave i nvo lved a n o u tdoor a rch i tectura l s et t ing s uch a s t he o ne i nd ica ted b yt he s urv iv ing f ragmen t . C .
THE CORNER S ITE OF THE
T he q uest ion i s u nreso lved .
P IER
• On t he s econd f ace o ft he p ier , a t r igh t a ng les t o t he p a in t ing o f t he C ruc if ix ion , t hree a dd i t iona l s cenes a re d ep icted . The w id th o f t h is f ace i s 8 9 cm ( 3 Ro man f eet ) , a nd t he p las ter e x tends a round t he c orner w i thou t i n terrup t ion . The t hree p ane ls a re 7 3 cm i n w id th , b u t o f v ary ing h e igh ts.
I n a dd i t ion , t hey
a re f ra med o n e ach s ide b y 3 cm o fp a in ted b order . i ) T he Ho ly Wo men a t t he T o mb ; The u ppermos t a nd sma lles t o ft he s cenes o nt h is f ace o ft he p ier h as s u f fered s er ious l osses . A t t he l e f t a re t he h a l fl eng th f i gures o f wha t a re p resu mab ly t wo w o men . T hey h ave o chre h a loes w ith l arge r ed b orders , b u t i ti s impossib le t o d eterm ine a ccurate ly t he ir g armen ts . I n t he c en tre t he e n trance t o ac ave c ha mber i s i ndica ted i n r ed , a nd t o t he r ight a re t he h ead a nd t orso o f a n a nge l .
He h as o chre w ings a nd g estures
t owards t he c ave . B enea th t here i s a n u neven a rea where t he f ace o f t he p ier s lopes o u twards , t he u pper p or t ion h av ing b een s et b ack d eeper t han t he r ema inder o ft h is s ide.
T he s lan t ing s ur face i s a lso b roken b y al arge c rev ice
i n t he masonry . Th is a rea was a lso c overed w i th p las ter , a nd a l though n o t races o ft he p a in t ing a re v isib le t oday , i ti s k nown f rom t he wa tercolour c opy b y Wi l l ia m Ew ing t ha t t he l ower h a lves o f t he f igures o nce o ccup ied t h is s pace . Ap ho tograph i n t he P arker c o l lec t ion ( p 1 .4 . V I ) c on f irms t hat t he c rev ice h as b een p resen t f ro m t he t ime o ft he l ower c hurch e xcava t ions .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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I ta lso
p rov ides a f ew a dd i t iona l d e ta i ls o f t he i conography wh ich a re n o l onger v isib le . I n t he e n trance t o t he c ave a d ish i s s uspended f ro m o ne o r more c ha ins , p oss ib ly a l a mp o r b razier f or t he b urn ing o f i ncense . B o th wo men h o ld sma l l j ars i n t heir l ef th ands , a nd t he o ne f ur thes t f ro m t he t o mb a lso h o lds a n e longa ted o b jec t i nh er r igh t h and .
I ti s e i ther a s crol l o r al ong-ste mmed
o in tment v ase , b u t t he e ar l iest d escr ip t ions f avour t he f or mer o f t hese t wo p oss ib i l it ies .8 8 T here c an b e l i t t le d oub t t ha t t he s cene i s mean t t o r epresen t t he v isi t o f t he wo men t o t he Ho ly S epu lchre o n Eastern morn ing . I nt he e ar ly M idd le Ages t he e p isode o f t he d iscovery o f t he emp ty t o mb was o f ten u sed t o i l lustra te t he R esurrec t ion .
I ti s a n e ven t d escr ibed i n a l l
f our g ospels , a l though e ach p resen ts a s l igh t ly d if feren t v ersion o f wha t a c tual ly t ook p lace. A ccord ing t o Ma t thew ( 2 8:1-8) , Mary Magda lene a nd t he " o ther Mary" f i nd t ha tt he s tone wh ich s ea led t he e n trance h as b een r o l led away , a nd s eated u pon i ti s a n a nge l who i n for ms t he m t ha t C hr ist h as r isen . I n Mark 's g ospe l ( 1 6 :1-8) t here a re t hree wo men ( Mary Magda lene , Mary t he mo ther o f J a mes , a nd S a lo me ) who e n ter i n to t he t o mb c ha mber where t hey d iscover a " young man" i n a wh i te r obe. I n L ike 's a ccoun t ( 2 4 :1-10) t here a re t wo "men i n b r i l l ian t c lo thes" wa i t ing i nside t he s epu lchre where t hey a re f ound b y ag roup c o mpr is ing Mary Magda lene , Mary t he mother o f J ames , J oanna , a nd " o thers" . a lone .
A ccord ing t o J ohn ( 2 0 :1-2) , Mary Magda lene c o mes
S he f i nds t he t o mb emp ty a nd r uns t o t e l l t he o ther d isc ip les .
The n umerous r epresen ta t ions o f t he h o ly wo men a t t he t o mb i n e ar ly med ieva l a r t , b eg inn ing w i th t he f ragmen tary t h ird-cen tury p a in t ing o n t he n or th wal l o ft he b ap t istery a t Dura Europus , 89 h ave g iven r ise t o c onsiderab le s pecu la t ion a s t o t he o r ig ins a nd d istr ibu t ion o f t he i conograph ic t ypes . I ti s aw ide ly-he ld b e l ief t ha t i nt he e astern C hr is t ian wor ld t wo wo men were g enera l ly s hown , a s d escr ibed i n t he g ospe l o f Mat thew , wh i le i n t he w est t hree w ere d ep icted , b ased o n t he t ex t o f Mark .
T h is d ivis ion , wh ich s ee ms t o h ave
o r ig ina ted w i th Gabr ie l M i l let , " i s a n o ver-simp l i f ica t ion a nd c er ta in ly d oes n o th o ld t rue f or t he e ar ly M idd le Ages . A t K i l i9lar i n C appadocia , f or e xamp le , a l though t here a re o n ly t wo wo men s hown i n t he mura l , t he t ex t c i ted i n t he i nscr ip t ion i s n ot Ma t thew b u t Mark 1 6 :6 .9 1 Nu merous e xamp les o f t he s o-ca l led ' or ienta l ' t ype may b e f ound o n t he ampu l lae f ro m Monza a nd B obb io where t h is e ven t i s f requen t ly d ep icted . I n e ach i nstance t he i conography i s t he s ame . F ro m t he l e f t t wo wo men a pproach t he me mor ia l s hr ine , wh ich p robab ly d er ives i t s a rch i tec tura l i nsp ira t ion f ro m t he c hurch o f t he Ho ly S epu lchre wh ich was b u i l t i n J erusa le m i n t he f ourth c en tury .
9 2
T o t he r igh t o f t he t o mb i s as ea ted a ngel .
The s ame p a t tern i s
r epea ted i n t he p a in ted p anel f ro m t he S anc ta S anc torum i n Ro me , a nd , w ith s l igh t a ltera t ions d ue t o t he a dd i t ion o f s leep ing s o ld iers , i n t he manuscr ip t i lum inat ion f ro m t he R abu la G ospels ( f ol . 1 3a ) . I n western Europe t hree wo men a ppear i n s o me e ar ly C hrist ian r epresent a t ions o f t he s cene , f or e xa mp le t he i vory p lacque i n t he B ayer ischen Na t iona lmuseu m i n Mun ich a nd c er ta in C aro l ing ian i vor ies a nd manuscr ip t i l lum in .at i ons. 93 H owever , t he v ast ma jor i ty o f t he e xamp les wh ich h ave s urv ived i n I t a ly i nclude o n ly t wo wo men. Among t hese a re t he mosa ic i n S . Apo l l inare N uovo i n Ravenna , t he wooden p anel f ro m t he d oors o f S . S ab ina i n R o me , a nd t he s i lver c ross-shaped r el iquary made f or p ope P ascha l I .9 4 Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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The v isi t o f t he wo men t o t he s epu lchre d oes n o t s ee m t o h ave b een a p opu lar s ub ject i n R o man p a in t ing , a nd i td oes n o t a ppear i nt he o therw ise e x tensive p assion c ycle i n S . Mar ia An t igua . I t was , h owever , i nc luded i n t he mosaic d ecora t ions o f t he Ora tory o f J ohn V I I i n O ld S t . P e ter 's , a l though t he e vidence , b ased o n t he s even teen th-cen tury d raw ings o f J acopo G r ima ldi , i s c on trad ic tory .
O ne s et o f d raw ings i n t he Va t ican l i brary ( cod . B arb . l a t .
2 732 , f o l . 7 6v ,7 7) i nc ludes t he s cene i n t he u pper r igh t-hand c orner o f t he p ane l wh ich c on ta ins t he C ruc i f ix ion a nd Anas tasis . T hree f igures e n ter f ro m t he l e f t a nd a pproach a n a nge l who i s s ea ted i n f ron t o f at o mb s truc ture w ith ag ab led r oof . A s econd d raw ing , p reserved i n F lorence ( B ib . Naziona le II I-73 , f o l . 1 03-104) a lso i nc ludes a sma l l i nset i n t he c orner o f t h is mosa ic , b u t t he f igures a re e n t ire ly d if feren t .
There i s c lear ly a n a nge l s tand ing a t t he
l ef t , a nd p ossib ly t wo wo men a t t he r igh t . T o a dd t o t he c on fusion , at h ird s et o fd raw ings i n t he A rch iv io d i S . P ietro i n R o me ( A lbum , f o l . 3 1-32) om i ts t he e p isode e nt irely . There c an b e l i t t le d oub t t ha t G r ima ld i d id s ee a r epres en ta t ion o ft he 'myrophores t i n t he Ora tory s ince h is v erba l d escr ip t ion o f t he c hape l i n B arb . l a t . 2 733 ( f ol . 7 2v ) i nc ludes t he e xpress ion " et Quando a nge lus mu l ier ibus a pparu i t a d monu mentum" .
Un for tuna te ly , t he n umber o f
wo men i s n o t s pec if ied , a nd n o c onc lusions may b e d rawn f ro m h is d raw ings. There a re n o s urv iv ing p a in ted e xa mp les i n Rome wh ich may b e d a ted e ar l ier t han S an C le men te , a l though a n a l most c onte mporary I t a l ian r epresent a t ion may b e f ound i n t he c yc le a t S an V incenzo a l V o l turno .
H ere t wo wo men
c arry ing j ars e n ter f ro m t he l ef t b u t a re s topped b y a n a nge l i n f ron t o ft he d oorway t o ab u i ld ing . O ver t he p or ta l i s t he p a in ted i nscr ip t ion : S EPVLCHRV DNI . The mura l i n S S . Mar t in ia t C im i t i le L c . 9 00) o nce a ga in d ep icts t wo wo men who e nter f ro m t he l ef t , a s d oes t he e leven th-cen tury R o man e xamp le i n S . U rbano a l la C af farel la . I ti s n o t s urpr is ing , t hen , t o f i nd o n ly t wo wo men p resen t i n S an C le men te , a nd i ts hou ld n o t b e t aken a s e v idence o f a ny d irec t Byzan t ine i n f luence . • Ad i f feren t i n terpre ta t ion o ft he t wo f igures h as b een made b y J oseph L iebal l , who i den t i f ies t he m a s t he Madonna a nd S t . J ohn t he E vange l is t o n t he b as is o ft he ir s im i lar i ty t o t he f igures i n t he a d jo in ing s cene o f t he C ruc if ix ion .9 5
T he h eavy l oss o fp a in t makes i td i f f icu l t t o c onf ir m o r d eny t h is
t heory , a l though i ti s q u i te p oss ib le t ha t t he p a in ter d id i n tend t ha t o ne o f t he t wo s hou ld b e i den t if ied a s C hr ist ' s mo ther . Mat thew ' s "o ther Mary" w as u sua l ly a ssoc iated w i th "Mary t he mo ther o f J a mes" o f Mark a nd L uke , w ho i n t urn was i den t if ied a s t he Madonna b y an u mber o f e ar ly wr iters i nc lud ing J ohn C hrysos to m a nd G regory o f Nyssa . 96
I nh is b ook D e v irg in i ta te , Ambrose
s ta tes t ha t Mary was t he f i rst t o s ee a nd b e l ieve t he e v idence o f t he Resurr ec t ion . 97 a nd an in th-century h om i ly b y G eorge , Me tropol i tan o f N icomed ia , c la i med t ha t s he r e ma ined a t t he s epu lchre f ro m t he D eposi t ion t hrough t o Easter Su nday .9 8 The i n f luence o f t h is b el ie f may b e f ound i n a r t ist ic p roducti on f ro m a n e ar ly d a te . T he Madonna i s c lear ly i n tended a s o ne o f t he t wo wo men i n t he Rabu la G ospels m in ia ture , a nd a lso i n t he p anel f ro m t he S ancta S anc torum .
T here w ou ld b e n o p receden t , h owever , f or t he r ep lace men t o f
Mary Magda lene w i th S t . J ohn .
'
O ne impor tan t f ea ture o ft he S an C le men te p a in t ing i s i t s d epar ture f ro m t he t rad i t iona l r epresen ta t ion o ft he s epu lchre a s a 'mar tyr ium '. I nstead o f Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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t he u sua l a rch i tectura l s tructure , t he t o mb i s i nd ica ted o n ly a s ac avel ike o pen ing . Th is s a me i conography may a lso b e f ound i n t he e ar l ies t r epresent a t ions o ft he s ub ject i n t he r ock c hurches o f C appadoc ia ,9 9 a nd h as b een n oted b y Hans B el t ing i n c onnec t ion w i th t he mura l a t C im i t i le .1 00 I ti sh is v iew t ha t t he S an C le men te p a in t ing marks a n i n ter med ia te s tage i n t he d ev elop men t o f t h is i conograph ic t ype . T he n a ture o f t he t o mb h as b een c hanged , b u t n o t i t s l oca t ion w i th in t he g enera l f ra mework o ft he c o mposi t ion . I n l a ter e xa mp les , a t C im i t i le a nd i n C appadoc ia , t he a nge l r ep laces t he s epu lchre a s t he f oca l p o in t i n t he c en tre o f t he p a in t ing . B e l t ing a lso b e l ieved t ha t t he k no t ted c loth wh ich h angs i n t he c ave e n trances a t T oka l i a nd K i li9 lar was t o b e f ound a t S an C le mente a s wel l . Th is i s n ot , h owever , t he c ase. T he c learest i nd ica t ion o ft he o r ig ina l s ta te o ft he p anel i s p rov ided b y t he P arker p hotograph wh ich s hows o n ly t he l a mp h ang ing i n t he e ntrance .
T h is i s p erhaps
s urpr is ing , s ince t he k not ted c lo th h ad a lready made i t s f irst a ppearance i n I ta ly i n t he p a in t ing a t S an V incenzo a l V o lturno . i ) The Anastasis : T he c en tra l s cene o n t h is f ace o f t he p ier i s ar epresen tat ion o f t he Anastas is. T he p anel i s a l mos t e xac t ly s quare i n s hape ( 2 .5 x 2 .5 Ro man f eet ) a l though t he t op b order s lan ts s l igh t ly u pwards a t t he r igh t . Consequen t ly t he v er t ica l b order o n t he r igh t s ide i s 7 3 cm i n l eng th , wh i le t ha t o n t he l e f t i s o n ly 7 0 cm . Once a ga in t here h as b een a s er ious d e ter iorat ion o f t he p a in ted s ur face.
As a r esu l t , f ew d eta i ls r e ma in v is ib le , a l though
t he g enera l o u t l ines o ft he f igures a re s t i l l l arge ly d iscern ib le .
The c en tra l
f igure i n t he c o mposit ion i s C hrist , who i s s hown i n t he p rocess o f mov ing f ro m l ef t t o r igh t . H e w ears a n o chre h a lo , o u t l ined i n r ed , wh ich t he P arker p ho tograph r evea ls t o h ave b een c ruc i form .1 01 H is b ody i s e nc losed i n a mandor la t he o u t l ines o f wh ich a re n ow e x tre me ly d if icu l t t o d is t ingu ish . Wi th h is r igh t h and h e r eaches f orward t o g rasp t he h and o f Ada m . T he r ema inder o f Ada m 's b ody h as n ow d isappeared , b u th is p resence i s c onf ir med b yt he P arker p ho tograph .
Above Adam i s as econd f igure , p resumab ly Eve ,
who e x tends b o th a r ms t owards C hr is t .
S he i s d ressed i n a n o chre g ar ment
wh ich e nvelops h er e n t ire b ody a nd r ises i n ah ood o ver h er h ead . a re i nd ica ted i n r ed .
T he f olds
T he o chre r obe s harp ly d ef ines t he c on tours o fh er
f igure a s i th ad d one w i th t he c rouch ing a post les i n t he A scens ion p anel .
I t
i s i n teres t ing t o n ote t ha t o f a l l t he c olours i n t he a r t is t 's p a le t te t he o chres h ave s urv ived b y f ar t he b est . The d escen t o f C hr ist i n to t he u nderwor ld , a n e ven t wh ich i s s upposed t o h ave t aken p lace b etween t he Cruci f ix ion a nd t he Resurrect ion , i s n o t ment ioned i n t he B ib l ica l a ccoun ts o f t he p assion , a l though i td oes f ind a s trong t heolog ica l b as is i n O ld T esta men t r eferences t o t he d oc tr ine o f r ede mp t ion . T he p r inc ipa l s ource f or t he e ven t i s t he a pocrypha l G ospe l o f N icode mus , a c o mpara t ive ly l a te c omp i la t ion wh ich i s t hough t t o h ave a ppeared o n ly i n t he s eventh c en tury .
I td escr ibes i n c ons iderab le d eta i l t he t r iumphan t e n try o f
C hr ist i n to t he u nderwor ld , t he t ra mp l ing u nder foo t o f S a tan , a nd t he e levat i on o f t he j ust , who a re s ymbo l ized b y Ada m a nd E ve. The l a te o r ig in o ft he t ex tua l s ource i s p ara l le led b y t he l a te e n try o f t h is t he me i n to t he c on tex t o f C hr ist ia n a r t . I ti sn o t f ound i n e ar ly C hr ist ian monu men ts b u t i s e n t ire ly t he c rea t ion o f t he B yzan t ine wor ld .
T he e ar l iest
b lown e xa mp les a re t wo s urv iv ing wa l l-pa in t ings i n t he c hurch o f S , Mar ia A nt igua , d a ted t o t he p on t i f ica te o f J ohn V I I ( 7 05-707) , a nd t he mosa ic wh ich
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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t he s a me p ope i s k nown t o h ave e rec ted i nh is o ra tory i n O ld S t . Pe ter 's.
I n
a l l t hese e xa mp les C hris t e x tends h is a rm t o g rasp t he h and o f Ada m , a nd w ith h is f oo t h e s teps o nt he p ros tra te f igure o f ad e mon . T he t he me r e ma ined p opu lar i n Ro me , a nd t here a re t wo a dd i t iona l s urv iv ing e xa mp les i n t he c i ty wh ich may b e d a ted e ar l ier t han t he L eo I V p a in t ings i n S an C le mente . The b et ter k nown o f t he t wo i s t he mosa ic i n t he S an Z eno c hape l o f S . Prassede , wh ich may b e d a ted t o t he p on t i f ica te o f p ope P ascha l I( 8 17-824) .1 02 A lthough o n ly t he u pper p or t ion o f t he p anel s urvives , o ne c an e asi ly d ist ingu ish t he f igure o f Chr ist i n ab lue mandor la r each ing t oward A da m a nd E ve. T o h is l e f t a re t he t wo O ld T es ta men t k ings Dav id a nd S o lo mon . I ti s impossib le t o t el l i ft he t ra mp led d e mon , t he p erson if ica t ion o f H e l l , was i nc luded i n t he o r ig ina l c o mposi t ion .
T he s econd e xa mp le i s t he p a in ted f ragment i n t he
o ra tory b eneath t he c hurch o f S s . G iovann i eP ao lo , d iscovered i n 1 887 . Here t he Anastasis i s i nc luded i n ac ycle o f t he p ass ion o f C hr ist . A lthough n o s ecure d a te h as a s y et b een a scr ibed t o t h is g roup , t hey d o s ee m t o f a l l i nto t he g enera l c on tex t o ft he l a te e igh th o r t he e ar ly n in th c entury .
The
d ep ic t ion o ft he C ruci f ix ion , f or e xamp le , f o l lows t he c o lob ium . t ype . T he Anastasias p a in t ing , wh ich h as f aded a l most c o mp le te ly , s hows Chr ist s urr ounded b y a mandor la a nd mov ing t owards t he r igh t . H is r igh t a rm i s e x tended . A l though n o o ther e le men ts o f t he c o mpos i t ion h ave s urv ived , t he f ac t t ha t i tf or ms p ar t o f ap assion c yc le a nd t he s im i lar i ty o f t he f igure o f C hr ist t o t he S . Prassede mosa ic l eave l i t t le d oub t a s t o t he i den t i f ica t ion o f t he s cene . The i conography o ft he Anastasis p a in t ing o nt he p ier i n S an C le men te may t hus b e s een t o f ol low a s tandard t ype wh ich was a lready wel l-estab l ished i n Ro me . I tv ar ies f ro m t h is e s tab l ished t rad i t ion o n ly i n i t s om m ission o f t he d e mon b enea th C hr ist 's f eet . i i ) t he M irac le a t C ana : The l ower b lack b order o ft he Anastasis i s s eparat ed f ro m t he t op b order o ft he n ex tp ane l b y an arrow s tr ip o f r ed p a in t 5 cm i n w id th .
O ft he t hree s cenes o n t h is f ace o f t he p ier , t he M iracle a t C ana i s i n
t he p oores t c ond i t ion .
I t s l ower s ect ion i s e n t ire ly d estroyed where t he p las ter
h as f a l len away f ro m t he wa l l , a nd,i n t hose r eg ions where t he p laster d oes r e ma in i n tac t t here a re o n ly f aded t races o f p igmen t . An e xa m ina t ion o f t he b roken e dge o ft he p las ter s urface r evea ls t ha t i td ecreases i n t h ickness f ro m l ef t t o r igh t , a nd t here i s n o e v idence t ha t t here were a ny e ar l ier l evels o f p a int ing . A t t he t ime o f i t s d iscovery , t he d eta i ls o f t he mura l were s t i l l l argely v is ib le. These a re r evea led b yt he Parker p h ,otograph ( p 1 .4 .V I ) wh ich u nfortuna te ly i nc ludes o n ly t he t op s ec t ion o f t h is p ane l . There a re a lso d escr ip t ions b y Mu l loo ly ( Sa int C le men t P ope a nd Mar tyr , 1 87-188) a nd G arrucc i ( S tor ia d el la A rte C r is t iana , i i , 8 7 ) .
C hr ist was s hown e x tend ing h is r igh t h and ,
p resumab ly o ver t he wa ter j ars. l ooked o n i n a ston ish men t .
Ac rowd o f p eop le , i nclud ing h is mother ,
One o f t hese b y-standers was i den t i f ied b y a n
i nscr ip t ion a s t he ' arch i tr ic l inus t, a nd i ti s l arge ly o n t h is b asis t ha t t he s cene h as b een i den t if ied a s t he M irac le a t C ana .
T he ' arch i tr ic l inus ', o r
master o f c ere mon ies , i s s pecif i ca l ly r eferred t o i n t he a ccoun t o f t he e ven t i n J ohn 2 :11. I n t he b ackground was a h a l l w ith a n o pen c o lonnade , p resu ma b ly t he s et t ing f or t he wedd ing b anque t , a nd t o t he r igh t o f t h is b ui ld ing a 6 Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies2 In0 Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
s econd h ouse was d ep icted . T oday v ery l i t t le c an b e d ist ingu ished a par t f ro m t he t wo b u i ld ings i n t he t op c orners , a nd t wo c en tra l f i gures w ith h a loes who a re s hown f ac ing e ach o ther . T he o ne o n t he l e f t , k nown t o b e C hr ist , i s o u tl ined i n b lue a nd wears a r ed g ar men t . T he r ed o u t l ines o f t hree a dd it iona l h eads a re v is ib le a t t he f ar r ight , b ut e i ther t hey w ere n ever c omp leted o r e lse t he p a in t u sed t o i nd ica te t he f ac ia l d eta i ls h as c o mp lete ly v an ished . N o t race r e ma ins o f t he i nscr ip t ion . R epresen tat ions o f t he C ana m irac le w ere p opu lar i n e ar ly C hr ist ian a r t . A t f i rst t he i conography was l im ited t o t he s y mbo l ic f eatures o f C hr ist a nd t he water j ars , b ut a dd it iona l e le men ts t aken f rom t he B ib l ica l n arrat ive , s uch a s t he d isc ip les , t he s ervan ts , a nd Mary , were g radua l ly i n troduced .
T he
f i f th-century v au l t mosa ic i n S . G iovann i i n F on te i n N ap les i s among t he f i rst I ta l ian e xa mp les t o i nc lude t he s ervan ts . T he s cene s ee ms t o h ave b een d ep icted f requen t ly i n t he s ix th c en tury , a ppear ing f or i ns tance o n t he i vory t hrone o f Max im ian i n R avenna , o n t he wooden d oors o f S . S ab ina i n Ro me , among t he m in iatures o f t he R abu la G ospe ls , a nd i n monu men ta l a r t a t B aw it , S t . S erg ius a t G aza , a nd S . Apo l l inare N uovo i n R avenna .1 03 One f igure w ho i s c onsp icuous b y h is a bsence i n a l l o f t hese e ar ly e xamp les i s t he ' arch i tr icl inus ?. He a ppears o n ly i n p osticonoclast ic a r t , f or e xa mp le i n t he Len ingrad l ec t ionary i lu m ina t ion ( Petropo l itanus g r . XX I ) a nd t he g o ld a l tar-p iece f ro m S . Ambrog io i n M i lan .
T he mura l a t S an C le men te i st he
f irst a nd p ossib ly o n ly i nstance i n wh ich h e i s s ing led o u t b y a n i nscr ip t ion . D .
ST. PROSPER When t he s hor ing w all b etween t he n ave a nd t he l e f t a isle was e rec ted i n
t he e leven th c en tury , an arrow g ap was l e f t b etween t he e nd o f t he wa l l a nd t he p ier .
At h ird f ace o ft he p ier , i nside t h is o pen ing , h ad a lso b een c overed w i th
wa l l-pa in t ing , a nd t he p laster i s c on t inuous w i th t he C hr isto log ica l s cenes p reviously d escr ibed .
The l argest p reserved s ect ion e x tends f ro m t he p resen t
c ei l ing d own t o al eve l r ough ly e qu iva len t t o t he l ower b order o f t he Anastas is . On i ti s d ep icted t he l arge f igure o f as a in t , d is t ingu ished b y a n o chre h a lo w ith aw ide r ed o u t line ( W i lpert , RM M p l. 2 08 , 1 ) . I ns ide t he r ed o u ter b and i s a t hin r ing o f wh i te . T he s a in t i s d ressed i n r ed a nd h o lds a d ecora ted b ook . H is h ead i s t onsured . The a rrange men t o f h is n eck , s uch t ha t t he n eck l ine i s ap ro ject ion o f t he c ircular l i ne o f t he h a lo , i s s im i lar t o t he r epresen ta t ion o f S t . V itus i n t he A scens ion p ane l .
B ecause t he s pace b etween t he p ier a nd
t he wa l l i s e x tre me ly n arrow , i ti s impossib le t o v iew t he f igure e xcep t a t a n o b l ique a ng le , a nd c onsequent ly t he d eta i ls a re d i f f icu l t t o d e ter mine . When t he p a int ing was f i rst d iscovered , t he v er t ica l i nscr ip t ion ' S PROSPERIVS ' was s een b y an umber o f o bservers ,1 04 b u t n o t race o f i tr e ma ins t oday . I th as g eneraly b een a ssu med t ha t t h is i s ar epresen ta t ion o f P rosper o f Aqu i ta ine , a u thor o f D e I ngra t is a nd o ther works , who was a l eader o f t he c a mpa ign a ga ins t t he P e lag ian h eresy i n t he f i rst h a l f o f t he f i f th c entury a nd who l a ter b eca me s ecretary t o p ope L eo I . T hose who s ubscr ibe t o t h is v iew p oin t o u t t ha t t he b e l iefs o f P e lag ius were f i rst c onde mned i n 4 16 b y p ope Z osi mus i n ac ounc il h eld i n S an C le men te ( W i lper t , RM M 5 33) . . Thus t here i s ap laus ib le c on tex t f or i nc lud ing t he f igure o f P rosper i n t he d ecora t ions o f Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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t he c hurch e ven t hough h is o wn a c t iv i t ies a ga inst t he h eresy c a me o n ly i n l a ter y ears. T here i s a lso a s econd p ossib i l i ty , h i therto o ver looked , wh ich migh t mer it s o me c ons idera t ion . An ear-con te mporary o f P rosper o f Aqu i ta ine i s S t . P rosper , t he f i f th-cen tury b ishop a nd p rotec tor o f Regg io i n Em i l ia who was a dop ted l a ter a s t he p a tron s a in t o f t ha t c i ty .
I n t he e ar ly e igh th
c en tury t he c hurch o f S . Apo l l inare n ear Regg io , w h ich c on ta ined h is t o mb , was c o mp lete ly r ebu i l t b yt he b ishop T ho mas a nd t he L o mbard k ing L iu tprand . I ts oon b ecame a p lace o f p i lgr i mage n oted f or t he work ing o f m iracles , a nd s ubsequen t ly t he c u l t o f P rosper b eca me w idespread i nn or thern I ta ly . 1°5 I n t he t en th c en tury t he c hurch o f S . Apo l l inare was f l ooded , a nd t he r el ics were r e moved b y B ishop Ermena ld ( 9 62-979) t o t he s afe ty o f Regg io c a thedra l . A n ew c hurch was b u i l t t o h ouse t he m w i thin t he c i ty , a nd when t h is was c o mp leted i n 9 97 i t was c ons idered o f s u f f ic ien t impor tance t o b e c onsecra ted b y p ope G regory V . Aga in , t here i s n o o bv ious r eason why S t . Prosper o f R egg io s hou ld b e d ep icted i n S an C le mente .
However , h is c u l t i s k nown t o h ave b een p opu lar i n
I t a ly a t t h is t ime. A c lue may l i e i n t he f act t ha t h is f east d ay i s c elebra ted o n 2 5 J une , t he s a me d ay a s t ha t o f S t . V itus . Th is may b e more t han a mere c o inc idence . T he d a te o f 2 5 J une may h ave h eld s ome p ar t icu lar s ign if icance f or t he ' presby ter ' L eo who d ona ted t he p a in t ings a nd who was a pparent ly a lso r espons ib le f or t he c ho ice o f s ub ject ma t ter .
Th is migh th e lp t o e xp la in
why t wo c o mpara t ive ly i ns ign i f ican t s a in ts c a me t o b e i nc luded i n t he p rogra m me . B enea th t he f igure o f S t . P rosper , o n a n a rea o f p laster wh ich i s c onnec ted t o t he b o t to m o ft he M iracle a t C ana p ane l , a re a f ew i nd ist ingu ishab le t races o fp igmen t a nd s o me g raf f i t i .
T he r ead ing o f t he l a t ter i s r endered imposs ib le
b y t he d i f f icu l ty o f a ccess . B e low t h is a ga in i s a no ther f ragmen t , wh ich s ee ms t o h ave e scaped a tten t ion . On i ta ppears a p or t ion o f p a in ted v elu m t he s i mu la ted h ang ing d rapery wh ich e n joyed aw ide p opu lar i ty i n e ar ly med ieva l a r t , a nd p ar t icu larly i n R o me .
Two s ect ions o f t he v e lu m a re d ep icted , e ach d ef ined b y h eavy
v er t ica l b lack l i nes .
I nt he c entre o f e ach s ect ion i s ac o loured s phere , o ne
o chre a nd o ne r ed , t hrough wh ich t wo a dd it iona l b lack l i nes h ave b een d rawn i n o rder t o c rea te a d ecora t ive e f fect .
B e low t he s pheres a re t hree h or izon ta l
l i nes wh ich e x tend t he f u l l l eng th o f e ach s ec t ion , c o loured r ed , o chre , a nd r ed r espect ive ly .
Above t he s pheres , b u tv is ib le o n ly i n t he l ef t-hand s ect ion ,
t h is p a t tern o f a l terna t ing c o lours i s r epea ted b u t w i th a s l igh t mod if ica t ion . The o chre l i ne i n t he c entre i sw idened c onsiderab ly s o t ha t i tb eco mes a s o l id b and o f c o lour , a nd i ti s f u rther e nhanced b y t he a dd i t ion o f ab lack s qu igg le . T he u se o f p a in ted v e lum o n t he l ower p or t ion o f wal l s urfaces may b e f ound t hroughou t t he l ower c hurch o f S an C le men te , a l though t h is p ar t icu lar d ecorat i ve p a t tern d oes n o t r e-appear e lsewhere . T he u se o f h ang ing d raper ies o n a l tars a nd b etween c o lumns was w ides pread i n Ro man c hurches.
T he L iber P on t if ica l is r ecords p apa l d ona t ions
o fv ela b eg inn ing w ith p ope Hor rn isdas i n t he e ar ly s ix th c en tury , a l though t he ma jor i ty o f e xamp les c i ted c ome f ro m t he f i rst h a lf o f t he n in th c en tury a nd p ar t icu lar ly t he r e igns o f p opes L eo I I a nd P asca l 1 . 1°6 I n a dd i t ion t o g eome tr ic d es igns , t hey c ou ld a lso b e d ecora ted w i th a n ima ls o r i n s o me c ases
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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e ven f igura l s cenes , u sua l ly e nc losed i n c o loured s pheres ( orb icu l i ) . The t ex t i le i n t he Va t ican Museu m wh ich p or trays t he Na t iv i ty a nd t he A nnunc ia t ion was p robab ly emp loyed i n t h is manner . I ti s p ossib le t ha t t hose c hurches wh ich c ou ld n ot a f ford t o d ecora te t he ir w a l ls w i th r ea l v e la made d o w i th p a in ted i m i ta t ions. T hese r evea l t he s ame s pectru m o f s ub jec t ma t ter . O ne o ft he e ar l ies t k nown e xamp les i s t o b e f ound i n t he o ld p apa l l i brary b enea th t he S ca la S an ta i n t he L a teran p a lace , f or which a s ix th-cen tury d a te h as b een p roposed ( W ilper t , RMM , p l . 1 41 ,4 ) . I n S . Mar ia An t igua t he p a in t ings e xecu ted f or p ope J ohn V I I i nc luded l arge e xpanses o fv e lum o n t he l ower wa l ls , w i th a r ange o f d ecora t ions i nc lud ing g eo metr ic d es igns , b irds , a nd f i gura l s cenes. T he im i ta t ions e ven i nc luded p a in ted n a i ls f ro m w h ich t he c ur ta ins w ere s upposed ly h ung . An o t iceab le c haracter ist ic o f t he p a in ted d rapery i n a l l t he R o man c hurches i s t he u se o f s ome v ar iat ion o f t he r ed-ochre-red p at tern o f h or izon ta l l i nes a t t he t op a nd t he b o tto m . T he p ar t icu lar t ype f ound o n t he p ier i n S an C le men te—a w ide o chre b and w ith a b lack s qu igg le —occurs i n o n ly o ne o ther k nown e xa mp le : t he a pse o f t he u nderground o ratory a t S an S aba , a l though t he c en tra l d ecorat ive f eatures o f t he d rapery a re d if feren t . E .
THE " LEO I V ' S TYLE T he h igh q ua l ity o ft he n inth-cen tury p a in t ing i n S an C le men te , a nd i n
p ar t icu lar o ft he Ascension p ane l , h as l ong b een r ecogn ized .
More d isagree-
men t l i es i n t he c o mp l ica ted q ues t ion o f i den t i fy ing t he v ar ious s ources wh ich e xer ted a n i n f luence o nt he s ty le o f t he S an C le men te a r t ists.
I n o rder t o p lace
t h is p rob le m i n to s o me s ort o f p erspec t ive i tw i l l b e n ecessary t o f i rst d et er m ine t he n a ture o f t he ' Leo I V ' s ty le , a nd t hen t o e xam ine i ti n t he c on tex t o f c on te mporary d eve lop men ts i n R o me a nd e lsewhere i n I t a ly , i n C aro l ing ian a r t , a nd i n t he p osticonoc last ic p roduct ion o f t he B yzan t ine emp ire . i ) T he ' Leo I V ' s ty le a nd i t s Ro man c on tex t :
T he most n o t iceab le c haracter-
i st ics o f t he ' Leo I V ' s ty le i s i t s p redo m inan t emphas is o n t he u se o f l i ne . The a r t ists who p roduced t h is g roup o f wa l l-pa in t ings were n o t i n teres ted i n mode l l ing t hrough c ontrasts o f l i ght a nd s hadow o r b y means o f s ub t le v ar iat i ons i n c hro ma t ic t ones . I ndeed , t he r ange o f c olours i n t he ir p a let te was e x tre me ly l im i ted , a nd t hey worked e xclusively w i th t he b as ic t ones o f o chre , r ed a nd wh i te , r eserv ing b lue p r i mar i ly f or b ack-grounds . Apar t f rom t he h ead o f p ope L eo I V , l i t t le o r n o a t ten t ion h as b een p a id t o t he r ea l ist ic p ort raya l o f f ac ia l f ea tures , a nd t here h as b een n o a t te mp t a t t he s had ing o f f l esh t ones.
T h is s ke tch-l ike q ua l i ty wh ich i s c harac terist ic o ft he h eads i s
p ar t icu larly e v iden t i nt he M irac le a t C ana where o n ly t he h eavy o ut lines o f s o me o f t he f aces s urv ive. I ti s r eadi ly a pparen t t ha t t he workshop was n ot t ra ined i n t he t rad i t ions o f c lass ica l a r t , a nd t hese C hr isto log ica l s cenes p resent a marked c on trast t o t he ' He l len is m ' o f s o me o ft he s eventh-cen tury p a in t ings i n S . Mar ia A n t igua : f or e xamp le , t he Maccabees p ane l . N ever thel ess , t here i s ad ra ma t ic i n tens i ty p resen t i n t he s cenes wh ich r ender t he m wor thy o f much more t han a p ass ing n ot ice . Th is s tr ik ing e f fec t i s a l most e nt ire ly t he r esu l t o ft he h eavy s weep ing l i nes wh ich s ketch t he f igure b o ldy y et s imp ly .
A t t he s ame t ime l i ne h as n o t y et b een r educed t o t he l eve l o f
mere o rna men t .
I ti s u sed w i th g rea t e cono my .
Th is i s most e as i ly v is ib le
i n John t heOsborne, l e f t-h an d c r ouch ing a pos t leStudies f roInm t he A s censi on Andrews, David, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 2 62
i n t he l e f t-hand c rouch ing a post le f ro m t he A scens ion p ane l where t he s trong c urv ing l i ne w h ich r uns d own h is b ack a nd l egs i s emphas ized b y t he d rama t ic j ux tapos i t ion o f c o lours .
L adner h as a p t ly i den t if ied t he s ty le a s ' d isegna t ivo ' ,
1 07
a nd i ti s i n monu men ts wh ich a re r endered i n as imi lar s i mp le l i near manner t hat p ara l le ls s hou ld b e s ough t . D esp i te t he t ex tua l e v idence wh ich d ocuments t he a bundance o f L eo I V 's a r t is t ic p a tronage , i ti s d if f icu l t t o f i nd s urv iv ing ma ter ia l i n R o me i t se lf w i th wh ich a s ty lis t ic c o mpar ison w i th t he S an C le men te mura ls c an b e made . The a pse mosa ic wh ich h e i s k nown t o h ave c o mm issioned f or S . Mar tino a i Mont i ( L iber P on t if ica l is i , 1 31) h asnot s urv ived , n or i s i tr ecorded i n s even teenthc entury d raw ings .
S im i lar ly , t he d ecora t ions i n t he n ew d iacona te o f S . Mar ia
N ova , p robab ly i n i t ia ted b y L eo a l though c o mp le ted a f ter h is d ea th b y p ope N icho las I( L iber P on t if ica l is i , 1 45 , 1 58) , h ave a lso d isappeared . At h ird a r t is t ic p ro jec t k nown f ro m t h is p er iod i s t he mura l wh ich was p ain ted i n S t . P eter 's t o r ecord t he R o man C ounc i l o f 8 53 a nd i t s s en tence o f e xco mmun ica t ion o n A nas tas ius , t he p resby ter o f S an Marce l lo who l a ter b ecame t he p apa l l i brar ian .
A ccord ing t o t he L iber P on t i f ica lis ( i, 1 42 ), t h is was
d estroyed b y A nastasius h i mse lf d ur ing t he p er iod o f c iv i l s tr ife wh ich f o l lowed L eo 's d ea th i n 8 55 . T he e ven t i s a lso r ecorded i n t he Anna les o f H incmar o f R e i ms , who c la i ms t ha t a n i con d ep ic t ing C hr ist a nd t he V irg in , wh ich h ad b een ' de iec i t ' b y A nas tas ius , was r es tored s hor t ly t hereaf ter b y t he n ew p ope B enedic t I I ( 855-858) .
1 08
I ti s n ot c lear whe ther t he C ounc i l p aint ing was
a lso r ep laced , b u t t here i s n o f ur ther men t ion o f i ti n t he s ources .
T hus i t
wou ld a ppear t ha t a l though t he p er iod o f L eo 's p apacy was o ne o f c ons iderab le a r t is t ic p roduc t ion i n t he c i ty , l i t t le e v idence o f t h is a c t iv i ty h as s urv ived . A par t f ro m S an C le mente , t he o n ly o ther R o man w a l l-pa in t ing which may b e r easonab ly d a ted t o t h is t ime i s t he f ragmentary f i gure o f as tand ing s a in t i n t he S t . B arbara c hape l o ft he S s . Q ua t tro C orona t i ( p 1 .4. V I I I ). B efore h is e lec t ion a s p ope , L eo I V h ad b een t he p resby ter o f t he S s . Q ua t tro C orona t i , a nd t h is c hurch , p erhaps more t h an a ny o ther , r ece ived t he f ru i ts o f h is b enevo lence . 1°9 H e r ebui l t t he e n t ire s tructure a nd a dded t wo s ide c hape ls , o ne o f wh ich was d ed icated t o S t . B arbara . The p r inc ipa l a pse o ft h is c hape l , n ow e ntered f ro m a n o pen ing i n t he c lo ister , w as d ecorat ed w i th p a int ing .
T he c entra l p or t ions o f t he c omposi t ion h ave l ong s ince
f a l len f ro m t he wa l l l eav ing o n ly a sma l l a rea i n tac t o n e i ther s ide .
T he f rag-
men t o n t he l e f t d ep ic ts p or t ions o f as tanding s a in t d ressed i n a wh i te t un ic , r ed c hasub le , a nd t he e p iscopa l p a l liu m . There i sn o i dent ifying i nscr ip t ion . T he s a in t i s s hown f ron ta l ly , a nd a round h is h ead i s a n o chre h a lo f ramed w i th a t h in wh i te l i ne a nd e nc losed i n aw ide r ed b order . The manner o f e xecu t ion i s s trong ly r em in iscen t o f t he f igures o f s a in ts V i tus a nd P rosper i n S an C le men te . O nce a ga in t he emphas is i s o n t he u se o fo u tl ine , a nd t he l ower l i ne o ft he n eck i s a n e xtens ion o f t he c ircu lar e dge o f t he h a lo . Th is i s a pparen t ly a c harac ter ist ic f eature o ft he ' Leo I V ' s ty le .
G iven t he c lose
p hys ica l p rox imi ty o f t he t wo c hurches , i td oes n o t s eem u nreasonab le t o s ugg es t t ha t t he s ame w orkshop may h ave b een r espons ib le f or t he ir d ecora t ion . When t he S s . Q ua t tro C orona t i was r estored b y A n ton io Mur ioz e ar ly i n t h is c entury , as econd f rag mentary f i gure was v is ib le a t t he f ar r igh t o f t he a pse , b u t o n ly a f ew t races o f c o loured b order s urv ive t here t oday .
T he r ema inder
o ft he p a in ted f rag men ts i n t he S t . Barbara c hape l a re c ons idered t o b e long
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, 1982, t oUK:t hBAR e Publishing, t h ir teen th https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. c en tury . Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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The f i gures o ft he Madonna a nd C h i ld w i th t wo s a in ts p a in ted o n t he r ock wa l l o ft he Grot ta d e i P astor i a t S ubiaco , of ten l i nked w i th L eo I V o n t he b as is o f h is k nown d ona t ions t o t h is monastery ( L iber P on t if ica l is i , 17 ) , b ear l i t t le a pparen t r e la t ion t o R o man p a in t ing o f t h is o r o f a ny o ther p er iod . T he c rude ly d rawn f i gures w i th t he ir c o mp le te ly s ty l ized f ea tures s ugges t t ha t t he p a in ter was n ot a p rofess iona l a r t is t b u t p robab ly a member o ft he mona s tic c o m mun i ty . T here i s n o i n terna l e v idence t o c onf irm o r d eny t he t radit i ona l a t tr ibu t ion t o t he mid-n in th c entury . 10 The p resence o f as trong l i near s ty le i n R o me d ur ing t he p ont if ica te o f L eo I V i s n ot s urpr ising when v iewed i n t he g enera l c on tex t o f d eve lopments i np a int ing o ver t he p reced ing d ecades . Ap receden t f or t he S an C lemen te mura ls may b e f ound i n t he e labora te h ag iograph ica l c yc le wh ich w as p a in ted ag enera t ion e ar l ier i n t he t ransept o f S . P rassede . P or t ions o f t h is c yc le may s t i l l b e s een i n ac ha mber a t t he b ase o f t he R o manesque c ampan i le . T he p a int ings a re a l mos t e xc lusive ly p reoccupied w i th s cenes o f mar tyrdo m . T he a cco mpany ing i nscr ip t ions , n ow l arge ly f aded , i den t ify t he s a in ts a s t hose w hose r e lics were t rans la ted t o S . P rassede b y p ope P ascha l I( 8 17-824 ) . T he a rch i tec tura l h is tory o ft he b ui lding p rov ides a t erminus p os t q uem f or t he s ame p er iod . A l though l ack ing t he d ynam ic v i ta li ty o f t he S an C lemen te a pos t les , t he S . P rassede mar tyrs a re d rawn i n as imi lar manner w i th t he emphas is s quare ly p laced o n h eavy c urv ing l i nes . T h is i s most e v iden t i n t he s cene w h ich p or trays t he b eheading o f ag roup o ff our s a ints ( p l . 5 ) . A ddi t iona l s im i lar i t ies t o S an C le mente may b e f ound t hroughou t t he c yc le i n t he g roups o fp ara l le l l i nes u sed t o i ndica te d rapery f o lds a nd i n t he d ep ic t ion o ff ac ia l f ea tures . T he s ame l i near s ty le may b e f ound e lsewhere i n S . P rassede i n P ascha l 's v as t p rogram me o f mosa ic d ecora t ions , mos t n ot icea b ly i n t he f i gures o ft he t wen ty-four e lders o n t he t r iumpha l a rch . An i ntermedia te c hrono logica l s tage b e tween t he P ascha l ian mosa ics a nd t he S an C lemen te mura ls i s p rov ided b y t he a pse mosa ic i n S an Marco . T h is may b e s ecure ly d ated t o t he r e ign o fp ope Gregory I V ( 827-844 ) , who a ppears i n t he c o mpos i t ion w i th a s quare ' ha lo ' . The L iber P on tif ica l is ( i , 7 4 ) r ecords t ha t h e r ebui l t t he c hurch a nd p rov ided i tw i th mosa ic d ecora t ion . H is monog ram i s a lso i nc luded o n t he s of f i to f t he a rch . T he a r t is t r espons ib le f or t he S an Marco mosa ic w as e v ident ly i nf luenced b y t he w ork o f h is p redecessors . The g roup o f f igures a t t he f ar l ef t , where S t . Mark p laces h is a rm a round t he s hou lder o f t he p ope , i s ad irec t c opy o f P ascha l 's a pse mosa ic i n S . C ec i l ia .
The mode l h as b een f o l lowed t o s uch a c lose e x ten t t ha t t he p or t ion
o ft he p a l liu m wh ich h angs d own b eh ind t he p ope 's b ack , a nd i s t herefore n orma l ly c oncea led , i s s hown f a l l ing o utwards t o t he l ef t o f t he p on t if f i n b o th e xa mp les . A t S an Marco, h owever , t he s t if f ly-drawn i nscr ip t ions , whose l e t ters a re p oor ly f ormed a nd i rregu lar ly s paced , s ugges t t ha t t he e ar lier h igh s tandards were n o l onger b e ing a ch ieved . Ac o mpar ison b e tween t he f i gure o f L eo I V i n S an C lemen te a nd t he f i gure o f Gregory i n S an Marco i s i nforma t ive . T he t wo men a re r emarkab ly s i mi lar , b oth d ressed i n awh i te t unic w i th c o loured s tr ipes , a n o chre s leeved c hasub le , a nd a wh i te p a l l ium : . B oth h o ld o b jec ts i n t he ir v e i led h ands t owards t he r igh t s ide o ft he ir b odies , a nd i n b oth e xa mp les t he d rapery f o lds o n t he c hasub le a re i ndica ted b y r ed l i nes .
The s im i lar i ty o f t he l arge s weep ing
c urve w h ich i n as ing le s troke d ef ines t he u pper r igh t l eg f ro m t he t h igh t o Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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t he b ot to m o f t he k nee i s p ar t icu lar ly s tr ik ing , a nd i n e ach c ase t h is a rea i s a ddi t iona l ly e nhanced b y as ing le p a ir o f d iagona l p ara l le l l i nes . The f ront o ft he c hasub le i s h e ld o ver t he a rm o f e ach p ont if f i n a n i dent ica l f ash ion , a nd t he manner i n wh ich t he d rapery f o lds b reak a t t he b ot to m o f t he h ang ing p or t ion i s a lso t he s a me .
T he n eck o f e ach man i s d ef ined b y a wh i te c o l lar .
H owever , t h is i s n ot i n tended t o s ugges t t ha t t he S an C lemen te Ascens ion p a in ter was i n f luenced b y t he S an Marco mosa ic . T he s im i lar i t ies b e tween t he t wo monumen ts d er ive f ro m t he ir mutua l d ependence o n P ascha lian mode ls , a nd t he s ame c harac ter is t ics a re p resen t i n t he f i gure o fp ope P ascha l i nt he a pse mosa ic o f S . P rassede .
T he g o lden c hasub le w i th r ed f o lds a nd a t h ick
wh i te c o llar i s a lso w orn b y t he s ame p ope i n t he a pse mosa ic o f S . Mar ia i n D o mn ica . T he u se o fa n o va l c urve w i th a d oub lel ine f o ld t o d escr ibe t he u pper l eg a nd k nee i s at yp ica l d ev ice wh ich may b e f ound i n aw ide v ar iety o f f i gures . Among t he many p ro m inen t e xamp les a re C hr ist i n t he a pses o f S . C ec i l ia a nd S . P rassede , P e ter i n t he a pse o f S . P rassede , t he a nge ls o n t he t r iumpha l a rch i nt he s a me c hurch , a nd t he a pos t les t o t he l ef to f C hr is t o n t he t r iu mpha l a rch o f S . Mar ia i n D o mn ica .
I ta lso f ea tures i n t he s cenes o n t he s i lver c ru-
c i form r e l iquary f ro m t he S anc ta S anc toru m t reasure , n ow i n t he Museo V a t icano , wh ich n a mes P ascha l i n a n i nscr ipt ion o n t he l i d . T he d if ference b e tween t he S an C le men te p a in ter a nd t he S an Marco mosa ic is t l i es i n t he u se wh ich e ach h as made o f h is mode ls . I n t he mosa ic n o a t te mp t h as b een made t o i mprove u pon t he P ascha l ian r ender ing o f t he f i gures , a nd t h is h as r esu lted i n as ignif ican t d egenera t ion i n t he ir q ua l i ty . T he h ead o fp ope Gregory , f or e xa mp le , i s much t oo sma l l i n p ropor t ion t o t he r es t o f h is b ody .
T he h err ing-bone d rapery f o lds f ound i n f igures s uch
a s P e ter a nd P au l i n t he a pse o f S . P rassede h ave i n S an Marco b eco me s ty lized t o t he p oin t o f a bstrac t ion o n t he g armen tsof S t . Mark , F e lic iss i mus , a nd p ope A gapetus .
S t .
T he A scens ion a r t is t , o n t he o ther h and ,
a l though w ork ing i n as im i lar c on text i n t erms o f f i gure s ty le , h as n ot c op ied b l ind ly . H e h as e l imina ted many o f t he s uper f luous e lemen ts o f t he d esign , f or e xamp le mos t o ft he d rapery p a t terns a nd o ther d ecora t ive a ddi t ions t o g armen ts s uch a s sma l l r ed c rosses .
T h is r educ t ion o f t he f i gures t o t he ir
b are e ssen t ia ls h as g rea t ly s imp lif ied t he c o mpos it ion a nd s erves t o h e ighten t he e f fec t o ft he l i near emphas is . T he a r t is t h as u nderstood t he u nder ly ing p r inc ip les o ft he P ascha l ian f igure s ty le a nd , b y r emov ing t he e xtraneous d ecora t ion t o s yn thesize t hese b as ic f orms , h e h as a ch ieved a d rama t ic r esu l t .
T he i mpor tan t q ues t ion wh ich r e ma ins t o b e r eso lved i s whe ther
t h is d eve lop men t o ft he P ascha l ian s ty le t ook p lace s o le ly w i th in a l im i ted R o man c ontex t , o r whe ther t he A scens ion a r t is t w as i nf luenced b y d eve lopmen ts e lsewhere . T he o r ig ina l a pses o f S . Mar t ino a i Mon t i a nd S . Mar ia N ova w ou ld h ave p roved v ery u sefu l i n s e t t l ing t h is i ssue , f or a par t f ro m S an Marco t here a re n o o ther e xa mp les o f R o man p a in t ing wh ich s urv ive f rom t he i n terven ing y ears b etween P ascha l Ia nd L eo I V . i ) S an V incenzo a l V o l turno : T he e x is tence o f s im i lar c harac ter is t ics i n c on temporary o rn ear-con te mporary a r t is t ic p roduc t ion i n o ther p ar ts o f I t a ly h as g iven r ise t o c ons iderab le s pecu la t ion a s t o t he n a ture a nd d eve lopmen t o ft he s ty l is t ic i nher i tance . T he monumen t wh ich i s most f requent ly c i ted a s ac o mpar ison f or S an C lemen te i s t he e labora te c yc le o f p a in t ings Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 2 66
wh ich d ecora te t he c ryp t o f t he f ormer monas tery o f S an V incenzo a l V o l turno . Because t h is monas tery was o ne o ft he l arges t a nd mos t i nf luen t ia l B enedic t ine i nst itut ions i n s outhern I t a ly b efore i t s s ack b y S aracen r a iders i n 8 11, a nd b ecause t he c yc le c an b e d a ted u nhes i ta t ing ly t o t he p er iod o f a bbot E p iphan ius ( 826-843 ) , i t mer its s o me a t ten t ion . 1 11 T hus f ar t here h as b een l i t t le s cho la r ly a greemen t c oncern ing t he s ty lis t ic o r ig ins o ft he V olturno p a in t ings . A c lose l i nk w i th R o me h as b een s ugges ted b y B er taux , G rabar , a nd d e ' Maf fe i , 12 a l though d iscoun ted b y H ans B e l t ing . b e longing t o aC aro l ing ian c ontex t . monu ments o ft he n inth c entury .
O thers h ave v iewed S an V incenzo a s
13
1 14
I n f ac t , i ti s o ne o ft he mos t e n igma t ic
The a rgu men t f or a d ependence o n C aro ling ian mode ls i s p erhaps t he l east c onv inc ing . I ti s b ased p r i mar i ly o n s im i lar i t ies i n o conograph ic u sage a nd i n p ar t icu lar t he u se o f t he l o inc loth t ype o f C ruc if ix ion .
H owever , t h is
mot if was p robab ly n ot i nven ted b y C aro l ing ian a r t is ts , b u t r a ther a cquired i n t he e igh th c en tury v ia I t a ly f ro m B yzan t ium . A c o mpar ison w i th n in thc entury C aro ling ian wa l l p a in t ing , f or e xa mp le t he c ryp t o f S t . G erma in a t A uxerre o r a t S t . Max imin i n Tr ier , r evea ls l i t t le s im i lar ity i n t he manner i n wh ich t he f i gures h ave b een r endered o r i n t he ir p hys iogno m ic t ypes . A more d if f icu lt p rob le m i s p resented b y B e l t ing 's t hesis o f aL o mbard c urrent c ircu la t ing i n I ta ly o uts ide R o me .
P ara l le ls f or t he V o l turno mura ls
may b e f ound i n f ragments o fp a in t ing i n t he t wo s ide a pses o f S . S of ia i n Beneven to ( c . 8 50 ) . O ne n ot iceab le s im i lar i ty i s t he u se o f af ree-standing a rch i tec tura l c ons truc t ion c o mpr is ing a c o lu mn a nd a p ier p o ined b y a n a rch , wh ich i s u sed i n b oth monu ments a s af orm o f s tage s e t t ing .
A nother may b e
f ound i n t he r espect ive a nnunc ia te a nge ls w i th t he ir v io len t ly a g i ta ted d rapery . A s i mi lar s ty le was s t i l l p resen t i n C ampan ia f if ty y ears l a ter i n t he d ecorat i ons a t C im i t i le . One mus tb e c areful , h owever , n ot t o e leva te t he w ork o f al oca l B eneventan workshop i n to t he p roduct ion o f af u l l-b lown r eg iona l s choo l . I n t erms o f b o th s ty le a nd i conography t here a re g ood r easons t o s uppor t B er taux 's v iew t ha t s trong l i nks e x is ted b e tween S an V incenzo a l V olturno a nd R o me .
T he u se o f
t he s quare ' ha lo ' mo t if a nd t he i conograph ic t ype o ft he Mar ia r eg ina , b o th o f wh ich o ccur more t han o nce a t S an V incenzo , a re c harac ter is t ic f ea tures o f R o man a r t a t t h is t ime . T he p ane l o f t he V irg in a nd C h i ld e n throned w ith t he p rostra te a bbo t h o lding h er s l ipper h as a d irec t mode l i n P ascha l 's a pse mosa ic i n S . Mar ia i n D o mn ica .
T he s cenes o f mar tyrdo m o f s a in ts S tephen
a nd L awrence a re d er ived f ro m s im i lar R o man e xamp les , s uch a s t he mart yrdo m o f S t . E rasmus i n S . Mar ia i n V ia L a ta ( Ma t th iae , P i t tura R o mana , i , f i g . 1 28 ) . I n p ar t icu lar , au sefu l c o mpar ison may b e made b e tween t he a l most i den t ica l f i gures o fo ne o ft he t wo t or turers who h as b oth h ands r a ised a bove h is h ead a nd h is r igh t l eg s l igh t ly l i f ted a nd t hrus t f orward . I n t erms o f s ty lis tic t rea tmen t , i ti s d if f icu lt t o d eny t ha t t he s we l ling c on tour l i nes ( t he ' sa t ten s chwe l lenden K ont ur ' wh ich B e l t ing c ons iders t o b e c harac ter is t ic o ft he Beneven tan s choo l ) 15 c rea te t he s ame l i near e xpress ionis m wh ich may b e f ound i n S . P rassede . A d mi t ted ly a ny d iscuss ion o f s ty le i s l i ke ly t o b e b ased p r i mar i ly o n s ub jec t ive c r i ter ia a nd w i l l d epend t o al arge e x ten t o n t he e ye o f t he b eho lder . N ever the less , i tw ou ld a ppear t ha t wa l l-pa in t ing i n t he f i rst h a lf o f t he n in th c en tury , b e i ti n R o me o r e lsewhere i n c en tra l Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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I t a ly , p resen ts s tr ik ing ly s im i lar c harac ter is t ics .
A t S an V incenzo , h owever ,
t here i s n o s ugges t ion t ha t t he f i gure s ty le h as b een r educed o r r ef ined i n t he manner o ft he p a int ings o f S an C le men te . i i )
S an C lemen te a nd B yzan t iu m :
I n o rder t o p lace t he R o man ma ter ia l i n
al arger c on tex t i ti s n ecessary t o c ons ider e xamp les f ro m f ur ther a f ie ld . N ordhagen h as l i kened t he " coarse l i near ism" o f t he S an C lemen te Ascension t o t he c upo la mosa ic wh ich d ep ic ts t he s ame s ub ject i nt he c hurch o f S t . S oph ia i n S a lon ica , 16 a nd We i tz mann h as e xpressed h is c on jec ture o fa n I ta lian o r ig in f or t he V a t ican J ob manuscr ip t ( B ib . Va t icana , c od . g r . 7 49 ) p r i mar i ly o n t he b as is o f as im i lar c o mpar ison . 1 17 T he l i near s ty le wh ich c harac teri zes R o man wa l l-pa int ing i n t he f irst h a lf o f t he n inth c entury i s c er ta in ly t o b e f ound i n c ontemporary B yzan t ine manuscr ip ts .
I n a ddi t ion t o t he Va t ican
J ob , t here a re t wo o thers wh ich p or tray s im i lar q ua li t ies :
t he P ar is c opy o f
S t . J ohn Damascene 's S acra P ara l le la ( B ib . N a t iona le , c od . g r . 9 23) , a nd t he H om i lies o f G regory o f N az ianzus i n M i lan ( Bib . Ambrosiana , c od . 4 9-50 ) . T he P ar is S acra P ara l le la i s p erhaps t he c loses t t o S an C lemente i n i t s t rea tment o fd rapery , a l though a l l t hree emp loy t he t echn ique o f s ketch ing g armen t f o lds o n b ackgrounds o f s o lid c o lour . T he u se o fd oub le l ines t o i ndica te t hese f o lds , t ermed t he " Doppe l l in iensystem" b y We i tz mann , i s a lso ac harac ter is t ic o ft he g roup . I ti s p ar t icu lar ly n o t iceab le i n t he S acra P ara l le la , wh ich h e c ons iders t o b e t he e xamp le ' par e xce l lence ' o f t h is s ty lis t ic f ea ture .
18
We i tz mann h as a lso d e mons tra ted t ha t t h is d oub lel ine
s ystem f or d rapery f o lds was a c o mpara t ive ly w idespread p heno menon .
I t
may b e f ound among t he p a in ted i cons f ro m Mount S ina i , f or e xa mp le t he i con d ep ic t ing S t . C har i ton a nd S t . T heodos ius ( I cons , p l . x xv i ) , a s wel l a s i n t he B er l in i vory c arv ing wh ich d ep ic ts a n emperor n amed L eo . 1 19 The l a t ter p iece i s t hough t t o h ave b een p roduced i n C ons tan t inop le . Thus , t he d istr ibut i on o f t he d oub leline f o ld t echn ique e nco mpassed a w ide g eograph ic a rea , a nd o n t h is b as is We itz ma im h as s ugges ted t ha t i tr epresen ts a g enera l z e i ts t i l wh ich was c urrent t hroughout t he Med i terranean r eg ion i n t he f irst h a lf o f t he n inth c entury . T h is p roposa l h as c ons iderab le mer i t , a l though h is b e l ief t ha t t h is s ty lis t ic t rea tmen t o r ig ina ted i n P a lest ine s t i l l awa i ts d ef ini t ive p roof . A l l t hree G reek manuscr ip ts i nq ues t ion h ave b een a ss igned t o s cr ip tor ia i n I t a ly b y A ndre Grabar , p r imar i ly o n t he b as is o ft he ir s im i lar ity t o R o man wa l l-pa int ing . 1 20 H owever , i fi ti s t he c ase o f az e i ts t i l wh ich p ervaded t he a r t o ft h is p er iod i n an u mber o f a reas , t hen G rabar 's v iew must b e r ee xa m ined . We i tz mann n ow c ons iders t ha t t he P ar is S acra P are lle la was p roduced i n P a les t ine ,1 21 a nd a n on-I ta lian s ource i s a lso s uggested b y t he n a ture o f t he u nc ia l s cr ip t a s we l l a s i t s k nown p rovenance . b rought t o t he west f ro m C onstant inop le o n ly i n t he y ear 1 730 , t i on i gnored i n Grabar 's s tudy .
Par is 9 23 was 1 22
a n i ndica-
T he c ase f or a n I t a l ian o r ig in i s s l igh t ly
s tronger f or t he o ther t wo manuscr ip ts .
T here c an b e n o d oubt t ha t t he
l arge G reek c o mmun i ty p resen t i n R o me d id h ave i t s own s cr iptor ia , s uch a s t he o ne wh ich p roduced a c opy o f p ope Z achar ias 's G reek t ransla t ion o f t he D ia logues o f Gregory t he Grea t i n t he y ear 8 00 ( B ib . V a t icana , c od . g r . 1 666 ) . 1 23 A l though t h is manuscr ip t i s n ot i l lus tra ted, t he western i nf luence o n t he s cr ibe i s i nd ica ted b y t he f our o rnamented i n i t ia ls , o ne o f wh ich emp loys Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
2 68
f an tas t ic b eas ts a nd i n ter lace p a t terns . A s im i lar t ype o f h is tor ia ted i n i t ia l i nvo lv ing a n i ma l mot ifs may b e f ound i n t he V a t ican J ob . 1 24 T he M i lan G regory p resents a n umber o f a pparent ly wes tern f ea tures , s uch a s t he u se o f c ler ica l t onsure a nd R o man e cc les ias t ica l c os tume . 1 25 T he mos t o bv ious p ara l le l w i th S an C le men te , a par t f rom t he t rea tment o f d rapery , l i es i n i t s u se o f at hree-rayed c ruc iform h a lo a round t he h ead o f C hr is t .
T he p ar t icu lar n a ture o f c ruc iform h a loes o f ten p rov ides a u sefu l
c hrono log ica l i nd ica t ion , f or e xa mp le t he s ing le t h in l i ne t ype wh ich o ccurs f requent ly i n t he e ar ly e igh th c en tury ( i n t he J ohn WI d ecora t ions f ro m S . Mar ia A nt igua , a nd a t C as te lsepr io ) . I n t he S an C lemente C hr is t° log ica l c yc le C hr is t h i mse lf i s d ep ic ted f our t imes , a nd i n e very i ns tance e ach a rm o ft he c ruc iform n imbus i s c o mposed o ft hree l i nes .
A l though t hese a re n ot
r eadi ly a pparen t t oday , t hey a re c lear ly s hown i n t he P arker p ho tographs . G iven t he s trong c on t inui ty i n R o man a r t i n t he f i rst h a lf o ft he n in th c entury , i tc o mes a s n o s urpr ise t o d iscover t ha t t he t hree-rayed h a lo i s a lso u sed i n P ascha l I ' s a pse mosa ic o n S . P rassede .
T he n orma l t ype i n u se i n t he midd le
o ft he e igh th c en tury , f or e xamp le i n t he p or traya l o f C hr is t e nthroned f ro m t he l ef t a is le wa l l o f S . Mar ia A nt igua , f ea tured a v eryw ide b and wh ich was u sed t o f orm e ach a rm o ft he i nscr ibed c ross . T h is i s t he t ype wh ich i s u sed i n t he o ther P ascha l ian mosa ics , f or e xamp le i n t he a pses o f S . C ec i l ia a nd S . Mar ia i n D o mn ica .
H owever , i n t he a pse o f S . P rassede a nd a lso i n
t he p ane l o ver t he e ntrance t o t he S an Z eno c hape l , t he w ide b and h as b een d iv ided b y t he a ddi t ion o f at h ird l i ne .
T he a pse mosa ic o f S an Marco c on-
t i nues t he u se o ft h is t hree-rayed t ype . At h ird e xa mp le , u nda ted b u t p oss ib ly c on temporary w i th S an C le men te , i s t he p a int ing i n t he c a tacomb o f S an G ennaro a t N ap les wh ich d ep ic ts C hr is t s tand ing i n a mandor la b less ing w i th w i th o ne h and a nd h o lding a n o pen s cro l l i n t he o ther .
1 25
T he e s tab-
l i shmen t o f a monas tery o n t h is s i te b y t he b ishop A thanas ius ( 849-872 ) r esu l ted i n ap er iod o f r enewed a r t is t ic a c t iv i ty i n t he N eapo l i tan c a taco mbs t o wh ich t h is work may we l l b e long . The u se o f t h is p ar t icu lar n umbus f orm a ppears t o d ie o u t i n t he l a ter s tages o f t he n in th c entury a nd i s n ever r ev ived . The r esu l t o f t h is e xam ina t ion h as b een t o s how t ha t s o me l i nks d o e x is t b e tween R o man p a in t ing i n t he n in th c entury a nd w orks o fa r t f rom an umber o fo ther g eograph ic r eg ions . The p r inc ipa l p o ints o f c o mpar ison b e tween t he S an C le men te A scens ion a nd t he t hree B yzan t ine manuscr ip ts wh ich s how s im i lar c harac ter is t ics a re f ea tures wh ich were a lready p resen t i n R o man a r t b y t he t ime o f P ascha l I , a nd t here i s n oth ing t o s uggest t hat t he S an C lemen te p a in ter h ad a ny d irec t c ontac tw i th c ontemporary a c t iv i ty f rom o u ts ide R o me . I ti sp oss ib le t ha t t he c hanges wh ich t ook p lace i n t he p er iod b e tween P ascha l Ia nd L eo I V r ef lec t as im i lar d irec t ion i n B yzan t ine a r t , b ut t he l ack o f s ecure ly d a ted ma ter ia l f ro m t he s econd q uar ter o ft he n inth c en tury c ons t itu tes a ma jor o bs tac le t o f ur ther e nqu iry .
T he p rob lems o ft he d a te
a nd p lace o fo r ig in o f manuscr ip ts s uch a s P ar is 9 23 a lso r ema in t o b e s o lved . The p oss ib i li ty o f a r t is t ic c ontac ts b e tween R o me a nd C ons tan t inop le i n t he y ears i m media te ly f o l low ing t he e nd o f i conoc lasm s hou ld n ot b e r u led o u t . T he h istor ica l c on tex t o ft he e ar ly medieva l p er iod d e mons tra ted t ha t t here was a s trong t radi t ion o f s uch i nf luences .
T here was a l arge Greek-speak ing
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
2 69
r e lig ious c o mmun i ty e s tab l ished i n t he c i ty , a nd i n t he l a te s eventh a nd t he f irst h a lf o ft he e igh th c en tury i th ad b een s uf f ic ient ly p owerfu l t o s ecure t he e lec t ion o f al ong l i ne o f G reek-speak ing p opes . F rom t he r e ign o fJ ohn V ( 6 85-686) t o t he r e ign o f Z achar ias ( 741-752 ) , o n ly G regory I ( 7 15-731) i s n amed b y t he L iber P ont if ica lis a s b e ing " ex p a tre R o mano" .
1 27
T he G reek
p resence i n R o me r e ma ined s trong a nd was c ons tan t ly r efreshed b y n ew a rr iva ls f ro m t he e as t u n t i l a t e as t t he e nd o ft he t en th c en tury ,1 28 a nd wa l lp a in t ings w i th G reek i nscr ip t ions i n c hurches s uch a s S an S aba a nd S . Mar ia An t igua t es t ify t o t he ir p a tronage o f t he a r ts .
I t was p erhaps a s ign o f t he
t imes t ha t p ope Z achar ias c ons idered i tn ecessary t o t rans la te t he D ia logues o f Gregory Ii n to G reek , p resu mab ly t ha t t hey migh t b eco me a va i lab le t o more o ft he c lergy i n R o me . D ur ing t he e igh th a nd n in th c entur ies t he p r imary f ac tor wh ich r esu lted i n B yzan t ine e cc les ias t ics s eek ing r efuge i n R o me w as t he p ersecut ion o f i conoph i les i nC onstan t inop le a nd o ther p ar ts o ft he Emp ire . 1 29 T hese p ers ecu t ions w ere d irected p r i mar i ly a ga inst t hose w ho w ere r espons ib le f or t he p roduct ion o f i cons , i .e . a r t ist- monks , a nd l arge n umbers p referred e x i le t o i ncarcerat ion a nd mut i lat ion .
T he b iographer o f t he e ighth-cen tury s a in t ,
S tephen t he Y ounger , r eco m mended t h is c ourse o fa c t ion , n am ing I t a ly , a long w i th o ther p laces s uch a s C yprus , t he C r imea , a nd t he s ou th s hore o fA sia M inor , a s l oca t ions i n wh ich t he i con-worsh ipper c ou ld e xpec t t o f i nd a s afe r efuge .
1 30
T hese r efugees w ou ld n ot o n ly h ave b rough t p or tab le w orks o f
a r t w ith t hem t o t he west , among t he ir n u mber .
1 31
b u t w ou ld a lso h ave i nc luded a r t is ts a nd a r t isans
T hese e as t-wes t c on tac ts c on t inued t o s urv ive a f ter t he u se o f i mages was r ev ived i n C ons tan t inop le , w i th t he d if ference t ha t t hey w ere e leva ted t o a more o f f ic ia l l eve l .
L azarus , a n a r t is t- monk w ho h ad e ar l ier s uf fered
mut i la t ion f or h is b e liefs , was c hosen t o s erve o n t wo B yzan t ine d ip lo ma t ic miss ions t o R o me , i n 8 55 a nd a ga in c . 8 65 . 1 32 O n t he f irs t o ft hese o ccasions h e b rough t an u mber o f a r t o b jec ts w i th h im a s g i f ts f or t he p ope . Al eng thy l i s t o f t hese i s s upp l ied b y t he L iber P on t if ica l is ( i , 1 47-148) . T h is b r ief g lance a t t he h is tor ica l b ackground r evea ls t ha t t he c u l tura l l i nks b e tween R o me a nd t he e as t were n o t s evered i n t he e igh th a nd n in th c entur ies d esp i te t he c o l lapse o fp o li t ica l t i es . T he C hr is to log ica l s cenes i n S an C lemen te a nd t he p a int ings i n o ther c hurches s uch a s S an V incenzo a l V o lturno d emons tra te t ha t Byzan t ine i conograph ic f ormu lae c ont inued t o f orm t he b as is f or I t a l ian mura l d ecora t ion d ur ing t h is p er iod .
I ti s h ard ly s ur-
p r is ing , t hen , t ha t t he s ty lis t ic f ea tures wh ich c harac ter ize R o man p a int ing a t t h is t ime a re a lso t o b e f ound e lsewhere i n t he B yzan t ine s phere o f c u l tura l i nf luence .
T he p a in t ing i n S an C le men te was n ot c once ived i n av acuu m .
r ef lec ts t he a r t is t ic p roduc t ion o fi t s a ge .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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I t
NOTES
1 .
Th is p aper f orms p ar t o f aU nivers i ty o f L ondon d oc tora l t hes is , " Ear ly mediaeva l wa l l-pa in t ings i n t he l ower c hurch o f S an C lemen te , R o me" ( Cour tau ld I ns t i tu te o f Ar t , 1 979 ) .
2 . 3 .
Krau the imer , C orpus Bas i l icaru m , i , 1 30 . L iber P on t if ica lis i , 1 08 .
T he e ar thquake must d a te b e tween L eo 's
e lec t ion o n 1 0 A pr i l a nd t he e nd o ft he t en th i nd ic t ion o n 3 1 A ugus t 8 47 . F or t he s ugges t ion t ha t t h is c aused d a mage t o S an C le men te s ee Wi lper t " P it ture", 2 98-299 . 4 .
S . Mar ia N ova i sk nown t o h ave b een b u i l t b y L eo I Vt o r ep lace S . Mar ia An tigua ( L iber P ont if ica l is i , 1 58) .
T he t heory t ha t t h is was t he d irec t
r esu lt o ft he 8 47 e ar thquake was p roposed b y G . M . R ushfor th , "T he c hurch o f S . Mar ia Ant igua" , PBSR 1 ( 1902 ) , 1 -123 , e sp . 9 . 5 .
E . J unyen t , " La p r im i t iva b asi l ica d i S . C le men te e l e c os truzion i a n tiche c ircos tan t i", RACr 5 ( 1928) , 2 31-278, e sp . 2 70 .
6 . 7 .
E . J unyen t , T i to lo d i S an C lemente , 1 65 . F or a s tudy o ft he g estures i n c on tex t s ee H . Maguire , " The d ep ic t ion o f s orrow i n midd le Byzan t ine a r t" , DOP 3 1 ( 1977) , 1 23-174 , e sp . 1 49 .
8 .
S ee H . K . Mann , " The p or tra i ts o ft he p opes", PBSR 9 ( 1920 ) , 1 59-204 , e sp . 1 75 .
9 .
T he a uthor 's s tudy o f t h is mot if w i l l a ppear i n PBSR 4 7 .
1 0 .
T he p resence h ere o f a n a ltar h as a lso b een s ugges ted b y C . C ecche l l i , S an C le men te , 1 46 .
1 1 .
G ; B ; De R oss i , L a R o ma S ot terranea Cr is t iana , i( Ro me 1 864 ) , 3 01, a nd i ( 1867) , 3 90 .
1 2 .
W . d e Gr t Ine ison e t a l . ,S a in te Mar ie An t ique ( Ro me 1 911) , 4 26-428, a nd A lbu m E p igraph ique p l . x i i , n o . 1 1.
1 3 .
S ee G . L adner , IR i tra t t i d e i P api n e l l 'Ant ich d a en e l Med ioevo ( Va t ican C i ty 1 941) , i , 1 48-150 .
1 4 .
T he d is t inc t ion b e tween L eo p ope a nd L eo p resby ter h as b een o bserved b y R . Garrucc i , S tor ia d e l la Ar te C r ist iana , i i , 8 5 . ; Wi lper t , RM M , 5 27; a nd L adner , R i tra t t i
1 5 .
i , 1 47 .
S ee Rabanus Maurus ," D e g rad ibus e cc les iast ic is" ( M igne , PL 1 07 , c o l . 2 99 ) a nd " De p resby ter is" ( PL 1 07 , c o l . 3 01) .
1 6 .
G ; B ; De R oss i , I nscr ip t iones C hr ist ianae U rb is R o mae ( Ro me 1 888) , i , 2 13 .
1 7 .
T he l os t d edica t ion i nscr ip t ion i s k nown f ro m a n u mber o f s ources , s ee A . S i lvagn i , " La b as i l ica d i S . Mar t ino , l ' ora tor io d i S . S i lvestro e i l t i to lo c ostant in iano d i E qu izio" , Arch iv io d e lla R . S oc ie t ' a R o mana d i S tor ia Pa tr ia 3 5 ( 1912 ) , 3 29-437 , e sp . 4 11-413 .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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1 8 .
D e R oss i , I nscr ip t iones C hr ist ianae , i , 3 25 .
1 9 .
M igne , PL 1 15 , c o ls . 6 66 , 6 71;
2 0 .
A . C iacon io , V i tae e t R es G es tae P on ti f icu m R o manoru m e t S .R . E.
1 29 , c o l . 9 99 .
C ard ina l iu m ( Ro me 1 677) , i , 6 25 . 2 1 .
Monu menta G erman iae H is tor ica , A uc tores An t iquissim i , x i i ( Ber l in 1 894 ) , 4 11-412 .
2 2 .
L adner , R i tra t t i , i , 1 47 .
2 3 .
Mu l loo ly , S a in t C le men t P ope a nd Mar tyr , 1 89 .
2 4 .
G ; B .
D e R ossi , " Les monu ments d ecouver ts s ous l a b as i lique d e S .
C le men t , e tud ies d ans l eur s uccess ion s tra tegraph ique e t c hrono log ique", BACr ( 1 870 ) , 1 59 . 2 5 .
S ee M . R . J ames , The Apocrypha l N ew T es tamen t ( Oxford 1 966 ) , 1 942 27 .
2 6 .
R . v on E i te lberger , " A ltchr ist liche F resken i n d er K irche S . C lemente z u R om , e n tdeck t i n d en J ahren 1 861 u nd 1 863" , Mi t the i lungen d er k .k . C en tra l-Co m m iss ion z ur Er forschung u nd E rha l tung d er Baudenkma le 7 ( 1 863 ) , 3 07; 0 . Marucch i , B as i liques e t E g l ises d e R o me ( Par is , 1 902 ) , 2 94 ;
L . N o lan , The B as i l ica o f S . C le mente i n R o me , ( Grot taferra ta
1 925 ) , 1 43-147; H . L ec lercq , " Asso mp t ion ( dans Par t )", DACL i , 2 , c o l . 2 988; B ened ic to N ie to , L a a sunc ion d e l a V irgen e n e l Ar te ( Madr id 1 950 ) , 4 3; a nd J oseph L ieba l l , D ie L eon in ischen F resken i n d er U n terk irche v on S . C le mente i n R om ( V ienna 1 960 ) , 4 9-54 . 2 7 .
G arrucc i , S tor ia d e l la Ar te C r is t iana , i i , 8 5 .
2 8 .
Wi lper t , " P it ture" , 2 99; R . v an Mar ie , L a P e in ture R o ma ine a u MoyenAge , ( S trasbourg 1 921) , 7 9-80 ;
C ecche l li , S an C le men te , 1 46; J unyent ,
T i to lo d i S an C le men te , 1 66; P . T oesca , S tor ia d e l l 'Ar te I ta l iana , i ( Tur in 1 927 ) , 4 04-405; F eder ico H erman in , L 'Ar te i n R o ma d a l s ec . V I I I a l X IV ( Bo logna 1 945 ) , 2 10 ;
E . A nthony , R o manesque Frescoes
( Pr ince ton 1 951) , 6 6; A . Grabar , E ar ly Medieva l P a in t ing ( Lausanne 1 957) , 1 957 ) , 5 0 ; J . C roqu ison , " L 'iconograph ie c hre t ienne", 5 91. 2 9 .
E rnes t Dewa ld , " The i conography o ft he Ascension" , Amer ican J ourna l o f Archaeo logy 1 9 ( 1915 ) , 2 77-319 .
F or a more r ecen tg enera l t rea t-
men t s ee K laus Wesse l , " H im me lfahr t C hr is t i" , R ea l lex ikon z ur b yzant i n ischen K uns t , i ( S tut tgar t 1 971) , 1 224-1256 . 3 0 .
A . Grabar , Ampou les d e T erre S a inte ( Par is 1 958) .
3 1 .
I b id ., 4 7 a nd p la tes x xv i i a nd x x ix .
3 2 .
K . We i tz mann , " Loca S anc ta a nd t he r epresen ta t iona l a r ts o f P a les t ine" , DOP 2 8 ( 1974 ) , 3 1-55 , e sp . 4 3 .
3 3 .
T he f irs t c hurch was b u i l t i n t he l a te f our th c entury a nd d estroyed b y t he P ers ians i n 6 14 , s ee A . Ovadiah , C orpus o f t he B yzan t ine C hurches i n t he H o ly L and ( Bonn 1 970 ) , 8 5-86, a nd P au l Devos , " Eger ie n 'a p as c onnu d 'eg l ise d e l 'Ascens ion", Ana lec ta B o l landiana 8 7 ( 1969 ) , 2 08-212 .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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3 4 .
J osef E nge mann , " Pa läs t inensische P i lgerampu l len i m F . J . D ö lgerI ns t i tut i n B onn" , J bAChr 1 6 ( 1973 ) , 5 -27 , e sp . 2 4-25 .
3 5 .
C . Mango , T he Ar t o f t he B yzan t ine Emp ire , 3 12-1453 .
S ources a nd
D ocu ments ( Eng lewood C l if fs 1 972 ) , 6 8 . 3 6 .
J . C leda t , L e Monas tere e t l a N ecropo le d e B aouf t , t o me 1 , f asc . 2 ( Ca iro 1 906 ) , p l . x l i .
3 7 .
K . We itz mann , L a te An t ique a nd E ar ly C hr ist ian B ook I l lum ina t ion ( London 1 977) , 1 01 .
3 8 .
S ee S ahoko Tsu ji , " Les p or tes d e S a in te-Sab ine .
P ar t icu lar i tes d e
P iconograph ie d e l 'Ascens ion" , C ahArch 1 3 ( 1962 ) , 1 3-28 . 3 9 .
Migne , PL 8 0 , c o l . 4 83 .
4 0 .
C . R . Morey , " The p a in ted p ane l f ro m t he S anc ta S anc toru m", F es ts chr if t z um s echz igs ten G ebur ts tag v on P au l C le men ( D t isse ldorf 1 926) , 1 50-167 , e sp . 1 57 .
4 1 . 4 2 .
Mango , S ources , 2 05 . S ee N ico le T h ierry , " A p ropos d e PAscens ion d 'Ayva l i K i l ise e t d e c e l le d e S a inte-Soph ie ä e S a lon ique" , C ahArch 1 5 ( 1965 ) , 1 45-154 .
4 3 . 4 4 .
Wei tz mann , I cons , p la tes x i i , x xv i i i . F or t he o r igins a nd e ar ly h is tory s ee Mar t in J ug ie , L a Mor t e t PAsso mpt ion d e l a S a in te V ierge ( Va t ican C i ty 1 944 ) , a nd K . Wesse l , "H i m me lfahr t Mar iae" , R ea l lex ikon z ur b yzan t in ischen K uns t , i , 1 2561 262 .
4 5 .
J ugie , 1 09 .
4 6 .
S ee J osef H ech t , " D ie F r t lhes ten Darste l lungen d er H i m me lfahr t Mar iens" , Das Minster 4 ( 1 951) , 1 -12 .
The t ex t i le i n q ues t ion i s p ub l ished b y
C har tra ire , " Une r epresenta t ion d e l 'Asso mp t ion d e l a t ies s a in te V ierge a u V i l le s f ec le" , R evue d e l 'Ar t C hret ien ( 1 897) , 2 27-229 .
F or
ag enera l s urvey o f A ssu mp t ion i conography s ee J . D uhr , " L 'evo lu t ion i conograph ique d e PAsso mp t ion" , N ouve l le R evue Theo log ique 6 9 ( 1 946) , 5 71-682 . 4 7 .
L iber P ont if ica l is i , 5 00 .
O thers were d ona ted b y L eo I I ( i i , 1 4 ) ,
P ascha l I( i i , 6 1 ) , a nd Bened ic t I I ( i i , 1 45 ) . 4 8 .
C roq uison , " L 'iconograph ie c hret ienne" , 5 92-593 .
O f t he f our L iber
P ont if ica l is r eferences c i ted i n n ote 4 7, t hree r efer s pec if ica l ly t o t he A ssu mp t ion wh i le t he f our th u ses t he more g enera l t erm ' t rans i tus ' . 4 9 .
M igne , PL 1 29 , c o l . 1 245 .
5 0 .
H . Me l leson a nd M . T ucker , H andbook t o C hr ist ian a nd E cc les ias t ica l R o me .
P ar t One :
T he C hr is t ian Monu men ts o f R o me ( London 1 897 ) ,
2 19 . 5 1 .
T he r eason f or Mary 's i n troduc t ion was d og mat ic , s ee We i tz mann , " Loca S anc ta", 4 3 , a nd A . Grabar , C hr ist ian I conography ( Pr ince ton 1 968)
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David 1 968) , 5 6 . Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
2 73
5 2 .
G u i l lau me d e J erphan ion , "Wue l ls s on t l es d ouze a pö tres d ans P iconog raph ique c hre t ienne?" , L a V oix d es Monu men ts ( Par is 1 930 ) , 1 892 00 , e sp . 1 94 .
5 3 .
T he p resence o f P au l i n s cenes wh ich d epic ted C hr is t was c ondemned b y A ugust ine o n t he g rounds o f h is tor ica l i naccuracy ( De C onsensu E vange l istaru m , 1 , 1 0 ) .
The i den t if ica t ion o ft he a pos t le a s Pau l i s
n o t a ccep ted b y L ieba l l , D ie L eon inischen F resken , 4 3 , o r b y G r isar , A na lec ta R o mana ( Ro me 1 899 ) , i , 1 21 . 5 4 .
J . L ieba l l , " Das H im me lfahr tsfresko i n d er U nterkirche v on S . C le mente i n R om a us d er Z e i t L eos I V ( 847-855 )" , K önigs te iner B lä t ter 4 ( 1 958) , 1 3-16, e sp . 1 3 .
5 5 .
R . v on E i te lberger , 3 07 .
T h is h as b een a ccep ted b y Mu l looly , AB r ief
N o t ice o ft he A nc ien t P a in t ings f ound i n t he s ubterranean Basi lica o f S . C le men te i n R o me ( Ro me 1 866) , 1 7;
Wi lper t , " P it ture", 2 99 ;
N o lan , 1 46; v an Mar ie , 8 0 ; a nd A n thony , 6 6 . 5 6 .
Garrucc i , S tor ia d e l la Ar te C r is t iana , i i , 8 5 . T h is v iew i s s uppor ted b y Ma t th iae , P i t tura R o mana , i , 2 23; Grabar , E ar ly Medieva l P a int ing , 5 0 ; a nd C roqu ison , " L 'iconograph ie c hre t ienne" , 5 92 .
5 7 .
S ee P . L auer , L e P a la is d e L a tran ( Par is 1 911) , 4 03 .
5 8 .
M igne , PL 1 29 , c o ls . 1 257-1259 .
The l e t ter i s t rans la ted a nd e xamined
b y R . H augh , P hot ius a nd t he C aro ling ians ( Be l mon t , 1 975 ) , 6 3-68 . 5 9 .
S ee J . Wi lk inson , J erusa le m-P i lgr i ms ( Warm ins ter 1 977) , 1 37-138 .
6 0 .
H . Gr isar , " S . S aba s u l l 'Aven t ino", C iv i lt h C a t to lica ( 1901) , i , 5 985 99; Marucch i , Bas i l iques e t E g l ises d e R o me , 1 77 .
6 1 .
G uy F errar i , E ar ly R o man Monas ter ies ( Va tican C i ty 1 957) , 2 81-290 ; a nd F . An tone l li , " Ip r im i monas ter i d i monac i o r ien ta l i i n R o ma" , RACr 5 ( 1928) , 1 05-121 .
6 2 .
C ecche l li , S an C le men te , 1 46 .
6 3 .
Mu l loo ly , S a in t C le men t P ope a nd Mar tyr , 1 94 .
6 4 .
L ec lercq , DACL i , 2 , c o l . 2 989 .
6 5 .
L ieba l l , D ie L eon in ischen F resken , 3 3 .
T here i s n o e v idence t o s up-
p or t h is c la im o f L eo 's B urgund ian o r ig in .
A l though h is f a ther h ad a
G erman ic n a me , R ac loa ld , t he L iber P on t i f ica l is ( i i , 1 06) c lear ly s ta tes t ha t L eo was " na t ione R o manus" . 6 6 .
The d iacona te i s f irs t men t ioned i n t he l i fe o fp ope S tephen I I ( 7 687 72 ) , L iber P ont if ica l is i , 4 70 .
6 7 . 6 8 .
J oseph Dav id i n W . d e Gräne isen e t a l ., S a inte Mar ie Ant igua , 5 58-559 . S ee G . d e J erphanion , "La r epresenta t ion d e l a c roix e t d u c ruc if ix a ux o r ig ines d e l ' ar t c hre t ien" , L a V oix d es Monu men ts , 1 38-164 .
F or t he
p rob le ms s urrounding d ep ic t ions o f t he s cene o n c arved g ems , s o me o f wh ich h ave b een a ss igned a n e ar ly d a te , s ee P e ter Maser , " D ie K reuz igungdarste l lung a uf e ine m S iege ls tein d er s taa t l ichen Museen Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. u B er l i n" ,https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. RACr 5 2 ( 1976) , 2 57-275 . E-book, Oxford, UK: BARz Publishing, 1982, Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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6 9 .
Mango , S ources , 6 8 .
7 0 .
F or d iscuss ion a nd a s u m mary o ft he b ib liography s ee Maus Wesse l , " Frahbyzan t in ische Darste l lung d er K reuzigung C hr is t i" , RACr 3 6 ( 1960 ) , 4 5-71
7 1 .
G rabar , Ampou les , 5 5-58 .
7 2 .
V an Mar le , P e in ture R o ma ine , 9 4-95 ;
Ma t th iae , P i t tura R o mana ,
2 22 . 7 3 .
F or e xa mp le Ado lph G o ldsch m idt , D ie E lfenbe insku lpturen a us d er Z e i t d er k aro l ing ischen u nd s ächs ischen K a iser , V I I I-X I J ahrhunder t ( Ber l in 1 914 ) , n os . 8 , 1 8, 5 4 , 7 8, 7 9 , 8 0 , 8 3 , 8 5 , 8 6 a nd 8 8 ;
a nd
t he S acramen tary f rag men t f ro m Metz ( Par is , B ib . N a t . l a t . 1 141 , f o l . 6 v ) 7 4 .
G regory o f T ours , De g lor ia mar tyru m i , 2 3 ( M igne , PL 7 1, c o ls . 7 247 25 ) .
S ee a lso K . Wesse l , " Der n ack te C ruc if ixus v on N arbonne" ,
RACr 4 3 ( 1 967 ) , 3 33-345 . 7 5 .
Marce l l R est le , D ie b yzan t in ische Wand ma lere ien i n K le inas ien ( Reckl i nghausen 1 967 ) , i , f i gs . 9 2 a nd 2 85 .
7 6 .
Mango , S ources , 2 01 .
7 7 .
I b id ., 1 92 , 2 00 .
7 8 .
We itz mann , I cons , 5 7 a nd p l . x x i i i .
7 9 .
J ohn Mar t in , " The Dead C hr ist o n t he C ross i n B yzan t ine Ar t", L a te C lass ica l a nd Mediaeva l S tudies i n H onor o f A lber t Ma t th ias F r iend J r ., ( Pr ince ton 1 955 ) , 1 89-196 .
8 0 .
Hans B e l t ing a nd C hr is ta Be l t ing Ih m , " Das Kreuzb i ld i m ' Hodegos ' d es A nastas ios S ina i tes .
E in Be i trag z ur F rage n ach d er ä l tes ten
Dars te l lung d es t oten C ruc if ixus" T or tu lae .
S tudien z u a l tchr is t lichen
u nd b yzan t inischen Monu men ten ( Fre iburg i m Bre isgau 1 966) , 3 0-39 . 8 1 .
S ee P . J . N ordhagen , " John V IPs ' Adora t ion o ft he C ross ' i n S . Mar ia Ant igua" , J ourna l o f t he Warburg a nd C our tau ld I ns t i tu tes 3 0 ( 1967) , 3 88-390 .
8 2 .
N ordhagen ( i b id ., 3 90 ) s uggests t ha t " the who le t ype o ft he u ndraped Chr is t was a n ew i conography c rea ted b y J ust inian I " .
8 3 .
On ly t he p or t ion o f t he mosa ic wh ich s hows Mary a nd L onginus h as s urv ived ( i n t he V a t ican S cuo la d e l Musa ico ) , a nd t he r eproduc t ions b y Gr i ma ld i ( B ib . V a t icana , c od . Barb . l a t . 2 733 , f c l . 9 0v-91r ; Arch iv io S . P ietro , A lbu m , f o l . 3 2 ) l eave t he q uest ion o f C hr ist 's d ress i n s o me d oub t .
H owever , t he c olobiu m i s c lear ly i ndica ted i n as even teen th-
c entury woodcut o f A nge lo R occa , De p ar t icu la e x p re t ioso e t v iv if ica t io l igno s acra t iss imae c ruc is ( Ro me 1 609 ) , 4 3 .
A t t ha t t ime t he f rag men t
was p reserved i n t he B ib l iotheca Ange lica i n R o me , a nd R occa s ta tes t ha t t he c o lob iu m was p urp le . 8 4 .
Crogu ison , " L 'iconograph ie c hret ienne", 5 85 .
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8 5 .
L iber P on t if ica l is , i , 1 29 , 1 38 n ote 5 4 .
The i m mense c ruc if ix s urv ived
t he s ack o f R o me i n 1 527 o n ly t o b e me lted d own i n 1 551 " ob magnu m b asi l icae p enur iam" ( Gr i ma ldi , c od . Barb . l a t . 2 733 , f o l . 1 09v ) .
The
s tucco c opy wh ich r ep laced i ti s d rawn b y G r i ma ld i ( i b id ., f o l . 1 10r ). 8 6 .
B ernard T eyssedre , L e S acra men ta ire d e G e l lone ( Tou louse 1 959 ) , 1 08-121 .
8 7 .
A ndree G rabar , L es manuscr i ts g recs e n lu m ines d e p rovenance i t a l ienne ( D (e-X Ie s f ec les ) ( Par is 1 972 ) , 1 8 .
S ee a lso F ernando . d e ' Maffei ,
" Ro ma , B enevento , S an V incenzo a l V olturno e l 'I t a l ia s et ten tr iona le", C o m men tar i 2 4 ( 1973) , 2 55-284 , e sp . 2 81-282 ; a nd H . B e lt ing , " Prob le me d er K uns tgesch ich te I ta liens i m F rühm i t te la l ter", Fr i thmi t te la l ter l iche S tud ien 1 ( 1967) , 9 4-143 , e sp . 1 33 . 8 8 .
Mu l loo ly , S a in t C le men t P ope a nd Mar tyr , 1 85-196; a nd G arrucc i , S tor ia d e l la Ar te C r is t iana , i i , 8 7 .
8 9 .
C ar l Krae l ing , The E xcava t ions a t Dura-Europos . P ar t I .
9 0 .
F ina l R epor t V I II ,
T he C hr is t ian B u i lding ( New Haven 1 967) , 7 1-88 .
G abr ie l M i l le t , R echerches s ur l ' Iconograph ie d e l 'Evang i le ( Par is 1 916) , 5 17
9 1 .
S ee G . d e J erphan ion , " Le r ö le d e l a S ync e t d e l 'Asie mineure d ans l a f orma t ion d e l ' iconograph ie c hre tienne" , L a V oix d es Monu men ts , 2 01-249 , e sp . 2 31 n ote 2 .
9 2 .
D . Barag a nd J . Wi lk inson , " The Monza-Bobb io f l asks a nd t he H o ly S epu lchre" , L evan t 6( 1974) , 1 79-187 .
9 3 .
F or e xa mp le G o ldsch m idt , E lf enbe insku lp turen , f i gs . 8 , 8 4 ,
8 6 , 8 9 ;
t he Drogo S acra men tary ( Par is , B ib . N a t . l a t . 9 428, f o l . 5 8r ) , a nd t he U trech t P sa lter , f o ls . 8 4 a nd 9 0r . 9 4 .
F or P ascha l 's r e liquary s ee C . C ecche l l i , " I l T esoro d e l L aterano— I . Oref icer ie , Argent i , Sma l ti", Deda lo 7 ( 1 926-1927 ) , 1 39-163 , 2 312 56, e sp . 1 57 .
9 5 .
L ieba l l ,
D ie L eonin ischen F resken , 4 5 :
" Der Ma ler h a t i n d iese m
zwe i G es ta l ten v or d e m Os terenge l am G rabe d en Apos te l J ohannes u nd Mar ia , d ie Mu t ter J esu , d arges t l lt ." 9 6 .
J a mes B reckenr idge , "' E t Pr i ma V idi t ' :
t he i conography o ft he a ppear-
a nce o f C hr is t t o h is mother" , Ar t Bu l le t in 3 9 ( 1957 ) , 9 -32 , e sp . 1 3 . 9 7 .
M igne , PL 1 6, c o l . 2 83 .
9 8 .
Migne , PG 1 00 , c o ls . 1 489-1504 .
9 9 .
S ee R es t le , Byzan t in ischen W a nd ma lere ien , i , f i g . 9 4 ( Toka l i k i l ise ) a nd f i g . 2 58 ( K i li2 lar ) .
The t radi t iona l t ype i s r e ta ined i n t he C h ludov
P sa l ter ( f o l . 4 4r ) , a nd t he L en ingrad l ec t ionary ( Pe tropo li tanus g r . 2 o c i ) , b u t n ot i n P ar is , g r . 5 10 . 1 00 .
H . B e l t ing , D ie B as i l ica d e i S s . Mar t in i i n C im i t i le u nd i hr f rühm . it te la l ter l iche F reskenzyk lus ( W iesbaden 1 962 ) , 7 8-79 .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. 2 76 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
10 1 .
Garrucc i , S tor ia d e l la Ar te C r is t iana i i , 8 7, s ta tes i ncorrec t ly t ha t t he h a lo i s n ot c ruc iform .
Wi lper t 's i l lus tra t ion ( R MM , p l . 2 09 , 3 ) a grees
w i th t he P arker p hotograph . 1 02 .
The i conography o ft he mosa ic a nd i t s p lace i n t he Anas tas is t radi t ion h as b een e xa m ined b y C . D av is- Weyer , " D ie ä ltes ten Dars te l lungen d er H adesfahr t C hr is t i , d es E vange l iu m N ikode m i , u nd e in Mosa ik d er Z eno -Kape l le" , R o ma e
10 3 .
C aro ling ia , ( Ro me 1 976) , 1 83-194 .
F or t hese a nd o ther e xa mp les s ee Wa lter K uhn , " D ie Dars te l lung d es Kanawunders i m Z e i ta l ter J us t in ians" , T or tu lae .
S tud ien z u a l tchr ist-
l ichen u nd b yzan t in ischen Monu men ten ( Fre iburg i m B re isgau 1 966 ) , 2 00-215 . 10 4 .
L 'Osserva tore R o mano , 1 5 May 1 865 ; Mu l loo ly , S a int C le ment P ope a nd Mar tyr , 1 78-184 ;
1 05 .
G arrucc i , S tor ia d e l la Ar te C r is t iana , i i , 9 2 .
I . M . Merca t i , "M iracu la B . P rosper i e p iscop i e t c onfessor is" , Ana lecta B o l land iana 1 5 ( 1896) , 1 61-256, e sp . 1 73-179 .
Merca t i
i nc ludes a l eng thy l i s t o f c hurches i n n or thern a nd c entra l I ta ly wh ich h ave b een d ed icated t o S t . P rosper o f R egg io , i b id ., 2 32-245 . 10 6 .
S ee A nton d e Waa l , " F igür l iche Dars te l lungen a uf T epp ichen u nd V orh ängen i n r öm ischen K irchen b is z ur Mi t te d es I X J ahrhunde ts n ach d em L iber P on t if ica l is" , R öm ische Q uar ta lschr if t 2( 1 888 ) , 3 13-321 .
10 7 .
Ladner , R i tra t t i , i , 1 46 .
1 08 .
Migne , PL 1 25 , c o ls . 1 240-1241 .
1 09 .
F or a c o mprehensive l i st o f L eo 's g if ts t o t he c hurch s ee Krauthe i mer , C orpus Bas i licaru m , i v , 3 .
1 10 .
P . E g idi , G . G iovannon i , F . H erman in , IMonas ter i d i S ubiaco ( Ro me 1 904 ) , i , 4 14-415 ; A . C arucc i , L a p u u t a nt ica Madonna d i S ub iaco ( Sa lerno 1 972 ) .
1 11.
F or t he p r inc ipa l b ib l iography s ee P . T oesca , " Re l iqu ie d 'ar te d e l la Badia d i S . V incenzo a l V o lturno", B u l le t t ino d e l l 'Is t i tu to S tor ico I ta lian° 2 5 ( 1904 ) , 1 -84 ;
H . Be l t ing , S tudien z ur b eneven tan ischen
Ma lere i ( W iesbaden 1 968 ) , 2 4-41; a nd F . d e ' Maf fe i ( see n ote 8 7) . C o lour r eproduc t ions o f t he mura ls a re p ub l ished i n S an V incenzo a l Volturno e l a c r ip ta d e l l 'aba te E p ifan io ( Cava d e i T irren i 1 970 ) . 1 12 .
F . d e ' Maf fei , 2 2 .c i t . ;Andre Grabar i n C ahArch 1 9 ( 1969 ) , 2 36-239 .
1 13 .
Be lt ing , S tudien , 2 37-242 .
1 14 .
Van Mar ie , P e inture R o ma ine , 8 9-99;
1 15 .
Be lt ing , S tud ien , 2 40 .
1 16.
P . J . N ordhagen , " The f rescoes o f J ohn V I I ( A .D . 7 05-707) i n S . Mar ia
P . T oesca , S tor ia , 4 10-411 .
Ant igua i nR o me , A c ta a d Archaeo log ia m e t Ar t iu m H is tor ia m p er t inen t ia , I nst i tutu m R o manu m N orveg iae 3 ( 1968) , 1 09 . 1 17 .
K . Wei tz mann , D ie b yzan t in ische Buch ma lere i d es 9 . u nd 1 0 . J ahrhunder ts ( Ber l in 1 935 ) , 8 0 .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
2 77
1 18 .
K . We i tz mann , " The I vor ies o ft he s o-ca l led G rado c ha ir", DOP 2 6 ( 1972 ) , 4 3-91, e sp . 7 4 .
1 19 .
I den t if ied a s L eo V ( 8 13-820 ) b y K . We i tz mann , " Ivory s cu lpture o f t he Macedon ian R ena issance" , K o l loqu iu m t I ber s pä tan t ike u nd f r t ihn li t te la l ter l iche S ku lptur ( Ma inz 1 971) , 1 -12; a nd a s L eo V I ( 886-912 ) b y K . C orr igan , " The i vory s cepter o f L eo V I :
as ta temen t o fp ost-icono-
c las t ic i mper ia l t heo logy" , Ar t B u l le t in 6 0 ( 1 978) , 4 07-416 . 1 20 .
Grabar , Manuscr i ts g recs ,
1 6-24 .
1 21 .
We i tz mann , " Grado c ha ir", 5 5-56 .
1 22 .
S ee Werner J aeger , " Greek u nc ia l f rag ments i n t he L ibrary o f C ongress i n Wash ing ton", Tradi t io 5 ( 1947) , 7 9-102 .
1 23 .
The manuscr ip t i s d a ted b y ac o lophon o n f o l . 1 85v .
T he c ase f or a
R o man o r ig in i s c onv inc ing ly p resented b y P . B a t if fo l , "L ibrar ies b yzan t ines ' aR o me", Me langes d 'Archeo log ie e t d 'H isto ire , ' tco le F rança ise d e R o me 8 ( 1 888) , 2 97-308 . 1 24 .
Grabar , Manuscr i ts g recs , f i g . 1 .
1 25 .
I b id ., 2 1 .
1 26 .
Umber to F aso la , L e C a taco mbe d i S . G ennaro a C apodimonte ( Ro me 1 975 ) , 1 72 a nd f i g . 1 11 .
1 27 .
F or t he Greek c o m mun i ty i n R o me s ee L ou is B reh ier , " Les c olonies d 'Or ien taux e n o cc iden t a u c o m mence men t d u moyen-age" , Byzan t in ische Z e itschr if t 1 2 ( 1903 ) , 1 -39; a nd C yr i l Mango , " La c u lture g recque e t l ' occ ident a u V II Ie s f ec le" , IProb le m i d e l l ' Occ iden te n e l s ecolo V I I I , ( Spo le to 1 973 ) , 6 83-721 .
1 28 .
S ee B ernard H am i l ton , " The c i ty o f R o me a nd t he e as tern c hurches i n t he t en th c en tury", Or ien ta l ia C hr ist iana P er iodica 2 7 ( 1961) , 5 -26 .
1 29 .
S ee P au l A lexander , " Re l ig ious p ersecu t ion a nd r es istance i n t he Byzant i ne emp ire o f t he e igh th a nd n in th c en tur ies :
me thods a nd j ust if ica t ions" ,
S pecu lu m 5 2 ( 1977) , 2 38-264 . 1 30 .
M igne , PG 1 00 , c o l . 1 117 .
S ee a lso G eorge H ux ley , " on t he ' V i ta ' o f
S t . S tephen t he Y ounger" , Greek , R o man a nd B yzan t ine S tudies 1 8 ( 1977 ) , 9 7-108 . 1 31 .
S ee W . V o lbach , " Re l iqu ie e r e liqu iar i o r ienta l i i n R o ma" , Bol le t t ino d 'Ar te 3 0 ( 1936) , 3 37-350 .
1 32 .
F or t he e v idence c oncern ing L azarus s ee C yr i l Mango , " Docu mentary e v idence o n t he a pse mosa ics o f S t . S oph ia" , B yzan t in ische Z e i tschr if t 4 7 ( 1954 ) , 3 95-402 .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
2 78
ABBREV IAT IONS
C ahArch
C ah iers A rcheo log iques
DACL
H . L ec lercq , D ic t ionna ire d 'Archeo log ie c hre t ienne e t d e L i turg ie
DOP
Du mbar ton Oaks P apers
J bAChr
J ahrbuch f t ir A n t ike u nd C hr is ten tu m
PBSR
P apers o ft he Br i t ish S choo l a t R o me
PG
Migne , P a tro log iae c ursus c o mp letus , S er ies G raeca
PL
Migne , P a tro logiae c ursus c o mp letus , S er ies L a t ina
RACr
R iv ists d i Archeo log ia C r is t iana
B IBL IOGRAPHY
C ecche ll i , C ar lo . C roquison , J .
S an C le men te , R o me , n .d .
" L 'iconograph ie c hre t ienne ' aR o me d 'apres l e ' L iber P on t if ica l is '
Pont if ica l is ' " , B yzan t ion 3 4 ( 1964 ) , 5 35-606 . G arrucc i , R .
S tor ia d e l la Ar te C r is t iana n e i p r im i o t to s eco l i d e l la C h iesa ,
Pra to 1 876 . J unyent , E .
I lT i to lo d i S an C le men te , R o me 1 932 .
K rauthei mer , R .
C orpus Basi l icaru m C hr ist ianaru m R o mae , 5v o ls .,
Va t ican C i ty 1 937-1978 . Ma t th iae , G .
P i t tura R o mana n e l Medioevo , R o me 1 965 .
Mu l looly , J .
S a int C le men t P ope a nd Mar tyr a nd h is B as i l ica i n R o me ,
Ro me 1 869 . Wei tz mann , K .
T he Monas tery o f S a int C a ther ine a t Moun t S ina i .
Volu me O ne : Wi lpert , J .
T he I cons .
F rom t he S ix th t o t he Ten th C en tury , Pr inceton 1 976 .
" Le p i t ture d e l la b as i l ica p r im i t iva d i S . C lemen te" , Me langes
d 'Archeo log ie e t d 'H is toire , E co le F rança ise d e R o me 2 6 ( 1906) , 2 51-303 . Wi lper t , J .
D ie r öm ischen Mosa iken u nd Ma lere ien d er k irch l ichen B au ten
v om I V . b is z um X I I I .
J ahrhunder t , F re iburg i m Bre isgau 1 917 .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
2 79
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
P I .
P l .
4 .11
4 .1
S an C lemente , t he A scens ion
S an C lemente , t he Ascens ion ( deta i l )
2 81 Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
P arker c o l lect ion,
2 82 Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
P l .
P l .
4 .V
4 .1V
S an C lemente, t he A scens ion ( deta i l)
S . P rassede, Rome .
S cenes o f mar tyrdom ( 8 17-24 )
2 83 Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
sce nes on
2 84 Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
P l .
4 . VII
S s. Qua ttro Corona t i , Rome . F otograf ico Naziona le, Rome )
S .
Barbara c hape l ( Gab inetto
2 85 Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
5 . NOTES ON EARLY MED IEVAL WALL-PAINT ING I N LA .ZIO J ohn O sborne
1 .
T he C a taco mb o f S an S enatore a t A lbano T he c a taco mb o f S an S enatore a t A lbano L az ia le , s i tuated i n t he f i f teen th
m i le f ro m R o me o n t he v ia A . pp ia A . n t ica , i s l ocated b enea th t he p resen t c hurch a nd C ar me l i te c onven t o f S . Mar ia d e l la S te l la , a d jacen t t o t he s oc a l led To mb o f t he H orat i i a nd C ur iat i i . I ti s men t ioned i n t he s even th-cent ury i t inerary o f p i lgr i mage s i tes , "D e l oc is s anct is martyru m" ,1 b ut i s o therw ise u nrecorded i n e ar ly t ex ts .
T he f i rst p ub l ica t ion o f t he c e metery
w as made b y Marc An ton io B o ldet t i i n 1 720 a f ter h is a ,n t ion h ad b een d rawn t o t he s ite b y t he C ar me l ite p r ior
P . P ietro G a l lopp i .
s tudy b y G . B . D e R ossi i n 1 869 ,
i t was e xcavated a nd o pened t o t he p ub l ic
F o l low ing a n ew
i n 1 887 a s ap laque o n t he wa l l a t t he f oo t o f t he a ccess s ta ircase r ecords . S ubsequen t ly i th as r ece ived o n ly p er iod ic s cho lar ly i n terest .4 Apar t f ro m a n u mber o f e ar ly C hr ist ian w a l l-pa in t ings a nd t races o f mosa ic d ecorat ion , t here i s o ne we l l-preserved mura l wh ich c lear ly b e longs t o al ater p er iod ( p 1 .5 .I ) .
I ti s l ocated o n t he e nd wa l l o f t he ma in c ha mber
o f t he c ataco mb , wh ich o pens o ut t o t he l ef t a t t he b o t to m o f t he a ccess s ta ircase .
5
B o ldet t i r ecords t hat a s arcophagus was p laced b eneath i ta nd
s uggests t hat t h is w as t he l ocat ion o f a n a ltar , at heory s uppor ted b y t he p resence o f a sma l l n iche c u t i n to t he wa l l im med iate ly t o t he r igh t o f t he p a in t ing . T he p ane l i t se lf , d ef ined b y aw ide r ed b order , d ep icts t he h a lff i gure o f C hr ist , h is h ead b earded a nd a dorned w ith a j ewe l led c ruc ifor m n i mbus .
I n h is l ef t h and h e h o lds a b ook w ith a d ecorated c over , a nd w i th
h is r igh t h e b lesses i n t he s o-ca l led "G reek " manner ( wh ich i s t o s ay , w i th t he t hu mb a nd r ing f i nger j o ined , a nd t he o ther t hree f i ngers e x tended ) .
T he
e yes were o r ig ina l ly c o mposed o f ad if feren t mater ia l , p oss ib ly g lass o r p rec ious s tones .
T hese a re n o l onger i n tac t a nd t wo h o les r e ma in i n t he
p laster where t hey w ere f or mer ly i nser ted .
F lank ing C hr ist a re t wo sma l ler
h a lf-f igures , b o th w ear ing h a loes a nd b oth i den t if ied b y i nscr ip t ions p laced a bove t he ir h eads .
T o t he l ef t i s Mary , i den t if ied b y t he Greek words wr it ten
i n L at in c haracters 'M ITER THEV ' t he d irect ion o f h er s on .
( Mother o f G od ) , who l i f ts b o th h ands i n
T o t he r igh t i s at onsured s a in t who h o lds a d ecorated
b ook i n h is l ef t h and a nd g estures t owards C hr ist w i th h is r igh t . i nscr ip t ion a bove h is h ead r eads
T he p a in ted
S . SMA .RA .GDVS '.
T he i conography i s av ar iat ion o n t he D ees is t he me i n wh ich S t . J ohn t he B ap t ist h as b een r ep laced b y S t . Smarag c lus , aR o man mar tyr .
H is p resence
i n t he p a in t ing may b e e xp la ined b y t he f act t hat 8 August , t he d ay o n wh ich t he t rans lat ion o f h is r e l ics i s c o m me mora ted i n t he R o man Mar tyro logy , i s t he s a me a s t he f eas t d ay o f f our mar tyrs —Secundus , C arpophorus , V ictor inus a nd S ever ianus —whose c u l t was c e lebrated a t A . lbano .
T hey a re f i rst r ecorded
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
2 87
i n t he D epos it io mar tyru m a t tached t o t he C hronograph o f 3 54 ,
6
a nd t he
l ocat ion o f t he ir r e ma ins i s more e xp l ic it ly s tated i n t he B erne manuscr ipt o f t he H ierony m ian Maf tyro logy wh ich s pec if ies t he s i te a s "Ro mae v ia A .pp ia m i l iar io a b u rbe XV ".
T he p ract ice o f c o m me morat ing a p ar t icu lar d ate
b y d ep ict ing o ther s a in ts who were a lso r e me mbered o n t ha t d ay was a c o m mon o ne , a nd D e R oss i c i tes a s ap ara l le l e xa mp le t he f igure o f S t . C ypr ian , b ishop o f C ar thage , a t t he t o mb o f p ope C orne l ius i n t he c ataco mb o f C a l ixtus .
8
T he d i lbano p a in t ing h as b een u n iversa l ly a ss igned t o t he n in th o r t en th c en tury ,
l arge ly d ue t o t he b e l ief t hat a work o f s uch p oor q ua l ity i s u n l ike ly
t o h ave b een p roduced a t a ny o ther t ime .
I n what i s p robab ly t he mos t
c o mprehens ive s tudy o f t he c a taco mb t o d ate , Mar iange la Mar inone h as s uggested t he f i rst h a lf o f t he n in th c en tury b ased o n an u mber o f p a laeograph ic , h istor ica l a nd s ty l ist ic c ons iderat ions . i n t urn . i )
P a laeography :
T hese a rgu men ts w i l l b e e xa m ined
Mar inone c i tes t he u nusua l f or m o f t he l e t ter M i n t he
i nscr ip t ion a bove t he o f t he e igh th c en tury .
6 ad o f Mary a s b e ing c haracter ist ic o fu ncia l s cr ip t H owever , wh i le i t may o ccur i n h andwr it ing a t t h is
e ar ly d ate , i t s u se i n i nscr ip t ions , b oth c arved a nd p a in ted , i s i n troduced o n ly l ater .
T o c i te b ut t wo e xa mp les , i to ccurs i n t he f rag irfn t o f as epu lchra l
i nscr ip t ion f ro m t he y ear 1 181 i n S . C ec i l ia i n T rastevere ,
a nd i n t he p a in ted
i nscr ip t ion wh ich i den t if ies Mary Magda lene i n t he c hurch o f t he S S . Mar t in i a t C im i t i le .
T h is l ast p hase o f d ecorat ion a t C im i t i le h as b een d ated b y H ans
B e lt ing t o t he e ar ly t h ir teen th c ent ury .
1 2
I ti s wor th n o t ing t hat n o t o ne o f
t he e n tr ies i n N ico let te G ray ' sc ata logue o f e ar ly med ieva l I t a l ian i nscr ip t ions emp loys t h is f or m o f M i n wh ich t he f irst s em i-c irc le i s c losed . u se c anno t b e c la i med a s e v idence f or a n in th-century d ate . i ti s as trong a rgu men t a ga inst i t .
1 3
T hus i t s
O n t he c on trary ,
T he t wo p a in ted i nscr ip t ions c on ta in
a dd i t iona l e v idence i n f avour o f al ater d ate :
iv r ounded c urve wh ich r ep laces
t he h or izon ta l l ine i n t he f or m o f t he l et ter G ,
a nd t he u se o f t he l et ter S
w ith a h or izon ta l s troke t hrough i t s c en tre a s a n a bbrev iat ion f or t he t i t le "s anctus".
T h is s hortened f or m r ep laced t he s tandard a bbrev iat ion o f
'S CS ' o n ly t owards t he e nd o f t he t en th c en tury .
T he e ar l iest e xa mp les o f
i t s u se i n R o man wa l l-pa in t ing may b e f ound i n t he c ryp t o f S . U rbano a l la C af fare l la , t he a pse o f S . S ebast iano a l P a lat ino , i n t he n ar thex o f t he l ower c hurch o f S . C le men te , i n t he S t . B ened ict s cenes i n t he l ower c hurch o f S . C r isogono , a nd i n t he p a in t ing o f C hr ist b etween s a in ts a nd a rchange ls f ur mer ly b eneath S S . G iovann i eP ao lo . f ro m t he e ar ly t we lf th c ent ury .1 5 i )
H istory :
I ti s a lso u sed o n aR o man r e l iquary
T he h istor ica l a rgu men t a r ises f ro m t he b e l ief t hat t he c a taco mb
wou ld n o t h ave b een u sed a f ter t he r e ma ins o f t he f our A lbano mar tyrs h ad b een r e moved .
Mar inone b e l ieves t hat t he ir r e l ics w ere t rans lated t o t he
c hurch o f t he S s . Q uat tro C oronat i i n R o me d ur ing t he p on t if ica te o f L eo I V ( 8 47-855 ) .
T h is s te ms f ro m a p assage i n t he L iber P on t if ica l is ( ed . D uchesne ,
i , 1 15-116 ) :
"s anctoru m mar tyru m 1 1 1 C oronatorum w
c orpora c um C laud io ,
N icostrato , n ecnon S evero , S ever iano , C arpoforo e t V ictor ino 1 1 1 f ratr ibus .. s ub s acro a lt a .re s econdens l ocav it ".
T he q uest ion o f t he i den t ity o f t he
f our c rowned s a in ts h as f or a l ong t ime p osed a p rob le m t o h ag iographers . B ecause t he ir n a mes were f orgo t ten , o r more l ike ly n ever r ecorded , f rom Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
2 88
t he e ar l iest c en tur ies o f t he ir c u lt t hey h ave b een c onfused a t t imes w ith a g roup o f P annon ian mar tyrs ( C laud ius , N icostratus , S e mphron ian , C astor ius , a nd S i mp l ic ius ) , a nd a t t imes w ith t he s econd g roup o f n a mes men t ioned i n t he L iber P on t if ica l is t ex t ( Severus , S ever ianus , C arpophorus a nd V ictor inus ). T hese a ssoc ia t ions , b o th c i f wh ich a re n ow r egarded a s e rroneous , h ave l ed t o c ons iderab le c on fus ion .
i 6
A s f ar a s t he A lbano c a taco mb i s c oncerned , i t
i s n ecessary f i rst t o a scer ta in whether t he t rans la t ion o f S everus , S ever ianus , C arpophorus a nd V ic tor inus r efers t o t he A lbano mar tyrs , a nd t hen t o d e ter m ine what e f fec t s uch a move men t o f r e l ics wou ld h ave h ad o n t heir l oca l v enera t ion a nd t he u se o f t he c ataco mb o f S . S ena tore .
T hree o f t he
n a mes a re c lear ly t he s a me , b u t S ecundus h as b een r ep laced b y S everus . L ou is D uchesne s ugges ts t hat t h is i s mere ly aaar ian t r ead ing i n troduced b y t he L iber P on t if ica l is e d i tor o r h is s ource .
I ts ee ms u n l ike ly t hat t he
f or mer p oss ib i l ity i s c orrect s ince t he i quat tro c oronat i ' a re a lso i den t if ied w i th t he e gverus g roup i n a manuscr ip t o f Modena ,
i n t he Mar tyro logy o f U suard ,
Mar tyro logy .
y 6 e G regor ian s acra men tary a t
a nd s ubsequen t ly i n t he Ro man
T hus t he u se i s w idespread , a nd a lthough t he n a mes a ssociated
w i th t he f our c rowned s a in ts may u lt i mate ly d er ive f ro m t he A lbano g roup , i ti s c lear t hat t hey h ad b eco me s epara te e n t i t ies b y t he t ime o f L eo I V ' s t rans lat ion i n t he n in th c en tury .
T h is i s r ef lected b y t he Mar tyro logy o f
U suard wh ich r ecords t he m u nder 8 Nove mber , a nd n ot 8 A ugust a s t he A lbano mar tyrs a nd Smaragdus h ad b een .
I ft he f east d ay o f t he A lbano
mar tyrs h ad b een c hanged s o mehow t o 8N ove mber , t here wou ld b e n o r eason f or t he p resence o f S t . Smaragdus i n t he p a in t ing .
I ti s a lso wor th n o t ing
t hat U suard p laces t he S everus g roup o n t he v ia L ab icana a nd n o t i n A lbano . T here i s n o r eason , t herefore , why t he men t ion o f S everus a nd h is b rothers i n t he l i fe o f p ope L eo I V s hou ld b e t aken a s r eferr ing t o S ecundus a nd h is c o mpan ions f ro m A lbano .
T he L iber P on t if ica l is p assage makes n o r eference
t o A lbano , a nd t here i s n o o ther e v idence o f s uch a t rans lat ion . E ven i fs uch a n e ven t h ad t aken p lace , i t wou ld n o t p rov ide a t er m inus a n te q ue m f or t he p a in t ing .
T he f requen t t ransla t ions o f r e l ics f ro m s uburban
c e meter ies i n t he e igh th a nd n in th c en tur ies were p ar t ia l ly t he r esu lt o f t he p oor c ond it ions o f t he s i tes c oncerned , a nd p ar t ia l ly d ue t o t he d evastat ions . ) fa l l t err i tory o u ts ide t he wa l ls o f t he f or t if ied f i rst b y t he L o mbards a nd t hen b y t he S aracens .
giw n s ,
wh ich w ere i nf l icted
When r e la t ive p eace was
r estored t o L at iu m i n t he t en th c en tury , t here i s s o me e v idence t o s uggest t hat t he u se o f a t l east s o me o f t he s uburban c u lt s i tes was r esu med e ven i f t he r e l ics t he mse lves w ere n ever r eturned .
T h is was c er ta in ly t he c ase w ith
t he c a taco mbs c loser t o Ro me o n t he v ia App ia .
T he r e l ics o f S t . S ebast ian
h ad b een b rought i n to t he c i ty i n t he e ar ly n in th c en tury ( L iber P on t if ica l is , i , 7 4 , 8 3 ) , b ut p ope N icho las I ( 8 58-867 ) l ater r estored t he c e metery a nd f ounded a monasteiy o n t he s i te ( L iber P on t if ica l is , i , 1 61 ) , a nd 2i fr e ma ined ap lace o f p i lgr i mage a nd v enerat ion t hroughout t he M idd le Ages .
I ti s
i nc luded , f or e xa mp le , i n t he i t inerary o f h o ly p laces v is i ted b y S iger ic , a rchb ishop o f C an terbury , i n t he y ear 9 90 .2 2 I n as im i lar f ash ion , a lthough t he r e ma ins o f p ope C orne l ius were t rans la ted f ro m t he c a taco mb o f S t . C a l ix tus i n o r b efore t he t ime o f p ope H adr ian I ( 772-795 ) ( L iber P on t if ica l is , i , 5 06 , 5 20 n ote 8 3 ) , t he s i te was r enovated b y h is s uccessor L eo I I ( L iber P on t if ica l is , i , 2 ) .
I n t he c ase o f A lbano , i t may b e p resu med t hat t he
v enerat ion o f t he l oca l mar tyrs wou ld n ot h ave s udden ly v an ished u pon t he h yJohn po tOsborne, het ica l David r e mo va l o f t he ir Lazio: r e l ic s t o R o me . Painting and Ceramics. Andrews, David, and Whitehouse. Medieval Studies In Architecture, E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 2 89
i i ) S ty le :
T he s upposed s ty l ist ic s im i lar it ies b e tween t he A lbano p ane l a nd
Ro man mosa ics a nd wa l l-pa in t ings o f t he n in th c en tury a re n o t c onv inc ing . T he c a taco mb p a in t ing h as n o th ing o f t he e legan t s imp l ic ity o f l ine wh ich c haracter izes t he P ascha l ian mosa ics o f S . P rassede o r t he L eo I V 'A scens ion ' i n t he l ower c hurch o f S . C le men te .
T he A lbano c o mpos i t ion a lso emp loys
t wo d ecorat ive e le men ts wh ich a re r are ly f ound i n w a l l-pa in t ing b efore t he s econd h a lf o f t he t en th c en tury , a nd t hus p rov ide a v a luab le c hrono log ica l i nd ica t ion : t he i m i tat ion j ewe l led d es igns o n t he c ross i nscr ibed i n C hr ist ' s n i mbus ,
2 3
a nd t he e xaggerated c o lour s po ts wh ich a re u sed t o h igh l igh t t he
c heeks o f a l l t hree f igures ,
B oth o f t hese a re c haracter ist ic f eatures o f
I ta l ian p a in t ing a f ter t he y ear 1 000 .
U sefu l s ty l is t ic c o mpar isons f or t he
A lbano p a in t ing may b e f ound i n an u mber o f monu men ts d ated t o t he e leven th o r t we lf th c en tur ies , f or e xa mp le t he s im i lar h a lf-f igures o f C hr ist i n t he o ratory o f S . G abr ie le s t i l l ' App ia , i n t he h ypogeum a t Ardea , a nd o n t he t r iu mpha l a rch o f S S . Abbond io e Abbondanz io a t R ignano F la m in io .
T he
b earded f ron ta l ly-v iewed h ead w ith s evere e xpress ion was d er ived f ro m Byzan t ine mode ls a nd r e ma ined p opu lar t hroughou t t he r e ma inder o f t he Midd le Ages . T h is b r ief e xa m inat ion o f s ty le a nd p a laeography h as i nd icated a s omewha t l ater d ate f or t he A lbano p a in t ing t han h as u sua l ly b een s uggested , i .e . p robab ly i n t he e leven th o r t he t we lf th c en tury .
Add it iona l e xa mp les o f t he r ep lace men t
o f J ohn t he B ap t ist b y l oca l s a in ts i n D eesis c o mpos i t ions h ave s urv ived e lsewhere i n I t a l ian p a in t ing f ro m t h is t ime , f or e xa mp le t he mosa ic o ver t he e n trance p or ta l o f t he S uch o f S . Marco i n V en ice i n wh ich C hr ist i s f l anked b y Mary a nd S t . Mark .
T he h istory o f t he A lbano a rea e as i ly a l lows f or
t h is p oss ib i l i ty . A f ter t he f oundat ion o f t he monastery a t Gro t taferrata i n 1 004 b y S t . N i lus a nd o ther G reek-speak ing monks f ro m C a labr ia , l arge a reas o f t he R o man c a mpagna were p laced u nder t he ir j ur isd ict ion a s t he r esu l t o f ag enerous d onat ion made b y p ope B ened ict I X i n 1 037 .
2 5
T he s ubsequen t
s trugg le b etween t he a bbo ts o f Gro t taferrata a nd t he b ishops o f A lbano f or c on tro l o f v ar ious c hurches a nd p roper t ies i n h is d iocese was t o c on t inue i n to t he t h ir teen th c ent ury .
2 6
The i nscr ip t ion , wr i t ten i n G reek , wh ich
r ecorded t he c onsecra t ion o f t he c hurch o f S . Mar ia R otonda o n 7 Dece mber 1 060 i s p oss ib ly a n a dd i t iona l a t testat ion t o t he p resence o f t hese monks w ith in t he c i ty o f A lbano i t se lf .
2 7
T he B yzan t ine D ees is i conography w as a
p opu lar a r t ist ic s ub ject i n t hese G reek-speak ing c om mun it ies , f or e xa mp le t he mosa ic o ver t he e n trance p or ta l o f t he a bbey c hurch a t G ro t taferra ta a nd t he n u merous c on te mporary wa l l-pa in t ings i n g ro t toes t hroughou t s ou thern I taly .
2 8
I tw as n o t as ub ject n or ma l ly d ep icted i n t he d ecora t ive p rogra m me
o f a Ro man c hurch ,
T he l ink i s s treng thened f ur ther b y t he u se o f t he G reek
words i n t he i nscr ip t ion 'M ITER THE r . I ts hou ld a lso b e n o ted t hat t here i s n o e v idence o f a ny G reek s e t t le men t i n t h is p ar t o f L az io b efore 1 004 . Thus t here s ee ms t o b e s o me e v idence f or , a nd n o o b ject ion a ga inst , ad a t ing f or t he p a in t ing i n t he C a taco mb o f S an S ena tore t o t he e leven th o r t we lf th c en tury .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
2 90
NOTES 1 . R ober to V a len t in i , G iuseppe Z ucchet t i , C od ice T opograf ico d e l la C it ta d i Ro ma , i
( Ro me 1 942 ) , 1 11 :
"P er e ande m v ero v ia m p erven itur a d
A lbana m c iv i tate m , e t p er e ande m c iv i tate m a d e cc les ia m s anct i S enator is , u b i e t P erpetua i acet c orpore e t i nnu mer i s anct i e t magna mirab i l ia i b ide m g erun tur". 2 . Marc An ton io B o lde t t i , O sservaz ion i s opra ic im iter i d e ' s anct i mar t in i e d a n t ich i c r ist ian i d i Ro ma
( Ro me 1 720 ) , 5 58-561 .
3 . G iovann i B . D e R oss i , "L e c a taco mbe d i A lbano", BACr 7 ( 1869 ) , 6 57 8 . 4 . The p r inc ipa l s tud ies a re Oraz io Marucch i , "L e c ataco mbe d i A lbano", NBA .Cr 8 ( 1902 ) , 8 9-111 ; G iorg io S chne ider , "N uove o sservaz ion i s u l le c ataco mbe d i A lbano", NBACr 1 2 ( 1906 ) , 1 50-160 ;
Emanue le B oago ,
L a c a taco mba l az ia le d i S enatore ( Albano 1 968 ) ; a nd Mar iange la Mar inone , "L a d ecoraz ione p it tor ica d e l la c a ta .co mba d i A lbano", R IA .SA . 1 9-20 ( 1972-1973 ) , 1 03-138 . 5 . F or a p lan o f t he c a taco mb s ee Mar inone , 1 05 . 6 . Va len t in i-Zucche t t i , C od ice T opograf ico i , 2 3 ;
"V I I DUS AUG .
S ecund i ,
Carpofor i , V ic tor in i , e t S ever ian i , A lbano". 7 . Bernens is c od . S S .
2 89 , p ub l ished b y G . B . D e R oss i a nd L . D uchesne , Acta
N ov ., i , p t .
i( Brusse ls 1 894 ) , [ 102 ].
8 . De Rossi 1 869 , 7 3 . 9 . For a s u m mary o f t he l i terature s ee Mar inone , 1 33 n ote 5 9 . 1 0 . I b id ., 1 31 n o te 3 8 , b ased o n G iu l io B a t te l l i , L ez ion i d i P a leograf ia ( Va t ican C ity 1 939 ) , who wr i tes ( p . 7 8 ) t hat a t t h is t ime " i i p r i mo s em icerch io e c h iuso". 1 1 . Ange lo S i lvagn i , Monu men ta E p igraph ica C hr ist iana , i( Va t ican C ity . 1 943 ) , t ab .
XXX iV,
n o . 7 .
1 2 . Hans B e l t ing , D ie B asi l ica d e l S S . t e la l ter l ichen F reskenzyk lus
Mar t in i i n C im i t i le u nd i hr f ruh m it-
( W iesbaden 1 962 ) , 2 2 a nd f ig . 1 2 .
1 3 . N ico le t te Gray , "The P a leography o f L at in i nscr ip t ions i n t he e ighth , n in th a nd t en th c en tur ies i n I t a ly", PBSR 1 6 ( 1948 ) , 3 8-167 . 1 4 . The u se o f t h is f or m o f Gi s c o m mon i n p a in ted i nscr ip t ions o f t he e leven th c en tury , f or e xa mp le i n t he f our l arge p ane ls p a in ted f or B eno d e R ap iza i n t he l ower c hurch o f S an C le men te i n R o me . 1 5 . An ton iet ta V a len te , "I n torno a d u n o rafo d e l s eco lo X I I", B o l let t ino d ' Ar te 3 1 ( 1 937-1938 ) , 2 61-267 . 1 6 . The l i terature o n t he s ub ject i s im mense , b u t s ee t he s tud ies o f G . B . D e Ross i , "L es q uatre s a in ts c ouronnes e t l eur e g l ise s ur l e C oe l ius" , BACr , ( 1879 ) , 4 5-90 ;
L . D uchesne , "L e c u l te r o ma in d es Q uatre-Couronnes",
Me langes d 'A rcheo log ie e t d 'H isto ire 3 1 ( 1 911 ) , 2 31-246 ; Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 2 91
a nd H .
D e lehaye , "L e c u l te d es Q uatre C ouronnes i .R o me", Ana lec ta B o l land iana 3 2 ( 1913 ) , 6 5-71 . S ee a lso Mar inone , 1 27 n o te 7 . 1 7 . D uchesne , "C u lte r o ma in ", 2 39 n o te 4 . 1 8 . B ib .
C ap i to lare , ms .
0 .
I .
7 .
S ee D e R oss i , "L es q uatre s a in ts
c ouronnes", 8 7 . 1 9 . A c ta S S .
J un i i V I I , 2( Ven ice 1 746 ) , 6 59 .
2 0 . F or t he L o mbard a t tack wh ich l ed t o t he f irst s er ies o f t ransla t ions s ee J an H a l lenbeck , "Ro me u nder a t tack :
a n e st i mat ion o f K ing A istu lf s
mo t ives f or t he L o mbard s iege o f 7 56", Med iaeva l S tud ies 4 0 ( 1978 ) , 1 90-222 .
F or t he S aracen r a ids wh ich s evere ly d a maged t he Ro man
e cono my i n t he n in th c en tury s ee F red Engreen , "P ope J ohn t he E ighth a nd t he Arabs", S pecu lu m 2 0 ( 1945 ) , 3 18-330 . 2 1 . S ee B . P esc i , " I i c u lto d i S an S ebast iano a R o ma n e l l ' a n t ich i ta e n e l med ioevo", An ton ianu m 2 0 ( 1945 ) , 1 77-200 . 2 2 . S ee B . P esc i , "L ' i t inerar io r o mano d i S iger ico a rc ivescovo d i C anterbury el a l i s ta d e i p ap i d a h i p or ta ta i n I ngh i l terra ( anno 9 90 )", RACr 1 3 ( 1936 ) , 4 3-60 . 2 3 . T he e ar l iest e xa mp le o f t h is u se wh ich h as s urv ived i n t he Ro man a rea i s t he l arge f igure o f C hr ist i n t he c ataco mb o f S t . C a l ix tus , b u t t he p a in t ing may h ave c op ied t he mosa ic wh ich i tr ep laced , a nd t h is c ou ld e xp la in t he p resence o f t he j ewe ls o n t he c ross .
T he p rac t ice h ad b een
c o m mon i n mosa ics f or s o me t ime . 2 4 . F or t h is a nd o ther e xa mp les s ee Mar ia Anda loro , "Note s u i t em i i conograf ic i d e l la D ees is e d e l la H agh iosor it issa", R IASA . 1 7 ( 1970 ) , 8 51 53 , e sp .
1 09-110 .
2 5 . P . K ehr , I t a l ia P on t if ic ia e i , ( Ber l in 1 907 ) , 4 2 n o . 4 ; G . T o massett i , "D e l la c a mpagne r o mana n e l med io e vo", Arch iv io d e l la R . S oc ie tä . R o mana d i S tor ia P atr i
8( 1 885 ) , 4 88 n o . 4 ;
A .
R occh i , D e Goenob io
C ryp toferratens i e iusque b ib l io th ica e t c od ic ibus p raesen t im g raec is c o m men tar i i , ( Tuscu l i 1 893 ) , 1 7 ;
A lber to G a l ie t i , C on tr ibu it i a l la s tor ia
d e l la d ioces i s uburb icar ia d i A lbano L az ia le , ( Va t ican C i ty 1 948 ) , 1 67. 2 6 . G a l iet i , 4 8-49 .
An a t te mp t was made t o s et t le t he i ssue b y p ope I nnocen t
I I i n 1 201 , s ee Augustus P o t thast , R egesta P on t if icu m R o manoru m , i ( Ber l in 1 874 ) , n o .
1 480 .
2 7 . S ee G a l ie t i , 1 59 , 1 67-8 . 2 8 . F or e xa mp les o f t he D ees is i n s ou thern I t a l ian monast ic p a in t ing s ee A lba Medea , G l i a f fresch i d e l le c r ip te e re m it iche p ug l ies i , ( Ro me 1 939 ) , p l . 2 3 , 2 6 , 4 8 , 1 37 , a nd 1 55 .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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Abbrev iat ions u sed i n t he n o tes BA .Cr
B u l let t ino d i Archeo log ia C r ist iana
NB.Cr
N uovo B u l le t t ino d i Archeo log ia C r ist iana
PBSR RACr
P apers o f t he Br i t ish S choo l a t Ro me R iv ista . d i A rcheo log ia C r ist iana
R IASA
R iv ista d e l l ' I st ituto N az iona le d ' Archeo log ia e S tor ia d e l l ' Ar te
2 .
Z agaro lo The t own o f Z agaro lo , n ear P a lestr ina , i s s i tua ted a pprox i mately 3 0 km
s outh-east o f Ro me , a long t he t op o f ar idge wh ich r uns b etween t he v ia Cas i l ina a nd t he v ia P renest ina .
I ti s as i te w ith a bundan t n atura l d efences ,
h av ing d eep p ro tect ive r av ines o n b oth s ides , a nd t he n u merous f rag men ts o f s cu lpture wh ich h ave b een f ound i n t he a rea s uggest t ha t i t was o ccup ied i n t he c lass ica l p er iod , a lthough t he e xact n ature o f t h is s et t le men t h as n o t y et b een d eter m ined . o f a mystery .
T he o r ig in o f t he n a me Z agaro lo i s a lso s o meth ing
1
I ti s f i rst men t ioned i n med ieva l s ources o f t he e ar ly t we lf th
c en tury , when i t was s e ized b y p ope P ascha l If ro m P ietro Co lonna .
2
S ubsequen t ly i tp layed a f requen t r o le i n p ower s trugg les i nvo lv ing t he p apacy a nd t he Co lonna f am i ly .
I t was a ga in c ap tured b y p ope Bon iface V I I I i n 1 297 ,
a nd s acked b y t he p apa l t roops o f C le men t V I I i n 1 526 .
I n 1 569 P ius V r a ised
Z agaro lo t o t he r ank o f ad uchy , a nd t h is was f o l lowed b y ap er iod o f p rosper ity i n t he l ater y ears o f t he s ix teen th c en tury when t he t own a cqu ired much o f i t s p resen t a spect .
I n 1 591 t he c omm ission wh ich h ad b een a ppo in ted b y Gregory
X IV t o c heck t he p r in ted t ex t o f t he Vu lgate met i n Z agaro lo f or n ineteen d ays
A . f ew y ears l a ter , t he p a in ter C aravagg io s ough t t he p ro tect ion o f d uke
Marz io C o lonna a t Z agaro lo a f ter f l ee ing f ro m Ro me .
I n 1 632 t he t own p assed
f ro m t he h ands o f t he C o lonna f am i ly who s o ld i tt o c ard ina l L udov ico L udov is i . I n 1 670 i t was s o ld a ga in , t h is t ime t o p r ince G iovan B at t ista Rosp ig l ios i .
3
The Ch iesa d e l l ' Annunz ia ta , s ituated a t t he n or th e nd o f t he t own f ac ing t he h osp i ta l , was c onstructed i n t he y ears 1 580-1592 d ur ing Z agaro lo ' s p er iod o f g reatest p ro m inence .
I t was a dm in istered b y Doctr inar ian p r iests
who l ived i n a n a d jo in ing monastery .
T he c hurch i t se lf c on ta ins a n u mber o f
i n terest ing works a f a r t f ro m t h is a nd s ubsequen t p er iods , b ut a lso o ne v ery c ur ious r e l ic f ro m a much e ar l ier a ge .
T h is i s a sma l l f rag men t o f wa l l-
p a in t ing ( p 1 .5 .I ) s et o n as l ight ly c oncave p laster b ase ( 65 cm x 6 0 cm ) wh ich h as b een s et i n to t he w a l l o f t he f irst c hape l t o t he r igh t o f t he d oorway a s o ne e nters t he c hurch .
I ti s c overed b y a me ta l g r i l l .
The f rag men t , whose
max i mu m d i mens ions a re 5 3 cm x 4 3 cm , i s i n ar e markab ly we l l-preserved s tate .
I td ep icts t he h ead a nd s hou lders o f ay oung f e ma le s a in t f ra med b y a
n iche-shaped b order .
T he s a in t wears a c rown w i th j ewe ls a nd t op-knots ,
a nd l arge c ircu lar e arr ings f ro m wh ich d ang le t hree s tr ings e ach c on ta in ing t hree p ear ls .
S he a lso wears a n eck lace f ro m wh ich h ang sma l l r ound j ewe ls .
Add it iona l g e ms a re u sed t o a dorn h er c lo th ing . f ace o f t he s a in t w i th a c o mb inat ion o f c o lours : t ones .
T he a r t ist h as d ep icted t he wh i te , b lack , r ed , a nd f l esh
Av ery n o t iceab le d aub o f r ed p a in t h as b een a dded t o t he l ower i ns ide
c orner o f e ach e ye .
T he h a lo wh ich s urrounds t he h ead i s o chre , a nd i ti s
e nc losed i n ab lack r ing wh ich h as r ed u nderpa in t .
The b ackground i s f or med
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 2 93
b y t wo c olours :
al i gh ter a nd a d arker o chre , w ith t he s eparat ion o ccurr ing
a t t he l eve l o f t he s a int 's s hou lder . T o t he l ef to f h er b ody i s as hor t h or iz onta l s troke u sed t o i ndica te a n a bbrev ia t ion, f o l lowed b y t he l etters S CA ( =sancta ) p ainted v er t ica l ly i n wh i te . I n t he c orresponding p osi t ion t o t he r igh t i s h er n ame p receded b y ac ross . O n ly t he f i rs t t hree l et ters —ALB — a re c lear ly v isib le .
T he e n t ire c o mpos i t ion i s e nc losed i n a wh i te l i ne , a nd
t hen a w ide b lack b order ( aga in w i th r ed u nderpa int v is ib le ) , a nd s e t a ga ins t ar ed b ackground . A ccording t o Mons ignor V erg ine l li o f Z agaro lo , t he f ragmen t was b rough t t o t he c hurch i n t he e igh teen th c entury f ro m a C hr ist ian h ypogeu m wh ich h ad b een f ound o n p r iva te p roper ty n earby . The o n ly n ame wh ich c an b e f ound t o f i t t he s urv iv ing l e t ters o f t he i nsc r ipt ion i s t ha t o f S t . A lb ina , b u t t he p rob le m o f i den t if icat ion i s c o mp licated b y t he f ac t t ha t t here a re a t l eas t t wo s a ints b y t h is n ame . One i s r ecorded b y t he Acta S anc torum a s b e ing among ag roup o ft h ir ty-seven mar tyrs r ememb ered o n 1 7 F ebruary .4 T he o ther i s r ecorded i nt he R o man Mar tyro logy f or 1 6 Dece mber : F orm i is i n C ampan ia s anc tae A lb inae v irg inis e t mar tyr is s ub Decio i mpera tore . A ccording t o l egend , a f ter F orm ia h ad b een d estroyed b y t he S aracens i n t he n in th c en tury , t he r e l ics o f A lb ina were d iscovered f l oat ing o n t he s ea a t n earby S caur i . T hey w ere t aken a cross t he b ay t o t he n ew f or t if ied s i te o f G aeta where t hey were p laced i n t he c a thedra l w i th t hose o f S t . E rasmus . A n i nscr ip t ion o ft he y ear 1 786 a t tes ted t o t he p resence o f a n u rn c on ta in ing t he r e lics o f t he s a int i n t he h igh a l tar .
The l egend o f
A lbina 's l i fe a nd mar tyrdo m i s k nown f ro m o ne s ix teen th-cen tury manuscr ip t p reserved i n t he B ib lio theca Brancacc iana i n N ap les . 5 Th is p laces t he s cene o f h er mar tyrdo m n o t i n F orm ia b u t i n C aesar ia i n P a lest ine , p robab ly a s a r esu l t o f ac onfus ion o f h er l i fe w i th t ha t o f S t . R epara ta .
I tc annot b e d e ter-
mined wh ich o f t hese s a in ts n a med A lbina i s d epic ted i n t he Z agaro lo f ragmen t , a s n e ither h as a ny a pparen t c onnec t ion w ith t h is l oca li ty . t a t ions o f t he s a int a re k nown t o e x is t i n medieva l a r t .
N oo ther r epresen-
B ecause o f t he c onfus ion a s t o t he e xac t i den t if ica t ion o f t he A lbina i n q ues t ion a nd t he c o mp le te l ack o f i nforma t ion c oncerning t he h istory o f t he Z agaro lo r eg ion i n t he e ar ly M idd le A ges , a ny a t temp t t o d a te t he p a in t ing mus t r e ly e nt ire ly o n s ty l ist ic c r i ter ia .
T he mos t s i gn if ican t p iece o f i nterna l
e v idence i s t he a bbrev ia t ion f or t he t i t le " sanc ta" : ah or izonta l l i ne w i th h ooks a t b o th e nds a nd d issec ted b y as hor t d iagona l l i ne i n t he c entre , f o llowed b y t he c ap i ta l l et tes S CA .
T h is s uggests a d a te b efore t he e nd o f t he t enth
c entury , af ter wh ich t ime t he a bbrev ia ted f orm o f t h is t i t le was s hor tened t o t he l e t ter S ( c f . d iscuss ion r e la ted t o t he u se o f t h is f orm i n t he A lbano c a tac o mb ) . This g enera l i ndica t ion i s c onf irmed b y t he c on tex t i n to wh ich t he r ender ing o f t he f i gure , n o t iceab ly h er c ostu me , a ppears t o f a l l . A lb ina i s g arbed i n a n e labora te manner , a nd r ich ly a dorned w i th j ewe ls a nd a d iade m . I t was n ot u sua l i n t he M idd le A ges t o d ep ic t f e ma le s a ints i n t h is f ash ion , b u t i t was a w idespread c us to m i n R o man a r t o f t he s even th , e igh th , a nd e ar ly n in th c en tur ies , w itness t he a pse mosa ic o f S . Agnese f uor i l e mura 6 25 ) , t he a pse mosa ic o f S . E ufe m ia ( 6 87-701 ) , t he mura ls o f as er ies o f r oo ms b eneath t he c hurch o f S . Mar t ino a i Mon t i , t he mura ls f ormer ly i n t he e ast a is le o f S . L orenzo f uor i l e mura , a nd t he e ar l ies t l eve l o fp a in t ings i n t he n iche o ft he r igh t a is le i n t he l ower c hurch o f S an C lemen te .6 T he c losest p ara l le ls t o t he t ype o f c rown w orn b y A lb ina may b e f ound i n t he e igh t Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 2 94
meda l l ion b us ts o f f e ma le s a ints wh ich f orm p ar t o ft he mosa ic d ecora t ion l oca ted o ver t he d oorway t o t he S an Z eno c hape l i n t he c hurch o f S . P rassede . The c hape l was b ui lt a nd d ecora ted b y p ope P ascha l I( 8 17-824 ) .
The s im i-
l ar i ty a lso e x tends t o t he f orm o f e arr ings w orn b y t he Z agaro lo s a int : l arge r ings f ro m wh ich h ang s tr ings o fp ear ls .
t he
T h is u nusua l t ype i s a lso
worn b y s a ints P raxedis a nd P oten t iana i n t he a pse mosa ic o f S . P rassede . T he u se o f at wo-co lour b ackground, w i th t he d iv ision b etween t he t wo z ones o ccurr ing a t t he l eve l o f t he s a in t 's s hou lders , i s a lso f ound i n an u mber o f wa l l-pa int ings f ro m t h is p er iod , i nc luding a l l t hree o f t he R o man e xa mp les c i ted a bove .
O n t h is b as is , ad a te f or t he Z agaro lo p a int ing i n t he p er iod
6 50-850 A .D . may b e p os tu la ted w i th r easonab le a ccuracy .
Th is h i ther to
u npub lished f rag men t d eserves t o t ake i t s r igh tfu l p lace among t he l arge n u mber o f wa l l-pa in t ings wh ich h ave s urv ived f ro m t h is i mpor tan t p er iod i n t he e ar ly med ieva l h is tory o f L az io . NOTES 1 .
S ee T . A shby , " The C lass ica l T opography o ft he R o man C ampagna . Par t I " , PBSR 1 ( 1 902 ) , 1 27-285 , e sp . 2 67 .
2 . 3 .
L iber P on t if ica l is i , 2 98 . F or t he medieva l h is tory o f Z agaro lo s ee A . N ibby , A na l is i s tor icot opograf ico-ant iquar ia d e l la c ar ta d e 'd in torn i d i R o ma ( Ro me 1 837 ) , 7 40-744; a nd P . Mon tarso lo, C enn i medico-topograph ico-s tor ic i i n torno l a c i t th d i Z agaro lo ( Ro me 1 859 ) .
4 .
Acta S anctoru m F eb ., t . I I ( Ven ice 1 736) , 1 0 .
5 .
A . P once le t , " Ca ta logus c odicu m h agiograph icoru m l a t inoru m b ib liot hecaru m N eapo l i tanaru m" , A na lec ta B ol land iana 3 0 ( 1911) , 1 37-251, e sp . 2 29 .
6 .
F or a n e xa m ina t ion o f t hese t hree monu ments o f R o man wa l l-pa int ing , t hough t t o d a te f ro m t he e igh th c entury , s ee J . O sborne , " Ear ly mediaeva l wa l l-pa in t ings i n t he l ower c hurch o f S an C le men te , R o me" ( Ph .D . t hes is , Un iversi ty o f L ondon 1 979) , 9 8-117 .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. 2 95 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
( Pont if ic ia Comm iss ione 7 7 / 1
e c 2 z Cl)
r n •r . . f br )
0 0
E 44 0 c ) r .
e< e 7: 5
L c z
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. 2 96 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
A lbina ( Gab ine tto •
4 44
2 97 Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
6 .
MED IEVAL POTTERY FRO M S OUTH ETRUR IA Dav id Wh i tehouse
1 .
Gaze t teer
2 99
2 .
E xcava ted s i tes
3 09
3 .
The P o t tery
3 12
( a ) u ng lazed ( b ) g lazed Appendix
3 39
B ib l iography
3 42
I n 1 954 , t he f ormer D irector o f t he Br i t ish S choo l a t R o me , Dr . J ohn Ward Perk ins , b egan a n amb i t ious p rogra mme o f a rchaeo log ica l r econna issance i n t he c oun try n or th o f R o me ( Ward P erk ins 1 955 :44 ) .
The i n i t ia t ive was j us t
i n t ime , f or t he l as t t wen ty y ears h ave s een t he t ransforma t ion o f t he R o man C a mpagn a b y b r ing ing l arge a reas i n to c u lt iva t ion a nd b y b ui ld ing o n a n u np recedented s ca le .
I ndeed , many o ft he 2 ,000 s i tes r ecorded b y Ward P erk ins
a nd h is c o l leagues i n t he 1 950s a nd ' 60s n o l onger e x is t ( Pot ter 1 978 :99 ) . Among t he a reas i nc luded i n t he S urvey o f S ou th E trur ia were S u tr i ( Duncan 1 958) , t he a nc ien t A ger V e ientanus ( Ward P erk ins 1 955 , 1 961;
Kahane e t
a l . 1 968 ) , t he Ager C apenas ( Jones 1 962 , 1 963 ) , T he Ager F a l iscus ( Po t te ' r 1 975 , 1 979 ) , E re tu m ( Og i lv ie 1 965 ) , t he " Cass ia-C lodia" a rea ( He mph i l l 1 975 ) a nd L a S tor ta ( Kahane 1 977) .
A lthough s o me p ar t ic ipan ts a t tached l ess
i mpor tance t o c o l lec t ing med ieva l ma ter ia l t han o thers , a n i mpor tan t r esu l t o f t he S urvey was t he c ol lec t ion o fp o t tery a nd o ther f i nds f ro m more t han 2 00 med ieva l ( and p ost- medieva l ) s i tes i n L az io : s t i ll i s —un ique i n I t a ly .
as amp le wh ich was—and
The S urvey h as b een a cco mpan ied b y a rch iva l r esearch
( e .g . Wickha m 1 978a , 1 978b , 1 979 ) a nd b y e xcava t ions , f irst a t P ie traper tusa , Be l mon te a nd T orre B usson ( S t iesda l 1 962 ) a nd l a ter a t S . C orne lia , C as te l P orc iano ( Ma l le t t a nd Wh i tehouse 1 967) , S . R uf ina , Mazzano R o mano ( Po t ter 1 972 ) a nd Angui l lara ( Wh i tehouse 1 979 ) . Th is p aper d escr ibes t he p ot tery f ro m 1 94 s i tes n or th o f R o me .
I ts hou ld
b e r ead i n c on junc t ion w i th my n otes o n t he medieva l p o t tery o f R o me i t se lf (Wh i tehouse 1 978 ) a nd my r epor t o n t he p ot tery f ro m S . C orne l ia ( I de m 1 980a ) . Ih ave l ef t t o a no ther o ccas ion n otes o n t he s herds f ro m 1 2 s i tes s ou th o f R o me a nd 1 8 s i tes i n n or th-west L az io . 1 .
GAZETTEER A l l t he s i tes a re w i th in 5 0 km o f R o me .
T hey a re c a ta logued b y r eference
t o t he C ar ta d ' I ta lia ( 1 :25 , 0 00 ) p ub l ished b y t he I s t i tu to Geograf ico Mi l i tare . S ubhead ings i den t ify t he map s hee ts i n q ues t ion a nd e ach s i te i s l oca ted b y a 6 -f igure r eference .
T hus , s i te 1 i s a t g r id r eference 6 24696 , wh ich a ppears
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
2 99
1 43 I NO
1 43 I NE
1 44 I V NO
L .V ico
R .T iber V ia C ass ia I SO
1 43 I L L NE
1 43 I NO
1 43 I SE
1 44 I V SO
1 43 I t NE
1 44 D I
NO
1 44 I I NE \
V ia F lam in ia
racc iano L . B
1 43 I I SE
1 43 l i SO
\ 1 43 I SE
1 44 D I SO
1 44 I L I SE
1 49 I V NE
1 49 I NO
1 49 I NE
1 50
1 50 I C I NE
I
2 0 1
I V NO
ROME
km .
F ig . 6 .1
The S outh E trur ia s urvey , s how ing t he a reas c overed by 1 :25,000 s heets o f t he Car ta d 'I tal ia .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
3 00
o n s heet 1 43 I I NE, B racc iano .
I ft he s i te n u mber i s p ref ixed b y a n a s ter isk
( e .g . * 1) , Ih ave s een a l l t he ma ter ia l c o l lec ted . ( e .g . s i te 4 :
Una t tr ibu ted q uo ta t ions
" La te g lazed wares" ) a re c op ied f ro m t he r ecords o ft he S outh
E trur ia S urvey .
F ig . 6 .1 s hows t he a rea c overed b yt he S urvey a nd F ig . 6 .2
t he d is tribu t ion o f s i tes . 1 43 i f i NE, B racc iano * 1.
6 24696 .
P ost- med ieva l s herds .
* 2.
6 28697.
( ?) P os t- med ieva l s herds .
* 3.
6 56683.
S . L ibera to .
P re-Ro manesque c hurch a nd t he s i te o f t he
Ro man s et t le men t o f F oru m C lodi i ( To masset t i 1 913 :
I I ,
7 8-80 ) . 1 43 I I S E, C astel G iu l ia no 4 .
6 65598.
Cas te l A spro .
Sma l l p ro mon tory s et t le men t .
"La te g lazed
wares" . 5 .
6 66588.
M Macc io lo .
"Large Ro man s i te w i th med ieva l ware" .
1 49 INE, C erve ter i 6 .
6 27509.
P roco io d i C er i .
" Substan t ia l r u in o n e x tensive Ro man s i te ...
( w i th ) l a te med ieva l ware" . 7 .
6 41467. S ta tua c ast le.
8 .
6 42534.
The p ot tery i ncludes " Sparse g reen g laze ( 2 )" .
9 .
6 51481. Ro man s i te w i th " la te b rown g laze" p ot tery , p resu mab ly p ost-
C er i . med ieva l .
1 0.
6 62506.
1 1.
6 66506 . I lC aste l lacc io ( Castel Ca mpan i le ) .
P ro mon tory s e t t le men t .
T he p ot tery i ncludes " green g laze , b uf f a nd p ink wares ( w i th s trap h and le )" . 1 2.
6 67503.
" 1 med ieva l s herd" .
1 43 INO , Ronc ig l ione * 13.
6 95835. R o man s i te w i th ( ?) med ieva l s herds ( Duncan 1 958 :103 ) .
1 43 ISO , S u tri . * 14 .
7 13783.
* 15.
7 18733. M d i Rocca Ro mana .
M G odo ( I b id .:111) .
* 16 .
7 33804 . T af fo.
( ?) Med ieva l u ng lazed s herds .
" Perhaps a Ro man mauso leu m" üj .:118) , which
y ie lded 1 med ieva l s herd . 1 7 .
7 40775. P ogg io T ognara ( I b id .:121) " (?) 2 med ieva l s herds" .
1 8.
7 40788.
L a F err iera .
* 19.
7 74749 .
Mon terosi c ast le ( Mal let t 1 970 ) .
1 43 I NO , A ngu i l lara S abazia * 20 .
7 27709. Rocca d i Trev ignano ( To masset t i 1 913 : Mart inor i 1 932-4 : I , 3 59-61) .
I I , 1 66-70 ;
Most o ft he s herds a re p ost-
medieva l . * 21. 2 2. * 23.
7 56636 . P ost- med ieva l a nd r ecen t s herds. 7 84649 .
( He mph i l l 1 975:159 , s ite 1 53 ) .
7 85650 . P erhaps t he s a me a s s i te 2 2.
Two masonryl ined p i ts.
Ung lazed a nd 2 p ost- med ieva l g lazed s herds .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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ROME
The S ou th E trur ia s urvey , s how ing t he d istribu t ion o f s i tes w i th med ieva l a nd p os t- med ieva l p o t tery .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
3 02
* 24.
7 86686 . T orre S tracciacappa ( Mar t inor i 1 932-4 :
I ;
3 04 ;
He mph i l l
1 975 :158) . 1 43 I SO , S . Mar ia d i G a leria . 2 5.
6 97543.
" 3 s herds p oss ib ly med ieva l" a nd 4 f ragmen ts , 1c erta in ly p ost- med ieva l , s een b y DB W .
2 6 .
7 04557 .
"Med ieva l g reen g lazed ( 1 )" .
2 7 .
7 29585.
" Green g lazed ware" ( He mph i l l 1 975 :159 , s i te 1 34 ) .
* 28.
7 33615.
L e Mura d i S . S tefano.
2 9.
7 53550.
C ornazzano .
Excava ted s i te ( p .310 ) .
P ro mon tory s i te , d escr ibed a s ac astru m i n
1 137 ( To masset t i 1 913 :1 1 1 , 4 7 ) . * 30 .
7 68559 .
Mon te d e l N ibb io .
Med ieva l s e t t le ment w i th a Ro man c istern
r e-used a s ac hape l ( I b id .: I I , 4 7 ) . * 31.
7 85650 .
1 49 INO , T orri mp ie tra * 32.
To masset t i 1 913 : I , 5 05) . 6 93449. Tower (
* 33.
6 95523. T orre Pasco laro .
( ?) P ost- med ieva l s herds .
* 34.
7 03507.
C aste l lacc io .
* 35.
7 74522.
M P roco io .
3 6.
7 83519 .
" Etruscan a nd much Ro man ma ter ia l a nd o ne med ieva l s herd" .
3 7.
7 47465. S An ton io d i S o t to .
P ro montory s e t t le men t .
P ro montory s et t le men t .
1 43 INE , C ivi ta C as tel lana 3 8. * 39. 4 0.
8 22836. R o man v i l la w ith " one a pparen t ly medieva l f ragment" . 8 48824. 8 49816 . P ian d i C astel lo .
P ro mon tory s et t le men t ( Freder iksen a nd
Ward Perk ins 1 957 :138 a nd 1 40 ) . 4 1.
8 64819.
* 42.
8 72830.
* 43.
8 74817.
C aste l Pa terno .
P ro mon tory s i te w i th c ast le ( To masse t t i
1 913 : I H , 3 59-61 ;
* 44.
8 78823.
4 5.
8 84815.
* 46 .
8 84816 .
C astel F o iano . 3 61-2) .
L awrence 1 964 :
9 1-5 a nd 1 13-6 ) .
S et t le ment o n r idge ( To masset t i 1 913 :I I
1 43 IS E, Nep i 4 7.
8 02773. P on te N epes ino .
Med ieva l s i te d om ina t ing t he c ross ing o f t he
F osso C erreto ( To masset t i 1 913 :1 1 , 1 46 ; I , 1 73 ;
Mar t inor i 1 932-4 :
F reder iksen a nd Ward P erk ins 1 957 :
8 3-5) .
4 8.
8 12768. R o man b ui ld ings i nc lud ing a c istern c onver ted i n to a c hape l
4 9.
8 13798.
5 0 .
8 16742.
5 1.
Poor R o man f ar m w i th med ieva l ma teria l" , i nc lud ing " sparse 8 17739. "
( Freder iksen a nd Ward P erk ins 1 957 :80 ) .
g laze ( 1 )" . * 52.
o s i te 5 3. 8 18778. The Approach t
* 53.
8 20779 .
* 54 .
8 23795. Man- made c aves.
Caste l P orc iano .E xcavated s i te ( Ma l let t a nd Wh itehouse 1 967 ) . T he s herds a re p robab ly p ost- med ieva l .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
3 03
5 5.
8 26757.
M C orone .
S ca t ter o f Ro man p ot tery w i th " 1 med ieva l s herd" .
5 6.
8 27763.
5 7 .
8 35727. E truscan a nd Ro man s i te w i th aw e l l , wh ich c on ta ined med ieva l p ot tery .
5 8.
8 36736. T ower.
5 9 .
8 36786 .
6 0.
8 43735.
6 1.
8 47738.
Pre-Ro man , R o man a nd medieva l s i te w i th s parse g lazed p ot tery , e tc . L i me k i ln w i th "med ieva l s herds" .
6 2.
8 56756.
6 3.
8 58733. Ro man s i te o n t he s ou th s ide o f M . C ingh ia le w i th o ccupa t ion
Mazzano R o mano .
Excava ted s i te ( p .310 ) -
e xtend ing ( on t he e v idence o f t he A fr ican r ed s l ip p ot tery ) u n t i l a t l east t he l a te 5 th-ear ly 6 th c en tury .
S o me o f t he
( ung lazed ) p o t tery was t hough t t o b e med ieva l . 6 4.
8 58738.
* 65. * 66 .
os t- med ieva l s herds. 8 59767. P 8 60804. C aste l d 'I sch ia . P ro mon tory s et t le men t .
* 67 .
8 62735.
6 8.
8 62754 .
* 69.
8 66757.
*7 0 .
7 1.
8 66804. 8 67758.
M . l iS an t i .
* 72.
8 67788.
Impor tan t Ro man a nd med ieva l s i te w i th F orum ware , s parse
* 73.
8 68775. S Mar ia .
* 74.
8 69803.
L a Rocchet ta ( P izzo ) .
Apparen t ly a n e ar ly med ieva l s i te ,
w i th F oru m ware , s parse g laze , e tc .
Med ieva l e nc losure a t t he s ou th e nd o f t he
a cropo l is o f Narce . g laze , e tc . Pro montory s i te .
( ?) Med ieva l a nd p ost- med ieva l
s herds. 7 5.
C aste l S Agnese .
Sma l l c as t le .
8 77727. H i l l top s i te w i th p re-Ro man , Ro man a nd med ieva l o ccupa t ion .
7 6 .
8 81757.
7 7 .
8 84730.
7 8.
8 87773.
* 79.
8 95748.
8 0 .
8 96746 .
M . SP ietro .
Smal l med ieva l c hapel .
S ca t ter o f s herds n ear s i te 1 36.
1 43 I NE , C a mpagnano d i Ro ma * 81.
7 93663.
M .S . Ange lo ( He mph i l l 1 975 :159 , s i te 5 8) .
8 2.
8 12718. Ro man s i te w ith l a ter ma ter ia l , i nclud ing " 1 s parse g laze" .
8 3.
8 19636 .
" Green g lazed ware" ( I b id .:159 , s i te 4 4 ) .
8 4 .
8 24639 .
" Green g lazed ware" ( I b id .:159 , s i te 3 9 ) .
* 85.
8 31634. Torraccia n e l B osco ( I b id .:158 , s i te 3 7 ) .
8 6 .
8 33652.
Mo la d e i Mon t i .
8 7 .
8 39644. Ro man s ite w i th "med ieva l u ng lazed ware" .
8 8.
8 48642. P on te S S i lvestro . Ru ined med ieva l s truc ture , p robab ly a c hape l , w ith much r e-used R o man ma ter ia l ( Kahane e t a l .
8 9 .
8 51649 . S . Maria d e l S orbo .
1 968 :178 ;
s ite
R o man p ot tery a nd " 1 g lazed med ieva l s herd" .
4 4
) Med ieva l s et t le men t o n s pectacu lar
t ufo p edesta l ( To masset t i 1 913 : I I , 1 19-20 ; 1 968 , 1 71-2, s ite 5 7a ) .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. c oarse ware" . E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
3 04
K ahane e t a l .,
" Archa ic ma io l ica .... ( and ) med ieva l
9 0 .
8 51711.
9 1.
8 52701. Ronc ig l iano . I I , 5 51 ;
Pro montory s i te ( To masset t i 1 913 :1 , 1 57 a nd
Mart inor i 1 932-4 :
" Sparse g laze ( ?2) ;
I , 1 05) .
The p o ttery i nc ludes
Archa ic ma jo l ica ( 1 ) ;... much p ost-
med ieva l g lazed ware" . 9 2.
8 58625. I lB isc io .
Sma l l c ol lect ion o f p re-Ro man , Ro man a nd p oss ib ly
med ieva l s herds ( Kahane e t a l . 1 968 :178 , s i te 1 14) . 9 3.
8 60651. E truscan s i te w i th p oss ib le med ieva l s herd ( I b id .: 9 6 ) .
8 5 , s i te
9 4 .
8 62634.
M . Ma lva ia ta .
Ro man s i te w i th 2 s herds , p oss ib ly med ieval
9 5.
8 64652.
M . P orc ine ta .
( I b id .:
8 5 , s i te 9 8) Sma l l g roup o f s herds
i nc lud ing s parse g laze . 9 6 .
8 67646 .
L arge R o man s i te w i th 1 g lazed s herd , p ossib ly med ieva l ( I b id .:
8 7 , s i te 1 21) .
9 7 .
8 70688. Ro man s i te w i th med ieva l s herds , i nc lud ing " sparse g laze
9 8.
( 2) " 8 83702. P i ts r evea led i n r oad c u t t ing , wh ich y ie lded u ng lazed s herds
9 9.
8 91693.
t hough t t o b e med ieva l . " Etruscan a nd Ro man s ite w i th 1 med ieva l s herd" .
1 43 I S E , F or me l lo 1 00.
8 17550.
1 01.
8 28595. Ro man v i l la w i th " ung lazed med ieva l s herds" ,
" Green g lazed ware" ( He mph i l l 1 975:159 , s ite 7 3) .
1 02.
8 40625.
s i te 2 1) .
* 103.
Ih ave s een 3 s herds , a l l p oss ib ly Ro man .
G ro t ta F ranca . 1 968 ;
1 59 ,
Sma l l p ro montory s et t le men t ( Kahane e t a l .
1 71 , s i te 4 0 ) .
8 45553. I so la F arnese ( To masset t i 1 913 :1 1 1 , 8 9 , 9 3 a nd 9 9) .
S o me
2 75 s herds , i nc lud ing 3 6 w i th s parse g laze . 1 04.
8 45599.
1 05.
8 48555. Sma l l r u in , p resu mab ly med ieva l , w i th in t he s i te o f V e i i .
C asa le S e lva t ia .
"Med ieva l b eaker" .
* 106.
8 45570.
1p ost- med ieva l s herd .
* 107.
8 58625.
L a te med ieva l s tructure o n t he s i te o f a Ro man b u i ld ing ( Kahane e t a l . 1 968 : 1 78 , s i te 1 14) .
1 08.
8 61583.
( I b id .:
1 79 , s i te 2 35) .
1 09 .
8 61617 .
( I b id .:
9 4 , s i te 1 82) .
1 10.
8 62578. Abraded ( ?) med ieva l a nd p ost- med ieva l s herds ( I b id .: 1 78 , s i te 2 33) .
* 111. 1 12. 1 13.
8 63583. S . C ornel ia . 8 63585.
Excava ted s i te ( p . 3 10 ) .
8 66615. E truscan t o mb , t he d ebris f ro m wh ich i nc ludes 2 c o mbed s herds , t hought t o b e med ieva l ( I b id .;
1 78 , s i te 1 01) .
* 114 .
8 69544. Sma l l c o l lec t ion , a l l p robab ly p ost- med ieva l .
* 115.
8 71560.
C astel d ei C ever i .
Sma l l p ro montory s et t le men t ( I b id .:
1 73 , s i te 3 32) . * 116 .
8 72557.
( I b id .: 1 79 , s i te 3 75a ) .
* 117 .
8 73557. G ro t te Vecch iarel l i .
Sma l l p ro mon tory s et t le men t ( I b id .:
1 73 , s i te 3 76 ). * 118.
8 74558. S cat ter o f s herds ( most , i fn ot a l l , o f wh ich a re p ost- med ieva l ) .
* 119.
8 76563 .
L arge Ro man v i l la ( I b id .:
* 120.
8 76564 .
Ro man v i l la w i th med ieva l g lazed s herds ( I b id .: 1 06 , a lso
1 79 , s i te 3 37 ) .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. s i te 3 37 ) . E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
3 05
F oru m ware ( 1 ) .
* 121. 1 22.
8 83610. 8 84604. S s Mar t in i( I b id .: 1 78 , s i te 2 07 ) .
1 49 INE , Mon te Mar io . 1 23. * 124.
7 98455. S Ruf ina . 8 12489 .
Excava ted s i te
Mazza L upo .
P ro mon tory s i te .
" Ung lazed medieva l wares ,
i nc l . s trap h and les , a nd a t l east o ne e ar ly g lazed s herd" ( Kahane 1 977 :167 , s i te 9 5) . 1 25.
8 27500. Torre S pacca ta ( I b id .: 1 78 , s ite 1 41) .
1 26 .
8 28507 .
A l l g lazed s herds s een
b y myse lf a re p ost- med ieva l . E truscan a nd Ro man s i te w i th " g lazed med ieva l s herds" a nd o ne p ossib le u ng lazed" ( I b id . : 177 , s i te 1 37 ) . 1 27 .
8 29510. Ro man s ite w i th " b lue g lazed med ieva l s herds" ( I b id .: 1 77 , s i te 1 35) .
* 128.
8 64506 . Torre d i F icedu la ( De Ross i 1 969 :89 , t ower 1 72) , sma l l p loughed-ou t b u i ld ing w i th med ieva l a nd p erhaps a lso p ostmed ieva l c oarse p ot tery .
1 29.
8 84510.
F osso d e l la C rescenza .
Excava ted s i te ( p .311 )w i th " 1 c rea m
med ieva l? c oarse ware" f rag men t . * 130.
8 84512. I so la ted f ind o f med ieva l o r ( more p robab ly ) Ro man p ot tery o b jec t .
1 31.
8 87530. P ro mon tory s i te w i th t ower .
1 44 I V NO , S t im ig l iano . 1 32.
9 32822.
Morra d el P re te to .
Sma l l Ro man s i te w i th " a f ew med ieva l
s herds" ( Jones 1 963 :118 , s i te 3 56 ) . * 133 .
9 52838.
1 34 .
9 83821. Ru ined med ieva l b u i ld ing , p erhaps o n t he s i te o f a Ro man
1 35.
9 84823. S Andrea i n F lu m ine .
s truc ture ü h l .:
1 06 , s i te 3 20 ) . Ro manesque c hurch ( w i th o ne s urv iv ing
b ac ino ) , i ncorporat ing d ebr is f ro m a n e ar l ier med ieva l b u i ld ing . S cat ter o f Ro man ma teria l ( To masse t t i 1 913 : I , 5 27 a nd I I ; 3 37-42 ;
J ones 1 963 : 1 05 , s i te 3 19 ) .
1 44 I V SO , R ignano F la m in io . * 136 .
8 98749 . Torre B usson ( Caste l Moro lo ) Excavated s i te ( p .312 ) .
1 37 .
9 02789. Sma l l Ro man a nd med ieva l s i tes , 7 5 m a par t .
1 38.
9 30747 .
C resceta .
* 139.
9 48779.
( ?) Med ieva l a nd p ost- med ieva l s herds .
1 40.
L arge Ro man s ite w i th " 2 g lazed med ieva l s herds" .
9 54782. V ery l arge Ro man a nd med ieva l s i te ( Jones 1 962 :
1 83-5,
s i te 2 17 , f ig . 1 9 a nd p l . XXX IVa ) . * 141.
9 62757.
* 142.
9 98716. Two p ost- medieva l g lazed s herds :
L a Mo lacc ia . 4u ng lazed f ragments.
1 44 I V NO , C astelnuovo d i P or to . * 143.
8 97667. Ro man mauso leu m w ith sma l l s ca t ter o f med ieva l p o t tery ,
* 144.
9 00634. Ro man t o mb w i th a f ew u ng lazed s herds , wh ich may b e
i nc lud ing s parse g laze ( Kahane e t a l . 1 968 : 1 79 , s i te 4 96) . med ieva l , b u t a re more l ike ly t o b e Ro man ( I b id . : 132 , s ite 4 68) . Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
3 06
1 45.
9 00642.
M C rocet ta .
2s herds , p oss ib ly med ieva l .
1 46 .
9 01638. The p o t tery i s most ly p os t- med ieva l , b u t i nclude 1 s parse g lazed f rag men t ü L i l .: 179 , s i te 4 70) .
* 147 .
9 02639.
S Mar ia .
Ru ins o f s ubstan t ia l c hurch ( I b id .: 178 , s i te 4 71) .
The s herds i nc lude 1 F oru m ware o r s parse g laze . 1 48.
9 04684. C asa le d e l le Rose.
1 49 .
9 05654 .
R o man v il la w i th F oru m ware a nd o ther
med ieva l s herds 014 .: 1 79 , s i te 5 27 ) . M .S . S i lvestro .
Ro man s i te w i th med ieva l s herds ( I b id . 1 79 ,
s ite 5 50 ) . * 150 .
9 10628. P lan d i L a l la .
P ro mon tory s i te ( I b id .: 1 75-76 , s i te 4 62) .
F orum ware , s parse g laze , e tc .) . 1 51.
9 12648.
( I b id .:179 , s i te 5 16 ) .
1 52.
9 13633.
S ubstan t ia l Ro man s i te w i th med ieva l s herds .
* 153. 1 54.
9 14651. P ost- med ieva l s herds. 9 14676 . 1s herd " probab ly F oru m ware f ound w i th Ro man ma ter ia l" ( I b id .:179 , s i te 5 32) .
1 55. * 156. * 157.
9 17654 . 9 19651. B e l Mon te . Excava ted s i te ( p .312) . 9 28687. Madonna d el la Guard ia . R u ined c ast le a nd c hape l ( To masset t i 1 913 :I I I , 2 98-9 ;
J ones 1 962 :167 ;
s i te 1 ) .
1 58.
9 33658.
1 59.
9 40634.
1 60.
9 42633. Ro man s ite w i th " 1 med ieva l s herd" .
* 161.
9 53651.
* 162.
9 62930. Ro man a nd ( ?) p ost- med ieva l ma ter ia l .
Mos t s herds a re p ost- med ieva l , b u t 1i s s parse g lazed ware .
* 163.
9 65637. R e ma ins o f a med ieva l b u i ld ing .
* 1 ( 34 .
9 71638.
F on tan i le d i Vaccherecc ia .
E truscan , Ro man a nd med ieva l
s i te , t he l ast a p ro mon tory s e t t le men t ( To masse t t i 1 913 : 11 1, 2 86 ;
J ones 1 962:153-4 , s i te 4 9 ) .
* 165.
9 85708. Med ieva l o r , more p robab ly , p ost- med ieva l u ng lazed s herds ;
* 166 .
9 88637. G rot ta C o lonna B . Tower a nd o ther med ieva l s tructures ,
1p ost- med ieva l g lazed . c onfus ing ly r e-na med ;
i ta ppears a s Grot ta C o lonna A i n
J ones ( 1 962 :155 , s i te 6 6) . * 167 .
9 92637. G rot ta C olonna A ;
P ro mon tory s et t le men t ( I b id .: 155 , s ite
6 8) . 1 44 I I SO , C asa le Marcig l iana . 1 68.
9 00563. C astel Dardo .
P ro mon tory s et t le men t ( Kahane e t a l ., 1 968 :
1 75 , s i te 4 32) . * 169.
9 02531.
( I b id .: 1 79 , s i te 3 93) .
The p ot tery i nc ludes 3 ( ?) Ro man g lazed
s herds , med ieva l p la in g reen g laze a nd Archa ic ma io l ica . * 170.
9 04532. Ma in ly R o man ma ter ia l , b u t a lso s herds o f e i ther F oru m ware o r s parse g laze gil l .: 179 , s i te 3 92) .
* 171.
9 04543. Mon te O l iv ier° .
* 172.
9 08600 .
Med ieva l e nc losure e L l .: 173 , s i te 3 67 ) .
* 173.
9 09536 . S ubstan t ia l p ro mon tory s et t le men t , t he f orerunner o f Pr i ma
Med ieva l s tructure , p robab ly a c hape l , i n t he r u ins o f a Ro man b u i ld ing ( i d .: 179 , s i te 4 30 ) . P orta
Q j .
: 173-5 , s i te 3 91) .
The p ot tery i ncludes s parse-
a nd p la in g reen g laze. Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
3 07
* 174 .
9 14575.
P ietrapertusa .
1 75.
9 17547.
" Ro man ma ter ia l a nd 1 F oru m ware s herd" .
Excava ted s i te ( p .312 ) .
* 176 .
9 19609.
L a Quar tarel le d i S ot to .
Ro man s i te w i th 1 s herd o f F oru m
ware . * 177 .
9 22559.
C en to U ccel l i .
The c o l lect ion o f 7 5 s herds i ncludes n o f ewer
t han 1 4 p ieces o f F oru m ware , b u t n o s parse g laze . 1 78.
9 22596 .
* 179.
9 23531. Tower ( To masse t t i 1 913 :1 1 1 , p . 2 59 ) .
* 180 .
9 36576. Grot ta O scura .
S i te o n c res t o f s pur o ver look ing V ia T ever ina .
P ost- medieva l s herds .
* 181.
9 46589. Proco io Nuovo .
Ev iden t ly a n e ar ly med ieva l s i te , w i th F orum
ware , b u t n o s parse g laze . * 182.
9 48602.
F ossa F on tana larga . 1 913 :11 1 , 2 72-3 ;
1 83.
P ro mon tory s e t t le men t ( To masset t i
Mar t inor i 1 932-4 :I I , 1 25) .
9 55602. T orre P roco io .
1 50 I V NO , Ro ma Nord. 1 84.
8 94506.
C asa le w i th r u ined t ower .
1 44 I I NE , P asso C orese * 185.
0 18679.
Med ieva l o r p ost- med ieva l s i te n or th-west o f L ucus F eron iae.
1 86.
0 44634. Ro man s i te w i th med ieva l g lazed a nd u ng lazed s herds
1 87.
0 50657.
( Og i lv ie 1 965 :104 , s i te 1 17 ) . Med ieva l s et t le men t o n t he s i te o f Ere tu m &js .. l .: 8 2-3 ) . A l l S urvey mater ia l s een b y mysel f , b u t n o te a lso Mazzuca to ( 1 972:41) . 1 88.
0 53629.
C ol le d e l F orno .
1 89.
0 63664.
1 90 .
0 69628. Torre F iora .
Med ieva l t ower .
med ieva l wares" .
" P la in a nd g reen g lazed
( Og i lv ie 1 965 :103 , s i te 1 06) .
" P la in a nd g reen g lazed med ieva l wares" ( I b id .:95 , s i te 1 7 ) "Medieva l g lazed a nd u ng lazed wares" ( I b id .:
1 02, s i te 9 9) . * 191.
0 98656 . Ro man a nd med ieva l s herds .
1 44 I I S E , Men tana . * 192.
0 51532. Torre d el le T orn.
* 193.
0 59599. G rot ta Marozza .
1 50 I V NE, S et teca m in i * 194 .
0 30526 . T orre L upara .
The g lazed s herds a re p os t- med ieva l .
C oncordance ( a )
The ' Cass ia-Clod ia i a rea ( He mph il l 1 975) C assia-Clod ia 2 1
Our Nu mber 1 01
Cassia-Clod ia 7 3
3 7
8 5
1 17
2 8
3 9
8 4
1 34
2 7
4 4
8 3
1 53
2 2
5 8
8 1
1 58
2 4
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
3 08
Our Nu mber 1 00
( b )
The Ager V eien tanus ( Kahane e t a l ., 1 968) . Ager Ve ien tanus
( c )
1 02
3 75a
1 16
8 8
3 76
1 17
5 7a
8 9
3 91
1 73
9 6
9 3
3 92
1 70
9 8
9 5
3 93
1 69
1 01
1 13
4 32
1 68
1 14
1 07
4 38
1 72
1 21
9 6
4 62
1 50
1 82
1 09
4 68
1 44
2 07 2 33
1 22 1 10
4 70 4 71
1 46 1 47
2 35
1 08
4 96
1 43
2 36
1 11
5 10
1 49
3 20
1 74
5 14
1 56 1 51
3 32
1 15
5 16
3 37
1 19 a nd 1 20
5 27
1 48
3 67
1 71
5 32
1 54
La S tor ta ( Kahane 1 977 ) Our Nu mber
L a S torta
9 5
1 24
1 37
1 26
1 35
1 27
1 41
1 25
Our Nu mber
Ager C apenas ( J ones 1 962 [ s i tes 1 -293] , 1 963 [ s i tes 2 94-369 ] ) . Our Nu mber
Ager Capenas
Our Nu mber
2 17
1 40
3 20
1 34
3 19
1 35
3 56
1 32
Eretu m ( Og i lv ie 1 965) . Eretu m
2 .
Our N u mber
4 0
Ager C apenas
( e )
Ager Veien tanus
4 4
La S tor ta
( d )
Our Nu mber
Our Number
Eretu m
Our Nu mber
1 7
1 89
1 06
1 88
9 9
1 90
1 17
1 86
EXCAVATED S ITES Excava t ions h ave t aken p lace a t 9s i tes l i sted i n t he g azet teer ( F ig . 6 .2) : * 28.
7 33615.
L e Mura d i SS tefano
*5 3.
8 20779 .
Castel P orc iano
6 2.
8 56756 .
Mazzano Ro mano
* 111.
8 63583.
SC orne l ia
1 23.
7 98455 .
S . Ru f ina
1 29.
8 84510 .
F osso d e l la Crescenza
* 136.
8 98749.
Torre B usson ( Caste l Moro lo ) .
* 156 .
9 19651.
B e l Mon te
* 174 .
9 14575.
P ietraper tusa .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 3 09
2 8.
L e Mura d i SS tefano . T h is i s a n impress ive Ro man a nd e ar ly med ieva l s i te , 2 km s ou th o f
Angui llara S abazia .
T he s tand ing r e ma ins c onsist o f ab u i ld ing o f t he s econd
c en tury AD , wh ich s urv ives t o a max i mum h e igh t o f 1 8 m , a sma l ler R o man s tructure , t hought t o b e ac istern , a nd t he a pse o f a med ieva l c hurch ( Ly tte l ton a nd S ear 1 977) .
Excava t ions b egan i n 1 977 a nd a re s t i l l i n p rogress ( Wh i tehouse
1 979) . Work i n t he c hurch d isc losed f ragments o f a marb le s creen , t he b ase o f wh ich was s t i ll i n s i tu . Accord ing t o t he c onven t iona l c hronology , o ne wou ld a t tribu ted t hese f rag men ts t o t he n in th c en tury .
T he make-up f or t he f l oor
o f t he c hurch c on ta ined s herds o f F orum ware a nd p ot tery w i th s parse g laze ( I de m . 1 980b :113) . 6 2.
Mazzano Ro mano . Mazzano R o mano i s av i l lage o n at ufo p edesta l o ver look ing t he R . T re ia .
A sma l l e xcava t ion o n t he s i te o f SN ico la , ac hurch b u i l t c . 1 563 a nd d e moli shed i n t he 1 940s , was i n tended t o r ecover s tra t i f ied ma ter ia l t ha t migh t i nd ic a te when t he p edesta l was f irst o ccup ied ( Pot ter 1 973) .
T he s equence was
a s f ol lows : 1 . 2 .
Wa l l A , b u i l t i n af ounda t ion t rench c on ta in ing F orum ware. Wa l l B , a ga in b u i l t i n at rench c on ta in ing F orum ware .
3 .
Wa l l C , b u i l t i n af ounda t ion t rench c on ta in ing p o t tery w i th s parse
4 .
B ur ia ls , a ssociated w i th a p oor ly-preserved c o in , p erhaps o f t he f our teen th c entury .
5 .
T he c hurch , b u i l t c . 1 563 .
g laze.
1 11.
SC orne l ia . S . C orne l ia , 1 5 km n or th o f Ro me a nd midway b etween Ve i i a nd For me l lo ,
was r ed iscovered i n 1 958 a nd e xcava ted b y C har les D an ie ls i n 1 962-4.
I t was
r ecogn ised im med iately a s p ar t o ft he d o muscu l ta o f C apracorum , e stab l ished b y Hadr ian I ( 7 72-95) ( Ward P erk ins 1 963 :38 ; K ahane e t a l . 1 968 :161-4 ) . The s i te h ad t hree p r inc ipa l p er iods o f o ccupa t ion : 1 .
N o s ubstan t ia l b u ild ings , b u t v ine t renches , p i ts , e tc .:
e viden t ly
p ar t o f af ar m o r f ar ms. The f ea tures may r epresen t s evera l c en tur ies o f ( possib ly i n term it ten t ) a gr icu l tura l a c t iv ity . 2 .
Ar ough ly t rapezo ida l e nc losure , 7 0 m a cross . c orner , ac hurch a nd a b ap t istry .
I n t he n or th-west
On t he e as t s ide o f t he e nclosure ,
s tructures " s trong ly r em in iscen t o ft he l ayou t o f a Ro man f ar m" ( Pot ter 1 979 :153) . 3 .
The e nc losure was r educed i n s ize a nd n ow measured n ot more t han 5 5 x4 0 m . T he c hurch was r ebu i l t . " Bo th t he p lan ( o f t he c hurch ) a nd t he masonry-sty le p o in t ing o f t he b r ickwork i nd ica te a n e ar ly e leven th c en tury d a te" ( Kahane e t a l ., 1 968:164 ) .
On t he s ou th s ide
o f t he c hurch , ac lo ister . The L iber P on t i f ica lis r ecords t ha t Hadr ian Ie s tab l ished f our d o muscu l tae ( agr icu ltura l e sta tes) , u n .a q u ide m q uae v oca tur C apracorum p osi ta t err i torio v igen t ino a b u rbe p lus m inus m i l ia XV ( Duchesne 1 886 :501 ) ; l a ter , h e f ounded Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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o thers ( I b id .:505) .
Moreover , i n d o mocu l ta q uae a ppe l la tur Capracoru m ,
Hadr ian f undav i t e t e d if icav i t e cc lesia m , i n wh ich h e d eposited r e l ics o f S S C orne l ius , L ucius , F e l ix a nd I nnocen t ( I b id .: 5 06) .
Accord ing t o ar ecen t
a na lysis o f t he L i fe o f Hadr ian , t he d o muscu l ta was e stab l ished i n 7 74-6 a nd t he c hurch i n 7 79-80 ( Geertman n .d .:
9 -12 a nd 2 3-6 ) .
B e tween 1 026 ( when i t was d escr ibed a s ap ieve ) a nd 1 037 , t he c hurch b eca me p art o f a monas tery ( Fede le 1 899 :79 , d oc .45) , wh ich was s t i l l f unct ioni ng i n 1 238 ( W ickha m 1 978b :177-8) .
The d ed ica t ion o f t he monastery , t o t he
f our s a ints men t ioned i nt he L i fe o f Hadr ian , s hows b eyond r easonab le d oub t t ha t w e a re d ea l ing w i th t he s a me s i te . T hree o bserva t ions s upport t he c onc lusion t ha t t he s ources r efer t o S . C orne l ia :
( 1 ) t he s im i lar i ty b etween t he a rchaeolog ica l s equence a nd t he
s equence o f e ven ts i n t he d ocu men ts ;
( 2 ) n e i ther i n tens ive f i e ld work i n t he
V e i i a rea n or a rch iva l r esearch h as r evea led t he e x is tence o f a ny o ther s i te w ith t he s a me , o r as im i lar , h istory ;
( 3 ) i n t he s even teen th c en tury , S .
C orne l ia was t he p opu lar n a me a t tached t o ar u ined c hurch o f SC orne l io ( one o ft he f our s a in ts whose r e l ics were d eposi ted a t C apracoru m a nd Nard ino ( 1 647 :203) , who r epor ted t h is , s hows t he r u in i n a pprox i ma te ly t he s a me p os i t ion a s o ur s i te o n t he map i n t he f ron t o fh is b ook .
My i n terpreta t ion o f
t he c hrono logy o f SC orne l ia i s , t herefore , a s f o l lows ( Wh i tehouse 1 980a ) : 1 .
E nded n o t l a ter t han 7 74-6 .
2 .
B egan w i th t he e rect ion o f f ar m b u i ld ings p robab ly i n 7 74-6 , f ol lowed b y t he c hurch i n 7 79-80 . We d o n o t k now when t he f ar m b u i ld ings w en t o u t o f u se , a l though i ti s b e l ieved t ha t d o muscu l tae c eased t o e x ist i n t he n in th c en tury .
3 .
B egan b e tween t he 1 026 a nd 1 037 , a nd e nded a f ter 1 238.
By 1 647 ,
t he c hurch w as i n r u ins . 1 23.
S Ru f ina S Ru f ina i s 1 0 km n orth-wes t o f Ro me , o n t he a nc ien t v ia C orne lia .
was d iscovered i n 1 963 a nd e xcava ted b y L ady Whee ler i n 1 965-7 . t he e xcava t ion h ave a ppeared i n Ward P erk ins ( 1 966 :90 ; a nd Po t ter ( 1 979 :150-2) .
No tes o n
1 967 :127 ;
1 968:90 )
The s i te was o ccup ied b y af ar m i n t he E truscan
a nd Ro man Republ ican p er iods . p er iod ;
I t
Av i l la was b u i lt o n t he s i te i n t he Imper ia l
n earby w as a c ircu lar mauso leum .
The s i te i s t he t rad i t iona l b ur ia l
p lace o f SR uf ina a nd a c hape l , e xcava ted i n 1 965 , i s t hought t o b e t he mar tyrs hr ine .
S Ru f ina b eca me t he c en tre o f t he d iocese o f S e lva Cand ida c .500
a nd t he L iber P on t i f ica l is r ecords t ha t t he c hurch o f S S Ru f ina a nd S ecunda was r enova ted b y H adr ian Ia nd embe l l ished b y L eo I V ( 847-55) . s tored i n 9 06 , a f ter b eing b urn t b y Mos le m r a iders .
I t was r e-
5 0 m n orth o ft he c hape l ,
Lady Wheeler e xcava ted p art o f a med ieva l a gr icu ltura l o r d o mest ic c o mp lex . 1 29.
F osso d el la C rescenza . E ssen t ia lly aRo man s i te .
L im i ted e xcava t ion o n t he b ank o f t he Fosso
d el la C rescenza r evea led p ar t o f ab u i ld ing o f t he f irs t c en tury AD a nd a t h ird c en tury mauso leum , a ssoc ia ted w i th a s er ies o f a l luv ia l d epos i ts wh ich s howed t ha t t he v a l ley b o t to m s uf fered i n ter m i t ten t f l ood ing i n t he e ar ly c en tur ies AD a nd t hen b ecame l i ab le t o more o r l ess c on t inuous i nunda t ion we l l i nto t he med ieva l p er iod ( Ward P erk ins 1 964 :14-15 ;
P o t ter 1 979 :25) .
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1 36 .
T orre B usson ( Castel Moro lo ) S i tes 1 38, 1 58 a nd 1 78 were t he f i rst d eser ted med ieva l s et t lemen ts i n
L azio t o b e e xcava ted ( S t iesda l 1 962) . The p o t tery , h owever , i s d escr ibed f or t he f i rs t t ime i n o ur Append ix ( pp . 3 39-341 ) . The r u ins o f T orre B usson , wh ich T o masset t i ( 1 913 :I I I , 3 52) i den t i f ied a s t he med ieva l C aste l Moro lo , s tand o n at r iangu lar p la teau a pproached b y al ow p ro montory . T he v isib le r e ma ins c onsist o f at ower a nd f ragmen ts o f t he med ieva l c ur ta in wa l l , i ncorpora ted i n af i f teen th o r e ar ly s ix teen th c entury c asa le . T he s e t t le men t a lready e x isted i n 9 96 a nd i n 1 217 i t was d escr ibed a s ac astru m ;
b y 1 449 , h owever , i th ad b eco me r educed i n s ta tus t o ac asa le ,
o r f arm ( I b id . 3 53) . T he e xcava t ion c onsisted o f t hree t renches n ear t he t ower a nd f ur ther s ound ings o n t he p ro mon tory ( S t iesda l 1 962 :88-94 ) . T he l a t ter r evea led a c e metery . 1 56 .
B e l Mon te
B el Mon te o ccup ies a l ong s teep-s ided p ro mon tory , t he n arrowes t p ar t o f wh ich c onta ins a t ower , d efended o n e i ther s ide b y d i tches . Ou ts ide t he d i tches , r ock-cu t p os tholes i nd ica te t he p os i t ion o ft imber b u i ld ings , p erhaps c o mparab le w i th t he t radi t iona l c apanne o f t he Roman C ampagna .
Ad ocumen t
o f 1 236 men t ions t he p lebes e t e ccles iae i n B elmon te ( To masse t t i 1 913 :1 1 1 , 2 96 ; S t iesda l 1 962 :100) . S t iesda l ( I b id .: 8 3-8) c u t e igh t e xp lora tory t renches , n one o f wh ich c on ta ined s ign i f ican t s tra t if ied d epos its. 1 74.
P ie traper tusa The s i te o ccup ies a t u fo p edesta l , 1 50 m l ong a nd u p t o 5 0 m w ide , i nt he
F osso d e l le Pan tane l le , b e low ( and w i th in s ight o f ) t he V ia F lam in ia , 1 8 km n orth o f Ro me. A s Wickham ( 1 978b :169) p o in ts o u t , i ti s o ne o f t he l arges t d eser ted med ieva l s e t t le ments i nt he Ro man c ampagna .
T he s tanding r ema ins
c o mpr ise a t ower f aced w i th a l terna t ing b ands o f b lack b asa l t a nd wh i te marb le r ubb le , a nd t races o f ac ur ta in w a ll , s urround ing t he p edesta l . B y t he p on t i f ic a te o f B on i face V I I ( 9 74-85) , P ie traper tusa was a c as te l lum .
We h ear o f
h ouses i n t he c ast le a nd c hurches b o th i n a nd o u tside t he wa l ls i n 1 027 ( I b id .: 1 68) . P ace Touber t ( 1 973 :436 ) , t he s i te was s t i l l o ccup ied i n 1 263 a nd a c hurch , t he t i tu lus S Mar iae , was s tand ing a s l a te a s t he p on t i f ica te o f B on i face I X ( 1 389-1414) ( S t iesda l 1 962:100 ) . S t iesda l ' si nves t iga t ion c onsisted o f t renches n ear t he t ower a nd t he c o mp le te e xcava t ion o f ac hurch a tt he west e nd o f t he p la teau ( I b id . : 6 5-83) . T he most i mpor tan t g roup o f p o t tery c a me f ro m a c ess p i t n ear t he t ower . T he f i l l ing c onta ined r ubb le f rom t he v au l t which f or mer ly c overed t he p i t . E v iden t ly , t h is h ad b een l igh tened b y t he i nclusion o f j ugs a nd amphorae , f or s evera l s herds were e ncrusted w i th mor tar . 3 .
THE POTTERY Most o f t he med ieva l p ot tery f ro m S outh E trur ia ( Forum ware i s an o tab le
e xcep t ion ) h as e i ther a f i ne f abr ic , n orma l ly f i red i n a n o x id izing a tmosphere , o r ac oarse f abr ic , n or ma l ly f i red i n ar educ ing a t mosphere .
S herds i n t he
f irst g roup h ave a smoo th s ur face a nd a f a ir ly smooth f racture w i th f ew i nc lusions v isib le w ithou t al ens . T he c o lour v ar ies f ro m w h i te t o r ed . The g roup c o mpr ises a l t he j ugs a nd amphorae , most o f t he d ishes , b ow ls a nd Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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j ars , a nd n ear ly a l l t he g lazed p o t tery . Wi l l iams a nd O venden ( 1 978:509) d escr ibe t he f abric o f f our s herds o f p o t tery w i th s parse g laze , f ound i n Ro me , a s c on ta in ing " a s ca t ter o f c o lourless o r p a le g reen a ug i te , al i t t le p lag ioc lase f e lspar , s o me c her t , s parse f rag men ts o f l imestone a nd n u merous q uar tzg ra ins".
S herds i n t he s econd g roup h ave a l i gh t r edd ish b rown t o v ery d ark
g rey s urface a nd a r ough , s o met i mes c ru mb ly f racture .
T he g roup c o mpr ises
a l l t he p ans a nd c ook ing p ots , most o f t he l i ds a nd s ome o f t he d ishes a nd b ow ls . A s im i lar d iv is ion i n to f i ne o x id ized a nd c oarse r educed f abr ics o ccurs a t Tuscan ia , 3 0 km n or th-west o f t he S urvey a rea , where J ohns ( i n Ward P erk ins 1 973 :49-50) d escr ibes t he m a s F abr ic A ( cp . o ur o x id ized g roup ) a nd F abr ic B ( cp . o ur r educed g roup ) . A s i n t he S C orne l ia r epor t ( Wh i tehouse 1 980a ) , Is ha l l d escr ibe f abr ics i nt he f irst g roup b y c o lour , u sing a n ota t ion b ased o n t he Munse ll S oi l C o lor C har t : " wh i te" a pprox i ma tes t o h ue 5 -10R o r 2 .5Y , c o lour v a lue 8 a nd c hroma 1 -2 ; " red" a pprox i ma tes t o h ue 1 OR o r 2 .5YR , c olour v a lue 4 -5 a nd c hroma 6 -8, a nd s o o n . F abr ics i n t he s econd g roup a re d escr ibed s imp ly a s " reduced" . Ih ave g iven c onsecu t ive n u mbers t o t he p r incipa l f or ms a nd l e t ters t o v ar ia t ions o f r im c ons truc t ion , e tc . Each s ec t ion i ncludes i nfor ma t ion o n f i nd-spo ts.
Ih ave i ncluded f our
d istr ibu t ion maps , b u t i t s hou ld b e b orne i n m ind t ha t t hese a re l i ab le t o b e d istor ted b y e rrors o f om iss ion d ue t o : 1 . 2 .
N eg lect o f medieva l s i tes , e spec ia l ly i n t he e ar l ier s urveys ; L ack o f ma ter ia l f ro m s i tes wh ich a re s t i l l o ccup ied , e spec ia l ly p ro mon tory s et t le men ts ;
3 .
The p oss ib i l i ty t ha tt he s urface c o l lect ion d oes n o t r epresen t t he f ul l r ange o fp ot tery u sed o n t he s i te ( S i tes 4 , * 32, * 125 a nd * 179 , f or e xa mp le , c onta in medieva l s truc tures , b u t t he s urface c ol lec t ions a re e xc lus ive ly p ost- med ieva l ) ;
4 .
The v agueness ( "green g laze" , f or e xa mp le ) o f s o me d escr ip t ions o f s herds wh ich Ih ave n o t s een .
A l though a s ag enera l r u le Ir efer t o p ub l ica t ions b y t he a u thors ' n a mes , i n t he t ype s er ies wh ich f ol lows t hree r epor ts a re n oted b y r eference t o t he n ames o f t he s i tes , t hus : Mazzano Ro mano i .e . P ot ter 1 973 P orc iano i .e . Ma l let t a nd Wh i tehouse 1 967 S Corne l ia i .e . Wh itehouse 1 980 The p ot tery f ro m Torre B usson , B el Mon te a nd P ietraper tusa i s p ub l ished i n a n a ppend ix ( pp .3 39-341 ) . a )
U ng lazed P ot tery The u ng lazed p o t tery , wh ich ( a t ac onserva t ive e st i ma te ) s pans a t l east
s ix h undred y ears , d isp lays a s urpr is ing p auc ity o f f or ms , h ere d iv ided i n to o pen v essels ( most ly d ishes a nd b ow ls) , " cook ing p o ts" , j ars a nd j ugs , amphorae a nd misce l laneous s hapes , i nc lud ing l i ds . By f ar t he most c o m mon f i nds a re f rag men ts o f c ook ing p ots a nd amphorae , t he b asic f or ms o f wh ich Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. a p p e a r t o h a v e c h a n g e d l i t t l e b e tw e e n t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y a n d t h e e n d o f t h e midd le E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded a on behalf ge s . of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
3 13
2
4
A
6
7)
F ig . 6 .3
Open f or ms ( 1 :4 ) .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
3 14
F ig . 6 .3
Open f or ms ( 1 :4)
1 .
P ink ish wh i te f abr ic .
2 .
Reduced f abr ic .
3 .
P ink f abr ic .
4 .
Reduced f abr ic .
SC orne l ia , f ig .3 ,4 .
5 .
Reduced f abr ic .
SC orne l ia , f ig . 3 ,5.
6 .
Reduced f abr ic .
S i te 6 7.
7 .
L ight r ed f abr ic .
T ypes 1 -5 :
SC orne l ia , f ig . 3 ,1 ( per iod 2 o r 3 ) .
S i te 1 67.
SC ornel ia , f ig . 3 ,15 ( per iod 3 ) .
SC orne l ia ( unstrat if ied ).
r im v ar ian ts
a .
Reduced f abr ic .
SC ornel ia , f ig . 3 ,16 .
C p . Porc iano , f ig . 1 0 ,3 ( per iod
b .
Grey f abr ic .
c .
Reduced f abric .
SC orne l ia , f ig . 3 ,9 .
d .
Reduced f abr ic .
S i te 3 0.
e .
Reduced f abr ic .
SC orne l ia , f ig . 4 ,21.
f .
Reduced f abr ic .
SC orne l ia , f ig . 3 ,19 ( unstra t i f ied , b u t a no ther c o mes
2 ) a nd B e l Mon te , f ig . 6 .14 , 2 1. SC ornel ia , f ig . 3 ,14 .
f ro m p er iod 3 ) . g .
Reduced f abr ic .
S i te 6 7.
h .
Reduced f abr ic .
SC orne l ia , f ig . 3 ,10 ( per iod 3 , a s a re f our o thers ) .
Cp . P orc iano , f ig . 1 0 ,1 ( p er iod 2 ) .
i .
Reduced f abr ic .
S Cornel ia , f ig . 3 ,11.
j .
Reduced f abr ic .
SC ornel ia , f ig . 3 ,12.
Cp . P orc iano , f i g .10 ,5 ( per iod 2 ) . Cp . P orc iano , f ig . 1 0 ,4 ( per iod
l a ) . k .
Reduced f abr ic .
1 .
Reduced f abr ic .
SC orne lia , f ig . 3 ,13 ( per iod 3 , a s i s a no ther ) .
Cp .
Porc iano , f ig . 1 0 ,2 ( per iod 2 ) . S Corne l ia , f ig . 4 ,27 ( per iod 3 ) .
Cp . T orre Busson
( f ig . 6 .14 , 3 4 ) . T ypes 6 -7 :
r im v ar ian ts
m.
P ink f abr ic .
S i te 4 2.
n .
P in .k f abr ic .
S i te 1 67.
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
3 15
8
9
F ig . 6 .4
C ook ing p ots ( 1 :4) .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
3 16
F ig . 6 .4
C ook ing p o ts ( 1 :4)
8 .
Reduced f abr ic .
SC ornel ia , f ig . 4 ,3 2
9 .
Reduced f abr ic .
SC orne l ia , f ig . 5 , 5 3 ( period 1 or 2 )
T ype 8 :
r im v ar ian ts
a .
Reduced f abr in .
S . C orne l ia , f ig . 4 ,28
b .
Reduced f abr ic.
S . C orne l ia , f ig . 4 ,3 3 ( probably period 2 ).
c .
Reduced f abric .
S . C ornel ia , f ig . 5 ,43 ( per iod 2 ).
d .
Reduced f abr ic .
S . Corne lia , f ig . 5 ,49
e .
Reduced f abr ic .
S . C orne lia , f ig . 5 ,47
T ype 9 : f .
r im v ar ian t
Reduced f abr ic .
S . C ornel ia , f ig . 5 ,52 ( period 1 or 2 )
O ther e xa mp les . a .
Porciano , f ig . 1 0 , 7 .
b .
Bel mon te , f ig . 6 .14 , 2 2 a nd s i tes 4 2, 1 41.
c .
Be l mon te , f ig . 6 .14 , 2 4 a nd P ietrapertusa.
d .
Porc iano , f ig . 1 0 , 6a nd P ie trapertusa .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. 3 17 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
4 1 1W „
-
C ,
1 2
13
1 6 F ig . 6 .5
1 7 Jars a nd J ugs ( 1 :4) .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. 3 18 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
F ig . 6 .5
J ars a nd J ugs ( 1 :4 )
1 0. J ug w i th p ir i for m b ody , t a ll f lar ing n eck a nd t ubu lar s pou t .
V ery p a le
b rown f abr ic. R ome : Lacus I u turnae e xcava t ions ( Bon i 1 901 : Mazzuca to 1 977 : f i g . 5 2) .
f ig . 5 4 ;
1 1. J ug w i th o vo id b ody , c y l indr ica l n eck a nd r ibbed , o va l-sect ion h and le . Ro me :
House o ft he Vesta ls.
1 2. S im ilar t o n o . 1 1 , b u tw i th t refoi l mou th . S ing le h or izon ta l c o mbed b and o n s hou lder . R ome : House o f t he Ves ta ls. 1 3. J ug w i th b icon ica l b ody , p la in u prigh t r im a nd t ubu lar s pou t . S . Cornel ia , f i g . 6 ,72 ( probab ly p er iod 2 ) .
P ink f abr ic.
1 4 . J ar w i th b icon ica l b ody , t a l l f lar ing n eck a nd t wo o va l-sect ion h and les. Wh ite f abr ic. S . C ornel ia , f ig . 6 ,71 ( p er iod 1 o r 2 ) . 1 5. J ar w i th ompha lo id b ase , g lobu lar b ody , t a l l f l ar ing n eck a nd t wo o va l s ect ion h and les.
R o me :
L acus I u turnae e xcava t ions ( Bon i 1 901 :
f ig .
5 4,2, b u t s ee a lso Mazzuca to 1 977 :12 a nd f ig . 2 1) . 1 6 . J ar w i th o vo id b ody , c y l indr ica l n eck , r o l led r im a nd t wo r ibbed , o va ls ect ion h andles . R o me : House o f t he V esta ls . 1 7. J ar w i th o vo id b ody , c y l indrica l n eck a nd t wo o va l-sec t ion h and les. Ro me :
L acus I u turnae e xcava t ions ( Mazzuca to 1 977 :
f ig . 7 1) .
The S urvey y ie lded f ew s herds wh ich may b e d escr ibed ( s o mewha t a rb it rar i ly , Ia dm i t ) a s j ars a nd t he e xcava t ion a t S . C orne l ia y ie lded j ust 2 7 r i ms , most o f wh ich c ame f ro m u n i ts a t tr ibu ted t o p er iods 1 o r 2 . f ro m S ou th E trur ia a re g lazed ;
Mos t o f t he j ugs
d escr ip t ions o f t he m a ppear o n p p . 3 27 ,
3 30 , 3 35 a nd 3 37 . L ike Foru m ware , n os . 1 0 , 1 5 a nd 1 7 , a l l o f wh ich c o me f ro m t he L acus I u turnae , may b elong t o t he s ix th c en tury , i nstead o f t he e igh th o r n in th , a s p rev ious ly ma inta ined.
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3 19
? .
M a»
1 9 F ig . 6 .6
A mphorae ( 1 :4) .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
3 20
F ig . 6 .6
Amphorae ( 1 :4 )
1 8. Amphora w i th ompha lo id b ase , o vo id b ody , c y l indr ica ln eck a nd t wo o va ls ect ion h and les. c o mbed b ands.
L igh t r ed f abr ic .
On t he s hou lder , t wo h or izon ta l
S . C orne l ia , f ig . 8 ,82.
1 9. Amphora w i th ompha lo id b ase , g lobu lar b ody , s hort c y l indrical n eck a nd t wo s trap h and les . P ink f abr ic . S . C orne l ia , f ig . 9 ,86. Type 1 8 : a .
v ar ian t
L ight r ed f abr ic .
Type 1 9 :
S . C orne l ia , f ig . 8 ,83 ( probab ly p er iod 2 ) .
v ar ian ts
b .
P ink f abr ic .
S . C ornel ia , f i g . 9 ,90.
c .
P ink f abr ic .
P orciano , f i g . 1 0 ,14.
d .
P ink f abr ic .
P orc ia no , f ig . 1 0 ,12.
T ype 1 8 b e longs t o t he e igh th o r n in th c en tury .
We h ave f our e xamp les
a t S . C orne l ia , t wo p robab ly f ro m p er iod 2 a nd t he o thers u nstra t i f ied . I n Rome , t he v au l t o ft he p orch o f S . Mar ia i n C os med in c on ta ined s evera l s im i lar p ieces , i nclud ing wasters . The c hurch was b u i lt b y Hadr ian Ii n 7 81-2 ; t he p orch was r estored b y N icholas I( 8 58-67 ) .
Op in ion i s d iv ided o n t he d a te o f
t he v au lt , b u t i n a ny c ase i ti s u n l ike ly t o b e l a ter t han 8 67 ( Wh i tehouse 1 980a ) . Type 1 9 i s t he " standard" l a ter medieva l amphora o f Rome a nd c en tra l L azio , s herds o f wh ich o ccur o n a l most e very s i te o ccup ied i n o r a f ter t he n in th c en tury .
S . C orne l ia y ie lded n o f ewer t han 2 32 s tra t if ied , o r a pparent ly
s tra t i f ied , r i ms , h and les a nd b ases . Th ir ty-four c a me f ro m u n i ts a t tr ibu ted t o p er iod 2 a nd Ih ave l i t t le d oub t , t herefore , t ha t t he f or m c ame i n to u se i n t he n inth c en tury ( I b id .) .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
3 21
2 1
2 3
2 4
A
F ig . 6 .7
M isce l laneous f or ms a nd u ng lazed p o t tery w ith c o mbed a nd p a in ted d ecora t ion .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
3 22
F ig . 6 .7
M isce llaneous u ng lazed p ot tery ( 1 :4 )
2 0. Amphora-l ike v essel o r , more p robab ly , ac ostre l . P orc iano : f ig . 1 0 ,15 ( p er iod 2 ) .
P ink f abr ic .
2 1.
L a mp , c ons ist ing o f as aucer s uppor ted o n as o l id p edes ta l w i th a b road f l ange h a l f way d own , p resu mab ly t o c a tch t he d r ips . P ink f abr ic . P orciano : f ig . 1 0 ,20 ( p er iod l a ) .
2 2.
L id , w i th f l at b ase , f l ar ing s ide a nd c en tra l k nop . Reduced f abr ic . P orciano : f ig . 1 0 ,19 ( p er iod l b w i th o thers i n 2 ) .
2 3. L id w i th c oncave s ide . f i ed ) . 2 4 .
L id w ith c onvex s ide . f i ed) .
P ink f abr ic .
S . C orne l ia :
R educed f abr ic .
f ig . 1 0 ,95 ( unstra t i-
S . C orne l ia :
f i g . 1 0 ,98 ( unstra t i-
C ombed o rnamen t a . b .
Wh ite f abr ic. S . C orne l ia , f i g .6 ,70 ( p er iod 1 o r 2 ) . L igh t r ed f abr ic . S . C orne l ia , f ig . 1 1 ,111 ( p er iod 2 ) .
c .
P ink f abr ic .
d .
L ight r ed f abr ic w i th wh i te o u ter s urface , p oss ib ly s l ipped. ( per iod 2 o r 3 ) .
S . C ornel ia ( u nstra t i f ied ) . S . C orne l ia
P a in ted o rna ment . e . f .
P ink f abric w i th r edd ish b rown s l ip . S . C orne l ia ( unstra t if ied ) . Wh ite f abr ic w i th g rey ish b rown s l ip . S . C orne l ia ( unstra t i f ied ) .
g .
P ink f abr ic w i th l i ght r ed s l ip .
h .
P ink f abr ic w i th r ed s l ip .
S . C orne l ia ( u nstra t i f ied ) .
S . C ornel ia ( unstra t if ied ) .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
3 23
1 36 •
1 9 10
• 1 56
1 67 •
• 11
• 1 74
• 33
• 34 • 1 24
I
2 0 I
ROME
k m .
F ig . 6 .8
The d is tr ibu t ion o f u ng lazed p ot tery w i th p a inted d ecora t ion .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
3 24
C ombed a nd p a inted o rna ment G lazes a part , t he med ieva l p ot tery o f S ou th E trur ia s eldo m b ears o rnamen t ; i ndeed , a t S . C orne lia , l ess t han 1% o f t he u ng lazed ma teria l i s d ecorat ed . When i td oes o ccur , t he o rna men t c ons ists o f e i ther c o mb ing , o r p a in t ing w i th r ed o r r edd ish s l ip . C o mb ing o ccurs a l most e xc lusive ly o n h ol low f orms a nd u sua l ly c onsists o f s tra igh t o r wavy h or izon ta l b ands o n t he s hou lder o f j ars o r amphorae. T he b ands a re u p t o 2 cm w ide a nd were made w i th a c o mb w i th many t eeth . C o mb ing p a s e a ppears t o h ave l i t t le c hronolog ica l s ign i f ic ance ; i to ccurs i n a l t hree p eriods a t S . C orne l ia . Pa int ing i s e ven l ess c o mmon a nd o n ly 9 f i nd-spots i n S ou th E trur ia a re k nown t o me ( Fig . 6 .8) . T he d ecora t ion c onsis ts o f s tr ipes a nd s p lashes o f s l ip .
Most f rag men ts a re
sma l l a nd we h ave l i t t le i dea o f t he r ange o f mo t ifs ; Ih ave s een s tripes , s p ira ls a nd l oops. A t S . C orne l ia f our p a in ted f ragmen ts were f ound i n u n i ts a ss igned t o p er iod 2 a nd 1 1 i n u n i ts o f p er iod 3 ( Wh i tehouse 1 978:478-9 ; 1 980a ) . F ig . 6 .8
T he d istr ibu t ion o f Ung lazed p a inted p ot tery : * 33.
6 95523
* 34.
7 03507
* 111. * 124.
8 63583 8 12489
* 136 . * 156 .
8 98749 9 19651
* 167 . * 174.
9 92637 9 14575
* 191.
0 98656
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 3 25
OZ.
2 6
27
2 9
28
e m u.
30 F ig . 6 .9
F orum ware ( 2 5-31) a nd p o t tery w i th s parse g laze ( 1 :4) .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
3 26
3 1
b )
G lazed P ot tery The p r inc ipa lt ypes o f g lazed p ot tery ' mown , o r b e l ieved , t o h ave b een
made i n Ro me b efore c . 1 450 a l l o ccur i n t he S urvey a rea , a l though g lazed c ook ing p ots a re r are . I mpor ted p ot tery , o n t he o ther h and , wh ich o ccurs i n Ro me ( see C hap ter 7 ) , i s v ir tual ly a bsen t f ro m t he R o man C ampagna , where t he c o m monest t ypes a re :
1 .
1 . 2 .
F oru m ware P o t tery w i th s parse g laze
3 .
P ot tery w i th p la in g reen g laze
4 .
C era m ica l az ia le
5 .
Archa ic ma io l ica .
F orum ware Typ ica l F orum ware h as a c oarse , f a ir ly h ard f abr ic , wh ich v ar ies i n
c o lour f ro m d ark g rey t hrough g rey ish p ink t o r ed : i s g rey , w ith p ink o r g rey ish p ink u ng lazed s urfaces . f ro m Ro me r evea led t wo f abr ics ;
t he c o mmonest c o lour Th in s ec t ions o f s herds
( 1 ) w i th f requen t i nc lusions o f p a le g reen
a ug i te , p lag ioc lase f e lspar , s o me f rag men ts o f l imestone , al i t t le c her t a nd a bundant g ra ins o f s ubangu lar q uar tz , a nd ( 2 ) w i th f requen t g ra ins o f f e lspar ( b o th p lag ioclase a nd s an id ine ) , s o me s parse c a lcareous f ragmen ts , c her t a nd n u merous s ubangu lar g ra ins o f q uar tz . T he most c o m mon f orm i s t he j ug a nd t h is h as t h ick l ead g laze o n t he o u tside a nd t he i nside o f t he n eck , w i th s p lashes o n t he i n ter ior o ft he b ody a nd u nder t he b ase . T he g laze r anges f ro m d ark g reen t o b rown . The c o lours a re p a tchy a nd may v ary c onsiderab ly o n as ing le p iece.
C he m ica l a na lysis s ugges t t ha t t he g laze was a pp l ied a s
as l ip p repared f ro m t he c lay u sed f or t he p o t i t se lf . T he c o lour d er ives f rom i ron i n t he g laze m inera l , f ired i n ar educ ing a t mosphere . Many o f t he j ugs a nd o ther h o l low f orms ( 6 3 o ft he 7 2 v esse ls t abu la ted i n Wh i tehouse 1 967 :51) a re d ecora ted , e i ther w i th a pp l ied ' pe ta ls ' o r ( l ess o f ten ) w i th s i mp le c o mbed o r i nc ised o rnamen t .
T he p e ta ls a re p el lets o f c lay u sua l ly a rranged i n
v er t ica l r ows ( Wh i tehouse 1 978 :479-81 ;
Wi l l iams a nd O venden 1 978:508-9) .
The most c o mmon f or ms o f F oru m ware a re d escr ibed i n Wh i tehouse ( 1 978:480 ) a nd i l lustra ted i n F ig . 6 .9 : 1.J ug w i th o vo id o r s o met i mes g lobu lar b ody , r i l led c y l indr ica l n eck , s pou t a nd o va l o r k idney s ec t ion h and le . The s pou t i s e i ther ( a ) t ubu lar o r ( b ) p inched a nd p ressed a ga inst t he n eck . •T he c o mmonest f or m .
Mos t e xamp les f ro m t he L acus I uturnae a re e i ther 1 5-17 cm
o r 2 6-27 cm h igh ( F ig . 6 .9 , n os. 2 5-27 a nd 3 0 ) 2 . A s t ype 1( a ) , b u tt he s pou t i s a t tached t o t he n eck b y ap erfora ted p anel ( n o 2 8 ) . 3 . A s t ype 1( b ) b u tw i th t hree h and les ( no .2 9 ) . 4 . J ug w i th b road b icon ica l b ody , r iled c y l indr ica l n eck , s pou t o ft ype ( b ) a nd o va l o r k idney s ect ion h and le ( Wh i tehouse 1 965 :
f ig . 1 6 ,
n o . 2 d ) . 5 . J ug w i th b icon ica l b ody w i th h igh s hou lder , r i l led c y l indr ica l n eck , s pou t o ft ype ( a ) o r ( b ) a nd o va l o r k idney s ect ion h and le ( I b id : f ig . Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. 1 6 ,1982, n o . 2 c ). E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
3 27
6 . J ug w i th o vo id b ody , t a l l f lar ing n eck , l ong t ubu lar s pou t a nd o va l o r k idney s ect ion h and le ( cp . F ig . 6 .5, n o . 3 0 ) . 7 . J ar w ith s l igh t ly r ounded b ase , g lobu lar o r b icon ica l b ody , r if led n eck a nd t wo o va l o r k idney h and les ( I b id .: f ig . 1 7 , n o . 5 ) . F or o ther f orms , u sua l ly r epresen ted b y as ing le f ragmen t , s ee I V Iazzuca to ( 1 972) . T he d a te o f F orum ware i s s t i l l i n d ispu te. B a l lard in i ( 1 964 :143) , f ol lowed b y Wh i tehouse ( 1 965 :60-2 , e tc .) , b e l ieved t ha t i tb e longs t o t he e igh th o r n in th c en tury , wh i le S tevenson ( 1 954 :92) a nd , f or d iferen t r easons , Mazzuca to ( 1 968:153-5 , e tc .) b e l ieve t ha t i ti s l a ter . U n t i l r ecen t ly , t he d a t ing e vidence was a s f o l lows : a .
1 13.
S . C orne l ia . P er iod 1 ( wh ich e nded b y 7 74-6 ) c on ta ined 1wel ls tra t i f ied s herd , s ea led b y af l oor o f p er iod 2 . P er iod 2 ( wh ich b egan c .774-6 a nd e nded n o t l a ter t han c .1026-35) , t oge ther w i th u n i ts a t tr ibu ted t o e i ther p er iod 1 o r p er iod 2 , c on ta ined 1 8 f ragmen ts . A l though t he c hurch o f p er iod 2 p robab ly r e ma ined i n u se u n t i l t he monastery was b u i l t s hor t ly b e fore 1 035 , t he f arm b u i ld ings ( wh ich y ie lded most o f t he F orum ware ) may h ave a bandoned i n t he n in th c en tury ( Wh i tehouse 1 980a ) . T he o n ly way t o d e tach t he f irs t s herd f ro m a d a te i n o r b efore t he e ighth c entury i st o s uppose t ha t t he f l oor i n q ues t ion was i nser ted d ur ing t he u se ( ra ther t han t he c onstruc t ion ) o f p er iod 2 , i n wh ich c ase a n in th c en tury d ate b eco mes p oss ib le .
b .
2 8.
L e Mura d i S . S tefano .
S herds o f F orum ware r ecovered f ro m t he
make-up o ft he f l oor o f t he c hurch . The c hurch c on ta ined a marb le s creen d ecora ted i n a manner u sua l ly a t tribu ted t o t he n in th c en tury ( Wh i tehouse 1 979 :1980b :113) . c .
1 25.
S . Ru f ina .
P o t ter ( 1 979 :147 ) r epor ts t ha t "Forum ware v essels
were s ea led b y amosa ic f l oor ( t he f l oor o f t he c hapel : d a ted o n s ty list ic g rounds t o a bou t AD 7 50" . c on trad icts Ward-Perk ins ( 1 966 9 0 ;
s ee p . 3 10 )
Th is , h owever ,
1 968 :90 ) , who i s r igh t ly
c aut ious a bou t d a t ing t he mosa ic a nd i n a ny c ase s ta tes t ha t a l t he ma ter ia l b enea th i t was Ro man , w i th n o " recogn izab ly l a ter ma ter ia l" . d .
I so la S acra , n ear O st ia .
Dur ing t he e xcava t ion o ft he b asi l ica o f
S . I ppol i to , s herds o f F orum ware w ere r ecovered f ro m g raves i n f ron t o f t he f acade ( Mar inone C ard ina le 1 979 ) .
The g raves w ere i n
a n e nclosure b ounded b y a wa l l wh ich Mar inone C ard ina le r egards a s l a ter t han t he n in th c en tury b ecause a nother wa l l , o f i dent ica l c onstruc t ion , c on ta ined a f ragmen t o f a rch i tectura l s cu lp ture t o t he e ighth o r n inth c entury . I ft he g raves a re l a ter t han t he wa l l , s he a rgues , t he s herds , t oo , must b e l a ter. H owever , a par t f rom t he d a te o ft he wa ll we s hould b ear i n m ind t ha t t he ma ter ia l i n q ues t ion c onsists o f s herds f ro m a n a rea i n wh ich a pparen t ly i t was i mposs ib le t o r ecognise t he e dges o f g raves ( I b id .:251) . I ft he s herds c ame f ro m t he e ar th i n wh ich t he g raves were d ug ( and w i th which p res umab ly , t hey were f i l led ) , t he a rgumen t c o l lapses .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
3 28
The c on troversy o ver t he d a te o f F orum ware t ook a n u nexpected t urn i n 1 980 , when Dr . R ichard Reece c o mp le ted a s tudy o ft he c o ins f ro m t he L acus I u turnae , af oun ta in o ft he s econd c en tury BC i n t he Roman F oru m . I u turnae was e xcava ted b y G iaco mo B on i i n 1 900 .
The L acus
Wh ile emp ty ing t he b as in
( "nel v uo tare l a v asca" , B oni 1 901 :89 ) , B on i r ecovered , among o ther f i nds , 8 0 more o r l ess c o mp le te F orum ware v essels , o ne b roken p o t a nd s o me 1 ,500 f rag men ts 9 8) . B on i ( I b id .: 6 0 ) a ssumed t ha t t he f oun ta in was a bandoned w i th t he c rea t ion o f t he a d jacen t c hurch o f S . Mar ia An t igua . Wa l l p a in t ings i n t he c hurch i nc lude a p or tra i t o f P ope Z achar ias ( 7 41-52)—hence t he e igh th o r n in th c en tury d a te a t tr ibu ted t o t he p ot tery . The S opr in tendenza a rcheolog ica o f Ro me h as more t han 1 ,400 c o ins f ro m t he e xcava t ion o ft he L acus I u turnae . One h undred a nd t en o f t hese were i den t i f ied b y Dr I . D ondero ; a l l were o f t he f our th o r e ar ly f i f th c en tury ( Dondero 1 952:8) .
I n 1 979-80 , Dr Reece e xam ined t he r e ma in ing 1 ,310 p ieces .
T he l a tes t l eg ib le a re c o ins s ing le s pec i mens o f A tha lar ic ( 5 26-34) a nd ? Just in I ( 5 65-78) . Dr R eece r epor ts t ha t t he s ize a nd g enera l a ppearance o ft he i l leg ib le c o ins l eads t o t he c onc lusion t ha t n one i s l a ter t han c .600. T he a bsence o f s even th c entury c o ins may b e s ign if ican t b ecause t he l oca l m in t was s t i l l f unc t ion ing ;
b o th P hocas ( 6 02-10) a nd Herac l ius ( 6 10-41) , f or
e xa mp le , s truck sma l l c hange i n Ro me . A lthough we k now n o th ing o f t he p rec ise f i nd-spo ts o ft he c oins , t he f ac t t ha t t he s i te a s awho le y ie lded n one l ater t han t he s ix th c entury e s tab l ishes t ha t t he b as in i t se l f c on ta ined n oth ing l a ter t han c .600. We must c ons ider s er ious ly , t herefore , t he p ossib i l ity t hat F oru m ware i s l a te R o man , b e long ing , p erhaps , t o t he s ix th c entury . F oru m ware h as aw ide d istr ibu t ion i n L azio a nd r ound t he Tyrrhen ian S ea , f ro m L igur ia ( e .g . Ward-Perk ins 1 977 :4) a nd C ors ica ( D 'Arch i mbaud 1 972 :2-6 ) t o S ici ly ( Mazzuca to 1 972 :47 ; Ma l ta ( D 'Andria 1 969 :83 ) .
Ragona 1 976 :19) a nd p erhaps e ven
A l though k i lns may h ave e x isted e lsewhere , t he
d istr ibu t ion i s c onsis ten t w i th t he h ypothes is t ha t R o me was t he ma in c en tre o f p roduct ion , t ha t many o ft he p roducts were marketed l oca l ly a nd t ha ts o me were e xported b y s ea . I n L azio , s o me 3 0 f ind-spots a re k nown t o me ;
2 5 a ppear i n F ig . 6 .10.
Most o f t he s i tes a re i n t wo a reas : t he Ager Fa l iscus ( maps 1 43 INE a nd 1 43 IS E) a nd Ager V e ien tanus , w i th i t s e x tension t o t he T iber ( 1 43 I S E, 1 44 I I NO a nd 1 44 i f i SO ) . I nt he Ager F al iscus , we h ave s i tes 4 6 , 5 3 , 6 2 , 6 7 , 6 9 , 7 1 , 7 2 a nd 7 4 ; i n t he Ager V e ien tanus , s i tes * 111 , * 116 , * 117 , * 119 , * 147 , * 148, * 150 , 1 54 , 1 70 , 1 75 , * 176 , * 177 , * 181. I t may b e s ign i f ican t t ha t b o th c oncen tra t ion o ccur i n a reas i n wh ich t he s urveyors p a id c onsiderab le a t ten t ion t o med ieva l s i tes . The i mpor tance o ft hese s i tes f or t he s tudy o f t he med ieva l s e t t le men t i n S ou th E trur ia h as b een d iscussed o n s evera l o ccasions , n o tab ly b y P o t ter ( 1 975) a nd Wickham ( 1 980 ) , b o th o f who m worked o n t he a ssump t ion t ha t F oru m ware b e longed t o t he e igh th o r n in th c en tury .
P ot ter ( 1 975 :232) p o in ted
o u t t ha t f i ve o ft he e ight f i nd-spo ts i n t he Ager F al iscus ( s i tes 5 3 , 6 2, 6 1 , 7 1 a nd 7 4) a re more o r l ess r e mo te p ro mon tory o r p edesta l s i tes t he s tandard l oca t ion o f l a ter med ieva l v i l lages. He s ugges ted , t herefore , t ha t i ncas te ll a men t° i n s ou th E trur ia may h ave b een a g radua l p rocess , wh ich b egan b etween t he s even th a nd t he n in th c entur ies ( I b id .: 2 34-5) . Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 3 29
W ickha m , o n t he
o ther h and , c oncen tra ted o n s i tes i n t he Ager V e ien tanus a nd s ta ted c lear ly t ha t c onc lusions o b ta ined i n o ne p ar t o f S outh E trur ia d id n o t n ecessary h o ld g ood i n a no ther . I ndeed , t he c on trast w i th t he Ager F al iscus c ou ld h ard ly b e s tronger . O n ly t wo ( * 117 a nd * 150) o f t he t h ir teen s i tes i n t he Ager Veien tanus a re c astel l i a nd n ear ly a l l a re w i th in 1 km o f aR o man r oad o r ma jor med ieva l t rack . S i te * 181 a par t , t he f indspots f a l l i n to t hree g roups : S . C orne lia w i th * 116 , * 117 a nd * 119 ;
t he S acrofano a rea , w ith s i tes * 170 , 1 75 , 1 76 a nd * 177 ,
a nd s i tes 1 47 , 1 48 , 1 50 a nd 1 54. I fF orum ware d oes i ndeed b elong t o t he l a te R o man p er iod i t s o ccurrence o n d efensib le s i tes i n t he Ager F a l iscus a nd o pen s i tes i n t he Ager V eien tanus b eco mes e xp l icab le . More t han o nce , t he Ager Fal iscus was a f ron t ier z one a nd B rown ( 1 978 :330 ) may w e l l b e c orrect i n c onc lud ing t hat t he s i tes w ith F oru m w are "were s et u p f or d efens ive p urposes a nd ..., t he i n it iat ive may h ave c o me f ro m B yzan t ine m i l itary c o mmanders", a h ypothes is "i n l i ne w ith k nown B yzan t ine m i l itary p o l icy".
The o pen s i tes i n t he Ager V e ien tanus , o n
t he o ther h and , w ere p ar t o f t he p at tern o f d ispersed s et t le men t w h ich h ad p reva i led t hroughout t he R o man p er iod a nd i n s ome a reas c on t inued u n t i l ( and b eyond ) t he t en th c en tury ( W ickha m 1 978 :168-72 , 1 74-7 ; 1 979 :74-5 ) . T he d istr ibu t ion o f f i nd-spots o uts ide L az io i s c on ta ined a l most e n t ire ly w ith in t he a rea o f B yzan t ine c on tro l . 2 .
Pot tery w i th s parse g laze Wha tever t he d a te o f F oru m ware , a nd h owever l ong i tr e ma ined i n u se ,
i t was s ucceeded ( p erhaps a f ter ap er iod i n wh ich g lazed wares went o u t o f p roduc t ion ) b y p ot tery o n ly p ar t ly c overed w i th s treaks a nd s p lashes o f g reen o r g reen ish-brown g laze . I n I t a l ian l i tera ture ( e .g . Mazzuca to 1 976 :6 ) , i ti s k nown a s C era m ica c on v e tr ina p esan te a macch ia . S parse g laze o ccurs o n f or ms t yp ica l o f l oca l p roduct ion b e tween t he n in th a nd a bou t t he t wel f th c en tur ies. Vesse ls , most ly j ugs , a re t h inly p ot ted w i th af i ne b uf f , p ink o r r edd ish f abric . S ur faces , a nd i np ar t icu lar t he n ecks o f j ugs , may b e l i ght ly r if led . The g laze v ar ies i n c olour f ro m y e l low ish g reen t o b rown , b u t i s u sua l ly g reen o r g reen ish b rown .
I to ccurs o n t he o u tside
o ft he v essel i n s po ts , s p lashes o r ( rare ly ) s tr ipes , a nd i ti s o f ten impossib le t o d eter m ine whether i nd iv idua l s herds were g lazed d e l ibera tely , o r b y a cc iden t . The g laze i s t h in , w i th n u merous " p inho les" c aused b y g as e scap ing f ro m t he c lay w hen t he p o t was f i red . O ccasiona l ly , p a tches o f g laze a ppear a s r ough , f r i tl ike e ncrusta t ions . T he g laze h ad n o p ract ica lv a lue a nd s o p resumab ly was t hought t o b e d ecora t ive . The mos t c o m mon s hape i s ab icon ica l j ug .
F ig .6 .9 , 3 1 i s ac o mp lete
e xa mp le f ro m R o me , wh ich d eparts f ro m t he n orm i nh av ing a b r idged s pou t ( cp . S . C orne l ia , f ig . 8 ,80 ) , whereas p inched s pou ts w i thou t b r idges ( cp . S . C orne l ia , f ig . 8 ,79) a re t yp ica l , a nd h ad a n u nusual ly e ven g laze , b u t n ever theless w i l l s erve a s a" type f oss i l" . The d a te a t wh ich p o t tery w i th s parse g laze c ame i n to u se i s i nd icated c lear ly b y t he f i nds f ro m S . C orne l ia . 1 5.5% o f a l l t he p o t tery f ro m u ni ts a t tr ibu ted t o p er iod 2 c ons ist o f s herds w i th s parse g laze , c o mpared w i th o nly 7 .6% o f a l t he p o t tery f ro m p er iod 3 .
I ts ee ms improbab le , t herefore ,
t ha t p ot tery w i th s parse g laze was n ot i n u se f ro m a n e ar ly s tage i n p er iod Andrews, David,2 John Osborne, David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies Ino Architecture, Ceramics. . Thus ,and u n l ess we h av e g o t t he c hr no logyPainting o f S .andC o rne l ia E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
3 30
h ope less ly wrong ,
• 46
• 74 • 72
• 53
. •71 62
69 • 67
•1 54 1 87
•
1 50
1 76
• 28
.181
• 11 • 19 .117
,
77 •1 • 1 75
• 34
• 1 23
2 0
ROME
I
I
km .
F ig . 6 .10 * 28.
The d istr ibut ion o f F oru m ware 7 33615
* 34.
7 03507
* 46.
8 84816
* 53.
8 20779
( Pot ter 1 975:232, r ight ly emend ing Ma l let t a nd Whi tehouse
6 2.
8 56756
( Pot ter 1 972:144)
* 67.
8 62735
* 69.
8 66757
7 1.
8 67758
* 72.
8 67788
1 967)
7 4.
8 69803
* 111.
8 63583
* 117.
8 73577
* 119.
8 76563
1 23.
7 98455
* 150.
9 10628
( Pot ter 1 975:232) : 232)
( Pot ter 1 979:147)
1 54.
9 14676
( Kahane e t a l ., 1 968:179)
1 75.
9 17547
( records o f t he S ou t h E trur ia S urvey )
* 176.
9 19609
* 177.
9 22559
* 181.
9 46589
1 87.
0 50657
( Mazzuca to 1 972:41) .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. I n a ddi t ion , P ot ter ( 1975 :232) r epor ts 3 f ind-spots n ear C er i ( wh ich i s Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor o ur s i te 8 a t 6 42534) .
S i tes * 121 ( a t 8 83610 ) a nd * 170 ( 904532) e ach y ie lded
as ing le s herd , wh ich i s e ither F oru m ware o r p ot tery w i th s parse g laze .
• 42 • 44 •46
39 0 • 66
. — 7 4
• 53 • 47 62 • •51
• 1 5
•
• 6 1
•• 69 •
7 1
•13
67
82 •9 1 •97
• 2 4
•3
•143 •8 1
• 95 • 88 \b 85
•15 i k i 56 1 47 1 46 6 %150
.121 • 1 22
• 28 • 102 • 1 11
• 16
• 30
• 1 03
• 1 87 1 91 • 1 66 •• 1 67
1 73 • 1 72 • 1 74 1 71 • • 1 77
• 1 92
• 33 • 3 4
• 7
• 1 23
1
2 0 I
ROME
km .
F ig . 6 .11
The d istribu t ion o f p ot tery w i th s parse g laze .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
3 32
s parse g laze was a lready p resen t i n t he n in th c en tury ;
i ndeed , Is uspec t
t ha t i t must h ave b een wel l e stab l ished b y c .850 , i fn ot b efore . wh ich i t wen t o u t o f u se i s more d if f icu l tt o e s tab l ish .
The d a te a t
Po t tery w i th s parse
g laze i s t he t yp ica l t ab leware f ound o n d eser ted p edes ta l a nd p ro mon tory s ites , f ro m o ne e nd o f S ou th E trur ia t o t he o ther .
Wickha m ( espec ia l ly i n
1 979 :87-92) c onstruc ts a p owerfu l c ase f or s uppos ing t ha t i ncastel lamen to , t he p rocess o f c oncentra t ing r ura l s e t t le men t i n c astel li ( i .e . o n p edesta ls a nd p ro mon tor ies) , g o t u nder way i n t he t en th c en tury a nd c on t inued t herea f ter f or t wo h undred y ears o r more .
I fs uch was t he c ase , s parse g laze was
c er ta in ly i n u se i n t he t enth c entury a nd p robab ly i n u se f or s o me t ime a f ter t ha t d a te.
A t p resen t , h owever , we h ave n o means o f k now ing h ow l ong i t
r e ma ined i n p roduct ion , a lthough t he p resence o f4 50 s herds i n p er iod 3 a t S . C ornel ia p roves t ha t i t was s t i l l c urren t i n t he e ar ly- t o mid-e leven th c en tury . F ig . 6 .11 s hows t he o ccurrence o f p ot tery w ith s parse g laze o n 5 2 s i tes n or th o f Ro me a nd we c anno t a vo id t he c onclus ion t ha t , h owever l ong i t s c urrency , t he p roduc t was r eadi ly a va i lab le t hroughou t t he a rea i n q ues t ion .
F ig . 6 .11
The d is tr ibu t ion o f p ot tery w ith s parse g laze * 3.
6 56683
9 1.
8 52701
7 .
6 41467
9 5.
8 64652
* 15.
7 18733
9 7.
8 70688
* 24.
7 86686
1 02.
8 40625
* 28.
7 33615
* 103.
8 45553
* 30.
7 68559
* 111.
8 63583
* 33.
6 95523
* 116.
8 72557
* 34.
7 03507
* 121.
8 83610
* 39.
8 48624
1 22.
8 84604
* 42.
8 72830
1 23.
7 98455
* 44.
8 78823
* 136 .
8 98749
* 46 .
8 84816
* 143.
8 97667
4 7.
8 02773
1 46 .
9 01638
5 1.
8 17739
* 147 .
9 02639
* 53.
8 20779
* 150 .
9 10628
6 1.
8 47738
1 55.
9 17654
6 2.
8 56756
* 156 .
9 19651
* 66 .
8 60804
* 166 .
9 88637
* 67.
8 62735
* 167 .
9 92637
* 69. 7 1.
8 66757 8 67758
* 171. * 172.
9 04543 9 08600
7 4.
8 69803
* 173.
9 09536
* 81.
7 93663
* 174.
9 14575
8 2.
8 12718
1 87 .
0 50657
* 85.
8 31634
* 191.
0 98656
* 88.
8 48642
* 192.
0 51532
S i tes * 121 ( a t 8 83610 ) a nd * 170 ( 9 04532) e ach y ie lded a s ing le s herd , wh ich i s e ither F oru m ware o r p ot tery w i th s parse g laze .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
3 33
32
A
F ig . 6 .12
C eram ica l azia le ( 3 2) a nd Archa ic ma io l ica ( 1 :4) .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
3 34
3 .
P ot tery w i th p la in g reen g laze .
S urpr is ing ly , t h is i st he l east c o m mon v ar ie ty o f med ieva l g lazed p ot tery ( impor ts a par t ) i n S ou th E trur ia . Ih ave s een o n ly ah andfu l o f s herds ( such a s Wh i tehouse 1 967 : f i g . 3 , 5 , f ro m P ie traper tusa ) a nd t he s amp le o f 7 019 s herds f ro m p eriod 3 a tS . C orne l ia c on ta ined o n ly 8 f ragmen ts ( 0 .1% ) .
P o ts
w i th p la in g reen g laze , p resu mab ly i mpor ted f ro m s ou thern I t a ly o r t he Maghreb , a ppeared i n R o me w i th in a g enera t ion o f 1 100 . We d o n o t k now when l oca l p rod uc t ion b egan , b u t t he e x istence i n Ro me a nd a t F ar fa a bbey o f " loca l" f orms , s uch a s j ugs a nd g lobu lar amphorae , w i th p la in g reen g laze s hows t ha t s o me a t l east o f t he p o ts were made i n L azio. 4 -5. Ceram ica l az ia le a nd Archa ic ma io l ica Both c a tegor ies a re w ide ly k nown ; ( 1 976) a nd Wh i tehouse ( 1 976 ; Wh i tehouse ( 1 967 :66-79 ;
f or C eram ica l azia le , s ee Mazzuca to
1 978 :485-6 ) a nd f or Archa ic ma io l ica , s ee
1 978:486 ) .
L et i ts u f f ice h ere t o n o te t ha t C eram ica
l az ia le was made i n R o me i n t he t we lf th a nd t h ir teenth c en tur ies .
I ti s d ec-
o ra ted w i th l ea f s crol ls , g eo me tr ic mo t i fs a nd o ccas iona l b irds o r s h ields i n manganese a nd g reen o r manganese , g reen a nd y e l low-brown . I n most c ases , t he g laze i s t h in a nd more o r l ess t ransparen t , a l though s o me p ieces a ppear t o h ave a n o paque wh i te s urface .
Archa ic ma iol ica , wh ich c ame i n to p roduct ion
o ver a w ide a rea o f c entra l a nd n or thern I t a ly i n t he t h ir teen th c en tury , h as at i n-opac if ied wh i te e na me l a nd i s d ecora ted i n magnanese a nd g reen . Exa mp les o f b oth c a tegor ies , a l l f ound i n R o me , a re s hown i n F ig . 6 .12. The f i nds f ro m S ou th E trur ia d o l i t t le t o e nhance o ur k now ledge o f t he t ypology o r d a te o f e i ther c a tegory .
I ndeed , many o f t he s herds a re s o sma l l
a nd c orroded t ha t t hey d efy r ecogn i t ion a s o ne p roduct o r t he o ther . F or t h is r eason , Id o n ot a t te mp t t o d ist ingu ish b etween t he m i n t he d istr ibu t ion map ( F ig . 6 .13) , wh ich s hows 3 3 s i tes s ca t tered o ver t he whole o f t he a rea s urveyed . N ever the less , i ts ee ms c lear t ha t b o th C eram ica l az ia le a nd A rcha ic ma jo l ica w ere a va i lab le t hroughou t t he r eg ion a nd Ih ave n o d oub t t ha t t he nu mber o ff i nd-spo ts wou ld b e v ery much l arger , i fi t were p ossib le t o c ol lect med ieva l ma ter ial f ro m more o f t he p edesta l a nd p ro montory s i tes s t i ll o ccup ied t oday . F ig . 6 .12 3 2.
C eram ica l azia le ( 3 2) a nd Archa ic ma iol ica ( 1 :4) J ug , h t . 2 1.6 cm , w i th f la t b ase , o vo id b ody , t aper ing c y l indr ica l n eck , p inched s pou t a nd s trap h and le. D ecora ted i n manganese , g reen a nd y el low-brown ( ha tched ) . An t iquar ium o ft he Ro man F orum
A .
D ish , d ia . 2 5.6 cm , w i th f la t b ase , s ha l low f lar ing s ide a nd f l ange r im . Weak r ed f abr ic . Wh i te e name l o n t he i nside a nd y e l lowb rown g laze o n t he e x ter ior . Decora ted i n manganese a nd g reen . V a t ican Museu ms.
B .
B ow l , d ia . 1 9 .3 Cm , w i th f l a t b ase , c urv ing s ide , c o l lar a nd t hree o r f our g rooved o va l-sec t ion h and les. Wh i te e name l o n t he i nside a nd y e l low-brown g laze o n t he e x ter ior . Decora ted i n manganese a nd g reen . Va t ican Museums.
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
3 35
•4 2
.6 6
• 7 4
• 53 •4 7 • 62 • 1 9
0 13
• 9 1 1 57
2 4 • •
• 1 56
• 89
1 87 1 66 •• 1 67
• 28 •182 • 12 • 11 • 15 • 1 03
• 29
• 1 74
• 1 80
••170 1 69 • 33
•35
• 1 24
•123
i
F ig . 6 .13
2 0 1 k m .
ROME
The d istr ibu t ion o f c era m ica l azia le a nd a rcha ic ma iol ica .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
3 36
•1 93
C .
J ug , h t . 1 8.6 cm , w i th f la t b ase , o vo id b ody , c y l indr ica l n eck , p e l ican s pou t ( m iss ing ) a nd s trap h and le .
Weak r ed f abr ic.
Wh i te
e na me l o n t he o u tside a nd y e llow-brown g laze o n t he i nter ior . Decora ted i n manganese a nd g reen .
F ig . 6 .13
Va t ican Museu ms.
The d istr ibu t ion o f C era m ica l azia le a nd Archa ic ma io l ica * 3.
6 56683
1 12.
8 63585
* 19.
7 74749
* 115.
8 71560
* 24 .
7 86686
* 123.
7 98455
* 28.
7 33615
* 124.
8 12489
2 9.
7 53550
* 136.
8 98749
* 33.
6 95523
* 156.
9 19651
* 35.
7 74522
* 157 .
9 28687
* 42.
8 72830
* 47.
8 02773
* 166 . * 167.
9 88637 9 92637
* 53.
8 20779
* 169.
9 02531
6 2.
8 56756
1 70 .
9 04532
* 66 .
8 60804
* 174.
9 14575
7 4 .
8 69803
* 180.
9 36576
8 9.
8 51649
* 182.
9 48602
9 1.
8 52701
* 187.
0 50657
* 103.
8 45553
* 193.
0 59599
* 111.
8 63583
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
APPENDIX POTTERY FRO M TORRE BUSSON , BEL MONTE AND P IETRAPERTUSA
T he f irs t e xcava t ions o f medieva l s i tes i n S ou th E trur ia c onsisted o f e xp lora tory t renches a t s ites 1 36 ( Torre B usson ) , 1 56 ( Be l Mon te ) a nd 1 74 ( P ie traper tusa ) , c arr ied o u t b y me mbers o f t he Dan ish I nst i tu te a nd t he B r i t ish S choo l a t Ro me u nder t he d irec t ion o f Dr . Hans S t iesda l a nd w i th a dvice f ro m Dr J . B . Ward-Perk ins.
Ar epor t o n t he e xcava t ions a ppeared i n Ana lecta
Romana ( S t iesda l 1 962) , b u t w i th o n ly a b r ief n o te o n t he p o t tery .
T he p urpose
o f t h is a ppendix i s t o p ub l ish a s elect ion o f t he f inds , w i th p ar t icu lar r eference t o ag roup o f ma ter ia lf ro m P ietraper tusa . T he g roup i n q ues t ion was f ound i n t he f i l l ing o f ac ess p it a t t he f oo t o f t he t ower , which d om ina tes t he s i te .
T he c ess p i t was " f il led w i th e ar th a nd
i t s c over l ost , b u t t he f i nds o fp ot tery f ragmen ts i nc luded i nt he mor tar i nd ica te t ha t i t was c overed b y as or t o fv au l t ing p ar t ly c ons ist ing o f i nver ted p o t tery j ars ( I b id .: 76)" . F ig . 6 .14 , n os. 1 -9 a l lh ave mor tar a dher ing . t hey c a me f ro m t he v aul t a nd a re c on te mporary .
P resumab ly , t herefore ,
They a re s herds o f g lobu lar
amphorae a nd C era _m ica l azia le j ugs , o ne o f wh ich i s awaster . The g roup may b e c o mpared w i th ma ter ia l f ro m t wo p i ts o n t he s i te o f t he T ea tro Argen t ina , Ro me , f or wh ich Mazzuca to ( 1 972 :111 ) s uggests a d ate "n o t l a ter t han t he e nd o ft he t h ir teen th o r t he b eg inn ing o ft he f our teen th c en tury"
F or
t he u se o f amphorae i n t he c onstruc t ion o f medieva l v au l ts i n L azio , s ee Mazzuca to ( 1 970a ) . The f i nds f ro m T orre B us s on , wh ich was o ccup ied u n t il t he f i f teen th c entury , i fn ot c ons iderab ly l a ter , i nc lude b o th l a te- a nd p os t- med ieva l ma ter ia l . Among t he l a tter i s o ne p iece o f g ra f f i ta ( F ig . 6 .14 , 3 8) , ac lass o f t ab le ware wh ich a t Tuscan ia ( V t ) d id n o t a ppear u n t i l t he mid-f i f teen th c en tury a nd was n o t i n c o m mon u se u n t il a c entury a f ter t ha t ( J ohns 1 973 :92) .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
3 39
1 2
mom»
1 0
U t9
7
1
1 5
1 „ mom 4 I m i%
1 6 1 8 1 71
2 0
P
2 1
e t
2 2
2 4
2 3
2 5
2 6
2 7 2 8
3 3
3 6
•
3 4
3 2
3 1
3 5
3 7
4 2
I F ig . 6 .14
mm i
+ 1/ 4 1
i s ■ J
(
39
4 3
P ot tery f ro m P ie tra P er tusa , B el Mon te a nd T orre B usson ( 1 :4) .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
3 40
F ig . 6 .14
P o t tery f ro m P ietraper tusa , B el Mon te a nd Torre Busson ( 1 :4)
P ie traper tusa 1 -2.
Very p a le b rown f abr ic. u n i t T IV 9 .
3 -7 .
Cera m ica l azia le .
B o th h ave mortar a dher ing .
A l l h ave mor tar a dher ing .
8 .
Ceram ica l azia le .
Mor tar a dher ing .
9 .
Cera m ica l azia le .
A was ter :
Mor tar a dher ing .
B o th c o me f ro m
A l l f ro m T I 3 .
N o p rovenance .
t he b ase i s s p l i t a nd t he g laze b l is tered .
T I2 .
1 0.
Presumab ly C era m ica l azia le .
T IV I .
1 1.
Cera m ica l azia le o r Archa ic ma iol ica .
1 2.
Cera m ica l azia le .
T IV 9 .
1 3 .
Cera m ica l az ia le .
T I 2 .
1 4. 1 5.
Cera m ica l az ia le . Ceram ica l az ia le .
T I 6 . T IV 1 4 . T I6 .
T IV 2 6 .
1 6 .
Cera m ica l az ia le .
1 7 .
Cp . C era m ica l azia le , b u t w i th wh i te g laze .
1 8. 1 9.
Cp . C era m ica l azia le , b u t w i th o paque wh i te g laze . Ceram ica l az ia le T I V 2 0.
2 0.
Cp . C era m ica l azia le , b u t w i th b l is tered c rea m g laze .
S ur face . U nstrat if ied . T I2 0.
B el Monte 2 1.
Reduced f abr ic .
V I 2 .
2 2.
Reduced f abr ic V I II .
2 3.
P ink f abr ic .
V I 2 .
2 4.
Fabr ic p erhaps o r ig ina l ly p ink , b u tn ow b urn t g rey-brown .
2 5.
P ink f abr ic. I .
2 6.
Reduced f abr ic V I2 .
2 7.
Reduced f abr ic . V I I I .
2 8.
P ink f abr ic.
2 9.
Very p a le b rown f abr ic.
3 0.
P o t tery w i th s parse g laze.
C o mbed .
V I I .
V I I I . B rown s tr ipes . I .
3 1.
P ink f abr ic .
3 2.
P o t tery w i th s parse g laze.
VI I I .
S cra tched d ecora t ion u nder b rown ish y e l low g laze . S cra tched d ecorat ion .
V I 2 .
I .
Torre B usson 3 3.
Harsh r ed f abr ic.
Th in y e l low ish g laze o n i nter ior a nd t op o f r im .
u nstra t i f ied . 3 4.
R educed f abr ic .
3 5.
P ink f abr ic .
I I .
U nstra t i f ied .
3 6.
P ink f abr ic w i th a l most c o lour less mi lky g laze o n i nside .
3 7.
P ot tery w i th s parse g laze.
3 8.
Hard p ink f abr ic w i th wh i te s l ip o n i n ter ior .
Unstra t if ied .
I I . I ncised o rna men t e n l ivened
w i th p urp le a nd y el low-brown u nder y el low ish g laze , wh ich c overs b o th s ur faces .
I I .
3 9.
Hard p ink f abr ic .
4 0 .
Ma io l ica d ecora ted i n b rown a nd d ark b lue .
O paque wh i te g laze o r e na me l o n i n terior .
4 1.
A s a bove .
4 2.
Ma iol ica d ecora ted w i th d ark b lue a nd mustard y e l low .
Unstra t i f ied .
U nstra t i f ied .
Andrews, David,4 John and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In u Architecture, and Ceramics. 3. Osborne, Ma io l ic a d e cora ted w i th d a rk b l e . V Painting 4 . E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
3 41
I1 .
B IBL IOGRAPHY Duchesne L ., 1 886 . Duncan G ., 1 958.
L e L iber P ont i f ica l is I .
" Su tr i ( Su tr iu m ) .
P ar is.
Notes o n S ou thern E trur ia , 3 " P apers
o f t he B r it ish S choo l a t Ro me ( h ereaf ter PBSR ) 2 6 , p p . 6 3-134. F edele P ., 1 899.
" Car te d e l monaster io d e i S S C os ma e Da m iano i n M ica
Aurea , s ecc. X e X I , c on t inuazione , Arch iv io d e l la S oc ieta Ro mana d i S tor ia P a tr ia 2 2, p p . 2 5-107 . F reder iksen M . W . a nd J . B . Ward-Perk ins 1 957 . "T he a nc ien t r oad s yste ms o f t he c en tra l a nd s ou thern Ager F a l iscus . N o tes o n S ou thern E trur ia , 2 , PBSR 2 5 , p p . 6 7-203 . G eertman H ., n .d .
More V eteru m .
He mph i l l P ., 1 975.
' The Cass ia-C lod ia s urvey ', PBSR 4 3 , p p . 1 18-72.
J ones G . D . B ., 1 962.
G ron ingen .
" Capena a nd t he Ager Capenas , Par t I " , PBSR 3 0 ,
p p . 1 16-207. J ones G . D . B ., 1 963.
" Capena a nd t he Ager Capenas , P ar t I " , PBSR 3 1 ,
p p . 1 00-58. K ahane A . M ., 1 977.
" F ie ld s urvey o f a n a rea s ou th a nd wes t o f La S tor ta" ,
PBSR 4 5 , p p . 1 38-90 . Kahane A . M ., L . Murray Thre ip land a nd J . Ward-Perk ins , 1 968.
" The
Ager V e ien tanus , N or th a nd East o f Ro me" , PBSR 3 6 , p p . 1 -218. L awrence A . W., 1 964 .
" Ear ly med ieva l f or t i f ica t ions n ear Ro me" , PBSR
3 2, p p . 8 9-122. Ly t tel ton M . a nd F . S ear , 1 977.
" A Ro man v i l la n ear Angu i l lara S abaz ia",
PBSR 4 5 , p p . 2 27-51. Mal let t M ., 1 970.
"Med ieva l a nd l a ter h istory o f Mon teros i", T ransact ions
o f t he Amer ican P h i losoph ica l S oc iety 6 0 , p t . 4 , p p . 1 3-6. Ma l le t t M . a nd D . Wh i tehouse , 1 967 .
" Castel P orc iano :
a n a bandoned
med ieva l v il lage o f t he Ro man Ca mpagna" , PBSR 3 5 , p p .113-46. Mar t inor i E ., 1 932-4.
L az io t urr i to .
Ro me .
Mazzuca to 0 ., 1 970a ,
" Cera m iche med ieva l i n elred i l izia r o mana" , A t t i
d e l 3 ° C onvegno I n ternaziona le d el la C era m ica , A lb iso la , p p . 3 39-61. Mazzuca to 0 ., 1 970b .
" Capran ica .
R elazione s u i s agg i d i s cavo p resso l e
' Torn id 'Or lando ' " , No t izie d eg l i S cavi , 8 th s er ies , 2 5, p p . 3 30-67 . Mazzucato 0 ., 1 972 . Mazzuca to 0 ., 1 976 .
L a c era m ica av etr ina p esante .
Ro me .
L a c era m ica l azia le d e i s eco l i X 1-2 ( I I I .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
3 42
R o me.
Mazzucato O ., 1 977 . L a c eram ica l az ia le n el l 'a l to med ioevo . Ro me . Nard ino F ., 1 647.
L 'an t ico V e io .
Ro me .
Og i lv ie R . M ., 1 965 . " Eretu m" , PBSR 3 3 , p p . 7 0-112. P ot ter T . W., 1 972.
" Excava t ions i n t he med ieva l c en tre o f Mazzano Ro mano" ,
PBSR 4 0 , p p . 1 35-45. P ot ter T . W., 1 975.
" Recen t i r icerche i n E trur ia Mer id iona le :
p rob le m i
d el la t ransizione d a l t ardo a n t ico a l l 'a lto med ioevo" , Archeo log ia Med ieva le 2 , p p . 2 15-36 . P ot ter T . W., 1 978.
" Popu la t ion h ia tus a nd c on t inu i ty :
t he c ase o f t he
S ou th E trur ia s urvey" i n B lake H . McK ., T . W. P o t ter a nd D . B . Wh itehouse ( eds .) P apers i n I t a l ian Archaeo logy I , p t . i 3Ox for c l ( BAR S upp le men tary S er ies 4 1) , p p . 9 9-116 . P o t ter T . W., 1 979. S t iesdal H ., 1 962.
T he c hang ing l andscape o f S ou th E trur ia .
L ondon .
" Three d eser ted v i l lages i n t he Ro man C a mpagna" ,
Ana lecta Ro mana I ns t i tu t i Dan ic i 2 , p p . 6 3-100 . T o masset t i G . ( w i th F . T o masset t i ) , 1 910-26 . a n t ica , med ieva le e moderna . T oubert P ., 1 973.
L a C a mpagna R o mana ,
Ro me .
L es s truc tures d u L a t iu m med ieva l.
Ward-Perk ins J . B ., 1 955.
Ro me .
" No tes o n S ou th E trur ia a nd t he Ager Ve ien tanus" ,
PBSR 2 3 , p p . 4 4-72. Ward-Perk ins J . B ., 1 961.
" Ve i i .
The h istor ica l t opography o f t he a nc ien t
c ity" , PBSR 2 9 , p p . 1 -123. Ward-Perk ins J . B ., 1 963.
C on tr ibu t ion t o Megaw A . H . S . e t a l .,
"T he
Br i t ish S choo ls a broad , 1 962" , An t iqu i ty 3 7 , p p . 3 6-45. Ward-Perk ins J . B ., 1 964.
L andscape a nd H istory i n C en tra l I t a ly . Ox ford
( second J . L . Myres Me mor ia l L ec ture ) . Ward-Perk ins J . B ., 1 966 .
C on tr ibu t ion t o Megaw A . H . S . e t a l ., " The
Br it ish S chools a broad , 1 965" , An t iqu i ty 4 0 , p p . 8 7-99 . Ward-Perk ins J . B ., 1 967 .
C on tr ibu t ion t o Megaw A . H . S . e t a l ., " The
Br it ish S choo ls a broad , 1 966" , An t iqu i ty 4 1 , p p . 1 25-36 . Wickha m C . J ., 1 978a .
" Histor ica l a spects o f med ieva l s ou th E trur ia" ,
i n B lake H . McK ., T . W. P o t ter a nd D . B . Wh i tehouse ( eds .) , Papers i n I t a l ian Archaeo logy I , p t . i , Ox ford ( BAR s upp le men tary S er ies 4 1) , p p . 3 73-90 . W ickha m C . J ., 1 978b .
" Histor ica l a nd Topograph ica l No tes o n Ear ly Med ieva l
S ou th E trur ia ( Par t One )" , PBSR 4 6 , p p . 1 32-79 . W ickha m C . J ., 1 979.
" Historica l a nd Topograph ica l No tes o n Ear ly Med ieva l
S ou th E trur ia ( Par t Two )" , PBSR 4 7 , p p . 6 6-95. Wh i tehouse D . B ., 1 965. " Foru m ware : ad ist inct ive t ype o f e ar ly med ieva l g lazed p ot tery i n t he Ro man Ca mpagna" , Med ieva l Archaeo logy 9 , p p . 5 5-63. Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
3 43
Wh i tehouse D . B ., 1 966 .
"Med ieva l p a in ted p ot tery i n s ou th a nd c en tra l
I ta ly" Med ieva l Archaeo logy 1 0 , p p . 3 0-44. Wh itehouse D . B ., 1 967.
" The med ieva l g lazed p ot tery o f L azio , PBSR 3 5 ,
p p . 4 0-86 . Wh i tehouse D . B ., 1 976 .
" Cera m ica l azia le" , PBSR 4 4 , p p . 1 57-70 .
Wh i tehouse D . B ., 1 978.
" The med ieva l p ot tery o f Ro me" , i n B lake H . McK .,
T . W. P o t ter a nd D . B . Wh i tehouse ( eds .) , P apers i n I t a l ian Archaeo logy I , p t . i , Ox ford ( BAR S upp le men tary s er ies 4 1) , p p . 4 75-93. Wh i tehouse D . B ., 1 979.
" Le Mura d i S . S tefano" , Archeo log ia Med ieva le
6 , p p . 2 63-8. Wh i tehouse D . B ., 1 980a .
" The med ieva l p ot tery f ro m S . C ornel ia" , PBSR
4 8 ( i n p ress) . Wh itehouse D . B ., 1 980b .
" Angu il lara :
a n i n troduct ion" , i n Pa in ter K . ( ed .) ,
R o man v i l las i n I t a ly , L ondon ( Br i t ish Museum O ccas iona l Paper 2 4) , p p . 1 11-8. Wil l ia ms D . F . a nd P . J . O venden , 1 978.
"Med ieva l P o t tery f ro m R o me :
p etrograph ica l a nd c he m ica l a na lyses" , i n B lake H . McK ., T . W. P ot ter a nd D . B . Wh itehouse ( eds.) , P apers i n I t a l ian Archaeo logy I , p t . i , Ox ford ( BAR S upp le men tary S er ies 4 1) , p p . 5 07-14.
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
3 44
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
P la te 7 .I .
Ro me , S s G iovann i e Pao lo.
The c ampan i le f ro m t he s ou th .
3 46 Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
7 .
THE BACIN I OF S S G IOVANN I E PAOLO , RO ME Dav id Wh i tehouse
S s G iovanni e P ao lo i s o ne o f e leven b u i ld ings i n R o me , wh ich c onta in b ac in i e ar lier t han c . 1 250 . 1 .
These a re :
SP rassede , 1 073-85 , b u t t he b ac in i may b e l a ter (Mazzuca to 1 976 : 2 8-33; B er t i a nd T ong iorg i : n .d . )
2 .
S Mar ia d e l la L uce , 1 099-1118 ( Mazzuca to 1 976 :34-40 )
3 .
SB ar to lo meo d e l l ' I so la , 1 099-1118
4 .
SL orenzo i n P isc ibus , b efore 1 144
5 .
SC roce i n G erusa le m me , 1 144-5
6 .
S Mar ia N uova , 1 168
7 .
S s G iovanni e P ao lo , c . 1 180 ( see b e low )
8 .
SE usta .ch io , 1 190
9 -10 . Abbaz ia d e l le Tre F on tane : l a ter t han 1 216-27;
( 9 )
S s V incenzo e Anastasio, n ot
( 10 ) " Arch o f C har le magne", c . 1 220 (Mazzuca to
1 973 :40-4 ) 1.
S s Q ua ttro C orona t i :
c hape l o f SS i lves tro , 1 246 ( i bid . : 45-7) .
The c ampani le o f S s G iovanni e P ao lo ( P l . 7 .I )o r ig ina l ly c onta ined 3 6 b ac in i b ut , b y t he t ime r estora t ion b egan i n 1 948 , o n ly 1 2 c o mp lete or a l mos t c o mp lete v esse ls s urv ived , t oge ther w i th 8 d iagnost ic f rag ments a nd 2 s craps . Adr iano Prand i , who r estored t he b as i l ica , r ecorded t he p osi tions o f a l l 3 6 b ac in i a nd c a ta logued t he s urv ivors ( Prandi 1 953 :495-527 a nd p l . XXIX , wh ich Ih ave a dap ted i n F ig . 7 .1) .
H ere , Is ha l l d escr ibe t he 2 0 s ignif icant p ieces
a nd d iscuss t he m i n t he c on tex t o fo ther b ac in i , b oth i n R o me a nd e lsewhere . DATE We d o n o t k now t he p rec ise d a te a t wh ich t he c a mpan i le was f inished . However , Prandi d emons tra ted t ha t i t was b ui l ti n t wo s tages —(1) t he f irs t t wo o rders , p erhaps w i th p ar t o f t he t h ird , a nd ( 2 ) t he u pper o rders ( Prandi 1 953 :351-3 ) —and t ha t i t was a lready c o mp le te when h is " convent 3 " was f i n ished i n t he l a te t we lf th c en tury ( i b id . : 363 ) .
H e ma inta ined o n s ty list ic
g rounds t ha t i t was c o mp le ted s hor t ly af ter t he t ower o f S Mar ia Nuova , i n 1 168 ( i bid . : 360 ) . T he b ac in i b e long t o t he s econd p er iod o f c ons truc t ion .
Wh i le t he p ots i n
t he u pper o rders were p laced i n p os i t ion when t he b r icks were l a id, t he t hree e xa mp les i n t he s econd o rder ( our n os . 4 , 1 0 a nd 2 0 ) were i nser ted i n c av i t ies c arved i n e x is t ing b r ickwork a nd f i xed w i th a d if feren t t ype o f mor tar ( i bid .: 3 51-3 a nd f igs . 3 30-3 ) .
I ft he s econd p er iod o f c ons truc t ion t ook p lace s hor t ly
af ter t he c o mp le t ion o ft he t ower o f S Mar ia N uova , ad a te f or t he bac ini w ith in ad ecade o f 1 180 w ou ld b e a dm iss ib le .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. 3 47 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
a ;
C c 0
-C
0
C 0
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
3 48
CATALOGUE
The f o l low ing i s ac oncordance o f c a ta logue n u mbers u sed b y P rand i a nd myse lf :
P randi ( 1953)
T h is v o lu me
Prandi ( 1953 )
Th is v o lume
1
1 2
1 9
2
1 6
2 0
3
1 3
2 1
1 1
4
1 4
2 2
1 7
5
6
6
+
7
1
+ 8
2 3
+
2 4
1 9
2 5
+
8
5
2 6
9
+
2 7
1 5 +
1 0
3
2 8
+
1 1
7
2 9
1 2
+
3 0
H -
1 3
9
3 0bis
+ +
1 4
+
3 1
1 0 2 0
4
1 5
2
3 2
1 6
+
3 3
+
+
3 4
+
3 5
+
1 7 1 8
+ Miss ing
1 8
+ + I ndeter m ina te f rag men t , o n ly , s urv ives
O f t he 2 0 p ieces wh ich f o l low , n os . 1 -16 a re s hown i n F ig . 7 .2 a nd n os . 2 , 4 -6, a nd 1 0-14 a lso a ppear o n p ls . 7 .I -V I ( a ) P la in g reen g laze 1 .
J ug , d ia . 1 5 .6 cm , w i th r ing b ase , g lobu lar b ody , n arrow n eck ( wh ich was made s epara te ly ) a nd t h ick o va l-sect ion h and le . w ith d ark g reen g laze o n o uts ide . a nd s cars o n b ody .
P ink f abr ic
A "s econd" w ith b uck led f oo tr ing
P ar t o f t he b ody a nd v ir tua l ly t he who le o f t he
n eck a nd h and le a re miss ing . Prandi :508, n o . 7a nd f igs . 4 39-41 ( b ) Turquoise g laze w i th c arved o rnamen t 2 .
D ish , d ia . 2 4 cm , w ith r ing b ase , s ha l low c ar ina te s ide a nd f l ange r im ( P l . 8 .I ) .
T he s ides a re markedly t h icker t han t hose o ft he o ther
g reen- g lazed d ishes w ith a f l ange r im ( nos . 6 -9 ) .
G rey ish p ink
f abr ic w i th t h ick , o paque t urquo ise g laze o n b o th s urfaces . T he r im h as a c arefu l ly c arved r unn ing s cro l l . The i n ter ior i s b ad ly p i t ted . Prandi :513 , n o . 1 5 a nd f i gs . 4 55-58 . Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 3 49
1 0
2
v
M j
1 2 4
1 3 5
8
1 6 F ig .
7 .2
P ottery f rom t he c ampan i le o f S s G iovann i eP aolo,
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
3 50
R ome .
( c ) G reen o r t urquo ise g laze w i th b rown o rnamen t 3 .
B ow , d ia . 2 2 cm , w i th r ing b ase , c urv ing s ide a nd f l a t tened r im . i sh c rea m f abr ic w i th b r igh tg reen g laze .
G rey-
D ecora ted o n t he r im w ith a
s er ies o f a rcs , f i red u nsuccessfu l ly w i th t he r esu lt t ha t many a re s carce ly v is ib le .
P ar t o ft he r im i s miss ing .
Prandi :510 , n o . 1 0 a nd f i gs . 4 45-48 4 .
B ow l , w i th r ing b ase a nd c urv ing s ide ; t he e n t ire r im i s miss ing ( P l . 8 .1 1 1 ) . C oarse r ed ware w i th wh i te i nc lus ions . S h iny g rey-green g laze o n b o th s ur faces .
D ecora ted i n d ark b rown w i th ab ird w i th f o lded
w ings , b etween h or izon ta l b orders . Prandi :523 , n o . 2 9 a nd f i gs . 3 33 a nd 4 80-82 . 5 .
Bow l , d ia . 2 1 .5 cm , w i th r ing b ase , c ar ina te s ide a nd e xpanded r im ( P l . 7 .I I ) . G rey ish c ream ware w i th g reen g laze o n b o th s ur faces . The d ecora t ion c ons ists o f ar ec tangu lar c ar touche c onta in ing a s em il i tera te v ers ion o f t he Arabic word a l-yumn , g ood l uck , r epea ted 6 t imes .
Above a nd b e low t he c ar touche , a sma l l q ua trefoi l b e tween
c lus ters o fd o ts .
A l mos t c o mp le te .
Prandi :509 , n o . 8a nd f i gs . 4 39 a nd 4 42-44 . 6 .
D ish , d ia . 2 3 cm , w i th r ing b ase , c ar ina te s ide a nd f l ange r im , ( P l . 7 .I f l . G rey ish c ream ware w i th t h ick , o paque t urquoise g laze o n b oth s urfaces . Decora ted o n t he r im w i th a s er ies o f a rcs e ach t ouch ing t he n ex t , a nd w i th s hor t s tr ipes s pr ing ing f ro m t he j unc t ion o f e ach p a ir o f a rcs .
T he i n ter ior a nd r im a re p i t ted .
Prandi :506 , n o . 5a nd f i gs . 4 36-38 . 7 .
D ish , d ia . 2 4 .5 cm , s im i lar t o n o . 6 .
F abr ic h as g rey b rown s urface .
Du l l g reen ish t urquo ise g laze o n b oth s ur faces . w i th 2 9 o ver lapp ing a rcs .
D ecora ted o n t he r im
P a tches o fg laze miss ing f ro m i nside .
Prandi :511, n o . 1 1 a nd f i gs . 3 31 a nd 4 49-51 . 8 .
D ish , d ia . 2 6 .2 cm , s im i lar t o n os . 6 -7 . F oot r ing h as o ne s uspens ion h o le . R ed-brown f abr ic w i th g reen g laze o n b o th s ur faces . D ecora ted w i th g roups o f v er t ica l s tr ipes o n t he o u tside a nd w i th e p igraph ic o r p seudo-ep igraph ic mot ifs o n t he i n ter ior a nd r im . C a l trop s cars o n i nter ior .
P ar t o f r im r es tored .
Prandi :515 , n o . 2 0 a nd f i gs . 4 60-63 . 9 .
D ish , d ia . 2 3 .5 cm , s im i lar t o n os . 6 -8 .
F oo t r ing h as o ne s uspens ion
h o le .
T urquoise g laze o n b oth
B uf ff abr ic w i th s uggest ion o fp ink .
s urfaces .
Decora t ion a s o n N o . 6 , b ut w i th r adia l s tr ipes i n p a irs .
A l most h a lf o f r im r es tored . Prandi :512 , n o . 1 3 a nd f i gs . 3 32 a nd 4 52-54 . 1 0 .
B ow l , d ia . 2 9 .5 cm , w i th r ing b ase , s harp ly c urv ing s ide a nd f l a t tened r im ( P l . 7 .I V ) .
F abr ic h as g rey-brown s ur face .
g laze o n b oth s ur faces .
G reen ish t urquoise
D ecora ted w i th r ounde l c on ta in ing e labora te
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 3 51
P la te 7 .11 .
Ro me , S s G iovann i e Pao lo .
Ca ta logue n os . 2 ( upper ) a nd 6 .
3 52 Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
P la te 7 .1 1 1 .
Ro me , S s G iovann i e Pao lo .
Ca ta logue n os . 4 ( upper ) a nd 5 .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies 3 53In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
P la te 7 .IV .
Ro me , S s G iovann i e Paolo.
Ca ta logue n os. 1 0 ( l ower ) a nd 1 1.
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. 3 54 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
q ua trefo i l mot if a nd s pace-f i l lers , s urrounded b y az one c on ta in ing a s e mi-l i tera te v ers ion o f t he Arabic w ord a l-yumn , g ood l uck , r epea ted 2 6 t imes . On t he r im , g roups o f t ransverse s tr ipes a nd o n t he o uts ide s i mp le i nc ised o rnamen t .
C o mp le te .
Prandi :525 , n o . 3 1 a nd f i gs . 3 30 a nd 4 84-6 . ( d ) 1 .
P la in g laze w i th p a in ted o rnament Bow l , d ia . 2 1 .6 cm , w i th r ing b ase p ierced o nce f or s uspens ion , c urv ing s ide a nd n arrow f l ange r im ( P l . 7 .I V ) . P ink ware w i th s em it ransparen t y e l low-green g laze o n b oth s ur faces . D ecora ted o n t he i nside w i th a r oset te s urrounded b y ac on t inuous l eaf s cro l l , b o th o u t l ined i n b rown a nd f i l led w i th b r igh t g reen a nd y e l low . T he c o lours— b rown i n p ar t icu lar—ran d ur ing f ir ing a nd a re s treaky .
Sma l l p ar ts o f
r im a nd f oo t r ing r es tored . Prandi :517 , n o . 2 1 a nd f i gs . 4 63-66 . 1 2 .
Bow l , d ia . 2 7 cm , s im i lar t o n o . 1 ( P l . 7 .V ) . s ur faces .
F abr ic h as d rab g rey
D u l l o f f-wh ite g laze o r e na me l o n b oth s urfaces .
D ecorated
i n b rown w ith a b road b and o f o ver lapp ing o va l mo t ifs , e n l ivened w ith s pots o fb rown a nd g reen .
A bove a nd b e low t he b and , b rown a nd g reen
a rcs a nd " eye" mo t ifs . O n t he o uts ide , as er ies o f p endan t a rcs . q uar ter o ft he b ow l i s miss ing .
O ne
Prandi :499 , n o . 1a nd f i gs . 4 20-23 . ( e ) Byzan t ine i nc ised ware 1 3 .
D ish , d ia . 1 3 .7 cm , w i th s l igh t ly c oncave b ase , s harp ly c urv ing s ide a nd p la in r im ( P l . 7 .V ) .
Red ware w i th wh i te s l ip o n t he i n ter ior a nd
u pper p ar t o f t he o uts ide . T ransparen t , s l ight ly y e l low ish g laze . T he d ecora t ion c ons is ts o f ab ird s tand ing b e tween v ege ta l mot ifs . A bout o ne-quar ter o ft he d ish i s miss ing . Prandi :503 , n o . 3a nd f i gs . 4 28-31 . ( f ) 1 4 .
L ustre ware w i th s cra tched d eta i ls Bow l , d ia . 1 9 cm , w i th r ing b ase p ierced t w ice f or s uspension a nd s tra igh t f l ar ing s ide ( P l . 7 .V I ) . P ink o r r eddish ware w i th o f f-wh i te g laze o r e name l o n b o th s urfaces .
Y e llow-brown l us tre w i th s ugges t ion
o fg reen . D ecora ted w i th 8 r ad ia l s tems t erm ina t ing i n a l terna te t r ia ngu lar o r d oub le w ing-shaped l eaves . P ar ts o ft he r im a re miss ing . Prandi : 1 5 .
5 05 , n o . 4a nd f i gs . 4 32-5 .
D ish , d ia . 2 8 .2 cm , w i th r ing b ase , c ar iate s ide a nd f l ange r im i nc l ined u pwards t owards t he l i p ( P l . 7 .V I ) . e name l o n b oth s ur faces .
Dark p ink f abr ic w i th o f f-wh i te
Y e l low-brown l us tre .
Decora ted w ith a
r ounde l c on ta ining a rabesques s urrounded b y t wo z ones o f s o l id l us tre s epara ted b y az one o f c ab le mo t ifs .
On t he r im , e p igraph ic o rnamen t ,
a pparen t ly c onsis t ing o f t he word s a ia ma , we l l-be ing , r epea ted many t imes .
About h a lf s urv ives .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Prandi : 521 , n o . 2 6 a nd f i gs . 4 76-9 . Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
3 55
P la te 7 .V .
Ro me , S s G iovann i eP ao lo . 3 56
C a ta logue n os . 1 2 ( l ower ) a nd 1 3.
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
P la te 7 . VI .
Ro me , S s G iovann i eP ao lo.
Ca ta logue n os. 1 4 ( upper ) a nd 1 5.
3 57 Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
1 6 .
D ish , d ia . 2 8 cm , v ery s im i lar t o n o . 1 5 . wh i te e name l o n b oth s ur faces .
P ink f abr ic w i th o paque
Y e l low-brown l us tre w i th a s ugges t ion
o fg reen . D ecora ted w i th a r ounde l c on ta in ing v ege ta l o rna men t c lose ly s im i lar t o t ha t o fn o . 1 4 . On t he r im , e pigraph ic mot ifs . One t h ird, o n ly , s urv ives . P randi :501, n o . 2a nd f i gs . 4 24-7 a nd 4 48 . 1 7 .
N o t i l lus tra ted .
F rag men t o fd ish o r b ow l w i th r ing b ase .
r ed ware w i th wh i te e name l o n b oth s urfaces . D ecora t ion a pparen t ly a s n os . 1 4 a nd 1 6 .
C oarse l i gh t
G o lden b rown l us tre .
P randi :518 , n o . 2 2 a nd f i gs . 4 67-70 . 1 8 .
N o t i l lus tra ted . g laze o r e name l .
F rag men t o fd ish o r b ow l .
C ream ware w i th o f f-wh i te
V ege ta l o rnamen t .
P randi :514 , n o . 1 8 a nd f i g . 4 59 . 1 9 .
N o t i l lus tra ted . Sma l l f rag ment o fd ish o r b ow l w i th r ing b ase . R ed ware , p oss ib ly s l ipped , w i th wh i te g laze o r e name l . Mus tard y e l low l ustre .
D ecora ted w i th a r ounde l c on ta in ing v ege ta l o rna men t .
P randi :520 , n o . 2 4 a nd f i gs . 4 72-5 . 2 0 .
N o t i l lus tra ted .
F rag men t o fd ish o rb ow l .
P randi 's d escr ip t ion i s :
" p ink ish i vory b ackground , w i th d ecora t ion i ny e l low , g reen a nd d ark p ink , t he c o lours a re i r idescen t" .
Th is i s n o t , h owever , p o lychrome
l ustre ware a nd t he f rag men t f a l ls i n to t he s ame c a tegory a s n os . 1 41 9 . P randi :
5 25 , n o . 3 2 a nd f i g . 4 87 .
D ISCUSS ION ( a )
P la in g reen g laze T o t he b es t o f my k now ledge , t he p ot ters o f med ieva l R o me d id n ot p roduce
r ing b ases a nd Ia ssu me t ha tn o . 1was i mpor ted . A lthough Ih avenot s een a ny p ub l ished p ara l le l , G iovanna V i te l l i h as k ind ly s hown me h er d raw ing o f as im i lar v esse l , f ound b y De la t tre d ur ing e xcava t ions a t S t Monique , C ar thage , i n 1 915-20 a nd n ow i n t he B ardo Museum , T unis ( i nv . 1 .665 ) . Th is h as a r ing b ase a nd g lobu lar b ody , a l mos t i den t ica l i n s ize t o o ur e xamp le . The n eck , wh ich was made s epara te ly , i s t a l l a nd s l igh t ly b u lbous .
T he p rof i les
o ft he R o me a nd C ar thage p o ts a re v ir tua l ly i den t ica l a nd t he o n ly s ubs tan t ia l d if ference b e tween t he m i s t ha t t he l a t ter h as t wo h and les . P o t tery w i th p la in g reen g laze , a t l east p ar t o f wh ich was impor ted , b ecame a va i lab le i n R o me n o t l a ter t han t he e ar ly t we lf th c entury , f or w e h ave b ac in i a t S Mar ia d e l la L uce ( 1099-1118 ) a nd SBar to lomeo d e l l 'Iso la ( a lso 1 099-1118) ( Wh i tehouse 1 978 :482-3 ) . ( b )
T urquo ise g laze w i th c arved o rnamen t
Th is , t oo , i s a n i mpor t , f or wh ich t he Maghreb i s al i ke ly p lace o fo r ig in , a l though t he f or m a nd t h ickness o ft he wa l ls h ave p ara l le ls i nE gypt ( cp . P h i lon 1 980 :f ig . 3 66, a l us tre ware d ish f ro m F us ta t ) .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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( c ) G reen o r t urquo ise g laze w i th b rown o rnamen t N os . 3 -10 d o n ot f orm a c oheren t g roup , b u t a re p resen ted t oge ther b ec ause a l l h ave b rown d ecora t ion u nder ag reen ish g laze a nd , i n t he p resent s ta te o fo ur k now ledge , a l l a re a t tr ibutab le t o t he Maghreb —a b lanket t erm , h owever , w h ich may r equ ire e x tens ion t o i nc lude S ic i ly o r s outhern S pa in . n o . 5 , w ith a c en tra l c ar touche , may b e c o mpared w i th a d ish f ro m S S i lvestro, P isa , wh ich was d ed ica ted i n 118 ( Tong iorg i a nd B er t i 1 970 :f ig . 2 ) . The f orm o fn o . 1 0 r eca l ls n u merous Maghrebi a nd " S icu lo-Norman" v esse ls , s uch a s Aguzz i ( 1 969 :f ig . 7 ) . ( d )
P la in g laze w i th p a in ted o rna men t
Y e t a ga in , we a re d ea l ing w i th i mpor ted p ieces o f "Maghreb i" t ype . Id o n o t k now a s ing le p ub l ished p ara l le l f or n o . 1, b ut t he p resence o f " eye" mot ifs o n n o . 1 2 r eca l ls p ots f ro m N or th A fr ica ( e .g . P inard a nd F erron 1 955 : f i g . 1 6, f ro m C ar thage ) a nd S ic i ly ( e .g . Ragona 1 975 :p l . 3 ) . Bac in i w i th " eye" mot ifs a lso o ccur i n t he n or th wa l l o f SS is tro , P isa , wh ich was c onse cra ted i n1 072 ( Sanpao les i 1 975 :47 ) a nd i n t he l a te e leven th o r t we lf th c en tury c hurch o f SM iche le d i C as te l lo a t V i l la P oggia , n ear L ucca ( Ber t i a nd T ong iorg i 1 974 :81, n o . 3a nd p l . L Ia ) . ( e ) B yzan t ine i nc ised ware H ere , w e r each f i rmer g round .
N o . 1 3 b e longs t o aw e l l-known g roup o f
B yzant ine p ot tery w i th a w ide d istr ibu t ion i n Greece a nd t he A egean .
A t
C or in th , Morgan ( 1942 :127-35 ) p laced t h is ma ter ia l i n h is " Deve loped S ty le" o fi nc ised wares a nd d a ted i t ma in ly t o t he mid-twe lf th c en tury . T he t ype may h ave c o me i n to u se a t as l igh t ly e ar lier d a te , f or a ga in a t C or inth e xa mp les w ere a ssoc ia ted w i th c oins o f A lex ios I( 1081-1118) a nd s imi lar v essels o ccurred w ith c o ins o f J ohn I ( 1 118-43 ) a t A thens ( Broneer 1 938 :2596 1 a nd f i g . 8 5 ) .
According t o Morgan ( 1942 :135 ) , " the Deve loped S gra f f i to
manner n ever o ccurs i n c losed d epos i ts l a ter t han t he r eign o f Manue l I ( 1 143-80 )" . T he s hape o fo ur v esse l h ad n umerous n ear-para l le ls , a l though many o f t hem t he m h ave a we l l-def ined r ing b ase (e .g . Broneer 1 938 :f ig . 8 6 , n o . AP 9 38 . F ran tz 1 938 :f ig . 3 3 , n os . C 3 a nd C 5 : Morgan 1 942 :f ig . 1 03 , n os . 103 a nd 137) . C lose a na log ies f or t he o rnamen t e x ist a t b o th C or inth ( Morgan 1 942 : 2 76, n os . 1 106-7 a nd 2 82 , i l lus tra ted o n f i g . 1 09 a nd p l . XL I I Ia-b ) a nd A thens , w here a f rag mentary d ish was a ssoc ia ted w i th a c oin o f Manue l Ii n ac is tern n ear t he H epha is te ion ( Fran tz 1 038 :431-3 a nd 4 52 , n o . A 71) . ( f )
L us tre ware w i th s cra tched d e ta i ls
N os . 1 4-20 h ave ap ink t o r ed f abr ic , of-wh i te g laze o r e name l a nd d ecorat ion i n y e l low-brown l us tre w i th s cra tched d e ta i ls . The o rnament i nc ludes v ege ta l mot ifs , s o me t imes w ith s tems r ad ia t ing f ro m t he c en tre o ft he v esse l ( as o n n o . 1 4 ) a nd k uf ic o r p seudo-kuf ic i nscr ip t ions ( n os . 1 51 6 ) . S im i lar p ots o ccur , a ga in a s b ac in i , i n t he f o l low ing p laces :
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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I t a ly
1 .
Ravenna . 1 911;
2 .
S Apo l linare N uovo , 1 1-12 th c en tury ( Ba l lardin i
1 918) .
P av ia . 1 980 ) ;
S Miche le Maggiore , c . 120-30 ( Ber t i a nd T ongiorg i SP ie tro i n C ie l d 'Oro ,- 1 132 ( i bid .) ;
1 135-50 ( Aguzz i 1 969 :f ig . 1 ) ;
S Teodoro , C .
SL anfranco , 1 3th c en tury ( i b id .
f i g . 2 ) . 3 .
P isa .
S . Andrea , e ar ly 1 2th c en tury ( Ber t i a nd T ong iorg i
1 980 :f ig . 2 ) ; 4 .
SS i lves tro , 1 118 ( i b id .:f ig . 1 ) .
G hezzano ( S G iu l iano T erme , P isa ) .
S G iovanni Ba t t is ta ,
1 2th c en tury ( Ber t i a nd T ong iorg i 1 974 :68-9 a nd p l . XL IVa ) . 5 .
R o me .
S Bar to lo meo d e l l 'Iso la , 1 099-1118;
S s G iovann i e
P ao lo . F rance
6 .
S An ton in ( Tarn a nd Garonne ) .
Hö te l d e V i l le , mid-12th c en tury
( V io l le t l e Duc 1 874 :146 a nd p l . 3 CXX I I ) . 7 .
T a l lano ( Cors ica ) .
SG iovanni Ba t t is ta , c . 1 100-50 ( Ber t i a nd
T ong iorg i 1 975 :11-2 a nd f i g . 1 9) . Greece
8 .
Areia ( Argo l id ) .
H agia Mon i , c . 125-50 ( Ber t i a nd T ong iorg i
1 980 ) . L us tre ware o f t h is t ype was d iscussed a t l eng th a t t he Va lbonne c onference i n 1 978 , b y G raz ie l la B er t i a nd L iana Tong iorg i ( 1980 ) a nd b y Mar i lyn J enk ins ( 1980 ) .
Wi th t he p oss ib le e xcep t ion o f t he b ac ino f ro m R avenna , a l l t he p ots
i n q ues t ion b e long t o t he t we lf th o r e ar ly t h ir teen th c entury .
I ndeed , t he
l a tes t p ieces a re t hose f ro m S s G iovann i eP ao lo a nd S L anfranco a t P av ia , a nd t he ma jor i ty may b e long t o t he p er iod c . 1 100-50 .
J enk ins p resen ts a
s trong c ase f or c onc lud ing t ha t t he v esse ls were made a t Ma laga , a lthough t o t he b est o f my k now ledge t he h ypothes is h as n o t b een t es ted b y a na lys is o f t he c lay .
B IBL IOGRAPHY A g-u zzi F ., 1 969 .
" Bac in i a rch i te t ton ic i aP av ia" , A t t i d e l la S oc ieth l i gure
d i S tor ia P a tr ia , N S 9( 83) , p p . 2 89-91 . B a l lard in i G ., 1 911 .
" Le c eram iche d e l c ampan i le d i S . Apo l l inare n uovo i n
Ravenna" , F e lix R avenna I , p p . 3 1-42 a nd 1 50-62 . Ba l lard ini G ., 1 936 .
" Po mposa e is uo i b ac in i" , F aenza 2 4 , p p . 1 21-8 .
B er t i G . a nd L . Tong iorg i , 1 974 .
" Ib ac in i c eram ic i d e l le c h iese d e l la
p rov inc ia d i P isa -c on n uove p roposte p er l a d a taz ione c era m ica s pagno la ' t ipo P ula ' " , F aenza 6 0 , p p . 6 7-79 . Ber t i G . a nd L . T ongiorg i , 1 975 . e g l ises r o mane d e C orse .
L es c eram iques d ecora t ives s ur l es
B ast ia .
Ber t i G . a nd T . T ong iorg i , 1 980 .
" Ceram iche d ecora te ( X I-X IV ) s eco lo
d i i mpor taz ione d a v an ic entr i d e l Medi terraneo e d i p roduz ione l oca le Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
3 60
s ul la b ase d e ll a d ocu men taz ione i n T oscana" , L a c eram ique medieva le e n Med iterranee o cc iden ta le ( proceedings o f t he Va lbonne c onference ) , Par is , p p . 8 3-91. B er t i , G . a nd L . T ong iorg i n .d .
" Ip ii a nt ich i e se mp i d i c era m ica d i p rob-
a bi le f abbr icaz ione d e l l 'I ta l ia mer idiona le u t i lizza t i n e l la d ecoraz ione d e l le c h iese" , p aper r ead a t t he c onference o n L a c era m ica medieva le d i S an L orenzo Magg iore i n N apo l i , N ap les , 1 980 . B lake H . 1 980 . " the b ac ini o f N or th I t a ly" , L a c eram ique medieva le e n Mediterranee o cc iden ta le ( proceedings o ft he V a lbonne c onference ) , P ar is , p p . 9 3-112 . B roneer 0 . 1 938 .
" Excava t ions o n t he n or th s lope o f t he Acropo lis , 1 937" ,
H esper ia 7 , p p . 1 61-263 . F rantz M . A ., 1 938 .
"M idd le Byzan t ine p o t tery i n A thens" , H esper ia 7 , p p .
4 29-67 . J enk ins M ., 1 980 .
"Med ieva l Maghr ib i l uster-pa in ted p ot tery" , L a c era m ique
medieva le e n Med i terranee o cc identa le ( proceed ings o f t he V a lbonne c onference ) , P ar is , p p . 3 35-42 . Mazzuca to 0 ., 1 973 .
I" bac in i" a R o ma e n e l L azio I .
Mazzuca to 0 ., 1 976 .
I"b ac in i" a R o ma e n e l L az io I .
Morgan C . H ., I , 1 942 . P h i lon H ., 1 980 .
C or in th X I .
R o me . R o me .
The B yzan t ine P o t tery .
P r ince ton .
E ar ly I s lam ic C eramics ( Benak i Museu m , A thens :
Ca ta logue o f I s lam ic Ar t I ) , L ondon . P inard M . a nd J . F erron , 1 955 .
" Les f ou i l les d e B yrsa" , C ah iers d e Byrsa
V , p p . 3 1-263 . P randi A ., 1 953 .
I lc o mp lesso monu men ta le d e l la b as i lica c e limon tana d ei
S s G iovanni e P ao lo . R agona A ., 1 975 .
V a t ican .
L a ma io lica s ic i liana d a l le o r igin i a l l 'O t tocen to .
S anpaolesi P ., 1 975 .
I lD uo mo d i P isa .
V iol le t l e D uc E ., 1 874 .
P a lermo .
P isa .
D ic t ionna irera isonne d u mob i lier f ranQa ise .
P ar is .
Wh i tehouse D ., 1 978 . " The medieva l p o t tery o f R o me" , i n B lake H . McK ., T . W . P o t ter a nd D . B . Wh i tehouse ( eds .) , P apers i n I t a lian A rchaeo logy I , Oxford ( BAR ) , p t . 2 , p p . 4 75-505 .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 3 61
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University Michigan, F iof g . 8 .1.Ann Arbor S . G iovann i a Mare ( F iengo 1 971:66 ).
269 .
8 . BACIN I AT GAETA D av id Wh itehouse
T he c oasta l t own o f G aeta ( L t ) , 1 20 km S E o f R o me , h as t hree monu men ts w h ich c on ta in , o r a pparen t ly c on ta ined , b ac in i .
1 .
F or t he r ecord , t hey a re :
1 .
SG iovann i a Mare , p erhaps 1 2th c en tury
2 .
The c a mpan i le o f t he D uo mo , 1 2th c en tury a nd 1 279
3 .
S Annunz ia ta , a pparen t ly 1 525
SG iovann i a Mare . The p lan o f SG iovann i a Mare c o mb ines e le men ts o f ab as i l ica w i th t hree
n aves a nd a B yzan t ine c hurch w i th a c en tra l d o me .
F ro m t he e x ter ior , t he
f oca l p o in t i s t he d o me , wh ich i s s uppor ted o n ad ru m .
T he b r ick d ru m h as
f our w indows b eneath a b l ind a rcade ( P l . 8 . I V a nd F ig .
8 .1 ).
T he w indows ,
t he a rcade a nd o ther e le men ts a re d ecorated w i th i n lays o f g rey a nd y e l low s tone .
B e tween e ach p a ir o f w indows a re t wo r ounde ls , a lso i n la id , a t t he
c en tre o f w h ich a re c av i t ies ;
s im i lar c av i t ies o ccupy t he t r iangu lar s paces
a bove t he a rcade—a l l t o ld , o r ig ina l ly t here were t wen ty .
Ia ssu me t hat t hey
c on ta ined b ac in i . E st i mates o f t he d a te o f t he c hurch v ary c ons iderab ly . 1 0-4 ) a t tr ibu ted i tt o t he n in th c en tury , A let ta ( 1934 :
F an tas ia ( 1932 :
1 24 ) t o t he t en th ,
V end itt i ( 1967 : I , 6 75 ) t o t he e leven th , B er taux ( 1904 : I , 3 76-7 ) t o t he t we lf th a nd S chu ltz ( 1860 : 1 39 ) t o t he t h ir teen th ' . T he e ar l iest r eference t o SG iovann i . a Mare i s i n 1 277 ( F iengo 1 971 :
9 2 , n .
6 ) .
F iengo ( I b id .:
6 4-5 ) n otes t hat
c hurch c on ta ins t we lf th c en tury p a in t ings a nd c onc ludes t hat i t was b u i lt n o t l ong a f ter c . 1 100 . I n t h is c on tex t , SG iovann i a Mare d eserves more t han a p ass ing men t ion b ecause t he e ar ly d ate , p roposed b y A le t ta a nd o thers , i s r epea ted i n modern w orks o f r eference , s uch a s t he TC I G u ida d 'I t a l ia .
I f at en th o r e ar ly
e leven th c en tury d a te w ere c orrect , a nd i ft he c av i t ies d id c on ta in d ishes o r b ow ls , t hey wou ld h ave b een among t he e ar l iest med ieva l b ac in i i n I t a ly .
On
b a lance , h owever , at we lf th c en tury d ate s ee ms p referab le . 2 .
The c a mpan i le o f t he D uo mo . The most s pec tacu lar med ieva l monu men t a t G aeta i s t he c o mpan i le o f
t he D uo mo o f SE ras mo ( p l .
8 .1 ).
The t ower i s 5 7 m h igh a nd h as f our o rders ,
s ur moun ted b y a n o c tagona l b e lfrey .
I t was b u i lt i n e ither t wo o r t hree s tages :
( 1 ) t he g round f l oor , w i th o r w i thout ( 2 ) t he s econd t o f our th o rders a nd ( 3 ) t he b e lfrey ( F iengo 1 971 :
7 7-85 ) .
T he b ase o f t he t ower a nd p erhaps a lso
t he s econd t o f our th o rders may h ave b een b u i lt c . 1 145-80 , f or a n i nscr ip t ion o n t he g round f l oor g ives t he n a me o f t he master mason a s N ICOLA W ANGELV , aR o man , a nd S eraf in i ( 1927 :
I , 1 26 ) s uggested t hat h e may h ave b een t he
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3 63
F ig . 8 .2.
The Duo mo :
t he f our th o rder a nd t he b e l frey o f t he c a mpan i le ,
c oDavid mp lWhitehouse. e ted i n Medieval 1 279Lazio: ( F ie ngoIn Architecture, 1 971 :83) . Andrews, David, John Osborne, and Studies Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 3 64
P la te 8 .1 .
The c a mpan ile o f t he Duo mo .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. 3 65 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
P la te 8 .1 1 .
The c a mpan i le o f t he Duo mo :
b ac in i n os. 2 -3
( Pho tograph :
S opr in tendenza p er iB en i Arch i te t ton ici , e tc ., o f L az io , n eg . 1 7.710) .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. 3 66 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
s a me N ico la Ange lo , who i s k nown t o h ave worked a t N arn i ( i n 1 145 ) , S G iovann i i n L aterano ( 1 153 ) , S utr i c athedra l ( 1 170 ) a nd S B ar to lo meo d e l l ' I so la ( 1180 ).
An i nscr ip t ion , n ow l ost , b ut p ub l ished b y V ernazza ( 1 821 :
Monet t i ( 1869 : 1 279 .
2 7 ) ,
4 9 ) a nd o thers , r ecorded t he c o mp let ion o f t he b e lfrey i n
Accord ing t o Monet t i , i tr ead a s f o l lows : ANNO . DN I . MCCLXXV II I I PRES IDENTE I N S EDE . CA IET .A .NA VENERAB ILE . PA .TRE. DONO . BA .RTHOL EP ISCOPO . CA IETANO . CYBVRRV M . CA MP .A .N I I NCEPTV M . EST . ET . FEL ICITER . CONSV M MATV M
T he f ourth o rder o f t he t ower a nd t he b e lfrey c on ta in n u merous b ac in i a nd g lazed t i les ( p l . 8 .1 a nd F ig . 8 .2 ) .
With t wo e xcept ions ( our n o . 1a nd
ap la in g lazed v esse l , n ow i n t he l ocal Museo D iocesano ) , t he p ots must b e s tud ied f ro m t he g round .
Th is i s af rustrat ing t ask , a t t he e nd o f wh ich
i n for mat ion o n d i mens ions , g laz ing t echn iques , e tc ., i s l ack ing .
A lthough
p ho tographs were t aken when t he t ower was r estored ( i n 1 960 ) b y t he t hen S opr in tendenza a i Monu men t i o f L az io , t hese r ecorded s tructura l d e ta i ls a nd t he i nc lusion o f b acin i was l arge ly i nc iden ta l .
I ti s impossib le , t herefore ,
t o p resen t ac a ta logue o f t he p o ts a nd t he p urpose o f t h is n o te i s s i mp ly t o d escr ibe a h andfu l o fp ieces wh ich a re s hown c lear ly o n t he p hotographs . P l .
8 .I , 1
D ish w i th b road f l ange r im , d ecorated i n manganese , g reen a nd y e l low .
On t he i n ter ior , af our-legged a n i ma l ;
o n t he
r im , ar unn ing s cro l l o fh a lf-pa l met tes ( Donatone 1 974 : 2 24 . ; Wh itehouse 1 980 : P l .
8 .1 1 ,
2
Bow l w ith f l ange r im .
p l .
f ig .
Xa ).
On t he i n ter ior , af i sh ;
o n t he r im , a
s er ies o f i n tersect ing a rcs f i l led w ith d ots . P l .
8 .1 1 ,
3
C ar inate b ow l .
I n t he c en tre , a Ma ltese c ross ;
o n t he s ide ,
az igzag d iv id ing t he z one i n to t r iang les , e ach o f wh ich c on ta ins as i mp le s pace-f i l ler . P l .
8 .1 1 1 ,
4 Bow l w ith s lop ing f l ange r im .
I n t he c en tre , ak not ; o n t he
r im , as er ies o f d ia mond-shaped mot ifs . P l .
8 .1 1 1 ,
5 S im i lar , b ut t he r im h as a s er ies o f a rcs .
P l .
8
6 Bow l w ith c urv ing s ide , d ecora ted w ith r ad ia l s te ms , wh ich t er m inate i n f eather- o r l eaf-l ike mot ifs .
Apparen t ly l ustre
ware . No .
2i s r ead i ly i den t if iab le a s G e la ware , s o-na med a f ter a n e ar ly a nd
p ro l if ic f ind-spo t .
A lthough n o k i ln h as c o me t o l ight , t he d istr ibu t ion o f
G e la ware p o in ts f i rm ly t o aS ic i l ian o r ig in ;
1 2 f ind-spo ts i n S ic i ly a re k nown
t o me , c o mpared w ith 3 o n t he I t a l ian ma in land a nd 5 i n t he E ast Med iterranean ( Wh itehouse 1 980 : c p .
7 8-9 , t o wh ich we must a dd C aste l monardo i n C a labr ia ,
Maestr i a nd Maestr i D e L uca 1 978 :
p l .
4 3 , 2 ) .
T he e xa mp le f ro m
G aeta , p resu mab ly a t tached t o t he t ower i n 1 279 , p rov ides a dd it iona l e v idence f or t he t h ir teenth c en tury d ate o f G e la ware , a lready e stab l ished b y i t s a ssocia t ion w ith c o ins o f F reder ick I ( 1208-50 ) a t G e la i t se lf ( Or land in i a nd A . da mesteanu 1 962 :
3 50 ) a nd Morgan t ina ( pers .
c omm .
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3 67
Mar t in B e l l ) a nd
P late 8 .1 1 1 .
The c a mpan i le o f t he Duo mo :
b ac in in os. 4 -6
( Pho tographs :
S opr intendenza p er iB en i Arch i te t ton ici , e tc ., o f L az io , n egs. 1 7.699 ( l ower ) a nd 1 7.703 ( u pper ) ) .
3 68 Painting and Ceramics. Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
i t s o ccurrence i n t he f acade o f SC ec i l ia a t P isa , wh ich i s a ss igned t o t he p er iod c . 1 200-50 ( For tnu m 1 869 : a nd T ong iorg i 1 972 :
9a nd 1 980 :
3 81 ; f igs .
L ane 1 937 :
p l .
) (XV , 5 ;
B er t i
1 1-12 ) .
T he o ther p ieces a re d if f icu lt t o p lace .
T he c losest a na log ies f or n os .
1a nd 3 -5 a re f ro m s L orenzo Magg iore , N ap les , where l arge q uan t i t ies o f g lazed p o t tery were r ecovered f ro m c on tex ts e ar l ier t han t he e n large men t o f t he c hurch c . 1 300 .
T he mater ia l f ro m N ap les i nc ludes S p ira l ware , p la in
g lazed v esse ls , af ew B yzan t ine a nd Maghreb i imports a nd s evera l h undred s herds o f ma io l ica d ecorated i n c o mb inat ions o f manganese , g reen , y e l low , b lue , a nd v io le t .
T he f or ms i nc lude c ar inate b ow ls ( cp . n o . 3 ) a nd b ow ls w ith
af l ange r im ( cp .
n os .
a nd k nots .
4 -5 ) .
T he d ecorat ion i nc ludes z oo morph ic mot ifs
A lthough , p ace D onatone ( 1974 :
5 91 ) , o ur n o . 1h as n o p rec ise
p ara l le l a t N ap les , i td oes s ee m l ike ly t ha t n os . 1 a nd 3 -5 a re P ro to- ma io l ica f rom C a mpan ia . A na log ies f or n o .
6a re u nknown t o me , u n less i ti s f ro m Ma laga ( cp .
D 'A rch i mbaud a nd L e mo ine 1 980 : 3 .
p l .
V I , 2 ) .
S Ann .unz ia ta . T he c hurch was f ounded i n 1 321 ( A . le t ta 1 931 :
1 11 ) , b ut e x tens ive ly r ebu i lt
t wo c en tur ies l ater a nd r econsecrated i n 1 525 ( F iengo 1 971 :
8 9 ) .
P ar t o f t he
n ave a nd t he b e lfrey b e long t o t he e ar ly s ix teen th c en tury a nd t hese c on ta in more t han o ne h undred b ow ls , a l l o f wh ich h ave a d ark g reen g laze ( p l .
8 .
I V ) .
B IBL IOGRAPHY A le t ta . N .
1 931 .
B er taux E .
G aeta .
1 904 .
G u ida s tor ico-ar t ist ico-archeo log ica .
L 'a r t d ans l 'I t a l ie mer id iona le .
B er t i G . a nd L . T ong iorg i 1 972 .
G ae ta .
P ar is .
"C era m iche a c oba lto e manganese s u
sma lto b ianco", A t t i d e l 5° C onvegno I n ternaz iona le d e l la C era m ica , A lb iso la , p p .
1 49-64 .
B er t i G . a nd L . T ong iorg i 1 980 .
"C era m iche d ecorate ( X I-X IV s eco lo ) d i
i mpor taz ione d i v an ic en tr i d e l Med i terraneo e d i p roduz ione l oca le , s u lla b ase d e l la d ocu men taz ione i n T oscana", L a c era m ique med ieva le e n Med i terranee o cc iden ta le ( proceed ings o f t he V a lbonne c onference ) , P ar is , p p . 8 3-91. D ' A rch i mbaud G . D . a nd C . L e mo ine 1 980 .
"L es impor tat ions v a lenc iennes
e t a nda louses e n F rance med i terraneenne :
e ssa i d e c lass if icat ion e n
l abora to ire", L a c era m ique med ieva le e n Med i terran e o cc iden ta le ( proceed ing o f t he V a lbonne c on ference ) , P ar is , p p . 3 59-72 . D onatone G .
1 974 .
"L a ma io l ica n apo letana d a l le o r ig in i a l s eco lo XV ",
i n S tor ia d i N apo l i 4 /1 , N ap les ; F an tas ia P .
1 932 .
L 'a r te med ioeva le i n G aeta , c on s pec ia le r iguardo a l
c ande labro d e l C ero p asqua le . F iengo G .
1 971 .
p p 5 77-612 .
G ae ta .
N ap les .
Monu men t i es tor ia u rban ist ica .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
3 69
N ap les .
P la te 8 . W .
U pper :
S Annunz ia ta :
L ower :
SG iovann i a Mare .
t he b e lfrey , c .1525.
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In 3 Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. 70 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
F or tnu m C . D .
1 869 .
"Notes o n t he
b acin i ' o r d ishes o f e na me l led e ar th-
e nware , i n troduced a s o rna men ts t o t he a rch itecture o f s o me o f t he c hurches o f I t a ly ... ", Archaeo log ia 4 2 , p p . L ane A .
1 937.
8 7 , p p .
"Med ieva l f inds a t A l Mina i n North S yr ia", Archaeo log ia
1 9-78 .
Maestr i D . a nd M . Maestr i D e L uca 1 978 . Monet t i D .
1 872.
C aste l monardo .
1 860.
G aeta .
"G e la ( Agr igen to ) :
Not iz ie d eg l i S cav i , 8 th s er ies , 1 6 , p p .
S chu ltz H . W.
Ro me .
C enn i s tor ici d e l l ' a n t ica c it ta d i Gaeta .
Or land in i P . a nd D . A da mesteanu 1 962 . G ela",
3 79-86.
1 'a cropo l i d i
3 40-408 .
D enk mä ler d er Kunst d es M it te la lters i n Un ter i ta l ien .
D resden . S eraf in i A .
1 927.
T orn ic a mpanar ie d i Ro ma e d e l L az io .
V end itt i A . .
1 967 .
Arch itet tura b izan t ina n e l l ' I t a l ia mer id iona le .
V ernazza G . Wh i tehouse D .
1 821 . 1 980.
I lc a mpan i le d i Gaeta .
Tur in .
"Proto- ma io l ica" , F aenza 6 6 , p p .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
3 71
Ro me.
7 7-89 .
N ap les .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
R IASSUNTI
Case med ieva l i n e l l ' A lto L az io e d I ta l ia Centra le Questo s tud io p rende i n e same P arch i tettura med ieva le d i CornetoTarquin ia, Tuscan ia, V i terbo, V itorch iano e d Orv ieto, mettendo la a nche n e l c ontesto d e l l ' a rch i tettura med ieva le d e l l ' I ta l ia c entro-settentr iona le. S i t raccia P e vo luz ione a rch ite tton ica d e l la c asa med ieva le d a l 1 2° s eco lo f ino a c irca 1 500, t entando s opratutto d i d atare l e s trutture a ncora e s ist ent i e d i s tabi l ire t ipo log ie, i nformaz ione i nd ispensabi le p er e ventua l i s tud i s ocio-economic i . Uno s guardo è d ato a l le f ont i s cr i tte e d i te e d i ned ite, s pec ia lmente p er mettere i n e nfas i P i nf luenza d e l la l eg is laz ione u rbanistica c omuna le s u l l ' a rch itettura d omest ica.
I mmagazz inagg io d e l Grano n e l l 'Ita l ia Centra le P rove f ondate s u d ocument i s ono c itate p er mostrare c he i c os idetti p ozz i, f oss i s cavat i n e l la r occia e o gg i r iemp iti d i i mmond iz ia c he s ono mo lto d iffus i a Tuscania e a l trove n e l l 'A l to L azio e rano u sa t i i n o r ig ina c ome magazz ini p er i l g rano. Da l 1 5° s eco lo, un v asto numero d i e ss i f u a bbandonato e r iemp i to, f orse c ome r isu ltato d i c ambiament i n el c ampo d e l l 'agr ico ltura a l la f ine d e l Med ioevo, o s emp l icemente a c ausa d e l l 'adoz io ne d i d ifferent i p roced iment i d ' immagazz inagg io.
L e mura d i Tuscania L e due n otevo l i c h iese r oman iche d i S P ietro e S Mar ia Magg iore, e ntrambi i n o r ig ine d atabi l i a l 9 ° s eco lo o p r ima, s i t rovano i so la te a d una c erta d istanza f uor i d a l c entro s tor ico d e l la c i ttä d i Tuscan ia. R i levament i f atti s u l p osto h anno c onfermato c he &era una c inta murar ia p recedente a que l la c he s i v ede ogg i c he c omprendeva queste due c h iese ef orse p arte d e l la c i ttä e s istente. C i f u uno s postamento d i i nsed iam ento d a l l 'area i ntorno l e c h iese a l s i to a ttua le. L e f ont i s cr i tte s u l la s tor ia d i Tuscan ia p r ima d e l 1 5° s eco lo s ono p overe, e d èi mposs ibi le d ire s e questo f u u n p rocesso i mprovv iso o g radua le. Tuttav ia, v i s ono prove p er s ugger ire c he a p artire d a l la met eä d el 1 4° s eco lo, l a c i ttä f osse r idotta a l l 'area d e l l 'attua le c entro s tor ico, e l a z ona c ircos tante l e due c h iese e ra p er una v asta e stens ione d eserta. I i p er imetro d e l le mura c ambib c ontinuamente c on l ' espanders i e i c ontrars i d e l la c i tta. A p artire d a l la me n . d e l 1 4° s eco lo, i p er imetro e ra s imi le n e l p rogetto a que l lo e s istente o ra. Tuttav ia, una p arte d e l la c inta f u r icostru i ta d a l c ondo tt iere Tartag l ia n e l p r imo 1 5° s eco lo, e l e guerre d i que l p er iodo r esero n ecessar io un p rogramma d i r icostruzione i ntorno a l la meth d i que l s eco lo. L 'abbondante d ocumentaz ione d i c ib n e i L ibr i d e i Cons ig l i d imostra c ome f u f inanziato i l avoro, e r ive la c he f u l argamente e ffettuato d a murator i l ombard i. Usando l e s tesse f ont i , l ' organ izz az ione d e l le d ifese d e l la c i ttä è e samina ta , e l ' impa tto d e l la g uerra s u l la c omuni tä n e l l 'anno 1 497 ' e i l lustrato d ettag l iatamente.
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 3 73
S cene Cr isto log iche a S C lemente L e s cene c r isto log iche n e l la n ava ta d e l la c h iesa i nfer iore d i S C lemente aR oma r appresentano l 'Ascens ione, l a C roc if iss ione, l e P ie Donne a l la T omba , l 'Anastas is, i M iraco lo d i Cana e d a lmeno un 'a ltra s cena c he n on b s opravv issuta . Contemporanea a ques te è l a f igura d i S an P rosp ero s u l l a to a d iacente l a c o lonna d 'ango lo. L ' intero g ruppo f u c ommiss iona to d a u n p resb i tero c h iama to L eo d uran te i r egno d i p apa L eone I V ( 845-855) e ssendo quest 'u lt imo d ip into c on un"n imbo" quadra t° n el p anne l lo d e l l 'Ascens ione. L ' iconograf ia e l o s t i le d e i d ip inti c o inc idono c on questa d a ta e r ive lano e he g l i a r t ist i l avoravano e n tro l a c orrente p r inc ipa le d e l l 'ar te i ta l ian n e l la meth d e l n ono s eco lo. A c ausa d e l l ' imp ortanza d e l l 'Ascens ione e d e l la s ua n icch ia o va le e he ä s i tua ta d irettam ente s opra un a l tare, s i è p ensa to e he una r e l iqu ia r e lat iva a l l 'Ascens io ne o a l Monte d eg l i U l iv i f osse c o l loca ta qu i . S embra e he ques ta n on s ia u na a gg iunta p oster iore, c ome f u s pesso p ensa to, ma p iuttos to e he f orn i l ' or ig ina le r ag ion d 'essere a l l 'inc lus ione d i d ecoraz ion i d ip inte i n q ues to a ngo lo d e l la c r ipta . No te s u l la p i ttura n e l L az io S ono s tat i e sam ina t i d ue l avor i s ug l i a ffresch i n e l L az io r ura le. Uno s tud io s u l l 'affresco e he r appresenta C r is to t ra Mar ia e S an Smaragdus n e l la c a tacomba d i S an S ena tore a d A lbano s ost iene l a d a taz ione p er l ' und ices imo o d od ices imo s eco lo, s u l la b ase d i c ons ideraz ion i s tor iche, p a leograf iche e s t i l ist iche. E s tato e sam inato a nche I f inora i ned i to d ipinto r aff igurante S A lbina , o ra n e l la c h iesa d e l l 'Annunz iata a Z agaro lo. S u l la b ase d e l lo s t i le, ques to è a ssegna to a d un p er iodo a ntecedente, p robabi lmente t ra i l 6 50 e 8 50 AD. L a c era m ica med ieva le d el l 'Etrur ia mer id iona le P er p iu d i 2 0 a nn i ap ar t ire d a l 1 954 , ime mbr i d e l la Br i t ish S choo l a t R o me h anno e f fet tua to i n tensivi p rogra m m i d i r icogn izione i n s uperf ic ie n . el le • p rov inc ie d i Ro ma e V i terbo , s opra t tu t to t ra i lT evere e i l mare.
Tra i
ma ter ia l i a rcheo log ic i r acco l t i e rano f ra m men t i d i c era m ica p roven ien t i d a q uasi 2 00 s i t i med ieva l i .
L 'A . p resen ta u n c a ta log° d e i s i t i eu no s tud io
t ipo log ico d e l ma ter ia le e he i n izia c on l a c era m ica a v etr ina p esan te ( ora a t tr ibu i ta a i d ecenn i i n torno a l 6 00 ) et er m ina c on l a ma io l ica d el t ardo med ioevo .
Ib ac in i d i S s G iovann i eP aolo , Ro ma . I lc a mpan i le d i S s G iovann i eP ao lo f u c o mp leta to n e l 1 180 c irca .
I n q ues to
p er iodo , f urono i nsey i t i 3 6 b acin i d i c u i s opravvivono 1 2 v asi c o mp let i o q uasi , p iu 8 f ra m men t i r iconoscib i l i e2 p ezzi . s ono d 'i mpor tazione :
Tu t t i ib ac in i i den t i f icab i l i
d al la G rec ia b izan tina , i l Magreb e p robab i l men te
d a l la S pagna s et ten tr iona le .
1 ma ter ia le a t tr ibu i to a d u n ior ig ine s pagno la
c onsiste d i 7b ac in i c on d ecorazione a l ustro , iq ua l i a ppar tengono a u na g ia n o ta p roduzione r ecen te men te a ssegna ta a Ma laga .
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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Bac in i a Gaeta Tre monument i a Gaeta c ontengono, o s embra e he a bbiano c ontenuto , b ac ini : S G iovann i a Mare ( forse del XIJ s ec.), i l c ampan i le d e l Duomo ( comp leta to n e l 1 279) e S Annunziata ( probabi lmente d e l 1 525). Una s er ie d i 2 0 c av i t 'ä s otto l a cupo la d i S G iovanni a Mare pub a ver c ontenuto b acin i , o ra s compars i. Lo spettaco lare c ampani le d e l Duomo c ont iene mo ltiss im i b acin i e mattonelle i nvetriate. S ebbene l a magg ior p ar te d ei b ac in i s ia monocroma, e sistono a lcuni p ezz i d i P rotoma io l ica , e he i nc ludono i Pt ipo G e la '. Un a ltro bacino s e rnbra e ssere d ecorato a l ustro. S Annunz iata c ontiene pa l d i un c entina io d i b acin i monocrom i v erd i.
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. 375 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. 3 76 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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3 77
Andrews, David, John Osborne, and David Whitehouse. Medieval Lazio: Studies In Architecture, Painting and Ceramics. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1982, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541554. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor