Medieval History in the Modern Classroom: Using Project-Based Learning to Engage Today’s Learners 9781802700329

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TEACHING THE MIDDLE AGES Further Information and Publications www.arc-humanities.org/our-series/arc/tma/

MEDIEVAL HISTORY IN THE MODERN CLASSROOM USING PROJECT-BASED LEARNING TO ENGAGE TODAY’S LEARNERS by

LANE J. SOBEHRAD and SUSAN J. SOBEHRAD

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. © 2022, Arc Humanities Press, Leeds

The authors assert their moral right to be identified as the authors of their part of this work.

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CONTENTS

List of Illustrations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

Chapter 1. Changing Perceptions in Teaching Medi­eval History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Chapter 2. Medi­eval History Course Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Chapter 3. Active Construction of Knowledge and Intentional Planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Chapter 4. Project Management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

Chapter 5. Techno­logy in the Medi­eval-History Classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Chapter 6. Medi­eval Studies Project Examples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Epilogue. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Appendix A. Historical Standards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 Appendix B. Sample Content and Skill Rubrics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Appendix C. Planning and Implementation Tools. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 Appendix D. Survey of Undergraduate Medi­eval History Courses in US Colleges and Universities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Figures Figure 2.1. Sample Asset Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Figure 3.1. Project Activity System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Figure 4.1. The Project-Based Learning Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Figure 4.2. Adaptive Project Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Figure 4.3. Deming’s PDSA Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Figure 5.1. Multimodal Literacies within a Project Activity System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Figure 5.2. Community of Inquiry Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Figure 5.3. Internet Research Guide Mind Map. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

Tables Table 1.1. Common Framework for Undergraduate Medi­eval History Courses . . . . . . . . 5

Table 1.2. Comparing Student Learning Outcomes to Assessments in Undergraduate Medi­eval History Courses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Table 3.1 Project Conception Planning Template . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Table 3.2. Project Goals Planning Template . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Table 3.3. Project Timeline Template . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Table 3.4. Assessment and Reflection Planning Template . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Table 3.5. Rubric Design Template . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Table 3.6. Rubric Strand for Building Historical Knowledge Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Table 3.7. Rubric Strand from Choosing Appropriate Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

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List of Illustrations

Table 4.1. Project Blueprint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Table 5.1. Digital Tools and the Community of Inquiry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Table 6.1. Scaffolded Assessments for a PBL Medi­eval Survey Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Table E.1. Medi­eval History Courses at Accredited SACSCOC Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Table E.2. Numbers of Medi­eval History Courses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

PREFACE This book is about teaching medi­eval history. The purpose of this book is to dem-

onstrate how incorporating formal educational research and pedagogy into the undergraduate medi­eval history classroom can benefit the educational experiences of both instructors and students. It is our hope that medi­eval history instructors, most of whom have not had formal training in pedagogical theory and instructional strategies, will be convinced of the benefits of incorporating some of the ideas in this book into their own classrooms. Utilizing these educational best practices does not require instructors to gain mastery of an entirely different discipline or delay their research schedule in any significant way. It likely only requires a shift in instructional perspective towards inten­ tionality. In the world of education research, intentionality means a continuous evaluation of what you are teaching and how your students are responding to it. Not only that, but intentional teaching necessitates deliberate and purposeful action in every phase of the teaching process from course design to small group discussion protocols, all geared toward specific outcomes you intend for your students to reach. In many ways, this intentionality mirrors the process many of us use in the development of a research project. There are many occasions where a well-written section of a paper must be abandoned for the overall success of the project. Manu­scripts and sources are not chosen at random as the evidence-base for a presentation at a conference, they are carefully selected for the anticipated audience. A book project cannot cover all topics associated with its subject matter, the scope must be carefully crafted and articulated in order for its arguments to reach a cogent conclusion. The same is true for teaching the Middle Ages. A well-liked lecture that is not cohesive with the rest of the course content should be left on the sideline as it is likely to confuse students who have thrown themselves into the medi­eval past for the first time. Source material and readings should not be selected only because of their importance in the medi­eval studies historio­graphic timeline, but also according to their accessibility and interpretability to novice medi­evalists, and their utility in helping students reach specific learning outcomes. There is no reasonable way a semester-long course can cover a millennium of medi­eval history, much less do so during a unit in a (History of) Western Civilizations course, making intentional course design essential in order for students to come away from your course with the desired interpretation of medi­eval people, systems, and institutions. More practically, intentional design allows the instructor to reduce preparation time, avoid common instances of student confusion, and ultimately result in better student work products. Importantly, however, intentional teaching does not mean inflexible or unchangeable teaching. On the contrary, a clearly articulated theoretical framework, well-explained content, and relevant student learning outcomes allows a course to be more flexible and adaptable to the needs of its students in situ. That is, a course becomes a discrete system with transparent boundaries, rules, and expectations that are communicated and agreed upon by instructors and students from the start. For many of us, developing such systems should seem imminently medi­eval amongst the various artes, their

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associated manuals (praedicandi, dictandi, memoriae, etc.), and a scholastic method that prized well-structured lectiones, meditationes, quaestiones, and disputationes. Scholarship has never argued such systems restricted the ability of medi­eval writers to express themselves, nor should medi­eval history instructors think that an intentionally designed course restricts their ability to craft a unique course. Below, readers will find readily adaptable, practical, and engaging teaching strategies designed for the undergraduate medi­eval history classroom. However, it is equally important for the intentional instructor to understand the educational context from which their student audience enters the classroom. This is often difficult for collegiate history instructors, most of whom have little experience in or knowledge of the world of the Kindergarten/​Nursery to Grade/​Year 12 educational system (hereafter “K–12”) that provides them their undergraduate students. In a collegiate setting, this is also a difficult task in course environments that are not conducive to relationship building between instructor and student, such as a large, two-hundredstudent course cohort (or section) staffed with Teaching Assistants or an asynchronous online course section. What is known, though, is that undergraduate history instructors receive freshly minted high school graduates whose most common experience in history classrooms was having to tackle by rote a mountain of state-mandated content standards to pass a state-mandated social studies multiple-choice assessment in order to fulfill a minimum standard for their high school diploma. To put this in context of other tested subjects, in the authors’ home state of Texas, the only state-mandated history assessment required for high school graduation is US History since 1877 (three social studies credits are required to graduate). There are thirty content areas and 109 named content standards required for this course (and 275 effective standards), significantly higher than, say, Bio­logy, which has twelve content areas and fifty-one named content standards. The “success” of a school, according to state education agencies, is attached to students’ performance on state-mandated assessments aligned to these standards, resulting in a curricular focus that ensures students have an opportunity to master this laundry list of factoids and can fill in their answer bubbles. The only assessment that can cover such a swath of content in a reasonable timeframe is little more than a trivia test about historical topics that does not accurately or adequately represent the academic and professional discipline of history. This is the history experience most students have that then enter into your undergraduate classrooms. Most have not written a history essay longer than a page or two, they have not done a research project, and their instructors’ experience was typically that obtained through a bachelor’s program. Students who have done some writing have primarily done so through the lens of literary interpretation, not historical investigation. Your average undergraduate student has no awareness or point of context for history as an academic discipline or professional field of research, much less medi­eval history beyond a general awareness of medi­evalisms through popular media. This is because most states, like Texas, only require students to be formally assessed in US History, and the only chance most students have to be exposed to medi­eval history during high school is in a unit during their World History class, which itself is often optional in state graduation requirements. Philosophical arguments about the importance of history aside, it



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is thus unreasonable to expect students to be able to effectively navigate the traditional types of assessments seen in an undergraduate classroom because they have no prior educational experience doing so (for example, a time-constrained hand-written exam/​ essay, a prescriptive research project, essay with citations, written source reviews). That is, we cannot expect students to demonstrate competency in a set of historical skills they were never taught. Likewise, we cannot expect them to develop said historical skills in their undergraduate careers if we do not teach them. Or rather, if history as a discipline continues to argue there is a practical utility to the historian’s toolbox beyond the history classroom, history instructors are best positioned to guide students in the appropriate acquisition and application of those tools. Many undergraduate courses are guilty of the same content deluge as their K–12 counterparts, as our investigation of medi­eval history syllabi below describes. Think of one of your medi­eval history courses. One of your likely expectations is that students are able to communicate with some degree of nuance and complexity about goings-on in medi­eval society through the interpretation of texts. Reflect on how much time in a given “lower division” course (that is, one aimed at students in the first two years of undergraduate study) you spend explicitly teaching the historical skills needed to effectively accomplish that goal. Have you ensured your assessments actually measure the outcome you intended? Do you explicitly address the components of a good historical essay? How do you communicate this information to students? What examples do you provide them? Do you provide opportunities to practice low-stakes writing in order for students to get direct feedback before the high stakes essay or exam? Do you provide a rubric that explains what the expectations of the essay are prior to its submission? Do you teach students how to read a source, rather than simply assigning sources to read? Or discuss how to navigate a research platform like JSTOR? To us, the primary decision medi­eval historians must make is whether or not their goal for a course is to be a content delivery system where students are mostly learning stuff about the Middle Ages, or if content can be used as a vehicle to impart some of the unique skill set of the medi­eval historian that will benefit them after final grades are submitted for your course. If the former, an instructor may as well send copies of their lecture notes to students on the first day of class and have a multiple-choice exam at the end of the semester. The “sage on a stage” style of lecture from Leopold von Ranke’s nineteenth century classroom does not meet the needs of students in the twenty-first century. Just as historio­graphic trends change over time, teaching is a dynamic practice, and we should therefore change our practices in the classroom to fit current understanding about learning processes just as we adapt our research practices in recognition of new knowledge or interpretive frameworks. Additionally, in an increasingly business-minded institutional setting, history department budgets are often determined by figures like enrollment, majors, and graduates. As a result of declining enrollment over the past twenty years, many history departments have stacked their faculty with courses to align with these budgetary restrictions, especially junior and adjunct faculty who may teach five or more courses in a given semester. Many history departments often have only one medi­evalist, whereas the commonly required US History survey provides some guaranteed job security and enrollment for

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our Americanist colleagues. In more than a small way, the most important audience medi­eval historians engage with is their students. If a class does not meet minimum enrollment numbers it gets cancelled. Poor course reviews may affect non-tenured faculty’s ability to receive tenure. Getting students invested in the Middle Ages ensures the next generation of scholars starts off on the right foot and secures those all important dissertation committee chair positions. Our field of medi­eval history depends on students, and so this book was written with the intention of making students’ educational experience with medi­eval history, even a brief one, a valuable learning experience. Chapter 1 begins by contextualizing what we see as critical discussion points in medi­eval studies in our current twenty-first century context. In recent years, medi­eval studies has had to engage in critical conversations about diversity and inclusivity, the potential “globalization” of the field, declining enrollment, an increasingly constricted job market, and the role of medi­evalists as moderators of these conversations. In our survey of undergraduate medi­eval history courses, it became apparent that while instructors oftentimes state learning objectives and define criteria for assessments or activities, they were often included as compliance artifacts rather than utilized as intentional course design elements that can provide alignment between skills, content, and assessments that allow an instructor to create a more cohesive course structure that results both in better outcomes for students and increased positive student affect towards the course. Activities should not be restricted to undifferentiated benchmark assessments with vaguely defined skill sets found at the top of syllabi. Thus we suggest that the basic educational theory and pedagogy surrounding project-based learning (PBL), is an effective framework to facilitate authentic educational experiences for undergraduate students to interact with major discussions in medi­eval studies and engage in the professional field of history at a level appropriate with their experiences. Chapter 2 begins with a review of the historical roots of project-based learning, continues with an outline of the PBL process, and establishes the importance of cultivating a collaborative, supportive classroom culture. We explore the need for change in the undergraduate classroom and contend that, while undergraduate instructors appreciate the need, many are not prepared to make the changes necessary to develop courses that are more enticing and impactful for students. We assert that one of the goals of undergraduate courses is to introduce students to a professional field of study, and thus the activities in those courses should reflect the real work of the field and help students navigate its foundational components while respecting the unique socio-cultural lens each student is bringing with them. In other words, teach students about medi­eval history by doing medi­eval history. We propose PBL as a solution to these dilemmas. We introduce seven essential components of PBL, synthesized from existing research in a variety of settings and adjusted specifically to meet the needs of undergraduate historical investigation, which act as the critical framework for a successful intentionally designed course. Chapter 3 discusses why PBL is a particularly attractive instructional approach for historical studies through the extant evidence that shows the qualitative and quantitative outcomes for students who have participated in effectively-designed PBL classrooms. In particular, we argue that when intentionally guided by an expert instructor,



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PBL provides practical experiences that allow students to develop effective skills for their historian’s “toolbox.” That is, the “authenticity” that is integral to the effective implementation of PBL stems from collaborative practice that will allow students to walk away from a medi­eval history course not only with an understanding of the medi­ eval past, but also an appreciation of what a medi­eval historian does and how the skills honed during a historical investigation are applicable in a variety of professional settings beyond the college classroom. The chapter emphasizes intentional planning, and explains the process in detail, from conceptualization and ideation to the design and creation of the rubrics that guide student learning throughout the PBL cycle. Chapter 4 describes the discrete components of a project cycle in the context of an undergraduate medi­eval history classroom. The nonlinear nature of instruction in the PBL process makes its implementation complex, requiring the orchestration of multiple components simultaneously. Because each component has a specific role to play both in the students’ successful completion of a project, as well as in acquisition and utilization of the skills and knowledge needed to complete the project, we describe effective ways to organize coursework, beginning with introducing the project to students with an engaging preliminary event. We introduce a variety of PBL tools and artifacts that can be immediately adapted into any reader’s undergraduate classroom, along with design elements such as discussion protocols and formative assessments that offer students scaffolded opportunities to engage in the real work of a medi­eval historian in their daily classroom experience. Chapter 5 continues by contending that part of any medi­eval history courses in the 2020s and beyond must assist students in navigating virtual and digital spaces where they will encounter information about the Middle Ages. It would not be an overstatement to suggest that the bulk of medi­eval history research now occurs in some type of digital modality from conception to publication. Therefore it is critical for medi­eval history instructors to provide guidance to their students on how to identify, navigate, and use the various systems that are critical to any investigation of the medi­eval past. These systems comprise new literacies that we have learned to adapt and utilize to the great benefit of medi­eval scholarship. Though often with a different content focus, undergraduate students are digital natives of these new literacies, and it is a critical instructional strategy for instructors to recognize that the digital diaspora provides an effective, engaging landscape from which to engage students in medi­eval inquiry beyond text on a page in narrative format. Engaging students in the current work of medi­eval historians necessarily means engaging them in activities beyond source reviews, narrative construction, and content regurgitation. If the goals of medi­eval history include communicating ideas and findings to audiences, then doing medi­eval history includes coding, web development, social media, image processing, and other digital spaces that act in conjunction with traditional research and writing systems. Chapter 6 offers classroom artifacts for exemplar projects that can be adapted to a medi­eval history course as the reader sees fit. Several projects are summarized at three different time scales to fit undergraduate history courses that may have a medi­eval component. The first is a semester-long project most appropriate for a standard medi­eval survey course such as “The Middle Ages, 500–1500 CE.” This project offers a guiding

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structure throughout the semester that engages students in their own interests in the Middle Ages while providing the instructor much greater flexibility in addressing the core content of the medi­eval period. The second project type is intended to be a discrete unit within a course. A course could be designed using a series of these shorter projects to better define the content areas covered in the course, or by using a single project as a culminating event that allows students to demonstrate the historical skills learned during the course. The third project-type is a short-term project with a limited scope. This limited outcome project is intended to teach specific historical skills or address common misconceptions related to medi­evalisms, and may be used in conjunction with the unit project or other limited outcome projects. Lastly, readers will fund supporting documentation in the Appendices that offers a crosswalk of commonly used historical competency standards, provides additional exemplar documents for classroom instruction, and presents the raw data and methodo­ logy for our survey of medi­eval undergraduate history courses. It is our hope that this interdisciplinary work will show medi­eval history instructors that there are benefits to incorporating some of the best practices and strategies touted by their colleagues in colleges of education, as well as demonstrate that there are ripe research opportunities to continue to develop effective instructional practices for the medi­eval-history classroom and their impact on undergraduate student learning outcomes. A good medi­eval historian should also be a good teacher, and it is our hope this book will help readers, at least in some small way, accomplish that.

Chapter 1

CHANGING PERCEPTIONS IN TEACHING MEDI­EVAL HISTORY In This Chapter we

– Examine the occurrence of medi­eval coursework in higher education. – Consider reasons for transforming course expectations. – Analyze development of course outcomes.

– Explore rationale for changing assessment practices.

– Review the historical foundations of project-based learning.

Current Perceptions of Medi­eval Studies

Collegiate instructors at every level have observed developments in educational scholarship that propose intriguing, fascinating, and (dare we say it?) innovative ideas for restructuring the traditional classroom experience.1 Many of these ideas have proven effective in a research setting with externally funded tools and dedicated support staff; in settings where students are opting-in to activities outside of their credit-bearing classes; or as a siloed instructional plan that engages students with a particular text in a new way. However, it is more uncommon to find a methodo­logy or curricular framework that can be practically, meaningfully implemented into day-to-day teaching. Whether due to the requisite faculty research burden, the sisyphean struggle to conquer administrative tasks, or simply lack of experience, many collegiate history instructors have a difficult time implementing new teaching strategies into their courses, even those strategies that already have a track record of success in a school setting.2 The project-based strategies presented here will provide evidence-based, sensible ideas that the authors hope our colleagues will consider adapting to their own medi­eval history classrooms. The underlying contextual basis for these strategies and ideas is understanding undergraduate students’ perception of the field of medi­eval studies and their prior experience with it. For an overwhelming majority of students, an undergraduate medi­ eval survey may be their only exposure to the Middle Ages in their collegiate careers, even if they attend a four-year institution. For students at a two-year institution, often the only option in the course catalogue is the first half of a Western Civilizations course 1  Joshua Eyler, How Humans Learn: The Science and Stories Behind Effective College Teaching (Morgan­town: West Virginia University Press, 2018), 149–70. 2  Michael Klymkowsky and Melanie Cooper, “Now for the Hard Part: The Path to Coherent Cur­ ricular Design,” Biochemistry and Molecular Bio­logy Education 40, no. 4 (July–August 2012): 271–72; Melanie Cooper, Sonia Underwood, Caleb Hilley, and Michael Klymkowsky, “Development and Assessment of a Molecular Structure and Properties Learning Progression,” Journal of Chemical Education 89, no. 11 (2012), 1351–57.

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sequence. In the state of Texas, for example, there are 142 regionally accredited institutions that offer history courses. Seventy-one of those are community colleges. Between the 2015–2016 and 2019–2020 academic years, only one community college listed a course with significant medi­eval history content, not including those with Western Civilizations.3 Twenty-one institutions did not even offer Western Civilizations. As of the 2017–2018 school year, Texas community colleges enrolled 1,055,021 students, as compared to 1,117,044 students enrolled in four-year institutions in the same time frame.4 That is, just under half of all college students in Texas will likely only have a single unit during one semester to learn about the Middle Ages. Even then, there is no guarantee the instructors have been formally trained as medi­evalists. Nationally, student enrollment may indicate a similar concern, as there were 8,885,098 community college students and 13,264,308 undergraduate students in four-year institutions during the 2017–2018 school year.5 If we consider the number of students transferring from two-year to fouryear institutions, the numbers look even more dire. New undergraduates in the United States are unlikely to have had much exposure during their secondary (high school) years, either. Twenty states do not leave students in publicly-funded schools any opportunity to engage meaningfully with medi­ eval history if they graduate with the required minimum social studies coursework.6 In twenty-two states, students’ primary opportunity to receive medi­eval content is during a required world history course. Such trends apply to advanced courses, too. Beginning with the 2018–2019 school year, College Board removed the pre-modern curriculum for their Advanced Placement (AP) European and World History courses, meaning students enrolled in this advanced coursework will only engage in content from 1450 CE to the present.7 Thankfully, some adjustments have been made to this chrono­logy. Stu3  The authors have compiled this data from publicly available course catalogues.

4  US Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), twelve-month enrollment component 2018–19 provisional data. https:/​/​nces.ed.gov/​ipeds/​Search, accessed March 2, 2020. 5  US Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS). twelve-month enrollment component 2018–19 provisional data. https:/​/​nces.ed.gov/​ipeds/​Search, accessed March 2, 2020.

6  “Graduation Requirements for the Class of 2015: A 50-State Look,” Achieve, November 16, 2016, accessed February 22, 2022, https:/​/​www.achieve.org/​resources/​graduation%20requirements/​ publication; “Civic Education Policies: High School Graduation Requirements—December 2016,” Education Commission of the States, December 2016, accessed February 22, 2022, http:/​/​ecs.force. com/​mbdata/​MBQuest2RTANW?Rep=CIP1601S.

7  AP European History: Course and Exam Description—Fall 2019 (New York: College Board, 2019), 7; Alia Wong, “The Controversy Over Just How Much History AP World History Should Cover,” The Atlantic, June 13, 2018, https:/​/​www.theatlantic.com/​education/​archive/​2018/​06/​ap-worldhistory-controversy/​562778/​. College Board describes itself as “a mission-driven not-for-profit organization that connects students to college success and opportunity. Founded in 1900, College Board was created to expand access to higher education. Today, the membership association is made up of over 6,000 of the world’s leading educational institutions and is dedicated to promoting excellence and equity in education. Each year, College Board helps more than seven million students prepare for a successful transition to college through programs and services in college readiness



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3

dents enrolled in AP World History for the 2019–2020 school year covered content from 1200 CE to the present, and College Board has committed itself to developing an AP World History: Ancient course and exam provided there is enough interest.8 Whatever the result, students will still receive minimal medi­eval content in a World History course and the European history course still starts at 1450. Moreover, the 100,655 students who took the AP European history exam in May 2019 comprise less than 1 percent of enrolled high school students in the United States, and less than 3 percent each of the eleventh or twelfth graders most likely to take the test.9 In even starker comparison, the International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme, while offering a number of opportunities for medi­eval history content, is statistically insignificant at this scale, where there are fewer than 11,000 candidates in all of North and South America.10 All this is not to suggest there should be a ubiquitous inclusion of the Middle Ages in courses of study at the secondary or collegiate level, only to illustrate that the average experience with the Middle Ages of a student entering college in the United States is minimal, at best. This demonstrates, too, that any time spent with students in the medi­eval world is precious, indeed. Students that likely have very little knowledge of the Middle Ages during their secondary education are equally unlikely to gain much more exposure to it during their collegiate tenure. That is, even for students whose futures include graduate education in medi­eval history, they are more likely than not entering their undergraduate journey with little explicit instruction on medi­eval history. It is thus critical for the public perception of the Middle Ages by future members of the general public (in other words, college students) that their minimal exposure to medi­eval history through a survey course is handled deftly and carefully to ensure instructors are utilizing effective teaching strategies and resources that allow a course to communicate the essential characteristics of the medi­eval world to a student likely learning about it for the first time. Equally important for the future of medi­eval historical studies is that students who are predisposed to pursue it as a career are captured through course and college success—including the SAT, the Advanced Placement Program, and BigFuture. The organization also serves the education community through research and advocacy on behalf of students, educators, and schools.” 8  AP World History: Modern: Course and Exam Description—Fall 2019 (New York: College Board, 2019); “AP World History: Modern: Course and Exam Development,” AP Central, effective Fall 2020, accessed February 22, 2022, https:/​/​apcentral.collegeboard.org/​pdf/​ap-world-history-moderncourse-and-exam-description.pdf?course=ap-world-history-modern.

9  “Student Score Distributions: AP Exams—May 2019,” https:/​/​secure-media.collegeboard.org/​ digitalServices/​pdf/​research/​2019/​Student-Score-Distributions-2019.pdf, accessed February 22, 2022; US Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Statistics of Public Elementary and Secondary School Systems, 1980–81; Common Core of Data (CCD), “State Nonfiscal Survey of Public Elementary/​Secondary Education,” 1985–86 through 2016–17; and National Elementary and Secondary Enrollment Projection Model, 1972 through 2028. (This table was prepared March 2019.)

10  “The IB Diploma Programme Provisional Statistical Bulletin: November 2019 Examination Session,” International Baccalaureate Organization, 2020, accessed February 22, 2022, https:/​/​ www.ibo.org/​contentassets/​bc850970f4e54b87828f83c7976a4db6/​dp-statistical-bulletinnovember-2019.pdf.

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experiences which mirror professional experiences (a hallmark of project-based learning) that make the field an attractive academic field to medi­eval historians. A common hurdle will be addressing medi­eval preconceptions students have acquired through popular media while avoiding reducing an entire survey course to addressing various iterations of “Darke Age” and medi­evalisms. This is not a new problem for medi­eval historians. Charles Homer Haskins addressed this issue nearly a century ago, contending that, “Both continuity and change are characteristic of the Middle Ages,” but “This conception runs counter to ideas widely prevalent not only among the unlearned but among many who ought to know better. To these the Middle Ages are synonymous with all that is uniform, static, and unprogressive. ‘Mediaeval’ is applied to anything outgrown.”11 That is, if college instructors are to show students the dynamism and diversity of the medi­eval world, we must meet them where they are, both intellectually and culturally, and more scholarship from medi­eval historians is needed that reflects such effort. Journals such as Studies in Medi­eval and Renaissance Teaching would reasonably reflect this kind of work, but their entries overwhelmingly address teaching medi­eval literary topics and skew towards English literature, in particular.12 Cliff Rogers’ project, “Quantifying Siege Warfare in the Middle Ages” is a prime example of student-centred learning that is authentic and effective, but unrealistic for most collegiate settings.13 In this project, Rogers, professor of history at West Point, engages his small group of cadets in intensive workshops, during which they interact directly with texts about the Hundred Years War in order to quantify particular linguistic instances in them and gain insight in the role of siege warfare during the Hundred Years War. They are doing scholarly research guided by Rogers and will be co-authors on the publications that result from the project. For any student of the Middle Ages, much less the undergraduates participating in Rogers’ initiative, there is no better experience that illustrates what academic historians do than investigating primary sources, presenting the finding of that investigation at a conference, and eventually publishing that research in a peer-reviewed journal.14 Yet, opportunities like this are the exception, not the norm. The setting of a highly selective military academy provides an environment that is conducive to the very kind of academic activity Rogers is pursuing. Most undergraduate students engaged in the study of medi­eval history will not be guided with an individual11  Charles Homer Haskins, The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Uni­ versity Press, 1927), 3.

12  “SMART Back Issues,” Studies on Medi­eval and Renaissance Teaching (Wichita: Wichita State University, 2020), accessed February 22, 2022, https:/​/​www.wichita.edu/​academics/​fairmount_ college_of_liberal_arts_and_sciences/​smart/​backissueSMART2.phpno. 2019spring.

13  Clifford Rogers, “Ongoing Research Projects,” https:/​/​www.westpoint.edu/​history/​profile/​ clifford_rogers, accessed March 1, 2020; Peter Konieczny, “Interview with Clifford Rogers,” Medi­ eval Warfare Podcast, June 18, 2019, http:/​/​medi­evalwarfare.libsyn.com/​mw16-researchingmilitary-history, accessed March 1, 2020.

14  Clifford Rogers, “Medi­eval Military History II: Conducting an Undergraduate Research Lab,” 54th International Congress on Medi­eval Studies, Michigan, May 9–12, 2020, https:/​/​wmich.edu/​ sites/​default/​files/​attachments/​u434/​2019/​medi­eval-congress-program–2019.pdf, accessed March 1, 2020.



Changing Perceptions in Teaching Medi­eval History

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Table 1.1. Common Framework for Undergraduate Medi­eval History Courses Targeted Learning Goals

Think critically about the nature of the past Recognize an expanded geo­graphic view of medi­eval Europe Describe patterns of continuity and change over time during the Middle Ages Understand the medi­eval era was not monolithic, but a collection of complex cultural relationships Master core content within the chrono­logical scope of the Middle Ages Develop basic historical skills Evaluate primary sources in the medi­eval milieu Read/​critique scholarly publications Construct evidence-based arguments Engage in discussion/​debate of critical topics Navigate basic research tools Grade Weight

Assessments

15 percent

Discussion and Classroom Participation

40 percent

Examinations

30 percent 5 percent

10 percent

Written Assessments Quizzes

Projects

ized or small group mentoring relationship that Rogers is able to provide, but through courses that allow students to meet their general education requirement or as part of a degree program requirement. This novitiate audience needs to have an intentionally constructed curriculum with clear student learning outcomes, assessment framework, and pedagogical choices, such as project-based learning, that support students in a community of learners instead of as monolithic objects of instruction if the study of the Middle Ages has any hope of being appropriately interpreted, and if medi­eval studies has any designs to recruit students to be our successors.

Revising Expectations in the Medi­eval Survey

As the preceding section has suggested, collegiate instructors would be well served in adjusting both their expectations of student competencies in undergraduate history courses and what the learning outcomes of those courses ought to be. Additionally, students are generally not coming to post-secondary education with any knowledge of the Middle Ages, and instructional time is often limited. Project-based learning (PBL) is a pedagogical framework that can be used to establish student-centred methods of instruction that lead to development of historical skills in the medi­eval history classroom. However, in order to frame how PBL strategies can be implemented, it is first necessary to describe the broader landscape of undergraduate medi­eval history courses

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in order to reasonably suggest a reorientation of commonly used instructional practices. To do this, we wanted to establish what the most common learning objectives are in undergraduate medi­eval history courses and how instructors typically assess students’ progress towards those goals. We surveyed a wide variety of undergraduate medi­eval history courses from across the United States from the last decade or so, and categorized them according to the standards that resulted from the American Historical Association’s 2016 Tuning Project.15 All told, we identified and reviewed over 360 unique student learning outcomes, and over 530 unique assessments. We aggregated the most commonly used learning goals and assessments to write the learning goals and inform the grading weights in Table 1.1. The most common Targeted Learning Goals are generally unsurprising, though it should be noted that learning outcomes specifying content and knowledge acquisition were twice as common as any other category. Overwhelmingly, summative assessments (such as mid-term exams or final course papers) were preferred to formative assessments (such as quizzes and writing responses), with summative assessments typically making up about 70 percent or more of the final course grade. A majority of courses rightfully place an emphasis on summative writing assessments, usually some combination of primary source responses and essays that require students to summarize assigned primary source readings combined with additional material from lectures and secondary reading assignments. Undergraduate instructors seem to agree that this type of assessment should be the primary method of evaluating a basic mastery of medi­eval content areas and historical literacy. Summative examinations were nearly universal across the surveyed courses, typically composed of a combination of constructedresponse and selected-response questions. Constructed-response questions include short answer questions, key term identification, and brief essays. Selected-response questions include multiple-choice, matching, and fill-in-the-blank. Explicit formative assessment in these courses typically included participatory assignments such as inclass discussion, web-based discussion boards, and the ever-vague “participation” category. These assessments typically revolve around a curated list of major themes or topics in preparation for summative assessments, to reinforce the targeted learning goals of the course, and to track student comprehension of course material. Yet, rarely is there explicit mention of instructional time dedicated to developing the necessary historical skills that would allow students to be more successful on these assessments. Experiential learning will occur during the course of a semester, of course, but relying on students to acquire these skills largely on their own is not likely to produce the desired learning outcomes nor generate student disciplinary interest. This is nothing new to education either, as teachers have been noting for millennia that instruction is more effective if it supports students’ natural interests in the field (“hinc satis elucet maiorem habere vim ad discenda ista liberam curiositatem quam meticulosam necessitatem,” or: So it is perfectly clear that untrammelled curiosity is a more effective 15  The full results of our college course survey can be found in Appendix D.



Changing Perceptions in Teaching Medi­eval History

7

aid to learning than any pressure born from fear) and it is differentiated to accommodate different type of learners.16 As mentioned, in a North American secondary school setting, most students will encounter the Middle Ages in a world history course or an advanced elective course such as AP European History or an IB history course with a content focus on Europe and the Mediterranean. Student competency in these courses is ultimately judged in ultra-high stakes summative assessments through a district/​state standardized test that affects high school graduation or an AP/​IB exam that determines a student’s ultimate success or failure in the course. Much has been said about the flawed use of high-stakes testing to track student progress and competency, but this assessment model has negatively affected instruction, too, by narrowing strategies to focus on test preparation in order for instructors to meet accountability goals and decreasing instructional time in nontested subjects.17 And indeed, many social studies instructors have observed decreased instructional time for their content because it is not a tested subject.18 Narrowing curriculum and decreased instructional time contrast with the consensus standards of collegiate instructors displayed in Tables A.1 and A.2 (see Appendix A) that emphasize skills and competencies best developed through formative assessments that take more time and a reduced role for summative assessments.19 Contrasting with the systematized content and learning goals of AP/​IB and state educational standards, medi­eval history (and medi­eval studies) has no definitive set of content or process standards in either an undergraduate or secondary school setting in the United States by which to rate student progress or competency and, to our knowledge, no large-scale qualitative analysis of medi­eval history courses has ever been attempted.20 That is, there is no way to determine whether or not students are actually learning 16  Augustine of Hippo, Confessions, ed. J. J. O’Donnell (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), bk. 1, chap. 14. Translation taken from Loeb Classical Library, available online.

17  Michael Hout and Stuart Elliott, eds., Incentives and Test-Based Accountability in Education, National Research Council (Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2011); Kevin Welner and William Mathis, Reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act: Time to Move Beyond Test-Focused Policies, (Vancouver: British Columbia Teachers’ Federation, 2015); Joan Herman, “The Effects of Testing on Instruction,” in Redesigning Accountability Systems for Education, ed. Susan Fuhrman and Richard Elmore (New York: Teachers College Press, 2004), 141–66; Daniel Koretz, The Testing Charade: Pretending to Make Schools Better (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2017), esp. 1–11, 21–36; Anonymous, From the Capital to the Classroom: Year 4 of the No Child Left Behind Act (Washington, DC: Center on Education Policy. 2006), 95–96. 18  “Learning Less: Public School Teachers Describe a Narrowing Curriculum,” Farkas Duf­fett Research Group, March 2012, 5–7, 11, 13, accessed February 22, 2022, https:/​/​www.americansforthearts. org/​sites/​default/​files/​cc-learning-less-mar12.pdf.

19  Paul Black and Dylan William, “Assessment and Classroom Learning,” Assessment in Education 5, no. 1 (March 1998): 7–74; Paul Black and Dylan William, “Inside the Black Box: Raising Standards through Classroom Assessment,” Phi Delta Kappan Magazine 80, no. 2 (October 1998): 139–48; Paul Black, Christine Harrison, Clare Lee, Bethan Marshall, and Dylan Wiliam, “Working Inside the Black Box: Assessment for Learning in the Classroom,” Phi Delta Kappan Magazine 86, no. 1 (September 2004): 8–21. 20  Our research resulted in precisely one attempt to establish content standards for a medi­eval

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something in a medi­eval history course beyond localized, anecdotal evidence and tracking course evaluations. Lacking the robust quantitative models for student growth used by the educational entities, the suggestion of this book is that medi­eval history instructors would be well-served by using an intentionally designed course utilizing an evidence-based, established pedagogical approach like project-based learning that will not only result in a more effective and positive learning experiences for secondary and postsecondary students, but also provide a framework from which student learning can be more formally evaluated.21 Such evaluations would allow instructors to track changing trends in students’ interests in medi­eval history, adjust assessments based on student performance, and provide evidence for tenure-track instructors on the effectiveness of their teaching. At the same time, medi­eval history instructors are affected by and participate in the larger issues surrounding social studies education noted in this chapter, and are an integral part of their development as professional historians, but medi­eval history has its own particular disciplinary issues that are distinct from the American and Modern historians that predominate the historical profession in the United States.22 Medi­eval historians operate in a pre-modern world whose extant evidence was produced primarily by a powerful minority who directed how historical memory and meaning was constructed.23 In addition, the popularity of medi­evalisms and modern presentations of medi­eval topics makes for a field that must be carefully navigated to avoid cultural misappropriations for current political perspectives and prevent students from falling into anachronistic interpretations that depict the Middle Ages as a less interesting version of Middle Earth or Westeros.24 There has been at least one significant call to develop a disciplinary framehistory course: Timothy Hall, “Medi­eval Studies: A Standards Based Approach,” Scientia Scholae 4, no. 1 (Fall 2005).

21  “The Impact of Formative Assessment and Learning Intentions on Student Achievement,” Hanover Research, August 2014, accessed February 22, 2022, https:/​/​www.hanoverresearch.com/​ media/​The-Impact-of-Formative-Assessment-and-Learning-Intentions-on-Student-Achievement. pdf; W. James Popham, Transformative Assessment (Alexandria: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2008), 15–23; Ceyhun Ozan and Remzi Kincal, “The Effects of Formative Assessment on Academic Achievement, Attitudes toward the Lesson, and Self-Regulation Skills,” Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice 18, no. 1 (February 2018): 85–118. 22  See, for instance, 46th Directory of History Departments, Historical Organizations, and Historians, 2020–2021 (n. pl.: American Historical Association, 2020). A digital version that is continuously updated exists, but it requires being a member of the AHA, https:/​/​www.historians. org/​publications-and-directories/​directories.

23  See, for instance, Walter Goffart, The Narrators of Barbarian History (A.D. 550–800): Jordanes, Gregory of Tours, Bede, and Paul the Deacon (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988); Rosamond McKitterick, History and Memory in the Carolingian World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004); Leah Shopkow, History and Community: Norman Historical Writing in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1997); Elma Brenner, Meredith Cohen, and Mary Franklin-Brown, Memory and Commemoration in Medi­ eval Culture (New York: Routledge, 2016). 24  Walter Kudrycz, “New Romantics: Literature, Literacy, and Late Twentieth-Century Under­ standings of the Middle Ages,” in The Historical Present: Medi­evalism and Modernity (New York:



Changing Perceptions in Teaching Medi­eval History

9

work by Vicky Gunn and Leah Shopkow more than a decade ago, which they state will require “an openness to the dynamic complexities of both learning and teaching and their impact on how a discipline develops.”25 It is the argument of some that a concerted effort on developing good teaching practices is to the benefit of students’ educational success and the reformation of humanities fields that have seen progressively fewer graduates and majors over the last fifteen years.26 Gunn suggests a shift away from “transmission and delivery” in favour of “mutual practical hermeneutics” in order to meet the needs of an increasingly diverse population of students, cultural issues which the field of medi­eval studies has responded to in recent memory with the rapid growth of studies on race and racism in the Middle Ages and an effort by professional societies to ensure that statements of diversity and inclusion are clearly communicated to their members and the public.27 The goal, Shopkow continues, should be to work with students to generate new knowledge and new interpretations, moving away from the traditional model which does not serve the best learning interests of students. However, looking at two publications devoted to teaching the Middle Ages, The Once and Future Classroom (previously Scientia Scholae) published by the Teaching Association for Medi­eval Studies (TEAMS) and Stud­ ies in Medi­eval and Renaissance Teaching, it is clear that what medi­evalists generally consider good teaching is coming up with innovative ways to administer core content rather than investigating broader instructional methodo­logies.28 Gunn and Shopkow suggested collaborative teaching, active learning, diversifying instructional modalities, and starting to critically evaluate the teaching practices of medi­eval history as potential avenues of progress. Project-based learning provides one framework of possible solutions which, if implemented, will provide useful data for further investigation into medi­eval teaching practices. The targeted learning goals and assessment models observed in our undergraduate survey have been compared to widely adopted secondary school history and social studies standards. Three examples Continuum, 2011), 191–216; James Smith, “Medi­evalisms of Moral Panic: Borrowing the Past to Frame Fear in the Present,” in Studies in Medi­evalism XXV: Medi­evalism and Modernity, ed. Karl Fugelso (Woodbridge: Boydell and Brewer, 2016), 157–72; Erin Labbie, “Pop Medi­evalism,” in Studies in Medi­evalism XXIV: Medi­evalism on the Margins, ed. Karl Fugelso (Woodbridge: Boydell and Brewer, 2015), 21–30. 25  Vicky Gunn and Leah Shopkow, “Doing SoTL in Medi­eval History: A Cross-Atlantic Dialogue,” Arts and Humanities in Higher Education 6, no. 3 (Oct. 2007): 255–71 at 267.

26  Commission on the Future of Undergraduate Education, The Future of Undergraduate Education: The Future of America (Cambridge, MA: American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 2017), 12.

27  Gunn and Shopkow, “Doing SoTL in Medi­eval History,” 260; Jonathan Hsy and Julie Orlemanski, “Race and Medi­eval Studies: A Partial Biblio­graphy,” Postmedi­eval 8, no. 4 (December 2017): 500–31; Chris Jones, Conor Kostick, and Klaus Oschema, eds., Making the Medi­eval Relevant: How Medi­evalists are Revolutionising the Present (Berlin, De Gruyter, 2019); “Race, Racism and the Middle Ages,” The Public Medi­evalist, February 2017 to present, https:/​/​www.publicmedi­evalist. com/​race-racism-middle-ages-toc/​, accessed February 22, 2022

28  C. T. Wood, “In Medi­eval Studies, is ‘To Teach’ a Transitive Verb?” Studies in Medi­eval and Renaissance Teaching 3, no. 2 (Fall 1992): 3–13; F. Kiefer, “Renaissance Design: An Interdisciplinary Approach,” Studies in Medi­eval and Renaissance Teaching 3, no. 1 (Spring 1992): 3–13.

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are noted here, with additional content frameworks provided in Appendix A. Notably, the process standards from the C3 Framework for Social Studies Standards adopted by twenty-three US states, the results of the American Historical Association’s (AHA) 2016 Tuning Project, and the most recent modification of the Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) for Social Studies seem to generally align with the common elements of undergraduate medi­eval history courses.29 The explanation for this alignment is likely medi­eval history faculty reflecting the broad professional standards of academic history as the AHA Tuning Project suggests, but this admittedly unremarkable data point is important to establish for a few reasons. First, if expectations for introductory undergraduate medi­eval history courses had, for some reason, not aligned with common secondary school process standards, it would have meant that there was considerable disconnect in the expectations and standards of secondary and post-secondary history courses. In addition, if the common elements of introductory medi­eval history courses differed significantly from the discipline core of an organization like the AHA, it would mean medi­eval history, for some reason, was an outlier in academic history, thus requiring some new method of approach. As it stands, however, medi­eval history can be evaluated from a broader lens. Second, it is important to establish the parallels between secondary and post-secondary expectations for historical skills as the former should be preparing students for the increased rigour of the latter. However, a number of national studies have shown that students are consistently not ready for university, and state policymakers are still trying to determine what “college ready” means.30 It has been established here that this discrepancy is, perhaps, not a gap in standards, but perhaps may be a gap in pedagogy and assessment. In the United States, state assessment models are either wholly selected-response questions such as the STAAR tests in Texas and the Iowa Test of Basic Skills, or a combination of selected- and constructed-response questions such as Ohio’s State Tests or New York’s Regents Exams.31 Some states have opted to remove social studies assessment in favour of emphasizing more general literacy skills and to decrease the amount of testing required of students. California, for example, has not had a statewide history or social 29  19 Tex. Admin. Code §113.42.c.28–31 (2019) (Tex. Ed. Agy., TEKS for Social Studies); Michael Hansen, Elizabeth Levesque, John Valant, and Diana Quintero, The 2018 Brown Center Report on American Education: How Well Are American Students Learning? (Washington, DC: The Brown Center on Education Policy, 2018), 21.

30  Anonymous, The Condition of College and Career Readiness: National, 2012 (Iowa City: ACT, 2012), 7–8 ; Justine Radunzel and Julie Nobel, Tracking 2003 ACT-Tested High School Graduates: College Readiness, Enrollment, and Long-Term Success, ACT Research Report Series (Iowa City: ACT, 2012), 15; Emmy Glancy, Mary Fulton, Lexi Anderson, Jennifer Dounay Zinth, and Maria Millard, Blueprint for College Readiness (Denver: Education Commission of the States, 2014), 48–52; Anonymous, Remediation: Higher Education’s Bridge to Nowhere (Indianapolis: Complete College America, 2012), 6.

31  “STAAR Released Test Questions,” Texas Education Agency, https:/​/​tea.texas.gov/​student. assessment/​staar_released_test_questions/​, accessed February 22, 2022; “Ohio’s State Tests,” Ohio Department of Education, https:/​/​oh-ost.portal.cambiumast.com; “Social Studies Regents Exams,” [New York] Office of State Assessment, http:/​/​www.nysedregents.org/​regents_ss.html, accessed February 22, 2022.



Changing Perceptions in Teaching Medi­eval History

11

studies examination since 2013.32 Thus, when students enter into their college history courses with high stakes writing, they are less likely to have developed the necessary skills to demonstrate proficiency. For most who teach medi­eval history, the largest impact made by the discipline is not a new methodo­logical paradigm or groundbreaking discovery, but the education of students. Students who, perhaps only in a principled belief in the benefits of a classical liberal education, have no practical use for medi­eval historical content. So what benefit does the Middle Ages bring to these students’ educational journey? It is the historian’s toolbox, filled with techniques, strategies, and skills that benefit the intellectual, emotional, and social well-being of students. Supported by a PBL framework that has proven results, medi­evalists can do their part to close the college readiness gap and help ensure their students start down a path to educational and professional competency. Yet, it is the plight of history instructors that they are left with the task of covering an overwhelming amount of content under a constrained time frame. This is especially true in an undergraduate setting. In a world history class this means as little as two weeks, or as little as four lectures, might be devoted to the Middle Ages—though admittedly every other geo­graphic area and historical era is under similar constraints. However, even in a dedicated medi­eval survey, covering a thousand years of history from three continents, dozens of cultures, and a complex interaction of peoples far removed from our modern experience is an impossible task, especially so for introductory classes with many students who are encountering the Middle Ages for the first time. This results in instructors including as much critical content as they reasonably can and, even then, important subjects are excised. The historian’s toolbox is often laid aside in these courses, as there is minimal time for assessment, much less research methods. PBL offers instructors an alternative. Rather than loading students down with as much information as possible, students can focus on learning deeply about fewer topics while learning the skills of a historian so that at any point they can investigate historical events in a way that allows them to make connections between past, present, and future. The rich landscape of medi­eval history is a perfect backdrop for the development of authentic historical skills.33 For many students, medi­eval primary sources are difficult to dissect because the translated grammar does not always align with students’ prior reading experiences, there are key terms that lack any significance upon a first reading, and the author’s point of reference is far-removed from anything relatable to digitallynative students.34 Take this example, written by an Oxford student to his father in the early thirteenth century: 32  Nancy McTygue, “What You Need to Know about California’s New History-Social Science Frame­ work,” California History-Social Science Project, July 14, 2016, accessed February 22, 2022, https:/​ /​www.sccoe.org/​plisd/​history/​Documents/​Framework percent20Q percent20and percent20A percent20from percent20CHSSP.pdf.

33  Tricia Seifert, Kathleen Goodman, Nathan Lindsay, James Jorgensen, Gregory Wolniak, Ernest Pascarella, and Charles Blaich, “The Effects of Liberal Arts Experiences on Liberal Arts Outcomes,” Research in Higher Education 49 (2008): 107–25. 34  Ane Linvedt, “Teaching Students to Interpret Documents,” Perspectives on History 42, no. 9

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B. to his venerable master A., greeting. This is to inform you that I am studying at Oxford with the greatest diligence, but the matter of money stands greatly in the way of my promotion, as it is now two months since I spent the last of what you sent me. The city is expensive and makes many demands; I have to rent lodgings, buy necessaries, and provide for many other things which I cannot now specify. Wherefore I respectfully beg your paternity that by the promptings of divine pity you may assist me, so that I may be able to complete what I have well begun. For you must know that without Ceres and Bacchus Apollo grows cold.35

For course content, this is a good source to use because it can be assigned to students in its entirety or with complementary sources, it is an experience relatable to students, and it opens course options to discuss the development of the medi­eval universities and learning communities. “Promotion,” “necessaries,” “paternity,” “divine pity,” and the three Roman gods are likely stumbling blocks for students, but they will still be able to communicate the general message of the letter—send more money, dad. The goal of readings like this one is to get students to engage with the medi­eval past on its own terms, master some basic medi­eval content, and use it as a tool to teach a historical skill. One traditional method of incorporating this source into a course would be to spend five or ten minutes connecting it to the topics and themes of the lecture it was attached to, then include it on some assessment later in the course. But the traditional methods of doing so seem to be failing in schools and on campuses across the US.36 Instructors should be moving away from the transmittal model of lectures and slides being passed from instructor to student, opting instead for a more active learning model such as PBL that increases opportunities for interactions between instructors and students, which has been convincingly shown to increase student achievement in information processing and production.37 From the perspective of PBL, the student letter above becomes a much different historical object. It is an unremarkable text uninvolved with any notable historical event or person, but it is an exemplar of history from the bottom that is essential for anyone interpreting the past in the last sixty years. Students do not have to rely on a short italicized introductory para­graph to explain the basic context of the letter; they instead begin formulating questions and avenues of inquiry. This may lead students to investigate what Oxford was like in the Middle Ages, or what daily life in the thirteenth century required, or what sort of classical knowledge existed in medi­eval England. All of these are worthy subjects of investigation that will require students to master fundamental medi­eval content areas and historical skills in the course of inquiry. In this context, the course instructor gives up control of content direction in favour of skill acquisition. (December 2004): 23–25; available online.

35  Charles Homer Haskins, trans., “The Life of Medi­eval Students as Illustrated by Their Letters,” The American Historical Review 3, no. 2 (January 1898): 210. Original is in London, British Library, Add. MS 8167, fol. 104.

36  Richard Arum and Josipa Roksa, Academically Adrift: Limited Learning on College Campuses (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011), 1–33. 37  Adrianna Kezar and Dan Maxey, “Faculty Matter: So Why Doesn’t Everyone Think So?” Thought and Action (Fall 2014): 30–31.



Changing Perceptions in Teaching Medi­eval History

13

Rethinking Outcomes for Meaningful Learning

Establishing realistic student learning outcomes is essential if a course is going to be held accountable for an authentic learning experience. However, more than a few historians have criticized their utility. Molly Worthen and Erik Gilbert, for example, have both written opinion pieces lambasting the practical utility of both assessment and student learning outcomes, arguing that assessment largely contributed to the problem of administrative redundancy in higher education and has no measurable, positive impact on student learning.38 Worthen and Gilbert affirm that instructors simply do not want to assess students beyond a bare minimum and that even if they did, the type of learning historians need to evaluate is exceedingly difficult to measure. On the other hand, it may be that history departments (and many other departments, for that matter) are using bad methodo­logies and poor data collection tools because their training and expertise is on historical methods and research, not educational methods and research.39 Though the debate around assessment in this context is about institutional assessment, it should impact instructors’ perspectives on course assessment. That is, the fundamental purpose of assessment is to establish what a student should be learning, then determine whether or not a student is learning it. There need not be lock-step agreement amongst instructors about specific learning outcomes, but as noted it would be unusual if an instructor’s desired learning outcomes in any given undergraduate history course differed greatly from the core competencies and learning outcomes established by the American Historical Association’s 2016 Tuning Project (see Appendix A.2). Student learning outcomes can be written haphazardly in order to fulfill departmental or accreditation requirements, but taking the time to intentionally create them is a key component in effective instruction.40 Many instructors may approach student learning outcomes on an individual course basis, but there is an opportunity to align these outcomes across courses, a department, or college.41 Student learning outcomes provide meaningful opportunities for collaboration within a department and across disciplines, but only if there is buy-in from instructors.42 Student learning outcomes should also be 38  Molly Worthen, “The Misguided Drive to Measure ‘Learning Outcomes’,” New York Times, February 23, 2018, https:/​/​www.nytimes.com/​2018/​02/​23/​opinion/​sunday/​colleges-measurelearning-outcomes.html; Erik Gilbert, “An Insider’s Take on Assessment: It May Be Worse Than You Thought,” Chronicle of Higher Education, January 12, 2018, www.chronicle.com/​article/​An-Insiders-Take-on/​242235.

39  David Eubanks, “A Guide for the Perplexed,” Intersection: Journal of the Association for the Assessment of Learning in Higher Education (Fall 2017), 4–13 at 4.

40  What Works Clearinghouse, Using Student Achievement Data to Support Instructional Decision Making (Washington, DC: US Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, 2009).

41  Trudy Banta and Catherina Palomba, Assessment Essentials: Planning, Implementing, and Im­ proving Assessment in Higher Education, 2nd ed. (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2014), 16–30, 41–53.

42  C. J. Grindley, A. Bernal-Carlo, S. Brennan, P. Frenz-Belkin, R. Gampert, I. Li, C. Mangino, and L. Zoe, “Pulling It All together: Connecting Liberal Arts Outcomes with Departmental Goals through General Education,” Peer Review 12, no. 1 (2010): 27–29.

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measurable, that is, the instructor should be able to determine whether or not students are approaching, meeting, or exceeding the expectations associated with a given learning outcome. From the data collected in our undergraduate course survey, it is clear that instructors think that students’ primary purpose in an undergraduate medi­eval history course should be content acquisition, and the preferred method for assessing student achievement of learning outcomes is either through examinations or written assignments. The highest frequency of assessments also reflect this emphasis with constructed response exams (15.3 percent), primary source reviews (12.9 percent), essays with 1,000–1,999 words (9.5 percent), and participation (9.3 percent) holding the top spots. This data prompts questions about instructional intent. Based on the descriptions provided for their student learning objectives, learning how to create a historical narrative and argument was only cited in 10 percent of learning objectives despite writing assessments being weighed heavily on assessing students’ learning and being the among the common types of assessments given in a course. So, this means that either there is a disconnect between student expectations articulated by instructors and the subsequent evaluation of those expectations, or that the kind of writing instructors are expecting students to do does not involve creating historical narratives and arguments. About one-fourth of the 34.61 percent weight given to writing assignments were essays which, based on descriptions provided in the syllabi, the authors are interpreting as assessments intended to demonstrate the basic tenets of historical argumentation that includes providing evidence and support from primary and secondary sources. These expectations should be made clearer to students, many of whom have yet to have any substantial experience writing at a collegiate level, much less have proficiency at it.43 Based on how student learning objectives were written and assessments designated, medi­eval history instructors would benefit from a more structured student learning outcome development process. Ronald Carriveau, for example, offers an accessible three-level model for student learning outcomes that instructors can place into their syllabi immediately, offering a useful framework from which to build assessments with targeted learning goals.44 The basic tenet of this framework is to distinguish overarching pedagogical goals from course specific learning targets, thus more easily allowing an instructor to provide information to their department or institution on overly vague institutional student learning outcomes like “critical thinking,” while at the same time providing students clearer connections between assessments and course expectations. For example, a course from 2016 titled “Late Medi­eval Europe” offered at a four-year public institution includes a student learning outcome with the expectation to “Learn to read primary sources critically and secondary sources analytically.” While a good outcome to target for students, assigning specific assessments to measure this goal is prob43  National Center on Education and the Economy, What Does It Really Mean to Be College Ready? The English Literacy Requirements of First Year Community College Students (Washington, DC: National Center on Education and the Economy, 2013), 21–23.

44  Ronald Carriveau, Connecting the Dots: Developing Student Learning Outcomes and Outcome Based Assessments, 2nd ed. (Sterling: Stylus, 2016), chap. 1.



Changing Perceptions in Teaching Medi­eval History

15

lematic: a history course based largely on primary and secondary sources could reasonably include every assessment as part of this measure, thus diluting the usefulness of assessment to measure student learning progress. The matter further devolves for this course as no assessment descriptions or explanations are provided beyond their titles. This lack of detail prevents students from establishing clear expectations for the course, and makes it harder for the instructor to ensure their assessments are providing measurable information about student learning. Even if the instructor might add additional detail during lecture, any undergraduate instructor knows how little attention students typically pay during the explanation of a syllabus. In this structure, exemplar student learning outcomes for a medi­eval history survey might look like the examples below: 1. Students will demonstrate a basic understanding of diverse cultures.

1.1 Students will analyze human culture in the context of the medi­eval world. 1.1.1 Students will recognize how humans in the past shaped their own unique historical moments and were shaped by those moments.

1.1.2 Students will interpret the complexity and diversity of situations, events, and past mentalities.

1.2 Students will infer the impact of medi­eval cultures on the present.

1.2.1 Students will compare eras and regions of the Middle Ages in order to define enduring issues.

1.2.2 Students will apply historical knowledge, skills, and habits of mind to the problems of the present world.

2. Students will demonstrate an understanding of the chrono­logy, facts, and major events of medi­eval Europe from 500 to 1500 ce. 2.1 Students will analyze the role of significant people and groups in medi­eval history during major events from 500 to 1500 ce.

2.1.1 Students will analyze the role of significant people and groups in medi­eval history during major events from 500 to 1000 ce. 2.1.2 Students will analyze the role of significant people and groups in medi­eval history during major events from 1000 to 1500 ce.

2.2 Students will demonstrate an understanding of continuity and change in medi­eval European society, politics, and culture. 2.2.1 Students will describe the major events of medi­eval Europe from 500 to 1500 ce. 2.2.2 Students will explain the central role of religion in medi­eval society. 2.2.3 Students will evaluate the varying roles that certain demo­graphics played in society including women, peasants, nobles, slaves, merchants, clergy, pagans, and soldiers.

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3. Students will read critically and analytically.

3.1 Students will interpret and analyze primary sources.

3.1.1 Students will understand past events from multiple perspectives.

3.1.2 Students will develop empathy for people in their unique historical moments.

3.2 Students will interpret and analyze secondary sources.

3.2.1 Students will summarize, compare, and synthesize scholars’ historical arguments 3.2.2 Students will evaluate scholarly arguments, explaining how they were constructed and might be improved.

4. Students will create historical narratives and arguments.

4.1 Students will demonstrate proficiency in crafting organized, well-supported responses to historical questions about the major events in medi­eval Europe from 500 to 1500 ce. 4.1.1 Students will compose writing artifacts that detail the causal factors of major events in medi­eval Europe 4.1.2 Students will present an argument derived from the fundamental processes of historical research and writing.

The subsequent development of assessments to measure these outcomes thus becomes more straightforward because they can target specific learning outcomes. Intentional design elements of this kind are essential in a project-based learning classroom where students are likely to be working on varying topics and progressing at different paces throughout the course. Course components, conscientiously built on a foundation of specific learning outcomes, allow the instructor to be flexible in the delivery of the course to meet student needs and the students to feel more confident engaging in an academic discipline with which they have little experience.

Transforming Assessments in Medi­eval Coursework

Following course expectations and delivery of content, assessment is of major concern for instructors (and most students). In higher education, it is important to clarify that assessment here refers to the educational assessment of student learning, learning progress, and academic achievement in a given course, rather than the programmatic assessment of a departmental degree plan or institutionally driven student learning outcomes.45 Instructors at every level are familiar with a variety of assessment types and have constructed perceptions of them and their uses based on their own educational experiences, 45  For example, the Association of American Colleges & Universities’ Valid Assessment of Learning in Undergraduate Education (VALUE) system, https:/​/​www.aacu.org/​value.



Changing Perceptions in Teaching Medi­eval History

17

research, and administrative roles. In parallel, students’ perception of assessment often differs dramatically from an instructor’s perception. Due to this interpretive variability of assessment, it is important to establish some technical vocabulary in order to more precisely address the development and implementation of assessment and knowledge acquisition in medi­eval history courses. Fundamentally, assessment is a methodo­logical approach that informs instruction and a systematic evaluative process of student learning.46 The purposes of assessment are myriad. Paul Newton, for example, has identified seventeen distinct purposes of assessment.47 More than a few scholars have developed similarly complicated breakdowns, but most are too diffuse to be practically utilized in a setting outside of formal education research and scholarship. Instead, the authors have synthesized some of this information with the intention of being more immediately applicable to course construction, which are adapted below from Gavin Brown’s clear, precise breakdown of the complex considerations in assessment. An instructor may reflect on the following three questions during the development of their courses to ensure their assessment appropriately meets the prescribed instructional needs of the chosen course content and anticipates the learning needs of students: – Is the assessment useful for one or more of the targeted learning outcomes in my course?

– If it is useful, when should the assessment take place during the progression of the course? – Independent of timing, is the assessment aimed at student growth or at evaluating the quality of student achievement?

The first question tackles the intransigent opinion of some academics that spending intellectual capital on assessment construction is largely a wasted effort and that student learning outcomes only exist in syllabi to fulfill a requirement dictated by institutional administrators. Such opinions are a self-perpetuating cycle. Hastily constructed assessments linked to ill-defined learning outcomes are unlikely to be able to convincingly demonstrate how students learn in a given course. Regardless of the individual process used, student learning objectives must be both meaningful and measurable so that assessments can be created that link to specific outcomes. That is, instructors 46  Gavin Brown, Assessment of Student Achievement (New York: Routledge, 2018), 1; Tina Isaacs, Catherine Zara, Graham Herbert, Steven Coombs, and Charles Smith, Key Concepts in Educational Assessment (Los Angeles: Sage, 2013), 1; P. E. Rawlusyk, “Assessment in Higher Education and Student Learning,” Journal of Instructional Pedagogies 21 (October 2018): 1–34 at 2; Susan Butler and Nancy McMunn, A Teacher’s Guide to Classroom Assessment: Understanding and Using Assessment to Improve Student Learning (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2006), 2. See also C. Keith Waugh and Norman Gronlund, Assessment of Student Achievement, 10th ed. (New York: Pearson, 2013). 47  Paul Newton, “Clarifying the Purposes of Educational Assessment,” Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy, and Practice 14, no. 2 (July 2007): 149–70; Elizabeth Archer, “The Assessment Purpose Triangle: Balancing the Purposes of Educational Assessment,” Frontiers in Education 2 (August 2017): 2; available online.

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Chapter 1

should be able to articulate the connection between course expectations and assessments in order to determine the degree to which individual students and the entire class achieved. For example, a learning objective that states students should be able to “Analyze significant issues in the Middle Ages” is a poor foundation for any assessment because it is too broad without further explanation. In our survey of instructors who taught undergraduate medi­eval history courses in American colleges and universities over the last decade, we looked at over 600 individual assessments (531 unique assessments) and over 360 unique learning objectives (see Appendix D). We categorized each assessment using axial coding based on the descriptions provided, allowing up five category labels for each assessment. For example, an assessment asking students to evaluate Ernst Kantorwicz’ The King’s Two Bodies would be labelled as an “essay” and a “book review.” Using this methodo­logy, 239 (39 percent) assessments were coded as including essays of varying lengths.48 This aligns with the overall weighting given to writing assessments across all evaluated syllabi at 34.61 percent. Based on the preference of instructors for writing assessments, it should be reasonable to expect learning outcomes to reflect expectations for students to be developing skills related to the historical writing process. This was not the case. We coded each student learning outcome in the same manner as the assessments based on the American Historical Association’s Core Competencies and Learning Outcomes developed as part of the 2016 History Tuning Project. Core Competency 5, “Create historical arguments and narratives,” was used to identify student learning outcomes that explicitly mention writing, totalling only 74 (10 percent; for which see Table 1.2 as reference). Table 1.2. Comparing Student Learning Outcomes to Assessments in Undergraduate Medi­eval History Courses Learning Outcome

Percentage of unique SLOs

Assessment Type

Aggregate Percentage of Grading Weight

Building knowledge

76.9 percent

Examinations

36.44 percent

Developing methods

36.5 percent

Classroom contributions

13.58 percent

Recognizing historical complexity Analyzing the historical record

Creating historical narratives and arguments Active citizenship

34.1 percent

31.0 percent 20.3 percent 5.2 percent

Writing assignments Projects Quizzes

34.61 percent

8.17 percent 6.31 percent

48  If constructed response assessments are included, this rises to 275 (55.5 percent)



Changing Perceptions in Teaching Medi­eval History

19

In short, there is a disconnect between what instructors are expecting students to be able to do from the assessments they are giving and what they are telling students they expect them to be able to do through their student learning outcomes. Similar disconnects can be observed in other categories. 37 percent of learning objectives indicate an expectation for students to engage Core Competency 1, “Building historical knowledge.” This should correlate with a similar emphasis on assessments that evaluate students’ summative knowledge of historical content, largely through exams and quizzes with selected and/​or constructed responses. Yet, only 90 (18 percent) of assessments were exams, weighted 36.44 percent overall, and 81 (16 percent) were quizzes, weighted 6.31 percent overall. Furthermore, most assessments in a medi­eval history course are individually created and administered by the instructor without being subjected to peer review or quality control in a manner similar to their historical scholarship. That is, both qualitatively and quantitatively, the validity and reliability of assessments in medi­eval history classrooms to establish an accurate measure of student learning progress and student achievement is dubious. Instructors, then, should reconsider the default undergraduate assessment structure of three exams and a final (or final essay) for their course, and instead consider implementing intentionally constructed assessments that point at the heart of their interpretation of the fundamental characteristics of the disciplines of history and medi­ eval studies. Our data suggests that current efforts to do so are inconsistent, at best. Instructors should consult within their department and colleagues at other institutions about the content and construction of their assessment to provide it with quality control and, critically, have an evaluative framework in place that establishes what learning progress should look like in their course for different types of students based on different demo­graphic information and students’ skill sets at the beginning of the course. Such measures will aid instructors in establishing accountability for themselves, provide meaningful evidence for continuous improvement of a course, make incorporating a coinstructor or teaching assistant much more efficient, and enable a department to quantitatively point to data that show the benefits their teaching brings to their institution. The second question suggests the importance of implementing an assessment at an appropriate juncture to give students opportunities to close gaps. From students’ perspectives, incorrectly selected responses on an exam do not provide effective constructive feedback that allows them to address deficiencies in their historical skill development, it only identifies content areas they have not mastered, either through rote memorization or analysis. That is, students primarily understand they got an answer wrong. This is not to say critical thinking and reading cannot be assessed by the instructor using multiple-choice questions, only that the average undergraduate student whose experience with assessment has largely been high stakes standardized testing in a public high school setting are more likely to associate incorrect answers with failure to achieve rather than as an opportunity for growth.49 This can be mitigated somewhat if an instructor debriefs the class on the reasoning behind the construction of individual 49  Emer Smith and Joanna Banks, “High Stakes Testing and Student Perspectives on Teaching and Learning in the Republic of Ireland,” Educational Assessment, Evaluation, Accountability 24 (2012):

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questions, but such an instructional tool was not observed in any of the syllabi surveyed for this book, nor is it likely that instructors spend sufficient time linking individual questions to targeted student learning outcomes. For the instructor, effective assessment is as much a diagnostic exercise as it is a tool for observing student performance. That is, like any historical investigation, instructors may only use extant evidence. A richer corpus of texts usually offers the chance to interpret the past more comprehensively, argue more convincingly, and address it with greater nuance. It is not surprising, for example, to observe that scholarship on the Vandals is relatively sparse compared to something like the Hundred Years War.50 An instructor would be hard pressed to convincingly argue they have effectively developed their students’ historical and medi­eval skill sets based on assessments disconnected from any established learning outcomes and brief, time constrained writing assessments inconsistently graded without an intentionally designed framework of what constitutes good historical writing. The third question opens a discussion as to whether student improvement or student performance is more important in a collegiate setting. Both have a critical place in the implementation of a course, but it is important for an instructor to intentionally and purposefully think about how their assessments balance them. In introductory history courses, this balance usually involves an instructor deciding how to distribute a reasonable reading load, rote assessments, and writing assessments. However, for the latter in particular, there is a tendency in history courses to require writing assessments without providing explicit writing instruction during the course. That is, instructors expect undergraduate students to have a certain writing competency prior to enrolling in their course, and that experience should allow them to successfully complete writing assignments. However, data has shown students are not prepared when they get to college. If instructors’ intent is for students to become more proficient writers through critical reading and class discussion and by practicing on writing assessments throughout the semester, it must be supported by explicit instruction on how to do it. Based on the data provided above, writing can be reasonably suggested as the most common and most important form of assessment in a medi­eval history course. However, less than 15 percent of student learning outcomes in these same courses target writing development as a course objective and those objectives occurred in less than half of the syllabi used despite writing assessment occurring in nearly every syllabus. Why are these writing assessments used? Is it to assess student mastery of the relationship between a designated set of primary and secondary sources? Is it because the primary product of most historians is writing of some kind, and thus writing must be assigned to our students? More to the point, for every instructor that at some point bemoaned the writing deficiencies of their students, what steps were taken to address those perceived deficiencies other than requiring writing assessments? There is evidence to suggest that many students do not enter college with the literacy skills necessary to succeed in college-level coursework or leave with the writing skills required for 285–88; Pedro Noguera, “How Listening to Students Can Help Schools to Improve,” Theory into Practice 46 no. 3 (2007): 205–11. 50  Andrew Merrills and Richard Miles, The Vandals (Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2016), 16–26.



Changing Perceptions in Teaching Medi­eval History

21

the workforce, but regardless of the reason, those students enroll in medi­eval history courses every semester.51 However, there is also evidence to suggest that students are not ill-equipped, at least not any more ill-equipped than their peers over the last century.52 Indeed, Andrea and Karen Lunsford found that between 1988 and 2006, first-year college students were writing more (2.5 times more on average) and that the emphasis of first-year writing programs was mostly on argumentative and research-based writing. The suggestion, therefore, is that students’ ability to think critically is likely not the underlying issue in students’ perceived struggle to express ideas on a page. It is, perhaps, the assessment that is attempting to evaluate students using a method that does not capture a realistic representation of student ability. On the other hand, statemandated testing in high school does not emphasize an evidence-based approach to research that requires a synthesis of complex information in order to complete a writing product. State educational agencies and the College Board, for example, provide a high-stakes, closed environment in which students write by hand, without access to the internet or other research materials (though there is movement to switch to computerbased testing). The same is true for many undergraduate history surveys, often with the addition of a time constraint to fit within a single class timeslot and extends even to doctoral students in history departments who might be required to complete their comprehensive or qualifying exams in a closed office using a computer disconnected from the internet. All three settings do not reflect an authentic historical research environment in the twenty-first century if, indeed, one of the purposes of a history course is to help students develop some of the skills of the professional historian. After all, academic writing is hard, and consistent writing productivity is difficult even for veteran academics.53 And perhaps this requires a change in perspective for instructors, where assessment is not an indicator of performance, but used to connect an instructor to the needs of a given class.54 The purpose of assessment should be to provide feedback to students and instructors. It should promote self-reflection for students to assert agency in their navigation of a course and their general learning process, and serve as benchmarks for instructors to identify growth areas for their students and for the continuous improvement of their course. It is thus critically important for instructors to think about the types of assessment a course might include. To reiterate, educational assessment refers to tasks in a course used by instructors to collect data and provide feedback about student progress, performance, and achievement. Though there are various methods of categorizing assessment, assessment for learning, assessment as learning, and assessment of learning are a straightforward, uncomplicated set 51  Hart Research Associates, Falling Short? College Learning and Career Success (Washington, DC: Association of American Colleges and Universities, 2015). 52  Andrea Lunsford and Karen Lunsford, “Mistakes Are a Fact of Life,” College Composition and Communication 59 no. 4 (June 2008): 781–806. 53  Helen Sword, Art & Light & Time & Space: How Successful Academics Write (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2017): 78.

54  John Warner, Why They Can’t Write: Killing the Five Para­graph Essay and Other Necessities (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2018), 28–34, 57–72.

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of terms. Instructors may be familiar with other assessment termino­logy such as formative/​summative, low-/​high-stakes, and standards-based. These terms and others, useful in their own right, seem static, suggesting that an instructor simply chooses a summative assessment or a low-stakes assessment to incorporate into their courses. Referring to assessment for, as, and of learning instead suggests a dynamic process which reiterates the underlying purpose of assessment is, in fact, learning rather than performance evaluation. Assessment for learning is a term popularized by Paul Black and Dylan William, initially stemming from their work with The Assessment Reform Group (ARG), a group of researchers funded by the Nuffield Foundation from 1996 to 2010 that aimed to ensure assessment policy and practice incorporated evidence-based research into curricular reform throughout the United Kingdom. Assessment for learning is broadly governed by three considerations as to the underlying purpose of assessment, beginning with a diagnostic assessment of where students are in the learning process of a given content area.55 Second, students should begin learning what they need for the course, but doing so with an explicit set of learning criteria that builds on what they already know and explains the significance of what is to be learned. Third, students are best able to pursue learning by receiving constructive feedback that has clear links to the designated learning goal(s), looking back on what has already been learned and looking ahead to what will be learned. For example, a medi­eval history course might start with a discussion about what prior experience students have with medi­eval studies or a short survey of students’ majors and academic foci. A roster of twenty students including eighteen history majors in a survey course should impact an instructor’s course delivery differently than a roster of forty students including only five history majors in an upper division course. And while such factors should not dramatically change the structure of the course, it should help temper the expectations of an instructor to not over- or underestimate the basic experiences and skills of their students and provide useful information for the day-today preparation of class materials. Establishing this type of basic information about students does not mean learning outcomes or expectations should be altered if the instructor has established them based on research and scholarly expertise, only that the instructor will need to adapt their instructional approach on a course by course basis to appropriately support students in meeting their outcome goals. For example, establishing the impact of religion on medi­eval societies is a common learning outcome in medi­ eval surveys. Teaching at a religiously-affiliated, rural, private institution where students are predominantly Prostestant Christians will require the instructor to address a different set of assumptions about religion than teaching in an urban, public institution where the student body tends to be more religiously diverse. In these variable contexts, it is critical for an instructor to establish clear, explicit expectations for the course, course learning outcomes, and course assessments. This allows both instructors and students to align their own unique experiences towards the intended outcomes of the course. 55  Isaacs et al., Key Concepts in Educational Assessment, 8.



Changing Perceptions in Teaching Medi­eval History

23

Historians often make the assumption that the past has intrinsic value, and these implicit assumptions often guide historians’ determination of what is critical to understand it.56 Novice historians—students—might ask “What is medi­eval history actually for? What does it do? Why should we bother with it?”57 Postmodern discussions of the relative value of historical topics aside, instructors will need to address this question and questions like it, leveraging their own expertise to align with Robert Bain’s argument to, first, externalize all thinking in the history classroom and, second, create cultural supports for disciplinary thinking.58 Telling students why a source was selected and offering tools to investigate it beyond a “measuring stick” assessment is just as critical for student learning as the content of the source. These hurdles to a nuanced understanding of history can be effectively addressed in historio­graphy courses; however, students in introductory level courses will not have the advantage of that training. History courses that have an expected outcome that asks students to understand, as one syllabus notes, “the organization of medi­eval society,” certainly suggests content beyond staid coverage that only provides surface level coverage of important topics. Assessments can support these goals, even a more nuanced understanding of course content, but only if they are intentionally built to do so, their intent is clearly communicated to students, postassessment feedback is given to students to reinforce learning, and the practical impact on student achievement is such that students continue to engage in the course rather than acquiesce to instructor opinion in pursuit of maintaining their overall grade point average (GPA). Assessment of learning is more commonly known as summative assessment. This type of assessment determines a student’s achievement in a designated learning area at a particular moment in time based on a set of standards.59 How useful a singular performance of a student’s learning may be depends upon the quality of the assessment itself and the competency of the people analyzing the assessment results. As noted above, state-mandated, standardized tests are often portrayed as bad summative assessments, both in their ability to adequately measure a student’s achievement level (i.e., a poorquality test), and in the way the assessments are deployed (i.e., low competency analysis of results). So, if an instructor, department, college, or institution wishes to use summative assessment as an evaluative tool to measure student performance and learning, it is critical that the assessments used are valid, reliable, and fair.60 Validity, here, means 56  Samuel S. Wineburg, Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts: Charting the Future of Teaching the Past (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2001), 113. 57  Marcus Bull, Thinking Medi­eval (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), 99.

58  Robert Bain, “Into the Breach: Using Research and Theory to Shape History Instruction,” Journal of Education 189, no. 1/​2 (2008/​2009): 159–67 at 160. 59  Connie Moss, “Research on Classroom Summative Assessment,” in Sage Handbook of Research on Classroom Assessment, ed. James McMillan (Thousand Oaks: Sage, 2013), 235–56; Isaacs et al., Key Concepts in Educational Assessment, 12.

60  American Education Research Association, American Psycho­logical Association, and National Council on Measurement in Education, Standard on Education and Psycho­logical Testing, 4th ed. (Washington, DC: American Education Research Association, 2014), 11–74.

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using evidence and theory to help legitimize the interpretation of a given assessment for measuring targeted learning goals. Reliability helps ensure validity by looking for consistency within the assessment and during its analysis. Fairness recommends that assessments should provide a pathway for all students to be successful on an assessment by utilizing an assessment design that is universally comprehensible, accessible, and bias-free. To more clearly illustrate these concepts, assume there is a medi­eval history survey with targeted learning outcomes, first, for students to develop skills to interpret primary sources and, second, to display an understanding of key content areas in the medi­ eval world. Consider a traditional history department undergraduate assessment that might take place during a fifty-minute lecture in this course: 20 percent

10 selected response questions (e.g., multiple-choice, true/​false)

50 percent

1 essay question

30 percent

3 short answer questions (e.g., key term/​concept identifications)

An essay question that does not include a primary source text for students to analyze will likely make this assessment not valid, as it would be difficult to determine students’ primary source analysis skills based on multiple-choice questions and identifications. That is, the instructor is not aligning their assessment with the established expectations and goals of the course. In a similar way, an essay question that presents students with a cartulary to evaluate when the semester has been spent looking at lyric poetry is potentially problematic. A valid assessment would use a sample text of a similar type (lyric poetry), as an instructor can reasonably expect students to be familiar with this textual genre due to coverage during instruction. A reliable assessment can change components without significantly affecting student outcomes. That is, students should be able to analyze multiple examples of lyric poetry without significantly impacting their assessment results because they have already spent time doing so prior to the assessment, during which they were guided by their instructor. A fair assessment is one that allows all students the opportunity to demonstrate the extent of their skills and competency in relation to the designated learning outcomes. In this example, the fifty-minute time frame might be a consideration for an unfair assessment practice depending upon expectations for the essay question. This may also compromise the validity of the assessment if the evaluation of primary source skills is meant to represent students’ mastery of a skill critical to the historical profession, rather than their ability to write well under a constrained time frame. It may be more fair to offer a take home essay, which would remove potential barriers such as testing anxiety or physical difficulties in writing swiftly. It would also allow students to readily utilize notes and research to support their work, which is much more aligned to the actual practice of professional medi­eval history. The preceding example suggests basic consideration in the microcosm of the individual instructor and individual course as it is the intended audience of this book. However, validity, reliability, and fairness are applicable at the department, college, and institutional level, too. In a given department, a faculty group which regularly teaches a sequence of undergraduate medi­eval history courses should be comparing assess-



Changing Perceptions in Teaching Medi­eval History

25

ments, as one instructor’s perception of low student performance may be an instructional issue rather than a factor of student competency on a similarly constructed assessment—that is, the assessment may be valid, but not reliable. Such topics have never been investigated in any meaningful way in medi­eval studies, and deserve more attention from medi­eval studies scholarship, but are unfortunately outside the scope of the present project. Assessment as learning is the meaningful application of the previous two concepts. Instructors and students should both be able to utilize assessment as a tool to establish and reinforce norms for the course and classroom, and PBL inherently uses assessment to help students achieve learning objectives. At its core, the concept of assessment is a simple act of collecting information about individuals or groups of individuals in order to better understand them. Practically, however, the primary concerns of students, mostly likely, will be on the number or letter associated with each assessment. In theory, a student receiving a “D” grade may have learned a lot during a course, but that student will still be less pleased with the negative impact on their GPA than they are enthused about their growth in critical reading and writing or increased awareness of the medi­ eval past.61 This is the basic and eternal educational debate between student growth and student achievement, with assessment playing a crucial role. If a student received a “D” or “F,” did they fail to reach a targeted achievement level or fail to develop their academic skills to a sufficient degree? That is, what assessments did the student complete that indicated some type of poor performance? For historians, the answer may be, regrettably, unknown. Bancroft Prize recipient Anne Hyde has stated that history professors “suck at assessment,” contending that there are five general reasons for this: first, we (historians) do not want to assess; second, we do not agree about what we want students to learn; third, we are not experts in the science of learning or the complexities of assessment and testing; fourth, what we want students to learn is difficult to assess; and lastly, politics.62 Hyde’s concerns are a biting critique at history faculty, but they may also speak to broader issues in academia. Instructors may not want to assess because it does not help increase job stability when 73 percent of faculty positions are off tenure track and directors of graduate programs maintain the opinion that, “you don’t need to be a great teacher or even a good one. Just don’t be consistently bad.”63 Such a perspective will undoubtedly allow students to justify taking out large loans to enroll in a course with an 61  See for instance the guidance at Rutgers University for how students may perceive how “D” and “F” grades may impact on their overall GPA: https:/​/​soe.rutgers.edu/​oas/​gpa-calculation. Wiki­ pedia offers an introduction to “Academic grading in the United States.”

62  Anne Hyde, “Five Reasons Why History Professors Suck at Assessment,” The Journal of American Historians 102 no. 4 (March 2016): 1104–7.

63  “Data Snapshot: Contingent Faculty in US Higher Ed,” American Association of University Professors, accessed February 22, 2022, https:/​/​www.aaup.org/​sites/​default/​files/​10112018 percent20Data percent20Snapshot percent20Tenure.pdf; Lance Fusarelli, “If I only Knew: Reflections for New Faculty Members,” Inside Higher Ed, August 6, 2020, https:/​/​www. insidehighered.com/​advice/​2020/​08/​06/​seasoned-faculty-member-reflects-what-he-wisheshed-known-new-professor-opinion.

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instructor who views their course as “a waste of…valuable time.” Assessment, properly done, should be able to adapt to many teaching styles and content choices without compromising disciplinary goals. So while medi­evalists might disagree over choosing Warren Hollister and Judith Bennett’s textbook over Julia Smith’s or arguing about which chunks of Chaucer best illustrate medi­eval society, there is common agreement that a central text is useful and literature helps bring medi­eval society to life. Medi­eval historians are not experts in the science of modern learning and assessment, nor should they be expected to be, but their institutions are likely to have a department or college where it trains future instructors and education researchers. Collaborative relationships may prove beneficial and open up additional opportunities for external funding and publication. Stanford’s History Education Group is arguably the prime example of such collaboration. Student learning is hard to assess, regardless of content area, and none more so than writing-heavy fields like history. The US Department of Education spent millions of dollars developing a thirteen-step Assessment Design Toolkit intended to be used by teachers, educational institutions, and state education agencies to assist in assessment construction.64 Millions more are available through agencies such as the National Center for Education Research (NCER), which has funded over $281 million in literacy focused grants since 2002, noting in its request for applications that “Writing is vastly understudied in comparison to reading, and despite this important skill for both communication and learning, little is known about how writing develops and how to improve writing achievement for students.” That is, writing has been recognized as important, as has its difficulty to measure. Historians are well-positioned to participate in this process. In part, Hyde’s concerns are the purpose of this book. Our experiences in higher education and those of our colleagues have been focused on either historical topics or education research, but faculty usually lack the scholarly bandwidth and appropriate time to do both. It is the authors’ hope that the educational focus of this book provides a more accessible and practically implementable method to engage medi­eval history instructors in the theory and application of educational practices in an undergraduate setting.

64  “Assessment Design Toolkit,” US Department of Education, accessed February 22, 2022, https:/​ /​oese.ed.gov/​assessment-design-toolkit/​.

Chapter 2

MEDI­EVAL HISTORY COURSE DESIGN In This Chapter we

– Learn the historical roots of project-based learning.

– Explore the benefits of building a classroom community. – Examine essential elements of project-based learning. – Envision attributes of a project-based course.

Introduction

The overarching goal of this chapter is to present PBL as a pedagogical framework that has a long-established history and proven effectiveness in a wide variety of educational settings. Though missing the categorized pedagogy of modern project-based learning (PBL), instructors have promoted learning-by-doing since antiquity. Aristotle (ca. 384–322 bce) suggests that knowledge is often learned through repeated practice (ἕ� ξις, hexis), making correct instruction essential to establish correct practice in the development of a virtuous person.1 Seneca (ca. 4 bce–65 ce) comments that his Roman ancestors “taught their children nothing that had to be learned while reclining,” lamenting that current educational practices often left young people as “starving vomiters who keep the body at the feeding trough while the mind grows feeble for lack of nourishment.”2 Augustine of Hippo (354–430 ce) famously states in On Christian Doctrine that education and theoretical learning are useful precisely because they aid experiential learning, offering the necessary skills to continually reinterpret the things of the world in order to attain divine knowledge.3 Once later medi­eval writers rediscovered Aristotle, they reinterpreted Aristotle’s hexis as “habitus,” long-used to indicate learned behaviour.4 John 1  Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, bk. 2, chaps. 1–2, bk. 7, chap. 5.

2  Seneca, Letters on Ethics: To Lucilius, trans. Margaret Graver (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015), 88.19, pp. 312–313.

3  Augustine of Hippo, De Doctrina Christiana, bk. 2, chap. 40, paras. 60–61 (English translation available at https:/​/​www.newadvent.org/​fathers/​12022.htm). 4  See, e.g., “Addita ad legem Salicam in convent Aquisgranensi anno dcccxix,” in Leges Salicae et Ripuariorum, ed. Georgio Eccardus (Leipzig: Foerster, 1720), 187: “Si quis invitis parentibus totonderit, aut puellam velverit, legem suam in tripolo component, aut ipsi puero vel pullae, si iam suae potestatis sunt, aut illiam cuius potestate suerint. Illi vero potestatem habeant capitis sui, ut in tali habitu permaneant, quails eis complacuerit”; Brooke Findley, “Does Habit Make the Nun? A Case Study of Heloise’s Influence on Abelard’s Ethical Philosophy,” Vivarium 44, no. 2/​3 (2006): 248–75; Cary Nederman, “Nature, Ethics, and the Doctrine of ‘Habitus’: Aristotelian Moral Psycho­ logy in the Twelfth Century,” Traditio 45 (1989–1990): 87–110; Marcia Colish, “‘Habitus’ Revisited: A Reply to Cary Nederman,” Traditio 48 (1993): 77–92.

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of Salisbury (ca. 1120–1180 ce) recounts his own career as an arrogant student who, “with youthful lack of reflection, I unduly exaggerated my own knowledge. I took myself to be a young sage, inasmuch as I knew the answers to what I had been taught.”5 Later in his career, when he revisits these instructors, John notices that they are still posing the same questions, leading to the same production of arrogant youths because they have not pushed their pupils to act on what they have been taught, as John had taken it upon himself to do, that “It is easy for an artisan to talk about his art, but it is much more difficult to put the art into practice.”6 There has also been no small amount of discussion on the utilitarian curricula of medi­eval universities, such as the practical uses of disputatio for lawyers and canons.7 More recently, the use of habitus in educational scholarship has become a loaded term thanks to early twentieth-century socio­logical research on the nature of knowledge acquisition. But a book centred on teaching the Middle Ages should, perhaps, embrace it.8 Using a more precisely focused definition, Michael Knoll identifies the origins of the project method later, in the architectural schools of Italy in the late sixteenth century.9 Desiring to be perceived as more than just stone masons or builders, artisans came together to form an institution where the goal of learning was to create plans from which actual building and structures were produced based on practical, real-world methods, rather than esoteric theory with “divine” connections. Annual design competitions sponsored by the architectural school provided avenues for budding architects to gain public recognition and prestige. A little later, French academies modified the Italian model, participating in monthly design competitions in addition to annual contests. Other scholars have placed the origins of the project method in the “sloyd” system of handicraft training, pioneered by Uno Cygnaeus in Finland in the latter half of the nine5  John of Salisbury, The Metalogicon, trans. Daniel McGarry (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1955), bk. 2, chap. 10.

6  John of Salisbury, The Metalogicon, bk. 2, chap. 9; Brian FitzGerald, “Medi­eval Theories of Education: Hugh of St. Victor and John of Salisbury,” Oxford Review of Education 36, no. 5 (October 2010): 575–88 at 580–81.

7  Stephen Ferruolo, “‘Quid dant artes nisi luctum?’: Learning, Ambition, and Careers in the Medi­ eval University,” History of Education Quarterly 28, no. 1 (1988): 1–22 at 20–22, esp. n47; Steven Livesey, “Scholasticism,” in Medi­eval Science, Techno­logy, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia, ed. Thomas Glick, Steven Livesey, and Faith Wallis (London: Routledge, 2005), 453–55.

8  See, for instance, Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977); Marcel Mauss, “Les techniques du corps,” Journal de Psycho­logie 32, no. 3–4 (1934): 5–23; Deane Reay, “‘It’s all becoming a habitus’: Beyond the Habitual Use of Habitus in Educational Research,” British Journal of Socio­logy of Education 25, no. 4 (September 2004): 431–44; Mariano Croce, “The Habitus and the Critique of the Present: A Wittgensteinian Reading of Bourdieu’s Social Theory,” Socio­logical Theory 33, no. 4 (2015): 327–46.

9  Michael Knoll, “Zum Ursprung der Projektmethode in der Pädagogik, 1702–1875,” Pädagogische Rundschau 45 (1991): 41–58; Michael Knoll, “The Project Method: Its Vocational Education Origin and International Development,” Journal of Industrial Teacher Education 34, no. 3 (1997): 59–80; Michael Knoll and Kans Apel, Aus Projekten lernen: Grundlegung und Anleitung (Munich: Oldenbourg, 2001), chaps. 1–2. See also, Wolfgang Schöller, Die “Académie Royale d’Architecture,” 1671–1793: Anatomie einer Institution (Co­logne: Böhlau, 1993).



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teenth century, and still used throughout Scandinavian countries today.10 In this system, primary and secondary students are taught manual skills such as woodworking, sewing, and paperwork to promote creative action and self-reliance that provides corollaries to the rest of their educational and social development.11 More commonly, John Dewey and William Kilpatrick’s constructivist theories in the early twentieth century are cited as the origins of the project method. Dewey emerged with ideas that supported active involvement of students in work related to their experience and what interested them, a departure from his contemporary educational theory which dictated that students were passive recipients of information provided by instructors viewed as sage repositories of all knowledge worth sharing.12 Indeed, Dewey states bluntly, “There is no such thing as educational value in the abstract. The notion that some subjects and methods and that acquaintance with certain facts and truths possess educational value in and of themselves is the reason why traditional education reduced the material of education so largely to a diet of predigested materials.”13 Rather than focusing on memorization and regurgitation of facts, Dewey proposed that education should be centred on learning-by-doing so that students may take advantage of skills and knowledge acquired in their past experiences. He promoted giving the pupils something to do, not something to learn, for “when the doing is of such a nature as to demand thinking, or the intentional noting of connections, learning naturally results.”14 That is, a medi­eval history course should not only teach students about the medi­eval past, but provide opportunities for students to engage in what it is a medi­evalist does: projects. William Kilpatrick, a student of Dewey, established a much broader definition of “project” than Dewey, arguing that the only requirement a project needs is to intrinsically motivate the student, which would naturally result in higher achievement and an appreciation for the learning process.15 Such training, he argued, resulted not only in well-educated students, but most importantly for Kilpatrick, created upright moral citizens. However, Kilpatrick was widely critiqued for his student-led process, even by himself, after a number of practical failures, noting in a January 25, 1950 letter to Abraham Flexner, “After my idea got well going…others began to protest that I was using the term ‘project method’ in my way and not in theirs …. Others proceeded to use the term

10  Jouko Kantola, Pentti Nikkanen, Jouko Kari, and Tapani Kananoja, Through Education into the World of Work: Uno Cygnaeus, the Father of Techno­logy Education (Jyväskylä: Institute for Education Research, University of Jyväskylä, 1999); Stuart MacDonald, The History and Philosophy of Art Education (Cambridge: Lutterworth, 2004), 306–308; Otto Salomon, The Teacher’s Book of Slöjd, As Practised and Taught at Nääs, trans. Mary Walker and William Nelson (London: Philip, 1891). 11  Hans Thorbjörnsson, “Otto Salomon,” Prospects: The Quarterly Review of Comparative Education 24, no. 3/​4 (1994): 473–74, 476. 12  Laurance J. Splitter, “Authenticity and Constructivism in Education,” Studies in the Philosophy of Education 28 (2009): 135–51.

13  John Dewey, “Experience and Education,” in John Dewey: The Later Works, 1925–1953, ed. Jo Ann Boydston, 17 vols. (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2008), 13:27. 14  John Dewey, “Thinking in Education,” Chicago Schools Journal 1, no. 1 (September 1918): 11.

15  William Kilpatrick, “The Project Method: The Use of the Purposeful Act in the Educative Process,” Teachers College Record 19, no. 4 (September 1918): 318–35.

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in their own peculiar ways. Some were good though different…but others absurd. In the end I decided I had made a mistake to marry my program to the term, and I stopped using the term as being provocative and ambiguous.”16 The concept of the project method, lacking a single, commonly accepted set of principles, has subsequently co-evolved into a variety of educational approaches, all of which could be accurately identified as project-based learning.17 Design education, problem-based learning, place-based learning, service learning, competency-based education, outcome-based education, manual training—all of these possess elements of the project method, and have in common a systematic way of problem-solving. In addition to Kilpatrick’s “hearty purposeful act” which emphasizes student choice in pursuit of a solution to a complex problem, these methods require that students engage in deeper thinking and reflection on their work. Guided by an instructor, students pursue “a complete act of thought.”18 Students are presented with a challenging, open-ended problem for which they propose and test a solution, gathering data necessary to revise the solution and ensure an appropriate response. Reflecting upon the quality of their learning and the steps taken to derive their final answer makes it possible for students to identify strong and weak points of their problem-solving methods and make modifications as they move on to new projects and situations. The instructor is a partner in the learning process, rather than a dictator of content, providing students with the opportunity to “grapple with things worth knowing.” Instead, instructors manage learning by scaffolding learning outcomes and collaborative processes while allowing students to assume 16  William Kilpatrick, “‘A Marriage on the Rocks’: An Unknown Letter by William H. Kilpatrick about his Project Method,” ed. Michael Knoll, Education Resources Information Center (ERIC), August 4, 2010, https:/​/​files.eric.ed.gov/​fulltext/​ED511129.pdf. Others lay significant claim to the origins of aspects of modern project method theory. See Knoll, “I Had Made a Mistake,” 38–39n5; Samuel Chester Parker, “Project Teaching: Pupils Planning Practical Activities,” Elementary School Journal 22, no. 5/​6 (January–February 1922): 335–45, 427–40; Charles Bennett, “Some Thoughts Concerning Industrial Education,” Industrial Education Magazine 29 (October 1927): 117–21; William Burton, The Nature and Direction of Learning (New York: Appleton, 1929); Calvin Woodward, The Manual Training School, Comprising a Full Statement of Its Aims, Methods, and Results (Boston: Heath, 1887); Charles Ham, Manual Training: The Solution of Social and Industrial Problems (New York: Harper, 1886); C. Hanford Henderson, “The Philosophy of Manual Training,” [in five parts] Popular Science Monthly 53 (June, July, August, September, October 1898): 145–59, 322–39, 490–506, 638–55, 772–88; Charles Richards, “The Function of Hand Work in the School,” Teachers College Record 1, no. 5 (November 1900): 249–59; William Noyes, “The Ethical Values of Manual and Domestic Arts,” Manual Training Magazine 11 (February 1910): 201–13; G. E. Freeland, Modern Elementary School Practice (New York: Macmillan, 1922); John Louis Horn, The American Elementary School: A Study in Fundamental Principles (New York: Century, 1923), esp. 357–76. 17  John Pecore, “From Kilpatrick’s Project Method to Project-Based Learning,” in International Handbook of Progressive Education, ed. Mustafa Yunus Eryaman and Bertram C. Bruce (New York: Lang, 2015), 155–71 at 159–60.

18  John Dewey, How We Think (Boston: Heath, 1910), 68–78; Kilpatrick, “The Project Method,” 320–25. For a more complete breakdown of project method options, see Nicolette Lee, “Project Methods as the Vehicle for Learning in Undergraduate Design Education: A Typo­logy,” Design Studies 30 (2009): 541–60.



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as much responsibility for their own learning as they can handle while meeting high standards of conceptual knowledge and performance.19 Project-based learning often requires a significant pedagogical shift for instructors, just as it did for our educator forebears. No longer the dictator of classroom practice and learning, the PBL facilitator must relinquish a significant amount of direct control of the classroom in favour of student-directed work. Though PBL will not affect the core learning goals and outcomes of the course, it does require many aspects of course content to be flexible in order to suit the individual learning needs of students, including its scheduling and methodo­logy. While all students should be presented with the same challenges of learning about the Middle Ages, not all students are equally well-equipped to develop a process for designing an appropriate solution. Concept- and process-oriented scaffolding, provided as needed by a cognizant PBL facilitator, can meet the differentiated needs of students to ensure success in an environment where students make and follow their own paths toward project completion.20 Though the transition process is onerous, the impact on student achievement is worth the effort. Using PBL offers higher gains in academic knowledge, more positive perceptions of subject matter, more robust development of problem-solving strategies and research skills.21 It also provides positive effects on student content knowledge, improved critical thinking and problem-solving skills, increased student engagement, greater student motivation, and development of collaborative skills.22 These results are 19  John Larmer, John Mergendoller, and Suzie Boss. Setting the Standard for Project-Based Learning: A Proven Approach to Rigorous Classroom Instruction (Alexandria: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2015).

20  Nam Ju Kim, Brian Belland, and Daryl Axelrod. “Scaffolding for Optimal Challenge in K–12 Problem-Based Learning,” Interdiscplinary Journal for Problem-Based Learning 13, no. 1 (2019): https:/​/​scholarship.miami.edu/​esploro/​outputs/​journalArticle/​Scaffolding-for-OptimalChallenge-in-K-12/​991031576422402976.

21  Margaret Holm, “Project-Based Instruction: A Review of the Literature on Effectiveness in Prekindergarten through 12th Grade Classrooms,” InSight: Rivier Academic Journal 7, no. 2 (2011): 1–13 and online; Fusun Alacapinar, “Effectiveness of Project-Based Learning,” Egitim Arastirmalari /​ Eurasian Journal of Educational Research 33 (2008), 17–34; Jane L. David, “Project-Based Learning,” Educational Leadership 65, no. 5 (2008): 80–82; John Thomas, A Review of Research on ProjectBased Learning (San Rafael: Autodesk Foundation, 2000), 1–33; John Mergendoller, Nan Maxwell, and Yolanda Bellisimo, “The Effectiveness of Problem-Based Instruction: A Comparative Study of Instructional Methods and Student Characteristics,” Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning 1, no. 2 (2006): 49–69; Emily Summers and Gail Dickinson, “A Longitudinal Investigation of Project-Based Instruction and Student Achievement in High School Social Studies,” Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning 6, no. 1 (2012): 82–106; Nuri Balemen and Ozer Melike, “The Effectiveness of Project-Based Learning on Science Education: A Meta-Analysis Search,” International Online Journal of Education and Teaching 5, no. 4 (October 2018): 849–65; Brigid Barron and Linda Darling-Hammond, “Teaching for Meaningful Learning: A Review of Research on Inquiry-Based and Cooperative Learning,” from Powerful Learning: What We Know About Teaching for Understanding, ed. Linda Darling-Hammond (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2008), 11–70.

22  Pecore, “From Kilpatrick’s Project Method”; Robert Slavin, “Synthesis of Research on Cooperative Learning,” Educational Leadership 48, no. 5 (February 1991): 72–81; David W. Johnson, Roger T. Johnson, and Mary Beth Stanne, “Cooperative Learning Methods: A Meta-Analysis,” University of

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observable not only in the summative results of course outcomes, but also in longitudinal analyses that track student progress in a PBL environment in contrast to traditional classroom settings.23 It has also been noted that project-based methods are effective in a diverse student environment, showing greater positive achievement for racial minorities and special populations than a traditional US high school setting, addressing a difficult equity and access gap of traditionally underrepresented groups in the US education system.24 A significant factor contributing to these encouraging results is the increased engagement of students of project-based learning with both content and their peers, as evidenced by a greater affinity for the content and increased communication skills.25 An engaged student is one who is attentive, voluntarily commits to the work, persistent, and who finds value and meaning in the learning process. Inclusion of PBL-related strategies not only correlates with a higher level of engagement, but leads to better concept retention, and the ability to transfer knowledge to novel situations.26 The potential benefit of PBL in a medi­eval history course is thus threefold. First, instructors are able to lessen the burden of content coverage. The worry of covering “enough” in a medi­eval survey course is largely irrelevant in a PBL course. As PBL is guided by student interest, instructors provide touchpoints on critical themes and topoi to ensure learning goals and outcomes are clearly communicated and monitored, but then provide differentiated benchmarks to students as they explore their subject areas. At the same time, it allows a course to expose students to a greater variety of content because effective PBL necessitates peer engagement and public presentations. Minnesota (http:/​/​www.tablelearning.com/​uploads/​File/​EXHIBIT_B.pdf, accessed February 22, 2022); Arthur Applebee, Judith A. Langer, Martin Nystrand, and Adam Gamoran, “Discussion‐Based Approaches to Developing Understanding: Classroom Instruction and Student Performance in Middle and High School English,” American Educational Research Journal 40, no. 3 (2003): 685–730; J. B. Kahle, J. Meece, and K. Scantlebury, “Urban African‐American Middle School Science Students: Does Standards‐Based Teaching Make a Difference?” Journal of Research in Science Teaching 37, no. 9 (2000): 1019–41. 23  Summers and Dickinson, “A Longitudinal Investigation of Project-Based Instruction”; Robert Geier et al., “Standardized Test Outcomes for Students Engaged in Inquiry-Based Science Curricula in the Context of Urban Reform,” Journal of Research in Science Teaching 45, no. 8 (2008): 922–39; Layla Hamon, Fernando Casani, Jesus Pomeda-Rodriguez, and Ricado Albacete, “ProjectBased Learning in the Teaching–Learning Process University. A Longitudinal Study,” SHS Web of Conferences 37, no. 01077 (2017): 1–5.

24  Summers and Dickinson, “A Longitudinal Investigation of Project-Based Instruction,” 97–99; Mergendoller, Maxwell, and Bellisimo, “The Effectiveness of Problem-Based Instruction”; Geier et al, “Standardized Test Outcomes.” 25  Cindy E. Hmelo-Silver, Ravit Golan Duncan, and Clark A. Chinn. “Scaffolding and Achievement in Problem-Based and Inquiry Learning: A Response to Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark,” Educational Psycho­logist 42, no. 2 (2007): 99–107.

26  Stephanie Ahlfeldt, Sudhir Mehta, and Timothy Sellnow, “Measurement and Analysis of Student Engagement in University Classes where Varying Levels of PBL Methods of Instruction Are in Use,” Higher Education Research and Development 24, no. 1 (2005): 5–20; Hao Lei, Yunhuo Cui, and Wenye Zhou, “Relationships between Student Engagement and Academic Achievement: A Meta-Analysis,” Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal 46, no. 3 (2018): 517–28; Alacapinar, “Effectiveness of Project-Based Learning.”



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Second, PBL solves the assessment dilemma. Projects are an iterative process that naturally involve checkpoints for instructors to monitor student progress in a low-stakes setting prior to a high stakes final product. Additionally, it is more likely that students engaged in a project will produce a higher quality high stakes assessment because it is a progressive process. Third, PBL provides students an opportunity to engage in the same activities that medi­eval historians do at a level appropriate to their experience and training. Students will research, write, debate, and present as part of the PBL process. Through these activities, it will be much easier for instructors to show how the skills developed as a professional historian are able to be transferred to virtually any other professional setting.

Changing Culture in the Medieval-History Classroom

In the current context, project-based learning is a pedagogical method in which a student strives to answer a complex historical question related to a specific topic through an ongoing process of collaborative research, dialogue, and product development with outcomes designed in the context of professional disciplinary practice – colloquially, as above, it might be called learning-by-doing. In contrast, academic tracking using highstakes testing has redirected the emphasis in many K–12 educational systems toward standardized, traditional curricula, scripted in an effort to ensure that students are able to perform well on standardized tests. In many cases, increased time is allocated to subjects which are targeted by high-stakes testing at the expense of subjects not included in the tests.27 However, those same practices can also result in students who, though high-performing on standardized assessments, are unable to apply knowledge in new situations.28 Students trained with PBL are better able to transfer the use of skills such as hypothesis generation, problem solving, and explanatory essay writing to other applications.29 PBL encourages students to become autonomous consumers and generators of knowledge as they work in collaborative groups to devise solutions to open-ended problems, resulting in students who not only achieve greater outcomes on traditional assessment models, but can adapt acquired knowledge to solve authentic problems, have higher levels of engagement, and report more positive perceptions of the subject matter.30 While PBL requires a major shift in the delivery of content for many medi­eval history courses, the benefits in terms of student satisfaction and the potential to attract more students to explore the discipline are persuasive. A good deal of its attraction for students is the emphasis on group work and collaboration as opposed to direct instruction via a “sage on a stage.” 27  Michaela Minarechova, “Negative Impacts of High-Stakes Testing,” Journal of Pedagogy 3, no. 1 (2012): 82–100. 28  Arnold Dodge, “Heuristics and NCLB Standardized Tests: A Convenient Lie,” International Journal of Progressive Education 5, no. 2 (2009): 6–22. 29  Hmelo-Silver, Golan Duncan, and Chinn, “Scaffolding and Achievement”; Alacapinar, “Effective­ ness of Project-Based Learning.” 30  Holm, “Project-Based Instruction.”

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It is no secret that classroom culture and a sense of community have a dramatic impact on student experience. A primary concern of every instructor should be how to best affect learning with the students and instructors that populate these environments. Long ago, Dewey suggested a community was defined by “virtue of the things they [people] have in common” and “communication is the way in which they come to possess things in common.”31 Many things may constitute what is held “in common” through lived experience, and more than a hundred years of scholarship in education, socio­logy, history, literary studies, and other scholarly fields have participated in trying to define fundamental aspects of culture and community that allow people to make, develop, and maintain connections amongst members of their various groups. In a student-centred, project-based learning classroom, it is a sense of community that allows an instructor to build a positive, collaborative classroom culture based on observed, identified student needs and targeted learning goals. In medi­eval studies, Jeremy Adams, Brian Stock, Caroline Walker Bynum, Leah Shopkow, and Barbara Rosenwein are among many who have contributed to the investigation of medi­eval communities.32 Though it is outside the scope of this book to discuss their work in detail, these authors’ investigation of medi­eval peoples offer a well-supplied toolbox of methodo­logical approaches to defining community including termino­logical investigations used to establish concepts of polity; how women utilized social custom to exert agency; how written communication affected interactions amongst community members; how historical writing can be used to address cultural anxieties; and how discussions of emotion reflect historical change and the formation of identities.33 Though in a drastically different setting, medi­evalists’ study of human group interactions is not wholly separated from their colleagues engaging in educational research, nor do they need to be social historians to have such an understanding. However, those basic tenets of historical investigations are relevant for this, and operate in parallel to making a medi­eval history course practically applicable to students’ soft skills. In any research project, medi­eval scholars must contextualize the people, places, and things being investigated. They must discuss the needs of the people involved, the decisions they made, 31  John Dewey, Democracy in Education: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Education (New York: MacMillan, 1916), 5.

32  For two recent surveys of medi­evalists’ approaches to community, see Eirik Hovden, Christina Lutter, and Walter Pohl, eds., Meanings of Community across Medi­eval Eurasia: Comparative Approaches (Leiden: Brill, 2016); Tjamke Snijders, “Communal Learning and Communal Identities in Medi­eval Studies Consensus, Conflict, and the Community of Practice,” in Horizontal Learning in the High Middle Ages: Peer-to-Peer Knowledge Transfer in Religious Communities, ed. Micol Long, Tjamke Snijders, and Steven Vanderputten (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2019), 17–46.

33  Jeremy Adams, The Populus of Jerome and Augustine: A Study in the Patristic Sense of Community (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1971); Brian Stock, The Implication of Literacy: Written Language and Models of Interpretation in Twelfth and Thirteenth Century Europe (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983); Caroline Walker Bynum, Holy Feast, Holy Fast: The Religious Significance of Food to Medi­eval Women (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988); Shopkow, History and Community; Barbara Rosenwein, Emotional Communities in the Early Middle Ages (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2006).



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and their impact on their historical circumstances. Medi­eval historians understand how to investigate people, and thus have the necessary expertise to implement project-based curriculum with differentiated learning, which is dictated by understanding how people (that is, their students) act and operate in the context of their classroom. Higher education is, ultimately, a service industry. If instructors are not providing a service our customers (students) find adequate to meet their educational needs, they will seek to fulfill those needs elsewhere. Take distance education as an example. Between 2013 and 2018, the number of full-time faculty who have taught a distance course has grown from 30 percent to 44 percent, and there is no possibility that this rate goes anywhere but up in the foreseeable future as student enrollment in distance courses has increased similarly, growing more than 20 percent based on NCES Fall enrollment numbers in 2013 and 2017.34 In a nationwide survey conducted by Inside Higher Ed and Gallup, 89 percent of faculty who teach online were involved in the design of their course, 76 percent had converted a face-to-face course to an online format, and 74 percent reported online course development as a useful pedagogical experience. However, in the same study, 67 percent of faculty assert they are confident that instruction delivered without techno­logy best serves their students, and only 39 percent agree that online instruction is capable of achieving similar learning outcomes as traditional course instruction.35 Studies that investigate student outcomes in online learning environments are just as ambiguous, with some studies showing equal outcomes as compared to face-to-face instruction, and others that indicate online learning is a negative experience for students, especially those who did not receive adequate high school preparation for college.36 34  Scott Jaschik and Doug Lederman, 2018 Survey of Faculty Attitudes on Techno­logy (Washington, DC: Inside Higher Ed and Gallup, 2018), 11; US Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Spring 2013 and Spring 2014, Enrollment component (this table was prepared December 2014); US Department of Education, NCES, IPEDS, Spring 2017 and Spring 2018, Fall Enrollment component (this table was prepared January 2019). See https:/​/n ​ ces.ed.gov/​programs/​digest/​.

35  This percentage increased when asked about their home institution (52 percent), their discipline (54 percent), and their own courses (58 percent).

36  The literature on this topic is vast, including a large number of individual, small-scale studies. See, e.g., “What We Know About Online Course Outcomes,” Community College Research Center (Columbia University), April 2013, accessed February 22, 2022, https:/​/​ccrc.tc.columbia.edu/​ media/​k2/​attachments/​what-we-know-about-online-course-outcomes.pdf; Carie Ann Platt, Amber Raile, and Nan Yu, “Virtually the Same? Student Perceptions of the Equivalence of Online to Face-to-Face Classes,” Journal of Online Learning and Teaching 10 no. 3 (December 2014): 489–503; Steven Stack, “Learning Outcomes in an Online vs Traditional Course,” International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning 9 no. 1 (January 2015): 1–18; William Alpert, Kenneth Couch, and Oskar Harmon, “A Randomized Assessment of Online Learning,” American Economic Review 106, no. 5 (2016): 378–82; Eric Bettinger and Susanna Loeb, “Promises and Pitfalls of Online Education,” Evidence Speaks Reports 2, no. 15 (June 9, 2017): 2–4; J. J. Arias, John Swinton, and Kay Anderson, “Online vs. Face-to-Face: A Comparison of Student Outcomes with Random Assignment,” e-Journal of Business Education and Scholarship of Teaching 12, no. 2 (September 2018): 1–23; K. Mulleret al., “Assessing Student Learning in the Online Modality,” National Institute for Learning Outcomes Assessment, https:/​/​eric.ed.gov/​?id=ED604452.

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A natural question, therefore, concerns why online instruction is perceived as a less effective pedagogical approach by faculty and less effective learning experience for students. Demand is going up, hundreds of thousands more students are engaging in online education each year, and a large proportion of institutions of higher education have indicated that online instruction is “critical to their long-term strategy.”37 If the vast majority of faculty are involved in the development of their own online courses, which they do view as effective, and their respective institutions want to expand their online teaching footprint, what is preventing these courses from being successful? Either the modality of online instruction itself is unable to meet the necessary educational demands of twenty-first century students, or there are deficiencies in how the instructors and institutions utilize available tools. An old maxim dating to at least Plato comes to mind: “Will a man, if he picks up a shield or any other weapon or tool of war, on that very day be an adequate combatant in a battle of heavy-armed soldiers, or any other kind of battle in war, even though no other tool if picked up will make anyone a craftsman or contestant, nor will it even be of use to the man who has not gained knowledge of it or undergone adequate training? In that case,” he [Glaucon] said, “the tools would be worth a lot.”38

That is, a tool is only as good as the hands that wield it. Most faculty have not spent adequate time researching, studying, and implementing course design that takes advantage of the vast resources of the internet. The reasons for this are largely irrelevant, as the resulting online courses with middling student outcomes speak for themselves. A similar result can be observed in courses where instructors intentionally design lecture activities that engage students in course content, as opposed to a traditional lecture where students “sit and get” information from the instructor. The largest study ever conducted on lecturing and active learning in undergraduate education concluded that students in a traditional lecture were one and a half times more likely to fail their course than students who were engaged in active learning in their courses.39 In addition, average grades rise half a letter grade when active learning is used in the first large scale observation-based study of STEM undergraduate courses.40 Despite this convincing data, and general advocacy towards more student engagement in the undergraduate classroom, most undergraduate courses are still predominantly and traditionally lecture-based (55 percent) in comparison to interactive lectures (27 percent) and student-centred instruction (18 percent).41 However, even for the latter two categories, clicker questions and group worksheets that do not represent authentic 37  Elaine Allen and Jeff Seaman, Online Report Card: Tracking Online Education in the United States (Babson Park: Babson Survey Research Group, 2016), 5. 38  Plato, Republic, trans. Peter Bloom, 2nd ed. (New York: Basic, 1991), bk. 2, section 374d.

39  Scott Freeman et al., “Active Learning Increases Student Performance in Science, Engineering, and Mathematics,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) 111, no. 23 (June 2014): 8410–15.

40  M. Stains et al., “Anatomy of STEM Teaching in North American Universities,” Science 359, no. 6383 (March 29, 2018): 1468–70. 41  Note in Stains et al., “Anatomy of STEM Teaching.”



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engagement feature prominently. Though both of the above studies investigated STEM undergraduate courses, it is the only extant evidence on this scale as, to the authors’ knowledge, there has been no such large-scale effort to investigate undergraduate humanities courses in a similar manner. That is, the humanities has not endeavoured to produce an analysis of 2,000 classes taught by 500 instructors or a meta-analysis of 225 studies on undergraduate education. Instead, groups like the American Historical Association rely on unsound qualitative data such as, “hiring charismatic junior faculty to teach new courses that students find exciting,” which is somehow perceived as a useful strategy by history departments. It certainly does not address the natural inference of such a statement that if junior faculty are recruited to teach new courses that students find interesting, then senior faculty are teaching old courses students do not find interesting.42 In the past decade, the percentage of full-time faculty members who are non-tenure track has more than doubled at every level of institution except for community colleges, and part-time faculty or graduate student instructors account for more than 60 percent of the instructional workforce in higher education.43 Despite accounting for nearly three quarters of instructional faculty, these non-tenure track roles receive little training on deploying effective teaching strategies.44 Many faculty, regardless of rank, have never received any formal training on educational pedagogy and theory, much less had any formal experiential practica except as a teaching or research assistant. What they have been able to obtain is likely done piecemeal and voluntarily through their institution’s professional development centre, at conferences, or individually directed research. And though the burden of teaching is increasingly placed on underpaid, non-tenure track faculty, those “charismatic” younger voices are apparently not being successful either, especially for an increasingly diverse undergraduate student population. Indeed, introductory history courses (and introductory courses in general) do not seem to be meeting the needs of current student populations. First-generation students, students who receive Pell grants, and historically underrepresented racial groups all overrepresent the general undergraduate population for Drop, Fail, Withdraw, and Incomplete (DFWI) frequency in introductory US History courses.45 In their study of 32 institutions and nearly 28,000 students, Andrew Koch and Brent Drake contend these disparities are an equity issue, that is, the current iterations of introductory US History 42  Julia Brooks and Emily Swafford, “History Enrollment Holds Steady and Department Efforts Intensify: Results of the 2019 AHA Enrollment Survey,” Perspectives on History 58 no. 1 (January 2020): 4.

43  American Association of University Professors, “The Annual Report of the Economic Status of the Profession, 2018–2019,” www.aaup.org (May 2019), 4; “Data Snapshot: Contingent Faculty in US Higher Ed,” AAUP Updates, October 11, 2018, accessed February 22, 2022, https:/​/​www.aaup. org/​news/​whats-new-aaup.

44  M. K. Eagan et al., Undergraduate Teaching Faculty: The 2013–2014 HERI Faculty Survey (Los Angeles: UCLA Higher Education Research Institute, 2014). 45  Andrew Koch and Brent Drake, Digging into the Disciplines, II: Failure in Historical Context— The Impact of Introductory US History Courses on Student Success and Equitable Outcomes (Brevard: John N. Gardner Institute for Excellence in Undergraduate Education, 2019). Available online at https:/​/​www.jngi.org/​publications.

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courses are not adequately serving an increasingly diverse student body.46 It is not too far a leap in logic to suggest these courses likely have a similar distribution of traditional lecture, interactive lecture, and student-centred instruction as their STEM counterparts, considering the introductory chemistry courses surveyed by Koch and Drake had similar distributions of student unsuccess as the US History courses. As the data suggests, active-learning and authentic engagement, those crucial components of well-designed project-based learning, offer better results than traditional lecture-based courses, and there is an institutional motivation to shore up the learning experience at undergraduate institutions due to systemic issues such as lagging student performance in conjunction with rapidly increasing enrollment in non-traditional baccalaureate pathways such as online instruction and students transferring from a twoyear to four-year institution. However, faculty are not adequately prepared to meet these educational goals, despite agreeing there is a need for formal teaching instruction for graduate students.47 Indeed, when able to do so, faculty who participate in professional development that targets learning-centred course design (as opposed to contentcentred) report that they gained knowledge and skills that will help them be a better instructor and their course a more impactful educational experience for students.48 However, the increased workload, time commitment, and lack of training were also cited as central reasons why most faculty were and are unable to amend their teaching practices and course designs to be more effective, even with a desire to do so.49 Various surveys of promotions and tenure processes at US institutions bear this out. Though there 46  Since 2000, the percentage of students classified as a minority group has risen from 30.2 percent to 44.3 percent in 2016. US Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Higher Education General Information Survey (HEGIS), “Fall Enrollment in Colleges and Universities” surveys, 1976 and 1980; Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), “Fall Enrollment Survey” (IPEDS–EF:90); and IPEDS Spring 2001 through Spring 2017, Fall Enrollment component. (This table was prepared December 2017.)

47  Hannah Sturtevant and Lindsay Wheeler, “The STEM Faculty Instructional Barriers and Identity Survey (FIBIS): development and exploratory results,” International Journal of STEM Education 6, no. 1 (October 2019): 1–22; Susan Shadle, Anthony Maker, and Brittnee Earl, “Faculty Drivers and Barriers: Laying the Groundwork for Undergraduate STEM Education Reform in Academic Departments,” International Journal of STEM Education 4, no. 1 (April 2017): 1–13; Anne Walder, “Obstacles to Innovation: The Fear of Jeopardising a Professional Career?” British Journal of Education 3, no. 6 (June 2015): 1–16 at 5; Terrell Robinson and Warren Hope, “Teaching in Higher Education: Is there a Need for Training in Pedagogy in Graduate Degree Programs?” Research in Higher Education Journal 13 (August 2013): available at https:/​/​eric.ed.gov/​?id=EJ1064657; Sara Brownell and Kimberly Tanner, “Barriers to Faculty Pedagogical Change: Lack of Training, Time, Incentives, and…Tensions with Professional Identity?” Life Sciences Education, 11, no. 4 (Winter 2012): 339–46 at 340; Joel Michael, “Faculty Perception about Barriers to Active Learning,” College Teaching 55, no. 2 (Spring 2007): 42–47. 48  Michael Palmer, Adriana Streifer, Stacy William-Duncan, “Systematic Assessment of a HighImpact Course Design Institute,” To Improve the Academy: A Journal of Educational Development 35 no. 2 (June 2016): 339–61.

49  Steven Lloyd, Michelle Byrne, and Tami McCoy, “Faculty-Perceived Barriers of Online Education,” MERLOT Journal of Online Teaching and Learning 8, no. 1 (March 2012): 1–12 at 6, available online at https:/​/​jolt.merlot.org/​vol8no1/​lloyd_0312.pdf.



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has been significant policy and procedural changes regarding the definition of professional contributions (i.e., scholarship, service, teaching) for faculty since Ernest Boyer’s seminal Scholarship Reconsidered, the follow-up edition published on its twenty-fifth anniversary notes faculty reward systems have failed to meaningfully incorporate the non-scholarly work performed.50 This causes faculty no small amount of distress in their work prioritization as many spend more than half of their working hours on teaching, only to have this effort short shrifted in the promotion and tenure process due to vague institutional policy language.51 In part to address the changing workforce in higher education, the American Academy of University Professors has advocated for colleges and universities to develop systems and policies to both include teaching and service, and stabilize and incorporate contingent faculty into the promotion and tenure process, and institutions are increasingly doing so.52 But there is still much to be done. On the ground, there are scholars advocating for a continued transformation of post-secondary education, such as Cathy Davidson, Distinguished Professor of English at The Graduate Center, CUNY, and Lani Guinier, Bennet Boskey Professor of Law, Emerita, at Harvard Law School, who argue that the current state of colleges and universities is outdated by using nineteenth-century methods that fail to meet twenty-first-century student or faculty needs.53 Davidson protests departmental siloing, the overemphasis on summative assessment, and barriered entry to degree programs. These systems, she contends, are not useful, “at equipping graduates to succeed in an ever more complex and bewildering world.”54 Even at those institutions who appear to make an effort to meet these new demands, many, “seek quick, expensive techno­logical fixes are simply automating 19th-century ideas of education as synonymous with outputs, production, specialization, content, assessment and credentialing,” rather than real learning, which, “almost definitionally, is that which isn’t automatic. You learn any time you change, any time you are required to stop, think, revise an opinion or change a mental or physical habit.”55 Guinier takes this argument 50  KerryAnn O’Meara, “How Scholarship Reconsidered Disrupted the Promotion and Tenure System,” in Ernest Boyer, Scholarship Reconsidered: Priorities of the Professoriate, ed. Drew Moser, Todd Ream, and John Braxton, exp. ed. (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2016), 41–47. 51  Lesley A. Schimanski and Juan Pablo Alperin, “The Evaluation of Scholarship in Academic Promotion and Tenure Processes: Past, Present, and Future,” F1000 Research 7 (2018): item 1605.

52  Marya Besosa et al., “Tenure and Teaching-Intensive Appointments,” AAUP Policies and Reports, updated 2014, accessed February 22, 2022, https:/​/​www.aaup.org/​AAUP/​comm/​rep/​ teachertenure.htm. 53  Davidson is also Director of the Futures Initiative at The Graduate Center and the co-founder, co-director of the Humanities, Arts, Science, and Techno­logy Alliance and Collaboratory (HASTAC) (https:/​/​www.hastac.org). Guinier was the first woman of colour appointed to a tenured professorship at the Harvard School of Law. 54  Cathy Davidson, The New Education: How to Revolutionize the University to Prepare Students for a World in Flux (New York: Basic, 2017): 3–4.

55  Colleen Flaherty, “The New, New Education,” Inside Higher Ed, August 24, 2017, https:/​/​ www.insidehighered.com/​news/​2017/​08/​24/​cathy-davidson’s-new-book-manifesto-teachingstudents-and-institutions-how-survive.

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even further, contending that the prevailing model of education in the twentieth century has developed into what she calls a “testocratic society,” resulting in inequitable opportunities for students to find success in higher education.56 With its emphasis on collaboration, reflection, feedback and revision, PBL is uniquely positioned to address these inequities. A supporting school of thought pursuing many of these same goals is culturally responsive teaching, which “centers classroom instruction in multiethnic cultural frames of reference.”57 Such an approach requires instructors to be “continually learning as they are teaching” and “makes a strong case for contextual appropriateness in determining actual teaching and learning experiences.”58 College students are an increasingly diverse population, and instructors should design their course materials to accommodate their diversity of lived experience and educational background. Such accommodations should result in more engaging classes and better student performance. In most cases, though, culturally responsive teaching is simply good teaching.59 Giving students a voice, having meaningful discussion, and providing opportunities for equitable engagement are all enhanced through culturally responsive teaching, offering the potential to bolster learning outcomes. An emphasis on cultural responsiveness provides avenues to better relationship-building, greater inclusiveness, influencing more diverse world views, and developing trust between student and instructor. Instructors who pursue culturally responsive teaching are able to provide more accessible entry points into their fields, allowing students to realistically take on increased accountability in the classroom.60 Furthermore, culturally responsive teaching goes beyond lectures and class discussions. It also includes assessment and grading. Culturally responsive teaching asks instructors to intentionally think about the construction of assessment items as a potential barrier to student growth and achievement. For example, asking a question that assumes students have travelled abroad will be inequitable. Not all students will have had the means to travel to a different country, making this a question that would put those students at a disadvantage in achieving success. Requiring students to engage in out-of-class activities such as attending a museum exhibit or a sponsored lecture series may impose an undue burden on students who need to work throughout their course of study. Similarly, requiring students to demonstrate their historical competency through writing proficiency without providing instruction or support on how to do so during a course tests a student’s ability to communicate through writing rather than their abil56  Lani Guinier, The Tyranny of Meritocracy: Democratizing Higher Education in America (Boston: Beacon, 2015). 57  See, for example, Geneva Gay, Culturally Responsive Teaching: Theory, Research, and Practice, 3rd ed. (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 2018), xxvii. 58  Gay, Culturally Responsive Teaching, xxxiii.

59  Gloria Ladson-Billings, “But That’s Just Good Teaching! The Case for Culturally Relevant Pedagogy,” Theory into Practice 34, no. 3 (June 1995): 159–65.

60  Amy Samuels, “Exploring Culturally Responsive Pedagogy: Teachers’ Perspectives of Fostering Equitable and Inclusive Classrooms,” SRATE Journal 27 no. 1 (Winter 2018): 22–30 at 25.



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ity to comprehend and understand medi­eval history. As shown, learning objectives in medi­eval history classrooms currently do not prioritize writing, but assessments do. This course structure is incongruent with culturally responsive teaching and effective instructional practices. Because a PBL course is structured around defined course outcomes, an effective implementation of PBL will inherently include learning objectives that align to assessment. In addition, a PBL course progresses largely guided by student interest and competencies, allowing culturally responsive teaching to naturally influence instructional practice in order to meet student needs. The above is all well and good, and may even convince some instructors to want to change their courses in response to our noted concerns in teaching undergraduate history. But for undergraduate instructors, most of whom have not received formal training on pedagogical theory and instructional strategies, there is little bandwidth to acquire such skills. However, history and the humanities is, in its principles, training, and expertise, well-positioned to effectively pursue the broad issues of student achievement through cultural responsiveness, while simultaneously addressing its own critical issues in higher education, such as declining enrollment.61 Students in the humanities who have the ability to work with their instructors display positive gains in their assessment performance and disciplinary affect.62 Furthermore, engagement outside the usual disciplinary constraints offered by institutions of higher education, especially for students, is likely a more “real” experience for students regarding the applicability and place of humanities in society at large.63 That is, at its core, the humanities and its professional investigators seek to find meaning and significance in the interpretation of human interaction by determining the value of extant evidence. For historians, this means ensuring our various audiences (students, peers, colleagues, and the general public) understand that history and historical writing is not a definitive, purely empirical reconstruction of the past, but an intentionally crafted narrative about the past based on extant evidence.64 History is, as Nancy Partner says, “knowledge of the past…produced as cultural artifacts made of language—alias: histories in the plural.”65 Movement away from rote assessment and a singular content delivery perspective via the instructor is not only good instructional practice, but a more authentic representation of professional medi­eval history. Historical scholarship is not written in isolation, but as part of a scholarly community engaged in continuous discourse. So, too, should collegiate history coursework. The 61  Elizabeth Lehfeldt, “How Departments are Tackling Lower Enrollments,” Perspectives on History 56 no. 3 (March 2018): 135–62; “Fall Term Enrollment Estimates,” National Student Clearinghouse Research Center, December 16, 2019, https:/​/​nscresearchcenter.org. 62  Khazima Tahir et al., “A Model of Effective Teaching in Arts, Humanities, and Social Sciences,” Journal of Leadership and Instruction 16 no. 1 (Spring 2017): 27–32. 63  Cathy Davidson, “Engaging the Humanities,” Profession (2004): 42–62 at 49–51.

64  See the work of Alun Munslow, esp. “Genre and History/​Historying,” The Journal of Theory and Practice 19 no. 2 (January 2015): 158–176; Munslow, Deconstructing History, 2nd ed. (1997; New York: Routledge, 2006).

65  Nancy Partner, “Foundations: Theoretical Network for Knowledge of the Past,” in The Sage Handbook of Historical Theory, ed. Nancy Partner and Sarah Foot (London: Sage, 2013), 1–8 at 3.

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parallels between educational and historical scholarship in their interpretations of community and culture do, as most good things do, have medi­eval precedent. In his important work, Jeremy Adams offers a focused argument that early medi­eval writers such as St. Augustine used populus as a distinct term from its usual synonyms (gens, natio, plebs, turba, etc.) to be a “fairly coherent cluster of concepts…earthly or heavenly, temporal or eternal, formed and sustained by an associative consent belonging ultimately to the order of conscious ethics,” and St. Jerome as “groups possessing an established communal personality.”66 While Adams’ primary contention was that populus was a term to be used in discussions of law and politics, it is clear medi­eval writers both thought about and purposefully used technical termino­logy, and that medi­eval scholarship recognized and interpreted their attempts to do so. In parallel, the work of Adams and his colleagues to grow and support the medi­eval learning community through events like the International Congress on Medi­eval Studies, hosted at Western Michigan University annually, provided a more accessible gateway for young scholars to engage in the field. Its rapid growth and continued international popularity is convincing evidence that reducing barriers to entry into a field increases interest in the field without compromising scholarly integrity. The same intellectual effort ought to be expended in establishing classroom communities. Augustine notes in Confessions about his school years, “if I was slow to learn, I was flogged. For this was deemed praiseworthy by our forefathers and many had passed before us in the same course and thus had built up the precedent for the sorrowful road on which we too were compelled to travel.”67 A much better method is, he argues, “the [rhetorical] mode in which men who desire to learn ought to be taught. And the best mode is that which secures that he who hears shall hear the truth, and that what he hears he shall understand.”68 For historians, there are pockets of movement towards this kind of authentic educational experience. Cliff Rogers’ undergraduate group at West Point; Rita Chin and Jeffrey Veidlinger’s graduate seminar collaboration with the US Holocaust Memorial Museum; and History Labs that are being established at more institutions every year that support undergraduate research and projects on historical topics.69 The evidence makes it clear that both students and faculty desire instructional changes that increase engagement and improve outcomes, and institutions have made strides to accommodate those needs and wants. But, as Davidson, Guinier, 66  Adams, The Populus of Jerome and Augustine, 68, 103.

67  Augustine of Hippo, Confessions, ed. O’Donnell (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), bk. 1, chap. 9.

68  Augustine of Hippo, On Christian Doctrine, ed. Philip Schaff, trans. Marcus Dods and J. F. Shaw, Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers 2 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1979), bk. 4, chap. 10, para. 25.

69  Rita Chin, “Rethinking How We Train Historians: University of Michigan and the USHMM Collaborate on a Pedagogical Experiment,” Perspectives on History 58 no. 1 (January 2020): 1–5. For the results of their work, see “Experiencing History: Holocaust Sources in Context,” https:/​/​ perspectives.ushmm.org. The curricular focus and pedagogical approach of History Labs is variable, but for a few examples see its implementation at Harvard University, Georgia Southern University, and the University of Massachusetts—Amherst.



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Boyer, and others have shown, the Academy has often failed in its attempts to do so. As an aphorism from a certain international sportswear brand suggests, sometimes the best way forward is to “just do it.” The aim here is to show faculty that incorporating new pedagogical strategies may seem daunting, but it is achievable with minor disruption to their regular course planning. Many tools and templates are presented in the chapters below to serve as inspiration, but may just as easily be implemented directly into courses in order to address the very issue of overburdened, overworked faculty who simply do not have the time to redesign their courses or to research a completely different scholarly field to determine what changes might best serve their students. A PBL instructional perspective asks the instructor to utilize their expert set of skills rather than rely on a highly-detailed, pre-packaged set of lectures. It asks the instructor to engage with students as historians rather than passive recipients of historical methods and knowledge. A PBL course requires the instructor to act as a conductor or coach who must negotiate the broader historical landscape by directing the focused efforts of students towards those opportunities that will best benefit their historical interests and learning needs. Medi­eval studies, in particular, has need of this type of guided instruction amidst a number of public-facing controversies that have garnered national and international attention.70 Racism and sexism are difficult topics to navigate, even for professional scholars who study such things, and it is important students of the medi­eval past are given the necessary tools and perspectives to navigate them, too. These and other controversial, critical issues can and should be addressed in the medieval-history classroom, and are best addressed using strategies that provide students the autonomy and agency to draw conclusions about them. PBL allows students to explore these difficult ideas in a community of learners guided by a reliable expert in an educational environment that promotes active questioning and learning. As a result, students are able to tackle the treacherous waters of misinformation and source evaluation with confidence because they have worked to develop the same skills used by working professionals.

70  Hannah Natanson, “‘It’s all white people’: Allegations of White Supremacy Are Tearing Apart a Prestigious Medi­eval Studies Group,” The Washington Post, September 19, 2019, https:/​/​www. washingtonpost.com/​education/​2019/​09/​19/​its-all-white-people-allegations-white-supremacyare-tearing-apart-prestigious-medi­eval-studies-group/​; Jennifer Schuessler, “Medi­eval Scholars Joust With White Nationalists. And One Another,” The New York Times, May 5, 2019, https:/​/​www. nytimes.com/​2019/​05/​05/​arts/​the-battle-for-medi­eval-studies-white-supremacy.html; Nell Gluckman, “Medi­eval Scholars Call for Transparency and Anti-Racism at Conference,” The Chronicle of Higher Education, July 12, 2018, https:/​/​www.chronicle.com/​article/​Medi­eval-Scholars-Callfor/​243919; J. Clara Chan, “Medi­evalists, Recoiling From White Supremacy, Try to Diversify the Field,” The Chronicle of Higher Education, July 16, 2017, https:/​/​www.chronicle.com/​article/​Medi­ evalists-Recoiling-From/​240666.

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Core Principles of Project-Based Learning The fundamental component of project-based learning is, obviously, the project. In PBL, a project is designed so that students must acquire specific knowledge in order to successfully complete the assigned task using targeted skills developed for the acquisition and dissemination of that knowledge. Beyond this, the scholarly community has identified a variety of defining core principles intrinsic to project-based learning. In his summative review of project-based learning, John Thomas recognized five criteria essential to project-based learning—centrality, a driving question, constructed knowledge, investigation, student autonomy and realism—stressing that the project is central, not peripheral, to knowing and learning.71 In addition to these criteria, the Buck Institute for Education (now PBLWorks) adds reflection and revision, presentation, and advocates for embedding community connections into project design in order to enhance authenticity and greater student engagement.72 Similarly, in a recent review originally funded by Lucas Education Research, key components of project-based learning included driving questions to motivate learning, constructivism, student engagement through authentic choices and tasks, and use of scaffolds to guide learning and collaboration.73 Others have suggested comparable methodo­logies.74 In the following section, the authors have selected seven essential components of PBL based on existing research and literature, chosen for their utility in teaching and learning about medi­eval history. Utilizing these components, instructors can maintain fidelity of learning outcomes and engagement of students in a meaningful educational process that helps address the systemic issues presented in the first part of this chapter. Authenticity

Authenticity is a core tenet of project-based learning and multifaceted in its interpretation. Authentic scenarios are real opportunities for students to do the work of a historian in order to contribute to the body of historical knowledge. Authentic scenarios provide context and are vital to successful project-based learning.75 Authentic tasks raise 71  Thomas, A Review of Research on Project-Based Learning, 4–5.

72  John R. Mergendoller, “Gold Standard PBL: Essential Project Design Elements,” Buck Institute for Education PBL Blog, April 21, 2015, http:/​/​www.bie.org/​blog/​gold_standard_pbl_essential_ project_design_elements. 73  Barbara Condliffe, “Project-Based Learning: A Literature Review. Working Paper,” Education Resources Information Center, October 2017, https:/​/e​ ric.ed.gov/​?id=ED578933.

74  Similar guidelines for designing PBL may be found in Suzie Boss and Jane Krauss, Reinventing Project-Based Learning: Your Field Guide to Real-World Projects in the Digital Age (Eugene: International Society for Techno­logy in Education, 2007, 11–24; Dimitra Kokotsaki, Victoria Menzies, Andy Wiggins, “Project-Based Learning: A Review of the Literature,” Improving Schools 19, no. 3 (2016), 267–77 at 267–68; Laura Helle, Paivi Tynjala, and Erkki Oklinuora, “Project-Based Learning in Post-Secondary Education: Theory, Practice and Rubber Slingshots,” Higher Education 51, no. 2 (2006), 287–314 at 288–94; Acacia Warren, Project-Based Learning across the Disciplines (Thousand Oaks: Corwin, 2016), 9–71. 75  Knoll, “The Project Method.”



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student awareness of the relevancy and meaningfulness of classroom work because their tasks mirror real tasks undertaken by professionals in the course’s field of study.76 Authenticity means that students create real, visible products that result from learning and hard work. When students hear “project” or “product,” many will view this type of task literally. A project for an architecture course may result in a design for a building or structure; an engineering course may result in a physical prototype; and a nursing course may result in a treatment plan for a patient. Much less obvious to many students are the products that result from the work of someone like a medi­evalist. Common sense prevails here, but it is often a new method of thinking and questioning for students. Other than writing books and papers, what does a medi­eval historian do? How do primary sources make their way from the dusty shelves of archives to the classroom in students’ native language? What processes are involved in writing a book about people and cultures more than a thousand years distant from students’ own experiences? How does one develop a platform like DigiPal, a resource for medi­eval handwriting and paleo­graphy?77 Adria Steinberg, senior advisor of programs and policy with Jobs for the Future and a leading reformer seeking to improve opportunities for students disengaged from the educational system argues that “Learning thrives when school-based practitioners set about building strong relationships with their students, finding ways to collaborate with other adults to invite young people outside the school into a world where they have both an authentic place and a genuine need to learn.”78 Her well known “Six As” rubric for project design serves as the basis of project ideation for the New Tech Network, an international organization dedicated to promoting and supporting the creation of projectbased learning campuses at the elementary, middle, and secondary levels.79 Steinberg describes authentic work as meaningful to the students, something one might encounter in the professional world or in one’s community, or that requires students to create or produce something that has personal and/​or social value beyond the school setting. Thus, to authentically engage students in the medieval-history classroom instructors should task students with the real work of medi­evalists. That is, a PBL instructor should not only curate a selection of primary sources in translation, but perhaps begin by showing students high-quality images of the text in manu­script form, asking students to investigate the artifact itself even though its words may be largely inaccessible. There is much to learn about the medi­eval past from a manu­script beyond the words on a page, and many medi­evalists have built careers on manu­script study where the text was a 76  Molly Nicaise, Terresa Gibney, and Michael Crane, “Toward an Understanding of Authentic Learning: Student Perceptions of an Authentic Classroom,” Journal of Science Education and Techno­ logy 9, no. 1 (2000): 79–94. 77  See http:/​/​www.digipal.eu, accessed February 22, 2022.

78  Adria Steinberg, Kathleen Cushman, and Robert C. Riordan, Schooling for the Real World: The Essential Guide to Rigorous and Relevant Learning (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1999), xvii. 79  “The Six ‘A’s of PBL Design Work,” New Tech Network, Free Resources and Recent News (blog), June 8, 2016, accessed February 22, 2022, https:/​/​newtechnetwork.org/​resources/​six-pbl-projectdesign/​.

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secondary research focus. A PBL instructor should not only provide secondary sources as supporting materials to help explain primary sources but provide students the tools and techniques to find and vet sources independently. How many important scholarly works started as keyword searches on JSTOR or WorldCat? Authentic assessment is not regurgitating a list of kings or popes but using students’ compiled knowledge to make an intelligent argument about their policies. Encyclopedic works such as The Dictionary of National Bio­graphy certainly have their place, but contributing authors are selected because their contributions helped establish scholarly consensus. These types of strategies are not necessarily innovative, but address a systemic lack of high-impact pedagogical tools that can significantly affect students’ learning of “so-called hard- and soft-skills” that prepare them for the world of work and effective civic engagement.80 By learning strategies for thinking such as inquiry, significance, empathy, use of evidence, and cause and effect, students can learn to become sophisticated critical thinkers, able to “craft their own warranted stories of the past” rather than relying solely on the thoughts and interpretations of others.81 In order to maintain fidelity in the PBL process, every component of the project must establish an authentic experience. Thus, the topic-choosing procedure at the outset of a given project is arguably the most critical piece of project design. A project topic that does not lend itself to products or practices modelled after true, expert work methodo­ logies, or that have immediate impact on students’ lives and communities, will not engender the student engagement and motivation inspired by PBL best practices and the project work will not result in desired outcomes. In order to choose an appropriate topic, the instructor must be able to articulate the most important learning goals, content areas, and thematic issues for their course. Project-based learning emphasizes depth over breadth, and so project topics must get at the heart of a discipline, its core concepts, and the processes that students need to understand it proficiently. Because PBL also emphasizes collaboration, a project topic must lend itself to team-generated solutions as opposed to individual problem solving. It is through collaboration with others that students are going to meet metacognitive goals during the PBL process. According to Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psycho­logist whose seminal contributions revolved around the role of social interaction and cognition, social interaction comes before independent activity.82 That is, the instructor creates an authentic learning environment by engaging with students in the learning process, then encouraging students to engage with each other in order to internalize the experienced learning and work process independently. Like-

80  The Future of Undergraduate Education: The Future of America, Commission on the Future of Undergraduate Education, American Academy of Arts and Sciences, November 2017, accessed February 22, 2022, https:/​/​www.amacad.org/​publication/​future-undergraduate-education. 81  Stéphane Lévesque, “On Historical Literacy: Learning to Think Like a Historian,” Canadian Issues /​Thèmes canadiens (Winter 2010): 42–46 at 42; “2016 History Discipline Core,” Tuning the History Discipline in the United States, American Historical Association, December 2016, accessed February 22, 2022, https:/​/​www.historians.org/​teaching-and-learning/​tuning-the-historydiscipline/​2016-history-discipline-core.

82  Vasily V. Davydov (trans. Stephen T. Kerr), “The Influence of L. S. Vygotsky on Education Theory, Research, and Practice,” Educational Researcher 24, no. 3 (1995), 12–21 at 17.



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wise, PBL strives to achieve a collaborative environment where learning is scaffolded as part of a group effort so that students have the necessary experience to apply the learning to new situations both in and outside of the classroom. This is not contraindicative of emphasis of Dewey’s learn-by-doing approach, though he suggests that learning must evolve from a child’s own experience. He proposes, rather than abdicating responsibility for the child’s learning, that the instructor assumes a different role in the classroom as guide, tutor, and mentor rather than an imposing and all-knowing authority.83 Therefore, PBL instructors must guide their students to choose their topics carefully. They must be conducive to a team approach to problem solving and the instructor must have deep knowledge of the subject in order to effectively advise the project process. The effect of targeting real-world knowledge and skills in project design leaves traditional materials such as textbooks and source readers peripheral. In a PBL course, these items will not generate an authentic environment because they are general reference tools largely passed over by professionals in a scholarly or academic setting in favour of more targeted resources such as mono­graphs and text editions. Textbooks and other published curriculum usually reflect scholarly consensus meaning important decisions about why, what, and how to study a subject have already been made and leave little room for student or instructor choice. Relying too heavily on pre-packaged course materials for project work can work against one of the primary purposes of project-based learning—student engagement. Overly detailed course preparation and curated course materials makes implementation straightforward for the instructor and content easily understood by students, but it results in fewer opportunities for critical thinking, less flexibility in applying conceptual knowledge to new situations, less growth in the ability to use reasoning to support claims, and a limited ability to solve problems.84 If the instructor has already made all of the important course content decisions, then student discovery is stunted and the learning process halted. Textbook publishers have also already made choices about what is important, thus limiting choice and eliminating the surprise, the rabbit holes, the excitement of uncovering ideas and connections that students experience during a high-quality project-based learning experience.85 Rather than curating a list of sources, the instructor might curate a list of tools students can use to curate their own sources. This kind of active guidance will ultimately result in a more fluid learning process for both the student and the instructor. Take Paul Halsall’s Internet Medi­eval Sourcebook. It is now nearly ubiquitous as an instructional tool in undergraduate medi­eval history courses. Most instructors, if using the sourcebook for reading assignments, will curate a selection of materials to fit with their lectures. Students will be exposed to relevant medi­eval primary sources, perhaps take some notes, and hopefully retain some of that information for their subsequent assessment or class discussion. While content exposure and application of content in an assessment is useful, it is in an overly prescriptive context that does not allow students 83  Leigh M. O’Brien, “A Response to ‘Dewey and Vygotsky: Society, Experience, and Inquiry in Educational Practice’,” Educational Researcher, 31, no. 5 (2002), 21–23.

84  Barron and Darling-Hammond, “Teaching for Meaningful Learning.” 85  Boss and Krauss, Reinventing Project-Based Learning, 62.

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voice and choice. In a more culturally responsive course, an instructor might assign a category from the Internet Medi­eval Sourcebook, instead—Medi­eval Heresy, for example—that allows students to select a source to read based on their own experiences and interests. In a medi­eval survey course, an instructor may cover both the Cathars and the Lollards, but by allowing students to select sources on one group or the other, it offers an opportunity for students to act as “experts” in a class activity such as a discussion, debate, or presentation. In an authentic setting, however, the introduction of sourcebook material should be followed by further investigation surrounding the activity. For example, the Internet Medi­eval Sourcebook has six sources provided on the Cathars. An authentic task might ask students to find and read an additional two sources not found on the website. Class activities then provide a platform for students to be exposed to significantly more medi­eval content than an assigned reading list, and provide students a research task appropriate to their skill level. It also provides the instructor an opportunity to address historical research skills to ensure students are using reliable sources. The Driving Question

Critically, the design of project-based learning must consider the “big ideas” that can provide fertile ground for development of complex research questions. Big ideas establish a focused, conceptual lens for a project subject by steering students toward ideas that are central to content mastery and address critical topics in the chosen field.86 A history project, for example, might address broad themes such as historical causation, the influence of cultural tradition on individual beliefs, or how an examination of multiple perspectives of a series of events affects historical interpretation.87 These ideas should be variable, dependent on the expertise of the instructor, and the multivalent state of medi­eval studies in the twenty-first century which lends itself to a multi-pathed approach to fundamental medi­eval themes and topics.88 This means emerging work on medi­eval slavery, conventual chroniclers, and underrepresented peoples from the wider 86  Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe, Understanding by Design (Alexandria: Association for Super­ vision and Curriculum Development, 2005), 66–69.

87  Heather Lattimer, “Challenging History: Essential Questions in the Social Studies Classroom,” Social Education 72, no. 6 (2008), 326–29.

88  A biblio­graphy on this topic is immense. We have noted a few highlights here, and provided a more extensive list in Chapter 5. John O. Ward, “‘Chronicle’ and ‘History’: The Medi­eval Origins of Postmodern Historio­graphical Practice?” Parergon 14, no. 2 (January 1997): 101–28; Elizabeth Freeman, “Meaning and Multi-Centeredness in Postmodern Medi­eval Historio­g raphy: The Foundation History of Fountains Abbey,” Parergon 16, no. 2 (January 1999): 43–84; Paul Freedman and Gabrielle Spiegel, “Medi­evalisms Old and New: The Rediscovery of Alterity in North American Medi­eval Studies,” The American Historical Review 103, no. 3 (June 1998): 677–704; Stephen Nichols, “Writing the New Middle Ages,” Proceedings of the Modern Language Association (PMLA) 120, no. 2 (March 2005): 422–41; Kathleen Davis and Nadia Altschul, eds., Medi­evalisms in the Postcolonial World (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009); Andrew Cole and D. Vance Smith, The Legitimacy of the Middle Ages (Durham: Duke University Press, 2010); Patricia Ingham, The Medi­eval New: Ambivalence in an Age of Innovation (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015).



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medi­eval world can serve students meaningfully, and instructors can readily avoid an over reliance upon the traditional paradigm of western Europe, ‘great men,’ and politics to communicate basic information about the Middle Ages. Using these kinds of sources as the basis for a project requires a wide depth of knowledge of the subject that not only allows the instructor to respond to students’ questions, but makes it possible for the instructor to serve as a guide as students choose different trajectories to follow during project work. When an instructor is not able to adequately field questions about a topic, give support, or provide connections to outside resources where students can find answers, it becomes necessary to limit student responses to those with which the instructor is familiar, and endangers the student engagement that evolves when students are able to choose their own project focus. Therefore, it is essential that the instructor design project topics accordingly—they should be able to answer the “Why” of a project with deep content knowledge and experience, and they must be able to convey the passion for the topic to their students. The work is Deweyan, that is, “What clearly distinguishes PBL from other instructional approaches is that projects are not the culmination of learning but instead are the process through which learning takes place.”89 It is critical that the process begins with the asking of an essential question that gets to the heart of the discipline—a question that is “provocative and multi-layered,” requiring students to view content from multiple perspectives and encouraging not just one right answer, but multiple “carefully nuanced responses” in the same way Nancy Partner talks about historians writing multiple valid histories.90 The creation of this provocative and multi-faceted driving question is a crucial first step. Good driving questions are open-ended inquiries broad enough to encompass designated curricular goals but narrow enough to be answered within the time constraints of the course. Attempting to answer the driving question and overcoming the resultant problems encountered in the process of doing so should require students to engage in a research process that connects previous experiences with authentic work of the discipline. Because increasing student autonomy provides learning benefits both from increased choice and from limiting imposed forms of control in the classroom,91 students should ideally write their own driving question, based on the project topic, in order to independently build structure and purpose to authentic work. Fostering an authentic learning environment and communicating clear learning goals are essential prerequisites to formulating good questions.92 In this setting, students should be encouraged to pose as many questions as they can about a proposed topic, write down their questions, and turn statements of interest into driving questions 89  Condliffe, “Project-Based Learning.”

90  Lattimer, “Challenging History,” 326.

91  R. Kaplan and K. Neill, “Teaching Required Courses: Pedagogy under Duress,” Pedagogy 18, no. 1 (2018): 25–50.

92  Significant work on questioning/​inquiry development is performed by the Right Question Institute and their Question Formulation Technique (QFT). Their landmark work is found in Dan Rothstein and Luz Santana, Make Just One Change: Teach Students to Ask Their Own Questions (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press, 2011), 1–26.

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that, much like research questions, set boundaries, clarify direction, and keep project work focused.93 When developing driving questions, instructors and students should consider whether or not their driving question is: Open-ended to provide opportunities for a variety of possible conclusions.

Objective so as not to implicate a particular type of response and all students to make choices during the research process that influence their ultimate conclusion(s).

Focused and anchored to the scope of the project, ensuring that students are able to effectively choose solutions related to learning outcomes.

Goal-oriented so that students are required to learn desired course content using prescribed methods.

Answerable so that students are able to come up with a legitimate solution with a foundation in real historical practices. Research-driven so that the question cannot be answered with simple searches, requiring analysis from several sources.

Consistent to provide students with opportunities to apply previous content and learned skills to a new situation.

Applicable, linking basic skills and concepts to students’ lives and the real world and therefore greater student investment in the project. Interdisciplinary so that students discover connections between the disciplines, showing them that knowledge and learning is not siloed.

Approachable, and able to lend itself to creative problem-solving and a variety of potential answers accessible to students.

Great driving questions foster authenticity and engagement in medi­eval history classrooms by promoting an integrative curriculum in which medi­eval topics are related to modern contexts, and literature choices that are not based on culture, genre, or theme, but rather in ways that allow students to discover the texts’ relevance for themselves.94 With learned expertise, students are then able to meaningfully question evidence and develop additional inquiries into medi­eval topics, resulting in students who are knowledge crafters rather than consumers of pre-packaged content.95 However, most students will be novice question writers, so students must revisit their questions regularly, which 93  Vicki L. Plano-Clark and Manijeh Badiee, “Research Questions in Mixed Methods Research,” from Sage Handbook of Mixed Methods in Social and Behavioral Research (Thousand Oaks: Sage, 2013), 277. 94  Barbara Goodman, “Fostering Medi­eval Studies within “sondry” General Education Curricula,” Studies in Medi­eval and Renaissance Teaching 20, no. 1 (2013): 1–20.

95  Bruce Lesh, “Making Historical Thinking a Natural Act,” Historically Speaking 12 (June 2011): 17–19.



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will likely result in supplemental questions that display more nuance and, importantly, a higher degree of engagement.96 While a great driving question helps spark the intrinsic motivation required for the internal, independent learning process before they are exposed to new course content, a poorly written driving question might lead students toward a single answer or solution, or be so ambiguous that students miss learning targets.97 For example, a poorly written driving question might be, “Why were the Crusades a good thing?” It is open-ended with multiple ways to express a solution; however, it is clearly not objective with the implication that the Crusades being good is a foregone conclusion. This compromises the research focus of the project, which will target those sources that prove the implied answer rather than refining a body of evidence. Such targeting by students will likely result in a misunderstanding of key content areas designed by the instructor. This is to say nothing of the large problem of answering what “good” means either in a modern or medi­eval context, making the above question unnecessarily difficult to answer. Compounding this difficulty is students’ prior exposure to the Middle Ages, including a variety of medi­evalisms that likely require discussion and correction.98 Undoubtedly, medi­evalisms provide a perceived connection to the distant past for students which may positively affect student motivation, but their ultimate utility in medi­eval studies is an increasingly important issue for professional medi­evalists.99 A better driving question might be, “Why did many medi­eval Europeans consider the Crusades to be a worthwhile pursuit?” First, it avoids presupposed moral objectivism and looks to approach the Middle Ages in its own context. Second, it is open-ended but has a clear path to a number of legitimate conclusions through the large body of scholarship that already exists on this very question. During the research process, an instructor can reasonably guide students towards literary, historical, religious, and other sources from a variety of cultural perspectives in pursuit of their answer, exposing students to the advantages of interdisciplinary scholarship. Indeed, prominent medi­eval writers would agree that, “of course, the first key to wisdom is defined by frequent and assiduous questioning.”100 96  Kate Hammond, “Pupil-Led Historical Enquiry: What Might This Actually Be?” Teaching History 144 (September 2011): 44–50.

97  Walter Parker et al., “Beyond Breadth-Speed-Test: Toward Deeper Knowing and Engagement in an Advanced Placement Course,” American Educational Research Journal 50, no. 6 (2013): 1424–59. 98  The most comprehensive treatment of this subject is through Studies in Medi­evalism, an occasional, themed journal published by the International Society for the Study of Medi­evalism, esp. volumes 17 to 20 on defining medi­evalisms. See also Bull, Thinking Medi­eval; David Matthew, Medi­evalism: A Critical History (Cambridge: Boydell and Brewer, 2015); Louise D’Arcens, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Medi­evalism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016).

99  The International Medi­eval Congress at Leeds, for example, has increased its number of medi­ evalism sessions from seven to twenty-seven between 2006 and 2017. Olivia Waxman, “Game of Thrones is Even Changing How Scholars Study the Real Middle Ages,” Time, July 14, 2017, http:/​/​ time.com/​4837351/​game-of-thrones-real-medi­eval-history/​. 100  See the pro­logue in Peter Abelard, Sic et Non: A Critical Edition, ed. Blanche Boyer and Richard McKeon (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977).

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Asset Mapping

Rigorous questioning will by necessity require an accumulation of resources. In the spirit of collaboration that is integral to the project-based learning process, pooling these resources for use by all students en­rolled in a course makes sense. Figure 2.1. Sample Asset Map Asset map­ping has its origins in social work research as a tool through which a community can identify its human, economic, cultural, and environmental assets, then establish their capacities using these maps in order to target and facilitate community development.101 However, it is also useful in an educational setting, visually representing resources for students to use in executing their project.102 It is important to note good asset maps will be more detailed than the simple example shown in Figure 2.1, eventually, but they are not meant to be comprehensive. Understandably, it is impossible and unnecessary for students to map every potential resource that might be used in a project, just as it would be for an instructor to attempt to assign every source that would serve a useful educational purpose in their course. In both scenarios, selections from the Patro­logia latina (PL), for example, might prove useful, but utilizing all 217 volumes would be absurd. A good project recognizes that source selection and source exclusion are just as crucial as source analysis. The International Medi­eval Biblio­graphy (IMB) alone contains nearly half a million entries, and in the digital age learning how to navigate this type of large database will benefit students beyond medi­eval studies.103 In the construction of an asset map, it is more important to point to tools like the PL and the IMB in order for students to see how they might interact and overlap in the completion of their projects. 101  John Kretzman and John McKnight, Building Communities from the Inside Out: A Path Toward Finding and Mobilizing a Community’s Assets (Evanston: Insititute for Policy Research, Northwestern University, 1993).

102  Elizabeth Lightfoot, Jennifer Simmerlink McCleary, and Terry Lum, “Asset Mapping as a Research Tool for Community-Based Participatory Research in Social Work,” Social Work Research 38, no. 1 (March 2014): 59–65.

103  Alison Hicks and Adrian Howkins, “Tipping the Iceberg: A Collaborative Librarian–Historian Approach to Redesigning the Undergraduate Research Assignment,” The History Teacher 48, no. 2 (February 2015): 348–54; Julie Gilbert, Katherine Knutson, and Christopher Gilbert, “Adding an Integrated Library Component to an Undergraduate Research Methods Course,” PS: Political Science and Politics 45, no. 1 (January 2012): 112–18; Sharon Weiner, Sammie Morris, and Lawrence Mykytiuk, “Archival Literacy Competencies for Undergraduate History Majors,” The American Archivist 79, no. 1 (Spring/​Summer 2015): 165–70.



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In creating the asset map, the instructor might identify and share potential repositories for primary sources such as relevant archival collections, websites, or a list of works by prominent scholars. A project asset map might also include physical resources such as where to print maps, contact information for people with special talents such as reading Latin or French, or local professors who might be willing to share information. Asset mapping serves as a key instructional practice for students in PBL because the maps represent information in a different medium. Furthermore, they should be publicly maintained with continuous input from student teams and from the instructor. In groups or as a class, on a whiteboard or hosted online, asset maps help students begin to understand the nature of a collaborative research environment. In a traditional classroom, this kind of information is often listed in a document for students to use. With an interactive digital asset map, however, students can more clearly see how the framework of their project fits together and more easily discuss how tasks are to be apportioned to suit the academic strengths of each group member. Asset maps are also dynamic, and students add new resources as they are discovered to share with others during the project. In creating this interactive resource, students learn to navigate interpersonal situations along with academic tasks, guided by the instructor to ensure each student takes on a substantial role.104 The asset map becomes a truly collaborative effort that benefits all group members.105 Lastly, asset maps offer students the chance to assert agency in the learning process, providing built-in peer reviewers and opportunities to find and use resources to refine their work without instructor intervention, likely increasing student motivation.106 Inquiry

Asking appropriately provocative driving questions and effectively utilizing asset mapping to organize research resources is part of the preparation for complex scholarly inquiry. However, history instructors are particularly prone to focus on historical content and source verification in a classroom setting, often overlooking the potential benefits and positive outcomes associated with authentic historical inquiries.107

104  Lindsay Cornelius and Leslie Rupert Herrenkohl, “Power in the Classroom: How the Classroom Environment Shapes Students’ Relationships with Each Other and With Concepts,” Cognition and Instruction 22 no. 4 (2004): 467–98, esp. 473–75; Josh Radinsky, “Students’ Roles in GroupWork with Visual Data: A Site of Science Learning,” Cognition and Instruction 26, no. 2 (2008): 145–91; Cindy Hmelo-Silver and Howard Barrows, “Facilitating Collaborative Knowledge Building,” Cognition and Instruction 26, no. 1 (2008): 51–53. 105  Boss and Krauss, Reinventing Project-Based Learning.

106  D. Bruce Jackson, “Education Reform as If Student Agency Mattered: Academic Microcultures and Student,” Phi Delta Kappan Magazine 84, no. 8 (April 2003): 579–85; Janice Burns, Dagmar Paul, and Silvia Paz, “Participatory Asset Mapping Toolkit,” Advancement Project and Healthy City, updated version April 2012, accessed February 22, 2022, https:/​/​communityscience.com/​wpcontent/​uploads/​2021/​04/​AssetMappingToolkit.pdf; Laura Gibson, “Student-Directed Learning: An Exercise in Student Engagement,” College Teaching 59, no. 3 (2011): 95–101. 107  Michiel Voet and Bram DeWever. “History Teachers’ Conceptions of Inquiry-Based Learning, Beliefs About,” Teaching and Teacher Education 55 (2016): 57–67.

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Whether due to a lack of understanding of cognitive learning processes or the point of view that fundamental content must precede pedagogical tools, student difficulties with critical inquiry continues to be a prominent problem despite instructors noting its importance.108 The American History Association, Modern Language Association, National Art Educators Association, and the Association of Departments and Programs of Comparative Literature, to name only a few, formally recognize critical inquiry as an integral part of their discipline, and thus it should be an integral part of the learning process for students.109 Below are general criteria for critical inquiry that can be repeatedly reinforced throughout any project in a medi­eval history course. Source Provenance. For medi­eval topics, data cannot be replicated to ensure validity, and it is not uncommon to discover primary sources that are incomplete, contradictory, or incomprehensible. Students should seek to discover the origin and context of their sources to determine its reliability, context, and content. This skill practically engages students in the process of formulating their own source introduction, rather than relying solely on a prefatory para­graph in a source reader. Determining provenance also exposes students to the real difficulties of dealing with a text with unknown origin and incomplete provenance, such as Beowulf, as well as the difficulties in dealing with a text with a rich manu­script tradition and complex provenance, such as Isidore of Seville’s Etymo­logiae. Appraisal. Students must look closely at scholarly sources to determine author credentials, publisher reputation, and source reliability in order to determine whether it should be used or discarded. A thorough examination should look at the point of view and intent of the author, obvious factual error, evidence given to support a claim, as well as argumentative inconsistencies. This helps students develop critical thinking skills to express a well-argued evaluation of their sources integral to their long term success. Perhaps most importantly, students should learn to not simply assent to every source’s argument, which is a particular tendency of novice scholars.110

108  Michiel Voet and Bram DeWever, “History Teachers’ Knowledge of Inquiry Methods: An Analysis of Cognitive Processes Used During a Historical Inquiry,” Journal of Teacher Education 68 (2017): 314–18; Peter Burkholder, “A Content Means to a Critical Thinking End: Group Quizzing in History Surveys,” The History Teacher 47, no. 4 (August 2014): 552–57.

109  “2016 History Discipline Core,” Tuning the History Discipline in the United States, American Historical Association; “Report to the Teagle Foundation on the Undergraduate Major in Language and Literature,” Modern Language Association, February 2009, accessed February 22, 2022, https:/​ /​www.mla.org/​content/​download/​3207/​81182/​2008_mla_whitepaper.pdf; “National Core Arts Standards: A Conceptual Framework for Arts Learning,” National Coalition for Core Arts Standards, accessed February 22, 2022, https:/​/​www.nationalartsstandards.org; Association of Departments and Programs of Comparative Literature, “2005 Report on the Undergraduate Comparative Literature Curriculum,” Profession (2006): 180–86; Voet and DeWever, “History Teachers’ Knowledge of Inquiry.” 110  Sarah McGrew, Joel Breakstone, Teresa Ortega, Mark Smith, and Sam Wineburg, “Can Students Evaluate Online Sources? Learning From Assessments of Civic Online Reasoning,” Theory and Research in Social Education 46, no. 2 (2018): 165–93.



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Refinement. Once inquiry on provenance and appraisal have been appropriately completed, students should begin refining relevant questions in order to achieve a project goal or an activation of prior knowledge. Potential questions might seek information about contradictory perspectives and conflicting sources, or compare similarities and differences of scholarly arguments. For primary sources, this might mean noting the unique aspects of the many vitae of Thomas Becket.111 For scholarly work, this might mean tracking the debate over feudalism starting with notable scholars such as Elizabeth A. R. Brown and Susan Reynolds.112 Importantly, this skill demonstrates to students that many issues in medi­eval studies have not been objectively resolved, and thus necessitate continued investigation and discussion.

Construction. Having established a series of refined questions along with their fundamental source data, students are able to become knowledge crafters.113 That is, students are able to construct a well-informed perspective on a topic that is a synthesis of acquired information, not a derivative summary of a single source. The process of building this perspective requires that students collect, sort, organize, and interpret their source material to create a model of medi­eval texts, peoples, cultures, and societies viewed through the lenses of various contexts— chrono­logical, thematic, spatial, philosophical, economic, linguistic, and so on. Practically, this may include students creating additional asset maps, non-linear timelines, traditional narrative writing, and project “road-maps.”114

Argumentation. This stage of the inquiry process utilizes the skills of the stages above to present conclusions to questions that have multiple solutions and illdefined processes. Such ambiguity allows for a range of interpretations which supports student decision-making, collaboration, and autonomy.115 Meeting

111  See, for instance, Michael Staunton, The Lives of Thomas Becket (Manchester: Manchester Uni­ versity Press, 2001) and his follow-up Thomas Becket and His Bio­graphers (Woodbridge: Boydell and Brewer, 2006). 112  Elizabeth A. R. Brown, “The Tyranny of a Construct: Feudalism and Historians of Medi­eval Europe,” American Historical Review 79, no. 4 (October 1974): 1063–88; Susan Reynolds, Fiefs and Vassals: The Medi­eval Evidence Reinterpreted (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994).

113  William Clark, Lorrae van Kerkhoff, Louis Lebel, and Gilberto Gallopin, “Crafting Usable Knowledge for Sustainable Development,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) 113, no. 17 (April 2016): 4574–75; R. T. Kellogg, “Training Writing Skills: A Cognitive Developmental Perspective,” Journal of Writing Research 1, no. 1 (2008): 1–22. 114  Nam Wook Kim et al., “Visualizing Nonlinear Narratives with Story Curves,” IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics 24, no. 1 (January 2018): 595–604; Philip Burian, Lynda Rogerson, and Francis Maffei, “The Research Roadmap: A Primer to the Approach and Process,” Contemporary Issues in Education Research 3, no. 8 (August 2010): 57.

115  Jill Fielding-Wells and Katie Makar, “Developing Primary Students’ Argumentation Skills in Inquiry-Based Mathematics Classrooms,” in vol. 2, Short Papers, in The Future of Learning: Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of the Learning Sciences [ICLS 2012], ed. K. T. Jan van Aalst, Michael Jacobson, and Peter Reimann (Sydney: International Society of the Learning Sciences, 2012), 149–53; available online at https:/​/​repository.isls.org/​handle/​1/​2255.

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these pedagogic goals will require successful student explication and justification using various assessment formats that engage in authentic scholarly practices including the appropriate use of sources to support their arguments, quotation usage, and citation methods. Students should be able to evaluate arguments, explain how they were constructed, and discuss how they might be modified for a different purpose, whether the argument is their own, their peers, or a scholarly source.

It is important to note that these five general stages of inquiry are not necessarily linear, nor do their completion necessarily mean the completion of a given project. Sustained inquiry requires a shift in mindset, part of what Marylin Cochran-Smith and Susan Lytle have defined as an inquiry stance in their important work on instructor practices, “a critical habit of mind, a dynamic and fluid way of knowing and being in the world of educational practice.”116 Mirroring the intent of project-based learning, the ultimate goal of sustained inquiry is to solve problems, building upon the knowledge of others towards the development of individualized approaches to course topics.117 Autonomy and Choice

Project-based learning routinely includes significant opportunities for student autonomy. Without opportunities for students to make decisions about how to conduct research, solve problems, and present their findings, the work becomes prescriptive and formulaic.118 Choice, as a function of autonomy, is a motivating factor, and contributes to a student’s engagement in a project. It is what moves student work from compliance to involvement, from extrinsic motivation to intrinsic motivation. When grades or fear of punishment are the only reasons a student is participating in the work of a project, then there is a disconnect that will interfere with the student’s ability to learn content and produce high-quality work.119 Learning in this context will tend to be superficial and the student will devote only as much time as is necessary to avoid negative consequences or score well on an assessment.120 However, when a student can choose a learning pathway, based on personal interest and curiosity, the reason for learning shifts from external factors to internal motivators. Indeed, higher order cognitive skills “seem to develop more often on the context of engagement than in a context in which students are doing the task assigned only because they are seeking rewards extrinsic to the work.”121 116  Marylin Cochran-Smith and Susan Lytle, Inquiry as Stance: Practitioner Research for the Next Generation (New York: Columbia Teachers College, 2009), 120.

117  Tyson Retz. “The Structure of Historical Inquiry,” Educational Philosophy and Theory 49 (2017): 606–17. 118  Larmer, Boss, and Mergendoller, Setting the Standard for Project-Based Learning, 48.

119  Phillip Schlechty, Engaging Students: The Next Level of Working on the Work (San Francisco: Wiley, 2011), 20. 120  Schlechty, Engaging Students, 35. 121  Schlechty, Engaging Students, 24.



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Autonomy is one of three innate psycho­logical needs, along with competence and relatedness, that when satisfied, enhance self-motivation.122 Competence in the project-based learning classroom is promoted by appropriate scaffolding, and relatedness comes from collaboration and cooperative discussion and learning protocols. As mentioned, autonomy is created by the implementation of student choice within the project design supported by opportunities for self-direction and feedback.123 Excessive control, non-optimal challenges, and a lack of connectedness, often attributes found in a traditional classroom setting, disrupt fulfillment of these basic needs, and result in lack of initiative and responsibility. However, the project-based model, with its emphasis on building competency and independence, is perfectly positioned to be responsive to students’ basic psycho­logical needs. Autonomy and self-direction are cyclical processes that motivate students to learn because the learning revolves around self-selected interests—students acquire knowledge because they want to learn more about what they are interested in, which leads to an increase in cognitive engagement. Thus, increased autonomy results in higher academic achievement and greater conceptual understanding.124 In PBL, offering students autonomy is also intended to foster decision-making, establish pragmatic goal-setting, determine workflow processes, and evaluate project outcomes. These choices, reasonably, would be based on the specific inquiry methodo­logies appropriate to the disciplinary focus of the project and the sources used for it. For example, US students building a project to investigate the emerging topic of medi­eval slavery might reasonably ask questions relating the circumstances of medi­eval slavery to the familiar issues of the Transatlantic slave trade they learned about extensively in their US history classes. In this setting, students will have to grapple with concepts of race, power, culture, economics, politics, and religion far removed from their own learning and experiences. Deciding how to navigate these topics is an intentional process that generates new meaning and understanding for the investigator/​student.125 The initial state of confusion at the beginning of the process cedes to genuine interest, then to the positing of a real problem for which the student takes responsibility. However, it is often the case that students do not have sufficient knowledge or skills to make competent choices, lacking the propositional and practical knowledge to do so.126 The instructor must use appropriate scaffolding to build the student’s capacity to make good choices and, in so doing, students will begin to experience what it means to think and act like a medi­evalist. 122  Richard M. Ryan and Edward L. Deci, “Self-Determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development, and Well-Being,” American Psycho­logist 55, no. 1 (January 2000), 68–78. 123  Ryan and Deci, “Self-Determination Theory,” 69, 76.

124  Jerome Rotgens and Henk Schmidt, “Cognitive Engagement in the Problem-Based Learning Classroom,” Advances in Health Science Education (2011): 465–79. 125  Dewey, Democracy in Education, 181.

126  Gilbert Ryle, The Concept of Mind (New York: Routledge, 2009), 16–21. Originally published in 1949, Ryle labels these as “knowing that” and “knowing how.”

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Scaffolding

Scaffolding is an educational technique aimed at supporting progressive student mastery and autonomy by gradually removing instructional supports during the learning process.127 Scaffolding addresses the lack of knowledge and experience that are hurdles for any novice student of the Middle Ages. Novices may become frustrated because they do not know where or how to get the information they need. They may not realize how prior knowledge applies in a new situation. So, as students explore and look for ways to answer questions and make decisions, instructors should be offering considerable support throughout any given project. Instructors who do not provide adequate support find themselves trying to fend off a drop in student motivation when students face what seems an unanswerable question or a task too difficult to complete. In contrast, a novice student who successfully completes a project with access to appropriate scaffolding is more likely to develop competency at a faster rate. In a project-based setting, students that were either required or had the option to take advantage of scaffolding activities performed at much higher levels than students who were not given the opportunity. 128 Most scaffolding can be divided into one of two categories—soft scaffolding or hard scaffolding.129 In soft scaffolding, the instructor checks in with collaborative groups using questioning strategies to evaluate whether or not student groups understand concepts and tasks, correcting misunderstandings and offering feedback about their work. Soft scaffolding allows the instructor to provide immediate, timely feedback to help groups stay on track. While many problems may be uncovered by the instructor by observing students while they work, it may be useful to provide deliberate opportunities for students to meet with the instructor to reflect on current work and plan for future work. Hard scaffolding, planned in advance, is built around concepts students commonly struggle with, as identified by the instructor. Hard scaffolding might include required readings, workshops, demonstrations, or intentional modelling by the instructor, all designed to ensure students gain proficiency in critical historical skills. Both hard and soft scaffolding may include conceptual, metacognitive, or strategic supports.130 Conceptual scaffolds may deal with broad concepts such as genre, chrono­ logy, event classification, hierarchy, or overarching themes. Metacognitive strategies focus on prescriptive skills, such as contextualization, revision, language learning, goal setting, note taking, and study skills. Strategic supports are those designed specifically to help a student complete tasks or products, such as outlines, instructions for a new piece of software, a list of databases, or provision of a web-based platform for a digital project. In all cases, the instructor should take into account the students’ foundational knowl127  David Wood, Jerome Bruner, and Gail Ross. “The Role of Tutoring in Problem Solving,” Journal of Child Psycho­logy 17 (1976): 89–100.

128  Krista Simons and James Klein, “The Impact of Scaffolding and Student Achievement Levels in a Problem-Based Learning Environment,” Instructional Science 35 (2007): 41–72.

129  John Saye and Thomas Brush. “Scaffolding Critical Reasoning about History and Social Issues in Multimedia-Supported Learning Environments,” Educational Techno­logy Research and Develop­ ment 50, no. 3 (2002): 77–96. 130  Saye and Brush, “Scaffolding Critical Reasoning about History and Social Issues,” 80.



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edge and skills, and provide specific modelling and support at an appropriate level, with the intent of withdrawing assistance as the student gains confidence and proficiency.131 Project work can be structured so that students have some autonomy regarding what, how, and when scaffolding is implemented. Generally, a project will have a variety of scaffolding options. Sometimes tasks are assigned with no scaffolding offered, perhaps because the skill is basic and one that students are expected to know and be able to do. Optional scaffolding may be declined by the student when they believe they have the skills necessary to complete a task without assistance, though instructors are welladvised to provide guidance if a student takes on too much. Scaffolding may be mandatory when a topic or task has a high degree of complexity or is a new concept, and the instructor believes that students must know the content of the scaffold in order to successfully complete project outcomes.132 Rubrics

A key component in the project-based learning process is the use of rubrics for both formative and summative assessment, and for student self-evaluation. A comprehensive rubric includes criteria that specify learning goals that demonstrate mastery of course outcomes, as well as criteria for those skills necessary to demonstrate expertise in the field, such as inquiry, argumentation, source analysis, inferencing and reasoning. Rubrics may be used to guide students on depth and breadth of content research, on historical skills such as persuasive writing or contextual analysis, or on presentation skills. Often, skills-based rubrics can be developed once and used as needed depending on project parameters. For example, students may write an essay on the social context of the Hundred Years War for one project, while in another they are writing an expository essay on laws relating to property rights in medi­eval London. Because the purpose for writing is different, rubrics addressing content will be required. However, in a skillbased rubric, expository writing competencies are relevant regardless of content, allowing wide implementation of any such rubric. While rubrics can be used by the instructor to assess project outcomes, the most important use of rubrics are for self-evaluation, feedback, and revision. Well-designed rubrics serve as a guide for students, and with continued use enable students to become adept at monitoring their own learning. In order for rubrics to facilitate learning and enhance metacognition, students should receive explicit instruction in the use of rubrics to evaluate their work along with related content knowledge. Without a sufficient knowledge base, students will not be able to effectively use the rubric for their benefit.133 It is the integration of both metacognitive skills in using rubrics for analysis and content 131  “Instructional Scaffolding to Improve Learning,” Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning, Northern Illinois University, accessed February 22, 2022, https:/​/​www.niu.edu/​citl/​resources/​ guides/​instructional-guide/​instructional-scaffolding-to-improve-learning.shtml. 132  Simons and Klein, “The Impact of Scaffolding and Student Achievement Levels,” 41.

133  Emmy Vrieling, Sjef Stijnen, and Theo Bastiaens, “Successful Learning: Balancing SelfRegulation with Instructional Planning,” Teaching in Higher Education, 23, no. 6 (2018): 685–700.

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matter during instruction that enhances knowledge building.134 A wide variety of exemplar rubrics for a medi­eval history course is provided in Appendix B.

Situating Medi­eval Studies in Project-Based Learning

An understanding of the essential elements described above provides a conceptual framework for project-based design and sets the stage for practical application in the medi­eval history course. The examples described in this section are not in order of process nor are they exhaustive, but instead represent some suggestions (among a myriad of ways) about how these essential elements might be incorporated into a medi­eval history course. If implemented with fidelity, the implementation of the essential components described above assists an instructor in the natural development of a course environment that provides continual examples of the applicability of historical skills in a professional setting, creates an engaging environment that speaks to students, aligns learning outcomes to assessments, provides demonstrable data of the learning taking place during the course, and shows our most impressionable audience the dynamism of medi­eval history. Authentic experiences and audiences make learning real. In a project-based learning environment, proving content mastery involves more than pen and paper artifacts. Students should discuss and debate sources not only because it is a good tool for historical teaching, but also because medi­eval historians do so in a professional setting. Students should present their work to an audience both because oral presentations require skills that are universally applicable, and because the conference circuit is part and parcel with the professional work of medi­eval historians. Medi­eval historians build websites and program source databases; re-enact lost performances and demonstrate forgotten skills; translate dead languages and save important texts from oblivion. The choice of tasks may be chosen by the instructor to demonstrate mastery may certainly be based on their personal scholarly interests, expertise, or authentic connections within the community of historians. But importantly, these are tasks professional medi­eval historians do that contribute to the advancement of the field that are specifically not writing a paper, even though papers naturally result from the efforts involved in their pursuit. If these connections are made clear to students during a course, an instructor will no longer have to answer the question, “What can you do with a history degree besides teaching history?” The driving questions resulting from authentic topics foster sense-making. Proposing solutions to complex driving questions means that students need to be introduced to a topic and given opportunities to consider it from a variety of viewpoints. This is not achieved by memorizing names, dates, and facts, but by examining relevant primary and secondary sources (as opposed to textbooks, which students often assume to be irrefutable) and discussing contextual similarities and differences, inherent biases, and evidential ideas—all of this related to the line of inquiry presented in the driving question.135 134  Vrieling, Stijnen, and Bastiaens, “Successful Learning” 690.

135  Samuel S. Wineburg, “Historical Problem Solving: A Study of the Cognitive Processes Used in



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For course design this makes moot the concern of covering enough content, because skill acquisition has replaced content coverage as the focus of the course. Sense-making, in particular, is the fundamental core of the research process. All medi­eval historians begin any research project and subsequent publication by creating an understanding of the historical setting being investigated.136 For many undergraduate students, this is a new learning experience in the transition from secondary to post-secondary education, and should be explicitly addressed. Asset mapping orients students to sourcing and sources. In any historical inquiry, texts are central to the research and learning processes. To successfully engage in historical inquiry, students must successfully engage with historical texts through corroboration, attribution, and contextualization.137 Successful corroboration implies that historical facts can be verified from multiple sources, thus increasing reliability and credibility. Attribution sheds light on inherent bias; author, place and date of a source is a first step in revealing perspective. Finally, contextualization refers to establishing when and where historical events took place, giving clues to the historian about the purpose behind the source. Discussing these ideas in relation to a driving question allows students to build consensus within the group setting as they use sources to build a case to support their claims. For medi­evalists, this is an opportunity to engage students in the apparatus of the medi­eval text and how to engage its various manifestations. Translations, editions, and manu­scripts all have their uses, and it is important that students encounter these formats to facilitate their authentic engagement with medi­eval studies. Many students will not even have a passing thought that the sources assigned were originally written in a different language, much less have an appreciation for the process involved in crafting the modern edition. In addition, it is an opportunity to connect students to the wider network of medi­eval historians and discuss professional specialization to counteract the faulty assumption that faculty have wide, comprehensive knowledge of all medi­eval topics. That is, medi­eval historians value voice and choice to specialize in content areas that have meaning to them based on lived experience. These choices are generally respected in the field and there are a wide variety of outlets that provide venues for their voices to be heard. Students, too, come into a course with different background knowledge, different levels and areas of expertise, and different cultural biases. These differences must be acknowledged and explored, and relationships built around common understandings. Identification of group roles and the establishment of group norms help students work toward building a sense of community, where different perspectives are valued and compromise is based on shared understanding of goals. When the voice of each group the Evaluation of Documentary and Pictorial Evidence,” Journal of Educational Psycho­logy 83, no. 1 (March 1991): 73–87 at 84.

136  Gabrielle Spiegel, “Genealogy: Form and Function in Medi­eval Historical Narrative,” History and Theory 22, no. 1 (February 1983): 43–53; Lane Sobehrad, “The Past in Pro­logues: The Origins, Form, and Function of Introductory Material in Medi­eval English Historical Works” (Ph.D. diss., Texas Tech University, 2017), 327–35. 137  Wineburg, “Historical Problem Solving,” 77–80.

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member is heard, and all contributions valued, groups can work together to successfully find unique solutions to a driving question. Any number of niche medi­eval conferences seek to foster the same kind of community and spark further investigation. Finding solutions to problems in history is very different from other, more structured disciplines. Historical problem solving requires a synthesis of ideas to explain what has already happened. Because the final outcome of a historical event is already known, the historian’s goal does not point to a single right answer proven by quantitative evidence.138 Instead, the historian’s goal is ambiguous, based on subjective interpretation of source materials, whose very selection (or non-selection) influences the explanation. Marc Bloch’s general rule suggested long ago in The Historian’s Craft that, “history is neither watchmaking nor cabinet construction. It is an endeavor towards better understanding and, consequently, a thing in movement.”139 The collaborative tools of project-based learning are what makes it a viable pedagogy in a course where students come with a wide variety in what they already know, what they have experienced and how they view the world. The tools of project-based learning make practicing historical skills doable for all, with mastery of historical thinking and inquiry skills as the ultimate goal. Scaffolding these skills engages students at an appropriate level. Students are going to be bad, initially, at reading primary sources, writing a historical narrative, or using historical evidence to support an argument. That should be expected and accounted for in classroom activities, course design, and assessment evaluation. It has been established that students are likely entering a medi­eval history classroom with little to no prior knowledge of the medi­eval past, and so it would not be effective to begin a course by jumping right into a complicated discussion of patristics. An essay assignment given at the beginning of the semester should not be held to the same standards as an essay given at the end of the semester. Without scaffolding, students may become disengaged (or drop the course) because the content or grading is considered too difficult. The vast majority of students in US universities are not enrolling in a medi­eval history course because they want to be medi­eval historians, they are most likely doing so to fulfill the cultural component of a well-rounded degree plan. The acquisition of historical skills and the accessibility of historical content should thus differentiate instruction based around the diversity of enrolled students. Rubrics align content with course learning outcomes and encompass increasing levels of complexity, designed in such a way to move students from basic understanding to expert knowledge. Course rubrics are written to delineate learning outcomes. Tasks, lectures, workshops, and scaffolds should all be developed based on the requirements of a project rubric and intentionally aligned by the instructor. The essential elements of project-based learning, situated within a medi­eval studies course, include processes and protocols that level the playing field, and make it possible for all students to understand content, make their voices heard, and contribute in a significant way to a visible, final product. The succeeding chapters will demonstrate in much greater detail how the 138  Wineburg, “Historical Problem Solving,” 73–74.

139  Marc Bloch, The Historian’s Craft, trans. Peter Putnam (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1992), 10–11.



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strategies of project-based learning can be effectively implemented in the medievalhistory classroom, suggesting that evidence-based, high-impact practices will result in students who learn about the Middle Ages more efficiently, understand the past more fully, and perhaps even inspire a few new medi­evalists.140

140  Cindy Kilgo, Jessica Sheet, and Ernest Pascarella, “The Link Between High-Impact Practice and Student Learning: Some Longitudinal Evidence,” Higher Education 69, no. 4 (2015): 509–25.

Chapter 3

ACTIVE CONSTRUCTION OF KNOWLEDGE AND INTENTIONAL PLANNING In This Chapter we

– Connect activity theory with project-based learning. – Explore elements of the project cycle.

– Examine intentional planning templates.

– Analyze construction of outcomes-based rubrics.

Introduction

A common difficulty in a medi­eval history course is to find ways to make content relatable to students.1 For medi­eval history, in general, we have observed similar trends as the study by Leah Shopkow et al. that students have difficulty, first, in maintaining appropriate distance from topics, second, in understanding the limits of knowledge of people in the past, and, third, in identifying people from a much different time and place. Medi­eval history courses should address charged topics such as gender, race, and religion in their appropriate medi­eval settings, but it may be difficult for students to address such topics in the context of historical investigation. Take the following passage from a text on women’s health and gyneco­logical issues in Sloane MS 2463 from the first quarter of the fifteenth century: Although women have various maladies and more terrible sicknesses than any man knows, as I said, they are ashamed for fear of reproof in times to come and of exposure by discourteous men who love women only for physical pleasure and for evil gratification. And if women are sick, such men despise them and fail to realize how much sickness women have before they bring them into this world. And so, to assist women, I intend to write of how to help their secret maladies so that one woman may aid another in her illness and not divulge her secrets to such discourteous men.2

There are some obvious talking points in this passage about how medi­eval people viewed gender, gender roles, and femininity that students would likely pick up on: women may not seek out needed health services from men because women were viewed as sexual objects of temptation, and it was therefore a moral quandary for men to assist with women’s maladies; medi­eval men saw women’s health concerns as a cause for shame due to the moral turpitude linked to a belief that Eve’s original sin had tainted all 1  Joan Middendorf, David Pace, Leah Shopkow, and Arlene Diaz, “Making Thinking Explicit: Decoding History Teaching,” National Teaching and Learning Forum 16, no. 2 (February 2007): 1–4.

2  Anonymous, Medi­eval Woman’s Guide to Health: The First English Gyneco­logical Handbook, trans. Beryl Rowland (London: Croom Helm, 1981), 59.

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women; a recognition of women’s inherent weakness that results in them having more severe and greater varieties of illnesses compared to men; women keep their illnesses secret because they know men will view it as shameful; and a hint that women may be exerting agency in their own health needs by assisting other women. There are also obvious parallels with modern social issues surrounding women’s health and bodies that students are likely to be able to comment on with some amount of general knowledge. The danger, of course, which every instructor of medi­eval history has encountered, is students who equate medi­eval and modern issues, attempting to view them through the same investigatory lens. Medi­eval people did not view the world through a lens of social justice, gender equality, feminism, or modern theories of sex and gender. While those concepts are certainly a useful perspective to underlay one’s interpretive methodo­logy and historio­graphic perspective, they must be used in conjunction with an understanding of medi­eval gender roles, perceptions of women and femininity in medi­ eval religion, and medi­eval medical knowledge and practices. This chapter will explain how project-based learning can assist instructors in navigating the thinking, reading, writing, and doing students should be participating in when pursuing historical investigations in their course. In order to get the content and skills attached to learning outcomes to “stick” with students, instructors cannot simply be a megaphone of content delivery. Providing specific structures and protocols embedded into the learning pedagogy can help students internalize learning and better demonstrate the desired skill and content mastery. The activity theory model clarifies these processes by illustrating the interplay between practical activity and mental imagery that allows students to learn how to automatically and routinely perform certain tool-mediated actions that lead to learning.3 Activity theory is pragmatic and goal driven, and represents the construction of knowledge as a process that involves the interaction of the individual with the tools and community necessary to achieve goals. When used in a PBL setting, activity theory supports the construction of knowledge in a classroom setting. The purpose in explaining activity theory here is to provide a theoretical underpinning for the project elements described throughout the chapter. Activity theory describes tools and artifacts used by a community during the knowledge-building process as mediators of actions that may lead to or require operational mastery of ways of thinking. That is, the learning process may start with individually acquired skills, but soon requires engagement with a learning community in order to acquire content and skill mastery. For example, reading a manu­script first requires decoding the written word. As historians, the operational mastery required to access the information surrounding the manu­script includes the ability to understand provenance, historical context, language, paleo­graphy, textual validity substantiated by corroboration with other sources, and perhaps the ability to navigate access to an archive or 3  Alexei Leont’ev, “Activity and Consciousness,” in Philosophy in the USSR: Problems of Dialectical Materialism, trans. from the Russian by Robert Daglish (Moscow: Progress, 1977), 180–202; F. Blackler, “Knowledge, Knowledge Work and Organizations: An Overview and Interpretation,” Organization Studies 16, no. 6 (1995): 1021–46.



Active Construction of Knowledge and Intentional Planning

Figure 3.1. Project Activity System

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library. To acquire mastery of this skill set, a professional historian took classes, talked to experts, communicated with organizations, and learned alternative methods of communication (both through other languages and by navigating bureaucracy), and created products through which they engaged in a discourse with others participating in the same or similar activities. Perhaps most crucially, a professional historian is confident enough in their mastery of the requisite skills that they are able to engage with others about them and the products resulting from their use. For new students of history, this way of thinking puts them far away from operational mastery. That is, students may have to participate in activities using specific tools or processes designed to help them think in this way, so that over time those methods of thinking will become ingrained in their approach to historical inquiry. Over time, and if reinforced with intentionally structured activities, they will master the cognitive operations necessary to use primary sources as tools to understand and reconstruct knowledge of past events. In project-based learning, these tools may include rubrics that delineate student learning outcomes and historical skills, scaffolds which structure student research and knowledge building, or protocols which help students create habits of mind when participating in group activities to help them move from novice to master. As operational mastery increases, students begin to think more like historians and are able to reflect on not only the use of tools, but the choice of tools in order to better hone their knowledge construction and sense-making skills as they draw conclusions based on their research. This happens continuously, in small increments, throughout the life

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cycle of a project. A basic visualization of activity theory interpreted through the lens of project-based learning is shown in Figure 3.1.4 Students should not make these pursuits on their own. Activity theory espouses that knowledge cannot be built by individuals. Rather, it is built by individuals within a community that share mediating tools, and where agency is generated by division of labour along with a designated set of formal, informal, and technical rules for interactions and behaviours.5 New ideas are constructed not independently, but by communicating with others in order to promote positive action.6 Collaboration makes it possible for people involved in the project-based learning process to compose group norms and rules required for effective interaction, to assign group roles as they utilize tools to explore solutions to problems, and to negotiate solutions that lead to mastery of project outcomes. For many historians, this is likely a foreign concept for teaching, but a natural mindset for the research process. Though much of the work done by medi­eval historians result in a product listing a single author, the work would not have been completed without a community effort. Look at any acknowledgment page or preface, where authors show appreciation to mentors, funding sources, institutions, and family for their assistance in the process. Scholarly works have peer review committees, editors, and publishers that vet materials and ensure a certain standard of argumentation and evidence. Indeed, even the practice of footnoting participates in a wider community of scholarly discourse. Thus, so too should it be in the classroom, not just because it is good instructional practice, but because it reflects the authentic working environment of a historian. What follows is a guide to building and preparing a medi­eval studies course to develop that environment at an appropriate level for undergraduate students with little experience working in and around medi­eval historical studies. This environment is built around the project activity cycle and its curricular considerations, providing one avenue instructors might use to facilitate effective learning pathways for students. 4  Yrjö Engeström, “Innovative Learning In Work Teams: Analyzing Cycles of Knowledge Creation in Practice,” in Perspectives on Activity Theory, ed. Yrjö Engeström et al. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 377–404; Yrjö Engeström, “Activity Theory as a Framework for Analyzing And Redesigning Work,” Ergonomics 43, no. 7 (2000): 960–74; David W. L. Hung and Angela F. L. Wong, “Activity Theory as a Framework for Project Work in Learning Environments,” Educational Techno­logy 40, no. 2 (2000): 33–37; Leont’ev, “Activity and Consciousness”; Lev Vygotsky, Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psycho­logical Processes (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978); Lev Vygotsky, “The Genesis of Higher Mental Functions,” in The Concept of Activity in Soviet Psycho­logy, ed. J. V. Wertsch (Armonk: Sharpe, 1981), 144–88.

5  Jacob D. Vakkayil, “Activity Theory: A Useful Framework for Analysing Project-Based Organizations,” Vikalpa 35, no. 3 (July 2010): 1–18 at 5; Kirsten A. Foot, “Cultural‐historical activity theory as practice theory: illuminating the development of conflict‐monitoring network,” Communication Theory 11 no. 1 (January 2006): 56–83; Chris Campbell, Seonaigh MacPherson, and Tanis Sawkins, “Preparing Students for Education, Work, and Community: Activity Theory in TaskBased Curriculum Design,” TESL Canada Journal 31, special issue 8 (2014): 68–92. 6  John Dewey, Experience and Education (New York: Touchstone, 1938); Vygotsky, Mind in Society.



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Project-Based Course Planning

The project activity system must be intentionally designed both to establish authentic, achievable learning outcomes, and to establish a continuous improvement cycle that will help monitor whether or not students are making progress towards achieving those outcomes. The instructor must envision course trajectories, set broad project goals, and establish clear expectations for student work, keeping in mind that students come to a course with diverse backgrounds and interests that will influence their interpretation of course guidelines. Project-based pedagogy encourages instructors to honour these student differences by building opportunities for student autonomy and choice into the activity system. However, for many students, especially undergraduate students, the relative freedom to choose a content focus, research topic, and/​or methodo­logy is a new experience, and one that can easily overwhelm them in a course whose content is unfamiliar. Students, as anyone, have the epistemo­logical concern that in choosing they will pick something incorrectly because they are novice medi­eval historians. This means that the instructor must select outcomes, tools and resources that assist students in achieving a mutual understanding of criteria and a shared responsibility for final products. Because the ultimate goal for a project-based curriculum is student independence and ownership of the learning process, it falls upon the instructor to not only help students develop an appropriate driving question that offers multiple opportunities for investigation, but also to provide an appropriate selection of resources to support student work regardless of those choices. Resources include expected items in any history course such as source lists and references compiled by the instructor to fit content and scope, but they also include activity descriptions from the syllabus, assessment rubrics, discussion and collaboration protocols, and available educational techno­logy. Depending on location, resources may also include things external to the classroom but accessible to students, such as a local museum, special collections library, or medi­eval studies organization. Just as with any course design process, the broad scope of preparatory activities requires a large initial investment of time by the instructor before the course and its project(s) begins. A four- or five-week project may take a week to design, but it should ultimately be easily understood by students, able to be implemented by a teaching assistant (for those lucky enough to have them), and adaptable to fit the dynamic needs of shifting teaching assignments. The most difficult aspect of this complex planning process to embrace is that it is not linear. As with research and writing projects, there is a great deal of interplay between the parts of any intentionally designed project. Below, the project planning process has been divided into three phases: conceptualization, development, and evaluation. However, these phases are not always done sequentially. The development of a particularly exciting evaluation tool may lead one to reconceptualize a learning outcome or the anticipated learning needs of students. The planning process has the potential to be messy and convoluted, but it is impossible to implement a project with fidelity without thorough planning. It is tempting to take short cuts; however, using a systematic guide to predict student thinking and build necessary knowledge and skills can help stream-

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Table 3.1 Project Conception Planning Template

Learning Outcomes (course-specific; general outcomes related to departmental goals and performance measures), e.g.:

1.2.2 Students will apply historical knowledge, skills, and habits of mind to the problems of the present world. 2.2.3 Students will evaluate the varying roles that certain demo­graphics played in medi­ eval society including women, peasants, nobles, slaves, merchants, clergy, pagans, and soldiers.

Project Purpose (what historical skill or skills will the project develop), e.g.: – Develop basic critical reading skills for historical documents. – Engage in the process of historical inquiry – Understand basic aspects of social history

Driving Question (states question to be answered that is integrally tied to learning outcomes), e.g.:

Explore the formal and informal ways that people in the Middle Ages received an education in preparation for a particular career, job, or role in their community.

Scenario (summary of the issue challenge, investigation, or problem)

The history department has been invited to participate in a local forum for educational initiatives. As part of the agenda, you will be leading a panel discussion about medi­eval educational practices as a lens to address modern educational issues.

Project Hook/​Initial Engagement Activity (activity to inspire historical inquiry), e.g.:

The St. Scholastica Day Riot (1355): How drunk college students burned down Oxford

Authentic Connection (real world partner or work):

Student groups will submit their work to the Undergraduate Research Conference scheduled by our university at the end of the semester.

Project Dossier (collection of materials student uses to identify expectations for learning outcomes and final products) Ancillary Materials (for example, letters, proposals, and invitations)

Logistical Information (for example, deadlines or publishing guidelines) Resource Lists/​Links

line the planning process and solidify an instructor’s vision to ensure smooth and effective project implementation during a course. If done properly, effective project plans are readily adaptable to other course assignments, ultimately saving instructors prep time. The sections that follow provide the instructor with a systematic way to build a project from start to finish beginning with project conception, then discussing how to develop a learning framework, and end with work products, evaluation tools, and reflection.



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Conceptualizing the Project

There are layers and nuances to the planning process that can be lost without a guide to shape one’s thinking. Planning artifacts like Table 3.1 are not only an efficient way to establish the scope and sequence of a project, but are adaptable to any course setting, and provide a common schema for future project ideation. Thinking through each component in the Project Conception Planning Template will help an instructor conceptualize broad disciplinary knowledge, specific topical knowledge, historical interests, and strategic skills the project will encompass, and make it possible to clearly communicate the authentic value of the project to students. In this example, note that the stated learning outcomes are pulled from the exemplars provided in Chapter 1. Though any of the specific learning outcomes from Chapter 1 might be applicable, only two are listed to provide a focus for the direction of the project. A template like this is purposefully modular, meaning an instructor can change the input for one of its components without compromising the integrity of the other components. The ability to easily make such changes provides great flexibility for creating new projects. Establishing Learning Outcomes

As mentioned, establishing realistic student learning outcomes is essential if a course is going to provide an authentic learning experience. In project conceptualization, learning outcomes are activity system tools which establish the disciplinary goals that should be attained through project work. In the evaluation of student learning outcomes, the seminal work of Benjamin Bloom may be helpful. Bloom, most well-known for the now ubiquitous Bloom’s Taxonomy, suggests that educational outcomes can be categorized into three distinct areas according to the type of learning that occurs: cognition, skills, and attitudes. Cognition relates to general disciplinary knowledge, skills relate to subject area competencies (such as historical inquiry or contextualization), and attitudes refer to beliefs that may change during the learning process, such as empathy or respect for the contributions of others.7 Student learning objectives for any course should be able to address these types of learning, and in the project conceptualization phase an instructor should consider whether or not the chosen objectives will allow students to participate in all three types of learning. A set of learning objectives that does not include some semblance of Bloom’s three learning types may be a sign that an instructor needs to revise them. As an exemplar, readers may have noted this book’s use of Bloom’s termino­logy at the outset of each chapter. At the individual student level, these learning outcomes should be codified in rubrics describing the level of knowledge, skills, and abilities that a student should gain upon completion of a course of study.8 In PBL, learn7  Maureen Tam, “Outcomes-Based Approach to Quality Assessment and Curriculum Improvement in Higher Education,” Quality Assurance in Education, 22, no. 2 (2014): 158–68 at 160.

8  “Statement of Mutual Responsibilities for Student Learning Outcomes: Accreditation, Insti­ tutions and Programs, Institute for Research and Study Accreditation and Quality Assurance,” Council of Higher Education Accreditation, September 1, 2003, accessed February 22, 2022, https:/​/​www.chea.org/​sites/​default/​files/​other-content/​StmntStudentLearningOutcomes9-03.

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ing outcomes should establish opportunities for students to gain proficiency not only in specific knowledge and skills of the discipline, but also in practices related to the work of professionals in the field. Creating learning outcomes is not an exact science and is sometimes a frustrating exercise in constrained writing.9 If a learning outcome is too narrow, students’ interpretation of that expectation could lead to projects which unintentionally restrict student choice. In the example provided above in Table 3.1, an instructor would have to be careful to ensure that students do not restrict themselves to the learning that occurred in medi­eval universities (unless that was the intended purpose of the project). The anticipated predilection of undergraduate students may attempt to find a medi­eval corollary to their own experience in a collegiate setting, but learning outcome 2.2.3 specifically mentions a variety of societal roles, which should help mitigate this tendency. In this project, the instructor should expect some student projects that investigate medi­ eval universities, but should also encourage exploration of apprenticeships, grammar schools, clerical training, women’s ability to participate in education, and/​or the role social status played in the type of education accessible to different groups in the Middle Ages. Learning outcomes should be written in such a way that they indicate what the student should know (cognition), what the student should be able to do (skills), and how the student will show mastery of those skills (assessment), but they should not be written in such a way that resultant student work products look alike. To develop project-specific learning outcomes that will guide student work while achieving broader course goals, current educational practices suggest a process of first establishing a disciplinary domain, “a body of conceptual knowledge” organized on the basis of topics and skills core to a specific field of study.10 Appendix A and Appendix D provide a systematized starting point for establishing topics and skills for medi­eval survey courses, but establishing a domain for a more focused course can be similarly accomplished through an intentional development process built around anticipated student knowledge (domain and topic), interest (individual and situational), and strategic (i.e., historical) skills.11 Domain and topic knowledge is broad knowledge of a given subject, such as knowing the Concordat of Worms occurred before the Fourth Lateran Council or understanding politics and religion were intimately connected during the Middle Ages. Students will likely not have a robust understanding of the medi­eval past at the beginning of the course, but may have some broad ideas informed by interaction with movies, books, and other popular media. Game of Thrones is certainly not historipdf; Stephen Adam, “Using Learning Outcomes: A Consideration of the Nature, Role, Application and Implications for European Education of Employing Learning Outcomes at the Local, National and International Levels,” paper presented at the United Kingdom Bo­logna Seminar, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, 2002. 9  Adam, “Using Learning Outcomes,” 6.

10  Patricia A. Alexander, “Mapping the Multidimensional Nature of Domain Learning: The Interplay of Cognitive, Motivational, and Strategic Forces,” Advances in Motivation and Achievement 10 (1997): 231–50. 11  Alexander, “Mapping the Multidimensional Nature of Domain Learning,” 221–24.



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cal but provides some very basic medi­eval awareness that peoples in the Middle Ages sometimes lived in castles, used swords, and did not use trains. Similarly, students might have some specific topical knowledge from lived experiences, such as those whose high school physics class had them build a trebuchet or catapult as part of a project learning about trajectory, force, and motion. This general knowledge can be used to target student interest in all things medi­eval, which may stem from a student’s deep desire to learn about a particular topic, perhaps inspired by one of those popular cultural artifacts, or it may be inspired by a specific trigger from a current situation, such as what social activism may have looked like in the Middle Ages. Based on knowledge and interests, instructors should be able to determine what strategic skills students may need to expand their knowledge and pursue their interests. Again referring to Appendix A, an instructor should be able establish learning outcomes aligned to disciplinary skills that are applicable to any number of potential student projects. This is another good check on the instructor to ensure that providing students voice and choice is not compromising the overall objectives of the course. For example, a student group may want to recreate their catapult project from high school. This is a perfectly reasonable project, but if the assigned project is the one described in Table 3.1, there is likely to be significant adjustments students will have to make in order for it to be possible (for example, investigating how medi­eval people learned how to build siege engines). This domainoriented view of how students interact with knowledge should guide the instructor’s efforts to choose and/​or write learning outcomes that provide students with opportunities to follow domain or topic interests. Constructing student learning outcomes in this way is significantly impacted by the course being taught. A Western Civilizations course will have dramatically different learning outcomes than a more content-oriented course, such as The Crusades. Projects and activities for the referencing a learning outcome such as, “Students should know the chrono­logy of key events and political, social and cultural developments in the Western world” will look considerably different in its goals, process, and outcomes that one referencing a learning outcome like, “Students will use music, art and architecture to enhance their understanding of the Crusades.” In survey courses, questions are broader by necessity, but conversely necessitates a stricter window of project implementation because the Middle Ages will be bookended by other units on classical civilizations and the early modern world. Such brevity does not lend itself to creating opportunities for focused inquiry based on student interests. On the other hand, a content-oriented course obviously offers greater opportunities for more focused topical learning outcomes. In both cases, however, instructors can develop a project cycle that will result in effective learning outcomes for students. For a survey, projects may focus more on skill acquisition than content mastery that can be measured over the course of a week or two, while projects in a content-oriented class may focus more on gradual skill development over the course of weeks or months supported by more content exploration. An instructor’s area of interest can also be a major factor in how specific outcomes are constructed. For example, a learning outcome that asks students to “develop new ideas as a result of connecting the purpose and context of source material with evidence” can progress in any number of ways. Most of the time, instructors will trend

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toward those topics in which they are an expert. A medi­eval military historian may propose a project connecting chronicle descriptions of medi­eval battles with archaeo­ logical evidence. A church historian might ask students to come to their own conclusion about the Investiture Controversy. However, medi­eval historians often have a geo­ graphic and chrono­logical focus that coincides with their disciplinary focus. A military historian who publishes on the Hundred Years War is more likely to conceptualize a project that includes resource lists and ancillary material from England and France in the fourteenth century than German sources from the tenth century. Likewise, a historian who publishes on Anglo-Saxon saints is less likely to develop a project that focuses on the impact of religion on Arabic social practices in tenth century Egypt. In any of these scenarios, most of the knowledge gained would be specific and topical to the project, but with concurrent gains in broader domain knowledge guided by the instructor’s expertise. Students cannot learn about the Hundred Years War without learning about the complex political history of medi­eval England and France, for example, nor could an investigation of the impact of religion on Arabic social practices be understood without some understanding of medi­eval Islam. In these scenarios, though, there are opportunities for the inspiration of situational interests as students choose solutions with underlying skills that must be developed regardless of the project. While it is true that student choice is what often makes project-based learning engaging for students, it is also true that it can result in project topics that may be beyond the realm of an instructor’s knowledge, expertise, or desire to teach. Therefore, it bears repeating that learning outcomes must be carefully aligned with project goals and those expectations clearly communicated to students. Researchers caution that proper alignment of learning outcomes is especially critical because incorrect alignment may allow students to chase topics that are personally more intriguing, but that diverge from an instructor’s goals, potentially compromising students’ progress towards the intended learning outcomes.12 Project Purpose

Once a project’s outcomes have been chosen, the instructor can begin to think about the purpose of the project, which should tie the development of historical skills to learning outcomes. An in-depth knowledge of learning outcomes associated with a specific course, along with a liberal helping of creative brainstorming, can result in some exciting non-traditional methods for proving mastery of learning outcomes. For example, an instructor may want to focus on developing students’ ability to read critically and construct strong arguments based on historical data in order to demonstrate their awareness of the Middle Ages. Traditionally, students might have written a fiveto seven-page, 2,000 to 3,000-word term paper to demonstrate their mastery, picking one of three overly general writing prompts. Typically, this paper would be assigned with little in-class preparation other than assigning the types of sources to be used, or in some cases which assigned readings must be mentioned. General expectations 12  Alexander, “Mapping the Multidimensional Nature of Domain Learning,” 222.



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would be communicated but, as shown above, there would be little instructional time dedicated to learning how to write a medi­eval history paper from the only expert medi­eval history writer in the room. An assessment developed and implemented in such a way does not likely meet the instructor’s intended purpose to develop students’ abilities to read and write critically and construct strong arguments. Activities must follow intent. In a project-based setting, effective instructional strategies accommodate the five- to seven-page paper and a planned final product scaffolded with daily activities and formative assessments that reinforce students’ critical reading and writing skills. Scheduling an in-class debate can easily be justified as historical argumentation, and has the added component of student autonomy and choice. Students should be generating writing products beyond course notes and mandatory essays, especially engaging with the writing of their peers. Students can lead summary discussion of assigned texts guided by the instructor rather than relying on the instructor to provide the “correct” interpretation. Most importantly, it should be made explicit to students how all preceding activities align to the expectations of the final product. Students should not have to wait until the end of the course to realize they have learned something, they should be confident in their learning progress as it occurs. Any project’s purpose should clearly explain and demonstrate what it is students are supposed to get out of the experience, and a term paper that is quickly relegated to the trash can after grading should not be it. Once a project’s purpose has been decided upon, the instructor can begin planning the project sequence. Critically, this includes thinking about how students might approach a particular topic and what skills students may need to successfully follow through on a given approach. What makes rational sense to an instructor with years of experience in medi­eval studies and higher education may not be the same type of reasoning engaged by a student in their first formal exposure to medi­eval history. An instructor may appreciate medi­eval military history as Bernie Bachrach does, “fully aware of the central importance of res militaris in determining the social and political structure of medi­eval Europe, and appreciate how great an impact they had on the daily lives of men and women of all classes.”13 Students with little exposure or experience in the complexity of historio­graphical practice most likely have a basic, straight-forward interpretation of military history as troop movements, tactics, and weaponry. The goal, of course, is to start students down a path from the latter to former interpretive approach, but in doing so it is important for instructors to recognize that ideas that may be implicit to the expert are not so for the novice. A good driving question helps keep an instructor accountable to the needs of their students, and provides students a target to aim for in unfamiliar intellectual territory.

13  Bernard Bachrach, “Editor’s Introduction,” Journal of Medi­eval Military History 1, no. 1 (2002): vii–ix at viii.

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The Driving Question Having established meaningful purpose, the initial direction of any project is driven by inquiry. Petra Hendry describes the raising of questions as the heart of educational inquiry, and suggests that because the world is not (and never has been) static, “research requires ongoing questions,” especially in an educational setting.14 She characterizes inquiries as “messy, blurred, chaotic, and contradictory” processes from which the scholar derives meaning.15 The act of asking questions is also the core of the real work of historians.16 Though many have stated it over the years, we particularly like R. G. Collingwood’s take that history is, “a kind of research or inquiry that fastens upon something we do not know [in the past], and tries to discover it.”17 That is, history is about creating questions and answering them. To do so using the methods developed by professional historians requires training and practice, providing instructors opportunities to engage students with authentic learning experiences. The driving question is a critical tool in the project cycle that both provides a focal point for students in the trajectory of the project as well as a continuous point of engagement as students become more experienced historians throughout the course. The previous chapter provided criteria to consider when creating a driving question for a project, but is important to emphasize that a good one is open-ended but tied to targeted learning outcomes, specific while allowing multiple approaches to problemsolving, answerable yet flexible enough to sustain more than one possible right answer. A driving question with inquiry in mind should provoke students to engage in historical practices that will merge learning outcomes, the structure of knowledge, and historical skills into a cohesive whole that results in students who are able to communicate historical ideas through various media. In Table 3.1, the driving question asks students to consider the role of education in medi­eval society with the purpose of investigating how various types of people in the Middle Ages were able to engage with education. This is a starting point, which is why the question appears so vague, but a driving question is part of a continuous cycle of improvement and refinement during the project process linked to its outcomes and purpose. On its own, “Evaluate the role of education in medi­eval society” is too vague, and students would not be able to produce quality work products that answer it. However, looking at it in conjunction with the project purpose, provides clarity and direction. Students are provided information that there are both formal and informal educational pathways they could investigate and a suggestion that education was utilized for particular roles in medi­eval societies. Undergraduate students will naturally ask questions about medi­ 14  Petra Munro Hendry, “Narrative as Inquiry,” The Journal of Educational Research 103, no. 2 (2010): 72–80 at 78. 15  Hendry, “Narrative as Inquiry,” 78.

16  Robert H. Mayer, “Connecting Narrative and Historical Thinking: A Research-Based Approach to Teaching History,” Social Education 62, no. 2 (1998): 97–100. 17  R. G. Collingwood, The Idea of History (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1967), 9. This work was published posthumously from a 1936 manu­script.



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eval colleges and universities, which are perfectly valid lines of inquiry, but instructors should also provide information that prompt other avenues of exploration. That is, this project is presented it is unlikely that students have heard words like “monastic” or “trivium” before, but they are likely familiar with words like “apprentice” and “magic,” so use students prior knowledge to help them explore wise women, guilds, medical knowledge, and farming practices. When the stated learning outcomes are clear to students, the introduction of these topics during the initial phase of inquiry should foster further inquiry about the stated societal roles as antecedents to modern educational systems and, more naturally to undergraduate students, an easy way to begin a comparative study of past and present. The act of inquiry is affected by the construction of the driving question. Nuance is important, and can be influenced by word choice both in the driving question and in the project scenario. “Compare and contrast” suggests something completely different than “describe,” and “interpret” requires better mastery of historical skills than “identify.” It is useful to have an arsenal of appropriate verbs to consider during the project development process—Appendix A provides a laundry list of useful terms from commonly used history standards in the United States. Consider the differences: – Evaluate the role of education in medi­eval society – What is the role of education in medi­eval society?

– How did the role of education in medi­eval society change over time?

Comparing the first and third questions, the former is likely to result in a more static inquiry while the latter specifically asks for an investigation of change. Comparing the first and second questions, the latter will likely result in work products that are descriptive while the former asks students to make decisions and conclusions. At the same time, driving questions are dynamic statements. As the project development process continues and students gain knowledge and skills, they will generate ideas that require refinement of the driving question. This is a natural part of the project cycle, which can be easily scaffolded by engaging students in a five-minute in-class activity that asks them to reevaluate the driving question based on their current understanding of the topic and their present stage of project completion. The result at the end of the semester will hopefully be a myriad of thoughtful, precise lines of inquiry. It is thus critical that driving questions have a through line that connects them to project outcomes, activities, and purposes that are “provocative and multi-layered,” requiring students to view the content from multiple perspectives and encouraging not just one right answer, but multiple “carefully nuanced responses.”18 Project Scenario

The project scenario is a tool that helps students clarify a project’s purpose, and often evolves in conjunction with the driving question. The scenario places the students in the middle of an authentic experience, which not only asks students how they will interact 18  Lattimer, “Challenging History,” 326.

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with materials in order to answer the question, but how they will navigate a professional task.19 The scenario also establishes the level of authenticity that a project will embrace. While all project work should employ authentic skills and strategies used by historians, authentic products are often harder to find. In Table 3.1, students are tasked with participating in a local forum for educational initiatives and asked to lead a discussion of historical educational practices as a lens to address modern educational issues. As any collegiate history instructor well knows, speaking at conferences, giving a guest lecture, and participating as a content expert for a community event is a common professional experience. Undergraduate students, by and large, have not done this, nor do they likely have extensive experience presenting information in a formal environment. Authenticity is thus generated for students by developing a project that asks them to engage with a live audience. Project scenarios do not have to be performative, only reflective of the professional activities of a medi­eval historian. It is important to recognize that activities associated with these scenarios should include a variety of experiences for students beyond papers and presentations because the work of medi­eval historians is more than publications and conference papers. Sometimes, the authentic work of the historian can be implemented in an improvised scenario, and student work can be evaluated during a course’s contact hours, with an activity such as a moderated discussion or debate. Other times, the work of a historian might ask students to take a particular historio­graphical approach by asking them to engage in a variety of case studies followed by a collaborative effort to identify trends and patterns between the studies. Other authentic scenarios might include creation of documentary videos, websites, databases, translation or transcription, museum displays, or participation in local conferences appropriate for undergraduate students. Project Hook

An activity system tool designed to stimulate engagement, the project hook is a preliminary activity designed to set the stage of the project scenario and give students a taste of the ideas they will be pursuing during the course of a project. Usually done on the first day or two of a course, the project hook is an enticing, interesting look at the nature of the upcoming project that should inspire students to want to know more. The subject matter of this engaging activity needs to be relevant to learning outcomes and the driving question. If historical figures or conflicts are mentioned during the preliminary activity, they should be an integral part of the answer. If social mores are woven into the initial, engaging event, then exploration of these social mores should be necessary in order to answer the driving question. If primary source documents are introduced, then these source documents should become part of the project biblio­graphy. The preliminary, engaging activity can set the mood and tone for the entire project, and provide 19  C. B. Beard, “That Noble Dream,” American Historical Review 41, no. 1, (1935): 74–87; C. B. Beard, “Written History as an Act of Faith,” American Historical Review 39, no. 2 (1934): 219–31; Sherri Rae Colby, “Students as Historians: The Historical Narrative Inquiry Model’s Impact on Historical Thinking and Historical Empathy,” (Ph.D. diss., University of North Texas, 2007).



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clues about the choices students will make and research pathways students will follow. If you can hook the student with an engaging event, they will be eager to dive into the research, and the students themselves will be able to fulfill the promise delivered when the instructor introduced the project for the first time.20 The most successful engaging events immerse students in project content in a way that makes them ask “what’s next.” In Table 3.1 for example, the Project Hook describes an activity that addresses the St. Scholastica Day riot between town and gown (residents and students) at Oxford in 1355. People died, there was much property damage, and even the king could do little to quell the chaos. In the aftermath, Edward III ordered an investigation to find the root cause(s) of the events. Students will likely find this series of events exciting, it is ostensibly relatable as one of the primary groups of historical actors were Oxford students, and as a historical topic it is fairly discrete in its context. As a class activity, an instructor could divide students into groups on either side of the crown’s town and gown investigation. On the first day of class students are broken up into teams. All teams are given an overview of events, some extant evidence from the events, and a description of their role, then assigned time to work through their materials as a group. It is enough that students will have been introduced to a variety of terms and ideas related to medi­eval institutions. It is enough that they have an opportunity to become intrigued by unusual resources or the unlikely outcomes of the events. When the allotted time has ended, student teams share their opinion based on their group’s role and their current level of knowledge, then the instructor, acting as Edward III “reassesses” the evidence. This is the hook, the relevant conflict that generates excitement and interest in following the story to the end. Subsequent events can extend this initial exposure. Student interest has been engaged, and students will now have opportunities to pursue answers to the driving question with some ideas about how to move forward. “Your opening is your showcase. It’s your best foot put forward, your first impression.”21 The preliminary, engaging activity sets the stage for the rest of the project, and thus requires thorough consideration on the part of the instructor. Authentic Connections

Defining authentic connections increases engagement and is vital to project success. In the aftermath of the project hook, it needs to be made clear to students what the purpose of that activity was both in the scope of the project and in the overall learning outcomes for the course. In a PBL setting, students should never leave an activity only thinking, “that was interesting.” The importance of authentic connections has valid roots in experiential learning. According to Alice and David Kolb, interaction with an authentic environment is a key component of experiential learning. First, experiential learning is a process, a continuum of knowing and discovering uniquely suited to the individual by choice. It requires reflection on what was known before in relation to what has been 20  See the chapter entitled “Set the Narrative Hook” in William G. Tapply, The Elements of Mystery Fiction: Writing a Modern Whodunit (Scottsdale: Poisoned Pen, 2004), 30–31. 21  Tapply, The Elements of Mystery Fiction, 32.

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learned, as it requires wrestling with problems and finding solutions. Experiential learning involves more than just cognitive processes and fact-finding or lectures. It involves a student’s interests, beliefs, and making sense of how those interests and beliefs interact with the world, and is an important consideration in an authentic project design.22 “Space needs to be created in curricula for students to pursue…deep experiential learning in order to develop expertise related to their life purpose.”23 In other words, covering the material is not enough. Students need to be given opportunities to apply knowledge in contexts beyond institutional walls. When they are able to put into action the things they have learned in an undergraduate course, students “close the cycle by bringing the inside world of reflection and thought into contact with the outside world of experiences created by action.”24 It is not enough to simply connect students through authentic assessment or work products. Continuous reflection on work and participation, presentation to an outside audience, and feedback from professionals in the field all contribute to the enhanced learning that occurs when students work to solve problems with and for partners in their communities.25 For the project in Table 3.1, invite colleagues from across campus in the College/​Faculty of Education to talk to students about current educational practices and have them engage in a discussion using the knowledge and skills developed during the course. Ask students to submit their work to an undergraduate research journal or conference. Such activities are not only authentic and engaging, but offer students the experience of applying their class-based learning in a real world setting by means of an external entity. It shows, practically, that the “stuff” of the course extends beyond the classroom setting. It is real to students in a way that assigned coursework is not, and in the event some students are successful in their efforts, have them report out to the class what subsequent activities and experiences they engaged in were like. Project Dossier

The project conception process concludes with the design of the project dossier. The project dossier is a collection of ancillary materials that provides clues to the specific content and learning outcomes that the instructor desires students to master. The dossier should give students enough information to know the timeframes and the historical focus for the project. These ancillary materials include the driving question and materials from the preliminary engaging activity. Also included is a document that conveys the purpose and intended audience for the project. Ideally this document is an authentic 22  Alice Y. Kolb and David A. Kolb, “Learning Styles and Learning Spaces: Enhancing Experiential Learning in Higher Education,” Academy of Management Learning and Education 4, no. 2 (2005): 193–212. 23  Kolb and Kolb, “Learning Styles and Learning Spaces,” 208.

24  John Dewey, “My Pedagogic Creed,” The School Journal 54, no. 3 (1897): 77–80.

25  Kristin M. Vespia, Georjeanna Wilson-Doenges, Ryan C. Martin, and Deirdre M. Radosevich, “Experiential Learning,” in Evidence-Based Teaching for Higher Education, ed. Beth M. Schwartz and Regan A. R. Gurung (Washington, DC: American Psycho­logical Association, 2012), 77–97 at 92.



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call to action, such as a call for proposals from a publisher or conference requesting submissions on a specific topic, a request for a proposal for an archival development grant, or it may be an instructor-generated document that provides project parameters. A project dossier may include a biblio­graphy of print or electronic resources as seeds for the project’s asset map, and almost always includes the rubrics that will be used to evaluate student work. The ideal project dossier gives students enough information to get started independently as they look for ways to clarify expectations and answer the driving question. Developing the Learning Framework Setting Project Goals The scenario is set, the driving question is asked, and students are engaged. The project has been successfully conceived. All of these tools are critical to a project’s success, but the planning work has only just begun. Because a project can take several weeks or even a semester to complete, it is imperative for instructors to provide students with specific milestones and goals to aim for throughout the course of a project. Goals are crafted to delineate intermediate steps that students need to accomplish in order to build the appropriate historical knowledge and skills that will make it possible for them to answer the driving question. Specific, time-sensitive goals help both instructor and student clarify their thinking and make wise choices about resources and time allocation. Table 3.2. Project Goals Planning Template Project Title

Project Duration Project Goals (projects should have three or more)

Goal One (a target for students that encompasses learning outcomes and skills development) Prior Knowledge (what do students already know)

Misconceptions (what common misconceptions will students have)

Anticipated Learning (what new information/​skills will students need to master)

Feedback (how will students know if they have mastered the required knowledge and skills) Scaffolding (activities to build requisite knowledge and skills) Workshops (to address where students commonly struggle)

Protocols (learning routines that help students process new information and skills) Resources (primary, secondary, tertiary, online) Lists/​Links to Resources Timeline/​Syllabus Link to Project Syllabus

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Negative consequences may result when specific goals are not set, for both instructors and students. For the instructor, failure to set project goals can result in omissions or errors in content. Without thorough planning, the instructor is in danger of being unprepared as students begin asking for resources the instructor had not considered, or running out of time to tackle specific subject matter. For the student, lack of project goals can often result in procrastination or a lack of focus or understanding of the project’s purpose, which often results in hasty or superficial completion of work and a subpar final product. Articulating project goals assists students in understanding the true nature of the learning outcomes, and provides a way for the instructor to communicate (without telling the student exactly what to do) the intent of the driving question. The Project Goals Planning Template in Table 3.2 shows only one project goal; however, the number of goals is tied directly to the length of a project. For a semester-long project, goals may encompass a period of three or four weeks, while unit projects may establish weekly goals. The first of these goals should be designed to ensure that students have all necessary resources to prepare a credible response to the driving question. Suitable first project goals include creating an asset map, writing an annotated biblio­graphy, or developing a research archive. The first project goal should lead students to a research focus and the development of strategies for how to answer the driving question. Subsequent project goals would be intended to hone the student’s content knowledge at an appropriate level of depth and complexity, hard enough to challenge, but not so hard as to discourage. They should also provide opportunities to practice disciplinary skills as students construct a product intended to answer the driving question. Goals can be geared toward eliminating misconceptions, building valid content knowledge based on accepted principles of the discipline, or learning historical skills. Goals may ask students to critically read and evaluate content, or to contextualize historical events and develop empathy for historical figures as they gather evidence from a variety of historical sources to answer the driving question.26 The final project goal relates to presentation of student work to the intended audience. By this time, students will have interpreted their historical research in order to draw conclusions and support their answer to the driving question. In this final stage of the project, students should be asked to consider the best way to share what they have learned. This final presentation can be made through a variety of modalities, but all presentations should make their historical thinking transparent by including evidence of their research focus, their strategies and thought processes, their assumptions and misconceptions, along with the reasoning that validates their answer to the driving question. At any time during the planning process, it is likely that the instructor will identify disconnects between project goals and course learning outcomes, between what the instructor wants students to know and be able to do versus what students are actually able to accomplish. As with any project, initial plans for a student project will need to be 26  “2016 History Discipline Core,” Tuning the History Discipline in the United States, American Historical Association.



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modified to ensure that coursework leads to intended outcomes. Instructors can adapt to the varying needs of their students by ensuring their project design considers common stumbling blocks in content and skill acquisition. Tools like Table 3.2 above are useful tools for systematizing those considerations. Prior Knowledge, Misconceptions, and Anticipated Learning Needs

Once project goals have been set, the instructor must think deeply about what students already know (or think they know) and what they will need to learn in order to meet the goals and answer the driving question. It has been established that students are likely to enter a medi­eval history course without much medi­eval history experience or knowledge, but they may have some general awareness through the medi­evalisms pervading popular culture. This, of course, leads to misconceptions, but it makes predicting what prior knowledge students will bring to the table all the more challenging. In addition, instructors need to consider that students may come to a course with some prior historical knowledge. In an American 3000-level course (nominally aimed at thirdyear undergraduates) full of juniors and seniors, most students will have already taken their mandated US History survey and completed their required literature sources in the English department. These students will be relying on their prior collegiate experience to navigate a medi­eval history course. A 1000-level Western Civilizations course full of first-year students will instead rely on prior secondary school experience, which our data has suggested does not adequately prepare students for much of the rigour expected in the collegiate classroom. Instructors who have taught a particular course for years at the same institution will have a general idea what knowledge students will enter their course with, but unconventional sources such as history content standards developed by state education agencies may provide additional insight into student competencies. At the same time, even the most seasoned instructor cannot predict all potential learning gaps—at least not in the amount of time that is realistic for course development and preparation. In a project-based learning course part of the project introduction should be intentionally designed for the instructor to observe students’ prior knowledge through their engagement through a brief, class-based activity. A common option early on in the project process might be a team-created concept map showing collective knowledge about a topic that visualizes students’ individual prior knowledge while also allowing them to see the shared knowledge base of their team. Such activities are a useful guidepost for students in selecting project topics and the initial direction of their research.27 Unfortunately, students also bring with them erroneous prior knowledge, misconceptions, and specifically medi­evalisms that are difficult to correct because they are deeply ingrained into students’ lived experience in popular culture. Often, this is because a misconception includes both accurate and inaccurate information, and it is not pos27  Susan A. Ambrose, Michael W. Bridges, and Michele DiPietro, Michele, How Learning Works: Seven Research-Based Principles for Smart Teaching (Hoboken: Wiley, 2010.

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sible for a student to separate truth from fiction.28 Overriding a misconception might be as simple as giving students a chance to compare their incorrect thinking with accurate information in order to supplant the inaccurate knowledge. Or it might take more time and multiple exposures to the new knowledge before long-held beliefs change. Either way, by identifying potential misconceptions before a project begins, an instructor can be prepared to address common misconceptions and medi­evalisms through specifically designed activities implemented at appropriate points during the course of a project. A relatively recent film adaptation of Robin Hood, for example, suggests that his father originated many of the political ideas found in Magna Carta. Students may likely know that both Robin Hood and Magna Carta are real medi­eval historical “things,” but be much less clear about the literature surrounding the various Robin Hood stories and the political developments of early thirteenth-century England. By identifying prior knowledge and misconceptions, the instructor is able to anticipate student learning needs related to the knowledge and skills that they must gain in order to successfully answer the driving question. These anticipated learning is needs should be incorporated into course learning outcomes as a matter of course, and project work must be designed taking these needs into account. Even though project-based learning promotes autonomy, the instructor is still responsible for ensuring that mea­ surable progress is made towards learning outcomes. The instructor must have plans in place to guide students toward these objectives. Consideration of potential prior knowledge and misconceptions in advance of project deployment allows the instructor to plan ahead and devise workshops and protocols that link what students know with desired outcomes in a way that makes sense and positively contributes to student workflow and a project’s final product. Taking these three developmental concerns together, let us consider a medi­eval military history course. Students will likely have prior knowledge of medi­eval military engagements at the least through movies, television, and video games. Today, there is a good chance that one of these popular mediums influenced students’ decision to enroll in the course. These students may hold the misconception that medi­eval military engagements were commonly large, pitched battles with thousands of troops, enormous siege engines, and high fortified walls. Factors such as these do, indeed, create a fantastic cinematic spectacle. But, an instructor should easily anticipate this as an initial learning need in their course and develop activities that demonstrate how many medi­eval engagements were resolved according to extant evidence, purposefully including examples where engagements were described in a contrary way to Hollywood depictions while still acknowledging the grain of historical truth that influenced those depictions.29 During this process, the instructor will not only be able to eliminate misconceptions due to anticipated learning needs, but connect their prior knowledge with new learning. 28  Ambrose, Bridges, and DiPietro, How Learning Works, 25.

29  Sean McGlynn, “The Myths of Medi­eval Warfare,” History Today 44, no. 1 (January 1994): 28.



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Scaffolding, Resources, and Project Timelines

Collectively, the body of coursework that helps move students toward mastery of learning outcomes is known as scaffolding. Pre-planning scaffolding activities such as workshops or protocols to help students access prior knowledge, correct wrong thinking, or gain new knowledge, will free the instructor to engage in the rich conversations with student groups needed to guide them as they begin to develop historical skills. An instructor who is scrambling to react to unanticipated student needs in the midst of a project will not have time to foster the creative, out-of-the-box thinking that these conversations might produce. For scaffolding to be most effective, compiling essential resources needs to be part of the goal planning process, too. Every medi­eval historian will have a number of these. In the development of any course, an instructor utilizes many more sources than are listed in the required reading for a traditional course. For project development, all of these resources should be noted in the resources section of the project goal template for students to reference, too. Having direct access to these resources from the planning document streamlines the process of syllabus creation and/​or agenda setting and provides transparency to students in the learning process. In fact, examining resources during the early stages of project planning, rather than relying on finding a source that precisely fits the project as it evolves, will probably result in a more coherent project design and ensures that student research at least begins in the right place. Developing a resource list during project design to share with students later provides instant access to legitimate sources which helps eliminate inappropriate or irrelevant content. Ideally, as students become more adept at the project-based learning process, their reliance on instructor resources decreases as they learn to access primary source documents that may not always be obviously available.30 As a community of learners, students should create asset maps (see Chapter 2) to house these additional resources, and in this way, can support one another in the project development process. Managing the complex nature of the project-based learning process can be overwhelming without a sense of task order and time needed to accomplish individual project goals. It is difficult to visualize project flow and make predictions about completion dates and final presentation dates without first creating a tentative timeline. Flexibility is required, and there is always a large degree of variation in projected time allotments versus the actual time required for completion of project components, but a timeline should be created and variables should be considered. Factors affecting a project’s timeline include student competence, access to resources, outside influences such as special events and holidays, availability of community partners or event venues and can all impact the scope of a project. However, student competence is probably the largest variable. Students entering college or university come in with a wide range of abilities in their approach to coursework. Depending on their secondary school experience, some students are adept at in-depth research, while others know little more than how to 30  Michael Eamon, “A ‘Genuine Relationship with the Actual’: New Perspectives on Primary Sources, History and the Internet in the Classroom,” The History Teacher 39, no. 3 (May 2006): 297–314.

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access information from search engine summaries. Some students have an innate ability to convey meaning through writing or conversation, while others may struggle. These variables require time for scaffolding so that all pertinent skills can be included in a project timeline to ensure that students know and are able to execute required tasks. Additionally, the timeline provides structure for the messy middle of a project by committing time to tasks such as group discussion, peer evaluation, brainstorming, and feedback and revision. Table 3.3. Project Timeline Template SESSION 1 (e.g., MONDAY)

SESSION 2 (e.g., WEDNESDAY)

SESSION 3 (e.g., FRIDAY)

Date Project Goal: (focus for the day)

Date Project Goal: (focus for the day)

Date Project Goal: (focus for the day)

Content Task: (what students will learn)

Scaffolding Concepts: (guidance provided by the instructor)

Project Dossier Documents: (in online folder for reference)

Project Resources: (in dossier for reference)

Content Task: (what students will learn)

Scaffolding Concepts: (guidance provided by the instructor)

Project Dossier Documents: (in online folder for reference)

Project Resources: (in dossier for reference)

Content Task: (what students will learn)

Scaffolding Concepts: (guidance provided by the instructor)

Project Dossier Documents: (in online folder for reference)

Project Resources: (in dossier for reference)

The primary goal of a thoroughly designed timeline is to preserve the intentionality required in effective project-based learning. A common misunderstanding about project-based learning is that because it is student-centred, the instructor can give students a driving question and then sit aloof until project completion. On the contrary, the instructor serves as a educational conductor who must know the learning score from beginning to end so they can best support high-quality student products. Only through intentional planning will it be possible for the instructor to adequately monitor team work and provide appropriate instructional support. In a higher education setting, the timeline will take on various forms. For some instructors, a course syllabus may be detailed enough to serve as a project timeline. For others, use of an online calendar might help provide a broader view of a project’s scope and sequence. In all instances, the timeline should be accessible to both instructor and student, not only for use as an anticipatory planning tool, but as a tool for ongoing evaluation of progress toward project goals.



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Tools for Project Evaluation

After the learning framework has been developed, project-based assessment determines whether or not project goals have been successfully met. In the project-based learning world, assessment does not always take the form of a traditional multiplechoice or fill-in-the blank quiz, or extended research paper. Formative assessments often occur in the form of successfully executed protocols that guide students in their thinking (see Chapter 4). Summative assessments might include oral quizzes, debates, claim-­evidence-reasoning statements, contextual analysis of historical events, or student-created artifacts such as models, videos, or short stories. Allowing students to choose between assessment options can ensure student outcomes are met while still allowing the student voice that contributes to increased engagement. The best summative assessments are products which the students create themselves to show what they have learned. Table 3.4. Assessment and Reflection Planning Template Project Title

Project Duration Final Product/​Presentation (culminating work to be shared with an authentic audience)

Evaluation Rubrics (Appendix B) (multiple rubrics used to evaluate specific project components)

Other Assessments (activities that will be evaluated to determine student mastery of learning outcomes) Reflective Feedback Student/​Student Student/​Instructor Student/​Authentic Partner

Culminating Products/​Events The culminating event is what students work towards for the duration of a project. It is their chance to show the results of their hard work by sharing an artifact that portrays their solution to the driving question to an authentic audience. Students may release their work in a public forum such as a website, online audio or video platform, or exposition. The work may be presented to a panel of experts, much like a dissertation review or conference presentation, or even submitted to an undergraduate history journal or undergraduate research conference. The audience may be predetermined by the instructor, or students may be given guidelines for determining an audience of their own, particularly if the final artifact is web-based. However, many students may have little or no experience making formal presentations in front of an audience. Other students may not mind standing up in front of a crowd, but may have a very casual presentation stance, inappropriate for a formal presentation. And an authentic audience will not

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show up for presentation day without an invitation. Like other collaborative activities in a project, a solid final presentation event needs advance planning on the part of both the instructor and the students. Knowing their audience ahead of time makes it possible for students to create a presentation ideally suited to their needs. An academic audience will require a much different approach than would an audience from the general public. However, regardless of the audience, good presentations do not just happen. Scaffolding should be provided to remind students of the properties of exemplary presentations such as volume, eye contact, and body language, and instructors should try to model these characteristics as appropriate throughout the project. Students should be coached on introductions and conclusions, and should be made aware of tips and tricks for different kinds of presentations. For example, students making a presentation using slides as visuals should incorporate more pictures than words on their slides, and students creating a podcast should include descriptive language and provide verbal cues to anchor conversations in place and time. Mock presentations, practice, and peer feedback will be critical in ensuring that students are prepared to produce an effective culminating event, and it is upon the instructor to emphasize this to student groups. In particular, rubrics are an especially effective, instructor-provided tool that assists students in self-assessing their learning progress and allows the instructor to efficiently communicate project and course expectations to students. Rubrics for Evaluation

By definition a rubric is a matrix that communicates performance expectations based on specific outcome-based criteria that describe degrees of mastery of targeted content and skills.31 In other words, an effective rubric breaks learning outcomes into individual components and establishes levels of performance. Rubrics can help clarify vague learning goals, help students better understand course expectations, improve student feedback, and make grading quicker, easier, and more consistent.32 If we return to the survey of undergraduate medi­eval history courses noted in Chapter 1, using rubrics and a structured student learning outcome process may help instructors better identify what they want students to learn and help ensure that project work aligns with course learning outcomes. Assessment tools that rely on rote memorization or selected responses are impractical in the project-based learning setting because specific content knowledge gained may vary from student to student or group to group. When rubrics are used as evaluation tools, instead, they can show progress toward mastery of process skills that are not dependent on specific factual content, focusing on skills representative of expertise in the field such as inquiry or argumentation. In addition to monitoring student progress 31  Anders Jonsson and G. Svingby, “The Use of Scoring Rubrics: Reliability, validity and educational consequences,” Educational Research Review 2, no. 2 (2007): 130–44.

32  Linda Suskie, A Common Sense Approach to Assessment and Accreditation, 3rd ed. (San Francisco: Wiley, 2018), 189–205.



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toward mastery of learning outcomes, rubrics can provide a way to evaluate a course syllabus and its alignment to student learning outcomes, or provide teaching assistants with an efficient way to familiarize themselves with an instructor’s course. Rubrics can also be used for formative or summative evaluation. In using rubrics for formative evaluation, the instructor might ask students to use the rubric as a guide to facilitate project focused group discussion and feedback sessions, and to provide parameters for task completion. Or, instructors may compare student work to rubric criteria to pinpoint concepts or skills that students need to work on. For example, an instructor might choose a variety of primary sources to use in researching possible solutions to a driving question, say “What are the origins of the Crusades?” A student group investigating this topic will likely target Urban II’s speech at the Council of Clermont in 1095 as a pivotal moment. Using a rubric to evaluate the appropriateness of primary resources as part of a class or group activity can reveal students’ proficiency to think like historians, and identify learning gaps and misconceptions that exist, either as a result of a lack of prior knowledge or experience related to the Middle Ages or the prevalence of medi­ evalisms spawned by popular culture. Students might be initially expected to read, interpret, and contextualize the text based on content covered in the course. However, a targeted expectation for students’ use of this text in their project might include comparing the anonymous Gesta Francorum version of Urban II’s speech to other extant versions from Guibert de Nogent or Fulcher of Chartres. Explicitly stating those expectations to develop more nuanced interpretation of historical texts is the type of analysis that can cue students about what criteria they currently meet and how they need to grow as historical investigators. Because the rubric has been used by the instructor to develop the project, and by students throughout a project for formative assessment, the student will have had ample opportunity to identify and practice skills they have not yet mastered. Thus, the same rubric can then become a much more useful, data-driven summative assessment tool at the end of the project. Designing the rubric: Rubrics in the project-based learning setting are criterionreferenced as opposed to norm-referenced, meaning that the rubric measures how well a student or group has mastered a specific learning outcome rather than how well the student or group measures up against each other. Based on desired student learning outcomes, “rubrics make expectations explicit, which…facilitates feedback and self assessment.”33 Clear delineation of high expectations helps learners navigate project coursework, and, in some cases, results in higher academic benefit and enhancement of specific skills such as critical thinking and problem-solving.34

33  Jonsson and Svingby, “The Use of Scoring Rubrics,” 130.

34  Rebecca Howell, “Grading Rubrics: Hoopla or Help?” Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 51, no. 4 (2014): 400–10.

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Table 3.5. Rubric Design Template. Note: Each row of descriptors (Basic to Expert) should represent a progression of skills/knowledge based on its associated criterion. BASIC 1.5 Points Rudimentary levels of knowledge

ADVANCED 3.5 Points Skill/knowledge competency

DEVELOPING 2.5 Points Some progress made towards competency

CRITERION 1 (broad goal derived from learning outcome) Basic Descriptor for Criterion 1 Basic Descriptor for Criterion 1

Developing Descriptor for Criterion 1

Advanced Descriptor for Criterion 1

Developing Descriptor for Criterion 1

Advanced Descriptor for Criterion 1

CRITERION 2 (broad goal derived from learning outcome)

Learning Outcome 3.2.1: Students will read critically and analytically.35

CRITERION 3 Students will summarize, compare, and synthesize scholars’ historical arguments.

– Attempts to identify the author’s claims, viewpoint, or evidence.

– States the author's claims and evidence given to prove those claims. – Determines the author’s viewpoint. – Notes how language is used to persuade.

– Analyzes the author's thesis, deter­ mines the viewpoint and evidence to evaluate the claims; may highlight what the author leaves out. – Cites examples of how the author uses persuasive language and specific words and phrases to influence the reader.

– Notes that the author has left some questions unanswered.

In Table 3.5, note that outcomes are stratified into competency levels and clearly labelled. A variety of competency level choices are available, and some are listed below, from lowest performance to highest performance: – Example 1: Emerging, Acceptable, Proficient, Exemplary – Example 2: Scribe, Novice, Apprentice, Scholar

– Example 3: Beginning, Developing, Accomplished, Advanced

35  Criteria from “Center for History Education.” ARCH Historical Thinking Skills Rubric.

University of Maryland, Baltimore County. Accessed February 22, 2022. https:/​/​www.umbc. edu/​che/​arch/​rubric.php.



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The choice of competency levels can be used to help students understand that as they move across the rubric toward the highest performance levels, they are approaching mastery of the specified learning outcomes for the course. Discussing the meanings of the competency level headings can help learners grasp the bigger picture for project work from the very beginning. Expert Descriptor Ideally, these competency levels are connected for Criterion 1 to practical applications of required skills so that students associate them with a professional setting, rather than an arbitrary set of standards devised only for the instructor’s benefit. Effective use of a search Expert Descriptor for Criterion 1 engine, for example, is a relatively straightforward task, but is essential to modern historical research. Every major medi­eval archive has its own search tool and navigational platform that must be successfully mastered by scholars before their digital collections are available to use in their work. Thus, in a medi­eval undergraduate survey, assigning students to track – Questions the author's thesis and determines viewpoint and evidence to down particular manu­scripts or citations from instievaluate claims, highlighting what the tutional websites is an authentic learning opportunity, author leaves out. but one that might superficially appear like a waste of time to students. Explicitly explaining the expecta– Cites accurate examples of how the author uses persuasive language and tions and reasoning for requiring certain course comspecific words and phrases to influence ponents through a rubric ensures students cannot the reader. easily misinterpret instructional intent. The most difficult step is the creation of the indi– Seeks answers to questions left unanswered in the source to vidual criterion descriptors that define proficiency at formulate an interpretation. each competency level.36 When crafting criteria for a rubric, instructors must carefully consider student learning outcomes and desired goals. Analysis and deconstruction of these goals and outcomes will lead to the specific criteria to be incorporated into the rubric. Consider the following example when thinking about how to dissect outcomes in order to formulate discrete descriptors that will become strands on the rubric: EXPERT 4 Points Skills/knowledge match that of experts in the field

36  Kelley Burton, “Designing Criterion-Referenced Assessment,” Journal of Learning Design 1, no. 2 (2006), 73–82.

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Dissecting a Typical Learning Outcome for a Medi­eval Studies Course Learning Outcome: Students will recognize how humans in the past shaped their own unique historical moments and were shaped by those moments What individual concepts are embedded?

What level of rigour do you want learners to be able to master? What potential project-related tools or activities will the learner use to show mastery? What prior knowledge is required for successful mastery—what should the learner already know?

– The use of primary source documents to establish the who, what, when, and where – The use of sources to identify applicable rules, regulations, and economies – Characteristics of “historical moments” – The idea of context and the factors that contribute to its effect on “humans” – Remembering (memorizing names and dates) – Evaluating (how contextual factors influenced recorded history) – Creating (predicting alternate outcomes with changing variables) – Original soliloquy from the perspective of a historical figure – Concept map showing how sources clarified contextualization – Research archive describing all primary and secondary source documents – General knowledge of historical eras – Basic research skills

It is obvious from the example above that the instructor must have a clear vision of the characteristics of masterful work in order to define clear limits between each step on the rubric. Too much ambiguity in criteria descriptions means the learners may not reach mastery of the intended skills. Too much detail becomes prescriptive, reducing learner choice and thus reducing the authentic practice of finding novel solutions to a problem or driving question. The goal, then, for criterion descriptions is somewhere in the middle. The descriptions must be clear enough that using the rubric is more objective than subjective, and specific enough to be interpreted in a similar way by both learners and raters without telling the learner exactly what to do. Specific content knowledge desired by the instructors and a consideration of the practical attainability of a standard are literally moving targets in this process, because creating a rubric strand represents moving students along a continuum of learning. To distinguish between one level of mastery and the next, it is helpful to use a predetermined set of hierarchical performance standards such as those found in the revised Bloom’s Taxonomy to ensure a progression from basic skills toward higher levels of critical thinking. Practically, Bloom’s taxonomy offers word prompts to aid instructors in writing criterion descriptors in a systematic way, from the acknowledgement of lower cognitive processing skills and basic knowledge, to requirements for rigorous, profes-



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sional levels of achievement.37 Bloom’s lowest level of cognition is remembering, where students simply recall facts and dates (define, list, recite). Up one level is the ability of students to understand and interpret content (compare, contrast, elaborate). Apply is the next highest cognitive level (build, change, construct, derive) followed by analyze (corroborate, dissect, infer). Evaluation asks students to assess, critique, or prioritize, while at the very highest level of cognition students are asked to create new solutions by combining ideas in a unique way—construct, compose, and theorize. A rubric for student learning outcomes in any medi­eval survey course should include criteria related to historical skills such as building historical knowledge, critical reading, formulation of historical questions, and recognition of medi­evalisms (see Appendix B). From each of these criteria, descriptors are derived to specify student competencies along a continuum, from rote knowledge to creative problem solving. Table 3.6 shows a strand from a student learning outcomes rubric for a medi­eval survey, with the sample criteria broken down into its competency levels (basic, developing, advanced, expert) with appropriate criterion descriptors. Table 3.6. Rubric Strand for Building Historical Knowledge Criterion BASIC 1.5 Points

Classifies sources correctly as primary or secondary, but selects a variety of sources that have tenuous connections to the topic. Identifies components of historical context such as geo­ graphy, authorship, and political influence.

DEVELOPING 2.5 Points

ADVANCED 3.5 Points

Analyzes a variety of reliable and relevant primary and secondary sources in order to choose only those most closely related Explains how context to the topic. is influenced by specific historical events Integrates contextual or processes found in evidence to develop the collected sources. clarity and veracity in the interpretation of historical events or processes found in the collected sources.

Selects a variety of reliable and relevant primary and secondary sources related to the topic.

EXPERT 4 Points

Defends the choice of specific reliable and relevant primary and secondary sources as accurate accounts and interpretations of historical events and processes related to the topic.

Reconstructs a comprehensive view of a significant historical event or process using a thorough analysis of contextual evidence found in the collected sources.

While some of these criteria and criterion descriptors seem broad, when viewed in the context of a specific driving question, they will narrow to manageable proportions. An instructor who offers their students a rubric will be better able to avoid the commonly received, and often poorly written expository essay from students who have provided a rough chrono­logical narrative of people, places, and things with little to no demonstration of insight into the complexities of the medi­eval world. With a rubric articulating 37  Lorin W. Anderson et al., A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (New York: Longman, 2001).

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expectations for use of primary and secondary sources, for example, the student would see that just finding sources and summarizing their content is not enough to meet muster as the page in front of them will explicitly express a desire for them to incorporate other skills from the historian’s toolbox. Multiple rubrics are required to support progress throughout the course of a project. Typically, separate rubrics should be provided for student learning outcomes, writing assessments, and presentations. In addition, rubrics may be needed for specific course products. For example, if a project requires the development of a website, there should be a rubric in the dossier that makes it clear what the instructor’s expectations are for a high-quality website. Table 3.7. Rubric Strand from Choosing Appropriate Sources BASIC 1.5 Points

DEVELOPING 2.5 Points

Ignores potential assumptions made by the author/​artist.

Mentions potential assumptions made by the author/​artist.

Cites a general purpose for the source, but does not connect it to the topic.

Identifies a specific purpose for the source and connects the purpose with the topic.

ADVANCED 3.5 Points

Infers the intentions of the author/​ artist based on the identified purpose for creating the source. Infers effect of potential assumptions on interpretation by the audience.

EXPERT 4 Points

Generates a rationale behind the creation of the source that articulates the broader context of the time frame in which it is found.

Evaluates usefulness of the source based on assumptions made by the author/​artist.

Just as a rubric details what the student must do to demonstrate proficiency, it also provides guidance as to the types of information the instructor must provide to students. Students should know the difference between primary and secondary sources by the time they reach college, but every undergraduate instructor’s experience knows this is not the case. Rubrics allow the instructor to document and qualify the proficiency of students in a given course section, providing reliable information from which to adjust course delivery. A rubric is crafted with predefined expectations, ideally based on a course’s student learning outcomes, about what students should already know and what they need to know in the future. These assumptions should be explored by both the instructor and the student so that missing skills can be scaffolded and existing skills can be recognized. If implemented across a department, such data provides much more reliable evidence that students are entering and leaving courses with the necessary skills to be a successful history student. Project Reflection

An essential part of the project-learning process, reflective activities can help students make connections between learning outcomes and project components, identify errors in the interpretation of historical content, and evaluate their progress toward project



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goals and products. As an observer and content expert, the instructor may easily be able to see how project components can lead to learning, and pinpoint where flawed thinking can lead to misconceptions. However, students new to a course or subject area, or new to project-based learning, may not have the broad content-area knowledge necessary to forge deeper learning through the reflective process on their own. Rigorous reflective activities result in deeper understanding and better application of subject matter, increased complexity of problem and solution analysis, openness to new ideas, problem-solving, and critical thinking skills only when appropriately scaffolded and modelled.38 Reflection is an opportunity to generate constructive conversations about improving work between student team members, between students and the instructor, or even between students and community partners. These conversations can help groups clarify performance expectations, evaluate their level of understanding, and identify wrong thinking. Feedback can also provide suggestions for correcting mistakes and improving work.39 For example, suppose a project goal asks student teams to create a research archive to use to support their ongoing project work. Using a specific protocol, students share their research archives with one another (student to student) and give constructive feedback designed to address the utility of the sources for answering the driving question along with the accuracy of the citations. Based on reflective feedback from other teams, students are able to revise their archives to be more useful, complete, and accurate. Instructors might also organize meetings with teams (student/​instructor) to reflect on progress on a specific project rubric. As mentioned earlier, it is easy for the content expert to interpret a rubric and make connections to the historical skills required; however students may need the intervention of the instructor in the form of feedback in order to achieve expert ratings. Instructors might also ask for student feedback on project components to gain insight on how students are interacting with material they have been given, or to identify areas for further scaffolding and workshops. Reflective feedback sessions with a community partner can be especially helpful. For example, if a final product is an article submitted for publication, meeting with the publication’s editorial staff (student/​community) could aid students in troubleshooting the work before submission. If a final product is a documentary video, feedback on a storyboard from campus experts in scripting or video­graphy would be invaluable in the development of a professional product. Reflection at the end of a project is designed to help both instructor and student understand and make sense of the errors and successes of past work, while at the same time looking forward to predict what changes in process would benefit workflow in the future. Eventually, with practice and intentional use, reflection can move from merely 38  Janet Eyler and Dwight E. Giles, Where’s the Learning in Service-learning? (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1999).

39  Yigal Attali and Don Powers, “Immediate Feedback and Opportunity to Revise Answers to OpenEnded Questions,” Educational and Psycho­logical Measurement 70, no. 1 (February 2010): 22–35.

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looking back to a habitual, internalized state of mind that both instructor and student use in the moment to make changes in thoughts and actions that will improve outcomes without interrupting the work in progress.40

Conclusion

This chapter has attempted to show that adapting a traditional undergraduate course to a project-based course does not require any significant amount of additional academic work by the instructor. Quite the contrary, it asks the instructor to systematically utilize their expertise to discretely break down learning and research into clearly articulated project expectations and components. Thorough project planning takes the instructor’s knowledge of historical content, skills, and methods and translates them into instructional tools geared towards designated learning outcomes for students. Doing so creates a clear set of learning objectives for students and provides them a roadmap to success in the course. For instructors, the project planning process offers a flexible framework through which their historical voice can be communicated to students in ways that are simply not possible through written exams and lectures. In the next chapter, we will discuss how modelling tasks, demonstrating activities, and providing specific step-bystep protocols help instructors establish a shared accountability for learning with their students.

40  D. A. Schon, Educating the Reflective Practitioner: Toward a New Design on Teaching and Learning in the Professions (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1987): 26.

Chapter 4

PROJECT MANAGEMENT In This Chapter we

– Learn strategies and requirements for launching a new project. – Examine a template for a student-generated project blueprint. – Explore how to regulate ongoing project work.

– Delineate purposeful protocols that can be used to guide student work.

Introduction

The effective management of a project is the most critical, and most difficult aspect of any project-based learning curriculum. Critical to successful project management is a framework for intentional instruction that allows for increased instructional flexibility while maintaining the necessary academic support for students to feel confident in the project process. Every instructor will need to plan, design, and manage their projects in a way that suits their needs as an instructor while allowing students to exert sufficient agency in the learning process that they readily take ownership of their product. Some instructors may wish to be more restricting in their direction of student work in order to ensure they are honing in on their student learning outcomes. Others may opt instead for a more freeform approach to student projects, using students’ own work as a catalyst to illustrate their student learning outcomes. For example, an instructor might build a cohesive set of student projects by asking every group to select a tale from Geoffrey Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales as their focus, with the intent to create their own adapted interpretation of the pilgrims’ tales that demonstrate major social and cultural themes typically encountered in a medi­eval survey course. Another instructor might simply ask their students to recreate a piece of medi­eval techno­logy. Such a project is broadly conceived, but it is able to be successfully implemented if managed carefully to ensure students are making progress towards learning outcomes. Ultimately, it is perhaps best for instructors to adapt according to the needs of their audience and constituents. Augustine and Aquinas both suggest that secular custom and law might be changed at various points to be more or less restrictive depending upon the needs of the people. Perhaps this is also true with undergraduate students.1 1  Augustine of Hippo, On the Free Choice of the Will, On Grace and Free Choice, and Other Writings, ed. Peter King (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), bk. 1, chap. 6; Thomas Aquinas, Summa theo­logica, prima pars, quaestio 97 (online translation at https:/​/​www.newadvent.org/​ summa/​1097.htm).

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Project Implementation The project implementation process is complex, especially for students or instructors new to the process. Most students come from a traditional educational system, where the instructor has been responsible for providing specific resources and prescriptive instruction from which the student is supposed to gain knowledge and skill mastery. In many cases, this may be a course textbook, specifically assigned reference materials, and designated media attached to pre-constructed summative assessments. In a projectbased course, the instructor must relinquish much of this type of control. Students are largely in charge of developing their own solutions to the problems of practice (that is, driving questions), making it unlikely for the instructor to prescribe all of the course materials that a student might need to meet course outcomes, although having a collection of potential resources is always a useful scaffold for students. Instructors will also scaffold activities to ensure that students know how to perform essential research skills, and then turn the students loose to find the resources that best fit with what they want and need to know to fulfill their project goals. This is a scary proposition for many instructors, but one that is at the heart of the project-based learning process. For students to become independent learners, they must be allowed the freedom to do truly independent work. In addition, the day-to-day structure of what happens during class also looks, sounds, and feels quite different from a traditional model. Figure 4.1 illustrates a typical project cycle. This chapter will offer suggestions on implementing specific components of the project cycle. Traditionally, undergraduate students “sit and get” course content. In class they are, for the most part, quiet, and the instructor is talking, or sharing pictures or videos, stopping along the way to give their interpretation of what is shown and occasionally asking for student input. In the project-based course, students may also be looking at the pictures or videos, but instead of hearing only the instructor’s viewpoint, they discuss and share ideas in groups, without any preconceived ideas about what should be seen or heard. This provides fertile ground for the emergence of new ideas. Instead of only listening to lectures and taking notes during class, students may be guided to find and read project-related resources to share with their team, and through the use of specific text-based protocols, determine for themselves what information is most relevant in their quest to answer the driving question. In addition to providing articles and resources, the instructor must also be familiar with a variety of protocols designed to encourage deep thinking and analysis of complex topics. Choosing the right protocol is almost as important as choosing the right resource. The right protocol can ensure that students are truly practicing the skills of the historian. Ill-planned or poorly chosen protocols may be perceived (and function) as time wasters, rather than leading to the desired learning outcomes. This environmental change in the undergraduate survey course may seem more familiar in upper level or graduate seminars. A significant advantage of using PBL as a pedagogical framework is that it is flexible enough to be adapted to any course level because it relies on student-driven activities framed by instructor-given goals and outcomes.



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Figure 4.1. The Project-Based Learning Cycle

Another significant challenge is that most students will not come to class knowing how to do these types of activities at an appropriate level of depth and complexity, and it is a mistake for instructors to assume that they do. While the instructor is most assuredly the best content expert in the room in a project-based environment, they are also the coach for collaborative skills and soft skills that are an implicit part of the historian’s toolbox: how to listen and respond, how to ask and answer questions, how to support answers with evidence, and how to present an argument in a logical and convincing way. Through foresight and the extensive pre-planning described in Chapter 3, the instructor can implement learning experiences that help students master these interpersonal soft skills while at the same time developing the disciplinary skills of a medi­eval historian. This structure and mindset presents the instructor as an accessible mentor, rather than an intimidating authority figure, making it much easier to gauge student responses and progress.

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Phase 1: Introducing the Project On the first day of a project, the project-based learning model presents students with an intriguing, highly engaging short-term problem to solve—the project hook (see pp. 78–79 in this volume). This is the day when instructors ignite student interest with a preliminary activity that requires students to interact with project content in order to find topics and ideas they can personally connect with, which can later be leveraged to support student engagement. It is not a day for reviewing the syllabus or discussing attendance policies. It is a day for revelation, for “Aha!” moments, for wonders, and curiosity. It is a day for students to visualize the scope of a project and to begin to define possibilities for answering the driving question. For example, a project might ask students to examine the ways in which women exerted agency and authority in the Middle Ages. The hook for this project might ask students to investigate and compare women in positions of authority today and in the past to provide a relatable transition to medi­eval topics, or to discuss how someone like the Eleanor of Aquitaine would be treated in modern society. In order to complete these activities, students would be provided with bio­graphical information and other resources to fuel discussion, and guidance on where to find other supporting information. Whatever the instructor decides to do, students should be immediately immersed in medi­eval content and historical practice. Completion of the project hook should enable students to pinpoint the broader topic of the project’s line of inquiry. Once engaged with project concepts, students are given the project dossier (see Chapter 3). The dossier provides ancillary materials for students to explore as they seek to understand what they have been asked to do. Again, relevancy is important, and project documentation included with the dossier will help ensure that students are directed towards ideas that support the course’s student learning outcomes. Analysis of the dossier allows students to identify and record topics to explore, questions to answer, and artifacts to create. These records are living documents that will be continually developed throughout the duration of the project as students develop proficiency in course content and historical skills. Sometimes, no matter how well crafted the initial engagement activity and project dossier are, students miss key ideas essential to understanding a particular topic. To reinforce the dossier’s guidance, instructors should close the loop on its introduction with a guided, whole-class discussion to ensure that students are on the right track to not only answer the driving question appropriately, but also to achieve desired learning outcomes. Once the challenge is defined and understood, students can begin to craft a plan to answer the driving question with project goals serving as milestones to reinforce student accountability. Phase 2: The Project Blueprint

Envisioning the scope of a project can oftentimes be difficult for students, but being able to develop a common understanding among group members of the scope of work is essential in order for the group to function efficiently and meet learning outcomes and expectations. A project blueprint provides a framework for a group to work within,



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with expectations, responsibilities and goals clearly expressed and written down. Built around the parameters provided by the instructor in the project dossier, the project blueprint will be completed by the student group and used and updated throughout the life of a project to ensure that project details, goals and requirements are met and to ensure that the direction of project work remains focused on the driving question. The project blueprint allows the group to maintain an overarching perspective of the project, and provides the instructor an efficient tool to track student progress. The blueprint should remain visible for all group members. At most institutions, it can be developed and deployed in a shared digital workspace like Google Docs or Blackboard, and it should be revisited and revised by the group at regular intervals, preferably weekly. Making project blueprints readily available allows the instructor or individual group members to intervene if a group is off track or pursuing a line of research not compatible with project goals. The intent of the project blueprint is to make explicit for students that project work is a shared, equitable assignment of duties and responsibility. One person should not make all the decisions, nor should one person end up building a majority of the project products. Completing the project blueprint is one of many collaborative problemsolving activities that a project group will undertake. It is also the first opportunity for groups to gather ideas about how to work together, and a first attempt to identify potential solutions to the driving question. Generating multiple ideas—brainstorming—is a core principle in creative problem solving, and a process that will be used often not only in completing the project blueprint, but throughout the project process due to the collaborative nature of the work.2 Completion of the project blueprint determines the trajectory of the project for the individual groups, so a significant time investment here will lead to more productive student work later. Prescribing some class time for students to work on this seems prudent in order to provide direct feedback to student groups. Having students engage in procedural tasks, such as signing the project blueprint, also helps make it clear that the project and group activities they will be engaging in throughout the course require commitment and include accountability. Their signatures indicate that they understand the contents of the project blueprint, they are aware of and agree to certain tasks and obligations for which they will be held accountable, and they realize that unmet obligations may result in consequences (Table 4.1). In a traditional college classroom, these academic responsibilities are implicit, but rarely articulated other than by tracking attendance and tracking students’ completion of all assessments. Students go to class to listen to instructors deliver the bulk of their content by lecture and with the exception of selected response assessment or bluebook exams, complete assignments outside of class to be graded by a teaching assistant. Students may come to the instructor for help during office hours, though there are no few instructors who can count the number of students who attend office hours during a given semester on one hand. This process undeniably reinforces the idea that the

2  Alex F. Osborn, Applied Imagination: Principles and Procedures of Creative Problem-Solving (Buffalo: Creative Education Foundation, 2001).

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Table 4.1. Project Blueprint 1. Driving Question

An open-ended inquiry broad enough to encompass designated curricular goals but narrow enough to be answered within the time constraints of the course. 2. Set Group Norms

– To be set by the group – Can be modified when needed – Examples: Be on time, respectful tone of voice, meet deadlines, positive intent

5. Project Goals/​Tasks Goal 1 Tasks Goal 2 Tasks Goal 3 Tasks

8. Culminating Event – What platform will be used – What information will be included – What will the presentation include

3. Group Roles

– Defined by required project work and necessary expertise – Influenced by strengths and weaknesses of group members 6. Time Constraints – Final presentation date/​ time – Deadlines for goals – Group meeting times – Who needs to be notified when things are finished

9. Reflection

– What worked – What didn’t work – Suggestions for changes in product or performance in the future

4. Authentic Audience

– Who will use the final product – Who will see the final product – Who will hear the final presentation

7. Peer Review

– Review using rubrics – Identification of errors or omissions – Suggestions for next steps – Ongoing

10. Peer Evaluation

– What problems are students experiencing – What resources are missing – What conflicts are there – What deadlines have been missed

11. Commitment (signatures of group members indicate a commitment to follow group norms and complete project goals and tasks)

instructor is the expert, with students the recipients of all of the knowledge necessary to be successful in the course. Colloquially this is often referred to as the “sage on a stage” model of instruction. However, as discussed in Chapter 1, students understand, retain, and apply concepts across the disciplines better when they are not passive recipients of knowledge, but when they have constructed it on their own. Collaborative work in a peer setting provides even greater impact. With the input from group members from a variety of perspectives, students sift through a variety of approaches and potential answers before finding one that meets project criteria, further reinforcing learning. The instructor’s role must not only include a professing of knowledge to a captive audience, but a facilitation of learning through active engagement. This is not to say lectures should be abandoned as an instructional tool, they are undoubtedly useful in sharing



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specific information quickly and efficiently. Lectures, when appropriately combined with engaging activities, facilitate active learning and student engagement.3 In a projectbased learning course, both lecture and collaborative must work together to create a rich and multi-faceted approach to instruction that supports diverse learners by appealing to a variety of teaching and learning modalities. The student does the learning, and knows what they are willing to do and need to do in order to make that learning happen. Ensuring that students want to learn what they are supposed to learn can be achieved by creating tools and scaffolds that present content ideas and address student needs at an appropriate level, while encouraging the robust dialogue and discussion that will lead to mastery of student learning outcomes. Analyzing the Driving Question

Before a group can plan the scope of their work, they must first analyze the nature of the problem they have been asked to solve by analyzing the driving question in the context of the materials included in the project dossier. Concept webs and mind maps related to historical concepts are an example of brainstorming protocols that can help students with ideation and contextualization. Generating a list of people and places related to a historical event and connecting them with brief explanations telling how they are related can establish a sense of time and space for students, and can help the group identify a focus for their project work.4 Setting and Recording Group Norms

Groups with well-established norms will be more productive and function more efficiently. Clearly defining group norms and member responsibilities can also help reduce group conflict. However, not all members will interact with one another in the same way from group to group. Personality and work ethic differences affect the way a group works, as can prior experience and member strengths and weaknesses. Thus, the instructor should provide some time for groups to create their own norms and record them in the project blueprint. Instructors should be aware of these norms, and flag any concerning statements for followup or correction. A sample protocol for establishing group norms may be found at the end of this chapter. Choosing Group Roles

Studies of group work often suggest assigning group roles because it increases accountability, promotes critical discussion, enhances learning, and ensures equity.5 Garmston 3  David Roberts, “Higher Education Lectures: From Passive to Active Learning via Imagery?” Active Learning in Higher Education 20, no. 1 (2019): 63–77. 4  “Visible Thinking,” in Project Zero, Harvard School of Education, accessed February 22, 2022, https:/​/​pz.harvard.edu/​projects/​visible-thinking.

5  Alison Burke, “Group Work: How to Use Groups Effectively,” Journal of Effective Teaching 11, no. 2 (2011): 87–95; Yunjeong Chang and Peggy Brickman, “When Group Work Doesn’t Work:

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and von Frank, for example, suggest five roles in any collaborative effort: the engaged participant, the facilitator, the recorder, the person with role or knowledge authority, and the citizen facilitator.6 Stanton and Fairfax suggest designating a coordinator to organize tasks and assign responsibilities, a checker to monitor accuracy and completeness, a recorder to document solutions, and a skeptic to ensure consideration of various perspectives.7 Neither of these is necessarily correct, and prescribed roles like these that establish leadership positions within the group may sometimes eliminate opportunities for all students to experience and learn what it means to lead a group discussion or suggest solutions to group tasks. But it is important for students to be able to articulate their place in the group because not all students will be equally competent or interested in all of these roles, and not all of these roles would be appropriate for every project. Establishing group roles based on project needs, and/​or strengths and weaknesses of the individual group members, can be an effective way to increase student engagement, the quality of group output, and overall group efficiency. Perhaps most importantly, if offers undergraduate students clear and explicit agency in their learning, an experience many of them have never had. Identifying the Authentic Audience

Making student work available to an authentic audience helps students focus on important concepts and skills and on high-quality work. The approach to presenting information to lay audiences is significantly different from presenting information to professional audiences. An audience with too little content background may not inspire the depth and complexity desired from the project work. Conversely, an expert audience has higher expectations for complex work, and may inspire deeper, more thoughtful learning. Considering the nature of the audience requires students to view content and concepts from an alternate perspective, and thus enhances their own understanding. These rhetorical strategies have a long history, and writers since at least Aristotle have recommended adjusting one’s rhetoric to meet the needs of a given audience.8 This does Insights from Students,” CBE Life Science Education 17, no. 3 (2018): 1–17; Kenneth J. Chapman and Stuart Van Auken, “Creating Positive Group Project Experiences: An Examination of the Role of the Instructor on Students’ Perceptions of Group Projects,” Journal of Marketing Education 23, no. 2 (2001): 117–27; W. Martin Davies, “Group Work as a Form of Assessment: Common Problems and Recommended Solutions,” Higher Education 58, no. 4 (2009): 563–84.

6  Robert John Garmston and Valerie von Frank, Unlocking Group Potential to Improve Schools (Thousand Oaks: Sage, 2012).

7  Paul Stanton and Duane Fairfax, “Establishing Individual Accountability for Learning in an Examless, Group Project Course,” paper presented at the Middle Atlantic Section Fall Conference of the American Society for Engineering Education, 2007.

8  Aristotle, The “Art” of Rhetoric, with an English translation by John Henry Freese, Loeb Classical Library 192 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1926), bk. 1, chaps. 1–2, bk. 3, chap. 14, sections 7–8 (available online at http:/​/​www.perseus.tufts.edu/​hopper/​text?doc=Perseus:te xt:1999.01.0060). See also Sobehrad, “The Past in Pro­logues,” 36–44.



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not affect the rigour of the historical processes used by a group, only the methodo­logy used to build work products for the culminating event. Project Goals and Tasks

The series of goals outlined by the instructor during the planning phase (see Chapter 3) should be made clear to students either during the project introduction, in the project dossier, or both. In addition, students should have access to all project rubrics. With this information, students will be able to break down each goal into a set of tasks to be accomplished by the group. Individual tasks can be assigned to individual group members, with the assignments and progress toward task completion recorded in the project blueprint itself or in a separate task log. A protocol for establishing a task log is included in the next section. Acknowledging Time Constraints

The instructor must also ensure the group is cognizant of time constraints so they can work together to meet project goals and deadlines. Time constraints include non-negotiable deadlines and presentation dates that enable students to make informed decisions about how to structure their workflow, roles, and task assignments to achieve project goals. Recall that well-crafted projects have predetermined project goals (templates for goal setting were provided in Chapter 3) set by the instructor which are broken down into individual tasks during early brainstorming sessions. Instructors who design course activities with discrete objectives and explicit component expectations have students who are better time managers, more satisfied, and more successful in achieving desired learning outcomes.9 In addition, putting project goals into a project timeline makes project workflow visible and available for the group and instructor. Whether instructor or student generated, a public timeline increases accountability, and helps students avoid procrastination and low-quality, last-minute work. While there are multiple platforms for timelines and sharing group tasks, any system chosen should make it possible for the group to list out tasks, show deadlines, illustrate progress toward completion, and emphasize that all group members must complete their tasks in order for the group to meet their project goal. Continuous reference to a project timeline allows group members to reflect on problems in the workflow early enough in the process that solutions can be found before deadlines are missed.

9  Bruce W. Tuckman and Henri C. Schouwenburg, “Behavioral Interventions for Reducing Procrastination among University Students,” in Counseling the Procrastinator in Academic Settings, ed. Henri C. Schouwenburg, Clarry H. Lay, Timothy A. Pychyl, and Joseph R. Ferrari (Washington, DC: American Psycho­logical Association, 2004), 91–103.

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Peer Review

The practice of peer review during ongoing work benefits both the reviewer and the reviewed. Peer review as an integral part of the project-based learning process is critical to the evolution of students as critical thinkers and problem solvers because they must analyze and clarify ideas in order to provide constructive criticism. Without peer review, formative assessment becomes the exclusive purview of the instructor and students leave the higher education arena without developing the necessary self-evaluative skills to nurture their own expertise.10 The peer review process is not a one-time activity. Student groups should be reviewing and evaluating their own work and the work of others throughout the entirety of a project. The Culminating Event

A final presentation given to an authentic audience increases relevancy and gives students an added reason to learn. Students should be aware of the nature of their final presentation from the very first day of the project. Therefore, the instructor must plan for the final presentation far in advance, and make appropriate arrangements. A different venue, an expert audience, the potential for interactivity and displays in a public space, are all considerations. Special guests need to be invited, microphones, projectors, and video cameras may need to be organized, and a location for the event needs to be determined and scheduled. Finalizing details in advance allows the instructor to not only notify students early in the project process about the parameters their ultimate presentation must comply with, but will also allow the instructor to approach presentation day with equanimity, knowing that preparations are complete. Reflection

Throughout a project, it is essential that students not only reflect on work progress, but also on the work they have done. Reflection is defined as an intentional process, with a specific purpose that asks students to make sense and meaning of new knowledge, and make predictions about how to apply the new knowledge to future situations and experiences.11 In this metacognitive activity, students assess their work, identify their strengths and weaknesses as historians, and hone their skills as self-directed learners. 10  Raoul A. Mulder, Jon M. Pearce, and Chi Baik, “Peer Review in Higher Education: Student Perceptions before and after Participation,” Active Learning in Higher Education 15, no. 2 (2014): 157–71 at 158.

11  Arthur L. Costa and Bena Kallick, “Learning through Reflection,” chap. 12 in Learning and Leading with Habits of Mind, ed. Arthur L. Costa and Bena Kallick (Alexandria: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2008) 221–22; Debra Coulson and Marina Harvey, “Scaffolding Student Reflection for Experience-Based Learning: A Framework,” Teaching in Higher Education 18, no. 4 (2013): 401–13 at 403; Julie Hatcher and Robert G. Bringle, “Reflection: Bridging the Gap between Service and Learning,” College Teacher 45, no. 4 (1997): 153–58; Mary Ryan, “The Pedagogical Balancing Act: Teaching Reflection in Higher Education,” Teaching in Higher Education 18, no. 2 (2013): 144–55 at 145; Starr Sackstein, Teaching Students to Self-Assess (Alexandria: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2015).



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This process of thinking deeply about their learning is a skill many first-year college students struggle with, and has been identified as a cause for a “second year slump.”12 Using predetermined protocols for reflection will provide the guidance students need to compose appropriate suggestions for improvement and help them build confidence in their ability to evaluate their own body of work. Examples of reflective protocols may be found later in this chapter. Peer Evaluation

Just as reflection and review are critical but essential processes of a student to their own work and the work of others, peer evaluation is an analytic process whereby students examine one another’s contributions to the group in order to provide constructive critique. Complementary to assessment of tangible learning, peer evaluation can help an instructor assess interactions during the group process that they may not be able to witness themselves. Research suggests that student peer evaluations are a useful and credible strategy for instructors to use in assessing the social aspects of project-based learning.13 An example of a peer evaluation tool may be found in Appendix C.

Commitment

Group commitments give responsibility for executing group goals and tasks to the students. Having a documented plan helps students stay on track and hold each other accountable for a collegial work environment. Phase 3: Adaptive Project Management

In a project-based medi­eval history course, students must practice the work historians do, and instructors scaffold this experience using tools like those in the project blueprint to provide a more accessible entry point for them. The processes of historical inquiry, historical reading, and historical writing are complex, and a project management model can be useful for instructors to help conceptualize how the course pieces fit together to facilitate “the application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project activities to meet the project requirements.”14 Numerous project workflow models from industry have been designed to help organizations articulate and execute project goals, but it is the adaptive project management model that best suits project-based learning in an undergraduate setting. In an adaptive project framework, goals are known, but specific solutions are not. Timeframes are set, but through as-needed collaboration, groups 12  Stephen Larmar and Jason Lodge, “Making Sense of How I Learn: Metacognitive Capital and the First Year University Student,” The International Journal of the First Year in Higher Education 5, no. 1 (2014): 93–105. 13  Hye-Jung Lee and Cheolil Lim, “Peer Evaluation in Blended Team Project-Based Learning: What do Students Find Important?” Educational Techno­logy and Society, 15, no. 4 (2012): 214–24.

14  A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge: PMBOK Guide (Newtown: Project Management Institute, 2013).

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meet to develop better solutions, and the project develops incrementally.15 Adaptive methodo­logies are also iterative, meaning the project progresses in phases, either sequentially or overlapping, with incremental additions to the project plan. This “progressive elaboration” involves continuous improvement as more detailed and specific information is revealed through research.16 Five major stages comprise the adaptive project management model: scope, planning, building, checkpoints, and final review.17 These five stages have been presented in this chapter within the three phases of project implementation. The scope is introduced in Phase 1 and, while initially developed by the instructor during project planning, student groups develop a more detailed scope as they complete the project blueprint in Phase 2. The project blueprint becomes a group’s project plan, which details tasks, specifies goals, and sets schedules. Once student groups have assigned tasks and set deadlines amongst themselves during Phase 2, the actual work that leads toward project products begins in Phase 3. Students will engage in historical inquiry to build knowledge as they work on project artifacts. At checkpoints designated by the instructor, groups will give formative feedback to one another on the work in progress, providing constructive suggestions prior to the completion of the final product. These checkpoints bookend a plan-do-study-check cycle that students engage in for each project goal. Finally, after the project has been completed, student groups will reflect on the project process to evaluate how successful it was, discuss their collaborative process, review what they learned, and make suggestions for changes to the project for future classes. In a course setting, the beginning and end of projects are relatively straightforward for instructors as all students have to start by establishing the scope of their project and end with a student-created final product. However, orchestrating the “messy middle” of a project cycle presents some logistical hurdles. Most importantly, students have to figure out how to work with one another. Especially in a collegiate setting, group work has a pervasive negative stigma attached to it that tends to generate eye rolls and heavy sighs from students who reluctantly participate. But students traditionally dislike group work because its associated work products are assigned with little structure and few points of contact with the instructor. Proper project planning and implementation will create an environment that is conducive to structured engagement through authentic experience, which should eliminate most, if not all, of the negative experiences students typically associate with group work. Imperative to the success of project implementation is that the instructor realizes that students don’t know what they don’t know. Therefore, students must be taught how to “do” a project. Scaffolding is of paramount importance here, as students must not only master standard course items such as content knowledge and historical skills, but at the same time develop an understanding of project cycles and collaborative competen-

15  Robert K. Wysocki, Effective Project Management: Traditional, Adaptive, Extreme, 4th ed. (Chichester: Wiley 2007). 16  A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge.

17  “Project Management Guide,” Wrike, accessed February 22, 2022, https:/​/​www.wrike.com/​ project-management-guide/​; Gary M. Stern, “Course Correction,” PM Network 18, no. 9 (2004): 40–45.



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Figure 4.2. Adaptive Project Management

cies such as communication, negotiation, decision-making and team building.18 These competencies can be taught and practiced, but a wise instructor will identify appropriate protocols at the outset of a project in order to have them available when they are needed. In the sections below, we survey critical skills students will need to navigate the project cycle, followed by a series of protocols instructors can use as scaffolding to assist students in developing them. Collaborative Skills for Planning

A prime benefit of collaboration during the PBL process is that student groups are able to produce work and achieve goals that would be impossible for a person working alone because they necessitate positive interdependence between group members.19 Positive interdependence in a collaborative setting is only achieved when students believe that the work and skills of each group member are essential in creating a final product or solution. Positive interdependence between group members increases individual accountability and promotes interaction. That is, students become more responsible for their own work and for facilitating group work designed to meet project goals.20 Through the collaborative process group members learn one another’s strengths and weaknesses as they explain ideas and act as peer mentors, helping to bridge the gap between their differences in prior knowledge and experience. These types of processes require robust group discussions where group members incorporate and build on one another’s ideas. This type of discussion may be difficult for many students who have not engaged in historical research nor effectively implemented group work. 18  Steven Nijhuis, “Learning for Project Management in a Higher Education Curriculum,” paper presented at Project Management Institute Research and Education Conference, Limerick, July 18, 2012 (available at https:/​/​www.pmi.org/​learning/​library/​learning-project-management-highereducation-curriculum-6315).

19  Laura R. Bronstein, “A Model for Interdisciplinary Collaboration,” Social Work 48, no. 3 (2003): 297–306. 20  Karin Scager, Johannes Boonstra, Ton Peeters, Jonne Vulperhorst, and Fred Wiegant, “Collaborative Learning in Higher Education: Evoking Positive Interdependence.,” CBE Life Sciences Education 15, no. 4 (2016): 1–9.

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However, studies have shown that working in small collaborative groups really does promote critical thinking, instill interest, and increase retention compared to students who worked individually. Indeed, there is convincing evidence that suggests students working consistently in small groups receive higher grades, learn more deeply, and become better communicators.21 However, merely assigning students to groups does not create these kinds of outcomes. The instructor must be aware that students need to learn and practice working in a group in order to facilitate effective collaborative learning environments.22 There are three general strategies that instructors can use when thinking about how to plan group work—goal setting, active listening, and conflict management.23 First, it is important that students understand the ultimate goal of the group work. It is expressly not so the instructor has fewer assignments to grade, as some students may think. In project-based learning, understanding is discovered over time, through collaborative dialogue and work products, from initial discovery of a topic to a final product that demonstrates deep understanding. In the early stages of a project, students look at the project scenario, participate in an engaging activity, and peruse the project dossier (see Chapter 3) in order to gain insight into why the instructor established the stated learning outcomes for the project. Subsequently, project research, group discussions, scaffolds, and protocols will help students develop a clear set of project goals together and outcomes aligned to the instructor’s established learning outcomes. Second, active listening skills ensure that constructive criticism can be received with equanimity and acted upon in the best interest of their group’s work. A good active listener approaches a conversation with an open mind and a willingness to change their thinking as new ideas unfold, as well as a willingness to accept the ideas of others even when they do not agree.24 Active listening allows students to generate effective group discussions, and group discussions are the primary mode by which group action is decided and work accomplished. It is through group discussions that students learn to work together rather than in isolation, to share ideas and consider multiple perspectives, to appreciate and acknowledge ideas that may be different than their own, and to build on one another’s ideas to achieve a common goal.25 Both active listening and group discussions are enhanced by the use of specific protocols to guide students in effective academic conversation. Researchers have defined academic conversations as “those activities in which the teachers and all the students negotiate historical questions or controversies using each other’s ideas and historical texts as resources” and that the purpose of these discus21  Johnson, Johnson and Stanne, “Cooperative Learning Methods.”

22  Burke, “Group Work.”

23  Burke, “Group Work,” 90–91.

24  Donella Caspersz and Ania Stasinska, “Can We Teach Effective Listening? An Exploratory Study,” Journal of University Teaching & Learning Practice 12, no. 4 (2015): 1–13; Sandra E. Spataro and Janel Bloch, “‘Can You Repeat That?’ Teaching Active Listening in Management Education,” Journal of Management Education 42, no. 2 (April 2018): 168–98. 25  Robin Alexander, A Dialogic Teaching Companion (New York: Routledge, 2020).



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sions is to “build collective knowledge and allow students to practice listening, speaking, and engaging in historical interpretation.”26 While this definition specifically refers to whole-class discussion, it is equally relevant to the structure and function of small group discussions in the project-based learning setting. Collaboration requires that individual group members all contribute to finding a single solution to a project’s driving question, which can only be accomplished through frequent group discussion. These discussions may be logistical in nature, such as assigning roles and responsibilities to each group member, action-oriented as students engage in a collaborative research process, or interpretive as students determine how their chosen topic applies to the specified learning outcomes. A robust discussion framework supports the collaborative nature of project-based learning, and instructors can use discussion-based protocols as tools for building student capacity for rich and complex engagement amongst their peers. Lack of this kind of training results in discussions that may fail to address project goals or move project work forward. Any scholar who has participated in a conference roundtable with a well-designed theme, but poor moderation, knows the discussion process can go awry, and the classroom setting is no different. Protocols to facilitate training for all of these collaborative activities are critical for their success. Last, in any setting where students are interacting with one another on a regular basis, conflict will arise. It is inevitable that students will disagree with one another for a variety of reasons, including poor communication, unequal work allocation, ego, value differences, and lack of responsibility and initiative.27 Students who are not good or empathic listeners will have difficulty in building the group trust required to reach compromise and communicate effectively. Lack of accountability and initiative may arise from a lack of confidence or background knowledge and expertise and lead to resentment as group members must assume neglected responsibilities. Much conflict can be reduced or eliminated by clearly defining group norms (see Table 4.1) and responsibilities to clarify what each group member is expected to contribute.28 Norms developed by the group might include targets such as being prepared and on time for meetings, completion of allocated tasks by the deadline, communication related to roadblocks during task work, as well as interpersonal goals such as appropriate tone of voice, positive intent, and a willingness to share and receive new ideas. When conflict inevitably arises, groups must have procedures in place to resolve the conflict or risk being unable to fulfill project goals. As with other project components, these procedures can be made available through the use of specifically designed protocols.

26  Abby Reisman et al., “Facilitating Whole-Class Discussions in History: A Framework for Preparing Teacher Candidates,” Journal of Teacher Education 69, no. 3 (May 2018): 278–93.

27  Lim Ha Chan and Ching‐Huei Chen, “Conflict from Teamwork in Project‐Based Collaborative Learning,” Performance Improvement 49, no. 2 (February 2010): 23–28.

28  Roger G. Baldwin and Deborah A. Chang, “Collaborating to Learn, Learning to Collaborate,” Peer Review 9, no. 4 (Fall 2007): 26–30.

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Building Knowledge with Scaffolding Scaffolding activities are low-stakes opportunities for students to master required content that directly correlate to student learning outcomes, assessments, and rubrics. Appropriate scaffolding allows students to engage in course content and skill development at an appropriate level of support for their current proficiency. Some scaffolds may be independent, allowing the student to dive deeply into content at their own pace. Other scaffolds may be structured as group activities, where students work collaboratively to generate ideas and make sense of new content. More difficult content may be provided through workshops led by the instructor. Workshops on demand also provide an opportunity for students to request additional help or guidance as, and only when, needed. In Chapter 1, soft scaffolding was introduced as the process during which the instructor checks in with collaborative groups using questioning strategies to evaluate group progress. Soft scaffolding occurs when the instructor meets with student teams to discuss the project pathway and negotiate changes, either by request or “drive-by” checkins while student groups meet during class time. During these soft scaffold meetings, the instructor asks questions in order to determine whether or not students are acquiring appropriate content knowledge, are using specific content skills effectively, and are moving toward a successful product. Questions such as “how are you doing” will generate a limited response, and will not encourage the kind of divergent thinking that leads to introspection, discovery, and fresh, new ideas. On the other hand, questions should also not be too narrow at the risk of leading students to only one right answer—for example, “Why was Philip Augustus the best medi­eval French king?” In general, questions should lead students toward looking at ideas without preconceived notions that might result in a fixed mindset. Good questions are “crafted to find out more about what students know, how they use information, and where any confusion may lie. A robust question sets up subsequent instruction because it provides the information you need to further prompt, cue, or explain and model.”29 The practical effect of this type of questioning is guiding students to alter their historical thinking towards a targeted goal. Instructors might ask questions that elicit prior knowledge or misconception, especially pertinent given the popularity of medi­eval-themed entertainment from Game of Thrones to playing the most recent iteration of the Assassin’s Creed video game franchise set (roughly) in the Viking era. This provides instructors critical information to identify commonalities between previous learning, thus providing an informed direction to guide new learning.30 Alternatively, hard scaffolding includes pre-planned activities that are built around concepts students commonly struggle with, or concepts that have a high degree of complexity that would be difficult for students new to the subject to comprehend independently of the instructor. Hard scaffolding might include workshops related to metacog29  See “Questioning to Check Understanding,” chap. 2 in Douglas Fisher and Nancy Frey, Guided Instruction: How to Develop Confident and Successful Learners (Alexandria: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2010), 23. 30  Fisher and Frey, “Questioning to Check Understanding,” 27.



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nitive strategies such as contextualization, revision, close readings, outlining, modelbuilding, defining research questions, or other activities, all related to constructing a deeper understanding of content knowledge required to successfully answer the driving question. In a medi­eval survey, this will likely include key content-based concepts that will be covered in every iteration of the course, such as the balance between sacred and secular power, feudalism and manorialism, and varying roles people held in medi­eval societies. Scaffolds may be skill-related, and applicable across disciplines. The ability to vet online resources is one of the most difficult skills for students to acquire, and will likely require several scaffolds to ensure that students gain competence, but is useful in virtually every profession students might pursue. To do so, students must learn to conceptualize how they want to structure their search, beginning with a list of terms they can use to begin. These terms might come from the project rubric, from notes or articles supplied by the instructor, or even from the course syllabus, which probably includes a list of reading resources. Students also need to consider what kinds of sites would most likely have valid, reliable resources. Research institutes and educational entities are usually safe places to find accurate information; however, there is much to consider in determining whether or not a site is worth a researcher’s time. Scaffolds to help students think about the validity and reliability of online sources are also essential. Providing a set of questions for students to use in site evaluation can be very helpful in preparing them for the type of rigorous, in-depth research that will be required of them as they move from high school into the college and university setting. Students should learn to identify author credentials, organizational merit, public vs. academic writing, and understand what criteria help legitimize those factors as useful research resources.31 Once students are skilled at this type of online resource analysis, the quality and ease of their research efforts will improve. Scaffolds may also be content-related, and most instructors already provide them during traditional lectures, whether they realize it or not. Contextualizing the medi­ eval past is always a challenge, especially in an American institution where there are both chrono­logical and geo­graphic distances to overcome to help students connect with people in the past. Most instructors will provide students with appropriate resources from a variety of frames of reference to help guide students as they reconstruct the past through their own interpretive lens. Timelines can be provided to give students the opportunity to orient events in a linear, causal relationship to one another; maps provide a spatial frame of reference; primary sources give voices to people who died a long time ago; and art visually connects students to the medi­eval milieu. When intentionally implemented, all of these tools are scaffolds, intended to help students gain a more nuanced understanding of the medi­eval world.32 31  Sarah Blakeslee, “Evaluating Information—Applying the CRAAP Test,” Meriam Library, California State University, Chico, accessed February 22, 2022, https:/​/​www.csuchico.edu/​lins/​ handouts/​eval_websites.pdf. 32  Tim Huijgen, Wim van de Grift, Carla van Boxtel, and Paul Holthuis, “Promoting Historical

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Scaffolding can also address instructional differentiation by providing specific skillor content-based instruction to help students who lack necessary prior knowledge succeed. Thus, scaffolding activities can be organized to give students the option to acquire the specific help they need when and only when they need it. When students are able to exert control over their learning they are more motivated to engage in the learning process. Students are also more motivated when they have a personal interest in their learning.33 That is, they are engaged in learning because they need to master a strategy that will help them achieve a project goal agreed upon by the group. Students who already know the skills and strategies will not need the scaffolding; students who need help to achieve mastery of the skills and strategies will receive the help they need to be successful in the course. At the college level, delivery of scaffolding activities can be offered in the form of workshops held in person or virtually, either in or out of class. Workshops address specific content or skills with which groups or individuals are struggling. Unlike office hours or study sessions, workshops fall under the hard scaffolding umbrella, and should possess some intentional design, including 1. Specific skills or content pulled from the course’s student learning outcomes.

2. Targeted knowledge acquisition needed for successful completion of the project. 3. Time frame, and venue for the workshops.

4. Opportunities for students to actively participate at an appropriate level of depth and complexity.

5. Formative assessments that indicate whether or not students have met intended learning outcomes of the workshop.

In all likelihood, the instructor will know in advance what topics students will struggle with, and will therefore be able to design and schedule workshops in advance and announce those workshop times on the course syllabus or project timeline. Occasionally, there may be a topic or two for which students need additional support that the instructor has not anticipated. In these cases, the instructor can plan “on-demand” workshops to address these needs, and announce them in class and on the institutional learning management system. Announcing these on-demand workshops both virtually and inperson makes it possible for the instructor to reach other students who in all probability have the same question but may not have been compelled or comfortable speaking up in class. Promoting these on-demand workshops can help the instructor avoid having to share the same information over and over with different students in an individual setting. Contextualization: The Development and Testing of a Pedagogy,” Journal of Curriculum Studies 50, no. 3 (2018), 410–34. 33  J. P. Holschuh and L. P. Aultman, “Comprehension Development,” in Handbook of College Reading and Study Strategy Research, ed. R. F. Flippo and D. C. Caverly (New York: Taylor & Francis/​Rout­ ledge, 2009), 121–44.



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The first step in preparing a workshop is to determine which student learning outcomes will be addressed, and then examine the appropriate rubric to make sure that workshop activities address necessary course requirements. Second, the workshop venue should be determined and materials gathered. In-person workshops held during class allow the instructor to give materials directly to the students who can then use them during instruction. Virtual workshops require that the instructor have digital copies of materials available for both the presentation and for student use. Another workshop option that should be considered is the opportunity for student-led workshops, which may convene at off-campus locations or on virtual platforms. The instructor may encourage this option, and could potentially offer workshop materials for the students to use. For any workshop in any venue, content should include information vital to course and project goals. For example, an anticipated need in any undergraduate history course that would utilize a scaffold is writing support. A workshop would lend itself well to this purpose, and its methodo­logy might include three steps: first, talk-aloud modelling by the instructor as they evaluate a research question submitted by a former (or fictitious) student (no identities shared); then, guided practice to help students attending the workshop examine exemplar writing from their peers; and lastly, student engagement in writing their own project-oriented products, independently or in their group, as project guidelines require. Talk-aloud modelling gives the instructor an opportunity to accomplish several goals, and can easily be accomplished with any online platform that has screen-sharing capabilities. First, it allows the instructor to discuss how the research questions should be connected to the primary and secondary sources, chosen for their common historical threads. Second, the instructor can discuss how those sources provided context which influenced the writing of a research question by describing the difference between historical fact and historical interpretation, the elusive who-what-when-where-how that is often only implied or inferred from a collection of biased accounts. Third, it introduces vocabulary particularly related to a good research question—narrow vs. broad, open vs. closed, seminal vs. banal, scholarly vs. superficial, relevant vs. insignificant. This first step may be enough for some students or groups—they may feel confident in skipping step two and proceeding directly to writing their own research questions. However, other students or groups may lack the confidence to go forward, and would seek additional guided practice before attempting the process on their own. The choice to be able to self-determine when enough instruction is enough is key to the autonomy inherent in the PBL process. It is also the key to differentiating curriculum in a way that supports all students at their level of need. Reflective Activities for Checking Progress

Instructor-led reflective activities can be used throughout a course to help ensure that students are progressing toward content mastery, and are most successfully incorporated at specific moments during the course of a project. During the first few days of a project, linking authentic experience to learning objectives augments project relevancy. Choosing appropriate and timely scaffolding, regular review of project guidelines

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and rubrics, along with feedback and revision all offer opportunities for students and instructors to reflect and improve upon current work. Even clarification of values and recognition of empathetic responses to historical subject matter can make it possible to strengthen students’ ability to contextualize sources.34 Student-led reflective processes are not always intuitive, and expertise must be gained through time and practice. Scaffolding reflection by providing step-by-step protocols for students to use makes it possible for them to learn to use the most effective methods. Reflective protocols serve a variety of specific objectives, from defining purpose which would occur in the early days of a project, to looking back at a completed project to identify strengths and weaknesses to inform group work in the future.35 The examples below describe how an instructor might implement these reflective practices during course contact hours. EXAMPLE 1: Linking Authentic Experience to Learning Objectives Following the initial engagement activity, students are given the project dossier to exam­ ine. With the experience of the engaging activity to draw on along with guidance from the instructor, students look for clues within the dossier to identify and prioritize content that they still need to know in order to successfully create a final product to answer the driving question. Students will subsequently document their prioritized content and report out to the class or in small groups. The instructor should model what appropriate prioritisation looks like through questioning and moderated discussion.

EXAMPLE 2: Defining Purpose In this activity, students focus on analyzing project goals by considering a series of ques­ tions. They should first respond independently, then share and compare with the project group. This reflection piece allows students to let the group know how their individual skills match with project goals, and identifies areas of concern very early in the process. – What does the project ask students to do? – What resources are available?

– What resources are still needed? – What skills are needed?

– What skills do group members have?

– What questions are still unanswered?

34  Hatcher and Bringle, “Reflection: Bridging the Gap between Service and Learning,” 157.

35  These ideas were developed based on the work of Coulson and Harvey, “Scaffolding Student Reflection for Experience-Based Learning,” 404–11; Ryan, “The Pedagogical Balancing Act,” 146–48.



EXAMPLE 3: Appropriate Scaffolding

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The instructor models how to analyze one strand of a rubric included in the project dossier to identify ideas and concepts that would have enhanced the students’ execution of the initial engaging activity, and that will be required for a successful response to the driving question. Sample Strand: “Reconstructs a comprehensive view of a significant historical event or process using a thorough analysis of contextual evidence found in the collected sources.”

Sample Modelling Protocol: The instructor circles key words in the strand such as comprehensive, significant, contextual evidence, and with the help of the students, discusses what each term means as it relates to the initial engaging event and the driving question. What is a comprehensive view of a historical event? When is a historical event significant? What is contextual evidence? Subsequently students continue to evaluate the project dossier to identify and expand upon other learning outcomes.

EXAMPLE 4: Regular Review of Project Guidelines

The instructor attends group meetings to guide group members in using rubrics to reflect on their progression from basic knowledge to expert skills. Having this discussion with the instructor in attendance helps the group avoid wrong thinking in the early stages of pro­ ject goal and product development. EXAMPLE 5: Feedback and Revision Student teams have completed the first untried version of a website about medi­eval war­ fare. Two weeks before the final deadline for the finished version of the website, teams share their websites with the instructor for feedback. The instructor makes comments about what works, what doesn’t work, broken links, gaps in historical thinking, or other parameters as designated by best practices. Then, teams have an opportunity to revise and improve their websites before the final deadline. EXAMPLE 6: Clarification of Values Part of the work of a historian involves an empathetic response to the characters in the historical setting as context is considered. Learning to separate personal bias from an interpretation of a historical event requires recognizing the influence of one’s opinion on how events are viewed and interpreted, as well as the influence of the historical figure’s own personal viewpoints. This process can be modelled by the instructor in real time, virtu­ ally, or with a written example.

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EXAMPLE 7: Making Connections Reflection can also be an opportunity for students to understand how to link new historical knowledge with project goals. Rubrics, content scaffolding, and workshops might identify specific historical content and skills objectives. However, if those objectives are not linked to project outcomes, the project pathway becomes muddied and the work may fall short of reaching project goals. In this activity, students determine the connections between pro­ ject goals and learning outcomes by first pairing the project goals with expected learning outcomes, and then establishing why this pairing is relevant. Project Goal

Learning Outcome

Relevance

Students recommend a different tactical approach for a significant battle that would have changed the course of medi­eval history.

Students defend the choice of specific reliable and relevant primary and secondary sources as accurate accounts and interpretations of historical events related to the topic.

Medi­eval military techno­ logy and theory must be understood in order to create rational tactical plans. Students learn about battles from primary sources.

Student groups create an outline to organize their thinking about the socio-cultural position of women in medi­eval England.

Students reconstruct a com­prehensive view of a significant historical event or process using a thorough analysis of contextual evi­ dence found in collected sources.

EXAMPLE 8: Articulating Meaning

Women occupied a number of roles in medi­eval English society ranging from mystic to royalty. Students must be able to recognize how their contemporary perceptions of women in these roles might bias their view of the women in medi­eval England.

Reflection guides students in meaning-making. By examining how they plan to use new knowledge to answer a driving question, reflection can provide opportunities for feedback and revision, and the improvement of project work. This process also allows the instructor to gauge the precision and accuracy of learning so that historical misconceptions and/​or misinterpretations may be adjusted and historio­graphical clarity refined. For this reflec­ tion piece, students will critique one another’s work in progress, using the project rubric as a guide. In the first column, specific, relevant criteria from the appropriate rubric will be listed. Student work will be compared to the rubric criteria, and comments will be made in the adjacent columns. Recognition of good work should be specific and explanatory. Inquiries may be about ideas that are confusing or missing. Recommendations on how work might be improved should be specific, kind, helpful, and explanatory. Students will examine feedback, and comment on how they plan to incorporate the suggested ideas (if any) into their work.



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Topic: The Third Crusade, 1189–1192 Criteria

Recognize

Inquire

Ample sources are included to support a complete and encompassing understanding of the topic

Primary sources related to Richard the Lionheart are varied and include maps, artwork, journals, and correspondence.

Find sources that disAre there more than two sources that relate cuss how Richard I and King Phillip II were to King Phillip II? both able to go on crusade while maintaining relative peace at home.

Choices clearly demonstrate the ability to discern relevant and authoritative primary and secondary sources

Most sources are primary sources, with a few secondary sources

Recommend

What was your rationale for including a review of “Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves” as a secondary source?

Popular media often take “artistic” license when portraying medi­ eval events. Try looking for a documentary featuring experts, instead.

Comments: There are some good suggestions here. I can improve my work by including more sources relating to King Phillip II to make sure I have the whole context of his impact on the Third Crusade.

EXAMPLE 9: Looking Back

A final phase of reflection involves analyzing knowledge and skills students have learned throughout the course of a project. An examination of what went well and the struggles that occurred during a project helps students visualize new ideas and ways to apply those experiences to future historical dilemmas. Additionally, evaluation of final project work can lead students to pose new lines of historical inquiry. For this reflection piece, students will look back over their work in relation to the original project goals. In the plus column, they will indicate where they are happy with the work they have done, and why they are pleased. In the delta column, students will indicate what they would change in the project if they were to do it again, and why they would change it. ∆

Project Goal

+

The audience had a difficult time understanding some of the technical termino­logy used. Future presentations should include additional information about these terms and how they were used in the Middle Ages.

Students will write a monastic foundation charter. Projects should include the appropriate literary structures, referrals to supernatural and divine influence, explain the legal authority allowing the establish­ ment of the monastery, and what privileges are provided to the monastery.

Prior to explaining our charter, we contextualized the role of sacred and secular authority in medi­eval Europe. Our professor told us we represented the topic well, indicating we did a good job with our background research.

Our group only looked at examples of English foundation charters. The Middle Ages included many types of monastic institutions, so we should investigate foundation charters from a wider geo­graphic area.

The audience enjoyed the super­ natural events associated with saints we presented. Our group did a good job investigating miracles in hagio­graphic resources.

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Because project-based learning provides opportunities for students to engage and practice deep reflection on their learning and provides opportunities for the instructor to routinely scaffold metacognition both during and after the project, the pedagogy has the potential to have a positive impact on student engagement and retention as students “develop a deeper understanding of their own cognitive process and an enhanced capacity for monitoring their own learning.”36

Reviewing to Improve

The process of continuous review as a way to identify areas of student work that need improving has gone by a variety of names—critical friends, tuning, feedback and revision—but in essence the process points out shortcomings of a project so that a team can re-evaluate what they have done and modify their artifacts in order to improve their work and produce a higher quality end product. Non-judgmental feedback is at the core of this protocol, as reviewers use positive language such as “I like” to highlight highly successful parts of a project response and “I wonder” to identify areas that may need improvement.37 Unbiased third-party review from outside of the group can also reveal weaknesses that are significant enough to warrant modification. After receiving feedback, students analyze the comments and make decisions about necessary changes. Formally structuring feedback and observation cycles provides students with defined protocols that make it more likely that students will give and receive meaningful feedback from their peers. One useful feedback and revision system introduced by W. Edward Deming is known as the PDSA cycle: plan, do, study, act. While originally intended for the manufacturing industry, and consistently seen in health care quality review programs, the theory is uniquely appropriate to guide students during the revision of project work. Step 1 involves reviewing and evaluating feedback that has been received, and identifying changes that need to be made to improve their work. Step 2, the doing phase, involves making the actual changes. Once the revisions are complete, the work is studied again in Step 3, with special consideration of criteria specified in the project rubric(s). If the changes meet rubric requirements, and are satisfactory in terms of quality and completeness, then no further action is required. However, if there are still questions, a new revision plan is developed and executed until no further revisions remain. While this process may seem intuitive, and while students have certainly made “corrections” on assignments, working in a group makes it necessary to articulate what the revision process looks like. Using a specific document scaffolds the process and makes thinking visible to ensure the group has a common understanding of problems and solutions; the use of predetermined review forms may help to ensure consistency in review quality.38 36  Larmar and Lodge, “Making Sense of How I Learn,” 100.

37  Valerie A. Storey and Brendan Richard, “The Role of Critical Friends in Supporting Institutional Change: Developing a Collaborative Environment,” Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education 7, no. 2 (2015): 412–28. 38  Mulder, Pearce, and Baik, “Peer Review in Higher Education,” 168.



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Figure 4.3. Deming’s PDSA Cycle

Giving feedback has an added benefit in that once students have examined the work of others, they tend to become more reflective…on their own work. In other words, their work improves because they have identified weaknesses in the work of others and can therefore identify and correct those same weaknesses in their own work. The continuous review and revision process is not a one-time activity. Student groups should be reviewing and evaluating their own work and the work of others throughout the entirety of a project. Initial research should be analyzed for relevance, validity, and completeness. Individual project goals can be evaluated to ensure they meet project requirements in terms of learning outcomes and specifications delineated on a rubric. Writing should be evaluated for logic, sound evidence, thorough analysis, and meaningful conclusions. All of these analyses are driven by multiple project rubrics, and may be initiated by individual groups or by the instructor. It is a major accomplishment when groups in the project-based learning setting initiate their own reviews, both within the group as self-evaluation, with other groups in peer review, or with community partners as the ultimate authentic connection between experts in the field and students. Reviewing to Evaluate

The instructor has direct access to products and outcomes of the collaborative process such as presentations and written artifacts, and therefore may give more attention to them during the assessment process, but the collaborative process is not always overt to or observable by the instructor, especially when meetings may be held at times outside of class or office hours. Peers, however, have direct interaction with one another, and

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can attest to the performance of others in the group.39 If group projects are going to be included as part of a course, peer evaluation is an essential component of its effective implementation. Learning goals of incorporating the peer evaluation process include: 1. Increase the amount of student self-reflection as students work toward objectivity in assessing their own work. 2. Promote positive interactions and promote students’ ability to communicate and work in a group.

3. Develop the ability to analyze and identify problems in a group process. 4. Grow student confidence as problem solvers.

5. Use comments to identify the need for workshops or additional help.

An effective peer evaluation process must begin with a clear explanation of the requirements early in the project. Students must be informed about how collaborative work will be interwoven into coursework both during and outside of class. They must also understand the criteria by which they will be evaluated by their peers. Students need to know who will do the evaluating, what criteria will be used, when will the evaluations take place, how the evaluations will be completed, and why it is important for their success in the course.40 Norms for the peer evaluation process should be established early on to help students calibrate their evaluations and make instructor expectations explicit. Some suggested norms for conducting peer evaluations include: 1. Evaluations should be conducted with positive intent.

2. Feedback should relate to the work and behaviours, not the person. 3. Observations should be specific and supported by examples. 4. Changes should be suggested, not demanded.

Peers will, of course, evaluate others in their project groups following their collaboratively agreed group norms. Criteria used should be directly related to the project work. For example, students in a group can be expected to meet the project deadlines agreed upon during a previous group meeting and noted in their meeting minutes. A group member can be expected to find the specified number and type of resources as listed on the group’s asset map. Group members can be expected to follow prescribed protocols for attending group meetings and participating in discussions. Creating an effective peer evaluation tool requires that the instructor clearly articulate these criteria, but, as with any assessment, these criteria should be measurable. For example, “Was Person A a

39  Junqiu Wang, P. K. Imbrie, and J. J. Lin, “Work in Progress—A Feedback System for Peer Evaluation of Engineering Student Teams to Enhance Team Effectiveness,” paper presented at 2011 Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE), Rapid City, South Dakota, 2011 (session code S4C– 1–S4C–5: abstract at https:/​/​www.computer.org/​csdl/​proceedings-article/​fie/​2011/​06143072/​ 12OmNzmclLu).

40  Lisa E. Gueldenzoph and Gary L. May, “Collaborative Peer Evaluation: Best Practices for Group Member Assessments,” Business Communication Quarterly 65, no. 1 (March 2002): 9–20.



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good group member?” is not measurable. This criterion might instead be addressed by asking multiple questions, such as “Did Person A meet all deadlines?” and “Did Person A attend all group meetings?” Additionally, measurability can be added to certain criteria by using a standard Lickert scale: “On a scale of 1 (low) to 5 (high), how would you rate Person A’s participation in group discussion?”41 Open-ended qualitative questions requesting rationale for individual ratings can alleviate questions about certain ratings, and help eliminate personal bias. Peer evaluations should also provide multiple data points to increase their reliability as an assessment measure, and to provide opportunities for students to demonstrate growth in their ability to work in a group. Evaluations after each major project goal is accomplished will provide group members who are not participating or adhering to group demands the opportunity to receive needed support to improve their performance either by asking for help from group members or by intervention from the instructor. When used in this way as formative assessment, it can help ensure that by the end of a project group members have all positively contributed to successful outcomes. Reflection can also be used to ensure that groups are prepared for their final presentations.

Protocols

Teaching students how to work together collaboratively is another target for hard scaffolding. While it is essential to the work of project-based learning and highly valued by employers,42 time for teaching collaborative skills is not always available, and often, instructors don’t have tools to help students develop the interpersonal skills necessary for working in a collaborative environment. Protocols can be used both in person and online to encourage promotive interaction which leads to interdependence and effective group processes.43 A protocol is a standard set of rules for accomplishing a collaborative task. Ritchhart, Church and Morrison describe protocols as “visible thinking routines,” simple sets of questions or steps, distinguishable from instructional strategies in that they are used over and over, eventually becoming part of the classroom culture.44 Protocols help the instructor maintain fidelity to the project-based learning process by providing guided practice in the art of group collaboration, which in turn will help students develop the operational skill sets that will aid in the completion of project goals. For small, in-person courses, protocols can be easily integrated into course routines, and can effectively help the instructor spur groups on to deeper learning tracks. Establishing routines and practicing them early in a course makes it possible for students to implement protocols on their own without the direct intervention of the instructor, and helps students develop 41  Gueldenzoph and May, “Collaborative Peer Evaluation,” 12.

42  Lynne Freeman and Luke Greenacre, “Examination of Socially Destructive Behaviors in Group Work,” Journal of Marketing Education 33, no. 1 (2011): 5–17. 43  Johnson, Johnson and Stanne, “Cooperative Learning Methods.”

44  Ron Ritchhart, Mark Church, and Karin Morrison, Making Thinking Visible: How to Promote En­ gagement, Understanding, and Independence for All Learners (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2011), 45.

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good habits of mind and collaborative practices as they explore new topics and search for solutions to the driving question. Collaboration provides “both social and intellectual space” for students to construct knowledge, view content from a variety of perspectives, and develop the interpersonal relationships that create increased accountability for tasks assigned by the group.45 For online courses, demonstration videos can be created to demonstrate protocols for students. The most effective protocols are designed with a specific purpose in mind, and with procedures that ensure equal participation for all group members, whether in person or online. One drawback to group work is that strong leaders can sometimes overshadow more timid group members, especially online. However, protocols can be especially helpful in addressing equity. In a well-crafted protocol, all students are given the same instructions, and all students are given the opportunity to participate and share what they have learned. Regardless of their educational backgrounds, every student has something valuable to offer during the course of a project. Protocols make sure those students who may normally not heard have a voice in the process. Protocols that address equitable participation might include parameters for discussions that require every group member to contribute their ideas. Purposeful protocols all have some common attributes, and can be developed to address specific content or skill development. When choosing, modifying, or creating new protocols, the following guidelines should be considered: Purpose. The protocol should have a specific purpose that aligns to project goals and the driving question. The purpose should be clearly defined and discussed with students to ensure common perceptions. Equitable participation. All groups and group members should be required and given the time and opportunity to contribute. Often, this involves independent thinking followed by group sharing. While there is some concern that specific procedures may reduce autonomy, it is important to note that protocols define how students are to interact in order to achieve a goal, while encouraging divergent thinking and sharing of ideas to promote creative problem solving.46

Time frame for completion. Too little or too much time can create frustration or lack of focus and time wasting, respectively. An appropriate length of time can be monitored using an online timer. Actionable procedures. In the early days of learning a protocol, a step-by-step procedure that outlines exactly what group members are going to be doing should be given both verbally and in writing, with time for questions before the protocol begins. Over time, this scaffold should become unnecessary.

45  Emmanuel Mensah, “Exploring Constructivist Perspectives in the College Classroom,” SAGE Open (July 23, 2015): doi.org/​10.1177/​2158244015596208. 46  Scager et al., “Collaborative Learning in Higher Education,” 9.



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Simplicity. A protocol that is too complicated will be difficult for all groups to implement with fidelity.

Context. A relationship between the protocol and project goals should be clearly established.

Protocols for Orienting Students to a Project

Exploring information in the project dossier: The project dossier gives students preliminary knowledge about the content and project scope. Identifying tasks based on that preliminary knowledge and choosing group members to execute those tasks will require negotiation and coordination. Both of those requirements require collaborative skills that students may or may not have. The use of this protocol in the early stages of a project can help train students to engage with content and tasks in a way that will help ensure that group dynamics remain positive, productive, and equitable. Choosing and assigning tasks does have the potential to create disparity in participation by group members—natural leaders and extroverts will take over the conversation, while less garrulous group members will become bystanders in the process, and group dynamics begin to fail. Using a specific protocol designed to help students explore the project dossier, consider specific tasks for each artifact, and indicate preference for tasks assigned, will enhance positive group dynamics by allowing each group member to be heard and ensuring an equitable distribution of tasks. SAMPLE PROTOCOL 1: Unpacking the Dossier

This protocol combines both individual and group contributions. It necessitates a close reading of the contents in the dossier and contributions by each group member related to the types of artifacts and the number of tasks. Each group member will also have an opportunity to express preference for assigned tasks based on the type of artifact and the difficulty level of the task. Materials – Project Dossier

– Flip chart, whiteboard, or online sharing platform such as Padlet or Trello – Timer/​timekeeper – Recorder

Group Process 1. The group verifies the project’s driving question.

2. With the driving question in mind, students explore the Project Dossier in order to identify key artifacts that will be produced in order to answer the driving question and meet project goals.

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Questions for students to consider as they explore the Dossier:

– What artifacts are specified in the scenario and project goals? – What tasks must be done to create this artifact? – Which of these tasks are interesting?

– What skills will be required to complete the tasks? – What are student strengths and weaknesses? – What prior knowledge do students have?

3. Step 1. Identify project artifacts. Group members contribute one at a time in turn to share out the different artifacts that are required until all artifacts are identified. These artifacts are listed as column headings on the flip chart, whiteboard or shared online space. 4. Step 2. Identify specific project tasks for each artifact. Continuing in turn, group members share out the different tasks one at a time that need to be done to create the artifacts until all ideas are shared. Tasks are listed in the appropriate column.

5. Step 3. Ranking tasks according to difficulty. One task at a time, the group will decide the difficulty level of each task, and mark each one accordingly: H for high level of difficulty, M for medium, and L for low.

6. Step 4. Choosing and assigning group tasks. Group members will share in turn which tasks they would be able and willing to complete and explain why. Their initials are written beside the tasks they have chosen.

7. Step 5. Ensuring equity. Group members will review task assignments to ensure equitable distribution of tasks; overall, each group member should carry a relatively equal load of responsibility. Based on available tasks and equitable distribution, two students who have signed up for the same task may now decide to relinquish a task, or to share the responsibility of completing a task.

8. Step 6. Developing a timeline. Tasks are now entered on the group calendar or timeline. A Gantt chart, a spreadsheet tool showing task vs. time, is ideal for this purpose.

Developing a Common Understanding: Projects are complex, and it is sometimes difficult for students new to the content to envision what their instructor has in mind. Thus, specific protocols can be used to ensure that groups develop a common understanding of project goals. For example, groups might be asked to examine certain contents of the project dossier (such as the entry document and rubrics) and note unfamiliar vocabulary, instances where expectations seem unclear, or project requirements that may need further explanation. Ideally, group members first read through the materials, taking notes independently. Next, each group member will share in turn with their group to ensure common understanding among group member. Finally, groups will share their thinking with the class to give the instructor the opportunity to correct any misconceptions about project goals and allow groups to broaden their perspectives about project parameters as they see and hear how other groups have interpreted the introductory materials.



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SAMPLE PROTOCOL 2: What I Know, What I Don’t Know

This protocol is designed to be implemented very early in a project to ensure that groups understand the nature and extent of the work they are being asked to do. In order to successfully execute this protocol, students must have a clear understanding of the dif­ ference between logistical information and content information. Logistical information includes any ideas related to planning, implementation, and coordination of a project, including but not limited to deadlines, word counts, meeting dates, number of resources, group size, and available materials for use in project work. Content information includes all relevant information related to the content that is found in the documents included in the project dossier; documents might include rubrics, letters from community partners, transcripts of videos or podcasts used during the initial engaging event, or other relevant documents. Content information derived from these documents might include but is not limited to vocabulary terms, historical figures, chrono­logies, and process skills mentioned such as contextualization or sourcing. Finally, the students must understand the difference between familiar, known, and unknown. Familiar means the student has seen or heard of the concept, but could not teach all there is to know about it to another person, known means the student could teach it in all of its depth and complexity to another student, and unknown means they have not heard of the concept before. Materials – Project dossier

– Sticky notes, real or virtual – Something to write with

– Board or paper divided into five columns: Known Logistical Information, Un­known Logistical Information, Familiar Content, Known Content, Unknown Content OR – Computer and internet access to an online collaborative space – Designated digital breakout rooms when appropriate

Group Process

1. Divide the class into groups of four and assign digital breakout rooms for virtual learning. 2. Assign or choose group leaders.

3. Step One: – Group Leader: Creates a group document with five columns with headings as noted the materials section. Reviews meaning of column headings and checks for understanding. – Timekeeper: Sets the timer for fifteen minutes. Enforces adherence to timeframes.

– Group Member: Reads and reviews the documents found in the dossier, and jots down ideas in the group document.

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4. Step Two:

– Group Leader: Leads a discussion with the group about the scope of the project, and identifies the most important unknowns that the group will have to address during the course of the project. Forwards pertinent questions that the group has related to logistical concerns to the instructor.

– Timekeeper: Sets the timer for 10 minutes. Enforces adherence to timeframes. – Group Member: Participates in the discussion.

Creating a common vision: Protocols can be used to help groups generate ideas for their own solutions as they develop a common vision for the trajectory of the project. Because choice is inherent in the project-based learning process, brainstorming is essential in the development of unique solutions to a driving question. Quality brainstorming will result in the generation of a long list of possible solutions to the driving question for consideration, and can be either an individual or a group activity. Working alone eliminates censure of other group members, and ideas that a student might hesitate to bring up in the group might actually lead to an extraordinary solution. On the other hand, students who have not had previous exposure to project content, or other related life experiences, may have a hard time coming up with relevant ideas. Often, beginning with an individual brainstorming session, followed by sharing these ideas with the group, will create the most fertile field for the growth of innovative solutions to problems. Digital brainstorming has also been found to increase individual creativity by reducing the social anxiety that results from generating novel ideas in a whole group setting.47 Working electronically also makes it easy to group ideas together in “thematic clusters” that represent alternative pathways to answering the driving question.48 Within the cluster, ideas are further identified as workable and/​or innovative. Now it is possible for students to narrow their choices first to a cluster with the most workable and innovative answer to the driving question, and finally to a solution that best fits the skill set of the student group. However, while some group members may be able to generate lots of ideas with little effort, other group members may need more time or specific strategies. To avoid domination and railroading by those group members who find brainstorming easy, an equitable brainstorming protocol would first require individuals to record their ideas independently of the group. Then, once students have had a chance to think and explore their own thoughts, they share those thoughts with the group. Finally, the protocol should make it necessary for the group to consider all possible ideas before deciding on a single option. 47  Hosam Al-Samarraie and Shuhaila Hurmuzan, “A Review of Brainstorming Techniques in Higher Education,” Thinking Skills and Creativity 27 (2018): 78–91.

48  “Creative Problem Solving,” Creative Education Foundation, accessed February 22, 2022, http:/​ /​www.creativeeducationfoundation.org/​creative-problem-solving/​.



SAMPLE PROTOCOL 3: Idea Generation

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Because idea generation is critical to group and project success, modelling creating prob­ lem solving techniques is an important scaffold that should be taught before introducing the project blueprint. Creative problem solving is a process that involves both divergent and convergent thinking.49 Divergent thinking requires a suspension of preconceived ideas and deferment of judgment, focusing instead on coming up with a multitude of ideas. Unorthodox and creative ideas should be presented, even if they are quickly dismissed or are unlikely to become solutions. Convergent thinking follows divergent thinking. Once a list of alternatives has been created, the group must evaluate the options and narrow them down to the most favourable choice. In this protocol, students generate multiple ideas for solving problems related to project work. This brainstorming activity can be used to create potential research questions, final products, theses for written work, or any other task that requires the group to work together toward a final goal. Using this protocol ensures that all students have an opportunity to share their ideas. Materials – Three to five open-ended prompts, written in advance and shared with group leaders. The prompts should be open-ended questions related to the topic. – Note-taking materials

– Online collaborative space

– Timer/​Timekeeper (timeframes may be adjusted depending on the number of prompts)

– Designated digital breakout rooms when appropriate

Group Process

1. Divide students into groups of four; assign digital breakout rooms if the work will occur in a virtual space. 2. Groups will choose a team leader and a timekeeper.

3. The group leader will review the protocol norms with the team. 4. Brainstorming Norms: – Nothing is too “out there”: It’s easier to tame a crazy idea than beef up a boring one. – Quantity over quality: There’s a better chance the group will find an idea they can agree on when the list is long.

– Brevity over details: Complexity can be added as the project unfolds 49  Sidney J. Parnes, Visionizing: State-of-the-Art Process for Encouraging Innovative Excellence (Buffalo: Creative Education Foundation Press, 1992).

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– Divergent over convergent: Branching off from ideas already shared can produce unexpected ideas. – Positive over negative: All students have something to share, and no idea should be deemed unworthy.

5. Step One: – Group Leader: Shares the first prompt.

– Timekeeper: Sets the timer for two minutes. Ensures adherence to timeframes.

– Group Member: Discusses the meaning of the prompt in order to develop a common understanding of what the prompt is asking. Discussion ends after one minute.

6. Step Two: – Group Leader: Reviews time constraints and group member expectations. – Timekeeper: Sets the timer for five minutes. Ensures adherence to timeframes.

– Group Member: Generates as many answers to the prompt as possible, posting them on the virtual document. Students will stop writing after two minutes.

7. Step Three: – Group Leader: Reviews time constraints and group member expectations. – Timekeeper: Sets the timer for five minutes. Ensures adherence to timeframes.

– Group Member: Reflects on what was posted, and elaborates on or adds to the list of ideas.

8. Step Four: – Group Leader: Reviews time constraints and group member expectations. – Timekeeper: Sets the timer for two minutes. Ensures adherence to timeframes.

– Group Member: Votes for their top picks by using the tools included in the online platform; some platforms will have actual icons, others will allow students to type or draw stars or check marks to indicate their preferences.

9. Repeat steps 1–4 for all prompts.

10. All students participate in an online discussion in a common shared space



11. Possible discussion threads include:

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– Describe common themes in the answers to different questions.

– Describe ideas that pose a completely new approach to the problem. – Explain the factors you considered when making your top choices.

– Propose a rationale to explain why your group had similar/​dissimilar top choices.

Protocols to Facilitate Collaboration in Groups

Project work is accomplished by the ongoing work of small collaborative groups of students. Collaborative work requires functional groups. For groups to be functional, group members must build relationships by making connections with one another. Second, group norms should be established to guide interactions among group members. Finally, groups must meet often and with purpose to ensure that project goals are being met. While groups are self-regulated, an instructor who provides some time at the beginning of a course to guide groups in building relationships and establishing procedures will tip the balance in favour of successful and productive group work. Group orientation: Building relationships results in positive group dynamics. In a course where the class meets only a few times each week, taking time to build relationships can seem superfluous or not possible. However, two norms are essential for effective group process: psycho­logical safety and equal voice in group process. Psycho­logical safety means that members of the group feel safe in sharing their ideas. Equal voice means everyone has a chance to share their ideas and feel that their ideas were valued. Feeling safe requires a willingness by group members to accept alternative points of view, to be open to new ideas, and to believe that every person has something valuable to offer. Importantly, though, it does not mean that incorrect information provided by a group member will be included in the group’s work products—evidence prevails. Gaining equity requires making connections with one another, which might be accomplished by something as simple as chatting with one another at the beginning of group meetings. Chatting, however, does not ensure the equity of sharing that helps establish positive group dynamics. Specific protocols can assist groups in reaching these goals, especially if the protocol necessitates both listening and speaking. The following protocol is adapted from the “Connections” protocol developed by the National School Reform Faculty.50 The protocol is a brief sharing session that a group can undertake at the beginning of each group meeting as a way to highlight group norms, reveal mindsets, and direct thinking toward the purpose for the meeting.

50  “NSRF Protocols and Activities… from A to Z,” National School Reform Faculty, December 3, 2019, accessed February 22, 2022, https:/​/n ​ srfharmony.org/​protocols/​.

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SAMPLE PROTOCOL 4: Group Orientation This protocol is designed to identify group member mindsets. Acknowledging and thinking about ideas related to problems, strengths and weaknesses, and previous experiences of group members helps build common ground. Using a prompt that encourages group mem­ bers to reflect on a topic in the context of the project work—insights, questions, new ideas, for example—makes it possible for group members to orient themselves to the project work and the purpose for the meeting. Materials Protocol norms

Respond to the prompt

Not everyone has to respond

Only one person at a time should be speaking

One response per person until everyone has had a chance to comment Listen but do not respond to what others say

Prompts for getting to know one another:

What is an example of a good decision you have made? What does it mean to know history? What are you good at?

What occupies your time outside of classes?

Prompts for focusing on project work:

What is the main challenge facing this group?

What new ideas have you come across in your research?

Resources—have you found some exceptional ones, or are you having difficulty finding appropriate ones? What contextual connections have you discovered?

Prompts (examples for use after a week or two):

Is making mistakes an accepted part of this group’s work? Is this group resilient and able to work through conflict?

Do people in this group appreciate different points of view?

Does asking group members for help make one feel uncomfortable? Do group members appreciate the work of others?

Timer/​timekeeper



Group Process

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1. Set a time limit. (5 minutes for small groups, although time required may vary depending on the question.) 2. Review the protocol norms. 3. Share the prompt. 4. Start the clock.

5. Give a one-minute warning. 6. Stop the clock.

Fostering relationships: Protocols can also be used to help group members build a working relationship with one another. By ensuring equal participation and giving every group member a chance to be heard, group members begin to understand that everyone has something valuable to offer. They are able to identify each others’ strengths and weaknesses, preferences for work assignments, and personalities. When group members have established a relationship, they are also able to resolve conflicts that arise, an inevitable result of working closely with others on ideas that matter. Conflict can often be prevented by establishing norms for working together in a group setting. It can also be prevented through active listening—active listeners engage with the speaker, focus on what they are saying and the purpose behind it, without simultaneously constructing a response in their own minds. Active listeners withhold judgement, and make sure they understand what has been said with clarifying statements such as “so what you are telling me, is…” or “what I think you would like me to do is…” The three samples below are examples of how protocols can be used to establish group norms, actively listen, and resolve conflicts. SAMPLE PROTOCOL 5: Setting Group Norms

Group norms are common expectations for social and academic behaviours deemed important and chosen by the group to mitigate conflict and promote positive interactions. Preparing a list of group norms that everyone agrees to follow is a good start to prevent­ ing conflict.51 The list might include such behaviours as coming to team sessions prepared, being on time, meeting deadlines, or speaking with respect. Having defined rules and pro­ cedures for group members to follow helps clarify what each person is expected to con­ tribute to the group.52 This protocol will assist a group in creating a set of norms to define group expectations.

51  Richard Felder and Rebecca Brent, “Effective Strategies for Cooperative Learning,” Journal of Cooperation and Collaboration in College Teaching 10, no. 2 (2001): 69–75. 52  Baldwin and Chang, “Collaborating to Learn, Learning to Collaborate,” 28.

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– Five cards or a digital document with five pages, each containing one of the following tasks with additional room to write, and a fifth one for final group norms: Write three statements that describe what responsibility looks like, sounds like, and feels like.

Write three statements that describe what accountability looks like, sounds like, and feels like.

Write three statements that describe what respectful communication looks like, sounds like, and feels like. Write three statements that describe what encouragement and support looks like, sounds like, and feels like.

– Large paper and sticky notes OR a collaborative online workspace – Note-taking tools

– Designated digital breakout rooms when appropriate

Group Process

1. Divide the class into groups of four and assign digital breakout rooms for virtual learning. 2. Assign or choose group leaders.

3. Step One: – Group Leader: Assigns one task to each group member. Asks group members to complete the task by writing answers in the space below the question. – Timekeeper: Sets the timer for three minutes. Ensures adherence to timeframes. – Group Member: Completes the task they have been assigned.

4. Step Two: – Group Leader: Instructs each group member to advance to the next page of the document and to complete the task by writing answers in the space below the question. This process is repeated until each group member has responded to each task. – Timekeeper: Sets the timer for three minutes for each task until all group members have completed each task. Ensures adherence to timeframes. – Group Member: Completes the next task they have been assigned.



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5. Step Three: – Group Leader: Informs group members that they will now create a set of norms to work by during group assignments, and that norms will be written on the final norms page as declarative statements (e.g., “Be on time to all meetings and meet deadlines”) representing the big ideas surrounding each of the previous tasks. – Timekeeper: Sets the timer for five minutes. Ensures adherence to timeframes.

– Group Member: Individually and silently, writes at least one norm on the final norms page for each category using the notes already written as inspiration. Their norms can represent a new idea, or build on a previous idea already written.

6. Step Four: – Group Leader: Leads discussion to evaluate the norms written by group members, to ensure that all group members will agree to abide by the final group norms. – Timekeeper: Sets the timer for ten minutes. Ensures adherence to timeframes.

– Group Member: Participates in a discussion to consolidate like norms into single statements, or edit norms for clarity. Then, group members will vote on the 4–6 norms that they believe will create the best environment for group work, with the understanding that the list can be revisited and revised as needed.

SAMPLE PROTOCOL 6: Active Listening, Conquering Concepts

This protocol can be used to help students master a difficult concept, or to correct common misconceptions, either as a whole-class activity, online group activity, or workshop for a specific purpose such as interpretation of an illuminated manu­script or a comparative study of a medi­eval event written by different authors. Materials – Several passages about a specific topic; there should be enough different passages so that each group member receives a unique one. – Note taking materials – Highlighters

– Designated digital breakout rooms when appropriate

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Group Process

1. Groups should choose a protocol leader to make sure the group stays on task and a timekeeper to make sure the group stays on time.

2. Step One: – Group Leader: Assigns a presentation order (first, second, etc.) before beginning the protocol. Everyone in the group will share information from what they have read. – Timekeeper: Sets the timer for five minutes (or more, depending on the length of the passages and the nature of the concept to be studied). Ensures adherence to timeframes.

– Group Member: Reads their passage, making notes and marking up the text either by writing in the margins (hard copy) or by making comments (digital).

3. Step Two: – Group Leader: Reviews the time constraints and group member expectations. – Timekeeper: Sets the time for one minute for initial share out, thirty seconds for responses from each other group member, followed by a one-minute clarification. (Times can be increased to accommodate longer passages.) Ensures adherence to timeframes. – Group Member:

– Student 1 shares out loud with the group about the content of their passage for one minute, while the rest of the group actively listens.

– Each other group member reflects back on what Student 1 said for thirty seconds apiece without adding personal interpretations: “I heard you say…” or “What you are trying to say is…”. – Student 1 has one minute to react to or clarify what was reported by the group.

4. Repeat step 2 for each group member in order, until all group members have reported out on their specific passages.

5. When all groups are finished, debriefing can occur in an individual five-minute quick write or a whole-class discussion to review and summarize what was learned.



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SAMPLE PROTOCOL 7: Conflict Resolution, Crisis Committee

With group work comes conflict, and it is likely a major concern for any undergraduate student assigned to participate in group work. Collegiate instructors also have negative views of group work because of the possibility of conflict.53 Payne et al. report that when­ ever people are expected to work collaboratively, conflict will almost always occur, and the task is to see that the conflict can be productive and useful.54 With guidance, students are able to handle conflict, and, in fact, learn a lot from overcoming it. Because employers highly value an employee’s ability to work successfully in groups, learning how to manage and deal with group conflict is a highly marketable skill. This protocol is designed to help students learn a strategy for resolving conflict. Materials – Note-taking materials – Note cards

Group Process

Note: The process is designed to take place between two people; if the conflict that arises is between one person and the rest of the group, one person should be chosen to represent the rest of the group. Other group members will be silent observers. 1. When a student feels that there is a problem that is interfering with the ability of the group to successfully complete their goals, they may request a crisis committee intervention with the group; participation by the instructor is optional, but recommended for highly contentious situations. 2. A group member not involved in the conflict will read the following conflict resolution norms aloud; the process may not begin until both parties involved agree to abide by the norms. If a cool down period is necessary, then the crisis intervention should be held at a later time. – Work to resolve the conflict.

– Treat each other with respect. – Be clear and truthful.

– Listen to others and try to understand the views of others. – Be willing to take responsibility for your behaviour. – Be willing to compromise.

– Use “I” statements; don’t blame others.

53  Markus Borg, J. Kembro, J. Notander, C. Petersson, and L. Ohlsson Fhager, “Conflict Management in Student Groups—A Teacher’s Perspective in Higher Education,” Högre utbildning 1, no. 2 (December 2011): 111–24. 54  Brian Payne, Melvina T. Sumter, and Elizabeth Monk-Turner, “Conflict Resolution and Group Work: What Students Learn,” Academic Exchange Quarterly 9, no. 2 (2005): 22–27.

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3. The two people involved in the conflict will sit across from one another. Neither person may interrupt or speak while the other person is talking.

4. Person 1 (the person who called for the crisis committee intervention) will share their concerns with Person 2. Comments should be specific and presented using appropriate language and a calm and respectful tone of voice, and reasons should be given for their thinking. 5. As an active listener, Person 2 will rephrase what Person 1 shared, using sentence starters such as “What I hear you saying…” or “From what I am hearing, you think…”, and allow Person 1 to clarify if necessary.

6. Once Person 1 has given any necessary clarification, Person 2 will respond to the concerns of Person 1, presenting specific comments in a calm and respectful tone, and give reasons for their thinking. 7. As an active listener, Person 1 will rephrase what Person 2 shared, using sentence starters such as “What I hear you saying…” or “From what I am hearing, you think…”, and allow Person 2 to clarify if necessary. 8. Set the timer for three minutes (more if needed). Both people will silently write down some possible solutions to the problem on a note card.

9. Once time has elapsed, beginning with Person 1, both people will share their possible solutions with one another, listening without interrupting, and asking clarifying questions if necessary.

10. If there is a common acceptable solution, the intervention is over and the solution will be implemented.

11. If there is no common acceptable solution, the people will repeat steps 8–9 until a compromise has been reached.

Time Management and Meeting Agendas: Especially in a course where the class meets only twice a week, regular group meetings (virtual or in person), outside of class with all group members in attendance are necessary to maintain accountability for group work. Topics for review and reflection during these meetings would include the status of work undertaken by individual group members, difficulties or roadblocks students are having in completing artifacts, potential solutions for problems, and potential areas for revision to enhance or improve final products. Alterations made to the blueprint should be recorded directly in the blueprint and approved by all members during a group meeting; previous versions of the blueprint should be saved for comparison. Deciding on a project’s final products, topics and research questions, along with who will do what throughout the duration of a project, all components of the project blueprint, are also topics to be addressed during group meetings. Most of the administrative meetings that faculty participate in are scheduled including an agenda to make sure all parties are aware of the purpose of the meeting and to keep the meeting focused on specific tasks that need to be accomplished. Using an agenda in student groups can do the same thing. It can help prevent group conflict and ensure smooth group interaction by specifying the purpose of the meetings along with related topics for dialogue. The meeting agenda facilitates on-task conversations and



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focus on goals, decreases wasted time and increases the likelihood that agenda items will be accomplished. Meeting minutes can even act as a formative assessment of the group’s ongoing work, allowing the instructor to evaluate group participation and identify areas where groups are missing the mark in terms of project research or outcomes. Key components of a meeting agenda include a start and stop time and specific tasks to be accomplished, and the last agenda item for each meeting should be to set the time, date, and topics for the next meeting. Knowing what will be talked about in advance will eliminate excuses and help ensure all group members know what they should have ready or be prepared to discuss at the next meeting. In meetings early in the project process, the project blueprint will likely assume the bulk of the agenda. Ideally, these early meetings should be conducted face-to-face in class to enable the instructor to moderate when necessary and answer clarifying questions when needed. Later group meetings may be face-to-face or virtual, as decided upon by the group. SAMPLE PROTOCOL 8: Group Meeting Agenda

Because all students will have assigned tasks to complete, each student should have an opportunity and be required to report out and lead the discussion during each meeting. This requirement will increase accountability and help ensure equity. MEETING Time/​Date

Members Present

Group A

Topic

Discussion Leader

Task 1 (5 minutes)

Student A

Task 2 (5 minutes)

Student B

Task 3 (5 minutes)

Student C

Task 4 (5 minutes)

Student D

Upcoming Challenges/​New Tasks

Rotates Between All Students

– Associated Research – Troubleshooting – Next Steps – Associated Research – Troubleshooting – Next Steps – Associated Research – Troubleshooting – Next Steps – Associated Research – Troubleshooting – Next Steps

Date/​Time for Next Meeting

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Building consensus: Consensus-building is a routine process used for decision-making during group work. Using a protocol makes sure all ideas have equal air time. Consensus building requires exploration of possibilities and a procedure for sifting through those possibilities to decide upon a final solution. SAMPLE PROTOCOL 9: Consensus/​Knowledge Building

The consensus-building protocol allows students to work in small groups and gives each student the opportunity to think about, record and share their ideas. In addition to ensur­ ing equity, the process simplifies the process of working and thinking together. This proto­ col can be used as a way to build new knowledge, or as a decision-making tool. The process may be done with paper and pencil during class time, or virtually with a collaborative work space where details and final decisions can be recorded for sharing with the entire group and the instructor. Materials – Internet-connected device

– An online document with five pages. On page one is a concept or a problem for the group to consider with space allowed to write the group’s final solution. The additional pages are for each group member to record their notes and their thinking so all ideas are in one place.

– For consensus building, a list of possible solutions to a problem generated by the group during an idea generating activity. – For knowledge building, a variety of digital resources related to a specific student learning outcomes; resources might include excerpts from primary or secondary sources, images, or timelines; the activity is intended to be fairly short, and chosen resources should be able to be read/​observed in 10 minutes or less. – Designated digital breakout rooms when appropriate

Group Process

1. Divide the class into groups of four and assign digital breakout rooms for virtual learning.

2. Assign or choose group leaders.

3. Step One: – Group Leader: Shares the online document with the team, and reviews the purpose of the protocol. If the purpose of the protocol is knowledge building, the group leader will lead a discussion on the prompt. If the purpose of the protocol is consensus building, the group leader will lead a brief discussion to review the problem and the possible solutions already generated by the team. – Timekeeper: Sets the timer for two minutes. Ensures adherence to timeframes. – Group Member: Discusses the meaning of the prompt/​the list of ideas in order to develop a common understanding of what must be accomplished during the protocol. Discussion ends after two minutes.



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4. Step Two: – Group Leader: Reviews the time constraints and group member expectations. Ensures adherence to timeframes.

– Knowledge-Building: Students each choose a different resource, and then have ten minutes to silently examine their source and write down as many impressions and notes as possible based on what they read or observe on their designated page.

– Consensus-Building: Students examine the choices, and have five minutes to choose one option, and write on their designated page as many reasons as possible why that option is their top choice. – Timekeeper: Sets the timer for five or ten minutes depending on the purpose for the protocol. Ensures adherence to timeframes.

– Group Member: Examines source/​ideas and writes down as much information as possible on their digital page within the given time.

5. Step Three: – Group Leader: Sets the order for sharing out, reviews expectations and checks for understanding.

– Timekeeper: Sets the timer for four minutes (consensus building) or eight minutes (knowledge building). Ensures adherence to timeframes. – Group Member: Has one minute (consensus building) or two minutes (knowledge building) to share their thinking and observations.

6. Step Four: – Group Leader: Leads a discussion about what group members have learned or decided, ensuring that each group member has an opportunity to be heard. On page one of the digital document, the group leader explains in writing the four most important ideas that the group has learned (knowledge building) or explains the group’s final choice (consensus building) when the task is decision-making. – Timekeeper: Sets the timer for five minutes (consensus building) or ten minutes (knowledge building). Ensures adherence to timeframes.

– Group Member: Participates in discussion about key points of new learning (knowledge building), or about pros and cons (consensus building) prior to agreeing upon key ideas learned or a final decision.

7. Once break-out room time is up, students return to the main room. Group leaders will share what their teams have discovered/​decided upon, and the instructor will lead a discussion where students give positive feedback, ask clarifying questions, and suggest additional ideas for consideration.

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Monitoring participation: For groups to work effectively, members must be held accountable for completing the work they have agreed to do. Peer evaluation tools can provide a safe way for group members to provide feedback on successful and not-sosuccessful group behaviours. Task logs or flowcharts to delineate the steps needed to complete the project work, or a ­graphic organizer showing how each team member is contributing to project work, can help ensure accountability. Visual representations such as these will alert group members that there is some inequity in group contributions by revealing where lack of participation is affecting workflow. This allows teams to revise their thinking and reassign project tasks. Online collaborative tools have been designed in ways that allow contributions by group members to be monitored. These digital alternatives are becoming more prominent, and will be further discussed in Chapter 5. SAMPLE PROTOCOL 10: Peer Evaluation in Three Parts

This peer evaluation protocol forces students to practice active listening skills and provides a safe means for peer evaluation. Groups are paired, and each group presents and gives feedback to one another. The process takes anywhere from 40 minutes to an hour. If time allows, groups can rotate so that two new groups are matched, and the process is repeated. Part One: Presentation 1. Presenters: The presenting group describes their work, including purpose of the work, intended audience, and rationale for their choices.

2. Feedback Partners: Partners remain silent. They are not allowed to ask clarifying or follow up questions, and should not interrupt the presentation. They should be taking notes and using a rubric to evaluate the product as it is presented.

Part Two: Feedback

1. Feedback Partners: Partners talk to one another about the project as if the presenters were not in the room. Their conversation should be confined to comments about the parts of the project they liked, questions about the parts of the project they didn’t understand, and specific and helpful suggestions about changes that could be made to improve the final outcome. 2. Presenters: Presenters remain silent and are not allowed to respond to the comments of their feedback partners. They are allowed to take notes as the partners are sharing their comments.

Part Three: Response

1. During this phase there is an open discussion between the members of the presenting group. The presenters may elaborate on their rationale for making certain choices, or discuss ways to incorporate ideas or suggestions made by the partners. 2. Feedback partners remain silent, although during this phase they may respond to questions asked by the presenters.

Information about ideas from the feedback session that were used to improve a project would ideally be included in a project’s final presentation.



SAMPLE PROTOCOL 11: Task Log

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An ongoing task log allows members of a group to agree on what tasks need to be com­ pleted, when they need to be completed, what resources are needed to complete the task, and who is going to accomplish those tasks. Continuous review of the task log will allow group members to hold one another accountable for getting quality work done in a timely manner. A carefully crafted project will be broken down into a series of reasonable project goals, each with a separate rubric to aid students in understanding what is required. At the very least, group members should generate a task log for each rubric. Materials – Digital or hard copy of the task log

– Rubric(s) related to task to be completed

– An in person or digital work space, with designated digital breakout rooms when appropriate

Group Process

1. Set a goal for the project work. For example, a goal for a medi­eval research project might be to compile a project archive for the chosen topic. (See Appendix A for a Project Archive Rubric.)

2. Step One: Brainstorm a list of all tasks needed in order to meet the goal. A protocol such as the Idea Generation protocol could be used to generate a list of tasks. 3. Step Two: Create a chart and title it with the goal for the assigned tasks.

4. Step Three: Under the title, create a table with six columns, labelled as follows: – Task with link to task document – Person Responsible

– Required Resources – Due Date

– Feedback

– Completion Approval

5. Step Four: Add enough rows to the table so that each task generated during the brainstorming session has its own row.

6. Step Five: Together, the group will decide who is responsible for completing each task, identify potential resources for each task, and assign deadlines for each task. 7. Step Six: Pertinent information should be recorded in the table.

8. Step Seven: Group members will share their completed task with the rest of the group on or before the specified deadline. If a group member does not meet a deadline, conflict resolution may be an appropriate next step. 9. Step Eight: Each group member will review the completed work.

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10. Step Nine: Group members who agree that the task is complete will place their initials in the approval column.

11. Step Ten: Group members who don’t agree that the task is complete will add specific, kind, and helpful feedback in the feedback column and the person responsible for the task will make revisions as appropriate based on that feedback.

12. When approval for each task has been given by all group members, the task log is retired and another one created for the next project goal.

Protocols for Development of Historical Skills

Building skills: Protocols can also be used to guide students as they develop the skills of a historian. Contextualization, vocabulary development, close reading, modelling, and questioning strategies all lend themselves to specific protocols designed to help students acquire the skills they need to answer a historical driving question at an appropriate level of depth and complexity. For example, contextual knowledge can be built through the use of questioning strategies. Hypothetical questions can lead students to consider alternate viewpoints, and can result in revelations about motivation and causes of historical events. For example, in exploring the Crusades, an instructor might ask a question like “What would have happened if the Crusaders had not taken Antioch?” or “What would have happened if the Great Schism had never occurred?” These types of questions can guide students to think more deeply about the historical context of historical events that occurred, and, when followed up by questions designed to clarify the controlling factors in the scenario, can lead to a more in-depth understanding. Research is also a critical component of project work. Initial research provides the foundational knowledge necessary to move the project from brainstorm to actuality, and is usually a requisite of the first project goal. Teaching research skills becomes ever more important as today’s students come to college with fewer and fewer opportunities to do deep research at the high school level. One researcher observes, “These students are often very impatient learners. Unaccustomed to having to be resourceful beyond the confines of a Google search, students expect the research process to be fast [and] painless.”55 Thus, teaching students how to find and verify appropriate research sources is critical, especially in the information gathering stage of early project work. Choosing a research question, narrowing down a thesis, finding relevant and verifiable sources, will be new to many if not most undergraduates. Students would benefit from workshops in one or more of these skills, or by using protocols designed to help them weed out questionable references.

55  Valerie S. Thaler, “Teaching Historical Research Skills to Generation Y: One Instructor’s Approach,” The History Teacher 46, no. 2 (2013): 267–81 at 271.



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SAMPLE PROTOCOL 12: P.A.C.E. between the Lines (Close Reading) This protocol helps a student recognize bias in a piece of historical writing by examining it for its intentions and purposes. Based on what is read, students are asked to infer what beliefs the author Presumes that the reader already has, what knowledge is Acceptable and true regardless of context, what ideas should be Challenged as skewed or not verifi­ able, and how the writing was Employed in the past and how could it be employed as a contribution to project work. Materials – A reading selection from a primary or secondary source document with enough hard copies for all members of the group or a link to an online selection. – Note-taking materials

– Chart paper and sticky notes OR shared access to an online space – Designated digital breakout rooms when appropriate

Group Process

1. Divide the class into groups of four and assign digital breakout rooms for virtual learning. 2. Assign or choose group leaders.

3. Step One: – Group leader: Creates and shares an online document or chart with four columns, labelled: Presumed, Accepted, Challenged, Employed (PACE). The resource document should be accessible to each group member. – Timekeeper: Sets the timer for ten minutes (may vary depending on the source). Ensures adherence to timeframes.

– Group Member: Reads the article silently, recording ideas they believe to be presumed, accepted, challenged, or employed either directly on the article or in the comments section of a digital copy.

4. Step Two: – Group Leader: Reviews the time constraints and group member expectations. – Timekeeper: Sets the time for five minutes. Ensures adherence to timeframes.

– Group Member: Using their marked notes, makes their thinking visible by writing at least one item in each of the four columns in the shared document or large chart; comments should correspond to the column heading and no two comments should be alike. Students should include initials with their entries.

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5. Step Three: – Group Leader: Leads a discussion to discuss and make observations about what has been recorded in the group chart. – Timekeeper: Sets the time for five minutes. Ensures adherence to timeframes.

– Group Member: Once the discussion period has ended, writes a journal or blog entry with these questions in mind: What new information have I learned? What do I need to know more about? How have my views been changed? What evidence would I need to change my view?

SAMPLE PROTOCOL 13: Evaluating Online Resources

This training protocol can teach students how to determine whether or not information they find on the internet is accurate and reliable. By applying this test to online sources, students will be able to evaluate a site for its research-worthiness. While time consuming in the beginning, over time, the protocol will teach students good online researching hab­ its. If a source scores low in points, the student should consider abandoning it in favour of a more credible and reliable site.56 Materials – Device

– WiFi access

– Online Resource Evaluation Tool (Appendix C)

Group Process

1. Divide the class into groups of four and assign digital breakout rooms for virtual learning. 2. Assign or choose group leaders.

3. Provide a list of four potential resources for the group to evaluate. One should be excellent, one should be unacceptable, and two should be somewhere in the middle.

56  There are a plethora of online research evaluation tools that influenced the evolution of this Online Evaluation Research Tool. See Sarah Blakeslee, “The CRAAP Test”. LOEX Quarterly 31, no. 3 (2004): 6–7 (available at https:/​/c​ ommons.emich.edu/​loexquarterly/​vol31/​iss3/​4/​); “CRAAP Test Score Card,” Pikes Peak Community College, see menu at https:/​/​libguides.ppcc.edu/​english; “The C.A.R.S. Checklist for Evaluating Internet Sources,” in Jessica Olamit, “Evaluating the Credibility of Websites,” accessed February 22, 2022, https:/​/​www.literacyta.com/​ecoach/​evaluatingcredibility-websites.



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4. Step One: – Group leader: Assigns one online source to each group member and makes sure they have access to the Online Resource Evaluation Tool. Reviews the time constraints and group member expectations. – Timekeeper: Sets the timer for a maximum of ten minutes. Ensures adherence to timeframes. – Group Member: Makes a digital copy of the evaluation tool, and uses it to evaluate the website they have been assigned.

5. Step Two: – Group leader: Designates an order for sharing evaluation results. Reviews the time constraints and group member expectations.

– Timekeeper: Sets the timer for five minutes for each group member. Ensures adherence to timeframes. – Group Member: In turn, shares the results of their evaluation, explaining their rationale for their final scoring results. When each individual is finished sharing, other group members are invited to share positive comments, ask clarifying questions, or share insights about how to use the evaluation tool effectively.

6. The instructor should have input in this process, which is determined by the size and nature of the course. – If the class is a large survey class, the instructor can provide final evaluations and scoring results for each resource so that the students can compare their thinking with that of the instructor. – For smaller classes, the instructor and/​or their teaching assistants can sit in on the breakout group meetings to provide feedback on source evaluation. – If the class is small enough, groups could share their results with the whole class, and the instructor can address missteps or give suggestions for more effective use of the evaluation tool.

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Conclusion

This chapter has provided a process framework for instructors on how to introduce, implement, and manage the project cycle in an undergraduate classroom. In addition, a number of protocol templates were provided to support instructors in these efforts. Notably absent from this chapter was much in the way of medi­eval history, and this was intentional because the processes and skills presented are not unique to medi­ eval history. In fact, they are evidence-based strategies that have been used in a variety of professional settings and in diverse learning situations. We could not use evidence from teaching medi­eval history because medi­eval history instructors have not used the type of strategies presented in any sort of organized or systematic way. The suggestion, therefore, is that they should. By providing structure to their students’ learning process, instructors are more easily able to establish a mutual relationship of trust and respect, resulting in students who both produce higher quality work and have learned valuable professional skills in a safe learning environment. However, as the next chapter will show, it is just as important for instructors to connect to students’ lived experiences as it is for students to become familiar with the professional world.

Chapter 5

TECHNO­LOGY IN THE MEDI­EVAL-HISTORY CLASSROOM In This Chapter we

– Explore the growth of digital humanities.

– Learn about multimodal literacy and its connection to digital humanities.

– Review the relationship of project-based learning to the virtual learning space. – Examine the relationship between project-based learning and techno­logy integration.

Introduction

Global internet usage has grown rapidly since the beginning of the twenty-first century. In 2001, approximately 495 million people used the internet.1 By 2010, internet usage had quadrupled to over 2 billion people, more than doubling by the end of 2021 at an estimate of nearly 5 billion people. In the United States, the percentage of adults who use the internet has grown from 52 percent in 2000 to 93 percent in 2021.2 87 percent of American families get an internet service at home, and 98 percent of those are broadband.3 Notably, current internet usage for adults aged 18–29 and 30–49 is virtually universal, at 100 percent and 97 percent respectively. For younger Americans, 99 percent of public school districts are connected to high-speed broadband, and 94 percent of respondent districts indicated they used digital learning activities in at least half of their classes.4 That is, the vast majority of college students today have grown up with experience using the internet both at home and in the classroom. In this context, web-based curriculum or digital learning strategies should not be considered “innova-

1  “Statistics,” International Telecommunications Union, accessed February 22, 2022, https:/​/​ www.itu.int/​en/​ITU-D/​Statistics/​Pages/​stat/​default.aspx. 2  “Internet/​Broadband Fact Sheet,” Pew Research Center, accessed February 22, 2022, https:/​/​ www.pewresearch.org/​internet/​fact-sheet/​internet-broadband/​. 3  The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) defines broadband as 25 Mbps down/​3 Mbps up: “2019 Broadband Deployment Report,” May 29, 2019, accessed February 22, 2022, https:/​/​www.fcc.gov/​reports-research/​reports/​broadband-progress-reports/​2019-broadbanddeployment-report; “Press Release: 87 percent of US Households Get an Internet Service at Home,” Leichtman Research Group, December 28, 2021, accessed February 22, 2022, https:/​/​www. leichtmanresearch.com/​87-of-u-s-households-get-an-internet-service-at-home/​.

4  Defined by the FCC at 100 Mbps per 1,000 users (which covers both students and staff) in the short term and 1 Gbps in the longer term. “Summary of the E-Rate Modernization Order,” Federal Communications Commission, accessed February 22, 2022, https:/​/​www.fcc.gov/​general/​ summary-e-rate-modernization-order; “2019 State of the States,” EducationSuperHighway, accessed February 22, 2022, https:/​/​stateofthestates.educationsuperhighway.org/​#national.

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tive” or “transformative” in educational settings, as they now constitute convention. As convention, instructors at every level should be reasonably expected to effectively utilize its tools, methods, and media to communicate with their students. PowerPoint slides with simple text and pictures that continue to pervade college lecture halls are not effectively utilizing the vast landscape of the internet, but are maintaining the perception that content mastery may only come from the mastery of literacy from static systems. The digital world is dynamic, as are its native users, and instructors should differentiate their teaching strategies taking this dynamism into account.5 Transcribing course notes and materials into a different format is not sufficient. Just as the printing press did at the end of the Middle Ages (and arguably more so), the internet has fundamentally changed the way people communicate with one another, impacting every sector of industry, emerging techno­logy, government, and educational systems. College students today are digital natives, having never known a world without widespread internet usage, and having had the ability to use social media platforms like Facebook and Twitter since they were in preschool.6 The lived experience of students entering their undergraduate careers now have been provided opportunities to become inherently proficient in multimodal literacy. Literacy is no longer static or reliant on the products of animal skins or tree pulp, but a “continuous process of change in the ways in which we read, write, view, listen, compose, and communicate information.”7 Students engage, interact, and understand these new literacies that accompanied the digital revolution differently than their parents’ or grandparents’ generations whose literacy developed almost wholly with ink spilled on paper. It is thus equally important for instructors to understand that their students’ acquisition of literacy skills is no longer contingent on the ability to dissect pages but the ability to readily adapt new literacies to meet the needs of emerging techno­logy.8 The overarching goal of this chapter is to explore those new literacies that may best benefit the students and instructors of medi­eval history.

Digital Humanities

As with every other sector of society, humanities scholars and instructors have engaged in the development of digital products and artifacts that take advantage of the platform provided by the internet. Digital Humanities Quarterly, published by the Association for Computers and the Humanities and the Alliance for Digital Humanities Organizations, explains the field as “a diverse and still emerging field that encompasses the practice of humanities research in and through information techno­logy, and the exploration of 5  Augustine of Hippo, On Catechizing the Uninitiated, chap. 15, para. 23, in On Catechising; On Faith and the Creed, trans. S. D. F. Salmond (Edinburgh: Clark, 1873; available online at https:/​/​www. newadvent.org/​fathers/​1303.htm). 6  Facebook was founded in 2004. Twitter was founded in 2006.

7  Julie Coiro, Michele Knobel, Colin Lankshear, and Donald Leu, “Central Issues in New Literacies and New Literacies Research,” in Handbook of Research on New Literacies (New York: Routledge, 2008), 1–21 at 5. 8  Coiro et al., “Central Issues in New Literacies and New Literacies Research.”



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how the humanities may evolve through their engagement with techno­logy, media, and computational methods.”9 The historio­graphic contributions of the digital humanities are older than some might think, and attempts by scholars to solve problems in medi­eval studies feature prominently in its development. Arguably the first digital humanities project was initiated by Father Roberto Busa in 1946 who spent over three decades indexing every word in the works of Thomas Aquinas. He and his team built their concordance, called the Index Thomisticus, with assistance provided by Thomas Watson and IBM beginning in 1949. Busa’s work is important not only for its seminal role in the field of the digital humanities, but because it is illustrative of the exponentially increasing ability of new techno­logy to make research more efficient and its products more accessible. As Busa relates in the foreword to Blackwell’s companion to the Digital Humanities, his project team spent ten years creating punch cards, which were the only way to transmit code and program languages to early computers.10 The project transitioned to magnetic tapes in the 1950s, totalling eighteen hundred tapes, condensed down to twenty tapes by 1980. Next, it transferred to CD-ROM, condensed to a single disc at the time of the Blackwell companion’s publication in 2004. In 2005, the entirety of the Index Thomisticus was moved online, then and now freely available to everyone with an internet connection.11 In 1964, Roy Wisbey founded the Literary and Linguistic Computing Centre at the University Cambridge, and was a founding member of the Association for Literary and Linguistic Computing, now named the European Association for Digital Humanities. His pioneering research was much like Busa’s, creating machine-readable text archives, this time for High Medi­eval German Literature, and his indices are still available as part of the Mittelhochdeutsches Wörterbuch hosted by the University of Trier.12 Arguably, Wisbey’s greater contributions to the Digital Humanities came in organizing and assembling like-minded scholars to promote innovative strategies for investigating medi­eval topics. He organized one of the earliest conferences focusing specifically on the Digital Humanities, setting the standard for national and international conferences in the future, noting in particular the importance for developing a method for encoding and maintaining electronic versions of texts.13 Busa and Wisbey were restricted by the techno­logy of their time, which is why these seminal projects in the mid twentieth century largely focused on tasks like indexing words and building concordances. Data could only be processed serially, and the result 9  “About DHQ,” Digital Humanities Quarterly, accessed February 22, 2022, http:/​/​www. digitalhumanities.org/​dhq/​about/​about.html.

10  Roberto Busa, “Foreword: Perspectives on the Digital Humanities,” in A Companion to Digital Humanities, ed. Susan Schreibman, Ray Siemens, and John Unsworth (Oxford: Blackwell, 2004), http:/​/​www.digitalhumanities.org/​companion/​, accessed February 22, 2022. 11  See Eduardo Bernot and Enrique Alarcon, eds., Corpus Thomisticum: Index Thomisticum (Ravenna: Società CAEL, 2005), https:/​/w ​ ww.corpusthomisticum.org/​it/​index.age. 12  http:/​/​www.mhdwb-online.de.

13  Roy Wisbey (ed.), The Computer in Literary and Linguistic Research: Papers from a Cambridge Symposium, Publications of the Literary and Linguistic Computing Centre 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971).

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of any queries could not be known until their entire data set had been run.14 Commonly used techno­logy today, such as random access to data through a search query, was not yet possible. Additional problems were encountered because computing techno­logy could not recognize or represent special characters, accents, or even lower case letters, instead relying on asterisks or other marks that indicated non-standard characters. Such problems could not begin to be solved until the creation of Unicode in the early 1990s.15 Early efforts to utilize computing techno­logy to archive texts and aid in more complex research efforts were seen in projects like The Dictionary of Old English Corpus, established in 1981, which contains at least one copy of every extant Old English Text.16 It continues to be hosted and supported by the University of Toronto, and has since greatly expanded the scope and scale of its initial research team. Where earlier projects used the mathematical and statistical efficiency of computers to help process large amounts of data, the advent of the internet and its rapid expansion in the 1990s dramatically increased the access people had to medi­eval studies research. Paul Halsall’s initiation of the Internet Medi­eval History Sourcebook in 1996, hosted by Fordham University, has made primary source texts much more accessible to students and instructors, and is arguably the most widely used digital humanities project in undergraduate classrooms. It has since expanded into many other historical fields, exemplar course designs, and biblio­graphies.17 Other projects sought to engage users directly with manu­scripts, as the British Library in partnership with Armadillo systems deployed their Turning the Pages techno­logy in 1997, allowing anyone with internet access the ability to view its rare books and manu­scripts in a realistic, online setting. Today, most institutions with any substantial holdings in rare books and manu­scripts have some of their collection digitized. Other projects sought to improve access to medi­eval resources by bringing old stand-bys into the digital age. The rapid expansion of digitization projects that many research institutions began nearly thirty years ago have developed products that not only improve access but increase research efficiency. Most medi­evalists have used some portion of the nineteenth primary source standards such as the Monumenta Germaniae Historica or the Patro­logia Latina. Both collections have been completely digitized and have text searchable databases.18 The Digital Monumenta Germaniae Historica (dMGH) 14  Susan Hockey, “The History of Humanities Computing,” in A Companion to Digital Humanities, ed. Susan Schreibman, Ray Siemens, and John Unsworth (Oxford: Blackwell, 2004), http:/​/​www. digitalhumanities.org/​companion/​, accessed February 22, 2022.

15  The Unicode Consortium, The Unicode Standard: Worldwide Character Encoding, Version 1.0, 2 vols. (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1990–1992).

16  Robert Getz and Stephen Pelle, eds., The Dictionary of Old English (Toronto: University of Toronto, 2020), https:/​/​www.doe.utoronto.ca/​pages/​index.html, accessed February 22, 2022; Angus Cameron, Ashley Crandell Amos, Sharon Butler, and Antonette diPaolo Healey, The Dictionary of Old English Corpus in Electronic Form (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1981). 17  https:/​/​sourcebooks.fordham.edu/​index.asp.

18  “dMGH,” Monumenta Germaniae Historica, https:/​/​www.dmgh.de; Patro­logia Latina Database (ProQuest, 2021), http:/​/p ​ ld.chadwyck.co.uk. Both accessed February 22, 2022.



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offers free access to every volume published through 2000, and the Patro­logia Latina Database (PLD) provides access to all 217 of its volumes, though it is barriered with a subscription. Online, searchable biblio­graphic resources are also a boon to the modern medi­eval researcher, who no longer is restricted to published book lists and “upcoming titles” appended to the end of journals. The International Medi­eval Biblio­graphy (440,000 articles and counting) and Iter: Gateway to the Middle Ages and Renaissance (1.4 million records) are tremendous biblio­graphic resources, though both are barriered by subscription fees that may be unsustainable without institutional support. The Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur in Mainz has developed the open source, freely accessible Regesta Imperii (RI), comprising over 2.4 million titles in every European language area and all disciplines, though it does have a stated focus on German sources. The products described so far have advanced the field of medi­eval studies by using computing techno­logy to process large amounts of data and by using digital techno­logy to increase access to medi­eval sources, which naturally leads to a third category of digital humanities product that synthesizes these methods. Early projects include Electronic Beowulf, first started in 1993 by Kevin Kiernan as a digitization of British Library, Cotton Vitellius MS A.xv. Now in its fourth iteration, Electronic Beowulf 4.0 offers a parallel columnar interface that allows users to place manu­scripts, transcriptions, and translations of all major Beowulf manu­scripts and manu­script fragments side by side.19 It also provides notes on termino­logy, grammar, metre, and paleo­graphy. It is the model of what critical editions can achieve when digital techno­logy is effectively utilized. Other resources have developed to provide scholars a similar interface with manu­scripts in a digital environment, offering an entirely new method of manu­script engagement. Platforms such as Project Mirador, Digital Mappa, and From the Page take the ideas of Elec­ tronic Beowulf to scale. Project Mirador is an image viewing platform that allows annotations, comparisons of two or more images, and metadata navigational tools.20 From the Page and Digital Mappa are platforms that provide users tools to transcribe documents, index and tag document components, and annotate individual projects. Platforms like these open the door for collaborative opportunities that take advantage of global medi­eval studies communities. Digital Scriptorium, a growing consortium of American institutions with medi­eval and renaissance holdings, uses the global medi­ evalist community to help verify contents, authorship, image details, and other manu­ script metadata from unidentified manu­scripts, dismembered texts, leaves, and other errata in institutions across the United States. Middle Ages for Educators is a collaborative venture hosted by Princeton University that collects contributions from medi­ eval instructors around the world on every discipline. Instructional videos supported by cited digital resources and primary sources are a great resource for instructors looking for new ideas. However, as this book has contended, sources like Middle Ages for Educators focus almost exclusively on content delivery, lacking teaching support for medi­ 19  Kevin Kiernan, ed. Electronic Beowulf 4.0 (London: British Library, 2015), https:/​/​ebeowulf. uky.edu/​ebeo4.0/​start.html, accessed February 22, 2022. 20  Project Mirador, https:/​/​projectmirador.org, accessed February 22, 2022.

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evalists to differentiate teaching strategies, develop pedagogy, and structuring cohesive curriculum across a semester. It cannot be overstated the impact and potential that the Digital Humanities has had and will have on medi­eval studies and other humanities disciplines. Lecture halls today can reference an extremely high-quality manu­script image from the Bibliothèque nationale de France in less than a minute, which can be downloaded, edited, and analyzed using the tools, strategies, and platforms described above. Students can engage directly with these digital artifacts using collaborative platforms modelling the work of professional medi­evalists. In 1990, a student from west Texas or central Michigan would have severely limited opportunities to engage with a manu­script, even with access to the internet. Today, students anywhere in the world with internet access can navigate to the British Library’s website and view the Old English Hexateuch in such great detail that they can see the hair follicles of the animal skin the parchment was made from. Though the digital experience of examining a manu­script is certainly different than physically interacting with it, no matter how detailed the image, the linguistic and visual experiences are virtually the same. This is not to say that all medi­eval faculty should be engaged in the pursuit of digital humanities scholarship. However, an awareness of its products and methods are part and parcel in broader movements of workforce needs, education, and techno­logy, which should be the concern of every post-secondary instructor as we help prepare students for life and work after their collegiate careers. Online and offline learning are not isomorphic, though that has been what the assumption has been in years past, and it is critical that instructors can competently implement some of its tools, especially in recent months where much instruction is happening completely virtually due to covid– 19.21 New paradigms of navigating, processing, and analyzing information necessarily departs from older concepts of literacy in the static setting of words printed on pages. The ability of students to adapt to these literacies is crucial to their development as learners in the twenty-first century as social media becomes part of the historical record as the difficulty of vetting reliable online sources increases.22 It is thus equally crucial for instructors to be able to offer guidance to students on how to responsibly navigate these spaces.

21  J. Castek, J. Coiro, D. K. Hartman, L. A. Henry, D. J. Leu, and L. Zawilinski, “Thinking About our Future as Researchers: New Literacies, New Challenges, and New Opportunities,” in Mary Beth Sampson et al., eds., Multiple Literacies in the 21st Century: The Twenty-Eighth Yearbook of the College Reading Association (Provo: College Reading Association, 2007), 31–50.

22  “National Archives and Record Administration White Paper on Best Practices for Social Media Capture,” National Archives, May 2013, accessed February 22, 2022, https:/​/​www.archives.gov/​ files/​records-mgmt/​resources/​socialmediacapture.pdf; Sam Wineburg, Sarah McGrew, Joel Breakstone, and Teresa Ortega, Teresa, Evaluating Information: The Cornerstone of Civic Online Reasoning (Stanford: Stanford Digital Repository, 2016), http:/​/​purl.stanford.edu/​fv751yt5934, accessed February 22, 2022.



Multimodal Literacies

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Multimodal in this context refers to the combination of a variety of modes of communication, including textual modes such as reading and writing; semiotic modes, both physical and visual; and aural modes such as talking and listening.23 Digital spaces regularly require users to be proficient in two or more of these modes, even for basic tasks. Static tasks, such as completing a primary source review, require the traditional literacy skills of reading and writing.24 More dynamic tasks add spatial reasoning, such as virtual games, labs, or collaborative spaces for writing or creating presentations. Interactivity, whether synchronous or asynchronous, adds further complexity by incorporating timerelated factors, as found in discussion board deadlines and virtual classrooms. Though this explanation of multimodal literacy is simple, it is important to explicitly recognize that modern classrooms engage students in a type of literacy that transcends the old literacy model dependent on letters on a page.25 Finding the right YouTube video, for example, requires an understanding of search tools, reading titles and descriptions, viewing the video for content, and making a decision about its appropriateness for the task at hand. Further complexity is added if users engage in spaces such as comment sections or video creation. The transformation of making meaning from traditionally taught, two-dimensional textual literacy to multidimensional, multimodal literacies necessitates a transformation in the way that learning happens in the classroom, from textbooks and essays, to a virtual world where modes are connected in intricate ways to create a variety of products, from podcasts and videos, to social media surveys, blogs, and e-books. In the effort to be more intentional in the construction of course components through projects it is, perhaps, useful to distinguish some general multimodal literacy proficiencies that may provide insight in the development of assessments and student learning outcomes.26 Information literacy: the student is able to use the latest techno­logy to find, analyze and use information from different sources

Visual literacy: the student is able to use visual images to create products and develop critical thinking skills 23  Silvia Montoya, “Defining Literacy,” UNESCO, GAML Fifth Meeting, October 17–18, 2018, Hamburg, Germany, http:/​/​gaml.uis.unesco.org/​wp-content/​uploads/​sites/​2/​2018/​12/​ 4.6.1_07_4.6-defining-literacy.pdf, accessed February 22, 2022. 24  Heather Lotherington and Jennifer Jenson, “Teaching Multimodal and Digital Literacy in L2 Settings: New Literacies, New Basics, New Pedagogies,” Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 31 (2011): 226–46. 25  Lotherington, “Teaching Multimodal and Digital Literacy in L2 Settings,” 227.

26  Sean Cordes, “Broad Horizons: The Role of Multimodal Literacy in 21st Century Library Instruc­ tion,” in World Library and Information Congress: 75th IFLA General Conference and Assembly, Milan, Italy 2009. Libraries Create Futures: Building on Cultural Heritage. Final Programme, Milan, Italy, 23–27 August 2009 (The Hague: IFLA, 2009): 1–18.

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Multicultural literacy: the student is able to perceive, compare and contrast, and empathize with people who hold different beliefs and values

Media literacy: the student is able to process and evaluate information from a wide variety of sources in a range of genres and different media formats

Aural and spoken literacy: the student is able to listen, comprehend and participate in academic conversations and presentations

Effective project implementation will interweave these modes to help students create or construct information structured around the activity theory model described in Chapter 3. Multimodal literacy, viewed through the lens of activity theory, reveals interactions between groups, individuals, research artifacts and techno­logy.27 Project-based learning takes advantage of these integrated pathways as instructors and students engage with and master these new literacies to construct historical context and create historically accurate products built from the merging of multimodal techno­logies. In the history classroom, guiding students towards constructing new historical knowledge first requires the deconstruction of historical artifacts wherein multimodal literacy may provide a useful framework. An illuminated manu­script is more than words on a page; symbolism, colours, initial capital designs, font, parchment, and language all play a part in its interpretation. Figure 5.1 illustrates how all constituent activities in the project-based learning process contribute to the development of student proficiency in multimodal literacies. In a digital setting, sense-making no longer relies solely on alphabetical and grammatical literacies where letters are organized in such a way to allow knowledge to be proven or acquired. Instead sense-making has moved toward multimodality, which requires that students integrate meaning taken from a variety of literary modes to combine them in a way that demonstrates new learning. In other words, meaning is not created by reading, repeating, and reproducing. Instead, meaning is created or designed by selectively drawing out information from resources using, “the codes and conventions they [users] happen to have found in their [unique] contexts and cultures.”28 Multimodality is inherent in the construction of digital humanities and historical meaningmaking in digital space. In this space, historical knowledge can break away from the linear process of acquisition → analysis → application to a transformational new view of the past designed by combining synaesthetic impressions derived from multimodal resources to create new interpretive modes. As a result, spilling ink on pages or speaking from the lectern to articulate an argument is not the only, or the most effective, way to ensure that students have acquired historical knowledge and inquiry skills. People have had millennia to navigate the space and place of the scroll and codex, and interpretive frameworks have evolved around their uses. The newness and rapid development of digital environments have given the internet its greatest advantages and its greatest 27  Cordes, “Broad Horizons,” 8.

28  William Cope and Mary Kalantizis, “Multiliteracies: New Literacies, New Learning,” Pedagogies: An International Journal 4, no. 3 (August 2009): 164–95 at 177.



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Figure 5.1. Multimodal Literacies within a Project Activity System

challenges. The digital world has its own landscape that includes geo­graphies, cultures, societies, and communities that must be navigated by its virtual population, and if we are not helping students thrive in that setting, we are doing them a disservice as educators. To explore these new literacies, the following sections provide some suggestions and insights for integrating techno­logy into the classroom.29 This integration should take place on a continuum over the duration of a course as students begin to make progress on developing proficiency in the established student learning outcomes. As their skills develop, students will be more comfortable working with the skills and tools of historical investigation.

Establishing a Community of Inquiry

Digital solutions to project management are today’s norm rather than the exception, and there are plenty of choices when it comes to finding online collaborative platforms for work. The struggle lies in forging an online collaborative mindset where the players are equally invested in participation and creating products and solutions. Project-based learning is by design a collaborative process, and when that process is implemented in 29  General structure based on the Florida Center for Instructional Techno­logy, “The Techno­logy Integration Matrix,” 3rd ed. 2019, https:/​/f​ cit.usf.edu/​matrix/​matrix/​, accessed February 22, 2022.

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Figure 5.2. Community of Inquiry Framework

the higher education setting, much of it will take place outside of the physical classroom. A course that meets for only three hours a week will not provide enough face-to-face interaction for groups to complete their work. Therefore students will by necessity need to meet outside of class. Online techno­logies have definitely opened up possibilities for this out-of-class collaboration, but working in groups online has its own unique set of problems. It is therefore beneficial to consider Garrison’s Community of Inquiry model when designing online work.30 The model has stood the test of time over the last twenty years, ancient for commentary on digital techno­logy, and continues to be a valuable reference for planning and executing online learning environments, and it is especially relevant in a project-based learning setting. The model shows online learning as it occurs amidst the interaction of three core elements: cognitive presence, social presence, and teaching presence. Cognitive presence is described as “the extent to which the participants in any particular configuration of a community of inquiry are able to construct meaning through [a] sustained communication presence.”31 In PBL, the project cycle is largely dictated by student discussion and interaction and, as the coronavirus pandemic has shown, it is unclear that an online learning environment is effective for any type of learning environment, much less one that requires as much interaction as PBL. 30  Randy Garrison, Terry Anderson, and Walter Archer, “Critical Inquiry in a Text-Based Environ­ ment: Computer Conferencing in Higher Education,” The Internet and Higher Education 2, nos. 2–3 (2000): 87–105. 31  Garrison, Anderson, and Archer, “Critical Inquiry in a Text-Based Environment,” xx.



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A project-based course should provide students enough autonomy to choose topics that are personally relevant and interesting, and to do so in a group setting means consensus must be reached through an initial activity engaged with course content. At the conclusion of the activity, students should be enthusiastic about their topic and ready to begin the next step in the project cycle. It may be that this initial interactive process does not translate well to an online setting, especially if group members are not fully prepared or equipped to participate in their meetings. A student attempting to read or conduct online research while at the same time meeting virtually with group members will not be able to fully participate in discourse with others, while a group where a few people do all the talking while others are silent, will soon lose its cohesiveness. Connectivity issues, cameras, microphones, and clunky screen sharing may present additional difficulties. These barriers to interaction can interfere with students’ ability to establish a meaningful cognitive presence in digital space that facilitate course buy-in from students, making it critical that an instructor has built in checkpoints to monitor student engagement. Social presence refers to the ability of participants to project their personalities and preferences through their online presence in order to build a relationship of mutual trust and confidence.32 As indicated above, PBL promotes relationships through interaction. However, these relationships are not created by sharing screens or responding to someone on a discussion board. The screen, while promoting the ability of group members to meet any time, anywhere, can actually become a barrier to forming these relationships and can interfere with learning. The screen is impersonal. It can be turned on or off, other tabs can be opened, social media notifications can be distracting. In filmmaking this phenomenon is called the fourth wall, that imaginary barrier between the audience and the story. In a virtual setting, the screen is an impersonal component in what should be a very personal connection between students working toward a common goal. Successful online collaboration requires that this barrier somehow be breached so that students can actively interact with one another and their content. The breach can be bridged with the establishment of group norms such as turning off cell phones or having a quiet, private place in which to join the online meeting, or by using specific online tools and protocols for group work that establish specific roles and activities for group members. However, pivotal to the success of online learning (beyond intellectual or social engagement) is the presence, or potential presence, of the instructor in the online space. Teaching presence heightens the likelihood that students will be both cognitively and socially present during their virtual meetings, and can be broken into two distinct tasks: designing the learning tasks and assessments, and facilitating the execution of those learning tasks, both of which are critically important in a virtual educational setting.33 A recent meta-analysis of teaching presence with regard to student satisfaction and perceived learning reinforces suggests that both instructors and students think that the role

32  G. E. Crites, A. Berry, E. Hall, D. Kay, M.K. Khalil, and L. Hurtubise, “Applying Multiple Frameworks to Establish Effective Virtual Collaborative Teams in Academia: A Review and Recommendations,” Medical Education Online 25, no. 1 (2020): 3: doi.org/​10.1080/​10872981.2020.1742968. 33  Garrison, Anderson, and Archer, “Critical Inquiry in a Text-Based Environment,” 90.

Table 5.1. Digital Tools and the Community of Inquiry Examples of Digital Tools

Example Activity

Correlation to CoI Framework

Bulletin Boards – Padlet – Trello – Jamboard

Brainstorm the pros and cons of Richard I’s choice to participate in the third crusade.

Collaboration Cognitive Presence: 3rd Crusade Scaffolding Rationale for Richard I Reflection Social Presence: Comments are visible Teacher Presence: Teacher asks relevant questions on a live discussion board

Blogging – WordPress – WIX – Weebly

Cognitive Presence: Using a medi­eval text from Acquire knowledge and one of the class source interpret context lists, describe the historical Social Presence: setting of the author. Read Write and respond to comments and comment on the work of others of two other group bloggers, Teacher Presence: and respond to comments Read and respond to blog made on your own blog. entries

Scaffolding

Discussion Boards – Blackboard – Canvas – Moodle

Cognitive Presence: Respond to the prompt, Access prior knowledge “What misconceptions about Compare and contrast the Middle Ages does Game of Thrones include?” Give at Social Presence: Respond to the work of others least three reasons for your answer, and respond in kind Teacher Presence: Read and respond to entries to at least two other posts.

Collaboration

Rubrics – ForAllRubrics – iRubric – RubiStar

As a team, use the Historical Question Rubric to evaluate the research questions written by the members of your group.

Video Recording – FlipGrid – Vimeo – Prezi

Cognitive Presence: Create a video to interpret Symbols of the Middle Ages an image in the Old English Illumination Hexateuch on the British Social Presence: Library’s website. Review Review and comment on the videos from two other class­ work of others mates, and ask at least two clarifying questions for each Teacher Presence: Ask clarifying questions one.

Podcasting – Buzzsprout – Podbean – Simplecast

In groups, create a podcast to debate whether or not the term “Dark Ages” is appropriate to describe the Early Middle Ages.

Cognitive Presence: Self-evaluation Learn critical attributes of a historical question Social Presence: Help group improve their work Teacher Presence: Observe group interaction

Cognitive Presence: Learn timeframes Uncover evidence Social Presence: Record discussion to post online Teacher Presence: Sit in on work days Evaluate final podcasts

Role in Project Management

Collaboration

Review to Improve

Review to Evaluate

Scaffolding

Collaboration Scaffolding Reflection

Review to Improve

Review to Evaluate Scaffolding Reflection

Review to Improve

Collaboration Reflection

Scaffolding

Improvement Evaluation



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engaged by the instructor in a digital learning environment affects the ability of students to learn and impacts their satisfactions of the learning process.34 A successful teaching presence requires deliberate design, structure, and monitoring of online interaction in order to facilitate the kind of shared thinking that results in the higher order learning and problem-solving needed for successful completion of a PBL project.35 To provide effective instruction online, an instructor cannot simply walk student through slides and present a standard lecture as if they were in person, nor can they implement a written exam in the same way. Thus, choices made by the instructor about which online platforms they will use to build knowledge, create a collaborative climate, guide academic conversations, and establish individual accountability, as well as whether or not they will be virtually present to monitor group meetings, can impact the success of an online learning environment. Knowing that the instructor can (and will) pop into a group session will more than likely serve as a great incentive for group members to not only show up but to participate in designated activities once they are there. An instructor that does not consider that students will more likely than not use resources for an online exam, even if prohibited from doing so, has not established an effective teaching presence. The instructor can promote a community of inquiry by providing tools that require cognitive engagement, social interaction for online collaboration, and by maintaining an engaged presence in the digital learning environment alongside their students. In the table below, we have provided a sampling of digital tools and their uses, along with their role in supporting a community of inquiry, and their connection(s) to the PBL process. Many of these platforms have their origins in disciplines outside of education, and therefore their use has the potential to provide students with skills that will be of benefit beyond the educational setting. It should also be noted by future readers that the examples noted may be outdated in five years’ time, but their functional utility will remain valid for the project process. A good instructor will find whatever the successor to Blackboard might be and implement it with fidelity into their course to continue scaffolding meaningful collaboration and dialogue amongst their students.

Digital Fluency and the Project-Based Learning Environment

Throughout this volume, the focus has been on key attributes present in a project-based learning environment. Project-based learning is active. Students are not simply sponges that enter the lecture hall, ready to absorb words of knowledge and wisdom from the podium. Instead, students are actively involved in creating their own learning pathways, while at the same time establishing collegial relationships with group members. In an intentionally designed collaborative environment group members work together to develop content knowledge and historical skills and set goals for group work. Students learn to evaluate the quality of their work and the work of their peers. They are involved 34  Secil Caskurlu, Yukiko Maeda, Jennifer C. Richardson, and Jing Lv, “A Meta Analysis Addressing the Relationship between Teaching Presence and Students’ Satisfaction and Learning,” Computers and Education 157 (2020): 9: doi.org/​10.1016/​j.compedu.2020.103966 35  Crites et al., “Applying Multiple Frameworks,” 3.

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in the real work of historians, and develop historical ways of thinking and doing, ultimately to share that knowledge with an authentic audience. As preceding chapters have shown, the course of work for instructors and students in a project-based course is not linear as it is in a traditional undergraduate course sequence. It is a complex, sometimes sinuous process that challenges both student and instructor. Fortunately, techno­logy has arrived that can simplify many of the academic processes required by rigorous project-based learning, and instructors and universities appear to be prepared. The infrastructures at universities across the United States have received high marks for their robustness and ability to deliver high-quality internet.36 The number of techno­logy platforms with educational applications is increasing at a rapid pace. College students have indicated that most instructors use techno­logy for common instructional purposes such as giving presentations and sharing resources. Indeed, instructors indicated that they preferred that students complete some activities online, including assessments, viewing videos (some of which are captured lectures), and reading materials—a very traditional litany of practices. However, students in the same study indicated that instructors did not use techno­logy for more complex, higher order tasks that required creativity and critical thinking.37 This points to an interesting contradiction. Even though techno­logy use and accessibility in higher education settings continues to rise, teaching methods have mostly remained locked into a more traditional delivery system. A lecture recorded and viewed online is still a lecture; a lecture with Powerpoint slides is still a lecture. A digitally created term paper is still a term paper, and a constructed response quiz in an online platform has not changed in anything but its appearance. In fact, any traditional educational artifact that once required hard copies or in-person meetings can now be accomplished in a virtual setting. While the vehicle is techno­logy, the pedagogy is traditional. Students today seem to be more termino­logically equipped. Most students go to college with two or more devices that can be used for online learning. They are able to find their own answers to techno­logy problems, and prefer courses that include an online component.38 But the availability of techno­logy and desire to use it does not mean that all students are equally adept at using techno­logy to learn. While students appear to be literate in an increasingly diverse set of digital environments, they may not be able to navigate all applications equally well.39 It is not enough to be digitally literate. “Literacy is too modest a goal in the presence of rapid change, because it lacks the necessary ‘stay36  “ECAR Study of Undergraduate Students and Information Techno­logy, 2017,” Educause Center for Analysis and Research, October 18, 2017, accessed February 22, 2022, https:/​/​library.educause. edu/​resources/​2017/​10/​ecar-study-of-undergraduate-students-and-information-techno­ logy-2017. 37  “ECAR Study of Undergraduate Students and Information Techno­logy, 2017,” 5. 38  “ECAR Study of Undergraduate Students and Information Techno­logy, 2017,” 6.

39  Mark Lieberman, “Going Digital by Knowing Digital,” Inside Higher Ed, March 13, 2019, https:/​ /​www.insidehighered.com/​digital-learning/​article/​2019/​03/​13/​colleges-want-students-thinkcritically-about-digital-tools.



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ing power.’ As the techno­logy changes by leaps and bounds, existing skills become antiquated and there is no migration path to new skills.”40 The active nature of the project-based classroom requires extensive and unconventional use of these new techno­logy tools. Integrating techno­logy is more than using word processing software to write a paper so that it can be submitted online. Word processing options such as Google Docs are now collaborative, and allow group members to work together in real time on a document even when they are not in the same room. An application such as Google Docs also allows instructors to make digital comments and give feedback directly on the document during the writing process, creating an immediacy to the practice of feedback and revision. Program extensions such as Goobric allow project rubrics to be attached to Google documents so instructors can show students progress toward a goal directly on the rubric before the deadline has arrived, allowing students to improve their work outcomes before final grades are issued. This multifaceted use of a single, free to use digital tool emphasizes the need for greater digital fluency by instructors and students. Digital fluency is “an evolving aptitude that empowers the individual to effectively and ethically interpret information, discover meaning, design content, construct knowledge, and communicate ideas in a digitally connected world.”41 It is not a static achievement. Without consistent opportunities to explore the “cross-cutting, transecting nature of the skills required to meet the challenge of critical engagement with online tools and information,”42 traditional digital tools will become less useful over time.43 There are a number of lenses that give some direction to imagining how digital fluency relates to history and the project-based learning environment.44 Cultural: Group work requires that students collaborate with one another, and any group is likely to include students with different skills, ethnicities, socioeconomic statuses, and other demo­graphic differences resulting in unique lived experiences. Providing scaffolds and protocols to ensure that every group member has equal understanding of relevant techno­logy, and is given abundant opportunities to use techno­logy in a variety of ways, addresses concerns about equity and encourages digital fluency. In addition to interpersonal relationships, groups must recognize how culture influences

40  National Research Council, Being Fluent with Information Techno­logy (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2000).

41  “Ten for Teaching.” Center for Teaching and Learning, Boise State University, 2021, accessed February 22, 2022, https:/​/​www.boisestate.edu/​ctl/​programs–2/​certificate-programs/​ten-forteaching/​. 42  Carl Miller and Jamie Bartlett, “Digital Fluency: Towards Young People’s Critical Use of the Internet,” Journal of Information Literacy 6 no. 2 (November 18, 2012), 35–55 at 38.

43  Christian Briggs, Kevin Makice, and Larry Buchanan, Digital Fluency: Building Success in the Digital Age (Bloomington: SociaLens, 2012), 68.

44  Shuana Niessen, “What is Digital Fluency?” (http:/​/​www.shuananiessen.ca/​what-is-digitalfluency/​); and Douglas A. J. Belshaw, “What is ‘Digital Literacy’? A Pragmatic Investigation” (Ph.D. diss., Durham University, 2012).

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various digital contexts. Information found on the internet must be analyzed to ensure that cultural bias is not present, or if it is, that it is acknowledged.

Constructivist: The ability to build knowledge from multiple information sources is both benefit and danger in an online environment. It is beneficial to be able to type a question into a search engine and be rewarded with thousands of results. But therein lies the danger—how many of those sources are pertinent to what is being sought out and how does one acquire the skills to sort the wheat from the chaff? Being able to use a search engine is not enough. Students need to be coached in the art of conducting searches for historical information. Navigating digital techno­logy can be the bane of a novice researcher, but it can also be a universally powerful skill if appropriately guided. Communicative: Techno­logy allows students and instructors to meet, discuss, share, model, collaborate, and present in spaces and places that would not have been possible even ten years ago. Never was it a passing thought that the International Congress on Medi­eval Studies at Kalamazoo would be a virtual conference, and now it has successfully done so twice. Collegiate instructors across the world have transitioned their course into a virtual space because campuses were closed and students sent home. And while it was difficult enough for instructors to pivot that rapidly, it was even more difficult to adapt to a new learning environment. Protocols must be different in a virtual environment than they are in a face-to-face classroom if learning intends to be as effective. Instructors cannot read body language through Zoom. Conceiving a plan for integrating these skills into project work requires a kind of flexibility of mind that allows both the instructor and the student to think beyond the typical uses of traditional tools.

Many students are really good at navigating digital applications, but very poor at understanding how it can be used.45 And while most college instructors in a recent survey believed that students relied on them for instruction about techno­logy used in their courses, only a quarter of those students actually reported doing so.46 These observations emphasize the need for instructors to intentionally provide instruction on how to use techno­logy applications in the historical research process, whether students ask for help or not. By offering training in the form of scaffolding or practice exercises, instructors can ensure all students will be able to effectively participate in the collaborative group work required in project-based learning, including the person who may be able to edit videos but may not know how to add page numbers to a document or create a new folder. 45  Lieberman, “Going Digital by Knowing Digital.”

46  “ECAR Study of Faculty and Information Techno­logy, 2017,” Educause Center for Analysis and Research, October 13, 2017, accessed February 22, 2022, https:/​/​library.educause.edu/​resources/​ 2017/​10/​ecar-study-of-faculty-and-information-techno­logy-2017.



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Digital Solutions for Project Research

Historical research is unique in that a historian’s purpose is not to create a collection of sources to prove a single point of view. Instead, the historian’s purpose is to evaluate and synthesize multiple points of view to create a comprehensive and nuanced interpretation of the past. Historical research typically does not involve a single type of artifact or source. Historians may need to interpret sources from tapestries to illuminated manu­scripts to contemporary historio­graphies, then access those sources in archives, museums, libraries, and collections. While digital research is especially well-suited to meet these challenges, its execution can be problematic for both the student and the instructor. Any internet inquiry begins with a good research question, followed by the generation of search terms, which requires an understanding of the breadth of resources needed. Breadth can be established with an exercise as simple as a word web. With their chosen topic at the centre and potential contextual influences branching off in all directions, the word web is a simple way to help students think more holistically about the types of sources that would have an impact on their topic. This is also a place where the instructor can do some name-dropping in advance by pre-populating a word web template with some key ideas and technical terms that should be considered in evaluation of a particular topic as shown in Figure 5.3.

Figure 5.3. Internet Research Guide Mind Map. (From Community of Inquiry Framework, Garrison et al. 2000.)

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Once a student has settled on a variety of potential sources, each and every one needs to be evaluated for its credibility and reliability (see the Online Resource Evaluation Tool in Appendix C), and analyzed for its appropriateness to answer the research question (see the Source Relevance Checklist in Appendix C). Knowing the who, what, when, where, why, and how of a historical event or artifact is crucial to the creation of accurate and compelling historical narratives. Instructors can help students build the research skills they need by providing opportunities for them to evaluate source materials. Instructors often expect students to be able to navigate online tasks with ease—they are, after all, digital natives. However, the ability to move between tabs, access drop down menus, utilize multiple social media platforms simultaneously, and figure out how to use new applications easily does not necessarily mean that all students are high functioning internet researchers. In fact, internet prowess of both students and instructors lies on a continuum, with adaptive behaviours described as those in which the instructor designates specific uses for specific techno­logies, with little student choice which is at odds with PBL practice. Infusive behaviours are exhibited by instructors who give students full autonomy over their choice of techno­logies, and transformative behaviours lead to innovative and unique techno­logical solutions to traditional historical dilemmas. Identifying appropriate places for students to have relative academic freedom is a tricky prospect to navigate. Collegiate instructors have an expectation of self-accountability in the learning process that undergraduate students are not always prepared to meet.47 As novice scholars, undergraduate students also lack the disciplinary skills and experience to pursue proper historical investigation and would be at a disadvantage if given full autonomy. The instructor is immersed in a balancing act between providing students choice and voice in their exploration of the medi­eval past and deploying learning scaffolds to ensure that targeted skills and experiences are engaged in an appropriate manner. In a well-structured course this includes specific learning outcomes, a coherent assessment framework, and an instructor that can offer flexible content that allows students to be more independent in their pursuit of content mastery. As the templates in Chapter 3 suggest, any topic of investigation is going to have research conventions and collaborative opportunities. For example, any formal investigation of a medi­eval historical topic is likely to include a visit to a content-specific research resource. Musico­logists might visit Cantus, a database of Latin chants including details for melodies and manu­script biblio­graphies. Scholars of early medi­eval England are likely to reference The Electronic Sawyer, which provides easily referenced biblio­graphic information on Anglo-Saxon charters, including links to repositories, editions, and translations along with summary information of their contents. More focused projects might use Digital Dante or Electronic Beowulf. In any of these cases, students will be developing conventional skills as they learn how to navigate a specialized search tool, understand the format of the tool in order to interpret its information, make a determination about the information’s utility for the project at

47  Holly Hassel and Jessica Lourey, “The Dea(r)th of Student Responsibility,” College Teaching 53, no. 1 (Winter 2005): 2–13.



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hand, and ultimately incorporate the information into their project. At the same time, by providing investigatory flexibility, learning such conventional skills are inherently structured around independent exploration. It is unreasonable, however, to expect undergraduate students to know all of these resources exist, much less how to appropriately use them for research. Hard scaffolds that include direct instruction on how to best use exemplar resources like those students will encounter will ensure students begin developing the necessary skill, while structured consulting with students during office hours, study sessions, or in-class work allows the instructor an opportunity to monitor student use of the tools. These scaffolds need not take up much time, as they are analogous to skills the students likely already have. Every student will have used a search engine before, every student knows that websites are often dedicated to a designated set of goals, every student knows that research means finding things. By explicitly grounding the research process in skills the students are already developing, it allows for greater student autonomy and confidence in the learning process. Similarly, by allowing some flexibility in content, students are able to explore topics that they have an individual interest in, which will create greater buy-in for students. Implicit in this process is that digital tools adapted for classroom use should be those that are a regular part of medi­eval historical research, and expressly not because they are “innovative” tools that will hook student interest or involve a creative way of presenting content. Classroom clickers are perhaps the most notorious example. The adaptation of techno­logy into regular use in a course is a foundational step. Once students have a basic familiarity with the landscape of digital techno­logy, it opens the door for further student autonomy that the instructor can guide and help contextualize. Students who have learned how to navigate an archival website might be sent to the British Library to find a particular manu­script rather than the instructor simply providing a direct URL for it. More advanced tasks might guide students in a collaborative exercise to identify similar texts at other repositories. In this process, students are demonstrating progression from prescriptive instruction to self-directed action, engaging in increasingly autonomous learning using digital tools of their choice. To guide this increased proficiency and encourage the budding academic self-confidence, the instructor should continue to provide guidance and structure to the course, as students will still be inexperienced in the nuances of academic research, but greater choice can be offered. For example, instead of requiring every student to write a book review of the same narrative of Cathar heretics subject to the inquisition, refer students to the collection of such narratives on the Internet History Sourcebook and allow students to select a couple of their choice. Follow up these decisions with discussion in class about why students made these choices and moderate a debate with the class about their differing accounts. Today, when we are only just emerging from a extended period of time where much of education was virtual, instructors should be able to take advantage of the virtual tools available through learning management systems and other platforms that make collaborative work more efficient at a distance. Instructors should be able to build breakout rooms into their virtual instruction seamlessly and partition students into small groups and incorporate engaging tools like Mentimeter and Nearpod into their content deliv-

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ery to provide students a collaborative space that is seamlessly integrated with their broader learning environment. The effective use of techno­logy for course administration should extend beyond classroom instruction. Instructors can and should take advantage of the tools their institution likely provides, but are often underutilized. Learning management systems commonly have ways to integrate rubrics into the assessment framework, build question banks for quizzes and exams, and embed multimedia resources for quick access. The difficulty in this intermediate level of techno­logy integration is providing students enough choice and voice to make mistakes and vet legitimate sources without straying from the designated student learning outcomes of the course. For example, an instructor might direct students to e-Codices, the virtual manu­script library of Swiss archives, or the Digital Vatican Library to familiarize them with digital manu­script archives. However, a student that chooses a topic on English nobility might not find these resources particularly valuable. Students need to have the freedom to explore and come to a recognition that sources offered thus far are not sufficient to meet their needs while recognizing that if such resources exist for Switzerland and the Vatican, it is likely they exist for the UK, too. At this point, students will be able to direct themselves to the British Library, Bodleian Library, or other British sources, or the instructor may offer a soft scaffold through a list of resources if it appears the student is struggling. Experiences like these are meaningful in that they mirror the authentic experience of a medi­eval researcher tracking down a source. Such experiences provide students greater awareness of the products and activities of professional medi­evalists while developing real critical thinking skills. Once students and instructors are capable of navigating and using the tools offered by digital techno­logy, they are able to begin using them in innovative, creative ways. Techno­logy is no longer a central focus of assigned tasks, but implicit as tools and strategies to be used in their successful completion. Students are able to work collaboratively with their peers in this setting, utilizing the established, learned skills and protocols. Some of these activities are simple, but not possible without the ability to access and use techno­logy, such as multiple students working concurrently on writing an analysis of a primary source using Google Docs. Other activities are made possible by the instructor’s utilization of techno­logy to promote the exchange of ideas, such as connecting students to other experts through voice and video chat. Without techno­logy, an instructor of a medi­eval history course would need to find funding for travel and an honorarium to bring a colleague in as a guest lecturer. With techno­logy, students can engage the experts around the world in real time while simultaneously examining objects of inquiry from a digital repository. In a transformative course, such activities are not remarkable, but expected. The instructor facilitates student use of higher-order thinking to solve authentic problems related to the designated learning outcomes, especially those solutions that take advantage of the global interconnectedness that digital techno­logy affords. In a PBL medi­eval history course, undergraduate students should be participating in the discussions and debates of the global medi­eval studies communities, but their lack of experience, credentialing, and content expertise prevents them from participating in tradi-



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tional settings such as scholarly publications and academic conferences. Students can participate in the global forum of the internet, though, and in potentially unexpected ways that may reach an audience larger than many scholars. Wikipedia is a long-standing, crowd-sourced encyclopedia that allows users to create and edit its entries with some general moderation of content proposals and changes to ensure content quality. Students can and have edited numerous articles on medi­eval and historical topics. The instructor can facilitate this engagement by framing the task of writing and/​or editing a Wikipedia article with the targeted skills of the historian learned throughout their course. Students products are immediately available, receive feedback and edits from others users, and are promoted on a highly trafficked website that provides students a real voice in the presentation of the past to the general public. In using the digital space this way, students are able to see others’ value in their work, rather than receiving another grade on another assessment that they are never going to look at again. In a more contained environment, most collegiate institutions today have provided faculty with access to a learning management system (LMS), a software program designed to host and track learning such as Blackboard or Canvas, which can be an effective tool to use in planning and managing a project-based course. Though often not as nimble as many of the tools available on public-facing platforms, an institutional LMS can enhance equity for students who learn in different ways by allowing instructors to upload content in a variety of formats and provide institutional accommodations such as text to speech that are not always reliable elsewhere. Additionally, it provides an archival space for instructors, so students who need more processing time can work through content activities at their own pace, while students who work faster can move through more quickly.48 For PBL, an LMS is an online space that can serve as a clearinghouse for project resources and project monitoring. It is a central location where instructors can post project-specific resources in all forms for students to access online. Deadlines and progress can be monitored with embedded calendars or charts to help students track group work. LMS statistical analysis allows both students and instructors to monitor progress toward completion of project work. A critical factor in project-based learning, collaborative group work is also possible through learning management systems. Email, messaging systems, chat rooms and discussion boards all provide ways for students to interact with one another whilst allowing the instructor the ability to monitor student progress to better facilitate intervention as needed. Announcements, notifications, are other ways for instructors and groups to communicate with one another. Virtual team meeting spaces and collaborative work spaces for document creation can also be hosted through the LMS platform. Another key feature of the LMS that enhances its effectiveness as a collaborative tool is its mobility. The online LMS can be accessed through most smart devices, which allows students to work from anywhere at any time, making virtual group meetings and synchronous discussions possible when face-to-face meetings are not. This same feature allows students to participate in face-to-face virtual meetings or digital conversations with the instruc-

48  Steven D. Foreman, The LMS Guidebook: Learning Management Systems Demystified (Alexandria: American Society for Training & Development, 2017).

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tor when students struggle with concepts or need clarification. Analysis and evaluation of student work is also possible through an LMS. Students and/​or the instructor can post and take surveys related to group member performance, thus giving feedback to group members on work ethic and participation. The LMS provides a place for project rough drafts to be posted for feedback from other groups and the instructor, enabling groups to rethink and revise their work in order to produce a higher quality product. Finally, learning management systems make learning visible. Group members and instructors can check on student progress, see shared documents and presentations, make and view comments, reread and relisten to documents and presentations as often as needed, and track changes over time. However, an LMS is only as good as the tools and resources provided on it and the ways in which students use it. In all cases, the intent of these online interactions is to participate in a digital learning community to foster better learning and sustained inquiry.

Conclusion

At this point, readers have been provided with a theoretical framework for projectbased learning, an explanation of the pedagogical consideration of building a projectbased learning course, a planning guide for the project cycle, and an argument to meaningfully consider the common experiences of the typical undergraduate students with their digital world. These discussions have been supported by exemplar artifacts, scenarios, and tools that can be immediately implemented into a course. All that is left is for readers to use this information to design their own projects and implement them with fidelity in the classroom.

Chapter 6

MEDI­EVAL STUDIES PROJECT EXAMPLES In This Chapter we

– Explore a plan for a semester-long survey course. – Examine plans for multiple-week projects that encompass several learning outcomes.

– Review plans for short-term projects hyper-focused on specific skills.

Introduction

In the spirit of reflective practice, we have developed some sample projects as starting points for the integration of project-based learning into a course. Whether instructors choose to implement one or two shorter projects into their semester course, or create one project for an entire course, reading and reflecting on these examples will provide opportunities to imagine how project-based learning can be used to achieve learning outcomes during an undergraduate course in medi­eval studies. This chapter presents project exemplars with targeted strategies to assist in their effective development. Though they are able to be executed in their current form, it is the intent of this chapter to provide models for instructors to adapt to their own course needs. If desired, instructors may copy or adapt any and all components of these projects for their own courses. Semester Project Example

Table 6.1. Scaffolded Assessments for a PBL Medi­eval Survey Course Assessment

Points

Weight

Type

Quiz

50

50

Multiple-Choice

100

Short Answer

Exam In-Class Work

150 200

50

50 50 50

Project

600

50

50 50

200 100 TOTAL

1000

200

1000

Multiple-Choice Asset Mapping

Task Summary

Tertiary Source List Project Proposal

Research Archive Project Outline

Authentic Product

Final Presentation

Comprehensive Peer Review

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The semester project is ideal for deployment in a course that can dedicate significant time for student classroom work, feedback, and presentations. Typically, this will be a survey course such as “The Middle Ages: 1000–1500 CE” or “Medi­eval Civilizations.” Below is an example of a project that spans the entirety of a course semester and comprises a bulk of the course grade. The exemplar course in Table 6.1 comprises 1,000 points with 800 points connected to the project with explicit scaffolding included as formative, low-stakes assessments intended to develop students skills throughout the project. In the explanation of these assessments, note that the left column is sample text from a syllabus, while the right column is an explanation of the course component. ASSESSMENT ELEMENTS 1–2: Quiz and Exam

There are two traditional assessments in this course. Each will have a 48-hour timeframe to be taken online. DO NOT leave this until the last minute. Technical difficulties will not be accepted as an excuse for not completing these assessments. A. Quiz—10 multiple-choice questions over a text.

B. Exam—10 multiple-choice questions over a text; 5 short answer questions addressing major ideas/​themes from the book.

Instructor Notes

In this course, the quiz and exam account for 20 percent of the final course grade. These assessments include both selected response and constructed response questions. They are intended to assess reading comprehension, critical reading skills, and to serve as a summative assessment to ensure students are mastering outcomes related to major course content themes (see Student Learning Outcomes, below). By restricting the weight of these assessments to 20 percent of the final course grade, the instructor provides multiple avenues for students to demonstrate content and skill mastery outside of a high-stakes environment. Global data shows that using high-stakes assessments as a primary means of assessment has both a negative effect on student achievement and their perspective on education.49 One of the goals of higher education is to identify and recruit students to pursue graduate studies and academic careers in order to provide for the future of the field. Bad educational experiences may turn away students who might otherwise have a fruitful career in medi­eval studies.50 Though the high stakes examination of an aspiring “bachelor” may have medi­eval roots, it seems prudent to adjust pedagogical approaches to better suit the needs of students in the twenty-first century.

49  Hout and Elliott, eds., Incentives and Test-Based Accountability in Education, 87–90.

50  George Kuh, Ty Cruce, Rick Shoup, Jillian Kinzie, and Robert Gonyea, “Unmasking the Effects of Student Engagement on First-Year College Grades and Persistence,” Journal of Higher Education 79, no. 5 (2008): 540–63.



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ASSESSMENT ELEMENT 3: In-Class Work

We will be doing most of the initial preparation for your project in class. This is to ensure every student understands the requirements for this major assessment; distribute an equitable workload to each student in consultation with Dr. […, i.e., the instructor’s name]; and start your research off in an effective, efficient direction. Rubrics for each of the items below will be posted to Blackboard as the course progresses.

A. Asset Mapping—To help establish roles for each group member, students group will collaboratively visualize their strengths and weaknesses in an Asset Map whose template is available on Blackboard. In addition, students will note the assets available to them at Institution X to assist in the necessary research. We will use Lucid Chart to do this.

B. Synopsis—Using asset maps and the component rubrics on Blackboard, groups will break project work down into a series of the discrete steps, processes, and procedures needed to complete the project in order to gain an understanding of project requirements. Most importantly, this includes an equitable distribution of workload among all group members for the project, completed with approval from Dr. […]. We will use Trello to do this, and it is recommended that student groups use Trello to keep track of their project’s progress throughout the semester.

C. Research Design—Groups will build a summary list of tertiary sources (for example, JSTOR or the British Library) they can use to complete their projects. This should include a minimum of ten (10) resources available through the University Libraries, research institutions, and other online sources. Each resource should include a brief explanation of its utility for the project, and support preliminary answers to the driving questions. D. Project Proposal—Based on their preliminary research, groups will collaboratively write a formal 500-word project proposal that includes initial answers to the project’s driving questions, a description of the authentic product the group will research, and an explanation for choosing the group’s particular project option. In addition to the 500-word narrative, the proposal should also include a minimum of five (5) research sources (primary or secondary sources) the group will use to begin their work.

Instructor Notes

Though it will take time away from the direct instruction of medi­eval content, it is critical the instructor is able to observe students working on the project process to provide counsel and guidance. Such observation will allow the instructor to identify critical needs of students as well as useful information for adapting lecture material throughout the semester. Note that for each of the four In-Class products, A–D, there is a clear description of the component of this project pre-work and a declared reason for including it in the project process. Asset Maps, in this case, are a tool to help establish the skill sets of students and determine their awareness of institutional resources. Students are able to use this information to inform the roles each of them will assume in the group,

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while the instructor will be able to fill in knowledge gaps for students who lack awareness of potentially useful resources available to them at their institution. In the Synopsis, note that students are defining the necessary steps for project completion, not the instructor. This activity directly engages the student in an awareness of project expectations, while also allowing the instructor to identify which portions of the project were misunderstood by students or poorly explained in the syllabus and/​or rubrics. Note, too, that there is a specific expectation that work of the project is equitably distributed, which is able to be tracked through the specified workflow tool, Trello. In the Research Design product, note that there is some soft scaffolding by recommending students begin their research with well-known, but perhaps unfamiliar to some students, research tools. There is also a specification of how many sources are expected, which allows students to have a baseline for what “enough” research may look like for this artifact. Note, too, the expectation that students should be able to articulate why a source is useful for their initial understanding of their project, requiring them to engage their resources immediately, rather than being able to pick the first ten items from a quick search engine query. For the final part of these preparatory exercises, note that writing is required that includes a direct answer to the driving questions and a description of the final product. This will allow the instructor to establish a baseline for group’s writing competencies and offer potential interventions for groups who have unrealistic expectations for the final product. For example, one of the authors had to redirect a student group from a proposal to recreate Greek Fire and demonstrate its use. ASSESSMENT ELEMENT 4: The Project

The major assignment in this course will be a group-based project. Rubrics for all assessments will be available on Blackboard.

A. Research Archive—A repository of all of the books, articles, artifacts, and other research materials that contributed to the project. This should have a rational organizational scheme. – Organize a minimum of four (4) group study sessions – Summary and Rationale for Organizational Methodo­logy

B. Project Blueprint—Students will construct a detailed outline that addresses both driving questions as well as the design and construction plan of their final product – Thesis statement – Outline based on “Rule of 3s” (three arguments, three supporting ideas for each argument, three pieces of evidence for each supporting idea, and three sentences to explain each piece of evidence)

C. Authentic Product – Midpoint Status Check

– Research Report—1,500 words minimum

– Mechanical, digital, artistic, or written artifact



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D. Final Presentation—At the end of the semester, each group will present their final project to the class (traditional projects will create a digital presentation to go with their paper). Every group member must participate in an equitable amount of the presentation. – 15 minutes maximum, equally shared by all group members – Discuss primary sources used

– Present a convincing synthesis of evidence that answers the driving questions and addresses bias – Explain process and decision-making with detail

E. Comprehensive Peer Review – Discussion of participation and attendance during group study sessions – Peer feedback on project

– Description of group member roles and contributions – Complete survey on Qualtrics

Instructor Notes

Once project proposals have been presented, amended, and approved, groups are able to move on to the development of the project. In a group-based history project, having a repository to store research is essential. Students will begin to familiarize themselves with tools like Zotero, which allow for the collaborative archiving of biblio­graphies and research resources. Groups should regularly review these materials as the project progresses to ensure all members are kept abreast of the work of their colleagues and to find additional collaborative opportunities on project parts. The remaining products in this list, B–D, will take most of the rest of the semester to complete, with Final Presentations taking the place of a traditional final exam. Note that there is less detail in the actual project products than in the products in the project pre-work. This is largely because required components will be unique to the student group and contingent on the topic selection chosen from the options in Section IV. Instead, components will be developed primarily by student groups as part of the Project Blueprint product, which will be regularly updated by students through observation and feedback cycles and in consultation with the instructor. Project Dossiers containing all student work products will be compiled on the courses learning management system as groups build their final product. Regardless of the project type student groups select, every group is expected to be able to speak to the general scholarship of their topic, resulting in a mid-length, collaboratively written research report. This ensures that students will have an opportunity to demonstrate their critical writing competency and engage in the editing and revision process that are essential tools in the historian’s toolbox. The research report will also synthesize all critical information about the final product, a useful activity that will help prepare the group for their final representation. The group’s ability to successfully navigate the completion of the products together will be assessed in an end of course

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peer review that asks students to assess their group’s ability to work as a team, finish tasks on time, and equitably distribute the workload needed to complete their project. The peer review should be an assessment that carries some weight in the overall course grade to both incentivize students to meet the expectations described in the peer review and to ensure that students take their completion of the peer review seriously. Ideally, however, collaborative and group-based work skill competencies are achieved because of student buy-in and effective course instruction. Project Option

Four project options to choose from are available. Each group will select one (1) project option from the list below. The overarching intent of the project is to answer its driving questions. Every project option will have the same general project goals, noted in the assessment table above. However, each project type will have a distinct list of requirements for their respective goals. Rubrics for these goals will be made available on Blackboard. It is suggested that groups choose a project option that plays to the strengths of the group members. A. Mechanical—This project option will reproduce a piece of techno­logy using historically-accurate materials, methods, and techniques (e.g., smithing, architecture, military equipment) – Driving Question 1: What scientific/​techno­logical innovation had the greatest impact on medi­eval society? – Driving Question 2: How did the importance of this innovation change over the course of the Middle Ages?

– Goal: Build the item and, when appropriate, demonstrate its use. The item and answers to the driving questions should be an integral part of the final presentation.

B. Digital—This project type will produce an online resource (e.g., website, podcast series, blog, Youtube channel, etc.). – Driving Question 1: How does _____ in the present manifest itself in the Middle Ages? – Driving Question 2: How does digital techno­logy help preserve, disseminate, and promote the study of the Middle Ages? – Goal: Develop and publish an online digital product. The digital product must answer the driving questions and should be an integral part of the final presentation.



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C. Creative—This project type will reproduce a piece of art using historically-accurate materials, methods, and techniques (e.g., sculpting, jewelry, painting, fashion, theater, music). – Driving Question 1: What type of artistic expression best exemplifies medi­ eval culture? – Driving Question 2: How does this expression differ across medi­eval cultures and peoples? – Goal: Design and create an authentic art piece or pieces. The art piece(s), along with answers to the driving questions, must be an integral part of the final presentation.

D. Traditional—This project type will produce a scholarly 5,000 word essay (1,000–1,250 words per group member) complete with literature review, methods section, and biblio­graphy. – Driving Question 1: What are the fundamental characteristics of medi­eval society? What alternatives did you reject, and why? – Driving Question 2: What differing views do scholars have about these fundamental characteristics?

– Goal: Research and write a scholarly article and submit it to an undergraduate research journal. Decisions related to the research process as well as answers to the driving questions should be an integral part of the final presentation.

Instructor Notes

In a PBL course, students are provided relative freedom with reasonable boundaries. Broad categories like those above provide students the freedom to explore and choose a topic with which they have a personal interest or connection, but also allow the instructor to generally plan out scaffolds, potential resources, and activities for anticipated student needs. It is no surprise, perhaps, that undergraduate student groups who select mechanical projects have a high frequency of selecting catapult and trebuchets as their final product. Yet, even similar final products should result in differing perspectives and research products from students based on their experiences and expertise. In the last iteration of this project, for example, the three trebuchet groups investigated medi­eval engineering, chronicle narratives of sieges, and archaeo­logical evidence of sieges. These three very different historical approaches all resulted in good final products and unique research reports to support their products and presentations. Ultimately, in long-term, large-scale projects like these, the biggest boon to students and the instructor is adaptability. An instructor who can cater content delivery to the particular needs of a given course’s topic selection will keep students engaged and projects on track.

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Unit Project Examples Shorter projects are ideal for a period shorter than a semester, summer course, or for a semester course where the instructor wants to address multiple thematic content areas. A summary of two such projects is found below. Before implementation, formal project plans would need to be written using project templates such as the project conception and project goal planning templates from Chapter 3. The templates allow the instructor to make connections between learning outcomes and project components, and also make it possible to see progression of knowledge building from the beginning to the end of the project. A unit project could conceivably last from four to six weeks, depending on the length and duration of course meetings, and the depth and breadth of the content. UNIT PROJECT SUMMARY—War and Honour in the Middle Ages Project Title: War and Honour in the Middle Ages

Project Purpose: Enable students to accurately envision and explain medi­eval military tactics.

Project Duration: 4–6 weeks Learning Outcomes

– Defends the choice of specific reliable and relevant primary and secondary sources as accurate accounts and interpretations of historical events and processes related to the topic.

– Reconstructs a comprehensive view of a significant historical event or process using a thorough analysis of contextual evidence found in the collected sources. – Evaluates relationships between issues and events in order to discern the impact of multiple antecedents on a common medi­eval topic.

Driving Question

What was the most important factor affecting military strategy during the High Middle Ages?

Scenario

Rewrite history: Make new battle plans for a significant battle that would have changed the course of medi­eval history. Include maps, plans, military strategies, and rationale.

Initial Engagement

Given a list of resources and battlefield parameters, use a map to plan a siege. Half of the groups in a class will defend, half will enforce the siege. Students will share scenarios with the class and vote on wins and losses.



Authentic Connection

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The instructor might connect with other military historians or partner with a museum who specializes in a related field.

Project Dossier

Rubric(s) – Historical Skills Rubric (See Appendix B)

– Historical Writing Rubric (See Appendix B)

– Structured Controversy Rubric (See Appendix B) – Presentation Rubric (See Appendix B)

Ancillary Materials Provided by the Instructor – Cause and consequence fact sheets for various battles – Mini-bio­graphies of famous military personages – Info­graphic showing arms and armor

– Diagram of different types of fortresses – Historical battle maps

Project Goals Goal One

Student groups choose any historical medi­eval battle to investigate. For example, students might choose to investigate the impact of the Siege of Antioch (1097 CE) on the Crusading movement, taking into account both Christiam and Muslim perspectives. Groups will develop an asset map as research is gathered in order to create a digital g­ raphic organizer to show the historical context of the battle, including major players, maps, current events, battlefield techno­ logies, and other topics. Groups will share their organizers with the class in a round robin protocol where other groups have an opportunity to give and receive feedback in the form of comments and questions.

Goal Two

Student groups conduct research and prepare for a structured controversy (debate) on the statement, “Medi­eval sieges were more about supplies than siege engines.”

Goal Three

Using research from project goals two and three, student groups make new battle plans that would have changed the course of history. Students should include maps, military strategies, and battlefield techno­logies, and will present their final products to a panel of military historians.

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Potential Scaffolding Topics – Influential Medi­eval Military Leaders

– Review of Important Medi­eval Conflicts – Origins of the Crusades

– Interactions of Christians, Muslims, and Jews before and during the Crusades – Definitions of “Holy War”

– Carto­graphy and Medi­eval Maps – Siege Weapons

– Arms and Armor

– Medi­eval Infantry

– Medi­eval Battle Strategies

Assessments

Potential assessment tools might include maps, ­graphic organizers, responses to questions, feedback given to others, position papers from the structured controversy (both for and against), battlefield maps, strategic military plans, a paper on the strengths and weaknesses of a medi­eval military commander, a cause and effect info­graphic summarizing conflicts between factions, final presentation. UNIT PROJECT SUMMARY—Critical Issues in Medi­eval History Project Title: On the Fence—Critical Issues in Medi­eval History

Project Purpose: To enable students to critically determine the veracity and relevancy of historical sources.

Project Duration: 4–6 weeks Learning Outcomes

– Defends the choice of specific reliable and relevant primary and secondary sources as accurate accounts and interpretations of historical events and processes related to the topic. – Identifies a specific purpose for a source using evidence from the source as justification

– Evaluates relationships between issues and events in order to discern the impact of multiple antecedents on a common medi­eval topic.

– Reconstructs a comprehensive view of a significant historical event or process using a thorough analysis of contextual evidence found in the collected sources.



Driving Question

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How can you prove whether ____________ was right or wrong about _____________?

Scenario

Your team will be a contributing partner to a website designed to teach the public about controversial critical issues related to the Middle Ages. Your contribution should explain the controversy, and provide evidence to support all viewpoints. The website must be interactive and should incorporate both primary and secondary sources.

Initial Engagement

The instructor will provide student teams with a random series of images related to medi­evalisms along with primary source images/​documents that refute those medi­evalisms. The pairs should be unsorted. Students will work in groups to pair each medi­evalism with its refutation in a timed activity, and be prepared to share their observations. There should be enough pairings that each group can present a different rationale; it is important to emphasize that groups may come up with different pairings and different rationales which can be used as discussion points to identify strategies for further research.

Authentic Connection

The website will be shared with medi­eval scholars through the institution’s website and publicly through social media with academic societies, such as those found on the Medi­eval Academy of America’s membership for the Committee for Centers and Regional Associations (CARA).

Project Dossier

Rubric(s) – Learning Outcomes Rubric (see Appendix B)

– Website Development Rubric (see Appendix B) – Research Archive Rubric (see Appendix B)

Ancillary Materials Provided by the Instructor – List of Potential Topics (first come, first served— each group must choose a different topic) – Letter from the association president asking for contributions to the website

– Flow chart representing a strategy for contextualization

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Project Goals Goal One

Student groups choose a topic and create an online research archive showing primary and secondary sources that represent the major schools of thought surrounding a medi­eval topic.

Goal Two

Student groups create an outline to organize their thinking about whether or not _____________ was right about __________________.

Goal Three

Contributing groups will create an unbiased page for a website designed to teach the public about their critical issue as it relates to the Middle Ages.

Potential Scaffolding Topics

– Primary vs Secondary Resources – Finding Sources

– Conducting Research

– Contextualization Practice

– Think Aloud Modelling (determining purpose of a source, summarizing a source) – Compare and Contrast Basic vs. Expert Outline – Citing Sources

Assessments

Asset map, research archive, attendance at a group meeting with instructor scheduled during office hours to share findings, recorded discussion protocol as students practice summarizing and interpreting sources, project outline, web page, presentation.

Limited Outcomes Project Examples

Students taking a Western Civilizations or medi­eval history survey course will likely come to the course with a variety of different competencies and ideas about history, especially medi­eval history. However, some competencies are critical to the historian. Limited outcomes projects are short-term projects hyper-focused on a very specific course outcome. These types of projects can be used to address a common but farreaching misconception, an outcome that may not fit as well into a project with a larger scope, or may focus on a ubiquitous historical skill that students must master in order to be successful in later projects. For example, all history projects would require that students be able to verify the validity, credibility, and relevance of primary, secondary, and tertiary sources. Because this is a skill that would be applicable to all projects, it would be an appropriate topic for a limited outcomes project at the beginning of a course.



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In addition to learning a valuable historical skill, students would gain some experience in project-based learning before embarking on a longer, more complex project. Other short projects may focus on specific historical thinking skills, such as context. History students often struggle with context; again, a short project where that is the primary, intense focus would help prepare students to be successful in a subsequent, longer project. LIMITED OUTCOMES PROJECT SUMMARY—Sourcing Project Title: Solving Medi­eval Mysteries—Sourcing

Project Purpose: To enable students to analyze the influence of authorship on historical sources.

Project Duration: 1–2 Weeks Learning Outcomes

– Clearly demonstrates the ability to discern relevant and authoritative primary, secondary, and tertiary sources – Describes the purpose for each source, explains why the source is uniquely able to provide information related to the historical topic

Driving Question

How does source provenance support historical research?

Scenario

While some historical mysteries are still unsolved, there are many historical mysteries that can be solved with appropriate historical research. Students will become historical sleuths as they choose an intriguing mystery from an instructor-made list to solve through research.

Initial Engagement

The instructor makes available a random selection of different sources designed to answer a specific research question, also provided by the instructor. Some sources should be relevant, and some should be irrelevant. Student groups are each provided with the same selection of sources, and will attempt to classify the resources as primary, secondary, or tertiary, and attempt to provide a rationale as to why each resource could be used (or not used) to answer a specific question. This will provide a rich conversation related to source evaluation.

Authentic Connection

Choosing and validating appropriate sources is real work engaged in by historians.

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Project Dossier

Rubric(s) – Primary and Secondary Sources Rubric (see Appendix B) – Research Archive Rubric – Presentation Rubric

Ancillary Materials Provided by the Instructor – List of Collections – Asset Map of Potential Online Sources

Project Goal

Student groups will solve a historical mystery, and create an evidential repository of primary, secondary, and tertiary sources that aided in finding the solution. In presenting the solution to their mystery, students will explain how they found and developed their resources, including relevant missteps and how they overcame them.

Potential Scaffolding Topics

– Primary and Secondary Source Exercises (the University of Cambridge has some already developed on their virtual classroom homepage) – Five Ws and an H: Who, What, When, Where, Why, and How – Determining Credibility of Sources – Provenance of Primary Sources

– Think Aloud Modelling (determining purpose of a source, summarizing a source)

Assessments

Assessment opportunities will be limited due to time constraints, but might include such activities as an annotated biblio­graphy, a digital research archive, recorded interviews of students, conducting a rubric-driven discussion on the provenance of their sources, or a presentation of the research archive.



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LIMITED OUTCOMES PROJECT SUMMARY— Historical Context of Primary Sources Project Title: Historical Context of Primary Sources

Project Purpose: To enable students to define parameters for historical context, and correctly place primary sources in the proper historical context. Project Duration: 1–2 Weeks Learning Outcomes

– Reconstructs a comprehensive view of a significant historical event or process using a thorough analysis of contextual evidence found in the collected sources. – Synthesizes multiple contextual references related to causation and historical perspectives from sources that are historically significant and credible

Driving Question

How can historical context be established for a primary source?

Scenario

Learning how to establish historical context is a ubiquitous goal for all students of history. Students will assume the role of a history instructor as they develop a virtual tool for use in teaching others how to develop the historical context of a source.

Initial Engagement

The instructor chooses a famous historical source with an unexpected context. Students brainstorm and predict the context of the source before the instructor reveals the true context.

Authentic Connection

Context is a requisite skill for historians at all levels; teaching others requires deep understanding of the topic. Student groups could liaise with local high schools or museums to provide educational opportunities.

Project Dossier

Rubric(s) – Sourcing Project Rubric

– Historical Context of Primary Sources Rubric (see Appendix B) – Presentation Rubric (see Appendix B)

Ancillary Materials Developed by the Instructor – List of possible topics

– Examples (good and bad) of Wikipedia pages that have already been created

186

Chapter 6

Project Goal

Student groups will create or heavily edit a Wikipedia page based on the medi­eval topic of their choice and use the information to create a teaching video for actual use as a teaching tool in a high school or undergraduate course in history. Project work should address how to find and establish the context of primary sources, with sources correctly cited and pertinent examples given.

Potential Scaffolding Topics

– Compare and Contrast Primary and Secondary Sources – How to Cite Sources

– Common Misconceptions of the Middle Ages – Identifying Medi­evalisms

– How to Establish Validity of a Source

Assessments

Students may be evaluated on their expository writing abilities, on their ability to coherently present their information to an audience, and on their ability to correctly cite sources. LIMITED OUTCOMES PROJECT SUMMARY— Developing a Research Question Project Title: Developing a Research Question

Project Purpose: To enable students to understand why a solid research question is essential to effective historical writing. Project Duration: 1 Week

Learning Outcome

– Generates an open-ended research question with appropriate specificity and the potential for multiple interpretations.

Driving Question

How can we develop a research question to guide our project work?

Scenario

Students will take on the role of editor of a peer reviewed journal on medi­eval topics as they approve or disprove topics for papers submitted to the journal. Depth and complexity can be added by specifying a theme for a special edition of the journal.



Initial Engagement

Medi­eval Studies Project Examples

187

Each group is given a different driving question to evaluate using a research question checklist. Groups will share their evaluations, and the instructor will lead a class discussion on the appropriateness of each question to guide research.

Authentic Connection (real world partner or work)

Writing and answering a research question for ultimate publication in a journal is the basis for learning through historical inquiry. This is real work engaged in by historians.

Project Dossier Rubric(s)

– Historical Skills Rubric (see Appendix B)

– Driving Question Rubric (see Appendix B) – Sourcing Rubric (see Appendix B)

– Presentation Rubric (see Appendix B)

Ancillary Materials Provided by the Instructor – Checklist of attributes for a good research question

– A set of research questions, some answerable and some not

Project Goal

Based on a medi­eval topic of their choice, each group will investigate appropriate resources in order to develop a research question to guide work for their final product.

Potential Scaffolding Topics

– Qualitative vs Quantitative Research Questions

– Types of Research Questions (Comparative, Causal, Descriptive)

– Attributes of Sound Research Questions (Focused, Answerable, Specific, Complex, Relevant) – Templates for Writing Research Questions

Assessments

Groups will create a presentation to share their ultimate driving question, analyzing its attributes and giving their rationale for choosing it. An asset map showing the availability of resources to use in answering the questions is also appropriate.

EPILOGUE At the outset of each chapter of this book, we attempted to background our dis-

cussion of project-based learning with trends in education, the historical profession, and medi­eval studies which we see as national trends and in some respects are seen more widely around the world. We used this information to first establish project-based learning as a pedagogical approach that may address many of the concerning trends surrounding medi­eval history and historical practices at colleges and universities across the US. Using PBL, we then developed a planning process and project management framework designed for undergraduate instructors of medi­eval history supported by templates, artifacts, rubrics, activities, and project guides we hope are useful for the courses taught by our readers. It may be worth taking one last look at trend data to reinforce our argument that there is a need for reform in how we teach medi­eval history. To do this, we investigated what type of undergraduate medi­eval history courses are taught in our home state of Texas. Regional accreditation in Texas is provided by the Southern Association of Colleges and School Commission on Colleges (SACSCOC), whose member list we used to assemble a discrete set of institutions that might offer a course that includes a significant medi­eval history component. SACSCOC distinguishes six levels of institution according to the highest degree offered at the institution: Level I

Associate

Level IV

Education Specialist

Level II

Baccalaureate

Level III Master Level V

Level VI

Doctorate (three or fewer degree programs) Doctorate (four or more degree programs)

In the Spring of 2020, we inventoried every institution of higher education in the state of Texas accredited by SACSCOC and, after eliminating standalone professional schools and graduate-only institutions, 142 institutions remained. We then inventoried each institution’s course catalogues from school the 2015–2016 school year to the 2019–2020 school year, totalling 710 course catalogues, in order to track the addition and subtraction of medi­eval history courses at those institutions. In addition, we surveyed each institution’s website to see where their medi­eval history courses were housed. In that time span, 348 different courses featuring a prominent medi­eval history component were offered to undergraduate students across the state.1 If courses with titles like “Western Civilizations” are excluded, that number drops to 249.

1  In determining this number, we did not count courses with the same course number that was offered in multiple years at the same institution. For example, “HIST 3345: The Birth of Europe” was offered at Texas Tech University all five years, but was counted only once. However, courses with the same name at different institutions were counted, so “HIS 4325: The Vikings at Baylor University,” “HIST 3362: The Vikings” at SMU, and “HIST 4328: The Vikings” at the University of Houston contributed three courses to the total.

190

Epilogue

In Table E.1 opposite, we have provided summary data of our survey aligned to the level of the institution. It is first notable that there are more Level I institutions than Level V and VI institutions combined. This is significant because in the fall 2019 semester 874,749 students were enrolled in two-year institutions in Texas, outnumbering the 820,251 enrolled in four-year institutions.2 When looked at in conjunction with the next two columns, there are hundreds of thousands of undergraduate students across Texas who do not have an opportunity to enroll in a medi­eval history course, and those Level I institutions that do offer students an opportunity to engage in medi­eval history only do so through a Western Civilizations course.3 We are not suggesting that all community colleges need to offer medi­eval history courses, but it is important to be aware that in many cases an undergraduate’s only exposure to medi­eval history might be in a general survey course more likely than not taught by one of our non-medi­evalist colleagues. However, this trend also presents an interesting opportunity to better engage with twoyear institutions and our non-medi­eval colleagues in collaborative opportunities to ensure that the medi­eval components of their courses are implemented according to the prevailing standards of our field. Looking at the third column, it is not surprising that there are more unique course offerings at Level V and VI institutions than Levels I to IV. Level VI institutions include most of the large state schools such as the University of Texas—Austin and larger private institutions such as Rice University. These institutions are well funded and thus have the administrative flexibility to fund tenure-track faculty lines for medi­eval historians even if those faculty lines are not always revenue generators. Even with funding, though, there are three Level V institutions and four Level VI institutions that offer no medi­eval history courses, not even Western Civilizations. Perhaps even more concerning is the last column that indicates there are twenty-two institutions without History Departments at all. In twenty of these cases, historians instead teach out of a more broadly based college or department with titles like Department of Humanities, Department of Social Science, and Department of Liberal Arts, wherein history degree pathways are placed into a “program.” Academically, this is not necessarily poor grouping, as most medi­eval studies centres and departments are multi-disciplinary in a similar way implied by the department titles. However, administratively, grouping the traditional Liberal Arts disciplines together suggests lower enrollment, fewer faculty positions, and a general lack of institutional support for the work done in those fields. As before, history instructors cannot rely on students having an implicit desire to learn about the past, both because they have had few authentic experiences with historical inquiry and because there is a general lack of awareness of what practical contributions professional historians provide. As we have suggested throughout this book, changing the traditional undergraduate instructional model may help address this concerning data. 2  Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board, 2020 Texas Higher Education Almanac (Austin: Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board, 2020), 13.

3  Though three unique courses are stated, Western Civilization to 1500 pervades. The other two, European History to 1700 and History of England to 1714 are each only offered at one Level I institution.



Epilogue

191

Table E.1. Medi­eval History Courses at Accredited SACSCOC Institutions Number of Level Institutions I II III IV V VI

Unique Course Offerings

Number with no Medi­eval History Courses

Number with no History Department

55

3

17

1

19

16

3

6

23

42

3

9

17 2

26

2

5

50

4

0

4

2 2

3

Topically, the most common course offerings were distributed as below. Western Civilizations prevails again for frequency of course offerings, but medi­eval surveys are close behind. Course titles that include Renaissance and/​or Reformation were included only if the course description included dates that indicated a significant amount of time would be spent in the traditional range of the Middle Ages from 500 to 1500 CE. For example, HIST 3332: The Renaissance and Reformation, 1300–1648. Other course offerings worth noting include four instances of gender studies and three instances of medi­ evalisms. It is encouraging to see, at least at Level V and Level VI institutions, that there is a reasonably wide variety of courses offered, though an interesting followup study might compare enrollment in the content-specific sources to survey courses to gauge their institutional reach. Of the 348 total courses offered from 2015 to 2020, 164 of them were offered in the 2019–2020 school Table E.2. Numbers of year according to the Texas Higher Education Medi­eval History Courses Coordinating Board’s University Course Inven­ 4 tory for the 2019–2020 school year. This is No. of important to note because it means students Courses Topic have fewer opportunities to enroll in a medi­ 84 Western Civilizations eval history course that interests them. A cycle 69 Medi­eval Survey of courses offered less than annually likely 46 Renaissance/​Reformation indicates that faculty numbers or teaching capacity or low enrollment limit the ability of 36 British/​English History the institution to justify more frequent itera21 Islamic/​Muslim History tions of the course, but there are potentially 20 Christian/​Church History avenues to reverse this trend outside of higher education. 17 Social/​Cultural History If the field of medi­eval history and its 10 The Crusades cohort of medi­eval historians have any inclina9 Iberian/​Spanish History tion or desire to grow its footprint and perpet6 Jewish/​Judaic History uate the field, we must not only consider what 4  See http:/​/​www.txhighereddata.org/​interactive/​UnivCourse/​.

192

Chapter 6

is taught at 4-year institutions and in graduate seminars. We must also consider strategies to gain inroads at community colleges and K–12 systems. The rapidly rising number of community college students requires a similar growth in the number of faculty positions to support those students. Tenure-track jobs at 4-year institutions are already highly competitive for medi­eval historians, and professional organizations like the Medi­ eval Academy of America should do more to promote these jobs as viable career opportunities for doctoral students and recent graduates. Such changes might allow some two-year institutions the ability to offer additional opportunities to study medi­eval history other than Western Civilizations. Similarly, the plight of medi­eval history in K–12 education may seem rather hopeless. Of all fifty US states, only eleven require more than three years of social studies as a graduation requirement.5 Unsurprisingly, no state has mandated medi­eval history in its education code, but based on graduation requirements, most high school students in the country will only have a couple of semesters in which they might opt for a course that includes any time spent in the medi­eval past. Most high school students may only encounter medi­eval history in an academic unit as part of their world history class, though that course only qualifies for required graduation credit in twenty-two states. All this to say that most people, in the entirety of their educational careers, might only get a few weeks of medi­eval history content delivered to them. It is thus crucial that that limited space is structured with effective teaching strategies so students are able to take away a basic understanding of the medi­eval world and the work those who study it engage in. Collegiate instructors should be engaging with our colleagues in high schools and middle schools. Most of these social studies teachers have not taken a graduate level history course at all, much less one on medi­eval history. We should be working together to establish effective strategies for teaching medi­eval history in appropriate K–12 settings to build a pipeline of student interest as they matriculate from their secondary to post-secondary educational careers. Students like medi­eval history, and the perspectives gained from a critical study of the medi­eval past and its people have many benefits that students can take with them long after they leave the classroom. This work aims to bring attention to these educational needs, contending that learning effective pedagogy is just as critical as being an medi­eval expert in an undergraduate classroom setting. Over a lifelong career, the largest audiences many a medi­eval scholar is likely to have, and certainly the ones they spend the most time with, are students enrolled in courses. There is a duty of care that comes with that role to offer a real seminarium, a seed plot for students to develop their skills where they may grow into critical thinkers and lifelong learners with an appreciation for the medi­eval past if only offered the tools and support to do so.6 5  “Civic Education Policies: High School Graduation Requirements—December 2016,” http:/​/​ecs. force.com/​mbdata/​MBQuest2RTANW?Rep=CIP1601S.

6  Cicero, De officiis, with an English translation by Walter Miller, Loeb Classical Library 30 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1913), bk. 1, sect. 54 (available online at http:/​/​www. perseus.tufts.edu/​hopper/​text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2007.01.0048%3Abook%3D1%3Asect ion%3D54).

Appendix A

HISTORICAL STANDARDS

A.1. AP/​IB Concepts, Skills, and Practices Advanced Placement (AP)

International Baccalaureate (IB)

Disciplinary Practices

Skills

– Primary Sources – Understand a source’s context and significance – Explain how context affects a source’s meaning – Evaluate a source’s credibility/​ limitations

– Secondary Sources – Dissect the argument and evidence of a source – Understand how evidence supports/​ influences the argument of a source

Reasoning Skills

– Contextualization – Comparison – Causation – Continuity and Change Over Time

– Gathering and sorting historical evidence – Evaluation of historical evidence – Recognizing and understanding historical processes and their relationship to human experience – Organizing and expressing historical ideas and information

Concepts

– Change – Continuity – Causation – Consequence – Significance – Perspectives

194

Appendix A

A.2. Historical Standards in the United States TEKS

AHA Discipline Core

Build Historical Knowledge §113.42.c.28—The student understands how historians – Gather and contextualize use historio­graphy to information interpret the past and applies – Distinguish past from present critical-thinking skills to organize and use information Develop Historical Methods acquired from a variety of valid sources, including – Recognize History as intertechno­logy. pretive §113.42.c.29—The student uses geo­graphic skills and tools to collect, analyze, and interpret data. §113.42.c.30—The student communicates in written, oral, and visual forms.

§113.42.c.31—The student uses problem-solving and decision-making skills, working independently and with others, to identify a problem, gather information, list and consider options, consider advantages and disadvantages, choose and implement a solution, and evaluate the effectiveness of the solution.

– Collect, sift, organize, question, synthesize, and interpret complex material – Use primary/​secondary sources

Recognize the provisional nature of knowledge, the disciplinary preference for complexity, and the comfort with ambiguity that history requires.

Apply the range of skills it takes to decode the historical record because of its incomplete, com­plex, and contradictory nature. Create historical arguments and narratives.

– Develop open-ended questions and develop strategies to answer them – Craft evidence-based argu­ ments in a variety of media

Use historical perspective as central to active citizenship.

C3 Framework Developing Questions and Planning Inquiries

– Construct compelling questions – Construct supporting questions – Determine helpful sources

Applying Disciplinary Concepts and Tools – Change, continuity, context – Perspectives

– Historical sources and evidence – Causation and argumentation

Evaluating Sources and Using Evidence

– Gathering and evaluating sources – Determining the credibility of sources – Developing claims and using evidence

Communicating Conclusions and Taking Informed Action

– Communicating and critiquing conclusions, formalizing their arguments and explanations with products in various media – Presenting conclusions to an audience

– Taking informed action constructively, independently, and/​or collaboratively using disciplinary knowledge, skills, and perspectives

Appendix B

SAMPLE CONTENT AND SKILL RUBRICS Rubric: Building Historical Knowledge BASIC 1.5 Points

DEVELOPING 2.5 Points

ADVANCED 3.5 Points

EXPERT 4 Points

Classifies sources correctly as primary or secondary, but selects a variety of sources that have tenuous connections to the topic.

Selects a variety of reliable and relevant primary and secondary sources related to the topic.

Analyzes a variety of reliable and relevant primary and secondary sources in order to choose only those most closely related to the topic.

Defends the choice of specific reliable and relevant primary and secondary sources as accurate accounts and interpretations of historical events and processes related to the topic.

Identifies components of historical context such as geo­graphy, authorship, and political influence.

Explains how context influenced the reporting of specific historical events or processes found in the collected sources.

Integrates contextual evidence to develop clarity and veracity in the interpretation of historical events or processes found in the collected sources.

Reconstructs a comprehensive view of a significant historical event or process using a thorough analysis of contextual evidence found in the collected sources.

Understands a linear progression of historical events.

Describes the causal nature of historical events.

Examines the chrono­ logies of multiple causes related to a common medi­eval topic.

Evaluates relationships between issues and events in order to discern the impact of multiple antecedents on a common medi­eval topic.

Identifies a specific purpose for the source.

Identifies a specific purpose for the source using evidence from the source as justification.

CRITERION: Choosing Sources

CRITERION: Establishing Context

CRITERION: Recognizing Cause and Effect

CRITERION: Critical Reading Identifies an incor- Identifies a general rect purpose for the purpose for the source. source. Ignores context of source material.

Focuses on irrelevant or insignificant evidence from the source material.

Acknowledges context, but doesn’t make connections between purpose and context using evidence from source material. Distinguishes between essential and nonessential elements of information from source material.

Connects purpose and context of source material with evidence from source material.

Discriminates between historical fact and historical interpretation of information from source material, and cites evidence for both from the source material.

Develops new ideas as a result of connecting purpose and contextual inferences with evidence from source material. Generates historical questions to investigate as a result of comparing and contrasting historical facts and historical interpretations from the source material.

196

Appendix B

Rubric: Avoiding Medi­evalisms BASIC 1.5 Points

DEVELOPING 2.5 Points

ADVANCED 3.5 Points

EXPERT 4 Points

Establishes the chrono­ logical scope of the Middle Ages as between Late Antiquity and the Early Modern period.

Differentiates chrono­ logically bound periods within the Middle Ages; discusses appropriateness of the labels (e.g., High MA, Dark Ages, Crusades).

Understands the debate over periodization. Defends a choice for the start and end of the Middle Ages.

Develops an informed, complex opinion of periodization based on scholarship. Understands the subjective nature of periodization.

Describes medi­eval phenomena that have a continued impact on the modern world (e.g., universities, religion).

Understands the specific contexts of medi­eval phenomena as they relate to modern times.

Compares the historical contexts of medi­eval and modern events. Discuss their socio-cultural differences.

Describes medi­evalisms promoted by popular culture (e.g., movies, video games, entertainment events).

Explains the evolutions of medi­eval topics from the Middle Ages to the Present.

Recognizes diverse interpretations of the medi­eval past by people in the present.

Describes the impact of Understands that histhese interpretations on torical misinterpretation does not indicate modern societies. historical irrelevance.

Chrono­logical Scope of the Middle Ages

Context of Medi­evalisms

Applies significant medi­eval themes and ideas to modern issues.

Veracity of Medi­evalisms

Critiques modern Reimagines popular medi­evalisms for their medi­evalisms that are historical veracity. historically accurate; hypothesizes what effect it might have had on the genre.

Impact of Medi­evalisms

Determines practical applications of medi­ evalisms in modern societies.

Rubric: Strand for Constructing a Historical Research Question BASIC 1.5 Points

DEVELOPING 2.5 Points

ADVANCED 3.5 Points

EXPERT 4 Points

Duplicates a ques­tion that has already been answered.

Asks a question that does not require consideration of multiple resources to answer.

Formulates a question that is general, but open-ended and lends itself to more than one possible interpretation.

Generates a question with appropriate specificity while allowing the potential for multiple interpretations.

For example: What is the Investiture Controversy?

Formulate Historical Questions

For example: What were the main points For example: Which his­ of view in the Investi­ torical writers and/​or ture Controversy? texts had a significant role in the Investiture Controversy?

For example: What impact did papal bulls such as dictatus papae and libertas ecclesiae have on the pro­ gression of the Investiture Controversy?



Sample Content and Skill Rubrics

197

Rubric: Constructing Historical Arguments and Narratives BASIC 1.5 Points

DEVELOPING 2.5 Points

ADVANCED 3.5 Points

EXPERT 4 Points

Articulates comprehensible thesis and purpose for writing; claim is moderately original.

Generates clear and specific thesis and purpose for writing; claim offers unique new perspectives and interpretation.

Repeats nonspecific evidence; provides support that is too broad to fully support the thesis.

Explains specific, relevant evidence with interpretation that generally supports the thesis.

Constructs a response using specific evidence with insightful interpretation that supports the thesis.

Contains some inaccuracies.

Contains mostly accurate There are no factual information. errors.

Thesis /​Claim

Records unclear thesis Describes vague thesis and/​or purpose; claim and/​or purpose for is missing or irrelevant. writing; claim is ordinary and uninspired.

Support /​Reasoning

Recites evidence that is opinion- based with underdeveloped or irrelevant support for the thesis. Ignores context; acknowledges only a single perspective. Contains inaccurate information.

Arranges ideas randomly; idea development is illogical and lacks focus.

Includes limited contextual evidence; causation is mentioned with little relation to historical perspectives.

Analyzes contextual references related to causation and historical perspectives.

Organization

Organizes ideas awkwardly; idea development is uneven and transitions are missing or unclear.

Expresses ideas in a logical order that is easy to follow and makes sense, with clear and relevant transitions.

Creates a compelling and convincing narrative/​argument with a progression of ideas that provides unequivocal support for the thesis.

Selects relevant sources that may lack credibility, with awkward connections to ideas and minimal idea development.

Documents a variety of relevant, credible sources that provide balanced support for idea development.

Integrates credible, reliable source material smoothly into the text in an unbiased way that convincingly supports idea development.

Sources/​Documentation

Cites irrelevant sources that lack credibility, omits relevant sources, or misquotes sources, with little to no support for idea development. Historical significance of sources is weak.

Records information with so many distracting grammatical errors that meaning is impaired.

Synthesizes multiple contextual references related to causation and historical perspectives.

Some sources have historical significance.

Sources are historically significant and mostly credible.

Grammar/​ Mechanics

Includes noticeable grammatical errors in the document; meaning is discernible.

Sources are historically significant and credible.

Writes with some gram- Composes a document that is essentially free matical errors that are from grammatical errors. not distracting and do not interfere with meaning.

Rubric: Research Archive BASIC 1.5 Points

DEVELOPING 2.5 Points

ADVANCED 3.5 Points

EXPERT 4 Points

Few sources are included; support for understanding of the topic is inadequate.

Some sources are included; support for understanding of the topic is marginal.

Many sources are included to support adequate understanding of the topic.

Ample sources are included to support a complete and encompassing understanding of the topic.

Primary and Secondary Sources

Choices include selections that show a lack of understanding of primary and secondary sources.

Choices include both appropriate/​ inappropriate scholarly sources; understanding of primary and secondary sources is not clearly shown.

Choices indicate an under­standing of primary and secondary sources, but include some marginally relevant sources.

Describes the purpose of each source and relates the purpose to the driving question.

Describes the purpose for each source and explains why the source is uniquely able to provide information related to the driving question.

Choices clearly demonstrate the ability to discern relevant and authoritative primary and secondary sources.

Utility for Answering Driving Questions

Describes the purpose of each source without specifically relating it to the driving question.

Describes the purpose for each source, explains why the source is uniquely able to provide information related to the driving questions, and gives examples of specific, appropriate evidence.

Conformity to Manual of Style Citations (e.g., Chicago, Turabian) Most citations are for- Many citations are formatted incorrectly. matted incorrectly. Works cited page is incomplete.

Works cited page is complete but incorrectly formatted.

Most citations are correctly formatted.

Works cited page is included and sources are listed in alphabetical order, but there are a few errors.

Presentation and Organization Research archive is online. Organizational scheme is unclear.

Research archive is Research archive is online and accessible to online and accessible to the public. the public.

Organizational scheme Organizational scheme is logical and consistently is discernible, but inconsistently followed. followed.

All citations are correctly formatted.

Works cited page is included and sources are listed in alphabetical order without error. Research archive is online and accessible to the public.

Organizational scheme is logical, visually apparent, and meticulously followed.

Collaborative Group Meetings for Archive Development One group meeting is held.

Meetings are not planned in advance, and result in incomplete work.

Few group members participate.

Two group meetings are held.

Meetings are planned in advance but result in incomplete work. Some group members participate.

Three group meetings are held.

Four group meetings are held.

Meetings are planned in Meetings are well planned advance and result in fin- and result in finished work that illustrates a commitished work. ment to thorough and Many members particiinnovative solutions. pate. All group members participate.



Sample Content and Skill Rubrics

199

Model: Outline for a Persuasive Paper

This model follows the Rule of 3s: three arguments, three supporting ideas for each argument, three pieces of evidence for each supporting idea, and three sentences to explain each piece of evidence. In the complete, expanded form of this outline model, EACH supporting idea is verified by at least three pieces of evidence explained using at least three sentences (see Supporting Idea no. 1). 1. Thesis

A. Argument no. 1 B. Argument no. 2 C. Argument no. 3

2. Argument no. 1

A. Supporting Idea no. 1

1. Evidence a)

b) c)

2. Evidence a)

b) c)

3. Evidence

a)

b) c)

B. Supporting Idea no. 2



A. Supporting Idea no. 1



C. Supporting Idea no. 3

3. Argument no. 2

B. Supporting Idea no. 2 C. Supporting Idea no. 3

4. Argument no. 3

A. Supporting Idea no. 1 B. Supporting Idea no. 2 C. Supporting Idea no. 3

5. Conclusion

A. Summary Statement for Argument no. 1 B. Summary Statement for Argument no. 2 C. Summary Statement for Argument no. 3 D. Call to Action

200

Appendix B

Rubric: Outline BASIC 1.5 Points

DEVELOPING 2.5 Points

Records unclear thesis and/​or purpose; claim is missing or irrelevant.

Describes vague thesis and/​or purpose for writing; claim is ordinary and uninspired.

No arguments are given.

ADVANCED 3.5 Points

EXPERT 4 Points

Articulates comprehensible thesis and purpose for writing; claim is moderately original.

Generates clear and specific thesis and purpose for writing; claim offers unique new perspectives and interpretation.

Thesis

Includes one argument (reason) why the thesis is correct.

Includes two arguments (reasons) why the thesis is correct.

Includes three arguments (reasons) why the thesis is correct.

Supporting Ideas (General Rule: three for each argument) Explains specific evidence using relevant details with details that reflect some interpretation that generally supports the thesis.

Recites evidence that is opinion-based with under­developed or ir­rele­vant support for ideas; little if any support for the thesis.

Repeats nonspecific evidence and provides support that is too broad with details that are too general to fully support the thesis.

Explanation is insufficient.

Explanation is insufficient. Explanation is sufficient.

Constructs an argument or narrative using specific evidence that demonstrates insightful and original interpretation in a way that fully supports the thesis.

Evidence (General Rule: three for each supporting idea)

Ignores context; acknowledges only a single perspective.

Acknowledges limited contextual evidence; causation is mentioned, and a few historical perspectives are noted.

Analyzes contextual references related to causation and historical perspectives.

Explanation is thorough.

Synthesizes multiple contextual references related to causation and historical perspectives.

Rubric: Presentation Content BASIC 1.5 Points

DEVELOPING 2.5 Points

ADVANCED 3.5 Points

EXPERT 4 Points

Introduction is incomplete or irrelevant.

Introduction is complete and relevant to the topic.

Introduction is complete and relevant to topic; includes a hook to capture the audience’s interest.

Introduction is clear and complete, includes a hook to capture the audience’s interest, and provides a brief outline of main points.

Rationale for topic choice is not mentioned.

Introduction (Group)

Rationale for topic choice is partially explained.

Rationale for topic choice is explained.

Rationale for topic choice is explained and the process for making that choice is described.



Rubric: Presentation Content (cont.) BASIC 1.5 Points

DEVELOPING 2.5 Points

Sample Content and Skill Rubrics

ADVANCED 3.5 Points

Content (Group)

Does not give adequate Provides rudimentary coverage of the topic. coverage of the topic; lacks sources. Topic would benefit from more focus; conTopic lacks relevance or focus; contains mul- tains some fact errors or omissions. tiple fact errors and omissions.

201

EXPERT 4 Points

Covers topic; uses appro- Demonstrates substance and depth; is comprehenpriate sources and is sive; shows mastery of objective. material. Topic is adequately Topic is tightly focused and focused and relevant; major facts are accurate relevant; presentation conand generally complete. tains accurate information with no fact errors.

Clarity (Group)

Most ideas are in logical Ideas are not presented Some ideas not presented in logical order. order. in logical order.

Ideas are presented in logical order.

Explanations are generally clear and understandable.

Explanations are clear and concise.

Transitions are lacking. Some transitions are needed between some Explanations are ideas. unclear. Explanations are clear but incomplete.

Transitions between major ideas are present.

Use of Media (Group)

Presentation media contains irrelevant images and is difficult to read; has multiple grammatical errors.

Presentation media has an appropriate amount of text, but includes few relevant images.

Presentation media is somewhat difficult to read; has errors.

Presentation media has an appropriate amount of text and includes appropriate images.

Effective transitions seamlessly connect major ideas.

Presentation includes a balanced use of text and images that enhance the overall presentation

Media is easy to read and Presentation media is attractive, easy to read, informative and genererror-free and memorable. ally error free.

Conclusion (Group)

Weak conclusion partially summarizes the research, but includes extraneous information.

Conclusion summarizes the results of the research, but leaves the audience somewhat confused.

Conclusion provides an adequate summary of the research.

Demonstrates little grasp of information; cannot address basic questions about the topic.

Demonstrates little depth of knowledge of the information; superficially addresses questions about the topic.

Demonstrates an ability to address most questions in a thoughtful and effective manner.

Response to Questions (Individual)

Conclusion effectively summarizes the presentation and suggests options for further research. Demonstrates full knowledge of topic and addresses all questions in a manner that demonstrates a thorough command of the content.

202

Appendix B

Rubric: Oral Presentation BASIC 1.5 Points

DEVELOPING 2.5 Points

ADVANCED 3.5 Points

EXPERT 4 Points

Enunciation is poor with persistent grammatical errors.

Enunciation is fair with some mistakes in grammar.

Enunciation is good with few grammatical errors.

Enunciation is very good with vocal modulation and articulation.

Voice level is low and lacks energy.

Voice level is somewhat too low and lacks energy.

Adequate volume and energy.

Voice is loud enough to be heard by the entire audience and conveys enthusiasm for the topic.

Enunciation

Audibility

Pacing Pacing is too slow; high use of fillers (uh, um, like).

Generally good pace. Pace is too slow or fast, some use of fillers (uh, um, like).

Pacing is adjusted based on audience feedback.

Body language includes poor posture or distracting gestures or lack of attention when others are speaking.

Body language includes some distracting gestures or inattention when ­others are speaking.

Few or no distracting gestures.

Presenter projects enthusiasm, interest, and confidence; uses body language and gestures effectively.

Appearance is unprofessional.

Appearance is a­ dequate.

Attempts professional appearance

Professional appearance.

Relies heavily on slides and notes, making little to no eye contact.

Looks at slides to keep on track and makes eye contact with some of the audience.

Occasionally looks at slides and often makes eye contact with the majority of the audience.

Maintains consistent eye contact with the audience throughout the presentation.

Body Language

Appearance

Competence



Sample Content and Skill Rubrics

Rubric: Web Page Design

203

BASIC 1.5 Points

DEVELOPING 2.5 Points

ADVANCED 3.5 Points

EXPERT 4 Points

Includes links that are broken or incorrect; organization and format are confusing and hard to follow.

Classifies links in a way that makes sense, but some important links are missing, and format is inconsistent and confusing.

Arranges links and labels in a way that makes sense, with some inconsistencies in format that may be confusing.

Orchestrates a logical progression of links and labels in a consistent way that makes it possible for the user to move anywhere on the page or in the website with ease.

Arranges elements in a confusing way that makes it difficult to locate important elements.

Arranges elements in a way that makes it easy to locate most of the important elements.

Arranges elements in a logical way, and all important elements are easily located.

Arranges elements in a visually appealing way that makes it easy to locate important elements.

Chooses irrelevant ­graphic elements; colours and fonts make the web page hard to read or are otherwise distracting.

Design is inconsistent with the rest of the website.

Navigation /​Accessibility

Visual Design

Chooses g­ raphic elements that are somewhat related to the theme/​ purpose; colours and fonts make the web page legible with distraction.

Chooses g­ raphic elements that support the theme/​purpose; colours and fonts are appropriate.

Design is consistent Design is somewhat con- with the rest of the sistent with the rest of website. the website.

Copyright /​Fair Use Policy Lists citations for borrowed materials, but some are missing and/​or the format is incorrect.

Design is consistent with the rest of the website, and adds to the overall continuity and flow of information from one page to another.

Includes correctly written citations for some borrowed materials; some citations are missing or permissions are not granted when permission is required.

Categorizes correctly written citations for almost all borrowed materials; permission has been obtained to use works where permission is required.

Catalogues correctly written citations for all borrowed materials; permission has been obtained to use works where permission is required.

Demonstrates some understanding of project goals; web page is somewhat careless with some incomplete elements.

Demonstrates understanding of project goals; web page is adequate but lacks polish and professionalism.

Demonstrates deep understanding of project goals; web page is creatively and professionally complete.

Agency

Demonstrates poor understanding of project goals; web page is unfinished or unrefined.

Chooses g­ raphic elements that clearly represent the theme/​ purpose; colours and fonts enhance legibility and understanding.

204

Appendix B

Rubric: Historical Accuracy of Student-Created Artifacts BASIC 1.5 Points

DEVELOPING 2.5 Points

Implements a solution that does not directly address the problem and ignores context.

Implements the solution in a manner that addresses the problem with little thought or connections to context.

Demonstrates little understanding of the historical content.

ADVANCED 3.5 Points

EXPERT 4 Points

Implements the solution in a manner that superficially addresses multiple contextual factors.

Implements the solution in a manner that addresses thoroughly and deeply multiple contextual factors.

Presents a logical interpretation of historical events mostly grounded in evidence.

Presents a logical interpretation of historical events grounded in evidence.

Historical Accuracy

Demonstrates some Demonstrates a strong understanding of the his- understanding of the torical content. historical content.

Presents an inconsistPresents an inconsistent interpretation of ent interpretation of historical events, not grounded in evidence. historical events weakly grounded in evidence. Incorporates neither Incorporates either primary nor secondprimary and secondary ary sources. sources into analysis, Makes mistakes in establishing a weak historical facts; more argument. relevant facts omitted Refers to few relevant than included. dates and developments related to the medi­eval artifact; makes some mistakes in historical facts with major omissions related to context.

Incorporates both primary and secondary sources into analysis, establishing a reasonable argument.

Demonstrates knowledge of dates, historical figures, documents, and cultural and societal developments related to the medi­eval artifact.

Demonstrates a thorough understanding of the historical content.

Incorporates both primary and secondary sources into analysis, establishing a strong argument.

Demonstrates substantial knowledge of dates, historical figures, documents, and cultural and societal developments related to the medi­eval artifact.



Sample Content and Skill Rubrics

205

Rubric: Historical Impact of Student-Created Artifacts BASIC 1.5 Points

DEVELOPING 2.5 Points

EXPERT 4 Points

Exhibits a clear and deepening understanding of the importance of the medi­eval artifact, and establishes at least one clear connection between the artifact and its impact on medi­eval culture.

Exhibits a deep and broad understanding of the importance of the medi­eval artifact, and establishes multiple clear connections between the artifact and its impact on medi­ eval culture.

Historical Impact /​Importance

Describes the importance of the medi­eval artifact, but may not establish a clear connection between the Provides inaccurate artifact and its impact examples of how the on medi­eval culture. artifact impacted medi­eval society. Provides few relevant examples of how the Knows about some artifact impacted medi­ historical events eval society. that are related to the artifact, but Knows general chrono­ perceives them as logies and patterns isolated rather than of historical events related. related to the artifact and understands relationships between disparate events where the artifact was used. Ignores the impact of the medi­eval artifact on subsequent historical events.

ADVANCED 3.5 Points

Provides several relevant examples of how the artifact impacted medi­eval society. Knows general chrono­logies and patterns of historical events related to the artifact and identifies relationships between historical events that influenced the impact or use of the artifact.

Provides multiple relevant examples of how the artifact impacted medi­eval society accompanied by insightful rationale for choosing the examples.

Knows major chrono­ logies and patterns of historical events related to the artifact and uses historical sources to accurately articulate relationships between historical events that influenced the impact of its use.

206

Appendix B

Rubric: Historical Relevance of Student-Created Artifacts BASIC 1.5 Points

DEVELOPING 2.5 Points

ADVANCED 3.5 Points

EXPERT 4 Points

Demonstrates surface understanding of the complexity of elements surrounding use of the artifact in medi­ eval culture in relation to its history, values, politics, economy, or beliefs and practices.

Demonstrates partial understanding of the complexity of elements surrounding use of the artifact in medi­eval culture in relation to its history, values, politics, economy, or beliefs and practices.

Demonstrates adequate understanding of the complexity of elements surrounding use of the artifact in medi­eval culture in relation to its history, values, politics, economy, or beliefs and practices.

Demonstrates sophisticated understanding of the complexity of elements surrounding use of the artifact in medi­ eval culture in relation to its history, values, politics, economy, or beliefs and practices.

Relevance Across Medi­eval Cultures

Assumes a single point Understands the existof view for relevance ence of more than one of the artifact. perspective for relevance of the historical artifact and the processes that contribute to inclusion or exclusion of perspectives.

Understands the existence of more than one perspective on any historical event, the processes that contribute to inclusions or exclusion of those perspectives on written histories, and the relationship of “official” histories to subsequent developments.

Understands the existence of various perspectives on any historical event, the processes that contribute to inclusions or exclusion of those perspectives on written histories, and articulates the relationship of “official” histories to subsequent historical developments and to historical understanding.



Sample Content and Skill Rubrics

207

Rubric: Craftsmanship of Student-Created Artifacts BASIC 1.5 Points

DEVELOPING 2.5 Points

Selects materials for creation of the artifact that are anachronistic to the medi­eval world.

Selects materials for creation of the artifact that are mostly synchronous to the medi­eval world.

Selects materials that are inappropriate for their intended use.

ADVANCED 3.5 Points

EXPERT 4 Points

Selects materials for creations of the artifact that are synchronous to the medi­eval world.

Selects materials for creations of the artifact that are synchronous to the medi­eval world.

Materials

Selects materials that are appropriate for Selects materials that are appropriate for their their intended use and there was an attempt at intended use. creative modification to make them even better.

Techniques

Creates a design for the artifact that is not representative of actual medi­eval techniques. Presents an unorganized plan with little to no labelling.

Creates a design for the artifact that attempts to represent actual medi­ eval techniques with significant errors due to misinterpretation of research. Presents plan neatly with some labelling.

Creates a design for the artifact that represents actual medi­eval techniques. Presents plan neatly with labelling for most components.

Creativity

Selects materials that are appropriate for their intended use and creatively modified them in ways that made them even better.

Creates a design for the artifact that represents knowledge of multiple medi­eval techniques, with a rationale for choosing one technique over another. Presents plan neatly with clear labelling for all components.

Follows rules and conventions and ideas in typical ways to express/​illustrate the solution to the driving question(s).

Attempts to step outside rules and conventions or find new ways to express/​illustrate the solution to the driving question(s).

Steps outside conventions to use ideas in new ways in order to express/​illustrate the solution to the driving question(s).

Produces extremely simple project with no little detail or complexity.

Produces simple project with one or two elements included to add detail.

Produces project that is Produces complex prosomewhat complex, but ject with many added little detail was added. details. Some effort was put in. Submits work that exceeds expectations; it Submits work that is is clear that a lot of time above average. and effort were spent to produce a professional product.

Submits project that is not aesthetically pleasing and appears as if very little effort was put into its making.

Craftsmanship

Submits project that is complete but lacks finishing touches or could have been improved with a little effort.

Breaks rules and conventions to use ideas in clever and surprising ways in order to express /​illustrate the solution to the driving question(s).

Rubric: Choosing Appropriate Sources (Limited Outcomes Project Rubric) BASIC 1.5 Points

DEVELOPING 2.5 Points

Lists author/​artist of the source, but the author/​artist is not appropriately related to topic. Mentions job or societal position of the author/​artist. Misidentifies the intended audience.

ADVANCED 3.5 Points

EXPERT 4 Points

Lists author/​artist of the source, but the author/​artist has minimal connections to topic.

Lists author/​artist of the source, and identifies their connections to topic.

Establishes the author/​ artist’s direct and significant relationship to topic.

Identifies the intended audience.

Infers how the author/​ artist wanted to influence the audience.

Generates an argument about how successful the author/​artist was at influencing the intended audience.

Perspective: Who?

Explains specific topicCorrelates author/​artrelated background, ist’s job or societal posi- beliefs, and activities of tion with the project the author/​artist that topic. add credibility.

Purpose: Why? Cites a general purpose for the source, but does not connect it to the topic.

Identifies a specific purpose for the source and connects the purpose with the topic.

Ignores potential Mentions potential assumptions made by assumptions made by the author/​artist. the author/​artist.

Infers the intentions of the author/​artist based on the identified purpose for creating the source. Infers effect of potential assumptions on interpretation by the audience.

Setting: When and Where? Lists the date the source was created incorrectly.

Names the date the source was created, but the date is outside of an appropriate time frame for the topic.

Identifies the general geo­graphic region, but the location is not Cites a general geo­ relevant to the topic. graphic region that is relevant.

Identifies the date the source was created, and the date falls within an appropriate time frame.

Links the background, beliefs, and activities of the author/​artist with significant historical figures in order to establish credibility.

Generates a rationale behind the creation of the source that articulates the broader context of the time frame in which it is found.

Evaluates usefulness of the source based on assumptions made by the author/​artist. Establishes close proximity of the date of the source with important dates related to the topic.

Explains the importance Establishes significant of the location in which links between the topic the source was created. and the location where the source was created.

How credible /​reliable is this source? Why? Why not?

Omits the use of a Uses a methodo­logy to methodo­logy for establish the credibility establishing the cred- and reliability of source. ibility and reliability of source.

Refines an existing methodo­logy for establishing credibility and reliability of source.

Constructs a unique methodo­logy for establishing credibility and reliability of source.

Formats many citations incorrectly.

Formats most citations correctly.

All citations are correctly formatted.

Conformity to Manual of Style Citations (e.g., Chicago, Turabian)

Formats most citations incorrectly.

Works cited page is incomplete.

Works cited page is complete but incorrectly formatted.

Works cited page is included; sources are alphabetical with a few errors.

Works cited page is included; sources are alphabetical with no errors.



Sample Content and Skill Rubrics

209

Rubric: Historical Context of Primary Sources BASIC 1.5 Points

DEVELOPING 2.5 Points

Records unclear thesis and/​or purpose; claim is missing or irrelevant.

Describes vague thesis and/​or purpose for writing; claim is ordinary and uninspired.

ADVANCED 3.5 Points

EXPERT 4 Points

Articulates comprehensible thesis and purpose for writing; claim is moderately original.

Generates clear and specific thesis and purpose for writing; claim offers unique new perspectives and interpretation.

Integrates contextual evidence to develop clarity and veracity in the interpretation of historical events or processes found in the collected sources.

Reconstructs a comprehensive view of a significant historical event or process using a thorough analysis of contextual evidence found in the collected sources.

Thesis /​Claim

Historical Context Identifies components of historical context such as geo­ graphy, authorship, and political influence.

Ignores context; acknowledges only a single perspective; historical significance of sources is weak.

Explains how context influenced the reporting of specific historical events or processes found in the collected sources.

Acknowledges limited contextual evidence; causation is mentioned, and a few historical perspectives are noted; some sources have historical significance.

Analyzes contextual references related to causation and historical perspectives from sources that are historically significant and mostly credible.

Sources /​Documentation

Cites irrelevant sources that lack credibility, omits relevant sources, or misquotes sources, with little to no support for idea development.

Selects relevant sources that may lack credibility, with awkward connections to ideas that often supersedes the author’s viewpoint.

Documents a variety of relevant, credible sources that provide balanced support for idea development in a way that sometimes supersedes the author’s viewpoint.

Synthesizes multiple contextual references related to causation and historical perspectives from sources that are historically significant and credible. Integrates credible, reliable source material smoothly into the text in a balanced, unbiased way that convincingly supports idea development without superseding the author’s unique viewpoint.

Appendix C

PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTATION TOOLS Online Resource Evaluation Tool Answer the questions and score each section on a scale of 1–8, where 1 is not credible or reliable, and 8 is highly credible and reliable. Add up the score to determine whether you should keep or abandon the source. NAME OF SITE: SITE URL: RECENT: Y or N When was the information published? Y or N Has the information been updated? Y or N Are the links functional and the linked sources current? Y or N Is the information current or out-of-date for your topic?

          1          2          3          4          5          6          7          8          TOTAL: ______ RELEVANT: Y or N Who is the intended audience? Y or N Does the information answer your question? Y or N Does the source relate to a specific historical context? Y or N Have you chosen this source out of several possibilities?

          1          2          3          4          5          6          7          8          TOTAL: ______

REPUTABLE: Y or N Can you verify the author’s credentials? Y or N Does the author back up their information with evidence? Y or N Is there a list of resources at the bottom of the page? Y or N Does the URL reveal anything about the source (.edu, .gov, .org)?           1          2          3          4          5          6          7          8          TOTAL: ______

RELIABLE: Y or N Can you verify this information in another source? Y or N Is the website free from errors and obviously tended? Y or N Is the purpose of the information to educate or persuade? Y or N Are there political, religious, cultural, or other biases present?           1          2          3          4          5          6          7          8          TOTAL: ______ Scoring: 28–32: Excellent           24–27: Good           20–23: Average 16–19: Questionable           Below 16: Unacceptable

Grand Total:



Source Relevance Checklist

Planning and Implementation Tools

Consider the following ideas and complete the chart to record your thinking. A Checklist for Thinking about Historical Events Who is/​were the historical actor(s)? What was the event about?

When did the event take place? Where did it occur?

Why did it happen the way it did?

A Checklist for Thinking about Authors of History Who authored the work? What was it all about? When was it created?

Where was it published?

Why was it written (the intended audience)?

211

Peer Evaluation Template Use this form to evaluate your own collaborative behaviours and that of other group mem­ bers. Write comments to explain ratings of 1 or 2, or to highlight examples of exemplary behaviours. 1—Unacceptable      2—Basic      3—Developing      4—Proficient      5—Exemplary CRITERIA

Work Ethic

Positive Intent

Support

Respect

Comments

UNACCEPTABLE

SCALE

EXEMPLARY

Frequently fails to do their fair share (too much or too little)

1     2     3     4     5

Does their fair share

Takes offence when ap­ propriate feedback is given; often refuses or fails to use feedback to improve work

1     2     3     4     5

Consistently unprepared, late, or misses deadlines Commonly uses sarcasm; tone of voice is often derisive or rude

1     2     3     4     5

Accepts feedback graciously; uses feedback to improve work

1     2     3     4     5

Feedback aimed at the student rather than the work; makes no relevant suggestions for improvement

1     2     3     4     5

Assumes credit for the work of others; does not share information or resources

1     2     3     4     5

Does not advocate for self or others; is not helpful and does not seek help when needed

1     2     3     4     5

Lacks empathy and shows impatience or intolerance to work/​view of others

1     2     3     4     5

Does not give appropriate or thoughtful feedback

1     2     3     4     5

Prepared and on time; meets all deadlines

Speaks considerately; affirms effort of others and work done well

Directs feedback at specific behaviours or work components and makes appropriate suggestions for improvement Advocates for self and others; provides help or seeks help when needed

Acknowledges the good work done by other group members; shares and explains information Appreciates alternate points of view, and takes time to understand other viewpoints by listening carefully

Gives thoughtful, fair feedback that will help the recipient improve their work

The template above was inspired and modelled after the form found at “IFM Year 1 Small Group Peer Evaluation Program,” Drexel University College of Medicine, 2020 (https:/​/​webcampus.drexelmed.edu/​professionalism/​smallgroup.htm).

Appendix D

SURVEY OF UNDERGRADUATE MEDI­EVAL HISTORY COURSES IN US COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES This survey was conducted during Spring 2020. All of the syllabi evaluated were

found using publicly available search engine tools or university websites. In total, 71 syllabi were evaluated from 62 different institutions, ranging from small, private liberal arts universities to large, public institutions. Our analysis looked at two components in each syllabus: first, student learning outcomes provided by the instructor; and, second, assessments. “Student learning outcomes” were established by looking for syllabus sections with a similar heading, which also included “Student Learning Goals,” “Course Objectives,” “Learning Objectives,” and others. Our survey intentionally excluded learning outcomes that were discernibly not created by the instructor, such as institutionally mandated learning objectives. Unique student learning outcomes were established by looking for ortho­graphic divisions and breaks in the syllabus, such as bullet points, periods, and semicolons. This survey did not divide student learning objectives that included a discrete list of items that might be considered individual objectives. For example, “Identify and examine distinguishing characteristics, including ideas, values, images, cultural artifacts, economic structures, techno­logical or scientific developments, and/​or attitudes of people in a society or culture outside the United States,” is counted as one student learning outcome. “Assessments” were established by looking for syllabus sections that identified graded components in a course, as well as any subsequent explanation of those graded components. In total, these syllabi included 364 unique student learning outcomes and 531 unique assessments. Students learning outcomes were open-coded based on the Core Competencies and Learning Outcomes from American Historical Association’s 2016 Tuning Project, and included up to six different codes.1 Assessments were open-coded according to the categories below, and included up to five different codes. This appendix includes only summative data from our analysis, but a comprehensive investigation of this study, including a faculty survey, will be included in a forthcoming manu­script. Raw data for this survey is available upon request from the authors. Any researcher, scholar, or other interested party who would like to use this data may do so with appropriate credit given to the authors.

1  “2016 History Discipline Core,” Tuning the History Discipline in the United States, American Historical Association.

214

Appendix D

Assessment Weighting in Undergraduate Medi­eval History Courses (n=531) Raw Points in Syllabi

Percentage of Total Points

Attendance and Participation

175

2.45 percent

Participation and Discussion

55

0.77 percent

1788.3

25.06 percent

210

2.94 percent

Assessment Type

Discussion

Participation Essay

Primary Source Analysis

Secondary Source Analysis Exam

Final Exam

Midterm

Map Test

Quiz

Project

Reacting to the Past

Peer Review

176 518

472

718.2

10.06 percent

42.5

0.60 percent

11.22 percent

407.5

5.71 percent

50

0.70 percent

310 26

198

Extra Credit

2

Grand Total

6.61 percent

15.16 percent

800.5

61

7136.6

Category

13.58 percent

Classroom Contributions

34.61 percent

Written Assessments

36.44 percent

Examinations

6.31 percent

Quizzes

8.17 percent

Project Assessments

99.11 percent

Total

7.26 percent

1081.6

Presentation Other

2.47 percent

Aggregate percentage

4.34 percent

0.36 percent 2.77 percent 0.03 percent

0.34 percent

100.00 percent

Undergraduate Medi­eval History Courses in US Colleges and Universities

Assessment Frequency in Undergraduate Medi­eval History Courses (n=607) Assessment Code Selected Response Quiz Selected Response Exam Constructed Response Quiz Constructed Response Exam Short Essay

Mid-length Essay

Long Essay

Extended Essay

Book Review

Description

215

Frequency

Assessment ≤ 10 percent of final course grade. Selected response assessments include questions where students must choose an answer from a predetermined list (e.g., multiplechoice, true/​false, matching).

24

Assessment ≤ 10 percent of final course grade. Constructed response assessments include questions where students must generate the answer in writing (e.g., fill-in-the-blank, identifications, document-based questions, written final essays).

11

Assessment ≤ 500 words. For syllabi with page requirements, it is assumed that a single Letter or A4 page set in 12-point standard font with double spacing contains approximately 250 words.

23

Assessment between 1,000—1,999 words. For syllabi with page requirements, it is assumed that a single Letter or A4 page set in 12-point standard font with double spacing contains approximately 250 words.

53

Assessment requiring students to evaluate a mono­graph or edited volume.

23

Assessment ≥ 10 percent of final course grade. Selected response assessments include questions where students must choose an answer from a predetermined list (e.g., multiplechoice, true/​false, matching).

29

Assessment ≥ 10 percent of final course grade. Constructed response assessments include questions where students must generate the answer in writing (e.g., fill-in-the-blank, identifications, document-based questions, written final essays).

85

Assessment between 501—999 words. For syllabi with page requirements, it is assumed that a single Letter or A4 page set in 12-point standard font with double spacing contains approximately 250 words.

35

Assessment ≥ 2,000 words. For syllabi with page require­ments, it is assumed that a single Letter or A4 page set in 12-point standard font with double spacing contains approximately 250 words.

17

Article Review Assessment requiring students to evaluate an article from a peer-reviewed journal.

Assessment requiring students to evaluate a medi­eval source, Primary Source Review in whole or in part.

16 72

216

Appendix D

Assessment Frequency in Undergraduate Medi­eval History Courses (cont.) Assessment Code Participation Individual Project

Description Syllabus indicates “participation” is a graded course component. Multi-stage assessment with a designated final product.

Group Project Multi-stage assessment with a designated final product. Individual Presentation Multimedia Project Group Presentation Maps No Data or Explanation Attendance Peer Review Discussion Bonus TOTAL

Frequency 51 6 8

Assessment requires students to present research or a product to their instructor and/​or classmates.

15

Assessment requires students to present research or a product to their instructor and/​or classmates.

5

Multi-stage assessment requires students to create a video, website, or other digitally-based product.

3

Assessments involving the evaluation, analysis, and/​or creation of a map.

13

Syllabus indicated that attendance would be tracked .

25

Assessments were listed in the syllabus without descriptive title or explanation.

Assessment requires students to evaluate the work products of their classmates. Syllabus indicates that class-based discussion is a graded component of the course.

Extra credit assignments or bonus points associated with existing assessments.

50 2

42 4

607

American Historical Association Core Competencies and Learning Outcomes

Code 1

Code 2

Code 3

Code 4

Code 5

Code 6

Learning Out­ come Total

Student Learning Outcomes in Undergraduate Medi­eval History Courses (n=364)

1a

85

1

1

0

0

0

87

1b

Code Frequency

14

52

1

1c

45

25

49

2a

22

8

0

1d

3

2b

28

2d

3

2c

3a

3b

1

24

1

4

6

10

13

24

5

4

1

19

28

27

15

3c

22

4b

1

4

1

1

0

0

0

0

120

0

31

0

0

0

2

0

0

1

1

0

0

2

0

0

58

30

0

33

0

0

0

53

15

4

0

0

47

2

22

6

7

0

0

37

5a

16

1

6a

3

4c

5b 6b

2

11

4

2

0

59

1

12

1

1

0

17

17

15

5

9

3

1

50

2

2

8

Total Codes

3

2 1

3

1 0

1

0 0

0

0 0

124

5

6

4a

280

5

0

0

0

68

217

Core Com­ petency Total

Undergraduate Medi­eval History Courses in US Colleges and Universities

133

113

24

74

14

19

743

743

5

INDEX

accountability in collaboration, 109 in the Community of Inquiry, 161 protocol for setting group norms, 133–35 using protocols to ensure accountability, 123–24 See also equity, groups, time management achievement and assessment: 8, 16–17, 19, 21, 23, 172 and autonomy, 57 and culturally responsive teaching, 32, 40–41 and learning outcomes, 13, 14–15, 25, 92–93 as measured by rubrics, 195–209 and project-based learning, 12, 29–31 assessment and undergraduate learning outcomes, 6 as learning, 25 common assessment framework for undergraduate medieval history courses, 5–7 formative, 22–23, 87, 89, 106, 114 comparing undergraduate assessment models with secondary school standards, 9–11 in culturally responsive teaching, 40–42 of learning, 23–24 for learning, 22–23 rethinking undergraduate learning outcomes and assessments, 13–16 reviewing to evaluate, 121–23 scaffolded assessments for a projectbased medieval survey course (project example), 171–79 summative, 23–24, 87, 89 tools for project evaluation, 87 transforming assessments in medieval coursework, 16–21 weighting and frequency in undergraduate medieval history

courses (survey results), 214–16 See also learning outcomes, products, rubrics asset mapping as a core project-based learning principle, 52–53 sample asset map, 52 authenticity as a core project-based learning principle, 44–48 connections to the community, 79–80 identifying an authentic audience, 104–5 in driving questions, 49 in the project scenario, 77–78 linking authentic experience to learning objectives, 116 autonomy as a core project-based learning principle, 56–57 in digital research, 166–67 in the project-based planning process, 69 scaffolding, 59 blueprint: 100–107 defined, 100–102 explained, 103–7 template, 102

collaboration. See groups community and activity theory, 66–68 and asset mapping, 52 changing culture in the medieval-history classroom, 33–43 of inquiry, 157–61 reflective partners, 95, 121 See also authenticity conflict mitigating conflict during collaboration, 110–11 management, 111, 137–38 protocol for conflict resolution 137–38 See also norms

220

Index

context and orientation to project work: 1, 12, 22, 44, 66, 103 and historical sources, 22, 54, 73, 79, 113 historical skill, 87, 178–86 pedagogy, 58–60, 71, 80–82, 117–19, 144, 167 rubric, 92–94, 160 core principles of project-based learning asset mapping, 52–53 authenticity, 44–48 autonomy and choice, 56–57 driving question, 48–51 inquiry, 53–56 rubrics, 59–60 scaffolding, 58–59 critical thinking and assessment, 19, 162 and learning outcomes, 14, 110, 155, 194 and problem-solving in project-based learning, 47 and rubric design, 89, 92, 94 in project-based learning process, 31, 54 protocols for developing historical skills, 144–47 culture changes in the medieval-history classroom, 33–43 establishing group norms, 67–68, 103, 131 protocol for setting group norms, 133–35 See also community, groups digital fluency: 161–64 digital humanities origins, 150–53 medieval source platforms, 153 digital tools community of inquiry, 157–61 digitization of medieval sources, 152–53 for project management, 160 for medieval research, 165–68 learning management systems, 169–70 discussion academic conversations, 110–11

active listening, 110 assessment weighting in undergraduate medieval history courses (survey results), 214 digital tools, 160 group protocols, 123–47 driving question as a core project-based learning principle, 48–51 as part of the project plan, 76–77 attributes of, 50 constructing, 49–51

engagement as a function of project-based learning, 31–33 and authenticity, 38, 46–47 and autonomy, 56–57 and community connections, 82–83 culturally responsive teaching, 40–42 initial engagement, 78–79, 100 project hook, 78–79 equity as a function of learning management systems, 169 culturally responsive teaching, 40–42 in course offerings, 37–38 in group roles, 103–4 in protocols, 124, 131 monitoring participation in group work, 142 evaluation. See assessment, feedback, revision, rubrics feedback assessment and reflection planning template, 87 as formative assessment, 22–23, 89 continuous review, 120–21 Deming model, 121 peer evaluation, 107, 122 peer evaluation protocol, 142 peer evaluation template, 212 peer review, 106 project reflection, 94–96 See also revision



goals adaptive project management, 107–9 in the project blueprint, 100–102 acknowledging time constraints, 105–6 linking knowledge to project goals, 118 project timelines, 85–86 protocol for group task log, 143 setting project goals, 81 project goals planning template, 81 understanding project goals, 110 groups adaptive project management, 107–9 active listening, 110 choosing group roles, 103 collaborative skills for planning, 109–11 conflict management, 111, 137–38 developing a project timeline, 85 discussion, 110–11 in the project activity system, 66–68 group meeting agendas, 139 peer evaluation, 122 peer evaluation template, 212 peer review, 106 project blueprint, 100–102 protocol for active listening in groups, 135 protocol for development of group norms, 134–35 protocol for group orientation, 132 protocol for peer evaluation, 142 protocol for group task log, 143 purpose of group norms, 133 setting and recording group norms, 103, 111 social presence in a digital setting, 159–60 inquiry Community of Inquiry, 157–61 digital solutions for project research, 165–66 driving question, 76–77 historical inquiry, 53–56 project example for developing a research question, 186–87 rubric for constructing a research question, 196

Index

221

intentionality assessment and reflection planning template, 87 course planning, 69–70 establishing medieval history learning outcomes, 16, 71–72 project conception planning template, 70 project goals planning template, 81 project timeline template, 86 scaffolding, 114 learning framework acknowledging misconceptions, 83–84 analyzing prior knowledge, 83–84 anticipated learning needs, 83–84 scaffolding, 85 setting project goals, 81–83 timelines, 85–86 learning outcomes alignment with secondary school, 10 comparing learning outcomes to assessments, 18 establishing medieval history learning outcomes, 71–74 historical standards, 193–94 revising expectations in the medieval survey, 13–16 undergraduate course survey results, 217 use in rubric development, 92

management acknowledging time constraints, 105 adaptive project management, 107–9 building knowledge, 112 collaborative skills for planning, 109–11 conflict management, 111, 137–38 culminating event, 106 digital tools for project management, 160 learning management systems (LMS), 169–70 peer review, 106 project-based learning cycle, 99 project blueprint, 100–102 project goals and tasks, 105 See also project planning, time management

222

Index

medievalisms driving question, 51 popular culture, 4, 8, 83–84, 89 rubric, Avoiding Medievalisms, 196 unit project, Critical Issues in Medieval History, 180–82 misconceptions advance consideration of (during project design), 83–84 identification using rubrics, 89 limited outcomes project design, 182 multimodal literacy described, 156 within a project activity system, 155–56 norms as part of activity theory, 68 brainstorming, 129 for conflict resolution, 137–38 in the project blueprint, 102 peer evaluation, 122 protocol for development of group norms, 134–35 purpose of norms, 133 setting and recording group norms, 103, 111 objectives. See learning outcomes

peer evaluation: 118, 119, 142 peer evaluation template, 212 post-secondary education assessment frequency in undergraduate medieval history courses (survey results), 215–16 assessment weighting in undergraduate medieval history courses (survey results), 214 undergraduate course offerings in medieval studies, 191 establishing medieval history learning outcomes, 71–74 student learning outcomes in undergraduate medieval history courses (survey results), 217 presentation authenticity of, 60 as assessment (survey results), 214, 216 culminating event, 82, 87–88, 106

identifying an authentic audience, 104 peer evaluation of, 119, 142 rubric for presentation content, 200–201 rubric for oral presentation, 202 prior knowledge activation of, 55 anticipated learning needs, 83–84 correlation to Community of Inquiry, 160 misconceptions and medievalisms, 83–84, 112 problem solving. See inquiry protocol to identify prior knowledge, 127–28 scaffolding, 85 products authentic, 45 culminating events, 87–88, 106 evaluation of, 88–89 project activity theory applied to multimodal literacies, 156–57 defined and described, 66–68 model of, 67 project-based learning core principles of, 44–60 described, 30–31 history of, 27–30 impact on student achievement, 31–33 implementation of a project, 97–148 planning a project, 65–96 situated in the medieval classroom, 33–34, 60 project dossier in the project blueprint, 101 in the project cycle, 100 project conception, 80–81 protocol for unpacking the dossier, 125–26 project planning anticipated learning needs, 83 assessment and reflection planning template, 87 authentic connections, 79 conceptualizing the project, 71 culminating projects and events, 87 defining project purpose, 74 developing the project framework, 81 driving questions, 76 establishing learning outcomes, 71



project-based design, 69 project conception planning template, 70 project dossier, 80–81 project goals planning template, 81 project hook, 78 project reflection, 94–96 project scenario, 77 project timeline template, 86 rubrics design for evaluation, 88–94 rubric design template, 90 scaffolding, 85 setting project goals, 81 tools for project evaluation, 87 protocols for orienting students to a project Idea Generation, 129 Unpacking the Dossier, 125 What I Know, What I Don’t Know, 127 protocols to facilitate collaboration Active Listening, Conquering Concepts, 135 Conflict Resolution, 137 Consensus/Knowledge Building, 140 Group Meeting Agenda, 139 Group Orientation, 132 Peer Evaluation in Three Parts, 142 Setting Group Norms, 133 Task Log, 143 protocols to develop historical skills Close Reading: PACE between the Lines, 145 Evaluating Online Resources, 146 reflection methods, 94–96 specific activities for checking progress, 115–20 research archive rubric, 198 asset mapping, 52–53 digital solutions for online learning,159, 165–70 historical inquiry, 53–55 online resources evaluation tool, 210 project example for developing a research question, 186–87 rubric for constructing a research question, 196 scaffolding for writing a research question, 115

Index

223

revision Deming model, 121 feedback, 117 for improvement, 120–21 peer evaluation, 107, 122, 142 rubrics as scaffolding for formative assessment, 89, 117 construction of, 89–93 for evaluation, 88–89 strands for historical skills, 93–94 rubric examples Avoiding Medievalisms, 196 Building Historical Knowledge, 195 Choosing Appropriate Sources, 208 Constructing a Historical Research Question, 196 Constructing Historical Argument and Narratives, 197 Craftsmanship of Student-Created Artifacts, 207 Historical Accuracy of Student-Created Artifacts, 204 Historical Context of Primary Sources, 209 Historical Impact of Student-Created Artifacts, 205 Historical Relevance of Student-Created Artifacts, 206 Outline for a Persuasive Paper, 200 Presentation (Content), 200 Presentation (Delivery), 202 Research Archive, 198 Web Page Design, 203 scaffolding, differentiation, 114 as a core project-based learning principle, 58–59 building knowledge with scaffolding, 112 hard scaffolding, 58, 112 soft scaffolding, 58, 112 workshop design, 114–15 See also protocols scenario authenticity, 44 project conception, 77–78 secondary education history standards, 193–94 medieval history in the curriculum, 2–3, 7–9

224

Index

sources appraisal of online sources, 54, 210 asset mapping, 52–53 authenticity of learning, 11–12, 47–48 in digital humanities, 150–54 evaluating online resources protocol, 146 historical context, 185 in learning outcomes, 11–12, 14–16 limited outcomes projects, 183, 185 provenance as a historical skill, 54 relevance checklist, 211 rubrics, 93, 94, 195, 197, 198, 208, 209 standards. See learning outcomes survey, Medieval History assessment in, 6–7, 16–25 current perceptions of, 1–5 expectations, revising, 5–11 occurrence in Texas undergraduate programs, 1–3 targeted learning goals, 5–6, 13–16, 18 undergraduate courses, survey of, 213 technology. See digital tools time management developing a project timeline, 85 group meeting agendas, 139 project workflow and time constraints, 105 timeline template, 86

workshops design and implementation of, 114–15 in the project plan, 81 use in scaffolding, 112–15 See also protocols writing skills argumentation, 55–56 assessment of, 6, 14, 16, 18, 20, 21, 215 project to develop the research question, 186 outline for a persuasive paper, 199 scaffolding of, 115 rubrics, 197, 200