Mediaeval architecture in the central area of Corinth 9780876611616

Table of contents :
Frontmatter
PREFACE (page v)
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (page xi)
ABBREVIATIONS (page xv)
INTRODUCTION (page 1)
PART 1. ARCHITECTURAL DEVELOPMENT (page 6)
CHAPTER I. THE EARLY CHRISTIAN PERIOD 395-610 (page 6)
CHAPTER II. THE AGE OF BARBARISM 610-802 (page 27)
CHAPTER III. THE BYZANTINE RECOVERY 802-1057 (page 34)
CHAPTER IV. THE FULL BYZANTINE PERIOD 1059-1210 (page 50)
CHAPTER V. THE FRANKISH PERIOD 1210-1458 (page 84)
CHAPTER VI. THE TURKISH PERIOD 1458-1858 (page 88)
PART 2. ARCHITECTURAL ANALYSIS (page 97)
CHAPTER I. TECNIQUES OF CONSTRUCTION (page 97)
CHAPTER II. ORNAMENT (page 103)
CHAPTER III. PLANS AND TYPES OF BUILDINGS (page 123)
APPENDICES (page 137)
INDEX (page 141)
PLATES AND PLANS

Citation preview

CORINTH VOLUME XVI

MEDIAEVAL ARCHITECTURE

RESULTS OF EXCAVATIONS

, CONDUCTED BY THE AMERICAN SCHOOL OF CLASSICAL STUDIES AT ATHENS

VOLUME XVI | IN THE CENTRAL AREA OF CORINTH BY

| ROBERT L. SCRANTON

AER > Lian EIA We)

io? Y ©E BEAR ALY >!

Ar (iF 1 (py “i BA SL ES eet cer nies

THE AMERICAN SCHOOL OF CLASSICAL STUDIES AT ATHENS , PRINCETON, NEW JERSEY 1957

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

PRINTED IN GERMANY AT J.J. AUGUSTIN, GLUCKSTADT

~~ PREFACE - The purpose of this work 1s to reveal as far The plans and drawings in this study were as possible the architectural development of prepared for publication by Mr. 8. L. Doukas, the Central Area at Corinth through the middle architect in Athens and Instructor at the ages. It is impossible to study the mediaeval national Greek Polytechnic Institute, with architecture outside the Central Area system- advice from Mr. John Travlos, architect for atically at this time, for the larger parts of the the Excavation of the Athenian Agora. No mediaeval city are still unexcavated. It is independent surveys of the mediaeval remains even impossible to detail the entire history of were made, for the practical reason that almost the Central Area itself, because of the lack of all mediaeval construction has been removed essential records. Nevertheless the information from the Central Area in the process of the exavailable is important, partly because com- cavation of the classical levels. Mr. Doukas parable evidence for certain periods of the began by making a preliminary general plan of Byzantine era has not been found elsewhere the major classical monuments of the area at and partly because it contributes to the pic- 1:200 (a considerable task, as no such plan ture of Corinth as a large community inhabited existed) and superimposed on this those elealmost continuously from the dawn of Greek ments of the existing sectional plans of medi-

prehistory to modern times. ] aeval walls which I indicated. The nature of The gaps in our information about the Cen- this process may be suggested by a comparison tral Area are due in part to the circumstances of Plan VII, the largest of the sectional plans, of the excavation. When the American School which shows almost all of the post-classical of Classical Studies at Athens began the ex- walls excavated in the southern part of the area ploration of Corinth in 1896, the primary pur- against brief indications of classical buildings, pose was to discover monuments of the classical with Plan VI, the corresponding selective plan Greek city, and refined techniques of exca- prepared by Mr. Doukas. In Plan VI there apvation were only then being born. Although pear, in addition to walls shown on Plan VII, success in the primary purpose was immediate a few other walls recorded in detailed sketches and brilliant, at first little effort was made to in the excavation note-books, and a few walls keep detailed records of mediaeval remains. still standing, which were never put on the Very soon the excavators began to keep re- drawing which is the original of Plan VII. Thus cords of non-classical discoveries, but at this the drafting is the achievement of Mr. Doukas;

distance of time it is almost impossible to the responsibility for interpreting the excainterpret the notations satisfactorily. From the vation records is mine. | 1920’s more useful records are available, and I should also take the responsibility for the in the early 1930's an effort was made to keep lack of finish, certain imprecisions, and some general, systematic accounts according to a indecision evident in the drawings. I felt that coordinated plan. Thus our view of the area as there are still innumerable details which are a whole contains some sections which are com- impossible to define with confidence and that pletely blank, some only vaguely distinguish- it would be more honest to make this evident able, and others with fairly sharp and rounded in the plans than to give them a refinement

detail. — implying absolute accuracy.

The original sectional plans were the work.of the middle ages so far as our information goes. architects present at various stages of the exca- It does not pretend to be a general history of

vation, made from surveys conducted while Corinth through this period, although I have the walls still stood. Thus J. M. Shelley and _ tried to provide an historical outline in the later Wulf Schaefer made Plan VII and the paragraphs introductory to each section. Most original plans of the Monastery of St. John and of this derives from the work of John Finley of the West Shop area; L. M. Douglas, that of . and Antoine Bon, including Bon’s contribution

the area north of the Peribolos of Apollo; to Corinth, III, ii, listed in the Bibliography, J. M. deWaele and Oscar Broneer, those of the but I have tried to add some details from other Lechaion Road to the west of this section, and studies and independently. A real history of of the Hemicycle area. Wulf Schaefer made Corinth through this period is perhaps somethe original drawings of the Bema Church and what closer to realization now that the archithe Church of St. John in Figures 3 and 6-10. tecture, together with the pottery and other In interpreting the drawings and other re- material, are available for evaluation.

cords I had the advantage of some personal I conclude with noting happily my particuexperience, particularly in supervising the ex- lar debts to Miss Alison Frantz of the staff of cavation of the Monastery of St. John anda the Excavation of the Athenian Agora, who small section south of Peirene. I wasalsogener- read the manuscript in an early stage and ally familiar with the course of excavation in made useful criticisms; to Mr. Demetrios much of the southern part of the area through Pallas, Ephor of Byzantine Antiquities in the having been present during the work of the Peloponnesos and Western Greece for the years from 1985 to 1938, but I had no close Greek Archaeological Service, with whom I personal contact with most of it. My part in discussed matters frequently; to Professor

this study has been largely the attempt to Peter Topping, Director of the Gennadius collate information preserved intheday-by-day Library for generously offering facilities for

excavation notes of the great number of work in the Library and for permission to members of the American School of Classical publish the print illustrated in Plate 14; to Studies who have worked at Corinth. I have Professor John L. Caskey, Director of the no doubt failed in interpreting some of their. American School of Classical Studies at Athens observations, and the work suffers from the for generous and thoughtful assistance in many impossibility of continuing consultation with ways; and to my wife, for all kinds of aid. I all of them, but the basic credit for the work am especially grateful for the careful and goes to them. I would record particular debts kindly editorship of Miss Lucy Shoe. to Professors Oscar Broneer and Saul Wein- The work was done in 1958-1954 under a berg who freely answered my questions sub- Fellowship of the John Simon Guggenheim mitted by letter and allowed me to see manu- Foundation, while I held the post of Annual script copies of their studies of the South Stoa Professor at the American School of Classical

and the Southeast Building, and to Professor Studies at Athens on leave from Emory John Kent for answering questions about University. To these institutions, without

unpublished inscriptions. whose generous assistance I would have been The work thus constitutes a general survey unable to do the work, I am most profoundly of the architectural history of Corinth through — grateful.

Kmory University Rosert L. SCRANTON

PREFACE OY

TABLE OF CONTENTS nn ne ees vii

List oF ILLUSTRATIONS . ee ee ee ee ee ee ee

ABBREVIATIONS a XV INTRODUCTION © 6 6 1 Part 1. ARoHITHOTURAL DEVELOPMENT . 6... ee ee ee a tee ee) «66

Cuaprur I. Tun Earnuy Crristtan Pertop 395-610 .. 2... 1 ee ee ee ee ee eee CG

A. IntrRoDUCTORY ee ee eee 6

B. Tue Burwprnes or tHe CENTRAL AREA .. 1. ee ee ee ee et ee te ee ee eee CD | Tue JuLiaAN Basiuica AND THE Merropouitan Cuurcn (11-12 H-Il)......... .. 9

Tus Sournnast Bumpine (11-12 J-K) 2... 2. ee eee eee Tue CanTRAL STAIRS AND THE Bema Fountains (4L roll J) ........2..2..2.. 22

Tun Propynara (8H) 2... ee ee ee ee 1G Tun Hemicycte anp Revatep Bumprnes (6-7 C-D). 2. 2. 6 ee ee ee ee ee 61 - ‘Tue Area Norra or run Perrponos or Aponto (9-10 C-E). . 2... 1 ee ee ee ee 16

Tum Perronos or Apouto (9-10 E-G) 2... ee ee eee OD Tum Fountain Petrene (9-10 G-H) . 6... ee ee ee 2D

Tun Sour Sroa (40 To12L) 2... ee ee ee ee BB Tue West Terrace (8 J-L) 2... ee et ee ee ee OM Tue Norru Marxet (2-5C-D) 2... ee ee ee ee OD THe SYNAGOGUE NEAR THE THEATRE... . 1 ee eee ee ee ee ee ee we ew BS

C.SuMMARY . 0. cc ec ee ek ee 26

, Cuarrur IL. Tas Acs or Barzartsm 610-802 a 27

AJ INTRODUCTORY 6 6 we ee ee ee ee ee B. Burpincgs AND Revatep PHENOMENA IN THE CENTRAL AREA... . 1. eee ee ee ee) 28

7 THe GRAVES. 60. ec ew ee ee ee OD Surrrtine oF HARTH AND DESTRUCTION or CuassicaL MoNUMENTS . 2. 6 1-1 eee 81

C. SUMMARY 2 0 we ee ee ee ee ee ke ee ee ee ee ee ee ee) 8B

~ Cuaprer III. Tas Byzantine Recovery 802-1057 2 6 6 6 ee 84

A. INTRODUCTORY © 6 6 ee ee ee ee 84

B. Tum Burupines or tHe Centrau AREA . 1... ee ee ee ee ee ee ee eee we BT

Tum Lecuaton Roap (8 C-G) 2. 6. ee ee ee ee BT

, Tun Ramp tHRoUGH THE Propyuata (8 G-H) . . 2... ee ee ee ee ee BT Tus Recion Norra or tHe Purisotos or Aponno (9-10 C-H). «2. eee ee es 38

Tur PERIBOLOS OF APOLLO AND THE CHURCH IN Perrens (9-10 H-H) .. ~~... 2.6. . 88

, Tum House Hast or Perrene (10G-H) 2... 1 ee ee ee ee ee ee BD Tun Sournpast Bumupine (11-12 J-K). 2. 6. ee ee ee ee eee ‘Tum Bema Cuurcu (7-8 K-L) 2 2 6 6 we ee ee ee ee ee ee 42,

Viii TABLE OF CONTENTS Tun “Governor's Panacn” (4-5 H-I) . 2... ee ee ee ee 46 Tue Soutu Sipn.or THE Agora (40 Tro12L)......2..... 2.2. 2.82.20... 47

Tue West Terrace (8 J-L). 1 1 we ee ee AT

Tue West SHors (1 JtTo2M)... 2... ee ee ee ee 48

NortH Market anp tHE Nortu Roap (2-5 C-D) ................. 48 C.TueSUMMARY 26. . ee ee ee 49 Cuaprer IV. Tue Fury Byzantine Pertop 1059-1210 . 2... 2... eee ee. (50

A. INTRODUCTORY. 6. ee ee ee ee BO

B. Tum BumpInes oF THE CENTRAL AREA... 6 1. ee ee ee ee ee ee ee «8B

Burtpines or Tue Earuier Puase (Late Eueventa Century) .............. 54

/ Tae AREA OF THE BEMA . 1. 1 1 1 ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee «84 Tue Bema Cyurow (7-8 K-L).. 2... 1 ee ee ee ee ee wwe) «8

THe Bema Suops (7-8 JN-K). 2 1 2 ee eee ee we BB Tue West Terrace (8-4 JN-K) 2... ee ee eee ee ee (56

Buintpines oF THE Later Puase (TWELFTH CENTURY) .... 2... 2 ee ee ee we BT

THe Market ARBA. «1. 1 ee ee ee ee ee ee OT : Tue Puarema ro8 J)... eeeeeeeeBT Tuk Suops (8 (5K Jto4 lL)... . 6. ee 5B STRUCTURES IN THE West ENnp oF THE Market (4-5 J) 2... 2... wee. «80 Pusuiic Burnpine at THE Hast END or tHe Market Puateia (8 J) . 2... .. «660

THe Inn (QJ)... ee ee ee ee ee eee se 60 Tue Cyurnco (8 J)... ee ee eee ee e664 THe Monastery (2-4 J-K) . 2. 2. ee ee ee ee ee eee 64 THe SOUTHWEST QUARTER . . 1 1 1 we ee ee ee ee ee ew we) 666 THe House (8-41) 2... ee ee ee ees 66 Tue Sourawest Burupine (1-2 L-M) ...... . ee ee ee eee ee FT

THe Monastery or St. Jonn THHoLOGos. . 2... ee ee ee ee «6

THe CEMETERY AROUND TempLeE HH... 1... ee ee ee ee eT

Tue Western SoutH-CENTRAL QUARTER. 2... 0. ee ee ee ee ee eee BT

Tue Ceramic Facrorrus (5 L-N).. 2... ee ee ee BT _ Tum Tower Computex (6-7 L) . 2... ee ee eee ee 68 THe CentraL SoUTHERN QuartEeR (6-8 L-N)..................2... 68

THe Soutu Bats (6-7 M). . 2... 1. ee ee ee ee ee ee 10

Tue Bema Cuyurog (7-8 K-L). . 2... ee ee ee ee ee ee CT

} Tue Arges Sours or THE Bema Cuurncu (8 L-M).........2.2..2....... 78

Tue Boutnutrerion Housp (8 M-N) ................2.2.....

THe Hastern Souto-CentRaL Quarter (9-10 K-M).................. 78 Tue Grape Himporium (10 JN-K)..... 2... 2. 2. ee eee eee ew ee 4

Tue Sournuast Burupine (11-12 JN-K). 2 2. 2. ee ee ee

THe Hast Quarter (11-12 H-J) 2... 2... ee ee ee ee

Tue Suops (10-11 I-J) 2... eeeeeeee. ee76 6 Tue Tavern (10D)... 2... ee ee }Tue Tue House (10-11 I)... 0... ee ee ee 6 Norruuast Roap (9H-10 FF)... 2... ee eee ee eee 6 Tue Lecuation Roap (8 C-H) . 2... 1. ee eee ee TT

Tue Propyuata (8H).12 ee 6 6 ew ee eeee eeeTT TT Purrent (9H)... THe SHops (7-8 D-G). 2... ee eee TT

THe AREA NortH OF THE PeRrBotos or Apouto (9 D-E) ............... «78 . Tue Norta Bara (8C) 2... 2. ee ee ee 8 Tue AREA OF THE HemicyouE (6-7 C-D) «1 ww ww ee ee eee TY

: TABLE. OF CONTENTS ix Tun Nort Roap (6Ht04C) . 2... ee ee eee ee BO Tue AREA or THE NorntH Market (2-5 0-D) .... 2... 2... ee ee ee ee ee 80 Tue Tempus Roap (2-5 G) . ww ee ee eee ee BM Tur Norruwest Roap towaRpD Sixyon (4J T02G) .........-.2...... 81 . Tue Nortuwest Tavern (8-41)... 0. ee eee ee ee 82 Tus Norruwest Hovst 2-831)... 1. ee ee ee ee 8D

CO. SUMMARY © 6 6. ee ee ee ee. BD

-Cuaprer V. Tun Frankisu Perrop 1210-1458. 2. ee ee ee ee 84 A. INTRODUCTORY . 2... eee ee ee ee ee ee ee eee ee BSF B. Tue BurupINGs OF THE CENTRAL AREA... 6 ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee 86

Cuaprer VI. Tue Turxisu Purtop 1458-1858 2. 6 6 ee ee ee BB

A. INTRODUCTORY 2.00 ce ce ee ee ee eee 88 B. Tue Bumpines or THE CENTRAL AREA... 6. ee ee ee ee ee OM

Part 2. ARCHITECTURAL ANALYSIS... 0 0. ee eee ee ee ee ee ee ee 8M Cuaprmr I. TecHNIqUES OF CONSTRUCTION 2.0. 0 ce eee ee ee ee ee OF

WALLS AND SUPPORTS «00. cc ee ee ee ee OT

MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES .. 1. ee 0 ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee eM FUNCTIONS . 00... ee ee ee ee ke ee eee Doors AND WINDOWS ..... ee eee ee ee ee ee ee ew ee es 100

Fuoors AND STAIRWAYS... 1. 0 eee ee ee ee eee eee ee 10 Ceminas AND Roors. ..... 1. eee ee ee ee ee ee eee ee ee 102 Cuaprer II. ORNAMENT. 2... we ee ee ee ee ee ee ew ee 108

Carnvep SLABS... 1 wk ee ee ee ee eee ee ee we 108

Posts AND COLONNETTES 2... 6. ee ee ee ee ee ew ee 106

CoLUMNS AND SUPPORTS . . 1. 1 ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee we 108

BASES. 2. 0 ee ee ep ee ee ee ee ew ew ee 108 CouUMN CAPITALS . . ww ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee 109

-=IMposts. . 0 ww we ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee 110 MouLDINGS .. 1... ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee WT MISCELLANBOUS . . 0. 1 ee ee ee ee ee eee ee we 122 Cuaprer III. Puans anp Types or BUILDINGS. © 6 6. ee ee ee 188

_ Commmrctan BUILDINGS. © 6 6. ee ee ee we 188

BUILDINGS ©«ww 6 wweeeeeeeeeee ee ee ee 126 125 - Orvio Reurgtous BurnpIngs Domestic BUILDINGS . 2... ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ew we 128

PITHOL 2 ok ee ee ee 181

Gmervick STRUCTURES. 2... 1 ee ee ee ee ee ee we 18 CELLARS 2... ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee we 182

CISTERNS . . . ce ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ew ee 182 Group PLANNING .. wwe ee ee ee ee ee ee ew ee ew we 188 APPENDICES . 1. 0 0c eee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee we 187

. Drartns AND WATER CHANNELS. . 2. 0. ee ee ee ee ee ee ew ew we 188

OA.TurTam GRAFFITI. © 6, ee ee ee ee ee 18 FoRTIFICATION GRAFFITO . 2. ee ee ee ee ee eee ee ee 187 Tue Rounp Sure GRAFFITO . . 2. 1 ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ew we 188

Tue GALLEY GRAFFITO . 1.6 6 ee ee ee ee ee ee eee ee ee 189 B. Tue “Stama TABLES” . . ww we ee ee ee ee ee ee we ee ew we 189

Fig. PAGE LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

| FIGURES IN THE TEXT

1. Plan of the Early Christian House North of the Peribolos of Apollo . . . 2... ...2.2.2.2.2. «18

2. Plan of the Tenth-Century House Hast of Peirene. ..... 1... 1. ee . 39 3. Plan of the Bema Church, Actual State. Scale 1:150. 2. 2... 2... ew 4

4. Plan of the Bema Area in the Eleventh Century, Restored... 2... 2... 1. ee ee 8B 5. Plan of the West Terrace Area in the Eleventh Century, Restored... ............ «56 6. Plan of the Church of St. John Theologos, Actual State. Scale 1:150 . 2... 2... ww. 62 7. Section through the Church of St. John Theologos, looking Fast. Scale 1:150 ......2..2.~«94 8. Section through the Church of St. John Theologos, looking West. Scale 1:150 ......... «94 9. Section through the Church of St. John Theologos, looking North. Seale 1:150 .. . 2... 2...) 95 10. Section through the Church of St. John Theologos, looking South. Seale 1:150 .......2.~« «95

11. Drawing of Sill Block in Use in Twelfth Century ... 2. ..............4.. . 100 12. Schematic Drawing of Vaulted Tomb. Scaleca.1:40 .........0...0..2 2.2.08. 197 18. Drawing of Graffito Representing Fortifications. Scale 1:6. ................. 187 14. Drawing of Graffito Representing Round Ship. Scale 1:5 2... ........2..2.2. 2. . 188 15. Drawing of Graffito Representing Galley. Scale 1:3. .....2.2......0 002444. 189

PLATES Plate

1 1 The Early Christian Central Stairs in the Agora 2 The Early Christian Fountain West of the Bema

2 1 The Hemicycle just after Excavation 2 The Court of Peirene during Excavation 8 1 The Early Christian House North of the Peribolos of Apollo, from the North 2 The Latrine in the House 3 The Private Bath in the House 4 The Tenth-Century House East of Peirene, in 1954 4 1 The Tenth-Century Ramp through the Propylaia, as Excavated 2 Arched Doorway in Cellar West of Bema Church

5 The Bema Church Area from the West, as Excavated 6 1 The Bema Church from the East, as Excavated 2 The Bema Church from the West, as Excavated 7 1 The Church of St. John Theologos from the West, in 1937 2 The Church of St. John Theologos from the East, in 1987 8 1 Interior of Church of St. John Theologos, looking East, in 1937 2 Interior of Church of St. John Theologos, looking West, in 1937 9 1 The Tower Complex from the West, as Excavated 2 The Tower Complex from the North, as Excavated 10 1 The South Central Bath from the North, during Hixcavation 2 The South Road, as Excavated

11 1 The Wine Press Building, in 1954 | 2 A Corner of the Inn on the Market Plateia, as partially Excavated 12 1 The North Bath on the Lechaion Road from the Northwest, in 1954 2 The North Room in the North Bath, in 1954 3 The Pithos Room in the North Bath, in 1954 4 A Window Mullion Re-used as Sill 18 1 Arch in Southernmost Lechaion Road Shop 2 The Apsidal Building in the South Basilica from the East, as Excavated 14 View of Corinth about 1700, from Copper Engraving by G. Bodenehr in 1720, perhaps elaborated from sketch by V. Coronelli about 1708 15 1 Mediaeval Walls over Eastern Central Shops 2 Mediaeval Walls Hast of Bema Church 16 1 Mediaeval Wall in South Stoa, Room “H”’ 2 Mediaeval Walls in Area of Ceramic Factories

17 1 A Flat-Roofed Tomb 2 A Vaulted Osteotheke

xiv: PLATES Plate

18 1 A Built Pithos 2 A Ceramic Pithos 8 Lips of Pithoi in Southeast Building 4 A Cistern 19-85 Carved Architectural Ornament 86 1 Successive Water Channels North of Peribolos of Apollo 2 Marble “Sigma Table” from the Peribolos of Apollo 3 Marble “Sigma Table’ from the Building Behind the Hemicycle 4 Marble “Sigma Table” from the Kranion Church

PLANS I. Sketch Map of Corinth and the Isthmos II. Sketch Map of the City Area of Corinth

III. Plan of the Central Area of Corinth to about A.D. 200 IV. Plan of the Central Area of Corinth in the Early Christian Period V. Plan of the Central Area of Corinth in the Twelfth Century (Northern Part) VI. Plan of the Central Area of Corinth in the Twelfth Century (Southern Part) VIL. Plan of Mediaeval Walls as Excavated in the Southern Part of the Central Area of Corinth

ABBREVIATIONS Acta Sanctorum == L. A. Deubner, Acta Sanctorum, Leipzig, 1900. | A.J.A. = American Journal of Archaeology.

"Apx. “Ep. = ’ApyatoAoyiknh "Epnuepis. , "Apxeiov = A. K. Orlandos, ’Apyeiov tév Bulavtivaév Munueloov tis “EAAKSos, 1935 and following.

de Beylié = L. de Beylié, D’habitation byzantine, Paris, 1902. | Bon = A. Bon, Le Péloponnése byzantin jusqu’ en 1204 (Bibliothéque Byzantine, 1), Paris, 1951.

Bréhier = L. Bréhier, Le sculpture et les arts mineures byzantines, Paris, 1986. |

B.C.H. = Bulletin de Correspondence hellénique. .

Butler, Syria, Architecture = H.C. Butler, Ancient Architecture nm Syria: Syria, Publications of the

tecture, Leyden, 1919-1920. — .

Princeton University Archaeological Expeditions to Syria in 1904-1905 and 1909, Division II, Archi-

1951. :

Byz.-Neugr. Jahrb. = Byzantumsch-Neugriechisches. Jahrbuch.

Colasanti = A. Colasanti, L’arte bizantina in Italia, Milan, 1912. Corinth = Corith, Results of Hacavations Conducted by the American School of Classical Studies at Athens. Ti Richard Stillwell et al., Introduction, Topography, Architecture, Cambridge, Mass., 1982. Iu ~~ Richard Stillwell et al., Architecture, Cambridge, Mass., 1941. Tjiii = Robert L. Scranton, Monuments in the Lower Agora and North of the Archaic Temple, Princeton, Liv Oscar Broneer, The South Stoa and its Roman Successors, Princeton, 1954.

II Richard Stillwell, The Theatre, Princeton, 1952. |

III,i Carl W. Blegen et al., Acrocorinth: Excavations in 1926, Cambridge, Mass., 1980. III,ii Rhys Carpenter, Antoine Bon et al., The Defenses of Acrocorinth and the Lower Town, Cambridge,

Mass., 1986. _

VIIL,i Benjamin D. Meritt, Greek Inscriptions, Cambridge, Mass., 1981. | IX Franklin P. Johnson, Sculpture 1896-1923, Cambridge, Mass., 1981. | X Oscar Broneer, The Odeum, Cambridge, Mass., 1932. XI Charles H. Morgan, The Byzantine Pottery, Cambridge, Mass., 1942.

XII Gladys R. Davidson, The Minor Objects, Princeton, 1952. : XIV Carl Roebuck, The Asklepreion and Lerna, Princeton, 1951. . C.G-C.1.H. = N. Bees et al., Corpus der Griechisch-Christlichen Inschriften von Hellas, Athens, 1941. Dalton = O. M. Dalton, Byzantine Art and Archaeology, Oxford, 1911.

Acat. =’Apyaiodoyixov AcAtiov. ,

Kbersolt and Thiers = J. Ebersolt and A. Thiers, Les Eglises du Constantinople, Paris, 1918. Evpetnpiov = Evpetnpiov ta&v Meoaiwvikdv Mvnuetoov tis “EAA&Sos, Athens, 1927-1953. Parts A, B (pp. 1-122)

by G. A. Soteriou; Part [ (pp. 123-230) by Anastasios Orlandos. Finley = John Finley Jr., “Corinth in the Middle Ages,” Speculum, VII, 1982, pp. 477-499. Hesperia = Hesperia, Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens. Keil = Joseph Keil, Forschungen in Ephesos, Oesterreichisches Archaeologisches Institut, Band IV, iii, Die Johanneskirche, Vienna, 1951. Koukoules = Philon Koukoules, BuCavtivédv Bios Kai TloArtiouds, Vol. I, i: Collection de l’institut francais

d’Athenes, no. 10, 1948; I, ii: no. 11, 1948; IT, i: no. 12, 1948; II, ii: no. 18, 1948; III: no. 48, 1949;

IV: no. 78, 1951; V: no. 76 and 76 A, 1952. : Krautzsch = Rudolf Krautzsch, Kapitellstudien (Studien zur spatantiken Kunstgeschichte im Auftrage des

Deutschen Archaologischen Instituts, no. 9), Berlin, 1986. ; | Lemerle = Paul Lemerle, Philippes et la Macédoine orientale a V’époque chrétrenne et byzantine (Recherches d’histoire et d’archéologie, Bibliotheque des Kcoles francaises d’Athénes et de Rome, no. 108), Paris, 1945.

xvi ABBREVIATIONS LeQuiens = Michaelis LeQuiens, Oriens Christianus, Vol. II, Paris, 1740. Max = Max, Herzog von Sachsen, Das Christliche Hellas, Leipzig, 1918. Miller = Wilham Miller, The Latins wn the Levant, London, 1908. Millet = G. Millet, Monuments byzantins de Mistra, Paris, 1910. Orlandos, Chios = A. K. Orlandos, Monuments byzantins de Chios, Athens, 1981. Reisch = Emil Reisch, Forschungen in E'phesos, Oesterreichisches Archaeologisches Institut, Band IV, i, Die

Marvenkirche, 1932. |

Schultz-Barnsley = R. W. Schultz and 8. H. Barnsley, The Monastery of St. Luke of Stiris in Phocis etc.,

London, 1901. Soteriou = Georgios A. and Maria G. Soteriou, ‘H BaotAiky tot ‘Ayiou Anuntpiou OeccaAovikns (BiBAioOnKn Tis év "AOrvais "Apyaidoyixiis ‘Etoipefas no. 84), Athens, 1952. Volbach = W. Volbach, Muttelalterliche Bildwerke aus Italiens und Byzans (Bildwerke des K. F. Museums, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin), Ed. 2, Berlin, 1980.

INTRODUCTION | The mediaeval period in Kurope was the unpublished, including chiefly those found in epoch of the forging of modern western civili- the central area of excavation in the region of zation from the fusion of classical culture and the classical Agora. These last represent, with Christianity under the impact of the blood and restrictions of some importance, the center of

tradition of the Hast and the North. To an the mediaeval city throughout most of its

understanding of so tremendous a process, the history. story of the city of Corinth throughout the Before we consider the mediaeval monuperiod can make a contribution; for its for- ments themselves, it may be desirable to tunes, while not always paralleling exactly the review the outlines of the history and topomajor lines of development, did soin part and graphy of the community in the years immediin any case transpired in a region exposed to ately preceding the period of our study. After contact with several of the major spheres of the refounding of the city in 48 B.C., Corinth growth. Beginning as a great city safe in the pursued a prosperous but relatively uneventful

heart of the Roman Empire, Corinth became career through the period of the Roman the capital of a border province of Byzantium, Empire. For most of this time it was the a Frankish march, a Turkish village. Although capital of the province of Achaia and undoubt-

it never, perhaps, had a major role in the edly the focus of incessant activity of bureauprocession of events—political, religious, ar- cratic as well as economic nature. Throughout

tistic or otherwise—it participated in the the first and second centuries after Christ entire experience and not always meanly. The there was constant building, and, in spite of life of this city in its various transmutations certain catastrophes, no conspicuous sign of should have real rneaning in the assessment of basic decay appeared during the third century. the life of the Middle Ages, and particularly, The city was little affected by the great events

of course, in that of Byzantium. of the time in the world of politics and warfare, To an understanding of this story the archi- but pursued a busy provincial life intent on its

tectural development of the Central Area of the own concerns. | , city makes its peculiar contribution, especially By the beginning of the second century the when taken with our knowledge of other con- architectural form of the city was well estabtemporary evidence of human activity.1 Some _ lished; indeed, the form and most of the details

of the architectural remains of mediaeval had been created little later than the middle Corinth have already been published, including of the first century (Plan III). The center of the fortifications and some other structures on public and private business was located in the Acrocorinth and some outlying churches and area of the Greek Agora in a broad low hollow other features;? other monuments remain just behind the edge of the highest of the great 1 E.g., the pottery, Corinth, XI; lamps, Corinth, IV, ii; terraces shelving from the foot of Acrocorinth

one Conanth, VL an 1 Hesperia, VL 1987, oe Bt 256. northward toward the sea. The hollow was

X,2 1941, pp. 143-162, protected from the north by the ridge on which C. W. Blegen, Corinth, IIT, i, pp. 21ff.; A. Bon, Corinth, .

III, ii, pp. 128-281; J. M. Shelley, Hesperia, XII, 1943, Stood the archaic temple, today commonly pp. 166-189; C. Roebuck, Corinth, XIV, pp. 160-172; ealled the Temple of Apollo, and was ap-

A. Philadelpheus, IV,from 1918, 125-135. Seenarrow also below, p. 9, note 18.AcAt., proached thepp. north by a deep 1

2 CORINTH |

valley at the foot of this ridge to the east, im consisted, first, of a great flight of steps leadwhich ran the main avenue of the city, the road ing down to the avenue itself. The street was to Lechaion. The market itself was rectangular, well paved with slabs of limestone, and lined running east and west, divided into an Upper with sidewalks and colonnades. Behind the Agora along the south and a somewhat larger colonnades on each side were shops, those on Lower Agora on the north. The Lower Agora the west constituting a partial basement to the was lined on the north side, west of the Propy- great Basilica above, those on the east a laia at the head of the Lechaion Road, by the screen between the road and buildings behind. entrance to a great Basilica erected above the Of these buildings the first to the right was the Lechaion Road and east of the archaic temple Fountain of Peirene, elaborately enlarged and (an entrance adorned in the second century by remodeled in the second century; north of this a monumental false facade now known as the came the colonnaded court of the Peribolos of Captives Facade, or the Facade of the Colossal Apollo, and still farther north, a luxurious bath Figures) and west of this,in the second century, which has not yet been fully excavated or by the Northwest Shops built in front of the studied. but which is sometimes called the earlier Greek Northwest Stoa. Hast of the Baths of Hurykles mentioned by Pausanias.

Propylaia was a relatively slight colonnade. From the south side of the Upper Agora, At the east end of the Lower Agora was a large about opposite the Propylaia of the Lechaion public building now called the Julian Basilica; Road, another, somewhat narrower, paved at the west end a series of temples and monu- avenue led southward. This may have turned

ments was built on the edge of the West eastward to proceed to the harbor at Kenchreai, Terrace. Behind was an open space lined onthe although it is possible that the main road to west by the West Shops, through the center of Kenchreai entered the Agora at its northeastern

which rose a monumental approach to the or southeastern corner, from the east. From the temple and precinct probably dedicated to West Terrace a road led northward past the Livia (lemple EK). Along the south side of the Fountain of Glauke, the Odeion, the theatre, Lower Agora was a terrace, occupied chiefly by and ultimately the Sanctuary of Asklepios and

the Central Shops which opened onto. the Lerna at the edge of the second terrace, along Lower Agora, with the Bema, or rostra, in the the city wall. Hither this road or one branching

center; a great Circular Monument stood at from it led to Sikyon. the east, and a building which has been identi- On the northern edge of the highest terrace,

fied as a Dionysion at the west. below the archaic temple and between the The Upper Agora was bounded on the north Lechaion Road and the road along the Odeion by a promenade over the roofs of the Central and theatre, lay a Roman Market, consisting Shops, on the east by the Southeast Building, of a colonnaded court with shops. Other builda structure perhaps designed for the preser- ings in this region have not been investigated vation of archives, on the west by a colonnade completely.

bearing an aqueduct, and on the south by the There are many indications that other magnificent South Stoa, a Greek building buildings and quarters of importance lay in which was subjected to almost continuous the neighborhood of the Agora, but the excaremodeling throughout the Roman period to vated buildings of the Upper and Lower Agoras, adapt it to housing offices of provincial and with the archaic temple and the upper part of

local administration. the Lechaion Road, were undoubtedly the The Lechaion Road, beginning at the Pro- focus of political and economic life in Corinth pylaia at its departure from the Lower Agora, throughout the period of the Roman Empire,

INTRODUCTION | 3 the essential plan and much of the construc- development, the archbishop Bakchyllos held tion having been achieved before the end of a synod of his bishops in connection with dis-

the first century. putes on the day of celebrating Easter, a

This was the topographical environment symptom of the increasing friction between which surrounded the introduction and early eastern and western Christendom which was history of Christianity in the city. The story becoming a dominant factor in the life of the of the church itself, following the establishment Corinthian church.’ of a Christian group in the city by Paul around So far as can be seen Corinth was little afthe middle of the first century, to the end ofthe fected by the political and economic shocks of century, is not unnaturally obscure. However, the third century, and even if the Herulians the first leaders of the group—Apollos, Sos- did work some damage on the city in 267-2688 thenes, Silas—may be counted in some sense (which could be disputed), it must have been bishops of the church; and, since the Corinthian limited. But although the city at large pursued

church soon came to be recognized as the a fairly uneventful existence, the Christians, if Metropolitan of Achaia, perhaps because of its the traditions of martyrdom be accepted, had location in the political capital, they may also their troubles.® The reliability of the accounts be regarded as in the position of archbishops.? is obviously dubious in certain cases and hence

We have some intimation of one of the critical questionable in general, but they may well problems of the period in the friction between _ reflect the general situation. For some episodes

the more conservative Jews and the other tradition has an approximate date; for others, members, suggested by the conflict between none. The dated ones seem to fall between Paul and Sosthenes reported in Acts and by the A.D. 288 and A.D. 259.

tradition that the earliest martyrdom was of | Among the first of these martyrs was a one Timon of Beroea, burned by the Jews.4 woman whose name is not given, but who was Around the end of the century Clement of the mother of a later martyr, Kodratos (QuadRome addressed a famous epistle to the group, ratus). She came to her death while he was a possibly indicating close relations between child. Another woman, Helikonis of ThessaloCorinth and Rome, but telling little about the nike, underwent particularly trying ordeals

Corinthian community as such.® . with unusual fortitude, according to the traNor has the second century left much to dition; her martyrdom began under one procurecord. Three bishops—Apollonios, Primusand _ rator, Perinius, and continued through a series Dionysios—are known, all representing ortho- of highly varied torments into the time of his

doxy against the early heresies. Dionysios, a successor Justinus. Both Greek and Roman

voluminous correspondent, seems to have tradition date her martyrdom to May 28, inclined especially toward Rome and read under Gordian III or Philip.1° Kodratos himepistles from the Roman bishops in his ser- self, with five others, perished during the reign vices. Toward the end of the century, when of Decius or Valerian, on a March 10 under a the city seems to have reached a climax of procurator Jason. They were held in great

Oo , ~ honor at Corinth and their relics were described

* Max, p. 42; Le Quiens, pp. 155-156. in a religious poem as the “outer defenses”’ (pro: Mae " ltBon p, Bs Jemnen A Mideh Bpiciie of Clement te.chisma) of Corinth, and the church dedicated of Rome and St. Ignatius of Antioch (Ancient Christian Writers in Translation, No. 1, Newman Bookshop, Westminster, Md., 7 Max, p. 59; Le Quiens, loc. cit.; Eusebios, V, 23.

cussion. | 151, 159. , a

1946) has most recent translation, bibliography and dis- 8 Bon, p. 13; Broneer, Corinth, I, iv, pp. 184, 136ff., 148, ® Le Quiens, loc. cit.; Max, pp. 46f.; Kleist, op. cit., p. 5; ® In general, see Max, pp. 51-55.

Hiusebios, ITI, 4; IV, 21, 24. _ 1° Acta Sanctorum, May, vol: VI, p. 81.

*

4 | CORINTH | to them was a place of healing. Ona January Corimth—Hesiodos, Epiktetos, Dionysios IT, 31 of about the same period, under a procu- Dorotheos and Alexandros — through the fourth rator Tertius seven others were martyred; century; these were metropolitans governing and for an April 16, under an unknown em- some forty-six suffragans in the Peloponnesos peror, the procurator being a certain Venustus, and northern Greece, or substantially the provthere is a confused tradition of themartyrdom ince of Achaia, under the Metropolitan of of a large group, of whom a man named Leo- Thessalonike. It is a matter of some significance nides was hanged and the others, for mourning that the Metropolitan of Thessalonike, to-

him, were taken out to sea and drowned. gether with his subordinates including the Finally, there is a martyr Alexandros of No- Bishop of Corinth, remained under the Bishop

vember 24 of an unnamed year. of Rome even after their provinces came under These fragmentary and somewhat unreliable the political control of Constantinople. details nevertheless constitute what has been The great field of conflict of the period was recorded of the Christian tradition in Corinth religion. Although Christianity achieved ofthrough the three centuries during which the ficial recognition during the course of the cen-

central provinces, at least, of the Roman tury, there were still battles with paganism empire lived their busy lives largely unaffected and even more bitter struggles of divided by external events, within the imperial frame- opinion within the fold. The closing of pagan work developed on. the concept of Augustus. temples and the prohibition of pagan sacriThe first open changes in this pattern came _ fices under Constantius, the brief revival of with the close of the third century, and the paganism under Julian, and the anti-pagan fourth century experienced a complete change measures of Theodosius involving the closing in many important areas affecting the life of of the temples and the ending of the Olympic

the city. , games in 896 were developments which might Politically, of course, the reforms of Dio- well be expected to have had open and far-

cletian represent the beginning oftheseparation reaching effects on the life of Corinth. Actually,

of the Eastern and Western empires. In his little really specific information on the practinew scheme of things Corinth stillremained the cal application of these measures can be gained

capital of the province of Achaia, now con- from the literature, and the excavations at ceived as part of the prefecture of Illyricumin Corinth produced no reliable evidence of the diocese of Moesia; under Constantine systematic dramatic destruction of pagan Moesia was divided, and Illyricum, with shrines and temples in general at this or any Achaia, was established as part of the new later period. There was, however, an advocate diocese of Macedonia. Throughout most of the of Christianity’s attack on paganism at Corinth,

fourth century these entities were governed named Aristophanes.” The relative obscurity from Rome, but toward the end of the period of Aristophanes and the anti-heretic polemithey were transferred to Constantinople. cists Hesiodos and Epiktetos suggest the level With the official recognition of Christianity of intellectual activity in the Christian Corinth ecclesiastical organization took a place along of the fourth century ; although these men were with political. Le Quiens lists five bishops of not theleaders oftheir age, they were active init. 11 Max, p- 51; Acta Sanctorum, March, vol. II, March 10, 15 Bon, p. 7; Max, pp. 61-63.

p. 4. See also below, p. 7, note 8. . 16 Compare Bon, p. 6, where are cited A. Fliche and 12 Max, p. 55; Acta Sanctorum, Synaaarum Ecclesiae V. Martin, Histoire del’ Eglise, III, pp. 517-518; IV, pp. 15-30;

Constantinopolitanae, 1902, p. 435. and E. Stein, Geschichte des spdtrémischen Reiches, I, Vienna, 18 Acta Sanctorum, April, vol. II, pp. 402ff. | 1928, pp. 327-328, 335.

14 Bon, pp. 2-4. 17 Bon, p. 6. |

INTRODUCTION : 5 Although this meager information suggests gets the impression that the city was comthat nothing happened in Corinth consonant pletely devastated, but we shall see that it was with the tremendous events in politics and not damaged beyond repair. In fact it would religion at the highest levels of the empire, the seem that some such catastrophe or series of latter part of the century nevertheless marked catastrophes of just such a degree of intensity the end of an epoch for Corinth in genuinely was appropriate to the needs of transforming dramatic ways. At least two great earthquakes, the city into a community suitable to the new one in 865 and one in 875, and what must have culture whose birth-pangs had been the chief been a ferocious sack accompanied by unusu- concern of the same century. ally violent destruction, by the Goths in 395, Tn any case it appears that in the latter part seem from a casual reading of the evidence to of the fourth century Corinth was in fact a have laid the city waste.48 Many of the impor- vital community, both in the church and tant buildings of Roman Corinth were ruined otherwise. John Chrysostom, in the opening or at least badly damaged during these years. words of his First Homily on First Corinthians,” The destruction of Temple E has been dated to speaks of it in his time as the first city in

the mid-fourth century, that of the Julian Greece, worthy of its glorious tradition of Basilica and the Captives Facade or Facade of philosophy and rhetoric as well as of commerce. the Colossal Figures, somewhat hypothetically, While it would be agreeable to know whether

to about 875, that of the theatre, the Central he wrote before the sack of Alaric or after Shops, and the North Market, to the sack of (probably he wrote before the sack), the archiAlaric in 895; parts of the South Stoa, the tectural evidence supports his impression, and Odeion and the Asklepieion were destroyed fine as well as common Christian burials mark toward the end of the century.” One almost the growth of the Christian population.?!

18 For the earthquake of 365, Ammianus Marcellinus, |

XXVI, 10, 15-19; for that of 875, Zosimos, IV, 18; I.G.,IV, South Stoa: Corinth, I, iv, p. 1538; Odeion: Corinth, X, 674; Corinth, VITI, i, no. 113; A.J.A., XX XIX, 1935, p.65; p. 147; the Asklepicion: Corinth, XIV, pp. 160-161.

for the sack of Alaric, Zosimos, V, 6; Bon, p. 14. 20 John Chrysostom, Homilies on First Epistle of St. Paul 19 Temple E: Corinth, I, ii, pp. 178, 184; Julian Basilica: the Apostle to the Corinthians, Argument line 1 to end (Migne,

unpublished; Fagade of the Colossal Figures: Corinth, I, ii, | Patrologia Graeca, vol, LXI, col. 9f,). p. 88; theatre: Corinth, II, p. 140; Central Shops: Corinth, 21 AJ.A., XXXV, 1931, pp. 428-441; XL, 1936, p. 484;

I, iti, pp. 181-132; North Market: Corinth, I, iii, p. 192; Corinth, XIV, p. 162. |

In following the intricate course of the sub- 1059; (4) the full Byzantine Period, 1059-1210; sequent development of the city we shall have (5) the Frankish Period, 1210-1458 ; and (6) the

to compromise between an order based on Turkish Period, 1458-1858. The terms “Frankchronology and one based on topography. We ish” and “Turkish,” in this division, are hardly shall therefore divide our account broadly into accurate chronologically but indicate the presix chronological sections: (1) the Harly Chris- dominant character of the period in question. tian Period, 395-610; (2) the Age of Barbarism, Within each section we shall follow chronology

610-802; (3) the Byzantine Recovery, 802 to or topography as seems most revealing. |

CHAPTER I THE EARLY CHRISTIAN PERIOD 395-610 , A. INTRODUCTORY During the fifth and sixth centuries Corinth preted as resistance to Rome.! Perigenes was remained the capital of the province of Achaia, present at the Third Council at Ephesos in and the bishop remained a metropolitan under 4812. Petros, who was present at the Council Thessalonike, under Rome. Le Quiens lists at Chalcedon in 451, took part in the growing four bishops of the fifth century: Alexandros, struggle between Pope and Patriarch-Emperor. a correspondant of Chrysostom, Perigenes, He seems to have inclined toward ConstantiHrasistratos and Petros. Of these something 1s nople without being able to escape Roman recorded about the appointment of Perigenes. jurisdiction, for he received reprimands in 446 He was evidently appointed by the Pope at from Pope Leo IV, the Great, for making apRome to the see of Patras, but refused by the pointments without papal sanction and for church there. He was then designated to refusing to recognize papal appointees; and he

Corinth, and although he was a native of called a local synod of the bishops of Achaia Corinth there was violent dispute before he for purposes desired by the Emperor Leo I?

was accepted. This conflict apparently arose in .

419 and continued until 485. The difficulty Ruf ue ens PP mm, anno 19, 1s Kal’ Gontiace 1, Zp. “ seems to have lain in the increasing strength 2R. Carpenter, A.J.A., XXXIIT, 1929, p. 359, says

wp: . . Perigenes, which seems to correspond with the data of the

and opposition of parties supporting Rome on sources; but Finley, ‘“Corinth in the Middle Ages,” Speculum, the one hand and Constantinople on the other, V4. 1932, p. 499 gives Erasistratos, for reasons which elude

and. the resistance to Perigenes has been inter- es Le Quiens, pp. 160-161; Bon, pp. 8-9. , 7

THE EARLY CHRISTIAN PERIOD 395-610 7 During the sixth century the Church at undoubtedly other churches were constructed Corinth continued to be active. The Archbishop in and near the town. One of these, perhaps a Photios had two delegates, the Deacons Dio- kilometer north of the Asklepieion, has recently nysios and Kallinikos, at the Fifth Ecumenical been partially excavated by the Greek ArchaeCouncil at Constantinople in 558, according to ological Service (see below p. 9, note 18). A Le Quiens; and in 591 Pope Gregory the Great church was probably erected on the summit

provided one of his emissaries to the Patriarch of Acrocorinth in this period.® | with a letter of introduction to Archbishop A significant moment in the history of the Anastasios at Corinth. This Anastasios was city was marked by the construction of a new involved in a dispute with his superior at wall of fortification for the lower city, below Thessalonike, Hadrian, and the dispute, ad- the citadel, which substantially reduced the judicated by Gregory, apparently resulted in defended area (Plan II, Hand F). At least, the the removal of Anastasios forsimony.* Gregory area enclosed by the new wall is about onealso corresponded with Anastasios’ successor third that enclosed by the classical wall. The

John in the matter of a decree of Maurice new fortification is represented by traces berelating to attempts of individuals to evade tween the Kranion church and the Central Area, military obligations by entering the church. about 500 meters east of the latter, and probaThese incidents suggest that Corinth remained, bly by other traces a similar distance west of if perhaps uneasily, in the double camp of the Agora. This wall has often been called Justipolitical allegiance to the east, religious to the nianian but on the basis of unpublished excawest. Of another bishop, Epiphanios, we have vations by Rhys Carpenter is dated more prob-

only the name.® ably in the early fifth or even late fourth centu-

Apart from ecclesiastical history there is ry. A hoard of 742 coins was found along the some information as to the state of affairs in wall, with the bones of a man, covered by the city during the fifth and sixth centuries. debris which seems to have come from the wall A great number of graves of the period have _ itself as though an earthquake had thrown the been discovered, chiefly in the area and vi- wall down at some period over a fugitive. The cinity of the Asklepieion and Lerna, at the coins, of which 886 were legible, included 148 northern edge of the classical town (PlanII,H). of Anastasios (491-518), but apparently nothThe beginnings of this extensive cemetery may ing later. Evidently the wall had been built be as early as the fourth century, and it is earlier than the time of Anastasios, and hence even possible that part of the sanctuary itself earlier than Justinian, but suffered some (Plan II, A) may have been converted into a severe damage so that it may well have been church at that time. The gravestones give reconditioned by Justinian. Other numismatic considerable information as to the activities of . evidence gives ground for the tentative dating

the populace of the time.” A basilican church of the wall in the early fifth or late fourth was built in the Kranion suburb of the city, century.’ In any case, even in the slight evinear the gate of the road to Kenchreai (Plans dence available in and from the wall, we perI,5;II, D), probably in the fifth century,8and ceive the quickened reaction of the population ‘Le Quiens, loc. cit.; Letters of Gregory, Ind. XI, nos. 6, to the gathering threats to the Harly Byzantine 38, 89; Max, p. 92; Setton, Speculum, XXV, 1950, p. 519. .

5 Le Quiens, loc. cit.; Letters of Gregory, Ind. XIII, nos. empire.

67 Corinth, C.G-C.LH., no. 7. : | | XIV, pp. 162, 166-167. ® Corinth, III, i, p. 21. |

52, 57, 58; Setton, loc. cit. With the reign of Justinian himself, evidence

8 J. M. Shelley, Hesperia, XII, 1948, pp. 166-189; A.J.A., 10 Carpenter, in Corimth, ITI, ii, p. 127, inclined toward the

XXXIII, 1929, pp. 345-860. Could this have been the fourth century. For an account of the coins, see K. M.

martyrion of Kodratos and his fellows— above p. 3? Edwards, Hesperia, VI, 1987, p. 248. : os

8 CORINTH | for an intensification of trouble for the com- The end of the century, however, brought munity is available from many sides! An further disasters. The exact nature of the earthquake of some violence visited the region course of events and their implications has not in 522; perhaps at this time the new fortifi- yet been clearly established, in spite of extencation was damaged and repaired, as suggested sive and intensive consideration by a number above. In any event the fortifications across of scholars viewing the problems from a broader the Isthmos were reconditioned at this time, perspective than that of the city itself (below, and the city undoubtedly received some benefit pp.27-28). But there are two vivid, unequivocal from this and other aspects of the building indications of disaster from the evidence of the program of Justinian. Nevertheless the “Huns” excavations. The most dramatic was found in appeared in the vicinity about540,and whether a room of a building west of the Lechaion Road, or not they reached the city itself, they were a north of the Basilica, behind the Hemicycle sign of the times and undoubtedly hadamarked court. In this somewhat mysterious structure psychological effect. In 542 the city and the were found two skeletons, evidently victims surrounding region were afflicted with a ter- of the falling walls of the building itself. With rible plague, of which a dramatic memorial one were 56 coins, the latest being of Justin IT

may be seen in a mass burial in one of the (565-578); with the other were 20 coins of cisterns of Lerna, behind the Asklepieion.® similar date, surrounded by traces of cloth. Still another earthquake is recorded for the The impression is that the men were in flight, year 551; it was probably as a result of this overcome by a catastrophe which, because of catastrophe that a hoard of 387 coins of the the fallen stones, appears to have been an period was lost in the hypocaust of the small earthquake.!” The second indication, producing

bath in the South Stoa, implying the ruin of a different impression, is from the schola or the bath itself,!4 while 460 coins spilled over exedra west of the Bema. This had been conthe floor of one of the West Shops during the verted to a fountain-basin around 400, but in same reign suggest that the shop was badly — spite of this the floor was found to have been damaged and subsequently abandoned, at covered with a heavy deposit of ash. This may least for a time, as a result of the same dis- mean, in the first place, that the basin was dry aster. Thus it is clear that the city suffered a when a great fire occurred; then, in the absence number of shocks of some magnitude under of any wooden structure in the vicinity, large Justinian, apart from experiencing the effects quantities of combustibles must have been of the economic pressures which racked the brought to the spot for burning. In other words, empire as a whole. But, again, in spite of this, although other interpretations could be offered, we shall see that the result was not total devas- it suggests a sack of the city in which objects tation, for many buildings survived for centu- not desired by the conquerors were wantonly ries to come, and an inscription which has been burned. Directly on top of the ash was found a dated to about 575 may provide contemporary great block of marble, beneath which was a evidence of reconstruction immediately follow- coin of Maurice-Tiberius of about 582. Here is

ing the calamities." clear evidence of heavy blows to the life of the

, , city, coincident with the collapse of the Justi-

11 For the literary evidence, ef. Bon, p. 15. nian dynasty and the Harly Christian period 2A. A. Vasiliev, History of the Byzantine Empire, Ox- as commonly conceived. Here then we may

tor Conant XIV, p. 164. end the first period at Corinth, whatever the

te Corinth, I, iv, p. 151. implications for her future. |

18 Hesperia, VI, 1987, p. 249. ; 16 C.G-C.LH., no. 9; Corinth, VIII, i, no. 195. 7 AWJA., XXX, 1926, pp. 52-53; below, p. 16

THE EARLY CHRISTIAN PERIOD 395-610 9 B. THE BUILDINGS OF THE CENTRAL AREA | | Within the Central Area, building at Corinth not yet been fully excavated, well outside the during the fifth and sixth centuries was largely city walls to the north on the plain stretching a matter of repairing and remodeling earlier down to the sea, is probably also of the fifth classical buildings. In one sense the work was century; the fourth, also unexcavated, is near a result of the damage done to the classical lLechaion.1® Whether any of these has roots as

structures during the earthquakes and the early as Constantine is doubtful, and in any Gothic sack of the latter part of the fourth case it seems unlikely that the metropolitan century, in that the damage had to berepaired; church of Corinth should have been located at in another sense 1t was a result of the new such distances from the center of the city. needs of the Christianized community, function- The Constantinian church, or the earliest ally and aesthetically. What actually happened metropolitan church whatever its date, may of was the natural result of the concurrence of the course have been located in a neighborhood two needs. We shall consider first some of the of the central area not yet uncovered. On the earliest work done, in the area of the Agora, crest of high ground east of the Agora remains then new developments in the region of the of a church are known to exist, but the known Lechaion Road, followed by later construction remains are clearly much later than the sixth

in that region, and conclude by noting later century. There still stands in Old Corinth a construction in the area of the Agora itself and Church of the Dormition of the Virgin, com-

elsewhere (Plan IV). monly called the Church of the Panaghia, and

, in 1676 Wheler spoke of a church of the

Tan Juntan Bastntca AND THE Mutroporrtan Panaghia “at which the Arch-Bishop lives”

Cuurcy (below, p. 89). The modern church of the oe - Panaghia is located on high ground not far

l-12 Hl Plans IV, VI, VI southeast of the classical Agora (Plan II, L), and

One of the prime needs of the Early Christian the present superstructure probably dates from community was a church; and as Corinth was around 1840, although the lower parts of the almost from the beginning the seat of a metro- walls may be earlier. But investigations around

politan bishop, the first church at Corinth the church revealed an unidentified twelfth must have been in some sense a metropolitan century complex over late classical remains of church, a-structure of some dignity. This need obscure character, possibly a hotel of some must have emerged long before the beginning kind; it is unlikely that there was an early

of the fifth century, rather in the days of church on the site. | , Constantine when Christianity came into the An alternative suggestion would be that one full sun of official life and, for the first time, of the ancient temples was converted to church began the construction of worthy buildings to uses.!® Of these the archaic temple known as house its worship. The question now arises the Temple of Apollo, the dominating temple whether the Constantinian metropolitan church of the Central Area, would be the obvious first

has been preserved. , candidate. However, when Cyriacus of Ancona Four early churches have been found in the 18 Corinth, III, i, p. 21; Hesperia, XII, 1948, p. 188; the vicinity of Corinth. One, on the summit of third has been reported by D. Pallas in TIpaxtik& tijs ev Acrocorinth, has been dated to the “fourth or he fourth bas heen reported only in the newspapers.

Gtth century's another, in the Kranionsubarb, fee i Ps te ome ittoa a

belongs to the fifth century; a third, which has rv, 1939, pp. 105-136. oa

10 : CORINTH visited Corinth on the eve of the fall of Byzan- may have been a porch for an entrance from tine rule he found the temple in an advanced _ this street. At a later period the corridor in the state of ruin and spoke of it only as a pagan basement along the south and probably also

temple. Another obvious candidate would be that along the north were redesigned by Temple H, dominating the classical Agora extending the end walls of the central core from the west. Indeed the top of the concrete east and west to make halls along the entire core of the podium of this temple is pitted with width of each end of the building, with vaulted craves, suggesting that there had beenachurch ceilings. There are some indications that these on or near the temple at some time or other. were used, at one period at least, as cisterns. But the temple itself was completely destroyed The building in this state could have been in the fourth century and, so far as has been converted-into a form suitable for church purdetermined, was not rebuiltin any monumental poses with relatively little difficulty. The chief

form.” Finally, there are indications of a requirements for the church would be an apse Christian religious center in or near the Peri- and a nave leading to the apse. The apse could bolos of Apollo, as we shall see below (p. 22), have been readily installed within the central and the church in question may have been in rectangular niche on the east; the nave could

this region. | be created by constructing a relatively light One other hypothesis deserves some atten- colonnade through the central hall on the tion: that the Constantinian metropolitan earthen filling of the basement core, since church was created by remodeling the Julian removed. These alterations could have been Basilica at the eastern end of the Lower Agora. slight and of such a nature as to leave no trace The Julian Basilica?! was originally a simple on the preserved structure.

rectangular structure with the main entrance In the absence of traces, however, there is on the middle of one long side facing the Agora, no way of proving the hypothesis and indeed approached by a flight of steps. The building the only justification for pressing the matter is was in two floors: one, a basement consisting that from a later period are preserved tangible of a broad corridor around four sides of a core remains that definitely suggest a church. After

filled with earth, the ceiling of the corridor the middle of the fourth century, perhaps. in being supported on a series of posts; two, the the earthquake of 375, the building was semain floor consisting of a central rectangular verely damaged. The basement under the east hall over the earth-filled core, surrounded by corridor was found to have been filled at about columns separating the central hall from a_ this time with material including some of the

corridor running around the building above sculptures adorning the original building; the basement corridor. The columns of the cornices and other. architectural members of central hall supported a clerestory rising high the superstructure were built into the founabove the sloping roofs of the corridors. There dation for a wall running parallel to the eastern were three rectangular niches along the east outer wall of the building about 3.20 m. to the side, that in the center, opposite the door, east. The eastern wall of the original building considerably wider than the two flanking it. was removed to the main floor level at least, To the east of the building was an important and the rectangular niches were largely or street of which only slight traces have been perhaps entirely removed. On the other hand uncovered, and the central one of the recesses an apsidal foundation some 7.50 m. wide was 20 Corinth, I, ii, pp. 170, 178 with fig. 111, 188. built near the center of the east wall—not at 2 A publication of the building is being prepared for the the exact center, but with its northern edge

Corinth series by Saul Weinberg. Our account of the classical . eae . .

building is based on his work. coinciding with the northern edge of the

THE EARLY CHRISTIAN PERIOD 395-610 : im earlier rectangular niche and its southern edge tenth century there is still a wide range of falling about 1.50 m. within the southern edge- time available, but with full recognition of this of the earlier rectangle. The curve of the apse it would be consistent with the evidence and projected beyond the new wall along the east even desirable to extend the hypothesis of the

of the building, but its heavy masonry of larly Christian church to account for the concrete and large blocks runs up tothe original tombs so that we would assume that they were

face of the building. built during the existence of the church, in the These arrangements definitely correspond, basement under the narthex. Furthermore, as far as they go, and generally speaking, to there are scanty remains in the same basement, those of the typical Early Christian basilica, near the northern end, of what seems to have and the required supplemental arrangements been a rectangular structure of rubble faced may easily be restored without violence to with brick. There is no tangible clue as to the preserved evidence (Plan IV). The chief pe- nature of this structure, but the hypothesis of culiarities of the hypothetical restoration are the church would suggest an explanation: that the enclosed halls along the north and south, it was a built mausoleum, or above-ground although to these there are many parallels of tomb, in the basement. Finally, the vaulted which the closest perhaps are the Metropolitan halls at the northern and southern ends of the at Gerasa and the early church at Epidauros.22 basement might, within the hypothesis of the Obviously there is wide latitude forspeculation church, have been used as burial chapels, or in matters of detail and even major features, mausolea or osteothekai, although no traces of

and it is fruitless to go into such speculation. such use were found. , | If the hypothesis of the conversion of the In conclusion, in spite of the nebulous characJulian Basilica to a church be accepted, it will _ ter of the entire matter, I feel some confidence help to explain certain other phenomena. In in assuming that the Julian Basilica was conthe west corridor of the basement are three verted to ecclesiastical use in the fourth centuvaulted tombs, built of poros stones with one ry and extensively if economically rebuilt as a

or two fragments of classical marble. They . church in the fifth century or towards the differ in no apparent way from many such end of the fourth century—or both. If this tombs that have been found in the Central hypothesis provides nothing tangible for the Area, none of which can be dated with absolute study of church architecture, it is none the less

confidence although some are almost certainly important in the history and topography of later than the tenth and eleventh centuries. Christian Corinth.

The tombs in the basement of the Julian !

Basilica, however, present one peculiarity in Taz SoutuEast BuILpDING

that they are constructed neatly against the 1-12 J_K , Plans IV, VL VI

western foundation wall of the basilica. Now oo this wall, certainly by the end of the eleventh ‘South of the Julian Basilica, at the east end | ; ofperhaps the Upper Agora, therethoroughlay in classical times century and earlier, had been )

¥ plage 10 g 4: , ;

ly pillaged and lost in the maze of buildines 2 structure of. considerable interest called the

. , , Southeast Building, which housed which grew up around about. The evidently graves could ~: a hardly have been made when the buildings library or part at least of the public archives.” | :' Theup, essential partnot of afterwards. the structureOf survived were,; going certainly oo oo course, even though they be dated before the 4," Zui ulting with the Julian and South Basin, i Weinberg, from whose observations the facts of our summary

22 Orlandos, HuAdoteyos Tadaioxpiotiavikt) BaoiAik, come. See Ancient Corinth, A Guide to the Excavations, 6th

Athens, 1952, A, pp. 40, 51. ed., 1954, pp. 49-50. ,

12 CORINTH throughout the middle ages, constantly sub- These alterations of the fifth and sixth cenjected to alteration. Its history during the turies, while they did not change the fundaEarly Christian period may have a significant mental structure of the building, nevertheless relation to that of the Julian Basilica. — produced a distinct change in the organization By the end of the second century the South- of the interior spaces. The new organization east Building consisted of a large rectangular does not in itself suggest the purpose of the space paved with mosaics and with a series of building as altered, but may represent impiers forming a sort of nave down the middle provements in the adaptation of the structure on the north-south axis, a smaller room along to the purposes of the commercial establishthe south end, and a colonnaded porch along ment or dwelling already hinted by the fourththe west side. During the fourth century a century pithoi. The building, however, repithos was sunk in the central panel of the mained one of considerable dignity in a promosaic on the south side, and another pithos minent position, hardly appropriate to industry in the floor of the west aisle. In the first pithos or commerce. If on the other hand we contemwas found a coin of Constantius Chlorus (298 to plate the possibility of its being converted to 306); in the second, fourteen coins ranging use as a dwelling, and this in conjunction with

from Diocletian to Constantius IT (824-861). the hypothesis that the neighboring Julian Now it is difficult to explain these pithoi at all Basilica had been converted in the same chro-

precisely on the basis of available evidence, nological stages to use as the metropolitan but at least they are less appropriate in a church, it is a reasonable inference that the library or public archives than in a dwelling or Southeast Building had been taken by the commercial establishment. It may be, then, metropolitan archbishop as his official resithat during the first half, or toward the middle, dence. The prominent position and imposing of the fourth century the building was diverted scale of the building would be appropriate to

from its original use to serve some domestic the dignity of the episcopal palace, and it

or commercial function. would give the bishop, who, suddenly, in the In any case, in the early fifth century there fourth century, became equal in importance to was an extensive rebuilding. The interior piers the highest civil authorities, a headquarters were completely reconstructed, from the very adjoining theirs and of comparable distinction.

foundations; the marble revetment of the |

classical building was removed; a tile floor was ‘Tue CENTRAL STAIRS AND THE Bra

laid a few centimeters over the, by then, some- FouNTAINS what dilapidated mosaic. An indication of the ,

date of this reconstruction may be seen in a 4Ltolld Plan IV

coin of Honorius (895-428) found beneath the © The most conspicuous creative change in new floor. At a still later period, when the tile the architecture of the city during the Early

floor in its turn had fallen into disrepair, the Christian period was the substitution of a intervals between the piers were in some part great flight of stairs for the Central Shops, closed with walls of rubble, creating three although from the point of view of construction distinct longitudinal rooms instead of a nave and expense this was a relatively slight work. with aisles, but with a transverse hall across The shops, facing on the Lower Agora, had the south end. Finally, the colonnaded porch once made a definite physical division between evidently collapsed in the sixth century, for the Lower and Upper areas, so that although pieces of it were found in a pit with coins of people from the Upper Agora could walk out

Justinian. , over the roof of the shops, as on a terrace

THE EARLY CHRISTIAN PERIOD 395-610 13 promenade, the only actual access from one across the open front of each exedra, clamped level to the other was by the stairs on either at the ends to the step-blocks of the Bema side of the Bema and at either end of the Agora. podium and to the blocks on which the benches These shops were completely destroyed toward of the scholae rested at each side. Above the the end of the fourth century.24 The amount of sill the new front wall was raised by at least ash on the floors of some of them indicates that one other course of stones, as indicated by a

they had been burned; this is consistent with clamp cutting in the base moulding of the the hypothesis that they had been ruined in Bema podium, but the total height of the enthe sack of the city by Alaric in 895, a con- closing wall and the designed depth of the clusion which the numismatic evidence tends water cannot be definitely ascertained. The to support. At the same time, the Goths would joints of the structure of the exedra, including hardly have gone to the trouble to throw down the marble benches, were sealed with water-

the walls. This reflection suggests that the proof cement, suggesting that the water rose

plan of demolishing the shops (rather than at least to the height of the tops of the rebuilding them) and laying out a grand stair- benches. = = case Involves positive creative imagination and Water was brought to the new basins from

real interest in aesthetic matters. the southeast ; a short stretch of fitted tile pipe The staircase itself was constructed simply is still preserved approaching the back of the and economically, but neatly. The shop walls western basin, and another line of pipestretches were cut down in large part, leaving the lower along the rear of the podium of the Bema,

portions standing, their tops cut back in steps leading toward the eastern basin. as supports for the tread-blocks to be laid The western basin could be drained through along the area. The shop spaces themselves a hole in the bottom of the poros sill, near the were probably filled with earth, although subse- Bema podium, the water running thence quent habitation has resulted in the removal through a shallow marble-lined gutter to a of most of the earth as well as of the treads. covered channel running off to the northeast. The treads themselves were of marble, most of Within the basin, on the debris resulting them neatly trimmed down from the cornice from or associated with the final ruin of the and epistyle-frieze blocks of two or three fountains (above, p. 8), was found a large buildings of earlier date, perhaps of the second marble block, the long surface of which was

century after Christ (Pl. 1,). — - glightly hollowed like a trough, with three The new stairs were laid over the old steps somewhat deeper, roughly circular depressions on either side of the Bema and on the steps within it (PI. 1,, foreground). The block seems east of the Dionysion. They do not seem to to have been one which might have been set have interfered with the terrace-podium of the on the edge of a drawbasin, on which people Circular Monument or with the Dionysion would rest their jars before and after bending

itself, across to dip the water. Hence the block may ‘In the center (7-8 K), the Bema proper have been supported somehow above the sill, remained unchanged, but the rectangular and constituted the formal approach to the scholae or exedrae were transformed into fountain, though it is difficult to see how it fountains (Pl. 1,). This again was a simple could have been supported so unless on small work, and most of what was done has since loose blocks of stone, not attached in any been eradicated. There still remain clear traces way to the structure of the fountain. This is

of a sill of poros blocks some 0.25 m. high, laid careless construction, appropriate to a poorer

24 Corinth, I, iii, pp. 117, 181-182. , age; but it 1s not wholly out of keeping with

14 | CORINTH

for example. , , : , the manner of constructing the grand staircase, Toe Hemicycue AND ReLatep BurILpINGs

The total result was a flight of steps 180 oT CD Plans IV, V

meters long, flanked on the east by the Circular Leaving the Agora itself, we proceed to the Monument, on the west by the Dionysion, and northern part of the excavated portion of the punctuated in the center by the Bema with its Lechaion Road, to the area north of the Bafountains, the whole distinguishing, while _ silica. Here there had been, in classical times,

joining, the upper and lower areas of the a rectangular colonnaded market with shops,

Agora. | behind the colonnade of the Lechaion Road. For this, no earlier than the end of the fourth } century, was substituted the most completely Tur PRoPpYLAIA original individual building of monumental

9 Plans IV, VI scale in the Central Area, of the Karly Christian period.”6 The building may most conveniently

The Propylaia marking the entrance to the be called, simply, the Hemicycle (Pl. 2,; Agora from the Lechaion Road was probably Plans ITI, IV). rebuilt in some part during the Karly Christian __To already published accounts of the Hemiperiod. Near the Propylaia were found three cycle there is little to add. It consisted of a fragments of carved moulding (below, p. 117, wall not precisely circular but approximating No. 142, Pl. 81) cut from marble blocks of an a half-circle of about 18.75 m. diameter. The earlier use, bearing a leaf pattern of this period. semicircle is based on the line continuing the The blocks are too large to be assigned to any _ front of the shops to the south, and hence faced known structure of the time in the Agora area, on the colonnaded walk bordering the Lechaion unless it be the Propylaia. On one of the blocks Road. Whether there was an independent the moulding is cut on the short side of a block colonnade marking the particular front of the 1.20 m. long; if the block had been part of a Hemicycle cannot be proven by preserved simple wall, that wall would necessarily have remains, but the interior of the Hemicycle been at least as thick, and perhaps thicker, was probably separated from the Road itself since the rear end of the block is finished only by columns of some sort. The Hemicycle itself roughly. No foundations for walls of such consisted, in addition to the curved wall markthickness have been noted in the Agora area, ing its exterior, of a curved colonnade within excepting the massive piers of the Propylaia. facing on an open court. Through the curved It has been suggested that the Propylaia exterior wall doors at irregular intervals led to

was destroyed at the end of the fourth century, the space to the west. but that parts of it survived to be used in the The entire structure was composed of reramp which was built up from the Lechaion used materials, including blocks from the Road to the Agora no earlier than the tenth Basilica to the south. Particularly significant century.” Perhaps, rather than lying in ruins _ is a piece of the stylobate of the interior colonaiter the damage of the late fourth century, it nade of the Basilica, proving that the Hemiwas actually rebuilt to stand in monumental cycle is later than a very thorough destruction form through the Early Christian period. It of the Basilica. Although there is no absolute may, indeed, have been restored more than evidence for the date of the destruction of the once, for the style of the moulding is perhaps __ Basilica or the construction of the Hemicycle,

most appropriate to the sixth century. . . |

26 Corinth, 1, i, pp. 142ff., especially p.147; A.J.A., XXX, 25 Corinth, I, i, pp. 191-192; below p. 37. 1926, pp. 49-57.

THE EARLY CHRISTIAN PERIOD 395-610 } 15 the probabilities are that these events occurred through to the southern wall of the complex. around the beginning of the fifth century, since From the corridor a door to the west led into a the complex behind was developed during that large rectangular room occupying the southcentury and must be later than the Hemicycle west corner. This seems to have been a store-

itself. : room, for in it were many fragments of jars, Although the detailed form and function of pointed at the bottom, some still standing in the Hemicycle remain in doubt, it was obvi- _ the original holes in the floor. In the room were ously a major work independently conceived, found also fragments of an iron sword and two and an impressive monument of its period. knives, a terracotta brazier, and a marble table Behind the Hemicyele is a complex of con- (below, pp. 16, 189). From this corner room a siderable interest.2” In spite of subsequent door on the north led into a small room paved

study little more is known about it than was with lozenge-shaped tiles. = originally published. It occupies the southern Near the end of the corridor, on the west half of the western part of the earlier market; side, there is an opening in the wall, closed on the northern half of the complex remains the side toward the corner room by a slightly

unexcavated. | . curving, apse-like wall. The purpose of this Among unsolved problems are the extent to feature is obscure. ,

which the structure of the earlier market sur- Along the south side of the complex lay a vived to be incorporated into the new building, series of rooms, extending eastward from the

and how many periods there were in the corridor described above. The westernmost of Christian building. Apparently there were two, this series could be entered from the same but only the second of these is at all clear. corridor; it had a stone shelf along the south In this later phase the structure seems to side and a rectangular box-like structure in the have consisted of a small open court bounded northwest comer. In the box were a number of on the northeast by the wall of the Hemicycle, coins of the late fourth and early fifth centu-

and on the south and west by rooms. There ries; below the shelf was a jar sunk into the was access to the court from the Hemicycle by floor, into which led a terracotta pipe issuing a door. On the west side of the court are traces from the south wall. Just north of this room of a foundation which may have carrieda broad. is a structure consisting of a small platform doorway, or even a pair of columns, opening enclosed on three sides by walls; on the platinto a sort of vestibule; beyond lay what must form were three slabs of stone set on edge, have been the major ground-floor room of the 0.23 m. apart. This arrangement, which sug-

complex, with a floor of large tiles and thin gests a stove, could be approached through slabs of marble collected from various sources. a door from the room to the south, or from the

There seems to have been an entrance to this court to the north. | , . room from another to the north, but the latter Kast of the group just described, along the has not been exposed. In the vestibule, to the south side, are two rooms evidently preserving south, there may have been a stairway leading _ the original walls of the earlier Roman market. to a second storey, between two mysterious One of them opens into what appears to be a

parallel walls, which still survive but are corridor running along the south and east

difficult to account for. , sides of the court. The wall which separates From the courtyard there were two doors the corridor from the court along its eastward leading to the south. That at the southwestern course is at present only two meters long, but corner gave access to a corridor extending it is tempting to restore the wall for a distance

27 A.J.A., XXX, 1926, pp. 49-57. of about five meters and return it against the

16 : CORINTH wall of the Hemicycle between the two doors The date of the building is well documented. in the wall of the latter at this pomt. Thus one Its destruction certainly came at the end of the of the doors would give access to the court of sixth century, as suggested by the two skelethe main building directly; the other would tons lying without formal burial in the court, give special access to the L-shaped corridor with their sacks of coins of the period (above,

leading to the room on the south side. p. 8). The orginal construction may be dated The third door through the wall of the early in the fifth century, especially by coins Hemicycle, then, would give direct and par- of the late fourth and early fifth centuries ticular access to the third large room along the trodden into the earth below the tile floor of

south. , the main room on the west, by the eighteen According to this arrangement we would coins including two of Arcadius found in the have actually three distinct units in the area box-like structure in the room on the south, behind the Hemicycle: one, consisting of one and by the fourth and fifth century coins room only along the south behind the spring found generally throughout the building. of the Hemicycle; another, consisting of an As to its purpose, if it were not for the marble L-shaped corridor and a large room along the ‘“‘sigma table,” the natural assumption might south wall; the third, comprising all the rest. be that it was an inn, installed in a convenient All the rooms may, however, have been ac- space behind the Hemicycle. The facilities cessible to each other behind the Hemicycle. suitable for a kitchen on the south, the storeAmong the more interesting aspects of the room, the relatively fine “reception room” on complex is the fact of the discovery in the the west, and the upstairs rooms seem approsouthwest room of many fragments of a large, priate to such a function, so too, the carefully

red marble table top, somewhat similar to planned relation to the Hemicycle. The numthose used in some refectories at Mt. Athos, of ber of coins scattered about suggest comthe kind sometimes called “martyr tables” or mercial transactions, but the place is hardly a “sigma tables” (P1. 863; below, p. 139). Inother typical shop. The presence of the “sigma rooms were found other fragments, suggesting _ table,”’ however, seems to add a special characthat the entire table may have been used, and _ ter to the establishment; to this we shall return

broken, in the building. As we have already below (p. 140). ,

observed (above, p. 8) the building was probably destroyed in an earthquake which brought Ags, Norra of THE Prrtpotos or ApoLto its walls almost completely down. Had the ,

table been set up and used in the southwest 2-10 C-E Plan IV

room, all the fragments should be there—indeed On the eastern side of the Lechaion Road, it is a little difficult to explain their dispersal opposite the Hemicycle and north of the Perion any hypothesis—but probably the table bolos of Apollo, there lay in classical times, belonged in an upstairs room of the building, behind the shops and colonnades of the road whence it fell during the earthquake and was_ itself, a Roman bath of considerable extent destroyed in the storeroom below. Under these thought by some to have been the Baths of circumstances 1t would not have been buried Eurykles mentioned by Pausanias. Only parts completely by debris, and subsequent prowlers of this have been excavated, but enough to could more easily have dispersed the fragments. indicate that it consisted, roughly, of an open From this we may infer that the upperrooms courtyard behind the shops with a large recin the building were of some importance and tangular room or exedra facing it on the south,

perhaps fairly extensive. , a series of bathing rooms along the east, and

THE EARLY CHRISTIAN PERIOD 395-610 - 17 some rooms of uncertain character on the that substantial parts were left for later study north. In its partially excavated state the bath by the original excavators of the area (Fig. 1;

remains one of the more obscure buildings at Pl. 8,_,; Plan IV). , Corinth although it must have been a rich one, The chief feature of the building is a quadrijudging from the traces of mosaic floors and lateral but not rectangular room (PI. 8,) about

ornamented walls. , eight meters long and three and a half meters Along the Lechaion Road itself, in the shop wide, with a door on the south leading to a space immediately to the north of the Peribolos small chamber some 1.80 by 3.70 m., from of Apollo, there was, from the second century, which a later door led to a corridor giving a public latrine. North of this there seems access to the rear of the latrine*®. Through the beyond doubt to have been a series of shops western wall of these rooms, which was in fact like those to the south, along the Peribolos of the rear wall of the Lechaion Road Shops, Apollo itself, but the classical walls have been much repaired, two doors gave access from much mutilated and details are uncertain. the northern, larger room to the shop spaces, Throughout the whole area wasfoundacom- and another door from the small southern plex of post-classical walls of unusual interest chamber to another of the shop spaces. The and presenting unusual difficulties for inter- latter door was walled up during the occupancy

pretation. It is, in general, clear that there of the house, but the exact date is not clear. were several distinct periods, more, perhaps, The shop spaces, too, were remodeled at some than is common in the Central Area, and some time or another, still uncertain.

noteworthy buildings. But the details of both The arrangements to the east remain un-

architecture and history are elusive. certain. In all probability there was a door In the first place, however, the classical from the larger, northern room giving access to complex of colonnade, shops, latrine, and bath the remains of the courtyard of the bath, which remained active into the fifth century. This is preserved its original passage to the Lechaion indicated by coins of Arcadius found under the Road along the north end of the house. But the steps belonging to the latest phase of the southern part of the courtyard, in front of the latrine, and similar coins of Arcadius found on great southern exedra, was blocked off by a the floor of the bathing establishment. Thus, wall or colonnade, probably at the time the although no doubt much altered from their house was built and as part of the arrangement original form and damaged by the events of of the house. At a later period a heavy wall, or the latter part of the fourth century, the rather a series of wide piers, was built north of buildings were in sufficiently good condition this wall or colonnade, further reducing the to be repaired and used at the beginning of the remaining space of the courtyard; but it is at

fifth. least possible that this last construction is Probably in the fifth century, then, though later than the period of use of the original

the date remains a matter of speculation, the house as such (below, p. 88). ~ courtyard of the bath was finally and definitely © The construction of the well established converted to new uses. The most conspicuous larger room of the house (Pl. 8,) offers some sign of this is a structure lying in the south- peculiarities in detail. The most striking aspect western comer of the courtyard, which is is the plan; itis divided into two approximately beyond reasonable doubt a dwelling house. equal parts by a pair of buttresses or pilasters

This building is one of the most significant. for , Oo

the history and architecture of our period that 28 It is improbable that the latrine was functioning as

ve such during the sixth century, but: there is no conclusive

has been preserved to us; and it is fortunate — evidence on the point. — OO 2

18 | CORINTH | | THE GARLY CHRISTIAN HOUSE WORTH OF THE PERIBOLOS OF

APOLLO

,;|||

| | }Ba(LAL | | | | | ‘|ot a| | ee LT er) eee ee lr “LTT | eet || aH | ™ 1 | PY im mam TTT

_——— I ty

. , | SL DOULAS = 1954 Ficure 1. PLAN oF THE EARLY CHRISTIAN HOUSE NORTH OF THE PERIBOLOS OF APOLLO

projecting from the walls, with a column are yellow to light red in color. They were probstanding between them. The base ofthecolumn ably taken from the latest pavement of the is preserved am situ, about 0.40 m.in diameter. courtyard of the bath, for similar tiles can be In all probability, then, the pilasters and observed 1 situ outside the house in a pattern column supported a pair of arches carrying a evidently belonging to the courtyard. The tiles wall dividing the higher part of the room as in the room, however, were certainly laid for

by a screen. , the room, as they are parallel to the west wall The floor is carefully covered with well through most of the room but parallel to the

baked tiles approximately 0.60 m. square, with north wall in the northern end, the north wall much minor variation, and 0.04 m. thick; they’ being at an oblique angle with the east wall.

( THE EARLY CHRISTIAN PERIOD 395-610 19 Moreover, they are adjusted to the projection existence might be suspected from the irreof the pilasters, and along the south wall there gularities of the stone work; it is virtually is a space of some fifteen centimeters by which demonstrated by the traces of plaster of an the normal coursing of the tiles failed to cover appropriate thickness on the floor tiles along the ground, pieced out carefully by slender the walls; and it is easily paralleled in modern slabs of marble. They are, finally, sealed to the as well as ancient construction. _

walls by mortar. - Returning to the southeast corner of the The walls themselves have their own indi- room and the recess or niche in the east wall at vidual peculiarities. The west and south walls this point, we observe (PI. 3,) that in the floor are of fairly large ashlar stones laid dry or in of the room at the comer is a pit some 0.50 m. thin mud mortar; the north wall is laid in a deep and 0.50 m. wide (north and south), sunk rather bad lime mortar, with smaller stones. along the south wall of the room. It projects

The east wall stands on the foundation for a about 0.50 m. inside the room, and extends wall or stylobate of a late period of the bath, some 0.90 m. eastward, under the wall and the and presents a number of problems. At the thin slab, to empty by a crude hole at the northern end it is still covered by later con- bottom into a great sewer traversing the region struction, or demolished entirely; this makes from south to north. The sides of this pit are it impossible to determine beyond doubt lined with small tiles, carefully laid and smeared whether there was a door from the room in with cement. In the center of the pit, when this section, although some indications suggest found, was a block of marble some 0.25 m. that there was. The central section is of widely square and 0.60 m. long, standing on end; the

varied stones set in mud mortar, and at a purpose of this, if indeed it did not fall ito definitely later period, when the house was the pit accidentally during the final destruction

long in ruins, a later wall was laid almost of the house, is unknown. Otherwise the pit exactly in line with the remains of the original was full of burned matter, bits of bone, and house wall, with its footing at least a meter broken glass. The sides were marked with a above the floor of the original house. At the peculiar incrustation similar to that which has south end of the room there is a recess in the been observed elsewhere at Corinth in long face of the wall, created by building up the wall abandoned refuse and sewage pits. along its east face with thin slabs, only 0.19 m. To the observations in relation to the pit thick. To this recess we shall return immedi- and recess should be added the fact that no ately, but to the description of the walls them- remains of tile flooring were found in the corner selves should be added the observation that adjoining the pit; traces of the same kind of they were originally covered with two coats of cement bedding as that which carries the tile plaster. Of these considerable traces still in other parts of the house were abundant, but remain of the first: a slight dressing in which no actual tiles were found. Furthermore, at the the mortar for striking the joints was spread so bottom of a large block in the east wall, adag to cover thinly and partially the surface of joining the niche, 1.55 m. north of the southeast the adjoining stones, with a pair of trowel corner, there is a rectangular cutting 0.15 m. grooves casually indicating the joints. The square; and on the south wall, about 1.15 m. second was part of the original construction, from the southeast corner, is another cutting but has almost entirely disappeared: it was 0.27 m. wide and 0.45 m. tall. These suggest

Qe , :

much thicker, perhaps five centimeters or that the pit had been enclosed in a small more, and presumably covered the entire wall chamber formed in part by the recess in the surfaces as a basis for the final decoration. Its east wall, in part by a light partition, per-

20 | CORINTH haps on a wooden sill, projecting into the the house, providing drainage from the basin

room. | into the pit in the southeastern corner of the Finally, into the top of the pit empties a large room. From the rim of the basin, on the channel roughly cut through the south wall, south side close to the east wall, a channel leading from a basin located in the smaller, carefully constructed of irregular slabs of slate

southern room of the complex. and moulded cement leads southward, through The southern room (PI. 3,) is entered from the south wall of the room. This channel drops the larger apartment by a door in the west end to the south, so that it seems to be a drain for of the partition wall. The present sill (which is overflow from the basin, although it is barely actually modem) of this door lies some 0.25 m. possible that the gradient has been altered above the level of the tile floor of the main from the original by subsidence so that this room, but the southern room originally had a upper channel provided for filling the basin. floor at the same level as that of the floorin the Indeed, even with the existing gradient the main room. At least three different floor levels channel is deep enough to deliver a trickle of

were distinguished in the southern room, water over the brim into the basin if comhowever, indicating that it went through a pletely filled at the lower end. | considerable period. of use; and it may further The basin just described appears to be an be significant that the earth separating these elaborate substitute for a simpler water-holding floor levels was liberally mixed with ash and device of an earlier period. The slate floor slabs burned material including roof tiles, through- of the basin were laid on an extremely hard out. In addition to the door connecting this concrete bed constituting also the seal for a room with the large double room to the north, ceramic pithos whose bottom lies some 0.50 m. another door once led to the shop space to the below the floor of the rectangular basin, and west, and later a third to the space behind the whose sides were cut down flush with the floor shops communicating with the earlier Roman of the basin before the remainder of the pithos latrine to the south. Of these, the door on the was partially filled with earth and sealed to

west was filled in with masonry at some time, hold the floor of the basin. ~ quite possibly during the history of the house. Before proceeding further it may be desirable The most remarkable feature of this small to reconstruct to some extent the history and room, however, is the arrangement occupying character of the two rooms we have described. the northeastern corner. Here there is a walled The original arrangement involved the large basin measuring about a meter square, with northern room, with its two divisions indicated walls 0.15-0.20 m. thick, carefully constructed by the arches over the column and pilasters,

of small stones and tiles, covered with a good and the southern room with a floor at the even coat of hard cement. The lip of the basin same level and with a door on the west. In seems to be intended for the highest, latest the southeast corner of the large apartment floor of the room; the cement is smoothed down was a latrine, for go the arrangement of the pit over the outside for some five or ten centi- in the niche must be interpreted, and for which meters, and is lacking’on the lower part of the there exist significant parallels (below, p. 129). walls on the outside. Within, the basin is about The southern room, in this original period, was

0.25 m. deep, paved with irregular slabs of inall probability a small private bathing room,

marble and slate. | equipped with a pithos standing in the corner

From the bottom of the basin, on the north to hold water. Probably water was heated on side, a rather crudely cut channelleads through braziers in the southern room, accounting for the partition wall separating the two rooms of the burnt material and for the frequent de-

THE EARLY CHRISTIAN PERIOD 395-610 21 struction of the floor. In the latest period of the which were evidently ready at hand since they house the southern room was remodeled so that were taken up undamaged. The third period of the bath took the form of the rectangular basin the house itself, that of the rectangular bath

described above. , | basin, dates in the first years of the seventh

The other rooms of the building cannot be century. This date is assured by the discovery restored with any confidence. No doubt they of four coins of Phokas (602-610) scattered in included apartments built among the walls of the earth beneath the latest floor tiles of the the shops to the west; although conceivably bathroom, together with two other coins of the these shops retained their commercial function. sixth century. Considering the rarity of seventh In view of the fact that one of them com- century coins at Corinth, the discovery of four municates directly with the bathroom, they in a single fill of limited extent carries great were more likely living quarters. In any case weight in dating the deposit; there can be no the plan of the complex in this section is to question that the house was in use during the some extent a matter of conjecture. On the latter part of the sixth century and was renoeast, there may have been a long narrow hall or vated in the early seventh, to survive for an perhaps a colonnaded (or pillared) portico undetermined period thereafter. along the south side of the courtyard of the — It is, furthermore, not without significance original Roman bath, and the large exedra of that from the entire mass of earth and pottery the Roman bath was perhaps somehow a part found covering the ruins of the house, to a of the house complex. The space north of the depth in some places of two meters, no object

portico remained an open courtyard. has been found which can be dated later than The whole complex was evidently brought the tenth century. This in itself almost proves to ruin in a thorough collapse. The latest floor that the building is earlier than the ninth, level (in the bathroom) was found to have indeed that it was destroyed long before the been covered with a meter or more of earth, tenth century. To the tenth century must be the lower levels being full of broken roof tiles dated the second major building period noted and abundant traces of burning. Above this above, while the third will be found to belong

other debris collected, including great quanti- to the eleventh or twelfth. ties of fragments of coarse pottery. Into the That the building was a house will be abunupper reaches of this earth were cut foundation dantly clear from comparisons to be developed trenches in which were set walls some of which below (pp. 129-180), and we are thus presented rested directly on the roots of the-walls of the with a noteworthy architectural monument of

house; the later walls in turn were leveled at considerable significance: a rather luxurious gome period and a complex of different orien- house of the sixth century, built among the

tation laid out over the entire area. remains of the shops and public bath along the

For the chronology of the complex there is Lechaion Road. ,

fortunately very good evidence. The original | constrain " thefifth nous 'century, propa roa Tun PERIBOLOS or APOLLO put in the although conceiva | , IV it could have come from the sixth. In amy ae} Plan event it must have been built when the classical The Peribolos of Apollo was extensively buildings were in a moderate state of repair, remodeled during the Karly Christian period. for it uses classical walls and foundations ‘The alterations cannot be dated much closer generously and violates none, and it was paved than this; perhaps they were made around the with tiles from the floor of the Roman bath, early part of the sixth century. They appear to

22 | CORINTH have been extensive, but unfortunately the for new partitions at the northern end of the traces are too slight for a complete under- series, where the northernmost Early Christian

standing of what took place. _ | foundation lies a little off the northern edge of The remodeling involved the construction of its classical predecessor. The other wall, to the

small rooms along at least part of the length south, seems to have simply replaced the of the west, and probably of the north, colon- classical wall. Whether there was access from nade of the peristyle court, an operation which these shops to the new rooms facing on the presumably involved the substituting of a wall peribolos court is uncertain.

with doors for the columns. This is indicated The most important part of the complex, by substantial remains of a foundation of a however, seems to be concealed by unexcavated crosswall continuing the line of the north ground to the east. In the narrow space where colonnade across the west corridor, and of 1t was possible to examine the new east wall on

another foundation parallel to this, to the its eastern face there were indications that south, and of a wall continuing the line of the other rooms exist in this area, and in these west colonnade across the north corridor, and rooms were found fragments of two “‘sigma of slighter remains of probably the same period _ tables” (pp. 189-140). It is quite possible that a

suggesting a similar wall to the east of this. building of real importance lay on the slopes Whether the rows of rooms continued for the of the hill to the east. © full length of the north and west corridors is The hypothesis that the new complex was uncertain, but probably they did. There are devoted to ecclesiastic, perhaps monastic use, no clear traces of remodeling in the south has been advanced;*° this is to some extent colonnade, although remains of mortar on the supported by the discovery of graves in the stylobate suggest that perhaps some of the vicinity, of which some must be earlier than intercolumnar spaces on this side were filled those associated with the tenth-century church

with walling. in the courtyard of Peirene (below, pp. 30, The east colonnade, however, was altered in 38-39). In any case the new complex was an a different way. A wall was run for the full important structure of considerable extent.

length of the building about 1.70 m. east of the }

original colonnade. The columns seem to have Tae Fountain PErrRENE been left in position and indeed repaired. A

spur wall was carried from the new east wall #10 G-H Plan IV to the ends of the colonnade, making anta-like Just to the south of the Peribolos of Apollo,

termini to a sort of shallow stoa along the the fountain of Peirene was also remodeled, court. Thus the court in its new form consisted probably in the reign of Justinian.?! The work

of rooms opening onto the uncovered space in the fountain, however, was a matter of from north and west, a deep colonnade on the modernizing and adorning the fountain withsouth, and a shallow colonnade on the east. out introducing any new purpose (PI. 2,). The Accompanying the same program, appar- most characteristic feature is the construction ently, was some reconstruction in the Lechaion of a new facade across the draw basins. Large

Road shops bordering the Peribolos on the marble columns were erected, one between west. The work was essentially a repair of each two basins; these columns supported the weakened parts of the original shops on the ends of epistyle-frieze blocks projecting from same lines, with slight variations. The only the wall-facade of the draw-basins, and on the definite remains consist of concrete foundations 30 Corinth, I, ii, p. 54; A.J.A., XXXI, 1927, p. 72.

29 Corinth, I, ii, p. 54; A.J.A., XXXI, 197, p. 72. 31 A .J.A., IV, 1900, p. 217, fig. 9, p. 229, fig. 11.

THE EARLY CHRISTIAN PERIOD 395-610 23 ends of the projecting epistyle-frieze blocks ran the sixth century.®? The colonnade had proba continuous entablature. The projecting epis- ably largely, perhaps entirely, disappeared as

tyle-frieze blocks, serving as a sort of impost early as 800, by which date fragments from above the capitals, were taken from an earlier all parts of the order had been built into a wall building and re-used upside down. The ends closing off most of the rooms along the central facing out over the columns were trimmed at part of the structure. On the other hand, the a slightly downward angle, and ornamented arrangements in the rear part of the stoa, with bold, flat, but simply and even carelessly where the Greek shops had been, may have cut floral patterns (below, p. 117, No. 138). survived in some form through the Early

The epistyle-frieze of the entablature above Christian period. , 7 these imposts was also made of re-used ma- This part of the building had undergone a terial; an earlier carved inscription was cut long and complicated series of remodelings away, and a new inscription painted on in red through the era of the Roman empire.** At the letters. On one of the blocks the text can still east end were offices devoted to the uses of the

be read: , officials of the Roman administration; about

--- Tov 69@pEevov Té&vta Kéoyov TH(1) Tleipqvn(t) a quarter of the way along was a monumental

TH - - - entrance through the Stoa to the South It may be noted that the text implies a public Basilica on the south. Just east of the center benefaction in the classical tradition, and has was a road leading through the Stoa (8 M), been dated “probably in the fifth century A.D., and west of this a Council Chamber (8 M-—N).

certainly no later than the sixth century,” on Near the latter was a large room floored and the basis of the letter forms.®? The workmanship revetted with marble, which has been thought

on the impost ends, however, is perhaps to be to be the headquarters of the Corinthian regarded as later in this range than earlier. duoviri, then a small but well equipped bath More distinctive on the plan of the building (6 N), then a large public latrine (5-6 N). At is the substitution of a circular pool in the the western end (4-5 N-O) the construction center of the court for the quadrilateral basin of the Greek period had not been basically which had characterized the later Roman altered, but its purpose during Roman times

phases of the fountain complex. The pool was is not understood. oe some 6.15 m. in diameter, neatly constructed. Of these structures, the bath, built about There is no way of proving whether the poolis A.D. 300, probably continued in use until the contemporary with the colonnaded facade but reign of Justinian, during the latter part of it might naturally be considered part of the which it fell into disuse.®* The detailed history same program. In any case, for reasons not of the other sections is not so well documented. recorded, the excavators seemed to prefer the The large room west of the Council Chamber

age of Justinian for the pool itself. and east of the bath seems to have been

, a partially filled with earth even by the fifth

- Te Soutu SToa — century, and a wall of uncertain purpose, per-

: : haps a terrace wall, was built across it diago-

40 to 12 L , Plans IV, VL Vl nally from northwest to southeast; this wall The most conspicuous sign of the passing of functioned primarily with relation to buildings classical Corinth isin the South Stoa, whichwas in unexcavated ground to the south.** The insad decay if not complete ruin by the end of 23 Corinth, I, iv, p. 159.

, 84 Ibid., pp. 102-155. a

82 Corinth, VIII, i, no. 198; L.G., IV, 1606; A.J.A., III, 5 Ibid., pp. 145-151.

1899, p. 683; IV, 1900, p. 288; C.G-C.1.H., no. 8. , 86 Ibid., pp. 189-144. ,

24 | CORINTH walls of the Council Chamber itself, particu- aspect went through no notable change until larly on the west and south, remained to func- the end of the reign of Justinian. tion for different purposes in the later middle

ages, but how late in the Early Christian Tar Wust TERRACE

period they preserved their original form com- , |

pletely has not been determined. The other 8 Job Plan IV parts of the building have left no conclusive The temples lining the West Terrace remained evidence as to the extent of their life, with the substantially intact through the Early Chrisexception of the related South Basilica, which tian period. No doubt they ceased to serve as fell into ruin in the latter part of the fourth places of pagan cult, and there is no clue as to

century.*” the new uses to which they may have been put.

Although we lack direct evidence for the But structurally some of them actually surdevastation of the building, an approximate vived almost entire until the eleventh century idea may be gained from the evidence of later at least (below, pp. 47-48, 56-57), in spite of rebuilding. There was relatively little original previously published tentative conclusions that

building in the twelfth century in the area of they may have been destroyed in the sixth the rooms of the Stoa, but there was a good century.*8 deal of repair to the late classical wall system. Furthermore, the West Terrace remained This mid-Byzantine construction seems tohave throughout the sixth century a monumental been designed in relation to late classical walls section of the Agora, for here were found several

that no longer exist, but must have existed in remarkable statues of the period.®® | the twelfth century. Thus they must also have The area underwent some modification, existed during the sixth century, and we may however, of which traces may be seen at the therefore infer that the wall structure of the southern end. Here a rectangular foundation South Stoa was in usable form to a consider- of stone and concrete, lined with brick, blocks

able extent in the Harly Christian era. the stairs which had previously joined the _ The loss of the colonnade by the fourth Terrace and the Lower Agora at the south. century, of course, meant that the apartments The date of this has not been determined, and must have had a fundamental reconstruction it may actually fall earlier, but it should be at that time, since the entire roof system must noted as a possible work of the fifth century. have been revised. The various elements of the It probably carried a great concrete distributcomplex, as they had previously evolved, were ing basin, receiving water from the aqueduct probably remodeled so as to stand as indi- on the archaic columns along the western end vidual buildings withindependent roof systems. of the Upper Agora. Under these conditions the south side’ of the A more significant and definite development Agora, from the beginning of the fourth centu- may be seen in front of the southern section of

ry, would have presented a totally different the West Shops (2 L-M). Here may still be impression from that of its classical form; seen the lower portions of walls forming a large

rather than the unifying row of columns ex- room in front of the northern half of this tending for the entire width of the area, there southern shop structure, erected in front of the would have been a series of individual, probably colonnade; presumably the columns were still

not very splendid, buildings. Very likely this standing, for the walls seem to be built with 87 Traces of late Roman or Early Christian buildings have relation to the columns and include no mabeen found east and south of the Basilica, and south of the 38 Corinth, I, iii, p. 73. | : On but too slight to describe. See also below, we rel IX, pp. 150-154, nos. 321, 327, 328; Corinth, I,

THE EARLY CHRISTIAN PERIOD 395-610 29 terial taken from the colonnade. Furthermore, conveniently vague we may use it for the the walls in question were leveled almost to mysterious structure in question. , their roots before a complex of the tenth cen- | The Nymphaeum was laid out witha slightly

tury was built over their remains. different orientation from that of the Market, Probably at the same time as the large room and in such a way that a section of its western was built in front of the colonnade, the par- wall lies on the line of the southern end of the tition walls separating the three shops behind eastern wall of the Market. Judging from the

were removed, and the doors of the northern scale of construction it must have been a and southern of the three shops walled up, moderately extensive building, and may have thus creating a single large room within the filled the entire space between Market and original shop building. Perhaps also contempo- Hemicycle. It seems to have been linked rary are traces of construction extending closely to the Market in design and hence pernorthward over the flight of steps which rose haps in function. This may be inferred, for one from the West Terrace through the Shops to reason, because the preserved part of the west

the region of Temple E. wall of the Nymphaeum ends on the north in This remodeling of the Shops may probably such a way as to suggest that it flanked a be put shortly after the earthquake of 551, doorway leading from Market to Nymphaeum; when there is evidence to indicate the Shops for another reason, because in front of the were in some degree damaged (above, p. 8). south wall of the southeastern shop of the The fact that the coins lost as a result of that Market was built a new wall oriented to the earthquake were left on the floor of the south- Nymphaeum, as though to trim up the space ernmmost shop of the series would imply that and create an entrance lobby between. the that part of the shops was abandoned, for a Nymphaeum and the colonnade of the Market. while at least. For some reason the situation in Whether at the time of the construction of

the northern half of the building may have the Nymphacum or at another period, the favored reconstruction on a new plan. — shop walls of the Market were removed in the

| . - , southeast corner, and the area covered with a oe — Clean hard layer of poros chips. At another

Tar Norra MARKET period, probably later than the original construction of the Nymphaeum, a monumental

7 CD a Flan IV doorway was established on the line of the The eastern side of the North Market was front wall of the original shops, adding to the

destroyed at a period which has not been formal design of the transition from Market determined—perhaps as early as the third peristyle court to Nymphaeum. This door is century, perhaps as late as the fifth—to permit represented by the well preserved limestone the construction of the west wall of what must threshold, lying on fill containing a few pothave been a large and important building of sherds and ill-preserved coins probably of the

which only one corner has been exposed (5 C). fifth century. | , Its construction is largely of brick, which is ,

rare in the Central Area at Corinth; the pre- | served corner of the building (its southwestern § THE SYNAGOGUE NEAR THE THEATRE

corner) shows a number of apsidal niches let It seems appropriate at this point to call

into the thickness the marble wall. These charac.: - a attention also of toa the impost on which teristics suggest building like a bath or | “nymphaeum,” and since the latter term is £0 Corinth, I, iii, pp. 153, 183, 192, plan K. .

26 CORINTH }

is carved a design including three seven- synagogue; it probably dates from the fifth branched candlesticks with palm leaves (No. century; and it must have been a large and 130, p. 116). This was actually found in the fine structure. It should therefore not be overtheatre, and there is no other clue as to the looked in our view of the Karly Christian city,

location of the building from which it came. even though it probably lay outside the The building, however, must have been a Central Area, properly speaking.

C. SUMMARY

Viewing the Central Area through the Early Aesthetically, whereas the classical Roman Christian period in comparison with its Imperi- or Greek did not hesitate to use material from al Roman form, we find, externally, relatively old buildings for new use but did take pains to little change. The most conspicuous permanent eradicate the appearance of re-use and to proloss between the age of Hadrian and that of vide his own building with a proper finish, the Justinian occurred around or before 300, the Early Christian builder was willing to ignore dismantling of the colonnade of the South even conspicuous signs of re-use. The new ornaStoa. Temple H, the Basilica above the Lechai- ment (below, pp. 108-122), however, exhibits on Road, and the South Basilica were probably in a high if not exceptional degree the qualities leveled and gone by the end of the fourth cen- of dematerialized formal design that represent tury or the beginning of the fifth, but other the spiritual ideals of the new religion. At the earlier structures had been repaired or replaced other extreme, the over-all design of the Agora, as time went on. The Southeast Building, the although it was still a grand, spacious place of

Julian Basilica, the Northwest Shops, the comprehensive public interests, had lost the Lechaion Road and its main buildings, Peirene, broad, intricately organized monumentality all were still in use; new statues were stillbeing of the Roman period. Instead of the single, displayed among the temples on the West Ter- ordered rhythm of the colonnade of the South race; even the Central Stairway and Fountains Stoa, there was the less ponderous, more reare not wholly foreign to classical tradition. laxed and varied row of small buildings. Instead Many changes were more fundamental. Some of the formal, decisive division of the Upper of the buildings were turned to the use of the and Lower Agoras by the Central Shops with new dominant religion, and internally remod- regularly defined passages and inter-relating eled to this end, like the Peribolos of Apollo functions, there was the free, inclusive moveand especially, according to our hypotheses ment back and forth along the whole length (pp. 10-12), the Julian Basilica, which became of the uniform gentle gradient of the Central the high temple of the new religion, and the Stairs. Although the Bema, superficially, had Southeast Building, which, instead of housing not changed in appearance and its fountains the public archives, was now the residence of made it more inviting and gracious and generthe archbishop, a new political as well as ally useful than before, it was no longer firmly religious personage. The house, however lux- bonded to the lines of the Central Shops and urious, concealed behind the Lechaion Road the general plan of the Agora; it lay casually shops in the courtyard of the Baths of Euryk- in the midst of the area, the rationale of its

les, and the structure hidden behind the location barely evident, and yet, as the most Hemicycle on the opposite side of the Road, conspicuous element in the area, it was the suggest a significant decline in civic vigor. true and unique focus and center.

r Yar , rHE AGE OF BARBARISM 610-802 — A, INTRODUCTORY

The position of Corinth through the seventh continued to function throughout the entire

and eighth centuries remains obscure, in spite period. a

of a great deal of discussion devoted to the Although there are several arguments for problems.’ In general, the question is whether belief in an attack on the city by Slavonic, the city was deserted through these two centu- perhaps Avar, invaders, around 586-587, and ries or any part of them, and what relation we have seen archaeological evidence for a sack there was between the fortunes of the city of the city at just about this time in the conduring this period and any of the various flagration beside the Bema (above, p. 8), the invasions of Slavonic or other northerners. weight of evidence seems to incline against the The evidence and the arguments for the various view that the city was actually deserted at the points of view are too intricate to reproduce end of the sixth century.? The clearest evidence here, but the major positions may be indicated. for this is that the house north of the Peribolos According to one, Corinth, together with all or of Apollo was re-built in the early seventh part of the Peloponnesos, was overwhelmed by century; coins of Constans IT found in a basin an invasion of Slavs, probably Avars, about of a chapel built in a cistern in Lerma, behind 586-587, and remained under this barbarian the Asklepieion, show that the chapel was in control until about 805, Corinth itself being use around the middle of the seventh century ;3

largely or completely deserted. According to and a base for a statue probably erected in another, whatever Corinth may have ex- honor of Constans around 662 in the Agora perienced from an Avar onslaught in 586-587, implies that the city continued at that time to it was not deserted at that time but remained have a developed organization and a formal

an active Byzantine community until the public square.4 , -

middle of the seventh century, at which time 2 The most complete discussion, particularly of literary it was seized and held for.a few years by @ sources, is by Setton in Speculum, XXV, 1950, pp. 502-548.

tribe of Bul h lled by The most direct references in literary sources are in the fide of Dulgars who were soon expelea DY — Chrowicle of Michael the Syrian (Setton, p. 512) who says that Constans II; after his reign, however, the the Slavs took Corinth about this time, a letter of the

. . was d wis . Patriarch Nicholas III totheAlexios I saying that 805 the(orAvars city deserted. A thir position might be occupied Peloponnesos 218 years before 807) and that in spite of successive invasions. the city the Chronicle of Monemvasia, which parallels the letter of

- ? Nicholas and adds that at the time of the Avar invasion the a Corinthians deserted their city (Setton, p. 518). But Setton

1The more important recent articles include those by deprecates these sources. The buckles which were suggested G. R. Davidson: Hesperia, VI, 1937, pp. 227-240, and by Miss Davidson (cf. above, note 1) as actual relics of Avar Corinth, XII, p. 5 note 8; by P. Charanis: “The Chronicle of | warriors, are otherwise interpreted by Setton, and more Monemvasia and the Question of the Slavonic Settlementsin —_ recently D. I. Pallas, in “Ai ‘BapBapikal’ Tdéptrat tis KopivGreece,” Dumbarton Oaks Papers, No. V,1950, and Speculum, ou,” ‘EAAnvix&, trapkptnua 7, Athens, 1954, pp. 390-396,

XXVIT, 1952, pp. 348-350; K. M. Setton, Speculum, XXV, argues that they represent Byzantine work of a style of the

1950, pp. 502-548; XXVIII, 1952, pp. 351-863; Bon, ninth—twelfth centuries, and that these particular buckles pp. 27-87; P. Lemerle, Revue Historique, CX1, 1954, pp. 287ff.; may belong to the twelfth century. But see below, note 12.

and D. I. Pallas, “?Apyaiodoyixe Texpi pia tis KabdSou Tév 3 Corinth, XIV, p. 169. |

BapBdpov eis tiv ‘EAAGBa,” ‘EAAnvika, XIV, Thessalonike, 4J. H. Kent, Speculum, XXV, 1950, pp. 544-546; 1955, pp. 87-105. | Corinth, I, iii, p. 147, pl. 67, 3. .

28 , CORINTH Thus, although we may disregard here the a local situation might have influenced the difficult problems of the precise identity and statistics to some degree.” history of the northerners who attacked Apart from the coins, little other evidence is Corinth and the Peloponnesos during the late available. According to Le Quiens the bishop sixth and seventh centuries, we may be con- Stephanos, Metropolitan of Corinth, attended fident that the city was far from being deserted the Sixth Ecumenical Council in 680 as “‘Bishop

through the first half of the seventh century, of Corinth and Legate of the Apostolic Throne

unless for some brief period. It remains to in Rome”; and in 689 the Patriarch sent an consider the latter part of the seventh century, embassy to Rome including the Bishop of

and the eighth. a Corinth.® Those who believe that Corinth was Once the evidence of the Chromcle of Monem- deserted at this time may argue that the tra-

vasia and related documents is thrown in dition is at fault or that the Bishops in question doubt, as it must be since it dates the desertion were not necessarily resident in their official of Corinth to the end of the sixth century, the see. They may note also the absence of a chief argument for any substantial period of Corinthian’ Bishop at the Seventh Council in abandonment comes from the statistics of the 787.9 On the other hand, the evidence taken incidence of coins for the period, as published at its face value would imply the existence of up to 1941.° Only ten coins were found from a Corinthian archbishopric into the last quarter this period of 668 to 802; compared with the of the seventh century and not. necessarily number of coins found from earlier and later deny its existence in the eighth. It seems to be periods this figure is infinitesimal and has a simple fact, however, that there is no literary naturally suggested to many that the century evidence proving activity specifically in Corinth and a half in question was one of substantial through the eighth century. The next reference

desertion of the city. is in the writings of Constantine PorphyrogeniOn the other hand similar dramatic decline tos (918-959) who says! that in 805 (or 807) in the number of coins discovered from within the “general of that time was (then) at the this general period has been noted at Athens head of his theme in the castle at Corinth.” and at Antioch® which are not otherwise sus- From the evidence at hand, then, we may be pected of having been deserted. Thus it might confident that the city continued to function

well be maintained that the decline in the past the middle and probably through the number of coins, which would appear to be latter part of the seventh century. The state

general rather than local, was a result. of of affairs for the eighth century remains general conditions rather than local, although obscure. B. BUILDINGS AND RELATED PHENOMENA IN THE CENTRAL AREA Whatever the reasons, it seems to be a fact Area; nor has any major work of reconstruction

that no buildings in the ordinary sense of the or renovation of any earlier building been word belonging to the full seventh or eighth noticed. New buildings may have been built in centuries have been identified in the Central certain areas only to be almost completely 5 J. Harris, Hesperia, X, 1941, pp. 148 ff., especially p. 160. 7 Compare H. Pirenne’s views on the approximately $M. Thompson, The Athenan Agora, II, p. 4. Miss contemporary depression in Western Europe attributed by Thompson points out to me the complete absence of coins him to the rise of Islamic domination of Mediterranean trade from Antioch from 681 to 886 (see D. B. Waage, Antioch on routes; Mediaeval Cities, Princeton, 1925, pp. 23, 28ff. the Oronies, vol. ITI, 1i, p. 166). See also Pallas, ‘Ap yatoAoy1ké 8 Bon, p. 108. , Texynpia,’” “EAAnvixa, XIV, Thessalonike, 1955, pp. 88-97 9 Bon, p. 104.

for discussion of data from other sites in Greece. . o 10 De admumstrando imperio, chap. 49; Bon, pp. 42-48.

THE AGE OF BARBARISM 610-802 29 demolished or so incorporated into later struc- century or later, as we shall see; and for the tures as to have been indistinguishable during most part the isolated burials provide no good

the process of excavation; but any such work _ basis for analysis. , , , must have been relatively slight. On the other Of the first three cemeteries, no. 3, that in hand there are two developments of great the southeastern half of the South Basilica, importance to the history and later architecture consists largely of simple graves with tent-like of the area which should be discussed in relation _ tile covers of a type common in Early Christian to this period: the appearance of a considerable burials. There are also a few tombs with walls number of graves and tombs, and the combined _ built of small rough blocks of stone and bits of

effect of accumulation of new deposits of tile, the roof being covered with miscellaneous earth in some places, the lowering of ground — slabs of stone, measuring about two meters in level in other places, and the despoliation of length, one and a quarter meters in width, and

ancient monuments. a - @ meter and a half high, usually containing

, | , | more than one body, the bones of earlier intera T / oe ments being pushed aside for each successive

| HE GRAVES |,| | burial. There were also two vaulted tombs, of

At least seven cemeteries, or extensive con- somewhat larger dimension but similar techcentrations of burials, have been identified in nique of construction and use. In one of these the Central Area or immediately adjoining it: vaulted tombs were found coins of the. early

(1) in the west end of the South Stoa (5-6 thirteenth century. — , oe M-N; two of the graves are indicated on Plan The problem of chronology for this cemetery VII), with which may be associated some offers some difficulty. The original assumption graves in the south end of the West Shops of an Early Christian date! was based on the

(2M); (2) within and northeast of Peirene fact that although there were innumerable (9-10 G-H); (8) in the southeastern part of burials in the area, so many that the individual the South Basilica (10-11 N); (4) around the graves were cut into earlier entombments to Bema (7-9 K-L); (5) around the north end the extent that it was impossible to distinguish of the West Terrace (8-4 I-J); (6) on and_ the outlines, no grave was found within the around Temple EH; and (7) in the region of foundations of a well built edifice consisting of the Hemicycle (6-7 C-D), with which may several rectangular rooms with an apse probe associated some graves in the east end jecting from the north side (Pl. 18,; Plans VI, of the North Market (4 B-C). In addition to VII). As this apsidal building was largely con-

these concentrations there are the tombs in structed of material taken from the South the Julian Basilica (above, p.11) and one in Basilica itself, and as the South Basilica front of the Southeast Building, some tombs appears to have been destroyed by the end of

west of the so-called Temple of Apollo, a the fourth century, and as no earlier postrandom sprinkling of graves throughout the classical, mediaeval building was discovered on area in general, and a few skeletons of people the site, it was a reasonable conclusion that the who had probably not been formally buried. apsidal building was Harly Christian — perhaps Since the graves are of interest at the moment a primitive church—and that the cemetery only in the attempt to determine the course of grew up around it. In later investigation of the development of the region during the seventh apsidal building, however, a few sherds of

and eighth centuries, we need. consider only pottery of the eleventh century were found the first three cemeteries; the other cemeteries close to the upper part of the foundations of

are to be assigned unequivocally to the ninth 1 4.3.4, xxxrx, 1985, p. 62. Oo

30 ) CORINTH the building, and a thirteenth-century coin the cemetery is earlier than the tenth century, and a sixteenth-century coin were found in the in its inception at least. It can hardly be as lower part of the foundation of the apse it- early as the sixth, when the fountain was still self. It must be admitted that these few pot- in full operation and the Peribolos of Apollo sherds and the two coins might be explained was in its Early Christian use. Thus there is a away as the result of intrusion or accident in _ possibility, but by no means the certainty, that

excavation, particularly in view of the argu- the cemetery was begun in the seventh or

ments favoring an early date for the building. eighth century. |

Nevertheless, it is preferable to date the buil- There remains, then, cemetery no. 1, occuding to the sixteenth century rather than the _ pying the western part of the Upper Agora, Karly Christian period (below, pp. 92-98), even the area within and in front of the western though this leaves us without satisfactory part of the South Stoa, and perhaps including explanation of the factors which originally the graves in front of the southern section of

suggested the Karly Christian date. the West Shops. Here again we have a variety Once the apsidal building is eliminated from of types of burial, ranging from simple inhu-

the early period, the date of the cemetery mation through graves covered with tiles, takes on a different aspect. The types of grave graves lined with slabs of stone or marble, are not peculiar to Early Christian times; tombs built of roughly squared blocks of stone similar tile-covered graves occur around the and marble and re-used material in general, Bema in the twelfth century (below, pp. 71-72). covered with slabs or larger blocks. There is ‘The thirteenth-century coins in the vaulted one vaulted tomb. Again, in no tomb was there tomb show that the tomb was in use at least direct evidence of date, with the possible exas late as the thirteenth century, and rather ception of one in which were objects which than assume that the cemetery was in con- have been thought to belong to Avar or other

stant, or even intermittent, use from the barbarian invaders, but the date of which is

Karly Christian period through the thirteenth disputed.12_ oe | century, it is perhaps more reasonable to Clearly, however, with the possible exception suppose that the cemetery as a whole repre- of a few of the slightest burials, these graves

sents a period of no more than two or three are earlier than the complex of industrial centuries including the thirteenth. Thus this establishments which covered the area in the

cemetery is removed from consideration as twelfth century and which had begun to pertinent to the problems of the seventh and develop at least as early as the eleventh. It is

eighth centuries. imconceivable that these graves, particularly With regard to the graves in and around _ the larger tombs, were set down among crowd-

Peirene, cemetery no. 2, there is very little ed buildings in use. On the other hand they direct. evidence available. It is known that must date from after the abandonment of the there was a church in the courtyard of Peirene South Stoa, for they lie indiscriminately over perhaps as early as the tenth century (below, its area and indeed its walls. We have seen that pp. 38-39) and it would be natural to associate the small bath in the Stoa, which lies within

the graves with this church. We may also note a ,

child-burial under the steps of a tenth-century gar mint, XU pp: §-; ctalogue ns, 1408, 1888 1590, house to the east of Peirene (below, p. 41); the buckles, 2182 and 2195, have been used as evidence for

although it may be questioned whether the {te Pelle (BapBapwat Tena, pp 4-24) argues tha grave in question belongs to the cemetery as should date from the: twelfth century, being a simplified such, it adds something to the impression that. vinth century whose greatest complexity he finds in the

THE AGE OF BARBARISM 610-802 31 the edge of the cemetery, functioned to the ments from the Karly Christian Stairway which

middle of the sixth century (above, p. 23) had been built over the Shops. The graves, and in all probability other parts of this end of then, were arranged at a time when the stairs the building were in use even later. Thus for were being pulled apart. On the other hand the date of the cemetery we have the period of they must, again, date from a period earlier

the seventh through the tenth century... than the eleventh-twelfth century commercial In narrowing the range we have no definite establishments which came to cover the area; indications and must resort to probabilities. and indeed they must have been made when Pallas’ date of the twelfth century for the the ground was clear enough to make apparent buckle in one of the tombs’ cannot be ad- the roots of the Roman Shop walls after the mitted for the tomb, as we have seen; indeed steps had been removed. The most probable

there must have been a period of time or a time would be the eighth century. critical turn of events between the abandon- _—‘In general, then, the southwest cemetery ment of the graveyard and the establishment and many of the scattered graves probably of roads and industrial facilities over it. We belong to the eighth century. They represent shall see (below, p. 49) that there was no a period when the agora had lost its function distinct crisis between the beginning of the as a public place of assembly and business, or ninth century and the twelfth century; rather at least had declined in that function, but it a pattern of rising and falling, generally rising, should be observed that although the graves activity between about 800 and about 1200. were the habitation of the dead, their existence This would suggest that the cemetery was presupposes the presence of the living. There most used during the eighth century, having must have been people living in the near vicibegun in the seventh, and continued for a nity in sufficient numbers to require at least

while perhaps into the ninth. , - one fairly extensive cemetery to bury their With the cemetery should be associated a dead, and of sufficient vigor to desire and to church or burial chapel of some kind. Nothing construct at least. a few tombs of as considerof the sort has been identified in the excavated able magnitude as the best days of mediaeval area, and although possibly a chapel was ar- Corinth produced. ranged in one of the surviving rooms of the —

South Stoa, it is more likely that it lay to the _ a | er | . :in SHIFTING OF KaRTH DESTRUCTION OF west unexcavated ground.AND Particularly is this probable if the graves in front of the south _ - Chasstcan Monuments _

section of the West Shops belong to the same = _In the development of the Central Area

association. | through the mediaeval period an important

Thus we find that one of the major cemeteries, factor, although hardly architectural in a or concentrations of burials, within the Central positive sense, is the fact that on the one hand

Area belongs with some probability to the in certain areas (as observed in the course of seventh and eighth centuries. Another, that excavation) the ground level of Roman times in the vicmity of Peirene, may have had its was cut away to a considerable extent, whereas origins in the same period. Among the random on the other hand in other areas there was a burials one small group may also be put into notable accumulation of earth on top of the this period. This is a pair of graves built in one substantially undamaged Roman surfaces. _

of the Central Shops near the east end, con- For example, much of the bedding for the sisting of slab-lined cists side by side. The slabs marble pavement of the late Roman Lower lming and covering the graves include frag- Agora was found intact, although almost all

32 | CORINTH of the marble itself had been removed, and of mediaeval cellars, pits and even buildings, fifty centimeters to a meter of earth and gravel earlier than the eleventh century. Thus this had accumulated over it by the end of the part of the region may have been the site of thirteenth century. From this fact, and from buildings of some kind at a low level in the the fact that coins of the twelfth century were tenth century or before. The accumulation found close above the Roman pavement level, immediately west and east of the Bema is it may be assumed that the central part of the certainly the result of the wash of debris and Roman Lower Agora, like the Lechaion Road, earth down from the south, implying a clear lay open and clean into the twelfth century. space in that area so that earth washed down Hast and west of the Bema (7-8 K), however, the road leading from Kenchreai, through the the scholae or exedrae which had become middle of the South Stoa, could be spread out fountains during the Harly Christian period delta-fashion to accumulate on either side of

had, by the tenth century, been filled with the Bema. earth to a depth of almost two meters, as evi-. These considerations are important not only denced by graves of the tenth century and topographically, in suggesting the changes in

perhaps earlier found sunk into that earth the physical conformation of the area, but

(below, pp. 42-48). they are important historically in providing

Conversely there are considerable areas further indication of a population during the where the Roman pavement was cut away to period under consideration. The excavation a great depth. In the Lower Agora, to some and plundering of monuments southwest. of extent on the west and north but chiefly on the the Bema must have been the work of human east, there was relatively slight excavation for hands, just as were the construction of tombs foundations, cellars and pits of various kinds and the burial of dead farther west and perbelonging to buildings with floors only slightly haps elsewhere. We cannot, to be sure, date

higher than the Roman pavement. These the operations precisely, but it forms a conbuildings were probably of the twelfth, or sistent picture to imagine that after the middle perhaps the eleventh, century. In the Upper of the seventh century a population, no doubt Agora, on the other hand, chiefly southeast depleted and impoverished, remained on the and southwest of the Bema (most conspicu- site through the eighth century, contributing ously the latter), mediaeval walls were found their debris to the fill beside the Bema and with floor levels at approximately the same grubbing among the decaying monuments of level as that of the Roman Agora pavement the Agora to maintain their dwellings. but resting on as much as two meters of earth There may, indeed, have been for some containing material of the eleventh and twelfth reason a shift in the area of population; there centuries, and even slight deposits of tenth- may have been a community centered during century material at the bottom. These tenth- this period in some region not yet explored.!® century deposits show that the pavement of This would explain the anomaly of the evithe Roman Agora had been dug away in this dences for human activity in the plundering locality to a depth of two meters in places, at’ of ancient buildings and the burials, beside

least as early as the tenth century. — the decline in the number of coins discovered The deep excavation southwest of the Bema and the atmosphere of desertion in the Agora

was quite probably the result in large part of area.

the rooting out of. . foundations of classical | . 18 Compare the shift in location of the market place after

monuments, compounded with the intrusion the Turkish conquest (below, p. 92).

THE AGE OF BARBARISM 610-802 | 33

| C. SUMMARY Seen as a whole, from the point of view of The buildings of the South Stoa no doubt architectural and quasi-architectural evidence, became largely ruinous, though not completely

the general pattern of the period 610-802 so; other classical buildings fell into decay but seems clear, although its details remain uncer-- not entirely beyond repair. The Central tain and debatable. The city declined toward Stairway was largely pulled apart; the Upper the end of the sixth century and the archaco- Agora lost any semblance of monumentality ; logical evidence for violent damage to some parts of it, at the west, were given over to buildings, like the house north of the Peribolos graves, parts to the search for building material ;

of Apollo and the Bema, offers some support in parts earth and debris began to accumulate to literary tradition of barbarian invasions. At at a rapid rate. By the end of the seventh centhe same time there is archaeological evidence tury, if not before, the house north of the for reconstruction at the beginning of the Peribolos of Apollo had fallen and here, too,

seventh century and for activity well into the earth was accumulating rapidly. But the century, in the house north of the Peribolos of Lower Agora and the Lechaion Road remained

Apollo, the chapel in Lerna, and the statue of fairly open. , | Constans. Less definite evidence for continued Thus the picture is one not, certainly, of activity through the rest of the seventh and utter desertion, but of profound desuetude. the eighth century is given by the graves and Considering the chaotic state of the empire,

the shifting of earth. | the invasions of barbarians, and other calami-

This was, to be sure, a period of decay andit ties such as the famine in 746-747,4 it need saw the loss of many monumental features of occasion no surprise that the city, though it the earlier city. The hypothetical Metropolitan continued to exist, sank to alow ebb of vitality. Church in the Julian Basilica (above, pp- 10-11) 4 Bon, p. 86; Constantine Porphyrogenitos, De themaand perhaps some (but not all, as we shall see) tibus, II, 6 (Corpus Sereptorum Historiae Byzantinae, Conof the temples on the West Terrace disappeared. SOV, 1980p ge on vol. TIL, p.58) ; Setton, Speculum,

3

CHAPTER IIl THE BYZANTINE RECOVERY 802-1057 A. INTRODUCTORY

From the beginning of the ninth century Morea and completed the campaign.? Within Corinth, with the Morea in general, comes out the city reviving strength is suggested by the of the cloud of the previous century and a increasing numbers of coins discovered in the half, and information in increasing volume is excavations,’ and perhaps also by an inscripavailable. In the new scene the literary and tion which has been tentatively dated to about historical evidence depicts the city as a place this time, and which may commemorate some

of real importance. building activity.

There was evidently a garrison in Acro- From all this it may be inferred that during corinth at least as early as Nikephoros, and the early and middle parts of the ninth centuCorimth was the capital of the theme of the ry Cormth was an active community, the seat Morea and the residence of the Strategos'. At of responsible officials and the center of actithe same time the ecclesiastical position of the vity of some importance. With the turn of the

city was diminished by the erection of new century the tempo accelerates. The Bishop metropolitan sees: Athens had achieved this Paul was a man of some distinction and the distinction in the eighth century, Patras in brother of the even more distinguished Bishop 805, and others soon appeared. These were of Peter of Argos.® The Strategos was an official course Orthodox and under the Patriarch, but of high rank in the Byzantine nobility and the strangely enough still considered as having a theme of the Morea was sixth of the European kind of dependence on Rome.? The Metropoli- themes.” The city had some status as an intel-

tan of Corinth, Hilarios, was present at the lectual center. St. Luke of Stiris paid it an Highth Council in 869, when Photios was de- extensive visit in 914, and was visited in return posed, and John II attended the Council of 879 by a Bishop of Corinth whose name is not when Photios was restored. The renewed vigor preserved but who bore valuable gifts to the of the Byzantine world which had brought new holy man; these visits were occasions of interlife to the region at the beginning of the ninth change of theological and philosophical discentury served to protect it toward the end of course.® There was, moreover, a man in Corinth

the century, when the city, with western with an independent name for philosophy, Greece, was threatened by an invasion of Arabs Theophylaktos. Whether he was the same as

during the reign of Basil I. The Admiral , | |

Ooryphas, whose flet lay in the Saronic Gui, jBamPh. 7 fits Stn On the Hai of the Modems was able to carry his ships over the Isthmus 1954, pp. 811-319. and drive off the invaders, and a little later, in >. icp Harris, Hesperia, X, 1941, pp. 148ff., especially

881, an Admiral Nazar raised levies in the 5 Corinth, VIII, i, no. 196; C.G-C.I.H., no. 10.

; 8 Bon, pp. 68, 136; Max, pp. 107-115. A lead seal, Corinth, 1 Bon, pp. 43, 46; Setton, Speculum, XXV, 1950, p. 514; XII, no. 2734, may have been Paul’s.

Constantine Porphyrogenitos, De administrando imperio, ? Bon, pp. 89, 91.

chap. 49. 8 Max, pp. 116ff.; Bon, p. 68; Acta Sanctorum, February,

2 Bon, p. 105 with note. vol. II, p. 83 (February 7). oe

, THE BYZANTINE RECOVERY 802-1057 30 the Strategos Theophylaktos is a matter of north of the Central Area, around 900,!4 and

speculation.® oo the probable reconstruction on a fairly amThe city experienced a notable development bitious scale of the church in the ancient economically through the ninth and tenth Kranion suburb, sometime during the tenth centuries. Apart from the general rise in the century.5 These activities, in places modercirculation of money suggested by the sta-. ately distant from the center of the community, tistics of the coins discovered (which have may reflect not only the economic resources already been mentioned), a hoard of coins of available but confidence regarding the order Romanus I and another of the period of John and safety of the region as a whole. — , Zimiskes'® may reflect the rise of relatively | During the early eleventh century the city wealthy individuals. There areample evidences lost one of its distinctions; the themes of of the development of industry; the most tan- Morea and Hellas were united into a single

gible is the amount and quality of pottery, unit, and the capital was established at presumably manufactured in the city, which Thebes.1° While this may well have meant a has been found in the excavations," and there loss of prestige and of some of the incentive to is literary and epigraphical evidence which economic and other activity that an adminisapparently establishes the existence of notable trative center provides, it also reflects a general

production of “purple” (that is, silk, or at condition more favorable to the prospering of least the dying of silk), and of paper, arms economic and cultural life than was the case

and glass. , when the city was the capital of the theme of The strength and stability of conditions may Morea in its own right. For the concept of the be reflected in the success with which external theme was a military one; it was intended to threats wereaverted. During theadministration provide for a general and an army on the scene of the Strategos Theophylaktos the region ex- of potential trouble. Thus when the general perienced an incursion of Arabs or some other and army are removed it may be taken as a

barbarians, sometime after 922, and a famine sign that the probabilities of trouble are of three years’ duration. The city was threat- regarded as diminished, and the removal of the ened, at least, by Bulgarian invaders in 981 or Strategos to Thebes may therefore be taken as

shortly thereafter, and again in 995 or 996, a sign that the administration regarded the but it was able to withstand these dangers Peloponnese as relatively safe from threat and without serious loss.13 Meanwhile its powers in good condition. for growth may be suggested, from another _ Ag one other indication of conditions in the point of view, by the erection of a chapel in city during this period it may be worth noting the passage connecting Lerna Court with the that we have preserved the names of a conregion of the ancient sanctuary of Asklepios, siderable number of individuals. Of course the

3* }

t Hornets, Vi, 1997, p. 250; Hesperia, X, 1941, p. 146. lack of — information does not prove 14 Corinth, XI, pp. 39-40, 49, 56, 67, Appendix I, p. 347, depressed situation, but the presence of them

ot Bone Ish, Binley, p. 481; Miller, p. 21, See also is & positive suggestion of real activity. It may J. Starr, “Epitaph of a Dyer in Corinth,” Byz. Neugr. Jahrb., therefore be of some interest to list them:

XIT, 1986, p. 429; and perhaps also G. R. Davidson, ‘A :

Mediaeval Glass Factory in Corinth,” A.J.A., XLIV, 1940, :

pp. 297-324, although the glass factory may not actually fall 14 Corinth, XIV, p. 169.

in the tenth century (below, pp. 67-68). 15 J, M. Shelley, Hesperia, XII, 1943, p. 189.

13 Bon, pp. 80-81. *° Bon, p. 92.

36 | , CORINTH

Name Titles Date Reference!

Leon Skleros , Strategos 805-12 B 45, 46, 94, 194 Hsaias ” protospatharios ca. 825 B 94, 187 Theoktistos Bryennios 2! , ca. 840 B 47, 192

Artabasdos 7 patrikios, basilikos , | protospatharios D 2691 Basileios - protospatharios —. D 27138

Hustratios | ” basilikos protospatharios D 2694. —— X—— 53 . D 2712 Johannes Kretikos sO ca. 875 B 95, 188

Johannes > protospatharios ~ Leo VI B 95, 188; D 2700 Constantine -

Tessarokontopechys - | 3 B 77, 95, 187 Michael - protospatharios ” B 95, 191 Theophylaktos 53 ca. 922 B 80, 95, 198

Johannes Proteuon » ~ B95, 188 Krinetas Arotras y, B95, 189 Bardas Platypodas B 95, 186 | Constantine 53 protospatharios 10th e. B 95, 187

Paul i patrikios vestiarios . B 95, 192 Romanos Kourkouas 55 anthypatos patrikios 3 B 95, 192; D 2748 Lykastos koumerkerarios B 100, 205

Petronas yg, D 2711 Theodoros drouggarios and archon D 2695

Toannes krites, protospatharios D 2726

spatharios D 2723

Thomas archon, basilikos proto-

Hilarios Bishop ca. 869 Le Quiens, p. 162

John IT 3 ca. 881LeLeQuiens, Quiens, p. p. 163 163 Paul » ca. 900 Basil ¥ ca. 950 Bon, p. 68 note 3 Athanasios — | ys Max, p. 149 These are the names of individuals who are (D 2727); the generals of the Dodekannesoi known to have been active in Corinth during (D 2699) and the Cyclades (D 2704); the the ninth and tenth and into the early eleventh koumerkerarioi of Dysis (D 2715) and Thessacenturies ; a glance at the seals of non-Corinthi- lonike (D 2690) ; the bishops of Argos (D 2741) ans of the same period found in the city® will and Monemvasia (D 2785); and a certain indi-

add to the impression of activity of official, vidual, whether official or not, Leon of ecclesiastic, and commercial nature, and its Kephalonia (D 2706).

extent. We note the seals of the archons of There is indication, then, that this third Dalmatia (D 2697), Patras (D 2705), Strobyle period, from about 802 to 1057, was one of

| | considerable activity in many spheres at

: Be Bon; D is Davidson, Corinth, XII, catalogue of Corinth; the community must have been an "38 Corinth, XII, catalogue of lead seals, index p. 355. important center, very much alive.

, THE BYZANTINE RECOVERY 802-1057 37 B. THE BUILDINGS OF THE CENTRAL AREA | In what at first impression might seem to be tenth century, for in later times the range of decided contrast to the picture drawn above, shops was concealed by a miscellany of struc-

there is little evidence of new building in the tures erected in front of them. |

Central Area during the two and a half centu- — Oo ries of this period. Some, perhaps much, evi- Tar Ramp THROUGH tam PROPYLATA

dence has been lost, but information directly 8 GH | Plan V

available tends to suggest th at most of the Further indication that the Lechaion Road building of the period was in the nature of had preserved its full extent well into this

reconstitution earlier structures, doubt “P;|| ; we period isofseen in the history no of the Propylaia. with some remodeling and additions. The About the middle of the tenth century, to significance will considered below, . ys ) judge of bythis coins ofbe that period found beneath but first let us review what was actually done. the stones. a gentle stepned , a gentle stepped ramp £of88 38ststeps was laid from the upper end of the Lechaion

Tue Lucaion Road Road over the Roman steps of the Propylaia

8 0-G Plan V (P1.4,). Init were used blocks from the PropyIt is noteworthy that the Lechaion Road _laia itself, indicating that the gateway must remained open in substantially its classical have been dismantled in good part by this form in the ninth century. This is indicated time. It is significant, however, that the ramp not only by the history of the steps to was a full seven meters wide, or the complete the Propylaia (below), but by coins found width of the Lechaion Road itself between the on the pavement of the Road itself and by raised walks along the side. The Road must, indications in the shops along the western side. then, have been completely clear of construcThe colonnades lining the avenue probably did tion and have had extensive use, to require the

not stand intact, although they. may have construction of the ramp.” stood in part, but there is good evidence for On either side of the steps there seems to

the continued existence of the shops. have been relatively open space, as though The entire front wall of the shops was re- these areas were kept open to add to the placed at some period by a new wall, just monumentality of the steps themselves. It is inside the original. This was evidently done uncertain whether the various blocks shown after arise in ground level in front of the shops in Plate 4, were found in the position of lining of about half a meter, and after a pithos had the ramp, or were arranged so during the exbeen built in the doorway of shop XIV (count- cavation. However, the discovery of a massive ing from the south). This pithos must belong base, shaped from a large marble block of a to a late use of the shop; the rise in ground classical cornice and inscribed with the name level is inconsistent with conditions as they of Demetrios with Christian symbols (above, are understood in the Early Christian Period; p. 84, note 5) in this place gives a strong hint the new wall, then, must be fairly late. At the that some monument or monumental building same time, it must belong to a period when the was erected along the road or the ramp during entire shop system was a clear and recogniz- this period. The date which has been assigned able structural entity; it was the whole build- to the inscription, eighth or ninth century, ing which was re-worked, not simply individual must be only approximate, and the block may shops. The most reasonable hypothesis would 1° Corinth. Li. wo. 159. 192: A.J.A.. TL. 1898. v. 288: VI

be that this took place around the ninth or 4909, pl. vi. ¢ PBs BOMs DOS Baledies 29 wr Ps cao

38 , : CORINTH belong to the tenth or even alater period. But with relation to a ground level considerably it is unlikely that after the early eleventh higher than that of the original sixth-century century there was room for the display of a house. The new complex may have been of

monument in this particular vicinity. considerable scale. The heavy wall with the doors extends eastward into the unexcavated Tus Recion NortH or THE PERIBOLOS OF area to the east, and it was obviously built

APOLLO after some, though not all, of the walls of the

9-10 C-E Plan V Roman bath were reduced in places to little The Early Christian House which had been over a meter in height,’

built in the court of the so-called Baths of | Eurykles (above pp.17-21) musthavefalleninto THe PertBoios or AponLo AND THE CHURCH

ruin during the later part of the seventh cen- IN PEIRENE

tury. Its fateisindicated by thecharredremains 9-10 H-H. | , Plan V of roof tiles in the earth above the floor; the There is little evidence for the condition of date may be assumed by the great depth, about things in the Peribolos of Apollo itself during a meter, of earth which accumulated above this this period. So far as can be determined, postbefore any other construction on the site took classical construction in the area was confined place. At some point before this new construc- to the Harly Christian period or to the late tion, the east wall of the house had collapsed eleventh century and later. Whether the Early or been removed to a level of sixty to ninety Christian buildings were in good repair during centimeters above the original floor. The new the ninth through the first half of the eleventh construction included the erection of a wall centuries, or whether there were other strucdirectly on the remains of the original wall, tures replacing them, but since lost, cannot be indicated by the projection of the rough footing demonstrated. Most probably they were still,

stones of the new work on the old; and the or again, used in substantially their sixth-

footing trench cutintotheinterimaccumulation century form. . of earth. Above this accumulation, evidently at In Peirene courtyard, however, there was the time of the construction of the new wall, built a church which may date from the latter some seventy-five centimeters of debris was part of the tenth century or possibly even thrown in to make a new ground level. The earlier. This was a small building of which latest objects that could be dated from these nothing is now preserved and of which the exdeposits were a few fragments of brown glazed cavation records are vague.”° Evidently it was

pottery characteristic of the ninth century, built into the southwest corner of the court, its from the higher stratum contemporary with south wall being the facade of the spring itself the new wall. Thus it may be inferred that (thus involving the removal of two columns of after a period of abandonment the site became the sixth-century facade), its front wall being the scene of construction once again, in the the wall of the courtyard on the west, includ-

late ninth or tenth century. ing a door giving access to a flight of steps The nature of this new building is uncertain, ascending to the level of the top of the Proas few of its elements can be positively identi- pylaia above. fied. A heavy wall extending eastward from In spite of the vagueness about the building, the northern part of the eastern wall of the some inferences are of interest and importance. Karly Christian house, broken by at least two Evidently the courtyard of Peirene was still great doors 1.60 m. wide, may belong to this open to its late classical level, or nearly so.

period (Fig. 1), as it seems to have been designed 20 4 .J.A., IV, 1900, pp. O17, Ot.

THE BYZANTINE RECOVERY 802-1057 | 39 Whether the circular pool was still open is struction belongs to a period later than the uncertain, but in all probability it had been arly Christian, but the special arrangements filled; the courtyard was used as a cemetery. ~ and remodeling which brought a new functional

The picture of the church, or chapel, in the unity to the complex and gave it a new architrefoil court of the fountain, with three of the tectural character belong to the period now sixth-century columns still standing, is an at- under attention. tractive one, but it is significant that the main The primary room of the complex (Fig. 2;

public supply of water of the classical and Pl. 8,) employs as the major part of its Early Christian city had given away to a southern wall a retaining wall of Greek times

secluded chapel. => which had been built to separate the level of

, , the Lower Agora from that of the Peribolos

Tas House East or PEIRENE of Apollo, continuing the line of Peirene facade

V. VI eastward. The east and west walls of the south 10 GH G- -: Plans ans , part of the room are classical, belonging proba-

an \

Just east of this new churchyard, and south bly to a complex of the first and second centuof the Peribolos of Apollo, lay what is from ries after Christ. The northern part of these side many points of view one of the most interest- walls and the lower part of the north wall are ing monuments of mediaeval Corinth. This is probably somewhat later, but no later than a dwelling contrived in the complex of classical the sixth century. The conversion of these walls which are preserved in this area to a walls into a house involved radical changes, if

considerable height. Little of the basic con- by simple means. —

ee Ny a rn er ee

, , | , _7]aN Soe wool \ 2—\\\a| N

| HOUSE GAaST OF PRIRERE | CE iy, a, 4, x a) SL. DOULAS 1954.

: , Figure 2. PLAN OF THE TENTH-CENTURY HOUSE EAST OF PEIRENE | |

40 CORINTH |

In the first place the floor for the new build- in Byzantine times there was a stairway in

ing was made by excavating some 1.50m. below this space leading to a series of rooms above.

the ground level of the Peribolos of Apollo, In any case, just outside the southwest corner which was approximately the level with refer- of the main room of the Byzantine complex ence to which most of the classical construction was a small cellar enclosed by classical walls had been designed. A door some 0.70 m. wide which could be entered only from above. was cut through the north wall, covered with Although all of these walls are Roman or a brick arch. A door about 1.20 m. wide was Greek, and all or most of the doors were also cut through the west wall, and to both doors classical, they all functioned as part of the

steps were installed on the inside and out, Byzantine establishment. This must have from the new floor. Those to the west door been imposing and even luxurious. Probably begin on a semi-circular plan, rising two steps the Exedra was open to the sky and to the to the passage through the door; then curve north, constituting a court or garden facing on

up northwestward outside the door. the area of the Peribolos. The large vaulted Across the room about one-third of the way room with the columns was clearly the main from the north end, two columns were set. room of the house; the purpose of the others

The columns are smooth shafts of marble can only be conjectured. _ , , about 0.30 m. in diameter, resting on Ionic The doorway through the north wall of the bases and carrying Ionic capitals. The total main room presents some particular problems. height of the order is about 2.73 m. These It must have been approached from the inside supports carried three arches on which rested by two or three steps, now missing. At least, a screen wall across the upper part of the room. the sill of the door is some 0.70 m. above the The southern part of the room was covered floor level on the interior, and there is no good with a vault with a spring some 8.70 m. above reason for postulating an intermediary period floor level; although there are no actual traces when the floor was halfway between its present

of such a vault in the northern part of the level and that of the original Peribolos. room, the probabilities are that the entire From this door one has access to a narrow, space was vaulted. Nevertheless there was a steep flight of steps ascending to the east. distinction between the northern and southern These are built between the south wall of the sections, for the columns rest on a sill about Peribolos (a late, perhaps sixth-century, con-

0.15 m. above the floor to the north, though struction) and the north wall of the house

flush with the floor to the south. itself. They seem to have been laid at the same The door on the west side gave access to a_ time that the upper part of the north wall of

small space formed between the corner of a the house was built, for the treads of the rectangular area belonging to an early Roman stairs, while they do not actually bond with phase of the Peribolos-Peirene complex and the wall, sometimes nudge inside the line of the wall of the curved Eixedra of the Peribolos. the wall surface and the wall surface is less well

From this small space a door gave access to finished below the line of the steps than above. the Iixedra itself, and another to a rectangular The treads are made of miscellaneous blocks room on the south. This rectangular room was of stone and marble, including fragments cut

also Roman, and had a vaulted ceiling of down from Roman cornices. brick. Through its western wall another door The function of these stairs is a question of led to still another space enclosed by the great some interest. If the main room was vaulted, retaining wall, the wall of Peirene Court, and any floor above it must have been at least a other classical construction. It is possible that meter above the preserved top of the stairs,

THE BYZANTINE RECOVERY 802-1057 Al and it is difficult to see how the stairs could century. Thus the house was built and used have been manipulated to rise to the necessary before that time; presumably it was built in

height. Perhaps the stairs simply led toastreet the tenth and used through the eleventh, at a high level to the east and constituted a perhaps into the twelfth century.

kind of back exit. The complex is elaborate, commodious, even The chief interest of the stairs, however, isin approaching the palatial, with facilities for providing evidence for the date of the habi- pleasant living. The main room may have tation of the complex. In the first place it will been richly decorated; at least its walls still be recalled that the floor of the house was preserve traces of fine plaster on which were created by cutting down below the level of the troweled grooves suggesting ashlar masonry, area pertaining to the colonnade of the Peri- and on which may have been painted plaster.

bolos. On the north side of the north wall, Altogether it constitutes an indication of the however, this Peribolos level was cut down style of domestic life which may have prevailed

only where necessary to receive the stairs, at among the richer classes in Corinth of the the bottom. Where the stairs rise above the tenth and eleventh centuries.

level of the Peribolos colonnade, to the east, |

they rest on accumulation and fill above the Tun Sournzuast Burpineg ,

floor of the Peribolos. Now, below one of the , steps and above the hard surface of the Peri- H-12 JK Plans VI, VII bolos floor was found a burial of a child, We have seen that the colonnaded portico covered by a draintile of rectangular U-shape. of the Southeast Building had been demolished

This shows that the stairs are later than a by the end of the sixth century, but that the period during which at least 0.75 m. of earth walls themselves stood in a state of usefulness had accumulated above the Peribolos floor, long afterward. This is indicated by the fact and burials had been made in the earth and that they were incorporated into mediaeval forgotten. The accumulation, and the burial construction of-all later periods, which always of course, must be later than the sixth century. followed the general plan of the classical or Furthermore under one of the steps was found arly Christian building. By the tenth century a sherd of plain green glazed ware, normally the Early Christian structure was still in use, dated no earlier than the tenth century. Thus modified by the introduction of two crossthe stairs, and with them the house, must be at walls in the southern hall dividing it into

least as late as the tenth century. three rooms. More revealing, perhaps, is the At the other end, however, the house was arrangement in front. Here we find a wall abandoned and deliberately filled in before or built along the foundations of the stylobate during the twelfth century. This is shown, as of the portico, returning to the main structure we shall see, by the fact that a twelfth-century of the classical building at a point opposite the road led down from the region of the Lower southern cross-wall. This forms a long narrow Agora toward the Peribolos of Apollo directly hall along most of the length of the building over the house, on fill which had evidently and was no doubt covered. In front of this is been thrown in purposely, because the col- a spacious area some ten meters wide, extendumns and lower parts of the arches were still ing for almost the full length of the building. standing, neatly buried in it, when discovered. This was certainly an open-air enclosure; Such a depth of fill under all the circumstances there is no indication of supports for a roof. must have been part of a plan. But planned or Possibly of the same period are two (or perhaps

not, it dates from no later than the twelfth three) rooms built on the north end of the

42 | CORINTH classical building. This general plan remained tradition of the episode in the life of the the same through the twelfth century (Plan Apostle Paul which took place at the Bema in

VI). , : | Corinth.” This hypothesis requires that there The result is a structure of considerable be no great gap in the history of the Bema extent, laid out on a generous and formal plan. between the time when it was well known as Again there is no indication within that it the classical structure where Paul experienced served a commercial or industrial purpose. his trial and the time when it became the site Some pithoi in the middle of the west corridor of a church. It is difficult, however, to estabof the original building (Pl. 18,) are quite con- lish such a continuity. sistent with domestic use. The building may, The actual remains of the complex (lig. 3; therefore, have continued to serve as a palatial Pls. 5, 6), while they make clear that there residence in the tenth century as, according to were several periods of the building, provide my hypothesis, it did in the fifth and sixth no direct evidence for chronology. Almost all

centuries. It is another question whether it the earth associated with the walls had been was the residence of the archbishop. The removed, since the area was honeycombed with Julian Basilica did not survive, either as a graves. Nevertheless there can be no real church or otherwise, into this period, and doubt, as we shall see, that the main period of although it may be that the Metropolitan the church falls in the twelfth century. Church was established farther to the east, The earliest reliable date that can come into there is no evidence for such an hypothesis. consideration is given by a tomb in front of For the date of this complex there is no the church, built in the region of the western direct evidence. The facts, however, that schola of the classical complex. It was a large there are modifications of the arrangement vaulted structure, and beyond doubt was used which can be dated to the twelfth century and during the second half of the tenth century. that the area in front of the building was clear In it was found a collection of ten coins of of obstruction when the complex was laid out John Zimiskes, all certainly belonging to one

would imply that the arrangements we have interment. Ordinarily objects found in a described were among the earliest in the medi- mediaeval grave must be used with reserve in aeval development of the area. Coins of Basil I dating the tomb; Greek and Roman coins have (867-886) were found in the lowest deposits of been found in Byzantine graves, or a twelfth-

the street in front of the courtyard, and the century man and his possessions might be street, which falls west of the surviving drums _ buried in a tenth-century tomb. But in this of the Circular Monument, could hardly have case there can be no real question; the group begun to take form until some control such as__ of coins is large, perfectly consistent, and was

the courtyard had appeared. Hence we may arranged with reference to a single burial. infer that the plan we have described beganto The tomb, then, was. in use in the tenth develop in the ninth century, perhaps not to century.

be completed until the tenth. Tn the light of this the discovery of a coin of Leo VI (886-912) in a tile-covered grave close

Tas Bema Cuurc to the central apse of the church becomes fairly reliable; we may feel confident that this

78 KL Plans VI, VII burial was made, if not necessarily as early

It has often been said that the church on the | ,

Bema, which certainly existed there in the st * Brome eepoeraphy oe nnth in ; the aa twelfth century, had its reason for being in the et d7. A. XL, 1986, ». 473. eA IIPS

THE BYZANTINE RECOVERY 802-1057 A3 as 900, at least early in the tenth century. length of the developed church, to turn northWith this support we need not hesitate to wards and pass along the west edge of the assume that many of the earhest graves, Bema to its northwest corner, turning thence stratigraphically speaking, around the Bema eastward along the north edge of the Bema at are to be dated as early as the tenth century, least as far as the spring of the north apse of perhaps earlier. It is worth pointing out, the developed church. Furthermore, the doorhowever, that the earth in which they are set wall of the south aisle of the developed church presumably accumulated during the eighth seems to belong structurally to this Period ITI. century (above, p. 32), so that the cemetery Period IV is represented unequivocally by can hardly -be earlier than the ninth. © the southern apse, which is clearly later than From these observations we may conclude the key wall of Period III which lies below it. that from the ninth or at least the early tenth With the southern apse goes the upper part

century there was in the vicinity of the Bema of the south wall of the building. |

a church or burial chapel. , In short these three periods are distinguished _ As to the remains of the church itself several beyond doubt at the point where the southern periods may be distinguished. The first period apse of the developed church joins the nave: is reasonably unequivocal. It is represented by here we have the southern apse (Period IV) a well built wall of stone with cemented joints built over the south-projecting wall (Period running parallel to the south foundation of the ITI) which is built against, and later than, the

classical Bema from a point just south of the wall paralleling the south side of the Bema southeast corner to a point 4.00 m. east of the (Period I). No such clear structural contacts original western corner, under the southern indicate the relative position in the sequence wall of the nave of the fully developed church. of the central, large apse of the nave, the It also returns at the east end to extend along, northern apse, and the wall separating the but not quite parallel to, the eastern edge of nave from the northern aisle. the Bema foundation, built, clearly, after that © Four hypotheses explaining the unattached foundation had suffered some damage and the elements are possible. One is that the central corner of the stylobate of the Bema had been apse actually belongs to the first period and

removed. - the northern apse to a subsequent period. The The next period which is unequivocal struc- chief difficulty here is the seemingly unnecesturally belongs to what we shall conclude is sary projecting southeast corner of the lower the third period of the building; weshall return foundation. A second hypothesis would be later to elements of the second period. The key _ that the main apse represents a period between

factor in this third period is a wall under the I and III, or III and IV. The chief difficulty is late southern apse of the developed church, — the interpretation of Period I; there is no sign built. of small stones in mud mortar, projecting of an earlier apse and some difficulty in resouthward from the main wall of Period I, storing one within limiting factors. What a about two meters west of the southeast corner simple rectangular room would have to do of the Bema. This key wall of Period III evi- with the early history of the church presents dently turned westward along the line repre- difficulties of its own. A third hypothesis is sented by the south wall of the south aisle of that the main apse belongs to Period III. the developed church, for which it serves as a Against this is the fact that the east face of the foundation. The construction of the lower part definitive wall of this period, under the south of this south wall, belonging to Period III, apse, would strike the south wall of the nave seems to continue unbroken for the entire out of line with the spring of the apse. A fourth

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128 CORINTH about 0.80 m. square. The floor of the entrance Bema church at least as late as the twelfth chamber lay about 0.90 m. below the top of century; the slab-lined cist graves as preserved the slab lining; the chamber was normally seem to occur in places most easily available covered with slabs, but whether it was filled during the late sixth to the eighth or ninth with earth or left open is less certain. It is also centuries, but at least one example, in the

not quite clear how deep below the ground North Market, was definitely dated to the level the top of the entrance chamber was. In thirteenth or fourteenth century. The flatthe tombs inside the churches the cover-slabs roofed tombs might seem to be predecessors were often at floor level; in outside tombs they of the vaulted tombs, particularly since many may have been buried to some slight depth. of them fall within the late sixth to early ninth

In any case the west side of the entrance century period, when large elements of the passage was the east wall of the tomb, and structure of classical buildings were easily through this. wall there was a door flush with available and easily assembled. However there the floor of the entrance passage. This door of is some reason to suspect that vaulted tombs the example noted above measured 0.55 m. were used in the sixth century (above, p. 11),

wide and 0.65 m. high. Through the door and flat-topped tombs were used in the descended perhaps four small steps; the top of twelfth century, in the Bema church and in the door was a meter or more above the floor the church of the monastery of St. John.

of the tomb. The door could be closed by a slab of stone fitting into neatly cut reveals around

the door opening; at least some such effort at Domnsti0 BUILDINGS | close fit was made in the better tombs. Tt is significant. estimating the character The tomb was used many times: for each of the Byzantine community in its various fresh interment the bones of preceding burials periods that there are only a few buildings in were usually, though not always, swept aside. the area under discussion that can be regarded At least one structure of the sort we have been with any confidence as houses. This will emphadescribing was used as an osteotheke, asanctified size the fact that the city through the twelfth

depository for bones from disturbed burials in century and no doubt later extended far a crowded cemetery (Pl. 17,), but most of the beyond the boundaries of the excavated area; structures of this type seem to have been there must have been a considerable population family vaults, used through several generations to support the commercial activity presumably

and perhaps re-used by other families if represented by the buildings which have been abandoned but rediscovered at later periods. revealed. This is obvious in any consideration It is difficult to forbear commenting on one of the Karly Christian community, which mainfeature of the tombs which seems wholly tained almost the entire classical Agora in its unsatisfactory: the narrow and tortuous en- original extent for public use, and must almost trance. It must have been extremely difficult equally be true of the subsequent periods while to introduce a corpse into one of these tombs, the Agora remained open; it must also be true spacious as the interior 1s; and it is perfectly to some extent during the eleventh and succlear that the corpse could not have beenina_ ceeding centuries when the area of the Agora

coffin. | was overrun with commercial and industrial There is no evidence for any chronological structures. |

development in these types of tombs and ‘This circumstance, however, considerably burials. The tile burial is likely to be thought reduces our opportunity for the study of the of as Karly Christian, but occurs around the Byzantine house as such, although we are

PLANS AND TYPES. OF BUILDINGS 129 singularly fortunate in having just the monu- see a variation in the twelfth-century. house ments we have. Information on Byzantine do- east of the bath at the north end of the Lechaion mestic architecture is by no means abundant. A Road (9: D), where the room was divided into certain.amount can be derived from: the study three sections instead of two by pilaster-like of mediaeval literature? and a good deal more spur walls along the sides, in a room south of from an examination of mediaeval mosaic and the glass factory (6 N, northwest corner, Plan painting.® But actual remains of houses come VI), and perhaps others. _ -

either from the early Christian period, repre- This type. of room.could be taken as simply sented. by a great. number houses in Syria,’ or an adaptation of the typical structural form of from the fourteenth century or later, repre- Early Christian Syrian architecture, where sented by houses at Mistra!! and by other, flat roofs and ceilings of stone slabs were commuch later, houses from other parts of Greece. monly supported by arches spaced at intervals All of these, however, are peripheral in time or along the room. Specifically the characteristic place, and the real nature of the Byzantine form of the primary room in the Syrian house dwelling during the full Byzantine period has (called, as revealed by inscriptions—see note 18

been a mystery. | — a ‘‘triklinon’’) is. that of a rectangle divided The limited material at Cormth does make longitudinally by a single arch of this sort. In a clear and tangible contribution tothesolution Syria there was:a definite structural reason for of the mystery. The most definite starting the device (to. support the slab ceilings), which point. is: the primary room in the house north _ is lacking in the Corinthian houses; indeed the

of the Peribolos of Apollo dating from the house east of Peirene had a vaulted -ceiling sixth century (9 D-E; pp.17-20, Fig.1),andthe and others may have: been vaulted. But. the closely similar rooms in the tenth-century aesthetic form is the same. Irresistable corhouse east of Peirene (10 G—H; pp.89-41, Fig.2) roboration. of the identification: of the Syrian and in the twelfth-century houseatthebranch- type of house with the Corinthian is a latrine ing of the Market Avenue (8 L, Plan VI).The in one corner of the.sixth-century house north

significant character of these rooms lies in of the Peribolos. of Apollo, set. slightly: in. a their long, quadrilateral plan with entrances niche but projecting largely into. the. room, irregularly. located, and chiefly in the fact that just as in the typical Syrian house; This. is in they weredividedintotwo approximately equal itself a remarkable peculiarity, and the: comparts by a. sort. of. screen through the upper bination of the two:features. can hardly be.an part of the room supported on pilasters against accident.3 — the walls .and, if needed, by one or two columns It is true that the Syrian triklinon. included between. If this manner of subdividing the features absent at Corinth, notably the curious room be taken: as a sign of the type, we may arrangement of stabling animals in the house,

9,

| oe , often in what. amounts to the triklinon itself,

0 de Baylis Ehabiiation byzantine separated from the living quarters. only: by: a

10 Butler, Syria; Architecture. row: of mangers. But the Syrian towns were ts ampere hy Oana in Are TM, clog to agriculture and Corinth to commer 12 See, for the best. examples, Orlandos in ’Apyeiov, II, 18 A casual examination: of the. many illustrations. in 1986, pp. 180-194; III, 1987, pp. 187-193; IV, 1938, Butler’s Syria, Architecture, will reveal almost innumerable pp: 196-210; V, 1939-1940, pp. 198-205. It might be useful examples of the type in both northern and ‘southern Syria, to. note also a. study of Mesopotamian houses and their more abundantly in the south. Note. particularly a house-at influence by E. Gerland in Burgwart, XVI, 1915, pp. 10-19, Medjdel (Syria, Architecture, Section A, Part 2, pp. 120-123), “Die Wohnhaus, der Byzantiner”;. and. O.. Reuther, “‘Das where an inscription identifies the room as.a-“‘triklinon.” The Wohnhaus in. Bagdad. und anderen. Stidten. des: Irak,” Bei- full type is abundantly exemplified at Umm-id-djemal (Part 3, irdge zur Bauwissenschaft. herausgegeben: von: Cornelius Gurlitt, p. 203) and Busan (Part 5, pp. 386ff.). Compare also de Beylié,

Heft 16, Berlin, 1916. 7 op. cit:, pp. 32ff. ,

130 CORINTH and industry. Nevertheless the Syrian trik- buildings in Athens!* and once the type is linon house seems to have exerted a definite accepted variations and imperfectly preserved influence on Corinth as early as the sixth examples may be suspected among some of the century, establishing a tradition to last at least remains along the southern side of the exca-

into the thirteenth century. vated area, south of the so-called Temple of Apart from the triklinon itself, the Syrian Apollo, within the Hemicycle, and perhaps type of house was characterized by several elsewhere. The interpretation of the plan is stories, balconies, sometimes towers, almost problematical; one of the three halls may always courtyards with other isolated struc- represent an open courtyard, or all may have tures, and often a portico of some sort. Al- been covered, or, they may represent the though some of these features may be sus- basement structure, with the main rooms to pected more or less confidently in some of the be located above. Corinthian triklinon houses, they cannot be It may be simple coincidence that the Southdescribed in any detail on the basis of the east Building (12 J-K) maintained a similar remains as preserved. It is, therefore, impossi- plan throughout its history, that is, one domi-

ble to extend the comparison beyond the nated by three parallel halls. If it is not pure

triklinon. coincidence, it is possible that the building, for

Finally, among the characteristic features all that it was essentially an adaptation of the of the Syrian house are exterior staircases pre-existing plan of an administrativestructure, ascending from the courts. This is a feature contained the elements of a genuine palace characteristic of Greek houses today and may type, and as such influenced the form of the have origins in other regions than Syria, quite smaller buildings in question. De Beylié illusindependently. Whatever the origin, they may trates and discusses! a palace with a superbe observed in structures like that south of ficially similar plan in Venice, the so-called the wine press on the Southeast Road (10 K), Fondaco dei Turchi, which was built in the in the courtyard of the monastery (4 K), and eleventh century and later became the Munielsewhere. Since the triklinon, or the Syrian cipal Palace.

triklinon, is not evident on the ground floor Apart from these types and hypothetical of these buildings, their stairways may have types of formal residence, one should also bear

an origin in some other tradition, although in mind the probability that the owners and they may still derive in some sense from proprietors of the various industrial and com-

Syria. , , mercial establishments filling the southern

_ Thus we may identify one type of house, the part of the excavated area lived in small rooms

Syrian triklinon type, and suspect another on the premises, in some cases at least. It type, the courtyard with stairs surrounded by ‘would no doubt be wrong to affirm that this miscellaneous rooms not including (on the was so in all instances, and it would be futile ground floor, at least) a triklinon of Syrian to attempt to discriminate. But the picture of

type. It is possible that a third type may be domestic architecture in Corinth during the seen in the building in front of the south Byzantine period would be incomplete if this section of the West Shops (2 L-M) in the aspect of the situation were left out of account. twelfth century, characterized by three long Finally there is the question of kitchen and parallel halls bearing an uncertain relation to toilet facilities in the houses. As to the latter rooms east and west. This arrangement hardly 14 As Mr. Eugene Vanderpool has pointed out to me on emerges as a type at Corinth, but apparently unpublished plans of the mediaeval walls uncovered in the excavations of the Athenian Agora.

has a number of parallels among contemporary 45 Op. cit., pp. 187-189. |

PLANS AND TYPES OF BUILDINGS 131 we have one indisputable latrine in the Early they do not differ widely in interior shape, Christian house north of the Peribolos of under favorable circumstances some sort of Apollo, with a bathroom as well. The latrine chronology of shapes might be determined, but was highly efficient in the disposal of sewage under the conditions at Corinth this does not and waste, however one may regard the de- seem feasible. The reason is that once set up a sirability of its location in the main living _ pithos can be used over a long period of time, room. For other houses, however, we have less even several generations, so that its contents definite evidence. Numbers of sewage pits were when discovered are not a close indication. of discovered throughout the excavations, simple its date; on the other hand the many disturb-

unlined pits, but it was seldom possible to ances of the earth around them make it diffidetermine their date accurately, and hence cult to relate them to their original stratifi-

their relation to specific buildings. Presumably cation. an re these pits were normally located within a We may therefore try simply to give a courtyard or behind a house, perhaps partially general idea of the nature of these vessels by protected by walls of mud brick or even wood. describing a few typical examples. One of the

Apart from the definite traces of cooking best examples of the ceramic type still stands facilities in the buildings we have identified as among the foundations of the Propylaia inns there were no clear evidences for stoves of (Pl. 18,), to the east of the stairs, above Peirene. any formal structural sort. Cooking was proba- It is cracked and the cracks are sprung, but it

bly done on braziers in the principal rooms or is about 1.50 m. high, 1.35 m. in greatest in the courtyards of the houses, as is the prac- interior diameter, and 0.42 m. in interior

tice today. The modern house normally has diameter at the throat. The material is a a fireplace, but such facilities were not observed strong, coarse, heavy fabric three to four centi-

among the remains of the mediaeval com- meters thick, and like all other ceramic pithoi

munity. , it was covered with several coats of thin | oe plaster or cement. Another, which is still buried with its mouth at the original floor level

_ SERVICE STRUCTURES near the northern end of the Southwest Street It seems desirable to include some obser- toward Acrocorinth, 8 about 1.20 m. high and

. ee about the same inasinterior diameter, the mouth vations on such structures pithoi, cellars, 9. Don eas , | . _ being 0.57 m. in interior diameter. It illustrates

and other devices, cisterns, and drains. : , okstorage . @ normal feature, that such buried jars as were

Although not all of these are strictly archi- tectural compositions at least functionally, | : ; on the shoulder of the jar and presumably con-

- commonly protected around neck .by, a tectural,.+:oo they are clearly related to the archieer packing of small stones and broken tile resting

| Pathor ;

and some of them are architectural in con- a ae

ception. . , : stituting of level. the cavity which eee : , pithos is sunk,the to fill floor Two in pithoi in the the _ poe west hall of the Southeast Building illustrate

Oo what was probably a fairly common type of

The most common storage device of any rim for pithoi sunk to floor level: a broad lip, permanence was the pithos, of which we may surrounded by an approximately equally identify two general types: those essentially broad channel within a raised edge (Pl. 183). ceramic and those which were built up of This seems obviously to be a device for premasonry. Both types seem to have been used venting waste of hquids. But many pithoi throughout our entire span of time. Although seem to have been only half-buried. __ 10

132 CORINTH The built pithoi have approximately the during construction; the vaults themselves same shape and are of various sizes, but were made of squared blocks in strong lime characteristically they may be quite large cement. A hole in the curve of the vault near (Pl. 18,). Several were as much as two meters - one corner gave access to the cellar; the best deep with an interior diameter of around1.70m. preserved measures some 0.40 m. square and They are built sturdily of masonry consisting is built up like a chimney to the floor level of of small stones and tile fragments laid up ike the room above. In some of the cellars more or

walls 0.25-0.30 m. thick, in good hard lime less adequate foot-holds were built into the cement. The interior surface is well finished wall to aid in entrance and exit, but it must with waterproof cement. Not infrequently have been a precarious business to use them there is a projection built into the side to aid and no doubt ladders were used. in descending into the pithos and getting out

; , ; 7 Cisterns

again. Commonly the built pithos has a wide . rim with a raised outer edge, leaving a sunken

band ten to thirty centimeters wide and four A number of cisterns were found, apart from

to ten centimeters deep, to receive a lid. pithoi which may have been so used. Of the Quite evidently these pithoi were used for best preserved examples we describe the the storage of liquids, or conversely of grains largest, one north of the Peribolos of Apollo of

or materials which had to be kept dry. Thus the twelfth or thirteenth century, and the they may have served as cisterns, for the smallest, at the north end of the Southwest storage of wine or oil, or for grains. - Street. Both are built of small stone and hard

| cement masonry, and lined on the interior

, with good hard waterproof cement.'®

Cellars The smaller had a flat roof, covered with For less perishable or fugitive commodities slabs. It was 0.50 m. wide and 1.15 m. long at

other devices, not necessarily water-tight, the top (0.70 m. wide and 1.85 m. at the would serve. Unlined pits, indeed, would suffice bottom), and was 1.25 m. deep. The largest is for most needs, and the excavation area was 4.73 m. long, 3.35 m. wide, and 3.45 m. high to

almost honeycombed with these. Commonly, the top of the vault. Another, not so long or cylindrical pits with relatively loose masonry wide, is 3.70 m. high.

linings but well laid floors of tiles or stone The larger cisterns have the corners treated slabs were adequate. Apart from these a few in a characteristic way, with what may be actual cellars were identified, all of the twelfth described as re-entrant corners. Along the edge or thirteenth centuries, one in the monastery of the floor there is a ledge 0.10-0.20 m. high of St. John, one east of the Tower Complex, and about as wide; a similar projection occurs

and two north of the Peribolos of Apollo. in the vertical corners, though not so promiThese cellars were often vaulted, and were nent. The floor hollows down to a neatly built of small stones sometimes in mud mortar, smoothed, hemispherical sump at one end. The sometimes in lime. The walls were not lined. room is entered by a hole in the top similar to

One of the cellars north of the Peribolos of that in the cellars (Pl. 18,). : Apollo measures 2.90 m. in length, 2.00 m. in In the two well preserved large vaulted width, and 2.00 m. in height; the other is cisterns, the waterproof lining does not rise about 2.85 m. long, 1.85 m. wide, and 2.85 m. higher than the spring of the vault, and the

high. aretheholes in the wall belowcistern the eein . . 16There Compare enormous Early Christian spring of the vault for beams for centering Acrocorinth, Corinth, III, ii, pp. 257-259.

PLANS AND TYPES OF BUILDINGS 133 mineral-deposit lines indicating the various tinued northward as far as the edge of the lower habitual water levels do not quite approach terrace of the city, and a road led southward

even this height. for some distance continuing it in the opposite

_ In the sides of the cisterns, including the direction; there was a parallel road from the smallest, one or more blocks of stone project a western end of the Agora to the Asklepieion, few centimeters from the surface of the wall, and another skirting the eastern edge of the well covered with the waterproof cement. They Agora. There were streets running approxiwere evidently intended to facilitate entrance mately east and west behind the South Stoa and exit, but with regard to the large cisterns on the southern edge of the Agora, just north it is difficult to see how anyone could transfer of the archaic temple, and at the foot of the his weight to these projections on the wall as terrace just to the north of that. Thus what he let himself down through the holein the roof information we have suggests that there was some distance out from the wall. With regard a street system in rectangular blocks. We know to the small cistern, however, it is difficult to almost nothing, excepting with regard to a few

see why such aid should be needed. monuments described by Pausanias, about the

, districts traversed by this street system. Drains and Water , In the century, whether rec| ,angular grid.Channels outside thetwelfth excavated areatheper-

Numerous short: stretches of drains and _ sisted is not known, although it probably did. water channels were found, but little that was The same lines of traffic seem to be represented broadly informative. Most common werestone- by the new streets which developed among the

lined and covered drains, as large as 0.40 m. buildings covering the area of the ancient in breadth; the most important drained the Agora, converging on the smaller focus of the sub-market into the Northeast Road, and the new market. A maze of alleys and irregular region from Peirene northward. There are also open areas was left between the unregulated some carefully made water channels (Pl. 36,). buildings as they appeared; a few quite new Many short stretches of fitted and unfitted streets—the North Road, the Northwest Road tile pipe were also found, but details are no to Sikyon—developed along natural paths. longer available in useful form. Wells, some- Along the streets of the new system were times lined with stone, provided some water, mingled many varied concerns: there were as did Peirene; the fountain of Glauke no whole blocks devoted to certain single interests, longer functioned. Much of the water supply like the ceramic quarter southwest of the must have been from rain, judging from the market, the builders’ supplies (?) north of the

cisterns. ] , archaic temple, the shop streets like the Market , Avenue, the Lechaion Road, and the South

GROUP PLANNING Road; but other, unique, industrial or com, It remains to consider the larger forms of the mercial enterprises were scattered about; and community, composed of the individual ele- religious and political buildings were dispersed ments we have discussed. Here we have to do here and there, particularly near the market. with the composition and significance of the The entire excavated area seems to constitute public areas, and with the question of town all or part of a comprehensive “business dis-

planning. | trict” of which the market square is only a In the late classical and Early Christian part. But throughout this district are scattered

10* ,

cities the Agora was the center of a rectangular houses of quality as well as poorer dwellings.

system of streets. The Lechaion Road con- Presumably the relative proportion of resi-

134 CORINTH dences would grow higher in the zones more were gone by the twelfth century. It is even

remote from the market plateia. a question whether they were imitating any In all periods the market was the focus of colonnaded avenues at all, for in a way the everything. That the character of the market colonnades of the Market Avenue are really place remained essentially thesamethroughout . composed of a series of individual porches. its history, in spite of fluctuation of size and Under present conditions it may be impossible affluence, is perhaps the most significant reve- to decide whether they represent a tradition of

lation of the excavation. From late classical monumental colonnades still alive in such a and Early Christian times through the twelfth city as Byzantium or were local inventions century it provided representation to all developed from practical needs that are foreaspects of social, economic and political life, runners of a later style of colonnade not

and a center for expression of community directly related to antiquity. interests. The central flight of steps and the Thus the survival of classical attitudes remodeling of Peirene in the Early Christian cannot be tested within the limits of our period; the statue of Constans in mid-seventh material. As to the possibility of influence from century; the stepped ramp through the Pro- abroad, in the first place, as the impetus to the pylaia in the tenth, together with the “Gov- development of twelfth century Corinth may

erner’s Palace” in the Northwest Shops and be suspected in the opening of the city to the maintainance of the open Agora, are allin Venice in 1082 and to other Italian cities soon this spirit. The relatively crude and simplified after, it might seem reasonable that some structural techniques of the eleventh and influence of Italian ideas of town planning and twelfth centuries are hardly impressive in architecture should be felt in Corinth. To this comparison, but the successful effort to main- hypothesis the loggia north of the Bema might tain a moderately trim square, the loggia, and lend some support. In fact, however, we know the Market Avenue with its porches are monu- too little of town architecture in the eleventh mental in spirit, and the churches rising above and twelfth centuries in western Hurope to

would have added some dignity. . examine this problem with much confidence, The significance of this concept of the agora although in view of the chronology it is really

in relation to Byzantine culture in general more likely that the influence was in the other depends to some extent on the degree to which direction." it represents direct survival of classical tra- 17 It is hard to identify unequivocal examples of Italian

+h: . : town plans of this period. In Turin, Florence, and Lucca,

dition, influence from abroad, OF an inherently however (F. Haverfield, Ancient Town, Planning, Oxford, Byzantine concept of life. It would be natural 1918, p. 88, fig. 15; p. 98, fig. 17B; p. 96,'fig. 18), the early

tOdregard it | direct f mediaeval must in some even the 1b as ainherit durect iInneritance ITOMplan classical plansurvive of a rectangular grid degree of streets as is still apparent.

. ae . , . is evident.

classical antiquity, especially since so much of But no “forum” or central square from the full middle ages classical Corinth survived physically into the See, in general, Pierre Lavedan’s Histoire de l’urbanisme—

Bvzantin riod. But manv avvarent . antiquité, moyen dge, Paris, 1926, and T. F. Tout’s “Mediaeval y © pero ; u any appare sur Town Planning,’ Bulletin of the John Ryland’s Labrary, IV, vivals, of less tangible nature, may be only 1917, for a summary of evidence from France, Germany and coincidence. It is striking that there shoul d be England especially. From these it appears that there is little ° a 8 ; oe positive evidence for conditions earlier than the thirteenth a Market Avenue lined with columns in the century, although A. E. Brinckmann in his Stadtbaukunst —

, . . Geschichtliche Querschnitte und neuzeitliche Ziele, 1920,

twelfth century to comp are with the Lechaion pp. 1-24, speaks generally of some existing plans like that of

Road of classical times, but there can be no Carcassonne as though they remain unchanged from still

ti f the t Corinthi » earlier time.asLavedan seemsorganism to conclude that the question 0 ©twelfth twe century VOFNthlans market an architectural does (p. not449) appear until having imitated their classical predecessors the fourteenth century; the stages in its development he

: . describes (pp. 458ff.) as, first, simply a street along which

directly, for the Lechaion. Road colonnades — were facilities for market functions; second, particular con-

PLANS AND TYPES OF BUILDINGS 135 On the other hand there is the possibility space; there might be a produce market in an of influence from the east, either directly, or open square near the edge of the city; there indirectly through Byzantine cities in Asia might also be small squares throughout the

Minor. One possible source of information city, but nothing really comparable to the

would be the later phases of Doura-Europos, multiple-purpose agora. ,

which absorbed the oriental A . he derived _ . 19was A notion ofinto a “pure” city tradition may be_derived from fro: accounts

in the third century - But here the agora area oF the city of Kufa in Trak, founded in 638: see L. Massignon,

was completely reorganized formally andfunc- “Explication du plan de Kifa (Irak),” in Mémoires de

. . ae U Institut Francats du Cdire, LXVITI, 1958 (Mélanges Masvpero,

tionally; it was overrun by a maze of streets 491, ITI), pp. 356 ff. For the others see J. Weulersse, ‘‘Antioche

, aditads ' 6 , 718 —Hssai de géographie urbaine’’, Bulletin d’études orientales,

and shops constituting a kind of bazaar. Institut Francais de Damas, IV, 1934, (printed 1935), The persistence of the Agora at Corinth, then, pp. 27-79; J. Sauvaget, “Le plan de Laodicée-sur-mer,”’ op. shows that the kind of orientalism dominant i pp. 81-114; Sauvaget, Alep— essai sur le dévelopment ; ; . dune grande ville syrienne des origines au milieu du XIXe at Doura made no impression at Corinth. siécle, Paris, 1941; K. Wulzinger, and OC. Watzinger, Da. . . ., maskus, Die Islamische Stadt, Wissenschaftlichen VerdffentAnother kind of orlentalism, later but more lichungen des Deutsch-Tiirkischen Denkmalschutz-Kom-

vigorous, was Islam. An example of a “pure” mandos, ed. Th. Wiegand, Heft 5, Berlin, 1924. ,

Islami 7 devel d on the basis of The most obvious peculiarity of an Islamic city is the Slamc Cl y—one developed on the basis o souq or “bazaar.” There seems to be some irregularity in the Islamic culture and tradition alone —hardly definition of these terms, but the most illuminating is that of

. » oes | Weulersse (‘‘Antioche,”’ pp. 68, 66) who in the first place

exists; normally the Islamic cities were devel- distinguishes the souq from the temporary open market to oped in earlier cities like Antioch, Damascus, which he prefers to restrict the name ‘“‘bazaar”’; and who : | a describes a souq as a complex consisting of a khan together Aleppo, and a few others. On these the classical with the shop-lined, usually covered streets associated with it, plans of the earlier cities left their impress — a forming a unit whichor could be closed off, and This all devoted j _ to in a particular commercial industrial activity. com-

the street systems, as at Corinth, but the plex is the natural outgrowth of the tribal division of the

: . . Islamic city combined with its essential character as a trade

agora was obliterated. An Islamic city “hor- center. The khan, a building surrounding an open court, was mally had a maydan, or parade ground, for intended to house and protect the itinerant merchants of

lit - d. d disol . some national group specializing in some particular trade.

mintary OXELCISES ana “gran splays; 1M- the merchants would do business among themselves within portant mosques were located in a large open _ the khan, and their retail outlets, so to speak, and connections

| with merchants in other lines of goods, were through the

centration of these functions in a wide place in the street; shops in the adjoining streets. Thus the business center of an third, a designated place, normally near the center of the Islamic town would consist of a number of these sougqs, i.e., town and at the intersection of important streets, a phase not khans with related shop-streets, each with its own specialty.

achieved until the end of the middle ages. As a derived use the term “‘souq” might then be extended to An interesting and perhaps significant exception is the the whole district composed of true sougs. bastide (Lavedan, op. cit., pp. 880ff.; Tout, op. cit., pp. 12ff.; The significant point in all this is that although in many Haverfield, op. cit., pp. 143-144; L. Testut, La Bastide de respects an - Islamic souq or ‘bazaar’? might seem to be Beaumont en Périgord, Bordeaux, 1920; Caroline Shillaber, simply a market and architecturally a district of maze-like “Edward I, Builder of Towns,” in Speculum, XXII, 1947, covered streets, it is more highly organized than this with pp. 297-309). The bastides were communities chiefly in definite peculiarities. Thus although we may speak of various

southern France founded by royal initiative to counter- quarters in twelfth century Corinth and be struck with the balance the power of local nobility, mostly between 1150 relatively tortuous patterns of narrow streets, we miss any and 1250. All were laid out on the same general scheme: real reflection of the peculiarly Islamic combination of

streets in a quadrangular grid, a formal quadrangular market features and find, instead, the classical concept of the whole near the center surrounded by arcades behind which were _ life of the whole town focused in one square, a concept foreign

broad walks covered by vaults, and other peculiarities. to Islam. .

Although the architectural form of the market of a bastide It is barely possible that the combination of retail outlets is thoroughly homogeneous and integrated (see particularly with the glass and ceramic factories on the Market Avenue the illustrations in Testut’s volume I, pp. 68ff.),incomparison might be traced to Islamic influence. Indeed, Miss Davidson’s to the discreet arrangement at Corinth, thesudden appearance hypothesis that the glass factory may have been established of so completely developed a distinct form in Europe at this by refugees from Kgypt early in the eleventh century (A.J.A.,

time suggests the possibility that the inspiration came with XLIV, 1940, p. 324) might give some weight to this sug-

the crusaders from the Byzantine east. gestion. And the confinement of trade in Syrian silks to inns For suggestions leading to the above remarks Iamindebted (above, p. 123, note 1) may reflect Islamic practice.

to Prof. George Cuttino of. Emory University. | But substantially we are left with the fact that Islamic 8 F. E. Brown, Eacavations at Doura-Europos, Prelimi- influence in Corinth before the Turkish conquest was slight, nary Report on the Ninth Season of Work, 1935-6, Part I, so far as architecture and city,planning were concerned. “Agora and Bazaar,” Yale University Press, 1944, pp. 52ff. _ For suggestions leading to this discussion I am indebted to

But for the term “bazaar” see also below, note 19. Mr. Oleg Grabar, now of the University of Michigan.

136 CORINTH Thus external influence from east or, proba- it takes us into the question of Frankish bly, west may be eliminated as an important influence in Greece and the results of the factor in the growth of the city architecturally. Turkish conquest. There is too little evidence

It remains to discover whether the lines of at Corinth to permit an analysis of Frankish development were determined by classical influence there, or of the details of any imtradition—and if so how—or by something pression made by the subsequent Turks. It essentially Byzantine. The answer to these may, however, be worth noting that neither at questions must await further, broader, study. Mistra nor elsewhere do we find clear traces of

Finally there is the problem of the relation the significant features of Byzantine archiof the twelfth-century city to what came after- tecture apparent at Corinth, so that it may ward. This again would take us into western well be that around the thirteenth century new Hiurope, a road we are not prepared to travel trends, whatever their origin, became domi(above p. 134, note17), but more immediately nant in profane architecture. :

APPENDICES A. THE GRAFFITI when pagan worship still prevailed in the Three graffiti of some interest have been temple and how long the column might have noted in the Central Area of Corinth. One stood erect after pagan times. Assuming that represents a system of fortifications, scratched Ib 1s post-pagan, the graffito could have been

on a column of one of the temples of the West cut any time between the early ith and, Terrace; the others depict ships, one on a possibly ’ the late eleventh century, with the marble slab and one on the plaster of the probabilities favoring an. earlier part of the vaulted central room of the Northwest Shops. *?"8° A comparison of the pointed root of the

: tower with those of towns in mosaics and . : manuscripts of the sixth century would con-

Tue Fortirication GRraFFito (Fig. 13) firm: this.2

This is cut on the shaft of one of the columns The design, if “unrolled,” measures almost which have been tentatively attributed to the a meter in length, over-all. It shows a walled Temple of Herakles (H) on the West Terrace. enclosure with pointed-roofed towers at the It runs around more than three quarters of the corners, and an outwork of some kind extendcircumference of the column, centered about ing to the left. This terminates in what now five feet up the shaft in its correct vertical appears to be a checker-board pattern which position, so that there is every probability might be thought to represent a square tower,

Pee

Bee

SA : LSS|

Je He Ee SY \. FARE .

} = Sie .

7 =H : ty = , oon a 1 7 Z , = Boe 414 yw Figure 13. DRAWING OF GRAFFITO REPRESENTING FORTIFICATIONS. SCALE 1:6

that the column was standing in its original but could also be understood in other ways. place in the temple when the carving was done. There is a good deal of confusion, at least in the

There is no evidence for the date of the carving . present state of preservation, at the point beyond what might be inferred from the repre- where the outwork joins the enclosure. Similarsentation itself, and from one’s judgement of _ ly, the drawing at the right end might be inter-

the probabilities as to whether such an oper- preted as a small enclosure, although conation could have been performed on the column 1 Compare illustrations in de Beylié, pp. 56, 63.

138 CORINTH ceivably nothing moreRounp 1s intended than a view -_ Tue Sure Grarrito (Fig.; 14

of the top of the wall leading toward the tower. a | rng. 14) One is tempted to see in this a representation On a slab of bluish marble found near the of Acrocorinth with the walls to the city and center of the Northwest Shops was incised a

the sea extending to one side, but if so the representation of a sailing ship. The ship representation is highly abstract and more measures some 0.80 m. from stem to stern, and suggestive than pictorial. Apart from thisthere is at least as high; the design covers the slab is a certain spirit in the depiction of the mason- fairly completely and may even run off the ry walls and in the magnitude of conception edge at the top, implying that the slab was in and scale of execution. All thisissaidinrelative (its original?) position in a pavement when terms, of course, but considering that the the carving was done. There is no clue as to the design is, after all, nothing but a scratching on date apart from what can be inferred from the a stone—albeit a deep and arduous scratching— design.

_ pre i

it is fairly impressive. 7 The ship depicted is almost semicircular in

no

—-\ = Hypocausts, 70, 78-79, 98, 125. a

Function, structural, 99-100. | — [prs, 108 44

, oe Illyricum, 4. | Gargoyle, 98. a Impost-capitals, 110. , ,

Furnace, 70. Iconostasis, 45, 108 ff., 106 ff., 117 ff. , GALEN, 84. Imposts, 28, 25, 98, 101, 103, 109 50, 51, 110ff. _

Gautier de Liederkirke, 84. 7 | Industrial establishments, 124-125; products, 35.

Genoa, 50. / Inns, 9, 123 n. 1, 125, 185 n. 19; behind Hemicycle

Georgios, bishop, I, 50; II, 50. on Lechaion Road, 15-16, 26, 125, 189-140; on

Gerasa, church, 11. market plateia, 60, 78, 92, 100, 102, 125.

Glass, 19, 85, 59, 61, 67-68, 185 n. 19. _ Inseriptions, 7, 8, 28, 84, 87, 46, 89, 90, 105 13-16, Gordian IT, 8. OS 118 150, 119 157. | | Gothic, 108 45. , a Tonic, bases, 18, 40, 108, 114 111; capitals, 40, 109 ff.

Goths, 5, 13. | a - Isaac I, 50. .

““Governor’s Palace,’ 46-47, 49, 82, 125, 184, 189. Islam, 28 n. 7, 87, 184-135. |

Graffiti, 187-139. | -__Isthmos, 8, 84, 85 n. 14,| :86, 90. : , Grape emporium, 74, 125, 180. Graves, 5, 7, 10, 29-81, 41, 42-48, 68, 64, 66, 67, 71, Jacquzs d’ Avusna, 52. : 87, 98; types of, 71, 127-128; see also Tombs. Jason, 3. ,

Gregorios, bishop, 50; G. Kamateros, 51. Jerusalem, church of Holy Sepulcher, 118 147.

Gregory, pope, I, the Great, 7; X,84. Jews, 8, 50. a

Gregory Theologos, church of, see Thebes. Johannes (John), 36; bishop, I, 7; II, 34, 36; J. VITI,

Grotto of St. Paul, 90, 91. | 7 Palaiologos, 86; J. Chrysostom, 5, 6; Eudaimon,

Julian, 4. a , Haga,89. Justin II, 8.

Gryphon, 106 21. Oo ; : 85; Eugenikos, 85; Hagiotheodorites, 51; KantaGuild, 70. kouzenos, 85; Kretikos, 36; Proteuon, 36; Zimiskes, Guillelmus I, bishop, 84. 35, 42, 48; see also St. John Theologos, =~

Hapgi MustaPHa, spring of, 117 142, Julian Basilica, 2, 5, 10-11, 26, 42, 49, 75, 98, 125.

Hadrian, bishop, 7; emperor, 26. , Juno, temple of, see Temples.

Heimb, 90. Justinus, 8. | Helikonis ofMme., Thessalonike, 3. : Hagios Trias Kriezotou, 121 175. Justinian, 7-8, 12, 28-24, 26, 109 51, 113 89. _

Hellas, 35, 51. , KaLuinikos, 7. , ,

Hemicycle, 8, 14, 25, 26, 29, 79, 97, 102, 189. Kamateros, see Epiphanios, Gregorios K.

144, CORINTH Kantakouzenos, see John K. . Masonry, 97-99.

Kasianos Apokaukos, 51. Materials, construction, 97-102. : Kastoria, church of Anargyroi, 118 144. Mathew Asam, 86.

Kenchreai, road to, 2; see Roads. Maurice, emperor, 7, 8. Kephalonia, 36. : -Maurikas, see Constantine (Konstantinos) M.

Khan, 185 n. 19. Mausoleum, 11, 70.

Kilns, see Lime, Pottery. Maydan, 185.

Kitchens, 15, 61, 65, 180. _ Mayer, Luigi, 91.

Kithairon, church of Panaghia on, 107 31. oo Metropolitan, see Bishops, Churches.

Knights of Malta, 88; of St. John, 85. Michael, 86; M. Asam, 86; of Dyracchion, 52; the

Kodratos, 3. , , Syrian, Chronicles of, 27 n. 2; Tornikes, tomb of, Koenigsmark, Field Marshal Count Otto Wilhelm, 90. - 118 143. Komnenoi, 82. Mistra, 85-86, 101, 105 10, 107 27, 111 64, 112 85, Konstantinos, see Constantine. 118 144, 119 157, 158, 120 159, 163, 165, 166, 121 Kourkouas, see Romanos K. 176, 129, 186.

Kranion church, see Churches. Moesia, 4. Kretikos, see Johannes K. | Mohammed II, 85 n. 14. Krinetas Arotras, 36. Monastery of St. John, see St. John Theologos. Kritheniotes, 52. . Monemvasia, 36; Chronicle of, 27 n. 2, 28.

Kufa, 185 n. 19. Morea, 84, 85, 51, 84, 91.

Kufic ornament, see Ornament. Mortar, 19, 22, 48, 58, 68, 69, 79, 96-100, 127, : 181-182; see also Cement, Concrete.

LaKONIA, CHURCH of Aprpia, 107 26. Mosaic, 12, 17, 70. ,

Laodicea, 185 n. 19. Mosques, 89, 90, 96, 185. ,

Latrines, public, 17, 28, 68; private, 19-21, 129, Mouldings, 14, 108, 117ff. | |

180-131. Mullions, 98, 101, 109 48. Lead, 98. Mullion capitals, 93, 108, 110ff. Lechaion, 9, 109 55, 112 83. Mylos, bishop of, 52. Lechaion Road, see Roads. Myron, bishop of, 52.

Leo, emperor, I, 6;. Naps, III the Wise, pope, IV, 6. 84. 128 n. 1; VI, 48; |

Leonides, 4. , Naupaktos, 52. , Lerna, 2, 7, 8, 27, 38, 85. Nave, 10, 11, 48-45, 54, 62, 68, 87, 94-95. | Leon, 36; general, I, 51; II, 51; Sgouros, 52; Skleros,36. Narthex, 11, 54, 62-68, 71, 87.. -

Le Roy, 91. , : Nazar, admiral, 34.

Lime, kilns, 57, 80-81, 92; mortar, 19, 48, 65,99, 101. Nerezi, Serbia, church at, 118 144. |

Lintels, 98, 100, 117 ff., 122 189. Nerio Acciajuoli, see Acciajuoli.

Loggia, see Shops. | Nicholas III, patriarch, 27 n. 2.

Loridans, Doge, 93. | Nicolai de Marthonio, 85. :

Louis IX, 71, 84, 87. Nikephoritzes, 51. | Lubenau, Reinhold, 85 n. 14, 88. | Nikephoros, Botaniates, 51; Phokas, 834; Prosouchos,

Lucea, 184 n. 17. 51. .

Ludolf of Suchem, 84.: Nikolaos, bishop, 51.

Lykastos, 36. . North Bath, see Baths. North Market, 2, 5, 25, 48-49, 80-81.

MacEpDonlia, 4. North Road, see Roads.

Manuel I, 50, 58, 58ff., 67, 69, 71, 88; IT, 85. Northwest House, see Houses.

Malachias, bishop, 85 n. 16. Northwest Shops, see Shops.

Marble, 97-98, 100-101, 108-122. Northwest Tavern, see Taverns. :

Marcus, bishop, 85 n. 16. Nymphaeum, 25, 80. Market, mediaeval, 32, 88, 49, 52ff., 57-58, 82-88, 92, 128, 138-186; sub-market, 54, 58, 76. ODEION, 2, 5. |

Market Avenue, see Roads. Oil press, 74. , Market north of Archaic Temple, see North Market. Olivier, G. A., 91.

Market north of Basilica on Lechaion Road, 14—16. Ooryphas, admiral, 84. | Martyrs, 3-4. Ornament, 26; motifs:

Martyr tables, see Sigma tables. | acanthus, 104-122 passim.

INDEX . 145

arcade, | wreath, bars, 10511.119. , Oriental coins, 50.

104 2.

anthemion, 112 85, 116 125 ff. whorl, 105 9, 107 28, 116 188, 119 155, 121 177, 183.

bead-and-reel, 106 19. | _ Osteotheke, 11, 68, 70, 73, 128. birds, 106 20, 108 40, 44, 116 132, 138, 117 134,

119 158, 120 162, 164, 122191. PAGANISM, suppression of, 4. bosses, 119 158, 121 177. Page, 91. | bud, 1138 91, 115 112, 113, 119 155. | Palace, see “‘Governor’s Palace,” Southeast Building.

chevron, 122 186. — ; Palaiologos, see Constantine, Demetrios, John, Tho-

circles, 104 4, 105 12, 18, 107 27. . , mas, P. © : , citron, 116 180. | Paper, 35. , cross, 104-122 passim. | - Paris, museum, 122.184. , darts, 111 65, 68, 117 139, 118 150, 122 184. Paros, church called Hekatonpyliane, 111 67.

dates, 106 19, 108 44. , Patras, 6, 34, 36. ,

dentils, 122 184. Patriarch, 6, 7, 28, 84. oe

diamonds, 1041, 105 12,10727. Paul, apostle, 3, 42, 89, 90; bishop, 34, 36; general, 36.

discs, 105 11, 13-16. | Pavement, 48; see also Agora, Floors.

egg-and-dart, 118 150. , Peirene, see Churches, Fountains. Ktrog, 25, 116 1380. Peribolos of Apollo, 2, 10, 16, 21-22, 26, 27, 38, 40, floral, 104-122 passim. | 54, 76, 77, 82, 117 139, 140, 189-140.

floreation, 107 34, 116 123, 117 137, 120 163ff. Perigenes, bishop, 6. Oo , grape leaves, 106 25, 111 74. —-Perinius, 3. 7 _ eryphon, 106 21. , , Peter of Argos, bishop, 34.

guilloche, 104 8, 119 158, 121 174 ff. Petronas, 86.

heart, 104 1, 107 26, 115 112, 120 163. — Petros, bishop, 6. | , , interlace, 105 9. Philip, Roman emperor, 8; of France, 84. Kufic, 106 19, 116 131, 121 177, 178, 179. Philippi, 104; Basilica A, 109 50; B, 122 186. laurel, 104 2, 122 186. | Philokales, see Humathis P.

Lesbian leaf, 118 150. , Phokas, emperor, 21; see also Nikephoros P. | lion, 106 19, 21, 117 135, 136, 137. Photios, patriarch, 34; bishop at Corinth, 7. |

lotus, 117 143, 119 155. : Phthiotic Thebes, Basilica A, 104 3, 110 55, 58, 111

Lulab, 25, 116 1380. 72, 113 96, 97, 114 104, 109, 118 148, 119 150; mastiff, 117 136. Basilica I’, 111 73, 112 85, 118 97. | , Menorah, 25, 116 130. . Piers, 12, 17, 58, 61, 100, 110, 117.

metal cross, 104 2. | Pilasters, 17, 104 4, 110, 117, 129.

monograms, 104-122 passim. , Pipe, tile, 18, 15, 47, 74, 79, 188. -

net, 108 41, 121 181, 182. , Pisa, 50. , |

nomina sacra, 105 13-16. | | Pits, 19, 82, 65, 78, 182. |

ovolo, 122 palm, 116 128, 130. 184. Plague, 8., | 131-132.

omega, 107 29ff., 115 114, 116 123 ff. Pithoi, 12, 15, 20, 87, 42, 78, 74, 75, 76, 77, 79, 82, 99,

palmette, 104-122 passim. Plaster, 19, 41, 47, 64-65, 70, 99. ee papyros, 108 44, 45. , Plateia, 58, 57, 72; see also Market. peacock, 106 20, 108 40, 120 164; see also birds. Platypodas, see Bardas P. :

pomegranate, 113 95. a Pocqueville, F. C. H., 91. oe rosette, 104-122, passim. Pococke, Richard, 91.

‘“Sassanian palmette,” 116 127, 119 154,121178. | Porch, 54, 59, 61, 99; see also Portico. scale, 104 5, 121 181. | Poros, 45, 97-98. spears, 118 150. Portico, 15, 21, 57-59, 61, 99, 124. stencil, 107 36. | Posts, 99, 108, 106-108. sun-burst, 105 9, 107 33. Pottery, 21, 29, 35, 41, 92; factories, 47-48, 49, 56,

tendrils, 104-122 passim. , ] 59, 61, 67-68, 78, 92. |

“Theodosian’’ drilling, 109 54, 110 55, 119 156. ‘Primus, bishop, 3. , trefoil, 104 1. : , Prison, 46-47. triangles, 111 73. Proclus Diadochus, 84.

tulip, 110 58. _ - Propylaia, 2, 14, 87, 49, 77, 117 142, 184. | water-leaves, 109, 110 60, 61, 111 64ff., 117 189ff. Prosouchos, see Nikephoros P.

146 CORINTH Proteichisma, 3. . Silk, 35, 50, 123 n. 1, 185 n. 19.

Proteuon, see Johannes P. Sills, 20, 72, 74, 79, 87, 98, 100, 101; see also Doors. Public buildings, see Civic buildings. Sipento, 120 164.

: | Skeletons, 7, 8, 16, 29, 52 n. 18.

QuaprRatTus, see Kodratos. Skleros, see Leon 8. |

Skripou, church of St. Nikolaos, 121 171.

RaFrTers, 99.75. : : Slate, 20. Raisins, Slavs,

27. :

Ramp, in North Market, 48-49, 80; in Propylaia, Sikyon,.road to, see Roads. ,

14, 87, 49, 77, 184. , : Smyrna, 119 152, 158, 155, 119 157. Retaining walls, 23, 48, 54, 69. Souq, 185 n. 19. Revett, Nicholas, 91. South Basilica, 23-24, 26, 29, 87, 125; apsidal building Rhodes, 104 5, 112 85, 115 115. 7 in, 29-80, 92-98.

Ravenna, San Vitale, 118 89. Sosthenes, 8.

Roads, 58-54, 188; to Acrocorinth, 58; to Lechaion, South Road, see Roads. 2, 14, 26, 82, 88, 87, 49, 54, 58, 77, 92, 133ff.; South Stoa, 2, 5, 28-24, 26, 80-81, 38, 47, 49, 68, 71, Market Avenue, 53, 58, 59, 66, 124, 184; North, 49, 78, 120 168, 125, 188. 54, 80; Northeast, 41, 54, 76, 183; Northwest, Southeast Building, 2, 11-12, 26, 29, 41-42, 49, 54,

58, 81; St. John’s, 58; to Sikyon, 2, 58; South 75, 119 153, 126, 180. (to Kenchreai), 82, 58, 58, 78, 74, 92,125; Southeast, Southwest Building, see also West Shops, area of. 58, 74, 125; Southwest, 53; Temple, 54,81; West,53. Spon, Dr. Jacob, 89-91.

Robert of Tarentum, 84. Stables, 61, 64, 129.

Roger of Sicily, 50, 58, 60, 83. - ] . Stairs, 15, 37, 38, 40, 60, 64, 66, 69, 74, 101-102, 180.

Roman Market, see North Market. Stephanos, bishop, 28. Romanus I, 35; R. chartoularios, 52; Kourkouas, 86. Stobi, 118 148.

Rome, 8-4, 6, 34. Storage devices, 131-132.

Roofs, 99, 102. Stoves, 15, 60, 181.

Strategoi, 28, 84-86, 51-52.

SACKS AND CONQUESTS, 8, 5, 8, 18, 27-28, 50, 52 n. Strobyle, 36.

18, 58, 60, 88, 84, 86, 89, 90. | Stuart, James, 91. | | Saewulf, 50. | Stucco, 47, 70. | St. John Theologos, church of, 61-63, 98-95, 126; Sub-market, see Market. : monastery of, 56, 61-66, 83, 86, 102, 126, 130. Synagogue, 25, 116 130.

St. Louis, see Louis IX. : Synod, local, 3.

St. Luke of Stiris, see Hosios Loukas of Stiris. Syria, churches in, 45 n. 28; see also Houses, Silks.

Salona, 110 59, 116 128.

Sanderson, John, 88 n. 8. TaveRNs, Northwest, 82, 125; sub-market, 76, 92,

Sarcophagi, 108, 122 184. , 100, 125.

Sculpture, mediaeval, 24, 106 21, 120 168, 122 190; Techniques of construction, 97-102. see also Ornament: birds, lions, also 104—122 passm. Temples, at Corinth, archaic t. of Apollo, 1, 9, 29, 81,

Seals, 36, 51-52. 89, 91, 110, 56, 62; of Bellerophon, 89, 91; of Diana, Sergios, bishop, 50. | 91; of Juno, 91; of Livia (E), 2, 5, 10, 25, 26, 67;

Sewer, 19. | , of Venus, 89; on West Terrace, 2, 24, 26, 83, 47-48,

Sgouros, see Leon 8. . . 49, 56-57, 66, 187.

Ships, graffiti of, 188-139. Templon, 1038, 104ff. :

Shops, 58-60, 76, 123-25; Mediaeval: Bema (early), ‘Tertius, 4. 55, 82; (later) with loggia, 58, 72, 88, 100, 123-124, Tessarakontapechys, see Constantine (Konstantinos)T.

184; ceramic factories, 59; Lechaion Road, 77-78, Theatre, 2, 5, 25, 81. ,

87, 102; Market Avenue, 59, 123-124; South Road, Thebes, 85; church of St. Gregory Theologos, 45 n.

78, 124; south side of market square, 58, 123-124; 93, 107 29, 111 74, 119 150, 120 163; museum, Roman: Central, 2, 5, 12-18, 26, 81, 74; Lechaion 106 21, 107 28, 110 61. Road, 17, 22, 87; Northwest, 2, 26, 46, 49, 80, 82, Themes, 28, 35, 51. 126; South Stoa, 28; West, 2, 8, 24-25, 48, 49, 67. Theodoros, bishop, 50; drouggarios, 86; general, 51;

Sicily, see Roger of 8. ; | of Mistra, 85; tourmachos, 52.

Sidamara sarcophagos, 122 184. | Theodosios, 4.

Sigma tables, 16, 22, 189-140. oo Theodotos, 51.

Silas, 8. Theoktistos Bryennios, 36.

| INDEX 147

Theophylaktos, 34; general, 35, 36. | Vayvode (veivode), 89, 98.

Thessalonike, 4, 6, 7, 86, 52; church of Acheiropoietos, Venice, 50, 88, 85, 90-91, 98, 107 27, 184; church of 104 2, 111 72, 118 147; of Hagios Demetrios, 104 1, St. Mark, 104 3, 105 10; Fondaco dei Turchi, 130.

5, 105 13, 109 54, 110 56, 118 146; of Hagios Venus Menalide, temple of, see Temples. Georgios, 110 56; of Theotokos, 122 186; tomb, Venustus, 4. ©

Tiberius, 8. . : 118 147. Villehardouin, 81, 87. |

Thomas, 86; Palaiologos, 86. | Voussoirs, 100, 122 187, 188.

Tile, 99; drain, 41; floors, 17-21, 65, 101; roof, 20, Watts, construction of, 14, 15, 17, 19, 25, 38, 40-41,

102, 126; water channels, 86 (PI. 36,), 183; see also 48-45, 60, 69, 70, 98-99. ]

Pipe. | | OS Water, basins, 20, 24, 65, 70, 74, 80, 81, 122 186;

Timbers, 99. channels, 86, 183; troughs, 65, 74.

Timon of Beroea, 3. - West Shops, area of, Early Christian, 29, 31; tenth Tombs, 11, 29, 42, 66, 71-72, 87, 101, 102, 127. century, 48; twelfth century (Southwest Building),

Tornikes, Michael, tomb of, 118 148. 67, 180; see also Shops. Tower Complex, 52 n. 18, 68-70, 102, 126. . West Terrace, area of, 2, 24-25, 26, 38, 47-48, 49, Trade regulations, 123 n. 1. | 58, 56-57.

Trading privileges, 50, 838. Wheler, George, 9, 89-91. Triklinon, 129. Whitewash, 101.

Turin, 134 n. 17. ~ William of Champlitte, 52. Turks, 85-87, 88—96, 1386. Williams, H. W. 91.

Windows, 59, 69, 100-101, 108.

VALERIAN, 38. Wine press, 47, 78, 74, 125. Vaults, 10, 40, 64, 65, 69, 102, 127, 129, 182. Wood, 59, 99, 102.

PLATES AND PLANS

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